£4. 
 
 LIBRARY    OF    THE    THEOLOGICAL    SEMINARY 
 
 PRINCETON,     N.    J. 
 PRESENTED  BY 
 
 PRINCETON   UNIVERSITY 
 LIBRARY 
 
 scc^ 
 
 3377 
 
 Division. 
 
 Section'... 
 
i. 
 
 ts 
 
dents  of  Martyr  <lom  found  in  th.e(  !  ome 
 
 To  Fa.f  ru/rTo/J/. 
 
AN 
 
 HISTORY 
 
 OF    THE 
 
 CHRISTIAN   CHURCH, 
 
 FROM 
 
 THE  EARLIEST  PERIODS  TQ  THE  PRESENT  TIME; 
 
 B  Y 
 
 G,    GREGOR7\    D.  D. 
 
 JOINT  EVENING   PREACHER  AT  THE  FOUNDLING   HOSPITAL, 
 
 AND   CURATE   OF   ST.  GILES'S,   CRIPpLEGATE;    AUTHOR 
 
 OF  ESSAYS   HISTORICAL,  AND  MORAL,    ETC.. 
 
 IN  TWO  VOLUMES. 
 
 VOL.  II. 
 
 A  NEW  EDITION,  CORRECTED  AND  ENLARGED, 
 
 Mfifruv  &  tuIuv  h  afann.     St.  Paul. 
 
 L  0  N  D  0  jf: 
 PRINTED  FOR  C.  AND  G.  KEARSLEY,  FLE^i- STREET. 
 
 M  DCC  XCV. 
 
CON    TENTS 
 
 O  F 
 
 VOL.     II. 
 
 THE    TENTH    CENTURY. 
 
 CHAP.    I. 
 
 General  State  of  the  Church  in  the  Tenth 
 Century. 
 
 Succefs  of  the  Neftorians  in  propagating  the  Gofpel — Conver- 
 sion of  Norway,  of  the  Poles,  the  Ruffians,  the  Hungarians, 
 the  Danes*  the  Swedes,  and  the  Normans — Luxury  of  the 
 Clergy—  Hiftory  of  the  Popes  from  Leo  V.  to  Silvefter  II.— 
 Increafe  of  the  Papal  Power — Iniquitous  Distribution  of  Pre- 
 ferments— Monadic  Inftitutions — Order  of  Clugni    -  page  l 
 
 CHAP.     II. 
 
 Of  the  Doctrines,  Rites,  and  Ceremonies  of  the 
 Church,  during  the  Tenth  Century. 
 
 Ardour  for  accumulating  Relics  —  Purgatory  —  The  Day  of 
 Judgment  fuppofed  to  be  at  hand — Modes  of  creating  Saints 
 — Solemn  Excommunication-— All  Souls  Day— Worfhfp  of 
 the  Virgin  —  Baptifm  of  Bells  —  Controverfy  concerning 
 Marriage  -  .  -   '  .  pa,  lg 
 
 Vol.  II.  A 
 
 .WlTHDRArtita 
 
i*  CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAP.     III. 
 
 Of  the  Sects  which  exifted  in  the  Tenth  Century* 
 
 Prevalence    of  Manicheifm — Sect   of.  the   Aithropomorphites 
 
 page  30 
 
 CHAP.     IV. 
 
 Of  Learning  and  Learned  Men  in  the  Tenth 
 Century. 
 
 Dearth  of  Literature  in  the  Tenth  Century — Leo,  Conftantinc 
 Porphyrogenitus,  and  Gerbert — Simon  Metaphraftes,  Euty- 
 chius,  and  Bar  Cepha — Luitprahd  and  Rofwida       -      pa.  3? 
 
 THE     ELEVENTH   CENTURY. 
 
 CHAP.     I. 
 
 General  State  of  the  Church  in  the  Eleventh 
 Century. 
 
 Converfion  of  barbarous  Nations — Kingdom  of  Sicily  ellablithed 
 —Power  of  the  Clergy- Benedid  VIII.— John  XIX.— 
 BenediaiX — Sylvefter  III.— Gregory  VI.  — Clement  II. 
 Nicholas  II. — New  Mode  of  Electing  Popes — Alexander  II. 
 — Honorius  II. — Gregory  VII. — His  Claims  upon  England 
 refilled — Sanguinary  Conteil  with  the  Empeior  —  Clement 
 
 III Viftor  III.  —  Urban   IL— Crufades  —  Pafchal   II. 
 
 pa.  34 
 
CONTENTS.  ] 
 
 CHAP.     II. 
 
 Of  Manners,  Doctrine,  Rites  and  Ceremonies, 
 in  the  Eleventh  Century. 
 
 Miracles— Flagellation  for  Sin— Contefts  concerning  Roman  and 
 Gothic  Rituals — rebuilding  Churches — Carthufian  Order — 
 Ciftercians  «■-.„.      pa?e  7  r 
 
 CHAP.     III. 
 
 Of  the  Sects  which  appeared  in  the  Eleventh 
 Century. 
 
 Berenger—  Rofcelin— Perfecution  of  the  Jews— Manicheans— 
 Bulgarians,  andCatharifts         -         -         -         -  pa.  78 
 
 CHAP.     IV. 
 
 Of  Learning  and  Learned  Men  in  the  Eleventh 
 
 Century. 
 
 Revival  of  Letters— Leo  the  Grammarian,  Theophyladi,  Ce- 
 drenus,  Michael  Pfellus— Fulbert,  Damianus,  Anfelm,  Lam- 
 bertus  -  -  -  .  .  pa.  St 
 
 THE    TWELFTH    CENTURY, 
 
 CHAP.    I. 
 
 General  State  of  the  Church  in  the  Twelfth 
 Century. 
 
 Converfion  of  Pomerania — Livonia— Calamitous  State  of  Judea 
 —Second  Crufade— Saladin— Third  Crufade  under  Frederic 
 Barbaroffa— Richard  Coeur  de  Lion — Knights  of  Malta  and 
 Templars— Teutonic  Knights — Popes,  Pafchal  II.— Alexan- 
 der J II — Lucius  III. — Innocent  III.  -  -  pa.  83 
 A  2 
 
viii  CONTENTS. 
 
 THE  FOURTEENTH  CENTURY. 
 
 CHAP.    I. 
 
 General  State  of  the  Church  in  this  Century. 
 
 Renewal  of  the  Holy  War — Converfion  of  Lithuania — Succefs 
 againft,  the  Infidels  in  Spain — Efforts  for  the  Converfion  of 
 China — Decline  of  the  Papal  Power — Contelt  between  Boni- 
 face VIII.  and  Philip  the  Fair,  King  of  France — Benedict 
 IX.— Clement  V.— Gregory  XI.— Urban  VI— Great  Weft- 
 €rn  Schifm         »  -  -  ■     -     page  191 
 
 CHAP.     II. 
 
 Of  Doctrines*  Rites,  Ceremonies,   Sec.  in  the     * 
 Fourteenth  Century.  » 
 
 Alteration  reflecting  the  Jubilee  —  Extraordinary  Feftivals— 
 Origin  of  Annates- — Fall  of  the  Templars — Strange.  Fiction 
 concenfing  certain  Relics  *  pa.  205 
 
 CHAP.     III. 
 
 Of  the  Sects  which  appeared  in  the 
 Fourteenth  Century. 
 
 Quietills — Dancers — Albi-Fratres — Beggards — Lollards — Ab- 
 
 furdities  of  the 'Mendicant  Orders         ...     pa.  212 
 
 I 
 
 CHAP.     IV. 
 
 Of  Learning  and  Learned  Men  in  the 
 
 Fourteenth  Century. 
 
 Greek  Literature— Emperors — Elder  Andronicus — John  Can- 
 
CONTENTS.  fx 
 
 tachuzene — Manuel  Paleologus— Barlaanr,  &c.  — Nicephorus 
 Califtius — Theophanes — Planudes,  &c. — Scholaftic  Divinity 
 — Duns  Scotus — William  Ockam,  &c. — Nicholas  de  Lyra 
 — Trandation  of  the  Bible  into  French — St.  Bridget  and  St. 
 Catharine— Dante— Petrarch,  &c.      -         -         -     page  218 
 
 THE  FIFTEENTH  CENTURY. 
 
 CHAP.    I. 
 
 General  State  of  the  Church  in  this  Century. 
 
 Expulfion  of  the  Moors  from  Spain — Difcovery  of  America— 
 Extenfionofthe  MufTulman  Empire  in  Afia — Overthrow  of  the 
 Grecian  Empire — Taking  of  Conftantinople  by  Mahomet  II. 
 
 Continuance  of  the  Weftern  Schifm  —  Council  of  Pifa — 
 
 Three  Popes  at  one  Time — Council  of  Conftance — Retrench- 
 ment of  the  Papal  Power — Election  of  Martin  V. — Persecu- 
 tion of  Heretics — John  Hufs,  and  Jerome  of  Prague — their 
 Perfecution  and  Death — Council  of  Bafil — Eugenius  IV. — 
 wifhes  to  remove  the  Council  to  Italy — Conteft  between  the 
 Pope  and  the  Council — Eugenius  fummons  a  Council  at  Fer- 
 rara — Depofition  of  Eugenius — Felix  V.  —  Nicholas  V.  — - 
 Alexander  VI.  -         -        -         -        r        -      pa.  223 
 
 CHAP.     II. 
 
 Of  Doctrines,  Rites  and  Ceremonies  in  the 
 Fifteenth  Century. 
 
 Rich  Donations  to  the  Saints— Feftival  of  the  Transfiguration 
 
 Indulgences  granted  to  all  who  mould  devoutly  celebrate 
 
 the  Immaculate  Conception  -  pa.  247 
 
 A4 
 
x  CONTENTS, 
 
 CHAP.     III. 
 
 Of  the   Sects  which  appeared  in  the  Fifteenth 
 
 Century. 
 
 Wickliffites  —  Waldenfes  —  Savanarola  —  Bohemian  Troubles 
 from  the  Difciples  of  Hufs         -  page  250 
 
 C  H  A  P.     IV. 
 
 Of  Learning  and  Learned  Men'  in  the 
 Fifteenth  Century. 
 
 Superiority  of  Greek  Literature — cultivated  by  Petrarch  and 
 Boccacio — Greek  Profeflbrfliip  eftablifhed  at  Florence — Car* 
 dinal  BeHarion— Ardour  of  the  Latins — Nicholas  V. — Cofmq 
 de  Medicis— Difcovery  of  Printing — Nicholas  Clemengis — . 
 Laurentius  Valla — Aretin  and  Poggio — Englifh  Writers — 
 John  Weffelus — Jerome  Savanarola — iEneas  Silvius — Thomas 
 a  Kempis — Pica  della  Mirandola         r         -         -         pa.  251 
 
 THE  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY. 
 
 C  H  A  P.    I. 
 
 General  State  of  the  Church  previous  to  the 
 Reformation. 
 
 General  Tranquillity  of  the  Church—  Pius  III. — Julius  II.— 
 Warlike  Spirit  of  the  Pope — Difpute  with  Lewis  XII. — Leo 
 X. — Popes  from  Leo  X.  to  Cement  VIII.  -       pa.  26^. 
 
CONTENTS,  fcl 
 
 CHAP.     II. 
 
 Of  Doftrines,  Rices,  Ceremonies,  &c.  in  the 
 Sixteenth  Century. 
 
 Splendid  but  trifling  Ceremonies — Scholaftic  Subtleties— Ser- 
 mons— Strange  Acceptation  of  the  Term  Good  Works — In- 
 creafe  of  Monkery — Dominicans — Strange  Narrative  concern- 
 ing Jetzer —  Ignorance  of  the  Monks— r-Inftitution  of  the 
 Jefuits  —  their  Constitution  and  Policy  —  Capuchins — E.e- 
 coiiets — Regular  Clerks,  or  Theatins — Priefls  of  the  Oratory 
 —  Bare-footed  Carmelites       -  page  269 
 
 CHAP.     III. 
 
 Kiftory  of  the  Reformation  in  Germany. 
 
 PART    I. 
 
 Indigence  of  the  Papal  Treafury — Sale  of  Indulgences — Tetzel 
 — Luther— oppofes  Tetzel  in  the  Publication  of  Indulgences 
 — Supported  by  the  Auguflin  Monks,  and  the  Elector  of  Sax- 
 ony— Conteft  with  Eccius,  &c. — At  firft  difregarded  by  Leo 
 j — Afterwards  fummoned  to  Rome  —  Appears  before  Car- 
 dinal Cajetan — Appeals  to  a  General  Council — Zuinglius  be- 
 gins the  Reformation  in  Switzerland—- Luther  excommunicated 
 — Burns  the  Papal  Bull — Views  of  the  Emperor  with  regard 
 %o  Luther — Luther  fummoned  to  the  Diet  at  Worms — Edidl 
 again  ft  him — Seized  and  concealed  at  Wartburgh — Contro- 
 verfy  with  the  Univerfity  of  Paris  and  Henry  VIII.  of  Eng- 
 land— Tranfiates  the  Bible — Character  of  Adrian  VI. — Lift 
 of  Grievances  prefented  by  the  Diet  of  Nuremberg — Cle- 
 nient  VII. — Marriage  of  Luther — Reformation  in  Pruffia — 
 Danger  of  Perfecution — Conteft  between  the  Pope  and  the 
 Emperor — Friends  of  Reformation  diitinguiflied  by  the  Name 
 of  Proteftants— Confeffion  of  Augftung — League  of  Smal- 
 kalde— Ambition  of  the  Emperor — Negociations  of  the  Pro- 
 teftants with  France  and  England — Treaty  with  the  Emperor 
 fit  Nuremberg — Death  of  the  Eleftor  of  Saxony     -    pa.  288 
 
.  xil  CONTENTS. 
 
 PART    II. 
 
 Gradual  Spread  of  Luther's  Doctrines — in  Sweden — in  Den- 
 mark— France — Calvin — Reformation  eflablifhedin  all  Saxony 
 ■ — Council  of  Trent — Death  and  Character  of  Luther — De- 
 crees of  the  Council  of  Trent — Pope  excommunicates  the 
 Arehbifhop  of  Cologne — Diet  at  Ratifbon — War  declared 
 againfl:  the  Emperor — Perfidy  of  Maurice — Seizes  the  Elec- 
 tor's Dominions — Elector  of  Cologne  refigns — Elector  of 
 Saxony  and  Landgrave  made  Prifoners — Publication  of  the 
 Interim — Obnoxious  to  both  Parties — Violence  of  the  Em« 
 peror — Death  of  Paul  III.  and  Elevation  of  Julius  III. — De- 
 fection of  Maurice — Peace  of  Religion  .-  page  3J2 
 
 CHAP.    IV. 
 
 Reformation  in- England. 
 
 Unexpectedly  favoured  by  Henry  VIII. — Wolfey  favours  theKing's' 
 Project  for  obtaining  a  Divorce — The  Pope  embarraffed  be- 
 tween the  Englifhand  Spanifh  Factions — Cardinal  Campeggio 
 difpatched  to  England — Cranmer's  Project — His  Elevation,  and 
 the  Fall  of  Wolfey — Decifions  in  favour  of  the  Divorce — Henry 
 forbidshis  Subjects  to  receive  Bulls  from  Rome — Marries  Ann£ 
 Bullen — Proceedings  of  the  Parliament  and  Convocation— The 
 Marriage  with  Catharine  annulled — Difpleafure  of  the  Emperor 
 — The  Pope  afferts  the  Validity  of  Catharine's  Marriage— 
 Henry  refolves  to  reject  the  Papal  Yoke, but  treats  the  Reform- 
 ers with  Severity — Reformation  favoured  by  the  Qufeen,  Cran- 
 mer,  and  Cromwell — Cromwell  projects  the  Suppreflion  of  the 
 Monks — Several  Religious  Houfes  deftroyed — Tranflation  of 
 the  Bible — Ruin  of  the  Queen — Overture  from  the  Pope — Ge- 
 neral Council  pi-opofed,  which  Henry  refufes  to  attend — Infur- 
 rection  quelled— » The  Pope  endeavours  to  excite  the  Kings  of 
 Scotland  and  France  to  arm  againil  Henry — Act  of  the  Six 
 Articles — Entire  Suppreflion  of  the  Monalleries — Downfall  and 
 Peath  of  Cromwell— Oppofition  to  the  New  Tranflation  of  the 
 
 4 
 
CONTENTS.  xnl 
 
 Bible — Tranflation  of  the  Prayers — Death  of  Henry  —  Ed* 
 Ward  VI.  with  the  Protector,  favours  the  Reformation — Op- 
 pofed  by  Bonner,  Gardiner,  and  the  Princefs  Mary — Mar- 
 riages of  the  Clergy  declared  legal — Liturgy  confirmed — Death 
 of  Edward  VI. — Mary  oppofes  the  Reformation  — Reftoration 
 of  the  ancient  Rites — Degradation  of  Cranmer — Treaty  be- 
 tween Mary  and  the  Pope — Marriage  of  Mary  with  the  Prince 
 of  Spain — Proceedings  againftthe  Reformers — Death  of  La- 
 timer, Ridley,  and  Cranmer — Death  of  Mary — Completion 
 of  the  Reformation  under  Elizabeth         -         -        page  367 
 
 CHAP.     V. 
 
 Reformation  in  Scotland,  Ireland,  the  Low 
 Countries,  &c. 
 
 'Do&rines  received  in  the  Reign  of  James  V.  perfecuted — Deaths 
 of  Hamilton,  Seton,  and  Foreft — Cardinal  Beaton — Court  of 
 Inquifition — Death  of  James — Earl  of  Arran  favours  the  Re- 
 formation— Retracxs — Persecution — Murder  of  the  Cardinal 
 — John  Knox — Regent  furrenders  his  Power — Firft  Covenant 
 — Duplicity  of  the  Queen  Dowager — Reformation  eltablifhed 
 at  Perth — Second  Covenant — Perfidy  of  the  Queen  Dowager 
 — Hoftilities — Third  Covenant  —  Contefts  with  the  Queen 
 Dowager — 'Expuliion  of  the  Regent — Perplexities — Fourth 
 Covenant — Death  of  the  Queen  Dowager — Peace  proclaimed 
 1 — Completion  of  the  Reformation — State  of  Ireland,  Holland, 
 Italy,  Spain,  and  France         *  pa.  399 
 
 CHAP.     VI. 
 
 Of  the  other  Seels  which  appeared  in  the 
 Sixteenth  Century. 
 
 Caufes  for  Variety  of  Opinion  among  the  Reformers — Anabap- 
 tifts,  or  Mennorrkes — Antinomians — Unitarians — Servetus — 
 Socinians  —  Budneians  —  Farvonians  —  Stancarians  —  Zuin- 
 glians—  Schwenkfeldtians — Brownifts — Illuminati — Families 
 p— Amfdorfians— Ofiandrians-— Moliniils — Synergists  -  pa.  428 
 
xJr  CONTENTS. 
 
 C  H  A  P.     VII. 
 
 Of  Learning  and  Learned  Men  in  the 
 Sixteenth  Century. 
 
 Multiplication  of  Books — Controverfial  Theology — Luther- 
 Calvin  —  Melan&hon  — -  Theodore  Beza  —  Erafmus  —  Sir 
 Thomas  More — George  Buchanan  —  Reuchlin — Ludovicus 
 Vives  —  Budeus  —  Lipfius: — Polydore  Virgil — Scaliger — Re- 
 formation in  Philofophy — Copernicus  and  Tycho  Brahe — %  he 
 Stephens's  <■  page  45  z 
 
 THE  SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY. 
 
 CHAP.    I. 
 
 1 
 
 General  State  of  the  Church  in  this  Century. 
 
 State  of  Europe  with  refpecl.  to  Religion— Popes  from  Clement 
 VIII.  to  Clement  XI. — Labours  of  the  Jefuits — Difputes  be- 
 tween the  different  Orders  of  Monks — Efforts  to  reduce  the 
 Proteftants  within  the  Pale  of  the  Church — Conference  of 
 Charity,  &c. — Persecution  in  Auflria,  &c. — War  in  Ger- 
 many —  Maffacre  of  Valteline — Vaudois — France — Revocation 
 of  the  Edict  of  Nantz — England — Gunpowder  Plot — Civil 
 
 War Scotland  —  Irifh  Maffacre  —  Proteftant    Churches   in 
 
 America — Revolution  in  England — Schemes  for  an  Union  of 
 Churches—  Change  of  Religion  in  German  Proteftants   ■ 
 
 pa.  457 
 
 C  H  A  P.     II. 
 
 Of  Doctrines,  Rites,  and  Ceremonies  in  the 
 
 Seventeenth  Century. 
 
 Few  Alterations  in  the  eftabliflicd  Dodrines  of  the  Romifh 
 
CONTENTS.  xt 
 
 Church — New  Societies  and  Orders — Congregation  and  Se- 
 minary for  propagating  the  Faith — Vifitation  of  the  BlefTed 
 Virgin — Virgins  of  Love — Fathers  of  the  Oratory — Priefts 
 of  Millions — Abbey  of  LaTrappe — DoctrinesofProteftants— • 
 Lutherans — Calvinifts — Church  of  England       -       page  480 
 
 CHAP.     III. 
 
 Of  the  Sec~ls  which  appeared  in  the  Seventeenth 
 
 Century. 
 
 Janfenifts— Quietifts — Cartefians  or  Cocceians — Sublapfarians 
 and  Supralapfarians — Arminians — Pietifts — Jacob  Behmen— 
 Puritans  —  Independents  —  Seekers  —  Ranters  —  Fifth  Mo- 
 narchy Men  —  Quakers — Sabbatarians — Hattemifts — Mug- 
 glctonians,  &c.  -.-.,••-  pa.  488 
 
 C  H  A  P.     IV. 
 
 Of  Learning  and  Learned  Men  in  the 
 Seventeenth  Century. 
 
 Golden  Age  of  European  Literature — Bcllarmin — Bofiuet — 
 Baronius — Richelieu — Sirmond — Mariana — Tillemont  —  Fa- 
 ther Paul — Pafcal — Fenelon — Claude — Drelincourt — Cappel 
 — Bochart  —  The  Buxtorfs — Epifcopius — Grotius — Laud— 
 The  memorable  John  Hales — Uflier — Hall — Taylor — Stil- 
 lingfleet — Cudworth — Wilkins — More  —  Whichcot  —  Smith 
 — Patrick — Tillotfon — Pocock  —  Cumberland  —  Barrow  — 
 South — Burnet — Pearfon — Beveridge  —  Calanty  —  Baxter- 
 Poole —  Bacon — Galileo — Des  Cartes — GafTendi — Newton — 
 Boyle — ShakerDeare— Milton,  &c.  -         -  pa.  501 
 
 2 
 
am  CONTENTS. 
 
 THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY. 
 
 CHAP.    I, 
 
 General  State  of  the  Church,  in  this  Century. 
 
 Toleration — Succefiion  of  Popes  from  Clement  XL  to  Clement 
 XIV. — Character  of  Ganganelli — Pius  VI. — Suppreffion  of 
 thejefuits — in  Portugal — in  Spain — in  France— Revolution  in 
 Ametica  -  9    ''  '     '1  -  page  511 
 
 CHAP.     II. 
 
 Of  the  Seels  which  have  appeared  in  the 
 Eighteenth  Century. 
 
 Moravians — Methodifts — Sandemanians — Dunkers — Shakers— 
 Hutchinfonians — Baron  Swedenborg — Modern  Socinians — 
 Uuiveifalifts  ....  pa.  5.3$ 
 
C     xvii     ] 
 
 | 
 
 Description  of  the  Frontispiece  to 
 Vol.  II. 
 
 N°  5,  An  Iron  Glove,  with  crooked  and  fharp  Fingers — found  in 
 the  Cemetery  of  Callipodium.  Vide  Aringham,  torn.  2. 
 Rorn.  Subter.  p.  687;  etMamachium  Dey  Cojlum'i  de' 'Primiu 
 Grift,  t.  2.  p.  306. — Prudent.  Arevel.  t.  2.  p.  1 169. 
 
 6,  An  Iron  Comb  preferved  in  the  Dominican  Monaftery  of  St. 
 Mary  Magdalene  on  the  Qairinal  Hill.  Marc.  Ant.  EoL 
 dett.  p.  319.  Mamach.  loc.  citat.  et  p.  309,  et  torn.  3. 
 Antiq.  p.  20). — Prudent.  Arevel.  loc.  cit. 
 
 7,  An  Inftrument  refembling  in  fome  Sort  the  Talons 
 of  Carnivorous  Birds,  with  which  the  Bodies  of  the 
 Martyrs  were  lacerated  :  preferved  in  the  Mufeum  of  the 
 Vatican. 
 
 §,  This  Inftrument  is  often  mentioned  in  the  Theodofiau 
 Code,  and  by  Prudentius. 
 
 Tundatur,  inquit,  terga  crebris  ictibus, 
 Plumboque  cervix  verberata  extuberet. 
 
 Hymn.  x.  S.  Romani,  v.  n6r 
 
 The  Plumbafa  here  reprefented  confided  of  Balls  of  Brafs  in- 
 ftead  of  Lead,  connected  by  Chains  of  Iron  ;  were  found  in 
 the  Tomb  of  a  Martyr  in  the  Pontificate  of  Benedict  XIII, 
 and  are  preferved  in  the  Mufeum  of  the  Vatican. 
 
 Prudent.  Arevel.  torn.  2.  p.  1073. 
 
 9  and  10,  Cauldrons  of  Fire,  reprefented  on  the  Tombs  of 
 St.  Victorina  and  Exuperantius.  Confult  Marc.  Ant.  Bol» 
 dett.  lib.  I.  cap.  lx.  who  reprefents,  with  thefe,  other  In- 
 itruments  of  Torture, — Prudent.  Arevel,  torn,  2.  p.  1 169, 
 
AN 
 
 HISTORY 
 
 OF    THE 
 
 CHRISTIAN    CHURCH. 
 
 THE    TENTH    CENTURY. 
 
 CHAP.    I. 
 
 GENERAL      STATE      OF      THE       CHURCH      IN      THE 
 TENTH    CENTURY. 
 
 Succcfs  of  the  Nejlorians  in  propagating  the  Go/pel — Conver- 
 f  on  of  Norway,  of  the  Poles,  the  Ruffians,  the  Hungari- 
 ans, the  Danes,  the  Siuedes,  and  the  Normans — Luxury 
 of  the  Clergy — Hijhry  of  the  Popes  from  Leo  V.  to  5:7- 
 vefler  II — Increafe  of  the  Papal  Power — Iniquitous  Dif- 
 tribution  of  Preferments — Monaflic  In/lit  at  ions — Order 
 of  Clugni. 
 
 TH  E  night  of  ignorance  had  now  almoft 
 completely  obfcured  the  pure  light  of  evan- 
 gelical truth  ;  and  morality,  not  lefs  than  religion, 
 appeared  to  be  fubverted.  The  fyftem  of  the  Gof- 
 pel,  however,  increafed  in  name  at  leaft,  if  not  in 
 fubftance.  The  Neitorians  in  Chaldea  extended 
 their  fpiritual  conquefts  beyond  mount  Imaus, 
 and  introduced  the  Chriftian  religion  into  Tartary, 
 Vol.  II.  B  properly 
 
2         Converjiott  of  Northern  Nations,    [cent.  iC> 
 
 properly  To  called,  whofe  inhabitants  had  hitherto- 
 lived  in  their  natural  ftate  of  ignorance  and  fero- 
 city, uncivilized  and  favage.  The  fame  fuccefsful 
 mifiionaries  fpread*  by  degrees,  the  knowledge 
 of  the  Gofpei  among  that  powerful  nation  of  the 
 Turks,  or  Tartars,  which  were  diftinguifhed  by 
 the  name  of  Karit,  and  whofe  territory  bordered 
 on  Kathay,  or  on  the  northern  part  of  China*. 
 The  laborious  induflry  of  this  kck;  and  their  zeal 
 for  the  extenfion  of  the  Chriftian  faith,  defence 
 the  higbell  encomiums ;  but  the  hiftorians  of  the 
 Church  have,  in  general,  been  more  difpofed  to 
 record  the  errors  than  the  virtues  of  thofe  who 
 differed  from  the    orthodox  creed.  , 
 
 If  we  contemplate  the  Weftern  world,  we  (hall 
 find  the  Gofpei  proceeding  with  more' or  lefs  ra- 
 pidity through  the  moft  rude  and  uncivilized  na- 
 tions. The  dukes  of  Poland  and  Ruflia  were 
 induced  to  profefs  the  Chriftian  faith  ;  the  Hun- 
 garians alfo  enrolled  themfelves  amongft  the  be- 
 lievers in  the  Gofpei ;  and  the  zeal  of  Adeldagus 
 and  Poppo  produced  fimilar  effects  in  the  coun- 
 tries of  Deomark  and  Sweden.  The  celebrated 
 arch-pirate  Rollo,  fon  of  a  Norwegian  count, 
 being  banijfhed  from  his  native  land-fv,  had,  in 
 the  preceding  century,  put  himfelf  at    the  head 
 
 *  Jof.  Sim.  Aflemani  Billiotheca  Oritutal.  Vatic,  torn.  hi. 
 part  II.  p.  4S2. — Herbelot,  Blhliciheque  Orientals,  p.  256. 
 
 f  Holbergi  Hijloric  Danorum  Navalts  in  Seriptis  Socielat* 
 Schfii.  Hafnienf.  part   HI.  p.    iz". 
 
 Of 
 
cent,  io.]  Normans.  3 
 
 of  a  refolute  band  of  Normans,  and  feized  upon 
 one  of  the  maritime  provinces  of  France,  whence 
 he  infefted  the  whole  adjacent  country  with  per- 
 petual incurfions  and  depredations.  In  the  year 
 912,  this  valiant  chief  embraced,  with  his  whole 
 army,  the  Chriftian  faith ;  but  convenience,  not 
 conviction,  muft  be  confeffed  to  have  been  his 
 motive.  Charles  the  Simple,  who  was  equally 
 deftitute  both  of  courage  and  ability  to  expel  this 
 warlike  invader  from  his  dominions,  was  obliged 
 to  have  recourfe  to  negotiation,  and  accordingly 
 offered  to  affign  over  to  him  a  confiderable  part  of 
 his  territories,  upon  condition  that  he  would  con- 
 fent  to  a  peace,  efpoufe  his  daughter  Gifela,  and 
 embrace  Chriftianity.  Thefe  terms  were  accepted 
 by  Rollo,  without  hefitation;  and  his  army,  con- 
 formably to  this  example,  were  foon  induced  to 
 profefs  a  religion  of  which  they  were  in  fa<ft  totally 
 ignorant  *. 
 
 Their  converfion  was  indeed  almoft  entirely 
 nominal  for  a  confiderable  time,  and  their  condudt 
 fuch  as  to  excite  complaints  from  the  archbilhop 
 of  Rheims  to  the  Pope,  to  whom  he  reprefented  the 
 Normans  as  violating  their  baptifmal  oath,  by  fa- 
 crificing  to  idols,  as  eating  of  meats  which  had 
 been  offered  to  their  antient  divinities,  and  as  cru- 
 elly deftroying  the  Chriftian  priefts. 
 
 *  Boulay,  H\Jl.  AcaJ,  Pari/,  torn,  i.  p.  296. — Daniel,  Hift. 
 de  France,  torn,  ii,  p.  587. 
 
 B  2  The 
 
4  Depravity  of  the  Clergy,         [cent,  io, 
 
 The  luxury  and  ignorance  of  the  clergy  were 
 equally  confpicuous  during  the  tenth  century. 
 Some  opinion  of  the  conduct  of  the  Grecian 'patri- 
 archs may  be  formed  from  that  of  Theophylact. 
 This  prelate,  who  fold  every  ecclefiaftical  benefice 
 as  foon  as  it  became  vacant,  had  in  his  (tables 
 above  2000  hunting  horfes,  which  he  fed  with 
 pignuts,  piftachios,  dates,  dried  grapes,  figs  deep- 
 ed in  the  mod  exquilite  wines,  to  all  which  he 
 added  the  richeft  perfumes.  One  Holy  Thurfday, 
 as  he  was  celebrating  high-mafs,  his  groom  brought 
 him  the  joyful  news  that  one  of  his  favourite  mares 
 had  foaled ;  upon  which  he  threw  down  the  Litur- 
 gy, left  the  church,  and  ran  in  raptures  to  the 
 liable  :  whence,  after  having  exprelTed  his  joy  at 
 this  important  event,  he  returned  to  the  altar  to 
 finifh  the  folemn-  fervice  which  had  remained  in- 
 terrupted  during  his  abfence  *. 
 
 The  hiftory  of  the  Roman  pontiffs,  in  this" 
 century,  exhibits,  with  fome  instances  of  piety 
 and  ability,  a  feries  of  difgufting  and  complicated 
 crimes.  The  fource  of  thefe  diforders  muft  be 
 fought  for  principally  in  the  calamities  which  af- 
 flicted the  greateft  part  of  Europe,  and  particu- 
 larly Italy,  after  the  extinction  of  the  race  of 
 Charlemagne.  Upon  the  death  of  the  -pontiff 
 Benedict  IV.  which  happened  in  the  year  903, 
 )  xo  V.  was   raifed    to    the  pontificate;  but  this 
 
 *  See  Fleury,  ////?,  Ecchfuift.  livre  Iv.  97.  edit.  Bruxelle. 
 
 prelate 
 
cent,  io.]  Hijlory  of  the  Popes  to  John  X.  5 
 prelate  enjoyed  his  elevation  only  forty  days, 
 and  was  dethroned  and  imprifoned  by  Chriftopher, 
 one  of  his  domeftics. 
 
 The  ufurper  was  however,  in  his  turn,  deprived 
 of  the  pontifical  dignity  in  the  following  year,  by 
 Sergius  III.  a  Roman  prefbyter.  This  pontiff 
 owed  his  elevation  to  the  protection  of  Adalbert, 
 a  powerful  Tufcan  prince,  whofe  influence  over 
 every  affair  tranfadted  at  Rome  was  unlimited; 
 but  the  fhort  period  of  his  reign  was  only  remark- 
 able for  the  ambition  and  licentioufnefs  of  the 
 prelate.  The  pontificates  of  Anaftafius  III.  and 
 Lando,  who  after  the  death  of  Sergius  were  fuc- 
 ceffively  raifed  to  the  papal  chair,  were  too  tran- 
 fient  to  be  very  fruitful  in  events. 
 
 After  the  death  of  Lando,  in  the  year  914, 
 Albert*,  marquis  or  count  of  Tufcany,  obtained 
 the  pontificate  for  John  X.  archbifhop  of  Ra- 
 venna, in  compliance  with  the  folicitation  of 
 Theodora,  his  mother- in-law,  whofe  lewdnefs  is 
 recorded  to  have  been  the  principle  which  inte- 
 refted  her   in  this  promotion.     John  X.  though 
 
 *  Mofti.  Cent.  x.  Dr.  Mofneim,  by  a  miftake,  calls  him 
 Alberic.  He  was  in  reality  grandfon  to  Theodora,  by  her 
 daughter  Marozia,  who  was  married  to  Albert.  See  Span- 
 heim,  Eccl.  Hift.  fccul.  x.  p.  1432.— -Fleury,  Hift.  Ecclef. 
 livre  liv.  p.  571.  edit.  Bruxelk.  This  latter  hiftorian  is  of 
 opinion,  that  it  was  the  younger  Theodora,  the  lifter  of  Ma- 
 rozia, who,  from  an  amorous  principle,  raifed  John  X.  to 
 the  pontificate. 
 
 B  3  in 
 
6       Pops  from  Leo VI.  to  John  XI.       [cent.  io. 
 
 in  other  refpe&s  a  fcandaious  example  of  iniquity 
 and  licentioufnefs,  acquired  a  certain  degree  of 
 reputation  by  his  glorious  campaign  againft  the 
 Saracens,  whom  he  expelled  from  their  fettle- 
 ments  upon  the  banks  of  the  Garigliano*.  He 
 did  not,  however,  long  enjoy  his  elevation;  the 
 enmity  of  Marozia,  daughter  of  Theodora,  and 
 wife  of  Albert,  proved  fatal  to  him.  That  in- 
 triguing woman  having  efpoufed  Wido,  or  Guy, 
 marquis  of  Tufcany,  after  the  death  of  her  firft 
 confort,  engaged  him  to  feize  the  wanton  pon- 
 tiff, who  was  her  mother's  lover,  and  to  put  him 
 to  death  in  the  prifon  where  he  lay  confined. 
 The  unfortunate  and  licentious  John  was  fuc- 
 ceeded  by  Leo  VI.  whoprefded  but  feven  months 
 in  the  apoftolic  chair,  which  was  filled -after  him 
 by  Stephen  VII.  The  death  of  the  latter,  which 
 happened  in  the  year  931,  prefented  to  the  am- 
 bition of  Marozia  an  object  worthy  of  its  grafp  i 
 and  accordingly  (be  railed  to  the  papal  dignity 
 John  XI.  who  was  the  fruit  of  herlawlefs  amours 
 with  one  of  the  pretended  fuccefibrs  of  St.  Peter, 
 Sergius  III.  whofe  adulterous  commerce  with  that 
 infamous  woman  gave  an  hifalubk  guide  to  the 
 Roman  Church. 
 
 John  XL  who  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the 
 Church  by  the  credit  and  influence  of  his  mother, 
 
 *  Mofh.  His  cxprefiion  Is  Monism  Gari/ur.um,  which  is, 
 undoubtedly,  a  miilake,  as  the  Garigliano  is  a  river  in  the  king- 
 dom of  Naples,  ^uid  not  a  mountain. 
 
 was 
 
cent,  i©.]       Unhappy  Fate  of  John  XL  J 
 
 was    precipitated    from    this    fummit  of  fpiritual 
 grandeur,  A,  D.  933,  by  Alberic  his  half-brother, 
 who  had  conceived  the    utmoft  averfion  againfl 
 him.    Upon  the  death  of  Wi.d.o,  the  fplendid  offers 
 of  the  infamous  Marozia  had  allured  Hugo?  king 
 of  Italy,  to  accept  her  hand.     But  the  unfortunate 
 monarch  did  not  long  enjoy  the  promifed  honour 
 of  being    made  the    mailer   of  Rome.     Alberic 
 his  fon-in4aw,  ftimulated  by   an  affront  which  he 
 had  received  from   him,  excited  the  Romans  to 
 revolt,  and  expelled  from  the  city  not  only  the 
 offending  king,  but  his  mother  Marozia  and  her 
 fon,  the  reigning   pontiff,  all  of  whom   he  con- 
 fined in  prifon,  where  John  ended  his  days  in  the 
 year  936.     The  four  pontiffs,  who  in  their  turns 
 fucceeded  and  filled  the  papal  chair  till  the  year 
 956,  were  Leo  VII.  Stephen  VIII.  Marianus  II. 
 and  Agapet,  whofe  characters  were  greatly  fupe- 
 rior  to  thofe  of  their  immediate  predeceffors,  and 
 whofe  government,  at  lead,  was  not  attended  with 
 thofe  tumults  and  revolutions,  which  had  fo  fre- 
 quently fhaken  the  pontifical  throne,  and  banimed 
 from  Rome   the   ineftimable   bleffings   of  peace. 
 Upon  the  death  of  Agapet,  which   happened  in 
 the  year  956,  Alberic.  JI.  who  to  the  dignity  of 
 Roman  conful  joined  a  t  degree  of  authority  and 
 opulence  which  nothing  could  refift,  raifed  to  the 
 pontificate  his  fon  Oclavian,  who  was  yet  in  the 
 early    bloom   of  youth,    and    deftitute    of  every 
 quality  requifite  to  difcharge  the  duties  of  that 
 B  4  important 
 
8  John  XII.  depofed.  [cent.  io. 
 
 important    office.     This   unworthy    pontiff  took 
 the  name  of  John  XII.  and  thus  introduced  the 
 cuflom,  which  has  fince  been  adopted  by' all  his 
 fucceffors  in  the  fee  of  Rome,  of  affirming-  a  new 
 appellation  upon  their  acceffion  to  the  pontificate. 
 The  fate  of  John  XII.  was  as  unhappy  as  his 
 promotion  had  been  fcandalous.     Unable  to  bear 
 the  oppreffive  yoke  of  Berenger  II.   king  of  Italy, 
 he  fent  ambaffadors,  in  the  year  960,  to  Otho  the 
 Great,  entreating  him   to  march  into  Italy,  at  the 
 head  of  a  powerful   army,  to  deliver  the  Church 
 and  the  People  from  the  tyranny  with  which  they 
 were  op^reffed.     To  thefe  entreaties  the  perplexed 
 pontiff"  added  a'folemn  promife,  that,  if  the  Ger- 
 man monarch  cametohisaffiftance,  he  would  array 
 him  with  the  purple,  and  the  other  enfigns  of  fo- 
 vereignty,  and  proclaim  him  Emperor  of  the  Ro- 
 mans.    Otho  received  the  embatTy  with  pleafure, 
 marched  into  Italy  at  the  head  of  a  large  body  of" 
 troops,  and  was  accordingly  faluted  by  John  with 
 the  promifed  title.     The  pontiff,  however,  foon 
 perceiving  that   he  had  acted  with  too  much  pre- 
 cipitation, repented  of  the  ftep  he  had  taken ;  and, 
 though  he  had  fo  folemnly  fworn  allegiance  to  the 
 Emperor  as  his  lawful  fovereign,  violated  his  oath, 
 and  joined  Adelbert,  the  fon  of  Berenger,  againft 
 Otho.     This  revolt  was  not  left  unpunifhed.    The 
 Emperor  returned  to  Rome  in  the  yeaf  964,  called 
 a  council,  before  which  he  accufed  and  convifted 
 the   pontiff  of  the   molt  atrocious    crimes ;    and 
 
 after 
 
cent,  io.]  Popes  from  Leo  VIII.  to  Beneditt  VI.     9 
 
 after  having  ignominioufly  degraded  him  from 
 his  office,  appointed  Leo  VIII.  to  fill  his  place. 
 Upon  Otho's  departure  from  Rome,  John  return- 
 ed to  that  city,  and  in  a  council,  which  heaflem- 
 bled  in  the  year  964,  condemned  the  pontiff  whom 
 the  Emperor  had  elected  ;  and  foon  after  died  in 
 confequence  of  a  violent  blow  on  the  temples  in- 
 flicted by  the  hand  of  a  gentleman  whofe  wife  he 
 had  feduced.  After  his  death  the  Romans  chofe 
 Benedict  V.  bifhop  of  Rome,  in  oppofition  to 
 Leo;  but  the  Emperor  annulled  this  election, 
 reftored  Leo  to  the  papal  chair,  and  carried  Be- 
 nedict to  Hamburg,  where  he  died  in  exije. 
 
 From  this  gloomy  picture  of  depravity  and  vice 
 we  turn  with  fome  degree  of  pleafure,  toconfider 
 thofe  pontiffs  who  governed  the  fee  of  Rome 
 from  Leo  VIII.  who  died  A.  D.  965,  to  Gerberc 
 or  Silverier  II.  who  was  raifed  to  the  pontificate 
 towards  the  conclufion  of  this  century.  Their 
 pontificates  were  indeed  unadorned  by  the  dif- 
 play  of  profound  erudition,  or  of  any  fplendid 
 qualities;  but  the  conduct  of  mod  of  them  was  de- 
 cent, and  their  administration  refpectable.  John 
 XIII.  who  was  elevated  to  the  papal  chair  in  the  year 
 965,  by  the  authority  of  Otho  the  Great,  was  ex- 
 pelled from  Rome  in  the  beginning  of  his  adminif- 
 tration;  but  the  year  following,  upon  the  Emperor's 
 return  to  Italy,  he  was  reftored  to  his  dignity,  in 
 the  calm  poifeffion  of  which  he  ended  his  days, 
 A.  D.    972.     His   fucceflor,    Benedict  VI.  was 
 
 not 
 
jo      Pcpes  from  Benedict  VI.  to  VII.  [cent.  io. 
 
 not  fo  happy  :  caft  into  prifon  by  Crecentius,  fon 
 of  the  famous  Theodora,  in  confequence  of  the 
 hatred  which  the  Romans  had  conceived  both 
 again  ft  his  perfon  and  government,  he  was  loaded 
 with  every  fpecies  of  ignominy,  and  was  ftrangled, 
 in  the  year  974,  in  the  apartment  where  he  lay 
 confined.  Unfortunately  for  him,  Otho  the  Great, 
 whofe  power  and  feverity  kept  the  Romans  in  awe, 
 died  in  the  year  973,  and  with  him  expired  that 
 order  and  difcipline  which  he  had  reftored  in  Rome 
 by  falutary  laws,  executed  with  impartiality  and 
 vigour.  The  face  of  affairs  was  indeed  entirely 
 changed  by  that  "event;  licenticufnefs  and  dif- 
 order,  feditions "  and  affaffinations,  re  fumed  their 
 former  fvvay,  and  diffufed  their  horrors  through  that 
 miferabie  city.  After  the  death  of  Benedict,  the 
 papal  chair  was  filled  by  Franco,  who  affumed  the 
 name  of  Boniface  VII.  This  prelate,  who  is 
 ftrongly  fufpected  of  having  by.  his  infinuations" 
 occafioned  the  murder  of  his  predeceflbr,  did  not 
 long  enjoy  his  dignity.  .  One  month  had  fcarcely 
 elapfed  after  his  promotion,  before  he  was  depofed. 
 from  his  office  and  expelled  from  the  city.  He 
 was  fucceeded  by  Donus  I  J.*  who  is  knovvn  by 
 no  other  circumftance  than  his  name.  Upon  his 
 death,  which  happened  in  the  year  975,  Benedict 
 VII.  was  created  pontiff;  and,  during  the  fpace 
 of  nine  years,  ruled  the  Church  without  much  op- 
 
 *  Some  writers  place  Donus  II.   before  Benedict  VI.     Sec 
 the  TahuU  Svnoflica  H'tjl.  Ecchf.   of  the  learned  P&ff. 
 
 pofition, 
 
cent,  io.]  Pops  from  BextdiFt  VII.  to  John  XVI.  i  r 
 pofition,  and  ended  his  days  in  peace.  This  An- 
 gular prosperity  was,  without  doubt,  principally 
 owing  to  the  opulence  and  credit  of  the  family  to 
 which  he  belonged ;  for  he  was  nearly  related  to 
 the  celebrated  Alberic,  whofe  power,  or  rather 
 defpotifm,  had  been  unlimited  in  Rome. 
 
 His  fucceffor  John  XIV.  who  from  the  bimop- 
 ric  of  Pavia  was  raifed  to  the  pontificate,  derived 
 no  fupport  from  his  birth,  which  was  obfcure,  nor 
 did  he  continue  to  enjoy  the  protection  of  Otho 
 III.  to  whom  he  owed  his  promotion.     Hence  the 
 calamities  which  difturbed    his  government,  and 
 the  mifery   that  concluded  his    tranfitory  gran- 
 deur; for  Boniface  VII.  who  had  ufurped  the  pa- 
 pal  throne   in   the  year  974,  and  in  a  little  time 
 after   had  been  banilhed  Rome,    returned  from 
 Constantinople,  whither  he   had  fled  for  refuge ; 
 and  by  employing  the  money  he  had  obtained  by 
 the  fale  of  feveral  coftly  ornaments  which  he  had 
 fraudulently  carried  from    Rome,  in  largeffes  to 
 the  populace,  he  obtained  fuch  authority  as  ena- 
 bled him  to  feize  and  imprifon  the  unfortunate 
 pontiff,  and  afterwards  to  put  him  to  death.     By 
 thefe   means   Boniface  refumed   the  government: 
 of  the  Church  ;  but  his  reign  was  alfo  tranfitory, 
 for  he  died  about  fix  months  after  his  reftoration*. 
 He   was  fucceeded   by   John  XV.  whom   fome 
 writers  call  John  XVI.  alleging  that  another  Join 
 filled  the  Church  during  the  fpace  of  four  months, 
 
 *  Eleury  fays  eleven  months. 
 
 whom 
 
12  Rival  Popes.  [cent,   io. 
 
 whom  they  confequently  call  John  XV.  Whatever 
 opinion  may  be  formed  on  this  fubject,  it  is  only 
 neceffary  to  obferve  that   lie  pofleflcd  the  papa! 
 dignity  from  the  year  985  to  996,  that  his  admi- 
 niftration  was  as  happy  as  the  troubled  ftate  of  the 
 Roman  affairs  would  permit,  and  that  the  tran- 
 quillity   he  enjoyed  was   not  fo  much  owing  to 
 his  wifdom  and  prudence,  as  to  his  noble  and  il- 
 luftrious  anceltors,  and  to   his  being  by  birth. a 
 Roman.     Thus   much  is   alfo    certain,   that   his- 
 fuccelfor    Gregory  V.  who   was  a   German,  and 
 who  was  elected  Pontiff  by  the  order  of  Otho  III. 
 in  the  year  996,  experienced  very  different  treat-  ■* 
 ment  j  and  was  expelled  from  Rome  by  Crefcem,  > 
 the  Roman  conful,  who  conferred  his  dignity  upon 
 John  XVI    formerly  Jtnown  by  the  name  of  Phi- 
 lagathus.     But  this  revolution  was  not  permanent 
 in    its   effects.    Otho  III.    alarmed    by   the   dif-  , 
 turbances    at    Rome,  marched     into     Italy,    in 
 998,  at  the  head  of  a  powerful  army,  and  cafting 
 into  prifon  the  new  pontiff,  whom  the  foldiers,  in 
 the  firft  moment  of  their   fury,  had  barbaroufly 
 maimed  and   abufed,  re-inftated   Gregory  in  his 
 former  honours,  and  placed  him  again  at  the  head 
 of  the  Church.     Upon   the  death  of  this  latter 
 pontiff,  which  happened  foon  after  his  reftora- 
 tion,  the  fame  Emperor  raifed  to  the  papal  dig- 
 nity his  preceptor    and    friend,  the  famous   and 
 learned  Gerbert  or  Silvefter  II.  whofe  promotion 
 
cent,   io.]      Increafe  of  Papal  Authority.  13 
 
 was  attended  with  the  univerfal  approbation   of 
 the  Roman  people. 
 
 Amidft  thefe  frequent  commotions,  the  power 
 and  authority  of  the  Roman  pontiffs  impercep- 
 tibly increafe*}.  Otho  the  Great  had  indeed  pub- 
 lifhed  a  folemn  edict,  prohibiting  the  election  of 
 any  pontiff  without  the  previous  knowledge  and 
 confent  of  the  Emperor ;  and  this  monarch,  as 
 well  as  his  fon  and  grandfon,  who  fucceeded  him 
 in  the  empire,  maintained,  without  interruption, 
 their  right  of  fupremacy  over  the  city  of  Rome,  its 
 territory,  and  its  pontiff.  The  German,  French, 
 and  Italian  bilhops,  who  were  not  ignorant  of  the 
 nature  of  their  privileges,  and  the  extent  of  their 
 jurifdiction,  were  alio  perpetually  upon  their  guard 
 againft  every  attempt  the  Roman  pontiff  might 
 make,  to  affume  to  himfelf  alone  a  legiflative  au- 
 thority in  the  Church.  But,  notwithftanding  this, 
 the  bilhops  of  Rome  found  means  of  augmenting 
 their  influence,  and  partly  by  open  violence,  part- 
 ly by  fecret  and  fraudulent  flratagems>  encroached 
 not  only  upon  the  privileges  of  the  bilhops,  but 
 alfo  upon  the  jurifdidion  and  rights  of  the  kings 
 and  emperors  *.  Their  ambitious  attempts  were 
 feconded  and  juflified  by  the  adulation  of  fome 
 mercenary  ecclefiaftics,  who  exalted  the  dignity 
 and  prerogatives  of  the  Apoftolic  See  in  the  moft 
 
 *  Several  examples  of  thefe  ufurpations  may  be  found  In  the 
 JJifttlre  <fu  Droit  Ecckf,  Franfoit,  torn.  i.  p.  217.  edit,  in 
 Svo. 
 
 pompous 
 
t4-  Manners  of  this  Century,      [cent,  io* 
 
 pompous  and  extravagant  terms:  and  feveral 
 learned  writers  have  obferved,  that  in  this  century- 
 many  bifhops  maintained  publicly  that  the  Ro- 
 man pontiffs  were  not  only  bifhops  of  Rome,  but 
 of  the  whole  world,  an  affertion  which  hitherto 
 none  had  ventured  to  make  *. 
 
 Of  the  manners  of  this  age  it  is  difficult  to  form 
 a  competent  idea.  They  were  a  compound  of  the 
 mod  inconfiftent  qualities,  of  fuperftition  and  li- 
 centioufnefs,  of  chivalry  and  devotion.  The 
 priefts  and  the  ladies  divided  the  empire  of  the 
 world  ;  but  they  divided  it,  not  as  rivals,  but  as 
 allies.  The  profitable  (hare  fell  into  the  lap  o( 
 the  Church,  While  the  female  fex  received  the 
 no  lefs  grateful  tribute  of  adulation  and  refpecl. 
 The  acceffion  of  power  and  dignity  .which  the 
 fuperior  orders  of  ecclefiaftics  received  at  this 
 period  baffle  all  computation.  Many  of  the 
 biihops  and  abbots  obtained  a  complete  immu- 
 nity from  the  jurifdiction  of  the  counts  and  other 
 magiftrates,  as  well  as  from  all  taxes,  fervices,  and 
 impofts  whatever.  The  ambition  of  others  afpired 
 at  no  lefs  than  the  higheft  temporal  dignities,  and 
 received  the  titles  and  honours  of  dukes,  mar- 
 quiifes,  and  counts  of  the  Empire.  The  views 
 and  motives  were  various,  which  induced  the  fo- 
 vereigns  of  Europe  to  comply  with  thefe  pre- 
 fumptuous  claims.     The  fpirkual  rulers  were  the 
 
 *  Hijiclra  Litteraire  dc  la  France*  torn.  vi.  p.  96.  186. 
 
 happieH: 
 
cent,  io.]  Iniquitous  Difirilution  of  Preferments .  1$ 
 
 happieft  agents  which  tyranny  could  employ  for 
 the  fubjection  of  the  people.  In  many  cafes  thefe 
 agents  were  the  fons  or  brothers  of  the  temporal 
 Lords*.  Unbounded  ufe  was  alfo  made  of  the 
 power  which  the  Clergy  had  acquired  over  the  con- 
 fciences  of  the  great,  as  well  as  over  thofe  of  the 
 people ;  the  keys  of  purgatory  at  leaf!,  if  not  of 
 hell,  were  deposited  in  their  hands ;  the  dying 
 profligate  considered  no  price  too  dear  for  the  re* 
 demption  of  his  foul ;  and  in  a  word,  to  ufe  the 
 exprefiion  of  a  witty  author — ie  having  found, 
 what  Archimedes  wanted,  another  world  to  reft 
 on,  they  moved  this  world  as  they  pleafed-f-." 
 
 Power  is  however  not  necefTarily  the  concomi- 
 tant of  high  intellectual  attainments;  for  in  truths 
 the  Clergy  were  fo  ignorant  in  this  age,  that  it  is 
 faid  many  among  them  were  even  incapable  of  re- 
 peating the  Apoftle's  Creed.  This,  indeed,  was  a 
 neceflary  confequence  of  the  iniquitous   and  inju- 
 
 *  Not  a  few  of  them  of  fpurious  origin. — Hugh  king  of  Trail- 
 juran  in  Burgundy,  in  the  loth  century,  kept  three  miftrefTes, 
 to  whom  he  gave  the  names  of  three  goddeffes*  He  called  Bezola, 
 Venus ;  he  named  Roza,  Juno,  from  her  habit  of  fcolding ; 
 and  Stephania,  Semele,  Each  of  thefe  ladies  prefented  his 
 juajefty  with  a  child.  He  preferred  Bozo,  the  fon  of  Venus, 
 to  the  bifhopric  of  Placenza  ;  and  Theobald,  the  fon  of  Se- 
 mele,  he  beneficed  in  the  church  of  Milan :  the  other  was  a 
 girl.  JLuitprand,  quoted  by  Robin/on* 
 
 f  The  credit  of  this  witticifm  Mr.  Hume  ha3  chofen  to  take 
 to  himfelf,  but  it  U  really  ftolen  from  Dry-den.  See  his  Don 
 S^baftian. 
 
 :•  dicicus 
 
1 6  Pluralities,  [cent.  io. 
 
 dicious  diftribution  of  ecclefiaftical  preferments. 
 The  election  of  bifliops  and  abbots  was  no  longer 
 conducted  according  to  the  laws  of  the  Church ; 
 but  kings  and  princes,  or  their  minifters  and  fa- 
 vourites, either  conferred  thefe  ecclefiaftical  dig- 
 nities upon  their  friends  and  creatures,  or  fold 
 them  without  fhame  to  the  highefl  bidder.  Hence 
 it  happened,  as  it  ever  will  where  the  fame  mea- 
 fures  are  adopted,  that  the  mod  meritorious  were 
 deprefled  or  neglected,  whilft  the  mod  illiterate 
 and  flagitious  were  frequently  advanced  to  the 
 highefl  nations  in  the  Church  ;  and  upon  feveral 
 occafions,  that  even  foldiers,  civil  magiflrates, 
 counts,  and  perfons  of  a  fimilar  defcription,  were, 
 by  a  ftrange  metamorphofis,  converted  into^  bi- 
 fliops  and  abbots*.  The  firft  flagrant  abufe  of 
 pluralities  is  recorded  as  occurring  in  936,  when 
 Maneffeh,  bifhop  of  Aries,  obtained  from  Hugh, 
 king  of  Italy,  his  relation,  feveral  other  bishop- 
 ries :  he  is  faid  to  have  been  pofTefTed  of  not  lefs 
 than  four  or  five  at  one  time.  Gregory  VII. 
 however,  endeavoured  in  the  following  century 
 to  put  a  (top  to  thefe  increafing  evils.      .  > 
 
 While  the  monaftic  orders,   among  the  Greeks 
 and  Orientals,  maintained  (till  an  external  appear- 
 
 *  See  Gallia  €hr'tfiianat  torn.  1*.  p.  23.  37  ;  torn.  ii.  p.  173. 
 I79.  Codex  Canon.  Pit/joei,  p.  398  ;  as  alio  Mabillon,  Annah 
 BenediEl.  torn.  v.  The  downfall  as  well  as  corruption  of  every 
 hierarchy  may  fpeedily  be  predicted,  when  the  claims  of  learn- 
 ing and  genius  are  difregarded  in  the  diltribution  of  prefer- 
 ments, 
 
 3  ance 
 
cent,  i o.]  Order  of  Clugni.  17 
 
 ance  of  religion  and  decency,  the  Latin  monks, 
 towards  the  commencement  of  this  century,  had  fo 
 entirely  neglected  all  fubordination  and  difcipline, 
 that  the  greateft  part  of  them  knew  not  even  by 
 name  the  rule  of  St.  Benedict,  which  they  were 
 obliged  to  obferve.  A  noble  Frank,  whofe  name 
 was  Odo,  a  man  as  learned  and  pious  as  the  ig- 
 norance and  fuperftition  of  the  times  would 
 permit,  endeavoured  to  remedy  this  difoider ;  nor 
 were  his  attempts  totally  unfuccefsful.  This  zea- 
 lous ecclefiaftic  being  created,  in  the  year  927, 
 abbot  of  Clugni,  in  the  province  of  Burgundy, 
 upon  the  death  of  Berno,  not  only  obliged  the 
 monks  to  live  in  a  rigorous  obfervance  of  their 
 rules,  but  alfo  added  to  their  difcipline  a  new  fet 
 of  rites  and  ceremonies.  This  inftitute  of  dif. 
 cipline  was  in  a  fhort  time  adopted  in  all  the 
 European  convents.  Thus  it  was,  that  the  order 
 of  Clugni  arrived  to  that  high  degree  of  eminence 
 and  authority,  opulence  and  dignity,  which  it  ex- 
 hibited to  the  Chriftian  world  in  the  following 
 century. 
 
 Vol.  H,  C  CHAP. 
 
[    is    ] 
 
 CHAP.    IT. 
 
 OF  THE  DOCTRINES,  RITES,  AND  CEREMONIES 
 OF  THE  CHURCH,  DURING  THE  TENTH  CEN- 
 TURY. 
 
 Ardour  for  accumulating  Relics — Purgatory — The  Day  «f 
 'Judgment  fuppofed  to  be  at  hand— Modes  of  creating 
 Saints — Solemn  Excommunication — All  Souls  Day—Wcr- 
 Jhip  of  the  Virgin — Baptifm  of  Bells — Controverfy  con- 
 cerning Marriage, 
 
 TH  E  ftate  of  religion  in  this  century  was 
 fuch  as  might  be  expected  in  a  feafon  of. 
 prevailing  ignorance  and  corruption.  Both -Greeks 
 and  Latins  placed  the  effence  and  life*  of  religion 
 in  the  worfhip  of  images  and  departed  faints,  in 
 fearching  after  with  zeal,  and  preferving  with  a 
 devout  care  and  veneration,  the  facred  relics  'of 
 holy  men  and  women,  and  in  accumulating  riches 
 upon  the  priefts  and  monks,  whofe  opulence  increas- 
 ed with  the  progrefs  of  fuperftition.  Scarcely  did 
 the  humble  Chriftian  dare  to  approach  *the  throne 
 of  a  merciful  God,  without  firft  rendering  the  faints 
 and  images  propitious,  by  a  folemn  round  of  ex- 
 piatory rites  and  luflrations.  The  ardour  alfo 
 with  which  relics  were  fought,  fnrpafles  almoft  all 
 credibility ;  it  had  feized  all  ranks  and  orders  of 
 the  people,  and  was  grown  into  a  fort  of  fanati- 
 cifm  and  frenzy  ;  nor  was  it  conceived  to  be  any 
 
 nution 
 
cent;  lo.j  Purgatory.  Day  of  Judgment.  19 
 diminution  of  the  dignity  of  the  Supreme  Being, 
 to  inter  pofe  in  thefe  difcoveries,  which  according  to 
 the  monkifli  legends  were  generally  made  in  con- 
 fequence  of  fome  miraculous  communications  to 
 one  of  their  holy  fraternity,  or  to  fome  fuperannu- 
 ated  female,  who  was  directed  to  the  place  where 
 the  bones  or  remains  of  the  faints  lay  difperfed  or 
 interred.  The  fears  of  piirgdtory  were  now  carried 
 to  the  greater!  extent,  and  even  exceeded  theap- 
 prehenfions  of  infernal  torments.  It  was  believed, 
 that  all  muft  neccflarily  endure  the  pains  of  the 
 former,  but  that  the  latter  might  be  eafily  avoided, 
 provided  the  deceafed  was  enriched  with  the  pray- 
 ers of  the  clergy,  or  fhielded  by  the  merits  and 
 mediation  of  the  faints. 
 
 Among  the  numerous  opinions,  however,  which 
 difgraced  the  Latin  Church,  and  produced,  from 
 time  to  time,  fuch  violent  agitations,  none  occa- 
 fioned  fuch  a  univerfal  panic,  nor  fuch  dreadful 
 impremons  of  terror  or  difmay*  as  a  notion  that 
 prevailed  during  this  century  of  the  immediate 
 approach  of  the  day  of  judgment.  Hence 
 prodigious  numbers  of  people  abandoned  all 
 their  civil  and  parental  connexions,  and,  af- 
 figning  over  to  the  churches  or  monafteries  all 
 their  lands,  treafures,  and  worldly  effects,  repair- 
 ed, with  the  utmofl  precipitation,  to  Paleftine, 
 where  they  imagined  that  Chrift  would  defcend 
 from  heaven  to  judge  the  world.  Others  devoted 
 themfelves,  by  a  folemn  and  voluntary  oath,  to 
 C  2.  ~  the 
 
20  Saints  created  [cent.  io. 
 
 the  fervice  of  the  churches,  convents,  and  prieft- 
 hood,  whofe  Haves  they  became,  in  the  moft  rigo- 
 rous    fenfe,  joyfully    performing    their   diurnal 
 tafks,  from   a   notion,    that  the    Supreme  Judge 
 would  diminifh  the  feverity  of  their  fentence,  and 
 look  upon  them  with  a  more  favourable  and  pro- 
 pitious eye,  on  account  of  their  having  made  them- 
 lelvcs  the  devotees   of  his  minifters.      When  an 
 eclipfe  of  the  fun  or  moon  happened  to  be  visible, 
 the  cities  weredeferted,  and  their  miferable  inhabi- 
 tants fled   for  refuge   to  hollow  caverns,  and  hid 
 themfelves  among  the  craggy  rocks,  and  in  the  ca- 
 vities of  mountains.     The  opulent  attempted   to 
 bribe  the  Deityand  his  faints,  by  rich  donations* 
 conferred  upon  the  facerdotal  and  monadic  orders,' 
 who  were  confidered  as  the  immediate  vicegerents 
 of  Heaven.     In    many   places,  temples,  palaces, 
 and  noble  edifices,  both  public  and  private,  were 
 iuffered  to  decay,  and  were  even  deliberately  pulled- 
 down,  from  an   opinion  that  they  were  no  longer 
 of  any  ufe,  fince  the  diffolution  of  all  things  was 
 at  hand.     This  general  delufion  was,  indeed,  op- 
 pofed  and  combated  by  the  difcerning.few,  who 
 endeavoured   to  difpel   thefe   groundlefs  terrors, 
 and  to  efface  the  notion  they  arofe  from,  in   the 
 minds  of  the  people. 
 
 The  number  of  the  faints,  who  were  looked 
 upon  as  minifters  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven,  and 
 whofe  patronage  was  efteemed  fuch  an  unfpeakable 
 bleffing,  was  now  every  where  multiplied,  and  the 
 
 celeftial 
 
cent,  io.]     by  the  Pope's  Jolt  Authority.  21 
 
 celeftial  courts  were  filled  with  new  legions  of  this 
 fpecies  of  beings,  fome  of  which  had  no  exigence 
 but  in  the  imagination  of  their  deluded  clients  and 
 worfhippers.  This  multitude  of  faints  may  be 
 eafily  accounted  for,  when  we  confider  that  fu per- 
 dition, the  fource  of  fear,  was  grown  to  fuch  an 
 enormous  height  in  this  age,  as  rendered  the  cre- 
 ation of  new  patrons  neceffary,  to  calm  the  anxiety 
 of  trembling  mortals.  The  corruption  and  im- 
 piety alfo  which  now  reigned  with  unbounded 
 fvvay,  and  the  licentioufnefs  and  diflblution  that  had 
 fo  generally  infected  all  ranks  and  orders  of  men, 
 rendered  the  reputation  of  fanclity  very  eafy  to 
 be  acquired ;  for  amidft  fuch  a  perverfe  genera- 
 tion, it  demanded  no  great  efforts  of  virtue  to  be 
 edeemed  holy,  and  this  doubtlefs  contributed  to 
 increafe  considerably  the  number  of  the  celeftial 
 advocates. 
 
 The  Roman  pontiff,  who  before  this  period 
 had  pretended  to  the  right  of  creating  faints  by 
 his  fole  authority,  afforded,  in  this  century,  the 
 fir  ft  fpecimen  of  this  ghoftly  power;  for,  in  the 
 preceding  ages,  there  is  no  example  of  his  having 
 exercifed  this  privilege  alone.  This  fpecimen  was 
 given  in  the  year  993,  by  John  XV.  who,  with 
 all  the  formalities  of  a  folemn  canonization,  en- 
 rolled Udalric,  bifhop  of  Augfburg,  in  the  num- 
 ber of  the  faints,  and  thus  conferred  upon  him  a 
 title  to  the  worfhip  and  veneration  of  Chiiftians*. 
 
 *  Franc.  Pagl  Breviar.  Ponl'tf.  Roman,  torn.  ii.  p.  2^9. 
 
 c  3  it 
 
iz  Canonization.  [cent.  io» 
 
 It  appears  that  the  faint  acquired  his  right  to 
 that  title  from  the  application  of  Lintolph,  bifhop 
 of  Augfburg,  who  in  an  afTembly  compofed  of 
 the  Pope  fitting,  and  feveral  bifhops,  priefts,  and 
 deacons  (landing  around  him,  read  aloud  the  life 
 of  the  deceafed,  and  recited  an  account  of  his  mi- 
 raculous reftoration  of  the  fick,  and  his  powers  of 
 exorcifing  devils  out  of  the  pofleifed.  As,  what- 
 ever may  be  the  vices  of  an  ignorant  age,  incredu- 
 lity is  not  amongft  the  catalogue,  the  wonderful 
 relations  of  Lintolph  were  favourably  received, 
 and  the  decree*  which  elevated  Udalric  to  his  feat 
 
 in 
 
 *  As  fome  readers  may  not  have  had  an  opportunity  of  feeing 
 $  decree  of  this  nature,  a  copy  of  that  which  was  enabled  on  this 
 occafion  is  fubjoined. 
 
 "  John,  bifhop,  fervant  of  the  fervants-of  God,  to  all  archbi- 
 ss  (hops,  biihops  and  abbots  of  France  and  Germany,  greetings 
 "  and  the  apoftolical  benediction.    Having  held  an  affembly  in 
 *'  the  palace  of  the  Lateran,  on  the  la  ft  day  of  January,  John  the 
 "  moft  hcly  pope  fitting  ;   with  the  bifhops,  priefts,  deacons  and 
 "  clergy    ftanding,    the     moft    reverend    Lintolph    bifhop    of 
 '.'  Augfburg    (aid :     Moil    holy  biiuop,    i[  it   may  pleafe  you 
 *'  and   the  reft  of  the  reverend  bifhops  and  priefts  here  prefent, 
 V  to  give  leave  to  read  in  your  prefence,  the  book  which  I  hold 
 **■  in  my  hand,  concerning  the  Life  and  Miracles  of  Uidaric,  who 
 *'  was  fome  time  bifhop  of  Augfburg,  to  the  end  that  you  may 
 <l  afterwards  ordain  what  you  fhall  think  fit."     Thc-n  the  life  of 
 that  faint  being  read,  they  proceeded  to  the  miracles  which  were 
 performed  by  him,  cither  in  his  lifetime  or  after  his  death  ;  as, 
 the  reftoring  of  light  to  the  blind ;  the  exorcifing  of  devils  out 
 cf  poffeffed  perfons ;  the  curing  of  others  afHifted  with  the  palfy, 
 and  feveral  other  miracles  which  were  not  committed  to  writings 
 
 " Thcfc 
 
cent.  10.3  Canonization.  23 
 
 in  the  celellial  regions  was  unhefitatingly  fealed 
 by  the  Roman  pontiff,  five  bifhops,  nine  cardinal 
 priefts,  and  feveral  deacons. 
 
 From  this  tranfaction  it  mufl  not  however  be 
 inferred,  that  the  privilege  of  canonization  was 
 at  this  time  folely  vefted  in  the  bifhop  of  Rome. 
 There  are  feveral  examples,  upon  record,  which 
 prove  that  not  only  provincial  councils,  but  alfo 
 feveral  of  the  firft  order  among  the  bifhops,  ad- 
 vanced to  the  rank  of  faints  fuch  as  they  thought 
 worthy  of  that  dignity,  and  continued  thus  to  aug- 
 ment tfye  celeftial  patrons  of  the  Church,  without 
 even  confulting  the  Roman  pontiff,  until  the 
 twelfth  century*.  At  that  period  Alexander  III. 
 abrogated  this  privilege  of  the  bifhops  and  coun- 
 
 "  Thefe  things  being  thus  related,  we  have  refolredand  ordained, 
 "  with  the  common  coufent,  that  the  memory  of  Uldaric  ought 
 **  to  be  honoured  with  a  pious  affection,  and  a  fincere  devotion, 
 "  by  reafon  that  we  are  obliged  to  honour  and  mew  refpeft  to  the 
 *'  relics  of  the  martyrs  and  confefibrs,  in  order  to  adore  Him 
 *{  whofe  martyrs  and  confefibrs  they  are  :  we  honour  the  fervants, 
 "  to  the  end  that  this  honour  may  redound  to  the  Lord. 
 "  It  is  our  plcafure,  therefore,  that  the  memory  of  Uldaric  be 
 *'  confecrated  to  the  honour  of  the  Lord,  and  that  it  may  ferve 
 "  to  celebrate  his  praifes  for  ever."  Then  follows  the  anathema 
 againft  thofe  who  (hall  aft  any  thing  contrary  to  this  decree, 
 with  the  feals  of  the  pope,  of  five  bifiiops,  of  nine  cardinal 
 priefts,  and  of  feveral  deacons. 
 
 *  See  Franc.  Pagi  Breviar.  Pontif.  Roman,  torn.  ii.  p.  260  -, 
 torn.  iii.  p.  30. — Arm.  De  la  Chapelle,  Biblioth.  Angloife-,  torn, 
 X.  p.  105. — Mabillon,  Pnrfat.ad  Sac.  F.  Bcmdifl,  p.  53. 
 
 C  4  cih» 
 
24       Bell,  Book,  and  Candle  Light,     [cent.  io. 
 
 cils,  and  placed  canonization  in  the  number  of  the 
 more  important  acts  of  authority  *,  which  the  fo- 
 vereign  pontiff  alone,  by  a  peculiar  prerogative, 
 was  entitled  to  exercife. 
 
 The  number  of  ceremonies  increafed  in  propor- 
 tion to  that  of  the  fainrs,  which  multiplied  from 
 day  to  day ;  for  each  new  faintly  patron  had  ap- 
 propriated to  his  fervice  a  new  feftival,  a  new 
 form  of  worfhip,  a  new  round  of  religious  rites  \ 
 and  the  clergy  difcovered,  in  the  creation  of  new., 
 ceremonies,  a  wonderful  fertility  of  invention,  at- 
 tended with  the  utmcft  dexterity  and  artifice.  It 
 is  obfervable  that  a  great  part  of  thefe  new  rites  .A 
 derived  their  origin  from  the  various  errors,  which 
 the  barbarous  nations  had  received  from  their  an- 
 ccftors,  and  {till  retained,  even  after  their'conver- 
 fion  to  Chriftianity  f.  The  clergy,  inftead  of  ex- 
 tirpating thefe  errors,  either  gave  them  a  Chriftian 
 afpect,  by  inventing  certain  religious  rites  to  cover 
 their  deformity,  or  by  explaining  them  in  a  forced 
 allegorical  manner ;  and  thus  they  were  perpetu- 
 ated in  the  Church,  and  devoutly  tranfmitted  from 
 age  to  age. 
 
 Between   the  feventh  and  the   tenth  century^ 
 great  folemnities  were  added  to  the  fentence  of  ex- ' 
 communication.      The   mod  important   was  the 
 extinction  of  lamps  or  candles,  by  throwing  them 
 to  the  ground,  with   a   folemn   imprecation,  that 
 
 *  Thefe  were  called  the  Can/a  Majores.  N 
 
 f  See  Dr.  Middleton's  Letter  from  Rome. 
 
 3  lhe 
 
cent,  io.]  All  Souls  Day,  25 
 
 theperfon  againft  whom  the  excommunication  was 
 pronounced,  might  be  extinguifhed  or  deftroyed 
 by  the  vengeance  of  God.     The  people  were  fum- 
 moned  to  attend  this  ceremony  by  the  found  of  a 
 bell,  and  the  curfes  accompanying  the  ceremony- 
 were  pronounced  out  of  a  book  by  the  minifter, 
 ftanding   in   a   balcony.     Hence    originated    the 
 phrafe  of  curling  by  bell,  book,  and  candle-light  '*. 
 The   famous  yearly   feftival    which  was   cele- 
 brated in  remembrance  of  all  departed  fouls,  was 
 inftituted   by   the  authority   of  Odilo,    abbot   of 
 Clugni,  and  added  to  the  Latin  calendar  towards 
 the  conclufion  of  this  century-}-.     Previous  to  this, 
 a  cuftom  had  been  introduced  of  offering  up  pray- 
 ers, on  certain  days,  for  the  fouls  that  were  con- 
 fined in  purgatory ;  but   thefe  prayers  were  made 
 by  each  religious  fociety,  only  for  its  own  mem- 
 bers, friends,  and  patrons.     The   pious   zeal   of 
 Odilo  could   not  be  confined  within  fuch  narrow 
 iimits ;  and  he  therefore  extended  the  benefit  of 
 thefe  prayers  to  all  fouls  who  laboured  under  the 
 pains  and  trials  of  purgatory.    This  proceeding  of 
 Odilo  was  owing  to  the  exhortations  of  a  Sicilian 
 hermit,  who  pretended  to  have  learned,  by  an  im- 
 mediate revelation  from  Heaven,  that  the  prayers 
 of  the  monks  of  Clugni  would  be  effectual  for  the 
 deliverance  of  departed  fpirits  from  the  expiatory 
 
 *  PriefHey's  Hiilory  of  the  Corruptions  of  Chriftianity,  vol.  ii. 
 p.  179. 
 
 f  In  the  year  998. 
 
 flames 
 
x6  Worjhip  of  the  Virgin,         [cent.'io. 
 
 flames  of  an  intermediate  date.  Accordingly  thi* 
 feftival  was,  at  firft,  celebrated  only  by  the  congrega- 
 tion of  Clugni;  but  having  afterwards  received  the 
 approbation  of  one  of  the  Roman  pontiffs,  it  was, 
 by  his  order,  obfcrved  with  peculiar  devotion  in. 
 all  the  Latin  Churches. 
 
 The  worfhip  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  which,  be- 
 fore this  period,  had  been  carried  to  a  very  high 
 degree  of  idolatry,  received  new  accefiions  of  fo- 
 lemnity  and  fuperftition.  Towards  the  conclufton 
 of  this  century,  a  cuftom  was  introduced  among 
 the  Latins,  of  celebrating  maftes,  and  abftaining 
 from  fle{h,  in  honour  of  the  blefled  Virgin  every 
 fabbath  day.  After  this  was  inftituted,  what  the 
 Latins  called,  the  .Iejfer  office,  in  honour  of  St* 
 Mary,  which  was,  in  the  following  century,  con- 
 firmed by  Urban  II.  in  the  council  of  Clermont, 
 There  are  alfo  to  be  found  in  this  age  manifeft 
 indications  of  the  inftitution  of  the  Rofary>  and 
 Crown  of  the  Virgin,  by  which  her  worfhippers 
 were  to  reckon  the  number  of  prayers  they  were 
 to  offer  to  this  new  divinity.  The  Rofary  conhds 
 of  fifteen  repetitions  of  the  Lord's  prayer^,  and  an 
 hundred  and  fifty  falutations  of  the  bleffed  Virgin  ; 
 while  the  Crown  con  lifts  in  fix  or  feven  repeti- 
 tions of  the  Lord's  prayer,  and  fix  or  feyen  times 
 ten  falutations,  or  Ave  Marias.  Three  table-cloths 
 of  different  fafhions  were  confecrated  for  the  ufe 
 of  the  altar,  and  a  kind  of  veil  of  different  colours 
 to  be  ufed  on  different  days, 
 
 Among 
 
C2NT.  io.]  Baptifm  cf  Bells.  z.% 
 
 Among  the  ceremonies,  however,  which  were 
 introduced  about  this  period,  none  is  more  ridi- 
 culous than  the  confecration  and  baptizing  of  bells. 
 The  firft  fact  of  this  kind  upon  record  occurred 
 about  the  year  968,  when  John  XIII.  fprinkled  a 
 large  bell,  which  was  call  for  the  Lateran  at 
 Rome,  with  holy  water,  blefTed  it,  and  pro- 
 nounced it  facred.  It  is  faid  that  a  fimilar  cuftom 
 flill  exifts  in  the  Romifh  church,  and  that,  on 
 the  baptizing  of  bells,  a  prayer  of  confecration 
 js  ufed,  which  imports,  that  by  its  found  the  peo- 
 ple may  be  delivered  from  the  aflaults  of  their 
 enemies,  and  the  attacks  of  evil  fpirits*.  God- 
 fathers and  god-mothers  are  alfo  appointed  to  an- 
 fwer  queftions  in  the  name  of  the  bell-f. 
 
 The  controverfies  between  the  Greek  and 
 Latin  churches  were  carried  on  with  lefs  im- 
 petuofity  than  in  the  preceding  century,  on  account 
 of  the  troubles  and  calamities  of  the  times ;  yet 
 fhey  were  not  entirely  reduced  to  filencej.  The 
 writers  therefore  who  affirm  that  this  unhappy 
 fchifm  was  healed,  and  that  the  contending  parties 
 were  really  reconciled  to  each  other  for  a  certain 
 fpace   of    time,   have   been   groflly   miftaken  § ; 
 
 *  Sueur,  A.  D.  968. 
 
 f  Prieftley's  Hiftory  of  Corruptions,  vol.ii.  p.   no. 
 
 %  Mich.  Lequien.  Difert.  i.  Damafcenlc*  de  Procejfione  Spirttus 
 Sancli,  f.  xiii.  p.  12. — Fred.  Spanhefm,  De  perpetua  Diffenfione 
 gcclefia  Oriental,  et  Occidental,  part  IV.  f.  vii.  p.  529,  torn.  it. 
 Opp. 
 
 §  Leo  Allatius,  De  perpetua  Gonfenfionf  Ecclef.  Orient,  et  Oc- 
 cident, lib.  ii.  cap.  vii,  viii.  p,  6co, 
 
 though 
 
2  8      Controverfy  concerning  Marriage,  [cent.  io. 
 
 though  it  be  indeed  true,  that  the  tumults  of  the 
 times  fometimes  produced  a  ceflation  of  thefe  con- 
 tefls,  and  occafioned  feveral  truces,  which  'infidi- 
 oufly  concealed  the  bittereft  enmity,  and  ferved 
 often  as  a  cover  to  the  mod  treacherous  defigns. 
 The  Greeks  were  much  divided  among  them- 
 felves,  and  difputed  with  great  warmth  concern- 
 ing the  lawfulnefs  of  repeated  marriages,  to  which 
 violent  contefl  the  cafe  of  Leo,  furnamed  the  Pki- 
 lofopber,  gave  rife.  This  emperor,  having  buried 
 fucceffively  three  wives  without  having  had  by 
 them  any  male  iffue,  efpoufed  a  fourth,  whofc 
 name  was  Zoe  Carbinopfina,  and  who  was  born 
 in  the  obfcnrity"of  a  mean  condition.  As  marri- 
 ages repeated  for  the  fourth  time  were  held  to  be' 
 impure  and  unlawful  by  the  Greek  canons,  Ni- 
 colas, the  patriarch  of  Conftantinople,  fufpended 
 the  Emperor,  upon  this  occafion,  from  the  com- 
 munion of  the  Church.  Leo,  incenfed  at  this  ri- 
 gorous proceeding,  deprived  Nicolas  of  the  pa- 
 triarchal dignity,  and  raifed  Euthymius  to  that 
 office  ;  who,  though  he  re-admitted  the  Emperor 
 to  the  bofom  of  the  Church,  yet  oppofed  >the  de- 
 cree which  he  had  refolved  to  enad,  in  order  to 
 render  fourth  marriages  lawful.  Upon  this  a 
 fchifm,  attended  with  the  bittereft  animoiities, 
 divided  the  Clergy,  one  part  of  whom  declared 
 for  Nicolas,  the  other  for  Euthymius.  Some  time 
 after  this  Leo  died,  and  was  fucceeded  in  the  em- 
 pire by  Alexander,  whodepofed  Euthymius,  and 
 
 reftored 
 
cent.  10.3  Cejfationof  Hofiilities.  29 
 
 reftored  Nicolas  to  his  former  rank  in  the  Church. 
 No  fooner  was  the  incenfed  patriarch  re-inftated 
 in  his  office,  than  he  began  to  load  the  memory 
 of  the  late  Emperor  with  the  bittereft  execrations 
 and  the  moft  opprobrious  invectives,  and  to  main- 
 tain the  unlawfulnefs  of  fourth  marriages  with  the 
 utmoft  obftinacy.  In  order  to  appeafe  thefe  tu- 
 mults, which  portended  numberlefs  calamities  to 
 the  (late,  Conftantine  Porphyrogenitus,  the  fon 
 of  Leo,  convened  an  afiembly  of  the  Clergy  of 
 Constantinople,  in  the  year  920,  in  which  fourth 
 marriages  were  abfolutely  prohibited,  and  mar- 
 riages for  the  third  time  were  permitted  only  on 
 certain  conditions.  By  thofe  means  public  tran- 
 quillity was  reftored  to  the  Eaftern  Church,  the 
 refpectability  of  which  was  fenfibly  declining  dur- 
 ing this  century,  which  produced  few  ecclefiaftics 
 of  the  Greek  communion,  who  deferve  to  be  ce- 
 lebrated either  for  their  virtue  or  abilitv. 
 
 CHAP. 
 
CHAP.    III. 
 
 OF     THE      SECTS      WHICH      EXISTED      IN     THE 
 TENTH     CENTURY. 
 
 Prevalence  of  Manichelfm — Seel  of  the  AnthropomorphiUs3 
 
 A  PERIOD  which  is  barren  in  intellect  and 
 fcience,  is  commonly  barren  in  fact. 
 Where  no  fpirit  of  inquiry  is  excited,  there  will 
 be  few  departures  from  eftabliflied  forms.  Of  the 
 fectaries  too,  who  exifted  during  the  middle  ages* 
 the  accounts  mud  neCeflarily  be  imperfect.  -  The 
 Church  was  then  nearly  in  the  plenitude  of  its 
 power,  and  little  ceremony  was  obferved  in  the 
 extermination  of  thofe  who  difturbed  its  tran- 
 quillity; the  inquiries  which  were  made,  con-' 
 cerning  the  faith  of  thofe  whom  they  perfecuted, 
 we  may  well  conceive  were  but  fuperficial ;  nor 
 Were  the  hiftorians  of  orthodoxy,  at  this  unpropi- 
 tious  crifis,  extremely  qualified  for  tranfmitting 
 their  annals  to  pofterity. 
 
 Among  the  Catholic  writers  of  this  century j 
 we  find  many  indiftind  complaints  of  the  pre- 
 valence of  Manicheifm,  and  of  the  difrefpect 
 of  individuals  towards  the  Romifti  faith.  Few 
 inflances  of  any  deviation  from  eftablifhed  opi- 
 nions, and  practices,  have  however  been  recorded 
 
cent.  10.]  Se%  of  the  Anthropomorphltes.  31 
 
 by  the  ecclefiaftical  writers  of  that  period,  except 
 the  Anthropomorphites.  This  feci,  which  arofe  in 
 Egypt  during  the  fourth  century,  and  occafioned 
 many  difburbances  in  the  Egyptian  Church,  was 
 renewed  in  this,  and  found  a  few  adherents 
 amongfl  a  fuperftitious  people,  who,  accuftomed 
 to  worfhip  the  Deity  under  a  human  form,  were 
 eafiiy  induced  to  embrace  the  opinion  of  this  fc£tt 
 which  taking  the  Scripture  in  a  literal  fenfe,  be- 
 lieved from  the  text,  that  '*  God  made  man  in 
 his  own  image,"  that  the  Supreme  Being  exifted 
 in  a  human  form.  This  opinion,  however,  ex- 
 tended no  further  than  Italy,  where  it  was  chienV 
 adopted    by  {ow.t  of  the  ecclefiaftical  order. 
 
 C  H  AP, 
 
C    3*     3 
 
 C  H  A  P.    IV, 
 
 OF  LEARNING    AND     LEARNED    MEN  IN  THE 
 TENTH  CENTURY. 
 
 Dearth  of  Literature  in  the  Tenth  Century — Leo^  Con/fan- 
 tine  Porphyrogenitus,  and  Gerbert — Simeon  Metaphraftesy 
 Eutycbius,  and  Bar  Cepha — Luitprand  and  Rofwida. 
 
 THE   labour  of  the  hiftorian  muft  vary  with" 
 his  materials.     Where  nothing   has   been 
 performed,    nothing    remains    to   be.  recorded^ 
 From  the  end  of  the  ninth  to  the  latter  periods  * 
 of  the  tenth  century,,  there  were  few  who  read,  ' 
 and   fcarcely  any  who  wrote,  within  the  pale  of 
 the  Chriflian  Church.     If  the  throne  of  the  Eaft 
 was  adorned  by  a  Leo  and  a  Conftantine ;   if  the 
 papal  tiara  was  honoured  by  encircling  the  learn-  . 
 ed  brow  of  a  Gerbert  j   thefe   were   lingular  ex- 
 amples,   and   are   rather   perhaps  to   be   clafTed 
 among  the  admirers  than  the  profeflbrs  of  litera- 
 ture.    The  works  of  Conftantine  Porphyrogenitus 
 deferve  rather  the   name  of  compilations  than  of 
 compositions :  and  of  Gerbert   it  has  been  well 
 remarked,  that   his  genius   was  too  extenjfive  to 
 admit  of  restraint.     By  endeavouring  to  embrace 
 every  fcience  in  an  age  when  the  means  of  informa- 
 tion were  fcanty,  he  was  an  adept  in  none*  :   and 
 
 *  Fleury. 
 
 even 
 
cent,  io.]       Metaphraftes.     Rofwida.  33 
 
 even  his  mathematics,  which  conftituted  his  fa- 
 vourite ftudy,  if  compared  with  thofe  of  modern 
 times,  though  eafy  and  perfpicuous,  were  rather 
 elementary  and  fuperficial*.  At  the  court  of 
 Conftantinople  about  this  period,  there  were  found 
 fome  voluminous,  but  injudicious  and  fabulous 
 writers ;  among  thefe  was  Simeon  furnamed  Me- 
 taphraftes, becaufe  he  is  faid  to  have  improved 
 the  ftyle  of  the  voluminous  Hiftory  of  the  Lives  of 
 the  Saints.  He  was  alfo  the  compiler  of  twenty- 
 four  moral  difcourfes,  extracted  from  the  works 
 of  St.  Bafil,  and  of  fome  other  collections  from 
 St.  Macarius.  Eutychius,  patriarch  of  Alexan- 
 dria, compofed  an  hiftorical  chronicle,  extend- 
 ing from  the  creation  to  937;  and  Mofes  Bar 
 Cepha,  a  bidiop  in  Syria,  wrote  a  myftical  trea- 
 tife  of  Paradife  in  three  books-f-. 
 
 The  writers  of  the  Weft,  chiefly  confined 
 their  compofitions  to  abfurd  relations  of  the 
 miracles  performed  by  the  faints.  Amongft  thofe 
 who  celebrated  their  praifes,  was  Rofwida,  a  nun, 
 who  compofed  feveral  poems  to  their  honour,  and 
 who  has  been  diftinguifhed  for  her  ftyle,  and  her 
 knowledge  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  languages. 
 
 *  Mofheuu,  cent.  io«         f  Du  Pin* 
 
 Vol.  II.  D  CHAP- 
 
[  34  ] 
 
 THE  ELEVENTH  CENTURY. 
 
 CHAP.  I. 
 
 GENERAL  STATE  OF  THE  CHURCH  IN  THE 
 ELEVENTH  CENTURY. 
 
 Converfion  of  barbarous  Nations — Kingdom  of  Sicily  eflablijhed 
 —  Pozver  of  the  Clergy — Benedicl  VIII. — fobn  XIX. — 
 Benedia  IX.—Syhejhr  III.— Gregory  VI.— Clement  II. 
 Nicholas  II. — New  Mode  of  elecling  Popes — Alexander 
 II. — Honor  ins  II.  —  Gregory  VII.  —  His  Claims  upon 
 England  refyled — Sanguinary  Contefl  vjith  the  Emperor — 
 Clement  III.— Victor  III.— Urban  Il.—Crufades—Paf- 
 chal  II. 
 
 T  has  already  been  remarked  in  the  hiftory  of 
 the  preceding  century,  that  fome  imperfect 
 notions  of  the  Chriftian  religion  had  been 'received 
 among  the  Hungarians,  Danes,  Poles,  and  Ruf- 
 fians ;  but  the  rude  fpirit  of  thefe  nations,  toge- 
 ther with  their  extreme  ignorance,  and  their  vio- 
 lent attachment  to  the  fuperftitions  of  their  ancef- 
 tors,  rendered  their  total  converfion  to  Chriftianity 
 a  work  of  confiderable  difficulty.  The  ardour, 
 however,  with  which  it  was  conducted,  reflects 
 
 much 
 
cent.  T  I.]     Converjion  of  barbarous  Nations.      35 
 
 much  credit  upon  the  piety  of  the  princes  and  go- 
 vernors of  thefe  unpolifhed  countries.  In  Tartary 
 and  the  adjacent  regions,  the  Zealand  diligence  of 
 the  Neftorians  gained  multitudes  daily  to  the  pro- 
 feffion  of  Chriflianity.  It  appears  alfo  evident* 
 from  a  number  of  unexceptionable  teflimonies, 
 that  metropolitan  prelates,  with  a  great  number 
 of  inferior  bilhops  under  their  jurifdiction,  were 
 eftablimed  at  this  time  in  the  provinces  of  Cafgar> 
 Nuacheta,  Turkeftan,  Genda,  and  Tangut*. 
 
 Among  the  European  nations  flill  immerfed  in 
 their  native  darknefs  and  fuperftition,  were  the 
 Sclavonians,  the  Obotritif,  the  Venedi  %>  and  the 
 Pruffians,  whole  converfion  had  been  attempted, 
 but  with  little  or  no  fuccefs,  by  feveral  mimonaries, 
 whofe  piety  and  earneftnefs  were  far  from  produc- 
 ing adequate  effects.  Towards  the  conclufion  of 
 the  preceding  century,  Adalbert,  bilhop  of  Prague, 
 had  endeavoured  to  infufe  into  the  minds  of  the 
 ferocious  and  uncivilized  Pruffians,  the  doctrines 
 of  the  Gofpel;  but  his  attempt  was  unfuccefsful, 
 
 *  Marcus  Paul.  Venetus  de  Reg'ioriiBus  Orientalihus,  lib.  i. 
 cap.  38.  40.  45.  47,  48,  49.  62,  63,  64;  lib.  ii.  cap.  39. — Eufeb. 
 Renaudot  Anciennes  Relations  des  Indes  &  dc  la  C/ji/ie,  p.  42c. 
 
 f  The  Obotriti  were  a  great  and  powerful  branch  of  the 
 Vandals,  whofe  kings  refided  in  the  country  of  Mecklenburg, 
 and  whofe  domination  extended  along  the  coaMs  of  the  Baltic, 
 From  the  river  Pene  in  Pomerania,  to  the  duchy  of  Holftein. 
 
 X  The  Venedi  dwelt  upon  the  banks  of  the  Weiflel,  of 
 Viftula,  in  what  is  at  prefent  called,  the  Pfdatinate  of  Marien- 
 burg. 
 
 D  2  and 
 
36     Jt  tempts  to  convert  the  PruJJians.    [cent.  ii. 
 and  the  avenging  lance  of  Siggo,  a  Pagan  prieft, 
 terminated  hisconflid  with  this  race  of  barbarians*. 
 Boleflaus,  king  of  Poland,  revenged  the  death  of 
 this  pious  apoftle,  by  entering  into  a  fanguinary 
 war  with  the  Pruffians,  and  he  obtained  by  the 
 force  of  penal  laws,  and  of  a  victorious  army,  what 
 Adalbert  could  not  effect  by  exhortation  and  argu- 
 ment-^.    This  violent  method  of  converfion,  fo 
 little  confident  with  the  doctrines  it  was  intended 
 to  promote,  was,  however,  accompanied  by  others- 
 of  a  gentler  kind,  and  the  attendants  of  Boleflaus  fe- 
 conded  the  military  arguments  of  their  prince,  by 
 the   more  perfuafive  influence  of  admonition  and  - 
 instruction.      An  ecclefiaftic  of  illuftrious  birth, , 
 whofe  name  was  Boniface,  and  who  was  one  of  the 
 difciples   of  St.  Romauld,  undertook  to  inftruct 
 the  P ruffians  in  the  doctrines  of  Christianity,  and 
 was  fucceeded  in  this  pious  enterprife  by  BrunoJ^ 
 who,  accompanied  by  eighteen  of  his  friends,  and 
 authorifed    by  the 'Pope,  John   XVII.   departed 
 from  Germany  in  order  to  profecute  this  laudable 
 
 *  See  the  Ada  SatiHor.  ad  d.  xxiii.  Aprilis,  p.  174/ 
 
 f  Solignac,  Hiji.  dc  Volognc,  torn.  I.  p.  13^. 
 
 %  Fleury  differs  from  Dr.  Mofheim  in  his  account  of  Brunot 
 in  two  points.  Firft,  he  maintains,  that  Boniface  and  Bruno  were 
 one  and  the  fame  perfon,  and  here  he  is  pofiibly  in  the  right ; 
 but  he  maintains  farther,  that  he  fuffered  martyrdom  in  Ruffia, 
 in  which  he  is  evidently  miftaken.  It  is  proper  farther  to  ad- 
 monifhthe  reader  to  diftinguifli  carefully  the  Bruno  here  men- 
 tioned, from  a  monk  of  the  fame  name,  who  founded  the  order 
 of  the  Carthufians. 
 
 defign. 
 
cent,  ii.]      Kingdom  of  Sicily  ejiablijhed.  37 
 
 defign.  The  argu ments  of  Adalbert  and  Boniface 
 appear  however  to  have  had  very  tranfient  effects 
 upon  their  auditors ;  for  the  zealous  Bruno  and  his 
 aflbciates  were  all  barbaroufly  mafTacred  by  the 
 rude  and  inflexible  P ruffians,  whom  neither  the  vi- 
 gorous efforts  of  Boleflaus,  nor  thofe  of  the  fucceed- 
 ing  kings  of  Poland,  could  perfuade  to  abandon 
 totally  the  idolatry  of  their  anceftors*. 
 
 Sicily  had  remained  under  the  dominion  of  the 
 Saracens  fince  the  ninth  century.  In  the  year 
 1059,  Robert  Guifcard,  who  had  formed  a  fettie- 
 ment  in  Italy,  at  the  head  of  a  Norman  colony,  and 
 was  afterwards  created  Duke  of  Apulia,  ftimulated 
 by  the  exhortations  of  Pope  Nicholas  II.  and  fe- 
 conded  by  the  aiTiftance  of  his  brother  Roger,  at- 
 tacked with  the  greateft  vigour  and  intrepidity  the 
 MufTulmans  in  Sicily  ;  nor  did  the  latter  Iheath  his 
 victorious  fword,  before  he  had  rendered  himfelf 
 mafter  of  that  illand,  and  cleared  it  abfolutely  of 
 its  former  tyrants.  This  enterprife  was  no  fooner 
 atchieved,  than  Roger  reftored  the  Chriftian  reli- 
 gion to  the  fplendour  it  had  formerly  enjoyed. 
 Bishopries  were  eflablifhed,  monasteries  founded, 
 and  magnificent  churches  erected  throughout  the 
 ifland.  The  clergy  were  endowed  by  him  with 
 thofe  immenfe  revenues,  and  thofe  diftinguifhed 
 honours,  which  they  ftill  enjoy -f-.  In  the  privileges 
 
 *  Ant.  Pagi  Critkain  Baronium,  torn.  iv.  ad  Annum  1008, 
 p.  97.—  Chrift.  Hartnock's  Ecchfiajlical  Hljiorual  Htflory  f 
 Prujfia,  book  I.  ch.  I.  p.  12. 
 
 f  See  Burigni,  Hiftoire  Generale  de  la  Sicile,  torn.  i.  p.  386. 
 
 D  3  fcrredi 
 
3 8  Power  of  the  Clergy.  [cent,  iu 
 
 conferred  on  this  valiant  chief,  we  find  the  origin 
 of  that  fapreme  authority  in  matters  of  religion, 
 which  is  (till  veiled  in  the  kings  of  Sicily,  within 
 the  limits  of  their  own  territories,  and  which  is 
 known  by  the  name  of  the  Sicilian  Monarchy  5 
 for  Urban  II.  is  recorded  to  have  granted,  in 
 1097,  ky  a  fpec'ial  diploma,  to  Roger,  and  his 
 fucceffbrs,  the  title,  authority,  and  prerogatives  of 
 hereditary  legates  of  the  Apoftolic  See.  The  court 
 of  Rome  denies,  however,  the  authenticity  of  this 
 diploma,  and  in  confequence  of  the  pretenfions  to 
 fupiemacy  advanced  by  the  Popes,  many  violent 
 contentions  have  arifen  between  the  -  pontiffs  of 
 Rome,  and  the  "kings  of  Sicily.  The  fucceffbrs  * 
 of  Roger  governed  that  ifland,  under  the  titles  of  ' 
 Dukes,  until  the  twelfth  century,  when  it  was 
 erected  into  a  kingdom*. 
 
 The  power,  opulence,  and  fplendour  of  the 
 Church,  had  in  this  century  nearly  attained  their  - 
 zenith.  The  weftern  bifhops  were  elevated  to  the 
 rank  of  Dukes,  Counts,  and  Nobles,  and  enriched 
 with  ample  territories;  the  terrors  of  excommuni- 
 cation were  denounced  againft  the  offender  who 
 mould  impioufly  offer  violence  to  one.  of 'thefe 
 Spiritual  rulers.  Many  of  the  inferior  clergy- 
 attained  to  considerable  opulence,  and  the-canons 
 publiihed  againft  that  order  prove  at  leaft  that 
 their  licentioufnefs  kept  pace  with  their  increafing 
 
 *   See  Baronii  Llbcr  dt  Monorchia  SMcia,  torn.  xi.  Annul,  as 
 alfo  Du  Pin,  Traite  de  la  Monarchic  Sicilienne. 
 
 wealth, 
 
cent,  ii.]  Title  of  the  Pope.  39 
 
 wealth.*  The  Grecian  clergy  were  perhaps  ra- 
 ther lefs  diforderly  from  the  calamities  with  which 
 their  country  was  opprefled,  and  which  impofed  a 
 reilraint  upon  their  paffions.  Yet,  notwithftand- 
 ing  thefe  falutary  checks,  there  were  few  examples 
 of  exalted  piety  to  be  found  among  them. 
 
 The  Roman  pontiffs  were  in  this  century  gene- 
 rally and  permanently  decorated  with  the  pom- 
 pous titles  of  the  Majlers  of  the  world,  and  Popes, 
 or  Univerjal  fathers ;  they  prended  every  where 
 in  the  councils  by  their  legates ;  and  aflumed 
 the  authority  of  fupreme  arbiters  in  ail  controver- 
 fies  which  arofe  concerning  religion  or  church  dif- 
 cipline.  Not  fatisfied,  however,  with  the  character 
 of  fupreme  legislators  in  the  church,  they  affumed 
 that  of  Lords  of  the  univerfe,  Arbiters  of  the  fate  of 
 kingdoms  and  empires,  and  Supreme  rulers  of  the 
 kings  and  princes  of  the  earth.  The  example  of 
 this  ufurpation  was  firft  afforded  by  Leo  IX.  who 
 granted  to  the  Normans  the  lands  and  territories 
 which  they  had  feized  in  Italy,  or  were  endeavour- 
 ing to  force  out  of  the  hands  of  the  Greeks  and 
 Saracens-}-.  The  ambition,  however,  of  the  af- 
 piring  popes  was  oppofed  by  the  emperors,  the 
 kings  of  France,  by  William  the  Conqueror,  and 
 
 *  There  were,  however,  fome  inflances  of  flricr.  piety  and  fo« 
 bviety  to  be  found  amongft  the  fuperior  as  well  as  inferior  orders 
 When  Bouchard,    Bifhop  of  Worms  died,  the  inventory  of  his 
 goods  confiftcd  of  a  hair  fliirt,  an  iron  chain  for  a  belt,  and  three 
 deniers  in  money.     Jortin,  5.  v.  24. 
 
 f  Modi. 
 
 P4  by 
 
40  Anti-popes,  [cent.  ii. 
 
 by  feveral  other  princes,  as  well  as  by  fome  of  the 
 bifhops  in  France  and  Germany. 
 
 Benedict  VIII.  who  wasraifed  to  the  pontificate 
 in  the  year  1012,  through  the  intereft  of  his  father 
 the  count  of  Frefcati,  experienced  no  lefs  than  fome 
 of  his  predeceiTors  the  turbulent  fpirit  of  the 
 times.  Several  of  the  Roman  people,  difapprov- 
 ing  his  election,  chofe  in  oppofition  to  him  a  per- 
 fon  of  the  name  of  Gregory,  by  whom  he  was 
 compelled  to  leave  Rome.  Thus  fituated,  Bene- 
 dict fled  into  Germany,  and  implored  the  affift- 
 ance  of  Henry  II.  by  whom  he  was  reinstated  in 
 the  Apoflolic  chair,  which  he  poffefied  in  peace 
 until  the  year- 1024.  He  was  fucceeded  by  his* 
 brother,  who,  though  not  at  that  time  in  orders,' 
 obtained  the  papal  chair  by  the  fame  influence  to 
 which  Benedict  had  owed  his  promotion*.  The 
 death  of  John  XIX.  introduced  to  the  pontificate 
 his  nephew,  Benedict  IX.  an  abandoned  profligate/ 
 who  alfo  was  chofen  by  bribery,  and  whofe  flagi- 
 tious conduct  incurred  the  juft  refentment  of  the 
 Romans,  who  in  the  year  1038,  degraded  him 
 from  his  office.  He  was  afterwards  indeed^reflored 
 by  the  Emperor  Conrad  to  the  papal  chair;  but 
 adverfity  had  fo  little  produced  its  ufual  effects, 
 circumfpection  and  prudence,  that,  irritated  by  his 
 repeated  crimes,  the  populace  depofed  him  a  fecond 
 time  in  1044,  and  elected  in  his  place  John  bifhop* 
 
 *  *  JortiVs  Remarks,  5.  v.  35,  and  31. 
 
 Of 
 
'cent,  i i. 3  Anti-popes:  41 
 
 of  Sabina,  who  affumed  the  name  of  Sylvefter  III. 
 The  newly  elected  pontiff  had,  however,  a  very 
 tranfitory  enjoyment  of  his  dignity  :  in  about  three 
 'months  after  his  elevation,  the  powerful  family  of 
 Frefcati  again  rofe  in  arms,  affembled  their  adhe- 
 rents, drove  Sylvefter  out  of  the  city,  and  reftored 
 the  degraded  Benedid  to  his  forfeited  honours;  but, 
 perceiving  the  impofiibility  of  appealing  the  refent- 
 ment  of  the  Romans,  he  fold  the  pontificate  to 
 John  Gratian,  arch-prefbyter  of  Rome,  who  took 
 the  name  of  Gregory  VI.  and  carried  his  martial 
 rage  fo  far,  that  he  acquired  the  additional  epithet 
 of  Bloody*.  Thus  the  Church  had,  at  the  fame 
 time,  three  chiefs,  Benedict,  Sylvefter,  and  Gre- 
 gory -,  but  the  conteft  was  terminated  in  the  year 
 1046,  in  the  council  held  at  Sutri,  by  the  emperor 
 Henry  III.  who  ordered  that  the  rival  pontiffs 
 fhould  all  be  declared  unworthy  of  the  papal  chair; 
 and  Suidgar,  bifhop  of  Bamberg,  was  raifed  to 
 that  dignity,  which  he  enjoyed  for  a  fhort  time 
 under  the  title  of  Clement  II.  The  refractory 
 Benedict  continued  for  feveral  years  to  difturb  the 
 tranquillity  of  his  fucceffors  in  the  popedom  ;  nor 
 did  his  deceafe  terminate  the  efforts  of  the  turbu- 
 lent houfe  of  Frefcati.  A mongft  the  feven  popes 
 who  fucceeded  Clement  II.  the  laft  only,  Nicholas 
 II.  is  entitled  to  notice.  This  pontiff  affembled 
 a  council  at  Rome,  in  1059,  *n  which,  among 
 many  falutjary  laws  defigned  to  heal  the  inveterate 
 
 *  Jortln's  Remarks,  5.  v.  34. 
 
 diforders 
 
4  2,  New  Mode  of  el e  ft  in g  Pop  es.      [  c  e  n  t  .  1 1 . 
 
 diforders  which  had  afflicted  the  Church,  one  re- 
 markable decree  was  palled  for  changing  the  an- 
 cient form  of  electing  the  Roman  pontiff.  Nearly 
 about  the  fame  time  he  received  the  homage  of 
 the  Normans,  and  folemnly  created  Robert  Guif- 
 card,  Duke  of  Apulia,  Calabria,  and  Sicily,  on 
 condition  that  he  mould  obferve,  as  a  faithful 
 vaflal,  an  inviolable  allegiance  to  the  Roman 
 Church,  and  pay  an  annual  tribute  in  acknowledg- 
 ment of  his  fubjecYion  to  the  ApoftolicSee. 
 
 Before  the  pontificate  of  Nicholas  I  J.  the  popes 
 were  chofen  not  only  by  the  furfrages  of  the  cardi- 
 nals*, but   alfo  by  thole  of  the  .whole    Roman 
 
 *  About  the  end  of  the  ninth  century,  the  term  of  Cardinal  ' 
 is  full  met  with,  as  cardinal  priefts  and  cardinal  deacon's ;  but 
 they  were  then  in  many  other  churches  befides  th^t  of  Rome. 
 In  the  eighth  century  theft  cardinal  priefts  held  no  confiderable 
 rank,  nor  were  they  admitted  into  the  councils  till  764.  In 
 the  eleventh  century  the  cardinals  appear  to  be  neceflarily - 
 joined  with  the  clergy  in  the  election  of  a  pope  :  and  about 
 100  years  after  this,  they  obtained  in  the  manner  now  related, 
 that  they  fnould  have  the  fole  nomination ;  and  by  degrees  have 
 become  the  pope's  great  council.  In  1244,  Innocent  IV.  or- 
 dered, that  when  the  cardinals  rode  out,  they  fhoyld  wear 
 a  red  hat,  to  fhew  that  they  were  ready  to  fhed  their  blood  in 
 the  caufe  of  the  church.  In  1471,  Paul  II.  ordained  that  they 
 fliould  wear  robes  of  fcarlet.  All  other  perfons,  and  even  kings 
 and  emperors,  muft  kifs  only  the  pope's  toe,  but  the  cardinals 
 kifs  his  hands  and  mouth.  If  a  cardinal  accidentally  meet  a  man 
 going  to  execution,  he  has  a  power  of  faving  his  life  ;  and  it  is 
 faid,  that  none  of  them  can  be  condemned  for  a  crime  under  72 
 witnefles  if  he  be  a  cardinal  bifhop  ;  62,  if  he  be  a  cardinal  prieftj 
 and  2  7  if  he  be  a  cardinal  deacon.  Hi/},  of  Popery,  vol.  iii.  p.  53. 
 
 clergy, 
 
cent.  n/}  College  of  Cardinals.  43 
 
 clergy,  the  ncbility,  the  burgeffes,  and  the  affem- 
 bly  of  the  people.  An  election  in  which  fuch  a 
 confufed  and  jarring  multitude  was  concerned, 
 could  not  fail  to  produce  continual  factions,  animo- 
 fities,  and  tumults.  To  prevent  thefe,  as  far  as 
 was  pomble,  this  provident  pontiff  paffed  a  law, 
 by  which  the  cardinals,  as  well  prefbyters  as 
 bifhops,  were  impowered,  upon  a  vacancy  in  the 
 fee  of  Rome,  to  elect  a  new  pope,  without  any 
 prejudice  to  the  ancient  privileges  of  the  Roman 
 emperors  in  this  important  matter.  It  does  not 
 however  appear  that  the  reft  of  the  clergy,  with  the 
 burgeffes  and  people,  were  utterly  excluded  from 
 all  part  in  this  election,  fince  their  confent  was  fo- 
 lemnly  demanded,  and  even  efteemed  of  much 
 weight  :  but  that  in  confequence  of  this  new  regu- 
 lation, the  cardinals  acted  the  principal  part  in  the 
 creation  of  the  new  pontiff;  though  they  fuffered 
 for  a  long  time  much  oppofuion  both  from  the  fa- 
 cerdotal  orders  and  the  Roman  citizens,  who  were 
 cohftantly  either  reclaiming  their  ancient  rights,  or 
 abufing  the  privilege  they  yet  retained  of  confirm- 
 ing the  election  of  every  new  pope  by  their  ap- 
 probation and  confent.  In  the  following  century 
 thefe  difputes  were  terminated  by  Alexander  III. 
 who  completed  what  Nicholas  had  only  begun, 
 and  transferred  and  confined  to  the  College  of 
 Cardinals  the  right  of  electing  to  the  Apoftolic 
 See,  to  the  exclufion  of  the  nobility,  the  people, 
 and  the  reft  of  the  clergy.    The  decree  of  Nicholas 
 
 comprehends 
 
44  Violation  of  an  Imperial  privilege,  [cent,  i  i  ; 
 comprehends  the  feven  Roman  bifhops,  who  were 
 eonfidered  as  the  Juffragans,  and  of  whom  the 
 bifhop  of  Oftia  was  the  chief,  together -with  the 
 eight-and-twenty  miaiftersjwhohad  infpection  over 
 the  principal  Roman  churches  :  to  thefe  were  after- 
 wards added,  under  Alexander  III.  and  other 
 pontiffs,  new  members,  in  order  to  appeafe  the 
 refentment  of  thofe  who  eonfidered  themfelves  as 
 injured  by  the  edict  of  Nicholas,  and  alfo  to  anfwer 
 the  other  purpofes  of  ecclefiaftical  policy. 
 
 Though  Nicholas  II.  had  exprefsly  acknow- 
 ledged and  confirmed  in  his  edict  the  right  of  the 
 emperor  to  ratify  by  his  content  the  election  of 
 the  pontiff;  his  eyes  were  no  fooner  clofed,  than 
 the  Romans,  at  the  inftigation  of  Hildebrancf, 
 archdeacon,  and  afterwards  bifhop  of  Rome,  vio- 
 lated this  imperial  privilege.  They  not  only 
 elected  to  the  pontificate  A  nfelm  bilhop  of  Lucca, 
 who  afTumcd  the  name  of  Alexander  II.  but  alfo 
 folemnly  inftalled  him  in  his  office  without  confut- 
 ing the  emperor  Henry  IV.  or  giving  him  the 
 leafl  information  of  the  matter.  Agnes,  the  mother 
 of  the  young  emperor,  no  fooner  received  an  ac- 
 count of  this  irregular  tranfadion  by  the  biftiops  of 
 Lombardy,  to  whom  the  election  of  Anfelm  was 
 extremely  unacceptable,  than  fhe  aflembled  a 
 council  at  Bafil,  and,  in  order  to  maintain  the  au- 
 thority of  her  fon,  who  was  yet  a  minor,  caufed 
 Cadolaus,  bifhop  of  Parma,  to  be  elected  Pope, 
 undqi"  the  title  of  Honorius  II.    Hence  arofe  ajong 
 
 z  and 
 
Cent,  ii.]       Elevation  of  Gregory  VII.  45 
 
 and  furious  conteft  between  the  two  rival  pontiff?, 
 who  maintained  their  refpective  pretenfions  by  the 
 force  of  arms.  In  this  violent  contention  Alex- 
 ander triumphed,  though  he  could  never  engage 
 his  obftinate  adverfary  to  defift  from  his  preten- 
 fions*. 
 
 This  conteft,  however,  appears  of  little  confe- 
 quence  when  viewed  in  comparifon  with  the  dread- 
 ful commotions  which  Hildebrand,  who  fucceeded 
 Alexander,  and  arTumed  the  name  of  Gregory  VII. 
 excited  both  in  church  and  ftate.  This  vehement 
 pontiff,  who  was  a  Tufcan  of  obfcure  birth,  rofe, 
 by  degrees,  from  the  obfcure  ftation  of  a  monk  of 
 Clugni,  to  the  rank  of  archdeacon  in  the  Roman 
 church  ;  and,  from  the  time  of  Leo  IX.  who 
 treated  him  with  peculiar  marks  of  diftin&ion,  was 
 accuftomed  to  govern  the  Roman  pontiffs  by  his 
 councils.  In  the  year  1073,  and  on  the  fame  day 
 in  which  Alexander  was  interred,  he  was  raifed  to 
 the  pontificate  by  the  unanimous  fuffrages  of  the 
 cardinals,  bifhops,  abbots,  monks,  and  people,  and 
 confequently,  without  any  regard  being  paid  to  the 
 edict  of  Nicholas  II.  and  his  election  was  con- 
 firmed by  the  approbation  and  confent  of  Henry 
 IV.  King  of  the  Romans,  to  whom  ambaffadors  had 
 been  fent  for  that  purpofe.   Hildebrand  was  a  man 
 
 *  Ferdin.  Ughelli  Italia  Sacra,  torn.    ii.  p.    166.    Jo.   Jac. 
 Mafcovius,   de  Rebus  Imperii  fub  Henrico  IV.  et  V-  lib.  i.  p.  7. 
 Franc.  Pagi,  Br'eviar.  Pontificum  Romanor.  torn.  ii.  p.  3S3. — 
 .  Muratori,  Anhdlt  (Thalia,  torn,  vi.  p.  214. 
 
 of 
 
46  Afpiring  Views  of  the  Pontiff,  [cent.  ii„ 
 of  uncommon  genius,  whofe  ambition  in  forming 
 the  moil  arduous  projects  was  equalled  by  his  dex- 
 terity in  reducing  them  to  execution.  Sagacious, 
 crafty,  and  intrepid,  nothing  could  efcape  his  pe- 
 netration, defeat  his  fhatagems,  or  daunt  his 
 courage ;  haughty  and  arrogant  beyond  all  mea- 
 fure;  obftinate,  impetuous,  and  inti  actable  j  he  is 
 fufpected  even  of  afpiring  to  the  fummit  of  uni- 
 verfal  empire  j  and  indeed  he  appears  to  have  la- 
 boured up  the  fleep  afcent  with  uninterrupted  ar- 
 dour and  invincible  perfeverance.  No  fooner 
 did  he  find  himfelf  in  the  papal  chair,  than  he  dif- 
 played  to  the  world  the  mod  odious  marks  of  his 
 tyrannical  ambition.  Not  content  to  enlarge  the 
 jurifdiction  and  to  augment  the  opulence  of  the 
 fee  of  Rome,  he  laboured  indefatigably"  to  render 
 the  universal  Church  fubject  to  the  defpotic  govern- 
 ment and  the  arbitrary  power  of  the  pontiff  alone, 
 to  difTblve  the  jurifdiction  which  kings  and  em- 
 perors had  hitherto  exercifed  over  the  various 
 orders  of  the  clergy,  and  to  exclude  them  from  all 
 part  in  the  management  or  diftribution  of  the  re- 
 venues of  the  Church  ;  and,  unfatisfied'  even  with 
 this  object,  he  proceeded  to  fubmit  to  his  jurifdic- 
 tion the  emperors,  kings,  and  princes,  and  to 
 render  their  dominions  tributary  to  the  Roman 
 fee. 
 
 ■The  ftate  of  Europe  during  this  period  was  pe- 
 culiarly favourable  to  the  projects  of  the  afpiring 
 pontiff.      The  empire  of  Germany   was   weak ; 
 
 France 
 
cent,  ii.]  State  cf  Europe.  47 
 
 France  was  governed  by  a  young  and  diffipated 
 monarch,  little  qualified,  and  little  difpofed,  to 
 conduct  affairs  of  ftate  ;  a  great  part  of  Spain  was 
 under  the  dominion  of  the  Moors  ;  the  kingdoms 
 of  the  north  were  newly  converted ;  Italy,  go* 
 verned  by  a  number  of  petty  princes,  and  England 
 recently  conquered  by  the  Normans.  In  fuch  a 
 juncture,  Hildebrand  met  with  little  opposition  to 
 his  ambitious  defigns  ;  and  that  fuch  were  his  de- 
 figns  is  undoubtedly  evident,  both  from  his  own 
 epiftles,  and  from  other  authentic  records  of  anti- 
 quity. The  nature  of  the  oath  which  he  drew  up 
 for  the  King  or  Emperor  of  the  Romans,  from 
 whom  he  demanded  a  profeffion  of  fubjeclion  and 
 allegiance,  abundantly  difplays  the  arrogance  of 
 his  pretentions.  But  his  conduct  towards  the 
 kingdom  of  France  demands  particular  attention. 
 It  is  an  undifputed  fact,  that  whatever  dignity  and 
 dominion  the  Popes  enjoyed  was  originally  derived 
 from  that  kingdom,  or,  which  is  the  fame  thing, 
 from  the  princes  of  that  nation  j  and  yet  Hilde- 
 brand, or  (according  to  his  papal  appellation) 
 Gregory  VII.  pretended  that  the  kingdom  of 
 France  was  tributary  to  the  fee  of  Rome,  and  com- 
 manded his  legates  to  demand  yearly,  in  the  molt 
 iolemn  manner,  the  payment  of  that  tribute.  Their 
 demands,  however,  were  treated  with  contempt, 
 and  the  tribute  was  never  either  acknowledged  or 
 offered.  Nothing,  indeed,  efcaped  the  ambition  of 
 the  afpiring   pontiff.       Saxony  was  claimed    by 
 
 him 
 
48      Policy  of  William  the  Conqueror,      [cent,  it. 
 
 him  as  a  feudal  tenure  held  in  fubjection  to  the  fee 
 of  Rome,  to  which  it  had  been  formerly  yielded 
 by  Charlemagne  as  a  pious  offering  to  St.  Peter. 
 He  extended  alfo  his  pretenfions  to  the  kingdom 
 of  Spain,  maintaining  in  one  of  his  letters  that  it 
 was  the  property  of  the  Apoflolic  See  from  the 
 earlieft  times  of  the  Church;  yet  with  the  ufual  in- 
 confiftency  of  falfehood,  he  acknowledged  in  ano- 
 ther, that  the  tranfaction  by  which  the  fuccefTors  of 
 St.  Peter  had  acquired  this  property  had  been  loft 
 among  other  ancient  records.  The  defpotic  views  of 
 this  pontiff  met  in  England  with  a  degree  of  oppo- 
 fition  to  which  they  had  been  little  accuftomed  in. 
 other  countries  of  Europe.  William  the  Conqueror, 
 was  a  prince  of  great  fpirit  and  refolutiort,  ex- 
 tremely jealous  of  his  rights,  and  tenacious  of 
 the  prerogatives  he  enjoyed  as  an  independent 
 fovereign.  Policy,  however,  demanded  fome 
 concefilons  to  the  authority  of  the  Pontiff,  and 
 the  prudent  monarch  determined  upon  a  line 
 of  conduct  which  mi^ht  evince  his  fubmiflion 
 without  diminifhing  his  authority.  The  claims  of 
 Gregory  to  the  arrears  of  Peter-fence  were  there- 
 fore readily  acceded  to;  but  his  demand  of  homage 
 for  the  kingdom  of  England,  which  heafferted  was 
 a  fief  of  the  Apoftolic  See,  was  obftinately  refufed 
 by  the  haughty  Norman,  who  intrepidly  declared 
 that  he  held  his  kingdom  of  God  only  and  his  own 
 fword*. 
 
 *  Collier's  Ecc.  Hilt.  Iv.  1713. 
 
 Demetrius 
 
bElTF.  rf.l  Laws  ngainfi Concubinage  and Simony.  49 
 lis  Suinimer,  duke  of  Croatia  and  Dal- 
 n:  ,  \vas  raifed  to  the  rank  and  prerogatives  of 
 ro  ..ky  by  this  pontiff  in  the  year  1076,  and  fo- 
 lemnly  proclaimed  King  by  his  legate  at  Salona, 
 upon  condition  that  he  mould  pay  an  annual  tri- 
 bute of  two  hundred  pieces  of  gold  to  St.  Peter  at 
 every  Eafter  feftival. 
 
 The  kingdom  of  Poland  became  alfo  the  object 
 of  Gregory's  afpiring  views,  ar.d  a  favourable  oc- 
 cafion  was  offered  for  the  accomplifhment  of  his 
 defigns ;  for  Bafilaus  II.  having  afTaffinated  Stanif- 
 laus  bifhop  of  Cracow,  the  pontiff  excommuni- 
 cated and  dethroned  the  monarch,  diffolved  the 
 oath  of  allegiance  which  his  fubjects  had  taken, 
 and,  by  an  exprefsand  imperious  edict,  prohibited 
 the  nobles  and  clergy  of  Poland  from  electing  a 
 new  king  without  the  confent  of  the  Apoftolic 
 See*. 
 
 The  plan  which  Gregory  had  formed  for  raifing 
 the  Church  above  all  human  authority,  encoun- 
 tered the  mod  infurmountable  oppolition  in  the 
 two  reigning  vices  of  concubinage  and  fimony,  which 
 had  infected  the  whole  body  of  the  European 
 Clergy.  The  Roman  pontiffs,  from  the  time  of 
 Stephen  IX.  had  combated  with  zeal  and  vehe- 
 mence thefe  monftrous  enormities,  but  without 
 fuccefs.  Gregory,  however,  not  difcouraged, 
 exerted  himfelf  with  much  more  vigour  than,  his 
 predeceflbrs.     He  affembled  a  council  at  Rome  in 
 
 *  See  Dlugofli  Hiftor.  Polon.  torn.  i.  p,  29$. 
 
 Vol.  II.  E  1074, 
 
50  Celibacy  of  the  Clergy .        [cent,  ii* 
 
 1074,  in  which  all  the  laws  of  the  former  pontifB 
 againft  fimony  were  renewed  and  confirmed,  and 
 the  pnrchafe  and  fale  of  ecclefiaftical  benefices  pro- 
 hibited in  the  ftiicteft  and  fevered  manner.  This 
 decree,  which  initfelfwas  prudent  and  juft,  was 
 unfortunately  connected  with  another,  obliging  the 
 priefts  to  abftain  from  marriage,  which  was  ab- 
 furdly  deemed  inconfiftent  with  the  fandtity  of  their 
 office.  Thisabfurd  regulation  no  fooner  made  its 
 appearance  than  it  was  oppofed  by  a  considerable 
 number  of  the  clergy  who  weFe  either  connected 
 by  legal  ties,  or  who  lived  in  a  (late  of  concubi- 
 nage, and  the  moil  alarming  tumults  were  excited 
 in  the  greater!'  part  of  the  European  provinces.* 
 This  vehement  conteft  was  gradually  calmed' 
 through  length  of  time,  and  by  the  perfeverance 
 of  the  obftinate  pontiff;  nor  did  any  of  the  Euro- 
 pean kings  and  princes  concern  themfelves  fo 
 much  about  the  marriages  of  the  clergy  as  to. 
 maintain  their  caufe,  or  prolong  the  controverfy*. 
 
 *  The  celibacy  of  the  clergy,  though  a  doctrine  much  infilled 
 upon  at  this  period,  is  of  doubtful  origin,  and  we  have  reafon  to 
 believe  was  irregular  in  its  progrefs,  being  adopted  in  fame 
 countries  much  earlier  than  in  others.  In  the  reign  of  Henry 
 II.  of  England  ( 1 174)  fome  Englifh  bifhops,  lately  elected, 
 appeared  at  Rome  for  the  purpofe  of  procuring  their  confirma- 
 tion. The  Pope,  difpleafed  that  all  who  required  confirmation 
 were  not  prefent,  inquired  why  the  elect  of  Ely  was  not  there  ? 
 To  this  the  king's  ambafTador  replied,  "  An  it  pleafe  your 
 holinefs,  he  has  a  gofpel  excufe.  "  "  What  is  that  ?"  faid  the 
 Pope.  "  He  has  married  a  wife,"  rejoined  the  ambafTador, 
 «  and  therefore  he  cannot  come."     Hovedon,  fol.  307:     In 
 
cent,  ii.]      Princes,  &c.fupport  Simony.  $t 
 
 But  the  troubles  which  arofe  from  the  law  that  re- 
 garded the  extirpation  of  Jimony  were  not  fo  ealily 
 appeafed  ;  the  tumults  it  occafioned  were  daily  in° 
 creafed  ;  the  methods  of  reconciliation  more  diffi- 
 cult ;  and  in  many  countries  it  involved  both  State 
 and  Church,  during  feveral  years,  in  the  deepeft 
 calamities,  arid  the  mod  complicated  fcenesof  con- 
 fufion.  Henry  IV.  received  indeed  gracioufly 
 the  legates  of  Gregory,  and  applauded  his  zeal  for 
 the  extirpation  of  fnnony  j  but  neither  this  prince 
 nor  the  German  bifhops  would  permit  tliefe  legates 
 to aifemblea  council  in  Germany,  or  to  proceed  judi- 
 cially againft  thole  who  had  been  charged  with  (imo- 
 niacal  practices.  The  pontiff,  exafperated  at  this 
 reftraint  in  the  execution  of  his  deligns,  convened 
 
 l 175,  however,  the  fynod  of  the  province  of  Canterbury  forbade 
 the  marriage  of  the  clergy  under  penalty  of  deprivation. 
 
 Notwithftanding  this,  there  is  (till  reafon  to  believe,  that  in 
 many  countries  the  marriage  of  clergymen  was  permitted  till 
 near  the  clofe  of  the  13th  century.  The  14th  canon  of  the 
 fourth  Lateran  council  (A.  D.  1215),  which  provides  againft 
 the  incontinency  of  the  clergy,  declares  that  thofe  who  have  the 
 liberty  of  marriage,  according  to  the  cuftom  of  their  country, 
 mould  be  punifhed  for  licentioufnefs  with  greater  fevcrity. 
 Hence  it  is  evident  that  the  marriage  of  priefts  was  allowed  by 
 this  council  in  certain  countries.  It  is  worthy  of  remark  alfo, 
 that  the  patriarch  of  Conftantirtople  was  prefent  at  this  council, 
 and  feveral  other  Greek  bifhops,  who  always  allowed  the  marriage 
 of  the  clergy  under  certain  reftridlions  ;  and  a  Greek  tranflation 
 ofthefe  Canons  was  made  for  the  fervice  of  that  church.  M*tt. 
 Paris,  272.  Council.  T,  1 1,  col.  125,  et  deinc. 
 
 E  2  another 
 
52  Contefts  concerning  Inveftititres*  [cent,  ii, 
 another  council  at  Rome  in  the  year  1075,  in 
 which  he  purfued  his  adventurous  project  with 
 greater  impetuofity  and  vehemence  than  before, 
 and  not  only  excluded  from  the  communion  of  the 
 church  feveral  German  and  Italian  bifhops,  and 
 feveral  favourites  of  Henry,  whofe  councils  that 
 prince  was  faid  to  make  ufe  of  in  the  traffic  of 
 ecclefiaftical  dignities,  but  alfo  pronounced,  in  a 
 formal  edict,  Anathema  againji  whoever  received  the 
 ihvejiiture  of  a  bifhopric  or  abbacy  from  the  hands  of 
 a  layman i  as  alfo  againft  thofe  by  whom  the  invejiiture 
 fjjould  be  performed  *« 
 
 The  fevere  law  which  had  been  .enacted  againft 
 inveftitures,  by'  the  influence  and  attention  of 
 Gregory,  made  very  little  impreffion  upon  Henry.' 
 He  acknowledged  himfelf  wrong  in  expofing  ec- 
 clefiaftical  benefices  to  fale,  and  he.  promifed 
 amendment  in  that  refpeet;  but  remained  inflex- 
 ible againfl:  all  attempts  which  were  made  to  per- 
 fuade  him  to  refign  his  power  of  creating  bifhops 
 and  abbots,  and  the  right  of  inveftiture  which  was 
 intimately  connected  with  this  important  privi- 
 lege. Had  the  emperor  been  affifted*  by  the 
 German  princes,  he  might  have  maintained  this 
 refufal  widi  dignity  and  fuccefs,  but  unhappily  he 
 was  not ;  a  confiderable  number  of  thefc  princes, 
 
 *  Ant.  Pagi  Critlca  in  Baronium,  torn.  iii.  ad  A.  1075.— 
 Hen.  Norn's,  H'tfi.  Invejliturarum,  p.  39. — Chrlft.  Lupus,  Schn- 
 lia  et  DiJJirtation.  ad  Concilia^  torn.  vi.  opp.  p.  39 — 44. 
 
 and 
 
cent.  1 1. 3        Infolent  ConduR  of  Gregory ,  53 
 
 and  among  others  the  dates  of  Saxon y,  were  the 
 fecret  or  declared  enemies  of  Henry  ;  and  this  fur- 
 nifhed  Gregory  with  a  favourable  opportunity  of 
 extending  his  authority  and  executing  his  ambi- 
 tious projects.  This  opportunity  was  by  no  means 
 neglected  ;  the  Pope  took  occafion,  from  thofe  dif- 
 -cords  that  divided  the  empire,  to  infult  and  de- 
 prefs  its  chief;  he  fent,  by  his  legates,  an  infolent 
 meflage  to  the  emperor  at  Goflar,  ordering  him  to 
 repair  immediately  to  Rome,  and  exculpate  himfelf 
 before  a  council,  there  to  be  afTembled,  of  the  va- 
 rious crimes  that  were  laid  to  his  charge.  The  em- 
 peror, whofe  high  fpirit  could  ill  brook  fuch  arro- 
 gant treatment,  was  filled  with  indignation  at  the 
 fight  of  that  infolent  mandate,  and,  in  the  vehe- 
 mence of  juft  refentment,  fummoned  without  de- 
 lay a  council  of  German  bifhops  at  Worms,  where 
 Gregory  was  charged  with  feveral  flagitious  prac- 
 tices, depoled  from  the  pontificate,  of  which  he 
 was  declared  unworthy,  and  an  order  iffued  for  the 
 election  of  a  new  pontiff.  Gregory  oppofed  vio- 
 lence ro  violence;  no  fooner  had  he  received,  by 
 the  letters  and  ambaffadors  of  Henry,  an  account 
 of  the  fentence  which  had  been  pronounced  againfr. 
 him,  than  he  began  to  thunder  his  anathemas  at 
 the  head  of  that  prince,  and  excluded  him 
 both  from  the  communion  of  the  church  and 
 from  the  throne  of  his  anceftors.  Thus  the 
 civil  and  ecclefiaftical  powers  were  divided  into 
 great  factions,  of  which  one  maintained  the  rights 
 
 E  3  of 
 
54  Humiliation  cf  the  Emperor  Henry  IV.  [cent,  h, 
 
 of  the  emperor,  while  the  other  fupported  the  views, 
 of  the  pontiff. 
 
 At  the  commencement  of  the  war,  the  Swabian 
 chiefs,  with  duke  Rodolph  at  their  head,  revolted 
 againft  Henry ;  and  the  Saxon  princes,  whofe 
 former  quarrels  with  the  emperor  had  been  lately- 
 terminated  by  their  defeat  and  fubmiffion,  follow- 
 ed their  example.  Thele  united  powers  being  fa- 
 licited  by  'he  pope  to  elect  a  new  emperor,  pro- 
 vided Henry  perfifted  in  his  obftinate  difobedience 
 to  the  orders  of  the  church,  met  at  Tribur  in  the 
 year  1076,  to  confult  concerning  a  matter  of  fuch 
 high  importance.  When  affairs  were  arriyed  at , 
 this  delperate  extremity,  and  the  faction,  which 
 was  formed  againft  this  unfortunate  prince,  grew 
 daily  more  formidable,  his  friends  advifed  him  to 
 proceed  to  Italy,  and  implore  in  perfon  the  cle- 
 mency of  the  pontiff.  The  emperor  yielded  to 
 this  ignominious  counfc!,  without',  however,  ob- 
 taining from  his  voyage  the  advantages  he  ex^ 
 peCted.  He  paffed  the  Alps  amidft  the'  rigour  of 
 a  fevere  winter,  arrived  in  the  month  of  February 
 3077,  at  the  fortrefs  of  Canulium,  whercthe  pope 
 refided  at  that  time  with  the  young  Matilda, 
 countefs  of  Tufcany,  the  mod  powerful  patronefs 
 of  the  church,  and  the  mod  affectionate' of  the 
 fpiritual  daughters  of  Gregory*.     Here  the  fup- 
 
 *  The  enemies  of  the  pope  accufed  him  of  a  criminal  cor- 
 refpondence  with  this  lady.  Lambcrtus  the  hiftorian  fays,  it 
 was  a  mere  calumny,  and  gives  this  admirable  proof,  "  That 
 
 Gregory 
 
cent,  li.]  Henry  IV.  depofed.  55 
 
 pliant  prince,  unmindful  of  his  dignity,  flood,  dur- 
 ing three  days,  in  the  open  air,  at  the  entranceof 
 the  fortrefs,  with  his  feet  bare,  his  head  uncovered, 
 and  with  no  other  raiment  than  a  piece  of  coarle 
 woollen  cloth  thrown  over  his  body.  The  fou  th 
 day  be  was  admitted  to  the  prefence  of  the  pontiff, 
 who,  not  without  difficulty,  granted  him  theabfo- 
 lution  he  demanded  ;  but  with  refpeft  to  his  refto- 
 ration  to  the  throne,  he  refufed  to  determine  that 
 point  befoie  the  approaching  congrefs,  at  which  he 
 made  Henry  promife  to  appear,  forbidding  him, 
 at.  the  fame  time,  to  affume,  during  this  interval,  the 
 title  of  king*  or  to  exercife  the  functions  of  royalty. 
 This  opprobrious  convention  however  excited, 
 and  that  juftly,  the  indignation  of  the  princes  and 
 bifhops  of  Italy,  who  would  undoubtedly  have  de- 
 pofed Henry,  had  he  not  diminifhed  their  refent- 
 ment  by  violating  the  convention  into  which  he 
 had  been  forced  to  enter  with  the  imperious  pon- 
 tiff, and  refuming  the  tide,  and  other  marks  of 
 royalty,  which  he  had  been  obliged  to  lay  down. 
 On  the  other  hand,  the  confederate  princes  of 
 Swabia  and  Saxony  were  no  fooner  informed  of 
 this  unexpected  change  in  the  conduct  of  Henry, 
 than  they  affembled  at  Forcheim  in  the  month  of 
 March,  1077,  and  unanimoufly  elected  Rodolph, 
 duke  of  Swabia,  emperor  in  his  room. 
 
 This  rafh  collifion  rekindled  the  flames  of  war 
 
 Gregory  wrought  many  miracles,  and  therefore  could  not  be  a 
 fornicator."     Jortin  5,  v.  41. 
 
 E  4  in 
 
5 6       Imperial  Party  ek3  a  new  Pope,    [cent.  ii. 
 
 in  Germany  and  Italy,  and  involved,  for  a  long 
 period,  thofe  unhappy  regions  in  every  variety  of 
 mifery.  In  Italy  the  Normans,  who  were  matters 
 of  the  lower  parts  of  that  country,  and  the  armies 
 of  the  powerful  and  valiant  Matilda,  maintained 
 fuccefsfully  the  caufe  of  Gregory  againftthe  Lom^ 
 bards,  who  efpoufed  the  interefts  of  Henry ;  while 
 this  unfortunate  prince,  with  all  the  forces  he  could 
 aflemble,  carried  on  the  war  in  Germany  againft 
 Rodolph  and  the  confederate  princes.  Gregory, 
 confidering  the  events  of  war  as  extremely  doubtful, 
 was  at  firft  afraid  to  declare  for  either  party,  and 
 therefore  obferved,  for  fome  time,  an  appearance 
 of  neutrality  ;  but  encouraged  by  the  battle  of  Flu- 
 denheim,  in  which  Henry  was  defeated  by  the  ' 
 Saxons,  1086,  he  again  excommunicated  thatvan- 
 quifhed  prince,  and,  fending  a  crown  t©  the  victor 
 Rodolph,  declared  him  lawful  king  of  the  Ger- 
 mans. The  injured  emperor  did  not  permit  this" 
 new  infult  to  pafs  .unpunifhed  ;  feconded  by  the 
 fuffrages  of  feveral  of  the  Italian  and  German 
 bimops,  he  depofed  Gregory  a  fecond  time  in  a 
 council  which  met  at  Mentz,  and  in  a  fyn®d  foon 
 after  afTembled  at  Brixen,  in  the  province  of  Tirol, 
 raifed  to  the  pontificate  Guibert,  archbilhop  of 
 Ravenna,  who  affumed  the  title  of  Clement  III. 
 when  confecrated  at  Rome,  1084,  four  years  after 
 his  election. 
 
 This  election  was  followed  by  a  dreadful  battle, 
 fought  upon  the  banks  of  the  river  Ebfter,s  in 
 
 which 
 
cent,  ii.]         Death  of  Gregory.  57 
 
 which  Rodolph  received  a  mortal  wound,  and  died 
 a  fhort  time  after  at  Merfburgh.  The  emperor, 
 being  now  relieved  from  this  formidable  enemy, 
 marched  directly  into  Italy ;  the  following  year 
 (1081)  he  made  feveral  campaigns,  with  different 
 fnccefs,  againft  the  valiant  troops  of  Matilda  ;  and, 
 after  having  twice  raifed  the  fiege  of  Rome,  he  re- 
 fumed  a  third  time  that  bold  enterprife,  and  be- 
 came at  length  matter  of  the  greater  part  of  that 
 city,  in  the  year  1084.  The  firft  ftep  of  Henry, 
 after  this  fuccefs,  was  to  place  Guibert  in  the  papal 
 chair  j  after  which  he  received  the  imperial  crown 
 from  the  hands  of  the  new  pontiff,  was  faluted  em- 
 peror by  the  Roman  people,  and  laid  clofe  fiege  to 
 the  caftle  of  St.  Angelo,  whither  his  mortal  enemy 
 Gregory  had  fled  for  fafety.  He  was,  however, 
 forced  to  raife  this  fiege,  by  the  valour  of  Robert 
 Guifcard,  duke  of  Apulia  and  Calabria,  who 
 brought  Gregory  in  triumph  to  Rome ;  but  not  fup- 
 pofing  him  fafe  there,  conducted  him  afterwards  to 
 Salernum.  In  this  place  the  turbulent  and  cele- 
 brated Gregory  ended  his  days  in  the  following 
 year  1085,  and  left  Europe  involved  in  thofe  cala- 
 mities which  were  the  fatal  effects  of  his  boundlefs 
 ambition. 
 
 The  death  of  Gregory  neither  reftored  peace  to 
 the  church,  nor  tranquillity  to  the  ftate ;  the  tumults 
 and  divifions  which  he  had  .excited  flill  continued, 
 and  they  were  conftantly  augmented  by  the  fame 
 paffions  to  which  they  owed  their  origin.     Clement 
 
 III. 
 
58  Rival  Popes,  [cent.'ii. 
 
 III.  who  was  the  emperor's  pontiff,    was  matter  of 
 the  city  of  Rome,  and  was  acknowledged  as  pope 
 by  a  great  part    of  Italy.     Henry  carried  "on  the 
 war  in  Germany  againfl  the  .confederate  p;inces. 
 The  faction   of  Gregory,  fupported  by  the  Nor- 
 mans,  chofe  for  his  fucceflbr,  in  the  year   io8'>, 
 Diderick,  abbot  of  Mount  Cafiin,  who  adopted  the 
 title  of  Victor  III.  and  was  reluctantly  confecrated 
 in  the  church  of  St.  Peter,  in  the  year  1087,  when 
 that  part  of  the  city   was   recovered  by  the  Nor- 
 mans for  the  new  pontiff.     The  character  of  Victor 
 was  a  perfect  contrail  to  that  of  his  predeceffor 
 Gregory.  He  was  modeft  and  timorous;  and  find- 
 ing the  papal  chair  befet  with  factions,  and  the  city 
 of  Rome  under  the  dominion  of  his  competitor,  he 
 Retired  to  his  monaftery,  where  foon  after  he  ended 
 his  days  in  peace.     Jkfore  his  abdication,  however, 
 he  held  a  council  at  Benevento,  where  he  confirm- 
 ed and  renewed  the  laws  which  Gregory  had  enacted" 
 for  the  abolition  oiijiveftitures. 
 
 Otho,  bifhop  of  Oitia,  and  monk  ofClugni,  was, 
 by  Victor's  recommendation,  chofen  to  fucceed 
 him,  and  affumed  the  name  of  Uiban  II.  -  'Inferior 
 to  Gregory  in  fortitude  and  refolution,  he  was  his 
 equal  in  arrogance  and  pride,  and  furpaffed  him 
 greatly  in  imprudence  and  temerity.  The  com- 
 mencement of  his  pontificate  had  a  fair  afpect,  and 
 fuccefs  feemed  to  fmile  upon  his  undertakings ;  but 
 upon  the  emperor's  return  into  Italy  in  the  year 
 j  090,  victory  again  crowned  the  arms  of  that  prince, 
 
 whq/ 
 
^ent.  ii.]  Treafon  of  Conrad,  Son  to  Henry.  5^ 
 who,  by  redoubled  efforts  of  valour,  defeated  ac 
 length  Guelph,  duke  of  Bavaria,  and  the  celebrat- 
 ed Matilda,  who  were  the  formidable  heads  of 
 the  papal  faction.  The  abominable  treachery  of  his 
 fon  Conrad,  who,  yielding  to  the  feduction  of  his 
 father's  enemies,  revolted  againft  him,  and,  by  the 
 advice  and  affiftance  of  Urban  and  Matilda, 
 ufurped  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  revived  the  droop- 
 ing fpirits  of  that  faction,  who  hoped  to  fee  the 
 laurels  of  the  emperor  blafted  by  this  odious  and 
 unnatural  rebellion.  The  confequences,  how- 
 ever, of  this  event  were  lefs  fatal  to  Henry  than 
 his  enemies  expe&ed.  In  the  mean  time,  the 
 troubles  of  Italy  (till  continued,  nor  could  Urban, 
 with  all  his  efforts,  reduce  the  city  of  Rome  under 
 Jiis  yoke. 
 
