i^:)'   2. 
 
 * 
 
 g  THEOLOGICAL  SEMINARY, 
 Princeton,  N.J. 
 
 f       Hook,.  .TIL 
 
S*^'^  ^';i,^:;^x 
 
 '^- 
 
I'HB  AMEItlCAN 
 
 UNIVERSAL  GEOGRAPHY ; 
 
 OR 
 
 A  VIEW  OF  THE  PRESENT  STATE 
 
 OF    ALL    THE 
 
 KINGDOMS,  STATED,  AND  COLONIES 
 
 IN    THE    KNOWN    WORLD. 
 
 IN    TWO    VOLUMES. 
 THE  FIRST  VOLUME  S  scription  of  the  remaining  Ameiican  Isl- 
 
 Contains  a  copious  Inttoduction,  adapted  S  ands.  r-nxTT    irm  tt\tp 
 
 to  the  present  improved  state  of  Astrenom- S  THE  SECOND   v  OLUMh 
 
 ical    Science— a   brief  Geogiaphy  of  the  S      Contains  a  Geogi-aphy  of  the  Eastern  Con- 
 
 States— a  general  account  of  the  West  ?  Asia,  its  Kingdoms,  Provinces,  and  Islands- 
 Indies,  and  of  the  four  group es  of  Islands  ?  an  Account  of  the  numerous  Islands  arrang- 
 into -which  they  are  naturally  divided,  and  t  ed  by  modern  Geographers  under  the 
 a  minute  Account  of  the  several  Islands—  <^  names  of  Australasia  and  Polynesia— a 
 a  general  Description  of  South  America,  ^  general  Description  of  Africa,  and  a  parUc- 
 ■Mid  a  particular  Account  of  its  various  S  ular  Account  of  its  various  States  and 
 States    and   Provinces — and   a  brief  De-  S  Islands. 
 
 TO    WHICH    ARE    ADDED, 
 
 AN    ABRIDGEMENT  OF  THE  LAST    CENSUS    OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 
 
 A   CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE  OF   REMARKABLE  EVENTS  FROM    THE 
 
 CREATION      TO      THIS      TIME AN     IMPROVED    LIST    OF    ANr 
 
 CIENT  AND    MODERN    LEARNED    AND    EMINENT    MEN 
 
 AND  A  COPIOUS  INDEX  TO  THE  WHOLE  WORK. 
 THE    WHOLE    COMPREHENDING    A    COMPLETE 
 
 SYSTEM  OF  MODERN'  GEOGRAPHY, 
 
 ACCOMPANIED     BY    A    NEW    AND    ELEGANT 
 
 General  Atlas  of  the  Worlds 
 
 CONTAINING  (iN    A    SEPARATE    qUARTO    VOLUME^) 
 
 SIXTY-THREE  MAPS, 
 
 •Jom prising,  as  far  as  they  could  be  obtained,  all  the  latestDiscoveries  to  the  present  time. 
 
 ■     BY  JEDipiAH  MORSE,  D.  D.  F.  A.  A.  S.  H.  S. 
 
 Minister  of  the  Congregational  Church  in  Charlestown. 
 
 SlXtH  EDItlOV. 
 
 Arranged  on  a  new  plan,  and  improved  in  every  part  by  a  hiboiioiis  examination  of  inost 
 of  the  late  respectable  Voyages  and  Travels,  in  Europe  and  Asia,  by  a  free  use  of  the 
 information  in  the  Abridgement  of  Pinkerton's  excellent  Geography,  and  by  the  hile 
 admirable  Statistical  Tables  of  Hassel. 
 
 VOLUME  II. 
 
 BOSTON : 
 
 TBLIbHED  BY  THOMAS  &  ANDREWS,    AND  SOLD,  WHOLESALE  AND  RETAIL; 
 AT    THEIR    BOOKSTORE,  NO.  45,    NEWBURY  STREET — MAY,  l81'J. 
 
 Greenouffh  and  Stebbins,  printers. 
 
JMSTRICT  OF  MASSACHUSETTS,  to  wit  : 
 
 District  Clerk's  OJice. 
 BR  IT  HEMEMBERED,  that  on  the  twenty-third  day  of  April,  A.  D.  1812,  and 
 in  the  thirty -sixth  year  of  tlie  independence  of  the  United  States  of  Amei'ica,  Thomas 
 and  Andrews,  of  the  said  district,  have  deposited   in   this  office  the   title  of  a  book,  the 
 right  whereof  they  claim,  as  propi'ietors,  in  the  v.'ords  following,  to  wit: 
 
 "  Tlie  American  Universal  Geography,  or  a  view  of  the  present  state  of  all  the 
 kingdoms,  states,  and  colonies  in  the  known  world.  In  two  volumes.  The  tirst 
 volun>e  contains  a  copious  inti'oduction  adapted  to  the  present  improved  state  of  as- 
 tr-onomical  science — a  brief  geography  of  the  earth — a  general  description  of  Am  er- 
 ica—an  account  of  North  America,  and  its  various  divisions,  particularly  of  the 
 United  States — a  general  account  of  the  West  Indies,  and  of  the  tbtir  groupes  of  islands 
 into  which  they  are  naturally  divided,  and  a  minute  account  of  the  several  islands — a  gen- 
 eral description  of  South  America,  and  a  particular  account  of  its  various  states  and 
 provinces,  and  a  brief  description  of  tiie  remaining  Amei'ican  islands.  The  second  vol- 
 ume contains  a  geography  of  the  Eastern  Continent — a  general  description  of  Europe, 
 anil  a  minute  account  of  its  v.'irious  kingdoms  and  states — a  general  descriptioii^f  Asia, 
 its  kingdoms,  provinces,  and  islands — an  account  of  the  numerous  islands  arranged  by 
 modern  geographers  under  Uie  names  of  Australasia  and  Polynesia — a  general  description 
 of  Africa,  and  a  particular  account  of  its  various  states  and  islands.  To  which  are  added, 
 an  abridgement  of  the  last  census  of  the  United  States — a  chronoiogicnltable  o-'remarkable 
 events  from  the  creation  to  this  time — an  improved  list  of  ancient  and  uitxlern  learned  and 
 eminent  nien — and  a  copious  index  to  the  whole  work.  The  whole  comprehending  a  com- 
 plete system  of  modern  geography.  Accompanied  by  a  new  and  elegant  general  atlas  of 
 the  world,  containing  (in  a  separate  quarto  volum.e)  sixty -three  maps,  comprising,  as  far 
 r<s  they  could  he  obtained,  all  the  latest  discoveries  to  the  present  time.  By  .tedidiah 
 jMorse,!).  D.  F.  A.A.  S.  H.  S.  minister  of  the  Congregational  church  in  Charlestown. 
 Sixth  edition.  Arranged  on  a  new  plan,  and  improved  in  ever}'  part  by  a  laborious  exam- 
 ination of  most  of  the  iate  respectable  voyages  and  travels,  in  Europe  and  Asia,  by  a  free 
 use  of  the  information  in  the  abridgement  of  Pinkerton's  excellent  geography,  and  by  the 
 late  admirable  statistical  tables  of  Hassel." 
 
 In  conformity  to  tiie  act  of  the  congress  of  the  United  States,  entitled,  "  An  act  for  the 
 encouragement  of  learning,  by  securing  the  copies  of  maps,  charts,  and  books,  to  the  au- 
 thors and  proprietors  of  such  copies,  during  the  times  therein  mentioned  ;"  and  also  to  an 
 act  entiticil,  "  An  act  supplementary  to  an  act,  entitled,  an  act  for  the  encouragement  of 
 learning,  by  securing  the  copies  of  maps,  charts,  and  books,  to  the  authors  and  proprietors 
 of  such  copies,  during  the  times  therein  mentioned  ;  and  extending  the  benefits  thereof  to 
 the  arts  ol  designing,  engi-aving,  and  <tt:hing  historical,  and  other  prints," 
 
 WILLIAM  S.  SHAW, 
 Clerk  of  the  District  ofMassacJnisetts 
 
f(t 
 
AMERICAN 
 
 I NDTJRSAL  GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PART   SECOND. 
 THE  EASTERN  CONTINENT, 
 
 F.MBKACING  EUROPE,  ASIA,  AND  AFRICA,  AVITH  THF.IR  ADJA- 
 CENT  ISLANDS. 
 
 EXTENT,   BOUNDARIES,  POrULATIOX,  CITIES,  SEAS,  BAYS,  SCUNDS, 
 STRAITS,  LAKES,  RIVERS,  MOUNl^AINS,  DESERTS. 
 
 1  T^HE  length  of  the  Eastern  Continent,  from  North 
 J<.xt€nt.\  J^  Cape,  in  lat.  71  10,  N.  to  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  is 
 105  39  of  latitude,  or  7340  English  miles.  Its  breadth,  from 
 East  Cape  to  the  western  coast  of  Norway,  is  173  of  longitude  ; 
 which,  in  the  parallel  67,  is  4696  miles.  In  lat.  38  N.  from  the 
 Rock  of  Lisbon,  in  Ion.  9  35  W.  to  the  eastern  coast  of  Corea, 
 its  breadth  is  138  35,  or  7557  miles.  Cape  Verd,  the  western 
 extremity  of  Africa,  is  in  Ion.  17  31  W.  ;  and  East  Cape,  the 
 remotest  limit  of  Asia,  is  in  190  E.  Cape  Taimour,  on  the  north- 
 ern coast  of  Asia,  is  in  lat.  77  N.  ;  and  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  thp 
 southernmost  point  of  Africa,  is  in  lat.  34  29  S.  The  number  of 
 square  miles  on  this  continent  is  usually  calculated  at  22,600,000. 
 If  the  islands  belonging  to  it  be  added,  together  with  those  of  Au- 
 stralasia and  Polynesia,  it  may  probably  amount  to  28,000,000.* 
 
 Boundarie.'i.~\  The  Frozen  Ocean  bounds  this  continent  on  the 
 N. ;  the  Pacific  and  Indian  on  the  E.  ;  the  Indian  and  Southern 
 on  the  S. ;  and  the  Atlantic  on  the  W. 
 
 Population.']  From  the  best  data  in  our  possession,  we  arc  led  to 
 estimate  the  population  of  the  Eastern  Continent,  including  Aus- 
 
 "  The  followins;  is  TIassel's  estimate  of  tlte  globe 
 
 Europe,  ....        3,;i-S/',ul9*^ 
 
 Asia, 16,;28,()0'2 
 
 Africa,        ....  Il,0ji,'i42 
 
 Eastern  Contiiie-.it, 
 Australasia  anil     7 
 Polynesia,  ^ 
 
 America, 
 
 Earth, 
 
 VOL.  II. 
 
 31,707,463 
 4,104,420 
 
 S'i.kiO.lSr 
 
 CcTm^n  square  miles 
 
 1;>4,531 
 531,638 
 
 1,449,377 
 190,000 
 753,000 
 
 i-V392,5rr 
 
1-0  EASTERN  CONTINEN'l'. 
 
 tralasia  and  Polynesia,  at  730,000,000,  or  about  26  to  a  square  mile. 
 With  regard  to  that  of  Asia,  including  Australasia  and  Polynesia, 
 we  follow  Pinkerton,  and  believe,  that  if  Sir  George  Staunton's  ac- 
 count of  the  population  of  China  be  correct,  it  does  not  fall  short  of 
 500,000,000.  With  regard  to  that  of  Africa  we  are  satisfied  from 
 the  great  population  of  the  empire  of  Morocco,  and  the  popu- 
 lousness  of  the  country  of  Soudan,  as  lately  announced  by  Jack- 
 son, that  it  is  at  least  i0,000,000.  In  Europe  we  are  guided  by 
 Hassel's  Tables,  which  state  its  population  at  179,874,000,  or  in 
 round  numbers  180,000,000. 
 
 Cilies.^  The  large  cities  of  this  continent  ai*e  the  following, 
 ranged  according  to  their  population  ;  Pekin,  Nankin,  and  Canton, 
 in  China  ;  Calcutta,  in  Bengal ;  London,  in  England  ;  Ispahan,  in 
 Persia  ;  Jeddo,  in  Japan  ;  Paris,  in  France  ;  Naples,  in  Italy  ; 
 Miaco,  in  Japan  ;  Fas,  in  Morocco  ;  Lisbon,  in  Portugal  ;  Con- 
 stantinople, in  Turkey  ;  Cairo,  in  Egypt  ;  Moscow  and  Peters- 
 burg, in  Russia  ;  Morocco,  in  Morocco  ;  Aleppo,  in  Syria  ;  Vi- 
 enna, in  Austria  ;  and  Amsterdam,  in  Holland.  All  these,  in  their 
 population,  exceed  200,000,  the  utmost  limit  to  which  any  of  those 
 on  the  American  continent  have  arrived,  and  are  therefore  the 
 largest  cities  in  the  world.  The  following  are  the  cities  of  the 
 Eastern  Continent,  which  exceed  100,000,  and  fall  short  of  200,000, 
 in  their  population  :  Damascus,  Dublin,  Rome,  Madrid,  Berlin, 
 Venice,  Milan,  Smyrna,  Philippopol,  Barcelona,  Mequinez,  Valen- 
 cia, Manchester,  Hamburg,  and  Adrionople.  Twenty  one  of  the  ci- 
 ties in  the  above  lists  are  in  Europe,  the  whole  population  of  which 
 exceeds  4,946,000  ;  and  ten  are  in  Asia,  the  amount  of  whose  pop- 
 ulation, according  to  the  best  accovmts,  is  upwards  of  10,055,000. 
 Seas.']  The  Mediterranean,  the  largest  sea  in  the  world,  lies 
 between  Spain  on  the  W.  ;  P'rance,  Italy,  Turkey,  and  Asia  Minor 
 on  the  N.  ;  Syria  on  the  E.  ;  and  Egypt,  Tripoli,  Tunis,  Algiers, 
 and  Morocco  on  the  S.  It  was  anciently  called  the  G7-eat  Sea,  the 
 Grccicm  Sea,  and  likewise  by  its  present  name.  To  the  west  of 
 Italy  it  is  called  the  Tuscan  Sea  ;  between  Italy  and  Turkey,  the 
 Gulf  of  Fe?dce,  the  Adriatic  ;  between  Turkey  and  Asia  Minor, 
 the  ylrchf/ielago,  the  JEgean  ;  and  south  of  Asia  Minor,  the  Le- 
 vant. Its  length,  from  E.  to  W-  is  2000  miles  :  its  breadth  varies 
 from  100  to  800  miles,  and  probably  averages  about  400.  If  this 
 be  correct,  it  covers  a  surface  of  800,000  square  miles.  The 
 large  rivers,  which  flow  directly  into  the  Mediterranean,  are  the 
 Ebro,  Rhone,  and  Po,  from  Europe;  and  the  Nile  from  Africa. 
 The  principal  islands,  which  it  contains,  are  Sicily,  Sardinia,  Cor- 
 sica, and  Majorca,  in  the  Tuscan  Sea  ;  Cefaionia  and  Corfu  in  the 
 mouth  of  the  Adriatic  ;  Ne^y^opont  in  the  Archipelago,  Candia 
 near  its  mouth  ;  and  Rhodes  and  Cyprus  in  the  Levant.  The 
 jNIediterranean,  at  its  western  extremity,  is  connected  v/ith  the 
 Ailantic  by  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar.  The  Adriatic  opens 
 into  it  through  the  Straits  of  Otranto.  Tlie  Archipelago,  at  its 
 northeastern  extremity,  is  connected,  by  the  Dardanelles,  the  an- 
 cient Hellesp.ont,  with  Uie  Sea  oi  Marmora,  the  ancient  Propontis. 
 Tliis  sea,  lying  between  Turkey  on  the  N.,  and  Asia  Minor  on  the 
 
EASTERN  CONTINENT.  11 
 
 S.,  is  90  miles  long  from  E.  to  W.,  and  40  broad.  The  Straits  of 
 Constantinople,  the  Thracian  Bosphorus.,  unites  it  Avith  the  Eux- 
 ine  or  Black  Sea. 
 
 The  EuxiNE  is  bounded  by  Turkey  and  Russia  W.  ;  by  Russia 
 N.  ;  by  Mingrclia  and  Georgia  E.  ;  and  by  Asia  Minor  S.  Its 
 length  from  E.  to'  W-,  according  to  Tooke,  is  800  miles,  and  its 
 breadth  400.  The  coast,  from  Constantinople  E.  as  far  as  the 
 Phasis,  is  bold,  and  the  navigation  unusually  safe.  From  the  Pha- 
 sis,  N.  W.  to  the  Kuban,  it  is  very  little  known.  Thence,  around 
 the  Crimea,  to  Odessa,  it  is  every  where  deep  and  clear.  Between 
 Odessa  and  Constantinople  the  shore  is  low,  and  the  soundings 
 decrease  gradually,  as  you  approach  it.  Storms  on  this  sea  are 
 not  frequent,  nor  of  long  duration.  The  north  east  is  the  prevail- 
 ing wind  of  summer,  which  carries  vessels  very  rapidly,  in  that 
 season,  from  Caffa  to  Constantinople.  This  wind  extends  to  the 
 island  of  Tenedos.  The  large  I'ivers,  which  fall  into  the  Euxine, 
 are  the  Danube,  Neistcr,  Bog,  and  Neiper.  It  has  no  islands  of 
 any  note. 
 
 The  straits  bf  CafTa,  the  Cimerian  Bosphorus^  connect  it  on  the 
 N.  with  the  Sea  of  Azof,  the  Palus  Mccotis  of  antiquity.  This  sea, 
 according  to  Tooke,  is  1  60  miles  long,  from  N.  E.  to  S.  W.  with- 
 out including  the  bay  of  Taganrok,  which  is  50  more  ;  and  1 30  broad. 
 It  is  every  where  shallow,  and  within  30  years  has  been  fast  and 
 unaccountably  filling  up  with  sand.  Aboiit  35  years  ago,  vessels 
 drawing  12  feet  water  loaded  at  Taganrok  ;  now  they  cannot  go 
 within  twenty  miles  of  it.  In  consequence  of  this  fact  the  com- 
 merce of  this  Sea  is  at  present  carried  on  principally  by  boats.  The 
 waters  of  the  Don  fall  into  the  northeastern  exti'emity  of  the  Bay 
 of  Taganrok. 
 
 The  Baltic  lies  wholly  in  Europe.  It  opens  from  the  German 
 Sea  by  a  gulf,  pointing  N<  E.,  called  the  Skagcr  Rack  ;  and  after- 
 wards passes  S.  through  what  is  called  the  Cattegat.,  and  farther 
 on  through  the  Sound  of  Elsineur,  the  Great  Belt,  and  the  Little 
 Belt,  straits  formed  by  the  Danish  Islands  ;  as  far  as  53  50  the 
 latitude  of  Wismar.  From  the  coasts  of  Jutland  and  Holstein  its 
 direction  is  eastward,  as  far  as  the  western  coast  of^'ourland. 
 From  the  northern  shores  of  Prussia  it  is  N.  by  E.  to  its  northern 
 extremity,  in  lat  65  50.  Its  length,  from  Tornea  to  Wismar,  is 
 about  900  miles,  and  from  Wismar  to  the  Ocean  about  450.*  Its 
 breadth,  between  Sweden  and  Germany,  is  75  miles  ;  between, 
 Sweden  and  Russia,  in  many  places,  more  than  150.  North  of 
 lat.  60  it  is  called  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia.  The  length  of  this  part  is 
 about  420  miles.*  Immediately  belov/  this  latitude  the  Gulf  of 
 Finland  opens  from  the  east ;  the  length  of  which  is  about  300  miles, 
 and  its  breadth  80. f  These  two  gulfs  arc  frozen  over  for  three 
 months  every  winter.  Between  Courland  and  Livonia,  also,  the 
 Gulf  of  Riga  opens  from  the  S.  E.,  and  is  about  60  miles  long.| 
 The  greatest  depth  of  this  sea  is  said  not  to  exceed  50  fathoms  ; 
 and,  according  to  repeated  observations  made  in  Sweden,  is  stead- 
 
 *   Avrowsraith's  iVfap.  t  'I'ooke.  +  Malliani. 
 
12  EASTERN  CONTINENT. 
 
 ily  decreasing  at  the  rate  of  45  inches  in  a  century.*  It  is  also  as' 
 serted,  that  the  water  docs  not  contain  above  one  thirtieth  part  of 
 salt ;  whereas  other  sea  water  often  holds  a  tenth.  This  fresh- 
 ness is  imputed  to  the  quantity  of  ice.  And  it  is  likewise  said, 
 that,  when  the  north  wind  blows,  the  waters  become  so  fresh,  that 
 they  may  even  be  used  for  domestic  purposes.  Tides  are  un- 
 known, and  the  fish  are  few.  The  great  rivers  of  the  Baltic  are 
 the  Dwina,  the  Memel,  the  Vistula,  and  the  Oder.  The  princi- 
 pal islands  are  Zealand,  Funen,  and  Laland,  Rugen,  Bornholm, 
 Gotland,  Osel  and  Aland. 
 
 The  Red  Sea,  the  Si7ius  Arabkus  of  the  ancients,  is  the  natural 
 boundary  between  Asia  and  Africa ;  having  Arabia  on  the  E.,  and 
 Egypt  and  Abyssinia  on  the  W.  Its  length,  from  N.  N.  W.  to  S. 
 S.  E.,  is  about  1470  miles,  and  its  common  breadth  120.  At  Pas 
 al  Mohammed^  in  lat.  27  51,  it  is  divided  into  two  gulfs  ;  the  Gulf 
 of  Akaba,  Sinus  ^Elaniticus^  on  the  E.  ;  and  the  Gulf  of  Suez,  Si- 
 nus Heroopoliticus,  on  the  W.  The  latter  is  about  200  miles  long. 
 The  former  is  90  miles  long,  and  has  a  ridge  of  rocks  nearly  across  its 
 mouth,  which  is  18  miles  wide,  and  is  divided  by  the  island  Turone, 
 or  Tyron.  The  old  maps  incorrectly  delineate  these  gulfs  as  of 
 equal  extent.  The  bottom  of  the  Red  Sea  is  overspread  with 
 trees  of  coral.  All  the  western  shore  is  bold,  and  has  considera- 
 ble depth  of  water.  But  it  is  every  where  rocky,  affording  no  an- 
 choring ground  ;  and  there  are  a  number  of  sunken  rocks  suf- 
 ficiently near  the  surface  to  destroy  a  large  ship.  The  eastern 
 coast  is  a  sandy  desert ;  and  is  lined  with  many  sand  islands  ;  the 
 ■water  is  less  deep,  and  has  a  sandy  bottom.  This,  as  Bruce  sup- 
 poses, is  owing  to  the  flying  sand  from  the  Arabian  coast,  which  is 
 driven  every  winter  by  the  monsoon,  in  great  quantities,  into  the 
 Sea,  and  is  gradually  filling  up  its  harbors,  and  contracting  its 
 limits.  The  Straits  of  Babelmandel  connect  it  with  a  bay  of  the 
 Arabian  Sea.  The  channel,  a  little  westward  of  the  Straits,  is  di- 
 vided by  the  island  of  Perim.  The  northern  is  6  miles  broad,  and 
 has  from  12  to  17  fathom  of  water.  The  southern  is  9  miles 
 broad,  and  has  from  20  to  30  fathom  ;  but  is  rendered  dangerous 
 by  rocks. t 
 
 The  Persian  Gulf,  or  Sea  ofOrmus,  sometimes  also  called  the 
 Gulf  of  Balgora^  and  anciently  Pcrsicinn  J\fa7-e,  awd  Persicua  Si7ius, 
 lies  between  Persia  on  the  N.  E.  and  Arabia  on  the  S.  W.  It  is 
 700  miles  long,  and  from  70  to  180  broad.  It  receives,  from  the 
 N.  W.  the  waters  of  the  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris,  Avhich  imite  at 
 Gormo,  about  100  miles  from  the  sea,  and  are  discharged  by  a 
 common  channel.  This  sea  opens,  through  the  Straits  of  Ormus, 
 into  a  bay  Avhich  sets  up  from  the  Arabian  Sea. 
 
 The  White  Sea  is  iu  the  north  of  European  Russia.  It  opens 
 from  the  S.  W.  into  the  Frozen  Ocean.  It  extends  from  lat.  63 
 to  69  N.|  and  is  about  500  miles  long.  Its  shores  are  generally 
 bold  and  rocky.  The  water  contains  but  little  salt.  The  tides  are 
 small.     The  fish  are  whales,  morses,  porpoises,  seadogs,  herring, 
 
 ■  Took*.-.  ^  Btuce.  i  Tooke. 
 
EASTERN  CONTINENT.  13^ 
 
 nnd  stockfish.     The  Dwma,  from  the  S.  E.,  falls  into  it  at  Arch- 
 anp^el. 
 
 The  Arabian  Sea,  which  may  more  fitly  be  denominated  a  large 
 Bay^  sets  up  from  the  Indian  Ocean,  about  1 100  miles  between 
 Cape  Guardefan  and  Cape  Comorin  ;  having  Hindostan  E.  Persia 
 N.,  Arabia  and  Africa  W.  From  Cape  Guardefan,  across  its 
 mouth  to  Cape  Comorin,  is  not  less  than  1800  miles.  The  Lacca- 
 dives  and  Maldives  are  two  clusters  of  islands  near  its  southeastern 
 extremity. 
 
 Bays.']  The  Bay  of  Bengal,  is  on  the  E.  side  of  Hindostan, 
 having  Ava  and  Malaya  on  the  E.  From  the  parallel  of  Dondra 
 Head,  to  the  mouth  of  the  Burrampooter,  is  about  1200  miles  ;  and 
 from  the  eastern  coasts  of  Hindostan  and  Ceylon  across  to  Malaya, 
 is  about  1250,  The  Kristna,  Godavery,  Ganges,  Burrampooter, 
 and  Irawaddy,  all  empty  into  this  bay.  The  Andaman  and  Nico- 
 bar  Isles  lie  near  its  eastern  coast. 
 
 The  Bay  of  Okotsk  opens  into  tlrc  Pacific  Ocean,  between 
 Cape  Lepatka  and  the  Island  of  Jesso  ;  and  into  the  Sea  of  Japan, 
 through  the  Straits  of  Saghalien.  Its  northeastern  extremity  is 
 called  the  Gulf  of  Pengina.  The  length  of  this  bay,  from  the 
 mouth  of  the  river  Pengina  to  Jesso,  is  1300  miles ;  and  its  breadth, 
 in  lat.  55,  is,  according  to  Sauer,  about  850.  The  waters  of  the 
 Amour  are  poured  into  it  from  the  S.  E.  The  large  Russian 
 island  of  Saghalien,  or  Tchoka,  separates  it  from  the  Sea  of  Japan, 
 and  the  Kurille  Islands  reach  from  Lepatka  across  its  mouth  to 
 Jesso,  a  tributary  of  Japan. 
 
 The  Yellow  Sea,  or  Gulf  of  Lcao  Tow^,  is  merely  abay,  setting 
 up  between  Corea  and  China,  about  400  miles  long,  and  from  lOo 
 to  250  broad.*  The  Hoang-ho  falls  into  it  from  the  W.  It  opcnS, 
 from  the  N.  W.  into  the  Pacific. 
 
 The  Bay  of  Biscay  is  alarge  arm  of  the  Atlantic,  setting  up  into 
 Europe  between  Spain  and  France.  From  the  E.  it  receives  the 
 Garonne  and  the  Loire. 
 
 The  Gulf  o?  Tonquin  lies  between  China  and  Cochin-China. 
 It  is  very  extensive,  but  its  limits  as  a  bay  are  not  very  strongly 
 marked.  It  opens  into  the  China  Sea.  The  large  island  of  Hai- 
 nan lies  near  its  mouth.  Farther  S.  the  Gulf  of  Siam  opens  into 
 the  same  sea,  from  the  N.  W.  between  Cambodia  and  Malaya.  Its 
 length  is  about  450  miles,  and  its  breadth  250. 
 
 The  Gulf  of  Oby  i-cceives  the  river  of  the  same  name  in  lat. 
 67  N.f  and  discharges  it  into  the  Frozen  Ocean  in  lat.  73  50. :j: 
 Its  direction  is  from  N.  N.  E.  to  S.  S.  W.,  and  its  length  about  500 
 miles.     Its  width  is  nearly  uniform,  and  no  where  very  great. 
 
 Hounda.]  The  great  mass  of  water  lying  between  Kamtchatka 
 .and  Tchutskoi  W,  America  E.  and  Alaska  and  the  Alcatian  isles 
 j.  is  usually  called  the  Sea  of  Kamtchatka.  It  is  an  immense 
 sound  opening   northward,   through   Behriug's   straits,   into  the 
 
 *  Ciutwell. 
 j  N.  B.  Lat.  and  Long,  denote  that  the  dibtance  is  calcu1ati;<l  from   the  L:Ulti'.rle 
 iiO  I.uii,2;;U'.de  ol'ihc extreme  jioinls. 
 
 \  Tooke. 
 
14  EASTERN  CONTINENT. 
 
 Frozen  Ocean,  and  belonging  indifferently  to  either  continent.  Its 
 Borthwestcrn  extremity  is  a  large  bay,  called  the  Gulf  of  Anadyr  i 
 aind  its  southeastern  another  of  inferior  size,  called  Bristol  Bay. 
 From  the  Alcatan  isles  to  East  Cape,  is  about  1 5  of  latitude,  or 
 1040  miles  ;  and,  from  Bristol  Bay  to  the  coast  of  Kamtchatka, 
 about  40  of  longitude,  on  the  parallel  of  58  30,  or  1450  miles. 
 
 China  Sea  is  also  an  immense  sound,  lying  N.  E.  and  S.  W. 
 between  Sumatra,  Malaya,  Cochin-China,  Tonquin,  and  China,  on 
 tile  W.  and  Borneo,  the  Philippine  Isles,  and  Formosa  on  the  E. 
 It  may  be  considered  as  extending  from  the  line  of  the  southern 
 shore  of  Borneo,  in  lat.  3  S.  to  the  channel  between  China  and 
 Formosa,  in  lat.  25  N.  upwards  of  2000  miles.  Its  average 
 width  probably  exceeds  600. 
 
 The  Sea  OF  Java  is  merely  a  continuation  of  the  preceding. 
 Commencing  at  Sumatra,  it  passes  eastward  between  the  Sunda 
 isles,  on  the  S.,  and  Borneo,  Celebes,  Bouro,  and  Ceram,  on  the 
 N.,  as  far  as  Aroo  and  the  coast  of  New  Guinea  ;  a  distance  of 
 about  2000  miles. 
 
 The  Sea  of  Japan,  or  the  Channel  of  Tartary,  reaches  in  a  N. 
 N.  E.  direction,  from  35  to  52  N.  By  the  straits  of  Corea  it 
 communicates  with  the  Pacific  ;  and,  by  the  very  narrow  straits 
 cf  Srglialien,  is  connected  with  the  gulf  of  Ochotsk.  Corea  and 
 Chinese  Tartary  limit  it  on  the  W.  and  the  islands  Niphon,  Jes- 
 so,  and  Saghalien  on  the  E.  Its  length  cannot  be  less  than  1400 
 miles.  It  is  broad  between  Niphon  and  Corea.  The  northern 
 part  is  much  narrower.  It  has  two  lateral  communications  with 
 the  ocean  ;  La  Peyrouse's  straits,  between  Jesso  and  Saghalien  ; 
 and  the  Straits  of  Sungaar,  between  Niphon  and  Jesso. 
 
 The  Channel  of  Mozambique  lies  between  Madagascar  and  Af- 
 rica, and  may  be  considered  as  extending  the  whole  length  of  the 
 island,  840  miles.  In  its  narrowest  paU  it  is  about  270  miles 
 across.* 
 
 The  Channel  of  Kurakoi,  or  Kara,  is  a  large  arm  of  the  Frozen 
 ocean,  lying  between  the  eastern  shore  of  Nova  Zcmbla  and  Sibe- 
 ria.    The  Straits  of  Weggat  connect  it  with  the  ocean  westward. 
 
 The  German  Ocean,  or  North  sea,  is  an  extensive  sound; 
 having  Great  Britain,  the  Orkney  and  Shetland  isles,  on  the  W. 
 and  Denmark,  Holland,  the  Netherlands,  and  France,  on  the  E.  It 
 reaches  from  lat.  51  to  60  17  N.  and  its  length,  of  course,  is 
 645  miles.  This  sound  has  many  sand  banks.  The  Goodwin 
 sands  off  the  coast  of  Kent,  are  ratlier  dangerous  to  the  mariner, 
 than  inviting  to  the  fisherman  ;  but  on  the  coast  of  Holland  there 
 are  many  banks,  which  supply  escellentfish,  as  turbot,  soal, plaice, 
 See.  Further  to  the  N.  is  the  extensive  Dogger  bank,  stretching 
 S.  E.  and  N.  W.  beginning  about  12  leagues  from  Flamborough 
 head,  and  extending  about  216  miles  toward  the  coast  of  Jutland. 
 Between  the  Dogger  and  the  Well  bank,  to  the  S.  are  the  silver- 
 pits  of  the  mariners,  abounding  with  cod.  The  Ore,  and  the 
 Lemon  banks  liejbetween  these  banks  and  the  British  shores.     To 
 
EASTERN  CONTINENT.  U 
 
 the  N.  E.  of  the  Dogger  is  the  Horn-riff,  extending  to  Jutland- 
 The  Jutts-riff  is  a  sand-bank  stretching,  like  a  crescent,  from  the 
 mouth  of  the  Baltic  into  the  German  sea. 
 
 The  English  Channel  is  a  smaller  sound,  between  the  S.  of 
 England  and  the  N.  W.  of  France.  Its  length  is  350  miles.  Its 
 breadth  varies  from  2 1  to  1 50.  It  contains  the  Isle  of  Wight,  ansi 
 several  smaller  ones  on  the  French  coast.  The  Straita  of  Dover 
 connect  it  with  the  German  Ocean. 
 
 St.  George's  Channel,  between  Ireland  and  Great  Britain,  is 
 larger  than  the  preceding.  Its  centre  is  sometimes  called  the 
 Irish  sea  ;  and  the  northern  end,  the  N.  Channel.  It  opens  into 
 the  Atlantic,  from  the  N.  E.  between  Mizen  Head  and  Land's  end; 
 and,  from  the  S.  W.  between  the  isle  of  Isla  and  the  country  of 
 Antrim.  Taken  in  this  extensive  sense  its  length  is  upwards  d" 
 400  miles  ;  while  its  breadth  varies  from  20  to  1 70.  The  isles  of 
 Man  and  Anglesea,  with  several  smaller  ones,  lie  in  this  channel. 
 
 Straits.^  The  Straits  of  Gibraltar  extend  from  W.toE.  40 
 miles.  In  this  distance  there  are  three  remarkable  promontories  oa 
 the  Spanish  side,  and  three  opposite  to  them  on  the  coast  of  Morocco. 
 The  first  of  these,  on  the  coast  of  Spain,  is  cape  Trafalgar  ;  oppo- 
 site to  which  is  cape  Spartel.  Th€  next  is  Tarifa ;  and  over 
 against  it  is  Malabata.  Between  these  the  strait  is  only  15  miles 
 wide.  The  third  is  Gibraltar;  (Caljie  ;)  and,  on  the  other  side, 
 is  Abyla,  near  the  town  of  Ceuta.  Gibraltar  and  Abyla  were  an- 
 ciently called  the  pillars  of  Hercules. 
 
 The  Dardanelles,  the  ancient  Hellespont,  is  a  long  narrow 
 strait,  between  Asia  Minor  and  the  shore  of  Turkey.  It  is  33  miles 
 long,  and  from  half  a  mile  to  a  mile  and  a  half  broad.* 
 
 The  Straits  of  Constantinople,  the  ancient  Tkracian  Bcs^- 
 fihorus,  are  about  12  4  miles  long,  and  from  half  a  mile  to  a  mile 
 and  a  half  broadv  They  lie  in  a  N.  E.  direction,  between  Europe 
 and  Asia. 
 
 The  Straits  of  Caffa,  the  ancient  Cimmeria?i  Bosji/toi'us,  \m 
 between  the  Crimea  and  Asia. 
 
 The  Staits  of  Babelmandel  ai*e  between  the  Red  sea  and  a. 
 bay  of  the  Arabian  sea.  This  bay  sets  up  westward  between  Cape 
 Guardefan  and  Cape  Fartak.  The  distance  of  these  capes  is  15G 
 miles.  After  entering  the  bay  from  the  east,  the  shores  of  Arabia 
 and  Adel  gradually  approximate,  for  the  distance  of  450  miles,  till 
 at'^e  straits  they  are  only  1 8  miles  distant.  The  straits  of  Malacca 
 separate  Sumatra  from  the  penuisula  of  Malaya.  They  may  be  con- 
 sidered as  extendmg  about  150  miles  in  length,  from  N.  W.  to  S.  E. 
 
 The  Straits  OF  Dover,  between  Dover  and  Calais,  connect  th*.- 
 English  channel  with  the  German  ocean.  In  the  narrowest  pan 
 they  are  21  miles  wide.  Their  breadth  is  thought  to  be  gradualh 
 lessening.  The  depth,  in  the  straits,  is  about  25  fathom.  On  ei- 
 ther side  it  rapidly  increases  to  100  fathom.  The  spring  tides  risi 
 in  the  straits  24  feet ;  the  neap-tides  15,  The  tide  from  the  nort!< 
 is  earlier,  higher,  and  more  violent  than  that  from  the  v'est- 
 
 *  Encydopoec'i:-.. 
 
16  EASTERN  CONTINENT. 
 
 The  Straits  of  Weygat  lie  between  Nova  Zcmbla  and 
 Russia. 
 
 Z.akes.l  The  Caspian,  Mai-e  Caspianiy  -was  anciently  called,  by 
 the  Greeks,  the  Hyrcanian  sea.  From  the  mouth  of  the  Ural,  in 
 lat.  46  15,  to  Astrabat,  in  36  50,  it  is  650  miles  long.  Its  great- 
 est northern  breadth  from  the  mouth  of  the  Wolga  to  the  gulf  of 
 Yemba  is  265  ;  while  its  greatest  southern  breadth,  from  the  mouth 
 of  the  Orxantes  westward  to  the  rrrouth  of  the  Linkcran,  is  but  235. 
 Its  circumference  is  2820  miles,  and  its  area  upwards  of  36,000. 
 The  coast  of  the  Caspian,  from  the  southern  mouth  of  the  Wolga 
 round  the  northern  shore  and  the  gulf  of  Yemba,  as  far  as  the  Ku- 
 lala,  is  flat  and  swampy,  and  overgrown  with  reeds,  the  waters 
 shallow,  and  the  bottom  a  thick  slime.  From  the  southward  round 
 Kulaia  to  the  Wolga  the  country  is  hilly  ;  and  the  sea  has  a  bold 
 shore  and  deep  waters.  The  bottom  and  the  shore,  on  the  north, 
 arc  universally  a  coarse  shell-sand,  lying,  layer  upon  layer,  three 
 fathoms  deep.  The  waters  of  this  sea  are  salt,  notwithstanding  the 
 immense  influx  of  fresh  water  from  its  large  and  nvimerous  rivers. 
 They  are,  in  many  places,  more  than  450  fathoms  deep  ;  and  have 
 no  visible  outlet.  There  is  no  perceptible  tide.  The  fish  of  the 
 Caspian  are  the  sturgeon,  sterlet,  seal,  porpoise,  salmon,  and  her- 
 ring. The  chief  rivers  which  fall  into  it  are  the  Yemba,  Ural, 
 Wolga,  Terek,  Kur,  and  Tedjcn.  It  contains  a  considerable  num- 
 ber of  Islands,  mostly  sandy.  The  principal  harbors  and  roads 
 are  those  of  Derbent,  Nisovaia,  Baku,  Sallian  on  the  Kur,  Ensili, 
 Medshetifar,  Farabat,  Tukaragan  and  Mangishlak.* 
 
 The  Aral  lies  about  100  miles  east  of  the  Caspian.  It  is  about 
 200  miles  long  from  N.  to  S.,  and  about  70  broad.  The  Gihon, 
 thought  to  be  the  ancient  Oxus,  falls  into  its  southern  extremity  ; 
 -and  the  Sihon  or  Sirr,  believed  to  be  the  laxartesy  flows  in  from 
 the  East.  This  lake,  being  surrounded  by  sandy  deserts,  has  been 
 little  explored  ;  but  it  is  salt  like  the  Caspian,  and  has  many  small 
 saline  lakes  in  its  vicinity. f 
 
 The  Baikal  lies  in  the  government  of  Irkutsk  in  Siberia,  and 
 extends  from  lat.  51  to  above  55.  It  is  upwards  of  400  miles 
 long,  from  N.  E.  to  S.  W.  and  from  20  to  50  miles  broad  ;  and  is 
 surrounded  almost  entirely  with  high  and  generally  bald  mountains. 
 The  water  is  uncommonly  clear,  and  usually  frozen  over  from  the 
 last  of  December  to  the  first  of  May.  It  is  subject  to  frequent^nd 
 very  violent  storms,  particularly  in  September.  Here  are  plltity 
 of  seals,  herring,  and  other  kinds  of  fish.  The  Baikal  has  some  isl- 
 ands, the  largest  of  which  is  Olkhon,  near  the  sulphur  S7:)rings. 
 The  upper  Angara,  the  Bargusin  and  the  Selinga  join  it  from  the  N. 
 E.  and  S.  The  lower  Angai-a,  near  its  southwestern  extremity, 
 conducts  its  waters  to  the  Ycnisea.:j: 
 
 The  Ladoga,  in  European  Russia,  flows  through  the  Neva  into 
 the  gulph  of  Finland.  By  the  Svir  it  is  connected  with  the  Onega, 
 and  by  the  Volkhof  with  the  Ilmen.  It  is  the  largest  lake  of  Eu- 
 rope, being  140  miles  long,  and  80  broad.     On  account  of  its  sand- 
 
 *  Tcoke.  t  Pinkerton.  I  Tooke. 
 
EASTERN  CONTINENT.  17 
 
 banks  and  its  liability  to  dangerous  storms,  Peter  the  Great  open- 
 ed a  canal  84  miles  in  length  along  its  southern  shore,  from  the- 
 Volkhof  to  the  Neva.      The  southern  shore  is  low  and  sandy.* 
 
 Onega  Lake  lies  in  the  government  of  Olonet-z,  between  the 
 Ladoga  and  the  White  sea.  It  is  about  150  miles  long,  and  from. 
 40  to  60  broad.  It  has  several  islands,  consisting  of  marble.  A 
 canal  of  30  miles  would  connect  the  Vitegra,  a  tributary  of  the 
 Onega,  with  the  Kofsha,  which  empties,  through  the  White  Lake, 
 into  the  Wolga.* 
 
 Bi-vers.^  The  Hoang-ho  or  Yellow  river,  in  China,  rises  in  two 
 lakes,  situated  among  the  mountains  of  that  part  of  Tartary 
 known  by  the  name  of  Kokonor.  They  lie,  on  Arrowsmith's 
 map,  in  about  lat.  35  N.  and  Ion.  97  E.  This  immense  river,  as 
 there  delineated,  pursues  a  southeasterly  direction  beyond  Ion.  10  5 
 E.  where  it  turns  back  to  the  N.  W.  and  in  Ion.  99  turning  towards 
 the  N.  descends  as  far  as  lat.  42,  then  running  due  east  to  Ion. 
 1 1 1,  it  bends  suddenly  to  the  S.  to  a  latitude  nearly  parallel  with 
 its  source  ;  and  thence  pursues  an  easterly  direction  till  it  is  losi 
 in  the  Yellow  sea.  Its  exact  length  is  not  known.  According 
 to  Arrowsmith  it  cannot  be  less  than  3500  miles. 
 
 The  KiAx-KU  rises  near  the  source  of  the  Hoang-ho,  but,  accord- 
 ing to  the  map  about  200  miles  farther  W. ;  and  winds  to  the  S. 
 nearly  as  far  as  the  Hoang-ho  does  to  the  N.  In  making  this  bend, 
 however,  the  distance  which  it  actually  runs  is  by  no  means  so 
 great.  After  washing  the  walls  of  Nankin,  it  enters  the  sea  about 
 100  miles  S.  of  the  Hoang-ho.  The  Kian-ku  near  its  source  is  call- 
 ed the  Eluts  Petchou  ;  its  course  is  nearly  equal  to  that  of  the 
 Hoang-ho  ;;  and  the  two  rivers  are  probably  the  longest  on  the 
 eastern  continent,  unless  the  Nile  and  the  Niger  are  one  ;  and  arc 
 surpassed  by  none  on  the  globe  except  the  Amazon  and  the  Mis- 
 sissippi. It  is  a  singular  fact  that  these  immense  rivers,  rising  in 
 the  same  mountains,  and  passing  almost  close  to  each  other  in  a 
 particular  spot,  should  afterwards  separate  to  the  distance  of  If. 
 deg.  or  1030  miles,  and  finally  discharge  themselves  into  the  same 
 sea,  within  the  small  distance  of  100  miles. 
 
 The  Lena  takes  its  rise  from  an  inconsiderable  lake  situated  be- 
 tween the  mountains  near  the  Baikal,  about  100  miles  in  a  direct 
 line,  W.  S.  W.  of  Katshuga*  landing  place  in  lat.  52  30  N.  It 
 flows  in  a  gentle  and  uninterrupted  stream,  impeded  in  a  few- 
 places  by  shallows  in  the  summer  and  autumn,  about  300  miles 
 from  its  source,  when  it  deepens  considerably.  Its  course,  though 
 very  winding,  is  generally  E.  N.  E.  to  Yakutsk,  and  nearly  north 
 thence  to  Its  discharge  into  the  Frozen  Ocean,  in  lat.  71  30  N. 
 127  E.  Tho  whole  length  of  this  river  is  about  3450  miles.  As 
 you  ascend  this  river  its  appearance  is  continually  changing. 
 Sometimes  mountains  covered  with  forests  bound  the  channel  ;  at 
 others,  the  banks  are  barren  projecting  into  the  river  and  turning 
 its  course.     In  some  places  the  mountains  retreat  for  sever?.!  miles. 
 
 *  Tooke. 
 t  Katshugais  a  village  on  the  Lena  in  lat.  53  36  N,,  107  2  W.    (Sriner.  p.  19.) 
 
 VOL.    II.  3 
 
18  EASTERN  CONTINENT. 
 
 forming-  a  back  ground  to  extensive  plains,  and  exposing  a  miser- 
 'dbly  built  town,  surrounded  with  cornfields,  gardens  and  pasture 
 grounds,  with  a  few  herds  of  cattle.  These  openings  are  fre- 
 quent, at  unequal  distances  of  4  to  30  miles  from  each  other,  and 
 always  exhibit  villages  as  far  as  Olekma,  1457  miles  from  Katshu- 
 ga.  All  beyond  is  desolate,  except  a  few  huts  inhabited  by  con- 
 victs, who  have  the  charge  of  houses  for  the  post  ;  and  the  towns 
 of  Pokrofsky,  Yakutsk,  and  Gigansk. 
 
 The  ViTiMA  is  the  great  eastern  branch  of  the  Lena.  It  flows 
 from  a  lake  E.  of  the  Baikal,  and  is  nearly  equal  to  the  Lena  itself 
 in  width,  depth,  and  extent.  Their  confluence  is  1042  miles  from 
 the  source  of  the  Lena.  Thence  to  Yakutsk  is  890  miles ;  where 
 the  Lena  is  more  than  three  miles  wide  ;  thence  to  the  Aldan  is 
 168  ;  and  thence  to  the  Viluye  162,  which  falls  into  the  Lena  1 188 
 miles  from  its  mouth.* 
 
 The  Yenisea  is  formed  by  the  union  of  the  Siskit  and  the  Tun- 
 guska.  The  Siskit,  the  western  branch,  rises  in  Chinese  Soongo- 
 ria,  near  the  parallel  of  lat.  50  N.  ;  and  runs  first  N.  W.,  and  after- 
 wards N.  The  Tunguska,  near  its  source  in  lat.  48  is  called  the 
 Selinga.  Its  course  is  N.  E.  till  it  enters  the  Baikal  from  the  S.  E. 
 It  issues  from  that  lake  at  the  S.  W.  end,  under  the  name  of  the  An- 
 gara, which  is  afterwards  absurdly  called  the  Tungusca.  This  is 
 the  only  canal  for  the  waters  of  the  Baikal.  The  Siskit  and  the 
 Tunguska  unite  a  little  distance  above  Yeniseisk,  and  form  the 
 Yenisea.  Its  course  thence  is  nearly  N.  to  lat.  70,  where  it  forms 
 a  loTig  narrow  bay,  the  bay  of  Yenisea,  through  whose  mouth,  in 
 lat.  73  30  N.  it  enters  the  Frozen  Ocean.  Its  widtli,  at  Ycnse- 
 isk,  is  nearly  a  mile.  The  Uss,  the  Tuban,  and  the  Kan,  flow  into 
 the  Siskit  from  the  E. ;  and  the  Abakan  from  the  W.  Below 
 Yeniseisk  the  middle  and  lower  Tunguska  fall  into  the  Yenisea 
 from  the  E.,  and  the  Yelovi  and  Turukhara  from  the  W.  The 
 Yenisea  and  Siskit  are  navigable  as  far  as  Abakan  in  lat  54. 
 The  two  branches  flow  through  a  mountainous  rocky  country  and 
 are  very  rapid  streams.  The  Yenisea  near  its  mouth  has  a  gentle 
 current.f  The  length  of  fSis  river  does  not  probably  fall  much 
 short  of  that  of  the  Lena. 
 
 The  Oey  also  rises  in  Chinese  Soongoria,  whence  it  issues  in  a 
 copious  stream  under  the  name  of  Tshu-lhhman^  or,  as  the  Tartars 
 call  it,  Shabekan.  In  lat.  52  N.  and  Ion.  86  E.  it  falls  into  lake  Te- 
 letzkoe,  called,  by  tlie  Tartars,  Altin  or  Altinkul.  Out  of  this  lake 
 it  flows  under  the  appellation  of  the  By^  not  taking  that  of  the  06y, 
 till  its  junction  with  the  Katunya.  In  lat.  67  N.  and  Ion.  69  E. 
 it  empties  into  the  gulf  of  Oby,  which  unites  it  witli  the  Frozen 
 Ocean  in  lat.  73  50  N.  and  Ion.  t3  E.  From  its  source  to  the 
 mouth  of  the  Ket,  near  lat.  59  N.  its  shores  are  mostly  high  and 
 rocky  ;  but  farther  down  quite  to  its  mouth,  it,  generally  speak- 
 ing, flows  over  a  c'i»-yey,  sandy,  or  marley  bed.  It  is  navigable 
 nearly  to  the  Teletzkol  lake  ;  is  uncommonly  prolific  in  fish  ; 
 and,  in  many  places,  is  bordered  by  forests  of  large  pine  and  birch 
 trees.  Its  length,  to  the  head  of  the  gulf,  is  about  2400  miles, 
 *  Salter's  Emb.  23.  24.  f  Tooke. 
 
EASTERN  CONTINENT.  19 
 
 and,  thence  to  the  ocean,  500.  Its  great  western  branch,  the  Ir- 
 tisu,  is  thought  to  be  at  least  as  long  as  the  Oby  before  their  con- 
 fluence. Rising  in  Chinese  Soongoria,  it  flows  into  lake  Norsai- 
 saii  in  lat.  46  30.  Leaving  this  lake,  it  enters  the  Russian  terri- 
 tory, and,  after  a  long  series  of  meanders,  falls  into  the  Oby  in  lat. 
 61  N.  and  long.  69  E.  The  Tobol  is  a  large  tributary  of  the  Irtish 
 from  the  W.     The  Oby  is  the  largest  river  in  the  Russian  empire.* 
 
 The  Nile  has  two  principal  sources.  The  ef^g|prn,  the  Abay^  or 
 Bahar  el  Asrek^  rises  in  Geesh  in  Abyssinia,  AT  lat.  10  59  25  N. 
 'and  Ion.  36  55  30  E. ;  amid  a  chain  of  mountains,  about  2  miles 
 above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Its  direction  is,  on  the  whole,  N.  E.  to 
 lat.  1 1  45,  where  it  enters  the  lake  Tzana,  or  Dembea,  after  a 
 course  of  about  80  miles.  Running  21  miles  across  the  southern 
 end  of  this  lake,  it  issues  from  it  in  lat.  1 1  40,  and  pursues  a 
 winding  southerly  course  as  far  as  lat.  9  50,  its  most  southern 
 extremity ;  whence  it  proceeds  N.  W.  through  a  mountainous 
 country,  falling  over  several  lofty  cataracts,  particularly  one  in 
 about  lat.  1 1  35,  of  280  feet  in  height.  Continuing  the  same 
 direction  it  leaves  Sennaar  a  little  on  the  W.  and  in  about  lat. 
 15  45  receives  the  great  western  branch.  This  branch,  accord- 
 ing to  Rennel,  rises  in  about  lat.  7  N.  and  Ion.  25  E.  among  the 
 Mountains  of  the  Moon  ;  and  is  called  the  Bahar  el  Abiad^  or  the 
 White  nver.  This  is  said  by  Bruce  to  be  three  times  as  large  as 
 the  eastern  branch,  and  is  now,  with  great  reason,  believed  to  be 
 the  same  with  the  Niger,  If  so,  the  stream,  which  rises  in  lat. 
 7  N.  and  Ion.  25  E.  somewhere  in  the  desert,  flows  into  the  Niger, 
 and  is  merely  one  of  its  tributaries.  The  Nile,  thus  enlarged, 
 runs  N.  E.  and  in  about  lat.  17  50  receives  the  Atbara,  a  large 
 tributary,  from  the  E.  rising  near  the  lake  Dembea.  Thence,  af- 
 ter running  140  miles  due  N.  it  makes  its  great  western  bend,  and 
 at  Moscho,  in  lat.  21  flows  in  Ion.  30  40  E.  In  lat.  22  15  it 
 meets  with  a  chain  of  mountains  and  throws  itself  down  the  cata- 
 ract of  Janadil  ;  soon  after  it  turns  to  the  N.  E.  and  at  Syene  in 
 lat.  24  0  45  N.  runs  in  Ion.  33  30.  Hence  its  course  is  N. 
 W.  and  N.  to  the  Delta  in  lat.  30,  where  it  divides  into  two  great 
 arms.  The  western  meets  the  sea  4  miles  below  Rosetta  in  lat. 
 31  28  N.  Ion.  30  45  E.  ;  the  eastern  in  lat.  31  50  N.  Ion.  31 
 53  E.  A  little  below  Syene  the  distance  of  the  Nile  from  the  W. 
 shore  of  the  Red  sea  is  not  more  than  60  miles.  The  length  of 
 the  river  from  Geesh  to  the  Mediterranean  is  probably  i«ot  less 
 than  2500  miles  ;  but  the  quantity  of  water  which  it  empties  into 
 the  sea  is  small  compared  with  that  of  many  shorter  rivers ;  the 
 greater  part  of  it  being  probably  absorbed  in  the  sands  of  Nubia. 
 
 The  Niger.  This  river  is  called,  by  the  Arabs,  J^Tile  el  Abcede, 
 or  A''ile  of  the  negroes.  It  flows  from  the  foot  of  the  western 
 branch  of  the  Jibbel  Kumra,  or  Mountains  of  the  Moon,  where  it 
 forms  a  lake  or  swa,mp  ;  and  on  the  west  side  of  the  same  moun- 
 tain is  another  swamp,  which  is  the  source  of  the  Senegal, 
 a  river  flowing  westward  into  the  Atlantic.  The  Niger  pursues 
 an  easterly  direction,  and,  in  its  whole  course  through  Soudan,  has 
 
 '   PinVierton. 
 
20  EASTERN  CONTINENT. 
 
 towns  and  villages  scattered  at  little  intervals  along  its  banks. 
 About  15  days  journey  E.  of  Timbuctoo,  it  enters  the  lake  or  sea 
 of  Soudan,  a  very  large  lake,  though  its  extent  is  not  precisely 
 known.  After  leaving  this  lake  it  pursues  its  original  course,  and 
 either  is  lost  in  the  sands,  or  in  a  lake  still  farther  east,  or  it  is,  as 
 both  the  Arabs  and  negroes  affirm,  tlie  great  western  branch  of  the 
 Nile  Massar  or  Nile  of  Egypt.  There  is  but  one  opinion  on  this 
 point  in  Morocco  and  at  Timbuctoo,  and  the  Nile  el  Abeede  and 
 the  Nile  Massar  are  constantly  spoken  of  as  branches  of  the  same 
 stream.  In  1780,  Mr.  Jackson  was  informed  by  a  very  intelligent 
 man,  who  had  an  establishment  at  Timbuctoo,  that  an  expedition 
 proceeded  fro:n  a  place  called  Jinnie,  lying  above  that  city  on 
 the  Niger,  to  Cairo,  a  voyage  of  14  months.  They  reported  that 
 there  were  1200  cities  and  towns,  with  mosques  or  towers  in  them, 
 between  Timbuctoo  and  Cairo,  built  on  or  near  the  banks  of  the 
 river.  They  returned  with  the  western  caravan  to  Morocco  ;  and, 
 there  joining  the  southern,  reached  Jinnie  after  an  absence  of  3 
 y.ai'sand  2  months.  Parke  first  came  upon  the  Niger  in  5  30 
 W.  where  it  was  as  large  -as  the  Thames  at  Westminster.  It  may 
 therefore  be  considered  as  rising  in  Ion.  6  30  W.  The  western 
 branch  of  the  Nile,  the  Bahar  el  Abiad,  unites  with  the  eastern  in 
 Ion.  32  45  E.  of  Greenwich,  or  39  51  of  Ion.  from  the  source 
 of  the  Niger,  Avhich  in  lat.  12  is  in  a  straight  line  2650  miles,  and, 
 allowing  for  windings  and  difference  of  latitude,  at  least  3000.  If 
 the  Nile  and  Niger  are,  according  to  the  Arabian  account,  one 
 river,  its  whole  length  is  not  probably  less  than  4700  miles. 
 
 The  WoLGA,  or  Volga,  the  Rha  and  jiraxis  of  the  ancients,  and 
 the  Adel  of  the  Tartars,  is  still  called  the  Rhau  by  the  Mordvines. 
 It  is  the  great  river  of  Europe,  and  has  its  sources  in  several  small 
 lakes  among  the  Valday  inountains,  in  the  government  of  Tver  in 
 Russia,  the  streams  of  which  unite  in  lat.  56  40  N.  Ion.  33  34 
 E.  and  form  the  Wolga.  Its  course  is  S.  E.  to  Zobtzov,  then  N. 
 E.  to  Mologa,  then  S.  E.  to  Kazan,  and  then  somewhat  W.  of  S. 
 to  Tzaritzin,  M'hence  it  pursues  a  S.  E.  'bourse  to  the  Caspian. 
 Its  length,  according  to  Tooke,  is  3200  miles,  and  Arrowsmith's  majt 
 fully  justifies  the  account.  It  begins  to  be  navigable  at  Tver  in 
 lat.  56  50  N.  Ion.  3G  16  E. ;  and  is  every  where  free  from  cat- 
 aracts. Its  waters  are  regularly  growing  shallower,  so  as  to  give 
 grounds  for  apprehension,  that  it  may  one  day  cease  to  be  naviga- 
 ble for  vessels  of  any  tolerable  size.  Ships,  a  hundred  years  agOj, 
 could  ascend  the  river  to  Nishney  Novogorod  with  double  the 
 loading,  which  they  can  carry  at  present.  It  abounds  in  fish,  espe- 
 cially in  sterlet,  sturgeon,  and  bielareba.  It  rolls  its  waters 
 through  many  fertile  regions,  and  beautiful  forests  of  oak.  In  the 
 spring  its  banks  are  overflown.  Its  tributaries,  the  Kamma,  Ok- 
 ka,  and  Terek  will  be  described  in  their  places.  The  Wolga, 
 about  70  miles  below  Astrachan,  empties  into  the  N.  W.  angle  of 
 the  Caspian,  through  nearly  70  mouths.  Tiie  quantity  of  its  wa- 
 ters is  far  less  than  its  length  would  lead  one  to  imagine. 
 
 The  Amoor  has  two  sources.  The  northern  rises  among  the 
 Kentaihem  luountaius,  in  about  lat.  49  N.  and  110   E.  wkerc  it  io 
 
EASTERN  CONTINENT.  21 
 
 called  the  Onon.  Runninij  in  a  N.  E.  direction  to  the  city  of 
 Nortshinsk,  in  about  lat.  52,  it  receives  the  Neiza,  and  takes  the 
 name  of  the  Shilka.  It  continues  this  direction  180  miles  farther 
 to  Bakla-nova,  at  its  most  northern  extremity,  in  lat.  32  30,  where 
 the  other  branch,  the  Argoon,  joins  it  from  the  S.  The  Argoon 
 issues  from  a  lake  on  the  frontiers  of  Russia  and  China,  and  forms 
 the  border  of  the  two  empires  all  the  way  to  its  junction  with  the 
 Shilka.  From  Bakla-nova  tiie  course  of  the  Amoor  is  nearly  S. 
 E.  to  lat.  47  30,  where  it  receives  the  Nonni-Ula,  a  very  large 
 river  from  the  S.  W.  Thence  its  course  is  N.  E.  It  receives  the 
 Usuri,  another  considerable  river,  in  lat.  48  30  from  the  S.  E.  ris- 
 ing from  the  lake  Hinka,  and  having  a  communication  after  a  short 
 day's  journey  with  the  sea  of  Japan.  The  Amoor  empties  into 
 the  sea  of  Ochotsk,  in  about  52  30  N.  opposite  the  island  of  Sag- 
 halien.  It  is  well  stocked  with  fish  ;  and  the  forests  on  its  banks 
 consist  of  oak,  walnut,  birch,  and  different  sorts  of  pines.  The 
 soil  is  very  rich,  and  the  climate  mild  and  healthful.  The  length 
 of  the  Amoor  is  not  precisely  known.  It  is  probably  over  2000 
 miles.* 
 
 The  Ganges  is  formed  by  two  branches  from  the  mountains 
 of  Kentaisse  in  Thibet,  whicli  run  in  a  direction  W.  of  N.  about 
 300  miles  in  a  direct  distance  ;  when,  meeting  with  the  great 
 ridge  of  mount  Hinimaleh,  which  extends  from  Cabul  eastward 
 along  the  N.  of  Hindostan,  they  are  compelled  towards  the  8. 
 and  soon  after  unite  their  waters.  The  united  stream,  after  coast- 
 ing this  ridge  of  mountains  about  100  miles,  forces  its  way  through 
 it,  in  lat.  33,  by  a  vast  cavern  worn  in  the  rock,  called  the  Ga?-- 
 ffontra,  or  Coiv's  month,  and  falls  into  an  immense  rocky  bason  be- 
 low. At  Hurdwar  it  leaves  tlie  mountainous  tract,  after  having 
 wandered  in  it  800  miles,  and  enters  Hindostan.  In  this  country 
 its  course  is  S.  and  S.  E. ;  .till,  after  passing  Benares  and  Patna, 
 and  receiving  many  large  tributaries,  it  divides  at  Moorshedabad 
 into  two  branches.  The  largest,  the  Megna,  continues  the  direc- 
 tion of  the  main  river  ;  and  at  Luckpoor,  joining  the  Burrampoo- 
 ter,  forms  with  it  a  common  estuary  at  the  head  of  the  bay  of  Ben- 
 gal. The  Avestern  branch,  called  the  Hoogley,  passes  by  Calcut- 
 ta, and  runs  S.  W.  to  the  same  bay.  Both  branches  divide  into 
 many  smaller  ones,  and  almost  the  whole  Delta  of  the  Ganges  is 
 a  mere  marsh,  capable  of  being  inhabited  only  by  tygers  and  alli- 
 gators. The  Hoogley  is  far  the  most  important  branch  to  the  inter- 
 ests of  navigation.  The  length  of  the  Ganges  is  about  2000  miles, 
 and  the  quantity  of  its  waters  much  greater  than  its  length  would  in- 
 dicate. In  the  mouths  of  this  river,  the  Bore,  or  sudden  influx  of  the 
 tide,  rises  in  both  branches  to  the  height  of  from  5  to  12  feetf  in  2 
 or  3  minutes.  Its  approach  may  be  heard  many  miles  off,  and  it 
 sounds  like  the  roaring  of  the  ocean  on  a  surfy  beach.  It  oversets 
 the  largest  boats,  and  annually  destroys  multitudes  of  lives. 
 
 The  BuRRAMPOOTER  issues  from  the  opposite  side  of  the 
 "jamc  ridge  of  mountains  with  the  Ganges.     It  separates  from  it 
 
 *  Saner.  j  Rennell,  2J8. 
 
22  EASTERN  CONTINENT. 
 
 eastward  more  than  1200  miles;  ami,  after  running  S.  W.  through 
 Asam,  enters  the  British  territory,  and  runs  S.  400  miles  to  Luck- 
 ^oor.  The  ]3urrampooter,  in  its  length,  is  thought  to  equal  or 
 surpass  the  Ganges,  and  is  its  noblest  tributary. 
 
 The  Danube,  the  ancient  Ister^  rises  from  humble  fountains,  in 
 Donischingcn,  in  Swabia,  in  about  lat.  42  40  N.  and  Ion.  8  30 
 E.  It  passes  through  Bavaria,  Austria,  Hungary,  Servia,  Bulgaria, 
 Walachia  and  Moldavia.  Its  course  to  Ratisbon  is  N.  E.  to  Pilsen 
 S.  E.  and  thence  S.  and  S.  E.  to  the  Black  sea ;  which  it  enters 
 by  various  mouths,  between  lat.  44  55  and  45  30  N. ;  35  miles 
 below  Ismail.  Its  length  is  reckoned  by  different  authors  to  be 
 from  1300  to  1600  miles.  It  is  probably  about  1500.  It  receives 
 in  its  course  more  than  60  rivers,  and  beghis  to  be  navigable  a  lit- 
 tle above  Ulm,  a  long  distance  from  its  mouth.  From  its  source 
 to  the  Inn,  it  is  a  Bavarian  river  ;  from  the  Inn  to  Orsova,  half  its 
 length,*  an  Austrian  ;  and  from  Orsova  to  the  Euxine,  Turkish. 
 From  Vienna  to  Belgrade,  in  Hungary,  it  is  so  broad,  that  in  the 
 "wars  between  the  Turks  and  Christians,  ships  of  war  were  engaged 
 upon  it ;  and  its  conveniency  for  carriage  to  all  the  countries 
 through  which  it  passes,  is  inestimable.  Its  stream  is  rapid,  and 
 is  broken  by  many  catai-acts  and  whirlpools. 
 
 JHountaiJis.^  The  mountains  of  thiscontinent  do  not  equal  those 
 of  the  western  in  their  height  or  the  length  of  their  ranges.  Most 
 of  the  high  mountains  also  are  separate  summits.  Those  of  Eu- 
 rope far  surpass  in  height  any  that  are  known  in  the  ranges  of 
 Asia. 
 
 Altai.  The  Altaian  chain,  in  length,  is  undoubtedly  the  second 
 on  the  globe ;  reaching  from  about  70  E.  to  the  extreme  boun- 
 daries of  Asia,  or  about  5000  miles.  In  the  east  this  chain  maybe 
 considered  as  commencing  in  the  country  of  the  Tchutski ;  where, 
 and  for  a  great  distance  westward,  it  has  the  name  of  the  Yablon- 
 skoi  mountains.  Turning  off  the  Anadyr  to  the  E.  and  the  Kovyma 
 to  the  north,  it  pursues  a  S.  W.  course,  passing  between  the  sour- 
 ces of  the  Shilka  and  the  Vitima ;  till,  in  about  50  N.  it  bends 
 nearly  W.  From  this  bend,  in  its  progress  westward,  it  is  called 
 the  Sayane  mountains  as  far  as  the  Yenisea,  and  is  pierced  by  the 
 remoter  branches  of  that  river.  Near  the  Yenisea  the  chain  divides. 
 The  northern  branch,  the  Lesser  Altai,  pursues  a  westward  course, 
 as  far  as  about  Ion.  70  E.  parting  Soongoria  from  the  government 
 of  Kolhyvan;  and  is  divided 'by  the  Oby  and  the  Irtish.  The 
 Great  Altai  winds  south  westward  romid  the  sources  of  the  Oby 
 and  the  Irtish,  throwing  out  several  considerable  ridges  towards 
 the  N.  N.  W.  On  the  frontier  line  of  the  Soongorian  and  Mongo- 
 lian deserts  the  Bogdo-Alim  (the  almighty  mount)  raises  its  crag- 
 gy and  irregular  summit.  From  it  the  Changay  mountains  sepa- 
 rate south  eastward  towards  central  Ciiina,  and  the  Massait  range 
 southwards  to  the  mountains  of  Thibet ;  while  the  main  mountain 
 of  the  Great  Altai  proceeds  westward,  mostly  bare  of  forests,  and 
 called  the  Alak  or  Alak-oola^  and  by  the  Tartars  the  Ala-2"au:\ 
 
 '  Piiiktrton  f  P.illas. 
 
EASTERN  CONTINENT.  23 
 
 We  do  not  know  its  western  termination.  From  its  separation 
 from  the  lesser  Altai  none  of  the  great  rivers  of  Asia  break  through 
 it  *  Probably  the  chain  of  Belur-Tag  is  a  spur  from  the  western 
 end  of  this  range,  connecting  it  with  the  range  called  the  Hindoo- 
 kch,  or   Kentaisse  mountains,  and  farther   east  the  7nountains  oj 
 
 Ural.     This  is  a  Tartarian  word  signifying  a  belt  or  girdle. 
 The  Russians  call  the  range  Kcmmenui,  and  Semnoi,  Poijas,  i.  e.  the 
 Rock,  or  Earth  girdle.     These  mountains  have  been  mcorrectly 
 believed  to  be  the  mo7ites  F/iy/ihaei  and  Rhymnici,  of  the  antients. 
 They  form  a  natural  boundary  between  Europe  and  Asia.     The 
 range  commences  between  tlie  Caspian  and  the  Aral ;  attains  its 
 ereatest  height  about  the  sources  of  the  Ural,  the  Emba,  and  the 
 Tobol ;  thence  stretches  farther  north  and  turns  the  waters  of  the 
 Isetz  and  the  Sosva  eastward,  and  those  of  the  Petshora  north- 
 westward ;  and  lastly  forms  two  lofty  promontories  about  the  Ka- 
 rian  sea.     Indeed  it  may  be  considered  as  broken  by  the  straits  ot 
 Weygat,  and  reaching  its  termination  in  the  mountains  ot  Nova 
 Zembla.     The  length  of  this  range,  from  its  southern  extremity  to 
 the  straits  of  Weygat,  is  between  1  800  and  2000  miles.    The  whole 
 range  is  very  rich  in  minerals ;  declines  incomparably  more  on 
 the'western  side  than  on  the   eastern  ;  and,  on  the  former,  is  ac- 
 companied by  a  considerable  track  of  collateral  ridge,  very  rich  in 
 copper,  and  consisting  for  the  most  part  in  schistose  sandstone 
 The  southern  part  of  the  range,  as  far  as  the  sources  of  the  Tobol 
 and  the  Yemba,  is  called  the  Kirghistzi  Ural,   and  is  little  known. 
 Between  the  Tobol  and  the  Sosva  it  is  called  the    Uralore   moun- 
 tains.    This  part  contains  the  highest  summits,  sends  out  several 
 spurs  to  the  westward,  and  is  very  rich  in  ores,  particularly  cop- 
 per.    The  northern  part  is  the  Desert  Ural,  and  runs  almost  par- 
 allel with  the  Oby. 
 
 Atlas.     The  range  of  Mount  Atlas,  though  well  known  to  the 
 ancients,  is  far  more  extensive  than  they  appear  to  have  imagined. 
 It  commences  near  the  Atlantic,  in  the  province  of  Lower  Suse  in 
 the  south  western  part  of  Morocco,  not  far  from  Cape  Bojador,  and 
 at  first  pursues  a  N.  E.  course  separating  that  kingdom  from 
 Bled  el  Jezrede.f     In  about  lat.  33  N.  it  bends  more  to  the  east, 
 and  passes  between  the  latter  country  on  the  south,  and  Algiers 
 and  Tunis  on  the  north.     Here  it  is  said  to  terminate.     But  it  is 
 highly  probable  that  the  ridge  in  Tunis  is  merely  a  spur  ;  and  that 
 the  main  ridge  runs  S.  E.  through  Tripoli  towards  the  desert  of 
 Barca.    Unfortunately  little  is  known  of  the  eastern  Barbary  states ; 
 and  still  less  of  the  eastern  Atlas.     Several  spurs  are  sent  out  from 
 the  western  part  of  the  range.    One  leaves  it  near  its  eastern  bend, 
 and  runs  N.  W.  to  the  straits  of  Gibraltar.     Another  in  about  lat. 
 31  N.  proceeds  N.  of  W.  to   Cape  Cantin.     Another  runs  west- 
 ward to  Cape  de  Geer.     In  Morocco  these  mountains  are  said  to 
 be  rich  in  copper,  iron,  lead,  sulphur,  and  saltpetre  ;  and  to  con- 
 tain silver,  and  mines  of  gold  intermixed  with  lead  and  antimony. 
 
 *  Tooke.  ^  Often  improperly  spelt  Biledulgerid. 
 
24  EASTERN  CONTINENT. 
 
 Mountains  of  .the  Moon.  The  Arabs  call  these  mountains 
 Jlbbel  Kiunra  ;  the  antients  called  them  Monies  Lunx.  Both  names 
 iiave  the  same  signification.  We  have  no  doubt  that  the  mountains 
 are  originally  indebted  to  the  Arabs  ibrthe  appellation.  The  Ro- 
 mans knew  not  their  situation  nor  their  existence  except TDy  report. 
 The  Arabs,  on  the  contrary,  had  prowled  over  all  their  summits 
 centuries  before  the  Romans  had  obtained  even  this  information. 
 The  range  commences  in  the  western  part  of  Africa,  ard  is  there 
 usually  named  in  the  maps  the  Mountains  of  Kong ^  the  name  un- 
 doubtedly given  it  by  the  negroes,  who  live  between  these  moun- 
 tains and  the  gulf  of  Guinea.  The  Arabs  however  call  them  here, 
 and  throughout  the  whole  range,  Jibbel  Kumra.  Its  course  is  east- 
 ward, dividing  the  extensive  country  of  Soudan  (the  southern  boun- 
 dary of  Sahara  or  the  Great  Desart)  from  Guinea  ;  and,  pursuing 
 its  way  through  many  unknown  regions,  crosses  Africa,  and  is 
 found  again  in  lat.  7  N.  at  the  sources  of  the  Nile  in  the  southern 
 part  of  Abyssinia.  Whether  it  goes  thence  eastward  through  the 
 kingdom  of  Adel  is  not  known.  Far  the  greater  part  of  this  range 
 has  been  unexplored  by  the  eye  of  civilization  ;  and  we  have  only 
 Arabic  testimony  to  the  identity  of  the  eastern  and  western  parts  of 
 the  range.  Relying  on  this  we  estimate  its  length  to  be,  at  least,  40 
 degrees  of  longitude,  which,  taking  a  mean  latitude,  is  2730  miles. 
 From  the  Avestern  part  of  the  range  the  Gambia  and  the  Senegal 
 flow  westward,  and  the  Niger  eastward.  From  the  eastern  and  its 
 spurs,  flow  all  the  upper  branches  of  the  Nile.* 
 
 Deserts.~\  Nothing  deserving  this  name  is  known  in  America, 
 the  Pampas  of  Paraguay  are  plains  rivalling  several  of  the  Stt/i/ies 
 of  Asia  in  extent ;  but  they  are  every  where  covered  with  grass, 
 and  browzed  by  numberless  herds  of  cattle  ;  while  the  Pararnos  of 
 Peru  and  southern  Terra  Firma,  though  destitute  of  cultivation, 
 are  not  of  sufficient  extent  to  be  noticed  among  the  general  fea- 
 tures of  a  continent. 
 
 Sahara.  This  immense  ocean  of  sand  reaches  from  the  Atlan- 
 tic to  the  confines  of  Egypt,  Sennaar,  and  Abyssinia,  a  space  of  50 
 deg.  or  about  3400  miles,  by  a  breadth  of  1 2  deg.  or  830  miles.  Mo- 
 rocco, Bled  el  Jezrede  and  Tripoli  lie  north  of  it,  and  on  the  S.  is 
 the  country  of  Soudan,  together  with  many  unexplored  regions,  the 
 names  of  Avhich  are  not  yet  known.f  Its  name  Sahara  means  the 
 Desert^  a  title  which  it  may  fairly  claim  as  an  appellative  by  way  of 
 eminence.  It  is  a  prodigious  expanse  of  red-sand  and  sand-stone 
 rock,  defying  every  exertion  of  human  power  and  industry  ;  but  it  is 
 interspersed  with  various  islands,  or  cultivated  and  inhabited  spots 
 of  different  sizes,  called  Oas  or  Oases,  of  which  Fezzan,  lying  south 
 of  Tripoli,  is  the  largest  that  has  been  explored.  These  Oases 
 serve  as  resting  and  watering  places  for  +he  Akkabaahs  (accumu- 
 lated caravans)  in  their  jovirneys  over  the  desei^t.  At  each  of  them 
 they  commonly  halt  about  seven  days.    In  the  intermediate  stages 
 
 (*  Jackson's  Morocco.) 
 ■j"  Wlietlier  tlie  tlcscitof  Barca,  between  Tripoli  Proper  and  Egypt,  is  an  extension 
 of  the  Sahara  nurtluvards  in  consequence  of  the  termination  of  the  chain  of  Muunt  At- 
 las in  the  furnicr  counlrvj  is  not,  we  believe,  ascertained. 
 
EASTERN  CONTINENT.  25 
 
 the  shume  or  hot-winds  of  the  desert  are  often  so  violent,  as  to  ex- 
 hale the  Avater  carried  in  skins  on  the  backs  of  camels.  These 
 shume  blow  across  the  whole  desert,  and  often  reach  many  miles 
 over  the  Atlantic.  They  arc  accompanied  by  a  cloud  of  dust ;  and 
 drift  the  loose  sand  along  plains,  which  attaches  to  every  fixed  ob- 
 ject in  its  course  and  soon  buries  it.  The  intense  heat  of  the  sun, 
 aided  by  the  vehement  and  parching  wind,  thus  driving  the  sand, 
 before  it,  gives  to  the  desert  the  appearance  of  a  sea,  the  drifting 
 sands  resembling  exactly  the  waves  of  the  ocean,  and  hence  aptly 
 denominated  by  the  Arabs  J^l  Bahar  billa  Mda,  a  sea  without  water. 
 In  1805,  a  caravan  proceeding  from  Timbuctoo  to  Tafilelt,  was 
 disappointed  in  finding  water  at  one  of  the  oases  ;  when,  horrible 
 to  relate,  2000  men  and  1800  camels  perished  of  thirst!  Acci- 
 dents of  this  sort  account  for  the  immense  quantities  of  the  bones 
 of  men  and  beasts,  which  are  found  mingled  together  in  various 
 parts  of  the  Desert.  An  account  will  begin  hereafter  of  the  stated 
 caravans  between  Timbuctoo  in  Soudan  and  the  kingdom  of  Mo- 
 rocco. In  the  more  soutiiern  parts  of  Africa  there  are  also  deserts 
 of  great  extent ;  but  we  are  not  possessed  of  sufficient  information 
 to  determine  their  limits,  or  even  their  general  situation.  There 
 is  however  strong  reason  to  believe,  from  the  discoveries  of  late 
 travellers,  that  much  the  greater  part  of  Africa,  south  of  the  Sahara, 
 is  fertile  and  capable  of  being  inhabited. 
 
 The  Asiatic  plains  are  less  desert  than  those  of  Africa,  being 
 mostly  only  sandy,  with  scattered  patches  of  thin  grass,  and,  at 
 wide  intervals,  a  stunted  thicket.  Those  in  the  north  of  Asia  are 
 called  Ste/ifis. 
 
 Gobi.  This  is  partially  or  v/holly  intersected  by  several  chains 
 of  mountains.  The  Mongols  call  the  western  part  of  it  Coil;  the 
 Chinese,  the  eastern,  Shamo.  Both  are  properly  considered  as  one. 
 "  Destitute  of  plants  and  Avatcr  it  is  dangerous  for  horses  ;  but  is 
 safely  passed  with  camels.  According  to  Danville,  it  reaches  from 
 about  80  to  110  E.  Ion.  being  30  deg.  which,  in  lat.  40,  is  about  1 600 
 miles.  In  this  wide  extent  are  many  oases  ;  some  of  them  regions 
 of  considerable  size.  On  the  other  hand  the  main  desert  sendr, 
 forth  several  barren  branches  in  various  directions."* 
 
 Stepp  of  Siberia.  Tiiis  immense  plain,  extending  from  the  Ko- 
 lyma on  the  E.  to  the  Oby  on  the  W.  and  from  the  Frozen  Ocean 
 on  the  N.  to  the  Tshulim,  the  Tunguska  and  the  eastward  course 
 of  the  Lena,  on  the  S.  Tooke  describes  it  under  these  divisions, 
 naming  them  after  the  great  rivers  between  which  they  lie.  But 
 the  mere  passage  of  a  river  through  an  extensive  plain  is  not  such 
 an  interruption  of  it,  as  to  justify  such  a  division  in  a  general  geo- 
 graphical description.  Westward  of  the  Yenisea,  extensive  forests 
 of  fine  timber  are  found  on  the  southern  parts  of  the  plain,  near  the 
 piountains  ;  but,  near  the  Frozen  ocean,  all  the  wood  is  low  and 
 stunted.  Eastward  of  the  Yenisea  it  is  generally  described  as  more 
 like  a  desert,  though  near  the  mountains  it  is  covered  with  forests. 
 Many  hills  and  elevated  places  may  doubtless  be  found  throughout 
 this  vast  extent.     The  distance  of  the  Oby  from  iho  mouth  of  the 
 
 *  Prnkerfoii. 
 VOL.    II.  ,  4 
 
■*6 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Kolyma  is  about  85  deg.  of  Ion.  or  1670  miles.  The  southern 
 bovmdary  is  not  so  defined  by  Tooke,  as  to  fix  the  average  width  of 
 the  plain.  Russia  contains  many  smaller  plains  for  which  see  art. 
 Russia. 
 
 Arrangement  J]  After  this  general  sketch  of  the  prominent  fea- 
 tures of  the  Eastern  Continent,  many  of  which  lying  between  its 
 great  divisions  could  not  truly  be  appropriated  to  either,  we  shall 
 proceed  to  a  particular  account  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa 
 under  their  respective  civil  divisions. 
 
 Europe,  the  smallest  in  extent,  and  the  second  in  population  ; 
 but  the  first  in  civilization,  arts,  and  arms,  is  entitled  to  the  earliest 
 consideration.  Its  divisions,  for  the  reasons  formerly  assigned, 
 will  be  arranged  in  geographical  order. 
 
 Asia,  twice  the  cradle  of  mankind,  and  containing  more  than 
 twice  the  population  of  the  rest  of  the  world  ;  but  sunk  in  ignorance, 
 idolatry,  and  supineness,  and  more  thanhalf  its  territory  subjugated 
 by  Europe  ;  is  still  the  seat  of  several  powerful  empires,  of  exten- 
 sive manufactures,  and  of  a  valuable  passive  commerce.  In  rela- 
 tive importance  it  undoubtedly  claims  the  second  place. 
 
 In  connection  with  Asia  and  its  islands,  we  shall  describe  the 
 large  islands  generally  included  under  the  name  of  Austral-Asia, 
 and  lying  S.  E.  of  the  Indian  ocean  ;  and  the  numerous  clusters  of 
 islands  scattered  over  the  Pacific,  which  have  obtained  the  name 
 of  Polynesia. 
 
 Africa,  enriched  by  robbery  and  piracy  in  the  north,  and  long 
 sunk  to  the  lowest  grade  of  ignorance  and  barbarism  in  the  interi- 
 or and  the  south,  is  now  rising  in  the  scale  of  civilization  and  im- 
 provement, in  consequence  of  the  noble,  pious,  and  benevolent  ex- 
 ertions made  for  the  purpose  by  the  British  nation.  The  heat  of 
 its  climate,  its  immense  deserts,  and  its  want  of  inland  seas,  and 
 navigable  rivers  subject  it  to  peculiar  disadvantages  in  respect  to 
 civilization  and  commerce.  The  little  which  is  known  respecting 
 this  part  of  the  globe  will  close  our  undertaking. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 -,  fXlHIS  part  of  the  globe  is  the  smallest  in  extent. 
 <a  ent.j  J^  yielding  considerably  to  Africa.  From  the  Portu- 
 guese cape,  called  the  Rock  of  Lisbon,  in  9  35  30,  W.  to  the  Ura-. 
 lian  mountains  in  the  east,  the  length  is  about  3300  British  miles  ; 
 and  the  breadth  from  the  North  Cape  in  Danish  Lapland,  in  71  10 
 N.  to  Cape  Matapan,  the  southern  extremity  of  Greece,  in  36  33, 
 is  about  2350.  The  contents  in  square  miles  have  been  calculated 
 with  so  great  diversity  of  opinion,  such  estimates  being  in  truth 
 arbitrary  and  only  comparative,  that  it  is  sufficient  to  mention  the 
 medial  number  of  about  2,600,000.* 
 
 Limits.']     The  ancients  had  no  just  ideas  of  the  boundaries  of 
 Europe.  \iic  i.ame  itself  having  seemingly  originated  from  a  small 
 
 *  Hrtssel  says  3,8557,019. 
 
EUROPE.  2? 
 
 district  near  the  Hellespont,  as  the  distinctive  name  of  Asia  also 
 spread  from  the  opposite  shore.  INIore  than  a  third  part  of  Eu- 
 rope, towards  the  north  and  east,  has  only  been  known  with  precis, 
 ion  in  modern  times  :  on  the  south,  the  continental  part  is  limited 
 by  the  Mediterranean  sea,  on  the  west  by  the  Atlantic.  In  the 
 opinion  of  several  geographers,  the  Azores  or  Western  Isles  are 
 clearly  European,  being  nearer  to  Portugalthantoany  other  conti- 
 nental land,  while  the  Madeiras,  for  the  same  conclusive  reason, 
 belong  to  Africa.  On  the  north,  the  boundary  is  the  Arctic  ocean, 
 embracing  the  remote  isle  of  Novaya  Zemlia,  or  the  New  Land. 
 Toward  the  east  the  boundaries  admit  of  some  discussion.  The 
 Uralian  mountains  are  a  grand  natural  limit,  from  the  Arctic 
 ocean  to  about  56  degrees  of  north  latitude  :  to  the  south  of  which 
 the  grand  confines  of  Europe  and  Asia  have  been  sought  in  the 
 petty  distinctions  of  Russian  governments.  More  natural  limits 
 might  be  obtained  by  tracing  the  river  Oufa  from  its  source  to  its 
 junction  with  the  Belaia.  Thence  along  the  Kama  to  the  Volga, 
 which  would  constitute  a  striking  natural  division,  to  the  town  of 
 Sr.repta  ;  whence  a  short  ideal  line,  the  only  one  admitted  in  this 
 delineation,  will  lead  dUe  west  to  the  river  Don,  which  would 
 complete  the  unascertained  boundary ;  thence  the  line  passes 
 down  that  river  to  the  Sea  of  Azof,  and  through  that  sea,  the 
 Straits  of  Kaff,  the  Euxine,  Straits  of  Constantinople,  Marmora, 
 Dardanelles,  and  Archipelago  to  the  Mediterranean. 
 
 ANCIENT    DIVISIONS    OF    EUROPE. 
 
 Hibernia.     Ireland. 
 
 Britamna.     Great  Britain. 
 
 Scandinavia.     Norway,  Sweden,  Lapland  Finland  and  Denmark. 
 
 Sarmatia,  or       C  Russia,  Poland,  Prussia  and  Little  Tartary, 
 
 Scythia.  \        countries  unknown  to  tke  Romans. 
 
 Gallia.     Holland,  Flanders,  France,  and  Switzerland. 
 Germania.     Germany. 
 JSToricum.     Austria. 
 Pannonia.     Hungary. 
 
 Illyrician.     Dalmatia,  Bosnia,  Croatia,  and  Sclavonia. 
 Bhtetia  and  Vindeticia.     Tyrol,  and  the  country  of  the  Grisons. 
 Hisfiania.     Spain,  and  Portugal. 
 
 Balcarcs  vel  Balcarides  InsuU.     Ivica,  Majorca,  and  Minprca. 
 Corsica. 
 Sardinia. 
 Sicilia.     Sicily. 
 Italia.     Italy. 
 
 Dacia.     Moldavia,  Wallachia  ancf  Transylvania. 
 Macfila.     Servia  and  Bulgaria. 
 Efiirus.     Albania  and  Canina. 
 Tfiracia  and  Macedonia.     Romania. 
 Tliessalia.     Janna. 
 (ir£cia  Profiria.     Livadia. 
 Pelo/ionnesus.     Morea. 
 
38  EUROPE. 
 
 Ancient  fiopulation^  The  ancient  population  of  Eui^ope  con- 
 sisted of  the  Celts  in  the  west  and  south  ;  the  Fins  in  the  north-- 
 east,  and  the  Laps  or  Laplanders,  a  diminutive  race  like  the  Sa- 
 moicdcs  of  Asia,  in  the  furthest  north,  and  who  seem  to  have  en- 
 riched their  original  rude  language  by  adopting  in  a  great  measure 
 that  of  their  more  civilized  neighbours  the  Fins.  Those  ancient 
 inhabitants,  who  seem  to  have  been  thinly  scattered,  were  driven 
 towards  the  west  and  north  by  the  Scythians  or  Goths  from  Asia, 
 whose  descendants  occupy  the  greater  part  of  Europe ;  by  the 
 Sarmatians  or  Slavonic  tribes,  also  from  Asia,  the  ancestors  of  the 
 Russians,  Poles,  Sec,  and  who  were  accompanied  by  the  Heruli, 
 using  A\  hat  is  now  called  the  Lettic  speech,  to  be  found  in  Prussia, 
 Lithuania,  Samogitia,  Courland,  and  Livonia,  being  a-kin  to  the 
 Slavonic  language*,  yet  many  with  shades  of  distinction.  From 
 Africa  the  colony  of  Ibcri,  and  northern  Mauretani,  passed  into 
 Sp;  jn  at  a  very  early  period.  The  latter  accession  of  Hungarians 
 and  Turks  from  Asia  may  likewise  be  commemorated. 
 
 Progressive  geography. ~\  The  progressive  geography  of  Europe 
 will  be  more  aptly  illustrated  in  the  descriptions  of  each  king- 
 dom and  state.  Suffice  it  here  to  observe,  that  the  ablest  modern 
 geographers,  not  excepting  D'Anville  himself,  have  greatly  erred 
 in  their  views  of  the  ancient  knowledge  of  Europe.  Of  Scandi- 
 navia the  ancients  only  knew  the  southern  part,  as  far  as  the  lakes 
 of  Weter  and  Wener.  The  Roman  ships  explored  the  southern 
 shores  of  the  Baltic,  as  far  as  the  river  Rubo  or  the  western  Dwi- 
 na,  and  discovered  the  names  of  several  tribes  along  the  shores  ; 
 but  of  the  central  parts  of  Germany  it  is  evident,  from  the  maps  of 
 Ptolemy,  that  they  had  no  just  ideas :  so  that  the  tribes,  which  he 
 enumerates,  may  be  more  justly  assigned  to  the  northern  parts 
 along  the  Baltic,  or  to  the  southern  on  the  left  of  the  Danube. 
 The  Carpathian  or  Sarmatian  mountains  were  well  known,  but 
 the  line  of  50  or  52  degrees  of  north  latitude  must  confine  the  an- 
 cient knowledge  in  the  northeast.  A  singularity  in  the  ancient 
 descriptions  has  often  misled :  for  as  the  mountains  in  the  savage 
 state  of  Europe  were  crowned  or  accompanied  with  forests,  the 
 same  term  was  used  in  several  barbarous  languages  to  express 
 cither;  so  that  the  ancients  often  place  important  mountains 
 where  the  hand  of  nature  had  only  planted  large  forests.  This 
 remark  becomes  essential  in  the  comparison  of  ancient  and  mod- 
 ern geography.  The  Riphjean  mountains  are  incorrectly  sup- 
 posed to  have  been  the  Uraiian  chain,  instead  of  a  large  forest 
 running  from  east  to  west.  The  Scvo  Mons  of  Pliny,  which  he 
 positively  assigns  to  the  north  of  Germany,  though  geographers 
 in  direct  opposition  to  his  text  transfer  it  to  Norway,  a  region  al- 
 most as  unknown  to  the  antients  as  America,  must  be  regarded 
 as  a  vast  forest  extending  to  some  promontory  :  and  the  Venedici 
 Montes  of  Ptolemy  are  in  the  like  predicament,  for  modern  knowl- 
 edge evinces  that  no  such  mountains  exist.  Of  all  sciences  per- 
 haps geography  has  made  the  most  slow  and  imperfect  progress ; 
 and  the  first  restorers  of  it  place  at  random  many  grand  features 
 *    i'ookc's  View  oi"  Russia,  i.  455, 
 
EUROPE.  29 
 
 of  nature,  instead  of  pursuing  the  recent  and  just  plan  of  giving 
 an  exact  delineation  of  the  country,  and  afterwards  exploring 
 the  real  extent  of  ancient  knowledge. 
 
 Religion.']  The  christian  religion  prevails  throughout  Europe, 
 except  in  Turkey,*  where  however  at  least  two  thirds  of  the  in- 
 habitants are  attached  to  the  Greek  church.  Wherever  the 
 christian  faith  has  penetrated,  knowledge,  industry,  and  civiliza- 
 sion  have  followed  :  among  the  barbarous  tribes  in  the  north  the 
 progress  was  unhappily  slow,  Scandinavia  remaining  pagan  till  the 
 eleventh  century ;  and  some  Slavonic  tribes  on  the  south  of  the 
 Baltic  till  the  thirteenth  ;  nay,  it  is  not  above  a  century  ago  since 
 the  Laplanders  were  converted  by  missions  from  Denmark.  The 
 three  great  divisions  are  catholics,  protestants,  and  the  Greek 
 church.  Hassel  states  the  whole  population  of  Europe  at 
 180,000,000.  Of  these  the  catholics  compose,  according  to  the 
 best  of  our  information,  about  90,000,000.  They  are  found  prin- 
 cipally in  Southern  Europe ;  in  Portugal,  Spain,  France,  Italy, 
 Southern  Germany,  Austria,  and  the  Netherlands.  There  are 
 also  about  3,000,000  in  Ireland.  The  number  of  protestants  is 
 about  49,000,000.  They  inhabit  Great-Britain,  Sweden,  Den- 
 mark, Prussia,  Northern  Germany,  and  Holland ;  and  are  found 
 in  considerable  numbers  in  Ireland,  Switzerland,  and  the  Austrian 
 empire.  The  christians  of  the  Greek  church,  in  Europe,  are 
 about  58,000,000  in  number.  They  compose  the  population  of 
 Russia,  and  two  thirds  of  that  of  Turkey.  The  remaining  three 
 millions  are  Mahometan  Turks. 
 
 The  general  prevalence  of  the  christian  religion  has  been  fol- 
 lowed by  another  superlative  advantage,  that  of  constituting  all 
 Europe,  as  it  were,  into  one  republic,  so  that  any  useful  discoveiy 
 made  in  one  state,  passes  to  the  rest  with  celerity. 
 
 Climate.']  This  fair  portion  of  the  globe  is  chiefly  situated  in 
 the  temperate  zone :  if  such  distinctions  have  not  vanished  from 
 geography,  since  modern  discoveries  have  evinced,  that  the  climate 
 often  depends  on  local  causes  ;  that  the  Alps  in  a  southern  lati- 
 tude present  mountains  of  ice  unknown  in  Lapland  ;  that  the  tor- 
 rid zone  abounds  with  water  and  habitations,  and  may  perhaps 
 contain  mountains  covered  with  snow.  Yet  freedom  from  the  ex- 
 cessive heats  of  Asia  and  Africa  has  contributed  to  the  vigor  of 
 the  frame,  and  the  energy  of  the  mind. 
 
 ,  Governments.]  The  kingdoms  and  states  of  Europe  may  be 
 considered,  1.  As  despotic  monarchies,  as  those  of  Russia,  Tur- 
 key, and  France  :  2.  Absolute  monarchies,  as  Austria,  Spain, 
 Denmark,  Sweden,  Sec.  :  or,  3.  Limited  monarchies,  as  the  king- 
 dom of  Great  Britain.  Since  the  fall  of  Venice,  and  the  subver- 
 sion of  Swisserland  and  Holland,  scarcely  an  example  occurs  of 
 permanent  and  fixed  aristocracy,  or  the  hereditary  government  of 
 nobles.  And  not  a  republic  is  now  to  be  found  throughout 
 Europe. 
 
 Arrangement.]     According  to  the  plan  of  this  work  already  ex- 
 plained, the  various  states  of  Europe  will   be  arranged  according 
 *  It  is  said  that  a  few  of  the  Laplanders  are  still  heathens. 
 
30 
 
 BRITISH  EMPIRE. 
 
 to  their  geographic  order  ;  and  each  will  be  treated  at  a  length 
 proportioned  to  its  weight  in  the  political  scale,  and  the  conse- 
 quent  interest  which  it  inspires.  A  small  state  may  indeed  some- 
 times excite  a  more  just  curiosity,  than  one  of  larger  dimensions  ; 
 but  such  considerations  are  foreign  to  an  exact  system  of  geog- 
 raphy, detailed  in  a  precise  order  of  topics,  and  extended  with  im- 
 partial views  over  the  whole  circle  of  human  affaii's.  The  changes,, 
 which  have  taken  place  in  Europe  within  the  last  30  years,  have 
 been  so  numerous  and  so  extensive,  that  a  map  of  its  present  po- 
 litical divisions  would  give  no  just  idea  of  those,  which  then  ex- 
 isted. But  a  knowledge  of  these  last  is  probably  not  less  useful 
 to  the  man  of  general  information,  than  of  the  first.  We  pro- 
 pose, therefore,  to  give  a  very  brief  sketch  of  those  countries 
 which  are  now  divided,  or  subjected  to  a  foreign  government  ; 
 and  likewise  to  state  the  late  and  present  boundaries  and  extent  of 
 others  where  they  have  been  materially  altered. 
 
 As  the  British  empire  is  unconnected  with  the  continent,  and  a 
 geographical  arrangement  would  be  violated  by  inserting  it  be- 
 tween any  of  the  continental  states,  tlie  first  description  shall  be 
 tliat  of  the  British  Dominions.  The  Danish  empire,  Sweden,  Rus- 
 sia, Poland,  Prussia,  Holland,  Netherlands,  France,  Switzerland* 
 Germany,  Austria,  Spain,  Portugal,  Italy  and  Tui^key  will  follow 
 in  the  order  here  specified. 
 
 Authorities.']  The  abridgment  of  Pinkerton,  lately  published  in 
 London,  will  be  the  basis  of  our  geography  of  most  of  the  countries 
 of  Europe.  Large  additions,  however,  and  many  altei'ations  will 
 be  made  from  later  and  more  correct  travels  and  documents. 
 Where  the  sources  of  inform-ation  are  official,  no  reference  will 
 be  made  to  them.  In  other  cases  the  authorities  for  important 
 facts  will  always  be  given. 
 
 BRITISH  EMPIRE. 
 
 1.    IN    EUROPE. 
 
 England, 
 Wales, 
 Scotland, 
 Ireland, 
 Shetland  Isles, 
 Orkney  Isles, 
 Hebrides, 
 Isle  of  Man, 
 Anglesea, 
 
 2.    IN    ASIA. 
 
 Presidency  of  Calcutta, 
 Presidency  of  Madras, 
 Presidency  of  Bombay, 
 Northern  Hindostan, 
 British  Ceylon, 
 
 Scilly  Isles, 
 
 Guernsey, 
 
 Jersey, 
 
 Alderney, 
 
 Sark, 
 
 Heligolandj 
 
 Gibraltar, 
 
 Malta. 
 
 British  Sumatra, 
 
 Amboyna, 
 
 British  New  Holland, 
 
 New  South  Wales, 
 
 Norfolk  Island. 
 
ENGLAND. 
 
 3.    IN  AFRICA. 
 
 Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Sierra  Leona, 
 
 Isle  of  Helena,  Madeiras, 
 
 James'  Island,  Isle  of  Bourbon, 
 
 Annabon,  Isle  of  France. 
 
 4.  IN    NORTH    AMERICA. 
 
 Labrador,  Nova  Scotia, 
 
 New  North  Wales,  Cape  Breton  I. 
 
 New  South  Wales,  St.  John's  I. 
 
 Newfoundland  I.  Anticosti  I. 
 
 Lower  Canada,  Bermudas  I. 
 
 Upper  Canada,  Nootka  Souijd. 
 N^w  Brunswick, 
 
 5.  IN    THE  WEST    INDIES. 
 
 Bahamas,  Guadaloupe, 
 
 Jamaica,  Deseada, 
 
 St.  Thomas,  Marigalante, 
 
 Tortola,  Dominica, 
 
 Amegada,  Martinico, 
 
 St.  Martin's,  St.  Lucia, 
 
 Santa  Cruz,  St.  Vincent, 
 
 Saba,  Barbadoes, 
 
 St.  Eustatia,  Grenada, 
 
 St.  Christopher's,  The  Grenadines, 
 
 Anguilla,  Tobago, 
 
 Barbuda,  Trinidad, 
 
 Antigua,  Bonair, 
 
 Nevis,  Curacoa- 
 Montserrat, 
 
 6.    IN    SOUTH    AivIERICA. 
 
 British  Guiana,  Cayenne. 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 CHAPTER  I. 
 
 HISTORICAL  GEOGRAPm'. 
 
 NAMES,  EXTENT,  ORIGINAL  POPULATION,  HISTORICAL  EPOCHS, 
 ANTIQUITIES,  RELIGION,  GOVERNMENT,  JUDIC  ATURE  AND  LAWS, 
 ARMY,  NAVY,  REVENUE,  POLITICAL  IMPORTANCE  AND  RELA- 
 TIONS, MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS,  LANGUAGE,  LITERATURE,  ARTS, 
 EDUCATION,  UNIVERSITIES,  CITIES,  ROADS,  INLAND  NAVIGA- 
 TION, MANUFACTURES  AND  COMMERCE. 
 
 .Yajres.^  THE  Phenicians  are  generally  supposed  to 
 have  discovered  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  at  a  very  early 
 period  ;  and  some  suppose-  that  the  name  of  Britain  originates 
 from  a  Phenician  word  j   while  others  with  more  probability  infer 
 
3§  ENGLAND. 
 
 it  to  have  been  an  indigenal  term  derived  from  the  Brets,  tribes  of 
 ■which  appellation  maybe  traced  in  Gaui  and  Scythia.  Among  the 
 first  objects  of  the  Phenician  intercourse  was  tin,  whence  the 
 Greek  name  of  Cassiterides^  or  the  islands  of  tin  ;  a  name  which,  in 
 its  first  acceptation,  seems  to  have  extended  to  Great  Britain  and 
 Ireland,  though  afterwards  confined  to  the  isles  of  Scilly,  where 
 the  metal  does  not  appear  to  have  been  traced  in  modern  times. 
 
 The  name  of  Anglia  or  England  is  well  known  to  have  origin- 
 ated from  the  Angles,  a  nation  of  the  Cimbric  Chersonese  or  mod- 
 ern Jutland,  who  settled  in  the  northern  parts  in  the  fifth  century. 
 The  ecclesiastical  history  of  Beda,  written  in  that  part  of  the  coun- 
 try which  was  possessed  by  the  Angli,  seems  to  have  contributed 
 greatly  to  the  extension  and  general  acceptation  of  the  modern 
 name. 
 
 Extcnt.~\  The  island  of  Great  Britain  extends  from  fifty  to  fif- 
 ty-eight and  a  half  degrees  of  north  latitude,  being  of  course  588 
 miles  in  length.  Its  greatest  breadth,  from  the  Land's  End  to 
 the  North  Foreland  in  Kent,  is  370  miles.  Its  extent  in  square 
 miles  is  computed  at  77,243. 
 
 England  i.:.  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  German  Ocean  ;  on  the 
 south  by  the  English  Channel ;  on  the  west  by  St.  George's  Chan- 
 nel ;  on  the  north  by  the  Cheviot  Hills,  by  the  river  Tweed,  and 
 an  ideal  line  falling  sovithwest  down  to  the  Frith  of  Solway.  The 
 extent  of  England  and  Wales  in  square  miles  is  computed  at 
 49,450  ;  and  the  population  being  estimated  at  8,400,000,  the  num- 
 ber of  inhabitants  to  a  square  mile  will  of  course  be  169. 
 
 Original ^iofiulation.~\  The  earliest  inhabitants  of  England  are 
 supposed  to  have  been  the  Gael  or  southern  Celts,  called  Guidels 
 by  the  Welch,  who  regard  them  as  their  predecessors.  Those 
 tribes  seem  to  have  arrived  from  the  nearest  sliores  of  France  and 
 Flanders,  and  were  followed  by  the  Cymri  or  Cimbri  from  the 
 same  regions  whence  the  Angles  afterwards  proceeded.  But  the 
 Cimbri  were  nor-thern  Celts,  the  ancestors  of  the  modern  Welsh. 
 The  Scythians  or  Goths  from  Asia  having  seized  on  Gei'many  and 
 a  great  part  of  Gaul,  gradually  repelling  the  Celts  towards  the 
 west,  appear  to  have  sent  colonies  into  England  three  or  four 
 centuries  before  the  Christian  era ;  for  Caesar  found  many  tribes 
 of  the  Belgae,  a  German  or  Gothic  nation,  established  on  the 
 south  and  east  of  Britain.  Those  Belgae  may  be  justly  regarded 
 as  the  chief  ancestors  of  the  English  nation  ;  for  the  Saxons,  An- 
 j^les,  and  other  northerninvaders,  though  of  distinguished  courage, 
 were  inconsiderable  in  numbers,  and  the  English  language  bears 
 more  affinity  to  the  Frisic  and  Dutch,  than  to  the  Jutlandic  or 
 Danish. 
 
 Under  the  dominion  of  the  Romans  even  the  Belgic  colonies, 
 unaccustomed  to  the  use  of  arms,  had  forgotten  their  former  val- 
 or in  the  course  of  four  centuries  of  subjection.  Pressed  by  fe- 
 rocious invaders,  they  seem  to  have  invited  to  their  assistance 
 dangerous  allies  from  the  continent.  The  Jutes  arrived  in  the 
 year  449,  and  founded  the  kingdom  of  Kent,  about  the  year  460  ; 
 they  also  took  possession  of  the  isle  of  Wight.     In  477  the  Sax- 
 
ENGLAND.  3j} 
 
 ons  first  appear,  and  the  kint^clotn  of  the  South  Saxons  commences 
 at  that  epoch.  The  West  Saxons  arrived  in  the  year  495.  The 
 sixth  century  was  considerably  advanced  when  those  barbaric  col- 
 onies were  increased  by  the  East  Saxons  in  the  year  527 ;  but  the 
 first  appearance  of  the  great  branch  of  the  Angles,  who  were  to 
 perpetuate  their  name  in  the  country  at  large,  did  not  occur  till 
 the  year  547,  when  the  valiant  Ida  led  his  troops  to  Bernicia. 
 The  East  Angles  taking  possession  of  Norfolk  in  th6  year  575, 
 the  southern  and  eastern  coasts  were  almost  wholly  in  the  power 
 of  the  invaders,  who,  soon  extending  their  conquests  into  the  inte- 
 rior of  the  country,  founded,  in  the  year  585,  the  kingdonnof  Mer- 
 cia,  the  last  of  the  Heptarchy.  Bede  pronounces  Mercia  to  have 
 been  an  Anglic  kingddm  ;  and  if  so,  their  population  might  per- 
 haps have  equalled  that  of  the  Saxons  themselves. 
 
