I -7 ^6 © - - - — "^^-v Z PRINCETON. N. J. \ '' „ i| e Part of the | J" ADDISON Ar.KX/lND^JR I-IBKAKV, "> J^ vrhich was presented bj \ I Messks. R. L. AN). A. Stuart. '| .558 Ar/. ^^^^i^^^— /^^^^ .t^^X^ a^^. /fjfjx^ BIBLE MiNUAL, BIBLE MANUAL: AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF SCRIPTURE HISTORY ANALYSES OF THE BOOKS OF THE BIBLE JAMES'^SIME, M.A. RECTOK OF THE FREE CHORCH TRAINING COLLEGE, EDINBURGH, AND AUTHOR OP "THE MOSAIC RECORD IN HARMONY WITH THE GEOLOGICAL." EDINBURGH: SUTHERLAND AND KNOX. LONDON: SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, AND CO. MDCCCLVII. EDINBURGH: T. CONSTABtB. PBINTBR TO HKR MAJE8TV. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. ANTEDILUVIAN PERIOD. page Cainites and Sethites— The contrast — The Saviour. ..... 1 CHAPTER II. AGE OF THE PATRIARCHS. Abrani — Faith of Abram — Keturah, Ishraael, Isaac — Jacob — Religion of the Patri- archs — Wealth of the Patriarchs — Slavery — Chronological table. . . . [> CHAPTER III. EGYPT AND THE EXODUS. Sojourn in Egypt— The Ten Plagues — The Exodus— The laws of Moses, . . 22 CHAPTER IV. THE LAWS OF MOSES. Priests and Levites — Tabernacle and Ark — Feasts and Fasts — Princes and Elders — Cities of Refuge — War — Enchanters — Divine origin of the Law — Christ revealed in the Law. .......... .''.4 CHAPTER V. SOJOURN IN THE WILDERNESS. Rebellion at Sinai — Rebellion of Korah — Balak and Balaam — Balaam and Midian — Settlement of East Palestine — State of the Arts among the Hebrews, .49 CHAPTER VL FROM JOSHUA TO SAMSON. Period of the Judges — Chushan-Rishathaim—Othniel—Midian— Gideon— Prevalence of Idolatry — Jephthah — Samson — Violations of the Law, . . .01 CHAPTER VIL FROM SAMUEL TO SOLOMON. Samuel — Victories of Saul — Zeal of Saul for religion— Trials and faith of David- Greatness and wars of David — Rebellions and Pestilence — Jerusalem — The Dif- ficulty, 1 Sam. xvi. 21 — Mai-riage and public works of Solomon — Magnificence of Solomon— Building of the Temple— The Temple— Commerce of Palestine- Ministers of State — The Army — Revenue of the Hebrew kings — The Saviour, . 7T> CONTENTS. 126 FftOM REHOBOAM TO AMAZIAH. Abijah — Asa— Jehoshaphat — Joash — Amaziah. — Israel : Jeroboam — Samaria — Re- forraatinn arrested— Jehoram — Dynasty of Jehu — Schools of the Prophets — Elijah at Horeb, ......... CHAPTER VIII. FROM UZZIAH TO HEZEKIAH. Uzziah— Hezekiah— The Assyrians.— Israel : Shallum to Hosea— Sins of Israel— The gDldea calves— State of sociaty— False Prophets— The Messiah— Assyria— Assy- rian sculptures, ......... CHAPTER IX. FROM MANASSEH TO ZEDEKIAH. Manasseh — Ashdod — Josiah — The Reformation— Coniah — Zedekiah — False Prophets —Review of the Period— The Seventy Years, ..... 1J2 THE CAPTIVITY. Daniel— Faith of Daniel and his Three Friends— Babylon— The Babylonian Empire, 151 CHAPTER X. JUDEA UNDER THE PERSIANS. The Return from Captivity — Ezra — Nehemiah — Measures of Nehemiah — The Sama- ritan Temple— Book of Esther, ....... ICl CHAPTER XI. POETICAL AND PROPHETICAL BOOKS OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. Modes of Revelation, ......... 174 The Book op Joe.— The Country of Job, ...... 175 The Book of Psalms.— Sacred Poetry — Writers of the Psalms, .178 The Book of Proverbs — Allusions to Manners and Customs, . . . 181 The Book OP EccLESiASTES. — Value and Weakness of Wisdom, . . . • 184 The Son'g of Solomon, or Canticles, ....... 18(J The Prophets — their OflBce and Duties — Minuteness of Prophecy — Messianic Predic- tions, ........... 1^7 The Book OF Isaiah.— The Kingdom and Work of Christ, .. . . .192 The Book op Jeremiah. — Wickedness and Punishment of Judah— Predictions of the Chaldean Invasion, . . . . .191 The Book OF Ezekiel— Commerce of Tyre, ...... 198 The Book op Daniel, ........ 201 The Book op Hosea, ......... 203 The Book op Joel, ......... 204 The Book op Amos.- The Day of the Lord, ...... 205 The Book op Obadiaii, ......... 206 The Book OF Jonah. — Mission of Jonah to Nineveli, 207 The Book of Micah, 209 The Book of Nahum, ........ -00 The Book op Habakkiik, ....... 210 The Book op Zephamiaii, ........ 211 The Book op Haggai, .• . . .212 The Book op Zechabiah. — Visions of Zechariah, ..... 21.x The Book of Malachi, ......... 21.5 CONTENTS. Vll NEW TESTAMENT. CHAPTER XII. THE FOUR GOSPELS. fage iJiftieiences in Style and Matter— Matthew — The Publicans — Mark and Luke — Sources of the Four Gof-pels— Chronology of the Gospels, . . . . .217 CHAPTER XIII. INTRODUCTION TO OUR LORD's PUBLIC MINISTRY. Birth and Infancy of Jesus— The Genealogies — The Enrolment and Taxing — Testi- monies to the Messiahship of Jesus — Introduction to the Gospel of John — The Manhood of Jesus — John — Temptation of Jesus — Marriage and Miracle at Cana, 228 CHAPTER XIY. FIRST YEAR OF OUR LORD's PUBLIC MINISTRY, llariflony of the Gospels — Miracles and Followers of Jesus— Jesus at the Well of Samaria— Conduct of the Apostles towards Christ— Jesus at Nazareth and Caper- naum — True and False Prophets, ....... 246 CHAPTER XV. SECOND YEAR OF OUR LORD S PUBLIC MINISTRY. Harmony of the Gospels— Healing of an Infirm Man at Bethesda— Discourse on the Godhead of Christ— The Twelve Apostles— Sermon on the Mount— Doubts of John the Baptist— A sign given to the Pharisees— The Parables of Christ— Inter- pretation of the Parables — The Miracle at Gadara— Powers and privileges of the Apostles — Discourse on the Bread of Life, ...... 256 CHAPTER XYL THIRD YEAR OF OUR LORD's PUBLIC MINISTRY, Harmony of the Gospels— Faith in Christ the rock of the Church— Death and suffer- ings of Christ foretold— Jesus in retirement— Jesus at the Feast of Tabernacles — Judicial investigation into the Miracles of Christ— Jesus at the grave of Lazarus —Rich men shall hardly enter the kingdom of God, .... 280 CHAPTER XVII. CONCLUDING EVENTS OF OUR LORD's PUBLIC MINISTRY. Harmony of the Gospels— The withered fig-tree— Christ and the Pharisees in the Temple— Institution of the Lord's Supper— Peter's three denials of Jesus— Christ before the Sanhedrim — Jesus charged with calling himself Son of God — Jesus at Calvary— Death and Burial of Jesus— Evidence of the Resurrection of Christ, . 29V CHAPTER XVIIL BAPTISM OF THE JEAVS WITH THE HOLY GHOST. Acts of the Apostles— The Day of Pentecost— Miracles of Peter and John— Appoint- ment of Deacons- Defence of Stephen before the Council— Spread of the Gospel to Samaria, . . . . . . • • • .319 Vlll CONTENTS. CHAPTER XIX, BAPTISM OP THE GENTILES WITH THE HOLY GHOST. Conversion of Cornelius — Early life and education of Paul — Conversion of Paul — Antioch — Paul's first Missionary Journey — Council at Jerusalem — Paul's second Missionary Journey — Church founded in Thessalonica — Paul's Address at Athens — The meeting at Antioch — Progress of the Gospel in Proconsular Asia — Paul's Address to the Elders of Ephesus — Paul before the Sanhedrim — Paul and Felix — Speech of Paul before Agrippa — Minute account of the shipwreck — Labours of the Apostle Paul in Rome— Last Missionary Journey of Paul— Chronology of the Acts, ........... CHAPTER XX. THE EPISTLES OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. Second Coming of Christ — Faith and Manners in the Apostolic Church — Its Ministers, 367 ErisTLE OF Paul to the Romans, ....... 374 First Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians. — Divisions in the Church of Corinth, 376 Second Epistle op Paul to the Corinthians, ..... 379 Epistle of Paul to the Galatians. — State of the Church in Galatia, . . 380 Epistle of Paul to the Ephesians, ....... 381 Epistle op Paul to the Philippians, ...... 383 Epistle of Paul to the Colossians. — State of the Church in Colosse, . . 384 First Epistle of Paul to the Thessalonians. — Second Coming of Christ — Thessa- lonica, .......... -386 Second Epistle op Paul to the Thessalonians, ..... 387 First Epistle of Paul to Timothy, ....... 387 Second Epistle of Paul to Timothy, ...... 389 Epistle op Paul to Titus.— Titus and the Church in Crete, .... 390 Epistle of Paul to Philemon, ... .... 392 Epistle of Paul to the Hebrews.— Paul the writer of this Epistle, . . 392 General Epistle of James. — James the brother of our Lord, . . . .395 First Epistle General OF Peter. — Character of Peter, ... 396 Second Epistle General op Peter, . ...... 398 First Epistle General OF John, ....... 399 Second AND Third Epistles of John, ....... 401 General Epistle of JuDE, . . . . '. . 402 The Revelation of John, ........ 402 APPENDIX. Events in Jewish and Profane history, 404-4 B.C., Jewish Day and Year, .Jewish Kalendar, . .Icwish Weights, Jewish Money, .Jewish Measures of Length. 40j 41 o 414 415 4Hi 416 BIBLE MANUAL. CHAPTER I. ANTEDILUVIAN PERIOD. 1. The Book of Genesis contains principally the family re- cords of the Hebrew Patriarchs, to whom the promise of a Deliverer, originally given to Eve, was renewed. It is rather a series of biographies than a history. The preface to the Bible (Gen. i.-ii. 3) contains a brief account of the creation of the universe by God, and of man's high position, as king of every living thing on earth. The inspired writer then proceeds to the covenant made with Adam, his honour and fall. Sentence was passed upon him ; but the prospect of deliverance from it was held out. The division of the human race into the families of Cain and Seth, their different characters and fortunes, form the next part of the book. Every kind of wickedness resulted from the union of these families in course of time ; and, with the exception of eight persons, the whole race was at last swept away by a flood. 2. The tree of llfe^ and the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, which the Creator planted in Eden, were sacraments of the covenant made with Adam by God. Life was promised as the reward of obedience to God'tj commands, and " the tree of A 2 , ANTEDILUVIAN PERIOD. life" was given as a sensible sign of the good purposes ot Jeliovah towards Adam. Every time he partook of its fruit, he was reminded that the keeping of the covenant would be re- warded with everlasting bliss. In the same way, the tree of knowledge was at once a test of obedience, and a symbol of the punishment that would befall a breach of the covenant. Jeho- vah said, Abstain from that tree ; and the apparent ease with which that simple command might have been kept, would render disobedience more heinous. If Adam partook of its fruit, he would then become conscious of evil only, as he was before conscious of good only. Fruit had not the power of giving either life or knowledge ; any more than bread or wine, in the Lord's Supper, can by itself give spiritual blessings ; but life or death, by the appointment of God, was immediately connected with abstaining or eating. Adam was driven from the garden lest he might presumptuously think, that by eating of the tree of life, God's judgment would be rendered powerless.^ 3. The descendants of Adam were soon divided into the two families of Cain and Seth, one vicious, the other devoted to the service of God. Cain and his descendants are called the chil- dren of men ; Seth and his family, in whom the true human race was propagated, the sons of God. The former removed at an early period from the neighbourhood of Eden ; the latter con- tinued to dwell with Adam. By comparing the two genealo- gies given in Scripture, it will be found that there is a manifest contrast drawn between the histories of the' Cainites and Seth- ites. The first great event in the existence of the former, as a separate coijimunity, is the luilding of a city — that is, making provision for their bodily wants. On the other hand, the latter inaugurates its existence as a nation by providing for spiritual wants — " men began to call on the name of Jehovah." Enoch, also, a descendant of Seth, " walked with God, and he was not, for God took him," showing still more clearly the spiritual character of this family, and their belief in a future state of re- wards and punishments. Each genealogy closes with a Lamech, 1 Gon. iii 22. CAINITES AND SETHITES THE CONTEAST. 3 and each Lamech has embodied in song the wants and hopes that he felt. The Cainite is, like his ancestor, of this world ; the Sethite hopes for rest, and looks back to the original promise. Both had children : the Cainite was the father of great and worldly men ; the Sethite of the good and heavenly-minded Noah. The union of these two families, in Noah's days, led to the crimes and wickedness which brought the flood upon the earth. The contrast between Cain and Seth is manifestly the same as that drawn by Paul between Ishmael and Isaac ; the one was born after the flesh, the other was by promise. ^ 4. The arts and sciences were first developed among the Cainites. Tent-making, and the nomadic life of shepherds, originated with one of Lamech the Cainite's sons ; musical in- struments were invented by another. Tubal-Cain was the first to use copper and iron in the arts ; and Naamah, his sister, is said by the Jews to have invented spinning. As Cain built a city several centuries before the age of Lamech, it is probable that Tubal-Cain did not invent, but only improved the art of working in metals. Very different is the account given of the Sethite race. True religion, founded on the promise made to Eve, was developed among them. The cherubim and the flaming sword, placed on the east of Eden, may have been at once a place of worship, and an emblem of the wrath that re- quired to be taken away. Hebrews at least, accustomed to the temple service and the cherubim overshadowing the mercy-seat, would naturally be led to suppose that Adam and his pious chil- dren worshipped before the gate of Eden, and, like the Jewish high-priest, were there allowed to hold direct communication with God. Soon, however, increasing wickedness deprived them of this blessing — men began to worship an unseen God.^ Altars were also built and sacrifices offered, most likely by the command of God himself; and the law had been communicated to man that the first-fruits of all his increase, whether from the field or the flock, belong to the Divine Being. The distinction between clean and unclean animals was also laid down, and some only 1 Gal. iv. 23. - Probably about 235 A.ir. 4 ANTEDILUVIAN PERIOD. were used for sacrifice or food. Faith in a future Deliverer from the effects of the Fall, continued to flourish in the Sethite family till the time of Noah. 5. In antediluvian times cities were built, vineyards planted, the value of the olive known, and agriculture — the toil of men's hands — was extensively practised. Stone was used for building where it could be had, and bricks dried in the sun where it could not. Cement, probably formed from clay, was used ; but bitu- men, which rises to the surface of several lakes around Babylon, and hardens on exposure to the air, was preferred.^ As measures of length and time are also mentioned during this period, men must have possessed some knowledge of surveying and astro- nomy. The "mighty men of renown," before the flood, earned their greatness with swords and armour forged from iron and copper. A knowledge of several arts was required before the harp and pipe (organ) could be made or used. Clothing was got at first from the leaves of trees and the skins of animals, though cloth, woollen and possibly coarse linen, was afterwards invented. Notices of the state of civil society during the period are few and brief. The murderer was punished with death ; but that law was sometimes not enforced, owing to the wickedness of the times. Criminals were beaten with the rod ; if we may judge from the song of Lamech, where the word " hurt" 2 means the bruise caused by a scourge. Polygamy appears to have been in- troduced by the Cainite Lamech ; but the connexion in which mention of it occurs is not to the credit of the innovation. Families then were not more numerous than they are now ; at least, Lamech's household consisted of only three sons and one daughter, and Noah's of three sons. " He begat sons and daughters," was merely a phrase equivalent to, " he had a family." ^ 6. The foundation of the Church was laid immediately after the Fall ; a deliverer from the effects of the curse was promised to Eve. A triumphant, and at the same time a suffering Saviour 1 Gen. xi. 3. - Gen. It. ?.3. ' In Gen. xlvi. IJ, " 'laughters'" occurs, although only one is mentioned. THE SAVIOUR. O was revealed in Eden, but his triumph appears to have been the hope of believers more than his sufferings. His manhood was also revealed. It was foretold that he should be " of her seed," not "his seed;" the seed of the woman, not the seed of the man. The expression is peculiar, and does not occur again in Scripture. Messiah was of Abraham's seed, not Sarah's ; of Jacob's, not Leah's ; of David's, not Bathsheba's ; but of Eve's, not Adam's. Paul has explained this phrase in one of his epistles to mean " made of a woman," that is, virgin-horn. Messiah was also regarded by the antediluvians as the giver of rest ; but they looked for an outward deliverance from the work and toil of their hands, rather than an inward deliverance from the power of sin. Whether Eve's exclamation, " I have gotten a man from Jehovah," refers to the expected deliverer, may be questioned ; but there can be no doubt that Lamech the Sethite regarded the original promise when he named his son Noah, and possibly considered him the deliverer, whom former ages had looked for in vain. CHAPTER II. AGE OF THE PATRIARCHS. 7. The grant of universal dominion, originally given to Adam, was renewed to Noah. Men were commanded to punish the murderer with death, a law which was probably not observed in the period of violence and wickedness that preceded the deluge. Flesh, quite free from blood, was also allowed to be eaten, and the rainbow was made a sign of God's promise that he would never destroy the race of man again with a flood. It is not necessary to suppose that the rainbow was then created on purpose. Fruit was not created for the first time when it was made a sign of the first covenant, nor bread and wine when they AGi: OF THE PATRIARCHS. were made signs of the second. God set apart the rainbow, as he might have done any other of his creatures, to this special service. The confusion of tongues at Babylon, and the division of the earth among the descendants of Noah, are then narrated, though very briefly. Scripture gives at length only the history of Abram, to whom the promise of a deliverer descended through Shem. 8. A comparison of the genealogical tree of Shem, with that of Seth, brings out some curious results : — Name. Age at Birth of Eldest Son. Age i at Death. ] Name. " A£;eat Birth of Eldest Son. Age at Death. Adam, ... 930 Shem, . . 100 600 Seth, . . , 105 912 i Arphaxad, 35 438) 433 [ 464) Enos, . . 90 905 ; Salah, . . 30 Cainati, . . 70 910 ' Eber, . . 34 Mahalaleel, . 65 895 1 Peleg, . . 30 239) Jared, . . U2 962 Reu, . . . 32 239 y Enoch, . . H5 [365] Serua:, . . 30 230 ) Methuselah, 187 969 Nahor, . . 29 148 Lamech, 182 777 Terah, . . 70? 205 Noah, . . 500 950 Abraham, . 100 175 9. It appears from the table that, in the period after the flood, parents were usually about thirty years of age when their eldest son was born ; but the antediluvians were a hundred and some- times nearly two hundred years of age at that time. The for- mer began to have a family when from a fourteenth to a fifth part of their life was run ; the latter generally when a fifth or a tenth of it was spent. One would infer from this that the aver- age number of a family was greater after the flood than before it.i Another interesting point connected with these registers is, that the distinguished men in them were born at a comparatively advanced period in their fiithers' lives. This is true of Seth, Enoch, Lamech, Noah, Shem, Abraham, and Isaac. The short- ening of human life after the flood is very striking. Arjdiaxad, ' Shem hnd five sone, for exnmi^le, Aram had four, and Joktan thirteen. ABRAM. 7 Salah, and Eber, lived between 400 and 500 years each ; Peleg, Keu, and Serug, abont 230 ; and the next group shows another marked diminution. Shem outlived all his descendants, except Eber, down to Isaac, and died when that patriarch was 110 years of age. If he was Melchizedek, a supposition by no means unlikely, he may have conversed with Jacob on the one hand, and with a man who had been an acquaintance of Adam on the other. The descendants of Terah, and their relation to each other, may be seen from the following table : — Terah. Abram m. Sarai. Nahor m. Mile ah. Hj Isaac m. Eebekah. Bethuel. Lot, Sarai, Milcah, Esau, Jacob. Laban, Eebekah. Iscah. Leah, Eachel. Sarai was the daughter, that is, according to a very common use of the word among the Hebrews, grand-daughter of Terah, but not by Abram's mother.^ 10. Abram belonged to the family of Shem, and spent the first seventy-five years of his life in Mesopotamia. He was then called by God to leave his father's house in Haran, and the idolatry practised there,^ for another land and a purer worship. God informed him that his descendants, although he was then childless, should become a great nation, and that he himself should prove a blessing to all families of the earth. Accom- panied by his wife Sarai, and his nephew Lot, with numerous flocks and herds, he set out for Canaan.^ Shechem was the first place at which he encamped after crossing the Jordan ; and God assured him there, that his children should possess that country. An altar was built to Jehovah in commemoration of this pro- mise. His next encampment and altar were a little to the east of Bethel, for the flocks which he and Lot possessed rendered it necessary to move from place to place. A drought destroyed 1 Gen. XX. 12. 2 Joshua xxiv. 14. " Terah lived about sixty years afcer this. See on Acts vii. 8 AGE OF THE PATRIARCHS. the pastures, and the two friends were compelled to remove to Egypt, where there was abundance of food for their cattle. The king of Egypt then resided near the Delta, not in the upper course of the Nile ; and the arrival of Abram was soon re- ported at his court. As it was not customary in ancient Egypt for women to veil their faces,^ the beauty of Sarai, who passed for Abram's sister, became the common talk of his nobles. Pharaoh intended to make her one of his wives, and sought Abram's consent by numerous presents.^ The Egyptian soon found, however, by the calamities inflicted upon his household, that Sarai was the wife of Abram ; and he averted the danger with which his family was threatened by restoring her to her husband, and sending them away unharmed.^ — (Gen. xii.) 11. When Abram reached Bethel, dissensions broke out be- tween his servants and those of Ijot, most likely about the right to wells of water, which were matter of treaty even be- tween powerful nations in ancient times.* A separation took place in consequence, though the warmest love prevailed be- tween Lot and his uncle ; the former journeyed eastward from Bethel to the neighbourhood of Sodom ; the latter southward to Hebron, one of the oldest cities in the world,^ after he had re- ceived a renewal of the promise that he should be the father of a numerous seed, to whom the whole land in which he then was would be given. About this time the city of Sodom, and several other petty states, were attacked and conquered by four Mesopotamian kings, from whom they had revolted in the previous year. Some of the tribes which were thus subdued were once famous nations ; and their names may now be read by the learned on the monuments of ancient Egypt, though thousands of years have elapsed since they disappeared from the 1 Gen. xii. 14. 2 Horses are not enumerated among these presents, because they were not used in Canaan at that time, though perhaps common in Egypt. Asses are mentioned, however, because these sure-footed animali were invaluable in the rugged districts of Palestine. 3 Josephus asserts that Abram taught the priests of Egypt arithmetic and astronomy. < On the monuments of Egypt, the king of Sheth (Moab), and the mighty Sesostris enter into a treaty about two spring-wells. Compare Gen. xxi. 25-31 ; xxvi. 15-33. 5 Numbers xiii. 22. FAITH OF ABRAM. 9 face of the earth.^ The storm of war swept over the countries south and east of the Dead Sea, and did not reach Abram. A fugitive from the scene of slaughter reported that Lot was car- ried captive with his family and flocks. Abram armed 318 ser- vants of tried fidelity,^ and pursued the invaders. The three chiefs of Hebron, with whom he was in alliance, lent him their assistance. He overtook the enemy not far from the source of Jordan,* defeated them with great slaughter in a night attack, and recovered all the spoil. Melchizedek and the king of Sodom awaited his return ; the former to bless him in the name of God, the possessor of heaven and earth ; the latter to propose a dis- tribution of the spoil, by no means disadvantageous to himself.'* Abram repaid the blessing of Melchizedek by giving him a tenth of the spoil, and showed his contempt for the king of Sodom by refusing to retain any part of it for himself. — (Gen. xiii. xiv.) 12. It was at this time that the faith of Abram in God, not- withstanding many circumstances fitted to inspire doubt, shone most brightly. He was now far advanced in years, but did not despair of having a son, as God had promised. To reward his faith the history of his descendants for several generations was revealed to him in vision.^ Ishmael was born, but Abram was not allowed to suppose that he was the promised seed. Thirteen years after, when the patriarch was nearly 100 years of age, an- other interview with Jehovah is vouchsafed ; and the promise is fuller and clearer than ever : — he will become a father of many nations, an ancestor of kings, and Jehovah will be their God. To commemorate these blessings and to reward his faith, his name is changed to Abraham ;^ Sarai is called Sarah, princess; and the rite of circumcision is instituted as a sign of God's faith- 1 Zuzim, Rephaim (Josh. xv. 8; 2 Sam. v. 18), and Emim. 2 Traitied in our version. The whole story is analogous to the defeat of Midian by Gideon. 3 At Dan, but not the Dan afterwards founded by members of that tribe — perhaps at Dan-jaan (2 Sam. xxiv. 6), not Dan-laish. * The king asked the persons, and wished Abram to keep the goods ; but persons would include the slaves taken in the battle, and therefore the most valuable part of the spoil. -5 Gen. XV. 13-16. " A generation " here, from the great ages attained by the patriarchs, means 100 years. G Abi'am, father of height ; Abraham, father of a multitude. 10 AGK OF THE PATRIARCHS. fulness. A few months after, he received a visit from three heavenly messengers, and the promise was renewed. Sarah is incredulous ; but Abraham believes, and is told of the ruin im- pending over wicked Sorlom. He is even allowed to plead with God in human form, for the doomed city. He had once saved its inhabitants from ruin already ; but he was now contending with Divine justice, not with lawless spoilers from Mesopotamia, and his efforts were in vain. What a strong contrast there is in Gen. xviii. and xix., between the families of Abraham and Lot ; the one sealed with an everlasting covenant, through the faithfulness of its head ; the other, plunged in despair and wickedness through the worldliness of its members! — (Gen. xv.-xix.) 13. But even Abraham falls into grievous sin. Circumstances compelled him to remove his encampment to Gerar, a city of the Philistines ; he lies to Abimelech, king of the place, in call- ing Sarah his sister, and once more nearly involves a nation in ruin. Leaving the city, he dwelt in the valley of Gerar, and dug several wells for his flocks, which the natives afterwards filled up. Probably Isaac was born in that district ; for his birth happened at this time, and the digging of wells, by Abra- ham's servants, implies a lengthened residence in the neigh- bourhood. Abraham was then one hundred years of age, and Sarah ninety. Ishmael and his mother were soon sent away from the encampment to appease the jealousy of Sarah ; but Abraham still maintained friendly communications with his eldest son. 14. When Isaac was grown up, Abraham was commanded to offer him as a burnt-offering to God, on Mount Moriah, forty miles north-east of Beersheba, where he was then residing. The command came to him in a dream by night, and he set out for the mountain early on the following morning ; but it was only a test of Abraham's faith, not an action which he was allowed to perform. The offering of Isaac symbolized the sacrifice of Jesus Christ for the sins of men, though, in the latter case, the sacrifice was really made. A renewal of two blessings, formerly promised, rewarded the obedience of the patriarch — he was as- sured of a numerous and prosperous progeny, and from him the KETURAH, ISHMAEL, ISAAC. H bestower of blessings on all mankind, the deliverer promised to Eve, should descend.^ — (Gen. xxii.) 15. Few notices of the remainder of Abraham's life are con- tained in Scripture. Sarah died -when 127 years of age, and was buried in the cave of Machpelah. Three years after, the marriage of Isaac and Kebekah took place, one of those romantic and simple narratives which give a peculiar charm to the his- torical parts of Scripture. Altiiough Hagar is the only concu- bine of Abraham of whom much is said in Scripture, he had at least one more named Keturah, who became his wife after Sarah's death .2 He gave the six sons whom she bore him large presents, and sent them away into the east country, lest they might cause Isaac trouble after his death. Some of them became the heads or founders of desert tribes, such as Dedan, Sheba, and Midian. Abrahixm died at the age of 175, and was buried in Machpelah by Isaac and Ishmael. — (Gen. xxiii. 1-xxv. 10.) 16. Ishmael's life and character are very briefly sketched in Scripture. It was predicted before his birth that he should be a wild man, at variance with every tribe but his own. He died, or rather fell as he lived, in presence of all his brethren ; fore- most in desert forays — the leader of his band in peace and war. 17. Scripture proceeds with the history of Isaac. Twenty years elapsed, after the marriage of Isaac, before Esau and Jacob were born.^ Drought again destroyed the pastures in that part of Palestine where Isaac resided, and he removed to Gerar. His father's wells had been filled up by the Philistines ; but they were discovered, and again used. It appears that Isaac gave them the same names as they had in his father's days ; and this explains why Beersheba is said to have received its name first from Abraham and then from Isaac. ^ Isaac also built an altar in Beersheba ; and departed so far from the nomadic life of his father as to till the ground in the fertile valley of Gerar. — (Gen. xxv. 11-xxvi. 35.) 18. The other notices of Isaac's life refer to domestic matters 1 Heb. xi. 17-19. 2 Qen. xxv. 1-6 ; 1 Chron. i. 32. 3 Gen. xxv. 19-34. * Gen. xxvi, 18, 26-33; comp. xxi. 22-32. 12 AGE OF THE PATRIARCHS. — tlie dissensions in his family caused by Esau's unhallowed marriages, the stealing of the blessing by Jacob at Beersheba, and his flight to Mesopotamia,"^ and the patriarch's death in Hebron, at the mature age of 180, after having been blind and bedridden for upwards of forty years. — (Gen. xxvii.) 19. Esau connected himself with the family of Ishmael, when he saw that his first marriages, with the two Hittite women, dis- pleased his parents. About twenty years after, he is at the head of 400 men, and appears to be ruler over Mount Seir. Instead of being the servant of Jacob, as he expected,^ Jacob is now forward to call him lord^ and to request grace in his sight.^ Unbelief had reduced the heir of the promise to this humbling condition ; and Esau, satisfied with present prosperity, could not see his father's blessing fulfilled in future ages. 20. The life of Jacob is given with considerable detail in Scripture, because in him a great step was made towards the fulfilment of the promise. When at Bethel, on the way to Mesopotamia, the patriarch received a renewal of the promise, and in consequence devoted a tenth part of all his substance to the service of God.'* He called the place where this happened, Beth-el or God's House, a phrase not uncommon afterwards, and long before the temple was built. Monumental pillars are mentioned for the first time in connexion with this visit to Bethel. — (Gen. xxviii.) 21. Jacob continued to reside in Padan-aram for twenty years; and all his children, except Benjamin, were born in that country. Through God's blessing he acquired great wealth in this foreign land. When he returned to Canaan, Reuben, his eldest son, could not have been more than fourteen years of age, and Simeon and Levi more than thirteen and twelve. On reaching Gilead, he was favoured with a vision of angels to assure him of protection against his brother Esau. He had sent messengers to Seir intimating his arrival ; and his faith failed when they informed him of Esau's ' Oen. xxvii. 15. The words "goodly raiment" have been interpreted to mean i>riestly robes, but this is purely fanciful. - Oen. xxvii. 37. 3 Gen. xxxii. 4; xxxiii. 13-15. ii. 25. 3 It is high y improbable that Moses made this journey across the desert unaccompanied by any of his friends. He recommended himself to Jethro by interfering on behalf of his daughters at the well ; but it is not likely that one man would be able to overawe a number of shepherds. Besides, the narrative in Exodus leaves the impression that communications were kept up between Moses and his relations in Egypt, so that they must have known the place of his retreat. * Galling bondage did not destroy the Hebrews ; fierce persecution does not consume the Church. 5 The Israelites were not yet scattered over the whole land ; but were dwelling together in the Delta (they are even called "the people of the land," Exod. v. 5), and this assembly must have been held, when for some reason they had been released for a time from their labours 2G EGYPT AND THE EXODUS. news soon spread among the people, that a messenger from God had come to deliver the nation ; they ceased from their heavy- labours/ and crowded to see the wonders that Moses and Aaron were enabled to work. Information of their proceedings reaches the Egyptian conrt : their names are known to the king, and the priests have time to counterfeit their miracles. At length, accompanied by the elders of Israel, they obtain an interview with Pharaoh, and demand permission, in the name of Jehovah, to lead Israel out of Egypt. The king never heard of the God of Israel before, and haughtily refused their request. He was afraid of the result, if that numerous nation were allowed to enjoy the prospect of deliverance, or a cessation from toil, and issued orders at the end of harvest to scatter them over Egypt, and increase the severity of their bondage.^ Moses and Aaron were disappointed by these unexpected events, and the Hebrews be- came deaf to the messages which they received from God. After a time the two brothers again appear before Pharaoli, and prove their Divine authority by turning Aaron's rod into a serpent ; but the king would not comply with their demand.^ — (Exod. iii.-v.) 37. The annual overflow of the Nile had now begun, and, as usual, the king proceeded to mark the progress of the inundation. Moses met him on the bank, and punished his obstinacy by turning the water of the river and the canals into clotted blood. The red Nile no longer furnished its pleasant beverage to the people, and for seven days intense suffering was occasioned throughout the land ; but the plague had no effect on Pharaoh. His magicians could do the same, though they could not remove the effects of Moses' curse ; and his servants supplied him with palatable water by "digging round about the river." As tlie 1 Exod. V. 4. 2 Exod. V. 5-12. Bricks Ptamped with the nfime of the king, in whose reipn they were made, are among the curiosities brought from Eg\pt by the learned. Limestone, windstonc, and granite were also much u^ed in buiMing. ^ Serpents may be trained to perform a variety of wondre powerful than Jehovah. THE TEN PLAGUES. 27 waters continue to rise and spread over the country, frogs, whose mournful croakings are not heard during the rest of the year, appear in considerable numbers.^ They then came forth in countless hosts to annoy and torment; the goddess Buto was unable to drive them away, and a promise was extorted from the king that he would let Israel go. Kelease from suffering pro- duced a refusal to part with half the strength of his empire ; and, to punish this royal treachery, the dust of the land became gnats. This, too, is usual during the overflow : the moisture sets free the swarms of gnats that have been hatched during the heat of summer ; but the increase of their numbers and power, in the present instance, was so great that even the priests ex- claimed, " It is the finger of God." This plague had no effect on Pharaoh, and a double wonder followed. Flies, which usually make their appearance when the inundation is near its height, attacked him and his people in immense swarms, but they were not seen in the land of Goshen. An unwilling con- sent is again wrung from Pharaoh, to be soon recalled. Murrain, common at the season when the cattle require to feed knee-deep in water on whatever overtops the inundation, punished this act of deceit : the oxen and sheep, with the horses and camels of the Egyptians, all died ; but of the Israelites', not one. Another plague speedily followed : at the bidding of Moses, boils broke out on man and beast ; but the heart of Pharaoh still remained hard. About six months after the first plague, a more appal- ling judgment than any that had yet happened befell Egypt. Storms of rain and hail, accompanied with thunder and light- ning, sometimes occur about the end of December, when the barley is in the ear ; but now they were so destructive that the crops of barley and flax were destroyed ; trees were stripped of their branches or thrown down, men and cattle were killed. (Exod. vi.-ix.) 38. Still further destruction was necessary to humble the pride of Pharaoh. It is mid-winter in northern latitudes ; but 1 "They shall remain in the river only" (Exod. viii. 11),— their usual retreat :.t this 8ea<40D. 28 EGYPT AND THE EXODUS. spring in Egypt, when the east winds sometimes blow crowds of locusts to destroy the green and fertile fields of the Nile valley. This plague was threatened, and the courtiers in vain urged the king to avert it by complying with Moses' demands. The locusts came, and soon the greenness of Egypt was blackness. Pharaoh consents, and a west wind drives them into the Ked Sea ; but the king then returns to his former obduracy. Summer has again visited Egypt, with its heat, and dust, and sand storms ; and an- other occurrence of the season, closes the list of terrible plagues in which Jehovah heightened natural phenomena into miracles. Clouds of fine, hot sand, borne forward by the wind of the desert, swept over the land, darkened the sun, a god of Egypt, shut up the population in their houses for three days, and caused fearful mortality among the people. Such visitations are still common in Egypt,^ but this was without parallel. Moses was now a greater man in Egypt than the king himself: courtiers and people respected or feared him ; but the tyrant regarded him with the bitter hatred of a proud and baffled spirit.^ Every object which the Egyptians reverenced had been blasted by Jehovah, — every god whom they worshipped had owned the power of this mightier king. The contest between Jehovah and the gods of Egypt had ended in the humiliation of the latter ; but Pharaoh would not yield. The last plague fell " upon the heart " of the king and people. The eldest son of every family in the nation was struck dead in one night, and the Israelites were hurried out of the land in the morning, lest their God might slay every surviving Egyptian. Little time would be spent in making preparation to depart ; fur the king had so often given them permission to leave, that they were now ready to march on the shortest notice. They saw the Egyptians burying their dead, as they passed through the country on their departure. (Exod. xi. xii.) 39. It cannot be supposed that the bondage of the Hebrews, throughout this eventful year, was so severe as at the beginning. I Sometimes these sand storms obscure the air, as if there were a dense fog, to a dlatanoo of forty or fifty miles from the coast. 2 Exod. xi. 3 ; x. 28. THE EXODUS. 29 The first plague would lighten their burdens, if it did not take them away altogether. Pharaoh was obdurate amidst the heaviest calamities ; but his servants and officers were terrified, and would not venture to overtask a nation peculiarly under the care of God. The apostle, speaking of God's dealings with this king, says, "whom he will, he hardeneth." It should be also borne in mind, that Pharaoh abused the light he had ; for his servants and magicians saw that he was engaged in an impious contest. 40. The Hebrews demanded permission to go three days' journey into the wilderness to sacrifice to Jehovah. Moses and Aaron refused to go, unless old and young, with their cattle and all they possessed, accompanied them. It was evident that the same God who commanded them to take this step, might also command them not to return ; and Pharaoh understood this. By acknowledging Jehovah's right to remove them from Egypt when he pleased, he also allowed his right to keep them from returning.^ For the same reason, the Egyptians must have understood that there was no prospect of recovering the jewels which they lent the Hebrews. It was most unlikely that the Israelites would ever return to bondage. Besides, every posses- sion of the Egyptians belonged to the king : he had exacted labours from the Hebrews without giving them wages ; but now Jehovah interferes on behalf of the injured, and gives them favour in the sight of Pharaoh's servants. The jewels they received were therefore the wages of eighty years' service. 41. The fugitives were accompanied by a band of strangers or aliens, called the mixed multitude^ in whom it is not difficult to recognise men of neither pure Hebrew nor pure Egyptian de- scent.2 As inheriting Israelitish blood, they had no caste in Egypt ; but were the most degraded and abused members of the community. They preferred to share the fortunes of the Hebrews, even as " hewers of wood and drawers of water," and J When God first appeared to Moses, he told him, first, that the nation would get posses- sion of Palestine : and second, to demand permission to leave on a three days' journey. 2 Lev xxiv. 10 ; Numb. xi. 4, contain notices of them. 30 EGYPT AND THE EXODUS. provision was afterwards made by God for their incorporation with the people.^ 42. The time spent by the Israelites in Egypt was 430 years, and eighty at least were passed in grievous bondage. In Genesis this period is called four generations, allowing, as it was usual to do in Abraham's time, one hundred years to each. The genealogies of several tribes^ show only a few descents during this long interval ; but that of Ephraim contains eighteen. There is no doubt that five or six descents are too few for the interval, and that eighteen is the exact number. It was usual, indeed, with the Israelites to shorten their quotations from family registers ; Matthew leaves out the names of three kings, Ahaziah, Joash, and Amaziah, from his genealogy of our Lord, and the descents between Salmon and David in the Book of Ruth, are manifestly too few. Paul also alludes to this in- terval when he says " that the covenant, that was confirmed of God in Christ, the law, which was 430 years after, cannot dis- annul. "^ It appears from the Book of Genesis, that the cove- nant originally made with Abraham was confirmed to Jacob •* at Beersheba, when quitting Palestine for Egypt. It is that con- firmation of the covenant, the last and most peculiar before the giving of the law, which Paul means ; not the first promise made to Abraham, 215 years earlier. 43. The notices given in Scripture of the state of religion among the Hebrews, during their residence in Egypt, are not numerous. Jehovah was worshipped as the God of all : the promises made to their ancestors were not forgotten, and the bones of Joseph were carefully preserved. But their morals were debased, and their faith obscured by compliance with Egyptian customs. Idolatry, and the evil practices common in Egyptian worship,^ had been introduced ; apis or the bull, devils or goats,^ as the word should be translated, were wor- shipped ; and, even in the wilderness, the presence of Jehovah himself did not deter them from carrying about images of ' Deut. xxiii 7. 8. -' ] Chron. ii. 3-10. ^ Onl iii. 17. ♦ Gen x'lvi 14. ■'' Ezek. xxiii. 3. Lev xvii. 7. THE LAWS OF MOSES. 31 heathen gods.^ Sacrifices were offered to these deities in the outskirts of the camp, and a law was passed, forbidding that evil practice under pain of death.^ 44. The encampments of the Israelites on their march from Eamesesto Horeh, their dangers, deliverances, and rebellions, are narrated in Exod. xii. 37-39 ; xiii. l7-xix. 2. In Exod. xii. 40-51 ; xiii. 3-10, the passover is again introduced, and some additional regulations regarding strangers laid down ; while in xiii. 1, 2, 11-16, the first-born of man and beast are declared holy to Jehovah. These appear to have been proclamations, which Moses issued to the army before leaving Kameses ; the former to remind them that, though solemnly separated to the service of Jehovah, they were not to regard othernations as more unclean or less worthy than themselves ; the latter to teach them that Jehovah was entitled to the highest place in their regards, and could justly claim whatever they reckoned most valuable. 45. The principal places at which Israel encamped on this journey, after leaving Rameses, were the following : — Succoth, east from Rameses. Etham, edge of the wilderness ; first mention of the pillar of fire. Between the sea and Migdol (the tower), perhaps one of the border fortresses built to protect the eastern frontier of Egypt from invasion. Pharaoh was thus behind them, and these fortresses were in front. Therefore they turned south, according to the Divine command. " Pillar of cloud" is now called the " Angel of CTod." — Ex. xiv. 19. See xxiii. 20-25. Passage of the Gulf of Suez, the western branch of the Red Sea. Marah (bitterness). Murmuring of the people for water. Elim. Special notice taken of the twelve wells and seventy palms, because there were twelve tribes of Israel, and seventy persons accompanied Jacob into Egypt. Wilderness of Sin. Thirty-first day after leaving Rameses ; 1 Aicos V. 25. 