 But  the  views  not  only  of  Urban  but  of  all 
 Chriflendom  were  now  diverted  to  another  enter- 
 prife.  The  popes,  from  the  time  of  Sylvefter  II. 
 had  been  forming  plans  for  extending  the  limits  of 
 the  church  in  Afia,  and  efpecially  for  expelling  the 
 Mahometans  from  Paleftine  ;  but  the  troubles,  in 
 which  Europe  had  been  fo  long  involved,  prevent- 
 the  execution  of  thefe  arduous  defigns.  Grego- 
 ry VII.  the  mod  enterprifing  pontiff  that  ever  filled 
 the  apoftolic  chair,  animated  and  inflamed  by  the 
 complaints  which  the  Afiatic  Chriftians  made  of 
 the  cruelty  of  the  Saracens,  refolved  to  undertake 
 in  perfon  a  holy  war,  for  the  deliverance  of  the 
 church,  and  upwards  of  fifty  thoufand  men  were 
 j  already 
 
6o  Crufades.  [cent,  ii; 
 
 already  muttered  to  follow  him  in  this  bold  expe- 
 dition*. But  his  quarrel  with  the  emperor,  and 
 other  unforefeen  occurrences,  obliged  him'  to  lay 
 afide  his  intended  invafion  of  the  Holy  Land.  The 
 project,  however,  was  renewed,  towards  the  con- 
 cluliOn  of  this  century,  by  the  enihufiaftic  zeal  of 
 an  inhabitant  of  Amiens,  who  was  known  by  the 
 •name  of  Peter  the  Hermit,  and  who  fuggefted  to 
 pope  Urban  II.  the  means  of  accompliming  what 
 had  been  unfortunately  fufpended.  The  anceftors 
 of  Peter  had  ranked  as  gentlemen,  and  his  mili- 
 tary fervice  was  under  the  neighbouring  counts  of 
 Boulogne,  the  heroes  of  the  firft  crufade,  But  he 
 foon  relinquifhed  the  fword  and  the  world.  In  a 
 voyage  which  he  made  through  Paleftine,  1093,  ^e 
 had  obferved  with  inexpreflible  anguifli  the  vexa- 
 tions and  perfecutions  which  the  Chriftians,  who 
 vifited  the  holy  places,  fuffered  from  the  barbarous 
 and  tyrannic  Saracens.  Inflamed,  therefore,  with' 
 indignation  and  zeal,  which  he  confidered  as  the 
 effect  of  a  divine  impulfe,  he  implored  the  aflift- 
 ance  of  Simeon,  patriarch  of  Conftantinople,  and 
 Urban  II.  but  without  fuccefs.  Far  from  being 
 difcouraged  by  this,  he  renewed  his  efforts,  and 
 went  through  all  the  countries  of  Europe,  exhort- 
 ing all  Chriftian  princes  to  draw  the  fword  againft 
 
 *  Gregorii   VII.  Epijl.  lib.  ii.  3.  in  Harduini  Couci/iis,  torn, 
 vi,  part  I.  p.  1285. 
 
 ^the 
 
cent,  ii.]  Peter  the  Hermit.  6t 
 
 the  tyrants  of  Paleftine.     His  diet  was  abflemious, 
 his  prayers  long  and  fervent,  and  the  alms  which  he 
 received  with  one  hand,  he  diftributed  with  the 
 other  :   his  head  was  bare,    his  feet   naked,    his 
 meagre  body  was  wrapt  in  a  coarfe  garment ;    he 
 bore  and  difplayed  a  weighty  crucifix  -s  and  the  afs 
 on  which  he  rode,   was  fanctified  in  the  public  eye 
 bythefervice  of  the  man  of  God.     He  preached, 
 to  innumerable  crowds  in  the  churches,  the  ftreets, 
 and  the  high-ways  :  the  hermit  entered  with  equal 
 confidence  the  palace  and  the  cottage;  and  the 
 people,  for  all  was  people,  was  impetuoufly  moved 
 by  his  call    to  repentance  and  arms.     When  he 
 painted  the  fufferings  of  the  natives  and  pilgrims 
 of  Paleftine,  every  heart  was  melted  to  companion ; 
 every  bread  glowed  with  indignation,   when  he 
 challenged  the  warriors  of  the  age  to  defend  their 
 brethren  and  refcue  their  Saviour :   his  ignorance 
 of  art  and  language  was  compenfated  by  fighs,  and 
 tears,  and  ejaculations ;  and  Peter  fupplied  the  de- 
 ficiency of  reafon  by  loud  and  frequent  appeals  to 
 Chrift  and   his  mother,  to  the  faints  and  angels  of 
 Paradife,  with  whom  he  had  perfonally  converfed. 
 It  would  have  been  to  his  honour  to  have  u fed  no 
 other  artifices ;  but  it  is  faid  that,  with  a  view  to 
 engage  the  fuperftitious  and  ignorant  multitude  in 
 his  caufe,  he  carried  about  with  him  a  letter,  which 
 he  affirmed  was  written  in  heaven,  and  addretTed 
 to  all  true  Chriftians  to  animate  their  zeal  for  the 
 2  deliverance 
 
6z   Councils  of  Placentia  and  Clermont,    [cent,  i  t i 
 
 deliverance  of  their  brethren,  who  groaned  under  the 
 burthen  of  a  Mahometan  yoke*. 
 
 The  minds  of  the  people  being  thus  prepared  by 
 the  exhortations  of  the  hermit,  a  grand  and  nume- 
 rous council  was  affembled  by  Urban  at  Placentra, 
 A.  D.  1095,  and  the  pontiff  recommended  warmly, 
 for  the  fiiil  time,  the  facred  expedition  againft  the 
 infidel  Saracens-f-.  But  this  arduous  entefprife 
 was  far  from  being  approved  by  the  greateft  part 
 of  this  numerous  affembly,  notwidiftanding  the 
 prefence  of  the  emperor's  legates.  In  this  council,' 
 the  decrees  of  Gregory  were  confirmed  ;  and  the 
 conduct  of  Urban,  with  refpect  to  the  inveftitures, 
 was  rather  calculated  to  exafperate  than  to  ap-'* 
 peafe.  -  ' 
 
 Though  dlfappointed  at  Placentia,  Urban  re- 
 newed his  propofal  for  a  holy  war,  in  a  council 
 which  was  afterwards  affembled  at  Clermont,  where 
 he  himfelf  was  prefent.  The  pompous  and  pa- 
 thetic fpeech,  which  he  delivered  upon  the  occa- 
 sion, made  a  deep  and  powerful  impreffion  upon  the 
 minds  of  the  French,  whofe  natural  character  ren- 
 ders them  much  fuperior  to  the  Italians  in  encoun- 
 tering difficulties,  facing  danger,  and  attempting 
 the  execution  of  the  moft  perilous  defigns. 
 
 *  Gibbon's  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire. 
 
 •f  This  council  was  the  moll  numerous  of  any  that  had  bees 
 hitherto  affembled,  and  was,  on  that  account,  held  in  the  open 
 fields.  There  were  prefent  at  it  two  hundred  bifliops,  four  thou- 
 sand ecclefi allies,  and  three  thoufand  laymen. 
 
 The 
 
Cent.  1 1.]  Imprudent  Zeal  of  the  firft  Adventurers.  63; 
 
 The  warriors  of  this  nation  were  not,  however, 
 the  only  auditors  who  were  impreffed  by  the  elo- 
 quence of  Urban.  An  incredible  multitude, 
 among  whom  were  many  of  rank,  devoted  them- 
 felves  to  the  fervice  of  the  crofs,  which  was  made 
 the  fymbol  of  the  expedition,  and  which,  worked 
 in  red  worfted,  was  worn  on  the  breads  or  moulders 
 of  the  adventurers*.  Every  motive  was  ufed  by 
 the  court  of  Rome  to  increafe  the  numbers.  A 
 plenary  indulgence  was  proclaimed  in  the  council 
 of  Clermont  to  thofe  who  fliould  enlift  under  the 
 crofs,  and  a  full  abfolution  of  all  their  fins. 
 
 The  15th  of  Auguft,  1096,  had  been  fixed  in  the 
 council  of  Clermont,  for  the  departure  of  the  pil- 
 grims :  but  the  day  was  anticipated  by  a  thought- 
 lefs  and  needy  crowd  of  plebeians.  Early  in  the 
 fpring,  from  the  confines  of  France  and  Lorraine, 
 above  fixty  thoufand  of  the  populace  of  both  fexes 
 flocked  round  the  firfl  miflionary  of  the  crufade, 
 and  preiTed  him  with  clamorous  importunity  to 
 lead  them  to  the  holy  fepulchre.  The  hermit,  af- 
 fuming  the  character,  without  the  talents  or  autho- 
 rity, of  a  general,  impelled  or  obeyed  the  forward 
 impulfeof  his  voiaries  along  the  banks  of  the  Rhine 
 and  Danube.  Their  wants  and  numbers  foon 
 compelled  them  to  feparate,  and  his  lieutenant* 
 Walter  the  Pennylefs,  a  valiant  though  needy 
 foldier,  conducted  a  vanguard  of  pilgrims,  whofe 
 
 *  Flence  the  name  ciufude. 
 
 condition 
 
5  8     Fatal  Ejfcfts  of  blind  Enthufiajm,     [cent,  it  6 
 condition  may  be  determined  from  the  proportion 
 of  eight  horfemen  to  fifteen  thoufand  foot*     The 
 example  and  footfteps  of  Peter  were  clofely  pur- 
 fued  by  another  fanatic,  the  monk  Godefcal,  whofe 
 fermons  had  fwept  away  fifteen  or  twenty  thoufand 
 peafants  from  the   villages  of  Germany.     Their 
 rear  was  again  prefled  by  an  herd  of  two  hundred 
 thoufand,  the  mofl  ftupid  and  favage  refufe  of  the 
 people,  who  mingled  with  their  devotion  a  brutal 
 Jicence  of  rapine,  proftitution,  and  drunkennefs. 
 Some  counts  and  gentlemen,  at  the  head  of  three^ 
 thoufand  horfe,  attended  the  motions  of  the  multi- 
 tude to  partake   in  the   fpoil ;   but  their  genuine 
 leaders  (may  we- credit  fuch  folly  ?)   were  a  goofe  * 
 and  a  goat,  who  were -carried  in  the  front,  and  to1 ' 
 whom  thefe  worthy  Chriftians  afcribed  an.  infufion . 
 of  the  Divine  Spirit*. 
 
 Of  this  rabble  more  than  two  thirds  were  con- 
 fumed  by  the  Hungarians,  &c.  during  their  jour- - 
 ney.  The  remainder  efcaped  to  Conftantinople, 
 where  their  ingratitude  to  the  emperor  Alexius,  and 
 their  tumultuous  conduct,  induced  that  monarch  to 
 allure  them  to  the  other  fide  of  the  Bofphorus ;  but 
 their  blind  impetuofity  foon  urged  them  to  defert 
 ^his  ftation,  and  to  rufli  headlong  againft  the  Turks, 
 who  occupied  the  road  to  Jerufalem.  In  the  plain  of 
 Nice  they  were  overwhelmed  by  the  Turkiili  ar- 
 rows j  and  from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  this 
 
 *  Gibbon's  Decline  and  Fall,  &c. 
 
 expedition, 
 
gent,  ii.]     'The  fir  ft  Crujade  under  Godfrey.       65 
 
 expedition,  300,000  perifhed,  before  a  fingle  city 
 was  refcued  from  the  Infidels,  and  before  their 
 graver  and  more  noble  brethren  had  completed 
 their  preparations. 
 
 The  armies  which  were  conducted  by  illuftrious 
 commanders,  diftinguiihed  by  their  birth  and  their 
 military  endowments,  arrived  more  happily  at  the 
 capital  of  the  Grecian  empire.  That  which  was  com- 
 manded by  Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  duke  of  Lorraine, 
 whodeferves  a  place  among  the  greatefl  heroes,  whe- 
 ther of  ancient  or  modern  times,  and  by  his  brother 
 Baldwin,  was  compofed  of  eighty  thoufand  well  cho- 
 fen  troops,  horfe  and  foot,  and  directed  its  march 
 through  Germany  and  Hungary.  Another,  which 
 was  headed  by  Raimond,  earl  of  Touloufe,  paffed 
 through  the  Sclavonian  territories.  Robert,  earl 
 of  Flanders,  Robert,  duke  of  Normandy,  Hugo^ 
 brother  to  Ph'lip  I.  king  of  France,  embarked  their 
 refpedtive  forces  in  a  fleet  which  was  aflembled  at 
 Brundifi  and  Tarenco,  whence  they  were  tranf- 
 ported  to  Durazzo,  anciently  Dyrrachium.  Thefe 
 armies  were  followed  by  Boemond,  duke  of  Apu- 
 lia and  Calabria,  at  the  head  of  a  chofen  and  nume- 
 rous body  of  valiant  Normans. 
 
 This  army  was  the  greateft,  and,  in  outward  ap- 
 pearance, the  raoft  formidable  that  had  been  known 
 in  the  memory  of  man  ;  and  though,  before  its  ar- 
 rival at  Conftantinople,  it  was  diminished  consider- 
 ably by  the  difficulties  and  oppolitions  it  had  met 
 with  on  the  way ;  yet,  fuch  as  it  was,  it  made  the 
 Vol.  II.  F  Grecian 
 
66  Conquejl  of  Jerufalem*  [cent,  rr^ 
 
 Grecian  emperor  tremble,  and  filled  his  mind  with 
 the  mod  anxious  and  alarming  apprehenfions  of 
 fome  fecret  defign  againft  his  dominions.  His 
 fears,  however,  were  difpelled,  when  he  faw  thefe 
 legions  pafs  the  ftreights  of  Gallipolis,  and  direct 
 their  march  towards  Bithynia. 
 
 The  firft  fuccefsful  enterprife  which  was  formed 
 againft  the  Infidels,  was  the  fiege  of  Nice,  the  ca-* 
 p/tal  of  Bithynia.     This  city  was  taken  in  the  year 
 1097,  and  the  victorious  army  proceeded  thence 
 into  Syria,   and,   in  the  following  year,  fubdued 
 Antioch,  which,  with    its    fertile   territory,  was 
 granted  by  the  affembled  chiefs,  to  Boemond,  duke* 
 of  Apulia.     Edefla  fell  next  into-  the  hands  of  the 
 victors,  and  became  the  property  of  Baldwin,  bro- 
 ther to  Godfrey  of  Bouillon.     The  conqueft  of 
 Jerufalem,  which,  after  a  fiege  of  five  weeks,  fub- 
 mitted  to  their  arms  in  the  year  1099,  feemed  to. 
 crown  their  expedition  with  the  defired   fuccefs. 
 In   this  city  were  laid   the  foundations  of  a  new 
 kingdom,  at  the  head  of  which  was  placed  the  fa- 
 mous Godfrey,  whom  the   army  faluted^king  of 
 Jerufalem  with  an  unanimous  voice.     But  this  il- 
 luftrious  hero,  whofe  other  eminent  qualities  were 
 adorned  with  the  moft  perfect  modefty,  refufed  that 
 high  title,  though  he  governed  Jerufalem  with  a 
 degree   of  valour,   equity,   and  prudence,   which 
 places  him  higher  in  the  records  of  virtue  than  moft 
 founders  of  empires.     Having  chofen  a  fmall  army 
 to   fupport  him  in  his  new  dignity,  he  permitted 
 
 the 
 
cent,  ii.]      Baldwin,  King  of  Jerufalem,  6j 
 
 the  reft  of  the  troops  to  return  into  Europe.  He 
 did  not,  however,  enjoy  long  the  fruits  of  a  victory, 
 in  which  his  heroic  valour  had  been  fo  glorioufly 
 difplayed,  but  died  about  a  year  after  the  conqueft 
 of  Jerufalem,  leaving  his  dominions  to  his  brother 
 Baldwin,  prince  of  EdefTa,  who  afTumed  the  title 
 of  king  without  the  fmalleft  hefitation. 
 
 Splendid  as  were  thefe  holy  wars  in  appearance, 
 they,  however,  were  not  lefs  prejudicial  to  the  caufe 
 of  religion,  and  the  true  interefts  of  the  Chriftian 
 Church,  than  they  were  to  the  temporal  concerns 
 of  men.  One  of  the  firft  and  mod  pernicious 
 effects  was  the  enormous  augmentation  of  the  influ- 
 ence and  authority  of  the  Roman  pontiffs ;  they 
 alfo  contributed,  in  various  ways,  to  enrich  the 
 churches  and  monafteries  with  daily  acceffions  of 
 wealth,  and  to  open  new  fources  of  opulence  to  all 
 the  facerdotal  orders.  For  they  who  afTumed  the 
 crofs,  difpofed  of  their  property  as  if  they  were  ac 
 the  point  of  death,  and  left  a  confiderable  part  of 
 their  pofTefhons  to  the  priefts  and  monks,  with  a 
 view  of  obtaining  by  thefe  pious  legacies,  the  favour 
 and  protection  of  the  Almighty*  in  their  new  under- 
 taking. Such  of  them  alfo  as  had  been  engaged  in 
 fuits  of  law  with  the  priefts  or  monks,  renounced 
 
 *  See  Pleffis,  HiJ.  de  Meaux,  torn.  ii.  p.  76.  79.  141. — Gal- 
 lia Chriftianay  torn.  ii.  Append,  p.  31. — Du  Frefne,  Nota  ad 
 'Vitam  Ludovici  SanSi,  p.  52.  Lc  Beuf,  Msmo'wes pour  PHi/loire 
 fAuxtrrt,  torn.  ii.  Append,  p.  3  t. 
 
 F  2.  their 
 
63  Effeofs  of  the  Crufades.        [cent.  'iU 
 
 their  pretentions,  and  fubmiflively  refigned  whatever 
 
 had  been  the  fubject  of  debate.     And  others,  who 
 
 hadfeizeid  upon  any  of  the  poffeffions  of  the  churches 
 
 or  convents,  or  heard  of  any  injury  which  had  been 
 
 committed  againfl  the  clergy,  by  the  remoteft   of 
 
 their  anceftors,  made  the  molt  liberal  reftitution,  or 
 
 the  moft  ample  fatisfaction  for  the  real  or  pretended 
 
 injuries,  they  had  committed  againfl  the  Church, 
 
 by  rich  and  coftly  donations*. 
 
 Nor  were  thefe  the  only  unhappy  effects  of  the 
 
 holy  expeditions.      For  while  whole  legions   of  bi- 
 
 fhops  and  abbots  girded  the  fword  upon  their  thigh, 
 
 and  proceeded  as  generals,  volunteers,  or  chaplains 
 
 into  Paleftine,the  priefts  and  monks,  who  had  lived 
 
 under  their  jurifdiction,  and  were  awed  by  their 
 
 authority,  felt  themfelves  releafed  from   reftraint, 
 
 and  lived  without  order  or  discipline;     The  lift  of 
 
 pretended  faints  was  greatly   augmented  ;  and  the 
 
 o-reateft  impositions  arofe  from  the  importation  of 
 
 an  immenfe  quantity  of  relics  by  the  adventurers  in 
 
 the  crufadcf-. 
 
 It 
 
 *  DuFrefne,  1.  c.  p.  $2.  « 
 
 ■j-  Richard  king  of  England  bought,  in  the  year  J 191,  from 
 the  famous  Saladin,  all  the  relics  that  were  found  in  Jerufalem,  as 
 appears  from  the  teftimony  of  Matthew  Paris,  H'lft.  Major, 
 p.  108,  who  tells  us  alfo,  p.  666  of  the  fame  work,  that  the  Do- 
 rnifticans  brought  from  Palefline  a  white  ftone,  in  which  Jefus 
 Chrift  had  left  the  print  of  his  feet.  The  Genoefe  pretend  to 
 have  received  from  Baldwin,  fecond  king  of  Jerufalem,  the  ivery 
 dim  in  which  the  pafchal  lamb  was  ferved  up  to  Chrift  and  his 
 .  difcipks  at  the  laft  fuppcr  j  though  this  famous  difh  excites  the 
 
 laughter 
 
cent.  1 1. 3         EjfeHs  of  the  Crufades.  69 
 
 It  is,  however,  fome  compenfation  for  thefe  evils 
 that  fomething  was  eventually  gained  in  fcience, 
 and  fomething  in  freedom,  by  thefe  warlike  pil- 
 grimages. The  arts  and  manufactures  of  the  ea& 
 were  introduced  into  Europe,  and  a  fpirit  of  enter- 
 prife,  which  probably  led  to  the  cultivation  of  com- 
 merce, was  excited.  Before  the  a?ra  of  the  crufades, 
 "the  larger  portion  of  the  inhabitants  in  Europe," 
 fays  Mr.  Gibbon,  <f  was  chained  to  the  foil,  with- 
 out freedom,  or  property,  or  knowledge  ;  and  the 
 two  orders  of  ecclefiaftics  and  nobles,  whofe  num- 
 bers were  comparatively  fmall,  alone  deferved  the 
 name  of  citizens  and  men.  This  oppreflive  fyftem 
 was  fupported  by  the  arts  of  the  clergy,  and  the 
 fwords  of  the  barons.  The  authority  of  the  priefts 
 operated  indeed  in  the  darker  ages  as  a  falutary  an- 
 tidote ;  they  prevented  the  total  extinction  of  let- 
 ters, mitigated  the  fiercenefsof  the  times,  fheltered 
 the  poor  and  defencelefs,  and  preferved  or  revived 
 the  peace  and  order  of  civil  fociety.  But  the  inde- 
 pendence, rapine,  and  difcord  of  the  feudal  lords 
 were  unmixed  with  any  femblance  of  good  ;  and 
 every  hope  of  induftry  and  improvement  was 
 crumed  by  the  iron  weight  of  martial  ariftocracy. 
 Among  the  caufes  that  undermined  that  Gothic 
 edifice,  a  confpicuous  place  muft  be  allowed  to  the 
 crufades.  The  eflates  of  the  barons  were  diffipated, 
 and  their  race   was  often  extinguifhed,  in  thefe 
 
 laughter  of  even  father  Labat,  in  his  Voyages  en  Efpagne  et  en 
 Jtalk,  torn,  ii.  p.  63. 
 
 F  3  coftly 
 
jo      Death  of  Urhan  and  Clement  III.    [cent.  ii. 
 
 coftly  and  perilous  expeditions.  Their  poverty 
 extorted  from  their  pride  thofe  charters  of  freedom 
 which  unlocked  the  fetters  of  the  Have,  fecured  the 
 farm  of  the  peafant  and  the  fhop  of  the  artificer, 
 and  gradually  reltored  a  fubflance  and  a  foul  to  the 
 moil  numerous  and  ufeful  part  of  the  community. 
 The  conflagration  which  deftroyed  the  tall  and 
 barren  trees  of  the  foreft,  gave  air  and  fcope  to  the 
 vegetation  of  the  fmaller  and  nutritive  plants  of  the 
 foil*." 
 
 After  his  expedition  to  Clermont,  Urban  re- 
 turned into  Italy,  where  he  made  himfelf  mailer  of 
 the  caftle  of  St.  Angelo,  ancl  foon  after  ended  his  • 
 days  in  the  year  1099. He  was  not  long  furvived  by  , 
 his  antagonist  Clement  III.  who  died  the  following 
 year,  and  left  at  the  clofe  of  this  century  Raynier, 
 a  benedictine  monk,  who  afTumed  the  name  of 
 Pafchal  II.  fole  pofleflbr  of  the  papal  chair. 
 
 *  Gibbon'jr  Decline  and  Fall,  vol.  ^. 
 
 CHAP. 
 
[    7*    3 
 CHAP.     II. 
 
 OF     MANNERS,     DOCTRINE,     RITES      AND     CERE- 
 MONIES,    IN     THE  ELEVENTH    CENTURY. 
 
 Miracles — Flagellation  for  Sin — Contejls  concerning  Roman 
 and  Gothic  Rituals — rebuilding  Churches  —  Carthufian 
 Order — Cijlercians. 
 
 IN  a  period  of  fuperftition  and  credulity  it  can 
 excite  little  furprife,  that  the  crafty  and  design- 
 ing fhould  procure  advantages  to  themfelves  by  the 
 affiftance  of  deception  and  fraud.  A  number  of 
 miracles  were  accordingly  invented,  and  falfe  pro- 
 phets appeared.  One  Lieutard  in  particular,  a  poor 
 and  ignorant  man,  pretending  to  infpiration,  fe- 
 duced  a  number  of  perfons  in  the  diocefe  of  Cha- 
 lons in  France.  He  had  been  afleep  in  the  field, 
 and  imagined  that  a  fwarm  of  bees  had  entered 
 his  body,  which,  after  tormenting  and  ftinging 
 him  for  fome  time,  at  laft  fpoke  to  him  and 
 commiffioned  him  to  preach.  The  poor  fanatic 
 at  length  put  an  end  to  his  own  life,  by  throw- 
 ing himfelf  into  a  well.*  A  number  of  new 
 relics  were  alfo  difcovered  in  the  courfe  of  this  cen- 
 tury :  among  the  reft,  a  head  of  John  the  Baptift  was 
 found  at  the  monaftery  of  St.  John  of  Angeli,  at 
 Saintonge.  This  relic  is  however  not  fingular, 
 fince  there  was  fcarcely  a  country  in  Europe  or 
 
 <*  Jortin'»  Remarks,  5  v.  20. 
 
 F  4  Afia, 
 
72  Flagellation  for  Shu         [cent.    II, 
 
 Afia,  which  was  not  honoured  with  a  head  of  the 
 Baptift  *. 
 
 Notwithftanding  the  apparent  unity  of  the  Ca- 
 tholic Church  at  this  period,  it  does  not  appear 
 that  even  the  papal  doctrines  were  univerfally  re- 
 ceived. A  Saxon  homily  ftill  extant,  written  in 
 the  reign  of  Ethelred  II.  demon flrates  that  the 
 Englifh  Church  had  not  embraced  the  doitrine  of 
 tranfubftantiation  rj*. 
 
 In  relating  the  hiftorical  events  of  this  century, 
 feveral  inftances  of  excommunication  have  oc- 
 curred ;  indeed,  this  fentence  was  fo  frequently 
 iffued  as  to  become  almoft  contemptible.  The 
 penalties  attending  this  cenfure  of  the  Church, 
 extended  not  only  to  the  offending  finner,  but  to 
 whoever  conyerfed  or  kept  up  any  correfpondence 
 with  him  to  the  fourth  generation.  Public  pe- 
 nance was  however  much  lefs  frequently  enjoined, 
 and  its  pains  were  commuted  for  by  pilgrimages,' 
 redemptions,  and  abfolutions  granted  by  the  holy 
 fee.  The  introduction  or  the  difciplining  whip 
 for  the  private  punishment  of  fin,  contributed  tc 
 the  abolition  of  public  penance,  whichfbnk  into 
 additional  neglect,  from  the  practice  whjch  was 
 jntroduced  at  this  period,  of  obtaining  a  remiffion 
 pf  fins,  by  the  fcourgings  and  other  voluntary 
 pains,  which,  for  a  ftipulated   price,  the  monks 
 
 *  The     witty     Jortin     remarks,     that    John    was    at    laft 
 ix«]ov1«x«p«?ia;,  (an  hundred  headed  animal).  Rem.  5,  v.  24. 
 I  Rabin's  Hilt-  vo],  i.   143. 
 
 undertoek 
 
cent,  ii.]    Gothic  Worjhip  abolljhed  in  Spain.  73 
 
 undertook  to  differ  for  them.  How  far  thefe  holy 
 men  fufillcd  their  numerous  contracts  of  this  na- 
 ture, it  is  impoffible  to  afcertain. 
 
 Still  lefs  univerfal  than  the  doctrines,  were  the 
 Romifti  forms  of  worlhip ;   many  of  the  weftern 
 churches   ftill    retained  their  ancient  ceremonies. 
 The  Spaniards  had  long  cliftinguifhed  themfelves 
 above  all  other  nations  by  the  noble  and  refolutc 
 refiftance  they  made  to  the  Romifli  ritual.     Alex- 
 ander II.  had  indeed  proceeded  fo  far,   in  the  year 
 1068,   as  to  perfuade  the  inhabitants  of  Arragon 
 into  his  meafures  *,   and   to  conquer  the  averfion 
 of  the  Catalonians.     But  the  honour  of  finifhing 
 this  difficult  work,    and  bringing  it  to  perfection, 
 was  referved  for  Gregory  VII.  who,  without  inter- 
 ruption, exhorted,    threatened,   admonilhed,  and. 
 intreated    Sancius   and    Alphonfo,    the   kings   of 
 Arragon   and    Caftile,    until,    fatigued    with  the 
 importunity  of  this  refllefs  pontiff,  they  confented. 
 to  abolifh  the  Gothic  fervice  in  their  churches,  and 
 to  introduce  the  Roman  in  its  place.     Sancius  was 
 the  firfb  who  complied  with  the  requeft  of  the 
 pontiff,   and,  in  the  year  10S0,  his  example  was 
 followed  by  Alphonfo.     The  methods  which  the 
 nobles  of  Caftile  employed  to  decide  the  matter 
 were  extraordinary.     Firft,    two  champions  were 
 felected,  who  were  to  determine  the  controverfy  by 
 (ingle  combat,  the  one  fighting  for  the  Roman 
 liturgy,   the  other  for  the  Gothic.     On   the  firft 
 
 *  Peter  de  Marca,  HiJIoire  de  Beam)  liv.  ii.  cap.  Ix. 
 
 trial 
 
74  Ordeal  Trial  of  the  different  Liturgies,  [cent,  i  i. 
 trial  the  Gothic  hero  proved  victorious.  The  fiery 
 trial  was  next  made  ufe  of  to  terminate  the  difpute; 
 the  Roman  and  Gothic  liturgies  were  committed 
 to  the  flames,  which,  as  the  legend  informs  us, 
 con  fumed  the  former,  while  the  latter  remained 
 ,  unblemifhec}  and  entire.  Thus  were  the  Gothic 
 rites  crowned  with  a  double  victory,  which, 
 however,  was  not  fufficient  to  maintain  them 
 againft  the  authority  of  the  pope,  and  the  influ- 
 ence of  the  queen  Conftantia,  who  determined 
 Alphonfo  in  favour  of  the  Roman  fervice.  It 
 was,  however,  oppofed  by  feveral  of  the  Spanifh 
 churches,  who  ftill  continue  the  ufe  of  their  an- 
 cient miflal.  The  defire  of  Gregory  for  the  recep-* 
 tion  of  the  Latin  ritual  extended  to  every  Chriftian' 
 country,  and  by  the  orders  of  Alexander  il.  and 
 this  pontiff,  divine  fervice  was  prohibited  to  be 
 read  in  any  other  language  than  Greek  and  Latin. 
 
 The  oppofition  made  by  the  Greek  church  againft* 
 the  modes  of  w.orfhip  pracrifed  by  the  Latin,  pro- 
 duced an  irreconcilable  enmity  between  thefe  two 
 focieties  of  Chriftians.  A  controverfy  on  this  point 
 had  arifen  between  them  towards  the  clofe  of  the 
 preceding  century,  and  a  fchifm  had  in  confequence 
 of  it  been  produced.  The  indifcreet  zeal  of  Michael 
 the  patriarch  of  Conflantinople  augmented  this  dif- 
 ference. In  1053  he  publifhed  a  letter  in  which  he 
 attacked  in  fevere  terms  the  cuftom  of  the  weflern 
 church  of  tiling  unleavened  bread  in  the  facrament, 
 of  fading   on  Saturdays  during  Lent,  of  thejiot 
 
 finging 
 
cent,  ii.]  Ccntejl  between  the  Greeks  and  Latins,  75 
 tinging  Hallelujah  during  the  time  appointed  for 
 that  faft,  and  the  eating  of  blood  and  things 
 ftrangled.  The  indifference  of  modern  times 
 may  induce  a  fmile  at  the  frivolous  nature  of  thefe 
 objections  to  communion,  but  they  were  confider- 
 ed  in  a  very  ferious  light  by  Leo  IX.  and  the 
 weftern  clergy,  whofe  wrath  was  increafed  by  the 
 intelligence  that  Michael  had  deprived  of  their 
 churches,  and  monasteries,  all  the  Latin  Chriftians 
 who  refufed  to  relinquifh  thefe  rites.  The  em- 
 peror, Conftantine  Monomachus,  was  too  much 
 interefted  in  retaining  the  favour  of  the  pope,  by 
 whofe  influence  alone  he  could  hope  to  fecure  the 
 poffeflions  which  ftill  remained  to  him  in  the  weft, 
 not  to  unite  with  Leo  againft  the  Conftantinopoli- 
 tan  patriarch.  The  controverfy  between  this  pre- 
 late and  the  envoys  of  the  pope,  was  profecuted  both 
 by  perfonal  difputes  and  in  writing.  Michael  how- 
 ever ftill  continued  unconvinced,  and  his  refractory 
 condud  was  punifhed  by  a  folemn  excommunica- 
 tion and  the  deprivation  of  his  fee.  On  the  deceafe 
 of  the  emperor,  the  depofed  patriarch  was  reftored 
 to  his  former  honours,  and  in  his  turn  folemnly 
 excommunicated  the  pope. 
 
 The  European  nations,  in  general,  were  at  this 
 period  diligently  engaged  in  rebuilding,  repairing, 
 and  adorning  their  churches.  Nor  will  it  appear 
 furprifing  when  we  confider,  that  in  the  preceding 
 century,  all  Europe  was  alarmed  with  a  difmal 
 apprehenfion  that  the  day  of  judgment  was  at  hand. 
 
 Among 
 
j6  Rebuilding  of  Churches.       [cent.   ii. 
 
 Among  the  other  effects  of  this  general  terror,  the 
 churches  and  monafteries  were  fuffered  to  fall  into 
 ruin,  or  at  Ieafb  to  remain  without  repair,  from  an 
 opinion  that  they  would  foon  be  involved  in  the. 
 general  fate  of  all  fubl unary,  things.  But  when 
 thefe  apprehenfions  fubfided,  the  tottering  temples 
 were  rebuilt,  and  the  utmoft  zeal,  attended  with 
 the  richeft  and  mod:  liberal  donations,  was  em- 
 ployed in  reftoring  the  facred  edifices  to  their 
 former  luflre,  or  rather  in  imparting  to  them  nevy 
 magnificence  and  beauty. 
 
 The  number  of  monadic  institutions  which  had  for 
 feveral  centuries  been  gradually  increafing,  was  in 
 this  confiderably  augmented.  The  order  of  Clugni,  . 
 which  was  inftituted  in  the  preceding  century, 
 had,  from  the  fuperiority  of  its  difcipline,  attain- 
 ed fuch  a  degree  of  reputation,  that  a  number  of 
 new  monasteries  were  erected,  and  the  order  was 
 enriched  by  coftly  donations  and  fplendid  endow- 
 ments. But  in  proportion  as  the  wealth  of  the 
 fociety  increafed,  the  feverity  of  its  difcipline  re- 
 laxed, and  the  monks  were  immerfed  in  fecular 
 affairs.  This  defection  induced  thofe  vvhbfe  wifh 
 for  a  feclufion  from  the  world  arofe  frOm  fincere 
 though  miftaken  motives,  to  inftitute  or  enforce 
 more  auftcre  regulations.  Upon  this  principle 
 Romauld,  an  Italian  monk,  withdrew  from  the  fo- 
 ciety to  which  he  belonged,  and  inftituted  feveral 
 others  which  profefTed  to  adopt  the  regulations  of 
 St.  Benedict.     The    inftitution    however,   which 
 
 profenyed 
 
cent,  ii.]  Carthufians y  Order  of  St.  Anthony.  77 
 profefled  and  obferved  the  greateft  aufterity  was  that 
 of  the  Carthufians  founded  in  the  year  1084  by 
 the  fanatic  Bruno,  a  canon  ofRheims;  who,  with 
 fix  companions,  retired  to  the  folitude  of  Char- 
 treux  in  Dauphine.  The  Carthufians  wear  fack- 
 cloth  next  their  fkins,  generally  eat  alone  in  their 
 cells,  and  fad  on  Fridays,  when  they  only  allow 
 themfelves  a  fmall  portion  of  bread  and  water. 
 They  are  enjoined  perpetual  lilence,  and  are  never 
 fuffered  to  go  out  of  their  convent,  and  no 
 women  are  permitted  to  enter  their  precincts. 
 The  order,  though  inftituted  in  France,  extended 
 to  England,  and  appears  to  have  degenerated  \th 
 than  any  other  of  the  monadic  inftitutions. 
 
 Two  gentlemen  of  Vienne,  whofe  benevolent  ex- 
 ertions were  devoted  to  the  cure  of  thofe  who  were 
 aiflided  with  the  diforder  called  St.  Anthony's  fire, 
 and  who  came  to  that  city  to  implore  the  intercef- 
 fion  of  the  faint  in  the  church  where  his  body  was 
 depofited,  founded  the  order  of  St.  Anthonv, 
 which  profeffed  themfelves  followers  of  the  rules 
 of  St.  Auguflin.  The  order  of  Ciftercians  was 
 founded  towards  theclofe  of  this  century,  to  which 
 ^period  the  full  eftablifhmcnt  of  regular  canons 
 mud  be  referred. 
 
 CHAP. 
 
C   73   3 
 
 CHAP.    III. 
 
 OF      THE      SECTS      WHICH      APPEARED      IN      THE 
 ELEVENTH    CENTURY. 
 
 Berenger — Rofceliti — Perfecutien   of  the  Jews—Manicheans 
 — Bulgarians,   and  Catharijls. 
 
 A  D  the  fpirit  of  inquiry  been  more  wide- 
 ly diffufed,  and  the  influence  of  fuperftition 
 and  a  blind  attachment  to  received  opinions  been 
 lefs  predominant,  the  commotions  which  from  va- 
 rious caufes  exifted-  during  a  great  part  of  this 
 century  in  the  weftern  empire,  might  have  left  a 
 considerable  part  of  the  Christian  world  little  at  lei- 
 Cure  to  examine  the  niceties  of  Speculative  theology. 
 Thefe  caufes,  co-operating  with  thofe  which  were 
 detailed  in  the  preceding  century,  confine  the  ac- 
 count of  any  differences  in  religious  opinion  with- 
 in a  very  contracted  compafs,  and  of  thofe  there 
 were  few  who  actually  feceded  from  communion 
 with  the  church.  Yet  the  catholic  writers*of  this 
 period  have  tranfmitted  to  us  the  names  of  a  few 
 individuals,  whofe  departure  from  the  eftablifhed 
 faith  incurred  the  cenfures  of  repeated  councils. 
 The  moft  celebrated  of  thefe  was  Berenger,  a 
 pried  of  Angers,  who  warmly  attacked  the  doc- 
 trine of  tranfubflantiation,  which,  though  not 
 openly  aflerted,  was   (ilently  and   imperceptibly 
 
 gaining 
 
cent,   ii.]      Berenger,  Rofcelin,  &e.  79 
 
 gaining  ground.  But  the  ignorance  and  fuperdi- 
 tion  of  this  period  were  extremely  unfavourable 
 to  rational  difcufiion,  and  Berenger  was  condemn- 
 ed by  the  pope  and  by  feveral  councils.  It  would 
 be  uncharitable  to  infer  from  the  conduct  of  the 
 unfortunate  pried,  that  he  had  not  a  fincere  regard 
 to  veracity  :  he  pofTefTed  not  however  the  fpirit  of 
 a  martyr,  but,  incited  by  fear,  or  impelled  by 
 truth,  he  alternately  retracted  and  aliened  his 
 fentiments.  His  death  relieved  the  church  from 
 this  vexatious  opponent,  whofe  opinions,  which 
 had  been  received  by  few,   gradually  declined. 
 
 Rofcelin,  a  celebrated  logician  and  pried  of 
 Compeigne  in  France,  was  accufed  of  aliening  that 
 the  three  perfons  in  the  trinity  were  three  realities, 
 diftind  from  each  other  in  the  fame  manner  as 
 three  fouls  or  angels,  and  that  their  whole  union 
 confided  in  their  having  one  will  and  one  posver. 
 Thefe  opinions,  which  were  confidered  as  tritheifm, 
 were  condemned  in  a  council  held  at  SoifTons.  Like 
 the  unfortunate  Berenger,  Rofcelin  dreaded  the 
 effects  of  an  ecclefiadical  cenfure,  fubferibed  th<j 
 decree  which  pronounced  his  opinions  heretical, 
 and  folemnly  retracted  his  fentiments,  which  how- 
 ever he  again  profcfTed. 
 
 Some  opinions  fimilar  to  thofe  of  the  Maniche- 
 ans  were  profefled  in  France,  and  incurred  the 
 cenfure  of  a  council  at  Orleans,  by  whofe  decrees 
 fome  ecclefiadics  of  that  city  were  condemned  to 
 the  flames   along  with  feveral   of  their  unhappy 
 
 followers. 
 
So  Bulgarians,  Catharifts,  &V.      [cent.  ir. 
 
 followers.  The  fame  opinions  were  imputed  to 
 feveral  Bulgarians  and  Catharifts,  who  were  mod 
 probably  Paulicians,  but  the  precife  doctrines  they 
 propagated  were  never  very  clearly  afcertained. 
 Thefe  unfortunate  offenders  did  not  however  oc- 
 cupy the  whole  of  civil  and  ecclefiaftical  venge- 
 ance. The  leading  features  of  the  times  were  fu- 
 perftition  and  violence.  In  1010,  the  prince  of 
 Babylon  had  deftroyed  the  church  of  the  holy,  fe- 
 pulchre  at  Jerufalem,  and  this  facrilegious  aft  was 
 attributed  to  the  Jews,  who,  in  confequence  of  the 
 fufpicion,  were  feverely  persecuted  throughout 
 Chriflcndom. 
 
 C  H  AP. 
 
t   to   3 
 
 CHAP.  IV. 
 
 OF  LEARNING  AND  LEARNED  MEN  IN  THE 
 ELEVENTH  CENTURY. 
 
 Revival  if  Lefters-*-Leo  the  Grammarian,  TheophylacJt 
 Cedrenus,  Michael  Pfellus->-Fulbertf  DamianUs.,  Anfelm, 
 Lambertiis. 
 
 THE  middle  of  the  eleventh  century  is  a  period 
 very  remarkable  in  the  annals  of  literature,  for 
 to  that  time  the  firft  dawn  of  reviving  learning  may 
 be  referred.  It  was  indeed  overcaft  by  a  cloud 
 of  prejudices,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  know- 
 ledge of  the  age  confirted  in  fcholaftic  theology 
 and  logical  diftinclions,  which  frequently  fervc 
 rather  the  purpofes  of  obfeurity  than  of  eluci- 
 dation. 
 
 The  Grecian  empire  was,  however,  polifhed  and 
 improved  by  the  labours  of  Leo  the  grammarian, 
 who  continued  the  chronicle  of  Theophanes*« 
 George  Cedrenus  compofed  annals,  and  Theophy- 
 lact,  archbifhop  of  Acrides  in  Bulgaria,  laboured 
 ulefully  upon  the  Scripture,  by  abridging  the  com- 
 mentaries of  Chry forlorn.  Befides  thefe,  there 
 were  a  number  of  learned  and  excellent  men  in 
 the  Greek  church,  one  of  the  moft  eminent  of 
 whom  was  Michael  Pfellus,  a  man  of  uncommon 
 
 *  Du  Pin. 
 Vol.  II.  G  erudition 
 
Sa  Learned  Men  hi  the  Latin  Church,  [cent',  ii, 
 erudition  and  fagacity.  He  was  a  ftrenuous  ad- 
 vocate for  Ariflotle  *,  but  did  not  confine  himfelf 
 to  heathen  literature,  as  he  publifhed'  feveral . 
 works  of  facred  criticifm  and  theology,  among 
 others  a  paraphrafe  and  commentary  on  the  Song  of 
 Solomon-}-. 
 
 The  controverfy  concerning  -inveftitures  pn> 
 duced  abundance  of  authors  in  the  Weft,  fome  of 
 them  not  deftitute  of  merit,  did  not  the  temporary 
 nature  of  their  productions  confign  them  to  obli- 
 vion. Fulbert,  bifhop  of  Chartres,  deferves  a 
 hi°.h  rank  among  the  reftorers  of  literature.  He 
 read  public  lectures  in  the  fchools  of  Chartres, 
 and  has  left  to"  poflerity  letters  and  fermons,  with, 
 a  few  poems  :  his  letters  are  diftinguifhed  by  their 
 delicacy  and  wit  %.  Peter  Damianus,  cardinal 
 bifhop  of  Oftia,  was  a  polite  fcholar  for  his  time. 
 Anfelm,  archbifhop  of  Canterbury,  excelled  in 
 fchoiaftic  divinity,  and  wrote  a  demonstration  of 
 the  being  of  God  in  the  metaphyfical  ftyle;  his 
 argument  is  nearly  the  fame  with  that  ufed  by 
 Defcartes :  but  Lambertus,  a  German  monk,  was  at 
 this  period  the  bed  writer  in  the  Chrifitian  world  j 
 and  his  general  hiftory  is  highly  commended  by 
 Jofeph  Scaliger  §. 
 
 *  Mofh.  Cent.  ii.       f  Du  Pin.      Jib.       §JortinV.  44, 
 
 THE 
 
t  83  ] 
 
 THE    TWELFTH    CENTURY. 
 
 CHAP.    I. 
 
 GENERAL      STATE      OF      THE       CHURCH      IN      THE 
 TWELFTH    CENTURY. 
 
 Converfion  of  Pomerania— Livonia— Calamitous  fate  ofju* 
 .  dea— Second  Crufade—Saladin— Third  Crufade  under  Fre- 
 deric  Barbarojfa — Richard   Cceur  de  Lion— Knights   of 
 Malta  and  Templars — Teutonic  Knights— Popes,  Pafchal 
 (L— Alexander  III.— Lucius  III. — Innocent  III. 
 
 N  thofe  regions  of  Europe,  which  had  not  yet 
 received  the  Gofpel,  all  that  was  laudable  in 
 the  zeal  of  this  century  was  principally  exerted, 
 though  we  muft  (till  regret  the  means  which  a  mif- 
 taken  fpirit  of  religion  employed  even  for  the 
 promotion  of  a  glorious  canfe.  Boleflaus  duke 
 of  Poland,  having  conquered  the  Pomeranians, 
 onered  them  peace,  upon  condition  that  they 
 vWd  receive  the  Chriftian  teachers,  and  permit 
 them  to  exercife  their  miniftry  in  that  vanquifhed 
 province.  The  condition  was  accepted,  and 
 Otho  biihop  of  Bamberg,  a  man  of  eminent  pie- 
 ty and  zeal,  was  fent  in  the  year  1 124  to  inculcate 
 C  2  and 
 
$4  Succefs  of  Chrijlianity  in  the  North,  [cent.  \<1* 
 and  explain  the  doctrines  of  Ghriftianity  among 
 that  fuperftitious  and  barbarous  people, 
 
 Amongft  the  northern  princes  in  this  century, 
 none  appeared  with  more  diftinguilhed  reputation 
 than  Waldemar  I.  king  of  Denmark,  who  acquired 
 immortal  fame  by  the  battles  in  which  he  contended 
 agasnft  the  pagan  nations,  the  Sclavonians,  Ve- 
 nedi,  Vandals,  and  others,  who,  either  by  their 
 incurfions  or  their  revolt,  drew  upon  them  the 
 weight  of  his  victorious  arm. 
 
 The  eftablifhment  of  Chriftianity  among  the  Li- 
 vonians  was  attended  with  much  difficulty,  and 
 with  horrible  fcenes  of  cruelty  and  bloodshed* 
 The  firft  mimonary  who  attempted  the  conver- 
 sion of  that  favage  people  was  Mainard,  a  Tegu- 
 lar canon  of  St.  Auguftin,  in  the  monastery  of  Si- 
 geberg.  Towards  the  conclufion  of  this  century 
 he  travelled  to  Livonia,  with  a  company  of  mer- 
 chants of  Bremen  who  traded  there,  and  he  im- 
 proved this  opportunity  of  diffufing  the  light  of 
 the  Gofpel  in  that  barbarous  region  of  fuperftition 
 and  darknefs.  The  inftructions  and  exhortations,, 
 however,  of  this  zealous  apoftle,  were'received 
 with  indifference  or  reluctance  j  and  produced 
 but  little  effect.  The  mifguided  miflionary,  in 
 the  true  fpirit  of  the  times,  therefore,  a'ddrefTed 
 himfelf  to  the  Roman  pontiff,  Urban  III.  who 
 confecrated  him  bilhop  of  the  Livonians,  and,  at 
 the  fame  time,  declared  a  holy  war  againft  that 
 obftinate  people.     The  war,   which  at   firft-  was 
 
 carried 
 
cent.   12.]         Perfecution  of  Pagans.  8$ 
 
 carried  on  againft  the  inhabitants  of  the  province 
 of  Efthonia,  was  continued  with  (till  greater  vi- 
 gour, and  rendered  more  univerfal,  by  Berthold 
 abbot  of  Lucca,  who  forfook  his  monaftery  to 
 {hare  the  labours  and  laurels  of  Mainard,  whom 
 he  accordingly  fucceeded  in  the  fee  of  Livonia. 
 
 This  zealous  champion  of  the  faith  was  again  fuc- 
 ceeded by  Albert,  canon  of  Bremen,  who  entered 
 Livonia  in  1198,  and  inftituted  there  the  military 
 order  of  the  Knights  fword-bearers.  New  legions 
 were  fent  from  Germany  to  fecond  the  efforts,  and 
 add  efficacy  to  the  miffion  of  thefe  military  apo- 
 ftles.  This  wretched  people,  exhaufted  at  length, 
 and  unable  to  (land  any  longer  firm  againft  the 
 arm  of  perfecution,  abandoned  the  ftatues  of  their 
 pagan  deities,  and  fubftituted  in  their  place  the 
 images  of  the  faints.  But  while  they  received  the 
 bleffings  of  the  Gofpel,  they  were  at  the  fame 
 time  deprived  of  all  earthly  comforts  j  for  their 
 lands  and  polielfions  were  taken  from  them  with 
 die  mod  odious  eircumftances  of  cruelty  and  vio- 
 lence, and  the  knights  and  bifliops  divided  the 
 fpoil  *. 
 
 From  a  line  of  conduct  lo  contemptible  and 
 atrocious,  we  turn  with  pleafure  to  the  pious  Vi- 
 cellinus,  a  native  of  Hamelen,  a  man  ot  extraor- 
 dinary merit,    who,   after   having  prefided  many 
 
 *  Seethe  Origlnes  Livoniae,  feu  Chronicon  velus  Livonicum, 
 publiflied  in  folio,  at  Frankfort,  in  the  year  174-0?  by  Jo*  Da- 
 niel Gruberus. 
 
 G  3  years 
 
8  6  Kingdom  of  Jerujalem '.  [ c e  n  t. '  1 2 1 
 
 years  in  the  fociety  of  the  regular  canons  of  St. 
 Auguftin  at  Falderen,  was  at  length  confecrated 
 bifhop  of  Oldenbourg.  This  excellent  prelate 
 employed  the  Jaft  thirty  years  of  his  life  *,  amidft 
 numberlefs  vexations,  dangers,  and  difficulties, 
 in  inftructing  the  Sclavonians,  and  exhorting  them 
 to  comply  with  the  invitations  of  the  Gofpel  of 
 Chrift  ;  and  as  his  pious  labours  vvere  directed  by 
 wifdom,  and  executed  with  the  mod  indefatigable 
 induftry  and  zeal,  they  were  attended  with  propor- 
 tionate fuccefs.  To  his  zeal  and  perfeverance  as  a 
 .rniflionary,  Vicellinus  added  the  milder  virtues  of 
 a  faint,  and  every  event  of  his  protracted  life 
 entitles  him  to  the  efteem  and  veneration  of  fuc-* 
 ceffive  ages.  ■  -  » 
 
 The  new  kingdom  of  Jerufalem,  which  had 
 been  erected  by  the  holy  warriors  towards  the  con- 
 clusion of  the  preceding  century,  appeared  at  hrft 
 to  flourifh  considerably,  and  to  reft  upon  firm 
 and  fohd  foundations.  This  profperous  fcene 
 was,  however,  but  tranfitory,  and  was  foon  ilic- 
 ceeded  by  the  moft  terrible  calamities  and  .defla- 
 tions. Many  of  the  firft  Chriftian  conquerors  re- 
 turned to  Europe,  when  they  conceived  they  had 
 accomplished  their  vow  ;  and  thofe  who  remained 
 were,  immediately  on  the  death  of  Godfrey,  di- 
 vided into  factions.  The  Mahometan  powers, 
 therefore,  who  had  at  firft  been   thrown  into  con- 
 
 *  That  is,  from  the  year  1124  to  the  year  1 154,  in  which 
 he  died, 
 
 fternation 
 
csnt.  12.]  Second  Crujade.  St.  Bernard.  Sy 
 fternation  by  the  numbers,  valour,  and  fuccefs  of 
 the  foldiers  of  the  Crofs,  now  recovered  from  their 
 furprife,  and,  collecting  troops,  and  foliciting  fuc- 
 cours  from  all  quarters,  harafled  and  exhaufted  the 
 Chriftians  by  inceffant  invafions  and  wars.  The 
 fortitude  of  the  faithful  forfook  them  not  in  this 
 exigency :  the  country  they  had  acquired  by  va- 
 lour they  defended  with  perfeverance,  till  Atabec 
 Zenghi  *,  after  a  long  fiege,  conquered  the  city 
 of  EdeiTa,  and  menaced  Antioch  with  a  fimilar  fate. 
 In  this  fituation  the  Chriftians  became  timid  and 
 diffident.  They  implored  in  the  mod  defponding 
 flrain  the  afliftance  of  the  European  princes,  and 
 xequefted  a  frefh  army  to  fupport  their  tottering 
 empire  in  the  Holy  Land. 
 
 A  new  expedition  was  not,  however,  refolved 
 upon  with  fuch  unanimity  and  precipitation  as  the 
 former  had  been  ;  it  was  the  fubjecl:  of  long  delibe- 
 ration, and  its  expediency  was  ftrenuoufly  debated 
 both  in  the  cabinets  of  princes,  and  in  the  afTem- 
 blies  of  the  clergy  and  the  people.  Bernard,  the 
 celebrated  abbot  of  Clairval,  a  man  of  the  boldeft 
 refolution  and  of  the  greateft  authority,  termina- 
 ted thefe  difputes  under  the  pontificate  of  Euge- 
 nius  III.   who  had  been  his  difciple,  and  who  was 
 
 *  Atabec  was  a  title  of  honour  given  by  the  Sultans  to  the 
 viceroys  or  lieutenants  whom  they  entrufted  with  the  government 
 of  their  provinees.  The  Latin  authors,  who  have  written  the 
 hiftory  of  this  holy  war,  and  of  whom  Bongarfius  has.giyen  us 
 a  complete  lift,  called  this  Atabec  Zenghi,  Sanguinus.  See 
 Herbelot,  Biblioth.  Orient,  at  the  word  Atabec,  p.  142. 
 
 G  4  wholly 
 
8  fc  Wonderful  effetts  of  Oratory.      (c'e  ht.  \  % . 
 
 wholly  governed  by  his  counfels.  This  eloquent 
 and  zealous  zcc\tfaft\c  preached  the  crofs  with  much 
 ardour  and  fuccefs ;  and  in  the  grand  parliament 
 affembled  at  Vezelai,  1146,  at  which  Lewis  VII. 
 king  of  France,  with  his  queen,  with  a  prodigious 
 concourfe  of  the  nobility,  were  prefent ;  Bernard 
 recommended  this  holy  expedition  with  fuch  per- 
 fuafive  powers,  and  declared  with  fuch  affurance 
 that  he  had  a  divine  commiffion  to  foretel  its  glo- 
 rious fuccefs,  that  the  king,  the  queen,  and  alj 
 the  nobles,  immediately  put  on  the  military  crofs, 
 and  prepared  themfelves  for  the  voyage  to  Palef- 
 tine.  The  orator  next  directed  his  exhorta- 
 tions to  Conrad  \.\.  emperor  of  Germany,  who  for 
 fome  time  refitted  his  fervent  folicitations.  He  at, 
 length  complied  ;  and  fuch  was  the  pathetic  vehe- 
 mence of  the  tone  and  geftures  of  the  indefati- 
 gable Bernard,  that  a  phlegmatic  people  who  were 
 ignorant  of  his  language  were  induced  to  follow' 
 their  fovereign  to  .the  ffelcls  of  Paleftine.  The 
 nobles  of  France  and  Germany  were  animated  by 
 trie  example  and  pre'fence  of  their  favereigns, 
 and  Lewis  VII.  ancl  Conrad  Were  followed  by 
 armies  which  might  have  claimed  the  conqueftof 
 Afia.  Their  united  cavalry  \vas  compofed  of 
 feventy  thoqfand  knights,  and  their  attendants; 
 and  the  whole  number,  including  women  and 
 children,  is  computed  to  have  amounted  to  at 
 leatl  four  hundred  thoufand  fouls.  As  it  was  im- 
 poJTible  to  procure  neceilaries  for  fuch  numbers 
 
 in 
 
cent.  12.]  Unfortunate  Iffae  of  the fecwrf  Crufads.tt) 
 in  the  countries  through,  which  they  we're  to  pafs, 
 each  army  purfued  a  different  road.  But  before 
 their  arrival  in  the  Hjly  Land,  the  greater  part  of 
 their  forces  were  melted  away,  and  perilhed  mife- 
 rably,  by  famine,  by  the  fword  of  the  Mahome- 
 tans, by  fhipwieck,  or  by  the  peifidious  cruelty  of 
 the  Greeks,  who  regarded  thefe  rude  and  intre- 
 pid intruders  with  peculiar  acrimony  and  dread. 
 Their  numbers  and  their  manners  were  formidable, 
 and  their  defigns  a  tacit  reproach  to  the  pusilla- 
 nimous Greeks,  whofe  enmity  was  inflamed  by 
 religious  difcord  ;  and  the  fchifmatical  and  here* 
 tical  Chriftians  of  the  Weft  were  more  the  ob- 
 jects of  abhorrence  to  the  members  of  .he  Oriental 
 Church,  than  the  idolatrous  pagan,  or  the  follow«- 
 ers  of  Mahomet.  Such  indeed  was  their  abhor- 
 rence of  the  rites  of  their  weftern  brethren,  that  the 
 Greek  clergy  wafhed  and  purified  the  altar  which 
 had  been  defiled  by  the  facrifice  of  a  French  prieft. 
 Lewis  VII.  who  had  left  his  kingdom  1147,  in  the 
 month  of  March  of  the  following  year  arrived 
 at  Antioch,  with  the  wretched  remains  of  his  army, 
 exhaufted  and  dejected  by  the  hardfhips  they  had 
 ^endured.  Conrad  departed  alfo  in  the  year  1 147, 
 in  the  month  of  May  ;  and  in  November  follow- 
 ing he  arrived  at  Nice,  where  he  joined  the 
 French  army,  after  having  loft  the  greater  part  of 
 his  own  by  a  fucceffion  of  calamines.  From  Nice 
 the  two  princes  proceeded  to  J:rufalem  1148, 
 whence  they  led  back  into  Europe,    the  following 
 
 year, 
 
.90  .  Saladin,  Sultan  of  Egypt,        [cent.  12I 
 
 year,  the  miferable  remnant  of  troops  which  had 
 furvived  the  difafters  they  had  met  with  in  this 
 expedition.  Such  was  the  unhappy  iffue  of  the 
 fecond  crufade,  which  was  rendered  ineffectual 
 by  a  variety  of  caufes,  but  more  particularly  by 
 the  jcaloufies  and  divifions  which  diftracted  the 
 Christians  in  Paleftine.  Nor  was  it  more  inef- 
 fectual in  Paleltine  than  it  was  detrimental  to 
 Europe,  by  draining  the  wealth-  of  its  faireft 
 provinces,  and  deftroying  immenfe  numbers  of 
 its  inhabitants. 
 
 The  unfortunate  event  of  this  fecond  expedition 
 was  not  however  fufficient,  when  confidered  alone,, 
 to  render  the  affairs  of  the  Christians  in  Paleftine, 
 entirely  defperate.  Had  their  chiefs  and  princes 
 laid  afide  their  animofities  and  contentions,  had 
 they  attacked  the  common  enemy  with  their  united 
 force,  they  would  probably  have  repaired  their 
 loifes,  and  recovered  their  glory.  But  a  contrary 
 conduct  was  purfued.  By  inteftine  quarrels, 
 jealoufifs,  and  difcords,  they  weakened  their  ef- 
 forts a^ainft  the  enemies  who  furrounded  them, 
 and  con  fumed  their  Strength  by  unhappily  divid- 
 ing it.  Saladin,  viceroy,  or  rather  fultan  of 
 Egypt  and  Syria,  and  the  mod  valiant  chief  whom 
 the  Mahometan  annals  can  boafl,  took  advantage 
 of  thefe  lamentable  divifions.  He  took  prifoner 
 Guy  of  Lufign.m,  king  of  Jerufalem,  in  a  fatal 
 battle  fought -near  Tiberias  1 187;  anil,  in  three 
 months  afterwards,  appeared  in  arms   before  the 
 
 gates 
 
CEN.Tr  12.]  Third  Crttfade.  91 
 
 gates  of  Jerufalem.  The  rapid  efforts  of  fourteen 
 .days  enabled  the  victor  to  make  a  breach  in  the 
 walls,  upon  which  he  erected  twelve  banners  of  the 
 prophet :  he  foon  afterwards  entered  the  city,  tore 
 down  the  crofs  from  the  principal  church,  and  com- 
 pelled all  the  Franks  and  Latins  to  evacuate  the 
 place.  The  carnage  and  defolation  which  accom- 
 panied this  dreadful  campaign  threw  the  affairs  of 
 the  Chriftians  in  the  Eatl  into  the  mod  defperate 
 .condition,  and  afforded  no  glimpfe  of  hope,  but 
 what  arofe  from  the  expected  affiflance  of  the 
 ..European  princes.  This  afliftance  was  obtained 
 for  them  by  the  Roman  pontiffs  with  much  diffi- 
 culty, and  in  confequence  of  repeated  folicitations 
 and.  entreaties.  But  the  event  was  by  no  means 
 anfwerable  to  the  deep  fchemes  which  were  con- 
 certed, and  the  pains  which  were  employed  for  the 
 fupport  of  the  tottering  kingdom  of  Jerufalem. 
 
 The  third  expedition  was  undertaken  1189,  by 
 Frederic  I.  furnamed  Barbaroffa,  emperor  of  Ger- 
 many ;  who,  with  a  prodigious  army,  marched 
 through  feveral  Grecian  provinces,  where  he  had 
 innumerable  difficulties  and  obftacles  to  overcome, 
 into  the  Leffer  Afia,  whence,  after  having  defeated 
 the  fultan  of  Iconium,  he  penetrated  into  Syria. 
 His  valour  and  conduct:  promifed  fuccefsful  and 
 glorious  campaigns  to  the  army  he  commanded, 
 when,  by  an  unhappy  accident,  he  loft  his  life  in 
 the  river  Saleph,  which  runs  through  Seleucia. 
 The  manner  of  his  death  is  not  known  with  any 
 (degree  of  certainty;  but  the  lofs  of  this  intrepid 
 
 'veteran 
 
$1  Richard  Gxur  de  fJotii  [cent..  is« 
 
 veteran  dejected  the  fpirits  of  his  troops,  und  in 
 coniequence  of  ic  conliderable  numbers  of  tfvetft 
 returned  to  Europe.  Thofe  that  remained  conti- 
 nued the  war  under  the  command  of  Frederic, 
 fon  of  the  deceafed  emperor;  but  the  greater  part 
 of  them  perifhed  miferably  by  a  pestilential  dis- 
 order, which  raged  with  fatal  violence  in  the  camp, 
 and  fwept  off  vaft  numbers  every  day.  The  new 
 general  died  of  this  terrible  difeafe  in  1 191  ;  thofe 
 who  efcaped  its  fury  were  difperfed,  and  few  re^ 
 turned  to  their  own  country. 
 
 The  example  of  Frederic  BarbarolTa  was  foU 
 lowed,  in  the  year  11 90,  by  Philip  Auguftus  king^ 
 of  France,  and  Richard  I.  king  of  England*. 
 Thefe  two  monarchs  proceeded  from  their  re* 
 fpective  dominions  with  a  considerable  number  of 
 fhips  of  war  and  tranfports,  arrived  in  Paleftine 
 m  the  year  1 1 9 1 ,  each  at  the  head  of  a  Separate 
 army,  and  were  fuccefsful  in  their  firft  encounters 
 with  the  infidels;  After  the  reduction  of  the 
 ftrong  city  of  Acre  or  Ptolemais,  which  had  been 
 defended  by  the  Muffulmans  with  the  mod  obfti- 
 nate  valour;  the  Trench  monarch  returned  into 
 Europe,  in  the  month  of  July  1191,  leaving, 
 however,  behind  him  a  conliderable  part  of  the 
 army  which  he  had  conducted  into  Paleftine. 
 Notwithstanding  his  departure,  the  king  of  Eng- 
 land purSued  the  war,  exhibited  daily  marks  of 
 heroic  intrepidity  and  military  fkill,  and  not  only 
 defeated  Saladin  in  feveral  engagements,  but  made 
 
 *  Called  by  way  of  eminence,  Richard  Cxur  de  Lion. 
 
 himfelf 
 
csht.  12.]  Three  celebrated  Military  Orders.  93. 
 himfelf  matter  of  YafFa  (more  commonly  known 
 by  the  name  of  Joppa)  and  Caefarea.  Deferted 
 however  by  the  French  and  Italians,  and  influ- 
 enced by  other  motives  and  confederations  of  efTea- 
 tial  importance,  he  concluded,  in  1192,  with 
 Saladin,  a  truce  of  three  years,  three  months,  and 
 as  many  days,  and  foon  evacuated  Paleftine  with 
 his  whole  army  *.  Such  was  the  iiRie  of  the  third 
 expedition  againft  the  infidels,  which  exhaufted 
 England,  France  and  Germany,  both  of  men  and 
 money,  without  producing  any  folid  advantage, 
 or  giving  even  a  favourable  turn  to  the  affairs  of 
 the  Christians  in  the  Holy  Land. 
 
 Thecontefts  which  arofe  between  the  Chriftians 
 and  Mahometans  gave  rife  to  the  three  celebrated 
 military  orders. 
 
 The  order  of  the  knights  of  St.  John  of  Jeru- 
 salem, which  at  firft  was  merely  a  charitable  foci- 
 ety,  then  a  military  aflbciation,  and  at  laft  a  fove- 
 reign  power,  traces  back  its  origin  to  the  middle  of 
 the  eleventh  century,  when  feme  merchants  of 
 Amalfi,  pioufly  defirous  that  the  devout  pilgrims 
 from  various  parts  of  the  Chrillian  world  Ihould 
 have  accefs  to  the  fepulchre  of  their  Saviour,  ob- 
 tained permiflion  from  the  Egyptian  caliph,  who 
 at  that  time  poflefled  Jerufalem,  to  erect  a  houfe 
 there  for    the   reception    of  the   Latin   pilgrims, 
 
 *  Daniel,  Hijolre  de  France,  torn.  ill.  p.  426 — Rapin  Thoy- 
 ras,  H'lftoire  d' '/tngkterrey  torn.  ii.  See  there  the  reign  of  Richard 
 Gewt  tie  Lion. — Marigny,  Hijloire  chs  Arahesy  torn.  iv.  p.  285. 
 
 I  nvefted 
 
94  Order  of  St.JohnofJerufalem.     [cent,  i  £3 
 
 Jnvefted   with  powers  for  that  purpofe,  they  foon 
 built  a  chapel,   which  was  dedicated  to  St.  Mary 
 ad  Latinos,    in  order  to  diftinguifh  it  from  thofe 
 churches    which   belonged  to  the  Greeks,  whofe 
 ritual  was  extremely   different,  and  who,  on  that 
 account,  had  treated  the  Latin  Chriftians  with  great 
 rancour   and  contumely.     Two  houfes  of  enter- 
 tainment, for   the  reception  of  pilgrims   of  both 
 fexes,  were  at  firft  erected   near  this  chapel,  w  here 
 fervice  was  performed  by  fome  benedicline  monks., 
 Thefe  pious  fathers,  devoted  to  the  interefts  of  re- 
 ligion and  charity,   received  with  holy  hofpitality 
 all  thofe  who  vifited  the  facred  fepulchre  ;  carefully  .t 
 attended  them  when   fick;    and  liberally  fupplied 
 their  wants  out  of  the  alms  which  were  collected 
 for  them  in  Italy  by  the  charitable  merchants  of 
 Amalfi. 
 
 An  inftitution  which  had  for  its  object  the  good 
 of  religion,  without  any  refpect  to  perfonal  enjoy- 
 ment or  intereft,  rofe  daily  in  the  efteem  of  afl 
 ranks  in  the  Chriftian  world ;  and  great  numbers 
 cf  pilgrims  devoting  themfelves  to  the  fervice  of 
 mankind,  remained  in  Paleftine,  and  incorporated 
 themfelves  into  this  pious  fociety,  which,  without 
 the  diftinclion  of  Latin  or  of  Greek,  of  fex,  of  age, 
 or  of  country,  hofpitably  received  all  who  defired 
 admiffion  within  its  walls.  Even  the  Mahometan 
 found  in  this  fraternity,  that  his  claims  as  a  man 
 would  be  attended  with  the  mod  important  ferr 
 victs,  though  his  religious  faith  was  the  objecr.of 
 
 horror 
 
CEftT.  ii.J         Increafe  of  Its  reputation.        *       qc 
 
 horror  and  dcteftation.  Daily  did  the  houfe  of  Sr« 
 John  increafe  in  reputation  and  efteem ;  feveral 
 very  important  donations  were  given  in  diffti.  nfc 
 parts  or  Europe  to  increafe  its  funds;  and  upon  the 
 conqueft  of  Jerufalem,  Godfrey  of  Boulogne,  who 
 was  inverted  with  the  government  of  the  Chriftians 
 in  thofe  parts,  augmented  the  riches  of  thefe  hof- 
 pitallers  by  fome  very  extenfive  grants,  which 
 were  imitated  by  the  other  noblemen  who  had 
 joined  in  the  crulade.  The  fraternity  and  lifter- 
 hood  of  St.  John  aftumcd  a  regular  habit,  and  con- 
 tinued, under  the  Chriftian  kings  of  Jerufalem,  to 
 pracufe  thofe  virtues  by  which  they  were  firft  dii- 
 tinguifhed  :  nor  were  their  cares  confined  to  the 
 fafety  and  accommodation  of  the  Chriftians  who 
 were  already  at  Jerufalem  ;  a  conliderable  part  of 
 their  revenues  were  appropriated  to  the  erection  of 
 fimilar  inftitutions  in  the  principal  maritime  pro- 
 vinces of  Europe,  where  the  pilgrims  were  received 
 and  entertained,  and  directed  to  the  means  of  pro-*' 
 viding  every  neceflary  for  their  embarkation. 
 
 Though  the  Chriftians  had  obtained,  by  their 
 victories,  poffeflion  of  the  capital  of  Palestine,  and 
 of  fome  other  cities,  yet  the  greateft  part  of  the 
 country  ftill  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  Infidels, 
 who  affaffinated  great  numbers  of  thofe  who  re- 
 forted  to  the  holy  fepulchre,  and  fometimes  fell  in 
 jarge  bodies  upon  the  Chriftian  towns  which  were 
 not  fortified,  and  put  the  inhabitants  to  the-fword. 
 t  In 
 
96      tnvefted  with  Military  Powers.    £cent*  i2* 
 
 In  order  to  check  thefe  alarming  outrages,  the 
 fuperior  of  the  hoJ  pit  alters  propofed  the  extraor- 
 dinary fcheme  of  taking  a  certain  portion  of  the 
 monks  of  St.  John,  who  were  diftinguifhed  by 
 birth,  and  had  formerly  ferved  in  the  holy  wars, 
 to  bear  arms  againft  thefe  Infidels,  at  the  fame 
 time  that  they  were  to  continue  their  former  cha- 
 ritable offices  in  the  fociety.  To  this  propoial  the 
 patriarch  of  Jerufalem  agreed,  Godfrey  joyfully  ac- 
 ceded to  the  wifhes  of  his  old  afibciates  in  the 
 field,  and  the  monks  were  tranfported  with  a 
 fcheme  which  animated  the  latent  fpark  of  glory, 
 without  wholly  drawing  them  from  the  employ- 
 ments to  which  they  had  dedicated  their  days,  and 
 in  purfuit  of  which  they  united  the  virtues  of  a 
 Chriftian  with  thefpirit  and  enthufiafm  of  a  foldier 
 engaged  in  the  mod  glorious  caufe. 
 
 Upon  the  firft  inftitution  of  this  military  order, 
 which  arofe  early  in  the  12th  century,  thofe  who- 
 were  appointed  to  bear  arms  were  but  one  of  three 
 claffes  into  which  the  fuperior  of  the  convent  had 
 divided  the  order.  The  fecond  clafs  confided  of 
 the  priefts  and  chaplains,  who,  befides  their  cuf- 
 tomary  attendance  upon  the  church,  or  the  lick 
 and  poor,  were  obliged  to  ferve  by  turns  as  chap- 
 lains in  the  camp.  Thofe  of  the  third  clafs  were 
 fuch  as  were  neither  diftinguilhed  by  birth,  nor 
 had  become  ecclefiaftics  ;  and  thefe  obtained  the 
 name  of  fervin^  brothers,  from  the  inferior  offices 
 which  they  were  obliged  to  perform.  Thefe  de- 
 grees 
 
cent.  12.]  Knights  of  Malta.  97 
 
 grees  were,  however,  at  firft,  merely  nominal,  and 
 each  of  the  monks  of  St.  John  was  an  equal  parti- 
 cipator in  the  privileges  and  immunities  of  the 
 order ;  but  in  a  fhort  time,  the  foldiers  or  the 
 knights  obtained  fome  diftinctions  in  their  drefs, 
 both  in  the  convent  and  the  field,  and  in  time 
 were  admitted  to  dignities  to  which  the  ferving 
 brothers  had  no  pretenfions. 
 
 The  order  increasing  daily  in  fplendor  and  re- 
 putation received  new  accefiions  of  numbers  from 
 every  part  of  the  Chriftian  world,  who  were  defi- 
 rous  of  enrolling  themfelves  under  its  banner.  In 
 confequence  of  this  influx  into  the  order,  a  new 
 diftinction  was  found  neceflary,  which  was  divid- 
 ing it  into  feven  ckuTes,  according  to  the  different 
 nations  and  countries  to  which  thefe  different  emi- 
 grants belonged.  Thefe  divifions  were  called  lan- 
 guages or  tongues,  and  were  thofe  of  Provence, 
 Auvergne,  France,  Italy,  Arragon,  Germany,  and 
 England  ;  and  the  commanderies  and  emoluments 
 belonging  to  the  order  in  thofe  countries  were  an- 
 nexed to  the  language  or  order  of  knights  belong- 
 ing to  thefe  refpeclive  nations.  The  Englifh, 
 iince  the  reign  of  Henry  VI H.  have  forfeited  the 
 advantages  of  being  admitted  into  the  order,  and 
 the  honours  and  emoluments  of  that  nation,  of 
 which  the  order  was  not  deprived,  are  now  divided 
 into  the  other  nations,  to  which  have  been  added 
 the  languages  of  Caflile  and  Portugal. 
 
 During  the   wars  which  fucceeded   the   com- 
 Vol.  II.  JLI  n^encement 
 
98  Knights  of  Malta.  [cent.  12. 
 
 mencement  of  this  remarkable  inftitution,  the 
 knights  of  St.  John  were  diftinguiflied  by  their 
 military  enthufiaim,  and  heroic  achievements; 
 but  the  mod  determined  valour  and  the  mod  fpi- 
 rited  exertions  could  not  for  ever  render  them, 
 fuccefsful  againft  the  attacks  of  an  enemy  whofe 
 forces  were  infinitely  more  numerous  than  then- 
 own,  and  whofe  conquefts  were  accelerated  by  the 
 interline  divifions  which  had  long  prevailed  in  the 
 order.  The  knights,  compelled  at  length  by 
 the  victorious  arms  of  the  Mahometans  to  refign 
 to  them,  after  many  ftruggles,  the  Holy  Land, 
 retired  to  Candia,  which,  upon  finding  them- 
 felves  ill  treated  by  the  king  of  that  ifland,  they 
 afterwards  forfook,  and  after  much  difficulty,  and 
 a  war,  continued  with  various  fuccefs  during 
 four  years,  at  length  obtained  poffeffion  of  the 
 ifland  of  Rhodes,  and  exchanged  their  ancient 
 title  to  that  of  the  knights  of  Rhodes.  This 
 delightful  fituation,  which  they  acquired  in 
 13 10,  they  enjoyed  for  near  two  hundred  and 
 twenty  years  j  but  at  the  expiration  of  that  time 
 were  again  compelled  to  defert  a  refidence  which 
 they  had  rendered  very  delightful,  and  to*  refign 
 the  ifland,  with  all  its  dependencies,  to  Solyman 
 the  Second.  After  feveral  affecting  viciffitudes 
 of  fortune,  the  order  at  length  obtained  from  the 
 Emperor  Charles  V.  an  afylum  for  their  fcat- 
 tered  forces,  and  in  1530,  took  poffeflion  of 
 Tripoli  and  of  the  iflands  of  Malta  and  Gozzo. 
 1  In 
 
cent.  12.]  Knights  Templars.  jq^ 
 
 In  thefe  iflands  the  order  ftill  exiles ;  and  very 
 foon  after  obtaining  the  grant,  exchanged  the 
 title  of  the  Knights  of  Rhodes  to  that  of  the 
 Knights  of  Malta,  by  which  they  are  ftill  diftin- 
 guifhed. 
 
 Another  order,  which  was  entirely  of  a  military 
 nature,  was  that  of  the  Knights  Templars,  who 
 received  this  denomination  from  a  palace  adjoining 
 to  the  temple  of  Jerufalem,  which  was  appropri- 
 ated to  their  ufe  for  a  certain  time  by  Balduin  II. 
 The  foundations  of  this  order  were  laid  at  Jeru- 
 falem, in  the  year  1118,  by  Hugues  des  Pagens, 
 Geoffry  of  St.  Aldemer,  or  St.  Omer,  and  feven 
 other  perfons  whofe  names  are  unknown  ;  but  it 
 was  not  before  the  year  1228,  that  it  acquired  a 
 proper  degree  of  ftability,  by  being  confirmed  fo- 
 Jemnly  in  the  council  of  Troyes,  and  fubjccted  to  a 
 rule  of  difcipline,  drawn  up  by  St.  Bernard.  Thefe 
 warlike  Templars  were  engaged  to  defend  and 
 fupport  the  caufe  of  Chritlianity  by  force  of  arms, 
 to  infpect  the  public  roads,  and  to  protect  the 
 pilgrims,  who  vifited  Jerufalem,  againft  the  infults 
 and  barbarity  of  the  Mahometans.  The  order 
 flourished  for  fome  time,  and  acquired  immenfe 
 riches,  and  an  eminent  degree  of  military  reputa- 
 tion: but,  as  their  profperity  increafed,  their  vices 
 were  multiplied,  and  their  arrogance,  luxury*, 
 and  cruelty  became  fo  obnoxious,  that  their  pri- 
 
 *  Blbere  Templansrum  morey  was  a  common  proverb. 
 
 H  2  vileges 
 
i oo  Teutonic  Knights.  [cent.  12;. 
 
 vileges  were  revoked,  and  their  order  fupprefled 
 by  a  decree  of  the  pope  and  of  the  council  of 
 Vienne  in  Dauphiny,  about  the  year  131 1** 
 
 The  third  order  refembled  the  firft  in  this  re- 
 fpect,  that,  though  it  was  a  military  inftitution,  the 
 care  of  the  poor,  and  the  relief  of  the  fick  were  not 
 excluded   from   the  fervices  it   prefcribed.      Its 
 members  were  diftinguifhed  by  the  title  of  Teutonic 
 Knights   of  St.  Mary  of  Jerufalem;  but  we  cannot, 
 with  any  degree  of  certainty,  trace  its  origin  far- 
 ther back  than  the  year  11 90,  during  the  fiegeo'f 
 Acre  or  Ptolemais.     In  this  protracted  fiege  feve- 
 ral  pious  and  benevolent  merchants  of  Bremen 
 and  Lubec,  affected  with  the  fight  of  the  miferies* 
 which  the  befiegersfuffered,  devoted  themielves' 
 entirely  to  the  fervice  of  the  fick  and  wounded 
 foldiers,  and  erected  a  kind  of  hofpital  or  tent, 
 where  they  gave  conflant  attendance  to  every  un- 
 happy object  who  folicited  their  charity.     This 
 pious  undertaking  was  fo  agreeable  to  the  German 
 princes,  who  were  profecuting  the  fiege,  that  they 
 inftituted  a  fraternity  of  German  knights  to  bring 
 it  to  a  greater  degree  of  perfection.     Their  refo- 
 lution  was  approved  by  pope  Celeftine   III.  who 
 confirmed  the  new  order  by  a  bull  iffued  on  the 
 twenty-third  of  February,  1 192.     This  order  was 
 
 *  There  is  good  reafon  to  fufpeft,  that  the  immenfe  wealth 
 of  this  fraternity  afforded  no  inconfiderable  temptation  to  the 
 potentates  of  Chriftendom,  to  exert  themfelves  for  its  fup- 
 preflion. 
 
 entirely 
 
cent.  12.]     Conteji  between  Emp.  and  Pope.     101 
 
 entirely  appropriated  to  the  Germans,  and  even 
 of  them  none  were  admitted  as  members,  but  fuch 
 as  were  of  an  illuftrious  birth.  The  fupport  of 
 Chriftianity,  the  defence  of  the  Holy  Land,  and 
 the  relief  of  the  poor  and  needy,  were  the  impor- 
 tant duties  and  fervice  to  which  the  Teutonic 
 Knights  devoted  themfelves  by  a  folemn  vow. 
 Aufterity  and  frugality  were  the  firft  characteriftics 
 of  this  rifing  order,  and  the  equeftrian  garment*, 
 with  bread  and  water,  were  the  only  reward  which 
 the  knights  derived  from  their  generous  labours. 
 But  this  aufterity  proved  of  fhort  duration,  and 
 diminifhed  in  proportion  as  the  revenues  and  pof- 
 feffions  of  the  order  augmented.  The  Teutonic 
 Knights,  after  their  retreat  from  Paleftine,  made 
 themfelves  rnafters  of  Pruffia,  Livonia,  Courland, 
 and  Semigallen ;  but,  their  victorious  arms  after- 
 wards received  feveral  checks ;  and  when  the  light 
 of  the  reformation  arofe  upon  Germany,  they  were 
 deprived  of  the  richeft  provinces  which  they  pof- 
 feiTed  in  that  country  ;  though  they  dill  retained 
 there  a  certain  portion  of  their  ancient  territories. 
 
 The  internal  ftate  of  Chriftendom  during  the 
 eleventh  century  continued  to  be  divided  by  per- 
 petual contentions  between  the  empire  and  the 
 papacy,  or  by  violent  ftruggles  between  the  popes 
 and  antipopes.  Pafcal  II.  who  had  been  raifed  to 
 the  pontificate  about  the  conclufion  of  the  preced- 
 ing age,  appeared  firmly   feated  in  the  apoftolic 
 
 *  This  garment  was  a  white  mantle  with  a  black  crofs. 
 
 H  3  chair, 
 
102  Empror  Hsnry  IV,  depojcd.  [cent.  12. 
 chair,  without  the  leaft  apprehenfion  from  the  Im- 
 perial faction.  After  the  death  of  Guibert  in 
 1 100,  this  faction  indeed  chofe  in  his  place  a 
 perfon  named  Albert;  but  he  was  feized  and  im- 
 prifoned  on  the  day  of  his  election.  Theodoric 
 and  Magnulf,  were  fucceffively  chofen  after  Albert, 
 but  could  not  long  iupport  their  claim  to  the  pon- 
 tificate*. 
 
 No  fooner  did  Pafchal  obferve  his  deliverance 
 from  his  domeftic  enemies,  than  he  determined 
 not  to  fuffer  the  prefent  feafon  of  tranquillity  to 
 pafs  unimproved.  He  affembled  a  council  at 
 Rome  in  the  year  1 102,  in  which  the  decrees  of  his 
 predeceffors  againft-  inveftitures,  and  the  excom«- 
 munications  they  had  fulminated  againll  Henry  IV. 
 were  renewed,  and  the  moil  vigorous  efforts  were 
 employed  by  the  ambitious  pontiff  to  excite  new 
 enemies  againft  the  unfortunate  emperor.  Henry 
 oppoled  however,  with  much  conftancy  and  refolu- 
 tion,  the  efforts  of  this  violent  pontiff,  and  eluded 
 with  much  dexterity  and  vigilance  his  perfidious 
 ftratagems.  But  his  heart,  wounded  in  the  tenderer]: 
 part,  loft  all  its  firmnefs  and  courage,  when*  in  the 
 year  1 1 04,  an  unnatural  fon,  under  the  impious  pre- 
 text of  religion,  took  up  arms  againft  his  perfon  and 
 his  caufe.  Henry  V.  (fo  was  this  monfter  afterwards 
 named)  feized  his  father  in  a  treacherous  manner, 
 and   obliged  him  to  abdicate  the  empires  after 
 
 *  See  Floury,  B'tjl.  Ecclef.  livr.  liv.  xv.  v©l.  xiv.  p.  IO.  Bruf- 
 fcls  edition  in  Svo. 
 
 which 
 
cent.  12.]  Difputes  between  the  Pope  and  Hen.  V.  103 
 
 which  the  unhappy  prince  retired  to  Liege,  where, 
 deferted  by  all  his  adherents,  he  was  releafed  from 
 his  mifery  by  death,  in  the  year  11 06. 
 
 The  revolution  which  this  odious  rebellion  oc- 
 cafioned  in  the  empire,  was,  however,  lefs  favour- 
 able to  the  views  of  Pafcal  than  he  expedled. 
 Henry  V.  could  by  no  means  be  perfuaded  to  re- 
 nounce his  right  oiinvejiing  the  bifhops  and  abbots, 
 though  he  was  willing  to  grant  the  right  of  election 
 to  the  canons  and  monks,  as  was  ufual  before  his 
 time.  Upon  this  the  exafperated  pontiff  renewed, 
 in  the  councils  of  Guaftallo  and  Troyes,  the  de- 
 crees which  had  fo  frequently  been  iffued  againft 
 invejlitures,  and  the  flame  broke  out  with  new  force. 
 It  was,  indeed,  fufpended  during  a  few  years,  by 
 the  wars  in  which  Henry  V.  was  engaged,  and 
 which  prevented  his  bringing  the  difpute  to  a  con- 
 clufion.  But  no  fooner  had  he  made  peace  writh  his 
 enemies,  and  compofed  the  tumults  which  interrupt- 
 ed the  tranquillity  of  the  empire,  than  he  departed 
 for  Italy  with  a  formidable  army  in  1 1 10,  to  put  an 
 end  to  the  long  and  unhappy  conteft.  He  advanced 
 towards  Rome  by  flow  marches,  while  the  trem- 
 bling pontiff,  reduced  to  the  loweft  and  moft  de- 
 fencelefs  condition,  propofed  to  him  the  following 
 conditions  of  peace :  That  he,  on  the  one  hand, 
 fhould  renounce  the  right  of  invejiing,  with  the  ring 
 and  the  crofter ;  and  that  the  bifhops  and  abbots 
 fhould,  on  the  other,  refign  to  the  emperor  all  the 
 grants  they  had  received   from  Charlemagne,  of 
 
 H  4  thofe 
 
104  Vittory  of  Henry  V.over  the  Tope.  [cent.  12,. 
 thofe  rights  and  privileges  which  belong  to  royalty; 
 fuch  as  the  power  of  railing  tribute,  coining  money, 
 and  poffeffing  independent  lands  and  territories, 
 with  other  immunities  of  a  fimilar  nature.  Thefe 
 conditions  were  agreeable  to  Henry,  and  he  ac- 
 cordingly ratified  them  by  a  formal  confent  in  the 
 year  1 1 1 1 ;  but  they  proved  extremely  difpleafing 
 to  the  Italian  and  German  bifhops,  who  expreffed 
 their  diffent  in  the  ftrongeft  terms.  •  A  fatal  tumult 
 arofe  in  the  church  of  St.  Peter,  where'the  contend- 
 ing parties  were  affembled  with  their  refpective  fol- 
 lowers, upon  which  Henry  ordered  the  pope,  and 
 feveral  of  the  refra&ory  cardinals  to  be  feized,  and 
 to  be  confined  in  the  caftle  of  Viterbo.  After  re; 
 maining  a  prifoner  for  fome  time,  the  captive  pon- 
 tiff was  engaged,  by  the  unhappy  circumftances  of 
 his  prefent  condition,  to  enter  into  a  new  conven- 
 tion, by  which  he  foiemnly  receded  from  the  article 
 of  the  former  treaty  which  regarded  invejlitures,, 
 confirmed  to  the  emperor  the  privilege  of  inaugu- 
 rating the  bifhops  and  abbots  with  the  ring  and 
 crofter,  and  anathematized  all  who  might  oppofe  this 
 concefiion.  Thus  was  peace  concluded,  in  confe- 
 quence  of  which  the  vanquished  pontiff  arrayed 
 Henry  with  the  imperial  diadem. 
 
 This  tranfitory  peace,  the  fruit  of  violence  and 
 neceffity,  was  followed  by  greater  tumults  and 
 more  dreadful  wars,  than  had  yet  afHided  the 
 Church.  Immediately  after  the  conclufionof  this 
 treaty,  Rome  was  filled  with  the  moft  vehement 
 
 commotions, 
 
cent.  12.]         Henry  V.  excommunicated.  ioc 
 
 commotions,  and  an  univerfal  clamour  was  excited 
 againft  the  pontiff,  who  was  accufed  of  having  vio- 
 lated, in  a  fcandalous  manner,  the  duties  and  dig- 
 nity of  his  ftation,  and  of  having  proftituted  the 
 majefty  of  the  Church  by  his  ignominious  compli- 
 ance with  the  demands  of  the  emperor.  To  ap- 
 peafe  thefe  commotions,  Pafcal  in  defiance  of  his 
 anathema  affembled,  in  the  year  1112,  a  council  in 
 the  church  of  Lateran  ;  and  there  not  only  con- 
 feffed,  with  the  deeped  contrition,  the  crime  he  had 
 committed  in  concluding  fuch  a  convention  with 
 the  emperor,  but  fubmitted  the  decifion  of  the  af- 
 fair to  the  determination  of  the  council,  who  ac- 
 cordingly took  the  treaty  into  confideration,  and 
 folemnly  annulled  it.  This  ftep  was  followed  by 
 many  events  which  gave,  for  a  long  time,  an  unfa- 
 vourable afpedt  to  the  affairs  of  the  emperor.  He 
 was  excommunicated  in  many  fynods  and  councils 
 both  in  France  and  Germany ;  he  was  even  placed 
 in  the  black  lift  of  heretics,  a  denomination  which 
 expofed  to  the  greateft  dangers  in  thefe  fuperftitious 
 and  barbarous  times ;  and,  to  complete  his  anxiety, 
 }ie  faw  the  German  princes  revolting  from  his  aur 
 thority  in  feveral  places,  and  taking  up  arms  in  the 
 caufe  of  the  Church.  To  terminate  the  calamities 
 which  thus  afflicted  the  empire  on  all  fides,  Henry 
 fet  out  a  feconcj  time  for  Italy,  with  a  numerous 
 army,  in  the  year  1 1 16,  and  arrived  the  year  fol- 
 lowing at  Rome,  where  he  affembled  the  confuls, 
 fenators  and  nobles,  while  the  fugitive  pontiff  re- 
 tired 
 
io6    Alexander  oppofed  by  the  Cardinals,  [cent.  12. 
 
 tired  to  Benevento.  Pafcal,  however,  during  this 
 forced  abfence,  engaged  the  Normans  to  march  to 
 his  affiftance,  and,  encouraged  by  the  profpecl  of 
 immediate  fuccour,  prepared  for  a  vigorous  war 
 againft  the  emperor,  and  attempted  to  make  him- 
 felf  mafter  of  Rome.  But,  in  the  midft  of  thefe 
 warlike  preparations,  which  drew  the  attention  of 
 Europe,  the  military  pontiff  concluded  his  days, 
 in  the  year  1 1 18.  John  Cajetan  was  appointed  his 
 fucceffor,  but  ended  his  turbulent  pontificate  in  the 
 beginning  of  the  following  year.  He  was  fucceeded 
 by  Calliftus  II.  who  renewed  the  difpute  concern- 
 ing inveltitures..  Each  party,  however,  wearied* 
 by  unceafing  contention,  became  defirous  of  the » 
 bleffings  of  peace-,  conditions  were  therefore  pro- 
 pofed  which  derogated  neither  from  the  majefty  of 
 the  empire,  nor  the  rights  of  the  Church,  and  tem- 
 porary tranquillity  was  once  more  reftored.  In  the. 
 pontificates  of  his  fucceflbrs  till  the  elevation  of 
 Alexander  III.  few  remarkable  events  occurred, 
 except  the  ftruggles  of  contending  popes,  and 
 their  difputes  with  Roger  king  of  Sicily,  who 
 haughtily  refufed  to  acknowledge  his  dominions 
 as  dependencies  upon  the  Holy  See. 
 
 The  dormant  ftruggles  for  power  between  the 
 popes  and  emperors  were  revived  during  the  pon- 
 tificate of  Alexander  III.  who  attained  the  papal 
 chair  in  1 159.  The  elevation  of  this  prelate 
 was  warmly  oppofed  by  feveral  of  the  cardinals, 
 who,  in  oppofition  to  him,  elected  another  of  their 
 
 body 
 
cent.  12.]  Anti-Pope.  107 
 
 body  under  the  name  of  Victor  IIT.  and  their  op- 
 pofition  was  ffcrengthened  by  obtaining  as  an  auxi- 
 liary the  emperor  Frederic  I.  The  terrified  pon- 
 tiff fled  precipitately  into  Sicily,  whence  he  pro- 
 cured a  paffage  into  France,  where  he  was  received 
 by  the  kings  of  England  and  France,  and  was 
 conducted  on  horfeback  along  the  road  by  thefe 
 fubmiffive  princes,  each  of  whom  on  foot  held  the 
 reins  of  his  horfe's  bridle.  After  a  feries  of  conten- 
 tions during  eighteen  years,  tranquillity  was  once 
 more  reftored  by  the  fubmiffion  of  the  emperor, 
 who  condefcended  to  proftrate  himfelf  at  the  feet 
 of  the  haughty  pontiff  in  the  great  church  of  St. 
 Mark  at  Venice,  and  to  receive  from  him  the  kifs 
 of  peace. 
 
 Too  extended  in  his  views  to  be  folely  occupied 
 with  the  events  in  which  he  was  perfonally  con- 
 cerned, the  viciflitudes  to  which  Alexander  was 
 expofed,  did  not  prevent  him  from  fteadily  regard- 
 ing every  circumftance  which  affected  the  privi- 
 leges and  dignity  of  the  Holy  See.  In  the  reign 
 of  Henry  II.  of  England,  the  celebrated  council  of 
 Clarendon  was  held,  in  which  feveral  laws  were 
 enacted,  for  the  falutary  purpofe  of  restraining  the 
 abufes  of  the  ecclefiaftical  tribunals,  and  reducing 
 the  cognizance  of  all  civil  crimes  and  mifdemeanors 
 under  the  authority  of  the  king  and  his  judges. 
 To  thefe  laws  Thomas  Becket*,   archbifhop  of 
 
 *  See  Matth.  Paris,  Hijlor.  Major,  p.  82,  83.  101.  114.  Dav. 
 Wilkins,  Concilia  Magna  Britannia,  torn.  1.  p.  434. 
 
 Canterbury 
 
i  ©8  Thomas  Be  eke  t.  [cent.  it. 
 
 Canterbury,  refufed  obedience,  confidering  them  as 
 prejudicial  to  the  divine  rights  of  the  church  in,  gene- 
 ral, and  particularly  to  the  prerogatives  of  the  court 
 of  Rome.  A  violent  debate  fucceeded  between  the 
 refolute  monarch  and  the  rebellious  prelate,  and  the 
 latter  was  obliged  to  retire  into  France,  where  the 
 exiled  pontiff  at  that  time  refided.  This  prelate 
 and  the  king  of  France,  interpofed  their  good 
 offices  to  compofe  thefe  differences,  and  they  fuc- 
 ceeded fo  far,  after  much  trouble  and  difficulty,  as 
 to  encourage  Eecket  to  return  into  England,  where 
 he  was  rc-inftated  in  his  forfeited  dignity.  But  the 
 generous  and  indulgent  proceedings  of  his  fove-  '* 
 reign  were  not  fufficient  to  conquer  his  obftinacy  • 
 in  maintaining,  what  he  called,  the  privileges  of 
 the  Church ;  nor  could  he  be  induced  by  any 
 means  to  comply  with  the  views  and  meafures  of 
 Henry.  The  confequences  of  this  inflexible  re- . 
 fiftance  were  fatal  to  the  haughty  prelate.  After 
 repeated  affront?,  the  king  one  day,  in  an  un- 
 guarded moment  when  particularly  exafperated, 
 unfortunately  expreffed  himfelf  to  this  purpofe  : 
 Am  I  not  unhappy,  that,  among  the  numbers,  who 
 are  attached  to  my  interefts  and  employed  in  my 
 fervice,  there  is  none  poileffed  of  fpirit  enough  to 
 refent  the  affronts  which  T  am  conftantly  receiving 
 from  a  miferable  pricft  ?  Thefe  words  were  indeed 
 not  pronounced  in  vain.  Four  gentlemen  of  the 
 court,  whofe  names  were  Fitz-Urfe,  Tracy,  Brit  ton 
 and  Morville,  murdered  Beeket  in  his  chapel,  a? 
 
 he 
 
cent.  12.]  Henry  II,  obliged  to  do  Penance.  109 
 he  was  engaged  in  performing  the  evening  fervice. 
 Henry  however  fufpecting  the  defign  of  the  four 
 gentlemen  from  fome  menacing  expreffions  they 
 had  made  ufe  of,  difpatched  a  meflenger  after 
 them,  charging  them  to  attempt  nothing  againft 
 the  perfon  of  the  primate.  But  thefe  orders  ar- 
 rived too  late*.  Such  an  event  was  calculated  to 
 produce  warm  debates  between  the  king  of  Eng- 
 land and  the  Roman  pontiff;  and  the  latter  was  at 
 length  fuccefsful  enough  in  the  conteft  to  force 
 the  fuppliant  monarch  to  undergo  a  fevere  courfe 
 of  penance,  in  order  to  expiate  a  crime  of  which 
 he  was  confidered  as  the  principal  promoter; 
 while  the  murdered  prelate  was  folemnly  enrolled 
 in  the  higheft  rank  of  faints  and  martyrs,  and  in- 
 numerable miracles  were  reported  to  have  beeri 
 wrought  by  his  facred  bones. 
 
 To  his  fucceffes  in  the  field,  and  the  exercife  of 
 the  fpiritual  weapons  already  poffeffed  by  the 
 church,  Alexander  added  ftill  more  perma- 
 nent advantages  by  enacting  laws  peculiarly  cal- 
 culated to  extend  the  prerogatives  of  the  Romiflj 
 See.  In  the  third  council  of  the  Lateran,  held  at 
 Rome  in  1 1 79,  the  following  decrees,  among  many- 
 others  upon  different  fubjefts,  were  paffed  by  his 
 ad  vice  and  authority:  ift.  That  in  order  to  terminate 
 the  confufion  and  diffenfions  which  fo  commonly 
 accompanied  the  election  of  a  pope,  the  right  of 
 election  fliould  not  only  be  veiled  in  the  cardinals 
 
 *  Hume's  Hiftory  of  England,  vol,  i.  p.  394. 
 
 alone, 
 
no         New  Mode  of  ekfiing  Popes,      [cent.  12. 
 alone,  but  alfo  that  the  perfon,  in   whofe  favour 
 two  thirds   of  the    college   of    cardinals   voted, 
 mould  be  confidered  as  the  lawful  and  duly  elected 
 pope.     This  law  is  ftill  in  force  ;  it  was  therefore 
 from  the  time  of  Alexander  that  the  election  ac- 
 quired that  form  which  it  ftill  retains,  by  which  not 
 only  the  people,  but  alfo  the  Roman  clergy,  are 
 excluded  entirely  from  all  fhare  in  the  honour  of 
 conferring  that  important  dignity.  .2dly.  A  fpiri- 
 tual  war  was  declared  againft  heretics,  whofe  num- 
 bers increafing  rapidly  about  this  period,  created 
 much  difturbance  in  the  church  in  general,   and 
 more  particularly  in  feveral  provinces  of  France. 
 3dly.  The  right  of  recommending  and  nominating 
 to  the   order  of  faints  was  alfo  taken  away  from 
 councils  and  bifhops,  and  canonization  was  ranked 
 among  the  greater  and  more  important  caitfes,  the 
 cognizance  of  which  belonged  to  the  pope  alone. 
 To  all   this  we  muft  not  forget  to  add,  that  the 
 power  of  creating  new  kingdoms,  which  had  been 
 claimed  by  the  pontiffs  from  the  time  of  Gregory 
 VII.   was   not  only   afiumed,   but   exercifed,  by 
 Alexander  in  a  remarkable  inftance  ;    for>in   the 
 year  1 179,  he  conferred  the  title  of  king,  with  the 
 enfigns  of  royalty,  upon  Alphonfo  I.  duke  of  Por- 
 tugal,  who,  under   the   pontificate  of  Lucius  II. 
 had   rendered  his  province  tributary  to  the  Ro- 
 man See*. 
 
 *  Baromus,  Amah  ad  A.W}<).      Innocent  III.  Epijlola,  Ui. 
 
 ep.  xlix.  p.  54.  torn.  i.  ed.  Baluzian. 
 r  Upon 
 
cent.  12.]  Pope  Lucius  IIL  expelled  Rome,  in 
 Upon  the  death  of  Alexander,  Urbald,  bifhop 
 of  Oftia,  known  by  the  name  of  Lucius  III.  was 
 raifed  to  the  pontificate  in  1181,  by  the  fuffrages 
 of  the  cardinals  alone.  The  adminiflration  of  this 
 new  pontiff  was  embittered  by  violent  tumults  and 
 feditions ;  he  was  twice  expelled  from  the  city  by 
 the  Romans,  who  could  not  bear  a  pope  elected  in 
 o»ppofition  to  the  ancient  cuftom,  without  the 
 knowledge  and  confent  of  the  clergy  and  people  : 
 in  the  midft  of  thefe  troubles  he  died  at  Verona  in 
 the  year  1185,  and  was  fucceeded  by  Hubert 
 Crivelli,bi(hop  of  Milan,  who  affumed  the  title  of 
 Urban  III.  and  without  having  tranfacted  any 
 thing  worthy  of  mention  during  his  fhort  pontifi- 
 cate, died  of  grief  in  the  year  11 87,  upon  hearing 
 that  Saladin  had  rendered  himfelf  matter  of  Je- 
 rufalem.  The  pontificate  of  Celeftine  III.  whofe 
 name  was  Hyacinth,  a  native  of  Rome,  and  a  car- 
 dinal deacon,  was  more  fplendid.  He  fulminated 
 his  excommunications  againft  the  emperor  Henry 
 VI.  and  Leopold,  duke  of  Auftria,  on. account  of 
 their  having  feized  and  imprifoned  Richard  I. 
 king  of  England,  on  his  return  from  the  Holy 
 Land  ;  he  fubjected  to  the  fame  malediction  Al- 
 phonfo  X.  king  of  Gallicia  and  Leon,  on  account 
 of  an  inceftuous  marriage  into  which  that  prince 
 had  entered,  and  commanded  Philip  Auguftus, 
 king  of  France,  to  re-admit  to  the  conjugal  flace 
 and  honours  Ingelburg  his  queen,  whom  he  had 
 divorced  for  reafons  unknown ;  though,  as  might 
 
 be 
 
ii2  Pope  Innocent  III.  [cent.  12, 
 
 be  expected,  this  order  produced  but  little  effect. 
 Lotharius,  count  of  Signi,  a  cardinal  deacon, 
 ■who  afTumed  the  name  of  Innocent  III.  was  elected 
 to  the  pontificate  in  1198. 
 
 CHAP. 
 
C     "3     ] 
 
 4 
 
 chap.   ir. 
 
 t>F  DOCTRINES,  RITES  AND  CEREMONIES. 
 
 School  Divinity — Pretended  Revelations — Origin  and  Pro- 
 grefs  of  Indulgences — Supererogation — Immaculate  Concep- 
 tion of  the  Virgin  Mary. 
 
 THE  doctrines  of  the  eftablifhed  church  un- 
 derwent in  this  age  of  ignorance  but  little 
 alteration.  They  were  obfeured  indeed  by  (uper* 
 {lition,  and  rendered  ludicrous  by  a  ceremonious 
 and  pompous  worfhip.  The  fcholaftic  doctors, 
 who  confidered  the  decifions  of  the  ancients  and 
 the  precepts  of  the  dialed icians,  as  the  great  cri- 
 terion of  truth,  inftead  of  explaining  the  doctrines 
 of  Chriftianity  mined  them  by  degrees,  and  funk 
 divine  truth  under  the  ruins  of  a  captious  philofo- 
 phy ;  while  the  Myftics,  lapfing  perhaps  into  the 
 oppofite  extreme,  are  faid  to  have  maintained,  that 
 the  fouls  of  the  truly  pious  were  incapable  of  any 
 fpontaneous  motions,  and  could  only  be  actuated 
 by  a.  divine  impilfe  ;  and  thus  not  merely  fet  limits  to 
 the  pretenfions  of  reafon,  but  excluded  it  entirely 
 from  religion  and  morality ;  nay,  in  fome  mea- 
 fure,  denied  its  very  exiftence. 
 
 To  finifli  the  abfurd  portrait  of  fuperftition,  it 
 is  only  neceffary  to  obferve,  that  huruan  credulity 
 was  fo  widely  extended  in  this  century,  that  when 
 
 Vol.  II.  I  either 
 
114  Origin  of  Indulgences.         [cent.  12. 
 
 cither  the  phrenfy  of  a  difordered  imagination,  or 
 the  artfulnefs  of  hypocrify,  thought  proper  to  pub- 
 lifli  the  dreams  or  virions,  which  they  fancied,  or 
 pretended,  to  receive  from  above,  the  multitude  re- 
 ferred to  the  new  oracle,  and  refpe&ed  its  dccHions 
 as  the  commands  of  God,  who,  in  this  way,  was 
 pleafed,  as  they  imagined,  to  communicate  coun- 
 fel,  in  ft  ruction,  and  the  knowledge  of  his  will  to 
 men.  Of  this  remark  no  better  illuftration  need 
 to  be  adduced,  than  the  extraordinary  reputation 
 which  was  obtained  in  Germany  by  the  two  famous 
 prophetefTes,  Hildegard  abbefs  of  Bingen,  and 
 Elizabeth  of  Schonau°:e. 
 
 The  origin  of  the  fale  of  indulgences  does  not 
 appear  to  be  very  generally  understood.  It.  was 
 a  branch  of  the  grand  doctrine  of  penance,  and 
 was  founded  on  the  authority  which  was  claim- 
 ed by  the  bifhops,  of  proportioning  the  puniihment 
 to  the  offence  of  the  criminal.  When  therefore  the 
 exigencies  of  the  church  demanded,  they  granted 
 to  their  flock  the  power  of  purchaling  the  remif- 
 fion  of  the  penalties  impofed  upon  tranfgreflbrs,  by 
 a  fum  of  money,  which  was  to  be  applied >to  cer- 
 tain religious  purpofes,  or,  in  other  words/  they 
 publidied  indulgences,  which  foon  became  an  inex- 
 hauftible  fource  of  opulence  to  the  epifcopal  or- 
 der. The  abbots  and  monks,  who  were  not  qua- 
 lified to  grant  indulgences,  had  recourfe  to  other 
 methods  of  enriching  their  convents.  They  carried 
 through  the  country  the  carcafTes  and  relics  of. the 
 
 faints 
 
cent. ~i2.]  Indulgences,  %%t 
 
 faints  in  folemn  proceffion,  and  permitted  the  mul- 
 titude to  behold,  touch,  and  embrace  thefe  facred 
 and  lucrative  remains,  at  certain  eftablifhed  prices. 
 When  however  the  Roman  pontiffs  caft  an  eye 
 upon  the  immenfe  treafurcs  which  the  inferior  rulers 
 of  the  church  were  accumulating  by  the  fale  of  in- 
 dulgences, they  thought  proper  to  limit  the  power 
 of  the  bilhops  in  remitting  the  penalties  impofed 
 upon  finners,  and  afTumed  almoft  entirely  this  pro- 
 fitable traffic  to  themfelves.   In  confequence  of  this 
 meafure,  the  court  of  Rome  became  the  general 
 magazine  of  indulgences ;  and  the  popes  occafion- 
 ally  publiflied,  not  only  an  univerfal,  but  a  com- 
 plete, or  what  they  call  a  plenary  remifiion  of  all 
 the  temporal  pains  and  penalties,  which  the  Church 
 had  annexed  to  certain  tranfgreffions.     Not  con- 
 tent   however    with    this    privilege,     they    pro- 
 ceeded ftill  farther ;  and   not   only  remitted  the 
 penalties  which  the  civil  and  ecclefiaftical  laws 
 had  enacted  againft  tranfgreffors,  but  ufurped  the 
 authority  which  belongs  to  God  alone,  and  pre- 
 tended to  abolifh   even   the  punifhments  which 
 are  referved  in  a  future  ftate  for  the  workers  of 
 iniquity*. 
 
 *  Morinus,  De  Ad?n'in'iJlratione  Sacramenti  Paniten.  lib.  x.  cap. 
 xx,  xxi,  xxii,  p.  768 — Rich.  Simon,  Bihlioth.  Critique,  torn.  iii. 
 
 cap.  xxxiii.  p.  371 Mabillon,  Prof,  ad  A&a  SanSor.fac.  v. 
 
 Afior.  Santior.  Benedict,  p.  54,  not  to  fpeak  of  the  Protectant 
 writers. 
 
 I  2  The 
 
3 1 6  Works  of  Supererogation,     [cent.  12- 
 
 The  pontiffs  firft  employed  this  pretended  pre- 
 rogative in  promoting  the  holy  war,  and  fcattered 
 abroad  their  indulgences,  though  with  a  certain 
 degree  of  moderation,  in  order  to  encourage  the 
 European  princes  to  form  new  expeditions  for  the 
 conqueft  of  Paledine  ;  but  in  time  the  charm  of 
 indulgences  was  praclifed  upon  various  occafions 
 of  much  lefs  confequence  *.  Their  introduction, 
 among  other  things,  destroyed  the  credit  and  au- 
 thority of  the  ancient  canonical  and  ecclefiaftical 
 discipline  of  penance,  and  occafioned  the  re- 
 moval and  fupprcflion  of  the  penitentials  f,  by 
 which  the  reins  were  let  loofe  to  every  fpecies  of 
 vice.  To  juftify  thefe  proceedings  of  the  popes,  a 
 monftrousand  fantaftical  doctrine  was  now  invent- 
 ed, which  was  modified  and  embellifhed  by  St. 
 Thomas  in  the  following  century.  The  chief  pur- 
 port of  this  new  doclrine  was,  "  That  there  aclu- 
 "  ally  exifted  an  immenfe  treafure  cf  merit,  com- 
 "  pofed  of  the  pious  deeds  and  virtuous  actions, 
 •f  which  the  faints  had  performed  beyond  what 
 u  was  neceffary  for  their  own  falvation  J,  and 
 *'  which  was  therefore  applicable  to  the  benefit 
 *'  of  others ;  that  the  guardian  and  difpenfer  of 
 
 *  Muratori  Ant'iq.  hot.  Medii  JEtti,  torn.  v.  p.  761 — Franc. 
 Pagi.  Brevtar.  Rom.  Pontif.  torn.  ii.  p.  60.  Theod.  Ruinarti, 
 Vita  Uibani  II.  p.  231.  torn.  iii.    Op.  Pofthum. 
 
 •f  The  penitential  was  a  book,  in  which  the  degree  and  kind  of 
 penance  annexed  to  each  crime  were  regiftered. 
 
 %  Thefe  works  are  known  by  the  name  of  Works  ofJSuper- 
 &  station* 
 
 2  "  this 
 
cent.  12.]         Trifling  Ceremonies,  -rni 
 
 "  this  treafure  was  the  pope;  and  that,  of  con- 
 "  fequence,  he  was  empowered  to  ajfign  to  fuch 
 *<  as  he  thought  proper,  a  portion  of  this  inex- 
 "  hauftible  fource  of  merit ,  fujtable  to  their  rc- 
 "  fpeftive  guilt,  and  fufficient  to  deliver  them. 
 tc  from  the  punifhment  due  to  their  crimes." 
 
 The  rites  and  ceremonies  ufed  in  divine  wormip, 
 both  public  and  private,  were  now  greatly  aug- 
 mented among  the  Greeks,  and  the  fame  fuperfti- 
 tious  paffion  for  the  introdu&ion  of  new  obferv- 
 ances,  difcovered  itfelf  in  all  the  eaftern  churches. 
 The  Grecian,  Neftorian,  and  Jacobite  pontiffs, 
 who  were  in  any  degree  remarkable  for  their  cre- 
 dit or  ambition,  were  defirous  of  tranfmitting  their 
 names  to  pofterity  by  the  invention  of  fome  new 
 rite,  or  by  fome  ftriking  change  introduced  into 
 the  method  of  worfhip  which  had  hitherto  prevail- 
 ed. This  was,  indeed,  almoft  the  only  means  left 
 to  diftinguifh  themfelves  in  an  age,  in  which  a  fenfe 
 of  the  excellence  of  genuine  religion  and  fubftan- 
 tial  piety  was  almoft  totally  loft.  Some  attempt- 
 ed, though  in  vain,  to  render  their  names  immor- 
 tal, by  introducing  a  new  method  of  reading  or 
 reciting  the  prayers  of  the  church  j  others  changed 
 the  church  mufic  ;  many  tortured  their  inventions 
 to  difcover  fome  new  mark  of  veneration,  which 
 might  be  offered  to  the  relics  and  images  of  the 
 faints;  while  feveral  eccleiiaftics  did  not  difdain 
 to  employ  their  time,  with  the  mod  ferious  affi- 
 duity,  in  embellishing  the  garments  of  the  clergy, 
 
 I  %  and 
 
1 1 8  Immaculate  Conception       [cent.  12. 
 
 and  in  forming  the  motions  and  poftures  they 
 were  to  obferve,  and  the  looks  they  were  to  af- 
 fume,  in  the  celebration  of  divine  worfhip. 
 
 The  enthufiaftic  veneration  for  the  Virgin  Mary, 
 which  had  been  hitherto  carried  to  fuch  an  excef- 
 five  height,  increafed  in  this  century  inftead  of  di- 
 minifhing,  fince  her  dignity  at  this  time  was  confi- 
 derably  augmented  by  a  new  fiction  relating  to  her 
 immaculate  conception.  The  hiftory  of -this  dogma  is 
 curious ;  and  in  order  to  give  the  reader'  a  full  idea. 
 of  its  progrefs,  it  will  be  neceffary  to  adventure  a 
 little  beyond  the  ftrict  limits  of  chronology.  About 
 the  year  1136,  the  canons  of  Lyons  darted  this 
 opinion,  and  would  have  eftablifhed  an  office  for 
 its  celebration,  but  were  oppofed  by  St.  Bernard. 
 The  doctrine  was  alfo  oppofed  at  firft  by' the  dif- 
 •  ciples  of  Thomas  Aquinas  ;  but  in  the  year  1300, 
 the  celebrated  Duns  Scotus,  a  Cordelier*  or  Fran- 
 cifcan,  firft  reduced  it  to  a  probability,  and  his  fol- 
 lowers made  it  an  article  of  faith,  whilft  the  Domi- 
 nicans ftill  held  a  contrary  opinion.  The  contro- 
 verfy  between  the  two  parties  continued  openly 
 for  upwards  of  300  years,  nor  has  it  yet  been  com- 
 pletely decided.  The  univerfity  of  Paris  declared 
 in  favour  of  the  immaculate  conception,  and  feve- 
 ral  popes  efpoufed  the  different  fides  of  the  quef- 
 tion.     John  XXII.  favoured  the  Dominicans,  on 
 
 *  The  Francifcans,  or  Grey  Friars,  were  called  Cordeliers,  on 
 account  of  the  knotted  cord  which  they  wear  as  a  girdle. 
 
 account 
 
cent.  12.]  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  u^ 
 
 account  of  the  hatred  which  he  bore  to  the  Corde- 
 liers for  their  attachment  to  Louis  of  Bavaria, 
 whom  he  excommunicated.  Sixtus  IV.  a  corde- 
 lier, favoured  the  opinion  of  his  order,  and  in  1747 
 publifhed  a  bull,  in  which  he  prohibited  any  cen- 
 fure  of  that  opinion  as  heretical,  and  confirmed 
 the  new  fervice  which  had  been  inftituted  for  the 
 feftival  of  the  immaculate  conception.  The  fa- 
 mous council  of  Trent  confirmed  the  conftitution 
 of  Sixtus  IV.  relating  to  the  celebration  of  the 
 conception ;  but  without  condemning  as  heretics 
 thofe  who  maintained  the  contrary  opinion.  Thus 
 the  controverfy  was  protracted  with  many  vicifli- 
 tudes  till  the  year  1667,  when  Alexander  V.  un- 
 able to  decide  it  in  any  more  fatisfa&ory  manner, 
 ordered  that  there  mould  be  no  more  preaching 
 on  this  intricate  fubjed. 
 
 I4  CHAP, 
 
[       120      ] 
 
 CHAP.     III. 
 
 CONCERNING  THE  SECTS  WHICH  EXISTED  IN  THE 
 TWELFTH  CENTURY. 
 
 JVaUenfes — Their  Tenets — Gppojition  to  the  Church  of  Rome 
 —Albigenfes—Falfe  Chrijls. 
 
 OF  the  feels  which  appeared  in  this  century, 
 none  was  more  diftinguifhed  by  the  reputa. 
 tion  it  acquired,  by  the  multitude  of  its  votaries, 
 and  the  teftimony  which  its  bittereft  enemies  bore 
 to  the  probity  and  innocence  of  its  members,  than 
 that  of  the  Waldenfes.  The  origin  of  this  cele- 
 brated people  has  occasioned  much  difcufTron,  and 
 their  genealogy  has  been  traced  to  the  firft  periods 
 of  Chriftianity,  or  to  a  much  lefs  remote  fource,  ac- 
 cording to  the  ingenuity  or  fancy  of  different  hif- 
 torians,  By  fome  they  have  been  thought  to  de- 
 rive their  defcent  from  the  Chriftian  inhabitants  of 
 Spain,  whofe  territory  lay  in  Navarre  (a  part  of 
 Bifcay),  who,  upon  the  irruption  of  the  Moors, 
 were  driven  for  refuge  into  the  vicinity  of  the  Py- 
 renean  mountains.  Jn  this  new  fituation  it  has 
 been  conceived  that  they  affumed  new  names, 
 agreeable  to  their  former  or  prefent  circumftances, 
 or  names  compofed  from  different  combinations ; 
 and  that  one  of  thofe  tribes  took  their  denomina- 
 tion from  a  place  near  Barcelona,  called  Vailenfia, 
 
 whence 
 
cent.  12.  J  Waldenfes.  121 
 
 whence  the  names  of  Vallenfes,  Valdenfes,  or 
 Waldenfes,  might  be  eafily  derived.  Both  thefe 
 opinions  are  however  attended  with  confiderable 
 difficulties :  and  with  rather  more  probability,  the 
 name,  by  which  thefe  diftinguifhed  reformers  have 
 been  iranfmitted  to  pofterity,  has  been  afcribed  to 
 their  refiding  in  the  valiies  (or  vauxj  of  Piedmont, 
 whence  they  obtained  the  appellation  of  Vaudois. 
 A  different  account  from  any  of  the  preceding  is 
 however  given  by  Turretine,  of  this  fed:. — He 
 reprefents  them  as  originating  from  the  Milanefe 
 clergy,  many  of  whom  refilled  to  repudiate  their 
 wives,  in  compliance  with  the  injunctions  of  Leo 
 IX.  Nicholas  II.  and  Gregory  VII.  Withdrawing 
 from  the  Roman  communion,  they  held  conven- 
 tions of  their  own  at  a  place  called  Patarea,  whence 
 they  firft  were  called  Patareans,  but  afterwards 
 Waldenfes.  With  ftill  greater  probability,  how- 
 ever, they  are  conceived  to  have  been  a  branch  of 
 the  Paulicians  *,  who  were  difperfed  in  almoft  all 
 the  countries  of  Europe  and  Afia. 
 
 The  fociety,  howtver,  of  which  it  is  our  bufinefs 
 to  treat  in  the  hiftory  of  this  century,  was  dif- 
 tinguifhed by  feveral  different  denominations. — 
 From  the  place  where  it  firft  attracted  the  notice  of 
 the  public,  its  members  were  called  the  poor  men 
 of  Lyons,  or  Leoniftsf,  and  from  the  wooden  fhoes 
 
 worn 
 
 *  Lardner's  Credibility,  v.  vi.  p.  427. 
 
 •j-  They  were  called  Leoniits  from  Leona,  the  ancient  name 
 of  Lyons,  where  their  fed  is  thought  to  hare  taken  its  rife.  The 
 
 more 
 
1 2. 2  Tranflation  of  the  Scriptures .    [cent,  ill 
 
 worn  by  its  doctors,  and  a  certain  mark  imprinted 
 uponthofe  (hoes,  they  were  denominated  Infabbatati 
 or  Sabbatati*.  The  origin  of  this  celebrated  feet, 
 at  leaft  in  that  part  of  the  country,  is  afcribed  by 
 Mofheim  toPeter,  anopulent  merchant  of  Lyons,who 
 probably  derived  his  furname  of  Valdo,  Valdus,  or 
 Waldus,  from  adopting  the  doctrines  which  had 
 been  profeffed  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  Piedmon- 
 tefe  vallies.  Ardently  folicitous  for.  the  advance- 
 ment of  rational  piety  and  chriftian  knowledge, 
 Peter  about  the  year  1 160  employed  Stephanus  de 
 Evifa,  a  prieft,  to  tranilate  into  French  the  four 
 Gofpels,  with  other  books  of  the  Holy  Scriptures, 
 and  the  mod  remarkable  fentences  of  the  ancient 
 fathers.  No  fooner  however  had  he  perufed  thofe 
 facred  records  with  a  proper  degree  of  attention, 
 than  he  perceived  that  the  religion,  which  was 
 now  taught  in  the  Roman  Church,  differed  totally 
 from  that  which  was  originally  inculcated  by  Chrift  ' 
 
 more  eminent  perfons  of  'that  fe£l  manifeiled  their  progrefs  to- 
 wards perfection  by  the  funplicity  and  meannefs  of  their  out- 
 ward appearance.  Hence,  among  other  things,  they  wore  wood- 
 en (hoes,  which  in  the  French  language  are  termed  fabots^  and 
 had  imprinted  upon  thofe  flioes  the  fign  of  the  crofs,  to  dif* 
 tinguifh  themfelves  from  other  Chriflians  ;  and  it  was  on  thefe 
 accounts  that  they  acquired  the  name  of  fabbatati  and  infab- 
 batati. See  Du  Frefne,  Glojfarium  Latin.  Medii  JLvi  vi.  'voce  Sab* 
 batati,  p.  4.  Nicol.  Eumerici  DireSlorium  Jfnqui/itorum,  part  IIIf 
 ML  112,  &c. 
 
 *  See  Steph.  de  Borbonne  De  Septem  Don'is  Spiritus  San3i  in 
 Echard  &  Quetif.  Bibliotheca  Scriptor.  Dominicanor.  torn.  i. 
 p.  192.— Anonym.  TraSatio  de  Harefi  Pauperum  de  Lugdiino% 
 iaMartene  Thefauro  Anecdotor.  torn.  v.  p.  1777. 
 
 and 
 
cent.  12.]  Waldenjes  perfe  exited.  123 
 
 and  his  apoftles.  Struck  with  this  glaring  departure 
 from  the  truth,  and  animated  with  a  pious  zeal  for 
 promoting  his  ownfalvation  and  that  of  others,  he 
 abandoned  his  mercantile  vocation,  distributed  his 
 riches  among  the  poor*,  and  forming  an  aflbcia- 
 tion  with  other  pious  men,  who  had  adopted  his 
 fentiments  and  his  turn  of  devotion,  he  began,  in 
 1 180,  to  ailume  the  character  of  a  public  teacher. 
 The  archbifhop  of  Lyons,  and  the  other  rulers  of 
 the  church  in  that  province,  oppofed,  with  vigour, 
 this  new  inftru&or  in  the  exercife  of  his  miniftry. 
 But  their  oppofition  was  unfuccefsful ;  for  the  pu- 
 rity and  fimplicity  of  the  doctrines  inculcated  by 
 thefe  fectaries,  the  fpotlefs  innocence  of  their  lives 
 and  actions,  and  their  noble  contempt  of  riches  and 
 honours,  appeared  fo  engaging  to  all  who  were  pof- 
 feffed  of  any  true  fenfe  of  piety,  that  the  number 
 of  their  difciples  and  followers  daily  increafed  -f. 
 
 They 
 
 *  It  was  on  tins  account  that  the  Waldenfcs  were  called 
 Pauvres  cle  Lyons,  or  Poor  men  of  Lyons. 
 
 ■f  Dr.  Mofheim  obferves  in  this  place — "  Certain  writers  give 
 different  accounts  of  the  origin  of  the  Waldenfes,  and  fuppofe 
 jthey  were  fo  called  from  the  vallies  in  which  they  had  relided 
 for  many  ages  before  the  birth  of  Peter  Waldus.  But  thofe 
 writers  have  no  authority  to  fupport  this  afTertion,  and  befides 
 this  they  are  refuted  amply  by  the  bed  hiftorians.  That  there 
 were  in  the  vallies  of  Piedmont,  long  before  this  period,  a  fet 
 of  men  who  differed  widely  from  the  opinions  adopted  and  in- 
 culcated by  the  Church  of  Rome,  and  whofe  doctrine  refembled 
 in  many  refpects  that  of  the  Waldenfes,  is  highly  probable  ;  but 
 flill  thefe  inhabitants  of  the  vallies  are  to  be  carefully  diflinguifh- 
 
 ed 
 
124  Increaje  of  the  Waldenjes.     fcENT.  12. 
 
 They  accordingly  formed  religious  afTemblies,  firft 
 in  France,  and  afterwards  in  Lombard y,  whence 
 they  propagated  their  tenets  throughout  the  other 
 countries  of  Europe  with  incredible  rapidity,  and 
 with  fuch  invincible  fortitude,  that  neither  fire  nor 
 fword,  nor  the  moft  cruel  inventions  of  mercileis 
 
 ed  from  the  Waldenfes,  who,  according  to  the  unanimous  voice 
 ef  hiftory,  were  originally  inhabitants  of  Lyons,  and  derived  their 
 name  from  Ptter  Waldus,  their  founder  and  chief."  From  the 
 befl  records,  however,  it  appears,  that  Valdus  derived  his  name 
 from  the  true  Valdenfes  of  Piedmont,  whofe  doctrine  he  adopt- 
 ed, and  who  were  known  by  the  names  of  Vaudois  and  Valden- 
 fes, before  he  or  his  immediate  followers  exifted.  If  the  Valden- 
 fes or  Waldenfes  had  derived  their  name  from  any  eminent  teach-.. 
 er,  it  would  probably  have  been  from  Valdo,  who  was  remark- 
 able for  the  purity  of  his  "doctrine  in  the  ninth  century,  and 
 was  the  contemporary  and  chief  counfellor  of  Berengarius. — ■ 
 The  inquifitor  Reinerus  Sacco,  who  exerted  fuch  a  furious 
 zeal  for  the  deftruftion  of  the  Waldenfes,  lived  but  about  eighty 
 years  after  Valdtrs  of  Lyons,  and  muft  therefore  be  fuppofed 
 to  know  whether  or  not  he  was  the  real  founder  of  the  Val- 
 denfes or  Leonifts ;  and  yet  it  is  remarkable  that  he  fpeaks  of 
 the  Leonifis  (mentioned  in  a  preceding  page,  as  fynonymous 
 with  Waldenfes)  as  a  feet  which  had  flourifhed  above  500 
 years;  nay  mentions  authors  of  note,  who  pretend  to  trace 
 their  antiquity  to  the  apollolic  age.  See  the  account  given  of 
 Sacco's  book  by  the  Jefuit  Grefter,  in  the  Bibllotheca  Patrum. 
 Upon  what  principle  Dr.  Mofheim  maintains,  that  the  inhabit- 
 ants of  the  vallies  of  Piedmont  are  to  be  carefully  diftir.guifhed 
 from  the  Waldenfes,  is  not  eafy  to  conceive  ;  and  indeed  who* 
 ever  will  be  at  the  pains  to  read  attentively  the  2d,  25th,  26th, 
 and  27th  chapters  of  the  firft  book  of  Leger's  Hijloirt  Generah 
 des  Eghfcs  Vaudcifeiy  will  find  thi6  diftintlion  entirely  removed. 
 See  Dr.  Maclean's  Notes  on  Mofheim. 
 
 perfecution, 
 
cent.  12.]  Their  Tenets.  125 
 
 perfecution,    could  damp  their  zeal,  or  entirely 
 ruin  their  caufe  *. 
 
 The  profeffed  objects  of  Peter  Waldns  and  his 
 followers,  were  to  reduce  the  lives  and  manners 
 both  of  the  clergy  and  people,  to  that  amiable  fim- 
 plicity,  and  that  primitive  fan&ity,  which  cha- 
 racterized the  apoftolic  ages,  and  which  appear 
 10  ftrongly  recommended  in  the  precepts  and  in- 
 junctions of  the  divine  author  of  our  religion.  In 
 confequence  of  this  delign,  they  complained  that 
 the  Romifh  Church  had  degenerated  under  Con- 
 ftantine  the  Great  from  its  primitive  -purity  and 
 fanctity.  They  confidered  every  Christian  as  in 
 a  certaita  meafure  qualified  and  authorized  to  in- 
 ftruft,  exhort,  and  confirm  the  brethren  in  their 
 chriftian  courfe,  and  demanded  the  restoration  of 
 the  ancient  penitential  difcipline  of  the  church, 
 that  is,  the  expiation  of  tranfgreflions  by  prayer, 
 fafting,  and  alms,  which  the  newly-invented  doc- 
 trine of  indulgences  had  almoft  totally  abolifhed. 
 They  at  the  fame  time  affirmed,  that  every  pious 
 Chriftian  was  qualified  and  entitled  to  prefcribe  to 
 the  penitent  the  kind  and  degree  of  fatisfaclion  or 
 expiation  which  his  tranfgreflions  required  ;  that 
 confeffion  made  to  priefts  was  by  no  means  necef- 
 
 *  Such  was  the  fpirit  of  the  times,  that  fome  foreign  heretics 
 being  found  in  England  in  1160,  and  being  condemned  by  the 
 bifhops,  they  were  beaten  with  fticks,  fcourged,  burnt  in  the 
 face,  and  turned  adrift ;  and  no  perfon  being  permitted  to  har- 
 bour them,  they  all  perifhed  with  cold  and  hunger.  Fleury 
 quoted  by  Jori\n%  V.  2  30. 
 
 fary, 
 
126-  Tenet s  of  the  Walcknjes.      [cent.  12. 
 
 fary,  fince  the  humble  offender  might  acknowledge 
 his  (ins  and  teftify  his  repentance  to  any  true  be- 
 liever,  and  might  expect  from  fuch  the  cbunfels 
 and  admonitions  which  his  cafe  and  circumftances 
 demanded.     They  maintained,   that  the  power  of 
 delivering  miners  from  the  guilt  and  punifhment  of 
 their  offences,   belonged  to   God  alone,   and  that 
 indulgences,    of  confequence,  were  the  criminal 
 invenrions  of  fordid  avarice.     They  regarded  the 
 prayers,  and  other  ceremonies,  which  were  inftitu-  . 
 ted  in  behalf  of  the  dead,  as  vain,  ufelefs,  and  ab- 
 furd,  and  denied  the  exiftence  of  departed  fouls  in 
 an  intermediate   ftate  of  purification-,   affirming, 
 that  they  were  immediately,  upon  their  feparation 
 from  the  body,  received  into  heaven,  or  into. hell. 
 Thefe  were  the  principal  tenets  which  eompofed 
 thefyftem  of  doctrine  propagated  by  theWaldenfes. 
 Their  rules  of  practice  were  extremely  auftere ; 
 for  they  adopted,  as  the  model  of  their  moral  dif-" 
 cipline,  thefermonofChriftupon  the  mount, which 
 they  interpreted  and  explained  in  the  mod  rigo- 
 rous and  literal  manner,  and  confequently  con- 
 demned war,   as  the  excefs  of  human  foily  and 
 wickednefs;   prohibited  law-fuits,  and  all  attempts 
 towards  the  acquifition  of  wealth  ;  diffuaded  from 
 the  inflicting  of  capital  punishments,  felf-defence 
 againft  unjuft  violence,  and  oaths  of  all  kinds  *. 
 
 The 
 
 *  Sec  the  Codex  Jr.quifition'is  Tohfana:,  publifhed  by  Limborch, 
 as  alfo  the  Summa  Monetx  contra  Waldenfes,  and  the  other  wri- 
 ters 
 
Cent.  12 -]  Albigenfes.  127 
 
 The  government  of  the  church  was  committed  by 
 the  Waldenfes,  to  biihops,  prefbyters,  and  dea- 
 cons ;  for  they  acknowledged,  that  thefe  three  ec- 
 clefiaftical  orders  were  inftituted  by  Chrift  himfelf. 
 But  they  confidered  it  as  abfolutely  neceffary,  that 
 all  thefe  orders  mould  exatflly  refemble  the  apoftles, 
 and  be,  like  them,  poor  in  worldly  pofTciTions,  and 
 furnifhed  with  fome  laborious  vocation,  in  order 
 to  gain  by  conftant  induftry  their  daily  fubfiftence. 
 The  Albigenfes,  who  derived  their  name  from 
 Albi,  a  confiderable  town  of  Guienne,  were  a 
 branch  from  this  parent  ftock ;  and  in  common 
 with  the  Waldenfes,  they  oppofed  the  errors  and 
 fuperftitions  of  the  Romifh  Church.  Such  an  enor- 
 mity could  not  pafs  unpunifned;  and  Peter  de 
 Bruys,  one  of  their  firfr.  teachers,  was  condemned 
 to  be  burned.  Their  ad verfaries  charged  them  with 
 the  errors  of  Manicheifm  :  but  certainly  no  errors 
 of  that  nature  appear  to  have  been  proved  againft 
 them  in  the  councils  which  fubfcribed  their  con- 
 demnation, though  fome  of  the  later  adherents  to 
 this  feet  appear  to  have  imbibed  the  reveries  of 
 the  Gnoftics.     The  Cathari,  Paterini,  and  Publi- 
 
 ters  of  the  Waldenfian  hiftory.  Though  thefe  writers  are  not 
 all  equally  accurate,  nor  perfectly  agreed  about  the  number  of 
 doctrines  which  entered  into  the  fyftem  of  this  feft,  yet  thev 
 are  almoft  all  unanimous  in  acknowledging  the  fincere  piety  and 
 exemplary  conduct  of  the  Waldenfes,  and  mew  plainly  enough 
 that  their  intention  was  not  to  oppofe  the  doctrines  univerfally 
 received  among  Chriftians,  but  only  to  revive  the  piety  and  man  • 
 ners  of  the  primitive  times. 
 
 cans, 
 
128  Falfe  Chriftt,  [cent.  12. 
 
 cans,  whofe  tenets  were  fimilar  to  theirs,  partook. 
 of  their  condemnation,  though  under  different 
 names. 
 
 Enthufiafm  and  fuperftition  were  not  in  this 
 century  of  ignorance  confined  to  the  profeflbrs  of 
 chriftianity.  In  1137,  the  Perfians  were  dif- 
 turbed  by  a  Jew,  who  called  himfelf  the  Mefliah, 
 and  collected  together  a  formidable  army  of  his 
 countrymen.  The  Perfian  monarch  fubmitted  to 
 a  treaty  with  this  religious  ufurper  j  he  paid  him 
 a  fum  of  money  on  the  condition  of  difbanding  his 
 foldiers,  but  afterwards  feized  and  beheaded  him, 
 and  compelled  the  Jews  to  refund  the  money  he  had 
 given  to  their  mefliah,  which  reduced  them  to  beg* 
 gary,  and  even  to  the  neceffity  of  felling  their  chil- 
 dren. In  the  following  year,  a  falfe  Chriit  ap- 
 peared in  France.  He  was  put  to  death,  and  many 
 Jews  fuffered  at  the  fame  time,  under  the  accufa- 
 tion,  real  or  imaginary,  of  facrificing  a  male 
 chriftian  child,  once  a  year.  About  the  year 
 1 157,  an  impoftor  under  the  title  of  the  Mefliah, 
 incited  the  Jews  to  revolt  at  Corduba,  and  this  un- 
 fortunate event  occafioned  the  deftruction  of  al- 
 moft  all  the  Jews  in  Spain.  In  1167,  another 
 falfe  prophet  appeared  in  Arabia,  who  pretended 
 to  be  the  forerunner  of  the  Mefliah.  When  fearch 
 was  made  for  him,  he  was  foon  deferted  by  his 
 followers ;  and  being  queflioned  by  the  Arabian 
 king,  he  replied  that  he  was  indeed  a  prophet  fent 
 from  God.  The  king  requiring  a  fign  in  confir- 
 mation 
 
•ent.  i 2. J  Falfe  Cbrijfs.  129 
 
 mation  of  his  miffion,  the  unfortunate  fanatic  defir- 
 ed  him  to  cut  off  his  head ,  and  afferted  that  he  fhonld 
 prefently  fee  him  reftored  to  life.  The  requeft 
 was  complied  with,  and  the  king  had  liberality 
 enough  to  promife  his  belief,  on  the  accompIifrV 
 ment  of  the  miracle.  The  event,  however,  by  no 
 means  correfponded  with  the  profeffions  of  the 
 prophet,  and  the  Arabian  Jews  were  condemned 
 to  a  heavy  fine.  In  1174,  a  magician  and  falfe 
 Chrift  occafioned  great  trouble  to  the  Jews  in 
 Perfia  ;  and  in  two  years  after  another  arofe  in 
 Moldavia,  called  David  Almuffer.  Ke  pretended, 
 that  he  could  makehimfclf  invincible;  but  he  was 
 taken,  and  a  fevere  fine  extorted  from  the  Jews. 
 
 Vol.  II.  K  CHAP, 
 
[     *3°    3 
 
 CHAP.    III. 
 
 OF-LEARNING  AND  LEARNED  MEN   IN   THE 
 TWELFTH  CENTURY. 
 
 Literature  of  the  Greeks — Anna  Comnena — Eujlathius,  &c. 
 — In  the  WeJl^St.  Bernard— Abclard—  Anjelm  —  William 
 of  Tyre,  &c. 
 
 THE  fun  of  literature,  which  had  only  rifen  ~ 
 in  the  preceding  century,  proceeded  gra- 
 dually  in  this  to  enlighten  the  whole  Chriftian 
 world.     In  the  year  1081   Alexius  Comnenus  was    - 
 elected  to  the  Byzantine  throne  *,  and  extended    • 
 every  encouragement  to  the  cultivation  of  letters. 
 His   elegant  and   accomplished  daughter,   Anna 
 Comnena,  has  written  his  life,  or  rather  his  panegy- 
 ric.    As  a  hiftory,  it  is  blamed  for  that  partiality,    . 
 which  was  the  natural  refult  of  her  fituation  ;   as 
 a  compofition,  its  only  fault  is  the  excefs  of  orna- 
 ment.   The  cultivation  of  hiftory  flouriftied  indeed 
 during  the  whole  of  this  century  at  the  court  of 
 Conftantinoplef .      The  learned  commentaries  of 
 Euftathius,  bifliop  of  ThefTalonica,  upon  Homer 
 and  Dionyfius,  amply  difplay  the  tafte  and  ardour 
 
 *  Jortin,  V.  4$. 
 
 f  Among  the  hiftorians  of  that  age  and  country,  are,  Joan- 
 nes Cinnamus,  Michael  Glycas,  Joannes  Zonaras,  and  Nicepho- 
 rus  Brienniiw. 
 
 Of 
 
cent.   12.]  St.  Bernard.  731 
 
 cf  the  age  for  the  revival  of  claflical  literature  j 
 whilft  the  difputes  between  the  Greek  and  Latin 
 Churches  produced  a  number  of  polemics,  whofe 
 labours  are  perhaps  difregarded  only  becaufe  they 
 were  employed  upon  unworthy  fubjects. 
 
 In  the  weftern  regions  of  Chriftendom  feveral 
 men  of  genius  appeared  during  the  courfe  of  this 
 century.  St.  Bernard  has  been  already  noticed. 
 He  feems  to  have  been  an  enthuilaft  from  his 
 youth,  or  rather  perhaps  a  character  confining  of 
 enthuiiafm  blended  with  artifice,  fuch  as  is  not  un- 
 common. In  the  courfe  of  his  life  he  is  faid  to 
 have  refufed  feveral  bifhoprics :  but  it  muft  be 
 remarked,  that  he  was  far  more  refpected  as  an 
 abbot,  than  if  he  had  condefcended  to  become  an 
 archbifhop.  He  could  create  popes,  command 
 kings,  and  influence  councils  ;  and,  in  fact,  ap- 
 pears to  have  been  a  man  of  confjmmate  addrefs 
 and  popular  eloquence,  with  no  fmall  fhare  of  ef- 
 frontery. His  writings  are  celebrated  by  his  ad- 
 mirers, for  their  elegance  and  wit;  indeed  his  ge- 
 nius appears  to  have  been  too  acute,  and  he  was 
 too  much  a  man  of  the  world,  to  adopt  the  rugged, 
 fcholaftic  ^dialect  of  the  times.  He  was  born  at 
 Fontaines,  a  city  of  Burgundy;  in  1091,  eftablifh- 
 ed  the  abbey  of  Clairvaux,  of  which  he  himfelf 
 was  the  head  ;  and  died  in  1153,  leaving  one  hun- 
 dred and  fixty  monafteries  of  his  order.  His  ge- 
 nius-was unremittingly  employed  in  the  fervile  of- 
 fice of  fupporting  the  errors  of  the  Church  of 
 K  2  Rome, 
 
i$t  Altlard.  [cent.  12, 
 
 Rome, and  in  the  perfecution  of  fuchas  contradict- 
 ed her  doctrines  ;  his  voluminous  works  are  chief- 
 ly controversial,  except  fome  myftical  expositions 
 of  Solomon's  Song,  the  elogy  of  the  Knights  Tem- 
 plars, and  one  or  two  practical  treatifes  on  the  love 
 of  God,  humility,  &c.  * 
 
 The  character  of  Abelard  is  more  refpectable 
 than  that  of  his  fuccefsful  antagonift  Bernard,  by 
 whofe  means  it  was  that  Abelard  was  compelled 
 to  commit  to  the  flames  his  own  treatife  on  the 
 Unity  of  God.  The  theological  opinions  of  Abe- 
 lard appear  not  to  have  been  free  from  error,  buc 
 they  were  far  more  enlightened  than  thofe  of  his 
 contemporaries.  .His  erudition  was  exten live,  but 
 he  was  too  much  addicted  to  the  logic  of  the 
 fchools,  though  he  was  not  without  a  tincture  of 
 claflical  elegance.  He  lived  a  life  of  almoft  con- 
 tinual perfecution-j~,  and  died,  1142,  in  the  (ixty- 
 third  year  of  his  age,  (t  worthy  of  a  better  age, 
 and  better  fortune  $."  His  adventures  are  well 
 known,  and  his  name  is  rendered  popular  by  the 
 molt  pathetic  and  elegant  production  of  the  mufe 
 of  Pope. 
 