 Prog>-esswp  Geogra/}hy.~j  The  knowledge  of  the  progressive 
 geography  of  any  country  is  indispensably  necessary  for  the  eluci- 
 dation of  its  history.  When  the  Romans  invaded  Britain,  the 
 chief  states,  in  what  is  now  England  and  Wales,  were  the  Cantiiy 
 inhabiting  Kent  ;  Tnnobantes^  Middlesex ;  Belgae.,  or  Regniy 
 Hampshire,  Wiltshire,  and  Somersetshire  ;  Durotrigesy  Dorset- 
 shire ;  Damnonii^  Devonshire  and  Cornwall  ;  Atrebatesj  Berk- 
 shire ;  Silures.^  South  Wales ;  0?'dovJces,  North  Wales ;  Icetii, 
 Essex,  Suffolk,  Norfolk,  See.    Brigaiites,  Yorkshire. 
 
 In  the  Roman  period  England  was  divided  into  the  following 
 large  provinces. 
 
 Britannia  Prima,  the  whole  southern  part  as  far  as  the  mouths 
 of  the  Severn  and  the  Thames. 
 
 Britannia  Secunda,  Modern  Wales. 
 
 Flavia  Caesariensis,  from  tlie  Thames  to  the  Humber. 
 
 Maxima  Caesariensis,  from  the  Humber  to  the  Tyne,  from  the 
 Mersey  to  the  Solway. 
 
 A  more  detailed  account  of  the  Roman  divisions  of  England 
 properly  belongs  to  ancient  geography,  and  the  curious  reader 
 may  be  referred  to  the  works  of  Horsley  and  Roy,  authors  of  de- 
 served estimation. 
 
 Of  the  Saxon  geography  an  idea  may  be  derived  from  the  fol- 
 lowing  table. 
 
 1.  Kent  comprehended  the  county  of  Kent. 
 
 2.  Sussex  or  the  South   C  Sussex. 
 Saxons,  l  Surrey. 
 
 East  Angles, 
 
 4.  Wessex,orthe  West 
 Saxons, 
 
 VOL.    H. 
 
 r  Norfolk. 
 
 Suffolk. 
 
 ^Cambridgeshire,  with  the  is^e  of  Ely. 
 "Cornwall. 
 
 Devonshire. 
 
 Dorset. 
 
 Somerset. 
 
 Wilts.  ., 
 
 Hants. 
 
 Berks. 
 
ENGLAND. 
 
 5.  Northumberland, 
 
 6. 
 
 Essex,  or 
 Saxons, 
 
 the  East 
 
 Mercia, 
 
 Lancashire. 
 Yorkshire. 
 Durham. 
 <(  Cumberland. 
 Westmoreland. 
 Northumberland,  and  the  parts  of  Sc-.t- 
 
 land  to  the  Frith  of  Edinburgh. 
 'Essex. 
 Middlesex. 
 Hertfordshire  in  part. 
 "Gloucester. 
 Hereford. 
 Warwick.  • 
 
 Worcester. 
 Leicester. 
 Rutland. 
 Northampton. 
 Lincoln. 
 Huntingdon. 
 Bedford. 
 Buckingham. 
 Oxford. 
 Stafford. 
 Derby. 
 Salop. 
 
 Nottingham. 
 The  rest  of  Hertfordshire. 
 
 The  division  into  shires  is  said  to  have  been  instituted  by  the 
 grea^  Alfred,  These  departments  are  also  styled  counties,  as 
 having  been  each  governed  by  a  Count,  in  the  Saxon  times  styled 
 Ealdorman,  and,  after  the  Danish  conquest,  called  Earl,  from  the 
 Danish  lai'l,  implying  a  great  man.  The  dignity  and  title  becom- 
 ing hereditary,  the  government  of  the  county  devolved  upon  the 
 Earl's  deputy  the  Shire-reeve,  sheriff  or  manager  of  the  shire. 
 Yorkshire  being  very  extensive,  it  was  divided  into  three  parts 
 called  in  Saxon  trit/iings,  as  a  farthing  is  a  fourth  part,  and  now 
 corruptly  called  Ridings. 
 
 England  proper  is  divided  into  forty  counties,  and  the  princi- 
 pality of  Wales  into  twelve,  thus  making  the  whole  number  of 
 counties  in  South  Britain  fifty-two ;  of  which  the  following  is  a 
 list,  together  with  their  respective  number  of  inhabitants,  and 
 chief  towns. 
 
 Number  of  Inliabilants 
 according  to  the  late    Chief  Towns 
 enumeration.    (1801.) 
 
 Northumberland  157,101       Newcastle 
 
 Cumberland  117,230 
 
 Durham  160,361 
 
 i  Yorkshire  563,953 
 Westmoreland  41,617 
 
 ^Lancashire  672,73 1 
 
 Six  northern 
 counties 
 
 Carlisle 
 
 Durham 
 
 York 
 
 Appleby 
 
 Lancaster 
 
ENGLAND. 
 
 Four  bordering 
 on  Wales 
 
 Twelve  midland 
 
 Number  of  Inhabitants 
 according  to  the  late    Chief  Towns 
 eaumeration.  (1801.) 
 191,751 
 167,639 
 89,191 
 45,582 
 140,350 
 161,142 
 239,153 
 130,081 
 16,556 
 
 Eight  eastern 
 
 Cheshire 
 J  Shropshire 
 ^  Herefordshire 
 
 Monmouthshire 
 
 Nottinghamshire 
 
 Derbyshire 
 
 Staffordshire 
 
 Leicestershire 
 
 Rutlandshire 
 
 Northamptonshire  131,757 
 *j  Warwickshire         208,190 
 
 Worcestershire 
 
 Gloucestershire 
 
 Oxfordshire 
 
 Buckinghamshire 
 
 Bedfordshire 
 T.incolHyiire 
 
 Huntingdonshire 
 
 Cambridgeshire 
 
 Norfolk 
 
 Suffolk 
 
 Essex 
 
 Hertfordshire 
 
 Middlesex 
 
 Three  south- 
 eastern 
 
 Four  southern 
 
 Three  south 
 western 
 
 J! 
 
 r  Surrey 
 -j  Kent 
 (^Sussex 
 Berkshire 
 Wiltshire 
 "I  Hampshire 
 {^Dorsetshire 
 r  Somersetshire 
 <  Devonshire 
 (^Cornwall 
 fFlintshire 
 I  Denbighshire 
 1  ^«T  1      J  Caernarvonshire 
 Six,  North  Wales  <{  Anglesey 
 
 Merionethshire 
 Montgomeryshire 
 Radnorshire 
 Cardiganshire 
 I  Pembrokeshire 
 I  Caermarthenshire 
 j  Brecknockshire 
 [^Glamorganshire 
 
 Six,  South  Wales 
 
 1 39,553 
 
 250,809 
 
 109,620 
 
 107,444 
 
 63,393 
 
 208,557 
 
 37,568 
 
 89,346 
 
 273,371 
 
 210,431 
 
 226,437 
 
 97,577 
 
 555,329* 
 
 269,043 
 
 307,624 
 
 159,311 
 
 109,215 
 
 185,107 
 
 219,656 
 
 115,319 
 
 273,750 
 
 343,001 
 
 188,269 
 
 39,622 
 
 60,352 
 
 41,521 
 
 33,806 
 
 29,506 
 
 47,978 
 
 19,050 
 
 42,956 
 
 56,280 
 
 67,317 
 
 71,525 
 
 Chester 
 
 Shrewsbury 
 
 Hereford 
 
 Monmouth 
 
 Nottingham 
 
 Derby 
 
 Stafford 
 
 Leicester 
 
 Okeham 
 
 Northampton. 
 
 Warwick 
 
 Worcester 
 
 Gloucester 
 
 Oxford 
 
 Aylesbury 
 
 Bedford 
 
 Lincoln 
 
 Huntingdon 
 
 Cambridge 
 
 Norwich 
 
 Ipswich 
 
 Chelmsford 
 
 Hertford 
 
 London 
 
 Guilford 
 
 Maidstone 
 
 Lewes 
 
 Reading 
 
 Salisbury 
 
 Winchester 
 
 Dorchester 
 
 Taunton 
 
 Exeter 
 
 Launceston 
 
 Flint 
 
 Denbigh 
 
 Caernarvon 
 
 Beaumaris 
 
 Bala 
 
 Montgomery 
 
 Presteign 
 
 Cardigan 
 
 Pembroke 
 
 Caermartheii 
 
 Brecknock 
 
 Caerdiff 
 
 "  Exclusive  of  the  capital. 
 
36  ENGLAND. 
 
 It  is  alsd  generally  believed  that  Alfred  founded  the  subdivi- 
 sions of  counties  called  Hundreds  and  Tythings,  now  seldom 
 mentioned,  except  in  legal  proceedings  and  in  topographical  de- 
 scriptions. The  Hundred  probably  contained  one  hundred  farms, 
 while  the  Tything  vras  restricted  to  ten. 
 
 In  the  Norman  period  of  English  history  few  alterations  of  con- 
 sequence appear  in  the  geography.  Cumberland  and  Westmore- 
 land were  wrested  from  the  Scots  ;  and  the  provinces  north  of  the 
 Humber,  which  had  maintained  a  kind  of  independence  after  the 
 extinction  of  the  Danish  kingdom  of  Northumbria,  were  com- 
 pletely incorporated  with  the  monarchy.  On  the  west,  Henry  I. 
 about  the  year  1120,  having  conquered  a  part  of  Wales,  invited 
 and  established  a  Flemish  colony  in  Pembrokeshire,  and  one  or 
 two  others  of  the  most  southern  counties,  which  afterwards  became 
 remarkable  for  industry.  The  subsequent  conquest  of  Wales  by 
 Edward  I.  and  its  gradual  association  with  England,  are  suf- 
 ficiently known. 
 
 Historical  epochs.']     1.  The  population  of  England  by  the  Celts. 
 
 2.  The  Belgic  colonies,  who  intrQ4\iced  agriculture. 
 
 3.  The  Roman  conquest.  Britain  was  only  seen  by  Julius  Cae- 
 sar. The  Roman  conquest  began  in  the  reign  of  Claudius,  and  in 
 that  of  Domitan  the  Roman  Eagle  had  been  dispayed  as  far  as 
 the  Grampian  mountains. 
 
 4.  The  arrival  of  the  Saxons  and  Angles  in  the  fifth  century. 
 
 5.  The  Danish  conquest  A.  D.  1016.  The  Danish  monarchs  of 
 England  were  Canute,  Harold,  and  Hai'dicanute  ;  but  the  sceptre 
 returned  to  the  Saxon  line  A.  D.  1042. 
 
 6.  The  Norman  conquest,  A.  D.  1066. 
 
 7.  The  great  charter  granted  by  John  at  Runymede. 
 
 8.  Not  to  mention  the  conquest  of  Wales  and  the  temporary  sub- 
 jugation of  Scotland,  the  civil  wars  between  the  houses  of  York 
 and  Lancaster  may  be  regarded  as  the  next  memorable  epoch. 
 
 9.  The  reformation  introduced  by  Edward  VL  and  Elizabeth. 
 
 10.  The  civil  wars  under  Charles  L 
 
 11.  The  Revolution. 
 
 12.  The  war  with  the  American  colonies  forms  not  only  an 
 epoch  of  singular  novelty,  but  of  the  most  important  consequences. 
 
 A7iti(]uities.']  The  ancient  monuments  of  a  country  are  inti- 
 mately connected  with  the  chief  epochs  of  its  history,  and  particu- 
 larly with  the  revolutions  it  has  undergone  by  foreign  conquest  or 
 new  population.  The  English  antiquities  fall  of  course  into  six 
 divisions.  1.  Those  belonging  to  the  primitive  Celtic  inhabitants. 
 2.  Those  of  the  Belgic  colonies.  3.  Those  of  the  Romans.  4. 
 Those  of  the  Saxons.  5.  Reliques  of  the  Danes.  6.  Norman 
 monuments.  Few  of  those  remains,  it  must  be  confessed,  throw- 
 much  light  upon  history  ;  but  many  of  them  being  interesting  and 
 curious  in  themselves,  they  deserve  the  attention  of  the  traveller 
 and  geographer. 
 
 Those  of  the  first  Celtic  inhabitants  were  probably,  as  usual 
 among  savage  nations,  constructed  of  wood,  and  of  course  there 
 can  be  no  remains.     Some  rude  barrows  and  heaps  of  stones  may 
 
ENGLAND.  37 
 
 perhaps  belong  to  the  Druidic  tribes,  but  Stonehenge,  the  large 
 Barrows  or  tumuli,  Sec.  Sec.  more  probably  belong  to  the  Belgic 
 colonies.  Stonehenge  is  situated  near  the  capital  of  the  ancient 
 Belgae,  and  there  is  a  similar  monument,  but  said  to  be  of  far 
 greater  extent,  near  Vannes,  a  town  on  the  French  coast,  which 
 was  possessed  by  the  Belgae.  Similar  monuments  also  occur  in 
 Denmark  and  Sweden,  and  in  Iceland  even  the  date  of  erection  is 
 sometimes  ascertained,  these  circles  being  familiarly  known  by 
 the  name  of  Bomh-ringr,  that  is  literally  Doom-ring  or  Circle  of 
 Judgment,  being  the  solemn  places  where  courts  were  held.  Yet 
 Stonehenge  will  be  found,  on  inspection,  to  fall  short  of  the  ridicu- 
 lous exaggerations  of  antiquaries,  impressing  eve-y  traveller,  after 
 the  perusal  of  such  accounts,  with  disappointed  ideas  of  smallness 
 and  want  of  importance.  Such  ideas  are  however  unjust,  as  it  is 
 a  noble  and  curious  monument  of  early  times.  There  appear  to 
 be  three  principal  circles  of  stones,  the  outer  connected  together 
 by  an  uniform  pavement  as  it  were  at  the  top,  to  which  the  chiefs 
 might  ascend  and  speak  to  the  surrounding  crowd.  A  second 
 circle  consists  of  detached  upright  stones  about  five  feet  in  height, 
 while  the  highest  are  eighteen.  Within  this  is  a  grand  oval,  orig- 
 inally consisting  of  five  trilithons  of  two  huge  stones  crossed  by 
 another  at  the  top  and  inclosing  smaller  stones,  which  seem  to 
 have  been  seats,  and  a  large  flat  stone  commonly  called  the  altar, 
 but  which  seems  to  have  been  the  throne  or  seat  of  judgment. 
 There  is  besides  a  very  high  stone  towards  the  northeaster  rising 
 sun,  and  near  this  a  large  flat  stone  encompassed  with  a  mound, 
 which  is  probably  the  real  altar  on  which  human  victims  were 
 sometimes  sacrificed.  There  are  also  two  other  stones  at  a  con- 
 siderable distance  to  the  E.  and  W.  and  the  whole  seems  to  be  in 
 the  midst  of  a  very  extensive  circle,  marked  by  an  earthen  em- 
 bankment almost  effaced  by  the  lapse  of  years,  and  affording  suf- 
 ficient space  for  all  the  males  of  the  tribe  or  nation.  The  largest 
 stones  are  ot  silicious  sand-stone,  but  the  altar,  or  rather  throne, 
 is  calcareous  sand-stone.*  The  smaller  stones  are  of  gi'unstein, 
 or  hornblend  mixed  with  felspar.  On  its  first  erection  the  ap- 
 pearance must  have  been  striking,  the  large  stones  being  of  pure 
 white  and  the  smaller  black. 
 
 After  the  establishment  of  Christianity  the  circles  of  judgment, 
 which  had  been  polluted  with  human  sacrifices  and  other  pagan 
 rites,  were  abandoned,  and  the  great  courts  were  held  on  what 
 were  called  Moot  hills  or  hills  of  meeting,  many  o(  which  still  ex- 
 ist in  the  British  dominions  and  in  the  Netherlands. 
 
 The  Roman  antiquities  of  England  have  been  repeatedly  illus- 
 trated. The  greatest  number  of  Roman  inscriptions,  altars,  kc. 
 has  been  found  in  the  north  along  the  great  frontier  wall  which 
 extended  from  the  western  sea  to  the  estuary  of  Tyne.  The  Ro- 
 man roads  were  also  striking  monuments  of  their  power.  A  grand 
 trunk,  as  it  may  be  called,  to  anticipate  the  language  of  our  inland 
 navigations,  passed  from  the  south  to  the  north,  and  another  to  the 
 
 »  Townsou's  Tracts,  2-2S. 
 
38  ENGLAND. 
 
 west,  with  branches  in  almost  every  direction  that  general  con- 
 venience and  expedition  could  require.  What  is  called  the  Wat- 
 ling-street  led  from  Richborough  in  Kent,  the  ancient  Rutupift, 
 N.  W.  through  London  to  Chester.  The  Ermin-street  passed 
 from  London  to  Lincoln,  thence  to  CarUsle  and  into  Scotland,  the 
 name  being  supposed  to  be  corrupted  from  Herman^  which  means 
 warrior,  as  the  chief  wars  lay  in  the  north.  The  Fosse  way  is  sup- 
 posed to  have  led  from  Bath  and  the  western  regions  N.  E.  till  it 
 joined  the  Ermin-street.  The  last  celebrated  road  was  the  Ilke- 
 nild,  or  Ikneld,  supposed  to  have  extended  from  near  Norwich  S. 
 W.  into  Dorsetshire.* 
 
 The  Saxon  antiquities  in  England  are  chiefly  edifices,  sacred  or 
 secular ;  many  churches  remain  which  were  altogether  or  for  the 
 most  part  constructed  in  the  Saxon  period,  and  some  are  extant  of 
 the  tenth  or  perhaps  the  ninth  century.  The  vaults  erected  by 
 Grimbald  at  Oxford  in  the  reign  of  Alfred,  are  justly  esteemed 
 curious  relics  of  Saxon  architecture.  Mr.  King  has  ably  illus- 
 trated the  remains  ol  the  Saxon  castles.  The  oldest  seem  to  con- 
 sist of  one  solitary  tower,  square  or  hexagonal  :  one  of  the  rudest 
 specimens  is  Coningsburg  Castle  in  Yorkshire  ;  but  as  that  region 
 was  subject  to  tlie  Danes  till  the  middle  of  the  tenth  century  it  1.9 
 probably  Danish.  Among  the  smaller  remains  of  Saxon  art  may 
 be  mentioned  the  shrines  for  preserving  relics,  which  some  sup- 
 pose to  present  the  diminutive  rudiments  of  Avhat  is  styled  the 
 Gothic  architecture  ;  and  the  illuminated  manuscripts,  which  often 
 afford  curious  memorials  of  the  state  of  manners  and  knowledge. 
 
 The  Danish  power  in  England,  though  of  considerable  duration 
 in  the  north,  was  in  the  south  brief  and  transitory.  The  camps  of 
 that  nation  were  circular  like  those  of  the  Belgae  and  Saxons, 
 while  those  of  Roman  armies  are  known  by  the  square  form ;  and 
 it  is  believed  that  the  only  distinct  relics  of  the  Danes  are  some 
 castles  to  the.  north  of  the  Humber  and  a  few  stones  with  Runic 
 inscriptions. 
 
 The  monuments  styled  Norman,  rather  to  distinguish  their 
 epoch,  than  from  any  information  that  Norman  architects  were 
 employed,  are  reputed  to  commence  after  the  conquest,  and  to 
 extend  to  the  fourteenth  century  ;  when  what  is  called  the  rich 
 Gothic  began  to  appear,  which  in  the  sixteenth  century  was  sup- 
 planted by  the  mixed ;  and  this  in  its  turn  yielded  to  the  Grecian. 
 In  genera!  the  Norman  style  far  exceeds  the  Saxon  in  the  size  of 
 the  edifices  and  the  decoration  of  the  parts.  The  churches  be- 
 come more  extensive  and  lofty,  and  though  the  windows  retain 
 the  circular  arch  they  are  larger  and  more  diversified  ;  the  circu- 
 lar doors  are  festooned  with  more  freedom  and  elegance,  and  un- 
 couth animals  begin  to  yield  to  wreaths  of  leaves  and  flowers. 
 The  solitary  keep  or  tower  of  the  Saxon  castle  is  surrounded  with 
 a  double  wall,  inclosing  courts  or  dwellings  of  large  extent,  de- 
 fended by  turrets  and  double  ditches,  wi\h  a  separate  watch-tower 
 c^vHcd   tiie   Barbican.     Among  others  the  cathedrals  of  Durham 
 
 *  Gou'^h's  Brit.  Topog.  L  10. 
 
ENGLAND.  39 
 
 cind  Winchester  may  be  mentioned,  as  venerable  monuments  of 
 Anglo-Norman  architecture,  and  the  castles  are  numerous  and 
 Avell  known.  What  is  called  the  Gothic  or  pointed  arch  is  gen- 
 erally supposed  to  have  first  appeared  in  the  thirteenth  century, 
 and  in  the  next  it  became  universal  in  religious  edifices.  The 
 ■windows  diffused  to  great  breadth  and  loftiness,  and  divided  into 
 branching  interstices,  enriched  with  painted  glass,  the  clustering 
 pillars  of  excessive  height  spreading  into  various  fret-work  on  the 
 roof,  constitute,  with  decorations  of  smaller  note,  what  is  called  the 
 rich  Gothic  style,  visible  in  the  chapel  of  King's  College,  Cam- 
 bridge, and  many  other  grand  specimens  in  this  kingdom.  The 
 spire  corresponds  with  the  interior,  and  begins  about  the  thir- 
 teenth century  to  rise  boldly  from  the  ancient  tower,  and  diminish 
 from  the  sight  in  a  gradation  of  pinnacles  and  ornaments. 
 
 Religion^  The  church  of  England  is  the  only  refoi'med  church, 
 which  has  retained  the  episcopal  form  in  its  ancient  splendor  ; 
 for  though  bishops  may  also  be  found  in  Denmark,  Sweden,  Nor- 
 way, £cc.  they  are  rather  inspectors  of  the  conduct  of  the  clergy 
 and  of  the  modes  of  education,  than  ^prelates  endowed  with  sena- 
 torial rank  and  dignity.  In  England,  on  the  contrary,  the  bishops 
 are  peers  of  parliament,  and  have  the  style  and  importance  of  no- 
 bility. Yet  the  creed  of  the  English  church  is  rather  Calvinistic 
 than  Lutheran.  But  the  special  tenets  of  the  English  church  are 
 sufficiently  explained  in  the  thirty-nine  articles  ;  and  a  brief  idea 
 of  its  government  will  be  more  pertinent  to  the  present  purpose. 
 
 Upon  his  dispute  with  the  pontiff,  Henry  VIIL  assumed  the 
 title  o{  supreme  head  of  the  national  church.  Next  in  dignity  and 
 power  are  the  archbishops  of  Canterbury  and  York  ;  the  first 
 being  styled  Primate  of  all  England ;  and  the  second  Primate  of 
 England.  The  archbishop  of  Canterbury  precedes  all  persons, 
 except  the  royal  family  ;  he  has  the  power  of  probate  of  all  testa- 
 ments within  his  province,  and  of  granting  several  dispensations 
 concerning  benefices  ;  he  has  also  four  courts  of  judicature,  that 
 of  Arches,  of  Audience,  of  Prerogative,  and  of  Peculiars.  In 
 other  respects  the  archiepiscopal  office  is  rather  a  dignity  than  a 
 jurisdiction,  and  the  primates  rarely  interfere  in  any  dioceses  ex- 
 cept their  own.  They  are  appointed  by  the  king  in  the  same 
 manner  as  the  bishops,  by  what  is  called  a  Conge  d'Elire,  or  leave 
 to  elect. 
 
 Upon  any  vacancy  in  an  episcopal  see,  the  dean  and  chapter 
 apply  to  the  king,  who  returns  a  Conge  d'Elire  naming  the  person 
 to  be  chosen.  A  chapter  of  the  prebendaries  is  then  summoned 
 by  the  dean,  and  they  are  constrained,  under  the  penalty  of  ^.Jira:- 
 munire^  to  elect  the  person  nominated.  The  solemnity  is  com- 
 pleted by  the  royal  assent  under  the  great  seal,  and  by  the  confir- 
 mation and  consecration  performed  by  the  metropolitan  or  in  his 
 name.  The  prelate  afterwards  pays  homage  to  the  king  for  his  ' 
 temporalities,  or  the  baronies  connected  with  the  see  ;  and  com- 
 pounds for  the  first  fruits,  that  is,  the  revenue  of  the  first  year, 
 which  is  paid  to  the  corporation  for  increasing  the  benefices  of  the 
 poor  clergy.     The  omission  of  consecration  is  the  only  diflference 
 
40  ENGLAND. 
 
 when  a  bishop  is  translated  to  another  see  ;  and  when  an  arch- 
 bishop is  nominated,  the  king  appoints  four  or  more  bishops  to 
 officiate  at  the  confirmation. 
 
 The  bishop  alone  may  ordain  deacons  and  priests,  dedicate 
 churches  and  burial  grounds,  and  administer  confirmation.  In 
 former  times  episcopal  jurisdiction  extended  to  tl|e  licensing  of 
 physicians,  surgeons,  and  schoolmasters,  and  to  the  conjunction 
 of  small  parishes.  At  present  it  chiefly  embraces  questions  of 
 births,  marriages,  deaths,  and  testaments,  and  any  delinquencies 
 of  the  clergy  ;  to  which  body  indeed  their  attention  is  now  chiefly 
 confined,  and  they  rarely,  except  in  parliament,  interfere  in  secu- 
 lar subjects.  The  bishop  of  Sodor  and  Man  has  no  place  in  par- 
 liament. All  the  other  bishops  are  barons  and  peers  of  the  realm 
 by  three  different  claims  ;  in  right  of  the  baronies  attached  to 
 their  sees,  as  barons  summoned  by  writ,  and  as  barons  by  patent, 
 a  form  which  accompanies  their  consecration,.  Their  privileges 
 approach  the  regal  ;  they  are  sole  judges  in  their  own  courts,  and 
 issue  Avrits  in  their  own  names,  not  in  the  royal  style  used  by 
 other  courts.  They  can  depute  their  authority,  which  no  other 
 judge  can  ;  and  their  episcopal  power  of  conferring  orders.  Sec. 
 may  be  exerted  in  any  Christian  country,  while  lay  peers  are  only 
 acknowledged  in  the  country  where  they  derive  their  dignities. 
 To  pass  other  more  minute  privileges,  the  bishop  of  London,  as 
 presiding  over  the  capital,  has  the  precedence  of  all  the  others. 
 The  see  of  Durham  constitutes  a  county  palatine,  with  great 
 powers  and  prerogatives  :  the  authority  and  patronage  of  the 
 bishop  are  of  course  very  extensive,  and  even  the  king's  judges 
 only  sit  in  his  diocese  by  his  permission.  The  bishop  of  Win- 
 chester is  the  third  in  dignity,  but  esteemed  the  first  in  opulence, 
 as  tlie  large  civil  list  of  Durham,  while  it  adds  power,  diminishes 
 revenue.  These  three  bishops  precede  all  the  rest,  who  take 
 place  according  to  the  seniority  of  consecration. 
 
 To  every  cathedral  in  England  belong  several  prebendaries  as 
 canons,  and  a  dean,  so  styled,  as  is  said  (Deccuius)  because  he  an- 
 ciently presided  over  ten  canons.  In  the  old  quaint  language  he 
 was  called  one  of  the  bishop's  eyes,  while  the  archdeacon  who 
 had  charge  of  the  deacons  was  reputed  the  other.  The  dean  and 
 chapter  of  prebendaries  assist  the  bishop  in  ecclesiastic  affairs. 
 The  prebendaries  are  so  styled  from  the  prebend  or  /lass  prxben- 
 da,  a  portion  of  land  or  income  allotted  to  them  ;  and,  with  the 
 dean,  form  a  body,  college,  or  corporation  :  and  they  have  several 
 privileges  superior  to  the  common  or  minor  canons.  At  the  re- 
 formation their  salaries  were  mostly  converted  into  money,  but 
 those  of  Durham  preferred  the  ancient  portions  of  land  ;  which 
 having  prodigiously  increased  in  value,  they  are  now  styled  golden' 
 prebends,  being  worth  from  800/.  to  I200Z  a  year,  while  the  bishop 
 out  of  9000/.  a  year  has  to  support  a  great  and  unavoidable  ex- 
 penditure. 
 
 The  next  order  is  that  of  the  arch-deacons,  amounting  in  all  to 
 about  sixty  ;  their  office  is  to  inspect  the  moveables  of  the  church- 
 es, to  reform  slight  abuses,  and  to  induct  into  benefices.     x\rch- 
 
ENGLAND.  41 
 
 |5riests,  who  on  the  Continent  share  the  labours  of  the  arch-deacon 
 on  a  smaller  scale,  being  superintendants  over  a  few  parishes, 
 were  in  England  also  styled  rvn-al  deans,  but  are  now  unknown. 
 Subdivisions  of  government  are  so  much  controlled  by  the  very 
 nature  of  human  affairs,  that  the  power  of  the  arch-priest  almost 
 correspond  with  the  Scotish  presbytery,  while  the  provincial  sy- 
 nods are  similar  to  bishoprics. 
 
 Of  the  clergy  in  general,  the  lowest  order  is  that  of  deacons, 
 whose  office  formerly  was  to  superintend  the  poor ;  the  ancient 
 donations  to  the  church  being  always  assigned  in  three  divisions, 
 one  to  the  poor,  another  for  repairs,  and  the  last  for  the  clergy. 
 At  present  the  deacon's  office  is  restricted  to  baptism,  to  reading 
 in  the  church,  and  assisting  the  priest  at  the  communion  by  hand- 
 ing the  cup  only.  Deacon's  orders  cannot  be  canonically  receiv- 
 ed before  the  age  of  twenty-three  years,  those  of  a  priest  require 
 twenty-four,  and  a  bishop  must  be  thirty.  The  curate  is  a  clergy- 
 man appointed  to  officiate  for  another,  and  is  so  named  from  his 
 having  the  care  of  souls  ;  hence  the  French  rather  apply  the  term 
 to  the  rector.  If  the  predial  or  great  tythes  of  the  parish  be  im- 
 propriated, or  converted  into  secular  hands,  the  priest  is  termed  a 
 vicar,  a  name  originally  implying  that  they  Avere  the  vicarii,  or 
 deputies  of  the  rector ;  but  if  the  tythes  be  entire,  the  priest  is 
 styled  rector.  The  church  wardens  superintend  the  repairs  and 
 decorations  of  the  church,  and  the  requisites  for  divine  service, 
 and  collect  the  alms  of  the  parishioners ;  they  are  annually  elect- 
 ed at  Easter,  and  have  sometimes  sidesmen,  a  kind  of  assistants. 
 The  sacristan,  corruptly  called  sexton,  originally  had  the  care  of 
 the  furniture  and  plate  of  the  church ;  and  by  a  still  greater  cor- 
 ruption the  appellation  is  now  applied  to  the  grave-digger,  when 
 it  ought  to  have  been  conferred  on  the  parish-clerk. 
 
 The  clergy  in  general  enjoy  some  peculiar  privileges.  Their 
 goods  are  free  from  tolls  in  fairs  and  markets  :  they  cannot  be  com- 
 pelled to  any  office  civil  or  military :  they  are  only  amerced  according 
 to  their  temporal  estate  :  nor  are  they  assessed  for  a  robbery  com- 
 miitted  in  the  hundred,  or  for  watching,  warding,  highways,  &c.  &c. 
 
 Ecclesiastical  courts  still  retain  considerable  power :  the  con- 
 vocation, consisting  of  the  archbishops  and  bishops,  with  a  lower 
 house  of  150  members,  only  meets  for  the  sake  of  form  ;  but  have 
 not  been  allowed  to  deliberate  since  the  reign  of  Anne. 
 
 Next  in  dignity  is  the  court  of  delegates,  acting  by  a  special 
 commission  under  the  great  seal ;  and  to  whom  an  appeal  lies 
 from  the  highest  metropolitan  court.  The  court  of  arches  is  so 
 styled  because  it  was  held  in  the  arches  of  the  church  of  St.  Mary- 
 le-bone,  London,  but  now  in  the  great  hall.  Doctors  Commons ; 
 only  doctors  of  the  civil  law  are  allowed  to  plead.  The  court  of 
 audience  is  always  presided  by  the  archbishop  himself,  who  de- 
 cides any  doubts  concerning  the  admission  to  benefices  and  dis- 
 pensation of  the  banns  of  matrimony. 
 
 The  next  court  is  that  of  prerogative,  which  judges  of  estates 
 fallen  by  will,  or  intestate  ;  the  prerogative  office  is  likewise  in 
 Doctors  Commons.     The  court  of  peculiars  refers  to  several  pc- 
 
 VOL.    II.  6 
 
42  ENGLAND. 
 
 culiar  parishes  exempt  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishops,  but 
 here  amenable  :  the  judges  are  sole  and  without  jury. 
 
 The  ecclesiastical  geography  of  England  may  be  seen  in  the 
 following  table  : 
 
 Province  of  Ca7iterbury. 
 
 1.  Bishopric  of  London,  containing  Essex,  Middlesex,  and  part 
 of  Hertford, 
 
 2.  Winchester.-— Surry,  Hampshire,  Isles  of  Wight,   Jersey, 
 Guernsey,  and  xYlderney. 
 
 5.  Litchfield  and  Coventry. — Stafford,  Derby,  and  part  of  War- 
 wick and  Shropshire. 
 
 4.  Lincoln.-— Lincoln,  Leicester,  Huntingdon,  Bedford,  Buck- 
 ingham and  part  of  Hertford. 
 
 5.  Ely. — Cainbridgshire. 
 
 6.  Salisbury. — Wilts  and  Berkshire. 
 
 7.  Exeter. — Cornwall  and  Devon. 
 S.  Bath  and  Wells. — Somersetshire. 
 9.  Chichester. — Sussex. 
 
 iO.  Norwich, — Norfolk,  Suffolk  and  a  small  part  of  Cambridge, 
 1  i.  Worcester. — Worcester,  and  part  of  Warwick. 
 
 12.  Hereford.— Hereford  and  part  of  Shropshire. 
 
 13.  Rochester. — -Part  of  Kent. 
 
 14.  Oxford. — Oxfordshire. 
 
 15.  Peterborough. — Northampton  and  Rutland. 
 
 1 6.  Gloucester. — Gloucestershire. 
 
 17.  Bristol. — The  city  of  Bristol,  part  of  Gloucestershire,  and 
 county  of  Dorset. 
 
 1 8.  Llandaff. — Glamorgan,  Monmouth,  Brecknock,  and  Radnor. 
 
 19.  St.  David's. — Pembroke,  Cardigan,  and  Caermarthen. 
 
 20.  St.  Asaph. — The  greatest  part  of  Flint,  Denbigh,  and  Mont- 
 gomery, and  some  part  of  Shropshire. 
 
 21.  Bangor. — The  counties  of  Anglesey,  Caernarvon,  Merio- 
 neth, and  part  of  Denbigh  and  Montgomery. 
 
 Province  of  York. 
 
 22.  Durham. — Durham  and  Northumberland. 
 
 23.  Carlisle. — Great  part  of  Cumberland  and  Westmoreland. 
 
 24.  Chester. — Cheshire,  Lancashire,  Richmondshire  (which  is 
 part  of  York  ;)  with  part  of  Cumberland  and  Westmoreland. 
 
 25.  Isle  of  Man. 
 
 Those  who  differ  in  tenets  or  forms  from  the  established  church 
 may,  in  genei"al,  be  styled  dissenters,  though  the  term  be  more 
 strictly  applied  to  the  Presbyterians  and  Independents.  The  other 
 principal  classes  of  the  diffidents  are  the  Papists,  MethodistSj 
 Quakers,  the  Anabaptists,  the  Swedenborgians,  and  the  Unitarians ; 
 the  last  class  denying  the  Trinity,  and  believing  only  in  one  God, 
 is  now  intermingled  with  the  two  first,  and  in  cc-asiderable  num- 
 bers with  the  established  church.  The  Independents  assert,  that 
 each  congregation  has  a  right  to  regulate  itself,  while  the  Presby- 
 terians unite  churches  under  various  divisions,  provincial  and  na- 
 tional. The  Papists  used  chiefly  to  abound  in  Lancashire,  Staf- 
 fordshire, and  Sussex  ;  they  had  potent  chiefs,  and  were  a  foi'mi- 
 
ENGLAND.  4S 
 
 dable  body ;  but  the  passage  from  superstition  to  contempt  is  so 
 natural,  that  many  have  fled  to  the  opposite  extreme.  Those  who 
 retain  their  faith  generally  display  moderation,  which  has  been 
 naturally  increased  by  the  late  privileges  extended  to  them. 
 
 The  Methodists  are  numerous  and  respectable.  Their  num- 
 bers in  Great  Britain  in  July  1809  amounted  to  132,086  ;  in  Ire- 
 land  to  25,835  :  total  157,921.  In  July  1810  they  had  increased 
 in  both  islands  7,777.  In  the  other  British  dominions  they  were 
 in  1809  in  Gibraltar  40,  in  the  west  Indies  12,500,  British  North 
 America  1,121.  These  added  to  the  Methodists  of  the  United  States, 
 159,500  in  number,  makes  a  total  of  331,082  Methodists  then  on 
 the  globe.  They  allow  the  propriety  of  the  creed  and  government 
 of  the  Church  of  England;  but  require  a  more  strict  life,  more 
 fervent  devotion,  and  more  frequent  and  serious  attendance  upon 
 divine  worship,  than  is  enforced  by  the  establishment.  A  philoso- 
 pher may  well  envy  the  mild  creed  and  universal  charity  of  the 
 Quakers  ;  while  we  must  allow  with  a  sigh  that  a  nation  of  quakers 
 could  not  exist,  except  all  nations  were  of  the  same  persuasion. 
 The  Anabaptists  disown  infant  baptism,  and  bathe  the  adult  disci- 
 ple. The  learned  Whiston  admired  their  tenets  and  their  practice 
 of  anointing  the  sick  with  oil,  which,  as  he  believed,  operated  Avith 
 miraculous  power.  The  Swedenborgians  derive  their  name  from 
 the  Baron  Swedenborg,  a  nobleman,  who  exchanged  his  native 
 country  of  Sweden  for  a  residence  in  England. 
 
 Government.~]  The  English  constitution  is  a  limited  monarchy, 
 counterpoised  by  two  senates,  one  of  hereditary  peers,  the  other 
 of  representatives  chosen  by  the  people. 
 
 The  King  of  England  at  his  coronation  solemnly  swears  to  govern 
 his  people  according  to  parliamentary  statutes,  and  the  law  of  the 
 country  ;  to  maintain  the  Protestant  religion  ;  and  to  preserve  the 
 legal  rights  and  privileges  of  the  bishops,  clergy,  and  church. 
 
 His  acknowledged  prerogatives  are  chiefly  to  declare  war  and 
 to  make  peace,  a  power  upon  which  the  whole  of  public  prosperity 
 may  be  said  to  depend ;  to  form  alliances  and  treaties ;  to  grant 
 commission  for  levying  men  and  arms ;  and  even  for  pressing- 
 mariners.  To  the  king  belong  all  magazines,  amunition,  castles, 
 forts,  ports,  havens,  and  ships  of  v/ar :  he  has  also  the  special 
 management  of  the  coinage,  and  determines  the  alloy,  weight,  and 
 value.  His  prerogative  likewise  extends  to  the  assembling,  ad- 
 journment, prorogation,  and  dissolution  of  parliament,  and  to  its 
 removal  to  any  place.  He  also  enjoys  the  nomination  of  all  oflftcers 
 on  sea  or  land ;  of  all  magistrates,  counsellors,  and  officers  of 
 state ;  of  all  bishops  and  other  great  ecclesiastical  dignitaries ; 
 and  is  not  only  the  fountain  of  honour  but  of  justice,  as  he  may 
 pardon  any  offence,  or  mitigate  the  penalty.  As  head  of  the 
 church  he  may  call  a  national  or  provincial  synod,  and  with  its 
 consent  enact  canons  either  relating  to  faith  or  practice.  The 
 other  prerogatives  are  more  minute  and  more  adapted  to  juris- 
 prudential enumeration.  The  more  important  exceptions  are, 
 that  he  cannot  enact  new  laws  or  impose  new  taxes  without  the 
 consent  of  both  houses  of  parliament. 
 
U  ENGLAND. 
 
 This  grand  national  council  claims  the  next  consideration.  Orig- 
 inally both  the  nobles  and  the  commons  met  in  one  house,  and  it 
 is  not  impossible  that  the  mere  inconvenience  of  not  finding  halls 
 large  enough  for  the  ambulatory  parliaments  might  have  occasioned 
 the  division  into  two  houses,  unknown  in  any  other  country,  and 
 •which  in  fact  may  be  regarded  as  the  sole  foundation  of  English 
 liberty.  The  house  of  Peers  may  be  said  to  have  existed  from 
 the  earliest  period  of  English  history  ;  but  concerning  the  origin 
 of  the  Commons  there  is  a  dispute  between  the  Tory  and  Whig 
 writers.  The  present  constitution  of  the  parliament  of  England 
 may  however  be  traced  with  certainty  to  near  the  middle  of  the 
 thirteenth  century  ;  but  it  remains  unknown  at  what  precise  time 
 happened  the  important  separation  of  the  Commons  from  the 
 Peei"s.  The  latter  are  hereditary  senators  in  their  several  degrees 
 of  duke,  marquis,  earl,  viscount,  and  baron.  The  Duke  is  so 
 styled  from  the  Latin  dux^  a  leader  or  general ;  the  title  of  Mar- 
 quis springs  from  the  Gothic  language,  and  implies  the  command- 
 er of  a  march  or  frontier :  the  Earl  and  Baron  are  also  from  the 
 Gothic,  and  merely  imply  eminent  men  ;  the  Viscount  is  Latin, 
 and  signifies  the  lieutenant  of  the  count  or  earl.  The  various 
 orders  of  nobility  have  been  preserved  more  pure  in  England  than 
 in  any  other  country ;  owing  partly  to  the  laws  of  primogeniture, 
 partly  to  their  senatorial  office,  partly  to  the  institution  of  the  col- 
 lege of  heralds.  In  Germany  and  some  other  countries  the  nobil- 
 lity  has  fallen  into  comparative  degradation,  from  the  extension 
 of  the  title  to  all  the  sons,  and  from  the  presumption  of  adventurers. 
 The  privileges  of  the  peers  arc  moderate  and  uninvidious,  there 
 being  no  exemption  froin  taxes,  Sec.  as  in  some  countries. 
 
 The  Hovise  of  Commons  consists  of  knights,  citizens,  and  bur- 
 gesses, chosen  by  counties,  cities,  and  burghs,  in  consequence  of 
 royal  writs  directed  to  the  sheriff.  The  members  have  certain 
 privileges,  as  exemption  from  arrest  in  civil  causes,  on  their  jour- 
 ney to  parliament,  during  their  attendance,  and  on  their  return ; 
 nor  can  they  be  questioned  out  of  the  house,  for  any  sentiment 
 there  uttered.  The  commons  form  the  grand  inquest  of  the  realm, 
 and  may  impeach  or  accuse  the  greatest  peers  ;  but  their  chief 
 privilege,  and  upon  Avhich  their  whole  power  depends,  is  the  levy- 
 ing of  money,  in  which  they  are  deservedly  so  jealous,  that  they 
 will  not  permit  the  smallest  alteration  in  a  money  bill.  Since  the 
 union  with  Ireland  the  House  of  Commons  consists  of  six  hundred 
 and  fifty-eight  members ;  but  by  sickness,  important  offices,  and 
 indispensable  avocations,  vhere  rarely  appear  above  tv*-o  thirds  of 
 the  number.  A  Speaker  or  president  is  chosen  at  the  meeting  of 
 every  new  parliament,  but  is  usually  continued  from  one  to  anoth- 
 er, as  the  office  requires  a  complete  and  ready  knowledge  of  the 
 forms,  and  considerable  abilities. 
 
 Acts  df  parliament  are  first  presented  in  the  form  of  diUs,  and, 
 after  having  gone  through  various  and  exact  forms  generally  ob- 
 served with  great  miimteness,  become  law  on  receiving  the  sanc- 
 tion of  the  Crown. 
 
 Adjournments  may  frequently  hap}:cn  in  one  session,  and  tliu 
 
ENGLAND  45 
 
 business  is  continued  and  i-esumed ;  but  a  prorogation  terminates 
 the  session,  and  the  bills  not  then  passed  must  recommence  their 
 whole  progress.  By  a  modern  statute  the  death  of  the  king  does 
 not,  as  formerly,  terminate  the  parliament;  which, on  the  contrary, 
 had  it  been  previously  dissolved,  may,  on  that  event,  resume  its 
 functions. 
 
 Such  are  the  three  grand  component  parts  of  the  English  con- 
 stitution ;  but  perhaps  its  most  beneficial  and  popular  effects  arise 
 from  the  mode  of  administering  justice,  and  other  ramifications. 
 For  the  sake  of  connection,  nowever,  it  is  proper  first  to  consider 
 the  Privy  Council  and  the  other  divisions  of  the  government. 
 
 The  Privy  Council  formerly  possessed  gixat  poAver,  but  ar 
 present  is  chiefly  employed  in  deliberations  on  affairs  of  sudden 
 emergence,  on  peace  and  Avar,  and  special  provinces  of  the  royal 
 prerogative.  The  members  are  chosen  by  the  king,  and  on  changes 
 of  administration  are  seldom  erased,  though  those  in  opposition 
 never  attend.  They  arc  styled  Right  Honourable,  and  are  sworn 
 to  observe  secrecy :  the  lowest  at  the  board  pronounces  his  opin- 
 ion first,  and  the  king,  if  present,  concludes  Avith  declaring  his 
 judgment. 
 
 Even  at  an  early  period,  Avhen  the  monarch  maintained  in  his 
 own  hands  a  great  share  cf  the  administration  of  justice,  and  of 
 the  actual  exercise  of  authority,  there  were  intervals  of  absence 
 or  recreation  in  which  he  delegated  the  chief  management  of 
 business  to  some  select  person,  usually  an  ecclesiastic,  whose  cul- 
 tivated talents  qualified  him  for  such  an  important  trust.  To  lend 
 more  weight  to  this  substitute,  he  was  commonly  appointed  chan- 
 cellor or  chief  administrator  of  civil  justice,  Avas  president  of  the 
 House  of  Peers,  and  supported  the  royal  influence  in  that  great 
 assembly.  But  in  later  times  Avhen  the  management  of  the  House 
 of  Commons  became  the  chief  object  of  the  croAvn,  the  chancellor 
 of  the  Court  of  Exchequer^  as  superintendant  of  the  public  reve- 
 nue, is  the  officer  generally  considered  as  prime  minister.  The 
 distribution  of  fifty  millions  a  year,  joined  Avith  the  royal  support, 
 has  recently  carried  his  power  to  the  highest  elevation.  Next  to 
 him  in  authority  are  the  secretaries  of  state,  Avho  are  followed  by 
 the  chancellor,  the  treasurer  of  the  navy,  the  president  of  thi' 
 council,  the  paymaster  of  the  forces,  the  commissioners  of  the 
 treasury,  and  other  persons  of  high  trust.* 
 
 Judicature.^  The  judicature  of  England  is  Avonhy  of  the  high- 
 est applause  with  regard  to  precision  and  purity  ;  and  biibes,  so 
 frequent  in  other  countries,  being  totally  unknoAvn,  the  saving  o- 
 this  expense  must  be  candidly  poised  against  other  legal  disbursef 
 ments.  The  trial  by  jury  is  another  glorious  feature  of  English 
 jurispi'udencc,  handed  doAvn  from  the  Saxon  times,  and  is  justly 
 respected  as  the  very  safeguard  of  the  lives,  liberties,  and  pro- 
 perties of  the  nation.  It  Avould  bo  idle  and  extraneous  here  to 
 attempt  pven  a  brief  sketch  of  the  laAvs  of  England. 
 
 *  Wc  subjoin  here  a  list  of  English  kings,  from  llic  time  tliat  this  country  hecHriM' 
 united  under  one  monarch,  in  the  person  of  Kpjbeit,  who  subdueil  llie  other  [trinces  <  f 
 the  Saxon  heiiturchy,  and  gave  tlic  name  of  Anglc-bnd  to  this  part  of  the  isUiud  ;  tin- 
 
46  ENGLAND. 
 
 Among  the  courts  of  law  the  next  in  dignity  to  the  House  of 
 Lords  is  the  Court  of  King's  Bench  so  called,  because  the  sove- 
 reign was  understood  to  judge  in  person ;  and  its  jurisdiction  of 
 course  extends  to  the  whole  kingdom,  the  presiding  judge  being 
 denominated  Lord  Chief  Justice  of  England.  The  Court  of  Chan- 
 'cery  judges  causes  in  equity  to  moderate  the  rigor  of  the  law,  and 
 defend  the   helpless  from  oppression,  and  especially  to  extend 
 
 Saxons  and  Angles  having  about  four  centuries  before,  invaded  and  subdued  the  ancient 
 Biitons,  whom  they  diove  into  Wales  and  Cornwall. 
 
 Began  to  rtigti. 
 
 800  Egbert 
 
 838  Ethelwolf 
 
 S:)/  Ethelbald 
 
 860  Etbelbert 
 
 866  Ethelred 
 
 871  Alfred  the  Great 
 
 901  Edwaitl  the  Elder 
 
 925  Athelstan  ^    Saxon  Princes. 
 
 941  Edmund 
 
 646  Edred 
 
 955  Edwy 
 
 959  Edgar 
 
 975  Edward  the  Martyr 
 
 978  Ethelred  IF. 
 
 1016  Edmund  n.  or  Ironside  J 
 
 1017  Canute,  King  of  Denmark       ■) 
 
 1035  Harold  C.    Danisli. 
 
 1039  Hardicanute  j 
 
 1041  Edwai-d  the  Confessor  7  c  „ 
 
 1065  Harold  5  ^^°'^- 
 
 1066  William  I.     5^  (Commonly  called  tlie  conqueror)  duke  of  Normandy,  a  province 
 \  facing  the  S.  of  England,  now  annexed  to  the  French  monarchy. 
 
 J08^  William  II.    I   Sons  of  the  Conqueror. 
 1100  Henry  I.         ^ 
 
 1135  Stephen,  grandson  to  the  Conqueror,  by  his  4th  daughter  Adela. 
 
 -.ir-   w  IT       C(Flatagenet)  grandson  of  Henry  I.  by  his  daughter,  the  empress 
 
 1154  Henry  U.      ^Matilda,  and  her  2d  husband,  Geoffrey  Platagenet. 
 
 J  J  89  ?'f''^'''^  ^-     1-  Sons  of  Henry  II. 
 1199  John  ^  ■' 
 
 1216  Henry  III.  son  of  John. 
 
 1272  E(iward  I.  son  of  Henry  III. 
 
 1307  Edward  II.  son  of  Edward  1.  » 
 
 1327  Edward  III.  son  of  Edward  II. 
 
 1377  Richard  II.  grandson  of  Edward  III.  by  his  eldest  son,  the  Black  Prince. 
 
 ,.  ,,r  CSon  to  John  of  Gaunt,  duke  of  Lan-  "J 
 
 1399  Henry  IV.  |  ,,,  e,^,,,  ,„.  I   ^^^^^^  ^^  Lancaster. 
 
 1413  Henry  V.  son  oi  Henry  IV.  f 
 
 1422  Henry  VI.  son  of  Henry  V.  J 
 
 1461  Edward  IV.  descended  from  Edwai'dlllby  Lionel  his  3d  son  0 
 1483  Edward  V.  son  of  E<lward  IV.  r  House  of  York. 
 
 1483  Richard  III.  brother  of  Edward  IV.  J 
 
 •o     H  VTr    ^  (Tudor)  son  of  fhe  countess  of  Rich-'t    House  of  Tudor,  in  whom 
 
 1485  Henry  Vll.   ^mond,  of  the  house  of  Lancaster.  were   united    the   houses 
 
 1509  Henry  VIII.  son  of  Henry  VII.  \of   Lancaster   and  York, 
 
 1547  Edward  VI.  son  of  Henry  VIII.  rhy  Henry  VII's  marriage 
 
 1553  Marv         ")  t^      u*         c  u  iftit  '  w'th  Elizabeth,  daughter 
 
 I558  Eliza^oeth  j  ^^^S^'^^'  «f  "^"ry  VDI.  j  ^f  e^,,,j  ly. 
 
 ,    C    Great   grandson  of  James  IV.  king  of  Scotland,   by  Marg.iret, 
 1603  James.  1.  ^  daughter  of  Henry  VH.  and  first  of  tlie  Stuart  family  iu  England. 
 1625  Charles  I.  son  of  James  I. 
 Commonwealth  and  protectorate  of  Cromwell, 
 
 1649  Charles  II.  7  Sons  of  Charles  I. 
 1685  James  II,    3 
 
ENGLAND.  47 
 
 relief  in  three  cases,  accident,  fraud,  and  breach  of  trust.  The 
 Court  of  Common  Pleas  determines,  as  the  name  imports,  the  com- 
 mon suits  between  subject  and  subject,  and  tries  all  civil  causes, 
 real,  personal,  or  mingled,  according  to  the  precise  precepts  of 
 the  law.  The  Court  of  Exchequer,  so  termed  from  the  ancient 
 mode  of  accounting  upon  a  chequered  board,  decides  all  causes 
 relating  to  the  royal  treasury  or  revenue.  There  is  also  a  court 
 for  the  duchy  of  Lancaster,  having  cognizance  of  the  revenues  of 
 that  duchy  annexed  to  the  crown  by  Henry  IV. 
 
 The  judges  perform  their  circuits  in  the  spring  and  autumn, 
 and  in  the  mean  wiiile  more  minute  cases  are  determined  by  the 
 justices  of  the  peace,  who  may  be  traced  to  the  fourth  year  of  Ed- 
 ward in.  Every  three  months  the  jvisticcs  of  the  county  meet  at 
 what  is  called  the  quarter  sessions.,  and  the  grand  inquest  or  jury 
 of  the  county  is  here  summoned,  which  inquires  concerning 
 crimes,  and  orders  the  guilty  to  jail  till  the  next  circuit  or  assizes. 
 The  office  of  the  sheriff  is  to  execute  the  royal  mandates,  to-  im- 
 pannel  juries,  to  bring  persons  for  trial,  and  to  see  the  sentences 
 executed ;  to  collect  fines  and  remit  them  to  the  exchequer,  and 
 to  preserve  the  tranquillity  of  the  shire. 
 
 There  was  formerly  a  bailiff  in  every  hundred,  but  the  office  is 
 now  rare.  The  constables  personally  assist  in  the  preservation  of 
 the  peace,  and  execute  the  warrants  of  the  justices.  The  coroner 
 inquires  by  a  jury  of  neighbours  into  cases  of  violent  death.  The 
 clerk  of  the  market  superintends  the  weights  and  measures  ;  and 
 it  were  to  be  wished-  for  the  benefit  of  the  poor,  that  the  office  were 
 multiplied  and  strictly  enforced. 
 
 Such  are  the  chief  magistrates  and  officers  in  the  country.  Cities 
 and  towns  are  generally  ruled  by  a  mayor  and  alderman,  or  by 
 similar  magistrates  under  different  appellations,  whose  juridical 
 power  little  exceeds  that  of  justices  of  the  peace. 
 
 To  enumerate  the  various  punishments  inflicted  by  the  laws  of 
 England  would  be  an  imnecessary  task.  It  has  been  justly  ob- 
 served, that  they  are  too  sanguinary,  and  that  their  frequency  di- 
 minishes the  intended  purpose  of  impressing  terror.  If  death 
 were  only  inflicted  in  cases  of  murder,  the  relaxation  would  be 
 found  beneficial  to  the  community.    It  would  certamly  be  preferable 
 
 Began  to  reign. 
 
 1688  >  William  III.  nephew  and  son-in-law  of  James  II. 
 
 l-^no    V     A  ^'^^^^^^''y^  Daughters  of  James  11.  in  whom  ended  the  Protestant  line 
 i-u-  /\nne  ^     p,    ci,aj,igs   j     f^^,  James  II     upon    his  abdicating    the 
 
 throne,  carried  with  liisj  his  infant  son,  (the  late  Preten- 
 der) who  was  excluded  by  act  of  parliament,  which 
 settled  the  succession  in  the  next  Protestant  heirs  of  James 
 I.  The  surviving  issue  of  James,  at  the  time  of  his  death, 
 were  a  son  and  a  dat.ghter,  viz.  Charles,  who  succeeded 
 him,  and  the  princess  Elizabeth,  who  married  the  Elector 
 __  Palatine,  who  took  the  title  of  king  of  Bohemia,  and  left  a 
 
 daughter,  the  princess  Sophia,  who  married  the  duke  ot 
 Brinswick  Lunenburgh,  by  A\hora  she  had  George,  elector 
 ef  Hanover,  who  ascended  the  throne,  by  act  of  parliament-, 
 expressly  made  in  favor  of  his  mother. 
 1714  George  t.  i 
 
 1727  George  II.  son  of  George  I.  >   House  of  Hanover. 
 
 1760  George  111.  grandsoa  of  George  II.  J 
 
43  ENGLAND. 
 
 to  send  othei-  criminals  to  the  new  and  distant  Asiatic  settlemems, 
 than  by  the  waste  of  blood,  to  lessen  strength  and  population. 
 
 Populatio7i.'\     According  to  a  census  taken  in  1801,  there  were 
 In  Englanj),  Males         3,987,935 
 
 Females    4,343,409 
 
 In  Wales,  Males  257,178 
 
 Females        284,368 
 
 The  Army  198,351 
 
 Navy  126,279 
 
 Seamen  144,558 
 
 Convicts  1,410 
 
 8,331,344 
 
 541,546 
 
 Total  Males        4,716,045 
 Total  Females    4,627,443 
 
 In  Cities  2,356,793 
 
 In  the  Country  6,5 1 6, 1 97 
 
 Army,  Navy,  Sec.  470,598 
 
 470,598 
 9,343,488 
 
 9,343,488 
 
 9,343,488 
 
 Farmers  1,713,289 
 
 Mechanics    and)     1343351 
 Manufacturers  3      '       '^ 
 Houses  in  England.  1,467,870  inhabited. 
 
 53,965  uninhabited. 
 
 Total  1,521,835 
 
 Families  1,778,420 
 
 in  Wales,  108,053  inhabited  houses. 
 
 3,5 1 1  uninhabited  do. 
 
 111,564 
 Families  118,503 
 
 Total  houses  inhabited         1,575,923 
 Total  houses  uninhabited         57,476 
 
 1,633,399 
 Total  families  1,886,923 
 
 The  population  of  Ireland  is  estimated  at  about     4,000,000 
 That  of  Scotland,  at  1,607,760 
 
 The  population  of  England  and  Wales  9,343,488 
 
 Total  inhabitants  in  Great  Britain  1 4,95 1 ,248 
 
ENGLAND.  49 
 
 The   English  language  is  probably  diffused  to  the   extent  of 
 20,000,000  of  people. 
 
 Jniizj.^     The  British  ai-my,  in  1808,  consisted, 
 
 1.   Oi  Regular  Troops^  as  follows,  viz. 
 Infantry  101,003") 
 
 Swiss  do.  1:^,561  I    128,422 
 
 German  do.  7,858  J 
 
 Cavalry 
 
 22,653  1 
 
 Swiss  do. 
 
 72   I  25 
 
 German  do. 
 
 2,989  J 
 
 Guards 
 
 8,090 
 
 Garrisons 
 
 6,757 
 
 Veterans 
 
 5,624 
 
 Armee  Depots 
 
 3,899 
 
 Artillery 
 
 24,781 
 
 Total 
 
 203,287 
 
 2.  QiMilit 
 
 ia. 
 
 In  Great  Britain 
 
 54,686 
 
 Ireland 
 
 21,473 
 
 Total  Militia  76,159 
 
 Total  Regulars     203,287 
 
 Whole  No.       279,446 
 The  British  forces  in  the  East  Indies,  in  1809   242,OCfO 
 
 Total  521,446 
 
 J^'avy^  The  great  rampart,  defence,  and  glory  of  Great 
 Britain  consist  in  her  navy,  in  size,  strength,  and  number  of  ships, 
 far  exceeding  any  examples  on  record,  as  may  be  judged  from 
 the  following  catalogue  formed  in  February  1811. 
 
 NAVY  YA'^i:^  February  1811. 
 
 Statement  of  the  British  JVaval  Force.,  exclusive  of  the  hired 
 armed  Vessels,  which  are  chiejiy  emjiloyed  in  protecting  the 
 Coasting  Trade  of  Great  Britain. 
 
 r    "Tf       ^       2        ca       o 
 
 3         ST 
 
 At  sea          -          -  89  9  125  100  140      32      53        5      553 
 
 In  port  and  fitting  31  6  37  47  33       7     22             183 
 
 Guard, hospital, and)  35  g  g  5  1       •      ,          ^3 
 
 prison  ships  3 
 
 Inordinary  and  re-  ?  ^^,,  „„  ,.  ,-  ^       nr..,^ 
 
 .  .       '                   5-  64  11  98  44  17                 4        8      246 
 pairing          -          3 
 
 Building       -         -  35  2  14  3  54 
 
 Total         254  34     280      199      190     40     79      13    108? 
 VOL.    II.  7 
 
50  ENGLAND. 
 
 For  this  immense  fleet  the  number  of  seamen  amoimU  from  lOO 
 to  120,000,  a  number  which  no  other  country  ancient  or  modern 
 could  have  supplied. 
 
 The  naval  power  of  Great  Britain  constitutes  so  striking  and 
 important  a  feature  in  the  national  portrait,  that  it  merits  particu- 
 lar illustration.  Even  in  the  Saxon  times  we  find  considerable 
 fleets  mentioned  of  the  small  vessels  then  in  use.  One  of  the 
 Northumbrian  monai-chs  assembled  a  numerous  fleet  near  Jarro, 
 the  monastery  of  Bcda,  in  an  extensive  haven  of  the  time,  now  be- 
 come a  salt  marsh.  About  the  year  882  we  find  that  Alfred  di- 
 rected a  powerful  fleet  against  the  Danish  invaders.  The  fleet  of 
 Edgar  is  also  celebrated,  but  the  armament  of  Ethelredthe  second, 
 in  the  year  1009,  exceeded  any  which  England  ever  before  had 
 beheld,  probably  amounting  to  five  hundred  of  the  small  ships 
 then  known.  I3ut  the  devastations  of  the  Danes  and  Normans 
 occasioned  such  a  decline  in  the  naval  power  of  England,  that 
 Richard  I.  was  obliged  to  have  recourse  to  foreign  vessels  for  his 
 crusade.  In  the  reign  of  John  we,  for  the  first  time,  find  com- 
 memorated a  signal  victory  of  the  English  and  Flemings  over  the 
 French  fleet  of  Philip  Augustus,  which  was  computed  at  1700 
 ships,  or  rather  boats.  The  English  monarch,  in  the  pride  of  his 
 triumph,  was  the  first  who  ordered  the  salute  to  be  paid  by  for- 
 eign vessels  to  the  national  flag.  The  fleet  of  England  thenceforth 
 continued  to  be  always  respectable,  and  generally  victorious  ;  but 
 the  preponderance  of  the  English  armaments  over  those  of  France 
 only  became  permanent  and  decisive  a  little  more  than  a  century 
 ago,  after  the  battle  of  La  Hogue.  Spain  had  yielded  the  con- 
 test since  the  destruction  of  her  great  Armada,  and  Holland  had 
 been  greatly  reduced  in  her  naval  conflicts  under  Charles  the  IL 
 so  that  no  rival  remains,  and  Great  Britain  maintains  a  fixed  supe- 
 riority over  the  ocean. 
 
 The  special  superintendance  of  the  navy  is  committed  to  the 
 Board  of  Admiralty,  composed  of  admirals  of  known  skill,  and  of 
 peers  whose  impartiality  generally  regards  merit  alone  in  this  im- 
 portant service.  The  recent  conduct  of  English  maritime  war 
 has  been  crowned  with  distinguished  success  ;  and  their  admirals 
 must  be  allowed  to  rival  any  names  in  naval  history  ancient  or 
 modern. 
 
 Revetiue.']  In  ancient  times  the  royal  revenue  chiefly  arose 
 from  the  domains,  or  lands  appropriated  to  the  crown  ;  from 
 amerciaments  civil  and  criminal,  Avhich  passed  to  the  fisc  or 
 treasury,  and  from  customs  on  goods  imported  and  exported.  As 
 in  war  each  soldier  was  obliged  to  maintain  himself  for  a  certain 
 time,  the  expenditure  was  not  much  increased.  Upon  extraor- 
 dinary emergencies,  it  appears  that  a  contribution  was  raised  by 
 the  consent  of  the  national  council.  In  later  periods  subsidies  were 
 granted  to  the  amount  of  a  fifteenth  or  a  tenth  of  landed  income, 
 and  a  proportional  r?vte  on  moveable  goods.  As  society  advanced, 
 taxes  began  to  be  imposed  on  the  materials  themselves  ;  and  from 
 a  small  plant  an  enormous  tree  has  risen,  with  a  labyrinth  of  roots, 
 which  in  the  opinion  of  some  politicians  undermine  the  island. 
 
ENGLAND.  3 1 
 
 while  others  believe  that   they  only  produce  a  more   firm  con- 
 solidation. 
 
 The  excise  forms  one  of  the  most  productive  branches  of  the 
 revenue.  Next  stand  the  custotns^  and  after  them  the  stamps. 
 The  land-tax  has  recently  been  rendered  perpetual  and  sold  to 
 proprietors  of  estates  and  other  individuals.  But,  instead  of  the 
 land-tax,  now  appear  those  on  sugar,  tobacco,  and  malt,  amount- 
 ing to  near  3,000,000.  The  other  supplies  arise  from  the  East 
 India  Company,  lotteries,  &c.  The  following  is  the  prodvige  of 
 the  excise,  customs,  and  stamps,  in  1806  and  1808. 
 
 1806. 
 
 1808. 
 
 Excise 
 
 ^  25,338,925 
 
 C  26,769,015 
 
 Customs 
 
 12,769,243 
 
 12,337,315 
 
 Stamps 
 
 4,568,690 
 
 4,969,424 
 
 he  net  revenue 
 
 of  Great  Britain  amounted 
 
 In    1806 
 
 to 
 
 £  56,902,099 
 
 1808 
 
 to 
 
 60,354,782 
 
 1809 
 
 to 
 
 58,636,178 
 
 The  amount  of  the  revenue,  for  the  year  ending  January   1810 
 was  as  follows : 
 
 Oi'dinary  £  38,339,493 
 
 Extraordinary  resources  23,790,289 
 
 Loans  14,675,668 
 
 Grand  Total  £  76,805,450 
 
 The  amount  of  expenditure  for  the  same  year,  was/;  82,027,288. 
 Of  this  sum  ;C  20,956,052  was  for  interest  on  the  national  debt ; 
 fi  10,904,450,  interest  on  debt  redeemed  and  sinking  fund,  applied 
 to  the  reduction  of  national  debt.  For  the  navy  <C  9,79 1,408.  For 
 the  army  yC  18,463,094. 
 
 Of  the  permanent  taxes  the  greater  part  is  employed  in  dis- 
 charging the  interest  of  the  national  debt,  which  after  the  Ameri- 
 can war  amounted  to  more  than  239,000,000,  while  the  interest 
 exceeded  9,000,000.  At  present  the  national  debt  is  about 
 480,000,000,  and  the  interest  about  19,000,000. 
 
 To  alleviate  this  growing  burthen,  a  sinking  fund  was  instituted 
 in  1786,  by  which  between  20  and  30,000,000  may  be  considered 
 as  already  redeemed.  The  national  debt  began  in  the  reign  of 
 William,  and  grew  into  what  are  called  the  funds  or  stocks,  only 
 synonymous  terms  for  the  public  debt. 
 
 The  civil  list,  from  which  are  defrayed  the  salaries  of  officers  of 
 state,  judges,  ambassadors,  &c.  together  with  the  expences  of  the 
 royal  family,  amounts  to  1,000,000  annually. 
 
 Political  JmfiortaJice  and  Relations.^  With  such  a  prodigious 
 command  of  national  treasure,  the  political  importance  and  rela- 
 tions"of  Great  Britain  may  be  said  to  be  diffused  over  the  world  ; 
 foi'  wherever  money  influences  man,  there  may  her  power  be  per- 
 ceived.   The  union  of  Scotland  with  England  delivered  the  latter 
 
52  ENGLAND. 
 
 country  from  the  perpetual  check,  exercised  by  politicians  ancient 
 and  modern,  of  exciting  an  enemy  from  behind,  and  thereby  di- 
 viding the  power  of  an  antagonist.  That  with  Ireland,  if  pre- 
 served by  wise  and  lenient  measures,  must  also  impart  additional 
 energy.  The  most  important  political  considerations  arc  those 
 between  Great  Britain  and  France.  If  this  country  must  not  be 
 styled  the  natural  enemy  of  Great  Britain,  she  has  yet  for  many 
 centuries  been  a  constant  and  jealous  rival,  eagerly  embracing 
 every  opportunity  to  lessen  British  prosperity  and  power.  Such 
 being  the  case,  it  has  been  regarded  as  the  political  interest  of 
 England  to  balance  and  divide  the  enmity  of  France  by  a  strict  al- 
 liance with  some  powerful  state.  Since  the  revolution  in  that 
 country  many  coalitions  have  been  formed  on  the  continent  to 
 curb  her  wild  ambition  ;  but  they  have  been,  in  every  instance,  ul- 
 timately unsuccessful.  At  present,  there  is  no  power  but  Russia 
 whose  enmity  could  be  dreaded,  and  Russia  is  too  remote,  and  too 
 sluggish  in  her  movements,  to  find  her  enemy  unprepared. 
 
 The  present  connections  of  England  with  Spain  and  Portugal 
 are  alike  honorable  to  her  generosity  and  her  valor.  No  expense 
 of  money  or  of  blood  has  been  spared  to  relieve  those  nations 
 from  an  enemy  unrivalled  in  cruelty  and  profligacy. 
 
 Manners  and  Cuntoms.']  The  consideration  of  national  luanners 
 may  be  coveniently  referred  to  three  divisions  ;  first,  diet ; 
 secondly,  houses  and  dress  ;  thirdly,  amusements. 
 
 The  English  are  generally  thought  to  be  excessive  in  the  use 
 of  animal  food  ;  but  since  the  introduction  of  potatoes  and  other 
 esculent  vegetables,  this  position  may  be  doubted.  Their  fond- 
 ness for  heavy  malt  liquor  deservedly  strike  foreigners,  as  a  sin- 
 gularity in  English  diet.  They  pride  themselves  in  the  variety 
 and  richness  of  their  ales  ;  especially  their  Burton,  Dorchester, 
 and  Taunton  ales.  But  the  most  peculiar  malt  beverage  is  fiorttr^ 
 which  ought  to  be  solely  composed  of  brown  or  high  dried  malt, 
 hops,  liquorice,  and  sugar  ;  but  it  is  sometimes  debased  by  other 
 ingredients  :  that  of  London  is  particularly  famous,  and  is  an  ar- 
 ticle of  exportation,  being  esteemed  a  luxury  on  the  banks  of  th^ 
 Delaware  and  the  Ganges.  The  prodigious  consumption  of  tea  is 
 another  peculiar  feature,  the  use  of  that  plant  being  rare  in  other 
 European  countries.  The  baneful  effects  of  excess  in  sjiirltuous 
 liquors  may  be  traced  in  the  ruined  health  and  morals  of  the 
 people. 
 
 The  simplicity  of  the  English  cookery  strikes  foreigners  as 
 inuch  as  that  of  the  dress,  which  even  among  the  great  is  very 
 plain,  except  on  the  days  of  court  gala. 
 
 The  houses  in  England  are  peculiarly  commodious,  neat,  and 
 cleanly  ;  and  domestic  architecture  seems  here  to  have  arrived 
 at  its  greatest  perfection. 
 
 The  amusements  of  the  theatre  and  of  the  field,  and  various 
 games  of  skill  or  chance,  are  common  to  most  nations.  The 
 baiting  of  bulls  and  bears  is,  it  is  believed,  nearly  discon- 
 tinued :  one  of  the  most  peculiar  amusements  of  the  common 
 people  is,  the  ringing  of  long  peals,  with  many  changes,  which 
 
ENGLAND.  -  53 
 
 cHafen  those  who  ai*c  so  unhappy  as  to  live  in  the  neighborhood 
 of  the  church. 
 
 Prior  to  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  the  English  and 
 French  were  regarded  as  barbarous  nations  by  the  more  polished 
 Italians.  The  reign  and  female  blandishiuents  of  the  court  of 
 Elizabeth  seem  to  have  had  a  wonderful  effect  in  civilizing  the 
 manners.  The  transition  has  been  well  portrayed  by  an  ancient 
 writer,  whose  simple  language,  given  in  modern  orthography,  may 
 perhaps  amuse  the  reader. 
 
 "  There  are  old  men  yet  dwelling  in  the  village  where  I  re- 
 main, who  have  noted  three  things  that  are  marvellously  altered 
 in  England  within  their  sound  remembrance.  One  is  the  inulti- 
 tude  of  chimneys  lately  erected  :  whereas  in  their  young  days 
 there  were  not  above  two  or  three,  if  so  many,  in  many  uplandish 
 towns  of  the  realm,  (the  religious  houses,  and  manor  places  of 
 their  lords,  always  excepted,  and  peradventure  some  great  per- 
 sonages,) but  each  one  made  his  tire  against  a  rcre  dosse  in  the 
 hall,  where  he  dined  and  dressed  his  meat.  The  second  is  the 
 great  amendment  of  lodging  ;  for,  said  they,  our  fathers,  and  we 
 ourselves,  have  laid  full  oft  upon  straw  pallets,  covered  only  with 
 a  sheet,  under  coverlets  made  of  dagsivai/i  or  hojiharlots  (I  use 
 their  own  terms)  and  a  good  round  log  under  their  heads,  instead 
 of  a  bolster.  If  it  were  so  that  our  fathers,  or  the  good  man  of  the 
 house,  had  a  mattress  or  flock  bed,  and  thereto  a  sack  of  chaff  to 
 rest  his  head  upon,  he  thought  himself  to  be  as  well  lodged  as  the 
 lord  of  the  town,  so  well  were  they  contented.  Pillows,  said  they, 
 were  thought  iTieet  only  for  women  in  childbed.  As  for  servants, 
 if  they  had  any  sheet  above  them  it  was  was  well,  for  seldom  had 
 they  any  under  their  bodies,  to  keep,  them  from  the  pricking 
 straws  that  ran  through  the  canvass,  and  razed  their  hardened  hides. 
 
 "  The  third  thing  they  tell,  us  of,  is  the  exchange  of  Avooden 
 platters  into  pewter,  and  wooden  spoons-into  silver  or  tin.  For  so 
 common  were  all  sorts  of  wooden  vessels,  in  old  time,  that  a  man 
 should  hardly  find  four  pieces  of  pewter  (of  which  one  was  perad- 
 venture a  salt-seller,)  in  a  good  farmer's  house  ;  and  yet,  for  all 
 this  frugality,  if  it  may  be  so  justly  called,  they  were  scarce  able 
 to  live  and  pay  their  rents  at  their  days,  without  selling  of  a  cow, 
 or  a  horse,  or  mare,  although  they  paid  but  four  pounds  at  the 
 uttermost,  by  the  year.  Sucn  was  also  their  poverty,  that  if  a 
 farmer,  or  husbandman,  had  been  at  the  alehouse,  a  thing  greatly 
 used  in  those  days,  amongst  six  or  seven  of  his  neighbors,  and 
 there,  in  a  bravery,  to  shew  what  store  he  had,  did  cast  down  his 
 purse,  and  tlierein  a  noble,  or  six  shillings  in  silver,  unto  then!, 
 it  is  very  likely  that  all  the  rest  would  not  lay  down  so  much 
 against  it ;  whereas,  in  my  time,  although  peradventure  four 
 pounds  of  old  rent  be  improved  to  forty  or  fifty  poimds,  yet  will 
 the  farmer  think  his  gains  very  small,  toward  the  midst  of  his 
 term,  if  he  have  not  six  or  seven  years  rent  lying  by  him,  there- 
 with to  purchase  a  new  lease  ;  besides  a  fair  garnish  of  pewter  on 
 his  cupboard,  three  or  four  feather  beds,  as  many  coverlids,  and 
 carpets  of  tapestry,  a   silver  salt-seller,  a  bowl  for  Mine,  if  not  u 
 
54  ENGLAND. 
 
 v/hole  nest,  and  a  dozen  of  spoons  to  furnish  up  the  suit.  This 
 also  he  taketh  to  be  his  own  clear  ;  for  what  stock  of  money 
 soever  he  gathereth  in  all  his  years,  it  is  often  seen  that  the  land- 
 lord will  take  such  order  with  him  for  the  same,  when  he  renew- 
 eth  the  lease,  (which  is  commonly  eight  or  ten  years  before  it  be 
 expired,  since  it  is  now  grown  almost  a  custom,  that  if  he  come 
 not  to  his  lord  so  long  before,  another  shall  step  in  for  a  rever- 
 sion, and  so  defeat  him  outright,)  that  it  shall  never  trouble  him 
 more  than  the  hair  of  his  beard,  when  the  barber  hath  washed  and 
 shaven  it  from  his  chin."* 
 
 The  cold  restraint,  which  some  foreigners  have  ascribed  to  the 
 English,  has  been  candidly  judged  by  a  recent  traveller,  to  exist 
 only  in  appearance.  A  more  genuine  attribute  of  the  English  is 
 integrity,  which  has  carried  their  credit  and  commerce  to  an  ex- 
 tent before  unknown  in  the  history  of  nations. 
 
 Languagc.~\  Most  European  languages  are  derived  from  the 
 Gothic  or  the  Latin.  To  the  Latin  origin  belong  Italian,  French, 
 and  Spanish  ;  to  the  Gothic,  the  German,  Dutch,  Flemish,  Danish, 
 Swedish,  and  Norwegian.  From  the  situation  of  the  country,  and 
 other  causes,  the  English  participates  of  both  those  grand  sources  ; 
 and  unites  in  some  degree  the  force  of  the  Gothic  with  the  melody 
 of  the  Latin  dialects.  The  ancient  ground,  and  native  expression, 
 originate  from  the  Gothic  divisions  of  the  Belgic,  Saxon,  and 
 Danish  ;  but  particularly  from  the  Belgic,  as  will  appear  from 
 comparison  with  the  Dutch  and  Frisic.  The  languages  of  Latin 
 origin  have,  however,  supplied  a  vast  wealth  of  words,  sometimes 
 necessary,  sometimes  only  adopted  because  they  are  more  sono- 
 rous, though  not  so  emphatic  as  the  original  Gothic.  There  is  no 
 evidence  of  the  existence  of  Celtic  words  in  the  English  lan- 
 guage,! whatever  some  antiquaries  have  imagined,  for  the  words 
 they  indicate  may  also  be  found  in  Iceland,  a  country  never  peopled 
 by  the  Celts. t 
 
 Numerous  manuscripts  exist,  written  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  or 
 old  English  language,  and  one  of  its  most  classic  authors  is  the 
 great  Alfred  himself.  It  appears  from  many  works,  written  long 
 after  the  Conquest,  that  the  French  language,  though  colloquial 
 among  the  great,  scarcely  imparted  any  tinge  to  the  national 
 tongue.  The  conquests  of  Edward  III.  in  France,  and  other  cir- 
 cumstances effected,  in  the  fourteenth  century,  a  change  in  vain 
 attempted  by  the  Norman  conqueror.  Chaucer,  who  wrote  at  that 
 period,  presents  almost  the  first  rude  dawn  of  what  may  be  termed 
 the  English  language.  In  the  same  century,  that  enterprising 
 traveller  Sir  John  Mandervile  supplies  one  of  the  best  specimens 
 of  English  prose. 
 
 In  the  succeeding  century,  the  speech  had  made  such  rapid 
 advances,  that  even  as  early  as  the  reign  of  Edward  the  Sixth,  we 
 find  it  vary  very  little  from  that  of  the  reign  of  Henry  the  Eighth. 
 The  works  of  Fortescue  in  the  reign  of  Edward  the  Fourth,  set- 
 
 *  IJesci'iption  of  Britain,  in  HoUinslied's  Chronicle.,  vol.  1.  fol.  85. 
 ■■   Both  these  positions  Lavs  beec  doubted. 
 
ENGLAND.  55 
 
 ting  aside  the  orthography,  might  even  be  perused  by  the  com- 
 mon reader. 
 
 In  the  reign  of  queen  Elizabeth,  a  century  after,  the  English 
 language  had  acquired  such  copiousness,  dignity,  force,  and  mel- 
 ody, that  perhaps  in  the  eye  of  very  distant  posterity,  moderns 
 may  be  supposed  never  to  have  exceeded,  what  is  gained  in  ele- 
 gance being  generally  lost  in  power.  Sidney's  defence  of  poesy 
 may  be  regarded  as  a  good  specimen  of  English  prose,  not  to 
 mention  Hooker's  ecclesiastical  polity,  and  other  large  works  of 
 that  period,  which  continue  to  be  read  and  admired. 
 
 The  common  translation  of  the  bible  is  a  noble  specimen  of  the 
 dignified  prose  of  the  following  reign,  beyond  which  it  is  unneces- 
 sary to  conduct  this  sketch,  as  our  libraries  abound  with  the  suc- 
 ceeding publications. 
 
 The  construction  of  the  English  language  is  peculiar,  and  I'en- 
 ders  the  study  of  it  very  difficult  to  foreigners.  The  German  and 
 other  Gothic  dialects  present  declensions  of  nouns,  and  other  cor- 
 respondencies with  the  Latin,  while  in  the  English  all  such  objects 
 are  accomplished  by  prefixes.  Anomalies  also  abound,  and  are 
 too  deeply  rooted,  ever  to  be  eradicated  by  grammatical  rules. 
 Farther  remarks  would  be  foreign  to  the  plan  of  this  work,  which 
 however  requires,  occasionally,  short  specimens  of  the  various 
 languages  of  the  globe,  to  enable  the  reader  to  judge  of  the  rela- 
 tive origins  of  nations :  for  this  purpose  the  Lord's  prayer  is  gen- 
 erally chosen,  which  shall  be  here  given  in  Anglo-Saxon  and  mod- 
 ern English. 
 
 Uren  fader  thic  arth  in  heofnas.  Sie  gehalgud  thin  noma.  To 
 cymeth  thin  rye.  Sie  thin  wiila,  sue  is  in  heofnas  and  in  eoitho. 
 Uren  hlaf  oferwistlic  sel  us  to  daeg.  And  forgeve  us  scylda  urna 
 sue  we  forgefau  scyldgum  urum.  And  no  inlead  usig  in  cust- 
 nung.     Ah  gefi-ig  usich  frim  ifle.     Amen. 
 
 Our  father,  which  art  in  heaven,  hallowed  be  thy  name  ;  thy 
 kingdom  come  ;  thy  will  be  done  on  earth  as  it  is  in  heaven  ;  o-ive 
 us  this  day  our  daily  bread,  and  forgive  us  our  debts  as  we  forgive 
 our  debtors  ;  and  lead  us  not  into  temptation,  but  deliver  us  from 
 evil.     Amen. 
 
 Literature.~\  English  literature  is  a  vast  and  inviting  field  ;  but 
 a  few  fugitive  remarks  must  here  suffice.  Of  the  traditionaiy 
 verses  of  the  Druids,  a  few  relics  still  exist ;  but  the  Roman  con- 
 quest does  not  appear  to  have  inculcated  letters  with  much  diftu" 
 sion,  for  no  author  of  those  periods  claims  a  British  origin.  The 
 country  was  seized  by  the  Saxons,  before  British  literature  faintly 
 dawned  in  Gildas,  A.  D.  560.  Irish  literature  commenced  about 
 the  same  period,  and  continued  for  some  centuries  to  supply  nu- 
 merous writers  in  the  Latin  language ;  while  England  remained 
 almost  destitute.  But  Beda  in  the  eighth  century  redeemed  this 
 defect,  in  himself  a  host,  and,  like  Chaucer,  the  wonder  of  his  time. 
 The  Danish  invasions  were  ruinous  to  literature,  both  in  Great 
 Britain  and  Ireland,  and  the  great  Alfred  was  obliged  to  exert 
 his  utmost  endeavors  in  order  to  restore  some  degree  of  learning 
 even  among  the  clergy.    That  admirable  prince  himself  translated 
 
56  ENGLAND. 
 
 some  works  of  merit  and  utility,  as  the  histories  of  Orosius  and 
 Beda  into  the  Anglo-Saxon.  Of  the  interval  between  the  age  of 
 Beda  and  the  year  1 100,  the  Saxon  chronicle  is  a  noble  but  neg- 
 lected monument,  being  the  only  civil  history  of  England,  for  a 
 space  of  400  years.  About  the  year  1 100,  English  literature  com- 
 menced a  firm  and  steady  pace  ;  a  nvmierous  train  of  historians, 
 poets,  and  other  writers,  fills  the  pages  of  biography.  In  the  four- 
 teenth century,  Roger  Bacon  aspires  even  to  the  praise  of  eminent 
 genius.  In  the  following  century,  the  civil  wars  between  the 
 houses  of  York  and  Lancaster  were  destructive  of  literature  and 
 the  arts  ;  nor  will  it  be  easy  to  name  an  illustrious  author  of  that 
 P':;riod,  though  the  introduction  of  printing  in  the  reign  of  Edward 
 the  Fourth  forms  a  memorable  epoch.  The  writers  of  the  six- 
 teenth and  following  centuries  are  numerous  and  well  known. 
 The  grand  feature  of  English  literature  is  original  genius,  trans- 
 mitted even  from  Roger  Bacon  to  Shakespeare,  Lord  Bacon,  Mil- 
 ton, Newton,  Locke,  and  Berkeley  ;  npt  to  dwell  here  on  claims 
 more  minute,  but  equally  firm.  In  scientific  departments,  Eng- 
 land docs  not  yield  even  to  France.  In  the  various  branches  of 
 mathematical  knowledge  she  has  surpassed  all  nations.  The  Eng- 
 lish clergy  have  always  cultivated  classical  literature  with  distin- 
 guished zeal  and  predilection. 
 
 Jrts.^  The  present  state  of  the  arts  in  England  is  worthy  of  so 
 opulent  and  refined  a  country,  and  the  progress  has  been  rapid 
 beyond  example.  Some  faint  traces  of  painting  occur  in  the  thir- 
 teentli  century ;  but  the  names  and  country  of  the  artists  do  not 
 appear,  except  that  of  William  of  Florence,  where  the  art  had. 
 faintly  begun  to  revive.  In  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  th?  magnificent 
 castles  built  in  Wales  attest  the  genius  and  skill  of  the  architects, 
 while  their  individual  fame  is  lost  in  obscurity :  and  towards  the 
 end  of  the  fourteenth  century,  rich  monuments  of  architecture  and 
 sculpture  are  interspersed  with  some  few  remains  of  painting. 
 But,  England  continued,  till  the  last  century,  to  import  her  chief 
 painters  from  abroad ;  as  Holbein,  Antonio  More,  Zucchero,  Jan- 
 sen,  Mytens,  Rubens,  Vandyke,  Lely,  Kncller,  he.  &c.  Yet  in 
 miniature  and  engraving,  there  were  excellent  native  artists  in  th& 
 17th  century,  and  an  eminent  native  architect,  Inigo  Jones.  In 
 the  beginning  of  the  1 8th  century,  even  the  noble  architecture  of 
 St.  Paul's  did  not  redeem  the  other  arts  from  great  decline,  till 
 Hogarth  instituted  examples  of  ethic  and  characteristic  painting, 
 which  have  deservedly  excited  the  admiration  of  Europe.  The 
 present  reign  has  not  only  been  distinguished  by  pati'onage  of  the 
 arts,  but  in  exuberance  of  artists  of  deserved  reputation.  In  paint- 
 ing, engraving,  architecture,  and  sculpture,  England  may  now 
 boast  of  many  distinguished  native  names :  but  in  music  she  still 
 acknowledges  the  superior  skill  of  the  Germans  and  Italians. 
 
 Educatio7i.~\  The  education  of  the  lower  classes  in  England  had 
 become  extremely  neglected,  before  the  benevolent  institution  of 
 the  Sunday  schools.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  where  the  com- 
 mon people  are  the  best  instructed,  there  they  will  be  found  the  most 
 quiet,  contented,  and  virtuous ;    as  they  feel  a  conscious  seif-re- 
 
ENGLAND.  57 
 
 spect,  are  accustomed  to  be  treated  with  regard  by  each  other,  and 
 will  cheerfully  extend  the  same  reverential  conduct  towards  their 
 superiors  in  the  favours  of  fortune  ;  and  a  practical  estimate  of  the 
 advantages  of  general  education,  may  be  formed  by  comparing  the 
 neglected  peasantry  of  Ireland,  with  the  peaceable  Highlanders  of 
 Scotland,  where  public  schools  exist  in  every  parish.  The  middle 
 and  higher  ranks  of  English  spare  no  expence  in  the  education  of 
 their  sons,  by  private  tutors  at  home,  or  at  what  are  called  day 
 schools  and  boarding  schools.  The  most  eminent  public  schools 
 are,  those  of  St.  Paul's,  Westminster,  Eton,  and  Winchester;  and 
 from  them  have  arisen  some  of  the  most  distinguished  ornaments 
 of  their  country.  The  scholars  in  due  time  proceed  to  the  univer- 
 sities of  Oxford  and  Cambridge  ;  foundations,  of  an  extent  and 
 grandeur  that  impress  veneration.  The  number  and  aera  of  the 
 colleges,  will  appear  from  the  following  list. 
 
 University  of  Oxford. 
 1263.  Baliol  College — Founder,  John  Baliol  (father  of  John,  king 
 
 of  Scotland,)  and  his  wife,  Dervorgilla,  countess  of  Galloway. 
 1276.  Merton  College — Walter  Mcrton,  bishop  of  Rochester. 
 1292.  University  College — William,  archdeacon  of  Durham.* 
 1316.  Exeter  College — Weaker  Stapleton,  bishop  of  Exeter. 
 1323.  Auriell  College — Adam  dc  Brome,  almoner  to  Edward  II. 
 1340.  Queen's  CaUege — Robert  Eglesfield,  chaplain  to  queen  Phi- 
 
 lippa. 
 1379.  New  College — William  of  Wickham. 
 1348.  All-souls — Archbishop  Chicheley. 
 1458.  Magdalen  College — William  of  Wainflet. 
 1613.  Brazen  nose — William  Smith,  bishop  of  Lincoln. 
 1516.  Corpus  Christi — Richard  Fox,  bishop  of  Winchester. 
 1539.  Christ's  Church — Wolsey  and  Henry  VIII. 
 
 1556.  Trinity  College — Sir  Thomas  Pope. 
 
 1557.  St.  John's — Sir  Thomas  White, 
 1571.  Jesvis  College — Dr.  Price. 
 
 1613.  Wadham — Nicholas  Wadham,  Esq. 
 1624.  Pembroke — Thomas  Tesdale,  Esq.  t 
 
 University  of  Cambridge. 
 1284.  Peter-house — Hugh  Balsham,  bishop  of  Ely. 
 1340.  Clare-hall — Elizabeth  de  Burg,  countess  of  Ulster. 
 
 1347.  Pembroke-hall — Mary  de  Valentia,  countess  of  PembrolTe- 
 
 1348.  and  1557.  Gonvill  and  Caips — The  Doctors  so  named. 
 1353.  Trinity-hall — William  Bateman,  bishop  of  Norwich. 
 1356.  Bennet  or  Corpus  Christi — Henry  duke  of  Lancaster. 
 1443.  King's  College — Heni'y  VI. 
 
 1446.  Queen's  College — IVIargarci  of  Anjou. 
 
 1474,  Catharine-hall — Dr.  Vv'oodlark. 
 
 1497.  Jesus  College — John  Alcock,  bishop  of  Ely. 
 
 1516.  Christ's  College  )  Margaret,  countess  of  Richmond,  mSthcr 
 
 i.511.  St.  Sohn's  ^      of  Henry  VII. 
 
 *  Cough's  Camel  1.  p.  30e,  &c.  f  Vnth 
 
 VOL.    II.  8 
 
55  ENGLAND. 
 
 1520.  Magdalen  College — Thomas,  lord  Audley. 
 
 1546.  Trinity  College — Henry  VIII. 
 
 1589.  Emanuel — Sir  Walter  Mildmay. 
 
 1588.  Sydney  College — Frances  Sydney,  countess  of  Sussex.* 
 
 Of  the  two  universities,  many  minute  descriptions  have  appear- 
 ed. Oxford  is  the  more  majestic  ;  from  the  grandeur  of  the  col- 
 leges and  other  public  buildings,  and  the  superior  regularity  and 
 neatness  of  the  streets  :  but  the  chapel  of  King's  college  at  Cam- 
 bridge, is  supposed  to  excel  any  single  edifice  of  the  other  univer- 
 sity. Both  of  those  magnificent  seminaries  impress  every  feeling 
 mind  with  reverential  awe  ;  not  only  by  their  architectural  digni- 
 ty, but  by  a  thousand  collateral  ideas  of  ancient  greatness  and  sci- 
 ence. 
 
 Cities  a7id  Totvns.']  In  giving  a  brief  account  of  the  chief  cities 
 and  towns  in  England,  a  few  of  the  most  important  shall  be  arran- 
 ged according  to  dignity,  opulence,  and  population ;  and  the  others 
 shall  be  stated  without  preference,  in  a  kind  of  progress  from  the 
 south-west  to  the  north. 
 
 London,  the  metropolis  of  England,  is  situated  in  an  extensive 
 plain  or  valley  watered  by  the  Thames,  and  only  confined  on  the 
 north  by  a  few  small  elevations  ;  being  a  place  of  great  antiquity, 
 and  first  mentioned  by  Tacitus.  It  now  includes  Southwark,  a 
 borough  on  the  other  side  of  the  Thames,  and  Westminster,  anoth- 
 er city  on  the  west ;  so  that  like  some  places  of  ancient  geography, 
 it  might  be  named  Trijwlis^  or  three  cities.  The  noble  river 
 Thames  is  here  about  440  yards  in  breadth,  crowned  with  three 
 bridges,  crowded  with  a  forest  of  masts,  and  conveying  into  Lon- 
 don the  wealth  of  the  globe,  forming  an  excellent  port,  without  the 
 danger  of  exposure  to  maritime  enmity.  It  is,  however,  a  great 
 defect,  that  instead  of  open  quays  and  streets  on  the  banks  of  the 
 stream,  the  view  is  obstructed  on  both  sides  by  irregular  masses  of 
 building,  which  do  not  even  admit  of  a  path.  London  presents 
 almost  every  variety  which  diversifies  human  existence.  Upon 
 the  east  it  is  a  sea-port,  replete  with  mariners  and  with  the  trades 
 connected  with  that  profession.  In  the  centre,  it  is  the  seat  of  nu- 
 merous manufactures  and  prodigious  cosimerce  ;  while  the  west- 
 ern or  fashionable  extremity  presents  royal  and  noble  splendor, 
 amidst  scenes  of  the  highest  luxury  and  most  ruinous  dis- 
 sipation. 
 
 Fev/  cities  can  boast  a  more  salubrious  situation,  the  subjacent 
 soil  being  pure  gravel  j  by  which  advantage,  united  with  exten- 
 sive sewers,  the  houses  are  generally  dry,  cleanly,  and  healthy. 
 Provisions  and  fuel  are  poured  into  the  capital,  even  from  distant 
 parts  of  the  kingdom  ;  the  latter  article  being  coals,  from  the  coun- 
 ties of  Northumberland  and  Durham,  transferred  by  sea,  and 
 thence  denominated  sea-coal. t  London  requires  in  one  year 
 1,762,100  quarters  of  grain,  101,075  beeves,  707,456  sheep,  with 
 
 *  Gougli's  Camd.  II.  124.  131.     Grav's  Poems,  notes. 
 
 f  Mr.  Mkklletnn,  iu  his  view  of  IMi'fUllesex  1798,  sujtposes  that  hall"  a  milllou  of 
 chaldrons  are  yearly  consumed  in  th;\t  countr. 
 
ENGLAND.  59 
 
 calves  and  pigs  in  proportion :  the  vegetables  and  fruits  annually- 
 consumed,  are  valued  at  1,000,000  sterling.* 
 
 The  population  of  London  has  by  some  been  exaggerated  to  a 
 million  of  souls;  but  by  the  enumeration,  in  1801,  there  were 
 males  393,569,  females  471,476;  total  864,845.  If  to  these  be 
 added  the  regiments  of  guards,  the  militia  ii  London,  and  tlie 
 seamen  on  the  Thames,  the  population  woulJ  exceed  900,000.1 
 The  number  of  houses  was  126,414.  Its  length  from  Hyde-park 
 corner  on  the  west,  to  Poplar  on  the  east,  is  about  six  miles ;  the 
 breadth  unequal,  from  three  miles  to  one  and  less  ;  the  circumfer- 
 ence may  be  about  sixteen  miles.  The  houses  are  almost  univer- 
 sally of  brick,  and  disposed  with  insipid  similarity  ;  bdt  in  recom- 
 pence,  most  of  the  streets  are  excellently  paved,  and  have  conven- 
 ient paths  for  foot  passengers  :  a  mark  of  respect  to  the  common 
 people,  almost  unknown  to  the  capitals  on  the  continent.  Another 
 national  feature,  is  the  abundance  of  charitable  foundations  for 
 almost  every  infirmity  and  distress  incident  to  human  nature.  The 
 multitude  and  rich  display  of  the  shops  impress  strangers  with 
 astonishment ;  nor  are  they  less  surprised  at  the  constant  torrent 
 of  population  rolling  through  the  principal  streets,  nor  at  the 
 swarm  of  carriages  at  all  times  crowding  all  the  roads  to  the  cap- 
 ital, and  the  nocturnal  illuminations,  which  extend  even  to  four  or 
 five  miles  of  the  environs.  Its  waters  are  raised  by  machinery, 
 and  conducted  in  innumerable  pipes  for  domestic  uses  ;  while  the 
 parts  more  remote  are  supplied  with  water  from  some  small  ponds 
 near  Hampstead,  and  from  that  laudable  work  of  Middleton,  the 
 New  River,  which  conveys  a  copious  addition  from  the  north. 
 
 The  environs  of  London  present  a  spectacle  almost  as  grand  and 
 interesting,  as  that  of  the  metropolis  itself.  Extensive  streets  of 
 villas  and  houses  arc  continued  in  almost  every  direction  within 
 seven  or  eight  miles.  Yet  few  of  the  public  edifices  in  London 
 can  pretend  to  much  magnificence.  The  cathedral  of  St.  Paul's 
 forms  one  of  the  chief  exceptions  ;  the  exterior  architecture  of  this 
 principal  cathedral  of  the  Protestant  faith  being  majestic  to  a  de- 
 gree of  sublimity,  but  the  interior  is  defective  in  decoration. 
 
 Westminster-abbey  may  claim  the  next  rank  to  St.  Paul's 
 cathedral ;  being  not  only  in  itself  a  grand  impressive  edifice  of  the 
 Gothic  class,  but  as  being  the  sanctuary  of  the  illustrious  dead  of 
 all  ranks,  periods,  and  professions,  from,  the  victorious  monarch 
 down  to  the  humble  pedagogue.  It  Avas  founded  by  Scbert,  king 
 of  the  East  Saxons;  was  afterwards  ruined  by  the  Danes,  and  re- 
 founded  by  Edward  the  confessor,  whose  tomb  is  the  most  ancient 
 now  remaining.  The  present  edifice  was  the  MOik  of  Henry  III. ; 
 and  Henry  VII.  added  an  elegant  chapel,  and  his  tomb  tie  work  of 
 Torrigiano  :  in  the  vaults  nndcr  this  chapel,  the  late  monarchs  and 
 their  offspring  have  been  deposited.  Adjacent  ai-e  the  two  houses 
 of  parliament,  and  Westminster-hall  ;  a  vs* it  room,  230  feet  long 
 and  70  wide,  with  a  curious  ceiling  of  Irish  oak,  and  apartments 
 
 *  Ibid.  267.  Mr.  Pennant,  Brit.  Zool.  iv.  9,  savs  00,000  Iftbstersare  annually  brought 
 to  London  tVoin  nf-ir  Montrose. 
 
 j  Cltrl.stian  Observer,  I.  335. 
 
60  ENGLAND. 
 
 on  the  side,  in  which  are  held  the  principal  courts  of  justice. 
 
 The  churches  and  chapels  exceed  200  in  number,  and  a  few  are 
 of  beautiful  architecture.  Some  are  the  productions  of  Inigo 
 Jones;  as  is  also  the  noble  banqueting-house  at  Whitehall,  with 
 a  masterly  ceiling  painted  by  Rubens,  representing  the  apotheosis 
 of  James  I. 
 
 Near  London-bridge,  is  a  pillar  of  193  feet,  called  the  Monu- 
 ment ;  being  destined  to  commemorate  the  conflagration  of  Lon- 
 don in  the  reign  of  Charles  IL  The  Tower  is  venerable  from  an- 
 cient fame  ;  and  remarkable  for  the  curiosities  which  it  contains. 
 The  royal  palace  of  St.  James's  is  an  irregular  building,  of  very 
 modest  aspect.  The  queen's  palace,  formerly  Buckingham-house, 
 only  aspires  to  elegant  convenience  ;  but  contains  some  valuable 
 paintings,  and  an  excellent  library  formed  solely  by  the  taste  of 
 the  reigning  monarch.  The  palace  of  Kensington  presents  an 
 exuberance  of  valuable  pictures,  little  known,  and  rarely  visited. 
 The  houses  in  the  west  end  of  the  town,  of  themselves  shew  the 
 gentle  gradations  of  rank  in  England  j  those  of  the  chief  nobility 
 being  rarely  distinguishable  from  the  others. 
 
 York.  Next  to  the  capital  in  dignity,  though  not  in  extent  nor 
 opulence,  is  York  ;  which  is  not  only  the  chief  of  a  large  and  fertile 
 province,  but  may  be  regarded  as  the  metropolis  of  the  North  of 
 Engl|Lnd.  The  name  has  been  gradually  corrupted  from  the  an- 
 cientEboracum  ;  by  which  denomination  it  was  remarkable  even 
 in  the  Roman  times,  for  the  temporary  residence  and  death  of  the 
 Roman  Emperor  Severus.  This  venerable  city  is  divided  by  the 
 river  Ouse  ;  and  the  Gothic  cathedral  is  of  celebrated  beauty,  the 
 •western  front  being  peculiarly  rich,  the  chief  towe-  cry  lofty,  and 
 the  windows  of  the  linest  painted  glass.  York  divides  with  Edin- 
 burgh the  AV  inter  visits  of  the  northern  gentry..  Its  inhabitants,  ac- 
 cording to  the  enumeration  in  1801,  amounted  to  16,145,  and  its 
 houses  to  2,000. 
 
 Liverpool.  Liverpool,  in  Lancashire,  is  now  much  nearer  to 
 London  in  wealth  and  population ;  being  the  seat  of  a  vast  commerce, 
 which  has  been  continually  on  the  increase  since  the  beginnhig  of 
 the  last  centuiy,  Avhen  it  was  merely  a  village.  In  1 699,  Liverpool 
 was  admitted  to  thehonorof  being  constituted  a  parish.  In  1710, 
 the  first  dock  was  constructed ;  and  the  chief  merchants  came 
 originally  from  Ireland,  a  circumstance  v/hich  has  given  a  distinct 
 tinge  to  the  manners  of  the  town.  Thenceforth  the  progress  was 
 rapid,  and  in  1760  the  population  Avas  computed  at  25,787  souls.* 
 In  1773,  they  amounted  to  31,407  ;  in  1787,  to  56,670  ;  and  by  the 
 enumeration  in  1801,  they  were  found  to  have  increased  to  77,653. 
 The  number  of  houses  was  then  9,925. 
 
 The  number  of  ships  which  paid  duty  at  Liverpool  in  1757,  was 
 1371  ;  in  1794,  they  amounted  to  4265.  In  the  African  trade,  till 
 lately,  a  distinguishing  feature  of  Liverpool,  there  was  only  one 
 ship  employed  in  1709;  in  1792,  they  amounted  to  132.  In  the 
 recent  act  for  the  contribution  of  seamen  to  the  royal  navy,  ac- 
 cording to  the  ships  registered  in  each,  the  estimate  is  as  follows; 
 *  Aikin's  Man.  333,  et  seq. 
 
ENGLAND.  61 
 
 London         5725         Hull,  731         Bristol,         663 
 
 Liverpool,     1711  Whitehaven,  700         Whitby,       573 
 
 NcAVcastle,   1240         Sunderland,    669         Yarmouth,  506. 
 
 Bristol  is  still  a  large  and  flourishing  city,  though  much  of  its 
 commerce  with  the  West  Indies  and  America  have  passed  to  Liv- 
 erpool. This  metropolis  of  the  west  of  England  gradually  rose  to 
 eminence  in  the  Anglo  Saxon  period;  and  was  so  flourishing  and. 
 opulent  in  the  reign  of  Henry  H.  that,  besides  other  charters,  he 
 granted  the  possession  of  Dublin,  in  Ireland ;  and  a  colony  from 
 Bristol  was  accordingly  transplanted.*  The  trade  with  Ireland 
 has  continued  chiefly  to  centre  in  this  city :  even  in  that  reign,  as 
 ancient  writers  inform  us,  the  port  of  Bristol  was  replete  with  ves- 
 sels from  Ireland,  Norway,  and  other  parts  of  Europe.  Bristol  is 
 pleasantly  situated  at  the  confluence  of  the  Frome  Avitli  the  Avon. 
 The  hot-wells  in  the  neighborhood  appear,  to  have  been  known  in 
 1480  :  but  the  water  was  chiefly  used  externally,  till  about  the  year 
 1670;  when  a  baker  dreaming  that  his  diabetes  was  relieved  by 
 drinking  the  water,  he  tried  the  experiment  and  recovered.!  Since 
 that  period  its  reputation  has  increased,  and  many  commodious  and 
 elegant  erections  have  contributed  to  recommend  these  wells  to  in- 
 valids. In  the  adjacent  rocks  are  found  beautiful  crystals,  which, 
 before  the  introduction  of  artificial  gems,  were  greatly  in  fashion 
 for  female  ornaments.  The  trade  of  Bristol  is  chiefly  with  Ireland, 
 the  West  Indies,  or  North  America,  Hamburg  and  the  Baltic.  By 
 tlie  navigation  of  the  two  rivers  Severn  and  Wye,  Bristol  also  en- 
 grosses much  of  the  trade  of  Wales.  In  1787,  Bristol  employed 
 about  1600  coasting  vessels,  and  416  ships  engaged  in  foreign 
 commerce.:!:     Inhabitants  in  1801  ;  63,645.     Houses  10,896. 
 