26. 3 Lev. xvii. 1-7. S2 EGYPT AND THE EXODUS. the people murmur for want of flesh and bread ; quails and manna sent ; the Sabbath is revived. Rephidim (Massah, Meribah). Another rebellion for want of water, and Moses almost stoned. Pillar of cloud at length rests on the rock of Horeb/ and water is furnished. Battle with an Amalekite tribe in the neighbourhood ; and first mention of the hook^ in which events were re- corded. Arrival of Jethro (Reuel, or Raguel). Sinai. The people arrive two months after leaving Egypt (1491 B.C.) 46. It appears from the story of Jethro (Exod. xviii.), that Moses taught the people God's "statutes and laws" before they encamped at Sinai. Possibly some of the numerous laws relating to matters between man and man, which are contained in the books of Exodus and Leviticus, arose ont of circumstances that happened on the march from Egypt to Sinai. In a host so nu- merous as that of Israel, and composed of men just escaped from a state of slavery, mistakes and crimes of every sort would be committed. Laws and customs also, besides those inherited from their ancestors, must have grown up among them during their sojourn in Egypt, which it was desirable either to confirm or root out.^ Men of tender consciences would propose doubtful points to their great leader ; immoral or criminal actions would be brought under his notice. God would always be consulted on these matters, and a considerable number of laws would thus be promulgated, before the people reached Sinai. Several instances of laws formed in this manner are recorded in the Pentateuch ; but it was not the intention of the lawgiver to narrate the cir- cumstances that called forth all his laws.^ Hence these laws were most appropriately termed " judgments " or decisions of ' flxod. xvii. 6 * Hence many of the Mosaic laws are expressly directed against their doings in Egy|it. ^ Thu:<, it was found that if female heirs were allowed to marry into other tribes than their own, the possessions of the tribe- could not be kept separate. Hence a law wa« passed thirty-eight years after leaving Sinai, requiring them t(.> marry in the tribe of their father. (Numb. xxxvi.> LAWS OF MOSES. 33 Jehovah, as if God himself had sat on the judgment-seat. These decisions were recorded in the hook which Moses was commanded to keep ; and as there would be comparatively little order in the cases brought before him, an arrangement of crimes and mis- demeanours under different heads cannot be looked for in the Pen- tateuch. This is true, however, principally of laws relating to matters "between man and man,"i and not even of the whole of these. In the Pentateuch, therefore, we may expect to find laws of the following nature : — (1.) Ancient customs, handed down from generation to generation ; (2.) Corrections of evil habits, which sprung up during a century of debasing bond- age ; (3.) Scruples of conscience^ in men still ignorant of the truth ; and (4.) New laws and appointments, relating to wor- ship and life. All these laws, however, were sanctioned by Jehovah, 47. The interview of the seventy elders of Israel with God, is related in Exod. xxiv. Perhaps the Hebrews. retained this num- ber in remembrance of their seventy ancestors, who settled in Egypt, and from whom they were all descended. There is nothing else in history to which it can be traced, and the eagerness with which the people remark the twelve wells and seventy palms at Elim, is a good instance of their remembrance of Jacob's settlement in Goshen. Directions are given for con- structing the ark and tabernacle in xxv.-xxxi. The story of the golden calf, and the death of three thousand men, is re- lated in chap, xxxii. Aaron escaped death only by the inter- cession of Moses. The construction and erection of the taber- nacle, xxxv.-xl. 1 Exod xviii. 16. - '• Tbou Shalt not seethe a kid in its mother's milk;"' " take the young from a bird's nest, but let the dam go," and such like, arose, pcrhap.?, from these scruples of conscier.ce. 34 THE LAWS OP MOSES. CHAPTER IV. THE LAWS OF MOSES. 48. The people of Israel stood in a peculiar relation to Jeho- vah. They solemnly accepted him at Sinai as their king, and promised obedience to his voice. A faithful discharge of this duty would be rewarded with the highest blessings ; they would become " his peculiar people," " a kingdom of priests,^ and an holy nation," that is, a nation set apart to the service of God. According to the terms of this covenant, Moses taught that the people possessed no property of their own. Jehovah spared them amid the plagues of Egypt ; gave them favour in the eyes of their oppressors ; loaded them with riches on leaving Goshen ; and, at last, established them in Canaan. They are, therefore, called sojourners or strangers with God, living like guests in the dwellings that he provided ; and having no right to complain of any burdens he might impose on them. Tithes and sacrifices, the presence of all the males thrice every year before the ark, the years of rest for the land, and a prohibition of usury from their brethren, were among the chief. But, fur- ther, it was also laid down that no important step in affairs of state should be taken without consulting God ; if magistrates ventured to act on their own view of matters, disgrace and mis- fortune would be the result. Every mistake or crime that was committed in the community, was committed against Jehovah, and required to be expiated by blood. What a human magis- trate would have passed over, God could not ; and the Hebrews were thus taught to regard themselves as always under the eye of their ever-watchfiil King. 49. The Priests and Levites. — When the law was given on Mount Sinai, the tribe of Levi was specially set apart to the » It is evident that the Levitical prie'thood was not ordained when thef^e blessings were promised. >;ce Exodus xix. 22. PRIESTS AND LEVITES. 35 service of God. It had been foretold that its members would be " divided in Jacob, and scattered in Israel ;" and their appointment to the sacred office of God's ministers led to this result. When the people were numbered in the plains of Sinai, it was found that all the first-born males in the nation, excluding the tribe of Levi, amounted to 22,273. These, as well as the first-born of every beast in the camp, belonged to Jehovah, for he spared them when the plague fell " on the heart" of Egypt. They required, therefore, to be devoted to his service or re- deemed, and accordingly the Levites were substituted in place of the men-children, and rules laid down for disposing of the first-born of the flocks and herds.^ The former were afterwards redeemed for five shekels each. The descendants of Aaron were usually called priests^ but sometimes Levites ; the rest of the tribe Levites. The former discharged the sacred duties of blessing the people, sacrifice, and attendance in the tabernacle ; the latter carried the tabernacle and its furniture from place to place, chanted the sacred hymns of the temple after it was built, guarded the tabernacle or temple night and day, and taught the people out of the law. Provision was made for their support in various ways. Aaron and his sons received certain portions of every offering that was not wholly consumed, the first-fruits of fields and flocks, and a tenth of the tithe annually paid to Jehovah by the people. The Levites were supported by the remainder of this tithe, and forty-eight cities, with part of the surrounding country, were set aside for their use, and that of the priests. The people were also exhorted to give free-will offerings occa- sionally ; and were strongly encouraged to remember their Levi- tical brethren in feasts and sacrifices.^ A second tithe of the produce of their fields and flocks required to be eaten before the tabernacle ; but at the end of three years they were allowed to consume it at home. Levites, widows, strangers, and the fatherless were invited to the rejoicings common on these occa- sions. 50. The High Priest. — The high priest was the lineal descend- 1 Lev. xxvii. 26, 27. 2 Deut. xii. 19 ; xiv. 27. 3 Deut. xiv. 22-29. 36 THE LAWS OF MOSES. ant of Aaron, and occupied the highest position in the nation in religious and sometimes even in civil affairs. He alone was permitted to enter the most holy place, and that only on the Day of atonement. On the same day, he made a confession of all the known and unknown sins of the nation, and solemnly entreated the forgiveness of God. His dress, except on this occasion, consisted of a wide blue robe reaching to his feet, with golden bells round the lower border ; a richly embroidered ephod or vest ; the breastplate, a square bag inserted in a space left open in the ephod, and set with twelve precious stones, on which the names of the twelve tribes were engraved ; and a lofty mitre of fine linen upon his head. The high priest was regarded with peculiar reverence. He was not allowed to mourn over the death of relatives, or to visit the house in which a dead body was -lying. He was permitted to take only a virgin Israelitess for his wife. Wine and strong drink were forbidden to him and the other priests, at least when they waited at the altar. The high priest was also a type of our Saviour in making interces- sion for the people on the day of atonement. 51. The Tabernacle. — While Moses was on the mount, he re- ceived particular directions regarding the buildings and vessels to be used in the worship of Jehovah. Nothing was left to his own judgment, for a pattern of everything afterwards made was shown to him by God. In the first place the tabernacle and ark were constructed, and as they are constantly referred to, a brief description of them will be of advantage. The tabernacle was thirty cubits long from east to west, about ten broad, and as many high. Its sides were made of boards of acacia wood, overlaid with gold, and could be taken down or set up at pleasure ; four long curtains of wool, leather, and linen, adorned with figures of cherubim, and of various colours, were drawn over the top and nearly covered the sides. The tabernacle was divided into two parts by a richly embroidered linen veil. The front, or eastern part,^ was called the holy place ^ the other the most holy. So holy • The entrance to the tabernjicle was from tlie ojv«t, for tVe we.- 08 so Gerahonites. O < 9- 108,100. Benjamin. EniuAiM. Mauasseh. w. s. REBELLION AT SINAI. 51 The signal to march was given by the priests blowing with silver trumpets. The tribes on the east set out first, and were followed by the Merarites and Gershonites bearing the taber- nacle ; the tribes on the south marched next, and behind them the rest of the Levites bearing the ark and other parts of the sacred furniture. Ephraim followed, and then Dan. The prayer of Moses, when the Levites set forward with the ark, is very striking.^ 68. The events recorded in Exodus xxxiii., xxxiv., appear to have taken place immediately before the people left Sinai.^ Moses received the command, " Depart, go up hence, thou and the people, unto the land" of Canaan. Jehovah himself, how- ever, would no longer accompany them on their march ; for they had shown themselves a stiffnecked people, and he might con- sume them by the way. A general mourning pervaded the terrified nation ; the tabernacle was taken down and removed to a distant hillock in the surrounding desert ; Moses interceded for his countrymen, and they anxiously waited for the result, each man standing in the attitude of prayer before his tent when the prophet entered the tabernacle. Jehovah repented of the evil with which he had threatened the Hebrews, and graciously pro- mised, " My presence shall go with thee." Moses besought God to grant a proof of this restoration to his favour ; and he was commanded in reply to place himself in a certain cleft of Horeb. The cloud on the summit descended around him ; and a voice pro- claimed the glory of God in the plan of redemption, " forgiving iniquity .... and that will by no means clear the guilty." The two tables of stone were renewed at the same time, and Moses descended from the mountain, bearing on his face traces of the Divine glory he had witnessed. 69. Before the camp broke up from Sinai, Moses earnestly en- treated his brother-in-law, Hobab, to remain with them in conse- quence of his acquaintance with the desert. This request is one of many instances, which prove that Moses was not allowed always to have recourse to the wisdom and might of Jehovah ; where human prudence could remove difiiculties, Jehovah did not in- 1 Num. X. 35. 2 Deut x 10, IL 52 SOJOURN IN THE WILDERNESS. terfere. But more important events happened at this time. At the first encampment after leaving Sinai, the half-castes, who had followed the people from Egypt, raised a serious rebellion on account of their food, and demanded flesh instead of the con- stantly recurring manna. The outskirts of the camp was the usual place of assembling for the conspirators on these occasions ; but fire from Jehovah consumed some of them at their seditious meetings. A different punishment befell the others ; the flesh for which they murmured was given, but a plague accompanied it, and cut off great numbers. The burden of these complaints always fell on Moses, and he earnestly prayed for some help amid his heavy toils. The seventy elders of Israel were accordingly appointed to form a council that might advise with Moses on ordi- nary matters, and share the responsibility of whatever was done. Even Aaron and Miriam cast unjust reproaches on Moses on account of his wife, and pretended that they were prophets of Jehovah as well as he. God reminded Aaron, however, that he had been appointed only the prophet of Moses,^ and severely punished the insolence of Miriam. — (Num. xi. xii.) 70. The people were now approaching the southern border of Palestine, by which it could be entered without passing through other territories. For reasons which are not mentioned,^ twelve spies were first allowed, at the request of the people, to search the land in all its extent, and bring back a report to the camp at Kadesh-Barnea.* After an absence of forty days (hence the forty years' sojourn in the wilderness) they returned with the intelligence that a more fertile country could not be desired, but the inhabitants were too warlike and their cities too strong to be overcome. Ten of the spies agreed in this report ; the people believed them, and threatened to stone the two who urged im- mediate war with the Canaanites, and were confident of success. A rebellion was the result, and Moses and Aaron, with Joshua and Caleb, the two spies, were only saved from death by the interposition oi Jehovah. The cry even arose, "Let us make a 1 Exod. vii. 1. 2 Terhaps it wap to test the j eople's faith. ' Deut. i 19-46. REBELLION OF KORAH. 53 captain, and let us return into Egypt." The ten unfaithful spies were struck dead ; and the rest of the people, though spared at the intercession of Moses," were doomed to perish in the wilder- ness during a sojourn there of eight and thirty years. Some attempted to regain the favour of God, by attacking the Canaanites in their neighbourhood, but a signal defeat taught them that their sin would not be so readily forgiven. Their tears were equally unavailing to alter the purpose of God. — (Num. xiii. xiv.) 71. Another rebellion^ afterwards broke out in the encamp- ment of this obstinate and audacious people. Korah, Dathan, Abiram, and 250 princes of the people charged Moses with exer- cising too much authority over the congregation of Jehovah. The whole people, they said, were holy, and were as much entitled to the honour of the priesthood as the Levites. A re- markable change is observable in the character of these rebellions on this occasion. The people are now the " congregation of Jehovah," animated by love and reverence towards him, but convinced that Moses is not his minister, or does not faithfully discharge his commands. Korah and his friends cloaked their ambitious views under this pretence ; they wished to share in the honours and profits of the priestly office, and Moses appointed a day for Jehovah to decide who should be his ministers. The leaders of the rebellion were swallowed up by an earthquake ; and the 250 princes were struck dead when offering incense. Even these terrible punishments did not convince the people of their sin : they charged Moses with having killed " the people of Jehovah ;" and nearly fifteen thousand of them perished in this new and daring rebellion. These disputes about the right to the priestly office were finally settled by Aaron's rod blossom- ing before the ark, when those of the other princes which were laid up with it remained unchanged. The people in terror and amazement at this new wonder exclaimed, " Behold, we die, we perish, we all perish."^ — (Num. xvi. xvii.) 1 Deut. ix. 25. 2 The date of it cannot be fixed, but it must have been very near the end of the forty years. It is referred to as a recent event in Kadesh about 1452 b.c— Kum. sx. 3, 3 Kum. xvii. 12. 54 SOJOURN IN THE WILDERNESS. 72. The forty years' wanderings at length drew to an end ; but they closed as they began, with rebellions. At Kadesh, in the desert of Zin, where Miriam died, water could not be obtained, and the murmur arose that Moses was wantonly endangering the lives of " the congregation of Jehovah." These repeated denials of his Divine commission, notwithstanding the many proofs Israel had received of its reality, proved too much for the patience even of Moses. The rebels called themselves Jehovah's people, and pretended to think that Moses was not God's pro- phet. The lawgiver, unhappily, could not restrain his indignation at this audacity : *' Must we," he exclaimed, we whom ye thus despise, " fetch you water out of this rock." Personal feelings, not a regard for Jehovah's glory, animated Moses and Aaron in these proceedings. They resented the insult offered to them- selves more keenly than the dishonour done to God. Jehovah informed them that they had not " sanctified" him in the matter, and that they would not be allowed to enter the Promised Land. —(Num. XX. 1-13.) 73. The time at length approached for conquering Palestine, and the Hebrews were ordered to leave Kadesh. Instead of entering by the south, as they would have done thirty-eight years earlier, they were now commanded to attack the eastern border. A march round Edom was necessary to carry out this order : for a passage through that country was refused, and the Edomites assembled a large army to repel invasion. Aaron died on Mount Hor during this journey, and another rebellion broke out in the camp soon after. Want of water and the weariness of the wilderness were the causes of it. Serpents, whose bite aggravated the burning thirst of the people, were sent amongst them as a punishment, and great numbers perished, until Moses was instructed to provide tlie brazen serpent for tlie recovery of the wounded. Want of water was also felt on the borders of Moab ; but whether it led to a rebellion is not known : the people expressed their joy in song on finding a well. At length they reached the country of Sihon, which lay between the Arnon and the Jabbok. T'ermission to pass through his BALAK AND BALAAM. 55 dominions was refused, and a battle was fought at Jahaz, in which Sihon was totally defeated ; and his country became the prey of the Hebrews. The same fate befell Og, king of Bashan, and the fertile provinces from Lebanon to the Arnon were thus conquered by Israel in one campaign. The bedstead of Og is said to have been nine cubits long, and four broad : the inspired writer does not give these as the dimensions of the king himself, and there can be no doubt that Og, although a giant, wished people to believe him of greater size than he really was. — (Num. XX. l4-xxi. 35.) 74. Another and a very curious chapter in the history of Israel now opens. While the people were encamped in the plains of Moab, which they had conquered from Sihon, Balak the king of Moab was alarmed for the safety of his own domi- nions. From the mountains on his northern border he could perceive the encampment of the Hebrews ; and the whole coun- try was ringing with stories of their prowess in conquering Sihon and Og, who had repeatedly defeated his ancestors and seized their territories. Balak could not contend with them in arms, and he resolved to use enchantments. For that purpose he sent ambassadors to Balaam, a famous diviner who lived on the banks of the Euphrates, and requested him " to come and curse Israel." Jehovah forbade Balaam to go with the ambassadors. A second and more honourable embassy was sent, but Balaam refused to yield to their entreaties. God again appeared and said, " If the men come to call thee, go." The prophet, eager to receive the wealth and honours that were promised him by Balak, went uncalled with the ambassadors, contrary to Jehovah's orders. An angel met him by the way, and reproved him through his ass for disobedience, but allowed him to proceed. On reaching Moab, he was taken to a mountain from which the whole Hebrew encampment could be seen. Sacrifices were offered, to Baal apparently : prophetic powers were bestowed by Jehovah on Balaam for the occasion ; and, surrounded by the princes of Moab, he predicted a great increase of strength and population to Israel. Balak, supposing him to be affected by the extent of 56 SOJOURN IN THE WILDERNESS. the Hebrew camp, took him to another height from which only a small part of it was visible, and bade him curse, not bless the people. The prophet again foretold the prosperity of Israel, and predicted for them the favour of God. In a third prophecy the Hebrew conquest of the neighbouring nations was foretold ; and in a fourth the overthrow of Moab and Edom by David, the star of Judah. Balak refused to bestow on his visitor the pro- mised wealth and honours, and the prophet withdrew to Midian. 75. We cannot leave this part of the sacred narrative without considering more fully the character and position of Balaam. It is not difiScult to show that covetousness was the ruling trait of his character. To obtain the money of Balak, he disregarded the commands of Jehovah, whom he professed to serve; his vile advice to the Midianites,^ immediately after foretelling the power and greatness of Israel, was a still more shameful instance of the same thing. Like all false prophets, his only object was gain, whatever means might be used to acquire it : his mind could rise to nothing higher. He was inspired by God on four occa- sions to predict the future, and is therefore called 2^ prophet by the apostle Peter ; but his ordinary way of satisfying those who em- ployed him was by enchantments and soothsaying : if he had been allowed, he would have used them to please Balak also, and would have cursed Israel.^ There is nothing unusual in Jehovah appearing to him by night, and directing him what to do. In the same way, Pharaoh was prevented from making Sarah his wife ; Abimelech was kept from doing Abraham harm ; and Laban was forbidden to deprive Jacob of his goods. Balaam must have heard of Jehovah's doings in Egypt, the wilderness, and Gilead : he is therefore afraid when the messengers of Balak come " with the rewards of divination in their hands."* The case is unusual : he is unwilling to lose " the wages of unrighteousness," and yet feels that the Almighty Being who had poured confusion on the wise men of Egypt before Pharaoh, might do the same to him in presence of Balak. There was great loss if he declined to go, but a greater risk if he went. He told the ambassadors that he 1 See next section. 2 Num. sxir 1. 3 Num xxii. 7. BALAAM AND MIDIAN. 57 must first consult Jehovah, and delayed giving them an answer till morning. It was useless to deny that no other god could stand before Jehovah, — that had been proved again and again ; and Balaam therefore could not apply to Baal, to Moloch, or any other deity : his only hope was to turn away the favour of Jehovah from Israel. The Moabite ambassadors had good rea- sons for entertaining the same opinion ; and it was therefore an act of prudence in the impostor to say that he would consult Jehovah that night : like all persons of his profession, he was more cunning and unscrupulous than other men. To his great surprise, Jehovah did appear to him, and solved his doubts in the least agreeable way ; but, as was shown above, visions of this sort were vouchsafed to men of very doubtful character. If Jehovah had not appeared, Balaam would have balanced the chance of loss against the certainty of gain, and acted accordingly. It follows, therefore, that Balaam was an ordinary false prophet, who pretended to speak in the name of Jehovah as the most powerful of all gods,^ and to whom God most unexpectedly appeared in reality. — (Num. xxii.-xxiv.) 76. When the Midianites saw that they would perhapsbe attack- ed by the Hebrews, they detained Balaam on his passage through their country, and engaged his services in the approaching con- test. He advised them to promote intermarriages between their women and the Hebrews, and instructed the former to seduce their husbands or paramours into idolatry. The plan succeeded ; and 24,000 of the Hebrews perished in consequence. But the suc- cess of the Midianites was shortlived ; their activity provoked a storm which might have been averted. A division of the Hebrew army, accompanied by the sacred instruments^ and the silver trumpets, was sent against them ; and every male capable of bearing arms was slain, without the loss of a man to the in- vaders. Some idea of the immense slaughter may be formed from the fact, that at least an hundred thousand women and children were taken prisoners. On this occasion two laws were passed. One required the spoil to be divided equally between 1 "The Lord my God," he says. 2 Probably the ark ; comp. 1 Sam. iv. 4. 58 SOJOURN IN THE WILDERNESS. those actually engaged in the war, and the rest of the people ; but the tribute claimed by Jehovah from the latter was ten times greater than from the former. David afterwards renewed this law, though in a somewhat different form. The second law required everything that had been defiled by the touch or use of idolaters to be purified by fire or water : metals were passed through the fire, persons and clothes were washed in water. — (Num. xxv. xxxi.) 77. Before the people crossed the Jordan, the census of all the males above twenty years of age was again taken. A com- parison of this census with that made in 1490 b. c. will not be without interest. Number of families.i B. C. 1490. B. C. 1451. Increase. jJecrease Reuben, 4 46,500 43,730 ... 2,770 Simeon, 5 59,300 22,200 ... 37,100 Gad, 7 45,650 40,500 ... 5,150 .Judah, 5 74,600 76,500 1,900 ... Issachar, 4 54,400 64,300 9,900 ... Zebulun, 3 57,400 60,500 3,100 ... Manasseh, 8 32,200 52,700 20,500 ... Ephraim, 4 40,500 32,500 ... 8,000 Benjamin, 7 35,400 45,600 10,200 ... Dan, 1 62,700 64,400 1,700 ... Avsher, 5 41,500 53,400 11,900 — Naphtali, 4 53,400 45,400 ... 8,000 Levi, 8 ... ... ... ... 65 603,550 601,730 78. It is certainly very singular that a people which increased from seventy-five souls^ to upwards of two millions in 430 years, should have remained stationary, or even diminished in numbers, during their forty years' residence in the wilderness. There is not much difficulty, however, in explaining the anomaly. While the Hebrews were in Egypt, God favoured them, and increased ' The number of families, excluding those of Levi, is thus 57. Add the 12 j)rince8 of the tribes, and we have a council of 69, which, with a president, make up the 70 elders. This is nnlikely. The ei^'ht families of Levi should not be left out, and th > prince of a tribe wa« also the head of a family. ' Se^' under Acts vii. SETTLEMENT OF EAST PALESTINE. 59 their numbers in an unusual degree : in the wilderness, on the contrary, their sins kept them constantly under his frown, i^o mention is made of plagues or pestilence assailing them in Egypt : scarcely a year passed in the wilderness perhaps without several thousands perishing from this cause. Their labours in making bricks and building temples in Egypt, though hard, were not unhealthy : in the wilderness, barren sands, less variety of food, want of water, and weary journeys, would thin their ranks. These considerations may help us to understand why the Hebrews did not increase, but were slightly reduced in numbers, during their sojourn in the desert. The Levites, although reckoned from a month old and upwards, numbered only 22,300 after leaving Egypt. This can only be accounted for by sup- posing, that the tyrannical edicts of Pharaoh fell with more severity upon them than upon the other tribes. 79. Several other important events took place in the plains of Moab. The tribes of Reuben and Gad had brought much more numerous herds and flocks from Egypt than their brethren, and as the country between Jordan and the Euphrates is pecu- liarly fitted for rearing cattle, they requested permission from Moses to settle in that newly-conquered district. He indig- nantly refused, supposing that they meant to give no assistance to the other tribes in conquering Canaan. They promised to do so, however ; and he then allowed them, along with the half tribe of Manasseh, to fortify the ruined cities, and build sheepfolds in that countiy. Accordingly, forty thousand of them afterwards crossed the Jordan with Joshua ; and the others, about seventy thousand, remained at home to defend the women and children. The boundaries of the land were then laid down, and persons selected from the nine tribes and a half to divide it among them by lot. — (Num. xxxii. xxxiv.) 80. Before Moses was removed by death, he assembled the people in the plains of Moab, and delivered to them afresh the law of God. Though 120 years of age, his natural force had not abated, for he was still able to instruct, to exhort, and to warn. Probably the address, in which he briefly related the 60 SOJOURN IN THE WILDERNESS. wanderings of the people, unci again went over the leading pre- cepts of the law, was delivered in an assembly of the princes and nobles, by whom it would be communicated to the tribes and families.^ Moses then committed his discourse to writing, and delivered it to the priests to be read at the feast of tabernacles eveiy seventh year. Joshua, also, was ordained to the chief command by the laying on of Moses' hands ; and the law was laid up beside the ark as a testimony against Israel, if they should revolt from God. After making some other arrange- ments, and giving his blessing to the twelve tribes, Moses ascended Nebo, a peak of Mount Pisgah, received a miraculous view of the whole land, and died. The last chapter of Deutero- nomy, giving an account of Moses' death, may have been partly written by himself ; probably, however, it was added by Joshua. 81. The furnishings of the tabernacle, obtained from the free- will offerings of the people, permit us to form a very favourable opinion of the state of art among the Hebrews. Precious stones; bracelets, ear-rings, nose-jewels, and pendants (tablets) of gold ; fine linen (byssus) and leather ; linen and woollen cloth or yarn of various colours ; acacia wood,^ copper mirrors, silver articles, oil and incense, are enumerated among these offerings. Bezaleel and Aholiab were filled with the spirit of Divine wisdom " to devise curious works, to work in gold, and in silver, and in brass, and in the cutting of stones, to set them, and in carving of wood;"^ but, although these men were thus endowed with wis- dom, it is highly probable that they had been instructed in the same arts during their residence in Egypt. The ornaments of the Hebrews, and the skill of their workmen, may be illustrated at least by the monuments of that country. The names of the twelve tribes were engraved on the precious stones in the high priest's breastplate ; and, in like manner, mottoes and figures were exquisitely cut by Egyptian artists on the signet-rings of their kings and nobles. The boards of the tabernacle were 1 See Deut. xxvii. 1 ; xxxi. 28. ■^ The only wood found in the desert, and preferred at any rate on account of its hardness. 3 Kxod. XXXV. 32, 33. STATE OF THE ARTS AMONG THE HEBREWS. 61 covered with gold leaf, the high priest's breastplate was orna- mented with gold chains of wreathen work, and his ephod was interwoven with threads of gold. But gold leaf was also used by the Egyptian artists for gilding wood and mummies ; gold and silver wires were probably woven in their dresses ; rings and chains, armlets and amulets of the same metal profusely adorned the sometimes naked bodies of noble youths. Of the four coverings drawn over the tabernacle the two upper were leather ; one, rams' skins dyed red ; the other, the skins of some unknown animal. The antiquities of Egypt show the remark- able degree of skill attained by the workmen of that country in preparing leather. Quivers of different colours, ornaments, sandals, straps, bottles and other articles, were made of leather ; figures and names were stamped upon it ; and it was also some- times used to cover the wood of musical instruments. Figures of cherubim were woven with yarn of different colours, or embroidered by women in the linen covering of the tabernacle, and the veil in front of the most holy place. Cloth was orna- mented in both these ways among the Egyptians, as their monu- mental remains abundantly prove. The brazen laver was made from the looking-glasses of " the holy women ;" and, even to this day, copper mirrors, dug up at ancient Thebes, admit a con- siderable degree of polish. CHAPTER VI. FROM JOSHUA TO SAMSON. 82. The book of Joshua contains an account of (1.) The con- quest of Palestine by the Hebrews, between 1451 and 14-44 b.c. ; and (2.) Its geography. An account of the state of the country and the last days of Joshua, is also given. Joshua crossed the Jordan not far from the place where it enters the Dead Sea, and 62 FROM JOSHUA TO SAMSON. encamped the same day at Gilgal. He renewed the covenant, and circumcised the people there, to prepare them for the work to which they had been called by God. The capture of Jericho, Bethel, and Ai, was effected a few days after. The natives in other parts of the country, alarmed for their safety, then com- bined to resist the Hebrews : a confederacy of five kings was formed in the south, and another more formidable in the north ; but some cities in the centre of the country, which expected to be first attacked, averted the storm by making a league with Israel.^ The southern confederates, taking advantage of Joshua's absence at Gerizim with the whole people, fell upon these cities ; but were surprised by the Hebrews at Gibeon, their army de- feated, and themselves slain in the pursuit. Most of their coun- try was conquered soon after. The northern nations were equally unsuccessful : they were surprised by night at the waters of Merom, and routed with great slaughter. Many parts of the country were still unconquered ; but these battles broke the spirit of the natives. No united efforts were again made to check the progress of the invaders ; although, in God's good ordering of the conquest, they sustained partial checks in several districts. Israel could not have occupied the whole country at first, and to prevent any part of it from becoming desolate, or the prey of wild beasts, the original inhabitants were allowed to remain for a time. Afterwards, however, when the chosen people fell into idolatry, the heathen became a test of their faithfulness, and a scourge for their sins. — (Josh, i.-xii.) 83. The most ancient text-book on the geography of a coun- try is contained in Josh, xiii.-xxi. It gives the boundaries of the cantons of Palestine, and the cities in each, that were left standing at the time of the conquest, or built during Joshua's life. All the tribes received a share of the conquered ter- ritory except the Levites, who were provided for otherwise. They inhabited forty-eight cities in different parts of the country, and had the right of pasturage to a distance of 1 The constitution of these cities, Gibeon. Chephirah, Bccroth, and Kirjath jearim, was jirobabl V not unlike that of the I'hiUstine cities iu the neiuhbourhood. PERIOD OF THE JUDGES. 63 1500 feet from the walls. It was intended by this arrangement to counteract the tendency to disunion among the tribes, which their settlement in separate districts of the country might have caused : union among the Levites would greatly assist in bind- ing together the other tribes. At the same time information on religious matters could thus be very easily procured by the Hebrews ; fur, in general, few were at a greater distance from a Levitical city than fifteen miles, and most were much less. 84. After Joshua's death, the nation continued faithful to God, so long as the elders contemporary with him survived. During the high-priesthood of Phinehas, the grandson of Aaron, however, the tribe of Benjamin was nearly destroyed, owing to the wickedness of the men of Gibeah.-^ The cause of the troubles which befell the Israelites soon after, was their daring violation of the Divine law, in intermarrying with the heathen, and wor- shipping their gods. It does not appear that all the tribes were guilty of these sins at the same time ; for, in one place, the punishment of eastern Palestine is narrated ; in another, of the northern or central parts. Although some districts of the coun- try threw off the yoke of Jehovah, others always afforded an asylum to his persecuted followers, and by their own faithfulness reminded the rebels of their duty. When the Hebrews fell into sin, they were usually punished by Jehovah allowing them to become the slaves or subjects of a foreign power : they were made to pay tribute, they were disarmed, plundered, and even put to death at the will of the invaders. As soon as the yoke became unbearable, they repented of their sins, probably at the preaching of some prophet, and a deliverer or judge was sent to free them from the oppressor. A considerable number of judges are mentioned ; but it is not likely that they all ruled over the whole land. The following tables show the actual length of the period during which they ruled, and the period derived from adding together the length of each administration, and the in- tervals of slavery : — ^ "The days of Gibeah" seem to have >'eoome a proverb after this time; a memorial of wickedness, and a warning against it : Hos. ix 9. C4 FKOM JOSHUA TO SAMSON. I. From the Exodus to the buikling of Solomon's temple, . 480 years. Years of Solomon's reign, (1 Kings vi. 1,) 3 years. „ David's reign. Joshua's administration, (page 126,) Sojourn in the wilderness. Period of the Judges, II. 40 40 24 40 147 „ 333 years. Probable date, B.C. Period of Slavery. Interval of Peace. Oppressor. Judge. 1402-1354 8 40 Chushan-Rishathaim. Othniel. 1354-1256 18 80 r Moah, Amnion, ") 1 and Amalek. j Philistines. Ehud. Shamgar. 1316-1256 20 40 Jabin. Deborah. 1256-1209 7 43 Midian. Gideon, Abimelech. 1232-1188 45 ... Tola and Jair. 1206-1157 18 31 Amnion. f Jephthah, Ibzan, (. Elon, Abdon.' 1156-1096 40 60 Philistines. Samson, Eli. 1114 -339 = = 450.— Acts xiii. 20. a. Nearly one-fourth part of this period of Hebrew history is thus a narrative of subjection to foreign powers in consequence of sin. Sometimes, however, the chosen people were punished in other ways. "When Abimelech was made king, and seduced the people into idolatry, civil war soon broke out between him and his sub- jects, and their punishment was not less than if they had been sold to a neighbouring nation. 85. The first chapter of Judges contains an account of the conquests of the several tribes, and their relations to the Canaan- ites, among whom they dwelt. Adoni-bezek, king of Bezek* who had reduced seventy petty princes under his sway, was de- feated and taken prisoner by Judah and Simeon after Joshua's 1 Probably the same who is called Bedan, iu 1 Sam. xii. 11. CHUSHAN-RISHATIIAIM — OTHNIEL. 65 death. Gaza, Askelon, and Ekron were captured, and other parts of the country occupied in the following campaigns. Hebron, Dehir, and Hormah were taken a few years after the Hebrews crossed the Jordan ;^ but mention is again made of these con- quests because they were among the most important successes gained by Judah. A list is also given of the principal towns still held by the heathen, who dwelt in the other cantons of Palestine. In some places the Hebrews had great difficulty in preserving their own independence ; in others they were able to exact tribute from the Canaanites. They lost the faith which animated the first generation of conquerors, and disobeyed the Divine commands. God had forbidden them to exact tribute, or to intermarry with the original inhabitants, but they did both. The Angel-Jehovah commissioned a prophet to reprove the people in a general assembly held at Gilgal f and to warn them that the Canaanites would not be driven out before them, but would become thorns in their sides. 86. The heathen marriages and idolatry of the Hebrews were soon punished. Chushan-Rishathaim, king of Mesopotamia, in- vaded the country, and appears to have conquered the eastern and southern tribes. His rule was so oppressive, or subjection to a foreign power was felt to be so disgraceful, that in eight years the Hebrews repented of their wickedness, and implored deliverance from Jehovah. Othniel, who must have been then an old man, was inspired to resist the invaders : he defeated them in battle, and gave the land rest for forty years. Again the people sinned, and were subjected to a hostile power. Eglon, king of Moab, assisted by Amalek and Ammon, crossed the Jordan, encamped among the ruins of Jericho, and reduced the neighbouring Hebrews to slavery. Tribute was exacted from the conquered people, and thousands of Moabites roamed ovei the country,^ plundering at their pleasure. Remembering the advice of Balaam to his ancestors, Eglon judged that he would 1 Josh. xii. 10-14 2 It is not likely that this angel, our Lord himself, appeared to the whole people : a pro- phet must be mideretoo J. 3 Judg. iii. 28, 29. E 6G FROM JOSHUA TO SAMSON. secure his new conquests most effectually by establishing idolatry among the people. With that intention, graven images were erected at Gilgal, a spot much frequented by the Hebrews in those days. This slavery and contempt for the true religion lasted altogether eighteen years, when Ehud assassinated Eglon, raised an army in Mount Ephraim, and cut off ten thousand of the Moabites, who were scattered over the country anticipating no danger.^ Eighty years elapsed before that part of the country was again subject to an enemy. In the interval the Philistines severely oppressed the tribes in their neighbourhood, until de- feated by Shamgar. 87. Deborah, the prophetess, is the next person said to have judged Israel, and there is little doubt that her authority ex- tended over the whole of Palestine. She resided between Eamah and Bethel, and was consulted by the princes of the most distant tribes. Jabin, king of Hazor, was then master of the northern cantons which his general, Sisera, occupied with a large and formidable army. Twenty years of oppression broke the spirit of the Hebrews, and made them tamely submit to the tribute and pillage of the invaders. The highways were deserted ; the annual feasts were not held ; and arms were so scarce among the people, that Deborah asked, " Was there a shield or spear seen among forty thousand men in Israel?" Many villages were swept away, and plundering bands of archers, surpris- ing young women at the wells, carried them off into slavery. But faith, though decayed, was not dead in Israel. Deborah was commissioned to deliver the nation ; and Barak, a pious man of Naphtali, was appointed her assistant. Naphtali and Zebulun furnished an army of 10,000 patriots, armed probably with ox-goads, but the other tribes were afraid or divided : Dan and Asher took no part in the outbreak ; the tribe of Reuben was divided,^ and refused to assist their oppressed brethren ; and Issachar, though commended for its zeal, was restrained by 1 The '• Mount of the Amalekites" (Judj?. xii. 15) may hare derived its name from some circumstance that occurred about this lime. - " At the streams of Reuben there were ;;reat searchin;s of heart,'' (dt liberation ) MIDIAN GIDEON. 67 the presence of Sisera from joining Barak. Kedesh in Naphtali was the rallying point ; and the army then marched southwards to Tabor, a distance of thirty miles. Sisera was encamped at Taanach in Issachar, with 900 chariots of iron, and a battle took place near that town. The invaders were miraculously defeated ; multitudes were drowned in attempting to cross the swollen Kishon ; and Sisera himself, after escaping to the neighbour- hood of Kedesh, was killed by Jael the Kenite. — (Judg. iv. v.) 88. Forty years of peace succeeded the battle of Taanach ; but the nation again fell into idolatry. Slavery to Midian was the punishment. The nomadic tribes of the East crossed the Jor- dan annually in spring, and ravaged the country from Gaza in the south-west, to the plain of Jezreel in the north : their flocks and herds accompanied them, and devoured all the increase of the earth. The Hebrews were disarmed, maltreated, and starved. Wheat was threshed in secret ; sheep and oxen were carried off by the enemy, or died for want of pasture. Many persons fled to the mountains, and found refuge in caverns; others, among whom, perhaps, were Elimelech and Naomi, left the country. Pious men did not doubt the power of Jehovah to save the nation ; 'but so prevalent was idolatry, that tbey thought He had forsaken his people altogether. After seven years of bondage, a prophet preached repentance, and encouraged their drooping spirits. Gideon, a native of Ophrah in Manasseh, was divinely commissioned to destroy idolatry, and expel the Midianites who were then laying waste the country in his neigbourhood. He knew the danger of the attempt, and was not free from appre- hension, until convinced, by a striking miracle, that God was really with him.