 The  fubtilties  of  fcholaftic  divinity  were  extend- 
 ed by  the  writings  of  Peter  Lombard,  and  Gilbert 
 de  la  Porree,  bifliop  of  Poitiers.  The  incompre- 
 henfible  opinions  of  Gilbert  refpecting  the  incar^ 
 
 *  Du  Pin,  T.  IV.  Mofh.  Cent.  12.    Jortin,  V.  223. 
 t  See  Du  PJn,  Cent.  12. 
 %  Jortin,  V.  227. 
 
 nation 
 
cent.  12.]  Jewifh  Writers.  t$$ 
 
 nation  and  divine  eflence  drew  upon  him  the 
 wrath  of  the  zealous  Bernard,  whofe  difapproba- 
 tion  had  too  much  weight  over  popes  and  councils 
 to  render  the  fituation  of  the  bifhop  perfectly 
 fafe.  The  prudent  prelate  therefore  publicly  re- 
 tracted his  real  or  imaginary  errors.  Anfelm, 
 bifhop  of  Havelberg,  acquired  fome  reputation  in 
 this  age  in  the  controverfy  with  the  Greeks ;  Otho, 
 bifhop  of  Friburg,  compofed  a  chronological  hif- 
 tory  from  the  creation  to  his  own  time.  William 
 of  Tyre  (poifonedby  a  rival  clergyman,  who  co- 
 veted his  preferments)  and  James  de  Vitri  are 
 known  among  the  hiflorians  of  the  holy  war. — 
 There  were  alfo  at  this  period  a  numerous  herd  of 
 ephemeral  authors,  whofe  works  chiefly  confuted 
 of  the  lives  of  faints,  relations  of  miracles,  and 
 local  chronicles  *.  The  fcholaftic  Jiiftory  of  Pe- 
 trus  Comeftor  may  be  ranked  with  thefe  perform- 
 ances, though  for  a  feries  of  years  it  was  accounted 
 a  body  of  politive  theology  -j~. 
 
 Amongft  the  Jewifh  writers  of  this  period,  were 
 RR.  Salomon  Jarchi,  Aben  Ezra,  David  and 
 Mofes  Kimchi,  Mofes  Ben  Maimon  and  Mofes 
 Nachmanides.  At  the  fame  time  flourifhed  the 
 two  learned  Arabians,  AvicCnna  and  Averroes, 
 who  commented  on  Ariftotle  with  confiderable 
 ability. 
 
 *  DuPin.  f  Jortin,  V.  240. 
 
 K  3  T  H  % 
 
[     134     ] 
 
 THE    THIRTEENTH   CENTURY. 
 
 CHAP.    I. 
 
 GENERAL      STATE     OF      THE      CHURCH      IN      THIS 
 CENTURY. 
 
 Succefs  of  the  Neflorians  in  China,  tfe. — Fourth  Crufade — 
 Conquejl  of  Conflar.tinopde  by  the  Crvfaders — Fifth  Crufa'de 
 under  Frederic  II.— Sixth  Crttfade  under  Lewis  IX.  of 
 France — Recovery  of  Spain  by  the  Chriflians — Power  of 
 the  Popes  increafed — Pragmatic  Sanclion — Innocent  III. 
 — Contejt  with  the  Emperor  Otho — John  King,  of  England 
 *—-Hctiorius  III. — Gregory  IX. — Celejline  IV. — Innocent 
 IV.-CelejTine  V.— Boniface  Fill. 
 
 THOUGH  the  fucceffors  of  Gengis-Kan,  the 
 celebrated  emperor  of  the  Tartars,  or  rather 
 of  the  Moguls,  had  carried  their  victorious  arms 
 through  a  great  part  of  Alia,  and,  having  reduced 
 China,  India,  and  Perfia,  under  their  yoke,  in- 
 volved in  many  calamities  and  Sufferings  the 
 Chriftian  focieties  eftablifhed  in  thefe  vanquished 
 lands ;  yet  it  is  certain,  from  the  mod  refpecftable 
 authorities,  that,  both  in  China  and  in  the  northern 
 
 parts 
 
c  e  n  t  .  1 3 .  ]    Tartars  £f  Moguls  converted.  1 3  5 
 
 parts  of  Alia,  the  Neftorians  continued  to  main- 
 tain a  flourishing  church,  and  a  great  number  of 
 adherents.  The  emperor  of  the  Tartars  and  Mo- 
 guls had  no  great  averiion  to  the  Chriftian  religion; 
 and  it  appears  from  authentic  records,  that  feveral 
 of  the  kings  and  nobles  of  thefe  nations  had 
 either  been  inftructed  in  the  doctrines  of  the  Go- 
 fpel  by  their  anceflors,  or  were  converted  to  Chrif- 
 tianity  by  the  miniftry  and  exhortations  of  the 
 Neftorians.  The  activity  of  the  Roman  pontiffs 
 did  not  permit  them  to  neglect:  fo  favourable  an 
 opportunity  of  extending  their  power,  and  mif- 
 iionarieswere  difpatched  into  Afia,  with  inftructions 
 to  induce  the  different  churches  to  a  proper  fubjec- 
 tion  to  the  holy  fee.  A  verfion  of  the  Pfalms 
 of  David,  and  a  translation  of  the  New  Teftament, 
 were  alfo  tranfmitted  to  thefe  femi-barbarians. — 
 But  the  religion  of  Mahomet,  which  was  fo  adapt- 
 ed to  flatter  the  paffions  of  men,  infected,  by  de- 
 grees, thefe  imperfect  converts,  oppofed  with  fuc- 
 cefs  the  progrefs  of  the  gofpel,  and  at  length  fo 
 completely  triumphed  over  it,  that  not  the  lead 
 remains  of  Chriftianity  were  to  be  perceived  in  the 
 courts  of  the  eaflern  princes. 
 
 The  Roman  pontiffs  employed  their  mod  zeal- 
 ous and  affiduous  efforts  in  the  fupport  of  theChrif- 
 tian  caufe  in  Paleftine,  which  was  now  in  a  moft 
 declining,  or  rather  in  a  defperate  ftate.  Innocent 
 III.  founded  the  charge  ;  but  the  greater  part  of 
 the  European  princes  and  nations  were  deaf  to 
 
 K  4  the 
 
136  Fourth  Crujade.  [cent.  13. 
 
 the  voice  of  the  holy  trumpet.  After  many  un- 
 fuccefsful  attempts  however,  in  different  countries, 
 a  number  of  the  French  nobility  entered  into  an 
 alliance  with  the  republic  of  Venice,  and  fet  fail 
 for  the  eaft,  with  an  army  which  was  far  from 
 being  formidable.  The  event  of  this  new  expe- 
 dition was  by  no  means  anfwerable  to  the  expec- 
 tation of  the  pontiff!  The  French  and  Venetians, 
 inilead  of  fleering  their  courfe  towards  Palef- 
 tine,  failed  directly  for  Conftantinople,  and,  in 
 the  year  1203,  t00^-  t^at  imPei"ial  city  by  ftorm, 
 with  a  defign  to  reftore  to  the  throne  Ifaac  An- 
 gelus,  who  implored  their  fuccour  againlV  the  .t 
 violence  of  his  brother  Alexius,  the  ufurper  of 
 the  empire.  The  following  year  a  dreadful-  fe- 
 dition  was  raifed  at  Conftantinople,  in  which  the 
 emperor  Ifaac  was  put  to  death  ;  and  his  fon,  the 
 young  Alexius,  was  ftrangled  by  Alexius  Ducas, 
 the  leader  of  this  furious  faction  :  but  the  account  ' 
 of  this  parricide  was  no  fooner  communicated  to 
 the  heroes  of  the  crufade,  than  they  reconquered 
 the  imperial  city,  dethroned  and  exiled  the  tyrant 
 Ducas,  and  elected  Baldwin,  count  of  Flanders, 
 emperor  of  the  Greeks.  This  proceeding  was, 
 however,  the  fource  of  new  divifions ;  for  about 
 two  years  after,  the  Greeks  refolved  to  elect,  in 
 oppofuion  to  the  Latin  emperor,  one  of  their  own 
 nation,  and  chofe  for  that  purpofe  Theodore  Laf- 
 caris,  who  removed  the  imperial  court  to  Nice  in 
 Bithynia.      From  this  period  until  the  year  1261, 
 
 tw* 
 
cent.  13.]  Fifth  Crujade,  j»j 
 
 two  emperors  reigned  over  the  Greeks ;  the  one  of 
 their  own  nation,  who  refided  at  Nice  ;  and  the 
 other  of  Latin  or  French  extraction,  who  lived  at 
 Constantinople,  the  ancient  metropolis  of  the  em- 
 pire. But  in  the  year  1261,  the  face  of  affairs  was 
 changed  by  the  Grecian  emperor  Michael  Pakeo- 
 logus,  who,  by  the  valour  and  ftratagems  of  his 
 general  Casfar  Alexius,  became  matter  of  Conftan- 
 tinople, and  compelled  the  Latin  emperor  Baldwin 
 II.  to  abandon  that  city,  and  fave  himfelf  by 
 flight  into  Italy.  Thus  fell  the  empire  of  the 
 Franks  at  Conftantinople,  after  a  duration  of  fifty- 
 feven  years  *. 
 
 The  legates  and  miffionaries  of  the  court  of 
 Rome  ftill  continued  to  animate  the  languishing 
 zeal  of  the  European  princes  in  behalf  of  the  Chrii- 
 tian  caufe  in  Paleftine,  and  to  revive  the  lpirit  of 
 the  crufades,  which  fo  many  calamities  and  dif- 
 afters,  together  with  their  notorious  abufe,  had  al- 
 moft  totally  extinguished.  In  confequence  of  their 
 remonftrances,  a  new  army  was  raifed,  and  a  new 
 expedition  undertaken,  which  was  to  be  command- 
 ed by  the  emperor  Frederic  II.  who  was  fucceftive- 
 ly  the  pupil,  the  enemy,  and  the  victim  of  the 
 Church.  At  the  age  of  twenty-one  years,  he  af- 
 lumed  the  crofs,  and  devoted  himfelf,  by  a  folemn 
 vow,  to  the  accomplishment  of  this  expedition. — 
 
 *  This  revolution,  which  belongs  more  to  civil  than  eccle- 
 fiaflieal  hiftory,  is  related  with  his  ufual  fp'irit  bv  Mr.  Gibbon. 
 
 His 
 
138  Frederic  II.  excommunicated,     {[cent.  13. 
 
 His  engagement  received  additional  ftrength,  fuch 
 as  it  appeared  impodible  to  violate,  from  the  mar- 
 riage which  he  had  contracted,  in  the  yeari.223,  with 
 Jolanda,  daughter  of  John,  count  of  Brienne,  and 
 Icing  of  Jerufalem,  by  which  alliance  that  king- 
 dom was  to  be  added  to  his  European  dominions. 
 Notwithstanding  this,  the  expedition  of  the  em- 
 peror was  repeatedly  deferred  under  various  pre- 
 texts, and  did  not  take  place  till  the  year  1228, 
 when,  after  having  been  excommunicated  on  ac- 
 count of  his  delay,  by  the  incenfed  pontiff,  Gregory 
 IX.*  Frederic  proceeded,  with  afmal'l  train  of  at-_ 
 tendants,to  the  troops,  who  expected,  with  the  moll 
 anxious  impatience,  his  arrival  in  Paleftine.-  No 
 fooner  however  did  the  emperor  reach  that  difputed 
 kingdom,  than  he  turned  all  his  thoughts  towards 
 peace,  and,  partly  from  the  discord  cf  the  Maho- 
 metans, and  partly  from  their  perfonal  efteem  for 
 him,  he  was  enabled  to  conclude  an  advantageous 
 
 *  This  papal  excommunication,  which  was  drawn  up  in  the 
 moil:  outrageous  and  indecent  language,  was  fo  far  from  excit- 
 ing Frederic  to  accelerate  his  departure  for  Paleftine,  that  it  was 
 received  by  him  with  the  utmoft  contempt.  He  defended  him- 
 felf  by  his  ambaffador  at  Rome,  and  mewed  that  the  reafons  of 
 his  delay  were  folid  and  juft,  and  not  mere  pretexts,  as  the  pope 
 had  afferted.  At  the  fame  time,  he  wrote  a  remarkable  let- 
 ter to  Henry  III.  king  of  England,  in  which  he  complains  of  the 
 infatiable  avarice,  the  boundlefs  ambition,  the  perfidious  and 
 hypocritical  proceedings  of  the  Roman  pontiffs.  See  Fleury, 
 Hifloire  EccleJ'iaJilque}  livr.  Ixxix.  torn.  xvi.  p.  60 1,  edit.  ~Brux- 
 elks. 
 
 treaty 
 
cent.  13.]  Decline  of  Chriftianity  in  the  Eajl.  139 
 treaty  with  the  fultan  of  Egypt  in  the  following 
 year.  By  this  treaty  he  obtained  poffeffion  of  the 
 city  and  kingdom  of  Jemfalem,  of  Tyre  and  Sidon; 
 and  entering  into  the  holy  city  with  unparalleled 
 pomp,  and  accompanied  by  a  numerous  train,  he 
 placed  the  crown  upon  his  head  with  his  own 
 hands.  Having  regulated  with  much  prudence 
 and  moderation  the  government  of  Paleftine,  Fre- 
 deric returned  without  delay  into  Italy,  to  appeafe 
 the  difcords  and  commotions  which  the  vindictive 
 and  ambitious  pontiff  had  excited  in  his  abfence. 
 In  reality  therefore,  notwithstanding  all  the  re- 
 proaches which  were  cad  upon  the  emperor  by  the 
 pope  and  this  agents,  thi  scxpedition  was  by  far 
 the  moft  fuccefsful  that  had  hitherto  been  under- 
 taken againft  the  Infidels. 
 
 After  this  folitary  effort,  the  affairs  of  the  Chrif- 
 tians  in  the  eaft  perceptibly  declined.  Interline 
 difcords  and  ill-conducted  expeditions  had  reduced 
 them  almoft  to  the  laft  extremity,  when  Lewis  IX. 
 king  of  France  attempted  their  reftoration.  Thisen- 
 terprife  was  in  confequence  of  a  vow,  which  the 
 prince  had  made  in  the  year  1 248,  when  he  was  feiz- 
 ed  with  a  painful  and  dangerous  illnefs.  He  foon 
 undertook  the  arduous  tafk,  and,  in  the  execution 
 of  it,  he  embarked  for  Egypt  with  a  formidable  army 
 and  a  numerous  fleet,  from  an  opinion  that  the 
 conqueft  of  this  province  would  enable  him  to 
 carry  on  the  war  in  Syria  and  Paleftine  with  more 
 iaciiity   and  fuccefs.     The   firft  attempts  of  the 
 
 zealous 
 
140  Misfortunes  of  Lcicis  IX.      [cent.  13.' 
 
 zealous  monarch  were  crowned  with  vidory  :  the 
 celebrated  city  of  Damietta  yielded  ro  his  arms ; 
 but  the  fmiling  profpcd  was  foon  changed,  and 
 the  progrefs  of  the  war  prefented  one  uniform 
 fcene  of  calamity  and  defolation.  The  united 
 horrors  of  famine  and  peftilence  overwhelmed  the 
 royal  army,  whole  provifions  were  cut  off  by  the 
 Mahometans.  In  the  year  1250,  Robert  earl  of 
 Artois,  the  king's  own  brother,  having  furprifed 
 the  Saracen  army,  and,  through  an  excefs  of  va- 
 lour, purfued  them  too  far,  was  flain  in  the  engage- 
 ment ;  and,  a  few  days  after,  the  king  himfelf, 
 with  two  more  of  his  brothers,  and  the  greater 
 part  of  his  army,  were  taken  prifoners  in  a  fevere  . 
 action,  after  a  bold  andobftinate  refiftance. '  Tnis 
 valiant  monarch,  who  was  endowed.'  with  true 
 greatnefs  of  mind,  and  who  was  fincerely  pious, 
 though  after  the  manner  which  prevailed  in  this 
 age  of  fuperftition  and  darknefs,  was  ranfomed  at 
 an  immenfe  price  (about  190,000!.  fterling),  and, 
 after  having  (pent  about  four  years  in  Palestine, 
 returned  into  France  in  the  year  1254,  with  a 
 handful  of  men,  the  miferable  remains  of  his  for- 
 midable army. 
 
 No  calamities,  however,  could  dejed  the  cou- 
 rage or  damp  the  invincible  lpirit  of  Lewis ;  nor 
 did  he  look  upon  his  vow  as  fulfilled  by  what  he 
 had  already  performed  in  Paleftine.  He  therefore 
 refolvcd  upon  a  new  expedition,  fitted  out  a  formi- 
 dable fleet,  with  which  he  fet  fail  for  Africa;  and 
 
 propoftd 
 
cent.  13.]  Decline  of  the  Latins  in  the  Eajl.  141 
 propofed  to  begin  in  that  part  of  the  world  his 
 operations  againft  the  Infidels,  that  he  might  either 
 convert  them  to  the  Chriftian  faith,  or  draw  from 
 their  treafures  the  means  of  carrying  on  more  effec- 
 tually an  Afiatic  war.  He  made  himfelf  matter  of 
 the  fort  of  Carthage ;  but  this  firft  fuccefs  was  foon 
 followed  by  a  fatal  change.  A  peililential  difeafe 
 broke  out  in  the  fleet  in  the  harbour  of  Tunis,  car- 
 ried offthe  greateft  part  of  the  army,  and  feized  at 
 length  the  monarch  himfelf,  who  fell  a  victim  to 
 its  rage,  on  the  25th  of  Auguft,  in  the  year  127c. 
 Lewis  was  the  laft  of  the  European  princes  who 
 embarked  in  the  holy  war ;  the  dangers  and  diffi- 
 culties, the  calamities  and  diforders,  and  the  enor- 
 mous expences  which  accompanied  each  crufade, 
 difgufted  the  moft  zealous,  and  difcouraged  the 
 moft  intrepid  promoters  of  thefe  fanatical  expedi- 
 tions. In  confequence  of  this,  the  Latin  empire 
 in  the  eaft  declined  with  rapidity,  notwithstanding 
 the  efforts  of  the  Roman  pontiffs  to  maintain  and 
 fupport  it;  and  in  the  year  1291,  after  the  taking 
 of  Ptolemais,  or  Acre,  by  the  Mahometans,  it  was 
 entirely  overthrown*.  It  is  natural  to  inquire  into 
 the  true  caufes  which  contributed  to  this  unhappy 
 revolution  in  Paleftine ;  and  thefe  caufes  are  evi- 
 dent. We  muft  not  feek  for  them  either  in  the 
 counfcls  or  in  the  valour  of  the  Infidels,  but  in  the 
 
 *  Ant.  Matthsi  AnahSa  Veter'is  Mvi,  torn.  v.  p.  748.  Jac. 
 Echardi  Scriptores  Dominican!,  torn.  i.  p.  422.  Imola  in  Dantem, 
 In  Muratorii  Antig,  hah  Mcdii  JEvi,  torn,  i,  p.  1 1 1 1,  1 1 1 2. 
 
 diffenfions' 
 
I4&  Conference  at  Nice.  [cent-.  13. 
 
 diffenfions  which  prevailed  in  the  Chriftian  armies, 
 in  the  profligate  lives  of  thofe  who  called  them- 
 felves  the  champions  of  the  crofs,  and  in  the  igno- 
 rance and  obftinacy,  the  avarice  and  infolence  of 
 the  pope's  legates. 
 
 During  the  progrefs  of  thefe  commotions,  many 
 efforts  were  employed  to  re- unite  the  Greek,  and 
 Latin  churches.  The  Roman  pontiffs  were  at 
 all  times  delirous  of  a  reconciliation  upon  certain 
 terms,  which  mud  be  allowed  to  be  few  in  number, 
 but  tolerably  comprehenfive,  fince  they  included  a 
 renunciation  of  every  particular  opinion  on  which  a 
 difference  between  the  churches  had  arifen.  In 
 1 233  a  conference  took  place  at  Nice  between  the 
 Byzantine  patriarch  and  deputies  from  the  pope,  in  ' 
 which  the  different  queftions  in  difpute  we're  agi- 
 tated, but  without  any  effect.  The  Greek  empe- 
 rors, on  recovering  their  dominions,  from  political 
 motives  endeavoured  to  conciliate  the  regard  of 
 the  Roman  pontiffs,  by  offering  to  accede  to  their 
 requifkions.  But  repeated  impediments  were  op- 
 pofed  to  the  re-union,  and  the  emperor  Andro- 
 gens formally  annulled  every  project  of  this  nature 
 which  had  been  propofed  by  his  predeceiTqrs. 
 
 The  kings  of  Caftile,Leon,Navarre,andArragon, 
 at  this  period;  waged  perpetual  war  with  the  Saracen 
 princes  in  Spain,  who  flill  retained  under  their  do- 
 minion the  kingdoms  of  Valentia,Granada  and  Mur- 
 cia,  together  with  the  province  of  Andalufia.  The 
 efforts  of  the  Chriftian  potentates  were,  however,  fo 
 3  fuccefsful, 
 
cent.  13.]  Expulfwn  of the  Moors  from  Spain.   143 
 fnccefsful,  that  the  Saracen  dominion  rapidly  de- 
 clined,  and  was  daily  reduced  within  narrower 
 bounds,  while  the  limits  of  the  church  were  extend- 
 ed on  every  fide.    The  princes,  who  principally  con- 
 tributed to  this  revolution,  were  Ferdinand  king  of 
 Caftile  and  Leon,  who,  after  his  death,  obtained  a 
 place  in  the  calendar,  with  his  father  Alphonfo  IX. 
 king  of  Leon,  and  James  I.  king  of  Arragon. 
 This  prince  particularly  diftinguiihed  himfelf  by 
 his  fervent  zeal  for  the  advancement  of  Chriftia- 
 nity  •,  and   no  fooner  made  himfelf  mafter  of  Va- 
 lentia  in  the  year  1236,   than  he  employed,  with 
 the  utmoft  afnduity,  every  poffible  method  of  con- 
 verting to  the  faith  his  Arabian  fubjects,  whofe  ex- 
 pulfion  would  have  been  an  irreparable  lofs  to  his 
 kingdom.     For  this  purpofe  he  ordered  the  Do- 
 minicans, whofe  minidry  he  principally  employed 
 in  this  falutary  work,  to  learn  the  Arabic  tongue ; 
 and  founded  public  fchools  at  Majorca  and  Barce- 
 lona,  in  which   a  confiderable  number  of  youth 
 were  educated   in   a   manner  that  might  enable 
 them   to  preach   the    Gofpel  in    that   language. 
 When  thefe  pious  efforts  were  found  ineffectual, 
 the   Roman   pontiff,   Clement  IV.   exhorted  the 
 king  to  expel  the  Mahometans  from  Spain.     The 
 obfequious  prince  followed  the  counfel  of  the  in- 
 confiderate  and  intolerant  prieft  ;  in  the  execution 
 of  which,  however,  he  met  with  much  difficulty, 
 both  from  the  oppofition  of  the  Spanifh  nobles, 
 
 and 
 
144  Papal  Encroachments.       [cent.   13. 
 
 and  from  the  obftinacy  of  the  Moors,  who  how- 
 ever retained  only  the  kingdom  of  Granada*. 
 
 The  hiftory  of  the  Latin  Church  during  this 
 period  prefents  a  lively  picture  of  the  ignorance, 
 profligacy,  and  turbulence  of  the  times.  In  order 
 to  eftablifh  their  authority,  both  in  civil  and  eccle- 
 fiaftical  matters,  upon  the  firmeft  foundations,  the 
 Roman  pontiffs  affumed  to  themfelves  the  power 
 of  difpofing  of  the  various  offices  of  the  church, 
 whether  of  a  higher  or  more  fubordinate  nature, 
 and  of  creating  bifhops,  abbots,  and  canons,  with- 
 out the  confent  of  the  fovereigns  or  the  people. 
 The  firft  of  the  popes  who  ufurpe.d  this  extrava- 
 gant extent  of  authority,  was  Innocent  III.  whofe* 
 example  was  followed  by  Honorius  III.  Gregory 
 IX.  and  feveral  of  their  fucceflbrs.  It  was  how- 
 ever ardently  oppofed  by  the  bilhops,  who  had 
 hitherto  enjoyed  the  privilege  of  nominating  to 
 the  fmaller  benefices,  and  ftill  more  effectually  by. 
 the  kings  of  England  and  France,  who  employed 
 the  force  of  warm  remonftrances  and  vigorous 
 edicts,  to  ftop  the  progrefs  of  this  new  jurifpru- 
 dence-f*.  Lewis  IX.  king  of  France,  and  now  the 
 tutelar  faint  of  that  nation,  diftinguifhed  himfelf 
 by  his  lpirited  oppofition  to  thefe  papal  cncroach- 
 
 *  See  Geddes,  the  Hijlory  of  the  Expulfion  of  the  Morifcoes,  in 
 hi»  Mifcellaneous  Traits,  vol.  i.  p.  26. 
 
 f  Boulay,  Hift.  Acad,  Far  if  torn.  iii.  p.  655,  and  principally 
 torn,  iv,  p.  911. 
 
 ments. 
 
cent.   13.]  Pragmatic  Sanation.  \^t 
 
 ments.  In  the_year  1 2^8,  before  his  departure  for 
 the  Holy  Land,  he  fecured  the  rights  of  the  Gal- 
 ilean Church  againft  the  infilious  attempts  of  the 
 Roman  pontiffs,  by  that  famous  edict,  which  is 
 known  by  the  name  of  the  Pragmatic  Santlicn*. 
 This  refolute  and  prudent  meafure  rendered  the- 
 pontiffs  more  cautious  and  flow  in  their  proceed- 
 ings, but  did  not  terrify  them  from  the  profecution 
 of  their  purpofe.  Boniface  VIII.  indeed  main- 
 tained, in  the  molt  exprefs  terms,  that  the  uni- 
 yerfal  church  was  under  the  dominion  of  the 
 popes,  and  that  princes  and  lay-patrons,  councils 
 and  chapters,  had  no  power  in  fpiritual  things,  but 
 what  they  derived  from  Chrift's  vicar  upon  earth. 
 The  legates,  whom  the  pontiffs  fent  into  the 
 provinces  to  reprefent  their  perfons,  and  execute 
 their  orders,  imitated,  in  the  whole  of  their  conduct, 
 the  avarice  and  infolence  of  their  employers.  They 
 violated  theprivileges  of  the  chapters;  difpofed  of 
 the  fmaller,  and  fometimes  of  the  more  important 
 ecclefiaftical  benefices,  in  favour  of  fuch  as  had 
 gained  them  by  bribes,  or  powerful  recommenda- 
 tions \\  they  extorted  money  from  the  people, 
 by  the  vilefl  and  mpft  iniquitous  means  j  excited 
 tumults  among  the  multitude  ;  and  carried  on,  in 
 the  mofl  fcandalous  manner,  the  traffic  of  relics  and 
 indulgences.  Hence  we  find  the  writers  of  this  age 
 complaining  unanimoufly  of  the  conduct   of  the 
 
 *  Boulay,  HiJl.Acad.  Pan/,  p.  389. 
 
 f  See  Baluzii  Mifcellanea,  torn.  vii.  p.  437.  47$.  480,  See. 
 
 Vol.  II.  L  pope's 
 
1 46  Augmentation  of  the  Papal  Revenues,  [cent.  13. 
 
 pope's  legates  *.  Nay,  we  find  Pope  Alexander 
 IV.  enacting,  in  the  year  1256,  a  fevere  law  againft 
 the  avarice  and  frauds  of  thefe  corrupt  minifters-f-, 
 which,  however,  they  eafily  evaded,  by  their 
 friends  and  their  credit  at  the  court  of  Rome. 
 
 From  the  ninth  century  to  this  period,  the 
 wealth  and  revenues  of  the  popes  had  not  received 
 any  confiderable  augmentation  ;  but  at  this  time 
 they  were  greatly  increafed  under,  Innocent  III. 
 and  Nicolas  III.  partly  by  the  events  of  war,  and 
 partly  by  the  munificence  of  kings  and  emperors. 
 Innocent  was  no  fooner  feated  in  the  papal  chair, 
 than  he  reduced  under  his  jurifdiftion  the  prefect 
 of  Rome,  who  had  hitherto  been  confidered  as  fub- 
 jectto  the  emperor,  to  whom  he  had  taken  an  oath 
 of  allegiance  in  entering  upon  his  office.  He  alfo 
 feized  upon  Ancona,  Spoletto,  Afiifi,  and  feveral 
 cities  and  fortrelTes,  which  had,  according  to  him, 
 been  unjuftly  alienated  from  the  patrimony  of  St'. 
 Peter.  In  addition  to  this,  Frederic  II.  who  was 
 extremely  defirous  that  the  pope  fhould  efpoufe 
 his  quarrel  with  Otho  IV.  loaded  the  Roman  See 
 with  the  richeft  marks  of  his  munificence  and 
 liberality,  and  not  only  made  a  noble  prefent  in 
 lands  to  the  brother  of  his  holinefs,  but  alfo  per- 
 mitted Richard  count  of  Fundi  to  leave,  by  will, 
 
 *  Sec  that  judicious  and  excellent  writer,  Matth.  Paris,  in  his 
 H'tjloria  Major,  p.  313.  316.  549. 
 
 f  This  edid  is  publifhed  by  Lami,  in  his  Belkite  Eruditorum, 
 torn.  ii.  p.  300. 
 
 all 
 
cent.  13.3  Innocent  III*  147 
 
 all  his  poflcffions  to  the  Roman  See  *,  and  con- 
 firmed the  immenfe  donation  which  had  for- 
 merly been  made  by  the  opulent  Matilda.  Such 
 was  the  progrefs  that  Innocent  III.  made,  during 
 his  pontificate,  in  augmenting  the  fplendour  and 
 wealth  of  the  church.  Nicolas  IV.  followed  his 
 example  with  the  warmeft  emulation  ;  and,  in  the 
 year  1278,  exhibited  a  remarkable  proof  of  his 
 arrogance  and  obftinacy,  in  refufing  to  crown  the 
 emperor  Rodolphus  I.  before  he  had  acknowledged 
 and  confirmed,  by  a  folemn  treaty,  all  the  preten- 
 fions  of  the  Roman  See,  of  which,  if  fome  were 
 plaufible,  the  greater  part  were  altogether  ground- 
 lefs,  or  dubious  at  leall.  This  agreement,  to 
 which  all  the  Italian  princes  fubject  to  the  empe- 
 ror were  obliged  to  accede,  was  no  fooner  con- 
 cluded, than  Nicolas  reduced  under  his  temporal 
 dominion  feveral  cities  and  territories  in  Italy, 
 which  had  formerly  been  annexed  to  the  Imperial 
 crown,  particularly  Romania  and  Bologna.  It 
 was  therefore  under  thefe  two  pontiffs  that  the  See 
 of  Rome  arrived,  partly  by  force,  and  partly  by 
 artifice,  at  that  high  degree  of  grandeur  and  opu- 
 lence which  till  the  reformation  it  retained  f. 
 
 Innocent  III.  who  remained  at  the  head  of  the 
 church  until  the  year  12 16,  followed  the  fleps  of 
 
 *  Odor.  Raynaldus,  Conllnuat.  Annal,   Baron'ii,  ad  A.  1212, 
 
 f.    2. 
 
 f  See  Raynaldus,  lo<.  at.  ad  A.  1278,  f,  47. 
 
 L  2  Gregory 
 
148  Pope  eretts  new  Kingdoms,      [cent.  13. 
 
 Gregory  VII.  and  not  only  ufurped  the  defpo- 
 tic  government  of  the  church,  but  claimed  the 
 empire  of  the  world,  and  appeared  to  indulge  the 
 lofty  project  of  fubjecting  the  kings  and  princes  of. 
 the  earth  to  an  hierarchical  fceptre.  He  was  a  man 
 of  learning  and  application  ;  but  his  cruelty,  ava- 
 rice, and  arrogance*,  clouded  the  luftre  of  any 
 good  qualities  which  his  panegyrifts  have  thought 
 proper  to  attribute  to  him.  In  Afia  and  Europe, 
 he  difpofed  of  crowns  and  fceptres  with  the  moft 
 wanton  ambition.  In  Afia,  he  gave  a  king  to  the 
 Armenians;  in  Europe,  he  ufurped  the  fame  ex- 
 travagant privilege,  and  conferred  the  regal  dig- 
 nity upon  Primiflaus,  duke  of  Bohemia.  In  the 
 fame  year  1204,  he  fent  to  Johannicus,  duke  of 
 Bulgaria  and  Wallachia,  an  extraordinary  legate, 
 who,  in  the  name  of  the  pontiff,  inverted  that 
 prince  with  the  cnfigns  and  honours  of  royalty, 
 while,  with  his  own  hand,  he  crowned  Peter  II.  of 
 Arragon,  who  had  .rendered  his  dominions  fubjeft 
 and  tributary  to  the  church,  and  fainted  him  pub- 
 licly at  Rome  with  the  title  of  king. 
 
 But  the  ambition  of  this  pope  was  not  Satisfied 
 with  the  diftribution  and  government  of  thefe  petty 
 kingdoms  :  he  extended  his  views  farther,  and  re- 
 lolved  to  render  the  power  and  majefty  of  the 
 Roman  See  formidable  to  the  greateft  European 
 monarchs,  and  even  to  the  emperors  themfelves. 
 
 *  See  Matth.  Hjjl.  Major. ^.  206.  230. 
 
 When 
 
cent.  13.]  Excommunicates  various  Sovereigns,  140 
 
 When  the  empire  of  Germany  was  difputed,  to- 
 wards the  commencement  of  this  century,  between 
 Philip  duke  of  Swabia  and  Otho  IV.  third  fon  of 
 Henry  Lion,  he  efpoufed,  at  firft,  the  caufe  of 
 Otho,  excommunicated  Philip,  and,  upon  the 
 death  of  the  latter,  which  happened  in  the  year 
 1209,  he  placed  the  imperial  diadem  upon  the 
 head  of  his  adverfary.  But  as  Otho  was  by  no 
 means  difpofed  to  fubmit  to  the  arbitrary  deter- 
 minations of  the  pontiff,  or  tofatiate  his  ambitious 
 defires,  he  confequently  incurred  the  indignation 
 of  his  fpiritual  patron  ;  and  Innocent  declaring 
 him,  by  a  folemn  excommunication,  unworthy  of 
 the  empire,  raifed  to  the  imperial  throne  his 
 pupil,  Frederic  IT.  the  fon  of  Henry  VI.  and 
 king  of  the  two  Sicilies,  in  the  year  12 12*. 
 Bolder  and  more  fuccefsful  than  his  predeceflbr 
 Celeftine,  he  excommunicated  the  king  of  France, 
 for  having  diflblved  his  marriage  with  Ingelburg, 
 and  efpoufing  another.  The  licentious  king 
 ftill  continued  inflexible,  and  this  fpoufe  of  the 
 thurch  (for  fuch  was  the  appellation  affumed  by 
 Innocent)  hurled  his  menaces  and  anathemas 
 againft  the  offending  monarch,  and  laid  the  whole 
 kingdom  under  an  interdict  which  prohibited  the 
 celebration  of  divine  worfhip.  Philip,  though 
 probably  unconcerned  for  his  guilt,  yet  aware  of 
 his   danger,   at   length  repudiated    the  beautiful 
 
 *  All  this  is  amply  illuftratcd  in  the  Origines  Guelphicar, 
 torn.  iii.  lib.  vii.  p.  247. 
 
 L  3  Agnes5 
 
150  John Saf.s -Ten e.  [cent.  ij. 
 
 Agnes,  received  again  his  queen,  and  appealed  the 
 refentment  of  the  Holy  See  *. 
 
 Amongft  the  different  royal  victims  to  the  am- 
 bition of  Innocent,  John  furnamed  Sans  Terre, 
 king  of  England,  was  particulaily  expofed  to  his 
 fury  and  defpotifm.  This  prince  op  poled  vigo- 
 rously the  meafures  of  Innocent,  who  had  ordered 
 the  monks  of  Canterbury  to  chbofe  Stephen  Lang- 
 ton,  a  Roman  cardinal  of  Englifb  dcfcent,  arch- 
 bifliop  of  that  fee,  notwithftanding  the  election  of 
 John  de  Grey  to  that  dignity,  which  had  been 
 regularly  made  by  the  convent,  and  had  been  con- 
 firmed by  royal  authority.  The  pope,  after  havr 
 ing  confecrated  Langton  at  Viterbo,  wrote  a 
 foothing  letter  in  his  favour,  to  the  king,  accom- 
 panied with  four  rings,  and  a  myftical  comment 
 upon  the  precious  (tones  with  which  they  were 
 enriched.  But  this  prefent  was  not  fufficient  to 
 avert  the  indignation  of  the  offended  monarch  ;  He 
 lent  a  body  of  troops  to  expel  from  the  kingdom 
 the  monks  of  Canterbury,  who  had  been  engaged 
 by  the  pope's  menaces  to  receive  Langton  as  their 
 archbilhop,  and  declared  to  the  pope',  that  if  he 
 perfifted  in  irnpofing  a  prelate  upon  the  fee  of 
 Canterbury,  in  oppolition  to  a  regular  elccTion 
 already  made,  the  confequence  of  fuch  prefump- 
 tuous  obftinacy  would,  eventually,  prove  fatal  to 
 
 •*  Boulay,  ffifi.  Acad.  P&rtf.  torn.  Hi.  p.  8. — Danitl,  Hiftoire 
 d:  la.  Ftance,  torn.  iii.  p.  47;. — Gerhard  Du  Bois, ^Hifloire 
 Scflrf.  Pari/,  torn.  ii.  p.  204 — 257. 
 
 the 
 
cent.  13.]    England  laid  under  an  Inter  diff.       \  5  1 
 
 the  papal  authority  in  England.  Innocent  was, 
 however,  fo  far  from  being  terrified  by  this  mena- 
 cing remonftrance,  that  in  the  year  1208  he  fent 
 orders  to  the  bifhops  of  London,  Worcester,  and 
 Ely,  to  lay  the  kingdom  under  an  interdict,  if  the 
 monarch  flill  refufed  to,  yield  and  to  receive 
 Langton.  John,  alarmed  at  this  menace,  and 
 unwilling  to  break  entirely  with  the  pope,  declared 
 his  readinefs  to  confirm  the  election  made  at  Rome ; 
 but,  in  the  act  which  was  drawn  up  for  the  pur- 
 pofe,  he  wifely  introduced  a  claufe  to  prevent  any 
 interpretation  of  this  compliance  which  might  be 
 prejudicial  to  his  rights,  dignity  and  prerogative. 
 This  exception  was  rejected,  and  the  interdict  was 
 proclaimed.  A  general  (lop  was  immediately  put  to 
 the  public  offices  of  religion  ;  the  churches  were 
 fhutj  the  administration  of  all  the  facraments  was 
 fufpended,  except  that  of  bapiifm  ;  the  dead  were 
 buried  in  the  highways,  without  the  ufual  rites,  or 
 any  funeral  folemnity.  But  notwithstanding  this 
 interdict,  the  CiStertian  order  continued  to  perform 
 divine  fervice ;  and  feveral  learned  and  refpectable 
 divines,  among  whom  were  the  bifhops  of  Win- 
 chester and  Norwich,  protefted  againft  the  injuf- 
 tice  of  the  pope's  proceedings. 
 
 The  interdict  not  producing  the  effects  which 
 were  expected  from  it,  the  pontiff  denounced  a 
 fentence  of  excommunication  againft  the  perfonof 
 the  Englifh  monarch.  This  fentence,  which  was 
 iffued  in  the  year  1208,  was  followed,  about  three 
 »  L  4  years 
 
152  Pope  excites  a  Crufade  agahift  England.  [cENT.13. 
 
 years  after,  by  a  bull  abfolving  all  his  fubjects  from 
 their  oath  of  allegiance,  and  ordering  all  perfons  to 
 avoid  him  on  pain  of  excommunication.  In  the 
 year  12  12,  Innocent  extended  his  tyranny  to  a  ft  ill 
 more  enormous  length  :  he  aflembled  a  council  of 
 cardinals  and  prelates,  ctepofed  John,  declared  the 
 throne  of  England  vacant,  and  wrote  to  Philip 
 Auguftus,  king  of  France,  to  execute  this  fentence, 
 to  undertake  the  conqueft  of  England,  and  to 
 unite  that  kingdom  to  his  dominions  for  ever.  H? 
 at  the  fame  time  publifhed  another  bull,  exhorting 
 all  Chriftian  princes  to  contribute  whatever  was  in 
 their  power  to  the  fuccefs  of  this  expedition,  pro-, 
 millng  fuch  as  feconded  Philip  in  this  grand  enter- 
 prife,  the  fame  indulgences  as  were  granted  to  thofe 
 who  carried  arms  a°;ainft  the  infidels  in  .Paleftine. 
 The  French  monarch  entered  into  the  views  of  the 
 Roman  pontiff,  and  made  immenfe  preparations 
 .  for  the  invafion  of  England.  The  king  of  Eng- 
 land, on  the  other  hand,  affembled  his  forces,  and 
 was  putting  himfelf  in  a  pofture  of  defence,  when 
 Pandulf,  the  pope's  legate,  arrived  at  Dover,  and 
 propofed  a  conference  in  order  to  prevent  the  ap- 
 proaching rupture,  and  allay  the  ftorm.  This 
 artful  legate  terrified  the  king  (who  met  him  at  that 
 place)  wifh  an  exaggerated  account  of  the  arma- 
 ment of  Philip,  and  the  di  faffed  ion  of  the  Englilh, 
 and  perfuaded  him,  that  there  were  no  pofiible 
 means  left  of  faying  his  dominions  from  the  formi- 
 dable arms  of  the  French  king,  but  thofe  of  putting 
 
 them 
 
cent.  13.]  Kingdom  refigned  to  the  Pope,  '  153 
 them  under  the  protection  of  the  Roman  See. 
 The  propofal  was  made  at  the  mofl  embarraffing 
 crifis  for  the  unfortunate  John :  full  of  diffidence, 
 both  in  the  nobles  of  his  court,  and  the  officers  of 
 his  army,  he  complied  at  length  with  this  dishonour- 
 able propofal,  did  homage  to  Innocent,  refigned 
 his  crown  to  the  legate,  and  received  it  again  as  a 
 prefent  from  the  See  of  Rome,  to  which  he  ren- 
 dered his  kingdoms  tributary,  and  fwore  fealty  as  a 
 vavlal  and  feudatory*.  In  the  aft.  by  which  he  re- 
 figned his  kingdoms  to  the  papal  jurifdi&ion,  he 
 declared  that  he  had  neither  been  compelled  to 
 this  meafure  by  fear  nor  by  force,  but  that  it  was 
 his  own  voluntary  deed,  performed  by  the  advice 
 and  with  the  confent  of  the  barons  of  his  kingdom. 
 He  obliged  himfelf  and  his  heirs  to  pay  an  annual 
 fum  of  feven  hundred  marks  for  England,  and 
 three  hundred  for  Ireland,  in  acknowledgment  of 
 the  pope's  fupremacy  and  jurifdiction  ;  and  con- 
 fented  that  he,  or  fuch  of  his  fucceffors  as  mould 
 refufe  to  pay  the  fubmiffion,  now  ftipulated,  to  the 
 See  of  Rome,  mould  forfeit  all  their  right  to  the 
 Britifh  crown-f.      u  This  mameful  ceremony  was 
 
 *  For  a  full  account  of  this  fhameful  ceremony,  fee  Matthew 
 Pan's,  Hijloria  Major,  p.  189.  192.  1 95.  As  alfo  Boulay, 
 Hijlor.  Acad.  Part/,  torn.  iii.  p.  67.  Rapin  Thoyras,  H'tfloirs 
 d*yjngkterre,  torn,  ii,  p.  304. 
 
 ■f  Cadet  a  jure  regni,  is  the  expreffion  ufed  in  the  Charter  of 
 Re/ignaiion,  which  may  be  feen  at  length  in  the  H'ifl.  Major  of 
 Matthew  Paris. 
 
 "  performed," 
 
154  Humiliation  of  King  John.      [cent.  15. 
 
 "  performed,"  fays  a  modern  hiftorian*,  "  on 
 "  Afcenfion-day,  in  the  honfe  of  the  Templars  at 
 "  Dover,  in  the  midll  of  a  great  concourfe  of 
 "  people,  who  beheld  it  with  confufion  and  indig- 
 "  nation.  Joha,  in  doing  homage  to  the  Pope, 
 "  prefented  a  fum  of  money  to  his  reprefentative, 
 11  which  the  proc.d  legate  trampled  under  his  feet, 
 •«  as  a  mark  of  tire  king's  dependence.  Every 
 •'  fpectator  glowed  with  refentment,.  and  the  arch- 
 M  bifhop  of  Dublin  exclaimed  aloud  againft  fuch^ 
 «c  intolerable  infolence.  Pandulf,  not  fatisfied  with 
 *'  this  mortifying  ad  of  (Superiority ,  kept  the  crown 
 ''■  and  fceptre  five  whole  days,  and  then  reftored 
 u  them  as  a  fpecial  favour  of  the  Roman  See. 
 "  John  was  defpifed  before  this  extraordinary  re- 
 ec  fin  nation  ;  but  now  he  was  looked  upon  as  a 
 "  contemptible  wretch,  unworthy  to  fit  upon  a 
 "  throne ;  while  he  himfelf  feemed  altogether  in- 
 «■  fenfible  of  his  difgrace." 
 
 Innocent  III.  was  fucceeded  in  the  pontificate 
 by  Concio  Savelli,  who  aiTumed  the  title  of  Ho- 
 norius  III.  ruled  the  church  about  ten  years,  and 
 whofe  government,  though  not  fignalized  by  fuch 
 audacious  exploits  as  thole  of  his  predeceffors, 
 difcovered  an  ardent  zeal  for  maintaining  the  pre- 
 tenfions,  and  fupporting  the  defpotifin '  of  the 
 Roman  See.  , 
 
 In  the  year  1227,  Hugolinus,  bifhop  of  Oftta, 
 whofe  advanced  age  had  not  extinguilhed  the  fire 
 
 *  Sec  Dr.  Smolkt's  Hiftory  of  England,  vol.  i.  p.'437* 
 
 of 
 
cent.  1 3-]      Pops  and  Emperor  at  War.  155 
 
 of  ambition,  nor  diminifhed  the  firmnefs  and  ob- 
 
 ftinacy  of  his  fpirit,  was  raifed  to  the  pontificate, 
 
 aiTnmed  the  title  of  Gregory  IX.  and  rekindled 
 
 the  feuds  and  difTenfions,  which  had  already  fecretly 
 
 fubiifted  between  the  church  and  the  empire,  into 
 
 an  open  and  violent  flame.     No  fooner  was  he 
 
 placed  in  the  papal  chair,  than,  contrary  to  all  juf- 
 
 tice  and  order,  he  excommunicated  the  emperor 
 
 for  deferring  his  expedition  againft  the  Saracens  to 
 
 another   year,  though   that  delay  was  manifefUy 
 
 owing  to  a  fit  of  ficknefs,  which  feized  that  prince 
 
 when  he  was  ready  to  embark  for  Palestine.     In 
 
 the  year  1228,  Frederic  at   length  departed,  and 
 
 arrived   in  the  Holy  Land.     But  during  the  ab- 
 
 fence*  of  the  emperor,  the  infidious  pontiff  made 
 
 war  upon   his  dominions,    and   ufed  his   utmoft: 
 
 efforts  to  arm  againft  him  all  the  European  powers. 
 
 Frederic,  however,  having  received  information  of 
 
 thefe  perfidious  and  violent  proceedings,  returned 
 
 into  Europe  in  the  year  1229,  defeated  the  papal 
 
 army,  retook  the  places  he  had  loft  in  Sicily  and 
 
 Italy,  and  the  year  following  made  his  peace  with 
 
 the  pontiff,  from  whom  he  received  a  public  and 
 
 folemn  abfolution.     This  peace  was  but  of  a  fliort 
 
 duration ;   nor  was  it  poflible  for  the  emperor  to 
 
 bear  the  infolent  proceedings,  and  the  imperious 
 
 *  Under  the  feeble  reign  of  Henry  III.  the  Pope  drew  Im- 
 menfe  fums  out  of  England  for  the  fupport  of  this  impious  war, 
 and  carried  his  avarice  fo  far,  as  to  demand  the  fifth  part  of  the 
 ecclcfiaftical  revenues  of  the  whole  kingdom. 
 
 temper 
 
i$6         Kingdom  cf  Sardinia  ere  ft  ed.      [cent.  13, 
 
 temper  of  Gregory.  He  therefore  broke  all  mea- 
 fures  with  the  pontiff,  di  ft  refled  theftates  of  Lorn- 
 bardy  which  were  in  alliance  with  the  See  of 
 Rome,  feized  upon  the  ifland  of  Sardinia,  which 
 Gregory  confidered  as  a  part  of  his  fpiritual  patri- 
 mony, and  erected  it  into  a  kingdom  for  his  fon 
 Entius.  Thefe,  with  other  meafures  equally  pro- 
 voking to  the  avarice  and  ambition  of  Gregory, 
 drew  the  thunder  of  the  Vatican  afrefh  upon  the. 
 emperor's  head.  In  the  year  1239,  Frederic  was 
 excommunicated  publicly,  with  all  the  circum- 
 ftances  of  feverity  which  vindictive  rage  could  in- 
 vent, and  was  charged  with  the  moft  flagitious 
 crimes,  and  the  moll  impious  blafphemies,  by  the 
 exafperated  pontiff,  who  fent  a  copy  of  this  accu- 
 fation  to  all  the  courts  of  Europe.  The  emperor, 
 on  the  other  hand,  defended  his  injured  reputation 
 by  folemn  declarations  in  writing,  while,  by  his 
 victorious  arms,  he  avenged  himfelf  of  his  adver- 
 faries,  maintained  his  ground,  and  reduced  the  pon- 
 tiff to  the  greateft  diftrefs.  To  extricate  himfelf 
 from  thefe  difficulties,  Gregory  convened,  in  the 
 year  1240,  a  general  council  at  Rome,  with  a  view 
 to  depofe  Frederic  by  the  unanimous  fuffragesof 
 the  cardinals*  and  prelates,  who  were  to  compofe 
 that  aflembly.  But  the  emperor  difconcerted  the 
 project,  by  defeating,  in  the  year  1241,  a  Genoefe 
 fleet,  on  board  of  which  the  greater  part  of  thefe 
 prelates  were  embarked,  and  by  feizing,  with  all 
 their  treafures,  thefe  reverend  fathers,  who  wercall 
 6  committed 
 
cent.  13.]  Innocent  IV.  157 
 
 committed  to  clofe  confinement.  This  difappoint- 
 ment,  attended  with  others,  which  gave  an  un- 
 happy turn  to  his  affairs,  and  blafted  his  moft  pro- 
 mifmg  expectations,  dejected  and  confumed  the 
 defpairing  pontiff,  and  contributed  probably  to 
 the  conclufion  of  his  days,  which  happened  foon 
 after  this  remarkable  event  *. 
 
 Geoffry,  bifhop  of  Milan,  who  fucceeded  Gre- 
 gory IX.  under  the  title  of  Celefline  IV.  died  be- 
 fore his  confecration,  and  after  a  vacancy  of  twenty 
 months  the  apoflolic  chair  was  filled  by  Sinibald, 
 one  of  the  counts  of  Fiefque,  who  was  raifed  to  the 
 pontificate  in  the  year  1243,  and  afllimed  the  de- 
 nomination of  Innocent  IV.  His  elevation  offered 
 at  firft  a  profpect  of  peace,  as  he  had  formerly  been 
 attached  to  the  interefts  of  the  emperor ;  and  ac- 
 cordingly conferences  were  opened,  and  a  reconci- 
 liation was  propofed  ;  but  the  terms  offered  by  the 
 new  pope  were  too  imperious  and  extrav?gant,  not 
 to  be  rejected  with  indignation  by  the  emperorf-. 
 Hence  it  was,  that  Innocent,  not  efteeminghimfelf 
 fafe  in  any  part  of  Italy,  fee  out  from  Genoa,  the 
 
 Befides  the  original  and  authentic  authors  collected  by  Mu- 
 ratori,  See  Petrus  De  Vincis,  Epiftol.  lib.  i.  and  Matth.  Paris, 
 Hiftoria  Major.  Add  to  thefe  Raynaldi  Annal.— Munition  An- 
 nul. It  a!,  torn,  vii.and  Antiquit.  Ital.  torn.  iv.  p.  325.  51  7. 
 
 f  Thefe  preliminary  conditions  were :  I.  That  the  emperov 
 fhould  entirely  furrender  to  the  church  the  inheritance  which  was 
 left  to  it  by  Matilda  ;  and  II.  That  he  would  oblige  himfelf  to 
 fubmit  to  whatever  terms  the  pope  mould  think  fit  to  propofe  as 
 conditions  of  peace. 
 
 place 
 
1 5&  Depjition  of  Frederic  II.       [ c e n  t  .  1  j. 
 
 place  of  his  birth,  for  Lyons,  in  the  year  1244,  and,  . 
 ailembling  there  a  council  the  following  year,  de« 
 poled,  in  their  prefence,  though  not  with  their  ap- 
 probation, the  emperor  Frederic,  and  declared  the 
 Imperial  throne  vacant*.  This  unjuft  and  infolent 
 meafure  was  regarded  with  fuch  veneration,  and 
 confidered  as  f'o  weighty  by  the  German  princes, 
 that  they  proceeded  inftantly  to  a  new  election, 
 and  elevated  firft,  Henry,  landgrave  of  Thu- 
 ringia,  and  after  his  death,  William*  count  of 
 Holland,  to  the  Imperial  throne.  Frederic,  whofe 
 firm  and  heroic  fpirit  fupported  without  dejection 
 thefe  cruel  viciffitudes,  continued  to  carry  on  the 
 war  in  Italy,  till  a  violent  dyfentery  ended  his 
 days  in  Apulia,  the  13th  of  December,  1250. 
 Upon  the  death  of  his  formidable  and  magnani- 
 mous adverfary,  Innocent  returned  into  Italy-}-, 
 hoping  now  to  enjoy  with  fecurity  the  fruits  of  his 
 ambition.  Thefe  diflenfionsare  fuppofed  to  have  " 
 occasioned  the  rife  of  the  celebrated  faction  of  the 
 Guelphs,  who  ftrenuoufly  afferted  the  authority  of 
 the  Roman  See;  and  of  the  Gibelines,  who  fupport- 
 ed the  Imperial  rights.  Their  origin  is  however 
 involved  in  almoft  impenetrable  obfeurity,  ana  has 
 occafioned   numberlefs  conjectures  and  difputes. 
 
 *  This  affembly  is  placed  in  the  lilt  of  oecumenical,  or  general 
 councils  ;  but  it  is  not  acknowledged  as  fuch  by  the  Galilean 
 Church. 
 
 ■f-  Befides  the  writers  already  mentioned,  fee  Nicol.  de  Cur- 
 bio,  Fit  a  Innoccntii  IV,  in  Baluzii  Mifcclian.  torn.  y\\.  p.  353. 
 
 8  Some 
 
cent.  13.]  Gmlphs  and  Gibelines.  1 5  9 
 
 Sortie  authors  have  conceived  that  Frederic  II.  ia 
 making  the  tour  of  Italy,  diflinguilhed  thofe  of  his 
 own  party  by  the  word  gebieter,  imperator,  which  by 
 corruption  formed  the  word  Gibeline.  Other  hifto- 
 rians  refer  rhe  origin  of  thefe  factions  to  the  year 
 1 139,  when  Conrad  III.  marched  againft  the  Neapo- 
 litans ;  and  add,  that  Roger,  count  of  Naples  and 
 Sicily,  obtained  upon  this  occafion  the  afllftance  of 
 Guelph,  duke  of  Bavaria,  and  that  upon  the  ap- 
 proach of  the  contending  armies,  the  Bavarians 
 exclaimed  hie  Guelph,  here  Guelph,  to  which  the 
 Imperialifts  replied  on  their  fide,  hie,  or  hier  Gibe- 
 lin,here  Gibelin,  diftinguifhing  the  emperor  by  the 
 name  of  his  birth-place.  By  other  accounts  we 
 are  informed,  that  thefe  appellations  were  derived, 
 from  two  gentlemen  of  Piftoya,  brothers,  who 
 mutually  indulged  an  implacable  animofity,  and 
 gave  their  own  names  to  the  different  parties  who 
 fupported  their  refpective  caufesf  Maimbourg 
 conjectures  that  they  derived  their  origin  from  the 
 quarrels  between  two  illuftrious  houfeson  the -con- 
 fines of  Germany,  the  Henrys  of  Gibeling,  and 
 the  Guelphs  of  Adorf.  Various  other  conjectures 
 have  been  adopted  upon  this  fubject  :  thus  much 
 is  however  certain,  that  their  mutual  hatred  and 
 fanguinary  violence  comprife  aim  oft  the  whole  of 
 the  Italian  hiftory  during  nearly  three  centuries. 
 
 In  the  fhort  pontificates  of  the  three  fuccef- 
 fors  of  Innocent  IV.  no  material  tranfactions  occur* 
 red.      On  the  deceafe  of  Clement  IV.  the  intrigues 
 
 and 
 
160  Boniface  VIII.  [cent.  13. 
 
 and  divifions  of  the  cardinals  retarded  the  election 
 of  a  pope  during  three  years:  their  fufFrages  were 
 however  at  length  united  in  favour  of  Peter,  bilhop 
 of  Oftia,  who  affumed  the  pontificate,  and  the  name 
 -  of  Gregory  X.  in  the  year  1272.  Impreffed  with  a 
 deep  fcnfe  of  the  mifchiefs  occafioned  by  the  cabals 
 of  the  cardinals  in  the  election  of  a  fucceflor  to  the 
 chair  of  St.  Peter,  Gregory  enacted,  that,  on  thefe 
 occafions,  they  mould  be  confined  in  a  place  called 
 the  Conclave,  during  the  time  of  their  deliberations. 
 This  law,  calculated  to  prevent  the  evils  of  an 
 interregnum  in  the  church,  was  revoked  by  his  fuc- 
 cefTors  Adrian  V.  and  John  XXI.  but  renewed  and 
 confirmed  by  Celeftine  V.  who  was  elected  to  the 
 papacy  in  1294.  The  retired  habits  and  humble 
 difpofitions  of  the  virtuous  Celeftine  were  little 
 adapted  to  the  ftation  he  had  been  perfuaded  to  af- 
 fume;  and  the  intrigues  of  the  cardinal  Benedict  Ca- 
 ietan  eafily  induced  him  to  relinquifh  his  poft.  The 
 fame  year,  which  beheld  the  reluctant  acceptance, 
 and  cheerful  refignation  of  the  papal  chair  by  the 
 humble  Celeftine,  witneffed  the  elevation  of  the 
 haughty  Cajetan,  who  took  the  name  of  Boniface 
 VI II.  This  unworthy  prelate  was  dettined  to.  be 
 a  fcourge  both  to  the  church  and  ftate,  a  difturber 
 of  the  repofe  of  nations,  and  his  attempts' to  ex- 
 tend and  confirm  the  defpotifm  of  the  Roman 
 pontiffs,  were  carried  to  a  length  that  approached 
 to  frenzy.  From  the  moment'  that  he  entered 
 upon  his  new  dignity,  he  laid  claim  to  fupreme 
 
 and 
 
cent.  13.]  'Boniface  VI1L  161 
 
 and  irrefiftible  dominion  over  all  the  powers  of 
 the  earth,  both  fpiritual  and  temporal,  terrified 
 kingdoms  and  empires  with  the  thunder  of  his 
 bulls,  fummoned  princes  and  fovereign  ftates  be- 
 fore his  tribunal  to  decide  their  quarrels,  aug- 
 mented the  papal  jurifprudence  with  a  new  body 
 of  laws,  which  was  entitled  the  Sixth  Book  of  the 
 Decretals,  declared  war  againft  the  illuftrious  fa- 
 mily  of  Colonna,  who  difputed  his  title  to  the 
 pontificate*  ;  and  exhibited  to  the  Church,  and  to 
 Europe,  a  lively  image  of  the  tyrannical  admini- 
 stration of  Gregory  VII.  whom  he  perhaps  furpaffed 
 
 in  arrogance. 
 
 *  The  reafons  they  alleged  for  difputing  the  title  of  Boni- 
 face to  the  pontificate,  were,  that  the  refignation  of  Celefttne  wafl 
 not  canenkal,  and  that  it  was  obtained  by  fraudulent  means. 
 
 Vol.  II.  M  GHAP. 
 
[     i6z     ] 
 
 CHAP.     II. 
 
 OF  DOCTRINES,  RITES,  CEREMONIES,  &C. 
 
 Tranfubjlantiation  —  Auricular  Confejfton  —  Flagellants — 
 Rife  of  the  Dominicans — of  the  Francifcans — Anecdote 
 relating  to  their  Wealth — Religious  Exhibitions — Fejlival 
 of  the  Holy  Sacrament — Carrying  the  Hofl — fubilee. 
 
 THE  abfurd  and  groundlefs  fuperftitions,  - 
 which  deformed  the  practice  of  the  Church, 
 were  rather  increafed  than  reformed  during  this 
 century.  The  progrefs  of  reafon  and  truth  was  - 
 retarded  among  the  Greeks  and  Orientals  by  their  , 
 abfurd  admiration  of  whatever  bore  the  {lamp 
 of  antiquity,  by  the  indolence  of  their  bifhops,  the 
 ftupidity  of  their  clergy,  and  the  calamities  of  the 
 times.  Among  the  Latins,  many  concurring 
 caufes  united  to  augment  the  darknefs  of  that  cloud 
 which  had  already  been  caft  over  the  divine  luftre 
 of  genuine  Chriftianity.  The  Roman  pontiffs 
 were  averfe  to  every  thing  which  might  have  the 
 remoteft  tendency  to  diminifh  their  authority,  qr  to 
 encroach  upon  their  prerogatives  :  and  the  fchool- 
 divines  fpread  perplexity  and  darknefs  over  the 
 plain  truths  of  religion,  by  their  intricate  dif- 
 tinctions. 
 
 It  will  be  eafy  to  confirm  this  general  account 
 of  the  ftate  of  religion  by  particular  fads.  In  the 
 fourth  council  of  the  Lateran,  which  was  held  by 
 
 Innocent 
 
cent.  13.]  cTranfubJiantiation,  163 
 
 Innocent  IH.  in  the  year  1215,  and  at  which  a 
 prodigious  number  of  ecclefiaftics*,  and  ambaffa- 
 dors  from  almoft  every  court  in  Chriftendom,  were 
 affembled,  the  pontiff,  without  condefcending  to 
 enter  into  any  confutation,  produced  feventy 
 canons  already  prepared,  which  were  read  to  the 
 affembly,  who  fubmifiively  fubfcribed  the  decrees, 
 in  which,  however,  they  had  the  confolation  to 
 find  their  own  powers  extended  and  confirmed. 
 The  firft  canon  contained  a  confefhon  of  faith,  in 
 which  the  opinion,  which  is  flill  maintained  by  the 
 Romifli  Church  refpecting  the  eucharift,  was  pro- 
 nounced by  Innocent  to  be  the  only  true  and  or- 
 thodox account  of  the  Lord's  fupper ;  and  he  had 
 the  honour  of  eftablifhing  the  ufe  of  the  term 
 Tranfubjlantiation  -fy  which  was  hitherto  almoft 
 unknown^.  Innocent  III.  had  alfo  the  credit  of 
 inftituting,  by  his  own  authority,  among  the  du- 
 ties prefcribed  by  the  divine  laws,  that  of  auricular 
 confejficn  to  a  prieft;  a  confeffion,  which  implied  not 
 only  a  general  acknowledgment,  but  alfo  a  particular 
 enumeration  of  the  fins  and  follies  of  the  penitent. 
 
 This  century  was  further  diftinguiQied  by  the  in- 
 
 * 
 
 *  Bifhops4i2.     Abbots  and  Priors  nearly  800. 
 
 f  The  word  was  invented  by  Petrus  Blefenfis,  A.  D.  1160. 
 Cave  ii.  233. 
 
 J  Thefe  fuperftitions  had  been  gradually  advancing  for  a  feries 
 of  years.  In  1 201,  the  pope's  legate  at  Cologn  ordered  that, 
 in  the  jnafs,  at  the  elevation  of  the  hoft  (Hoftia,  or  facriiice,  fo 
 the  facred  elements  were  called)  all  the  people  lhould  proftrate 
 themftlves,      Jortin ,  v.  3  5  f . 
 
 M  2  ftitution 
 
164  Dominican  and  Francifcan  Orders »    [cent.  13. 
 
 ftitntion  of  two  of  the  mod  celebrated  orders  of 
 monks  which  have  ever  milled  or  difturbed  the 
 world.  The  one  was  founded  by  Dominic  of  Caftile, 
 and  the  other  by  Francis,  an  Italian.  The  former  of 
 thefe  fanatics  rendered  himfelf  remarkable  by  his 
 zeal  againft  the  heretics,  and  particularly  in  the  infa- 
 mous crufade  againft  the  Albigenfes.  By  his  influ- 
 ence, a  new  fociety  of  monks  was  eftablifhed,  under 
 the  authority  of  Innocent  III.  and  Honorius  III.  for 
 the  exprefs  purpofe  of  extirpating  herefy  •,  and 
 formed  the  bafis  of  the  inquifition.  Thefe  monks 
 were  at  fir  ft  diftinguifhed  by  the  name,  of  the 
 Preaching  Friars;  and,  in  England,  by  that  of 
 Black  Friars.  They  are  bound  by  their  founder 
 to  a  vow  of  perpetual  poverty,  to  which  however, 
 as  a  fociety,  they  have  by  no  means  adhered. 
 
 The  Francifcans,  who  were  eftablifhed  in  1207 
 (a  few  years  later  than  the  Dominicans),  originally 
 pretended  to  no  property,  but  lived  upon  the  con- 
 tributions of  their  audience,  went  barefoot,  were 
 very  poorly  habited*  and  pretended  to  great  morti- 
 fication. In  1243,  tnere  arole  a  violent  difpute 
 between  the  Francifcans  and  Dominicans^  con- 
 cerning the  preference  and  dignity  of  their  respec- 
 tive orders.  The  Dominicans  infilled  upon  the 
 priority  of  their  inftitution,  the  advantage  of  their 
 habit,  and  the  credit  of  their  diftinclion,  being 
 called  Predicatores,  or  the  preaching  fraternity, 
 and  added,  that  this  character  approached  to  the 
 apoftolical  function  and  dignity.  The  Francifcans 
 2  aflerted 
 
cent.  13.]  Anecdote  relating  to  their  Wealth,  165 
 afferted  that  their  order  bad  greater  marks  of  hu- 
 mility and  mortification,  that  the  preference  ought 
 to  be  meafured  by  the  degrees  of  felf- denial  and 
 difcipline;  that  for  thefe  considerations,  theirs 
 muft  be  efteemed  the  fuperior  order,  and  that  it 
 would  be  a  mark  of  improvement  in  the  Domini- 
 cans, to  incorporate  with  them.  In  one  point,  how- 
 ever, both  were  agreed  ;  each  order  had  made  an 
 aftonifhing  progrefs  in  wealth  and  reputation  t,  their 
 cloifters  were  decorated  like  the  abodes  of  princes, 
 and  not  a  trace  of  their  primitive  poverty  appeared ; 
 and  their  credit  was  fo  greatly  advanced,  that  few 
 thought  themfelves  fecure  of  falvation,  without  the 
 affiftance  of  one  of  the  Dominican  or  the  Francif- 
 can  brethren,  as  a  fpiritual  director.  Nor  had  they 
 confined  their  views  to  the  management  of  private 
 concerns,  but  had  intruded  into  the  higheft  offices 
 oftruft. 
 
 Such  indeed  was  the  opulence  of  thefe  orders, 
 that,  as  early  as  the  year  1299,  the  Francifcans  ap- 
 plied to  pope  Boniface,  offering  him  40,000  du- 
 cats of  gold,  and  a  prodigious  quantity  of  fllver,  if 
 he  would  enable  them  by  his  bull  to  become  the 
 purchafers  of  eftates,  and  to  live  like  the  other 
 orders.  When  the  pope  inquired  whether  their 
 money  was  ready,  they  anfwered  it  was,  and 
 lodged  in  the  bankers' hands.  Upon  this,  he  or- 
 dered them  to  withdraw,  and  return  in  three  days 
 for  his  anfvver.  In  the  mean  time  he  lent  to  the 
 bankers,  abfolved  them  from  their  obligation  to 
 
 M  3  reftore 
 
1 66      Organs  introduced  into  Churches,  [cent.  13, 
 
 reftore  the  money  to  the  monks,  and  charged  them, 
 under  pain  of  excommunication,  to  referve  jt  for 
 the  ufe  of  the  Roman  See.  When  the  Francifcans 
 returned  at  the  day  appointed,  in  expectation   of 
 their  diploma,    the  pope  told  them  that  he  found, 
 upon  confideration,  it  was  not  ad vi fable  to  dif- 
 penfe  with  St.  Francis's  mite,   and  therefore  they 
 mufl  of  neceiTity  continue*  under  their  firft  engage- 
 ments, to    live  without  property. 
 ,     Several  orders  of  mendicant  friars,  befides  the  ce-- 
 lebrated  focieties  already  mentioned,  arofe  in  this 
 century.   Thefe  were  the  creatures  of  the  pope,  de- 
 voted to  his  interefts,  and  ready  to  undertake  every  - 
 employment  which  could  effect:  his  ambitious  pro-  > 
 jects.    Equally  folicitous  for  power  with  the  other 
 regular  clergy,  they  encroached  upon  the  privileges 
 ►of  thepriefts;  were  involved  in  difputeswith  them 
 during  a  considerable  part  of  the  thirteenth  century,  . 
 and  occafioned   innumerable  contentions  between 
 the  universities  and  the  different  clerical  orders. 
 
 About  the  year  1250,  organs-^  were  introduced 
 into  churches,  and  every  poffible  addition  was 
 made  to  the  external  part  of  divine  worfhip,  in 
 order  to  increafe  its  pomp  and  render  it  morecap- 
 
 *  Weft,  ad  1299. 
 
 t  Thomas  Aquinas  fays  in  his  Summa—  "  Our  church  does 
 *'  not  ufe  mufical  inftruments,  as  harps  and  pfalteries,  that  flic 
 "  may  not  feem  to  judaize."  Marinus  Sanutus,  who  introduced 
 ■wind  organs  into  churches,  was  called  Torcellus  (the  name  of  an 
 organ).     Bing.  lib.  viii,  c.  7. 
 
 tivating. 
 
cent.  13.]        Religious  Exhibitions.  167 
 
 tivating.  Thefe  additions  were  partly  introduced 
 by  the  public  edicts  of  the  Roman  pontiffs,  and 
 partly  by  the  private  injunctions  of  the  facerdotal 
 and  monadic  orders,  who  fhared  the  veneration 
 which  was  excited  in  the  multitude  by  the  magni- 
 ficence of  this  religious  fpectacle.  Perhaps  the 
 ignorance  of  the  age,  when  but  few  perfons,  even 
 in  the  higher  ranks,  could  either  write  or  read, 
 might  fugged  the  idea,  or  might  at  lead  form  an 
 excufe  for  the  fplendid  fcenes  which  were  ex- 
 hibited to  the  external  fenfes. 
 
 At  certain  dated  periods,  and  efpecially  upon  the 
 •more  llludrious  fedivals,  the  miraculous  difpenfa- 
 tions  of  the  divine  wifdom  in  favour  of  the  church, 
 and  the  more  remarkable  events  in  Chriflian  hif- 
 tory,  were  reprefented  under  certain  allegorical 
 figures  and  images,  or  rather  in  a  kind  of  pantomi- 
 mic (hew.  B\it  thefe  fcenic  reprefentations,  in  which 
 there  was  a  motley  mixture  of  mirth  and  gravity; 
 thefe  tragi-comical  fpectacles,  though  they  amuf- 
 ed  and  affected  the  gazing  populace,  were  highly 
 detrimental,  indead  of  being  ufeful  to  the  caufe  of 
 religion  j  they  degraded  its  dignity,  and  furnifhed 
 abundant  matter  of  derifion  to  its  enemies. 
 
 But  perhaps  the  mod  extravagant  of  abfurdities 
 was  the  inditution  of  the  celebrated  annual  Feftival 
 of  the  Holy  Sacrament.  In  1264,  a  woman  of  Liege, 
 whofe  fanaticifm  obtained  for  her  the  honours  of 
 canonization,  and  the  title  of  St.  Juliana,  pretend- 
 ed to  have  been  favoured  with  a  revelation  from 
 M  4  heaven, 
 
168  Feftival  of  the  Holy  Sacrament  [cent.  13; 
 heaven,  acquainting  her,  that  the  Feftival  of  the 
 Ho'y  Sacrament  had  always  been  in  the  councils  of 
 the  fovereign  Trinity,  but  that  now  the  time  was 
 arrived  for  revealing  it  to  mankind*.  The  decree 
 of  Urban  IV.  for  the  inftitution  of  this  feftival, 
 flates — "  That  this  day  properly  appertains  to  the 
 facrament,  becaufe  there  is  no  faint  who  has  not 
 his  proper  feftival ;  that  this  is  intended  to  con- 
 found the  unbelief  and  extravagance  of  heretics, 
 and  to  repair  all  the  crimes  of  which  men  might  - 
 be  guilty  in  the  other  maffes-f-."  The  celebrated 
 Thomas  Aquinas  compofed  the  office  for  this  fo* 
 lemnity. 
 
 The  practice  of  elevating  the  hoft  had  arifen  in  , 
 the  eaflern  church  during  the  fixth  century;  but  its 
 progrefs  towards  the  weft  was  fo  tardy,-  that  no 
 cuftom  of  this  nature  is  recorded  before  the  eleventh 
 century,  and  no  adoration  intended  by  it  till  the 
 thirteenth,  when  it  \va?  exprefsly  appointed  in  the 
 conftitutions  of  Honorius  III.  and  Gregory  IX. 
 It  was  introduced  to  reprefent  the  elevation  of 
 Chrift  upon  the  crofs,  and  was  performed  imme- 
 diately before  the  communion. 
 
 1  Tin's  fanatical  woman  declared,  that  as  often  as  (he  addreffed 
 lierfelf  to  God,  or  to  the  faints,  in  prayer,  me  faw  the  full  moon 
 with  a  fmall  defeat  or  breach  in  it ;  and  that  having  long  ftudied 
 to  find  out  the  fignification  of  this  ftrange  appearance,  me  was 
 inwardly  informed  by  the  Spirit,  that  the  moon  fignified  the 
 churrh,  and  that  the  defect  or  breach  was  the  want  of  an  annual 
 feftival  in  honour  of  the  Holy  Sacrament. 
 
 f  Larroche,  p.  cS:. 
 
 T  The 
 
cent.  13.]  H'roceJJion  of  the  Hoft.  169 
 
 The  ceremony  of  carrying  the  hoft  in  procefilon, 
 to  communicate  with  the  lick,  appears  to  have 
 arifen  in  England  at  the  end  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
 tury. Hubert,  archbiihop  of  Canterbury,  and 
 legate  of  pope  Celeftine,  held  a  fynod  at  York,  in 
 which  he  commanded,  that,  when  any  fick  perfons 
 were  to  receive  the  communion,  the  pried  mould 
 himfelf  carry  the  hoft,  clothed  with  his  proper 
 garment,  and  with  lights  borne  before  him,  fuit- 
 able  to  fo  great  a  folemnity*.  In  the  thirteenth 
 century,  Odo,  bifhop  of  Paris,  made  feveral  regu- 
 lations to  the  fame  effect.  The  ufe  of  the  thin 
 wafer-f-  had  its  rife  nearly  about  the  fame  period ; 
 and  its  origin  appears  to  have  been  a  defire  of  pre- 
 venting as  much  as  poffible  the  chance  of  any 
 part  of  the  facred  elements  being  wafted  or  ap- 
 plied to  an  improper  ufe,  as  they  were  held  to  be 
 the  real  body  and  blood  of  Chrift.  With  this  view 
 it  was  deemed  fufficient  if  the  laity  communi- 
 cated with  bread  only,  for  it  was  agreed  that  the 
 confecrated  bread  was  the  whole  body  of  Chrift, 
 and  confequently  that  it  contained  the  blood  \  and 
 
 *  Dr.  Jortln  afcribes  the  origin  of  this  ceremony  to  the  above- 
 mentioned  legate  at  Cologn,  who  ordered,  that,  when  the  facra- 
 ment  was  carried  to  the  fick,  the  fcholar  and  ringer  fhould  go 
 before  the  prieft,  and  order  the  people  to  worihip  Jefus  Chrift.  in 
 the  ftreets  and  houfes.    Jort.  v.  35  1. 
 
 f  Before  the  rife  of  the  wafer,  it  appears  that  the  priefis  fre- 
 quently dipped  the  bread  in  the  wine  in  adminiftering  the  facra- 
 ment  to  the  fick,  but  againft  this  cuilom  feveral  decrees  were 
 pnacted, 
 
 that 
 
170  Inftitution  of  the  Jubilee.       [cent.  13. 
 
 that  therefore  the  wine,  which  was  the  blood  only, 
 muflbe  fuperfluous*.  This  practice  however  did 
 not  become  general  at  once;  and  in  many  places  the 
 laity,  to  prevent  the  fhedding  of  the  wine,  fucked 
 it  through  quills,  which  were  annexed  to  the  cha- 
 lices for  that  purpofe.  Communion  in  one  kind 
 only  was  afterwards  eftablifhed  by  the  council  of 
 Conftance  -}~. 
 
 About  the  conclufion  of  this  century,  Boniface 
 VIII.  added  to  the  public  rites  of  the  church,  the- 
 famous  jubilee,  which  is  (till  celebrated  at  Rome, 
 at  a  dated  period,  with  the  utmoft  profufion  of 
 pomp  and  magnificence.  In  1299,  a  rumour  was  . 
 fpread  among  the  inhabitants  of  that  city,  that  all  , 
 fuch  as  viiited,  within  the  limits  of  the  Following 
 year,  the  church  of  St.  Peter  fhould  obtain  the  re- 
 mifiionof  all  their  fins,  and  that  this  privilege  was 
 to  be  annexed  to  the  performance  of  the  fame  fer- 
 vice,  once  every  hundred  years.  This  opinion,  10 
 well  calculated  to  gratify  the  avarice  of  the  pon- 
 tiff, was  not  dil regarded  by  him.  Boniface  affected 
 to  inveftigate  the  bufinefs :  he  commanded  ftrict 
 inquiry  to  be  made  concerning  the  author',  ana1  the 
 foundation  of  the  report  ;  and  the  willing  pope  was 
 foon  fo  fuccefsful,  that  he  was  alTured,  by  many 
 teftimonies  worthy  of  creditj,  that,  from   the  re- 
 
 moteft 
 
 *  ^ce  this  admirably  expoftd  in  Swift's  Tale  of  a  Tub. 
 ■\  Frieftley's  Hift.  of  Corruptions,  vol.  ii.  p.  54. 
 \  Thcfc  teftimonies  worthy  of  credit  have  never  been  produced 
 by  the   Romiih  writers,  uniefs  we  rank  in  that  clafs,  that  of  an 
 I  old 
 
cent.  13.]     Jubilee  every  twenty -fifth  Tear,      171 
 moteft  antiquity,  this  important  privilege  of  remif- 
 fion  and  indulgence  was  to  be  obtained  by  thefe 
 fervices.     No  fooner  had  the  pontiff  received  this 
 information,  than  he  iffued  an  epiftolary  mandate, 
 addrefled  to  all  Chriflians,  in  which  he  enacted  it 
 as  a   folemn  law  of  the  church,  that  thofe  who, 
 every  hundredth  or  jubilee  year,  conferred  their 
 fins,  and  vifited,  with  fentiments  of  contrition  and 
 repentance,  the  churches  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul 
 at  Rome,  mould   obtain  the  entire  remimon  of 
 their  various   offences.     The  fucceflbrs  of  Boni- 
 face were  not  fatisfied  with  adding  a  multitude  of 
 new  rites  and  inventions,  by  way  of  ornaments,  to 
 this  fuperftitious  institution  ;  but,  finding  by  expe- 
 rience, that  it  added  to  the  luftre,  and  augmented 
 the  revenues  of  the  Roman  Church,  they  rendered 
 its  return  more  frequent,  and  fixed  its  celebration  to 
 every  five-and-twentieth  year*. 
 
 old  man,  who  had  completed  his  107th  year,  and  who,  being 
 brought  before  Boniface  VIII.  declared  (if  we  may  believe  the 
 Abbe  Fleury)  that  his  father,  who  was  a  common  labourer,  had 
 afliftedat  the  celebration  of  a  jubilee,  an  hundred  years  before  that 
 time.     See  Fleury,  Hijl.  Ecclef. 
 
 *  The  various  writers,  who  have  treated  of  the  inftitution  of 
 the  Roman  jubilee,  are  enumerated  by  Jo.  Albert.  Fabricius,  in 
 his  Bihliogr.  Antiquar,  p.  316. 
 
 CHAP. 
 
C     *72    3 
 
 CHAP.    III. 
 
 CONCERNING  THE  SECTS  WHICH  EXISTED  IN  THE 
 THIRTEENTH  CENTURY. 
 
 Cathar'ifls — Wahienfcs — Petrobruftans — Perfecution  of  He- 
 retics— Inquip.ticn — Crufade  agairjl  the'Albigenfcs. 
 
 FROM  the  contemporary  hiftorians  of  this  pe- 
 riod, no  accounts  of  new  fects  during  this 
 century  have  been  tranfmitted  to  us.  The  Nef-  - 
 torians  and  Jacobites,  who  were  fettled  in  the  re-  i 
 moter  regions  of  the  eaft,  and  equalled  the  Greeks 
 in  their  averfion  to  the  rites  and  jurifdiction  of  the 
 Latin  Church,  were  frequently  folicited,  by  the 
 miniltry  of  Francifcan  and  Dominican  miinonaries 
 fent  among  them  by  the  popes,  to  receive  the  Ro- 
 man yoke.  In  the  year  1246,  Innocent  IV.  ufed 
 his  utmoft  efforts  to  bring  both  thefe  fects  under 
 his  dominion  ;  and  in  the  year  1278,  terms  of  ac- 
 commodation were  propofed  by  Nicholas  LVt,  to 
 the  Neftorians,  and  particularly  to  that  branch  of 
 the  feci:  which  refided  in  the  northern  parts  of 
 Alia.  The  leading  men,  both  among  the  Nef- 
 torians  and  Jacobites,  appeared  to  pay  fome  atten- 
 tion to  the  propofals  which  were  made  to  them, 
 and  were  by  no  means  averfe  to  a  reconciliation 
 with  the  Church  of  Rome ;  but  the  profpect  of 
 
 peace 
 
cent*  13.]      Catharifls,  Vetrohrufwns,  tzc.       173 
 
 peace  foon  vanilhed,  and  a  variety  of  caufes  con* 
 curred  to  prolong  the  rupture. 
 
 During  the  whole  courfe  of  this  century,  the 
 Roman  pontiffs  carried  on  a  mod  violent  perfe- 
 ction againft  thofe  whom  they  branded  with  the 
 denomination  of  heretics.  The  fects  of  the  Catha- 
 rifls, Waldenfes,  and  Petrobrufians,  or  Albigenfes, 
 however,  daily  increafed,  fpread  imperceptibly 
 throughout  all  Europe,  affembled  numerous  con- 
 gregations in  Italy,  France,  Spain,  and  Germany, 
 and  formed  by  degrees  fo  powerful  a  party,  as  ren- 
 dered them  formidable  to  the  Roman  pontiffs, 
 and  menaced  the  papal  jurifdiclion  with  a  fatal  re- 
 volution. To  the  ancient  feels  new  factions  were 
 added,  which  differed  indeed  in  various  inftances,yet 
 were  all  unanimous  in  one  opinion :  "  That  the 
 "  public  and  eftablifhed  religion  was  a  motley 
 "  fyftem  of  errors  and  fuperftition  ;  and  that  the 
 <(  dominion  which  the  popes  had  ufurped  over 
 "  Chriftians,  and  the  authority  they  exercifed  in  re- 
 ft  ligious  matters,  were  unlawful  and  tyrannical." 
 Such  were  the  notions  propagated  by  the  fectaries, 
 who  refuted  the  fuperftitions  and  impoftures  of 
 the  times  by  arguments  deduced  from  fcripture, 
 and  whofe  declamatioas  againft  the  power,  the 
 opulence,  and  the  vices  of  the  popes  and  clergy, 
 were  extremely  agreeable  to  many  princes  and  civil 
 magiftrates,  who  felt  uneafy  under  the  ufurpations 
 of  the  facred  order.  The  pontiffs  therefore  confi- 
 dered  themfelves  as  obliged  to  have  recourfeto  new 
 
 and 
 
174  Terjecution  of  theje  SeEfarks.   [cent.  13. 
 
 and  extraordinary  methods  of  defeating  enemies, 
 who,  both  by  their  number  and  their  rank,  were 
 every  way  calculated  to  alarm  their  fears. 
 
 The  number  of  thefe  diffenters  from  the  Church 
 of  Rome  was  no  where  greater  than  in  Narbonne 
 Gaul  *,  and  the  countries  adjacent,  where  they 
 were  received  and  protected,  in  a  fingular  man- 
 ner, by  Raymond  VI.  earl  of  Touloufe,  and 
 other  perfons  of  the  higheft  diftinclion  ;  and  where 
 the  bifhops,  either  through  humanity  or  indo-_ 
 knee,  were  fo  negligent  and  remifs  in  the  profe- 
 cution  of  heretics,  that  the  latter,  laying  afide 
 their  fears,  formed  fettlements,  and  multiplied  . 
 incredibly.  Innocent  III.  was  foon  informed  of  , 
 all  thefe  proceedings  ;  and  about  the  commence- 
 ment of  this  century  \  fent  legates  extraordinary 
 into  the  fouthern  provinces  of  France  to  atone  for 
 the  negligence  of  the  bifhops,  and  to  extirpate 
 heiefy,  in  all  its  forms  and  modifications,  without 
 being  at  all  fcrupulous  in  ufing  fuch  methods  as 
 might  be  neceflary  to  effect  this  falutary  purpofe. 
 The  perfons  charged  with  this  commiflion  were 
 Rainier,  a  Ciftertian  monk, and  Pierre  deCaftejnau, 
 archdeacon  of  Maguelonne,  who  afterwards  be- 
 
 *  That  part  of  France  which  antiently  comprehended  the  pro- 
 vinces of  Savoy,  Dauphine,  Provence,  and  Languedoc. 
 
 -j-  As  early  as  the  year  1 1 9S,  Innocent  prohibited  all  communion 
 with  the  Waldenfes  and  Albigenfes ;  conlifcated  their  goods,  dis- 
 inherited their  children,  denied  them  the  rites  of  burial,  and  gave 
 their  accuferS  one  third  oi  their  effects.     /////.  des  P<ixfcs. 
 
 came 
 
cent.  13.]  Inquifition.  jy* 
 
 came  a  Ciftertian  friar.  Thefe  eminent  miffion- 
 aries  were  followed  by  feveral  others,  among  whom 
 was  the  famous  Spaniard  Dominic,  who,  returning 
 from  Rome  in  the  year  1206,  met  with  thefe  dele- 
 gates, embarked  in  their  caufe,  and  laboured,  both 
 by  his  exhortations  and  actions,  for  the  extirpation 
 of  herefy.  Thefe  fpiritual  champions  engaged 
 in  this  expedition  upon  the  fole  authority  of  the 
 pope,  without  either  afking  the  advice  or  demand- 
 ing the  affiftance  of  the  bifliops.  They  inflicted 
 capital  punifhments  upon  fuch  of  the  heretics  as 
 they  could  not  convert  by  reafon  and  argument, 
 and  were  diftingniflied  in  common  difcourfe  by  the 
 title  of  Inquifitors,  and  from  them  the  formidable 
 and  odious  tribunal,  called  the  Inquifition^  derived 
 its  original  *. 
 
 When  thefe  obedient  foldiers  of  the  holy  fee  had 
 executed  their  commiflion,  and  purged  the  pro- 
 
 In  a  defcriptive  account  of  Rome,  1778,  publifhed  under 
 the  aufpices  of  the  pope,  we  are  told  that  the  tribunal  of  the  In- 
 quifition,  the  name  alone  of  which  is  fo  formidable  to  fome  nation* 
 of  Europe,  exercifes  its  functions  at  Rome  with  the  greatest 
 gentleness — Is  this  to  be  afcribed  to  the  lenity  of  the  pope 
 himfelf,  or  to  the  fpirit  of  the  times,  or  to  both?  The  extenuation, 
 however,  announces  an  abufe,  onlefs  it  can  be  proved  that  there 
 is  no  puniihment  in  tickling  a  man  to  death  with  a  feather. 
 What  a  happy  accordance  is  there  between  the  claims  of  inquifi- 
 tors and  the  declarations  of  Chrift  \  "  If  any  man  hear  my  words 
 and  believe  not,  I  judge  him  not  :  for  I  came  not  to  judge  the 
 world,  but  to  fave  the  world.  He  that  rejedeth  me  and  re- 
 ceiveth  not  my  words,  hath  one  that  judgeth  him  :  The  word 
 that  I  have  fpoken,  the  fame  (ball  judge  him  ih  the  last  day." 
 John  xu\  47.  H. 
 
 vinces 
 
ij6  Council  of  Tculoufe.  [CENT*  t p 
 
 vinces  to  which  they  were  fent,  of  the  greateft  pare 
 of  the  enemies  of  the  Roman  faith,  the  pontiffs 
 were  fo  fenfible  of  their  fervices,  that  they  eflablifh- 
 ed  miffionaries  of  a  fimilar  defcription,  or  Inqui/i' 
 tors,  in  almoft  every  city  whofe  inhabitants  had 
 the  misfortune  to  be  fufpected  of  herefy,  notwith- 
 ftanding  the  reluctance  which  the  people  demon- 
 ilrated  to  this  new  institution,  and  the  violence 
 with  which  they  frequently  expelled,  and  fome- 
 times  maflacrcd,  thefe  bloody  officers  of  the  popifh 
 hierarchy.  The  council  held  at  Touloufe,  in 
 the  year  1229,  by  Romanus,  cardinal  of  St.  An- 
 gelo,  and  legate  of  the  pope,  went  flill  farther,., 
 and  erected  in  every  city  a  council  of  inquifitors, 
 confiding  of  one  prieft  and  three  laymen*.  This 
 inftitution  was,  however,  fuperfeded,  in  the  year 
 1233,  by  Gregory  IX.  who  entrufted  the  Domi- 
 nicans, or  preaching  friars,  with  the  important 
 commiffion  of  difcovering  and  bringing  to  judg- 
 ment the  heretics  who  were  lurking  in  France, 
 and  in  a  formal  epiftle  difcharged  the  bifhops 
 from  the  burthen  of  that  painful  office  f.  Imme- 
 diately after  this,  the  bilhop  of  Tournay,  who 
 was  the  pope's  legate  in  France,  began  to  execute 
 this  new  refolution,  by  appointing  Pierre  Cellan, 
 
 *  See  Harduini  Concilia,  torn.  vii.  p.  17$. 
 
 ■^  Bernard.  Guidonis  in  Cbron'tco  Pontif.  MS,  ap.  Jac. 
 Echardum  Scriptor.  Praedicator.  torn.  i.  p.  88. —  Percini  Hifto- 
 ria  Inquifit.  Tolofana?,  fubjoined  to  his  Hifloria  Conventus 
 XX.  Praedicat.  Tolofae  1693,  *n  8vo.— Hiftoire  General^  de 
 JLanguedoc,  torn,  iii.  394,  ^9>. 
 
 and 
 
cent.  13.]      Inquifitorial  Proceedings.  tyl 
 
 and  Guillaume  Arnaud,inquifitors  of  heretical  pra- 
 vity  at  Touloufe,  and  afterwards  proceeded,  in 
 every  city  where  the  Dominicans  had  a  convent, 
 to  conftitute  officers  of  the  fame  nature,  chofen 
 from  among  the  monks  of  that  celebrated  order*. 
 From  this  period,  fo  difaftrous  and  fo  difgraceful 
 to  human  nature,  is  dated  the  eftablifhment  of 
 that  moll  odious  of  tyrannies,  the  Inquisition; 
 an  inftitution,  whofe  foundations  are  laid  in  blood^ 
 and  whofe  detefted  towers  overlooked  and  over- 
 awed the  whole  Chriftian  world.  The  Domini- 
 cans erected,  firft  at  Touloufe,  and  afterwards  ac 
 Carcaffone  and  other  places,  a  tremendous  court, 
 before  which  were  fummoned  not  only  heretics, 
 and  perfons  fufpedted  of  herefy,  but  likewife  all 
 who  were  accufed  of  magic,  forcery,  judaifm, 
 witchcraft,  and  other  fimilar  offences.  This  tri- 
 bunal was  afterwards  ereded  in  the  other  countries 
 of  Europe,  but,  for  the  honour  of  human  nature, 
 not  every  where  with  equal  fuccefs. 
 
 The  method  of  proceeding  in  the  inquifitorial 
 court  was  at  firft  fimple,  and  almoft  in  every 
 refpeft  fimilar  to  that  which  was  obferved  in  the 
 ordinary  courts  of  jufticef.  But  this  fimplicity 
 was  gradually  changed  by  the  Dominicans,  to 
 whom  experience  fuggefted  feveral  new  methods 
 
 *  Echard  and  Pcrcinus,  loc.  citat. 
 
 f  The  records,  published  by  the  Benediaines  in  their  Hit 
 toireGener.  de  Languedoc,  torn.  iii.  p.   3;I,  ftlew  the  fimpK_ 
 
 aty  that  reigned  in  the  proceedings  of  the  incjuifition  at  its  firft 
 inftitution. 
 
 Vol.  II.  N 
 
173  I-iquifition  ejlahlijhed.         [cent.  13, 
 
 of  augmenting  the  majefty  of  their  fpiritual  tribu- 
 nal, and  filch  alterations  were  introduced  in  the 
 forms  of  proceedings,  that  the  manner  of 'taking 
 cognizance  of  heretical  caufes  became  totally  dif- 
 ferent fiom  that  which  was  ufual  in  civil  affairs. 
 Thefe  friars  were,  indeed,  entirely  ignorant  of  ju- 
 dicial arrangements ;  nor  were  they  acquainted  with 
 the  procedures  of  any  other  tribunal,  than  that 
 which  was  called,  in  the  Roman  church,  the  tri- 
 bunal of  penance.  It  was  therefore  after  this, 
 that  they  modelled  the  new  court  of  inquifuion,  as 
 -far  as  a  refemblance  between  the  two  was  poflible  ; 
 and  hence  arofe  that  ftrange  fyiiem  of  inquifitorial 
 law,  which,  in  many  refpects,  isfo  contrary  to  the 
 common  feelings  of  humanity,  and  the  plained 
 dictates  of  equity  and  juflice. 
 
 That  nothing;  might  be  wanted  to  render  this 
 fpiritual  court  formidable  and  tremendous,  the 
 Human  pontiffs  perfuaded  the  European  princes; 
 particularly  the  emperor  Frederic  11.  and  Lewis 
 IX.  king  of  Fiance,  not  only  to  enact  the  moft 
 rleorous  laws  ag-ainft  heretics,  and  to  commit  to 
 tl.e  flames,  by  the  miniilry  of  public  juliicc,  thofe 
 vwio  were  pronounced  fuch  by  the  inquifitors,  but 
 alio  to  maintain  the  inquifitors  in  their  office,  and 
 grant  them  iheir  protection  in  the  moft  open  and 
 folemn  manner  *.    Thefe  laws  were  not,  however, 
 
 fuffkient 
 
 *  The  law  of  the  emperor  Frederic,  in  relation  to  the  i'n- 
 qulitors,  may  be  Teen  in  Limborch'3  Hillory  of  the  Inquifkion, 
 
 and 
 
cent.  13.]        Inqiilfitors  put  to  Death.  179 
 
 fufficient  to  reftrain  the  juft  indignation  of  the 
 people  againft  thefe  inhuman  judges,  whofe  bar- 
 barity was  accompanied  with  fuperftition  and  ar- 
 rogance, with  a  fpirit  of  fufpicion  and  perfidy,  and 
 even  with  temerity  and  imprudence.  They  were 
 accordingly  driven,  in  an  ignominious  manner, 
 out  of  fome  cities,  and  were  put  to  death  in 
 others.  It  will  not  excite  much  concern  to  the 
 humane  mind,  that  Conrad  of  Marpurg,  the  firft 
 German  inquifitor,  who  derived  his  commifiion. 
 from  Gregory  IX.  was  one  of  the  numerous  victims 
 that  were  facrificed  upon  this  occafion  to  the  ven- 
 geance of  the  public  *. 
 
 and  in  the  Epiftles  of  Pierre  de  Vignes,  and  Bzovius  Raynaldus, 
 &c.  The  edicl:  of  St.  Lewis,  in  favour  of  thefe  fpiritual  judges,  is 
 generally  known  under  the  title  of  Cupientes  ;  and  is  fo  termed 
 by  the  French  lawyers  on  account  of  its  beginning  with  that 
 word.  It  was  iffued  in  the  year  1229,  as  the  Benedictine  monks 
 have  fufficiently  proved  in  their  Hill.  Generale  de  Languedoc, 
 torn,  iii.p.  378.  575.  It  is  alfo  publifhed  by  Catelius,  i'h  kis 
 Hiftor.  Comit.  Tolofanor.  p.  340,  and  in  many  other  authors. 
 This  edi£t  is  as  fevere  and  inhuman,  to  the  full,  as  the  laws  of 
 Frederic  IT.  For  a  great  part  of  the  fanctity  of  good  King 
 Lewis  confided  in  his  furious  and  implacable  averfion  to  heretics, 
 againft  whom  he  judged  it  more  expedient  to  employ  the  in- 
 fluence of  racks  and  gibbets,  than  the  power  of  reafon  and  ar- 
 gument. See  Du  Frefne,  Vita  Ludovici,  a  Joinvillio  fcripta, 
 p.  11.39. 
 
 *  The  life  of  this  furious  and  celebrated  inquifitor  has  been 
 compofed  from  the  molt  authentic  records  that  are  extant,  and 
 alfo  from  feveral  valuable  manufcripts,  by  the  learned  John  Her- 
 man Schminkius.  See  alfo  Wadding: .  Annal.  Minor,  torn.  ii. 
 P*  1S1'  3  J 5  5  an^  Ech.ard.  Scriptor.  Dominican,  torn.  i.  p.  487. 
 
 N  2  When 
 
i8o  Crufade  againft  Heretics.       [cent.  13. 
 
 When  Innocent  III.  perceived  that  the  labours 
 of  the  firft  inquiiltion  were  not  immediately  at- 
 tended with  the  effects  he  had  fondly  expected, 
 he  adclreiicd  himfelf,  in  the  year  1207,  to  Philip 
 Auguftus  king  of  France,  and  to  the  leading  men 
 of  that  nation,  foliating  them,  by  the  alluring  pro- 
 mife  of  the  molt  ample  indulgences,  to  extirpate 
 the  heretics  by  fire  and  fword*.  This  exhorta- 
 tion was  repeated,  with  new  acceflions  of  fervour 
 and  earneftnefs,  the  following  year,  'when  Pierre 
 de  Caftelnau,  the  legate  of  this  pontiff,  and  his 
 inquifitor  in  France,  was  put  to  death  by  the  pa- 
 trons of  the  people  called  heretics'-f-.  '  .t  , 
 
 Not  long  after  this,  the  Ciftertian  monks,  in  the 
 name  of  this  pope,  proclaimed  a  crufade  againft 
 the  heretics  throughout  the  whole  kingdom  of. 
 France,  and  a  ftorm  appeared  to  be  collecting 
 againft  them  on  every  fide.  Raymond  VI.  earl  of 
 Toiiloufe,  in  whofe  territories  Caftelnau  had  been 
 mafiacred,  was  folemnly  excommunicated  ;  and, 
 to  deliver  himfelf  from  this  ecclefiaftical  maledic- 
 tion, he  forfook  his  party,  and  embarked  in  the 
 crufade.  In  the  year  1209,  a  formidable  army  of 
 crufaders  appeared  againft  the  heretics,  who  were 
 comprehended  under  the  general  denomination  of 
 Albigenfes,  and  commenced  an  open  waY,  which 
 they  carried  on  with  the  utmoft  exertions  of  cruel- 
 
 *   Innocentii  III.   Epiftolze,  lib.  x.  epift.  49. 
 f   Ibid.  lib.  xi.  ep.  26,  27,  28,  29.      Acta   San&or.  Mart. 
 om.i.  p.  41 1. 
 
cent.  13.]      Raymond,  Earl  of  'Touloufe.  181 
 
 ty,  though  with  various  fuccefs,  for  feveral  year?. 
 The  chief  director  of  this  ecclefiaftical  war  was 
 Arnold  abbot  of  the  Ciftertians,  and  legate  of  the 
 pope  ;  and  the  commander  in  chief  of  the  troops 
 employed  in  the  expedition    was  Simon  earl  of 
 Montfort.     Raymond,  the  vi&im  of  neceffity,  was 
 again    compelled   to   forfake  his   party,    and   to 
 oppofe   himfelf    to  the  heroes   of  this  infamous 
 crufade.      Fear  had   occasioned  the  apoilacy"  of 
 the  earl  of  Touloufe,  and  a  Similar  motive   pro- 
 duced his  return  to  the  friends  he  had  deferted. 
 The  earl  of  Montfort  had  embarked  in  this  war, 
 not  fo  much  from  a  principle  of  zeal  for  religion, 
 or  of  averfion  to  the  heretics,  as  from  a  defire  of 
 augmenting  his  fortune,  which  he  hoped   to  im- 
 prove by  obtaining  the  territories  of  Raymond  ; 
 and  his  felfifh  views  were  feconded  and  accom- 
 plished   by   the   court  of  Rome.      After   many 
 battles,  Sieges,   and  a  multitude  of  other  exploits, 
 conducted  with  the  moft  intrepid  courage  and  the 
 mod  abominable  barbarity,   he  received  from  the 
 hands  of  Innocent  III.  at  the  council  of  the  La- 
 teran,  in  1215,  the  county  of  Touloufe  and  the 
 other  lands   belonging  to  that  earl,   as  a  reward 
 for  his  zeal  in  fupporting  the  caufe  of  God  and  of 
 the  Church.     About  three  years  after  this,   he  loft 
 his  life  at  the  Siege  of  Touloufe.     Raymond,  his 
 valiant  ad verfary,  died  in  the  year  1222. 
 
 Thus  were  the  two  chiefs  of  this  deplorable  war 
 
 taken  off  the  fcene  :  but  this  removal  was  far  from 
 
 N  3  extinguishing 
 
1 82  Raymond  overpowered,       [gent.  13. 
 
 extinguifning  the  flame  of  perfection  on  the  fide 
 of  the  pon riffs,  or  calming  the  reftlefs  fpirit  of 
 faction  on  that  of  the  pretended  heretics.  Ray- 
 mond VII.  earl  of  Toulcufe,  and  Amalric,  earl 
 of  Montfort,  fucceeded  their  fathers  at  the  head  of 
 the  contending  parties,  and  profecuted  the  war. 
 with  the  utmofl  vehemence,  and  with  fuch  various 
 fuccefs  as  rendered  the  iffue  for  fome  time  doubt- 
 ful. Raymond  commenced  his  career  with  ad- 
 vantages fuperior  to  thofe  of  his  antagonist ;  and 
 pope  Honorius  III.  alarmed  at  the  vigorous  op- 
 pofition  he  made  to  the  orthodox  legions,  engaged 
 Lewis  VIII.  king  of  France,  by  the  m oft  pom- 
 pous promifes,  to  march  in  p'erfon  with  a  formi- 
 dable army  againfl  the  enemies  of  the  church.. — 
 The  obfequious  monarch  attended  to  the  felicita- 
 tions of  the  pontiff,  and  embarked  with  a  consider- 
 able military  force  in  the  caufe,  but  did  not  live 
 to  reap  the  fruits  of  his  zeal.  His  engagements, 
 however,  with  the  court  of  Rome,  and  his  furious 
 defigns  againft  the  heretics,  were  executed  with 
 the  greateft  alacrity  and  vigour  by  his  foa  and  fuc- 
 cefi'or,  commonly  called  St.  Lewis.  Raymond 
 therefore,  prefied  on  all  fides,  was  obliged,  in  the 
 year  1229,  to  make  peace  upon  the  mod  difadvan- 
 tageous  term?,  even  by  making  a  ceflion  of  the 
 greater  part  of  his  territories  to  the  French  mon- 
 arch, after  hiving  facrificed  a  portion  of  them,  as 
 a  peace-offering,  to  the  Church  of  Rome.  This 
 treaty  of  peace  gave  a  mortal  blow  to  the  cau-fe 
 
cent,  i z.yDcftruBiveiiefs  of 'the  Religious  War.  183 
 
 of  herefy,   and  difperfed  the  champions  who  had 
 appeared  in  its  defence  ;  die  inquifition  was  efta- 
 blifhed    at  Touloufe,   and  the  heretics  were  not 
 only  expofed  to  the  pious  cruelties  of  Lewis,  but, 
 what  was  ftill  more  (hocking,  Raymond  himfelf, 
 who  had  formerly  been  their  patron,  became  their 
 perfecutor,  and  treated  them,  upon  all  occafions, 
 with  the  mod  inhuman  feverity.      It  is  true,  this 
 prince   broke   the   engagements    into   which    he 
 had  entered  by  the  treaty,  and  renewed  the  war 
 againft  Lewis  and  the  inquifitors,    who  abufed 
 their  victory,  and  the  power  they  had  acquired, 
 in  the  mod  odious  manner.     But  this  new  effort 
 in  favour  of  the  heretics  was  attended  with  little 
 or  no  effect. ;   and  the  unfortunate  earl  of  Tou- 
 loufe, the  laft   representative  of  that  noble  and 
 powerful  houfe,   dejected   and   exhaufled   by  the 
 loffes  he  had  fuftained,  and  the  perplexities  in 
 which  he  was  involved,  died,   in  the  year  1249, 
 without  male  iffue.      Thus  ended  a  civil  war,  of 
 which  religion  had  been  partly  the  caufe,  partly 
 the  pretext,  and  which,  in  its  confequences,  was 
 highly  profitable  both  to  the  kings  of  France  and 
 to  the  Roman  pontiffs. 
 
 It  is  impoffible  to  contemplate  the  vail  effufion 
 of  human  blood  on  this  occalion,  without  emotions 
 of  horror  ;  for,  in  the  courfe  of  thefe  wars,  not  lefs 
 than  a  million  of  men  are  fuppofed  to  have  been 
 facrificed ;  in  which  number  are  included  300,000 
 N4  'of 
 
1S4  Flagellants.  [cent.  13. 
 
 of  the  crufaders  themfelves*:  and  what  aggravates 
 the  horror  to  the  utmoft  extreme,  is,  that  the  name 
 of  Chrift  mould  have  been  prophaned,  to  fanction 
 the  havoc. 
 
 It  is  not  eafy  to  determine,  under  which  of  our 
 chapteis  we  mould  clafs  a  lingular  fpecies  of  en- 
 thufiafm  which  appeared  in  the  courfe  of  this  cen- 
 tury.    Ecclefiaftical  hiftorians  have  fpoken  of  the 
 Flagelianies   (or  Whippcrs)  under  the  name  of  a 
 feci,  thoug  ,  as  they  differed  in  no  article  of  faiths 
 or  ecclefiaftical  government  from  the  eftablimed 
 church,  they  appear  to  have  little  claim  to  that 
 denomination.  As,  however,  it  is  fact,  and  not  ar-  . 
 rangement,   that  we  are  in  queft  of  at  prefent,  I  , 
 fli all  ado   t,  without  further  apology,  the  example 
 of  Du  Pin,  and  clafs  this  delcription  of  fanatics 
 with  the  feels  of  the  13th  century. 
 
 It  has  been  a  prevailing  tenet  in  every  falfe  re- 
 ligion, that  the  mifery  of  his  creatures  was  accept- 
 able and  grateful  to  the  Divinity  ;  and  that  the 
 fufTerings  of  another  life  can  only  be  averted  by 
 the  voluntary  devotion  of  ourfeives  to  wretchednefs 
 in  this.  Chriftiahity  itfelf  has  occafion'ally^been 
 contaminated  with  fimilar  errors,  and  the  duty  of 
 repentance  has  been  confidered  as  including  not 
 only  mental  contrition,  but  bodily  fufTering. r  The 
 primitive  church  impofed  ecclefiaftical  cenfures 
 and  penances,    as  temporal  punifhments  on  of- 
 
 Hift.  des  Papcs,  vol.  iii.  p.  i6. 
 
 fenders. 
 
cent.  13.]  'Their  Increafe.  185 
 
 fenders ;  and  in  times  of  ignorance  this  penance  was 
 confidered  in  a  more  extenfive  view,   and  as  re- 
 lating rather  to  our  future  than  our  earthly  date. 
 In  the  year  1260,  at  Penefini,  in  Italy,  a  kind  of 
 penitential  procefiion  was  celebrated,  in  which  the 
 feif-convicled  criminals  marched  folemnly  through 
 the  city,  flagellating  themfelves  with  the  utmoft 
 feverity,  and  imploring,  with  the  mod  diftrefsful 
 clamour,  the  mercy  of  God.     The  procefiion  was 
 preceded  by  priefts,  who  carried  a  crucifix,  and  it 
 confuted  of  men  of  every  rank  and  order ;  the 
 females  inflicted  a  fimilar  difcipline  upon  them- 
 felves at  home  *.     The  enthufiafm,  however,  was 
 foon  not  confined  to  one  clafs  of  devotees — men, 
 women,  and  children,  of  every  rank,  adopted  the 
 practice ;  all  bufinefs,  public  and  private,  was  fuf- 
 pended  ;  the  public  amufements  deferred  ;  and  in 
 the  moft  inclement  weather,  and  in  the  darken; 
 nights,   the  ftreets   were  crowded  with  wretches, 
 torturing    themfelves,    and  imploring  the  divine 
 forgivenefs.     The   contagion  was  in  a  fliort  time 
 no  longer  confined   to  a  (ingle  place,   but  fpread 
 from  city  to  city  f,  and  even  extended  over  all  Italy, 
 and  a  confiderable  part  of  Germany.     As  the  paf- 
 fion  increafed,  they  formed  a  regular  fociety,  and 
 inftituted  rules  for  the  admiflion  of  affociates. — 
 The  feci  continued  till  the  fucceeding   century, 
 when,  among  other  abfurdities,  one  of  the  flagel- 
 
 *  Du  Pin,  cent.  13.  c.  9. 
 
 •f  Hi  ft.  Flag,  per  ChrifL  Schol.  Boileau  Hiftoire  des  Flagellans, 
 c.  xx.  Mmat.  t.  vi.    Monach.  Patav.  an.  1260, 
 
 3  lants 
 
j  8  6.  SeEt  of  Flagellants  Juppreffed.      [cent.  13. 
 
 lants  pretended  that  he  had  been  prefented,  by 
 an  angel,  with  a  whip,  and  a  letter  from  heaven, 
 which  allured  thofe  who  would  endure  this  dif- 
 cipline  for  thirty-four  days  fucceffively,  a  complete 
 pardon  for  all  their  fins.  The  extravagancies  and 
 exceffes  of  the  fraternity  accelerated  its  fuppreffion. 
 Several  of  the  princes  and  prelates  of  the  empire 
 exerted  themfelves  to  reduce  the  populace  to  rea- 
 fon  ;  and  at  length  Clement  VI.  formally  con- 
 demned the  fanaticifm  of  the  Flagellants,  as  an  im- 
 pious and  pernicious  hcrefy*. 
 
 *  Du  Pin. 
 
 CHAP. 
 
C   187   ] 
 
 CHAP.    IV. 
 
 OF    LEARNING    AND    LEARNED    MEN    IN    THE 
 THIRTEENTH  CENTURY. 
 
 Dejlruclion  of  Claffical  Authors — Calamities  of  Greece  pre 
 vent  the  Cultivation  of  Letters  in  the  Eajl — Scholajlic  Di- 
 vinity prevalent  in  the  Wejl — Alhertus  Magnus,  Thomas 
 Aquinas,  Bonaventura,  SsV. — Roger  Bacon,  Matthew 
 Paris,  &c, 
 
 THE  difficulty  of  recalling  the  attention  of 
 mankind  to  the  cultivation  of  true  fcience 
 and  literature,  may  in  fome  meafurc  be  eftimated 
 from  the  well-known  fact,,  that  in  thefe  ages  it 
 was  a  common  practice  to  erafe  the  writing  of 
 the  moft  valuable  parchment  manufcripts,  and  to 
 inferibe  ecclefiaftical  treatifes  upon  them.  Poly- 
 bius,  Dio,  Diodorus  Siculus,  Livy,  and  many 
 which  are  entirely  loft,  were  metamorphofed  into 
 miflals  and  homilies*.  The  few  remains  of  claf- 
 fical literature,  which  were  left  by  the  more  bar- 
 barous ages,  were  deftroyed  by  the  unlettered 
 bigotry  of  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries,  in 
 which  it  appears  that  the  graphical  knowledge  of 
 the  monks  was  no  lef$  detrimental  to  the  republic 
 of  letters,  than  the  total  ignorance  of  their  ancef- 
 tors, 
 
 *  Montfaucon,  Mem,  de  l'Acad.  ix.  325. 
 
 Fe  v 
 
1 8  S  Albert  us  Magnus.  [cent.  13; 
 
 Few  of  the  Greek  writers  of  this  age  have  de- 
 fcended  to  pofterity.  The  calamities  of  their  na- 
 tion engroffed  too  much  of  their  attention',  to 
 allow  them  to  cultivate  literature  with  much  fuc- 
 cefs.  Their  principal  productions  were  contro- 
 verfial,  on  points  in  difpute  with  the  Latin  Church;. 
 or  hiftories  and  annals  relating  to  the  ftate  of  the 
 empire.. 
 
 The  fcholaftic  divinity,  and  the  philofophy  and 
 logic  of  Ariftotle,  pervaded  all  the  fchools  of  the' 
 weft.      Among  thofe  who  may  be  placed  at  the 
 head  of  thefe  fciences,  were  Albertus  Magnus, 
 Thomas  Aquinas,  and  Bonaventura.    Thefe  were 
 all  of  them  men  of  genius  and  penetration,  and  pof- 
 feffed  uncommon  dexterity  in  difcnfling  fubtile  and 
 difficult  points ;  they  had  a  flrong  love  of  wifdom, 
 but  that  quality  was  depraved  by  their  attachment 
 to  logical  refinements,  and  their  genius  and  ability 
 were  all  made  fubfervient  to  the  Church  of  Rome,    - 
 to  her  periccuting  fpirit  and  unbounded  ambition. 
 The  firft  of  thefe  doctors  was  a  German,  of  the 
 Dominican  order;  his  works  are  very  voluminous. 
 Thomas  Aquinas  was,  by  way  of  eminence,  called 
 the  angelical,  and  Bonaventura  the  feraphic  d'oc- 
 tor.      Aquinas  was  defcendcd  from  the  ancient 
 kings  of  Sicily ;   he  had  a  confiderable  portion  of 
 enthufiafm  in   his  character,   as,  notwithstanding 
 his  attachment  to  the  Church  of  Rome,  he  is  faid 
 to  have  refufed  the  archhitiiopric  of  Naples.      Bo- 
 naventura was  however  more  a  man  of  the  world, 
 
 and 
 
cent.  13. J  Roger  Bacen.  i$a 
 
 and  accepted  a  cardinal's  hat  as  the  reward  of  his 
 labours  in  the  fervice  of  the  church.  Robert  of 
 Sorbonne  founded  at  Paris,  in  this  century,  the 
 celebrated  univerfity  which  has  fince  been  dif- 
 tinguifhed  by  his  name.  Alexander  Hales,  and 
 William  Perrault,  were  among  the  fcholaftic  di- 
 vines of  this  century*. 
 
 The  whole  of  the  learning  of  this  age  was  not 
 however  confined  to  thefe  fludies,  but  there  exift- 
 ed  in  Europe  men  who  applied  themfelves  to  true 
 philofophy.  The  well-earned  reputation  of  our 
 countryman,  Roger  Bacon,  is  notorious  to  moll 
 readers.  He  may  be  termed  the  father  of  expe- 
 rimental philofophy,  and  even  in  the  prefent  ad- 
 vanced ftate  of  phyfical  fcience  his  works  contain 
 matter  not  undeferving  attention.  Arnoldus  Vil- 
 lanovanus,  a  Frenchman,  and  Petrus  de  Abano, 
 an  Italian,  were  alfo  celebrated  for  their  know- 
 ledge in  phyfic,  chemiftry,  and  poetry.  te  But 
 "  the  rewards  which  thefe  excellent  perfons  re- 
 "  ceived  for  their  abilities  and  ufeful  induftry, 
 ec  were,  to  be  called  magicians  and  heretics  by  an 
 *'  ignorant  world,  and  with  great  difficulty  to 
 <c  efcape  fire  and  faggot.  Bacon  languished  many 
 "  years  in  a  jail ;  and  the  bodies  of  the  other  two, 
 "  after  their  deceafe,  were  condemned  to  the  flames 
 
 "  of  the  inquiritors-f-." 
 
 This 
 *  DuPln. 
 
 f  Jortin,  v.  382.    It  is  not  cuftomary  at  prefent  to  iurnmen 
 for  their  learning  ;  their  punifhment  is  now  only  to  be  Jlawtd. 
 
 A  clergyman 
 
190  Jewijh  Writer  Si,  [cent.  t$. 
 
 This  century  had  the  honour  alfo  of  producing 
 that  valuable  hiftorian  Matthew  Paris,  whofe  only 
 blemifh  is  admitting,  what  he  could  fcarcely  have 
 rejected  in  this  age  of  fuperftition,  fome  impro- 
 bable tales  of  vifions,  miracles,  and  apparitions*. 
 Several  authors  wrote  particular  chronicles  of  their 
 own  churches  and  monafteries  \  others  detailed 
 the  hiftory  of  the  crufades ;  and  feveral  accounts  of 
 travels  into  Paleftine  about  this  time  appeared^.. 
 The  Jews,  though  perfecuted  and  opprefled,  were- 
 not  deftitute  of  good  writers  during  this  century, 
 amongft  whom  were  R.Meir,  R.Afcher,  R.Bechai, 
 R.  Levi  Ben  Gerfen,  and  R.  Schem  Tof. 
 
 A  clergyman  of  irreproachable  character  was  lately  a  candidate 
 for  a  place  in  the  popular  gift,  for  which  he  was  allowed  to  be 
 qualified ;  but  it  was  feriouily  urged  againft  him,  that  he  was  a 
 man  of  erudition.  Happily  for  his  antagonift,  no  fuch  obje&ion 
 could  be  laid  to  his  charge,  and  he  was  moreover  fupported  by 
 the  moll  profligate  nobleman  in  Europe,  though  the  object  was 
 the  care  of  a  female  feminary. — The  event  was  as  might  be  ex- 
 pected. 
 
 *  Jortin,  v.  566.  f  Du  Pin. 
 
 THE 
 
[     i9i     ] 
 
 THE  FOURTEENTH  CENTURY, 
 
 CHAP.    I. 
 
 6ENERAL  STATE  OF  THE  CHURCH  IN  THIS 
 
 CENTURY. 
 
 Renewal  of  the  Holy  War — Converfion  of  Lithuania — Sue- 
 cefs  againfi  the  Infidels  in  Spain — Efforts  for  the  Conver- 
 fion of  China — Decline  of  the  Papal  Poiver — Contejl  be~ 
 Hveen  Boniface  VII I.  and  Philip  the  Fair,  King  of  France 
 —Benedicl  IX.— Clement  V.~-Gregory  XL— Urban  VL 
 •> — Great  Weflern  Schifm. 
 
 THE  unfortunate  zeal  for  crufades  was  once 
 more  attempted  to  be  revived  by  the  rulers 
 of  the  church,  though  they  had  been  fo  lately  dif- 
 graced  by  the  proMitution  of  the  term  in  the  cafe 
 of  the  Albigenfes.  The  fucceiTion  of  pontiffs  who 
 refided  at  Avignon  were  particularly  zealous  for 
 the  renovation  of  the  holy  war,  and  left  no  artifice, 
 no  methods  ofperfuafion,  unemployed,  which  could 
 have  the  lead  tendency  to  engage  the  kings  of 
 England  and  France  in  an  expedition  to  Judea. 
 Their  fuccefs  however  was  not  anfwerable  to  their 
 zeal ;  and  notwithstanding  the  powerful  influence 
 
 of 
 
192  Zeal  for  a  Renewal  of  the  Crufades.  [cent.  14* 
 
 of  their  exhortations  and  remonftrances,  fomething 
 continually  occurred  to  prevent  their  effect..     In 
 the  years  1307  and  1308,  Clement  V.  urged  the 
 renewal  of  this  holy  war  with  the  greater!:  ardour, 
 and  fet  apart  an  immenfe  fum  of  money  for  pro- 
 fecuting  it  with  alacrity  and  vigour*.    John  XXII. 
 ordered  a  fleet  of  ten  fhips  to  be  fitted  out  in  the 
 year  13 19,  to  tranfport  an  army  of  pious  adven- 
 turers  into   Paleftine,    and  had  rec'ourfe  to  the 
 power  of  fuperftition,  that  is,  to  the  influence  of' 
 indulgences,  for  raifing  the  funds  neceffary  to  the 
 fupport  of  this  enterprife.     Thefe  indulgences  he 
 liberally  offered  to  fuch  as  contributed  generoufly 
 to  the  carrying  on  of  the  war,  and  appointed  legates 
 to  adminifter  them  in  all  the  countries  in  Europe 
 which  were  i abject  to  his  ecclefiaftical  jurifdiction. 
 Under  the  pontificate  of  Benedict  XII.  a  formi- 
 dable army  was  railed  in  the  year  1330,  by  Philip 
 de  Valois,  king  of  France,  with  the  profefTed  view 
 of  attempting  the  deliverance  of  the  Chriftians  in 
 Paleftine  ;   but  when  he  was  juft  ready  to  embark 
 his  troops,  the  apprehenfion  of  an  invafion,  from 
 England  obliged  him  to  lay  afide  this  important 
 enterprife.      In  the  year  1345,  Clement  V.  at  the 
 requeft  of  the  Venetians,  engaged,  by  the  perfua- 
 five  power  of  indulgences,  a  prodigious  number  of 
 
 *  Baluzii  Vita:  Pontif.  Avenion.  torn.  I.  p.  I  $.  594  ;  torn.  if. 
 p.  55.  57.  374.  391,  &c.  Ant.  Matthaci  Anale&a  Veteris  iEvi, 
 torn.  ii.  577. 
 
 adventurers 
 
cent.  14.]  Fruittefs  Attempts.  193 
 
 adventurers  to  embark  for  Smyrna,  where  they 
 compofed  a  numerous  army  under  the  command 
 of  Guido  or  Guy,  dauphin  of  Vienne  ;  but  the 
 want  of  provifion  obliged  this  army  to  return  with 
 their  general  into  Europe  in  a  fhort  time  after  their 
 departure  *.  This  difappointment  did  not,  how- 
 ever, reprefs  the  ardour  of  the  reftlefs  pontiffs ;  for 
 another  formidable  army  was  affeoi bled  in  the  year 
 1363,  in  confequence  of  the  zealous  exhortations 
 of  Urban  V.  which  was  to  be  employed  in  a  new 
 expedition  againft  the  infidels,  with  John,  king  of 
 France,  at  its  head ;  but  the  unexpecled  death  of 
 that  prince  blafted  the  hopes  which  many  had  en- 
 tertained from  this  grand  project,  and  occafioned 
 the  difperfion  of  that  numerous  body  which  had 
 repaired  to  his  ftandard-j~. 
 
 Had  the  truths  of  Chriflianity,  inftead  of  the 
 empty  name,  formed  the  governing  principle  of 
 thofe  by  whom  it  was  profeffed,  the  hiftori an  might 
 record  with  peculiar  delight  the  names  of  thofe  na- 
 tions, which  were  by  any  means  induced  to  pro- 
 fefs  a  belief  in  the  gofpel  of  Cririft.  As  it  is,  he 
 muft  regard  thefe  nominal  converfions  with  con- 
 cern, which  is  however  foftened  by  the  confidera- 
 tion  that  the  minds  of  men  open  flowly  to  truths 
 which  revolt  againft  deeply-rooted  prejudices,  and 
 
 *  Fragmenta  Hiftor.   Roman,  in  Muratorn  Antiq.  Ita!.  Me- 
 Jii  JE\'\,  torn,  ii.  p.  368. 
 
 f  Baluzii  Vitae  Pontif.  Aveniom  torn,  i.  p.  366,  386.  372. 
 401. 
 
 Vox,.  II.  O  that 
 
fi94  Converfwn  of  Lithuania,  &c.    [cent.  14, 
 
 that  outward  profeflions  were  the  firft  dawn  of 
 that  light  which  afterwards  diffufed  real  religion 
 into  the  minds  of  men.  Probably,  too,  the  fuc- 
 cefs  of  the  Chriftian  miffionaries  of  thefe  periods 
 would  have  been  lefs,  had  the  doctrines  of  the 
 church  been  more  conformable  to  primitive  Chrif- 
 tianity.  Thole,  whofe  perverted  minds  would 
 have  found  great  difficulty  in  adopting  the  idea  of 
 a  purely  fpiritual  Being,  as  the  only  object  of 
 adoration,  were  eafily  induced  to  transfer  their 
 worfliip  from  the  idols  of  their  anceftors  to  the 
 flatuesof  the  faints. 
 
 The  converfion  of  the  northern  nations  had  been 
 conducted  with  fo  much  fuccefs,  that  in  the  14th* 
 century  few  European  princes  were  unconverted' 
 to  Chriftianity.  Jagello,  duke  of  Lithuania,  how- 
 ever, continued  in  the  darknefs  of  pagahifm,  and 
 woifhipped  the  gods  of  his  idolatrous  anceftors, 
 till  the  year  1386,  when  he  embraced  the  Chrif-. 
 tian  faith,  received  in  baptifm  the  name  of  Vladif- 
 laus,  and  perfuaded  his  fubjects  to  open  their 
 eyes  upon  the  truths  of  the  gofpel.  As  it  is 
 an  unfafe  undertaking  to  fcrutinize  the  motives 
 of  men,  it  may  fuffice  to  fay  that  this  prince  was 
 not  without  fome  temporal  allurements  to  re- 
 nounce the  religion  of  his  anceftors.  Upon  the 
 death  of  Lewis,  king  of  Poland,  which  happened 
 in  the  year  1382,  Jagello  was  named  among  the 
 competitors  who  afpired  to  the  vacant  throne ; 
 and  as  he  was  a  rich  and  powerful  prince,  the 
 a  Poles 
 
cent.  14.]  Succejs  of  the  Chriftians  in  Spain,  lac 
 Polesbeheld  his  pretentions  and  efforts  with  a  fa- 
 vourable eye.  His  religion  was  the  only  obftacle 
 to  the  accomplishment  of  his  views.  Hedwige, 
 the  youngeft  daughter  of  the  deceafed  monarch, 
 who,  by  a  decree  of  the  fenate,  was  declared  heir- 
 efs  of  the  kingdom,  was  as  little  difpofed  to  ef- 
 poufe,  as  the  Poles  were  to  obey,  a  Pagan,  and 
 hence  Jagello  was  obliged  to  make  fuperftition 
 yield  to  royalty  *.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Teu- 
 tonic knights  and  crufaders  extirpated  by  fire 
 and  fword  any  remains  of  paganifm  which  were 
 yet  to  be  found  in  Pruflia  and  Livonia,  and  ef- 
 fected, by  force,  what  perfuafion  alone  ought  to 
 have  produced. 
 
 The  Saracens  ftill  retained  a  confiderable  ter- 
 ritory in  Spain.     The  kingdoms  of  Granada  and 
 Murcia,  with  the  province  of  Andalufia,  were  fub- 
 jec~t  to  their  dominion;  and  they  waged  perpetual 
 war  with  the  kings  of  Caflile,  Arragon,  and  Na- 
 varre, in  which,  however,  they  were  not  always 
 victorious.     The  African  princes,  and  particularly 
 the  emperors  of  Morocco,  became  their  auxiliaries 
 againft  the  Chriftians.     This  arrangement  was  ex- 
 tremely offenfive  to  the  pontiffs  of  Rome,  who 
 employed  the  moft  diligent  efforts  in  exciting  the 
 Chriftians  to  unite  their  forces  againft  the  Ma- 
 hometans, and  to  expel  them  from  the  Spanifh 
 
 *  Odor  Raynaldus,  Annal.  Ecclcf.  ad  A.  1386.  f.  iv.  Wad- 
 dingi  Annal.  Minor,  torn.  ix.  p.  71.  Solignac,  Hiftoirc  d« 
 Pologne,  torn.  ii.  p.  241, 
 
 O  2  territories ; 
 
196  Faint  Efforts  in  China.         [cent.  14, 
 
 territories ;  prefents,  exhortations,  promifes,  and 
 every  allurement  that  religion,  fuperftition,  or  ava- 
 rice could  render  powerful,  were  employed  for  the 
 promotion  of  this  arduous  project.  TheChriftians 
 accordingly  united  their  counfels  and  efforts  with 
 the  fame  view  j  and  though  for  fome  time  the  dif- 
 ficulty of  the  enterprife  rendered  their  progrefs 
 but  inconfiderable,  yet  even  in  this  century  their 
 affairs  wore  a  promifing  afpect,  and  gave  them 
 reafon  to  hope  that  at  fome  future  time  they  fhould 
 triumph  over  their  enemies,  and  become  the  fole' 
 poffefTors  of  the  Spanish  dominions. 
 
 Some  faint  efforts  were  made  to  propagate  the 
 religion  of  Chrift  in  the  empire  of  China,   and  * 
 among  the  Tartars;  and  in  1308,  an  archbifhop  ' 
 of  Pekin  was  appointed  by  Clement  V.  with  other 
 fuffragan  bifhops  under  his  jurifdidtion.      Their 
 efforts  were  at  firft  attended  with  fome  fuccefs  •, 
 but  the  illiterate  ftate  of  the  Chinefe  nation,  owing- 
 apparently  to  the  want  of  alphabetical  writing, 
 muft  always  form  a  considerable  impediment  to 
 the  reception  of  truth  and  wifdom. 
 
 The  dominion  of  the  Romifh  church  appeared 
 at  this  time  to  be  rapidly  on  the  decline.  "This 
 important  change  may  be  dated  from  the  conten- 
 tion which  arofe  between  Boniface  VIII.  who 
 filled  the  papal  throne  about  the  beginning  of  this 
 century,  and  Philip  the  Fair,  king  of  France. — 
 
 *  Formey's  Ecclef.  Hift.  i.  p.  234. 
 
 This 
 
CENT.14.]  Conteji  betweenthePvps  &?  A".  ofFrance.iqf 
 
 This  prince,  who  was  endowed  with  a  bold  and 
 enterprifing  fpirit,  foon  convinced  Europe,  that  it 
 was  poftible  to  fet  bounds  to  the  arrogance  of  the 
 bi(hop  of  Rome,  notwithstanding  many  crowned 
 heads  had  attempted  it  in  vain.  In  the  haughty 
 letters  of  Boniface,  he  afferted  that  the  king  of 
 France,  with  all  other  kings  and  princes,  was 
 obliged,  by  a  divine  command,  to  fubmit  to  the 
 authority  of  the  popes,  as  well  in  all  political  and 
 civil  matters  as  in  thofe  of  a  religious  nature. 
 The  king  anfwered  him  with  great  fpirit,  and  in 
 terms  expreffive  of  the  utmoft  contempt*.  The 
 pope  rejoined  with  additional  arrogance;  and 
 in  the  celebrated  bull,  Unam  Sanftamy  which  he 
 published  about  this  time,  afferted  that  Jefus 
 Chrift  had  granted  a  two-fold  power  to  his  church, 
 or,  in  other  words,  the  fpiritnal  and  temporal 
 fword  ;  that  he  had  fubjected  the  whole  human 
 race  to  the  authority  of  the  Roman  pontiff;  and 
 that  whoever  dared  to  dilbelieve  it,  was  to  be 
 deemed  a  heretic,  and  flood  excluded  from  all 
 pofllbility  of  falvation  f .  The  king,  on  the  other 
 hand,  in  an  affembly  of  the  peers  of  his  kingdom, 
 
 *  In  one  of  his  letters,  Boniface  addrefTes  Philip,  "  We  give 
 you  to  know  that  you  are  our  fubjeft  both  in  fpirituals  and 
 temporals."  Philip  replied  :  "  We  give  your  foolflnp  to  know 
 (fciat  fatuitas  vejlra)  that,  in  temporals,  we  are  fubjeel  to  no  per- 
 fon."     Bibl.  Choif.  viii.  401.  xxv.  380. 
 
 f  This  bull  is  yet  extant  in  the  Corpus  Juris  Canon.  Extra- 
 vagant. Commun.  lib.  i.  tit.  De  Majorltate  et  Obedientia. 
 
 O3  held 
 
t$%  The  Pope  made  Pr  if  oner  hy  Nogaret.  [cent.  14. 
 held  in  the  year  1303,  ordered  William  de  No- 
 garet, a  celebrated  lawyer*,  to  draw  up  an.accufa- 
 tion  againft  the  pope,  in  which  he  publicly  charged 
 him  with  herefies,  limony,  and  many  other  vices, 
 demanding  at  the  fame  time  an  oecumenical  coun- 
 cil to  depofe  one  who  had  fo  much  difgraced  his 
 order.  The  pope,  in  his  turn,  paired  a  fentenee 
 of  excommunication,  that  very  year,  againft  the 
 king  and  all  his  adherents. 
 
 Philip,  fhortly  after  the  arrival  of  his  fentenee, 
 held  an  afTembly  of  the  dates  of  the  kingdom, 
 where  he  again  emploj'ed  perfons  of  thehigheftrank 
 and  reputation. to  fit  in  judgment  upon  the  pope; 
 and  appealed  to  the.decifions  of  a  general  councils 
 After  this  he  fent  William  de  Nogaret,  with  fomc 
 others,  into  Ttaly,  to  excite  a  fedition,  to  feize  the 
 pope's  perfon,  and  to  convey  him  to  Lyons,  where 
 the  king  was  determined  the  general  council  fliould 
 beheld.  Nogaret  was  refolute  and  active,  and  foon 
 obtained  the  affiftance  of  the  powerful  family  of 
 the  Colonnas,  then  at  variance  with  the  pope ;  he 
 levied  a  fmall  army,  feized  Boniface,  who  refided 
 in  perfect  fecurity  at  Anagni,  and,  as  foon  as  he 
 had  him  in  his  power,  treated  him  in  the  moil  in- 
 dignant manner,  carrying  his  refentment  fo  far  as 
 
 *  Of  this  celebrated  lawyer,  who  was  the  moft  intrepid  and 
 inveterate  enemy  the  popes  ever  had  before  Luther,  none  hai 
 given  us  a  fuller  account  than  the  Benedictine  monks.  Hift, 
 Generale  de  Languedoc,  torn.  iii.  p.  i  1 4.  1 1  7.  Philip  made  him 
 chancellor  of  France  for  his  refolute  oppofition  to  the  pope. 
 
 to 
 
cent.  14.]      A  Frenchman  elected  Pope,  109 
 
 to  wound  him  on  the  head  by  a  blow  with  his  iron 
 gauntlet.  The  inhabitants  of  Anagni  refcued  their 
 pope  from  the  hands  of  this  fierce  and  inveterate 
 enemy,  and  conducted  him  to  Rome,  where  he 
 died  foon  after  of  an  illnefs  occalioned  by  the  rage 
 and  anguilh  into  which  thefe  infults  had  precipi- 
 tated him*. 
 
 Benedict  XL  his  fucceffbr,  had  the  good  fenfe  to 
 profit  by  this  fatal  example.  He  voluntarily  re- 
 pealed the  fentence  of  excommunication,  which  his 
 predeceflbr  had  iffued  againft  the  king  of  France 
 and  his  dominions ;  but  never  could  be  prevailed 
 upon  to  abfolve  Nogar-et  of  his  treafon  againft  the 
 majefty  of  the  pontificate.  The  intrepid  Nogaret 
 was,  however,  very  little  folicitous  to  obtain  the 
 papal  abfolution,  and  profecuted,  with  his  ufual 
 vigour  and  intrepidity,  in  the  Roman  court,  the 
 accufation  which  he  had  formerly  brought  againft 
 Boniface ;  and,  in  the  name  of  his  royal  mailer, 
 infifted  that  the  memory  of  that  pontiff  fhould 
 be  publicly  branded  with  infamy.  During  thefe 
 tranfactions  Benedict  died,  1304;  upon  which, 
 Philip,  by  his  intrigues  in  the  conclave,  obtained 
 the  fee  of  Rome  for  a  French  prelate,  Bertrand  de 
 Got,  archbilhop  of  Bourdeaux,  who  was  accord- 
 ingly elected  on  the  fifth  of  June,  1305.  This 
 ftep  was  more  neceflary,  as  the  breach  between  the 
 
 *  It  has  been  faid  of  him  and  his  pontificate,  **  that  he  en- 
 tered upon  it  like  a  fox,  governed  like  a  lion,  and  died  like  a 
 dog,"     Formey,  Ecclef.  Hift.  i.  p.  238. 
 
 O  4  king 
 
200  Popes  removed  to  Avignon,    [cent.  14, 
 
 king  and  the  court  of  Rome  was  not  yet  entirely 
 hea'ed,  and,  as  Nogaret  was  not  yet  abfclved. 
 Bertrand  aflumed  the  name  of  Cement  V.  and, 
 at  the  king's  requeft,  remained  in  France,  and  re- 
 moved the  papal  refidence  to  Avignon,  where  it 
 continued  during  the  fpace  of  feventy  years,  a  pe- 
 riod, which  the  Italians  call,  by  way  of  derifion,  the 
 Babylonifh  captivity*. 
 
 PoflefTed  brfuph  an  advantage  as  the  prefence  of 
 a  pontiff  devoted  to  his  mtereits,   Philip  qnceaf* 
 ingly  preiTed  for  the  condemnation  of  Boniface, 
 and  Nogaret  preferj  ed  feveral  articles  of  accufation 
 agairift  him,  which  he  fubftantiated  by  refpectable  * 
 testimony.     To   condemn  the  decifions  of  an  in-  « 
 fallible  head  of  the  church,  was  a  difficulty  of  no 
 fmali  magnitude  to  one  of  his  facceflbrs,  and  Cle- 
 ment ftudiouily  endeavoured  to  delay  the  proceed- 
 ings.    The   king  was,   however,  earned,  and   at, 
 length  obtained  a  bull  from  the  pontiff,  by  which 
 all  the  obnoxious  decrees  of  Boniface,  againft  the 
 monarch  or  the  kingdom  of  France,  were  con- 
 demned and  revoked. 
 
 In  the  internal  tumults  of  Italy  between  the 
 Guelph  and  Gibeline  factions,  and  the  contentions 
 of  the  candidates  for  the  empire,  the  pontiffs  of 
 Rome  had  a  very  considerable  fliare.  Lewis, 
 duke  of  Bavaria,  and  Frederic,  duke  of  Auftria, 
 
 *  For  an  account  of  the  French  popes,  confult  Steph.Baluzii 
 Vitpe  Pontii.  Avenioijenfium,  publifhedat  Paris,  two  vols.  410. 
 in  1693. 
 
 received 
 
cent.  14.]     Emperor  L&vis  excommunicated.   201 
 received  the  imperial  diadem  irom  bilhops  at- 
 tached to  their  different  mterefts.     Lewis  applied 
 to  John  X^KIl.  the  fucceflpr  of  Clement,  to  con- 
 firm his  election  ;  but  he  had  dared  to  take  poffef- 
 fion  of  the  ornaments  annexed  to  the  imperial 
 dignity,  without   the    previous  permiflion  of  the 
 pope  j  an  offence  not  to  be  forgiven.     John  ac- 
 cordingly refufed  the  ratification  of  his  dignity,  ex- 
 communicated him  and  all  his  adherents,  and  ac- 
 cufed  him  of  favouring  heretics  and  fchifmatics  in 
 defiance  of  the  church.     The  irritated  emperor 
 retorted  the   accufation,  charged  the   pope  with 
 being  the  inftigaror  of  the  difturbances  in  Germany 
 and  Italy,  an  invader  of  the  rights  of  princes,  and 
 an  herefiarch.     In  vain  did  John  reiterate  the  fen- 
 tence  of  excommunication  :  Lewis  entered  Italy, 
 attached  a  confiderable  part  of  that  country  to  his 
 intereft,  and  was  crowned  at  Rome    by  cardinal 
 Colonna,  at  the  requeft  of  the  clergy  and  people. 
 Their  next  (lep  was  the  election  of  another  pope, 
 and  Nicholas  V.  was  raifed  to  the  pontifical  chair. 
 He  was  however  foon  afterwards  feized and  carried 
 to  Avignon,   where  he  abdicated  his  dignity,  and 
 died  in  confinement. 
 
 Benedict  XII.  and  Clement  VI.  the  immediate 
 fucceflfars  of  John,  confirmed  his  excommunication 
 of  the  emperor  Lew's,  and  a  confiderable  part  of 
 the  emnire  were  induced  by  thefe  means  to  with- 
 draw their  allegiance,  and  to  elect  Charles  IV.  the 
 fon  of  Lewis,  who  was  loon  after,  by  the  death  of 
 
 his 
 
202,  Popes  removed  from  Avignon  to  Rome.  [cent.  14, 
 
 his  father,  confirmed  in  the  peaceable  poffeffton  of 
 the  empire. 
 
 After  a  fucceffion  of  three  pontiffs,  whofe  hiflory 
 prefents  us  with  little  of  importance  to  the  general 
 intereft  of  the  church*  ;  in  the  year  1376,  Gregory 
 XI.  pretending  that  he  was  incited  to  the  meafure 
 by  the  warnings  of  St.  Catharine  of  Sienna,  tranf- 
 f erred  the  papal  feat  from  Avignon  to  Romef . 
 This  pontiff  died  in  the  year  1378,  an4  the  cardi- 
 nals affembled  to  confult  concerning  the  choice  of  a 
 fucceffor,  when  the  people  of  Rome,  fearing  left  the 
 vacant  dignity  mould  be  conferred  upon  a  French- 
 man, appeared  in  a  tumultuous  manner  before  the  * 
 conclave,  and  with  irrefiftible  clamours,  accom-  ' 
 panied  with  the  mod  outrageous  threats,,  infifted 
 that  an  Italian  fhould  be  advanced  to  the  popedom. 
 The  cardinals,  terrified  by  this  uproar,  immedi- 
 ately proclaimed  Bartholomew  de  Pregnano,  a  - 
 Neapolitan,  and  archbifhop  of  Bari,  who  arTume4 
 the  name  of  Urban  VI.  This  was,  however,  only 
 intended  as  a  temporary  expedient  to  appeafe  the 
 clamours  of  the  populace;  but  Urban  afferted  the 
 validity  of  his  election,  and  ftimulated  the  people 
 to  fupport  his  caufe.    He  was  unfortunately  defti- 
 
 *  Benedict  XII.  deferves  notice  for  the  excellence  of  his  cha- 
 racter, and  his  honeft  endeavours,  during  his  fhort  pontificate,  to 
 reform  the  church. 
 
 ■f  The  French  popes  derived  little  or  no  emolument  from  their 
 Italian  dominions,  which  reduced  their  finances  fo  as  to  compel 
 them  to  the  traffic  of  indulgences,  and  occalioned  Gregory  to 
 snake  this  removal.    Mofh, 
 
 tute 
 
cent.  14.]  Great  Weflern  Schifm.  2O3 
 
 tute  of  every  difpofuion  for  conciliating  the  affec- 
 tions of  his  opponents,  or  even  for  retaining  his 
 particular  adherents,  and  by  his  injudicious  fe- 
 verity  and  intolerable  arrogance,  foon  made  him- 
 felf  enemies  among  people  of  all  ranks,  and  efpe- 
 cially  among  the  leading  cardinals.  No  longer  able 
 to  endure  his  infolence,  they  withdrew  from  Rome 
 to  Anagni,  and  thence  to  Fondi,  a  city  of  the 
 kingdom  of  Naples,  where  they  elected  to  the  pon- 
 tificate Robert  count  of  Geneva,  who  took  the 
 name  of  Clement  VII.  and  declared  at  the  fame 
 time  that  the  election  of  Urban  was  a  mere  cere- 
 mony, which  they  had  been  compelled  to  perform, 
 in  order  to  calm  the  turbulent  rage  of  the  popu- 
 lace. Which  of  thefe  two  is  to  be  confidered  as 
 the  true  and  lawful  pope,  is  to  this  day  matter  of 
 doubt ;  nor  will  the  records  and  writings,  alleged 
 by  the  contending  parties,  enable  us  to  adjuft 
 that  point  with  any  certainty.  Urban  remained  at 
 Rome :  Clement  retired  to  Avignon  in  France. 
 His  caufe  was  efpoufed  by  France,  Spain,  Scot- 
 land, Sicily,  and  Cyprus,  while  all  the  reft  of  Eu^ 
 rope  acknowledged  Urban  as  the  true  vicar  of 
 Chrift. 
 
 Thus  the  union  of  the  Latin  church  under  one 
 head  was  deftroyed  at  the  death  of  Gregory  XI. 
 and  was  fucceeded  by  that  deplorable  diffeniion, 
 commonly  known  by  the  name  of  the  great  Weftern 
 Schijm.  Upon  the  death  of  Urban,  in  1389,  the 
 Italian  cardinals  proceeded  to  the  election  of  Boni- 
 face 
 
itd4  Great  Weflern  Schifm.        [cent.  14? 
 
 face  IX.  a  Neapolitan  -y  and  Clement  VIL  dying  in 
 1394,  the  French  cardinals  raifed  to  the,  papal 
 throne  a  Spaniard,  who  aflumed  the  name  of  Bene- 
 dict XIII.  After  various  other  methods  having 
 been  unfuccefsfully  recommended  for  remedying 
 this  unfortunate  fchifm,  it  was  propofed  that  one 
 or  both  of  them  fhould  abdicate  the  pontificate.  But 
 power  is  too  pleafing  an  acquifition,  to  be  eafily  re- 
 nounced, and  the  obflinacy  of  the  ecclefiaftical 
 rivals  continued  to  difturb  the  tranquillity  of  the 
 church,  notwithftanding  every  effort  to  effedt  a 
 peaceable  termination  of  the  difpute. 
 