 Bath.  The  proximity  may  here  authorize  the  mention  of  Bath, 
 esteemed  the  most  elegant  town  in  England.  The  hot-baths,  from 
 Avhich  it  derives  its  name,  were  known  in  the  Roman  times  ;  nor 
 Avas  their  celebrity  lost,  even  in  the  dark  period  of  Anglo-Saxon 
 history.  But  the  town  has  been  greatly  enlarged  and  decorated  in 
 the  last  century.  The  waters  are  used  both  internally  and  exter- 
 nally, chiefly  in  gout,  bilious,  and  paralytic  cases  ;  being  frequent- 
 ed at  two  seasons  in  the  year,  what  is  called  the  spring  season  from 
 April  to  June,  and  the  autumnal  from  September  to  December. 
 Two  thirds  of  the  company  are  attracted  merely  by  amusement, 
 society,  and  dissipation  ;  in  all  which,  it  is  only  second  to  London, 
 Situated  in  a  vale,  Bath  is  very  hot  in  summer.  The  houses  are 
 constructed  of  white  stone,  which  abounds  in  the  vicinity.  Its  in- 
 habitants in  1801,  amounted  to  32,200,  and  its  houses  to  4,463. 
 
 But  next  to  Bristol  in  point  of  opulence,  must  be  classed  the 
 towns  of  Manchester,  Birmingham,  and  Shcftk-ld.  , 
 
 Manchester,  in  Lancashire,  was  known  in  the  Roman  times 
 under  the  name  of  Mancunium,  a  small  Roman  station  ;  but  it  con- 
 tinued in  obscurity  till  the  time  of  Elizal)etli§,  when  Camden  men- 
 lions  its  manufacture  of  woollen-cloths,  then  called  cottons.    Dur- 
 
 *  Ran-ptt'sBrislol,  49,  57.  f  Ibid.  93.  t  Ibid.  190. 
 
 •$  .■\ikin'.'5  Manchester,  1  i't^  156. 
 
62  ENGLAND. 
 
 ing  the  civi!  wars  under  Charles  I.  Manchester  remained  in  the 
 hands  of  the  parliament.  In  1708,  the  inhabitants  were  only  com- 
 puted at  8,000.  In  1757,  they  fell  short  of  20,000;  in  1802  they 
 were  84,020.  The  number  of  houses  was  12,823.  The  cotton 
 manufactures  of  Manchester  are  sufficiently  known  over  Europe.* 
 
 Birmingham,  in  Warwickshire,  was  originally  a  village,  belong- 
 ing to  a  family  of  the  same  name,  whose  monuments  remain  in  the 
 old  church.  Leland  mentions  it  as  a  town  inhabited  by  smiths  and 
 cutlers,  in  the  time  of  Henry  VIII. ;  and  by  lorimers,  now  called 
 bit-makers.  The  extension  and  improvement  of  Birmingham 
 originated  in  a  great  degree  from  Mr.  John  Taylor,  who  intro- 
 duGtd  the  manufacture  of  gilt  buttons,  and  japanned  and  enamelled 
 works  ;  but  the  toy  manufacture  was  known  in  the  reign  of  Charles 
 II.  The  great  fabric  called  Soho,  belonging  to  Messrs.  Boulton 
 and  Watt,  is  situated  about  two  miles  from  Birmingham,  but  in 
 Staffordshire.  Between  the  year  1741  and  1790,  Birmingham  had 
 received  an  augmentation  of  seventy  two  streets,  4172  houses,  and 
 23,320  inhabitants  rf  the  population  in  1802,  amounted  to  73,670  ; 
 and  the  houses  to  16,403. 
 
 Sheffield,  in  the  most  southern  part  of  Yorkshire,  is  styled 
 by  Leland  the  chief  market-town  in  Hallamshire  (for  in  the  north, 
 many  particular  districts  usurp  the  name  of  shires).  The  com- 
 pany of  cullers  of  Hallamshire  was  established  by  act  of  parliament 
 in  1625  :  but  Sheffield  had  been  distinguished  for  a  kind  of  knives 
 called  whittles,  and  other  articles  of  cutlery,  as  early  as  the  thir- 
 teenth century  ;  yet  till  within  the  last  half  century,  the  manufac- 
 tures of  Sheffield  were  conveyed  weekly  to  the  metropolis,  on 
 pack  horses.  In  1751,  the  river  Don  was  rendered  navigable  to 
 within  two  miles  of  the  town;  which  facilitated  the  export.  The 
 plated  goods  commenced  about  1758.  In  the  year  1615,  the  pop- 
 ulation only  amounted  to  2152  ;  in  1755,  to  12,983  ;  in  1789,  about 
 30,000.|     In  1802,  it  was  31,314. 
 
 The  other  chief  towns  in  England,  shall  be  classed,  in  a  geo- 
 .graphical  order,  beginning  at  the  south-west,  and  proceeding  to 
 the  north. 
 
 Falmouth,  in  Cornwall,  the  most  westerly  port  in  England, 
 with  a  population  of  5,855,  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  the  arrival  and 
 despatch  of  packet  boats.  Exeter,  in  the  county  of  Devon,  is  an 
 ancient  and  respectable  city.  It  is  the  seat  of  an  extensive  com- 
 merce in  coarse  woollen  goods,  manufactured  in  a  part  of  Somer- 
 setshire and  in  Devon  and  CornAvall.§  They  are  exported  to  Italy, 
 and  other  parts  of  the  continent,  to  the  annual  valtie,  as  is  supposed, 
 of  600,0001.  and  the  East  India  company  purchase  yearly  to  a  co;i- 
 siderable  amount.  Besides  the  native  wool  of  the  above-mention- 
 ed counties,  Exeter  imports  from  Kent  about  4000  bags  a  year. 
 Some  ships  are  also  occupied  in  the  codfishery  of  Newfoundland, 
 and  in  the  Greenland  capture  of  v/hales.  The  imports  are  from 
 Spain,  Italy,  Hamburgh,  and  the  Baltic ;  and  coals  from  the  north 
 of  England  and  Wales.     It  is,  moreover,  the  residence  of  many 
 
 *  Aikin'sMan.  149.  156.  f  Mutton's  Hist,  of  Birmingham, 
 
 t  Ailiin's  Man.  539.  etseq.  §    Aikiu's  Engl,  delineated,  p- 355. 
 
ENGLAND.  63 
 
 aenteel  families ;  and  the  frequent  resort  of  othefs  from  the  neigh- 
 bouring counties.     Inhabitants,  17,398. 
 
 Dorchester,  the  chief  town  of  the  county  of  Dorset,  is  a  place 
 of  considerable  antiquity,  situated  on  the  river  Frome  ;  but  has  no 
 manufactures,  and  is  only  celebrated  for  its  malt  liquor.  Inhab- 
 itants, 2,402. 
 
 Salisbury,  the  principal  town  of  Wiltshire,  is  chiefly  remarka- 
 ble for  extreme  neatness  ;  and  for  its  cathedral,  a  beautiful  piece 
 of  Gothic  architecture,  with  the  loftiest  spire  in  England,  the 
 height  being  400  feet.  There  is  a  manufacture  of  flannels, 
 and  another  of  cutlery  goods  and  hardware,  the  superiority  of  the 
 scissars  being  particularly  noted.  Inhabitants,  9513;  houses,  1 353. 
 Wilton,  in  the  same  county,  is  famed  for  the  manufacture  of  beau- 
 tiful carpets. 
 
 Winchester,  the  chief  city  of  Hampshii'e,  was  for  many  cen- 
 turies the  metropolis  of  England;  a  pre-eminence  which  it  did  not 
 wholly  loose  till  the  thirteenth  century.*  The  port  was  South- 
 ampton;  but  the  superior  safety  and  convenience  of  that  of  Eon- 
 don,  gradually  restored  the  latter  to  that  metropolitan  dignity  which 
 it  held  in  the  Roman  period.  Winchester  remains  a  venerable 
 city,  with  many  vestiges  of  ancient  fame  and  splendor.  It  is  situ- 
 ated in  a  bottom,  amid  open  chalky  downs,  upon  the  small  river 
 Itchyn.  The  cathedral  rather  impresses  the  idea  of  majestic 
 gravity,  than  of  magnificence  ;  and  has  no  spire,  having  been 
 erected  before  that  mode  of  architecture  was  used.  The  ashes  of 
 several  Saxon  monarchs  are  here  preserved  with  reverence.  Not 
 far  from  the  cathedral  stands  the  celebrated  college  founded  by 
 William  of  Wickham,  and  which  has  set  forth  many  illustrious 
 characters.  The  regulations  of  this  sshool  are  in  some  instances 
 peculiar  and  severe ;  but  in  this,  and  the  other  grand  English 
 seminaries,  the  equality  of  the  pupils,  except  in  respect  of  age 
 and  abilities,  and  even  the  subserviency  in  which  the  younger  are 
 held  by  the  elder,  tend  to  steel  and  fortify  the  mind  against  the 
 subsequent  cr.res  and  emulations  of  life.  In  the  centre  of  the  city, 
 is  a  small  but  most  elegant  Gothic  cross  ;  and  at  the  western  ex- 
 tremity is  the  shell  of  a  palace,  built  under  the  direction  of  Sir 
 Christopher  Wren,  yet  heavy  and  inelegant ;  it  was  begun  by 
 Charles  II.,  but  left  unfinished  at  his  death.  It  has  since  been 
 used  for  French  prisoners,  and  in  1796  was  the  residence  of  about 
 640  emigrant  priests  from  France.  The  inhabitants  of  this  city, 
 by  the  late  enumeration,  amount  to  5,826. 
 
 In  the  same  county  is  situated  Portsmouth,  the  grand  naval 
 arsenal  of'  England.  The  harbor  is  noble  and  capacious  ;  nar- 
 row at  the  entrance,  but  spreading  out  into  an  inland  bay  five  or 
 six  miles  in  length,  and  from  two  to  four  in  breadth.  The  advan- 
 tages derived  from  nature  have  been  improved  by  the  art  and  in- 
 dustry of  successive  generations  ;  and  to  a  patriot,  Portsmouth 
 presents  one  of  the  most  interesting  scenes  to  be  found  in  the 
 British  dominions.     The  regular  fortifications  towards  the  land,  in 
 
 *  Milner's  'Winche?'-. 
 
64  ENGLAND. 
 
 themselves  happily  a  novelty  to  the  British  eye,  the  magnitude  and 
 variety  of  the  maritime  objects  and  manufactures,  and  the  prospect 
 of  Spithcad,  the  grand  focus  of  naval  armament,  conspire,  with  a 
 thousand  relative  ideas  concerning  the  power  of  England,  supreme 
 in  every  sea,  to  excite  our  astonishment  and  exultation.  Inhab- 
 itants, exclusive  of  Gosport,  32,166. 
 
 Lewes  is  esteemed  the  chief  town  of  Sussex  ;  the  situation  is 
 lofty  and  picturesque,  especially  the  site  of  the  ancient  castle  be- 
 longing to  the  once  powerful  Earls  of  Warren  and  Sussex.  Be- 
 neath, in  a  pleasant  plain  watered  by  the  river  Ouse,  stand  the 
 ruins  of  an  ancient  nunnery.     Inhabitants,  6,200. 
 
 Chichester  retains  some  little  traffic.  Brighthelmstone  is  a 
 fashionable  resort  for  the  sea-air  and  bathing.  It  presents  the 
 nearest  open  shore  to  the  capital,  and  is  distinguished  for  the  pe- 
 culiar mildness  and  salubrity  of  the  air.     Inhabitants,  7,339. 
 
 Canterbury,  the  chief  town  of  Kent  and  the  metropolis  of  the 
 English  church,  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  ecclesiastical  antiquities. 
 Its  mhabitants  amount  to  9000.  The  county  town  is  Maidstone, 
 noted  for  hops  and  thread.  Kent  presents  many  other  important 
 towns,  as  Deptford,  Greenwich,  V/oolwich,  Gravesend,  Chatham, 
 Rochester,  and  the  fashionable  resorts  of  Margate,  Ramsgate,  and 
 Tunbridge.     Dover  and  Deal  are  remarkable  havens. 
 
 Having  completed  this  biief  survey  of  the  chief  towns  to  the 
 south  of  the  Severn  and  the  Thames,  those  of  the  middle  and 
 northern  counties  may  be  again  commenced  from  the  west. 
 
 Hereford,  the  capital  of  a  county  bordering  on  Wales,  was 
 known  in  the  Saxon  times  as  an  episcopal  see.  The  castle,  supposed 
 to  have  been  founded  in  the  reign  of  the  Confessor,  is  on  the  left  bank 
 of  the  river  Wye.  The  cathedral  is  large  ;  but  the  town  presents 
 little  remarkable,  having  gone  into  gi^at  decay  y  the  only  manu- 
 facture is  that  of  gloves.*     Inhabitants,  6,828  ;  houses,  1279. 
 
 Gloucester,  the  capital  of  the  county  so  called,  is  admired  for 
 the  regularity  of  the  four  principal  streets  joining  in  the  centre  of 
 the  town.  It  avails  itself  of  the  traffic  of  the  Severn  ;  which,  among 
 other  fish,  affords  a  luxurious  supply  of  lampreys.  This  town  has 
 been  recently  celebrated  for  its  neatness,  and  the  cheapness  of  pro- 
 visions.    Inhabitants,  7,579. 
 
 Worcester  is  also  situated  on  the  noble  river  Severn,  over 
 which  there  is  a  beautiful  bridge.  The  manufactures  are  chiefly 
 gloves  and  woollen  stuffs  ;  and  the  porcelain  maintains  a  high  rep- 
 utation.    Inhabitants,  11,353. 
 
 On  the  east,  the  first  town  of  note  is  Coventry,  esteemed  the  most 
 inland  and  central  of  the  English  towns ;  whence,  perhaps,  the  mil- 
 itary phrase  of  sending  a  man  to  Coventry,  where  he  would  be  the 
 most  remote  from  service.  The  manufactures  are  chiefly  ribbons, 
 with  a  few  gauzes  and  camlets.  The  beautiful  cross,  erected  in 
 1541,  after  ioeing  much  damaged  by  the  lapse  of  years,  has  been 
 taken  down. t     Inhabitants,  16,034. 
 
 The  next  memorable  town  is  Norwich,  the  capital  of  Norfolk ; 
 
 *  Gousli'sCamtlen,ii,450.  f  GougVs Camden,  vol.  ii.  p.  345, 
 
ENGLAND.  65 
 
 from  its  size  and  consequence,  justly  styled  a  city.*  It  is,  how- 
 ever, not  mentioned  till  the  year  1004 ;  when  it  was  ruined  by  the 
 Danes.  The  worsted  manufactory  is  supposed  to  have  been  in- 
 troduced here  by  the  Flemings,  in  the  twelfth  century,  and  was 
 followed  by  that  of  sayes,  arras,  bombazeens,  &c.  Of  late  the 
 damasks,  camlets,  crapes,  stuffs,  &c.  here  wrought,  have  been 
 computed  at  the  yearly  value  of  700,0001. ;  but  the  fashionable 
 use  of  cottons,  and  the  interruption  of  commerce  by  war,  have  con- 
 siderably lessened  the  consumption.  The  wool  is  chiefly  from  the 
 counties  of  Lincoln,  Leicester,  and  Northampton ;  the  chief  ex- 
 ports, to  Holland,  Germany,  and  the  Mediterranean,!  Norwich 
 is  of  course  opulent  and  extensive,  but  the  streets  are  confined  and 
 devious.     Inhabitants,  36,850  ;  houses,  7,500. 
 
 Yarmouth  is  a  noted  sea-port,  with  a  beautiful  quay  ;  and  re- 
 markable for  its  fisheries  of  mackerel  in  May  and  June,  and  her- 
 rings in  October  and  November :  the  latter,  cured  by  salt  and 
 dried  in  the  smoke  of  wood,  are  called  red-herrings ;  and,  besides 
 home  consumption,  form  a  considerable  article  of  export  to  Spain 
 and  Italy.     Inhabitants,  14,845. 
 
 In  proceeding  northwards,  Lincoln  must  arrest  attention ;  though 
 now  much  fallen  from  its  former  fame.  The  interior  of  the  cathe- 
 dral is  admired  for  its  lightness  and  magnificence.  The  sheep  of 
 the  county  form  a  celebrated  breed,  but  the  wool  goes  chiefly  to 
 Norwich.  Lincoln  trades  in  coals,  imported  on  the  Trent.  In- 
 habitants, 7,398. 
 
 The  city  of  Chester  is  of  Roman  origin,  and  the  chief  streets  are 
 singular  in  their  construction,  being  excavated  beneath  the  level 
 of  the  ground,  while  a  covered  portico,  in  the  front  of  the  houses, 
 affords  an  elevated  and  sheltered  foot-path;  beneath  are  the  shops 
 and  warehouses,  on  the  level  of  the  street,  to  which  the  passenger 
 descends  by  occasional  stairs.  '  The  trade  of  Chester  is  not  consid- 
 erable, but  it  carries  on  a  share  of  the  traffic  with  North  Wales; 
 and  its  two  annual  fairs  are  famous  for  the  sale  of  Irish  linens.  It 
 is  the  favorite  residence  of  many  genteel  families  from  Wales. |: 
 Inhabitants,  15,052;   houses,  2,583. 
 
 Near  an  extensive  bay  of  the  Irish  sea,  which  might  now  be 
 termed  the  bay  of  Lancaster,  while  antiquaries  affect  to  retain  the 
 Roman  name  of  Moricambe^  stands  Lancaster,  an  ancient  and  pop- 
 ulous town.  The  name  is  in  the  north  pronounced  Loncastcr,  the 
 proper  etymology,  as  it  stands  upon  the  river  Lon.  When  the 
 counties  of  Cumberland  and  Westmoreland  belonged  to  the  Scots, 
 this  was  regarded  as  a  kind  of  frontier  place  ;  and  was  defended 
 by  a  strong  castle,  situated  on  a  commanding  eminence.  Lancaster 
 afterwards  gave  the  title  of  Duke  to  princes  of  the  royal  blood;  a!>d 
 the  contentions  of  the  houses  of  York  and  Lancaster  are  well 
 known.  There  is  a  bridge  of  five  arches  over  the  Lon ;  which 
 ©pens  into  a  considerable  haven,  the  seat  of  a  moderate  commerce, 
 especially  with  the  West-Indies.     Inhabitants,  9,030. 
 
 *  A  Bishop's  see  constitutes  a  city, 
 f  Aikin,  2l6.  \  Pennant's  Tcjurs    Aikin,  00. 
 
 VOL.  ir.  9 
 
S6  EWGLANO. 
 
 On  the  east,  the  extensive  province  of  Yorkshire  contains  many 
 flourishing  towns,  besides  York,  and  Sheffield,  ah'eady  described. 
 On  the  Humber,  the  wide  receptacle  of  many  rivers,  stands  the 
 great  sea-port  of  Hull,  or  Kingston-upon-Hull ;  the  latter  name 
 being  only  twat  of  the  rivulet.  The  town  was  founded  by  Edward 
 I.  Several  privileges  were  obtained  from  Richard  II. ;  and  the 
 first  staple  of  trade,  was  stock-fish  imported  from  Iceland.  In  the 
 civil  wars  of  last  century,  Hull  displayed  the  first  flag  of  defiance 
 against  the  monarch.  The  harbor  is  artificial,  and  is  supposed  to 
 present  the  largest  dock  in  the  kingdom.  The  trade  is  important 
 with  America  and  the  south  of  Europe,  but  chiefly  with  the  Baltic  ; 
 and  several  ships  are  employed  in  the  northern  whale  fishery. 
 The  coasting  traffic  is  extensive  in  coals,  corn,  wool,  and  manu- 
 factures :  and  Hull  supplies  the  commerce  of  many  northern 
 counties ;  having  not  only  commvmication  with  the  Trent,  and 
 other  branches  of  the  Humber,  but  with  the  rivers  and  canals  of 
 Yorkshire.*     Its  inhabitants  amounted  in  1801  to  29,516. 
 
 Leeds,  Bradfield,  Halifax,  and  Wakefield,  are  the  chief 
 centres  of  the  great  manufactures  of  woollen-cloths  and  stuff's. 
 Leeds  is  the  principal  part  for  broad-cloths,  or  what  foreigners 
 term  fine  English  cloth.  It  is  situated  on  the  river  Aire,  in  an 
 extensive  vale.  The  population  of  the  parish  amounts  to  53,162, 
 and  the  houses  to  6691  :  the  cloths  are  woven  in  the  neighboring 
 villages  ;  but  are  dyed,  prepared,  and  sold  at  Leeds.  The  cloth- 
 hall  appi'opriated  to  the  sale,  is  a  vast  edifice  ;  and  the  M^hole  bu- 
 siness is  transacted  within  the  space  of  an  hour  on  the  market 
 days.  Halifax  is  an  elevated  situation,  and  very  populous.  It  is 
 the  chief  market  for  the  thinner  woollen-cloths ;  such  as  stuff's, 
 calimancos.  Sec.  Scarborough,  on  the  eastern  coast,  is  a  place  of 
 celebrated  resort  for  sea-bathing,  and  on  account  of  its  mineral 
 water ;  the  site  is  romantic,  but  the  port  is  small,  and  chiefly  fre- 
 quented by  fishing  vessels. 
 
 Durham  is  a  pleasant  and  venerable  city,  extending  partly  over 
 an  eminence :  the  river  Were,  winding  around  in  the  form  of  a 
 horse  shoe,  renders  it  peninsular.  Near  the  neck  of  land  is  placed 
 the  castle,  of  which  little  more  than  the  keep  remains  ;  which  is 
 surrounded  by  the  pleasant  garden  of  the  bishop's  adjacent  palace. 
 Some  branches  of  the  woollen  manufacture  are  carried  on  at  Dur- 
 ham, and  a  few  elegant  carpets  have  been  lately  made  there  in  a 
 kind  of  Mosaic  form.     Inhabitants,  7530. 
 
 Stockton  on  the  river  Tees,  Sunderland  at  the  mouth  of  the 
 Were,  and  South  Shields  on  that  of  the  Tyne,  are  sea-port  towns 
 in  the  bishopric  (for  so  the  county  of  Durham  is  commonly  styled 
 in  the  north)  of  considerable  size,  trade,  and  population.  Hart-le- 
 Pool  is  only  a  bathing  place. 
 
 On  the  river  Tyne  stands  Newcastle,  so  termed  from  a  fortress 
 erected  by  Edward  I.  This  large  and  populous  town,  containing 
 28,366  inhabitants,!  is  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  grand  coal-mines 
 in  the  counties  of  Durham  and  Northxnnberland,  which  have  for 
 
 *  Aikiii,  I:^n!j.  {leliii.  50.  f  liassel  s;u  s  30,^10.3  in  1801. 
 
ENGLAND.  67 
 
 centuries  supplied  London  and  most  of  the  east  and  south  of  Eng- 
 land with  that  fuel  ;  which  has,  perhaps,  contributed  more  to  the 
 manufactures  and  commerce,  and  consequent  wealth  and  power 
 of  this  kingdom,  than  any  other  material  or  circumstance.  The 
 coal  fleets  sometimes  amount  to  five  hundred  sail  ;  their  station 
 is  at  Shields,  and  the  quays  Jarrow  and  Willington.  Even  as  a 
 nursery  of  seamen,  the  trade  is  invaluable.*  In  all  parts  of  the 
 neighborhood  are  seen  large  carts  laden  with  coals,  and  proceed- 
 ing towards  the  port,  on  inclined  planes,  without  the  help  of  horses 
 or  men,  to  the  great  surprise  of  the  stranger. f  Near  Newcastle 
 are  also  found  quarries  of  grind-stone  ;  and  many  glass  houses 
 smoke  around,  the  productions  of  which  have  been  recently  of  re- 
 markable purity.  Other  exports  are,  pickled  salmon,  lead,  salt, 
 butter,  and  tallow.  The  suburb  of  Gateshead  stands  on  the  south 
 of  the  Tyne,  and  is  connected  with  the  city  by  a  grand  bridge. 
 The  shops  and  crowded  streets  recal  the  idea  of  London  ;  but  the 
 latter  are  generally  narrow,  steep,  and  incommodious. 
 
 Berwick-upon-Tweed,  being  on  the  Scottish  side  of  the  river, 
 shall  be  reserved  for  the  description  of  that  country.  The  chief 
 remaining  town  in  England  is  Carlisle,  the  capital  of  the  county  of 
 Cumberland,  placed  at  the  conflvience  of  the  rivers  Pettril  and  Cal- 
 dew,  with  the  Eden.|  The  old  fortifications  remain  nearly  entire. 
 It  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  ancient  Luguballia  ;  but  neither 
 the  castle  nor  cathedral  are  remarkable.  The  chief  manufactures 
 are  linens  printed  and  checked,  whips,  and  fish  hooks.  The  town 
 is  little,  but  populous,  containing  10,22 1  inhabitants  ;  and  is  chiefly 
 memorable  for  transactions  in  the  ancient  wars  between  Scotland 
 and  England. 
 
 Wales,  a  country  abounding  in  the  sublime  and  beautiful  fea- 
 tures of  nature,  contains  many  towns  of  note  ;  and  the  description 
 of  a  few  has  been  reserved  to  this  place,  for  the  greater  clearness 
 of  arrangement. 
 
 Caei'marthen,  the  capital  of  a  county,  is  also  regarded  as  the 
 principal  town  in  South  Wales:  it  stands  upon  the  river  Towy, 
 and  was  anciently  defended  by  a  castle,  now  demolished.  The 
 haven  is  shallow,  and  the  trade  of  course  not  very  considerable.^ 
 Inhabitants,  5548. 
 
 Pembroke,  on  a  creek  of  Milford  haven,  is  a  small  town  of  little 
 commerce. 
 
 Caernarvon  is  esteemed  the  chief  town  of  North  Wales  for  the 
 beauty  of  the  situation,  regularity  of  the  streets,  and  above  all  for 
 the  grandeur  of  the  castle,  one  of  the  most  magnificent  in  Europe, 
 founded  by  Edward  I.  in  1282.  Here  was  born  Edward  II.  sur- 
 named  of  Caernarvon,  who  was  immediately  created  the  first 
 English  Prince  of  AVales  ;  his  father  having  equivocally  promised 
 to  the  vanquished  AVelsh  a  prince  born  in  tiieir  own  country,  and 
 who  could  not  speak  one  v/ord  of  English.  The  town  has  a  con- 
 siderable trade  with  London,  Bristol,  Liverpool,  and  Ireland,  and 
 
 *  Cough's  Camden,  iii.  252.  j  Gough'sCamdeti,  iii.  17:7. 
 
 i  Sr.  Fond,  voyage  en  Angl.  i.  163,  §  Gough's  Camden,  ii.  50i,  507. 
 
68  ENGLAND. 
 
 has  a  beautiful  quay  along  the  side  of  the  Menai,  a  streight  be- 
 tween North  Wales  and  Anglesea.* 
 
 B7-idges.^  The  bridges  are  worthy  the  superiority  of  the  Eng-. 
 lish  roads  ;  and  a  surprising  exertion  in  this  department,  is  the 
 recent  construction  of  bridges  in  cast  iron,  an  invention  unknown 
 to  all  other  nations.  The  first  example  was  that  of  Coalbrook- 
 dale,  in  Shropshire,  erected  over  the  Severn  in  1779.  This  bridge 
 rests  on  abutments  of  stone-work,  the  main  rib  consisting  of  two 
 pieces,  each  70  feet  long,  connected  by  a  dove-tail  joint  fastened 
 with  screws.  The  road  over  the  bridge  is  made  of  clay  and  iron 
 flag,  24  feet  Avide  and  one  deep  ;  the  span  of  the  arch,  100  feet  6 
 inches ;  height  from  the  base  line  to  the  centre,  40  feet ;  the 
 weight  of  iron  employed,  378  tons  10  hundred  weight.!  Another 
 iron  bridge  has  since  been  erected  in  the  vicinity.  A  stupendous 
 iron  bridge  was  thrown  over  the  harbor  at  Sunderland,  about  five 
 years  ago;  the  height  of  which  is  100  feet,  and  the  span  of  the 
 arch  236  :  it  is  composed  of  detached  pieces,  which,  if  damaged 
 in  any  of  the  parts,  may  be  withdrawn  and  replaced  by  others.  It 
 is  supported  between  two  strong  and  elevated  stone  piers,  and  the 
 arch  is  surmounted  at  either  end  by  vast  hoops,  supporting  the 
 platform  or  passage  of  tlie  bridge,  which  is  thus  rendered  almost 
 level.  When  viewed  from  beneath,  the  elegance,  lightness,  and 
 surprising  height,  excite  admiration,  and  the  carriages  appear  as 
 if  passing  among  the  clouds. 
 
 Inlaiid  JYavigation.']  This  article  is  important  to  the  best  in- 
 terests of  the  country,  and  demands  particular  attention.  The 
 earliest  inland  navigation  that  can  be  authenticated,  is  the  Sanke)f 
 canal,  leading  from  the  coal-pits  at  St.  Helens,  in  Lancashire,  to 
 the  river  Mersey,  and  constructed  in  order  to  convey  coals  to 
 Liverpool.:}:  The  length  of  the  canal  is  twelve  nniles,  with  a  fall 
 of  ninety  feet.  The  act  of  parliament  passed  in  1755  ;  the  original 
 intention  was  only  lo  render  the  rivulet  called  Sankey  Brook, 
 navigable  ;  but  it  was  found  more  advantageous  to  form  a  canal 
 along  its  course.     The  surveyor  Avas  Mr.  John  Eyes. 
 
 But  the  Duke  of  BridgCAvater  is  justly  venerated  as  the  grand 
 founder  of  inland  navigation  :  his  spirit  and  opulence  Avere  happily 
 seconded  by  Brindiey,  than  Avhom  a  greater  natural  genius  in  me- 
 chanics never  existed.  It  Avas  in  the  year  1758  that  the  first  act 
 Avas  obtained  for  these  great  designs.  The  first  canal  extends 
 from  Worsley  mill,  about  seven  computed  miles  from  Manchester, 
 and  reaches  that  toAvn  by  a  course  of  nine  miles.  In  this  short 
 space  almost  every  difticulty  occurred  that  can  arise  in  similar 
 scnernes  ;  but  mountains  and  rivers  yielded  to  the  genius  of  Brind- 
 Iej\  Tiiere  are  subterraneous  passages  to  the  coal  in  the  moun- 
 tain, of  near  a  mile  in  length,  sometimes  cut  through  the  solid 
 rock,  and  occasionally  arched  over  with  brick  ;  Avith  air-funnels 
 to  the  top  of  the  hill,  some  of  them  thirty-seven  yards  perpendicu- 
 lar.    This  beautiful  canal  is  brought  over  the  river  IrAvell,  by  au 
 
 *  Pennant's  Wales,  ii.  2C,3.  Ci,"  ■\  Gongh's  Camden,  ii.  417. 
 
 ±  Philips,  Kist.  of  inland  Navigation. 
 
ENGLAND.  69 
 
 arch  of  thirty-nine  feet  in  height,  and  under  which  barges  pass 
 without  lowering  their  masts.  The  Duke  of  Bridgewater  soon  af- 
 terwards extended  a  canal  of  twenty-nine  miles  in  length,  from 
 Longford-bridge,  in  Lancashire,  to  Hempstones,  in  Cheshire. 
 
 After  this  deserved  tribute  to  the  fathers  of  inland  navigation  in 
 England,  it  will  be  eligible  to  review  the  other  canals  in  a  geo- 
 graphical manner,  proceeding  from  the  north  to  the  south- 
 First  in  order  is  the  Lancaster  canal,  extending  from  Kendal,  in 
 Westmoreland,  by  Lancaster,  to  West  Houghton,  in  Lancashire,  a 
 space  of  about  seventy-four  miles. 
 
 The  canal  from  Leeds  to  Liverpool,  directed  in  a  northerly 
 course  by  Skipton,  winds  through  an  extent  of  one  hundred  and 
 seventeen  miles ;  and  from  this  canal  a  branch  also  extends  to 
 Manchester,  begun  in  1771. 
 
 From  Halifax  to  Manchester  is  another  considerable  canal, 
 commonly  called  that  of  Rochdale  ;  length  thirty-one  miles  and  a 
 half,  begun  in  1794. 
 
 Another  canal  extends  from  Manchester  towards  W^akefield  ; 
 and  another  called  the  Peak  Forest  canal,  stretches  from  the  for- 
 mer, southeast,  about  fifteen  miles. 
 
 Another  joins  the  river  Dun,  several  miles  above  Doncastcr,  to 
 the  river  Calder,  near  Wakefield, 
 
 To  pass  several  of  smaller  note,  the  Chesterfield  canal  extends 
 from  Chesterfield,  in  the  county  of  Derby,  to  the  Trent  at  Stock- 
 with,  a  course  of  44  miles  and  three  quarters,  begun  in  1770. 
 
 In  Lincolnshire,  one  canal  extends  from  Lincoln  to  the  Trent, 
 and  another  from  Horncastle  to  Sleaford.  Grantham  canal  reaches 
 from  that  town  to  the  river  Trent,  a  course  of  30  miles. 
 
 The  grand  design  of  Brindlcy  was  to  join,  by  inland  navigation, 
 the  four  great  ports  of  the  kingdom,  Bristol,  London,  Liverpool, 
 and  Hull.  Liverpool  is  accordingly  connected  with  Hull  by  a 
 canal  from  that  long  navigable  river  the  Trent,  and  proceeding  N. 
 to  the  Mersey.  The  canal  Avhich  joins  these  two  rivers  is  styled 
 the  Grand  Trunk ;  and  was  begun  in  1766,  under  the  direction  of 
 that  great  engineer ;  but  was  not  completed  till  1777:  the  length 
 is  99  miles.  It  was  attended  with  great  difficulties,  particularly 
 in  passing  the  river  Dove,  in  Derbyshire,  M'here  there  is  an 
 aqueduct  of  twenty-three  arches,  the  tunnel  through  the  hill  of 
 Hare-castle  in  Staffordshire,  is  in  length  2880  yards,  and  more 
 than  70  yards  below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  was  executed 
 with  great  labor  and  expense.*  But  the  utility  corresponds  with 
 the  grandeur  of  the  design:  salt  from  Cheshire,  coals  and  pottery 
 from  Staffordshire,  and  manufactures  from  various  places,  are 
 transported  on  this  canal. 
 
 From  the  Grand  Trunk  five  or  six  branches  extend  in  various 
 directions  :  among  which  must  not  be  omitted  that  to  the  river 
 Severn,  near  Bewdley,  Avhich  connects  the  port  of  Bristol  v.ith 
 tliose  of  Liverpool  and  Hull;  the  length  is  45  miles  ;  completed 
 in  1772. 
 
 *  Cary's  Plans,  p.  26,  2",  28.     The  account  of  the  Grand  Trunk  in  Philips,  is  very 
 det'ecave ;  he  may  here  be  referred  to  in  general  for  the  othei  s.    :See  aUo  Housmiui;  1 ',  J. 
 
70  ENGLAND. 
 
 From  the  city  of  Chester  one  canal  extends  to  the  Mersey,  and 
 another  to  Namptwich  ;  another  proceeds  south  to  Shrewsbury, 
 uniting  the  Mersey  and  tlie  Severn  ;  with  north-west  and  south-east 
 branches  of  considerable  length. 
 
 From  Coventry,  in  the  centre  of  the  kingdom,  canals  extend  to 
 the  Grand  Trunk  ;  to  Ashby-de-la-Zouch,  and  to  the  Braunston, 
 or  Grand  Junction  canal. 
 
 What  is  called  the  Staffordshire  canal,  extends  from  the  Grand 
 Trunk  to  the  river  Severn  ;  and  is  met  by  the  Kington  canal, 
 which  reaches  to  Kington,  in  Herefordshire,  so  as  almost  to  join 
 the  rivers  Trent  and  Wye.  It  may  be  here  observed,  that  in  this 
 description  the  grand  courses  of  navigation  are  attended  to,  rather 
 than  the  minute  nam.es  and  divisions  of  the  canals. 
 
 Several  inland  navigations  pass  by  Birmingham.  The  Union 
 canal  completes  a  course  of  forty -three  miles  and  three  quarters, 
 from  Leicester  to  Northampton,  whence  the  river  Nen  is  navigable 
 to  the  sea. 
 
 Another  canal  extends  from  Gloucester  to  Hereford  :  and  the 
 south  of  Wales  presents  several  navigations  of  considerable  length, 
 particularly  that  from  Brecon,  in  Brecknockshire,  to  Newport,  in 
 Monmouthshire. 
 
 The  Severn  is  not  only  joined  with  the  Trent  and  the  Humber, 
 by  various  courses  of  navigation,  but  is  united  with  the  Thames, 
 by  a  canal  extending  by  Stroud  to  Lechlade,  a  course  of  near  40 
 miles. 
 
 Other  canals  branch  out  from  the  Thames  in  various  directions  : 
 that  of  Oxford  extends  to  the  Grand  Trunk,  or  rather  joins  the 
 Coventry  canal,  after  a  course  of  ninety-two  miles. 
 
 The  Braunston,  or  Grand  Junction  canal,  reaches  from  Brent- 
 ford, on  the  Thames,  and  joins  the  Oxford  canal  at  Braunston,  in 
 Northamptonshire,  after  a  course  of  ninety  miles.  It  is  styled  the 
 Grand  Junction,  because  it  may  be  said  to  unite  the  numerous 
 courses  that  pervade  the  central  counties,  with  the  capital  of  the 
 kingdom. 
 
 On  the  south  of  the  Thames,  a  canal  proceeds  from  Reading  to 
 Bath  ;  and  another  from  Weybridge  to  Basingstoke  ;  and  a  third 
 from  Weybridge  to  Godalming. 
 
 A  small  canal  or  two  have  been  executed  in  Devonshire.  The 
 Andover  canal,  in  Hampshire,  extends  from  Andover  to  South- 
 ampton water.  Sussex  presents  two  canals,  that  of  Arundel,  and 
 that  of  Lewes. 
 
 Manufactures  and  Commcrce.~^  The  manufactures  and  com- 
 merce of  England,  form  so  extensive  a  theme,  that  only  a  brief  and 
 fugitive  idea  of  them  can  be  here  attempted.  The  earliest  staple 
 commodity  of  England  was  tin,  a  metal  rarely  found  in  other  coun- 
 tries. The  Phoenicians  first  introduced  it  into  commerce,  at  least 
 five  or  six  hundred  years  before  the  Christian  sera ;  and  their  ex- 
 tensive trade  soon  diffvised  it  among  the  Oriental  nations.  I'lie 
 Romans,  upon  their  conquest  of  these  regions,  did  not  neglect  this 
 source  of  wealth  ;  but  as  Cornwall  was  not  conquered  by  the  Anglo- 
 Saxons,  tin  the  reign  of  Athelstan,  we  know  not  whether  the  Cor- 
 
ENGLAND.  71 
 
 nish  Britons  carried  on  any  considerable  traffic  in  this  commodity, 
 though  it  be  probable  that  it  was  at  least  exchanged  for  the  wines  of 
 France.  Yet  even  in  the  reign  of  John,  the  product  was  so  incon- 
 siderable, that  the  mines  were  farmed  to  Jews  for  100  mai'ks  ;  but 
 in  that  of  Henry  III.,  they  began  again  to  yield  a  large  profit,  which 
 has  gradually  increased.* 
 
 Cornwall,  like  most  countries  that  abovind  with  minerals,  pre- 
 sents an  external  aspect  of  desolation  :  a  series  of  barren  hills  and 
 bleak  heaths  pervades  its  whole  length ;  and  the  violent  winds 
 from  the  sea  check  the  vegetation  of  trees  and  shrubs.  The  tin 
 mines  are  numerous,  and  of  various  descriptions.  This  metal  is 
 either  found  in  the  mass,  in  what  are  called  lodes  and  stools  ;  or  in 
 grains,  or  bunches,  in  the  rocks ;  or  detached  in  separate  stones, 
 called  s/iodes  or  string's  ;  or  in  a  course  of  such  stones  called  the 
 beuheyl  or  living  string  ;  or  in  the  pulverized  shape  of  sand.  Af- 
 ter having  been  pounded  in  a  mill,  it  is  melted  into  blocks  of  320 
 poimds  weight.  In  the  ore  it  is  styled  black  tin  ;  and  is  some- 
 times, though  very  rarely,  found  in  a  metallic  state. 
 
 The  singularity  and  importance  of  this  first  national  staple,  may 
 apologize  for  this  discussion  ;  but  the  abundance  of  the  other  top- 
 ics will  require  more  brevity.  Wool  had  been  regarded  as  a  grand 
 staple  of  England,  as  early  as  the  twelfth  century,  but  was  chiefly 
 exported  in  a  crude  state,  till  Edward  III.  encouraged  settlements 
 of  Flemish  manvxfacturers.  Wool  soon  became  the  standard  of 
 private  property,  and  the  prime  article  of  comiTierce.  Taxes  and 
 foreign  subsidies  were  estimated  by  sacks  of  this  commodity.! 
 Great  quantities  of  raw  wool  continued  to  be  exported  to  the  Neth- 
 erlands and  Hanse  Towns  ;  but  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  it  began 
 to  be  chiefly  manufactured  at  home,  and  the  exportation  of  woollen 
 cloths  was  then  valued  at  a  million  and  a  half  annually.  The  ex- 
 portation of  raw  wool  was  at  length  prohibited ;  and  the  woollen 
 manufactures  preserve  great  importance,  though  they  no  longer 
 attract  such  particular  regard,  amidst  the  exuberance  of  Englisli 
 manufactures. 
 
 In  recent  times  the  manufactures  of  iron  and  copper,  native 
 minerals,  have  become  great  sources  of  national  wealth  ;  nor  must 
 the  new  and  extensive  exportation  of  elegant  earthen  ware  be  for- 
 gotten. The  cotton  manufacture  is  diffused  far  and  wide,  forming 
 a  grand  source  of  industry  and  prosperity.  That  of  linen,  except 
 of  sail-cloth,  is  not  much  cultivated  in  England.  The  manufac- 
 tures of  glass  and  fine  steel,  clocks,  watches.  Sec.  are  dcservedlv 
 eminent  and  extensive.  As  the  nation  is  indebted  to  WedgcM^ood 
 for  converting  clay  into  gold,  so  to  Boydell  for  another  elegant 
 branch  of  exportation,  that  of  beautiful  prints. 
 
 Besides  manufactured  articles,  England  exports  a  number  of 
 native  products  too  numevous  to  be  here  mentioned. 
 
 The  English  manufactures  have  been  recently  estimated  at  the 
 annual  value  of  63,600,000/.  and  supposed  to  employ  1,^35,000  per- 
 
 *  BoilAse's  Cornwall.  f  Canjiibell's  Poiitical  Survey,  vol.  ii.  p.  151, 
 
 l5iJ.     A  work  opulcut  in  materials,  but  cl"  most  todious  and  uucauili  cxc^jutiou. 
 
72  ENGLAND. 
 
 sons.*  Of  these,  the  woollen  manufacture  is  supposed  to  yield  in 
 round  sums,  15,000,000/.  the  leather  10,000,000/.  the  iron,  tin,  and 
 lead  10,000,000/.  the  cotton  9,000,000/.  The  other  chief  manu- 
 factures, which  yield  from  1  to  4,000,000/.  may  be  thus  arranged, 
 according  to  their  consequence;  steel,  plating,  Sec.  copper  and 
 brass,  silk,  potteries,  linen  and  flax,  hemp,  glass,  paper. 
 
 The  commerce  of  England  is,  at  the  present  period,  enormous, 
 and  may  be  said  to  extend  to  every  region  of  the  globe.  The 
 trade  with  the  West  Indies  is  one  of  the  most  important,  and  that 
 with  the  East  Indies  alone,  would  have  astonished  any  of  the  cele- 
 brated trading  cities  of  antiquity. 
 
 The  following  table  exhibits  the  amount  of  the  imports,  exports, 
 and  tonnagcf  of  Great  Britain  every  10th  year  of  the  last  century, 
 and  every  year  of  the  present. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Tonnaeje. 
 
 i7oa 
 
 /;  5,970,175 
 
 /;  7,302,716 
 
 317,328 
 
 irio 
 
 4,011,341 
 
 6,690,828 
 
 1720 
 
 6,090,083 
 
 7,936,728 
 
 1730 
 
 7,780,019 
 
 11,974,135 
 
 1740 
 
 6,703,778 
 
 8,869,939 
 
 471,451 
 
 1750 
 
 7,772,039 
 
 15,132,004 
 
 661,184 
 
 1760 
 
 9,832,802 
 
 15,579,073 
 
 573,978 
 
 1770 
 
 12,216,937 
 
 14,266,653 
 
 760,971 
 
 1780 
 
 11,714,967 
 
 13,689,073 
 
 753,977 
 
 1790 
 
 19,130,886 
 
 20,120,121 
 
 1,404,950 
 
 1800 
 
 30,570,605 
 
 43,152,019 
 
 1,924,042 
 
 1801 
 
 32,795,557 
 
 42,301,701 
 
 1,958,373 
 
 1802 
 
 31,442,318 
 
 41,411,966 
 
 1,895,116 
 
 1803 
 
 27,992,464 
 
 31,578,495 
 
 1,788,768 
 
 1804 
 
 29,201,490 
 
 34,451,367 
 
 1,802,063 
 
 1805 
 
 30,344,628 
 
 34,954,845 
 
 1,857,652 
 
 1806 
 
 31,094,089 
 
 36,528,132 
 
 1,897,603 
 
 1807 
 
 28,854,658 
 
 34,566,570 
 
 1,791,072 
 
 1808 
 
 27,186,025 
 
 34,554,267. 
 
 1,425,592 
 
 1809 
 
 30,406,560 
 
 50,301,763 
 
 1,993,188 
 
 1810 
 
 The  extent  of  the  commercial  shipping  of  the  British  empire 
 was  September  30th,  1805,  as  follows  : 
 
 England 
 
 Ships. 
 14,790 
 
 Tons. 
 1,799,210 
 
 Men  and  Boys. 
 117,668 
 
 Jei-sey  Isles 
 Man 
 
 185 
 
 404 
 
 16,528 
 9,650 
 
 2,011 
 2,336 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Ireland 
 
 The  Plantations 
 
 2,581 
 1,067 
 3,024 
 
 210,295 
 
 56,806 
 
 190,953 
 
 15,160 
 
 5,070 
 
 15,467 
 
 Total         22,051  2,283,442  157,71? 
 
 *  Mr.  Grellier  in  the  Monthly  Mag.  January  ISOl- 
 t  Tonnage  of  ships  eleared  outwards  British  and  Foicigin. 
 
ENGLAND.  73 
 
 The  following  table  exhibits  the  number  of  vessels  which  en- 
 tered inwards  from  various  countries  and  cleared  outwards  for 
 them  from  Great  Britain,  principally  in  1806. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Inwards. 
 
 Outwards. 
 
 Russia 
 
 1806 
 
 1,127 
 
 702 
 
 Denmark 
 
 1806 
 
 1,607 
 
 1,690 
 
 Sweden 
 
 1806 
 
 353 
 
 362 
 
 Prussia 
 
 1805 
 
 1,946 
 
 1,627 
 
 Germany- 
 
 1806 
 
 604 
 
 956 
 
 Holland 
 
 1804 
 
 790 
 
 521 
 
 Portugal 
 
 1806 
 
 468 
 
 332 
 
 Spain 
 
 180G 
 
 222 
 
 126 
 
 Streights 
 
 1806 
 
 24 
 
 83 
 
 Italy 
 
 1806 
 
 90 
 
 61 
 
 Malta 
 
 1806 
 
 26 
 
 6 
 
 Minorca 
 
 1802 
 
 25 
 
 5 
 
 Turkey  and  Levant 
 
 1806 
 
 23 
 
 o 
 
 Africa 
 
 1804 
 
 176 
 
 West  Indies 
 
 1804 
 
 721 
 
 790 
 
 United  States 
 
 1806 
 
 561 
 
 575 
 
 The  following  table  gives  the  value  of  the  imports  and  exports 
 of  Great  Britain  to  and  from  various  countries  in  the  latest  year  of 
 which  we  have  information. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports, 
 
 Ireland 
 
 1800 
 
 2,312,824 
 
 3,741,499 
 
 Russia 
 
 1802 
 
 2,182,430 
 
 1,376,399 
 
 Denmark 
 
 1802 
 
 155,672 
 
 537,517 
 
 Sweden 
 
 1803 
 
 288,651 
 
 98,045 
 
 Prussia 
 
 1803 
 
 831,225 
 
 1,916,502 
 
 Germany 
 
 1801 
 
 11,115,304 
 
 Holland 
 
 1803 
 
 630,403 
 
 1,565,355 
 
 Prance 
 
 1792 
 
 1,228,166 
 
 Portugal 
 
 1800 
 
 916,848 
 
 1,011,893 
 
 Spain 
 
 ]796 
 
 809,881 
 
 546,126 
 
 Streights 
 
 1805 
 
 42,919 
 
 183,824. 
 
 Italy 
 
 1805 
 
 393,517 
 
 507,535 
 
 Malta 
 
 1805 
 
 9,304 
 
 127,515 
 
 Minorca 
 
 1802 
 
 22,106 
 
 21,478 
 
 Turkey  and  Levant 
 
 1805 
 
 103,590 
 
 135,411 
 
 Africa 
 
 1800 
 
 82,289 
 
 1,017,369 
 
 India 
 
 1804 
 
 5,866,073      (1791) 
 
 320,129 
 
 China 
 
 (1791) 
 
 1,012,539 
 
 West  Indies 
 
 1803 
 
 6,148,436      (1804) 
 
 3,408,232 
 
 United  States 
 
 1800 
 
 2,357,922 
 
 6,885,507 
 
 British  Provinces 
 
 1800 
 
 997,590 
 
 The  imports  from  Ireland  to  Great  Britain, 
 ous  kinds ;  linens,  yarn,  pearl  ash  and  copper 
 Ireland  are  coals,  herrings,  hops,  flax,  hemp 
 species  of  manufactures. 
 
 VOL.    II.  10 
 
 are  produce  of  vari- 
 ore  :  the  exports  to 
 ,  and  almost  every 
 
74  ENGLAND. 
 
 The  imports  from  Russia,  are  iron,  hemp,  flax,  tallow,  pot  ash^ 
 lumber,  and  coarse  linens :  the  exports  are  West  India  produce 
 and  British  manufactures. 
 
 From  Denmark  and  Norway,  Great  Britain  receives  timber  and 
 corn,  and  returns  West  India  produce  and  foreign  ineixhandize, 
 and  but  few  of  her  own  manufactures. 
 
 Great  Britain  imports  from  Prussia,  grain,  hemp,  flax,  madder, 
 linseed,  quills,  bristles,  pearl  ash,  millstones  and  timber  ;  and  ex- 
 ports drugs,  groceries,  dry  goods,  and  crockery. 
 
 Germany  receives  from  Great  Britain,  large  quantities  of  Brit- 
 ish manufactures,  and  still  larger  of  foreign  merchandize.  The 
 imports  from  Holland,  consist  of  butter,  cheese,  geneva,  juniper 
 berries,  flax,  hemp,  oak  bark,  seeds,  books,  maps,  and  prints  ;  the 
 exports  returned,  are  sugars,  train-oil,  copperas,  cotton  and  wool- 
 len goods,  coff'ee,  rice,  and  foreign  merchandize. 
 
 From  Portugal  she  imports  wine,  cotton-wool,  indigo,  cash  and 
 bullion  ;  and  returns  British  produce  and  manufactvires. 
 
 From  the  Mediterranean  are  imported  cotton-wool,  mohair, 
 goat's-hair,  drugs,  dye-stuff's,  currants,  figs,  raisins,  goat-skins, 
 box-wood  and  raw  silk.  The  exports  consist  of  lead,  tin  plates, 
 wrought  and  cast  iron,  hard  ware,  watches,  cotton,  woollen,  and 
 India  goods,  coff'ee,  sugar  and  spices. 
 
 The  coasts  of  Africa  furnish  the  arabic,  sandarach  and  Senegal 
 gums,  cam-wood,  red-wood,  ebony,  ivory,  ostrich  feathers,  and 
 skins  ;  and  are  supplied  with  shells,  trinkets,  ardent  spirits,  guns, 
 gunpowder,  cutlasses,  hard  ware,  rice,  groceries,  drugs,  woollen, 
 cotton,  linen  and  India  goods. 
 
 The  exports  to  India  are  Avoollens,  metals,  naval  and  military 
 stores ;  the  imports  are  piece  goods,  raw  silk,  tea,  pepper,  salt- 
 petre, nankeens,  china  ware,  sugar,  coffee,  indigo  and  drugs. 
 
 The  exports  to  China,  are  bullion,  woollens,  lead,  tin,  skins,  furs, 
 glass,  jewelry,  trinkets,  watches,  cutlery  and  hard  ware  ;  the  im- 
 ports are  teas,  nankeens,  china  ware,  and  silks. 
 
 The  imports  from  the  West  Indies,  in  return  for  British  manu- 
 factures, arc  sugars,  rum,  molasses,  coff'ee  and  cotton. 
 
 From  the  United  States  are  imported  cocton,  flour,  timber,  pot- 
 ash, iron, 'rice,  indigo,  tobacco  ;  and  th6s;exports  are  British  man- 
 ufactures  and  foreign  merchandize  of  almost  eveiy  description. 
 
 The  annual  income  of  Great  Britain 'was  estimated  in  1799,  by 
 Mr.  Pitt,  at  102,000,000;  and  including*  the  money,  of  which  the 
 estimate  is  far  from  certain,  the  whole  capital  of  Great  Britain 
 may  perhaps  be  calculated  at  more  than  one  thousand  two  hun- 
 dred millions. 
 
ENGLAND.  75 
 
 CHAPTER  II. 
 NATURAL  GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 CLIMATE  AND  SEASONS,  FACE  OF  THE  COUNTRY,  SOIL  AND  AG- 
 RICULTURE, RIVERS,  LAKES,  MOUNTAINS,  FORESTS,  BOTANY, 
 ZOOLOGY,  MINERALOGY,  MINERAL  WATERS,  NATURAL  CURIOSI- 
 TIES. 
 
 Climate  and  seasons.']  THE  climate  of  Great-Britain  is 
 perhaps  more  variable  than  that  of  any  other  comitry  onthe  globe, 
 as  the  vapors  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean  are  opposed  to  the  drying 
 winds  from  the  Eastern  Continent.  The  Western  coasts  in  par- 
 ticular, are  subject  to  frequent  rains;  and  the  Eastern  part  of 
 Scotland  is  of  a  clearer  and  dryer  temperature  than  that  of  Eng- 
 land. The  humidity  of  the  climate,  indeed,  clothes  the  delicious 
 vales  and  meadows  with  a  beautiful  verdure  ;  but  is  injurious  to 
 the  health  of  the  inhabitants,  by  causing  colds  and  catarrhs,  the 
 frequent  sources  of  more  deadly  disorders. 
 
 In  consequence  of  the  mutability  of  the  climate,  the  seasons 
 themselves  are  of  uncertain  tenor,  and  the  year  might  more 
 properly  be  divided  into  eight  months  of  winter,  and  four  of  sum- 
 mer ;  than  into  any  theoretic  arrangement,  originating  in  the  sovith- 
 ern  latitudes.  What  is  called  the  spring,  dawns  in  April,  com- 
 monly, indeed,  a  mild  month  ;  but  the  eastern  winds  prevalent  in 
 May,  seem  commissioned  to  ruin  the  efforts  of  reviving  nature,  and 
 destroy  the  promise  of  the  year.  June,  July,  August,  and  Sep- 
 tember, are  usually  warm  summer  months ;  but  a  ni^ht  of  frost 
 is  not  unknown,  even  in  August,  and  sometimes  a  cold  East  wind 
 will  blow  for  three  days  together;  nor  of  late  years  are  summers 
 imknown  of  almost  constant  rain.*  The  winter  may  be  said  to 
 commence  with  the  beginning  of  October,  at  which  time  domestic 
 fires  become  necessary ;  but  there  is  seldom  any  severe  frost  till 
 Christmas,  and  January  is  the  most  stern  month  of  the  year. 
 March  is  generally  the  most  unsettled  month  of  the  year,  inter- 
 spersed with  dry  frost,  cold  rains,  and  strong  winds,  with  storms 
 of  hail  and  sleet. 
 
 Face  of  the  country.']  Mr.  Pennant,  in  his  Arctic  Zoology,  has 
 given  an  admirable  description  of  part  of  the  English  shores,  which 
 shall  here  be  abbreviated,  with  an  alteration  in  the  arrangement, 
 as  he  chooses  to  begin  with  the  Streights  of  Dover. 
 
 From  the  mouth  of  the  Tweed  to  Bamborough,  extends  a  sandy 
 shore  ;  and  the  most  remarkable  object  is  Lindesfarn,  or  Holy  Island, 
 divided  from  Northumberland  by  a  level,  which  is  dry  at  low  Avater, 
 but  out  of  which  the  flowing  tide  oozes  suddenly,  to  the  terror  and 
 peril  of  the  unwary  traveller.  From  Bamborough  Castle,  to 
 Flamljorough-headj  are  mostly  low  cliffs,  of  lime-stone,  and  other 
 materials.     Scarborough  stands  on  a  vast  rock,  projecting  into  the 
 
 *  Thesunimer  of  ISOO  was  reniJirkaljle  for  diyness  and  warmlh,  scarcely  any  rain 
 falling  from  thcCth  of  June  to  tUuiJOth  of  August,  vh-.u  a  thunder  storm  succeeded. 
 
76  ENGLAND. 
 
 Avaves;  but  Flamborough-head  is  a  far  more  raagnificent  object, 
 being  formed  of  lime-stone,  of  a  snowy  whiteness,  and  stupendous 
 height,  visible  far  off  at  sea. 
 
 Hence  to  the  Huniber  are  commonly  clay  cliffs  ;  and  near  Spurn- 
 head,  amber  is  sometimes  found.  The  extensive  coast  of  Lin- 
 colnshire is  flat,  and,  according  to  Mr.  Pennant's  opinion,  has  been 
 gained  from  the  sea  ;  though,  in  some  parts,  the  sea  has  in  its  turn 
 invaded  the  land,  and  the  remains  of  a  forest  are  visible  under  the 
 waves.  The  county  of  Lincoln,  and  part  of  six  others,  are  the  low 
 countries  of  Britain  ;  and  the  coast  is  distinguishable  by  churches,nct 
 by  hills.  The  shores  of  Norfolk  and  Suffolk  present  sometimes 
 loamy  or  clayey  precipices,  sometimes  hillocks  of  sand,  and  some- 
 times low  and  flat  spaces.  HunstaatonclifF  rises  to  the  height  of  about 
 eighty  feet,  composed  of  chalk  and  friable  stone,  resting  on  a  base 
 of  what  is  called  iron-colored  pudding  stone,  projecting  into  the 
 sea.  The  coast  of  Essex  is  generally  low  ;  but  to  the  south  of  the 
 Thames,  arise  continued  cliffs  of  chalk,  with  layers  of  flint,  re- 
 sembling masonry.  The  north  Foreland  is  a  lofty  chalky  promon- 
 tory ;  and  the  cliffs  of  Dover  are  known  to  every  reader  of  Shakes- 
 peare. 
 
 It  is  to  be  regretted,  that  Mr.  Pennant  did  not  extend  his  ani- 
 mated description  to  the  southern  and  western  coasts :  cliffs  of 
 chalk  and  clay  are  interspersed  with  flat  gravel,  till  the  island  of 
 Portland  presents  its  bold  rocky  fi'ont.  The  western  shores  abound 
 with  granite,  slate  rocks,  and  lime-stone. 
 
 Soil  and  agriculture^^  The  soil  is  greatly  diversified,  but  in 
 general  fertile  ;  and  in  no  country  is  agriculture  more  thoroughly 
 imderstood,  or  pursued  in  a  grander  style,  except,  perhaps,  in 
 Flanders  and  Lombardy.  The  nobility  and  gentry,  mostly  residing 
 upon  their  estates  in  summer,  often  retain  considerable  farms  in 
 their  own  hands,  and  practise  and  encourage  every  agricultural 
 improvement.  The  writings  of  Mr.  Young,  the  institfiltions  in  the 
 west,  and  the  Board  of  Agriculture,  recently  erected,  have  con- 
 tributed to  diffuse  a  wide  and  lasting  knowledge  of  this  mteresting 
 branch.  The  intermixture  of  the  green  crops  with  those  of  grain, 
 the  use  of  turnips,  the  irrigation  of  meadows,  the  regular  substitu- 
 tion of  crops  appropriated  to  the  state  of  the  land,  the  art  of  drain- 
 ing conducted  on  scientific  principles,  may  be  mentioned  among 
 the  recent  advances  of  knowledge  ;  nor  must  the  improvements  in 
 the  breed  of  sheep  and  cattle,  introduced  by  Bakev/ell  and  others, 
 be  forgotten. 
 
 The  cultivated  acres  in  England  and  Wales  are  computed  at 
 upwards  of  39,000,000,  while  those  uncultivated  are  7,888,777.  Of 
 these  it  is  supposed  that  not  above  half  a  million  is  wholly  unim- 
 provable, and  perhaps  a  million  is  only  fit  for  plantations,  while  of 
 the  remainder  one  quarter  is  fit  for  tillage,  and  three  fourths  for 
 meadow  and  upland  pasture.*  The  grain  of  every  kind  annually 
 consumed  in  England,  for  three  years  enaing  in  1 809,  was  20,600,800 
 quarters  ;  and  in  Scotland,  3,988,400  ;  total  24,589,200.     Of  this 
 
 ■■  J'irst  Rciiortof  the  Committee  of  tJie  house  of  Commons,  p.  SC 
 
ENGLAND.  /r 
 
 ^^-st  part  is  imported,  and  ^th  part  from  Ireland.     So  that  only  be- 
 tween ^d  and  J^d  part  comes  from  foreij^n  countries. 
 
 Horticulture,  or  the  art  of  gardening,  is  also  pursued  in  England 
 with  great  assiduity  and  success.  The  large  supply  of  the  capital 
 in  vegetables  and  fruits,  and  the  high  prices  given  for  eai'ly  pro- 
 duce, occasion  such  a  spirit  of  cultivation,  that  each  acre  thus  em- 
 ployed, is  supposed  to  yield  about  120/.  annually,  the  yearly  con- 
 sumption in  the  metropolis  being  computed  at  more  than  1,000,000/. 
 Of  ornamental  gardens,  laid  out  with  a  just  attention  to  the  beau- 
 ties of  nature,  and  free  from  the  uncouth  affectations  of  art,  England 
 is  deservedly  regai'ded  as  the  parent  country.* 
 
 Rivers.^  England  is  intersected  by  four  important  rivers,  the 
 Severn,  the  Thames,  the  Humber,  and  the  Mersey. 
 
 The  Sevei-n  rises  from  the  mountain  Plinlimmon,  and  after  an 
 easterly  course  to  Shrewsbury,  bends  its  progress  almost  south  to 
 Gloucester,  whence  it  flows  south-west  into  the  Bristol  Channel,  a 
 progress  of  about  150  miles,  navigable  as  far  as  Welch-pool.  Its 
 chief  tributary  streams  are  the  Northern  and  Southern  Avons,  the 
 Teme  and  the  Wye.f 
 
 The  Thames  originates  in  Cotswold-hills,  Gloucestershire  ;  and 
 maintains  a  south-easterly  direction,  to  its  egress  into  the  German 
 Ocean,  after  receiving  the  Cherwel,  the  Teme,  the  Kennett,  another 
 Wye,  the  Mole,  and  Lee.  The  Medway  flows  into  the  estuary  of 
 the  Thames,  as  the  Wye  into  that  of  the  Severn.  The  course  is 
 computed  at  140  miles,  navigable  to  Crickladc.; 
 
 The  Humber  is  a  name  almost  confined  to  a  large  estuary,  which 
 receives  many  considerable  I'ivers,  tliat  fertilize  the  central  parts 
 of  England.  Of  these  the  Trent  is  the  most  important,  which  rises 
 at  New-pool,  in  Staffordshire,  and  proceeding  north-east,  enters 
 the  Humber,  after  a  direct  course  of  about  100  miles,  being  navi- 
 gable to  Burton,  in  Staffordshire.  The  other  principal  rivers  that 
 issue  into  the  Humber  are  the  Dun,  a  navigable  stream,  which 
 runs  by  Doncaster  ;  the  Aire  navigable  to  Leeds,  and  the  Calder 
 to  Halifax,  both  singularly  useful  in  transporting  the  woollen  man- 
 ufactures; the  W^ai'f  to  Tadcaster  ;  the  Ure,  or  Ouse,  which  runs 
 by  York,  navigable  to  Rippon  ;  the  Derwent,  which  is  navigable  to 
 New  Malton  ;  and  the  Hull. 
 
 Though  the  Mersey  present  a  grand  estuary,  its  course  is  not  of 
 great  extent.  It  arises  in  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  and  runs 
 to  the  south-west ;  but  the  estuary  bends  towards  the  north.  The 
 direct  course  is  not  above  fifty  miles  ;  and  it  is  navigable  to  Stock- 
 port ;  as  the  Irwell  to  near  Manchester,  and  the  Weevcr  to  ncai 
 Northwich,  and  the  mines  of  rock-salt. 
 
 In  briefly  describing  the  other  navigable  rivers  of  this  kingdom, 
 it  may  be  proper  to  return  to  the  Severn,  and,  proceeding  scuth 
 west,  pursue  the  outline  of  the  coast.  The  Avon  is  navigable  to 
 Bath,  the  Parret  to  Illchcster,  tne  Tone  to  Taunton,  the  Taw  to 
 Barnstaple,  and  another  branch  to  Biddcford  :  the  Camil  of 
 Cornwall,  to  Wedbridge,  while  the  Plym,  Dart,  and  Ex,  can  also 
 
 *  Lord  Orford  on  Modera  Ganleuing.        f  Campbell,  i.  UG.  t  Ibid.  I.  1S9. 
 
78  ENGLAND. 
 
 be  pervaded  to  a  considerable  height.  Another  Avon  is  navigable 
 to  near  Salisbury,  the  Itchyn  to  Winchester,  the  Arun  to  Arundel, 
 the  Ousc  to  Lewes  :  the  Rother,  which  forms  the  haven  of  Rye,  is 
 yet  navigable,  though  fallen  in  fame.  The  Stour  admits  boats- 
 even  to  Canterbury;  but  the  Medway  presents  a  navigable  stream 
 as  far  as  Tunbridge.  On  the  north  of  the  Thames,  the  Lee  is  nav-. 
 igable  to  Bishop's  Stortford  and  Hertford :  the  Crouch  conveys 
 boats  from  the  sea  to  Hull-bridge  in  Essex  ;  the  Black-water  to 
 Chelmsford,  and  another  branch  to  Colchester.  The  Stour  is  nav- 
 igable to  Sudbury  ;  the  Orwell  to  Stow,  the  Deben  to  Woodbridge  ; 
 the  Yare  and  Waveney  present  access  to  Fonlsham,  Norwich,  and 
 Bungay.  Next  is  the  estuary  called  the  Wash,  which  receives  the 
 Ouse,  the  Nen,  the  Welland,  the  Witham,  all  streams  of  consider- 
 able navigation. 
 
 On  the  North  of  the  Humber,  the  Tees  admits  vessels  to  Stock- 
 ton ;  the  Tyne  to  Newcastle.  On  the  West,  the  Eden  is  navigable 
 to  Carlisle  ;  the  Lun  or  Loyne  to  Lancaster  and  Hornby  ;  the  Dee 
 to  Chester  ;  the  Conway  to  within  two  miles  of  Llanrwst ;  the 
 Tivey  to  Llanbedr.  Milford  Haven  presents  branches  navigable 
 to  Haverford-west,  and  to  near  Wiston  :  and  lastly,  the  Wye  may 
 be  pursued  as  far  as  Hay  in  Brecknockshire. 
 
 In  general  it  may  be  observed  of  the  British  rivers,  that  the 
 length  of  their  course  is  inconsiderable,  when  compared  with  that 
 of  the  Continental  streams.  The  rivers  of  the  southern  and  the 
 middle  parts  of  England,  present  a  striking  contrast  to  those  of 
 the  north  ;  the  former  pursuing  a  slow  and  inert  course  over  mud, 
 between  level  banks,  amid  rich  and  extensive  meadows  ;  while  the. 
 latter  roll  their  clear  torrentsover  beds  of  gravel,  between  elevated 
 banks  and  rocky  precipices  ;  and  even  when  verdant  levels  occur, 
 the  stream  still  retains  its  banks  and  beds  of  gravel. 
 
 Mountains.  Bennevis,  the  highest  mountain  in  Scotland,  is  not 
 much  above  one  quarter  of  the  height  of  Mont  Blanc,  the  sove- 
 reign of  the  Alps,  and  the  English  and  Welch  summits  aspire  to 
 heights  still  less  considerable;  Snowdon  being  only  3568  English 
 feet  above  the  sea,  while  Bennevis  is  4387,  or,  by  other  accounts, 
 4350.  Wharn,  or  Wharnside,  in  Yorkshire,  was  estimated  at  4050  ; 
 and  Ingleborough  iiX.  5280  feet.  A  late  accurate  measurement  has, 
 however,  reduced  this  latter  to  2480  feet,  and  probably  Wharnside 
 ought  also  to  be  diminished  in  the  same  proportion. 
 
 Even  at  the  present  day,  the  geography  of  some  parts  of  New 
 Holland,  is  better  vinderstood  than  that  of,  some  parts  of  Great 
 Britain.  There  is  not  even  a  separate  map  of  the  English  rivers, 
 though  France  set  an  example  of  this  kind,  a  century  and  a  half 
 ago ;  nor  has  there  been  any  attempt  to  delineate  the  chains  of 
 mountains  in  England.  Tlie  imperfections  of  the  materials  must 
 therefore  apologize  for  any  errors  or  defects  in  the  subsequent 
 slight  sketch.  The  mountains  of  Cheviot  may  be  said  to  form  a 
 regular  ridge,  running  from  the  south-west,  wiiere  they  join  those 
 of  Galloway  to  the  north-east.  But  there  is  a  central  ridge  which 
 pervades  England  from  north  to  south,  beginning  at  Gcltsdale  for- 
 est, 14  m.iies  S.  E.  of  Carlisle,  and  passing  on  the  west  of  Durham 
 
 I 
 
ENGLAND.  79 
 
 and  Yorkshire,  where  it  contains  mines  of  coal  and  lead.  The 
 chief  elevations,  such  as  Kelton-fell,  Stanmore,  Widehill-fell,  Wild- 
 boar-fell,  Bow-fell,  Home-fell,  Bunhill,  See.  Sec.  arise  on  the  wes- 
 tern limits  of  Yorkshire.  Cumberland  and  Westmoreland  present 
 many  detached  mountains,  Skiddaw,  Sec.  which  can  hardly  be  re- 
 duced to  any  distinct  arrangement;  but  those  of  Craven,  in  the 
 West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  as  Wharnside,  Ingleborough,  and  Pen- 
 nigent;  and  Pendle,  on  the  east  of  Lancaster,  belong  to  the  Cen- 
 tral Chain,  which  proceeds  south,  through  Derbyshire,  still  abound- 
 ing with  minerals  and  natural  curiosities ;  but  here  it  seems  to 
 terminate,  spreading  a  little  into  Cheshire.  A  central  chain,  of 
 smaller  elevation,  may  be  traced,  in  a  zig-zag  line,  to  near  Salis- 
 bury, with  two  diverging  and  irregular  branches  on  the  east,  one 
 towards  Norfolk,  another  into  Kent,  while  a  third  runs  south-west 
 into  Cornwall.  To  the  fii-st  belong  the  hills  of  Gogmagog,  in 
 Cambridgeshire,  Sec.  to  the  second  the  hills  of  Hampshire,  Surrey, 
 and  Kent.  Another  upland  tract  of  considerable  elevation,  called 
 the  Chiltern  hills,  extends  from  Tring,  in  Heitfordshire,  to  Henley, 
 in  Oxfordshire.  Malvern  hills,  in  Worcestershire,  deviate  from 
 the  central  ridge,  while  those  of  Cotswold,  in  Gloucestershire,  may 
 be  regarded  as  a  continuation  of  it.  The  hills  of  Mendip,  Polden, 
 Sedgemoor,  Blackdown,  in  Somersetshire  ;  the  Tors  and  Wilds  of 
 Dartmoor,  in  Devon  ;  and  the  hills  and  upland  downs  of  Cornwall, 
 extend  this  chain  to  the  Land's  End :  and  after  passing  this  last 
 rocky  province,  it  expires  in  the  Islands  of  Scilly. 
 
 Waks  is  a  country  abundant  in  mountains,  especially  the  north- 
 ern provinces ;  but  their  orology  remains  indeterminate,  and  it 
 would  require  the  actual  survey  of  an  experienced  engineer,  to 
 reduce  them  to  chains  or  groupes.  To  begin  with  the  north, 
 Snowdon  commands  the  first  attention,  a  mountain  of  eminent 
 height  and  fame.  The  top  is  called  Y  Widdfa,  or  the  conspicuous, 
 forming  almost  a  point,  and  presenting  a  view  of  the  county  of 
 Chester,  the  mountains  of  Yorkshire,  part  of  Scotland  and  Ireland, 
 and  the  Isles  of  Man  and  Anglesey.* 
 
 The  stone  that  composes  it  is  hornslatc  and  argillaceous  schistus, 
 large  coarse  crystals  are  often  found  in  the  fissures,  and  very  fre- 
 quently cubic  pyritac,  the  usual  attendants  on  Alpine  tracts.  From 
 Snowdon,  a  line  of  mountains  extends  by  the  sea  to  Plinlimmon,  a 
 boundary  of  North  Wales,  whence  issue  the  noble  rivers  Severn 
 and  Wye.  Of  these  hills,  Urrou  Scth,  Caer  Idris,  and  Moel 
 Vadiau,  are  the  most  memorable.  The  hills  on  the  east  of  North 
 Wales  are  far  from  attaining  such  considerable  elevation,  and 
 gradually  decline  to  the  hills  of  Shropshii'e,  of  which  the  Wi'ekin 
 is  one  of  the  most  noted. 
 
 A  chain  proceeds  due  south  to  near  Cardiff,  in  South  Wales  ;  it 
 is  of  far  inferior  height,  and  a  small  branch  diverges  to  the  west, 
 consisting  of  Cwm  Cothy,  Mynydd,  Carreg,  Brilley,  and  Cwni 
 Kerrun-hills.  On  the  east  of  South  Wales,  are  the  hills  of  Here- 
 fordshire, the  Black  Mountain, Cusop-hill,  Hargest,  Stocklev-hill, 
 &c. 
 
 *  Pennant's  Journey  to  Lontlon,  p.  170. 
 
8.0  ENGLAND. 
 
 In  the  northein  and  western  mountains  and  hill:,,  chalk  is  un- 
 known, while  it  forms  a  chief  material  of  those  of  the  south  and 
 east.  An  eminent  naturalist  observes,  that  a  line  drawn  from 
 Dorchester,  in  the  county  of  Dorset,  to  the  county  of  Norfolk, 
 would  form  a  boundary  of  the  great  chalky  stratum  which  inter- 
 sects the  kingdom,  none  being  found  in  any  quantity  to  the  north 
 or  west  of  that  line,*  The  northern  mountains  are  mostly  com- 
 posed of  lime-stone,  free-stone,  slate,  or  schistus,  v/iih  mines  of 
 lead  or  coal  ;  those  of  Derbyshire  present  vast  masses  of  lime- 
 stone, intersected  with  thick  veins  of  toad-stone,  and  numerous 
 fossils  and  minerals,  the  consideration  of  which  is  reserved  for  a 
 future  ai'ticle.  The  svimmit  of  Skiddaw  presents  white  shivery- 
 slate,  or  argillaceous  schistus ;  but  some  of  the  Westmoreland 
 mountains  contain  siliceovis  schistus ;  and  it  is  probable  that  granite 
 may  exist  in  those  of  Cheviot.  The  vast  base  of  Ingleborough, 
 near  30  miles  in  circuit,  consists  of  lime-stone  ;  on  the  east  side 
 full  of  shells  to  near  the  summit,  which  is  of  grit  and  sand  stone 
 flag  ;  the  fossils,  black  and  brown  marble,  thin  slate,  near  Ingleton, 
 rotten  stone,  or  tripoli,  and  some  lead  ore.f  And  such  is  this  chain 
 to  its  termination ;  while  further  to  the  south,  the  easterly  eleva- 
 tions are  of  chalk  ;  and  those  on  the  west,  as  Mendip  hills,  in  Som- 
 ersetshire, are  wholly  calcareous.  The  granite  begins  at  Dart- 
 moor, in  Devonshire,  and  continu«es  through  Cornwall,  where  it 
 occurs  of  various  colours,  the  grey  granite,  or  moor  stone  ;  the 
 red,  or  oriental ;  the  white,  the  yellow,  and  the  blueish,  or  pigeon- 
 colovired.:^  Near  the  Lizard  and  Mullion,  are  rocks  of  serpentine 
 and  steatites,  together  with  a  decomposed  granite,  which  is  similar 
 to  the  petunsi  of  China,  and  applied  to  the  same  purposes  in  the 
 manufacture  of  porcelain. 
 
 The  Welsh  mountains  abound  in  slate,  horn-stone,  and  porphy- 
 ry, with  large  masses  of  quartz.  The  Wrekin,  about  ten  miles 
 east  of  Shrewsbury,  is  chiefly  composed  of  reddish  chert,  or  pe- 
 trosilex,  with  siliceous  sand-stone,  basalt,  and  a  kind  of  granite.§ 
 The  great  coal  district  of  Colebrookdale,  rests  on  indurated  clay, 
 while  that  near  Bristol  is  accompanied  by  black  free-stone,  and 
 even  the  calcareous  free-stone  near  Bath,  is  interspersed  with 
 numerous  veins  of  coal.  The  Malvern  hills,  on  the  S.  W.  of 
 Worcestershire,  run  N.  and  S,  about  ten  miles,  and  afford  many 
 granitic  rocks  with  chert  and  hornblende  slate.1I  These  few  no- 
 tices must  suffice  on  the  composition  of  the  English  mountains, 
 a  subject  which  only  begins  to  attract  the  attention  which  its  cu- 
 riosity deserves. 
 
 jForests.^  To  the  reader  of  poetry,  the  vford/brcst  conveys  the 
 idea  of  a  region  replete  with  thick  and  tall  woods,  interspersed 
 w^ith  romantic  lawns  and  murmuring  rivulets.  But  in  England  a 
 forest  is  sometimes  bare  of  trees,  or  not  unfrequently  only  presents 
 a  few  withered  oaks  ;  and  the  term  is  even  applied  to  upland  downs 
 
 *  Pennant's  Journey  from  Chester  to  London,  p.  214. 
 
 t  Guide  to  the  Lakes,  265,  267. 
 
 i  Pryce's  Mineralogy  of  Cornwall.     Maton's  AVestern  Tour,  &r 
 
 ;S  Townson's  Tracts,  p.  163.  II  Ibid.  210. 
 
ENGLAND.  &t 
 
 and  heaths.  Many  of  the  forests  were,  even  in  the  Anglo-Saxon 
 times,  esteemed  royal  demesnes  ;  but  the  Norman  monarchs  were 
 so  much  addicted  to  the  chase,  that  upwards  of  sixty  forests  at  one 
 time,  appertained  to  the  crown  ;  of  which  the  chief  now  remain- 
 ing are  the  forests  of  Dean,  in  Gloucestershire  ;  Sherwood,  in 
 Nottingham shii-e  ;  Windsor,  in  Berkshire  ;  and  the  New  Forest, 
 in  Hampshire.  The  royal  forests  constituting  so  large  a  part  of 
 the  kingdom,  subject  to  peculiar  regulations,  many  grievances  a- 
 rose,  tiil  the  Barons  exacted  from  Henry  HI.  the  forest-charter; 
 in  which  several  despotic  laws  were  revoked,  and  more  equity  ex- 
 tended to  the  neighboring  proprietors  and  tenants. 
 
 General  dketch  of  Briti.ih  botany. ~\  Among  the  numerous  spe- 
 cies of  vegetables  which  arc  natives  of  Britain,  scarcely  any  are 
 adequate  to  tlie  sustenance  and  cloathing  of  man.  Its  frequent 
 rains,  its  blasting  winds,  and  the  scanty  portion  to  which  it  is  stint- 
 ed, of  the  light  and  heat  of  the  sun,  deprive  it  entirely  of  those 
 vegetables  which,  in  tropical  climates,  satisfy  the  wants  and  luxu- 
 rious desires  of  their  human  irihabitants.  The  never-failing  ver- 
 dure of  its  plains  and  hills,  shews  how  admirably  the  country  is 
 qualified  for  the  support  of  graminivorous  quadrupeds  ;  and  we 
 find  accordingly,  that  its  ancient  forests  abounded  in  stags  and  roe- 
 deer,  as  its  clear  and  cultivated  lands  do  now  in  sheep  and  cattle. 
 
 The  Flora,  of  Britain,  though  it  cannot  boast  the  most  splendid 
 and  exquisite  of  vegetable  productions,  yet  contains  as  great  a  va- 
 riety of  genera  and  species,  as  any  other  country  of  equal  extent. 
 Tlie  investigation  of  indigenous  plants  is  continually  carrying  on 
 here  with  increasing  ardor,  and  every  year  brings  new  accessions 
 to  our  croudcd  ranks  of  native  vegetables. 
 
 The  first  for  importance  and  variety  is  the  family  of  Grasses.. 
 Almost  every  part  of  the  country  that  is  not  vmdcr  tillage,  is  prin^ 
 cipally  covered  with  grass.  Twenty-seven  genera,  and  a  hundred 
 and  ten  species  are  natives  of  the  island,  most  of  them  of  common 
 occurrence  in  situations  where  they  are  found  at  all.  None  of 
 thorn  have  been  proved  to  be  poisonous,  either  to  man  or  beast ;  ou 
 the  contrary,  whether  fresh  or  dried,  they  furnish  a  grateful  food 
 to  all  the  domestic  cattle.  The  most  important  grasses  in  meadows 
 and  pastures,  are  the  meadow  fox-tail  grass  ;  two  or  three  species 
 of  hair  g7'ass,  and  mcadonv-grass ;  the  cock's-foot  fescue,  and  oai 
 fft-ass.  Other  species  are  natives  of  marshes,  and  wet  places  ;  these 
 are  generally  the  largest  and  most  luxuriant,  and  if  in  (juality  they 
 be  somewhat  inferior  to  the  preceding,  yet  the  defect  is  probably 
 more  than  compensated  by  the  quantity  of  herbage  that  they  sup- 
 ply. Light  sandy  soils,  especially  the  ilat  parts  of  the  eastern  and 
 southern  coasts,  abound  in  grasses  that  are  distinguished  from  their 
 kindred  species,  by  the  length  and  strength  of  their  creeping-roots. 
 The  inhabitants  of  .Skey,  and  tlie  other  western  islands  of  Scotland, 
 manufacture  them  into  durable  ropes :  and  while  growing,  they 
 serve  the  very  important  purpose  of  binding  together  the  loose 
 sand,  which  otherwise  wouid  be  drifted  far  up  the  country.  Upon 
 the  sides  and  summits  of  the  mountains  are  found  a  few  grasses 
 that  do  not  appear  elsewhere,  mixed  with  some  others  of  moro 
 
 VOT..    II.  11 
 
82  ENGLAND. 
 
 general  occurrence  ;  as,  however,  in  these  bleak  and  elevated  sit' 
 uations,  covered  with  snow  for  some  months  in  tl«e  year,  and 
 shrouded  in  clouds  for  the  principal  part  of  the  remainder,  it  would 
 be  scarcely  possible  for  these  plants  to  bring  their  seeds  to  ma- 
 turity, we  observe  in  them  a  wise  and  striking  deviation  from  the 
 common  course  of  nature.  Like  the  rest  of  their  tribe,  they  throw 
 up  flowering  stems  and  bear  blossoms  ;  but  these  are  fuccceded, 
 not  by  seeds,  but  by  bulbs  ;  which,  in  a  short  time,  vegetate,  and 
 arc  already  furnished  v/ith  a  leaf  and  roots,  before  they  fall  to  the 
 ground  :  all  the  viviparous  grasses  except  one  (Festuca  vivipara) 
 if  transplanted  to  a  lower  and  warmer  situation,  accommodate  them- 
 selves to  their  new  climate,  and  produce  seeds.  Besides  these 
 there  are  others  of  a  more  hardy  constitution,  which  appear  to  be 
 the  true  natives  of  the  mountains,  and  multiply  their  species  by  seed 
 in  the  usual  way. 
 
 Nearly  allied  to  the.  grasses  in  general  habit,  are  a  number 
 of  species,  natives  of  moors,  bogs,  and  pools;  these  serve  to  give 
 consistency  to  the  deep  mud  or  peat,  in  which  they  are  rooted,  and, 
 when  young,  afford  a  coarse  pasture  to  sheep  and  cattle  ;  several 
 of  them  are  used  for  matting,  thatching,  and  for  chair  bottoms. 
 The  stately  Typha  (bull  rush)  is  one  of  the  principal  ornaments  of 
 the  fens,  and  neglected  pools,  and  the  several  species  of  cotton- 
 grass  enliven  many  a  dreary  mile  of  bog,  by  their  gracefully  pen- 
 dent tufts  of  snowy  white. 
 
 The  Leguminous,  or  papilionaceous  plants,  so  called  from  their 
 winged  blossoms,  form  a  very  important  division  in  British  botany. 
 The  herbage  of  all  when  fresh,  and  of  many  when  dry,  is  a  most 
 grateful  food  to  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep;  and  several  of  them,  as 
 the  clovers  and  vetches,  are  largely  cultivated  for  this  purpose. 
 Many  of  this  class  are  climbers,  and  adorn  the  thickets  and  hedges 
 with  elegant  festoons  of  blossoms  and  foliage.  Almost  all  the 
 English  papilionaceous  plants  flourish  best  in  light  calcareous 
 soils,  either  rocky  or  sandy  ;  and  some  of  them,  as  the  lady's  finger, 
 and  saintfoin,  may  be  reckoned  certain  indications  of  chalk  or 
 lime-stone. 
 
 The  umbelliferous  plants  form  another  large  class  ^n  the  natural 
 arrangement  of  British  vegetables,consistingof  about  sixty  species. 
 The  roots  and  sfceds  of  those  kinds  which  grow  on  di'y,  light  soils, 
 are  frequently  aromatic  ;  those  that  are  natives  of  marshes  and 
 moist  meadows,  are,  for  the  most  part,  in  a  greater  or  less  degree 
 poisonous.  The  whole  class,  indeed,  is  a  suspicious  one,  and  ex- 
 cepting the  fennel  and  celery,  not  a  single  native  species  is  culti- 
 vated for  the  food  of  man  or  beast. 
 
 Perhaps  the  most  splendid  of  all  the  herbaceous  plants,  are  the 
 bulbous  rooted,  which,  from  their  general  resemblance  to  the  lily, 
 have  obtained  the  name  of  Liliaceous  ;  most  of  these,  however,  arc 
 natives  of  wanner  climates  ;  the  sandy  deserts  about  the  Cape  oi" 
 Good  Hope,  and  the  shores  of  the  Indian  ocean,  produce  the  moaS. 
 beautiful  species.  Of  those  which  are  found  wild  in  England,  there 
 arc  only  twenty-eight  species ;  and  the  greater  number  of  these 
 arc  of  rare  occurrence  in  a  truly  native  state;  the  sp;'ing  and  au- 
 tunn;ial  crocus,  the  snoAv-drop,  the  snow-flake,,  the  tiircc  kinds  oJ. 
 
ENGLAND.  83 
 
 Narcissus  (including  the  daflbdil),  the  fritillary,  tulip,  and  lily  of 
 the  valley,  are  more  familiar  to  us  as  garden  plants,  than  as  natives 
 of  the  woods  and  pastures.  The  common  ones  of  this  class  are 
 Ramsons,  a  species  of  garlic,  meadow  saffron,  and  the  beautiful 
 and  fragrant  hare  bell,  or  wild  hyacinth,  one  of  the  principal  or- 
 naments of  the  groves  and  thickets,  even  at  a  time  when  they  are 
 profuse  of  beauties. 
 
 The  native  fruits  belong,  for  the  most  part,  to  the  class  of  Rosa- 
 ceous plants  ;  such  as,  the  wood-strawberry,  the  bullace  and  black- 
 thorn, the  hawthorn,  crab,  and  mountain  ash  ;  the  common  bram- 
 ble,  or  blackberry,  the  raspbeny,  stone-bramble,  and  cloud-berry. 
 The  cherry,  the  medlar,  the  service,  and  pear-trees,  whose  fruit. 
 when  wild,  is  of  so  little  account,  andof  such  value  when  improved 
 by  cultivation,  belong  also  to  this  class. 
 
 One  of  the  largest  of  the  natural  classes  of  English  vegetables, 
 is  that  of  the  radiated  or  compound  flowered  plants,  (including 
 about  120  species.)  Only  one,  the  Tragopogon  porrifolius  (falsa- 
 fy),  is  applied  to  the  sustenance  of  man,  and  not  one  is  cultivated 
 fo'.-  the  use  of  cattle.  Most  of  this  class  have  an  ungrateful  bitter 
 taste,  and  the  succulent  ones  contain  a  white  milky  juice,  of  an 
 acrid  flavor.  The  sow  thistle,  hawk-weed,  burdock,  thistle,  cud- 
 weed, coltsfoot,  groundsel,  dandelion,  daisy,  and  yarrow,  are  the 
 most  commonly  occurring  genera. 
 
 Such  of  the  trees  and  shrubs  as  have  not  been  already  mentioned, 
 may  be  considered  as  forming  a  peculiar  class,  and  one  of  great 
 importance  ;  it  is  naturally  subdivided  into  the  evergreen  and 
 deciduous. 
 
 The  most  valuable  of  tlie  native  evergreens  are,  the  box,  the  pine, 
 the  yew,  and  the  holly  ;  those  of  secondary  consequence,  are  the 
 juniper,  and  ivy  ;  the  spurge  laurel ;  the  cranberry,  and  those  ex- 
 tremely ornamental  plants,  the.Vaccinium  vitis  idaea  (red  whortle 
 berries)  ;  and  Arbutus  uva  ursi  (bear-berry). 
 
 The  deciduous  timber-trees  that  are  either  aboriginal,  or  at  least 
 have  been  long  naturalized  to  the  soil,  are  the  oak,  the  chesnut, 
 and  beech,  the  birch,  the  alder,  the  horn  beam,  the  abele,  the  black 
 poplar,  and  the  aspen,  bearing  catkins;  the  sycamore,  the  maple, 
 and  the  ash  ;  the  lime,  the  elm,  and  v/ych  hazle.  A  middle  station 
 between  the  timber-trees  and  shrubs  is  occupied  by  the  hazle,  and 
 the  numerous  species  of  willow.  The  pulpy-fru  it-bearing  shrubs 
 are,  the  currant  and  gooseberry,  the  elder,  the  barberry,  the  bil- 
 berry, the  cornel,  or  dogwood,  the  buckthorn,  the  guelder  rose, 
 and  tlic  mezereon  ;  the  four  first  are  wholesome  and  grateful  to 
 the  palate  ;  the  rest  are  either  insipid  or  noxious. 
 
 The  ferns  comprise  a  number  of  elegant  plants  that  grow  in 
 moist,  shady,  and  uncultivated  places,  the  uses  of  which  have  been 
 but  little  inquired  into  ;  about  forty-four  species  are  natives  of 
 Britain ;  the  roots  of  most  abound  in  a  miid  sweetish  mucilage, 
 ■which  in  times  of  scarcity  has  been  resorted  to  for  nutriment ;  the 
 larger  and  commonest  kinds,  such  as  common  fern,  or  brakes,  arc 
 collected  and  burnt  for  the  potash  which  is  yielded  from  their 
 ashes;  the  Equisetum  hycmale  (shave  grass)  is  much  used  br 
 
84  ENGLAND. 
 
 turners  and  cabinet  makers,  as  a  fine  file  to  smooth  their  work 
 vdth. 
 
 The  last  class  of  English  vegetables,  that  we  shall  mention,  is 
 that  of  the  marine  Algae,  or  sea-weeds.  Between  two  and  three 
 hundred  species  are  found  upon  the  British  shores  ;  the  more  ten- 
 der and  gelatinous  kinds,  are  eaten  either  raw  or  boiled,  and  the 
 rest  on  those  rocky  parts  of  the  coast,  where  they  can  be  collected 
 in  great  quantities,  are  burnt  into  kelp  for  the  use  of  the  soap-boil- 
 ers and  glass-makers. 
 
 Zoology.']  Mr.  Pennant,  in  his  British  Zoology,  has  treated  this 
 subject  at  due  extent,  and  with  his  usual  ability.  The  nature  of 
 this  work  will  only  admit  of  a  few  imperfect  notices.  Of  animals, 
 that  celebrated  author  enumerates  twenty  genera,  from  the  horse 
 down  to  the  seal  and  bat.  The  birds  extend  to  forty-eight,  the 
 reptiles  to  four,  and  the  fish  to  forty  genera,  besides  the  crustaceous 
 and  shell  fish. 
 
 That  noble  and  useful  animal,  the  horse,  is  found  in  England  of 
 many  mingled  breeds,  while  most  other  kingdoms  produce  only 
 one  kind.*  Their  race-horses  descend  from  Arabian  stallions,  and 
 the  genealogy  faintly  extends  to  our  hunters.  The  great  strength 
 and  size  of  the  English  draught-horses  are  derived  from  those  of 
 Germany,  Flanders,  and  Holstein ;  and  other  breeds  have  bet'n  so 
 intermingled,  that  native  horses  may  be  found  adapted  to  every 
 purpose  of  pomp,  pleasure,  or  utility.  Those  of  Yorkshire  are 
 particularly  celebrated  for  their  spirit  and  beauty  ;  and  the  grooms 
 of  that  country  are  equally  noted  for  their  skill  in  the  management 
 of  this  valuable  animal. 
 
 The  indigenous  horned  cattle  are  now  only  known  to  exist  in 
 Neidwood-forest,  in  Staffordshire,  and  at  Chillingham-castle,  in 
 Northumberland.  They  are  long-legged  and  wild  like  deer,  of  a 
 pure  whita  color,  with  black  muzzles,  ears,  and  tails,  and  a  stripe 
 of  the  same  hue  along  the  back.  The  domesticated  breeds. of  cat- 
 tle are  almost  as  various  as  those  of  horses  ;  those  of  Wales  ami 
 Cornwall  are  small?  while  the  Lincolnshire  kind  derive  their  great 
 size  from  those  of  Holstein.  In  the  North  of  England  the  kylies, 
 so  called  from  the  district  of  Kyle?  in  Scotland  ;  in  the  South  are 
 the  elegant  breed  of  Guernsey,  generally  of  a  light  brown  color, 
 and  small  size,  but  remarkable  for  the  I'ichness  of  their  milk._ 
 
 The  number  and  value  of  sheep  in  England  may  be  judged  from 
 the  ancient  staple  commodity  of  wool.  Of  this  most  useful  animal 
 fseveral  breeds  appear,  generally  denominated  from  their  particular 
 counties  or  districts  ;  those  of  Herefordshire,  Devonshire,  and 
 Cotswold  downs,  are  noted  for  fine  fleeces,  while  the  Lincolnshire 
 and  Warwickshire  kind  are  remarkable  for  the  quantity.  The 
 Teesdale  breed  of  the  cour>ly  of  Durham,  though  lately  neglected, 
 continue  to  deserve  their  fame.  The  wool  is  beautiful,  but  the 
 length  of  their  legs  lessens  their  value  in  the  eyes  of  the  butcher, 
 
 The  mutton  of  Wales,  on  the  contrary,  is  esteemed,  while  the 
 wool  is  coarse,  yet  employed  iu  many  useful  and  salutary  manur 
 factures. 
 
 ,  *  Pt-nnaiil's  Zoology^  vol.  i.  j).  l- 
 
ENGLAND.  85 
 
 The  most  laudable  exertions  have  lately  been  made  by  the 
 Board  of  Agriculture,  and  by  individuals,  for  the  improvement  of 
 the  English  fleece. 
 
 The  goat,  an  inhabitant  of  the  rocks,  has,  even  in  Wales,  for  the 
 most  part  yielded  to  the  more  useful  sheep ;  that  country  being, 
 like  Scotland,  more  adapted  to  the  woollen  manufacture.  The 
 breeds  of  swine  a'-e  various  and  usefvil. 
 
 England  also  abounds  in  breeds  of  dogs,  some  of  which  were 
 celebrated  even  in  Roman  times ;  nor  have  their  modern  descen- 
 dants, the  mastiff  and  bull-dog,  degenerated  from  the  spirit  and 
 courage  of  their  ancestors. 
 
 Of  savage  animals  tlie  most  fierce  and  destructive  is  the 
 wild  cat,  which  is  three  or  four  times  as  large  as  the  domestic, 
 with  a  flat  broad  face,  color  yellowish  Avhite,  mixed  with  deep 
 grey,  in  streaks  running  from  a  black  list  on  the  back  ;  hips  always 
 black,  tail  alternate  bars  of  black  and  white;  only  found  in  the 
 most  mountainous  and  woody  parts.  The  wolf  has  been  long  ex- 
 tinct, but  the  fox  abounds. 
 
 The  chief  of  birds  of  prey  are,  the  golden  eagle,  sometimes 
 found  on  Snowdon  ;  the  black  eagle  has  appcai'cd  in  Derbyshire  ; 
 the  osprey,  or  sea  eagle,  seems  extinct  in  England.  The  pere- 
 grine falcon  breeds  in  Wales ;  and  many  kinds  of  hawks  in  Eng- 
 land. An  enumeration  of  the  other  birds  would  be  superfluous. 
 The  nightingale,  one  of  the  most  celebrated,  is  not  found  in  North 
 Wales,  nor  any  Avhere  to  the  North,  except  about  Doncastcr,  where 
 it  abounds  ;  nor  does  it  travel  so  far  Avest  as  Devonshire  and  Corn- 
 wall.* The  poultry  seem  to  originate  from  Asia  ;  the  peacocks  from 
 India  ;  the  pheasants  from  Colchis  ;  tlie  guinea-fowl  are  from  Africa. 
 The  smallest  bird  is  the  golden-crested  wren,  which  sports  on  the 
 highest  pine-trees ;  and  the  largest  the  bustard,  sonie  of  which 
 weigh  twenty  five  pounds,  and  are  found  in  the  open  countries  of 
 the  south  and  east.  The  most  useful  of  the  v/ater  fowl  is  the  mal- 
 lard or  wild-duck,  which  is  chiefly  caught  in  the  fens  of  Lincoln- 
 shire ;  the  numbers  sent  to  the  capital,  almost  exceed  credibility. 
 The  reptiles  are  frogs,  toads,  several  kinds  of  lizards  :  of  the 
 serpents  the  viper  alone  is  venomous ;  other  kinds  are  the  snake, 
 sometimes  found  four  feet  in  length ;  and  the  blind  worm,  seldom 
 exceeding  eleven  inches. 
 
 Of  fish,  the  whale  but  seldom  appears  near  the  English  coasts,  the 
 porpess,  and  others  of  the  same  genus  are  not  uncommon.  The 
 basking  shark  appears  off  the  shores  of  Wales.  Numerous  are 
 the  edible  sea-fish.  Some  of  the  most  celebrated  are  the  turbot, 
 doree,  soal,  cod,  plaice,  smelt,  and  mullet.  The  consumption  of 
 herrings  and  mackerel  extends  to  most  parts  of  the  kingdom  ;  but 
 pilchards  are  confined  to  the  Cornish  coasts.  The  chief  river  fish 
 are  the  salmon  and  the  trout,  which  are  brought  from  the  northern 
 parts  in  prodigious  numbers,  generally  packed  in  ice.  It  is  said 
 that  not  less  than  30,000  salmon  are  brought  from  one  river,  the 
 Tv.ccd,  to  Londoi*.  in  the  course  of  a  season.     The  lamprey  is 
 
 *  Pennant's  B.  Z.  I    30t.i 
 
86  ENGLAND. 
 
 chiefly  found  in  the  Severn,  the  charr  in  the  lakes  of  Westmore- 
 land. 
 
 The  lobster  is  found  on  most  of  the  rocky  coasts,  particularly  off 
 Scarborough,  and  the  English  oysters  maintain  their  Roman  rep- 
 utation. The  green  from  Colchester,  in  Essex,  and  the  juicy  white 
 from  Milton,  in  Kent,  have  the  chief  reputation. 
 
 Mineralogy. ~\  It  seldom  or  never  happens  that  countries,  abun- 
 dant in  the  productions  of  agriculture  should,  at  the  same  time, 
 present  an  opulent  mineralogy.  Yet  England  is  far  from  being 
 deficient  in  this  respect. 
 
 The  tin  mines  in  Cornwall  have  been  already  mentioned  ;  and 
 they  are  not  only  venerable  from  their  antiquity,  but  are,  it  is  sup- 
 posed, the  richest  of  the  kind  in  the  world.  That  kind  of  silver 
 termed  by  mineralogists  horn  ore,  is  also  found  in  that  district ; 
 but  the  profound  secrecy  observed  in  working  it,  forbids  any  in- 
 vestigation of  the  amount.  The  Huel  rock  boasts  of  v/hat  is  call- 
 ed bell-metal  ore ;  and  of  wolfram. 
 
 Cornwall  also  produces  copper  at  Redruth,  Alstone,  and  the 
 Land's  End.  The  same  metal  is  found  in  Yorkshire  and  Stafford- 
 shire ;  but  no  where  in  such  abundance  as  in  the  Parrys  mountain, 
 in  the  north  west  of  Anglesea.*  Instead  of  descending  in  veins 
 through  various  rocky  strata,  the  usual  form  of  metallic  ores,  it 
 hei^e  forms  a  prodigious  heap,  and  is  worked  in  the  manner  of  a 
 quarry.  The  mountain  is  almost  bare  of  shrubs  or  grass  ;  and  is 
 covered  with  aluminous  slate,  under  which,  in  grey  chert,  is  the 
 ore,  being  chiefly  the  yellow  sulphuret,  of  very  variable  richness. 
 This  valuable  mine  was  discovered  about  thirty  years  ago. 
 
 Lead  is  found  in  the  Mcndip-hills,  Somersetshire  ;  which  also 
 produce  calamine  and  manganese.  The  lead-mines  in  Derbyshire 
 are  well  known,  not  only  for  that  metal,  but  for  the  beautiful  veins 
 of  fiuor,  which  accompany  it,  and  which  is  nnanufactured  into  sev- 
 eral ornamental  articles.  In  general  the  northern  central  ridge 
 of  mountains,  abounds  with  lead-ore.  The  lead-mines  of  Alston, 
 on  the  eastern  verge  of  Cumberland,  employ  about  1 100  men. 
 
 No  metal  is  so  widely  diffused  through  the  globe  as  iron ;  and 
 England  not  only  contains  excellent  mines,  but  excels  all  nations 
 in  the  variety  of  fabrication.  The  most  remarkable  mines  of  iron, 
 are  those  of  Colebrookdale,  Shropshire,  Dean-forest  in  Glouces- 
 tershire, with  some  in  the  north  of  England,  particularly  near  Ul- 
 verston,  in  I^ancashire. 
 
 Among  the  minor  metals,  zinc,in  the  foi'm  of  lapis  calimanaris, 
 and  blende,  is  found  in  Derbyshire,  Denbighshire,  Cornwall,  and 
 other  regions.  Nickel  and  arsenic  sometimes  appear  in  Corn- 
 wall ;  and  recently,  what  is  called  menachanite.  But  one  of  the 
 most  important  of  this  kind  is  plumbago,  or  black  lead,  which  is 
 found  in  the  ridge  of  Borrodale,  near  Keswic,  in  Cumberland  :  the 
 mine  is  only  opened  at  certain  intervals  of  time. 
 
 Gold  has  been  discovered  in  various  quarters  of  England,  but 
 the  metal    has  never  recompensed  the  labor  and  expense.     The 
 
 *  Aiken's  W:,ks,  133. 
 
ENGLAND.  »f 
 
 real  gold  mines  of  England  arc  those  of  coal,  found  in  the  central, 
 northern,  and  western  parts,  but  particularly  in  the  northern, 
 around  Newcastle.  The  coals  of  Whitehaven  and  Wigan  are  more 
 pure ;  and  the  cannel  and  peacock  coals  of  Lancashire,  are  so 
 Ijeautiful,  that  they  are  suspected  by  some  to  have  constituted  the 
 gagates,  or  jet,  which  the  ancients  ascribed  to  Britain.  A  singu- 
 lar species  of  coal  is  found  in  Bovey-heath,  Devonshire,  resem- 
 bling wood  impregnated  with  bituminous  matter.  Turforpeatis 
 common,  even  in  Hampshire,  and  other  southern  counties. 
 
 The  mines  of  rock  salt,  in  Cheshire,  must  not  be  omitted.  They 
 appear  to  have  been  known  to  the  Romans.  Leland  has  described 
 them  in  the  time  of  Henry  VHI ;  nor  wore  they  unknown  even  in 
 the  Saxon  periods.  Those  of  Northwich  are  the  most  remarkable  : 
 at  Namptwich  and  Middlewich,  are  only  salt  springs :  and  others 
 occur  at  Droitwich,  in  Worcestershire,  and  Weston  in  Staffordshire. 
 The  immense  mines  on  the  south  side  of  Northwich,  were  discov- 
 ered about  the  beginning  of  this  century.  The  quarries  with  their 
 pillars  and  crystal  roof,  extending  over  many  acres,  present  a  beau- 
 tiful spectacle ;  the  stratum  of  salt,  lies  under  a  bed  of  whitish 
 clay,  at  the  depth  of  about  forty  yards.  The  first  stratum  is  about 
 twenty  yards  thick,  so  solid  as  to  be  blasted  with  gunpowdei'',  this 
 salt  resembles  brown  sugarcandy.  Next  is  a  bed  of  hard  stone, 
 imder  which  is  a  second  stratum  of  salt,  about  six  yards  thick,  in 
 some  parts  brown,  in  others  as  clear  as  crystal.  The  Witton  pit 
 is  circular,  108  yards  in  diameter,  the  roof  supported  by  twenty- 
 five  pillars,  each  containing  294  solid  yards  of  rock  salt;  the  whole 
 covering  near  two  acres  of  land.  The  annual  produce  of  rock  salt 
 at  Northwich,  has  been  estimated  at  65,000  tons;  of  which  about 
 two  thirds  used  to  be  exported  to  Flanders  and  the  Baltic* 
 
 Marbles,  and  free-stone,  or  calcareous  sand-stone,  of  various 
 colors  and  textures,  also  occur  ;■  the  most  celebrated  of  the  latter 
 are  those  of  Portland,  Purbeck,  Sec.  Fine  alabaster  appears  in 
 Derbyshire  ;  fullers-earth  in  Berkshire,  and  some  other  counties. 
 