^ Thirty-two thousand men from Manasseh and the tribes north of it, obeyed the summons to join him on Mount Gilead. Twenty-two thousand were afraid, and returned home ; and only three hundred of the remaining ten thousand were retained for service. Some renegade Hebrews informed the ' At his request, a fleece exposed ovcr-n'ght in the open air was saturated with dew, and the ground remained dry ; next night the fleece was dry and the ground wet. Woo! attracls dew in abundance, so that the second niiiht's miracle was thr greater of the two. 68 FROM JOSHUA TO SAMSON. eastern kings of this revolt, and enabled them to surprise and slay the brothers of Gideon, who had taken refuge on Mount Tabor. The mighty host of the enemy then approached the patriot camp, and only waited for daylight to begin the attack. Gideon, with his little band of Hebrews, occupied a hill top ; about 140,000 Midianites filled the valley beneath. At midnight the patriot army descended the hill in three divisions. Each soldier carried a torch, concealed in an earthen pitcher, and a trumpet. On approach- ing the camp of Midian, they all blew their trumpets, exposed their torches, and broke their pitchers at once. The watch had been newly set ; and the sentinels, scarcely aroused from sleep, were more easily alarmed. The blast of so many trumpets, the alarming crash of the pitchers, and the sight of three hundred torches suddenly breaking the darkness of midnight, frightened the drowsy sentinels. A panic seized the army ; multitudes were trampled to death or fell by each other's hands, and the fugitives directed their flight towards the Jordan. The Hebrews, arming themselves with the spoils of the beaten host, in- creased the confusion and slaughter. Messengers were immedi- ately sent by Gideon to the neighbouring tribes, urging them to follow up the victory by seizing the fords of Jordan, or cutting off detached bands of the enemy. Gideon himself continued the pursuit with his little army, and succeeded in surprising 15,000 of the fugitives, and capturing two of their kings. A large force of Ephraimites guarded the fords of Jordan after the battle, and slew great numbers of the invaders. That haughty tribe was in- dignant, because Gideon did not summon them earlier to the war ; and their displeasure would not be lessened, when they met him returning from a second victory with the two leaders of the enemy among his captives. He soothed their w^ounded pride and prevented a civil war, by declaring his own achievements inconsiderable in comparison with theirs. Although means were employed to throw the Midianite army into a panic, the inspired writer ascribes the victory entirely to Jehovah : " By the three hundred . . . will I save you, and deliver the Midianites into thine hand." — (Judg. vi. viii.) PREVALENCE OF IDOLATRY JEPHTHAH. 69 89. Gideon judged Israel for forty years. His countrymen wished to make him king ; but, conscious that this would be a violation of the Divine law, he declined the honour. Civil dissension broke out soon after his death, and bis sons, with one exception, were cruelly murdered by their illegitimate brother, Abimelech. The people of Shechem then crowned the murderer king ; but a reign, begun in such circumstances, could not be prosperous. Differences arose between Abimelech and his sub- jects ; he enjoyed less power than he expected, and they less happiness. War at last broke out between them ; and Abime- lech, after gaining some successes, fell by the hand of a woman at Thebez. — (Judg. ix.) 90. Tola and Jair judged Israel after the death of the tyrant ; but little is said of their administration in Scripture, for the sacred writer passes on to a more important theme. About three hundred years after the passage of the Jordan by the Hebrews, the whole nation fell into idolatry. Baal and Ashtoreth were worshipped in the north ; Moloch and Chemosh in the east ; and Dagon in the south. At no other period did the Hebrews de- base themselves by serving Dagon — the god of the Philistines — who is represented on the monuments of ancient Assyria with the head and body of a man, and the tail of a fish. Eigh- teen years of subjection to Ammon, and forty to the Philistines, punished these national crimes. The inspired historian first relates the history of the former. 91. The Hebrews on the east of Jordan, but especially in Gilead, now sensible of the sin they had committed in forsaking Jeho- vah, cried to him for deliverance. A prophet reproached them with ingratitude, and bade them turn to their heathen gods. However, the people threw down their images, worshipped Jehovah alone, and revolted from Ammon. Jephthah, the leader of a band of desert robbers, was chosen general of the army by the princes of Gilead, directed undoubtedly by the prophet, who had already appeared among them. Jephthah entertained strong faith in the power and willingness of God to save the nation ; but his knowledge of the law was very imper- 70 FROM JOSHUA TO SAMSON. feet. The rash vow he uttered, the strange terms in which he spoke of Chemosh, god of Moab, giving that people their land in possession/ and the fate of his daughter may be creditable to his faith ; but they convict him of great ignorance. Animated by the Spirit of God, he attacked the Ammonites near Aroer, and defeated them with great slaughter. He was soon called on to engage in another war. The haughty tribe of Ephraim, which appears to have maintained its independence at this time, but had refused assistance to the people of Gilead, crossed the Jordan, and demanded why Jephthah engaged in war without consulting its princes. The Ephraimites grossly insulted his tribe, and even threatened to burn his house. A battle was the result, in which 42,000 of the invaders fell, and the power of their tribe was broken for upwards of a century. Probably the battle took place in the forest where Absalom was afterwards defeated by Joab, " the wood of Ephraim," which received its name from this event. Jephthah survived these transactions about six years. — (Judg. xi. xii.) 92. A deliverer was also raised up in the person of Samson to rescue the southern tribes from bondage to the Philistines ; his birth was foretold by a heavenly messenger, and special in- structions were given to bring him up as a Nazarite. It was predicted that he should " begin to deliver Israel." The Spirit of God was bestowed upon him in early youth, and he was con- scious of being the servant of Jehovah ; but, notwithstanding, Samson was an immoral and weak-minded person. His prodi- gious strength of body was exerted in gratifying his passions, and in injuring his personal enemies, more than in maintaining the independence of his country. The riddle at the marriage- feast was treacherously disclosed to his Philistine companions, and he slew thirty men of Askelon in revenge. His wife was given to another, and he fired the fields and fruit-trees of her countrymen. They burned her and her father, but that did not satisfy him, and ho slew a multitude of the Philistines: they > Jud,'. xi. 24. Afterwards he calls Jehovah the Jmlgr, referring manifestly to Gen. xfiii. 25. SAMSON. 71 then invaded Judah, and demanded that Samson should be de- livered into their hands. The Hebrews respected him as a judge appointed by Jehovah, but they had no desire to involve them- selves in his personal quarrel with their oppressors ; and three thousand of them surrendered him to the enemy. Samson, however, conscious that the cause of Jehovah in man's appre- hension was dependent on his unaided efforts, burst the cords with which he was bound, and slew great numbers of the Philis- tines. From that time, probably, the invasions of the oppressors were less frequent, and their rule less severe ; but Samson did not entirely deliver the southern tribes : they had not faith to repent of their wickedness, or to recognise in him a deliverer raised up by Jehovah. His unhappy fall again brought him into collision with the Philistines. They deprived him of his strength and put out his eyes; but he, repenting, avenged himself for the loss of sight by pulling down their great temple, and burying their chief men among the ruins. Notwithstanding his weak- ness in many things, Samson sometimes showed strong faith. Eeady to faint with thirst after the slaughter of the Philistines in Lehi, he remembered that he was God's servant, and implored him to send relief: a spring of water gushed forth in the place, and was Jehovah's approval of Samson's fiiith in his power and willingness to help. Immediately before his death, he prayed for strength to pull down the temple upon his enemies : he felt that it must come from God, and believing that it would not be withheld he grasped the pillars, and sacrificed himself to avenge his sufferings and free his country. — (Judg. xiv.-xvi.) 93. The book of Euth forms a third appendix to the book of Judges : the stories • of Micah and the Levite of Mount Ephraim (Judg. xvii.-xxi.) form the other two. It is somewhat remarkable that all three are more or less connected with Beth- lehem. Euth lived and died in that town : Micah's priest and the concubine of the Levite were natives of it. Perhaps the re- turn of Naomi to Bethlehem took place after the overthrow of the Midianites by Gideon ; for the cruel ravages of that people would explain the famine which forced Naomi and her family to 72 FROM JOSH L' A TO SAMSON. leave Bethlehem for Moab. It is difficult, however, to fix the date ; for famine was not an unusual visitor in those times. The Hebrew phrase to build the house of ayiy one^ which occurs in this book,^ means to give a large family. 94. It appears from the preceding history that a period of spiritual darkness followed, on the removal of the elders who out- lived Joshua. The book of Judges furnishes many proofs of this. First, ignorance of the law was very prevalent among even the most enlightened members of the nation. Gideon is said to have made an ephod with the golden ear-rings, chains, and jewels taken from the Midianites, and the golden calf made by Aaron from the ear-rings of the people is immediately suggested to the reader's mind. A linen ephod, however richly embroidered, would not perhaps have cost one-fourth of the sum Gideon had at his disposal ; and it is plain that the money was put to a different purpose. An ephod implies a priest to wear it :' the idolatry into which this ephod led Israel, and the ruin that it caused Gideon's house, imply that image-worship was the real sin of Gideon ; but the sacred writer, grieved at the crime of that great man, speaks of it under a less severe name. The images were set up at Ophrah, where Gideon first signalized his zeal for Jehovah by throwing down the image of Baal. But it must not be supposed that the hero became a heathen. The story of Micah, which forms the first appendix to the book of Judges, shows to whom these images were dedicated ; for the mother of that man set apart a sum of money to provide house- hold gods for the service of Jehovah, not Baal ; and he himself looked for a blessing from Jehovah when he secured a Levite for his family priest. A breach of the second commandment, but not of the first, was thus committed by Gideon and Micah. Jephthah's history affords another instance of the low spiritual state of the period. Human sacrifices were forbidden in the strongest language by the law of Moses ; and vows committing 1 Ruth iv. 11. 2 So Ilosea, speaking in irony of the approaching doom of Israel, savs, tho nation should remain " many days vfilhout a aacrillce, and without an ephod, and without an imase, and without teraphim" liii- 4). VIOLATIONS OF THE LAW. 73 a person to illegal acts were not binding; but Jephthah dis- obeyed both laws in observing a rash vow, and sacrificing his daughter.-^ The feelings of the inspired writer are again too strong to permit a distinct statement of the sacrifice : he recoils from it in horror. Second, another proof of the low spiritual state of the times is, that marriages with the heathen were cele- brated even by pious men. A singular instance of forgetful - ness of the law in this respect is found in the book of Ruth, Hebrews were not permitted to intermarry with the neighbour- ing nations ; and a Moabite could not be received into the con- gregation until the tenth generation, that is, could not become a Hebrew at all. Both laws were broken in the case of Ruth the Moabitess. Samson sought the hand of a Philistine woman ; and, when his parents dissuaded him against forming that con- nexion, they did not ground tbeir opposition on the injunctions of the law, but on the unreasonableness of seeking a wife from a hostile people.^ Third, the Levites were guilty of the sin after- wards denounced by the prophets : they taught for hire, and flattered their employers. The case of the young Levite, who was engaged as Micah's priest, it is to be feared, was not un- common. He belonged to Bethlehem, and wandered through the country in search of employment, until he was engaged by Micah in Mount Ephraim. The Danite scouts, who passed a night in the house, knew him ; and it is therefore probable that he had already visited their territory. Fourth, the spirituality of the tabernacle worship was lost, at least towards the close of this period. Instead of trusting in Jehovah for deliverance from the Philistines, the people put their confidence in the ark, substituting the symbol of his presence for the presence itself. 95. History furnishes some mournful proofs of the low state of morality during the age of the Judges. Phinehas, the grand- son of Aaron, was still alive when the dreadful story of tlie Le- vite, which forms the second appendix to the book, occurred at Gibeah. The actions of Ehud and Jael, both of whom murdered 1 A wrong interpretation of Lev. xxvii. 28, 29, may have misled Jephthah. 2 Another curious violation of the Hebrew mamage law in the case of female heira occurred during this period : 1 Chron. ii. 34, 35 74 FROM JOSHUA TO SAMSON. men under circumstances wliich entitled them to respect or pro- tection, do not indicate a high moral tone existing among the Hebrews of their time. The polygamy of Gideon, the parentage of Jephthah, and the debauchery of Samson, are mournful blots upon the character of their age. The state of matters in Eli's days was much worse ; the female sex were depraved, and the high priest was accustomed to see women in a state of drunken- ness before the altar of Jehovah !^ It would be wrong to infer from these facts, however, that the true religion had altogether disappeared in this age. Certainly, it was under a cloud, and sin was countenanced in high places ; but many persons, of whom his- tory has preserved no record, were devoted servants of Jehovah. 96. After the conquest and before the final division of the country, the first act of the nation was the erection of the tabernacle at Shiloh. That town was in the centre of the country, conveni- ently situated for all the tribes assembling at the solemn festivals each year, but it belonged to Ephraim, which thus acquired an influence in the nation, not always productive of good. Jacob bestowed the birthright, forfeited by Keuben, upon that tribe ; and this, combined with other circumstances, made its members intolerably haughty. But the " Shiloh" was promised to Judah ; though that tribe, unlike Ephraim, made no attempt to lead the others during the time of the Judges. A division, however, took place at a very early period between Judah and the other tribes. The birthright was so distinctly given to Ephraim, and the "Shiloh" to Judah, that this was unavoidable. Scripture, therefore, distinguishes between the men of Judah and the men of Israel 120 years^ before the separation took place under R'eho- boam ; and the distinction must have been made at a much earlier period. It would throw considerable light on the state of feeling among the tribes in Joshua's days, if we could ascer- tain why the place where the tabernacle was set up in the terri- tory of Ephraim was called Shiloh, That sacred name belonged to Judah ; but here it is applied to a town of Ephraim, and there is something concealed under the circumstance. 1 1 Pam. i. l.\ 14. -' 1 Sam. xi. 8. SAMUEL. 7o CHAPTER VII. FROM SAMUEL TO SOLOMON. 97. The books of Samuel, Kings, and Clironicles were classed under the division prophets, by the ancient Jewish doctors ; for the word translated prophet meant one who communicated to men the will of God, whether he foretold future events or not. One part of the books of Samuel is thought to have been written by Samuel himself; the other by Nathan and Gad, the coun- cillors and prophets of David.^ It is not known by whom the two books of Kings were compiled, but Ezra is generally re- garded as the writer of Chronicles. SAMUEL, 9^- Samuel belonged to Mount Ephraim,^ and was a 1155-1058 member of the tribe of Levi. Dedicated before his birth to the service of Jehovah, he was better than a son to the high priest, Eli. Israel at that time was in bondage to the Philistines, chiefly in consequence of the gross wickedness that prevailed, although the people were idolaters also. The nation was weary of a foreign yoke ; and, remembering that God always sent prophets before he delivered, they heard with pleasure that Samuel had been honoured with communications from heaven. Emboldened by this sign they rose against their oppressors, but were defeated at Aphek, with the loss of the ark and 34,000 men (1116 b.c.) Eli swooned on receiving the news, and was killed by the fall from his seat ; and Samuel succeeded him as judge of Israel. He showed the people that they could not be delivered, without first putting away the heathen gods they were worshipping, and repenting of their wickedness ; and, as soon as these things were done, he assembled them at Mizpeh. The Philistine rulers heard of this gathering, and raised an army to 1 1 Chron. xxix. 29. - His father was " an Ephratbite :" but tbat terra denoted an inhabitant of Mount Ephraim, as weFi as of Bethlehem In Judges xii. 5, Ephraimite in our version is Ephratbite in the. original. 76 FROM SAMUEL TO SOLOMON. disperse it. Samuel prayed for assistance, and was enabled to defeat the invaders with great slaughter. The Amorites, as the Philistines are called, made no further attempts on Israel while Samuel was judge, though they still retained some of the hill forts ;^ and he was thus allowed to attend to the internal affairs of the country. The rest which the people enjoyed seemed likely to be disturbed as he advanced in years. His sons allowed themselves to be bribed, and justice was not administered in their courts : Nahash, the Ammonite, was preparing to invade the country with a formidable army,^ and the Philistines again threat- ened its independence. The people, despairing of safety, be- lieved that a king, by giving union to the divided members of the nation, would inspire them with new strength, and demanded to have a visible head set over them. Provision was made for that contingency in the law.^ The people asked a king from Samuel, without taking the matter into their own hands ; and the prophet, on consulting God, was directed to comply with their request. Samuel was displeased because they seemed to think that he had not discharged his high office aright ; but he was told that Jehovah, not he, had ground to complain. Israel thought that their union under Jehovah was not calculated to weld them into a united whole, unless they had a prince who might gather the force of the whole country, and take active steps against an enemy without delay ; Jehovah was rejected, there- fore, not Samuel. Perhaps some of the chief men expected to be appointed king, for, when Saul was chosen at Mizpeh, a party in the nation refused to give in their allegiance. The new king was immediately called upon to take the field against Nahash, who had invaded the east country, and laid siege to Jabesh- gilead. By his promptitude and bravery the city was relieved, and the invader completely defeated. Saul's authority was at once established by this success ; and in an assembly held at Gilgal, the people renewed their allegiance with a heartiness that silenced all opposition ; and Samuel, giving them a farewell address, withdrew into private life.— (1 Sam. i.-xii.) 1 1 Sam. X.5. 3 1 Sam. x. 27 : xil. U. » Dcut xvil. 14. VICTORIES OF SAUL. 77 SAUL ^^' "^^^ Philistines were alarmed at the prospect of 1096-1056,1 union among the tribes, and at the vigour of Saul. *-^" Another Joshua seemed to have arisen ; and unless prompt measures were taken, they might soon be called on to de- fend their own country, instead of invading their neighbours'. The Hebrews were unable to resist the force sent against them, and a general disarming of the southern tribes took place ; but Saul did not despair. He retained a body of 3000 men about his person and withdrew to Gilgal, waiting for a favourable oppor- tunity of attacking the Philistines ; victories over large armies had often been gained with smaller numbers. Many of his soldiers fled beyond Jordan, and others hid themselves in the mountain-caves that abound in Palestine. Saul was in presence of a superior force, and expected to be attacked every moment. His men, armed with goads and other implements of agri- culture, were afraid of the enemy ; and Samuel, who had promised to inquire of Jehovah what should be done, had not arrived. The king became impatient, and either offered sacrifice himself, or ordered the priest to proceed without further delay. This was treason against Jehovah, and Saul was told that he had forfeited the kingdom by his conduct.— (1 Sam. xiii.) 100. Although the numbers following Saul were now reduced to six hundred, he did not despair. The Philistines retired, and he followed them. Jonathan, his eldest son and the favourite of the nation, captured Michmash, one of the hill forts, with the assistance of his armour-bearer, and threw the invaders into a panic which ended in their complete destruction. The nation was thus delivered from slavery to the Philistines. Saul was equally successful in other quarters. Ammon and Moab on the south and east were humbled; a tribe of Amalek, not the whole nation, was destroyed; and Edom chastised. Zobah in the north-east was stripped of the pasture grounds stretching to the right bank of the Euphrates — a conquest which led to an in- vasion of Palestine in the reign of David. This success, how- ever, was gained by the eastern tribes, who sent an army ot 1 Acts xiii. 21. Josephus aleo pays tliat Saul reigned forty years. 78 FROM SAMUEL TO SOLOMON. 44,000 men against the occupants of these lands.^ But Saul did not obey the commands of Jehovah in these wars. Instead of utterly destroying the Amalekite tribe, against which the irre- vocable oath of cherem had been pronounced, he allowed their head man to escape, and saved the best of the cattle alive to sacrifice at Gilgal. Samuel, though grieved at the sad fate of Saul, was commanded to tell him that he had lost the favour of God by this second act of disobedience, and that his family would not retain the throne. With difiSculty could the rejected king then persuade Samuel to honour him before the people. Deep melancholy settled upon the king's mind after this announce- ment ; and his servants, knowing that he was singularly sus- ceptible to the influence of music,^ persuaded him to send for David, whom one of them recommended as a skilful player upon the harp. Samuel, in obedience to the Divine command, had already visited Bethlehem, and anointed him king. When David reached the court, Saul was preparing to oppose Probably ^ Philistine invasion, and could not see him.^ Soon 1064 B.C. ' after, the single combat between David and Goliath took place at Elah, and the former became armour-bearer and minstrel to Saul. Excessive popularity nearly cost the youthful hero his life. Saul was conscious that David had been chosen to succeed him on the throne :* Jonathan knew it, and from love to David renounced any claims he might have himself; and it was a common belief among the people.^ Saul repeatedly tried to kill him, but failed ; and so malignant was his hatred against David, that he slew " the priests of Jehovah," because they had unwittingly assisted him in his flight. At length after driving David, the bravest and most popular of his officers, into exile, he found himself called upon to meet a formidable army of the Philistines, which was ravaging the fertile plain of Jez- reel. Abandoned by Jehovah, and driven to despair, the un- happy monarch consulted a fortune-teller about the future, thus 1 1 Chron. v. 9, 10, 18-22. '-' lie mv(j himself in these melancholy fits. See 1 Sam. xviii. 10. 3 See this discussed in § 112. * 1 Sam. x.t. 31 ; xxiii. 17; xxiv. 20. •' 1 S.ara. xxr. 30. ZEAL OF SAUL FOR RELIGION. 79 adding to his former guilt a crime punished with death under tlie law. Not long after he was defeated by the enemy on Mount Gilboa, and slain with his three eldest sons (1056 b.c.) — (1 Sam. xiv.-xxxi, ; 1 Chron. x.) 101. Though Saul was not obedient in all things "to the voice of Jehovah," and thus brought ruin upon himself and his family, he was not wanting in zeal for the true religion. He built at least one altar in commemoration of God's goodness to- wards him. Fortune-tellers of all kinds were nearly rooted out of the kingdom,* though a few still continued to practise their arts in secret. " Zeal for the children of Israel and Judah " led him to put some of the Gibeonites to death, contrary to the agreement made with them by Joshua. Like Jephthah, he would have kept a vow uttered to Jehovah, even if it had caused the death of Jonathan ; but the people interposed to save their favourite. The subjects and officers of Saul never complained of his conduct : eleven tribes remained faithful to his family after the battle of Gilboa, and even David himself, who suffered many injuries at his hands, always spoke of him with affection and respect. But he was self-willed, and forgot the heavenly King to whom he owed allegiance. He often acted more like an in- dependent sovereign than the deputy of a superior, and the evil- disposed men in his court, of whom David was justly afraid, encouraged this criminal weakness of the monarch. 102. The history of David is divided in Scripture into three parts: — (1.) His advancement and sufferings ; (2.) From the death of Saul to the war with Amnion ; (3.) From the Ammonite war to David's death. DAVID ^^^' (-^•) ^^^'^^ ^P^^^^ ^^s youth in the neighbonr- 1087-1056 hood of Bethlehem, in the wilderness and probably with- ^•'^" in sight of Jerusalem, engaged in keeping his father's flocks. Every tradition connected with Jerusalem, every spot in its vicinity was well known to him from childhood ; and he showed the strength of youthful affection, as much as anything else, in afterwards making it the capital of his kingdom. He 1 See 1 Sam. xv. 23. 80 FROM SAMUEL TO SOLOMON. inherited the simple faith of his distinguished ancestors ; and dis- played while yet a shepherd youth a prowess which became the talk of the country, and marked him out as a worthy descendant of Nahshon, prince of Judah.^ In the campaign which followed the battle of Elah, and in the border raids that succeeded, he showed abilities as a soldier and a statesman which commended him to the favour of all classes of the nation : he was advanced to a high post in the army, and at last received Michal, the king's younger daughter, in marriage. His election to the kingdom by Jehovah, though at first confined to a small circle of friends, now became matter of public talk ; and Saul re- solved on his death. Twice he threw his spear at David ; once he surrounded his house with armed men, and David only escaped by the coolness of Michal. The king even tried to drag him from the protection of Samuel, and at last orders were given to the courtiers to kill him without ceremony. David was com- pelled to flee for his life. Weary and hungry he reached Nob, where the high priest then resided : a few faithful soldiers fol- lowed their commander. He concealed them at some distance from the town, entered it alone, and got food and arms from Ahimelech by falsehood ;^ but the hospitality shown to the fugi- tive afterwards cost all the priests of the city, except one, their lives. David then fled to Gath, where the friends and descend- ants of the giant he had slain appear to have demanded venge- ance for that deed of arms ; and he only escaped by another falsehood, feigned madness. From Gath he went to Adullam, a mountain cave not far from Bethlehem. His family and friends, among whom his brave nephews, Joab and Abishai, especially deserve mention, flocked to him with many brave men from all parts of Israel, until the number of his band reached 600. His father and mother were too old to follow the movements of these 1 David's pofiition in Foclety, in virtue of his descent from this chief, was as high as that of any man among the twelve tribes. - From the manner in which Ahimelech npeaks of David, it is evident that the latter must have been a frequent visitor at Nob. He had been accustomed to appear at the tabernacle, silong with some of his frienils ; 1 S;im. xxi. 1 ; xxii. 14. Hence the longings after Gods courts which he breathes out iu r.sa'ins written durin.' his exile. TRIALS AND FAITH OF DAVID. 81 outlaws, and he removed them for safety to Moab. Gad, the seer, also repaired to the cave, and there was thus one at least who could appreciate the songs David composed, when thirsting " like the hart for water-brooks," Saul gave him no rest, how- ever, but hunted him, " like a partridge upon the mountains," and at length forced him to enter the service of Achish, king of Gath. Ziklag, a town of Simeon, then became his residence. Again he sinned and was sharply punished. He attacked scat- tered parties of the desert tribes ; and, leaving none alive to report the slaughter, pretended to Achish that he had carried his arms against the towns of Judah. The Amalekites, by tracking the spoil, soon discovered the author of these murderous raids, and watched their opportunity. When David was absent at Gilboa with Achish,^ they fell upon the defenceless town, laid it in ashes, and carried off every living creature it contained. David returned three days after, and narrowly escaped stoning; but, by the assistance of Jehovah, he recovered all that had been lost. — (1 Sam. xvi.-xxx. ; 1 Chron. xii. 1.-22.) 104. The want of faith that David showed in these trials reminds us, that though " the man after God's own heart," he was still only a man. If we would understand his heart aright, we must read the Psalms composed during this period of his life. Psalm lix., according to the title, was written when Michal saved his life ; Psalm Ivi., " the dumb dove among strangers," when he was feigning madness in Gath ; Psalms Ixiii. and cxlii. when, in the cave or the wilderness, he was pouring out his soul in anxious desires after God. Several others appear to have been written about this time, and they all breathe the faith of a sad yet trusting spirit. DAVID ^^^' (^'^ "^^ ^^^^^ ^^ David was informed of the 1056-1034 death of Saul on Gilboa, he sent presents out of th3 ^ ^' spoil taken from the Amalekites to the elders of several towns in Eeuben, Benjamin, and Judah. He also composed an elegy called The Bow on Saul and Jonathan, and commended the men of Jabesh-gilead for the valour they displayed in rescuing 1 He M-ent as far as Manasseh at least; 1 Chron. xii. 19. F 82 FROM SAMUEL TO SOLOMON. and burying their bones. The tribe of Jiidah at once chose David king ; but the other tribes appear to have been unde- cided whom to elect.^ Ishbosheth, the youngest son of Saul, still survived, but he had neither been chosen by Jehovah, nor were his claims equal to those of David. After live years of an inter- regnum,^ Abner established the authority of Ishbosheth over all the country except Judah. War then broke out between the two parties ; but, if we may judge from the number that fell at the battle of Gibeon,^ the contest was unpopular, and neither was able to raise large armies. The remembrance of David's youthful heroism,^ the treachery and death of Abner, and the murder of Ishbosheth, at length cleared the way for the union of the whole nation under David. Upwards of 300,000 men assembled at Hebron to make him king ; only 14,000 came from the tribes of Judah and Simeon ; and most of the Benjamites still adhered to the house of Saul. Zadok, the priest, then a young man, took an active part in the proceedings, and probably owed his subse- quent advancement to this cause. The meeting lasted three days, and the election of David gave the greatest satisfaction to the nation. — (2 Sam. i.-iv. ; 1 Chron. xii. 23-40.) 106. The first act of the new king was to secure Jerusalem for the capital of his kingdom. It was one of the strongest fortresses in the country, more conveniently situated than He- bron, and in the immediate neighbourhood of Judah, on which he could most confidently reckon in the event of civil war.^ The Philistines were not indifferent spectators of these proceedings. So long as David was only king of Judah, they gave him no molestation ; but they trembled for their safety when he became head of the twelve tribes. Suddenly invading the country, they occupied the vale of Kephaim, garrisoned Bethlehem, and forced David to flee to the cave of Adullam ; but they were twice de- feated, and driven out of the land. The next act of the united 1 2 Sam, ill. 17. 18. - Ishbosheth reigned only two years ; David reigned seven in Hebron. ■< 20 and 360. 2 Saiu. ii. 30. 31. * 1 Chron. xi. 2 : 2 ?ani iil. 1. 5 The rebellion of Ab.%lom renders this doubtful, for it seems to have first broken out in Judah GREATNESS AND WARS OF DAVID. 83 people was the bringing of the ark from Kirjath-jearim to Jerusalem. It had not been much used in Saul's days/ but David, intending to make it again the centre of the national worship, pitched a new tabernacle for it in Jerusalem.^ He broke the law, however, by placing it on a cart, instead of having it borne by the Levites.* Uzzah, who guided the oxen, touched it, and was struck dead ; and David, angry at this unhappy con- sequence of his sin, desisted for three months from the attempt. The error was pointed out to him in the meantime,^ and the ark was then brought to Zion, attended by a guard of chosen soldiers. He even proposed to build a temple, but was not allowed to do more than lay up materials for it, prepare the plan, arrange the courses of the priests, and compose most of the psalms which were sung in the worship of God.* His piety was rewarded with the promise, that " his seed should endure for ever, and his throne as the sun before God."^ — (2 Sam. v.-viii. ; 1 Chron. xi., xiii.-xvi.) 107. Foreign nations now courted the alliance, and dreaded the power of this great monarch. Hiram of Tyre sent him cedar from Lebanon for his palace, in token of respect and friendship ; the king of Hamath gave him many valuable presents ; and Nahash, the Ammonite, was his friend. Moab was subdued ; Gath was taken, and several battles were fought with the Phili- stines, perhaps before its walls. Hadarezer of Zobah, attempting to regain the country lost to his dominions in the days of Saul, was twice defeated with great slaughter ; Damascus was occupied by a Hebrew garrison ; and Edom, probably taking advantage of these troubles in the north of Palestine to invade the south, was subdued by Joab and Abishai. But the last foreign war in which David engaged proved the most serious of all. Hanun, the son of Nahash, insulted his ambassadors. Joab was sent with an army to chastise this insolence, and penetrated to Kabbah, the capital of Ammon. Hanun called in the aid of Syria, and Joab found himself unexpectedly surrounded by a formidable I 1 Chron. xiii 3 ^ The Mosaic tabemac'.e was at Gib eon. ■i 1 Chron. xf 4-13 ; Num ir. 15. 16. * Probably he also prepared the toj) of Sloriah by smoothing the rock. ' Ps. Ixxxix 84 FROM SAMUEL TO SOLOMON. force : tbe garrison of Eabbah was in front, their allies in his rear. With some difficulty he succeeded in driving the former into the city, and beating off the latter, but he was then com- pelled to return to Jerusalem for reinforcements. The next campaign was carried on by David himself with the whole array of the kingdom. He met the Syrians at Helam on their march to Rabbath-Ammon ; and the defeat they suffered was so com- plete, that they were unable to offer further resistance, and be- came David's tributaries. In the following year, Rabbath- Ammon was besieged ; Uriah the Hittite slain ; and the foreign wars, and domestic peace of David, ended at the same time. 1033-1016 ^^^- (^O I^oioestic discord and civil war, arising out '■^- of David's adulterous connexion with Bathsheba, pre- vented him from developing the resources of the rich countries of which he was now king. Most of the Canaanites were re- duced to slavery, and their towns occupied by his garrisons : of all the kingdoms between Damascus and the Red Sea on the one hand, and the Euphrates and Mediterranean on the other, that harassed Israel at the beginning of his reign, not one was now independent. In this great prosperity he forgot the God who gave it, and "the sword never departed from his house" afterwards in consequence. Amnon, his eldest son, seeing his father escape without punishment in the matter of Bathsheba, imitated that wickedness by dishonouring his sister Tamar ; and began the series of judgments which rendered the remainder of David's life miserable. Absalom, Tamar's brother, waited two years for vengeance ; when, pretending friendship and kindness, he murdered Amnon at a sheep-shearing. He fled to his grand- father, Talmai, king of Geshur ; and David, whose favourite he was, allowed the crime to pass unpunished. After three years he was recalled on the advice of Joab, who perhaps supposed that he was heir to the throne, for David's second son is mentioned only once in history, and it is probable that Absalom was now liis eldest surviving child. Joab, perceiving the wasting effects of hardship and care on David's frame, probably pajd court to Absalom, as the king's successor, by this advice. The prince REBELLIONS AND PESTILENCE. 85 soon discovered, however, that, though the favourite of David, he was not the chosen of Jehovah ;^ and he prepared to seize by force what he could not get by right. Kecommending himself to the people by unusual condescension and affability, fanning discontents into a flame, and regretting his inability to assist the injured, he gained the favour of a large party in the nation. Ahithophel, the most sagacious adviser of the king, offended probably at the greater respect with which Hushai was treated, instigated Absalom to revolt. Acting on his advice, the young prince obtained leave to visit Hebron in fulfilment of a pretended vow, and took 200 men with him, who might have been useful to the king. The standard of rebellion was then raised ; David was driven in his old age from Jerusalem, insulted by Shimei as he passed through the country, and dishonoured in his own family by his unnatural son. Scarcely was Absalom slain, and the rebellion quelled, than a more serious civil war broke out be- tween Israel and Judah. It too was put down, and peace was again restored to the distracted nation. The sword fell once more on David's kingdom, when, proud of his prosperity, he resolved to take a census of the twelve tribes^ without consulting Jehovah. The population at that time must have amounted to four or five millions, but a pestilence was sent from heaven to punish this act of presumption. The few remaining years of David's life were spent in making preparations for building the temple, and in arranging the courses of the priests. On his deathbed he regretted that his house was not y^ight with God ; ^ and remembering the crimes which weakness or necessity forced him to let go unpunished, he directed Solomon to call Joab and Shimei to account for their conduct. He died in the 70th year of his age, and the 41st of his reign. — (2 Sam. xiii.-xxiv. ; 1 Chron. xxi.-xxix.) 109. Joab was the favourite of the army, and possessed quali- 1 1 Chron. xxii. 9, 10. It appears from these verses that David knew who should succeed him about thirteen years before this time. - In the only two cases in which a census had been taken before, it was done by the ex- press command of Jehovah. ^ • My house is not so with God " should be " right with God ; " 2 Sam. xxiii. 5. 86 FROM SAMUEL TO SOLOMON. ties as an officer which rendered him indispensable to David. The only man who could be compared with him was Abner ; and Joab, suspecting that David meant to appoint Abner to the chief command, put him to death without scruple, under pretence of revenging the death of his brother, Asahel, whom he had killed in battle. Amasa, the leader of Absalom's army, appears to have held Jerusalem,* with part of the fugitives from the battle in the wood of Ephraim ; but he was gained over to David by the promise of Joab's place. Joab showed his contempt for the king by killing this officer at the head of his troops. 110. Various reasons may have influenced David in choosing Jerusalem for the metropolis of his kingdom instead of Hebron. It was the scene of one of the most remarkable events in the life of Abraham ; and it was once the residence of Melchizedek. David had passed his early days in its neighbourhood, and heard every tradition connected with it from the elders of his tribe. It was by far the strongest fortress then in Palestine ; and, though not in the centre of the kingdom,^ it was in the centre of the district inhabited by the Philistine, the Moabite, the Am- monite, and the Amalekite, Israel's ancient and bitter enemies. It was also on the borders of Judah, the tribe to which David belonged, and which was most likely to prove faithful to him in the event of civil war. Historical associations of the highest interest combined with these reasons to render Jerusalem a proper place for the metropolis of Palestine : the spots most famous in the lives of the patriarchs, and in the history of the conquest, lay round it on all sides ; Gilgal and Jericho, Bethel and Shiloh, Gibeon and Aijalon, Makkedah and Hebron, with many others of less note. Though not the local centre of tiie country, Jerusalem was the centre of its life and power. 111. The natural strength of the city, which was thus made the capital of David's kingdom, was gradually increased by the resources of art. It is situated in the centre of a district studded 1 2 Sam. xix. 11-13. 2 It Ma'' nearly the centre of the province of Judca under the Romans, and was called the navel of the country. JERUSALEM. 87 with rising grounds of considerable elevation, and intersected by deep gorges. The ancient city was built on two hills, Zion on the south, and Acra on the north, separated by a narrow but deep valley, called the Tyropceon, or cheesemakers' valley. Mount Zion rises to a height of 500 feet above the pool of Siloam, at the south-eastern end of this gorge, and about 2700 feet above the Mediterranean, from which it is thirty miles distant. So elevated is the ground, that from a lofty tower in the wall built by Agrippa (a.d. 42), the whole country to the sea on the west,^ and Arabia on the south, v/as visible to the spectator. Mount Moriah, on the north-east of Zion, was separated from it by the Tyropoeon ; but a bridge ultimately connected these two parts of the city. On the west and south of Jerusalem lay the valleys of Gihon and Hinnom, through which the waters from the upper and lower pools of Gihon flowed until they fell into the brook Gedron, a little below the pool of Siloam. On the east, a steep descent led from mounts Moriah and Acra to the Valley of Jehoshaphat and the Cedron — " the stream which made glad the city of God." The north side was least protected from assault by the steepness of the hills : the ground slopes more gently in that direction, and affords greater facilities for the advance of an enemy. David and his successors endeavoured, but in vain, to render the capital as strong in this quarter as in others. Three walls defended the city on the north ; only one on the other sides, where deep valleys afforded sufficient protection. The first wall, embracing Zion and Moriah, was the most ancient; the second wall was drawn round Acra ; and the third, added by Agrippa, in a.d. 42, was intended for the defence of Bezetha or the new city^ which had gradually risen outside the former walls. If this third line of fortification had been built according to the original plan, Titus would not have succeeded, in the judgment of military critics of that age, in capturing Jerusalem. Facing the city on the east, and stretching beyond it from north to south, was an elevated ridge, of which Mount Olivet occupied the centre. The summit of this hill overtopped Zion by about 1 Only at sunrise, however. 88 FROxM SAMUEL TO SOLOMON. 100 feet. On crossing the ridge from Bethany, our Lord obtained that panoramic view of Gethsemane, the Temple, Calvary, and the whole city, which made him burst into tears. Hills or plains of considerable altitude surrounded the city on other sides, and furnished the Hebrew poets with some of their finest figures : — " As the mountains are round about Jerusalem, so the Lord is round about his people." Although the neighbourhood is now bleak and desolate, it was different in ancient times — " Beautiful for situation, the joy of the whole earth is mount Zion," says one poet; "Beautiful as Tirzah, comely as Jerusa- lem,"^ says another, speaking of a lovely woman. Gardens, groves, vineyards, olives, and fields of grain once existed where a barren or neglected soil is now seen. Her walls, her buildings, and the compactness which she presented to the eye were also the pride of Hebrew poets ; " Walk about Zion, . . . tell the towers thereof, mark ye well her bulwarks, consider her palaces." So deeply impressed were the neighbouring nations with the labour and danger of besieging Jerusalem, that " the kings of the earth, and all the inhabitants of the world, would not have believed that the adversary and the enemy should have entered into the gates of Jerusalem."^ But the beauty and strength of the city formed the least of its attractions. It was " the city of the great king ; " and " God was known in her palaces for a refuge." This was the true safety of the citizens when assailed by ene- mies ; and their confidence was expressed in the sacred song — " God is our refuge and strength, a very present help in trouble." 112. There is a serious difficulty connected with David's early history, which it is desirable, if possible, to remove. In 1 Sam. xvi. 21, he is said to have become Saul's armour-bearer; but in the following chapter the king professes entire ignorance of him, and none of his immediate attendants appear to know him. In explaining this difficulty, it will be advisable to begin with the introduction of David to the court of Saul. The courtier who recommended him to the king describes him in the following words : — " Cunning in playing, and a mighty valiant man, and 1 Song vi. 4. - Lam. iv. 12. THE DIFFICULTY. 