 CHAP. 
 
C    *°5    ] 
 
 chap.   ir. 
 
 OF  DOCTRINES,  RITES,  CEREMONIES,  &C.  IN  THE 
 FOURTEENTH    CENTURY. 
 
 Alteration  refpecling  the  Jubilee — Extraordinary  Fejlivals 
 -—Origin  of  Annates — Fall  of  the  Templars — Strange 
 Fitlion  concerning  certain  Relics. 
 
 THE  doctrines  of  the  church  during  this  cen- 
 tury received  little  or  no  alteration  in  fad:, 
 through  Pope  John  XXII.  was  accufed  of  an  at- 
 tempt to  introduce  feveral  novel  opinions.     The 
 principal  of  thefe  was  his  oppofition  to  the  doc* 
 trines  of  the  Francifcans,  who  pretended  that  the 
 perfection  of  Gofpel  poverty  confifted  in  a  perfect 
 renunciation  of  all  property  even  in  the  commodi- 
 ties which  were  ufed  for  fubfiftence.     The  pontiff 
 declared  in  contradiction  to  this,  that  fuch   a  re- 
 nunciation was  ridiculous  and  impoflible,  and  that 
 it  was  heretical  to  aifert,  that  Jefus  Chrift  and  the 
 apoftles  had  no  authority  and  power  over  the  com- 
 modities which  they  ufed.     The  incenfed  Fran- 
 cifcans in  this  exigency  attached  themfelves  to  the 
 party  of  the  emperor  Lewis ;  but  the  pope  conti- 
 nued unconvinced   by  their  arguments,   and  un- 
 moved by  the  charge  of  herefy  which  was  repeat- 
 edly urged  againft  him.     At  a  period  of  fuch  pub- 
 lic commotion  and  calamity   as  were  exhibited 
 
 during 
 
20 6  Beatific  Vifioiu  [cent.  14? 
 
 during  the  greater  part  of  this  century  in  the  affairs 
 of  the  church,  it  may  excite  a  fmile  to  be  informed 
 that  an  abfurd  difpute  arofe  among  the  Francif- 
 cans,  which  required  all  theaddrefs  of  feveral  fuc- 
 ceeding  pontiffs  to  regulate.     A  number  of  thefe 
 holy  mendicants,  who  diftinguifhed  themfelves  by 
 wearing  coarfe  ftrait  hoods  and  fhort  gowns,  and 
 by   the  appellation  of  Jpiritual  brethren^  regarded 
 with  abhorrence  the  depravity  of  fuch  of  their  fra- 
 ternity as  appeared  in  loofe  flowing  garments  com- 
 pofed  of  finer  materials,  and  feparated  themfelves 
 from  their  fociety.     John  XXII.  oppofed  this  au- 
 fterity,  and  favoured  the  opinions  of  the  lefs  rigid 
 Francifcans,  who  affumed  the  title  of  brethren  of 
 the  convention.     The  auftere  fanatics  refufed,  how- 
 ever, to  fubmit  to  his  decifions,  and  cheerfully 
 preferred  chains,  imprifonment,  and  even  being 
 burned  to  death,  to  an  alteration  in  the  forms  of 
 their  garments. 
 
 A  conteft  of  more  importance  to  the  future 
 faith  of  the  church,  arofe  during  the  pontificate  of 
 John.  This  reflected  the  Beatific  Vifion,  which  the 
 pope  afferted  was  not  enjoyed  by  the  righteous, 
 after  death,  till  the  day  of  judgment.  Thisbpi- 
 nion  was  warmly  controverted  by  the  univerfity  of 
 Paris,  who  contended  that  the  fouls  of  the  faints 
 were,  at  their  death,  immediately  admitted  into  the 
 prefence  of  the  Deity.  During  the  agitation  of 
 this  queftion,  John  was  entered  into  that  ftate 
 where  alone  it  could  be  refolved,  and  tip  decifion 
 
 of 
 
cent.  14.]  Alteration  reletting  the  Jubilee.  207 
 of  the  divines  of  Paris  was  declared  to  be  the  true 
 catholic  faith. 
 
 It  is  neceflary  at  the  prefent  period  to  confine 
 the  reader  to  a  general  and  fuperficial  view  of  the 
 alterations  which  were  introduced  into  the  ritual 
 of  the  church,  fince  they  appear  to  be  of  little  im- 
 portance in  the  hiftory  of  Chriftianity,  and  are  too 
 minute  to  admit  of  detail.  In  the  year  1350, 
 Clement  VI.  in  compliance  with  the  requeft  of  the 
 people  of  Rome,  enacted,  that  the  Jubilee,  which 
 Boniface  VIII.  had  ordered  to  be  held  every  hun- 
 dredth year,  mould  be  celebrated  twice  in  every 
 century.  But  Urban  VI.  and  Sixtus  VI.  ap- 
 pointed, as  was  already  intimated,  a  more  frequent 
 celebration  of  this  falutary  and  profitable  infti- 
 tution. 
 
 Innocent  V.  inftituted  feftivals  facred  to  the  me- 
 mory of  the  lance  with  which  our  Saviour's  fide 
 was  pierced,  the  nails  that  fattened  him  to  the 
 crofs,  and  the  crown  of  thorns  which  he  wore  at  his 
 death*.  This  precious  relic  had  been  depofited  in 
 the  imperial  chapel  at  Conftantinople,  but,  in  the 
 convulfions  of  that  city,  had  paffed  into  the  hands 
 of  the  Venetians,  and  from  them  it  was  transferred 
 to  the  king  of  France.  The  French  court  ad- 
 vanced to  Troyes  in  Champagne,  to  meet  with  de- 
 votion this  ineftimable  treafure :  it  was  borne  in 
 
 *  See  Jo.  Henr.  A  Seelen,  Did",  de  Fefto  Lances  et  Claro- 
 rum  Chrifti. — Baluzli  Vit.  Pontif.  Arcnion.  torn.  i.  p.  3:8, 
 Milcellan.  torn,  i,  p.  417. 
 
 triumph 
 
zo8  Origin  of  Annates.  [cent,  14, 
 
 triumph  by  the  king,  bartfoot  and  in  his  (hirt ;  and 
 a  gift  of  ten  thoufand  marks  of  filver  was  awarded 
 to  the  Byzantine  emperor.  A  fum  fo  confiderable 
 was  a  ftrong  incentive  to  the  neceifr>ous  Baldwin 
 to  difpofe  of  his  remaining  treafures ;  and  a  large 
 portion  of  the  true  crofs,  the  baby-linen  of  the  fon 
 of  God,  the  lance,  the  fpungc,  and  the  chain  of  his 
 paffion,  the  rod  of  Mofes,  and  the  fkull  of  St. 
 John  the  Baptift,  were  eagerly  received  by  St. 
 Lewis,  who  bellowed  a  very  confiderable  fum  in 
 ere&ing  the  holy  chapel  at  Paris,  as  a  repofitory 
 for  thefe  fpiritual  curiofities.  The  number  of  fef- 
 tivals  was  increafedby  Benedict  XIL  who  appoint- 
 ed one  in  honourof the  marks  of  Chi  ill's  wounds, 
 which,  the  Francifcans  tell  us,  were  imprinted 
 upon  the  body  of  their  chief  and  founder,  by  a  mi- 
 raculous interpofition  of  the  divine  power. 
 
 In  the  year  1306,  Clement  V.  appropriated  to 
 himfelf  the  revenues  of  the  ecclefiaftical  benefices, 
 great  or  fmall,  that  mould  become  vacant,  for  two 
 years  enfuing,  in  England  ;  and  this  was  the  origin 
 of  the  annates,  or  firft  fruits,  which  are  dill  col- 
 lected*. 
 
 In  the  following  year,  Philip  the  Fair  began*  the 
 perfecution  of  the  Knights  Templars,  who  were 
 accufed  of  having  violated  every  law  of  God  and 
 man ;  and  in  about  four  years  after,  this  unfortunate 
 fraternity  was  entirely  annihilated.  That  their 
 conduct  was    in   many   refpects  cenfurable,   can 
 
 *  Flcury,  xix.  109. 
 
 fcarcely 
 
cfcNT.  14.]  Order  of  Knights  Templars  aholifhed.  209 
 fcarcely  admit  of  a  doubt ;  but  there  is  as  little 
 doubt,  that  their  vices  were  greatly  magnified  by 
 their  avaricious  and  malevolent  enemies*. 
 
 In 
 
 *  "  The  order  of  Knights  Templars,  if  we  may  give  credit 
 to  their  judges,  was  a  fociety  of  men,  who  were  infulters  and  de- 
 riders  of  God,  of  Chrift,  and  of  all  laws  divine  and  human.  They 
 who  were  admitted  into  this  fodality  were  obliged  to  renounce 
 Chrift,  and  fpit  upon  his  image,  to  pay  religious  adoration  to  a 
 wooden  head  covered  with  gold,  or  to  a  cat,  and  to  practife 
 fodomy.  If  they  had  any  children  from  their  commerce  with 
 women,  they  immediately  burnt  them,  and  did  other  things 
 mocking  to  be  mentioned.  That  there  were  in  this  family,  as 
 in  other  religious  orders  and  fedls,  fome  flagitious  and  impious 
 men,  no  one  will  deny:  but  that  the  whole  body  was  fo  exe- 
 crable, is  fo  far  from  being  evident  from  the  judicial  procefles 
 againfl  them,  which  are  ftill  extant,  that  the  contrary  is  rather 
 fairly  to  be  collected.  If  to  this  we  add,  that  the  accufations 
 brought  againfl  them  manifeflly  contradict  each  other,  and  that 
 many  of  thefe  unhappy  men  conftantly  perfevered  in  protefling 
 their  innocence  under  the  moft  cruel  tortures,  and  with  their  lad 
 breath,  it  will  feem  highly  probable,  that  Philip  excited  this 
 bloody  tragedy,  to  fatisfy  his  avarice,  and  to  gratify  his  malice 
 againfl:  their  Mailer,  by  whom  he  pretended  to  have  been  ill 
 ufed."     Mofh.  cent.  xiv.  p.  604. 
 
 It  is  remarked  by  the  celebrated  Lefling  in  his  Kolle£l.  zur 
 Literatur,  that  no  modern  writer  hath  better  evinced  the  licen- 
 tioufnefs  and  immorality  of  this  order,  than  Thomafius  in  his 
 DifT.de  Templariorum  Equitum  Ordine  fublato.  Hal.  1705. 
 Wichmanfhaufen,  in  his  DifT.  de  Extin&ione  Ord.  Tempi.  1687, 
 "hath  treated  this  fubjeft  with  much  lefs  penetration  and  fpirit  ; 
 but  there  are  in  his  book  fome  things  that  merit  attention,  efpe- 
 cially  the  conclufion,  in  which  he  compares  the  Templars  with 
 the  Jefuits  :  An  vero  paria  etiam  Jefuitas  fata  cum  Templanis 
 manfura  fintj  tempus  manifeftabit.  Certe  Nemefis  divina  tan- 
 Vet.  II.  P  decij, 
 
2io  Ficlions  concerning  Relics.        [cent.  14, 
 
 In  a  book  of  fermons  compofed  by  the  theolo- 
 gical faculty  at  Vienna,  in  this  age  of  fuperftition, 
 in  order  to  recommend  their  relics  to  the  people, 
 it  is  aflerted,  that  the  thirty  pieces  of  gold,  which 
 Judas  received  for  betraying  his  mailer,  were 
 coined  by  Terah,  Abraham's  father,  a  celebrated 
 artificer  under  king  Nimrod,  who  gave  them 
 to  Abraham,  by  whom  the  field  of  Ephron  the 
 Hittite  was  purchafed  with  this  money.  Thence 
 they  parTed  into  the  hands  of  the  Ifhmaelites,  who 
 paid  them  to  the  brethren  of  Jofeph  when  they 
 bought  him.  When  Jofeph 's  brethren  went  to 
 buy  corn  in  Egypt,  they  paid  this  money  to  Jo- 
 feph, by  which  means  it  came  into  Pharaoh's  trea-* 
 fury  ;  hence  the  pieces  were  given  to  Mofes  when» 
 lent  by  the  king  of  Egypt  with  an  army  to  fubduc 
 Ethiopia.  Mofes  upon  this  occafion  gave  them  as 
 a  dowry  to  a  queen  of  Sheba,  whofe  defcendant 
 prefented  them  to  Solomon,  by  whom  they  were, 
 placed  in  the  royal  treafury  ;  and  continued  there 
 till  Nebuchadnezzar  feized  them  among  the  fpoils 
 of  Jerufalem,  and  prefented  them  to  one  of  his 
 auxiliaries,  an  Arabian  king,  from  whom  fprung 
 one  of  thofe  eaftern  kings  who  came  to  worfhip 
 Chrift  at  his  birth,  and  who  prefented  them  to, . 
 Mary.     By  her  they  were  made  an  offering  at  the 
 
 dem,  quos  praeteriiffe  videtur,  invenietu  Erchenburg,  however, 
 refers  to  Nicolai's  Vcrfuch  iiber  die  Befchuldigungen,  welclie 
 dem  Tempelhenvnovden  gemacht  worden,  &c.  published  at 
 Berlin,  ]  782,  for  a  ,      t  of  the  charges  of  Thomafius,  and 
 
 affo  '.    ■  efutation of  them.     H. 
 
 purification, 
 
cent.  14.]         New  Religious  Orders,  211 
 
 purification,  when  fhe  prefented  her  fon  5  and  were 
 again  employed  in  purchafing  Chrift.  They  now 
 remain  difperfed  in  different  parts  of  the  world, 
 one  of  which,  mgold,  as  large  as  an  Englifh  noble, 
 is  (hewn  in  the  entrance  of  St.  Peter's  at  Rome*. 
 
 The  difturbances  occafioned  by  the  monks,  and 
 the  decrees  for  their  regulation,  prevented  in  fome 
 degree  their  increafe  during  this  century.  Some 
 orders  were,  however,  inflituted,  the  principal  of 
 which  owed  their  origin  to  St.  Catharine  of  Sienna 
 and  St.  Bridget. 
 
 *  Bingham,  Ecc.  Ant.  b.  xiv.  c.  4* 
 
 P2  CHAP. 
 
[      212      ] 
 
 CHAP.     III. 
 
 OF  THE  SECTS  WHICH  APPEARED  INT-HE 
 FOURTEENTH   CENTURY. 
 
 Qniei'ifls — Dancers — Albi-Fratres — Beggards — Lollards—* 
 Abfurdities  of  the  mendicant  Orders. 
 
 THE  love  of  innovation,  which  had  lain  dor-' 
 rnant  for  many  centuries,  began  to  be  ex- 
 cited in  this  in  different  parts  of  the  world.     A 
 feci;  of  fanatics  appeared  in  Greece  under  the  name  ' 
 of  Quietifts ;  their  principal  tenet  was,  that  in  the  ' 
 deepeft  retirements  there  ftill  exifted  a   celeftial 
 light  in  the  mind  :  and,  agreeably  to  this  notion, 
 they  were  accuftomed  to  fit  for  fome  hours  of  the 
 day  in  a  corner,  with  their  eyes  immoveably  fixed,- 
 when  they  profeffed  to  feei  this  divine  light  beam- 
 ing forth  from  the  foul,  and  imparting  the  moft 
 vivid  fenfations  ofpleafure*. 
 
 The  Dancers,  which  arofe  in  the  neighbourhood 
 of  Aix  la-Chapelle  about  the  year  1373,  were  not 
 lefs  ridiculous.  Their  tenets  are  explained  by  their 
 name.  Bodily  exercife  conftituted  the  whole  of 
 their  religion.  As  if  by  a  fudden  impulfe,  a  whole 
 company  of  them  would  frequently  commence  a 
 violent  motion,  like   a  company  of  dancers,  and 
 
 *  Mo fhe an. 
 5  continue 
 
cent.  14.]  dlbi-Fratres,  Beggards,  &c.  213 
 continue  till  they  dropped  down  with  fatigue- when 
 they  afferted  that  they  were  favoured  with  miracu- 
 lous vifions*.  Another  feci  appeared  towards  the 
 clofe  of  this  century,  called  the  Albi-Fratres,  whofe 
 only  characteristic  was  appearing  constantly  in. 
 whitef. 
 
 The  brethren  and  fillers  of  the  Free  Spirit, 
 called  alfoin  the  Flemilh,  Beggardsand  Beguines, 
 were  more  numerous  than  any  of  the  preceding. 
 Their  leading  tenet  appears  to  have  been,  that  the 
 rational  foul  has  an  immediate  connection  with 
 God,  the  foul  or  fpirit  of  the  univerfe  ;  that  this 
 communion  is  improvable  by  contemplation, 
 which  they  are  faid  to  have  indulged  to  fuch  excefs, 
 as  to  reject  all  external  devotion,  and  even  the  du- 
 ties and  employments  of  active  life.  It  is  probable 
 their  opinions  are  much  mifreprefented  by  their 
 adverfaries.  Theyfuftained  heavy  oppreflions  from 
 the  magistrates,  the  clergy,  and  the  people ;  and 
 melted  away  by  degrees,  till  their  fmali  remains, 
 if  any  did  remain,  were  confolidated  into  the  great 
 mafs  of  Prateftants  at  the  Reformation. 
 
 The  more  formidable  as  well  as  more  rational 
 fects  directed  their  views  principally  to  a  reforma- 
 tion of  the  church.  In  1 308,  a  number  of  perfons 
 in  Lombardy  affumed  the  title  of  Apoftolical,  and 
 contended  warmly  for  the  reducing  of  the  church 
 to  the  original  purity  of  the  apoilolic  times  :  they 
 
 *  Moflielm. 
 
 f  L' Enfant,  Cone,  de  Pife,  i.  p,  1,  iz\, 
 
 P  3  were 
 
a  14  John  Wickuff  [cent.  14, 
 
 were  however  prefently  diflipated   by    an    army 
 raifed   exprefsly  for  that  purpofe*.     The  -pride 
 and  ufurpations  of  the  mendicant  orders  afforded 
 the  mod  general  caufes  of  complaint ;  and  among 
 all  the  enemies  of  thefe  orders,  none  is  more  con- 
 fpicuous  than  John  Wickliff,  an  Englifh  doctor, 
 profeffor  of  divinity    at    Oxford,   and  afterwards 
 rector  of  Lutterworth  j  who,  according  to  the  tefli- 
 mony  of  the  writers  of  thefe  times,  was  a  man  of 
 enterprifing  genius,  and  extraordinary  learning.' 
 In  the  year  1360,  animated  by  the  example  of 
 Richard,  archbilhop  of  Armagh,  he  firft  defended 
 the  ftatutes  and  privileges  of  the  univerfity  of  Ox-  - 
 ford,  againft  all  the  orders  of  the  mendicants,  and  ' 
 had  the  courage  to  throw  out  fome  flight  reproofs 
 againft  the  popes,  their  principal  patrons.     After 
 this,   in  the  year   1367,  he  was  deprived  of  the 
 wardenmip  of  Canterbury-hall  in  the  univerfity  of- 
 Oxford,  by  Simon  JLangham,  archbifhop  of  Can- 
 terbury, who  fubftituted  a  monk  in  his   place; 
 unon  which  he  appealed  to  Urban  V.  but  that  pon- 
 tiffconfirmed  the  lentence  of  the  archbimop  againft 
 him,  on  account  of  the  freedom  with  which  he  had 
 inveighed  againft  the  monaftic  orders.  Highly  ex- 
 afperated  at  this  treatment,  he  threw  off  all  reftraint, 
 and  not  only  attacked  all  the  monks,  and  their 
 fcandalous  irregularities,    but  even  the  pontifical 
 power  itfelf,  and  other  ecclefiaftical  abufes,  both 
 in  his  fermons  and  writings.     He  even  proceeded 
 
 *  jortin. 
 
cent.  14.3       pro/ecu  ted  for  his  Writings.  215 
 
 toftill  greater  lengths,  and,  deteftingthe  wretched 
 fuperftition  of  the  times,  refuted  with  great  acute- 
 nefs  and  fpirit  the  abfurd  notions  which  were  gene- 
 rally received  in  religious  matters,  and  not  only 
 exhorted  the  laity  to  ltudy  the  Scriptures,  but  alfo 
 translated  into  English  the  facred  books,  in  order 
 to  render  the  perufal  of  them  more  univerfal. 
 
 Thefe  fervices,  fo  important  to  the  caufe  of  ra- 
 tional piety,  were  received  with  very  conliderable 
 approbation  by  perfons  of  every  rank  ;  for  all  ab- 
 horred the  vices  of  the  clergy,  the  tyranny  of  the 
 court  of  Rome,  and  the  infatiable  avarice  of  the 
 monks.  But  hisattackof  the  doctrine  of  Tranfub- 
 ftantiation  occaficned  the  defection  of  numbers, 
 who  had  entered  with  avidity  into  every  other  ob- 
 ject of  his  defigns,  and  firmly  attached  themfelves 
 to  his  interefts. 
 
 The  monks,  whom  Wickliff  had  principally 
 exafperated,  commenced  a  violent  profecution 
 againft  him  at  the  court  of  Gregory  XI.  and,  in 
 the  year  1377,  that  pontiff  ordered  Simon  Sud- 
 bury, archbilhop  of  Canterbury,  to  take  cogni-- 
 fance  of  the  affair,  in  a  council  held  at  London. 
 Imminent  as  the  danger  evidently  was,  Wickliff 
 efcaped  it  by  the  intereft  of  the  duke  of  Lancaf- 
 ter  :  and  foon  after  the  death  of  Gregory  XI.  the 
 fatal  fchifm  of  the  Romilh  Church  commenced, 
 during  which  there  was  one  pope  at  Rome,  and 
 another  at  Avignon,  fo  that  of  neceflity  the  con- 
 troverfy  lay  dormant  for  a  confiderable  time.  No 
 P  4  fooner, 
 
2 1 6  Lollards.  [ce  «  t  .  T4. 
 
 fooner,  however,  was  this  embroiled  (late  of  affairs 
 tolerably  fettled,  than  the  procefs  againft  him  was 
 revived  by  William  de  Courtenay,  archbifhop  of 
 Canterbury,  in  the  year  1385,  and  was  carried  on 
 with  great  vehemence,  in  two  councils  held  at  Lon- 
 don and  Oxford.  The  event  was,  that,  of  the 
 twenty-three  opinions  for  which  WicklifT  had 
 been  profecuted  by  the  monks,  ten  were  con- 
 demned as  herefies,  and  thirteen  as  errors.  He 
 himfelf,  however,  returned  in  fafety  to  Lutterworth, 
 where  he  died  peaceably  in  the  year  1387.  He 
 left  many  followers  in  England*,  and  other  coun- 
 tries, who  were  ftyled  "Wickliffites  and  Lollards, 
 the  latter  of  which  was  a  term  of  popular  reproach, 
 transferred  from  the  Flemifh  tongue  into  the' 
 Engliflb.  Wherever  they  could  be  found,  they 
 were  perfecuted  by  the  inquifitors,  and  other  mi- 
 nifters  of  the  Romifh  Church  ;  and,  in  the  council 
 of  Conftance,  in  the  year  I4i5>  the  memory  and 
 opinions  of  Wickliff  were  condemned  by  a  folemn 
 decree  :  and  about  thirteen  years  after,  his  bones 
 were  dug  up,  and  publicly  burnt. 
 
 Notwithstanding  the  mendicants  were  >thus  vi- 
 gorously attacked  on  all  fides,  by  fuch  a  confider- 
 able  number  of  ingenious  and  learned  adverfaries, 
 they  could  not  be  perfuaded  to  abate  of  their  arro- 
 gance, or  to  fet  bounds  to  their  fuperftition.     The 
 
 *  In  this  number  was  the  poet  Chaucer,  whofe  Canterbury 
 Tales  could  not  fall  to  produce  a  confiderable  effect,  by  the  expo- 
 fures  they  exhibit  of  clerical  vice. 
 
 Fraricifcans, 
 
tent.  14.]         'Ahfurdities  of  the  h&nks,  217 
 
 Francifcans,forgetting,  in  their  enthufiaftic  frenzy, 
 the  veneration  which  they  owed  to  the  Son  of  God, 
 and  animated  with  an  imprudent  zeal  for  advan- 
 cing the  glory  of  their  order  and  its  founder,  impi- 
 oufly  maintained  that    the   latter  was  a  fecond 
 •Chrift,  in  all  refpecls  limilar  to  the  firft ;  and  that 
 their  institution  and  difcipline  was  the  true  gofpel 
 of  Jefus,     Thefe   pretentions,  however  (hocking, 
 were  patronized  and  encouraged  by  the  letters  and 
 mandates  of  the  popes,  in   which  they  made  no 
 fcruple  to  aflert,  that  theabfurd  fable  of  the  ftigmas, 
 or  five  wounds  impreffed  upon  Francis  by  Chrift 
 himfelf,  on  mount  Al  vera  us,  was  worthy  of  credit, 
 and  indeed  matter  of  undoubted  fact.     Their  per- 
 mimon  and  approbation  of  this  order  was  fo  com- 
 pletely  extended,     that   they   unhefitatingly  re- 
 commended an  impious  performance,  entitled,  The 
 Bock  of  the   Conformities  of  St.   Francis  with  Jefus 
 Chrift,  which  was  compofed,  in  the  year  1383,  by 
 Bartholomew  Albizi,  a  Francifcan  of  Pifa,  whofe 
 zeal  in  their  caufe  was  rewarded  with  the  ample 
 applaufes  of  all  the  Francifcan  fraternity.  This  in- 
 famous tract,  in  which  the  Son  of  God  is  put  upon 
 a  level  with  a  contemptible  fanatic,  is  equally  a 
 monument  of  the  outrageous  enrhufiafm  of  the 
 Francifcan  order,  and  of  the  exceffive  imprudence 
 of  the  popes  by  whom  it  was  recommended  and 
 extolled. 
 
 CHAP. 
 
[     «S     ] 
 
 CHAP.    IV. 
 
 or  learning  and  learned  men  in  the 
 
 FOURTEENTH    CENTURY. 
 
 Greek  Literature — Emperors  —  Elder  Andronicus  —  'John 
 Cantachwzene — Manuel  Paleehgus — Barlaamy  &c. — Ni- 
 cepborus  Calijlius — Theophanes —  Planudes,  &c. — ,Scbola/}ic 
 Divinity — Duns  Scot  us — William  Ockam,  &c. —Nicholas 
 de  Lyra — Tranjlation  of  the  Bible  into  French. — St.  Bridget 
 and  St.  Catharine — Dante — Petrarch^  &c. 
 
 7CTOT WITHSTANDING  the  calamitous  (late 
 ofth   e  eaftern  empire,  the  love  of  literature 
 was  not  yet  extinct  in  thofe  regions,  where  it  had 
 formerly  flourilhed,  as  in  its  mod  natural  foil. 
 
 It  has  been  obferved,that  the  Greek  emperors  of 
 this  age  have  been  more  illuftrious  for  their  writ- 
 ings than  for  their  exploits.  Andronicus  the  Elder 
 compofed  fome  treatifes,  one  of  which  was  in  the 
 form  of  a  dialogue  between  a  Jew  and  a  Chriftian, 
 and  is  laid  to  have  been  no  contemptible  defence  of 
 the  latter  religion.  The  good  and  learned  John 
 Cantachuzene,  after  his  retirement  from  the  impe- 
 rial dignity,  wrote  a  hiftory  of  his  own  reign  and 
 thofe  of  the  Andronici ;  and  Manuel  Paleologus 
 II.  was  the  author  of  feveral  divine  and  moral 
 pieces*.     The  crowd  of  plebeian  writers  was  much 
 
 *  Du  Pin,  t.  iii. 
 
 more. 
 
cent.  14,]       Barhaniy  Nicephorus,  &c.  219 
 
 more  numerous.  They  were  however  chiefly 
 polemics,  and  were  engaged  on  th~  topics  which  at 
 that  period  divided  the  Greek  and  Latin  churches. 
 Among  thefe  we  recognife  the  name  of  Barlaam, 
 who  at  firft  appeared  a  zealous  advocate  for  the 
 Greek  church,  defended  her  tenets  concerning  the 
 proceffion  of  the  Holy  Ghoft,  and  attacked  the 
 pope's  fupremacy  ;  but  afterwards,  affuming  a  more 
 moderate  tone,  he  appeared  as  an  advocate  for  an 
 union  of  the  churches.  Among  the  difputants 
 who  appeared  in  this  controverfy,  Palamas,  Acyn- 
 dinus,  Planudes,  Philotheus  patriarch  of  Conftan- 
 tinople,  and  the  two  Cabafilas  diftinguifhed 
 themfelves.  Some  of  the  Greeks  in  this  contro- 
 verfy defended  ably  the  tenets  of  the  Latin  church. 
 
 Church  hiftory  was  alfo  much  cultivated  at  this 
 period  in  Greece.  Nicephorus  Califtius,  a  monk 
 of  Conftantinople,  compiled  a  considerable  work 
 upon  that  fubjecl:.  Theophilus,  archbifhop  of  Nice, 
 appeared  as  an  able  defender  of  the  truth  of  Chrif- 
 tianity.  Planudes  tranflated  the  fifteen  books  of  St. 
 Auguftin  on  the  Trinity  into  Greek.  Nilus,  me- 
 tropolitan of  Rhodes,  and  Matthew  Blaftares,  la- 
 boured  on  the  hiftory  of  the  councils  and  canons 
 of  the  church. 
 
 The  fcholaftic  divinity,  which  had  been  culti- 
 vated with  fo  much  fuccefs  in  the  preceding  cen- 
 tury, under  Albertus  Magnus,  Thomas  Aquinas, 
 and  Alexander  Hales,  ufurped  almoft  the  whole 
 (commonwealth  of  literature  in  the  weft.    The  mod 
 
 illuftrious 
 
220  Buns  Scotus,  William  Ockam,  &V.  [cent.  14, 
 
 illuftrious  of  thefe  doctors  in  the  fourteenth  cen- 
 tury was  the  fatuous  Duns  Scotus,  founder  of  the 
 feet  of  Scotifts,  diftinguifhed  by  their  oppofition 
 to  the  Thomifts  (or  the  followers  of  Aquinas),  and 
 by  their  earneft  fupport  of  the  doctrine  of  the  im- 
 maculate conception.     The  real  name  of  Scotus 
 was  John  Duns,  and  he  obtained  the  appellation 
 of  Scotus,  from  the  opinion  that  he  was  originally 
 from  Scotland  ;  though  it  is  by  no  means  certain 
 whether  that  country,  England,  or  Ireland,   is  in- 
 reality  entitled  to  the  honour  of  his  birth.  He  died 
 at  an  early  period  of  life,  about  forty  years  of  age, 
 of  an   epilepfy  or  apoplexy,  probably  produced  . 
 by  his  ftudious  habits.     He  left  behind  him  a  , 
 great  variety  of  treatifes,  philofophical  and  theolo- 
 gical, moft  of  them  written  in  oppofition  to  the 
 Thomifts.     The  Britifh  nation  indeed  produced 
 more  than  one  ornament  of  the  fcholaftic  fyftem. 
 William   Ockam,    fo  named   from   a   village  in 
 Surry  where  he  was  born,  appeared  alfo  at  the 
 head  of  another  fed  of  fcholaftics,  who  were  en- 
 titled Nominalifts ;   and  as  Scotus  obtained   the 
 name  of  the  Subtile  Doctor,  fo  Ockam  was  kqown 
 by  that  of  the  Singular  Doctor.    He  diftinguifhed 
 himfelf  by  writing  in  defence  of  Philip  the  Fair,  in 
 his  difpute  with  the  popes.    Thomas  Bradwardin, 
 chancellor  of  Oxford,  and  afterwards  archbifhop  of 
 Canterbury,  was  a  divine  of  rather  a  fuperior  order, 
 but  much  devoted  to  the  fcholaftic  divinity,  and 
 elpecially  to  the  doctrines  of  Aquinas.  His  treatife 
 
 Ve 
 
c  Ett t .  1 4.]  St.  Bridget.  Catharine  of  Sienna.  221 
 De  Caufa  Dei,  againft  Pelagius,  is  in  fome  repute. 
 The  author  of  moft  confequence,  after  thefe,  ap- 
 pears to  be  Durand  de  St.  Pourgain,  biihop  of 
 Meaux ;  but  the  catalogue  is  endlefs  of  thofe  who, 
 in  the  numerous  feminaries  of  literature,  endea- 
 voured to  render  themfelves  illuftrious,  by  an  af- 
 fiduous  application  to  thefe  faihionable  but  fruitlefs 
 ftudies. 
 
 Few  in  this  age  applied  themfelves  to  the  ra- 
 tional explication  of  fcripture.  The  moft  eminent 
 in  this  branch  of  learning  was  Nicholas  de  Lyra, 
 a  convert  from  Judaifm  to  Chriftianity,  who  gave 
 public  lectures  at  Paris  for  feveral  years  on  the 
 facred  Scriptures,  and  has  left  fome  commentaries, 
 in  which  he  was  much  aflifted  by  his  rabbinical 
 learning,  and  which  are  by  no  means  deftitute  of 
 merit  or  utility  *.  The  Bible  was,  in  this  century, 
 tranflated  into  French  by  Nicholas  Orefmus,  a 
 Norman,  and  preceptor  to  Charles  V.  of  France-f . 
 Several  books  of  devotion  alfo  made  their  ap- 
 pearance in  this  century.  Among  the  writers  moft 
 celebrated  in  this  department  are  St.  Bridget,  a 
 Swediih  princefs,  and  St.  Catherine  of  Sienna, 
 both  of  whom  pretended  to  extraordinary  revela- 
 tions ;  and,  in  an  ignorant  and  fuperPcitious  age,  it 
 
 may  well  be  conceived,  they  were  not  without  dif- 
 + 
 
 ciples  + 
 
 *  Du  Pin,  1. 111.    Formey,  vol.  i.  p.  24$. 
 
 f  Du  Pin. 
 
 t  Formey,  vol.  i.  p.  245. 
 
 The 
 
2.22        Dante,   Petrarch.  Boccacio.      [cent.  14. 
 
 The  politer  ftudies  were  not,  however,  without 
 fheir  votaries  in  this  period,  and  efpecially  in  Italy. 
 The  elegant  productions  of  Dante  and  Petrarch, 
 and  the  wit  and  pleafantry  of  Boccacio,  reflect  a 
 permanent  luftre  on  the  literary  annals  of  the  four- 
 teenth century.  The  corruptions  of  the  papal  court 
 were  not  fuffered  to  efcape  the  fevere  inveftigation 
 of  this  illuftrious  triumvirate,  and  efpecially  of  Pe- 
 trarch, who  fcruples  not  to  apply  themoft  flagrant 
 terms  of  reproach. 
 
 Amongft  the  learned  of  this  century  fhould  be 
 mentioned  Richard  of  Bury,  who  provided  the  firft 
 grammatical  treatifes  of  the  Greek  and  Hebrew 
 languages  for  the  ufe  of  his  countrymen,  refcued 
 the  works  of  many  ancient  authors  from  oblivion, 
 and  formed  one  of  the  moll  valuable  libraries  the 
 age  could  boaft  of*. 
 
 *  See  Memoires  pour  la  Vie  de  Petrarque,  torn.  i.  p.  164,  &c 
 
 THE 
 
t     "3     ] 
 
 THE    FIFTEENTH  CENTURY. 
 
 CHAP.    I. 
 
 GENERAL      STATE     OF      THE      CHURCH      IN      THIS 
 CENTURY. 
 
 Expuljlon  of  the  Moors  from  Spain — Difcovery  of  America— 
 Extenfion  of  the  Muffulman  Empire  in  Afia — Overthrow  of 
 the  Grecian  Empire — Taking  of  Conjlantinople  by  Mahomet 
 II. — Continuance  of  the  Wejiern  Schifm — Council of Pifa— 
 Three  Popes  at  one  Time — Council  of  Confiance — Retrench" 
 ment  of  the  Papal  Power — Eleclion  of  Martin  V. — Perfe- 
 ction of  Heretics — John  Hufs,  and  'Jerome  of  Prague-— 
 Their  Pcrfecution  and  Death — Council  of  Bafil — Eugenius 
 IV. — wijhes  to  remove  the  Council  to  Italy— Coniefi  between 
 the  Pope  and  the  Council — Eugenius  fummons  a  Council  at 
 Ferrara—Depofition  of  Eugenius— Felix  V. — Nicholas  V. 
 •—Alexander  VI. 
 
 IN  the  year  1492,  Ferdinand,  furnamed  the  Ca- 
 tholic, by  the  conqueft  of  Granada,  completely 
 iubverted  the  dominion  of  the  Moors,  or  Saracens, 
 in  Spain.  With  a  degree  of  moderation,  which  is 
 honourable  to  the  memory  of  this  monarch,  he 
 at  firft  made  a  folemn  declaration,  that  none  oi 
 
 tije 
 
224  Moors  and  Jews  perfecuted  in  Spain,  [cent.  i'$, 
 the  numerous  adherents  of  Mahometanifm  who 
 flill  remained,  fliould  be  difturbed  in  the  full  en- 
 joyment of  their  religious  opinions.  Ferdinand  in- 
 deed flattered  himfelf,  that  the  exhortations  and  in- 
 ftru&ions  of  the  clergy,  together  with  the  imper- 
 ceptible effeds  of  time,  would  produce  the  con- 
 verfion  of  the  Moors ;  but  the  experience  of  (even. 
 years  only  proved  the  fallacy  of  his  hopes.  Per- 
 ceiving the  inefficacy  of  thefe  meafures,  the  zeal- 
 ous king  was  perfuaded  by  Cardinal  Ximenes,  his 
 prime  minifler,to  have  recouife  to  feverity;  and  the 
 prevailing  arguments  of  the  inquifuion  induced 
 two  hundred  thoufand  of  the  wretched  MufTulmans 
 to  profefs  themfelves  believers  in  Chrift.  Many 
 however  ftill  pertinacioufly  adhered  to  their  former 
 opinions ;  and  the  numerous  victims,  who  were  of- 
 fered upon  the  fanguinary  altar  of  the  inquifition, 
 fufficiently  teftify  how  far  we  may  rely  upon  the 
 fincerity  of  the  converfion  which  the  greater  num- 
 ber originally  profeffed. 
 
 The  zeal  of  Ferdinand  for  the  extenfion  of  Chrif- 
 tianity  was  not  confined  to  the  difciples  of  the  pro- 
 phet of  Mecca.  His  Jewilh  fubjeclis  were  involved 
 in  a  fimilar  perfecution,  and  were  commanded  . 
 either  to  unite  with  their  Chriflian  brethren,  or  to 
 depart  from  the  kingdom.  Banilhment,  to  which 
 the  confifcation  of  their  property  would  in  all  pro- 
 bability be  annexed,  was  a  fentence  fo  rigorous, 
 that  great  numbers  were  impelled  to  diflemble  their 
 opinions,  .and  to  feign  an  affent  to  the  doctrines 
 
 of 
 
cent.  1 5.]     Forced  Cmverfwn  of  the  Jew?.       225 
 
 of  Chriftianity*.  A  ftill  more  confiderable  num- 
 ber, allured  by  the  encouragement  afforded  them 
 by  John  II.  king  of  Portugal,  took  refuge  in  that 
 country,  where  they  hoped  to  find  either  a  fafe 
 afylum,  or  the  means  of  tranfporting  themfelves 
 and  their  effects  to  fome  happier  fituation.  Thefe 
 hopes  were  however  fatally  blafted,  their  property 
 was  confifcated  to  the  Hate,  and  their  perfons  were 
 fold  into  flavery.  Emanuel,  the  fucceffor  of  John, 
 o\  his  afcenlion  to  the  throne,  made  fome  repara- 
 tion for  this  injuftice,  by  an  emancipation  from  fla- 
 very, and  the  reftoration  of  their  effects.  This- 
 clemency  was,  however,  tranfient :  Emanuel  de- 
 prived them  of  their  children,  and  would  once 
 more  have  reduced  them  to  a  ftate  of  bondage,  had 
 not  their  remembrance  of  pad  fufTerings,  and  the 
 apprehenfion  of  further  cruelty,  induced  them  to 
 fubmit  to  the  initiatory  rite  of  baptifm,  and  to  com- 
 munion with  their  orthodox  brethren.  Three  hun- 
 dred thoufand  were  baptized  ;  but  the  fincerity  of 
 this  conviction  may  be  collected  from  the  dark 
 records  of  the  holy  inOjuifition. 
 
 The  light  of  evangelical  truth  was  diffufed  in 
 this  century  among  the  Samogetse  and  the  neigh- 
 b  uring  nation?,  but  without  producing  its  full 
 effect.  Towards  the  conclufion  of  this  a2,e,  the 
 Portuguefe,  who  cultivated  with  ardour  and  fuc- 
 cefs  the  art  of  navigation,  had  penetrated  as  far  as 
 
 *  Among  thefe  was  the  celebrated  Rabbi  Ifaac  Aba; Land,  fa 
 wel!  known  for  his  comments  on  fcripture.     H. 
 
 Vol.  II,  Q^  Ethiopia 
 
226  America  difcovered.  [cent.  15: 
 
 Ethiopia  and  the  Indies ;  and  in  the  year  1492, 
 Chriftopher  Columbus,  by  difcovering  the  iilands 
 of  Hifpaniola,  Cuba,  and  Jamaica,  opened  a'paf- 
 fage  into  America ;  and  after  him,  Americus  Vef- 
 putius,  a  citizen  of  Florence,  landed  on  the  conti- 
 nent of  that  vafl  region.  Some  of  the  new  Argo- 
 nauts, who  difcovered  thefe  nations,  which  had 
 been  hitherto  unknown  to  the  inhabitants  of  Eu- 
 rope, judged  it  their  duty  to  enlighten  them  with 
 the  knowledge  of  the  truth.  The  firft -attempt  of 
 this  nature  was  made  by  the  Portuguefe,  among 
 the  Africans,  who  inhabit  the  kingdom  of  Congo, 
 and  who,  together  with  their  monarchy  were  fud- 
 denly  converted  to  the  Roman  faith  in  the  year 
 1 49 1.  After  this  religious  revolution  in  Africa, 
 Alexander  VI.  afforded  a  lingular  fpecimen  of 
 papal  prefumption,  in  dividing  America  between 
 the  Portuguefe  and  Spaniards,  but  at  the  fame 
 time  demonftrated  his  zeal  for  the  propagation  of " 
 the  gofpel,  by  the.  ardour  with  which  he  recom- 
 mended to  thefe  two  nations  the  inftruction  and 
 converfion  of  the  Americans,  both  in  the  ifles  and 
 on  the  continent  of  that  immenfe  region  *•:  >and,  in 
 confequence  of  this  exhortation,  a  number  of  Fran- 
 cifcans  and  Dominicans  were  difpatched  into  thefe 
 countries.  Intereft,  not  religion,  was  unfortunately 
 the  governing  fpring  of  action  with  the  firft  Ameri- 
 can fettlers;  the  cruelties  therefore  inflicted  upon  the' 
 
 *  See  the  bull  itfelf,  in  the  Bullarium  Romanum,    torn.  i. 
 p.  446. 
 
 unhappy 
 
cent.  15.]  Chrijlianity  declines  in  ths  Eajl.  217 
 unhappy  natives  were  infinitely  more  calculated  to 
 alienate  them  from  the  reception  of  Chriftianity, 
 than  to  invite  them  to  it;  and  the  anti-chriftian 
 practice  of  flavery  was  in  every  refpect  ill-calculated 
 to  promote  the  objects  of  piety.  Inftead  therefore 
 of  gaining  converts,  thefe  deteftable  ravagers  ex- 
 terminated whole  nations.  A  few  fcattered  Chrif- 
 tians  on  the  coafts  of  Africa  and  India,  remain  as 
 teftimonies  of  the  induftry  of  thePortuguefe  mif- 
 fionaries ;  but,  in  both  thefe  continents,  the  faith 
 of  Mahomet  has  been  more  fuccefsful  than  that  of 
 Chrift. 
 
 In  that  vaft  territory  of  the  Eaft  which  once  ac- 
 knowledged the  Roman  fway,  Chriftianity  loft 
 ground  with  unparalleled  rapidity,  and  the  Maho- 
 metans, whether  Turks  or  Tartars,  united  their 
 barbarous  efforts  to  extinguish  its  bright  and  falu- 
 tary  luftre.  Afiatic  Tartary,  Mogol,  Tan  gut,  and 
 the  adjacent  provinces,  where  the  religion  of 
 Jefus  had  long  flourished,  were  now  become  the 
 gloomy  abodes  of  fuperftition, which  reigned  among 
 them  under  the  moft  oppreffive  forms.  Nor  in 
 thefe  immenfe  tracts  of  land  were  there  at  this  time 
 any  traces  of  Chriftianity  vifible,  except  perhaps  in 
 China,  where  the  Neftorians  Mill  feem  to  have 
 preferved  fome  fcattered  remains  of  their  former 
 glory,  and  appeared  like  a  faint  and  dying  taper 
 in  the  mid  ft  of  a  dark  and  gloomy  firmament. 
 That  fome  Neftorian  churches  were  ftill  fubfifting 
 in  thefe  regions,  may  be  accounted  tolerably  cer- 
 Qj.  tain  j 
 
228  Decline  of  the  Greek  Empire,     [cent.  15'. 
 
 tain;  for  in  this  century  their  pontiff,  in  Chaldssa, 
 fent  miffionaries  into  Cathay  and  China,  who  were 
 empowered  to  exercife  the  authority  of  bifhops 
 over  the  Chriftian  aflemblies,  which  lay  concealed 
 in  the  remoter  provinces  of  thefe  great  empires*. 
 It  is  at  the  fame  time  alrnoft  equally  certain,  that 
 even  thefe  aflemblies  did  not  furvive  this  century. 
 
 The  dominions  of  the  Byzantine  Caefars  had 
 been  gradually  diminished  by  the  incroachments 
 of  the  Muflulmans ;  and  towards  thecoqclufion  of 
 the  preceding  century,  the  imperial  jurifdiction  was 
 contracted  to  a  corner  of  Thrace,  about  fifty  miles 
 in  length,  and  thirty  in  breadth;  even  this  narrow 
 fpace  was  denied  by  the  enterprifing  Bajazet,  who, 
 in  an  infolent  tone,  demanded  the  pofTeflion  of 
 Conftantinople  itfelf.  He  was  prevented  from  tak- 
 ing by  force,  what  could  not  by  treaty  be  granted, 
 only  by  the  intervention  of  a  favage  flronger 
 than  himfelf;  and  the  victorious  arms  of  Tamer- 
 lane afforded  a  fliort  refpite  to  the  devoted  city. 
 
 Under  tlie  reign  of  Amurath  the  Second,  the 
 grandfon  of  Bajazet,  the  capital  of  the  eaft  fuiiain- 
 ed  a  fevere  iiege  ;  and,  after  his  retreat,  it  vyas  in- 
 dulged in  a  fervile  and  precarious  refpite  of  thirty 
 years,  fubjecl,  however,  to  an  exorbitant  tribute. 
 The  year  1453  was  diftinguifhed  by  the  final 
 overthrow  of  the  Grecian  empire.  Mahomet  the 
 Second  had  long  beheld,  with  a  wifhjng  eye,  the 
 venerable  city  of  Conftantine,  and  refolved,   by 
 
 *  Mofheim,  cent,  xv, 
 
 one 
 
sent.  15.]  Confiantinople  taken  hy  the  'Turks.  229 
 one  great  effort,  to  make  it  his  own,  or  perilh  in 
 the  attempt.  On  the  29th  of  May,  after  a  liege  of 
 fifty-three  days,  Conftantinople  was  taken  by  ftorm. 
 The  laft  of  the  Csefars,  Conftantine  Paleologus, 
 bravely  fighting  for  his  country  and  religion,  fell, 
 worthy  of  his  name  and  imperial  dignity,  buried 
 under  a  mountain  of  the  flain*.  With  the  empire 
 of  the  Greeks  their  religious  eftablifliment  was  an- 
 nihilated ;  and  though  a  partial  toleration  was  ac 
 firft  permitted,  the  religious  defpotifm  of  their 
 conquerors  foon  contracted  it  within  more  confined 
 limits,  and  reduced  the  Christian  religion  and  its 
 profeflbrs  to  the  miferable  ftate  in  which  they  at 
 prefent  exift  under  the  yoke  of  the  Ottomans. 
 
 At  the  commencement  of  this  century,  we  have 
 already  feen  that  the  Latin  Church  was  divided 
 into  two  great  fa&ions,  and  was  governed  by  two 
 contending  pontiffs,  Boniface  IX.  who  remained 
 at  Rome,  and  Benedict  XII T.  who  reiided  ac 
 Avignon.  Upon  the  death  of  the  former,  the 
 cardinals  of  his  party  raifed  to  the  pontificate,  in 
 the  year  1404,  Cofmat  de  Meliorati,  who  ailumed 
 the  name  of  Innocent  VII.  and  held  that  high  dig- 
 nity during  the  fliort  fpace  of  two  years  only. 
 After  hisdeceafe,  Angeli  Carrario,  a  Venetian  car- 
 dinal, waschofen  in  his  room,  and  ruled  the  Roman 
 faction  under  the  title  of  Gregory  XII.  A  plan 
 of  reconciliation  was,  however,  formed  •,  and  the 
 contending  pontiffs  bound  themfelves,  each  by  an 
 oa:h,   to    make   a  voluntary   renunciation  of  the 
 
 *  Gibbon's  Decline  and  Fall,  vol.  vi. 
 
 Q.3  P*Pa* 
 
230  Cduncil  of  Pij'a,  [cent.  ic. 
 
 papal  chair,  if  that  flep  fhould  be  adjudged  ne- 
 ceffary  to  promote  the  peace  and  welfare  of  the 
 church  ;  but  they  both  violated  this  folemn  obli- 
 gation. Benedict  XIII.  befieged  in  Avignon  by 
 the  king  of  France,  in  the  year  1408,  faved  hirri- 
 felf  by  flight,  retiring  firft  into  Catalonia,  his  native 
 country,  and  afterwards  to  Perpignan.  Hence, 
 eight  or  nine  of  the  cardinals,  who  adhered  to  his 
 caufe,  finding  themfelves  deferted  by  their  pope, 
 changed  their  party ;  and,  joining  publicly  with  the 
 cardinals  of  Gregory  XII.  they  agreed  together  to 
 afTemble  a  council  at  Pifa,  on  the  25th  of  March, 
 1409,  in  order  to  heal  the  divifions  and  factions 
 which  had  fo  long  rent" the  papal  empire.  This 
 council,  however,  which  was  defigned  to  clofe  the 
 wounds  of  the  church,  had  an  effect  quite  contrary 
 to  that  which  was  univerfally  expected,  and  only 
 ferved  to  open  a  new  breach,  and  to  excite  new 
 divifions.  Its  proceedings  were  indeed  vigorous, 
 and  its  meafures  were  accompanied  with  a  juft  fe- 
 verity.  A  heavy  fentence  of  condemnation  was 
 pronounced,  on  the  5th  day  of  June,  againft  the 
 contending  pontiffs,  who  were  both  declared 
 guilty  of  herefy,  perjury,  and  contumacy,  unwor- 
 thy of  the  fmalleft  tokens  of  honour  orrefpecty  and 
 confeqtfently  ftparated  from  the  communion  of  the 
 church.  This  fiep  was  followed  by  the  election 
 of  one  pontiff  in  their  place.  The  election  was 
 made  on  the  25th  of  June,  and  fell  upon  Peter  of 
 Candia,  known  m  the  papal  annals  by  the  name  of 
 
 Alexander 
 
cent.   15.]         tfhree  contending  Popes*  231 
 
 Alexander  V.*  but  all  the  decrees  and  proceedings 
 of  this  famous  council  were  treated  with  contempt 
 by  the  condemned  pontiffs,  who  continued  to  enjoy 
 the  privileges  and  to  perform  the  functions  of  the 
 papacy,  as  if  no  attempts  had  been  made  to  remove 
 them  from  that  dignity.  Benedict  affembled  a 
 council  at  Perpignan  ;  and  Gregory,  another  near 
 Aquileia,  in  the  diftrict  of  Friuli.  The  latter, 
 however,  apprehending  the  refentment  of  the  Ve- 
 netians^, made  his  efcape  in  a  clandeftine  man- 
 ner from  the  territory  of  Aquileia,  arrived  at  Caieta, 
 where  he  threw  himfelf  upon  the  protection  of 
 Ladiflaus,  king  of  Naples ;  and,  in  the  year  1412, 
 he  fled  to  Rimini. 
 
 Thus  was  the  government  of  the  Chriftian  church 
 violently  ailumed  by  three  contending  chiefs,  who 
 loaded  each  other  with  reciprocal  maledictions, 
 calumnies,  and  excommunications.  Alexander 
 V.  who  had  been  elected  pontiff  at  the  council  of 
 Pifa,  died  at  Bologna  in  the  year  1410  ;  and  the 
 fixteen  cardinals,  who  attended  him  in  that  city, 
 immediately  filled  up  the  vacancy,  by  choofing,  as 
 his  fucceffor,  Balthafar  CofTa,  a  Neapolitan,  who 
 was  deftitute  of  all  principles  both  of  religion  and 
 
 *  See  L'Enfant's  Hiftoire  da  Concile  de  Pife,  published  ia 
 4to.  at  Arufterdam,  in  the  year  1724. — Franc.  Pagi  Breviar. 
 Pontif.  Romanor.  torn.  iv.  p.  350. — BofTuet,  Defenfio  Decreti 
 Gallicani  de  Poteltate  Ecclefiaftica,  torn.  ii.  p.  17,  &c. 
 
 -(•  He  had  offended  the  Venetians  by  depofing  their  patriarch 
 Antony  Panciarini,  and  putting  Anthony  du  Pont,  the  bifhop  of 
 Concordia,  in  his  pJace. 
 
 Q^4  probity 
 
23z  Continuance  of  the  Sehifm*       [cent.  15. 
 
 probity,  and  who  affumed  the  title  of  John  XX1IL* 
 The  difpofitions  and  habits  of  the  warlike  pontiff 
 were  little  calculated  for  producing  the  re-union  of 
 the  church.  His  firft  efforts  were  directed  againil 
 Ladiilaus,  king  of  Naples  ;  but  his  infolence  was 
 feverely  punifhed  by  that  monarch,  who  compelled 
 him  to  leave  Rome,  whence  he  fled  to  Bononia. 
 The  duration  of  the  fchifm  in  the  papacy  was  a 
 'fource  of  many  calamities,  and  became  daily  more, 
 detrimental  both  to  the  civil  and  religious  interefxs 
 of  thofe  nations,  who  were  infefted  with  the  fpirit 
 of  the  contending  parties.  Hence  the  emperor 
 Sigifmund,  the  king  of  France,  and  feveral  other 
 P^uropean  princes,  employed  all  their  zeal  and  ac- 
 tivity, and  fpared  neither  labour  nor  expence,'  in 
 reftoring  the  tranquillity  of  the  church,  and  unit- 
 ing it  again  under  one  fpiritual  head.     The  pon- 
 
 *  In  a  council  held  at  Rome  by  this  pope,  at  the  firft  felfion, 
 happened  the  adventure  of  t'he  owl.  After  the  mafs  of  the  Holy 
 Ghoft,  all  being  fcated,  and  John  fitting  on  his  throne,  fuddenly 
 a  frightful  owl  came  fcreaming  out  of  his  hole,  and  placed  himfclf 
 juft  before  the  pope,  flaring  earnertly  upon  him.  The  .arrival  of 
 this  nocturnal  bird,  in  the  day-time,  caufed  many  fpeculatmns ; 
 fome  took  it  for  an  ill  omen,  and  were  terrified  ;  others  fmiled, 
 and  vvhifpered  to  each  other  that  the  Holy  Ghofthad  affumed  a 
 ilrange  form  to  appear  in.  As  to  the  pope,  he  blufhed,  and  was 
 in  a  fwtat,  and  arofe,  and  brake  up  the  affembly.  But  at  the  next 
 ftffion,  the  owl  took  his  place  again,  fixing  his  eyes  upon  John, 
 who  was  more  difmayed  than  before,  and  ordered  them  to  drive 
 away  the  bird.  A  pleafing  fight  it  was,  to  behold  the  prelates 
 occupied  in  hunting  him  ;  for  he  would  not  decamp.  At  laft 
 they  killed  him,  as  an  incorrigible  heretic,  by  flinging  their 
 canes  at  him. 
 
 tiffs 
 
tENT.  15.]  Council,  of.  Omjlaiuei  233 
 
 tiffs  could  not,  however,  be  perfuaded  by  any 
 means  to  prefer  the  peace  of  the  church  to  the 
 gratification  of  their  ambition  ;  fo  that  no  other 
 poffible  method  of  accommodating  this  unfortunate 
 coated  remained,  than  that  of  affembling  a  general 
 council,  in  which  the  controversy  might  be  exa- 
 mined and  terminated  by  the  judgment  and  deci- 
 sion of  the  univerfal  church.  This  council  was  ac- 
 cordingly fummoned  to  meet  at  Conflance,  in  the 
 year  1414,  by  John  XXI1T.  who  was  engaged  in 
 this  meafure  by  the  entreaties  of  Sigifmund,  and 
 the  expectation  that  the  decrees  of  the  aflembly 
 would  be  favourable  to  his  interefts.  He  appear- 
 ed in  perfon,  attended  by  a  great  number  of  cardi- 
 nals and  bifhops,  at  this  celebrated  council,  which 
 was  alfo  honoured  with  the  prefence  of  the  empe- 
 ror Sigifrmmd,  and  of  a  great  number  of  German 
 princes,  and  with  that  of  the  ambafTadors  of  all  the 
 European  Mates,  whofe  monarchs  or  regents  could 
 n»>t  be  perfonaliy  prefent  at  the  decifion.  As  a 
 preliminary  to  the  deliberations  of  the  Council, 
 John,  conjointly  with  the  other  pretenders' to  the 
 papacy,  was  required  to  engage  that  he  would  re- 
 linquifh  the  pontifical  chair,  if  fuch  a  meafure 
 (hould  be  found  ncceiiary  to  the  extirpation  cf  the 
 fchifm.  T.ie  wary  pope  endeavoured  to  evade 
 this  agreement  by  itudied  delays,  and  by  exrrei- 
 fing  his  afient  in  ambiguous  terms.  He  was  at 
 length,  ho.s ever,  perfuaded  to  comply  with  this.re- 
 quiiltion,  and  this  promife  was  confirmed  by  a 
 folemn  oath ;  but  he  leized  fbe  firil  opportunity  to 
 
 withdraw 
 
*34  John  Hufs.  Jerome  of  Prague,  [cent.  i^. 
 withdraw  from  the  city,  in  the  full  expectation  that 
 his  abfcnce  would  prevent  the  deliberations  of  the 
 council.     In  this  hope  he  was  difappointed. 
 
 The  great  purpofe  indeed  of  the  convocation 
 was  to  heal  the  i^hifm  which  had  fo  long  rent  the 
 papacy  j  and  this  purpofe  was  happily  accom- 
 plifhed.  It  was  folemnly  declared,  in. the  fourth 
 and  fifth  fefiions  of  this  council,  by  two  decrees, 
 that  the  Roman  pontiff  was  inferior  and  fubject  to  a 
 general  aflembly  of  the  univerfal  church;  and  the 
 authority  of  the  councils  was  effectually  vindicated 
 and  maintained  at  the  fame  time.  This  vigorous 
 proceeding  prepared  the  way  for  the  degradation 
 of  John  XXIII.  who,  during  the  twelfth  feflion, 
 was  unanimoufly  depofed  from  the  pontificate,  and 
 Martin  V.  elected  in  his  (lead. 
 
 It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  proceedings  of  this 
 council  were  not  all  equally  directed  to  the  promo- 
 tion of  peace  and  good  order.  But  the  perfec- 
 tion of  the  heretics  which  fucceeded,  difgraced  the 
 rational  and  prudent  meafures  which  were  adopted 
 fjr  the  regulation  of  the  popedom.  Before  the 
 meeting  of  this  council,  confiderable  commotions 
 had  been  raifed  in  feveral  parts  of  Europe,  and 
 particulaily  in  Bohemia,  concerning  religious 
 opinions.  A  principal  party  in  thefe  difputes  was 
 John  Hufs,  fo  called  from  Huflinetz  in  Bohemia, 
 the  place  of  his  nativity.  In  the  univerfity  of 
 Prague,  where  he  fludied,  Hufs  was  early  diftin- 
 guilhed,  and  was  honoured  while  a  very  young  man 
 v»ith  a  letter  from  the  celebrated  Wickliff*.  After 
 
 *  Jo.  Amos  Comenii  Hift.  Frat.  Boh. . 
 
 taking 
 
cent.  15.]  John  Hufs petfecuted*  235 
 
 taking  his  degree  he  continued  to  refideat  Prague, 
 and  enjoyed  a  very  high  reputation,  both  on  ac- 
 count of  the  fan&ity  of  his  manners  and  the  purity 
 of  his  doctrine.  He  was  diftinguifhed  by  his  un- 
 common erudition  and  eloquence,  and  was  chofen 
 to  fill  the  important  functions  of  proferTor  of  divi- 
 nity in  the  univerfity,  as  well  as  thofe  of  pallor  in 
 the  church  of  that  city.  This  eminent ecclefiaftic 
 declaimed  with  vehemence  againfl  the  vices  which 
 had  corrupted  all  the  different  ranks  and  orders  of 
 the  clergy  :  he  even  went  farther;  and,  from  the 
 year  1408,  ufed  his  mod  afiiduous  endeavours  to 
 withdraw  the  univerfity  of  Prague  from  the  jurif- 
 diction  of  Gregory  XII.  whom  the  kingdom  of 
 Bohemia  had  hitherto  acknowledged  as  the  lawful 
 head  of  the.church.  Such  an  open  defiance  of  the 
 cftablifhed  hierarchy  could  fcarcely  efcape  the 
 notice  of  thofe  who  were  interettcd  in  its  fupport ; 
 the  acchbilhop  of  Prague  therefore,  and  the  clergy 
 in  general,  who  were  warmly  attached  to  the  inter- 
 efts  of  Gregory,  became  naturally  exafperated  at 
 thefe  proceedings.  A  violent  difpute  arofe  be- 
 tween the  incenfed  prelate  and  the  zealous  refor- 
 mer, which  the  latter  greatly  inflamed  and  aug- 
 mented by  his  pathetic  exclamations  againfl  the 
 court  of  Rome,  and  the  corruptions  prevalent 
 among  the  facerdotal  orders ;  he  even  proceeded 
 to  recommend  openly  the  writings  and  opinions  of 
 WicklirT*.     Hence  an  accufation   was    brought 
 
 *    See  Laur.   Byzinii  Diarium  Belli  Hufutici,  in    LudwigM 
 Reliquiae  Manufcriptorum,  torn.  vi.  p.  127. 
 
 againft 
 
436    Hufs  fummoned  before  the  Council,  [cent.  15* 
 
 againft  him,  in  the  year  1410,  before  the  tribunal 
 of  John  XXIII.  by  whom  he  was  folemnly  ex- 
 pelled from  the  communion  of  the  church.  He 
 treated,  it  is  true,  this  excommunication  with  con- 
 tempt ;  and  the  fortitude  and  zeal,  which  he  dif- 
 covered  on  this  occafion,  were  almoft  univerfally 
 applauded. 
 
 This  eminent  man,  whofe  piety  was  truly  fer- 
 vent and  (incere,  though  his  zeal  was- perhaps  ra- 
 ther too  violent,  and  his  prudence  not  always 
 equally  circumfpeft,  was  fummoned  to  appear  be- 
 fore the  council  of  Conftance.  He  was  obedient 
 to  this  order,  and  thought  himfelf  fecured  from  the 
 rage  of  his  enemies,  by  the  fafe-condu<ft  which  had 
 been  granted  him  by  the  emperor  Sigifmund*,  for 
 his  journey  to  Conftance,  his  refidence  in  that  place, 
 and  his  return  to  his  own  country.  Hufs  was  accom- 
 panied on  this  occafion  by  his  faithful  and  intimate 
 friend  Jerome  of  Prague,  who  voluntarily  came 
 to  the  council  with  the  generous  defign  of  fupport- 
 ing  and  feconding  his  fellow  labourer.  Jerome 
 had  early  imbibed  in  England  the  doctrines  of 
 WicklifF,  and  had  brought  home  to  his  native 
 country  the  books  of  that  reformer.  When  Hufs 
 appeared  before  the  council,  he  declaimed,  with 
 extraordinary  vehemence,  againft  the  abufes  of  the 
 
 *  Sigifmund  bafely  furrendered  Hufs,  on  this  occafion,  to 
 hie  enemies  ;  and  when  the  intrepid  reformer  fixed  his  eyes  fter.- 
 dily  upon  him,  he  was  obfewed  to  blufh.  It  is  faid  that  Charles 
 V.  being  importuned  by  Eccius  to  arrell  Luther,  notwithflandirjg 
 the  fafe-condudt  granted  him,  replied,  "  I  will  not  bluih  with. 
 jny  pmlecefTor  Sigifmuud."     L'£nfant, 
 
 .  church; 
 
cent.  15.]  Burned  alive.  2,37 
 
 church  ;  but  this  freedom  was  not  confidered  as 
 unlawful  in  the  council  of  Conftance,  where  the 
 tyranny  of  the  court  of  Rome,  and  the  corruption 
 of  the  facerdotal  and  monadic  orders,  were  cen- 
 fured  with  unreferved  feverity.  Perfonal  enmity 
 was  however  fuppofed  to  co-operate  with  eccleli- 
 aftical  tyranny,  in  the  perfecution  of  the  Bohemian 
 reformer.  His  active  and  malignant  adverfaries 
 coloured  the  accufation  brought  againft  him,  with 
 fuch  artifice  and  fuccefs,  that  he  was  caft  into  pri- 
 fon,  declared  an  heretic,  becaufe'he  refufed  to  obey 
 the  order  of  the  council,  commanding  him  to  plead 
 guilty  againft  the  dictates  of  his  confeience,  and 
 was  burnt  alive,  the  6th  of  July,  1415.  The  cour- 
 age, which  he  had  manifefted  in  the  pulpit,  did  not 
 forfake  him  at  the  (lake  ;  he  endured  with  unparal- 
 leled magnanimity  and  refignation  the  dreadful 
 punifhment,  expreffing  in  his  laft  moments  the 
 nobleft  fentiments  of  love  to  God,  and  the  mod 
 triumphant  hope  of  the  accomplifhment  of  thofe 
 promifes  with  which  the  Gofpel  arms  the  true 
 Chriftian  at  the  approach  of  eternity.  The  fame 
 unhappy  fate  was  endured  by  Jerome.  Terrified 
 however  by  the  near  profpecl:  of  a  cruel  death,  Je- 
 rome at  firfl  appeared  willing  to  fubmit  to  the 
 orders  of  the  council,  and  to  abandon  the  tenets 
 and  opinions  which  he  had  affirmed  in  his  writings. 
 But  this  fubmiffion  was  not  attended  with  the  ad- 
 vantages he  expected  from  it,  nor  did'  it  deliver 
 him  from  the  clofe  and  fevere  confinement  in  which 
 
 he 
 
2 3  S  Jcrcme  of  Prague  burned  alive,  [cent.  \  ^ ; . 
 lie  was  retained.  He  therefore  refumed  his  forti- 
 tude, profeiled  anew,  with  an  heroic  conftancy, 
 the  opinions  which  the  Hidden  im  predion  of 'fear 
 had  caufed  him  to  defert,  and  maintained  them  in 
 the  flames,  in  which  he  expired  on  the  30th  of 
 May,  1416. 
 
 Before  fentencc  had  been  pronounced  againft 
 John  Hufs  and  Jerome  of  Prague,  the  famous 
 Wickliff,  whofe  opinions  they  were  fuppofed  to 
 adopt,  and  who  was  long  fince  dead,  was  called' 
 from  his  reft  before  this  tribunal,  and  his  memory 
 was  folemnly  branded  with  infamy  by  a  decree  of 
 the  council.  On  the  4th  of  May,  in  the  year  1  +  15, 
 a  long  lift  of  proportions,  felecled  from  his  writ- 
 ings, was  examined  and  condemned;  and  an  order 
 was  iflued,  to  commit  all  his  works,  together  with 
 his  bones,  to  the  flames.  On  the  14th  of  June  fol- 
 lowing, the  afiembled  fathers  paiTed  the  celebrated 
 decree,  which  took  the  cup  from  the  laity  in  the 
 celebration  of  the  eucharift,  ordered  that  the  Lord's 
 (upper  fhould  be  received  by  them  only  in  one 
 kind,  i.  e.  the  bread,  and  rigoroufly  prohibited  the 
 communion  in  both  kinds.  This  decree  was  oc- 
 casioned by  complaints  which  had  been  exhibited, 
 of  the  conduct  of  Jacobellus  De  Mifa,  curate  of 
 the  parifh  of  St.  Michael  at  Prague,  who,  about  a 
 year  before  this,  had  been  perfuaded  by  Peter  of 
 Drefden  to  adminifter  the  Lord's  fupper  in  both 
 kinds, and  was  followed  in  this  by  feveral  churches*, 
 
 *  Byzinii  Diarium  H«Jfit:cumt  p.  124. 
 
 7  The 
 
cent.  15.]        Communion  in  One  Kind.  239 
 
 The  council,  being  informed  of  this  circumftance 
 by  one  of  the  Bohemian  bilhops,  thought  proper  to 
 oppofe  with  vigour  the  progrefs  of  this  herefy  - 
 and  therefore  they  enacted  the  ftatute,  which  or- 
 dered the  communion  to  be  adminiftered  to  the 
 laity  in  one  kind  only,  and  which  obtained  the  au- 
 thority of  a  law  in  the  church  of  Rome.  After 
 thefe  and  fome  other  ads,  more  zealous  than  ufeful 
 to  the  church,  and  much  lefs  to  the  real  interests  of 
 Chriftianity,  this  famous  council  was  ditiblved  on 
 the  22d  of  April,  1418,  having  continued  fitting 
 for  the  extended  fpace  of  three  years  and  fix 
 months. 
 
 Previous  to  the  diffolution  of  the  affembly,  a  de- 
 cree was  enacted  in  favour  of  the  frequent  ailem- 
 bling  of  general  councils,  for  the  prefervation  of 
 good  order  in  the  church.  Two  were  accordingly 
 appointed,  the  firft  at  the  expiration  of  five  years, 
 which  was  to  be  fucceeded  by  another  three  years 
 afterwards.  A  longer  period  than  five  years  had 
 however  elapfed,  before  a  council  was  convened  : 
 but  the  remonftrances  of  thofe,  whofe  zeal  for  the 
 reformation  of  the  church  interefted  them  in  this 
 event,  prevailed  at  length  over  the  ftratagems 
 which  were  repeatedly  employed  to  defer  it ;  and 
 Martin  V.  fuminoned  a  council  to  meet  at  Pavia, 
 whence  it  was  removed  to  Sienna,  and  thence  to 
 Bafil.  The  pope  did  not  live  to  be  a  witnefs  of 
 the  proceedings  of  this  affembly,  being  carried  off 
 'by  a  fudden  death,  on  the  21ft  day  of  February, 
 
 in 
 
2-lo  Council  of "  Brfil.  [cent.  15.. 
 
 in  theve.ii-  1431,  about  the  time  when  the  council 
 wasto  meet.  He  was  immediately  fuccceded  by  Ga- 
 briel Condolmerus,  a  native  of  Venice,  and  bifhop 
 of  Sienna,  who  is  known  by  the  tide  of  Eugenics 
 IV.  This  pontiff  approved  of  all  the  meafures 
 which  had  been  entered  into  by  his  predeceffor,  in 
 relation  to  the  affembiing  of  the  council  at  Bafil, 
 which  was  accordingly  opened  the  23d  of  July, 
 1431,  under  the  fuperintendance  of  Cardinal  Ju- 
 lian Cefarini,  who  performed  the  functions  ofprefi- 
 d:nt,  in  the  abfence  of  Eugenius. 
 
 On  the  firfl  meeting  of  this  council,  it  appeared, 
 by  its  method  of  proceeding,  and  by  the  decrees 
 which  it  enacted,  that  the  affembled  fathers  were 
 firmly  refolved  to  effect  the  great  purpofe  of  their 
 affembiing.  Eugenius  IV.  became  alarmed  at  the 
 profpect  of  a  reformation,  and,  beholding  with 
 terror  the  zeal  and  deigns  of  thefe  fpiritual  phyfi  - 
 cians,  attempted  twice  the  diffoiution  of  checouncii. 
 His  repeated  attempts  were  vigoroufly  and  fuccefs- 
 fuliy  oppofed  by  the  affembled  fathers,  who  proved 
 by  the  decrees  of  the  council  of  Conflance,  and  by 
 other  arguments  equally  conclusive,  that  the  coun- 
 cil wasfuperior,  in  point  of  authority,  to  the'pop^e. 
 1  his  controverly,  which  was  the  firft  that  had  ari fen 
 between  a  council  and  the  pope,  was  terminated 
 in  the  month  of  November,  14.33,  by  the  (ilencc 
 2nd  conceffions  of  the  litter,  who,  the  month,  fol- 
 lowing, wrote  a  letter  from  Rome,  comaining  his 
 approbation  of  the  council,  and  his  acknowledg- 
 ment of  its  authority. 
 
 Thefc 
 
cent.  15.")      Proceedings  of  the  Council,  24 1 
 
 Thefc  preliminary  meafures  being  concluded, 
 the   council  proceeded  with   zeal  and  activity  to 
 the  accomplifhmenr  of  the  important  purpofes  for 
 which  it  was  affembkd.     The  pope's  legates  were 
 admitted  as  members  of  the  council,  but  not  be- 
 fore they  had  declared  upon  oath  that  they  would 
 fubmit  to  the  decrees  which  mould  be  enacted  in 
 it,  and  more  particularly  that  they  would  adhere 
 to  the  laws  which  had  been  framed  in  the  council 
 of  Conflance,  in  relation  to  the  fupremacy  of  ge- 
 neral councils,  and  the  fubordination  of  the  pon- 
 tiffs to  their  authority  and  jurifdiction.      Nay, 
 thefe  very  laws,  which  the  popes  beheld  with  fuch 
 averfion  and   horror,  were  folemnly  renewed  by 
 the  council,  the  26th  of  June,  in  the  year   1434  ; 
 and  on  the  9th  of  the  fame  month,  in  the  follow- 
 ing year,  the  Annates,  as  they  were  called,  were 
 publicly  abolifhed,  notwithstanding  the  oppofition 
 which  was  made  to  this  meafure  by  the  legates  of 
 the  Roman  fee.      On  the  25th  of  March,    1436, 
 a  confeffion  of  faith  was  read,  which  every  pontiff 
 was  to  fubferibe  on  the  day  of  his  election  j  the 
 number  of  cardinals  was  reduced  to  twenty-four, 
 and  the  papal  impofitions,  called — Expectatives, 
 Refervations,  and  Provifions — -were  entirely  annul- 
 led.    Thefe  meafures,  with  others  of  a  iimiiar  na- 
 ture, provoked  Eugenius  in  the  higheft  degree,  and 
 induced  him  to  form  a  defign  either  for  removing 
 this    troublefome   and    enterprifing    council    into 
 Italy,  or  erecting  a  new  council  in  oppofition  to 
 
 Vol.  II.  R,  it, 
 
2^2  Eugenius  fummoned  before  the  Council,  [cen t.i£. 
 
 it,  which  might  fix  bounds  to  its  zeal  for  the  re- 
 formation of  the  church.      On  the  7th  of  May, 
 in  the  year  1437,  the  affembled  fathers  having,  on 
 account  of  the  Greeks,   come  to  a  refolution  of 
 holding  a  council  at  Bafil,  Avignon,  or  fome.city 
 in  the  duchy  of  Savoy,  the  intractable  pontiff  op- 
 pofed  this  morion,   and  maintained   that  it  fhould 
 be  transferred  into  Italy.     Each  of  the  contending 
 parties  perfevered,  with  the  utmoft  obftinacy,   in 
 the  refolution  they  had  taken,  and  a  warm  and  vio- 
 lent conteft  enfued  between  the  pope  and  the  coun- " 
 cil.      The  latter  fummoned  Eugenius  to  appear 
 before  them  at  Bafil,  the  26th  day  of  July,  1437, 
 in  order  to  give  -an  account  of  his  conduct ;   but  '* 
 the  pontiff,  inftead  of.  complying  with  this  fum-   • 
 mons,  iffued  a  decree,  by  which  he  pretended  to 
 diffolve  the  council,  and  to  affemble  another  at  Fer- 
 rara.     The  decree  was,  indeed,  treated  with  con- 
 tempt by  the  council,   which,   with  the  confent  of  . 
 the   emperor,   the   king  of  France,   and  feveral 
 other  princes,  continued  its  deliberations  at  Bafil, 
 and,  on  the  28th  of  September  in  the  fame  year, 
 pronounced  a  fentence  of  contumacy  againft  the 
 rebellious  pontiff,  for  having  refufed  to  obey  their 
 order. 
 
 In  the  year  1438,  Eugenius  in  perfon  opened 
 the  council  which  he  had  fummoned  to  meet  at 
 Ferrara,  and  at  the  fecond  feffions  published  an 
 excommunication  againft  the  fathers  affembled  at 
 Bafil.      On  the  other  hand,  the  council  of  Bafil, 
 
 exafperated 
 
cent.  15.]         Degradation  of  the  Pope.  243 
 
 exafperated  by  the  imperious  proceedings  of  Euge- 
 nius,  depofed  him  from  the  papacy  on  the  25th  of 
 June,  in  the  year  1439  >  but  this  vigorous  meafure 
 was  not  approved  by  the  European  potentates.  It 
 may  be  eafily  conceived  what  an  impreffion  this 
 ffcep  made  upon  the  affronted  pontiff;  his  patience 
 became  wholly  exhaufted  ;  and  he  devoted,  for  the 
 fecond  time,  to  damnation  the  members  of  the 
 council  of  Bafil,  by  a  folemn  and  mod  fevere  edict> 
 in  which  alfo  he  declared  all  their  acts  null,  and 
 all  their  proceedings  unlawful.  This  new  peal  of 
 papal  thunder  was  held  in  derifion  by  the  council 
 of  Bafil,  who,  periifting  in  their  purpofe,  elected 
 another  pontiff,  and  raifed  to  that  important  dig- 
 nity, Amadeus,  duke  of  Savoy,  who  at  that  time 
 reiided  in  the  mod  profound  folitude  at  a  delicious 
 retreat,  called  Ripaille,  upon  the  borders  of  the 
 Leman  lake.  This  pontiff  is  known  in  the  papal 
 annals  by  the  name  of  Felix  V. 
 
 The  council  which  at  firft  affembled  at  Ferrara, 
 was  transferred  to  Florence,  and  the  deliberations 
 of  its  members  were  chiefly  directed  to  effecting  a 
 reconciliation  between  the  Greek  and  the  Latin 
 Churches.  At  this  council  the  Greek  emperor 
 John  Paleologus  perfonally  attended,  accompanied 
 by  his  brother  Demetrius  Jofeph,  patriarch  of 
 Conttantinopie,  Marcus  Eugenius,  bifhop  of 
 EpHefris,  and  other  considerable  perfons.  As  the 
 fubjedts  in  difpute  were  intricate,  it  was  judged  ex- 
 R   2  pedient 
 
244  Union  of  the  Greek  &  Latin  Churches.  [  c  e  nt.  i 5. 
 
 pedient  to  commit  the  decifion  to  a  few  perfbns 
 felecled  from  both  parties.  At  the  head  of  the 
 Greek  arbitrators,  was  the  learned  Beflarion',  who 
 was  devoted  to  the  Latin?,  and  indeed  was  after- 
 wards made  a  cardinal  in  the  Romifh  Church.  By 
 the  influence  chiefly  of  this  great  man,  and  the 
 emperor's  earneft  folicitude  to  obtain  fuccours 
 againft  the  Turks,  the  difpute  was  terminated,  and 
 the  fubmiflive  Greeks  agreed  to  obferve  as  articles 
 of  faith  the  procefuon  of  the  Holy  Ghofb  from 
 the  Son  as  well  as  the  Father;  the  doctrine  of  pur- 
 gatory ;  the  ufe  of  unleavened  bread  •,  and  the  fu- 
 premacy  of  the  pope.  Marcus,  bifhop  of  Ephe- 
 fus,  was  the  only  protefter  on  this  occafion,  and 
 no  bribes  could  induce  him  to  make  the  ilighteft 
 concefTion  of  his  principles.  Such  a  league,  how* 
 ever,  which  had  no  cement  but  that  of  artifice 
 and  momentary  intereft,  could  not  long  con- 
 tinue. The  deputies,  on  their  return  to  Conftan-' 
 tinople,  complained  that  they  had  been  grofsly 
 deceived,  and  difavowed  the  whole  of  what  they 
 had  apparently  tranfacted. 
 
 Eugenius,  who  had  been  the  occafion*  of  the 
 new  fchifm  in  the  fee  of  Rome,  died  in  the  month 
 of  February,  1447,  and  was  fucceeded,  in  a  few 
 weeks,  by  Thomas  de  Sarzano,  bifhop  of  Bologna, 
 who  filled  the  pontificate  under  the  denomination 
 of  Nicholas  V.  This  eminent  prelate  had,  in 
 point  of  merit,  the  befl  pretentions  poffible  to  the 
 papal  throne.  Under  his  pontificate,  the  Euro- 
 pean 
 
«ent.  15.]  Nicholas  V,    Alexander  VI.  &c.       245 
 
 pean  princes,  particularly  the  king  of  France,  ex- 
 erted their  utmofl  endeavours  to  rellore  tranquillity 
 and  union  in  the  Latin  Church,  and  their  efforts 
 were  crowned  with  the  dclired  fuccefs.  In  the 
 year  1449,  Felix  V.  refigned  the  papal  chair,  and 
 returned  to  his  delightful  hermitage  at  Ripaille, 
 while  the  fathers  of  the  council  of  Bafil  affembled 
 at  Laufanne,  ratified  his  voluntary  abdication, 
 and,  by  a  folemn  decree,  ordered  the  univerfal 
 church  to  fu.bmit  to  the  jurifdiclion  of  Nicholas 
 as  their  lawful  pontiff.  Nicholas  proclaimed  this 
 treaty  of  peace  with  great  pomp  on  the  18th  of 
 June,  in  the  fame  year,  and  ftt  the  feal  of  his  ap- 
 probation and  authority  to  the  acts  and  decrees  of 
 the  council  of  Bafil. 
 
 In  the  feries  of  pontiffs  who  governed  the  church 
 during  this  century,  the  lad,  in  order  of  time,  was 
 Alexander  VI.  a  Spaniard  by  birth,  originally  of 
 the  name  of  Roderic  Borgia.  That  fome  mon- 
 fters  mould  have  ex i fled  among  fo  extended  a  fuc- 
 cefficn,  as  the  pofTefTors  of  the  papal  throne,  who 
 were  railed  to  that  dignity  through  various  motives 
 and  interefls,  is  furely  not  to  be  wondered  at;  and 
 among  thefe  none  are'brande.l  with  ftronger  marks 
 of  infamy  than  the  houfe  of  Borgia.  An  inordi- 
 nate affection  for  his  children  was  the  principal 
 fource  of  the  crimes  which  Alexander  committed. 
 He  had  four  fons  by  a  concubine  with  whom  he 
 had  lived  many  years,  and  among  thefe  was  the 
 infamous  C-^far  Borgia.  A  daughter  named  Lu- 
 ll 3  cretia 
 
246  Crimes  of  the  Borgia  Family,     [cent.  15. 
 
 cretia  was  likevvife  among  the  fruits  of  this  un- 
 lawful commerce.  The  tendernefs  of  the  pontiff 
 for  his  fpurious  offspring  was  exceffive  beyond  all 
 expreffion  ;  his  only  aim  was  to  load  them  with 
 riches  and  honours ;  and,  in  the  execution  of 
 this  purpofe,  he  trampled  with  contempt  upon 
 every  obftacle,  which  the  demands  of  juftice,  the 
 dictates  of  reafon,  and  the  remonftrances  of  re- 
 ligion, laid  in  his  way.  Thus  he  perfifted  in  his 
 profligate  career  until  the  year  1503,  when  the, 
 poifon  which  he  and  his  fon  Ca?far  had  mingled 
 for  others,  who  flood  in  the  way  of  their  avarice 
 and  ambition,  cut  fhort,  by  a  happy  miftake,  his  .. 
 own  days. 
 
 CHAP. 
 
[     247     ] 
 
 CHAP.     II. 
 
 OF  DOCTRINES,  RITES  AND  CEREMONIES  IN  THE 
 FIFTEENTH  CENTURY. 
 
 Rich  Donations  to  the  Saints — FeJlivaloftheTransfiguration 
 — Indulgences  granted  to  all  who  jhould  devoutly  celebrate 
 the  Immaculate  Conception. 
 
 FEW  alterations  appear  to  have  taken  place  in 
 the  eflablilhed  religion  of  this  century.  The 
 reputation  of  Chriftian  knowledge  and  piety  was 
 eafily  acquired  j  and  was  iavilhed  upon  thofe  who 
 profefled  a  profound  veneration  for  the  facred  or- 
 der, who  ftudied  to  render  the  faints  propitious 
 by  frequent  and  rich  donations,  who  were  exact 
 and  regular  in  the  obfervance  of  the  dated  cere- 
 monies of  the  church,  and  who  had  fufficient 
 wealth  to  pay  the  fines  which  the  papal  qucftors 
 had  annexed  to  the  commiffion  of  all  the  differ- 
 ent degrees  of  tranfgreffion,  or,  in  other  words,  to 
 purchafe  indulgences.  Such  were  the  ingredi- 
 ents of  ordinary  piety  ;  but  fuch  as  added  to 
 thefe  a  certain  degree  of  aufterity  and  bodily 
 mortification  were  placed  in  the  highefl  order  of 
 devotees,  and  conlidered  as  the  peculiar  favourites 
 of  heaven. 
 
 R  4  Though 
 
248         Fejiivah  of  the  Transfiguration     [c  e  n  t  .  1 5. 
 
 Though  the  more  rational  and  judicious  of  the 
 Roman  pontiffs  complained  of  the  increafed  mul- 
 titude of  ceremonies,  feftivals,  and  temples,  and 
 did  not  feem  unwilling  to  have  this  enormous 
 mafs  fomewhat  diminilhed,  each  of  them  dif- 
 tinguifhed  his  own  pontificate  by  fome  new  infli- 
 tution,  and  thought  it  a  duty  to  perpetuate  his 
 fame  by  fome  new  edict  of  this  nature.  Thus 
 Calixtus  111*  to  immortalize  the  remembrance  of 
 the  deliverance  of  Belgrade  from  the  Victorious 
 arms  of  Mahomet  II,  who  had  been  obliged  to 
 raife  the  fiege  of  that  city,  ordered,  in  the  year 
 I456,  the  feftival  in  honour  of  the  transfiguration 
 of  Chrift  (which  had  been  celebrated  in  fome 
 places  by  private  authority  before  this  period) 'to 
 be  religiouily  obferved  throughout  all  the  weftern  v 
 world.  Sixtus  IV.  alfo,  in  the  year  1476,  grant- 
 ed indulgences,  by  an  exprefs  and  particular  edict, 
 to  all  thofe  who  fhould  devoutly  celebrate  an  an- 
 nual feftival  in  honour  of  the  immaculate  con- 
 ception of  the  bleffed  Virgin,  with  refpect  to 
 which  none  of  the  popes  before  him  had  thought 
 proper  to  make  any  exprefs  declaration,  or  any 
 pofitive  appointment  *.  The  other  additions  to 
 the  Roman  ritual,  relating  to  the  worfhip  of  the 
 Virgin  Mary,  public  and  private  prayers,  and  the 
 traffic  of  indulgences,  are  of  too  litttle  importance 
 
 *  See  Raph.  Volaterranl  Comment.  Urbani,  lib.  viii.  f.  289. 
 :<Eneas  Silvius,  De  Statu  Europx  fub  Frederico  III.  cap.  x.  in 
 JTreheri  Scriptor.  Rerum  Germanicar.  torn,  ii,  p.  104. 
 
 to 
 
cent.  15.]  and  of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  249 
 to  deferve  an  exa<5t  enumeration.  We  need  not 
 fuch  a  particular  detail  to  convince  us,  that  in  this 
 century  religion  was  reduced  to  mere  fhew,  a 
 fhew  compofed  of  pompous  abfurdities  and  fplen- 
 did  trifles  *. 
 
 *  So  little  wa6  the  ccelefiaftical  canon,  which  forbids  priells 
 to  bear  arms,  regarded,  that  a  bifhop  newly  elected  at  Hildeihun, 
 inquiring  after  the  library  of  his  predeceifor,  was  conducted  to 
 an  arfenal  full  of  all  military  weapons  :  Thefe  are  the  books,  faid 
 they,  of  which  your  predeceflbrs  made  ufe,  and  which  you  mull 
 ufe  to  defend  your  church  againft  the  usurpations  of  your  neighs 
 jbours.     L'Enfant. 
 
 CHAP. 
 
[     250     ] 
 
 CHAP.     III. 
 
 OF    THE    SECTS    WHICH    APPEARED    IN    THE 
 FIFTEENTH  CENTURY. 
 
 IV'uUffitcs —  Waldenfes —  Savanarola  — Bohemian  Troubles 
 from  the  Difciples  of  Hud. 
 
 PERSECUTION,  though  it  might  (line,  could  .. 
 not  wholly  extinguifh  the  latent  fparks  of  re^ 
 formation  which  were  diftufed  through  mod  parts 
 of  Chriftendom.  In  England  and' Scotland,  the  . 
 difciples  of  Wickliff,  whom  the  multitude  had  , 
 (ligmatifed  with  the  title  of  Lollards,  continued  to 
 inveigh  againft  the  defpotic  laws  of  the  pontiffs, 
 and  the  licentious  manners  of  the  clergy  '*.  The 
 Waldenfes,  though  oppreffed  on  all  fides  and  from 
 every  quarter,  raifed  their  voices,  even  in  the  re- 
 mote valleys  and  lurking-places  whither  they  were 
 driven  by  the  violence  of  their  enemies,  and  ex- 
 cited the  attention  of  all  reflecting  perfons  to  the 
 expiring  caufe  of  religion  and  virtue.  Even  in 
 Italy  many,  and  among  others  the  famous  Savana- 
 rola,  had  the  courage  to  declare  that  Rome  was 
 become  the  image  of  Babylon  ;  and  this  opinion 
 was  foon  adopted  by  multitudes  of  all  ranks  and 
 
 *  Sec  Wilkins,  Magnas  Britar.n.  et  Hibern.  tom.iv.     Wood, 
 Anfciq.  Oxon.  torn,  i.  p.  202.  204. 
 
 conditions. 
 
cent.  1 5-]       John  Hufs.     tfhaborites.  2$x 
 
 conditions.  But  the  greater  part  of  the  clergy 
 and  monks,  perfuaded  that  their  honours,  influ- 
 ence, and  riches,  would  diminifh  in  proportion  to 
 the  increafe  of  knowledge  among  the  people,  and 
 receive  inexpreflible  detriment  from  the  downfall 
 of  fuperftition,  oppofed  every  thing  that  bore  the 
 remoteft  afpcct  of  a  reformation,  and  impofed 
 filence  upon  thefe  importunate  cenfors,  by  the  for- 
 midable authority  of  fire  and  fvvord. 
 
 The  religious  diffenfions  which  had  been  excited 
 in  Bohemia  by  the  miniftry  of  John  Hufs  and  his 
 difciple  Jacobellus  de  Mifa,  were  greatly  inflamed 
 by  the  deplorable  fate  of  Hufs  and  Jerome  of 
 Prague,  and  broke  out  into  an  open  war,  which 
 was  carried  on  with  the  mod  favage  and  unparal- 
 leled barbarity.  The  followers  of  Hufs,  who 
 pleaded  for  the  administration  of  the  cup  to  the 
 laity  in  the  holy  facrament,  and  the  other  diffidents, 
 being  perfecuted  and  opprefled  in  every  poflible 
 manner  by  the  emiflaries  andminifters  of  the  court 
 of  Rome,  retired  to  a  fteep  and  high  mountain  in 
 the  diftricl:  of  Bechin,  in  which  they  held  their  re- 
 ligious meetings,  and  adminiftered  the  facrament 
 of  the  Lord's  Supper  in  both  kinds.  This  moun- 
 tain they  called  Thabor,  from  the  tents  which  they 
 at  firft  erected  there  for  their  habitation  ;  and  after- 
 wards they  raifcd  a  ftrong  fortification  for  its  de- 
 fence, and  adorned  it  with  a  well-built  and  regular 
 city.  The  inhabitants  of  Thabor  confided  of  fe- 
 deral fe&s,  whofe  only  bond  of  union  was  their 
 
 oppofition 
 
252  Tbahrites.     John  Zifca.       [cent.  15. 
 
 oppofition  to  the  court  of  Rome.  The  firft  and 
 moft  numerous  clafs  of  diffidents  were  called  Ca- 
 lixtinSy  from  calix  a  cup ;  and  thefe  differed  from 
 the  Catholics  only  in  infiftingon  the  facrament  be- 
 ing adminiftered  in  both  kinds.  Another  party- 
 were  termed  Zealots,  becaufe  they  contended  for 
 a  complete  reformation  of  the  church.  The  Pi- 
 cards  alfo,  who  in  the  courfe  of  this  century  re- 
 vived fome  of  the  tenets  of  the  Adamites,  and  fe- 
 veral  of  the  Waldenfes,  repaired  to  this  feat  of  li- 
 berty as  to  a  city  of  refuge. 
 
 John  Zifca,  a  Bohemian  knight,  was  at  the  head  of 
 this  new  eftablilhment.  From,  perhaps,  a  too  literal 
 application  of  the  prophecies,  his  immediate  follow- 
 ers concluded,  that  the  temporal  reign  of  the  Mefliah 
 was  at  hand,  that  he  would  immediately  extirpate 
 the  enemies  of  the  faith,  and  that  it  was  confequently 
 lawful  to  employ  violent  rneafures  for  the  promotion 
 of  the  truth.  The  war  was  ftiftained  with  great 
 fuccefs  by  the  Thaborites  till  the  death  of  Zifca, 
 after  which,  the  people  chofe  a  general  of  the 
 name  of  Procopius,  a  man  of  conliderable  ability. 
 After  defeating  the  Catholics  in  feveral  engage- 
 ments, Procopius,  with  feveral  of  his  clergy, 
 confented  to  attend  the  council  of  Bafil.  After 
 this  they  appear  to  have  been  deferted  by  the 
 Calixtins,  to  whom  the  council  conceded  their  de- 
 mand ;  and,  their  force  being  broken,  the  emperor 
 Si-ifmund  oppofed  them  with  confiderable  fuccefs. 
 Jn  a  fatal  battle,  their  general,  Procopius,  was  kil- 
 
 5  led  y 
 
cent.  15.]     Thaborites^c.  join  Luther.  253 
 
 led  ;  and  though  they  ftill  maintained  themfelves  in 
 Thabor,  they  continued  to  diminifh  both  in  num- 
 ber and  in  confequence,  till  the  fucceeding  century, 
 when  they,  with  the  reft  of  the  Bohemian  brethren, 
 were  among  the  firft  who  joined  Luther,  and  the 
 fathers  of  the  reformation  *. 
 
 *  Com.  Hid.  Frat.   JEn.  Syl.  Hift.  Bohem.  Formey,  vol.  u 
 p.  267.     Mofheiai,  vol.  in.  p.  262  et  feq. 
 
 CHAP. 
 
t   ^54  3 
 
 CHAP.  IV. 
 
 OF  LEARNING  AND  LEARNED  MEN  IN  THE 
 FIFTEENTH  CENTURY. 
 
 Superiority  of  Greek  Literature-*— Cultivated  by  Petrarch  and 
 Boccacio — Greek  Profejforjhip  ejlablljbed  at  Florence — Car- 
 dinal Bejfar  ion — Ardour  of  the  Latins — Nicholas  V. — Cof- . 
 mo  de  Medicis  —  Difcovery  of  Printing — Nicholas  Cle- 
 mengis — Laurentius  Valla — Aretin  and  Poggio—Englify 
 Writers — John  Wiffelus — Jerome  Savanarola — /Eneas 
 Silvius — Thomas  a  Kempis>—Pica  della  Mirandola. 
 
 NOTWITHSTANDING  the  ftrenuous,  and 
 in  fome  degree  fuccefsful  efforts  which  took 
 place  in  the  ages  immediately  preceding,  ftill  the 
 true  sera  of  the  revival  of  letters  is  the  fifteenth 
 century.     In  the  fliort  Sketches  which  have  been 
 occasionally  exhibited  in  this  hiftory  of  the  ftate 
 of  literature,  the  fuperiority  of  the  Greeks  to  the 
 Latins  mud  be  obvious  to  every  reader.     "  In 
 their  lowed  fervitude  and  depreffion,"  fays  a,  mo- 
 dern hiftorian,   il  the  fubjects  of  the  Byzantine, 
 throne  were  (till  pofTeffed  of  a  golden  key  that 
 could  unlock  the  treafures  of  antiquity  ;  of  a.  mu- 
 fical  and  prolific  language,  that  gives  a  foul  to 
 the  objects  of  fenfe,  and  a  body  to  the  abftradlions  " 
 of  philofophy  *.''* 
 
 *  Gibbon,  vi.  414- 
 
 In. 
 
cent.  15.]     Revival  of  Greek  Literature.         255 
 
 In  this  calamitous  period,  however,  the  fewByzan- 
 tine  writers  which  appeared  v\  ere  chiefly  employed 
 upon  the  controversies  between  the  eaftern  and 
 the  weftern  churches.  But  if  they  performed 
 little  in  their  own  country,  ftill,  after  their  difper- 
 fion,  it  mud  be  confeffed  that  they  did  more  to 
 the  enlightening  of  Europe  with  true  fcience,  than 
 perhaps  the  mod  excellent  compofitions  could 
 have  effe&ed. 
 
 In  the  preceding  century  fome  fparks  of  Gre- 
 cian tafte  had  been  caught  by  the  inquifitive  Tuf- 
 cans ;  and  the  learned  Barlaam,  in  his  fruitlefs 
 vifits  to  Italy,  formed  an  intimate  conne&ion 
 with  the  illuftrious  Petrarch,  and  produced  in  the 
 firfl  of  Latin  fcholars  an  enthufiaftic  admiration 
 of  the  language  of  Homer  and  of  Plato.  The 
 progrefs  of  Petrarch,  however,  does  not  appear  to 
 have  reached  beyond  mere  admiration  j  his  avoca- 
 tions were  too  many  for  the  attainment  of  a  diffi- 
 cult language  at  an  advanced  period  of  life ;  and 
 the  neceflary  abfence  of  Barlaam  deprived  him  of 
 that  affiftance  on  which  he  perhaps  refted  his  hopes 
 ofluccefs.  Boccacio,  the  friend  of  Petrarch,  and 
 the  father  of  Tufcan  proie,  was  more  fortunate  ; 
 and  by  his  influence  a  Greek  profelTbrmip  was  in- 
 ftituted  at  Florence,  and  Leo  Pilatus,  the  mailer 
 of  Boccacio,  was  chofen  the  firft  profeilbr. 
 
 The  feeble  rudiments,  however,  of  Greek  learn- 
 ing, which  Petrarch  had  encouraged,  and  Bocca- 
 cio had  foftered.,  foon  declined  and  expired  ;  and 
 7  •  is 
 
2 5  5  Ardour  of  the  Latins.         [ c  e  nt.  i  $, 
 
 it  was  not  till  the  calamities  of  Conftantinople 
 had  difperfed  through  Europe  a  crowd  of  learned 
 and  indigent  Greeks,  that  the  fhidy  of  that  lan- 
 guage may  be  faid  to  have  profpered  in  the  Weft. 
 Manuel  Chryfoloras,  who  came  on  a  begging  em- 
 baffy  from  the  Eaftern  empire  to  the  courts  of 
 Europe,  was  converted  from  an  envoy  into  a  pro- 
 feflbr,  and  Florence  had  again  the  honour  of  this 
 fecond  invitation.  The  celebrated  cardinal  Bef- 
 farion  was  at  once  the  patron  and  promoter  of  his 
 native  ftudies ;  and  his  zeal  was  feconded  by 
 the  fuccefsful  labours  of  Theodore  Gaza,  George 
 of  Trebizond,  John  Argyropulus,  and  Demetrius 
 Chalcocondyles,  Who  explained  the  dailies  of 
 Greece  in  the  fchools  of  Florence  and  of  Rome. 
 
 The  ardour  of  the  Latins  was,  however,  not  con- 
 fined to  a  (ingle  branch  of  fcience;  but  it  became 
 the  ambition  of  princes  and  of  republics  to  vie 
 with  each  other  in  the  encouragement  and  reward 
 of  literature.  c<  The  fame  of  Nicholas  V.'*  fays 
 Mr.  Gibbon,  '•"  has  not  been  adequate  to  his  me- 
 rits. From  a  plebeian  origin,  he  raifed  himfelf 
 by  his  virtue  and  learning ;  the  charadter.of  the 
 man  prevailed  over  the  intereft  of  the  pope  ;  a"nd 
 he  fharpened  thofe  weapons  which  were  loon  point- 
 ed againfl  the  Roman  Church.  He  had  been  the 
 friend  of  the  mod  eminent  fcholars  of  the  a^e  :  he 
 became  their  patron  ;  and  fuch  was  the  humility 
 of  his  manners,  that  the  change  was  fcarccly  dif~ 
 cernible-  either  to  them  or  to  himfelf.    If  he  prefTed 
 
 the 
 
cent.  15.]  Cofmo  de  Medicis.  <l$j 
 
 the  acceptance  of  a  liberal  gift,  it  was  not  as  the 
 meafure  of  defert,  but  as  the  proof  of  benevolence; 
 and  when  modeft  merit  declined  his  bounty,  <f  ac- 
 cept it,"  would  he  fay,  with  a  confcioufnefs  of  his 
 own  worth  ;  "  you  will  not  always  have  a  Nicholas 
 among  ye."  The  influence  of  the  holy  fee  per- 
 vaded Chriftendom;  and  he  exerted  that  influence 
 in  the  fearch,  not  of  benefices,  but  of  books. 
 From  the  ruins  of  the  Byzantine  libraries,  from 
 the  darkeft  monafteries  of  Germany  and  Britain, 
 he  collected  the  dufty  manufcripts  of  the  writers  of 
 antiquity  ;  and  wherever  the  original  could  not  be 
 removed,  a  faithful  copy  was  tranfcribed  and  tranf- 
 mitted  for  his  ufe.  The  Vatican,  the  old  repofi- 
 tory  for  bulls  and  legends,  for  fuperftition  and 
 forgery,  was  daily  replenifhed  with  more  precious 
 furniture  ;  and  fuch  was  the  induflry  of  Nicholas, 
 that,  in  a  reign  of  eight  years,  he  formed  a  library 
 of  five  thoufand  volumes.  To  his  munificence 
 the  Latin  world  was  indebted  for  the  verfions  of 
 Xenophon,  Diodorus,  Polybius,  Thucydides,  He- 
 rodotus, and  Appian  ;  of  Strabo's  Geography,  of 
 the  Iliad,  of  the  moft  valuable  works  of  Plato 
 and  Ariftotle,  of  Ptolemy  and  Theophraftus,  and  of 
 the  fathers  of  the  Greek  Church." 
 
 The  example  of  this  pontiff  was  emulated  by  a 
 Florentine  merchant,  Cofmo  of  Medicis,  the  fa- 
 ther of  a  line  of  princes,  whofe  name  and  age  are 
 almoft  fynonymous  with  the  reftoration  of  learn- 
 ing.    He  traded  with  the  remotefl  quarters  of  the 
 
 Vol.  IL  S  globe, 
 
25$  Art  of  Printing  invented.      [cent.  15,' 
 
 globe,  and  a  cargo  of  Indian  fpices  and  of  Greek 
 books  was  frequently  imported  in  the  fame  vefTel. 
 The  reft  of  Italy  was  animated  by  a  fimilar  fpirit, 
 and  the  progrefs  of  the  nation  repaid  the  liberality 
 of  her  princes*. 
 
 But  the  almoft  accidental  difcovery  of  the  art  of 
 printing,  between  the  years  1440  and  1443,  con* 
 duced  more  than  any  other  caufe  to  the  cultiva- 
 tion of  learning  and  fcience  in  the  weft.  It  is  an 
 unpleafing  reflection,  that  the  authors  of  the  molt 
 ufeful  difcoveries  generally  wear  their  honours  by 
 a  dubious  or  difputed  title.  Thus  the  invention 
 of  printing  was  originally  claimed  by  a  multitude^ 
 of  contemporaries,  and  even  frill  the  honour  feems 
 to  be  divided  between  Mentol  of  Strafburgh, 
 Guttenburgh  and  Fauft  of  Mentz,  and  Cotter  of 
 Haarlem.  It  is  not  credible  that  an  art,  which 
 had  efcaped  the  obfervation  of  ages,  mould  be 
 difcovered  at  once  by  a  number  of  perfons ;  it  is" 
 more  probable  thar,  on  the  firft  rumour  of  the  in- 
 vention, ingenious  men  would  apply  their  ima- 
 ginations to  difcover  the  means  by  which  it  was 
 effected ;   and  thus  a  number  of  claimants  would 
 
 4 
 
 appear  before  the  real  inventor  could  well  eftablifh 
 his  title  to  the  fruits  of  his  induftry,  or  his  good  for- 
 tune. The  tide  of  evidence  feems  at  prefent  how- 
 ever to  run  in  favour  of  Fauft,  who  is  faid  to  *have 
 received  Guttenburgh  as  a  partner,  though  there 
 
 *  Gibbon,  vi.  p.  430. 
 
 fc9 
 
cent.  1 5.]        Introduced  into  England.  2^0 
 
 are  not  wanting  advocates  in  favour  of  the  latter  as 
 the  father  of  printing*. 
 
 This  ufefal  invention  was  at  firft  regarded  as  an 
 effect  of  magic,   and  was  retained  as  a  fingular 
 myftery  by  the  firft  profeffors  of  the  art.     Ic  was, 
 however,   conveyed  into  England  as  early  as  the 
 year  1464,  by  the  influence  of  Bourchier,  archbi- 
 fhop  of  Canterbury,  who  prevailed  upon  Henry 
 VI.  to  difpatch  Robert  Tournour,  one  of  the  gen- 
 tlemen of  the  wardrobe,  to  Haarlem,  with  a  view 
 of  making  the  Englifh  matters  of  the  invention, 
 Tournour,   with  a  purfe  of  one  thoufand   marks, 
 of  which  three  hundred  proceeded  from  the  trea- 
 fury  of  the  archbiihop,  embarked  for  H.:>land,  and, 
 to  conceal  more  completely  his  intention,   took 
 with  him  one  Caxton,  a  merchant,  pretending  to 
 be  himfelf  of  the  fame  profeffion.      With  thefe 
 precautions,  and  having  altered  his  name,  he  pro- 
 ceeded firft  to  Amfterdam,  and  thence  to  Haar- 
 lem,   where,  after  fome   time,  he  was   fuccefsful 
 enough  to  perfuade  Corfelli,  one  of  Guttenburgh's 
 compofitors,  to  carry  off  a  fet  of  letters,  and  em- 
 bark with  him  for  London.     On  their  arrival,  the 
 archbifhop,  confidering  Oxford  as  a  more  conveni- 
 ent fituation  than  London,  fent  Corfelli  thither. 
 Thus  the  art  of  printing  appeared  at  that  univer- 
 fity  ten  years  fooner  than  at  any  other  place  in 
 Europe,  Haarlem  and  Mentz  excepted-j-. 
 
 *  See  Bowyer's  Origin  of  Printing. 
 |  Wood's  Hift.  Univ.  of  Oxf.  1.  i.  p.  226. 
 
 Si  By 
 
260        Laurentius  Valla,  A-etiu,  &c»    [cent.  15- 
 By  this  invention  a  knowledge  not  only  of  the 
 Scriptures,  but  of  all  profane  fciences,  was  more 
 extenfively  diffufed  than  it  could  otherw'ife  have- 
 been  ;  it  became  a  means  of  perpetuating  thofe  va- 
 luable remains  of  antiquity,  which  the  induftry  of 
 the  learned  was  daily  drawing  out  of  obfeurity, 
 and  was  a  powerful  inftrument  in  the  hand  of  Pro- 
 vidence for  the  promotion  of  the  important  refor- 
 mation which  took  place  in  the  century  fucceeding. 
 Under  thefe  favourable  circumftances  the  crowd 
 of  authors  who  fprung  up  far  exceeds  the  limits  of 
 this  publication.     Nicholas  Clemengis,  a  French 
 divine,  is  accounted  by  Du  Pinthemoft  eloquent 
 author  of  the  age:  his  writings  were  chiefly  contro- 
 verfial ;  but  there  are  fome  fragments  among  them 
 critical  and  hillorical.     Laurentius  Valla,  canon  of 
 the  Lateran,  is  alio  of  fome  note  as  a  critic  j  and 
 the  celebrated  Aretin  and  Poggio  were  among  the 
 firft  who  cultivated  what  may  truly  be  called  polite 
 literature. 
 
 The  controverfy  concerning  the  tenets  of  the 
 Huffites  produced  a  variety  of  authors ;  and  the 
 ianguineand  unfettled  temper  of  the  Englifh  dif- 
 tinguimed  them  in  this  certtury  as  the  opponents  of 
 the  church.  As  early  as  the  year  1404,  Paul  Lan- 
 glais  compofed  his  treatife  entitled  "  The  Look- 
 ing-glafsofthe  Pope  and  his  Court;"  and  Richard 
 Ullerfton  wrote  much  on  the  lubjecl  of  reformation. 
 Thefe  topics  were  not  indeed  neglected  in  other 
 countries.     John  Weflelus,  a  native  of  Groningen, 
 
 for 
 
cent.  15.]  Thomas  a  Kempis.  261 
 
 for  hisacutenefs  and  penetration,  was  entitled  the 
 Light  of  the  World;  and  Jerome  Savanarola,  ori- 
 ginally a  Dominican  of  Ferrara,  was,  in  1498, 
 committed  to  the  flames  at  Florence,  for  the  bold- 
 nefs  with  which  he  impeached  the  papal  vices*. 
 
 iEneas  Silvius,  afterwards  pope  Pius  II.  was 
 a  man  of  abilities  and  addrefs.  He  employed  his 
 genius  entirely  for  his  own  advancement,  in  other 
 words,  in  promoting  the  defigns  of  the  court  of 
 Rome;  and,  as  he  was  not  fufpeeted  of  much  prin- 
 ciple, he  was  poffeffed  of  a  mod  convenient  verfa- 
 tility  in  his  opinions — "  As  iEneas  Silvius,"  faid 
 he,  "  I  was  a  damnable  heretic,  but  as  pope  Pius 
 II.  I  am  an  orthodox  pontiff  f."  The  divine, 
 however,  of  this  century  who  is  moft  generally 
 known  at  prefent,  was  Thomas  a  Kempis,  a  native 
 of  Cologn.  He  compofed  many  devotional  trea- 
 tifes  ;  but  his  title  to  the  popular  book  on  the  Imi- 
 tation of  Jefus  Chrift  is  difputed. 
 
 In  this  age  lived  the  much  celebrated  Pica,  prince 
 of  Mirandola,  whofe  attainments  were  fo  extraor- 
 dinary, that  at  the  age  of  twenty- three  he  is  faid  to 
 have  publifhed  theles  upon  almoft  every  fcience, 
 and  to  have  undertaken  to  maintain  them  in  all  the 
 fchools.  He  was  fufpected  of  herefy,  but  obtained 
 an  abfolution  from  Alexander  VI.  To  his  great 
 learning  he  added  the  more  eflimable  praile  of 
 
 *  Mofh.  Cent.  xv. 
 
 f  Baylc'sDia.    Mofh.  Cent.  xv. 
 
 S  3  fervent 
 
262        TrarJIaticfis  of  the  Scriptures,      [cent.  15. 
 
 fervent  piety,  and  even  renounced  his  fovereignty, 
 and  distributed  all  his  property  to  the  poor*.,  Du 
 Pin  is  candid  enough  to  fay  of  his  writings,  that 
 they  "  are  full  of  force  and  elegance,  and  teach 
 the  moft  exalted  morality." 
 
 Among  the  greater  part  of  the  interpreters  of 
 Scripture  who  lived  in  this  century,  we  find  nothing 
 worthy   of  applaufe.     Such  of  them  as  aimed  at 
 fomething  higher  than  the  character  of  bare  com- 
 pilers,and  ventured  to  draw  their  explications  from- 
 their  own   fenfe   of  things,   did   little  more  than 
 amufe,  or  rather  delude,  their  readers,  with  myf- 
 tical  and  allegorical  fancies.     At  the  head  of  this  - 
 clafs  of  writers   is  Alphonfus  Toftatus,  bifhop  of  1 
 Avila,  whofe  voluminous  commentaries  upon  the 
 facred   writings  exhibit  nothing  remarkable  but 
 their  enormous  bulk.     Laurentius  Valla  is  entitled 
 to  a  more  favourable  judgment,  and  his  fmall  col-  , 
 lection  of  Critical  and  Grammatical   Annotations 
 upon  the  New  Teftament  is  far  from  being  defti- 
 tute  of  merit,  lince  it  pointed  out  to  fucceeding 
 authors  the  true  method  of  removing  the  dimcul- 
 ties  that  fometimes  prefent  themfelves  to  fuch  as 
 fludy  with  attention  the  divine  oracles.     It  is  pro- 
 per to  obferve  here,  that  thefe  facred  books  were, 
 in  almoft  all  the  kingdoms  and  dates  of  Europe, 
 tranflated  into  the  language  of  each  reflective  peo- 
 ple, particularly  in  Germany,  Italy,  France,  and 
 
 *  Du  Pin,  Cent.  xv. 
 
 Britain 
 
cent.  15.]         Reformation  expeffed.  263 
 
 Britain.  This  circumftance  naturally  excited  the 
 expectations  of  a  confiderable  change  in  the  ftate 
 of  religion,  and  induced  the  thinking  few  to  hope 
 that  the  increafe  of  knowledge  would  be  at  leaft 
 in  fome  degree  attended  by  its  proper  confequence, 
 the  increafe  of  virtue,  and  by  the  diffblution  of 
 that  dreadful  tyranny,  which,  under  the  pretence 
 of  a  Divine  authority,  had  fo  long  been  exercifed 
 by  fome  of  the  mod  depraved  of  the  human  race 
 over  the  minds,  the  bodies,  and  the  fortunes  of 
 men. 
 
 S4  THE 
 
[   264   ] 
 
 THE  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY. 
 
 C  H  A  P.    I.  ■ 
 
 GENERAL    STATE    OF    THE    CHURCH    PREVIOUS 
 TO  THE  REFORMATION. 
 
 General  Tranquillity  of  the  Church — Pius  II L — Julius  II. 
 — Warlike  Spirit  of  the  Pope — Difpute  with  Lewis.  XI 1 \ 
 —-r-Leo  X. — Popes  from  Leo  X,  to  Clement  VIII. 
 
 THE  fkuation  of  the  Roman  pontiffs  was  lin- 
 gular at  the  commencement  of  this  century,. 
 They  had  not,  according  to  the  apparent  ftate  of 
 things,  the  fmalleft  reafon  to  apprehend  any  oppo- 
 fition  to  their  pretentions,  or  rebellion  againft  their 
 authority  ;  fince  thGfe  alarming  commotions,  which 
 had  been  excited  in  the  preceding  ages  by  the 
 Waldenfes  and  Albigenfes,  and  lately  by  the 
 Bohemians,  were  entirely  fupprefTed,  and  had 
 yielded  to  the  united  powers  of  the  council  and  the 
 fword.  Such  of  the  Waldenfes  as  yet  remained, 
 lived  contented  under  the  difficulties  of  extreme 
 poverty  in  the  vallies  of  Piedmont,  and  propofed 
 
 to 
 
cent.  1 6.]       Tope  and  Venetians  at  War.  2.65 
 
 to  themfelves  no  higher  earthly  felicity,  than  that 
 of  leaving  to  their  defcendants  that  wretched  and 
 obfcure  corner  of  Europe,  which  feparates  the  Alps 
 from  the  Pyrenean  mountains  ;  while  the  handful 
 of  Bohemians,  who  furvived  the  ruin  of  their  fac- 
 tion, and  ftill  perfevered  in  their  oppofition  to  the 
 Roman  yoke,  had  neither  ftrength  nor  knowledge 
 adequate  to  any  new  attempt,  and  therefore^  in- 
 Head  of  infpiring  terror,  became  objects  of  con- 
 tempt. 
 
 Alexander  VI.  was  fucceeded  in  the  pontificate 
 by  Pius  III.  who,  in  lefs  than  a  month  after  his 
 election,  was  deprived,  by  death,  of  his  new  dig- 
 nity ;  and  the  vacant  chair  was  obtained,  by  fraud 
 and  bribery,  by  Julius  II.  To  the  other  odious 
 vices  with  which  this  man  difhonoured  the  ponti- 
 ficate, may  be  added  the  moft  favage  ferocity, 
 the  moft  defpotic  vehemence  of  temper,  and  the 
 moft  extravagant  and  frenetic  paQion  for  war.  He 
 began  his  military  enterprifes  by  entering  into  a 
 war  with  the  Venetians,  after  having  ftrengthened 
 his  caufe  by  an  alliance  with  the  emperor  and  the 
 king  of  France*.  He  then  laid  fiege  to  Ferrara ; 
 and,  at  length,  turned  his  arms  againft  his  former 
 ally,  the  French  monarch,  in  conjunction  with  the 
 Venetians,  Spaniards,  and  Swifs,  whom  he  had 
 drawn  into  this  war,  and   engaged  in  his  caufe 
 
 *  See  Du  Bos,  Hiftoire  de  la  Ligue  de  Cambray,  publifhed  at 
 file  Hague  in  two  vols.  8vo.  in  the  year  17 10. 
 
 5  by 
 
266  Council  cf  T  if  a.  [cent.  16. 
 
 by  an  offenfive  league.  His  whole  pontificate, 
 indeed,  was  one  continued  fcene  of  military  tu- 
 mult, nor  during  his  life  did  he  fuffer  Europe  to 
 enjoy  one  moment's  tranquillity. 
 
 From  this  dreadful  cloud  which  was  fufpended 
 ever  Europe,  fome  rays  of  light,  however,  feemed 
 to  break  forth,  which  promifed  a  better  ftate  of 
 things,  and  gave  fome  reafon  to  expect  a  refor- 
 mation in  the  church.  Lewis  XII.  king  of  France, 
 provoked  by  the  infults  he  had  received  from  this 
 violent  pontiff,  meditated  revenge,  and  even  caufed 
 a  medal  to  be  flruck,  with  a  menacing  infeription, 
 expreffing  his  refolution  to  overturn  the  power  of 
 Rome,  which  v/as  reprefented  by  the  title  of  Baby- 
 lon on  this  coin.  Several  cardinals  alfo,  encour- 
 aged by  the  protection  of  this  monarch  and  the  em-' 
 peror  Maximilian  I.  affembled,  in  the  year  15 1 1,  a 
 council  at  Pifa,  with  an  intention  to  fet  bounds  to 
 the  tyranny  of  Julius,  and  to  correct  and  reform 
 the  errors  and  corruptions  of  a  fuperftitious  church. 
 The  pope,  on  the  contrary,  relying  on  his  own 
 itrengih,  and  on  the  power  of  his  allies,  beheld 
 thefe  ^threatening  appearances  without  the  'leaff, 
 concern,  and  even  treated  them  with  mockery  and 
 contempt.  He  did  not,  however,  neglect  the  pro- 
 per methods  of  rendering  ineffectual  the  efforts  of 
 his  enemies,  and  therefore  gave  orders  for  a  coun- 
 cil to  meet  in  the  palace  of  the  Lateran,  in  the 
 year  1512,  in  which  the  decrees  of  the  council  of 
 Pifa  were  condemned  and  annulled  in  the  moft 
 
 injurious 
 
cent.  16.]  "Leo  X.  267 
 
 injurious  and  infulting  terms.  This  condemnation 
 would,  undoubtedly,  have  been  followed  with  the 
 mod  formidable  anathemas  againft  Lewis  and  other 
 princes,  had  not  death  matched  away  the  enter- 
 prifmg  pontiff,  in  1512,  in  the  midil  of  his  am- 
 bitious and  vindictive  projects. 
 
 He  was  fuceeeded,  in  the  year  151  ?,  by  Leo  X. 
 of  the  family  of  Medicis.  This  pontiff  was  a  pro- 
 tector of  men  of  learning,  and  was  himfelf  learned. 
 He  was  a  lover  and  a  patron  of  the  arts.  His 
 time  was  divided  between  converfation  with  men 
 of  letters,  and  pleafure.  He  had  an  invincible 
 averfion  to  whatever  was  accompanied  with  folici- 
 tude  and  care,  and  discovered  the  utmoft  impatience 
 under  events  of  that  nature.  He  did  not,  however, 
 neglect  the  grand  object  which  the  generality  of 
 his  predeceffors  had  fo  much  at  heart,  the  promoting 
 and  advancing  the  opulence  and  grandeur  of  the 
 Roman  fee.  He  was  careful  that  nothing  mould 
 be  tranfacted  in  the  council  of  the  Lateran,  which 
 Julius  had  afiembled  and  left  fitting,  that  had  the 
 lead  tendency  to  favour  the  reformation  of  the 
 Church.  He  went  full  farther  ;  and,  in  a  conference 
 with  Francis  I.  king  of  France,  at  Bologna,  en- 
 gaged that  monarch  to  abrogate  the  Pragmatic 
 Sanction,  fo  long  odious  to  the  popes  of  Rome, 
 and  to  fubftitute  in  its  place  another  body  of  laws, 
 more  advantageous  to  the  papacy,  which  were 
 impofed  upon  his  fubjects  under  the  title  of  the 
 COncordate,  and  received  with  the  utmoft  indigna- 
 tion and  reluctance.  The 
 
268  New  Edition  bf the  Vulgate,     [cent.  16.  • 
 
 The  principal  tranfa&ions  of  the  fix  immediate 
 fucceffors  of  Leo  will  be  found  in  a  fucceeding 
 chapter,  which  treats  of  the  reformation.     Let  it 
 fuilice  for  the  prefent  to   remark,  that  they  were 
 the  melancholy  witneffes  of  the  difmemberment  of 
 the  papal  dominion,  for  the  maintenance  of  which, 
 they,  however,  contended  with  zeal  at  leaft,  if  not 
 with  policy.     Of  the  popes  who  followed  the  efla- 
 blifhment  of  the    reformed  religion,  Pius  V.   a 
 man  of  a  fevere  and  melancholy  difpofition,  ren- . 
 dered  himfelf  remarkable   by  a  bull,    which  he 
 published  againft  Elizabeth,   queen  of  England, 
 degrading  her  from  her  dignity,  and'  exhorting  her  .. 
 fubjeets  to  revolt'  againft  her ;  and  Gregory  Xlll. 
 openly  commended  the  malfacre  of  the  Proteftants 
 in  France.     Sixtus  V.  was  the  fon  of  a  poor  pea-* 
 fant  on  the  borders  of  Ancona,  but  was  poifeffed 
 of  a  molt  ambitious  mind,   and  proved  a  fevere 
 mailer  and  a  troublefome  neighbour.      His  bed 
 quality  was  a  love. of  letters.      He  caufed   the 
 verfion  of  the  Bible  called  the  Vulgate,  as  corrected 
 by  the  council  of  Trent,  to  be  printed  in  15S9, 
 as  the  only  authentic  verfion  of  the  facred*  fcrip- 
 tures.     The  three  fucceeding  popes  enjoyed  that 
 dignity  only  a  few  weeks ;  and  on  the  26th  of  Fe- 
 bruary,  1592,  Clement  VIII.  was  elected,' who fe 
 pontificate  was  diftinguimed  by  a  famous  difpute 
 concerning  Grace ;  which  for  lome  time  divided 
 and  haraffed  the  Church  of  Rome. 
 
 CHAP, 
 
[       2*9       1 
 
 CHAP.    II. 
 
 OF  DOCTRINES,  RITES,  CEREMONIES,  &C.    IN  THB 
 SIXTEENTH  CENTURY. 
 
 Splendid  but  trifling  Ceremonies — Scholaflic  Subtleties — Ser- 
 mons— Strange  Acceptation  of  the  Term  Good  Works — 
 Increafe  of  Monkery  —Dominicans — Strange  Narrative 
 concerning  fetzer — Ignorance  of  the  Monks — Inftitutton 
 of  the  f^fuits — Their  Conflitution  and  Policy —  Capuchins 
 — Recollets — Regular  Clerks,  or  Theatins — Priejls  of  the 
 Oratory — Bare-footed  Carmelites . 
 
 THE  public  worlhip  of  the  Romifli  church 
 confided,  in  this  age,  of  only  a  pompous 
 round  of  external  ceremonies,  the  greater  part  of 
 which  were  infignificant  and  fenfelefs,  and  much 
 more  adapted  to  dazzle  the  eyes  than  to  affect  the 
 heart.  The  number  of  thofe,  who  were  at  all 
 qualified  to  adminifter  public  inftruction  to  the 
 people,  was  not  very  considerable  ;  and  their  dif- 
 courfes,  which  contained  little  more  than  fictitious 
 reports  of  miracles  and  prodigies,  infipid  fables, 
 wretched  quibbles,  and  illiterate  jargon,  deceived, 
 inftead  of  instructing  the  multitude.  Several  of 
 thefe  fermons  are  yet  extant,  which  ic  is  impoflible 
 to  read  without  indignation  and  contempt.  Thofe 
 declaimers,  who,  on  account  of  their  gravity  of 
 manners,  or  their  fuppofed  Superiority  in  wifdom 
 and  knowledge,  held  the  molt  diftinguimed  rank, 
 
 had 
 
zjd  Style  $f  Preaching.  [cent,  i 6, 
 
 had  a  com  men-place  fet  of  fubjecb  allotted  to 
 them,  on  which  they  were  conftantly  exercifing 
 the  power  of  their   eloquence.      Thefe  fubjects 
 were  the  authority  of  the  church,  and  the  obliga- 
 tions of  obedience  to  her  decilions ;  the  virtues 
 and  merits  of  the  faints,   and  their  credit  at  the 
 tribunal  of  heaven  ;  the  dignity,  glory,  and  love 
 of  the  Bleffed  Virgin  ;  the  efficacy  of  relics ;  the 
 duty  of  adorning  churches,  and  endowing  monaf- 
 teries ;  the  neceffity  of  thefe  good  works  (as  that 
 phrafe  was  then  underftood)  to  falvatien ;  the  in-" 
 tolerable  flames  of  purgatory,  and  the  utility  of 
 indulgences.     Such  were  the  fubjecls  which  em- 
 ployed  the  zeal  and  labours  of  the  moft  eminent  * 
 doctors  of  this  century.     Nor  was  the  restoration  '% 
 of  letters  fufficient  to  revive  in  mankind  a  fenfe  of 
 their  own  dignity,  or  to  recover  them  from   the 
 miferable   bondage   to  which  through  ignorance 
 they  had  imperceptibly  fubjected  themfelves,  and  - 
 in  which  they  were  now  partly  retained  by  the 
 extended  arm  of  perfecution. 
 
 The  prodigious  fwarms  of  monks,  that  over- 
 fpread  Europe  in  the  courfe  of  this  century,  oc- 
 casioned univerfal  murmurs  and  complaints.  Such, 
 however,  was  the  genius  of  the  age,  that  they 
 would  have  remained  undifturbed,  had,  they 
 taken  the  fmalleft  pains  to  preferve  any  remains 
 even  of  that  external  decency  and  religion  which 
 diftinguifhed  them  in  former  times.  But  the 
 Benedictine  and  other  monkifli  fraternities,  who 
 
 were 
 
cent.  1 6.]  Monaftic  Depravity.  271 
 
 were  invefted  with  the  privilege  of  pofTefilng  cer- 
 tain lands  and  revenues;  broke  through  all  reftramt, 
 made  die  worft  poffible  ufe  of  their  opulence;  and, 
 forgetful  of  the  gravity  of  their  character,  and 
 of  the  laws  of  their  order,  rufhed  headlong  into 
 the  fhamelefs  practice  of  every  vice.  The  men- 
 dicant orders,  and  particularly  thofe  who  followed 
 the  rule  of  St.  Dominic  and  St.  Francis,  though 
 perhaps  not  borne  away  by  the  general  torrent  of 
 licentioufhefs,  loft  their  credit  in  a  different  man- 
 ner; for  their  rufticity,  their  fuperftitions,  their 
 ignorance,  and  cruelty,  alienated  from  them  the 
 minds  of  the  people,  and  effectually  diminished 
 their  reputation.  They  had  the  mod  barbarous 
 averfion  to  the  arts  and  fcienccs,  and  expreffed 
 an  abhorrence  of  thofe  eminent  and  learned  men, 
 who  endeavoured  to  open  the  paths  of  fcience  to 
 the  purfuits  of  the  ftudious  youth,  who  recom- 
 mended the  culture  of  the  mind,  and  attacked  the 
 barbarifm  of  the  age*  in  their  writings  and  conver- 
 fation. 
 
 Among  all  the  monadic  orders,  none  enjoyed 
 a  higher  degree  of  power  and  authority  than  the 
 Dominican  friars,  whofe  credit  was  great,  and 
 whofe  influence  was  univerfal.  They  filled  the 
 moil  eminent  Stations  in  the  church,  prefided  every 
 where  over  the  formidable  tribunal  of  the'inqui- 
 fition,  and  had  the  care  of  fouls,  with  the  function 
 of  confelfors,  in  all  the  courts  of  Europe  ;  a  cir- 
 cumftance  which,  in  thefe  times  of  ignorance  and 
 3  fuperftition, 
 
272  Villany  of  the  Dominicans.      [cent.  16, 
 
 fuperftition,  manifeftly  tended  to  place  the  major- 
 ity of  the  European  princes  in  their  power.  Not- 
 withstanding thefe  advantages,  the  influence  of  the 
 Dominicans  began  to  decline,  and  feveral  marks 
 of  perfidy,  which  appeared  in  the  meafures  they 
 employed  to  extend  their  authority,  expofed  them 
 to  the  malignity  of  their  enemies,  and  the  indigna- 
 tion of  the  public.  Amongft  the  variety  of  frauds 
 practifed  upon  the  credulity  of  the  multitude,  the 
 page  of  hiftory  records  none  more  extraordinary 
 than  the  celebrated  impofition  which  was  performed' 
 at  Bern,  in  1509,  by  this  impious  fraternity.  This 
 itratagem  was  employed  in  confequence  of  the 
 rivalmip  between  the  Francifcans  and  Dominicans,  * 
 and  particularly  refpedling  the  immaculate  con-  ' 
 ception  of  the  Virgin  Mary.  The  former,  as  was 
 already  ftated,  maintained,  that  (lie  was  born  with- 
 out blemilh  of  original  fin  :  the  latter  afferted  the 
 contrary.  The  doctrine  of  the  Francifcans,  in  an- 
 age  of  darknefs  and  fuperftition,  could  not  but  be 
 popular;  and  hence  the  Dominicans  perceptibly  loft 
 ground.  To  fupport  the  credit  of  their  order,  they 
 refolved,  in  a  chapter  held  atVimpfen  in.  1504, 
 to  have  recourfe  to  fictitious  vifions  and  dreams, 
 in  which  the  people  at  that  period  had  an  unlimited 
 faith  ;  and  they  determined  to  make  Bern  the 
 fcene  of  their  operations.  A  perfon  named  Jetzer, 
 who  was  extremely  fimplc,  and  much  inclined  to 
 aufterities,  and  who  had  taken  their  habit,  of  a 
 lay-  brother,  was  chofen  as  the  inftrument  of  the 
 
 delufions 
 
cent.  16.]  Auflenties  impofed  upon  Jetzer.  273 
 delufions  they  were  contriving.  One  of  the  four 
 Dominicans,  who  had  undertaken  the  manage- 
 ment of  this  plot,  conveyed  himfelf  fecretly  into 
 Jetzer's  cell,  and  about  midnight  appeared  to  him 
 in  a  tremendous  form,  furrounded  with  howling 
 dogs,  and  feeming  to  blow  fire  from  his  noftrils, 
 by  the  means  of  a  box  of  combuftibles  which  he 
 held  near  his  mouth.  In  this  alarming  form  he 
 approached  Jetzer's  bed,  told  him  that  he  was  the 
 ghoft  of  a  Dominican,  who  had  been  killed  at 
 Paris,  as  a  judgment  of  Heaven  for  laying  afide 
 his  monadic  habit ;  that  he  was  condemned  to 
 purgatory  for  his  crime ;  adding,  at  the  fame  time, 
 that,  by  his  means,  he  might  be  refcued  from 
 his  mifery,  which  was  beyond  expremon.  This 
 ftory,  accompanied  with  fearful  lamentations, 
 alarmed  the  unfortunate  Jetzer,  and  engaged  him 
 to  promife  to  perform  all  in  his  power  to  deliver 
 the  Dominican  from  his  torment.  Upon  this  the 
 impoftor  told  him,  that  nothing  but  the  mod  ex- 
 traordinary mortifications,  fuch  as  the  difcipline  of 
 the  whip,  performed  during  eight  days  by  the 
 whole  monaflery,  and  Jetzer's  lying  proftrate,  in 
 the  form  of  one  crucified,  in  the  chapel  during 
 mafs,  could  contribute  to  his  deliverance.  He 
 added,  that  the  performing  of  thefe  mortifications 
 would  draw  down  upon  Jetzer  the  peculiar  pro- 
 tection of  the  Blefled  Virgin  j  and  concluded  by 
 faying,  that  he  would  appear  to  him  again,  ac- 
 companied by  two  other  fpirks.  Morning  no 
 Vol.  If.  T  fooner 
 
274  Terrific  Appearances.  [cent.  16* 
 
 fooner  arrived,  than  Jetzer  gave  an  account  of  this 
 apparition  to  the  reft  of,  the  convent,  who  unani- 
 moufly  advifed  him  to  undergo  the  difcipline 
 which  was  enjoined  ;  and  each  confented  to  bear 
 his  ihare  of  the  talk  impofed.  The  deluded  bro- 
 ther obeyed,  and  was  admired  as  a  faint  by  the 
 multitude  that  crowded  about  the  convent,  while 
 the  four  friars,  who  managed  the  impofture, 
 magnified  in  the  mod  pompous,  manner  the 
 miracle  of  this  apparition,  in  their  fetmons  and 
 in  their  diicourfe.  The  following  night  the  ap« 
 parition  was  renewed,  with  the  addition  of  two 
 impoftors,  dreffed  like  devils ;  and  Jetzer's  faith 
 was  augmented  by  hearing  from  the  fpeftre  all  the 
 fecrets  of  his  life  and  thoughts,  which  the  im-  « 
 poftors  had  learned  from  his  confeflor.  ."  In  this 
 and  fome  fubfequent  fcenes  the  impoftor  converf- 
 ed  much  with  Jetzer  on  the  Dominican  order, 
 which  he  faid  was  peculiarly  dear  to  the  Blefled 
 Virgin ;  he  added,'  that  the  Virgin  knew  herfelf 
 to  be  conceived  in  original  fin  ;  that  the  doctors 
 who  taught  the  contrary  were  in  purgatory  j  that 
 the  Bleffed  Virgin  abhorred  the  Francifcans  for 
 making  her  equal  with  her  Son;  and  that  the 
 town  of  Bern  would  be  deftroyed  for  harbouring 
 fuch  pefts  within  her  walls.  In  one  of  thefe  ap- 
 paritions, Jetzer  imagined  that  the  voice  of  the 
 fpe&re  refembled  that  of  the  prior  of  the  convent, 
 i.ad  he  was  not  mrftaken  -,  but,  not  fufpecting  a 
 fraud,    he  gave  little  attention   to   this  circum- 
 
 ftane'e. 
 
C  ent.  1 6 . ]     Friar  perfonating  Virgin  Mary.       tj$- 
 
 flancc.  The  prior  appeared  in  various  forms, 
 fometimes  in  that  of  St.  Barbara,  at  others  in  that 
 of  St.  Bernard  ;  at  length  he  affumed  that  of  the 
 Virgin  Mary,  and,  for  that  purpofe,  clothed  him- 
 felf  in  the  habirs  which  were  employed  to  adorn 
 the  ftatue  of  the  Virgin  in  the  great  feftivals  ;  the 
 little  images,  which  on  thefe  days  are  fet  on  the 
 altars,  were  made  nfe  of  for  angels,  which  being 
 tied  to  a  cord  that  panned  over  Jetzer's  head,  rofe 
 up  and  down,  and  danced  round  the  pretended 
 Virgin,  to  increafe  the  delufion.  The  Virgin, 
 thus  equipped,  addrefled  a  long  difcourfe  to  Jetzer, 
 in  which,  among  other  things,  fhe  told  him,  that 
 fhe  was  conceived  in  original  fin,  though  fhe  had 
 remained  but  a  fhort  time  under  that  blemiilh 
 She  gave  him,  as  a  miraculous  proof  of  her  pre- 
 fence,  a  hoft,  or  confecrated  wafer,  which  turned 
 from  white  to  red  in  a  moment  j  and  after  vari- 
 ous vifits,  fhe  told  Jetzer,  that  fhe  would  add  the 
 moft  affecting  and  undoubted  marks  of  her  Son's 
 love,  by  imprinting  on  him  the  five  wounds  that 
 pierced  Jefus  on  the  crofs,  as  (he  had  done  before 
 to  St.  Lucia  and  St.  Catharine.  Accordingly 
 fhe  took  his  hand  by  force  and  (truck  a  large  nail 
 through  it,  which  threw  the  poor  fanatic  into  the 
 greateft  agony.  The  next  night,  this  pretended 
 Virgin  brought,  as  me  faid,  fome  of  the  linen  in 
 which  Chrift  had  been  buried,  to  foften  the  wound, 
 &nd  gave  Jetzer  a  foporifk  draught,  which  bad 
 in  it  the  blood  of  an  unbaptized  infant,  fome 
 T  2  grains 
 
2.  1 6  Speaking  Images.  [cent,  i  6. 
 
 grains  of  incenfe  and  of  confecrated  fait,  fomc 
 quickfilver,  the  hairs  of  the  eye-brows  of  a  child, 
 all  which,  with  fome  ftupefying  and  poifonous  in- 
 gredients, were  mingled  together  by  the  prior, 
 with  magic  ceremonies,  and  a  iolemn  dedication 
 of  himfelf  to  the  devil,  in  the  hope  of  his  fuccour. 
 This  draught  threw  the  poor  wretch  into  a  fort 
 of  lethargy,  during  which,  the  monks  imprinted  on 
 his  body  the  other  four  wounds  of  Chrift  in  fuch  a 
 manner  that  he  felt  no  pain.  When  he  awaked, 
 he  found,  to  his  unfpeakable  joy,  tliefe  impref- 
 iions  on  his  body,  and  came  at  laft  to  fancy  him- 
 felf a  reprefentative  of  Chrift  in  the  various  parts 
 of  his  paffion.  He  was,  in  this  ftate,  expofed  to 
 the  admiring  multitude  on  the  principal  altar  of  > 
 the  convent,  to  the  great  mortification  of  the  Fran* 
 cifcans.  The  Dominicans  gave  him  other  draughts, 
 which  threw  him  into  convulfions,  and  were  fol- 
 lowed by  a  voice  conveyed  through  a  pipe  into " 
 the  mouths  of  two  images,  one  of  Mary,  and  an- 
 other of  the  child  Jefus ;  the  former  of  which  had 
 tears  painted  upon  its  cheek  in  a  lively  manner. 
 The  little  Jefus  afked  his  mother,  by  means  of 
 this  voice  (which  was  that  of  the  prior),  why  Ave 
 wept  :  and  fhe  anfwered,  that  her  tears  werc 
 owing  to  the  impious  manner  in  which  the  Fran- 
 cifcans  attributed  to  her  the  honour  that  was  due 
 to  him,  in  faying  that  fhe  was  conceived  and  born 
 without  fin. 
 
 The 
 
ce  n  t.  1 6 .]  Poifon  adminiftered  in  the  Sacrament.  277 
 
 The  apparitions,  falfe  prodigies,  and  abfurd 
 ftratagems  of  the  Dominicans  were  repeated  every 
 night;  and  the  matter  was  at  length  fo  grofsly 
 over-acted,  that,  fimple  as  Jetzer  was,  he  at  lad 
 difcovered  it,  and  had  almoft  killed  the  prior, 
 who  appeared  to  him  one  night  in  the  form  of  the 
 Virgin  with  a  crown  on  her  head.  The  Domini- 
 cans fearing,  by  this  difcovery,  to  lofe  the  fruits  of 
 their  impofture,  concluded  that  the  bed  method 
 would  be  to  confefs  the  whole  to  Jetzer,  and  to 
 engage  him,  by  the  moft  feducing  promifes  of 
 opulence  and  reputation,  to  profecute  the  cheat. 
 Jetzer  was  perfuaded,  or  at  leaft  appeared  to  be  fo. 
 But  the  Dominicans,  fufpe&ing  that  he  was  not 
 entirely  to  be  depended  upon,  refolved  to  poifon 
 him  ;  his  conftitution,  however,  was  fo  vigorous, 
 that,  though  they  gave  him  poifon  feveral  times, 
 he  was  not  deftroyed  by  it.  One  day  they  fent 
 him  a  loaf  prepared  with  fome  fpices,  which 
 growing  green  in  a  day  or  two,  he  threw  a  piece 
 of  it  to  a  wolf's  whelps  in  the  monaftery,  and  it 
 killed  them  immediately.  At  another  time  they 
 poifoned  the  hoft,  or  confecrated  wafer  ;  but  as  he 
 vomited  it  up  foon  after  he  had  fwallowed  it,  he 
 efcaped  once  more.  Finding  at  laft  an  opportu- 
 nity of  efcaping  from  the  convent,  he  threw  hirn- 
 felf  into  the  hands  of  the  magiftrates,  to  whom  he 
 made  a  full  difcovery  of  this  ill-condufted  plot. 
 The  affair  being  brought  to  Rome,  commifTaries 
 were  fent  to  examine  the  matter ;  and  the  whole 
 
 T  3  deception 
 
278  Dominican  Impojlors  burned.       [cent.  i6» 
 
 deception  being  fully  proved,  the  four  friars  were 
 folemniy  degraded  from  their  priefthood,  and 
 -were  burnt  alive  on  the  laft  day  of  May,  1509. 
 Jetzer  died  fome  time  after  at  Conftance,  having 
 poifoned  himfelf,  as  was  believed  by  fome ;  while 
 others  have,  poflibly  with  injustice,  charged  his 
 death  on  his  adverlaries ;  fince  afcer  all,  the  mod 
 probable  fuppofuion  is,  that  his  vigorous  confti- 
 tution,  though  not  destroyed,  was  yet  undermined 
 by  the  fufferings  it  had  undergone,  which  certainr 
 \y  might  haften,  though  they  did  not  immediately 
 effect,  his  diflblution*. 
 
 The  principal  appointments  in  the  public  fchools. 
 were  at  this  period  filled  very  frequently  by  monks 
 of  the  mendicant  orders.  This  circumftance  pre-  '. 
 vented  their  emerging  from  that  ignorance  and 
 darknefs  which  had  fo  long  enveloped  them  ;  and 
 it  alfo  rendered  them  inacceffible  to  that  aufpicious 
 light  of  improved  fcience,  whofe  falutary  beams  " 
 Jiad  already  been  felt  in  fome  of  the  European 
 provinces.  The  inftructors  of  youth,  dignified 
 with  the  venerable  titles  of  artifts,  grammarians, 
 phyticians,  and  dialecticians,  loaded  the  memories 
 of  their  laborious  pupils  with  a  multitude  of 'bar- 
 barous terms,  fenfelefs  diftinclions,  and  fcholaftic 
 precepts,  delivered  in  the  moft  inelegant  ftyle;  and 
 all  fuch  as  could  repeat  this  jargon  with  a  certain 
 
 ^  Hottinger,  Hift.  Helvet.  Eccl.  p.  334.  Hift.  cle  la  Reform. 
 )sn  Suiffe.    Burnet's  Travels,  p.  31. 
 
 readinef§ 
 
cent.  1 6.]  Ignatlo  Loyola.  279 
 
 readinefs  and  rapidity,   were  confidered  as  men  of 
 uncommon  eloquence  and  erudition. 
 