 Mineral  waters.^  Nor  is  England  less  productive  of  mineral 
 waters,  of  various  properties  and  descriptions.  Those  of  Bath 
 have  been  celebrated  since  the  Roman  times.  Next  to  that  place 
 of  fashionable  resort,  may  be  mentioned  the  hot-w^ells  of  Bristol, 
 those  of  Tunbridge  in  Kent,  and  of  Buxton  and  Scarborough  in 
 the  North.  Those  of  Cheltenham  in  Gloucestershire,  have  been 
 esteemed  beneficial  in  scorbutic  cases ;  but  to  enumerate  the 
 springs  of  inferior  note,  would  be  infinite,  as  chalybeat  wells  at 
 least  must  occur  in  almost  every  county,  and  new  waters  are  daily 
 starting  into  celebrity. 
 
 J\~aturaL  curiosities. ~\  Among  the  natural  curiosities,  those  of 
 Derbyshire  have  always  been  esteemed  the  most  memorable. 
 Hobbes  and  oihers  have  long  since  celebra,ted  the  wondei's  of  the 
 Peak,  a  mountain  not  equal  in  height  to  those  of  Wales,  or  the 
 more  nortliern  part  of  England,  but  perforated  witli  such  verii- 
 
 *  Pennant's  Journey  from  Chester  to  I^indon.  v-  26.  Gough's  Camc^en,.  i.  iio- 
 Aikm's  Manchester,  4iir. 
 
88  ENGLAND. 
 
 cal  chasms,  and   such  surprising   caverns  as  have  deservedly  ex- 
 cited admiration. 
 
 Other  remarkable  caverns  are  found  in  the  northern  ridge  of 
 English  mountains.  In  the  vale  of  Kingsdale,  on  the  western  ex- 
 tremity of  Yorkshire,  is  Yordas  cave,  which  presents  a  subterran- 
 eous cascade.  But  the  most  noted  is  Wethercot  cave,  not  far 
 from  Ingleton.  It  is  surrounded  with  trees  and  shrubs,  is  in  form 
 like  a  lozenge,  divided  by  an  arch  of  lime-stone,  passing  under 
 which  you  behold  a  large  cascade,  falling  from  a  height  of  more 
 than  tv/enty  yards ;  the  length  of  this  cave  is  about  sixty  yards, 
 the  breadth  thirty. 
 
 The  lakes  of  Cumberland  form  another  grand  scene  of  attrac- 
 tion, but  it  would  be  idle  to  attempt  to  depict,  in  a  few  words,  beau- 
 ties which  have  been  described  by  so  many  authors,  and  paj'ticularly 
 by  the  glowing  pencil  of  a  Gray.  Suffice  it  to,observe,  that  the  three 
 most  celebrated  lakes  are  those  of  Coniston,  Windermere,  and 
 Uerwent.  The  beauties  of  the  first  have  been  compared  to  the 
 delicate  touches  of  Claude  ;  the  noble  scenes  of  the  second,  to 
 those  of  Poussin  ;  while  Derwent  has  much  of  the  sublime  mild- 
 ness of  Salvator  Rosa:  but  most  travellers  esteem  Ulswater  to  be 
 the  most  truly  sublime. 
 
 The  mountainous  regions  of  Wales  may  well  be  supposed  to 
 present  many  natural  curiosities  ;  and  the  Parrys  mine  in  Angle- 
 sea,  is  in  itself  a  surprising  object.  The  cataracts  in  Cumberland 
 are  rivalled  by  a  remarkable  fall  of  the  Tees,  on  the  west  of  the 
 county  of  Durham,  over  which  is  a  bridge  suspended  by  chains,  sel- 
 dom passed  but  by  the  adventurous  miners ;  nor  must  Asgarth 
 force,  in  Yorkshire,  be  passed  in  silence. 
 
 The  sub-marine  relics  of  a  forest,  on  the  coast  of  Lincolnshire, 
 may  be  deservedly  classed  among  the  most  remarkable  natural 
 curiosities.  On  the  N.  W.  side  of  the  Mendip  hills,  is  a  considerable 
 cavern,  at  the  bottom  of  a  deep  ravine,  near  the  little  village  of  Ber- 
 rington,  or  Burrington.  Here  are  a  number  of  human  bones,  grad- 
 ually incorporating  with  the  lime-stone  rock  ;  there  being  a  con-  ' 
 tinual  dripping  from  the  roof  and  sides,  which  deposits  a  stalactitic 
 sediment  on  the  bones.  Several  nodules  contain  perfect  human 
 skulls.  At  the  farther  end,  where  the  height  is  about  fifteen  feet, 
 there  is  a  large  conic  stalactite,  which  nearly  meets  a  pillar  rising 
 from  the  floor.  This  cave  was  only  discovered  about  two  years 
 ago;  and  as  the  matter  increases  so  fast,  it  is  conjectured  that  it 
 would  soon  have  been  closed  up.*  Hence  it  is  probable  that  these 
 bones  are  of  no  remote  antiquity,  and  may,  perhaps,  be  the  remains 
 of  some  wretches  who  had  here  taken  shelter  from  the  cruelty  of 
 Jefferies,  after  the  insurrection  of  Monmouth. 
 
 ENGLISH  ISLES. 
 
 In  the  Soulliern,  or  English  Channel,  first   appears   the  Isle  of 
 Wight,  by  the  Romans  called  Fectis,  by  the  Saxons  Viht loud ^o^^w 
 oval  form,  about  twenty  miles   in  length,  and  twelve  in  breadth^ 
 *  Transact,  of  the  Lintixan  Societv,  vol.  v. 
 
ENGLAND.  .  89 
 
 This  isle  is  fertile  and  beautiful,  and  decorated  with  many  pictur- 
 esque villas  ;  the  principal  haven  is  that  of  Newport.  The  popu- 
 lation of  the  island  in  1801,  was  twenty-four  thousand.  The  chief 
 mineral  products  are  pipe  clay,  and  fine  white  sand,  for  the  fabri- 
 cation of  pure  glass  ;  and  at  Alum-bay,  on  the  north  side  of  the 
 Needles,  are  found  considerable  quantities  of  native  alum.f  One 
 of  the  most  remarkable  buildings  is  Carisbrook-castle,  where 
 Charles  I.  was  imprisoned ;  it  was  built  soon  after  the  conquest, 
 as  appears  from  the  book  of  Doomsday.  The  lofty  white  rocks 
 styled  the  Needles,  seem  to  have  been  disjoined  from  the  western 
 extremity  of  the  isle  by  the  violence  of  the  waves.  There  were 
 formerly  three ;  but  about  the  year  1782,  the  tallest,  which  rose 
 about  120  feet  above  the  low-water  mark,  was  overthrown,  and 
 totally  disappeared. I 
 
 At  the  distance  of  about  seventy  miles  from  Wight,  to  the  S.  W. 
 arises  the  little  isle  of  Aldeuney,  off  the  Cape  la  Hogue  ;  which 
 is  afterwards  followed  by  the  more  important  isles  of  Guernsey 
 and  Jersey  ;  Sark  being  a  small  isle  interposed  between  the  two 
 latter.  Guernsey,  the  largest  of  these  isles,  is  twelve  miles  long, 
 nine  broad,  and  about  thirty-six  in  circuit.  It  is  a  verdant  isle, 
 though  the  soil  be  hilly,  and  barren  of  wood.  The  only  town  is 
 that  of  Port  St.  Pierre. §  The  population  of  the  island  in  1801,  was 
 215,000.  Jersey  is  about  twelve  miles  in  length,  and  six  in  breadth, 
 a  well  watered  and  fertile  island,  producing  excellent  butter  and 
 honey.  The  winters  are  milder,  but  more  windy,  than  those  of 
 England.  The  northern  side  of  the  island  is  high,  but  the  south- 
 ern subsides  into  pleasant  vales,  covered  with  orchards.  The  re- 
 markable places  are  the  two  towns  of  St.  Helier  and  St.  Aubin, 
 both  standing  on  a  bay,  opening  to  the  south ;  and  the  castle  of 
 Mont  Orgueil.  The  inhabitants  of  Jersey  are  computed  at  20,000, 
 •f  whom  3000  are  capable  of  bearing  arms.  In  January  1781,  St. 
 Helier  was  surprised  by  800  French,  under  Rullicourt,  who  was 
 killed,  while  Major  Pierson  fell  on  the  side  of  the  English,  his  val- 
 or being  commemorated  by  paintings  and  prints,  and  by  a  hand- 
 some monument  in  the  church  of  St.  Helier.  Alderney  is  a  small 
 isle,  v/ith  a  town,  and  about  1000  inhabitants  in  all.  Sark  has  about 
 300  inhabitants.lF 
 
 Returning  to  the  English  shore,  we  first  descry  Eddistone  light- 
 house, beat  by  all  the  fury  of  the  western  waves.  This  edifice  has 
 repeatedly  been  overthrown,  but  the  present  erection  by  Mr. 
 Smeaton,  composed  of  vast  masses  of  stone,  grooved  into  the  rock, 
 and  joined  with  iron,  promises  alike  to  defy  accidental  fire,  and  the 
 violence  of  the  ocean,  though  the  waves  sometimes  Avash  over  the 
 veiy  summit  in  one  sheet  of  foam. 
 
 About  thirty  miles  to  the  west  of  the  Land's  End,  appear  the 
 isles  of  SciLLY,  which  have  been  deemed  the  Cassitcricles  of  the 
 ancients.     This  cluster  is  said  to  consist  of  145  isles  covered  witli 
 
 +  Gough's  Camden,  i.  143.  \  Worsley's  Isle  of  Wight,  p.  274r. 
 
 §  Guernsey  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  its  small  bryvKl  yf  c«Ulf. 
 If  Gough's  Camden,  tii.  75j. 
 vot.  II.  13 
 
$0  ENGLAND. 
 
 grass  or  moss,  besides  innumerable  dreary  rocks.  The  largest 
 isle  is  that  of  St.  Mary,  which  is  about  five  miles  in  circuit,  and 
 has  a  castle  and  garrison :  inhabitants  about  600.  That  of  St.  Ag- 
 nes is  rather  fertile,  inliabitants  about  300.  The  whole  inhabi- 
 tants of  the  Scilly  isles  are  computed  at  about  1000.  The  cattle 
 and  horses  small ;  but  sheep  and  rabbits  thrive  well.  Considera- 
 ble quantities  of  kelp  are  prepared  amid  these  rocks.* 
 
 On  turning  to  the  north,  first  appears  the  little  isle  of  Lundy, 
 situated  in  the  Bristol  Channel,  about  three  miles  long,  but  not  a 
 mile  in  breadth,  with  about  500  acres  of  good  land,  some  rivulets, 
 and  a  castle.     It  was  formerly  a  noted  retreat  for  pirates. 
 
 Some  small  isles  lie  off  the  Welch  coast  of  Pembrokeshire  and 
 Caernarvon,  such  as  Caldy,  Skomar^  Bardseij,  and  others  :  but  the 
 isle  of  Anglesea  deserves  more  attention,  being  the  Mona  of  Taci- 
 tus. Anglesea  is  about  twenty-five  miles  in  length,  and  eighteen 
 in  breadth.  The  chief  towns  are  Newburg,  Beaumaris,  and  on 
 the  western  extremity,  fronting  Ireland,  Holyhead.  This  isle  is 
 so  extremely  fei'tile,  that  the  Welch  have  eiuphatically  styled  it 
 the  mother  of  Wales  ;  and  of  late  has  been  also  productive  of  rich 
 copper  found  in  the  Parrys  mountain,  in  the  N.  E.  part  of  the 
 island,  near  Amlwich,  of  which  an  account  has  been  given  in 
 treating  of  the  English  minerals.  Its  population  in  1801  amount- 
 ed to  33,806.  Beaumaris  is  a  large  town,  with  a  castle  built  by 
 Edward  I.  Newburg  is  a  corporation  of  smaller  moment.  Holy- 
 head, originally  a  fishing  town,  has  become  of  consequence,  by  the 
 Irish  packets  which  pass  daily,  the  average  time  being  twelve  hours. 
 
 The  last  English  isle  worth  notice  is  that  of  Man ;  it  is  about 
 thirty  miles  in  length,  and  fifteen  in  its  greatest  breadth.  In  the 
 midst  is  a  high  mountain,  called  Snafel.  The  chief  mineral  pro- 
 ductions are  black  marble,  slate,  lime  stone,  lead,  copper,  and  iron. 
 Man  is  also  well  stoi'ed  with  black  cattle,  and  sheep ;  and  the 
 population  has  of  late  years  greatly  increased.  This  isle  was 
 seized  by  the  Norwegians,  along  with  the  Western  isles  of  Scot- 
 land, in  the  ninth  century :  and  remained  under  these  lords  an  in- 
 dependent kingdom,  till  the  thirteenth  century,  when  it  fell  with 
 those  islands  to  Alexander  III.  of  Scotland.  The  Scots  were  ex- 
 pelled in  the  reign  of  Edward  II.  but  the  title  continued  dubious  ; 
 for  in  the  15th  and  16th  centuries  Alexander  and  John,  Dukes  of 
 Albany,  styled  themselves  lords  of  Man,  and  interwove  the  arms 
 in  their  heraldry.  In  the  reign  of  Henry  IV.  the  kingdom  of 
 Man  was  conferred  on  the  Stanleys,  aftei'wards  Earls  of  Derby,  and 
 latterly  passed  to  the  family  of  Athol  by  marriage.  This  petty 
 sovereignty  has  been  since  purchased  and  annexed  to  the  En- 
 glish crown.  The  chief  places  are  Douglas  and  Castletown,  and 
 there  are  some  considerable  villages.  The  population  in  1801  was 
 about  30,000. 
 
 There  are  also  some  small  islands  off  the  eastern  coast,  as  Lin- 
 disfam,  and   Coquet  island,  near  the  mouth  of  the  river  of  thai 
 
 "  Gongh's  Camden,  ili,  7.'),T. 
 
4 
 
 SCOTLANB.  91 
 
 name,  in  N'orthumberland.  The  isle  of  Thanet  is  now  joined  to 
 the  land  of  Kent ;  but  Sheppey  ren\ains  a  pleasant  and  interest- 
 ing isle. 
 
 SCOTLAND. 
 
 CHAPTEI^  I. 
 HISTORICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 NAMES,  EXTENT,  ORIGINAL  POPULATION,  PROGRESSIVE  GEOGRA- 
 PHY, HISTORICAL  EPOCHS,  ANTIQUITIES,  RELIGION,  GOVERN- 
 MENT, LAWS,  POPULATION,  MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS,  LANGUAGE, 
 LITERATURE,  EDUC  ATION,  UNIVERSITIES,  CITIES,  INLAND  NAVI- 
 GATION,   MANUFACTURES    AND    COMMERCE. 
 
 SCOTLAND  was  first  discovered  to  the  Romans  by  Agricola  ; 
 and  in  the  works  of  Tacitus  the  northern  part  of  Britain  is 
 for  the  first  time  distinguished  from  the  southern,  by  the  special 
 and  repeated  appellation  of  Caledonia,  a  name  said  to  be  derived 
 from  a  Cumraig  word,  signifying  woodlands,  forests,  or,  perhaps, 
 rather  a  mountainous  country  ;  for  the  ancients  often  blended  the 
 ideas  of  forest  and  mountain. 
 
 The  names  Caledonia^  and  Caledonians.^  continued  to  be  used  till 
 the  Roman  power  expired.  Bede,  the  father  of  English  history, 
 calls  the  inhabitants  of  the  country  by  the  name  of  Picti^  which 
 had  also  been  used  by  the  latter  Roman  writers  as  synonymous 
 with  that  of  Caledonii.  The  country  he  denominates  Frovincia 
 Pictorum.^  the  province  or  region  of  the  Picti.  This  new  name 
 seems  to  have  originated  from  a  country  so  styled,  in  the  south  of- 
 Norway,  whence  this  colony  had  arrived.  The  Saxon  writers,  and 
 among  them  king  Alfred,  called  the  people  Peohts,  and  the  coun- 
 try Pcohtlonei. 
 
 These  distinctions  continued  till  the  eleventh  century,  when  the 
 new  name  of  Scotia  was  taken  from  Ireland,  its  former  object,  and 
 applied  to  modern  Scotland. 
 
 Extent r\  From  the  Mull  of  Galloivaij.,  in  lat.  54  44,  to  the 
 parallel  of  Dungisbay-head,  in  58  45  is  a  length  of  280  miles;  and 
 from  the  Point  or  Ru  oi  ylrdnamta-chan  to  Buchanncssis  a  breadth. 
 of  1 80.  The  land  however,  is  so  indented  by  arms  of  the  sea  that, 
 the  breadth  is  very  varibus,  and  no  part  is  distant  above  40 
 miles  from  the  coast.  The  number  of  square  miles  is  estimated 
 at  27,794. 
 
 Boundaries.']  Scotland  is  bounded  W.  and  N.  by  the  Atlan- 
 tic ;  E.  by  the  German  Ocean,  and  S.  by  England. 
 
 Divisions.]  Scotland  is  divided  naturally  into  Highlands  and 
 Lov/Iands.  The  Highland  district  is  in  tlie  N.  and  N.  W.  and  is 
 subdivided  into  two  parts,  the  West  Highlands.,  comprising  the 
 ?,\\\VQ.?>  o'i  Dnmharton^  .^j/'^,  part  of  Pf7V//.  and  Argxjle  ;  with  the 
 
92 
 
 SCOTLAND. 
 
 isles  of  Bute^  Jrran^  the  two  Cmnbrays,  and  Inchmarnock  ;  and  the 
 A'brth  Highlands,  comprehendmg  Inverness.)  Ross,  Soufhcrlandy 
 Caithness,  Jlthoi,  Rannock,  Braidalbin,  Marr,  and  Monteith,  with 
 all  the  proper  Hebrides.  This  district,  from  Dumbarton  to  the 
 coast  of  Caithness,  is  200  miles  long,  and  from  80  to  100  broad. 
 
 The  Lowland  district  comprises  the  E.  S.  E.  and  S.  W.  parts  of 
 the  country.  Scotland  is  also  divided  with  equal  propriety  into 
 three  divisions,  the  northern,  middle,  and  southern.  The  northern 
 is  divided  from  the  middle  by  the  chain  of  lakes  reaching  from  the 
 Moray  Firth  to  Loch  Linnhc.  The  middle  is  separated  from  the 
 southern  by  the  Firths  of  Forth  and  Clyde,  and  the  great  canal. 
 
 The  third,  or  southern  division,  comprehends  those  counties 
 that  lie  between  the  Firths  of  Forth  and  Clyde,  and  the  English 
 frontier ;  we  shall  also  add  to  each  county  the  amount  of  its  popu- 
 lation, according  to  the  general  enumeration  of  the  island  in  the 
 year  i80l. 
 
 COUNTIES. 
 
 INHABITANTS 
 
 ''Orkney  and  Shetland 
 
 46,824 
 
 Caithness 
 
 •>         -         ^ 
 
 22,609 
 
 Northern 
 
 Sutherland 
 
 .         -         . 
 
 23,lir 
 
 Division. 
 
 Ross 
 
 . 
 
 53,325 
 
 Cromarty 
 
 - 
 
 3,052 
 
 ^Inverness 
 
 - 
 
 74,292 
 
 'Argyle 
 
 "                    c 
 
 75,700 
 
 Bute 
 
 - 
 
 11,791 
 
 Nairn 
 
 - 
 
 8,257 
 
 Murray,  or  Elgin 
 
 - 
 
 26,705 
 
 Banff 
 
 .         - 
 
 35,807 
 
 Aberdeen 
 
 . 
 
 123,071 
 
 Midland 
 Division. 
 
 Mearns,  or  Kincardine 
 
 -      26,349 
 
 Angus,  or  Forfar 
 
 - 
 
 99,127 
 
 PerUi 
 
 -                   * 
 
 126,366 
 
 Fife 
 
 - 
 
 93,743 
 
 Kinross 
 
 - 
 
 6,725 
 
 Clackmannan 
 
 -          .          - 
 
 10,858 
 
 Stirling 
 
 - 
 
 50,825 
 
 ^Dumbarton 
 
 - 
 
 20,710 
 
 'West-Lothian,  or 
 
 Linlithgow 
 
 -      17,844 
 
 Mid-Lothian,  or  Edinburgh 
 
 122,954 
 
 East-Lothian,  or 
 
 Haddington     - 
 
 29,986 
 
 Berwick 
 
 - 
 
 30,206 
 
 Renfrew 
 
 . 
 
 78,056 
 
 Southern 
 
 Ayr 
 
 ^ 
 
 84,306 
 
 Division.     < 
 
 Wigton 
 
 -           _           - 
 
 22,918 
 
 Lanark 
 
 - 
 
 147,796 
 
 Peebles 
 
 - 
 
 8,717 
 
 Selkirk 
 
 - 
 
 5,070 
 
 Roxb,urg 
 
 - 
 
 33,712 
 
 Dumfries 
 
 - 
 
 54,597 
 
 ,Kirkudbright 
 
 - 
 
 29,211 
 
 1,604,826 
 
SCOTLAND.  93 
 
 Original  Pofiulation.']  So  far  as  historical  researches  can  dis- 
 cover, the  original  population  of  Scotland,  consisted  of  Cimbri, 
 from  the  Cimbric  Chersonese.  About  two  centuries  before  the 
 Christian  era,  the  Cimbri  seem  to  have  been  driven  to  the  south 
 of  Scotland  by  the  Caledonians,  or  Picti,  a  Gothic  colony  from 
 Norway.  The  Cimbri,  a  congenerous  people  witli  the  Welch, 
 continued  to  hold  the  country  south  of  the  two  Firths  of  Forth  and 
 Clyde  :  but  from  the  former  region  they  were  soon  expelled  by 
 the  Picti,  who,  in  this  corner,  became  subject  for  a  time  to  the 
 Anglo-Saxon  kings  of  Bernicia.  On  the  west,  the  Cumraig  king- 
 dom of  Strath  Clyde  continued  till  the  tenth  century,  when  it  be- 
 came subject  to  the  kings  of  North  Britain  ;  who,  at  the  time,  ex- 
 tended their  authority,  by  the  permission  of  the  English  monarchs, 
 over  the  counties  of  Cumberland  and  Westmoreland,  which 
 abounding  with  hills  and  fortresses  on  the  south  and  east,  were 
 little  accessible  to  the  English  power;  and  while  the  Danes  pos- 
 sessed the  country  to  the  north  of  the  Humber,  could  yield  little 
 revenue,  or  support  to  the  Anglo-Saxon  monarchs.  From  the 
 Picti  originates  the  population  of  the  Lowlands  of  Scotland,  the  Low- 
 landers  having  been,  in  all  ages,  a  distinct  people  from  those  of  the 
 western  Highlands,  though  the  Irish  clergy  endeavored  to  ren- 
 der their  language,  which  was  the  most  smooth  and  cultivated  of 
 the  two,  the  polite  dialect  of  the  court  and  superior  classes.  About 
 the  year  of  Christ  258,  the  Dalraids  of  Bede,  the  Attacotti  of  the 
 Roman  writers,  passed  from  Ii'eland  to  Argyleshire,  and  became 
 the  germ  of  the  Scottish  Highlanders,  who  speak  the  Irish,  or  Cel- 
 tic language,  while  the  Lowlandcrs  have  always  used  the  Scandi- 
 navian, or  Gothic. 
 
 Progressive  Geografihy.~\  The  progressive  geography  of  Scot- 
 land is  little  opulent  in  materials.  In  the  second  century  we 
 find  a  map  of  North  Britain,  by  Ptolemy ;  but  he  represents  the 
 Mull  of  Galloway  as  the  most  northern  promontory  of  Scotland,  and 
 thence  bends  the  country  due  east,  so  that  all  his  longitudes  and 
 latitudes  were  fictitious.  But  his  distribution  of  the  tribes  which 
 then  inhabited  Scotland,  may  be  regarded  as  tolerably  exact.  In 
 the  centre  of  the  country  he  places  a  vast  forest,  which  he  calls 
 the  Sijlva  Caledonia^  chiefly  extending  over  modern  Perthshire  ; 
 an  indication  that  the  colonies  had  settled  on  the  shores,  and  that 
 the  interior  part  of  the  country  was  little  known.  The  Oladeni 
 were  the  people  of  modern  Northumberland  and  Lothian  ;  the  Sel- 
 govce  extended  over  Dumfriesliire  and  Kirkudbright,  to  the  bay 
 of  Wigton,  while  the  JVo-vantx  filled  modern  Wigtonshire,  and 
 extended  upwards  to  Ayr-bay.  The  fourth  southern  tribe  was 
 that  of  the  Damnii^  who  possessed  the  central  region  from  near 
 the  source  of  the  Clyde,  to  that  of  the  Erne.  On  the  northeast  of 
 the  Damnii  were  the  Veriicentesy  from  the  Firth  of  Forth  to  the 
 river  Dee,  while  the  Texali  held  the  modern  shires  of  Aberdeen 
 and  Banff.  To  the  west  of  them  were  the  Vacomagif  extending 
 from  Fort  William  to  the  Castra  Alata,  or  Inverness.  The  other 
 tribes  scaic'ely  deserve  enumeration  :  the  Cornabii  possessed  the 
 most  northern  parts  oi'  Scotland,  from  Dunsbee-head  to  Strathiia- 
 
^4  SCOTLAND. 
 
 ver.  Four  tribes  extended  along  the  north-west,  down  to  Loch 
 Linny  ;  to  the  south  of  which  are  placed  the  Epidii^  in  Argyleshire, 
 who  were  divided  by  Loch  Fyn  from  the  Gadeni,  who  held  that 
 part  to  the  east  of  Argyleshire,  called  Cowal,  in  the  county  of 
 Dumbarton. 
 
 After  the  time  of  Ptolemy  little  information  arises  concerning 
 the  geography  of  Scotland,  till  after  the  lapse  of  seven  or  eight 
 centuries,  we  find  the  dawn  of  the  present  names  and  divisions. 
 In  the  latter  Roman  period,  the  province  of  Valentia  embraced 
 that  part  which  was  south  of  the  Clyde  and  Forth ;  as  for  a  short 
 space,  from  about  A.  D.  140  to  170,  the  name  of  Vespasiana  had 
 been  imparted  to  the  region  extending  from  the  Forth  to  Loch- 
 Ness.  The  remains  of  Roman  roads  form  the  chief  evidence  of 
 of  the  firm  possession  of  the  latter  province. 
 
 In  the  middle  ages  the  name  of  Albany  had  been  applied  to  that 
 part  of  Scotland  which  lies  on  the  north  of  the  Firths  ;  and  about 
 the  year  1200  was  written  the  Descriptio  Albaniae.  In  the  four- 
 teenth century,  Fordurn  produced  a  larger  and  more  precise  idea 
 of  Scottish  geography.  .  Harding,  who  wrote  his  rhyming  chroni- 
 cle in  the  time  of  Edward  IV.  gives  a  tolerably  exact  description 
 of  Scotland,  M^hich  he  had  visited  ;  and  some  manuscripts  of  his 
 work  contain  a  rude  map  of  the  country.  The  first  engraved  map 
 is  that  published  by  bishop  Lesley,  with  his  history  ;  but  it  abounds 
 with  portentous  errors,  which  have  been  slowly  removed.  The 
 atlas  published  in  the  last  century  does  honor  to  the  industry  and 
 abilities  of  Pont,  and  the  munificence  of  Sir  John  Scott;  and  the 
 recent  exertions  of  Dorrett,  Roy,  Mackenzie,  Huddard,  Ainslie, 
 and  others,  have  contributed  to  establish  some  exactness  in  the  ge- 
 ographical and  hydrographical  delineation  of  the  country. 
 
 Historical  Epochs.]  1.  The  original  population  of  Scotland 
 by  the  Cimbri,  and  by  the  Picti,  forms  the  first  historical  epoch. 
 
 2.  The  entrance  of  Agricola  into  Scotland,  and  the  subsequent 
 conflicts  with  the  Romans,  till  the  latter  abandoned  Britain. 
 
 3.  The  settlement  of  the  Dalriads,  or  Attacotti,  in  Argyleshire, 
 about  the  year  258,  and  their  repulsion  to  Ireland  about  the  mid- 
 dle of  the  fifth  century. 
 
 4.  The  commencement  of  what  may  be  called  a  regular  history 
 of  Scotland,  from  the  reign  of  Drust,  A.  D.  414. 
 
 5.  The  return  of  the  Dalriads,  A.  D.  503,  and  the  subsequent 
 events  of  Dalriadic  story. 
 
 ■  6.  The  introduction  of  Christianity  among  the  Caledonians,  in 
 the  reign  of  Brudi  II.  A.  D.  565. 
 
 7.  The  union  of  the  Picti  and  Attacotti,  under  Kenneth,  A.  D. 
 843. 
 
 8.  The  reign  of  Malcolm  III.  A.  D.  1056;  from  which  period 
 greater  civilization  began  to  take  place,  and  the  history  becomes 
 more  authentic. 
 
 9.  The  extinction  of  the  ancient  line  of  kings,  in  the  person  of 
 Margaret,  of  Norway,  grand-daughter  of  Alexander  III.  A.  D. 
 1290.  This  event  occasioned  the  arbitrary  interpot-aon  of  Ed- 
 •vard  I.  king  ol  England,  Avhich  was  the  sole  source  of  the  enmi- 
 
SCOTLAND.  •  95 
 
 ty  N\hicii  altevwards  unhappily  prevailed  between  the  kingdoms. 
 
 10.  The  accession  of  the  house  of  Stuart  to  the  Scottish  throne  ; 
 a  family  which  produced  most  ingenious  and  intelligent,  but  most 
 unfortunate  princes. 
 
 11.  The  establishment  of  the  Protestant  religion,  A.  D.  1560. 
 
 12.  The  union  of  the  two  crowns,  by  the  accession  of  James  VI 
 to  the  Etiglish  sceptre,  A.  D.  1 603. 
 
 13.  The  civil  wars,  and  the  subsequent  disputes  between  the 
 Presbyterians  and  the  Independents  ;  causes  that  extinguished  all 
 sound  literature  in  Scotland,  for  the  space  of  twenty  years,  A.  D. 
 1640-1660. 
 
 14.  The  revolution  of  1688,  and  the  firm  establishment  of  the 
 Presbyterian  system. 
 
 15.  The  union  of  the  two  kingdoms  in  1707. 
 
 16.  The  abolition  of  the  hereditary  jurisdictions,  1755,  which 
 laid  the  first  foundation  of  the  subsequent  prosperity  in  Scotland. 
 
 Antiquities.~\  The  monuments  of  antiquity  belonging  to  the 
 more  early  epochs,  may  be  considered  in  the  following  order.  Of 
 the  first  epoch,  no  monuments  can  exist,  except  those  of  the  tu- 
 mular  kind ;  and  it  is  impossible  to  ascertain  the  period  of  their 
 formation.  The  remains  of  the  Roman  period  in  North  Britain 
 chiefly  appear  in  the  celebrated  wall,  built  in  the  reign  of  Antoni- 
 us  Pius,  between  the  Firths  of  Forth  and  Clyde,  in  the  ruins  of 
 which  many  curious  inscriptions  have  been  found.  Another 
 striking  object  of  this  epoch,  was  a  small  edifice  on  the  stream  of 
 Carron,  vulgarly  called  Arthur's  Oven,  which  seems  rightly  to 
 have  been  regarded  by  some  antiquaries,  as  a  small  temple  dedi- 
 dated  to  the  God  Terminus. 
 
 The  most  northerly  Roman  camp  yet  discovered,  is  that  near 
 the  source  of  the  river  Ythan,  Aberdeenshire  ;  the  periphery  of 
 which  is  about  two  English  mileS.  A  smaller  station  has  also  been 
 observed  at  Old  Meldrum,  a  few  miles  to  the  S.  E. 
 
 Roman  roads  haTe  been  traced  a  considerable  way  in  the  east  of 
 Scotland,  as  far  as  the  county  of  Angus,  affording  some  evidence 
 of  the  existence  of  the  province  Vespasiana ;  but  the  chief  re- 
 mains are  Avithin  the  wall.  The  smaller  remains  of  Roman  an- 
 tiquity found  in  Scotland,  as  coins,  utensils.  Sec.  are  numerous. 
 
 With  the  fourth  epoch  may  be  said  to  commence  the  Pikish. 
 monuments  of  antiquity.  The  tombs  it  would  be  difficult  to  dis- 
 criminate from  those  of  the  first  epoch ;  but  as  the  Caledonian 
 kings,  when  converted  to  Christianity^  held  their  chief  residence 
 at  Inverness,  the  singular  hill  in  its  vicinity,  presenting  the  form 
 of  a  boat  reversed,  may,  perhaps,  be  a  monument  of  regal  sculp- 
 ture. The  places  of  judgment  among  the  Gothic  nations,  or  what 
 are  now  styled  Druidic  temples,  are  numerous ;  and  there  is  a  re- 
 markable one  in  the  isle  of  Leuis.  Some  of  these  monuments  arc 
 of  small  circuit,  and  such  arc  sometimes  foimd  at  no  great  dis- 
 tance from  each  other ;  as  they  were  not  only  erected  as  temples 
 to  Odin,  Thor,  Freyga,  and  other  Gothic  Deities;  but  every  chief 
 or  lord  of  a  manor,  having  jurisdiction  over  many  servants  and 
 slaves,  such  small  courts  became  places  of  necessary  awe. 
 
96  SCOTLAND. 
 
 The  houses  seem  to  have  been  entirely  of  wood  or  tun";  but  in 
 some  spots  singular  excavations  are  found  ludely  lined  with  stone  : 
 these  are  called  IVeems,  and  it  is  likely  that  they  were  always  ad- 
 jacent to  the  wooden  residence  of  some  chief,  and  were  intended 
 as  depositories  of  stores,  Sec.  the  roofs  being  too  low  for  comfort- 
 able places  of  refuge.  The  stations  and  camps  of  the  natives  are 
 distinguished  by  their  round  form,  while  those  of  the  Romans  be- 
 long to  the  square. 
 
 Under  the  next  epoch  it  would  be  difficult  to  discover  any  genu- 
 ine remains  of  the  Dalriads.  The  houses,  and  even  churches,  were 
 constructed  in  wattle-work ;  and  the  funeral  monuments  were 
 cairns,  or  heaps  of  stones. 
 
 To  the  sixth  epoch  may  probably  belong  a  chapel  or  two,  still 
 remaining  in  Scotland  ;  but  it  is  probable  that  these  sacred  edifices 
 in  stone  were  soon  followed  by  the  erection  of  those  rude,  round 
 piles,  without  any  cement,  called  Piks  houses ;  yet  they  may  more 
 probably  belong  to 
 
 The  seventh  epoch,  when  the  Danes  may  share  in  the  honor 
 of  the  erection,  for  such  edifices  have  been  traced  in  Scandinavia. 
 They  seem  to  have  consisted  of  a  vast  hall,  open  to  the  sky  in  the 
 centre,  while  the  cavities  in  the  wall  present  incommodious  reces- 
 ses for  beds.  Sec.  These  buildings  are  remarkable,  as  displaying 
 the  first  elements  of  the  Gothic  castle  ;  and  the  castle  of  Konii.gs- 
 burg,  in  Yorkshire,  forms  an  easy  transition.  The  engraved  obe- 
 lisks found  at  Forres,  and  in  other  parts  of  Scotland,  have  been 
 ascribed  to  the  Danish  ravagers,  who  had  not  time  for  such  erec- 
 tions. They  are,  probably,  monuments  of  signal  events,  raised  by 
 the  king,  or  chiefs,  and  as  some  are  found  in  Scandinavia  as  recent 
 as  the  fifteenth  century,  it  is  probable  that  many  of  the  Scottish 
 obelisks  are  far  more  modern  than  is  generally  imagined. 
 
 Religion.']  It  is  generally  believed,  on  the  authority  of  the  ancient 
 Scotch  historians,  the  venerable  Bede,  and  other  writers,  that  Chris- 
 tianity was  first  taught  in  Scotland  by  one  of  the  disciples  of  St. 
 John  the  Apostle,  who  fled  to  avoid  the  persecution  of  Domitian. 
 It  was  established  in  the  third  century;  one  of  the  monarchs,  with 
 1ms  family,  being  then  solemnly  baptized.  About  565,  St.  Columba 
 established  the  university  in  the  ii-iand  of  I-cobn-Kill^  which  was 
 long  the  pride  of  the  north.  His  followers  the  Culdees^  continued 
 a  distinct  order  of  regular  clergy  to  the  fourteenth  century,  and  re- 
 tained their  original  manners  and  doctrines.  After  that,  the  Romish 
 religion  reigned  paramount  till  the  Reformation.  Still  the  depend- 
 ence of  the  people  on  the  Pope  was  very  slender;  and  the  doc- 
 trines of  Luther  and  Calvin  were  no  sooner  promulgated,  than 
 they  were  adopted  by  the  great  body  of  the  nation.  Protestant- 
 ism in  the  Presbyterian  form  was  established  in  1560.  In  1578, 
 an  attempt  was  made  to  establish  Episcopacy.  Scotland  was  par- 
 celled out  into  two  archbishopricks,  St.  Andrews,  anu  Glasgow  ; 
 and  twelve  bishopricks,  Edinburgh,  Dunkeld,  Dumblane,  Brech- 
 in, Aberdeen,  Moray,  Ross,  Caithness,  Orkney,  Galloway,  Argyle, 
 and  the  Isles.  This  continued  the  established  religion  till  1688. 
 All  this  time  the  country  was  distracted  by  the   quarrels  of  the 
 
SCOTLAND.  '  97 
 
 Episcopalians,  Presbyterians,  and  Independents,  tn  1688,  Pres- 
 byterianism  was  reestablished  and  is  now  the  national  religion.  In 
 1732,  a  large  body  of  the  Presbyterians  seceded  from  the  establish- 
 ment. They  preserved  the  same  form  of  church  government, 
 but  were  more  strict  in  their  sentiments  than  those  whom  they  left 
 behind.  In  1747  the  Seceders  were  subdivided  into  Burghers  and 
 Antiburghers.  The  former  allow  the  oaths  taken  by  the  burghes- 
 ses  of  the  royal  boroughs  to  be  legal:  the  latter  object.  The  for- 
 mer are  the  most  numerous. 
 
 Many  respectable  families  embrace  the  Episcopal  form  of  the 
 church  of  England.  The  other  sectaries  are  not  numerous.  There 
 are  few  Roman  Catholics,  even  in  the  remote  Highlands ;  the 
 scheme  of  education  being  excellent,  and  generally  supported 
 with  liberality. 
 
 The  Presbyterian  form  of  religion  is  Calvinistic  in  its  docU'ines, 
 and. establishes  an  entire  equality  of  ecclesiastical  authority  among 
 its  clergy.  The  revenues  of  the  clergy  also  have  been  nearly  equal, 
 none  having  been  more  than  200  pounds  sterling,  and  none  less 
 than  50  pounds /ier  annum.  By  a  late  act  of  parliament  the  smaller 
 revenues  have  all  been  i-aised  to  150  pounds. 
 
 Thei'e  arc  four  grades  of  ecclesiastical  courts,  the  General  v^s-> 
 semblijt  Provincial  Synods,  PresdyteiieSf  and  Kirk  Sessio?is.  1st. 
 The  General  Assembly  is  the  highest  ecclesiastical  court  in  Scot- 
 land, and  may  with  propriety  be  termed  the  F.ccledastical  Parlia- 
 ment. It  consists  of  commissioners,  some  of  whom  are  laymen, 
 under  the  name  of  ruling  elders,  from  Presbyteries,  royal  bor- 
 oughs, and  universities.  One  of  the  commissioners,  usually  a  no- 
 bleman of  high  rank,  represents  the  king.  A  moderator  is  chosen 
 by  the  Assembly,  who  presides  and  regulates  the  proceedings. 
 This  is  the  high  court  of  appeals  from  the  other  ecclesiastical 
 couits,  and  its  decisions  are  final.  Its  authority  extends  over 
 Scotland.  2d.  Pro-uincial  Synods  are  composed  of  delegates  from 
 ai'  number  of  adjacent  presbyteries  over  which  they  have  power. 
 5d.  Presbyteries  are  composed  of  delegates  from  a  number  of  ad- 
 jacent parishes.  They  inspect  into  the  behaviour  of  the  ministers 
 and  eiders  of  their  respective  bounds,  oi'dain  pastors,  examine 
 and  licence  schoolmasters,  £tc.  4th.  The  'Kirk  Session,  com- 
 posed of  the  minister,  elders  and  deacons  of  a  parish,  is  the 
 lowest  ecclesiastical  court.  It  has  the  superintendence  of  the 
 poor,  visits  the  sick,  and  assists  the  clergyman  in  his  clerical 
 functions. 
 
 The  following  is  a  view  of  the  ecclesiastical  establishment  of 
 Scotland,  as  divided  into  Synods  and  Presbyteries,  with  the  num- 
 ber of  ministei-s  in  each  synod,  in  1803. 
 
 Synods. 
 
 Lothian  and  Tweedale 
 Merse  and  Teviotdale 
 Dumfries         .  .  w 
 
 Galloway  -         - 
 
 6  Glasgow  and  Ayi' 
 VOi.  jti.  t^ 
 
 Presbj  tei  ic«. 
 7 
 
 IVfinistersi 
 116 
 
 6 
 
 66 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 54 
 
 37 
 1*3») 
 
8                 •                     SCOTLAND. 
 
 Perth  and  Stirling; 
 
 S 
 
 80 
 
 Fife             .... 
 
 4 
 
 71 
 
 Angus  and  Mearns 
 
 6 
 
 81 
 
 Aberdeen         -             -             -         - 
 
 8 
 
 101 
 
 10  Moray             -             .             .             . 
 
 7         ^          54 
 
 Ross              -             -         - 
 
 3 
 
 23 
 
 Sutherland  and  Caithness 
 
 3 
 
 23 
 
 Argyle         -             .             .              . 
 
 5 
 
 41 
 
 Glenelg             -             .         -         _ 
 
 5 
 
 29 
 
 15  Orkney            -            -        - 
 
 4 
 
 30 
 
 78  936 
 
 These  936  clergymen  are  settled  over  877  chmxhes,  31  of  the 
 churches  being  collegiate.  The  Scotch  clergy  deserve  the  high- 
 est praise  as  men  of  enlightened  minds,  and  unblemished  life. 
 
 The  Seceders  are  also  very  numerous.  The  Burghers  have 
 about  100  ministers,  and  each  has,  at  a  medium,  a  congregation  of 
 about  1000.     The  number  of  the  Antiburgers  is  less, 
 
 Governme7it.^  The  government  of  Scotland,  since  the  union, 
 has  been  blended  Avith  that  of  England.  The  chief  distinction  be- 
 tween the  original  constitution  of  the  two  countries,  Avas,  that 
 Scotland  had  no  House  of  Commons,  the  Parliament,  consisting  of 
 all  descriptions,  assembled  in  one  hall.  That  enlightened  prince, 
 James  I.  of  Scotland,  endeavoured  in  vain  to  establish  a  House  d?" 
 Commons,  in  imitation  of  that  of  England,  where  he  was  educated. 
 The  most  splendid  remaining  feature  of  government  in  Scotland, 
 is  the  General  Assembly.  Next  to  which  may  be  classed,  the 
 High  Courts  of  Justice,  especially  that  styled  the  Session,  consist- 
 ing of  a  president,  and  fourteen  senators.  The  Lords  of  Session, 
 as  they  are  styled  in  Scotland,  upon  their  promotion  to  office,  as- 
 sume a  title,  generally  from  the  name  of  an  estate,  by  which  they 
 are  known  and  addressed,  as  if  peers  by  creation,  while  they  are 
 only  constituted  lords  by  superior  interest,  or  talents.  This  court 
 is  the  last  resort  in  several  causes,  and  the  only  appeal  is  to  the 
 parliament  of  Great  Britain, 
 
 It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  causes  are  not  determined  by  jury 
 as  in  England.  The  justiciary  court  consists  of  five  judges,  who 
 are  likewise  Lords  of  Session :  but,  with  a  president,  styled  the 
 Lord  Justice  Clerk,  as  he  is  only  understood  to  represent  the  for- 
 merly great  office  of  Justice  General.  This  is  the  supreme  court 
 in  criminal  causes,  which  are  determined  by  the  majority  of  a  ju- 
 ry, and  not  by  the  unanimity,  as  in  England.  There  is  also  a 
 court  of  Exchequer,  ccMisisting  of  a  Lord  Chief  Baron,  and  four 
 Barons  ;  and  a  High  Court  of  Admiralty,  in  which  there  is  only 
 one  judge.  The  keepers  of  the  great  and  privy  seals,  and  the 
 lord  register  or  keeper  of  the  records,  may  also  be  mentioned  un- 
 der this  head. 
 
 The  Scots  ai-e  represented  in  the  Imperial  Parliament  by  16 
 peers,  elected  by  the  nobility  by  writ  at  the  calling  of  evc/y  par- 
 liament, who  sit  and  vote  in  the  House  of  Lords.     To  the  House 
 
SCOTLAND.  •  99 
 
 of  Commons,  Scotland  sends  35  members,  viz.  50  knights  of  the 
 shires,  and  15  from  the  royal  boroughs. 
 
 Laws.']  The  law  of  Scotland  differs  essentially  from  that  of 
 England,  being  founded,  in  a  great  measure,  upon  the  civil  law. 
 It  partly  consists  of  statute  law  ;  but  many  of  the  ancient  statutes 
 never  having  been  enforced,  the  chief  rule  of  this  sort  arises  from 
 the  decisions  of  the  session,  which  are  carefully  preserved  and 
 published,  and  affoi'd  precedents,  generally  deemed  unexception- 
 able. Of  common  law  there  is  hardly  a  trace,  while  the  civil  and 
 canon  laws  may  be  said  to  form  the  two  pillars  of  Scottish  judica- 
 ture. The  modes  of  procedure  have,  however,  the  advantage  of 
 being  free  from  many  of  those  legal  fictions,  which  disgrace  the 
 laws  of  some  other  countries.  The  inferior  courts  are  those  of  the 
 sheriffs,  magistrates,  and  justices  of  the  peace.  Under  the  hered- 
 itary jurisdictions,  happily  abolished,  the  peers,  and  other  great 
 men,  maintained  a  power,  almost  absolute,  over  their  tenants  and 
 followers,  so  that  there  was  no  law  but  the  will  of  the  master,  and 
 the  cities  alone  could  be  deemed  seats  of  freedom. 
 
 Pojiulation.]  The  population  of  Scotland,  in  1755,  was  at 
 1,265,380  ;  accordingto  the  documents  furnished  by  Sir  J.  Sinclair's 
 statistical  account,  the  numbers  in  1798,  were  1,527,892;  and  by 
 the  government  enumeration  in  1801,  the  inhabitants  appeared  to 
 amount  to  1,604,826.  The  increase  in  46  years  was  339,446,  or  a 
 little  more  than  26  and  f  per  cent. 
 
 The  army,  navy,  revenues,  political  importance,  and  relations 
 of  Scotland,  are  now  inseparably  intermingled  with  those  of  En- 
 gland. 
 
 Manners  and  Customs.]  The  manners  and  customs  of  the  Scots 
 begin  to  be  much  assimilated  with  those  of  the  English.  In  their 
 religious  ceremonies,  attending  baptism  and  marriages,  there  are 
 variations  arising  from  the  Presbyterian  form  which  does  not  ad- 
 mit of  god-fathers  or  god-mothers,  but  renders  the  parents  alone 
 answerable  for  the  education  of  the  child.  The  clergyman  does 
 not  attend  at  funerals,  nor  is  there  any  religious  service,  but  gener- 
 ally great  decency.  Among  the  lower  classes  the  funerals  are 
 generally  far  more  numerously  attended  than  in  England  ;  nor  is 
 black  an  indispensable  colour  of  dress  on  such  occasions. 
 
 In  the  luxuries  of  the  table  the  superior  classes  rival  the  Eng- 
 lish ;  several  national  dishes,  formerly  served  up  at  the  best  ta- 
 bles, and  originating  from  the  French  cooking,  in  the  reign  of 
 Mary,  being  now  vulgar  or  neglected.  The  diet  of  the  lower 
 classes  passes  in  a  gradual  transition  from  the  north  of  England. 
 The  chief  food  is  /laric/i,  or  thick  pottage,  formed  with  oatmeal 
 and  water,  and  eaten  with  milk,  ale,  or  butter ;  in  a  hard  lumpy- 
 form  it  is  called  brose.  With  this  the  laborer  is  generally  con- 
 tented twice  or  thrice  in  the  day,  with  a  little  bit  of  meat  for  Sun- 
 day ;  nor  does  he  repine  at  the  bacon  of  the  English  poor,  there 
 being  a  theological  antipathy  to  swine,  which  also  extends  to  eels, 
 on  account  of  their  serpent-like  form. 
 
 The  sobriety  of  the  lower  classes  is  in  general  exemplary  ;  and 
 the  Scottish  manufacturer  or  laborer,  instead  of  wasting  his  week- 
 
100.  ^  SCOTLAND. 
 
 ly  gains  at  an  ale-house,  is  ambitious  to  appear  with  his  family  in 
 decent  clothes  on  Sundays  and  other  holidays.  This  may  be  re- 
 garded as  a  striking  characteristic  of  the  Scottish  peasantry,  who 
 prefer  the  lasting  decencies  of  life  to  momentary  gratifications* 
 To  this  praise  may  be  added,  that  of  intelligence,  arising  from  the 
 diffusion  of  education,  which  is  such,  that  even  the  miners  in  the 
 south  possess  a  circulating  library. 
 
 The  houses  of  the  opulent  have  b6en  long  erected  upon  the  En- 
 glish plan,  which  can  hardly  be  exceeded  for  interior  elegance  and 
 convenience.  Even  the  habitations  of  the  poor  have  been  greatly 
 improved  within  these  few  years,  and  instead  of  the  thatched  mvid 
 hovel,  there  often  appears  the  neat  cottage  of  stone,  covered  witk 
 tile  or  slate. 
 
 The  dress  of  the  superior  classes  is  the  same  with  that  of  the 
 English.  The  gentlemen  in  the  Highlands,  especially  in  the 
 time  of  war,  use  the  peculiar  dress  of  that  country.  Among  the 
 other  classes,  the  Scottish  bonnet  is  now  rarely  perceived,  except 
 in  the  Highlands  ;  it  was  the  usual  covering  for  the  head  all  over 
 Europe,  till  towards  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  when  the 
 hat,  formerly  only  worn  in  riding  or  hunting,  came  into  general  use. 
 
 The  amusements  of  the  rich  are  on  a  parallel  with  those  of  the 
 English  ;  but  those  of  the  peasantry  have  several  diversities,  which 
 the  reader  may,  perhaps,  best  learn  from  the  poems  of  Burns. 
 That  of  curling  consists  in  rolling  large  stones,  with  iron  handles, 
 upon  the  ice,  towards  a  fixed  mark,  a  healthy  and  favourite  diver- 
 sion in  the  winter.  The  English  quoits  are  supplied  hy  fieimy 
 stanes,  round  flat  stones,  which  are  tossed  in  the  same  manner. 
 Two  exquisite  poems  of  Mr.  Burns,  his  HaUowecny  and  his  Cot- 
 ter^ s  Saturday  JVight^  will  convey  more  information  concerning  the 
 amusements,  superstitions,  and  manners,  of  the  Scottish  peasant- 
 ry, thaii  the  longest  and  most  animated  detail. 
 
 Langua^er\  The  Scottish  language  falls  under  two  divisions, 
 that  of  the  Lowlands  consisting  of  the  ancient  Scandinavian  dia- 
 lect, blended  with  the  Anglo-Saxon ;  and  that  of  the  Highlands, 
 which  is  Irish.  The  Lord's  prayer,  in  the  most  ancient  language 
 of  the  Lowlands,  would  be  as  follows  : 
 
 1.  Uor  fader  quhilk  beest  i  Hevin.  2.  Hallowit  weird  thyne 
 nam.  3.  Cum  thyne  kingrik.  4.  Be  dune  thyne  wull  as  is  i  He- 
 vin sva  po  yerd.  5.  Uor  dailie  breid  gif  us  thilk  day.  6.  And 
 forleit  us  uor  skaiths,  as  we  forleit  tham  quha  skath  us.  7.  And 
 leed  us  na  intil  temtation.     8.  Butan  fro  us  fra  evil.     Amen. 
 
 The  islands  of  Orkney  were  seized  by  the  Norvegians,  in  the 
 ninth  century,  and  the  inhabitants  retained  the  Norse  language 
 till  recent  times,  when  they  began  to  speak  remarkably  pure  En- 
 glish. Chamberlayne  has  given  the  Juord's  prayer  in  their  ancient 
 dialect : 
 
 1.  Favor  ir  i  chimre.  2.  Helleur  ir  i  nam  thite.  3.  Gilla  cos- 
 dum  thite  cumma.  4,  Bcya  thine  motavara  gort  o  yurn  sinna  gort 
 i  chinu'ie.  5.  Ga  vus  da  on  da  dalight  brow  vora.  6.  Firgive  vus 
 sinna  vora  sin  vee  firgive  siadara  mutha  vus.     6.  Lyve  us  yet 
 
SCOTLAND.  101 
 
 tuntation.  8.  Min  delivera  vus  fro  olt  ilt.  Amen:  or,  On  sa 
 meteth  vera. 
 
 In  the  Erse,  or  Irish,  of  the  Highlands,  the  same  supplication 
 runs  thus : 
 
 A  n'  Athair  ata  air  Neamh.  1.  Gu  naamhaichear  t  Tinm.  2. 
 Tigeadh  do  Rioghachd.  3.  Deanthar  do  Thoil  air  an  Talmah 
 mar  a  nithear  air  Neamh.  4.  Tabhair  dhuinn  an  diu  ar  n  Aran 
 laitheil.  5.  Agus  maith  dhuinn  ar  Fiacha  anihuilmar  mhaithmid 
 d'ar  iuekdfia  chaibh.  6.  Agus  na  Icig  am  buaireadh  sinn.  7. 
 Ach  saor  sinn  o  Ole.     Amen. 
 
 Lita-ature.']  The  literature  of  Scotland  recompenses  for  its  re- 
 cent origin  by  its  rapid  progress  and  extensive  fame.  The  coun- 
 try that  produced  Buchanan  in  the  sixteenth  century,  could  not, 
 in  the  twelfth,  boast  of  one  native  writer. 
 
 Yet,  it  must  not  be  forgotten,  that  in  this  dark  petiod,  on  the 
 sacred  ground  of  Hyona,  flourished  several  respectable  Irish  wri- 
 ters, who  are  also  classed  among  the  apostles  of  religion  and 
 learning  in  England ;  such  were  Columba,  who  converted  the 
 northern  Caledonians,  and  his  biographers,  Cuminius  and  Adom- 
 nan,  the  latter  the  friend  of  Bede.  Among  the  Strathclyde  Welch 
 may  be  named  Patrick,  in  his  turn  the  apostle  of  Ireland. 
 
 One  of  the  earliest  native  writers  is  Thomas  of  Erceldon,  called 
 the  Rimer,  who  flourished  about  the  year  1270,  and  wrote  a  me- 
 trical romance,  called  Sir  Tristram,  now  unfortunately  lost.  John 
 Barbour,  Archdeacon  of  Aberdeen,  wrote  his  poem  on  the  actions 
 of  Robert  I.  in  the  year  1375.  At  the  same  time  flourished  John 
 Fordun,  the  father  of  Scottish  history.  James  I.  of  Scotland,  wrote 
 some  excellent  poems  early  in  the  fifteenth  century  ;  and  he  was 
 followed  by  Flolland,  and  Henry  the  Rimer.  In  the  end  of  that 
 century  arose  Dunbar,  the  chief  of  the  ancient  Scottish  poets  ;  and, 
 in  the  beginning  of  the  next,  .Gawin  Douglas  and  David  Linsay. 
 The  Scottish  muse  continued  to  warble  till  the  middle  of  the  sev- 
 enteenth century,  when  religious  fanaticism  extinguished  all  the 
 arts  and  sciences,  but  not  before  Drummond  had  wove  his  web  of 
 Doric  delicacy.  In  more  modern  times  the  names  of  Thompson, 
 Blair,  Armstrong,  Beattie,  Burns,  &c.  are  universally  known. 
 
 The  other  departments  of  science  are  of  yet  more  recent  culti- 
 vation in  Scotland  ;  even  theology  seems  unknown  till  the  begin- 
 ning of  the  sixteenth  century  ;  and  of  medicine  there  is  no  trace  till 
 the  seventeenth  :  while  now  Edinburgh  ranks  among  the  first  me- 
 dical schools  of  Europe.  Natural  philosophy  and  history  were  total- 
 ly neglected  till  after  the  Restoration  ;  yet  Scotland  can  now  pro- 
 duce able  writers  in  almost  every  branch,  and  equal  progress  has 
 been  made  in  moral  philosophy.  Among  the  new  departments  oi 
 literature  in  which  the  Scottish  authors  have  been  unsuccessful, 
 may  be  named  epic  poetry,  comedy,  and  the  critical  illustration  oi 
 the  classics. 
 
 Education.~\  The  mode  of  education  pursued  in  Scotland  is 
 highly  laudable,  and  to  judge  from  its  effects  is,  perhaps,  the  best 
 practical  system  pursued  in  any  covntry  in  Europe.  The  plan 
 ■\vluch  is  followed  in  the  cities  is  nearly  similar  to  that  of  England, 
 
i02  SCOTLAND. 
 
 cither  by  private  teachers,  or  at  large  public  schools,  of  which  that 
 of  Edinburgh  is  the  most  eminent,  and  may  be  traced  from  the 
 sixteenth  century.  But  the  superior  advantage  of  the  Scottish 
 education  consists  in  every  country  parish  possessing  a  school- 
 master, as  uniformly  as  a  clergyman;  at  least  the  rule  is  general, 
 and  the  exceptions  rare.  The  schoolmaster  has  a  small  salary, 
 or  rather  pittance,  which  enables  him  to  educate  the  children  at  a 
 rate  easy  and  convenient,  even  to  indigent  parents.  In  the  High- 
 lands the  poor  children  attend  to  the  flocks  in  the  summer,  and 
 the  school  in  the  winter.  There  is  no  country  on  the  globe,  ex- 
 cept New-England,  in  which  the  education  of  the  poor  is  so  uni- 
 versally attended  to. 
 
 Universities.~\  The  universities  of  Scotland,  or  rather  colleges, 
 (for  an  English  university  includes  many  colleges  and  founda- 
 tions,) amount  to  no  less  than  four,  three  on  the  eastern  coast,  St. 
 Andrew's,  Aberdeen  and  Edinburgh  ;  and  one  on  the  western, 
 that  of  Glasgow, 
 
 The  university  of  St.  Andrew's  was  founded  by  Bishop  Ward- 
 law,  in  the  year  1412  ;  but  as  it  is  now  of  small  importance  in  the 
 pi'oximity  of  that  of  Edinburgh,  it  would  be  a  patriotic  measure  to 
 transfer  it  to  the  Highlands.  That  of  Glasgow  was  foui-ded  by 
 Bishop  Turnbull,  in  the  year  1453,  and  it  has  produced  many  il- 
 lustrious professors  and  able  students.  The  late  Mr.  Anderson, 
 professor  of  natural  philosophy,  founded  an  institution  to  promote 
 the  knowledge  of  natural  philosophy  and  history,  and  more  espe- 
 cially the  application  of  these  sciences  to  the  useful  purposes  of 
 commerce  and  manufactures.* 
 
 The  third  university,  that  of  Aberdeen,  was  founded  by  Bishop 
 Elphinstone,  in  the  year  1500,  and  it  has  always  supported  its  high 
 character  and  intentions.  In  the  year  1593,  George  Keith,  fifth 
 Earl  Marshall,  founded  a  college  at  Aberdeen,  being  the  only  Scot- 
 tish nobleman  who  can  claim  that  high  honor.  The  last,  not  least, 
 is  that  of  Edinburgh,  founded  by  James  VI.  in  1580  ;  and  the  bare 
 enumeration  of  its  illustrious  professors  and  writers  would  occu- 
 py too  much  space  for  the  present  plan.  The  buildings  being 
 mean  and  confined,  the  foundation  of  a  new  edifice  was  laid  in 
 1789,  and,  it  is  hoped,  will  soon  be  completed  on  the  magnificent 
 plans  adjusted  by  Adams. 
 
 Cities  a?id  Toivns.^  The  chief  cities  and  towns  in  Scotland  must 
 now  be  considered.  Edinburgh,  the  capital,  is  comparatively  of 
 modern  name  and  note,  the  earliest  hint  that  can  be  applied  to  it, 
 occurring  in  the  Chronicon  Pictoru?n,  about  the  year  955,  where 
 mention  is  made  of  a  town  called  Eden,  as  resigned  by  the  Eng- 
 lish to  the  Scotts,  then  ruled  by  Indulf.  Holyrood  house  was  the 
 foundation  of  the  first  David. 
 
 The  population  of  Edinburgh,  including  the  port  of  Leith,  was, 
 in  1678,  computed  at  35,500  ;  in  1755,  at  70,430  ;  and  in  1791,  at 
 84,886.t 
 
 *\  Garnet's  Tour,  ii.  193.  t  Statist.  Account,  vi.  56-i. 
 
SCOTLAND.  105 
 
 The  whole  number  of  inhabitants  in  the  old  and  new  to^vn  of 
 Edinburgh  together  with  the  suburbs  and  the  sea  ports  of  north 
 and  south  Leith  were  found  by  actual  enumeration  in  1801  to 
 amount  to  82,5  60.* 
 
 The  arrivals  and  clearances  at  Leith  Harbor,  exceed  the  number 
 of  1700  vessels  of  various  descriptions.  Of  these  165  belong  to 
 the  town.  The  commerce  has  been  stated  at  half  a  million  an- 
 nually. 
 
 The  houses  in  the  old  town  of  Edinburgh,  are  sometimes  of  re- 
 markable height,  not  less  than  thirteen  or  fourteen  floors,  a  singu- 
 larity ascribed  to  the  wish  of  the  ancient  inhabitants,  of  being  un- 
 der the  protection  of  the  castle.  This  part  of  the  city  stands  on 
 the  ridge  of  a  hill,  gradually  descending  from  the  lofty  precipice  on 
 which  the  castle  is  situated,  to  a  bottom,  in  which  stands  the  pal- 
 ace of  Holyrood-house.  Adjacent  to  this  edifice,  is  a  park  of  con- 
 siderable extent,  replete  with  mountainous  scenery  ;  for  the  basal- 
 tic heights  of  Arthur's  seat,  and  Salisbury  crags,  are  within  its 
 precincts.  The  new  town  of  Edinburgh  is  deservedly  celebrated 
 for  regularity  and  elegance,  the  houses  being  all  of  free-stone, 
 and  some  of  them  ornamented  with  pillars  and  pilasters. 
 
 There  are  several  public  edifices  in  Edinburgh,  which  would 
 do  honor  to  any  capital ;  among  such  may  be  named  the  castle, 
 the  palace,  the  principal  church,  Heriot's  hospital,  register  office, 
 the  new  college,  and  several  buildings  in  the  new  city.f  There 
 is  an  elegant  bridge,  reaching  from  the  hill  on  which  the  ancient 
 city  stands,  to  the  elevated  side  of  the  new  town.  Another  bridge 
 passes  in  a  line  with  the  former,  towards  the  south,  over  a  street 
 called  the  cow-gate  :  and  an  artificial  mound  extends  from  the 
 western  part  of  the  ridge  to  the  opposite  hill.  The  environs  of 
 Edinburgh  are  singularly  pleasing  and  picturesque.  On  the  north 
 is  an  elevated  path,  leading  to  the  harbor  of  Leith  :  on  the  east  are 
 Musselburgh  and  Dalkeith,  rural  villages,  watered  by  a  beautiful 
 stream.  On  the  south,  Pentland  hills  ;  and  towards  the  west,  the 
 rivulet  Leith,  and  banks  of  romantic  variety. 
 
 The  second  city  in  Scotland  is  Glasgow,  of  ancient  note  in  ec- 
 clesiastical story,  but  of  small  account  in  the  annals  of  commerce, 
 till  the  time  of  Cromwell's  usurpation.:):  The  population  of  Glas- 
 gow, in  1755,  was  computed  at  23,546,  including  the  suburbs  ;  the 
 number  in  1791,  was  estimated  at  61,945  ;  and  the  amount  of  the 
 enumeration  in  1801,  was  77,385.  Tne  ancient  city  was  rather 
 venerable  than  beautiful,  but  recent  impi-ovements  have  rendered 
 it  one  of  the  neatest  cities  in  Scotland.  Its  western  situation 
 exposes  it  to  frequent  rains,  a  disadvantage  recompensed  by  its 
 favorable  position  for  commerce  with  America  and  the  West  In- 
 dies. Its  commerce  has  arisen  to  great  extent  since  the  year 
 1718,  wiieu  the  first  ship  that  belonged  to  Glasgow  crossed  the 
 Atlaniic.^  The  number  of  ships  belonging  to  the  Clyde,  in  1790^ 
 was  476,  the  tonnage  46,581  ;  but  beiure  the  American  war,  it  w^s 
 
 *  Ai  9  VMCt  of  the  answers  and  roturns,  8cc.  P.  II.  t  Deiiholme's  Glasgow, 
 
 t  Arnoi's  Kdinburgh.  Kiiicaitl's  do.  §  Statist.  Ace.  v,  498 
 
104  SCOTLAND. 
 
 supposed  to  have  amounted  to  60,000  tons.  Though  the  manu- 
 factures scarcely  exceed  half  a  century  m  antiquity,  they  are  now 
 numerous  and  important.*  That  of  cotton  in  1791,  was  computed 
 to  employ  15,000  looms;  and  the  goods  produced,  were  supposed 
 to  amount  to  the  yearly  value  of  1,500,000/.  the  manufacturers  of 
 linens,  woollens.  Sec.  are  far  from  being  of  similar  consequence. 
 The  ancient  cathedral  of  Glasgow  survived  the  reformation,  when 
 the  other  Scottish  edifices  of  that  denomination  sunk  into  ruins. 
 Two  convenient  bridges  are  thrown  over  the  Clyde.  The  envi- 
 rons of  Glasgow  present  little  remarkable. 
 
 Next  in  eminence  aix;  the  cities  of  Perth  and  Aberdeen,  and  the 
 town  of  Dundee.  Perth  is  an  ancient  town,  supposed  to  have  been 
 the  Victoria  of  the  Romans.  It  is  pleasantly  situated  on  the  west- 
 ern bank  of  the  river  Tay ;  and  has  been  known  in  commerce 
 since  the  thirteenth  century,  but  at  present  the  trade  is  chiefly  of 
 the  coasting  kind,  Dundee  possessing  a  more  advantageous  situa- 
 tion for  foreign  intercourse.  Linen  forms  the  staple  manufacture, 
 to  the  annual  amount  of  about  160,000/.  There  are  also  manufac- 
 turers of  leather  and  paper.  Perth  displays  few  public  edifices 
 worth  notice.  Inhabitants,  about  23,000.  There  is  a  noble  bridge, 
 of  recent  date,  over  the  Tay,  and  the  environs  are  interesting, 
 particularly  the  hill  of  Kinnoul,  which  presents  singular  scenes, 
 and  many  curious  mineral  productions. 
 
 About  18  miles  nearer  the  mouth  of  the  Tay,  stands  Dundee,  in 
 the  county  of  Angus,  a  neat  modern  town.  The  firth  of  Tay  is  here 
 between  two  and  three  miles  broad  ;  and  there  is  a  good  road  for 
 shipping  to  the  east  of  the  town,  as  far  as  Broughty-castle.  On 
 the  1st  of  September  1651,  Dundee  was  taken  by  storm  by  gener- 
 al Monk  ;  and  Lumisdcn,  the  governor,  perished  amidst  a  torrent 
 of  bloodshed.  The  population  is,  however,  now  equal  to  26,084  ; 
 the  public  edifices  are  neat  and  commodious.  In  1792,  the  ves- 
 sels belonging  to  the  port,  amounted  to  116,  tonnage  8,550.  The 
 staple  manufacture  is  linen,  to  the  annual  value  of  about  80,000/. 
 canvass,  &c.  about  40,000/.  Colored  thread  also  forms  a  consider- 
 able article,  computed  at  33,000/.  and  tanned  leather  at  14,000/.t 
 
 Aberdeen  first  rises  to  notice  in  the  eleventh  century,  and  con- 
 tinued to  be  chiefly  memorable  in  ecclesiastical  story.  In  the 
 fourteenth  century  it  was  destroyed  by  Edward  III.  of  England. 
 The  population  in  1795  was  computed  at  24,493,  and  in  1801  it 
 amounted  to  27,500.  Though  the  harbor  be  not  remarkably  com- 
 modious, it  can  boast  a  considerable  trade,  the  chief  exports  being 
 salmon  and  woollen  goods.  In  1795,  the  British  ships  entered  at 
 the  port,  were  61,  the  foreign  five;  and  the  British  ships  cleared 
 outwards,  amounted  to  28.  The  chief  manufactures  are  woollen 
 goods,  particularly  stockings,  the  annual  export  of  which  is  com- 
 puted at  123,000/.  The  coarse  linen  manufacture  is  not  of  much 
 account,  but  the  thread  is  of  esteemed  quality. 
 
 The  other  chief  towns  of  Scotland  shall  only  be  briefly  mention- 
 ed, begimiing  with  the  south  east  part  of  the  kingdom.     Berwick 
 
 *  Stntist.  Ace.  V.  ."505.  f  Tbiil.  Xer.  riii.p.  284.  S«c 
 
SCOTLAND.  i05 
 
 is  a  fortified  town  of  some  note,  and  carries  on  a  considerable 
 trade  in  salmon.  The  vessels  built  at  this  port  are  constructed 
 on  excellent  principles. 
 
 Jedburgh,  on  the  river  Jed,  which  descends  from  the  Cheviot 
 hills,  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  the  beautiful  ruins  of  an  abbey, 
 founded  by  David  I.     Present  number  of  inhabitants  3,834. 
 
 Dumfries  stands  on  a  rising  ground,  on  the  eastern  banks  of 
 the  Nith,  and  contains  7,288  inhabitants. 
 
 Ayr,  in  the  S.  W.  of  Scotland,  is  situated  on  a  sandy  plain,  on  a 
 river  of  the  same  name  ;  the  chief  trade  is  in  grain  and  coals  ;  and 
 a  few  vessels  are  built.  Inhabitants  5,492.  Kilmarnock  has  a 
 population  of  8,079.    Irwine  has  4584. 
 
 Lanark  stands  in  a  most  picturesque  country,  near  the  cele- 
 brated falls  of  the  Clyde.  It  was  only  noted  for  its  academy,  un- 
 der the  management  of  Mr.  Thompson,  brother-in-lav/  of  Thom- 
 son the  poet,  till  the  recent  cotton  manufacture,  and  other  erec- 
 tions by  the  patriotic  Mr.  Dale,  rendered  this  town  still  more 
 worthy  of  attention.  Inhabitants  4,692.  Hamilton  in  the  same  shire 
 contains  5,908  souls. 
 
 Greenock  and  Port-Glasgow,  are  considerable  towns,  which 
 have  arisen  to  celebrity,  by  sharing  in  the  trade  of  Glasgow. 
 Greenock  contains  17,458  inhabitants  ;  Port-Glasgow  about  3,865. 
 Paisley,  in  the  .••  ame  county,  is  celebrated  by  its  manufacture  of 
 muslin,  lawns,  and  gauzes,  to  the  annual  amount  it  is  said,  of 
 660,000/.  Tlxe  population  amounts  to  31,179.  Dumbarton,  on 
 the  opposite  shore  of  the  Clyde,  contains  about  2,541  souls,  and  is 
 also  subservient  in  the  manufactures  of  Glasgow. 
 
 Sterling  is  rather  remarkable  for  its  commanding  and  truly  roy- 
 al situation,  than  for  its  industry.  The  inhabitants  amount  to 
 5,256.  Between  Sterling  and  Edinburgh  stands  Boness,  former- 
 ly called  Borrowstowness,  in  the  midst  of  collieries  and  salt- 
 works: the  harbor  is  good  and  there  are  2,790  inhabitants.  Fal- 
 kirk in  the  same  shire  contains  8,838  souls  ;  and  St.  Neman's 
 6,849. 
 
 The  county  of  Fife  contains  many  towns,  some  of  which  were 
 in  a  more  flourishing  situation,  when  Scotland  carried  on  a  con- 
 siderable intercourse  with  France.  Dunfermline  is  a  pleasant 
 town,  containing  9,980  inhabitants,  and  carries  on  a  considerable 
 manufacture  of  diapers.  There  are  ruins  of  a  palace,  the  royal 
 residence  in  the  time  of  Malcolm  III.  St.  Andrews  has  4,203  ; 
 it  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  its  ruined  cathedral.  Dysart  contains 
 5,385. 
 
 Forfar,  in  Angus,  contains  5,165  souls,  and  tlie  linen  manufac- 
 tures deserve  mention. 
 
 Dunkeld  is  of  venerable  and  picturesque  fame,  but  its  linen 
 manufactures  are  inconsiderable.  Brechin  contains  5,466  peo- 
 ple :  its  products  are  linen,  cotton,  and  tanned  leather.  Mont- 
 rose has  a  population  of  7974,  and  a  few  manufactures;  the  build- 
 ings arc  mostly  modern  and  neat. 
 
 The  county  of  Mearns  presents  no  town  worth  mention,  Peter- 
 head, in  Aberdeenslure,  contains  about  2Q00  souls.     It  has  a  raiji- 
 
 VOL.    II.  14 
 
106  SCOTLAND. 
 
 eral  spring-,  and  carries  on  some  trade  with  the  Baltic.  Frazer^ 
 burgh,  near  the  promontory  of  Kinnaird  Head,  has  also  a  good  har- 
 bor.    Inhabitants  2,215. 
 
 Portsoy  is  a  sea-port  town,  peopled  with  about  2000  souls.  In 
 the  neighborhood,  are  the  I'ocks  well  known  to  mineralogists,  con- 
 taining elegant  granites  of  different  kinds,  serpentines  and  steat- 
 ites, with  their  usual  concomitants,  asbestos  and  amianthus. 
 
 Elgin,  the  capital  of  the  county  of  Moray,  boasts  of  the  remains 
 of  an  elegant  cathedral,  and  contains  4,345  inhabitants. 
 
 Inverness  is  an  ancient  and  flourishing  town,  the  capital  of  the 
 northern  Highlands.  The  population  equals  8,732.  The  chief 
 manufactures  are  ropes  and  candles.  An  academy  has  lately  been 
 founded  here  on  an  excellent  plan. 
 
 The  few  towns  further  to  the  north  are  of  little  account.  Port 
 Rose  has  only  800  souls  ;  but  Cromarty  has  2,208,  a  small  manu- 
 facture of  coarse  cloth,  and  some  coasting  trade  in  corn,  thread, 
 yarn,  nails,  fish  and  skins.  Dingwall  contains  1,418  souls,  and  a 
 small  linen  manufacture.  Tain  has  2,277  inhabitants.  Dornoch  was 
 once  the  residence  of  the  bishops  of  Caithness :  population  2372. 
 
 After  a  dreary  interval  Wick  occurs,  the  last  town  on  the  east- 
 ern coast;  the  inhabitants,  3,986,  chiefly  deal  in  cod  and  herrings,. 
 
 Thurso,  on  the  northern  shore,  fronting  the  Orkneys,  has  manu- 
 factux'cs  of  woollen  and  linen.     Population  3,628. 
 
 Hence  there  is  a  lamentable  void  along  the  western  half  of 
 Scotland,  till  we  arrive  at  Inverary,  in  Argyleshire,  the  founda- 
 tion of  the  noble  house  of  Argyle,  after  passing  a  space  of  about 
 160  miles,  Avhcre  only  a  few  scattered  hamlets  can  be  fovmd.  In- 
 verary is  a  neat  and  pleasant  town,  of  about  1000  souls  ;  there  are 
 manufactures  of  linen  and  woollen,  and  a  considerable  iron  work. 
 The  ore  is  brought  from  the  west  of  England,  and  is  snKslted  with 
 charcoal  from  the  woods  of  Argyleshire. 
 
 In  the  same  county  is  Campbeltown,  a  royal  borough,  in  the 
 southern  part  of  the  peninsula  ot  Cantire.  The  trade  is  consider- 
 able, as  it  is  the  general  resort  of  the  fishing  vessels ;  and  the  in- 
 habitants amount  to  7,093.  The  harbor  is  excellent,  in  the  form 
 of  a  crescent,  opening  to  the  east,  in  front  of  the  island  of  Arran. 
 About  fifty  weavers  are  employed  in  the  cotton  manufacture.* 
 
 Inland  J\''uvigation.~\  The  most  remarkable  inland  navigation 
 in  Scotland,  is  the  excellent  and  extensive  canal  from  the  Forth 
 to  the  Clyde,  commenced  in  1768,  from  a  survey  by  Smeaton  four 
 years  before. 
 
 *'  The  dimen,sions  of  this  canal,  though  greatly  contracted  from 
 tlie  oi'iginal  design,  are  much  superior  to  any  work  of  the  same 
 nature  in  south  Britainf.  The  English  canals  are  generally  from 
 three  to  five  feet  deep,  and  from  twenty  to  forty  feet  wide,  and  the 
 lock  gates  from  ten  to  twelve  feet ;  but  they  answer  the  purpose 
 of  i\iland  carriage  from  one  town  to  another,  for  which  alone  they 
 were  designed.  The  depth  of  the  canal  between  the  Forth  and 
 Clyde    is  seven   feet;  its   breadth  at  the   surface  fifty  six  feet; 
 
 *  Statist.  Accovuit,  X.  552.  f  Phillips,  276. 
 
SCOTLAND.  lor 
 
 the  locks  are  seventy  fi'.e  feet  long-,  and  their  gates  twenty  feet 
 wide.  It  is  raised  from  the  Carron  by  twenty  locks,  in  a  tract 
 often  miles,  to  the  amazing  height  of  155  feet  above  the  medium 
 full  sea  mark.  At  the  twentieth  lock  begins  the  canal  of  partition 
 on  the  summit,  between  the  east  and  west  se^as  ;  which  canal  of 
 partition  continues  eighteen  miles,  on  a  level,  terminating  at 
 Hamilton-hill,  a  mile  N.  W.  of  the  Clyde,  at  Glasgow.  In  some 
 places  the  canal  is  carried  through  mossy  gi'ound,  and  in  others 
 through  solid  rock.  In  the  fourth  mile  of  the  canal  there  are  ten 
 locks,  and  a  fine  aqueduct  bridge,  which  crosses  the  great  road 
 leading  from  Edinburgh  to  Glasgow.  At  Kirkintullock,  the  canal  is 
 carriecl  over  the  water  of  Logic,  on  an  aqueduct  bridge,  the  arch 
 of  which  is  ninety  feet  broad.  There  are  in  the  whole  eighteen 
 draw  bridges,  and  fifteen  aqueduct  bridges,  of  considerable  size, 
 besides  small  ones  and  tunnels." 
 
 The  supplying  the  canal  with  water,  Avas  of  itself  a  very  great 
 work.  One  reservoir  is  above  twenty  four  feet  deep,  and  covers  a 
 surface  of  fifty  acres,  near  Kilsyth.  Another,  about  seven  mileS 
 north  of  Glasgow,  consists  of  seventy  acres,  and  is  banked  up  at 
 the  sluice,  twenty-two  feet. 
 
 The  distance  between  the  Firths  of  Clyde,  and  Forth,  by  the 
 nearest  passage,  that  of  the  Pentland  Firth,  is  600  miles,  by  this 
 canal  scarcely  100.  On  the  28th  of  July  1''90,  tlie  canal  was  com- 
 pletely open  from  sea  to  sea,  when  a  hogshead  of  the  water  of 
 Forth  was  poured  into  the  Clyde,  as  a  symbol  of  their  junction. 
 The  length  of  the  canal  is  precisely  thirty-five  miles,  and  no  work 
 of  the  kind  can  be  more  ably  finished. 
 
 Manufactures  and  Co?n7nerce.^  The  general  commerce  of  Scot- 
 land, though  on  a  smaller  scale,  and  with  smaller  capitals,  is  in 
 most  respects  similar  to  that  of  England,  and  shares  in  the  nation- 
 al prosperity.  That  of  the  capital,  thi'ough  Leith  its  port,  has 
 been  estimated,  as  we  have  seen,  at  half  a  million  yearly.  The 
 chief  exports  are  linen,  grain,  iron,  glass,  lead,  woollen  stuffs, 
 soap,  &c.  Ecc.  The  imports  are  wines,  brandy;  and  from  the 
 West  Indies  and  America,  rum,  sugar,  rice,  indigo.  Glasgow  ex- 
 ports cottons  of  all  kinds,  muslins,  l-awns,  gauzes,  8cc.  glass,  stock- 
 ings, earthen  ware,  cordage.  Sec.  candles,  soap,  iron,  leather.  Sec. 
 Sec.  The  chief  imports  are  tobacco,  sugar,  rum,  and  cotton,  from 
 the  West  Indies  ;  Irish  beef,  butter,  and  linen ;  wines  from  Por- 
 tugal, and  other  counti'ies. 
 
 The  herring  and  salmon  fisheries  on  the  coast,  the  whale  fish- 
 ery in  Greenland  and  Davis'  Straits,  and  the  cod  fishery  on  the 
 banks  of  Newfoundland  are  productive  of  great  wealth  to  Scot- 
 land, and  have  met  with  the  direct  patronage  of  the  government. 
 The  exports  of  Scotland  in  1800  amounted  to  £  2,346,069  ;  in  1805 
 to  £  2,504,867  ;  and  in  1809  to  £  4,383,100.  In  1805  the  trade  em.- 
 ployed  2,581  vessels,  amounting  to  210,295  tons,  and  15,160  sea- 
 men. 
 
 The  annual  amount  of  the  linc?i  maiinfactures  is  said  to  be 
 )C  750,000.  They  have  been  much  injured  of  late  by  the  rivalry 
 of  Ireland.    Of  woollens.  /Scotc/t   carpets^  cheap,  neat  and  dura- 
 
108  SCOTLAND. 
 
 ble  ;  cafis,  and  stockings  form  the  chief  branch.  The  thread  manu- 
 facture of  Scotland  is  uncommonly  excellent.  The  quantity  of 
 ardent  spirits  distilled  in 
 
 1708"^  50,844"! 
 
 1760  !  .  145,460  !  ,, 
 
 1784  f-  ^""'  268,503  j^   S^"°^^- 
 
 1 791 J  1,69  6,000  J 
 
 The  iron  manufactures,  particularly  that  at  Caron.  deserve  also 
 to  be  enumerated  among  the  chief  national  advantages.  In  1763, 
 there  were  396  four-wheeled  carriages,  and  462  two-wheeled,  en- 
 titled to  pay  duty.  In  1790,  there  were  1427  of  the  first  kind,  and 
 643  of  the  last. 
 
 CHAPTER  II. 
 NATUEAL,  GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 CLIMATE  AND  SEASONS,  FACE  OF  THE  COtTNTRV,  SOIL  AND  AO- 
 RICULTURE,  RIVERS,  LAKES,  MOUNTAINS,  FORESTS,  BOTANY, 
 ZOOLOGY,  MINERALOGY,  MINERAL  WATERS,  NATURAL  CURI- 
 OSITIES. 
 
 Climate  arid  Seasons.']  THE  climate  of  Scotland  is  such 
 as  might  be  expected  in  a  latitude  so  remote,  and  a  country 
 so  mountainous.  In  the  eastern  parts,  there  is  not  so  much 
 humidity  as  in  England,  as  the  mountains  on  the  west  arrest 
 the  vapors  from  the  Atlantic.  On  the  other  hand,  the  western 
 countries  are  deluged  with  rain,  an  insuperable  obstacle  to  the 
 progress  of  agriculture.  Even  the  winter  is  more  distinguish- 
 able by  the  abundance  of  snow,  than  by  the  intensity  of  the 
 frost ;  but  in  summer  the  heat  of  the  sun  is  reflected  with  great 
 power  in  the  narrow  vales  between  the  mountains.  These  obser- 
 vations chiefly  apply  to  the  north  and  west.  In  the  east  and  south, 
 the  climate  differs  but  little  from  that  of  Yorkshire  ;  and  corn 
 sometimes  ripens  in  the  vales  of  Moray,  as  early  as  in  Lothian. 
 
 Face  oj  the  Country.]  The  face  of  the  country,  is  in  general 
 mountainous,  to  the  extent,  perhaps,  of  two  thirds  ;  whence  the 
 population  is  of  necessity  slender,  in  comparison  with  the  admeas- 
 urement. But  the  name  of  Highlands  is  more  strictly  confined  to 
 Argyleshire,  the  west  of  Perthshire,  and  of  Inverness ;  and  the 
 entire  counties  of  Ross,  Sutherland,  and  Caithness.  In  proceed- 
 ing from  the  south  east,  the  entrance  into  the  Highlands  near 
 Diuikeld,  is  very  impressive,  there  being  a  considerable  tract  of 
 plain,  just  before  what  may  be  termed  the  gates  of  the  mountains. 
 Even  the  eastern  parts  have  little  of  uniform  flatness,  but  are 
 sweetly  diversified  Avith  hill  and  dale.  The  rivers  in  general  are 
 remarkably  pure  and  transparent,  and  their  course  rapid.  The  rich 
 roughness  of  an  English  prospect,  diversified  with  an  abundance 
 of  wood,  even  in  the  hedge  vows,  is  in  Scotland  rarely  visible ; 
 
SCOTLAND.  109 
 
 whence  the  nudity  of  the  country  makes  a  strong  impression  ou 
 the  stranger.  But  the  laudable  exertions  of  many  of  the  nobility 
 and  gentry,  who  plant  trees  by  millions,  will  soon  remove  this  re- 
 proach. 
 
 &oil  and  JgricuKure.']  For  a  minute  account  of  the  various  soils 
 that  prevail  in  Scotland,  and  the  different  modes  of  agriculture, 
 the  reader  must  be  referred  to  the  Statistical  Accounts,  published 
 by  Sir  John  Sinclair.  The  excellence  of  the  English  agriculture, 
 has  iustlv  entitled  it  to,  an  imitation  almost  universal.  But  this 
 advantag'e  is  of  recent  date  ;  and,  for  a  long  period  of  time,  Scot- 
 land was  remarkable  for  producing  the  best  gardeners  and  the 
 worst  farmers  in  Europe. 
 
 Riveis.']  The  three  chief  rivers  of  Scotland,  are  the  Foi'th,  the 
 Clyde,  and  the  Tay.  The  chief  source  of  the  Forth  is  fi'om  Ben 
 Lomond,  or  rather  from  the  two  lakes.  Con  and  Ard  :  the  stream 
 of  Goudie  soon  joins  it  from  the  lake  of  Menteith  ;  and  the  river 
 Teith,  fed  by  the  lakes  Ketterin,  Lubnaig  and  others,  sv/ells  the 
 Forth  to  a  noble  stream,  about  four  miles  above  Stirling. 
 
 The  Clyde  is  said  to  issue  from  a  hill  in  the  S.  E.  corner  of 
 Tweeddale,  called  Arrik  Stane,  which  is  undoubtedly  the  chief 
 source  of  the  Tweed,  and  one  source  of  the  Annan  :  but  the  Clyde 
 has  a  more  remote  source  in  Kirshop,  or  Dair  Avater,  rising  about 
 six  miles  further  to  the  south,  in  the  very  extremity  of  Lanark- 
 shire ;  and  the  true  source  of  the  Annan  seems  to  be  Loch  Skeen, 
 in  the  county  of  Selkirk.  However  this  be,  the  Clyde  passes 
 through  Crauford  Moor,  leaving  the  range  of  Leadhills  on  the 
 left,  and  winding  under  the  lofty  hill  of  Tinto,  near  Symington, 
 pursues  a  northerly  course,  till  about  two  miles  to  the  south  of 
 Cai'nwaith,  when  it  resumes  its  chief  westerly  direction. 
 
 The  principal  source  of  the  Tay,  is  the  lake  of  the  same  name, 
 or  the  river  may  be  traced  to  the  more  westerly  sources  of  the 
 Attrick  and  the  Dochart,  and  the  smaller  stream  of  Lochy  ; 
 which  fall  into  the  western  extremity  of  Loch  Tay.  Soon  after 
 this  noble  river  issues  from  the  lake,  it  is  joined  by  the  river  Ly- 
 on ;  and,  at  no  great  interval,  by  the  united  streams  of  the  Tarf, 
 the  Garry,  and  the  Tumcl,  the  last,  a  rapid  and  romantic  river. 
 The  streams  of  Ericht  and  Hay,  swell  the  Tav,  about  nine  miles 
 to  the  north  of  Perth ;  after  passing  which  city,  it  receives  the 
 venex'able  stream  of  the  Ern,  and  spreads  into  a  wide  estuary. 
 
 Next  in  consequence  and  in  fame-,  is  the  Tweed,  a  beautiful 
 and  pastoral  stream,  which,  receiving  the  Teviot  from  the  south, 
 near  Kelso,  falls  into  the  sea  at  Berwick. 
 
 The  Scottish  Tyne  is  an  inconsiderable  river,  which  runs  bv 
 Haddington. 
 
 In  the  south  west,  the  Annan  contributes  largely  to  the  Firth  of 
 Solway,  but  no  tovvn  worth  mentioning  adorns  its  banks.  Dum- 
 fries stands  upon  the  Nith,  a  river  of  longer  course  than  the  An- 
 nan, and  marked  at  its  estuary  by  the  ruins  of  Caerlavroc  castle, 
 an  important  fortress  in  ancient  times.  The  river  Orb,  and  that 
 recently  styled  Kirkudbright,  anciently  and  properly  called  the 
 Ken,  (whence  is  derived  the  title  of  Kenmurc,)  and  the  Flee!;,  are 
 
1 10  SCOTLAND. 
 
 surpassed  by  the  river  Cree  or  Crief ;  which  formerly  split  Gal- 
 loway into  two  divisions,  and  which  opens  into  the  noted  bay  of 
 Wigton. 
 
 The  rivers  of  Ayrshire,  flowing  into  the  grand  c-stuary  of  the 
 Clyde,  are  of  inconsiderable  size. 
 
 To  the  north  of  the  estuary  of  Forth,  occurs  the  Eden,  which, 
 after  watering  the  royal  park  of  Falkland  and  Coupar,  the  county 
 town,  meets  the  ocean,  about  two  miles  to  the  north  of  St.  An- 
 drews. 
 
 To  the  north  of  Tay  are  the  South  Esk,  which  passes  by  Bre- 
 chin and  Moutrose ;  and  the  North  Eske,  a  less  considerable 
 stream. 
 
 In  the  county  of  Kincardine  there  is  no  river  of  consequence. 
 But  the  Dee  is  a  considerable  and  placid  stream,  issuing  from  the 
 mountains  Scairsoch,  and  pursuing  a  due  easterly  course  to  Ab- 
 erdeen. The  Don  runs  almost  parallel,  a  few  miles  to  the  north, 
 joining  the  sea  about  two  miles  from  Aberdeen,  after  passing  Old 
 Aberdeen,  or  rather,  in  the  old  orthography,  Aberdon. 
 
 A  few  miles  to  the  north  of  the  Don,  the  river  Ythan  falls  into 
 the  German  ocean,  a  stream  formerly  celebr:..tcd  for  its  pearl  fish- 
 erics,  of  which  some  relics  remain.  The  Uggie  is  the  last  stream 
 of  any  consequence  in  Aberdeenshire. 
 
 The  folloAving  rivers  direct  their  course  to  the  north.  The 
 Devon  joins  the  sea  at  Banff.  The  Spey  is  a  grand  impetuous 
 river,  rising  from  a  small  lake,  called  Loch  Spey,  in  the  vicinity 
 of  the  high  mountain  of  Corriarok,  near  Fort  Augustus,  whence  it 
 rolls  to  the  south  east,  amid  mountainous  wilds,  till  it  suddenly 
 turns  to  its  fixed  direction,  the  north  east,  being,  perhaps,  upon 
 the  whole,  the  most  considerable  Alpine  river  in  Scotland. 
 
 The  water  of  Lossie  is  only  remarkable,  as  it  washes  the  ven- 
 erable remains  of  Elgin ;  but  Findorn,  which  runs  by  the  Forres 
 of  Macbeth  and  Shakespeare,  is  a  considerable  torrent. 
 
 The  Ness,  issuing  from  the  lake  so  called,  and  the  Beuly,  con- 
 spire to  form  the  large  estuary,  called  Murray  Firth  ;  while  that  of 
 Cromarty  is  formed  by  the  Grady,  the  Conon,  and  other  streams. 
 
 The  estuary  of  Dornoch  is  formed  by  a  river  which  issues  from 
 Loch  Shin,  by  the  Caran,  and  by  the  intermediate  stream,  called 
 Okel. 
 
 The  other  streams  in  the  furthest  north  of  Scotland,  are  un- 
 happily of  small  consequence.  The  water  of  Thurso,  and  that  of 
 Naver,  are  the  chief.  In  the  north-west  extremity  are  the  Strath- 
 more,  the  Strathbeg,  and  the  Durness,  which  enters  the  sea  to  the 
 east  of  the  stupendous  promontory  of  Cape  Wharf,  now  moderniz- 
 ed Wrath. 
 
 On  the  west  of  Scotland  there  is  no  river  of  any  moment ;  but 
 the  defect  is  compensated  by  numerous  lakes,  or  rather  creeks,  of 
 which  the  most  considerable  are  Laxford,  Calva,  Ennard,  and  that 
 of  Broome,  which  forms  a  noble  bay,  studded  with  islands,  nearly 
 parallel  v.ath  the  bay  of  Dornoch.  On  its  shore  is  the  projected 
 settlement  of  Ullapool,  to  which  every  patriot  must  wish  success. 
 Next  are  the  En  and  the  Gare,  the  Torridon,  the  Kessern,  and  oth- 
 
SCOTLAND.  HI 
 
 -crs  of  smaller  note.  Argyleshire  exhibits  the  Sunart,  a  long  in- 
 let, which  terminates  at  Strontian  ;  and  the  Linney,  extending  to 
 Fort  William.  The  Et*f  is  impeded  by  a  singular  cataract,  at  its 
 entrance  into  the  sea.  The  small  inlet  of  Crinan  attracts  obser- 
 vation, by  the  promised  canal ;  and  the  list  is  closed  by  Loch  Fyne, 
 and  Loch  Long,  forming  vast  inlets  from  the  estuary  of  Clyde. 
 
 Lakes.~\  Among  the  lakes  of  Scotland,  the  chief  in  extcjit  and 
 beauty  is  that  of  Lomond,  studded  with  romantic  islands,  and 
 adorned  with  shores  of  the  greatest  diversity.  The  isles  are  sup- 
 posed to  form  part  of  the  Grampian  chain,  which  here  terminates 
 on  the  west.  The  depth  of  this  lake  in  the  south,  is  not  abov-e 
 twenty  fathoms  ;  but  the  northern  creek,  near  the  bottom  of  Ben 
 Lomond,  is  from  sixty  to  eighty  fathoms.  This  lake  is  thirty  miles 
 .long,  and  in  some  places  eight  or  nine  broad.  Its  surface  contains 
 upwards  of  20,000  acres  of  water.  It  has  about  thirty  islands  scat- 
 tered over  it,  eleven  of  considerable  size.  These  and  the  country 
 bordering  on  the  lake  are  distinguished  for  their  beauty  and  fer- 
 tility. The  Eadrick  falls  into  it  on  the  south  east,  and  its  waters 
 are  discharged  through  the  Leven  into  the  Firth  of  Clyde.  It 
 abounds  with  delicious  salmon  and  trout. 
 
 The  coimtry  from  Moray-Firth  to  the  sound  of  Mull  is  a  contin- 
 ued valley  numing  in  a  direction  from  N.  E.  to  S.  W.  It  is  cal- 
 led Glen-more -na-h'' al-abin^  or  the  Great  glen  of  Caledonia^  and  is 
 almost  filled  with  extensive  lakes.  A  chain  of  lakes  and  rivers 
 passing  through  it  almost  insulate  the  northern  division  of  Scot- 
 land. This  chain  consists  of  Loch  Linne,  Lochy  river,  Loch 
 Lochy,  Land,  Loch  Oich,  Oich  river,  Loch  Ness,  and  Ness  river. 
 This  distance  is  divided  as  follows : 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Loch  Linne 
 
 40    . 
 
 Loch  Oich 
 
 4 
 
 River  Lochy 
 
 17 
 
 River  Oich 
 
 5 
 
 Loch  Lochy 
 
 10 
 
 Loch  Ness 
 
 22 
 
 Land 
 
 2 
 
 River  Ness 
 
 8 
 
 98 
 
 Loch  Linne  is  a  deep  narrow  arm  of  the  sea.  At  Fort  William 
 it  turns  to  the  N.  W.  and  is  called  Locheil.  The  whole  length  of 
 Loch  Lochy  in  its  wim  lings  is  fourteen  miles,  and  its  breadth 
 from  one  to  two.  Loch  Ness  is  22  miles  long,  from  1  to  2  i  broad, 
 and  from  60  to  135  fathoms  deep,  fts  shores  are  remarkably 
 bold,  and  a  snip  of  the  line  might  sail  in  any  part  of  it.  Its  waters 
 abound  with  fine  trout,  and  are  never  frozen.  The  high  hills, 
 which  environ  it,  present  a  delightful  view  of  woods,  pasture,  cul- 
 tivated lauub,  cascades,  and  rugged  and  broken  precipices. 
 
 Loch  Awe  in  Argyleshire  is  tnirty  miles  long  and  from  one  to 
 two  broad.  Itcontaiiis  many  isianas,  on  one  of  which  are  the  ruins 
 of  an  ancient  castle.  At  the  N.  E.  extremity  rises  Ben  Cruachar 
 to  the  ueignt  of  3,390  feet  above  its  surface,  from  the  top  of  which 
 descends  the  riyer  that  forms  the  lake.     The  scenery  of  this  lake 
 
iJ2  SCOTLAND. 
 
 and  its  shores  is  remarkably  picturesque.  Its  waters  abound  with 
 Salmon,  trout,  and  eels  ;  and  fall  into  Loch  Etive  an  arm  of  the 
 gea  at  Bunaw,  a  place  celcl)ratcd  for  its  sahnon  fishery. 
 
 Loch  Shin,  in  the  county  of  Suthciiand,  is  20  milss  long,  and 
 from  one  to  two  broad.  Its  waters  flow  through  the  river  Shin  six 
 or  cio-ht  miles,  over  several  cascades  to  the  head  of  the  Firth  of 
 Doriioch. 
 
 Loch  Ericht  in  Perthsliire,  in  the  very  heart  of  the  Grampians, 
 is  24  miles  long  and  scarcely  one  broad.  It  is  encompassed  on  all 
 sides  by  lofty  mountains  and  rugged  cliffs  of  the  most  tremendous 
 aspect.  Cultivation  is  a  stranger  to  its  banks,  which  are  occupied 
 by  h,eath  and  a  few  straggling  birches  and  alders.  Its  outlet  joins 
 the  Tay. 
 
 Loch  Taij,  in  Braidalbin  in  Perthshire,  is  15  miles  long,  and 
 from  one  to  two  broad.  Its  depth  is  from  15  to  100  fathoms.  Its 
 banks  on  both  sides  are  fruitful  and  populous,  and  finely  diversi- 
 fied by  the  windings  of  the  coasts  and  the  various  appearances  of 
 the  mountains.  Its  waters  like  those  of  Lomond,  Ness,  and  oth- 
 ers, cU-e  liable  to  violent  and  unaccountable  agitations.  The  Loch- 
 ay  and  the  Dochart  flow  into  it  on  the  S.  W.  and  the  Tay  on  the 
 N.  E.  empties  its  waters  into  the  Firth  of  Tay. 
 
 ■  Loch  Archaig  in  Inverness-shii'e,  16  miles  long,  and  1  \  broad,  of 
 great  depth  and  abounding  with  trout,  empties  by  the  Archaig  in- 
 to Loch  Lochy,  which  is  only  one  mile  distant. 
 
 Loch  Laggan,  in  Invernesss-hire,  15  miles  long  and  1  Abroad, 
 13  exceedingly  deep  with  a  bold  rocky  shore  and  surrounded  with 
 woody  mountains.  On  the  S.  side  is  the  Coill-More^  or  Great 
 Woodf  the  largest  remnant  of  the  ancient  Caledonian  forest. 
 Its  waters  abound  with  char  and  various  kinds  of  trout.  They 
 empty  through  the   Spen,  into  Loch  Lochy  near   Fort  William. 
 
 Loch  Rannock  in  Perthshire,  twelve  miles  long  and  from  one  to 
 two  broad,  empties  at  its  east  end  through  the  Tumme!  into  the 
 'i'ay. 
 
 Loch  Shicl,  in  Inverness-shire,  ten  miles  long  and  two  broad 
 discharges  itself  by  the  Shiel  into  the  western  sea  at  Castle  Ti- 
 Oram. 
 
 Loch  Levcn.,  in  the  counties  of  Kinross  and  Fife,  is  twelve  miles 
 in  circumference.  It  contains  four  islands.  On  the  largest  of 
 these  8t.  Serfs  was  formerly  situated ;  the  ancient  priory  of  St. 
 Serf,  the  monks  of  which  were  Culdees.  On  another  are  the  re- 
 mains of  the  castle  of  Loch  Leutn,  formerly  a  royal  residence,  in 
 which  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  was  for  some  time  kept  close  prison- 
 er after  the  battle  of  Pinkie.  This  lake  abounds  with  pike,  perch, 
 eels,  char,  and  trout.  Its  waters  pass  through  the  Leven  a  course 
 of  twelve  or  fourteen  miles  into  the  Firth  of  Forth. 
 
 Moii7itamsr\  But  the  chief  distinctive  feature  of  Scotland  con- 
 sists in  its  numerous  mountains,  which  intersect  the  country  in 
 various  directions.  In  the  south-west,  the  ancient  province  of 
 Galloway  presents  an  extensive  assemblage  of  hills,  which  seldom 
 describe  any  uniform  chain.  From,  the  bay  of  Glenluce,  which 
 extends  towards  Loch  Rvan :  and  thence  in  a  N.  E.  direction  to 
 
SCOTLAND.  113 
 
 Loch  Doon,  the  source  of  the  river  of  the  same  name.  Other 
 i-idges  run  in  various  directions,  generally  north  and  south,  accord- 
 ing to  the  course  of  the  rivers,  till  we.  arrive  at  the  Nith,  near 
 which  is  Cruffel,  a  detached  summit  of  considerable  height.  Ac- 
 cording to  general  Roy,  than  whom  there  cannot  be  a  better  au- 
 thority, the  mountains  of  Galloway  form  a  connected  chain  with 
 those  of  Cheviot  on  the  N.  E. 
 
 But  the  chief  elevation  of  this  part  of  Scotland  is  that  metalli- 
 ferous ridge  in  its  very  centre,  called  the  Lead  Hills.  The  small 
 stream  of  El  van  conveys  particles  of  gold  to  the  Clyde,  and  Ger- 
 man miners  are  said  to  have  discovered  considerable  quantitiAof 
 that  precious  metal.  The  chief  summit  of  this  ridge  is  Har^ll,^ 
 which,  according  to  some  accounts,  is  3,300  feet  above  the  level  of 
 the  sea ;  but  by'others  2,582.  To  the  east  we  find  the  uniform^ 
 ridge  of  Lamermoor,  terminating  in  St.  Abb's  head.  The  hiils  of 
 Pentland,  on  the  south  of  Edinburgh,  are  rather  picturesque  than 
 important.  Berwick  Law,  and  the  romantic  summits  in  the  vi- 
 cinity of  Edinburgh,  close  the  list  of  the  southern  hills.  The 
 Lead  Hills  chiefly  consist  of  argillaceous  schistus  ;  but  the  grey 
 granite  abounds  in  the  mountains  of  Galloway.  In  all,  however, 
 the  chief  portion  seems  to  be  calcareous  ;  the  summits  are  round, 
 some  verdant,  others  covered  with  heath.  The  red  granite,  and 
 other  grand  Alpine  rocks,  seem  here  unknown.  In  the  Lothians 
 the  calcareous  strata  support  vast  masses  of  whin,  trap,  and  bas- 
 alt, which  extend  to  the  northern  shore  of  the  Firth  of  Forth. 
 
 On  passing  the  Forth  appears  the  I'ange  of  Ochill-hills,  more  re- 
 markable for  their  singular  agates  and  calcedonies,  than  for  their 
 height.  On  the  northeast  of  Aberdeenshire  is  Mormond,  a  remarka- 
 ble solitary  summit ;  whence  no  mountains  of  note  occur  till  Inver- 
 ness, on  the  west,  opens  the  path  to  the  Highlands.  Yet,  it  must 
 nqt  be  forgotten,  that  from  the  lofty  promontory  of  Trouphead  to 
 Poi'tsoy,  extend  vast  masses  of  beautiful  red  granite,  interpersed 
 with  schorl,  and  of  serpentine  with  steatites,  and  other  valuable 
 stones.  Before  leaving  the  Lowland  hills,  it  may  be  observed, 
 that  the  small  ridge  in  Fifeshire,  between  the  Eden  and  Leven, 
 called  LoniaU  hills,  consists  mostly  of  hai-d  free-stone,  with  super- 
 incumbent strata  of  whin  and  basalt. 
 
 The  Grampian  hills  may  be  considered  as  a  grand  frontier 
 chain,  extending  from  Loch  Lomond  to  Stonehaven,  and  forming- 
 the  southern  boundary  of  the  Highlands,  though  four  or  five  coun- 
 ties on  the  northeast  of  that  chain,  have,  in  their  eastern  and  nor- 
 thern parts,  the  name  and  advantage  of  Lowlands.  The  transition 
 to  the  Grampians  is  gradual,  the  first  chain,  according  to  General 
 Roy,  consisting  of  the  Sadley-hiils  on  the  east,  the  Ochills  in  the 
 middle,  and  Campsy-hills  on  the  west.  To  the  Grampian  chain 
 belongs  Ben  Lomond  (3,262  ;)  Ben  Ledy  (3,009  ;)  Ben  More 
 (3,903;)  Ben  Lawres,  the  chief  summit  (4,015  ;)  Shihallion 
 (3,564;)  Ben  Vorlich  (3,300  :)  and  other  less  important  elevations 
 on  the  east.  Mount  Battock,  in  Kincardinshire,  is  3,465  feet.  Ben 
 Cruachan,  in  Argyleshire,  is  a  solitary  mountain,  3,390  feet  above 
 the  sea. 
 
 VOL.    11.  15 
 
114  SCOTLAND. 
 
 Ben  Nevis  is  the  highest  mountain  in  Great  Britain,  being  esti- 
 mated at  4,350  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  not  much  above  a 
 qiiai'tcr  of  the  height  of  Mont  Blanc.  It  lies  in  the  parish  of 
 Kilmalie,  in  Inverness-shire.  It  has  not  hitherto  been  ex- 
 plored by  any  mineralogist.  On  the  N.  E.  side  it  presents  a  prec- 
 ipice, nearly  perpendicular,  and  of  prodigious  height,  by  some  ac- 
 counts 1 500  feet.  The  view  from  the  summit  is  grand,*  exhibit- 
 ing most  of  the  western  Highlands,  from  the  paps  of  Jura,  to  the 
 hills  of  Cullen,  in  Skey  ;  on  the  east  it  extends  to  Ben  Lawres,  in 
 Perthshire,  and  the  river  Ness :  extent  of  view  about  80  miles. 
 The  sugprior  half  of  the  mountain  is  almost  destitute  of  vegc- 
 tatioii. 
 