1 SAM. XVI. 21. 89 a man of war, and prudent in raatters, and a comely person, and the Lord is with him."^ It cannot be doubted that the courtier had heard of David's courage in rescuing the lamb from the lion and the bear ; and that he followed common rumour in ascribing his safety to the guardian care of Jehovah. But David had not yet seen war, and " a mighty valiant man," therefore, should be "a man of great energy and power;" while "a man of war" means " a man fit for war." The youthful hero is then said (1.) to have visited Saul's court, and to have become his armour- bearer, 1 Sam. xvi. 18-23 ; (2.) to have returned home from Saul, 1 Sam. xvii. 15 ; (3.) to have gone to the battle-field at Elah ; and, (4.) to have been then an entire stranger to the king, 1 Sam. xvii. 55-58. N'ow, David was not Saul's armour- bearer before he slew Goliath ; for he was then acquainted with no weapons except the arm of Jehovah, the staff of a shepherd, and his sling. He had never tried sword, shield, or coat of mail, and would not use them when requested by the king.^ Saul, too, it is evident, had never seen him before the interview at Elah. It is possible that he might have forgotten the features of a favourite harper's face, but would the voice also have escaped his me- mory ? to forget either in a year or two is quite possible, but to forget both is much more difficult. The statement that David became Saul's armour-bearer (xvi. 21) is plainly added by anti- cipation ; that is, the event happened some time after, but the inspired writer puts it down then in continuation of the narrative. For the same reason, David is said to have carried Goliath's head to Jerusalem (xvii. 54) before his interview with Saul, although he> did not do so perhaps for some months after. In- stead of supposing the events in 1 Sam. xvi. 18-xviii. 16 spread over several years, it is therefore better to suppose that they took place in a single summer, and in the following order: — Saul's servant recommends David to the king as a skilful harper, and a fit person to be employed in the civil or military business of the kingdom. A message is immediately sent to Bethlehem, requiring his attendance at court. He arrives at the palace ; 1 1 Sam. xvi. 18. M Sum. xvii. 39. 90 FROM SAMUEL TO SOLOMON. but important events have occurred in the interval. A large force of Philistines has suddenly fallen on the western frontier of Judah ;* the king is preparing to put himself at the head of the Hebrew army ; business has roused him for a time from fits of melancholy, and David's services are not required. [But David's harp was soon after employed to soothe the troubled spirit of the king ; and the historian adds that this minstrel was the same person who afterwards became armour-bearer to Saul.] Accordingly the youthful harper returns to Bethlehem, without seeing Saul or any of his family. The difficulty is thus removed without the least straining. .^„«»T 113. While David lay on his deathbed, an attempt SOLOMON, "^ . . •■• 1016-976 was made by his eldest surviving son, Adonijah, to *^" seize the throne. Abiathar, Joab, and most of the king's sons, were engaged in the conspiracy : the nation also was disposed to look with favour on his claims. Nathan the prophet, however, who knew that Adonijah was not destined to succeed David, urged the king to declare Solomon his successor without delay. His advice was followed, and the conspirators immedi- ately separated in terror. Some time after, Solomon was crowned in a more solemn manner than the hurry of the first coronation permitted ; and, notwithstanding his feebleness, David exhorted his chief officers to strengthen the young king's hands. 114. A new conspiracy seems to have been formed after the death of David ; but it ended in the ruin of its promoters. Adonijah and Joab were both put to death : Abiathar was de- prived of the high-priesthood ; and Shimei was ordered not to leave Jerusalem — a command which he disobeyed, |ind lost his life in consequence. But other measures were required to estab- lish the young king firmly on the throne. Saul and David highly distinguished themselves in youth by deeds of valour, which secured for them the respect and allegiance of the nation : they had no rival in arms, who might contest their right to the throne. Solomon, however, was a man of peace, and his earliest laurels were won on a different field. At Gibeoii, where the 1 See 1 ^&m. xxiii 27. MARRIAGE AND PUBLIC WORKS OF SOLOMON. 91 Mosaic tabernacle then was, and where sacrifices were offered on great occasions, Jehovah bade him choose wisdom, wealth, vic- tory, or any other blessing he pleased. He preferred the first, and the others were added in token of God's approval. A deci- sion, which he pronounced soon after in the courts of justice, was regarded as a proof of this gift of wisdom, and tended as much to strengthen his throne as the victory at Jabesh-gilead did that of Saul, or the death of Goliath that of David. 115. Among the next acts of Solomon must be placed his marriage with the daughter of Pharaoh. The dowry he received with her was the town of Gezer in Ephraim, which Pharaoh took from the Canaanites, and gave to Solomon. Probably these people had rebelled on David's death ; and the guard of honour, that accompanied the queen from Egypt, was employed in reduc- ing them to subjection. On the occasion of his marriage Solo- mon composed the " Song of Songs," a welcome to his bride, and an allegorical representation of the union between Christ and the Church. — (1 Kings i.-iii. ; 1 Chron. xxix. ; 2 Chron. i.) 116. Magnificent public works engaged the next seventeen years of Solomon's reign. Adopting the usual plan of eastern princes, he laid the burden of constructing tliem on prisoners taken in war, and on descendants of the original inhabitants of the country. As many of these may have belonged to his nobles, they would feel it a hardship to be deprived of the services of their slaves for several months each year, without compensation. Among the public works in which he engaged were the fortification of Gezer, Megiddo, and several other cities ; and the building of Baalbec (Baalath) and Palmyra (Tadmor) near or in the eastern desert. It was evidently his object to develop the resources of the large kingdom over which he ruled : for these cities in the wilderness were frontier fortresses ; and also stations for caravans conveying goods to and from Mesopotamia. At the same time, preparations were made for building the Temple ; and, when it was finished in the eleventh year of his reign (1005 b.c), other public buildings were begun. Palaces were erected for the king and queen ; a court of justice, called the house of the forest of Lebanon^ was 92 FKOM SAMUEL TO SOLOMON. built; the house of Millo, apparently a strong castle forming part of the fortifications of Jerusalem, was also erected, and for- tified posts were raised in various parts of the country. — (1 Kings v.-ix. ; 2 Chron. ii.-vii. See § 121-4.) 117. Solomon was the first Hebrew monarch who aficcted the state and magnificence of a great sovereign. In the begin- ning of his reign, he had " threescore queens and fourscore con- cubines, and virgins without number."^ A guard of sixty valiant men, fully armed, watched near his bedside " because of fear in the night." ^ He introduced the custom of riding in chariots,^ and all his successors followed his example. Mules had been used by David and other rulers on occasions of state ; but Saul always appeared on foot. A litter or palanquin, that Solomon constructed, was the admiration of Jerusalem. The pillars were silver, the props gold, the wood-work cedar, and the seat was covered with purple. The increased magnificence of the royal dwellings is also very striking. Saul, like Abraham or Deborah, dwelt " under a tree in Ramah, all his servants standing about him." Probably he heard complaints and administeredjustice there. David usually appeared at the gate of the city or palace, giving audience to persons who sought advice or assistance ; but Solo- mon made those who wished an audience of the king attend at a palace built for that purpose. The hall in which he received them, the throne on which he sat, and the guards in attendance, were all calculated to cause respect and terror. Rows of cedar pil- lars, richly ornamented, supported theloftyroof of the spacious hall. An ivory throne, overlaid with the finest gold, and raised consider- ably above the ground, formed the royal seat. Six steps led up to it, and twolions on each reminded suppliants of the majesty of the king. Five hundred soldiers, carrying shields of burnished gold, inspired all who approached with a high idea of the magnificence of the monarch, and were in readiness to execute his commands. Solomon built a number of palaces in Jerusalem, but he appears to have frequently resided in oilier places. Probably he had a 1 Son;; vi. 8 * Song lii. 7. s Uulc»H At'salura iinticiiiute Ps. xxii. 6 pg. x\i. THE SAVIOUR. 105 predictions of former ages, lengthened and highly-wrought de- scriptions of the Saviour's person and work were now communi- cated to the Church. But, with increased clearness, difQculties unknown to the ancients arose. A deliverer, and rest from toil, were ideas involving no difficulty, and not likely to raise ques- tions ; but a Deliverer who should be a mighty conqueror, an atoning priest, an honoured prophet, a " despised worm," dead and yet escaping corruption, must have seemed nearly an im- possibility. Kings were forbidden to officiate as priests under the severest penalties ; a conqueror of many lands, " filling the places with dead bodies," was not like the Shiloh in whom all nations should be blessed ; " a priest for ever " manifestly could not die ; one sitting at the right hand of Jehovah could not be a worm and a reproach : and how was it possible that the De- liverer, if laid in the grave, should not see corruption ? The light of revelation was thus attended with greater darkness than existed before it broke so fully. Ages passed away before the key was furnished which opened up these mysteries. CHAPTEE VII. FROM REHOBOAM TO AMAZIAH. JUDAH. 133. The division of the twelve tribes into the REHOBOAM, housc of Israel and the house of Judah' is very 976-959 B.C. marked at the beginning of Eehoboam's reign. Jeru- salem was the capital of the latter, Shechem of the former, and Rehoboam required to be crowned in both cities. The ten tribes refused to acknowledge his authority, however, unless the public burdens were made lighter than under Solomon. Jeroboam, who had returned from Egypt, headed the deputation which waited on the king ; but with unbearable tyranny he refused them re- 1 This tribe i.s also called iFrael in the book of Chronicles, which was written when the other tribes were scattered over the world, or glad lo accompany Judah back to Palestine ; 2 Chron. xi. 3 ; xii. 1. 100 FROM REHOBOAM TO AMAZIAII. dress, and a revolt was the result. One of his offioers was stoned to death, and the king fled in terror to Jerusalem. It is difficult to determine what part of the country adhered to the house of David. Judah and Benjamin are said to have been " on the side" of Eehoboam : but Bethel, in the latter, and the surround- ing country, had joined the rebels. On the other hand, Zorah and Aijalon,! in the tribe of Dan, were among the cities fortified by Eehoboam. The tribe of Simeon was never esteemed of much consequence in the nation, and it is afterwards spoken of with the slighting remark, " neither did all their family multiply, like to the children of Judah." ^ Beersheba and Ziklag in this tribe belonged to Judah : and some other parts of its territory may have owned the authority of Eehoboam. Perhaps the Simeonites, in imitation of the Danites, sought settlements in other parts of the country : a band of 500 men removed to Mount Seir in the reign of Hezekiah, and it is therefore not im- probable that many belonging to this tribe were scattered through- out Israel, as Jacob foretold on his deathbed. The Simeonites as a tribe, however, did not adhere to Judah, for they are ex- pressly called strangers^ and classed with Manasseh and Ephraim in the reign of Asa. It appears, then, that the strength of ten tribes revolted from the house of David and made Jeroboam king ; while the whole of Judah, most of Benjamin, some cities in the east of Dan, and part of the district allotted to Simeon, remained faithful to the house of David. 134. Eehoboam prepared to regain by force what he had lost by folly ; but Shemaiah, the most ftimous prophet of that reign, forbade the attem.pt. The king then fortified the frontier towns on the west of the tribe of Judah, in apprehension of an attack from the Philistines, whom he would have found it difficult to resist in the disabled state of his kingdom. Levites from all parts of Israel flocked to Jerusalem, as the centre of tlie true religion ; and many servants of God removed to Judah from their own tribes for the same reason. Eehoboam's throne was ' This town belonged to Judah in the reign of Ahaz, nlso. It was evidently a jilace of importance; 2 Cliron. xxviii. 18. - 1 Chron. iv. l'7. ABIJAH ASA. 107 strengthened by these additions to the population, but his pro- sperity lasted only three years. He fell into idolatry, and was punished by an invasion of the Ethiopian king Shishak (Seson- chis), who took his fortified cities and spoiled Jerusalem, accord- ing to the prediction of Shemaiah. The nation repented of their sin, and were delivered from the invader. No other event of importance happened during the reign of Eehoboam. — (1 Kings xii. ; xiv. 21-31 ; 2 Chron. x.-xii.) ABIJAH ^^^- -^^ ^^^^ succeeded by his son Abijah. The great 959-956 event of his life was the battle of Zemaraim, in which ^'^' Jeroboam was defeated with great slaughter. Bethel was also taken ; but it was recovered soon after by the ten tribes, and the golden calf again set up (sect. 143). Worship on high places now became very common in Judah, and images were erected in honour of heathen gods : the queen-dowager set a shameful example in this respect, by erecting an image to Baal in the neighbourhood of Jerusalem. The prophet Iddo directed the Jews in religious matters during this reign. — (1 Kings xv. 1-8; 2 Chron. xiii.) ^g^ 136. Freedom from intestine confusion and foreign war 956-915 was enjoyed by the Jews, for the first time since Solomon's ^■^- death, on the accession of Asa. He cleared the country of idolatrous images and gross immorality, and restored the worship of God in its purity : formerly the people were " without the true God, without a teaching priest, and without law." During the ten years that this prosperity lasted, Asa fortified the cities of his kingdom, and armed the men of Judah and Benjamin. At the end of that time, war broke out between Asa and Baasha king of Israel.^ The former had the advantage at first, and cap- tured a number of cities in Mount Ephraim. About four years^ after, an immense host of Ethiopians penetrated into Judah as far as the fortified city of Mareshah, to which they laid siege. Asa marched to its relief, and, after entirely defeating the in- 1 There does not appear to be any reason for referring the conquests mentioned in 2 Chron. xv. 8, to Asa's father, especially when it is said, " There was war between Asa and Baasha all their days," 1 Kings xv. 16. War at different times, and constant border raidi?, are meant. ^ 2 Chron. xv. 1-10. 108 FROM REHOBOAM TO AMAZIAH. vaders, severely chastised the Canaanites of Gerar, by whom they had been assisted in the expedition. A solemn feast was held in honour of this deliverance : many subjects of Baasha were present, and the people bound themselves by an oath to worship Jehovah alone. This oath threatened to prove dangerous to the throne of Baasha ; and he resolved to keep his subjects from repairing to Jerusalem. For that purpose he fortified Eamah on the road between Bethel and Jerusalem (b.c. 941) ; and his soldiers must sometimes have plundered the country around the latter city. Asa, dispirited by his want of success, bribed Ben- hadad of Damascus to fall on the northern part of Baasha's dominions, and force him to withdraw his garrison from Ramah. This treaty was severely censured by the prophet Hanani, who suffered imprisonment for his boldness; the first intimation of this form of punishment among the Hebrews. Several persons were also oppressed at the same time ; perhaps for disobeying a tyran- nical order of the king, that the whole male population, capable of bearing arms, should fortify Geba and Mizpeh with the materials used by Baasha in building Ram ah. ^ Asa died after a reign of more than forty years, and his conduct during his last illness did not meet with the approval of Jehovah. It is thought that his dead body was burned, and the ashes placed in the tomb which he had prepared during his lifetime ; but this was cer- tainly an unusual mode of treating the dead among the Jews. The prophets, Azariali and Hanani, flourished during this reign. — (1 Kings XV. 9-24; 2 Chron. xiv.-xvi.) 137. Jehoshaphat, the son of Asa, began his JEIIOSIIAPIIAT, • 'i.\. V • T • I,- 1 4. 915-889 Bc ^'^^o^ With relormmg religion, which appears to have become corrupt during the latter years of his father's reign. Only a brief account of tliis prince's life is given in the book of the Kings ; for Elijah and Elisha then flour- ished in Israel, and the history is taken up with the narrative of their remarkable actions. Tlie book of Chronicles supplies the deficiency. Neiglibouring nations respected him, and some of ihem were compelled to pay tribute. He visited Ahab, king of 1 There is a reference to some trcndiing operations of Aa,'i at tlii>* time iu Jer. xli. 9. JEHOSHAPHAT. 109 Israel, at Samaria ; and, besides marrying his son Jelioram to Ahab's daughter, united his forces with those of Israel against the Syrians. A prophet reproved him for this step, but he did the same thing against Moab, about three years after, during the reign of Ahab's son, Jehoram.i Jehoshaphat next visited the principal cities of his dominions, and purified the administration of justice by appointing trustworthy Levites to the office of judges. His kingdom was afterwards invaded by a host of Ammonites and Moabites, who rounded the southern end of the Dead Sea, and penetrated as far north as En-gedi. The Edom- ites appear to have joined them on their march, but their attempt to throw off the yoke of Judah was not successful. A quarrel broke out between the different nations in the invading army, and they destroyed each other without inflicting any injury on Judah. Probably Jehoshaphat was induced to join the king of the ten tribes, in the expedition against Moab, on account of this unprovoked invasion.^ The only other event of importance during this reign, was an unsuccessful attempt on the part of the king to carry on trading voyages from Elath to Ophir, along with Ahaziah king of Israel. Jehoshaphat's reign is remarkable in several respects. He was on the most friendly terms with the heathen princes of Samaria, and yet prosperous in his own kingdom. He caused the law to be taught to the people ; he journeyed through the whole country administer- ing justice himself; and the population under his wise admini- stration was so numerous, that he could bring an army of 1,160,000 men into the field. Jehu, Jahaziel, and Eliezer, are mentioned as prophets of the Lord during this reign ; the first- named wrote the history of Jehoshaphat's life. — (1 Kings xxii. 41-50 ; 2 Chron. xvii.-xx.) 138. Jehoram, the son of Jehoshaphat, reigned for 891^884 t^c' ^^'^^^ ^^^ years along with his father, and for five alone. Athaliah, the daughter of Jezebel, was his wife, and perhaps prompted him to the crime of murdering all ^ He may have excused himself on the ground that Jehoram was much less addicted to Baal-worship than Ahab. 2 2 Kings iii. 23 ; 2 Chroa xx. 23. 110 FROM REIIOBOAM TO AMAZIAH. his brothers, and several princes of Judah, soon after his father's death : the worship of Baal was also established, and calami- ties immediately befell the nation. The tributary kingdom of Edom threw off the yoke of Judah ;i the Canaanites of Libnah, a Levitical city, also revolted ; and the neighbouring nations, in- vading the kingdom, spoiled it on all sides, and slew the king's sons. Elijah the prophet sent Jehoram a letter foretelling these disasters, and threatening him with a speedy and painful death. —(2 Kings viii. 16-24 ; 2 Chron. xxi.) 139. Ahaziah, the youngest son of Jehoram, succeeded "^884^8 0^' ^^ ^^^ throne, and reigned only one year. He assisted the king of Israel in waging war with Syria, and was on a visit to him at Jezreel when Jehu was chosen king by the army of the ten tribes. The two kings were surprised by the usurper, and fled. Ahaziah endeavoured to conceal himself in Samaria, but his hiding-place was discovered, and he was forced to flee towards Megiddo. The wounds he received in the pur- suit caused his death ; and Jehu, remembering the godly cha- racter of his grandfather, allowed his dead body to be carried to Jerusalem.— (2 Kings viii. 25-29 ; ix. 27-29 ; 2 Chron. xxii.) 140. Athaliah, the mother of Ahaziah, then usurped o-i^^oto^^' the throne. Imitatino^ the crime and cruelty of her P/ /-ooo B.C. * husband, she put the king's sons to death ; but the sister of Ahaziah, who was married to the high-priest, saved one of them from the general slaughter. Never was the direct line of David nearer extinction. The sons of Jehoshaphat were all dead; those of Jehoram had been killed by the enemy, and their sons fell under the hand of Jehu ; and now " all the seed royal," except the infant Joash, w^ere slain. For six years, Athaliah tyrannized over the land. A temple was built to Baal ; altars and images were erected, and priests appointed. Jehoiada, the high priest, at last formed a conspiracy against Athaliah ; the plot was known to many of the Levites and officers, but so universal was the hatred against her, that she received no intimation of the intended outbreak. Joash (or 1 The prophecy of Isaac wnn thus fulfilled ; Gen. xxvii. 40. JOASH AMAZIAH. 1 1 1 Jehoash) was made king, and the tyrant was put to death. i Under the direction of the high priest, a covenant was made " that they should be the Lord's people." The worshippers of Baal, or the sons of Athaliah as they were called, had defaced the temple, and applied its sacred treasures to the service of their god : but the first act of Joash, on coming of age, was to repair the house of Jehovah. After the high priest's death, at the advanced age of 130, the zeal of the king for true religion began to cool. His nobles, among whom the sons of heathen women are specially mentioned,^ urged him to worship Baal. Zechariah, and other sons of Jehoiada, opposed their counsel, and were put to death in the temple-court by order of the ungrateful Joash ; but punishment was not long delayed. Hazael, king of Syria, invaded Judah with a small force ; defeated the large army sent against him, captured Gath, and prepared to be- siege Jerusalem. The country was ravaged, the princes of the people slain, and Joash bought off the invader with the trea- sures of the temple. Soon after, he was murdered by his own servants. Zechariah is mentioned as the prophet of Jehovah during this reign. — (2 Kings xi. xii. ; 2 Chron. xxiv.) AMAZIAH, 141. Amaziah the son of Joash, on ascending the 838-808 B.C. throne, punished the murderers of his father, but not their children ; and then prepared for war with Edom. Perhaps that people had invaded the south country during the disastrous years of the reign of Joash. The king called out the whole force of Judah, now only 300,000 men, and hired 100,000 mercenaries of Israel ; but a prophet, whose name is not given, forbade him to employ the latter ; and, with some reluctance, he sent them home. Enraged at the insult, and resolved not to lose the booty they had expected, they plundered the cities of Judah on their march. Amaziah was successful in his war with Edom ; but fell into the amazing crime of worshipping the gods of that country, and even threatened to punish the prophet, who warned him of his folly and danger. He next demanded satisfaction 1 " Have her forth without the ranges," th;it is, the ranks of Levitical guards. 2 2 Chron. xxiv. 26. 1 12 FROM REHOBOAM TO AMAZIAH. from the king of Israel for the ravages committed by the mercenaries, and was treated with contempt. A battle was fonght between them at Beth-shemesh, in which Amaziah was defeated and taken prisoner. He was replaced upon the throne, and lived many years after, bnt nothing is recorded concerning him, except his assassination at Lachish. — (2 Kings xiv. 1-20 ; 2 Chron. xxv.) 142. The period which we have reviewed extends over 170 years, and there are a few general points which deserve notice. It is very remarkable that son succeeded father on the throne of Judah from David to Amaziah, and also for many years after : while four families had already sat upon the throne of the ten tribes, and been cut off. Conspiracies, murders, and revolts were as common in the court of Judah as in that of Israel : repeatedly was the family of David almost wholly destroyed by the sword of the enemy, or the dagger of the assassin ; but the royal line was continued unbroken. It was the fulfilment of the promise, that Jehovah " would build David a sure house." The conditions on which that promise was given, were not ob- served by many of the kings ; but it was fulfilled in spite of man's unfaithfulness. Another remarkable fact is, that the numerous prophets who flourished under the kings of this period, have not left any writings, except brief speeches recorded in the history. Prophets of Jehovah are said to have guided all the kings, except Ahaziah, in religious matters, or warned them against idolatry and immorality. The prophet had become as essential a member of the Jewish state, as the king or priest. He kept alive the faith of the people ; and explained, as far as his own studies permitted, or the Spirit of God enlightened him, the promises of a Messiah which had been given to former ages. It has always been a matter of surprise that a nation, honoured as Israel was with a knowledge of the true God, should have fallen into idolatry. Moses, who foretold their apos- tasy, and the prophets who entreated and warned and threatened in vain to prevent it, were amazed at their deplorable wicked- ness. No ancient nation changed its gods so readily as the ISRAEL: JEROBOAM. 113 Hebrews : tbe heathen worshipped the same idols from age to age ; the latter changed their religion every generation. The history of Israel is the history of the human heart, with its " vain imaginations, which are only evil and that continnally." From Eehoboam to Amaziah it was a constant complaint with the prophets that the " high places," that is, altars on hills or rising grounds, were not taken away. The evil was sanctioned by long use, and by the example of many good kings ; and the people could not be restrained from sacrificing on these places. ISRAEL. 143. The history of the Ten Tribes during this JEROBOAM, period is the record of backsliding in faith, rebellion 976-955 B.C. in the camp, and treason in the palace. Jeroboam, like Saul, was placed on the throne by Jehovah, and the people readily acknowledged his authority : the revolt from Eehoboam was not at first a revolt from God, but it soon assumed that cha- racter. Shechem in Ephraim, and Penuel in Gad, were forti- fied by the new king; the former as the capital of his kingdom, the latter perhaps to serve as a place of refuge in the event of rebellion or invasion. Another step was taken by Jeroboam to keep the people faithful to himself. Acting under the advice of his council, composed of the principal men in the kingdom, he set up a golden calf at Bethel, and another at Dan-Laish, in manifest imitation of Aaron's conduct when the Hebrews were at Sinai. These images were dedicated, like Aaron's, to Jehovah, not to any heathen deity. Instead of three yearly feasts he instituted only one, corresponding to the feast of tabernacles, but held exactly a month later.^ The Levites refused to serve in the temples of these idols, and withdrew to Judah : the new worship was not popular, though the king officiated at the altar himself ; and it was found necessary to choose priests from the lowest of the people. Indifference appears to have been the sin of the nation. Most of Jeroboam's subjects must have seen that 1 The distance between Jerusalem and Bethel was so short, that, if assemblies had been held in these towns for a week at the same time, many subjects of Jeroboam could have easily visited the temple at Jerusalem. It was the policy of Jeroboam to prevent this. H 114 FROM REHOBOAM TO AMAZIAH. his imitation of Aaron's crime was a glaring violation of the law ; but they were too discontented with the house of David to offer any opposition to his proceedings.^ — (1 Kings xi. 26-xiv. 20.) 144. The king's policy soon bore its appropriate fruits. His arm was suddenly withered when sacrificing at Bethel ; the altar be- fore which he stood was rent ; his most promising son was cut off in the flower of his age ; and Ahijah the prophet predicted that his family would be utterly destroyed ; and that his sins would cause the rooting out of Israel from Palestine. Jero- boam himself died, "struck by the Lord," in the 22d year of his reign ; and the terrible threatenings uttered against his house were fulfilled about two years after. His son Nadab, who suc- ceeded to the throne, was assassinated by Baasha in the camp at Gibbethon ; and the other members of his family were cut off soon after. BAASHA. 954-931 B.C. ^^^' ^^^^^^ ^^« acknowledged king by the ELAH, 931 B.C. people ; but his policy was borrowed from that OMRi. 930-917 B.C. ^f Jeroboam. The calves at Dan and Bethel were still centres of the national worship, and measures were taken to keep members of the ten tribes from meeting with their brethren of Judah in Jerusalem. The selection of Tirzah as the capital instead of Shechem, and the wars with Judah and Syria, are the chief events of Baasha's reign recorded in Scrip- ture. A prophet of Jehovah threatened the new dynasty with the fate of Jeroboam's ; but it produced no change in the king's con- duct. After a reign of twenty-four years, Baasha was succeeded by his son Elah. This prince does not appear to have been a soldier : his army was besieging Gibbethon, under the com- mand of Omri, while he himself was feasting and revelling in Tirzah. At one of these drunken carousals, he was murdered by Zimri, who proclaimed himself king, and put to death every member of the royal family, whom he found in or near the capital. The treason of Zimri, for reasons now unknown, was regarded with abhorrence by the nation.^ The army elected 1 Idols were set up by the people before bis death ; 1 Kin):s xir. 15. 2 1 King.s xvi. 20 ; 2 KingH ix. 31. ISliAEL : SAMARIA. 115 Omri king, broke up from Gibbethon, and marched to Tirzali. Zimri in despair shut himself up in the palace, and set it on fire, after a reign of seven days. A civil war between Omri and Tibni, another claimant for the throne, immediately fol- lowed, and raged for the next four years, when the contest was decided in favour of Omri. Tirzah was the capital during that time, and for about two years after : Samaria was then built, and the kings of Israel lived there and at Jezreel till the over- throw of the monarchy. — (1 Kings xv. 25-xvi. 28.) 146. Samaria, the last capital of the ten tribes, stood on a hill purchased by Omri from a person named Shemer. It was situated at a height of 1500 feet above the level of the Medi- terranean, and was surrounded on all sides by four hills of less elevation, but separated from them by a broad deep valley. From this circumstance the prophet describes Samaria as " the crown of pride, the glorious beauty on the head of the fat valley ;"^ and the Syrians, when defeated before the city, be- lieved that Jehovah was a god of hilly countries, not of level plains. Shalmaneser appears to have reduced it to ruins, " throwing down the stones thereof into the valley ;"2 but it was afterwards partially rebuilt by the foreigners whom the con- queror brought from other countries. After various changes of fortune, the beauty of its situation and its natural, strength as a fortress attracted the attention of Herod the Great, who adorned it with many splendid buildings about 20 B.C. He also named it Sebaste, in honour of the Emperor Augustus.^ The district called Samaria should be carefully distinguished from the city. The Samaritans, mentioned in the books of Ezra and Nehemiah, inhabited the territory, but their chief city was Shechem. 147. Ahab, the worst of all the kings of Israel, suc- 9i7-898^'.c. ceeded his father Omri. He was a weak and foolish prince, who knew the right, but was easily persuaded to do the wrong. Jezebel, a Zidonian princess, and a woman of impetuous passions, w^as queen ; and the administration of 1 Isa. xxviii. 3, 4. 2 Mic;ih i. 6. ^ Sebastos, the Greek for Augustus. 116 FROM REHOBOAM TO AMAZIAH. affairs remained almost entirely in her hands. A temple was built in Samaria to Baal, the national god of Zidon ; images were raised to Ashtoreth ; and Jezebel determined to root the true religion out of Israel. A fierce persecution of those who worshipped Jehovah broke out ; the altars at which they sacri- ficed, and where they held their solemn meetings, were thrown down ; many prophets and believers were put to death, and others were compelled to leave the country, or hide themselves in unfrequented places. But how powerless is the rage of man against truth ! One of the most trusted officers of the king was a sincere and devoted worshipper of Jehovah, and had often perilled his life in rescuing God's servants from the vengeance of the queen. The punishment of such national wickedness had been pronounced long before ; " the heaven above became brass, and the earth beneath iron." Elijah the Tishbite in vain warned the king that dew and rain would be withheld ; and famine soon wasted the resources and population of the king- dom. So incensed was Ahab at the prophet's boldness that he sent in search of him to all the neighbouring countries ; but a three years' drought humbled his pride. Elijah, by the com- mand of God, challenged the priests of Baal to meet him on Carmel, and decide whether Jehovah or Baal were God. Ahab agreed to the proposal, and the chief men of the nation also assembled on the appointed day. Elijah was received at first in sullen silence — " They answered him not a word." As soon as he proposed the bringing down of fire from heaven to consume a sacrifice^ as the test of Godhead, their love of the marvellous overcame their dislike of the prophet, and with applauding shouts they cried, " It is well spoken." In vain did the heathen priests call upon their god ; in vain did they leap upon the altar, and lament his refusal to answer ; in vain did they practise their heathen rites, and cover their half-naked bodies with wounds and blood— no fire descended. Elijah then built the ruined altar of Jehovah, slew the bullock, and filled the trench with water from the Mediterranean. The sun was setting when these 1 In former ages, Jtbovah had repeatedly declared big approTal by this sign. REFORMATION ARRESTED. 117 preparations were completed, and a brief prayer from the pro- phet drew down lightning from heaven. A universal shout of " Jehovah is God!" burst from the astonished crowd, and Elijah thought that the reformation, which he had been commissioned to undertake, was accomplished : " Thou hast turned their hearts back again." The heathen priests were immediately put to death according to the law.i A few days sufficed to show Elijah that he was too sanguine in counting on the immediate return of the nation to God : no movement was made to destroy the temple of Baal, to throw down the images, or to acknowledge Jehovah ; but instead, a message came from the queen, that she would put Elijah to death within twenty-four hours. Jezebel uttered this threat to serve a purpose. If she had really in- tended to kill the prophet, she would not, in the impotence of rage, have given him a whole day to prepare for defence or flight. Elijah was the head of the reforming party ; if he were removed, it would fall to pieces ; and Jezebel hoped that her threat might drive him out of the kingdom before his party gathered strength. She succeeded ; the prophet's faith failed, and the reformation in Israel was permanently arrested. — (1 Kings xvii.-xix.) 148. Famine had so thinned the population, and weakened the strength of the country, that Ahab was unable to raise an army when attacked by the king of Syria :^ the invaders penetrated to Samaria without resistance, and prepared to besiege that city. Ahab offered to become tributary, but Ben-hadad insisted on his resigning the crown, and delivering up his family to be led into captivity .3 The princes and people encouraged Ahab to reject these demands ; and the Syrian army was ordered to assault the city. A signal repulse was the consequence, and Ben-hadad with difficulty escaped. His flatterers, ascribing this defeat to the hilly grounds around Samaria, which prevented chariots from acting, pretended that Jehovah was God of the hills, and that a battle in the plain would have a difi'erent result. Their ex- - Deut. xviii. 20-22. 2 Conip. 1 Kings xx. 27. " This feeiEs to be the meaning of the somewhat obscure passage, 1 Kiu^s xx. 2-6. 118 FROM REHOBOAM TO AMAZIAH. pectations were miserably disappointed. Ben-hadad sustained a complete defeat at Aphek from a much inferior force, and was compelled to throw himself on the mercy of Ahab. Prophets of Jehovah had directed the king of Israel during these wars, but be rejected their advice when the enemy was in his power. Ahab allowed Ben-hadad's mockery of the true God to pass unpunished, .and was condemned to bear the guilt of it himself. — (1 Kings xx.) 149. Private crimes as well as public infidelity stained the reign of this weak and peevish monarch. Naboth, a citizen of Jezreel, where the kings of Israel had a favourite residence, was murdered at the instigation of Jezebel, and his vineyard seized to gratify a whim of Ahab. On the king's first visit to this new possession, he was accompanied by several officers, among whom were Jehu and Bidkar, who afterwards became celebrated. Elijah was waiting the king's arrival, and delivered to him a terrible message from God. Upwards of fifteen years after, the officers in attendance remembered the doom then pronounced on Ahab's family, and were the means of fulfilling it in the vine- yard of N^aboth. Ahab was terrified by the threats of Elijah, and humbled himself before God : the punishment was there- fore delayed for a season. About two years after this event, Ahab again engaged in war with Syria, and attempted to capture Ramoth-gilead, which was then in possession of the enemy. A Syrian army relieved the besieged garrison ; and in a battle be- fore the town, Ahab was so severely wounded that he died. that same day. The character of this king is summed up in the words, " He did very abominably in following idols, according to all things as did the Amorites." Notwithstanding the wickedness of the court, and the indifference of the people, Elijah and Elisha, the greatest prophets of the Old Testament after Moses, flourished during this reign. — (1 Kings xxi. xxii.) 150. Ahaziah succeeded his father Ahab, ^^^^\^^.m^c^''^' ''^"^ iniitated all the idolatries of which he was guilty : Jezebel, indeed, appears to have still managed the aifairs of state. An accident which he met with cut short his days after a reign of two years. His ISRAEL: JEHORAM. 119 brother Jeboram succeeded, and a partial reformation took place in the national worship : the image of Baal was removed, but his temple and the calves of Jeroboam were allowed to remain. Immediately on his accession, the king prepared to reduce the Moabites, who had taken advantage of Ahab's death to throw off the yoke of Israel. Jehoshaphat, king of Judah, allowed him a passage through his dominions, and joined him with a large army ; but the expedition does not appear to have been successful. AVar with Syria followed soon after, and Israel was reduced to such extremities that bands of the enemy repeatedly endeavoured to seize Jehoram on his own territories. At last Samaria was again besieged ; famine, accompanied by unusual horrors, prevailed in the city, and a surrender seemed inevitable when the besieged were miraculously delivered. Elisha the prophet took a prominent part in the public events of that time, advising the king on matters of state, encouraging the people in danger, and rescuing the army and nation from ruin. The war still continued ; the country of the ten tribes was ravaged, and a seven years' famine was the result. The people were reduced to feed on herbs gathered from the fields ; and accidents sometimes occurred from unskilful persons not distinguishing between the poisonous and the useful. Israel appears to have at last recovered strength, for Jehoram was afterwards able to undertake an expedition against Eamoth- gilead. He was wounded before that town, and returned to Jezreel, leaving Jehu in command of the besieging army. A messenger of Jehovah anointed this officer king : the army re- cognised his authority, and Jehoram was slain in a skirmish near Jezreel before he could collect a sufficient force to defend himself. Jezebel, and the whole family of Ahab, were destroyed by the new king.^ — (1 Kings xxii. 51-53 ; 2 Kings i.-viii.) 151. The beginning of Jehu's reign gave pro- sss-sS^'c ^'^^^ ^^ ^ reformation in religion, but the hopes excited were soon blasted by subsequent measures. ^ Possibly these sanguinary proceedings of Jehu are referred to by Hosea,— " I wil] avenge the blood of Jezreel upon the house of Jthu " (Hosea i. 4) 120 FROM REHOBOAM TO AMAZIAH. The worshippers of Baal were put to death, his temple thrown down, and his images burned. As a single house contained all who served Baal, it is plain that though many may have conformed outwardly to heathenism during the ascendency of Jezebel, her foreign religion had not taken hold of the na- tional mind. Jehu still retained the calves at Dan and Beth- el ; and the curse, pronounced long before, began to descend more heavily on the kingdom. The Syrians gradually ex- tended their conquests to the Jordan on the west, and to the borders of Moab on the south ; but Jehovah remembered his covenant, and had compassion on his erring people. — (2 Kings ix. X.) 152. Jehoahaz succeeded his father jKHOA"H!;Snr£8-823 B.C. J«l^". ^"' ^^^ -^"^^7 ""^tle to make JEROBOAM ii„ 823-783 B.C. head against the Syrians : Israel l"X?rr^'!^'''^'^'- could only raise an army of 10,000 ZEGHARIAH, 771 b.c. -^ i i i i men when peace was concluded.-^ The national calamities, so vividly described by the prophet Amos, seem to have happened during this reign. Hazael of Damascus ^' threshed Gilead with threshing instruments of iron," and Ammon cruelly ravaged the same district. Drought, blast- ing, famine, and pestilence, laid waste the country, and thinned the population. A trumpet could not be blown in a city with- out filling its inhabitants with terror, as if an enemy had ap- peared before the walls, or were already in the streets. Such was the scarcity of food that the shepherd hazarded his life to save a sheep's leg, or the smallest piece of a torn carcase from the teeth of the wild beasts which abounded in the country. This inglorious reign was followed by the more prosperous one of Je- hoash or Joash, son of Jehoahaz. He found the country weakened by foreign wars, and exposed to invasion from bands of Moabites, before whom the people fled in terror. Prudence and courage soon changed this state of affairs : he was raised up to be the deliverer of the ten tribes, and the blessing of God rested upon 1 Bn-hadnd and Ilazael, the Syrian kings who gained the greatest triumphs over Israel, were worshijiped as gods by the Syrians in the days of our Lord. — Joseph. Antiq. ix. 4. (i. ISRAEL : DYNASTY OF JEHU. 121 his endeavours. Apliek was the scene of three bloody battles, in which the Syrians were completely defeated ; and many of the cities seized by them were recovered to Israel. Instead of 10,000 men, the army now consisted at least of twenty times that number ; and Judah was unable to resist an invasion con- ducted by Joash. His son and successor, Jeroboam II., con- tinued to work out the deliverance thus begun. During a reign of forty-one years he maintained the independence of the country against the Syrians, and shed some rays of glory around the setting sun of Israel. The northern parts of the kingdom were recovered, and even Damascus was captured;^ Hamath, and perhaps also Tiphsah, were again added to the dominions of the ten tribes, agreeably to the predictions of the prophet Jonah. For eleven years after Jeroboam's death the throne was vacant ; but at last it was gained by his son, Zechariah, whose brief reign of six months was brought to a sudden termination by the conspiracy of Shallum. The promise was fulfilled that Jehu's children of the fourth generation should sit on the throne of Israel ; and the curse was also accomplished which threatened the total destruction of his family. All these kings were guilty of upholding the worship of the golden calves, thus " doing evil in the sight of the Lord." Jehoahaz " besought the Lord," but it was the cry of despair. Amos prophesied in Bethel during Jeroboam's reign ; and the chief priest of that place charged him with conspiring against the king's life, because he pre- dicted that the Lord would " rise against the house of Jero- boam with the sword." ^ — (2 Kings xiii., xiv., xv. 8-12.) 153. Notwithstanding the revolt of the ten tribes from God, they are still called " his people ;" prophets in great numbers, and possessing singular power to work miracles,flourished among them ; and Jehovah even commissioned Elijah to effect their reformation from heathenism, a duty which the prophet failed to discharge. Although the Mosaic law was violated in setting up the golden calves and in building a temple to Baal, many of its provisions, as might have been expected, were still in force. The laws 1 It did not remain long in possession of Israsl. ^ Amos vii 9-13. 122 FROM REHOBOAM TO AMAZIAH. relating to vows were observed ; and the vow of the Nazarite is specially mentioned.'