 In  the  courfe  of  this  century,  the  internal  go- 
 vernment   of   the    church    of    Rome  underwent 
 fome  not  unimportant  alterations,  a  confiderable 
 part  of  which  may  be  afcribed  to  the  influence  of 
 the  reformation  by  Luther.     One  of  the  mod  re- 
 markable of  thcfe  events  was  the  eftablifhment 
 of  the  order  of  Jefuits,  a  body,  whofe  influence 
 on  ecclefiaftical   as   well  as  civil  affairs   has   been 
 .  more  confiderable  than  that  of  any  religious  or- 
 der that  ever  appeared   within   the  pale  of  the 
 Chriftian  church.     When  men  take  a  view  of  the 
 rapid  progrefs  of  this  fuciety  towards  wealth  and 
 power ;    when    they   contemplate   the   admirable 
 prudence  with  which  it  has  been  governed ;  when 
 they   attend   to  the    perfevering   and    fyftematic 
 fpirit   with  which  its  fchemes  have  been   carried 
 on  ;  they  are  apt  to  afcribe  luch  a  fingular  inftitu- 
 tion  to   the   fuperior  wifdom  of  its  founder,   and 
 to  fuppofe  that  he  had  formed  and  digefted  his 
 plan  with  profound  policy.      But  the  Jefuits,  as 
 well  as  the  other  monaftic  orders,  are  indebted 
 for  the  exittence  of  their  order,  not  to  die  wifdom 
 of  their  founder,  but  to  his  enthufiafm.      Ignatio 
 Loyola  was  a  fanatic,   diftinguifhed  by  extrava- 
 gancies in  fentimenc  and  conduct,  no  lefs  incom- 
 patible with  the  maxims  of  reafon,   than  repug- 
 nant to  the  fpirit  of  religion.      The  wild  adven- 
 tures  and  vifionary  fchemes,   in  which  his  en- 
 T  4  thufiafm 
 
28 o  Order  of  [cent,  i 6, 
 
 thufiafm  engaged  him,  equal  any  thing  recorded 
 in  the  legends  of  the  Romifli  faints ;  but  are  un- 
 worthy of  notice  in  hiftory  *. 
 
 Prompted  by  this  fanatical  fpirit,  or  incited  by 
 the  love  of  power  and  diftinction,  from  which  fuch 
 pretenders  to  fuperior  fanflity  are  not  exempt, 
 Loyola  was  ambitious  of  becoming  the  founder  of 
 a  religious  community.  The  plan,  which  he  formed 
 of  its  conftkution  and  laws,,  was  fuggefted,  as  he 
 gave  out,  by  the  immediate  infpiration  of  heaven -f. 
 But  notwithstanding  this  high  pretention,  his  de- 
 fign  met  at  firft  with  violent  oppofition.  The 
 pope,  to  whom  Loyola  had  applied  for  the  fanc- 
 tion  of  his  authority  to  confirm  the  inftitution,  re- 
 ferred his  petition  to  "a  committee  of  cardinals.-—  - 
 They  reprefented  the  eflablilhment  to  beunnecef- 
 fary  as  well  as  dangerous,  and  Paul  refufed  to 
 grant  his  approbation.  At  laft,  Loyola  removed 
 all  his  fcruples,  by  an  offer  which  it  was  impoffible' 
 for  any  pope  to  refill:.  He  propofed,  that  befides 
 the  three  vows  of  poverty,  of  chaftity,  and  of  mo- 
 nadic obedience,  which  are  common  to  all  the 
 orders  of  regulars,  the  members  of  his'fociety 
 fhould  take  a  fourth   vow  of  obedience   to  the 
 
 *  The  late  ingenious  Mr.  Bowles  attempted  to  fh,ew  that  this 
 renowned  faint  was.  the  prototype  of  Don  Quixote  himfelf. 
 See  hi3  letter  to  Bifhop  Percy.     H. 
 
 •f  Compte  rendu  des  Conftitutions  des  Jefuites,  au  Parlement 
 4e  Provence,  par  M.  de  Monclar,  p.  285. 
 
 pope, 
 
cent.  1 6.]  the  Jefuits.  23 1 
 
 pope,  binding  themfelves  to  go  whitherfoever  he 
 mould  command,  for  the  fervice  of  religion,  and 
 without  requiring  any  thing  from  the  Holy  See 
 for  their  fupport.  At  a  time  when  the  papal 
 authority  had  received  fuch  a  fhock  by  the  revolt 
 of  fo  many  nations  from  the  Romifh  church  ;  at 
 a  time  when  every  part  of  the  popifli  fyftem  was 
 attacked  with  fo  much  violence  and  fuccefs,  the 
 acquifition  of  a  body  of  men,  thus  peculiarly  de- 
 voted to  the  fee  of  Rome,  and  whom  it  might  fet 
 in  oppofition  to  all  its  enemies,  was  an  object  of 
 the  higheft  confequence.  Paul,  inftantly  perceiv- 
 ing this,  confirmed  the  inititution  of  the  Jefuits 
 by  his  bull  ;  granted  the  mod  ample  privileges  to 
 the  members  of  the  fociety;  and  appointed  Loyola, 
 to  be  the  firfl:  general  of  the  order. 
 
 The  conftitution  and  laws  of  the  fociety  were 
 perfected  by  Laynez  and  Aquaviva,  the  two  ge- 
 nerals who  fucceeded  Loyola,  men  far  fuperior  to 
 their  matter  in  abilities,  and  in  the  fcience  of  go* 
 vernment. 
 
 The  primary  object  of  almoft  all  the  monaftic 
 orders  is  to  feparate  men  from  the  world,  and  from 
 any  concern  in  its  affairs.  In  the  folitude  and  fi- 
 lence  of  the  cloifter,  the  monk  is  called  to  work 
 out  his  own  falvation  by  extraordinary  acts  of 
 mortification  and  piety.  He  is  dead  to  the  world, 
 and  ought  not  to  mingle  in  its  transactions.  He 
 can  be  of  no  benefit  to  mankind,  but  by  his  ex- 
 ample and  his  prayers.  On  the  contrary,  the  Je- 
 6  .  (bits 
 
iZi  Order  of  Jejuits.  { c e n t .  i'6 . 
 
 fuits  were  taught  to  confider  themfelves  as  formed 
 for  action.  They  were  chofen  foldiers,  bound  to 
 exert  themfelves  continually  in  the  fervice  of  God, 
 and  of  the  pope,  his  vicar  upon  earth.  That  they 
 might  have  full  leifure  for  this  active  fervice,  they 
 were  totally  exempted  from  thofe  functions,  the 
 performance  of  which  is  the  chief  bufinefs  of  other 
 monks.  They  appeared  in  no  prcceffions ;  they 
 praclifed  no  rigorous  aufterities ;  they  did  not  con- 
 fume  one  half  of  their  time  in  the  repetition  of  tedi- 
 ous offices*.  But  they  were  required  to  attend  to 
 all  the  tranfactions  of  the  world,  on  account  of  the 
 influence  which  thefe  may  have  upon  religion  ; 
 they  were  directed  to  ftudy  the  difpofitions  of  per- 
 fons  in  high  rank,  and  to  cultivate  their  friend- 
 mip-j*;  and  by  the  very  constitution,  as  well  as 
 genius  of  the  order,  a  fpirit  of  aclion  and  intrigue 
 was  infufed  into  all  its  members 
 
 As  the  object  of  the  fociety  of  Jefuits  differed 
 from  that  of  the  other  monaftic  orders,  the  diver- 
 fity  was  no  lefs  in  the  form  of  its  government. 
 The  other  orders  are  to  be  confidered  as  yolun-r 
 tary  affociations,  in  which  whatever  affects  the 
 whole  body  is  regulated  by  the  common  fuffrage 
 of  all  its  members.  The  executive  power  is  vefted 
 in  the  perfons  placed  at  the  head  of  each  convent, 
 
 *  Compte  rendu,  parM.de  Monclar,  p.  xiii.  290.     §ur  U 
 Deftrudt.  des  Jcfuites,  par  M.  d'Alembert,  p.  42. 
 f  Compte  par  M.  de  Monclar,  p.  12. 
 
 or 
 
cent  1 6.]  Their  Conftitution  and  Government .    283 
 
 or  of  the  whole  fociety  ;  the  legiflative  authority 
 refides  in  the  community.  Affairs  of  moment,  re- 
 lating to  particular  convents,  are  determined  in 
 conventual  chapters;  fuch  as  refped  the  whole 
 order  are  confidered  in  general  congregations.  But 
 Loyola,  full  of  the  ideas  of  implicit  obedience, 
 which  he  had  derived  from  his  military  profeflion, 
 appointed  that  the  government  of  his  order  fhould 
 be  purely  monarchical.  A  General,  chofen  for 
 life  by  deputies  from  the  feveral  provinces,  pofTefT- 
 ed  power  that  was  fupreme  and  independent,  ex- 
 tending to  every  perfon,  and  to  every  cafe.  He, 
 by  his  fole  authority,  nominated  provincials,  rec- 
 tors, and  every  other  officer  employed  in  the  go- 
 vernment of  the  fociety,  and  could  remove  them 
 at  pleafure.  In  him  was  vefted  the  fovereign  ad- 
 miniftration  of  the  revenues  and  funds  of  the  order. 
 Every  member  belonging  to  it  was  at  his  ciifpofal ; 
 and  by  his  uncontrollable  mandare,  he  could  impofe 
 on  them  any  tafk,  or  employ  them  in  any  fervice. 
 To  his  commands  they  were  required  not  only  to 
 yield  outward  obedience,  but  to  refign  to  him  the 
 inclinations  ot  their  wills,  and  the  icntlments  of 
 their  minds.  There  is  not  in  the  annals  of  man- 
 kind any  example  of  fuch  ablolure  defpotifm,  ex- 
 ercifed  not  over  monks,  confined  in  the  cells  of  a 
 convent,  but  over  men  difperfed  among  all  the  na- 
 tions of  the  earth. 
 
 As  the  conftitutions  of  the  order  vefted  in  the 
 general  fuch  abfolute  dominion  over  all  its  mem- 
 bers, 
 
284  Order  of  Jefuits.  [cent.  16. 
 
 bers,  they  carefully  provided  for  his  being  perfectly 
 informed  with  refpect  to  the  character  and  abilities 
 of  his  fubjects.  Every  novice,  who  offered  himfelf 
 as  a  candidate  for  entering  into  the  order,  was 
 obliged  to  manifeft  his  confcience  to  the  fuperior, 
 or  to  a  perfon  appointed  by  him  j  and  in  doing 
 this  was  required  to  confefs  not  only  his  fins  and 
 defects,  but  to  difcover  the  inclination's,  the  paf- 
 fions,  and  the  bent  of  his  fouL  This  mani- 
 feftation  was  to  be  renewed  every  fix  months*. 
 The  fociety,  not  fatisfied  with  penetrating  in  this 
 manner  into  the  innermoit  receffes  of  the  heart,  di- 
 rected each  member  to  obferve  the  words  and 
 actions  of  the  novices ;  and  he  was  bound  to  difclofe, 
 every  thing  of  importance  concerning  them  to  the" 
 fuperior.  In  order  that  this  fcrutiny  into  their 
 character  might  be  as  complete  as  pomble,  a  long 
 noviciate  was  to  expire,  during  which  they  pafled 
 through  the  feveral  gradations  of  ranks  in  the  fo- 
 ciety, and  they  mud  have  attained  the  full  age  of 
 thirty-three  years  before  they  could  be  admitted  to 
 take  the  final  vows,  by  which  they  became  profeff- 
 ed  members-f- .  In  order  that  the  general^,  who 
 was  the  foul  that  animated  and  moved  the  v/hole 
 fociety,  might  have  under  his  eye  every  thing  necef- 
 fary  to  inform  or  direct  him,  the  provincials  and 
 heads  of  the  feveral  houfes  were  obliged  to  tranfmit 
 
 *  CompteparM.  de  Monclar,  p.  12  J,  Sec. 
 f  Comptepar  M.  de  Moncl.  215.  241.     Sur  la  Deflr.  des 
 Jef.  par  M.  d'Alemb.  p,  39, 
 
 to 
 
c  e  n  t  .  1 6 .  ]  Their  Influence,  285 
 
 to  him  regular  and  frequent  reports  concerning  the 
 members  under  their  infpection.  In  thefe  they  de- 
 fcended  into  minute  details  with  refpect  to  the 
 character  of  each  perfon,  his  abilities  natural  or 
 acquired,  his  temper,  his  experience  in  affairs,  and 
 the  particular  department  for  which  he  was  beft 
 fitted.  Thefe  reports,  when  digcfted  and  arranged, 
 were  entered  into  regifters  kept  on  purpofe,  that 
 the  general  might,  at  one  comprehenfive  view, 
 furvey  the  (late  of  the  fociety  in  every  corner  of  the 
 earth  ;  obferve  the  qualifications  and  talents  of  its 
 members ;  and  thus  choofe,  with  perfect  informa- 
 tion, the  inftruments,  which  his  abfolute  power 
 could  employ  in  any  fervice  for  which  he  thought 
 proper  to  deftine  them*. 
 
 Unhappily  for  mankind,  the  vaft  influence, 
 which  the  order  of  Jefuits  acquired,  was  often 
 exerted  with  the  mod  pernicious  effect.  Such 
 was  the  tendency  of  that  difcipline  obferved  by  the 
 fociety  in  forming  its  members,  and  fuch  the  fun- 
 damental maxims  in  its  conftitution,  that  every 
 Jefuit  was  taught  to  regard  the  intereft  of  the  fo- 
 ciety as  the  capital  object,  to  which  every  confider- 
 ation  was  to  be  facrificed.  This  ipirit  of  attach- 
 ment to  their  order,  the  mod  ardent,  perhaps,  that 
 ever  influenced  any  body  of  men-}-,  is  the  charac- 
 teristic principle  of  the  Jefuits,  and  fervesas  a  key  to 
 
 *  Compte  par  M.  de  Moriel.  p.  2  15.  439,      Compte  par  M* 
 de  Chalotais,  p.  52.  222. 
 
 f  Corapte  parM,  de  Moncl.  p.  z8|, 
 
 the 
 
286  Capuchins,  Theatins,(^c.       [cent,  i 6. 
 
 the  genius  of  their  policy,  as  well  as  to  the  peculia- 
 rities in  their  fentiments  and  condud. 
 
 The  other  mouarlic  orders  underwent  fome 
 changes  in  their  conftitution.  Matthew  de  Baffi, 
 a  native  of  Italy,  and  a  Francifcan  of  the  more 
 rigid  ciafs,  perfuaded  himfelf  in  the  year  1521, 
 that  he  was  divinely  infpired  fjr  the  purpofe  of 
 reftoring  the  primitive  difcipline  of  his  order.  He 
 became  the  father  of  the  Capuchins,  who  are  a 
 branch  of  the  Francifcans,  and  derive  their  name 
 from  the  (harp  pointed  capucke  or  cowl,  which  they 
 added  to  the  ordinary  Francifcan  habit.  They 
 differ  from  the  others  only  in  this,  and  in  the  pro-., 
 feflion  of  a  higher  degree  of  fanftity  and  feverity. , 
 Another  branch  of  the  Francifcan  order  received 
 the  denomination  of  Recollets  *  in  France,"  reformed 
 Francifcans  in  Italy,  and  bare-footed  Francifcans  in 
 Spain.  In  1532,  they  were  fi  nifiied  with  a  fepa- 
 rate  rule  by  Clement  VII.  and  are  called  Friars  Mi-> 
 rtors  of  the  Jlricl  obfervance. 
 
 The  firft  fociety  of  regular  Clerks  was  formed  in 
 1529,  and  called  Theat'ms,  from  their  founder  John 
 Peter  Carafla,  bifhop  of  Theatc  in  Naples,  and 
 afterwards  pope,  under  the  title  of  Paul  IV.  The 
 diftinguilhing  profeffion  of  this  order  is  extreme 
 poverty  without  even  the  refource  of  begging. 
 In  this  age,  fo  fertile  in  thefe  noxious  productions, 
 
 I 
 
 *  So  called  from  the  faculty  of  recolled'ion,  by  which  they  pre- 
 tended to  revive  the  rule  of  St.  Francis.     Formey.  ' 
 
 5  the- 
 
cent.  1 6 J]  St.  There/a.  Barefooted  Carmelites.  287 
 the  fociety  of  Priejis  of  the  oratory  alfo  fprung  up. 
 They  derive  their  name  from  the  oratory  or  cabi- 
 net of  demotion,  which  St.  Philip  Neri,  their  foun- 
 der, built  at  Florence,  for  himfelf  and  the  compa- 
 nions of  his  ftudies.  It  is  but  juftice  to  remark, 
 that  this  order  has  been  adorned  by  Baronius,  Ray- 
 naldus,  Laderchius,  and  many  others  refpe&able 
 for  their  literary  worth. 
 
 The  zeal  for  reformation  was  not  in  this  century 
 confined  to  the  male  fex.  St.  Therefa,  a  Spanifli 
 lady  of  illuftrious  birth,  in  conjunction  with  Jo- 
 hannes Santa  Crufa,  made  fome  zealous  efforts  for 
 the  improvement  of  the  Carmelites.  Her  felf-de- 
 nying  difcipline  not  being  however  equally  relithed 
 by  the  reft  of  the  order,  proved  only  a  perpetual 
 fource  of  difcord  and  uneafinefs.  The  more  auftere 
 part  of  the  fociety  was  therefore  feparated  from  the 
 others  in  1.580,  and  formed  into  a  diftinct  order, 
 under  the  name  of  the  bare-footed  Carmelites. 
 
 CHAP. 
 
CHAP.     III. 
 
 OF    THE    REFORMATION  IN  GERMANY, 
 
 PARTI,".' 
 
 Indigence  of the  Papal  Treafury — Sale  of  Indulgences — Tei-  ' 
 zcl— Luther —  Oppofes  Tetzel  in  the  Publication  af  Indul- 
 gences-^Supported  by  the  Auguflin  Monks^  and  the  Eleclor 
 of  Saxony  ^-Contcjl  with  Eccius,  &c. — At  firjl  difregarded 
 hy  Leo — Afterwards  fummoned  to  Rome — Appears  before 
 Cardinal  Cajetan — ^Appeals  to  a  General  Council — Z«/«-  ' 
 glius  begins  the  Reformation  in  Switzerland — Luther 
 excommunicated  —  Burns  the  Papal  Bull — Views  of 
 ,  the  E?nperor  with  regard  to  Luther — Luther  fummoned  ta 
 the  Diet  at  Worms — Edicl  againfl  him — Seized  and  con- 
 cealed at  JVartburgh — Controverfy  with  the  Univerfity  of 
 Paris  and  Hoiry  Fill,  of  England— Tranflates  the  Bible 
 — Characler  of  Adrian  VL — Lifl  of  Grievances  prefented 
 by  the  Diet  of  Nuremburgh — Clement  V  11. — Marriage  of 
 Luther — Refonnation  in  PruJJia — Danger  of  P  erf  edition — 
 Contefl  between  the  Pope  and  the  Emperor — Friends  of  Re- 
 formation diflinguijhed  by  the  Name  of  Proteflants — Confef- 
 fion  of  Augfburg — League  of  Smalkalde — Ambition  of  the 
 Emperw — Negotiations  of  the  Proteflants  with  France  and 
 
 England— 
 
[    z89    ] 
 
 England — Treaty   with  the  Emperor    at     Nuremberg-— 
 Death  of  the  Eleclor  of  Saxony. 
 
 TO  overturn  a  fyftem  of  religious  belief  found- 
 ed on  ancient  and  deep-rooted  prejudices, 
 fupported  by  power,  and  defended  with  no  lefs  arc 
 than  induftry  j  to  eftablidi  in  its  room  doctrines  of 
 the  mod  contrary  genius  and  tendency ;  and  to  ac- 
 complifh  all  this,  not  by  external  violence  or  the 
 force  of  arms;  are  operations  which  hiftorians,  the 
 leaft  prone  to  credulity  and  fuperftition,  afcribe  to 
 that  Divine  Providence  which,  with  infinite  eafe, 
 can  effect  defigns  which  to  human  fagacity  appear 
 impoflible.  The  interpofition  of  Heaven,  in  fa- 
 vour of  the  Chriftian  religion  at  its  firft  publication, 
 was  manifefted  by  miracles  and  prophecies  wrought 
 and  uttered  in  confirmation  of  it.  Though  none 
 of  the  reformers  pofTeffed,  or  pretended  to  poffefs, 
 thefe  fupernatural  gifts,  yet  that  wonderful  prepa- 
 ration of  circumftances  which  difpofed  the  minds 
 of  men  for  receiving  their  doctrines,  that  fingular 
 combination  of  caufes  which  fecured  their  fuccefs, 
 and  enabled  men  deftitute  of  power  and  of  policy 
 to  triumph  over  thofe  who  employed  againft  them 
 extraordinary  efforts  of  both,  may  be  coniidered  as 
 no  flight  proof  that  the  fame  hand,  which  planted 
 the  Chriftian  religion,  protected  the  reformed 
 faith,  and  reared  it,  from  beginnings  extremely 
 feeble,  to  an  amazing  degree  of  ftrength  and  ma- 
 turity. 
 
 It  was  from  caufes  feemingly  fortuitous,  and 
 Vol.  II.  U  from 
 
290        Sale  of  Indulgences  ly  Wetzel.      [ceni\  i6\ 
 
 from  a  fource   very   inconfiderabie,   that  all  the 
 mighty  effects  of  the  Reformation  flowed.  Leo.  X. 
 when    raifed  to  the  papal  throne,  found  the  reve- 
 nues of  the  Church  exhaufted  by  the  van:  projects 
 of  his  two  ambitious  predecefibrs.     His  own  tem- 
 per, naturally  liberal  and  enterprifing,  rendered  him 
 incapable  of  fevere  and  patient  economy,  and  his 
 fchemes  for  aggrandizing  the  family  of  Medicis,  his 
 love  of  fplendor,  and  his  munificence  in  rewarding 
 men  of  genius,  involved  himdaily  in  new  expences'; 
 in  order  to  provide  a  fund  for  which,  he  tried  every 
 device  that  the  fertile  invention  of  priefts  had  fallen 
 upon,   to  drain  the  credulous  multitude  of  their 
 wealth.     Among  others,  he  had  recourfe  to  a  fale 
 of  indulgences. 
 
 The  right  of  promulgating  thefe  indulgences  in 
 Germany,  together  with  a  fhare  in  the  profits  arif- 
 ing  from  the  fale  of  them,  was  granted  to  Albert, 
 elector  of  Metz  and  archbifhop  of  Magdeburg, 
 who,  as  his  chief  agent  for  retailing  them  in  Saxony, 
 employed  Tetzel,  a  Dominican  friar,  of  licentious 
 morals,  but  of  an  active  fnirit,  and  remarkable  for 
 his  noify  and  popular  eloquence.  He,  affifted  by 
 the  monks  of  his  order,  executed  the  commiflion 
 with  great  zeal  and  fuccefs,  but  with  little  difcre- 
 tion  or  decency;  and  though,  by  magnifying  excef- 
 fivelythe  benefit  of  their  indulgences,  and  by  dif- 
 pohng  of  them  at  a  very  low  price,  they  carried  on 
 for  fome  time  an  extenfive  and  lucrative  traffic 
 among  the  credulous  and  the  ignorant ;  the  extra- 
 vagance 
 
cent.  1 6.]  Luther.  291 
 
 vagancc  of  their  afTertions,  as  well  as  the  irregula- 
 rities in  their  conduct,  came  at  lad  to  give  general 
 offence.  The  princes  and  nobles  were  irritated  at 
 feeing  their  varTals  drained  of  fo  much  wealth,  in 
 order  to  replenifh  the  treafury  of  a  profufe  pontiff; 
 and  men  of  piety  regretted  thedelufion  of  the  people. 
 Even  the  molt  unthinking  were  mocked  at  the  fcan- 
 dalous  behaviour  of  Tetzel  and  his  aflbciates,  who 
 often  fquandered  in  drunkennefs,  gaming,  and  low 
 debauchery,  thole  fums  which  were  pioufly  bellowed 
 in  hopes  of  eternal  happinefs;  and  all  began  to  wifh 
 that  fome  check  was  given  to  this  commerce,  no 
 lefs  detrimental  to  fociety  than  destructive  to  reli- 
 gion. 
 
 Such  was  the  favourable  juncture,  when  Martin 
 Luther  nrft  began  to  queflion  the  efficacy  of  indul- 
 gences, and  to  declaim  againft  the  vicious  lives  and 
 falfe  doctrines  of  the  perfons  employed  in  promul- 
 gating them.  Luther  was  a  native  of  Eifleben  in 
 Saxony,  and,  though  born  of  poor  parents,  had  re- 
 ceived a  learned  education,  during  the  progrefs  of 
 which  he  gave  many  indications  of  uncommon 
 vigour  and  acutenefs  of  genius.  As  his  mind  was 
 naturally  fufceptible  of  ferious  impreffions,  and 
 tinctured  with  fomewhat  of  that  religious  melan- 
 choly which  delights  in  the  folitude  and  devotion 
 of  a  monaflic  life,  he  retired  into  a  convent  of  Au- 
 guilin  friars,  and  aflumed  the  habit  of  that  order. 
 He  foon  acquired  great  reputation  for  his  piety, 
 his  love  of  knowledge,  and  his  unwearied  applica- 
 U  1  tion 
 
292.  Succefs  of  Tetzel  in  Saxony,       [cent.  16. 
 
 tion  to  fludy.  He  had  been  taught  the  fcholaflic 
 philofophy  and  theology  which  were  then  in  vogue, 
 and  wanted  not  penetration  to  comprehend  all  the 
 niceties  and  diftin&ions  with  which  they  abound; 
 but  his  underftanding,  naturally  found,  foon  be- 
 came difgufled  with  thofe  fubtle  and  uninftructive 
 fciences,  and  fought  for  fome  more  folid  founda- 
 tion of  knowledge  and  of  piety  in  the  holy  fcrip- 
 tures.  Having  found  a  copy  of  the  bible,  which 
 lay  neglected  in  the  library  of  his  monaftery,  he 
 devoted  himfelftothe  fludy  of  it,  with  fuch  eager- 
 nefs  and  affiduity  as  aflonifhed  the  monks,  who 
 were  little  accuflomed  to  derive  their  theological, 
 notions  from  that  fource.  The  great  progrefs, 
 which  he  made  in  this  uncommon  courfe  of  fludy,  ' 
 augmented  fo  much  the  fame  both  of  his  fanctity 
 and  of  his  learning,  that  Frederic,  elector  of  Saxony, 
 having  founded  an  univerfity  at  Wittemberg  on 
 the  Elbe,  the  place  of  his  refidence,  Luther  was 
 chofen  firft  to  teach  philofophy,  and  afterwards 
 theology  there ;  and  was  deemed  the  chief  orna- 
 ment of  that  fociety. 
 
 While  Luther  was  at  the  height  of  his 'reputa- 
 tion and  authority,  Tetzel  began  to  publifh  indul- 
 gences in  the  neighbourhood  of  Wittembere.     As 
 
 te>  D  <-> 
 
 Saxony  was  not  more  enlightened  than  the  other 
 provinces  of  Germany,  Tetzel  met  with  prodigious 
 fuccefs.  It  was  with  the  utmofl  concern  that  Lu- 
 ther beheld  the  artifices  of  thofe  who  fold,  and  the 
 Simplicity  of  thofe  who  bought  indulgences.    His 
 
 warm 
 
cent.  1 6 .  ]  Luther  f  reaches  againjl  Indulgences,  2 .9  3 
 warm  and  impetuous  temper  did  not  fuffer  him  long 
 to  conceal  his  opinions,  or  to  continue  a  filent 
 fpectator  of  the  delufion  of  his  countrymen.  From 
 the  pulpit  in  the  great  church  at  Wittemberg,  he 
 inveighed  bitterly  againft  the  irregularities  and  vices 
 of  the  monks  who  publifhed  indulgences ;  he  ven- 
 tured to  examine  the  doctrines  which  they  taught, 
 and  pointed  out  to  the  people  the  danger  of  rely- 
 ing for  falvation  upon  any  other  means  than  thofe 
 appointed  by  God  in  his  word.  The  boldnefsand 
 novelty  of  thefe  opinions  drew  great  attention,  and 
 being  recommended  by  the  authority  of  Luther's 
 perfonal  character,  and  delivered  wi^h  a  popular 
 and  perfuafive  eloquence,  they  made  a  deep  im- 
 preffion  on  his  hearers.  Encouraged  by  the  favour- 
 able reception  of  his  doctrines,  he  wrote  to  Albert, 
 elector  of  Mentz  and  archbifhop  of  Magdeburg, 
 to  whofejurifdiction  that  part  of  Saxony  wasfub- 
 ject,  and  remonltrated  warmly  againft  the  falfe  opi- 
 nions, as  well  as  wicked  lives  of  the  preachers  of 
 indulgences ;  but  he  found  that  prelate  too  deeply 
 interefted  in  their  fuccefs  to  correct  their  abufes. 
 His  next  attempt  was  to  gain  the  fuffrage  of 
 men  of  learning.  For  this  purpofe  he  published 
 ninety-five  thefes,  containing  his  featiments 
 with  regard  to  indulgences.  Thefe  he  pro- 
 pofed,  not  as  points  fully  eftablifhed,  or  of  un- 
 doubted certainty,  but  as  fubjects  of  inquiry  and 
 difputation ;  he  appointed  a  day,  on  which  the 
 U  3  learned 
 
294  Luther  favoured  by  his  own  Order,  [cent.  16. 
 learned  were  invited  to  impugn  them,  either  in 
 perfon  or  by  writing ;  to  the  whole  he  fubjoined 
 folemn  proteftations  of  his  high  refpect  for  the 
 apoftolic  fee,  -and  of  his  implicit  fubmiffion  to  its 
 authority.  No  opponent  appeared  at  the  time 
 prefixed  ;  the  thefes  fpread  over  Germany  with 
 aftoniming  rapidity  ;  they  were  read  with  the  great- 
 eft  eagernefs  ;  and  all  admired  the  boldnefs  of  the 
 man,  who  had  ventured,  not  only  to  call  in  quef- 
 tion  the  plenitude  of  papal  power,  but  to  attack  the 
 Dominicans,  armed  with  all  the  terrors  of  iqquifi- 
 torial  authority*. 
 
 The  friars  of  St.  Augufline,  LutherVown  order, 
 pave  no  check  to  the  publication  of  thefe  uncom^ 
 mon  opinions.  Luther  had,  by  his  piety  an4 
 learning,  acquired  extraordinary  authority  among 
 his  brethren  ;  he  profeffed  the  highefl  regard  for 
 the  authority  of  the  pope;  his  profemons  were  at 
 that  time  fmcere  ;  and  as  a  fecret  enmity  fubfifts 
 among  all  the  monadic  orders  of  the  Romifh 
 church,  the  Auguftins  were  highly  pleafed  with  his 
 invectives  againft  the  Dominicans,  and  hoped  to  fee 
 them  expofed  to  the  hatred  and  fcorn  of  the  people. 
 His  fovereign,  the  elector  of  Saxony,  the  wifeft 
 prince  at  that  time  in  Germany,  fecretly  encouraged 
 his  attempts,  and  flattered  himfelf  that  this  difputc 
 
 *  Lutheri  Opera,  Jenas,  1612,  vol.  i.  prasfat.  3.  p.  2.  66.  Hill. 
 of  Counc.  of  Trent  by  F.  Paul,  p.  4.  Seckend.  Com.  Apol. 
 J>.  16. 
 
tENT.  16*.]       Difregarded  hy  the  Pope.  29$ 
 
 among  the  ecclefiaftics  themfelves  might  give 
 fome  check  to  the  exactions  of  the  court  of  Rome, 
 which  the  fecular  princes  had  long,  though  without 
 fuccefs,  been  endeavouring  to  oppofe. 
 
 Several  thefes  appeared  in  oppofiuon  to  the 
 ninety- five  publifhed  by  Luther,  and  the  argu- 
 ments produced  for  his  confutation  were  the  fenti- 
 ments  of  fchoolmen,  the  conclusions  of  the  canon 
 law,  and  the  decrees  cf  popes*.  The  decifions  of 
 judges  fo  partial  and  interefted,  did  not  fatisfy  the 
 people,  who  began  to  call  in  queftion  the  autho- 
 rity even  of  thefe  venerable  guides,  when  they 
 found  them  (landing  in  direct  oppofnion  to  the 
 dictates  of  reafon,  and  the  determinations  of  the 
 divine  law-f-f 
 
 Meanwhile  thefe  novelties  in  Luther's  doctrines, 
 which  interefted  all  Germany,  excited  little  atten- 
 tion and  no  alarm  in  the  court  of  Rome.  Leo, 
 fond  of  elegant  and  refined  pleafures,  intent  upon 
 great  fchemes  of  policy,  a  Stranger  to  theological 
 controversies,  and  apt  to  defpife  them,  regarded 
 with  the  utmoft  indifference  the  operations  of  an 
 obfcure  friar,  who,  in  the  heart  of  Germany,  car- 
 ried on  a  fcholaftic  difputation  in  a  barbarous  ftyle. 
 Leo  imputed  the  whole  to  monaftic  enmity  and 
 emulation,  and  feemed  inclined  not  to  incerpofe  in 
 the  conteft,  but  to  allow  the  Auguflins  and  Domi- 
 
 *  F.  Paul,  p.  6.     Seckend.  p.  40.    Palavlc.  p.  8. 
 ■f  Seckend,  p.  30. 
 
 U  4  nicans 
 
19 &  Luther  Jummoned  lo  Rome,       [cent.  i6\ 
 
 means  to  wrangle  about  the  matter  with  their  ufual 
 animofity. 
 
 The  folicirations  however  of  Luther's  adverfa- 
 ries,  together  with  the  furprifing  progrefs  which  his 
 opinions  made  in  different  parts  of  Germany, 
 roufednt  laft  the  attention  of  the  court  of  Rome, 
 and  obliged  Leo  to  take  meafures  for  the  fecurity 
 of  the  church  againft  an  attack  that  now  appeared 
 too  ferious  to  be  defpifed.  For  this  end  he  funi- 
 moned  Luther  to  appear  at  Rome,  within  fixty- 
 days,  before  the  auditor  of  the  chamber,  and  the 
 inquifitor-  general,  Prierias^  who  had  written  againft 
 him,  whom  he  empowered  jointly  to  examine  his  . 
 doctrines,  and  to  decide  concerning  them.  He  , 
 wrote,  at  the  fame  time,  to  the  elector  of  Saxony, 
 befeeching  him  not  to  protect:  a  man  whofe  here- 
 tical and  prophane  tenets  were  fo  mocking  to  pious 
 cars ;  and  enjoined  the  provincial  of  the  Auguftins 
 to  check  by  his  authority  the  rafhnefs  of  an  arro- 
 gant monk,  which .  brought  difgrace  upon  the 
 order  of  St.  Auguftine,  and  gave  offence  and  dif- 
 turbance  to  the  whole  church. 
 
 From  the  ftrain  of  thefe  letters,  as  well  "as  from 
 the  nomination  of  a  judge  fo  prejudiced  and  par- 
 tial as  Prieiias,  Luther  eafily  faw  what  fentence  he 
 might  expect  at  Rome.  He  difcovered,  for  that 
 neafon,  the  utmoft  folicitude  to  have  his  caufe  tried 
 in  Germany,  and  before  a  lefs  fufpected  tribunal. 
 The  profefibrs  in  the  university  of  Wittemberg, 
 anxious  for  his  fafety,  wrote  to  the  pope,  and,  after 
 
 employing 
 
cent.  1 6.]  His  Interview  with  Pope's  Legate.    297 
 
 employing  feveral  pretexts  to  excufe  Luther  from 
 appearing  at  Rome,  entreated  Leo  to  commit  the 
 examination  of  his  doctrines  to  fome  perfons  of 
 learning  and  authority  in  Germany.  The  elector 
 requefted  the  fame  thing  of  the  pope's  legate  at  the 
 diet  of  Augfburg  ;  and  as  Luther  himfelf,  who  at 
 that  time  did  not  even  entertain  the  fmalleft  fufpi- 
 cion  concerning  the  divine  original  of  papal  autho- 
 rity, had  wrirten  to  Leo  a  fubmiffive  letter,  promif- 
 ixig  an  unreferved  compliance  with  his  will,  the 
 pope  gratified  them  fo  far  as  to  empower  his  legate 
 in  Germany,  cardinal  Cajetan,  a  Dominican,  emi- 
 nent for  fchojaftic  learning,  and  paffionately  de- 
 voted to  the  Roman  fee,  to  hear  and  determine  the 
 caufe, 
 
 Luther,  having  obtained  the  emperor's  fafe-con- 
 ducl,  immediately  repaired  to  Augfburg.  The 
 cardinal  received  him  with  decent  refpect,  and  en-, 
 deavonred  at  firft  to  gain  upon  him  by  gentle  treat- 
 ment 1  but  thinking  it  beneath  the  dignity  of  his 
 ftation  to  enter  into  any  formal  difpute  with  a  per- 
 fonof  fuch  inferior  rank,  he  required  him,  by  vir- 
 tue of  the  apoftolic  powers  with  which  he  was 
 clothed,  to  retract  his  errors  with  regard  to  indul- 
 gences and  the  nature  of  faith  ;  and  to  abfiain,  for 
 the  future,  from  the  publication  of  new  and  dan- 
 gerous opinions.  Luther,  fully  perfuaded  of  the 
 truth  of  his  own  tenets,  and  confirmed  in  the  be- 
 lief of  them  by  thp  approbation  which  they  had 
 met  with  among  perfons  confpicuqus  both  for  learn- 
 
 ing 
 
298  Fruit kfi  Negotiations,  [cent.  16. 
 
 ing  and  piety,  was  furprifed  at  this  abrupt  men- 
 tion of  a  recantation,  before  any  endeavours  were 
 ufed  to  convince  hirn  that  he  was  mittaken.     He 
 had  flattered  himfelf  that,  in  a  conference  concern- 
 ing the  points  in  difpute,  with  a  prelate  of  fuch  dif- 
 tinguiPned  abilities,  he  mould  be  able  to  remove 
 many  of  thofe  imputations  with  which  the  igno- 
 rance or  malice  of  his  antagonifts  had  loaded  him ; 
 but  the  high  tone  ot  authority  that  the  cardinal  af- 
 fumed  extinguiihed  at  once  all  hopes  of  this  kind, 
 and  cut  off  every  profped   of  advantage  from  the 
 interview.     His  native  intrepidity  of  mind,  how- 
 ever, did  not  defert  him.     He  declared  with  the 
 utmoft  rirmnefs,  that  he  could  not,  with  a  fafe  con- 
 fcience,  renounce  opinions  which  he  believed  to  be- 
 true  ;   nor  fhould  any  consideration  ever  induce 
 him  to  do  what  would  be  fo  bafe  in  itfelf,  and  fo 
 offeniive  to  God.  At  the  fame  time,  he  continued 
 to  exprefs  no  lefs  reverence  than  formerly  for  the 
 authority  of  theapoflolic  fee  *  ;  he  fignified  his  wil- 
 lingnefs  to  fubmit  the  whole  controverfy  to  certain 
 univerfities  which  he  named,  and  promifed  neither 
 to  write  nor   to  preach  concerning  indulgences  for 
 the  future,  provided  his  adverfaries  were  likewife 
 enjoined  to  be  filent  with  refpect  to  them  -f.     All 
 thefe  offers  Cajetan  difregarded  or  rejected,    and 
 {till  infilled  peremptorily  on  a  f.mple  recantation, 
 threatening  him  with   ccclefiaftical  cenfures,  and 
 forbidding  him  to  appear  again  in  his  prefence,  un- 
 
 *  Lulh.  Oper.  vol.  i.  p.  164.  t  Ibid.  p.  169. 
 
 lefs 
 
cent.  1 6.]  Ek5f  or  required  to  deliver  up  Luthsr.  299 
 Iefs  he  refolved  inftantly  to  comply  with  what  he  had 
 required.  This  haughty  and  violent  proceeding, 
 as  \\z\\  as  other  circumftances,  gave  Luther's  friends 
 fuch  (Irong  reafons  to  fufpecl:  that  even  the  im- 
 perial fafe- conduct  would  not  be  able  to  protect 
 him  from  the  legate's  power  and  refentment,  that 
 they  prevailed  on  him  to  withdraw  fecretly  from 
 Augftjurg,  and  to  return  to  his  own  country.  But 
 before  his  departure,  he  prepared  a  folemn  appeal 
 from  the  legate,  ill-informed  at  that  time  concern- 
 ing his  caufe,  to  the  pope,  who  indeed  ought  not  to 
 have  committed  a  caufe  of  this  importance  to  an, 
 inferior  agent  *. 
 
 Cajetan,  enraged  at  Luther's  abrupt  retreat, 
 and  at  the  publication  of  his  appeal,  wrote  to  the 
 elector  of  Saxony,  complaining  of  both  ;  and  re- 
 quiring him  as  he  regarded  the  peace  of  the  church, 
 or  the  authority  of  its  head,  either  to  fend  that  fe- 
 ditiaus  monk  a  prifoner  to  Rome,  or  to  banifli 
 him  out  of  his  territories.  It  was  not  from  theolo- 
 gical confederations  that  Frederic  had  hitherto 
 countenanced  Luther.  His  protection  flowed  al- 
 moft  entirely  from  political  motives,  and  was  af- 
 forded with  great  feqrecy  and  caution.  He  had 
 neither  heard  any  of  Luther's  difcourfes,  nor  read 
 any  of  his  books ;  and  though  all  Germany  re- 
 founded  with  his  fame,  he  had  never  once  admit- 
 ted him  into  his  prefence  -f-.     But  upon  this  de- 
 
 *  Sleid.  Hift.  of  Reform,  p.  7.  Seckend.  p.  45.  Luth. 
 Opcr.  i.  163. 
 
 •f  Seckend,  p.  27.-      Sleid,  Hill.  p.  12* 
 
 mand 
 
3 oo  Luther  protected  ly  the  Eleftor.  [cent.  i6# 
 mand  which  the  cardinal  made,  it  became  necef- 
 fary  to  throw  off  fomewhat  of  his  former  referve. 
 He  had  been  at  great  expence,  and  had  bellowed 
 much  attention  on  founding  a  new  univerfiry,  an 
 object  of  considerable  importance  to  every  Ger- 
 man prince  ;  and  forefeeing  how  fatal  a  blow  the 
 removal  of  Luther  would  be  to  its  reputation*, 
 he,  under  various  pretexts,  and  with  many  profef- 
 iions  ofefteemfor  the  cardinal,  as-well  as  of  re- 
 verence for  the  pope,  not  only  declined  complying 
 with  either  of  his  requefts,  but  openly  discovered 
 great  concern  for  Luther's  fafety  -}~. 
 
 The  inflexible  rigour,  with  which  Cajetan  in-  . 
 fifted  on  a  fimple  recantation,  gave  great  offence  , 
 to  Luther's  followers  in  that  age.  But  it  was  im- 
 pofiible  for  the  legate  to  aft  another  part.  The 
 judges  before  whom  Luther  had  been  required  to 
 appear  at  Rome,  without  waiting  for  the  .expira- 
 tion of  the  fixty  days  allowed  him  in  the  citation, 
 had  already  condemned  him  as  an  heretic  %.  Leo 
 had,  in  feveral  of  his  briefs  and  letters,  ftigma- 
 tized  him  as  a  child  of  iniquity,  and  a  man  given 
 up  to  a  reprobate  fenfe.  Nothing  lefs,  therefore, 
 than  a  recantation  could  fave  the  honour  of  the 
 church,  whofe  maxim  it  is,  never  to  abandon  the 
 fmalleft  point  that  it  has  eftablifhed,  and  which  is 
 even  precluded,  by  its  pretenfions  to  infallibility, 
 from  having  it  in  its  power  to  do  fo. 
 
 *  SeckencLp.  59.     -j-  Skid,  Hill.  p.  10.     Luth,  Oper.  1.172. 
 J  Luth.  Oper.  i.    i(ji. 
 
 In 
 
cent*  1 6.]        Bull  ijfued  againfi  Luther.  301 
 
 In  this  fituation,  Luther  difcovered  nofymp- 
 toms  of  timidity  or  remiffnefs,  but  continued  to 
 vindicate  his  own  conduct  and  opinions,  and  to  in- 
 veigh againftthofe  of  his  advcrfarieswkh  more  ve- 
 hemence than  ever  *« 
 
 As  every  ftep,  however,  which  was  taken  by  the 
 court  of  Rome,  convinced  Luther  that  Leo  would 
 foon  proceed  to  the  mod  violent  meafures  againft 
 him,  he  had  recourfe  to  the  only  expedient  in  his 
 power,  in  order  to  prevent  the  effect  of  the  papal 
 cenfures.  He  appealed  to  a  general  council, 
 which  he  affirmed  to  be  the  reprefentative  of  the  ca- 
 tholic church,  and  fuperior  in  power  to  the  pope, 
 who,  being  a  fallible  man,  might  err,  as  St.  Peter, 
 the  mod  perfect  of  his  predeceffors,  had  erred  \. 
 
 It  foon  appeared,  that  Luther  had  not  formed 
 rafn  conjectures  concerning  the  intentions  of  the 
 Romifh  church.  A  bull,  of  a  date  prior  to  his 
 appeal,  was  iflued  by  the  pope,  in  which  he  mag- 
 nified the  virtue  and  efficacy  of  indulgences ;  he 
 required  all  Chriftians  to  aflentto  what  he  delivered 
 as  the  doctrine  of  the  catholic  church  ;  and  fub- 
 jected  thofe,  who  fhould  hold  or  teach  any  contrary- 
 opinion,  to  the  heavieft  ecclefiaftical  cenfures. 
 
 Among  Luther's  followers,  this  bull,  which  they 
 confidered  as  an  unjuftifiabie  effort  of  the  pope 
 in  order  to  preferve  that  rich  branch  of  his  revenue 
 which  arofe  from  indulgences,  produced  little  ef- 
 
 *  Seckend.  p.  59. 
 f  Sleid,  Hift,  iz,     Luth.  Oper.  i.  179. 
 
 fed. 
 
§02  Political  Views  of  the  Tope*      [cent.  1 6* 
 
 fed'.  But  among  the  reft  of  his  countrymen,  fuch 
 a  clear  decifion  of  the  fovereign  pontiff  againft  him, 
 and  enforced  by  fuch  dreadful  penalties,  muft  have 
 been  attended  with  confequences  very  fatal  to  his 
 caufe,  if  thefe  had  not  been  prevented,  in  a  great 
 meafure,  by  the  death  of  the  emperor  Maximilian, 
 whom  both  his  principles  and  his  intereft  prompt- 
 ed'to  fupport  the  authority  of  the  holy  fee.  In 
 confequence  of  this  event,  the  vicariat  of  that  part 
 of  Germany  which  is  governed  by  the'  Saxon  laws 
 devolved  to  the  elector  of  Saxony  ;  and  under  the 
 fhelter  of  his  friendly  administration,  Luther  not 
 only  enjoyed  tranquillity,  but  his  opinions  were, 
 fuffered,  during  the  inter-regnum  which  preceded  , 
 the  election,  to  take  root  in  different  places,  and 
 to  grow  up  to  fome  degree  of  Strength  and  firm- 
 nefs.  At  the  fame  time,  as  the  election  of  an 
 emperor  was  a  point  more  interesting  to  Leo  than ^ 
 a  theological  controverfy  which  he  did  not  under* 
 (land,  and  of  which  he  could  not  forefee  the  con- 
 fequences, he  was  fo  extremely  folicitous  not  to 
 irritate  a  prince  of  fuch  confiderable  influence  in 
 the  electoral  college  as  Frederic,  that  he  cjifco- 
 vered  a  great  unwillingnefs  to  pronounce  the  fen- 
 tence  of  excommunication  againfb  Luther,  which 
 hisadverfaries  demanded  with  the  moft  clamorous 
 importunity. 
 
 To  thefe  political  views  of  the  pope,  as  well  as 
 
 to  his  natural  averfion  to  fevere  meafures,  was 
 
 owing  the  fufpenfion  of  any  further  proceedings 
 
 3  againft 
 
Cent.  16.]  Zuinglius.  30  J 
 
 againft  Luther  for  eighteen  months.  Perpetual 
 negotiations,  however,  in  order  to  bring  the  mat- 
 ter to  fome  amicable  ivlue,  were  carried  on  during 
 that  fpace*  The  manner  in  which  thefe  were 
 condu&ed,  having  given  Luther  many  opportuni- 
 ties of  obferving  the  corruption  of  the  court  of 
 Rome,  he  began  to  utter  fome  doubts  with  re- 
 gard to  the  divine  original  of  the  papal  authority- 
 A  public  difputation  was  held  upon  this  import- 
 ant queftion  at  Leipfic,  between  Luther  and  Ec- 
 cius,  one  of  his  mofl  learned  and  formidable  anta- 
 gonists; but  it  was  as  fruitlefs  and  indecifive  as 
 fuch  fcholaftic  combats  ufually  prove*. 
 
 Nor  did  this  fpirit  of  oppofition  to  the  doctrines 
 and  ufurpations  of  the  Romifti  church  break  out 
 in  Saxony  alone  ;  an  attack  no  lefs  violent,  and 
 occafioned  by  the  fame  caufes,  was  made  upon 
 them  about  this  time  in  Switzerland.  The  Francif- 
 cans  being  entrufted  with  the  promulgation  of  in- 
 dulgences in  that  Country,  executed  their  commif- 
 fion  with  the  fame  indifcretion  and  rapacioufnefs, 
 which  had  rendered  the  Dominicans  fo  odious  in 
 Germany.  They  proceeded  neverthelefs  with 
 uninterrupted  fuccefs  till  they  arrived  at  Zurich. 
 There  Zuinglius,  a  man  not  inferior  to  Luther 
 in  zeal  and  intrepidity,  ventured  to  oppofe  them  ; 
 and  being  animated  with  a  republican  boldnefs, 
 he  advanced  with  more  daring  and  rapid  fteps  to 
 overturn  the  whole  fabric  pf  the  eftablifhec}  re- 
 
 *  Lutli.  Oper.  i,  log. 
 
 ligion; 
 
$04  Luther  excommunicated.        [cent.  16. 
 
 ligion  **  The  appearance  of  fuch  a  vigorous 
 auxiliary,  and  the  progrefs  which  he  made,  was 
 at  firfl;  matter  of"  great  joy  to  Luther.  On  the 
 other  hand,  the  decrees  of  the  univerfities  of  Co- 
 logn  and  Louvaine,  which  pronounced  his  opinions 
 to  be  erroneous,  afforded  great  caufe  of  triumph 
 to  his  adverfaries. 
 
 But  the  undaunted  fpirit  of  Luther  acquired  ad- 
 ditional fortitude  from  every  inftance  of  oppofi- 
 tion  j  and  he  began  to  fhakc  the  firmed  founda- 
 tions on  which  the  wealth  or  power  of  the  church 
 were  eflablifhed.  Leo  came  at  laft  to  be  con- 
 vinced, that  all  hopes  of  reclaiming  him  bv  ft  r- 
 bearance  were  "vain  ;  feveral  prelates  of  great 
 wifdom  exclaimed  no  lefs  than  Luther's  perfonal  ad- 
 verfaries, again!!  the  pope's  unprecedented  lenity; 
 the  dignity  of  the  papal  fee  rendered  the  mod  vi- 
 gorous proceedings  necefTary ;  the  new  emperor, 
 it  was  hoped,  would  fuppoi  t  its  authority ;  nor 
 did  it  feern  probable  that  the  elector  of  Saxony 
 would  fo  far  forget  his  ufual  caution,  as  to  fet 
 himfelf  in  oppofition  to  their  united  power.  The 
 college  of  cardinals  was  often  affembled.in  order 
 to  prepare  the  fentence  with  due  deliberation, 
 and  the  ableft  canonifts  were  confuked  how  it 
 might  be  expreffed  with  unexceptionable  forma- 
 lity. At  laft,  on  the  15th  of  June,  1520,  the 
 bull,  fo  fatal  to  the  church  of  Rome,  was  iffued. 
 Forty-one  propofitions,  extracted  out  of  Luther's 
 
 *  Skid.Hift.  2  2,    Seckcnd.  59. 
 
 works, 
 
cent.  1 6.]         Effefts  cf  the  Papal  Bull.  30 5 
 
 works,  are  therein  condemned  as  heretical,  fcan- 
 dalous,  and  offenfive  to  pious  ears ;  all  perfons 
 are  forbidden  to  read  his  writings,  upon  pain  of 
 excommunication  ;  fuch  as  had  any  of  them  in 
 their  cuftody  are  commanded  to  commit  them  to 
 the  flames  ;  he  himfelf,  if  he  did  not,  within 
 fixty  days,  publicly  recant  his  errors,  and  burn  his 
 books,  is  pronounced  an  obftinate  heretic  ;  is  ex- 
 communicated, and  delivered  unto  Satan  for  the 
 detf.ruc~r.ion  of  his  flefh  ;  and  all  fecular  princes 
 are  required,  under  pain  of  incurring  the  fame 
 cenfure,  to  feize  his  perfon,  that  he  might  be  pun- 
 ifhed  as  his  crimes  deferved  *. 
 
 The  publication  of  this  bull  in  Germany  ex- 
 cited various  paflions  in  different  places.  Luther's 
 adverfaries  exulted  ;  his  followers  read  Leo's  ana- 
 themas with  more  indignation  than  terror.  In  fome 
 cities,  the  people  violently  obstructed  the  promul- 
 gation of  the  bull ;  in  others,  the  perfons  who  at- 
 tempted to  publifh  it  were  infulted,  and  the  bull 
 itfelf  torn  in  pieces,  and  trodden  under  foot  ~j~. 
 
 This  fentence,  which  he  had  for  fome  time  ex- 
 pected, did  not  difconcert  or  intimidate  Luther. 
 After  renewing  his  appeal  to  the  general  council, 
 he  publifhed  remarks  upon  the  bull  of  excommu- 
 nication }  and  being  now  perfuaded  that  Leo  had 
 been  guilty  both  of  impiety  and  injuftice  in  his 
 proceedings  againft  him,  he  boldly  declared  the 
 
 *  Paiavlc.  27.    Lutli.  Oper.  u  423. 
 f  Scckend.  p.  116. 
 Vol.  If,  X  pope 
 
306        Luther  burns  the  Papal  Bull,      [cent.  16. 
 
 pope  to  be  that  man  of  fin,  or  antichrift,  whofe 
 appearance  is  foretold  in  the  New  Teftament ;  he 
 declaimed  againfl  his  tyranny  and  ufurpations  with 
 greater  violence  than  ever  ;  he  exhorted  all  Chrif- 
 tian  princes  to  fhake  off  fuch  an  ignominious 
 yoke  ;  and  boailed  of  his  own  happinefs  in  being 
 marked  out  as  the  object  of  ecclefiaftical  indigna- 
 tion, becaufe  he  had  ventured  to  affert  the  liberty 
 of  mankind.  Nor  did  he  confine  his- exprefnons 
 of  contempt  for  the  papal  power  to  words  alone  -r 
 Leo  having,  in  execution  of  the  bull,  appointed 
 Luther's  books  to  be  burnt  at  Rome,  he,  by  way  of 
 retaliation,  aiiembled  all  the  profeflbrs  and  flu-, 
 dents  in  the  univerfity  of  Wittemberg,  and  with, 
 great  pomp,  in  prefence  of  a  vaft  multitude  of " 
 fpectators,  caft  the  volumes  of  the  canon  law,  to- 
 gether with  the  bull  of  excommunication,  into  the 
 flames ;  and  his  example  was  imitated  in  feveral 
 cities  in  Germany.  The  manner  in  which  he 
 juftified  this  action,  was  flill  more  offenfive  than 
 the  action  itfelf.  Having  collected  from  the  ca- 
 non law  fome  of  the  moft  extravagant  propofitions 
 with  regard  to  the  plenitude  and  omnipotence  of 
 the  papal  power,  as  well  as  the  fubordination  of 
 all  fecularjiirifdiction  to  the  authority  of  the  holy 
 fee,  he  published  thefe  with  a  commentary,  point- 
 ing out  the  impiety  of  fuch  tenets,  and  their  evi- 
 dent  tendency  to  fu overt  all  civil  government  *. 
 After  the  death  of  Maximilian  I.  his  grandfon, 
 
 "*  Luth.  Oper.  ii.  316. 
 
 Charles 
 
fcEST.  1 6.]  Summoned  before  the  Diet  at  Worms.  307 
 
 Charles  V.  king  of  Spain,  fucceeded  him  in  the 
 empire,  in  the  year  1519-  Leo  X.  feized  this 
 occafion  of  putting  the  emperor  in  mind  of  his 
 character  as  advocate  and  defender  of  the  church, 
 and  demanding  the  exemplary  punifhment  of 
 Luther,  who  had  rebelled  againfl  its  facred  laws. 
 
 The  vaft  and  dangerous  fchemes  which  Francis  I. 
 king  of  France  was  forming  againft  Charles,  made 
 it  neceflary  for  him  to  fecure  the  friendship  of  the 
 pope,  and  determined  him  to  treat  Luther  with 
 great  fe verity,  as  the  moft  effectual  method  of  footh- 
 ing  Leo  into  a  concurrence  with  his  meafures. 
 His  eagernefs  to  accomplifh  this  rendered  him  not 
 unwilling  to  gratify  the  papal  legates  in  Germany, 
 who  inliiled  that,   without  any  delay  or  formal 
 deliberation,    the  diet,   which  was   affembled  at 
 Worms,  ought  to  condemn  a  man  whom  the  pope 
 had   already  excommunicated  as  an  incorrigible 
 heretic.     Such  an  abrupt  manner  of  proceeding, 
 however,  being  deemed  unprecedented  and  un- 
 juft  by  the   members  of  the  diet,  they  made  a 
 point  of  Luther's  appearing  in  perfon,  and  de- 
 claring whether  he  adhered  or  not  to  thofe  opi- 
 nions which  had  drawn  upon  him  the  cenfures  of 
 the  church  *.      Not  only  the  emperor,    but  all 
 the  princes  through  whofe  territories  he  had  to 
 pafs,  granted  him  a  lafe-conducl: ;    and   Charles 
 wrote  to  him  at  the  fame  time,  requiring  his  im- 
 mediate attendance  on  the  diet,  and  renewing  his 
 *  P.  Mart.  Ep.  722. 
 
 X  2  protnifes 
 
308  Luther's  undaunted  Intrepidity,  [cent*  16. 
 prorrtifes  of  protection  from  any  injury  or  vio- 
 lence*. Luther  did  not  hefitate  one  moment 
 about  yielding  obedience,  and  fet  out  for  Worms, 
 attended  by  the  herald  who  had  brought  the  em- 
 peror's letter  and  fafe -conduct.  While  on  his 
 journey,  many  of  his  friends,  whom  the  fate  of 
 Hufs  lender  fimilar  circumftances,  and  notwith- 
 ftanding  the  fame  fecurity  of  an  imperial  fafe-con- 
 du&,  filled  with  folicitude,  advifed  and  intreated 
 him  hot  to  rufli  wantonly  into  the  midft  of  dan-- 
 ger.  But  Luther,  fuperior  to  fuch  terrors,  filen- 
 ced  them  with  this  reply,  "  I  am  lawfully  called, " 
 faid  he,  "  to  appear  in  that  city,  and  thither  will- 
 I  go  in  the  name  of  the  Lord,  though  as  many , 
 devils,  as  there  are  tiles  on  the  houfes,  were  there 
 combined  againft  me  <f" 
 
 The  reception  he  met  with  at  Worms  was  fuch 
 as  he  might  have  reckoned  a  full  reward  of  all  his 
 labours,  if  vanity  and  the  love  of  applaufe  had 
 been  the  principles'  by  which  he  was  influenced. 
 Greater  crowds  affembled  to  behold  him,  than 
 had  appeared  at  the  emperor's  public  entry;  his 
 apartments  were  daily  filled  with  princes  an$  per- 
 fonages  of  the  higheft  rank  J,  and  he  was  treated 
 with  all  the  refpect  paid  to  thofe  who  poffefs  the 
 power  of  directing  the  underftanding  and  fenti- 
 ments  of  other  men  ;  an  homage,  more  fincere,  as 
 
 Luth.  Oper.  II.  41 1, 
 f  Luth.  Oper.  ii.  4.1  2. 
 \  Seckcnd.  1  56.     Luth.  Oper.  ii.  414. 
 
 7  well 
 
cent.  16.]     Luther  appears  before  the  Diet.      309 
 
 well  as  more  flattering,  than  any  which  pre-emi- 
 nence in  birth  or  condition  can  command.  At  his 
 appearance  before  the  diet,  he  behaved  with  great 
 decency  and  firmnefs.  He  readily  acknowledged 
 an  excefs  of  vehemence  and  acrimony  in  his  contro- 
 verfial  writings,  but  refufed  to  retracl  his  opinions, 
 unlefs  he  were  convinced  of  their  talfrhood;  or  to 
 confent  to  their  being  tried  by  any  oiher  rule  than 
 the  word  of  God.  When  neither  threats  nor  inj» 
 treaties  could  prevail  on  him  to  depart  from  this 
 refolution,  fome  of  the  ecclefiaftics  propofed  to 
 imitate  the  example  of  the  council  of  Conftance, 
 and,  by  punifhing  the  author  of  this  peflilent  he- 
 refy,  who  was  now  in  their  power,  to  deliver  the 
 church  at  once  from  fuch  an  evil.  This  was  op- 
 pofed  both  by  the  members  of  the  diet  and  by  the 
 emperor,  and  Luther  was  permitted  to  depart  in 
 fafety*.  A  few  days  after  he  left  the  city,  a  fevere 
 edict  was  publifhed  in  the  emperor's  name,  and 
 by  authority  of  the  diet,  depriving  him,  as  an  ob- 
 ftinate  and  excommunicated  criminal,  of  all  the 
 privileges  which  he  enjoyed  as  a  fubject  of  the  em- 
 pire, forbidding  any  prince  to  harbour  or  protect 
 him,  and  requiring  all  to  concur  in  feizing  his 
 perfon,  as  foon  as  the  term  fpecihed  in  his  fafe- 
 conduct  was  expired-}-. 
 
 But  this  rigorous  decree  had  no  confiderable  ef- 
 fect, the  execution  of  it  being  prevented,  partly  by 
 
 *  F.  Paul.  Hift.  of  Counc.  p.  13.     Seckend.  160. 
 <f  Gold.  Confl.  Imperial  ii.  408. 
 
 X  3  the 
 
3i°  Luther  s  Confinement.         [cent.  i6, 
 
 the  multiplicity  of  occupations  which  the  commo- 
 tions in  Spain,  together  with  the  wars  in  Italy  and 
 the  Low  Countries,  created  to  the  emperor;  and 
 partly  by  a  prudent  precaution  employed  by  the 
 elector  of  Saxony.  As  Luther,  on  his  return  from 
 Worms,  was  paffing  near  Altenftein  in  Thurin- 
 gia,  a  number  of  horfemen  in  mafks  rufhed  fud- 
 denly  out  of  a  wood,  where  the  elector  had  ap- 
 pointed them  to  lie  in  wait  for  him,  and  furround- 
 ing  his  company,  carried  him,  after  difmiffing  all  - 
 his  attendants,  to  Wartburg,  a  ftrong  cafile  not 
 far  diftant.  There  the  eleclor  ordered  him  to  be 
 fupplied  with  every  thing  neceffary  or  agreeable,  * 
 but  the  place  of  his  retreat  was  carefully  concealed  ;  • 
 until  the  fury  of  the  prefent  ftorm  againft  him  be- 
 gan to  abate.  In  this  folicude  he  remained  nine 
 months,  and  exerted  his  ufual  vigour  and  induftry 
 in  defence  of  his  doctrines,  or  in  confutation  of 
 his  adverfaries,  publifhing  feveral  treatifes,  which 
 revived  the  drooping  fpirits  of  his  followers. 
 
 During  his  confinement,  his  opinions  continued 
 to  gain  ground  in  every  city  in  Saxony ;  and,  the 
 Auguftins  of  Wittemberg,  with  the  approbation  of 
 the  univerfity,  and  the  connivance  of  the  elector, 
 ventured  upon  the  firfl  ftep  towards  an  alteration  in 
 the  eflablilhed  forms  of  public  worfhip,  by  abo- 
 lifhing  the  celebration  of  private  mafTes,  and  by 
 giving  the  cup  as  well  as  the  bread  to  the  laity  in 
 administering  the  facrament  of  the  Lord's  fupper. 
 
 During  his  retirement  in  Wartburg,  Luther  re- 
 
 6  ceived 
 
cent.  1 6.]  Carl  oft  adius.  gn 
 
 ceived  the  intelligence  that  a  folemn  decree  con- 
 demning his  opinions  had  been  publifhed  by  the 
 univerfity  of  Paris,  and  that  Henry  VIII.  of  Eng- 
 land had  written  a  treatife  on  the  Seven  Sacraments, 
 in  confutation  of  his  opinions.  Luther,  who  was 
 not  overawed,  either  by  the  authority  of  the  uni- 
 verfity, or  the  dignity  of  the  monarch,  foon  pub- 
 lifhed his  animadverfions  on  both,  in  a  ftyle  no  lefs 
 vehement  and  fevere  than  he  would  have  ufed  in 
 confuting  his  meaneft  antagonilt.  A  coctroverfy, 
 managed  by  difputants  fo  illuftrious,  drew  more  ge- 
 neral attention  ;  and  the  doctrines  of  the  reformers, 
 in  fpite  both  of  the  civil  and  ecclefiaflical  powers 
 combined  againft  them,  daily  gained  converts  both 
 in  France  and  in  England. 
 
 Luther  was  drawn  from  his  retreat  by  the  impru- 
 dence of  Carloftadius,  one  of  his  difciples,  who, 
 animated  with  the  fame  zeal,  but  poffeffed  of  lefs 
 moderation,  propagated  wild  and  dangerous  opi- 
 nions, chiefly  among  the  lower  people.  Encour- 
 aged by  his  exhortations,  they  rofe  in  feveral 
 villages  of  Saxony,  broke  into  the  churches  with 
 tumultuary  violence,  and  destroyed  the  images 
 with  which  they  were  adorned.  Thofe  irregular 
 and  outrageous  proceedings  were  fo  repugnant  to 
 all  the  elector's  cautious  maxims,  that,  if  they 
 had  not  received  a  timely  check,  they  could  hardly 
 have  failed  of  alienating  from  the  reformers  a 
 prince,  no  lefs  jealous  of  his  own  authority,  than 
 afraid  of  giving  offence  to  the  emperor,  and  other 
 X  4  patrons 
 
312  Luther  tr (inflates  the  Bible.       [cent.  1 6. 
 
 patrons  of  the  ancient  opinions.  Luther,  fenfible 
 of  the  danger,  without  waiting  for  Frederic's  per- 
 miflion,  returned  to  Wittemberg.  Happily  for 
 the  reformation,  the  veneration  for  his  perfon  and 
 authority  were  (till  fo  great,  that  his  appearance 
 alone  fuppreffed  that  fpirit  of  extravagance  which 
 began  to  feize  his  party.  Carloftadius  and  his  fa- 
 natical followers,  {truck  dumb  by  his  rebukes, 
 fubmitted  at  once,  and  declared  that  they  heard 
 the  voice  of  an  angel,  not  of  a  man*.  ■ 
 
 Before  Luther  left  his  retreat,  he  had  begun  to 
 translate  the  bible  into  the  German  tongue,  an  un- 
 dertaking for  which  he  was  well  qualified  :  he  had 
 a  competent  knowledge  in  the  original  languages, 
 a  thorough  acquaintance  with  the  ftyle  and  fenti- 
 ments  of  the  infpired  writers ,  and  though  his 
 compositions  in  Latin  were  rude  and  barbarous, 
 he  was  reckoned  a  great  matter  of  the  purity  of 
 his  mother  tongue.  By  his  own  afliduous  appli- 
 cation, together  with  the  affiftance  of  Melan&hon, 
 and  feveral  other  of  his  difciples,  he  finifhed  part 
 of  the  New  Teftament  in  the  year  1522.  It  was 
 read  with  wonderful  avidity  and  attention,  by  vper- 
 fons  of  every  rank.  They  were  aftonifhed  at'dif- 
 covering  how  contrary  the  precepts  of  the  author 
 of  our  religion  are  to  the  inventions  of  thofe 
 priefts  who  pretended  to  be  his  vicegerents ;  and 
 having  now  in  their  hand  the  rule  of  faith,  they 
 thought  themfelves  qualified,   by  applying  it,   to 
 
 *  Skid.  Hift.  51.     Weekend.  195. 
 
 judge 
 
cent.  1 6.]  Mafs  abolijhed.  313 
 
 judge  of  the  eftablifhed  opinions,  and  to  pronounce 
 when  they  were  conformable  to  the  ftandard,  or 
 when  they  departed  from  it  The  great  advan- 
 tages arifing  from  Luther's  tranflation  of  the  bible 
 encouraged  the  advocates  for  reformation,  in  the 
 other  countries  of  Kurope,  to  imitate  his  example, 
 and  to  publifh  verfions  of  the  fcriptures  in  their 
 refpeftive  languages. 
 
 About  this  time,  Nuremberg,  Francfort,  Ham- 
 burgh, and  feveral  other  cities  in  Germany,  of  the 
 firft  rank,  openly  embraced  the  reformed  religion, 
 and  by  the  authority  cf  their  magiftrates  abohlhed 
 the  mafs,  and  the  other  fuperftitious  rites  of  po- 
 pery*. The  Dukes  of  Brunfwic  and  Lunenburgh, 
 the  Prince  of  Anhalt,  and  other  diflinguimed  per- 
 fonages,  became  avowed  patrons  of  Luther's  opi- 
 nions, and  countenanced  the  preaching  of  them 
 among  their  fubjecls. 
 
 Leo  X.  had  been  fucceeded  in  the  pontificate 
 "by  Adrian  VI.  a  native  of  Utrecht,  and  a  man  of 
 fome  probity  and  candour.  He  could  not,  how- 
 ever, behold  this  growing  defection  without  con- 
 cern; and  his  firft  care,  after  his  arrival  in  Ita'y, 
 had  been  to  deliberate  with  the  cardinals,  con- 
 cerning the  proper  means  of  putting  a  flop  to  it. 
 He  was  profoundly  fkilled  in  fcholaftic  theology, 
 and  having  been  early  noticed  on  that  account,  he 
 full  retained  fuch  an  exceffive  admiration  of  the 
 
 ?  Seckend.  241.     Chytrasi  Contln.  Krantzii,  203. 
 
 fcience 
 
3*4  Adrian  VI.  [cent.  16. 
 
 fcience  to  which  he  was  firft  indebted  for  his  repu- 
 tation and  fuccefs  in  life,  that  he  considered 
 Luther's  invec~lives  againft  the  fchoolmen,  parti- 
 cularly Thomas  Aquinas,  as  little- lefs  than  blaf- 
 phemy.  At  the  fame  time  his  own  manners  being 
 extremely  fimple,  and  uninfected  with  any  of  the 
 vices  which  reigned  in  the  court  of  Rome,  he  was 
 as  fenfible  of  its  corruptions  as  the  reformers  them- 
 lelves,  and  vievved  them  with  no  lefs  indignation. 
 The  brief  which  he  addreflcd  to  the  diet  of  the- 
 empire  afTembled  at  Nuremberg,  November, 
 1522,  and  the  inflruclions  which  he  gave  to 
 Cheregato,  the.  nuncio  whom  he  fen t  thither,  ^ 
 were  framed  agreeably  to  theie  views.  On  the  , 
 one  hand,  he  condemned  Luther's  opinions  with 
 more  afperity  than  Leo  had  ever  ufed  -,  he  feverely 
 cenfured  the  princes  of  Germany  foivfufFering  him 
 to  fpread  his  pernicious  tenets,  by  their  neglecling 
 to  execute  the  edict  of  the  diet  at  Worms,  and 
 required  them,  if  Luther  did  not  inftantly  retract 
 his  errors,  to  deftroy  him  with  fire  as  a  gangrened 
 and  incurable  member*.  On  the  other  hand,  he, 
 with  great  candour,  acknowledged  the  corruptions 
 of  the  Roman  court  to  be  the  fource  from  which 
 had  flowed  m-ofl  of  the  evils  the  church  now  felt 
 or  dreaded  ;  he  promifed  to  exert  all  his  authority 
 towards  reforming  thefe  abufes;  and  he  requefted 
 of  them  to  give  him  their  advice  with  regard  to 
 
 *  Fufcic.  Rer.  expet.  &  fugiend.  341. 
 
 the 
 
c e nt.  1 6.]     Diet  earnefi  for  General  Council.     3 1 5 
 
 the  moft  effeflual  means  of  fuppreffing  that  new 
 herefy  which  had  fprung  up  among  them*. 
 
 The  members  of  the  diet,  after  praifing  the 
 pope's  pious  and  laudable  intentions,  excufed 
 themfelves  for  not  executing  the  edict,  of  Worms, 
 by  alleging  that  the  prodigious  increafe  of  Luther's 
 followers,  as  well  as  the  averfion  to  the  court  of 
 Rome  among  their  other  fubjedts,  on  account  of 
 its  innumerable  exactions,  rendered  fuch  an  at- 
 tempt not  only  dangerous,  but  impoffible.  They 
 affirmed  that  the  grievances  of  Germany,  which 
 arofe  from  impofitions  no  lefs  real  than  intolerable, 
 called  now  for  fome  new  and  efficacious  remedy; 
 and,  in  their  opinion,  the  only  remedy,  which  af- 
 forded them  any  hopes  of  feeing  the  church  re- 
 stored to  foundnefs  and  vigour,  was  a  general 
 council.  Such  a  council,  therefore,  they  advifed 
 him,  after  obtaining  the  emperor's  confent,  to  af- 
 femble  without  delay,  in  one  of  the  great  cities  of 
 Germanyf. 
 
 The  nuncio,  more  artful  than  his  mailer,  was 
 ftartled  at  the  propofition  of  a  council;  and  cafily 
 forefaw  how  dangerous  fuch  an  arTembly  might 
 prove,  at  a  time  when  many  openly  denied  the 
 papal  authority,  and  the  reverence  and  fubmiffion 
 yielded  to  it  vifibly  declined  among  all.  For  that 
 reafon  he  employed  his  utmoft  addrefs,  in  order 
 to  prevail  on  the  members  of  the  diet  to  proceed 
 
 *  Fafcic.  Rer.  expet.  &  fugiend.  p.  34.5. 
 t  Ibid.  p.  346. 
 
 themfelves 
 
316  I. 'Ji  cf  Grievances.  [cent.  1 6. 
 
 themfelves  with  greater  feverity  againft  the  Lu- 
 theran herefy,  and  to  relinquifh  their  propofal 
 concerning  a  general  council  to  be  held  in  Ger- 
 many. They,  perceiving  the  nuncio  to  be  more 
 felicitous  about  the  interefts  of  the  Roman  court, 
 than  the  tranquillity  of  the  empire,  or  purity  of 
 the  church,  remained  inflexible,  and  continued 
 to  prepare  the  catalogue  of  their  grievances  to  be 
 prefented  to  the  pope  *.  The  nuncio,  that  he 
 might  not  be  the  bearer  of  a  remonftrance  fo  dif- 
 agreeable  to  his  court,  left  Nuremberg  abruptly, 
 without  taking  leave  of  the  diet  f. 
 
 The  fecular  princes  accordingly  drew  up  the./ 
 lift,  (fo  famous  in  the  German  annals)  of  an 
 hundred  grievances,  which  the  empire  imputed  to 
 the  iniquitous  dominion  of  the  papal  fee*.  They 
 complained  of  the  fums  exacted  forvdifpenfations, 
 abfolutions,  and  indulgences;  of  the  expence 
 arifing  from  the  law-fuits  carried  by  appeal  to 
 Rome  ;  of  the  innumerable  abufes  occafioned  by 
 refervations,  commendams,  and  annates;  of  the 
 exemption  from  civil  jurifcliclion  which  the  clergy 
 had  obtained  ;  of  the  arts  by  which  they  brought 
 all  fecular  caufes  under  the  cognifance  of  the  ec- 
 clefiaftical  judges ;  of  the  indecent  and  profligate 
 lives  which  not  a  few  of  the  clergy  led  ;  and  of  va- 
 rious other  particulars.  In  the  end  they  conclud- 
 ed, that,   if  the  holy  fee  did   not  fpeedily  deliver 
 
 *    Fafcic.  Rv;r.  expet.  &  fugiend.  p.  349, 
 f  Ibid.  376. 
 
 them 
 
cent.  1 6.]  Clement  VII.  317 
 
 them  from  thofe  intolerable  burdens,  they  would 
 employ  the  power  and  authority  with  which  God 
 had  entrufted  them,  in  order  to  procure  relief*. 
 
 Inftead  of  fuch  feverities  againft  Luther  and  his 
 followers  as  the  nuncio  had  recommended,  the 
 recefs  or  edict  of  the  diet  contained  only  a  general 
 injunction  to  all  ranks  of  men  to  wait  with  patience 
 for  the  determinations  of  the  council  which  was  to 
 be  aflembled,  and  in  the  mean  time  not  to  publifh 
 any  new  opinions  contrary  to  the  eftablifhed  doc- 
 trines of  the  church;  together  with  an  admonition 
 to  all  preachers  to  abftain  from  matters  of  contro- 
 verfy  in  their  diicourfes  to  the  people,  and  confine 
 themfelves  to  the  plain  and  inftructive  truths  of 
 religion  -j-. 
 
 While  thefe  affairs  were  in  agitation  pope  Adrian 
 died,  and  was  fucceeded  on  the  23d  of  Now  1523, 
 by  the  cardinal  de  Medicis,  whoaflumed  the  name 
 of  Clement  VII.  This  pontiff  excelled  Adrian 
 as  much  in  the  arts  of  government,  as  he  was  in- 
 ferior to  him  in  purity  of  life  and  uprightnefs  of 
 intention.  Having  gained  his  election  by  very 
 nncanonical  means,  he  was  afraid  of  an  afTemb'y 
 that  might  fubjecT:  it  to  a  fcrutiny  which  it  could 
 not  ftand,  and  determined  therefore  to  elude  the 
 demands  of  the  Germans,  both  with  refpect  to  the 
 calling  of  a  council,  and  reforming  abufes  in  the 
 papal  court.     For  this  purpofe,  he  made  choice  of 
 
 *  Fafcic.  Rer.  expet.  &  fugiend.  354. 
 Ibid.  348  . 
 
 cardinal 
 
3i3  Moderation  of  the  Diet.        [cent.  1 6. 
 
 cardinal  Campeggio,  an  artful  man,  as  his  nuncio 
 to  the  diet  of  the  empire,  aflembled  again  at  Nu- 
 remberg. 
 
 Campeggio,  without  taking  notice  of  what  had 
 pafled  in  the  laft  meeting,  exhorted  the  diet  to  ex- 
 ecute the  edict,  of  Worms  with  vigour,  as  the  only 
 effectual  means  of  fupprefling  Luther's  doctrines. 
 The  diet,  in   return,   defired  to  know  the  pope's 
 intentions  concerning  the  council  and  the  redrefs 
 of  the  hundred  grievances.     The  former,  the  nun- 
 cio endeavoured  to  elude  by  general  declarations 
 of  the  pope's  refolution  to  purfue  fuch  meafures  as 
 would  be  for  the  greateft  good  of  the  church.  With 
 regard  to  the  latter,  as  Adrian  was  dead  before  the 
 catalogue  of  grievances  reached  Rome,  and  as  of 
 confequence  it  had  not  been  regularly  laid  before 
 theprefent  pope,  Campeggio  declined  making  any 
 definitive   anfwer  to   them  in    Clement's  name; 
 though,  at  the  fame  time,  he  obferved  that  their 
 catalogue  of  grievances  contained  many  particulars 
 extremely  indecent  and  unduiiful,  and   that   the 
 publiming  it  by  their  own  authority  was  highly 
 difrefpedful  to  the  Roman  fee.     In  the.  end,  he 
 renewed  his  demand  of  their  proceeding  with  vi- 
 irouragrainrt  Luther  and  his  adherents.  But  though 
 an  ambaffador  from  the  emperor,  who  was  at  that 
 time  very  folicitous  to  gain  the  pope,   warmly  fe- 
 conded  the   nuncio,   with  many  profeiTions  of  his 
 mater's  zeal  for  the  honour  and  dignity  of  the  pa- 
 pal fee,  the  recefs  of  the  diet  was  conceived  in  terms 
 
 of 
 
fc  E  n  t  .  1 6 .  ]  Marriage  of  Lutfcr.  3 1 9 
 
 of  almoft  the  fame  import  with  the  former,  with- 
 out enjoining  any  additional  feverity  againft 
 Luther  and  his  party  *. 
 
 Before  he  left  Germany,  Campeggio,  in  order 
 to  foothe  the  people,  published  certain  articles  for 
 the  amendment  of  fome  diforders  and  abufes  which 
 prevailed  among  the  inferior  clergy  ;  but  this 
 partial  reformation,  which  fell  fo  far  fhort  of  the 
 expectations  of  the  Lutherans,  gave  no  fatisfaction, 
 and  produced  little  effect  ~\~. 
 
 The  marriage  of  Luther  in  the  year  1526,  with 
 Catharine  Boria,  a  nun  of  a  noble  family  who 
 had  fled  from  the  cloifter,  was  far  from  meeting 
 with  general  approbation.  Even  his  mod  devoted 
 followers  thought  this  ftep  indecent,  at  a  time 
 when  his  country  was  involved  in  fo  many  cala- 
 mities ;  while  his  enemies  never  mentioned  it 
 with  any  fofter  appellation  than  that  of  inceftuous 
 or  profane.  Luther  himfelf  was  fenfible  of  the 
 impreffion  which  it  had  made  to  his  difadvantage; 
 but  being  fatisfied  with  his  own  conduct,  he  bore 
 the  cenfure  of  his  friends,  and  the  reproaches  of  his 
 adverfaries,  with  his  ufuai  fortitude  J. 
 
 This  year  the  reformation  loft  its  firfl  protector, 
 Frederic,  elector  of  Saxony ;  but  the  blow  was 
 the  lefs  fenfibly  felt,  as  he  was  fucceeded  by  his 
 brother  John,  a  more  avowed  and  zealous,  though 
 a  lefs  able  patron  of  Luther  and  his  doctrines. 
 
 *  Seckend..2f6.  .  Skid.  Hut.  65. 
 •f-  Seckend.  292. 
 J  Ibid,  lib.ii.  p.  15. 
 
 ,  . '■■"  .  Another 
 
22&  Reformation  in  Prujfia.  [cent.  i& 
 
 Another  event  happened  about  the  fame  time^ 
 which  occafioned  a  confiderable  change  in  the 
 ftate  of  Germany.  The  Teutonic  order  'being: 
 driv  :n  from  their  fettlements  in  the  eaft,  had  been> 
 obliged  to  return  to  their  native  country.  Their 
 zeal  and  valour  were  too  impetuous  to  remain 
 long  inactive.  They  invaded,  as  was  already  inti- 
 mated, the  province  of  Pruffia,  the  inhabitants  of 
 which  were  (till  idolaters  ;  and  having  completed 
 the  conqueft  of  it,  held  it  many  years  zts  a  fief  de- 
 pending on  the  crown  of  Poland.  Fierce  contefts 
 arofe  during  this  period,  between  the  grand  maf- 
 ters  of  the  order,  and  the  kings  of  Poland.  Albert,  v 
 a  prince  of  the  houfe  of  Brandenburgh,  who  was 
 ele&ed  grand  mafter  in  the  yeaf  one  thoufand  five 
 hundred  and  eleven,  engaging  keenly  in  this  quar- 
 rel, maintained  a  long  war  with  Sigifmund,  king 
 of  Poland  ;  but  having  become  an  early  convert 
 to  Luther's  doctrines,  this  gradually  lefTened  his 
 zeal  for  the  interefts  of  his  fraternity,  fo  that  he 
 took  the  opportunity  of  the  confufions  in  the  em- 
 pire, and  the  abfence  of  the  emperor,  to  conclude 
 a  treaty  with  Sigifmund,  greatly  to  his  own  private 
 emolument.  By  it,  that  part  of  Pruffia,  which  be- 
 longed to  the  Teutonic  order,  was  erected  into  a 
 fecular  and  hereditary  duchy,  and  the  inveftiture 
 of  it  granted  to  Albert,  who,  in  return,  bound 
 himfelf  to  do  homage  for  it  to  the  kings  of  Poland 
 as  their  vafial.  Immediately  after  this,  he  made 
 public  profeffion  of  the  reformed  religion,  and 
 married  a  princefs  of  Denmark. 
 
 In 
 
cent.  1 6.]     Diet  infifts  on  a  General  Council.     321 
 
 In  this  ftate  of  affairs,  the  patrons  of  popery 
 projected  a  war  againft  the  Lutherans,  who  in 
 their  turn  prepared  for  defence.  In  the  mean 
 time  the  diet,  aflembled  at  Spire  in  the  year  1526, 
 at  which  Ferdinand,  the  emperor's  brother,  pre- 
 fided,  ended  in  a  manner  more  favourable  to  the 
 friends  of  the  reformation,  than  they  could  na- 
 turally expect.  The  emperor's  ambafTadors  at  this 
 diet  were  ordered  to  uie  their  moft  earned  endea- 
 vours for  the  fuppreffion  of  all  farther  difputes 
 concerning  religion,  and  to  infill  upon  the  rigor- 
 ous execution  of  the  lentence  which  had  been  pro- 
 nounced at  Worms  againft  Luther  and  his  follow- 
 ers.  The  greater  part  of  the  German  princes  re- 
 folutely  oppofed  thrs  motion,  declaring^  that  they 
 could  not  execute  that  fentence,  nor  come  to  any 
 determination  with  refpect  to  the  doctrines  by 
 which  it  had  been  occafioned,  before  the  whole 
 matter  was  fubmitted  to  the  cognifance  of  a  gene- 
 ral council  lawfully  affembled  ;  alleging  that  the 
 decifions  of  controverfies  of  this  nature  belonged 
 properly  to  fuch  a  council,  and  to  it  alone.  This 
 opinion,  after  long  and  warm  debates,  was  adopted 
 by  a  great  majority,  and,  at  length,  confented  to 
 by  the  whole  aflembly  ;  when  it  was  Unanimously 
 agreed  to  prefent  a  folemn  addrefs  to  the  emperor> 
 befeeching  him  to  affemble,  without  delay,  a  free 
 and  general  council  j  and  it  was  aifo  agreed,  that, 
 in  the  mean  time,  the  princes  and  ftates  of  the  em- 
 pire fhould,  in  their  refpeclive  dominions,    be  at 
 
 Vol.  II.  Y  liberty 
 
3'22  Jealmfy  between  Emperor  and  Pope:  [cent.  t6. 
 liberty  to  manage  ecclefiaftical  matters  in  the 
 manner  they  mould  think  the  mod  expedient ; 
 yet  (o  as  to  be  able  to  give  to  God  and  to  the  em- 
 peror an  account  of  them. 
 
 Nothino-  could  be  mo?e  favourable  to  thofe  who 
 had  the  caufe  of  pure  and  genuine  Christianity  at 
 heart,  than  a  refolution  of  this  nature.     The  em- 
 peror was,  at  this  time,  fo  entirely  engaged  in  regu- 
 lating die  troubled  ilate  of  his  dominions  imFrance, 
 Spain,  and  Italy,  as  rendered  it  impofflble  for  him 
 to  turn  his  attention   to  the- affairs  of  Germany  in 
 general ,  and  ftill  lefs  to  the  ftate  of  religion  in  par- 
 ticular.    He  was  befides  little  difpofed  to  favour, 
 the  pope,  who,  after  the  defeat  of  Francis  I.  at  the  ( 
 battle  of  Pavia,  filled  with  uneafy  apprehenfions  of 
 the   growing    power    of    the   emperor  .in   Italy, 
 had  entered  into  a  confederacy  witja  the  French 
 and    the   Venetians    againfl:     Charles   V,      This 
 imprudent   meafure,   therefore,  inflamed  the  re- 
 fentment    and    indignation    of   Charles   to   fuch 
 a  degree,  that  he  abolifhed    the  papal  authority 
 in   his  Spanifh   dominions,   made  war  upon   the 
 pope  in  Italy,  laid  fiege  to  Rome  in  the  ye.ar«i527, 
 blocked  up  Clement  in  the  Caftle  of  St.  Angelo, 
 and  expofed  him  to  the  moft  fevere  and  contume- 
 lious treatment.     Thefe  critical  events,  together 
 with   the  liberty   granted   by    the   diet  at    Spire, 
 were  prudently  and  induftrioufly  improved  by  the 
 friends  of  the  refor  mation  to  the  advantage  of  their 
 caufe,  and  to  the  augmentation  of  their  number. 
 3  Several 
 
cent.  1 6 .  ]  New  Diet  ajfemlled.  3  23 
 
 Several  princes.,  being  delivered  now  from  their  re- 
 ftraint,  renounced  publicly  the  fuperftition  of 
 Rome,  and  introduced  among  their  fubjects  the 
 fame  forms  of  religious  worfhip,  and  the  fame 
 fyftem  of  doctrine,  which  had  been  received  in 
 Saxony.  Others,  though  placed  in  fuch  circum- 
 ftances  as  difcouraged  them  from  acling  in  an 
 open  manner  againft  the  interefts  of  the  Roman 
 pontiff,  were,  however,  far  from  difcovering  the 
 fmalleft  oppofition  to  thofewho  withdrew  the  peo- 
 ple from  his  defpotic  yoke.  In  the  mean  time 
 Luther  and  his  fellow-labourers,  particularly  thofe 
 who  were  with  him  at  Wittemberg,  by  their  writ- 
 ings, their  inftru&ions,  their  admonitions  and 
 councils,  infpired  the  timorous  with  fortitude,  dis- 
 pelled the  doubts  of  the  ignorant,  fixed  the  princi- 
 ples and  refolution  of  the  floating  and  inconftant, 
 and  animated  all  the  friends  of  genuine  Chriftianity 
 with  a  fpirit  fuitable  to  the  grandeur  of  then:  un- 
 dertaking. 
 
 But  this  tranquillity  was  not  of  long  duration. 
 It  was  interrupted  by  a  new  diet,  aflembled  in  the 
 year  1529,  in  the  fame  place  by  the  emperor,  af- 
 ter he  had  appeafed  the  commotions  and  troubles 
 which  had  employed  his  attention  in  feveral  parts 
 of  Europe,  and  concluded  a  treaty  of  peace  with 
 Clement  VII.  The  power  which  had  been  granted 
 by  the  former  diet  to  every  prince,  of  managing 
 ecclefiafticai  matters  as  they  thought  proper,  until 
 the  meeting  of  a  general  council,  was  now  revoked 
 
 Y2  by 
 
324  Name  cfProteJlants.  [cent.  16. 
 
 by  a  majority  of  votes;  and  every  change  was  de- 
 clared unlawful,  which  mould  be  introduced  into 
 the  doctrine,  difcipline,  or  worfhip,  of  the  efta- 
 blimed  religion,  before  the  determination  of  the 
 approaching  council  was  known- 
 
 The  elector  of  Saxony,  the  marquis  of  Bran- 
 denburgh,  the  landgrave  of  Heffe,  the  dukes  of 
 Lunenburgh,  the  prince  of  Anhalt,  together  with 
 the  deputies  of  fourteen  imperial  or  free  cities  *, 
 entered  a  folemn  protell  againft  this  decree,  as  un- 
 juft  and  impious.  On  that  account  they  were  dif- 
 tinguilhed  by  the  name  of  protestants^,  an 
 appellation  which  has  fince  been  applied  indifcrimi- 
 nately  ro  all  the  feels,  of  whatever  denomination, 
 which  have  revoked  from  the  Roman  fee.  The 
 Proteftants  next  fent  ambafladors  into  Italy,  to  lay 
 their  grievances  before  the  emperor,  .from  whom 
 they  met  with  the  mod  difcouraging  reception. 
 Charles  was  at  that  time  in  clofe  union  with  the 
 pope,  and  folicitous- to  attach  him  inviolably  to 
 his  intereft.  During  their  long  refidence  at  Bo- 
 logna, they  held  many  confultations  concerning 
 the  raoft  effectual  means  of  extirpating  the  herefies 
 which  had  fprung  up  in  Germany.  Clement  em- 
 ployed every  argument  to  diffuade  the  emperor 
 from  confenting   to   the    meafure   of  a   general 
 
 *  The  fourteen  cities  were  Strafburgh,  Nuremburgh,  Ulm, 
 Conflance,  Reutlingen,  Winfheim,  Meinengen,  Lindaw,  Kemp- 
 ten,  Hailbron,  Ifna,  WeifTemburgh,  Nordlingen,  and  St.  Gal. 
 
 t  Skid,  Hift.  119.  F.  PauL  Hifl.  p.  45.  Seckend.ii.  127.' 
 
 council. 
 
cent.  1 6.]  Diet  of  Augjburg.  325 
 
 council.  He  urged  that  Leo's  fentence  of  excom- 
 munication, together  with  the  decree  of  the  diet 
 at  Worms,  mould  be  carried  into  execution,  and 
 that  it  was  incumbent  on  the  emperor  to  employ 
 his  whole  power,  in  order  to]  overawe  thofe,  on 
 whom  the  reverence  due  either  to  ecclefiaftical  or 
 civil  authority  had  no  longer  any  influence. 
 Charles,  whofe  views  were  different,  and  who  be- 
 came daily  more  fenfible  how  obftinate  and  deep- 
 rooted  the  evil  was,  thought  of  reconciling  the 
 Protectants  by  means  lefs  violent,  and  confidered 
 the  convocation  of  a  council  as  no  improper  ex- 
 pedient for  that  purpofe  ;  but  promifed,  if  gentler 
 arts  failed  of  fuccefs,  that  then  he  would  exert  him- 
 felf  with  rigour  to  reduce  to  the  obedience  of  the 
 holy  fee  thofe  ftubborn  enemies  of  the  catholic 
 faith  *. 
 
 Such  were  the  fentiments  with  which  the  em- 
 peror fet  out  for  Germany,  having  already  ap- 
 pointed a  diet  of  the  empire  to  be  held  at  Augf- 
 burg.  In  his  journey  towards  that  city,  he  had 
 many  opportunities  of  obferving  the  difpofition  of 
 the  Germans  with  regard  to  the  points  in  contro- 
 verfy,  and  found  their  minds  every  where  fo  much 
 irritated  and  inflamed,  as  convinced  him,  that 
 nothing  tending  to  feverity  or  rigour  ought  to  be 
 attempted,  until  all  other  meafures  proved  inef- 
 fectual.    He  made  his  public  entry  into  Augf- 
 
 *  F.  Paul,  xlvil.  Seek.  1.  i\.  142.     Hift.  de  Confefl*.  d'Aux- 
 boirrgb,  par  D.  Chytreus,  4to.  Antw.  1572,  p.  6, 
 
 Y  3  burg 
 
326  ConfcJJion  of  Augfburg.  [cent.  16*. 
 
 burg  with  extraordinary  pomp  ;  and  found  there 
 fuch  a  full  affembly  of  the  members  of  the  cliet, 
 as  was  fuitable  both  to  the  importance  of  the  af- 
 fairs which  were  to   come  under  their  confeder- 
 ation, and  to  the  honour  of  an  emperor,  who,  after 
 a  long  abfence,  returned  to  them   crowned  with 
 reputation  and  fuccefs.     His   prefence  feems  to 
 have  communicated  to  all  parties  an  unufual  fpirit 
 of  moderation  and  defire   of  peace.  '  The  elector 
 of  Saxony  would  not  permit  Luther  to  accompany   - 
 him  to  the  diet,  left  he  fhould  offend  the  emperor 
 by  bringing  into  his  prefence  a  perfon  excommu- 
 nicated by  the  pope,  and  who.  had  been  the  author    • 
 of  all  thofe  diiTenfions  which  it  now  appeared  {o    1 
 difficult  to  cqmpofe.     At  the  emperor's  defire,  all 
 the  Proteftant  princes  forbade  the  divines  who  ac- 
 companied them,  to  preach  in  public  during  their 
 refidence  at  Augfburg.     For  the  fame  reafon  they 
 employed  the  gentle  and  pacific   Melancthon,  to 
 draw  up  a  confeffion  of  their  faith,  exprefled  in  terms 
 as  little  offensive  to  the  Roman  Catholics,  as  a  re- 
 gard for  truth  would  permit.  Melancthon  executed 
 a  tafk  fo  agreeable  to  his  natural  difpofition,  with 
 great  moderation  and  addref§.    The  creed  which 
 he  compofed,  known  by  the  name  of  the  Confeffion 
 of  Augfburgy  fromthe  place  where  it  wasprefented, 
 was  read  publicly  in  the  diet.    A  controverfy  en- 
 fued  between  the  reformed  and  popifh  divines;  but, 
 notwithstanding  the  interference  of  the  emperor  to 
 reconcile  the  contending  parties,  fuch  infuperable 
 
 barriers 
 
t  e  n  t  .  1 6 .  ~]  Magnanimity  of  the  German  Princes,  qij 
 barriers  were  placed  between  the  two  churches,  that 
 all  hopes  of  bringing  about  a  coalition  feemed  utter- 
 ly defpemte*.  The  endeavours  of  Charles  amongft 
 the  princes  were  equally  unproductive  of  fuccefs. 
 Such  was  the  excefs  of  their  zeal,  that  it  overcame 
 all  attachment  to  their  political  intereft,  which  is 
 commonly  the  predominant  motive  among  princes. 
 The  chiefs  of  the  Protectants,  though  folicited  fe- 
 parately  by  the  emperor,  and  allured  by  the  pro- 
 jnife  or  profpect  of  thofe  advantages  which  it  was 
 known  they  were  mod  folicitous  to  attain,  refufed, 
 with  a  fortitude  highly  worthy  of  imitation,  to  aban- 
 don what  they  deemed  the  caufe  of  God,  for  the 
 fake  of  any  earthly  acquisition -j-. 
 
 Every  fcheme  in  order  to  gain  or  difunite  the 
 Protectant  party  proving  abortive,  nothing  now 
 remained  for  the  emperor  but  to  take  fome  vigor- 
 ous meafures  towards  afferting.  the  doctrines  and 
 authority  of  the  eftablimed  church.  To  effect  this, 
 .a  fevere  decree  againft  the  Proteftants  was  enacted 
 in  the  diet ;  and  the  -utmoft  danger  to  the  reformers 
 arofe  on  every  fide.  Luther  by  his  exhortations 
 and  writings  revived  the  defponding  hopes  of  his 
 affociates,  and  his  exhortations  made  the  deeper 
 impreffion  upon  them,  as  they  were  greatly  alarm- 
 ed at  that  time  by  the  account  of  a  combination 
 
 *   Seckend.  lib.  ii.  1 59,   Si-c.      Atr.  ScuTteti  Annales    Evan 
 gelici  ap.  Herm.Von  der  Hard.  Hilt.  Liter.  Reform.  Lipf.  1717* 
 fol.  p.  1 5  9. 
 
 f   Skid.  132,     Scultet.  An  rial.  158- 
 
 Y  4  among 
 
328  League  of  Smalkalde.  [gent,  i  6, 
 
 among  the  popifh  princes  of  the  empire  for  the 
 maintenance  of  the  eftablifhed  religion,  to  vvhich 
 Charles  himfelf  had  acceded*.  Convinced  that 
 their  own  fafety,  as  well  as  the  fuccefs  of  their 
 caufe,  depended  upon  union,  they  afTembled  at 
 Smalkalde,  where  they  concluded  a  league  of  mu- 
 tual defence  againft  all  aggreflbrs  -j-,  by  which  they 
 formed  the  proteftant  dates  of  the  empire  into  one 
 regular  body,  and  beginning  already  to  conhdei- 
 themfelves  as  fuch,  they  refolved  to  apply  to  the 
 kings  of  France  and  England,  and  to  implore 
 them  to  patronize  and  affifr  their  new  confederacy. 
 
 An  affair  not  connected  with  religion  furnifhed 
 them  with  a  pretence  for  courting  the  aid  of  foreign 
 princes.  Charles,  whofe  ambitious  views  enlarged 
 in  proportion  to  the  increafe  of  his  power  and 
 grandeur,  had  formed  a  icheme  of  continuing  the 
 imperial  crown  in  his  family,  by  procuring  his 
 brother  Ferdinand  to  be  elected  king  of  the  Ro- 
 mans. 
 
 The  meafure  was,  however,  by  no  means  ap- 
 proved by  the  Protectants.  Nothing  had  contri- 
 buted more  to  the  progrefs  oi  their  opinions,  ftian 
 the  interregnum  after  Maximilian's  death,  the  long 
 abfence  of  Charles,  and  the  ilacknefs  of  the  reins 
 of  Government  which  thefe  occailoned.  The  elec- 
 tor  of  Saxony,  accordingly,  not  only  refufed  to  be 
 prefent  at  the  electoral  college,  which  the  emperor 
 .iiinmoned  to  meet  at  Cologne,  but  inllructed  his 
 
 £  Seek.  ii.  200 j  Hi.  11.        t  Skid,  Hift,  142. 
 
 elded 
 
cent,  1 6.]  Ferdinand cbofen  King  of  the  Romans.  329 
 elded  fon  to  appear  there,  and  to  proteft  againft 
 jthe  election  as  informal,  illegal,  contrary  to  the 
 articles  of  the  golden  bull,  and  fubverfive  of  the 
 liberties  of  the  empire,  But  the  other  electors, 
 whom  Charles  had  been  at  great  pains  to  gain, 
 without  regarding  either  his  abfence  or  proteft, 
 chofe  Ferdinand  king  of  the  Romans  ;  who  a  few 
 days  after  was  crowned  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  *. 
 
 When  the  Protectants,  who  were  affem  bled  a  fe- 
 cond  time  at  Smalkalde,  received  an  account  of 
 this  tranfaction,  and  heard,  at  the  fame  time,  that 
 profecutions  were  commenced,  in  the  imperial 
 chamber,  againft  fome  of  their  number,  on  ac- 
 count of  their  religious  principles,  they  thought 
 it  neceflary,  not  only  to  renew  their  former  con- 
 federacy, but  immediately  to  difpatch  their  am- 
 baffadors  to  France  and  England.  Francis,  the 
 avowed  rival  of  the  emperor,  and  jealous  of  his  re- 
 putation, without  feeming  to  countenance  their  re- 
 ligious opinions,  determined  fecretly  to  cherifti 
 thofe  fparks  of  political  difcordj  and  the  king  of 
 England,  highly  incenfed  againft  Charles,  in  com- 
 plaifance  to  whom,  the  pope  had  long  retarded, 
 and  now  openly  oppofed  his  long  foli cited  divorce 
 from  his  queen,  Catharine  of  Arragon,  was  equally 
 difpofed  to  ftrengthen  a  league  which  might  be 
 rendered  fo  formidable  to  the  emperor.  But  his 
 favourite  project  of  the  divorce  led  him  into  fuch 
 
 *  Sleid.  142.     Seek.  iii.  1.    P,  Heuter,  Rcr.  Auftr.  lib.  x, 
 
 c.  6.  p.  240,, 
 
 a  laby* 
 
33°  Treaty  of  Peace.  [cent.  16. 
 
 a  labyrinth  of  fchemes  and  negociations,  and  he 
 was,  at  the  fame  time,  (o  intent  on  abolishing  the 
 papal  jurisdiction  in  England,  that  he  had  no  leifure 
 for  foreign  affairs.  This  obliged  him  to  reft  fatis- 
 jied  with  giving  general  promifes,  together  with  a 
 fmall  fupply  with  money,  to  the  confederates  of 
 Smalkalde  *. 
 
 Meanwhile,  many  circumftances  convinced 
 Charles  that  this  was  not  a  juncture  when  the  ex- 
 tirpation of  herefy  was  to  be  attempted  by  violence- 
 and  rigour;  and  that, in  complii  n;e  with  the  pope's 
 inclinations,  he  had  already  proceeded  with  impru- 
 dent precipitation.  Negociations  were,  therefore, . 
 carried  on  by  his  direction,  with  the  elector  of  Sax-  , 
 ony  and  his  affociates ;  and  after  many  delays, 
 terms  of  pacification  were  agreed  upon  at' Nurem- 
 berg, and  ratified  folemnly  in  the  diet  at  Ratifbon, 
 In  this  treaty  it  was  ftipulated,  that  univerfal 
 peace  be  eftablifhed  in  Germany,  until  the  meet- 
 ing of  a  general  council,  the  convocation  of  which 
 withia  fix  months  the  emperor  fhall  endeavour  to 
 procure  ;  that  no  perfon  fhall  be  molefted  on  ac- 
 count of  religion  ;  that  a  flop  fhall  be  put  «to  all 
 proceffei  begun  by  the  imperial  chamber  againfl 
 Proteftants,  and  the  fentences  already  paffed  to 
 their  detriment  fhall  be  declared  void.  On  their 
 part,  the  Proteftants  engaged  to  affift  the  emperor 
 with  all  their  forces  in  refilling  the  invafion  of  the 
 Turks  -}-.   Thus  by  their  firmnefs,  by  their  unani- 
 
 *  Herbert.  152.  154. 
 
 t  Du  Mont,  Corp  Diplomatique,  torn.  ir.  part  ii.  87.  89. 
 
 mity, 
 
cent.  16.]      Death  of  Elector  of  Saxony,  33*$ 
 
 mity,  and  by  their  dexterity  in  availing  them- 
 felyes  of  the  emperor's  fituation,  the  Proteftants 
 obtained  terms  which  amounted  almoft  to  a  tolera- 
 tion of  their  religion  j  and  the  Proteftants  of  Ger- 
 many, who  had  hitherto  been  viewed  only  as  a  re- 
 ligious fed,  came  henceforth  to  be  confidered  as  a 
 political  body  of  no  fmall  confeqnence  *. 
 
 About  the  beginning  of  Auguft  in  this  year,  1532, 
 the  elector  of  Saxony  died,  and  was  fueceeded  by 
 his  fon  John  Frederic :  the  reformation,  however, 
 rather  gained  than  loft  by  that  event. 
 
 *  Sleid.  149,  &c.     Seek.  iii.  19. 
 
 CHAP. 
 
[    332     ] 
 
 CHAP.     III. 
 
 HISTORY    OF    THE     REFORMATION     IN 
 GERMANY,     &C. 
 
 PART    II. 
 
 Gradual  fyread  of  Luther's  Doctrines —  In    Sweden — In  • 
 Denmark  —  France  —  Calvin  —  Reformation   ejlablijhed  , 
 in  all  Saxony — Council  of  Trent — Death    and  Charac- 
 ter of  Luther — Decrees  of  the   Council  of  Trent — Pope 
 excommunicates   the   Archbijhop  of  Cologne — Diet  at  Ra- 
 tijban — War   declared  againfl  the    Emperor — Perfidy   of 
 Maurice — Seizes     the     Eleclor    Dominions— Eleclor    of 
 Cologne  refigns — Eleclor    of  Saxony  and  Landgrave  made 
 frifoners — Publication  of  the  Interim — Obnoxious  to  both 
 Parties — Violence  of  the  Emperor — Death  of  Paid  III.  and 
 Elevation  of  Julius  III. — Defecliont  of  Maurice— Peace 
 ef  Religion.  '       «-. 
 
 LURING  thofe  important  tranfactions  in  Ger- 
 many which  have  been  juft  related,  the  dawn 
 of  reformation  gradually  arofe  upon  other  nations. 
 Some  of  the  mod  confiderable  provinces  of  Europe 
 had  already  broken  their  chains,  and  openly  with- 
 drawn themfelves  from  the  difcipline  of  Rome  arid 
 
 the   . 
 
cent.  1 6.]         Reformation  in  Sweden.  333 
 
 the  jurifdiction  of  its  pontiff.  The  reformed  reli- 
 gion was  propagated  in  Sweden,  foon  after  Luther's 
 rupture  with  Rome,  by  one  of  his  difciples.  The 
 zealous  efforts  of  this  miffionary  were  powerfully 
 feconded  by  that  valiant  and  public- fpirited  prince, 
 Guftavus  Vafa  Ericfon.  But  as  the  religious  opi- 
 nions of  the  Swedes  were  in  a  fluctuating  ftate, 
 and  their  minds  divided  between  their  ancient  fu- 
 perftitions,  and  the  doctrine  of  Luther,  Guftavus 
 wifely  avoided  all  vehemence  and  precipitation  in 
 fpreading  the  new  doctrine,  and  proceeded  in  this 
 important  undertaking,  in  a  manner  fuitable  to  the 
 principles  of  the  reformation,  which  he  regarded 
 as  diametrically  oppofite  to  compulfion  and  vio- 
 lence. The  firft  object  of  his  attention  was  the 
 instruction  of  his  people  in  the  facred  doctrines 
 of  the  fcriptures,  and  he  fpread  abroad  through 
 the  kingdom  the  Swedifh  tranilation  of  the  Bible, 
 which  had  been  made  by  Olaus  Petri.  After  hav- 
 ing taken  every  proper  meafure  to  effect  his  defign, 
 Guftavus,  in  the  affembly  of  the  ftates  at  Wefteraas, 
 recommended  the  doctrine  of  the  reformers  with 
 fuch  zeal,  wifdom,  and  piety,  that  it  was  una- 
 nimoufly  refolved,  that  the  plan  of  reformation 
 propofed  by  Luther  fhould  have  free  admiflion 
 among  the  Swedes.  This  refolution  was  princi- 
 pally owing  to  the  firmnefs  and  magnanimity  of 
 Guftavus,  who  declared  publicly,  that  he  would 
 lay  down  his  fceptre  and  retire  from  his  kingdom, 
 
 rather 
 
354  Reformation  in  "Denmark.       [cent.  i6» 
 
 rather  than  rule  a  people  enflaved  to  the  orders  and 
 authority  of  the  pope,  and  more  controlled  by  the 
 tyranny  of  their  bifhops*,  than  by  the  laws  of  the 
 kingdom.  From  this  time  the  papal  empire  in 
 Sweden  was  entirely  overturned,  and  Guftavus 
 was  declared  the  head  of  the  church. 
 
 The  reformation  was  alfo  received  in  Denmark, 
 as  early  as  the  year  1521,  in  confequence  of  the 
 ardent  defire  difcovered  by  Chriftian-or  Chriftient 
 II.  of  having  his  fubjecls  inftruded  in'  the  prin- 
 ciples and  doctrine  of  Luther.  The  kingdom 
 of  France  was  not  inacceffible  to  the  reforma- 
 tion. Margaret,  queen  of  Navarre,  and  filter  of  . 
 Francis  I.  the  implacable  enemy  and  perpetual  , 
 rival  of  Charles  V.  was  extremely  favourable  to 
 the  new  doftrine.  The  anfpicions  patronage  of 
 this  illufbrious  princefs  encouraged  feveral  pious 
 and  learned  men  to  propagate  the  principles  of 
 the  reformation  in  France,  and  even  to  erect  fe- 
 veral proteftant  churches  in  that  kingdom.  It  is 
 manifeft  from  the  mod  authentic  records,  that,  fo 
 early  as  the  year  1523,  there  were,  in  feveral  of 
 the  provinces  of  that  country,  multitudes  of  per- 
 fons,  who  had  conceived  the  utmoft  averfion  both 
 
 *  Bazii  Inventarium  Ecclef.  Ecclef.  Sueco-Gothor.  publifhed 
 in  4to,  at  Lincoping,  in  1642.  Sculteti  Annales  Evangelii  Re- 
 novati,  in  Von  der  Hard  Hiftor.  Liter.  Reformat,  part  v. 
 p.  84  et  no.  Raynal,  Anecdotes  Hift.  Politiques  et  Militaires, 
 torn.  i.  part  ii.  p.  i.  &c. 
 
 againft 
 
cent.  1 6."]         Persecutions  in  France.  33 $ 
 
 againft  the  doctrine  and  tyranny  of  Rome,  and, 
 among  thefe,  many  perfons  of  rank  and  dignity, 
 and  even  fome  of  the  epifcopal  order.  As  their 
 numbers  increafed  from  day  to  day,  and  troubles 
 and  commotions  were  excited  in  feveral  places  on 
 account  of  religious  differences,  the  authority  of 
 the  monarch  and  the  cruelty  of  his  officers  inter- 
 vened, to  fupport  the  doctrine  of  Rome  by  the 
 edge  of  the  fvvord  and  the  terrors  of  the  gibbet ; 
 and  on  this  occafion  many  perfons,  eminent  for 
 their  piety  and  virtue,  were  put  to  death  with  the 
 moft  unrelenting  barbarity*.  This  cruelty  how- 
 ever, inftead  of  retarding,  rather  accelerated  the 
 progrefs  of  the  reformation.  Francis,  who  had 
 eidier  no  religion  at  all,  or  at  bed,  no  fixed  and 
 confident  fyflem  of  religious  principles,  conducted 
 himfelf  towards  the  protectants  in  fuch  a  manner 
 as  anfwered  his  private  and  perfonal  views,  or  as 
 reafons  of  policy  and  his  own  intereft  feemed  to 
 require.  When  it  became  neceflary  to  engage  in 
 his  caufe  the  German  proteftants,  in  order  to  fo- 
 ment fedition  and  rebellion  againft  his  mortal  ene- 
 my Charles  V.  then  he  treated  the  proteftants  in 
 France  with  equity,  humanity,  and  gentlenefs; 
 but  when  he  had  gained  his  point,  and  had  no 
 more  occafion  for  their  fer vices,  then  he  threw  off 
 
 *  See  Beze,  Hiftoire  des  Eglifes  Reformees  de  France,  torn.  i. 
 livr.  i.  p.  5.  Benoit,  Hiftoire  de  l'Edit  de  Nantes,  livr.  i.  p.  6. 
 Chrift.  Aug.  Salig.  Hiftor.  Auguft.  Confeffion.  vol.  ii.  p.  19c. 
 
 the 
 
33 6  Calvin.  [cent.  i6\ 
 
 the  mafk,  and  appeared  to  them  in  the  afped  of 
 an  implacable  and  perfecuting  tyrant*. 
 
 About  this  time  the  famous  Calvin  began  to 
 draw  the  attention  of  the  public,  but  more  efpe- 
 cially  of  the  queen  of  Navarre.  He  was  born  at 
 Noyon  in  Picardy,  on  the  loth  of  July,  1509* 
 and  was  bred  to  the  lawf,  in  which,  as  well  as  in 
 all  the  other  branches  of  literature  then  known, 
 his  ftudies  were  attended  with  the  mod  rapid  fuc- 
 cefs.  Having  acquired  the  knowledge  of  religion, 
 by  a  diligent  perufal  of  the  holy  fcriptures,  he 
 began  early  to  perceive  the  neceffity  of  reforming 
 the  eftablifhed  fyftem  of  doctrine  and'  worfhip. 
 His  zeal  expofed  him  to  various  perils,  and  the 
 
 *  The  inconfiflency  add  contradi&ion,  that  were  vifible  in  the 
 conduct  of  Francis  I.  may  be  attributed  to  various  reafons.  At 
 one  time  we  fee  him  refolved  to  invite  Melan&hon  into  France, 
 probably  with  a  view  to  pleafe  his  fifter  the  queen  of  Navarre, 
 whom  he  loved  tenderly,  and  who  had  flrongly  imbibed  the 
 principles  of  the  proteftants.  At  another  time  we  behold  him 
 exercifing  the  mod  infernal -cruelty  towards  the  fiiends  of  the 
 reformation,  and  hear  him  making  that  mad  declaration,  "  tbat$ 
 "  if  he  thought  the  blood  in  his  arm  was  tainted  with  th? 
 "  Lutheran  herefy,  he  would  have  it  cut  off;  and  that  he  would 
 "  not  fpare  even  his  own  children,  if  they  entertained  fentiments 
 "  contrary  to  thofe  of  the  Catholic  church."  See  Flor.  De 
 Remond,  Hill,  de  la  Naiffance  et  du  Progres  de  l'Herefie, 
 livr.  vii. 
 
 t  He  was  originally  defigned  for  the  church,  and  had  acluaHy 
 obtained  a  benefice  :  but  the  light,  that  broke  in  upon  his  reli- 
 gious fentirnents,  as  well  as  the  preference  given  by  his  father  to 
 the  profeffion  of  the  law,  induced  him  to  give  up  his  ecclefiaftical 
 vocation,  which  he  afterwards  refumed  in  a  purer  church. 
 
 2  connections 
 
Cent,  i  6 .  ]     Progrefs  rf  the  Reformation,         33? 
 
 connexions  he  had  formed  with  the  friends  of  the 
 reformation,  whom  Francis  I.  was  daily  commit- 
 ting to  the  flames,  placed  him  more  than  once  in 
 imminent  danger,  from  which  he  was  delivered 
 by  the  good  offices  of  the  excellent  queen  of 
 Navarre.  To  efcape,  however,  the  impending 
 ftorm,  he  retired  to  Bafil,  where  he  publifhed 
 his  Chriftian  Inftitutions ;  and  prefixed  to  them 
 that  famous  dedication  to  Francis  I.  which  has  at- 
 tracted the  admiration  of  fucceeding  ages,  and 
 which  was  defigned  to  foften  the  unrelenting  fury 
 of  that  prince  againft  the  proteftants. 
 
 The  doctrine  of  Luther  made  a  considerable, 
 though  perhaps  a  fecret,  progrefs  in  Spain, 
 Hungary,  Bohemia,  Poland,  and  the  Nether- 
 lands, and  had  in  all  thefe  countries  many  friends, 
 of  whom  feveral  repaired  to  Wittemberg,  to  in> 
 prove  their  knowledge  and  enlarge  their  views 
 under  fuch  an  eminent  matter. 
 
 In  the  year  1539,  George  Duke  of  Saxony  died  ; 
 and  his  death  was  an  event  of  great  advantage  to 
 the  reformers.  From  the  firft  dawn  of  the  refor- 
 mation, he  had  been  its  enemy  as  avowedly  as 
 the  electoral  princes  were  its  protectors.  But  by 
 his  death  without  iffue,  his  fucceffion  fell  to  his 
 brother  Henry,  whofe  attachment  to  the  proteftant 
 religion  furpafled,  if  poffiblej  that  of  his  prede- 
 ceflbr  to  popery.  Henry  no  fooner  took  pofieflion 
 of  his  new  dominions,  than  he  invited  fome  pro- 
 teftant divines,  and  among  them  Luther  himfelf, 
 
 Vol.  II.  Z  to 
 
23$  Council  of  Trent.  [cint.  i6# 
 
 to  Leipfic ;  and,  by  their  advice  and  afiiftance,  he 
 overturned  in  a  few  weeks  the  whole  fyftem  of  anci- 
 ent rites,  eftablifhing  the  full  exercife  of  the  reformed 
 religion,  with  the  univerfal  applaufe  of  his  fubjects, 
 who  had  long  wifhed  for  this  change,  which  the  au- 
 thority of  their  duke  alone  had  hitherto  prevented*. 
 After  a  long  fucceffion  of  negociations  and  de- 
 Jays,  a  general  council  was  convoked  at  Trent  in 
 the  year  1545,  which  appeared  extremely  hoftile 
 to  the  proteftant  caufe.     As  foon  as  the  confede-  ~ 
 rates  of  Smalkalde  received    information   of  the 
 opening  of  the  council,  they  publifhed  a  long  ma- 
 nifefto,  containing  a  proteft  againft  its  meeting,  . 
 together  with  the   reafons  which  induced  them  to  , 
 decline  its  jurifdiclion-f".     The  pope  and  emperor, 
 on  their  part,  were  fo  little  folicitous  to- quicken 
 or  add  vigour  to  its  operations,  as  plainly  difco- 
 vered  that  fome  object  of  greater  importance  oc- 
 cupied and  interested  them. 
 
 The  protectants  Were  not  inattentive  fpectators 
 of  the  motions  of  the  fovereign  pontiff  and  of 
 Charles  V.  •,  and  a  variety  of  information,  corrobo- 
 rating all  which  their  own  jealoufy  or  obfervation 
 led  them  to  apprehend,  lefc  little  reafon  to  doubt 
 of  the  emperor's  hoftile  intentions.  Under  this 
 impreflion,  the  deputies  of  the  confederates  of 
 Smalkalde  affembled  at  Francfort,  and,  by  com- 
 municating their  intelligence  and   fentiments  to 
 
 •*  Sleidan,  249. 
 
 f  Seckcnd.  1.  iii.  602,  £:c. 
 
 each 
 
cent.  1 6 .  ]       Duplicity  of  Charles  V.  339 
 
 each  other,  reciprocally  heightened  their  fenfe  of 
 the  impending  danger.  But  their  union  was  not 
 fuch  as  their  fituation  required,  or  the  preparations 
 of  their  enemies  rendered  neceffary.  Their  league 
 had  now  fubfifted  ten  years.  Among  fo  many 
 members,  whofe  territories  were  intermingled 
 with  each  other,  fubje&s  of  jealoufy  and  difcord 
 had  unavoidably  arifen.  Some  of  the  confederates, 
 being  connected  with  the  duke  of  Brunfwick, 
 were  highly  difgufted  with  the  landgrave,  on  ac- 
 count of  the  rigour  with  which  he  had  treated  that 
 ram  and  unfortunate  prince  :  and  others  taxed  the 
 elector  of  Saxony  and  the  landgrave,  the  heads  of 
 the  league,  with  having  involved  the  members  in 
 unnecetiary  and  exorbitant  expences,  by  their  pro- 
 fufenefs  or  want  of  ceconomy. 
 
 To  calm  the  apprehenfions  of  the  proteftants, 
 Charles  had  recourfe  to  duplicity ;  and  the  military 
 preparations  he  had  already  made  were  reprefented 
 by  Granvelle  the  imperial  minifler,  as  defigned 
 only  as  a  defence  againft  the  attacks  of  the  Englifh 
 and  Trench.  But  the  emperor's  actions  did  not 
 correfpond  with  thefe  profeflions.  For,  inftead 
 of  appointing  men  of  known  moderation  and  a 
 pacific  temper,  to  appear  in  defence  of  the  catholic 
 doctrines,  at  a  conference  which  had  been  agreed 
 on,  he  made  choice  of  fierce  bigots,  attached  to 
 their  own  fyftem  with  a  blind  obftinacy,  which 
 rendered  all  hope  of  a  reconciliation  defperate. 
 Malvenda,  a  Spanifh  divine,  who  took  upon  hirn 
 
 Z  2  the 
 
34°  Death  of  Luther.  [cent.  16. 
 
 the  conduct  of  the  debate  on  the  part  of  the  ca- 
 tholics, managed  it  with  all  the  fubtle  dexterity 
 of  a  fcholaftic  metaphyfician,  more  ftudious  to 
 perplex  his  adverfaries  than  to  convince  them,  and 
 more  intent  on  palliating  error  than  on  difcovering 
 truth.  The  protedants,  filled  with  indignation, 
 as  well  at  his  fophiftry  as  at  fome  regulations  which 
 the  emperor  endeavoured  to  impofe  on  the  difpu- 
 tants,  broke  off  the  conference  abruptly,  being 
 now  fully  convinced  that,  in  all  his  late  meafures,, 
 the  emperor  could  have  no  other  view  than  to 
 amnfe  them,  and  to  gain  time  for  ripening  his  own 
 fchemes*.  '      ' 
 
 While  appearances  of  danger  daily  increafed, 
 and  the  temped  which  had  been  fo  long  gathering 
 was  ready  to  break  forth  in  all  its  violence  againft 
 the  proteftant  church,  Luther  was  faved,  by  a 
 feafonable  death,  from  feeling  or  beholding  its  de- 
 dructive  rage.  Having  gone,  though  in  a  declin- 
 ing date  of  health*  and  during  a  rigorous  feafon, 
 to  his  native  city  of  Eifleben,  in  order  to  compofe, 
 by  his  authority,  a  diffenlion  among  the  counts 
 of  Mansfeld,  he  was  feized  with  a  violent  inflam- 
 mation in  his  ftomach,  which  in  a  few  days  put 
 an  end  to  ht&  life,  February  1 8th,  1546,  in  the 
 63d  year  of  his  age.  As  he  was  railed  up  by  Pro- 
 vidence no  be  the  author  of  one  of  the  greated  and 
 mod  intereding  revolutions  recorded  in  hiftory, 
 there  is  not  any   perfon  perhaps  vvhofe  character 
 
 *  Sleid.  358.     Seek.  1.  iii.  620. 
 
 has 
 
cent.  i6.J  His  Character.  341 
 
 has  been  drawn  with  fuch  oppofite  colours.  It  is, 
 however,  his  own  conduct,  not  the  undiftinguifh- 
 ing  cenfure  or  the  exaggerated  praife  of  his  con- 
 temporaries, which  ought  to  regulate  the  opinions 
 of  the  prefent  age  concerning  him.  Zeal  for  what 
 he  regarded  as  truth,  undaunted  intrepidity  to 
 maintain  his  own  fyftem,  abilities  both  natural  and 
 acquired  to  defend  his  principles,  and  unwearied 
 induftry  in  propagating  them,  are  virtues  which 
 fhine  fo  confpicuouily  in  every  part  of  his  behavi- 
 our, that  even  his  enemies  mull  allow  him  to  have 
 pofleffed  them  in  an  eminent  degree.  To  thefe 
 may  be  added,  with  equal  juftice,  fuch  purity  and 
 even  aufterity  of  manners,  as  became  one  who  af- 
 fumed  the  character  of  a  reformer;  fuch  fanctity 
 of  life  as  fuited  the  doctrine  which  he  delivered; 
 and  fuch  perfect  difintereftednefs  as  affords  no  flight 
 prefumption  of  his  fincerity.  Superior  to  all  felfifh 
 confiderations,  a  ftranger  to  the  elegancies  of  life, 
 and  defpifing  its  pleafures,  he  left  the  honours  and 
 emoluments  of  the  church  to  his  difciples,  re- 
 maining fatisfied  himfelf  in  his  original  flate  of 
 profefTor  in  the  univerfity,  and  paftor  of  the  town 
 of  Wittemberg,  with  the  moderate  appointments 
 annexed  to  thefe  offices.  His  extraordinary  qua- 
 lities were  allayed  with  no  inconfiderable  mixture 
 of  human  frailty  and  human  paffions.  Thefe, 
 however,  were  of  fuch  a  nature,  that  they  cannot 
 be  imputed  to  malevolence  or  corruption  of  heart, 
 bur  feem  to  have  taken  their  rife  from  the  fame 
 
 Z  3  fource 
 
34a  Character  of  [cent.  16. 
 
 fource  with  many  of  his  virtues.  His  mind, 
 forcible  and  vehement  in  all  ics  operations,  roufed 
 by  great  objects,  or  agitated  by  violent  paffions, 
 broke  out,  on  many  occafions,  with  an  impetuo- 
 fity  which  aftoniihes  men  of  feebler  fpirits,  or  fuch 
 as  are  placed  in  a  more  tranquil  fituation.  By 
 carrying  fome  praife-worthy  difpofitions  to  excefs, 
 he  bordered  fometimes  on  what  was  culpable,  and 
 was  often  betrayed  into  actions  which  expofed  him 
 to  cenfure.  His  confidence  that  his  own  opinions 
 were  well  founded,  approached  to  arrogance;  his" 
 courage  in  aflerting  them,  torathnefs;  hisfirmnefs 
 in  adhering  to  them,  to  obftinacy  ;  and  his  zeal 
 in  confuting  his  adverfaries,  to  rage  and  fcurrility. 
 Accuftomed  himfelf  to  confider  every  thing  as 
 fubordinate  to  truth,  he  expected  the  fame  de- 
 ference for  it  from  other  men;  and,  without  mak- 
 ing any  allowances  for  their  timidity  or  prejudices, 
 he  poured  forth  againft  fuch  as  difappointed  him 
 in  this  particular, .  a  torrent  of  invective  mingled 
 with  contempt.  Regardlefs  of  any  diftinction  of 
 rank  or  character  when  his  doctrines  were  attacked, 
 he  chaflifed  all  his  adverfaries  indifcriminately 
 with  the  fame  rough  hand;  neither  the. royal  dig- 
 nity of  Heniy  VIII.  nor  the  eminent  learning  and 
 abilities  of  Erafmus,  fcreened  them  from  the  lame 
 grofs  abufe  with  which  he  treated  Tetzel  or  Eccius, 
 Towards  the  clofe  of  Luther's  life,  though,  with- 
 out any  perceptible  diminution  of  his  zeal  or  abi- 
 lities, the  infirmities  of  his  temper  increafed  upon 
 5  him, 
 
fcENT.  1 6.]  Luther.  243 
 
 him,  To  that  he  grew  dally  more  peevilh,  more  iraf- 
 cible,  and  more  impatient  of  contradiction.  Hav- 
 ing lived  to  be  a  witn  efs  of  his  own  amazing  fuc- 
 c'efs ;  to  fee  a  great  part  of  Europe  embrace  his 
 doctrines ;  and  to  make  the  foundation  of  the  papal 
 throne,  before  which  the  mightielt  monarchs  had 
 trembled,  hedifcovered,on  fome  occafions,  fymp- 
 toms  of  vanity  and  felf-applaufe.  He  muft  have 
 been,  indeed,  more  than  man,  if,  upon  contem- 
 plating all  that  he  actually  accomplished,  he  had 
 never  felt  any  fentimenc  of  this  kind  rifing  in  his 
 breaft. 
 
 Some  time  before  his  death  he  felt  his  ftrength 
 declining,  his  conftitution  being  worn  out  by  a 
 prodigious  multiplicity  of  bufinefs,  added  to  the 
 labour  of  difcharging  his  minifterial  function  with 
 unremitting  diligence,  to  the  fatigue  of  conftant 
 ftudy,  befides  the  compofition  of  works  as  volu- 
 minous as  if  he  had  enjoyed  uninterrupted  Ieifure 
 and  retirement.  His  natural  intrepidity  did  not 
 forfake  him  at  the  approach  of  death  j  his  laft 
 converfation  with  his  friends  was  concerning  the 
 happinefs  refeYved  for  good  men  in  a  future  life, 
 of  which  he  fpoke  with  the  fervour  and  delight 
 natural  to  one  who  expected  and  wifhed  to  enter 
 foon  upon  the  enjoyment  of  it*.  His  funeral  was 
 celebrated,  by  order  of  the  elector  of  Saxony,  with 
 extraordinary  pomp.     He  left  feveral  children  by 
 
 *  Skid.  362.  Seek.  lib.  iil.  632,  &c. 
 
 Z  4  his 
 
344  Temerity  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  [cent.  16. 
 his  wife  Catherine  Boria,  who  furvived  him.  To- 
 wards the  end  of  the  hft  century,  there  were  in 
 Saxony  fome  of  his  descendants  in  decent  and  ho- 
 nourable ftations*. 
 
 The  emperor,  meanwhile,  purfued  the  plan  of 
 difllmulation  with  which  he  had  let  out ;  but  fuch 
 events  foon  occurred,  as  ftaggered  the  credit  which 
 the  proteftants  had  given  to  his  declarations.  The 
 council  of  Trent,  though  ftill  compofed  of  a  fmall 
 number  of  Italian  and  Spanifh  prelates,  without  a. 
 fingle  deputy  from  many  of  the  kingdoms  which 
 it  affumed  a  right  of  binding  by  its  decrees,  being 
 alhamed  of  its  long  inactivity,  proceeded  now  to 
 fettle  articles  of  the  greateft  importance.  Having 
 begun  with  examining  the  fiift  and  chief  point  in 
 controverfy  between  the  church  of  Rom.e  and  the 
 reformers,  concerning  the  rule  which  mould  be 
 held  as  fupreme  and  decifive  in  matters  of  faith, 
 the  council,  by  its  infallible  authority,  determined, 
 f<  That  the  books,  to  which  the  defignation  of  apo* 
 cryfhal  hath  been  given,  are  of  equal  authority  with 
 thofe  which  were  received  by  the  Jews  and  primir 
 tive  Chriftians  into  the  facred  canon;  that  the  tra- 
 ditions  handed  down  from  the  apoftolic  age,  and 
 preferved  in  the  church,  are  entitled  to  as  much 
 regard  as  the  doctrines  and  precepts  which  the  in- 
 fpired  authors  have  committed  to  writing;  that  the 
 Latin  tranflation  of  the  fcriptures,  made  or  revifed 
 
 *  Seek.  1.  iii.  6c i. 
 
 by 
 
cent.  16".]       Emperor  prepares  for  War.  ^45 
 
 by  St.  Jerome,  and  known  by  the  name  of  the 
 Vulgate  translation,  mould  be  read  in  churches,  and 
 appealed  to  in  the  fchools,  as  authentic  and  cano- 
 nical :"  and  againft  all  who  difclaimed  the  truth  of 
 thefe  tenets,  anathemas  were  denounced  in  the 
 name  and  by  the  authority  of  the  Holy  Ghoft. 
 
 Several  circumftances  confpired  to  convince  the 
 proteftants  that  the  council  was  ready  to  condemn 
 their  opinions,  and  the  pope  to  punifti  all  who  em- 
 braced them, and  that  Charles  had  determined  upon 
 their  extirpation.  In  this  fituation  they  expoftulated 
 with  the  emperor,  and  propofed  feveral  projects  for 
 fettling  the  matter  in  difpute  ;  but  their  memorial 
 was  received  by  him  with  a  contemptuous  fmile. 
 Having  already  taken  his  final  iefolution,  and  per- 
 ceiving that  nothing  but  force  could  compel  them 
 to  acquiefce  in  it,  he  difpatched  the  cardinal  of 
 Trent  to  Rome,  to  conclude  an  alliance  with  the 
 pope,  the  terms  of  which  were  already  agreed  on  ; 
 he  commanded  a  body  of  troops,  levied  on  purpofe 
 in  the  Low  Countries,  to  advance  towards  Ger- 
 many j  he  gave  commuTions  for  raifing  men  in 
 different  parts  of  the  empire ;  he  warned  John 
 and  Albert  of  Brandenburg,  that  now  was  the 
 proper  time  of  exerting  themfelves,  in  order 
 to  refcue  their  ally,  Henry  of  Brunfwick,  from 
 captivity*. 
 
 The  proteftants,  in  this  difagreeable  fituation, 
 
 *  Sleid.  374.    Seek.  III.  658. 
 
 had 
 
346  Formidable  Army  of  the  Proteflants.  [cent.  16; 
 had  recourfe  to  negociations.  The  powers  to 
 which  they  addreffed  themfelves  were  the  flate  of 
 Venice,  the  Helvetic  body,  the  kings  of  France 
 and  England  j  but  in  all  thefe  applications  they 
 were  fuccefiively  difappointed.  .Notwithftanding, 
 however,  their  ill  fuccefs  in  their  negociations  with 
 foreign  courts,  the  confederates  found  no  difficulty 
 at  home,  in  bringing  a  fufficient  force  into  the 
 field.  By  a  concurrence  of  caufes,  they  were 
 enabled  to  aflemble  in  a  few  weeks  an  army  com- 
 pofed  of  feventy  thoufand  foot  and  fifteen  thoufand 
 horfe,  provided  with  a  train  of  one  hundred  and 
 twenty  cannon,  eight  hundred  ammunition  wag- 
 gons, eight  thoufand  beads  of  burden,  and  fix 
 thoufand  pioneers*. 
 
 The  number  of  their  troops,  as  well* as  the 
 amazing  rapidity  with  which  they  ha_d  afTembled 
 them,  aftonifhed  the  emperor,  and  filled  him  with 
 the  moft  difquieting  apprehenfions.  -He  was,  in- 
 deed, in  no  condition  to  refift  fuch  a  mighty  fore'e. 
 Shut  up  in  Ratifbon,  a  town  of  no  great  flrength, 
 whofe  inhabitants,  being  moftly  Lutherans,  would 
 have  been  more  ready  to  betray  than  to  aflrft  him, 
 with  only  three  thoufand  Spaniih  foot,  and  about 
 five  thoufand  Germans  who  had  joined  him  from 
 different  parts  of  the  empire,  he  mud  have'  been 
 
 *  Thuan.  1.  i.  60 1.  Ludovici  ab  Avila  cc  Zuniga  Com- 
 mentariorum  de  Bel.  Germ,  lib.  duo,  Antw.  1550.  i2mo. 
 p.  13.  a. 
 
 overwhelmed 
 
cent.  1 6 .  ]  Tardinefs  of  the  Co  n federates.  347 
 overwhelmed  by  the  approach  of  fuch  a  formi- 
 dable army,  which  he  could  not  fight,  nor  could 
 he  even  hope  to  retreat  from  it  in  fafety.  The 
 pope's  troops,  though  in  full  march  to  his  relief, 
 had  hardly  reached  the  frontiers  of  Germany  ;  the 
 forces  which  he  expected  from  the  Low  Countries- 
 had  not  yet  begun  to  move,  and  were  even  far 
 from  being  complete*.  His  fituation,  however, 
 called  for  more  immediate  fuccour,  nor  did  it  feem 
 praclicable  for  him  to  wait  for  fuch  diltant  auxili- 
 aries, with  whom  his  junction  was  fo  precarious. 
 
 But  it  happened  fortunately  for  Charles,  that  the 
 confederates  did  not  avail  themfelves  of  the  advan- 
 tage which  lay  fo  full  in  their  view.  They  ad- 
 d  relied  themfelves  to  him  by  manifeftoes,  when 
 they  mould  have  alTailed  him  with  arms.  On  the 
 other  hand,  Charles,  though  in  fuch  a  perilous 
 fituation  as  might  have  infpired  him  with  moderate 
 fentiments,  appeared  as  inflexible  and  haughty  as 
 if  his  affairs  had  been  in  the  moft  profperous  ftatc. 
 His  only  reply  was  to  publiih  the  ban  of  the  em- 
 pire againfl  the  elector  of  Saxony  and  landgrave 
 of  HelTe,  their  leaders,  and  againfl  all  who  fhould 
 dare  to  affift  them.  By  this  fentence,  the  ultimate 
 and  mod  rigorous  one  which  the  German  jurifpru- 
 dence  has  provided  for  the  punishment  of  traitors, 
 or  enemies  to  their  country,  they  were  declared 
 jrebels  and  outlaws,  and  deprived  of  every  privilege 
 
 *  Skid.  389.    Avila.  8.  a. 
 
 which 
 
348  War  between  Vrot  eft  ants  and  Emp.  [cent.  16. 
 which  they  enjoyed  as  members  of  the  Germanic 
 body  ;  their  goods  were  confifcated  ;  their  fubjects 
 abfolved  from  their  02th  of  allegiance  ;  and  it'  be- 
 came not  only  lawful  but  meritorious  to  invade 
 their  territories.  The  authority  of  a  diet  of  the 
 empire  ought  to  have  been  interpofed  before  any 
 of  its  members  could  be  put  under  the  ban.  But 
 Charles  overlooked  that  formality,  well  knowing 
 that,  if  his  arms  were  crowned  with  fuccefs,  there 
 would  remain  none  who  would  have  either  power 
 or  courage  to  call  in  queflion  what  he  had  done*. 
 
 A  few  days  after  the  ban  of  the  empire  was  pub- 
 lifhed,  the  confederates,  according  tothecuftom  of 
 that  age,  fent  a  herald  to  the  imperial  camp  with 
 a  folemn  declaration  of  war  againft  Charles,  to 
 whom  they  no  longer  gave  any  other  title  than  that 
 of  pretended  emperor,  and  renounced  all  allegi- 
 ance, homage,  or  duty  which  he  might  claim,  or 
 which  they  had  hitherto  yielded  to  him. 
 
 The  war  was  carried  on  with  various  fuccefs 
 for  the  greater  part  of  the  campaign,  when  the 
 perfidy  of  prince  Maurice  of  Saxony  gave  a  de- 
 cided turn  in  favour  of  the  emperor.  His  viewjvas 
 manifestly  from  the  firft  the  increafe  of  his  domi- 
 nions, which  were  too  fmall  for  his  afpiring  mind. 
 With  this  view,  he  had  repaired  to  Ratifbon  in  the 
 month  of  May,  under  pretext  of  attending  the 
 
 *  Sleid.  386.     Du  Mont,   Corps  Diplom.  iv.  p.    11.  314. 
 Pfcffel,  Hill.  Abrege  du  Rroit  Publ,  168.  736.  1 58. 
 
 diet  ; 
 
cent.  1 6.]       Perfidy  of  Maurice  of  Saxony,       349 
 
 diet;  and  with  the  mod  myfterious  fecrecy  conclu- 
 ded a  treaty,  in  which  he  engaged  to  affift  the  em- 
 peror as  a  faithful  fubject ;  and  Charles,  in  return, 
 ftipulated  to  beftow  on  him  all  the  fpoils  of  the 
 elector  of  Saxony,  his  dignities  as  well  as  territo- 
 ries*. Hiftory  hardly  records  any  treaty  that  can 
 be  confidered  as  a  more  manifeft  violation  of  the 
 mod  powerful  principles  which  ought  to  influence 
 human  actions.  Maurice,  a  profeffed  proteflanr, 
 at  a  time  when  the  belief  of  religion,  as  well  as  zeal 
 for  its  interests,  took  flrong  pofleffion  of  every 
 mind,  binds  himfelf  to  contribute  his  afliftance  to- 
 wards carrying  on  a  war  which  had  manifeflly  no 
 other  object  than  the  extirpation  of  the  proteftant 
 doctrines.  He  engages  to  take  arms  againrt  his 
 father-in-law,  and  to  ftrip  his  neareft  relation  of 
 his  honours  and  dominions.  He  joins  a  dubious 
 friend  againft  a  known  benefactor,  to  whom  his 
 obligations  were  both  great  and  recent.  Nor  was 
 the  prince  who  ventured  upon  all  this  one  of  thole 
 audacious  politicians,  who,  provided  they  can  ac- 
 complish their  ends,  and  fecure  their  interefl,  avow- 
 edly difregard  the  moft  facred  obligations,  and 
 glory  in  contemning  whatever  is  honourable  or 
 decent.  Maurice's  conduct,  if  the  whole  muft  be 
 afcribed  to  policy,  was  more  artful  and  mafterly  ; 
 he  executed  his  plan  in  all  its  parts,   and  yet  en- 
 
 *  Haraei  Annal.  Brabant,  vol.  i.  638.     Struvii  Corp.  1048. 
 Thuan,  84, 
 
 deavoured 
 
3  5  o  Perfidy  of  Maurice.         [cent,  i  6* 
 
 deavoured  to  preferve,  in  every  ftep  which  he  took, 
 the  appearance  of  what  was  fair,  and  virtuous, .and 
 laudable.  It  is  probable,  from  his  fubfequeirt  be- 
 haviour, that,  with  regard  to  the  proteftant  reli- 
 gion at  leaft,  his  intentions  were  upright,  that  he 
 fondly  trufted  to  the  emperor's  promifes  for  its 
 fecurity,  but  that,  according  to  the  fate  of  all  who 
 refine  too  much  in  policy,  in  attempting  to  de- 
 ceive others,  he  himfelf  was  in  fome' degree  de-. 
 ceived. 
 
 His  firfl:  care,  however,  was  to  keep  the  en- 
 gagements, into  which  he  had  entered  with  the 
 emperor,  clofely  concealed  :  and  fo  perfect  a  mafter 
 was  he  in  the  art  of  diffimulation,  that  the  confe- 
 derates, notwithflanding  his  declining  all  connec- 
 tions with  them,  and  his  remarkable  affiduity  in 
 paying  court  to  the  emperor,  feemed'to  have  en- 
 tertained no  fufpicion  of  his  defigns.  Even  the 
 elector  of  Saxony,  when  he  marched  at  the  be- 
 ginning of  the  campaign  to  join  his  affociates,  com- 
 mitted his  dominions  to  Maurice's  protection, 
 which  he,  with  an  infidious  appearance  of  friend- 
 fhip,  readily  undertook*.  But  fcarcely  had  <he 
 elector  taken  the  field,  when  Maurice  began  to 
 confult  privately  with  the  king  of  the  Romans  how 
 to  invade  thofe  very  territories,  with  the  defence  of 
 ^vhich  he  was  entrufted.  Soon  after,  the  emperor 
 fent  him  a  copj  of  the  imperial  ban  denounced 
 
 *  Struvii  Corp,  1046. 
 
 againft 
 
cent.  1 6 .]  ReJignatioH  of  Elefior  of  Cologne,  3  <;  f 
 againfl:  the  elector  and  landgrave.  As  he  was  next 
 heir  to  the  former,  and  particularly  interested  in 
 preventing  flrangers  from  getting  his  dominions 
 into  their  poffemon,  Charles  required  him,  not 
 only  for  his  own  fake,  but  upon  the  allegiance  and 
 duty  which  he  owed  to  the  head  of  the  empire,  in- 
 ftantly  to  feize  and  detain  in  his  hands  the  for- 
 feited eftates  of  the  elector ;  warning  him,  at  the 
 fame  time,  that  if  he  neglected  to  obey  thefe  com- 
 mands, he  fhould  be  held  as  acceffary  ro  the  crimes 
 of  his  kinfman,  and  be  liable  to  the  fame  punifh- 
 ment*. 
 
 This  artifice,  which  it  was  probable  Maurice 
 himfelf  fuggefted,  afforded  him  a  flimfy  pretext  for 
 feizing  the  dominions  of  his  friend  and  benefactor, 
 which,  with  fome  facrifices  to  appearance,  he  pre- 
 fently  put  in  practice. 
 