 It  would  be  difficult  to  divide  the  remaining  mountains  of  the 
 Highlands  into  distinct  lines  or  groups  ;  they  shall,  therefore, 
 be  briefly  mentioned  in  the  order  of  proximity.  To  the  N.  W^ 
 of  Ben  Nevis  is  the  long  mountain  of  Corriarok,  near  Fort  Au- 
 gustus, over  which  a  military  road  has  been  directed,  in  a  zig-zag 
 direction.  From  the  foot  of  this  mountain  arises  the  rapid  river 
 Spey ;  and  other  streams  run  to  the  west,  circumstances  which 
 indicate  great  elevation.  About  thirty  miles  to  the  east  rises  the 
 mountain  Cairngorm  (4,060  feet,)  or  the  blue  mountain,  clothed 
 with  almost  perpetual  snow,  and  remarkable  for  quartz  of  differ- 
 ent colors,  chiefly  the  smoaky  kind,  well  known  to  lapidaries. 
 The  other  chief  mountains  in  this  region  are  those  of  Braemar, 
 or  Scairsoch,  at  the  source  of  the  Dee  ;  Ben  Awn,  and  many  of 
 smaller  height,  such  as  Benibourd,t  Benachie,  Sec. 
 
 In  the  second  division  of  the  Highlands,  which  lies  beyond  Loch 
 Linny  and  Loch  Ness,  the  mountains  are  yet  more  numerous,  but 
 not  so  memorable.  The  western  shore,  in  particular,  is  crowded 
 with  hills,  from  the  island  of  Skey  to  Cape  Wrath,  while  a  branch, 
 spreading  eastward  towards  Ord-hcad  (1,250  feet)  forms,  what  are 
 termed  by  seamen,  the  Paps  of  Caithness  (1,929  feet.)  The  chief 
 mountains  on  the  west  of  Ross-shire,  are  Ben  Chasker,  on  the 
 south  of  Loch  Broom ;  and  Ben  Wevis  (3,720  feet.) 
 
 On  proceeding  to  the  most  northern  parts  of  Scotland,  the 
 counties  of  Sutherland  and  Caithness,  first  occurs  Ben  Ormoid  ; 
 then  extends  the  chain,  called  the  Paps,  consisting  of  the  moun- 
 tains Morben,  Scuraben,  Sec.  from  which  run  in  a  nortlierly  direc- 
 tion, according  to  the  course  of  the  rivers,  inferior  chains.  The 
 N.  W.  extremity  of  Scotland  presents  some  pleasant  vales  to- 
 ward the  sea,  and  inland  that  of  Dornadilla,  and  an  elevated  plain 
 on  the  west  of  Loch  Loial,  called  Diri7more  forest  ij  further  to 
 the  west  no  names  occur,  except  that  of  Cape  y-'rath,  and  the  re- 
 gion is  described  by  an  intelligent  traveller  in  the  i^llowing  terms  :§ 
 
 "  A  wide  extent  of  desert  country  lay  before  us,  and  exhibited 
 a  most  august  picture  of  forlorn  nature.  The  prospect  was  alto- 
 gether immense,  but  wild  and  desolate  beyond  conception.     The 
 
 *  Statist.  Ace.  viii.  414.  . 
 
 t  Always  coveted  with  snow,  and,  perhaps,  as  Mr.  Aikin  conceives,  higher  than 
 Cairngorm.    At  about  the  heiglit  of  4,000  feet,  snow  remains  all  Ihc  year  in  Scotland, 
 i  Cordiner's  Letter  to  Pennant,  p.  11 1.  <$  Ibid.  lOi. 
 
SCOTLAND.  115 
 
 mountains  presented  nothing  to  view  but  heath  and  rock  ;  between 
 them  formless  lakes  and  pools,  dark  with  the  shades  thrown  from 
 prodigious  precipices,  gave  grandeur  to  the  wildei-ness  in  its  most 
 gloomy  forms." 
 
 Having  thus  explained,  at  some  length,  the  directions  and  posi- 
 tions of  the  Scottish  mountains,  because  they  constitute  the  most 
 remarkable  feature  of  the  country,  and  yet  have  never  received 
 due  illustration,  their  constituent  parts  remain  to  be  briefly  exam- 
 ined.* On  entering  the  Highlands,  near  Dunkeld,  the  first  ridges 
 are  alluvial  hills  of  gravel,  containing  pebbles  of  micaceous  schis- 
 tus,  quartz,  and  granite.  The  rocks  immediately  to  the  north  of 
 Dunkeld  are  composed  of  micaceous  schistus,  penetrated  in  every 
 direction  by  veins  of  cjuart-z.  From  the  junction  of  the  Tay  and 
 Tumel,  westward  to  Loch  Tay,  the  northern  bound  of  the  vale  is 
 of  the  same  substances,  sometimes  interspersed  with  garnets, 
 The  whole  summit  of  the  higher  chain  is  covered  with  large 
 rounded  masses  of  granite.  The  southern  shores  of  Loch  Tay 
 consist  of  micaceous  schistus,  Avith  a  few  garnets,  interrupted 
 about  the  middle  with  banks  of  compact  bluish  grey  lime-stone. 
 •The  northern  shores  are  similar,  but  the  lime-stone  is  mica- 
 ceous. The  mountains  in  Glenlochy  are  mostly  of  micaceous 
 schistus,  interspersed  with  garnet ;  Glen  Lyon  presents  small 
 veins  of  lead.  The  vale  of  Tumel,  between  Loch  Tumel  and 
 Loch  Rannock,  is  overspread  with  rounded  fragments  of  gran- 
 ite and  micaceous  schistus,  but  contains  granitoid,  and  some 
 granite.  The  lower  part  of  Glen  Tilt  chiefly  exhibits  mica- 
 ceous   schistus ;  the   upper   principally  granite   and   lime-si.one. 
 
 Such  are  the  more  southern  parts  of  the  Highlands.  In  the 
 west,  towards  Ben  Lomond,  micaceous  schistus  also  abounds  ;  but 
 that  mountain  is  chiefly  of  gneiss,  and  the  like  features  are  found 
 in  the  peninsula  of  Cantire.  In  the  north  of  Argylcshire  appears 
 the  beautiful  red  granite,  which  chiefly  constitutes  the  central 
 chain,  already  indicated  ;  to  the  north  of  which  first  appears  mi- 
 caceous schistus,  and  afterwards  a  remarkable  course  of  pudding- 
 stone,  extending  from  Loch  Ness  to  Oban.  The  mountains  in  the 
 north  have  been  little  explored,  but  Mr.  Jameson  tells  us,  that  the 
 coast  is  chiefly  a  course  of  argillaceous  sand  stone,  often  appear- 
 ing in  the  form  of  flags,  while  in  some  places  are  masses  of  brec- 
 cia, being  pebbles  of  red  granite,  micaceous  schistus  and  quartz, 
 in  arenaceous  bases.  Mount  Scuraben  is  sand-stone,  with  a  sum- 
 mit of  white  quartz.  Morben,  and  other  mountains  in  this  dis- 
 trict, from  their  white  color,  seem  to  be  of  the  same  composi- 
 tion. About  the  Ord  of  Caithness  appear  granite  and  micaceous 
 schistus. 
 
 The  central  and  western  parts  of  Sutherland  and  Ross-shire 
 have  not  been  explored ;  but  it  would  seem  that  the  west  of  Suth- 
 erland is  chiefly  primitive  lime-stone.  The  mountains  seem  to  be 
 of  granite  and  micaceous  schistus,  but  often  present  the  singular 
 feature  of  vast  summits   formed  of  Mhite  quartz.     Near  Loch 
 
 *  >fr,  Aikjn'a  Notes. 
 
116  SCOTLAND. 
 
 Broom  is  found  that  sort  of  gi"anite  which  is  best  adapted  for  mill- 
 
 ■  ,  Upon  the  whole  it  would  appear,  that  the  chief,  or  granitic 
 chain  of  the  Scottish  mountains,  extends  in  a  S.  W.  and  N.  E. 
 .  direction,  from  E-.n  Nevis  to  Portsoy.  In  many  parts  it  has  sunk 
 or  subsided,  as  is  not  unusual,  but  the  line  is  marked  by  the  grad- 
 ual transitions  from  Iime-stone,  and  sand-stone,  to  micaceous 
 schistus,  and  thence  to  granite.  Ben  Nevis,  Cairngorm,  and  oth- 
 er lofty  sunmiits,  mark  this  primitive  chain.  The  Grampians, 
 which  form  the  outer  skirt  of  this  chain,  consist,  according  to  a 
 German  minei-alogist,*  of  micaceous  lime-stone,  gneiss,  porphy- 
 ry, slate,  and  granite,  alternating  Avith  each  other;  and  another 
 German  says,  that  the  fundamental  rock  of  the  country  consists  of 
 granitic  aggregates.  The  mountains  in  the  S.  W.  are  chiefly 
 schistose,  and  the  granite  is  grey,  and  of  an  inferior  kind  ;  but  Mr. 
 Williams  informs  us,  that  Ben  Nevis,  and  other  mountains  in  that 
 quarter,  are  composed  of  elegant  red  granite,  in  which  the  pale 
 rose,  the  blush,  and  the  yello^vish  colors,  are  finely  mixed  and 
 shaded. t  The  like  granite  is  found  at  Portsoy  and  Trouphead, 
 and  is  probably  continued  through  the  whole  chain,  the  superior 
 height  of  the  region  being  marked  by  the  extreme  rapidity  of  the 
 river  Spey.  This  tendency  of  the  leading  chain  is  not  only  mark- 
 ed out  by  the  Grampians,  but  by  that  of  the  islands,  and  of  the 
 grand  chain  in  Norway,  which,  indeed,  seems  a  continuation  of 
 the  Scottish  chain,  and  the  last,  probably  contains  silver  as  well 
 as  the  Scandinavian.  The  mountains  on  the  north  west  of  the 
 lakes  Ness  and  Linny,  are  "probably  only  exterior  fikirts  of  the 
 same  chain,  and  present  the  usual  declension  of  micaceous  schis- 
 tus terminating  in  lime-stone  and  sand-stone,  in  the  northern  parts 
 of  Sutherland  and  Caithness.  The  islands  of  Shetland  chiefly  pre- 
 sent micaceous  schistus,  interspersed  with  a  few  masses  of  gra- 
 nite ;  and  the  Orkneys,  &c.  consist  mostly  of  sand-stone.  The 
 weiStern  islands  may  be  supposed  to  be  chiefly  calcareous.  It  is 
 remarkable  that  the  space  from  Inverness  to  DunoUa,  on  the  west, 
 abounds  with  pudding-stone,  composed  of  pebbles  of  quartz,  prob- 
 ably washed  dov/n  from  the  granitic  chain,  and  afterwards  ce- 
 mented by  some  unknown  process  of  nature,  either  by  iron  or  sil- 
 iceous earth. 
 
 General  Roy  mentions  two  remarkable  features  of  the  High- 
 lands, first  the  moor  of  Rannock,  a  high  desert  of  twenty  miles 
 square,  on  the  S.  E.  of  Ben  Nevis,  a  flat  uninhabited  morass.  The 
 second  is  part  of  the  N.  W.  coast,  extending  from  Loch  Inchard. 
 twenty  four  miles  to  the  south,  breadth  about  ten  miles,  whicl 
 presents  a  most  singular  appearance,  as  if  mountains  had  beei 
 broken  into  fragments,  interspersed  with  pools  of  water, 
 
 I'''o7-est.s.']  The  forests  of  Scotland  arc  very  rare  in  the  proper 
 acceptation  of  the  term;  and  the  Syiva  Caledonia  has  long  since 
 vanished.     The  whole  county  of  Selkirk  was  formerly  dcuominat- 
 
 *  Kirwan's  Geol.  Essays,  481. 
 
 i  Prov.  of  Moraj-,  Aber.  17'J8.  8vo.  p.  2C7. 
 
SCOTLAND.  117 
 
 ed  Ettric  forest.  There  was  also  a  considerable  forest,  that  of 
 Marr,  m  the  west  of  Aberdeenshire,  where  now  remains  the  for- 
 est of  Abevnethy:f,  extending  to  Cairngorm.  In  the  county  of 
 Sutherland  was  the  forest  of  Sictadale,  on  the  north  of  Dunrobin, 
 the  scat  of  the  earls  of  Sutherland  ;  and  in  the  north  of  the  same 
 county,  are  marked  Parff-forest,  between  Ashir  and  Dunan  ;  to 
 the  south  of  which  were  Rcay  forest,  or  that  of  Dirrymore  ;  with 
 those  of  Dirrymore,  and  Dirrymena  oi.*  the  north  and  south  of 
 Loch  Shin.  No  other  forest  occurs  till  we.  reach  the  county  of  Ai- 
 gyle,  which  contains  Boachiltive  forest  on  the  north. 
 
 JSota?!!/.']  Having  given  a  general  account  of  the  indigenous 
 plants  of  England,  it  will  suffice,  for  the  botany  of  Scotland,  to 
 point  out  the  particulars  in  which  the  two  floras  differ,  together 
 with  the  causes  of  the  difference. 
 
 The  northern  part  of  Britain  differs  from  the  southern  as  to  cli- 
 mate, in  being  colder  and  more  rainy  ;  and  as  to  soil,  in  consisting 
 chiefly  of  mountainous,  granitic,  or  micaceous  districts,  the  high- 
 est peaks  of  which  are  buried  in  perpetual  snow.  There  are  no 
 chalk-hills  in  Scotland ;  nor  any  of  that  soil  which  characterises 
 the  southern  part  of  the  island,  and  is  composed^  for  the  most 
 part,  of  sand  and  calcareovis  marl.  We  might,  therefore,  a  firiori^ 
 expect  to  meet  with  more  alpine  plants  in  Scotland  than  of  those 
 which  flourish  best  in  a  light,  chalky  soil,  and  in  a  mild  climate  ; 
 this  is  found  to  be  in  fact  the  case.  The  greater  number  of  vege- 
 table species  is  the  same  in  both  counti'ies ;  but  the  warm,  moist 
 region  of  Cornwall,  Devonshire,  and  Dorset ;  the  range  of  chalk- 
 hills  on  each  side  of  the  valley  of  the  Thames  ;  the  dry,  sandy 
 tracts  of  Norfolk,  Suffolk,  and  Cambridge,  and  the  fens  of  Lin- 
 colnshire, contain  many  plants  that  are  unknoAvn  to  Scotland  ;  as, 
 on  the  other  hand,  the  snowy  summits  of  the  Grampians,  the  ex- 
 tensive forests  of  Badenoch  and  Braemar,  and  the  bleak,  shelter- 
 less rocks  of  the  Hebudes,  possess  many  hardy  vegetables,  whicli 
 are  not  to  be  found  in  England.  South  Britain  contains  a  greater 
 number  of  species  peculiar  to  itself;  but  those  that  are  similarly 
 circumstanced  in  the  northern  part  of  the  island,  are  of  more  frc- 
 qiient  occurrence,  and  therefore  more  characteristic  :  to  the  Eng- 
 lish botanist,  Scotland  will  have  more  the  air  of  a  foreign  country 
 than  England  will  to  a  Scottish  naturalist.  Amidst  the  grand  ro- 
 mantic scenery  of  the  Highlands  the  search  of  the  English  botan- 
 ist is  continually  solicited  and  repaid  by  the  appearance  of  plants, 
 either  altogether  new  to  him,  or  which  he  has  been  accustomed  to 
 consider  as  the  rare  reward  of  minute  investigation.  In  travers- 
 ing the  vast  natural  forests  of  birch  and  pine,  although  his  notice 
 will  be  first  attracted  by  the  trees  themselves,  in  every  stage  of 
 growth,  from  the  limber  sapling  to  the  bare  weather-beaten  trunks, 
 that  have  endured  the  storms  of  five  or  six  hundred  winters,  ye: 
 the  new  forms  of  the  humbler  vegetables  will  soon  divide  his  at- 
 tention ;  the  red  and  white  blossoms  of  the  trailing  Lirinxa^  the 
 P'tjrola    secu?ida,  and  v?iifloro,  Satyrhan  rc/icns^   0/i/i)ys  corallor' 
 
 j  Mineral  King.  JI.  13. 
 
118  SCOTLAND. 
 
 hiza^  and  Convallaria  verticillatas^  will  each  attract  their  share  of 
 regard.  The  moist  and  shady  recesses  of  the  slate  mountains  are 
 carpeted  by  the  three  Veronicas,  the  Jlfiiiia,  the  saxatilis,  and 
 fruticulosa.  The  mountainous  districts  of  granite  are  peculiarly 
 rich  in  alpine  plants ;  the  ledges  and  crevices  of  the  rocks  are 
 adoimed  by  tufts  of  the  golden  cinqucfoil,  and  luxuriant  festoons 
 of  the  Arbutus  alfiina,  and  Arbutus  u-va  tirsi,  glowing  with  their 
 scarlet  and  deep  blue  berries  among  their  glossy  leaves.  The 
 cloud  berry,  and  some  of  the  lichens,  flourish  amidst  the  snow  and 
 solitude  of  the  most  elevated  summits ;  and  afford  at  the  same 
 time  shelter  and  food  for  the  Ptarmigan,  almost  the  only  one  of 
 our  native  birds  that  can  inhabit  so  cold  a  situation.  The  Lowlands 
 of  Scotland  seem  to  contain  no  plants  which  are  not  found  in  simi- 
 lar soils  in  England ;  the  sea  coast,  however,  exhibits  two  umbel- 
 liferous vegetables,  the  Liguslicutn  Scoticum,  and  Imperatoria  Qs- 
 truthiiim,  Avhich  cannot  be  met  Avith  on  the  soutliern  shore. 
 
 Zoologij?\^  The  zoology  of  Scotland  presents  little  remarkable, 
 •'as  distinct  from  that  of  England.  The  small  horses  of  Galloway 
 seem  to  have  been  a  primitive  breed,  and,  in  diminutive  size,  are 
 exceeded  by  those  of  Shetland.  The  cattle  in  Galloway  are  often 
 without  horns,  a  defect  which  is  supposed  to  be  recompensed  by 
 the  Superior  quantity  and  quality  of  the  milk.  The  kylics,  as  al- 
 ready mentioned,  are  a  middle-sized  breed  from  the  province  of 
 Kyle,  and  other  districts  of  Ayrshire  and  Galloway.  On  the  easl 
 are  found  large  cattle  of  various  breeds.  The  sheep  are  smaller 
 and  shorter  than  those  of  England  ;  those  of  Shetland  are  remark- 
 able for  the  fineness  of  the  wool,  Avhich  is,  however,  interspersed 
 with  coarser  piles.  Goats  are  not  so  numerous  in  the  Highlands 
 and  Isles  as  might  be  expected. 
 
 Of  wild  animals,  the  wolf  has  been  extirpated  in  Scotland  only 
 since  the  year  1 680.  The  beaver  and  the  bison  formerly  were  found 
 here.  The  wild  cat  is  still  occasionally  found  ;  the  other  classes 
 correspond  with  those  of  England,  except  that  the  Roe  is  still  not 
 unfrequent.  Among  the  birds,  eagles  are  not  unknown,  nor  ele- 
 gant falcons.  The  shores  and  islands  present  numerous  kinds  of 
 sea-fowl. 
 
 Scotland  abounds  with  fish  of  all  kinds,  and  contributes  great 
 supplies  to  the  English  market,  particularly  in  lobsters  and 
 salmon.  The  transparent  lakes,  rivers,  and  rivulets,  present  a 
 beautiful  variety  of  fish  :  on  the  northern  and  western  coasts  are 
 numerous  seals.  The  whale  sometimes  appears,  and  the  basking 
 shark  frequently  plays  in  the  western  inlets.  Pearls  arc  found  in 
 the  rivers  Teith  and  Ythan,  in  a  large  kind  of  mya,  or  muscle. 
 Many  beautiful  zoophites,  on  the  northern  shores,  have  been  found 
 and  introduced  to  public  notice  by  Mr.  Cordiner. 
 
 Mineralogij .~]^  The  small  quanti'y  of  gold  found  in  Scotland  has 
 been  procured  from  the  Lead-hills,  which  are  mostly  composed  of 
 coarse  slate.  None  worth  mentioning  has  been  met  with  recent- 
 ly. The  silver  found  in  Scotland  has  hitherto  been  of  little  ac- 
 count ;  the  chief  mine  was  that  at  Alva,  which  has  since  only  af- 
 forded cobalt.     Nor  can  Scotland  boast  of  copper,  though  a  small 
 
SCOTLAND.  il9 
 
 quantity  was  found  in  the  Ochills,  near  Alva,  with  silver  and  co- 
 balt :  and  it  is  said  that  the  islands  of  Shetland  offer  some  indica- 
 tions of  that  metal.  Copper  has  also  been  found  at  Colvend,  in 
 Galloway  ;  at  Curry,  in  Lothian  ;  at  Oldvi'ick,  in  Caithness  ;  and 
 Kissern,  in  Ross-shire. 
 
 The  chief  minerals  of  Scotland  are  lead,  iron,  and  coal.  The 
 lead  mines  in  the  south  of  Lanarkshire  have  been  long  known. 
 Those  of  Wanlock-head  arc  in  the  immediate  neighborhood,  but 
 in  the  county  of  Dumfries.  Some  slight  veins  of  lead  have  also 
 been  found  in  the  western  Highlands,  particularly  Arran.  Iron  is 
 found  in  various  parts  of  Scotland ;  the  Carron  ore  is  the  most 
 known,  it  is  an  argillaceous  iron-stone,  and  is  found  in  slaty  masses, 
 and  in  nodules,  in  an  adjacent  coal-mine,  of  which  it  sometimes 
 forms  the  roof.  At  the  Caron-works  this  ore  is  often  smelted  with 
 thp  red  greasy  iron  ore  from  Ulverston,  in  Lancashire,  which  im- 
 parts easier  fusion,  and  superior  value.  Calamine,  or  zinc,  is  al- 
 so found  at  Wanlock-head ;  and  it  is  said,  that  plumbago  aixi  an- 
 timony may  be  traced  in  Scotland. 
 
 But  the  chief  mineral  is  coal,  which  has  been  worked  for  a  suc- 
 cession of  ages.  Pope  Pius  IL  in  his  description  of  Europe,  writ- 
 ten about  1450,  mentions  that  he  beheld  with  wonder,  black  stones 
 given  as  alms  to  the  poor  of  Scotland.  The  Lothians  and  Fife- 
 shire  particularly  abound  with  this  useful  mineral,  Avhich  also  ex- 
 tends into  Ayrshire  ;  and  near  Irwine  is  found  a  curious  variety,  cal- 
 led ribbon  coal. 
 
 In  passing  to  the  less  important  minerals  of  Scotland,  the  new 
 earth  originally  found  at  Strontian,  and  called  after  the  name  of 
 the  place,  deserves  the  first  notice.  Fine  statuary  marble  is  found 
 in  Assynt,  and  the  marble  of  Tiree  ranks  among  the  most  beauti- 
 ful varieties. 
 
 Among  the  precious  stones  of  Scotland  are  the  sapphire,  of  dif- 
 ferent shades,  from  a  deep  red,  to  a  transparent  white,  and 
 of  equal  hardness  with  the  oriental ;  the  topaz,  of  various  hues, 
 generally  in  hexahedral  crystals ;  the  ruby  and  hyacinth,  near 
 Ely  in  Fifeshire,  usually  small  and  of  inferior  lustre  ;  the  em- 
 erald and  amethyst,  frequently  to  be  met  with,  the  latter  often  very 
 large  and  beautiful ;  garnets  in  many  places  of  the  Highlands, 
 large,  and  frequent ;  agates  and  cornelians,  abundant,  and  unrival- 
 led in  their  variety  and  beauty  ;  jaspers  in  almost  every  district, 
 some  of  great  beauty  and  value  ;  the  chalcedony,  in  Fifeshire,  equal 
 in  hardness  to  the  oriental  granite ;  that  of  Ben  Nevis  equal  in 
 beauty  to  the  Egyptian,  and  that  of  Portsoy  of  the  kind  called 
 Moses'  Tables,  resembling  Hebrew  characters  on  a  white  ground. 
 
 Mineral  IVaters.^  The  mineral  waters  of  Scotland  are  numer- 
 ous, but  none  of  equal  fame  with  those  of  England.  The  chief 
 are  Moffat  wells  in  the  south,  and  those  of  Peterhead  in  the  north. 
 
 A'atural  Curiosities.^  Scotland,  like  otiier  mountainous  coun- 
 tries, abounds  with  singular  scenes,  and  natural  curiosities.  The 
 beautiful  falis  of  the  Clyde,  near  Lanark,  have  deservedly  excitetl 
 muclj  attention.     The  beauties  of  Loch  Lomond  have  been  so  of- 
 
120  SCOTLAND. 
 
 ten  described,  that  it  is  unnecessary  to  repeat  so  trivial  a  theme. 
 The  rocks  ofi  the  coast  of  Aberdeenshire  often  assume  singular 
 forms  of  arches  and  pillars,  of  which  the  Bullcrs  of  Buchan  are 
 the  most  remarkable  ;  and  the  space  from  Trouphead  to  Portsoy 
 abounds  in  uncommon  rocks,  and  singular  marine  productions. 
 
 SCOTTISH  ISLES. 
 
 The  islands  that  belong  tb  Scotland  are  numerous  and  impor- 
 tant, and  fall  naturally  into  three  grand  divisions ;  the  Hebudes,* 
 or  Western  Islands  ;  the  Orkneys ;  and  the  islands  of  Shetland. 
 
 On  passing  the  conic  rock,  called  Ailsa,  towards  the  north,  two 
 beautiful  islands  adorn  the  Firth  of  Clyde,  those  of  Arran  and 
 Bute.f  The  first  is  about  twenty-three  miles  in  length  by  four- 
 teen in  breadth,  and  has  5,179  inhabitants.  The  chief  place  is  the 
 village  of  Ranza  ;  and  Brodie  castle  is  memorable  in  history.  The 
 exports  are  black  cattle  and  barley.^  Mr.  Jameson  has  recently 
 published  an  account  of  this  island,  particularly  its  mineralogy, 
 from  which  it  appears  that  it  is  a  mountainous  region :  and  Goat- 
 fell  is  near  3000  feet  in  height.  The  southern  parts  of  the  island 
 present  low  and  cultivated  grounds. 
 
 Bute  is  about  eighteen  miles  in  length,  and  from  four  to  five  in 
 breadth;  inhabitants  6,i06;  the  chief  town  is  Rothsay,  containing 
 5,231  inhabitants;  and  in  the  vicinity  is  Mount  J^*tuart,  the  orna- 
 mented residence  of  the  Marquis  of  Bute,  and  v/orthy  of  the  dis- 
 tinguished taste  of  the  noble  proprietor.  Kingarth,  the  other 
 town,  contains  875  inhabitants.  The  two  Cambrays,  lying  east  of 
 Bute,  contain  506  inhabitants. 
 
 To  the  west  of  the  Chersonese  of  Cantirc  begin  the  Hebudes  ; 
 or  Western  Islands,  properly  so  called.  The  first  is  Ila,  twenty- 
 eight  miles  in  length  and  eighteen  miles  in  breadth.  Ila  produc- 
 es many  black  cattle,  which  are  exported,  and  sometimes  pass  as 
 far  as  England.§  But  the  sheep  are  rare  ;  small  horses  are  much 
 used,  as  the  country  is  not  very  mountainous.  This  isle  belongs  to 
 Mr,  Campbell,  of  Shawfield.  Inhabitants,  8364.  Lead -mines 
 were  here  discovered  h\  the  sand-stone,  1763;  this  lead  is,  as 
 usual,  mingled  with  silver. 
 
 Jura  is  divided  from  the  last  by  a  narrow  sound :  it  is  thirty 
 miles  in  length,  and  on  an  average  seven  in  breadth.  It  is  the 
 most  rugged  of  the  Hebudes,  which,  in  general,  are  mountainous 
 regions.  The  paps  of  Jura,  a  line  of  conic  hills,  present  a  singu- 
 lar appearance  ;  they  are  on  the  western  side  of  the  island,  and  al- 
 most bare  of  vegetation.||  The  best  crops  are  potatoes  and  bar- 
 ley ;  and  the  isle  contains  abundance  of  peat.  The  cattle  are  small, 
 but  the  sheep  excellent.  The  noted  gulf  or  whirlpool  of  Bre- 
 can  or  Corryvrekan,  is  on  the  northern  extremity  of  Jura.lf  In- 
 habitants 1202. 
 
 *  This  name  ^Va.s  corrupted  by  Rector  Boyce,  into  Hebrides. 
 
 t  Peunara's  Voyage,  168.  t  Stat.  Account,  vol.  ix.  p.  IfJQ. 
 
 §  S.  A.  xi.  278.  II  S,  A.  xii.  318.  ^  Knox's  View,  ii.  451. 
 
SCOTLAND.  121 
 
 To  the  west  of  Jura  are  the  isles  of  Oransa  and  Colonsa;  and 
 the  strait  between  them  being-  dry  at  low  water,  they  may  be  con- 
 sidered as  one  island,  about  ten  miles  in  length.  The  soil  is  gen- 
 erally light  and  arable,  producing  barley  and  potatoes.  The  ven- 
 erable ruins  of  the  ancient  monastery  of  Canons  regular  in  Colon- 
 sa now  exist  no  longer ;  but  those  of  a  curious  priory  in  Oransa 
 still  remain.*  Inhabitants  of  both  718.  Balnahuaigh  contains 
 132  inhabitants,  and  Scarba  and  Lurga  79. 
 
 The  next  isle  of  any  consequence  is  that  of  Mull,  one  of  the 
 largest  of  the  Hcbudes,  and  surrounded  with  smaller  interesting- 
 islands.  Mull  is  about  twenty-eight  miles  in  length,  by  a  medial 
 breadth  of  about  eighteen,  containing  425  square  miles.  The  pop- 
 ulation is  8,357.t  On  the  north-east  is  the  new  village  of  Tober- 
 mory. 
 
 But  the  most  curious  objects  in  the  vicinity  of  Mull,  are  Icolm- 
 kill  and  Staffa.  Hyona,  or  Icolm-kill,  is  about  three  miles  long, 
 by  one  broad,  and  is  venerable,  as  the  primitive  seat  of  Scottish 
 literature  and  religion,  founded  by  St.  Columba  in  the  sixtli  cen- 
 tury. Its  history  and  ruins  have  been  often  described  ;  but  it  may 
 be  added,  from  a  recent  traveller,  that  the  isle  produces  beautiful 
 white  marble,- and  large  blocks  of  indurated  steatites. 
 
 Staffa,  about  six  miles  to  the  north  of  Hyona,  was  first  introduc- 
 ed to  public  notice  by  Sir  Joseph  Banks.  Buchanan  has  men- 
 tioned the  isle,  but  not  its  grand  singularities,  its  beautiful  basal- 
 tic columns,  and  one  of  the  most  surprising  objects  of  nature,  the 
 vast  basaltic  cavern,  called  Au-ua-vine. 
 
 Fiuhn  Mac  CoiWs,  or  Fingal's  Cave  or  Grotto.  This  cave  is 
 on  the  west  side  of  the  island.  It  is  an  immense  excavation  in  the 
 side  of  a  mountain  of  solid  rock,  the  roof  of  which  is  arched,  and 
 is  supported  by  numberless  basaltic  pillars  of  various  sizes  and 
 heights  of  3,  4,  5,  6,  and  7  sides,  the  pentagonal  and  hexagonal 
 being  most  numerous.  These  columns  are  mostly  above  50  feet 
 high.  The  bottom  of  the  cave  is  filled  with  the  sea,  reaching  to 
 the  very  extremity.  In  calm  weather  a  boat  may  sail  in  safely  ; 
 but  if  the  waves  are  agitated  in  a  slight  degree,  it  is  inevitably 
 dashed  to  pieces,  Sir  Joseph  Banks,  who  visited  it  in  1772,  gives 
 the  following  as  its  dimensions  : 
 
 Breadth  of  the  mouth  -  - 
 
 Do.  at  the  farther  end  -  - 
 
 Height  of  the  arch  at  the  mouth 
 
 Do.  at  the  end  -  .  - 
 
 Length  from  the  pitch  of  the  arch  to  the  farther  end 
 
 Height  of  the  tallest  columns  on  the  right  side  of  the 
 
 entrance  -  .  .  . 
 
 Depth  of  water  at  the  n\outh  .         .         ,         . 
 
 Do.  at  the  farther  end  -  -  -         - 
 
 *  Statist.  Ace.  sii.  32".  |  St.  Fond,  tome  ii.  p.  89, 
 
 VOL.  II.  16 
 
 Feet    1 
 
 Inches. 
 
 53 
 
 7 
 
 20 
 
 0 
 
 117 
 
 6 
 
 70 
 
 0 
 
 250 
 
 0 
 
 45 
 
 0 
 
 18 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
!:52  SCOTLAND. 
 
 A  small  cave  at  the  farther  extremity  sends  forth  an  agreeable 
 noise  every  time  the  v/ater  rushes  into  it ;  from  which  circum- 
 stance it  has  received  the  name  of  Jlu-ua--uine^  or  the  melodious 
 cave.  The  light  from  without  is  sufficient  to  illuminate  the  whole 
 cave,  and  the  air  is  perfectly  free  from  damp  and  noxious  vapors. 
 To  the  N.  W.  of  Mull  are  the  isles  of  Tirey  and  Col,  the  for- 
 mej'  1 1  miles  long  and  2  |  broad,  producing  a  most  beautiful  mar- 
 ble, of  a  rose  c(^or,  penetrated  with  small  irregular  crystals  of 
 green  hornblende,  and  v/hich  the  French  naturalists  have,  from 
 the  name  of  the  isle  called  Tirite,  no  similar  marble  being  any 
 where  found.  Tirey  is  generally  plain  and  fertile.  Population 
 2,416.  Col,  on  the  contrary,  is  rocky,  but  has  several  small  lakes, 
 replenished  with  fish.  It  is  thirteen  miles  long  and  three  broad. 
 Population  11,622. 
 
 Another  group  consists  of  Skey,  in  the  Scandinavian  styled 
 Skua,  and  the  surrounding  isles.  Skey  is  the  largest  of  the  He- 
 budes,  being  about  50  miles  in  length,  and  about  40  in  breadth. 
 Inhabitants  17,691  ;  chief  exports  black  cattle  and  small  horses  : 
 the  land,  as  usual  in  the  Hebudes,  rough  and  hilly.  The  houses 
 are  chiefly  turf,  covered  with  grass.  The  face  of  the  country 
 wild,  heathy,  and  deluged  with  continual  rains.  Skey  contains 
 eight  parishes.  To  the  south  of  Skey  are  the  isles  Canna,  Rhum, 
 Eig,  and  Muck  ;  and  to  the  N.  E.  of  Skey,  Rona,  Raza  and  Scalpa. 
 The  population  of  these  four,  Canna,  Rhum,  Eig,  and  Muck,  is 
 1,339.  The  other  isles  in  this  group  offer  little  memorable.  Canna 
 and  Eig  contain  basaltic  pillars,  and  in  the  former  is  Compass  hill, 
 which  strongly  affects  the  needle. 
 
 It  now  remains  to  give  some  idea  of  the  exterior  chain  of  the 
 Western  Isles,  forming,  as  it  were,  a  bai-rier  against  the  Atlantic. 
 Two  small  and  remote  isles  have  attracted  considerable  notice. 
 The  first  is  that  of  Rona,  about  twelve  leagues  to  the  N.  W.  of 
 Cape  Wrath,  and  about  thii'ty  leagues  W.  from  the  Orkney,-^. 
 This  little  isle,  with  its  companion  Suliska,  or  Bara,  has  almost 
 escaped  from  the  Scottish  maps,  being  little  known,  and  rarely 
 visited.  In  the  last  century.  Sir  George  M'Kenzie,  of  Tarbat,  af- 
 terwards Earl  of  Cromarty,  drew  up  a  short  account  of  Rona,  from 
 the  oral  information  of  inhabitants,  at  that  time  consisting  only  of 
 five  families.* 
 
 The  small  isle  of  Hirta,  or  St.  Kilda,  must  have  attracted  much 
 notice,  even  in  Lesley's  time,  for  in  his  map  he  has  represented  it 
 as  about  six  times  the  size  of  Skey,  while  in  truth  it  is  only  three 
 miles  long  and  two  broad.  St.  Kilda  is  about  60  miles  to  the  west 
 of  North  Vist,  and  140  from  Scotland;  and  has  been  repeatedly 
 described  ;  the  lingular  and  simple  manners  of  its  inhabitants  have 
 excited  considerable  attention.  Its  shores  are  every  where,  eX' 
 cept  in  the  bay,  a  perpendicular  face  of  rock  of  prodigious  height. 
 Inhabitants  about  300. 
 
 Having  thus  briefly  mentioned  these  remote  and  little  visited 
 isles,  the  plan  here  followed  must  be   resumed  by  some  account 
 
 •  Monro's  Desciipt.  of  the  W.  Isles,  in  1549.  Edin.  17"4.  Deuodecimo,  p.  63.  The 
 .Stat.  Ace.  -vix.  '271,  udtls  nothing. 
 
SCOTLAND.  123 
 
 of  Leuis,  the  principal  island  of  the  western  chain.  It  is  about  60 
 miles  in  Length,  by  twenty  in  breadth.  The  face  of  the  country 
 consists  of  a  heathy  elevated  ridge  full  of  morasses  from  the  S. 
 V/.  to  N.  E.  but  near  the  shores  are  several  verdant  vales  capable 
 of  cultivation.  The  Harris,  or  south  end  of  this  isle,  is  still  more 
 mountainous,  and  presents  what  is  called  a  forest,  because  some 
 deer  are  there  found.  James  VL  attempted  to  introduce  indus- 
 try into  the  Hebudes  by  planting  a  Dutch  colony  at  Storna- 
 way, in  Leuis ;  but  it  was  soon  extirpated  by  the  inhabitants. 
 Stornaway  is,  however,  now  a  considerable  and  flourishing  town, 
 with  an  excellent  harbor,  and  contains  2,974  inhabitants.  Besides 
 cottages,  there  are  about  seventy  houses  covered  with  slate.  The 
 seasons  in  Leuis  are  oppressed  with  rain,  as  usual  in  the  western 
 Highlands  and  isles ;  but  there  is  a  considerable  fishery.  The 
 crops  are  oats,  bigg,  and  potatoes ;  no  trees  will  thrive  except  al- 
 der and  mountain  ash  ;  and  hardly  a  shrub  appears  :  but  there  arc 
 many  black  cattle  and  sheep,  nor  is  there  any  want  of  small  horses. 
 Population  of  the  whole  island  12,164. 
 
 To  the  south  of  Leuis  is  North  Vist,  about  twenty  two  miles 
 in  length  fi-om  E.  to  W.  and  about  seventeen  ia  breadth  N.  to  S. 
 for  recent  discoveries  have  restored  this  isle  to  its  proper  form, 
 among  many  other  improvements  which  have  taken  place  within 
 these  few  years  in  Scottish  geography.  The  face  of  the  country 
 corresponds  in  general  with  that  of  Leuis ;  and  trees  are  equally 
 unknown.  Potatoes  are  generally  cultivated.  Westerly  winds, 
 with  rain  or  fog,  usurp  two  thirds  of  the  year.  Lord  Macdonald  is 
 the  proprietor.*     Inhabitants  3,010. 
 
 The  small  isle  of  Benbecula,  and  some  others,  lie  betwixt  North 
 and  South  Vist  ;  the  latter  is  about  32  miles  in  length  N.  to  S.  by 
 about  ten  in  breadth  W.  to  E.  The  morassy  central  chain  extends 
 also  through  this  isle ;  but  to  the  east  are  dry  hills  covered  with 
 heath  and  verdure.  The  productions  also  resemble  those  of  Leu- 
 is ;  and  there  are  many  small  lakes  full  of  excellent  trout.  Chief 
 exports  black  cattle  and  kelp.  This  isle  is  also  naked  of  wood. 
 Inhabitants  4,595.  The  whole  population  of  the  Hebudes  in  1801, 
 was  80,880. 
 
 Berra,  a  little  to  the  S.  W.  is  eight  miles  long,  and  four  broad. 
 It  is  mountainous.  Produces  corn  and  oats  ;  but  the  chief  atten- 
 tion is  paid  to  rearing  cattle,  burning  kelp,  and  to  the  cod-fishery. 
 Inhabitants  1,925.  Between  it  and  South  Vist  lie  Eriskay,  Fiarra, 
 Giga,  Cara,  and  Helisay,  and  south  of  it  Watera,  Deer  I.  Samderaj 
 Pabba,  Mingalla,  and  Bernera. 
 
 The  islands  of  Orkney  and  Shetland  remain  to  be  desciibed. 
 The  Orkneys  form  a  numerous  group  around  the  Main  Land,  or 
 M'hat,  by  some  new  and  fabulous  term,  is  called  Pomona. f  The 
 Main  Land  is  about  thirty  miles  in  leugth  E.  to  W.  by  about  thir- 
 teen in  breadth  N.  to  S.  Kirkwall,  the  chief  town  of  the  Orkneys, 
 contains  2,621   inhabitants,  and  has  a  stately  cathedral  dedicated 
 
 *  Stat.  Ace.  xiii.  300. 
 
 t  The  old  accounts  are  Wallace's  1693,  and  B-f-and's  J  701 ;  the  modem,  the  Sta- 
 tistic Survey 
 
124  SCOTLAND. 
 
 to  St.  Magnus.  Opposite  stands  the  bishop's  palace,  now  called  a 
 castle.  The  chief  exports  of  Kirkwall  are  beef,  pork,  butter,  tal- 
 low, hides,  calf  skins,  rabbit  skins,  salted  fish,  oil,  feathers,  linen 
 yarn,  and  coarse  linen  cloth,  kelp,*  and  in  fruitful  years  corn. 
 The  chief  imports  are  wood,  flax,  coal,  sugar,  spirits,  wines,  to- 
 bacco and  snuff',  flour,  and  biscuit,  soap,  leather,  hardwares,  broad- 
 cloth, printed  linens  and  cottons.  In  1790  the  exports  were  val- 
 ued at  26,598/;  and  the  imports  at  20,803/.  The  harbor  is  excel- 
 lent. The  manufactures  are  linen  yarn,  and  coarse  linens,  and 
 kelp.  This  last  was  introduced  about  sixty  years  ago,  and  has 
 been  since  diff'used  over  the  Highlands  and  isles.  In  most  parts 
 of  the  main  land  the  soil  is  good,  though  shallow,  with  a  calcare- 
 ous bottom.  The  horses  are  small,  but  spirited ;  and  the  cows, 
 though  also  small,  yield  excellent  milk.  The  sheep  in  the  Isl- 
 ands of  Orkney  are  computed  at  50,000.  Swine  also  abound,  of  a 
 dirty  white  color,  and  di  ninutive  size.  The  numbers  of  sea- 
 fowl  may  be  easily  imagined.  The  Norse  language  has  yielded  to 
 the  English,  and  tlie  manners  of  the  people  are  singularly  civil- 
 ized for  so  remote  a  region.     Their,  number  is  13,176. 
 
 Hoy-Island^  S.  W.  of  Pomona,  is  ten  miles  long  and  six  broad. 
 Its  surface  is  mountainous.  Inhabitants  244.  They  are  employed 
 in  rearing  cattle  and  sheep.  The  Dwarjic  Stone,  a  celebrated  relic 
 of  antiquity  is  in  this  island.  It  measures  32  feet  in  length,  161  in 
 breadth,  and  71  in  height,  hollowed  into  several  apartments.  A 
 very  rich  ore  of  lead  was  lately  discovered  here.  South  1-ionald- 
 s/iaij,  E.  of  Hoy,  is  six  miles  long  and  three  broad.  Surface  level, 
 soil  fertile.  Inhabitants  1,610.  It  possesses  two  excellent  harbors, 
 Widewall  Bay,  and  St.  Margaret's  Hofie. 
 
 Shafiinsha,  three  miles  north  of  Pomona,  is  seven  miles  long 
 and  three  broad,  in  the  shape  of  a  cross.     Inhabitants  744. 
 
 Rousa,  N.  W.  of  Pomona,  is  nine  miles  long  and  four  broad.  It 
 is  generally  hilly.  Its  inhabitants  with  those  of  Eglishay,  Weir, 
 and  Inhallow  are  1,061.  They  prosecute  the  fisheries  with  great 
 diligence. 
 
 Stro?isa,  71  miles  long  and  nearly  as  broad,  is  extremely  indent- 
 ed with  bays.  It  is  very  hilly  and  contains  about  3,000  sheep, 
 900  cattle,  500  houses,  and  300  swine.     Inhabitants  924. 
 
 £da  is  5-^  miles  long  and  11  broad,  and  is  hilly.  Inhabitants 
 718. 
 
 Wcstray  is  ten  miles  long  and  from  two  to  six  broad,  and  is  val- 
 uable for  its  cattle,  its  sheep,  and  its  kelp.  With  the  little  isle  of 
 Fafia  Westray  it  contained,  in  1801,  1,624  souls. 
 
 Sa7ida,  twelve  milea  long  and  three  broad,  is  generally  low  and 
 productive.  The  domestic  animals  in  1792,  were  4,200  sheep', 
 1,314  cattle,  356  horses,  and  140  swine.  It  annually  produces 
 from  500  to  600  tons  of  kelp.  With  North  Ronaldshay  it  contained, 
 in  1801,  2,148  inhabitants.  This  last  is  the  farthest  north  of  tlic 
 Orkneys.     The    total  population    of  these   islands   in    1801    was 
 
 *  Saiiba  produces  great  (jnantitiesof  kelp;  when  the  Orkneys  in  general  rnay  j  ieW 
 2,500  tons,  500  anil  000  .ire  drawn  from  that  isle  only.    S.  A.  vii.  4.S5. 
 
SCOTLAND.  125 
 
 24,478.  The  number  of  the-  islands  is  30,  of  which  26  are  in- 
 habited. 
 
 The  islands  of  Shetland  present  another  group  similar  to  those 
 of  Orkney;  with  a  main  land  or  chief  island  in  its  centre.  The 
 main  land  is  much  intersected  by  the  sea :  and  is  about  60  miles 
 in  length,  by  12  miles  of  medial  breadth.*  Inhabitants  15,593. 
 They  are  hardy,  docile,  and  ingenious  ;  and  manufacture  coarse 
 linen  and  woollen  cloths  for  their  own  use,  and  very  fine  worsted 
 stockings  for  exportation.  Their  great  occupation  is  fishing. 
 Yell,  or  Zell,  farther  north,  is  about  twenty  miles  long,  and  twelve 
 broad.  Its  coast  is  bold,  rocky,  and  indented,  surface  level,  and 
 soil  tolerable.     Inhabitants  2,965. 
 
 '  Unst,  the  most  northern,  is  in  61,  15,  N.  It  is  twelve  miles  long, 
 and  four  broad,  and  generally  level.  It  is  very  rich  in  minerals, 
 and  in  cattle.  Eighty  tons  of  cured  fish  are  annually  exported. 
 Inhabitants  2,259. 
 
 These  islands  are  86  in  number,  of  which  26  are  inhabited. 
 Their  whole  population  in  1801,  was  22,379. 
 
 The  hills  in  Shetland  are  chiefly  composed  of  sand-stone,  brec- 
 cia, &c.  The  basis  seems  gneiss,  and  micaceous  schistus,  which 
 are  sometimes  exposed  to  the  air.  Lime-stone  is  also  found,  and 
 some  granite  ;  but  on  the  whole  the  mass  is  arenaceous. 
 
 The  climate  of  the  Shetland  isles  is  variable,  and  disturbed 
 with  rains  and  thick  fogs.  The  frosts  are  seldom  severe,  and  snow 
 rarely  continues  long  on  the  ground.  The  inhabitants  are  indeed 
 sufficiently  wretched,  without  additional  evils  ;  and  a  benevolent 
 government  ought  to  pay  a  particular  attention  to  those  distant 
 prisoners.  The  corruscations  of  the  Aurora  Borealis  illuminate 
 the  long  gloom  of  winter,  and  delight  the  inhabitants,  who  call 
 them  merry  dancers.  The  arable  land  is  mostly  near  the  c.oast, 
 and  produces  a  coarse  kind  of  oats  and  bigg.  Potatoes  have  lately 
 formed  an  addition  of  singular  advantage.  The  chief  food  of  the 
 inhabitants  consists  of  fish,  and  various  kinds  of  sea-fowl,  which 
 cover  the  rocks ;  the  captors  of  the  last  shew  singular  skill  and 
 intrepidity,  and  often  meet  with  a  violent  fate  amidst  the  stupen- 
 dous precipices.  The  cattle  are  rather  larger  than  those  of  Ork- 
 ney, and  the  butter  is  excellent  if  properly  prepared.  Sheep  are 
 not  uncommon,  and  have  been  recently  praised  for  the  fineness  of 
 their  fleece.  The  horses  have  mettle  and  beauty,  and  on  account 
 of  the  singular  minuteness  of  their  size  have  become  objects  of 
 luxury  and  curiosity  in  England. 
 
 Lerwick,  the  chief  town  or  rather  village  containing  about  150 
 families,  stands  on  an  excellent  harbor  called  Brassa  Sound,  form- 
 
 *  We  have  beUer  charts  of  the  coa?;ts  of  New  Holland,  than  of  the  isles  of  Orkney 
 and  Shetland.  Capt.  Donnelle}'s  chart  of  the  Shetland  isles,  seems  the  most  accurate, 
 in  which  the  INIain  laud  corresponds  in  length  with  Leuis,  while  Aiiisley's  would  give  a 
 length  of  almost  ninety  miles.  Yell  and  Unst  seem  also  more  properly  disposed  in 
 Captain  Uounelley's  map.  The  Danish  Captain  Voii  Lowenorn  (Zach's  Ge(igrai)hieal 
 .Tournal,  May,  1799)  found  that  the  Shethind  isles  were  about  one  third  shorter  than 
 represented  in  the  English  map  (Preston's;)  which  also  puts  the  northern  extremity 
 half  a  degree  further  north  than  it  was  found  by  minute  observations,  Lowenorn  puli- 
 l.'slied  a  map  of  these  isles  in  U^T. 
 
V26  IRELAND. 
 
 ed  by  the  little  isle   of  Brassa  on  the  east  of  the  Main  land,  and 
 formerly  i^reatly  frequented  by  the  Dutch  fishers. 
 
 The  chief  exports  of  Shetland  are  fish  of  various  kinds,  chiefly 
 herrings,  cod,  ling,  and  tcrsk,  or  tusk.  In  this  distant  region  there 
 arc  neither  roads  nor  bridges,  which  may  be  pronounced  the  first 
 steps  in  any  country  towards  the  progress  of  industry.  The  same 
 deficiency  occurs  in  the  Orkneys,  and  even  in  the  Northern  ex- 
 tremity of  Scotland ;  where  hovy^ever  a  road  has  btcn  recently 
 opened  between  Ullapool  and  Dornoch. 
 
 IRELAND. 
 
 CHAPTER  I. 
 HISTORICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 NAMES,    EXTENT,  ORIGINAL  POPULATION,  PROGRESSIVE    GEOGRA- 
 PHY,   HISTORICAL    EPOCHS,    ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 Mimes.']  THE  large  and  fertile  island  of  Ireland,  being 
 situated  to  the  west  of  Great  Britain,  was  probably  discovered  by 
 the  Phoenicans  as  early  as  the  sister  island ;  and  it  appears  that 
 the  island  was  known  to  the  Greeks  by  the  name  oi'  Juvtrna,  about 
 two  centuries  before  the  birth  of  Christ.  When  Coesar  made  his 
 expedition  into  Britain,  he  describes  Hibernia  as  being  about  half 
 the  size  of  the  island  which  he  had  explored ;  and,  while  the  Ro- 
 mans maintained  their  conquests  in  the  latter  region,  Ireland  con- 
 tinued of  course  to  be  well  known  to  them,  and  Ptolemy  has  given 
 a  map  of  the  island  wliich  is  superior  in  accuracy  to  that  which 
 represents  Scotland.  Towards  the  decline  of  the  Western  Em- 
 pire, as  the  country  had  become  more  and  more  known,  and  had 
 been  peopled  with  various  tribes,  the  Romans  discovered  that  the 
 ruling  people  in  Ireland  were  the  Scoti ;  and  thenceforth  the  coun- 
 try began  to  be  termed  Scocia,  an  appellation  retained  by  the  mo- 
 nastic writers  till  the  eleventh  century,  when  the  name  Scotia  hav- 
 ing passed  to  modern  Scotland,  the  ancient  name  of  Hibernia  be- 
 gan to  reassume  its  honors.  It  is  supposed  that  this  name,  and 
 the  Gothic  denomination  Ireland,  are  mere  modifications  of  the 
 native  term  Erin,  implying  the  country  of  the  west. 
 
 Extent.]  The  extent  of  this  noble  island  is  about  300  miles  in 
 length,  and  about  160  at  the  greatest  breadth.  The  contents  in 
 square  miles  may  be  computed  at  27,457*,  and  the  population  be- 
 ing about  four  millions,  there  will  be  about  146  inhabitants  to  each 
 square  mile. 
 
 Original  Population.]     It  is  probable  that  tlie  original  popula- 
 
 •  Beaufort,  p.  li,  says  30,370  English  miles. 
 
IRELAND.  l^r 
 
 tion  of  Ireland  passed  from  Gaul,  and  was  afterwards  Increased 
 by  their  brethren  the  Guydil  from  England.  About  tlie  time  that 
 the  Bclgi-e  seized  on  the  south  of  England,  it  appears  that  kindred 
 Gothic  tribes  passed  to  the  south  of  Ireland.  These  ai-e  the  Fir- 
 bolg  of  the  Irish  traditions ;  and  appear  to  have  been  the  same 
 people  whom  the  Romans  denominated  Scoti,  after  they  had 
 emerged  to  their  notice,  by  not  only  extending  their  conquests  to 
 the  north  and  east  in  Ireland,  but  had  begun  to  make  maritime  ex- 
 cursions against  the  Roman  provinces  in  Britain. 
 
 Fi'ogrest<ive  Geography.']  The  map  of  Ireland  by  Ptolemy, 
 above  mentioned,  is  the  first  geographical  document  of  the  island. 
 The  general  shape,  rivers,  and  promontories,  are  delineated  with 
 as  much  accuracy  as  could  have  been  expected.  Nay  as  we  ad- 
 vance into  the  middle  ages,  the  geography  of  Ireland  becomes 
 more  obscure.  The  chief  tribes  mentioned  by  Ptolemy  are  the 
 Darni  upon  the  north-east,  the  Vniicni  and  Robogdii  on  the  north- 
 west. Beneath  them  are  the  J^agnad,  Auteri,  and  Gangani,  on  the 
 west,  the  Erdini  in  the  centre,  and  the  Voluntii,  jEdUmi^t^nd  CaucU 
 on  the  east ;  succeeded  by  the  soulliern  tribes  of  the  MenafiiU 
 Brigantes^  Bodiiy  Invebiiy  Vclubri,  and  Liiccni.  Ptolemy  .Iso  men- 
 tions ten  towns  ;  of  which  the  chief  is  Eblana  now  Dublin.  In  tlie 
 middle  ages  we  find  the  Balriadi  on  the  north-east ;  and  the  Crii- 
 thcni  on  the  north-west.  The  large  tribe  of  M'cUi  occupy  much  of 
 the  centre.  The  Voluntii  seem  transformed  into  the  people  of 
 UUagh  ;  the  Erdiiii  of  Ptolemy  yield  the  name  to  Argialli  i  and  the 
 JVagnati  to  Maigh  Nais.  The  Gangani  of  Ptolemy  seem  the  Gal- 
 eng  of  the  middle  ages.  The  Alena/ni,  &c.  must  be  traced  in 
 Muman,  or  present  Munster.  The  towns  mentioned  by  Ptolemy 
 might  also  be  traced  with  some  degree  of  accuracy. 
 
 The  ravages  of  the  Danes,  in  the  ninth  and  following  centuries, 
 cannot  be  supposed  to  throw  much  light  on  the  progressive  geog- 
 raphy of  Ireland  :  but  the  settlements  of  the  English  under  Hen- 
 ry II.  certainly  contributed  to  that  end,  for  Giraldus  Cambrensis 
 at  that  period  composed  his  description  of  Ireland,  which  amidst 
 numerous  fables  contains  some  curious  facts ;  and  the  geography 
 of  Ii-eiand  was  little  better  known  till  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  when 
 Stanihurst  published  his  description,  which  was  soon  followed  by 
 that  of  Spencer  the  poet.  The  most  remarkable  distinction  in- 
 troduced by  the  new  invaders  into  Ireland  was  that  of  the  English 
 pale,  or  circuit  of  a  few  counties  around  Dublin,  within  which  the 
 Englisn  language  was  chiefly  spoken.  So  inconsiderable  indeed 
 were  the  English  possessions  in  Ireland,  that  the  monarchs  only 
 assumed  the  style  of  Lords  of  Ireland,  till  the  reign  of  Henry 
 Vill.  wlien  king  of  Ireland  became  a  paitof  the  sovereign's  style. 
 Nor  was  Ireland  compiettiy  subjugated  till  the  reign  of  the  first 
 James,  wnoadds  this  merit  to  tiiat  of  founding  the  American  colo- 
 nies ;  but  mankind  will  ever  be  iidatuatea  by  the  triumphs  of  war, 
 and  prefer  a  meteor  to  tnc  pure  ligiu  of  a  pu.cilic  reign. 
 
 IJiitorical  Ejiochn.']  Th*^  iirst  lUdtorical  epoch  of  Ireland  is  its 
 Original  population  by  the  Celtic  Gauls,  and  the  subsequent  colo- 
 nization by  the  Belgae. 
 
128  IRELAND. 
 
 2.  The  maiiiiinc  excursions  of  the  Scoti  against  the  Roman 
 provinces  in  Britain. 
 
 3.  The  conversion  of  Ireland  to  Christianity  in  the  fifth  centu- 
 ry, which  was  followed  by  a  singular  effect ;  for  while  the  mass 
 of  the  people  retained  all  the  ferocity  of  savage  manners,  the  mon- 
 asteries produced  many  men  of  such  piety  and  learning,  that  Sco- 
 tia or  Ireland  became  celebrated  all  over  Christendom. 
 
 4.  This  lustre  was  diminished  by  the  ravages  of  the  Scandina- 
 vians, which  began  Avith  the  ninth  century,  and  can  hardly  be  said 
 to  have  ceased  when  the  English  settlement  commenced.  The 
 island  had  been  split  into  numerous  principalities,  or  kingdoms,  as 
 they  were  styled  ;  and  though  a  chief  monarch  Avas  acknoAvledged, 
 yet  his  power  was  seldom  efficient,  and  the  constant  dissensions  of 
 so  many  small  tribes  rendered  the  island  an  easy  pi'ey. 
 
 5.  In  the  year  1170,  Henry  II.  permitted  Richard  Strongbow 
 Earl  of  Pembroke  to  effect  a  settlement  in  Ireland,  Avhich  laid  the 
 foundation  of  the  English  possessions  in  that  comitry.  There  are 
 however  coins  of  Canute  king  of  England,  struck  at  Dublin,  per- 
 haps in  acknowledgment  of  his  power  by  the  Danish  settlers. 
 
 6.  Ireland  began  to  produce  some  manufactures  about  the  four- 
 teenth century,  andker-sayes  or  thin  woollen  cloths  were  exported 
 to  Italy.  It  is  probable  that  these  were  produced  by  the  Bristoli- 
 an  colony,  Avhich  had  passed  to  Dublin,  as  mentioned  in  the  de- 
 scription of  England. 
 
 7.  Richard  II.  king  of  England,  attempted  in  person  the  con- 
 quest of  Ireland,  but  being  imprudent  and  ill  served,  nothing 
 of  moment  was  effected.  The  svibsequent  attempts  of  the  Eng- 
 lish monarchs  to  accomplish  this  purpose  need  not  be  enumerated. 
 
 8.  In  the  reign  of  James  I.  Ireland  became  entirely  subjugated  ; 
 and  colonies  of  English  and  Scots  were  established  in  the  north. 
 
 9.  The  chief  mean  of  the  assimilation  of  the  countries  having 
 been  completely  neglected,  namely,  the  universal  institution  of 
 parochial  schools,  for  the  education  of  children  in  the  protestant 
 religion  and  English  language,  the  Irish  continued  a  distinct  peo- 
 ple ;  and  being  instigated  by  their  fanatic  priests  executed  their 
 dreadful  massacre  of  the  English  settlers  in  1541.  This  in- 
 surrection Avas  not  totally  crushed  till  CroniAvell  led  his  veterans 
 into  Ireland. 
 
 10.  The  appearance  of  James  II.  in  Ireland  to  reclaim  his 
 croAvn,  may  also  deserve  a  place. 
 
 1 1.  The  amazing  progress  of  Ireland  in  manufactures  and  com- 
 merce, Avithin  these  tAventy  years,  may  be  classed  as  the  most  il- 
 lustrious of  its  historical  epochs. 
 
 12.  The  deplorable  events  Avhich  have  recently  happened  in 
 Ireland,  have  led  the  Avay  to  its  union  Avith  Great  Britain,  a  meas- 
 ure Avhich  has  been  productive  of  great  reciprocal  advantages. 
 
 Jintiquities.']  Upon  a  revicAV  of  the  more  ancient  of  these  his- 
 torical epochs,  and  of  the  monuments  Avhich  may  be  considered 
 as  belonging  to  each,  it  must  be  considered  that  the  edifices  hav- 
 ing been  constructed  of  Avood  till  the  eleventh  or  tAvelfth  century, 
 it  camiot  be  expected  that   any  remains  of  them  should  exist. 
 
IRELAND,  129 
 
 Stone  was  chiefly  employed  in  the  construction  of  funeral  erec- 
 tions of  various  kinds,  nor  are  barrows  wanting  in  Ireland,  being 
 hillocks  of  earth,  thrown  up  in  commemoration  of  the  illustrious 
 dead.  Other  monuments,  commonly  styled  Druidic,  may  also  be 
 found  in  Ireland  ;  such  as  single  stones  erect,  circular  temples 
 or  rather  places  of  judgment  and  the  like,  which  n"vay  more  prop- 
 erly be  ascribed  to  the  Belgic  colony.* 
 
 The  conversion  of  Ireland  to  Christianity  was  followed  by  the 
 erection  of  a  vast  number  of  churches  and  monasteries,  the  latter 
 being  computed  to  exceed  one  thousand  in  number ;  but  all  these 
 edifices  Avere  originally  small,  and  constructed  of  interwoven 
 withes,  or  hewn  wood ;  for  St.  Bernard  in  the  twelfth  century, 
 mentions  a  stone  church  as  a  singular  novelty  in  Ireland. 
 
 But  the  Scandinavian  chiefs  must  before  this  period  have  intro- 
 duced the  use  of  stone  into  the  castles  necessary  for  their  own  de- 
 fence against  a  nation  whom  they  oppressed.  To  the  Scandinavi- 
 an period  also  belong  what  are  called  the  Danes  Raths,  or  circu- 
 lar intrenchments  ;  and  probably  some  chapels. 
 
 Of  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries  many  monuments,  castel- 
 lated or  religious,  may  probably  exist  in  Ireland.  Brian  Boro, 
 king  of  Munster,  having  been  declared  sovereign  of  Ireland  in 
 the  year  1002,  distinguished  himself  by  his  virtues  and  courage  ; 
 and  Dermid  III.  A.  D.  1041 — 1075  was  also  an  excellent  and  pow- 
 erful prince.  Under  these  monarchs  and  their  successors,  Tud- 
 elvac  and  Moriertac,  the  power  of  the  Ostmen  or  Scandinavians 
 was  considerably  weakened.  The  native  chiefs  had  been  taught 
 the  necessity  of  fortresses,  and  were  generally  devoutly  attached 
 to  religion ;  it  is  therefore  to  be  inferred  that  many  castles, 
 churches,  and  monasteries  now  began  to  be  partly  constructed  in 
 stone  by  architects  invited  from  France  and  England ;  but  per- 
 haps the  round  towers  Avere  erected  by  native  builders. 
 
 The  castles,  churches,  and  monasteries,  erected  since  the  peri- 
 od of  the  English  settlement  might  be  counted  by  hundreds,  and 
 for  tliem  one  general  reference  may  be  made  to  the  works  of  Led- 
 wich  and  Grose.  Among  smaller  reliques  of  antiquity,  the  gold- 
 en trinkets  found  in  a  bog  near  Cullen,  in  the  south,  deserve  men- 
 tion ;  as  gold  was  found  in  Gaul,  they  are  perhaps  ornaments  of 
 the  ancient  chiefs  brought  from  that  region. 
 
 CHAPTER  II. 
 POUTICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 RELIGION,  ECCLESIASTIC  GEOGRAPHY,  CIVIL  DIVISIONS,  GOV- 
 ERNMENT, POl'ULATION,  ARMY,  NAVY,  REVENUES,  POLITICAL 
 IMPORTANCE     AND    RELATIONS. 
 
 ReUgion.~\     THE  legal  religion  of  Ireland  is  that  of  the 
 church  of  England  ;  but  it  is  computed  that  three  fourths  of  the 
 
 *  See  Ledwich's  introduction  to  Grose's  Antiquities  of  Ireland,  for  Cromlechs  \n  tiie 
 county  of  Carlow,  and  a  cave  in  Aleatli, 
 VOL.    II.  17 
 
130 
 
 IRELAND. 
 
 people  are  Catholics;  and  of  the  remaining  fourth,  the  Presbyte- 
 rians are  supposed  to  constitute  one  half. 
 
 Ecclesiastical  Geography 7^  The  ecclesiastic  geography  of  Ire- 
 land comprises  four  arch-bishoprics,  in  themselves  an  evidence  of 
 the  great  nv^mber  of  churches  formerly  existing  ;  and  eighteen 
 bishoprics. 
 
 'Meath 
 
 Kilmore  and  Ardagb 
 Dromore 
 Under  the  archbishop  of  Armagh  <|  Clogher 
 are  the  bishops  of  Raphoe 
 
 I  Downe  and  Conner 
 [Derry 
 
 Under  the  archbishop  of  Dublin 
 
 Under  the  archbishop  of  Cashel 
 
 Under  the  archbishop  of  Tuam 
 
 Kildare 
 
 Ferns  and  Laugblin 
 
 OssOry 
 
 Waterford  and  Lismore 
 
 Limerick 
 
 Killaloe 
 
 Cork  and  Ross 
 
 Cloyne 
 TElphin 
 <  Cloyne 
 (^Killala  and  Achonry* 
 
 The  Catholics  have  also  a  hierarchy  nearly  similar,  but  the 
 metropolitans  and  bishops  are  considered  by  the  protestants  as 
 merely  titular.  The  presbyterians  being  here  dissenters,  their 
 form  of  ecclesiastic  government  necessai'ily  approaches  that  of 
 the  independents. 
 
 Government?^  The  government  of  Ireland  w^as  constructed 
 upon  the  plan  of  that  of  England,  being  vested  in  a  house  of  com- 
 mons, and  another  of  peers,  while  the  king  was  represented  by  a 
 lord  lieutenant  or  viceroy.  But  no  act  of  impoi'tance  was  con- 
 sidered as  valid,  till  it  received  the  sanction  of  the  king  and  coun- 
 cil of  Great  Britain.  At  present  Ireland  being  united  to  England, 
 the  form  of  government  is  of  course  identically  the  same.  There 
 are  some  minute  variations  between  the  statute  and  common  laws 
 of  Ireland  and  those  of  England. 
 
 Civil  Divisions.^  Ireland  is  primarily  divided  into  four  provinc- 
 es, viz  Ulster  to  the  North,  Connaught  to  the  West,  Leinster  to 
 the  East,  and  Munster  to  the  South.  The  subdivisions  are  coun- 
 ties, of  which  the  following  is  a  list : 
 
 *  Cough's  Cami'.en,  iii.  487.    The  primacy  is  worth  SOOO/.  a  year,   Dcrrv  7000/.  the 
 other  bishoprics  Ironi  4000/.  to  2000/.     Young,  ii.  IS'J. 
 
IRELAND. 
 
 131 
 
 "Donegal 
 Londonderry 
 Antrim 
 Tyrone 
 In  Ulster         <{  Fermanagh 
 Monaghan 
 Armagh 
 Down 
 ^Cavan 
 Leitrim 
 Sligo 
 
 In  Connaught-^  Mayo 
 J  Galway 
 (^Roscommon 
 
 In  Lienster 
 
 'Louth 
 
 Meath 
 
 Longford 
 
 Westmeath 
 
 DubUn 
 J  King's  county 
 ]  Kildare 
 
 Queen's  county 
 
 Wicklow 
 
 Carlo  w 
 
 Kilkenny 
 
 Wexford 
 fClare 
 I  Tipperary 
 J  Waterford 
 
 In  Munster     ^ 
 
 Limerick 
 I  Cork 
 I^Kerry 
 
 Fofiulation.']  The  population  of  Ireland  i^  generally  estimat- 
 ed at  four  millions.  By  a  census  taken  some  years  since  they 
 amounted  to  3,427,209.  The  number  of  hovises  was  489,897.  Nu- 
 mercus  migrations  have  taken  place  from  Ii'eland  to  the  various 
 British  settlements ;  but  no  separate  colony  of  Irish  has  been 
 founded. 
 
 Armyr^  Besides  large  contributions  to  the  British  army,  Ire- 
 land in  1780  raised  upwards  of  40,000  volunteers,  and  has  recent- 
 ly equipped  a  considerable  militia  and  yeomanry.  If  we  suppose 
 every  eighth  person  capable  of  arms,  Ireland  might  raise  a  force 
 of  500,000  men.  Of  mariners  Ireland  contributes  an  inadequate 
 proportion,  and  inferior  in  skill  to  the  British. 
 
 Reve7nies.~^  The  average  amount  of  the  Irish  revenue  in  three 
 years,  viz.  1796-7-8  was  jC1,860,000,  Its  amount,  in  1806,  Avas 
 ;C  5,604,000  ;  and  in  1808,  6,174,000. 
 
 Political  Importance^  ^yc]  The  political  importance  and  rela- 
 tions of  Ireland  are  great,  but  intimately  blended  with  those  of 
 England  ;  while  her  western  position  imparts  singular  advantages 
 in  the  commeixe  with  America  and  the  West  Indies. 
 
 CHAPTER  III. 
 
 MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS,  LANGUAGE,  LITERATURE,  EDUCATION, 
 UNIVERSITIES,  CITIES  AND  TOWNS,  EDIFICES,  INLAND  NAVI- 
 GATION,   MANUFACTURES    AND    COMMERCE. 
 
 Manners  and  Customs.']  THE  manners  of  the  superior 
 classes  of  people  in  Ireland  now  nearly  approach  to  the  English 
 standard,  except  that  excess  in  wine,  unfashionable  in  England, 
 continues  to  prevail  too  much  in  the  sister  island.  The  Irish 
 gentry  are  also  seldom  addicted  to  literature  or  the  arts  ;  but 
 amuse  themselves  with  hunting  and  other  robust  exercises.  Hence 
 an  overflow  of  health  and  spirits  ;  and  the  observation  of  an  able 
 
132  IRELAND. 
 
 writer,  that  Ireland  produces  the  stoutest  men,  and  the  finest 
 women  in  pAirope,  must  not  be  confined  to  the  inferior  classes. 
 The  common  people  of  Ireland  still  retain  too  many  features  of 
 national  manners.  A  funeral  is  joined  by  all  the  men  and  women 
 of  the  vicinity,  and  is  accompanied  with  dreadful  howls,  and  other  ' 
 barbarous  ceremonies.  Their  diet  consists  chiefly  of  potatoes 
 and  buttermilk ;  and  the  rural  conagc  is  a  wretched  hovel  of 
 mud.  The  favorite  liquor  is  usquebaugh,  or  the  water  of  life  ; 
 but  more  properly  the  water  of  death,  being-  an  ardent  and  perni- 
 cious distillation  from  corn. 
 
 Languagi.']  The  English  language  daily  gains  ground  in  Ire- 
 land, ar.d  n.iis^it,  if  proper  attention  had  been  bestowed  on  the  na- 
 tional education,  have  become,  ere  now,  the  general  idiom  of  the 
 country.  The  ancient  Irish  is  a  dialect  of  the  Celtic  intermin- 
 gled Avith  many  Gothic  words,  imported  by  the  Belgic  colonies, 
 by  the  Scandinavians,  and  by  the  English. 
 
 The  Lord's  prayer  in  the  Irish  idiom  runs  in  the  following  terms  : 
 
 Ar  nathair  ata  ar  Keamh.  j\'aomhtIiar  Haimn.  Tigcadh  do  Ri- 
 oghachd.  Deuntar  do  Thoil  ar  an  Ttalamh  mar  do  nithear  ar 
 Neavih.  Ar  iiaran  la  alhcmkail  labhair  dhuinn  a  niu.  Agus  maith 
 dhuinn  ar  Blijiacha  mar  mhaithmidne  dar  bhfiitheamhnuibb  fein. 
 Agus  na  Icig  dmi  a  cathughadh.      Achd  sair  sinn  o  Oic.      Aintn. 
 
 Literature?^  The  literature  of  Ireland  has  a  venerable  elaini 
 to  antiquity  ;  for  as  has  been  already  mentioned,  in  the  centuries 
 immediately  following  the  introduction  of  Christianity  many  wri- 
 ters arose,  whose  woi-ks  consist  of  lives  of  saints,  and  works  of  pie- 
 ty and  discipline,  presenting  to  the  inquisitive  reader  many  sin- 
 gular features  of  the  history  of  tde  hunian  mind.  The  Anglo- 
 Saxons  derived  their  first  illumination  from  Ireland  ;  and  in  Scot- 
 land literature  continued  to  be  the  special  province  of  the  Irish 
 clergy,  till  the  thirteenth  century. 
 
 Education?^  In  no  quarter  of  the  British  dominions,  has  edu- 
 cation been  conducted  upon  so  solid  and  rational  a  plan  as  in  Scot- 
 land ;  and  no  where  has  it  been  so  much  neglected  as  in  Ireland. 
 It  is  to  be  hoped  that  one  consequence,  and  not  the  least  impor- 
 tant, of  the  union,  will  be  the  introduction  of  parochial  education 
 into  Ireland,  a  sure  mean  of  preventing  the  ebullitions  of  ignorant 
 discontent. 
 
 U7iiverfiiti€s.~\  With  four  archbishoprics  Ireland  only  possesses 
 one  university,  that  of  Dublin.*  This  institution  was  first  pro- 
 jected by  archbishop  Leech,  about  the  year  1311;  but  death  hav- 
 ing interrupted  his  design,  it  was  revived  and  executed  by  Eick- 
 nor,  his  successor,  and  enjoyed  moderate  prosperity  for  about  forty 
 years,  when  the  revenues  failed. 
 
 In  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  the  university  was  refounded  by  vol- 
 untary contribution,  under  the  auspices  of  Sydney  the  Lord  Dep- 
 uty. It  consists  of  a  chancellor,  vice-chancellor,  provost,  vice- 
 provost,  twenty-two  fellows,  and  thirteen  professors  of  various 
 sciences.  The  number  of  students  is  commoidy  about  four  hun- 
 dred, including  seventy  on  the  foundation.     The  building  consists 
 
 *  Gough's  Ciunden,  iii.  555. 
 
IRELAND.  133 
 
 of  two  quadrangles,  and  it  contains  a  library  of  some  account,  and 
 a  printing-office. 
 
 At  Kilkenny  there  is  an  endowed  school,  or  what  is  called  a 
 college  ;  but  its  institutes  seem  little  adapted  to  the  quiet  of  an 
 academical  life. 
 
 The  Dublin  Society  for  the  improvement  of  Agriculture  and 
 Manufactures  was  instituted  by  the  efforts  of  the  patriotic  Dr. 
 Samuel  Madden  in  1731,  being  the  earliest  of  the  kind  now  exist- 
 ing in  Europe.* 
 
 CUies  and  Towyis.']  Dublin,  the  capital  city  of  Ireland  seems 
 to  be  the  Eblana  of  Ptolemy  ;  but  continued  little  known  till  the 
 tenth  century,  when  it  was  mentioned  in  the  Saxon  chronicle  ;  and 
 in  the  beginning  of  the  next  century,  we  have  coins  ot  Canute 
 struck  at  Dublin.  The  situation  is  delightful,  in  a  bottom,  be- 
 tween ranges  of  hills  on  the  south  and  north.  It  is  pervaded  by 
 the  river  Liffy,  and  by  some  rivulets.  The  inhabitants  in  1802, 
 were  167,899.1  This  capital  being  justly  accounted  the  second  in 
 the  British  dominions. 
 
 The  circumference  of  Dublin  may  be  about  ten  miles,  being 
 about  two  miles  and  a  quarter  in  length,  and  as  much  in  breadth. 
 The  harbor  is  incommodious,  being  impeded  Avith  two  banks  of 
 sand,  called  the  north  and  south  bulls,  which  prevent  ships  of 
 large  burden  from  passing  the  bar  ;  but  some  improvements  have 
 been  made,  and  others  might  be  carried  into  execution.  A  mole 
 has  been  constructed  four  miles  in  length ;  and  the  quays  are  spa- 
 cious and  beautiful.  There  are  six  bridges,  the  chief  of  which  is 
 that  called  Essex.  The  castle  was  founded  about  the  year  1205, 
 and  continues,  though  in  great  part  rebuilt,  to  be  the  sanctuary  ot 
 the  public  records,  as  it  formerly  v/as  the  residence  of  the  viceroy. 
 The  parliament-house  is  a  superb  building,  erected  at  considera- 
 ble expense.  The  church  of.  St.  Patrick  is  the  cathedral,  a  ven- 
 erable building,  Avhich  was  begun  in  the  end  of  the  twelfth  centu- 
 ry ;  but  the  steeple,  the  highest  in  the  city,  was  not  erected  till 
 the  year  1570.  The  royal  exchange  was  completed  in  1779  ;  and 
 among  other  beautiful  edifices  must  not  be  omitted  that  whirlpool 
 of  expenditure  the  custom  house  ;  and  the  houses  of  the  duke  of 
 Lcinstcr,  the  earl  of  Charlemont,  and  others. 
 
 Dublin  has  an  ample  supply  of  native  provisions  ;  but  coals  are 
 imported  from  Scotland  and  Cumberland. 
 
 Cork  is  a  city  of  considerable  importance,  situated  on  the  south 
 cast  side  of  the  island,  and  supposed  to  contain  about  70,000  in- 
 habitants. The  haven  ranks  among  the  most  capacious  and  safe 
 in  Europe ;  and  the  exportation,  the  largest  in  the  sister  king- 
 dom, consists  chiefly  of  beef,  hides,  tallow,  and  butter.  It  is  tho 
 grand  market  of  Irish  provisions ;  and  it  was  computed  that  not 
 less  than  a  hundred  thousand  cattle  were  here  annually  kill- 
 ed and  salted,  between  the  months  of  August  and  January.  This 
 city  lies  chiefly  in  a  marshy  island,  surrounded  by  the  river  Lee  ; 
 but  the  marshes  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river  having  been 
 
 *  Young,  ii.  210.  j  llassel. 
 
134  IRELAND. 
 
 drained,  ample  space  has  been  given  to  the  recent  improvements.* 
 
 Limerick  unites  the  fortunate  situation  of  being  almost  central 
 to  the  south  of  Ireland,  with  an  excellent  haven,  formed  by  the 
 long  estuary  of  the  river  Shannon.  The  city  is  accounted  the 
 third  in  Ireland,  and  was  formerly  fortified  with  great  care.  The 
 episcopal  see  is  said  to  have  been  founded  in  the  year  652.  The 
 Danes  held  the  city  from  the  ninth  century  to  the  eleventh. 
 There  are  three  bridges  over  the  river,  one  of  v/hich  consists  of 
 fourteen  arches.  The  number  of  inhabitants  has  been  computed 
 at  50,000.     The  chief  exports  slvg  beef  and  other  provisions.! 
 
 The  other  chief  towns  in  Ireland  shall  be  briefly  mentioned,  in 
 a  geographical  progress  from  the  south  towards  the  north. 
 
 Galway  is  a  town  of  considerable  note,  and  carries  on  an  ex- 
 tensive trade  with  the  West  Indies.  The  port  is  commoflious  and 
 safe,  but  distant  from  the  city,  which  can  only  be  reached  by  ves- 
 sels of  small  burden :  the  number  of  inhabitants  is  computed  at 
 12,000.  Greater  trade  is  now  carried  on  in  the  bay  of  Sligo  than 
 at  Galway. :{: 
 
 On  Klew  bay,  in  the  centre  of  the  west  of  Ireland,  stands  New- 
 port, but  by  some  fatality  the  advantages  of  the  county  of  Mayo, 
 have  not  been  improved,  nor  are  there  any  towns  of  much  conse- 
 quence upon  the  Avhole  western  coast.  Sligp  is,  however,  increas- 
 ing in  trade,  and  the  inhabitants  are  computed  at  8,000  ;  and  Cas- 
 tlebar  is  also  a  prosperous  town.§ 
 
 Londonderry  is  more  remarkable  for  its  ancient  and  military 
 fame  than  for  its  present  commerce,  though  not  unimportant.  It 
 stands  on  the  river  Foyle,  over  which  a  Avooden  bridge  of  singu- 
 lar construction,  one  thousand  and  sixty-eight  feet  in  length,  was 
 thrown  in  1791.  Inhabitants  about  11,000.11 
 
 Belfast  on  the  north-east  is  in  the  centre  of  the  linen  manufac- 
 tures, and  may  almost  be  regarc'ed  as  a  Scottish  colony.  The  in- 
 habitants are  computed  at  1S,000.  The  chief  manufactures,  cot- 
 ton, cambric,  sail-clotli,  linen,  Avith  glass,  sugar  and  earthen  Avare. 
 It  maintains  considerable  intercourse  Avith  the  commercial  city  of 
 GlasgoAv;  and  the  grand  exports  are  to  the  West  Indies  and 
 America. 
 
 Dundalk  has  also  its  manufa.ctures  of  linen  and  muslin.  Drog- 
 heda  imports  sea  coal  and  goods  from  England,  and  exports  con- 
 siderable quantities  of  grain.  It  is  a  Avell  built  tOAvn  on  the  Boyne  : 
 the  inhabitants  are  computed  at  10,000. 
 
 ToAvards  the  south-east,  Wexford  claims  the  first  notice,  being 
 remarkable  for  its  Avoollen  manufactures ;  but  the  haven,  though 
 spacious,  is  not  sufficiently  deep  for  large  vessels.  The  inhabi- 
 tants are  9,000. 
 
 Waterford  is  a  city  of  considerable  importance,  situated  on  the 
 river  Suir,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been  founded  by  the  Danes. 
 It  suffered  greatly  in  the  late  disorders  ;  and  the  inhabitants  can- 
 not noAV  be  supposed  to  exceed  30,000.  The  chief  exports  are 
 beef,  pork,  8cc.  and  linen.  Packet-boats  sail  regularly  betAvixt 
 Waterford  and  Milford  Haven. 
 
 •  Mr.  Young,  vol.  i.  417,  expresses  his  astonishment  at  the  popMlousness  of  Cork. 
 The  .luties  of  the  harbor  were,  in  1751,  62,(KiOZ,-  in  1779,  140,000/'. 
 f  GoiigU's  Camden,  iit.  517.  4  Beauf.  9.  §  Ibid,  7'i.  ^  Hass(  1. 
 
IRELAND  135 
 
 The  sea-ports  of  Dungarv-on  and  Youghall  are  lost  in  the  su- 
 perior consequence  of  Cork  ;  but  Kinsale  is  a  maritime  arsenal, 
 and  is  supposed  to  contain  8,000  souls. 
 
 The  chief  towns  in  the  interior,  Armagh,  Tuam,  Cashel,  Sec.  &c. 
 are  rather  venerable  from  their  ecclesiastic  antiquity,  thanimpor^ 
 tant  in  themselves.  Kilkenny  is,  howevev,  an  exception;  a  hand- 
 some town,  with  16,000  inhabitants. 
 
 Edijices.~\  Many  of  the  chief  edifices  of  Ireland  have  been  al- 
 ready mentioned  in  the  description  of  Dublin.  The  cathedrals 
 seldom  aspire  to  great  praise  of  architecture  ;  and  the  villas  of  the 
 nobility  generally  yield  in  splendor  to  those  of  England,  and  even 
 of  Scotland. 
 
 Roads.~^  Though  the  turnpike  roads  in  Ireland  are  rather  ne- 
 glected, yet  the  cross  roads  are  admirable;  and  Mr.  Young  has 
 explained  at  length  the  principles  upon  which  they  are  con- 
 structed.* 
 
 Inland  J\i''axdgation.~\  The  advantages  derived  by  England  from 
 inland  navigation  soon  attracted  the  attention  of  Ireland  ;  and  not 
 many  years  after  the  example  set  by  the  duke  of  Bridgewater,  a 
 grand  canal  was  begun  from  the  city  of  Dublin  to  the  river  Shan- 
 non, and  was  actually  carried  on  to  the  bog  of  Allen,  at  the  expense 
 of  77,000/.t  But  the  engineer's  want  of  ability  occasioned  great 
 errors  in  the  original  plan  and  survey ;  and  the  work  was  intcr- 
 I'upted  in  1770.  Nor,  unhappily,  have  proper  means  been  adopt-, 
 ed  to  execute  the  plan,  which  remains  imperfect,  after  an  expend- 
 iture of  half  a  million  ;  and  an  able  writer  informs  us,  that  even 
 the  design  was  absurd,  as  the  country  through  which  the  canal 
 passes  is  one  of  the  least  productive  for  tite  Dublin  market4 
 
 A  canal  is  completed  from  the  town  of  Newry  to  the  sea,  which 
 was,  however,  intended  to  have  passed  that  town  towards  the  col- 
 lieries of  Drumglass  and  Dungannon.  This  attempt,  however,  to 
 supply  Dublin  -with  Irish  coals,  has  hitherto  been  only  successful 
 in  part,  though  the  beds  of  coals  are  said  to  be  very  abundant. 
 
 Manufactures  and  Cojinnerce.']  Though  we  find,  as  has  been 
 already  mentioned,  that  Ireland  was  distinguished  at  an  early  pe- 
 riod for  her  manufacture  of  woollen-stuffs,  yet  the  spirit  oi  indus- 
 try made  little  progress,  and  the  chief  Irish  manufactures  are  of 
 recent  institution.  But  the  linen  manufacture  was  not  unknown  in 
 Ireland  in  more  early  times,  as  appears  from  the  acts  of  parlia- 
 ment in  the  reigns  of  Henry  VIII.  and  Elizabeth. 
 
 The  manufactures  and  commerce  of  Ireland  have  experienced 
 an  unexampled  increase  since  the  union  with  Great  Britain  in  1800. 
 The  value  of  hardware  imported  in  1799,  was  ^  60,000  sterling  ; 
 and  in  1808  ^250,000.  The  following  table  will  exhibit  this  in- 
 crease in  various  articles  : 
 
 179^  1807  1808 
 
 Cotton,  lbs.  460,000  1,223,000  1,486,000 
 
 Carpeting,  yds.  51,000  133,000  187,000 
 
 Sugar,  cwt.  211,000  245,000  447,000 
 
 Drapery,  yds.  1,562,000  3,033,000  3,078,000 
 
 Cotton  cloth,  yds.        124,000  141,000  228,000 
 
 *  Vol.  ii.  131.  I  Pliillips,  330.  t  Youns's  Tour  in  IrdanJ. 
 
isor 
 
 1R08 
 
 41,587,000 
 
 43,904,382 
 
 1,600 
 
 2,440 
 
 412 
 
 1,290 
 
 136  IRELAND. 
 
 The  exports  of  Ireland  in  various  articles  in  tiiese  years  were 
 as  follows  : 
 
 Linen,  yds.  36,l/'4,000 
 
 P'lax,  tons  300 
 
 Linen  yarn,  tons  830 
 
 The  average  annual  export  in  1797-8-9  amounted  to, /;  6,121,757. 
 In  1806.,  .-C  9,314,854  ;    1807, /;  10,1 10,385  ;    1808,  ^^  1  2,577,5  17. 
 
 The  amount  of  the  imports  in  1808,  was  £  8,860,325  ;  of  which 
 iC  329,810  were  re-exported. 
 
 The  amount  of  British  manufactures  purchased  by  Ireland  in 
 1799,  was  £  2,0«'7,672;   and  in  1808,  £  4,500,000. 
 
 A  large  portion  of  the  commerce  of  Ireland  arises  from  her 
 abundant  stores  of  black  cattle,  the  moisture  of  the  climate  ren- 
 dering the  pasturage  remarkably  luxuriant. 
 
 The  average  annual  exports  of  Ireland  for  the  seven  years 
 previous  to  1791,  amounted,  according  to  Dr.  Beaufort,  to 
 4,357,000/. 
 
 CHAPTER  IV. 
 NATURAL  GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 CLIMATE  AND  SEASONS,  FACE  OF  THE  COUNTRY,  SOIL  AND  AG- 
 RICULTURE, RIVERS,  LAKES,  MOUNTAINS,  FORESTS,  BOTANY, 
 ZOOLOGY,  MINERALOGY,  MINERAL  WATERS,  NATURAL  CURI- 
 OSITIES. 
 
 Climate.~\  IRELAND  lying  nearly  in  the  same  parallel 
 with  England,  the  difference  of  climate  cannot  be  supposed  to  be 
 very  important.  The  mean  temperature  of  the  north  is  about  48  ; 
 of  the  middle  50  ;  of  the  south  52  of  Fahrenheit.* 
 
 Face  of  the  Count.nj.~\  In  considering  the  face  of  the  country  i^ 
 must  be  remembered,  that  Ireland  forms  a  striking  contrast  to 
 Scotland,  being  mostly  level,  fertile,  and  abundant  in  pasturage. 
 The  chains  of  hills,  for  they  can  hardly  aspire  to  the  name  of 
 mountains,  are  few,  and  unimportant. 
 
 Soil  and  Agriculture?^  The  soil  and  agriculture  of  Ireland  are 
 topics  which  have  been  ably  illustrated  by  an  intelligent  writer.f 
 He  observes,  that  the  quantity  of  the  cultivated  land  exceeds,  in 
 proportion,  that  of  England.  The  most  striking  feature  is  the 
 rocky  nature  of  the  soil,  stones  generally  appearing  on  the  surface, 
 yet  Avithout  any  injury  to  the  fertility.  The  stones  are,  for  the 
 most  part,  calcareous,  and  appear  at  no  great  depth,  even  in  the 
 most  flat  and  fertile  parts,  as  Limerick,  Tipperary,  and  Meath. 
 The  climate  being  more  moist  than  that  of  England  ;  the  verdure 
 never  appears  parched  with  heat.:|     Tillage  is  little  understood. 
 
 *  1  Tip.ns.  R.  T.  A.  vol.  ii.  t  Young's  Tour,  ii.  "2. 
 
 t  The  CniTHgh  of  Kildiire  is  a  most  beaiitirul  lavn,  of  above  4,000^Eiisilish  acres,  a 
 sheep-walk  of  the  softest  turf,  and  most  delicious  verdure.    Young  ij.  7. 
 
IRELAND.  137 
 
 even  in  the  best  corn  counties  ;  turnips  and  clover  being  almost 
 unknown  :  the  wheat  sown  upon  fallow,  and  followed  by  several 
 crops  of  spring  corn.  The  farmers  arc  oppressed  by  the  shock- 
 ing system  of  middle  men.,  who  rent  farms  from  the  landlords,  and 
 let  them  to  the  real  occupiers  ;  who,  as  well  as  the  proprietors, 
 suffer  greatly  by  this  strange  practice.  Lime-stone  gravel  is  a 
 manure  peculiar  to  Ireland  ;  having,  on  uncultivated  land,  the 
 same  wonderful  effects  as  lime,  and  on  all  soils  it  is  benehcial.* 
 
 Rivers.~\  Among  the  chief  rivers  of  Ireland  must  first  be  men- 
 tioned the  Shannon,  which  rises  from  the  Lake  of  Allen,  and  pass- 
 ing through  two  other  large  lakes.  Lough  Ree,  and  Lough  Derg, 
 afterwards  extends  below  Limerick,  into  a  vast  estuary  or  firth,' 
 about  sixty  miles  in  length,  and  from  three  to  ten  in  breadth. f 
 This  noble  river  is,  almost  through  its  whole  course,  so  wide  and 
 deep,  as  to  afford  easy  navigation.  Boate  informs  us,  that  the  cel- 
 ebrated earl  of  Strafford  designed  to  remove  a  rock,  six  miles 
 above  Limerick,  which  forming  a  cataract,  impedes  the  inter- 
 course between  the  upper  and  the  lower  parts.  The  whole  course 
 of  the  Shannon  may  be  computed  at  170  miles. 
 
 The  other  rivers  of  Ireland  have  little  of  this  majestic  character. 
 
 The  river  Barrow  rises  about  forty  miles  to  the  west  of  Dublin, 
 near  the  source  of  the  Boyne  ;  and,  after  a  course  of  about  one 
 hundred  miles,  enters  the  sea  on  the  south  east,  having  received 
 the  rivers  Nour  and  Suir,  and  formed  the  harbor  of  Waterford. 
 
 The  Blackwater,  another  considerable  stream  in  the  south,  en- 
 ters the  sea  at  Youghall  bay. 
 
 The  Slaney  forms  the  hai4)or  of  Wexford. 
 
 The  Liffy  is  an  inconsiderable  stream,  ennobled  by  the  capital. 
 
 The  Boyne,  after  a  course  of  about  fifty  miles,  also  enters  the 
 eastern  sea ;  the  other  rivers  on  the  east  are  small,  and  unim- 
 portant. 
 
 In  the  nortv  the  Banna  is  a  considerable  stream,  which  per- 
 vades Lough  Neagh,  and  enters  the  sea  after  a  course  of  about 
 seventy  miles.  By  the  canal  of  Newry  it  communicates  with 
 Carlingford  bay;  and  thus  insulates  the  north-east  projection  of 
 Ireland. 
 
 The  river  Foyle  passes  by  Londonderry,  and  has  a  considerable 
 estuary  called  Lough  Foyle.  The  Swilly  is  of  considerable  length, 
 but  forms  a  long  estuary. 
 
 On  the  N.  W.  Lough  Em  issues  into  Donnegal  bay  by  a  con- 
 siderable stream ;  but  no  other  river  of  consequence  occurs  till 
 we  reach  the  estuary  of  the  Shannon ;  nor  are  the  rivers  on  the  S. 
 W.  of  much  note. 
 
 The  lakes  of  Ireland  are  numerous,  and  some  of  them  exten- 
 sive. The  term  Lough.,  corresponding  with  the  Scottish  Loch.,  is 
 sometimes  applied  to  an  estuary,  or  to  an  inlet  of  the  sea,  such  as 
 the  Swilly,  the  Foyle,  that  of  Strangford,  Down,  Sec.  The  chief 
 lake  of  fresh  water  is  that  of  Ern,  which  exceeds  thirty  British 
 miles  in  length,  and  twelve  in  iis  greatest  breadth  ;  it  is  divided 
 
 •  Young  in.  -j-  Boate,  p.  2G. 
 
 VOL.    II.  18 
 
13S  IRELAND. 
 
 by  a  narrow  outlet  from  the  southern  part  into  the  northern,  of 
 aljout  four  miles  in  length. 
 
 Next  in  magnitude  is  Neagh,  about  twenty -two  miles  in  length, 
 and  twelve  in  breadth.  Both  these  lakes  are  studded  with  small 
 islands ;  and  the  latter  is  said  to  possess  a  petrifying  quality. 
 
 The  Lake  of  Corrib,  in  the  county  of  Galway,  is  about  twenty 
 miles  in  length,  and  from  two  to  five  wide.  Those  of  Ree  and 
 Derg  are  less  considerable  in  size  ;  and  there  is  a  smaller  lake  al- 
 so named  Derg,  in  the  N.  W.  which  was  remarkable  in  supersti- 
 tious times  for  a  little  Island,  containing  what  is  called  the  purga- 
 tory of  St.  Patrick. 
 
 Among  the  lakes  of  the  second  magnitude  must  be  first  named 
 the  beautiful  and  interesting  Lough  of  Killaniey  in  the  S.  W. 
 abounding  with  romantic  views,  and  fringed  with  the  arbutrs,  no 
 where  else  a  native  of  the  British  dominions.  This  is  almost  the 
 only  lake  in  the  south  of  Ireland ;  and  the  observation  may  be  ex- 
 tended to  the  east.  On  the  N.  Vv.  are  the  lakes  of  Eask,  Frierty, 
 Melve,  Macnean,  and  Gill.  That  of  Allen,  as  already  mentioned, 
 is  a  chief  source  of  the  Shannon,  into  which  the  Gara  and  Key  al- 
 so pour  their  waters.  Further  to  the  west  are  two  considerable 
 lakes,  the  Conn  and  the  Mask  ;  nor  must  those  of  Corrafin  be  for- 
 gotten. 
 
 Mountains.^  The  mountainous  chains  in  Ireland  are  neither 
 numerous  nor  important ;  but  an  upland  ridge  divides  the  coun- 
 try from  the  N.E.  to  the  S.  W.  giving  birth  to  several  of  the  rivers. 
 The  Irish  hills  generally  form  short  lines,  or  detached  groups. 
 One  gi'oup  of  considerable  height  appears  on  the  west  and  south 
 of  Lough-Lane,  or  what  is  called  the  lake  of  Kiliarny :  of  these 
 Mangerton  is  2,500  feet  above  the  sea.  A  small  line  of  hills  exr 
 tends  on  the  N.  W.  of  Bantry  bay,  and  passes  to  the  east,  imder 
 the  name  of  the  Shehy  mountains.*  To  the  north  of  this  is  the 
 line  of  Sliblogher  and  Nagles,  followed  by  the  Gakoe  mountains  ; 
 and  towards  the  east,  are  those  of  Knockendown,  which  bend 
 southward  towards  the  bay  of  Dungarvon.  A  small  chain  also  ap- 
 pears to  the  south  of  Tralee,  which,  with  a  group  to  the  N.  E. 
 may  be  said  to  complete  the  enumeration  of  the  mourjtains  of 
 Munster. 
 
 In  Leinster  is  the  mountain  of  Leinstcr,  the  line  of  Slieb-loom 
 on  the  S.  W.  and  a  considerable  group  to  the  south  of  Dublin, 
 styled  the  Kippure  mountains,  or  those  of  Wicklow.  The  extent 
 of  this  group  is  about  thirty  English  miles  in  length,  by  about 
 twelve  in  breadth. 
 
 In  Ulster  is  a"  small  group,  called  the  mountains  of  Mourne, 
 in  the  S.  E.  corner  of  the  province  :  one  of  them,  Donard,is  said 
 to  be  about  the  height  of  Mangerton.  The  hills  of  Slievecroob 
 (in  the  Irish  language  slirb/i,  signifies  a  mountain),  form  the  cen- 
 tre of  the  county  of  Downe  ;  and  several  hills  are  spHnkled  over 
 the  eastern  half  of  Antrim.  On  the  north  west  of  Loughneagh 
 are  those  of  Slievegallan  and   Carntogher.     Slieve    Snaght  is  a 
 
 *  Bcmiibrl'd  Memoir  of  a  Map  of  Ireland- 
 
IRELAND.  139 
 
 considerable  mountain  N.  W.  of  Loughfoyl,   whence  other  lines 
 and  groups  extend  down  to  Loug-hern. 
 
 The  eastern  part  of  Connaught  presents  numerous  marshes  ; 
 but  few  mountains,  except  those  of  Baughta  on  the  south.  The 
 extreme  western  peninsula  is  one  of  the  most  mountainous  re- 
 gions in  Ireland.  Among  other  names  may  be  mentioned,  Mount 
 Nephin,  in  the  county  of  Mayo,  a  solitary  hill  of  2640  feet,  and 
 One  of  the  most  considerable  in  the  island.  That  of  Croagh  Pat- 
 rick, on  the  S.  E.  of  Clcwbay,  a  cone  of  2666  ftet  ;  the  Ferna- 
 moor  mountains  to  the  west  of Loughmask ;  and  the  Twelve  Pins, 
 a  line  of  so  many  small  peaks  in  Ballinahinch  ;  with  othei-s  to 
 the  south  of  Loughcorrib.     . 
 
 I'^oj-csts.']  Scarcely  the  semblance  of  a  forest  remains  in  Ire- 
 land J  and  Boate  has  long  since  observed,  that  the  woods  have 
 been  greatly  diminished  since  the  entrance  of  the  English,  partly 
 from  the  extension  of  tillage,  and  partly  fi-om  the  necessity  of 
 opening  up  tlie  recesses  of  banditti.  Another  great  cause  was, 
 the  consumption  in  domestic  fuel,  and  in  the  iron  manufactures, 
 the  coal-mines  not  having  been  explored. 
 
 Boffs.l^  The  place  of  the  forests  is  unhappily  usurped  by  the 
 moors  or  bogs,  which  form  a  remarkable  feature  of  the  country. 
 Boate  divides  them  into  several  genera  and  species,  forming  an 
 elaborate  scale  of  stei'iiity.  The  dry  heaths  are  generally  con- 
 fined to  the  mountains.  The  bogs  he  sub-divides  into  four  de- 
 scriptions :  1 .  The  grassy,  in  which  the  water  being  concealed  by 
 herbage,  they  become  extremely  perilous  to  travellers  :  some 
 of  these  are  dry  in  the  summer.  2.  The  pools  of  water  and  mire. 
 3.  What  he  terms  hassocky  bogs,  or  shallow  lakes  studded  with 
 tufts  of  rushes,  which  are  chiefly  found  in  the  province  of  Lein- 
 ster,  especially  in  King's  and  Queen's  counties.  4.  The  peat 
 moors.  Ornaments  of  gold,  and  other  relics  of  antiquity,  have, 
 from  time  to  time,  been  discovered  in  the  bogs  at  great  depths  ; 
 and  there  are  other  indications  that  they  are  of  comparatively  re- 
 cent formation.  It  is  hoped  that  the  hand  of  industry  will,  in 
 time,  remove  many  of  these  blemishes;  and  one  of  the  greatest 
 improvements  of  modern  agriculture  is  that  of  reclaiming  peat 
 moors,  by  means  of  calcareous  manure. 
 
 The  Irisli  bogs  differ  from  the  English  morasses  in  being  rarely 
 level,  but  rising  into  hills  ;  and  there  is  a  bog  in  Donnegal  that  is 
 a  perfect  scenery  of  hill  and  dale.  The  plants  are  heath,  with 
 some  bog  myrtle,  and  a  little  sedgy  grass. 
 
 Botany.']  The  study  of  botany  has  been  less  cultivated  here 
 than  in  any  other  part  of  the  united  empire  ;  and  the  neighbor- 
 hood of  Dublin,  v/hich  has  been  the  best  explored,  affords  no  rare, 
 and  few  characteristic  plants.  From  the  general  mildness  of  the 
 climate,  the  extensive  tracts  of  bog,  and  the  vast  mountainous 
 ranges  that  intersect  the  country,  and  afford  capacious  basons  for 
 its  numerous  lakes,  it  is  obvious  that  the  Flora  of  Ireland,  when 
 complete,  will  probably  contain  several  species  that  are  strangers 
 to  the  rest  of  the  British  islands.  On  the  mountains  of  Sligo  is 
 found  the  Saxifraga   umbrosa,    (known  in  our  gardens  by  the 
 
140  IRELAND. 
 
 ■name  of  London  firide,)  and  the  romantic  scenery  of  Killarncy,  ifi 
 the  county  of  Kerry,  is  the  most  northern  habitat  of  the  Arbutus 
 Unedo  :  the  heaths  abound  with  the  stately  Erica  Daboeci  :  and 
 the  mountain  avens,  bear-berry,  with  other  Alpine  plants,  already 
 noticed  in  the  botany  of  Scotland,  blossom  unnoticed  amid  the 
 wide  solitude  of  their  rocky  fastnesses. 
 
 Zoology.']  In  passing  to  the  zoology  of  Ireland  it  may  be  ex- 
 pected, that  not  many  varieties  should  be  found  between  the  Irish 
 animals  and  those  of  England. 
 
 The  Irish  horses,  called  hobbys,  are  of  a  small  breed,  remai'ka- 
 ble  for  the  gentleness  of  their  pace. 
 
 The  Irish  hound  is  one  of  the  noblest  animals  of  the  class,  and 
 formerly  celebrated  for  his  size  and  vigor,  but  the  breed  is  now 
 almost  extinct. 
 
 -  Bede  has  commemorated  tlie  praise  of  Ireland  for  abundance 
 of  honey,  and  of  milk,  so  that  the  country  seems,  even  in  early 
 times,  to  have  abounded  in  cattle.  He  also  mentions  the  numer- 
 ous herds  of  deer,  which  animal  the  progress  of  cultivation  has 
 now  rendered  rare.  In  various  parts  of  Ireland  are  dug  up  enor- 
 mous horns,  probably  belonging  to  a  species  of  deer  now  extinct. 
 Some  of  these  horns  have  been  found  of  the  extent  of  fourteen 
 feet  from  tip  to  tip,  furnished  with  brow  antlers,  and  weighing 
 three  hundred  pounds  ;  the  whole  skeleton  is  frequently  found 
 with  them.  It  is  supposed  that  the  animal  must  have  been  about 
 twelve  feet  liigh. 
 
 Mineralogy.]  The  mineralogy  of  Ireland  has  been  recently 
 ennobled  by  the  discovery  of  considerable  masses  of  native  gold, 
 in  the  county  of  Wicklow,  to  the  south  of  Dublin.  These  were 
 found  in  a  brook,  running  west  to  east,  to  the  river  of  Avonmore, 
 where  it  is  joined  by  the  river  Aghran  ;  and  on  a  declivity  of  the 
 mountain  called  Croughan  Kinshelly,  about  seven  English  miles 
 west  of  Arklow,  and  six  south-west  of  the  noted  copper  mines  of 
 Cronbane.*  It  is  said  that  a  jeweller,  who  lately  died  in  Dublin, 
 often  declared,  that  gold  from  that  spot  had  passed  through  his 
 hands  to  the  value  of  30,0001.  the  secret  being  retained  for  many 
 years,  and  some  pieces  weighing  to  the  amount  of  70  or  80 
 guineas.  It  is  now  worked  for  government,  and  it  is  said  that  a 
 very  massy  vein  has  been  recently  discovered,  which,  it  is  hoped, 
 will  greatly  benefit  the  country  ;  for  mines  have,  in  all  ages,  an- 
 cient and  modern,  enriched  and  improved  the  countries  where 
 they  were  lound,  and  the  exception,  if  such,  of  Spanish  America 
 is  to  be  assigned  to  causes  of  a  different  nature. 
 