^ Lands were held on the tenure laid down by Moses : treason was still defined as " blaspheming God and the king;" death was known to be the punishment of idolatry ; the creditor could sell the insolvent debtor and his family into slavery ; lepers were shut out of the city or camp ;2 and even the priests of Bethel knew the law of Jehovah,^ Body-clothes, given in pledge, were not allowed to be kept overnight; and tithes were spent in feasts at Bethel or Gilgal.^ Tradition and custom would keep alive among the ten tribes some know- ledge of their ancient laws, even after the Levites, by whom they used to be explained, had all left the country ; but the people were not dependent on those uncertain guides. Many illustrious prophets preached and taught in Israel : they were followed by multitudes of eager scholars ; copies of the law would thus be multiplied, and an acquaintance wnth it diffused over the coun- try. Jehu the son of Hanani, Elijah, Micaiah, Elisha, Jonah, Amos, and Hosea flourished in succession during this period ; and two of them at least superintended several seminaries for reli- gious instruction . Some of these prophets possessed great influence even at court. Elisha offered to procure a situation in the palace or a post in the army for the husband of his benefactress, the Shunamite ; Jehoram called him "my father," and took great delight in listening to accounts of the miracles he had wrought ; Joash visited him when on his deathbed, and the army at once acknowledged his right to anoint Jehu king. Elisha was one of the most useful members of the nation under these kings ; but their respect for him was due to the most selfish motives. They readily availed themselves of his power to work miracles, when it was exercised on their behalf; but they paid no attention to his advice or warnings, when urged to reform the national worship. 154. The schools of the prophets, which are often mentioned during this period, deserve a brief notice. Some suppose that 1 Amos ii. 12. ' T-cv. xiii 46; Xumb. v 1-4. ' This appears from the petition of the foreigners settled in Samaria bj the Assyrians. * Amos ii. 8 ; iv. 4 SCHOOLS OF THE PROPHETS. 123 they originated soon after the conquest, if not, indeed, in the wilderness, but they first occur in history during the time of Samuel. Two of them were then in existence, one at Gibeah, " the hill of God," and another at Kamah ; both in the tribe of Benjamin. The " sons," that is, disciples " of the prophets," as the students in these seminaries were called, usually went in procession from the house in which they lived to an altar situ- ated on some high place in the neighbourhood. Several of their number led the way, playing on musical instruments ; while the others, perhaps, accompanied them with the voice. To pj^ophesy^ therefore, in its restricted sense, meant to sing the sacred songs common on these occasions. Sometimes a Divine impulse made persons not belonging to the company of prophets join in their music : Saul and the messengers, whom he sent to seize David, are examples. Besides the processions to and from the high place, and the sacrifices or solemn meetings held there, the pro- phets practised sacred music, and received instruction in the law, under the eye of Samuel or some man venerable for years and piety. It is evident from this account of the institution that it owed its origin to unsettled times, when the Levites could not be consulted or sacrifices offered at the appointed place. Hence we can understand why the schools of the prophets disappear entirely during the reigns of David and Solomon : Levites ^lischarged their duty, and pious men could sacrifice in the tabernacle or temple. The line of policy followed by the kings of Israel revived these seminaries. Mention is made of one hundred prophets hid by Obadiah during the persecution under Ahab, and of altars to Jehovah on Carmel and other places : these things prove that Elijah or some other prophet had again instituted schools. At a later period schools existed at Gilgal, attended by one hundred students; at Jericho, attended by upwards of fifty; at Bethel, and at Samaria. Perhaps there was one on Carmel also ; for that mountain was not far from Shunera, where a kind-hearted woman accommodated the prophet with a room during his fre- quent visits to the neighbourhood. Elisha appears to have superintended all these seminaries ; for nothing of greater im- 1 24 FROM REHOBOAM TO AMAZIAH. portance could have kept him constantly moving from place to place. His students lived in a building, erected by themselves, and enlarged, when necessary, to accommodate an increased attendance. A pot, of sufficient size to prepare a small supply of food for the whole company, is mentioned among the furniture of the schools ; and believers from distant parts brought first- fruits to the man of God Married as well as unmarried men attended these seminaries ; the students even engaged in busi- ness ; and one was so unfortunate that his widow, unable to pay his debts, besought Elisha to save her two sons from being sold as slaves. In cases of doubt or difficulty application was always made to Elisha for help : Gehazi pretended to Naaman that two sons of the prophets had come from Mount Ephraim, and had applied to his master for some money and clothes, a request per- haps frequently made to the prophet. Sometimes these students were employed to anoint kings in the name of Jehovah, or to convey warnings, reproofs, and encouragement ; but in matters of great importance Elisha acted without their assistance. It must not be supposed, however, that prophets were taken from these seminaries of education exclusively. Amos " was neither a pro- phet nor a prophet's son, but a herdman, and a gatherer of syca- more fruit." Elisha, when called to be the successor of Elijah, was found by that prophet ploughing in the field, though it ought not to be inferred from that, as is usually done, that he had not been trained in some school of the prophets : he is spoken of, indeed, as a person well known to Elijah before his appointment to this high office. The distinction between £i prophet and a son of the prophets should not be overlooked. The former was inspired, the latter was not; the one was master, the other servant; the prophet was taught of God, the sons of the prophets were taught of men. 155. After Elijah's unsuccessful attempt to reform the ten tribes, he withdrew to Horeb the mount of God. This is the first recorded visit of a Hebrew to that celebrated spot since the time of Moses ; it was beyond the limits of the promised land, and does not on that account appear to have been one of the ELIJAH AT HOREB. 125 sacred places frequented by the people of Israel. Pilgrimages were made to Bethel, Gilgal, Gibeon, and other places; vows were paid, assemblies held, and sacrifices offered there ; but Horeb was never visited for these purposes. Some of the settlers in Elath, while it remained in possession of Judah, if not Solomon himself, on his journey to that town, may have occa- sionally visited the mountain ; but history is silent on the sub- ject. Only one pilgrim is mentioned after Moses; only one great event after the giving of the law. The hill was sacred, and was reserved for revelations of important changes in the spiritual world. Elijah expected that the people of Israel would be converted at once on Mount Carmel by some miraculous dis- play of God's power. He was thinking of the passage through the Red Sea, and the strong wind that raised walls of water on either hand ; of the thunders and lightnings by which the enemies of Israel were often struck dead, and of the earthquakes which deprived heathen armies of their courage, and left them an easy prey to the chosen people. But he was taught on Horeb, that the heart is not changed by such events : God is in them to deliver or astonish, not to convert. Elijah was made to feel this in a most impressive manner ; and, when thus prepared for the important truth, a still small voice spoke home to his conscience, and charged him with faithlessness in fleeing from his native land. The work which he was commissioned to per- form had been left undone through fear. Conscience was roused to activity ; and, as usually happens in such cases, Elijah offered excuses for failing to dicharge his duty. It is not difficult to interpret this strange interview. Elijah had expected a revolu- tion, a sudden overthrow of heathenism, wonders in heaven above and in the earth beneath ; but Jehovah is not in these. When conversion takes place, it is effected by the Spirit work- ing on the conscience, convicting of sin by its still small voice, and furnishing a remedy. Elijah was taught this great truth on Horeb ; and returned to Samaria a more enlightened man to labour for the welfare of his perishing countrymen. It is worthy of remark respecting this prophet, that his translation 126 FROM REIIOBOAM TO AMAZIAH. furnished the Hebrews with an unanswerable proof of the exist- ence of a future state. The dates given in the preceding articles are subject to great uncertainty, owing chiefly to the difficulty of determining with precision the interval be- tween the passage of the Jordan by the Hebrews under Joshua, and the eleva- tion of Saul to the throne. It was shown already that this interval, according to the date given in 1 Kings vi. 1, was 337 years ; but the accuracy of that date has been denied. Many writers assert that it was introduced into Hebrew Bibles about the third century after Christ, though they do not profess to explain for what purpose, or by whom. They maintain, therefore, that the period, during which the Judges ruled, must be found by adding together the intervals of peace and slavery as was done at page 64. But there is one fact in the book of Judges which ought to settle this point. Jephthah said that the Hebrews had possessed eastern Palestine for three hundred years, when they revolted from the children of Ammon (Judg. xi. 26). Now, if the periods of peace and slavery which preceded that revolt be added together, the sum will be 319 years. But the administrations of Joshua, and of the elders who outlived him, are not included in this reckon- ing. Suppose with Josephus [Antiq. v. 1. 29) that Joshua ruled for 25 years, and add 25 years more for the interval between his death and the administra- tion of Othniel. In this way about 369 years elapsed between the passage of the Jordan, and the revolt from Ammon ; but Jephthah says that the interval was only 300 years, and the ordinary mode of speaking in round numbers cannot explain a difference of 69 years. Manifestly, therefore, the interval sought is not found by adding together the periods of peace and slavery ; and it is much safer to retain the date given in 1 Kings vi. 1. Several events took place in profane history before the founding of the temple, of which the dates may be regarded as at least probable. 1192 B.C. — Expedition of the Greeks against Troy. Contemporary Hebrew judges were perhaps Samson and Eli. 1183. — Troy taken after a siege often years. 1015 (or 915). — Smyrna founded by Greek colonists. Solomon ascended the throne about the same time. CHAPTER VIII. FROM UZZIAH TO IlEZKKIAll. juDAH. 156. In the period from Uzziah to Hezekiah we have not only the historical books to guide ns, but also the UZZIAH. 127 writings of several prophets. The former relate chiefly the events of each reign, but the account they give of the state of manners and religion is very brief: the latter, on the contrary, contain a vivid, sometimes a fearful picture of the wickedness that prevailed in Judah. As the national prosperity declined, the prophetic intimations of future glory became more clear. During David and Solomon's brilliant reigns, people were con- tent with the merely outward splendours of the court and king- dom ; but when enemies invaded the country, when the nation was crushed beneath a foreign foe, and everything that men loved or honoured was spoiled, prophets were sent to promise a glorious future, and to turn attention from the outward to the inward. This was especially marked in the period of the his- tory on which we are about to enter. UZZIAH, 157. Uzziah or Azariah succeeded his father Amaziah, 808-756 B.C. and restored Judah, in some measure, to the greatness which it formerly enjoyed. During his minority, the Edomites, " casting off all pity," cruelly ravaged the south of Judah, and instigated the Philistines to fall on the west : Tyre, forgetting the brotherly covenant of Solomon's time, assisted these invaders in plundering the country and carrying off captives. The pro- phet Amos ascribes these calamities to the contempt of the Jews for the law of God, and to the gross idolatry of Amaziah's reign. At length Uzziah assumed the offensive. He recovered and for- tified Elath : Gath and Ashdod were taken, and perhaps the country in their neighbourhood as far as the Mediterranean was conquered. Some Arabian tribes in the south of Judah, Gur- baal and the Mehunims, were reduced to subjection, which pro- bably secured unmolested communication with the garrison of Elath. Uzziah even crossed the Jordan, and subdued Ammon. But the king was not less mindful of internal affairs than of foreign conquests. He put the kingdom in a state of defence, by building fortresses and thoroughly equipping his army : he also dug wells in the southern desert, probably for the conveni- ence of caravans to and from Elath ; agriculture was encouraged, and all the arts connected with it and with war. But prosperity 128 FROM UZZIAH TO HEZEKIAII. begat pride, for Uzziah aspired to the priest's office, and attempted to burn incense in the temple. A leprosy, which afflicted him during the remainder of his life, punished his pride and obsti- nacy. Jotham, the heir-apparent, administered the affairs of state during the long illness of his father. A prophet named Zechariah guided Uzziah in religious matters, for some years at the commencement of his reign. — (2 Kings xiv. 21, 22 ; XV. 1-7 ; 2 Chron. xxvi.) JOTHAM, 158. Jotham was not less prosperous than his father. 756-742 B.C. jje continued to fortify the cities of Judah, and built strongholds in the forests of the country. But fortifications were a sign of distrust in God, and Hosea declared, '' Judah hath multiplied fenced cities, but I will send a fire upon his cities" (Hos. viii. 14). The Ammonites rebelled, but were compelled to pay a heavy tribute. Isaiah prophesied under Jotham. — {2 Kings xv. 32-38 ; 2 Chron. xxvii.) AHAZ, 159. Ahaz, the son of Jotham, succeeded : idolatry 742 72G B.C. proved his ruin. In the beginning of his reign, Pekah king of Israel, and Kezin king of Syria, invaded Judah, intending to depose Ahaz, and set a creature of their own on the throne of his kingdom. A battle was fought, in which 120,000 Jews with some of the chief men perished : the king was be- sieged in Jerusalem; the country was ravaged, and 200,000 women and children led into slavery : but a prophet of Jeho- vah persuaded the ten tribes to set these miserable persons at liberty. The allies were soon compelled to raise the siege of Jerusalem; for Tiglath-pileser, king of Assyria, was hired by Ahaz to deliver him from his enemies ; and an Assyrian army captured Damascus, slew Rezin, and ravaged Naphtali, Galilee, and Gilead. Ahaz visited the king of Assyria at Damascus, and committed the unspeakable folly of worshipping the gods of the Syrians, which had been unable to save Syria itself from Tig- lath-pileser. He even introduced these idols into Jerusalem, through the agency of Urijah, the high-priest.^ Other punish- ments befell the infatuated king. The Philistines wrested from • Isaiah calU this man " a faithful witness " in one of his symbolical predictions ( viii 2). HEZEKIAH — THE ASSYRIANS. 129 him some of the strongest fortresses of Jiidah ; Edom twice in- vaded the south, and carried away much spoil and many cap- tives, while the Assyrians, instead of helping their weak ally, plundered his country and capital. In vain did Isaiah denounce the alliance with Assyria, and preach repentance ; he addressed an unbelieving audience. The temple was not only shut up during these calamities, but part of it was burned ;^ the cities of Judah were desolate, and the population thoroughly dispirited. Isaiah comforted the people by describing the glories of Messiah's reign, and the vengeance which would then be taken on their enemies. Subjection to Edom grieved them most of all f but Messiah would tread the wine-press in Bozrah its chief city, and stain his garments with blood. The present was made to fore- shadow the future : the vengeance Judah wished, the work Messiah would accomplish. — (2 Kings xvi. ; 2 Chron. xxviii.) 160. A gleam of sunshine burst upon the nation TTTh* 7 T^' TC T A IT 726-697bc' (^^ii'ing the following reign. Hezekiah restored the worship of Jehovah, and celebrated the greatest passover that had been held in Israel since the time of Solomon. As the temple had been defiled, and was now fallen intD decay through the negligence of Ahaz, it was not possible to keep this festival at the proper time in the first month ; but provision was made for such cases in the law,^ and Hezekiah held the feast on the fourteenth day of the second, instead of the first month. The people, it is said, rejoiced at the reformation, but not a few of the priests were idolaters at heart, and their obedience was only outward. Many subjects of Hoshea, king of the ten tribes, who were present in Jerusalem at this feast, overthrew the heathen altars on returning to their native country : the manner in which Scripture speaks of Hoshea, renders it probable that they had permission from him to destroy these monu- ments of idolatry. Prosperity also attended the arms of Hezekiah against the Philistines, for he subdued a large part of their country. In the eighth year of his reign he refused to pay the annual tribute to Shalmaneser, king of Assyria, who was pre- 1 Isa. Ixiv. 10, 11. 2 Ps. cxxxYii. 7. ^ Numb. ix. 9-12. I 130 FROM UZZIAH TO HEZEKIAH. vented by a five years' war with Tyre from punishing his auda- city. At length, in the fourteenth year of Hezekiah, Sennacherib invaded the country. The kingdom had been put in a state of defence ; but most of the cities of Judah were soon taken ; and while the Assyrian king was" besieging Lachish/ Hezekiah sub- mitted, and stripped the temple and palace of their treasures to satisfy Sennacherib. The Assyrian discovered, however, that Judah had entered into alliance with Egypt, and Kabshakeh was sent to Jerusalem to demand the surrender of the city. But the Egyptians were on their march to relieve Judah, and Sen- nacherib collected his forces to oppose them. A short breathing time was thus given to Hezekiah ; and perhaps the distemper, which threatened to cut short his days, then befell him, as a punishment for the alliance he had formed with Egypt. In the meantime, Jehovah miraculously cut off the flower of the Assyrian army in a single night, by a " blast," which was pro- bably the dreaded wind of the desert ;2 and Sennacherib returned with shame to his own country. The only other event of im- portance that is recorded of Hezekiah, is the embassy he re- ceived from Merodach-Baladan,^ king of Babylon. That prince was the ruler of a nation long distinguished for the cultivation of astronomy ; and his curiosity was excited by the backward motion of the shadow on the dial when Hezekiah recovered from his illness.— (2 Kings xviii.-xx. ; 2 Chron. xxix.-xxxii.) ISRAEL. 161. The treason of Shallum, like that of SHALLUM TO H08HEA, Zimri, soou met with its reward. Menahem 770-721 B.C. rebelled against the new king, and put him to death, after a brief reign of one month. The kingdom of Assyria now appears for tbe first time in the history of Israel. It had flourished for many ages, and had undergone many revolu- tions; but its sovereigns do not seem to have extended their conquests beyond the Euphrates. Tiphsah on that river, formerly ' A division of the army was sent under Tartan to capture Ashdod; Isa xx. 1. - Isa. xxxvii. 7; Jer. 11. 1. •' Merodach, Ihe planet Mars, worsbijJiJcJ b) the Biib>lipiiian.s, Balachin, whosi' lord is Bfl or Baal. ISRAEL — SHALLUM TO HOSHEA. 131 the most northern point of Solomon's dominions, was probably the cause of the collision between Menahem and the king of Assyria. Jeroboam II. had taken Hamath, and added the Valley of the Leontes to the country of the ten tribes. Menahem imi- tated his predecessor, by again reducing the whole valley from Tirzah northward under the power of Israel, and even crossing the desert by the usual caravan road through Tadmor, to cap- ture Tiphsah. His success and cruelty drew down the vengeance of Pul, king of Assyria, upon the ten tribes. Their country was invaded, and forced to pay a heavy tribute to the conqueror. Menahem died after a reign of eleven years, and was succeeded by his son Pekahiah. Another dynasty soon ascended the throne ; for that prince was murdered by Pekah, one of his own ofiBcers, assisted by some inhabitants of Gilead. Towards the end of his reign, Pekah cruelly ravaged Judah, and even entered into an alliance with Eezin, king of Syria, to depose its weak sovereign, Ahaz : Isaiah calls them smoking firebrands. But the king of Assyria, to whom both of them should have paid tribute, again made his appearance with a large army in the country west of the Euphrates. Damascus lost its independence, and the inhabitants of one-half of Israel were carried captives to Assyria.^ These calamities destroyed the popularity of Pekah, and he was put to death about two years after, by Hoshea, the last king of Israel, (738 b.c.) Nine years, however, elapsed before Hoshea ascended the throne of Israel. Affairs may have been managed by the nobles, or some competitor may have con- tested the crown ; but an interregnum of nine years could not have been favourable to the prosperity of the nation. Subjection to a foreign country was always regarded as an intolerable evil by the Hebrews ; and Hoshea knew that his only hope of re- taining the throne lay in rebelling against Assyria. With that intention, he formed an alliance with So (Sevechus), king of Egypt, and no longer paid the annual tribute formerly sent to Nineveh. In vain did Isaiah denounce this and all other alli- ances with Egypt : neither kings nor people believed that " their 1 All eastern Palestine (compare 1 Chron. v. 6), all Galilee, and Ni.phtalj. 132 FROM UZZIAH TO HEZEKIAH. strength was to sit still." Hosbea probably received this warn- ing from the prophet, because he was the only king of Israel who showed signs of repentance and reformation : but sentence had gone forth against the nation. Shalmaneser invaded the land, took Samaria after a siege of three years, removed the remainder of the people to Media, and shut up the king in prison.^ It is not likely that all the inhabitants of a country would be removed in such cases ; the king, the nobility, the men of influence and war would certainly be taken away, but the poorer classes would be left behind.2 Shalmaneser, and afterwards Esar-haddon, peopled the deserted cities of Samaria with captives from other countries, who introduced the worship of heathen gods into their new settlements. But Samaria was part of the Holy Land, and even strangers living in it were bound to obey the Mosaic law, as the heathen inhabitants soon discovered. They applied to the king of Assyria, who sent a priest of Bethel to teach them " how they should fear the Lord :" their idols, their high places, and their priests were retained notwithstanding. — (2 Kings xv. 10-31 ; xvii.; 2 Chron. xxviii. 6-15.) 162. The kingdom of the ten tribes existed for 254 years; and eight different families, excluding Zimri's, exercised sove- reign power during that period. The average length of the reign of the eighteen kings of Israel was only thirteen years ; while the average for the twelve kings of Judah, in the same time, was twenty-three. Israel was thrice distracted by civil dissensions, which continued six, eleven, and nine years respec- tively : seven of its kings were murdered by their successors, and one was killed in battle. We cannot suppose, from these facts, that the people enjoyed little or no prosperity after the revolt from Rehoboam. The inspired writers record the sins of the people, and explain from first to last why they were rooted out of Palestine : but we may infer, from the large armies and extensive conquests of several of the kings, that the population ' Moab seeniR to have been terribly rava^jed during this invasion ; Isaiah xiv. 28-XTi. 14. -There is little reason to doubt, that Hebrews continued to inhabit Galilee from the age of Jobhua to that of our Lord, although it htiH been made a qiics ion when they first settled in it alter the captivity. SINS OF ISRAEL — THE GOLDEN CALVES. 133 and prosperity of the country were sometimes very great. Famine and pestilence, the usual attendants of war, not unfre- quently swept over the land, and cut off numbers of the people ; but no nation escapes these scourges of the Almighty. 163. Tlie sins which caused the captivity of the ten tribes are briefly summed up in 2 Kings xvii. 6-23. Jeroboam's wicked- ness, in setting up two golden calves, was the great iniquity of the nation : Baal-worship, and the worship of the heavenly bodies, were also practised, although the law ordered every one who was guilty of these crimes to be put to death. Enchanters and soothsayers were consulted by the deluded people ; and children were made to pass through the fire in honour of Moloch. Pro- phets, illustrious for miracles and faith, preached in vain against the corruptions of their age : many of the people were turned from idolatry by their means, but the majority of the nation remained unaffected. Not only were the warnings and entreaties of the most distinguished prophets despised, but several of them (Elijah, Elisha, Micaiah, and Amos) were threatened with death for their faithfulness. Love of idols and disregard for Jehovah's servants at last filled the cup of the nation's crimes to the brim. 164. About a hundred years after the overthrow of the monarchy, the heathen temple and the image of Ashtoreth at Bethel were burned, and the altar of Jeroboam thrown down by Josiah, king of Judah ; but the golden calf is not mentioned among the monuments of heathenism which he destroyed. Prob- ably, therefore, the tradition of the Jewish rabbins on the subject is correct, that Tiglath-pileser carried away the calf at Dan (740 B.C.), and Shalmaneser that at Bethel about ten years later.i The recent discoveries at Nineveh prove that the kings of Assyria paid little respect to the gods of conquered countries, especially if they were made of gold or silver. On one piece of sculpture representing the sack of a city, some men appear hew- ing a human figure in pieces with hatchets : it is supposed to be a golden image, which they are either dividing among them- 1 Hos. X. 6.— "For a present to king Jareb," i.e., Sennacherib, his successor, probably by a play upon the last two syllables. 134 FROM UZZIAII TO HEZEKIAH. selves, or cutting up for the king's treasurer. This was perhaps the fate of the golden calves. 165. The moral state of the Hebrews during a great part of this period, as we learn from the prophets, was extremely low. Although Uzziah, Jotham, and Hezekiah were men of piety and devoted to the service of Jehovah, their example was not copied by the people ; heathen altars and images were removed, and the worship of God again established in Judah ; but the change was only outward, for the hearts of the people were unaffected by it. Samaria also enjoyed an outward reformation under the dynasty of Jehu, though the golden calves were still retained. In both kingdoms, however, "the people did still corruptly;" and the writings of Isaiah, Hosea, Amos, and Micah, who then flourished, show the mournful excesses into which they ran. Drunkenness was one of the great national sins. Every class of the community was addicted to it, the husbandman in his merry-making, the prophet who pretended to reveal the will of God, and the monarch at the council-table or the festive board.^ The whole day, from early morning to nightfall, was spent in carousing and music -^ decency was sometimes outraged by the scenes then witnessed;^ the "fading flower" of the drunkard's chaplet was an image used by the poets ; and justice could not be administered by judges, who attempted to discharge their duties when under the influence of wine."* The poor and fatherless were plundered at the judgment-seat ; bribes were taken, and even asked as the price of favourable decisions ;S and blood was shed without compunction.^ " Truth was fallen in the street;" "mercy and knowledge of God" were unknown, and the upright man was the prey of the wicked.'' " Whoredom, and wine, and new wine, had taken away the heart."* Re- proofs for wrong-doing were resented as hateful insults : to speak truth was reckoned an abomination.^ " The days of 1 Isa. xxvi:i. 7. 8 ; Mic. ii. 11 ; llos. vii. 5. - Isa. v. 11, 12. a Isa. xxviii. 8; Amos vi. 4-6. * Isa. xxviiL 7. 4 Isa. V. 23 ; Mic. vii. i; llos. iv. 18 ; Amos v. 11, 12. c Mic. iii. 9. 10. " I«a. lix. 14, 15. * Ho8. iv. 11. '•' Amos V. 10. STATE OF SOCIETY. 135 Gibeah," when the vilest wickedness was not only perpetrated by a few, but countenanced by a whole community, seemed to have returned.^ Even the cities of refuge were no longer safe :'. Kamoth-gilead " was polluted with blood," and the roads lead- ing to Shechem were infested with robber-priests.^ 166. The pride and haughtiness of the powerful were as severely censured as their drunken habits ; they despised the poor, and even pretended to believe that they could conceal their intentions and doings from Jehovah himself. To increase the dignity of the nobles, vineyards were seized, possessions unduly extended, and restitution of heritages at the jubilee refused.' Micah gives a very lively picture of their harsh dealings with the lower classes : — they " also eat the flesh of my people, and flay their skin from off them ; and they break their bones, and chop them in pieces, as for the pot, and as flesh within the caldron."^ Few of the leading men were free from these sins, — " the best of them is a brier ; the most upright sharper than a thorn hedge. "^ Eliakim, the chamberlain of Hezekiah, main- tained a consistent and upright walk, notwithstanding the wickedness of the times ; but Shebna, the secretary, was threat- ened with heavy judgments for his pride and iniquity. 167. Injustice and violence had sapped the foundations of public confidence. A friend could not be trusted, and the hus- band was betrayed by his wife.® Neighbours overreached each other in ordinary matters of business, " with wicked balances and the bag of deceitful weights."^ One, intimately acquainted with the treachery and wickedness that prevailed, says, " The good man is perished out of the earth, and there is none up- right among men : they all lie in wait for blood, they hunt every man his brother with a net."^ Another, shocked at the impiety of the court and people, declared that " except the Lord of hosts had left unto us a very small remnant, we should have been as Sodom, we should have been like unto Gomorrah," ^ — 1 Hos. ix. 9. 2 Hos. vi. 8, 9. 3 Mic. ii. 2. 4 Mic iii. 3. 5 Mic. vii. 4. € Mic. vi. 12 7 Mic. vL 11 ; ; Amos viii. 5. s Mic. vu. 2. 9 Isa. i. 9. 136 FROM UZZIAH TO HEZEKIAH. that is, if another Abraham had arisen to plead for Jerusalem, he would scarcely have found ten righteous persons in it. 168. The luxurious habits of the people during this period are sometimes severely censured by the prophets. Ladies of rank wore ankle-bands to attract attention by tinkling as they walked along, and bound the ankles loosely together with a silver chain to give themselves a mincing gait. Amulets were also worn to guard against incantations, and little moons were used as ornaments in imitation of the eastern heathen.^ 169. Pure religion could not flourish in such a community : men had f(U'saken God, and now he had forsaken them. The Sabbath was broken, but that had not yet become the crying sin of the times. It appears that the sacrifices prescribed in the law were regularly offered during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, and Hezekiah, and the worship of Jehovah outwardly observed ; but " he that killeth an ox is as if he slew a man ; he that sacrificeth a lamb, as if he cut off a dog's neck ; he that offeroth an oblation, as if he offered swine's blood ; he that burneth incense, as if he blessed an idol."^ The law was broken with impunity. Altars were built of brick instead of unhewn stone ; and every grove on the mountains was the scene of forbidden worship, and gross immorality. Offerings were also presented to Baal, under the names of Gad and Meni, as the giver of good fortune — a practice probably taken from the Phoenicians. Altars to false gods were built during the reign of Ahaz in every corner of Jerusalem, and incense was offered to the brazen serpent made by Moses in the wilderness. So shameful did this serpent- worship appear to Hezekiah, that he broke the image in pieces, and called it in contempt " a thing of brass." Children were burned to Moloch in the valley of Hinnom, and other places witnessed the same dreadful sacrifices.^ Men were so indifferent or hardened that it became a common saying with some, " Is not Jehovah among us? none evil can come upon us;"^ and with others, " Who seeth us, and who knoweth us?"^ Hypocrisy and 1 Tsa. iii. 18-26 contains a full account of these and other articles of dress. 2 Isa. Ixvi. 3. =i Isa. Ivii. 5. ■* Mic. iii. 11. * Isa. xxix. 15. FALSE PROPHETS THE MESSIAH. 137 superstition were in consequence extensively prevalent among the people. Pretended revelations from God could be bought from false prophets ; and a charge of impiety was forged against those who would not countenance the deceit. Priests were equally guilty of acquiring money by imlawful means ; they flattered for a bribe ; and sought gold rather than the approba- tion of God. Wizards, soothsayers, and fortune-tellers found a rich harvest among the deluded people ; and, whatever were the particular forms under which they cloaked their falsehoods, it is certain that ventriloquism was one of them.2 Jehovah " was pressed under the nation, as a cart is pressed that is full of sheaves.*'^ 170. So dreadful is the picture of society sketched in the pre- ceding articles, that a reader might suspect the prophets of poetical exaggeration. But, apart from the corruption that they describe, there is no ground for entertaining this idea. Four independent witnesses, living in different places, and moving in different ranks of life, unanimously testify to the fearful wicked- ness of the times. Isaiah was a courtier, and Amos a herdsman : the former lived in Jerusalem, the latter was born in Tekoa, and travelled through Palestine : Micah belonged to the western parts of Judah, and Hosea to Israel. Each endeavours to paint the wickedness of the community in blacker tints than another ; but they agree in the minutest particulars, as may be seen from the references given to their writings. One feels, therefore, that he is not reading poetry, but history : not exaggerated statements of petty faults, but unadorned facts. Four poets could not have agreed in using the same language to condemn the same sins unless realities, not fiction, had been before their minds. 171. But there was one source of consolation, to which pious Hebrews could turn amid the prevailing wickedness and idolatry : the promises of a Messiah, which they had received from anti- quity, were greatly enlarged in this period. When the kingdom 1 Mic. iii. 5, 11. 2 jga. riii. 19 ; xxix. 4 : " The voice out of the ground." 3 AmoB ii. 13. Ids FROM UZZIAH TO HEZEKIAH. of Judah was sinking under the attacks of enemies on every side, prophets revived the drooping spirits of their countrymen by pointing to the triumphs of the Redeemer. Isaiah and Micah describe him as God over all, the everlasting King, and yet as a man who should be born in Bethlehem, live a troubled life, and at last be laid in the grave. David had already uttered similar predictions in few and mysterious words ; but in this age the voice of prophecy became as full and clear as the nature of things permitted. The kingly office of the Deliverer afforded pious Hebrews strong grounds for consolation in the calamitous state of the kingdom of Judah. Isaiah encouraged them to fix their eyes on the future ; Messiah should tread the wine-press in Bozrah, and stain all his garments with the blood of Israel's enemies ; he should lead forth his people from captivity, but not in haste and fear like Moses ; he should rule among kings ; and the miseries which had afflicted Judah for many years should cease, under his peaceful sceptre. His power should be greater than David's, his wisdom than Solomon's; all nations would submit to the one, and flock to hear the other: in short, he should be a teacher or prophet as well as a king. The nature of his work as a priest was also fully revealed. Isaiah describes him as substituted in place of sinners, bearing their guilt, and pleading their cause with God. He also calls him the Re- deemer, or Purchaser of Israel ; and narrates in the richest lan- guage the blessings which he would bestow on mankind. The dark clouds which were settling on the kingdom of Judah seem edged with brilliance ; as if the sun, though then obscured for a little, would soon burst out in more dazzling brightness than ever. 172. The history of the Hebrew kingdoms during this period became involved with that of Assyria, or, to prevent confusion of ideas, Nineveh. Assyria proper was bounded by the Tigris on the west, Susiana on the south, Media on the east, and Armenia on the north ; but the empire was far more extensive. Nineveh, the capital of the kingdom, was situated on the left bank of the Tigris, about 280 miles to the north of Babylon, ASSYRIA. 139 and 500 from the Persian Gulf : Baghdad, also situated on the Tigris not far from the ancient Ctesiphon (Calneh), is 220 miles south of the site of Nineveh. When the Assyrian empire was at its greatest splendour, Nineveh is said to have covered an area of 200 square miles, or nearly twice as many as London ; and its population was perhaps upwards of half a million. Long before the time of Abraham, this city was the metropolis of a great kingdom, but Scripture seldom mentions its sovereigns or conquests, because they had no influence on the development of the Church. Asshur, who founded the kingdom, and Chushan- Eishathaim, who first oppressed the Israelites after their settle- ment in Palestine, are the only Assyrian monarchs whose names are found in Scripture before tlie reign of Menahem : perhaps the four kings who invaded Palestine in the time of Abraham, also conducted an Assyrian army. Greek authors relate that the Medes, after being subject to Assyria for many years, threw ofi" the yoke during the reign of Sardanapalus in the ninth cen- tury before Christ, and succeeded in placing their leader Arbaces on the throne of Nineveh. The names of nearly all his succes- sors, down to the destruction of the monarchy, are found in Scripture ; they were perhaps as follows : — Pul, . , . from 774 B.C., reigned 21 years (probably). Tiglath-pileser, „ 753 „ „ 19 „ (753 B.C.— Founding of Rome.) Shahnaneser, „ 734 „ „ 14 „ Conquered Sidon, Acre, Cy- prus, Samaria (721). Sennacherib, „ 720 „ ,, 37 „ Sargon ? Isa. xx. 1. Esarhaddon, about 683 „ „ 16 „ Conquered Babylon (680). Sardochaeus, „ 667 „ „ 20 „ Second Revolt of Media (665). Cbyniladan, „ 647 „ „ 22 „ 173. About 625 b.c, Nabopolassar became king of Babylon ; but history has not recorded any particulars of his previous life. Having made himself master of the country between Babylon and the Persian Gulf, he marched against Nineveh, which he sacked, but did not altogether destroy, Nahum has described the storming and capture of the city. The conqueror is sometimes called king of Assyria, for with the capital he gained possession of all the conquests of that empire. 140 FROM UZZIAH TO HEZEKIAH. 174. Of late years, additional light has been thrown upon Assyrian history, by discoveries made on the sites of ancient Nineveh and Babylon. Monuments and sculptures of the greatest value have been found buried in the vast mounds of rubbish, which were once merely a source of amazement to the traveller, and of terror to the neighbourhood. "When the inscriptions written on these remains of ancient art shall have been fully read, a new and interesting chapter in the history of the world will be rescued from oblivion. The pictures, which accompany the inscriptions, and represent the events they record, require in general no interpretation — they speak for themselves. On some are seen the preparations for a feast in the kitchen of the palace ; the guests sitting at table, and pledging each other in wine ; mummers dressed in lions' skins, dancing to music ; and horses feeding or being cleaned in the royal stables. The great king of Assyria is seen, attended by his sons and high officers of state, visiting some favourite country-house, engaging in lion or bull hunts, drinking or divining with a cup, riding in his chariot, and seated at table. But special attention was bestowed on the delineations of warlike subjects. Sieges are represented with a vividness that leaves nothing to be desired. The besieged are seen defending the fortifications ; and sometimes a row of miser- able victims impaled before the city show the fury of the con- queror. Wooden toweis, manned by archers, and moving on wheels, are forced up inclined planes, till their summits are on a level with the top of the walls. Battering engines are also driven up the slopes, and stones are seen falling out of the walls under the blows of lance -headed rams. Scaling-ladders are planted against the fortifications : the besiegers crowd up the steps, and shelter themselves beneath wicker shields from the missiles of the enemy. Dead bodies are tumbling from the towers into the ditch below ; and sometimes flames break out in the doomed city, or are applied to its gates. The fury of the assault, the supplicating attitude of the faint-hearted, the cour- age of despair, and tlie piteous lamentations of prisoners of war, are faithfully depicted on these interesting remains. Buttle ASSYRIAN SCULPTURES. 141 scenes are equally vivid. Cavalry and chariots are seen cLarging the enemy, or pursuing the fugitives ; bowmen, spearmen, and slingers advance against hostile ranks ; single combats, in which Assyrians pass their swords through their opponents, are not uncommon ; and the dead, sometimes headless, lie on the plain, or are trampled under the horses' feet. But victory is not always gained without loss, for even in flight the vanquished are seen turning upon their pursuers. Birds of prey also, to increase the truthful horror of the picture, hover over the field, and peck out the eyes or carry off the heads and entrails of the dead. Processions of tribute-bearers are of frequent occurrence. On one monument, double-humped camels, an elephant, monkeys, a richly caparisoned horse, manufactured goods, and baskets filled with valuable commodities, are borne by the natives of different countries to the king of Assyria. 175. A better idea of the value of these sculptures will be obtained, by illustrating from them one or two passages of Scrip- ture. Thus, the prophet Isaiah is commanded to say to Senna- cherib — " I will put my hook in thy nose, and my bridle on thy lips."^ On an Assyrian monument, three prisoners, of whom one is on his knees, are represented before the king of Assyria. In one hand, the king holds the middle of a cord, which passes through rings in the under lips of the three men, and in the other a spear, with which he is putting out the eyes of the sup- pliant. He himself was dealt with in this way by Jehovah. Frequent references are made to high places and groves in Scripture ; one of these is seen on the monuments — an altar built on a height near a royal palace, and surrounded by trees.^ Eli " fell from off the seat backward by the side of the gate :" the Assyrian artists represent people sitting on chairs without backs, and having their feet some distance from the ground ; a person fainting on receiving bad news would of course fall from such chairs. One of the sieges represented on the Assy- rian monuments seems to be that of Lachish by Sennacherib, and the tribute then paid by Hezekiah is put down on them at 1 Isa. xxxTii. 29. 2 Hosea iv. 13. 142 FROM MANASSEH TO ZEDEKIAH. 30 talents of gold, and 800 talents of silver. Divining with the cnp was another superstitious practice common in the East ; and there are several pictures, in which the monarch, attended by his great officers, is apparently consulting the gods in this way. The richly-caparisoned horses, and their handsome riders, seen on the monuments, remind one of the "desirable young men riding upon horses," mentioned by the prophets in their expostu- lations with the Jews. CHAPTER IX. FROM MANASSEH TO ZEDEKIAH. JUDAH. 176. The reign of Manasseh forms an important MANASSEH, era in the history of Judah ; his sins are always 697-642 B.C. spoken of as the chief cause of the sufferings and captivity which afterwards befell the nation. Nothing could ward off the punishment threatened against them ; not even the intercession of Moses and Samuel, had they been alive.^ " The righteous might be taken away from the evil to come," as Josiah was ; but the wickedness and crimes of Manasseh were punished in the third and fourth generation, agreeably to the law. His mother's name was Hephzi-bah, at whose marriage with Heze- kiah, Isaiah probably wrote the famous prophecy, " Zion ! thou shalt be called Hephzi-bah, and thy land Beulah (married) ; for the Lord delighteth in thee, and thy land shall be married : for as a young man marrieth a virgin, so shall thy sons marry thee."^ But Manasseh proved a miserable son to his native country. 177. A list of this prince's sins and crimes is given at the beginning of his reign : he was only twelve years of age when his father died, and some years elapsed before he was guilty of the iniquities referred to. First, He restored Baal-worship ; Second, He profaned the house of God by erecting altars in its ' Jer. XV. 1-4. - Isaiah Ixii. 4. 5. MANASSEH ASHDOD. 