 After  this  unfortunate  event,  the  confederates, 
 weakened  by  the  defertion  of  the  elector,  who  was 
 obliged  to  proceed  to  the  defence  of  his  dominions, 
 and  other  caufes,  were  oppreffed  by  Charles  on 
 every  fide.  The  elector  of  Cologne  voluntarily 
 refigned  that  high  dignity.  With  a  moderation 
 becoming  his  age  and  character,  he  chofe  to  enjoy 
 truth,  together  with  the  exercife  of  his  religion,  in 
 the  retirement  of  a  private  life,  rather  than  to  dif- 
 turb  fociety  by  engaging  in  a  doubtful  and  violent 
 itruggle  in  order  to  retain  his  office-)-. 
 
 *  Sleld.  391.     Thuan.  84. 
 
 f  Sleid.   418.     Thuan.  lib.  W.  i.sS. 
 
 In 
 
352     Elector  of  Saxony  taken  Prifoner,     [cent,  if>. 
 
 In  the  fatal  battle  of  Mulhaufen,  the  24th  of 
 April,  1547,  the  elector  of  Saxony  was  taken  pri- 
 foner. He  was  treated  by  the  emperor  with  the 
 utmoft  infolence  ;  and,  contrary  to  the  laws  of  the 
 empire  and  the  faith  of  treaties,  was  brought  to  a 
 mock,  trial,  not  before  the  ftar.es  of  the  empire,  but 
 before  a  court-martial  compofed  of  Spanifh  and 
 Italian  officers.  He  was  condemned  to  die  by 
 this  unjuft  tribunal,  and  received  the  fentence  with, 
 a  magnanimity,  which  can  only  be  exhibited  by 
 thofe  who  are  actuated  by  the  principles  of  true 
 religion.  It  was  his  earned  defire  to  embrace  him- 
 felf  his  fate,  and  preferve  his  dominions  untouched 
 for  his  pofterity ;  but  the  tears  and  entreaties  of  his 
 wife  and  family  prevailed  over  this  refolve,  and  he 
 iubmitted  to  the  refignation  of  his  electoral  dignity, 
 to  which  was  annexed  the  fevere  condition  of  re- 
 maining the  emperor's  prifoner  for  life.  The  per- 
 fidious Maurice  was  put  in  pofleffion  of  his  elec- 
 toral dominions ;  though  this  facrifice  was  not  made 
 without  relu&ance  by  the  ambitious  emperor. 
 
 The  unfortunate  landgrave,  terrified  by  the  fate 
 of  the  elector,  was  induced  to  commit  himfdfto 
 the  emperor's  clemency ;  but  he  too  found  that, 
 after  the  moft  ignominious  fubmillion,  he  was  de- 
 tained a  prifoner  contrary  to  the  faith  of  the  em- 
 peror, exprefsly  pledged  :  and  he  and  the  degraded 
 elector  of  Saxony  were  exhibited  to  the  populace 
 in  all  the  journies  of  the  emperor,  the  melancholy 
 witneifes  and  ornaments  of  his  infolent  triumph.' 
 
 The 
 
Cent.  I  €.~]       Publication  of  the  Interim,  35? 
 
 The  unbounded  ambition  of  the  emperor,  and 
 the  jealoufy  and  refentment  of  the  pope,  operated 
 at  this  dangerous  crifis  for  the  prefervation  of  the 
 reformed  religion  in  Germany*.  While  both 
 agreed  that  all  religious  difputes  mould  be  fub- 
 mitted  to  the  general  council,  it  was  warmly  de- 
 bated where  this  council  mould  fit,  at  Trent  where 
 it  was  originally  convened,  or  at  Bologna.  When 
 Charles  found  himfelf  unable  to  overcome  the  ob- 
 flinacy  of  the  pope,  he  publimed  that  fyftem  of  faith 
 which  is  known  by  the  name  of  the  Interim,  becaufe 
 it  profeffed  to  contain  only  temporary  regulations, 
 till  a  free  general  council  mould  be  held;  and  he 
 had  influence  enough  with  the  diet,  which  was 
 fitting  at  Augfburg,  to  obtain  a  kind  of  extorted 
 or  tacit  confent  that  it  mould  be  received  and  en- 
 forced as  a  general  fyftem.  of  faith  throughout  the 
 German  empire. 
 
 This  fyftern,  which  contained  almoft  every  article 
 of  the  popifh  tenets  expreffed  with  ftudied  am- 
 biguity, proved  equally  difgufting  to  papifts  and 
 proteftants.  While  the  Lutheran  divines  fiercely 
 attacked  it  on  the  one  hand,  the  general  of  the  Do- 
 minicans with  no  lefs  vehemence  impugned  it  on 
 the  other.  But  at  Rome,  as  foon  as  the  contents 
 of  the  Interim  came  to  be  known,  the  indignation 
 
 *  See  the  detail  and  inveftigation  of  thefe  tranfaftions  in  one 
 of  the  firft  hiftorical  works  extant,  Dr.  Robertfon's  Charles  V. 
 vol.  iii. 
 
 Vol.  II.  A  a  of 
 
3'54  Ovjlimcy  of  the  Emperor.         £ckntv  r6-, 
 
 of  the  courtiers  and  ecclefiaftics  rofe  to  the  greateft 
 height. 
 
 The  pope,  however,  whofe  judgment  was  im- 
 proved by  longer  experience  in  great  tranfa6lions> 
 as  well  as  by  a  more  exteriive  obfervation  of  human 
 affairs,  was  aftonifhed  that  a  prince  of  fuch  fuperior 
 fagaciry  as  the  emperor  mould  be  fo  intoxicated 
 with  a  tingle  victory,  as  to  imagine  that  he  might 
 give  law  to  mankind,  and  decide  even  in  thofe 
 matters,  with  regard  to  which  they  are  raofl:  impa- 
 tient of  dominion. 
 
 The  emperor,  on  the  other  hand,  fond  of  his  own 
 plan,  adhered  to  his  refolution  of  carrying  it  into- 
 full  execution.  But  though  the  elector  palaune, 
 the  elector  of  Brandenburg,  and1  Maurice,  feemed: 
 ready  to  yield  implicit  obedience  to  whatever  he 
 mould  enjoin,  he  met  not  every  where  with  a  like 
 obfequious  fubmiflion.  John,  marquis  of  Branden- 
 burg Anfpach,  although  he  had  taken  part  witlv 
 great  zeal  in  the  war  againft  the  confederates  of 
 Smalkaldc,  refufedto  renounce  doctrines  which  he 
 held  to  be  facred  ;  and  reminding  the  emperor  of 
 the  repeated  promifes  which  he  had  given  his 
 proteftant  allies,  of  allowing  them  the  free  exer- 
 cife  of  their  religion,  he  claimed,  in  confequence 
 of  thefe,  to  be  exempted  from  receiving  the  Inte- 
 rim. Some  other  princes  alfo  ventured  to  men- 
 tion the  fame  fcruples,  and  to  plead  the  fame  indul- 
 gence. But  on  this,  as  on  other  trying  occafions, 
 the  lirmnefs  of  the  elector  of  Saxony  was  mod  dif- 
 3  tinguiQied, 
 
t  s  n  T»  1 6.  J   Fortitude  of  the  EkSior  of  Saxony.     $£$ 
 tinguifhed,  and  merited  the  higheft  praife.  Charles, 
 well  knowing  the  authority  of  his  example  with  all 
 the  protectant  party,  laboured,  With  the  utmoft 
 earneftnefs,  to  gain  his  approbation  of  the  Interim, 
 and  attempted  alternately  to  work  upon  his  hopes 
 and  his  fears.     But  he  was  alike  regardlefs  of  both. 
 After  having  declared  his  fixed  belief  in  the  doc- 
 trines of  the  reformation,  he  refufed  to  abandon  the 
 principles  for  which  he  had   fo   long  contended. 
 By  this  magnanimous  refolution,  he  let  his  coun- 
 trymen a  pattern  of  conduct,  fo  very  different  from 
 that  which  the  emperor  wifhedhim  to  have  exhibited 
 to  them,  that  it  drew  upon  him  frefh  marks  of  his 
 difpleafure,  and  he  was  deprived  of  every  confola- 
 tion  which  could  mitigate  the  rigours  of  a  clofe  and 
 tedious   confinement*.     The  landgrave  of  Hefle, 
 his  companion  in  misfortune,  did  not  maintain  the 
 fame  conftancy,  but  wrote  to  the  emperor,  offering 
 not  only  to  approve  of  the  Interim,  but  to  yield  an 
 unreferved  fubmiffion  to  his  will  in  every  other 
 particular.      Charles,   however,  who  knew   that 
 whatever  courfe  the  landgrave  might  hold,  neither 
 his  example  nor   authority  would  prevail  on  his 
 children  or  fubjects  to  receive  the  Interim,  paid  no 
 regard  to  his  offers.     He   was  kept  confined  as 
 ftri&ly  as  ever ;   and   while  he  fuffered  the  cruel 
 mortification  of  having  his  condud  fet  in  contraft 
 with  that  of  the  defter,  he  derived  not  the  fmalleft 
 
 *  Sleid.  462. 
 
 Aaa  benefit 
 
35  6  Defeat  en  of  Maurice.         [cent.  26, 
 
 benefit  from  the  mean  ftep  which  expofed  him  to 
 fuch  deferved  cenfure*. 
 
 But  it  was  from  the  free  cities  that  Charles  ex- 
 perienced the  moll  violent  oppofition.  He  there- 
 fore proceeded,  contrary  to  the  laws  of  the  German 
 empire,  to  feize  them  by  force,  and  to  new-mode] 
 their  confthutions.  While  thefeaffairs  were  tranfacV 
 ing,  Paul  III.  expired  at  Rome,  in  1549,  and  the 
 cardinal  di  Monte,  who  had  been  the  confidential 
 minifcer  of  Paul,  was  elected  in  his  ftead,  and  af-.. 
 fumed  the  title  of  Julius  III.  With  fome  difficulty 
 this  pontiff  was  prevailed  upon  by  Charles  to  re- 
 affemble  the  council  at  Trent.  But  a  different 
 fcene  now  opened  to  the  eyes  of  Europe.  Mau*, 
 rice,  who  had  formerly  facrificed  fo  much  to  his 
 inordinate  ambition,  became  fecretly  jealous  of  the 
 growing  tyranny  of  the  emperor  ;  and  defirous  of 
 retaining  the  power  which  he  himfelf  had  obtained"; 
 his  fiift  meafure  was  to  proteft  in  the  warmeft 
 terms  again  ft  the  council  to  be  called  at  Trent, 
 unlefs  the  fubje&s  already  examined  there  were 
 re-debated,  and  the  proteftants  allowed  a  deciding 
 voice  in  the  council.  His  next  was  to  conclude  a 
 fecret  treaty  with  Henry  II.  of  France,  for  the  pur- 
 pofe  of  reducing  the  emperor ;  and  in  the  begin- 
 ning of  March,  1552,  he  declared  war  again  ft  that 
 monarch,  in  fupport  of  the  proteftant  religion. 
 Charles  was  foon  ignominiouily  expelled  from  Ger- 
 
 *  Skid.  4.62. 
 
 many ; 
 
cent.  1 6.  ]        Council  of  Trent  dijfolved.  357 
 
 many  ;  the  council  of  Trent  difiblved  itfelf  with 
 confirmation,  and  was  not  able  to  re-aflemble  for 
 the  fpace  often  years*. 
 
 After 
 
 *  Our  knowledge  of  the  proceedings  ofxhisalTembly  is  derived 
 from  three  different  authors.  Father  Paul  of  Venice  wrote  his 
 Hiflory  of  the  Council,  of  Trent,  while  the  memory  of  what  had 
 paffed  there  was  recent,  and  fome  who  had  been  members  of  it 
 were  Hill  alive.  He  has  expofed  the  intrigues  and  artifices  by 
 which  it  was  conducted,  with  a  freedom  and  feverity  which  have 
 given  a  deep  wound  to  the  credit  of  the  council.  He  has  de- 
 scribed its  deliberations,  and  explained  its  decrees,  with  fuch  per- 
 fpicuity  and  depth  of  thought,  with  fuch  various  erudition  and 
 ftich  force  of  reafon,  as  have  juftly  entitled  his  work  to  be  placed 
 among  the  moft  admired  hiltorical  compoutions.  About  half 
 a  century  after,  the  Jefuit  Pallavicini  publifhed  his  Hiftory  of  the 
 Council,  in  oppofition  to  that  of  Father  Paul ;  and  by  employing 
 all  the  force  of  an  acute  and  refining  genius  to  invalidate  the 
 credit,  or  to  confute  the  reafonings  of  his  antagonift,  he  labours 
 to  prove,  by  artful  apologies  for  the  proceedings  of  the  council, 
 and  fubtile  interpretations  of  its  decrees,  that  it  deliberated  with 
 impartiality,  and  decided  with  judgment  as  well  as  candour. 
 Vargas,  a  Spaniih  doctor  of  laws,  who  was  appointed  to  attend 
 the  imperial  ambalTadors  at  Trent,  fent  the  bifhop  of  Arras  a  re- 
 gular account  of  the  tranfadlions  there,  explaining  all  the  arts 
 which  the  legate  employed  to  influence  or  overawe  the  council. 
 His  letters  have  been  publifhed,  in  which  he  inveighs  again  ft.  the 
 papal  court  with  that  afperity  of  cenfure,  which  was  natural  to  a 
 man  whofe  Situation  enabled  him  to  obferve  its  intrigues  tho- 
 roughly, and  who  was  obliged  to  exert  all  his  attention  and  talents 
 in  order  to  difappoint  them.  But  whichfoever  of  thefe  authors 
 an  intelligent  perfon  takes  for  his  guide,  in  forming  a  judgment 
 concerning  the  fpirit  of  the  council,  he  muft  difcover  fo  much 
 ambition  as  well  as  artifice  among  fome  of  the  members,  fo  much 
 A  a  3  ignorance 
 
3  5 8  Peace  of  Religion.  £ c  e nt.  i  6; 
 
 After  thefe  events,  fo  glorious  to  the  proteftant 
 
 caufe,  the  peace  of  religion  was  concluded  at  Paf- 
 
 fau,  on  the  2d  of  Anguft,  1552.     By  this  treaty 
 
 the 
 
 ignorance  and  corruption  among  others  ;  he  muft  obferve  fuch  a 
 large  infufion  of  human  policy  and  paffions  mingled  with  fuch  a 
 icanty  portion  of  that  fimplicity  of  heart,  fanctity  of  manners, 
 and  love  of  truth,  which  alone  qualify  men  to  determine  what 
 doctrines  are  worthy  of  God,  and  what  worfhip  is  acceptable  to 
 him  ;  that  he  will  find  it  no  eafy  matter  to  believe,  that  any  .ex- 
 traordinary influence  of  the  Holy  Ghoft  hovered  over  thisafTenv 
 bly,  and  dictated  its  decrees. 
 
 The  following  is  a  fhort  fummary  of  the  proceedings  of  this  fa- 
 mous council,  drawn  up  by  a  catholic?  on  whofe  liberality  it 
 reflects  ereat  honour  : 
 
 o 
 
 I 
 
 The  council  of  Trent,  in  whatfoever  light  it  be  confidered, 
 was  certainly  the  mod  fingular  eccleiiailical  afTembJy  that  ever 
 jnet.  As  mod  people,  even  catholics,  know  little  more  about 
 it,  than  that  it  was  a  council,  I  mall  here  give  a  fhort  hiflorical 
 view  of  it,  drawn  from  the  acts  themfelyes ;  without  any  com- 
 ment or  criticifm. 
 
 It  was,  at  firft,  convoked  to  Mantua  by  Paul  III.  ;  next  to 
 Vicenza,  and  then  to  Trent;  where  it  was  opened  on  the  13th 
 of  December,  1545. 
 
 At  thefrft  feffion  there  were  prefent  only  the  pope's  legates 
 as  prefidents,  four  archbifhops,  ard  twenty-two  bifhcfas.  Yet 
 thefe  decreed  themfelves  to  be  already  a  general  council',  and  ad- 
 journed to  the  7th  January  next  year  ;  when  a  fecond  feffion 
 was  holden;  but  no  decrees  made. 
 
 In  the  third  feffion  (Feb.  4th)  it  was  propofed  to  make  a  pro^~ 
 feffion  of  faith  ;  and  the  Nicene,  or  rather  the  Conftantinopolitan 
 creed,  was  rehearfed  and  adopted.     Thirty-eight  prelates  were 
 then  prefent,  befide  the  legates. 
 
 In  the  fourth  feffion  (April  8th)  forty-nine  prelates  made  the 
 
 famous  decree  concerning  the  canon  pf  fcripture,  &c. 
 
 In 
 
cent.  1 6.]       'The  Interim  declared  void.  359. 
 
 the  "landgrave  was  reftored  to  liberty  ;  the  Interim 
 was  declared  null  and  void  ;  and  both  protefiants 
 
 and 
 
 In  the  fifth  feffion  (June  17th),  at  which  were  prefent  nine 
 archbifhops,  forty-eight  bifhops,  and  two  proxies,  were  mr.de 
 the  two  canons  concerning  original  fin,  and  a  decree  of  two  chap- 
 ters on  the  reformation  of  difcipline. 
 
 T\tc  fx.'h  feffion  was  held  on  the  13th  of  January,  1547.  In 
 this  feffion  was  framed  the  decree  en  justification,  confiding  of 
 fifteen  dodtrinal  chapters,  followed  by  thirty-three  canons ; 
 with  a  reform  decree  of  five  chapters. — Prefent  ten  archbifhops, 
 forty -fix  bifnops,  andthree  proxies. 
 
 The  fame  number  of  archbifhops,  with  fifty  bifhops,  and 
 tnree  proxies,  made,  in  feffion  feventh  (March  3d),  the  twelve 
 canons  concerning  the  facraments  in  general ;  fourteen  on  bap- 
 tifm,  and  three  on  confirmation.  Follows  a  decree  of  reform  in 
 fifteen  chapters. — They  then  adjourned  to  the  2 1  ft  of  April :  but 
 meanwhile  Paul  thought  fit  to  diffolve  the  fynod,  and  forbade 
 tihem  to  meet  again  until  further  orders.  Whether  the  bull  of 
 diffolution,  which  bears  date  February  the  24th,  was  ever  form- 
 ally publifhed,  it  is  uncertain. 
 
 We  find  the  fathers  ftifi  at  Trent  on  the  I  lt'h  of  March; 
 when  the  eighth  feffion  was  held  ;  and  a  propofal  made  by  the 
 prefident  to  transfer  the  council  to  Bologna;  which  paffed  by 
 a  great  majority,  fay  the  afts ;  "  contradicentibus  tamen,  et 
 "  palam  reclp.mantibus  patribus  nonnullis."  The  whole  number 
 of  prelates  prefent  befide  the  legates,  were  fifty-eight ;  of  whom 
 two  archbifhops  and  eighteen  bifnops  were  againft  a  tranfiation-. 
 Of  thefe,  eight  were  from  Spain  (the  whole  that  were  there  of 
 that  nation),  one  a  Sicilian,  one  a  Portuguefe,  one  a  Sardinian, 
 and  one  a  Frenchman.  The  other  party  were  almoft  all  Italians, 
 or  perfons  devoted  to  the  court  of  Rome. 
 
 The  ninth  feffion  was  held  at  Bologna,   April  2  lit.     But  as 
 
 none   of  the   diffenting  prelates  attended,   except  one,   it  was 
 
 agreed  to  adjourn  to  the  2d  of  June ;  and  then,  again,  to  the 
 
 A  a  4  14th 
 
360  Free  Exercife  of  Religion         [cent.  16. 
 
 and  catholics  were  fecured  in  the  free  exercife  of 
 their  religion,  until  the  meeting  of  a  diet,  which 
 
 was 
 
 14th  of  September  ;  when  it  was  ftill  prorogued  ad  beneplac'itum 
 conc'tlii.  In  fa£t,  the  fynod  feems  to  have  been  then  difiblved. 
 Pau1  died  in  1549  ;  and  next  year  his  fucceflbr  Julius  III.  pub-r 
 lifhed  his  bull  of  refumption,  by  which  he  recalls  the  fcattered 
 prelates  to  Trent,  and  orders  his  legates  to  open  the  council 
 anew.  At  firft  he  faid,  he  would  come  and  prefide  in  perfon  ; 
 but  he  foon   changed  that  intention. 
 
 The  firft  fefiion  of  this  refumed  fynod,  and  the  eleventh  of  the 
 whole  feries,  was  held  on  the  xft  of  May,  155 1 ;  fomewhat  more 
 than  five  years  after  the  commencement  of  the  council.  How 
 many  prelates  were  prefent  the  acts  do  not  tell  us  :  but  from 
 Pallavicini  we  learn,  that  Julius  had  given  pofitive  orders  to  all 
 the  bifhops  who  were  then  at  Rome,  to  the  number  of  eighty -foun 
 (if  there  be  no  typographical  error  in  my  copy)  to  attend  at 
 Trent,  againft  that  day.  However,  it  feems  the  legates  found 
 there  no  more  than  thirteen,  almoft  all  of  them  dependent  on 
 the  emperor,  non  pin  de  tredici,  quafi  tutti  dependentl  dall'  imperii' 
 
 /lore.     Pallavic.  lib.  xi.  cap.  14. Hence  the  twelfth  fefiion  was 
 
 not  held  until  the  I  ft  of  September ;  and  then  the  fynod  was 
 prorogued  to  th.  nth  of  November,  when 
 
 In  the  thirteenth  fefiion  a  decree  concerning  the  eucharift  (or 
 Lord's  fupper)  was  formed ;  confifting  of  eight  doctrinal  chap- 
 ters, and  eleven  canons ;  followed,  as  ufual,  by  a  decree  on  re- 
 formation of  difcipline.  At  this  fefiion  were  prefent  f^ve  arch- 
 biHiops  and  thirty-nine  bifhops. 
 
 In  the  fourteenth  fefiion  (Nov.  25th)  were  formed  the  decree 
 and  canons  concerning  the  facraments  of  penance  and  extreme 
 unction.  On  the  former  there  are  nine  doctrinal  chapters  and 
 fifteen  canons ;  on  the  latter  three  chapters  and  four  canons. 
 Follows  a  decree  of  reform.  The  fame  number  of  prelates  as  at 
 the  former  fefiion. 
 
 The  fifteenth  feflion  was  held  on  the  25th  of  January,   1*552  ; 
 
cent.  1 6.]        fecured  to  all  Parties;  361 
 
 was  to  be  fummoned  within  fix  months,  to  deter- 
 mine amicably  the  prefent  difputes,     Maurice  did 
 
 not 
 
 in  which  the  fafe-conduB,  that  had  been  prepared  for  the  pro- 
 teftants,  was  decreed  ;  and  an  adjournment  made  to  the  28th  of 
 April.     The  number  of  prelates  were  forty-four. 
 
 The  council  met  accordingly  ;  but  the  German  bifhops,  par- 
 ticularly the  ele&ors,  having  left  Trent,  for  the  concerns  of 
 their  refpeftive  churches,  fuis  confultum  ecclejih  ;  the  remaining 
 fathers  fufpended  the  operations  of  the  fynod  for  tzuoyears,  ft  un- 
 lefs  before  that  period  things  mould  wear  a  more  aufpicious  ap- 
 pearance.'-' 
 
 Inftead  of  tzuo,  it  was  nearly  eight  years  fufpended.  For 
 Julius  dying  in  1555;  and  nothing  being  done  in  the  fhort  pon- 
 tificates of  Marcellus  and  Paul  IV.  it  was  not  until  the  year  1562, 
 that  the  fynod  was  re-affembled  by  a  bull  of  Pius  IV. 
 
 On  the  1 8th  day  of  January  of  that  year  was  the  feventeentb 
 feffion  heldj   but  nothing  material  done  in  it. 
 
 In  feffion  eighteenth,  a  new  fafe-condufi  was  decreed  for  the 
 Germans  ;  and  afterwards  extended  to  other  nations. 
 
 The  nineteenth  and  twentieth  were  feffions  of  mere  prorogation  ; 
 but  in 
 
 Seffion  twenty-firjl  was  framed  the  momentous  decree  con- 
 cerning communion  in  one  kind  (which  gave  fo  much  difpleafure 
 to  the  Germans);  coniifting  of  four  do&iinal  chapters,  and  as 
 many  canons;  followed  by  a  reform-decree. 
 
 The  twenty -fecond  feffion  was  held  on  the  17th  of  September; 
 jn  which  a  decree  of  nine  doftrinal  chapters  and  as  many  canons 
 was  framed  on  the  facrifice  of  the  mafs.  The  council  was  then 
 prorogued  to  the  1 2th  of  November  ;  but  did  not  meet  until  the 
 15th  of  July  next  year :  when  in  the 
 
 Twenty -fourth  feffion  a  decree  was  formed  on  the  facrament 
 pf  marriage  ;  confiding  of  a  fhort  doctrinal  preamble  and  eleven 
 canons.     Follow  two  long  decrees  on  reformation. 
 
 The  twenty-ffth  and  laft  feffion  took  place  on  the  3d  of  De- 
 cember, 
 
362,  Death  of  Maurice,  [cent.  1 6. 
 
 not  long  furvive  to  enjoy  the  fruits  either  of  his 
 newly-acquired  glory,  or  of  his  former  treachery  and 
 
 ufurpation. 
 
 cember,  and  laded  two  days.  On  the  firft  was  formed  the  de- 
 cree concerning  purgatory  and  the  invocation  of  faints  ;  but 
 without  any  canons  annexed.  The  work  of  the  fecond  day 
 was  a  decree  concerning  indulgences,  abflinence,  fading,  and 
 other  points  of  difcipline  ;  followed  by  no  canons. 
 
 The  decrees  pafTed  from  the  beginning  of  the  .council  were 
 then  rehearfed ;  the  fynod  declared  to  be  clofed,  and  its  acts  de- 
 creed to  be  fent  to  the  pope  for  his  confirmation. 
 
 The  number  of  prelates  who  were  prefent  at  ithe  conclufion  of 
 the  fynod,  £.nd  figned  its  decrees,  were  four  pope's  legates,  two 
 cardinals  befides,  three  patriarchs,  twenty-five  archbifheps,  one 
 hundred  and  fixty-eight  bifhops,  and  thirty-fix  proxies,  feven 
 Efiitred  abbots,  and  feven  generals  of  religious  orders.;  in  all  two 
 hundred  and  fixty-five. — Of  whom  were 
 
 Italian 
 
 - 
 
 186 
 
 Polifh 
 
 - 
 
 2. 
 
 Spanifh 
 
 - 
 
 35' 
 
 Moravian 
 
 - 
 
 I 
 
 Portuguefe 
 
 - 
 
 3 
 
 Croatian 
 
 - 
 
 I 
 
 French 
 
 - 
 
 27 
 
 Illyrican 
 
 - 
 
 3 
 
 Flemifh 
 
 - 
 
 ■    2 
 
 Greek 
 
 - 
 
 6 
 
 German 
 
 - 
 
 6 
 
 Englifn 
 
 - 
 
 i 
 
 Hungarian 
 
 - 
 
 2 
 
 Irifh 
 
 - 
 
 3 
 
 Such  was  the  famous  Jynod  of  Trent,  according  to  its  own  acts, 
 as  they  are  printed  in  Labbe's  edition  of  the  councils.  From 
 this  bare,  unadorned  account,  the  intelligent  impartial  reader 
 will,  I  prefume,  be  able  to  decide  for  himfelf,  how  far  it  may 
 deferve  the  appellation  of  a  general  oecumenical  council.  As  to  its 
 freedom,  it  is  impoffible  to  form  a  jufl  idea  of  jt  without  ,con- 
 fulting  the  hiftorians  who  have  given  a  detailed  narrative  of  its 
 proceedings,  united  with  contemporary  tranfactions  ;  and  com- 
 pared with  the  actual  fituation  of  Chriftian  Europe  at  that  pe- 
 riod. 
 
 The 
 
cent.  1 6.]  Elefi or  of  Saxony.  363 
 
 ufurpation.     He  was  killed  in  the  battle  of  Siever- 
 haufen,  fighting   againft   Albert  of  Brandenburg 
 
 (  who 
 
 The  pope  having  by  his  bull  of  the  3d  of  January,  1564,  con- 
 firmed, by  apojlolical  authority,  the  decrees  of  the  council,  and 
 forbidden,  under  pain  of  adtual  excommunication,  any  com- 
 ments, notes,  or  explanations  to  be  made  on  them,  even  under 
 pretext  of  defending  them  ;  without  his  authority  :  the  next 
 point  was  to  get  the  council  and  his  confirmation  of  it  formally 
 received  in  the  various  nations  in  communion  with  the  Roman 
 fee.  The  Venetians  firft,  and  readily,  accepted  it.  The  Poles, 
 foon  after ;  and  next  the  Spaniards,  and  the  German  catholics, 
 though  with  difficulty,  and  fome  reftriclions  as  to  points  of  dif- 
 cipline.  But  all  the  art  and  repeated  efforts  of  the  court  of 
 Rome,  favoured  by  the  wifhes  and  frequent  endeavours  of  the 
 Gallican  clergy,  could  never  obtain  for  it  a  legal  acceptance  in 
 France.  The  biihops,  if  they  pleafed,  might  adopt  its  decrees 
 in  as  far  as  they  were  not  contrary  to  Handing  laws  and  ufa^es 
 of  the  realm;  but  Mill  no  legal  function  could  be  obtained  for 
 them.  Not  lefs  than  twetity-rthree  articles  were  objected  to  ;  as 
 tending  to  deftroy  the  fundamental  maxims  of  the  French  go- 
 vernment, and  the  liberties  of  the  Gallican  church.  The  cele- 
 brated Pafquier,  after  mentioning  fome  of  thofe  odious  dodtrines, 
 expreffes  himfelf  thus  :  *'  In  all  which  particulars,  we  have 
 "  found  fuch  a  repugnance,  and  contravention  to  our  ancient 
 "  liberties,  that  never  can  we  be  induced  to  receive  this  council. 
 *'  For  firft,  it  takes  from  biihops  the  power  of  reformino-  the 
 "  churches  of  their  own  diocefes;  and  grants  them  onlv  fuch  a 
 "  portion  of  power  as  the  holy  fee  judges  proper  to  diftribute, 
 "  which  we  believe  to  be  contrary  to  the  ancient-  canons,  ap- 
 proved by  our  Gallican  church. —  Befides  this,   the    council 
 
 '*  would  eftabliih  here  a  new  empire  over  kings,  princes,  barons 
 
 "  every  civil  jurifdi&ion— which,  in  plain  French,  is  to  introduce 
 "  old  abufes  which  we  had  reformed  ;  whereas  I  can  demonftrate 
 
 «  that 
 
364  Ingratitude  0}  States  of  Saxony,  [cent.  16. 
 (who  had  not  acceded  to  the  peace  of  PafTau),  on 
 the  9th  of  June,  1553,  in  the  32d  year  of  his  age, 
 and  in  the  6th  after  his  attaining  the  electoral  dis:- 
 nity.  It  is  to  be  regretted,  that  the  degraded 
 elector  derived  no  advantage  from  this  event.  The 
 ftates  of  Saxony,  with  that  ingratitude  and  incon* 
 fiftency  which  diflinguimes  the  proceedings  of 
 every  mob,  preferred  the  claim  of  Auguilus,  the 
 brother  of  Maurice,  by  the  defcendants  of  whom 
 the  electorate  is  {till  poffefTed. 
 
 "  that  our  national  privileges,  and  the  liberties  of  the  Gallican 
 "  church,  are  fuch  as  the  authority  of  neither  pope,  nor  council, 
 *'  can  abrogate  ;  as  they  are  founded  on  a  facred  and  general 
 "  reafon  (fur  une  raifon  faincle  et  generale).  By  the  admiflion 
 H  of  fuch  decrees,  inftead  of  introducing  order,  we  mould  bring 
 *f  in  difordcr,  with  a  monarchy,  which  was  never  beheld  in  the 
 M  middle  of  ours.  Wifely  then  has  this  council  been  never  re* 
 "  ceived  in  Fiance  ;  by  which,  with  one  ftrokc  of  the  pen,  the 
 M  pope  would  acquire  more  authority,  than  it  was  in  his  power 
 <l  to  have  done  from  the  foundation  of  our  chrillianity.  " 
 
 Perhaps  I  cannot  better  conclude  this  fubjecl,  than  by  appro- 
 priating to  myfelf  another  paffage  of  this  very  judicious  writer ; 
 and  nearly  in  his  own  words.  •'  I  have  no  intention  to  depreciate 
 "  the  good  fathers  of  Trent ;  but  cannot  help  wifhing,  that  their 
 "  zeal  and  devotion  had  been  accompanied  with  a  littla  more 
 "  wifdom  and  difcretion  ;  and  that  in  guarding  the  pretc7ided 
 *'  privileges  of  the  Roman  fee,  they  had  not  furniflied  its  real 
 "  enemies  with  the  fitted  weapons  to  overthrow  it,"-r-They  are, 
 certainly,  the  greatefl.  foes  to  papal  prerogative,  who  would  fet 
 no  bounds  to  it;  and  give  to  the  bifhop  of  Rome  a  power  over 
 his  fellow  chriftians ;  which  neither  divine  fcriplure,  nor  catholic 
 tradition,  nor  found  policy,  avow. 
 
 Geddf.s's  Letter  to  the  Bifhop  of  Centuriae,  App.  yiii, 
 8  'it 
 
cent.  1 6.]  Diet  of  Augfburg.  365 
 
 It  was  nearly  three  years  before  the  troubles  of 
 Germany  would  permit  a  diet  to  be  afTembled. 
 In  the  year  1555,  however,  this  famous  and  ea- 
 gerly-expected diet  met  at  Augfburg,  and  was 
 opened  by  Ferdinand,  in  the  emperor's  name; 
 and  after  many  debates  and  intrigues,  a  recefs  was 
 at  length  framed  and  paffed  on  the  25th  of  Sep- 
 tember, which  completely  confirmed  the  peace  of 
 religion.  The  following  are  the  chief  articles 
 which  this  act  of  legislature  contained.  That  fuch 
 princes  and  cities  as  have  declared  their  approba- 
 tion of  the  Confeflion  of  Augfburg,  fhall  be  per- 
 mitted to  profefs  the  do&rine  and  exercife  the 
 worfhip  which  it  authorifes,  without  interruption 
 or  moleflation  from  any  power  or  perfon  whatfo- 
 ever ;  that  the  protectants,  on  their  part,  fhall  give 
 no  difquiet  to  the  princes  and  ftates  who  adhere  to 
 the  tenets  and  rites  of  the  church  of  Rome;  that, 
 for  the  future,  no  attempt  fhall  be  made  towards 
 terminating  religious  differences,  but  by  the  gentle 
 and  pacific  methods  ofperfuafion  and  conference; 
 that  the  popifh  ecclefialtics  fhall  claim  no  fpiritual 
 jurifdiction  in  fuch  ftates  as  receive  the  Confeflion 
 of  Augfburg ;  that  fuch  as  had  feized  the  benefices 
 or  revenues  of  the  church  previous  to  the  treaty  of 
 PafTau,  fhall  retain  pofTefiion  of  them,  and  be 
 liable  to  no  profecution  in  the  imperial  chamber 
 on  that  account;  that  the  fupreme  civil  power  in 
 every  ftate  fhall  have  a  right  to  eftablifh  what  form 
 of  doctrine  and  worfhip  it  fhall  deem  proper,  and, 
 
 if 
 
$66  Regulations  of  the  Diet.         [cent.  i^. 
 
 if  any  of  its  fubjedb  refufe  to  conform  to  thefe,  fhall 
 permit  them  to  remove  with  all  their  effects  whi- 
 therfoever  they  fhall  pleafe  j  that  if  any  prelate  or 
 ecclefiaftic  (hall  hereafter  abandon  the  Romifh  re- 
 ligion, he  (hall  infiantly  relinquish  his  diocefe  or 
 benefice,  and  it  fhall  be  lawful  for  thofe  in  whom 
 the  right  of  nomination  is  vefted,  to  proceed  im- 
 mediately to  an  election,  as  if  the  office  were  vacant 
 by  death  or  tranflation,  and  to  appoint  a  fucceffor 
 of  undoubted  attachment  to  the  ancientfyftem  *. 
 
 •  Sleid.  620.    F.  Paul,  368.    Pallav.  p.  1 1.  161. 
 
 CHAP. 
 
[    3^7    3 
 
 CHAP.     IV. 
 
 REFORMATION  IN  ENGLAND. 
 
 Unexpectedly  favoured  by  Henry  VIII. — Wolfey  favours  the 
 king's  projeel  for  obtaining  a  divorce — The  pope  embar- 
 raffed  between  the  EngliJJj  and  Spanijhfailions — Cardinal 
 Campeggio  difpatched  to  England — Cranmers  projeel — 
 His  elevation ,  and  the  fall  of  JVolfcy — Dccifions  hi  favour 
 of  the  divorce — Henry  forbids  his  fubjetls  to  receive  bulls 
 from  Rome — Marries  Anna  Bullen — Proceedings  of  the 
 parliament  and  convocation — The  ?narriage  zvith  Catharine 
 annulled — Difpleafure  of  the  emperor — The  pope  offer ts  the 
 validity  of  Catharine' 's  marriage — Henry  refolves  to  rejec~l 
 the  papal  yoke,  but  treats  the  reformers  with  feverity — Re- 
 formation favoured  by  the  queen>  Crawner,  and  Cromwell 
 —Cromwell  projects  the  fuppreff.on  of  the  monks — Several 
 religious  houfes  defrayed — Travflation  of  the  Bible — Ruin 
 of  the  queen — Overture  from  the  pope — General  council 
 propofed,  which  Henry  refufes  to  attend — Infurreclion 
 quelled — The  pope  endeavours  to  excite  the  kings  of  Scotland, 
 and  France  to  arm  againft  Henry — Ait  of  the  fix  articles 
 —Entire  fuppreffon  of  the  monafleries — Doivnfall  and 
 death  of  Cromivell — Oppoftion  to  the  new  tranflation  of 
 the  Bible — Tranfation  of  the  Prayers — Death  of  Henry — 
 Edward  VI.  with  the  Protestor,  favours  the  reformation 
 — Oppofed  by  Bonner^  Gardiner^  and  the  princefs  Mary—. 
 Marriages  of  the  clergy  declared  legal — Liturgy  confirmed 
 —Death  of  Edward  VI. — Mary  oppofes  the  reformation—- 
 Reparation  of  the  ancient  rites — Degradation  of  Cranmer 
 
 —Treaty 
 
t  368  ] 
 
 —Treaty  between  Mary  and  the  pope — Marriage  of  Mary 
 with  the  prince  of  Spain — Proceedings  againjl  the  reformers 
 '-'Death  of  Latimer -,  Ridley,  and  Cranmer — Death  of 
 Mary — Completion  of  the  reformation  under  Elizabeth t 
 
 FROM  caufes  not  lefs  fortuitous  than  thofe 
 which  produced  the  reformation  in  Germany, 
 muft  the  reformation  in  England  be  deduced  :  for 
 though  the  commencement  of  that  event  is  juftly 
 referred  to  the  meafures  of  Henry  VIII.  yet  it 
 certainly  never  obtained  his  full  concurrence,  and 
 a  perfecution  of  the  reformed  opinions  marked  al- 
 moft  every  period  of  his  reign.  Educated  by  his 
 father  Henry  VII.  with  uncommon' care,  the  lite- 
 rary attainments  of  this  monarch  exceeded  thofe 
 of  the  generality  of  princes;  and  the  fcholaftic 
 divinity,  fo  congenial  to  his  vain  and  contentious 
 temper,  was  profecuted  by  him  with  unremitting 
 induftry.  Thomas  Aquinas  became  his  favourite 
 author,  and  the  contempt  with  which  Luther 
 treated  the  dogma's  of  this  writer,  excited  in 
 Henry  the  warmed  indignation  and  abhorrence. 
 Impelled  by  refentment,  he  publifhed  a  Treatife 
 upon  the  Seven  Sacraments,  in  reply  to  the  hook. 
 concerning  the  Babylonifh  Captivity,  written  by 
 Luther.  This  work  was  admired  by  the  multitude, 
 extolled  by  the  courtiers,  and  fpoken  of  by  the 
 pope  in  full  confiftory,  in  terms  only  fuited  to  the 
 productions  of  immediate  infpiration ;  and  the  zeal 
 of  the  pious  monarch  was  rewarded  by  the  de- 
 fendant 
 
6ENT.  i6.]     Title  of  Defender  of  the  Faith,       369 
 
 fcendant  of  St.  Peter,  with  the  title  (ftill  enjoyed 
 by  his  fucceffors)  of  Defender  of  the  Faith. 
 
 A  perfect  agreement  amongft  the  mod  formi- 
 dable opponents  of  Luther  was  however  prevented 
 by  various  circumftances.  Both  public  and  pri- 
 wafe  intereft  induced  Henry  to  oppofe  the  defigns 
 of  the  emperor  Charles  V.  ;  and  the  offence  he  had 
 give.n  to  his  favourite  cardinal  Wolfey,  in  oppos- 
 ing hjs  views  to  the  papacy,  contributed  to  the 
 declaration  of  the  monarch  in  favour  of  the  anta- 
 gonifts  of  Charles.  It  is  probable  that  the  hatred 
 and  refeutment  of  the  cardinal  towards  the  houfe 
 of  Spain  contributed  in  no  inconfiderable  degree 
 to  his  ready  concurrence  in  the  real  or  fictitious 
 fcruples  of  Henry,-  againft  further  cohabitation 
 with  his  wife  Catharine  of  Arragon,  the  widow  of 
 his  deceafed  brother.  The  greater  part  of  the 
 bifhops  obediently"  acquiefced  in  the  project  of  the 
 king  and  his  favourite  for  obtaining  a  divorce*  and 
 all,  except  the  bifhop  of  Rochefter,  declared  their 
 opinions  againft  the  legality  of  the  marriage, 
 though  it  had  received  the  fanclion  of  a  papal 
 difpenfation*  Wolfey  fluttered  the  king  with 
 fpeedily  obtaining  a  favourable  decillon  from  the 
 court  of  Rome;  and,  had  no  other  intereft  inter- 
 vened, it  is  probable,  from  the  \cicility  with  which 
 all  difpenfations  from  that  court  were  procured* 
 that  Henry  would  not  have  beer,'1  difappointed. 
 But  the  pope,  though  under  obligations  to  Henry, 
 Was  in  the  power  of  the  emperor.     T.he  reiterated 
 
 Vol.  II.  Bb  entreaties 
 
37°  '  Anna  Bullen.  [cent.  i6» 
 
 entreaties  and  prefents  of  Wolfey  at  length  ob- 
 tained the  appointment  of  cardinal  Campeggio  as 
 legate,  who  was  invefted  with  powers  to  dxamine 
 rind  afterwards  to  annul  the  marriage ;  and  to 
 this  commiffion  was  added. the  authority  for  in- 
 dulging cardinal  Wolfey  in  his  long-meditated 
 fcheme  of  appropriating  the  revenues  of  feveral 
 monafteries  to  the  fupport  of  colleges,  bishopries, 
 and  cathedral  churches. 
 
 Previous  to  the  arrival  of  the  legate,  the  queen 
 had  engaged  the  affiftance  of  the  emperor,  her 
 .nephew,  in  her  caufe.  The  Englifh  and  imperial 
 factions  at  Rome  feduloufly  endeavoured  to  obtain 
 a  decifion  favourable  to  the  views  of  their  relpec- 
 tive  courts ;  and  the  embarrafled  pontiff,  to  avoid 
 giving  pofitive  offence  to  either  party, -difpatched 
 orders  to  Campeggio  to  protract  the  decifion. 
 The  legate  fecretly  favoured  the  party  of  the  em- 
 peror, and  contrived  delays  little  adapted  to  the 
 defires  of  the  king,  who  was  violently  enamoured 
 with  the  beautiful  and  accomplifhed  Anna  Bullen,- 
 whom  he  ardently  wilhed  to  efpoufe.  Every  arti- 
 fice and  intrigue  which  could  be  fuggefted  by 
 policy  were  employed  to  procure  a  decretal  bull 
 annulling  the  marriage  -,  but  the  pope  was  inflexi- 
 ble, and  it  was  not  till  after  repeated  delays  that 
 the  legate  began  the  procefs  in  England.  The 
 unhappy  Catharine  refufed  to  defend  her  caufe  in 
 a  court  in  which  (he  was  certainly  prejudged,  and" 
 appealed  to  the  pope,  who,  by  the  influence  of 
 
 the 
 
cent.  i&]  Cranmer.  tfx 
 
 the  emperor,  cited  Henry  to  appear  at  Rome  :  but 
 this  fummons  the  monarch  abfolutely  refufed. 
 
 Extremely  irritated  by  the  protraction  of  his 
 fuit,  Henry  became  difgufted  with  cardinal 
 Wolfey  for  not  having  accomplifhed  the  bufinefs 
 of  the  divorce.  In  this  fituajion  of  affairs,  a  project 
 was  propofed  by  Dr.  Cranmer,  fellow  of  Jefus  Col- 
 lege, Cambridge,  that  the  king  fhould  engage  the 
 principal  European  divines,  and  the  univerfities,  to 
 examine  the  legality  of  his  marriage  ;  and  if  they, 
 from  the  evidence  of  fcripture,  pronounced  it  unlaw- 
 ful, that  he  fhould  then  declare  the  marriage  null, 
 as  the  difpenfation  of  the  pope  could  not  be  fufrl- 
 cient  to  abrogate  the  law  of  God.  This  meafure  in- 
 troduced Cranmer  into  the  confidence  of  the  kins-, 
 and  his  elevation  kept  pace  with  the  falling  fortunes 
 Of  Wolfey.  The  decifions  of  thole  to  whom  thfe 
 caufe  of  the  king  was  referred  were  in  favour  of 
 a  divorce  :  but  the  pope  refufed  a  ratification  of 
 their  fentence  ;  and  Henry,  difgufted  with  his  con- 
 duct, prohibited  any  perfon  within  his  dominions 
 from  publifhing  a  bull  contrary  to  his  own  autho- 
 rity. The  decifion  of  the  divines  was  confirmed 
 by  the  parliament,  and  the  convocation;  ana! 
 every  thing  foreboded  a  rupture  with  Rome. 
 
 A  protrafted  courtQiip  of  {even  years  had  not 
 abated  the  affections  of  the  king,  and  he  married 
 Anna  Bullen.  He  was  again  cited  to  appear 
 at  Rome,  but  his  agents  protefted  againft  the 
 jurifdiction  of  the  pope.  In  1533,  tlie  parliament 
 B  b  a  again. 
 
 4 
 
3  7  2  Marriage  of  Henry  with  Anna  Bullen .  [c  e  n  t. i  6. 
 
 again  met,  and  an  aft  panned  by  which  it  was  de- 
 termined that  no  appeal  mould  be  made  to  the 
 court  of  Rome,  nor  any  refpect  paid  to  its  cen- 
 fures.  The  convocation  proceeded  concerning 
 the  king's  union  with  Catharine,  which  was  de- 
 clared unlawful ;  and  Cranmer,  who  had,  though 
 contrary  to  his  wifh,  been  appointed  archbiihop 
 of  Canterbury*,  pronounced  a  divorce  which  an- 
 nulled the  marriage  of  Henry  with  his  former 
 queen.  Anna  Bullen  was  immediately  inverted 
 with  the  crowni*and  made  a  public  proceffion 
 through  the  city.  The  emperor  was  extremely 
 incenfed  by  thefe  meafures  ;  and  the  king  of 
 France,  though  he  had  previously  engaged  to 
 mediate  with  the  pope  in  favour  of  Henry,  and 
 even  to  inftitute  a  patriarch  in  France  in  oppofi- 
 tion  to  the  fee  of  Rome,  yet  appeared  little  dif- 
 pofed  to  involve  himfelf  in  difputes  with  that  court. 
 The  pope  however,  alarmed  at  the  probability  of 
 lofing  England,  .promifed  Henry  that  upon  his 
 return  to  fpiritual  obedience  he  would  dill  decide 
 in  his  favour.  Henry  readily  acceded  to  the  terms, 
 and  difpatched  an  envoy  to  Rome,  who  frpm  the 
 delayr,  he  encountered  in  his  journey  did  not  ar- 
 rive there  in  the  appointed  time,  and  the  imperial 
 factidh:  repr.efented  his  non-appearance  as  contu- 
 macy on  the  part  of  Henry,  who  was  punifhed  by 
 
 *  The  papal  hulls  confirming  this  appointment  amounted  to 
 eleven,  each  of  which  had  a  certain  price  affixed;  one  of  the 
 common  ftratagems  for  filling  the  pontifical  cofFers.         ' 
 
 a  papal 
 
cent.  1 6."]       Popes  Supremacy  abolifhed.  373 
 
 a,  papal  decree  which  ratified  the  decition  of  the 
 confiftory,  that  the  marriage  between  the  king  ancl 
 Catharine  was  perfectly  valid,  and  he  was  required 
 to  live  with  her  as  his  lawful  wife.  This  deter^ 
 mined  Henry  to  (hake  off  the  papal  yoke.  The 
 arguments  concerning  the  fupremacy  were  fully 
 difcuffed,  and  it  was  determined  both  by  the 
 parliament  and  convocation,  that  the  pope  pof- 
 ieffed  no  power  in  England,  and  that  the  autho- 
 rity of  the  king  extended  to  the  regulation  not 
 only  of  civil  but  of  eccleiiafbical  concerns.  The 
 fucceflion  to  the  throne  was  fettled  upon  the  iflue 
 of  his  prefent  marriage,  or,  in  default  of  that,  on 
 the  king's  right  heirs  for  ever,  and  fworn  to  by 
 nearly  all  the  clergy,  regular  and  fecular.  In  the 
 enfuing  feflions  of  1534,  an  ad  palled  declaring 
 the  king  the  Jupreme  head,  on  earth,  of  the  church 
 of  England,  and  all  herefies  and  abufes  in  the  fpi- 
 ritual  jurifdiction  were  referred  to  him  and  his 
 heirs,  to  be  openly  tried.  The  revenues  formerly 
 exacted  by  the  popes  were  affigned  to  the  crown. 
 
 The  preachers  of  reformation  had  been  little 
 molefted  during  the  miniftry  ot  Wolfey.  The 
 German  reformers  had  difpatched  to  them  a  con- 
 fiderable  number  of  books, which  expofed  the  errors 
 and  abfurdities  of  the  Romifh  church,  and  were 
 Secretly  but  extenfively  circulated*.  The  princi- 
 pal 
 
 *  A  work  compofed  by  a  perfon  of  the  name  of  Fifh,  an  in- 
 habitant of  Gray's  Inn,  entitled  A  Supplication  of  the  Beggars, 
 B  b  3  became 
 
374  Connexion  with  the  German  Reformers,  [cent.  16, 
 
 pal  performance  they  received,  was  a  translation 
 of  the  Bible.    On  the  appointment  of  Sir  TJiomas 
 More  to  the  chancellorfhip,  the  king  was  however 
 perfuaded  to  treat  the  reformers  with  feverity,  as 
 the  molt  infallible  method  to  conciliate  the  favour 
 of  the  Romim  fee.     The  laws  again  ft  them  were 
 accordingly    rigoroufly   enforced,    and    numbers 
 were  burnt  at  the  flake.     Thefe  proceedings  were 
 however  checked  by  an  act  which  regulated  the 
 proceedings  againft  heretics,  and  by  the  necefllty- 
 in  which  the  king  was  involved,  in  order  to  en> 
 barrafs  the  operations  of  the  emperor,  and  to  pre- 
 vent  his   directing    his   arms    againft     England.^ 
 With  this  dcfign,  he  united  himfelf  with  theprincesi    • 
 of  Germany,  who   inferred   a  particular  article  in 
 all   their  treaties  for  the  iecurity  of  fuch  as   pre- 
 ferred the  reformed  doctrines ;  and  thefe  doctrines 
 were  openly  encouraged  by  the  queen,  who  ap- 
 pointed Latimer  and  Shaxton,  the  bifhops  of  Wor- 
 cefter  and  Salifbury,  to  be  her  chaplains.  Cranmer 
 was  well  apprifed  of  the  neceffity  of  a  reformation; 
 but,  with  the  judgment  and  temper  fuitableto  fuch 
 
 became  extremely  popular  during  this  period.  In  this  perform- 
 ance the  begging  fraternity  were  exhibited  as  complaining  of 
 the  mendicant  friars,  who  intercepted  the  provifions  intended 
 for  their  fupport  ;  and  the  pope  was  accufed  of  extreme  cruelty 
 towards  them,  fince  his  exorbitant  demands  for  their  deliver- 
 ance from  purgatory  excluded  them  from  £he  hopes  of  enjoying 
 in  another  world  the  comforts  which  had  been  denied  them  in 
 this.  Sir  Thomas  More  anfwered  this  performance,  but  with-? 
 »ut  injuring  the  reputation  of  the  work. 
 
 an 
 
cent.  16.]  Ccnjlernation  of  the  Monks  1  375 
 an  undertaking,  he  carefully  collected  the  reli- 
 gious opinions  of  the  firft:  fathers  of  the  church  ; 
 and  his  views  were  amfted  by  Cromwell,  who  had 
 been  the  favourite  of  Wolfey,  and  whofe  virtues 
 and  talents  had  ju-ftly  entitled  him  to  royal  favour. 
 A  powerful  party  however  prepared  to  oppofe  with 
 vigour  any  alterations  in  the  eftablifhed  opinions, 
 and  reprefented  to  Henry  the  extreme  danger  he 
 incurred  by  religious  innovation. 
 
 The  nobility  and  gentry  were  in  general  ex- 
 tremely well  iatisficd  with  the  alterations  that  had 
 taken  place ;  but  the  body  of  the  people  flill  re- 
 mained in  the  power  of  the  priefts,  who  regarded 
 the  queen,  Cranmer,  and  Cromwell  with  peculiar 
 jealoufy.     The  monks  trembled  at  the  intimation 
 that  Cromwell  was  forming  a  project,  for  their  fup- 
 preffion,  in  confequence  of  the  powers  with  which 
 he  had  been  inverted  as  vicar  general  and  vifitor 
 of  all  the  churches  and  monafteries,  and  as  en- 
 joying all  the  functions  under  the  king,  which  had 
 been  exercifed  by  the  legates  under  the  popes.    To 
 punifli  the  monks,  who,  under  the  appearance  of 
 a  perfect  acquiefcence  in  the  late  meafures,  excited 
 a  refractory  fpirit  in  the  people;  and  to  convince 
 the  latter  of  the  enormities  committed  by  thofe 
 fpiritual  direftors,  a  vifitation  of  all  the  religious 
 houfes  was  propofed,  and  the  abufes  which  were 
 confequently  difcovcred  occafioned  the  fupprerTion 
 offeveral  monafteries.     In  the  enfuing  feffions  of 
 B  b  4  parliament  j 
 
g 76         Bible  tranjlated  into  EngHJh.      [cent.  16. 
 
 parliament,  all  monafteries  the  revenues  of  which 
 did  not  amount  to  200I.  per  ann.  were  fuppreffed. 
 The  value  of  thefe  religious  houfes  was,  however, 
 in  reality  much  greater  than  the  fum  at  which  they 
 were  eftimated,  and  a  very  confiderable  treafure 
 was  confequently  poured  into  the  royal  coffers, 
 
 A  convocation  was  held  in  1536,  in  which,  after 
 feveral  vehement  difputes,  Cranmer  obtained  per- 
 miffion  from  the  king  to  have  the  Bible  translated 
 into  the  vulgar  tongue,  and  within'  three  years 
 the  imprefiion  was  completed.  This  brilliant 
 dawn  preceded  however  a  tempeftuous  day. 
 The  verfatile  Henry  had  again  changed  the  ob- 
 jed  of  his  affedions,  whole  influence  *  over  hi^ 
 mind  had  probably  occafioned  the  readinefs  with 
 which  he  entered  into  fchemes  calculated  to  pro- 
 duce effeds  to  which  he  was  in  reality  adverfej 
 V?  and  the  enemies  of  the  reformation  took  advantage 
 of  the  change  in  the  king's  mind,  to  ruin  Anna 
 Bullen,  whofe  unhappy  death  confiderably  re- 
 taided  the  progrefs  of  the  reformed  dodrines. 
 On  the  acceffion  of  Paul  III.  to  the  pr^al  chair,  a 
 -proportion  was  made  to  the  king  to  reconcile  him- 
 felf  to  the  church  of  Rome  ;  but  the  attempt  was 
 unfuccefsful,  and  was  followed  by  a  fentence  of  de- 
 pofinon  againft  Henry.  This  however  was  equally 
 ineffective,  and  the  pope  condefcended  once  more 
 
 *  "  Thus  love  could  teach  a  monarch  to  be  wife, 
 «?  And  gofpel-light  firft  beam'd  from  Boleyn's  eyes."     gray. 
 
 '    to 
 
cent.  1 6.]  Hevry  cited  I  ef ore  the  Pope.  377 
 to  intimate,  that  irlenryftill  poffeffed  the  happinefs 
 of  having  it  in  his  power  to  reconcile  himfelf  to 
 the  holy  fee. 
 
 During  the  convocation  the  project  for  a  reform 
 wa^  very  warmly  agitated,  and  the  king  fent  down 
 fome  articles  for  their  confi<ieration.  Thefe,  which 
 confi  dered  the  ancient  creeds  as  the  ftandards  of 
 faith,  rtated  in  proper  terms  the  nature  of  juftifica- 
 tion  and  the  gofpel  covenant,  condemned  the  wor- 
 ship of  i  mages,  and  left  the  doctrine  of  purgatory 
 •undecided.*  were  figned  by  Cranmer  and  the  fa- 
 vourers of  reformation,  who  rejoiced  in  having  thus 
 far  carried  their  point.  They  were  even  acceded 
 to  by  the  oppofite  party.  The  encouragement 
 afforded  to  freedom  of  dlebate  was  however  ex- 
 tremely obnoxious  to  the  friends  of  papacy,  and 
 the  more  as  Crammer  induiftrioufly  introduced  dif- 
 .cuffions  concerning  every  point  in  controverfy 
 .between  the  reformers  and  the  church  of  Rome. 
 
 As  Henry  mad  e  no  overtures  for  a  reconciliation 
 with  the  church,  Paul  III.  fummoned  a  general 
 ^council  to  meet  at  Mantua,  and  cited  the  monarch 
 to  appear.  Tothis*  Henry  replied,  that  the  pope 
 had  not  authority  to*  fummon  any  Englifh  fubjedt ; 
 that  the  place  appointed  was  unfafe,  and  impro- 
 per ;  that  no  advant  ages  could  be  derived  from  a 
 council  in  which  he  prefided,  fince  the  regulation 
 of  his  authority  was  the  principal  reafon  why  a 
 council  mould  be  convened;  that  the  emperor 
 .and  king  of  France  we^e  then  at  war,  which  ren- 
 dered 
 
378         '  Suppreffion  of  Monafteries.         [  c  e  n  t.  1 6, 
 
 dered  the  feafon  improper ;  and  that  there  was 
 reafon  to  fuppofe,  from  his  having  fo  long  refufed 
 this  meafure,  and  convening  a  council  at  fuch  a 
 conjuncture,  that  he  had  fome  finifter  defigns  in 
 contemplation.  The  king  further  protefted  againft 
 all  councils  convened  by  the  pope,  but  profeffed  his 
 readinefs  to  concur  with  the  other  European 
 princes  in  calling  a  general  council  whenever  it 
 mould  be  convenient.  This  declaration  was  re- 
 newed when  the  council  was  fummoned  to  meet 
 at  Vincenza. 
 
 In  confequenceof  the  vifits  made  by  the  infpec- 
 tors  to  the  inferior  monafteries,  ten  thoufand  un- 
 fortunate religious  were  turned  into  the  world 
 with  no  larger  a  provifion  than  the  fum  of  forty 
 millings  and  a  gown  each.  Great  numbers  were 
 transferred  into  other  monafteries ;  and  the  churches 
 and  convents  belonging  to  their  ancient  abodes  de- 
 ftroyed,  and  the  materials  fold.  The  treafure  ob- 
 tained by  thefe  {upprefficns  was  incredible,  but 
 the  meafure  was  extremely  unpopular.  The  books 
 in  which  the  diforders  committed  in  thefe  houfes 
 were  expofed,  had  little  effed  in  appeafing,  the 
 popular  difcontent,  which  was  further  inflamed  by 
 a  requifition  to  the  clergy  to  preach  at  certain 
 ftated  feafons  conformably  to  the  new  articles  of 
 faith;  at  which  they  were  fo  much  incenfed  as  to 
 promote  an  infurreclion  in  the  northern  counties, 
 which  was  with  much  difficulty  quelled.  This  was 
 no  fooner  accomplished,  than  Henry  proceeded  to 
 
 fupprefs 
 
(Cent.  1 6.]     England  laid  under  an  Interdict.      379 
 
 fupprefs  feveral  other  monafteries.  To  convince 
 the  people  the  more  effectually  of  the  enormities 
 of  the  monks  and  clergy,  their  impofitions  and 
 pretended  miracles  were  fully  expofed,  and  the 
 king  proceeded  in  his  project  of  fuppreffing  the 
 whole  of  the  monadic  orders.  When  this  was  re- 
 ported at  Rome,  every  pen  was  wielded  againfb 
 this  facrilegious  tyrant,  this  opponent  of  Chrift's 
 vicar  on  earth,  and  his  faints  in  heaven  j  and  the 
 parallels  between  Henry  and  Pharaoh,  Nebuchad- 
 nezzar, Belfhazzar,  Nero,  Dioclefian,  and  Julian, 
 the  Apoflate,  were  much  dwelt  upon,  with  only  this 
 difference,  that  the  manners  of  the  modern  raon- 
 fter  were  dill  more  infamous  than  even  thofe  of  his 
 predeceflbrs  in  iniquity.  The  thunders  of  the 
 Vatican  were  hurled  againfl  his  guilty  heacl  ;  he 
 was  cited  to  appear  before  the  pope,  or  to  be  de- 
 pofed  from  his  throne  ;  the  kingdom  was  laid  under 
 an  interdict,  his  fubjects  abfolved  from  their  alle- 
 giance, and  exhorted  to  rebellion  ;  the  clergy  re- 
 quired to  leave  the  kingdom  ;  all  princes  were  ab- 
 folved from  their  confederacies  with  him,  and  all 
 Chrillians  exhorted  to  take  up  arms  againft  the 
 appftate  monarch  and  his  heretical  fubjects.  Not 
 fatistied  however  w  th  general  imprecations  of 
 vengeance,  the  pope  wrote  to  the  monarchs  of 
 Scotland  and  France,  to  excite  them  to  active  oppo- 
 iition  againfl:  their  offending;  brother. 
 
 The  translation  of  the  Bible  was  completed  in 
 ?537*  a-njj  Cromwelj  [jad  the  addrefs  to  obtain  an 
 
 order 
 
3  5  o         /F//>  Meajures  of  Crom  well.       [cent,  i  6. 
 
 order  from  the  king  that  it  mould  be  permitted  to 
 be  read  by  all  his  fubjects.  There  was  however 
 no  abatement  of  zeal  againft  the  heretics  in  the 
 mind  of  Henry,  and  his  hatred  towards  them  was 
 increafed  by  the  exhortations  of  the  bigoted  Gar- 
 diner biihop  of  Winchefter,  who  repi  efented  that 
 feverity  againft  them  was  not  only  in  itfelf  proper 
 and  falutary,  but  extremely  well  adapted  to  con- 
 ciliate the  good  opinion  of  the  people.  The  in- 
 fluence of  Cranmer  with  the  king  had  for  fome- 
 time  been  declining  ;  but  Cromwell,  who  (till  pre- 
 served his  place  in  the  confidence  of  Henry,  and 
 who  was  equally  folicitous  in  the  caufe  of  refor- 
 mation, determined  to  engage  the  monarch  in  fuch  , 
 an  alliance  with  the  princes  of  Germany,  as  fhould 
 fecure  the  promotion  of  their  views. 
 
 In  April  1538,  a  parliamentwas  again  convened, 
 in  which,  after  feveral  debates,  at  which  the  king 
 aflifted  in  perfon,  and  the  arduous  Cranmer  fpoke 
 during  feveral  fucceeding  days,  fix  articles  of  faith 
 were  enacted,  of  a  nature  very  oppofite  to  the  opi- 
 nions recently  received.  It  was  enacted  by  them, 
 that  whoever  denied  tranfubftantiation,  that  who- 
 ever maintained  that  the  communion  in  both  kinds 
 was  neceifary,  or  that  it  was  lawful  for  priefls  to 
 marry,  or  that  vows  of  chaftity  could  innocently 
 be  broken,  or  that  private  mafles  were  unprofitable, 
 or  auricular  confeffion  unnecefTary,  fhould  be 
 burned  or  hanged  according  to  the  good pkafure  of 
 the  court.     This  act,  which  from  its  horrid  confe- 
 
 quences 
 
cent.  1 6.]  Reformers  perfecuted  by  Henry.  381 
 quences  obtained  the  name  of  the  Bloody  Statute,  J 
 expofed  the  reformers  to  the  feverefl  punifhments  ; 
 and  only  one  fource  of  confolation  remained,  thac 
 they  were  to  be  no  longer  delivered  to  the  pro- 
 traded  and  indefinite  cruelties  of  an  ecclefia(ti- 
 cal  court.  No  pomble  deliverance  however  re- 
 mained to  them  from  the  penalties  annexed  to  a 
 breach  of  the  firft  article,  which  enacted  that  all 
 who  denied  the  real  prefence  in  the  lacrament 
 fliould  be  burned,  even  though  they  afterwards 
 abjured  their  opinions.  The  German  princes  re- 
 monftrated  againft  the  Act  of  the  Six  Articles,  and 
 received  the  affurance  that  they  mould  not  be  en- 
 forced except  in  cafes  of  extreme  provocation  and 
 neceffity. 
 
 In  1539,  the  total  difiblution  of  the  monafteries 
 was  effected  ;  but  Cromwell's  activity  in  their  fup- 
 preffion,  and  his  ardour  for  the  doctrines  of  re- 
 formation, had  rendered  him  extremely  unpopular; 
 and  his  elevation  from  the  ftation  of  an  obfcure 
 individual  to  the  enjoyment  of  the  higheft  honours 
 of  the  ftate  made  him  extremely  obnoxious  to  the 
 nobility.  The  attachment  of  the  king  to  Catharine 
 Howard  afforded  the  duke  of  Norfolk,  her  uncle, 
 an  opportunity  of  effecting  the  ruin  of  a  man 
 whole  birth  he  defpifed,  whofe  fentiments  he  ab- 
 horred, and  whofe  elevation  he  envied.  The 
 clergy  had  fuffered  too  much  from  the  expofure 
 and  cenfures  of  Cromwell,  not  to  concur  in  any 
 meafure  which  might  accelerate  his  fall.     He  was 
 
 accord- 
 
UK 
 
 382  Fall  cf  Cromwell.  [cENf.  16% 
 
 accordingly  attainted  of  high  treafon,  and  loft  his 
 life  on  the  block.  The  death  of  Cromwell  for 
 fome  time  impeded  the  progrefs  of  the  doctrines 
 of  the  reformation,  and  the  king  was  engaged  in  a 
 renewal  of  feverities  againft  the  reformed  party. 
 
 In  the  year  1541,  a  new  impreffion  of  the  Bible 
 was  finifhed,  and  a  requifition  was  iflued  for  its 
 being  admitted  into  every  church.     Six  copies  of 
 the  work  were  placed  in  St.  Paul's.     The  popu- 
 lace perufed  them  with  great  carneftnefs ;  but  Hon-., 
 rier,  bifhop  of  London,  fenfible  of  the  tendency 
 this  had  to  introduce  an  investigation  of  the  old 
 Opinions,  earn eft  ly   endeavoured    to   prevent   this, 
 meafure.     In  the  enfuing  year  the  bifhops  fedu-f 
 louily  endeavoured  to  fupprefs  the  new  tranfiation  ; 
 but  the  king  declared  in  its  favour,  and  they  were 
 compelled  to  recur   to  the  pretence  that  it  was  fo 
 inaccurate  as  to  demand  condemnation.     In  op- 
 pofing  the  prefent  tranfiation,  they  indulged  the 
 expectation,  that   to   them   would  be  allotted  the 
 employment    of  making  a   new  one,  and  confe- 
 quenily  the  power  of  protracting  its  appearance  to 
 a  remote  time.     Gardiner  propofedas  ari' emenda- 
 tion, that  feveral  of  the  Latin  words  mould  be  re- 
 tained it)  the  Englifh,  as  poilefTing  fo  much  majefty, 
 or   fo   peculiar  a  fignification,  that  they   did    not 
 admit  of  a    literal  tranfiation  ;  but  the  reformed 
 party  accufed  him,  and  not  without  probability,  of 
 a   wifli  to   render  the  work  unintelligible.     This 
 abfurd  meafure  was  oppofed  by  Cranmer,  by  wh'ofe 
 
 influence 
 
cent.  1 6.]     Liturgy  tranjlated  into  Bnglijh.       383 
 
 influence  the  correction  of  the  Bible  was  referred  to 
 the  two  univerfities. 
 
 The  full  ufe  of  the  translation  was  not  however 
 allowed  ;  but  in  the  year  15435  an  aft  patted,  which 
 prohibited  the  inferior  orders  of  the  people  from 
 poffeffing  a  Bible.  The  fpirits  of  the  reformers 
 were  revived  in  the  enfuing  year  by  an  order  from 
 the  king,  for  tranflating  into  Englifh  the  Prayers, 
 Proceffions,  and  Litanies,  which  they  flattered  them^ 
 felves  would  be  lucceeded  by  a  full  translation  of 
 all  the  different  Liturgies.  Henry  however  lived 
 not  further  to  profecute  the  work  of  reformation, 
 but  died  on  the  27th  of  January,  in  the  year  1547. 
 He  left  all  parties  diffatisfied  with  his  conduct. 
 His  fyftem  of  reformation  was  not  calculated  to 
 fatisfy  the  minds  of  either.  He  had  proceeded  too- 
 far  not  to  offend  the  one,  but  (topped  very  fhort 
 of  what  would  have  gratified  the  other ;  and  to 
 both  he  was  equally  the  object  of  diftruft  and  of 
 fear. 
 
 The  firft  ftep  refpecting  the  reformation  which 
 was  publicly  taken  after  the  acceffion  of  Edward 
 VI.  his  ion  and  fucceflbr,  was  in  confequence  of 
 the  marked  difapprobation  which  was  frequently 
 fhewn  to  images.  Several  were  forcibly  taken 
 down  from  the  churches  5  and  Seymour,  duke  of 
 Somerfet,  who  had  been  inverted  with  the  title  of 
 protector  during  the  minority  of  the  king,  justified 
 the  meafure,  but  prudently  cenfured  the  violent  and 
 diforderly  mode  in  which  it  had  been  performed. 
 
 The^ 
 
384  Vijitatiott  of  the  Churches.      [cent.  \6* 
 
 Thedeceafed  monarch,  by  the  fuppreflion  of  the 
 monafteries,  had  without  reluctance  deprived  the 
 dead  of  the  benefit  of  the  mafies  which  had  already 
 been  paid  for,  and  which  were  to  effect  their  deli- 
 verance from  purgatorial  pains;  but  this  was  dur- 
 ing the  enjoyment  of  health,  and  in  the  profpect 
 of  an  extended  life.  That  iuperftition  which  has 
 been  early  implanted  in  the  mind  is,  however,  apt 
 to  recur  whenever  the  mind  from  any  caufe  be- 
 comes weakened  ;  and  Henry  conferred,  a  rich  en- 
 dowment upon  the  church  of  Windfor  for  the  re-  " 
 citing  of  mafTes  upon  his  account.  This  fplendid 
 donation  was  not,  however,  without  effects,  of  the 
 benefit  of  which -the  reformers  largely  partook;  it  * 
 introduced  an  inquiry  into  the  utility  of  foul-  ' 
 maffesand  obits,  which  was  extremely  favourable 
 to  the  caufe  of  reformation.  The  populace  were 
 indeed  in  general  very  defirous  of  an  ecclefiaftical 
 reform,  and  their  zeal  was  afiifted  by  the  indefati- 
 gable exertions  of  Cranmer,  and  of  feveral  of  the 
 other  biihops.  Every  innovation  was,  however, 
 ftrenuoivfly  oppofed  by  Gardiner  bifhop  of  Win- 
 chefter,  Bonner  bifhop  of  London,  and  the  bigoted 
 Tunftal ;  and  the  princefs  Mary  made  an  open  de- 
 claration againft  any  alteration  taking  place  during 
 the  minority  of  the  king.  Thefe  efforts  w.ere  not 
 fufliciently  effectual  to  prevent  the  reformers  from 
 obtaining  a  vifitation  of  the  churches,  in  which  fe- 
 veral regulations  were  inftituted,  and  the  injunc- 
 tions made  during  the  miniftry  of  Cromwell  were 
 .5  enforced  y 
 
cent.  16.]     Communion  received  in  both  Kinds.  3S5 
 
 enforced}  feveral  of  the  images  were  degraded  from 
 their  former  fituations,  and  publicly  burned. 
 
 In  the  fir  ft  parliament  of  Edward,  an  act  parTed 
 for  receiving  the  communion  in  both  kinds  ;  and 
 the  convocation,  which  fat  at  the  fame  time,  de- 
 termined in  favour  of  the  legality  of  marriages  con- 
 tracted by  any  of  the  facerdotal  order.  In  the  year 
 1548,  an  order  was  ifTued  for  the  fuppreffion  of 
 feveral  ceremonies,  and  to  this  an  injunction  enfued 
 for  the  removal  of  all  images  from  the  churches  j 
 and  all  fhrines,  together  with  the  plate,  were  ap- 
 propriated to  the  ufe  of  the  king.  A  new  office 
 was  compofed  for  the  adminiftration  of  the  com- 
 munion. The  neceffity  of  confeffion  was,  how- 
 ever, a  point  (till  left  undetermined,  and  gave  fe- 
 veral of  the  clergy  confiderable  offence.  But  it 
 produced  a  difcumon  which  was  very  favourable  to 
 the  difcovery  of  truth.  A  new  liturgy  was  com- 
 pofed, and  the  morning  and  evening  prayers  were 
 very  nearly  the  fame  with  thofe  at  prefent  in  ufe  ; 
 it  was  accompanied  with  a  preface  the  fame  that 
 is  ftill  prefixed  to  the  book  of  common-prayer.  In 
 the  progrefs  of  this  bufinefs,  the  pulpits  of  the  dif- 
 ferent parties  refounded  with  commendations  of  the 
 ancient  cuftoms,  or  invectives  againft  them;  and 
 each  party  proceeded  to  meafures  fo  rude  and  in- 
 decent, that  it  became  neceffary  to  iffue  an  order 
 for  reftraining  preaching  ;  and  the  preachers  were 
 limited  to  the  ufe  of  the  homilies,  till  the  comple- 
 tion of  the  liturgy. 
 
 Vol.  II.  Cc  la 
 
386     Marriages  of 'the  Clergy  legalized,  [cent,  i$* 
 
 ^  In  the  year  1549  an  act  pafled,  legalizing  the 
 
 marriages  of  the  clergy,  and  another  confirming  the 
 liturgy.  Cranmer  having  obtained  thefe  concei- 
 fions,  endeavoured  Hill  further  to  extend  the  re- 
 formed opinions  reflecting  the- nature  of  the  Lord's 
 fupper.  In  1 550,  anew  form  of  ordination  was 
 prepared,  and  confirmed  under  the  great  feal ;  the 
 prayers  to  the  faints  were  erafed  from  the  ancient 
 rituals,  and  the  clergy  ceafed  to  oppofe  the  pro- 
 grefs  of  alteration.  From  the  different  changes 
 which  had  arifen  in  ecclefiaftical  promotions,  the 
 biQiops  were  in  general  extremely  well  affected  to 
 the  reformation  ;  and  it  was  therefore  agreed  to 
 proceed  to  a  fettlement  of  the  articles  of  religion. 
 Previous  to  their  appearance,  the  doctrines  whicn 
 they  were  intended  to  eftablifii  were  inveftigated  in 
 feveral  publications.  When  they  were  firft  di- 
 gelled  their  number  amounted  to  forty-two,  bur 
 from  fome  alterations  which  took  place  in  them 
 under  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  they  were  reduced  to 
 thirty- nine.  The  reformers  next  proceeded  to 
 revife  the  prayer-book  ;  to  which  was  added  the 
 eonfeffion  and  abfoiution,  and  the  whole  aflumed 
 the  appearance  it  {till  retains.  The  brilliancy  of 
 the  profpect  they  had  now  attained  was,  however, 
 foon  obfeured,  and  the  premature  death  of  the 
 virtuous  young  king  impeded  the  eftablilhment  of 
 the  reformation. 
 
 Mary,  the  daughter  of  Henry  VIII.  and  of  Ca- 
 tharine of  Arragon,   afcended  the  throne  with  a 
 
 4  fixed 
 
C  £  n  t  .  1 6 .  ]        Meafures  for  reflating  Popery •;       387 
 
 fixed  determination  to  introduce  popery,  and  would 
 precipitately  have  abolilhed  every  veftige  of  the 
 reformation,  had  not  the  perfuafions  and  advice  of 
 her  counfellors,  and  principally  of  Gardiner  whom 
 (he  had  promoted  to  the  office  of  chancellor,  indu- 
 ced her  to  effedt  her  meafures  by  gradual  means. 
 Bonner,  whofe  violence  had  occaiioned  his  expul- 
 iion  from  the  bifhopric  of  London  during  the 
 former  reign,  was  foon  re-inflated  in  his  fee ;  but 
 fome  oblique  reflexions  againft  the  memory  of  the 
 deceafed  monarch,  thrown  out  in  a  fermon  by 
 Bourn  one  of  the  bifhop's  chaplains,  occafioned  a 
 violent  ferment  amongft  the  populace.  This 
 tumult  afforded  a  pretext  for  new  meafures,  and  a 
 prohibition  was  iflued  to  prevent  the  preaching  of 
 any,  but  fuch  as  could  obtain  a  licenfe  from  the 
 bigoted  chancellor.  Images  and  the  ancient  rites 
 began  foon  to  re-appear ;  the  Roman  catholics 
 were  encouraged  and  promoted,  and  the  reformers 
 as  much  as  poffible  excluded  from  all  offices  of 
 power  and  trull.  Thefe  meafures  were  too  unjuft 
 and  violent,  not  to  excite  the  indignation  of  Cran- 
 mer,  who,  with  the  benevolent  and  virtuous  Lati- 
 mer biftiop  of  Worcefter,  and  feveral  others,  was 
 imprifoned  in  the  Tower.  A  parliament  was  fpee- 
 dily  fummoned,  from  which  many  of  the  friends 
 of  reformation  were  either  artfully  or  violently 
 excluded,  and  an  act  patted  for  repealing  all  the 
 aws  relative  to  religion  enacted  during  the  former 
 C  c  z  r?i&n. 
 
38S       Cardinal  folc  appointed  Legate,    [cent,  i  6 . 
 
 reign.     Cranmcr  was  degraded  from  the  fee  of 
 Canterbury,  and  attainted  of  high  treafon., 
 
 Thcfe  events,  fo  diftreffing  to  the  reformers,  were 
 fucceeded  by  the  intelligence  which  foon  began  to 
 tranfpire  of  the  treaty  between  Mary  and  the 
 pope.  On  her  acceflion  to  the  throne,  a  meiTenger 
 had  been  fecretly  difpatched  to  her  from  his  holi- 
 nefs,  to  perfuade  her  to  a  reconciliatibn  with  the 
 apoftolic  fee.  Mary  was  perfectly  difpofed  to  the 
 meafure,  and  afiured  him  of  her  firm  intention -to 
 return  to  the  obedience  required  ;  but  was  toofen- 
 iible  of  the  obft  ruction  which  might  arife  to  her 
 affairs  by  the  premature  declaration  of  fuch  an  in- 
 tention, not  to  oblige  the  mefTenger  to  fecreoy. 
 The  fubmiffion  of  the  queen  was  gratefully  receiv- 
 ed by  the  court  of  Rome.  A  public  rejoicing  of 
 three  days  fucceeded  the  intelligence,  during  which 
 the  pope  officiated  at  the  mafs  in  perfon,  and  made 
 a  liberal  diftfibution  of  indigencies  to  the  people. 
 Cardinal  Pole  was  appointed  in  the  quality  of  legate 
 to  negotiate  the  affair  in  England  ;  but  his  journey 
 was  deferred  at  the  exprefs  defire  of  the  queen, 
 who  found  that  the  reftoration  of  the  papal  power, 
 and  the  union  with  the  prince  of  Spain  which  was 
 then  negotiating,  were  fteps  too  adventurous  to  be 
 undertaken  at  the  fame  time.  To  foften  this  de- 
 lay, Mary  tranfmitted  to  the  cardinal  an  account  of 
 the  progrefs  Hie  had  already  made  in  the  reftora- 
 tion of  popery.  The  legate  was  little  appeafed  by 
 this  fubmiffion,  but  replied,  that  though  he  rejoiced 
 
 in 
 
cent.  1 6 .  ]  Policy  of  Gardiner.  3  g  9 
 
 in  the  fteps  already  taken,  yet  many  defeats  {fill 
 remained  ;  that  in  the  act  concerning  the  legality 
 of  her  mother's  marriage,  no  mention  was  made  of 
 the  pope's  fupremacy;  and  that  what  was  flill  more 
 cenfurable  was  the  reftoration  of  public  worfhip  in 
 the  ftate  in  which  it  exifted  on  the  deceafe  of  her 
 father,  which  was  certainly  a  fchifm,  and  (he  had 
 therefore  eftablilhed  fchifm  by  law  :  he  concluded 
 a  long  letter  upon  thefe  fubjefts  by  exhorting  the 
 queen  to  avoid  a  cautious  and  timid  policy,  to  trufl: 
 in  the  affiftance  of  God,  and  to  requeft  from  the 
 parliament  that  they  would  folicit  the  legate  to 
 reconcile  them  to  the  Roman  fee.  The  queen 
 was,  however,  under  the  entire  influence  of  Gar- 
 diner, whofe  averfion  to  the  cardinal  was  extreme; 
 and  no  difpatches  were  fentover  to  requeft  the  pre- 
 sence and  good  offices  of  the  legate. 
 
 The  convocation  met  at  the  fame  time  with  the 
 parliament,  and  the  difputes  concerning  the  facra- 
 ment  were  again  warmly  agitated  in  the  aflembly. 
 The  fubjed  was,  however,  pre-judged,  and  the  ar- 
 guments of  thofe  who  denied  the  real  prefence  were 
 received  with  clamour,  and  decided  againft  by  a 
 confiderable  majority. 
 
 The  marriage  of  Mary  with  the  prince  of  Spain 
 was  a  meafure  fo  extremely  unpopular  that  infur- 
 redions  took  place  in  feveral  parts  of  the  kingdom. 
 They  were,  however,  foon  quelled  ;  but  produced 
 the  general  efFeds  of  an  ill-concerted  oppofition 
 even  to  a  weak  government!;  the  friends  of  the 
 C  c  3  queen 
 
 0fc 
 
39<5  ExpuJfion  of /even  BiJJjops.       [cent.  16. 
 
 queen  were  elated,  and  her  enemies  depreffed.  Nor 
 was  this  the  only  advantage  they  produced  :  a  pre- 
 text was  by  this  means  afforded  for  the  removal  of 
 fufpected  or  difaffected  perfons,  and  the  reformed 
 party  were  charged,  though  without  any  fufficient 
 proof,  of  being  the  authors  of  the  revolt.  Injunc- 
 tions were  iffued  to  the  bifhops  to  enforce  the  ec- 
 clefiaftical  laws  which  exifted  during  the  reign  of 
 Henry  VIII.  They  were  further  required  to  fupprefs 
 all  herefy  and  heretics,  and  to  difmifs  all  married 
 clergymen  from  their  appointments.  This  was 
 fucceeded  by  an  order  for  the  expulfion  of  Ceven 
 of  the  reformed  bifhops,  under  the  pretext  either 
 of  their  marriage,  or  their  oppofition  to  the  uniy 
 verfal  church.  Several  others  of  the  bifliops  fled  ; 
 the  remainder  had  too  ardent  afpirations  for  pre- 
 ferment, to  oppofe  the  views  of  the-coiirt ;  and  the 
 introduction  of  fixteen  new  bi(hops,to  replace  thofe 
 who  had  voluntarily  or  forcibly  been  expelled 
 from  their  fees,  compofed  a  bench  little  difpofed  to 
 Counteract  the  defigns  of  the  queen. 
 
 Such  was  the  impatience  of  Bonner  to  conform 
 to  the  ancient  ritual,  that  previous  to  ttfje  royal 
 aflent  being  given  to  the  bill  for  its  reftoration, 
 he  introduced  it,  together  with  public  proceffions, 
 into  the  church.  Cranmer,  Latimer,  and  Ridley, 
 who  had  pofTerTed  the  fee  of  London  during 
 the  deprivation  of  Bonner  in  the  former  reign, 
 and  who  was  one  of  the  mod  diftinguilhed  leaders 
 of  the  reformation,   were  cHfpatched  to   Oxford 
 
 under 
 
cent.  1 6.]  Plenary  Absolution  from  the  Pope.    391 
 
 under  the  pretence  of  maintaining  a  public  difpu- 
 tation  upon  the  controverted  points ;  but  the  de- 
 bate was  accompanied  by  fuch  indecent  clamour, 
 that  their  arguments  were  fcarcely  to  be  heard,  and* 
 the  committee  of  convocation  condemned  them  as 
 obftinate  heretics,  and  unworthy  members  of  the 
 church.  A  fimilar  farce  was  intended  to  have  been 
 performed  at  Cambridge;  but  the  depofed  bilhops 
 refufed  to  proceed  to  any  difputation,  except  they 
 were  permitted  to  defend  their  opinions  either  in 
 writing,  in  the  prefence  of  the  queen  and  council, 
 or  before  one  of  the  parliamentary  tribunals.  They 
 profeffed,  however,  at  the  fame  time  their  obedi- 
 ence to  all  the  lawful  commands  of  the  queen. 
 
 In  the  third  parliament  of  Mary,  in  1554,  the 
 queen  obtained  a  reverfal  of  the  attainder  pailed  by 
 her  father  againfl:  cardinal  Pole,  who  in  the  quality 
 of  legate  from  the  holy  fee  exhorted  the  queen 
 and  the  parliament  to  return  to  the  fheep-fold  of 
 the  church.  Both  houfes  of  parliament  agreed  to 
 an  addrefs  to  the  queen  and  her  hufband,  to  inter- 
 cede with  the  legate,  and  through  his  mediation  to 
 effect  their  reconciliation  with  the  Romifh  fee. 
 All  laws  paffed  againft  papal  authority  were  re- 
 pealed, public  rejoicings  took  place,  and  Pole  be- 
 llowed upon  the  whole  nation  a  plenary  abfolution. 
 The  (late  of  religion  therefore,  on  the  whole,  now 
 was  reverted  to  that  in  which  it  appeared  in  the 
 former  part  of  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII. 
 
 The  next  meafure  to  be  confidered  was  that  reT 
 C  c  4  fpeding 
 
3  9  2.  Cruel  Perfection  of  the  Reformers,  [cent,  i  6 . 
 fpectingthe  treatment  of  heretics ;  and  the  different 
 difpofitions  of  the  more  gentle  and  politic  cardinal, 
 and  of  the  proud  and  intemperate  chancellor,  occa- 
 fioned  considerable  difficulties.  Pole  conceived  that 
 the  mod  effectual  mode  to  extirpate  herefy  was  to 
 commence  by  an  entire  reformation  of  the  manners 
 of  the  clergy,  whofe  ill-conduct  and  ignorance 
 were  a  reproach  upon  their  doctrines,  and  in  ge- 
 neral the  caufe  of  herefy,  Gardiner  thought  the 
 flrict  execution  of  the  laws  againd  the1  heretics  the 
 bed  remedy  that  could  be  applied  ;  and  the  queen, 
 too  earned  io  accomplifh  the  end,  to  be  folicitous 
 about  the  means,  was  defirous  to  adopt  both  pro- 
 jects at  the  fame  time.  No  fooner  had  the  parlia- 
 ment rifen  than  a  folemn  proceflion  took  place, 
 in  which  Bonner  prefided,  carrying  the  hod,  and  a 
 number  of  bi (hops  and  prieds  followed,  returning 
 public  thankfgivings  to  God  for  having  permitted 
 a  reconciliation  between  the  people  of  England  and 
 the  apodolic  fee.  •  This  ceremony  gave  fo  much 
 fatisfaction  to  the  court,  that  it  was  appointed  to 
 be  annually  celebrated,  and  was  denominated  the 
 Feaji  of  the  Reconciliation. 
 
 The  meditated  perfecution  Toon  after  rook  place, 
 and  feyeral  eminent  perfons  were  condemned  to 
 the  dake.  Thefe  cruel  executions  had  their  cuf- 
 tomary  effects  -,  they  united  the  intereds  of  the  per- 
 fected party,  and  excited  the  cenfures  of  the  mo- 
 derate. Gardiner,  alarmed  for  the  confequences, 
 refigned  the  management  of  thefe  affairs  to  the 
 
 fierce 
 
cent.  I 6\]  Execution  of  Ridley  and  Latimer.  393 
 fierce  and  fanguinary  Bonner.  Every  circumftance  of 
 aggravated  cruelty  was  inflicted  upon  the  unhappy 
 victims,  and  humanity  recoils  from  the  relation  of 
 their  fufTerings.  The  zealous  queen  reftored  to  the 
 clergy  all  the  lands  of  which  they  had  been  de- 
 prived by  her  predecefTors,  and  animated  Bonner 
 in  his  efforts  for  the  extirpation  of  herefy.  The 
 bigotry  and  aufterity  of  Mary  had  been  increafed 
 by  her  adoption  of  Spanim  counfels,  and  her  na- 
 tural peeviihnefs  was  increafed  by  her  lofing  all 
 hopes  of  producing  a  fucceffor  to  the  crown,  and 
 by  the  defertion  of  her  hufband,  the  unworthy 
 Philip.  The  only  alleviation,  of  which  her  me- 
 lancholy appeared  fufceptible,  arofe  from  the  de- 
 ftruction  of  the  reformed  parry,  and  the  restoration 
 of  feveral  of  the  religious  houfes.  Sixty  feven  of 
 the  reformers  fuffered  in  the  year  1  cctt  at  the 
 flake,  amongfi  whom  was  the  virtuous  Ridley,  and 
 the  aged  Latimer,  whofe  primitive  fimplicity  of 
 character  was  a  tacit  reproach  upon  the  luxury  and 
 falfe  refinements  of  the  Romilh  clergy. 
 
 The  ruin  of  the  chief  of  the  refo'  med  party  ir\ 
 England  had  been  previoufly  refolveJ,  yet  the  life 
 of  the  illuftrious  Cranmer  was  fpared  till  the  year 
 1 556.  The  utmoft  ingenuity  of  malice  was  em- 
 ployed to  ridicule  and  increafe  the  fuffe rings  under 
 which  he  laboured  ;  and  the  credit  in  which  he 
 flood  with  the  reformed  party  both  at  home  and 
 abroad  made  his  opponents  extremely  defirous  to 
 procure  a  change  in  his  opinions.  For  this  purpofe 
 
 every 
 
394  Sufferings  and  "Death  of  Cranmer.  [cent.  i6. 
 every  effort  was  employed  to  produce  a  recantation 
 of  his  fentiments;  and,  unfortunately  for  the  peace 
 of  that  mort  portion  of  life  which  remained  to  him, 
 Cranmer,  in  a  fit  of  weaknefs  or  of  terror,  ffgned 
 his  abjuration  of  the  new  opinions.  The  inhuman 
 queen  had,  however,  determined  upon  his  de- 
 (truction,  but  the  knowledge  of  her  intentions  was 
 concealed  from  the  deftined  victim.  Cranmer, 
 however,  immediately  repented,  with  great  anguifli 
 of  mind,  of  the  compliance  into  which  he  had  been, 
 betrayed,  and  compofed  a  eonfefllon  of  faith  ac- 
 cording to  the  real  dictates  of  his  confcience.  He 
 was  condemned  to  the  flake;  and  when  taken  from.. 
 his  prifon  to  the  church  previous  to  his  execution, 
 he  difcovered  the  utmoft  agitation,  and  exprefTed 
 extreme  remorfe  for  having  in  a  weak,  and  un- 
 guarded moment  been  tempted  torelinquifh  thofe 
 principles  for  which  he  was  willing  to  facrifice  his 
 life.  He  was  defirous  to  proceed  in  his  exhorta- 
 tions to  the  people ;  but  he  was  hurried  to  the  Make, 
 where  he  endured  his  fevere  fufferings  with  un- 
 fhaken  conftancy,  and  appeared  particularly  defi- 
 rous to  expiate  his  fault  by  voluntarily  expofing 
 his  right  hand  to  the  flames  till  it  dropped  off,  re- 
 peatedly exclaiming,  "  This  unworthy  hand  !" 
 
 Thus  periflied  the  diftinguifhed  leader'  of  the 
 Englifh  reformation,  whole  virtues  and  talents 
 would  have  conferred  dignity  on  a  lefs  important 
 caufe.  His  death  was  the  prelude  to  feveral 
 others.  The  principles  of  reformation  were,  how- 
 ever 
 
cent.  16.]      Wanton  Injults  on  the  Dead.  39$ 
 
 ever  fuppreffed,  very  far  from  extinguilhed,  an4 
 feveral  fecret  meetings  were  held  amongft  the  party$ 
 who  continued  to  be  fupplied  with  books  for  their 
 inftrudlion  and  edification  from  their  friends  in 
 Germany.  Seventy-nine  unhappy  fufferers  expi- 
 ated the  crime  of  herefy  at  theftake  in  1557,  and 
 feveral  more  in  the  following  year;  great  numbers 
 died  in  prifon;  and  the  collective  number  of  thofc 
 who  perifhed  for  the  faith  during  thefe  unhappy 
 tranfaclions  amounted  to  above  fix  hundred  per- 
 fons,  of  whom  five  were  bifhops,  and  twenty-one 
 minifters.  The  graves  were  even  fummoned  to 
 furrender  the  guilty  dead.  Martin  Bucer,  and 
 Fagius,  two  German  divines  who  had  been  invited 
 into  England  by  Edward  VI.  were  cited  to  appear 
 and  give  an  account  of  their  faith;  but  as  they  had 
 been  interred  fome  years  before,  they  did  not  ap- 
 pear, and  this  contumacy  was  punifhed  by  their 
 bodies  being  taken  up,  hanged,  and  then  con- 
 fumed  to  aflies. 
 
 The  death  of  Mary  in  1558  was  received  with 
 defpondence  by  the  papal  party,  and  with  equal 
 joy  by  the  friends  to  reformation.  The  opi- 
 nions of  Elizabech  her  fucceflor  refpecting  religion 
 were  well  known:  her  legitimacy,  and  confequently 
 her  claim  to  the  throne,  depended  upon  the  inva- 
 lidity of  her  father's  marriage  with  Catharine  of 
 Arragon  ;  fhe  was  therefore  both  from  political  and 
 religious  motives  an  enemy  to  the  papal  power,  and 
 attached  to  the  reformation.     One  of  the  firft  mea- 
 
 fures 
 
3 9 6         Glorious  Accejfton  of  Elizabeth,  [cent.'  i  6. 
 
 fures  taken  by  Elizabeth  was  to  notify  her  acceffion 
 to  the  foreign  courts,  and  amongft  others  to  that 
 of  Rome.  The  pope,  however,  received  her  am- 
 bafTadors  with  great  haughtinefs,  and  refufed  to 
 acknowledge  her  title  to  the  throne  upon  any  other 
 terms  than  a  fubmiffion  to  the  apoftolic  fee.  To 
 that  authority  the  queen  was  on  every  account  de- 
 termined not  to  fubmit,  and  it  was  refolved  by  her 
 council  that  (he  mould  take  the  advice  of  parlia- 
 ment concerning  the  ineafures  which  might  be 
 moft  efficacious  for  oppoiing  his  influence  againfc 
 her  in  foreign  courts. 
 
 Every  meafure  purfued  by  the.  new  queen  pre- 
 dicted the  deftfuction  of  the  papal  party.  Public 
 difputations  on  the  controverted  points  were  once 
 more  commanded,  and  probably  were  terminated 
 in  their  ufual  way,  leaving  each  party  rather  con- 
 firmed than  altered  in  their  original  opinion.  The 
 book  of  Common  Prayer  was  again  revifed,  and  in- 
 troduced into  the  churches  ;  and  the  abbey  lands, 
 reflored  by  Mary,  were  ag^in  refumed  by  the 
 crown.  The  oath  refpecting  the  queen's  fupremacy 
 was,  however,  rejected  by  many  of  the  bifhops  : 
 but  the  greater  part  of  them  remained  quietly  in 
 England  after  the  deprivation  of  their  fees  ;  and  the 
 character  of  Elizabeth  derives  one  of  its  brighter!: 
 rays  from  the  policy  or  the  clemency  with  which 
 Ihe  permitted  the  unmolefted  departure  of  all  who 
 dented  leave  to  retire  into  other  countries,  and  the 
 moderation  with  which  all  abufes  were  fupprefjed, 
 
 and 
 
iCENf.  16.]      tVije  and  moderate  Meafures*         397 
 
 and  all  alterations  introduced;  The  Bible  under- 
 went another  tranflation,  which  was  completed  in 
 three  years  ;  and  the  doctrines  of  the  reformation 
 were  declared  thofe  of  the  Englifll  church,  which 
 from  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  had  changed  its 
 faith  no  lefs  than  four  times.  The  reformed  party 
 in  Scotland,  France,  and  the  Netherlands,  were 
 powerfully  affifted  by  Elizabeth,  who  was  left  at 
 fufficient  leifure  to  attend  to  their  concerns  by  the 
 fubmifiion  with  which  the  Englifh  catholics  re- 
 ceived all  the  innovations  (he  introduced.  Her 
 lenity,  though  in  fact  only  the  dictate  ofjnftice,  yet, 
 contrafted  with  the  violence  of  her  predecefTor,  de- 
 manded their  gratitude.  The  monks  who  had  beeit 
 difpoffeffed  of  their  monasteries  had  been  affigned 
 penfions,  which  were  to  be  paid  by  the  pofleflbrs  of 
 the  forfeited  lands.  Thefe  payments  were,  how- 
 ever, neglected  -,  and  this  unhappy  fraternity,  who 
 had  been  educated  in  folitude  and  ignorance,  were 
 Starving  in  old  age,  difregarded  by  the  proteftants, 
 and  too  numerous  to  find  relief  from  thofe  of  their 
 own  perfuafion.  In  this  exigency  their  wants  were 
 relieved  by  Elizabeth  ;  fhe  commanded  that  their 
 penfions  fliould  be  paid  with  punctuality  and  juf- 
 tice,  and  fatibfaction  Be  made  for  all  arrears  unjuftly 
 (detained. 
 
 The  dependence  of  fo  considerable  a  country  as 
 England  upon  the  fee  of  Rome  was  a  circumftance 
 too  flattering  to  the  vanity,  and  too  gratifying  to 
 the  avarice  of  that  court,  to  be  eafily  relinquifhed. 
 
 Pius 
 
398  Reformation  ejlahlijhed  in  England,  [cent.  i'& 
 
 Pins  IV.  therefore  no  fooner  afcended  the  papal 
 chair,  than,  condemning  the  arrogance  of  his  prede- 
 ceflbr,  he  made  feveral  overtures  for  a  reconciliation 
 with  Elizabeth  ,  and  propofed  to  concede  to  the 
 Englifh  the  ritual  they  approved,  and  the  ufe  of  the 
 communion  in  both  kinds,  on  condition  that  the 
 queen  fhould  acknowledge  her  fubjection  to  the 
 Roman  fee.  This  (he  refufed.  His  fucceffor  Pius 
 V.  was  much  lefs  moderate,  and  is  accufed  of  hav- 
 ing inftigated  feveral  attempts  againft  the  life  of 
 Elizabeth.  Thefe,  and  the  defigns  of  the  king  of 
 Spain  to  invade  her  dominions,  together  with  the 
 endeavours  made  ufe  of  by  the  catholic  priefts  to. 
 feduce  her  fubjeiSls  from  their  allegiance,  form  fome 
 cxcufe  for  the  departure  of  the  queen  from  thofe 
 fentiments  of  moderation  which  had  diftinguidied 
 and  illumined  the  commencement  ojf  her  reign.  It 
 is  with  concern  and  regret  thatpofterity  will  regard 
 the  dawn  of  fo  bright  a  day  clouded  by  a  degree 
 of  feverity  towards  her  opponents  in  religion, 
 which,  however  neceffary  from  the  peculiar  diffi- 
 culty and  delicacy  of  her  fituation,  the  friends  of 
 humanity  cannot  ceafe  to  lament. 
 
 CHAP. 
 
[    399    ] 
 
 CHAP.    V. 
 
 Reformation    in   Scotland,    Ireland,   the 
 low  countries,  &c. 
 
 Doctrines  received  in  the  reign  of  James  V.perfecuted — Deaths 
 of  Hamilton,  Set  on,  and  Foreji — Cardinal  Beaton — "Court 
 of  Inquifil'ron — Death  of  James — Earl  of  Arran  favours 
 the  Reformation — Retracls — Perfecution — Murder  of  the 
 Cardinal— —John  Knox — 'Regent  fur  renders  his  power — - 
 Firjl  Covenant — Duplicity  of  the  £hieen  Dowager — Re- 
 formation eflabliJJjed  at  Perth — Second  Covenant — Perfidy 
 of  the  ®>ueen  Dowager — HofliUties — Third  Covenant — • 
 Contejls  wito  the  ^ueen  Dozvager — Expulfton  of  the  Re- 
 gent— Perplexities — Fourth  Covenant — Death  of  the  Queen 
 Dowager — Peace  proclaimed — Completion  of  the  Re/or" 
 mation — State  of  Ireland,  Holland,  Italy ,  Spain,  and 
 France, 
 
 THE  opinions  which  had  been  propagated  by 
 Luther  in  Germany,  were  foon  extended  to 
 Scotland,  which  in  common  with  the  other  nations 
 in  Europe  had  long  groaned  under  the  papal  yoke. 
 The  reformation  doctrines  were  received  by  confi- 
 derable  numbers  in  that  country  during  the  reign 
 of  James  V.  and  political  caufes  contributed  to 
 their  extenfion.  This  monarch  wimed  to  humble 
 the  nobility,  and  for  this  purpofe  fought  the  fup- 
 port  of  the  clergy  ;  and  the  nobles,  who  envied  the 
 power  of  the  facerdotal  order,  were,  in  oppofition  to 
 
 the 
 
400  Inqulfitorral  Court.  £cent.  16. 
 
 the  crown,  additionally  difpofedto  give  their  weight 
 to  the  people.  The  new  opinions  were  therefore 
 favourably  received  by  many  petfons  of  fuperior 
 rank,  by  fome  of  whom  they  had  been  imbibed  in 
 Germany,  and  were  perfecuted  by  James  and  the 
 clergy  with  implacable  fury.  Patrick  Hamilton, 
 the  young  and  virtuous  abbot  of  Feme,  was  exe- 
 cuted at  the  Make  for  his  attachment  to  the  re- 
 formed doctrines.  They  were  .recommended, 
 however,  by  Seton  the  king's  confeffor,  who  faved 
 his  life  by  a  precipitate  flight.  A  benedielirte 
 friar  of  the  name  of  Forefl  was  in  the  year  i  SZZ 
 detected  in  the  crime  of  defending  the  opinions  of 
 Hamilton,  and  the  belief  of  his  herefy  was  con- 
 firmed by  an  Englim  bible  which  was  found  in  his 
 porTeffion  \  and  for  thefe  mifdemeanors  he  was,  after 
 public  trial,  condemned  to  the  flames.  His  death 
 was  fucceeded  by  that  of  feverai  others  for  a  fimilar 
 offence. 
 
 Amongft  the  moft  active  oppofers  of  reforma- 
 tion in  Scotland  was  the  crafty  and  profligate  car-» 
 dinal  Beaton,  archbifhop  of  St.  Andrews.  Per- 
 ceiving that  conhTcations  and  imprifonment  had 
 little  c  if  eel:  in  fuppreflfing  the  reformed  doctrines, 
 the  cardinal,  in  conjunction  with  the  other  clergy, 
 perfuaded  James  to  inllitute  an  inquifitorial  court; 
 and  the  fanguinary  Hamilton,  brother  to  the  earl 
 of  Arran,  was  appointed  prefidenr,  with  thepowef 
 of  fummoning  to  his  tribunal  all  who  were  fufpecl- 
 ed  of  herefy.     The  powers  of  this  deteftable'  en- 
 
 3  •  g'ine 
 
c  E  n  t  .  2  6.]  War  with  England.  40 1 
 
 gine  of  tyranny  were  however  almoft  immediately 
 fufpended  by  an  accufation  of  high  treafon  being 
 preferred  againft  the  prefident  j  and  after  his  execu- 
 tion the  projed  died  away.     During  thele  tranf- 
 adions  the   Scotch   reformers    were    encouraged, 
 by   Henry   VilL    who,  from  political    motives, 
 earneftly    endeavoured    to    fecure   the   affiftance 
 of  James  ;  but  his  projeds  were  oppofed  by  the 
 intrigues   of  the   Scottilh   clergy,   and  a  war  en- 
 fued  between  the  refpedive  kingdoms,  in  which 
 the  Scottilh  forces  were  completely  routed,  and  the 
 monarch  foon  afterwards  expired  in  anguilh  and 
 defpair.     Mary,  his  only  legitimate  fuccelfor,  was 
 born  but  a  fhort  time  previous  to  the  death  of  James, 
 and  the  earl  of  Arran,  her  neareft  male  relation, 
 was  appointed  regent.     Arran  was  well  known  to 
 favour  the  new  opinions,  his  name  had  been  placed 
 at  the.head.of  a  very  large  lift  of  heretics  which  had 
 been  prefented  by  the  clergy  to  the  late  king ;  and 
 the  gentle  and  unaffuming  manners,  which  accom- 
 panied the  firft  meafures  of  his  regency,  (till  more 
 conciliated  the  love  of  the  people.     All  the  points 
 in difpute  between  the  popifh  and  reformed  churches 
 were  openly  expofed  by  the  proteftant  divines,  fome 
 of  whom  were  invited  to  refide  in  his  houfe.     The 
 Bible  was  translated  into  the  vulgar  tongue,  and 
 various  publications,  expofingthe  tyranny  and  ab- 
 furdities  of  the  Romifh    church,    were    diffufed 
 throughout  thekingdom.     The  intrigues  of  cardi- 
 nal Beaton  and  the  clergy,  and  his  awn  impru- 
 '  Vol.  II.  Dd  dfinee 
 
402  Legates  a  latere.  [cent'i6, 
 
 dence  foon  however  effected  the  unpopularity  of 
 the  regent,  who,  alarmed  at  the  profpect  of  his  de- 
 clining power,  united  himfelf  to  the  interefts  and 
 views  of  the  queen  dowager,  publicly  abjured  his 
 opinions,  and  received  abfolution  from  the  car- 
 dinal. 
 
 Beaton,  who  under  the  title  of  lord  chancellor 
 fwayed  the  councils  of  the  Scotch,  openly  oppofed 
 an  alliance  with  England,  and  favoured  all  the 
 views  of  the  queen  dowager,  who  in  ,her  turn  im- 
 plicitly fubmitted  to  the  directions  of  her  brothers', 
 the  cardinal  of  Lorraine  and  the  duke  of  Guife. 
 This  political  confederacy  had  an  immediate  ten- 
 dency to  check  the  progrefs  of  reformation.  The 
 preachers  whom  the  regent  had  invited  to  impugri 
 the  doctrines  of  the  church  were  difcharged  ;  feveral 
 zaalous  adherents  to  the  reformation  were  driven 
 into  England,  and  an  act  pafled  for  rigorous  pro- 
 ceedings againft  the  heretics.  The  cardinal,  who 
 had  obtained  from  the  pope  the  dignity  of  legate  a 
 latere*)  made  a  vifitation  in  great  form  through  his 
 diocefe.  This  was  the  fignal  of  perfecution. 
 Great  numbers  fuffered,  amongft  whom  was  the 
 learned,  the  candid,  the  virtuous  George  Wifhart, 
 who  after  a  precipitate  trial  was  adjudged  to  the 
 flames.     The  cardinal  and  the  court  beheld  with 
 
 *  The  legates  a  latere  were  always  clioftn  from  the  college  of 
 cardinals,  and  next  to  the  pope  had  the  fulleft  ecclefiaflical  autho- 
 rity. A  fimple  legate  was  merely  an  ambaffador  from  the  pope, 
 and  confined  by  partit     .  lihons.  , 
 
 triumph 
 
cent.  1 6.]  Murder  of  Cardinal  Beaton.  .  403 
 triumph  the  cruel  death  of  the  unhappy  fufferers. 
 The  clergy  poured  in  their  congratulations,  but  the 
 people,  difgufled  with  the  immoderate  power  which 
 had  been  affumed,  were  foon  induced  to  join  in  a 
 confpiracy  againft  the  haughty  and  exulting  cardi- 
 nal. With  Norman  Lefley,  the  eldeft  fon  of  the 
 earl  of  Rothes,  at  their  head,  they  entered  the  cattle 
 of  St.  Andrew's  and  murdered  him.  Theconfpi- 
 rators  immediately  difpatched  mettengers  to  folicit 
 the  affittance  of  Henry,  who  haftened  to  collect 
 troops ;  while  the  regent  applied  for  fuccours  to  the 
 French.  During  thefe  tranfactions,  the  regent  at- 
 tacked the  cattle  of  St.  Andrew's,  which  had  been 
 fortified  by  the  confpirators ;  his  attempt  was,  how- 
 ever, without  fuccefs  j  the  befieged  received  by  fea 
 afliftance  from  England,  and  the  favourers  of  the 
 reformation  daily  increafed.  The  celebrated  John 
 Knox  entered  the  cattle,  and  with  the  other 
 v  preachers,  under  the  protection  of  the  confpirators, 
 preached  the  reformed  do&rines  with  a  freedom  of 
 language  before  unknown. 
 
 A  navy  difpatched  from  France  enabled  the  re- 
 gent to  vanquifh  the  confpirators,  who  were  carried 
 into  France,  and  ufed  with  cruelty  in  defiance  of 
 a  particular  treaty  ;  fome  were  confined  in  prifon, 
 and  others,  amongft  whom  was  John  Knox,  fent  to 
 the  gallies.  During  the  fucceeding  contefts  in  Scot- 
 land between  the  Englim,  the  French,  and  the 
 Scotch,  a  relaxation  of  ecclefiaftical  difcipline  pre- 
 vailed, which  was  favourable  to  the  caufe  of  refor- 
 F>  d  2  mation. 
 
404  Unpopularity  of  the  Regent.  [cent.  1 6. 
 mation.  No  fooner  however  was  a  peace  declared, 
 than  the  regent,  now^eft  at  leifure  to  attend  to  the 
 affairs  of  the  church,  punifhed  Adam  Wallace  for. 
 herefy;  and  an  act  pafled  for  forfeiting  to  the  crown 
 the'moveable  goods  of  all  excommunicated  perfons. 
 The  feverity  of  the  regent  towards  the  reformers 
 was  fenfibly  felt  in  a  circuit  which  he  made  through 
 the  kingdom  in  company  with  the  queen  dowager. 
 
 He  had  fully  entered  into  the  projects  of  the 
 houfe  of  Guife  for  promoting  an  union  between  the 
 young  queen  and  the  dauphin,  and  his  acquief- 
 cence  had  been  procured,  or  rewarded  by  the  title 
 of  duke  of  Chatelherault.  His  conduct  had,  how- 
 ever, rendered  him  obnoxious  to  every  party,  and 
 every  rank,  who  beheld  with  pleafure  the  furrender 
 of  his  power  into  the  hands  of  the  queen  dowager, 
 who  was  inverted  with  the  regency  in  the  year 
 1553.  Five  years  afterwards  the  young  queen 
 was  married  to  the  dauphin. 
 
 The  reformed  party  received  a  confiderable  ac- 
 ceifion  at  this  period  from  the  Englifh  fugitives, 
 who,  alarmed  at  the  accemon  of  Mary  to  the  Eng- 
 lifh throne,  took  refuge  in  Scotland.  Knox,  who 
 had  returned  from  France,  made  a  circuit  through 
 Scotland,  preaching  in  energetic  terms  the  doc- 
 trines of  the  reformation.  He  was  entertained  in 
 his  progrefs  by  feveral  of  the  nobility  and  gentry, 
 who  partook  with  him  in  the  ordinances  of  religion 
 after  the  reformed  method.  Religious  affemblies 
 were  held  in  defiance  of  the  church,  and  celebrated 
 3  preachers 
 
cent.  1 6.]  Knox  cited  to  appear,  405 
 
 preachers  were  folicited  to  officiate  in  particular  dif- 
 tricts  and  towns.  Knox  was  cited  to  appear  before 
 the  clergy  at  Edinburgh,  and  went  there  accompa- 
 nied by  a  number  of  gentlemen  who  were  interefted 
 in  his  caufe.  They  however  did  not  proceed  in 
 his  profecution,  and  the  zealous  reformer  .cou- 
 rageoufly  inculcated  his  doctrines  in  the  capital 
 of  the  kingdom.  His  arguments  and  his  energy 
 occalioned  a  great  accefilon  to  his  caufe,  amongft 
 whom  was  the  lord  Marifhal,  who,  conjointly  with 
 the  earl  of  Glencairn,  perfuaded  Knox  to  addrefs  the 
 queen  regent  upon  the  fubject  of  the  reformation, 
 by  whom  however  his  letter  was  received  with  dif- 
 dain.  During  thefe  tranfactions  he  received  an  in- 
 vitation to  take  charge  of  the  Engiifh  church  at 
 Geneva.  The>clergy  after  his  departure  cited  him 
 to  appear  before  them,  and  after  condemning  him 
 as  a  heretic,  ordered  him  to  be  burned  in  effigy. 
 
 The  meafures  purfued  againft  Knox  prevented 
 not  the  exertions  of  other  preachers.  Councils  and 
 conventions  of  the  protectants  were  regularly  held, 
 the  ardour  of  the  populace  was  inflamed,  and  the 
 priefts'were  treated  with  indecent  ridicule.  Images, 
 crucifixes,  and  relics,  were  flolen  from  the  churches; 
 and  the  efforts  of  the  bifhops  and  the  queen  were 
 infufficient  to  prevent  the  repetition  of  the  meetings 
 and  meafures  of  the  reformed  party.  They  were 
 fupported  by  feveral  noblemen,  and  by  degrees 
 they  afTumed  a  lefs  irregular  form,  and  added 
 policy  and  addrefs  to  rheir  zeal  and  arguments. 
 D  d  3  Animated 
 
406  Firjl  Covenant,  [cent.  16. 
 
 Animated  by  the  letters  of  Knox,  they  formally 
 fubfcribed  an  agreement  entitled  The  Firjl  Covenant, 
 in  which  they  folemnly  rejected  the  fuperftitionsand 
 idolatry  of  the  Romifh  church,  and  devoted  their 
 lives  and  fortunes  to  the  fupport  of  their  caufe. 
 
 After  the  fubfcription  of  the  nrft  covenant,  the 
 leaders  of  the  reformation  endeavoured  to  procure 
 the  return  of  Knox  into  Scotland,  and  folicited  the 
 afliftance  of  Calvin  to  perfuade  him  to  revifit  his 
 native  country.     Hamilton,  archbilhop  of  St.  An- 
 drew's, whofe  inclinations  were  naturally  pacific, 
 was  incited  by  the  failure  of  his  endeavours  to  ef- 
 fect the  downfal  of  the  new. opinions  by  gemienefs-, 
 to  recur  to  violence.     The  venerable  Walter  IVliU 
 was  the  firft  victim  of  this  perfecution  ;   and   the 
 people,  exafperated  to  fury  by  the  execution  of  this 
 martyr   to  the  faith,  entered  into  public  fubfcrip- 
 tions  for  mutual  defence,  and  their  vehemence  was 
 encouraged  by  the  leaders  of  the  proteftant  party 
 Reformation  was  loudly  demanded  on  every  hand, 
 and  the  chiefs  of  the  party  prefented  a  fupplication 
 to  the  queen  dowager,  in  which  they  ftated  their 
 grievances,   enlarged  upon  their  moderation,  and 
 befought  the  restoration  of  chriftianity  in  its  ori- 
 ginal purity.  The  queen  dowager  was  embarraffed 
 with  thefe  demands,  which  in  the  prefent  factious 
 ftate  of  the  kingdom  it  was  equally  dangerous  to 
 cfppofe  or  encourage.     She   therefore  adopted  an 
 indecifive  conduct,  and  while  (he  allowed  the  pro- 
 tectants the  ufe  of  the  prayers  and  religious  exer- 
 
 cifes 
 
cent.  1 6.]      Oppojiiion  of  the  ghie en  Regent.      407 
 
 cifes  in  the  vulgar  tongue,  requefled  that  they 
 would  hold  no  public  affemblies  in  Edinburgh  or 
 Leith.  The  congregation  (the  name  now  aflumed 
 by  the  Scorch  proteflants)  were  gratified  by  the 
 conceffions  they  had  obtained  from  the  queen 
 dowager,  and  quietly  but  fleadily  proceeded  in 
 their  plan.  Several  ineffective  fchemes  foragreement 
 were  propofed  between  the  Rcmifh  and  reformed 
 parties,  and  the  congregation-applied  for  redrefs  to 
 the  parliament;  but  the  delufive  conduct  of  the 
 queen  dowager  prevented  their  addrefs  from  being 
 prefented.  They  then  prefented  a  formidable  pro- 
 tell  againfl  the  meafures  for  opposing  reformation. 
 On  the  diffolution  of  parliament,  the  artifices  of 
 the  queen  regent  towards  the  reformation  were 
 fully  manifefted.  Every  honour  was  conferred 
 upon  the  popifh  party,  and  every  indignity  offered 
 to  the  members  of  the  congregation.  The  queen 
 regent  fully  threw  off  the  mafk  of  moderation,  but 
 Ihe  was  foon  mortified  by  the  information  that  the 
 reformation  was  eflablifhed  at  Perth.  In  vain  fhe 
 enjoined  the  fuppreffion  of  thefe  novelties,  or  the 
 apprehenfion  of  one  of  the  preachers  with  whom 
 (he  was  particularly  offended  ;  and  in  vain  did  (he 
 iffue  her  command  for  the  ancient  obfervation  of 
 Eafter.  Citations  were  i filled  to  the  preachers  to 
 appear  at  Stirling:  they  advanced,  attended  by  their 
 proteftant  friends ;  and  the  queen,  flruck  with  their 
 unanimity,  and  dreading  their  power,  entreated 
 that  their  march  might  be  flopped,  and  promifed 
 P  d  4  tq 
 
4o8  Return  of  Knox.  £cent.  16. 
 
 to  drop  the  proceedings  againft  them.  Allured 
 by  this  promife,  the  preachers  failed  to  appear  at 
 Stirling  on  the  day  of  citation,  and  were  declared 
 rebels,  and  all  perfons  were  prohibited  from  afford- 
 ing them  comfort  and  affiftance.  This  violation 
 of  faith  produced  diftruft  and  terror  of  the  civil 
 power  in  every  rank,  and  the  reformers  were 
 urged  to  the  mod  defperate  extremities. 
 
 In  this  lituation  of  affairs,  Knox  arrived  in  Scot- 
 land :  he  afcended  the  pulpit  at  Perth',  forcibly  and 
 eloquently  expofed  the  errors  of  the  church ;  and 
 the  populace,  animated  by  his  difcourfes,  eagerly 
 proceeded  to  deftroy  all  the  objects  of  idolatrous 
 worfhip.  The  images,  relics,  and  altars  were  de- 
 stroyed with  ungovernable  fury,  and  the  monafte- 
 ries  were  involved  in  a  fimilar  fate.  The  queen 
 invited  the  nobility  to  join  in  puniftiing  the  infu'r- 
 gents,  and  collected  the  French  troops  to  her  affift- 
 ance. The  proteftants  profefTed  their  defire  to 
 obtain  their  objed  upon  amicable  terms,  but  de- 
 clared their  intention  to  repel  force  by  force.  They 
 were  joined  by  a  confiderable  number,  and  formed 
 a  camp  near  Perth,  After  repeated  negotiations 
 a  treaty  was  figned  between  the  contending  parties, 
 in  which,  amongft  other  articles,  it  was  agreed  oq 
 the  part  of  the  queen,  that  no  perfecutiorts  of  the 
 reformed  party  mould  be  undertaken,  and  that  re- 
 formation mould  be  finally  eftablifhed  in  the  ap- 
 proaching aflfembly  of  the  three  eftates.  The  pro- 
 teftant  party  flrengthened  their  mutual  attachment 
 
 by 
 
c  e  n  t  .  1 6 .  J  Whir d  Covenant,  409. 
 
 by  engaging,  before  their  reparation,  in  a  newaflo* 
 ciation,  which  was  termed  the  Second  Covenant. 
 
 The  troops  of  the  congregation  were  fcarcely  dif- 
 perfed,  before  the  queen  regenr  violated  the  articles 
 of  the  treaty,  and  feized  the  town  of  Perth.  The 
 earl-of  Argyle  and  lord  James  Stuart,  who  had  ne- 
 gotiated the  treaty  under  the  authority  of  the  queen, 
 withdrew  their  allegiance  and  joined  the  Protectant 
 party.  The  minds  of  the  people  were  inflamed 
 ftill  further  by  the  exhortations  of  the  preachers, 
 and  particularly  of  Knox.  Wherever  he  addrelfed 
 the  populace,  they  were  animated  with  extreme 
 fury,  the  monuments  of  idolatry  were  demolifhed, 
 and  the  preacher,  boldly  obtaining  the  poiTefiion 
 of  the  pulpit  of  St.  Andrew's,  exhorted  his  difci- 
 ples  to  aclion  againft  the  enemies  of  the  church  of 
 Chrift  ;  the  churches  were  inftamly  diverted  of 
 their  grandeur,  and  the  monafteries  levelled  with 
 the  ground. 
 
 Each  party  immediately  prepared  for  action  :  but 
 intimidated  by  the  formidable  appearance  of  the 
 congregation  troops  and  the  apprehenfion  of  a 
 mutiny  amongft  the  foldiers,  the  queen  inibucted 
 the  duke  of  Chatelherauk,  who  led  the  Sccttifh 
 foldiers,  to  treat  for  a  peace.  The  congregation, 
 allured  by  the  promifes  of  the  queen,  again  agreed 
 to  a  truce,  and  were  again  deluded.  They  retook 
 Perth,  burned  the  abbey  and  palace  of  Scone,  and 
 ravaged  Stirling. 
 
 The  congregation  next  proceeded  to  Edinburgh, 
 
 whence 
 
4io  Third  Covenant.  [cent.  16. 
 
 whence  the  regent  precipitately  retreated  to  Dun- 
 tar.  After  repeated  negotiations  (he  returned  :  the 
 congregation  then  retreated  in  their  turn,  and  a 
 treaty  was  concluded,  in  which  it  was  ftipiikted,  that 
 her  palace  and  the  instruments  of  coinage  mould 
 be  reftored,  and  that  the  Proteftants  fhould  abftain 
 from  violence,  and  the  regent  agreed  to  liirTer  the 
 free  profeffion  of  the  reformed  religion  amongft  ail 
 her  ^injects,  and  that  no  Scotch  or  French  mer- 
 cenaries fhould  be  Rationed  in  the  town.  Still 
 however,  doubtful  of  the  faith  of  the  regent,  they 
 entered  into  a  (till  clofer  agreement,  which  they 
 denominated  the  Third  Covenant.  Their  union- 
 was  indeed  a  meafure  of  much  importance  :  the 
 mod  pertinacious  obftinacy  was  (hewn  by  the  re- 
 gent to  the  caufe  of  the  Romifh  church-;  and  the 
 appearance  of  a  confiderable  body  ofFrench  troops, 
 which  had  been  fent  by  Francis  and  Mary,who  had 
 afcended  the  French  throne,  to  her  alliftance,  ex- 
 cited a  general  alarm.  The  duke  of  Chatelherauk 
 and  the  earl  of  Arran  his  fon  joined  the  congre- 
 gation. Mutual  manifeftoes  were  circulated,  and 
 the  congregation  again  marched  to  Edinburgh  : 
 the  regent  returned  to  the  protection  of  the  French 
 troops  Rationed  at  Leith,  which  (lie  had  fortified, 
 and  the  nobles  pf  the  reformed  party  expoftulated 
 with  her  upon  this  fortification,  and  her  unconfti- 
 tutlonal  introduction  of  foreign  troops.  The 
 queen  refufed  to  deflroy  the  fortifications,  or  to 
 pifband  the  troops,  and  commanded  the  lords  to 
 
 leave 
 
cent.  1 6.]  Reformers  oh  tain  aid  from  "England.  41 1 
 
 leave  Edinburgh.  This  infult  towards  the  natural 
 counfellors  and  legiflators  of  the  realm  produced 
 an  edict  from  the  nobility,  barons,  and  burgefles, 
 which  removed  the  regent  from  the  adminiilration 
 cf  government. 
 
 The  confederated  nobles  now  attempted  to  enter 
 Leith,  but  were  repulfed  j  and  their  affairs,  from 
 the  intrigues  of  the  queen  dowager,  and  the  want  of 
 money,  fell  into  much  perplexity.  They  befought 
 aid  from  England,  but  the  fum  required  fdl  into 
 the  hands  of  the  queen's  party.  They  were  ha- 
 raffed  by  the  French  troops,  many  fdently  with- 
 drew, others  fled  with  precipitation,  and  theaflb- 
 ciated  nobles  in  a  panic  abandoned  the  capital  and 
 fled  to  Stirling.  They  were  animated  to  hope  by 
 the  exhortations  of  Knox,  and  it  was  determined 
 to  folicit  the  aid  of  Elizabeth  of  England,  who, 
 e&afperated  on  many  accounts  againft  the  court  of 
 France,  promifed  her  affirmance.  The  lords  of  the 
 congregation,  in  order  to  fupport  the  caufe,  fepar- 
 ated  into  different  parts  of  the  kingdom  •,  and  the 
 duke  of  Chatelherault,  who  took  up  his  abode  at 
 Glafgow,  publifhed  a  proclamation  under  the  au- 
 thority that  the  reformed  leaders  were  a  council 
 ailing  for  Francis  and  Mary,  and  commanded  the 
 officers  of  the  crown,  in  the  name  of  the  king  and 
 queen  of  Scots,  to  charge  fach  of  the  clergy  as  had 
 not  joined  the  congregation,  to  appear  before 
 them  to  teflify  their  converfion  from  popery,  un- 
 der pain  of  being  accounted  enemies  to  God,  and 
 
 the 
 
412  Embarajfments  of  the  Queen  Regent,  [cent.  16. 
 the  deprivation  of  their  revenues,  which  were  to  be 
 applied  to  the  fupport  of  the  preachers  of  the  gof- 
 pel.  This  violence  inflamed  the  paffions  of  the 
 popim  party,  and  it  was  followed  by  an  order  for 
 Hopping  the  convention  of  any  eccleiiaftical  courts 
 for  enforcing  the  laws  againfr.  heretics. 
 
 Upon  the  difperfion  of  the  confederated  lords, 
 the  queen  dowager  took  pofleffion  of  Edinburgh, 
 and  reftored.  there  the  fervice  of  the  church  of 
 Rome.  She  folicited  frefh  affiftahce  from  the 
 court  of  France,  and  determined  to  deftroy  the 
 congregation  before  the  arrival  of  the  Englifh  fuc- 
 cours.  Her  firft  attempts  were  fuccefsful,  but  the 
 progrefs  of  her  troops  was  impeded  by  the  intrepi- 
 dity and  fagacity  of  lord  James  Stuart,  though  with 
 a  very  inferior  army.  He  was  at  length'  compelled 
 to  retire  ;  the  French  army  proceeded  to  St.  An- 
 drew's, but  in  the  moment  of  elation  were  fur-r 
 prifed  with  the  arrival  of  the  Englith  troops.  The 
 French  precipitately  retired  to  Leith,  The  queen 
 dowager  was  dill  more  bitterly  difappointed  by  the 
 failure  of  her  expectations  from  France;  her  party 
 dwindled,  and  thofe  of  the  Scottifh  nobles-who  af- 
 fected neutrality  meditated  an  union  with  the  Pro- 
 teftants.  The  Scots  were  called  upon  to  aflemble 
 in  arms,  and  expel  the  French.  The  Englifh 
 troops  joined  the  congregation.  The  queen 
 dowager  in  this  extremity  retired  to  Edinburgh 
 caftle  accompanied  by  a  few  domeftics.  There  fhe 
 received  a  letter  from  the  congregation  expreflive 
 
 of 
 
cent.  1 6.]  Fourth  Covenant.  413 
 
 of  their  refpect,  justifying  their  meafures,  and  re- 
 quiring the  queen  once  more  to  difmifs  the  mer- 
 cenary troops  with  their  officers  and  captains.  The 
 queen  evaded  a  direft  anfwer.  The  congregation 
 proceeded  to  Leith,  and  feveral  fell  on  both  fides 
 without  a  decifive  victory.  The  grand  object  for 
 which  the  congregation  contended  was  brought 
 more  fully  into  the  public  view  by  the  Fourth  Co- 
 venant, which  was  entered  into  by  the  whole  party 
 with  peculiar  folemnity.  They  agreed  to  expel 
 from  the  realm  all  foreigners  as  oppreffors  of  pub- 
 lic liberty,  and  profefled  their  defire  to  live  under 
 due  obedience  to  their  king  and  queen,  and  be 
 ruled  by  the  laws  of  their  country,  and  by  officers 
 born  and  educated  among  them.  The  queen 
 dowager  received  the  intelligence  of  this  affocia- 
 tion  with  extreme  forrow,  which  was  augmented 
 by  the  continual  diftreffes  which  attended  her 
 troops  at  Leith;  and,  wafted  by  grief  and  difeafe, 
 (lie  expired  in  the  caftleof  Edinburgh. 
 
 The  Situation  of  France  required  an  exemption 
 from  foreign  wars,  but  Francis  and  Mary  con- 
 ceived it  derogatory  to  their  dignity  to  treat 
 with  the  congregation,  and  applied  to  Elizabeth 
 to  effect  a  reconciliation  with  the  confederated 
 lords.  The  commiflioners  to  Elizabeth  were  em- 
 powered, conjointly  with  the  commiflioners  of 
 that  queen,  to  hear  and  to  relieve  the  complaints  of 
 the  congregation.  The  congregation,  on  their  part, 
 
 appointed 
 
414  Peace  proclaimed.  [cent,  16, 
 
 appointed  commiffioncrs  to  (late  their  grievances 
 and  fpecify  their  demands.  TheEnglifh  and  French 
 plenipotentiaries  drew  up  a  deed,  in  which  feveral. 
 points  relating  to  civil  liberty  were  gained  to  the 
 people,  and  it.  was  determined  to  eftablifh  a  full 
 act  of  oblivion.  The  fubject  of  the  reformation 
 was  referred  to  the  enluing  meeting  of  parliament. 
 Peace  was  proclaimed,  and  preachers  appointed 
 to  teach  regularly  in  the  principal  towns  of  the 
 kingdom.  .    , 
 
 Upon  the  meeting  of  parliament,  the  proteftarits 
 prefented  their  confeflion  of  faith,  which  was  pub- 
 licly read,  and  the  Romifli  divines  were  com- 
 manded to  ft  ate  their  objections.  None  were  made, 
 and  the  parliament  examined  and  ratified  the  con- 
 feflion which  had  been  prefented.  An  act  againft 
 the  mafs  foon  enfued  ;  the  authority  of  the  pope  was 
 annulled  ;  and  nothing  remainedto  the  proteftant 
 party  but  to  obtain  the  ratification  of  thefe  trans- 
 actions from  Francis  and  Mary.  This  was  how- 
 ever refufed,  but  the  parliament  protected  its  own 
 ads,  and  popery  '  was  completely  deftroyed  in 
 Scotland.  The  death  of  Francis  removed  the  mod 
 formidable  enemy  to  their  meafures,  and  the 
 Scottifh  church  foon  aflumed  a  regular  and  per- 
 manent form. 
 
 The  caufe  of  the  reformation  underwent  in 
 Ireland  the  fame  viciffitudes  and  revolutions,  which 
 had  attended  it  in  England.     When  Henry  VIII. 
 
 after 
 
ctNT  1 6.]       State  of  Religion  in  Ireland.  4.1$ 
 
 after  the  abolition  of  the  papal  authority,  was  de- 
 clared fupreme  head,  upon  earth,  of  the  church  of 
 England,   George   Brown,   a  native  of  England, 
 and  a  monk  of  the  Auguftin  order,  whom  that 
 monarch  had  created,  in  the  year  1535,  archbimop 
 of  Dublin,   began  to  aft  with  the  utmoft  vigour 
 in  confequence  of  this  change  in  the   hierarchy. 
 He  purged  the  churches  of  his  diocefe  from  fuper- 
 ftition  in  all  its  various  forms,  pulled  down  images, 
 deflroyed  relics,  abolifhed  abfurd  and  idolatrous 
 rites,  and,  by  the  influence  as  well  as  authority 
 which  he  poflefTed  in  Ireland,  caufed  the  king's 
 fupremacy  to  be  acknowledged  in   that  nation. 
 Henry  demonftrated  foon  after,  that  this  fupremacy 
 was  not  a  vain  title;   for  he  banimed  the  monks 
 out  of  that  kingdom,   conhTcated  their  revenues, 
 and   deflroyed  their  convents.     In   the   reign  of 
 Edward  YI-  fall  farther  progrefs  was  made  in  the 
 removal  of  popifli   fuperllitions,   by  the  zealous 
 labours  of  archbifhop  Brown,  and  the  aufpicious 
 encouragement   he   granted   to   all  who   exerted 
 themfelves  in  the  caufe  of  the  reformation.     But 
 the  death  of  this  excellent  prince,  and  the  accef- 
 fion  of  his  fifter  to  the  throne,   changed  the  face 
 of  things  in  Ireland,  as  it  had  already  done  in 
 England.      The   reign   of  Elizabeth,    however, 
 gave  a  new  and  deadly  blow  to  popery,  which  was 
 again  recovering  its  force,  and  arming  itfelf  once 
 more  with  the  authority  of  the  throne ;   and  the 
 
 Iriih 
 1 
 
43  6  Reformation  in  Holland.         [cent.' 1 6, 
 
 Irifh  were  obliged  again  to  fubmit  to  the  form  of 
 worlhip  and  difcipline  eftablithed  in  England*. 
 
 The  reformation  had  not  been  long  eftablifhed 
 in  Britain,  when  the  Belgic  provinces,  united  by  a 
 refpe&able  confederacy,  which  ftill  fubfifts,  with- 
 drew from  their  fpirituar  allegiance  to  the  pope. 
 Philip  II.  king  of  Spain,  apprehending  the  danger 
 to  which  the  religion  of  Rome  was  expofed  from 
 that  fpirk  of  liberty  and  independence  which  pre- 
 vailed among  the  inhabitants  of  the  Low  Countries, 
 adopted  the  mod  violent  meafures  to  difpel  if. 
 For  this  purpofe  he  augmented  the  number  of  the 
 bifhops.  enacted  the  molt  fevere  laws  aoainft  all 
 innovations  in  matters  of  religion,  and  erected 
 thatunjuft  and  inhuman  tribunal  of  the  inquifition'. 
 But  his  meafures,  in  this  refpect,  were. as  unfuc- 
 cefsful  as  they  were  abfurd  j  his  furious  and  intem- 
 perate zeal  for  the  fuperftitions  of  Rome  accelerated 
 their  deftru&ion,  and  the  papal  authority,  which 
 had  only  been  in  a  critical  ftate,  was  reduced  to 
 defperation,  by  the  very  fteps  which  were  defigned 
 to  fupport  it.  The  nobility  formed  themfelves 
 into  an  affociation,  in  the  year  1566,  with  a  view 
 to  procure  the  repeal  of  thefe  tyrannical  and  bar- 
 barous edi&s;   but  their  folicitations  and  requefts 
 
 *  See  the  Life  of  Dr.  George  Brown,  archbifhop  of  Dublin, 
 published  at  London  in  4*0.  in  the  year  I681,  and  which  has 
 been  re-printed  in  the  fifth  volume  of  the  Harleian  Mifcellany, 
 No.  lxxix. 
 
 being 
 
cent*  1 6.]      Rife  of  the  Unite  ^Provinces.         417 
 being  treated  with  contempt,  they  refolved  to  ob- 
 tain by  force  what  they  hoped  to  have  gained 
 from  clemency  and  j  uflice.     They  addreffed  them- 
 felves  to  a  free  and  an  opprefled  people,  fpurned 
 his  abufed  authority,  and,  with  an  impetuofity  and 
 vehemence  which  were  perhaps  exceffive,  trampled 
 upon  whatever  was  held  facred  or  refpeclable  by 
 the  church  of  Rome.     To  quell  thefe  tumults,  a 
 powerful  army  was  fent  from  Spain,  under  the 
 command  of  the  duke  of  Alva,  whofe  unprece- 
 dented  and  fanguinary  proceedings  kindled   that 
 long  and  bloody  war  from  which  the  powerful  re- 
 public of  the  United  Provinces  derived  its  origin, 
 confidence,   and   grandeur.      It   was  the  heroic 
 ccnduft  of  William  of  Naflau,  prince  of  Orange, 
 feconded  by  the  affiftance  of  England  and  France, 
 .which  delivered  this  ftate  from  the  Spaniih  yoke; 
 and  no  fooner  was  this  deliverance  obtained,  than 
 the  reformed  religions  as  it  was  profeffed  in  Swit- 
 zerland, was  eftablifhed  in  the  United  Provinces*; 
 and,  at  the  fame  time,  an  univerfal  toleration  was 
 granted  to  thofe  whofe  religious  fentiments  were 
 of  a  different  nature,  whether  they  retained   the 
 faith  of  Rome,  or  embraced  the  reformation  in 
 another  form,  provided  ftill  that  they  made  no  at- 
 tempts againft  the  authority  of  the  government, 
 or  the  tranquillity  of  the  public. 
 
 The  reformation  made  a  considerable  progrefs 
 in  Italy  and  Spain  foon  after  the  rupture  between 
 
 *  In  the  year  157 3. 
 
 Vol.  II.  E  e  Luth 
 
4i3  State  of  Italy.  [cent.  16. 
 
 Luther  and  the  Pope.     In  all  the  provinces  of 
 Italy,    but  more  efpecially  in   the  territories   of 
 Venice,    Tufcany,    and   Naples,  the  religion   of 
 Rome  loft  ground,  and  great  numbers  of  perfons 
 of  all  ranks  and  orders  expreffed  an  averfion  to 
 the  papal  dominion.    Violent  and  dangerous  com- 
 motions were  confequently  excited  in  the  kingdom 
 of  Naples,  in  the  year  1546,  of  which  the  princi- 
 pal authors  were  Bernard  Ochinoand  Peter  Martyr, 
 who,  in  their  public  difcourfes  from  the  pulpit, 
 exhaufted  all  the  force  of  their  eloquence  in  ex- 
 pofing  the  enormity  of  the  reigning  fuperftition. 
 Thefe  tumults  were  appeafed  with' much  difficulty 
 by  the  united  efforts  of  Charles  V.  and  his  viceroy 
 Don  Pedro  di  Toledo*.     In   feveral  places  the 
 popes  put  a  flop  to  the  progrefs  of  the" reformation, 
 by  letting  loofe  the  inquifitors  upon  the  pretended 
 heretics,  who  fpread  the  marks  of  their  ufaal  cru- 
 elty through  the    greater  part  of  Italy.     Thefe 
 formidable  miftiflers  of  fuperftition  put  fa  many 
 to  death,  and  perpetrated,  on  the  friends  of  reli- 
 gious liberty,  fuch  ads  of  oppreflion,  that  mod  of 
 the  reformifls  confulted  their  fafety  by  a  voluntary 
 exile,   while  others  returned  to   the  religion  of 
 Rome,  at  lead  in  external  appearance.     But  the 
 horrors  of  the  inquifition,  which  had  terrified  back 
 into  the  profeflion  of  popery  feveral  proteftants  in 
 
 *  See  Giannone,  Hiftoire  Civile  da    Royaume  de   Naples, 
 torn.  iv.  p.  108.     Vita  Galeacii  in  Mufeo  Helvetia),  torn.  ii. 
 
 p.  524. 
 
 other 
 
t  e  n  t  .  1 6 .  ]  Slate  of  Spain.  4 1 9 
 
 other  parts  of  Italy,  could  not  penetrate  into  the 
 kingdom  of  Naples,  nor  could  either  rhe  authority 
 or  entreaties  of  the  pope  engage  the  Neapolitans 
 to  admit  within  their  territories  either  a  court  of  in- 
 quifition,  or  even  vifiting  inquifitors. 
 
 The  eyes  of  feveral  perfons  in  Spain  were  opened 
 upon  the  truth,  not  only  by  the  fpirit  of  inquiry, 
 which  the  controverfies  between  Luther  and  Rome 
 had  excited  in  Europe,  but  even  by  thofe  very 
 divines  whom  Charles  V.  had  brought  with  him 
 into  Germany,  to  combat  the  pretended  herefy  of 
 the  reformers.  For  thefe  Spaniih  divines  imbibed 
 inftead  of  refuting  this  herefy,  and  propagated 
 it  more  or  lefs,  on  their  return  home,  as  appears 
 evidently  from  feveral  circumftances*.  But  the  in- 
 quifition,  which  could  not  gain  any  footing  in  the 
 kingdom  of  Naples,  reigned  triumphant  in  Spain ; 
 and  by  racks,  gibbets,  and  flakes,  and  other  fuch 
 formidable  inflruments  of  perfuafion,  foon  terrified 
 
 *  This  is  obvious  from  the  unhappy  end  of  all  the  ecclenaicics 
 who  had  attended  Charles  V.  and  followed  him  into  his  retire- 
 ment. No  fooner  was  the  breath  of  this  monarch  extinguished, 
 than  they  were  put  into  the  inquifition,  and  were  afterwards 
 committed  to  the  flames,  or  fent  to  death  in  other  form's  equally 
 terrible.  Such  was  the  fate  of  Auguftin  Cafal,  the  emperor's 
 preacher  ;  of  Conflantine  Pontius,  his  confeflbr  ;  of  the  learned 
 Egedius,  whom  he  had  nominated  to  the  bifhopric  of  Tcrtofa; 
 of  Bartholomew  de  Caranza,  a  Dominican,  who  had  been  .con- 
 feffor  to  king  Philip  and  queen  Mary,  with  above  twenty  more 
 of  lefs  note.  All  this  gave  countanceto  the  fufpicion  that 
 Charles  V.  died  a  proteftant.  See  Burnet's  Hiftory  of  the  Re- 
 formation, and  the  book  cited  in  the  fbllawing  note. 
 
 E  e  2  the 
 
4i 8  State  of  Italy.  [c£ftT.  i$, 
 
 Luther  and  the  Pope.  In  all  the  provinces  of 
 Italy,  but  more  efpecially  in  the  territories  of 
 Venice,  Tufcany,  and  Naples,  the  religion  of 
 Rome  loft  ground,  and  great  numbers  of  perfons 
 of  all  ranks  and  orders  exprefled  an  averfion  to 
 the  papal  dominion.  Violent  and  dangerous  com- 
 motions were  confequently  excited  in  the  kingdom 
 of  Naples,  in  the  year  1546,  of  which  the  princi- 
 pal authors  were  Bernard  Ochino  and  Peter  Martyr, 
 who,  in  their  public  difcourfes  from  the  pulpit, 
 exhausted  all  the  force  of  their  eloquence  in  ex- 
 pofing  the  enormity  of  the  reigning  fu  perflation, 
 Thefe  tumults  were  appeafed  with  much  difficulty 
 by  the  united  efforts  of  Charles  V.  and  his  viceroy 
 Don  Pedro  di  Toledo*.  In  feveral  places  the 
 popes  put  a  flop  to  the  progrefs  of  the  reformation, 
 by  letting  loofethe  inquifitors  upon  the  pretended 
 heretics,  who  fpread  the  marks  of  their  ufbal  cru- 
 elty through  the  greater  part  of  Italy.  Thefe 
 formidable  minifters  of  fuperftition  put  fo  many 
 to  death,  and  perpetrated,  on  the  friends  of  reli- 
 gious liberty,  fuch  acts  of  oppreflion,  that  mod  of 
 the  reformifts  confulted  their  fafety  by  avVoluntary 
 exile,  while  others  returned  to  the  religion  of 
 Rome,  at  leaft  in  external  appearance.  But  the 
 horrors  of  the  inquifition,  which  had  terrified  back 
 into  the  profeflion  of  popery  feveral  proteftants  in 
 
 *  See  Giannone,  Hiftoire  Civile  da  Royaume  de  Naples, 
 torn.  iv.  p.  108.  Vita  Galeacii  in  Mufeo  Helvetia),  torn.  ii. 
 p.  524. 
 
 other 
 
Cent,  i  6.  J  Shite  of  Spain.  419 
 
 other  parts  of  Italy,  could  not  penetrate  into  the 
 kingdom  of  Naples,  nor  could  either  rlie  authority 
 or  entreaties  of  the  pope  engage  the  Neapolitans 
 to  admit  within  their  territories  either  a  court  of  in- 
 quifition,  or  even  vifiting  inquifitors. 
 