 The  silver  found  in  the  Irish  mines  deserves  more  attention. 
 Boate  mentions  a  mine  of  this  metal,  intermingled  with  lead, 
 which  was  wrought  in  the  county  of  Antrim,  and  yielded  a  pound 
 of  pure  silver  from  thirty  pounds  of  lead.  Another,  less  produc- 
 tive of  silver,  was  found  near  the  harbor  of  Sligo,  in  Connaught  ; 
 and  a  third  in  the  county  of  Tipperary,  twelve  miles  from  Limer- 
 ick.    The  ores  of  this  last  were  of  two  kinds,  most  generally  of  a 
 
 .  *  Philos.  Trans.  l"or. 
 
IRELAND.  141 
 
 reddish  color,  hard,  and  glistering  ;  the  other,  which  was  the 
 richest  in  silver,  resembled  a  blue  marl.  The  works  Avere  de- 
 stroyed in  the  Irish  insurrections  under  Charles  I. 
 
 Copper  has  been  recently  found  in  the  county  of  Wicklow,  and 
 at  Muccross,  in  Kerry. 
 
 One  of  the  chief  mineral  productions  of  Ireland  is  iron,  the 
 mines  of  which  were  little  known  till  the  time  of  Elizabeth. 
 
 The  beds  of  coal  to  be  seen  in  various  regions  of  Ireland  have 
 not  yet  been  explored  to  their  proper  extent.  That  of  Kilkenny, 
 found  at  Castlecomer,  is  deservedly  celebrated  among  mineralo- 
 gists, as  the  purest  which  has  yet  been  traced  in  any  quarter  of 
 the  globe. 
 
 One  of  the  most  beautiful  marbles  of  Ireland  is  found  near 
 Kilkenny,  and  others  have  been  discovered  in  various  parts  of  the 
 island.     Slate,  of  various  kinds,  is  also  abundant. 
 
 JVatural  Curiosities.']  Among  the  natural  curiosities  of  Ireland 
 would,  in  ancient  times,  have  been  mentioned  the  purgatory  of  St. 
 Patrick,  a  miserable  Monkish  delusion.  At  present  the  lake  of 
 Killarney  attracts  more  deserved  devotion.  This  picturesque  ex- 
 panse of  water  is  about  ten  miles  in  length,  and  from  one  to  seven 
 in  breadth  :  it  is  divided  into  three  parts>  called  the  upper,  lower, 
 and  Muckruss  lake  ;  and  is  surrounded  by  an  amphitheatre  of 
 mountains,  clothed  with  trees,  whose  verdure  is  contrasted  with 
 intervening  rocks.  The  Arbutus,  with  its  scarlet  fruit,  and  snowy 
 blossoms,  here  vegetates  in  great  luxuriance.  Nor  are  cascades, 
 and  other  features  of  rural  beauty  wanting  to  complete  the  scene.* 
 The  isle  of  Innisfallen  is  not  only  romantic,  but  of  venerable  fame 
 for  the  annals  there  written. 
 
 What  is  called  the  Giant's  Causeway  must  be  distinguished 
 among  the  most  remarkable  of  the  curiosities  of  Ireland.  The 
 first  account  is  that  given  by  Sir  R.  Buckley,  in  a  letter  to  Doctor 
 Lister,  1693.  This  surprising  collection  of  basaltic  pillars  is 
 about  eight  miles  N.  E.  from  Coleraine.  The  adjacent  coast  is 
 verdant,  but  precipitous  ;  and  from  it  the  Causeway  projects  into 
 the  sea,  to  an  unknown  extent.  The  part  explored  is  about  600 
 feet  in  length  ;  the  breadth  from  240  to  120  ;  the  height  from  16 
 to  36  feet  above  the  level  of  the  strand.  It  consists  of  many  thou- 
 sand pillars,  mostly  in  a  vertical  position  ;  some  of  them  high, 
 others  broken,  and,  for  a  considerable  space,  of  an  equal  height, 
 so  as  to  form  a  pavement.  They  are  closely  compacted  together ; 
 though  the  forni  be  various,  trigonal,  tetragonal,  pentagonal,  hex- 
 agonal, and  hcptagonal  ;  the  most  numerous  are  the  pentagonal. 
 The  pillars  are  rarely  composed  of  one  entire  piece,  but  mostly 
 consist  of  short  or  long  joints,  either  plane  or  alternately  concave 
 and  convex.  The  pillai's  are  from  15  to  24  inches,  or  more,  in 
 diameter.  Towards  the  N.  E.  is  what  is  called  the  organ,  in  the 
 side  of  a  hill,  consisting  of  fifty  pillars  ;  that  in  the  middle  is  40 
 feet  high,  the  others  gradually  diminishing.  Similar  pJ liars  are 
 also  found  a  mile  and  a  half  inland,  four  miles  to  the  west  of  the 
 Giant's  Causeway,  and  at  the  capes  of  Bengore  and  Fairhcad, 
 
 *  Young  i.  'i44,  ^c. 
 
142  IRELAND. 
 
 The  basalt  of  the  Giant's  Causeway  is  of  a  very  compact  tex- 
 ture, and  the  angles  of  the  pillars  have  preserved  their  sharpness, 
 though  exposed  to  the  sea  for  perhaps  two  or  three  thousand 
 years.*  The  same  shore  also  presents  horizontal  and  bending 
 pillars,  like  those  of  Stafifa  ;  the  attendant  minerals  are  zeolite  in 
 the  irregular  basalt,  steatite,  and  bits  of  agate,  red  ochre,  and 
 iron  ore. 
 
 IRISH  ILES. 
 
 The  few  and  small  isles  around  Ireland  are  unimportant,  but 
 must  not  be  wholly  omitted.  To  the  N.  E.  of  Dublin  is  Lambey, 
 a  small  island,  already  mentioned  ;  and  at  the  S.  E.  extremity  of 
 Ireland,  appear  the  rocks  called  Tashard  and  the  Saltee  isles. 
 At  the  southern  extremity  is  the  isle  of  Clare,  about  three  miles 
 and  a  half  in  length,  and  more  remarkable  for  its  southern  prom- 
 ontory called  Cape  Clear,  than  for  any  other  object.  Turning  to 
 the  N.  W.  are  the  isle  of  Densey,  the  Hog  islands,  and  the  Skel- 
 ligs  ;  to  the  north  of  the  latter  is  Valentia,  off  the  coast  of  Kerry, 
 w^hich  is  followed  by  the  Blaskets,  or  Ferriter  islands.  The 
 south  Arran  islands  lie  at  the  mouth  of  the  noble  bay  of  Galway, 
 and  are  remarkable  for  a  small  kind  of  oats  without  any  husk, 
 and  for  large  calves  :  the  chief  is  near  seven  miles  in  length.  A 
 number  of  small  islands  encircle  the  coast,  which  projects  fur- 
 thest into  the  Atlantic,  such  as  Ganorena,  Littermore,  Minish,In- 
 conee  ;  and  further  to  the  N.  W.  Dunloghan,  Omey,  Crua,  Sec. 
 Bosin  was  famous  in  the  days  of  monastic  sanctity,  and  has  re- 
 tained its  ancient  appellation.  To  the  N.  E.  are  the  Inisture,  and 
 another  Clare  at  the  mouth  of  Clew  bay  ;  at  the  bottom  of  Avhich 
 is  a  numerous  group  of  small  islands.  To  the  north  is  Achill,  the 
 largest  of  the  Irish  isles,  being  about  12  miles  long  by  10  broad. 
 It  is  separated  from  the  coast  of  Mayo  by  a  narrow  channel,  but 
 no  minute  description  of  it  has  appeared.  Inisnnorry  is  a  small 
 isle  at  the  mouth  of  the  bay  of  Donnegal  ;  and  no  other  isles 
 worth  mention  appear  till  we  arrive  at  the  northei'n  islands  of 
 Arran,  off  the  coast  of  Donnegal.  The  N.W.  extremity  of  Ire- 
 land is  marked  by  T017  isle  ;  and  returning  towards  the  east, 
 we  meet  with  Inistrahull  ;  and  after  an  equal  distance,  Rach- 
 lin,  the  Racina,  of  Ptolemy,  and  memorable  as  the  retreat  of  Rob- 
 ert I.  of  Scotland. 
 
 *  Kirwaa  Miu,  i.  232. 
 
LAPLAND.  u: 
 
 LAPLAND. 
 
 F.XTENT,  DIVISIONS,  ORIGINAL  POPULATION,  RELIGION,  GOVERN- 
 MENT, POPULATION,  LANGUAGE,  TOWNS,  MANUFACTURES,  CLI- 
 MATE, FACE  OF  THE  COUNTRY,  RIVERS,  LAKES,  MOUNTAINS, 
 BOTANY,    ZOOLOGY,    MINERALOGY. 
 
 Extent.']  LAPLAND  reaches  from  lat.  65,  N.  to  the 
 North  Cape  ;  and  from  the  Atlantic  on  the  W.  to  the  government 
 of  W.  Bothnia,  in  the  south,  and  farther  north  to  tlie  White  Sea, 
 on  the  E. 
 
 Division^.']  Part  of  Lapland  is  in  Norway,  part  in  Sweden,  and 
 part  in  Russia.  To  Norway  belong-  the  northwestern  and  north- 
 ern ;  to  Sweden  the  southern  ;  to  Russia  the  eastern. 
 
 Original  Pofiulalion.~\  Very  little  is  known  with  certainty  of  the 
 origin  of  the  Laplanders.  Some  writers  have  supposed  them  to 
 be  a  colony  of  Finns  ;  others  have  thought  that  they  bore  a 
 stronger  resemblance  to  the  Samoeids  of  Asia.  Their  language 
 is  said,  by  Leems,  to  have  less  similitude  to  the  Finnish,  than  the 
 Danish  to  the  German  ;  and  to  be  totally  unlike  any  of  the  dia- 
 lects of  the  Teutonic. 
 
 Religion.']  It  is  but  little  more  than  a  century  since  the  Lap- 
 landers were  converted  from  Paganism.  They  are  still  very  fond 
 of  many  of  their  old  sviperstitions.  Their  deities  were  of  four 
 kinds  ;  1,  Supercelestial,  Kadien  Atzhie,  or  the  fountain  of 
 power,  their  Jupiter  ;  and  his  son  Radien  Kiedde,  the  creator  : 
 these  were  the  supreme  gods.  2,  Celestial,  Beiive.,  the  Sun  or 
 Apollo  ;  and  Ailekes,  to  whom  Saturday  was  consecrated.  3, 
 Subcelestial,  or  in  the  air  and  on  the  earth  ;  Maderakka.,  or 
 the  Lapland  Lucina  ;  Saderakka.,  or  Venus,  to  whom  Friday  was 
 holy  ;  and  Juks  Akka.,  or  the  nurse.  4,  Subterranean,  Saiwo^ 
 and  Saiwo-Olmak,  gods  of  the  mountains  ;  Saiwo  Quelle,  or  their 
 Mercury,  who  conducted  the  shades  to  the  lower  regions  ;  Jabme 
 Akko.,  or  he  who  occupied  their  Elysium,  in  which  the  soul  was 
 furnished  with  a  new  body,  and  nobler  privileges  and  powers,  and 
 entitled  at  some  future  day  to  enjoy  the  sight  of  Radien,  and 
 dwell  with  him  for  ever  in  the  mansions  of  bliss.  Rota,  their 
 Pluto,  who  occupied  and  reigned  in  Rota-Abimo,  or  the  infernal 
 regions;  the  occupants  of  which  had  no  hopes  of  an  escape  ;  he, 
 together  with  his  sub-ordinates,  Fudno,  Mubber  and  Paha  EngeL 
 were  all  considered  as  evil-disposed  toAvards  mankind,  but  were 
 nevertheless  worshipped.  To  their  various  deities  they  sac- 
 rificed the  rein-deer,  the  sheep,  and  sometimes  tlie  seal  ;  ami 
 made  libatio4is  of  n^.iik,  whey  and  brandy,  and  offerings  of  cheese. 
 
 Government.]  The  Danish  and  Russian  Laplanders  are  still 
 savages  in  their  mode  of  life,  and  hardly  know  what  is  meant  by 
 governm.eut.  Those  of  Sweden  have  been  reduced  to  more  -sulj- 
 ordination. 
 
 Po/ndation.]  This  country  will  ahvays  be  thinly  uihabited. 
 Its  present  population  is  thought  not  to  exceed  60,000.     Russian. 
 
144  LAPLAND. 
 
 Lapland  contains  about  1200  or  1300  families.  The  Laplanders 
 are  generally  about  four  feet  high,  with  short  black  hair,  narrow 
 dark  eyes,  large  heads,  high  cheek  bones,  wide  mouth,  thick  lips, 
 and  a  swarthy  complexion.  They  call  themselves  Same  ;  their 
 speech,  same  giel,  and  their  country  Scnne-Edfia^ 
 
 Manners  and  Custo7}is.~\  Towards  the  shore  they  build  huts  ; 
 and  on  the  mountains  are  tents  of  a  conical  shape,  divided  into 
 apartments  for  themselves  and  their  cattle.  Their  dress  consists 
 of  a  red  kersey  cap,  with  yellow  stripes ;  a  tunic  of  sheep-skin  ; 
 a  cloak  and  leggins,  (a  sort  of  pantaloons  reaching  from  the  ancle 
 to  the  hip,)  made  sometimes  of  cloth,  and  sometimes  of  the  skiu 
 of  the  rein-deer  ;  and  shoes  of  the  undressed  hide  of  the  cow. 
 The  maritime  Laplanders  subsist  on  fish,  and  on  their  cattle  and 
 sheep  ;  the  mountaineers,  chiefly,  on  their  rein-deer  and  by  hunting. 
 
 La77guage.~\  The  language  of  Lt'.pland,  commonly  called  the 
 Laponic,  is  said  to  have  no  words  in  common  with  the  Gothic  or 
 Teutonic,  except  a  few  Norwegian  words,  which  are  evidently 
 foreign.  They  have  no  written  language.  Leems  mentions  a 
 number  of  words  both  in  Hebrew  and  in  GrecK  and  Latin,  wluch 
 a.re  to  be  found  in  the  Laponic.     The  Lord's  prayer  is  as  follows  : 
 
 Atki  mijam  juco  lee  aitnensisne.  jiilis  ziaddai  tu  nam.  Zwei- 
 gubatta  tu  Ryki.  Ziaddus  tu  Willis  nankuchte  almesne  nau  ei  ediia 
 mannae.  Wadde  mijai  ubii  mijanfert  fiefwen  laibebm.  Jah  anda- 
 gasloite  mi  jemijan  suddoi  naukuchte  mije,an-dagasloitebt  Mudi  ^7lije 
 welgogas  lien.  Jah  sissalaidi  mijabni.  ILle  tocko  keckzellebma  jia- 
 hast.     Amen. 
 
 To'wns7\  Kola  is  the  chief  town  of  Russian  Lapland.  It  is 
 near  the  Frozen  Ocean,  on  the  river  Kola,  in  lat.  68,  50,  N.  It  is 
 a  considerable  fishery  for  whales  and  sea-dogs. 
 
 Tornea^  the  capital  of  Swedish  Lapland,  stands  on  an  island 
 formed  by  the  river  Tornea,  a  short  distance  from  its  entrance  into 
 the  Gulf  of  Bothnia.  Its  harbor,  formerly  excellent,  has  been 
 greatly  injured  by  the  accumulation  of  sand,  and  the  gradual  de- 
 pression of  the  Baltic.  It  contains  about  600  souls  :  the  houses 
 are  all  of  one  story.  The  sun  on  the  longest  day  is  visible  at  mid- 
 night. 
 
 Enontekis  is  an  extensive  parish  in  Norwegian  Lapland,  con- 
 taining 930  inhabitants,  principally  ?io//iadesov  wandering  families. 
 
 Manufactures.^  The  men  make  cups  and  casks  of  beech-wood, 
 and  spoons  of  the  horns  of  the  rein-deer.  Steel  they  work  into 
 knives.  Their  sledges  are  made  in  the  shape  of  boats,  having  a 
 flat  stern.  They  have  a  keel  and  thwarts,  with  side  planks  fast- 
 ened with  wooden  pegs.  The  sledge  is  caulked,  and  has  the 
 drawing  rope  fastened  to  the  head-post.  Sawing-mills  have  been 
 lately  introduced.  The  women  prepare  the  furs  of  animals  taken 
 in  hunting ;  and  manufacture  thread  out  of  their  sinews.  They 
 manufacture  also  tinsel-wire,  and  dye  cloth  of  a  yellow  color. 
 They  weave  blankets  for  their  beds,  and  for  their  tents. 
 
 Climate.']  The  great  body  of  Lapland  is  situated  in  the  north- 
 ern frigid  zone.  It  is  also  very  mountainous.  These  circum- 
 stances expose  it  to  a  cold  too  intense  tg   be  borne  by  the  natives 
 
LAPLAND.  145 
 
 of  more  temperate  regions.  In  the  summer,  however,  the  heat 
 is,  for  a  short  time,  often  excessive.  The  whole  process  of  vege- 
 tation is  completed  in  two  months.  At  Utsjoc/ci,  upon  the  Tana, 
 An  lat.  69  53  N.  the  sun  is  hid  from  Jan.  21  to  Nov.  20.  The  ice 
 disappears  from  the  lakes  about  June  20th.  The  night-frosts  be- 
 gin in  July  ;  and  the  rivers  freeze  early  in  October. 
 
 i'cce  of  the  Country.^  Norwegian  Lapland  is  almost  entirely 
 mountainous,  the  principal  range  being  much  nearer  to  the  Ocean 
 than  to  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia.  The  prevailing  appearance  of  Swed- 
 ish Lapland  is  also  mountainous.  The  mountains  of  moderate 
 elevation  are  covered  with  forest-trees,  as  is  almost  all  the  level 
 country.  There  are  great  numbers  of  rivers  and  fresh  water 
 lakes  generally  incapable  of  navigation,  and  the  country  at  large 
 has  the  appearance  of  a  wilderness. 
 
 Between  Alten,  on  the  western  coast,  and  the  North  Cape,  the 
 peninsula  is  a  continuation  of  mountains,  intersected  by  lakes, 
 rivers  and  morasses. 
 
 Rivers7\  The  Tornea  rises  in  a  lake,  called  Tornea  Trask,  in 
 the  mountains  of  Kola.  It  receives  the  Muonis  a  mile  below 
 Kengis,  which  rises  above  Enontekis.  Near  its  mouth  it  is  gen- 
 ei'ally  900  yards  wide,  and  in  some  places  10  yards  deep. 
 
 The  Alten  rises  among  the  same  mountains,  and  after  a  course 
 of  more  than  150  miles  in  a  N.  W.  direction,  falls  into  the  Ocean 
 at  Alten. 
 
 The  Tana,  a  larger  stream,  pursues  a  N.  E.  direction,  and 
 empties  into  the  Tanafiard  east  of  the  North  Cape.  It  is  ex- 
 tremely rapid,  and  distinguished  for  the  excellence  of  its  salmon. 
 Its  source  is  among  the  mountains  of  Kemi,  a  chain  which  is  not 
 broken  by  any  of  the  rivers. 
 
 Lakcs7\  The  number  of  lakes  and  ponds  in  Lapland  is  very 
 great.  They  are  to  be  met  with  every  where  among  the  mountains', 
 and  are  the  sources  of  most  of  the  rivers.  Several  of  the  rivers 
 also  v/iden  into  lakes,  in  one  or  more  instances,  during  their 
 course.  The  Enara,  between  Swedish  and  Russian  Lapland,  is 
 70  miles  long  and  30  broad. 
 
 Mountains.^  A  chain  of  mountains  is  described  by  Tooke,  as 
 proceeding  eastward  from  the  range  of  Kolen,  till  it  meets  the 
 mountains  of  Olonetz.  This  chain  is  called,  on  the  maps,  the 
 Mountains  of  Kemi.  It  reaches  more  than  15  degrees  of  longi- 
 tude, and  divides  the  rivers  of  the  Baltic  from  those  of  the  Arctic 
 Ocean.  The  only  summit  of  this  chain,  whose  name  we  know,  is 
 Mount  Pallas.  Its  height  is  very  great,  but  has  not  been  meas- 
 ured. 
 
 Tho  range  of  Kolen  separates  Norwegian  Lapland  fro:ii  Swed- 
 ish, and  continues  as  far  as  the  North  Cape.  A  branch  of  it  is 
 said  to  run  eastward,  as  far  as  the  White  Sea. 
 
 jBota)iy.']  Between  Alten  and  the  North  Cape  no  tree  is  found 
 but  the  birch  ;  nor  on  the  mountains  north  of  Kautokeino  1 0(  > 
 m.iles  farther  north.  The  pine  begins  at  Alten  on  the  coast,  and 
 at  Kautokeino  in  the  interior.     The  fir,  five  varieties  of  the  wil- 
 
 VOL.  II.  19 
 
145  LAPLAND. 
 
 low,  and  the  strawberry-tree  are  abundant  in  the  country  round 
 Tornca. 
 
 TJie  smaller  plants  are  butterwort,  mcadowgrass,  bellflowei', 
 gentian,  cychnis,  cudweed,  lady  slipper,  diapensia,  honeysuckle, 
 sedge,  buli'ush  2  vai'ieties,  stichwort  3,marshcistus  3,  saxifrage  4, 
 raspberry  2,  crovv-foot  3,  lousewort  3,  whitlowgi-ass  3,  liverwort  4, 
 moss  5.  The  arctic  raspberry  is  the  most  delicious  of  its  kind, 
 and  has  a  very  agreeable  and  penetrating  smell. 
 
 Zool-j^yT^  The  rem-deer  is  the  pride  of  Lapland.  It  is  four 
 feet  six  inches  high  \  body  thick,  and  somewhat  square  ;  legs  short  ; 
 color  brown  above,  and  white  beneath.  The  horns  are  long  and 
 slender.  The  hoofs  ai'e  large,  and  make  a  clattering  noise  as  they 
 move.  It  is  one  of  the  fleetest  animals  known.  The  tame  ones 
 draw  the  sledges  200  miles  a  day  ;  feeding  in  summer  on  leaves, 
 and  in  the  winter  on  moss.  Their  flesh  is  well-tasted,  their  milk  and 
 cheese  nutritive  and  pleasant ;  their  skins  furnish  excellent  cloth- 
 ing for  the  bed  and  the  body  ;  and  their  intestines  and  sinews 
 form  strong  thread  and  cordage-  Cows,  sheep,  goats,  and  dogs 
 are  also  among  the  domestic  animals  of  the  Laplanders. 
 
 Bears  are  very  numerous.  Red,  black,  silver-haired  and  whits 
 foxes  are  found  in  very  great  numbers.  Of  martens  there  are  the 
 stone  marten^  the  birch  marten,  and  the  Jir-marten.  The  glutton 
 is  rather  uncommon  ;  the  beaver  more  frequent.  Three  species 
 of  otters  abound,  the  sea-otter,  the  bay-otter,  and  the  fresh-xvater- 
 otter.  There  are  also  immense  numbers  of  ermine  and  mice,  and 
 great  numbers  of  squirrels.  Notwithstanding  the  rigor  of  the 
 climate,  animals  both  wild  and  tame  are  remarkably  prolific. 
 Seals  are  found  all  along  the  northern  and  western  coasts. 
 
 Eagles,  falcons,  pelicans,  cormorants,  owls,  ravens,  swans,  daws, 
 partridges,  die  eider-du«k,  sea-crows,  wild  geese,  water-hens, 
 snipes,  woodcocks,  niagpies,  bustards,  plover,  thrushes,  snow- 
 birds, linnets,  gold-finches,  and  siskins,  are  common  birds  in  Lap- 
 land. Pigeons,  doves,  and  cuckows  are  here  occasionally.  The 
 forests  abound  also  with  fine  singing  birds.  Many,  both  of  the 
 birds  and  beasts  are  of  kinds  peculiar  to  the  country. 
 
 Salmon  abound  in  the  i-ivers  ;  cod,  hake,  ling,  haddock,  whit- 
 ing, skate,  turbot,  flounder,  and  halibut  arc  caught  in  great  num- 
 bers on  the  coast  and  prepared  for  exportation.  Whales  appear 
 in  astonishing  numbers  early  in  February.  There  are  several  va- 
 rieties of  the  shark.  The  sword-fish,  springer,  and  porpoise  are 
 very  numerous.  Herrings  are  in  immense  profusion  ;  but  the 
 Laplanders  have  not  yet  learned  how  to  take  them.  The  story  of 
 the  Kraken,  a  marine  animal  several  miles  in  length,  is  on  the 
 same  footing  with  the  narratives  of  hobgoblins. 
 
 Mineralsf]  Baron  Hermelin,  the  celebrated  Geographer  of 
 Sweden,  Finland,  and  Lapland,  has  discovered  the  following 
 among  the  minerals  of  the  latter  country. 
 
 1.  Stones.  Of  the  calcareous  kind,  limestone,  calcareous  spar, 
 scaly  limestone,  sidero-calcite,  marble,  gypsum,  and  lune  with 
 garnets  ;  of  the  siliceous,  quartz,  rock  crystal,  amethyst,  garnet, 
 black   and  common  jasper,  shorl,  zeolite,  hornstone,   siliceous 
 
DANISH  EMPIRE.  147 
 
 schistus,  felspar;  of  the  muriatic  steatite,  serpentine,  chlorite,  as- 
 bestus,  amianthus,  asbestoid  ;  of  the  barytic,  ponderous  spar  ;  of 
 the  argillaceous,  trap,  hornblcndmica,  aluminous  earth,  wacken, 
 and  clay  containing  iron  ;  of  aggregates,  serpentine  rock,  norka, 
 amygdaloid,  porphyry,  breccias,  sandstones,  gneiss,  puddingstone, 
 granitell. 
 
 2.  Inflammable  substances.  These  are  plumbago,  native  sul- 
 phur, martial  pyrites. 
 
 3.  Metals  ;  lead,  zink,  iron,  antimony,  copper,  arsenic,  molyb- 
 dena,  and  gold,  once  found  at  Svappuwara  in  Torneo  Lapmark. 
 There  are  no  less  than  twelve  mines  of  the  different  metals  eiju- 
 meratcd ;  but  we  do  not  know  their  kinds,  or  tlieir  value. 
 
 DANISH  EMPIRE. 
 
 1.    IN  EUROPE. 
 
 1.  Kingdom  of  Norway.  2.  Kingdom  of  Denmark.  3.  Ferro 
 Islands. 
 
 2.    IN  AMERICA. 
 
 1.  Iceland.     2.  Greenland. 
 
 3.    IN  ASIA. 
 
 Three  of  the  Nicobar  Islands  are  said  to  belong  to  Denmaj'k. 
 
 4.    IN  AFRICA. 
 
 Christlansburg  and  Freidensburg,  two  settlements  and  fortresses 
 on  the  coast  of  Guinea. 
 
 Denmark  till  lately  possessed  St.  Croix,  St.  Thomas,  and  St. 
 John's,  in  the  West  Indies  ;  Serampore  in  Bengal ;  and  Tran- 
 quebar  in  Coromandel.     The^e  have  been  taken  by  the  British. 
 
 NORWAY. 
 
 CHAPTER  I. 
 
 HISTORICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 NAMES,  EXTENT,  BOUNDARIES,  DIVISIONS,  ORIGINAL  POPULATION, 
 PROGRESSIVE  GEOGRAPHY,  HISTORICAL  EPOCHS,  RELIGION,  GOV- 
 ERNMENT, LAWS,  POPULATION,  ARMY,  REVENUE,  MANNERS  AND 
 CUSTOMS,  LANGUAGE,  EDUCATION,  CITIES,  ROADS,  COMMERCE. 
 
 Mam€s.~\  THIS  country  is  a  part  of  the  ancient  Scandi- 
 navia. Its  present  name,  Norway,  formerly  written  JVorvick,  is 
 said  to  denote  the  Northern  Kingdom.  The  natives  now  call  it 
 JVorgie. 
 
 Extent.']  Its  length  from  the  Naze,  in  58  N.  to  North  Cape^ 
 in  71  10,  is  1000  miles.  Its  width,  in  lat.  59,  is  210  miles  ;  in  lat. 
 61  20,  about  235  ;  and  north  of  lat.  63,  it  is  rarely  more  than  80. 
 On  the  north  of  Sweden  it  extends  considerably  east  of  the  North 
 
148  DANISH  EMPIRE. 
 
 Cape  until  it  meets  Russian  Lapland.  It  contains,  according  to 
 Hassel,  152,680  square  miles.  In  lat.  65  N.  the  Swedish  prov- 
 ince of  Herndahl  pushes  westward  to  the  sea,  and  breaks  the  con- 
 tinuity of  the  Norwegian  coast. 
 
 Boundaries.~\  Bounded  N.  by  the  Frozen  Ocean  ;  E.  by  Rus- 
 sian Lapland,  and  also  by  Sweden,  from  which  the  northern  half 
 of  the  country  is  separated  by  a  lofty  chain  of  moiintains  ;  S.  by 
 the  Scaggerac  ;  and  W.  by  the  Atlantic. 
 
 Divisions.^  Norway  is  naturally  divided  into  two  parts,  North- 
 ern and  Southern. 
 
 Northern  Norway  is  a  long  narrow  slip  of  land,  reaching  from 
 the  North  Cape  to  the  narrow  Swedish  province  of  Herndahl, 
 which,  between  lat.  65  and  66,  separates  it  from  Norway  proper. 
 It  is  divided  into  Nordland,  Finmark,  and  Lapmark,  all  under  the 
 government  of  Drontheim. 
 
 Southern  Norway,  which  is  the  great  body  of  the  country, 
 reaches  northward  to  about  lat.  65,  N. 
 
 Norway  is  politically  divided  into  four  governments. 
 1.  Drontheim  in  the  N.  92,406  square  miles.* 
 Counties, 
 Lapmark,  Vaerdals, 
 
 Finmai'k,  Saelbo, 
 
 Nordland,  Guledal, 
 
 Nummedal,  Northmoer, 
 
 Indero,  Romsdal. 
 
 Fosen, 
 2.  Berghen  in  the  W.  16,000  square  miles.f 
 Cou7itics. 
 Southmoer,  Vosse, 
 
 South  Bay,  Hardanger. 
 
 Sogne, 
 
 3.  Aggerhuus,  in  the  E.  and  S.  29,808  square  miles. | 
 
 Counties. 
 
 Eastdal,  Romerige, 
 
 Gulbrandsdal,  Buskemds, 
 
 Hedemarke,  Christiania, 
 
 Valder,  Sandsvaer, 
 
 Ringerika,  Rakestad, 
 
 Toten,  Tarlsberg, 
 
 SoUoer,  Bamble. 
 
 4.  Christiansand,  in  the  S.  W-  14,466  square  miles.§ 
 
 Cou7ities. 
 Tellemarkensj  Lister, 
 
 DelaguetSj  Mandals, 
 
 Ryffylke,  Nedenaes. 
 
 Dalernes, 
 Original  Pofiulation.~\     The  original  possessors  of  Norway  ap- 
 pear to  have  been  the  Fins  and  the  Laps,  who  were  driven  to  the 
 northern  extremities  by  the  Gothic  Invasion,  conducted  by  Odin. 
 The  population  has  since  continued  pure  and  unmixed  by  foreign 
 
 *  JIassel.  t  Hassel.  4  Hassel.  §  Hassel. 
 
NORWAY.  14y 
 
 conquests,  and  the  inhabitants  still  retain  the  rauscular  frame, 
 blooming  countenance,  and  yellow  hair  of  the  Normans,  so  well 
 known  in  Franc'e,  Italy,  and  England.  ■ 
 
 Progressive  Gecgraphy.']  The  early  Geography  ot  Norway  is 
 very  obscure.  There  is  reason  to  believe,  that  no  part  of  it,  ex- 
 cept the  southern  extremity,  had  been  seen  by  the  Roman  mari- 
 ners. Few  materials  even  afterwards  arise  for  the  progressive 
 geograpliy  of  this  country,  till  the  time  of  Jormandes  ;  whose  ac- 
 count is  succeeded  by  the  navigation  of  Ohtcr,  and  the  description 
 by  Adam  of  Bremen,  in  the  eleventh  century, 
 
 Hhtorical  Enochs!]  1.  The  original  population  by  the  Fins 
 and  Laplanders. 
 
 2.  The  conquest  by  the  Goths. 
 
 3.  The  consolidation  of  all  the  petty  monarchies  into  one,  by 
 Harald  Harfagre,  about  A.  D.  9  10.  Many  of  the  petty  princes 
 left  the  Kingdom.  Ganga  Hrolf,  or  RoUo  the  Walker,  went  to 
 France;  and,  in  9  12,  subjugated  the  province,  which,  from  him, 
 and  his  followers,  the  jYormen  was  called  Normandy. 
 
 4.  The  conversion  of  the  country  to  Christianity,  in  the  reign 
 ofOlafI,  A.  D.  994. 
 
 ■  5.  The  invasion  of  England  by  Harald  III.  who  was  slain  in  a 
 battle  with  Harold,  King  of  England,  Sept.  25th,  1066. 
 
 6.  Its  union  with  Sweden,  under  a  common  sovereign,  at  the 
 death  of  Hagen  V,  A.  D.  1319. 
 
 7.  Its  union  with  Denmark  and  Sweden  under  Olof  V,  the  hus- 
 band of  Margaret,  A.  D.  1380. 
 
 Keligio?ir\  The  Lutheran  is  the  established  religion,  and  the 
 great  body  of  the  inhabitants  profess  it.  Norway  is  divided  into 
 4  Bishopricks  ;  1, Christiana,  the  bishop  of  which  is  a  metropolitan, 
 though  without  the  title  of  archbishop  ;  revenue  jC400  sterling.  2, 
 Christiansand,  revenue  £600.  3,  Berghen,  revenue  jC400.  4, 
 Dronthein,  revenue  /;400.  The  inferior  clergy  are  provosts  or 
 archdeacons,  parish  priests  and  chaplains.  Each  diocese  is  di- 
 vided into  districts,  under  the  care  of  provosts  ;  each  district  into 
 parishes.  A  large  parish,  beside  the  principal  church,  has  one 
 or  more  chapels  of  ease,  under  the  care  of  chaplains.  The  livings 
 vary  from  iC200  sterling  to  >C60.  A  clergyman's  widow  is  entitled 
 to  his  salary  for  the  year  following  his  decease,  and  to  a  pension 
 froin  his  successor  of  one  eighth  of  the  annual  income. 
 
 Governrnentr\  Norway  is  a  province  of  Denmark,  The  vice- 
 roy, who  is  also  the  governor  of  Aggerhuus,  resides  at  Christia- 
 nia.  He  presides  in  the  high  court  of  Justice,  which  is  held  at 
 that  place.  Inferior  governors  are  appointed  in  the  other  three 
 governments. 
 
 Zcws.J  The  Code  called  A^omvaij  Lanv^  compiled  by  Grieffel- 
 fcld,  at  the  command  of  Christian  V,  is  still  in  full  force.  By  it 
 all  the  peasants  of  Norway,  except  a  few  near  Frederickstadt,  are 
 made  free. 
 
 A  curious  custom  prevails,  called  odel's  right,  or  the  rig/it  of 
 inheritance,  by  which  the  proprietor  of  freeholds  may  re-purchase 
 an  estate,  which  he  or  his  ancestors  have  sold.     To  enforce  it, 
 
150  DANISH  EMPIRE. 
 
 however,  he  or  his  ancestors  must  have  asserted  their  claim  evei-y 
 tenth  year,  at  the  sessions  ;  and  likewise  their  inability  to  re-pur- 
 chase it  at  that  time. 
 
 Poiiulation.~\  Coxe  estimated  the  population  of  Norway  at 
 750,000.  By  a  census  taken  in  1802  it  amounted  to  910,074  ; 
 and  Hassel,  in  1809,  estimated  it  at  9 12,000,  which  is  probably  less 
 than  the  truth,  for  the  births  are  to  the  deaths  as  231  to  171.* 
 
 The  population  of  Northern  NorAvay,  in  1769,  was  only  5,984. 
 
 Arviy.~]  Norway  maintains  its  own  army,  which  consists  of 
 32,053  infantry,  and  10,478  cavalry.  Every  peasant,  not  born  in  a 
 town  or  on  some  noble  estate,  is,  by  birth,  a  soldier,  and  enrolled 
 at  the  age  of  16.  Till  26  he  is  classed  in  the  young  militia  ;  then 
 he  enters  into  the  old  militia,  and  is  discharged  ai  36.  The  troops 
 are  esteemed  for  their  bravery,  and  much  attached  to  their  coun- 
 try.' The  horses  of  the  cavalry  are  small,  but  strong,  active,  and 
 hardy.  These  troops  take  the  field  every  year  in  June,  and  re- 
 main encamped  about  a  month. 
 
 Beside  these,  a  regular  militia  has  been  enrolled  since  1801, 
 who  arc  to  fly  to  arms  at  a  moment's  warning.  Their  number  is 
 40,000. 
 
 Revenuc.~\  The  revenue  annually  raised  by  Denmark  from 
 Norway  was,  in  1809,  1,725,000  guilders,!  which  at  40  cts.  the 
 guilder|:  is  §690,000.  This  is  raised  from  the  land-tas,  customs, 
 excise,  and  licenses  granted  by  government. 
 
 Manners  and  Custo?ns.~\  The  common  food  of  the  peasants  is 
 milk  ;  cheese  ;  dried  or  salted  fish  ;  oatbread,  which  they  bake 
 but  twice  a  year  ;  and,  very  rarely,  a  little  flesh  or  dried  meat. 
 In  times  of  scarcity  they  eat  the  bark  of  the  fir,  ground  to  a  pow- 
 der, and  mixed  with  oat  meal.  The  potatoe  has  been  lately  intro- 
 duced ;  but  it  grows  only  of  a  moderate  size. 
 
 The  Norway  houses  are  generally  of  wood.  Those  of  the  peas- 
 ants have  an  opening  in  the  top,  which  serves  instead  of  a  chim- 
 ney, and  windows.  This  hole  is  open  in  summer  and  is  covered 
 in  winter  with  the  membrane  of  some  animal.  The  ceiling  is 
 about  8  feet  high,  and  arched  like  a  cupola.  The  family  table 
 stands  directly  under  this  opening.  Their  dress  consists  of  a 
 flapped  hat,  or  cap,  ornamented  with  ribbands  ;  a  wide  loose 
 coarse  jacket,  with  waistcoat  and  breeches  of  the  same  ;  a  broad 
 leathern  belt  round  the  body,  adorned  with  brass  plates  and  a  brass 
 chain  that  sustains  a  large  knife,  gimlet,  and  other  tackle  ;  shoes 
 without  outer  soles,  and  in  the  winter  teathei^n  buskins,  also 
 vskates  and  snowshoes.  They  are  taught  in  youth  to  wrestle,  ride, 
 swim,  skate,  climb,  shoot,  and  forge  iron.  Their  amusements 
 are  making  verses,  blowing  the  horn,  playing  on  the  guitar  and 
 violin,  and  dancing. 
 
 The  Norwegians  are  tall,  well  formed,  robust,  brave,  honest, 
 hospitable  and  ingenious  ;  yet  savage,  rash,  and  litigious.  They 
 make  excellent  soldiers  and  sailors. 
 
 *  Coxe.  f  Hassel. 
 
 t  The  guilder  of  Saxony  is  51  cents  85  mills.  If  Hassel's  was  the  Saxon  Guildei;, 
 the  revenue  will  have  been  more,  of  course. 
 
NORWAY.  151 
 
 La7ig'uage.^  The  original  language  of  Nonvay  was  that  ■which 
 is  called  the  Icelandic,  the  purest  dialect  of  the  Teutonic  or  Goth- 
 ic. The  inhabitants  now  generally  speak  an  intermediate  dialect 
 of  the  Teutonic,  between  the  Danish  and  Swedish.  The  gentry 
 and  inhabitants  of  the  principal  towns,  however,  speak  a  purer 
 Danish,  than  is  usual  even  in  Denmark. 
 
 £ducation.']  Each  parish  is  provided  with  two  or  three  schools, 
 where  children  are  taught  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic.  The 
 masters  have  £\2  sterling //<?r  a???/,  a  house,  and  some  other  ad- 
 vantages. Four  Latin  schools  are  maintained  at  the  expense  of 
 the  crown.  In  these  are  taught  the  Latin,  Greek,  and  Hebrew. 
 There  is  also  a  seminary  for  the  Laplanders  at  Berghen.  Nor- 
 way has  always  been  behind  the  other  countries  of  Europ-^  in  lit- 
 erature.    Till  lately  she  could  not  boast  a  single  native  writer. 
 
 Cities  and  To'iV7is.~\  Berghen,  the  capital,  in  lat.  60  23  N.  long. 
 5  33,  E.  was  founded  in  1070.  It  is  a  sea-port,  seated  in  the  cen- 
 tre of  a  valley,  and  forming  a  semicircle  round  a  small  gulf  of  the 
 sea,  called,  by  the  inhabitants,  TVaag.  The  public  buildings  and 
 many  of  the  houses  are  of  stone.  Its  trade  is  in  fish,  fish-oil,  tal- 
 low, tar,  hides  and  timber.  The  returns  are  corn  and  foreign 
 merchandise.  It  was  formerly  connected  with  the  Hansetowns, 
 and  to  them  it  owes  the  rise  of  its  commerce.  It  has  been  ex- 
 posed to  frequent  conflagrations.  The  population  is  estimated  at 
 19,000.     The  harbor  is  one  of  the  best  in  Europe. 
 
 Christiania,  in  lat.  59  6,  37,  stands  in  a  semicircular  form  on 
 the  northern  extremity  of  the  gulf  of  Christiania,  30  miles  from 
 the  open  sea.  The  navigation  of  the  gulf  is  sometimes  difficult  ; 
 but  it  is  deep  enough  for  the  largest  ships,  having  6  or  7  fathom 
 close  to  the  quay.  Its  shores  are  rocky,  and  overspread  with 
 thick  forests.  The  country  around  Christiania  is  fertile,  but  une- 
 ven. The  town  is  divjded  into,  1  st,  the  city  and  the  three  sub- 
 urbs of  Waterlandt,  Peterwigen  and  Fierdingen  ;  2d,  the  fortress 
 of  Aggerhuus  ;  3d,  the  old  town  of  Opsloe  or  Ansloe.  The  city 
 contains  418  houses,  the  suburbs  682,  and  Opsloe  400  :  total 
 i500.  Population  10,000.  The  fortress  is  small  but  strong.  The 
 harbor  is  excellent,  and  the  trade  considerable. 
 
 Drontheim,  formerly  Nideroos,  stands  on  the  esttiary  of  the 
 Nid,  in  63  26,  2,  N.  It  was  built  in  997  ;  and  is,  except  Tornea, 
 the  most  northern  city  in  Europe.  It  was  the  residence  of  the  an- 
 cient kings  of  Norway,  and  afterwards  an  archbishoprick,  sup- 
 pressed at  the  reformation.  There  are  two  churches,  a  public 
 school,  a  seminary  for  missionaries,  an  orphan  house,  a  poor- 
 house,  an  infirmary,  and  a  house  of  correction.  Its  inhabitants  are 
 9000  in  number.  From  400  to  500  ships  are  employed  in  its 
 trade  annually  ;  ar.d  the  principal  exports  are  salt-fish,  herrings, 
 timber,  tallow,  and  copper,  from  the  celebrated  mines  of  Roraa.s. 
 It  is  285  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Berghen. 
 
 Christiansand,  in  lat.  58  12,  N.  on  the  Torisdal,  contains  about 
 4000  inhabitants.  Christiansund,  in  63  10,  is  about  equally  popu- 
 lous.    Kongsberg,  on  the  Louven,  40  miles   S.  W.  of  Christiania. 
 
152  DANISH  EMPIRE. 
 
 contains  1000  houses  and  6000  inhabitants.  Two  miles  from  it 
 are  the  celebrated  silver  mines. 
 
 The  population  of  Frederickshall,  in  lat.  59  4,  N.  is  about  5000. 
 On  a  rock,  which  overhangs  the  town,  is  :he  hitherto  impregnable 
 fortress  of  Frederickstein,  rendered  memorable  by  the  death  of 
 Charles  XII.  of  Sweden.  The  houses  are  of  wood,  o^enerally 
 painted  red ;  and  the  harbor  is  safe  and  commodious. 
 
 Hoads.^  The  roads  of  Norway  are  extremely  rugged  and  al- 
 most impassable  with  carriages. 
 
 Co}}i?7ie7'ce.^  The  trade  is  principally  passive,  and  is  carried  on 
 in  Danish  ships.  The  exports  are  fish,  timber,  lumber,  furs, 
 horses,  horned  cattle,  fish-oil,  tallow,  butter,  copper,  hides,  mar- 
 ble, miUstones,  iron,  silver,  tar,  alum,  salt,  pot-ash,  and  Prussian- 
 blue.  Corn  and  all  kinds  of  manufactures  are  imported.  The 
 Norwegians  are  the  best  seamen  in  the  Danish  fleet. 
 
 CHAPTER  II. 
 NATURAL  GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 CLIMATE  AND  SEASONS,  FACE  OF  THE  COUNTRY,  SOIL  AND  AG- 
 RICULTURE, RIVERS,  LAKES,  MOUNTAINS,  FORESTS,  BOTANY, 
 MINERALOGY,  NATURAL  CURIOSITIES,  ISLANDS. 
 
 Climate  and  Seasons.~\  THE  greatest  quantity  of  snow 
 falls  before  the  middle  of  January  ;  and  of  rain,  in  April,  August, 
 and  October.  March,  June,  and  July,  are  usually  clear.  The 
 most  violent  winds  occur  in  April,  May,  and  October.  Tlie  sea 
 is  always  open  at  Berghen.  The  south  winds  prevail  on  the  ' 
 western  coast.  On  the  east  side  of  Norway  the  coid  is  inter.se, 
 snow  usually  lying  from  the  middle  of  October,  to  t.;c  -^aiddle  of 
 April.  In  1719,  7500  Swedes  were  frozen  to  death  in  iheir  march 
 over  the  mountains,  to  the  attack  of  Drontheim. 
 
 Face  of  the  Count7~ij.~\  This  is  probably  the  most  mountainous 
 country  in  Europe.  In  the  north,  all  is  mountains  ;  but,  in  the 
 south,  there  are  tracts  of  great  fertility,  and,  thoilgh  often  rocky, 
 the  soil  is  rich.  "  The  face  of  the  country  is  prettily  sprinkled 
 with  numei^ous  lakes  and  rivulets,  and  thickly  dotted  with  cotta- 
 ges, rudely,  though  not  unpleasantly,  situated  on  rocky  eminen- 
 ces in  the  midst  of  the  luxuriant  forest." 
 
 Soil  and  Jgriculture.^  There  is  little  arable  land,  and  most 
 of  the  corn  is  imported  from  Denmark.  The  pasture  is  excellent 
 and  abundant  ;  and  great  numbers  of  cattle  and  horses  arc  annu- 
 ally raised.     The  agriculture  is  improving. 
 
 Rivers.']  The  Glomme,  the  largest  river  of  Norway,  rises 
 from  Lake  Oresund  on  the  north  of  Lake  Foemund,  and  runs 
 nearly  south,  about  300  miles,  to  Sarp,  near  Frederickstadt.  About 
 '30  miles  from  tjie  sea  it  receives  the  Worm,  which  runs  through 
 Lake  Mioss,  and  is  almost  as  long  as  the  Glomme.  Before  the 
 confluence  it  is  as  large  as  the  Thames,  at  Henley.  It  is  wholly 
 unnavigable,  and  full  of  shoals  and  cataracts  ;  yet  about  50,000 
 tr'ees  are  annually  floated  upon  it  to  Frederickstadt.    The  Dramme 
 
NORWAY.  153 
 
 flows  into  the  west  side  of  Christiania  Bay  after  its  confluence 
 with  the  Beina.  The  Louven  and  the  Torrisdal  in  the  S.  are 
 smaller.  The  western  rivers  are  all  short  and  rapid.  The  Tana 
 and  the  Alten  are  the  largest  streams  in  Northern  Norway. 
 
 Lakes.~\  These  are  numerous,  but  not  very  extensive.  Lake 
 Mioss  is  60  miles  long,  and  near  the  middle  from  12  to  18  miles 
 wide,  but  generally  narrow.  It  contains  an  island  10  miles  in 
 circumference,  fertile  in  corn,  pasture,  and  wood.  Lake  Rajids 
 is  50  miles  long  and  2  broad.  Lake  Folmund  is  35  miles  long 
 and  8  broad,  and  surrounded  by  mountains  of  great  height.  Lake 
 Tyri  is  a  beautiful  piece  of  water,  about  15  miles  in  length  and 
 breadth,  diversified  with  many  bays  and  creeks. 
 
 Mou7itains.~\  The  mountains  of  Norway,  though  constituting  a 
 united  chain,  receive  different  names  in  the  different  provinces. 
 The  southern  part  of  the  chain  commencing  near  Cape  Lindes, 
 or  the  Naze,  and  running  almost  due  N.  to  the  province  of  Roms- 
 dal,  is  called  LangJiaU,  or  the  Long  Mountaiiis.  Here  it  bends 
 eastward,  till  it  reaches  the  frontiers  of  Sweden,  above  Lake  Ore- 
 sund,  in  about  63  N.  This  part  of  it  is  called  Doffrejiall.  The 
 third,  and  far  the  longest  part  of  the  chain,  passes  from  near  Ore- 
 sund,  in  a  N.  N.  E.  course,  between  Norway  and  Swedish  Lap- 
 land, to  about  lat.  69  ;  where  it  bends  in  the  form  of  a  horse-shoe 
 on  the  south  of  Finmark,  and  probably  unites  with  the  mountains 
 of  Olonetz  in  Russia.  This  is  called  the  chain  of  Kolen.  These 
 three  united  chains  are  properly  called  the  JVornvegian  Range.  Its 
 length  is  not  less  than  1 100  miles.  At  the  last  mentioned  bend  a 
 branch  divides,  and  proceeds  southerly  by  Swucku  through  Swe- 
 den. Areskuten,  in  the  Kolen  chain,  near  Jemtland,  is  said  to  be 
 6 1 62  feet  above  the  level  of  the  nearest  rivers.  The  two  highest 
 summits  in  Norway  are  said  to  be  Doffrefiall,  in  Drontheim,  and 
 Tille  in  Berghen.  Sivuckustoet^  one  of  the  summits  in  the  Swed- 
 ish branch,  yet  within  the  borders  of  Norway,  is  said  to  be  4658 
 feet  above  the  waters  of  Lake  Falmund,  which  ai'e  thought  t«  be 
 2000  or  3000  above  the  sea. 
 
 Forests.']  Most  of  Norway  is  forested.  The  humbler  moun- 
 tains are  entirely  covered  with  trees  ;  while,  on  the  more,  lofty, 
 no  trees  will  grow  at  a  little  more  than  half  their  height.  The 
 pine  and  the  fir  are  most  common.  The  birch  and  oak  are  abun- 
 dant. The  elm  is  rare.  The  forests  of  Norway  are  used  for  sev- 
 eral purposes.  1,  For  shipbuilding.  2,  For  charcoal.  3,  For 
 building  houses.  4,  For  making  roads.  5,  For  turpentine.  6, 
 For  fencing.  7,  For  fuel.  8,  For  making  ashes  for  a  manure. 
 This  last  application  is  very  extensive  and  extremely  destructive 
 to  the  forests. 
 
 Botany.']     See  Botany  of  Sweden. 
 
 Zoology.]  The  horses  of  Norway  are  very  small,  but  strong 
 and  patient  of  fatigue.  The  rein-deer  abounds  in  Finmark  and 
 throughout  Lapland.  They  are  used  by  the  inhabitants  in  place 
 of  horses.  The  elk,  the  bear,  the  wolf  the  lynx,  the  fox,  the  hare, 
 and  the  beaver,  are  found  in  more  Southern  Norway.  The  lem- 
 mings or  Norwegian  mouse,  proceeds  from  the  ridge  of  Kolen, 
 
 vot.  ir.  20 
 
154  DANISH  EMPIRE. 
 
 and  sometimes  spreads  desolation  like  the  locust.  Norway  boasts 
 of  the  eagle  ;  and  its  falcons  are  reckoned  the  boldest  and  most 
 spirited  of  Europe.     Salmon  are  abundant  in  the  rivers  and  lakes. 
 
 jMineralogy .~\  About  the  year  1645,  some  gold  ore  was  found 
 near  Arendal  on  the  coast  of  Clu'istiansand.  At  Kongsbcrg  are 
 the  richest  silver  mines  in  Europe.  One  mass  of  native  silver  in 
 the  royal  cabinet  at  Copenhagen,  taken  from  these  mines,  weighs 
 409  marks,  and  is  worth  )f600  sterling.  The  rock  consists  of 
 vertical  banks  of  micaceous  schistus  with  gai^nets,  limestone,  and 
 quartz.  The  veins  of  metal  are  from  half  an  inch  to  more  than 
 two  feet  in  thickness.  There  were  36  mines  working  in  1780, 
 the  deepest  652  feet  perpendicular.  The  annual  produce  is 
 )C54,000  sterling,  and  the  number  of  mines  2500.  The  expenses 
 of  the  establishment  often  equal  the  income.  The  principal  ad- 
 vantage derived  from  them  is  to  supply  the  ti'easury  with  specie. 
 These  mines  were  discovered  by  two  peasants,  in  1623.  There  is 
 a  silver  mine  of  much  less  value  at  Sarisberg,  about  50  miles  S.  E. 
 of  Kongsberg. 
 
 The  copper  mine  ofRoraas,  about  68  miles  S.  E.  of  Drontheim, 
 near  the  source  of  the  Glonime,  was  discovered  in  1644.  The 
 veins  are  from  6  inches  to  6  ells  in  thickness,  and  the  oi-e  of  a  pale 
 yellow.  In  general  the  mines  of  Roraas  are  very  productive,  and 
 a  source  of  considerable  revenue.  The  annual  produce  is  about 
 1 100  ship-pounds  of  pure  copper.  The  founderies  belonging  to 
 it  consume  yearly  1400  lasts  of  coal,  and  500  fathoms  of  wood. 
 There  are  other  copper  mines  at  Luckens,  20  miles  S.  of  Dron- 
 theim ;  at  Selboe,  30  miles  S.  S.  E.  of  that  place  ;  andat  Quickne. 
 
 At  Skaterud  on  the  Dramme,  26  miles  N.  of  Kongsberg,  is  a 
 valuable  mine  of  cobalt,  on  the  top  of  a  mountain,  discovered 
 about  the  year  1780.  There  are  really  two  mines  ;  each  Avith 
 four  shafts  or  openings,  the  deepest  only  84  feet,  because  the  ore 
 is  still  in  great  plenty  near  the  surface.  A  fine  quarry  of  quartz 
 lies  near  them,  which  is  mixed  with  the  cobalt,  to  make  the  Prus- 
 sian bl'ie.  The  quartz  is  as  white  as  alabaster,  and  contains  large 
 veins  of  Russian  talc  or  marien  glass.  The  number  of  miners  is 
 360,  and  the  produce  3000  weight  of  cobalt,  yielding  a  net  profit 
 1,0  the  crown  of  x;  16,000  sterling. 
 
 But  the  iron  mines  ot  Norway  are  the  most  profitable.  The 
 richest  are  those  of  Skeen,  about  30  miles  S.  of  Kongsberg  ;  and 
 those  ot^Arendal,  about  56  S.  W.  ot  Skeen.  Many  hundred  thou- 
 sand quintals  are  annually  exported,  chiefly  in  bars  ;  part  of  it 
 also  in  stoves,  pots,  kettles  and  cannon.  The  national  profit  aris- 
 ing trom  this  metal  is  thought  to  be  ;C60,000  sterlingyze;  ann. 
 
 Lead  and  sulphur  are  found  near  Kongsberg.  Alum  is  found 
 abunciantly  between  the  slate-flakes,  near  Christiania.  Royal 
 sait-works  are  established  on  the  peninsula  of  Valoe,  6  miles  from 
 Ton  sb  erg. 
 
 Norway  contains  inexhaustible  quarries  of  excellent  marble, 
 black,  white,  blue,  grey  and  variegated  ;  likewise  alabaster, 
 chalk-stone,  cement  stone,  sandstone,  millstone,  bakingstone,  siate, 
 talc,  magnets,  asbestos,  quartz,  crystals,  amethysts,  and  agates 
 
DENMARK.  I  bo 
 
 in  great  abundance  ;  together  with  curious   garnets,  especially 
 the  green,  wiiich  are  little  known  in  other  regions. 
 
 J^'atural  Curiosities.^  The  Moskofsfroin,  or  iMalstrom,  is  a  re- 
 markable Avhirlpool  off  the  coast  of  Nordland,  near  the  little  isl- 
 and of  Moskoc,  one  of  the  Loffoden  islands.  It  is  occasioned  by 
 the  very  rapid  ebb  and  flood  of  the  sea  between  Moskoe  and  Lof- 
 foden. About  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  at  high  and  low  watc;r,  it  is 
 quiet.  But,  when  the  tide  is  rising  or  falling,  the  sea  boils  with 
 immense  agitation  ;  its  roar  is  heard  to  the  distance  of  many 
 leagues  ;  and  the  force  and  extent  of  the  vortex  is  so  great  that 
 ships  .3  miles  off  are  sometimes  forced  towards  the  centre  and 
 finally  dashed  in  pieces  against  the  bottom.  Whales  are  fre- 
 quently absorbed  by  it  in  spite  of  their  endeavors  to  escape. 
 Large  trees  are  often  sucked  down,  and  rise  again  all  shattered 
 into  splinters. 
 
 About  20  miles  north  of  Berghen  the  rocks  abound  with  singu- 
 lar petrifactions.  The  mountains  are  sometimes  split  and  en- 
 gulphed  by  subterranean  waters.  The  farm  of  Borre,  in  tlie  prov- 
 ince of  Christiania,  was,  in  1703,  swallowed  up  with  all  its  build- 
 ings;  and  there  now  remains  only  a  chasm  full  of  ruins  and  sand. 
 
 Islands.^  The  coast  presents  a  continued  series  of  small  isl- 
 ands, generally  mountainous  and  craggy,  with  precipitous  rocks, 
 and  a  sea  from  100  to  300  fathoms  deep  washing  their  bases.  Be- 
 tween them  are  numerous  creeks,  overshadowed  by  the  precipi- 
 ces, and  guarded  by  numberless  little  islands  of  rock  haunted  by 
 sea-fowl.  Among  the  largest  are  Hitteren,  Karm,  Bommel,  Sartar 
 and  Smolen,near  the  entrance  of  the  gulf  of  Drontheim.  In  lat.65  are 
 the  Vigten  islands  ;  and  between  67  and  69,  the  Loffoden  isles,  the 
 most  numerous  and  extensive  cluster.  Soroe  is  a  little  S.  W.  of 
 North  Cape,  which  is  on  the  island  of  Mageron  ;  and  Wardhus  is 
 in  the  Arctic  Ocean,  near  the  Bay  of  Warangher.  On  this  last 
 there  is  a  Danish  garrison. 
 
 DENMARK. 
 
 CHAPTER  I. 
 
 HISTORICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 NAMES,  EXTENT,  BOUNDARIES,  DIVISIONS,  ORIGINAL   POPULATION, 
 PROGJIESSIVE   GEOGRAPHY,   HISTORICAL  EPOCHS,  ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 Aames.^  DENMARK  was  a  part  of  ancient  Scandinavia. 
 Its  appropriate  name  was  Chersonesus  Cimbrica,  or  the  Peninsula 
 of  the  Cimbri  or  Cimmerii.  The  na.me  Ben  mark,  implying  the 
 marches,  boundaries,  or  territories,  of  the  Danes,  is  derived  from, 
 the  inhabitants,  who  are  first  mentioned  by  this  appellation  in  the 
 6th  century,  when  we  begin  to  acquire  a  faint  idea  of  Scandinavia. 
 from  the  history  of  Jornandes. 
 
136  DANISH  EMPIRE. 
 
 Extent^  Boundaries^  and  Divisions.']  As  the  large  islands  Zeal- 
 and and  Funen,  make  an  integral  part  of  the  kingdom,  we  shall 
 incorporate  our  account  of  them  with  the  geography  of  Denmark. 
 The  kingdom  is  composed  of  the  following  territories. 
 
 Square  miles. 
 
 fl,  Aalborg,  -           -          2668 
 
 I  2,  Aarhuus,     -  -           -     2547 
 
 In  the  peninsula  J  3,  Riperhuus,  -           -           3326 
 
 of  Jutland.       |  4,  Wiborg,      -  -           -       721 
 
 5,  Schleswick,  -            -             3530 
 
 ^6,  Holstein,     -  -           -      3156 
 
 Islands. 
 
 ^8, 
 
 ?  5,948 
 Zealand,  -  -  -  2884 
 Funen,      -         -         -  1938 
 
 20,770 
 The  Peninsula  reaches  from  Altona,  on  the  Elbe,  in  lat.  53  35, 
 N.  to  the  Skaw,  in  lat.  57  45,  290  miles.  Its  breadth  varies  from 
 35  to  105  miles  ;  and  its  extreme  meridians  are  7  55,  and  11  5. 
 The  estuary  of  the  Elbe  lies  on  the  S.  W.  ;  the  Duchy  of  Saxe 
 Lauenburg  in  Germany  on  the  S.  E.  ;  the  Baltic  on  the  E.  and  N. ; 
 and  the  German  Ocean  on  the  W. 
 
 The  island  of  Zealand  is  80  miles  long,  from  N.  to  S.  ;  and  from 
 40  to  60  broad.  It  is  extremely  indented  with  bays  and  harbors, 
 so  that  its  circumference  is  about  700  miles.*  The  Sound,  in  the 
 narrowest  place  3  miles  wide,  separates  it  from  Sweden ;  and  the 
 Great  Belt  on  the  W.  divides  it  from  the  island  of  Funen,  the 
 nearest  point  of  which  is  18  miles  distant  from  Zealand. 
 
 Funen  is  separated  by  the  Little  Beit  from  the  Peninsula.  The 
 distance  from  Assens  to  Arroe sound,  is  9  miles  ;  but  betv/een 
 Middlefarth  and  Snoghcy  it  is  not  quite  2.  Funen  is  50  miles 
 long,  and  30  broad ;  and,  owing  to  its  numerous  bays  and  head- 
 lands, 340  miles  in  circumference.! 
 
 Original  Pofiulation.]  The  original  population  of  Denmark  ap- 
 pears to  have  consisted  of  Cimbri,  or  Northern  Celts,  the  ances- 
 tors of  the  Welch  ;  and  who  in  particular  held  the  Cimbric  Cher- 
 sonese, or  modern  Jutland  and  Sleswic.  On  the  progress  of  the 
 Goths  from  the  N.  and  E.  the  Cimbri  were  expelled.  Yet  the 
 Chersonese  continued  to  retain  their  name,  while  possessed  by 
 seven  Gothic  tribes,  among  which  were  the  Angli,who  afterwards 
 gave  appellation  to  England,  and  who  appear  to  have  resided  in 
 the  eastern  part  of  Sleswic,  where  there  is  still  the  province  of 
 Anglen. 
 
 Progressive  Geografihy.~\  The  progi'essive  geography  of  Den- 
 mark may  be  traced  with  some  precision  from  the  first  mention 
 of  the  Cimbric  Chersonese  by  astonished  Rome.  Tacitus  describes 
 the  Suiones,  ancestors  of  the  Danes,  as  constituting  states  situated 
 in  the  sea,  that  is  in  the  islands  of  Zealand,  and  others  which  still 
 form  the  seat  of  Danish  power.|     He  adds  that  they  had  fleets, 
 
 *  Coxe.  I  Coxe.  i  Germ.  c.  44. 
 
DENMARK.  157 
 
 their  ships  being  of  a  singular  form,  capable  of  presenting  either 
 end  as  a  prow  ;  that  they  had  acquired  wealth,  and  were  ruled  by 
 a  monarch.  The  progressive  geography  of  Denmark  may  after- 
 wards be  illustrated  from  various  passages,  especially  from  Jor- 
 nandes,  and  the  Francic  historians,  till  Adam  of  Bremen,  in  the 
 eleventh  century,  gave  a  minute  description  of  the  country,  and 
 their  own  historian  S«axo  Grammaticus  composed  his  classical 
 work  about  the  year  1 180. 
 
 Historical  Efiochs.']  1.  The  most  ancient  population  of  the 
 continental  part  of  Denmark  by  the  Cimbri. 
 
 2.  The  conquest  by  the  Goths,  who  appear  to  have  proceeded 
 from  Scandinavia  into  the  isles  and  Jutland,  as  the  dialect  differs 
 greatly  from  the  German  Gothic,  while  it  is  a  sister  of  the  Swed- 
 ish and  Norwegian. 
 
 3.  The  Roman  and  Francic  accounts  of  Denmark,  from  the 
 time  of  Pliny  and  Tacitus  to  that  of  Charlemagne. 
 
 4.  The  fabulous  and  traditional  history  of  Denmark,  which  ex- 
 tends from  about  the  year  of  Christ  500,  to  the  reign  of  Heriold, 
 mentioned  by  the  Francic  historians  in  the  time  of  Charlemagne. 
 
 5.  The  conquest  of  Denmark  by  Olaf  II.  king  of  Sweden,  about 
 the  year  900. 
 
 6.  The  more  certain  history  commences  with  Gurm  or  Gormo, 
 A-  D.  920  ;  but  there  seems  no  evidence  whether  he  sprung  from 
 a  native  race,  or  from  the  Swedish,  or  Norwegian.  Gormo  is 
 succeeded  by  his  son  Harald  Blaatand  945,  who  is  followed  by  his 
 son  Swein  985,  well  known  by  his  invasion  of  England,  where  he 
 in  some  measure  usurped  the  sovereignty,  and  died  A.  D.  1014. 
 
 7.  The  reign  of  Canute  the  Great,  king  of  Denmark,  England, 
 and  Norway.  The  conversion  of  Denmark  to  Christianity  had 
 commenced  in  the  beginning  of  the  ninth  century  ;  but  Chris- 
 tianity was  far  from  being  universal  there  till  the  reign  of  Canute 
 the  Great,  when  it  was  followed  by  its  universal  consequences, 
 the  cessation  of  piracy  and  rapine,  and  the  diffusion  of  industry 
 and  civilization. 
 
 8.  The  reign  of  Waldemar,  surnamed  the  Great,  A.  D.  1157, 
 who  defeats  the  Wends,  or  Slavonic  inhabitants  of  the  southern 
 shores  of  the  Baltic,  in  many  battles,  and  subdues  the  isle  of  Ru- 
 gen.  Hence  followed  slowly  the  conversion  of  Pomeraniaj  and 
 of  the  countries  on  the  east.  Waldemar  is  regarded  as  the  parent 
 of  the  Danish  laws. 
 
 9.  The  marriage  of  Hakon  VI.  king  of  Norway,  with  Marga- 
 ret daughter  of  Waldemar  III.  king  of  Denmark,  A.  D.  1363,  pi'o- 
 duced  the  memorable  union  of  the  three  crowns  of  the  north.  On 
 the  death  of  her  young  son,  Margaret  ascended  the  throne  of  Den- 
 mark and  Norway  in  1387,  and  that  of  SAveden  in  1389.  Her  hus- 
 band, Eric  of  Pomerania,  reigned  about  26  years  after  her  death, 
 and  was  followed  by  Christopher  of  Bavaria,  who  removed  the 
 royal  residence  from  Roskild  to  Copenhagen. 
 
 10.  The  accession  of  the  house  of  Oldenburg,  in  the  person  of 
 Christiern  I,  A.  D.  1448.  The  repeated  revolts  of  Sweden  were 
 suppressed  by  his  successor  John,  who  was  crowned  at  Stockholm 
 in  1497. 
 
158  DANISH  EMPIRE. 
 
 11.  The  tyrannical  and  unhappy  reign  of  Christiern  II,  when 
 Sweden  was  emancipated  by  the  efforts  of  Gustaf  Wase. 
 
 12.  The  abolition  of  the  Roman  Catholic  religion  by  Christiern 
 III,  1537  ;  but  the  Lutheran  had  been  already  introduced  in  1526. 
 
 13.  The  reigns  of  Christiern  IV.  and  his  successor  Frederic  III, 
 who  was  constrained  to  sign  a  treaty  in  March  1660,  by  which  he 
 abandoned  to  S\v'eden  the  valuable  province  of  Scone,  and  other 
 parts  in  the  south  of  Scandinavia,  which  had  long  remained  in  the 
 possession  of  the  Danes,  together  with  the  fertile  island  of  Rugen. 
 
 14.  The  memorable  revolution  of  the  23d  October  1660,  by 
 ■which  the  crown  was  declared  absolute  and  hereditary.  The 
 subsequent  events  have  been  little  memorable. 
 
 Anti.qiiities.~\  The  ancient  monuments  of  Denmark  and  Nor- 
 way are  chiefly  what  are  called  Runic  ;  though  it  be  not  clear  at 
 what  period  the  use  of  the  Runic  characters  extended  so  far  to 
 the  north.  Circles  of  upright  stones  arc  common  in  all  the  Dan- 
 ish dominions.  Monuments  also  occur  of  the  other  forms  imag- 
 ined by  antiquaries  to  be  Druidic. 
 
 CHAPTER  II. 
 
 POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 KELIGION,  ECCLESIASTICAL  GEOGRAPHY,  GOVERNMENT,  LAWS, 
 POPULATION,  COLONIES,  ARMY,  NAVY,  REVENUE,  POLITICAL  IM- 
 PORTANCE   AND    RELATIONS. 
 
 R€ligion.~\  THE  religion  of  Denmark  is  the  Lutheran. 
 There  is  no  archbishop  ;  but  the  bishopricks  are  six  in  number, 
 viz.  Zealand,  revenue  £1000;  Funen  £760  ;  Ripen  £400  ;  Aar- 
 huus  £600;  Wiborg  £400;  and  Aalborg  £400.  The  chief  see 
 is  that  of  Zealand,  which  yields  about  £1000  a  year  ;  the  other 
 clerical  orders  are  provosts,  or  archdeacons,  parish  priests,  and 
 chaplains.  The  parochial  clergy  are  maintained  by  their  glebes, 
 tithes,  and  surplice  fees  ;  but  in  Jutland  some  of  the  livings  do 
 not  exceed  ,£20  a  year. 
 
 Government. '\  The  constitution,  as  established  Nov.  1 4th  1 665,  is 
 an  absolute  monarchy.  The  king,  in  ecclesiastical  and  civil  matters, 
 acknowledges  no  superior.  He  has  the  sole  power  of  making  and 
 repealing  laws,  of  forming  treaties  and  alliances,  of  making  war  and 
 peace,  and  of  laying  taxes  ;  and  is  the  source  of  all  titles,  dig- 
 nities, honors  and  offices.  The  administration  of  the  kingdom  is 
 in  the  hands  of  a  privy  council,  in  which  the  king  presides.  Its 
 numbers  are  not  limited.  Subordinate  to  this  are  5  departments  : 
 1,  The  Danish  Chancery,  superintending  the  courts  of  justice,  ec- 
 clesiastical aff'airs,  education,  patents,  privileges,  Sec.  for  Norway, 
 the  Isles,  and  N.  Jutland.  2,  The  German  Chancery,  taking  the 
 same  care  for  Sleswick  and  Holstein.  3,  The  Department  for 
 Foreign  Aff'airs.  4,  The  financial  college.  5,  The  Treasury. 
 There  is  a  minister  at  the  head  of  each. 
 
 Lmvs.'}  The  laws  are,  1.  Fuiidamental.  These  are,  1  Kongn 
 Law,  by  which  the  king  must  be  a  Lutheran,  descended  by  laAvful 
 
DENMARK.  159 
 
 wedlock  from  Frederick  III,  and  is  made  of  age  at  14  ;  and  2  the 
 Indigenate's  Lanv^  by  which  foreigners,  unless  natui'alized,  are  ex- 
 cluded from  office.  2,  Danske  Laiv^  or  the  civil  and  criminal 
 code,  published  by  Christiern  III,  in  1683.  It  has  often  been  re- 
 vised, and  is  now  much  enlarged.  It  is  concise,  clear,  and  re- 
 markable for  its  mildness  and  equity. 
 
 Coiirtsr\  There  are  three  classes  of  courts,  viz.  the  inferior 
 courts,  the  superior  courts,  and  the  supreme  tribunal. 
 
 The  inferior  courts  are,  1,  The  herrctsdinge^  composed  of  one 
 judge,  and  eight  assessors,  chosen  from  among  the  freeholders  of 
 the  herredy  a  district  of  40  or  50  parishes.  2,  The  birkdinge^  simi- 
 lar to  the  courts-baron  of  England.  3,  The  byetdhige,  or  city 
 court. 
 
 The  superior  courts  called  Landdirtge,  are  five  in  number  :  one 
 for  Zealand,  at  Ringstaedt  ;  one  for  Funen  and  Langeland,  at 
 Odensee  ;  one  for  Laaland  and  Falstei',  at  Marieboe  ;  one  for 
 Jutland,  at  Wyborg  ;  and  one  for  Bornholm.  They  hear  appeals 
 from  all  the  inferior  courts. 
 
 The  Supreme  Tribunal  of  Copenhagen  is  the  highest  court  of 
 Justice,  and  the  forum  of  final  appeal  from  the  courts  in  all  the 
 Danish  dominions.  It  sits  almost  all  the  year,  and  is  opened  by 
 the  king  in  person  in  the  beginning  of  March. 
 
 The  process  in  the  inferior  courts  is  very  expeditious,  and  the 
 Danes  are,  consequently,  extremely  prone  to  litigation. 
 
 Population.~\  Thenumber  of  inhabitants  in  1780,  was  1,248,952; 
 in  179  6,  1,490,384  ;  and  in  1808,  according  to  Hassel's  estim.ate, 
 1,548,000.  Of  these  1,030,000  are  in  the  peninsula ;  343,000  in 
 Zealand,  including  Moen  and  Barnholm  ;  and  175,000  in  Funen, 
 including  Langeland,  Laaland  and  Falsten.  The  population  of 
 ^he  whole  empire  is  as  follows  : 
 
 r  Denmark,  -         -  1,548,000 
 
 In  Europe,     <  Norway,       ...        912,000 
 (^Ferro,      -  .         -         .        5,300 
 
 In  America       S  Iceland,  (1808)     -         -  47,300 
 
 in  America,      ^  Greenland,  (1806)     -         -      6,100 
 In  Africa,  .         .         .         .         ,  3,000 
 
 2,521,700 
 Ar7ny.~\     The  regular  army  of  Denmark  Proper,  fi-om  the  lat- 
 est accounts,  consisted  of 
 
 Infantry,         .         .         .         .         .  28,341 
 
 Cavalry,  6,066 
 
 Artillery,       ...  -         *  3,299 
 
 Engineers,         .         -         ,         -         -  35 
 
 In  garrisons,  -         -         -         -         -      710 
 
 Baraholm  militia,      -         -        -        -        1,325 
 
 38,776 
 Add  the  Norwegian  troops,         -        -        -       42,531 
 
 81,307 
 
160  DANISH  EMPIRE. 
 
 A  new  national  militia  has  lately  been  organized,  by  the  name 
 of  Land-vaern.  It  consists  of  men  between  36  and  45  years  of  age, 
 who  are  to  serve  only  oh  emergencies.  Of  these  there  were,  in 
 1808, 
 
 In  Denmark  Proper,         .         -         -         59,000 
 In  Norway, 40,ooo 
 
 99,000 
 
 There  are  two  military  schools  in  Denmark,  and  one  in  Nor- 
 way. The  Danish  fortresses  are  Copenhagen,  Cronenburg,  Cor- 
 soer,  Nyeborg,  Fredericia,  Fladshand,  Rendsberg  and  Gluckstadt. 
 
 N'avy?^  In  October  1803,  the  Danish  navy  consisted  of  19 
 ships  of  the  line,  15  frigates,  8  brigs,  13  gunboats.  In  Jan.  1807, 
 it  was  commanded  by  7  admirals,  10  commodores,  40  captains, 
 and  151  lieutenants.  Soon  after  that  time,  it  fell  into  the  hands  of 
 the  English. 
 
 In  1809  it  consisted  only  of  2  frigates,  1  brig,  1  cuttev^,  1  schoon- 
 er, 1  floating  battery,  9  gunboats  ;  in  all  17,  mounting  191  ^uns. 
 The  Danish  marines  are  5000  in  number. 
 
 Revenuesr\^  The  annual  revenue  is  stated  by  Hassel,  in  1808, 
 at  10,875,000  guilders,  which  at  40  cts.  a  guilder  makes  4,350,000 
 dollars.*  Of  this  sum  Denmark  contributes  §2,940,000;  Nor- 
 way 690,000  ;  West  Indies  360,000  ;  the  toil  at  the  Sound  360,000. 
 Deducting  that  from  the  West  Indies  there  remains  g3,990,000. 
 The  toll  of  the  Sound  varies  from  §320,000  to  720,000.  The  ex- 
 penses are  commonly  less  than  the  revenue.  The  debt  in  1795  was 
 §7,500,000.     It  is  supposed  now  to  exceed  §12,000,000. 
 
 Political  Importance  and  Relations.~^  Denmark  and  Norway 
 have  long  ceased  to  be  objects  of  terror  to  the  southern  powers, 
 and  centuries  have  elapsed  since  any  of  the  monarchs  has  been 
 distinguished  in  war  ;  while  the  Swedes  on  the  contrary  have 
 maintained  their  martial  spirit.  A  timid  policy  has  long  united 
 this  monarchy  in  alliance  with  Russia,  as  a  mean  of  security  against 
 Sweden  ;  but  more  wisdom  would  appear  in  a  firm  alliance  with 
 Sweden  and  Prussia  against  the  exorbitant  power  of  the  Russian 
 and  French  empires. 
 
 CHAPTER  HI. 
 
 CIVIL  GEOGRAPHY, 
 
 MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS,  LANGUAGE,  LITERATURE,  EDUCATION, 
 UNIVERSITIES,  CITI|>S  AND  TOWNS,  EDIFICES,  ROADS,  INLAND 
 NAVIGATION,  MANUFACTURES  AND  COMMERCE. 
 
 Manners  and  Customs.^  THE  manners  and  cus- 
 toms of  the  superior  Danes  differ  little  from  those  of  the  same 
 classes  in  other  parts  of  Europe.  The  peasantry  continue  ia  a 
 State  of  vassalage  ;  except  those  of  the   crown,  who  have  been 
 
 •  Probably  the  Guilder  here  mentioned  by  Hassel,  is  the  Sa-xon  Guilder,  which  is 
 about  51  cts.  in  value, 
 
DENMARK.  161 
 
 recently  delivered  by  the  patriotism  of  the  heir  apparent,  and  a 
 few  other  instances.     They  are  of  course  idle,  dirty,  and  dispirited. 
 
 Language .~\  If  we  except  the  Laponic,  the  languages  spoken 
 in  the  Danish  dominions  arc  all  sister  dialects  of  the  Gothic.  The 
 Icelandic  is  the  most  ancient  and  venerable  ;  and  being  esteemed 
 the  most  pure  dialect  of  the  Gothic,  has  engaged  the  attention  of 
 many  profound  scholars,  who  liave  considered  it  as  the  parent  of 
 the  Norwegian,  Danish,  and  Swedish,  and  in  a  great  degree  of  the 
 English,  though  it  would  seem  that  this  last  is  more  connected  with 
 the  Frisic,  and  other  dialects  of  the  north  of  Germany.  In  the  an- 
 cient Icelandic  the  Lord's  prayer  is  as  follows  : 
 
 Fader  uoi'  som  est  i  Himlum.  Halgad  ivarde  thitt  na7na.  Til- 
 komvre  thitt  liikie.  Skie  thin  Vilie^  so  som  i  Himmalam  so  och  fio 
 loiidanne.  Wort  dachlicha  Brodh  gif  os  i  dagh.  Oghforlat  os  uo7'a 
 Skuldar  so  soin  og/i  xn  forlate  them  os  Skildighe  are.  Oh  inled  os 
 ikkie  i  Frestalsan.      Utanfrels  os  ifra  Ondo.      Amen. 
 
 In  the  Finnish  it  is  as  follows  : 
 
 Isa  vicidan  joca  olet  taiivassa.  Pijhitctty  olcon  sinum  J\''imes. 
 Lakes  tulcon  sinum  Waldactindas.  Olcon  sinum  tahtos  niin  maasca 
 ruin  taiwasa.  Anna  meile  tanafialwana  meidan  joca  jiaiivainen 
 Icijiam.  Sa  anna  meille  meidan  sijndim  andexi  niincuifi  jnekin  andex 
 annam  meidan  wekvottisten.  Ja  alajahdata  meita  kiusauxen.  Mut- 
 ta  fiaasta  m^ita  pahasta.      Ameii. 
 
 And  thus  in  the  Laplandic  : 
 
 Atki  mijam  jicco  lee  aimensisne.  Ailis  ziaddai  tu  A'am.  Ziveigu- 
 batta  tu  Ryki.  Ziaddus  tu  JVillio  nankuchte  almesne  nau  ei  edna 
 mannal.  Wadde  mijai  udni  mijanfsrt  psfiven  laibebm.  Jah  anda- 
 gasloite  mi  jemijan  suddoid  naukuchte  mije  andagasloitebt  kudi  mije 
 welgogas  lien.  Jah  sissalaidi  mijabni.  JEle  tocko  kackzcillebma 
 Jiahast.     Amen. 
 
 It  will  hence  appear  that  the  Laplanders  have  borrowed  some 
 terms  from  the  Gothic,  as  well  as  from  the  Finnish. 
 
 Literature. ~\  The  literature  of  Denmark  cannot  aspire  to  mucli 
 antiquity,  having  followed,  as  usual,  the  introduction  of  Chris- 
 tianity, which  was  not  established  till  the  eleventh  century.  In 
 the  next  century  lived  Saxo  Grammaticus,  whose  history  of  Den- 
 mark abounds  with  fable,  but  whose  style  and  manner  are  surpris- 
 ingly classical  for  that  age.  His  contemporary  or  predecessor, 
 Sveno,  is  more  faithful  and  concise,  and  is  esteemed  the  father 
 -of  Danish  history. 
 
 After  the  restoration  of  letters  Denmark  continued  to  maintain 
 her  wonted  ascendancy  over  Sweden  :  and  the  name  of  Tycho 
 Brahe  is  yet  celebrated  ;  but  his  little  isle  of  Hwen,  noted  for  his 
 astroaoniical  observations,  now  belongs  to  Sweden.  The  botany 
 of  Denmark  has  been  illustrated  by  CEder  ;  and  Niebuhr  is  dis- 
 tinguished as  .Ji  intelligent  traveller  ;  but  in  the  other  paths  of 
 science  and  literature  there  seems  to  be  a  deplorable  deficiency. 
 
 Ldiicaiion.j  The  silence  of  travellers  and  geographers  con- 
 cerning the  rncucs  of  education  pursued  in  different  countries  is 
 much  to  be  regretted  ;  but  the  materials  are  not  equally  deficient 
 concerning  Denmark.     Each  parish  is  provided  with  two  or  three 
 
 VOL.    II.  21 
 
1.62  DANISH  EMPIRE. 
 
 schools,  where  children  are  taug-iit  to  read  and  write  their  nativ^e 
 tongue,  and  the  principles  of  arithmetic  :  the  schoolmasters  are 
 allowed  about  12/,  a  year,  with  a  house,  and  some  other  advanta- 
 ges,* There  are  besides  many  Latin  schools,  maintained  at  the 
 royal  expense  ;  16  in  Holstein  ;  11  in  Sleswic  ;  19  in  Jutland, 
 and  the  isles  ;  and  at  Soroe,  Odensee,  and  Altona,  there  are  supe- 
 rior academies  of  education. 
 
 Universities.^  The  universities  are  at  Copenhagen  and  Kiel. 
 That  of  Copenhagen  has  4  colleges  and  about  600  students. 
 It  is  richly  endowed,  and  180  poor  students  are  supported  by  its 
 funds.  That  of  Kiel,  founded  in  1650,  contains  24  Professors  and 
 300  students.  The  royal  academy  of  sciences  was  founded  in 
 1742,  but  has  been  more  distinguished  in  national  antiquities,  than 
 natural  history.  In  1746  was  founded  the  society  for  the  improt^e- 
 ment  of  northern  history,  also  styled  the  royal  society  of  Icelandic 
 literature.  There  is  another  respectable  institution  at  Drontheim, 
 styled  the  royal  society  of  sciences.  These  foundations  confer 
 honor  on  the  Danish  government  ;  and  will  doubtless  contribute 
 to  diffuse  science,  and  inspire  emulation. 
 
 Cities  and  To%vns.~\  Copenhagen,  the  chief  city  of  Denmark, 
 stands  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  large  and  fertile  island  of  Zeal- 
 and, about  25  British  miles  to  the  south  of  the  noted  sound,  where 
 the  vessels  that  visit  the  Baltic  pay  a  small  tribute  to  Denmark. 
 It  is  the  best  built  city  in  the  north  ;  for,  though  Petersburgh  pi'e- 
 sent  more  superb  edifices,  yet  Copenhagen  is  more  uniform  ;  the 
 houses  being  mostly  of  brick,  but  a  few  of  freestone  from  Germa- 
 ny-t  The  streets  are  rather  narrow,  but  are  well  paved.  This 
 city  only  became  the  metropolis  in  1443,  being  formerly  an  ob- 
 scure port,  whence  it  retains  the  name  of  Kiobenhaven^  or  the  har- 
 bor of  the  merchants,  and  it  has  little  claim  to  antiquity.  The 
 royal  palace,  which  was  a  magnificent  pile,  was  consumed  by  fire 
 a  few  years  ago  :  and  the  city  suffered  dreadfully  from  the  same 
 cause  in  1728.  It  is  regularly  fortified,  the  circumference  being 
 between  four  and  five  miles,  and  the  inhabitants  in  1806,97,438. 
 The  harbor  is  spacious  and  convenient,  and  well  fortified,  having 
 on  the  south  the  isle  of  Amak,  peopled  by  the  descendants  of  a 
 colony  from  East  Friesland,  to  whom  the  island  was  granted  by 
 Christicrn  II.  to  supply  his  queen  with  vegetables,  cheese  and 
 butter,  a  destination  still  retained.  Copenhagen  has  about  440 
 ships,  of  about  48,000  tons.  The  number  of  vessels  entered  in- 
 wards in  1798  was  5,974.  The  magistrates  are  appointed  by  the 
 king  ;  but  the  burgesses  have  de^iuties  to  protect  their  rights.  It 
 is  in  lat.  55  41  4  N.  and  12  35  15  E. 
 
 The  second  city  of  Denmark  is  Altona  on  the  Elbe,  within  a 
 gun-shot  of  Hamburgh,  originally  a  village  of  the  parish  of  Ot- 
 tcnsen  ;  but  in  1640  it  became  subject  to  Denmark,  and  was  con- 
 stituted a  city  in  1664.  In  1713  it  was  almost  entirely  reduced  to 
 ashes  by  the  Swedes  ;  but  its  commerce  was  afterwards  so  much 
 fostered  by  the  Danish  sovereigns,  as  a  diminutive  rival  of  Ham- 
 burghi  that  it  is  computed  to  contain  30,000  inhabitants  and  3,400 
 
 *  Coxe,  iv.  57  v.  187.  t  Coxe,  v.  126, 
 
DENMARK.  163 
 
 houses.  It  has  8  places  for  public  worship,  viz.  3  Lutheran 
 churches,  2  Calvinistic,  1  Catholic,  and  2  Jewish  synagogues.  It 
 contains  also  a  mint,  a  bank,  royal  exchange,  and  six  ship  yards. 
 N.  lat.  53  35. 
 
 Kiel  stands  on  a  small  peninsula  at  the  bottom  of  a  narrow  bay 
 of  the  Baltic,  in  54  22  25  N.  and  10  26,  E.  Its  harbor  is  very 
 convenient  for  large  ships.  It  contains  800  houses,  and  8000  in- 
 habitants, and  is  one  of  the  most  commercial  places  in  Holstein. 
 The  canal  connecting  the  Eyder  with  the  Bay  of  Kiel  has  greatly 
 increased  its  commerce. 
 
 Schlelswick  is  the  capital  of  the  province  or  duchy  of  the  sam.e 
 name,  and  is  situated  at  the  bottom  of  a  very  deep,  narrow  gulf, 
 cs.l\ed  the  Gu(f  of  Sley.  It  is  an  irregular  town  of  great  length, 
 containing  1280  houses,  and  5629  inhabitants.  The  houses  are  of 
 brick,  and  resemble,  in  their  neatness  and  form,  those  of  Holla;nd  ; 
 the  inhabitants  speak  Dutch,  German  and  Danish. 
 
 Odensee,  a  name  occurring  in  the  earliest  Danish  history,  was 
 a  town  of  great  note  long  before  the  existence  of  Copenhagen.  It 
 is  the  capital  of  the  island  of  Funen,  and  stands  on  a  small  river^ 
 one  mile  from  its  enti'ance  into  the  Bay  of  Stegestrand.  Inhabi- 
 tants 5363  ;  houses  930.     Its  exports  are  grain  and  leather. 
 
 Aalborg  stands  about  10  miles  from  the  Scager-Rack,  on  the 
 S.  side  of  the  extensive  Gulf  of  Lymfort.  The  harbor  is  safe  and 
 deep,  and  the  chief  exports  herrings  and  grain.  It  has  extensive 
 manufactures  of  muskets,  pistols,  saddles,  and  gloves.  Inhabi- 
 tants 5,200;   houses   831.      Lat.    57  2  32  N  ;    Long.   10  2    1 1  E. 
 
 Aarhuus  stands  between  the  Baltic  and  a  small  lake,  from  which 
 a  river  runs  through  the  town.  It  has  6  gates,  2  churches,  2 
 markets,  a  college,  a  free  school,  and  a  hospital.  Inhabitants- 
 4900,  houses  690.     Lat.  56  9  35  Long.  10  19  35. 
 
 Gluckstadt,  about  20  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  Elbe,  con- 
 tains 800  houses,  and  4500  inhabitants.  Lat.  53  47  42  N.  Long. 
 9  32  32  E. 
 
 Tonningen,  on  the  Eyder,  is  a  town  of  considerable  commercial 
 importance.     Inhabitants  2000. 
 
 Edifices.~\  The  chief  public  edifices  are  in  the  cities.  The 
 castle  and  palace  of  Cronberg,  and  the  two  other  royal  villas  in 
 Zealand,  do  not  merit  a  particular  description,  the  buildings  and 
 gardens  being  generally  in  an  antiquated  taste.  The  roads  in 
 Denmark  were  till  lately  much  neglected,  and  formed  a  striking 
 contrast  with  those  of  Sweden. 
 
 Inland  Mivigat'07i.~\  The  chief  inland  navigation  of  Denmark 
 is  the  canal  of  Kiel,  so  called  from  a  considerable  town  in  the 
 north  of  Holstein,  This  canal  unites  the  Bay  of  Kiel  with  the 
 river  Eydar,  which  flows  into  the  German  sea.  It  commences 
 5  miles  N.  of  Kiel,  and  is  fed  by  the  waters  of  Lakes  Flemhuder 
 and  Wester.  The  extent  of  this  important  canal  is  about  20 
 British  miles  and  a  half;  from  its  W.  end  to  Rendsberg  6^,  and 
 thence  to  the  mouth  of  the  Eyder  about  60.  The  breadtli  100 
 feet  at  top  and  54  at  bottom  ;  the  least  depth  is  about   10  feet,  so 
 
164  DANISH  EMPIRE. 
 
 as  to  admit  vessels  of  about  120  tons.     It  was  begun  in  July  177/, 
 and  was  finished  in  1785. 
 
 Manufactures  and  Co?mnerce,~\  Leather  is  manufactured  for 
 exportation  in  great  quantities,  particularly  at  Altona.  The  leath- 
 ern gloves  of  Odensee,  are  famous  all  over  Europe.  The  earthen 
 ware  of  Aarhuus  and  Ripen,  supplies  Denmark,  and  many  parts 
 of  Germany.  The  manufactures  of  calicoes  and  cottons,  at  Co- 
 penhagen, prevent  the  necessity  of  importation  ;  as  do  those  of 
 worsted  stockings  in  Jutland,  Ferro,  and  Iceland.  The  army  is 
 fully  supplied  with  muskets,  bayonets  and  sabres,  by  a  manufac- 
 tory near  Elsineur  ;  3500  muskets  are  made  there  annually. 
 There  is  a  very  extensive  one  of  cannon,  cannon-balls,  salt-petre, 
 and  gunpowder,  at  Frederickswark,  near  Isefiord  Bay.  Ribbands 
 and  silk  stockings  are  made  in  great  quantities  at  Copenhagen" 
 and  Altona.  Two  thirds  of  the  coarse  linen  and  most  of  the  sail 
 cloth  and  paper  is  made  in  the  country,  and  a  considerable  part 
 of  the  woollen  cloth  ;  but  almost  all  the  fine  linen  is  imported. 
 The  thread  lace  manufacture  of  Tondcrn  gives  employment  to 
 10,000  hands.  The  manufactvires  of  Denmark  have  been  nobly 
 patronized  by  the  government. 
 
 The  number  of  merchant  vessels  belonging  to  Denmark  in 
 1799  was  2173.  The  commerce  with  Iceland  employs  from  GO  to 
 70  vessels  all  Danish.  Greenland  furnishes  fish,  oil,  whalebones, 
 and  elder-down,  but  the  whale-fishery  is  the  principal  object. 
 The  West  India  trade  employed  30  ships.  The  imports  Avere 
 about  90,000  cwt.  of  sugar,  10,000  puncheons  of  rum,  and  2,500 
 cwt.  of  cotton.  The  Danish  trade  in  the  Mediterranean  is  prin- 
 cipally the  carrying  trade  ;  and  employed  in  1798,  126  vessels. 
 The  trade  in  the  Baltic  with  Sweden,  Germany  and  Prussia,  em- 
 ploys about  300  vessels,  and  is  generally  against  Denmark.  Lin- 
 ens, woollens,  wood,  brandy  and  haberdashery  are  brought  from 
 Germany  ;  and  corn,  flax,  hemp  and  wool  from  Prussia.  The 
 E.  India  trade  is  in  the  hands  of  a  privileged  company.  It  is  now 
 little  or  nothing.  In  1803,  1536  ships  cleared  out  from  Denmark 
 and  Norway,  for  G.  Britain,  two  fifths  of  which  were  British. 
 
 The  exports  of  Denmark  consist  of  corn  to  Norway,  and  fre- 
 quently to  the  amount  of  /;  100,000  sterling,  to  other  countries  ; 
 horses  to  Germany,  France,  Russia  and  Sweden,  to  the  amount  of 
 ;C200,000  sterling  ;  oxen  to  Holland  and  Germany  ;  live  hogs  and 
 bacon  to  Norway  and  the  Baltic  ;  and  salt-beef,  butter,  and  cheese 
 in  considerable  quantities,  besides  the  various  manufactures  al- 
 ready mentioned.  The  great  trading  places  are  Copenhageji, 
 Altona,  Elsineur,  Aalborg,  Flejisborg,  Gluckstadt.,  and  Colding. 
 
DENMARK.  165 
 
 CHAPTER  IV. 
 NATURAL  GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 CLIMATE  AND  SEASONS,  FACE.  OF  THE  COUNTRY,  SOIL  AND  AGRI- 
 CULTURE, RIVERS,  BAYS,  MOUNTAINS,  FORESTS,  BOTANY,  ZOOL- 
 OGY, MINERAOLOGY,  MINERAL   V.  ATERS. 
 
 Climate  and  Seasorifs.']  THE  kingdom  of  Denmark  prop- 
 er, consisting  of  those  ancient  seats  of  the  Danish  monarchy  ;  the- 
 isles  of  Zealand,  Funen,  Laland,  and  Falster,  with  others  of  inferi- 
 or size  ;  and  the  extensive  Chersonese  or  peninsula,  which  con- 
 tains Jutland,  Sleswic,  and  Holstein,  may  be  considered  as  possess- 
 ing a  humid  and  rather  temperate  climate.  Yet  the  winter  is  oc- 
 casionally of  extreme  severity,  and  the  sea  is  impeded  Avith  ice. 
 The  Sound  has,  at  times,  been  crossed  by  heavy  loaded  carriages. 
 
 Face  of  the  Country. ~\  The  isle  of  Zealand,  which  is  about  200 
 G.  miles  in  circumference,  exclusive  of  the  windings  and  indenta- 
 tions of  the  coast,  in  a  fertile  and  pleasant  country,  with  fields  sep- 
 arated by  mud  walls,  cottages  cither  of  brick  or  white-washed, 
 woods  of  beech  and  oak,  vales,  and  gentle  hills.  The  same  de- 
 scription will  apply  to  Funen,  which  is  about  140  G.  miles  in  cir- 
 cumference, and  Avhich  Mr.  Marshall  says  is  as  well  cultivated  is 
 most  of  the  counties  in  England.  Holstein  and  Sleswic  are  also 
 level  countries  ;  'and  though  Jutland  present  many  upland  moors, 
 and  forests  of  great  extent,  especially  towards  Aalborg,  or  in  the 
 centre  of  the  northern  part,  yet  there  are  fertile  pastures  ;  and  the 
 country,  being  marshy  and  not  mountainous,  might  be  greatly  im- 
 proved. The  western  coast  of  Sleswic  is  exposed  to  the  inroads  of 
 the  German  ocean,  and  is  therefore  keptimbanked  at  a  very  great 
 expense.  The  country  generally  is  agreeably  diversified  with 
 woods  and  lakes. 
 
 Soil  and  Agriculture. '\  In  Funen,  Holstein,  and  the  south  of 
 Jutland  the  agriculture  may  be  compared  with  that  of  England  ; 
 the  fields  are  divided  by  hedges  and  ditches  in  excellent  order, 
 and  sown  with  corn  and  turnips.  Farther  to  the  north,  cultivation 
 is  less  perfect.  Hops  are  cultivated  in  Funen  ;  tobacco  in  Jut- 
 land, Zealand  and  Falster ;  rape-seed  in  Sleswic  and  Holstein. 
 Madder  thrives  very  Avell  near  Copenhagen.  Rye,  barley  and 
 oats  are  found  every  where.  But  wheat  is  the  great  staple  of  Den- 
 mark, great  quantities  of  which  are  exported.  In  1780,  the  coun- 
 try contained  847,000  sheep.  The  best  wool  is  that  near  Eyder- 
 stadt. 
 
 Rivers  and  Bays.']  The  Eyder  is  navigable  for  vessels  of  120 
 tons  7  miles  above  Rendsburg,  which  is  60  miles  from  its  mouth. 
 It  falls  into  the  German  ocean  through  the  bay  of  Tonningen.  Its 
 source  is  about  20  miles  S.  of  Kiel,  and  it  passes  through  Lakes 
 Wester  and  Flembuder  before  it  joins  the  canal. 
 
 The  Gulden  runs  about  100  miles,  and  falls  into  the  Cattcgat,  a 
 few  miles  below  Randers. 
 
 The  Elbe  bound.s  Holstein  on  the  S. 
 
i66  DANISH  EMPIRE, 
 
 The  Lymfiord  or  Lymfur  is  a  long,  narrow  and  navigable  ba} > 
 in  the  northern  part  of  Jvitland,  setting  up  westward  from  the  Cat- 
 tegat  nearly  across  the  peninsula.  It  is  30  miles  long,  f.nd  is  di- 
 vided Ijy  a  sand  bank  of  only  two  or  three  miles  width  from  the 
 German  ocean.  A  northern  arm  of  it  approaches  very  near  the 
 Skager-Rack.  It  contains  several  islands,  particularly  Mar^  16 
 miles  long  and  6  wide. 
 
 Isefiord  is  a  bay  on  the  north  side  of  the  island  of  Zealand,  a- 
 bout  30  miles  long,  and  25  wide,  opening  through  a  narrow  strait 
 into  the  Cattegat.     A  narrow  peninsula  divides  it  into  tv/o. 
 
 The  Bay  of  Ringkiobing  puts  up  northward  from  the  German 
 ocean,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  a  long  narrow  sandbank.  It 
 is  35  miles  long,  and  no  where  more  than  8  broad.  It  is  deep  and 
 secure,  but  there  are  sandbanks  near  the  entrance.  It  affords 
 plenty  of  good  fish,  particularly  oysters. 
 
 Sley  is  a  shallow  Bay  about  30  miles  long,  with  the  width  of  a 
 river. 
 
 Mountahifi.']  In  the  kingdom  of  Denmark  proper  there  are  no 
 heights,  Avhich  can  aspire  to  the  name  of  mountains. 
 
 jForests.^  There  are  some  woods  in  the  Danish  isles,  and  for- 
 ests in  Jutland.  The  western  part  of  Jutland  has  not  wood  enough 
 for  fuel.     Tne  eastern  is  well  supplied. 
 
 Botany.']^  The  botany  of  Denmark  proper  does  not  materially 
 differ  from  that  of  the  other  northern  provinces  of  the  German  em- 
 pire, which  will  be  hei'eafter  noticed  more  minutely  when  describ- 
 ing the  states  of  the  Germanic  body. 
 
 Zoology.'^  The  Danish  horses  are  much  esteemed  both  for 
 their  speed  and  their  strength.  They  are  sought  after  in  France, 
 Russia,  Germany  and  Sweden,  for  light  and  heavy  cavalry  and  as 
 coach-horses.  The  oysterbanks,  which  extend  from  Heligoland 
 to  the  coast  of  Jutland  are  let  to  farmers  by  the  crown. 
 
 Minn-alogy.'^  Some  fuller's  earth,  alum  and  vitriol  found  in 
 Jutland,  and  some  porcelain  clay  in  the  island  of  Barnholm,  con- 
 stitute the  whole  of  the  mineral  productions  of  Denmark. 
 
 Mineral  Waters.']  In  mineral  waters  the  Danish  dominion  are 
 very  deficient  ;  and  those  discovered  in  1768  at  Oersten  in  the 
 Sondmoer  appear  to  be  little  frequented. 
 
 DANISH  ISLANDS. 
 
 The  prime  seat  of  the  Danish  monarchy  having  ever  been  in  the 
 isles  of  Zealand,  and  Funen,  they  have  been  considered  in  the  gen- 
 eral description  of  the  monarchy.  The  other  principal  islands  in 
 that  group  ai'e  Moen,  Falster,  Laaland,  Langeland,  Femeren  and 
 Alsen. 
 
 Moen,  16  miles  long,  and  from  3  to  5  broad,  is  S.  E.  of  Zealand, 
 contains  a  single  town,  called  Steege,  and  belongs  to  the  diocese  of 
 Zealand. 
 
 Falster  is  60  miles  in  circumference,  contains  two  towns,  and  is 
 W.  of  Moen.  A  governor  resides  here,  appointed  by  the  crown- 
 Laaland,  W.  of  Falster,  is  30  miles  long   and   1 2   broad.       It  is 
 
DENMARK.  167 
 
 rhoughl  the  must  fertile  spot  in  the  Danish  dominions,  and  produ- 
 ces very  great  quantities  of  corn  of  every  kind.  The  land  is  low, 
 the  soil  damp,  and  the  climate  unhealthy.  The  eastern  part  of  the 
 island  is  well  furnished  with  wood.  Naskow  is  the  capital.  It 
 has  likewise  its  own  governor.  Langeland^  30  miles  long,  and 
 from  3  to  5  broad,  is  very  fertile.  It  belongs,  with  the  two  last 
 mentioned  islands,  to  the  diocese  of  Funcn. 
 
 Femeren^  in  the  diocese  of  Holstein,  is  30  miles  in  circumfer- 
 ence.    It  contams  the  town  of  Burg,  and  several  villages. 
 
 Jlsen^  in  the  diocese  of  Sleswic,  is  18  miles  long  and  6  wide.  It 
 is  fertile,  \yc\\  wooded,  and  well  stocked  with  game. 
 
 Born/iolm,  the  most  easterly  of  all  the  Danish  islands,  is  18  miles 
 long  and  10  broad.  Though  surrounded  by  rocks  and  the  soil 
 stony,  it  is  fertile,  abounding  with  excellent  pastures  ;  oats,  butter 
 and  fish  constitute  the  wealth  of  the  inhabitants.  It  contains 
 mines  of  coal  and  quarries  of  marble.  It  is  75  miles  from  Zea- 
 land, and  15  from  Schoncn.  Lat.  55  12.  Long.  !5  20,  E.  It  was 
 ceded  to  Sweden  in  1658;  but  the  inhabitants  revolted  the  same 
 year,  and  restored  the  isle  to  Denmark. 
 
 Off  the  west  coast  of  Jutland  are  the  isles  of  Nordstrand,  Fora» 
 Sylt,  Rom,  Fanoe,  and  others,  which  with  Heligoland  were  known 
 to  the  Romans  ;  and  the  writers  of  that  nation  appear  often  to  have 
 confounded  them  with  some  of  the  Orkneys,  and  even  with  the 
 islands  in  the  Baltic. 
 
 For  many  years  the  Norwegians  held  the  isles  of  Orkney  and 
 Shetland,  which  last  Avas  styled  by  them  the  Land  of  Hialt,  from 
 aiv  adventurer  so  called,  whence  the  corrupt  names  of  Zetland, 
 Yctland,  and  Shetland. 
 
 The  Ferro,  Faro  or  Faroes  islands  are  22  in  number,  lying  be- 
 t^v'een  lat.  61  15  and  62  21  N.  and  extending  67  miles  from  N^  to 
 S.  and  45  from  E.  to  W.  They  consist  of  a  group  of  steep  rocks 
 or  hills  lying  so  close  to  each  other,  that  their  bases  are  merely 
 sepai'ated  by  a  brook.  Towards  the  sea  they  generally  terminate 
 in  perpendicular  rocks  from  1200  to  1800  feet  in  height.  Those 
 declining  more  gradually  have  two  or  three  sloping  terraces,  form- 
 ed by  projecting  rocks,  and  covered  with  grass.  Those  parts 
 v.hich  are  arable  have  no  where  more  than  4  feet  depth  of  soil,  ly- 
 ing upon  a  rocky  bottom,  often  not  more  than  8  inches ;  and  often 
 the  sides  are  so  steep  that  no  earth  can  remain  on  them.  Strata  of 
 basaltick  columns  are  found  among  the  hills.  In  Suderoe  these 
 are  of  considerable  height  and  resemble  those  of  Staffa,  reach- 
 ing into  the  sea.  Deep  fissures  of  considerable  length  are  met 
 with  among  the  hills.  Caverns  also  are  frequent  in  the  shores, 
 the  favourite  haunts  of  seals  ;  some  so  deep  that  a  boat  may  enter  a 
 hundred  fathoms  ;  some  pass  through  a  hill,  and  arc  open  at  both 
 ends  ;  some  stretch  through  a  whole  island.  There  are  several 
 lakes  on  the  hills,  the  largest  2  miles  in  circumference.  Torrents 
 are  numerous,  and  afford  great  facilities  for  watcrmills.  The 
 highest,  called  Fosaa  in  Nordotromse,  consists  of  two  descents  each, 
 of  100  feet.  Seventeen  of  these  islands  are  inhabited.  They  were 
 first  peopled  in  the  9th  century  by  some  Norwegian  pirates  who 
 
1 6^  SWEDEN, 
 
 were  reduced  to  obedience  by  Magnus  the  Good.  A  small  colony 
 of  Fins  afterwards  occupied  the  more  southern  islands.  The  pop- 
 ulation in  1801  was  5,265,  and  the  revenue,  in  .'790,  639/  8.s  ster- 
 ling. The  inhabitants  enjoy  peculiar  freedom.  They  live  princi- 
 pally by  fishing.  The  islands  compose  7  parishes,  divided  into  39 
 congregations  Avith  each  its  church.  There  is  a  clergyman  in 
 each  parish.  The  largest  income  is  25/  sterling.  At  one  island  it 
 is  necessary  to  hoist  the  clergvman  by  a  rope  from  his  boat,  there 
 being  no  other  landing.  There  is  no  schoolmaster  in  the  islands, 
 parents  instructing  their  own  children.  All  of  them  can  read,  except 
 a  few  persons  of  great  age.  They  are  remarkably  Avell  instructed 
 in  the  Christian  religion,  and  often  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the 
 Bible.  The  men  dress  plainly  ;  the  women  are  fond  of  ornaments. 
 They  are  remarkably  kind  and  upright  in  cases  of  snipwreck. — 
 The  gout,  catarrhal  fevers,  the  stone,  and  scrofula  are  the  common 
 diseases.  The  leprosy  is  disappearing.  The  most  violent  hurri- 
 canes are  prevalent.  They  frequently  unroof  houses,  and  even 
 tear  the  turf  from  the  sides  of  hills.  The  falcon,  crow,  martin, 
 starling  and  wren,  and  most  kinds  of  sea-fowl,  are  common. — 
 Rats  are  so  numerous  as  frequently  to  destroy  a  cornfield  in  two 
 nights.     There  are  no  amphibious  animals  of  any  kind. 
 