143 two courts to the host of heaven, and setting up a wooden image in the temple itself; Thirds He made his children pass through the fire in the valley of Hinnom ; Fourth^ He consulted wizards and enchanters; and, Fifths He shed much innocent blood in Jerusalem. Horses and chariots (statues) were set up in honour of the sun ; idolatrous priests, among whom were many Levites,^ served at the heathen altars ; and wickedness of every kind was so common that Manasseh surpassed not only the worst kings of Judah, but even the original inhabitants of the land. The planets were worshipped on the house-tops, and Moloch was invoked in solemn oaths as often as Jehovah. Justice was cor- rupted ; vain and treacherous persons pretended to the gift of prophecy ; and the sanctuary was polluted by the priests. God was thought to be an indifferent spectator of the prevailing wickedness and crimes : " Jehovah will not do good, neither will he do evil," had become a favourite proverb in Jerusalem .2 Punishment at length fell on the land. An Assyrian army in- vaded Judah about the twenty-second year of Manasseh's reign (676 B.C.), and carried him a prisoner to Babylon, which had been conquered, a few years before, by Esar-haddon, king of Assyria.3 In captivity and exile he humbled himself before Jehovah, and on regaining his liberty, restored the true worship in Jerusalem ; but the reformation he effected was far from thorough. Only one prophet, named Hozai,* is mentioned in the history during this reign : Isaiah was alive at the beginning of it, and prophets or seers are said to have warned Manasseh of the evil consequences of his ways. — (2 Kings xxi. 1-18 ; 2 Chron. xxxiii. 1-19.) 178. Syria and Palestine were now the battle-field, on which the great monarchies of Egypt and Nineveh contended for the dominion of the world. An invasion of the territories of the one by the armies of the other was effected, by marching along the shore of the Mediterranean through the plain of Sharon and the I Ezek. xliv. 10. - Zeph. i. 5, 12. 3 Perhaps the prophecy in Isa. xxii. 15-19 was fulfilled at this time. * 1 Chron. xxxiii. 19 (margin). 144 FROM MANASSEH TO ZEDEKIAH. country of the Philistines: the centre of Judea was too moun- tainous and rugged for the passage of an army, in which large bodies of cavalry and chariots were employed. Ashdod, there- fore, though much inferior in size and strength to Jerusalem, was reckoned the frontier fortress of the two monarchies, and required to be captured by an invading army. This city, of which broken arches and fragments of marble columns still mark the site, was built on the summit of a hill, about twenty-one miles south of Joppa. In the reign of Hezekiah it seems to have been held by the Egyptians, for Sennacherib sent Tartan with a division of the Assyrian army to besiege it. This fortress is not again mentioned in history until the middle of the reign of Manasseh, when it was garrisoned by the Assyrians. In the interval, Egypt, as well as Nineveh, had been weakened by civil discord or foreign wars ; but in each of these kingdoms one monarch now ruled with a firm hand, and the contest for supremacy was renewed. Esar-haddon, the king of Assyria, had fortified Ashdod so strongly, that it sustained a siege of twenty- nine years from Psammetichus, king of Egypt, before surrender- ing. It can hardly be supposed, that Judah would be safe with a hostile army encamped for many years near its border : it is somewhat remarkable, at least, that Manasseh, after his return from Babylon, greatly strengthened the fortifications of Jerusa- lem and other cities in his dominions. After this time, Ashdod was a place of less consequence ; the long siege which it sustained left the fortress a mere wreck, and Gaza became the key of Egypt.^ AMON, 179. Amon, the son of Manasseh, imitated the 642-640 B.C. wickedness of his father. He worshipped the carved images of that king, which do not appear to have been destroyed during the preceding period of reformation. A conspiracy was formed against him, and he was assassinated after a reign of two years. Josiah, his son, the only ornament of this dark period in Jewish history, succeeded in the ninth year of his age. About seven years after, he manifested an intention "to seek after the God of David his father." '• The fate of these fortresses was yiredictcd by Zephaniah (ii. 4). JOSIAH THE REFORMATION. 145 josiAH, 180. In the twelfth year of Josiah's reign (628 640-609 B.C. Bc^)^ lie thoroughly cleared not only Judah, but all western Palestine, of idolatrous altars and images ; destroying the latter and burning the bones of heathen priests upon the former. Josiah appears to have been deputy under the king of Assyria or Babylon (Nabopolassar) of the whole country to the west of the Jordan ; for it is inexplicable how he could have exer- cised authority "in the cities of Samaria," unless this had been the case. The reformation occupied six years : Zephaniah pro- phesied before it was begun, and perhaps assisted in carrying it on ; Jeremiah entered on the prophetical office in the thirteenth year of Josiah, and may have encouraged the king in his efforts to overthrow heathenism. In thoroughly cleansing the long- neglected temple^ the "book of the law" was found and read to the king. So deplorable had been the wickedness of king and priest in Judah, that this foundation of the true religion had been lost since Hezekiah's time, and the national faith was transmitted only in the sermons and writings of the prophets. The threaten- ings of the law so terrified the king, that he sent to Huldah, the prophetess, to inquire whether there were any hope of pardon ; and resolved on reforming the national worship with more vigour. A passover, the greatest and most hearty that had ever been held in Israel, was then celebrated. Thirteen years of peace and prosperity were given to the nation, only to be followed by the most dreadful calamities. War then broke out between Pharaoh-Necho and Babylon ; and the Egyptian king passed through Palestine on his way to Carchemish, landing his army at Accho to avoid a march along the sea-shore.-^ Josiah gave him battle at Megiddo, when the Hebrews were defeated, and Josiah so severely wounded that he died shortly after. His death excited the profoundest grief throughout the kingdom, especially among the godly portion of the community.^ " He walked in the ways of David his father;" and Scripture takes 1 Jer xlvii. 1-5. Gaza and Askelon -rrere sacked on his return. - The mourning of Hadadrimmon (Zech. xii. 11), was a phrase derived from this event, Hadadrimmon was a town near Megiddo. K 146 MANASSEH TO ZEDEKIAH. special notice of his goodness — an honour which it bestows on no other successor of David, except Hezekiah. — (2 Kings xxi. 19-xxiii. 30; 2 Chron. xxxiii. 20-xxxv. 27.) 181. Shallum or Jehoahaz succeeded his father Josiah. He was deposed three months after by Pharaoh, on the successful termination of his campaign against Carchemish, and carried to Egypt, where he died.^ Eliakim or Jehoiakira, an JEHOIAKIM, oi^Qj. gQjj Qf Josiah, was made king in his stead. He 609-599 B.C. , 1., 1 , ^1 1 ^ built a splendid palace, but refused to pay the work- men their wages : " his heart was for covetousness, and for to shed innocent blood, and for oppression, and for violence. "^ In the beginning of his reign, Urijah, a servant of Jehovah, predicted the destruction of the city and temple, and then fled to Egypt, where he was apprehended by the messengers of Jehoiakim and brought back to Judah. The king condemned him to death for his boldness in speaking in the name of God. Jeremiah narrowly escaped death at the same time; though with greater boldness and faith he confronted the princes and people. The wickedness, more than the idolatry of Jehoiakim, at last caused his ruin. In the year 606 e.g., Nebuchadnezzar, after defeating the Egyptian army on the Euphrates and re-taking Carchemish, conquered Judah and took Jerusalem. Many of the principal men, among whom Daniel is specially deserving of notice, were carried to Babylon with part of the vessels used in the temple service. Jehoiakim con- tinued faithful to the conqueror for three years, when, trusting for help from Egypt, he rebelled. Nebuchadnezzar was pre- vented, by his contest with Pharaoh and by other wars, from punishing his tributary; but detachments of the Babylonian army, and bands of soldiers from the neighbouring nations ravaged the kingdom of Judah. Jehoiakim is said to have been besieged in Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, and at last put to death ;3 but Scripture is silent on the subject. It was foretold that " he would be buried with tlie burial of an ass," and that 1 .Ter. xxii. 12. - Jer. xxii. 17. He xlew " king Jehoiakim, whom he connnindcd to be thrown before the walls without n.1,1 >,iri-''l " — ] ()*i i\ihu8, Antiq. X 6. CONIAH ZEDEKIAH FALSE PROPHETS. 147 " his dead body should be cast ont in the day to the heat, and in the night to the frost." His father, Josiah, humbled himself when he heard the threatenings of the law read by his secretary ; in strange contrast with this, Jehoiakim cut up with a pen-knife, and then thrust into the fire, the inspired writing of Jeremiah, which denounced severe punishment unless the king and people turned from their sins. — (2 Kings xxiii. 31-xxiv. 7 ; 2 Chron. xxxvi. 1-8.) 182. Coniah, Jeconiah, or Jehoiachin, the son of Jehoiakim, succeeded to the throne. His reign lasted only three months ; but the wickedness of which he was guilty, drew down on him the penalty — " Write ye this man childless, for no man of his seed shall prosper, sitting upon the throne of David, and ruling any more in Judah." ^ Nebuchadnezzar had now driven the Egyptians out of Asia, and Palestine fell entirely into his hands. Distrusting the fidelity of Coniah, he besieged Jerusalem. In a short time Coniah surrendered, and was carried to Babylon along with his mother,^ 10,000 men of rank, and the goodly vessels of the temple. Ezekiel was among the captives : a thou- sand carpenters and smiths were also carried away from Judah, to prevent the people from fortifying their cities and providing themselves with arms. Thirty-seven years after, the unhappy king was released from prison by the successor of Nebuchadnezzar. 183. Zedekiah, a son of Josiah, was raised to the ^5^™^f' *^^^"^ ^y ^^^ ^^"^ ^^ Babylon. False prophets, in Jerusalem and Chaldea, were constantly predicting the overthrow of Nebuchadnezzar's power, the return of the captives, and the restoration of the temple vessels ; sometimes they had the hardihood to fix the date of deliverance. Hananiah, Ahab, Zedekiah, and Shemaiah,^ were perhaps the leaders among these 1 This is the only passage in the Bible that illustrates the apostle's statements regarding Melchizedek, "without father, without; mother." Jeremiah says that Coniah would be childless, and immediately add-, no man of his seed, implying that he had a family, as we know was the case (Matt. i. 12). Childless means childless with respect to his regal dignity ; none of his family should ever sit on the throne. What a bitter satire upon the king's name — Jehoiachin, Jehovah has estahlishrd him. - Jer. xxii. 26 : compare with 2 Kings xxiv. 1.5. 3 Ahab and Zedekiah, accordini,' to the prediction of Jjremiah, were burned by Xebu- 148 MANASSEH TO ZEDEKIAH. preachers of sedition and rebellion. Jeremiah, on the other hand, counselled submission to the conqueror, and promised peace as the result ; but the advice was disregarded, although his prediction was fulfilled, that Hananiah should die within a certain time. In the beginning of his reign, Zedekiah was almost persuaded by these false prophets to form a confederacy with Edom, Moab, Tyre, and other nations against Babylon.^ Wickedness and idolatry prevailed in Jerusalem : " the creeping things and abominable beasts " of Egypt were worshipped ; the death of Tammuz, the Syrian Adonis, was lamented yearly by the women of Judah ; the sun-worship of Persia was common in the temple, and the valley of Hinnom was filled with altars to Baal and Moloch.^ At last Zedekiah rebelled, and Nebuchadnezzar invaded Judah.^ The Jews had entered into an alliance with Pharaoh-Hophra, and entertained the hope that he would save them from the consequences of their rebellion .^ Several cities, besides the capital, among which Lachish and Azekah are spe- cially mentioned,^ had been strongly fortified, and the Chaldean army was delayed some time before them. Soon, however, the siege of Jerusalem was formed, and the people were glad to listen to Jeremiah. He exhorted them to observe the year of release, by setting free the Hebrew servants whom they unjustly detained in slavery. His advice was followed so long as the. Chaldeans lay before the city ; but when they broke up to meet the Egyptian army, which was advancing to Zedekiah's relief, tilings returned to their former state. Jeremiah's predic- tion, that the siege would be resumed, was treated with scorn, and he himself cast into a loathsome dungeon. At length the Chaldean army returned, and the wretched inhabitants of Jeru- chadnezzar, because they prevented their countrymen from settling in the cities to which he h;id carried them. ' Jer xxvii. 2 Ezck. viii. - Amujon had rebelled at the same time, and Nebuchadnezzar used divination by arrows to determine against which nation he should first march. The names of the cities or king- doms were written on several aiTows, which were put into a quiver, and shaken toj^ethcr. An arrow was then drawn out, and the name on it determined the place to be attacked.— Ezek. xxi. ]!)-24. ♦ Kzek. XTii. 1.5 « Jcr xxxiv 7. REVIEW OF THE PEEIOD. 1 49 salem were exposed to the worst horrors of war, pestilence, and famine. It was humiliating also to see their hereditary enemies and former subjects, the Edomites and Philistines, in the ranks of the besiegers ; and to hear the insulting taunts with which they ridiculed their misfortunes. Zedekiah would have sur- rendered, but his nobles were determined to hold out to the utmost ; and he himself was afraid of the Jews whom his mis- government and rebellion had driven into the service of Nebu- chadnezzar.-^ The second siege continued some months, during which the inhabitants were caused " to eat the flesh of their sons. and the flesh of their daughters, and the flesh of their acquaint- ances." At last the Chaldeans efi'ected an entrance into the city ; and Zedekiah fled with the intention of gaining the eastern desert, where he might have escaped the vengeance of the con- queror. He was pursued and taken near Jericho, and the invaders returned to complete the destruction and pillage of Jerusalem. Zedekiah was carried to Kiblah, where Nebuchad- nezzar cruelly made him witness the execution of his own sons, and then ordered his eyes to be put out. He was afterwards taken to Babylon, where it is supposed he died. — (2 Kings xxiv. 17-xxv. 21 ; 2 Chron. xxxvi. 10-21.) 184. It is unnecessary to repeat at the end of this chapter the list of crimes and misdeeds which prevailed in Jerusalem during the period we have reviewed. Zephaniah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel draw the same picture of these times that Isaiah and Micah do of the preceding age ; and yet there was a re- markable difference between the two periods. From Uzziah to Hezekiah there was only one bad king : from Manasseh to Zede- kiah, nearly the same space of time, there was only a single good one. In the former period, Ahaz shut up the temple, and allowed it to fall into decay : in the latter, the temple was de- voted to heathen worship, or to the outward service of Jehovah, and additions were even made to its splendour.^ Under Ahaz, the feasts and fasts were not observed ; under Jehoiakim at least, the Jews assembled from all their cities to keep both. It 1 Jer. xxxviii. 19, 20. •^ Jer. xxxvi. 10. 150 MANASSEH TO ZEDEKIAH. is singular that the kings were either unable or unwilling to enforce obedience to the law, which forbade the offering of sacri- fices anywhere except before the ark. This law was violated by Solomon at the very time he received the gift of wisdom from Jehovah ; and Elijah, the greatest prophet that had ap- peared since Moses, sanctioned the unlawful practice. The high places of Solomon, in the neighbourhood of Jerusalem, were such resorts of the people, that the good kings did not venture to remove them for upwards of 300 years, until Josiah, in the darkest period of Jewish history, threw down the altars there erected. False prophets flourished during the age from Uzziah to Hezekiah ; but, towards the close of the monarchy, they greatly increased in numbers and insolence. They were then in league with the priests, and once nearly succeeded in effect- ing the murder of Jeremiah. They resembled the deceivers and flatterers of other kingdoms, who speak what will prove accept- able to royal ears, not advantageous to the nation ; but they pretended that their information was received from God. So corrupt had the people become under the teaching and errors of these prophets, that they could not distinguish truth from false- hood. " Every vision faileth," they said, Jeremiah's as well as Hananiah's ; " the days are prolonged," in spite of God's threat- enings to the contrary. 185. Believers during this period were favoured with several revelations regarding the Messiah. Isaiah died at its commence- ment; Zephaniah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel flourished near and after its close. Prophecy had already revealed the person and work of Messiah, the nature of his kingdom and the happiness of his subjects : it still dwelt on these points though not at great length •} warnings and threatenings against the sinfulness of the times took their place in the sermons of the prophets. Daniel, however, placed the nature of Christ's kingdom in a new light : in the interpretation of Nebuchad- nezzar's first dream, he brought out more clearly than any who preceded him, the triumph of Messiah's kingdom over all the 1 Jer. xxiii. 6 ; Ezek. xxxiv. 23 ; xxxvii. 24. THE SEVENTY YEARS. 151 nations of the earth. This is the only new feature in the pro- phecies relating to the Saviour ; for the other predictions of Daniel belong to a later period. 186. Jeremiah prophesied that the captivity should last seventy years, " until the land had enjoyed her Sabbaths, for, as long as she lay desolate she kept Sabbath to fulfil threescore years and ten." According to the law every seventh year should have been a Sabbath of rest to the land. Now, seventy Sab- baths of rest would occur in a period of 490 years, and this was exactly the time that elapsed between the beginning of Saul's reign (1096 e.g.) and the first captivity, from which Jeremiah reckons (606 e.g.) It does not by any means follow from this, that the seventh year of rest had not been observed during the whole of that long interval ; but the coincidence is sufiiciently striking to prove, that in general the precept was shamefully neglected. Other commands, as plainly revealed in the law, had not been observed for a much longer time. At the feast of tabernacles the Hebrews were ordered to dwell in booths deco- rated with palm-trees, in remembrance of the sojourn in the wilderness ; but the precept was either violated or forgotten from the conquest to the time of Ezra.^ CHAPTER IX. THE GAPTIVITY. 187. The history of the Jews during the captivity is the his- tory of three branches of the same family. The principal men of the nation, and great numbers of the common people, were settled on the river Chebar, which flows into the Euphrates about 300 miles to the north of Babylon. A few of these cap- tives were advanced to the highest dignities in the courts of 1 Neh. Tiii. 17. 152 THE CAPTIVITY. Xebucbadnezzar and bis successors, and doubtless exerted con- siderable influence in improving, tbe condition of tbeir less for- tunate brethren. Tbe poorer classes, forming tbe bulk of tbe population tbat survived tlie famine and tbe sword, remained in Judab, wbere Gedaliab, the son of Jeremiah's kind protector, was governor under tbe king of Babylon. 188. We shall first trace the fortunes of the captives in Cbaldea. Tbe Chebar is about 200 miles south of Ur the birthplace of Abraham, and is still less distant from Haran : Car- chemish, where Nebuchadnezzar defeated Pharaoh, was situated at the confluence of this river with the Euphrates ; Palmyra or Tadmor lay about 120 miles to the south- west of it ; and Tiph- sah (Thapsacus), the extreme northern point of Solomon's do- minions, was about 100 miles further up tbe Euphrates. Although tbe river of Gozan, to whose banks the ten tribes were carried captive, is considerably to the east of the Chebar, the chosen people were thus once more united in a foreign land.' We shall see presently that another Joseph was raised up to protect and deliver the unhappy exiles. Two parties existed among them at the beginning of their captivity ; one followed the false pro- phets who had caused the niin of the nation, another was faithful to God. Psalm cxxxvii., " By the rivers of Babel, there we sat down, yea, we wept when we remembered Zion," expresses the feelings of the latter ; the vindictive and unfaith- ful conduct of the former is seen in their correspondence with the princes of Judab, given in the book of Jeremiah.^ For seve- ral years tbe captive Hebrews could not be persuaded that their exile would be of long continuance ; tbe false prophets encour- aged this idea, but Jeremiah told them " to build bouses and plant vineyards," for it would last seventy years. Ezekiel pro- phesied among ^bem, and was regarded with much respect by some of tbe elders. 189. Daniel and bis companions were the only captives, be- sides Ezekiel, who stood prominently out in tbe history of this 1 Herwe jtrobably Ezekiel speaks of Israd. n/)t Judah ,- ellcrs of Itrael, and jninces of hi'oii - Jer. xxix. DANIEL. 153 period. The book of Daniel, in which their misfortunes and advancement are related, does not contain a history of the Jews during the captivity in Babylon : it gives only an account of the means employed by God to mitigate the hardships of their con- dition, and at last work out their deliverance. Jeremiah and Ezekiel relate what took place among their enslaved and cap- tive countrymen in Judali and Baylon ; Daniel confines himself to the doings and purposes of the Chaldean court. The life of Daniel, in its general outline, presents a remarkable parallel to that of Joseph. Both were carried captive in early youth to a foreign land, before the rest of their countrymen settled there. Jehovah raised them up to protect and deliver their nation, and advanced th^m to the highest offices among strangers. Both owed their elevation to the interpretation of a dream, and it is singular that Daniel, as well as Joseph, exercised this much- coveted gift, long before the event which first brought him into general notice. In short, Daniel rendered the same services to his countrymen towards the close of the national history that Joseph did at its commencement. 190. Daniel belonged to the royal family of Judah, and was taken to Babylon about twenty years before the sack of Jeru- salem, and the burning of the temple by the Chaldeans. Nebu- chadnezzar was then king of Babylon along with his father Nabopolassar, whose advanced age and feeble health rendered him unable to lead its armies. The beginning of Nebuchad- nezzar's reign may thus date from the time when he began to reign along with his father, or when he began to reign alone. In Dan. i. 1, he appears as reigning along with his father ; in ii. 1, the "second year" dates from his father's death. There is thus no difficulty in explaining how Daniel could have been taken prisoner by Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, have spent three years in studying the Chaldean language and learning, been honoured with an audience of the king for the first time at the end of that period, and yet advanced to the highest office of the state in the second year of Nebuchadnezzar's reign. A number of other captives, probably from different countries, re- 154 THE CAPTIVITY. ceived the same education as Daniel and his three friends, Shadrach, Meshech, and Abednego ; hut these four excelled them all in knowledge and appearance. — (Dan. i.) 191. The event which brought Daniel into notice is fully narrated in Dan. ii. ; he recalled to the king's memory and interpreted a forgotten dream. Nebuchadnezzar had seen a large figure with a head of gold representing himself, a breast of silver denoting the Medo-Persian kingdom, thighs of brass or the Grecian power, and legs of iron or the Eoman empire.^ A stone cut out of a mountain, without the help of man, and re- presenting the kingdom of heaven, struck down the figure, and grew until it filled the whole earth. Each of the four kingdoms destroyed its predecessor, but the image remained entire not- withstanding : it represented the world ; the stone, the Church. The real opposition, therefore, was between the stone and the image, — not between the head and breast, or the thighs and legs of the figure. Persia destroyed Babylon ; Greece, Persia ; and Eome, Greece ; but these successive overthrows of empires were not represented by three successive removals of corresponding parts of the image. The worldly spirit was the same in all these monarchies, and the kingdom overthrown was incorporated with its successor. Hence the image continued entire, until destroyed by the kingdom of Christ. Another remarkable circumstance is, that the Persian power is called inferior to that of Nebuchad- nezzar. Perhaps the empire of Persia M^as more extensive than that of Babylon, though traditions exist to the contrary ; but its soldiers were inferior in courage, and its statesmen in prudence to those of Nebuchadnezzar.^ Daniel was highly honoured for his skill in interpreting the dream ; (1.) The king 1 The following story from Herodotus also shows the importance attached to the dreams of eastern princes : " When Xerxes was thus eager to invade Greece, he had a vision one night which the Magi interpreted to mean that he would subdue the whole world. It was this : Xerxes thought himst-lf crowned with an olive wreath, from which brandies shot out till they covered all the earth, and then the crown on his head disappeared. The eflFect of the Magi's interpretation upon the assembled nobles was that each immediately repaired to hi.4 government, eager lo raise his division of the anny destined for this glorious undertaking," (vii. 19.) 2 Nebuchadnezzar, but not his successors. Jer. xli.x. 30, 34 ; Ezek xxxii. 11, 24. FAITH OF DANIEL AND HIS THREE FRIENDS. 155 worshipped him, and ordered an oblation to be offered in his honour; and (2.) He made him chief of the magicians and governor of the province of Babylon, if not prime minister of the empire. Some are surprised that Daniel does not say he refused the worship, the incense, and the oblation ; and others suppose that they were ordinary marks of respect at court. However they may have been regarded by a Chaldean, they were ido- latrous worship in the eyes of Daniel and his countrymen.^ It is not said that Daniel declined these honours, because his cha- racter for piety was too well known to allow the supposition that he would accept them. Every intelligent reader of his life feels at once that he would point out the error to the king ; it is not said that he did, because he supposes his readers possessed of piety and good sense themselves. — (Dan. ii.) 192. The first use which Daniel made of his influence with the king, was to procure the advancement of his three friends to high offices in the State. The envy and hatred of Nebuchad- nezzar's captains were stirred up in consequence : all their services were forgotten ; and four Jewish slaves were raised to higher positions in the kingdom. Daniel was too firmly seated in the royal favour to be immediately attacked ; but his three •friends were men of inferior standing, and a plot was formed to ruin them. The king was manifestly proud of being represented by gold in the image of his dream : it was the most precious of all metals ; and the courtiers would soon perceive that allusions to it were not unacceptable to the monarch. When, therefore, they proposed to erect a golden image, representing probably Nebuchadnezzar himself or his empire, and that all persons in authority should worship it, the vanity of the tyrant eagerly caught at the idea. The three Hebrews absented themselves from the ceremonial : the Chaldean officers informed against them, and they were committed to the flames. The conspirators were proud of their success, and probably began to plot the ruin of Daniel : but Jehovah delivered his faithful witnesses ; and a striking dis- 1 Joiephus says, " He saluted Daniel in the manner that, men worship God, and gave command that he should be s-acrified to as a god." — Antiq. x. 10. 156 THE CAPTIVITY. play of the Divine power and presence taught the tyrant the folly and wickedness of his conduct.^ — (Dan. iii.) 193. The next event recorded by Daniel took place towards the close of Nebuchadnezzar's reign. God punished the pride and cruelty of that monarch by driving him, in a state of in- sanity, from his throne to herd with the beasts of the field. Seven years elapsed before he recovered, when he issued a de- cree, recounting the cause of his madness, the warning he had received from Daniel, and his submission to the will of Heaven. The decree consists of three parts: (1.) The preamble, and the king's account of his alarming dream (Dan. iv. 1-19) ; (2.) Daniel's narrative containing the interpretation and fulfilment of the dream (20-33) ; and (3.) the king's thankfulness to God for the recovery of his reason (34-37). In the second chapter of the book of Daniel, where the first dream is recorded, every reader will be struck with the courtliness of Daniel's langitage. He is evidently a man accustomed to king's palaces, and can frame his language to suit royal ears. In this decree, however, his faithfulness in rebuking sin is not less conspicuous than his courtly bearing — " Break off thy sins by righteousness, and thine iniquities by showing mercy to the poor." — (Dan. iv.) 194. The iniquities of which Nebuchadnezzar was guilty were probably connected with the vast public works, on wdiich he employed thousands of his miserable prisoners and subjects. Babylon was founded many ages before his birth ; but the walls, temples, palaces, streets and embankments, with which he strengthened and enlarged it, justified him in asking, as if he had laid the foundations of the city, " Is not this great Babylon that I have built?" Ancient historians relate that when this empire was at its greatest splendour, the brick walls were 87 feet thick, and 350 feet high, and formed a square of fifteen miles to the side. A deep and broad ditch in front, filled with water from the Euphrates, rendered it impossible to batter the ' Tho exaltrition of the four Hebrews, and the setting up of the golden imago, are sepa- rated by an interval of sixteen years in the Septuagint version. Pr<.ibably not as many iiiOQtbB elapsed. BABYLON. 157 walls, or apply scaling ladders ; and a hundred massive gates of brass^ defended the approaches to the city. Spacious streets, connecting opposite gates, and intersecting each other at right angles, divided the area within the walls into 676 squares ; but the whole of it was not covered with houses. Many squares were laid out in gardens and fields, which were found of service when Babylon was besieged. The Euphrates ran through the city from north to south, and was ultimately spanned by a bridge nearly 700 feet long, and 30 broad. The new palace stood at the western end of this bridge, in the part of the city added by Nebuchadnezzar; the old palace and the famous temple of Belus were at its eastern end. The engineering operations of Nebu- chadnezzar even surpassed these splendid military and architec- tural works. To preserve the banks of the river within the town against the floods of summer, he raised brick walls of enormous thickness to a great height from the bed of the stream, and constructed stairs at short distances, which led down to the water, and furnished landing-places for ferry-boats between the opposite sides. Strong gates at the head of each staircase pre- vented access from the river to the city, except at the pleasure of the guard : they were usually open by day, but always shut at night. While these embankments were building, the course of the stream was changed. An immense lake, perhaps forty miles square, and of great depth, was dug in the country to the west of Babylon, and received for a time the waters of the Euphrates.^ Nebuchadnezzar also endeavoured to prevent the inundations which annually devastated the neighbourhood of Babylon. For that purpose two canals, connecting the Euphrates with the Tigris, were dug about sixty miles to the north of the city : one of them could be navigated by vessels of considerable burden, and was therefore called the Kings river. The lake already mentioned was also ultimately used for this purpose. Besides these works, Nebuchadnezzar enlarged the temple of Belus, and built the hanging gardens for which Babylon was celebrated in 1 Isa. xlv. 2. - Probably only part of them ; the bed of the river did not require to be quite d.-y. 158 THE CAPTIVITY. ancient times. These were terraces of great height and strength, on which the tallest trees, and all kinds of shrubs and flowers were planted, to console his Median queen for the want of hill- scenery in her adopted land. Much unrighteousness and cruelty must have been exercised in the construction of these numerous works ;^ for thousands of unfortunate persons have always fallen victims to the military and engineering operations of eastern des- pots. According to the account of Habakkuk, Nebuchadnezzar " set his nest on high, by cutting off many people." The same prophet declared that he "built a town with blood, and stab- lished a city by iniquity." Such were his oppressions and vio- lence, that " the stone should cry out of the wall, and the beam out of the timber should answer it." 195. The overthrow of the Babylonian monarchy is the next event related by Daniel. Belshazzar, a descendant of Nebuchad- nezzar, for father often means ancestor in Scripture, was then on the throne. This weak and dissolute prince, instead of op- posing the advance of a Medo-Persian army under Cyrus, shut himself up in Babylon, where impregnable walls and provisions for many years bade defiance to the enemy. His subjects were slaves to luxury and drunkenness, especially during religious festivals ; but so secure did they deem the city, that the presence of a hostile army before its walls produced no change on their careless revelry at these seasons. Belshazzar, surrounded by his wives and nobles, and drinking wine out of the golden vessels brought from Solomon's temple, was celebrating one of these feasts, when the hand appeared writing on the wall. None could read the words. The news spread through the extensive palace, and the queen-dowager,'-^ whose prudence had made her second ruler in the kingdom, advised that Daniel should be summoned. Many years had elapsed since Nebuchadnezzar's death, and it is not likely that his godless successors would pay much respect to the Hebrew captive. He was engaged in business of state, but ' Especially if Josephu;^D PROPHETICAL BOOKS OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. Israel. Its three transgressions and four, that is, its innumerable sins in breaking the law of God, are set down, intermingled with vivid descriptions of the miseries that had recently prostrated the unhappy country (iii.-vi.) Several symbolical visions, on which Amaziah, priest of Bethel, founded a charge of treason against Amos, are next related, prefiguring the judgments in store for Israel (vii.-ix. 10). Wrath, however, is tempered with mercy, " in that day will I raise up the tabernacle of David that is fallen." A sifting of the true from the false Israel shall take place, and the righteous " shall no more be pulled up out of their land." A number of peculiar phrases are found in this book. "The flood of EoJPtj" referring to the overflow of the Nile; "the high places of Isaac," and "the house of Isaac," where Jacob or Israel might have been expected ; "the excellency of Jacob," for God; and "cleanness of teeth," for famine. By " the temple" in (viii. 3), is probably to be understood the heathen temple at Bethel. BOOK OF OBADIAII ABOUT 588 B.C. 248. Scripture has not furnished us with any information regarding the personal history of Obadiah ; but it may be in- ferred from verse 20, that he lived while the Chaldeans were masters of Judah, if not, indeed, after the burning of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar. His predictions contain threatenings against Edom, and promises to Judah ; the terrible day of God's wratli in the one case, the day of His goodness in the other. Neither the wise men of Edom, nor their apparently inaccessible retreats among the defiles and fastnesses of Mount Seir, should deliver that country from the fury of Nebuchadnezzar. Its people had cruelly treated their Jewish brethren, " when foreigners entered the gates and cast lots upon Jerusalem ;" and this crime could not pass unpunished ; but promises of deliverance and holiness were held out to down-trodden and sinful Zion, when the king- dom of the Lord should be set up on earth. Nebuchadnezzar overran Edom in 583 b.c. Several passages in the writings of Jeremiah con'cspond very closely ^nth some parts of the Book of Obadiah. Thus, Jor. xHx. 7-10, and Obad. 6, 8 ; MISSION OF JONAH TO NINEVEH. 207 Jer. xlix. 14-16, and Obad. 1-4, contain not only the same sentiments, but even the same words. It is impossible to determine, however, which of these two prophets quoted from the other. BOOK OF JONAH. 249. Jonah, the son of Aruittai, and a native of Gath-hepher in Zebulon, appears to have succeeded Elisha in the prophetical office. He foretold the success of Jeroboam II. in delivering the Ten Tribes from the oppression of the Syrians, and probably flou- rished during the reign of that king. He was also sent to threaten the people of Nineveh with speedy punishment for their sins ; and the book which bears his name contains an account of that mission. It begins abruptly with " Now (and) the word of the Lord came unto Jonah," as if it were part of a larger work ; but Ezekiel begins his prophecies in a somewhat similar manner, " Now it came to pass," and this was an ordinary introduction with Hebrew authors. Whether or not Jonah wrote the book himself is uncertain : he is spoken of in the third person, but that is not sufficient to disprove his title to the authorship. 250. When told to go to Nineveh and proclaim its impending destruction, Jonah suspected that the threatening would not be carried into effect; for he spoke from experience and history when he said, " Thou art a gracious God, . . . and repentest thee of the evil." He fled to Joppa, and paid his fare in a ship bound for Tarshish. A storm arose, and the ship was in such danger that the cargo was thrown overboard, and each man cried in terror to his god. Jonah, wearied with his rapid flight, remained fast asleep, unconscious of danger till the master awoke him and discovered that his sin had caused the storm. At his own request the sailors reluctantly threw the prophet into the sea, where a great fish swallowed him alive. He remained three days and three nights in its belly, a type of our Lord's sojourn in the grave. His prayer in that dismal place shows us, that it was usual with prophets among the Ten Tribes to pray with their faces toward the temple in Jerusalem, and to pay vows or offer sacrifices there. God at last delivered him, and he then 208 POETICAL AND PROPHETICAL BOOKS OF THE OLD TESTAMENl. went to Nineveh. The walls of that city were sixty miles in circuit, and the prophet would thus take three days to pass along the street immediately within them. As he journeyed on, he cried, " Forty days and Nineveh shall be destroyed." The Medes had thrown off their allegiance, and probably several of the battles which preceded the overthrow of the Assyrian empire at this time, had been already fought. The king, who may have been Sardanapalus, his nobles and people, were seized with terror when they heard the threatenings of the Hebrew stranger. A fast was proclaimed, and God's wrath was averted for a time from the city. Jonah expected to see his prediction fulfilled, and manifested great peevishness when informed that the doom of the city was delayed. It should cause no surprise that a stranger produced this effect on the people of Nineveh : he was at once recognised as a Hebrew, and neighbouring nations were not ignorant of the power of Jehovah, or of the greatness of His prophets. Besides, a Christian has been known to frighten a Mussulman town to repentance, by predicting an earthquake or a plague. 251. The book of Jonah is usually regarded as the most ancient prophetical writing that has reached our days. This must be understood in accordance with modern notions of pro- phecy ; for Moses and David were most distinguished prophets ; and the letter of Elijah to Jehoram is contained in the historical books. 252. The mission of Jonah is important in several respects. It was the second recorded visit of a Hebrew prophet in his official capacity to a foreign state, and exhibits Jehovah as the Judge of all the earth, punishing iniquity, and fixing the boun- daries and power of nations at His pleasure. But this book also shows us that the nature of God must not be judged of by the character of His servants ; for Jonah's low ideas of the Almighty's presence, and his selfish grumbling at God's mercy towards re- pentant sinners, tench us that the " treasure is in earthen vessels." Although the Old Testament contains many proofs of God's strictness in punishing iniquity, it was taught in the law, and BOOKS OF MICAH AND NAHUM. 209 shown by facts that He is a God of raercy to the penitent and Lelievin"-. BOOK OF MIC AH 758-699 B.C. 253. Micah flourished during the reigns of Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah. He is called " the Morasthite," from Moresheth- Gath, his birthplace. One of his predictions (iii. 12) saved the life of Jeremiah more than a century after it was delivered.^ The effect of his discourses on the court and people is incidentally noticed in connexion with that event : Hezekiah *' feared the Lord, and besought the Lord, and the Lord repented him of the evil which he had pronounced against them." Isaiah ii. 1-4, and Micah iv. 1-3, contain not only the same sentiment, but also the same words. The prophecies of Micah may be divided into three parts : (I.) The wickedness of Judah is described and re- proved (i.-iii.) ; (II.) The establishment of Christ's kingdom and the overthrow of worldly powers, like Assyria, are foretold (iv. V.) ; and (III.) The forbearance and mercy of Jehovah are contrasted with the ingratitude of Israel (vi. vii.) BOOK OF NAHUM ABOUT 720 B.C. 254. The prophet Nahum was a native of Elkosh in Galilee, and flourished during the reign of Hezekiah, when the Assyrian invaders had plundered Judah, and were threatening to destroy its independence.^ All classes of the community were alarmed at the progress of the enemy ; and the reports which reached Jerusalem of their terrible ravages at No or Thebes, in Egypt, increased the excitement and alarm. Nahum was inspired to encourage his believing countrymen, by assuring them that " the Lord is a stronghold in the day of trouble," and that the time was at hand when men should say, " Nineveh is laid waste." He prophesied about 100 years before the destruction of that great city. The first chapter of Nahum contains a sublime ^ Jer. xxvi. 16-19. - Nah. i. 11-15 ; iii. 8, compared with Isa. xx. O 210 POETICAL AND PROPHETICAL BOOKS OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. description of tlie character and doings of Jehovah, and a solemn exhortation to Judah to persevere in the course of reformation on which she had entered. Zion was afraid of the great king of Assyria ; but the prophet reminds her citizens of a mightier Euler, who will befriend them in the hour of danger. Their Protector does not fight with man's weapons of war ; for the storm, the whirlwind, the sea, earth, and sky, are His servants. The decree was passed against Sennacherib, " I will make thy grave, for thou art vile ;" and the promise was given to Judah, " the wicked one shall no more pass through thee ; he is utterly cut off." In the remainder of the book, Nahum describes, with the vividness of history, the siege of Nineveh by the Chaldeans, under the father of Nebuchadnezzar. The onset of the be- siegers, the rush of their chariots through the streets, the charge of their horsemen, and the heaps of slain raised by their bright swords and glittering spears, the faintheartedness of the defenders, their unwillingness to man the wall, and the mourning of their captive wives and daughters, are drawn with singular skill and accuracy. KOOK OF IIAUAKKUK ABOUT GlO B.C. 255. Habakkuk appears to have flourished in the disastrous period that followed the death of Josiah. He mentions only the ])abylonian power ; represents their conquest of Palestine as at hand;^ and even describes the public works, or the labours in " thick clay," as they are called, and the insanity of Nebuchad- nezzar. Assyria was manifestly no longer formidable. The Jews suppose tliat he continued to live in Judah after the over- throw of the monarchy ; but on this point we have no certain information. Of the three chapters into which his writings are divided, the first describes, with great force and sublimity, the wickedness, and predicts the punishment of Jerusalem by the Holy One ; the second contains the pride, violence, and doom of Xe})uchadnpzzar ; and the third, in the form of a prayer-song, 1 Ilnb. i. 5. 6. *' THE DxYY OF THE LOIJd" HABAKKUK AND ZEPHANIAH. 211 narrates the wonders wrought by God in past ages, and breatlies a spirit of confidence in Him, although war and famine may lay waste the land. These predictions are remarkable for two brief statements made by the prophet. In contrast with the proud and 'ungodly King of Babylon, he holds up the character of the believer, " the just shalt live by his faith." The conqueror had spoiled many nations, and tilled all places with blood, violence, and unrighteousness ; but in the day of the Lord, " the earth shall be filled with the knowledge of the glory of the Lord, as the waters cover the sea." Quoted in Rom. i. 17 ; Gal. iii. 11 ; Acts xiii. 41 ; Heb. x. 37, 38 : quotes Isa. xiv. 4, in ii. 6 ; xi 9, in ii. 14 ■ and Ps. xviii. 