 The  eyes  of  feveral  perfons  in  Spain  were  opened 
 upon  the  truth,  not  only  by  the  fpirit  of  inquiry, 
 which  the  controverfies  between  Luther  and  Rome 
 had  excited  in  Europe,  but  even  by  thofe  very 
 divines  whom  Charles  V.  had  brought  with  him 
 into  Germany,  to  combat  the  pretended  herefy  of 
 the  reformers.  For  thefe  Spanilh  divines  imbibed 
 inftead  of  refuting  this  herefy,  and  propagated 
 it  more  or  lefs,  on  their  return  home,  as  appears 
 evidently  from  feveral  circumftances*.  But  the  in* 
 quifition,  which  could  not  gain  any  footing  in  the 
 kingdom  of  Naples,  reigned  triumphant  in  Spain ; 
 and  by  racks,  gibbets,  and  (lakes,  and  oiher  fuch 
 formidable  inftruments  of  perfuafion,  foon  terrified 
 
 *  This  is  obvious  from  the  unhappy  end  of  all  the  ecclefiaCcics 
 who  had  attended  Charles  V.  and  followed  him  into  his  retire- 
 ment. No  fooner  was  the  breath  of  this  monarch  extinguifhed, 
 than  they  were  put  into  the  inquifition,  and  were  afterwards 
 committed  to  the  flames,  or  fent  to  death  in  other  forms  equally 
 terrible.  Such  was  the  fate  of  Auguftin  Cafal,  the  emperor's 
 preacher  ;  of  Conltantine  Pontius,  his  confeffor  ;  of  the  learned 
 Egedius,  whom  he  had  nominated  to  the  bifhopric  of  Tortofa; 
 of  Bartholomew  de  Caranza,  a  Dominican,  who  had  been  cor> 
 feffor  to  king  Philip  and  queen  Mary,  with  above  twenty  more 
 of  lefs  note.  All  this  gave  countanceto  the  fufpicion  th?.t 
 Charles  V.  died  a  protectant.  See  Burnet's  Hiftory  of  the  Re- 
 formation, and  the  book  cited  in  the  following  note. 
 
 E  e  2  the 
 
420  State  of  France.  [cent.  i6» 
 
 the  people  back  into  popery*;  and  that  kingdom 
 flill  deplores  the  gloomy  reign  of  ignorance  and 
 fuperftiuon,  with  the  total  extinction  of  civil  and 
 religious  liberty. 
 
 But  it  was  in  France  that  the  reformed  religion 
 underwent  the  mod  cruel   viciffitudes,    and  felt 
 mofl  feverely  the  arm  of  civil  power.     The  reli- 
 gion of  Francis  I.  if  an  abandoned  profligate  can 
 be  faid  to  poffefs  any  religion,  was  of  the  mofl  bi- 
 goted fpecies ;  and  by  his  zeal  for  the  church,  he 
 perhaps  flattered  himfelf  that  he  could  in  fome  de- 
 gree compenfate  for  the  fhamelefs  immorality  of 
 his  life.     The  flames  of  persecution  were  lighted 
 up,  during  his  unquiet  reign,  through  every  pr,o-. 
 vince  of  France;  and  though  the  zeal  of  the  mon- 
 arch was  fometimes  tempered  by  the  gentle  inter- 
 ference of  his  amiable  fitter  the  queen  of  Navarre, 
 and  the  exigencies  of  the  times,  flill  it  occafionally 
 recurred  with  frefli  vigour,  as  caprice,  or  the  dic- 
 tates of  his  fpiritual  guide  the  cardinal  de  Tournou, 
 directed  ;  and  innumerable  martyrs,  eminent  for 
 virtue  and  learning,  were  daily  expofed  to  tortures 
 and  to  death.  * 
 
 In  the  mountains  of  Languedoc  and  Provence 
 there  flill  exifled  fome  remains  of  the  Vaudois,  or 
 Waldenfes,  the  miferable  remnants  of  the  memor- 
 able cruiade  which  had  been  too  fuccefsfully  ex- 
 cited againfl  them.     Thefe   fimple  and  virtuous 
 
 *  See  Geddes,  his  Spanifh  Martyrology,  in  his  Mifcellaneous 
 Ttadta,  torn.  1.  p.  445. 
 
 people 
 
cent.  1 6 .]         Majfacre  of  the  Waldenjes.  421 
 
 people  had,  in  1532,  formed  a  kind  of  union  with 
 the  reformed  churches  in  Switzerland ;  but  in 
 1545  they  were  felected  as  the  victims  of  fuperfti- 
 tious  fury.  Whole  villages,  particularly  Merin- 
 dol  and  Cabrieres,  were  exterminated  by  the  catho- 
 lics; and  fo  dreadful  was  the  daughter,  that  it  is 
 even  faid  to  have  afflicted  Francis  on  his  death- 
 bed with  the  mod  poignant  remorfe. 
 
 The  fucceflbr  of  Francis,  Henry  II.  while  mo- 
 tives of  policy  induced  him  to  take  arms  in  defence 
 of  the  proteftants  of  Germany,  (till  purfued  in  his 
 own  dominions  the  perfecuting  fyftem  of  his  fa- 
 ther. Notwithstanding  this,  the  progrefs  of  the 
 proteftant  doctrines  was  rapid.  Several  bifhops 
 of  the  Gallican  church  were  flrongly  difpofed  in 
 their  favour;  and  they  were  openly  embraced  by 
 Anthony  of  Bourbon  king  of  Navarre,  Lewis 
 prince  of  Conde  his  brother,  admiral  Coligny, 
 the  duke  de  Rohan,  and  fome  others  of  the  nobi- 
 lity. 
 
 During  the  feeble  minority  of  the  fon  of  Henry, 
 Francis  II.  the  nation  fell  under  the  arbitrary  go- 
 vernment of  two  inflexible  bigots,  the  dukes  of 
 Guife,  uncles  to  the  unfortunate  Mary  queen  of 
 Scots,  who  was  wife  to  Francis  II.  Their  conduct 
 however  proved  fo  oppieffive  and  obnoxious,  that 
 the  famous  league  or  confpiracy  of  Amboife  was 
 formed  by  the  proteftant  nobles  for  the  purpofe  of 
 wrefting  the  power  out  of  the  haads  of  this  arro- 
 gant and  intolerant  family;  but  the  plan  beinp, 
 E  e  3  unfortunatelv 
 
422  Religious  Wars  in  France.      [cent.  16. 
 
 unfortunately  difcovered,  the  leaders  barely  es- 
 caped with  their  lives. 
 
 Charles  IX.  fucceeded  Francis  j  and  during  his 
 reign,  the  jealoufy  of  the  two  parties-,  which  had 
 hitherto  been  retrained  within  moderate  bounds, 
 broke  out  into  a  flame:  The  firft  act  of  violence 
 was  the  mafTacrc  of  fixty  perfons  of  the  reformed 
 church,  at  VafTy  in  Champagne,  during  the  time 
 of  divine  fervice,  by  the  duke  of.  Guife  and  his  ar- 
 my, A  violent  civil  war  enfued,  in  the  courfe  of 
 which  the  duke  of  Guife  loft  his  life  by  the  hands 
 of  an  ailaffin,  and  dying,  advifed  the  queen-mother 
 to  agree  to  the  peace  which  fdon  followed,  and 
 granted  to  the  reformed  the  free  exercife  of  their, 
 religion.  An  ill  compacted  peace  ferved  but  to 
 (mother  for  a  feafon  the  zeal  of  the '  contending 
 parties.  A  feries  of  wars  and  .perfections  fuc- 
 ceeded, which  would  be  tedious  to  detail.  They 
 were  concluded  at  length  by  the  fallacious  treaty 
 of  1570,  which  ferved  only  to  cover  the  diaboli- 
 cal project,  which  Charles  and  the  catholic  party 
 had  formed  for  the  extermination  of  the  new  opi- 
 nions. *'     * 
 
 A  marriage  being  concluded,  in  1572,  between 
 the  young  king  of  Navarre  (afterwards  the  famous 
 Henry  IV.)  and  Margaret,  the  fifter  of  Charles 
 IX.  the  Hugonots  *  were  invited  from  all  parts  of 
 
 the 
 
 *  The  reformed,  or   French  proteflants,  began  to  be  diflin- 
 guifhed  by  this  appellation  about  3561.     The  term  is  derived, 
 
 according 
 
cent.  16.3     Majfacre  of  St.  Bartholomew.         423 
 
 the  kingdom  to  the  celebration  of  the  nuptials. 
 On  the  bloody  feftival  of  St.  Bartholomew,  a  fig- 
 nal  was  given  to  a  party  of  defperate  affaffins, 
 headed  by  the  houfe  of  Guife,  and  they  furioufly 
 attacked  the  Hugonots  in  every  quarter  of  the  city. 
 The  firft  victim  was  the  admiral  Coligny.  The 
 king  of  Navarre  and  the  prince  of  Conde  efcaped 
 with  difficulty  by  a  pretended  abjuration  of  their 
 religion.  The  fame  tragedy  was  acted,  by  fecret 
 orders  from  the  king,  in  all  the  principal  cities  of 
 France,  and  upwards  of  30,000  martyrs  were  fa- 
 crificed  to  fuperftition  and  intolerance  *. 
 
 The  Hugonots,  though  difheartened,  were  not 
 deftFoyed  by  this  unhappy  tranfaction.  They  re- 
 covered their  ftrength  and  their  vigour  before  the 
 fucceecling  campaign,  and  carried  on  the  war  with 
 fuch  fpirit,  that  they  forced  the  bigoted  monarch 
 to  grant  them  terms  (till  more  favourable  than 
 they  had  obtained  by  any  former  treaty.  On  the 
 death  of  Charles  IX.  his  brother  Henry  III.  fuc- 
 ceeded,  and  the  neceffitv  of  his  affairs  obliged  him 
 to  grant  terms  very  favourable  to  the  Hugonots. 
 At  the  inftigation  of  the  pope,  the  catholics  now 
 formed,  in  contempt  of  the  royal  authority,  the 
 
 according  to  fome,  from  a  gate  in  Tours  called  Hugony  where 
 it  is  faid  they  firft  affembled  ;  and  according  to  others,  from  the 
 firft  words  of  their  original  proteft,  or  confeffion  of  faith  —  Hue 
 nos  venimus,  &c. 
 
 *  Du  Pin  paries  over  this  bloody  and  perfidious  bufinefs  in  a 
 few  words,  and  the  manner  in  which  he  treats  it  fhews  a  lauda- 
 ble fhame  in  that  candid  and  generally  accurate  writer. 
 
 E  e  4  celebrated 
 
424  Edit?  of  Navtz.  [cent,  i 6. 
 
 celebrated  afTociation  called  the  League,  the  pro- 
 fefled  object  of  which  was  the  extirpation  of  he- 
 refy.  This  combination,  however,  had  a  further 
 aim,  and  was  in  reality  founded  on  the  ambition 
 of  the  houfe  of  Guife  to  raife  itfelf  to  the  throne 
 of  France.  So  dangerous  a  combination  therefore 
 demanded  fome  exertion  on  the  part  of  the  king  j 
 and  it  is  only  to  be  lamented,  that  he  did  not  op- 
 pofe  it  by  more  justifiable  meafures.  He  caufed 
 the  two  heads  of  the  league,  Henry  duke  of  Guife, 
 and  the  cardinal  his  brother,  to  be  aflaffinated  at 
 the  ftates  of  Blois ;  and  foon  after,  in  1589,  he 
 himfelf  experienced  the  fame  fate-;  as  he  was  ap- 
 proaching to  lay  fiege  to  Paris,  which  was  retained 
 by  the  catholic  party,  he  was  dabbed  in  his  tent' 
 by  an  emiffary  of  the  leaguers. 
 
 The  family  of  Valois  ceafed  in  Henry  III.  and 
 the  right  of  fucceffion  centred  in  Henry  of  Bour- 
 bon, king  of  Navarre,  who  affumed  the  title  of 
 Henry  IV.  The  pbftinacy  of  the  catholic  party, 
 who  fti)l  maintained  the  league,  withheld  this  great 
 ftatefman  and  able  commander  for  upwards  of  four 
 years  from  the  poflemon  of  his  hereditarydignities. 
 Henry  at  length,  however,  made  a  final  facrifice 
 of  conference  to  ambition.  He  publicly  abjured 
 the  reformed  religion  in  1593,  and  by  that  ftep 
 gained  poffeffion  of  the  throne.  By  the  famous 
 edict  of  Nantz,  which  was  termed  a  perpetual  and 
 inviolable  edict,  he  however  fecured  to  his  old 
 friends,  the  Hugonots,  the  undifturbed  exercife 
 
cent.  1 6.]       DiviJionsamongProteJiants.  425 
 
 of  their  religion,  and  perfect  liberty  of  confcience. 
 And  thus  ended  thefe  religious  disturbances, 
 which  had  divided  the  kingdom  of  France  for  a 
 confiderable  part  of  the  Sixteenth  century*. 
 
 Though  the  great  body  of  protectants  proceeded 
 with  unanimity  in  the  principal  objed  of  abolifhing 
 the  fuperftition  and  tyranny  of  the  church  of  Rome, 
 there  did  not  exift  among  them  that  perfect  har- 
 mony and  confiftence  with  refpect  to  doctrinal 
 points,  which  might  be  expected  from  perfons  ac- 
 tuated by  the  love  of  truth,  and  proferling  to  de- 
 live  their  information  from  the  fame  fource.  Be- 
 tween the  fathers  of  the  reformation,  Luther  and 
 Zuinglius,  there  exifted  almoft  from  the  fir  ft  a 
 confiderable  difference  of  fentiment,  concerning 
 the  nature  of  the  holy  facrament.  Luther  rejected 
 the  popifh  doctrine  of  tranfubftantiation  ;  but  un- 
 fortunately, not  able  to  free  himfelf  at  once  from 
 all  the  fetters  of  prejudice,  inftead  of  wholly  dis- 
 carding theabfurdity,  he  attempted  to  new-model 
 it.  Though  he  rejected  the  opinion  of  the  entire 
 change  of  the  elements  by  confecration,  he  held 
 neVerthelefs  that  the  body  and  blood  of  Chrift  are 
 (till  materially  prefent  in  the  confecrated  elements ; 
 and  this  union  of  the  body  and  blood  of  Chrift 
 with  the  bread  and  wine  is  by  the  Lutheran 
 church  exprefled  by  the  intermediate  term  confub- 
 itantiation.  Carloftadius,  who  was  originally  the 
 coadjutor  of  Ludier  in  the  univerfity  of  Wittem- 
 
 *  Formey,  Cent,  xvi.  Art.  5. 
 
 berg, 
 
426  Lutherans  and  Cahinifts.         [cent.  16. 
 
 berg,  and  Zuinglius  the  celebrated  Svvifs  reformer, 
 began  their  million  under  more  favourable  circum- 
 ftances  than  Luther,  and  they  adopted  a'fyftem, 
 which  in  their  opinion  was  more  confident  both 
 with  fcripture  and  reafon.  They  confidered  the 
 confecrated  elements  merely  as  figures  or  fymbols 
 of  the  abfent  body  of  Chrift,  and  regarded  the 
 rite  itfelf  as  intended  chiefly  to  preferve  in  our 
 minds  a  pious  remembrance  of  the  fuiferings  of 
 Chrift,  and  a  fenfe  of  our  obligations  to  fulfil  the 
 gofpel  covenant*  A  real  though  fpiritual  pre- 
 fence  was  acknowledged  by  Calvin,  and  his  doc- 
 trine, by  his  perfeverance  and  induftry,  feems  at 
 length  to  have  "triumphed  over  every  other  in  moil: 
 of  the  reformed  churches. 
 
 Other  difputes  arofe  between  the  followers  of 
 Luther  and  Calvin,  concerning  the  nature  of  the 
 divine  decrees  refpe&ing  man's  falvation.  The 
 latter,  it  is  well  known,  maintain  with  the  utmoft 
 rigour  the  doctrines  of  election  and  predeftination. 
 
 The  point  however,  which  proved  the  mod  ef- 
 fential  in  preventing  a  union  between  the  parties, 
 was  the  form  of  church  government.  .  The  Lu- 
 therans admitted  what  they  efteemed  an  apcfftolical 
 ordinance,  namely,  a  diverfity  in  rank  and  prece- 
 dence among  the  clergy  :  the  Calvinifts,  more  ad- 
 dicted to  ecclefiaftical  republicanifm,  preferred 
 that  form  of  government  which  is  termed  prefby- 
 terian.  They  alTerted  that  no  order  was  inftituted 
 by  Chrift,  fuperior  to  that  of  prefbyter  or  paftor. 
 
 Each 
 
gent.  1 6.]  Church  cf  England,  417 
 
 Each  church  is  therefore  under  the  care  of  a  mi- 
 nifter  or  ministers,  and  ruling  elders,  chofen  from 
 among  the  congregation,  fubjecl:  to  whom  a  dea- 
 con is  elected  for  the  purpofe  of  administering  to 
 the  poor.  An  affembly  of  the  prefbyters  and  el- 
 ders is  called  a  fynod,  and  thefe  are  provincial, 
 national,  or  oecumenical. 
 
 The  church  of  England  differs  in  fome  refpects 
 both  from  the  Lutheran  and  Calviniftic  tenets,  as 
 may  eafily  be  feen  from  a  view  of  the  thirty-nine 
 articles,  which  are  in  the  hands  of  almoft  every 
 reader. 
 
 CHAP. 
 
[    423     j 
 
 CHAP.     VI, 
 
 OF  THE  OTHER  SECTS  WHICH  APPEARED  IN   THE 
 SIXTEENTH   CENTURY. 
 
 Caufes  for  Variety  of  Opinion  among  the  Reformers — Anabap- 
 ti/iSy  or  Mennonites — Antinomians— Unitarians — Serve- 
 tus — Socinians — Budneians — Farvonians — Stancarians— 
 Zuinglians  —  Schwenkfeldtians  — Brownifis — I/luminati-— 
 Familifls — Amfdorfians — Ofandrians — Molir.ifls — Syner- 
 
 IN  the  dark  catalogue  of  herefies  recorded  by » 
 hiftorians  of  the  Romim  communion,  the  opi- 
 nions of  Luther,  Calvin  and  Zuinglius-  maintain 
 a  diftinguifhed  luuation.  Connected  as  they  were 
 with  political  events,  they  have  already  been  fuffi- 
 ciently  difcufled.  During  the  ardour  cf  fpeculation 
 which  thefe  religious  contefts  occafioned,  it  would 
 have  been  extraordinary,  if,  confidering  the  differ- 
 ent interefls,  views,  prejudices,  and  paffions,  by 
 which  mankind  are  ufually  actuated,  a  rijei fe<5t 
 uniformity  in  point  of  doctrine  and  difcipline  had 
 pervaded  all  who  were  deilrous  of  being  emanci- 
 pated from  the  yoke  of  Rome.  In  the  courfe  of 
 this  century  the  Scriptures  were  translated  into  al- 
 moft  all  the  different  languages  of  Europe.  They 
 would  neceiTarily  be  read  by  men  of  different  tem- 
 pers, 
 
«eKt.  16.]  Anabaptijts.  429 
 
 pers,  and  of  different  attainments;  and  confequently 
 (without  even  calling  in  the  aid  of  that  principle 
 which  impels  mankind  to  render  themfelves  emi- 
 nent or  diftinguifhed)  there  are  many  motives 
 which  mio-ht  create  a  difference  of  fentiment  in 
 the  moft  impartial  inquirers.  Religious  opinions, 
 however  diflant  from  our  own,  are  always  objects 
 of  refpect  and  veneration.  It  is  not  therefore 
 with  a  defign  of  calling  a  reflection  upon  the  au- 
 thors or  profeffors  of  thefe  opinions,  but  for  the 
 fake  of  order  and  perfpicuity,  that  a  diftin&ion  is 
 obferved  in  this  hiflory  between  thofe  doctrines 
 which  became  the  eftablifhed  religion  of  different 
 countries,  and  thofe  which  are  profelfed  only  by 
 fmall  or  fubordinate  focieties,  and  that  thefe  fo- 
 cieties  are  denominated  Se£tsf  or  diffenters  from 
 the  eftablifhed  creed. 
 
 It  was  obferved  that,  in  a  very  early  period  of 
 the  reformation,  certain  of  the  difciples  of  Lu- 
 ther, and  particularly  one  of  thejiame  of  Muncer, 
 adopted  opinions  in  fome  inftances  apparently  re- 
 plete with  enthufiafm,  and  on  fome  occafions 
 proceeded  to  the  difturbance  of  the  public  tran- 
 quillity. From  thefe  violent  reformers  proceeded 
 the  formidable  fed  of  the  Anabaptifts.  They 
 fir  ft  made  their  appearance  in  the  provinces  of 
 Upper  Germany,  where  the  fe verity  of  the  ma- 
 gistrates kept  them  under  controul.  But  in  the 
 Netherlands  and  Weftphalia,  where  the  tendency 
 of  their  opinions  was  more  unknown,  and  guard- 
 ed 
 
4  %  ©  Tenets  of  the  Anabaptifts.        [  c  e  n  t .  i  6 < 
 
 cd  againft  with  lefs  care,  they  obtained  admittance 
 into  feveral  towns,  and  fpread  the  contagion  of 
 their  principles.  The  moft  remarkable  of  their 
 religious  tenets  related  to  the  facrament  of  baptifm, 
 which,  as  they  contended,  ought  to  be  adminifter- 
 ed  only  to  perfons  grown  up  to  years  of  under* 
 {landing,  and  fhould  be  performed  not  by  fprink- 
 ling  them  with  water,  but  by  dipping  them  in  it  : 
 for  this  reafon  they  condemned  the  baptifm  of 
 infants ;  and  rebaptizing  all  whom  they  admitted 
 into  their  fociety,  the  fed  came  to  be  diftinguiftied 
 by  the  name  of  anabaptifts.  To  this  peculiar 
 notion  concerning  baptifm,  which  has  the  appear- 
 ance of  being  founded  oh  the  practice  of  the 
 church  in  the  apoftolic  age,  and  contains  nothing 
 incontinent  with  the  peace  and  order  of  human 
 fociety,  they  added  other  principles^of  a  mod  en: 
 thufiaftic  as  well  as  dangerous  nature.  They 
 maintained  that,  among  Chriftians  who  had  the 
 precepts  of  the  gofpel  to  direcl,  and  the  fpirit  of 
 God  to  guide  them,  the  office  of  magiftracy  was 
 not  only  unnecefiary,  but  an  unlawful  encroach- 
 ment on  their  fpiritual  liberty;  that  the  diftinc- 
 tions  occafioned  by  birth,  or  rank,  or  wealth,  be- 
 ing contrary  to  the  fpirit  of  the  gofpel  which 
 confiders  all  men  as  equal,  fhould  be  entirely  abo- 
 lished ;  that  all  Chriftians,  throwing  their  poflef- 
 fions  into  one  common  (lock,  Ihould  live  together 
 in  that  ftate  of  equality  which  becomes  members 
 of  the  fame  family  -,  that  as  neither  the  laws1  of 
 «  nature, 
 
cent.  1 6.]  Matthias  and  Bo c cold.  431 
 
 nature,  nor  the  precepts  of  the  New  Teftament, 
 had  impofed  any  restraints  upon  men  with  regard 
 to  the  number  of  wives  which  they  might  marry, 
 they  ihould  ufe  that  liberty  which  God  himfelf 
 had  granted  to  the  patriarchs. 
 
 Such  opinions,  propagated  and  maintained  with 
 enthufiaftic  zeal  and  boldnefs,  were  not  long  with- 
 out producing  the  violent  effects  natural  to  them. 
 Two  anabaptift  prophets,  John  Matthias,  a  baker 
 of  Haerlem,  and  John  Boccold,  or  Beiikels,  a 
 journeyman  taylor  of  Leyden,  poffeffed  with  the 
 rage  of  making  profelytes,  fixed  their  refidence  at 
 Munfter,  an  imperial  city  of  Weftphalia,  of  the 
 firft  rank,  under  the  Sovereignty  of  its  bilhep,  but 
 governed  by  its  own  fenate  and  confuls.  As  nei- 
 ther of  theie  fanatics  wanted  the  talents  requifite 
 in  defperate  enterprifes,  great  refolution,  the  ap- 
 pearance of  fan&ity,  bold  pretenfions  to  infplra- 
 tion,  and  a  confident  and  plaufible  manner  of  dif- 
 couriing,  they  foon  gained  many  converts.  A  mong 
 thefe  were  Rothman,  who  had  firft  preached  the 
 proteftant  doctrine  in  Munfter,  and  Knipper- 
 doling,  a  citizen  of  good  birth  and  confiderable 
 eminence.  Emboldened  by  the  countenance  of 
 fuch  difciples,  they  openly  taught  their  opinions.; 
 and  not  fatisfied  with  thac  liberty,  they  made  fe- 
 veral  attempts,  though  without  fuccefs,  to  be- 
 come matters  of  the  town,  in  order  to  get  their 
 tenets  eftablifhed  by  public  authority.  At  lad, 
 having  iecretly  called  in  their  aflbciates  from  the 
 
 neigh- 
 
432   Anabaptifts  Saze  City  of  Mtwfter.  [cent.  i6, 
 
 neighbouring  country,  ihey  fuddenly  took  poffef- 
 fion  of  the  arfenal  and  fenate-houfe  in  the  night, 
 and  running  through  theftreets  with  drawn  (words, 
 and  horrible  howlings, cried  out  alternately,"  Re- 
 pent, and  be  baptized,"  and    "  Depart,   ye  un- 
 godly."    The  fenators,  the  canons,  the  nobility, 
 together  with  the  more  fober  citizens,   whether 
 Papifts  or  Proteftants,   terrified  at   their  threats 
 and  outcries,  fled  in  confufion,   and   left  the  cky 
 under  the  dominion  of  a  frantic  multitude,  con- 
 fiding chiefly  of  ftrangers.     Nothing  now  remain- 
 ing to  overawe  or  controul  them,  they'fet  about 
 modelling  the  government  according  to  their  own 
 wild  ideas;  and   though  at  firfl  they  fhewed   fo 
 much  reverence  for  the  ancient  conftitution,  as  to 
 elect  fenators  of  their  own  feet,  and  to  appoint 
 Knipperdoling  and  another  profelyte  confuls,  this 
 was  nothing  more  than  form ;  for  all  their  pro- 
 ceedings were  directed  by  Matthias,  who,  in  the 
 ftyle,  and  with  the.authority  of  a  prophet,  uttered 
 his  commands,  which  it  was  inftant  death  to  dif- 
 obey.     Having  begun  with  encouraging  the  mul- 
 titude to  pillage  the  churches,    and  defacev  their 
 ornaments,  he  enjoined  them  to  deftroy  all  books 
 except  the  Bible,  as  ufelefsor  impious ;  he  ordered 
 the  eftates  of  fuch   as  fled  to  be  confifcated,  and 
 fold  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  adjacent   country ; 
 he  commanded  every  man  to  bring  forth  his  gold, 
 filver,  and  other  precious  effects,  and  to  lay  them 
 at  his  feet :  the  wealth  amaffed   by  thefe   meens, 
 7  he 
 
cent.  1 6 .  ]  New  Form  of  Governments         433 
 
 he  depofited  in  a  public  treafury;  and  named  dea- 
 cons to  difpenfe  it  for  the  common   ufe  of  all* 
 The  members  of  this  commonwealth  being  thus 
 brought  to  a  perfect  equality,  he  commanded  all 
 of  them  to  eat  at  tables   prepared  in  public,  and 
 even  prefcribed  the  dimes  which  were  to  be  ferved 
 up  each  day.     Having  finimed  his  plan  of  refor- 
 mation, his  next  care  was  to  provide  for  the  de- 
 fence of  the  city  ;  and  he  took  meafures  for  that 
 purpofe  with  a  prudence  which  betrayed  nothing 
 of  fanaticifm.     He  collected   large   magazines   of 
 every  kind  ;  he  repaired  and  extended  the  fortifi- 
 cations, obliging  every  perfon  without  diftinclion 
 to  work  in  his  turn ;  he  formed  fuch  as  were   ca- 
 pable  of  bearing  arms  into  regular  bodies,   and 
 endeavoured  to  add  the  (lability  of  difcipline  to  the 
 impetuofity  of  enthufiafm.     He  fent  emiflaries  to 
 the   Anabaptifts  in   the  Low  Countries,  inviting 
 them  to  aflemble  at  Munfter,  which  he  dignified 
 with  the   name  of  Mount-Sion,  that  they  might 
 fet  out  to  reduce  all  the  nations  of  the  earth  under 
 their  dominion.     Hehimfelfwas  unwearied  in  at- 
 tending to  every  thing  neceffary  for  the  fecunty  or 
 increafeof  the  fed  •  animating  his  difciples  by  his 
 own  example  to  decline  no  labour,   as   well  as  to 
 fubmit  to  every  hardlhip  ;  and  their  enthufiaftic 
 paflions  being  kept  from  fubfiding  by  a  perpetual 
 fucceffion  of  exhortations,  revelations,  and   pro- 
 phecies, they  feemed  ready  to  undertake  or  to  fulfer 
 any  thing  in  maintenance  of  their  opinions 
 
 Vol.11.  Ff  Whi!e 
 
43  4         W%d  Enter prije  of  Matthias.      [ c  e  n  t  :  i  6" :. 
 While  they  were  thus  employed,  the  bilhop  of 
 Munfter,  having  affembled  a  confiderable  army, 
 advanced  to  befiege  the  town.     On  his  approach, 
 Matthias  Tallied  out  at  the  head  of  fome  chofen 
 troops,  attacked  one  quarter  of  his  camp,  forced 
 it,  and  after  great  daughter  returned  to  the  city 
 loaded  with  glory  and  with  fpoil.  Intoxicated  with 
 this  fuccefs,  he  appeared  next  day  brandifhing  a 
 fpear,  and  declared,  that,  irr  imitation  of  Gideon, 
 he  would  go  forth  with   a  handful  ,of  men,  and 
 fmite  the  hoft  of  the  ungodly.     Thirty  perfons, 
 whom  he  named,  followed  him  without  hefitation 
 in  this  wild  enterprife,    and,  rufhing  on  the  ene- 
 my with  a  frantic  courage,  were  cut  off  to  a  man. 
 The  death  of  their  prophet  occafioned  at  fir  ft  great 
 confternation  among  his  difciples ;  but  Boccold, 
 by   the   fame   gifts   and    pretenfions   which   had 
 gained  Matthias  credit,  foon  revived  their  fpirits 
 and  hopes  to  fuch  a  degree,  that  he  fucceeded  the 
 deceafed  prophet  in  the  fame  abfolute  direction  of 
 all  their  affairs.     As  he  did  not  poffefs  that  enter- 
 prifing  courage  which  diftinguiihed  his  predecef- 
 for,  hefatisfied  himfelfwith  carrying  on  a  de-fenfive 
 war;  and  without  attempting  to  annoy  the  ene- 
 my by  fallies,  he  waited  for  the  fuecours  he  ex- 
 pected from  the  Low  Countries,  the.  arrival  of 
 which  was  often   foretold  and  promifed  by  their 
 prophets.     But  though  lefs  daring  in  action  than 
 Matthias,  he  was  a  wilder  enthufiaft,  and  of  more 
 unbounded  ambition.     Soon  after  the  death -of  his 
 
 pre- 
 
CENT.  1 6 .  ]  Boccold  the  Tailor  made  King.  43  3 
 predecefTor,  having,  by  obfcure  virions  and  pro- 
 phecies, prepared  the  multitude  for  fome  extraor- 
 dinary event,  he  dripped  himfelf  naked,  and  march- 
 ing through  the  itreets,  proclaimed  with  a  loud 
 voice,  "  That  the  kingdom  of  Sion  was  at  hand  ; 
 that  whatever  was  highed  on  earth  (hould  be 
 brought  low,  and  whatever  was  lowed  mould  be 
 exalted."  In  order  to  fulfil  this,  he  commanded 
 the  churches,  as  the  mod  lofty  buildings  in  the 
 city,  to  be  levelled  with  the  ground  ;  he  degraded 
 the  ienators  chofen  by  Matthias,  and  depriving 
 Knipperdoling  of  the  confulfhip,  the  higheft  office 
 in  the  commonwealth,  appointed  him  to  execute 
 the  lowed  and  mod  infamous,  that  of  common 
 hangman,  to  which  drange  tranfition  the  other 
 agreed,  not  only  without  murmuring,  but  with 
 the  utmoft  joy  ;  and  fuch  was  the  defpotic  rigour 
 of  Boccold's  adminidration,  that  he  was  called 
 almod  every  day  to  perform  fome  duty  or  other  of 
 his  wretched  function.  In  place  of  the  depofed 
 fenators,  he  named  twelve  judges,  according  to 
 the  number  of  tribes  in  Ifrael,  to  prefide  in  all 
 affairs ;  retaining  to  himfelf  the  fame  authority, 
 which  Mofes  anciently  poffeffed  as  legislator  of 
 that  people. 
 
 Not  fatisfied,  however,  with  power  or  titles 
 which  were  not  fupreme,  a  prophet,  whom  he  had 
 gainedand  tutored,  having  called  the  multitude  to- 
 gether, declared  it  to  be  the  will  of  God,  that  John 
 Boccold  ftiould  be  king  of  Sion,  and  fit  on  the 
 
 F  f  2,  throne 
 
436  Polygamy  recommended.         [cent.  1 6, 
 
 throne  of  David.  John,  kneeling  down,  ac- 
 cepted of  the  heavenly  call,  which  he  folemnly 
 protected  had  been  revealed  likcvvife  to  himfelf, 
 and  was  immediately  acknowledged  as  monarch 
 by  the  deluded  multitude.  From  that  moment 
 heafTumed  all  the  ftate  and  pomp  of  royalty.  He 
 wore  a  crown  of  gold,  and  was  clad  in  the  richeft 
 and  molt  fumptuous  garments.  A  bible  was  car- 
 ried on  his  one  hand,  a  naked  fword  on  the  other. 
 A  great  body  of  guards  accompanied  him  when 
 he  appeared  in  public.  He  coined  money  (lamp- 
 ed with  his  own  image,  and  appointed  the  great  of- 
 ficers of  his  houfehold  and  kingdom,  among  whom 
 Knipperdoling  was  nominated  governor  of  the  city, 
 as  a  reward  for  his  former  fubmiflion. 
 
 Having  now  attained  the  height  of  power,  Boc- 
 cold  began  to  difcover  paflions,  which  he  had  hi- 
 therto reftrained,  or  indulged  only  in  fecret.  As 
 the  excefTes  of  enthufiafm  have  been  obferved  in 
 every  age  to  lead. to  fenfual  gratifications,  the  fame 
 conllitution  that  is  fufceptible  of  the  former  being 
 remarkably  prone  to  the  latter,  he  inftrucled  the 
 prophets  and  teachers  to  harangue  the  people  for 
 ieveral  days,  concerning  the  lawfulnefs  and  even 
 necefiity  of  taking  more  wives  than  one,  which 
 they  afTerted  to  be  one  of  the  privileges'  granted 
 by  God  to  the  faints.  When  their  ears  were  once 
 accuftomed  to  this  licentious  doctrine,  and.  their 
 pafiions  inflamed  with  the  profpecl  of  fuch  un- 
 bounded indulgence,  he  himfelf  fet  them  an  ex- 
 7  ample 
 
cent.  1 6.]  Boccold  marries  fourteen  Wives,  437 
 ample  of  ufing  what  he  called  their  Chriftian  li- 
 berty, by  marrying  at  once  three  wives,  amoncr 
 whom  the  widow  of  Matthias,  a  woman  of  Angu- 
 lar beauty,  was  one.  As  he  was  allured  by  beau- 
 ty, or  the  love  of  variety,  he  gradually  added  to 
 the  number  of  his  wives,  until  they  amounted  to 
 fourteen,  though  the  widow  of  Matthias  was  the 
 only  one  dignified  with  the  tide  of  queen,  or  who 
 fhared  with  him  the  fplendour  and  ornaments  of 
 royalty.  After  the  example  of  their  prophet,  the 
 multitude  gave  themfelves  up  to  the  molt  Ijcen-. 
 tious  and  uncontrouled  gratification  of  their  de- 
 fires.  No  man  remained  fatisfied  with  a  finale  wife 
 Not  to  ufe  their  Chriftian  liberty,  was  deemed  a 
 crime.  Perfons  were  appointed  to  fearch  the 
 houfes  for  young  women  grown  up  to  maturity, 
 whom  they  inftantly  compelled  to  marry.  To- 
 gether with  polygamy,  freedom  of  divorce,  its  in- 
 feparable  attendant,  was  introduced,  and  became  a 
 new  fource  of  corruption.  Every  cxcefswas  com- 
 mitted, of  which  the  paffions  of  men  are  capable, 
 when  reftrained  neither  by  the  authority  of  laws 
 nor  the  fenfe  of  decency  ;  and  by  a  monftrous  and 
 almoft  incredible  conjundion,  voluptuoufnefs  was 
 engrafted  on  religion,  and  diflblute  riot  accom- 
 panied the  aufterities  of  fanatical  devotion. 
 
 Meanwhile  the  German  princes  were  highly  of- 
 fended at  the  infult  offered  to  their  dignity  by 
 Boccold's  prefumptuous  ufurpation  of  royal  ho- 
 nours ;  and  the  profligate  manners  of  his  followers, 
 
 F  *  3  which 
 
43$  '  War  againfitbe  Anahapiifts.  [cent.  16. 
 which  were  a  reproach  to  the  Chriftian  name, 
 filled  men  of  all  profeffions  with  horror.  Luther, 
 who  had  teftified  againft  this  fanatical  fpirit  on  its 
 firfl  appearance,  now  deeply  lamented  its  pro- 
 grefs,  and  having  expofed  the  delufion  with  great 
 ftrength  of  argument,  as  well  as  acrimony  of 
 ityle,  called  loudly  on  all  the  dates  of  Germany 
 to  put  a  flop  to  a  phrenfy  no  lefs  pernicious  to  fo- 
 ciety,  than  fatal  to  religion.  The  emperor,  oc- 
 cupied with  other  cares  and  projects,  had  not 
 leifure  to  attend  to  fuch  a  diftant  object ;  but  the 
 princes  of  the  empire,  aflembled  by  the  king  of 
 the  Romans,,  voted  a  fupply  of  men  and  monej 
 to  the  bifhop  of  Munfter,  who,  being  unable  t^o  . 
 keep  a  fufficient  army  on  foot,  had  converted  the 
 fiege  of  the  town  into  a  blockade.  •  The  forces 
 raifed  in  confequence  of  this  refolution  were  put 
 under  the  command  of  an  officer  of  experience, 
 who  approaching  the  town  towards  the  end  of 
 fpring,  in  the  year  one  thoufand  five  hundred 
 and  thirty- five,  preffed  it  more  clofely  than  for- 
 merly ;  but  found  the  fortifications  fo  ftrong,  and 
 fo  diligently  guarded,  that  he  durft  not  attempt  an 
 affault.  It  was  now  above  fifteen  months  fince 
 the  Anabaptifts  had  eftabliflied  their  dominion  in 
 Munfter ;  they  had  during  that  time  undergone 
 prodigious  fatigue  in  working  on  the  fortifications, 
 and  performing  military  duty.  Notwithstanding 
 the  prudent  attention  of  their  king  to  provide  for 
 ;heir  fubfiftence,  and  his  frugal  as  well  as  regular 
 
 ceconomy 
 
cent.  1 6 .  ]  Siege  of  Munjler.  43  9 
 
 ceconomy  in  their  public  meals,  they  began  to  feel  - 
 the  approach  of  famine.     Several  fmall  bodies  of 
 their  brethren,   who   were  advancing  to  their  af- 
 fiftance  from  the  Low  Countries,  had  been  inter- 
 cepted and  cut  to  pieces ;  and,  while  all  Germany 
 was  ready  to  combine  againft  them,  they  had  no 
 profpecl:  of  fuccour.     But  fuch  was  the  afcendancy 
 which   Boccold  had  acquired  over  the  multitude, 
 and  fo  powerful  the  fafcination  of  enthufiafm,  that 
 their  hopes  were  as  fanguine  as  ever,  and  they 
 hearkened    with  implicit  credulity  to  "the  virions 
 and  predictions  of  their  prophets,    who    affured 
 them,  that  the  Almighty  would  fpeedily  interpofe, 
 in  order  to  deliver  the  city.     The  faith,  however, 
 of  fome  few,  fhaken  by  the  violence  and  length  of 
 their  fufferings,  began  to  fail ;  but  being  fufpected 
 of  an  inclination  to  furrender  to  the  enemy,  they 
 were  punifhed  with  immediate  death,  as  guilty  of 
 impiety  in   diftrufting  the  power  of  God,     One 
 of  the  king's  wives  having-   uttered  certain  words 
 
 <_>  to 
 
 which  implied  fome  doubt  concerning  his  divine 
 million,  he  inftantly  called  the  whole  number  to- 
 gether, and  commanding  the  blafphemer,  as  he 
 called  her,  to  kneel  down,  cut  off  her  head  with 
 his  own  hands ;  and  fo  far  were  the  reft  from  ex- 
 preffing  any  horror  at  this  cruel  deed,  that  they 
 joined  him  in  dancing  with  a  frantic  joy  around 
 the  bleeding  body  of  their  companion. 
 
 By  this   time  the  befieged  endured  the  utmoft 
 rigour  of  famine;  but  they  chofe  rather  to  fuffer 
 
 F  f  4      -  hardihipsj 
 
44-0  "Death  of  BoccoU.  [cent.  1 6, 
 
 hardships,  the  recital  of  which  is  (hocking  to  hu- 
 manity,  than  to  liften  to  the  terms  of  capitulation 
 offered  them  by  the  bilhop.  At  laft,  a  deferter, 
 whom  they  had  taken  into  their  fervice,  being  ei- 
 ther lefs  intoxicated  with  the  fumes  of  enthufiafm, 
 or  unable  any  longer  to  bear  fuch  diftrefs,  made  his 
 efcape  to  the  enemy.  He  informed  their  general 
 of  a  weak  part  in  the  fortifications  which  he  had  ob- 
 ferved,  and  alluring  him  that  the  befieged,  exhauft- 
 ed  with  hunger  and  fatigue,  kept,  watch  there 
 with  little  care,  he  offered  to  lead  a  party  thither 
 Jn  the  night.  The  propofal  was  accepted,  and  a 
 chofen  body  of  troops  appointed,  for  the  fervice  ; 
 who,  fcaling  the  walls  unperceived,  feized  one  of 
 the  gates,  and  admitted  the  reft  of  the  army'. 
 The  Anabaptiils,  though  furprifed,  defended  thenir 
 felves  in  the  market  place  with  valour,  heightened 
 bydefpain  but  being  overpowered  by  numbers, 
 and  furrounded  on  every  hand,  mod  of  them  were 
 ilain,  and  the  remainder  taken  prifoners.  Among 
 the  laftwere  the  king  and  Knipperdoling.  The 
 king,  loaded  with  chains,  was  carried  from  city  to 
 city  as  a  fpectacle  to  gratify  the  curio.fity^of  the 
 people,  and  was  expofed  to  all  their  infults.'  His 
 fpirit,  however,  was  not  broken  or  humbled  by 
 this  fad  revet  fe  of  his  condition;  and  he  adhered 
 with  umbaken  firmnefs  to  the  diftinguifhing  tenets 
 of  his  feci.  After  this,  he  was  brought  back  to 
 Munfter,  the  fcene  of  his  royalty  and  crimes,  and 
 put  to  death  with   the  moll  exquiiite  as  weli  as 
 
 lingering 
 
cent.  1 6.]  Modern  Anabaptifis.  441 
 
 lingering  tortures,  all  which  he  bore  with  aftonifli- 
 ing  fortitude.  This  extraordinary  man,  who  had 
 been  able  to  acquire  fuch  amazing  dominion  over 
 the  minds  of  his  followers,  and  to  excite  *  commo- 
 tions fo  dangerous  to  fociety,  was  only  twenty-fix 
 years  of  age. 
 
 Together  with  its  monarch,  the  kingdom  of 
 the  Anabaptifls  came  to  an  end.  Their  principles 
 having  taken  deep  root  in  the  Low  Countries,  the 
 party  ftill  fubfifts  there  under  the  name  of  Menno- 
 nites-f-;  but  by  a  very  lingular  revolution,  this  feci, 
 fo  mutinous  and  fanguinary  at  ics  origin,  has  be- 
 come altogether  innocent  and  pacific.  Holding  it 
 unlawful  to  wage  war,  or  to  accept  of  civil  offices, 
 they  devote  themfelves  entirely  to  the  duties  of 
 private  citizens,  and  by  their  induftry  and  charity 
 endeavour  to  make  reparation  to  human  fociety 
 for  the  violence  committed  by  their  founders .[;.  A 
 fmall  number  of  this  feet,  which  is  fettled  in  Eng- 
 land, retain  its  peculiar  tenets  concerning  bap- 
 tifm,  but  without  any  dangerous  mixture  of  en- 
 thufiafm. 
 
 *  Skid.  190,  &c.  Tumultuum  Anabaptiflarum  Liber  unus. 
 Ant,  Lamberto  Hortenfio  auclore  ap.  Scardium,  vol.  ii.  p.  298, 
 &c.  De  Miferabili  Monaflerienfium  Obfidione,  &c.  Libellus 
 Antonii  Corvini  ap.  Scar.  313.  Annales  Anabaptiftici,  a  Joh. 
 Henrico  Ottio,  4to.  Bafileae,  167  2.  Cor.  Heerlbachius  Hift. 
 Anab.  edit.  1637,  p.  14O. 
 
 ■j-   From  Mennon  Simonis,a  teacher  of  repute  in  Friezland. 
 
 %  Bayle,  Didlion.  art.  Anabaptifles. 
 
 The 
 
44 2  Antinomians,  [cent.  1 6. 
 
 The   Antinomians  arofe   about  the  fame    pe- 
 riod.    Their  founder  was   John   Agricola,  a  na- 
 tive of  Aifleben,  originally  alfo  a  difciple  of  Luther. 
 The  fupporters  of  the  popifli  doctrines  deducing  a 
 confiderable  portion  of  the  arguments  on  which 
 they  retted   their  defence  from  the  doctrines  of 
 the  old  law,  this  over- jealous  reformer  was  en- 
 couraged by  the  fuccefs  of  his  matter  to   attack 
 the  very  foundation  of  their  arguments,  and  to  de- 
 ny that  any  part  of  the  Old  Teftament  was  in- 
 tended as  a  rule  of  faith  or  of  practice  to  the  dis- 
 ciples of  Chrift,     Thus  he  not  only  rejected  the 
 moral  authority  of  even  the  ten  commandments; 
 but  he  and  his-  followers,  conceiving  fome  of  the 
 expreflions  in  the  writings  of  the  apoftles  in  too 
 literal  a  fenfe,  produced  a  fyftem,  which  appears 
 in  many  refpects  fcarcely  confident  with  the  moral 
 attributes  of  the  Deity, 
 
 The  principal  doctrines  which  at  prelent  bear 
 this  appellation,  are  faid  to  be  as  follow  ;  lit.  That 
 the  Law  ought  not  to  bepropofed  to  the  people  as 
 a  rule  of  manners,  nor  ufed  in  the  church  as  a 
 means  of  instruction  ;  and  that  the  GofpeJ.  alone 
 is  to  be  inculcated  and  explained,  both 'in  the 
 churches  and  in  the  fchools  of  learning.  2d.  That 
 the  justification  of  finners  is  an  immanent  and 
 eternal  act  of  God,  not  only  preceding  all  acts 
 of  fin,  but  the  exiftence  of  the  firmer  himfelf  *. 
 
 3d.  That 
 
 *  This  is  the  opinion  of  moil,  who  are  ftyled  Antinomians, 
 
 thou;-!-. 
 
cent.  i6.]  Their  Tenets,  443 
 
 3d.  That  justification  by  faith   is   no  more  than 
 
 a  manifeftation  to  us  of  what  was  done  before  we 
 
 had  a  being.     4th.  That  men  ought  not  to  doubt 
 
 of  their  faith,  or  queftion  whether  they  believe  in 
 
 Chrift.     5th.  That  God  fees  no   fin   in  believers, 
 
 and  they  are  not  bound  to  confefs  fin,  mourn  for 
 
 it,  or  pray  that  it  may  be  forgiven.     6th.  That 
 
 God  is  not  angry  with  the  elect,  nor  does  he  pu- 
 
 nifh  them  for  their  fms.      7th.    That  by  God's 
 
 laying  our  iniquities  upon  Chrift,  he  became  as 
 
 completely  finful  as  we,  and  we  as   completely 
 
 righteous   as  Chrift.     8th.   That  believers  need 
 
 not  fear  either  their  own  fins  or  the  fins  of  others, 
 
 fince  neither  can  do  them  any  injury.     9th.  That 
 
 the  new  covenant  is  not  made  properly  with   us, 
 
 but  with  Chrift  for  us;    and  that  this  covenant  is 
 
 all  of  it  a  promife,  having  no  conditions  for  us  to 
 
 perform;  for  faith,  repentance,   and   obedience, 
 
 are  not  conditions  on  our  parr,  but  Chrift's ;  and 
 
 that  he  repented,  believed,  and   obeyed   for   us. 
 
 10th.  That  fanctiiicatiori  is  not  a  proper  evidence 
 
 of  j unification  *, 
 
 though  fome  fuppofe,  with  Dr.  Crifp,  that  the  cleft  were  iuftl- 
 Tied  at  the  time  of  Chrift's  death. 
 
 *  Molheim's  Ecclef.  Hi  ft.  vol.  iv.  p.  33.  Clark's  Lives, 
 p.  142.  Urfihus*  Body  of  Divinity,  p.  620.  Spiritual  Mag.  vol. 
 ii.  p.  171.  Crifp's  Sermons,  vol.  i.  p.  24,  29,  136,  143,  282, 
 298,  330.  vol.  ii.  p.  144,  155.  Saltmarfii  of  Free  Grace,  p.  92. 
 Eaton's  Honey-comb,  p.  446.  Town's  Afler;ions,  p.  96.  Dif- 
 play  of  God's  fpecia!  Grace,  p.  102, 
 
 It 
 
444  Unitarians.  [cixt.  16. 
 
 It  is   not  extraordinary  that,  while  all   the  dif- 
 ferent doctrines   of  the    church  were  deftined   to 
 undergo  i^o  fevere  an   examination,   Tome  of  the 
 opinions  of  Arius  and  the  other  opponents  of  the 
 catholic  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  fliould  be  revived. 
 The  firft  of  the   reformers  who  difiinguifhed  him- 
 felf  on  this  fide  of  the  queftion  was  John  Campa- 
 nus,  who,  before  the  confeffion  of  Augfburg  was 
 prefented,  began  to  nublifh  his  opinions  *.  About 
 the  fame  period  Michael  Servetus,  a  S'panifh  phyfir 
 cian,  appeared  on    the  fame  fide,   and  with  much 
 vehemence  oppofed  the  orthodox  belief.     Servetus 
 was  born  at  Villa  Nueva,  in  the  kingdom  of  Arra-i 
 gon,  and  after  a  variety  of  adventures   fettled    at, 
 Vienne,  in   Dauphine,  under  the  patronage  of  the 
 mild  and  liberal  prelate  of  that  fee,  and' there  ap- 
 plied himfelf  fuccefsfully  to  the  .practice  of  his 
 profefiion.     The  enthufiafm  of  reformation,  how- 
 ever, invaded  his  tranquillity  in  this  fituation,  and 
 he  was  engaged  by  fome  means  or  other  to  enter 
 into  a  controverfy  with  Calvin,   in  which   there  is 
 reafon  to  believe  that  the  latter  was  defeated,  fince 
 he  declared  in  a  confidential  letter  to  one -of  his 
 friends,  that  "  if  Servetus  fliould  ever  fall  into  his 
 hands,  he  fliould  never  go  out  of  them  alive -j-." 
 In  1553   Servetus  printed  his  moft  famous  work 
 entitled  Chriftianifmi  Reftitutio.     The  book  was 
 not  published  in  France,  but  printed  fecrerly  with- 
 
 *    Formey,  vol.  ii.   Cent,  16.  Art.  21. 
 I  Cal.  zd  Farcl.  EPi:l. 
 
 out 
 
cent.  1 5.]  Scrvetus  burned  alive.  445 
 
 out  the  author's  name,  and  conveyed  out  of  the 
 kingdom  ;  but  the  difciples  of  Calvin,  by  his  infti- 
 gation  as  is  fuppofed,  condefcended  to  the  meaneft 
 arts  to  excite  the  inquifition  againft  him,  and  it 
 was  in  confequence  of  a  correfpondence  with  one 
 of  them  at  Geneva,  that  Servetus  was  feized  and 
 imprifoned  by  the  inquifition.  Here  however 
 he  experienced  that  an  eftablifhment,  which  even 
 profefles  perfecution,  is  milder  in  its  refentments 
 than  a  feclary.  He  was  fuffered  clandeftinely 
 to  efcape,  and  only  burnt  in  effigy.  In  attempt- 
 ing to  pafs  into  Italy  over  the  lake  of  Geneva 
 he  was  arreded  by  his  old  enemy  Calvin  *.  In 
 contempt  of.  every  principle  which  fhould  have 
 drftinguifbed  the  reformed  church,  this  detectable 
 bigot  determined  to  deftroy  his  innocent  and 
 learned,  though,  perhaps,  miftaken  opponent.  By 
 a  domeftic  of  Calvin's,  either  fufficient  of  a  hy- 
 pocrite or  enough  of  a  fanatic  for  his  purpofe,  an 
 accufation  of  blafphemy  was  preferred  againft  him 
 before  the  council,  and  he  was  committed  to  the 
 flames  on  the  27th  of  October,  1553,  as  an  obfli- 
 nate  heretic,  by  the  very  perfons  who  had  them- 
 felves  eicaped,  and  were  no.v  contending  againlt 
 the  unlawfulnefs  of  perfecution  \. 
 
 *  Concerning  the  intereft  of  Calvin  in  this  affair,  fee  a  tra& 
 on  the  fubject  by  the  late  Dr.  Bcufon.     H.  ^ 
 
 '■    Mofh.Cent.  16. 
 
 The 
 
4$G  Opinions  of  Servetus.  [cent.  1 6» 
 
 The  opinions  of  Servetus  feem  to  have  ap- 
 proached nearer  to  Sabellianifm  than  either  to 
 thofe  of  Alius  or  the  modern  Socinians.  He  held 
 that  Chrift  might  properly  be  called  the  God,  fincc 
 the  eternal  fpirit  of  the  Godhead  was  united  to  the 
 man  Chrift  Jefus.  He  held  alfo  that  another  por- 
 tion of  the  fame  fpirit  was  difFufed  through  all 
 nature,  and  directed  the  courfe  of  things,  and  ac- 
 tuated the  minds  of  men  agreeably  to  the  counfels 
 and  deiigns  of  the  Father.  He  alfo'  rejected  the 
 ufe  of  infant  baptifm. 
 
 The  origin  of  Socinianifm  appears  to  have  been 
 fome  years  precedent  to  the  appearance  of  thofe 
 perfons  from  whom  the  feci:  has  derived  its  name. 
 At  a  very  early  period  of  the  reformation  there 
 were  among  the  Anabaptifts,  and  other  iects  of  re- 
 formers, feverai  perfons  who  rejected  or  who 
 doubted  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  as  profefTed 
 at  that  period.  The  opinions  which  were  che- 
 rifhed  by  thefe  perfons  were  equally  obnoxious  to 
 the  Catholics,  the  Lutherans,  and  Calvinifts ;  and 
 oppofition  from  a  foreign  enemy  is  generally  pro- 
 ductive of  union  in  the  party  which  is  Ojppofed. 
 To  avoid  the  evils  which  they  might  experience 
 in  Germany  or  Italy,  numbers  of  them  retired 
 into  Poland,  which,  either  from  its  remotenefs,  or 
 from  the  laxity  of  the  government,  feemed  to  pro,- 
 mife  a  more  fecure  retreat.  Vvtien  arrived  at  the 
 land  of  freedom,  they  found  themfelves  involved 
 3  '      in 
 
cent.  1 6.]  Socinus.  4.47 
 
 in  the  utmoft  perplexity  of  do&rines.  Some  had 
 embraced  the  Arian  fyftem;  Tome  the  doctrines 
 of  Paul  of  Samofata  ;  and  fome  of  them,  opinions 
 which  till  then  probably  never  had  an  exiftence. 
 About  the  fame  period,  a  fociety  was  formed  in 
 the  neighbourhood  of  Venice,  which  confifted  of 
 about  forty  men  of  letters,  who  held  regular 
 affemblies,  in  which  they  difcuffed  all  the  points  of 
 religion,  and  particularly  thole  relating  to  the 
 Trinity,  with  the  utmofl  freedom.  The  fociety 
 however  being  difcovered,  the  members  were  dif- 
 perfed  different  ways,  and  feveral  of  them  fuffered 
 by  the  hand  of  the  executioner*. 
 
 One  of  the  mod  eminent  of  this  fociety,  Lcelius 
 Socinus  or  Sozzini,  efcaped  into  Foland  in  1551, 
 and  by  his  influence  the  jarring  opinions  of  the 
 unitarian  feclaries  began  to  afTume  the  appearance 
 of  a  regular  fyftem.  His  vifits  to  Poland  were  in- 
 deed but  fhort ;  but  what  he  left  undone  was  per- 
 fected by  his  difciples.  Under  the  protection  of 
 Jo.  Sienienius,  palatine  of  Podolia,  who  built  pur- 
 pofely  for  their  ufe  the  city  of  Racow  in  the  diftrict 
 of  Sendomir,  the  Unitarians  of  Poland  almoft  af- 
 fumed  the  confequence  of  an  eftablifhed  religion  ; 
 and  in  the  year  1574  they  publifhed  a  fummary 
 of  their  principles,  under  the  title  of  the  Catechifra 
 or  Confeffion  of  the  Unitarians  f. 
 
 *  Formey,  Cent.  16.  Art.  i5» 
 •i-  Mofh.  Cent.  iS. 
 
 The 
 
44 8  Catechifm  ofRacow.  [cent.  16. 
 
 The  abilities  of  Fauftus  Socinus,  who  profefTed 
 to  deduce  his  religious  fyftem  from  the  papers  of 
 his  uncle  Ladius,  imparted  frefh  vigour  to  the  fo- 
 ciety.  He  new-modelled  the  articles  of  their 
 faith.  The  ancient  catechifm,  which  was  no 
 more  than  a  rude  and  incoherent  (ketch,  was  alter- 
 ed and  improved  by  Socinus  and  the  other  unita- 
 rian doctors,  and  was  publifhed  under  the  title  of 
 the  Catechifm  ofRacow.  Jn  thisftation  they  en- 
 joyed an  undiflurbed  feries  of  profperity  for  feveral 
 years,  till,  in  the  beginning  of  the  fucceeding  cen- 
 tury, fome  Socinian  ftudents  at  Racow  were  fo  im- 
 prudent as  in  a  paroxyfm  of  enthufiafm  to  break 
 in  pieces  a  crucifix  with  flones.  Such  an  act  of 
 violence  excited  the  attention  of  the  fenate  of  Po- 
 land, who  caufed  their  academy  to  be  levelled  to 
 the  ground,  their  church  to  be  (hut  up,  and  their 
 printing-  prefles  to  be  deftroyed  ;  and  from  that 
 period,  the  caufe  of  Socinianifm  has  fenfibly  de- 
 clined in  that  part  of  Europe,  where  it  firft  af- 
 fumed  an  afpect  of  profperity.  From  Poland,  the 
 Socinian  doctrines  made  their  way  into  Tranfyl- 
 vania  about  1563,  and  were  chiefly  indebted  for 
 their  fuccefs  to  the  addrefs  and  induftrv  of  Georoe 
 Blandratus,  phyfician  to  Sigifmund  the  reigning 
 prince.  The  Socinian  faith  was  embraced  by  the 
 prince,  and  by  many  of  the  principal  nobility  ;  and 
 though  the  Batori,  who  were  afterwards  chofen 
 dukes    of  Tranfylvania,  were   by  no  means  well 
 
 affected 
 
cent.  1 6.]         Tenets  of  the  Socinians.  449 
 
 affected  to  the  unitarian  caufe;  yet  the  feci:  had 
 acquired  fo  deep  a  root,  that  it  has  never  beqn  en- 
 tirely eradicated  from  that  province  *, 
 
 The  followers  of  Socinus  afferted,  ift.  That 
 all  our  knowledge  of  divinity  muft  be  derived 
 from  the  Scriptures,  but  that  our  natural  reafon 
 is  the  proper  interpreter  of  them.  2dly.  They 
 allowed  confiderable  latitude  in  the  accommodation 
 of  Scripture  to  human  reafon,  afferting  that  great 
 allowances  muft  be  made  for  the  flrong  figurative 
 language  and  oriental  idioms  with  which  thefe 
 writings  abound.  3<dly.  They  denied  the  plenary 
 infpiration  of  the  facred  writers,  and  insinuated 
 that  mi  (lakes  had  crept  into  their  writings.  4thly. 
 Having  proceeded  thus  far,  they  endeavoured  to 
 flrip  revealed  religion  of  every  circumftance  not 
 clearly  intelligible  by  human  reafon.  With  re- 
 fpect  therefore  to  the  grand  point  on  which  they 
 differed  from  other  Christians ;  they  altogether 
 denied  the  divinity  of  Chrift,  or  equalitv  with  the 
 Father,  but  admitted  him  to  have  been  an  extra- 
 ordinary perfon  miraculoufly  produced,  and  com- 
 miffioned  as  a  divine  teacher,  in  whom  the  pro- 
 phecies relating  to  the  Mefliah  were  completely 
 though  not  literally  fulfilled.  They  admitted  alfo 
 the  whole  hiftory  of  the  afcenfion  and  glorification, 
 of  Chrift  in  its  literal  acceptation,  ft.  ly.  They 
 held  the  phrafe  Holy  Spirit,   or  Holy  Ghoft,  to 
 
 *  MoOi.  Cent.  16. 
 Vol.  II.  G  g  be 
 
45°  Budnefans,  Zuinglians,  &c.  [cent.  16. 
 be  merely  a  figurative  mode  of  expreffion  to  de- 
 note the  power  or  energy  of  God*. 
 
 Though  thefe  are  the  general  outlines  of  the 
 doctrines  profeffed  by  the  followers  of  Socinus, 
 yet  this  left  was  fubdivided  into  feveral  parties, 
 who  differed  materially  from  each  other  with  re- 
 fpecl:  to  certain  articles  of  faith.  The  Eudneians 
 are  laid  to  have  denied  the  miraculous  conception 
 of  Jefus  Chrift.  The  Farvonians  on  the  con- 
 trary afTerted,  that  he  had  been  engendered  or  pro- 
 duced out  of  nothing  before  the  creation  of  the 
 world.  And  the  Stancarians  allowed  the  media- 
 torial character  of  Jefsis  Chrift,  which  the  others 
 feem  to  have  denied  ~f~. 
 
 Some  feels  were  diftinguifhed  in  this  age  merely 
 by  carrying  their  abhorrence  of  the  popifh  errors 
 further  than  their  great  leaders,  Luther  and  Cal- 
 vin ;  fuch-  were  the  followers  of  Zuihglius,  of 
 whom  refpeekful  mention  has  been  already  made. 
 Schwenkfeldt,  a  Silefian  knight,  and  his  difciples 
 inverted  thephrafe  "  This  is  my  body,"  and  infifted 
 upon  its  being  translated  and  vmderftood  "  My 
 body  is  this, "that  is,  fuch  as  this  bread,  vwhich  is 
 broken  and  confumed  ;  a  true  and  real  food, 
 which  nouridies,  fatisfies,  and  delights  the  foul. 
 i:  My  blood  is  This,"  that  is,  its  effects 'are  fuch  as 
 thofe  of  the  wine,  which  ftrengthens  and  refrefhes 
 the  heart.  He  alfo  entertained  very  high  notions  ofL 
 
 *  Modi.  Cent.  16.         f  lb. 
 
 the 
 
cent.  1 6.]        Brownifts,  MoliniJliy&c.  45 iv 
 
 the  exalted  nature  of  Chrift,  and  infilled  on  the 
 neceffity  of  divine  illumination.  The  Energici 
 held  that  the  eucharift  was  no  other  than  the  energy 
 or  virtue  of  Jefus  Chrift. 
 
 The  Brownifts  in  England  differed  only  from 
 the  eftablifhed  Church  in  refpect  to  church  govern- 
 ment, which  they  afferted  ought  to  be  democrati- 
 cal.  The  llluminati  in  France  and  Spain  feem 
 only  to  have  been  diftinguifhed  by  their  monkiih 
 devotion,  and  belief  that  the  whole  of  religion 
 confifted  in  prayer  and  contemplation.  The 
 Familifts,  or  family  of  love,  in  Holland,  confidered 
 the  difpenfation  by  Chrift  as  imperfect,  and  ex- 
 pected a  fuller  revelation  to  be  made  to  themfelves. 
 The  Amfdorfians  and  Ofiandrians  contended  that 
 falvation  was  wrought  by  faith  alone,  and  not  by 
 good  works  ;  while  the  Molinifts  and  Synergifts 
 were  of  opinion  that  the  will  of  man  co-operated 
 with  the  grace  of  God  in  effecting  his  eternal  hap- 
 pinefs. 
 
 G  g  2  CHAP. 
 
[     452     ] 
 
 CHAP.      VII. 
 
 OF  LEARNING  AMD  LEARNED  MEN  IN  THX 
 SIXTEENTH   CENTURY. 
 
 Multiplication  of  Books — Controverf.al  Theology — Luther—* 
 Calvin  —  Melanclhon  —  Theodore  Beza — Erafmus  — -  Sir 
 Thomas  More — George  Buchanan — Reuchlin — Ludovicus 
 Jives — Budeus — Lipfius  —  Poly  dor  e  Virgil — Scaliger — 
 Reformation  in  Philofphy — Copernicus  andTycho  Brake- 
 The  Stephens'1 s. 
 
 THE  invention  of  printing  produced  altoge- 
 ther a  new  cera  in  literature  ;  and  fuch  was 
 the  rapid  multiplication  of  books  after  that  period, 
 that  merely  to  fpecify  the  authors  in  the  depart- 
 ments of  theology  and  facred  criticifm  would,  for 
 each  century,  require  a  feparate  volume.  It  is  ne- 
 ceflary  therefore  to  con  tine  our  views  within  a  very 
 limited  compafs,  and  to  content  onrfcives  with 
 a  brief  character  of  only  the  mod  eminent  au- 
 thors. 
 
 From  the  complexion  of  the  times,  and  from 
 the  important  controversies  which  were  agitated 
 during  this  period,  it  will  be  evident  that  contro- 
 verfial  theology  engaged  the  attention  of  by  far 
 the  greater  number,  and  the  mod  eminent1  of  the 
 authors  of  this  century.  The  works  both  of  Lu- 
 8  ther 
 
cswt.  t6.]         Melanftbon,  Bcza,  tie.  4.53 
 
 ther  and  Calvin,  who  are  generally  considered  as 
 the  heads  of  the  reformation,  are  voluminous,  and 
 replete  with  learning,  and  flrong  and  profound  ar- 
 gument.    But  the  moft  elegant  fcholar,  and  per* 
 haps  the  moft  amiable  character  among  the  refor- 
 mers, was  Philip  Melancthon.     He  was  an  early- 
 convert  to  the  doctrines  of  Lurher,  and  continued 
 his  fteady  friend  to  the  conclufion  of  his  life.     The 
 character  of  this  excellent  perfon  was  tinctured 
 with  a  degree  of  timidity  which  would  have  ut- 
 terly incapacitated  him  for  a  leader  in  thefe  tumul- 
 tuous fcenes;  but  his  extenfive  learning,  his  candid 
 and  impartial   fpirit,  united  to  his  correct  judg- 
 ment, and  the  claffical  elegance  of  his  ftyle,  quali- 
 fied  him  for  the  part  of  an  excellent   auxiliary. 
 Theodore  Beza  is  well  known  as  a  tranflator  and 
 commentator   upon   the    Holy    Scriptures. — For 
 his  learning  and  abilities  he  was  defervedly  placed 
 at  the  head  of  the  univerfity  of  Geneva  on  its  firft 
 institution. 
 
 Though  not  publicly  connected  with  the  refor- 
 mers, or  openly  profeffing  their  doctrines,  no  man 
 in  this  age  contributed  more,  indirectly,  to  the 
 removal  of  error,  than  the  celebrated  Erafmus  j 
 fince  there  was  fcarcely  an  opinion  or  practice  of 
 the  Romim  Church  affailed  by  Luther,  which  had 
 not  previously  been  animadverted  on,  and  ridiculed 
 by  this  acute  and  fatirical  author  *.     Erafmus  was 
 
 *  Robertfon's  Charles  V.  ▼.  H.  p.  1^7. 
 
 G  g  $  the 
 
454  Erafmus.  [cent.  16. 
 
 the  illegitimate  fon  of  a  literary  perfonof  the  name 
 of  Gerard,  by  Margaret,  daughter  to  a  phyficianat 
 Gouda,  whom  her  relations  would  not  permit  to 
 marry  the  man  by  whom  (he  had  been  feduced. 
 He  loft:  both  father  and  mother  at  about  fourteen, 
 was,  in  the  early  part  of  his  life,  a  ringing  boy  at  the 
 cathedral  of  Utrecht,  and  was  afterwards  forced  by 
 his  guardians  to  become  a  regular  canon  in  the 
 monaftery  of  Stein,  near  Ghent.  He  was  or- 
 dained a  pried  in  1492,  at  about  the  age  of  twenty- 
 fix,  and  was  invited  by  the  biihop  of  Cambray  to 
 accompany  him  to  Rome.  With  the  permif- 
 fion  of  his  fuperiors,  Erafmus  quitted  his  monaf- 
 tery, went  to  Paris  to  complete  his  ftudies,  and 
 after  feveral  journies  into  Flanders,  England,  and 
 Italy,  fettled  at  length  at  Bafil,  where. he  continu- 
 ed till  that  city  embraced  Zuingjianifm  in  1529. 
 He  afterwards  lived  for  fome  time  in  Friburgh, 
 whence  he  returned  to   Bafil,  where  he  died  m 
 
 1536*. 
 
 Literature  is  not  only  obliged  to  Erafmus  for 
 his  own  admirable  compositions,  but  for  the  re- 
 vival of  many  of  the  moft  valuable  of  the  ancient 
 clarifies  and  fathers  of  the  church.  Few  fciences 
 efcaped  his  attention :  he  wrote  occasionally  on  di- 
 vinity, philofophy,  morals,  rhetoric,  and  grammar, 
 and  translated  the  New  Teftament  into  Latin,  and 
 feveral  of  the  Greek  fathers.     His  free  ftyle  of 
 
 1  Du  Tin. 
 
 writing 
 
cknt.  16.]    Sir  T.  More,  G.  Buchanan,  &c.      455 
 
 writing  involved  him  in  fevcral  controversies ;  and 
 the  Lutherans  and  the  Catholics  were  equally  ob- 
 jects of  his  animadverfion.  His  Dialogues  are  the 
 bell  known  of  all  his  writings,  and  will  be  ad- 
 mired as  a  work  of  genius  as  long  as  there  remains 
 any  tafte  for  the  wit  and  fpirit  of  Athens,  or  for 
 the  language  and  eloquence  of  ancient  Rome. 
 He  lived  and  died  a  timid  reformer,  and  (I  had  al- 
 moft  laid)  an  unworthy  member  of  the  church  of 
 Rome. 
 
 Next  in  order -to  Erafmus,  his  contemporary 
 and  friend  Sir  Thomas  More,  lord  chancellor 
 of  England,  may  properly  be  placed  among  the 
 patrons  and  improvers  of  polite  literature.  More 
 ftrongly  attached  to  the  Roraim  faith  than  his 
 friend  Erafmus,  and  not  exempt  from  die  charge 
 of  bigoted  cruelty,  this  excellent  fcholar  fell  a  vic- 
 tim to  the  fanguinary  refentment  of  Henry  VIII. 
 and  fuffered  death  upon  the  fcaffbld,  the  17th  of 
 June,  1535. 
 
 Inferior  to  none  that  has  been  mentioned  either 
 in  tafte  or  learning,  it  would  be  culpable  to  omit 
 a  tribute  of  applaufe  to  the  elegant  and  clamcal 
 George  Buchanan.  As  an  hiftorian,  his  works 
 will  not  only  be  refofted  to  by  all  who  are  defirous 
 of  ufeful  information,  but  alfo  by  thofe  who  wifli 
 to  form  a  ftyle  upon  the  chafte  model  of  Roman 
 elegance.  As  a  poet,  he  is  perhaps  the  faff,  among 
 the  modern  imitators  of  the  Latin  dailies.  As  the 
 friend  of  civil  and  religious  liberty,  he  is  intitled  to 
 
 G  g  4  a  ftill 
 
4? 6  Reform  of  Philofophy,  [cent.  1 6. 
 
 a  ftill  nobler  diftinclion  j  nor  will  the  feeble  apo- 
 logifts  for  a  weak  and  wicked  princefs  be  able  to 
 fix  a  flander  on  his  reputation,  in  the  eyes  of  im- 
 partial inquirers. 
 
 John  Reuchlin,  a  German,  fometimes  known 
 by  the  name  of  Capnio,  who  was  elevated,  for  his 
 literary  talents,  from  a  very  obfcure  ftation,  to  the 
 rank  of  a  nobleman  *,  Ludovicus  Vives,  of  Va- 
 lencia in  Spain,  Jo.  Budeus,  John  Lipfius,  Poly- 
 dore  Virgil,  and  the  incomparable  Scaiiger  are 
 alfo  deferving  of  much  applaufe,  as  zealous  and 
 fuccefsful  promoters  of  ufeful  learning. 
 
 Philofophy  as  well  as  religion  underwent  a  re- 
 formation in  this  century,  by  the  publication  of  the 
 fyftems  of  Nicholas  Copernicus  and  Tycho  Brahe. 
 Thefe  bold  invaders  of  ancient  prejudice  had 
 fcarcely  lefs  to  encounter  than  Luther,  in  the  efta- 
 blifhment  of  the  truth. 
 
 The  labours  of  the  Stephens's  will  be  remem- 
 bered with  gratitude  by  every  admirer  of  ancient 
 literature 
 
 *  He  may  perhaps  be  confidered  as  the  reviver  of  Hebrew 
 learning.  « 
 
 THE 
 
[    457    3 
 
 THE  SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY. 
 
 CHAP.    I. 
 
 GENERAL  STATE  OF  THE  CHURCH  IN  THIS 
 CENTURY. 
 
 State  of  Europe  with  refpecl  to  Religion — Popes  from  Clement. 
 VIII.  to  Clement  XL — Labours  of  the  Jefuits—Difputes 
 between  the  different  Orders  of  Monks — Efforts  to  reduce 
 the  Protefants  within  the  Pale  of  the  Church — Conference 
 of  Charity^  &c. — Perfecution  in  Aujlria^  &c. — JVar  in 
 Germany  —  Maffacre  of  Valteline —  Vaudois  —  France — 
 Revocation  of  the  Ediel  of  Nantz — England — Gunpowder 
 Plot — Civil  War — Scotland — Irijh  Maffacre — Proteflant 
 Churches  in  America — Revolution  in  England — Schemes 
 for  an  Union  of  Churches — Change  of  Religion  in  German 
 Proteflants. 
 
 N  the  hiftory  of  the  preceding  century  we  have 
 feen  the  ancient  fabric  of  the  Church,  which  had 
 been  the  work  of  ages,  and  erected  from  the  fpoils  of 
 both  the  civil  and  religious  rights  of  men,  in  the 
 courfecfa  few  years  difmembered,  and  indeed  fhak- 
 
 en 
 
458  Extent  of  the  Protejlant  Religion,  [cent.  17. 
 en  almoftto  its  foundations.  The  fir  ft  object  there- 
 fore,  which  attracts  our  attention  in  this  century, 
 is  the  rife  and  progrefs  of  feveral  different  and  in- 
 dependent churches,  raifed  fucceflively  upon  the 
 ruins  of  that  of  Rome,  under  the  general  and  cora- 
 prehenfive  term  of  Proteftant  churches. 
 
 Under  two  great  claffes  the  majority  of  the 
 Protectants  of  Europe  were  comprehended.  The 
 firft  affumed  the  title  of  the  Lutheran  church,  in 
 honour  of  its  great  founder,  the  tenets  of  which 
 have  been  already  noticed  -,  the  fecond  included 
 a  number  of  fmall  focieties,  differing  in  a  few  points 
 of  doctrine,  and  was  termed  the  reformed  church. 
 Towards  the  beginning  of  this  century,  however, 
 the  majority  of  the  reformed  churches  had  adopt- 
 ed the  opinions  of  Calvin. 
 
 At  the  conclusion  of  the  iaft  century,  the  doc- 
 trines of  Lutrjer  were  embraced  in  feveral  parts  of 
 Germany,  in  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway. 
 They  had  penetrated  the  Upper  Hungary,  Tran- 
 fylvania,  and  Poland,  and  were  at  lead  tolerated 
 in  thofe  countries.  Calvinifm  became  the  efta- 
 bliihed  religion  of  all  the  Swifs  Protectants,  as  welt 
 as  of  the  thirteen  United  Provinces,  who  had  re- 
 voked from  their  Auftrian  matters,  and  who  now 
 conftitute  the  Dutch  republic.  The  majority  of 
 the  French  Protectants  were  of  the  Calviniftic  per- 
 fuafion  ;  and  as  the  Lutherans  had  fettled  in  the 
 upper,  the  difciples  of  Calvin  had.  eftablilhed 
 2  tbem~ 
 
gent.  17.]       Papal  Difpute  with  Venice.  459 
 
 themfelves  in  the  lower  Hungary  *.  The  church 
 of  Scotland  was  much  inclined  to  Calvinifm ; 
 while  England  and  Ireland  profeffed  that  qualified 
 fyftem  of  doctrine  and  difcipline,  which  dill  con- 
 tinues the  eftablimed  religion  of  thofe  kingdoms. 
 The  authority  of  the  pope  dill  extended  over 
 aconfiderable  part  of  Europe,  and  though  fome- 
 what  impaired,  (till  retained  a  fufficient  portion  of 
 vigour  and  liability.  Of  Clement  VIII.  and  Leo 
 XL  who  governed  the  Romifh  church  at  the  com- 
 mencement of  this  century,  little  occurs  which  is 
 worth  recording.  The  pontificate  of  the  latter 
 lafted  only  twenty-fix  days,  and  he  was  fucceeded 
 on  the  1 6th  of  May,  1605,  by  Camillus  Borghefe, 
 who  is  known  in  the  Papal  annals  under  the  name 
 of  Paul  V.  Arrogance  and  ill- temper  were  the 
 diftinguifhing  characteriftics  of  this  pontiff ;  and  he 
 feemed  born  either  to  reftore  the  loft  authority  of 
 Rome,  or  to  annihilate  the  power  which  it  flill  re- 
 tained in  the  different  courrries  of  Europe.  The 
 imprudence  of  Paul  had  nearly  alienated  the  repub- 
 lic of  Venice  from  the  Popifh  communion.  Tire 
 difpute  originated  in  two  decrees,  which  the  fenate 
 of  Venice  had  enacted  in  the  year  1605,  for  pre- 
 venting the  unnecefTary  ereftion  of  religious  houfes, 
 and  for  prohibiting  the  fubjetfcs  of  the  republic 
 from  alienating  tlu-ir  property  for  the  ufe  of  religi- 
 ous fraternities,  without  the  fanclion  of  the  fenate. 
 
 *  Du  Pin,  Cent.  16. 
 
 About 
 
46b        Jefuits  banifbed  from  Venice,      [cent.  iy» 
 About  the  fame   period  it  happened  that  two  eo 
 defiaftics,  aecufed  of  enormous  crimes,  were  im- 
 prifoncd  by  the  orders  of  the  fenate,  while  it  was 
 an'eftabliuhed  maxim  at  Rome,  that  ecclefiaftical 
 perfons  were  only  amenable  to  the  tribunal  of  the 
 church.     Againft'  the  edicts  prohibiting  the  en- 
 dowments of  religious    houfes,    the    pope  vehe- 
 mently protefted  by  his  nuncio  at  Venice,  and  at  the 
 fame  time  demanded  that  the  prifoners  (hould  be 
 delivered  into  his  hands,  to  be  tried  for  their  crimes, 
 by  ecclefiaftical  judges.     To  thefe  haughty   de- 
 mands  the  fenate  returned  a   negative,  and  the 
 pope  laid  the  dominions  of  the  republic  under  an- 
 •interdict.    The  Jefuits,  and  the  other  ecclefiaflics , 
 who  prefumed  to  publifh  the  bull  of  excommuni- 
 cation againft  the  republic,  were  banifhed  theftate, 
 and  preparations  for  war  were  making  on  both 
 fides,  when  an  accommodation  was  effected  by  the 
 mediation  of  Henry  IV.  of  France.     The  pope, 
 on  this  occafion,  relinquiflied  much  of  his  preten- 
 fions.     The  prifoners  were  delivered   up  to  the 
 French  ambaffador  ;  and  on  the  other  hand,  all 
 the  exiled  ecclefiaflics  were  permitted  to  return  to 
 Venice,   except   the    Jefuits,   againft  whom   the 
 fenate  enacted  a  fevere  decree  *. 
 
 Paul  V.  was  fucceedei  by  Gregory  XV.  a  man 
 of  a  milder  difpofition  ;  and  in  1623,  Urban  VIII. 
 of  the  Barberini  family,  afcended  the  papal  throne, 
 
 *  PuPin,  Cent.  1 7.  / 
 
 Urban 
 
cent.  17.].       Revolution  in  Portugal.  461 
 
 Urban  was  a  man  of  learning,  and  a  prote&or  of 
 literature.    He  was  a  judicious  orator,  and  an  ele- 
 gant poet,   but  an  inflexible  enemy  to  civil  and 
 religious  liberty.     The  pontificate  of  Urban  was 
 diftingui(hed  by  the  memoiVMe  revolution  of  Por- 
 tugal, when  that  nation  liberated  themfelves  from 
 the  yoke  of  Spain,  and,  in  the  year  1640,  placed 
 John  duke  of  Braganza,  the  lawful  heir,  upon  the 
 throne.     As  foon  as  the  new  monarch  of  Portugal 
 fuppofed  himfelf  firmly  eftablifhed  in  his  autho- 
 rity, he  difpatched  an  embaffy  to  the  fovereign 
 pontiff,  requeuing  his  fancYion  and  confirmation. 
 But,  added  to  his  own  defpotic  notions,  Urban 
 was  in  fome  degree  apprehenfive  of  the  Spanifh 
 power  i  he  was  therefore  deaf  to  the  entreaties  cl 
 the  fuppliant  monarch,  nor  could  he  ever  be  per- 
 fuaded  to  acknowledge  him  as  the  lawful  fovereign* 
 Thefucceffor  of  Urban,  Innocent  X.  was  equally 
 inflexible,  nor  could  the  Pom-gucfe  obtain  a  fanc- 
 tion  from  the  pope,  till  the  conclufion  of  the  cen- 
 tury,  when,  on  their  accommodation  with  Spain, 
 the  reigning  pontiff  condescended  to  approve  the 
 authority  of  the  Eraganza  family,  and  to  confirm 
 the  bilhops  who  had  been  appointed  to  the  vacant 
 {ces,  but  had  hidierto  been  withheld  from  their 
 epifcopal   functions.     Innocent  X.    to  the  mod 
 profound  ignorance  linked  the  mod  fhamelefs  pro- 
 fligacy, and  was  the  dupe  of  an  abandoned  woman, 
 with  whom  he  lived   in  the  raoft  infamous  com- 
 merce, and  who,  to  complete  the  fgandal,  was  the 
 widow  of  his  brother*. 
 
 .  *  Mefheim. 
 
 During 
 
462  SubmiJJionof  the  Pope  to  Lewis  XI V.  [cent.  17. 
 
 During  the  pontificate  of  Alexander  VII.  the 
 fucceflbr  of  Innocent,  a  difpute  unhappily  com- 
 menced with  the  court  of  France,  which  is  faid  to 
 have  originated  from  the  ill-treatment  of  the  French 
 ambafiador  and  his  iady  by  the  pope's  Corfican 
 guards,  who  attacked  his  houfe,  and  committed 
 ieveral  acts  of  violence,  as  was  generally  fuppofed, 
 at  the  inftigation  of  the  nephews  of  Alexander. 
 The  pope  was,  on  this  occafion,  compelled  to 
 yield  to  the  fpirit  of  Lewis  XIV.  who,  notwith- 
 standing his  pretended  zeal  for  the  church,  could 
 ■occaiionally  make  it  bend  to  his  intereft.  Alex- 
 ander was  compelled  to  fend  his  nephew  to  Paris, 
 in  the  character  of  a  fuppliartt ;  the  Corfican  guards 
 were  branded  with  infamy  ;  and  a  pillar  was  erected 
 at  Rome,  in  memory  of  the  monarch's  triumph 
 over  the  head  of  the  church. 
 
 The  reigns  of  the  two  Clements  IX.  and  X.  in 
 1668  and  1669,  were  too  fhort  to  be  diftinguifhed 
 by  any  remarkable,  tranfadtions.  They  were  fuc- 
 ceeded  by  Innocent  XI.  a  man  of  uncommon  abi- 
 lities, and  apparently  of  great  integrity.  This  pon- 
 tiff was  alfo  engaged  in  a  warm  difpute  with  Lewis 
 XIV.  of  France,  the  flibject  of  which  was  the  right, 
 which  is  termed  the  regale,  by  which  the  French 
 monarch,  upon  the  death  of  a  bifhop,  claims  the 
 revenues  of  the  fee  till  a  new  bimop  be  elected. 
 Lewis  afferted  that  every  church  in  his  dominions 
 was  fubject  to  the  regale,  while  Innocent  pleaded 
 for  their  exemption  from  what  he  confidered  >  an 
 ufurped  claim.     To  determine  a  difpute  which  had 
 
 already 
 
gent.  1 7-]  New  Difpute.  463 
 
 already  extended  to  confiderable  lengths,  the  king, 
 in  the  year  1682,  fummoned  the  famous  convoca- 
 tion of  bifhops,  which  met  at  Paris,  in  order  to  de- 
 fine the  rights  of  the  Gallican  church.  In  this  af- 
 fembly  it  was  determined,  "  That  the  power  of 
 the  pope  was  merely  fpiritual,  and  did  not  at  all 
 extend  to  temporalities  ;  that  a  general  council  was 
 fuperior  to  the  pope  ;  that  the  power  of  the  pope 
 was  alfo  limited  by  the  canons ;  and  that  his  deci- 
 fions  are  not  infallible  without  the  confentofthe 
 church'*."  Before  this  difpute  was  completely  ad* 
 juried,  a  frefh  caufe  of  debate  arofe  between  the  con- 
 tending fovereigns,  concerning  the  right  of  afyium, 
 which  was  claimed  by  ambaffadors  while  they  re- 
 fided  at  Rome.  This  right  of  afyium  proved  fre- 
 quently a  fanctuary  for  rapine  and  injuftice,  and  ex- 
 tended much  further  than  the  immediate  relidence 
 of  the  ambaflador,  comprehending  a  confiderable 
 extent  of  ground,  which  was  termed  a  quarter. 
 This  lhameful  abufe  the  refolute  pontiff  was  deter- 
 mined to  remedy,  but  without  violating  the  real 
 privileges  or  aftual  refidence  of  the  ambafladors. 
 To  the  new  regulations,  however,  the  marquis  de 
 Lavardin  refufed,  in  the  name  of  Lewis,  to  fubmir, 
 while  the  other  princes  of  Europe  were  eafily  pre- 
 vailed on  to  relinquish  fo  pernicious  and  fo  ufelefs 
 a  privilege.  In  this  (late  matters  continued  till  the 
 death  of  Innocent.  His  immediate  fuccefTors, 
 Alexander  VIII.  and  Innocent  XII.  maintained  the 
 
 *  Formey,  vol.  ii.  p.  161. 
 
 fame 
 
464  Labours  of  the  Jefuits.  [cent.  17, 
 
 fame  pretenfions.  Time,  however,  which  gene 
 rally  meliorates  the  perverfe  difpofitions  of  men, 
 produced  at  length  a  fufpenfiofi  of  the  conteft.  On 
 the  one  hand,  the  right  of  afylum  was  fuppreffed 
 with  the  confent  of  the  king;  and  on  the  other,  the 
 regale  was  admitted  with  Tome  modifications,  and 
 the  propofitions  reflecting  the  rights  of  the  Galil- 
 ean church,  were  foftened  and  explained  in  private 
 letters  addreffed  to  the  pontiff.  Innocent  XII.  who 
 fucceeded  to  the  papal  chair  in  1691,  was  a  man  of 
 uncommon  merit,  and,  like  his  predeceffor  of  the 
 fame  name,  ftrenuoufly  bent  his  mind  to  the  re* 
 form  of  every  abufc  in  his  power.  -  The  pontiff 
 whofe  reign  concluded  this  century,  was  Clement 
 XI.  His  learning  and  liberality  rendered  him  an 
 ornament  to  the  church,  which  he  defired  to  govern 
 with  juftice  and  moderation. 
 
 Whatever  was  laudable  in  the  zeal  of  the  Ro» 
 mifh  church  during  the  courfe  of  this  century, 
 mufl  be  confined  to  the  labours  of  the  Jefuits  in 
 China,  Japan,  and  other  Indian  nations.  If  the  ac- 
 count of  their  converfions  be  not  magnified,  they 
 had  at  one  period  obtained  a  considerable  footing 
 in  thofe  countries.  In  the  year  1692,  the  emperor 
 of  China  publiftied  a  remarkable  edict,  by  which 
 he  declared  that  the  Chriftian  religion  was  in  no 
 refpeel;  detrimental  to  the  interests  of  the  monarch, 
 as  its  enemies  pretended,  and  permitted  to  his  fub- 
 ieds  an  uncontrolled  licence  to  embrace  the  Gof- 
 pel.     In  a  few  years  afterwards,  the  fame  emperoc 
 
 ordered 
 
cent.  17.]  Overthrow  of  Chrifiianity  in  Japan.  465 
 ordered  a  magnificent  church  to  be  built  for  the  Je- 
 fuits,  within  the  precincts  of  the  imperial  palace. 
 
 This  flattering  profped  was  foon  overcaft  ;  and 
 it  is  to  be  feared  that  the  change  muft  principally 
 be  attributed  to  the  ill  conduct  of  the  miflionaries 
 themfelves.  It  is  not  in  the  nature  of  man  to  bear 
 with  moderation  the  fevere  trial  of  profperity.  In- 
 ftead  of  acting  as  became  the  humble  preachers  of 
 a  religion,  the  bafis  of  which  is  temperance  and 
 felf-denial,  thejefuits  imitated  the  pomp  and  luxury 
 of  nobles,  or  even  of  monarchs  themfelves  j  and 
 accuftomed  at  home  to  take  an  active  part  in  the 
 politics  of  the  nations  where  they  were  ftationed, 
 their  imprudent  interference  with  a  government 
 uncommonly  defpotic  probably  contributed  to 
 that  diminution  of  influence  which  they  foon  ex- 
 perienced. The  downfall  of  the  Chriftian  religion 
 in  Japan  was  attended  with  ftill  more  fatal  confe- 
 quences  j  a  fevere  perfecution  was  excited  in  the 
 year  1615,  againft  the  milfionaries  and  profeflbrs  of 
 that  religion.  The  Jefuits  and  their  difciples,  by 
 the  fortitude  with  which  they  fufiered  the  moft  ex- 
 cruciating torments,  expiated  in  fome  degree  the 
 errors  which  they  had  committed  in  the  courfeof 
 their  miniftry.  The  perfecution  is  generally  afcribed 
 to  the  villainy  and  avarice  of  the  Dutch,  who  per- 
 fuaded  the  emperor  of  Japan  that  the  defign  of  the 
 Jefuits  was  to  overturn  his  government ;  and  to 
 thiscaufeare attributed  the  peculiar  privileges  which 
 are  allowed  to  the  dates  of  Holland,  who  are  the 
 Vol.  II,  H  h  only 
 
466         Difputes  among  the  Catholics,     [cent.  17. 
 
 only  Chriftian  power   now  permitted  to  trade  in 
 that  country. 
 
 The  conduct  of  the  Jefnits  in  thefe  millions  has 
 not  efcaped  cenfure  in  other  refpects.     It  was  af- 
 ferted  by  the  Dominicans  and  other  adverfaries  of 
 that  enterprifing  order,  that   they  extended  their 
 ideas  of  toleration  to  a  culpable  extreme,  and  per- 
 mitted the  unnatural  union  of  the  abfurdities  of  pa- 
 ganifm  with  the  religion  of  the  gofpel.  A  long  con - 
 teft  was  fupported  upon  this  fubject  by  the  two 
 contending  orders ;  and  (ucceflive  popes,  as  their 
 intereft   or  caprice  dictated,    approved   or   con- 
 demned the  lenity  which  the  Jefufts  had  fhewn  to 
 the  Chinefe  fuperltitions. 
 
 This  was  not  the  only  controverfy  which  exifted 
 between  the  Dominicans  and  the  order  of  Jefus.  A 
 tedious  difpute  on  the  indeterminable  queftions  of 
 grace  and  free  will  was  carried  on  for  fome  years 
 with  fufficient  acrimony  on  both  fides.  The  Do- 
 minicans, indeed,  during  this  century,  waged  the 
 war  of  words  with  confiderable  vehemence,  and 
 with  different  adverfaries.  The  -nonfenfical  de- 
 bate with  the  Francifcans  concerningthejmmacu- 
 late  conception  was  revived,  principally  in  Spain, 
 The  controverfies  with  the  Janfeniii  and  MoliniuY 
 heretics  are  referved  for  another  chapter. 
 
 While  the  catholics  were  anxioufly  employed  in 
 the  propagation  of  their  faith  among  pagan  nation?, 
 they  were  not  inattentive  to  the  great  object  of  re- 
 tailing within  the  pale  of  the  church  thofe'who  in 
 .      2  the 
 
cent.  17.]  Conference  of  Charity.  467 
 
 the  preceding  century  had  feparated  from  it.  To 
 this  end,  every  means,  lawful  and  unlawful,  was 
 employed.  Amicable  conferences  were  held  at 
 different  periods,  but  all  with  the  fame  fuccefs. 
 Two  were  held  at  Ratifoon,  in  1601,  one  at  Dour- 
 lach,  in  1612,  and  one  at  Neubourg,  in  1615. 
 But  the  mod  famous  was  that  which  was  called  the 
 Conference  of  Charity,  and  which  was  held  at 
 Thorn,  in  Polifh  Pruffia,  in  1645,  by  order  of 
 Uladiflaus,  king  of  Poland.  This  conference  was 
 intended  to  effecl:  a  complete  union  between  the 
 Romifh,  Lutheran,  and  reformed  churches  ;  but  fo 
 many  infuperable  impediments  were  found,  that 
 the  eminent  perfons  who  afhfted  at  the  conference 
 departed  completely  difTatisfied  with  the  vain  at- 
 tempt *. 
 
 Unhappily  for  the  peace  of  Europe,  the  mif- 
 guided  zeal  of  the  catholic  party  condefcended  to 
 employ  other  means,  as  inconfiftent  with  the  fpirit 
 of  chriilianity,  as  charity  and  perfuafion  were  agree- 
 able to  it.  The  bigotry  of  the  houfe  of  Auftrta 
 was  confidered  as  a  proper  inftrument  for  the  exe- 
 cution of  thefe  unjuftifiable  defigns,  and  Germany 
 was  once  more  deftined  to  be  the  feat  of  a  religious 
 war.  Violent  perfeciuions  were  excited  in  the 
 Auftrian  dominions,  whence  all  thofe  of  the  re- 
 formed religion,  who  had  the  good  fortune  to  efcape 
 the  fword  or  the  flames,  were  completely  expelled. 
 The  Bohemian  proreftants  adtecj  with  more  fpirit, 
 
 *    Fcnr.cy,  Mofheim,  &c. 
 
 .H  h  2  but 
 
468  Religious  Leagues.         [cent.  17* 
 
 but  with  equally  ill  fuccefs.  The  kingdom  of  Bo- 
 hernia  had  been  pofTefled  peaceably  by  the  lineal 
 defcendants  of  Ferdinand,  the  brother  and  fucceffor 
 of  Charles  V.  till  the  latter  years  of  the  emperor 
 Matthias,  who  governed  that  kingdom  in  conjunc- 
 tion with  Hungary*  It  has  been  already  ftated  that, 
 by  the  treaty  of  PaCFau,  liberty  of  confcience  was 
 extended  to  all  the  protectants  of  Germany  without 
 exception,  but  at  that  period  the  term  was  gene- 
 rally fuppofed  to  apply  to  thofe  who'  adhered  to  jhe 
 confeffion  of  Augfburg.  In  the  beginning  of  this 
 century,  therefore,  the  catholics  began  to  infift  that  • 
 thofe  of  the  CalviniCtic  pcrfuafion  were  not  inducted 
 in  the  treaty ;  they  carefTed  the  old  protectants,  and  in 
 particular  the  houfe  of  Saxony,  between  whom  and 
 the  Palatinate  fome  feeds  of  jealoufy  were  fuppofed 
 to  exift.  The  CalviniCtic  princes,  and  (tates  on  the 
 other  hand,  who  faw  more  clearly  than  the  Luthe- 
 rans the  deep  defigns  of  the  church  of  Rome,  and 
 apprehended  rightly  that  they  were  only  the  firft  of 
 the  proteftants  who  were  deCtined  to  the  flaughter, 
 formed  amongft  themfelvcs  a  league  which  they 
 termed  the  Evangelical  Union,  and  which  wasim- 
 mediately  followed  by  a  catholic  league,  at  the  head 
 of  which  was  the  duke  of  Bavaria,  the  profeffed 
 rival  of  the  elector  palatine. 
 
 In  this  ftate  of  things  the  impatience  of  the  Bo- 
 hemians, who  felt  in  fome  inftances  their  religious 
 liberties  invaded,  accelerated  a  crifis,  which  by  pru- 
 dent counfels  might   at  leaft  have  been  deferred. 
 
 Previous 
 
■cent.  17.]  Religious  V/ar,  469 
 
 Previous  to  the  death  of  the  emperor  Matthias, 
 ibme  popular  tumults  had  broken  out  in  that  king- 
 dom ;  and  immediately  upon  his  deceafe,  in  1618, 
 they  declared  his  nephew  Ferdinand  (who  alfo  fuc- 
 ceeded  him  in  the  empire)  unworthy  of  the  crown, 
 and  proceeded  to  elect  Frederic,  the  elector  pala- 
 tine, king  of  Bohemia.  Supported  only  by  a  di- 
 vided and  inconflant  people,  and  by  faithlefs  allies, 
 this  young  prince,  allured  by  the  fplendour  of  a 
 crown,  too  haftily  acceded  to  the  rafh  propofal. 
 The  firft  events  of  the  war  afforded  a  favourable 
 profpe£t;  but  he  was  foon  deferted  by  the  prince 
 of  Tranfylvania,  who  had  with  apparent  earneft- 
 nefs  embarked  in  his  caufe  ;  and  the  daftardly  and 
 worthlefs  James  I.  of  England  was  too  timid  and 
 too  felfifh  to  afford  afliftance  to  his  unfortunate 
 fon- in-law.  In  the  fatal  battle  of  Prague,  Frederic 
 not  only  loft  his  new  acquisitions,  but  even  his  he- 
 reditary dominions.  Ferdinand  recovered  Bohe- 
 mia, Moravia,  and  Sileha.  The  duke  of  Bavaria 
 fucceeded  to  the  Palatinate,  and  the  electoral  dig- 
 nity ;  and  the  elector  of  Saxony,  who  had  conde- 
 fcended  in  this  war  to  become  an  inftrument  of  the 
 popilh  faction,  received  for  his  reward  Lufatia,  as 
 a  fief  of  the  kingdom  of  Bohemia  *.  The  unfortu- 
 nate prince  was  reduced  to  the  (late  of  a  fugitive 
 and  a  fuppliant  at  foreign  courts ;  che  protectants  of 
 Bohemia,   Moravia,  and    Hungary  f,  were  plun- 
 
 *  Puffenderf*s  Introdua. 
 
 T  In  1671,  a  partial  perfecution  was  again  excited  in  Hun- 
 gary, and  the  remaining  proteftants  were  quite  extirpated. 
 
 H  h  3  dered 
 
47°  Guftavus  Adolpbus.  [gent.  17, 
 
 dered  of  their  property,  and  banifhment  was  the 
 fmalleft  of  perfonal  evils  to  which  the  wretched 
 fufferers  were  expofed. 
 
 The  edict  of  restitution,  iffued  by  the  emperor, 
 which  enjoined  the  proteftants  throughout  the  em- 
 pire to  reftore  implicitly  to  the  church  all  the  pro- 
 perty of  which  it  had  been  deprived  fince  the  treaty 
 of  Paffau,  juftly  alarmed  the  reformed  princes  and 
 ftates;  and  a  league  was  formed  in  1629,  at  the 
 head  of  which  appeared  the  celebrated  Guftayus 
 Adolphus,  king  of  Sweden.  This  accomplished 
 general  foon  reftored  the  affairs  cf  the  proteftants ; 
 and  completely  defeated  the  imperial  army  in  the 
 memorable  battle  of  Leipfic.  In  the  year  1632* 
 Guftavus  loft  his  life  in  the  battle  of  Lutzen, 
 though  his  army  was  victorious.  He-had  however 
 laid  fuch  a  foundation  of  power  and  unanimity 
 previous  to  his  death,  that  the  affairs  of  the  pro- 
 teftants fuifered  lefs  from  this  irreparable  lofs  than 
 might  have  been  expected.  The  war  was  carried 
 en  with  various  fuccefs  for  a  feries  of  years,  and  at 
 iength,  in  1648,  was  concluded  by  the  peace  of 
 Weftphalia,  which  eftabliihed  the  prbteftant  reli- 
 gion in  thofe  ftates  of  Germany  where  it  is  now 
 profeffed,  and  defined  the  power  of  the  emneror 
 and  other  members  of  the  Germanic  body  *. 
 
 During  this  unhappy  period  Germany  was  not 
 the  only  country  which  experienced  the  miferies  of 
 
 /digious  contelts.     In,  the fmall  province  efYalic- 
 
 •1 
 
 *  FXendoif,  Mofheim,  &c. 
 
 line. 
 
ce  n  T.  1 7 .  ]  Majfacre  of  Valtelme:  47  \ 
 
 jine,  in  the  country  of  the  Grifons,  the  reformation 
 had  made  confiderable  progrefs ;  and  no  expedient 
 prefented  itfelf  to  the  Romifli  clergy  fo  Jikely  to 
 reduce  this  canton  under  the  fpiritual  dominion  of 
 the  pope,  as  that  of  inviting  the  Spaniards,  who 
 were  then  in  poifeflion  of  the  duchy  of  Milan,  to 
 aflume  the  temporal  authority.  In  the  attainment 
 of  this  object  a  moil  dreadful  maffacre  of  the  pro- 
 tectants was  perpetrated  ;  upwards  of  five  hundred 
 perfons  furTered  in  this  fmall  territory,  and  all  the 
 ftores  of  cruelty  were  exhaufted  in  the  invention 
 of  tortures.  The  mouths  of  fome  were  filled  with 
 gunpowder,  which  was  immediately  exploded;  in- 
 fants were  murdered  at  their  mothers'  breads ;  and 
 fo  complete  was  the  {laughter,  that  tfee  proteflant 
 religion  was  for  ever  extirpated  *. 
 
 The  unfortunate  Vaudois  had  been  the  victims 
 of  perfecution  during  every  religious  war  from  the 
 thirteenth  century.  In  1655,  they  were  compelled 
 by  the  duke  of  Savoy  to  emigrate,  in  the  midft  of 
 a  fevere  winter,  from  their  native  country,  and  their 
 lands  were  affigned  to  the  Irilh  foldiers  that  had 
 been  banillied  by  Cromwpll.  Before  the  unarmed 
 multitude  however  had  time  to  retreat,  the  inhuman 
 tyrant  let  loofe  upon  them  the  "  dogs  of  war," 
 and  numbers  were  butchered  in  every  form  of  cru- 
 elty. The  capricious  monarch  in  three  years  re- 
 voked his  edict,  and  permitted  the  remnant  to 
 return  "f-. 
 
 *  Formcy.  +  Ibid. 
 
 H  h  4  It 
 
472  AJfajfination  of  Henry  IV.      [cent.  17. 
 
 It  is  well  known  that  in  the  year  1610,  the  cele-    - 
 brated  Henry  IV.  of  France,  who  with  innume- 
 rable blemifhes  was  certainly  poffefled  of  a  great 
 mind,  fell  a  victim  to  the  fanaticifm  of  a  ruffian 
 named  Ravaillac,  who  (tabbed  him  in  his  coach,  as 
 he  parTed  along  the  ftreet  amidft  the  acclamations 
 of  his  people.  During  the  feeble  minority  of  his  fon 
 Lewis  XIII.  the  catholic  party  gained  the  afcen- 
 dancy  ;  and  during  the  corrupt  admin iftrat ions  of 
 Richelieu  and  Mazarin,  the  Hugonots  were  uni- 
 formly oppreffed.   They  were  fucceffively  deprived 
 of  all  the  ftrong  places  which  they  held  j  the  reduc- 
 tion of  Rochelle  by  famine  in  1628,  in  the  liege  of 
 which  above  two-thirds  of  the  citizens  perifhed, 
 after  languishing  without  bread  for  thirteen  weeks, 
 proved   the   termination    of  their  power.      In  a 
 word,  the /acred  and   irrevocable  edict  of  Nantz 
 was  at  length  revoked  by  the  impoliric  perfidy  of 
 Lewis  XIV.  the  proteftant  churches  were  deftroyed 
 throughout  the  kingdom  ;   the  foldiery  committed 
 the  moft  fcandalous  exceiTes  ;  and,  after  the  lofs  cf 
 innumerable  lives,  fifty  thoufand  of  the  moft  valu- 
 able and  induftrious  citizens  of  France  were  forced 
 into  exile  *. 
 
 In  England  the  efforts  of  the  catholic  party  were 
 lefs  fuccefsful,  though  not  lefs  ftrenuous.  They 
 had  to  contend  with  a  wife  and  v/ell -compacted 
 eftablimment,  and  with  a  high-fpirited  and  power- 
 ful people.     As   therefore  open  force  and  perfe- 
 
 *  Formey,  &c. 
 
 cution 
 
cent.  17.3  Plots  in  England.  473 
 
 cution  could  not  be  employed,  artifice  and  con- 
 spiracy were  the  only  engines  which  could  be 
 wielded  for  the  extirpation  of  proteftantifm.  The 
 illuftrious  Elizabeth  was  Succeeded  in  1602  by 
 James  I.  the  fon  of  the  unfortunate  Mary  queen 
 of  Scots,  who,  for  her  attachment  to  popery  and 
 arbitrary  power,  and  her  licentious  conduct,  was 
 expelled  the  kingdom  by  her  exafperated  fubjects, 
 and  was  afterwards  beheaded  in  England.  Born 
 of  a  popifh  mother,  but  educated  by  rigid  Calvin- 
 ifts,  the  hopes  of  all  parties  were  elevated  on  the  ac- 
 ceffion  of  James  to  the  throne  of  England ;  but  the 
 Papifts  and  Calvinifts  were  equally  difappointed, 
 and  James  appeared  a  Strenuous  Supporter  of  the 
 Englifh  hierarchy.  In  this  defperate  ftate  of  things 
 the  only  project  that  prefented  itfelf  to  the  bigots 
 of  the  catholic  party,  was  the  removal  of  a  prince 
 and  a  nobility  who  appeared  fo  unfavourably  dif- 
 pofed  to  the  re-eftablifhmentof  their  tenets.  From 
 the  period  of  his  coronation,  indeed,  it  is  faid  that 
 defigns  had  been  formed  for  depofing  James,  and 
 altering  the  Succeffion  in  fuch  a  manner  that  the 
 Romifh  religion  might  become  once  more  predo- 
 minant :  but,  by  the  unanimity  of  the  people,  thefe 
 defigns  were  difconcerted  *.  Deprefled  but  not 
 difarmed,  the  papiils,  in  the  year  1605,  determined 
 by  one  bold  ftroke  to  attempt  the  recovery  of  their 
 loft  authority;  and  this  was  no  lefs  than  the  de- 
 struction of  the  king,    prince  of  Wales,  and  the 
 
 *  See  Rapin's  Hlft.  of  Engl.  vol.  9.  8vo  ed.     Puffendorf,  &c. 
 
 7  whole 
 
474  Gunpowder  Pkt>  [cent.  17, 
 
 whole  parliament,  by  fpringing  a  mine  tinder  the 
 houfe  where  they  were  aflembled.  The  vaults 
 which  were  under  the  houfes  of  parliament  were 
 hired  by  fome  of  the  leaders  of  the  popifh  party  ; 
 an  immenfe  quantity  of  gunpowder  was  cautiouily 
 clepofjted,  and  a  perfonof  the  name  of  Guy  Fawkes 
 cheerfully  devoted  himfelf  as  the  inflrument  of  de- 
 (tru&ion.  The  tendernefs  or  friendfhip  of  fome 
 of  the  party  to  an  individual  difconcerted  the 
 fcheme.  An  anonymous  letter  difcovered  the 
 whole  proceedings  to  the  lord  Mounteagle ;  the 
 vaults  were  fearched,  the  powder  was  found,  with 
 the  devoted  bigot,  who  waited  with  a  lanthorn  and 
 candle,  to  fet  fire  to  the  train  which  in  a  few  hours 
 was  to  conflgn  himfelf,  along  with  the  enemies  of 
 his  faith,  to  the  judgment  of  eternity.     . 
 
 The  troubles  which  fucceeded  in  the  reign  of 
 Charles  I.  when  religious  difputes  were  unaccount- 
 ably blended  with  civil  contentions,  fufficiently  re- 
 venged the  catholics  upon  the  church  of  England. 
 When  the  papal  authority  was  abolifhed  in  Eng- 
 land and  other  countries  of  Europe,  the  abufes  of 
 the  Romiih  hierarchy  led  the  mifguided  zeal  of 
 many  well-dilpofed  perfons  to  condemn  every 
 cdablimment  which  retained  the  remotcft  refem- 
 blance  to  that  form  of  ecclefisflical  government. 
 The  Brownifls,  a  conliderable  feci,  openly  avowed 
 thefe  fentiments  in  the  preceding  century  ;  and  at 
 the  beginning  of  this  the  principles  of  Calvinifm, 
 and  their  ideas  cf  church  government,  had,  been 
 
 propagated 
 
cent.  17.]  Civil  V/ar  in  England.  475 
 
 propagated  with  great  rapidity  in  England  as  well 
 as  in  Scotland.     The  unhappy  difputes  which  toolc 
 place  between  Charles  and  his  parliament  concern- 
 ing the   right  of  railing  money  on   the  people, 
 proved  the  fignal  for  the  fectaries  to  exclaim  loudly 
 for  a   change  in  the  government   of  the   church. 
 The  trifling  and  pedantic  attention  of  Laud  arch- 
 bimop  of  Canterbury  *   to  petty  forms  and   un- 
 meaning ceremonies,  lent  a  femblance  of  probabi- 
 lity to  the  popular  clamour  which  was  excited  con- 
 cerning the  king's  intention  of  introducing  popery  ; 
 and  his  marriage  with  a  popifti  princefs,  Henrietta 
 of  France,  increafed  the  fufpicion.     When  there- 
 fore the  parliament  proved   victorious   over  the 
 monarch,   even  thofe  who    had    been  previoufly 
 well  affected  to  the  church  blended  in  the  fame 
 condemnation  both  Charles  and  his  religion,  and 
 patiently  fubmitted  to  the  annihilation  of  the  Eng- 
 lifh  hierarchy.     The  corrupt  views  of  the  ufurper 
 Cromwell,    who  affumed    the  government  under 
 the  title  of  Protector,   led  him   to   difcountenance. 
 every  power  but  that  of  the  military,  which  might 
 endeavour  to    eftablilh    itfelf  in  the  date.     The 
 tenets  of  the  independent  party  were  warmly  em- 
 braced by  Cromwell;  and  the  ecclefiaftical  date  of 
 England  was  foon  divided   amongft   a  number  of 
 difcordant  churches,   who  vied  with  each  other  in 
 extravagance  and  fanaticifm.     The  reftoration   of 
 Charles  II.   re-eftablimed  the  form  of  church  go- 
 
 *   See  Macauby's  Hift.  of  England. 
 
 v  eminent, 
 
47  6  lrijh  Moffat  ■  [cent,  17. 
 
 vernment,  which  had  been  overthrown  at  the  death 
 of  his  father;  but  a  liberal  toleration  was  ftill  per- 
 mitted to  all  diffenters  who  chofe  peaceably  to  fub- 
 mit  to  the  civil  government. 
 
 The  church  in  Scotland  underwent  a  fimilar  re- 
 volution. Indeed  that  kingdom  was  firft  excited 
 ro  arms  by  the  inclination  of  the  monarch  to  im- 
 pofe  upon  it  epifcopal  authority.  During  the  com- 
 monwealth, the  prefoyterian  form  was  eftabliihed 
 in  Scotland  ;  and  on  the  return  of  Charles  II.  the 
 kingdom  was  completely  fubjecled  to  the  epifcopal 
 form  of  government. 
 
 The  Catholics  were  not  tame  fpectators  of  thefe 
 
 tranfa&ions  ;    and  as  Ireland  was  the  only  part  of 
 
 ...  .  1 
 
 the  Bntifh  dominions,  which  feemed  to  promife 
 
 any  degree  of  fuccefs  to  their  machinations,  a  num- 
 ber of  Jefuit  mifTionaries  were  difpatched  thither, 
 as  foon  as  the  conteft  between  Charles  and  his  par- 
 liament rendered  the  crifis  favourable  to  their  de- 
 ligns.  The  artful  minifters  of  perfecution  were  not 
 unfuccefiful  in  reviving  the  ancient  prejudices 
 of  the  Irim.  A  dreadful  rebellion  and  malTacre 
 was  excited  throughout  the  kingdom. •'■■  lo  a  few 
 months  upwards  of  200,000  were  facrificcd.  The 
 province  of  Ulfter,  which  was  principally  inhabited 
 by  Proteftants,  was  entirely  depcpulared  by  the 
 lofs  of  140,000  of  its  inhabitants.  The  tortures 
 employed  on  the  occafion  would  furpafs  all  credi- 
 bility, were  they  not  attefted  by  the  mod  authentic 
 teftimonies.     New-born  infants  were  committed  to 
 
 the 
 
cent.  1 7.]  Frotcftant  Churches  in  America.  .477 
 the  flames,  and  fomeeven  ripped  alive  out  of  their 
 mothers' wombs  and  burnt;  many  expired  upon 
 tenter-hooks  in  lingering  torments  j  and  other 
 inventions  of  cruelty  too  {hocking  to  be  named 
 were  publicly  exhibited  for  the  fport  of  the  rab- 
 ble *.  The  army  of  Cromwell  reduced  the  whole 
 kingdom  within  the  fpace  of  one  year  (i64S),and 
 gave  to  the  papal  authority  a  blow,  which  in  that 
 ifland  it  has  never  been  able  to  recover.     . 
 
 Among  the  circumstances  favourable  to  the  pro- 
 teftant  religion,  which  refulted  from  the  troubles 
 in  England,  was  the  colonization  of  feveral  large 
 diftri&s  of  North  America.  As  the  different  fides 
 were  predominant,  fuch  of  the  oppreffed  party  as 
 were  peaceably  difpofed  emigrated  at  different 
 times  to  that  diftant  continent,  and  planted  a  num- 
 ber of  protectant  churches,  which  have  almoft  uni- 
 formly to  the  prefent  time  perfevered  in  the  fy (terns 
 of  their  ancestors. 
 
 The  death  of  Charles  II.  once  more  revived  the 
 hopes  of  the  catholic  party  in  the  Britifh  domi- 
 nions ;  James  II.  an  inflexible  bigot,  left  no  lira- 
 tagem  unpracTifed  for  the  introduction  of  popery. 
 On  this  occafion  the  utility  and  excellence  of  the 
 Englim  hierarchy  was  felt  and  admitted  by  all.  A 
 fallacious  proclamation  was  iffued  by  James,  under 
 the  pretence  of  extending  toleration;  but  its  true 
 object  was  to  place  all  the  offices  of  truft  in  the 
 hands  of  papifts.     The  proteftant  diflenters  were 
 
 *   See  Sir  John  Temple's  Hifh  of  the  Irifb.  Rebellion. 
 
 univerially 
 
478  Revolution  in  England.         [cent.  17. 
 
 univerfally  impofed  upon  by  this  fpecious  pretence; 
 but  the  temperate  fagacity  of  the  bifhops  juftly  ap~ 
 prehended  the  intended  confequences ;  they  ftrenu- 
 oufly  contended  and  petitioned  againft  the  procla- 
 mation ;  they  alarmed  the  fears  of  the  protectants  . 
 throughout  the  kingdom.  The  bigoted  James 
 was  expelled  from  the  throne  in  the  year  168S,  and 
 his  fon -in-law,  William  prince  of  Orange,  was 
 elected  by  the  free  voice  of  the  people,  and  both 
 the  civil  and  ecclefiaftical  conftitution  was  placed 
 upon  a  better  and  more  liberal  foundation  *. 
 
 Agreeably  to  the  general  petition  of  the  Scottish 
 nation,  the  prefbyterian  form  of  church  govern- 
 ment was  eftablifhed  in  that  country  by  William 
 III.  and  the  fame  was  afterwards  confirmed  by  the 
 aft  which  effected  the  union  of  the  two  countries 
 in  1706. 
 
 Some  faint  hopes  were  entertained  in  the  begin- 
 ning of  this  century,  while  the  famous  Cyrillus.Lu- 
 car  was  at  the  head  of  the  Greek  church,  of  a  union 
 between  that  and  the  reformed  churches  of  Europe. 
 But  this  eminent  patriarch  being  feized  and  ftran- 
 gled  by  the  machinations  of  the  Jefuits,  thefe  hopes 
 were  prefently  dimpated-f-*  Several  well-meant 
 efforts  were  alfo  made  to  unite  under  one  form  of 
 worfhip  all  the  protectant  churches.  The  moil 
 remarkable  of  the  conferences  which  were  held  on 
 this  fubject  was  that  at  Leipfic  in    163 1.     Several 
 
 *  See  Acherfy's  Britannic  CoriftitUtiori,. 
 f  Former,  Cent.  17.  art.  7. 
 
 of 
 
c  £  ft  t .  17.]  Changes  in  Germany.  47  9 
 
 of  the  protcftant  princes  and  mod  eminent  proteft- 
 ant  divines  affifted  at  this  conference,  but  without 
 arty  fuccefs. 
 
 A  few  changes  took  place  in^he  religion  of  cer- 
 tain dates  of  Germany  towards  the  commencement 
 of  this  century,  which  it  may  not  be  improper  to 
 notice.  In  the  landgravate  of  Heffe,  the  Lutherans 
 and  the  Reformed,  or  Calvinifls,  had  hitherto  min- 
 gled in  onecommunion ;  fome  differences,  however, 
 arifing  between  the  divines,  the  Landgrave  Mau- 
 rice publicly  profefTed  the  reformed  religion  ;  and 
 in  1605  it  was  introduced  into  the  univerfity  of 
 Warburg,  and  became  the  prevailing  religion  of 
 the  irate.  In  i6i4alfo,  John  Sigifmund  elector  of 
 Brandenburg  renounced  the  Lutheran,  and  em- 
 braced the  reformed  religion.  The  tenets  of  Cal- 
 vinifm  were  however  not  admitted  by  the  elector 
 in  their  full  extent ;  thofe  in  particular,  which  re- 
 lated to  predeftination  and  divine  grace,  he  utterly 
 rejected  *. 
 
 *  Formey,  Mofheim,  &c, 
 
 C  H  A  P, 
 
[     43o     ] 
 
 CHAP.    II. 
 
 OF    DOCTRINES,     RITES,      AND    CEREMONIES    IN 
 THE  SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY. 
 
 Few  Alterations  in  the  eftablijhed  Doclrines  of  the  Ro/nijl) 
 Church — New  Societies  and  Orders — Congregation  and 
 Seminary  for  propagating  the  Faith — Vifitation  of  the 
 Bleffed  Virgin — Virgins  of  Love — Fathers  of  the  Oratory 
 —Priejls  of  MiJJions — Abbey  of  La  Trappe — Doclrines  of 
 
 Protefiants— -Lutherans — Cahinifis — Church  of  England. 
 
 i 
 
 AT  a  period  when  the  Romifh  church  was  in- 
 volved in  contefts  which  deftroyed  its  claim 
 to  univerfality,  and  almoft  endangered  its  very  ex- 
 itlence,  there  was  fcarcely  ieifure  to  attempt  either 
 improvement  or  alteration  in  the  eflablifhed  doc- 
 trines or  ceremonies  of  the  church.  Fanaticifm  is, 
 however,  an  active  principle,  and  where  it  cannot 
 exert  itfelf  in  great  undertakings,  it  will  frequently 
 apply  with  folicitude  to  lefTer  objects.  Where  it 
 cannot  inftitute  a  religion,  it  will  found  a  con- 
 vent; if  it  dares  not  extend  its  ficrilegious  hand  to 
 touch  the  effentials  of  an  eftablifhed  form  of  wor- 
 Ihip,  it  will  condefcend  to  the  reformation  of  the 
 monkiQi  habit,  or  add  a  new  penance  to  the  tedi- 
 ous ritual  of  the  monaftery. 
 
 Several 
 
cent.  17.]  Orders  for  Propagation  of  the  Faith.  481 
 
 Several  new  focicties  and  orders  were  inflituted 
 in  this  century ;  but  the  moll  laudable  of  all  was 
 that  which  was  formed  by  Gregory  XV.  in  1622, 
 and  termed  "  The  Congregation  for  the  Propa- 
 gation of  Faith."  It  confifts  of  thirteen  cardinals, 
 two  priefts,  one  monk,  and  a  fecretary.  Its  pof- 
 feffions  were  greatly  augmented  by  Urban  VIII. 
 and  by  the  liberality  of  innumerable  donors.  Un- 
 der the  patronage  of  this  fociety,  an  incredible 
 number  of  miffionaries  have  been  appointed  to  all 
 parts  of  the  world  ;  books  of  various  defcriptions 
 are  publiflied  at  its  expence,  and  feminaries  are 
 fupported  for  the  education  of  miffionaries,  as  well 
 as  for  the  inftrudion  of  pagan  youths,  who  are 
 fent  to  ftudy  at  Rome. 
 
 To  this  famous  eftablifhment  another  was  added, 
 in  1627,  by  Urban  VIII.  under  the  denomination 
 of  "  The  College  for  the  Propagation  of  Faith;" 
 and  this  feminary  is  entirely  appropriated  to  the 
 education  of  miffionaries  to  be  fent  among  diftant 
 nations.  The  munificence  and  piety  of  a  Spanifh 
 nobleman,  John  Baptift  Viles,  furnifhed  this  in- 
 stitution with  an  ample  fupport,  by  bequeathing 
 to  it  his  whole  pofleffions,  and  his  houfe,  a  noble 
 and  beautiful  ftructure,  for  the  immediate  ufe  of 
 the  college.  It  is  under  the  government  of  the 
 Congregation  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Faith. 
 A  limilar  feminary  was  inftituted  at  Paris  in  1663*. 
 
 Not  lefs  commendable,  either  in  the  motives  or 
 
 *  Mofheim. 
 
 Vol.  II*  I  i  ia 
 
482     All  charitable  Injlituiiens  abufed.     [cent.  17. 
 
 in  the  objects,  was  the  fociety  which  was  inftituted 
 in  1610,  by  St.  Francis  of  Sales,  under  the  un- 
 couth name  of  "  The  Vifitation  of  the  Blefled 
 Virgin."  The  peculiar  office  of  this  congregation 
 is  the  relief  and  fupport  of  the  fick  poor.  Louifa 
 the  Fat,  a  lady  of  diftinclion,  formed  a  fociety  of 
 **  Virgins  of  Love,"  or  "  Daughters  of  Charity," 
 for  the  fame  purpofe*. 
 
 The  misfortune  of  all  charitable  inftitutions  is, 
 that  the  felfiih  conduct  of  thofe  who  are  entrusted 
 with  the  management  feldom  permits  them  to  an- 
 fwer  the  intentions  of  the  founders.  But  however 
 the  focieties  which  we  have  juft  enumerated  may 
 deferve  commendation,  the  increafe  of  monkery, 
 that  is,  of  indolence,  of  pretended  celibacy,  and 
 all  the  vices  which  they  bring  along  with  them, 
 
 '  can  never  excite  approbation.  The  Fathers  of  the 
 Oratory  of  the  Holy  Jefus  originated  in  1613,  with 
 cardinal  Berulef;  and  in  1632,  n  the  Priefts  of 
 Millions"  were  formed  into  a  regular  order,  with 
 
 "  the  profeffed  view  both  of  fuperintending  the  fe- 
 minaries  for  miffionaries,  and  alfo  occasionally  in- 
 ftructing  the  peafantry  in  the  Chriftian  religion. 
 
 But  the  mod  lingular  and  moft  famous  order  is 
 that  of  the  reformed  Bernardins,  whofe  inflitution 
 may  be  attributed  to  Bouthelier  de  Rand,  after- 
 
 *  Formey. 
 
 f  Thefe  monks  do  not  relinquim  their  poflcfiions  on  entering 
 into  the  order,  but  are  excluded  from  taking  any  ecckfiaftical 
 benefices.     Mom.  < 
 
 •  wards 
 
cent.  17.]  AffeEting  Incident.  483 
 
 wards  abbot  of  La  Trappe.  This  extraordinary 
 perfon  was  eminent,  almofl  from  his  infancy,  for 
 his  uncommon  attainments  ;  and  at  the  age  of 
 twelve  or  thirteen,  he  publifhed  an  edition  of 
 Anacreon,  with  learned  annotations.  The  early 
 part  of  his  life,  it  is  faid,  was  tinctured  with  li- 
 centioufnefs  3  and  his  converfion  is  attributed  to 
 the  following  accident.  Among  other  profligate 
 connexions,  he  had  one  with  a  young  lady  of  un^ 
 common  beauty,  whom  he  paffidnately  loved. 
 After  a  fix  weeks  abfence  in  the  country,  he  re- 
 turned one  evening,  and  entering  by  a  back  (lair, 
 proceeded  directly  to  the  lady's  apartment,  with- 
 out having  the  patience  to  inquire  concerning  her 
 health,  or  fituation.  On  entering  the  chamber  he 
 found  it  illuminated  with  tapers,  and  hung  with 
 black.  On  his  approaching  the  bed,  he  beheld 
 his  miftrefs  in  her  fnroud,  dead  of  the  fmall-pox, 
 —all  her  beauty  extinguished  by  the  ravages  of 
 that  fatal  diftemper.  From  that  moment  he  re- 
 tired to  the  gloomy  folitude  of  La  Trappe,  and 
 fpent  the  lad  forty  years  of  his  life  in  the  mod 
 auftere  piety.  The  monks  of  La  Trappe  arev 
 among  the  raoft  rigid  of  the  Romifh  orders*. 
 
 Few  alterations  took  place  either  in  the  creed  or 
 ceremonies  of  the  eftablimed  protectant  churches, 
 in  this  century.  At  different  affemblies  and  fynods 
 their  doctrines  were  accurately  afcertained  and  de- 
 fined.    It  may,  therefore,  not  be  improper  in  this 
 
 *  Moflieim. 
 
 I  i  2  place 
 
484  Lutherans.  [clnt.  17. 
 
 place  to  exhibit  a  fliort  fketch  of  thefe  different 
 fyftems,  in  addition  to  what  was  ftated  concerning 
 them  in  the  hiftory  of  the  preceding  ce-ntury. 
 
 The  proteftant  churches  in  general  agreed  in 
 rejecting  the  Romifh  doctrines  relating  to  the 
 pope's  fupremacy,  the  traditions  of  the  church, 
 tranfubftantiation,  purgatory,  penance,  auricular 
 confeflion,  image  worfhip,  invocation  of  faints, 
 -  maffes  for  the  dead,  monadic  vows,  and  the  ad- 
 mitting more  facraments  in  the  church  than' two. 
 
 The  leading  doctrines  of  the  Lutheran  church. 
 are  as  follow : 
 
 I.  That  the  Holy  Scriptures  are  the  only  fource 
 whence  we  are  to  draw  our  religious  fentiments, 
 whether  they  relate  to  faith  or  practice. 
 
 II.  That  j unification  is  the  effect  of  faith,  ex- 
 clufive  of  good  works,  and  that  faith  ought  to  pro- 
 duce good  works,  purely  in  obedience  to  God,  and 
 not  in  order  to  our  justification. 
 
 III.  That  no  man  is  able  to  make  fatisfaction 
 for  his  fins. 
 
 The  Lutheran  church  is  ftriclly  epifcopal  in  two 
 kingdoms  of"Europe,  Denmark  and  Sweden  only; 
 in  other  parts  the  fupreme  rulers  of  the  church  are 
 termed  Superintendants. 
 
 The  diftinguifhing  tenets  of  the  Calvinists 
 are  comprehended  in  five  articles. 
 
 I.  That  God  has  chofen  a  certain  number  in 
 Chrift  to  everlafting  glory,  before  the  foundation 
 of  the  world,  according  to  his  immutable  purpofe, 
 
 and 
 
cent.  17.]  Cah'mijls.  485 
 
 and  of  his  free  grace  and  love,  without  the  leaft 
 forefight  of  faitlj,  good  works,  or  any  conditions 
 performed  by  the  creature:  and  that  the  reft  of 
 mankind  he  was  pleafed  to  pafs  by,  and  ordain 
 them  to  dishonour  and  wrath  for  their  fins,  to  the 
 praife  of  his  vindi&ive  jultice. 
 
 II.  That  Jefus  Chrift,  by  his  death  and  fuffer- 
 ings,  made  an  atonement  only  for  the  fins  of  the 
 elett. 
 
 III.  That  mankind  are  totally  depraved  in  con- 
 fequence  of  the  fall ;  and  by  virtue  of  Adam's  be- 
 ing their  public  head,  the  guilt  of  his  fin  was  im- 
 puted, and  a  corrupt  nature  conveyed  to  all  his 
 pofterity ;  from  which  proceed  all  actual  tranf- 
 greffions :  and  that  by  fin  we  are  made  fubject  to 
 death,  and  all  miferies,  temporal,  fpiritual,  and 
 eternal. 
 
 IV.  That  all  whom  God  has  predeflinated  to 
 life  he  is  pleafed,  in  his  appointed  time,  effectually 
 to  call  by  his  word  and  fpirit,  out  of  that  (late  of 
 fin  and  death,  in  which  they  are  by  nature,  to 
 grace  and  falvation  by  Jefus  Chrift. 
 
 V.  That  thofe-whom  God  has  effectually  called 
 and  fanftified  by  his  fpirit,  (hall  never  finally  fall 
 from  a  (late  of  grace*. 
 
 The 
 
 *  Mofheim's  Ecclef.  Hift.  vol.  iii.  p.  3  52.  vol.  iv.  p.  70.  Cal- 
 vin's Inftitutions,  p.  127.  Afleoibly's  Confeffion  of  Faith,  p.  3  5, 
 36,  48,  49,  67.  Charnock's  Works,  vol.  ii.  p.  1353,  1354. 
 Twiffe's  Works,  p.  220.     Dr.  Edwards's  Veritas  Redux,  p.  56, 
 
 89>  91>9i>  3l9>  32°>  32l>  358»  384*  39°»  45°«      Edwards  on 
 1  i  3  Original 
 
486  Church  of  England.  [cent,  17. 
 
 The  eftablifhed  Calvinifts  adopt  the  prefbyterian 
 form  of  government;  but  many  focieties,  fuch  as 
 the  independents,  anabaptifts,  Sec.  who  generally 
 profefs  the  Calviniftic  doctrines,  have  a  form  and 
 difcipline  peculiar  to  themfelves. 
 
 The  great  object  of  the  Englifli  reformers  was 
 to  retain  the  body  and  conflitution  of  the  primi- 
 tive church,  only  discarding  fuch  tenets  and  fuper- 
 ftitions  as  had  been  introduced  by  mere  human 
 authority,  fubfequent  to  the  apoftofic  times.  It 
 retains,  therefore,  the  primitive  form  of  church 
 government,  as  nearly  as  can  be  collected  from 
 the  hiflory  of  the  early  ages,  namely,  that  by 
 bifhops,  priefts,  and  deacons.  It  allows  of  other 
 offices  in  the  church,  fuch  as  metropolitans  and 
 archdeacons,  for  the  purpofe  of  order  a*nd  regula- 
 tion; but  the  above  are  the  only^orders  which  it 
 confiders  as  facred  or  apoftolical. 
 
 The  full  principle  which  this  church  affumes  as 
 the  groundwork  of  its  doctrines  and  tenets,  is,  that 
 no  article  of  faith  (hall  be  believed  by  any  man, 
 or  thought  neceffary  to  falvation,  which  is  not  con- 
 tained in  thofe  canonical  books  of  the  Old  and 
 New  Teftament,  of  whofe  authority  there  never 
 was  any  doubt  in  the  church. 
 
 Ildly.  It  ftates  the  doctrine  of  a  divine  Trinity 
 exifling  in  the  unity  of  the  Godhead,  as  a  fcriptural 
 doctrine;   and  alio  adopts  all  the  other  articles  of 
 
 Original  Sin,  p.  13,  40,  356,  36^.     Broughton's  Hiflorical  Li- 
 brary, vol,  i.  p,  195. 
 
 faith 
 
€ent.  17.]  Dotlrines  of  Church  of  England.  487 
 faith  which  are  fet  forth  in  the  Athanafian,  the 
 Nicene,  and  the  Apoftles'  creeds. 
 
 Illdly.  It  agrees  with  the  Calvinifts  in  admitting 
 the  doctrine  of  original  fin,  or  that  original  corrup- 
 tion which  is  attached  to  the  nature  of  man  by  the 
 tranfgreffion  of  our  firft  parents.  It  alfo  afferts  the 
 justification  of  man  through  the  atonement  and 
 merits  of  Jefus  Chrift. 
 
 IVthly.  The  efficacy  and  virtue  of  the  divine 
 grace  (which  is  commonly  termed  the  ordinary 
 operation  of  the  Holy  Ghoft)  in  influencing  the 
 wills  and  affections  of  mankind,  and  directing  them 
 to  the  performance  of  works  of  faith  and  righte- 
 oufnefs,  is  ftrongly  contended  for  in  the  articles  of 
 this  church. 
 
 Vthly.  It  treats  of  the  very  difficult  and  obfcure 
 queftions  relating  to  predeftination  and  election, 
 with  a  becoming  moderation,  and  reftrifls  the  fa- 
 vour and  mercy  of  God  to  no  particular  fociety  of 
 believers. 
 
 Vlthly.   With  refpect  to  the  facramenrs,   it  ad- 
 mits of  only  two,  baptifm  and  the  Lord's  fupper, ' 
 and  confiders  them  merely  as  outward  and  vilible 
 figns  of  an  inward  and  fpiritual  grace,  which  is 
 the  confequence  and  effect  of  faith. 
 
 In  other  refpects  the  church  of  England  agrees 
 with  the  great  body  of  proteftants  in  rejecting  the 
 Romifh  fuperflkions,  as  enumerated  above. 
 
 Ii  4  CHAP. 
 
[     4^8     ] 
 
 CHAP.     III. 
 
 OF    THE    SECTS    WHICH     APPEARED    IN    THE 
 SEVENTEENTH   CENTURY. 
 
 jfanfenijis — ^uietijls — Carteftans  or  Gocceians-~-Sublapfari- 
 ans  and  Supralapfarians — Arminians—Pietijls — Jacob 
 Behmen  —  Puritans —  Independents —  Seekers — Ranters-— 
 ■Fifth  Monarchy  Men — Quakers — S  abbatarians—Hattem  - 
 ijis — MuggletonianS)  &c. 
 
 inP^HE  feet,  which  attracted  the  moll  general  a*t- 
 JL  tention  during  the  courfe  of  this  century  was 
 that  of  the  Janfenifts,  the  founder  of  which  was 
 Cornelius  Janfen,  originally  profeflbr  of  divinity 
 in  the  univerfity  of  Louvain,  and  afterwards  bilhop 
 of  Ypres,  in  Flanders.  This  eminent  and  learned 
 perfon  became  early  attached  to  the  writings  of 
 St.  Augufiin,  and  had  imbibed  all  that  father's 
 opinions  concerning  the  nature  of  human  liberty 
 and  divine  grace.  The  chief  Jabour  of 'his  life 
 was  exhausted  on  the  digefting  of  thefe  opinions 
 into  a  regular  treatife,  which,  in  honour  of  his 
 mafter,  he  entitled  Auguftinus.  He  left  the  work 
 complete  at  his  death,  in  1638,  and  fubmitted  it, 
 by  his  laft  will,  to  the  holy  fee.  The  publica- 
 tion might  poffibly  have  pafTed  with  little  notice, 
 
 or 
 
CENT.  17.]  Janfenijls  ofpofed  by  the  Jefuits,  489 
 or,  at  the  mod,  like  many  other  fpeculations, 
 might  have  enjoyed  only  a  temporary  celebrity, 
 had  not  the  imprudence  of  the  Jefuits,  who  were 
 alarmed  by  an  imaginary  attack  upon  their  infal- 
 libility, felected  it  as  an  object  on  which  they 
 might  difplay  their  unbounded  influence.  The 
 famous  cardinal  Richelieu  was  not  favourably  dif- 
 pofed  to  the  mempry  of  its  author,  who  in  a  for- 
 mer work  had  condemned  the  politics  of  Fiance ; 
 and  uniting  therefore  with  the  Jefuits,  he  procured 
 the  condemnation  of  the  work  of  Janfen  by  fuc- 
 ceflive  bulls.  Perfecution  generally  produces  op- 
 pofition,  and  perhaps  the  unpopularity  of  the  Je- 
 fuits might  tend  conflderably  to  increafe  the  difci- 
 ples  of  Janfen.  His  doctrines  were  embraced  by 
 a  confiderable  party  both  in  France  and  the  Ne- 
 therlands, and  had  the  honour  to  rank  among 
 their  defenders  James  Boonen  archbimop  of  Ma- 
 lines,  Libertus  Fromond,  Anthony  Arnauld, 
 Blaife  Pafcal,  Peter  Nicholas,  Pafquier  du  Quef- 
 nel,  and  many  others  of  fcarcely  inferior  reputa- 
 tion. The  utmoft  vigilance  of  the  church  could 
 not  exclude  the  fpirit  of  Janfenifm  from  penetrat- 
 ing the  convents  themfelves ;  but  none  was  Co 
 diftinguifhed  as  the  female  convent  of  Port-Royal, 
 in  the  neighbourhood  of  Paris.  Thefe  nuns  ob~ 
 ferv.ed  the  ftrict  rules  of  the  Ciftertians ;  the  vale-in 
 which  the  convent  was  fituated  foon  became  the 
 retreat  of  the  Janfenift  penitents,  and  a  number  of 
 
 little 
 
49©  Quietifts.  [cent.  17. 
 
 little  huts  were  prefently  erected  within  its  pre- 
 cincts. After  various  viciflitudes  of  perfection, 
 in  1709,  the  nuns  refufing  to  fubfcribe  the  decla- 
 ration of  Alexander  VII. ;  the  weak  and  intolerant 
 Lewis  XIV.  ordered  the  whole  building  to  be  ut- 
 terly demolifhed. 
 
 The  principal  tenets  of  the  Janfenifts  are  as 
 follow :  1  ft.  That  there  are  divine  precepts,  which 
 good  men,  notwithftanding  their  .defire  to  obferve 
 them,  are,  neverthelefs,  abfolutely  unable  to  obey; 
 nor  has  God  given  them  that  meafure  of  grace 
 which  is  effentially  neceffary  to  render  them  capa- 
 ble of  fuch  obedience.  2d.  That  no  perfon,  in 
 this  corrupt  ftate  of  nature,  can  refift  the  influ- 
 ence  of  divine  grace,  when  it  operates  upon  the 
 mind.  3d.  That,  in  order  to  render  human  ac- 
 tions meritorious,  it  is  not  requisite  that  they  be 
 exempt  from  necejfity,  but  that  they  be  free  from 
 conjlraint.  4th.  That  the  Semi-pelagians  err 
 greatly  in  maintaining  that  the  human  will  is  en- 
 dowed with  the  power  of  either  receiving,  or  re- 
 futing the  aids  and  influences  of  preventing  grace, 
 cth.  That  whoever  affirms,  that  JefusChrjft  made 
 expiation,  by  his  fufFerings  and  death,  for  the  fins 
 of  all  mankind,  is  a  Semi-pelagian*. 
 
 The  feverity  with  which  the  Quietifts  were 
 treated  was  ftill  more  unpardonable  in  the  church 
 of  Rome.     This  feci:  was  indebted  for  its  origin, 
 
 *  Mofli.  Ecclef.  Hift.  vol.  iv.  p.  373,  379. 
 
 or 
 
•    c  e  n  t  .  1 7 .  ]  Mo  linos  condemned,  4  9 1 
 
 ©r  at  leaft  its  revival'-,  to  Michael  de  Molinos,  a 
 Spaniih  prieft,  who,  in  1675,  publifhed  a  treatife 
 under  the  title  of  the  Spiritual  Guide,  in  which  he 
 afferted  that  the  perfed  ftate  of  a  Chriftian  confifts 
 in  the  repofe  of  the  foul,  which  is  only  to  be  ob- 
 tained in  a  paffive  ftate;  fo  that  he  has  no  will  or 
 defire  that  is  properly  his  own  ;  that  he  refigns 
 himfelf  entirely  to  God  and  his  influence,  to  pro- 
 duce in  him  whatever  he  pleafes.  By  this  the 
 Chriftian  arrives  at  a  pure  love  of  God,  exempt 
 from  all  private  interefts;  he  thinks  of  neither  re- 
 wards nor  punifhments;  he  troubles  himfelf  nei- 
 ther about  his  falvation  nor  damnation;  on  the 
 contrary,  he  beholds  all  obje&s  with  a  perfect  in- 
 difference; and  in  this  ftate  he  cannot  fin,  he 
 ftands  in  no  need  of  any  exterior  divine  worfhip, 
 and  whatever  he  does  is  in  itfelf  indifferent. 
 
 True  policy  would  have  left  this  innocent  branch 
 of  enthufiafm  to  have  been  quietly  embraced  by 
 the  very  few  who  could  fumciently  wean  them- 
 felves  from  all  the  natural  propenfities,  to  conform 
 to  fo  rigid  a  principle ;  but  no  consideration  of 
 this  kind,  nor  even  the  friendihip  of  Innocent  %t. 
 could  fave  the  unfortunate  pried  from  perfecution. 
 He  was  apprehended  in  16S5;  his  doctrine  was 
 condemned  in  fixty-eight  proportions  ;  he  was 
 fentenced  to  a  public  penance,  and  to  perpetual 
 confinement  in  the  prifo'n  of  the  Inquifmon,  where 
 he  died  in  1696,  full  of  years  and  of  forrow.    The 
 
 *  In   mod  of  th'eir  tenets  the  Quietifts   exa&ly  agreed  with 
 fame  of  the  ancient  fcftaries.     See  alfo  this  Vol.  p.  z  \  z. 
 
 perfecution 
 
492  Camftanft  [cent.  17, 
 
 perfecution  was  extended  to  all  the  difciples  of 
 Molinos.  The  elegant  and  pious  Madame  Gtryon 
 was  perfecuted  and  driven  from  city  to  city,  and 
 more  than  once  committed  to  prifon :  in  the  bene- 
 volent Fenelon  ihe  found  an  advocate,  but  not 
 even  his  credit  could  fupport  the  caufe.  * 
 
 The  philofophy  of  Des  Cartes,  as  explained  and 
 inculcated  by  John  Coccius,  a  celebrated  divine  of 
 Leyden,  produced  in  this  century  a  controverfy 
 and  a  fed.  Coccius  reprefented  the  whole  hiftory 
 of  the  Old  Teftament  as  a  mirror,  which  held 
 forth  an  accurate  view  of  the  tranfa&ions  and 
 events  that  were  to  happen  in  the  church  under 
 the  difpenfation  of  the  New  Teftament,  and  to* 
 the  end  of  the  world.  He  maintained  that  by  far' 
 the  greater  part  of  the  ancient  prophecies  foretold 
 Cbrift's  miniftry  and  mediation,  and  the  rife,  pro- 
 grefs,  and  revolutions  of  the  church,  not  only 
 under  the  figure  of  perfons  and  tranfactions,  but 
 in  a  literal  manner,  and  by  the  very  fenfe  of  the 
 words  ufed  in  thefe  predictions;  and  laid  it  down 
 as  a  fundamental  rule  of  interpretation,  that  the 
 words  and  phrafes  of  fcripture  are  to  be  underftood 
 in  every  fenfe  of  which  they  are  fufceptible;  or, 
 in  other  words,  that  they  fignify  in  effect  every 
 thing  that  they  can  pombly  fignify. 
 