 SWEDEN. 
 
 CHAPTER  I. 
 
 HISTORICAL  GEOGIlAPliV. 
 
 XAMES,  EXTENT,  BOUNDARIES,  DIVISIONS,  ORIGINAL  POPULATION. 
 PROGRESSIVE  GEOGUAPHY,  ANTiqUITIES,  RELIGION,  GOVERN- 
 MENT, POPULATION,  COLONIES,  ARMY,  NAVY,  REVENUE,  MAN- 
 NERS AND  CUSTOMS,  LANGUAGE,  LITERATURE,  EDUCATION,  UNI- 
 VERSITIES, CITIES,  EDIFICES,  ROADS,  INLAND  NAVIGATION, 
 MANUFACTURES,  AND   COMMERCE. 
 
 Aames.']  SWEDEN,  in  the  "aative  language  Stift/ieod, 
 and  more  modernly  Siueircke,  appears  to  be  a  very  ancient  appel- 
 lation, and  is  said,  by  the  northern  antiquaries,  to  imply  a  country 
 whose  woods  had  been  burnt  or  destroyed.  The  name  seems  as 
 ancient  as  the  time  of  Tacitus,*  who,  after  describing  the  Suioncs 
 who  lived  in  islands  of  the  ocean,  passes  to  the  Sitones,  and  after- 
 wards to  the  nations  at  the  farther  end  of  the  Baltic.  The  Sitones 
 must  have  dwelled  in  the  southern  provinces  of  Sweden  ;  and  the 
 name  either  have  been  derived  from  Sictuna,  the  old  name  of  the 
 chief  town,  as  appears  from  Adam  of  Bremen,  or  from  Suithcod, 
 the  native  term,  softened  as  usual  by  the  Roman  enunciation. 
 Extent.~\     The  kingdom  of  Sweden,  from  the   most  soulV.crn 
 
 *  Clpi'innn  c.  44,  45. 
 
SWEDEN.  16.9 
 
 promontory  of  Scone,  in  lat.  55  20,  N.to  the  northern  extremity  of 
 Swedish  Lapland,  in  lat.  69  30,  N.  is  1000  miles  in  length.  Its 
 Avestern  extremity,  the  promontory  of  Hodal,  is  in  long.  1 1,  E.  and 
 its  eastern  limit,  before  the  late  dismemberment  of  Finland,  was 
 in  long.  32  30,  E.  In  Lapmark  it  now  reaches  to  about  long.  29, 
 E.  Its  greatest  breadth,  in  lat.  62  30,  N.  was  then  630  miles. — 
 The  average  breadth  at  present  is  about  220.  The  number  of 
 square  miles  in  Sweden,  including  Finland,  is,  according  to  Pin- 
 kerton,  208,912  ;  according  to  Hassel  288,160  ;  from  which  last, 
 deducting  those  of  Finland,  there  wil!  remain  for  Sweden  188,433 
 square  miles. 
 
 Boundaries.']  Sweden  is  bounded  N.  by  Norway*;  E.  partly  by 
 Russia,  principally  by  the  Baltic  ;  S.  by  the  Baltic  ;  W.  by  the 
 Cattegat,  Norway,  and,  for  a  small  distance,  by  the  Atlantic.  The 
 little  Swedish  province  of  Herndal  lies  W.  of  the  Kolen  chain,  and 
 reaches  thence  to  the  Atlantic  ;  extending  from  65  N.  as  far  as 
 we  can  learn,  about  30  or  40  miles  on  the  coast,  and  completely  di- 
 viding Northern,  from  Southern,  Norway. 
 
 Divisions.]  Sweden  is  divided  into  four  great  districts,  or  gov- 
 ernments, which  are  subdivided  into  provinces  as  follows. 
 
 1.    GOTHLAND. 
 
 Provinces. 
 
 Skone, 
 
 Brekingc, 
 
 Halland, 
 
 Sine  land. 
 West  Gothland 
 East  Gothland. 
 
 2.    SWEDEN  PROPER. 
 
 Provinces. 
 Warmeland,                             Upland, 
 Nerike,                                       Westmanland, 
 Sudermanland,                          Dalecarlia. 
 Stockholmland, 
 
 3.    NORLAND. 
 
 Provinces. 
 Jemtland, 
 Angermanland, 
 Medelpad, 
 
 4.    LAPLAND. 
 
 Halsingland, 
 Gastrikland, 
 Hcrjeadelen. 
 
 Provinces. 
 Asele, 
 Umea, 
 Herndal, 
 Pitea. 
 
 West  Bothnia", 
 Lulea, 
 Tornea, 
 Kemi. 
 
 Gothland,  the  southern  province,  belonged  to  Denmark  till 
 1654;  and  with  the  other  provinces,  reaches  from  the  Baltic  to 
 Norway.  Swedish  Lapland  reaches  from  Norland  N.  and  E.  to 
 Russian  Lapland.  That  part  of  it  which  lies  upon  the  coast  is  call- 
 ed West  Bothnia.  Sweden  possesses  the  island  of  St.  Bartholo- 
 mew in  the  W.  Indies.  It  lately  possessed  Finland.,  or  the  coun- 
 try between  the  river  Keuii,  and  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  divided  into 
 
 *  Norwegian  Lapland  extends  eastward  to  Russia,  and  entireJy  separates  Swedish 
 Lapland  from  the  Arctic  Ocean. 
 
 vol,,    II.  22  I 
 
iro  SWEDEN. 
 
 Karelen,  P'avastland,  Nyland,  Abo,  Bjorneberg,aud  Kymmengardt 
 in  all  99,627  square  miles.*  Finland  now  belongs  to  Russia* 
 Swedish  Pomcrania,  also,  a  small  territory  on  the  coast  of  Upper 
 Saxony,  containing-  1440  square  miles,  and  103,345  inhabitants  was 
 lately  taken  from  Sweden  by  the  French. 
 
 Orig'mal  Pofiulatio?u]  As  there  is  no  evidence  that  the  Celts 
 ever  penetrated  to  Scandinavia,  the  first  population  appears  to 
 have  consisted  of  Fins,  who,  perhaps  seven  or  eight  centuries  be- 
 fore the  Christian  era,  were  supplanted  by  the  Goths,  mythologic- 
 ally  represented  as  having  been  conducted  by  Odin,  the  god  of 
 war.  No  foreign  conquest  having  since  extended  hither,  the  pop- 
 ulation continues  purely  Gothic  in  the  southern  parts  ;  Avhile  in 
 the  north  there  are  the  Laplanders,  a  native  diminutive  race  re- 
 sembling the  Samoieds  of  the  north  of  Asia,  and  the  Esquimaux 
 and  Greenlanders,  Arctic  races  of  America. 
 
 J^7-offressive  Geogta/i/iy.^  The  southern  parts  alone  of  Scandi- 
 navia being  known  to  the  ancients,  its  progressive  geography  is 
 rather  obscure.  The  only  people  there  situated  known  to  Taci- 
 tus, were  the  Sitoncs.  Ptolemy  mentions  five  or  six  tribes,  among 
 which  are  the  Gutx  of  Gothland,  as  inhabiting  the  portion  of 
 Scandinavia  known  in  his  time.  His  four  Scandicavian  islands 
 are  evidently  those  of  Zealand,  Funen,  Laland,  and  Falster.  Af- 
 ter this  period  there  is  little  progress  in  Scandinavian  geography- 
 till  the  time  of  Jornandcs,  in  the  sixth  century,  who  describes 
 Scanzia,  or  Scandinavia,  at  some  length,  and  mentions  various  na- 
 tions by  whom  it  was  inhabited.  The  next  notices  are  due  to  the 
 voyage  of  Ohter,  recited  by  Alfred  the  Great  ;  and  the  more  cer- 
 tain and  general  knowledge  begins  to  dawn  with  Adam  of  Bremen, 
 and  the  Icelandic  historians. 
 
 Historical  Epochs.']  The  folloAving  seem  to  consitute  the  chief 
 historical  epochs  of  Sweden  : 
 
 1.  The  early  population  by  the  Fins  and  Laplanders. 
 
 2.  The  conquest  by  the  Goths. 
 
 3.  What  little  knowledge  the  ancients  possessed  concerning  the 
 south  of  Scandinavia. 
 
 4.  The  fabulous  and  traditional  history,  which  begins  about  the 
 year  of  Christ  520,  and  includes  the  conquest  of  Sweden  by  Ivar 
 Vidfatme  king  of  Denmark,  about  A.  D.  760.  Hence  there  is  an 
 obscure  period  till  the  reign  of  Biorn  L  A.  D.  829,  commemorated, 
 with  his  immediate  successors,  by  Adam  of  Bremen. 
 
 5.  The  conquest  of  Denmark  by  Olaf  H.  about  the  year  900. 
 
 6.  The  partial  conversion  of  Sweden  to  Christianity  in  the  reign 
 of  Olaf  HL  A.  D.  1000  ;  but  more  than  half  a  century  elapsed  be- 
 fore Paganism  can  be  considered  as  finally  abandoned,  in  the  reign 
 of  Ingi  the  Pious,  A.  D.  1066. 
 
 7.  The  accession  of  the  Folkungian  branch,  about  the  middle  oi 
 the  thirteenth  century. 
 
 8.  The  Swedes,  discontented  with  their  kmg  Albert  of  Meck- 
 lenburg, in    1388   elect   as  their  sovereign  Margaret   heiress   of 
 
 *  Hasscl. 
 
SWEDEN.  171 
 
 Denmark  and  Norway.  Tluis  ended  the  Folkungian  race  :  and 
 by  the  celebrated  treaty  of  Colmar,  A.  D.  1397,  the  three  king- 
 doms of  the  north  Avere  supposed  to  be  united  for  ever.  But  after 
 the  death  of  Margaret  in  1412,  the  Swedes  began  to  struggle  for 
 their  liberty  ;  and  in  1449  Karl  or  Charles  VIII.  was  elected  king 
 of  Sweden. 
 
 9.  The  struggles  between  Denmark  and  SweC^n,  till  the  cruel 
 and  tyrannic  reign  of  Christiern  II.  king  of  Denmark,  Norway  and 
 Sweden. 
 
 10.  Tyrants  are  the  fathers  of  freedom.  Gustaf  Wase,  whom 
 we  style  Gustavus  Vasa,  delivers  his  country  from  the  Danish 
 yoke,  after  a  contest  which  forms  one  of  the  most  interesting  por- 
 tions of  modern  history.  The  revolt  may  be  considered  as  having 
 commenced  when  Gustaf  appeared  at  Mora  in  Dalecarlia,'A.  D. 
 1520,  and  completed  three  years  afterwards,  when  he  entered 
 Stockholm  in  triumph.  Dissatisfied  v.ith  the  power  of  the  clergy, 
 which  had  repeatedly  subjugated  the  kingdom  to  Denmark,  this 
 great  prince,  1527,  introduced  the  reformed  religion,  and  died  in 
 his  seventieth  year,  September  1560,  after  a  glorious  reign  of 
 thirty-seven  years. 
 
 11.  The  reign  of  Gustaf  Adolph,  or  Gustavus  Adolphus,  A.  D. 
 1611  — 1631.  Austria,  Spain,  and  the  other  Catholic  kingdoms, 
 having  conspired  to  extirpate  the  Protestant  religion  in  Germany, 
 this  king  was  invited  to  assist  the  reformed,  and  carried  his  victo- 
 rious arms  to  the  Rhine  and  the  Danube. 
 
 12.  The  reign  of  ChaHes  XI.  1660 — 1697,  when  tlie  arts  and 
 sciences  began  to  flourish,  and  the  pov/cr  of  the  kingdom  was  car- 
 ried to  its  utmost  height.  This  reign  of  solid  beneficence  was  fol- 
 lowed by  the  calamitous  sway  of  that  madman  Charles  XII. 
 
 13.  After  the  weak  reign  of  Charles  XII.  Sweden  sunk  into  po- 
 litical humiliation  ;  and  is  now  regarded  as  little  better  than  a 
 province  of  France,  to  which  disgrace  the  Swedish  aristocracy  as 
 naturally  tends  as  that  of  Poland. 
 
 Jntujuiiies.']  T\\t  ancient  monuments  of  Sweden  consist  chief- 
 ly of  judicial  circles,  and  other  erections  of  unhewn  stone,  follow- 
 ed by  the  monuments  inscribed  with  Runic  characters,  some  of 
 which  are  as  recent  as  the  fifteenth  century,  and  none  of  them  can 
 safely  be  dated  more  anciently  than  the  eleventh.  Not  far  from 
 Upsal  is  the  morasten,  or  stone  on  which  tlie  king  used  to  be  en- 
 throned, as  the  old  Scottish  monarchs  were  at  Scone.  The  an- 
 cient temples,  called  Skior,  or  Skur,  were  of  v.ood,  and  have  con- 
 sequently perished.  Some  of  the  old  castles,  erected  since  the 
 use  of  stone,  arc  remarkable  for  their  resemblance  to  what  are  call- 
 ed Pictish  castles  in  Scotland. 
 
17^  SWEDEN. 
 
 CHAPTER  II. 
 POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 RELIGION,  ECCLESIASTIC  GEOGRAPHY,  GOVERNMENT,  LAWS,  POP- 
 ULATION, COLONIES,  ARMY,  NAVY,  REVENUE,  POLITICAL  IMPOR- 
 TANCE AITD  RELATIONS. 
 
 ReligioJi.']  THE  established  religion  is  the  Lutheran. 
 There  are  14  dioceses  ;  the  Archbishopric  of  Upsala  in  Sweden 
 Proper  ;  and  the  Bishoprics  of  Linkoping,  Skara,  Wexio,  Lund, 
 Gotheborg,  and  Calmar,  in  Gothland  ;  Straengnoes,  Woesteras, 
 and  Carlstadt  in  Sweden  Proper  ;  Wisbrey  in  the  island  of  Goth- 
 land, and  Hernosand,  in  Norland,  under  which  diocese  Lap- 
 land is  included.  There  are  two  bishoprics  also  in  Finland,  Abo 
 and  Borg.  The  revenues  of  Upsala  and  Woesteras  are  a- 
 bout  ^  1,000  sterling  fier  anii.  Those  of  the  lowest  bishoprics  about 
 £  300.  The  subordinate  clergy  are  dom/irosts  or  deans,  firosts  or 
 archdeacons;  /lastors  or  rectors,  and  comministers  »r  perpetual 
 curates.  The  parishes  are  estimated  at  2,537  ;  the  curates  at 
 1378  ;  .with  134  rectors,  and  192  inspectors.  Some  of  the  parish- 
 es are  very  extensive. 
 
 Go-vernment.']  The  government  of  Sweden  is  a  limited,  here- 
 ditary, monarchy.  The  supreme  power  is  in  the  Diet,  which  is 
 composed  of  the  King  and  the  States.  The  King  has  the  command 
 ofthe  army  and  navy,  fills  up  all  commissions,  nominates  to  all 
 civil  offices,  and  appoints  the  judges  ofthe  various  courts.  He  a- 
 lone  convenes  and  dissolves  the  States,  has  the  disposal  ofthe  pub- 
 lic money,  declares  war  and  makes  peace.  The  power  of  inaking 
 laws  and  of  laying  taxes,  is  vested  in  the  Diet,  and  the  King  can- 
 not do  either  without  the  consent  of  the  States.  The  States  are 
 composed  of  four  houses  :  1.  The  House  of  JVobles.  This  consists 
 of  counts,  barons,  and  untitled  nobility,  all  originally  ennobled  by 
 the  crown.  The  head  of  each  noble  family  in  a  direct  line  is  en- 
 titled to  a  seat  in  the  house.  Of  these  there  are,  says  Coxe,  about 
 1200,  though  but  a  small  part  of  these  usually  assemble.  The 
 younger  sons  have  however  a  tide,  and  the  other  privileges  of  no- 
 iiility.  2.  The  House  ofthe  Clergy.  This  is  composed  of  the  12 
 dignitaries,  and  a  certain  number  of  ecclesiastics,  chosen  by  the 
 Clergy  of  the  respective  districts.  The  number  of  members  is 
 seldom  less  than  50,  or  more  than  80.  3.  I'ke  Hoiise  of  Citizens ■ 
 There  are  104  towns  in  Sweden,  each  of  which,  if  a  staple  town, 
 may  send  two  members,  several  of  the  largest  three,  and  Stock- 
 holm ten.  The  number  of  members  varies  from  100  to  200.  4. 
 The  House  of  Peasants.  The  electors  must  own  land,  worth  £  30. 
 None  but  those  whose  ancestors  were  peasants,  can  vote  or  be  e- 
 lected.     Their  number  is  usually  about  200. 
 
 The  Archbishop  of  Upsal  is  speaker  of  the  House  of  Clergy. — 
 The  other  houses  choose  their  own  speaker.  The  assent  ol  three 
 of  the  Houses  and  of  the  King  is  necessary  to  pass  a  law  and  to  lay 
 a  tax.     In  1800  the  king  was  entrusted  with  the  power  of  chang- 
 
SWEDEN.  173 
 
 ing  the  nature  and  amount  of  the  taxes  imposed   by  the   Diet. 
 The  King  or  either  house  may  originate  bills. 
 
 There  were,  before  the  late  dismemberment,  four  superior 
 courts  of  justice,  called  Hof-raett,  one  at  Stockholm,  for  Sweden 
 Proper,  and  the  counties  north  ;  one  at  Jonkioping  for  Gothland  ; 
 one  at  Abo  for  South  Finland  ;  and  one  at  Wasa  for  North  Fin- 
 land. There  are  the  High  Courts  of  Appeal  in  all  capital  cases, 
 and  in  civil  cases  of  great  consequence.  Every  small  town  has 
 one  court  of  justice,  and  every  large  town  two.  The  penal  laws 
 are  mild.  Whipping  and  confinement  are  the  usual  punishments. 
 The  Harad^s-ractt^  or  provincial  criminal  court,  consists  of  the 
 county  judges,  and  a  kind  of  jury  of  12  peasants  chosen  by  the  in- 
 habitants for  life.  Whenever  they  are  unanimous  they  decide  the 
 cause  though  against  the  decision  of  the  judges.  As  the  monarch  is 
 not  opulent,  it  is  evident  that  so  large  and  respectable  a  body 
 might  constitute  a  formidable  barrier  ;  but  the  evils  of  faction 
 have  been  so  great  and  the  Russian  power  and  influence  so 
 destructive  to  the  very  existence  of  the  state,  that  the  deputies 
 seem  justly  to  regard  the  dictatorial  power  of  the  monarch,  as 
 necessary  tor  their  own  preservation. 
 
 Pofiulation.']  The  number  af  inhabitants  in  Sweden,  including 
 Finland,  was,  in 
 
 1752,    2,215,639 
 1760,    2,383,113 
 
 1775,  2,640,177 
 
 1776,  2,671,949 
 1780,    2,769,628 
 
 The  increase  in  48  years  was  966,500,  or  about  two  fifths  of  the 
 whole.  The  increase  in  the  last  five  years  was  less  than  1  fiei- 
 cent,  ficr  ann.  The  number  of  males  in  1776  was  1,284,989  and 
 of  females,  1,386,962.  Of  the  population  in  1800,  12,068  were  of 
 the  order  of  the  nobility  ;  16,434  of  the  clergy  ;  7,126  students  ; 
 1,275  of  the  wholesale  merchants  ;  17,233  retailers  ;  2,605  of  the 
 manufacturers  ;  87,434  mechanics  ;  19,653  of  the  seafaring  men  ; 
 188,734  of  the  army  and  navy  ;  and  356,581  of  other  descriptions. 
 
 The  population  of  the  various  provinces  in  1 800  was  as  follows. 
 
 Square  miles.  Inhabitants.  Do.  on  a  S'|tiarcmile. 
 
 Gothland,                       41,931  1,454,462                   34-7 
 
 Sweden  Proper,          40,577  653,767                   16-1 
 
 Norland  k  Lapland,  105,925  239,072                     2-16 
 
 Finland,                         99,627  834,838                     8-38 
 
 1785, 
 
 2,821,669 
 
 1790, 
 
 2,864,512 
 
 1795, 
 
 3,045,617 
 
 1800, 
 
 3,182,139, 
 
 Sweden,  288,160  3,182,139  11 
 
 As  Finland  now  belongs  to  Russia,  the  population  of  Sweden, 
 
 exclusive  of  that  province,  is  2,347,301,  or  about  12-5  to  the  square 
 
 mile. 
 
 Colonies.~\     Sweden  only  possesses  one  small  colony,  that  in  the 
 
 island  of  St.  Bartholomew  in  the   West  Indies,  which   was  ceded 
 
 to  them  by  the  French  in  1785.* 
 
 *  Olivarius  Le  Nonl  Littemh-e,  No.  12. 
 
174  SWEDEN. 
 
 Jlrmy.']     The  Swedish  army  consists  of  national  and  regular 
 troops  to  the  number  of  53,035,  viz. 
 
 Cavalry,  -         -         .         -         12,000 
 
 Infantry,      -         -         -         -         -     34,171 
 
 Artillery,  -         -         .         .         .  3,230 
 
 Engineers,  -         .         _         .  800 
 
 Galley-soldiers,       -         -         -  2,706 
 
 Life  Guards,       -         -         -         -  128 
 
 Of  these  18,424  are  regular  troops.     The  army  is  under  the 
 immediate  command  of  3  Generals,  14  Lieutenant-Generals,   14 
 Major-Generals,    33  Adjutant-Generals,   and  93    Colonels.     The 
 amiual  expense  of  the  regular  troops  is  about  800,000  rix-dollars. 
 The  national  troops  are  quartered  upon  the  peasants,  and  are  fed, 
 and  clothed,  and  paid  by  them.     In  time  of  peace  they  are  under 
 arms  three  weeks  in  the   year,    and  are  constantly  exercised  on 
 Sundays  after  divine  service. 
 
 A'avy.^     The  fleet  in  1808  consisted  of  58  sail,  viz. 
 
 Ships  of  the  line,         _         .         -         -  20 
 
 Frigates,         -         -         -         -         -         -        1 6 
 
 Brigs,         ......  7 
 
 Smaller  vessels,      -         -         -         -         -        15 
 
 These  were  under  the  direction  of  1  lligli  Admiral,  1  Admiral, 
 6  Vice -Admirals,  and  1 1  Rear- Admirals. 
 
 Beside  these  the  galley  fleet  consisted  of  200  sail,  in  5  squad- 
 rons. The  whole  fleet  was  manned  by  1500  marines  and  7200 
 seamen,  with  a  reserve  of  8000  for  a  time  of  war  ;  and  carried 
 2760  cannon. 
 
 Beside  these,  the  galley  fleet  consisted  of  200  sail  in  5  squad- 
 rons, defended  by  2,706  soldiers.  This  is  called  the  fleet  of  the 
 army,  and  is  used  in  transporting  them  across  the  Baltic. 
 
 Revejiue.']  The  revenue  in  1 809  is  stated  by  Hassel  at  6,000,000 
 Swedish  rix-dollars,  which  at  5.«.  sterling,  each,  is  >C1,500,000 
 sterling.  This  arises  chiefly  from  duties,  royal  demesnes,  poll- 
 tax,  stamps,  taxes  on  the  mines  and  the  lottery.  The  expense 
 commonly  exceeds  the  revenue.  The  debt  in  1 807  was  1 3,233,632 
 rix-dollars,  of  which  9,742,642  was  foreign  debt,  and  3,490,990 
 domestic. 
 
 The  foreign  debt  being  chiefly  incurred  at  Hamburgh,  the 
 country  is  overwhelmed  with  the  paper  money  of  that  city  ;  and 
 the  scarcity  of  gold  and  silver,  and  even  of  copper  currency,  is 
 incredible.  The  ducat,  the  only  gold  coin,  is  worth  about  nine 
 shillings  sterling  ;  while  the  silver  crown  may  be  valued  at  four 
 shillings  and  sixpence.  The  schelling,  or  shilling,  is  worth  little, 
 more  than  one  penny  sterling  ;  and  the  copper  consists  of  half 
 and  quarter  shillings,  the  ancient  heavy  pieces  being  now  rarely 
 visible. 
 
SWEDEN.  1 T^ 
 
 CHAPTER  III. 
 CIVIL  GfEOGRAPHY. 
 
 MANNERS  AND  crSTOMS,  LANGUAGE,  LITERATURE,  EDUCATION, 
 UNIVERSITIES,  CITIES,  TOWNS,  EDIFICES,  ROADS,  INLAND  NAV- 
 IGATION, MANUFACTURES  AND   COMMERCE. 
 
 Manners  and  Customs^]  THE  manners  and  cusloTns  of 
 the  superior  classes  in  Sweden  are  so  much  tinged  with  those  of 
 the  French,  their  allies,  that  no  striking  peculiarly  can  be  ob- 
 served, and  even  the  peasantry  have  so  much  vivacity  and  address, 
 that  they  have  been  styled  the  French  of  the  north.  The  com- 
 plexion, which  in  the  northeri)  latitudes  is  generally  fair,  is  here 
 much  diversified,  being  in  some  provinces  dark  brown.— 
 The  men  are  commonly  robust  and  well-formed,  and  the  women 
 slender  and  elegant.  The  natives  of  the  western  province  of 
 Dalecarlia  retain  many  ancient  customs,  and  have  been  distin- 
 guished for  their  courage  and  probity,  since  the  time  that  Gustaf 
 Wase  issued  from  the  mines  of  that  country  to  break  the  yoke  of 
 Denmark.  The  Finlanders,  on  the  cast  of  the  Botlmic  gulph,  arc 
 now  little  distinguishable  from  the  Swedes;  and  any  remarkable 
 peculiarities  of  manners  and  customs  must  be  sought  in  Swedish 
 Lapland.  Lapland  however  being  very  remote,  less  known,  and 
 more  recently  described  ;  an  account  of  this  singular  people  is 
 given  undci-  a  separate  article. 
 
 Language.^  The  language  of  Sweden  is  a  dialect  of  the  Goth- 
 ic, being  a  sister  of  the  Danish,  Norwegian,  and  Icelandic.  In 
 the  two  grand  divisions  of  the  Gothic,  consisting  of  the  German 
 and  Scandinavian  dialects,  the  latter  is  distinguished  by  greater 
 brevity  and  force  of  expression.  There  are  many  words  in  the 
 Swedish  which  are  also  in  the  English,  and  in  the  eleventh  centu- 
 ry the  natives  of  the  two  countries  easily  understood  each  other.* 
 In  the  south  of  Sweden,  which  contains  the  cliicf  mass  of  popula- 
 tion, some  German  and  French  words  have  been  adopted  ;  while 
 the  Dalecarlian  on  the  N.  W.  is  esteemed  a  peculiar  dialect,  per- 
 haps only  because  it  contains  more  of  the  ancient  terms  and 
 idiom. 
 
 Literature.']  In  the  antiquity  of  literature,  Sweden  cannot  pre- 
 tend to  vie  with  Denmark,  Norway,  or  Iceland :  the  most  early  na- 
 tive chronicle,  or  perhaps  literary  composition,  being  not  more  an- 
 cient than  the  fourteenth  century.  In  return,  while  the  Danes 
 seem  occupied  with  internal  policy,  and  public  regulation,  the 
 Swedes  have,  in  modern  times,  borne  the  palm  of  genius  in  many 
 departments  of  litciature  and  philosophy. 
 
 But  Swedish  literature  can  hardly  be  said  to  have  dawned  till 
 the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  when  the  Queen  Christia- 
 na, finding  the  country  immersed  in  ignorance,  iiaited  Grotius, 
 Descartes,  and  other  celebrated  men,  who,  though  they  did  not 
 
 •  Coxc. 
 
176  SWEDEN. 
 
 reside  long  in  liic  kingdom,  yet  sowed  the  seed  of  letters,  which 
 gradually  began  to  prosper  in  the  wise  and  beneficent  reign  of 
 Charles  XI.  In  the  succeeding  or  last  century  the  name  of  Lin- 
 naeus alone  might  distinguish  the  national  literature  ;  and  it  is 
 joined  in  natural  history  with  those  of  Tilas,  Wallerius,  Quist, 
 Cronstedt,  Bergman,  and  others.  In  history,  Daiin  and  Lager- 
 bring  have  distinguished  themselves  by  a  precision  and  force, 
 Avhich  the  Danes  seem  to  sacrifice  to  antiquarian  discussions. 
 Sweden  also  boasts  of  native  poets  and  orators  ;  and  the  progress 
 of  the  sciences  is  supported  by  the  institution  of  numerous  acad- 
 emies. • 
 
 Education.~\  The  Swedes,  like  the  New-Englanders,  the 
 Scotch,  and  the  inhabitants  of  Iceland,  Ferro,  and  Geneva,  are  uni- 
 versally acquainted  with  reading  and  writing.  A  school  is  estab- 
 lished in  every  parish  for  these  purposes,  and  all  the  inhabitants 
 send  their  children.  A  public  school  is  maintained  also  in  each 
 large  town,  at  the  expense  of  the  crown,  in  which  boys  commonly 
 continue  till  the  1 1th  or  12th  year,  when  they  are  sent  to  the  Gym- 
 naaia.  Of  these  there  are  12,  and  the  boys  are  here  taught  Latin, 
 Greek,  and  Hebrew,  the  doctrines  of  the  Lutheran  Church,  and 
 the  rudiments  of  the  sciences.  The  great  body  of  the  Swedish 
 youths  pass  through  these  institutions.  At  the  age  of  16  they  are 
 usually  sent  to  one  of  the  universities.  Of  these,  before  the  late 
 dismemberment,  there  were  3  in  Sweden  ;  that  of  Lund,  in  Goth- 
 land, that  of  Upsala,  in  Sweden  Proper,  and  that  of  Abo,  in  Fin- 
 land. That  of  Lund  was  established  in  1688,  has  15  professors 
 and  300  stvidents,  a  small  botanical  garden,  and  a  library  of  20,000 
 volumes.  The  Professors  are  ranged  under  4  classes  ;  in  The- 
 ology 3,  in  Jurisprudence  2,  in  Medicine  3,  in  Philosophy  7,  and 
 several  instructors  in  the  elegant  accomplishments.  The  uni- 
 versity of  Upsala,  founded  in  1346,  had  upwards  of  2000  students 
 in  1730  ;  but  in  1800  only  500.  There  were  21  Professors,  6  in 
 theology,  2  in  law,  3  in  medicine,  and  10  in  philosophy,  beside  7 
 instructors  in  the  elegant  arts.  Their  salaries  are  from  /;70  to 
 /G200  sterling.  They  deliAtir  weekly,  each,  four  public,  and  four 
 private  lectures.  The  library  is  large  and  valuable  ;  the  botan- 
 ical garden  small,  but  well  selected.  There  are  no  college 
 buildings  for  the  accommodation  of  the  students.  The  university 
 of  Abo  Avas  founded  in  1640,  ?.nd  has  16  professors,  300  students, 
 and  a  library  containing  10,000  volumes. 
 
 Cities  and  Toivna?^  Stockholm,  the  capital  of  Sweden,  stands 
 in  a  singular  situation  between  a  creek,  or  inlet,  of  the  Baltic  sea, 
 and  the  lake  Maeler.  It  occupies  seven  small  rocky  islands,  and 
 the  scenery  is  truly  singular  and  romantic.  "  A  variety  of  con- 
 trasted and  enchanting  views  is  formed  by  numberless  rocks  of 
 granite,  rising  boldly  from  the  surface  of  the  water,  partly  bare 
 and  craggy,  partly  dotted  with  houses  or  feathered  with  wood."* 
 Somewhat  resembling  Venice,  but  with  greater  diversity  of  pros- 
 pert,  it  requires  no  fortifications.     Most  of  the  houses  are  of  stone 
 
 *  Coxe,  M'.  33.    See  afto  Marshall,  ii.  2io^- 
 
SWEDEN,  177 
 
 or  brick,  covered  with  white  stucco ;  except  in  the  suburbs,  where 
 several  are  of  wood  painted  red,  as  usual  in  the  country  of  Swe- 
 den. This  city  was  founded  by  the  earl  Birger,  regent  of  the 
 kingdom,  about  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century  ;  and  in  the 
 seventeenth  century  the  royal  residence  was  transfen-ed  hither 
 from  Upsal.  The  entrance  to  the  harbor  is  through  a  narrow 
 strait,  of  somewhat  difficult  access,  especially  as  there  are  no 
 tides  :  and  for  four  months  in  the  year  is  frozen.  It  is  however 
 deep,  and  capable^  receiving  a  great  number  of  vessels.  The 
 royal  palace  stands  in  a  central  and  high  situation  :  and  there  are 
 a  castle,  an  arsenal,  and  several  academies.  The  manufactures 
 are  few,  of  glass,  china,  woollen,  silk,  linen,  &c.  The  population 
 of  Stockholm  in  1800  was  75,5  17,  and  tliC  houses  4,137.*  It  is  in 
 lat.  59  20  31  N.  and  in  long.  18  9  30  E. 
 
 Upsala  stands  ih  the  middle  of  an  open  fertile  plain,  and  is  di- 
 vided into  two  almost  equal  parts  by  the  rivulet  Saia.  The  streets 
 are  drawn  at  right  angles  ;  the  houses  arc  generally  constructed 
 of  trunks,  smoothed  into  planks,  painted  red  ;  and  the  roofs  are 
 covered  with  turf.  Each  lioUse  has  a  court-yard  and  garden. 
 This  is  the  oldest  town  in  the  north,  and  was,  till  the  1 7th  centu- 
 ry, the  metropolis,  and  the  royal  residence.  The  inhabitants  in 
 1799  amounted  to  4,403,  and  the  houses  to  580.  It  is  45  miles 
 from  Stockholm,  in  lat.  59  51  50  N.  and  long.  17  42  39  E. 
 
 ^  Carlscrona  is  the  chief  road  for  the  royal  navy,  and  stands  prin- 
 cipally upon  a  small  rocky  island  in  the  Baltic,  connected  with 
 the  main  by  a  dyke  and  two  wooden  bridges.  The  town  is  spa- 
 cious, the  houses  principally  of  wood,  is  strongly  fortified,  and  dif- 
 ficult of  access.  Several  noble  docks  have  been  formed  out  of 
 the  solid  rock  for  repairing  the  ships  of  war,  most  of  which  are 
 built  at  this  place,  and  by  English  workmen.  The  population  in 
 1795  was  13,800.  The  foundations  of  the  town  were  laid  by 
 Charles  XI,  in  1680.     Lat.  56  1 1  N.  Long.  15  7  E. 
 
 Gothenburg,  in  lat.  57  42  4  N.  and  long.  12  3  22  E.  stands  a 
 small  distance  from  the  Cattegat,  at  the  confluence  of  the 
 Goiha  and   the   Moldal.      It  is   built  partly  on   high   ridges  of 
 
 rocks,  and  partly  on  a    marshy    plain,    which    they    inclose. 
 
 The  lower  part  is  built  upon  piles  ;  the  upper  hangs  oa 
 the  declivities.  It  is  3  miles  in  circumference.  The  houses, 
 1100  in  number,  are  principally  of  wood,  painted  red.  Popula- 
 tion 13,218.  The  harbor  is  between  two  chains  of  rocks,  a  quar- 
 ter of  a  mile  wide,  and  is  fortified.  It  is  the  port  of  the  East  In- 
 dia Company,  and  carries  on  -j^j-ths  of  the  export  commerce  o/ 
 the  kingdom,  and  ^th  of  the  import.  Its  herring  fishery  is  very 
 valuable,  not  less  than  600,000  barrels  being  caught  annually,  durr 
 ing  the  3  weeks  that  it  lasts  ;  of  which  200,000  are  salted,  and 
 about  27,000  barrels  of  train  oil  made  of  the  remainder.  The  for- 
 tifications arc  weak.     The  harbor  is  safe  and  commodious. 
 
 Nordkioping  is  built  on  both  sides  of  the  Motala,  the  outlet  of 
 Lake  Wetter,  22  miles  from  the  Baltic,  in  lat.  59  30  N.     It  is  10 
 
 •  Hjwsd. 
 VOL.  ir.  33 
 
ira  ;    ;  >       SWEDEN. 
 
 miles  in  circumfevelice.  The  houses  are  small  and  scattered, 
 and  the  population  in  1795  was  8,629.  Several  valuable  manu- 
 factories are  established  here.  Tlie  river  affords  a  valuable  salmon 
 fishery,  and  is  navigable  for  small  vessels  to  the  town. 
 
 Fahlun  is  situated  in  the  midst  of  rocks  and  hills,  between  the 
 lakes  of  Run  and  Warpen.  The  houses,  1135  in  number,  are 
 chiefly  of  wood,  and  two  stories.  The  inhabitants  in  1801  were 
 6,064  ;  many  of  them  are  employed  in  the  mines.    Lat.  60  35  49  N. 
 
 Gcfle,  on  the  river  Gefle,  in  lat.  60  39  45  N.  a«^n  lons^.  1 7  E.  is  the 
 chief  commercial  town  in  the  north  of  Sweoen.  Many  of  the. 
 houses  are  of  brick,  and  many  of  stone,  plaistered  white.  The 
 river  has  10  feet  water,  as  far  as  the  town.  The  exports  are 
 chiefly  iron,  pitch,  tar,  and  planks.     Population  in  I7J5,  5730. 
 
 Johnkioping,  at  the  head  of  Lake  Wetter,  in  Smoland,  is  the 
 seat  of  the  superior  court  for  the  kingdom  of  Gothland.  The 
 houses,  512  in  number,  are  roofed  with  turf,  the  usual  covering  of 
 the  Swedish  houses.     The  inhabitants  in  1785,  we-i-e  4,087. 
 
 T.e  other  towns  are  Linkoping,  Carlstadt,  Calmar,  Lund, 
 Christianstadt,  and  Wisberg,  in  the  island  of  Gothland. 
 
 Edijicesr\  Even  including  the  royal  palaces,  Sweden  cannot 
 boast  of  many  splendid  edifices.  The  roads  are  in  general  far  su- 
 perioi'  to  those  of  Denmark  and  Norway,  Avhich  seem  unaccounta- 
 bly neglected,  good  roads  being  the  very  stamina  of  national  im- 
 provement. 
 
 Roads.^  Great  attention  has  been  paid  by  the  government  to 
 the  roads  of  Sweden.  Though  not  so  broad,  they  are  as  good  as 
 the  English  turnpikes.  The  traveller,  journeying  many  thousands 
 of  miles,  and  in  every  direction,  will  find  scarce  one  that  deserves 
 the  name  of  indifferent.  The  high  roads  are  made  with  stone  and 
 gravel,  yet  no  toll  is  exacted.  Each  landholder  is  obliged  to  keep 
 a  part  in  repair,  proportioned  to  his  property.  The  mode  of  trav- 
 elling from  Sweden  to  Finland  in  the  winter,  is  in  sledges  on  the 
 ice.  The  traveller  leaves  the  continent  at  Grislohaven,  and,  pass- 
 ing through  Aland,  and  various  other  islands,  lands  at  Abo,  on  the 
 other  side  of  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  a  distance  of  200  miles.  This 
 journey  is  often  extremely  hazardous. 
 
 Inland  A'avigation.'j  Of  late  a  laudable  attention  has  been  paid 
 to  inland  navigation  ;  and  the  chief  ettbrt  has  boen  to  form  a  ca- 
 nal between  Stockholm  and  Gotliciiburgh.  In  this  canal,  styled 
 that  of  Trolhattan,  conducted  along  the  river  Gotha,  stupendous 
 excavations  have  been  made  through  the  granitic  rocks,  in  order 
 to  avoid  cataracts  ;  one  of  which,  of  more  than  60  feet,  is  called 
 the  Infernal  Fall.  Yet  the  plans  have  repeatedly  failed,  from  the 
 ignorance  of  the  engineers  ;  and  the  first  expense  ought  to  have 
 been  to  procure  a  superintendant  of  real  skill.  The  inten- 
 tion was  to  conduct  an  inland  route  from  the  Meier  Lake  to 
 that  of  Hielmer,  and  thence  to  that  of  Wcner  ;  and  by  the  river 
 Gotha,  an  outlet  of  the  latter,  to  the  Skager  Rack  and  German 
 Sea.     This  grand  design  is  already  in  some  measure  completed. 
 
 Manufactures  and  Com?nercc.']  The  Swedish  manufactvu'es  arc 
 far  from  being  numerous,  consisting  chiefly  of  those  of  iron  and 
 
SWEDEN.  '      '   '  17y 
 
 £tecl  ;  vith  cloths,  lials,  watches,  and  sail  cloth.  The  manufac- 
 tures of  copper  and  brass,  and  the  construction  of  ships,  also  oc- 
 cupy many  hands.  In  1785,  it  was  computed  that  14,000  were 
 employed  in  those  of  wool,  silk,  and  cotton.  Of  native  products 
 exported,  iron  is  the  most  considerable  ;  and  it  is  feaid  that  the 
 miners  in  the  kingdom  are  about  25,600. 
 
 The  commerce  of  Sweden  rests  chiefly  on  the  export  of  their 
 native  products,  iron,  timber,  pitch,  tar,  hemp,  and  copper.  Her- 
 rings and  train  oil  also  form  considerable  articles.  The  chief  im- 
 port is  corn  of  various  kinds,  particularly  rye,  Sweden  rarely  af- 
 fording a  sufficiency  for  her  own  consumption  ;  Avith  hemp,  to- 
 bacco, sugar,  coffee,  drugs,  silk,  wines,  8cc.  Mr.  Coxe  has  pub- 
 lished a  table  of  the  Swedish  commerce,  whence  it  appears  that 
 the  exports  in  1781  amounted  to  1,368,830/.  13*.  5d.  and  the  im- 
 ports to  1,008,392/.  125.  4|<-/.  so  that  the  balance  in  favor  of  Swe- 
 den was  360,4o7<?.  19*.  6if/.  wluch  added  to  the  gain  by  freights  in 
 the  Mediterranean,  and  the  East  Indies,  made  a  clear  balance  of 
 471,549/.  185.  4rf|-.  The  trade  was  then  carried  on  chiefly  with 
 England,  Russia,  Holland,  France,  Denmark,  Hamburg  and  Por- 
 tugal. The  number  of  ships  that  entered  into  the  different  ports, 
 was  2141  Swedish,  and  149  foreign,  total  2290  ;  of  those  cleared 
 out,  2311  Swedish,  and  174  foreign,  total  2485.* 
 
 CHAPTER  IV. 
 
 NATURAL  GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 CLIMATE  AND  SEASONS,  FACE  OF  THE  COUNTRY,  SOIL  AND  AG- 
 RICULTURE, RIVERS,  LAKES,  MOUNTAINS,  FORESTS,  ROTANY, 
 ZOOLOGY,  MINERALOGY,  MINERAL  WATERS,  NATURAL  CURI- 
 OSITIES. 
 
 Climate  and  Seasons.^  THE  different  parts  of  Sweden 
 present  considerable  varieties  of  temperature,  but  even  in  the 
 middle  regions  winter  maintains  a  long  and  dreary  sway.  The 
 gulph  of  Bothnia  becomes  one  field  of  ice  ;  and  travellers  pass  on 
 it  from  Finland  by  the  isles  of  Aland.  In  the  most  southern 
 provinces,  where  the  grand  mass  of  the  population  is  centered, 
 the  climate  may  be  compared  to  that  of  Scotland,  which  lies  under 
 the  same  parallel  ;  but  the  western  gales  from  the  Atlantic,  which 
 deluge  thcScottish  Highlands  with  perpetual  rain,  and  form  the  chief 
 obstacle  to  improvement,  are  little  felt.  In  the  nortli  the  summer 
 is  hot,  by  the  reflection  of  the  numerous  mountains,  and  the  ex- 
 treme length  of  the  days  ;  for  at  Tornea,  in  Swedish  Lapland,  the 
 sun  is  for  some  weeks  visible  at  midnight  ;  and  the  winter  in  re- 
 turn presents  many  weeks  of  complete  darkness.  Yet  these  long 
 nights  are  relieved,  by  the  light  of  the  moon,  by  the  reflection  of 
 the  snow,  and  by  the  Aurora  Borealis,  or  northern  lights,  which 
 dart  their  ruddy  rays  through  the  aky,  wJth  an  almost  constant  ef- 
 fulgence. 
 
 •  Co.xc, 
 
3  80  SWEDEN*. 
 
 Face  of  the  Country.  Soil  and  Jg-nciilture."]  No  country  can 
 be  diversified  in  a  more  picturesque  manner,  with  extensive  lakes, 
 large  transparent  rivers,  vs^inding  streams,  wild  cataracts,  gloomy 
 forests,  verdant  vales,  stupendous  rocks,  and  cultivated  fields. 
 The  soil  is  not  the  most  propitious  ;  but  agriculture  is  conducted 
 with  skill  and  industry,  so  as  much  to  exceed  that  of  Germany  and 
 Demark.* 
 
 Eivers.']  Sweden  is  intersected  by  numerous  rivers,  the  largest 
 of  which  are  in  the  native  language  called  Elbs,  or  Elfs.  The 
 most  considerable  flow  from  the  lakes,  without  any  great  length 
 of  course  ;  such  as  the  Gotha,  the  .only  outlet  of  the  vast  lake  of 
 Wener.  Its  length  is  70  English  .miles,  and  its  course  W.  of  S. 
 About  14  miles  from  the  Cattegat,  it  divides  and  encompasses  the 
 island  of  Hisingen.  Its  navigation  is  much  impeded  by  cataracts. 
 Numerous  rivers  fall  into  Lake  Wener.  Of  these  the  Clara  is 
 the  largest.  It  rises  in  Lake  Focmund,  in  Nonvay,  a  little  S.  of 
 the  Doflfrafiall  chain,  and  pursues  ^  southeasterly  course  of  about 
 280  miles,  to  Carlstadt,  on  the  island  of  TingAvalla,  Avhich  it  en- 
 compasses. 
 
 The  Motala,  the  outlet  of  Lake  Wetter,  pursues  an  easterly 
 course  of  65  miles,  to  the  Baltic.  Its  estuary  is  the  Bay  of  Bru- 
 nic.  It  forms  several  small  lakes  in  its  progress,  and  passes 
 through  a  country,  level,  fertile  in  corn  and  pasture,  and  thickly 
 studded  with  country  seats,  villages,  and  churches. 
 
 The  river  Dahl,  the  most  important  in  Sw^eden  ;  consisting  of 
 two  conjunct  streams,  the  eastern  and  western  Dahl,  which  rise  in 
 the  Norwegian  Alps,  give  name  to  the  province  of  Dalarn,  or 
 Dalecarlia,  and,  after  a  course  of  about  260  British  miles,  enter 
 theBothnic  gulph,  about  10  miles  to  the  east  of  Geffle,  presenting, 
 not  far  from  its  mouth,  a  celebrated  cataract,  esteemed  little  in- 
 ferior to  that  of  the  Rhine  at  Schaffhausen,  the  breadth  of  the 
 river  being  near  a  quarter  of  a  mile,  and  the  perpendicular  height 
 of  the  fall  between  30  and  40  feet.f  The  surrounding  scenery 
 also  assists  the  effect,  which  is  truly  sublime. 
 
 Lakes.']  Few  countries  can  rival  Sweden  in  the  extent  and 
 number  of  lakes,  which  appear  in  almost  every  province.  Of 
 these  the  most  important  is  the  Wener,  Avhich  is  about  80  British 
 miles  in  length,  by  about  50  in  breadth,  in  great  part  surrounded 
 with  forests,  and  rocks  of  red  granite.  It  receives  24  rivers, 
 abounds  with  fi*h,  and  contains  many  romantic  isles. 
 
 Next  is  the  Wetter,  a  lake  of  equal  length,  but  inferior  in 
 breadth,  which  seldom  exceeds  \2  miles.  This  lake  being  sur- 
 rounded with  mountains  is  particularly  subject  to  storms  in  the 
 stillest  weather,  whence  arise  many  popular  tales  and  supersti- 
 tions :  it  contains  two  remarkable  islands  ;  and  on  the  shores  are 
 found  agates,  cornelians,  and  touch-stones,  or  pieces  of  fine  ba- 
 saltes.  The  Wetter  is  clear,  though  deep  ;  and  while  it  receives 
 about  40  small  rivers,  has  no  outlet  except  the  Motala. 
 
 The  lake  Meier,  at  the   conflux    of  which  with  the  Baltic  is 
 
 ♦  Marshall,  iii.  95.  f  Winxall's  Northern  Tour,  p.  158.    Coxc,v.  9. 
 
SWEDEN.  181 
 
 founded  the  city  of  Stockholm,  is  about  60  British  miles  in  length 
 by  eighteen  in  breadth,  and  is  sprinkled  with  picturesque  isles. — 
 To  the  S.  W.  is  the  lake  of  Hielmar,  more  remarkable  for  its  pro- 
 posed utility  in  the  inland  navigation,  than  for  its  extent. 
 
 Many  other  lakes  are  found  in  the  north  of  Sweden,  among 
 which  the  most  considerable  is  that  of  Stor,  in  the  province  of 
 Jemtland. 
 
 Mountain.'!.']  Sweden  may  be  in  general  regarded  as  a  moun- 
 tainous country  ;  in  which  respect  it  is  strongly  contrasted  with 
 Denmark  proper,  or  Jutland,  and  the  isles.  The  cl.i'J'f  mountains 
 are  in  that  elevated  chain,  wliich  divides  Sweden  and  Swedish 
 Lapland  from  Norway  ;  from  which  successive  branches  run 
 in  a  S.  E.  direction.  It  would  appear  that  the  granitic  ridge 
 of  the  chain  is  in  Norway  ;  while  the  flanks,  consisting  as^sual 
 of  limestone,  pudding-stone,  and  freestone,  verge  into  Sweuen. — 
 The  centre  of  the  chain  seems,  as  in  the  Alps  and  Pyrenees,  to 
 present  the  chief  elevations,  whence  the  mountains  decline  in 
 height  towards  Lapland.  In  the  centre  and  south  of  Sweden  the 
 red  granite  becomes  very  common:  but  in  Westrogothia  the 
 mountains  are  often  of  trap. 
 
 Farther  illustrations  of  the  grand  chain  of  mountains,  which  di- 
 vide Sweden  from  Norway,  will  be  found  in  the  description  of  the- 
 latter  country. 
 
 Forests.']  The  forests  of  this  kingdom  are  numerous,  andv/ith- 
 out  their  aid  the  mines  could  not  be  wrought.  Dalecarlia,  in  par- 
 ticular, abounds  with  them,  and  the  numerous  lakes  are  generally 
 skirted  with  wood  to  the  margin  of  the  water. 
 
 Botany.]  The  lowlands  and  lakes  of  Scandinavia  are  princi- 
 pally situated  in  the  south  of  Sweden,  and  the  great  ranges  of  Al- 
 pine mountains  are  found  near  the  Arctic  circle,  or  at  least  are 
 confined  to  the  northern  provinces  :  hence  it  is  that  Lapland,  both 
 from  its  elevation  and  its  northern  site,  contains  several  plants 
 which  are  not  to  be  met  with  in  the  rest  of  the  peninsula. 
 
 Several  species  are  common  both  to  England  and  Scandinavia  ; 
 and  though  the  flora  of  Britain  be  the  most  copious  of  the  tM'o,  yet 
 the  superiority  is  not  perhaps  so  great  as  might  be  expected  from 
 the  difference  of  climate.  If  those  species  that  are  natives  of  chalk 
 hills  and  southern  coasts  of  England  are  for  the  most  part  wanting 
 to  Scandinavia,  yet  this  last  contains  several  German  and  Arctic 
 plants,  which  are  not  to  be  found  in  the  first. 
 
 Of  timber  trees  there  are  but  few  species;  the  most  common, 
 and  those  which  consitute  the  wealth  of  Scandinavia,  are  the  Nor- 
 way pine,  and  the  fir  :  of  these  there  are  immense  forests,  spread 
 over  the  rocky  mountains,  and  deeping  with  their  sullen  hue  the 
 whole  horizon  ;  thousands  of  giant  growth  are  every  winter  over- 
 thrown by  the  storms,  and  allowed  to  perish  where  they  fall  from 
 the  impossibility  of  transporting  them  to  the  sea  ;  others,  in  more 
 accessible  situations,  are  converted  to  various  human  uses ;  the' 
 wood  from  its  lightness  and  straightness  is  excellent  for  masts  and 
 yards,  and  various  dornvstick  purposes  ;  the  juice,  as  tar,  turpen- 
 Unc,  and  pitch,  is  almost  of  equal  value  with  the  wood  ;  and  the 
 
182  SWEDEN. 
 
 inner  bark,  mixed  with  rye  meal,  furnishes  a  coarse  bread  in  time 
 of  scarcity.  The  mountain  ash,  the  alder,  the  birch,  and  dwarf 
 birch,  and  several  kinds  of  willow,  are  found  in  the  whole  penin- 
 sula ;  the  lime,  the  elm,  the  ash,  and  the  oak,  though  growing  with 
 freedom  in  the  southern  parts,  are  incapable  of  withstanding  the 
 rigors  of  a  Lapland  winter.  Among  the  larger  shn\bs  the  Ger- 
 man tamarisk,  and  the  barberr}',  are  met  with  chiefly  in  the  south  ; 
 the  burnct  rose,  the  gale,  the  raspberry,  and  juniper,  are  hardy  c- 
 nough  to  flourish  even  within  the  Arctic  circle.  The  lower  woods 
 and  thickets  afi'ord  the  Linnjea  borealis  in  great  abundance,  with 
 the  mezereon,  the  hepatica,  and  the  cornus  Suecia.  The  firwoods 
 yield  two  species  of  pyrola,  and  the  shady  rsides  of  the  mountains 
 and  alpine  lakes  are  adorned  by  the  serratula  alpina,  tossilago  frig- 
 ida,  tlie  wolfsbane  aconite,  globe  flower,  and  the  splendid  pedicul- 
 aris  sceptrum. 
 
 The  dry  rough  tracts  on  the  sides  of  the  mountains  arc  covered 
 with  the  heath,  the  bearberry,  and  the  Iceland  and  rein  deer  lich-    ^ 
 en  ;  the  one  an  article  of  food  to  the  inhabitants,  the  other  the ' ' 
 chief  svipport  of  the  animal  whose  name  it  bears.     The  bleak  sum- 
 mits where  even  the  heath  cannot  root  itself  are  clothed  with  the 
 beautiful  azalea  procumbens,  and  other  hardy  plants. 
 
 Zoology r\  The  Swedish  horses  are  commonly  small  but  spirit- 
 ed ;  and  are  preserved,  by  lying  without  litter,  from  some  of  the 
 numerous  diseases  to  which  this  noble  animal  is  subject.  The 
 cattle  and  sheep  do  not  seem  to  present  any  thing  remarkable. — 
 Among  the  wild  animals  may  be  named  the  bear,  the  lynx,  the 
 wolf,  the  beaver,  the  otter,  the  glutton,  the  flying  squirrel,  &c. 
 Sweden  also  presents  one  or  two  singular  kinds  of  falcons,  and  a 
 great  variety  of  ganae. 
 
 Mi€ralogy.~^  Of  modern  mineralogy  Sweden  may  perhaps  be 
 pronounced  the  parent  country  ;  and  her  authors,  Wallerius, 
 Cronstedt,  and  Bergman,  have  laid  the  first  solid  foundations  of  the 
 science.  It  would  therefore  be  a  kind  of  literary  ingratitude  not  to 
 bestow  due  attention  on  Swedish  mineralogy.  First  in  dignity, 
 though  not  in  profit,  are  the  gold  mines  of  Adelfors  in  the  prov- 
 ince of  Smoland.  The  gold  is  sometimes  native,  and  sometimes 
 combined  with  sulphur.  Some  ores  of  copper  are  also  found  in 
 the  same  vein,  which  likewise  presents  galena  and  iron.  But 
 these  mines  seem  to  be  nearly  exhausted.  In  the  production  of 
 silver  Sweden  yields  greatly  to  Norway  ;  yet  the  mine  of  Saia,  or 
 Salberg,  about  30  British  miles  westof  Upsal,  maintains  some  rep- 
 utation. The  silver  is  in  limestone  ;  which,  however,  when  it  is 
 large  grained  and  free  from  mixture,  contains  no  mineral,  and  is 
 styled  ignoble  rock  :  it  is  on  the  contrary  metalliferous  when  fine 
 grained,  and  mingled  with  mica.*  There  ?.re  about  100  veins, 
 greater  or  smaller.  The  silver  is  rarely  found  native,  but  is  pro- 
 cured from  the  galena  or  lead  ore.  Silver  has  also  been  found  in 
 Swedish  Lapland. 
 
 The  cliief  copper  mines  of  Sweden  are  in  the  province  of  Dalc- 
 
 *  Bergman,  Phy.  Geog.  ut  supra,  p.  49. 
 
SWEDEN.  183 
 
 <!arUa.  On  the  east  of  the  town  of  Fahlun  is  a  great  copper  mine 
 supposed  to  have  been  worked  for  near  1000  years.*  The  metal 
 is  not  found  in  veins,  but  in  large  masses  ;  and  the  mouth  of  the 
 mine  presents  an  immense  chasm,  nearly  three  quarters  of  an 
 English  mile  in  circumference,  the  perpendicular  depth  being  a- 
 bout  1020  feet.  About  1200  minci's  are  en^ployed.  Copper  rs 
 also  wrought  in  Jemtland  ;  and  at  Ryddarhytte  is  found  iron.  Nor 
 is  S'vvccjen  deficient  in  lead  :  but  iron  forms  the  principal  product, 
 and  the  mine  of  Danamora  is  particularly  celebrated  for  the  supe- 
 riority of  the  metal,  which  in  England  is  called  Orcgrund  iron,  be- 
 cause it  is  exported  from  Oregrund  an  adjacent  pert,  where  the 
 Bothnic  gulph  joins  the  Baltic.  The  mines  ef  Danamora  have  no 
 galleries,  but  are  worked  in  the  open  air  by  means  of  deep  excav- 
 ationsf.  The  ore  is  in  a  limestone  rock,  and  occupies  about  500 
 persons  in  twelve  pits.  This  valuable  mine  was  discovered  in 
 1488.  Bergman  describes  the  iron  mine  of  Taberg  in  Smoland, 
 as  consisting  of  beds  of  ore,  of  a  blackish  brown,  separated  by 
 beds  of  mould  without  any  stone. I  This  enormous  mineral  pile 
 is  rivalled  by  an  entire  mountain  of  iron  ore  near  Tornea,  in  Lap- 
 land ;  and  at  Lulea  the  mountain  of  Gellivar  forms  a  mass  of  rich 
 iron  ore,  of  a  blackish  blue,  extending  like  an  irregular  vein  for 
 more  than  a  mile,  and  in  thickness  from  500  to  400  fatliom.§  Co- 
 balt is  found  at  Basna,  and  zinc  at  Danamora  ;  while  the  mines  of 
 Sala  present  native  antimony  ;  and  molybaena  appears  at  Norberg. 
 Coal  has  been  recently  discovered  in  the  province  of  Scone. 
 
 Sweden  abounds  with  beautiful  granite  ;  but  in  marble  yields 
 to  Norway.  Porphyry  also  appears  in  the  mountains  of  Swucku, 
 and  many  other  parts. 
 
 The  most  renowned  mineral  waters  in  Sweden  are  those  of  Me- 
 devi,  in  eastern  Gothland. 
 
 Sweden  and  Swedish  Lapland  abound  with  natural  curiosities 
 of  various  descriptions.  Some  of  the  lakes  and  cataracts  have 
 been  already  mentioned  ;  and  it  would  be  in  vain  to  attempt  to 
 describe  the  many  singular  and  sublime  scenes,  which  occur  in 
 so  variegated  and  extensive  a  country. 
 
 SWEDISH  ISLANDS. 
 
 Sweden  possesses  manv  islands,  scattered  in  the  Baltic  sea  and 
 gulph  of  Bothnia.  The  long  island  of  Oland,  or  (Eland,  is  in 
 length  about  seventy  miles,  in  breadth  about  six.  In  the  north 
 are  mauy  fine  forests  and  quarries  of  stone,  while  the  soutliern 
 part  is  more  level  and  fertile,  and  yields  plenty  of  butter,  honey, 
 wax  and  nuts.  The  horses  are  small  but  strong,  and  the  forests 
 abound  with  deer,  nor  is  the  wild  boar  unknown.  Freestone,  al- 
 um, and  tourhstonc  cire  products  of  Qiland  ;  and  the  inh.abitaiits 
 are  computed  at  near  8000.     The  sailors  belonging  to  the  crown 
 
 •  Coxe,  V.  I)  i.  J  Ibid.  v.  103.  *  Ut  supra,  i».  5S. 
 
 §  In  anollicr  passage,  p.  23,  Bergman  cbsti  vcs  that  the  two  mou-iaius  of  5\eiiiii.i- 
 wara,  and  Lousowara,  ii>  Pitea  Lapb.od,  nily  divided  by  a  little  v.illev,  .-irc-  M'.r'":- 
 sfiinposed  ot"  ircn  we. 
 
184  RUSSIAN  EMPIRE. 
 
 are  generally  quartered  here.  Next  occurs  the  island  of  Gothland, 
 known  to  the  literary  world  by  the  travels  of  Linnaeus,  about  sev- 
 enty miles  in  length,  and  twenty-four  in  breadth ;  a  feitile  district 
 remarkable  for  an  excellent  breed  of  sheep.  There  are  fine 
 woods  of  oak  and  pine,  good  pastures,  profitable  fisheries,  and 
 large  quarries  of  stone  on  this  island.  Carnelians  and  agates  arc 
 found  here.  Wisbury  is  the  capital,  the  population  of  which  is 
 3,745.  It  was  subject  to  the  Danes  for  near  two  centuries,  till 
 1645,  when  it  was  restored  to  Sweden. 
 
 The  isles  of  Aland  lie  in  the  entrance  of  the  gulph  of  Bothnia, 
 between  lat.  59  47,  and  60  30,  N.  and  long.  19  17,  and  22  71,  E. 
 They  are  80  in  number.  The  largest,  Aland,  is  40  miles  long, 
 and  16  broad,  containing  462  square  miles.  These  islands  form, 
 seven  parishes,  each  of  which  has  a  church,  besides  which  there 
 ai-e  7  chapels.  The  Laplanders  and  Fins  were  the  earliest  settlers. 
 The  inhabitants  now  speak  the  Swedish  language.  Those  of  Al- 
 and alone,  amounted,  in  1792,  to  1 1,260,  of  whom  a  sixth  part 
 were  above  50.  The  revenue  yielded  to  the  crown  amounts  to 
 19,936  rix-doUars ;  and  298  sailors  are  here  registered  for  the  na- 
 vy.     The  inhabitants  are  employed  in  agriculture  and  fishing 
 
 The  island  of  Hisingen,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Gotha,  is  16  miles 
 long,  and  6  broad,  containing  7  parishes. 
 
 RUSSIAN  EMPIRE. 
 
 THIS  niighty  empire,  the  largest  in  ancient  or  modern 
 history,  reaches  from  the  gulf  of  Bothnia,  to  the  western  coast  of 
 America ;  and  from  the  Frozen  Ocean  to  Turkey,  Persia,  and  In- 
 dependent and  Chinese  Tartary.  On  the  Frozen  Ocean,  it  extends 
 from  the  mouth  of  the  Enaza,  in  about  long.  31  E.  to  East  Cape,  in 
 long.  190,  E.  or  170,  W.  On  the  Pacific,  it  extends  southward 
 to  the  mouth  of  the  Amour,  in  lat.  53  20,  N.  On  the  Caspian  Sea, 
 its  most  southern  limit,  is  Derbcnt,  in  lat.  42  8,  N.  The  Phasis 
 bounds  it  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Black  Sea,  and  the  Neister 
 on  the  western.  The  Russian  arms  have  lately  however  penetrat- 
 ed to  the  Danube,  and  the  mouth  of  tliat  river  may  probably  be 
 the  Russian  boundary  in  the  next  treaty  with  Turkey.  Polan- 
 g-en,  in  lat.  55  50,  is  its  southern  limit  on  the  Baltic.  The  countries 
 Avhich  it  comprehends,  together  v  ith  then*  population  alid  extent, 
 are  stated  by  Hassel  as  follows. 
 
RUSSIAN  EMPIRE. 
 
 185 
 
 <£i 
 
 «* 
 
 o 
 
 \a 
 
 cri 
 
 ,       • 
 
 «_« 
 
 a> 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 «?  s 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 
 o» 
 
 ■^ 
 
 cr> 
 
 li" 
 
 m 
 
 »rt 
 
 »^ 
 
 CO  p 
 
 a>  ^ 
 
 i^ 
 
 <~  .jj 
 
 O 
 
 t^ 
 
 >n 
 
 a> 
 
 o 
 
 'O 
 
 t>~ 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 c» 
 
 HH  •,- 
 
 ■^ 
 
 ■"^ 
 
 J2. 
 
 _2_ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 Tj> 
 
 c» 
 
 hj^ 
 
 ^i. 
 
 (N 
 
 o^ 
 
 o^^ 
 
 »o 
 
 CO 
 
 ■>* 
 
 CN 
 
 CO 
 
 »r> 
 
 t- 
 
 * 
 
 t^ 
 
 ■<j<" 
 
 o 
 
 -*" 
 
 cr 
 
 ^f 
 
 .M4 
 
 <S 
 
 ^t 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 CN 
 
 ■Ti 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 ^  c 
 
 t^ 
 
 vO 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 U3 
 
 CN 
 
 f~m 
 
 M* 
 
 VI 
 
 CO 
 
 b- 
 
 (N 
 
 o% 
 
 lO 
 
 y.  S5 
 
 <o 
 
 c< 
 
 a 
 
 <c 
 
 ■* 
 
 00 
 
 CN 
 
 f'* 
 
 to 
 
 c* 
 
 CN 
 
 00 
 
 to 
 
 o 
 
 ;^. 
 
 c» 
 
 CO 
 
 ■"" 
 
 ^^ 
 
 '^ 
 
 o 
 
 L. 
 
 < 
 
 o> 
 
 =^  i 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 (N 
 
 CO 
 
 C» 
 
 00 
 
 E 
 
 o 
 
 <o 
 
 V 
 
 C'^ 
 
 CO 
 
 ^ 
 
 b- 
 
 o 
 
 c^ 
 
 <o  - 
 
 o> 
 
 t^ 
 
 5 
 
 ■* 
 
 <o 
 
 to 
 
 l^ 
 
 c^ 
 
 > 
 
 'O 
 
 VD 
 
 t 
 
 o» 
 
 CO 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^-< 
 
 J 
 
 ^•0  -s 
 
 >n 
 
 vO  "S 
 
 <o 
 
 <o 
 
 t 
 
 '^ 
 
 tmM 
 
 lO 
 
 O^ 
 
 rf 
 
 ■• 
 
 00 
 
 c^ 
 
 '2 
 
 o 
 
 00 
 
 ^ 
 
 (N 
 
 2 
 
 t^  ^ 
 
 <8 
 
 o   1 
 
 O 
 
 «r ' 
 
 <s 
 
 bT 
 
 ^ 
 
 cT 
 
 00 
 
 t- 
 
 »o 
 
 c^ 
 
 Oi 
 
 VD 
 
 ^ 
 
 to 
 
 >r> 
 
 c 
 
 Oi 
 
 - 
 
 CO    » 
 
 04    CO 
 
 a 
 
 »0    0 
 
 00 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 e« 
 
 Oi 
 
 (N 
 
 o 
 
 j^ 
 
 m 
 
 (N 
 
 r: 
 
 T? 
 
 »o 
 
 * 
 
 c* 
 
 ^ 
 
 »r5  .a 
 
 o^ 
 
 «  tf 
 
 *- 
 
 o» 
 
 ^ 
 
 >rt 
 
 -* 
 
 un 
 
 *\ 
 
 -^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 iO 
 
 CN 
 
 £ 
 
 "^ 
 
 l> 
 
 'I 
 
 VO 
 
 *j 
 
 o>  S 
 
 cT 
 
 - 
 
 ex 
 
 ^ 
 
 X 
 
 ;2 
 
 M 
 
 b-  CO 
 
 rfr> 
 
 l^ 
 
 C7^ 
 
 r?    00    "O    -- 
 
 ■«j< 
 
 (N   Oi 
 
 b-    CO 
 
 o 
 
 <y> 
 
 —   to 
 
 1^ 
 
 N. 
 
 -* 
 
 lO  CO   l^  o> 
 
 to 
 
 >rj   00 
 
 b-    00 
 
 to 
 
 c-x 
 
 ^~ 
 
 to   CO 
 
 c» 
 
 O 
 
 h-    to   CO    l^ 
 
 CN 
 
 t^  m 
 
 —  o 
 
 ^ 
 
 CO 
 
 ' 
 
 O   to 
 
 -* 
 
 "n 
 
 h- 
 
 ■n  to  w^  — 
 
 >n 
 
 to  t- 
 
 to  o 
 
 <N 
 
 •— " 
 
 4) 
 
 —  c» 
 
 CN 
 
 1— « 
 
 c? 
 
 —  -*  —  h- 
 
 CN 
 
 O   — 
 
 »o   00 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 tm^ 
 
 CN           CO 
 
 f-^ 
 
 c\   — < 
 
 3 
 
 cn 
 
 oi 
 
 (J>    CO 
 
 •^ 
 
 CO 
 
 to 
 
 V5   (N    ■*    t}< 
 
 lO 
 
 O  CO 
 
 h-   C7> 
 
 CO 
 
 ,^ 
 
 ?* 
 
 (.0  o> 
 
 CM 
 
 >n 
 
 •^ 
 
 —   »^   CN    CJ 
 
 CN 
 
 >o  CO 
 
 t^  c^ 
 
 CO 
 
 *o 
 
 V 
 
 CO   — 
 
 CT) 
 
 VJ 
 
 >o 
 
 to    00    O    C7» 
 
 »^ 
 
 O  t^ 
 
 I- — 1 
 
 t^ 
 
 c^ 
 
 ■*  b~  CO   O 
 CN    Tj<   C»    00 
 
 CO     CO  1>.     IT) 
 
 CN    00       CO    CN 
 CO   — <  — ' 
 
 CO 
 
 C/3     / 
 
 bj 
 
 ^     * 
 
 Sr, 
 
 PS 
 
 > 
 
 ■3?; 
 
 O 
 
 < 
 
 CU 
 
 « 
 
 CJ 
 
 &H 
 
 o 
 
 >4 
 
 A-" 
 
 <r" 
 
 D 
 
 PQ    tJD 
 
 Ui 
 
 fi 
 
 u 
 
 ».  tti 
 
 u 
 
 "^'r 
 
 o 
 
 S  o 
 
 !U 
 
 i2^ 
 
 tfi 
 
 £t2 
 
 c4    < 
 — ;     W 
 
 3      . 
 
 eti 
 
 IS 
 
 ■^ 
 
 ctf 
 
 o 
 
 "^    >    N    -^         "5 
 
 •  ■-»    cti 
 
 11 
 
 «       <N    CO       'I'    iO 
 
 ce  t>o 
 
 r>    O    " 
 
 .      .      .      .    O    § 
 f-   <N   CO   ^  ►-^  -5 
 
 4J     (U 
 
 ^6 
 
 ^t3 
 
 S  o 
 
 2  ^ 
 
 o  o 
 
 us;?; 
 
 0^ 
 
 re       -, 
 
 S 
 
 CO 
 
 .    .     o  — 
 
 VOL.    II. 
 
 24 
 
186 
 
 RUSSIAN  EMPIRE. 
 
 ■ 
 
 *o 
 
 00  «3 
 
 o 
 
 t^  (j> 
 
 c^^ 
 
 O  rj  t^ 
 
 -n 
 
 00 
 
 C^    00 
 
 o> 
 
 00  lO 
 
 CO 
 
 ■*  o  1^ 
 
 00 
 
 i  i 
 
 1    on 
 
 CO 
 
 00    — 
 
 N. 
 
 ■^  <o 
 
 in 
 
 <o  o  — 
 
 — • 
 
 l^ 
 
 -"j*    CO 
 
 CO 
 
 o>  '- 
 
 CM 
 
 Tf     — 1     -. 
 
 CM 
 
 1     es 
 
 ?:^ 
 
 -"V/*-^ 
 
 11 1 
 
 ies.j 
 
 CN 
 
 — <  CO  c-» 
 
 CN 
 
 M    >rt 
 
 CO 
 
 (M 
 
 c^?  CM  in 
 
 CM    CM    O^ 
 
 1— <  .tJ 
 
 •—4      •— < 
 
 t— 4 
 
 t— < 
 
 ^^  ^-<  p— • 
 
 —  —  o 
 
 O 
 
 -^ 
 
 o 
 
 o  o  o 
 
 o 
 
 o  o 
 
 o 
 
 O   O 
 
 o  o  o 
 
 o  o 
 
 O 
 
 o  o  o  o  o 
 
 o 
 
 o  o  o 
 
 o 
 
 o  o 
 
 o 
 
 o  o 
 
 o  o  o 
 
 o  o 
 
 O 
 
 o  o  o  o  o 
 
 CO 
 
 «J_  -^  o^ 
 
 in 
 
 O^OJ^ 
 
 t^ 
 
 o^  co_ 
 
 CD  b^t^ 
 
 r-^   CO^ 
 
 co^ 
 
 CM    r?   Tj<    in  c: 
 
 o 
 
 cT 
 
 in  O  O 
 
 ^o" 
 
 »n  O 
 
 cjT 
 
 CO    l-T 
 
 in  in  i£i 
 
 in  <y> 
 
 ■^ 
 
 Oi   lO   VO  <0   CO 
 
 55  on 
 
 11    -H 
 
 t-» 
 
 O    <0    C3 
 
 -* 
 
 CO    — 
 
 <o 
 
 -J.    CO 
 
 ^   CO   CO 
 
 c-t  c^ 
 
 O 
 
 m   00   ■*   (M   0» 
 
 t^ 
 
 -^  0_  00 
 
 o> 
 
 CO    CO^ 
 
 t» 
 
 1-   O 
 
 ^^-:,t- 
 
 —^  -* 
 
 o 
 
 ■*^  t^  1^  0>   CM^ 
 
 O 
 
 f-  
 
 "  — 
 
 —' 
 
 bT  — 
 
 .-4  .—1 
 
 '"' 
 
 c^r          -^ 
 
 < 
 go 
 
 o 
 
 (N  «0   >n 
 
 i  CO 
 
 C  (y,    O^    i 
 
 lO 
 
 <o  (71  ■-■  N.  00  00  •; 
 
 o  o 
 
 00    u 
 
 (N    CO  ■;   en  J^ 
 
 Ol    ^   -^ 
 
 S  l^ 
 
 S  c^  O  s; 
 
 Ol 
 
 CT>  ■*  s  00  00  o  r, 
 
 O   CM 
 
 CO    s 
 
 O    00  s   —  -* 
 
 o^ 
 
 C->_  r}^  O 
 
 S  CO 
 
 l"^*^! 
 
 in 
 
 CO  cy>  :5  CO  o  00  3 
 
 «3   b- 
 
 CO  3 
 
 CM      »n  S    lO    00 
 
 o        *^ 
 
 o 
 
 (O" 
 
 cT  O"  00 
 
 =  in 
 
 =  cT  cT  = 
 
 O) 
 
 <0    -*    =  —.    CO    b-    = 
 
 co    O 
 
 -<?  2 
 
 O     m  ■=    '^   00 
 
 (1<    CO 
 
 o 
 
 C?>   vO   ■* 
 
 ^-^i" 
 
 ^  >n  00  ^ 
 
 b- 
 
 —    CO  . 
 
 ^  T}<  OJ   m  ^ 
 
 — .   in 
 
 a^  ^ 
 
 1-,       CO   ^     CO    Tt> 
 
 p 
 
 o^ 
 
 CT>    0>   l~- 
 
 |oo 
 
 5*^  -^1 
 
 <£! 
 
 O^^Oi 
 
 5cj>  q^«5  1 
 
 O    CO 
 
 o>  1 
 
 O      03  ■=     00    O 
 
 !->. 
 
 ^ 
 
 •£»         ,— *  -^ 
 
 (O"         -^          -4          •» 
 
 — <  _• 
 
 ^ 
 
 F—                           CO 
 
 rv/.^ 
 
 m 
 
 CM    CM    0» 
 
 -* 
 
 Oi   CM 
 
 o 
 
 00    CTl 
 
 —    —    C7> 
 
 ■*    ^O 
 
 00 
 
 >o  —  m  O  O 
 
 ft) 
 
 o 
 
 >£)    CO    ■* 
 
 t- 
 
 a>  — 
 
 1^ 
 
 b-   CT) 
 
 00    -*    CO 
 
 o  c? 
 
 00 
 
 -*  t^  b-  o  a> 
 
 ^H 
 
 t^J 
 
 CO    Tf   CN 
 
 c^ 
 
 CD^b^ 
 
 in 
 
 m  e? 
 
 —    CO   CO 
 
 00   CO 
 
 CM 
 
 VD   Oi    <0    O    O 
 
 ^ 
 
 VJ 
 
 oT  oo"  b- 
 
 cT 
 
 •— •       •— « 
 
 '*' 
 
 Cft    (O 
 
 ■*  oi  ys 
 
 «3    VO 
 
 o 
 
 ■*  a>  o  ■>*  — 
 
 4) 
 
 CO 
 
 CJ   (>>   — • 
 
 CM   CM 
 
 'i* 
 
 —    CM 
 
 C^    CO    CO 
 
 CO    CM 
 
 CO 
 
 00   C^   CM   CO   C-J 
 
 ?•.  5 
 
 CM 
 
 «— < 
 
 ■I  = 
 
 H:^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 o»  -*  — " 
 
 00 
 
 00    'O 
 
 O 
 
 O    CM 
 
 CO    O    CJ> 
 
 vo  m 
 
 >n 
 
 oi  O  -*  m  -* 
 
 c 
 
 »0    O    lO 
 
 b- 
 
 (O  c^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 O    CTl 
 
 CO    b-    t^ 
 
 O    CO 
 
 (^^ 
 
 ■n  CO  O  o»  O 
 
 O 
 
 VD    »n  CT> 
 
 c^  c^ 
 
 VO 
 
 cD^q^ 
 
 h-  ■*  Jv 
 
 in  — • 
 
 CO 
 
 CM    CO   CO   —    CM 
 
 «> 
 
 VO 
 
 vo"  -S^  <0 
 
 a> 
 
 CM    CO 
 
 O^ 
 
 co"  -^ 
 
 b-    — '    <£> 
 
 b-  — 
 
 »^ 
 
 CM  lo  CM  CO  a> 
 
 lU 
 
 >o 
 
 ^    •*   OJ 
 
 CO    CO 
 
 »o 
 
 -*   •«i< 
 
 CO  <c  »n 
 
 *n  -^ 
 
 T}" 
 
 CO  •*  CO  in  00 
 
 CO 
 
 ^                  -. 
 
 a 
 
 Cfi 
 
 Pi 
 
 H 
 H 
 
 O 
 fcO 
 
 o 
 > 
 o    ^ 
 
 £> 
 
 . 
 
 Pi 
 
 a 
 
 < 
 
 f-i 
 
 >J 
 
 O 
 
 K 
 
 P< 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 <: 
 
 o 
 
 Pi 
 
 h-*     •i!!-'    „ 
 
 « 
 
 'o       > 
 
 a 
 
 ^\4 
 
 C    O  -^3 
 
 PiHc/3 
 
 4^        S 
 
 G    d 
 
 ^  ^ 
 
 O   —    O 
 
 H  Ph  H«4 
 
 ■*    in   to    »-.       00       CTl   O       — ' 
 
 _  «   _   _       ^       -.CM       C) 
 
 C»      CO  •*  in      to  I—  CO 
 C^       C^   (M   C*       CM    (?<   CM 
 
RUSSIAN  EMPIRE. 
 
 18^ 
 
 h-         O 
 
 ^  t 
 
 1      hD 
 
 ,.^ 
 
 1      « 
 
 ^5  S 
 
 o.;> 
 
 !>. 
 
 "^  oT" 
 
 S  •- 
 
 b-           C» 
 
 HH  5 
 
 »n         >o 
 
 :o 
 
 O  O  O  O  O  O 
 
 o       o     o 
 
 o 
 
 o  o  o  o  o  o 
 
 o       o     o 
 
 o 
 
 O  O  <7>  •—  CO  •^ 
 
 o       ■*    o 
 
 CI 
 
 oo 
 
 O    •<}•■*'-'   CO    -^ 
 
 oT      ^    TjT 
 
 at 
 
 2i 
 
 rj<   CTi   O^   "^   00   O 
 
 ■^        o     »n 
 
 (N 
 
 Oi    "^   "^  "^  ^   '^ 
 
 O^        CO      CO 
 
 S^ 
 
 ^.   ,-<          — . 
 
 ^^ 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 H    
 
 < 
 1^ 
 
 in  "■  r«-  >o        »o 
 
 CO  s     CO  j  oi 
 
 (N 
 
 it 
 
 "^  E   c>»  »o         >n 
 
 Ci   y       CO   "C^ 
 
 C7^ 
 
 C»  3    ■*   —          O 
 
 OS        —   S  00 
 
 VD 
 
 --   =    (O   — .           CT> 
 
 Tj.  „      i^  ^  00 
 
 CJ 
 
 o»  -S  i>-  00        •— ' 
 
 Tf  -5      in  ^  — 
 
 t^ 
 
 o 
 
 CO  ■  2    O^  -^         -^ 
 
 0>   Z       ""    i  CO 
 
 CM 
 
 1^ 
 
 "* 
 
 —  ■"    .—   r—          >— 
 
 03 
 
 ^>.A^^ 
 
 (-S.A.O 
 
 (N 
 
 oj 
 
 00   CO    <0   t}<   Oi    0© 
 
 Oi  00      in     o 
 
 Iv 
 
 u 
 
 00    O^    CO    O^    N-    ^^ 
 
 CO   CO       c->       — 
 
 00 
 
 i 
 
 ^  »n    -^  -^^  CO^  --^ 
 
 OC  co^      OJ^      O^ 
 
 <o 
 
 CJ  tO^  co^  ^  vo"  ■* 
 
 to~  t«r  o   cT 
 
 ^o 
 
 a; 
 
 5  « 
 
 CO    --«    Tt   C«           c^ 
 
 TT    CO        V5        0> 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 »M      g 
 
 t-      C" 
 
 , 
 
 cT 
 
 n^    ^ 
 
 ^     
 
 «  »; 
 
 H  S 
 
 «o  to  O  »n  t^  ■>? 
 
 a>  o     O     *o 
 
 00 
 
 (N   OJ    O    00    UD    00 
 
 Oi   ■«t      K      b- 
 
 ■<i< 
 
 CO    C7>    ■*    »0    C7>    — 
 
 ■<^  co^     "n     t» 
 
 ■* 
 
 c«  V5  jv.  CO  a>  o 
 
 00    00        Ol        CO 
 
 m 
 
 9 
 
 «o  CN  ^0  xo         »o 
 
 to  »n     t^      ■* 
 
 CO 
 
 S 
 
 CO 
 
 --• 
 
 ^^ 
 
 g. 
 
 Co' 
 
 «3 
 
 r^A-n 
 
 •-) 
 
 (U 
 
 ■< 
 
 c 
 
 H 
 
 O 
 
 , 
 
 w 
 
 a 
 
 H 
 
 o 
 
 P 
 
 S5 
 
 •5 
 
 M 
 
 ^ 
 
 (M 
 
 H 
 
 < 
 
 o 
 
 K 
 
 IH 
 
 O 
 
 -< 
 
 .    « 
 
 3  -« 
 
 en 
 
 p4 
 
 o  y 
 
 tn     ^ 
 
 2  S-S 
 
 c            <5 
 
 ^        .a         tn 
 
 fi               <-»                Cfl 
 
 tn        'S         O 
 
 o       ^      y 
 
 ■< 
 o 
 
 C            rt     rf     O 
 
 2  o -a  ^  2 
 
 ill    1 
 
 lis   i 
 
 ci  CO  ■*   »n 
 
 <o  n1  00 
 
 c*)  «o  CO  en 
 
 e5  en  CO 
 
 o 
 
 (N 
 
 o 
 
 "" 
 
 C-* 
 
 '"** 
 
 o  o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o  o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 a^  »n 
 
 »n 
 
 Tf 
 
 o* 
 
 CO 
 
 O  — 
 
 »^ 
 
 -* 
 
 00 
 
 o> 
 
 >n  — « 
 
 00 
 
 o 
 
 >* 
 
 o> 
 
 00  o 
 
 »^ 
 
 o> 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 T}.  -. 
 
 00  ■»}• 
 
 m 
 
 o 
 
 t 
 
 h- 
 
 CN  i 
 
 -rj-    to 
 
 ^ 
 
 o 
 
 fi 
 
 »n 
 
 > 
 
 00 
 
 ?r 
 
 •*  S' 
 
 o  <o 
 
 '^ 
 
 Th 
 
 li 
 
 in 
 
 •" 
 
 t^ 
 
 > 
 
 in  > 
 
 CO   -^ 
 
 " 
 
 o 
 
 t^ 
 
 1; 
 
 o 
 
 "' 
 
 ^    o 
 
 —    CO 
 
 •3 
 
 o 
 
 -3 
 
 --J 
 
 ^ 
 
 CO 
 
 •a 
 
 ri.  V 
 
 CO  00 
 
 s 
 
 t> 
 
 u 
 
 00 
 
 ° 
 
 a> 
 
 s 
 
 O   S 
 
 ■^  h. 
 
 t^ 
 
 <y> 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 CO     T}< 
 
 m 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 <o 
 
 <: 
 
 t-  ■* 
 
 l-M 
 
 in 
 
 o 
 
 in 
 
 )— 1 
 
 CO    CSJ 
 
 ■* 
 
 CO 
 
 a> 
 
 -* 
 
 CD 
 
 »n  CO 
 
 (N 
 
 ■^ 
 
 <o 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 — • 
 
 !:) 
 
 pj 
 
 o 
 
 CT>    CTi 
 
 >n 
 
 >n 
 
 c^ 
 
 00 
 
 HH 
 
 O  a> 
 
 Tf 
 
 Ti< 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 
 H 
 
 b-  to 
 
 b- 
 
 o 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 <1 
 
 W  o 
 
 »^ 
 
 00 
 
 »«. 
 
 00 
 
 CN    VJ 
 
 CO 
 
 <o 
 
 o 
 
 00 
 
 C/) 
 
 »o 
 
 '-« 
 
 ct 
 
 < 
 
 < 
 
 Vi 
 
 < 
 \4 
 
 Uj    ft. 
 
 /3     J? 
 
 s 
 
 o    — 
 
 C-»       CO 
 
188 
 
 RUSSIAN  EMPIRE. 
 
 ■ 
 
 i  t 
 
 to 
 
 n 
 
 <.■■>  •■^ 
 
 §1 
 
 c  t 
 
 *"<  'Zj 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o    o  o  o  o 
 
 o  o 
 
 o    o 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 o     o  o  o  o 
 
 o  o 
 
 o     o 
 
 o 
 
 C 
 
 -<* 
 
 CO      O  O  t^  ^ 
 
 q^  t^ 
 
 o_    c^^ 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 00 
 
 oe 
 
 CO 
 
 CN        O    O    «3    "* 
 
 <S  o 
 
 t— 4'             iM^ 
 
 ■* 
 
 w^ 
 
 CO       O   —   O^   h. 
 
 o  — 
 
 ■<j<     la 
 
 h^ 
 
 '^ 
 
 »n     oj        oi  00 
 
 CO   in 
 
 00      <o 
 
 CN 
 
 !5 
 
 cT 
 
 --" 
 
 C^" 
 
 O 
 
 H   __ 
 
 » 
 
 •<! 
 
 " 
 
 J 
 
 o 
 
 CO  s              vn  CN  g» 
 
 o> 
 
 CN    S  h-   £ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 &    . 
 
 ft,  <o 
 
 b- 
 
 m  «>            o>  c*  s 
 
 m 
 
 CN    "CO    ^ 
 
 S- 
 
 eo 
 
 -^  >             00^  CO  _^ 
 
 co^ 
 
 "^  -  °i.  2 
 
 <o 
 
 o 
 
 <s 
 
 oT  o            tT  oTl 
 
 CO 
 
 c^^  in  « 
 
 CN  ^—  •■? 
 
 \    col 
 
 Ch   CO 
 
 CJ 
 
 —  •=                 Oi   — '  ^ 
 
 CO 
 
 C?l 
 
 "i 
 
 ^  i            00  »n  g 
 
 (3 
 
 <£>  ^  ^  1 
 
 00 
 
 a 
 
 lO 
 
 0? 
 
 'i' 
 
 00     CN  in  -*  "* 
 
 —  c» 
 
 —       -^ 
 
 CO     o> 
 
 o 
 
 4> 
 
 in 
 
 O       00    00   CN    •<* 
 
 —  l^ 
 
 in      in 
 
 ■*     — . 
 
 VO 
 
 W 
 
 c^ 
 
 VO       Ol    —   CO   b-^ 
 
 -«*^-* 
 
 O      tx 
 
 .-      in 
 
 ■* 
 
 ?? 
 
 t-T 
 
 m     tS       co"  -^ 
 
 cT  00 
 
 cn"     b^ 
 
 "#      ■>* 
 
 C?l 
 
 2  « 
 
 o 
 
 00       (N           CO    h- 
 
 pO    00 
 
 m     c^ 
 
 -* 
 
 VJ 
 
 •■14                vi^  ^rt 
 
 o>  in 
 
 <o     o^ 
 
 <* 
 
 ^ 
 
 '- 
 
 o 
 
 CM        CO 
 
 w 
 
 Z   
 
 w  t^ 
 
 H  S 
 
 in 
 
 o      o>  O  (?>  »^ 
 
 O  h- 
 
 a\     in 
 
 CN       — ' 
 
 1—4 
 
 «^ 
 
 CO 
 
 o      in  cTi  —  CO 
 
 00    00 
 
 CN       — 
 
 00     o 
 
 00 
 
 q. 
 
 b^      -^  C^   co^  O 
 
 in  •* 
 
 °~L    "^ 
 
 't.    "^ 
 
 CM 
 
 i< 
 
 in 
 
 -*       cT          CO    CO 
 
 lO  ■* 
 
 c-T    bT 
 
 vo"     bT 
 
 cT 
 
 S 
 
 in 
 
 O^       ■<*           O    N- 
 
 in  a> 
 
 T?           CO 
 
 t^ 
 
 « 
 
 CO 
 
 CN                     CN    C^ 
 
 in  CN 
 
 P-M        *— 1 
 
 (M 
 
 —  O 
 
 Ti"          <0 
 
 CO 
 
 t« 
 
 "" 
 
 "^ 
 
 <~N^ 
 
 r-'so 
 
 ^>-*-^ 
 
 d 
 
 ,^i^^ 
 
 a 
 
 2; 
 
 Jt 
 
 1-4 
 
 M 
 
 (- 
 
 sT 
 
 o 
 
 55 
 
 d     . 
 
 O 
 O 
 
 in    M 
 
 -5" 
 
 ei 
 
 "^ 
 
 OT     « 
 
 H 
 
 .ii     l-l 
 
 •»-> 
 
 CA 
 
 O 
 
 X  c/> 
 
 CO 
 
 < 
 
 -a 
 
 C3 
 
 60 
 
 o 
 H 
 
 l-H 
 1— 1 
 
 -g    S    O    t.    ^    =J 
 
 .5   l-H 
 
 X) 
 
 c  (u  u 
 
 s 
 
 ,3 
 
 < 
 
 o 
 
 ill 
 
 j:  pu  i- 
 
 (U   O   3 
 
 < 
 
 y    rt    "  if   £  X> 
 
 a. 
 
 5^ 
 
 o 
 
 -<0  --  c^ccO 
 
 c/o 
 
 HH^i; 
 
 —   CN   CO 
 
 ■^  in              <o  hi 
 
 CO  o^  (15 
 
 '^  -*              -*  ^ 
 
 ■*  ■*  m 
 
 C/3 
 
 ;2; 
 
 m 
 
 CO 
 
 CN 
 
 u 
 
 00 
 
 t- 
 
 t— 1 
 OS 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 w 
 
 CO 
 
 ir-l 
 
 lO 
 
 H 
 
 O 
 
 a 
 
 lei 
 ■  -! 
 
 OS 
 
 O 
 
 c/T 
 
 O 
 
 —  !»  'h. 
 
RUSSIA  IN  EUROPE.  18: 
 
 The  data  for  the  population  of  1808  are  these.  Tables  of  the 
 i-narriages,  births,  and  deaths  are  kept  throughout  the  empire — 
 The  excess  of  the  births  over  deaths  for  12  years  ending  with  the 
 year  1808,  was  4,202,728.  The  ether  addenda,  in  the  following 
 table,  are  the  conjectures  of  the  best  Russian  Statistical  writers,  as 
 quoted  by  Hassel ;  and  arc  probably  near  the  truth. 
 
 Census  of  1793 — 6,  -          -          35,166,369 
 Overplusof  12  years,     -         -      4,202,728* 
 
 Georgia,            -  -         -             210,000 
 
 Kirghis-Cossacks,  -         -         300,000 
 
 Riaiystok,           -  -         -              183,300 
 
 Savages,       -         -  -         -      1,000,000 
 
 Ungez  Klassen*  -         -           340,800 
 
 41,403,197 
 Or  in  round  numbers,  41,404,000.      To  these  should  be  added  tL-. 
 population  of  Russian  America. 
 
 RUSSIA  IN  EUROPE 
 
 CHAPTER  I. 
 
 HISTORICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 "EXTENT,    BOUNDARIES,    NAMES,  ORIGINAL    POPULATION,  KATION^y 
 PROGRESSIVE    GEOGRAPHY,  HISTORICAL  EPOCHS,    ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 £xten(.~\  THE  length  of  Russian  Europe,  from  the 
 southern  extremity  of  the  Crimea,  in  lat.  44  35,  to  the  northern 
 extremity  of  Russian  Lapland,  in  70  N,  is  1470  miles.  Its  breadth 
 in  the  north,  from  the  gulf  of  Bothnia  to  the  Uralian  mountains,  is 
 iibout  S8  degrees  of  longitude,  or  1200  miles.  Farther  south  the 
 country  is  narrower.  The  area  is  estimated  by  Pinkerton  at 
 1,200,000,  or  with  the  late  addition  of  Finland  at  1,300,000.  This 
 estimate  is  we  believe  more  accurate  than  that  of  Hassel,  who  cal- 
 culates it  at  2,006,687.  Probably  however  the  truth  is  between 
 them. 
 
 Boundaries.^  Russia  in  Europe  is  bounded  N.  by  the  Frozen 
 Ocean  ;  E.  by  Russian  Asia  ;t  S.  by  the  Black  Sea  and  Turkey  ; 
 W.  by  Austrian  and  Prussian  Poland,  the  Baltic,  Sweden,  and 
 Nonvay. 
 
 •  This  t.ible  for  1804  was  marriages  311,798  ;  birtlis  1,358,287  ;  deaths  789,818  , 
 excess  of  births  568,469. 
 
 ■j"  The  boundary  which  nature  points  out  between  European  and  Asiatic  Russia,  is 
 ihe  Sea  of  Azof;  the  Don,  as  far  N.  as  Donskaia  ;  a  line  across  to  the  Wolga  ;  th<* 
 Wolga  ;  the  Kama  to  its  rise  in  the  Uralian  mountains  ;  and  the  principal  chain  <■. 
 those  mountains  to  the  Frozen  Uccan.  Hut  this  line,  i'roni  Douskaia  to  the  source  i.' 
 the  Kama,  falls  far  rjst  of  that  adopted  by  the  Russian  Government  in  tlie  dl«ributio.. 
 of  its  provinces. 
 
190  RUSSIA  IN  EUROPK. 
 
 jVamcc-.j  Tills  countiy,  a  part  of  the  ancient  6'aj-war/a  or  Scy- 
 t-hia,  was  little  knovn  to  the  Romans.  The  first  mention  of  the 
 jR'iiasi,  Ruo(ziy  or  R7isfies,  is  in  the  Bertinian  annals,  in  the  year 
 8S9.  They  were,  according  to  Tooke,  a  North-Gothic  or  Scandi- 
 navian tribe  ;  and  occupied  at  that  time  Rotala,  in  Revel,  old  La- 
 doga, in  St.  Pctersbiirgh,  Alaborg,  in  Oloaetz,  and  Kholmogor,  in 
 Archangel.* 
 
 Orig-i7ial  Po/iulation.']  Tlic  Aborigines  of  Russia  were  princi- 
 pally the  Finns,  and  the  Slaa  onians.  The  former  possessed  the 
 regions  of  the  Volga  and  the  Dwina  ;  tire  latter  dwelt  about  the 
 Dneiper  and  the  Don.  A  colony  of  them  penetrated  farther 
 north,  and  built  Novogorod.  The  Russi,  or  Russes,  about  this 
 time  had  e&tablisJicd  themselves  in  the  places  above  specified. 
 Soon  alier  the  Nornianni  (that  is  the  Scandinavians,  or  as  the 
 Russians  call  them,  Varagians)  from  the  Baltic,  drove  the  Russes 
 into  Avhat  is  now  Finland,  and  brought  into  subjection  five  tribes 
 of  the  Finns  and  Slavonians.  These  tribes  soon  revolted,  drove 
 out  the  Normauni,  and  established  a  federative  democratic  repub- 
 lic. This  was  followed  soon  by  intestine  divisions  ;  and  the  five 
 tribes  came  to  the  resolution  of  recalling  the  Russi,  and  of  resign- 
 ing to  them  the  sovereignty.  Rurik,  the  first  prince,  came  with 
 the  Russi  from  Finland,  to  the  mouth  of  the  Volkhof,  in  862.  The 
 tribes  under  his  dominion  were  the  Jizissi,  who  were  Scandinavi- 
 ans; the  Slavi  and  ICrivitsc/ies,  who  were  Slavonians  ;  and  the 
 Tschudcs^  Vessenians,  and  Meraaies^  who  were  Finns  ;  extending 
 over  the  governments  of  Finland,  St.  Petersburg,  Esthonia,  Livo- 
 •nia,  Pskow,  Novogorod,  Smolensk,  Olonetz,  Archangel,  Vlordi- 
 iTiis,  JoroslaAv,  Kostroma,  and  Vologda.  This  was  the  principality 
 of  Great  Russia  or  Novogorod.  Soon  after  Oskold,  the  step  son  of 
 Rurik,  was  invited,  by  the  Slavonians  of  the  Dnieper,  to  drive  out 
 the  Chazares,  a  tribe  from  the  Euxine,  and  to  become  their  Prince. 
 This  was  the  fouiwlation  of  a  second  principality,  which  was  called 
 Little  Russia.  The  seat  of  it  was  Kiow.  A  considerable  time 
 afterwards  a  new  principality  arose  in  White  Russia,  in  consc- 
 c[uence  of  the  quarrels  between  the  other  two.  Its  capital,  at 
 first,  was  Vladimir  ;  and,  after  1328,  it  was  transferred  to  Moscow. 
 In  1240,  the  Mongol  Tartars,  under  Batu,  a  descendant  of  Ghen- 
 gis  Khan,  conquered  the  principality  of  Little  Russia,  and  com- 
 pelled the  grand  prince  of  White  Russia  to  do  him  homage. 
 Many  Tartars  were  thus  brought  into  the  south  eastern  part  of 
 ilussia.  Little  Russia,  in  1320,  was  subdued  by  Gedimin,  Grand 
 Prince  of  Lithuania,  together  with  Smolenck,  Tver  and  Witebsk. 
 In  1476,  Ivan,  Grand  Prince  of  White  Russia,  subjugated  the 
 Tartar  kingdom  of  Kazan,  and  in  1477,  part  of  the  principality  of 
 Great  Russia.  Ivan  II.  subdued  Aslrachan  in  1554,  and  soon  after 
 the  whole  of  Caucasus.  He  also  began  the  conquest  of  Siberia. 
 Mexey  reduced  Kiow  and  the  Ukraine,  in  1655  ;  and  Peter  the 
 Great,  in  1721,  acquired  the  remainder  of  Great  Russia  and  the 
 Baltic  provinces,  and  several  provinces  from  Persia,  o\\  the  west 
 nf  the  Caspian.  Catharine,  in  1783,  gained  tlic  Crimea,  and  iii 
 *  Tookc,  I.  313. 
 
RUSSIA  IN  EUROPE.  ]  9 1 
 
 1791  the  country  between  the  Bog  and  the  Neistev,  from  the 
 Turks.  In  1793,  she  reduced  Little  Poland  and  Lithuania  ;  and, 
 in  1796,  the  rest  of  the  Russian  Polish  provinces.  At  the  Peace 
 of  Tilsit,  in  1807,  Russia  wrested  from  Prussia  a  great  part  of 
 New  East  Prussia,  and  formed  it  into  a  province,  called  Byalistock. 
 containing  r)r)79  scjuare  miles,  and  183, 300  inhabitants;  and  in 
 1810,  she  added  Swedish  I'inland  to  her  empire,  as  before  men- 
 tioned.* 
 
 .Yutions.']  The  Slavonians  are  at  present  \\\c  majority  of  the 
 Russian  Population.  They  comi>ose  five  distinct  classes  of  in- 
 habitants. 1,  The  Russian  Slavi  occupy  most  of  the  provinces  of 
 Great  Russia.  2,  The  Polish  slavi  constitute  the  chief  population 
 of  Witebsk,  Mohilef,  Minsk,  Podolia,  Volhynia,  Wilna,  and  13y- 
 aliStock  ;  and  arc  foimd  in  small  numbers  in  the  circle  of  Selen- 
 ginsk  on  the  Irtish.  3,  The  Se7~via?is,  a  colony  from  the  eastern 
 coast  of  the  Adriatic,  to  whom  in  1754,  a  considerable  district  was 
 allotted  in  New  Russia,  on  the  Dnieper.  They  arc  now  the  pop- 
 ulation of  the  province  of  Ekaterinoslaw.  4,  Tho,  Lithuaimms  are 
 found  in  Witebsk,  Mohilef,  Mhisk,  Wilna,  and  Grodno-  They 
 are  every  where  intermingled  with  the  Poles.  5,  The  Lettes  oc- 
 cupy four  of  the  nine  circles  of  Livonia,  the  whole  of  Courland  and 
 Semigallia,  and  the  Bishopric  of  Pilten.  The  Livonian  Lettes  at 
 the  last  census  were  226,000  in  nvmaber. 
 
 The  Cossacks  ought  here  to  be  described,  a  Tartarian  title  sig- 
 nifying armed  warriors.  They  are  of  Slavonian  origin,  and  arc  di- 
 vided into  two  great  branches,  the  3Ialo- Russian,  or  Cossacks  of 
 Little  Russia,  and  the  Donskoi,  or  Cossacks  of  the  Don.  The  for- 
 mer are  mentioned  as  a  distinct  people  in  the  14th  century.  Kiow^ 
 was  captured  by  Gedimhi,  prince  of  Lithuania,  in  1320.  A  multi- 
 tude of  fugitives  from  Little  Russia  assembled  in  the  lower  re- 
 gions of  the  Nieper,  and  formed  a  petty  state  with  a  military  form 
 of  government.  Increasing  by  degrees,  they  spread  themselves 
 over  the  neighboring  country,  and  about  the  year  1420  occupied 
 the  regions  between  the  Nieper  and  the  Niester.  Their  freedom, 
 their  petty  wars  with  the  Turks  and  I'artars,  and  their  roving 
 life,  rendered  them  brave  and  formidable.  In  1654  they  submit- 
 ted to  Russia.  They  are  now  divided  into  nobility,  militia,  burgh- 
 ers, and  boors.  Their  warriors  are  very  nnmerous.  Many  of 
 them  serve  in  the  light-horse.  About  the  year  1500,  a  colony  of 
 them  crossed  over  the  Nieper  and  settled  in  the  government  of 
 Karkof,  Kursh,  and  Vorometz,  in  an  uninhabited  but  fertile  coun- 
 try. These  are  the  Slobodian  Cossacks,  and  are  very  numerous 
 and  powerful.  A  second  colony,  not  many  years  after,  went  far- 
 ther south  and  settled  at  the  Cataracts,  or  Forogi,  of  the  Nieper. 
 These  are  the  Za/torogian  Cossacks,  the  most  warlike  and  fero- 
 cious of  all.  In  1775,  their  warriors  were  about  40,000  in  num- 
 ber. About  that  lime,  in  consequence  of  a  rebellion  in  which 
 they  had  been  engaged,  the  Russian  troops  attacked  and  disarmed 
 them.  Part  of  them  remained  and  took  to  various  trades.  The 
 Pest  witltdrew  to  the  Turks  and  Tartars,  or  roamed  on  the  fron- 
 *  P.ngc  185,  note. 
 
192  RUSSIA  IN  EUROPE. 
 
 tiers  of  the  empire.  These  last,  in  1792,  had  the  island  of  Tai- 
 man,  near  the  month  of  the  Don,  and  the  country  between  the 
 river  Cuban  and  the  Sea  of  Azof,  assigned  to  them.  They  have  a 
 wcll-discipihied  body  of  15,000  warriors. 
 