33 in iii. 19. BOOK OF ZEPHANIAH — G4U-6'23 B.C. 256. Zephaniah prophesied in the beginning of the reign of Josiah, and was contemporary with Jeremiah. He foretold events which should happen in " the day of the Lord ;" some at hr.nd, others distant. Like the other prophets, he considers that day under two aspects : (1.) " A day of wrath, a day of trouble and distress, ... a day of clouds and thick darkness;"* and (2.) A day of peace and happiness ; " in that day . . . Jehovah will rejoice over Zion with joy, . . . and make her a name and a praise among all people of the earth. "^ 257. (1.) Zephaniah first describes the effects of Clod's wrath (i. ii.) He represents Jehovah celebrating a sacrifice in Jeru- salem, and bidding his guests to the feast : the utter destruc- tion of all things from off the land by the Chaldean invaders is^ the sacrifice ; the plunder of the city, the feast. But the cup is also passed round to other nations : the cities of the Philistines shall be overthrown ; Moab and Ammon, which reproached the chosen people and invaded their border, shall become " the breeding of nettles, and salt pits, and a perpetual desolation ;" Ethiopia also shall fall by the sw^ord, and within a few years Nineveh shall become " a place for beasts to lie down in." The 3 Zeph. i 15. 2 iii. 16-20. 212 POETICAL AND PROPHETICAL BOOKS OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. last-mentioned prophecy must have been delivered before 623 B.C. (or 606 B.C.), the year in which Nineveh was taken. 258. (2.) The prophet next describes the effects of God's mercy (iii.) No promises of restoration and renewed glory are made to Gaza, Nineveh, and other cities ; but " be glad and rejoice with all the heart, daughter of Jerusalem." Her princes, prophets, and people have been treacherous and vile ; but in the gathering of the nations, and in the pouring out on them of God's anger, the remnant of Israel shall not see evil any more. The citizens of Zion shall again celebrate the praises of Jehovah in every land. BOOK OF HAGGAI — 520 B.C. 259. The predictions of Haggai differ from those of other prophets in the singular precision with which the date of each is given. He was raised up by God to encourage the Jews in building the second temple, and delivered his predictions in the year 520 B.C., but nothing farther is known concerning him. Blasting, mildew, and hail had destroyed the labours of the hus- bandman ; drought had fallen upon the pastures and fields ; and all classes of the community were suffering from these visitations. Haggai showed his countrymen why they were sent, and how they might be removed. In his first prophecy, he told the people that God was angry, because they had laboured earnestly in building or beautifying their own houses, but had entirely neglected the temple. On the twenty-third day after, the princes and people again began to build God's house ; and twenty-six days elapsed before another message came from God. The people were dis- couraged by the mean appearance of the temple, but the prt)- phet foretold that it should be more glorious than the Temple of Solomon ; '' The desire of all nations shall come, and I will fill this house with glory, saith the Lord." Two months after this prediction, Haggai declared that though Jehovah regarded the Jews and their work as unclean, He would take away his anger and restore to them some measure of prosperity, in approval of VISIONS OF ZECHARIAH. 213 the readiness with which they listened to his voice. Zerubbabel was at the same time assured, that in the day of the Lord he should be honoured as the signet-ring of the King of kings. BOOK OF ZECHARIAH ABOUT 520 B.C. 260. Zechariah, the grandson of Iddo, was probably a mem- ber of the priestly order ;^ he began to prophesy in the second year of the reign of Darius, and was commissioned to encourage his countrymen to proceed with the erection of the temple, to quicken their zeal for the true religion, and to cheer their hearts by predicting the glories of Messiah's reign. He is called a young man ; but that phrase was frequently applied to men in middle life, and we cannot infer from it the age of the prophet when he entered on his office. The book of Zechariah resembles that of Isaiah in respect of matter, and those of Ezekiel and Daniel in respect of imagery. None of the other prophets, except Isaiah, contain so many allusions to the coming and work of Christ ; and the writings of Ezekiel and Daniel best furnish a parallel to the horses and chariots, carpenters, spiritual beings, and flying roll seen in vision by Zechariah. The book may be thus divided : — I. The introduction (i. 1-6), containing an exhortation to his countrymen to turn from their evil doings. II. A series of visions (i. 7-vi. 15), illustrating the fallen condition of Judah, the certainty of her restoration, the punish- ment of her enemies, and the work of the Saviour. The visions were as follows : — (1.) A man was seen sitting on a roan horse among myrtle-trees, with white, bay, and roan horses behind him. The horses, or jierhaps the riders upon them, infonned the man, in the hearing of Zechariah, that tlie whole earth was at rest, as if the time were favourable for showing mercy to Jeru- salem. (2.) Four horns, representing four great powers, were next seen ; they had scattered the chosen people, but four carpenters appeared to build up what they had thrown down. 1 Neh. xii. 4. 214 POETICAL AND PROPHETICAL BOOKS OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. (o.) In the third vision, a man with a measuring line proceeded to mea- sure Jerusalem ; but the prophet was informed that in future ages Zion should be " spread out as the four winds of heaven," and that God " should choose Jerusalem again, . . . and be unto her a wall of fire round about." (•4.) In the fourth vision, Joshua, the high priest, was seen standing before the angel of the Lord with Satan at hand to accuse him. Through the power of the angel of the Lord, the Branch out of the root of Jesse, Joshua was stripped of the filthy garments in which he was clothed, washed from his iniquities, and assured that luiiversal happiness should prevail on earth " in the day of the Lord." (5.) A golden candlestick, supplied with oil from two olive-trees, one on each side, was next seen ; and the prophet was informed that it represented the restoration of the civil and ecclesiastical Jewish state, through the agency of Joshua and Zerubbabel. (6.) In the sixth vision, a flying roll was seen going forth, denouncing curses against the thief and the perjurer. (7.) An ephah, or, as we would say, a bushel, with a woman sitting in it, was next seen by the prophet. A leaden weight thrown on the mouth of the measure pressed down the woman into it, when other ten women with stork's wings carried the ephah through the air to Babylon. The woman in the ephah was Wickedness ; and the vision showed that idolatry, if found among the Hebrews at all, should be sought for in the land of Shinar, not Judea. (8.) In the last vision, four chariots, drawn by roan, white, spotted, and hay horses, were seen issuing from between two copper mountains. They represented the judgments of God, which should sweep over all the earth from his holy habitation in Mount Zion. III. The third part of the book (vii. viii.) contains a num- ber of discourses delivered in the fourth year of Darius, in which Zechariah assured his countrymen that the fasts observed in com- memoration of the capture and burning of Jerusalem' should be turned into seasons of joy and gladness. A great reformation of manners would precede this important change. IV. The fourth part (ix.-xiv.) contains the usual prophetic description of the day of the Lord, as a day of terror and a day of peace. Zechariah predicted that Messiah should tlien appear, "just and having salvation, . . . lowly and riding upon an ass, . . . prised at thirty pieces of silver, ... a fountain for sin and uncleanness, . . . wounded in the house of his friends, . . . the man that is the fellow of Jehovah." At the same time the ' See Jewish Kalcndar i:i the Appendix. MALACHI. 215 nations of the earth should be overtlirown hy this great king, especially Hadrach or Persia, Syria, Tyre, and the Philistines. In this section there is an allusion to the conquests of Alexander, and the deliverance of Jerusalem from his fury (ix. 12.-17). 261. It has been supposed that the last part of this book was written by Jeremiah ; because Matthew in his Gospel (xxvii. 9, 10) ascribes the prophecy in Zech. xi. 10-14 to Jeremiah; but the best commentators are of opinion that this idea is not supported by sufficient evidence. No one denies that there is a difficulty in explaining v/hy Matthew should ascribe the predic- tion to Jeremiah. Several critics imagine, what is very pro- bable, that the word Zechariah in Matthew's Gospel was changed into Jeremiah by a mistake of some ancient copyist ; but it may be possible to solve the difficulty by less violent means. BOOK OF MALACHI ABOUT 420 B.C. 262. The word Malachi means my messenger ; but it may be a contraction for Malachiah, angel of Jehovah. Several critics have doubted whether it is a proper name or an appellative taken from Mai. iii. 1, " I will send my messenger," /.e., Malachi ; but it seems safer to regard the word as the name of the writer of the book. Many of the sins condemned by this prophet are the same as those that prevailed in the interval between tlie two administrations of ISTehemiah ; and it is supposed that he flourished at that time. In the introduction to the book (i. 1-5), the prophet calls attention to the difference between God's treat- ment of Esau and Jacob ; the former was down-trodden, and yet anxious to rebuild his ruined cities ; the latter was restored to his native land by the mercy of God, but careless whether true religion were established again or not. In the next part of the book (i. 6-ii. 10) the people are reproved for despising the law and counting God's service a weariness ; and the priests are condemned for " departing out of the way and causing many to stumble at the law." How different shall be the state of things in the" day of the Lord, when " in every place incense and 21() POETICAL AND PROPHETICAL HOOKS OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. a pure offering" shall be offered to God ! The third part of the book (ii. 11-iv. 6), besides describing the immorality iind idolatry of the times, warns men of the approaching day of the Lord, " which shall burn as an oven . . . and be like a refiner's fire, and like fuller's soap." Malachi predicted that all who refused to pay tithes and offerings, who oppressed the poor and fatherless, or otherwise broke the law, should then be summoned to judgment ; and that Elijah should appear before that day as the herald of the King Messiah, and of the curse with which Judea should then be smitten. For chronological tables of events in profane liistorv, and for a history of the Jews, from the time of Nehemiah to the birtli of Christ, the reader is referred to the Appendix. NEW TESTAMENT. CHAPTER XII. THE FOUR GOSPELS. 263. When our Lord left this eartb, His followers were natu- rally anxious to keep in remembrance tbe wonderful sermons which He delivered, and the miracles which He wrought. No one during His lifetime had committed the former to writing, or preserved a record of the latter. Our Lord himself had spoken from the hill-top or the sea-shore, surrounded by the lilies, the corn, and the birds, which usually furnished the texts of His discourses ; and His miracles had been wrought, not to be re- corded for the astonishment of after ages, but to reward the faith and draw forth the love of believers. It was not meet that these sayings and doings should be forgotten. Many persons under- took to record them ; but most of the books then written have perished. Four only, drawn up by men set apart for that great work by God himself, have been carefully preserved in the Church of Christ, and handed down from age to age as faithful memo- rials of the Saviour's life. Although treating of the same sub- ject, they differ from each other to some extent in aim, in matter, and in style. First^ It appears from the contents of these books that one of them was written specially for Jewish readers, and the others more particularly for Gentiles. Matthew traces the descent of Christ from Abraham : he speaks of Herod, not as ruler of Palestine, the title by which a Greek or Roman might have known him, but as " Herod the king." In his Gospel, 218 THE FOUR GOSPELS. "John the Baptist" is introduced at once as a person with whose name readers of the book would be familiar. Twelve apostles, corresponding to the number of the Hebrew tribes, are sent out : the lost sheep of the house of Israel are mentioned as special objects of the Saviour's care ; and when any allusions are made to the manners and customs of the Jews, no explanation is given. It is evident from these circumstances, that the apostle is writing to Jews familiar with the people and history of Pales- tine. Not so Luke. In his book Herod is " the King of Judea ; " the lineage of Christ is traced back to Adam, the father of the human race ; the birth and early life of John the Baptist are minutely related ; Gentiles are spoken of in more favourable terms than Jews ; seventy disciples, not twelve apostles only, preached Christ among men ; the parables of the Good Samaritan and the Prodigal Son, recorded by Luke only, were manifestly intended as a reproof to Jewish pride, and an encouragement to Gentile converts ; and m^mners and customs, of which strangers to Palestine might be supposed ignorant, are explained. It is evident, therefore, that Luke wrote his Gospel mainly for the instruction and encouragement of Gentile believers. So strongly marked are these features of the books of Matthew and Luke, that believers in early times supposed the former to have been originally written in Hebrew for the use of Jews alone ; and the latter to have been more the work of Paul, the great apostle of the Gentiles, than of his attendant Luke, whose name it bears. But, further, Mark carefully explains defiled hands in Jewish phraseology by iinwashen hands ; and defines the pre- paration as the day before the Sabbath. John also mentions the water-pots at Cana, .with the remark, " after the manner of the purifying of the Jews;" he gives a somewhat minute de- scription of Bethesda in Jerusalem, — draws the attention of his readers to the identity of the sea of Galilee with the sea of Tiberias, and calls the passover " a feast of the Jews," All these things prove, that IMark and John wrote for Gentiles more than Jews. 264. Second^ The differences of style among the evangelists are not less striking. ^lark calls up before the minds of his readers DIFFERENCES IN STYLE AND MATTER. 219 a vivid picture of the scenes of our Lord's preaching or miracles ; Matthew seldom gives prominence to these outward relations. The young ruler, according to Matthew, " came and said unto Jesus, Good Master, what good thing shall I do that I may have eternal life?" but, according to Mark, " when he was gone forth into the way, there came one running, and kneeled to him, and asked him," &c. The picture drawn by the latter in this and other cases is so vivid, that we see the events taking place before our eyes, and hear the speakers making their remarks, as if we were mingling in the crowd. The simplicity of John's language admirably suits the greatness and depth of the sentiments his book contains : the series of pictures that he presents to the reader's mind, makes a deeper impression from the homely lan- guage in which they are conveyed. 265. Thirds There are marked differences among the evange- lists in the aspects under which principally they regard our Lord's person and work. In Matthew's Gospel, the Saviour is viewed chiefly as the promised Messiah and Deliverer, whom the Jewish people had been eagerly expecting for two thousand years. He is described, in accordance with ancient prophecy, as the " man of sorrows," bowed down by the guilt of others, and bearing the griefs and diseases of men ; prophecy appears fulfilled ; the longing hopes of thousands are realized ; and once more a Jewish King sways the sceptre, not of Judah only, but of the whole earth. In John, on the other hand, the amazing abasement of Christ is contrasted with His equally amazing greatness : He is the Son of God, the Sent of the Father, the Witness of heavenly truth ; in short, God himself; but, at the same time, He thirsts and hungers by the well of Samaria, He weeps in bitterness of heart at Bethany, He is railed on in the streets as a madman, less esteemed than a well-known murderer, and handed over as a prisoner to the mockery and brutality of His own creatures. The contrast between the greatness of His Godhead, and the depths of sorrow and shame to which His manhood was lowered, shines forth in every chapter of this Gospel : He appears as God, the maker and upholder of all things ; and yet He lives and dies 220 THE FOUR GOSPELS. a lowly, injured, and suffering man. The Gospels of Mark and Luke do not represent Christ iu the same detail as descending so low, or raised so high. In Luke, He is held forth as the friend of all men ; not a Messiah to save the Jew, but a Messiah in whom the ancient promise was fulfilled, that all nations should be blessed in the seed of Abraham. In Mark, His authority over the unseen world of spirits. His manhood, and sympathy with man, are most apparent : this evangelist has recorded the works more than the discourses of Christ. Looking at the four Gospels together, it is evident that John contrasts the greatness of God with the lowliness of man in Christ ; Luke represents Him as the promised Deliverer, who should bruise the head of the ser- pent, and free men of all nations from the first curse ; Matthew limits his view of Christ to the Shiloh of Judah, whom age after age had longed for in vain ; and Mark, descending still lower, brings prominently out the links which bind Christ to His people as a man. In all of them He appears from both word and deed as God-man ; but a character so greatly above our thoughts could not be fully exhausted from a single point of view, or by one writer. All four, surveying their Master from different sides, required to contribute before an accurate estimate of His nature and being could be made. Writers in the early Christian Church symbolized the four evangelists by the four faces of the cherubim seen in Ezekiel's vision. To Matthew they assigned the face of the lion ; to Mark that of the man ; to Luke that of the ox ; and to John that of the eagle. 266. The four histories, in which the miracles and teaching of the Saviour are recorded, are called Gospels, from two Saxon words signifying good and tidings: a Greek word similarly formed, is used to denote tlie writers of these books, evangelist^ or preacher of good tidings. Gospel is used in the New Testament to express the whole doctrine of salvation through Christ, or the " glad tidings of great joy to all people," predicted by the prophets. Matthew calls this body of doctrine the gospel of the kingdom ; Mark the gospel of Christ, but generally the gospel ; and Paul the gospel of God, the everlasting gospel, the gospel of salvation, MATTHEW THE PUBLICANS. 221 the gospel of peace. " The afflictions of the gospel," " the bonds of the gospel," " to live by the gospel," are phrases found in the Epistles of Paul. The gospel is also called in Scripture the tes- timony of Christ, because He witnesses or testifies to the faith- fulness of God in keeping the promises made to the ancient Church. Evangelists, in the time of the apostles, were perhaps those who went on special missions from place to place, preach- ing the word or founding churches : Philip the deacon, and Timothy, were evangelists. The word "apostle" (messenger) has sometimes the same meaning as evangelist : thus Barnabas and Paul, when sent forth on their first missionary journey by the church of Antioch, were called apostles ; and two members of the Koman Church, Andronicus and Junia, were " of note among the apostles." 267. Matthew or Levi, the son of Alpheus, was an inferior collector of taxes at Capernaum ; and, judging from his employ- ment, belonged to the lower ranks of society. He was first called to follow Christ from the receipt of custom in or near Capernaum, about a year after the commencement of our Lord's public ministry : perhaps, like Peter and John, he received a second call some months after. Before leaving his business and friends, he made a great feast in his house, at which his new Master, with many publicans and sinners, were present. He was chosen one of the twelve apostles shortly after, and was present at most of the remarkable events in Christ's subsequent ministry. No trustworthy account of his labours after the death of Jesus has reached our times ; but it is supposed that he spent fifteen years in Jerusalem, and then travelled in Ethiopia and other countries, preaching to his countrymen. Heracleon, who flou- rished about A.D. 150, says, that he was one of those apostles who did not suffer martyrdom. 268. The publicans, of whom mention is often made in Scrip- ture, were persons who paid a certain sum to the state for per- mission to collect the taxes or tolls from merchants, sailors, and others at the seaports or on the highways. Li the Roman empire, these taxes were usually farmed by members of the 222 THE FOUR CK>SPELS. equestrian order, wlio sublet tbem to the publicans mentioned in the New Testament. The former were men of respectability and rank ; the latter were hated by all classes for their extortion and injustice. Cicero describes the equestrian order as the orna- ment and strength of the empire ; but their deputies were classed by the Jews with sinners and harlots, and by the heathen with unscrupulous pirates and avaricious chapmen. It is said that publicans of Jewish extraction were not allowed to enter the temple and synagogues, or give evidence in a court of justice. Their offerings were classed by the priests with the price of prostitution or blood, and therefore refused ; in short, they were more than heathen in the eye of the law : " Let him be unto thee as a heathen man and a publican." Zaccheus was " chief among the publicans," and appears to have been a man of great upright- ness. The general character of the class was very bad ; but history has recorded the names of some honest tax-gatherers. 269. The events and discourses contained in Matthew's Gospel are arranged according to subjects, not years. Instead of giving ill chronological order the miracles, parables, sermons, and con- versations of our Lord, he usually collects each of these under a separate head, without reference to time. Parts of discourses delivered at intervals of a year or two, may thus be found in the same cliapter ; and a number of miracles which were wrought at neither the same place nor the same time, are also set down to- gether. It is not improbable, however, that our Lord sometimes repeated parts of a discourse at different times, and in different places. The plan of writing history adopted by Matthew, was common in ancient times, and was followed to some extent by Mark and Luke. Luke has arranged the events recorded in his Gospel with more regard to chronological order than Matthew ; but John has paid more attention to the order of time than the other three evangelists. 270. Mark, known also by the Hebrew name of John, was the son of IMary, a citizen of Jerusalem, in whose house the disciples used to assemble. He was a nephew of Barnabas, and appears to have been introduced to Paul by that eminent MARK AND LUKE. 223 evangelist. When these two friends set out on a missionary journey through Asia Minor, Mark accompanied them as an assistant ; but, on reaching Pamphylia, he was so disheartened by the difficulties and dangers they encountered, that he left Barnabas and Paul to pursue their travels alone, and returned to Jerusalem. Paul, greatly displeased with this proof of weak- ness, refused to take Mark along with him, when Barnabas afterwards proposed a second missionary tour. The two friends quarrelled about the matter, and took different roads : Mark accompanied Barnabas to Cyprus ; Silas, Paul to Tarsus. The name of Mark does not again occur in history till near the end of Paul's ministry. He was then the friend and assistant of that apostle during his first imprisonment at Eome (61 a. d.), and shortly before the apostle's death (66 a.d.), received from him the commendation, "he is profitable to me for the ministry." Early writers are unanimous in relating, that Mark was the interpreter or secretary of Peter, and that his gospel is an abstract of the discourses delivered by that apostle. Perhaps he is the person alluded to in Peter's epistle, in the words, " Marcus my son." It is also said that he founded the church of Alexandria, and died there. 271. Luke, the friend and companion of Paul, is supposed from the form of his name to have been once a slave ; and, from some parts of his writings, which show remarkable elegance in composition, a man of education. It may be inferred, therefore, that he is the same person whom Paul calls " Luke the beloved physician." The medical art was not popular among the Eomans, and was seldom practised by free-born men. Families of rank educated one or two of their slaves for this profession, and sometimes rewarded their attention or success with freedom. It is supposed that the skill with which Luke describes the dis- eases healed by our Lord, shows an acquaintance with medical subjects, beyond the reach of all except professional men in those days. This evangelist first appears in history as one of Paul's attendants on the way to Macedonia ; and he generally continued to reside with that apostle during the remainder of his 224 THE FOUR GOSPELS. life. Perhaps his Gospel formed the substance of Paul's dis- courses on the life and teaching of the Redeemer ; for he was not an eye-witness of the events it relates. 272. The brief account of the family of John, given in the Gospels, merely informs us that his father Zebedee, with the assistance of his children and some hired labourers, carried on the business of a fisherman in Galilee f- and that his mother, Salome, was one of the faithful women who supplied the wants of Jesus, and stood round bis cross when others for- sook him.^ The families of John and Peter appear to have been partners, at least for a time, in trade f and, as fish from the Sea of Galilee were perhaps reckoned delicacies in the southern parts of Palestine,* business may have led John to that acquaintance with Caiaphas and his servants which he claims in the Gospel. During his visits to Jerusalem and the neigh- bourhood, John heard of the Baptist's preaching ; and, along with one at least of his friends, became his disciple.* But the Baptist only prepared his followers for the coming of a greater teacher than himself, and his most advanced disciples soon left him to follow Christ. John was among the number : he had learned all that the Baptist could teach, when, thirsting for further knowledge, a night spent with Jesus showed him how his desires might be gratified.^ He was one of the chosen three honoured by our Lord with a closer view of His sufferings and glory ; and even among these he stood nearest to Christ.^ After the ascension of the Saviour, he continued generally to reside in Jerusalem, until about a.d. 60, when he withdrew to Ephesus, where he died, and where his tomb was long regarded as a sacred spot. It is probable that he composed his Gospel in the latter city ; but the time when it was written is only matter of conjecture. 1 Mark i. 20. - Mark xv. 40, 41 ; xvi. 1 ; Matt, xxvii .56. •' Luke v. 10. * The waters of the Lake of Gennesaretli "are sweet and very a:.;reenMe for drinking. . . There are several kind-; of fish in it, different both to the taste and to the sight from those elsewhere." — Joseph. ir«r«, iii. x. 7. •■* John i. 35, 41. ''• John i 40. " Matt. xvii. 1-8: xxvi. 37; John xiii. 23 ; xxi. 20. SOURCES OF THE FOUR GOSPELS. 225 273. It has generally been thought that as John's life and writings breathe only the spirit of pure and intense love to Christ, this was the character of the apostle. Wherever real love exists, however, there is always joined to it a strong dislike of anything which opposes the object loved. This was the case with John. No one was so well fitted as he to penetrate into the depths of Christ's person and work, or to estimate the danger of rejecting his oifers ; and wherever he found the greatness of his Master overlooked or despised, his acute sense of the indignity made him feel proportionally in- dignant at the offenders. This is true of the latest notice re- garding him, as well as of the earliest : he wished to inflict summary chastisement on the unbelieving Samaritans in the outset of his ministry, and his latest writings show the vehe- mence with which he spoke of Messiah's enemies, and foretold their final doom.^ 274. On comparing the four Gospels with each other, it will be found that there are several things recorded by all, many re- lated by John only, and a large number given sometimes with slight differences by Matthew, Mark, and Luke. It is generally- allowed that Matthew's Gospel was first written, and John's last ; but opinions differ regarding the order of the other two. Since Matthew, Mark, and Luke contain many actions and discourses of Christ in common, while John differs in a great measure from them all, in the miracles, sermons, and conversa- tions he narrates, it was not unreasonable to suppose that Mark and Luke had borrowed from Matthew, and that John had used none of the other three Gospels in composing his own. There is no reason to doubt the latter part of this supposition : John may have read these Gospels, but it is certain that he gives an independent account of the life and doings of Christ. He appears to have read the histories of Matthew, Mark, and Luke for the very purpose of omitting from his Gospel what they had already fully related. But it is not probable that Mark and Luke borrowed from Matthew, or from each other. Even when 1 Luke ix. 54 ; Mark iii. 17 ; John xii. 6 ; Mark ix. 38 ; 3 John 9, 10; Rev. i. 7. P 22G THE FOUR GOSPELS. the same event is recorded by all three, the words which they use to express peculiarities of thought or action are often differ- ent : if they had borrowed from each other, they would have used the same words in these cases. Besides, the differences that exist between their account of the same event are so numerous and minute, that the idea of borrowing from Matthew or from each other must be at once set aside. The following is a striking instance of this want of agreement in relating the same event : — Matt, xviii. 1, "At the same time came the disciples unto Jesus, saying, AVho is greatest in the kingdom of heaven?" — Mark ix. 33, "Being in the house, he asked them. What was it that ye disputed among yourselves by the way? But they held their peace : for by the way they had disputed among themselves who should be the greatest." — Luke ix. 46, " Then there arose a reasoning among them, which of them should be greatest." It is now usually supposed, that Matthew, Mark, and Luke derived some assistance in writing their Gospels from the oral accounts of Christ's sayings and doings, handed down in the Church by the apostles and others, who attended him during his public ministry. There is as little ground, however, for enter- taining this opinion as the former. We do not know, nor are we likely ever to discover, whether or not these evangelists were indebted to each other, or to friends, for portions of their Gospels ; and, supposing that tliey were, it is really a matter of no conse- quence. The human agents employed in writing the Gospel histories, or in collecting materials for them, may be unknown : the fact is unquestionable that these histories were " given by inspiration of God." 275. The following Table shows the difficulty of determining when or where the Gospels were written : — GOSPBL OP Wri TTKN ACCORDING TO Whebk Writtbn. Owen. Michaelis. Lardner. Matthew, A.l>. 38 A.D .61 A.D. 64. Judea or Jerusalem. Mark, 63 61 64. Home. Luke, 53 63-4 63-4. ( r, recce, Alexandria, ( or Corinth. John, 69 69 68. Ephesus or Asia. CHRONOLOGY OF THE GOSPELS. 227 276. Many attempts have been made to arrange, in strictly chronological order, the events of our Lord's life recorded by the four evangelists ; but it cannot be said that they have been attended with success. Although there is little difficulty in drawing up a table, which shall exhibit at one view all that the Gospel writers say on a given subject, it is a very different matter in general to determine the precise period of our Lord's public ministry to which any discourse or miracle should be referred. Matthew, Mark, and Luke give none but the vaguest dates in the interval between the temptation and the death of Christ ; and they mention only one passover, although, as is known from John's Gospel, three if not four passovers occurred during his public ministry. The transfiguration happened, according to Matthew and Mark, " after six days ;" and, according to Luke, " after eight days," — a mode of reckoning which does not furnish sufficient grounds for tracing the history backwards or forwards from that point of agreement. Matthew connects the events recorded in his Gospel by such formulae as, " after these things," " then," " at that time," "in those days," " the same day," and "after six days." Mark is even less precise; and Luke, though undertaking " to set in order " the events of Christ's life, gives only two numbers which can serve as a basis for a chronological arrangement, — the fifteenth year of Tiberius, and the age of Jesus when he entered on his public ministry. John appears to have paid more attention to dates than the other evangelists ; but, even in his Gospel, the indefinite expres- sion, " after these things," sometimes occurs. Generally, how- ever, he carefully states how many days elapsed between suc- cessive events. If the apostle John had related several of the circumstances found in the other Gospels, — a chronological arrangement of our Lord's discourses and miracles would have been comparatively easy ; but the feeding of the five thousand is perhaps the only event recorded by all the four evangelists be- tween the temptation and the death of Christ. Points of con- tact between the known and the unknown are thus wanting, and a chronological arrangement must therefore be at least un- certain, if not impossible. 228 INTRODUCTION TO OUR LORD's PUBLIC MINISTRY. CHAPTER XIII. INTRODUCTION TO OUR LORD's PUBLIC MINISTRY. Matt. Mark, j Lukb. John. Preface to Luke's Gospel, . , |..1.4 Vision of Zacharias — Jerusalem, 1. 5-25 Vision of Mary — Nazareth, 1. 26-38 Visit of Mary to Elizabeth, 1. 39-56 Birth of John the Baptist, 1. 57-80 Vision of Joseph — Nazareth, . 1. 18-25 Birth of Jesus — Bethlehem, 2. 1-7 Vision of the Shepherds — Beth- lehem, 2. 8-20 Circumcision of Jesus, and pre- sentation in the temple, . . 2. 21-38 The Magi — Jerusalem, Bethlehem 2. 1-12 Flight into Egypt, &c., . . . 2. 13-23 2. 39-40 Visit of Jesus to Jerusalem, . 2. 41-52 The Genealogies, ..... 1. 1-17 3. 23-38 Ministry of John the Baptist — the Desert ; the Jordan, 3. 1-12 1.1-8 3. 1-18 Baptism of Jesus— f/- intended. '3.) Further, the word is restricted to the condition of unbelievers, for we speak of sinners a.9 being in a state of nature. THE MANHOOD OF JESUS JOHN. 239 its Maker, it seeks fellowship with him ; instead of delighting in breaking his law, it strives to keep it in the smallest matters ; and, instead of looking within itself for hope and joy, it seeks them, where alone they can be found, in God. This new life is called everlasting, for, though begun on earth and in the body, it shall go on to full perfection in heaven, where many things that now hinder its growth shall have passed away. The author of this life in the soul is sometimes said to be God, at other times Christ, and this can only be explained by maintain- ing that " these two are one." 289. Although the apostle has described the work of Christ, he has not yet told his readers how God the Word manifested himself among men ; but the fourteenth verse removes the diffi- culty ; clothed with grace and truth, the Word became flesh, lived among men in the tabernacle of the body, like one of them- selves, and displayed to their minds and eyes his glorious power. He was not a spirit, for they saw him ; not like ordinary men, for he was surrounded with the Father's glory, and filled with grace and truth ; and not a mere man, for he became flesh, and tabernacled among us, as a stranger erects his tent in a foreign land. Certainly there is no meaning in words, if the apostle does not represent the Word, first as God, next as Crea- tor, then as the Source of Truth, and lastly as taking upon him the nature and likeness of man. In him was " glory, as of the only begotten of the Father," that is, such as might have been looked for in this messenger from God. The glory spoken of refers to Christ as the source of light : he scattered light and glory around him. 290. At length the time approached for the entrance of Jesus upon his public ministry ; but all the evangelists begin with the preaching and testimony of his forerunner, John. As the Bap- tist was a priest, it might have been expected that he would be a constant resident in the temple ; but " he was in the desert until the time of his showing to Israel." A rough gar- ment of camel's hair, and a leathern girdle, though the usual dress of prophets, called attention to the fact that John was sent 240 INTRODUCTION TO OUR LORd's PUBLIC MINISTRY. " in tlie spirit and power of Elias " to announce the coming of Christ. Leaving his retreat in the fifteenth year of Tiberius, he removed to the country round about Jordan, and preached con- fession of sins, repentance and amendment ; proclaiming at the same time to the crowds who followed him, that the long-expected kingdom of heaven was at hand. Great numbers of all ranks were baptized by this desert prophet in the Jordan ; some attached themselves to him as their master, and assisted him in his work. Scribes and Pharisees, common people, publicans, and mercenary soldiers, who were probably in the pay of Herod, asked direction, and promised reformation. The crowds, who heard the Baptist's preaching, returned to theirtowns and villages impressed with the belief that he was a great prophet, if not the Messiah himself: Jews from foreign lands carried a knowledge of his teaching to different parts of the world, where it continued to spread long after his death ; for there are traces of John's dis- ciples in Antioch of Pisidia, Alexandria, and Ephesus, twenty years after this time.^ But the Baptist did not permit people to entertain the opinion that he was the Messiah. He told them of " a mightier one " than he, who had not yet appeared ; whose baptism should be with the Holy Ghost, not with water ; and who should separate the chaff from the wheat among men. Jesus was residing in Nazareth when John entered on his minis- try ; not long after, he visited the scene of the Baptist's labours, and insisted on receiving baptism. John knew from his parents that Mary's son was greater than he, and unwillingly consented ; but he confessed afterwards that he had at the best a very in- adequate idea of the dignity of Jesus.^ Light suddenly broke upon his mind, as his newly baptized follower stood on the bank, engaged in prayer. He at once recognised in Jesus the Lamb of God, the bearer of a world's sins, the baptizer with fire and with the Holy Ghost, and the Son of God. About two months after, a deputation from the Sanhedrim examined John on his 1 Acts xiii. 24, 25; xviii. 24, 25 ; xix. 1-3. 2 In this way the apparently conflicting statements in Matthew iii. 13-17, and John i. 29-34 are reconciled. TExMPTATION OF JESUS. 241 work and claims. He allowed their right to interfere ; but while denying that he himself was Messiah, Elias returned from heaven, or an ancient prophet risen from the dead, he declared that one in the crowd of onlookers was the promised Saviour. This was the last public testimony to the Messiahship of Jesus, before he entered on his ministry, and it brought his claims again directly under the notice of the Sanhedrim. 291. Jesus spent the interval between his baptism and the arrival of this deputation, in meditation on the great work he had undertaken, and in conflicts with the eneray of mankind. For forty days and forty nights he was in the wilderness, fast- ing and with the wild beasts ; and during that time he was exposed to the subtlest assaults of Satan, in circumstances most favourable to the Evil One. There seems no reason to doubt that Satan knew the person and office of Jesus ; and the bold- ness with which he tempted the Saviour to evil, furnishes a striking example of his arrogance and pride. The first tempta- tion was an apparently reasonable appeal to the keen sense of hunger, felt by our Lord after a lengthened fast : " If thou be the Son of God, command that these stones be made bread." As Jesus was " driven by the Spirit into the wilderness," and de- tained there by the same power, he knew that the Father, who had sent him on this journey, would also provide him with food, if necessary. Hence his reply to the suggestion of Satan, " It is written, Man shall not live by bread alone, but by every word that proceedeth out of the mouth of God." Obedience to God's command was his life, and want of bread could not suggest to him doubts of his Divine commission. To repulse the first onset of Satan secures victory ; all his subsequent attacks are weaker. It was so in the temptation of our Lord. The attempt of Satan to work unbelief in the second Adam, as he had done in the first, failed at once ; and the other temptations with which he assailed Christ, have a greater resemblance to the efforts of unreasoning despair, than to the well-weighed plans of deliberate cunning. He felt himself vanquished when his first attack was repulsed, and, in despair, he exerted power more than cunning in those Q 242 INTRODUCTION TO OUR LORD S PUBLIC MINISTRY- which followed. Headers of the gospel history are certainly surprised by the ease with which Satan transported our Lord from the desert to the top of the temple-porch, or summoned up in a moment the pride and panoply of empire before his mind ; but they can see little wisdom in the temptations then practised, especially after the first had been overcome. 292. The first display of Christ's glory recorded in Scripture after his triumph over Satan, was in calling his disciples. John and Andrew were followers of the Baptist, but left that teacher when he proclaimed the glory and greatness of Jesus. They spent a day with their new Master, according to the account given in the Gospel of John, and his conversation deepened the belief which the Baptist's words had awakened : " We have found the Christ." Andrew then brought his brother Simon to Messiah, from whom he received the new name Cephas, the Syriac, or Peter, the Greek word for a stone. These disciples do not appear to have remained with Jesus at this time ; for, according to the other evangelists, James, John, Peter, and An- drew, were afterwards finally called in Galilee. Perhaps they had gone before him from the banks of the Jordan, where these events took place, to Galilee, their native province ; and when following their business as fishermen, they received the final and powerful call which made them "fishers of men." 293. While on the road to that district, Christ summoned Philip of Bethsaida to be his disciple. We are not informed by what means our Lord manifested his authority to Philip ; but from the eagerness with which that apostle spoke of Jesus as " him of whom Moses in the law, and the prophets, did write,'' it may be inferred that the prophecies of Scripture were appealed to with irresistible power. To the doubts of his friend Nathanael respecting the person of Christ, Philip could only say, " Come and judge for yourself;" if the testimony of the Baptist, whom all pious men reckoned a prophet, and the clear statements of Scripture could not convince Nathanael, a single conversation with Jesus would sweep away eveiy doubt. Nor was Philip mistaken. Christ alluded to some unseen struggle or inward MARRIAGE AND MIRACLE AT CANA. 243 joy, experienced by Natbanael under a fig-tree, and Nazareth, from which that Israelite thought nothing good could come, was forgotten : the conviction was forced upon his mind that he, who saw what Nathanael knew no mortal eye could have be- held, must be the King of Israel, or, as John's disciples had learned to call him, the Son of God. Nathanael belonged to Cana in Galilee, and is mentioned again in the Gospel after the resurrection of Christ ; but beyond attachment to our Lord, and sincere belief in his Messiahship, we know nothing with certainty regarding him. Some suppose that he was the same person with Bartholomew, but of that we have no certain know- ledge. 294. The next display of our Lord's glory was the miracle at (Jana of Galilee, whither our Lord repaired after leaving Judea. Jesus and Mary were invited to a marriage-feast in that town, and the disciples of Christ accompanied him. Many of them lived in the neighbourhood, and may have been relatives or ac- quaintances of the married persons, but we are not informed. The mother of our Lord, knowing from her own experience what he could do, told him that the company wanted wine, expecting that he would then provide it. "My hour," he said to her, as he afterwards said to his brethren, "is not yet come." The ordinary rules that regulate human conduct might suffice for her or for them in their dealings with men, but he had a work to discharge, to which everything else was subordinate. Mary, in her kindness of heart, wished him to work a miracle ; but she forgot the difference between her position and his. The season for doing the Father's will was fixed in heaven, and could not be put forward or backward one hour to please man : she was urging him to a course of conduct which, so far as her knowledge went, might be inconsistent with the purpose of God. Mary, knowing that her request would be granted, for it was not refused, told the servants to do whatever Jesus bade them, and a supply of wine was soon borne to the ruler of the feast. 