 The  refinements  of  Calvinifm  gained  an  afcen- 
 dancy  in  mod  of  the  reformed  churches  during 
 this  age  of  fpeculation ;  but  the  love  of  difputation 
 
 *  See  the  Life  of  Fenelon,  prefixed  to  a  fplendid  edition  in 
 quarto  of  Hawkfworth's  Telemachus,  publifhed  by  Kearfley. 
 
 would 
 
cent.  17.]  Sublapjarians ,  &V.  49 3 
 
 •would  not  permit  thefe  minute  inquiries  to  be  per- 
 fectly in  unifon  with  each  other.  Hence  arofe 
 the  diftinction  between  the  Sublapfarians  and  the 
 Supralapfarians :  the  former  aflerted  that  "  God 
 had  only  permitted  the  firft  man  to  fall  into  tranf- 
 greffion,  without  abfolutely  pre- determining  his 
 fall  \"  while  the  latter  maintained  that  ?'  God  had 
 decreed  from  all  eternity  the  tranfgreffion  of  Adam, 
 in  fuch  a  manner  that  our  firft  parents  could  not 
 pofiibly  avoid  this  fatal  event  *." 
 
 The  bold  and  unexpected  attack  of  Arminius 
 produced  between  the  jarring  parties  that  union 
 which  probably  might  otherwife  have  been  fardif- 
 tant.  This  ardent  champion  for  the  free-will  of 
 man,  who  had  been  the  difciple  of  Beza,  and  was 
 latterly  profeflbr  of  divinity  at  Leyden,  attacked 
 without  referve  the  favourite  doctrines  of  the  Cal- 
 vinifts  concerning  predestination  and  election, 
 which  were  again  defended  with  fome  warmth  by 
 Francis  Gomar,  one  of  his  colleagues.  The  death 
 of  Arminius  did  not  bring  the  controverfy  to  a 
 conclufion  ;  on  the  contrary,  afcer  many  attempts, 
 by  the  moderate  party  among  the  clergy  and  the 
 magifbates,  to  reftore  tranquillity,  the  only  expe- 
 dient that  feemed  likely  to  terminate  the  difpute 
 was  the  affembling  of  a  general  fynod,  which  met 
 at  Dort  in  1618.  At  this  aflembly  a  number  of 
 eminent  divines  attended  from  different  parts  of 
 Germany,    Switzerland,   England,  and  Scotland. 
 
 *  Mofljeim. 
 
 The 
 
494  Perfectuion  tf  the  A)  minians.     [ce n t-  i  7, 
 
 •  The  Arminians  were  declared  corrupters  of  true 
 religion,  fchifmatics,  &c.  The  Tupralapfarian 
 doctors  were  delirous  of  impofing  their  tenets  on 
 the  fynod,  but  the  moderation  of  the  BritiQi  di- 
 vines prevented  their  edablimment.  As  ufual  in 
 thofe  times  of  controverfy,  a  fharp  perfecution 
 followed  the  decifion.  The  ftadtholder,  prince 
 Maurice,  immediately  imprifoned  three  of  the 
 magistrates,  who  were  the  principal  fupporters  of 
 the  Arminian  party  j  John  Olden  Barnevelt,  a  per- 
 fon  highly  refpe&able  both  from  his  age  and  the 
 fervices  he  had  rendered  to  his  country,  Hugo 
 Grotius,  and  Rumbold  Hogerbeets.  Barnevelt 
 loft  his  head  on  a  fcaffold,  and  the  other  two  were 
 condemned  to  perpetual  imprifonment  *;  from, 
 which  however  Grotius  afterwards  efcaped,  and 
 took  refuge  in  France.  The  Arminians  were  ex- 
 pelled from  all  their  employments.  Some  years 
 afterwards,  the  brother  and  fucceffor  of  Maurice, 
 Frederic  Henry,  allowed  them  a  partial  tolera- 
 tion ;  and  Epifcopius  was  even  permitted  to  open 
 a  feminary  at  Amfterdam,  which  from  time  to 
 time  has  produced  excellent  fcholars.  They  have 
 however  been  lince  expofed  to  occafional  perfecu- 
 tions,  and  have  never  rifen  to  any  degree  of  im- 
 portance as  a  fociety.  Their  principal  doctrines 
 are  comprehended  in  five  articles,  ift.  That  the 
 Deity  has  not  fixed  the  future  ftate  of  mankind, 
 by  an  abfolute  unconditional  decree  ;    but  deter- 
 
 *  Fovmey,  Cert.  17.  art,  IU 
 2  mined 
 
cent.  17.]  'Jacob  Behmen.  493 
 
 mined  from  all  eternity,  to  bellow  falvation  on 
 thofe  who  he  forefaw  would  perfevere  to  the  end 
 in  their  faith  in  Jefus  Chrift  ;  and  to  inflict  everlaft- 
 ing  punifhments  on  thofe  who  mould  continue 
 in  their  unbelief,  and  refift  to  the  end  his  divine 
 affiftance.  2d.  That  Jefus  Chrift,  by  his  fufferings 
 and  death,  made  an  atonement  for  the  fins  of  all 
 mankind  in  general,  and  of  every  individual  in 
 particular :  that  however,  none,  but  thofe  who  be- 
 lieve in  him,  can  be  partakers  of  this  divine  bene- 
 fit. 3d.  That  mankind  are  not  totally  deprayed, 
 and  that  depravity  does  not  come  upon  them  by 
 virtue  of  Adam's  being  their  public  head  ;  but  that 
 mortality  and  natural  evil  only  are  the  direct  con- 
 fequences  of  his  fin  to  his  posterity.  4th.  That 
 there  is  no  fuch  thing  as  irrefiftible  grace  in  the 
 converfion  of  finners.  5th.  That  thofe  who  are 
 united  to  Chrift  by  faith,  may  fall  from  their  faith, 
 and  forfeit  finally  their  ftate  of  grace. 
 
 The  learned  Spener  was  the  father  of  Pietifm. 
 He  formed  focieties  at  Frankfort,  for  the  promo- 
 tion of  what  he  efteemed  vital  religion}  his  prin- 
 ciples chiefly  confifted  in  enforcing  the  auftere 
 practice  of  piety  and  virtue. 
 
 One  of  the  nioft  lingular  characters  which  ap- 
 peared in  this  century  was  Jacob  Boehm  or  Beh- 
 men, a  fboemaker  at  Gorlitz,  who  indulged  bim- 
 felf  in  a  variety  of  fpeculationson  the  moft  abftrufe 
 and  intricate  fubjecls.  He  mingled  what  was 
 termed  the  Roficrucian,  or  chemical  philofophy, 
 
 wkh 
 
496  Puritans.  [cent.  17. 
 
 with  the  myfteries  of  religion.  His  firft  work  was 
 entitled  Aurora,  or  the  rifing  of  the  fun,  which 
 being  cenfured  by  die  magiftrates,  he  remained 
 filent  for  feven  years,  and  then  refuming  his  pen, 
 in  the  courfe  of  about  five  years  publifhed  nearly 
 twenty  volumes.  Amongft  other  abftrufe  doc- 
 trines, Betarfien  taught  that  the  divine  grace  ope- 
 rates by  the  fame  rules,  and  follows  the  fame  me- 
 thods, that  the  divine  providence  obferves  in  the 
 natural  world ;  and  that  the  minds  of  men  are 
 purged  from  their  vices  and  corruptions  in  the 
 fame  manner  as  metals  are  purified  from  their 
 drofs. 
 
 The  name  of  Puritans  was  given,  at  a  very  early- 
 period  in  England,  to  thofe  perfons,  both  of  clergy, 
 and  laity,  who  difapproved  of  certain  rites  and 
 ceremonies  in  the  church,  fuch  as  the  ufe  of  the 
 furplice  and  other  garments,  which*  their  averfion 
 to  popery  induced  them  to  confider  evidently  in 
 too  ferious  a  light.  Well  affected,  however,  to 
 the  doctrines  of  the  church,  they  were  content  to 
 remain  within  its  pale,  till  a  considerable  body  of 
 thefe  difaffe&ed  members  were  drawn  off  in  1586 
 by  the  preaching  of  Robert  Brown,  who  attacked 
 the  hierarchy  itlelf ;  on  which  account  thefe  fecta- 
 ries  feparated  from  the  reft,  and  were  denominated 
 Brownifls,  as  was  remarked  in  the  hiftory  of  the 
 preceding  century. 
 
 With  the  doctrines  of  the  church  founded  by- 
 Calvin  at  Geneva,  a  coniiderable  refpect  for  its  dif- 
 cipline  was  alio  imported  \  and  foon  after  the  repa- 
 ration, 
 
cent.  1 7.]     Independents,  Seekers,  &c.  497 
 
 ration  of  the  Brownifts,  a  large  body  of  the  Puri- 
 tans openly  teftified  their  approbation  of  the  form 
 and  conduct  of  the  prefbyterian  church. 
 
 But  the  ardour  of  innovation  when  once  excited 
 is  not  eaiily  confined  within  moderate  limits ;  the 
 Puritans  therefore  foon  divided  into  a  variety  of 
 feels.  To  a  confiderable  number  even  the  prefby-  " 
 terian  form  of  government  did  not  appear  iufH* 
 ciently  democratical;  they  difcovered  that  the 
 church  at  Corinth  had  an  entire  judicature  within 
 itfelf  *;  and  upon  this  ground  they  determined  that 
 every  particular  congregation  of  Ciiriftians  had  a 
 complete  power  of  regulating  all. its  own  concerns, 
 independent  of  bifliops,  fynods,  or  prefbyteries  j 
 and  agreeably  to  thefe  principles,  they  aflumed  the 
 name  of  Independents.  This  feci  dates  its  origin 
 from  1 616. 
 
 The  Seekers  derive  their  name  from  their  main- 
 taining, that  the  true  church,. miniftry,  fcripture, 
 and  ordinances  were  loft,  for  which  they  were  reek- 
 ing. They  taught  that  the  fcriptures  were  uncer- 
 tain i  that  prefent  miracles  were  neceflary  to  faith  j 
 that  our  miniftry  is  without  authority  ;  and  our 
 worfhip  and  ordinances  unneceflary  or  vain-f. 
 The  Ranters,  who  arofe  about  the  fame  period, 
 were  nearly  fimilar  in  all  their  opinions. 
 
 The  Fifth-Monarchy- men  were  another  branch 
 from  the  fame  ftock,  and  were  fo  denominated 
 from  maintaining  that  there  will  be  a  fifth  uni- 
 
 *   I  Cor.  v.  12. 
 
 f  Calamy's  Abridgment  of  Baxter's  Hiftory,  vol.  i.  p.  1 10. 
 
 Vol.  II.  *Kk  verfa! 
 
498  Quakers.  [cent.  17. 
 
 verfal  monarchy  under  the  perfonal  reign  of  king 
 Jefus  upon  earth.  In  confequence  of  this  tenet, 
 they  aimed  at  the  fubverfion  of  all  human  govern- 
 ment *. 
 
 The  fociety  of  Quakers  was  inftituted  about  the 
 year  1650,  by  George  Fox,  a  fhoemaker  of  Not- 
 tingham. If  the  intemperate  zeal  of  this  itinerant 
 preacher,  which  led  him  frequently  to  intrude  him- 
 felf  into  other  religious  focieties,  and  to  declaim 
 againft  their  abominations,  feemed  to, invite  fome 
 chaftifement,  it  muft  be  confeffed,  on  the  other 
 hand,  that  the  fpirit  of  the  times  did  not  fuffer 
 him  to  be  difappointed.  He  was. ill-treated  by  all 
 parties  ;  and  even  Cromwell,  the  great  patron  of 
 lecTaries,  laboured  for  the  extinction  of  the  Quakers* 
 After  the  Reftoration,  the  two  celebrated  converts, 
 William  Penn  and  Robert  Barclay,  gave  to  the 
 Quaker  principles  the  form  of  a  regular  fyftem. 
 The  fociety  acquired  the  name  of  Quakers  from 
 the  agkation  and  trembling  with  which  they  fpoke 
 in  public;  but  the  appellation  of  Friends,  or 
 Friends  of  Truth,  is  that  by  which  they  defire  to 
 be  diftinguimed.  The  principal  points  maintained 
 by  the  Quakers  are  :  ift.  That  God  has  given  to 
 all  men  fufficient  light,  which  will  work  out  their 
 falvation  unlefs  refilled  ;  that  this  light  is  not  lefs 
 univerfal  than  the  feed  of  fin,  and  faves  thofe  who 
 have  not  the  outward  means  of  falvation  ;  and  that 
 this  light  is  a  divine  principle,  in  which  God,  as 
 
 *  Molheim, 
 
 Father, 
 
cent.  17.]  Their  Teneh,  499 
 
 Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Spirit,  dwells ;  which  the 
 fcriptures  call  "  Chrift  within,  the  hope  of  glory." 
 2d.  That  the  fcriptures  are  not  to  be  efreemed  the 
 principal  ground  of  all  truth  and  knowledge,  nor 
 yet  the  primary  rule  of  faith  and  manners ;  never- 
 theless, becaufe  they  give  a  true  and  faithful  tefti- 
 mony  of  the  firft  foundation,  they  are  and  may  be 
 efleemed  a  fecondary  rule  fubordinate  to  the  Spirit, 
 from  whom  they  derive  their  excellence.  3d.  That 
 immediate  revelation  is  not  ceafed,  a  meafure  of 
 the  Spirit  being  given  to  every  one.  4th.  That  as 
 by  the  light  or  gift  of  God  all  fpiritual  knowledge 
 is  received,  thofe  who  have  this  gift  ought  to 
 preach,  though  without  human  commiffion  or  lite- 
 rature ;  and  as  they  have  freely  received  this  facred 
 gift,  fo  ought  they  freely  to  give  it :  and  that  any 
 perfon  of  a  fober  life,  without  diftinction  of  fex,  is 
 allowed  to  preach,  when  moved  by  the  Spirit. 
 5th.  That  all  true  and  acceptable  worfhip  to  God 
 is  offered  by  the  inward  and  immediate  moving  of 
 his  Spirit.  6th.  That  water  baptifm,  and  the 
 Lord's  fupper,  were  only  commanded  for  a  time. 
 The  moral  doctrines  of  the  Quakers  are  chiefly 
 comprehended  in  the  following  precepts  :  1.  That 
 it  is  not  lawful  to  give  to  men  fuch  flattering 
 titles,  as,  your  Grace,  your  Lordihip,  your  Ho- 
 nour, ccc.  or  to  ufe  thofe  flattering  words  com- 
 monly called  compliments,  or  even  to  make  ufe 
 of  the  plural  you  inftead  of  the  Angular  thte9  which 
 was   originally  done  out  of    flattery.      2.    That 
 
 Kkz  it 
 
500  Sabbatarians,  Muggletonians ,13c.  [cent,  ijl 
 it  is  not  lawful  for  Christians  to  kneel  or  proftrate 
 themfelves  to  any  man,  or  to  bow  the  body,  or  to 
 uncover  the  head  to  men.  3.  That  it  is  not  law- 
 ful for  a  Chriftian  to  ufe  fuch  fuperfluities  in  ap- 
 parel, as  are  of  no  ufe  except  for  ornament  and 
 vanity.  4.  That  it  is  not  lawful  to  ufe  games, 
 fports,  or  plays  among  Christians,  under  the  no- 
 tion of  recreations,  which  do  not  agree  with  Chrif- 
 tian gravity  and  fobriety ;  for  laughing,  fporting, 
 gaming,  mocking,  jefting,  vain  talking,  &c.  are 
 not  Chriftian  liberty,  nor  harmlefs  mirth.  5.  That 
 it  is  not  lawful  for  Christians  to  fwear  at  all  under 
 the  gofpel,  not  only  vainly,  and  in  their  common 
 difcourfe,  which  wasalfo  forbidden  under  the  law, 
 but  not  even  in  judgment  before  the  magiftrate. 
 6.  That  it  is  not  lawful  for  Christians  to-refift  evil, 
 or  to  war,  or  fight  in  any  cafe  whatever. 
 
 The  Sabbatarians  are  a  branch  of  the  Anabap* 
 tilts,  wh-o  only  differ  in  confecrating  the  JewiQi 
 Sabbath,  or  Saturday,  as  well  as  Sunday.  They 
 are  called  Ifraelites  on  the  continent.  The  Mug- 
 gletonians,  Hattemites,  Uckewallifts,  Labbadifts, 
 Verfchorifts,  &c.  who  derive  their  name  frojn  their 
 refpective founders,  were  mere  ephemeral  produc- 
 tions, and  differed  but  little  from  thofe  feds  already 
 defcribed. 
 
 CHAP. 
 
[     5oi     ] 
 
 CHAP.     IV. 
 
 OF      LEARNING      AND      LEARNED     MEN      IN      THE 
 SEVENTEENTH    CENTURY. 
 
 Golden  Jge  of  European  Literature — Bellarmin — BoJJiiet — 
 Baronius — Richelieu — Sirmond — Mariana —  Tillemont — 
 Father  Paul — Pafcal — Fenelon — Claude-^  Drelincourt— 
 Cappel — Bochart — The  Buxtorfs —  Epifcotius — Grotius — • 
 Laud — The  memorable  John  Hales — U/her — Hall — Tay- 
 lor— Stillingfleet — Cudworth — Wilkins—More  —  Which, 
 cot — Smith — Patrick — Tillotfon — Pocock  —  Cumberland— 
 Barrow — South — Burnet — Pearjon — Beveridge — Calamy 
 — Baxter — Poole — Bacon — Galileo — Des  Cartes  —  Gaf- 
 fendi — Newton —  Boyle — Shakefpeare — Milton ,  &c 
 
 THAT  natural  progrefs  to  maturity  or  perfec- 
 tion, and  from  perfection  to  decay,  which 
 is  inftanced  in  almoft  every  object  of  the  natural 
 world,  has  by  many  been  fuppofed  to  exift  with 
 refpect  to  the  literary  world  ;  and  to  fcience  and 
 learning,  the  terms  infancy  and  decline  have  been 
 commonly  applied.  Should  thefe  fpeculations  be 
 any  more  than  a  vifionary  theory,  founded  upon  a 
 fanciful  and  erroneous  analogy,  the  feventeenth 
 century  muft,  on  the  faireft  eflimate,  be  diflin- 
 guifhed  as  the  golden  age  of  European  literature. 
 For  the  reafons,  however,  which  were  ftated  in 
 the  laft  chapter  of  the  preceding  century,  many 
 names  which  are  highly  deferving  of  the  mod  re- 
 K  k  3  fpectful 
 
502  Bellarmin,  Bo/fitet,  &c.         [cent.  17'. 
 
 fpe&ful  mention  muft  be  wholly  omitted ;  and  with 
 refpect  to  thofe  which  are  noticed,  the  limits  of 
 this  work  will  admit  of  only  curfory  remarks.  • 
 
 During  thefe  declining  periods  of  the  Romifh 
 church,  there  were  not  wanting  able  defenders  of 
 her  doctrine  and  authority,  the  moft  illufhious  of 
 whom  were  Robert  Bellarmin,  who, from  an  oh  feu  re 
 Italian  Te.fuit,  was  raifed  to  the  dignity  of  cardinal, 
 and  the  celebrated  Bofluet,  bifhop  of  Meaux.  The 
 Expotition  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Faith,  by  Bof-' 
 iliet,  is  the  mod  fubtile  and  ingenious  apology  that 
 perhaps  was  ever  publillied  in  favour  of  a  fyftem 
 of  error  and  ufurpation.  It  was  not  however  re- 
 liflied.  by  the  rigid' adherents  of  popery  ;  it  was  con- 
 demned by  the  univerfity  of  Louvain  as  "  fcan- 
 dalous  and  pernicious,"  and  was  difavowed.by  the 
 Sorbonne ;  though  I  believe  it  is  now,  in  thefe 
 moderate  times,  very  generally  acknowledged  as 
 orthodox  by  the  catholic  church.  BofTuet  was 
 the  author  of  feveral  other  works,  and  is  among 
 the  moft  admired  of  the  French  preachers. 
 
 Cardinal  Baronius  was  alfo  indebted  for  his  ad- 
 vancement to  his  literary  abilities.  His  great 
 work  is  termed  Ecclefiaftical  Annals.  After*  the 
 death  of  Clement  VIII.  he  had  thirty  votes  for  the 
 pontificate,  but  was  excepted  again  ft  by  the  king 
 of  Spain,  on  account  of  a  treatife  which  he  had 
 compofed  concerning  the  Sicilian  monarchy.  The 
 celebrated  cardinal  de  Richelieu  muft  alfo  be  num- 
 bered among  the  defenders  of  the  Romifh  hierar- 
 chy ; 
 
cent.  1 7-]      Tilltmont,  Father  Paul,  &c.  503 
 
 chy  ;  though  an  infinuation  has  efcaped  Du  Pin, 
 that  the  controverfial  writings  which  pafs  under  his 
 name  are  not  really  his  *.  The  jefuits  Sirmond 
 and  Mariana  were  diftinguiftied  in  the  fame  caufe. 
 The  infamous  work  of  the  latter,  De  Rege,  &c.  is 
 faid  to  have  prompted  Ravaillac  to  the  aflafnnation 
 of  Henry  IV.  It  was  burnt  at  Paris  by  order  of 
 parliament.  Tillemont,  though  extremely  partial 
 jo  the  church  of  Rome,  deferves  a  high  place 
 among;  ecclefiaftical  hiftorians. 
 
 The  authors  of  the  Romifli  communion  did  not 
 all,  however,  devote  themfelves  implicitly  to  the 
 fupport  of  the  Romifli  doflrines.  The  name  of 
 Father  Paul  of  Venice  will  be  illuftrious  as  long  as 
 any  zeal  for  truth  and  liberty  continues  to  exift. 
 This  truly  uncommon  character  took  upon  him 
 very  early  in  life  the  habit  of  the  Services,  nor  could 
 the  mod  fplendid  offers  of  court  favour  and  emo- 
 lument allure  him  from  his  convent  and  his  fludies. 
 His  liberality  of  fentiment  expofed  him  to  a  fevere 
 perfecution,  and  he  was  at  length  aflaffinated  and 
 left  for  dead  by  five  ruffians,  who  retired  to  the 
 palace  of  the  pope's  nuncio  at  Venice,  whence  they 
 efcaped  to  Ferrara.  He  however  recovered  of  his 
 wounds,  and  lived  to  complete  his  incomparable 
 Hiftory  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  which  has  been 
 already  noticed.  A  pofthumous  work  on  the 
 Government  of  Venice,  attributed  to  him,  has  been 
 lately  publifhed  in  London,  by  a  foieign  noble- 
 
 *  Du  Pin,  Cent.  17. 
 
 K  k  4  man, 
 
504  Pafcal,  Fenelon,  [cent.  17. 
 
 man,  eminent  for  his  love  .of  literature.  If,  how- 
 ever, the  work  be  really  his,  there  is  much  reafon 
 to  fufpe'ct  it  of  great  interpolations,  as  lt-t.vidently 
 contains  fentiments  altogether  unworthy  of  this  ex- 
 cellent perfon. 
 
 The  celebrated  Pafcal  was  alfo  no  lefs  remark- 
 able for  his  liberality  than  for  his  piety.  His  Pro- 
 vincial Letters  were  the  fir  ft  effective  blow  which 
 ever  was  aimed  againft  the  credit  and  authority  of 
 the  Jefuits  *. 
 
 It  would  be  highly  culpable  n'U  to  mention  with 
 the  greateft  refpecl  the  nam*3  of  Fenelon,  archbi- 
 fhop  of  Cambray,  whofe  writings  have  contributed 
 perhaps  more  to  the  promotion  of  real  virtue  than 
 thofe  of  any  other  author  of  this  century.  His 
 admiration  and  pity  for  the  unfortunate  madame 
 Guyon  involved  him  in  a  feries  of  perfecutions,  as 
 a  favourer  of  the  doctrines  of  Quietifm  ;  and  his 
 book  concerning  the  Maxims  of  the  Saints  and 
 the  Internal  Life  was  condemned  at  Rome  on  the 
 1 2th  of  March  1699.  The  magnanimity  and  mo- 
 deration of  the  excellent  prelate  were  confpicuous 
 on  this  occafion  :  he  fubmiued  to  read  the  fen- 
 tence  againft  his  own  work  in  public  from  the 
 pulpit  at  Cambray,  and  carneftly  exhorted  his 
 hearers  to  refpect  and  obey  the  papal  decree-}-. 
 
 The  ftudy  of  ancient  literature  was  greatly  faci- 
 
 *  The  comedies  of  Moliere  (fays  Voltaire)  have  not  more 
 wit  than  the  firft  Provincial  Letters. 
 
 •j-  Life  of  Fenelon,  prefixed  to  Kaarfley's  edition  of  Hawkf- 
 worth's  Telemachus. 
 
 litated 
 
cent.  17.].     Society  of  Port  Royal,  &c.  505 
 
 litated  by  the  fplendid  and  valuable  editions  of  the 
 fathers  by  the  Benedictine  monks ;  and  dill  more 
 by  the  ufeful  labours  of  the  fociety  of  Port  Royal. 
 The  principal  of  thefe  authors  were  Robert  and 
 Anthony  Arnaud.  Anthony  and  Ifaac  Le  Maitre, 
 Claud  Launcelot,  Claud  de  St.  Manha,  and  Tille- 
 mont.  Mod  of  thefe  eminent  perfons  had  been 
 men  of  the  world,  and  had  (bone  in  the  different 
 departments  of  the  ftate  or  the  law,  and  retired  to 
 Fort  Royal  in  the  evening  of  life,  for  the  purpofe 
 of  coltivating  literature  and  virtue. 
 
 The  divines  of  the  reformed  church  were  not 
 inferior.  The  eloquence  of  Claude  and  Dreiin- 
 court  was  furpaffed  by  no  preachers  of  this  cen- 
 tury ;  and  the  profound  and  extenfive  erudition  of 
 Bochart,  Cappel,  the  Buxtorfs,  and  others,  exerted 
 in  the  nobleft  and  moil  ufeful  branch  of  literature, 
 the-  illuftration  of  fcripture,  will  be  always  ad- 
 mired. 
 
 Among  the  favourers  of  Arminianifm,  Epifco- 
 pius  and  Grotius  were  highly  eminent  for  their 
 extenfive  erudition.  The  Commentaries  of  Gro- 
 tius on  the  Holy  Scripture,  and  his  work  in  de- 
 fence of  the  Chriftian  Religion,  are  invaluable. 
 His  treatife  of  War  and  Peace  is  lefs  liberal  than 
 might  have  been  expected  from  fo  enlightened  a 
 mind  •,  but  it  was  probably  a  facrifice  either  to  gra- 
 titude or  intereft,  and  therefore  in  a  great  meafure 
 accommodated  to  the  prejudices  of  Lewis  XIV. 
 
 The  mere  catalogue  of  Englilh  writers  who  ex- 
 celled 
 
506  Laud.  [cent.  17. 
 
 celled  in  the  department  of  theology  during  the 
 feventeenth  century,  would  exceed  the  limits  of 
 this  chapter.  From  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  to 
 that  of  William  III.  every  branch  of  literature,  and 
 the  fludy  of  the  Greek  language  in  particular.,  was 
 cultivated  in  England  with  unremitting  affiduity. 
 The  fublime  fpeculations  of  Plato,  as  well  as  of 
 the  later  Platonifls,  were  adduced  to  the  illuilration 
 of  the  truths  of  the  Gofpel  by  a  fuccefiion  of  di- 
 vines, who  for  folidity  of  judgment  and  extent  of 
 erudition  have  fcarcely  been  equalled.  The  un-' 
 fortunate  and  miftaken  Laud  was  pofTefTed  of  one 
 quality  which  almoft  atones  for  his  many  errors  1*  ; 
 he  was  a  warm  and  active  patron  of  learning  and  * 
 genius  :  fuch  indeed  was  his  refpect  for  talents, ' 
 that  even  the  memorable  John  Hales,  whpfe  prin- 
 ciples were  in  many  refpects  diametrically  oppo- 
 ilte  to  his  own,  was  not  exempted  from  his  pa- 
 tronage -j~. 
 
 *  As  far  as  pofthumous  fame  is  defirable,  it  is  no  mean  ac- 
 quifition  to  have  commanded  the  applaufe  of  Dr.  Johnfon. 
 
 See,  when  the  vulgar 'fcape,  defpis'dor  aw'd, 
 
 Rebellion's  vengeful  talons  feize  on  Laud.  v 
 
 From  meaner  minds,  tho'  fmaller  fines  content, 
 
 The  plunder'd  palace  or  fequcfter'd  rent ; 
 
 Mark'd  out  by  dang'rous  pans  he  meets  the  f  <ock, 
 
 And  fatal  learning  leads  him  to  the  block  : 
 
 Around  his  tomb  let  art  and  genius  weep  ; 
 
 But  hear  his  death,  ye  blockheads,  hear  and  fleep. 
 f  In  the  works  of  Hales,  there  is  a  letter  to  Laud,  the  hap- 
 pieft  fpecimen  extant  of  independence  tempered  with  refpedfc. 
 
 The 
 
C£NT.  17.]        UJker3  Hall,  Taylor,  &c.  507 
 
 The  names  of  Uther  and  of  Hall  are  familiar  to 
 mod  readers.  The  former  was  primate  of  Ire- 
 land during  the  dreadful  rebellion  in  that  country, 
 and  was  obliged  to  fave  his  life  by  flight.  He  is 
 generally  efteemed  as  a  man  of  equal  integrity  and 
 candour  ;  and  his  fame  for  erudition  was  fuch  that 
 after  his  retirement  from  the  church,  the  univerfity 
 of  Leyden  made  him  an  honorary  profefTor,  and 
 cardinal  Richelieu  fent  him  his  picture,  with  liberal 
 offers  and  free  toleration,  if  he  would  make  France 
 the  place  of  his  refidence.  Befides  his  Annals  and 
 other  trea.tifes,  he  made  a  collection  of  the  Epidles 
 of  the  Primitive  Fathers.  Bifhop  Hall  was  a  man 
 of  learning,  moderation,  and  piety,  his  character 
 was  fo  high  among  the  members  of  the  reformed 
 churches,  that  he  was  appointed,  in  161 S,  to 
 preach  a  Latin  fermon  before  the  fynod  of  Dorr, 
 and  was  prefented  by  the  dates  with  a  gold  medal. 
 
 But  the  mod  elegant  fcholar,  and  the  mod  ufe- 
 ful  writer  of  this  period  was  Dr.  Jeremy  Taylor. 
 He  was  the  fon  of  a  barber  at  Cambridge,  and  was 
 introduced  to  public  notice  by  archbifhop  Laud. 
 During  the  depreffion  of  the  royal  party,  he  was 
 reduced  to  great  indigence  and  diftrefs;  but,  at  the 
 Redoration,  was  rewarded  with  the  bifhopric  of 
 Downe  and  Connor.  His  writings  confift  for  the 
 mod  part  of  practical  treatifes  of  piety  ;  and  while 
 they  intered  and  entertain  the  learned  by  the  keen- 
 neis  of  remark,  the  general  knowledge  of  the  hu- 
 man heart,  and  the  claflical  allufions  with  which 
 
 they 
 
508  Stilling  fleet  >Wilkins,&c.         [cent.  17. 
 
 they  abound,  they  are  ftill  more  extenfively  nfefui 
 in  affording  comfort  and  inft  ruction  to  the  plain 
 and  unlettered  Chriftian.  The  ftyle  is'eafy  and 
 harmonious,  and  every  fentence  contains  fome 
 ftriking  fentiment  or  obfervaiion.  The  late  Dr. 
 Johnfon  frequently  made  a  prefent  of  his  Holy 
 Living  and  Dying  even  to  young  perfons ;  and 
 whoever  will  compare  the  fermons,  which  he  has 
 written,  with  bifhop  Taylor's,  will  fcarcely  fail  to 
 perceive  that  Dr.  Johnfon  has  made  him  his  mo- 
 del, at  leaft  in  that  department  of  literature. 
 
 Thefe  eminent  divines  were  fucceeded  by  a  fe- 
 ries  of  men  in  the  church,  of  unbounded  erudition. 
 The  works  of  Stillingfleet,  bifhop  of  Worcefter, 
 abound  in  deep  refearch,  and  evince  the  mod  per- 
 fect knowledge  of  ancient  literature.;  yet  he  is 
 even  exceeded  by  Cudworth,  whofe  Intellectual 
 Syftem  contains  all  the  wifdom  of  the  ancient  me- 
 taphyfics. 
 
 Wilkins,  bifhop  of  Chefter,  was  a  man  of  fin* 
 gular  genius.  No  writer  ever  indulged  himfelf  in 
 bolder  projects,  and  none  has  adventured  in  them 
 with  equal  ingenuity.  Whether  .he  v  forms  a 
 fcheme  for  a  Philofophical  Language,  of  writes  a 
 treatife  on  the  Art  of  Flving,  he  is  always  plaulible, 
 always  ingenious,  always  perfuafive.  .-The  work 
 which  is  at  prefent  of  moft  general  utility  is  his 
 Ecclefiaftes,  or  Gift  of  Preaching,  which  contains 
 ufefuJ  instructions  to  young  preachers. 
 
 Dr.  Henry   More,    Dr.  Benjamin   Whichcot, 
 
 and 
 
4 
 
 cent.  1 7.]     Tillotfon,  Barrow ,  Burnet,  &c.     509 
 
 and  the  celebrated  John  Smith  of  Cambridge, 
 were  among  the  Engli(h  Platonifls,  and  were  ex- 
 celled by  few  in  learning,  fenfe,  and  virtue. 
 
 From  the  fame  fchool  proceeded  Patrick  and 
 Tillotfon  j  the  former  of  whom  is  perhaps  the  bed 
 commentator  on  the  fcriptures  extant ;  the  latter 
 is  too  well  known  to  need  commendation  in  this 
 place. 
 
 The  Polyglot  was  published  at  this  period,  by 
 Dr.  Bryan  Walton.  But  the  firft  oriental  fcholar 
 of  Europe  was  confelfedly  Dr.  Edward  Pocock. 
 Such  indeed  was  the  zeal  with  which  every  branch 
 of  learning  which  could  reflect  light  upon  the  fa- 
 cred  fcriptures  was  cultivated  in  England,  during 
 this  century,  that  biibop  Cumberland  (author  of 
 the  excellent  treatife  on  the  Laws  of  Nature)  at 
 the  age  of  eighty-three  applied  himfelf  to  the  ftudy 
 of  the  Coptic,  and  made  himfelf  mailer  of  that  in- 
 tricate language. 
 
 The  fermons  of  Dr.  Barrow  ought  to  conflitute 
 a  part  of  the  library  of  every  young  divine,  They 
 exhibit  a  complete  view  of  almoft  every  topic  of 
 faith  and  practice,  and  are  models  of  a  plain  and 
 chafte  ftyle.  The  witty  and  farcaftical  South  has 
 left  fome  volumes  of  valuable  difcourfes. 
 
 Dr.  Burnet,  bilhop  of  Sarum,  is  better  known 
 by  his  hiftorical  than  by  his  theological  writings. 
 His  Defence  of  the  Articles  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
 land, however,  and  his  Pafloial  Care,  are  ufeful 
 and  valuable  productions. 
 
 5  Pearfon 
 
510    Bacon,  Des  Cartes,  Newton,  Z£c.    [cent;  17. 
 
 Pearfon  and  Beveridge  were  both  able  divines, 
 and  Hammond  and'  Whitby  excellent  expofitors 
 of  the  New  Teftament.  Among  the  non-conformift 
 minifters  alfo  feverai  appeared  of  great  eminence. 
 Both  Calamy  and  Baxter  were  complimented  with 
 the  offer  of  bishoprics  on  the  Reftoration ;  the  lat- 
 ter indeed  was  no  lefs  didinguifhed  by  his  piety 
 and  moderation  than  by  his  learning  and  talents. 
 The  Critical  Synopfis  of  Poole,  a  work  of  incre- 
 dible labour,  entitles  him  juflly  to  a  mod  refpect- 
 able  place  among  the  Biblical  commentators. 
 
 The  philofophy  of  nature  was  cultivated  in  this 
 century  with  unexampled  fuccefs. .  Bacon,  Galileo, 
 Des  Cartes,  and  Gaflendi,  were  the  precurfors  of 
 the  incomparable  Newton.  The  name  of  Boyle 
 muft  alfo  be  mentioned  with  refpecl. 
 
 To  complete  the  triumph  of  Englifh  literature, 
 it  is  only  neceflary  to  mention  that  the  names  of 
 Shakefpeare,  Milton,  and  Butler,  occur  in  the  an- 
 nals of  the  feventeenth  centurv. 
 
 THE 
 
[     5ii     ] 
 
 THE    EIGHTEENTH    CENTURY. 
 
 CHAP.    I. 
 
 GENERAL    STATE    OF    THE    CHURCH    IN    THIS 
 CENTURY. 
 
 Toleration — Succeffion  of  Popes  from  Clement  XI.  to  Clement 
 XIV. — Characler  of  Ganganelli — Pius  VI. — SuppreJJlon 
 of  the  Jefuits — in  Portugal — in  Spain — in  France — Re- 
 volution in  America. 
 
 DURING  the  courfe  of  the  prefent  century 
 few  events  have  occurred  of  much  general 
 importance  to  the  church.  The  great  ones  of  the 
 earth  have  been  too  much  engaged  in  temporal 
 concerns  to  pay  attention  to  the  affairs  of  religion  ; 
 with  many  evils,  one  advantage  only  has  attended 
 this  religious  indifference,  and  that  is,  that  the 
 flames  of  perfecution  have  ceafed  to  rage ;  the 
 people  enjoy  in  peace  and  fecurity  the  liberty  of 
 thinking  as  they  pleafe ;  and  the  eftabliflied  reli- 
 gions, on  the  other  hand,  are  no  longer  difturbed 
 by  theianaticifm  or  jealoufy  of  the  multitude*. 
 
 In 
 
 *  Perhaps  an  exception  ought  to  be  made  with  refpeft  to 
 a  France, 
 
5  r  2  Succejfion  of  Popes.  [ c  e  n t.'  1 8 . 
 
 In  the  year  1 700,  Clement  XI.  fucceeded  to 
 the  papal  throne,  and  is  chiefly  remarkable  for 
 having  published  the  famous  bull,  which  from  its 
 initial  letters  is  entitled  XJrdgsnitus.  It  was  iffiied 
 in  oppofition  to  the  Janfeniits,  and  defines  and 
 fettles  the  articles  of  the  Romilh  faith.  He  was 
 fucceeded  by  Innocent  XA\.  Benedid  XIII. 
 who  fucceeded  Innocent,  was  a  man  of  eminent 
 piety  and  virtue.  For  the  purpofe  of  reforming 
 the  errors  of  the  church,  he  affembled  the  famous 
 council  which  met  in  the  palace  of  the  Lateran  in 
 1725,  the  acts  and  decrees  of  which  were  made 
 public,  but  have  proved  utterly  ineffectual  to  the 
 ends  which  were  propofed  from  them. 
 
 This  refpectable  pontiff  was  fucceeded  by  Cle- 
 ment XII.  and  Benedict;  XIV.  the  latter  of  whom 
 was  a  man  of  learning  as  well  as  piety.  When 
 cardinal  Lambertini,  he  publifhecl  a  treatife  on 
 the  Canonization  of  Saints,  with  foine  other 
 •works.  Clement  XIII.  who  acceded  to  the  pon- 
 tificate on  the  6th  of  July  1758,  was  a  man  of  a- 
 very  different  character.  He  was  a  bigot  to  every 
 petty  ceremony  ;  and  indeed  the  celebrated  Can- 
 ganelli  feems  to  have  perfectly  chara&errzed  his 
 two  predeceflbrs  in  a  few  words  ;  when  he  faid 
 Benedict  had  written,  and  Clement  had  prayed 
 much.  The  haughtinefs  of  the  Venetian  character 
 difplayed  itfelfin  Clement,  in  the  difputein  which 
 
 France,  but   the  above  paragraph  was  written  previous,  to  the 
 revolution  in  that  country. 
 
 he 
 
cent.  1 8 .  ]       Elevation  of  Clement  XIV.  513 
 
 he  involved  himfelf  on  account  of  the  Jefuits  with 
 allthe  branches  of  the  houfe  of  Bourbon,  who 
 Threatened  to  withdraw  their  dominions  from  the 
 fpiritual  jurifdiction  of  Rome.  He  left  the  papal 
 dignity  in  a  critical  fituation,  from  which  all  the 
 prudence  and  moderation  of  his  fucceflbr  could 
 Scarcely  emancipate  it. 
 
 Laurenzo  Ganganelli,  the  fon  of  a  phyfician  a{ 
 St.  Archangelo,  and  the  only  regular  in  the  facred 
 college  at  the  time  of  his  election  (being  of  the 
 order  of  minor  conventuals),  was  chofen  on  the 
 19th  of  May,  1769,  and  alTumed  the  title  of  Cle- 
 ment XIV.  After  completing  his  ltudies,  Gan- 
 ganelli had  obtained  the  regency  of  his  college,  and 
 was  afterwards  promoted  to  the  office  of  con- 
 fultor  to  the  Holy  Office.  This  employment, 
 which  included  that  of  Pope's  divine  in  all  inqui- 
 fitorial  concerns,  introduced  him  to  confiderable 
 notice;  and  in  a  corned  between  the  cardinals 
 Torrigiani  and  Carlo  Rezzonico  to  fill  a  vacancy 
 in  the  cardinalate  for  their  refpe&ive  friends,  the 
 pufillanimous  pope  terminated  the  druggie  by  ad- 
 vancing to  the  cardinal's  hat  father  Ganganelli  in 
 preference  to  either  of  the  candidates  already  recom  - 
 mended.  Thefe  progreffive  fteps  of  his  advance- 
 ment  were,  as  he  profefled  himfelf,  unexpected,  and 
 unfought  for;  yet  Ganganelli  has  been  charged 
 with  having  always  extended  his  views,  and  with 
 having  adopted  a  regular  fyflem  of  conduct  for 
 obtaining  the  papacy,  from  the  time  that  he  be* 
 
 Vol.  II.  L 1  came 
 
e;  1 4  Ganganelli,  [cent*  18. 
 
 came  one  of  that  body  from  which  are  fele&ed  the 
 fovereigns  of  Rome. 
 
 The  ruin  of  the  Jefuits  was  at   this  period   re- 
 folved  upon  in  Portugal,   and  the  manoeuvres  of 
 Pombal  had  extended  the  defigns  againft  this  body 
 into  almoft  every  court  in  Europe,  and  particularly 
 Spain.     By  his  artifices,   Ganganelli  obtained  the 
 friendfhip  and   confidence  of  Don   Emanuel  de 
 Rada,  the  Spanifh  minilter  at  the  court  of  Rome. 
 He  obtained   alfo    the    intimacy1  of  the    Portu- 
 guefeand  French  minifters;  and,  in  contradiction 
 to  the  practice  of  the  cardinals,  who,  on  account  of 
 the  pretentions  of   the  papacy  to  the  duchies  of 
 Parma    and   Placenza,    always  avoid   addrefTing 
 the  duke  of  Parma  on  any  occaiion  which  muft  ob- 
 lige them  to  confider   him  as  the  lauful  poflefTor 
 of  thole  territories,  Ganganelli  feized  every  occa- 
 fion   of  congratulation  or  condolarice  to   write  to 
 the  duke.    An  occurrence  which  took  place  in  the 
 management  of  the  corn  foon  afforded  Ganganelli 
 an    opportunity    of    acquiring    great    popularity 
 amongft  every  rank.  By  the  devices  of  Torrigiani, 
 the  fecretary  of  date,  an  artificial  famine  was  railed 
 in  Rome  and  the  adjacent  country  :   great  num- 
 bers  periihed  miferably,  and  many  of  thole  who 
 furvived  flocked  to  Rome,  in  order,  by  procefiions 
 and  fupplications,  to  avert  their  calamities  and  ob- 
 tain fome  redrefs.   In  this  extremity,  commifiion- 
 ers  were  difpatched  to   procure  corn  at  four  times 
 The  price  at  which  it  had  been  exported  :  much  of 
 
 the 
 
cent.  18.]      His  Conduff  while  Cardinal.         515 
 
 the  concealed  grain  appeared  by  degrees,  but  fo 
 much  injured  that  it  produced  very  alarming  cfif- 
 eafes  amongft  the  people;  a  great  mortality  enfued, 
 and  a  plague  was  apprehended.  Inadequate  as 
 this  relief  was,  it  rauft  be  paid  for,  and  there  was 
 no  money  in  the  treafury.  It  was  determined  to 
 have  recourfe  to  five  millions  of  money,  which 
 SixtusV.had  depofited  in  the  caftle  of  St.  Angelo, 
 with  the  exprefs  provifo  that  it  mufl  only  be  em- 
 ployed in  cafes  of  extreme  urgency,  and  not  with- 
 out the  confent  of  the  confiftory  of  cardinals.  . 
 Ganganelli  boldly  oppofed  the  fquandering  of 
 that  treafure,  which  was  left  for  the  benefit  of  the 
 {late,  and  muft  be  refunded  by  a  tax  upon  the 
 people,  who  were  already  nearly  exhaufled.  He 
 noticed  the  atrocity  by  which  fo  dreadful  a  calamity 
 had  been  produced,  and  infilled  upon  an  investi- 
 gation of  the  buhnefs,  the  reftitution  of  the  money 
 which  had  been  fo  fcandaloufly  acquired,  and  the 
 punifhment  of  the  criminals.  If  this  was  the  diclate 
 of  public  fpirit,  Ganganelli  was  difappointed  :  the 
 money  was  applied  to  pay  for  the  wickednefs  of 
 the  monopolizers ;  but  the  cardinal  became  the 
 darling  of  the  people,  who  anxioufly  defired  his 
 fucceflio.n  to  the  papal  throne. 
 
 The  refinance  of  Ganganelli  on  this  occafion  to 
 the  views  of  the  ccnfiftory,  has  by  his  enemies  been 
 afcribed  to  liis  defire  of  appearing  in  oppofition  to 
 the  pope,  and  by  this  means  indirectly  obtaining  the 
 
 L  1  1  patronage 
 
5 1 6  Character  cf  Ganganelli.         [cent.- i  8 . 
 
 patronage  of  the  forcing  courts  *,  to  whom  the 
 indecifion  of  the  reigning  pontiff  concerning  rhe 
 fuppreffion  of  the  Jefuits  had  been  very  offen- 
 five. 
 
 On  the  deceafe  of  Clement  XIII.  the  intereft  of 
 thefe  courts  was  united  in  favour  of  Ganganelli, 
 who  however  deferred  forfome  time  to  gratify  the 
 general  expectation  of  the  abolition  of  the  Jefuits. 
 His  popularity  was  preferved  by  his  diminiming 
 feveral  taxes  which  were  very  oppreffive  to  the 
 poor,  and  the  Clementine  Mufeum  was  enriched  by 
 his  liberality  and  taite.  Whether  the  humility 
 profeffed  by  the  pontiff  may  be  depended  upon  or 
 not,  thus  much  is  certain,  that  no  man,  after  the 
 attaioment  of  dignity,  ever  lived  more  agreeably 
 to  fuch  a  profeflion.  He  was  modeft  and  unaf- 
 fected. When  he  firft  removed  to  the  Vatican, 
 he  found  his  chamber  hung  with  crimfon  damaik, 
 which  he  immediately  ordered  to  be  removed,  and 
 obferved,  that  bare  walls  were  fufncient  for  a  plain 
 monk.  He  was  temperate  in  an  extreme,  and 
 performed  every  office  about  his  own  perfon  as 
 lonp-  as  he  was  able,  becaufe  he  conceived  he  had 
 no  right  to  incommode  even  his  attendants.  «What- 
 
 *  The  courts  of  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Naples  have  been  thus 
 termed  from  their  always  taking  an  aftive  part  in  the  eleftion  of 
 a  pope.  There  is  another  party  on  this  occafion  denominated 
 the  Roman  party,  to  which  has  fometimes  been  added  a  third 
 called  11  partita  de  Zclantl,  the  zealous  party,  which  is  fometimes 
 termed il part'tto  Volant:-,  the  flying  party. 
 
 7  ,ever 
 
cent.  1 8 .  ]         His  Terror  of  Pol  fin,  5  t  7 
 
 ever  favings  accrued  from  the  frugal  regulations 
 which  he  adopted  in  his  domeftic  ceconomy,  he 
 put  to  the  beft  of  ufes,  by  diftributing  them  to  the 
 neceffitous  poor,  in  the  relieving  of  whom  he  in- 
 dulged himfelf  as  a  favourite  amufement.  By 
 his  wifdom  and  addrefs  he  reconciled  offended 
 monarchs,  and  made  feveral  regulations  in  the  mo- 
 nadic orders  much  to  the  advantage  of  religion  and 
 virtue. 
 
 The  court  of  Portugal  and  the  houfe  of  Bour- 
 bon were  however  not  at  all  difpofed  to  relinquifh 
 their  favourite  project,  and  Clement  was  at  length 
 obliged  to  prepare  a  brief  for  the  fuppreffion  of 
 the  Jefuits.  This  was  accordingly  difpatched  to 
 the  court  of  Spain;  whence,  after  going  through  a 
 revifion  and  feveral  alterations,  it  was  fent  back  to 
 Rome,  and  put  in  execution.  From  this  period 
 has  been  dated  the  diforder  which  carried  Gan- 
 g^nelli  to  the  tomb.  From  this  period  he  is  re- 
 ported to  have  been  the  victim  of  imaginary  ap- 
 prehenfions,  and  the  prey  of  diftruft.  The  poifon 
 to  which  his  death  has  been  afci  ibed  by  fomc,  has 
 by  others  been  believed  to  have  had  no  exiftence 
 but  in  his  own  imagination.  He  was  however 
 haunted  by  the  idea  :  he  procured  counterpoifons 
 to  be  ready  in  cafe  of  emergency  ;  and  conceiving 
 that  extreme  perfpiration  was  conducive  to  coun- 
 teracting the  dreaded  mifchief,  he  fat  during  the 
 exceffive  warmth  of  July  and  Auguft  in  a  chamber 
 heated  by  a  brazier  ;  and  his  fweats  were  fo  pro- 
 fufe,  as  to  oblige  him  daily  to  change  his  linen  fe- 
 
 L  1  3  veral 
 
5i  8  P.'usFI.  [cent.-  18. 
 
 vcral  times.  To  thefe  caufes,  rather  than  to  the 
 operation  of  flow  poifon,  have  been  afcribed  the 
 gradual  wafte  of  his  body,  and  the  deprivation  of 
 the  ufe  of  his  limbs.  They  were  indeed  the  har- 
 bingers of  his  death  •,  but  according  to  the  tefti- 
 mony  of  his  own  phyficiin,  and  the  phyfician  to 
 the  conclave,  Ganganelli  deftroyed  his  life  by  his 
 extreme  care  for  its  piefervation.  It  is  to  the 
 honour  of  this  pontiff,  that  his  views  were  never 
 directed  to  the  enriching  of  his  o'wn  family,  and 
 that  at  his  death  12,000  crowns  were  the  whole  of 
 his  perfonal  poffeffions. 
 
 Ganganelli  was  fuccceded  on  the  1  cthof  Fe- 
 bruary,  1775?  by  Pius  VI.  who  is  generally  efteenr- 
 ed  as  a  pontiff  of  elegant  manners,  and  of  a  re* 
 fpecfable  private  chancier.  His  abilities,  though 
 not  fplendid,  are  ufcful.  He  is  ftrongly  attached 
 to  the  Romifh  faith,  and  takes  a  peculiar  pleafure 
 in  performing  the  various  offices  and  ceremonies 
 of  religion.  Some  dillenfions  lately  arofe  between 
 this  pontiff  and  the  king  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  with 
 refpedc  to  the  rights  of  patronage,  which  had  not 
 apparently  been  accurately  defined  in. that  king- 
 dom :   the  difpute,  however,  is  at  lad  adjured. 
 
 The  event  of  moft  general  importance,  in  the 
 hiflory  of  the  church,  winch  has  hitherto  occurred 
 in  this  century,  is  the  abolition  of  the  order  of 
 Jcfuits.  The  firft  effectual  ftep  to  their  fuppref- 
 ];on  was  taken  by  the  court  of  Portugal,  and  their 
 misfortunes  indubitably  oiiginated  in  their  own 
 mifconduct. 
 
 7  The 
 
cent.  18.]  Ambitious  Projects  of  tht  Jefuits.  $  t  9 
 The  active  genius  of  this  order,  which  penetrat- 
 ed the  remoted  countries  of  Afia,  at  a  very  early 
 period  of  the  preceding  century  directed  their  at- 
 tention to  the  extenfive  continent  of  America,  as 
 a  proper  object  of  their  millions.  Conducted  by 
 their  leader,  St.  Francis  Xavier,  they  formed  a 
 considerable  fettlement  in  the  province  of  Para- 
 guay, and  made  a  rapid  progrefs  in  instructing  the 
 Indians  in  arts,  religion,  and  the  more  fimple 
 manufactures,  and  accu doming  them  to  the  bleff- 
 ingsof  fecurity  and  order.  A  few  Jefuits  prefided 
 over  many  thoufand  Indians:  they  foon,  howevery 
 altered  their  views,  and  directed  them  altogether  to 
 the  increafe  of  the  opulence  and  power  of  their 
 order.  Immenfe  quantities  of  gold  were  annually 
 tranfmitted  to  Europe;  and  in  the  defign  of  fe- 
 curing  to  themfelves  an  independent  empire  in 
 thefe  regions,  they  induftrioufly  cut  off  all  commu- 
 nication with  both  the  Spaniards  and  Portuguefe 
 in  the  adjacent  provinces,  and  infpired  the  Indians 
 with  the  mod  determined  detedation  to  thofe  na- 
 tions. Such  was  the  date  of  affairs  when,  in  the 
 year  1750,  a  treaty  was  concluded  between  the 
 courts  of  Lifbon  and  Madrid,  which  afcertained 
 the  limits  of  their  refpective  dominions  in  South 
 America.  Such  a  treaty  was  death  to  the  pro- 
 jects of  the  Jefuits,  and  the  coniequence  was  a 
 violent  com  eft  between  the  united  forces  of  the 
 two  European  powers,  and  the  Indians  of  Paraguay 
 incited  by  the  Jefuits.     The  crafty  and  vindictive 
 
 L  ]  4  marquis 
 
520  Marquis  of  PomhaL  [cent*  1 8* 
 
 marquis  of  Pombal,  who  had  raifed  himfelf  from 
 performing  the  duties  of  a  common  foldier,  in  the 
 character  of  a  cadet,  to  beabfolute  minifter  of  the 
 kingdom  of  Portugal,  could  not  eafily  forgive  this 
 refiactory  conduct ;  and  perhaps  he  might  appre- 
 hend the  downfall  of  his  own  authority,  unlefs  fome 
 decifive  check  were  given  to  the  growing  influ- 
 ence of  this  dangerous  fociety.  Whether  there 
 was  a  foundation  or  not  for  the  report  of  the  con- 
 fpiracy  againft  the  life  of  the  king,  or  whether  the 
 difcontented  Jefuits  were  really  concerned  with  the 
 unfortunate  noblemen  who  fuffered  on  that  ac- 
 count, is  difficult  to  determine.  It  was  fufficient 
 that  it  afforded  a  fpecious  pretence  for  this  expert 
 but  unprincipled  ftatefman  to  rid  himfelf  of  ene* 
 mies,  whom  he  could  not  regard  in  any  other  than 
 a  formidable  light.  In  the  beginning  of  the  year 
 1759,  therefore,  the  Jefuits  of  all  d-efcriptions  were 
 banifhed  the  kingdom  of  Portugal,  on  the  plea 
 that  certain  of  their  order  were  concerned  in  the 
 attempt  upon  the  life  of  the  king  in  September 
 17^8,  and  their  effects  were  confifcated.  The 
 hoftilities  which  commenced,  not'  long  after,  be- 
 tween Portugal  and  Spain,  ferved  a  little  ^to  pro- 
 tract the  exiftence  of  the  Jefuits  in  the  latter  king- 
 dom :  the  jealoufy  however  which  their  conduct: 
 had  excited  in  the  court  of  Madrid  lay  dormant 
 only  for  a  while,  and,  when  a  fit  opportunity 
 prefented,  no  nation  of  Europe  was  more  clamor- 
 ous for  their  abolition. 
 
 'The 
 
cent.  18.]     Decline  of  the  Jefuits  in  France.      521 
 
 The  difgrace  of  the  Jefuits  in  France  proceeded 
 from  different  and  more  remote  caufes.  Among 
 the  oppofers  of  Janfenifm,  none  distinguished 
 themfelves  equally  with  the  Jefuits.  By  their  in- 
 fluence the  bull  Unigenitus,  which  condemned  fo 
 itrongly  the  principles  of  the  JanfeniSts,  was  ge- 
 nerally fuppofed  to  have  been  obtained.  The  bull 
 was  oppofed  by  the  parliament  and  archbifhop  of 
 Paris,  by  fifteen  other  prelates,  and  by  many  of 
 the  mod  refpeclable  among  the  inferior  clergy, 
 as  an  infringement  on  the  rights  of  the  Gallican 
 church  :  the  weak  and  unprincipled  Lewis  XIV. 
 was  however  entirely  under- the  government  of  the 
 Jefuits,  and  enforced  the  acceptance  of  the  bull 
 throughout  the  whole  kincrdom. 
 
 To  the  year  1750,  the  bull,  though  generally 
 djfliked,  occasioned  no  public  disturbance.  At 
 that  period  the  refufal  of  the  facrament  to  the 
 Janfenifts  ferved  to  rekindle  the  dormant  flame. 
 This  unlawful  ufurpation  was  warmly  oppofed  by 
 the  different  parliaments,  which  ended  in  the  ba- 
 niShment  of  the  members  by  Lewis  XV.  the  reign- 
 ing fovereign.  After  various  intrigues,  in  confe- 
 quence  of  which  the  parliament  of  Paris  was 
 twice  baniShed,  and  twice  recalled,  fome  other 
 events  occurred  which  accelerated  the  downfall  of 
 the  order  of  Jefus. 
 
 As  the  constitution  of  the  fociety  did  not  pre- 
 vent the  order  from  engaging  deeply  in  temporal 
 concerns,  no  opportunity  of  enriching  their  trea- 
 sury 
 
522  Sapprefficn  of  the  Jefuits.         [cent,  i  8. 
 
 fury  was  permitted  to  efcape  them.  They  engaged 
 largely  in  trade,  particularly  with  the  ifland  of 
 Martinico  ;  bur  cei  tain  loffes  falling  heavily  upon 
 them,  the  Jefuit  who  was  the  o'Tenfible  perfon  in 
 the  tranfacl  ions,  affected  to  become  a  bankrupt, 
 and  to  fiuft  the  payment  of  the  debts  he  had  incur- 
 red from  the  collective  body.  As  a  monk,  it  was 
 evident  lie  could  poffefs  no  diftinct  property,  and 
 he  had  been  always  considered  in  the  light  of  an 
 agent  for  the  fociety.  The  affair  was  therefore 
 litigated  before  the  parliament  of  Paris,  who  were' 
 not  over  favourably  oifpofed  to  the  holy  fathers. 
 In  the  courfe  of  the  proceedings,  it  was  neceffary 
 to  produce  the"  inftitute  or  rules  of  their  order, 
 when  it  was  found  to  contain  maxims  fubverfive 
 equal'y  of  morals  and  of  government ;  and  other 
 political  motives  concurring  at  the  fame  time,  the 
 order  was  abohfhed  in  France  by  a  royal  edict,  in 
 the  year  1762,  and  their  colleges  and  poffeffions 
 alienated  and  fold.. 
 
 The  bigotry  of  Clement  XIII.  long  withftood 
 the  folicitations  of  thefe  united  Catholic  powers  ; 
 but  the  fagacious  Ganganelli,  whole  views  were 
 more  exrenfive,  and  whofe  religious  fentiments 
 were  more  moderate,  made  a  proper  facrifice  of 
 the  fociety  to  political  wifdom  and  the  fpirrt  of  the 
 times,  and  on  the  21ft  of  July.  1773,  figned  a  brief 
 for  their  final  fuppreffion.  The  ten  houfes  and 
 colleges  pofieffed  by  the  order  in  Rome  were  feized 
 upon  at  the  fame  inftant.    The  brief  of  fuppreffion 
 
 was 
 
cent.  1 3.]  Revolution  in  America.  523 
 
 was  read  in  each  fociety,  the  general  was  conveyed 
 to  the  Englifh  college,  and  confined  to  a  fmall 
 gallery  at  the  top  of  the  building,  where  his  exami- 
 nation commenced,  and  with  that  of  feveral  others 
 of  the  fraternity  was  completed  ar  the  caftle  of  Sr. 
 Angelo,  where  the  confinement  of  the  general  was 
 continued  under  the  reign  of  Pius  VI. 
 
 Another  event,  which  has  lately  occurred,  will 
 probably  not  be  without  its  effects  upon  the  ftateof 
 Chriftianity.  I  fpeak  of  the  difunion  of  the  Thir- 
 teen States  of  North  America  from  the  government 
 of  England,  and  the  extraordinary  meafurcs  which 
 have  been  adopted  in  thofe  countries  with  refpect 
 to  religion.  The  plan  of  religious  toleration  which 
 is  adopted  in  feveral  of  thefe  flares,  extends  to  an 
 exemption  from  any  tax  or  contribution  whatever 
 for  the  maintenance  of  religion,  or  of  its  public 
 teachers.  Whether  mankind  do  not  in  every 
 flate  require  fome  degree  of  reftraint,  whether 
 avarice  and  profligacy  may  not  abufe  this  excefs  of 
 liberty,  are  questions  which  time  alone  can  deter- 
 mine ;  and  though  a  regard  to  thofe  impreffions 
 which  theprefent  generation  may  have  received 
 from  a  Chriftian  education  will  probably  for  a  few 
 years  preferve  at  lea  ft  a  (hew  of  religion,  flill  there 
 appears  reafon  to  apprehend,  that  the  interefts  of 
 learning  as  well  as  Chriftianity  may  materially  fuffer 
 from  the  want  of  an  adequate  and  permanent  fup- 
 port  being  extended  to  the  inftructors  of  the  people*. 
 
 As 
 
 *  We  are  indebted  to  the  Chriflian  religion  for  aninflitution, 
 
 which 
 
524  State  of  the  Church  [cent,  i  8. 
 
 As  far  indeed  as  I  have  been  able  to  collect  from 
 oral  teftimony  refpecting  the  ftate  of  religion  in 
 
 America, 
 
 which  has,  perhaps,  contributed  more  than  any  caufe  whatever  to 
 the  information  and  moral  refinement  of  mankind.  The  fchoola 
 of  ancient  philofophy,  from  the  great  expence  of  attending  them, 
 were  (hut  againft  the  poor:  and  even  thofe  who  ftudied  there, 
 contemplated  the  focial  virtues  rather  with  a  view  to  fcholaftic 
 refinement  than  to  practice  ;  rather  in  a  political  and  interefted 
 light,  than  as  matter  of  pcfitive  obligation,  and  derived  from  the 
 Author  of  Nature.  But  the  inftitution  of  a  well-educated  body 
 of  teachers,  authorized  by  the  ftate  to  explain  in  public  the  duties  ; 
 of  morality,  and  to  enforce  them  by  every  argument  which  can 
 interefl  the  pafiions  or  the  hopes  of  men,  is  certainly  an  improve- 
 ment in  police  (to  call  it  by  no  more  afTuming  a  title)  which 
 ought  not  to  be  overlooked,  in  our  refearches  into  the  caufeS 
 which  have  operated  for  the  civilization  of  mankind. 
 
 The  queilion  is  not,  whether  we  fhould  be  left  totally  without 
 religion,  if  the  arm  of  civil  power  were  to  withdraw -its  fupport  ; 
 but  whether  a  pure,  a  rational,  a  moral  religion,  would  continue 
 to  exift  ?  whether  men,  if  left  to  themfelves,  would  contribute 
 to  the  maintenance  of  fuch  a  body  of  public  teachers  as  I  have 
 been  describing  ;  or,  if  fome  would  even  cdnfent  to  fupport 
 teachers  for  themfelves,  whether  they  would  be  equally  ready  to 
 fupport  them  for  others  ?  In  plain  terms,  Whether  the  kingdom 
 of  Heaven,  the  knowledge  of  it  at  lcaft,  would  not  be  monopo- 
 lized by  the  rich,  in  exclufion  of  the  poor,  to  whom  it  wa<s  origi- 
 nally preached  I  However  ardent  men  may  be  in  the  fupport  of 
 new  opinions  ;  however  the  firit  profefibrs  of  Chiiftianity  might 
 be  actuated  by  zeal,  or  by  infpiration  ;  is  it  to  be  fuppofed  that 
 the  generality  of  mankind,  the  vicious,  the  unthinking  multitude, 
 would  long  continue  to  facrifice  avarice  to  virtue  ?  It  would  then 
 be  their  intereft  to  be  profefTmg  infidels;  and  even  thofe,  who 
 might  ftill  retain  fome  little  fenfe  of  religious  awe,  would  apply 
 to  whatever  quack  would  adminifler  to  their  falvation  on  the 
 cheapell  terms.     The  fervor  of  piety,  or  of  emulation,   which 
 
 now 
 
c E  N T.  1 8 . ]  in  North  America.  525 
 
 America,  it  appears  that  in  thofe  provinces,  where 
 there  is  an  eftablimment,  the  moral  and  religious 
 
 fenti- 
 
 now  engages  them  to  vie  in  decency  and  order  with  the  eftdblifh- 
 ed  church,  would  abate  in  the  fe&aries  themfelves ;  and  fome, 
 who  ungratefully  wifh  the  overthrow  of  the  church,  would  be 
 buried  in  the  ruins.  Rivalfhip,  in  every  department  of  life,  is  the 
 fource  of  excellence  ;  and  where  that  rivalfhip  is  with  eftablifhed 
 laws  and  ordinances,  it  ferves  effectually  to  reftrain  thofe  eccentri- 
 cities, and  that  caprice,  to  which  human  nature  is  liable,  even  in 
 what  refpedts  religion. 
 
 If,  in  a  word,  the  teachers  of  Chriftianity  were  to  be  thrown 
 upon  chance  for  their  fubfiftence,  who  would  be  difmterefted 
 enough  to  fpend  a  youth  of  ftudy,  and  an  age  of  care,  without 
 reward,  diftin&ion,  ot  even  competence  ?  If  the  majority  of  the 
 people  were  to  We  exempted  from  contributing  to  the  fupport  of 
 religion,  is  it  probable  that  a  virtuous  minority  would  be  long 
 able  to  withftand  the  torrent  of  vice  and  ridicule  ?  Undoubtedly 
 the  Deity  might  work  a  miracle  in  fupport  of  his  religion,  but  I 
 believe  no  rational  perfon  would  wifh  to  fee  the  experiment  tried  ; 
 to  fee  men  tempt  God  by  their  indolence,  their  avarice,  their 
 folly,  and  prefumption. 
 
 "  But  allowing  that  all  mould  be  compelled  to  contribute  to 
 the  fupport  of  fome  form  of  public  worfhip  ;  is  it  not  a  manifefl 
 infringement  upon  liberty,  that  men  cannot  chcofe  their  own 
 preacher,  as  well  as  their  own  taylor  ?"  I  reply,  The  very  aft 
 of  forcing  them  to  contribute  at  all,  is  an  infringement  upon 
 liberty  ;  and  though  the  vulgar  may  be  competent  judges  of 
 the  abilities  of  a  taylor,  we  cannot  allow  them  equal  difcern- 
 ment  in  matters  of  fcience  and  erudition.  Daily  experience 
 may  convince  us  how  injudicioufly  preferment  would  be\diftri- 
 buted  by  popular  elections.  The  modefty  of  genius  would  Hand 
 little  chance  of  being  diilinguifhed  by  an  ignorant  multitude. 
 The  moll  illiterate,  the  moil  impudent,  thofe  who   could  moil 
 
 dex- 
 
526  Pro] eft  for  the  [ c  E  n  t.  '1  8 . 
 
 fentiments  of  the  inhabitants  exift  in  fuperior  pu- 
 lity  ;  and  in  tbofe  where  all  perfons  are  obliged 
 to  contribute  to  fome  religious  fociety,  the  -ftate  is 
 flill  better  than  where  that  total  ecclefiaftical  an- 
 archy, which  has  jufl  been  noticed,  is  allowed. 
 In  thofe  provinces,  the  churches  of  every  denomi- 
 nation are  but  little  frequented,  and  are  almoft  in 
 ruins ;  and  the  morals  and  conduct  of  the  inha- 
 bitants are  proportionably  lax,  and  verging  to 
 depravity. 
 
 Under  the  prefent  wife  and  popular  admini-' 
 flration  of  America,  fome  mode  will  probably  be 
 fpeedily  adopted  for  remedying  this  deficiency  in 
 the  national  education  :  for  fuch  all  religious  in-* 
 ftitutions  really  are.  -  Perhaps  it  would  not  be  dif-x 
 iicult  to  combine  the  moft  perfect  religious  liberty 
 with  this  important  object ;  and  perhaps  charity 
 might  equally  be  promoted  with  general  morality, 
 
 dcxteroufly  play  the  hypocrite,  who  could  beft  adapt  their  preach- 
 ing to  the  fanaticifm  of  the  yulgar,  would  be  the  only  iuecefsful 
 candidates  for  public  favour.  Thus  1  have  no  doubt  that  reafon, 
 moderation,  and  literature  would  foon  be  baniihed;  and  a  fcene 
 of  corruption,  ccniuficn,  and  madnefs  would  prevail.  Pollibly, 
 our  candid  oppofers,  the  freethinkers  themfelves,  v/otild  find 
 little  caufe  of  triumph  in  the  ruin  of  the  church  ;  a  favourite  fu- 
 peiilition  might  ereel  its  head  among  the  populace,  lefs  liberal, 
 kfs  indulgent  to  the  vagaries  of  modern  philofophy,  than  the 
 prefent  cftablifhrnent.  PclTbly,  in  the  flames  oi  perfecution, 
 they  might  too  Lite  regret  that  freedom  and  tranquillity  they  fo 
 unworthily  enjoyed;     EJfas*  H\ft*  and  Mar* 
 
 .  by' 
 
cent.  1 8.]  Promotion  of  Religion.  527 
 
 by  the  experiment  which  I  would  recommend. 
 The  controverted  points  among  Chriftians  are 
 the  lead  practical  ;  and  it  may  in  general  be  taken 
 for  granted,  that  there  is  no  feci  of  Chriftians 
 which  does  not  inculcate  good  morals.  It  would 
 probably  therefore  be  a  wife  regulation  to  fet  apart 
 in  each  parifh  or  district,  a  certain  portion  of  land, 
 for  the  maintenance  of  a  re  (id  en  t  teacher  of  mo- 
 rality and  chriftianity,  according  to  the  holy 
 fctiptures ;  the  choice  to  be  left  either  to  the 
 parifhioners  at  large,  or  to  a  committee  to  be 
 elected  by  them.  The  minifters  fhould  hold  their 
 places  quamdiu  fe  bene  gejferint ;  fubject  however  to 
 deprivation  for  any  notable  crime,  or  neglect  of 
 duty,  and  to  expulfion  from  the  benefice  on  a  pe- 
 tition to  the  ordinary  courts  of  juftice,  or  the  af- 
 fembly  of  the  (late,  figned  by  two  thirds  of  the 
 parifhioners.  It  might  be  left  to  the  difcretion 
 of  the  minifter,  with  the  approbation  of  the  ma- 
 jority of  the  parifhioners,  to  ufe  a  liturgy  or  not, 
 or  to  conform  to  the  regimen  of  the  epifcopal, 
 prefbyterian,  or  any  other  Chriftian  church.  If, 
 added  to  this,  a  complete  toleration  to  every  re- 
 ligion was  permitted,  there  would  finely  be  no  in- 
 fringement on  liberty  of  conference,  and  yet  a  pro- 
 vision would  be  made  for  the  moral  and  religious 
 inftruction  of  the  people. 
 
 The  iricreafing  licentioufnefs  and  irreligion  of 
 the  age  is  an  alarming  circumstance  to  all  ferious 
 
 and 
 
52S  France.  [cent.  j8». 
 
 and  reflecting  minds ;  and  ought  to  unite  all  de- 
 nominations of  Chriftians  in  oppofing  that  dreadful 
 fpirit  of  atheifm  and  infidelity,  which  has  deluged 
 a  neighbouring  country  with  blood,  and  which  has 
 involved  even  this  country  in  debauchery,  profli- 
 gacy, and  crimes.  Let  us,  in  the  name  of  reafon 
 and  virtue,  lay  afide  our  petty  difputes,  and  join 
 heart  and  hand  in  oppofing  the  common  enemy. 
 I  fee  many  reafons  for  preferring  the  epifcopal 
 form  of  ecclefiaftical  policy  to  others ;  but  this  is  a 
 mere  matter  of  opinion,  and  every  Chrijiian  (what- 
 ever he  call  himfelf)  is  my  friend.  The  atheift, 
 or  the  infidel,  who  is  neither  awed  by  the  terrors, 
 nor  encouraged  to  goodnefs  by  the  hopes  of  a., 
 future  ftate,  can  be  the  friend  of  no  man  ;  he  is^ 
 the  natural  enemy  of  all  order  in  the  ftate,  and  of 
 all  virtue  in  the  individual. 
 
 Of  the  prefent  ftate  of  religion  in  France,  but 
 little  can  be  faid  ;  and  the  overthrow  of  the  papal 
 fuperftition  there,  is  the  only  circumftance  that  can 
 be  predicted  with  any  degree  of  certainty  concern- 
 ing that  country.  The  experiment  which  has 
 lately  been  made  has  however  proved  that,  what- 
 ever may  be  the  fentiments  of  their  leadep-s,  the 
 people  (though  corrupt) are  not  yet  ripe  for  atheifm. 
 They  will  have  a  religion,  and  that  religion  will 
 probably  be  proteftant. 
 
 In  our  own  country  the  profpect  we  truft  is 
 more  cheerful.      Neither  the  poileiTions  of  the 
 
 church 
 
cent.  1 8.]  Weft  India  IJlands.  529 
 
 church  are  fo  confiderable  as  to  tempt  the  grafp  of 
 avarice,  nor  is  the  conduct  of  its  rulers  fuch  as  to 
 excite  contention  or  refentment.  An  unfair  and 
 injudicious  diftribution  of  its  patronage  would 
 be  the  only  circumftance  which  could  leffen  it  in 
 the  eflimation  of  the  public,  and  effect  its  over- 
 throw— Let  the  confpicuous  ftations  only  be  occu- 
 pied by  learning,  abilities  and  virtue,  and  the  in- 
 ferior departments  be  decorated  by  that  regularity 
 and  decency  of  conducl;  which,  I  am  proud  to  fay, 
 ftill  diftinguifh  mod  of  its  profeilbrs,  and  it  will 
 defy  every  outrage  which  the  malignant  fpirit  of 
 infidelity  can  aim  againft  it.  It  will  continue  an 
 inftitution  eminently  ufeful  to  mankind,  and  no 
 lefs  permanent  than  ufeful. 
 
 It  would  be  fcarcely  confident  with  liberality  to 
 omit  noticing  one  circumftance,  which  promifes 
 the  mod  happy  effects  to  the  interefts  of  Chrifti- 
 anity,  and  to  the  general  happinefs  of  mankind. 
 Under  the  aufpices  of  government,  and  under  the 
 judicious  conducl:  of  fome  characters  eminent 
 equally  for  piety  and  ability,  an  inftitution  has 
 lately  been  begun,  for  the  exprefs  purpofe  of  con- 
 verting, and  inftructing  in  the  truths  of  Chriftianity, 
 the  negroes  in  the  Weft  India  iflands.  To  en- 
 force the  neceffity  of  fuch  an  undertaking,  inde- 
 pendent of  all  religious  considerations,  there  are 
 fufficient  even  of  political  motives.  Such  an  in- 
 ftitution will  be  the  means  of  retaining  the  negro 
 inhabitants  in  better  fubordination,  and  of  enlarg- 
 
 Vol.  II.  M  m  'incr 
 
530  Britijh  America,  &c.         [cent.  iS. 
 
 ing  their  fcale  of  happinefs  and  enjoyment.  It 
 is  the  only  means  of  procraftinating  that  event 
 which  muft  one  day  take  place,  the  feparation  of 
 thefe  colonies  from  the  mother  country;  and  even 
 after  this  circumftance  fhall  have  happened,  it  will 
 be  providing  for  the  virtue  and  happinefs  of  mil- 
 lions in  future  generations. 
 
 In  the  remaining  parts  of  Britifh  America  our 
 government  has  manifested  a  laudable  attention  ; 
 it  will  be  for  the  intereft  of  religion„if,  in  a  fpirit  of 
 candour  and  charity,  a  good  understanding  is  cul- 
 tivated between  the  Britiih  churches  in  Quebec  and 
 Halifax,  and  the  Epifcopal  churches  in  the  United 
 States.  A  fimilar  arrangement  to  that  which  has 
 taken  place  in  Brkim  America  ought  undoubtedly 
 to  be  adopted  in  the  Eaft  Indies,  and  it  would 
 prove  one  of  the  fureit  means  of  retaining  thefe 
 pofleffions  under  tjie  dominion  of  Great  Britain. 
 
 CHAP. 
 
[    53*     3 
 
 CHAP.    II. 
 
 OF   THE  SECTS  WHICH    HAVE    APPEARED  IN  THE 
 EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY. 
 
 Moravians —  Methodifls — Sandemanians — D  linkers  — Shak- 
 ers— Hutchinfonians — Baron  Sivedenborg — Modern  So- 
 cinlans —  Univerfalifts., 
 
 AS  no  alterations  of  any  moment  in  the  efla- 
 blifhed  forms  of  religion  appear  to  have 
 taken  place  in  the  courfe  of  this  century,  it  is  only 
 neceffary  to  treat  of  the  principal  feds  which  have 
 arifen  within  this  period,  and  to  offer  the  moft  au- 
 thentic account  of  their  diftinguifhing  principles. 
 
 The  firft  in  order  of  time,  if  not  in  confequence, 
 is  that  which  is  generally  afcribed  to  Nicholas 
 Lewis  Count  of  Zinzendorf,  who  about  the  year 
 1 72 1  fettled  at  Bartholdorf  in  Upper  Lufatia.  This 
 nobleman's  firft  effort  was  upon  fome  Moravian 
 families,  of  whom  he  made  profelytes,  and  engaged 
 them  to  leave  their  own  country  and  fettle  in  his 
 neighbourhood.  They  built  a  houfe  in  the  foreft 
 which  was  adjoining  to  the  village  of  Bartholdorf, 
 wherein  1722  they  had  their  firft  meeting.  The 
 fociety  increafedfo  rapidly,  that  in  a  few  years  they 
 were  pofTefTed  of  an  orphan- houfe  and  other  public 
 buildings ;  they  gave  their  habitation  the  name  of 
 M  m  2  Herenhuth, 
 
53 2  Tenets  of  the  Moravians,      [gent.  1 8. 
 
 Herenhuth,  and  hence  they  are  fomeiimes  called 
 Herenhutters. 
 
 The  fociety  themfelves,  however,  date  their 
 exiftence  from  a  much  earlier  period ;  and  aflert, 
 that  they  aredefcended  from  the  old  Moravian  and 
 Bohemian  brethren,  who  exifted  as  a  diftincl:  feci 
 fixty  years  prior  to  the  Reformation.  They  arc  a 
 fober  and  inoffenfive  people  ;  are  numerous  io 
 fome  parts  of  Germany  and  America,  but  have 
 never  multiplied  much  in  Great  Britain.  The 
 following  doctrines  are  maintained  by  the  Mo- 
 ravians :  ift.  That  creation  and  fan&ification 
 ought  not  to  be  afcribed  to  the  Father,  Son, 
 and  Holy  Ghoft ;  but  belong  principally  to  the 
 Saviour  :  and  to  avoid  idolatry,  people  ought  tb 
 be  abftracred  from  the  Father  and  Holy  Ghoft,  and 
 be  firft  dire&ed  fingly  to  Jefus,  who  is  the  ap- 
 pointed channel  of  the  Deity.  2d.  That  Chrift 
 has  not  conquered  as  God,  but  as  man,  with  pre- 
 cifely  the  fame  powers  we  have  to  that  purpofe. 
 3d.  That  the  law  ought  not  to  be  preached  under 
 the  gofpel  difpenfation.  4th.  That  the  chil- 
 dren of  God  have  not  to  combat  with  their  own 
 fins,  but  with  the  kingdom  of  corruption  in  the 
 world. 
 
 The  Moravians  aflert,  that  faith  confifts  in  a 
 joyful  perfuafion  of  our  intereft  in  Chrift,  and  our 
 title  to  his  purchafed  falvation.  They  deny  the 
 Calviniftical  do&rines  of  particular  redemption 
 and  final  perfeverance.     They  have   eftabliflied 
 
 among 
 
cent.  1 8.]     Their  Difcipline  and  Police.  533 
 
 among  themfelves  a  difciplinc  which  clofely  unites 
 them  to  one  another,  divides  them  into  different 
 claffes,  puts  them  under  an  entire  dependence  on 
 their  fuperiors,  and  confines  them  to  certain  exer- 
 cifes  of  devotion,  and  to  the  obferving  of  different 
 rules.  The  church  at  Herenhuth  is  fo  divided, 
 that  firft  the  hufbands,  then  the  wives,  then  the 
 widows,  then  the  maids,  then  the  young  men,  then* 
 the  boys,  then  the  girls, and  laftly  thelittle  children, 
 are  in  fo  many  diftinct  claffes  j  each  of  which  is 
 daily  vifited,  the  married  men  by  a  married  man, 
 the  wives  by  a  wife,  and  fo  of  the  reft.  Each 
 clafs  has  its  director  chofen  by  its  members,  and 
 frequent  particular  affemblies  are  held  in  each 
 clafs,  and  general  ones  by  the  whole  fociety. 
 The  members  of  each  clafs  are  fubdivided  into 
 people  who  are  dead,  awaked,  ignorant,  willing 
 difciples,  and  difciples  who  have  made  a  progrefs. 
 Proper  affiftance  is  given  to  each  of  thefe  fubdivi- 
 fions ;  but  above  all,  great  care  is  taken  of  thofe 
 who  are  fpiritually  dead.  The  elder,  the  co-elder, 
 the  vice-elder,  fuperintendj  all  the  claffes.  There 
 are  likewife  informers  by  office,  fome  of  them 
 known,  fome  of  them  kept  fecret ;  befides  many 
 other  employments,  and  titles  too  tedious  to  enu- 
 merate. A  great  part  of  their  worfliip  confifts  in 
 finging  :  and  their  fongs  are  always  a  connected  re- 
 petition of  thofe  matters  which  have  been  preached 
 juft  before.  At  all  hours,  whether  day  or  night, 
 fome  perfons  of  both  fexes  are  appointed  by  rota- 
 M  m  3  tion 
 
534  Origin  of  the  Methodifls.    .  £csnt.  18. 
 
 tion  to  pray  for  the  fociety.  When  the  brethren 
 perceive  that  the  zeal  of  the  fociety  is  declining, 
 their  devotion  is  revived  by  celebrating  a'gapa?  or 
 love-feafts.  The  calling  of  lots  is  much  practifed 
 among  them.  They  make  ufe  of  it  to  learn  the 
 mind  of  the  Lord.  The  elders  have  the  fole  right 
 of  contracting  marriage.  No  promife  of  marriage 
 is  of  any  validity  without  their  confent  *. 
 
 The  origin  of  the  Methodifts  in  England  ap- 
 pears to  have  been  fome  years  posterior  to  the 
 million  of  Count  Zinzendorf.  In  the  year  1729, 
 Meflfrs.  John  and  Charles  Wefley  having  been  fent 
 to  finilh  their  (Indies  at  Oxford-,  agreed  with  two 
 other  young  gentlemen  to  fpend  three  or  four  even- 
 ings in  a  week  together.  On  Sundays  they  read 
 divinity,  and  other  evenings  the  Greek  or  Latin 
 daffies.  In  the  following  fummer  they  were  de- 
 fired  to  vifit  the  prifoners  in  the  caftle,  and  (hort- 
 ly  after  agreed  to  vifit  them  once  or  twice  a  week. 
 From  this  they,  proceeded  to  the  occupation  of 
 vifiting  the  fick  in  different  parts  of  the  town.  In 
 1732  they  were  joined  by  feven  or  eight  more 
 young  gentlemen,  in  the  following  yeai\by  Mr. 
 Ingham  and  Mr.  Hervey,  and  in  1735  by  Mr. 
 George  Whitfield  :  at  this  period  Mr.  Wefley  be- 
 lieves the  fociety  in  Oxford  amounted  to  about 
 fourteen. 
 
 *  Rimius's  Hiflory  of  the  Moravians,  p.  1 6, 1 8,  19.  Mora- 
 vian Maxims,  p.  18.  20.  44,  45.  67.  86.  Zinzendorf's  Sermons, 
 p.  200.  Manual  of  Doftrine,  p.  9.  Gillie's  Succefs  of  the  Gof- 
 pel,  vol.  ii.  p.  66.     Dickinfon's  Letters,  p.  169. 
 
 In 
 
cent.  1 8.]       Firjl  Society  of  Methodijls.  535 
 
 In  this  agreeable  fociety  and  retirement  it  was 
 Mr.  Wefley's  intention  to  remain;  but,  in  1735, 
 the  death  of  his  father  obliged  him  to  go  to  Lon- 
 don, where  he  was  ftrongly  iolicited  to  proceed  on 
 a  million  to  Georgia,  with  a  view  of  attempting 
 the  converfionof  the  Indians.  In  October  1735, 
 Mr.  Ingham,  Mr.  Delamotte,  and  the  two  Wef- 
 leys-embarked  for  America.  Impatient  however 
 to  aflume  their  new  functions,  they  began  preach- 
 ing at  Savannah  and  Frederica  ;  and  at  length 
 finding  themfelves  difappointed  in  their  expedi- 
 tions of  being  able  to  preach  to  the  Indians,  they 
 all  fucceflively  reimbarked  for  England  *. 
 
 In  February  1738,  Mr.  Wefley  found  himfelf 
 once  more  in  London,  where  he  became  acquaint- 
 ed with  Peter  Boehler,  a  young  Moravian  teacher, 
 and  with  his  affiftance  formed  a  fociety  of  about 
 forty  or  fifty,  who  agreed  to  meet  every  Wednes- 
 day evening,  for  the  purpofe  of  fpiritnal  inftruc- 
 tion  and  conference.  The  firft  meeting  was  on. 
 the  firft  of  May  1738,  which  Mr.  Wefley  con- 
 fiders  as  the  origin  and  eftablifhment  of  Metho- 
 difm  in  London  f. 
 
 During  the  fummer  Mr.  Wefley  vifited  the  Mo- 
 ravians at  Herenhuth  in  Germany  ;  but  previous 
 to  this  Mr.  Whitfield  had  preached  in  feveral 
 churches  in  London,  had  rendered  himlelf  re- 
 markable for  inveighing  againft  the  vices  of  the 
 
 •  Wefley's  Short  Hiflory  of  the  Methodifts.         f  Ib* 
 
 M  m  4  clergy, 
 
$36  Wejley  and  Whitfield  differ.     £cent.  t8, 
 
 clergy,  and  had  preached  up  the  doctrine  of  jufti- 
 fication  by  faith  alone. 
 
 Both  Mr.  Wefley  and  Mr.  Whitfield  were  foon 
 expelled  from  the  eftablifhed  pulpits:  the  latter 
 then  betook  himfelf  immediately  to  preaching  in 
 the  open  places  and  highways  ;  and  in  the  latter 
 end  of  1738,  he  aflumed  the  mimon  which  Mr. 
 Wefley  had  laid  down,  and  embarked  for  Georgia. 
 After  Mr.  Wefley's  return  from  Germany  he  went 
 down  to  Briftol,  where  he  formed  another  fociety 
 of  Methodifts.  The  colliers  of  Kingfwood  had 
 been  remarkable  for  ignorance,  and  diilblutenefs  of 
 manners  j  but  fome  of  them  having  heard  Mr. 
 Whitfield  preach,  Mr.  Wefley  found  them  per- 
 fectly difpofed  to  unite  in  a  fimilar  fociety.  Mr. 
 Wefley  proceeded  afterwards  into  Wales,  where 
 he  met  with  fimilar  fuccefs.  In  the  mean  time 
 the  fociety  in  London  rapidly  increafed. 
 
 Upon  Mr.  Whitfield's  return  from  Ammca, 
 he  declared  his  full  aflent  to  the  doctrines  of  Calvin 
 concerning  election  and  predestination  ;  in  this  he 
 was  warmly  oppofed  by  Mr.  Wefley ;  and  from 
 that  period  a  total  feparation  took  place  between 
 the  two  parties  *« 
 
 There  do  not  appear  to  be  any  common  or  dif- 
 tinguiftiing  principles  profefifed  by  this  feet,  except 
 thofe  of  falvation  by  faith  only  -,  and  inftantaneous 
 $nd  perceptible  converfwn,  and  ajfurance  of  recon- 
 
 *  Formey's  Ecd.  Hift.  voL  ij, 
 
 citation 
 
c  e  n  t  .  1 8 .  ]     Sandemanians  or  Glaj/ites.  537 
 
 ciliation  to  God,  which  they  term  the  new  birtb. 
 Mr.  Wefley  appears  to  have  adopted  in  general  the 
 principles  of  Arminius,  at  leaft  with  refped  to  the 
 free  agency  of  man ;  and  profeflcd  in  general  to  con- 
 form to  the  doctrines  and  ceremonies  of  the  church 
 of  England.  Mr.  Whitfield's  followers  are,  as 
 to  their  doctrinal  tenets,  ftrictly  Calviniftic.  The 
 focieties  of  Methodifts  obferve  a  love-feaft  once  a 
 month ;  they  have  alfo  what  they  call  a  cuftom  of 
 keeping  watch-nights  once  a  month,  that  is,  iing- 
 ing  and  praying  from  eight  o'clock  in  the  evening 
 till  twelve.  They  admit  lay- preachers,  but  thefe 
 {at  leaft  in  Mr.  Wefley's  chapels)  are  prohibited 
 from  adminiftering  the  Sacrament*. 
 
 The  Sandemanians,  or  Glaffites  as  they  are 
 termed  in  Scotland,  derive  their  name  from  two 
 popular  preachers  in  North  Britain,  Mr.  John 
 Glafs,  and  Mr.  Robert  Sandeman.  Their  doctrine 
 and  difcipline  are  faid  to  be  :  ift.  That  juftifying 
 faith  is  no  more  than  a  fimple  belief  of  the  truth, 
 or  the  divine  teftimony  padively  received.  2d. 
 That  this  divine  teftimony  carries  in  itfelf  fufficient 
 ground  of  hope  and  occafion  of  joy  to  every  one 
 who  believes  it,  without  any  thing  wrought  in  us, 
 or  done  by  us,  to  give  it  a  particular  direction  to 
 purfelves.     ^d.  They  conftantly  communicate  to- 
 
 *  I  have  been  informed,  that  regular  ordination,  either  among 
 the  Diffenters,  or  in  the  Church,  enables  a  minifter  toadminifter 
 the  Sacrament  in  Mr.  Whitfield's  tabeiaacle. 
 
 gether 
 
53S  fhe  Dunkers<  [cent.  18, 
 
 gether  in  the  Lord's  Supper  every  Sabbath  :  for 
 they  confider  the  Chriftian  Sabbath  as  defigned  for 
 the  celebration   of  divine  ordinances,  which  are 
 fummarily    comprifed,  Acts  ii.  42.     4th.  In  the 
 interval  between  the  morning  and    the  afternoon 
 fervice,  they  have  their  love-feafts ;  of  which  every 
 member  partakes  by  dining  at  the  houfes  of  fucrv 
 of  the  brethren  as  live  fufficiently  near,  and  whofe 
 habitations    are     convenient    for  -that    purpofe. 
 Their  profeffed  defign  in  thefe  feafcs'  is  to  culti- 
 vate mutual  knowledge  and  friend  (hip,  to  teftify 
 that  they  are  all  brethren  of  one  family,   and  that 
 the  poor  may  have  a  comfortable  meal  at  the  ex-., 
 pence  of  the  more  wealthy;  and  this  and   other 
 opportunities  they  take  for  the  kifs  of  charity,  or 
 the  fainting  of  each  other  with  an  holy  kifs. 
 •    Some   fingular   feds   have   arifen   in   America 
 •within  the  courfe  of  this  century.   Of  this  clafs  are 
 the  Dunkers,  who  about  1  724  were  formed  into  a 
 kind  of  commonwealth,  mollly  in  a  fmall  town 
 called  Ephrata,  in  or  near  Pennfylvania.     They 
 feem  to  have  obtained  their  name  from  their  man- 
 ner of  baptizing  their  new  converts,  which-  is  by 
 immerfion.    Their  habit  appears  to  be  peculiar  to 
 themfelves.    confiding;  of  a   long;    tunic  or  coat 
 reaching  down  to  their  heels,  with  a  fafh  or  girdle 
 round  their  waid,  and  a  cap  or  hood  hanging  from 
 the  moulders,   iike  the  drefs  of  the   Dominican 
 friars.     The  men  do  not  (have  the  head  or  beard. 
 The  men  and  women  have   feparate  habitations, 
 3  *^& 
 
cent.  1 8.]  'their  Regulations  and  Tenets.  $«<\ 
 and  diftinct  governments.  For  thefe  purpofes, 
 they  have  erected  two  large  wooden  buildings ; 
 one  of  which  is  occupied  by  the  brethren,  the 
 other  by  the  lifters  of  the  fociety  :  and  in  each  of 
 them  there  is  a  banqueting-room,  and  an  apart- 
 ment for  public  worfhip ;  for  the  brethren  and 
 fifters  do  not  meet  together  even  at  their  devo- 
 tions. They  live  chiefly  upon  roots  and  other 
 vegetables ;  the  rule;  of  their  fociety  not  allowing 
 them  flefh,  except  upon  particular  occafions,  when 
 they  hold  what  they  call  a  love-feafl ;  at  which 
 iime  the  brethren  and  fifters  dine  together  in  a 
 large  apartment,  and  eat  mutton,  but  no  other 
 meat.  No  member  of  the  fociety  is  allowed  a 
 bed,  but  in  cafe  of  ficknefs.  In  each  of  their 
 little  cells  they  have  a  bench  fixed  to  ferve  the 
 purpofe  of  a  bed,  and  a  fmall  block  of  wood 
 for  a  pillow.  The  Dunkers  allow  of  no  inter- 
 courfe  betwixt  the  brethren  and  fifters,  not  even 
 by  marriage.  The  principal  tenet  of  the  Dunkers 
 appears  to  be  this  :  That  future  happinefs  is  only 
 to  be  obtained  by  penance  and  outward  mortifi- 
 cation in  this  life  ;  and  that  as  Jefus  Chrift,  by 
 his  meritorious  fufferings,  became  the  redeemer 
 of  mankind  in  general,  fo  each  individual  of  the 
 human  race,  by  a  life  of  abftinence  and  reftraint, 
 may  work  out  his  own  falvation.  Nay,  they  go  fo 
 far  as  to  admit  of  works  of  fupererogation  ;  and 
 declare,  that  a  man  may  do  much  more  than  he  is 
 in  juftice  or  equity  obliged  to  do,  and  that  his 
 
 fuper- 
 
540  Singularities  of  the  Shakers,     [cent.  18. 
 
 fuperabundant  works  may  therefore  be  applied  to 
 the  falvation  of  others.  They  alfo  deny  the  eter- 
 nity of  future  punifhments  *. 
 
 The  Shakers,  which  were  inflituted  about  the  . 
 year  1774,  are  no  lefs  lingular.  Anna  Leefe, 
 whom  they  ftyle  the  Elect  Lady,  is  the  head  of  this 
 party.  They  affert  that  (he  is  the  woman  fpoken 
 of  in  the  twelfth  chapter  of  the  Revelations ;  and 
 that  the  fpeaks  feventy-two  tongues. — and  though 
 thofe  tongues  are  unintelligible  to  the  living,  (he 
 converfes  with  the  dead,  who  underftand  her  lan- 
 guage. They  add  further,  that  (he  is  the  mother 
 of  all  the  elect ;  and  (he  travails  for  the  whole 
 world  :  that,  in  fine,  no  bleffing  can  defcend  to  any 
 perfon  but  only  by  and  through  her,  and  that  in 
 the  way  of  her  being  pofTefTed  of  their  (ins,  by  their 
 eonfeffing  and  repenting  of  them,  one  by  one,  ac- 
 cording to  her  direction.  They  vary  in  their  ex- 
 ercifes  ;  their  heavy  dancing  as  it  is  called,  is  per- 
 formed by  a  perpetual  fpringing  from  the  houfe 
 floor,  about  four  inches  up  and  down,  both  in  the 
 men's  and  women's  apartment,  moving  about  with 
 extraordinary  tranfport,  finging  fometimes  one  at 
 a  time,  and  fometimes  more.  This  elevation  af- 
 fects the  nerves,  fo  that  they  have  intervals  of 
 (huddering,  as  if  they  were  in  a  violent  fit'  of  the 
 ague.  They  fometimes  clap  their  hands,  and  leap 
 fo  high  as  to  ftrike  the  joifts  above  their  heads. 
 
 *  Sec  the  entertaining  and  well-written  Letters  of  Cafpipiaa, 
 
 They 
 
cent.  1 8.]     Origin  of 'the  Hut chinjonl arts.  541 
 
 They  throw  off  their  outfide  garments  in  thefe  ex- 
 crcifes,  and  fpend  their  ftrength  very  cheerfully 
 this  way  ;  their  chief  fpeaker  often  calls  for  their 
 attention,  when  they  all  flop,  and  hear  fome  ha- 
 rangue, and  then  begin  dancing  again.  They  af- 
 fert,  that  their  dancing  is  the  token  of  the  great 
 joy  and  happinefs  of  the  Jerufalem  ftate,  and  de- 
 notes the  victory  over  fin.  One  of  their  rnoft  fa- 
 vourite exertions  is  turning  round  very  fwiftly  for 
 an  hour  or  two.  This  they  fay  is  to  fhow  the  great 
 power  of  God  *. 
 
 Though  not  ftrictly  to  be  accounted  fectaries, 
 finceeachof  them  were  declared  enemies  to  all 
 feparation  from  their  refpective  churches,  the  names 
 of  John  Hutchinfon  and  Baron  Swedenborg  have 
 excited  too  much  attention  to  be  entirely  omitted 
 in  this  hiftory  \.  The  former  of  thefe  extraor- 
 dinary characters  was  born  in  1674;  and  in  the 
 early  part  of  his  life  ferved  the  duke  of  Somerfet 
 in  the  capacity  of  fteward.  He  was  undoubtedly 
 a  man  of  uncommon  abilities,  and  of  extenfive 
 knowledge.  He  applied  himfelf,  among  other 
 purfuits,  aiTiduoufly  to  the  ftudy  of  nature,  and  is 
 faid  to  have  collected  in  the  courfe  of  his  travels 
 
 *  Rathburn's  Account  of  the  Shakers,  p.  4,  5,  6.  14.  Tay- 
 lor's Account  of  the  Shakers,  p.  4.  7,  8,  9.  15,  16.  Weft's 
 Account  of  the  Shakers,  p.  S.  13. 
 
 f  I  am  under  the  ftronger  neceffity  of  introducing  them  h«rc, 
 becaule,  for  obvious  reafons,  the  ufual  account  of  authors  it 
 •mitted  in  this  century. 
 
 that 
 
542  Tenets  of  Mr.  Hut chinfon.        [cent,  i  8. 
 
 that  admirable  felec"tion  of  foPils  which  were  be- 
 queathed by  Dr.  Woodward  to  the  univerfity  of 
 Cambridge. 
 
 In  1 724  he  published  the  firft  part  of  his  Mo« 
 fes's  Principia,  in  which  he  ridiculed  Dr.  Wood- 
 ward's Theory  of  the  Earth,  and  attacked  the  doc- 
 trine of  Gravitation  and  other  parts  of  thePrincipia 
 of  Newton.  About  three  years  afterwards  he  pub- 
 lifhed a  fecond  volume,  explaining  the  nature  of 
 the  fcripture  philofophy,  and  the  fyftem  of  Mofes. 
 The  Hebrew  language  and  the  Holy  Scriptures  ' 
 he  eficemed  as  the  fource  of  all  knowledge  hu- 
 man* and  divine,  and  wrote  fome.  treatifes  fanci- 
 fully illuftrative  of  that  language  ;  but  he  was  no' 
 admirer  of  claffical  literature.  After  Origen  and  % 
 other  eminent  commentators,  he  afferted.  that  the 
 Scriptures  were  not  to  be  understood  in  a  literal, 
 but  in  an  allegorical  fenfe  ;  that  even  the  hiftorical 
 parts,  and  particularly  thofe  relating  to  the  Jewifh 
 ceremonies,  and  Leviiical  law,  were  to  be  confi- 
 dered  in  this  light ;  and  he  afferted  further,  that, 
 agreeably  to  this  mode  of  interpretation,  the  He- 
 brew Scriptures  would  be  found  to  teftify  amr 
 ply  concerning  the  nature  and  perfon  of  'Jefus 
 Chriftf. 
 
 *  All  the  principles  of  natural  philofophy  are  fuppofed  by 
 the  Hutchinfonians  to  be  deducible  from  the  letter  of  the  Scrip- 
 tures. 
 
 f  See  an  aburaft  of  Mr.  Hutchinfon's  writings  by  the  late 
 Dr.  George  Home  Bifhop  of  Norwich.  See  alfo  Mr.  Jones's 
 Lc&ureu  on  the  figurative  Language  of  Scripture. 
 
 The 
 
cent.  1 8.]     the  Han.  Emanuel  Swedenhorg*       543 
 
 The  followers  of  Mr.  Hutchinfon  have  never 
 formed  themfelves  into  any  didinft  church  or  fo- 
 ciety;  but  his  doctrines  have  beenx  embraced  by 
 considerable  numbers  both  of  the  clergy  and  laity 
 in  England,  who  on  that  account  are  diftinguifhed 
 by  the  appellation  of  Hutchinfonians. 
 
 The  Hon.  Emanuel  Swedenborg  was  the  ion' 
 of  Jafper  Swedenborg,  bilhop  of  Weft  Gotha. 
 He  appears  to  have  had  an  uncommonly  good  edu- 
 cation, for  his  learning  was  extenfive  in  almorr. 
 every  branch ;  and  at  a  very  early  period  of  life 
 he  became  remarkable  for  his  abilities  at  the  court 
 of  Sweden.  His  firil  and  favourite  purfuit  was 
 natural  knowledge,  on  which  he  publimed  feveral 
 excellent  treatifes.  He  was  intimate  with  the  ce- 
 lebrated Charles  XII.  who  appointed  him  to  the 
 office  of  afTefTor  to  the  metallic  college  ,*  and  in 
 1719,  he  was  ennobled  by  queen  Ulrica  Eleanora, 
 and  named  Baron  Swedenborg  *. 
 
 In  the  year  1743,  he  profefTed  to  have  been  fa- 
 voured with  a  particular  revelation,  and  a  fight  of 
 the  invifible  world.  From  that  period  he  devoted 
 himfelf  to  theological  ftudies,  and  compofed  ah 
 incredible  number  of  books  upon  thofe  fubjecls,  in 
 good  Latin  (but  without  any  ornaments  of  ftyle), 
 which  he  wrote  with  the  utmoft  facility,  and  fel- 
 dom  blotted  or  corrected  a  line.  He  lived  and 
 died  in  the  Lutheran  communion,,  but  always  pro- 
 
 •  Sophron  and  Philadelphia. 
 
 feffed 
 
544         1'tncis  of Barcn  Sixedcnborg.     [cent    *-$» 
 
 feffed  the  higheft  refpect  and  veneration  for  the 
 church  of  England. 
 
 The  theology  of  Baron  Swedenborg  is  in  many 
 inftances  abftrufe  and  myftical.  He  carried  his 
 refpecl  for  the  perfon  and  divinity  of  Jefus  Chrift 
 to  the  higheft  point  of  veneration,  confidering 
 him  altogether  as  "  God  manifefted  in  the  flefh, 
 and  as  the  fulnefs  of  the  Godhead  united  to  the 
 man  Chrift  Jefus."  With  refpeel  therefore  to  the 
 Sacred  Trinity,  though  he  rejected  the  idea  of 
 three  diftinct  perfons,  as  deftructive  of  the  unity  of 
 the  Godhead,  he  admitted  three  diftinct  efTences, 
 principles,  or  characters  as  exifting  in  it,  namely 
 the  divine  efience,  or  character  in  virtue  of 
 which  he  is  called  the  Father  or  Creator;  the 
 human  ciTence,  principle,  or  character,  united  to 
 the  divine  in  the  perfon  of  Chrift  Jefus,  in  virtue 
 of  which  he  is  called  the  Son  and  Redeemer  ;  and 
 laftly,  the  proceeding  efience  or  principle,  in  virtue 
 of  which  he  is  called  the  Hcly  Ghojl.  The  virtue 
 and  efficacy  of  the  atonement  by  the  paflion  and 
 death  of  the  man  Chrift  Jefus,  is  confidered  by 
 Baron  Swedenborg  as  not  confiding  in  "the  change 
 ofdifpofition  in  God  towards  man  from  wrath  to 
 love  and  mercy,  becaufe  that  ever  muft  be  un- 
 changeably the  fame ;  but  in  changing  the  flate 
 of  man,  by  removing  from  him  the  powers  of  hell 
 and  darknefs,  wherewith  he  was  infefted  in  confe- 
 quencc  of  tranfgreflion  j  and  by  bringing  near  to 
 $  him 
 
feEKT.  iS;]  RaP en     zOe'dsnborg.  54.5 
 
 him  the  divine  and  heavenly  powers  of  goodnefs 
 and  truih,  in  the  perfon  and  fpirit  of  the  bleffed 
 Jefus,  the  manifeded  God  and  Saviour,  whereby 
 the  infirmities  and  corruptions  of  human  nature . 
 might  be  approached,  reached,  and  wrought  upon, 
 and  every  penitent  believer  might  be  thus  placed 
 in  a  date  and  capacity  of  anting  out  of  all  the  evils 
 which  fin  had  given  birth  to,  and  of  becoming  thus 
 again  a  child  of  God,  through  a  real  renewal  and 
 regeneration  of  all  the  parts,  powers,  and  prin- 
 ciples of  his  life,  both  in  foul  and  body  *." 
 
 Baron  Svvedenbjrs,  as  well  as  Mr.  Hutchinfon, 
 ad'erted  that  the  Holy  Scriptures  contained  an  in- 
 ternal and  lpiritual  fenfe,    to   which  the   outward 
 sod  literal  fenfe  ferves  as  a  bafis  or  receptacle  ;  and 
 of  confequence  many  of  his  treatifes  con  fid  of  his 
 ill uftrat ions  of  this  figurative  or  internal  fenfe. 
 %  He  was  a  ftrang  alierter  of  the  free  agency  of 
 man;  and  it  ntuft  be  confeficd,  that   the  practical 
 morals  recommended  by  Baron  Swedenborgareof 
 the  pured  and  mod  unexceptionable  kind,  with 
 which,  from  the  bed  authorities,  we  have  reafon  to' 
 believe,  his  life  perfectly  correfponded. 
 
 But  the  mod  extraordinary  circumdance  re- 
 specting this  lingular  character,  is  the  correfpon* 
 dence  which  he  afferted  he  maintained  with  the 
 world  of  fpirits.     Several  parts   of  his  writings 
 
 *   Soph,  and  Phil, 
 
 Vro;,.  II.  NT  n  are 
 
546  Socinians  and  Univerjalifts.       [cent.  1 8. 
 
 are  replete  with  narratives  reflecting  fcenes  to 
 which  he  profeffes  to  have  been  a  witnefs  in  the 
 invifible  regions ;  thefe  he  defcribes  by  expreflions 
 borrowed  from  the  things  of  this  world,  which 
 he  aflerts,  however,  are  only  to  be  tindcrftood 
 in  a  figurative  fenfe,  and  as  correfponding  in  fome 
 degree  with  thofe  which  he  defcribes. 
 
 The  difciples  of  Baron  Swedenborg  are  very 
 numerous  in  Sweden  and  Germany  ;  and  have  in- 
 creafed  confiderably  in  England  within  the  couffe 
 of  a  few  years.  Some  attempts  have  been  lately 
 made  to  form  them  into  a  diftinct  fociety  ;  bus 
 thefe  have  been  difapproved  by  many  of  the  moft 
 zealous  admirers  of  the  Baron,  whom  they  affert 
 to  have  been  an  enemy  to  all  feparation,  defirous * 
 only  of  eftablithing  an  invifible  church,  or  the  do- 
 minion of  faith  and  virtue  in  the  hearts  of  men, 
 which  they  contend  is  the  true  interpretation  of 
 all  that  he  has  faid  concerning  the  new  Jerufalem,, 
 or  new  church  of  Chrift. 
 
 The  tenets  of  the  Socinians  concerning  the 
 Trinity  have  made  fome  progrefs  in  England, 
 efpecially  among  the  Proteftant  DhTenter.s  dur- 
 ing the  courfe  of  this  century. — The  doctrine 
 which  was  fupported  by  Origen  and  fome  of 
 the  Fathers,  concerning  the  final  falvation  of 
 all  mankind,  contrary  to  the  orthodox  opinion 
 of  the  eternity  of  future  punifhments,  has  alfo  been 
 revived  with  much  zeal,  and  with  fame  fuccefs, 
 
 both 
 8 
 
cent.  1 8.]  Univerfalijis.  547 
 
 both  in  England  and  America.  It  is  fupported 
 under  the  name  of  the  Doctrine  of  Univerfal 
 Reftitution,  and  thofe  who  profefs  it  are  termed 
 Univerfalifts. 
 
 * 
 
 Nnt  INDEX. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 A  BANO  Pet.  ii.  189 
 Abelard,  ii.  132 
 
 Abftinence,  days  of,  i.  IVJ 
 
 Abyffinians  converted,  i.  161 
 
 Acacius,   bifhop  of  Amida,  i.  25 1 
 
 Academics,  i.  19 
 
 Acephali,  i.  283 
 
 Acolothyfts,  i.  j  20 
 
 Adamites,  ii.  252 
 
 Adrian  V.  Pope,   ii.  160 
 
 Adrian  VI.  Pope,  ii.  313 
 
 /Etius,  i.  212 
 
 Aginians,    i.  398 
 
 Agnqete,  i.  335 
 
 Albanenfes,  i.  447 
 
 Albertus  Magnus,   ii.  788 
 
 Aibigenfes,   ii.  127,  173 
 
 Alexander  III.  Pope,  ii.  106 
 
 ■  VI.  Pope,  ii.  24s 
 
 VII.  Pope,   ii.  462 
 
 VIII.  ii.  463 
 
 Alexandrian  Library  burned,  i.  381 
 
 All  faints  day,  i.  498. 
 
 All  fouls  day,  ii.  25 
 
 Atnbrofe,  St.  i.  222 
 
 America,  when  firft  vifited  by  the  Eu- 
 ropeans',  ii.  226 
 
 • ,    Proteftant  churches  there,  ii. 
 
 477,  ^3 
 
 Ammonius  Saccus,  i.  7Z 
 
 Anabaptifts,    ii.  429 
 
 Ar.aftafius  III.   Pope,  ii.  5 
 
 Annunciation,   feaft  of,  i.  303 
 
 Anfelm,  Archbifhop  of  Cant.  ii.  82 
 
 Anfelm,  Bifliop  of  Havelberg,  ii.  133 
 
 Anthony,  St.  i.  180 
 
 Anthony,   St.  Order  of,   ii.  77 
 
 A.ilhroporr.orphitcs,  ii.  31 
 
 Antidicomaranir.es,   i.  210 
 
 Antinomians,  ii.  441 
 
 Aphtha rtodociue,  i.  335) 
 
 Apollinaris,   i.  208 
 
 Apoilles,  fates  of,  i.  35 
 
 ,  writings  of,  when  compo»e4» 
 
 i.  36 
 Aquinas,    Tho.  ii.  j  88 
 Anans,  i.  20^ 
 
 Ariltotle,  do&rines  of,  i.  19,  259 
 Arminians,   ii.  493 
 Arnoldus  Villanov.  ii.  189 
 Athanafius,  i.  217 
 Audeus,  i.  212 
 Augfburg  confeffion,  ii.  326 
 Auguftin,  St.  i.  228 
 Averroes,  ii.  133 
 Avicenna,   ii.  133 
 Avignon,   Popes  remove  thither  theif 
 
 refidence  in  cent.  XIV.  ii.  aoo 
 
 B 
 
 Bacon,  Roger,   ii.   189 
 
 Lord,  ii.  510 
 
 Baptifm.  i.   121 
 
 Baradatus,  i.  257 
 
 Barbaroffa,   Frederick,  ii.  91 
 
 Barnabas,  i.  64 
 
 Baronius,  ii.  502 
 
 Barrow,   Dr.  ii.  509 
 
 Bafil,    Bifhop  of  Cslarea,  i.  221 
 
 Baiil,  the  council  held  at,  ii.  240 
 
 Baxter,  ii.  510 
 
 Bucket,    Abp.  of  Canterbury,  ii.  107 
 
 Bede,   venerable,  i.  453 
 
 Beguines,  i.  393 
 
 Behmen,   Jacob,  ii.  495 
 
 Bells,  baptifm  sf,   ii.  27 
 
 N  n  3  Still 
 
55° 
 
 i      N     P 
 
 X. 
 
 Bell,  book,  and  candle  light,  ii.  24 
 Bellarmin,  ii.  ,502 
 Benedid  IV.  Pope,   ii.  4 
 
 . V.  ii.  9 
 
 VI.  ii.  9 
 
 VII.  ii.  10.  VIII.  and  IX.  ii. 
 
 40.  190 
 ■     ■  XIII.  Anti-pope,  ii.   229 
 
 XIII.  and  XIV.  Popes,  ii.  512 
 
 Benedictine  order,  its  rife  in  VI.  cent. 
 
 i.  326 
 Bernard,  St.  Abbot  of  Clairval,  ii.  87, 
 
 131 
 
 Berenger.  ii.  78 
 
 Beveridge,   ii.  510 
 
 Beza,  Theodore,  ii.  453 
 
 Bilbops,  i.  47,  86 
 
 Boccacio,  ii.  222,  254 
 
 Boethius,    i.  339 
 
 Bohemia,   commotions  in,  ii.  251 
 
 Bonaventura,    ii.   188 
 
 Boniface  (a  Britiih  monk  and  miffiona- 
 
 *y)  '•  457 
 Boniface  III.  Pope,  i.  364 
 VII.  Pope,  ii.   10 
 VIII.    Pope,    ii.  745,     160, 
 
 19& 
 
 1 IX.  Pope,  ii.  229 
 
 Boffuet,  ii.  502 
 Boyle,  ii.  510 
 Bridget,  St.  ii.  211 
 Brownifts,  ii.  451 
 Buchanan,  Geo.  ii.  455 
 Bulgarians,   ii.  80 
 Burnet,   Bifliop,   ii.  5C9 
 Butler,  ii.  510 
 
 Calamy,  ii.  510 
 Caliphs,  i.  377 
 Calhtus  II.  Pope,  ii.  106 
 Calvin,  John,  ii.  336 
 Calvinifts,  tenets  of,  ii,  4S4 
 Capuchins,   ii.  286 
 Cardinals,  ii.  43 
 Carpocrate',   i.  98 
 Cartefians,   ii.  4S8 
 Cxrthufians,  ii.  77 
 Catechumens,  i.  53 
 Catharifts,  ii.  80,  173 
 Catherine,  St.  ii.  221 
 Cedienus,   ii.  81 
 Celeftine  111.  Pope,  ii.  tii 
 ■———IV.  Pope,  ii.  157 
 -  V.  Pope,  ii.  160 
 
 Cerinthus,  i.  59 
 Chalcedon  council,  i.  246 
 Charitable  inftitutions  always  »bufed» 
 ii.  481 
 
 Charity,     Feafts    of,     called'    Agapx, 
 
 what,  i.  5  I 
 Charles  the    Great  (or  Charlemagne), 
 
 i.  434 
 1  >~  V.  Emperor,  ii.  306 
 Childeric  III.  king  of  France,  depofed, 
 
 i.  4:7 
 China,   Chriftianity  planted  there,  i. 
 
 146,  ii.  196,  464 
 Chinefe   monument    difcovered  at  Si- 
 
 ganfu,  i.  279 
 Chiifts,  falfe,   ii.  128 
 Chryfoftom,  i.  229 
 Churches,  Chriftian,  i.  118 
 Circus,  factions  of,   i.  301 
 Clarendon,  conititutions  of,  ii.  107 
 Claude,   reformed  minifter,   ii.-5?5 
 Clemens,  i.  63 
 Clement  II.  ii.  41  ' 
 ■  III.  ii.  56,   70 
 
 IV.  ii.  159 
 
 -VII.   ii.   317.    VIII.    ii.  459 
 
 X.  ii.  462.    XI.  ii.   464.    XIII.  ii. 
 
 512.  XIV.  ii.  513 
 Clergy,  celibacy  of,  i.  323  ■ 
 
 Clermont,  council  of,  ii.  62 
 Clovis,  i.  241 
 Clugni,  monks  of,   their   founder  Odo 
 
 abbot  of  Clugni,  ii.  17 
 ^Collyridians,   i.  21 1 
 Comnena  Anna,   ii.  130 
 Concubinage,  laws  concerning,  ii.  49 
 Confeffion,  i.   19;,  261 
 Confirmation,   i.  123 
 Cor.ftance,  the  famous  council  held  at, 
 
 »'■  *33 
 
 Conftantine  the  Great,  i.  T50 
 ■     ■     Copronymus,  i.  418 
 
 • Porphyrogenitus,   ii.  32 
 
 Conilantinople  founded,   i.  1^4;  taken 
 
 by   the   Latins,  ii.   136;    taken  by 
 
 the  Turks,  ii.  229 
 Ccnftitutions,  Apoftolic,  i.  144 
 Copernicus,  ii.  456       •'         K 
 Copiane,   i.  1  i  9  « 
 
 Creeds,   i.  ^4.    84,   lie,   176,    iyo 
 Crufades,   ii,  60,   87,   91,    136,   19: 
 Crufade  agaiuft  Heretics,  ii.  180 
 Cud  worth,  ii.  308 
 Cypri.m,   i.    f4( 
 Cyril,  j.  2S4 
 
 D 
 
 Damafcenus,  John,  i.  451 
 
 Damianus,  Peter,  ii.   82 
 
 Dancers,  ii.  212 
 
 Dante,    ii.  222  , 
 
 Deacons,  i.  49 
 
 Deaconelles,  j.  49 
 
 Dead, 
 
I      N      D 
 
 X. 
 
 5$* 
 
 Dead,  prayers  for,  i.  89 
 
 Dec  us,    Vmp.   perfecutes    the    Chrif- 
 
 1  i.   .  12 
 D~ecrettls,  forgery  of,  1.474 
 Deities,    Local,   i.  9 
 Deluge,  aflerted  by  all  nations,    i.  3 
 Denmark,  converted  to  Chriftianity,  ii. 
 34;    rife   of  the     Reformation    in 
 XVI.  cent.  ii.  334 
 Des  Cartes,   ii.  510 
 ,  DiJymus,  i.  232 
 Diocefes,  i.  50 
 Diocletian,  i.    146 
 D.on  Calfius,  i.   144 
 Divination,  i.  268 
 Dominicans,  order  of,  ii.  16^. 
 Domitian  perfecution,  i.    42 
 Donatiits,  i.   198 
 Donus,   ii.   10 
 Drelincourt,   ii.  515 
 Dunkers,  ii.  538 
 Duns  Scoius,  ii.  220 
 
 Eafter,  i.  52  ;   difputes  about  the  time 
 of  keeping  it,  i.  94,   193 
 ,  Ebionites,  i.  103 
 Eckius,  one  of  the  firft  adverfaries  of 
 
 Luther,   ii.  303 
 Eneratites,  i.  98 
 England  converted,  i.  316 
 
 ,  Reformation  in,    ii.  36S 
 
 — ,    Church  of,  ii.  486 
 
 Ephraim  of  hdell'a,  i.  232 
 
 Epicureans,   i.  19 
 
 Erafmus,   ii.  453 
 
 Effenes,  i.  26 
 
 Ethnophrones;    i.  448 
 
 Evangelifts,  i.  30 
 
 Euchari'.t,    controverfy   concerning,    i. 
 
 495 
 Eugenius  IV.  Pope,  ii.  240 
 
 Eunomians,    i.  205 
 Eufebiui,  i.  2  15 
 Euftathians,   i.  195 
 EulUthius,  i.  23  1 
 Eutvchi.;ns,    i.  _£t 
 Eutychius,   ii.  33 
 Exarch,   i.  25  5 
 Exorcifts,  i.  120 
 
 Failing,  i.  127 
 
 Felix  II.  Bifhop  of  Rome,    i.  449 
 
 < V.    (Duke  of  Savoy]  Anti-pope, 
 
 ii.  243 
 Fenelon,  Archbifhopof  Cambray,  ii.  504 
 Feftivals  and  faffs,  i.  90,   393 
 - ,  abufe  of   them,   ii. 
 
 Flagellantes,   ii.  184 
 VolTarii,    i.    1 19 
 
 France,   perfecuiions  in,  ii.  335,  42O 
 Francifcan  order,   ii.     14 
 Frederick  I.  Emp.  ii.    107 
 Frederick  II.   Emp.   ii.    138,    15S 
 Friezeland,  converlion  of,   i.  369 
 Fulbert,    ii.   Sa 
 
 Galileo,   ii.  5  10 
 
 George,   St.  his  head  found,   i.  446 
 
 Germans,  their  converfion,    i.  456 
 
 Gibbon,    Mr.  criticifm  an,  i.  381 
 
 ,  his  fentiments  on  the  conver- 
 
 fion  of  Ruffia,  i.   461 
 
 Gilbert,   De  la  Porree,   ii.   132 
 
 4!noftics,   i.  57,   97 
 
 Godfrey   of   Bouillon,    Duke  of  Lor- 
 rain,    ii.  £5 
 
 Gothic  alphabet,   i.  162 
 
 ■ litu-gy,  combat  to  decide  its  va- 
 lidity, ii.  74 
 
 Greek  church  feparates  from  the  Latin, 
 i    486 
 
 • decline  of,   ii.  228 
 
 Gregory  Thaumalurgus,   i.  143 
 
 1 Nazianzen,   i.  221 
 
 of  NyfTa,   i.  2:2 
 
 — 1 ot  '1  ours,    i.  33.6 
 
 — the  Great,   i.  349 
 
 • II.  Pope,   i.  416 
 
 V.  Pope,  ii.  i2.  VI.  ii.  41 
 
 — -YlI.(Hildebrand)Pope,  ii.  45 
 
 4X.  Pope,    ii.  144,    155 
 
 X.  Pope,   ii.  iC*. 
 
 XII.  Anti-Pope,  ii.  ziq 
 
 XIII.  Pope,  ii.  268 
 
 XV.  ji.4  o 
 
 Grotiiu,  ii.  494.,    505 
 
 Guelfs  and  Gibclines,    ii.   1 59 
 
 Gunpowder  plot  in  England,   ii.  473 
 Gulfavus  Vala    Ericfon,   king  of  Swe- 
 den,  ii.    3?3 
 Auolphus,  ii.  470 
 
 H 
 
 Hales,  John,  ii.  507 
 
 Hall,  Bilhop.    it.  507 
 
 Hallowed  bread,  i.  4  13 
 
 Hammond,  ii.  510 
 
 Hebrews,   religion  of,    i.  11 
 
 Henoticon,  i.  2S2 
 
 Henry  IV.  Emperor,    ii.  5T,    ioj 
 
 V.  Emp.  ii.   103 
 
 VI.  Emp.  ii.  ill 
 
 — II.  of  England,  his  difpute  with 
 
 Alexander  III.  &c.  ii.  10S 
 
 Henry 
 
55* 
 
 N      D 
 
 X. 
 
 Henry  VIII.  of  England  renouncej  the 
 papal  ftioremacv,  ii.  373 
 
 . IV7.    of  France,   ii    424 
 
 — 1 afiaffinated,  ii.  472 
 
 Hermas,   i.    64 
 H-rod.    i.  28 
 Honoriuslll.  ii.  1.14,  1:4 
 }  loir,  elevation  of,  ii.  168 
 
 ,   proceilion  of,  ii.  169 
 
 llutchinfonians,    ii.   541 
 
 Hufs,   John,    ii.  235 
 
 Hypatia,   deplorable  fate  of,  i.    zZ6 
 
 I    J 
 
 Jacobites,   i.  3  34 
 
 lagello,  Duke  of  Lithuania,  convened, 
 ii.   194 
 
 Janfeniits,   ii.  4S8 
 
 Jconoclafis,  who,  and  their  origin  in 
 VIII.  century,  i.  418 
 
 Iconoduli,  called   Iconolatrs,   i.  418 
 
 J.-rom.  i.  225 
 
 Jerome  of  Prague,   ii.  2  ;4 
 
 Jerufalem,  delf.ruc~tion  of,  i.  3S  ;  con- 
 quer!: of,   ii.  66 
 
 Jefuirs,  nature  of  their  order  and  infiri- 
 tution,  ii.  281.  Their  order  abo- 
 Jiflied,  it.  518 
 
 Jctzer,  ftiange    narrative    concerning, 
 
 Jewifh  ldigion,  i.  n 
 iewilli  Chriltians,  i.  ^5,   6t 
 Igftatius,  i.  65 
 
 Images,  worfhipof,   i.  2t6 
 
 ,  controveify  concerning,  i.  413 
 
 Immaculate  conception,   ii.  118 
 Indepei  dents,    ii.  497 
 Indulgences,   ii.  1 15 
 Innocent  III.  Pope,   ii.  112,    135 
 
 -  IV.  Tope, 
 Pope.  ii.  22T-  X. 
 46:.   XII.  i:.  463 
 
 .  157.   vir. 
 
 461.    XI.  ii. 
 
 fnquifition,  ii.  175,   178 
 Interim,  ii.    353 
 Interment  in  churches,  i.  1S5 
 lnveftitUTes,    tumults    and    wars   con- 
 cerning them,   ii.  52 
 Joan,  Tope,  i.  470 
 |ohn,  the  fatter,   i.  312 
 X.   Pope,   his  infamous  charac- 
 
 ,   put  to  death,   ii.  1 
 
 -~  XI.  Fo^e,  ii.  6 
 ^-X13.  Pop-,  ii.  8',  0 
 
 —  XIII.  Pope,  ik  9 
 
 —  XIV'.  Pope,   ii.  j  r 
 
 —  XV.  Pope,   ii.  tt 
 -—  XVI.  pope,   ii.  72 
 
 —  XVII.  PoFc,  U.  36 
 
 John  XIX.   ii.  40 
 
 ■ XXI.  ii.  :6o 
 
 • XXII.  Tope,  ii.  192 
 
 ■ XX1JL  Attti-l'ope,  ii.  23* 
 
 > King  of  England,  ii.  151 
 
 Johnfon,  Dr.  Sam.  ii.  5c 5 
 
 Jovian,  i.  I  ;8 
 
 Jovinian,  i.  213 
 
 Irenaeus,  i.  105 
 
 Irene,  Emprefs,  i.420 
 
 Irtth  converted   to   Christianity  in  V. 
 
 cent.  i.  240 
 
 m?ffacre,ii.  476 
 
 Ifidore,  i.  289 
 
 of  Seville,  i.  4:2 
 
 Jubilee,  ii.  170 
 
 Judgment  '(-day. of)  alarms  concerning, 
 
 i  i .  10 
 Julian,  i.  1  56 
 Julius  II.  Pope,  i'u  265 
 juftin  Martyr,  i    80 
 
 • Fmperor,  i.  299 
 
 J'iftinun,  1.  -.00 
 
 Laws  of,i.  353 
 
 Jutland  conyeited,  i.  459  •» 
 
 K 
 
 Kempi;,  Thomas,  ii.  261  "i 
 
 Kimchi  Dav.  and  Mofes,  ii.  133 
 Knights  of  St.  John  of  Jemfalem,  ii.  93 
 
 ■     ■  Templars,  ii.  99 
 
 ■ ■ — ,  Teutonic.il.  jcy 
 
 Knox,  Juhn,  ii.^}.c4   ■ 
 
 L 
 
 Lacftantius,  i.  224 
 Lambertus,  ii.  82 
 Lando,  Pope,  ii.  5 
 Laud,  ii.  ^'6 
 Laurenrius  Valla,  ii.  260 
 Leo    I   the  Great,  i.  290 
 
 ,  the  Ifaurian,  i.4.14 
 
 ■ III .  Emperor,  i.  419 
 
 V.  Emperor,  i.  476 
 
 VI.  Emperor,  ii. '6        «. 
 
 ■ IV.  Pope  ii.  6.  * 
 
 V.  Pope,  dethroned  and  imprifon- 
 
 ed,  ii.  5 
 
 Vli   Pope,  ii.7 
 
 VIII.  foj  e,  ii.  9     , 
 
 Leo  the  Grammarian,  ii.  8r 
 
 . X.  Pope,  ii.  267.      XL  iL'459 
 
 Lewis,  Emperor,  fon  of  Charlcm.:gr,c., 
 
 i.459 
 —  IX.    of    Trance,     afterwards. 
 
 fainted,  ii.  130 
 
 , XIV.  of  France,  ii.  462 
 
 Litanies,  i.  269  , 
 
 Lithuania,  converCon  of,  ii.  194 
 Liturgies,  different,  i.  190,  270 
 
 Livoaians 
 
I      N      D 
 
 Livonians  converted,  ii.  84. 
 
 Lombards,  i.  31.5. 
 
 Longinus,  i.  14^ 
 
 Lord's  Supper,  its  celebration    in   II, 
 
 cent.  i.  89 
 Lucian,  i.  79 
 Lucius  II.  Pope,  ii.  110;  III.  Pope,  ii. 
 
 1 1 1 
 Luther,  Martin,  warmly  oppofes  Tet- 
 
 zePs  pieaching    of  indulgences,    ii. 
 
 .193.     Difpute    with    Eckius,    303. 
 
 Is  excommunicated  by  Leo  X.  304. 
 
 Separates  from  the  Church  of  Rome, 
 
 305.      Unjuftly  banifhed  at  a  diet  of 
 
 Worms,  309.    Mai ries,  319.  Death 
 
 and  character,  341 
 Lutheran  Church,  tenets  of,  ii.484 
 
 M 
 
 Macedonians,  i.  206 
 
 Mahomet,  i.  3  70 
 
 ■ 1 —  II.  takes  Conftantinople   in 
 
 XV.  cent.  ii.  22S 
 
 Maimon,  ii.  133 
 
 Malta,  Knights  of,  ii.  97 
 
 Manichuaans,  i.  130,  ii.  jo 
 
 Marcionites,  i.  0,7 
 
 Maicellus,  i.  23  1 
 
 Margaret  of  Navarre,  favourable  to  the 
 Reformation,  ii.  334 
 
 Marriage  ceremony,  i.  9r 
 
 Marriages,  fourth,  controverfy  concern- 
 ing,ii.  28 
 
 — of  the  clergy,  i.  386.  ii.  56 
 
 Mananus  II.  Pope,  ii.  7 
 Martin  I.  Pope,  i.  360 
 
 71 V- Pope,  ii.  234 
 
 Martyrs,  1.  79 
 
 Mary,  Queen,  reitores  Popery,  ii.  38 
 
 Matthew  Paris,  ii.  190 
 
 Maurice  of  Saxony,  his  perfidy,  ii.340 
 
 Maximus,  i.  291,  407 
 
 Medicis,  Cofmo  de,  ii.  257 
 
 Melan&hon,  Philip,  ii.  4^ 
 
 Meletius,  i.  207 
 
 Meffalians,  i.  196 
 
 Methodifts,  ii.  534 
 
 Metropolitans,  i.  87 
 
 Milton,  ii.  510 
 
 Monks,  their  rife  and  progrefj,  i.  IJ7, 
 
 161,  2C4  '  ' 
 
 Monophyfites,  1*.  28,3,  357 
 Monothelites,  i.  398 
 Montanifts,  i.  99 
 
 Moors  or  Saracens  in  Spain,  ii.  x« 
 
 Moravians,  ii.  53  1 
 
 More,  Sir  Thomas,  ii.  4c ; 
 
 — — ,  Dr.  Henry,  ii.  5q8 
 
 Muggjetonisns,  ii.  5C0 
 
 X>  5*3 
 
 Mufic,  church,  ii.  166 
 Mvlteries,  j.  1  z% 
 Myftise,  i.  195 
 
 N 
 
 Nantz,  edict  of,  ii.  424.     Revoked,  \t 
 
 472 
 Nazarenes,  i.  103 
 Nero,  perfection  under,  i.  41 
 Neftorians,  i.  276 
 Nice,  council  of,  i.  170,  202 
 
 ■  2d  council  of,  i.  422 
 
 conference  at,  ii.  142 
 
 Nicene  creed,  i.   176 
 Nicholas  II.  Pope,  ii.  4^ 
 
 III.  Pope,  ii.  jjl'5 
 
 IV.  P,-,pe,  ii.   tAj 
 
 V.  p0pe,  ij.  24- 
 
 Ncetians,  i.  134 
 
 Nogaret,  William  de,  fuzes  the  perfos 
 
 of  1  ope  Boniface  VIII.  ii.  ,.,3 
 Normans,   their  fucce&fuJ  invafions  in 
 
 IX.  cent.  i.  4C5 
 — converted  in  X.  cent,  with 
 
 their  chief  Rollo,  ii.  2 
 Norway  converted,  ii.  1 
 Novations,  i.  136 
 
 O 
 O-.deai  trials,  i.  499 
 Organs  introduced,  ii.  166 
 Onental  philofophy,  i.  2t 
 Origen,  i.   1-8 
 Orofius,  i.  :go 
 Otho,  the  Great,  ii.  8,  q 
 IV.  Emperor,  ij.  145 
 
 P 
 
 Paganifm,   ceremonies    of,    introduced 
 
 into  the  church,  i.  i2g 
 Pamphilus,  i.  216 
 Papias,  i.  64 
 Parabolani,  i.  119 
 Paris,  Matt.  ii.  rg0 
 
 • ,  maffacre  of,  ii.  423 
 
 Pjfcafius  Radbert,  i.  4,K 
 
 Pafchal  Blaife,  ii.  co2 
 
 Pafchal  II.  Pope,  ii.  i0r 
 
 Paffau,   pacific  treaty  with  the  Prateft. 
 
 ants,  ii.  3^8 
 Patriarchs,  the  nature  if  their  office,  i 
 
 252 
 Patripa/fiaiw,  i.  10a 
 Patronage,  the  right   of,    its  origin,  1. 
 
 Paul,  Father,   ii.    -C; 
 
 otSamofata,  1.  va  e 
 
 Paulianifts/i.^        J5 
 
 Psul;ciajjsf 
 
$74 
 
 N      D      E      X. 
 
 Paulicians,  i.  ^99 
 
 Pearfon,  ii.  510 
 
 Pelagians,  i.  272 
 
 Penitents,  i.  93,  124 
 
 Pentecoft,  i.  52 
 
 Pepin  ul'urps  the  crown  of  Trance   in 
 
 VIII.  cent.  i.  427 
 Peripatetics,  i.  20 
 Perlecutions  by  Pagans,  i.39,  41,4;, 
 
 78,  79,  108,   id,    112,   14S   147, 
 
 149 
 Peter  the  Hermit,  ii.  60 
 Petrarch,  ii.  22",  2  -5 
 Petrobrufians,  ii,  173 
 Pharifces,  their  tenets,  i.  24 
 Philip,  Emperor,  i.  1 10 
 ■ the  Fair,  King  of  France,  his 
 
 conteft  with  P>oniface  V I i I .  ii.  197 
 Landgrave   of   Heffe,    unjultly 
 
 detained   prifoner   by.  the    Emperor 
 
 Charles  V.  ii.  352 
 Philippicus,  i  412 
 Philo,  i.  66 
 
 Philoponus,  i.  345,403 
 Photmus,  i.  207 
 Photius,  Patriarch  of  Conftantinoplc,  i. 
 
 481,  505 
 Picadella  Mira.ndola,  ii.  261 
 Pillar  monks,  i.  256,  3  1 7 
 Pius  III.  ii.  265.     V.  ii.  26S.     VI.  ii. 
 
 Placentia,  council  of,  ii.63 
 
 Platonics,  i.  io,  71 
 
 Poland  converted;  ii.  34 
 
 Polycarp,  i.  80,  IC5 
 
 Pluralities,  ii.  13 
 
 Plutarch,  i.  ic6 
 
 Pomeranians  converted,  ii.  8} 
 
 Pope,  title  of,  i.  249.      Applied  to  all 
 
 Bifhops,     i.    ifii..      Exciufively   at- 
 
 fumed  by  Roman  Pontiffs,  ii.  39 
 Pope,  alteration  in  the  mode  of  electing, 
 
 ii.  40,  no 
 Port  Royal,  nuns  of,  ii.  4S9 
 
 -» gentlemen  of,  ii.  504 
 
 Pragmatic  fanction,  ii.  14^ 
 Preferments,  iniquitous  distribution  of, 
 
 ii.  15 
 Prefbyters,  i.  47,  49 
 Printing,  invention  of,  ii.  25S 
 Prifcillianifts,  i.  209 
 Procopius,  i  •  3  47 
 Propagation   of  faith,  focieties  for,  ii. 
 
 4S1 
 Proteftants,  whence  the  name,  ii  324 
 Pruflia    conquered     by    the    Teutonic 
 
 knights,  ii.  ico,  19^ 
 
 ,  reformation  in,  ii.  320 
 
 Pfellus,  Mich.  ii.  81 
 
 Purgatory,  i.  179.  ii.  T9 
 Purification,  feaft  of,  i.  m 
 Puritans,  il.  496 
 
 Quakers,  ii.  49S 
 Quictifb,  ii.  212,  491 
 
 R 
 
 Rab3nus,.Maurus,  Archbifhopof  Montr, 
 i.  ^07 
 
 Ratilton  diet,  ii.  348 
 
 Recollets,  ii.  28'') 
 
 Reformation,  its  hiftory,  ii.  288 
 
 F.clics,  i.  177,  265 
 
 ■ — ,  ridiculous  narratives  concern- 
 ing, i.  178,  ?$z.  ii.  150 
 
 Rejigion,  general  hiltory  of,  from  the 
 creation,  i.   I 
 
 Reui'hlin  G.  ii.  456 
 
 Revolution  in  England,  ii.  478 
 
 Richaid  Cceur  de  Lion,  ii.  92,  lit 
 
 Richelieu,  Card.  ii.  502 
 
 Roger,  count  of  Sicily,  expels  the  Sa- 
 racens out  of.  Sicily,  ii    37 
 
 Rofary  inftituted  in  honour  of  the  Vir*. 
 giri  Mary,  ii.  26 
 
 Rofcelin,  ii.  79 
 
 Rofwida,  ii.  33 
 
 Rufinus,  i.  227 
 
 Ruffians  converted,  i.  4G I- 
 
 S 
 
 Sabbatarian:,  ii.  £00 
 Sabellians,   1.  1  '4. 
 Sacrament*  i .  S3  , 
 
 ,  feftivalof,  ii.  167 
 
 Sadducees,  i.  25 
 
 Saints,  veneration  paid  to  them,  its  life, 
 
 &c.  i.  117 
 1 — ,  cieation  of  them  affumed  by 
 
 the  Pope,  ii.  20 
 Saladin,.ii.  90 
 Salvian,  1.  291 
 
 Sanctuary,  right  of,  i.  iSU,  394 
 Sandemaniam,  ii.  537  *  * 
 Saracens,  i.  317 
 
 Sardinia,  kingdom  of,  creeled,  ii.  156 
 Savanaiola,  Jerome,  ii.  z-o 
 Scaliger,  ii.  456 
 
 Schifm,  the  great  Wefteta,  ii.  203. 
 School  div.  ii.  1 13,  188 
 Sclavonians  and  Dalmatians  converted, 
 
 i.  4C10 
 Scotus,  Duns,  ii.  220 
 Scotus,  Johannes  Erigena,  i.  496 
 Scriptures,  Lat.  Tranf.  i.  70 
 Seekers,  ii.  497  1 
 
 Semi-Arians,  i.  205 
 Semi-Pelagjins,  i.  275 
 
 Sergius, 
 
N      D      E      X. 
 
 5SS 
 
 Serghis  III.  Pope,  ii.  5, 6 
 Servetus,  ii.  445 
 Shakers,  ii.  540 
 Shakefpeare,  ii.  510 
 Sicily,  monarchy  of,  ii.   37 
 Simeon,  head  of  the  Stylites,  i.  256 
 •  Metaphraftes,  ii.  33 
 
 Simon  Magus,  i.  60 
 Sixtus  V.  Pope,  ii.  268 
 Sleepers,  feven,  i.  264 
 Smalcald  league,  ii.  328 
 Smith,  John,  ii.  509 
 Socinians,  ii.  448 
 Socrates,  (hiftorianj  i.  ;a.2 
 Sozomen,  i.  292 
 Stephen  VII.  Pope,  ii.  6 
 
 ■ VIII.  ii.  7 
 
 Stillingfleet,  ii.  508 
 
 Stoics,  i.  20 
 
 Sublapfarians,  ii.  403 
 
 Supererogation,  doctrine  of,  ii.  iig 
 
 Supralapfarians,  ii.  493 
 
 Sun  and  Moon,  worfhip  of,  i.  e 
 
 Swedenborg,  Baron,  ii.  543 
 
 Swedes  embrace  Chriftianity,  i.    4:9. 
 
 Reformation  eftablifhed  among  them, 
 
 ii.  333 
 Silvefter  II.  Pope,  ii.  ia.     III.  ii.  41. 
 Synefius,  i,  2^9 
 
 Talmud,  i.  294 
 Taylor,  bifhop,  ii.  509 
 Templars,  Knights,  ii.  99,  2Cg 
 Tertullian,  i.  ro6 
 Tetzel,  |ohn,  ii.  290 
 Teutonic  Knights,  ii.  ?oo 
 Theatins,  ii.  286 
 Theodore  of  Mopfueftia,  i.  289 
 
 — -of  Canterbury,  i.  406 
 
 Theodoret,  i.  293 
 Theopafchites,  1.  283 
 Theophilus,  i.  287 
 Theophilacl,  ii.  81 
 Tillemont,  ii.  502 
 
 Tillotfon,  ii.  509 
 Tonfure  of  priefts,  i.  331 
 Toaloufe,  council  of,  ii.  176 
 Transfiguration,  feftival  of,  ii.  24S 
 Tranfubftantiation,  doctrine  of,  ii.  163 
 Trappe,   La,  affecting  incident  relating 
 
 to,  ii.  483 
 Trent,  council  of,  ii.  338 
 Trith«ifb,  i.  336 
 Tyre,  William  of,  ii.  133 
 Tythes,  origin  and  defence  of,  i.  16 9 
 
 V 
 Valentinian,  Emp.  i.  158 
 Valentinians,  i.  90, 
 Valteline,  mavTacre  of,  ii.  471 
 Venice,  papal  difpute  with,  ii.459 
 Vicjor  III.  ii.  58 
 Ulfila  (Gothic  Bifhop)    translates   the 
 
 Bible,  i.  162 
 United  Provinces,  whence  they  became 
 
 united,  &c.  ii.  417 
 Unitarians,  ii.  444 
 Urban  II.  Pope,  ii.  ;8.     III.  ii.  Ill 
 
 VIII.  ii.  338 
 
 Victor  III.  Pope,  ii.  107 
 Vigilius,  Bifhop  of  Rome,  i.305 
 Ufher,  archbifhop,  ii.  507 
 
 W 
 
 Wafer  ufed  in  the  facrament,  ii.  169. 
 
 Waldemer  I.  king  of  Denmark,  ii.  df. 
 
 Waldenfes,  ii.  12c,  173 
 
 Walter  the  Pennylefs,  ii.  63 
 
 Water,  holy,  i.  330 
 
 Whichcot,  Dr.  ii.  50S 
 
 Whitby,  ii.  <;io 
 
 Wickliff,  John,  ii.  214 
 
 Wilkins,  Bifhop,  ii.  508 
 
 William  the  Conqueror,  ii.  4S 
 
 Zachary,  Pope,  i.  427 
 
 Zuingle,  Ulric,  begin*  the  Reformation 
 
 in  Switzerland,  ii.  303 
 Zuinglians,  ii.  450 
 
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 THE     END. 
 
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