295. There is a remarkable circumstance connected with this, the first recorded miracle of Christ, which requires to be ex- 244 INTRODUCTION TO OUR LORd's PUBLIC MINISTRY. amined. Every miracle that he wrought had a spiritual aim : the healing of the body only prepared the way for the healing, or, it might be, the death of the soul ; and the spiritual end of a miracle should always be looked for. It is expressly said in the present case, that Christ displayed his glory, and confirmed the faith of his disciples ; and the reason of working the miracle appears to have been the following. Old Testament prophets were men of a loving but severe character ; the solemnity of their work, and the evil times in which they laboured, did not usually permit them to share in the common joys of life. Deserts, not marriage-feasts, were their resort ; sackcloth, not the nuptial dress, their clothing ; threatenings of vengeance, or mourning over sin, not supplying men with wine, their employment. John also was distinguished by these peculiarities, and had gained the respect of the people, as well as of the disciples of Christ. But our Lord came with glad tidings, and acted in the spirit of his message : he came to free man from bondage to sin and cere- monies; and his whole life was an example of this freedom. The apostles might be astonished at the contrast between him and Elijah or John, both in going to this feast and in furnishing the guests with wine ; but the display of Divine powe? that he made must have silenced every doubt. The Baptist had done nothing like it ; and if the freedom of the Saviour surprised the disciples, his glorious power would confirm their faith, and put their wavering to shame. We have seen already the difficulties which beset the attempts of critics to arrange the four Gospels in strictly chronological order; and that a know- ledge of the exact date of every miracle, discourse, and journey of Jesus is now unattainable. It is desirable, however, to adopt some method in re- viewing the events of our Lord's life ; and as Professor Kobinsou's Harmony is perhaps as near an approach to accuracy as can be expected, we shall, in general, arrange the Gospels according to the plan of that work. HARMONY OF THE GOSPELS. 245 CHAPTER XIV. FIRST YEAR OF OUR LORd's PUBLIC MINISTRY. Jesus drives the traders out of Matt. Mark. LUKK. John, i 1 the temple at the Passover, and works miracles, . . . • 2. 13 25 Our Lord's discourse with Nico- demus, 3. 1-21 Jesus makes disciples in Judea ; testimonies of John the Bap- 1 tist and John the Apostle, 3. 22-36 j Imprisonment of John ; Jesus j goes to Galilee, 4. 12 1. 14 4. 14 4. 1-3 j 14. 3-5 6. 17-20 3. 19-20 j Visit of Jesus to Sychar — i.e., Shechem, 4.4-42 Jesus teaches in Galilee ; and when in Cana heals a noble- man's son at Capernaum, . . 4. 17 1. 14, 15 4. 14, 15 4. 43-54 Jesus is rejected at Nazareth, and dwells in Capernaum, . . 4. 13-16 4. 16-31 Final call of Peter, Andrew, James, and John — near Caper- naum, 4. 18-22 1. 16-20 5. 1-11 Healing of a demoniac in the synagogue ; of Peter's wife's mother, and many others — 1 Capernaum, 8. 14-17 1. 21-34 4. 31-41 Jesus travels throughout Galilee, 4. 23-25 1. 35-39 4. 42-44 Healing of a leper — Galilee, . . 8.2-4 1. 40-45 5. 12-16 Healing of a paralytic man — Ca- pernaum, 9.2-8 2. 1-12 5. 17-26 j Call of Matthew — Capernaum, . 9.9 2. 13, 14 5. 27, 28 i 296. After leaving Cana, Jesiis spent a few days in Caper- naum with his mother and his disciples ; but, as the Passover 246 FIRST YEAR OF OUR LORd's PUBLIC MINISTRY. was approaching, he went up to Jerusalem. On entering the temple, according to the account given in the Gospel of John, he found the outer court, known as the Court of the Gentiles, thronged with sellers and buyers of animals for sacrifice or the feast, and with changers of money. Christ, showing the zeal which had been predicted of him,^ cleared the court of these intruders, by the invincible power and majesty with which he was always surrounded. Unquestionably his zeal enlisted the sympa- thies of the common people, who were very jealous of the sanctity of the temple, and many of whom, according to John's Gospel, believed on him when they saw the miracles which he wrought. They would applaud his conduct, if they did not lend him their active assistance. But, irrespective of this, the words and looks of Jesus Were enough to show the worldlings, that they were in presence of the Master of the Temple. The Jews, or rather the Pharisees,^ did not relish the idea of being outdone in zeal for the honour of God's house by any one ; and, to excuse their worldliness, they demanded a miracle from Christ in proof of his right to interfere. " Destroy this temple," our Lord said, " and in three days I will raise it up." As the same word meant " temple" and " house," the first part of his answer may as well stand " destroy this house." These Jews bore our Lord no good will ; they often threatened his life afterwards, and at last took it away : they had heard of him already, though not to their satisfaction, and they now saw what he could do. It is far from improbable, then, that the rulers had already formed the design of putting him to death. He was perfectly aware of their purpose, though his disciples were not ; he does not expressly say, ' Kill me as you intend,' but he uses a form of expression of which their consciences would readily suggest to them the meaning. "House" or "temple" is repeatedly used in Scrip- ture to denote the hody.^ The Pharisees knew this use of the word quite well ; and when our Lord said, " Destroy this house," 1 Ps. Ixix. 9; Isa. Ivi. 7 ; Jcr. vii. 11. 2 " The Jews" has this meaning in John's Gospel, ix. 15, 18. 3 Job iv. 19 ; Eccl. xii. 3 ; 1 Cor. vi. 19 ; 2 Cor. v. 1, 2 ; vi. 16. MIRACLES AND FOLLOWERS OF JESUS. 247 as you wish or intend, be showed them that he had read the secret wish or design of their hearts. Christ thus intimated to these Jews his knowledge of their purposes, but whether inten- tionally or not, some of them understood him to refer to the temple. His glory was thus seen in his zeal for the Father's honour, in his reading men's secret thoughts, and in the clear prediction be uttered of his own resurrection. 297. The miracles which our Lord wrought in Jerusalem at this feast were so astonishing, that many of the people acknow- ledged his Messiahship ; but as he knew that no confidence could be placed in their professions of faith, " he did not commit himself unto them." There was one exception to this rule in Nicodemus, a ruler of the Jews, and a member of the Sanhedrim. Though a man who loved the truth, he was afraid to avow his convictions, for, in the interview which he had with Jesus at this time, he came to him by night. But men of a timid dis- position are often bolder in the hour of danger than their for- ward or resolute companions. When the Sanhedrim was bent on putting Jesus to death, Nicodemus alone defended him from the charges of impiety and imposture ; and, when the boldest of Christ's followers were in hiding through fear of the rulers, Nicodemus was one of the faithful few who took down his body from the cross, and laid it in the grave.^ Our Lord left Jerusalem shortly after his interview with this disciple, and con- tinued for some time baptizing in the land of Judea. The Baptist was preaching in the neighbourhood, and his disciples were displeased at the preference given by every one to the teaching of Jesus, whom their master had baptized and honoured before the people. A dispute, which arose Ijetween them and the Jews on this subject,^ induced them to bring their complaints before John. He immediately silenced their murmurs, assuring them that it was most just in him to decrease while the Messiah in- creased in honour. To the testimony thus borne by the Baptist to the dignity of Jesus, the apostle John has added his own testimony, or rather the substance of several discourses which 1 John Tii. 50 ; xix. 39. - John iii. 25. 248 FIRST YEAR OF OUR LORd's PUBLIC MINISTRY be heard delivered by our Lord. Jesus was the witness of heavenly truth, "all men coming to him" in the opinion of John's disciples, but in reality " no man receiving his testimony;" he was the Sent of God ; he received the Spirit without measure, and is the giver of everlasting life. 298. Scarcely have readers of the gospel perused these testimo- nies of the Baptist and the apostle, than they find Jesus in circum- stances which might well stagger their ftiith. Though ruler of all things, and possessed of the Father's love, he journeyed on foot to Galilee, through the province of Samaria ; he was ex- hausted with the journey ; he was overcome by the mid-day heat ; and at length weary, thirsty, and hungry, he gladly sought rest beside Jacob's well, waiting until the disciples should procure food.^ He was on the road to Galilee, fleeing from, or at least avoiding the Pharisees, who hated his teach- ing, and were only prevented by fear of the people from putting him to death. The words with which the third chapter of the Gospel of John closes are still sounding in our ears ; we have not forgotten that Jesus is the Son and messenger of God, the Lord of all, and equal in honour with the Father ; yet he re- quired refreshment like an ordinary man, and was apparently unable to procure even a draught of water.^ " Who hath be- lieved our report?" exclaimed Isaiah, when he compared the inward greatness of Messiah with the lowliness of his outward presence ; it is the same here : a man of sorrows, and acquainted with grief, a weary traveller, a thirsty and hungry wanderer to the eye of sense ; " God manifest in the flesh " to that of faith. 299. A woman, belonging to the neighbouring village of Sychar or rather Shechem, for it was only about half a mile dis- i As it wanted four monthR to harvest (John iv. 35), this journey was most likely made about December, for the barley in Palestine is ripe about April. Even in midwinter, how- ever, the sun in that country is sometimes very strong ; " the heat is awful, and the sun seems to us to be more tyrannical than he has a right to be, considering it is the 8th of De- cember." — De Saulcy's Dead Sea. - " Dec. 14. — The heat is excessive, and at times we stop to .s;lake our thirst with water, when we are lucky enough to fall in with a spring." — De Saulcy. JESUS AT THE WELL OF SAMARIA. 249 tant, came to the well for water. Onr Lord entered into conver- sation with her : she treated him lightly at first ; she called him merely a Jew, and, as with all nations that hate each other, this was said in contempt ; it was not becoming in him to ask, nor in her to give, even a drink of water. Soon her manner changed ; his words and looks bespoke the presence of no ordinary person ; she said respectfully, Sir (Lord) ; she was doubtful, too, whether he were not greater than the great Jacob himself. But she wavered again, either in doubt or in anger, at " call thy hus- band ;" " I am unmarried," was her snappish reply to this test- ing request, until the knowledge which he displayed of her life scattered doubt, and sorrow, and anger, and once more her address was most respectful, " Sir, I perceive thou art a pro- phet." Nothing is better fitted to bring out the truth-like cha- racter of the whole story than these changes in the woman's mode of address, answering as they do to the changes which must have taken place in her feelings towards Christ. 300. The water of Jacob's well was merely the text on which Jesus founded his discourse, the parched country and the fainting traveller contrasting strongly with the changed appear- ance of nature and man, produced by fresh or living water. He asked a draught from the well, and offered to repay it with one from the fountain of life ; he sought a temporary relief to his wearied body, and promised in return ceaseless refreshment to her thirsty soul ; Jesus brought the gift of God, the woman was proud of the gift of man. This comparison of the richest bless- ings to a well of water is both appropriate and frequent. One great charm of our Lord's discourse on this, as well as on many other occasions, lay in the text on which it was delivered, for in general he lodged truth in the minds of his hearers by passing from the material to the spiritual. Was he preaching in the open air, with the lilies blooming around him, or the sower scattering grain over the neighbouring fields ? He made these the texts of powerful and telling sermons on the kingdom of God. Christ opened the eyes of a blind man, and then preached of himself as the light of the world ; he fed thousands with a 250 FIRST YEAR OF OUR LORD's PUBLIC MINISTRY. few loaves, and then proclaimed himself the bread of life ; in like manner, from the draught of water which he sought of this woman, he took occasion to discourse on the enlightening and strengthening virtues of gospel truth. A little fresh water opens the eyes of a wearied traveller on a hot day ; it strengthens, it enlightens, it cheers him, when almost ready to faint : so also, as soon as the soul drinks of the fountain which Christ has opened, weariness burdens it no longer, and joys formerly un- known are felt. The parched tongue, refreshed with cool water, is a meet emblem of the parched soul relieved by the blessings of gospel truth. 301. As soon as the woman discovered that Christ was a pro- phet, she sought a solution of the question so much agitated be- tween her own people and the Jews, Should men worship the true God on Mount Gerizim, or on Zion ? Eeligion holds the first place in man's mind, and the removal of doubts or fears re- garding God is the chief object of existence ; the sudden turn thus given to the conversation, is therefore another truth-like feature of the narrative. Perhaps, also, the woman naturally wished to escape from speaking further about her private affiiirs, on which it was neither creditable nor pleasant to dwell. In reply to her question, Jesus pointedly stated that her people knew not the proper way and place of worshipping God, while the Jews knew both ; but he announced also the speedy ap- proach, or rather the very presence of that time, when outward worship should cease, and worship in spirit and in truth overspread the earth. ^ " In spirit :" for the outward services of the Mosaic law, the presentation of one's body before the holy place at the yearly feasts, the sacrifices, and the sacred persons, places, and things, would soon be exchanged for that inward worship of the heart which outward ceremonies only typified. " In truth :" because the age of types and shadows was fast passing away ; 1 John iv. 22 has caused commeDtators much trouble, probably from their not obeerving that, when fully expressed, the sentence would run thus:— "Ye worship (on amountaiii) which ye know not (to be forbidden of God) : we worship (on a mountiiin) which we know (to be chosen of God). CONDUCT OF THE APOSTLES TOWARDS CHRIST. 251 they were fulfilled in the person of Messiah, the truth or sub- stance to which they referred. The truth, therefore, of which our Lord spoke was himself: "lam the way, the truth, and the life." The revealer of truth thus called himself Truth ; and, in like manner, Christ, the giver of salvation, when addressing this woman, called himself Salvation — " Salvation is of the Jews." Samaritans would thus find a Gerizim, and Jews a Zion, in Jesus. What can be imagined more sublime than this weary traveller teaching a poor and misguided woman truths so simple, that even she could feel their power, but so high that the strongest and sharpest minds of antiquity groped after them in vain? 302. The woman did not altogether allow the correctness of Christ's answer to her question ; it might be right, but her nation was not flattered, and she put off a final settlement of the dispute until the coming of Messiah. Jesus then assured her that he was the Christ, in plainer language than he was accus- tomed to use, when speaking of himself to his ordinary followers, or to the rulers of the Jews. In the meantime the disciples re- turned from the village, and were surprised to find their Master talking with a Samaritan woman, especially with one whose ap- pearance probably betokened want of respectability. It was long before the apostles understood their Master's character : at one time they freely expressed astonishment at his singular actions; at another they were filled with admiration of his works and wisdom ; in some places they worshipped him ; in others, they took the liberty of condemning his conduct ; in writing his life, they have carefully recorded their doubts, their fears, their foolishness, their progress, their displeasure, and their love ; and what better security could one wish that they have re- corded the truth ? His address to the disciples is remarkable for the declaration, " My meat is to do the will of him that sent me, and to finish his work." Thirst, hunger, weariness, all were forgotten, when souls were to be saved, lost sheep restored to the fold of the good Shepherd. He bade them lift up their eyes, and behold the welcome siffht of the Samaritans streaming from 252 FIRST YEAR OF OUR LORd's PUHLTC xMINISTRY. the village to see and talk with Messiah ; by gathering a people from among them he would finish part of the work which brought him to earth. 303. As everything on earth scatters the light of day, so be- lievers reflect around them the light of truth, which they borrow from Christ. The woman, on discovering the true character of Jesus, repaired to Sychar, and invited the townsmen to welcome Messiah. He stayed two days in their village, instructing them in the things of the kingdom, and proving by word and deed the truth of his claims. Sychar is not mentioned again in the gospel history ; doubtless it was one of the many villages of the Samaritans, in which Peter and John afterwards preached the 304. The news of Christ's arrival in Galilee soon spread from town tb town of that country. Many of the inhabitants had witnessed the miracles which he wrought in Jerusalem eight months before, and were rejoiced to hear that he had come to teach and heal in their cities. One man in particular showed his faith in Jesus. He is called " a nobleman " in our version ; but the word used in the original implies that he was a courtier, who probably held some office about the palace of Herod. When informed that Jesus had reached Cana, he left Capernaum, where his son was lying sick, and urged him to come and heal the child. Jesus declined to accompany him, but assured him that his son was alive and well. The father believed Christ's word ; and, on consulting the servants, found that his son began to recover at the very time Jesus said, " Thy son liveth." 305. Our Lord next visited Nazareth, from which he had been absent a considerable time : the evangelist Luke has re- lated what took place on that occasion. It was usual in the synagogues to give any person, who seemed competent for the duty, an opportunity of reading a portion of Scripture, and ad- dressing the congregation. Our Lord took advantage of this custom on the Sabbath : standing up in the attitude of reverence usual among the Jews, he read a few verses from Isaiah ; then, handing the roll to the servant or keeper of the sacred books, JESUS AT NAZARETH AND CAPERNAUM. 253 he sat down, as teachers were accustomed to do, and proclaimed himself the promised Messiah. Every eye was fixed upon the speaker in amazement ; but he was not allowed to proceed. His hearers began to ask one another, " Is not this Joseph's son ?" as if the greatness of his claims made them, doubt the evidence of their senses. Keproaches, taken from his humble condition in life, appear to have been heaped upon him ; for the people acted on the principle of the proverb, " Physcian, heal thyself." " Thou," they seemed to say, " who claimest to be the Messiah, and who promisest us the blessings foretold in our sacred books, exert thy power in first raising thyself to honour from the humble station of a carpenter's son." Jesus warned them, by examples from the history of Elijah and Elisha, that unbelief had always prevented the Hebrews from enjoying the blessings of the covenant ; but his address only inflamed their rage, and, though it was the Sabbath-day, a seditious mob attempted to take away his life. 306. Jesus then withdrew to Capernaum, where he was well received by the inhabitants, and where he continued to reside for a considerable time. The people manifested great anxiety to hear his teaching, or see his miracles, for the cure of the nobleman's son was well known in the town : multitudes followed him to the sea- shore, where there were both water to baptize, and ample space to accommodate an audience. Early in the morn- ing, on one of these occasions, he preached out of the fishing- boat of Peter ; and, after dismissing the people, gave him, Andrew, James, and John that effectual call which made them forsake their friends and become followers of Christ. On the following Sabbath, apparently, Jesus taught the people of Capernaum in the synagogue, and proved the truth of his teaching by expelling an unclean spirit from one of the congre- gation. The person on whom this miracle was wrought called him " Jesus of Nazareth, the holy one of God ;" for evil spirits, though unable to attain to purity themselves, are conscious of its existence and power in others. On leaving the synagogue, Jesus, accompanied by James and John, went to the house of 254 FIRST YEAR OF OUR LORd's PUBLIC MINISTRY. Peter, and healed his mother-in-law of a fever. The whole city was moved by the miracles and teaching of Christ : at sunset, when the Sabbath ended, the door of Peter's house was besieged by crowds of people, bringing sick and infirm persons to be cured of their diseases. The Redeemer left the town next morning before daybreak, and withdrew to a solitary place, where he might, without interruption, engage in prayer. But the excitement still continued in Capernaum ; the people thronged the door of Peter's house, and that disciple conducted them to the place of our Lord's retreat. Instead of returning with them as they requested, Jesus, accompanied by his dis- ciples, proceeded to visit other cities in Galilee, where he taught the people, and performed many miracles. Multitudes flocked to hear him from all parts of Palestine ; the evangelist Matthew relates that they came from Syria, Galilee, and Decapolis, Jerusalem, and Judea. No house or synagogue was large enough to hold the crowds that followed Christ ; and when some miracle, more astounding than others, revived the excite- ment among the population, he required to meet with them in waste places, or on the mountain sides. 307. At length he returned to Capernaum, and lodged in Peter's house. A number of Scribes and Pharisees, drawn to that town by the reports concerning Jesus, immediately assem- bled to hear his preaching. The house was soon filled, and a crowd stood round the door : suddenly, a bed was let down through the tiling of the roof by some men, who could not get admission at the door : the man who occupied it was sick of the palsy ; and Jesus, seeing his faith, immediately forgave his sins. The Pharisees, recognising in this an assumption of the attributes of Deity, imagined that our Lord was guilty of blasphemy: but he followed up the words which offended them by laying bare their secret thoughts, and healing the man of his distemper. If these learned Hebrews had been as ready to obey the law as they were to quote it, they would have at once acknowledged Jesus as Messiah. Moses laid down two rules for distinguishing true from false prophets ; if a man TRUE AND FALSE PKOPHETS. 255 taught wbat was agreeable to the law of God, all were bound to receive him as a prophet ; but if he tried to withdraw men fron-i the worship of Jehovah, the rulers were commanded to put him to death. Should any doubt arise on this point, another rule was applied ; the man who predicted in the name of Je- hovah what did not happen, was a false prophet ; but the man whose prophecies were fulfilled, was a messenger from God.^ Now, Jesus wrought miracles and enforced the law ; the con- ditions laid down in the Old Testament, for distinguishing a true prophet, were thus fulfilled, and he should have been at once accepted as such by the nation. The only other event recorded in the gospel history during our Lord's stay at Caper- naum, is the call of Matthew or Levi : the feast, at which he entertained Jesus and the disciples, was perhaps celebrated a few months after. 1 Deut. xviii. 22. 256 SECOND YEAR OP OCR LORD S PUBLIC MINISTRY. CHAPTER XV. SECOND YEAR OF OUR LORD's PUBLIC MINISTRY. Bethesda : healing of the infirm i Matt. Makk. LCKE. JOHK. man — Jerusalem, .... 5. 1-47 The disciples pluck ears of corn on the Sabbath, 12. 1-8 2. 23-28 6.1-5 Healing of the withered hand on the Sabbath— Galilee, . . 12. 9-14 3. 1-6 6. 6-11 Multitudes follow Jesus — Sea of Tiberias, 12. 15 21 3. 7-12 Jesus withdraws to a moun- tain : choosing of the twelve — near Capernaum, . . . 10. 2-4 3. 13-19 6. 12-19 Sermon on the Mount — near Capernaum, 5. 1-8. 1 6. 20-49 Healing of centurion's servant — Capernaum, 8. 5-13 7. 1-10 Raising of the widow's son — 1 Nain, 7. 11-17 1 John the Baptist sends dis- ! ciples to Jesus — Galilee, . . 11. 2-19 7. 18-35 1 Reflections of Jesus on appeal- ing to his miracles — Caper- naum 11. 20-30 Jesus is anointed by a woman in a Pharisee's house — Caper- naum, 7. 36-50 Second journey of Jesus through : Galilee 8. 1-3. Healing of a demoniac : blas- phemy of Pharisees, . . . 12. 22-37 3. 19-30 11.14,15, 17-23 Scribes and Pharisees seek a sign — Galilee, 12. 38-45 11.16,24- 36. HARMONY OF THE GOSPELS. 257 True relatives of Christ— Gali- Matt. Mark. Luke. John. lee, . 12. 46-50 3. 31-35 8. 19-21 Jesus denounces woes against the Pharisees — Galilee, . . 11. 37-54 Discourse on providence and wsLtchMneas— Galilee, . . 12. 1-59 Slaughter of certain Galileans : 1 parable of the barren fig-tree — Galilee, 13. 1-9 Parable of the sower — near Ca- pernaum, 13. 1-23 4. 1-25 8.4-18 Parable of the tares ; other par- ables — near Capernaum, . . 13. 24-53 4. 26-34 Stilling of the tempest— >&a of Galilee 8. 18-27 4. 35-41 8. 22-25 Healing of two demoniacs — Ga- dara, 8. 28-9. 1 5. 1-21 8. 26-40 Discourse on fasting at Levi's feast — Capernaum, . . . 9. 10-17 2. 15-22 5. 29-39 Kaising of Jairus's daughter : woman with issue of blood — Capernaum, 9. 18-26 5. 22-43 8. 41-56 Two blind men healed, &c., . . 9. 27-34 Jesus is again rejected at Naza- reth, 1 3. 54-58 6. 1-6 Third journey of Jesus through Galilee : commission of the twelve, 9.35-11.1 6. 6-13 9. 1-6 Herod believes Jesus to be John the Baptist, 14. 1, 2, 6-12 6.14-16, 21-29 9. 7-9 Return of the twelve : Jesus re- tires across the lake. Feed- ing of five thousand, . . . 14. 13-21 6. 30-44 9. 10-17 6. 1-14 Jesus walks upon the water, . 14. 22-36 6. 45-56 6. 15-21 Discourse on the true manna: Peter's profession of faith— Capernaum, 6. 22-71 258 SECOND YEAR OF OUR LORd's PUBLIC MINISTRY. 308. After the call of Matthew, our Lord left Galilee to be present at a feast in Jerusalem. It has been much disputed what feast this was : critics are divided in opinion between the feast of Purim, the Passover, and Pentecost ; but it was probably one of the two last, though there are not sufficient grounds for deter- mining which. If events happened in the order prefixed to this chapter, we must suppose that the Passover is meant, for " the second Sabbath after the first," is mentioned as the date of the next event in Christ's public ministry. That expression should perhaps rather be, " the first Sabbath after the second day of the Passover," for the Jews began to count the seven Sabbaths, that intervened between the Passover and Pentecost, from the second day of the former. Three Passovers are expressly men- tioned by the apostle John,^ so that the duration of our Lord's public ministry must have been at least about two years and a half ; if this feast was also a Passover, or the Pentecost after a second Passover, not mentioned in the gospel history, Christ's public ministry must have extended over three years and a half. 309. On the Sabbath-day after his arrival in Jerusalem, Jesus visited a spring near the sheep-gate, called Bethesda, and cele- brated for its healing virtues ; a range of porches had been built round it, where multiiudes of sick and diseased persons lay " waiting for the movinfj of the water." From the maimed and diseased in this hospital, our Lord selected one whose sins had brought on him a disease of thirty-eight years' standing,^ and whose hopes of recovery appear to have been very slight ;^ he healed him, bade him carry off his bed, and disappeared in the crowd before the man could ascertain who he was. Certain well-known Jews,* in whom, from other parts of the Gospel of John, it is easy to discover the Pharisees and members of tlie Sanhedrim, met the man in the streets, glad to leave his prison- house, though apparently without house to shelter or friends to welcome him, and reproved him for breaking the Sabbath ; they demanded also the name of the person who healed him. Doubt- • John ii. 23 ; vi. 4 ; xiii. i. '■^ John v. 14, compftre Tiii. 11. 3 John v. 7. 16. ♦ Th.' Jew?. John v. ]r>. HEALING OF AN INFIRM MAN AT BETHESDA. 259 less they knew this well, and only wished to identify Jesus, that they might ruin him with the people, or accuse him before the Sanhedrim. The Saviour soon put himself in the man's way, and warned him of danger — " Sin no more, lest a worse thing come unto thee ;" but in vain, for he "left Jesus and told the Jews" the name of his benefactor. The language implies that this was done with an evil design ; if he had wished, as is gene- rally supposed, to commend our Lord to the Jews in thus giving them his name, we may be certain, from the lengthened account of the blind man which follows, in chapter ix. of the same Gospel, that this would have been mentioned to his credit. 310. This miracle, and the designs of the Jews, led to one of the clearest and fullest discourses of our Lord on his own per- son.^ The Jews came to Jesus, probably in the temple, and charged him with breaking the Sabbath ; no messenger from heaven would have done so, they argued, and Jesus, therefore, could not be a teacher come from God, as the people generally believed. He did not clear himself by using the common-sense argument, with which he silenced them in other places; but he rested on his right to do as he pleased with his own — the Son of Man is Lord of the Sabbath, and equal with God ; he came to free man from the bondage of tradition and ceremony, and his own life was an example of that freedom. " My Father worketh until now, and I work," was his reply. He represented the Father as having given him a -work to do, and as carrying it on with him. The rulers charged him with going against the will of God in healing the man ; but, conscious of his oneness in will and purpose with the Father, he said, " In everything I have done hitherto, my Father wrought also ; and, since his power enabled me to work the miracles, you are wrong in supposing that I have broken his commandments, or lost his favour now." The Pharisees called God their Father f but they saw that the sense, in which Jesus used the word, was very different from what they had been accustomed to. He appeared to them making himself Son of God naturally, or in essence, not in a figure as 1 John T. 17-30. 2 Deut. xiv. 1. 260 SECOND YEAR OF OUR LORd's PUBLIC MINISTRY. they did ; they did not understand the sonship as a title of office, but as a birthright claimed by Jesus ; therefore they sought to kill him. If the whole that passed on the occasion had been handed down, this would have been quite plain ; John has given us only the text and heads of the discourse, but these are so important that it is desirable to bear them in mind. The equiility between the Father and the Son is presented by Jesus to his hearers under different aspects. First, It is an equahty in power and working: " The Son can do nothing of himself but what he seeth the Father do ; " he doeth all things that the Father doeth, and he doeth also the same things as the Father, universal and identical in power with God ; their wills and works cannot be different, although the Jews affirmed this. Second, It is also an equality in knowledge and purpose — "the Father showeth him all things that himself doeth ;" the restoring of health to the weak was one of these things, but Jesus would yet be shown greater, that "men might marvel," where to slioio plainly embraces also the power of doing. Third, It is an equality in quickening dead souls ; the Father raises them up, and the Son quickens whom be will, where the present tense implies that the quickening is going on, and the expression whom he will shows that the general resur- rection of the dead is not referred to. This is one of the greater works spoken of by Christ ; this is the new birth of his interview with Nicodemus. Fourth, It is consequently an equality in judgment : " He that believeth not," or rejects the Son's quickening influence, " is condemned and judged already, because he hath not believed in the name of the only-begotten Son of God." — (John iii. 18.) Fifth, It is an equality in honour. This is the design of the whole ; men must honour the Son equally with the Father. The quickening of the soul and escape from judgment are followed by cor- responding effects upon the body, and Christ proclaims himself the source of all life to men. Sixth, This equality, then, is one of self-existence : the Son has life in himself as the Father has. Seventh, He affirms, further, that this equality extends to calling the dead from their graves, and judging the wliole world, according to the good or evil deeds of men. Equality with God was so plainly claimed as his right by Jesus, that even the carnal-minded Pharisees understood him ; and if the reading of our Lord's own words does not prove to a person the necessity of either admitting the Godhead of Christ, or .setting him down as an impostor, it is not likely that any argu- ments will carry conviction to his mind. The works which he professes to do, and the attributes he claims, are those of God only ; the intimate knowledge that he has of the Father's purposes, the mutual delight .subsisting between the Father and the Son, their equality in worship and self-existence, and the oneness of their wills, can be explained only on the supposition of at least two " persons in the Godhead, equal in power and glory." DISCOURSE ON THE GODHEAD OF CHRIST. 261 When claims so momentous and extraordinary as these are advanced by one in the likeness of man, it is reasonable to inquire what proofs he brings forward of their truth. Our Lord allows the necessity of proof, and, in accordance with the principles of Jewish law, he produces two witnesses, both of whom were held in the highest esteem among the Jews — God the Father, and Scripture. — (John v. 36-47.) From the address that follows it appears that Jesus was not now speaking to the Pharisees only, if at all, but to the multitudes who crowded round him : "Ye were delighted with John's preaching," he said, which was true of the people, but not of the rulers. Knowing, then, how highly John was respected as a teacher by the multitude, an appeal to him might have been expected from the Saviour. Eminent though he was, however, Jesus sets his testimony aside ; he has nobler and better witnesses to produce. God sealed the truth of Christ's words, (1.) by the works which he enabled him to perform ; this was the first and the outward part of the Father's testimony ; on this account, also, the apostle John has given instances, not numerous, but select, of Christ's miraculous powers. (2.) The voice from heaven, '^ when the people could not distinguish the words, and saw no bodily form, as our Lord reminds them, was another part of the testimony borne by the Father to which Jesus ap- peals. But (3.) the voice that speaks within man's heart, the word that abides there, is the third and great testimony of the Father to the truth of Christ. It seizes the citadel of man's inner being, and witnesses with a power that nothing can withstand. The second witness brought forward by Jesus was the Scriptures, with which the Jews were familiar. " Ye search them," he says ; " ye do well : ye look for eternal life there, and they bear witness of Messiah, as the only giver of it." With such testimonies as these in his favour, most truly does our Lord say, " I receive not honour from men." 311. Our Lord then withdrew to Galilee, where the same question of breaking the Sabbath was again raised by the Phari- sees. When walking through the fields one Sabbath, he per- mitted his disciples to satisfy their hunger by plucking the ears of corn, and rubbing out the grain with their hands. The Pharisees who were with them called his attention to this sup- posed breach of the law ; but, instead of condemning, he justified the conduct of his disciples. He first quoted the case of David, who used the shew-bread to satisfy his necessities^ although the law allowed none but priests to eat it ; and he then pointed to the fact, that the priests broke the strict letter of the law every 1 Matt. iii. 16, 17 ; so John xu. 28 ; v. 37 ; i. 32, 33. 262 SECOND YEAR OF OUR LORD'S PUBLIC MINISTRY. Sabbath by kindling wood on the altar, lighting candles, clean- ing the vessels used in the temple, and other necessary works. The principle on which our Lord justified the conduct of David was, " I will have mercy, and not sacrifice," that is, the ob- servance of duties naturally binding on all men in preference to the precepts of ceremonial worship. But he also put the ques- tion in another light : " In this place is a greater than the temple, the Son of man is Lord of the Sabbath." Viewing him- self as standing in the same relation to the Sabbath, that a king does to his country or a lord to his estate, he assured the Pharisees that he would preserve its sanctity from violation, and maintain every fence, which had been raised round it by the piety of former generations. He claimed for himself the right of determining what was holy or unholy, what should and what should not be done on the Sabbath, thus asserting in the clearest terms his equality with Jehovah, by whom the Sabbath law was given to the Hebrews. On this declaration of our Lord are founded the observance of the first, instead of the seventh day among Christians, with the repeal of those cere- monies, which rendered the Sabbath a burden more than a delight to the Jews. Shortly after, the same charge was again brought against Jesus : he restored the withered arm of an un- fortunate man in the synagogue one Sabbath, although the Pharisees and Herodians, as the political party who favoured the views of Herod was called, were on the watch for an accu- sation against him. He anticipated their murmurings by asking, " with anger," ^ whether it were right to do good on the Sabbath ; and then illustrated his question from the practice of every humane man to save the life of his beast on the day of rest, by lifting it out of a pit into which it might have fallen. But no arguments could satisfy these men : filled with madness, " they held a council how they might destroy him." 312. Jesus then withdrew to a mountain in the neighbour- hood of Capernaum, where he chose the twelve, and delivered the Sermon on the Mount. After spending the whole night in 1 Eph iv. 26. THE TWELVE APOSTLES. 263 prayer, be called his disciples in the morning, and set apart twelve of them for special work, honouring them at the same time with the name of Apostles (Luke). They were ordained to be with him, and to go forth preaching the gospel, healing diseases, and casting out devils (Mark). Lists of the members of this chosen band are given by Matthew, Mark, and Luke ; John only mentions them incidentally as the " twelve," assuming apparently that his readers were familiar with the other Gospels.^ The lists are as follow : — Matthew. Mark. L LUKB. Acts OP Apostles. Simon or Peter, and Simon or Peter ; Simon or Peter and Peter and James, Andrew ; Andrew ; and John and An- drew. James and John. James and John James and John. (Boanerges), Andrew. IL Philip and Bartho- Philip and Bartho- Philip and Bartho- Philip and Thomas ; lomew ; lomew ; . lomew ; Thomas and Matthew. Matthew and Thomas. Matthew and Thomas Bartholomew and Matthew. in. son of Al- James, son of Al- phseus, and Leb- phgeus, and Thad- deus; Simon the Canaanite, and Judas Iscariot. beus or Thaddeus ; Simon the Canaanite, and Judas Iscariot, son of Al- James, son of Al- phseus, and Simon phaeus, and Simon Zelotes. Zelotes. Judas, son of James, Judas, son of James, and Judas Iscariot. The first thing deserving of notice about these lists is the fact that the twelve appear to have been divided into three classes, each containing four. The members of the first class occupy a more prominent place in the gospel history than those of the other two ; the members of the second than those of the third ; and Matthew seems to indicate a difference in nearness to Christ among the apostles, when he calls Peter " the first." Another point of importance is, that the names generally occur in pairs, two disciples having gone forth in coinpany to preach the king- dom among men. By comparing the lists, it will be found that 1 John vi. 67. 264 SECOND YEAR OF OUR LORD's PUBLIC MINISTRY. Matthew has most likely given the order in which the apostles were arranged by our Lord himself. The names of several among the apostles have given rise to discussion. Bartholomew means either son of Tolmai, e.g., Ptolemy, a Greek word, or son of Talmai, a Hebrew name.^ As he is associated in three of the four lists with Philip, who, according to John's Gospel, brought Nathan ael to Jesus,^ it has been inferred that Bartho- lomew and Nathanael were different names for the same person. Thomas is the Hebrew, and Didymus, the other name of this apostle, the Greek for a twin. Andrew means vowed to Jeho- vah ; Matthew the gift of Jehovah ; Lebb^us (= brave), Thad- dseus (perhaps = Theudas, from a word meaning breast), and Judas, were three names of the same apostle. Judas is called the brother instead of the son of James in our version ; but the translators were probably misled, by supposing that the apostle Jude wrote the Epistle of Jude.^ Another of the apostles be- sides Peter was called Simon ; he is supposed, from his surname Zelotes, to have belonged at one time to a fanatical party among the Jews, which followed Judas of Galilee (Acts v. 37) in re- fusing to pay tribute to the Eomans (about 10 a.d.), when Judea was reduced to a Roman province. But it is more probable that Simon, like Peter and the sons of Zebedee, derived his surname from some event connected with his discipleship. He is also called the Canaanite, or rather the Cananite, not that he was of heathen extraction, but because Cananite is Hebrew for the Greek Zelotes. It is supposed that Simon, Judas, and James the Less,* were sons of Mary, the sister or cousin of the Virgin, and of Cleophas or Alphasus." The last of the twelve is Judas Iscariot ( = man of Kerioth, Josh. xv. 25), whose character is summed up in the words, " Who also betrayed him." The sermon on the mount immediately followed the appointment of the twelve : the subject on which our Lord discoursed was the law and the pro- pJiets. His enemies had repeatedly charged him during the past year with Itrcaking the law, and he took this opportunity of defending himself before I Josh. XT. 14. a John i. 46. » Jude 1. ♦ Mark xr. 40. 6 Matt. xiii. 55 ; Mark Ti. 3. SERMON ON THE MOUNT. 265 the people. Moses commanded tlie Sabbath-breaker to be put to death, and the prophets traced the misfortunes of the nation, in past ages, to disregard of the day and year of rest ; the Pharisees taught that it was wrong to heal the sick or cure the disabled on the Sabbath, and that Jesus, who did both, respected neither Moses nor the prophets. The sermon has special reference to these charges. Matthew, by whom it is most fully reported, says that our Lord, " after being set," addressed the multitude from a moun- tain ; but Luke repi-esents him standing "on a level place:" probably he preached from an elevated knoll in a plain on the mountain side. But while our Lord vindicated himself from the charge of breaking the law in word or deed, he also unfolded the nature and blessings of the kingdom of heaven. The sermon on the mount is to the Christian Church, what the giving of the law was to ancient Israel, — a guide to holy living more than a rule of faith. In the introduction, our Lord contrasts the blessings of believers with the sorrows of worldlings. The blessings which he promises are expressly men- tioned by the prophets or borrowed from Old Testament ideas ; whatever was spiritual under the former economy belongs also to the gospel ; whatever was carnal maybe applied to illustrate spiritual truth. — Matt. v. 1-12 ; Luke vi. 20-26. Jesus pronounces those who suffer persecution for the gospel, blessed among men ; their reward is in heaven, and they are of equal rank with the prophets in the kingdom of God. But even on earth they enjoy high honours ; for (1.) they are the salt of the earth, and therefore bound to main- tain a consistent walk among men; (2.) they are the light of the world, observed by all around them, and therefore bound to glorify God by their good works. — Matt. v. 13-16. But believers are also the representatives of the prophets, and heirs of the obligations not less than the blessings of the law ; they must observe all, even the least of the commandments, with more strictness than the scribes and Pharisees themselves. Our Lord selects some examples, to show the people what he meant by this strong statement. — Matt. v. 17-20. (1.) In those days the Council of Seven (judgment) which sat in every city, was a court inferior to the Sanhedrim. Under the gospel, causeless anger with a brother, whether a relative or a fellow-believer, will, as it were, be brought before this court. But further, whosoever shall call his brother Eaca (worthless) shall be cited before the Sanhedrim ; and the opprobrious epithet, "thou fool," may incur the punishment of hell-fire. L^njustifiable anger can no more escape punishment than murder ; and reconciliation with the offended person should be sought immediately, lest pimishment overtake the criminal. — Matt. v. 21-26. (2.) The seventh commandment receives an equally wide interpretation : the sin of adultery may be committed by the eye, precisely as the sin of mur- der may be committed by the tongue. Divorces on slight grounds are 26G SKOOND YEAK OF OUU LORd's PUBLIC MINISTKY. pronounced unlawful,