 The  Ucmskoi  Cossacks  are  probably  descendants  of  fugitives 
 from  Great  Russia.  They  are  however  a  Fussio-Tartarean  mix- 
 ture, as  is  evident  from  their  features  and  language.  In  1570, 
 they  made  Tscherkask  their  capital,  about  50  miles  from  Azof. 
 They  inhabit  the  plains  of  the  Don  in  the  governments  of  Saratof 
 and  Caucasus,  as  far  as  the  Sea  of  Azof  They  arc  estimated  at 
 200,000  in  number,  keep  a  corps  of  light  infantry  of  25,000  always 
 ready  for  marching,  and  can  at  any  time  furnish  50,000  cavalry 
 completely  equipped.  The  Wolgaic  Cossacks  early  separated 
 from  the  original  stock.  One  horde  of  them,  the  Dubofskoi^ 
 dwell  in  large  villages  on  the  Wolga,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Dubof- 
 ska,  in  lat.  49.  They  can  raise  3000  warriors.  The  other  horde, 
 the  Astracanskoi,  live  on  the  west  bank  farther  down  the  Wolga, 
 between  Astrac:in  and  Tzaritzin,  and  are  equally  numerous.  The 
 07'enberg  Co&sacks  are  a  later  colony.  Their  homestead  is  about 
 the  Samara,  a  branch  of  the  Wolga,  and  on  the  Ural,  nearly  as  far 
 down'as  Uralsk.  They  can  bring  20,000  men  into  the  field.  The 
 Urallan  Cossacks,  an  earlier  colony,  left  the  Donskoi  stem  in  the 
 i5th  century,  and  settled  on  tho  Caspian,  about  the  mouth  of  the, 
 Ural.  They  now  occupy  the  v/est  side  of  that  river  from  Uralsk 
 down,*  and  can  bring  30,000  men  into  the  field.  Their  capital, 
 Uralsk,  contains  3000  houses  of  white  poplar  wood,  and  15,000  in- 
 habitants. The  Siberian  Cossacks  are  a  fourth  colony  from  the 
 settlement  on  the  Don.  In  the  16th  century  considerable  multi- 
 tudes of  the  Donskoi  roamed  eastward  to  the  Caspian,  and,  by  their 
 piracies  on  that  sea  and  their  robberies  by  land,  provoked  the  an- 
 ger of  Ivan  II.  Terrified  by  the  preparations  made  in  1577  to 
 chastise  them,  they  dispersed  over  the  neighboring  regions.  A 
 troop  of  GOOO  or  7000,  under  Yermak,  proceeded  up  the'" Kama, 
 crossed  the  Ural  mountains,  penetrated  to  the  Tobol,  the  Oby  and 
 the  Irtish,  and  subjugated  the  Tartars,  the  Voguls,  and  the  Osti- 
 a,ks.  In  1581  he  made  over  his  conquests  to  Ivan.  His  compan- 
 ions intermarried  with  the  natives.  The  number  of  the  Siberian 
 Cossacks  now  far  exceeds  100,000.  The  greater,  part  carry  on 
 trades,  and  14,000  do  military  duty. 
 
 The  Finns  compose  12  tribes  under  the  government  of  Russia  ; 
 and  one,  the  Hungarians,  under  that  of  Austria.  The  Russian 
 Finns  are,  1.  The  Lafilandcrs,  consisting  of  not  much  above  120f) 
 families,  (see  Lapland.)  2.  The  Fimis,  properly  so  called.  By 
 the  reduction  of  Swedish  Finland,  they  are  now  entirely  under  the 
 Russian  dominion,  except  a  few  in  Norway.  Their  numbers  arc 
 1,040,100.  3.  The  Esthes-y  or  Esthonians,  in  Esthonia  or  Revel, 
 are  computed  at  180,000.  4.  The  Lirfs,  or  Livonia7is,  in  the  re- 
 maining five  districts  of  Livonia,  amounted,  by  the  last  census,  to 
 257,000.  They  arc  considered,  by  many,  as  the  same  people  with 
 the  Esthonians  ;  and  Esthoniu  and  Livonia  have  rcrotvcfl  fhe  < -om- 
 •  The  KiVght^?e8  are  on  the  e^t  side  of  the  Vrfll- 
 
RUSSIA  IN  EUROPE.  193 
 
 mon  name  of  Liefland.  5.  The  Permiansy  anciently  the  only  pol- 
 ished and  commercial  race  of  Finns,  now  have  their  home  in  Wi- 
 atka,  and  Permia,  and  the  northern  districts  of  the  Oby.  6.  The 
 Syriacncn  arc  found  iii  Wolagda,  Permia,  and  Tobolsk.  7.  The 
 Fog-iiles  inhabit  both  sides  of  the  northern  Ural,  and  roam  between 
 the  Irtisli  and  the  Oby,  the  Kama  and  the  Wols^a.  8.  The  Votiaksy 
 in  Wiatka,  speak  a  pure  Finnish  dialect,  and  are  about  45,000  in 
 number.  9.  The  Tschera?msscs  in  Kazan,  Simbirsk,  and  Wiatka, 
 are  estimated  at  20,000.  10.  The  Tschuvasc/ws  reside  in  the  gov- 
 ernments of  Tobolsk,  Wiatka,  Nishni-Novogorod,  Kazan,  and 
 Simbirsk.  Their  lanrjuage  is  the  Finnish,  with  many  Tartarian 
 words  intermixed  ;  and  they  pay  the  tax  for  more  than  200,000 
 heads,  all  the  n»ales  being  taxed.  11.  The  Mordvines  dwell  on 
 the  Oka  and  Volga,  in  Kazan,  Nishni-Novogorod,  Simbirsk,  and 
 Pensa.  12.  The  Ontia/cs  of  the  Oby,  in  Tobolsk,  are  said  to  be  a 
 colony  of  Permians,  and  are  the  most  numerous  of  the  Siberian 
 nations.  All  these  various  nations  of  Finns,  though  widely  dis- 
 persed, speak  dialects  of  a  common  language  ;  and  have  a  general 
 similarity  of  appeai'ance  and  customs.  Yu?nviala  was  the  supreme 
 god  of  all  the  Finns,  as  Pcrun  was  of  the  Slavonians,  and  Odin  of 
 the  Scandinavians. 
 
 It  should  also  be  mentioned  here,  that  a  mongrel  horde  has  aris- 
 en, called  the  Tipteri,  composed  of  the  eastern  Finns  and  the  Tar- 
 tars. They  occupy  the  Uralian  mountains  in  Ureuburg,  and  arc 
 found  to  be  fast  increasing.  In  1762,  about  34,000  paid  the  im- 
 post.* 
 
 Beside  these  there  arc  several  bands  of  European  and  Asiatic 
 nations,  dispersed  in  various  parts  of  the  empire.  The  Germans 
 arc  found  in  Esthonia,  Livonia,  and  Courland ;  and  for^n  the  most 
 considerable,  though  not  the  most  numerous,  part  of  the  inhabi- 
 tants. The  nobility  of  these  provinces  are  chiefly  descended  front 
 the  ancient  Teutonic  knights.  Most  of  the  townsmen  also  are 
 Germans.  They  are  numerous  also  in  Petersburg  and  Moscow. 
 A  few  Swedes  arc  found  in  Wiborg  and  Esthonia.  There  are 
 Englishmen  in  most  of  the  sea  ports.  Frenchmen  are  dispersed 
 in  considerable  numbers  over  the  empire.  There  are  remains  of 
 a  Genoese  colony  in  the  Crimea.  Greeks  are  found  in  Tscherni- 
 goff,  Ekaterinoslaw,  the  Crimea,  and  on  the  sea  of  Azof.  In  Eka- 
 terinoslaw  are  also  Albanians,  Moldavians,  Walachians,  and  Ar- 
 nauts.  Turks  are  found  in  Orenbnrg,  and  on  the  plain  of  Otcha- 
 kof.  In  Astrachan,  Orcnljurg,  and  Dcrbent,  are  Persians  ;  and 
 on  the  Kama  is  a  colony  of  Persians  and  Arabs.  The  Armenians 
 are  numerous  in  some  of  the  large  towns,  and  in  Caucasivs  and 
 Ekaterinoslaw.  In  Astrakan  are  likewise  settlements  of  Indians^ 
 jpartly  from  Ilindostan,  and  partly  from  Moultan.  Beside  these 
 there  are  scattered  in  large  numbers  over  Russia,  two  nations  of 
 cosmopolites,  tho  Jews  and  the  Gypsies. 
 
 Prog'rvs&ive  Gcbgnifihy.'\  To  enter  nxuch  into  the  progressive 
 geography  of  the  Russian  empire,  would  be  to  write  a  history  of 
 its  revolutions.     Till  the  16th  centmy  this  empire  continued  a'l- 
 
 •  Tooke,  I.  207—554.    For  Uie  more  catstein  nations  see  Rvissia  itv  Asia, 
 VOL.  IT.  2;i 
 
194  RUSSIA  IN  EUROPE. 
 
 most  unknown  to  the  rest  of  Europe,  and  its  geography  must  be 
 faintly  traced  in  the  Byzantine  annals,  particularly  in  the  work  of 
 Constantine  Porphyrogenitus,  on  the  administration  of  the  empire. 
 
 The  geography  of  Russia,  in  the  middle  ages,  becomes  not  a  lit- 
 tle embarrassed  from  its  repeated  sub-division  into  small  monar- 
 chies, which  remained  in  a  state  of  vassalage  to  the  Tartars,  till 
 the  year  1462,  when  Russia  emerged  from  this  eclipse,  and  grad- 
 ually acquired  its  present  extent  and  consequence.  In  modern 
 times,  Russia  has  gradually  extended  her  limits  at  the  expense  of 
 the  Turks  ;  and  the  addition  of  an  ample  third  of  Poland,  has  af- 
 forded her  a  source  still  more  stable  and  fertile  of  men  and  power. 
 
 Historical  Ej\ochs?\  The  following  appear  to  be  the  chief  his- 
 torical epochs  of  this  mighty  empire  : 
 
 1.  The  foundation  of  the  kingdom  by  Ruric,  a  Scandinavian  chief, 
 A.  D-  862.     His  descendants  held  the  sceptre  above  700  years. 
 
 2.  The  naval  expeditions  of  the  Russians  against  Constantinople, 
 in  the  tenth  century. 
 
 3.  In  the  same  century  the  baptism  of  Olga  the  queen,  and  tlie 
 subsequent  conversion  of  the  Russians  to  Christianity. 
 
 4.  The  invasion  of  the  Tartars  under  Batu  Khan  in  1236,  and 
 the  subsequent  vassalage  of  Russia. 
 
 5.  The  abolition  of  the  power  of  the  Tartars  by  Ivan  III.  who 
 died  in  1505. 
 
 6.  The  reign  of  Ivan  IV.  surnamed  Basilowitz,  known  to  west- 
 ern historians  by  the  style  of  the  tyrant  John  Basilides. 
 
 7.  The  death  of  the  Czar  Feodor  in  1508,  with  whom  expired 
 the  long  progeny  of  Ruric.  Several  im.postors  afterwards  appear- 
 ed, under  the  name  of  Demetrius,  the  murdered  brother  of  this 
 sovereign. 
 
 8.  The  accession  of  the  dynasty  of  Romanow,  1613,  in  the  per- 
 son of  Michael  Feodorowitz,  sprung  in  the  female  line  from  Ivan 
 I V.     Ho  was  followed  by  his  son  Alexis,  father  of  Peter  the  Great. 
 
 9<  The  reign  of  Peter  I.  has  been  justly  considered  as  a  most 
 important  epoch  in  Russian  history  ;  but  on  reading  the  annals  of 
 the  preceding  reigns  from  that  of  Ivan  IV.  it  will  be  perceived 
 that  a  part  of  our  admiration  for  Peter  arises  from  our  inattention 
 to  his  predecessors,  and  that  the  light  which  he  diffused  was  far 
 from  being  so  sudden  and  grand  as  is  commonly  imagined. 
 
 10.  The  late  reign  of  Catliarine  II.  deserves  to  be  commemorat- 
 ed among  the  most  brilliant  epochs  in  the  Russian  annals ;  nor 
 must  her  personal  crimes  exclude  her  from  the  list  of  great  and 
 able  sovereigns. 
 
 Antiquities7\  Of  ancient  monuments,  Russia  cannot  be  suppos- 
 ed to  afford  great  variety.  Sometimes  the  tombs  of  their  pagan 
 ancestors  are  discovered,  containing  weapons  and  ornaments. 
 The  catacombs  at  Kiow  were  perhaps  formed  in  the  pagan  period, 
 though  they  be  now  replete  with  marks  of  Christianity.  They  are 
 labyrinths  of  considerable  extent,  dug  as  would  appear,  through  a 
 mass  of  hardened  clay,  but  they  do  not  seem  to  contain  tlic  bodies 
 lof  the  monarchs.* 
 
 *  Jlerl/m.    Cryptw  Kijovicnscs. 
 
RUSSIA  IN  EUROPE.  195 
 
 The  conversion  of  the  Russians  must  of  course  have  been  fol- 
 lowed by  the  erection  of  many  churches  ;  but  as  Byzantine,  or 
 Italian  architects  were  employed,  those  edifices  have  but  few  pe- 
 culiarities. Perhaps  no  country  of  considerable  extent  can  afford 
 fewer  monuments  of  ancient  art  than  Russia. 
 
 CHAPTER  II. 
 
 POLITICAL  AND  CIVIL  GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 RELIGION,  GOVERNMENT,  LAWS,  POPULATION,  COLONIES,  ARMY, 
 NAVY,  MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS,  LANGUAGE,  LITERATURE,  EDU- 
 CATION, UNIVERSITIES,  CITIES  AND  TOWNS,  INLAND  NAVIGA- 
 TION, MANUFACTURES   AND   COMMERCE. 
 
 Beligion.']  THE  religion  of  Russia  is  that  of  the  Greek 
 church.  Before  the  year  1588  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople  was 
 the  head  of  the  Russian  churches.  In  that  year  Job,  the  metro- 
 politan of  Moscow,  was  constituted  patriarch.  lie  had  ten  suc- 
 cessors. The  last,  Adrian,  died  in  1699,  and  the  office  was  form- 
 ally abolished  by  Peter  the  Great,  in  1721.  Its  powers  and  duties 
 were  transferred  to  a  council,  called  the  Sacred  Synod,  composed 
 of  the  Emperor,  who  is  president ;  a  vice-president,  who  is  gen- 
 erally the  metropolitan  archbishop  ;  and  a  number  of  counsellors 
 and  assessors. 
 
 The  clergy  are  divided  into  regular  and  secular.  The  regular 
 clergy  are  the  bishops  ;  the  archimandrites,  or  abbots  ;  and  the 
 igoomens,  or  priors.  There  are  5 1  eparchies,  or  bishoprics,  yield- 
 ing each  a  salary  of  from  >G  1000  to  £  1 200  sterling,  per  ann.  Sev- 
 eral of  the  incumbents  have  the  title  of  archbishop  ;  but  this  is  not 
 attached  to  the  see,  but  a  personal  distinction,  conferred  by  the 
 sovereign.  There  are,  in  the  whole  empire,  480  monasteries,  su- 
 perintended by  abbots  and  priors,  and  containing  7300  monks  ;  and 
 74  nunneries,  superintended  by  abbesses,  and  containing  1300 
 nuns.  The  principal  wealth  of  the  church  is  centered  in  the  mon- 
 asteries. None  of  the  regular  clergy  are  permitted  to  marry. 
 The  secular  clergy  are  the  parish  priests.  They  are  called/m//«*, 
 or  fathers.  They  are  the  refuse  of  the  people,  and  are  often  una- 
 ble to  read.  Their  salaries  are  vciy  small.  They  arc  obliged  to 
 marry  before  ordination,  are  not  allowed  to  marry  a  second  time, 
 and  on  the  death  of  their  wives  lose  their  parishes,  unless  the 
 bishop  orders  otherwise.  The  number  of  parish  churciies,  in  the 
 empire,  is  18,350,  beside  several  thousand  cJiapels,  and  the  numer- 
 ous churches  of  the  dissenters.  The  whole  number  of  the  clergy, 
 regular  and  secular,  is  computed  at  67,900,  without  including  their 
 families.     They  are  all  exempted  from  taxation. 
 
 Gover?i/7ient.^  The  early  sovereigns  of  Russia  were  called 
 Great-Dukes.  Ivan  II.  assumed  the  title  of  7'zar,  ov  Czar,  a  Sla- 
 vonian word  signifying  A7Ǥ-,  about  1550,  Peter  the  Great  was 
 the  first  who  claimed  tliat  of  Emperor.     The  spvercign  is  despotic 
 
196  RUSSIA  IN  EUROPE. 
 
 in  his  authority,  and  arrogates  to  himself  unlimited  power.  The 
 throne  is  heritable  oy  both  sexes.  The  reigning  monarcli,  how- 
 ever, may  appoint  any  one  of  his  own  family  as  his  successor.  The 
 emperor  has  a  privy  council,  called  the  Directing  Senate,  subor- 
 dinate to  Avhich  are  six  colleges  ;  the  College  of  Foreign  Affairs, 
 the  College  of  War,  the  Admiralty  College,  the  College  of  Justice, 
 the  College  of  Commerce,  and  the  INIedical  College.  These,  in 
 their  authority,  extend  over  the  whole  empire.  The  governments 
 into  which  Russia  is  divided,  have  each  their  governor  general, 
 executive  councils,  and  courrs  of  juntice.  The  circles  into  which 
 the  governments  are  divided,  have  also  their  respective  courts. 
 The  punishments  of  Russia  were  formerly  extremely  severe.  But, 
 during  the  reign  of  Catharine,  every  species  of  torture,  as  Avell  as 
 coi^fiscation  of  property,  was  abolished.  Capital  punishments  are 
 extremely  rare. 
 
 Laws.^  Immediately  on  the  fall  of  the  Roman  empire,  we  find 
 the  Gothic  tribes  sedulously  collecting  and  publishing  their  pecu- 
 liar codes  of  laws,  but  it  would  be  difficult  to  discover  any  Slavonic 
 code  till  the  16th  century,  when  they  emanated,  not  from  the  na- 
 tional council,  but  from  the  arbitrary  will  of  the  monarch.  The 
 first  Russian  code  dates  from  the  reign  of  Ivan  IV.  and  the  late 
 empress  had  the  merit  of  drawing  up  a  new  code  with  her  own 
 hands. 
 
 Population. ~\     See  Table. 
 
 Colo7iies.~\  Russia  being  a  state  new  ifl  maritime  affairs,  cannot 
 boast  of  any  colonies,  nor  can  this  name  be  applied  to  a  small  es- 
 tablishment or  two  in  the  eastern  parts  of  Siberia. 
 
 ^nny.~\  The  Russian  army,  in  1805,  was  composed  of  the  fol- 
 lowing troops. 
 
 Staff  and  other  officers. 
 
 14,979 
 
 Infantry,           ... 
 
 317,110 
 
 Cavalry,      ... 
 
 -       54,022 
 
 Artillery,         ... 
 
 44,052 
 
 Guards,       .^         .         . 
 
 13,103 
 
 Invalid  corps, 
 
 13,920 
 
 Irregular  troops, 
 
 -     100,934 
 
 558,120 
 
 Kossacks,         .         -         _ 
 
 51,748 
 
 Tartars, 
 
 -       48,652 
 
 Greek  Volunteers, 
 
 534 
 
 100,954 
 
 Total,  659,054 
 
 The  army  was  under  the  command  of  5  field-marshals,  74  geur 
 trals,  130  lieutenant-generals,  353  major  and  brigadier-generals. 
 The  irregular  troops,  Cossacks  and  Tartars,  had  also  their  own 
 officers.  Ilassel  also  mentions,  that  since  1806,  Russia  has  had  a 
 species  of  national  guards,  or  militia,  to  the  number  of  612,000 
 men. 
 
RUSSIA  IN  EUROPE.  i9r 
 
 jVavy.~\     In  I8O5  the  Russian  navy  consisted  of 
 
 Ships  of  the  line,  ...  32 
 
 Frigates,  -         -         -         -         -       18 
 
 Smaller  ships,       -         -         -         -  59 
 
 Galley  fleet,     -----     226 
 
 555 
 These  carried  4428  guns,  33,507  sailors,  4000  gunners,  and  8262 
 inarincs;  and  were  commanded  by  26  admirals,   13  commodores, 
 and  61  captains.     Of  these  ships  there  were  stationed 
 
 1.  In  the  Baltic,  20  ships  of  the  line,  14  frigates,  6  cutters,  and 
 19  sloops  and  brigs  :  in  all,  2260  guns  ;  and  of  the  galley  fleet,  20 
 gallics,  25  batteries,  81  gunboats,  and  63  yawls  ;  in  all,  705  guns. 
 
 2.  On  the  Black  Sea,  12  ships  of  the  line,  4  frigates,  7  brigan- 
 tines,  18  sloops  and  brigs  ;  1 125  guns  ;  and  40  gunboats,  carrying 
 132  guns. 
 
 3.  On  the  Caspian,  6  sloops  and  brigs,  carrying  in  all  70  guns. 
 
 4.  On  the  seaof  Ochotsk,  1 1  sloops  and  brigs,  carrying  36  guns. 
 Revenue.']     Hassel   states   the    Russian   revenue,    in    1809,   at 
 
 115,000,000  roubles.  The  rouble  is  equal  10  the  Spanish  milled 
 dollar.  This  is  raised,  1.  From  the  crown  peasants,  lands  and  for- 
 ests about  20,000,000;  2.  From  duties  and  monopolies  26,000,000. 
 3.  From  general  excise  58,000,000.  4.  From  various  other 
 sources   11,000,000. 
 
 The  expenditure  of  1802  was. 
 
 For  the  Court,         -         -         -     3,209,162 
 Civil  List,  -  -  -  8,763,548 
 
 Ministry  of  the  Interior,  -     9,930,773 
 
 Unterrichtsanstaltcn,     -       -         2,149,213 
 Army,  above,    -  •       -         -  20,000,000 
 
 Navy,  above,         -         -         -         9,000,000 
 
 The  Russian  debt  consists  of  100,000,000  of  roubles,  in  domes- 
 tic debt,  due  for  the  paper  issued  by  the  crown  ;  and  a  foreign 
 debt,  which,  in  1786,  amounted  to  6,600,000  roubles. 
 
 Manners  and  Customs.]  As  the  Russian  empire  comprises  so 
 many  distinct  races  of  men,  the  j-nanners  of  course  must  be  very 
 various.  The  Laplanders  are  well  knovvU  to  be  a  diminutive  race, 
 who  would  be  amiable  from  the  pastoral  simplicity  of  their  man- 
 ners, were  not  their  persons  ugly  and  dirty.  The  Finns  are  also 
 rather  short  in  stature,  with  flat  faces,  deep  cheeks,  dark  grey 
 eyes,  a  thin  beard,  tawny  hair,  and  a  sallow  complexion  ;  but  the 
 southern  Finns,  though  they  retain  the  national  features,iare  of  su- 
 perior appearance.  The  Finns  used  to  excel  in  fishing,  and  the 
 chace  ;  but  they  arv^  now  much  blended  with  the  Slavons,  and  have 
 generally  adopted  their  manners  and  customs. 
 
 The  Slavonic  Russians,  who  constitute  the  chief  mass  and  soul 
 of  this  empire,  are  generally  middle  sized  and  vigorous  :  the  tall- 
 iiess  and  grace  of  the  Polish  Slavons  seem  to  arise  from  superior 
 climate  and  soil.  The  general  physiognomy  consists  of  a  small 
 mouth,  thin  lips,  while  teeth,  small  eyes,  a  low  forehead,  the  nose 
 commonly  sm#ill,  and  turned  upv-  ards,  beard  very  bushy,  hair  gen- 
 
198  RUSSIA  IN  EUROPE. 
 
 crally  reddish.*  The  expression  of  the  countenance  is  gravity, 
 with  good  nature,  or  sagacity ;  the  gait  and  -gestures  lively  and 
 impassioned.  The  Russian  is  extremely  patient  of  hunger  and 
 thirst ;  and  his  cure  for  all  diseases  is  the  warm  bath,  or  rather 
 vapour  bath,  in  which  the  heat  is  above  100^  of  Fahrenheit's  ther- 
 mometer. Dr.  Guthrie  has  shewn  that  the  Russians  retain  many 
 manners  and  customs  derived  from  their  pagan  ancestors,  and  has 
 given  some  curious  specimens  of  their  songs  and  music,  which 
 seem  to  be  very  pleasing.  He  has  also  compared  their  dances 
 with  those  of  the  Greeks  ;  and  finds  in  one  of  them  a  considerable  re- 
 semblance of  the  wanton  Ionic,  while  another  resembles  the  Pyrrhic. 
 He  observes  that  the  covmtry  girls  dress  in  the  saraphan.,  resembling 
 the  ancient  stola^  and  bind  up  their  hair  with  the  lenta^  a  ribbon 
 like  the  ancient  -vitta.  They  tinge  their  cheeks  with  the  juice  of 
 the  echium  Ilaiicurn.  When  a  marriage  is  proposed,  the  lover, 
 accompanied  by  a  friend,  goes  to  the  house  of  the  bride,  and  says 
 to  her  mother,  "  shew  us  your  merchandize,  Ave  have  got  money," 
 an  expression  which  is  thought  to  refer  to  the  ancient  custom  of 
 buying  a  wife.  The  Ru^.sians  shew  great  attention  to  their  nurses, 
 and  are  so  hospitable  that  they  offer  to  every  stranger  the  Khleh  da 
 sol,  or  bread  and  salt,  the  symbol  of  food,  lodging,  and  protection. 
 At  a  repast,  some  salt  fish,  or  ham,  and  a  glass  of  brandy,  are  pre- 
 sented in  the  first  place  ;  and,  after  dinner,  cakes  made  with  hon- 
 ey are  usually  served  ;  the  common  drink  is  kvass,  an  acid,  thin, 
 malt  liquor  :  the  houses  are  ornamented  with  stoves,  and  among 
 the  rich,  by  flues  conducted  into  every  room,  which  is  at  the  same 
 time  guarded  with  double  windows.  In  several  instances  the 
 Russians  form  a  curious  junction  of  European,  and  Asiatic  man- 
 ners ;  mariy  of  their  ceremonies  partake  of  Asiatic  splendor  :  the 
 great  are  fond  of  dwarfs  ;  and  some  opulent  ladies  maintain  female 
 tellers  of  tales,  whose  occupation  is  to  lull  their  mistresses  asleep, 
 by  stories  resembling  those  of  the  Arabian  Nights. 
 
 La?iifuuge.^  The  Slavonian  is  one  of  the  primitive  languages 
 of  Europe  ;  and,  in  its  various  dialects,  more  extensively  spoken 
 than  any  of  the  others.  It  is  the  native  tongue  in  Bohemia,  Mo- 
 ravia, Croatia,  Corinthia,  Carniola,  Sclavonia,  Bosnia,  Servia,  Al- 
 bania, Dalmatia,  Poland,  Lithuania,  different  parts  of  Hungary,  and 
 Bulgaria,  and  of  Russia,  both  European  and  Asiatic.  The  Russian 
 dialect  of  the  Slavonian  is  extremely  rich  and  harmonious.  The 
 alphabet  is  the  Cyrilian,  consisting  of  36  letters,*  and  formed  by 
 Cyril,  a  monk  of  the  9th  century.  These  letters  are  principally 
 the  Greek  capitals,  together  with  several  others  added  by  Cyril, 
 to  express  sounds  peculiar  to  the  Slavonian.  All  the  Slavonians 
 in  Europe  and  Asia,  who  profess  the  Greek  religion,  use  these 
 characters.  The  Roman  letters  have  been  adopted  by  the  Slavo- 
 nian catholics. 
 
 Literature.']  When  Ruric  entered  Russia,  about  862,  the  whole 
 nation  was  plunged  in  the  gi-ossest  ignorance.     Before  the  intro- 
 
 *  Tooke,  ii.  253. 
 •  Tookc. — It  originally  consistcfl  of  .<»9  cliaracters  ;  but  .is  now  modified  for  cwr- 
 mon  use,  in  1707,  was  reduced  to  30.    ^C'oxe.^ 
 
RUSSIA  IN  EUROPE.  199 
 
 duction  of  the  Cyrilian,  there  were  no  written  characters.  The 
 first  introdviction  of  literature  must  be  ascribed  to  Vladimir  th& 
 Great  ;  who,  on  his  conversion  to  Christianity  in  988,  instituted 
 schools,  and  passed  a  decree  regulating  the  education  of  youth. 
 Yaroslaf  his  son  ascended  the  throne  in  1018,  incited  many  learn- 
 ed priests  from  Constantinople,  procured  tlic  translation  of  many 
 Greek  books  into  Russian,  ordered  poetical  ver::ions  of  the  psalms 
 and  hymns  for  the  churches,  and  established  a  seminary  for  300 
 students  at  Novogorod.  For  the  three  next  centuries  the  Tartar 
 yoke  subjected  the  nation,  and  its  literature  was  confined  to  its 
 monasteries. 
 
 The  Chronicle  of  Nestor,  a  monk  of  Kiow,  is  a  chronological 
 series  of  the  Russian  annals  from  858  to  1113.  He  died  about 
 J  115,  and  was  the  earliest  and  most  interesting  historian  of  the 
 north.  Sylvester  contimied  the  chronicle  from  1115  to  1123; 
 another  monk  carries  the  history  to  1157,  and  another  to  1203. 
 The  names  of  these  last  are  not  known.  No  nation  in  Europe  can 
 boast  such  a  connected  series  of  history  during  the  same  period. 
 Many  historians  and  annalists  have  written  since.  The  Russian 
 poetiy,  before  the  1  8th  century,  consisted  merely  of  a  few  songs 
 and  ballads.  Lomonozof^  the  son  of  a  fishmonger  at  Kolmogori, 
 and  born  in  1711,  raised  it  at  once,  by  his  translations  and  trage- 
 dies, but  chiefly  by  his  sacred  and  Pindaric  odes,  to  high  distinc- 
 tion and  refinement.  Sumorokof^  the  son  of  a  nobleman,  and  born 
 at  Moscow  in  1727,  has  gained,  by  his  tragedies,  his  comedies,  and 
 his  historical  dramas,  the  title  of  the  Russian  Shakespeare.  Khe- 
 raskof,  still  later,  has  made  the  conquest  of  Casan  by  Ivan  the  sub- 
 ject of  an  epic  poem  in  12  books,  called  the  Rossiada,  a  work 
 greatly  admired  by  his  countrymen.  The  Greek  language  is 
 taught  in  a  few  schools.  Latin  is  more  common.  Many  of  the 
 classics  have  been  translated,  and  several  of  the  most  approved, 
 published  in  the  original  at  Petersburg  and  Moscow. 
 
 Education.~\  A  school  was  established  at  Petersburg  by  Cath- 
 erine, for  the  instruction  of  200  students,  designed  to  be  masters 
 of  the  provincial  schools.  They  are  selected  from  the  different 
 seminaries  of  the  empire,  at  20  years  of  age,  and  continue  at  Pe- 
 tersburg 3  years.  They  are  then  sent  to  superintend  the  public 
 schools  in  each  government ;  two  in  each  :  one  as  a  teacher  of 
 mathematics  ;  the  other  of  history,  geography,  and  natural  history. 
 Here  they  instruct  the  preceptors  for  the  smaller  schools  in  the 
 lesser  towns.  Catherine  also  established  many  seminaries  for  the 
 instruction  of  those  intended  for  holy  orders. 
 
 Universities.']  The  university  of  Petersburg,  founded  by  the 
 late  empress  Catherine  II.  is  a  noble  instance  of  munificence,  and 
 it  is  hoped  will  escape  the  fate  of  the  colleges,  founded  at  Mos- 
 cow, by  Peter  the  Great,  which  do  not  seem  to  have  met  with  the 
 deserved  success.  The  number  of  the  Russian  universities  we 
 are  not  acquainted  with. 
 
 Cities  and  Tovjns.']  Moscow  stands  upon  the  Moskva,  a  branch 
 of  the  Occa,  a  tributary  of  the  Volga,  in  lat.  55  45  45  N.  and  Ion. 
 37  38  30  E.     It  is  26  miles  in  circuaifercnce,  and,  according  to  the 
 
200  RUSSIA  IN  EUROPE. 
 
 Russian  academy,  contains  12,54-8  houses,  and  300,000  inliabitants. 
 The  inhabitants  are  of  many  diflerent  nations.  Russians,  Poles, 
 Germans,  Cossacks,  Tartars,  Greeks,  Turks,  Chinese,  English, 
 French,  Spaniards,  and  Italians,  all  wear  the  costume  of  their  re- 
 spective countries.  Each  nation  also  adopts  its  own  stile  of  build- 
 ing. The  eye  ^icre  Avitnesses,  besides  the  buildings  of  the  Rus- 
 sians, log-houses  from  near  the  Frozen  ocean ;  plaistered  palaces 
 from  Sweden  and  Denmark  ;  painted  walls  from  the  Tyrol  ; 
 mosques  from  Constantinople  ;  Tartar  temples  from  Bucharia  ; 
 pagodas  and  pavillions  from  China  ;  cabarets  from  Spain  ;  dvui- 
 geons,  prisons,  and  public  offices,  from  France  ;  architectural  ru- 
 ins from  Rome  ;  terraces  and  trelisses  from  Naples  ;  and  ware- 
 houses from  Wapping.  The  suburbs  are  invested  with  a  low  ram- 
 part and  ditch,  and  the  five  principal  divisions  of  the  town  are 
 separated  by  Avails  from  each  other.  The  Moskva  river  receives 
 in  its  course  through  the  city,  the  Yausa  and  the  Neglina.  It  is 
 navigable,  except  in  the  spring,  only  for  rafts.  Moscoav  contains, 
 exclusive  of  chapels,  484  public  churches,  199  of  Avhite-Avashed 
 brick,  and  285  of  Avood  painted  of  a  red  colour.  These  churches 
 haA^e  numerovis  bells,  some  immensely  large  ;  one  of  128,000  lbs. 
 weight;  another  of  288,000  ;  and  another  still  larger  of  432,000. 
 MoscoAv  contains  a  university,  a  monastery,  and  a  foundling  hos- 
 pital. 
 
 St.  Petersburg,  in  lat.  59  56  23  N.  and  Ion.  30  23  15  E.  stands 
 upon  the  Neva,  the  outlet  of  the  Ladoga,  close  to  the  Gulf  of  Fin- 
 land. The  Neva  forms  several  islands  at  its  mouth,  on  the  two 
 largest  of  Avhich  about  one  third  of  the  city  is  erected,  and  the  other 
 two  thirds  upon  the  southern  side  of  the  river.  The  population, 
 in  1805,  Avas  271,137.*  The  houses  arc  generally  of  wood.  Those 
 of  brick  are  Avhite-Avashed.  Cronstadt  is  the  port  of  Petersburg, 
 as  the  Neva  is  not  navigable  for  large  vessels.  Peter  the  Great 
 began  the  building  of  Petersburg  in  1703.  The  exports,  in  1797, 
 amounted  to  32,450,911  roubles;  and  the  imports  to  19,366,059. 
 1053  ships  arrived  in  1798. 
 
 Cronstadt,  in  lat.  59  58  N.  Ion.  29  53  15  E.  is  built  on  the  south- 
 eastern extremity  of  the  island  of  Retusari,  in  the  Gulf  of  Finland, 
 10  miles  from  the  northern  shore,  4  from  the  southern,  and  20 
 miles  from  Petersburg.  The  harbor  is  excellent  and  strongly 
 fortified,  and  is  the  haven  for  the  Russian  navy  in  the  Baltic.  The 
 population  is  40,000.* 
 
 KioAv  stands  on  the  Dnieper,  in  lat.  50  27  N.  Ion.  30  32  15  E.  It 
 Avas  once  the  capital  of  Russia,  and  now  contains  40,000  inhabi- 
 tants.* 
 
 Riga  was  built  in  the  year  1200.  It  stands  on  the  DAvina,  in 
 lat.  56  56  32  N.  Ion.  24  8  E.  and  .s,  except  Petersburg,  the  most 
 commercial  toAvn  in  the  empire.  Its  population  30,109.  The  ex- 
 ports are  corn,  hemp,  flax,  iron,  timber,  masts,  leather,  tallow  ; 
 jjlie  imports  salt,  cloth,  silks,  Avines,  groceries,  pot-ash,  and  salted 
 herrings.  The  DAvina  is  navigable  for  large  vessels,  and  is  hen" 
 2600  feet  Avide.  In  1784,  1085  vessels  entered,  a-nd  1077  clcarcA 
 *  Ilaasl-I. 
 
RUSSIA  IN  EUROPE.  .no.l 
 
 fl'om  this  port.  The  exports  were  6,392,422  roubles  ;  the  imports 
 1,422,717. 
 
 Wilna,  on  the  Wilia,  a  branch  of  the  Niemen  ;  in  lat.  44  41  2 
 N.  Ion.  25  22  E  ;  was  formerly  the  chief  town  in  the  Grand 
 Duchy  of  Lithuania.  It  contains  a  university,  and  20,900  inhabiL- 
 anls.* 
 
 Jaroslaw,  in  lat.  57  37  50  N.  l,on.  39  15  45  E.  stands  upon  the 
 Volga,  and  is  celebrated  for  its  manufactories  of  Russia  leather. 
 Population  20,000  :  Houses  2754.t 
 
 Tula,  on  the  Upa,  in  lat.  54  55  N.  Ion.  3.6  36  45  E.  is  celebrated 
 for  its  manufactories  of  hardware,  and  furnishes  abotit  1300  mus- 
 kets weekly,  and  cutlery  for  the  whole  empire.    Population  50,000. § 
 
 The  following;  are  the  names  of  the  other  large  towns  in  Euro- 
 pean Russia,  with  their  inhabitants,  as  given  by  Hassel. 
 
 Kaluga  19,000,  lat.  54  30  N.  Neshin,  16,000  ;  lat.  51  2  45  N". 
 Tver  17,395  ;  lat.  56  50  N.  Orel,  15,524  ;  lat.  52  36  40  N.  Odessa 
 15,000  ;  lat.  46  2-'  30  N.  Kursk,  15,180  ;  lat.  51  43  50  N.  Cherion, 
 15,000  ;  lat.  46  58  29  N.  Mohilef  12,500.  Mittau,  12,350.  Ach- 
 tyrka,  12,788.  Elizabeth-gorod,  12,000.  Woronesh,  12,000.  Rev- 
 el, 1 1,800  ;  lat.  59  26  29  N.  Witebsk,  1 1,685.  Charkow,  10,743. 
 Bolchow,  10,740.  Tambow,  10,686,  Wologda,  10,529.  Tscher- 
 nigow,  10,000.     Archangel,  7,200.     Novogorod,  7,12  6. 
 
 Inland  A''avigation.~^  The  inland  navigation  of  Russia  deserves 
 more  attention.  Among  other  laudable  improvements,  Peter  the 
 Great  formed  the  design  of  establishing  an  intercourse  by  water 
 between  Petersburg  and  Persia,  by  the  Caspian  sea,  the  Volga, 
 the  Mesta,  and  the  lake  Novgorod,  Sec.  but  this  scheme  failed  by 
 ihe  ignorance  of  the  engineers.  During  the  long  reign  of  the 
 late  empress  many  canals  were  accomplished,  or  at  least  received 
 5>uch  improvements  that  the  chief  honor  must  be  ascribed  to  her 
 administration.  The  celebrated  canal  of  Vishnei  Voloshok  was 
 in  some  shape  completed  by  Peter,  so  as  to  form  a  communication 
 between  Astracan  and  Petersburg,  the  course  being  chiefly  aftbrd- 
 cd  by  rivers,  and  it  was  only  necessary  to  unite  the  Twertza  run- 
 ning towards  the  Caspian,  with  the  Shlina,  which  communicates 
 with  the  Baltic.  The  navigation  is  performed  according  to  the 
 season  of  the  year,  in  from  a  fortnight  to  a  month,  and  it  is  sup- 
 posed that  near  4000  vessels  pass  annually.^ 
 
 The  canal  of  Ladoga,  so  called,  not  because  it  enters  that  lake, 
 but  as  winding  along  its^nargin,  extends  from  the  river  Volkhot" 
 to  the  Neva,  a  space  of  83  miles,  and  commvmicates  with  the  for- 
 mer canal.  By  these  two  important  canals  constant  intercourse 
 is  maintained  between  the  northern  and  southern  extremities  of 
 the  empire.  Another  canal  leads  from  Moscow  to  the  river  Don, 
 forming  a  communication  with  the  Euxine  ;  and  the  canal  of 
 Cronsiadt  forms  a  fourth.  Peter  the  Great  also  designed  to  have 
 united  the  Don  with  the  Volga,  and  thus  have  opened  an  inter- 
 course  between  the    Caspiais,  and  Euxine  seas,  and  the  Baltic  ; 
 
 •  Hassel.  t  Hussel.  §  Dr.  Clarke.  f  Phillips,  20,  29 
 
 vol..  II.  26 
 
203  RUSSIA  IX  EUROPE. 
 
 and  the  Avhoie  empire  abounds  so  much  with  rivers  that  many  ad- 
 vantageous canals  remain  to  be  opened. 
 
 Manufactures  and  Commercer\  Salt  is  perhaps  the  most  import- 
 ant manufacture.  It  is  procured  from  salt-mines,  salt-lakes,  and 
 salt-springs.  The  richest  salt-mines  are  about  the  Tick,  in  the 
 district  of  Ufa  :  on  the  Wolga,  in  the  government  of  Caucasus  ; 
 and  on  the  Vilui,  in  Irkutsk.  The  first  produces  annually 
 8,140,000  pood.  The  salt  lakes  are  the  Elton  in  Saratof,  yielding 
 annually  5,700,000  pood  ;  the  salt  lakes  near  Astrachan  ;  those  in 
 Kolhyran ;  the  Fauridan,  yielding  annually  3,000,000  pood  ;  the 
 Caucasean  ;  and  the  Irkutskian.  The  richest  salt  springs  arc 
 those  of  Solikamsk  on  the  Kama,  yielding  annually  5,680,000  pood, 
 and  those  of  Starraya-Rura,  on  the  Lovat.  The  vegetable  oils  are 
 manufactured  extensively.  Train-oil  is  procured  in  great  quan- 
 tities on  the  Fix)zen  Ocean,  and  on  the  Caspian.  Ising-glass,  a 
 preparation  from  the  air-bladder  of  the  sturgeon,  the  beluga,  and 
 the  sterlet,  is  made  on  all  the  larger  rivers,  and  especially  on  the 
 Caspian.  The  Wolga  is  the  chief  seat  of  the  manufacture  of  Kc- 
 viar.,  consisting  of  the  salted  roes  of  large  fish.  Soap,  raw-tallow, 
 and  candles  arc  exported  in  great  quantities.  Quas,  a  kind  of 
 malt  liquor,  is  manufactured  by  all  the  boors.  Coarse  wines  are 
 made  extensively  from  various  kinds  of  fruits.  Brandy  is  distilled 
 from  corns  to  the  amount  of  5  millions  of  vech-os.*  Aqua-fortis, 
 and  aqua  regia,  are  prepared  at  Petersburg.  Potash  and  salt-pe- 
 tre  are  extensively  exported.  The  last  is  made  principally  in  Lit- 
 tle Russia.  There  are  eleven  private  manufactories  of  iron  and 
 copper-vitriol,  and  several  of  7nagnesia  xntriolata.  Sugar  is  refin- 
 ed at  Petersburg.  There  are  more  than  20  manufactories  of  dy- 
 ing colours  and  numerous  dye-houses.  The  manufacture  of  med- 
 icines is  extensive,  there  being  about  60  establishments  for  this 
 purpose.  There  are  several  large  manufactures  of  tobacco  ; 
 about  50  of  paper  ;  very  large  and  numerous  ones  of  papcrhang- 
 ings  ;  and  several  of  playing-cards.  Printing  is  not  very  exten- 
 sive. Sail-cloth  and  cordage  arc  made  in  the  greatest  abundance. 
 This  is  true  also  of  linen,  of  which  thqre  are  64  manufactories. 
 The  best  comes  from  Archangel.  There  are  8  cotton  manufac- 
 tories, some  very  considerable  ;  and  of  silk  not  less  than  40,  in 
 which  silk  is  wrought  up  into  almost  every  variety  of  manufac- 
 ture. There  are  5  of  gold  and  silver  lace,  at  Petersburg  ;  and  56 
 of  woollen  cloths  and  stuffs,  in  the  whole  empire.  Carpet  manu- 
 factories are  numerous,  and  those  of  hats  much  more  so.  Russia 
 leather,  morocco,  shagreen,  in  Astracan,  leather  vessels  and  all 
 the  common  kinds  of  leather,  are  manufactured  in  abundance. 
 There  are  several  large  establishments  for  glass,  earthen-ware 
 and  porcelain.  Wax  is  produced  in  great  quantities,  but  is  gen- 
 erally exported  unbleached.  There  are  three  public  works  for 
 cutting  the  precious  stones.  Pitch  and  charcoal  are  made  in  large 
 quantities  by  the  boors.  Powder-mills  are  numerous.  Iron  foun- 
 derics  and  iron  works  are  found  every  where,  and  the  articles 
 manufactured  are  hammers,  cannon,  anchors,  nails,  wire,  needles. 
 
 The  vcdvo  holds  5  gallons,  or  40  pints. 
 
RUSSIA  IN  EUROPE.  2Q3 
 
 coarse  cutlery,  fire-arms,  and  domestic  utensils.  Copper  and 
 brass  wo"ks,  and  brass  cannon  foundaries  are  established  in  vari- 
 ous places.  Gold  and  silversmiths,  jewellers  and  clockmakers 
 are  numerous  in  the  large  towns. 
 
 The  Hanse-Towns  established  commercial  factories  in  Novo- 
 gorod  and  Pskow,  in  1276.  Riga,  Reval,  and  Wiborg  were  in 
 early  times  large  commercial  towns  ;  and  the  former  flourishing 
 commerce  of  Taurida,  is  known  to  every  reader  of  history.  Arch- 
 angel had  been  the  chief  commercial  town  of  Russia  some  time 
 before  Petersburg  Avas  built,  and  is  still  a  considerable  port.  All 
 the  commerce  of  the  White  Sea  is  carried  on  there,  and  the  ex- 
 ports in  1793,  consisting  of  Kaviar  potash,  tallow,  wax,  hides, 
 hemp.  Sec.  amounted  to  2,525,208  roubles. 
 
 The  commerce  of  the  Baltic  is  more  considerable,  than  that  of 
 all  the  rest  of  the  empire.  The  exports  amounted  in  1793,  to 
 33,604,589  roubles,  consisting  beside  the  articles  already  mentioii- 
 ed,  of  iron,  flax,  tobacco,  cordage,  lumber,  soap,  tar,  hemp-oil,  sail 
 cloth,  coarse  linens,  furs,  salt-petrc,  corn,  brandy,  rhubarb,  Sec. 
 The  ports  are  Petersburg,  Riga,  Narva,  Pernau,  Cronstadt,  Wi- 
 borg,  Reval,  yrederickshamn,  Onega,  and  Arensburg.  Peters- 
 burg alone,  exported  to  the  amount  of  23,757,954  roubles,  and  Ri- 
 ga to  the  amount  of  8,985,929. 
 
 The  commerce  of  the  Euxine  is  now  fast  increasing.  The  ex- 
 ports from  all  the  ports  in  1793,  amounted  to  1,198,395  roubles, 
 and  the  imports  to  about  1,500,000.  The  articles  imported  are 
 wines,  fruits,  coffee,  and  all  Turkish  commodities.  The  chief 
 ports  areTaganrok,  Eupatoria,  Oczacow,Cherson,  Caffa,  Kertsch, 
 Yenicale,  and  Sebastapal.  The  whole  exports  on  these  three  seas 
 amounted,  in  1793,  to  37,328,192  roubles. 
 
 The  Russian  ports  on  the  Caspian  are  Astracan  ;  Gurief,  at  the 
 mouth  of  the  Ural  ;  Kisliar,  on  the  Terek;  and  Derbent.  The 
 exports  are  cloths,  vitriol,  soap,  alum,  sugar,  leather,  needles,  lin- 
 ens, velvet,  glass,  paper,  furs,  hides,  tea,  corn,  butter,  wine,  bran- 
 dy, iron,  copper,  tin,  lead,  iron-ware,  clocks,  indigo,  cochineal,  &c. 
 The  chief  imports  are  raw  silks,  rice,  dried  fruits,  spices,  saffron, 
 sidphur,  naphtha,  gold  and  gold  dust,  precious  stones,  and  pearls 
 from  Khiva  and  Hindostan. 
 
 The  foreign  commerce  by  land  is  very  considerable.  Russia 
 imports  scythes,  cloths,  linens,  heijap,  flax.  Sec.  from  Poland  and 
 Prussia,  to  the  amount  of  2,000,000  roubles,  and  exports  various 
 articles  to  the  amount  of  five  hundred  thousand  roubles.  The 
 exports  to  Persia,  through  Kisliar  and  Mosdok,  amount  to 
 one  hundred  thousand  roubles,  and  the  silks  received  by  the 
 same  way,  to  200,000.  The  Kirghiscs  bring  their  horses,  horned 
 cattle,  sheep  and  sheep-skins  to  Orenburg,  Troitzk,  Peterpaulosk, 
 Yamisheva,  Semipalat  and  Ustkamenogorsk,  to  the  amount  of 
 1,500,000  roubles,  and  receive  household  and  other  European 
 goods  to  the  same  amount.  The  Chinese  commerce  is  likewise 
 a  mere  barter,  and  is  carried  on  at  the  town  of  Kiachta,  on  the  Ki- 
 achta,  a  branch  of  the  Bura,  a  tributary  of  the  Selinga,  in  Ion.  106 
 i2  E.  and  lat.  50  N.    The  town  is   separated  by  a  vacant  space. 
 
204  RUSSIA  IN  EUROPE. 
 
 140  yards  wide,  from  Maimatschin,  a  Chinese  town  ;  the  frontici- 
 of  the  two  empires  passing  between  them.  The  Russians  cxpoit 
 furs  and  peltry,  woollens,  velvets,  coarse  linens,  leather,  glass, 
 looking-glasses,  hard-ware,  tin,  talc,  cattle,  camels,  horses,  hunt- 
 ing dogs,  provisions  and  meal,  to  the  amount  of  2,000,000  roubles. 
 They  receive  in  return  from  the  Chinese,  silk  and  cotton,  raw  and 
 manufactured,  teas,  porcelain,  japanned  ware,  fans,  toys,  tygcr  and 
 panther  skhis,  rubies,  white  lead,  vermillion,  and  other  colours, 
 canes,  tobacco,  rice,  sugar-candy,  ginger,  sweet-meats,  rhubarb, 
 and  musk,  to  an  equal  amount. 
 
 The  internal  commerce  is  very  great.  The  products  of  Siberia 
 alone  in  iron,  salt,  gold,  silver,  furs,  skins,  copper,  5cc.  carried  an- 
 nually to  Russia,  amounts  to  12,000,000  roubles.  That  between 
 the  northern  and  southern  provinces  is  also  more  important.  The 
 fairs  held  in  various  parts  of  the  empire,  greatly  facilitate  the  in- 
 tercourse of  tlie  provinces. 
 
 Xhe  annual  products  of  the  national  industry  was  estimated  by 
 Tooke,  in  1788,  as  folloAvs  : 
 
 Roubles. 
 Grain,  -  -  -  144,000,000 
 
 Brandy,  -  -  -  15,000,000 
 
 Salt,  ....  4,200,000 
 
 Mines,  .  _  _  .  8,750,000 
 
 Furs, 5,000,000 
 
 Hemp,  flax,  tobacco,  linen,  hemp-oil, >      30  ooo,000 
 
 hnseed-oil,  Sec.  ^  ' 
 
 Forests,  .  -  -  .  _  20,000,000 
 
 Cattle  and  horticulture,  -  -  58,050,000 
 
 Fisheries,  -  -  -  .  15,000,000 
 
 300,000,000 
 The  quantity  of  money  in  circulation  at  that  time,  was  estimat- 
 ed thus, 
 
 Tloiibles. 
 
 Gold  and  Silver  coin,  -  -  76,000,000 
 
 Copper  coin,         -  -  .  ,         54,000,000 
 
 Paper  money,         ,         ,         -         .         100,000,000 
 
 230,000,000 
 The  annual  increase  of  coin  was  then  estimated  at  5,000,000 
 roubles. 
 
 CHAPTER   III. 
 
 NATURAL  GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 CLIMATE  AND  SEASONS,  FACE  OF  THE  COUNTRY,  SOIL  AND  AGRI*' 
 CULTUKK,  KIVERS,  LAKES,  MOUNTAINS,  FORESTS,  BOTANY, 
 ZOOLOGY,  MINERALOGY,  MINERAL  WATERS,  NATURAL  CURI- 
 OSITIES, RUSSIAN   ISLES. 
 
 Climate  and  Seasons.']     THE  climate  of  Russia  in  Europe,  as 
 may  be  expected  in  such  a  diversity  of  latitudes,  presents  almost, 
 
RUSSIA  IN  EUROPE.  205 
 
 every  variety  from  that  of  Lapland,  to  that  of  Italy  :  for  the  newly 
 acquired  province  of  Taurida  may  be  compared  with  Italy  in  cli- 
 mate and  soil.  But  winter  maintains  the  chief  sway  at  Petersburg, 
 the  capital,  and  the  Neva  is  annually  frozen  from  November  to 
 March  or  April.  The  climate  around  the  frozen  ocean,  and  the 
 last  European  isle  upon  the  N.  E.  that  of  Novaya  Zemlia,  or  the 
 New  Land,  is  of  noted  severity,  tlie  northern  side  being  encom- 
 passed with  mountains  of  ice,  and  the  sun  not  visible  from  the 
 middle  of  October  till  February  ;  while  it  never  sets  during  June 
 and  July.  Taurida  presents  on  the  contrary,  all  the  luxuriance 
 of  the  southern  year,  while  the  middle  regions  are  blest  with  the 
 mild  seasons  of  Germany  and  England. 
 
 Face  of  the  Country ^^  In  so  wide  an  empire  the  face  of  the 
 country  must  also  be  extremely  various  ;  but  the  chief  feature  of 
 European  Russia  consists  in  plains  of  a  prodigious  extent,  rivalling 
 in  that  respect  the  vast  deserts  of  Asia  and  Africa.  In  the  south 
 are  some  extensive  stepfies^  or  dry  and  elevated  plains,  such  as 
 that  above  the  sea  of  Azof,  in  length  about  400  E-nglish  miles. 
 
 The  numerous  and  majestic  rivers  also  constitute  a  distinguish- 
 ing feature  of  this  empire. 
 
 •So/7  mid  jlgrindture.~\  The  soil  is  of  course  also  extremely  di- 
 verse, from  the  chilling  marshes  which  border  the  White  and  Fro- 
 zen seas,  to  the  rich  and  fertile  plains  on  the  Volga.  The  most 
 fertile  is  that  between  the  Don  and  the  Volga,  from  Voronetz  to 
 Simbirsk,  consisting  of  a  black  mould,  strongly  impregnated  with 
 salt-petre  ;  that  is,  a  soil  formed  from  successive  layers  of  vege- 
 table remains.*  In  Livonia  and  Esthonia  the  medial  returns  of 
 harvest  are  eight  or  ten  fold  ;  and  the  latter  is  generally  the  pro- 
 duce of  the  rich  plains  near  the  Don,  where  the  fields  are  never 
 manured,  but  on  the  contrary  are  apt  to  swell  the  corn  into  too 
 much  luxuriance.  Pasturage  is  so  abundant  that  the  meadows  arc 
 little  regarded,  and  the  artificial  production  of  grasses  is  scarcelv 
 known.  Some  of  the  meadows  arc  watered,  and  produce  large 
 crops  of  hay,  the  dry  pastures  yield  a  short,  but  nutricious  pro- 
 duce, and  in  a  few  of  the  steppes  the  grass  will  attain  the  height 
 of  a  man,  and  is  seldom  mown.  The  exports  of  tallow  and  hides 
 merely,  amounted  in  1793  to  6,862,000  roubles. 
 
 Agriculture  is  hardly  known  in  the  northern  parts  of  the  gov- 
 ernments of  Olonetz,  and  Archangel  ;  but  in  the  central  parts  of 
 the  empire  has  been  pursued  from  time  immemorial. 
 
 In  general  however,  agriculture  is  treated  with  great  negli- 
 gence, yet  the  harvests  are  abundant.  In  the  north  rye  is  most 
 generally  cultivated  ;  but  in  the  middle  and  the  southern  regions 
 wheat  ;  in  the  government  of  Ekatarinoslav  the  Arnautan  wheat 
 is  beautiful,  the  flour  yellowish,  the  return  commonly  fifteen  fold; 
 nor  is  Turkish  wheat,  or  maize,  unknown  in  Taurida.  Barley  is 
 a  general  produce,  and  is  converted  into  meal,  as  well  as  oats,  of 
 which  a  kind  of  porridge  is  composed.  Millet  is  also  widely  dif- 
 fused. Rice  succeeds  well  in  the  vicinity  of  Kislear.  Hemp  and 
 flax  form  great  objects  of  agriculture.  Tobacco  has  been  produc- 
 
 ,  *  TookQ  i.  67. 
 
2.G6  RUSSIA  IN  EUROPE. 
 
 -ed  since  the  year  1763,  chiefly  from  Turkish  and  Persian  seed. 
 The  olive  has  been  tried  in  vain  at  Astracan,  but  prospers  in  the 
 southern  mountains  of  Taurida  along  the  Euxhie.  The  govern- 
 ment of  Moscow  produces  abundance  of  excellent  asparagus  ;  and 
 sugar-melons  abound  near  the  Don  and  the  Volga.  Large  or- 
 chards are  seen  in  the  middle  and  southern  parts  of  Russia,  yet 
 quantities  of  fruit  arc  imported.  While  apples  and  pears  are 
 found  as  far  north  as  the  49°,  plums  and  cherries  extend  to  the 
 55°.  What  is  called  the  Kirefskoi  apple  often  weighs  four  pounds, 
 is  of  an  agreeable  flavour,  and  will  keep  a  long  time.  A  transpar- 
 ent sort  from  China  is  also  cultivated,  called  the  Nalivui,  melting 
 and  full  of  juice.*  Bees  are  not  known  in  Siberia,  but  form  an 
 object  of  great  attention  in  the  Uralian  forests. 
 
 Iiwers.2     The  Wolga  has  already  been  described. 
 
 The  Nieper  or  Dnieper,  the  ancient  Borysthenes,  rises  in  the 
 forest  of  Volonskoi,  in  the  government  of  Smolensk,  near  the 
 sources  of  the  Wolga  and  the  Dwina.  Its  course  is  S.  W.  to  Or- 
 sa,  S.  to  Kiow,  S.  E.  to  the  cataracts,  and  S.  W.  to  the  mouth  ;  on 
 the  whole  W.  of  S.  It  is  the  largest  I'iver  that  runs  wholly  in  Eu- 
 ropean Russia,  has  a  course  of  about  1200  miles,  and  is  the  scene 
 of  an  extensive  commerce.  It  has  a  number  of  islands  ;  a  bed 
 partly  sandy  and  stony,  and  partly  of  marl  ;  and,  though  a  calcare- 
 ous, yet  a  salubrious  water.  From  Smolensk  to  the  Cataracts  it 
 is  navigable  in  perfect  safety,  and  as  far  as  Kiow,  its  banks  are 
 forested.  Below  Kiow  they  are  mostly  bare  and  bordered  with 
 hills  and  mountains.  The  Cataracts  are  13  in  number.  Empty 
 barks  pass  over  them  safely,  in  very  high  water.  The  cargoes 
 are  carried  by  land  more  than  50  miles.  The  river  below  them, 
 a  distance  of  300  miles,  is  perfectly  navigable.  Near  its  mouth 
 it  forms  a  marshy  lake,  called  the  Liman,  about  50  miles  long  and 
 8  broad.  The  principal  triljutaries  of  the  Nieper  are  the  A'o.s/;,the 
 PiyfieCf  the  DesJia,  the  Soola^  the  Psiol,  the  Fon-kia,  the  Sanunara, 
 and  the  Ligulats. 
 
 The  Don,  the  ancient  yawfl/s,  rises  in  the  government  of  Re- 
 zan,  from  lake  St.  John,  and  pursues  a  course  at  first  S.  E.  then 
 S.  W.  and  on  the  whole  S.  of  about  800  miles,  to  the  Bay  of 
 Taganrok,  the  N.  E.  part  of  the  Sea  of  Azof.  It  has  a  very 
 gentle  current ;  a  water  whitish  and  turbid,  but  not  unwholesome  ; 
 a  bed  formed  of  sand,  marl,  and  lime  ;  and  here  and  there  broad 
 sand-banks  and  islands.  It  freezes  in  November,  breaks  up  in 
 February,  and  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  the  commerce  of  the 
 neighboring  country.  The  Voronctz,  the  Khoper,  the  Donetz, 
 and  the  Manitsh  are  its  chief  tributary  streams.  Of  these  the  Do- 
 netz is  the  largest,  and  is  navigable.  'JMie  Voronetz  is  connected 
 by  a  canal  with  a  small  river  emptying  into  the  Okka,  a  branch  of 
 the  Wolga. 
 
 The  Bog,  or  Bogue,  the  ancient  Hi//ia?ii.s,  pursues  a  S.  E. 
 coiirse,  from  its  source  in  Podolia,  to  the  Liman,  or  estuary  of  the 
 Nieper,  into  which  it  empties  at  Oczakow-  lis  chief  tributaries 
 are  the  Ingul,  the  Sinucha,  and  the  Guiloi,  and  its  length  is  about 
 400  miles. 
 
 *  Tookc  iii.  3iO. 
 
RUSSIA  IN  EUROPE.  207 
 
 The  Niester,  the  ancient  Tyras,  rises  in  Gallicia,  a  part  of 
 Austrian  Poland,  near  the  head  of  the  Vistula,  and  among  the 
 Carpathian  mountains.  It  pursues  a  S.  E.  course,  of  about  600 
 miles,  and  falls  hito  the  Euxinc  at  Akerman.  The  Podhont, 
 which  falls  into  it  atCholzim,  is  the  boundary  between  Russia  and 
 Austria  ;  and  the  Niester  below  Chotzim  separates  Russia  from 
 Turkey. 
 
 The  DwiVA,  or  Duna,  rises  from  a  lake  in  the  forest  of  Vol- 
 konskoi,  in  the  government  of  Tver,  near  tl>e  sources  of  the  Wol- 
 ga  and  the  Nicper,  and  runs  S.  W-  and  N.  W.  about  500  miles  to 
 the  Gulf  of  Riga,  where  its  breadth  is  900  paces.  It  is  every 
 where  navigable,  though  in  several  places  obstructed  by  rapids, 
 and  is  the  scene  of  an  extensive  commerce.  In  the  spring  it  is 
 liable  to  sudden  and  dangerous  inundations.  Its  tvaters  are  mud- 
 dy, and  its  shores  sandy  and  clayey. 
 
 The  Neva  rises  in  Witebsk,  runs  northerly  through  Lake  JI- 
 men  into  the  8.  E.  extremity  of  the  Ladoga  ;  and,  passing  by  the 
 southern  shore  of  that  lake,  issues  at  its  S.  W.  extremity,  and 
 runs  W.  50  miles,  to  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  into  which 
 it  empties  by  several  channels.  Its  length  is  al^out  450  miles, 
 before  its  entrance  into  the  Ladoga  it  is  called  the  Volkhof.  The 
 commerce  on  this  river  is  of  immense  value  to  Petersburg. 
 
 The  SviR  a  navigable  river  connects  the  Lakes  Onega  and  La- 
 doga. 
 
 The  Onega  falls  into  the  head  of  the  White  Sea. 
 
 The  NoRHERN  DwiNA  flows  through  a  swampy  and  woody  re- 
 gion, and  is  navigable  from  Usting.  Its  western  branch  issues 
 from  Kubinskoi  Lake  ;  its  eastern  rises  in  the  government  of 
 Archangel.  It  falls  into  the  bay  of  St.  Nicholas,  on  the  eastern 
 side  of  the  White  Sea,  at  Archangel,  after  a  course  of  about  500 
 miles. 
 
 The  Kuloi  and  the  Mezen,  are  also  considerable  rivers  empty- 
 ing into  the  White  Sea,  from  the  East,  riear  its  mouth. 
 
 The  Petshora  is  a  large  river,  rising  in  the  western  side  of 
 the  Uralian  range,  and  running  northwesterly,  450  miles  to  the 
 Frozen  Ocean. 
 
 Here  ought  also  to  be  mentioned  the  Kamma  and  the  Okka. 
 The  Kamma  is  the  largest  tributary  of  the  Wolga.  It  rises  in 
 Perme,  from  the  Urali,an  chain,  and  pursues  a  S.  W.  course  of 
 800  miles  ;  when  it  unites  with  that  river  about  30  miles  below 
 Casan  and  is  scarcely  inferior  to  it  in  size.  The  salt  and  iron  of 
 Siberia  are  very  extensively  transported  on  it.  Its  banks  are  gen- 
 erally forested  with  the  oak  and  the  fir. 
 
 The  Okka,  or  Oka,  rises  in  Orel,  and  runs  N.  E.  to  Nishni  No- 
 vogorod,  where  it  empties  into  the  Wolga.  It  is  navigable  al- 
 most to  its  source  and  is  one  of  the  most  important  inland  commu- 
 nications of  the  empire. 
 
 Lakes.^  The  Ladoga, Onega,  and  Enara  have  already  been  de- 
 scribed. 
 
 The  Peipus  lies  S.  of  the  Gulf  of  Finland.  •  It  is  about  60  miles 
 long,  and  45  wide.     Through  a  short  and  broad  stUiit  it  receives 
 
208  RUSSIA  IN  EUROPE. 
 
 the  waters  of  the  Pskow  from  the  S,  which  is  about  40  miles  long, 
 and  30  broad.  The  Welika  falls  into  this  latter  lake,  and  is  the 
 only  considerable  stream  flowing  into  the  Peipus.  It  has  two  o\U- 
 lets.  The  Fellin  runs  W.  through  the  Wertzerb  to  the  Gulf  of 
 Riga.  The  Narova  runs  N.  and  empties  into  the  Gulf  of  Finland 
 at  Narva. 
 
 The  BiELo-OzERo,  or  White  Lake  through  the  Sheksna  emp- 
 ties its  waters  into  the  Wojga.  It  is  40  miles  long,  and  24  broad. 
 The  bottom  is  a  white  clay,  which,  in  stormy  weather,  occasions 
 a  thick  white  foam  on  the  surface. 
 
 The  Ilmen  is  about  32  miles  long,  and  24  broad.  Close  to  its 
 mouth  sfiands  the  ancient  city  of  Novogorod,  on  both  sides  of  the 
 Volkhof. 
 
 Mountains.']  It  has  already  been  mentioned  that  European 
 Russia  is  rather  a  plain  country,  though  some  parts  of  it  be  great- 
 ly elevated,  such  as  that  which  sends  forth  the  three  rivers  of  Du- 
 na,  Volga,  ahd  Nieper.  This  region  which  it  passes  in  travel- 
 ling from  Petersburg  to  Moscow,  is  by  some  called  the  moun- 
 tains of  Valday,  from  the  town  and  lake  of  Valday,  situated  on 
 the  ridge  ;  but  by  the  natives  it  is  styled  Vhisokay  Plostc/iade,  or 
 elevated  ground  ;  and  no  mountains  are  here  delineated  in  the 
 common  maps.  In  this  quarter  the  ground  is  strewn  with  masses 
 of  granite,  but  the  hills  are  chiefly  marl,  sand  and  clay  ;  and  what 
 are  called  the  mountains  of  Valday  seem  to  be  a  high  table  land, 
 surmounted  with  large  sand  hills,  and  interspersed  with  masses  of 
 red  and  grey  granite  :  near  Valday  is  the  highest  part  of  the  ridge, 
 which  seems  to  be  in  a  N.  E.  and  S.  W.  direction.  The  hills, 
 lakes,  and  groves,  are  beautiful  ;  and  there  is  an  island  with  a  no- 
 ble monastery.  To  the  south  of  Valday  the  masses  of  granite  be- 
 come smaller  and  more  rare  ;  and  calcareous  petrifactions  appear, 
 which  are  followed  by  the  clay  near  Moscow.  Mr.  Tooke*  com- 
 putes the  highest  point  of  the  Valday  at  only  200  fathoms  above 
 the  level  of  Petersburg,  about  1200  feet  above  the  sea  ;  the  height 
 is  inconsiderable,  and  gives  a  striking  impression  of  the  gentle 
 and  plain  level  thi'ough  which  such  extensive  rivers  must  pursue 
 their  course.  The  woods  on  the  Valday  are  chiefly  pine,  fir,  birch, 
 linden,  aspen,  and  alder  :  the  soil  in  the  vales  is  fertile,  mostly 
 clay  and  marl. 
 
 From  the  Valday  towards  the  S.  scarce  a  mountain  occurs,  but 
 after  passing  the  steppe  of  the  Nieper,  an  arid  plain  with  salt  lakes 
 which  perhaps  indicate  the  extent  of  the  Euxine  at  remote  peri- 
 ods, we  arrive  at  the  mountains  of  Taurida,  which  are  rather  ro- 
 mantic than  of  remarkable  height,  being  calcarcoxis  and  alluvial. 
 To  the  S.  of  this  chain,  along  the  shores  of  the  Euxine,  are  the 
 beautiful  vales,  so  well  described  by  Pallas,  productive  of  the  lau- 
 rel, the  olive,  the  fig,  and  the  pomegranate,  while  the  arbutus 
 adorns  the  steepest  cliff's  with  its  red  bark,  and  foliage  of  perpet- 
 ual green.  The  caper  and  the  vine  also  abound  in  this  natural 
 orchard,  and  the  flocks  of  sheep  and  goats  feeding  on  the  hills,  or 
 bounding  from  the  rocks,  unite  with  the  simple  and  good  humour- 
 
 *   Vol.  i.  130. 
 
RUSSIA  IN  EUROPE.  209 
 
 ed  manners  of  the  Tatar  inhabitants,  to  render  the  scene  truly- 
 pastoral. 
 
 The  chain  of  Olonetz  runs  in  a  direction  almost  due  N.  for  the 
 space  of  1  5°  or  about  900  German  miles.  The  most  arctic  part  is 
 said  to  consist  chiefly  of  granite,  petrosilex,  and  limestone  ;  and 
 is  not  of  great  height,  but  retains  perpetual  snow  from  the  alti- 
 tude of  the  clunate.  More  to  the  S.  branches  stretch  on  the  E. 
 towards  the  gulf  of  Kandalak  ;  the  granite  is  intermixed  with 
 large  sheets  of  talc,  and  patches  of  trap  are  found,  particularly 
 near  the  gold  mines  of  Voytz,  on  the  western  side  of  the  i4ver 
 Vyg.  Various  other  ores  occur  in  this  region,  and  veins  of  cop- 
 per pyrites  appear  in  the  trap. 
 
 In  the  centre,  between  the  mountains  of  Olonetz  and  those  of 
 Ural,  there  seems  to  be  a  considerable  chain  extending  from  the 
 E.  of  Mezen  to  the  Canin  Nos,  a  bold  promontory  which  rushes 
 into  the  frozen  ocean  ;  but  this  chain  appears  to  have  escaped 
 the  searches  of  curiosity  or  avarice,  by  the  perpetual  snows  with 
 which  it  is  enveloped.  The  Uralian  chain  has  already  been  de- 
 scribed. 
 
 Forests.^  European  Russia  is  so  abundant  in  forests  that  it 
 would  be  vain  to  attempt  to  enumerate  them.  There  are  pro- 
 digious forests  between  Petersburg  and  Moscow,  and  others  be- 
 tween Vladimir  and  Arzomas.  Further  to  the  S.  there  seems  to 
 have  been  a  forest  of  still  greater  extent,  probably  the  Riphacan 
 forest  of  antiquity  in  the  direction  of  the  rich  black  soil  so  re- 
 markable for  its  fertility.* 
 
 Bota7itj.~\  When  we  consider  the  vast  extent  of  territory  com- 
 prehended under  the  European  sovereignty  of  Russia,  from  th& 
 frozen  shore  of  Archangel  to  the  delicious  climate  of  the  Crimea, 
 and  that  the  whole  of  this  great  empire  has  scarcely  produced  a 
 single  naturalist  of  any  eminence,  all  that  is  known  of  its  vegeta- 
 bles, animals,  and  minerals,  being  collected  for  the  most  part  with- 
 in the  last  forty  years  by  a  few  foreigners,  under  the  munificent 
 patronage  of  Catharine  II,  it  will  be  evident  that  the  rudiments 
 alone  of  the  Russian  flora  can  as  yet  be  extant.  The  provinces 
 bordering  upon  the  Baltic,  and  the  newly  acquired  government  of 
 Taurida,  have  been  examined  with  some  attention  ;  and  a  few 
 striking  features  of  the  botany  of  the  interior  of  the  country  have 
 been  described  by  travelleis  ;  but  many  years  of  patient  research 
 must  elapse  before  tlie  natural  history  of  Russia  is  advanced  to  an 
 equal  degree  of  accuracy  with  that  of  the  western  parts  of  Europe, 
 
 The  Russian  provinces  N.  of  the  Baltic,  contain  the  same  plants 
 as  tl">ese  of  Swedish  and  Norwegian  Lapland,  which  will  be  hereaf- 
 ter described.  Such  as  extend  between  the  50th  and  60th  deg. 
 lat.  abound  principally  in  the  common  vegetables  of  the  N.  of 
 France  and   Germany,   some  of  which,  however,  are  wanting,  on 
 
 *  Mr.  Co'ic,  TrHvels  in  Poland,  kc.  vol.  i.  S'Z.^,  341,  deseribes  the  vast  forest  of 
 Volkoiiski,  as  begini:iii£c  near  \'i;isn)i»r,  and  continuing  to  the  gates  of  ^loscow,  as  he 
 Ji-avelled  through  it  « iiiiout  iiiterruption  for  J50  miles."  He  saj  s  that  the  Volga,  Dunn, 
 and  Neiper,  arise  in  tlii.s  immense  forest,  vliicli  consists  of  oaks,  beech,  mo|intairf.')«h> 
 poplar,  pines,  and  firs,  mingled  together  in  endless  vaiiety. 
 VOL.  II.  27 
 
210  RUSSIA  IN  EUROPE. 
 
 account  ol'the  greater  severity  of  the  Russian  winters,  from  their 
 proximity  to  the  vast  plains  of  Tatary,  and  the  forests  of  Siberia. 
 The  trees  of  most  use,  and  in  greatest  abundance  are,  the  fir  ;  the 
 Scotch  pine  ;  the  yew-leaved  fir  ;  and  the  larch  :  all  of  which 
 mingled  together,  form  the  vast  impenetrable  forests,  whence  the 
 vest  of  Europe  is  principally  supplied  with  masts,  deals,  pitch, 
 and  tar.  The  other  ferest  trees  are,  the  elm,  the  lime,  of  the  in- 
 ner bark  of  which  the  Russian  mats  are  made,  and  from  whose 
 blossoms  the  immense  swarms  of  wild  bees  collect  the  chief 
 part  o-f  their  honey  ;  the  birch,  the  alder,  the  aspen,  the 
 greater  maple,  and  the  sycamore  ;  of  the  shrubs  and  humbler 
 plants,  those  of  most  importance  are  the  cloud-berry,  the  cranber- 
 ry, the  bear-berry,  the  stone  bramble  ;  the  fruit  of  all  which,  for 
 want  of  better,  is  highly  esteemed,  and  is  either  eaten  fresh,  or  is 
 preserved  in  snow  during  the  winter.  Quittin.g  the  pine  forests 
 of  the  N.  and  middle  of  Russia,  if  we  turn  pur  attention  to  the  few 
 vegetable  productions  that  have  as  yet  been  noticed  amidst  the 
 myriads  that  adorn  and  enrich  the  broad  vales  of  the  Don  and  the 
 Neiper,  that  glow  upon  the  warm  shores  of  the  Black  sea,  or 
 luxuriate  in  the  delicious  recesses  of  Taurida,  we  shall  see  what 
 a  rich  harvest  is  reserved  for  future  naturalists,  and  with  what 
 ease  the  inhabitants,  when  once  become  civilized,  may  avail  them- 
 selves of  the  uncommon  bounties  of  their  soil.  Here  rises  in  state- 
 ly majesty  for  future  navies,  the  oak,  both  the  common  kind  and 
 the  species  Avith  prickly  cups,  the  black  and  the  white  poplars  of 
 unusual  size,  skirt  along  the  margins  of  the  streams,  the  ash,  the 
 horn  beam,  the  nettle  tree,  occupy  the  upland  pastures,  and  the 
 elegant  beech  crowns  the  summits  of  the  lime  stone  ridges.  Of 
 the  fruit-bearing  shrubs  and  trees,  besides  the  gooseberry,  the 
 red,  the  white,  and  the  black  currant,  which  are  dispersed  in 
 abundance  through  the  woods,  there  ai-te  the  almond  and  peach  ; 
 the  apricot  and  crab-cherry  :  the  medlar  ;  the  walnut ;  the  Ta- 
 tarian,  the  black,  and  white  mulberry  ;  the  olive  ;  the  Chio  tur- 
 pentine tree  ;  the  hazlc  nut  ;  the  fig ;  the  vine  and  the  pome- 
 granate. 
 
 Zoologi/.^  The  zoology  of  Russia  is  vast  and  various,  and  only  a 
 very  slight  sketch  can  here  be  attempted.  The  more  peculiar  ani- 
 mals are  the  white  bear  of  Novaya  Zemlia,  and  the  souslik  of  the 
 S.  In  the  more  northern  parts  are  found  the  the  wolf,  the  lynx, 
 the  elk  ;  nor  is  the  camel  unknown  in  the  lower  latitudes.  The 
 animals  in  the  centre  seem  common  to  the  rest  of  Europe.  Among 
 the  more  useful  animals  the  horse  has  met  with  deserved  atten- 
 tion, and  the  breed  in  many  parts  of  the  empire  is  large,  strong, 
 and  beautiful. 
 
 Even  the  country  near  Archangel  is  remarkable  for  excellent 
 pasturage  and  fine  cattle,  which  may  be  said  in  general  to  abound 
 iu  the  empire.  The  sheep  in  the  northern  provinces  arc  of  a  mid- 
 dle size,  short  tailed,  and  tiic  wool  coarse  ;  nor  is  proper  attention 
 paid  towards  improving  the  breed.  Those  in  the  S.  are  long  tail- 
 ed, and  yield  a  superior  wool  ;  but  the  best  is  from  the  ancient 
 kingdom  of  Kazan,  and  other  regions  in  the  cast. 
 
RUSSIA  IN  EUROPE.  211 
 
 In  Taurida  it  is  said  that  common  Tatars  may  possess  about 
 1000  sheep,  while  an  opulent  flock  is  computed  at  50,000  ;  those 
 ofthcAvhole  peninsula  were  supposed  to  amount  to  7,000,000  : 
 nor  is  the  rein-deer  unknown  in  the  furthest  N.  ;  sO  that  the  em- 
 pire may  be  said  to  extend  from  the  latitude  of  the  rein-deer  to 
 that  of  the  camel. 
 
 Mineralogy.']  Peter  the  Great  was  the  founder  of  the  Russian 
 mineralogy,  by  the  institution  of  the  College  of  Mines  in  1719. 
 As  the  control  of  this  college  extends  over  the  empire,  wt-  shall 
 include  under  this  article  an  account  of  all  its  valuable  mines. 
 There  are  two  proper  gold  mines.  That  of  Beresof^  near  Ekatc- 
 rinenburg,  on  the  Ura),  employs  2000  workmen  ;  and,  at  present, 
 yields  annuallv  from  7  to  8  pood  of  pure  gold,  valued  at  from  70 
 to  80,000  roubles.  The  whole  produce  from  1754  to  1788,  was 
 120  pood,  valued  at  1,200,000  roubles. 
 
 The  Voytzer  mines  on  the  mountains  of  Olonetz  have  latterly 
 been  abandoned. 
 
 The  Silver  m.ines  of  Kolhyvan  are  in  the  Altaian  range.  That 
 of  the  Schlangenburg  is  one  of  the  richest  ever  knoAvn.  The  pro- 
 duce cf  these  mines  from  1745  to  1787  was  24,460  pood  of  fine 
 silver,  and  830  of  gold,  valued  at  30,000,000  roubles.  The  whole 
 expence  only  7,000,000  roubles. 
 
 The  silver  and  lead  mines  of  Nei'tschinsk  are  in  Dauria  near 
 the  Amour.  From  1704  to  1787  they  produced  11,644  pood  of 
 silver,  and  32  of  gold,  both  valued  at  10,000,000  roubles.  The 
 rojifier  mines  in  the  Uralian  chain,  had,  in  1779,  60  foundcries, 
 containing  229  furnaces,  and  yielded,  in  1782,  190,752  pood  o£ 
 eopper.  A  Coppermine  in  the  Altai  yielded  in  1782,  18,793  pood. 
 The  value  of  both  was  about  2,000,000  roubles.  The  iron  mines 
 in  the  Ural  chain  yielded,  in  1782,  3,940,000  pood  of  iron  ;  which,  / 
 added  to  the  product  of  the  mines  of  Siberia  and  Olonetz,  made  a 
 total  of  about  5,000,00('  pood,  valued  at  4,500,000  roubles.  In  1793 
 the  manufactured  and  unmanufactured  iron  exported  amounted  to 
 3,033,249  pood,  valued  at  5,204,125  roubles. 
 
 I, cad  is  found  in  all  the  mines,  particularly  in  those  of  Nert- 
 schinsk,  and  the  Altai.  The  product  of  the  former  is  about  30,000 
 pood.  Jrscnic  is  found  in  all  the  mineral  mountains,  ylntimony 
 is  abundant  in  the  Nertvchinsk  mines,  and  zinc  ore  in  those  of  the 
 Altaian.  Quicksilver  has  been  found  in  Nertschinsk,  and  near 
 Ochotsk.  Russia  has  valuable  stores  of  porphyry,  jasper,  agate, 
 chalcedony,  cornelian,  onyx,  rock  chrystal,  beryl,  garnet,  lapis 
 lazuli,  and  alabaster.  White  marble  equal  to  the  Parian  is  found 
 in  the  Uralian  quarries  ;  yelloAV,  grey  and  cloudy  marble  are  found 
 in  the  greatest  abundance  in  Wyborg,  and  Olonetz.  Quartz  is 
 found  every  where.  The  argillaceous  earths  are  abundant.  Turf 
 and  coal  are  found  in  some  parts.  Sulphur  is  in  sufiicient  quan- 
 tities to  supply  the  empire.  Cilauber  and  bitter  salts,  alum,  sal 
 ammoniac,  vitriol,  saltpetre  and  natron  are  in  vast  profusion. 
 Common  salt  has  already  been  mentioned, 
 
 Mineral  waters.']  European  Russia  being  a  plain  country  can 
 boast  of  few  mineral  waters,  the  most  celebrated  is  near  Sarepta 
 
2ia  POLAND. 
 
 on  the  Volga,  discovered  in  1 775.  The  springs  are  here  numerous 
 and  copious,  and  strongly  impregnated  with  iron.  In  the  district 
 of  Perekop,  and  on  the  isle  of  Taman,  belonging  to  the  govern- 
 ment of  Taurida,  there  are  springs  of  Naphtha.* 
 
 Katural  curiosities.^  The  natural  curiosities  of  Russia  in  Eu- 
 rope have  scarcely  been  enumerated,  except  those  which  indicate 
 the  severity  of  winter  in  so  northern  a  clime.  Not  to  mention  the 
 rocks  of  ice,  of  many  miles  in  extent  and  surprising  height,  which 
 navigate  the  frozen  ocean,  adorned  like  cathedrals  with  pinnacles, 
 which  reflect  a  thousand  colours  in  the  sun,  or  Aurora  Borealis  ; 
 it  is  well  known  that  the  Empress  Anne  built  a  palace  of  ice,  on 
 the  bank  of  the  Neva,  in  1740,  which  was  52  foet  in  length,  and 
 when  illuminated  liad  a  surprising  effect. 
 
 RUSSIAN  ISLES. 
 
 Nova  Zembla,  or  Novaya  Zemlia,  is  separated  from  the 
 northern  shore  of  Europe,  by  the  streights  of  Weygat.  It  is  said 
 to  consist  of  5  islands,  but  the  passages  between  them  are  always 
 filled  with  ice.  The  most  northern  point  is  called  Ys-hock  or  Icy 
 Cape,  and  is  in  lat.  77°  N.  The  number  of  square  miles,  as  given 
 by  Hassel,  is  125,264.  The  island  nearest  the  shore  is  called 
 Weygatz,  on  the  maps.  Nova  Zembla  is  uninhabited.  Hunters 
 however  resort  thither  from  Archangel  and  Mezcn  for  rein-deer, 
 white  bears,  white  and  blue  foxes ;  and  fishermen  for  whales, 
 belugas,  spermaceti  whales,  morses,  dolphins,  sea-hogs,  seals,  sea- 
 bears,  sea-lions,  and  sea-otters.  Stockfish,  also,  and  herring  and 
 white-fish  are  abundant  in  the  surrounding  ocean.  The  islands 
 are  well  supplied  with  water,  but  are  rocky,  unfruitful,  and  desti- 
 tute of  wood.  Ice  mountains  entirely  encompas-s  them  on  the 
 north.  The  snow  fedls  to  the  depth  of  9  feet.  The  sun  does  not 
 set  in  May,  June,  or  July. 
 
 Kalgueva,  or  Colgucf,  is  a  much  smaller  island,  lying  at  no 
 great  distance  east  of  the  mouth  of  the  White  Sea.  The  isle  of 
 Cronstadt  has  been  naentioned. 
 
 POLAND. 
 
 JVame.]  POLU  or  Pole  in  the  Sclavonian  is  said  to  denote 
 a  country  fit  for  hunting,  a  name  very  properly  applied  to  Poland 
 as  It  is  one  extensive  plain  with  few  unevenesses  of  sui*face. 
 
 Extent.']  Before  its  dismemberment  Poland  was  in  size  the 
 second  country  in  Europe  ;  its  lengtli  being  about  700  miles  and 
 its  breadth  680.  It  lay  between  16°  and  34°  E.  and  between  46° 
 30'  and  57°  35'  N.  The  Dwina  and  the  Neiper  separated  it  from 
 Russia,  the  Niester  from  Turkey,  and  the  Carpathian  mountains 
 from  Hungary. 
 
 •  Tooke,  i.  285. 
 
POLAND. 
 
 213 
 
 Divisions.^  Lithuania  the  northeastern  part  of  Poland,  was 
 formerly  an  independent  state  with  the  title  of  a  Grand  Duchy. 
 In  1386  Ladislaus  Jaghellon,  the  grand  duke,  and  son-in-law  of 
 the  Polish  king,  was  raised  to  the  throne  of  Poland.  In  1401  an 
 offensive  and  defensive  alliance  was  entered  into  between  the  two 
 states  ;  and  in  1413  the  nomination  of  the  grand  duke  was  given 
 to  the  King  of  Poland.  In  1569,  Lithuania  was  made  an  integral 
 part  of  Poland,  aud  the  King  of  Poland  was  constituted  ex-officio 
 the  grand  duke  of  Lithuania. 
 
 About  1320  Gedimin,  grand  duke  of  Lithuania,  conquered  from 
 Russia,  Smolensk,  Polotsk,  Iver,  Witebsk,  and  Kiow  with  the 
 Slobodian  Ukraine  east  of  the  Neiper.  Several  of  these  were  re- 
 conquered in  1477.  About  1600  Russia  lost  to  Poland  Smolensk, 
 Mohilew  and  Tschernigow.  Kiow  and  the  Ukraine  were  reclaimed 
 by  Russia  in  1655  ;  at  the  first  dismemberment  in  1773  Smolensk, 
 AVitepsk,  Mobile w  and  Polish  Livonia.  In  1793  the  second  divi- 
 sion of  this  country  took  place  between  Russia,  Prussia,  and  Aus- 
 tria ;  and  in  1795  the  kingdom  was  annihilated. 
 
 The  following  table  exhibits  the  divisions  of  Poland  in  1793» 
 the  state  to  which  they  fell,  and  their  extent  in  square  miles. 
 
 Provinces.  Pnlatinates.  Sq.  Miles.- 
 
 Pftlatinates. 
 Pomania 
 Kallitz 
 Birsest 
 Vladislaw 
 
 from  Prussia  and  both  were  <n  p,      f 
 formed  into  the   Duchy  of       ^'o^zko 
 Warsaw,  and  given  to  Sax- 
 ony, 
 
 Great  Poland  on  the  West  to 
 Prussia.  In  1807  however 
 with  Masovra  it  was  taken 
 
 Little  Poland  on  the  S.  W.  to 
 Prussia  and  Austria, 
 
 Prussia  Royal  to  Prussia, 
 
 Prussia  Ducal  to  Prussia, 
 
 Samagitia  to  Russi?., 
 
 Courland  (Dutchy  of)  to  Rus- 
 si cf, 
 
 Lithuania  chiefly  to  Russia 
 partly  to  Prussia.  In  1807 
 the  southern  half  of  the 
 Prussian  part,  together  with 
 a  part  of  Podolachia,  were 
 ceded  to  Russia,  and  formed 
 into  the  province  of  Bialy- 
 stock, 
 
 Masovia  chiefly  to  Prussia, 
 partly  to  Austria, 
 
 Podolachia  chiefly  to  Prtissia, 
 partly  to  Austriaj 
 
 >.   19,200 
 
 Rawa 
 Lenzits 
 Sieradz 
 Inowlodz 
 Cracow 
 Sandomir 
 ,  Lublin 
 
 C  Courland  Proper 
 I  Semigallia 
 
 Wilna 
 
 Braslaw 
 
 Polotsk 
 
 Witebsk 
 
 Iroki 
 
 Minsk 
 
 Micislaf 
 ^Novogrodek 
 
 <^ 
 
 18,000 
 
 6,400 
 8,900 
 8,000 
 
 4,400 
 
 ;>  64,800 
 
 84,000 
 4i,000 
 
14,000 
 
 } 
 
 214  POLAND. 
 
 Provinces.  Palatinates.  ijq.  IVIiles. 
 
 Polesia  or  Birsetsk,  chiefly  to    } 
 \lussia,  partly  to  Austria,        5 
 
 rChelm 
 Red  Russia  to  Austria,  ■<  Beltz  \.   25,200 
 
 .(_Lemburg  or  Leopold 
 Podolia  chiefly  to  Russia  part-    >  ^ 
 
 ly  to  Austria,  .5  "  ' 
 
 Volhynia  to  Russia,  25,000 
 
 235,500 
 
 Historical  Epochs.~\  1.  The  commencement  of  the  authentic 
 history  of  Poland  at  the  ascension  of  Piast  in  842. 
 
 2.  The  introduction  of  Christianity  in  992. 
 
 5.  The  assum])tion  of  the  title  of  king  by  Uladislaus  duke  of 
 Poland  and  father  of  Casimir  the  great,  in  1320. 
 
 4.  The  ascension  of  the  hovise  of  Jaghellon,  dukes  of  Lithuania 
 in  1386.  They  ruled  in  hereditary  succession  till  1572.  Previous 
 to  this  the  throne  had  been  sometimes  hereditary  and  sometimes 
 elective. 
 
 5.  In  1574  the  throne  becomes  merely  elective  in  the  person  of 
 Henry  de  Valois. 
 
 6.  John  Sobieski  king  of  Poland  forced  the  Turks  to  raise  the 
 siege  of  Vienna,  which  was  the  last  valiant  action  of  the  Poles. 
 
 7.  The  first  dismemberment  of  the  kingdom  in  1773. 
 
 8.  The  second  dismemberment  in  1793. 
 
 9.  The  annihilation  of  the  monarchy  in  1795. 
 
 A7itiquities.~\  The  Polish  coinage  begins  about  the  12th  centu- 
 ly,  and  is  on  the  German  model. 
 
 Religion.'\  Most  of  the  Poles  are  catholics.  The  Baltic  prov- 
 inces are  inhabited  chiefly  by  Lutherans.  There  are  many  of  the 
 Greek  church  in  Podclia  Volhinia,  and  the  Ukraine  ;  and  a  con- 
 siderable number  of  Jews  and  Mahometan  Tatars  in  Lithuania. 
 The  whole  number  of  Jews  after  the  first  dismemberment  was 
 601,479.  There  were  two  archbishoprics  and  13  bishoprics  in 
 Poland.  The  monasteries  were  said  to  be  576  in  number  ;  the  nun- 
 neries 117,  besides  246  seminaries  and  31  abbeys;  the  secular 
 clergy  18,369  ;  the  regular  clergy  10,189  ;  nuns  2,579. 
 
 Government.']  Poland  was  an  elective  monarchy.  The  supreme 
 power  was  vested  in  the  diet  consisting  of  the  king,  the  senate,  and 
 the  gentry. 
 
 The  King  was  the  fountain  of  honour,  ot  titles,  and  of  offices. 
 He  presided  in  the  Diet.  The  Senate  was  composed  of  spirit- 
 ual and  temporal  Lords.  The  spiritual  lords  had  the  precedence. 
 The  archbishop  of  Gnesna  was  its  president.  The  temporal  lords 
 %vere  the  Palatines  or  governors  of  the  palatinates,  the  Castcl- 
 lans  or  commanders  of  the  troops  in  the  respective  palatinates 
 and  the  16  ministers  of  state.  The  Senators  before  the  first  dis- 
 memberment were  appointed  by  the  King.  The  Nuntios  or  rep- 
 resentatives of  the  gentry  were  chosen  by  the  gentlemen  ot  each 
 Palatinate.     The  Diet  met  ordinarily  once  in  two  years  and  could 
 
POLAND.  215 
 
 continue  in  session  only  6  weeks.  Each  member  of  either  house 
 had  the  right  of  exercisini^  the  Lib erum  veto  ;  or,  by  his  single 
 negative,  of  suspending  and  preventing  every  law  and  every  res- 
 olution. This  was  perhaps  the  prime  cause  of  the  ruin  of  Po- 
 land. 
 
 Population.']  By  the  first  partition  in  1773,  Russia  gained  about 
 1,500,000  inhabitants,  Austria  2,500,000,  and  Prussia  860,000, 
 By  the  final  partition,  Russia  gained  4,592,544,  Austria  2,075,686, 
 and  Prussia  1,037,742.  The  whole  gain  of  Russia  was  therefore 
 al)out  6,100,000  ;  that  of  Austria  4,600,000  ;  and  that  of  Prussia 
 1,900,000;  making  a  total  of  about  12,500,000  inhabitants.  The 
 territory  acquired  by  Russia  was  far  the  most  extensive  ;  that  of 
 Prussia  the  most  commercial. 
 
 Anny.~\  Poland  maintained  in  1778  a  standing  army  of  about 
 20,000  men  of  whom  7,500  were  furnished  by  Lithuania. 
 
 Revenue.']  The  disbursements  almost  always  exceeded  the 
 revenue.  The  receipts  in  1789  Avere  from  Poland  28,237,306 
 ilorins,  from  Lithuania,  9,339,930  ;  total  37,577,256.  The  expen- 
 ditures in  that  year  were,  Poland  29,809,688  florins,  Lithuania 
 12,763,136;  total  42,572,824. 
 
 Manners  and  customs.]  The  Poles  were  divided  into  four 
 classes,  nobles,  clergy,  citizens,  and  peasants.  All  who  possessed 
 freehold  estates,  and  all  who  were  descended  from  such  were  no- 
 bles. The  clergy  were  mmicrous  and  amenable  to  the  civil  pow- 
 er. Tlie  burghers  were  the  inhabitants  of  towns,  they  had  no  right 
 to  vote  for  the  nuntios.  The  peasants  were  slaves  transferable 
 like  cattle  from  one  master  to  another.  Many  of  these  were  Ger- 
 mans introduced  into  Poland  by  Casimir  the  great. 
 
 "  The  features  of  the  Poles  and  their  general  appearance  are 
 rather  Asiatic  than  European.  Men  of  all  ranks  wear  whiskers 
 and  shave  their  heads,  leaving  only  a  circle  of  hair  on  the  crown. 
 The  dress  of  the  higher  orders  is  uncommonly  elegant.  That  of 
 the  gentlemen  is  a  waistcoat  with  sleeves  over  Avhich  they  wear  an 
 upper  robe  of  a  different  color,  which  reaches  down  below  the 
 knee  and  is  fastened  by  a  sash  or  girdle.  The  sleeves  of  this  up- 
 per garment  are  in  warm  weather  tied  behind  the  shoulders  ;  a 
 sabre  is  a  necessary  part  of  their  dress  as  a  mark  of  gentility.  In 
 summer  the  robe,  Sec.  is  of  silk  ;  in  winter  of  cloth  velvet  or  stuff 
 edged  with  fur.  They  wear  caps  bonnets,  and  buskins  of  yel- 
 low leather,  the  heels  of  which  are  plated  with  iron  or  steel.  The 
 dress  of  the  ladies  is  a  simple  fiolonaise  or  long  robe  edged  with 
 fur."  The  Poles  are  said  to  be  the  handsomest  nation  in  Europe. 
 Their  law  of  divorce  and  various  other  causes  had  however  before 
 the  final  dismemberment  greatly  corrupted  their  morals. 
 
 Language.]  The  Polish  language  is  a  dialect  of  the  Slavonian. 
 That  of  Lithuania  is  a  different  dialect,  and  very  much  like  the 
 language  of  the  Lettes.  Latin  is  also  spoken  fluently  by  the  com- 
 mon people. 
 
 For  the  cities  8cc.  of  Poland,  see  Russia,  Prussia  and  Austria. 
 
 Univcisities.]  There  were  three  universities  in  Poland.  That 
 of  Cracow,  in   1778,  consisted  of  11   colleges,  contained  500  stu- 
 
2L6  PRUSSIA. 
 
 dents,  and  had  the  supervisorship  of  14  grammar  schools.  It  fell  to 
 Austria.  Of  the  other  two  Wilna  belongs  to  Russia  ;  and  that  of 
 Posen  or  Posna  fell  to  Prussia,  but  now  belongs  to  the  new  king- 
 dom of  Saxony.  The  great  body  ot  the  people  are  extremely  ig- 
 norant, and  learning  was  never  widely  diffused  in  Poland. 
 
 PRUSSIA. 
 
 CHAPTER  I. 
 
 HISTORICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 XAMES,  EXTKXT,  SUBDIVISIONS  AND  POPULATION,  LOSSES,  ORIG- 
 INAL POPULATION,  PROGRESSIVE  GEOGRAPHY,  HISTORICAL 
 EPOCHS,  ANTIQUITIES,  RELIGION,  ECCLESIASTICAL  GEOGRAPHY, 
 GOVERNMENT,  ARMY,  REVENUES,  POPULATION,  MANNERS  AND 
 CUSTOMS,  LANGUAGE,  LITERATURE,  EDUCATION,  UNIVERSITIES, 
 CITIES  AND  TOWNS,  EDIFICES,  INLAND  NAVIGATION,  MANUFAC- 
 TURES, AND   COMMERCE. 
 
 THIS  kingdom,  Avhich  only  commenced  with  the  eigh- 
 teenth century,  by  e:radual  accessions  became  so  extensive,  as  de- 
 servedly to  I'ank  till  lately  among  the  first  powers  of  Europe. 
 The  dominions  of  Prussia  were  small  and  scattered,  till  the  acqui- 
 sition of  Silesia,  and  afterwards  of  a  third  part  of  Poland,  gave  a 
 wide  basis  to  the  monarchy.  But  in  1807  it  was  reduced  to  the 
 level  of  a  petty  German  principality. 
 
 JVames.']  Tiiis  region  Avas  faintly  known  to  tlie  ancients,  wl;o 
 mention  various  tribes  that  possessed  it :  and  the  amber,  which 
 here  only  was  found  in  such  quantities  as  to  form  a  regular  article 
 of  commerce,  greatly  contributed  to  its  celebrity.  The  name  of  the 
 country  originates,  according  to  some,  from  the  Pruzzi,  a  Slavo- 
 nic tribe  ;  but  more  probably^  according  to  others,  from  the  name 
 of  Russia,  and  the  Slavonic  word  Fo,  which  signifies  near,  or 
 adjacent. 
 
 Jijcteyit.']  The  territories  of  Prussia,  before  the  acquisitions  ia 
 Poland,  were  estimated  at  56,414  square  miles,  with  a  population 
 of  5,621,400.  They  were  greatly  enlarged  in  1773,  and  still  far- 
 ther in  1793,  when,  according  to  the  estimate  of  Hasscl,  they 
 contained  121,417  square  miles.  At  that  time  the  kingdom  ex- 
 tended from  Horiiburg  and  the  river  Ocker  in  the  country  of 
 Halberstadt  the  farthest  western  connected  limit,  to  the  river 
 Niemen  or  about  six  hundred  miles.  The  breadth  from  the 
 southern  limit  of  Silesia  to  Dar.tzic  340;  and  the  average  width 
 from  the  Baltic  to  the  frontiers  of  Russian  and  Austrian  Poland 
 upwards  of  200.  On  the  Baitic  it  possessed  a  connected  seacoast 
 from  the  mouth  of  the  Peen,  in  long.  14  E.  to  Poiangen  a  little  N. 
 of  Mem  el. 
 
 Prussia  now  reaches  from  the  Elbe  near  Magdeburg,  to  the 
 Niemen.     Its  seacoast  is  entire  except  the  district  of  Dantzic. 
 
PRUSSIA.  217 
 
 Its  boundary  qu  Old  SaXony  and  Lusatia,  is  as  before  in  about  52° 
 N,  Silesia  is  entire.  The  acquisitions  from  Poland  are  all  lost. 
 Its  present  breadth  from  the  Baltic  to  the  boundaries  of  Russian 
 Hud  Saxon  Poland  is  from  90  to  100  miles.  Its  possessions  from 
 the  southern  limit  of  Silesia  to  the  mouth  of  the  Oder  are  still  vn- 
 interrupted  ;  as  are  those  from  the  Elbe  across  the  Vistula  to  Po- 
 langcn.  On  the  Vistula  ii  reaches  S.  to  Schwetz  and  the  mouth  of 
 the  river  Bro.  But  Culm  and  Thorn  are  in  Saxony.  The  present 
 extent  in  square  miles  is  62,612.  The  losses  amounted  to  58,705. 
 DivviionH.~\  These  -with  the  Population  are  stated  by  Hassel  in 
 1809  as  follows  : 
 
 Provinces. 
 
 S([uare  Miles. 
 
 Population  by  census. 
 
 Estimated  do> 
 i^  1808.'' 
 
 1. 
 
 PRUSSIA    PROPER. 
 
 I   East  Prussia 
 
 8,964 
 
 555,1431 
 
 2  Lithuania 
 
 6,466 
 
 397,889  [►  1802 
 
 3  West  Prussia 
 
 9,074 
 
 524,574j 
 
 24,504 
 
 1,477,60.6 
 
 1,478,000 
 
 2. 
 
 DUCHY    OP 
 
 SILESIA. 
 
 1  Lower  Silesia 
 
 9,008 
 
 1,202,0611 
 
 2   Upper  Silesia 
 
 5,458 
 
 601,128  l  1802 
 
 3  Glatz 
 
 636 
 
 101,919j 
 2,021,059  m  1805 
 
 15,102 
 
 2,050,000 
 
 >>. 
 
 DUCHY    OF    POMERANIA. 
 
 ^ 
 
 1  Farther  Pomcrania 
 
 2  Hither  Pomerania 
 
 1,783 
 7,907 
 
 9,690 
 
 X  1803,504,311 
 
 505,000 
 
 4. 
 
 MARCH    OF    BRADENBURQ. 
 
 1  Kurmark 
 
 1  Middlemark  with  B^ 
 J<ow  and  Storkow 
 
 ees 
 
 'X  5,512 
 
 514,927 
 
 82,540  ^'«°3 
 88,160 
 
 iJ  Pregnitz 
 
 1,321 
 
 3  Uckermark 
 
 1,255 
 
 8,083 
 
 685,627 
 
 686,000 
 
 2  Newmark 
 
 4,159 
 
 284,310  (1803) 
 
 285,000 
 
 3  East  Magdeburg 
 
 1,079 
 13,316 
 
 58,000 
 1,02-9,000 
 
 Total,         62,612  5,030,000 
 
 L.oase8.~\  The  chief  losses  of  Pi^issia  l^  the  j^ace  of  Tilsit 
 were  in  Poland.  It  lost  all  that  it  gained  in  .'773  and  1793,  except 
 the  province  of  Lithuania,  as  it  is  called  by  Hagsel,  or  the  north- 
 ern part  of  New  East  Prussia,  which  bounds  N.  and  E.  on  the  Nie- 
 men,  and  now  extends  S.  nearly  %o  Grodno.  The  southern  part 
 of  that  province,  and  as  far  W.  as  the  Narew  was  taken  by  Russia, 
 and  called  Bialy.stock.  South  Prussia  was  made  into  the  Duchy 
 of  IVar.ia'iO')  and  given  to  the  kingdom  of  SaKony,  The  district  of 
 Dantzic  was  taktwi  from  Pomerania,  and  made  one  of  the  New 
 Hanse  Towns.  The  principality  of  Neufchatel,  on  the  borders  of 
 Swisserland,  was  made  a  part  of  Frctncc :  »■>  w«s  tiiat  of  Bayreuttj, 
 VOL.   TT.  '?^ 
 
218  PRUSSIA. 
 
 in  Franconia.  The  JMai'qiiisate  of  Anspsch,  in  Franconia,  was  an- 
 nexed to  Bavavia.  The  Principality  of  East  Friesland,  in  West- 
 phalia, the  district  of  Guelders  and  that  of  Moeurs  of  Meurs, 
 were  added  to  the  kingdom  of  Holland,  and  with  that  kingdom  m 
 1810,  became  a  part  of  the  French  empire.  Stendal  and  Salzwc- 
 del  W.  of  the  Elbe  in  Brandenburg  ;  the  Principality  of  Halbcrs- 
 tadt  and  the  part  of  that  of  Magdeburg,  which  lay  Avest  of  the  Elbe, 
 in  Lower  Saxony  ;  and  those  of  Minden  and  Ravensberg  in  West- 
 phalia were  assigned  to  the  kingdom  of  Westphalia.  While  the 
 Duchy  of  Cleves,  and  the  counties  of  Marck,  Tecklenburg,  and 
 Lingen,  now  make  a  part  of  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Berg. 
 
 Table  of  Losses  in  1807. 
 
 Square  Miles. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Bjalystock 
 
 6,379 
 
 183,300 
 
 Duchy  of  Warsaw 
 
 40,570 
 
 2,777,000 
 
 District  of  Dantzic 
 
 416 
 
 84,000 
 
 Neufchatel 
 
 362 
 
 47,000 
 
 East  Friesland 
 
 1,247 
 
 133,000 
 
 Guelders 
 
 250 
 
 48,000 
 
 Moeurs 
 
 64 
 
 17,000 
 
 Bayreuth 
 
 1,255 
 
 233,000 
 
 Anspach 
 
 1,260 
 
 316,141 
 
 (1806) 
 
 Cleves 
 
 613 
 
 83,456 
 
 (1806) 
 
 Marck 
 Tecklenburg 
 
 1,008 
 
 137,890 
 
 (1806) 
 
 110 
 
 20,059 
 
 (1806) 
 
 Lingen 
 
 175 
 
 25,021 
 
 (1806) 
 
 Stendal 
 
 709 
 
 50,799 
 
 (1807) 
 
 Salzwedel 
 
 1,020 
 
 43,853 
 
 (1807) 
 
 West  Magdeburg 
 
 1,802 
 
 259,210 
 
 (1807) 
 
 Halberstadt 
 
 489 
 
 79,443 
 
 (1807) 
 
 Minden 
 
 580 
 
 r7,oi2r 
 
 (1807) 
 
 Ravensberg 
 
 396 
 
 91,802 
 
 (1807) 
 
 Original  Population.']  The  original  population  of  Prussia  ap- 
 pears from  Tacitus  and  Pliny,  to  have  consisted  of  the  Peucini  and 
 ^stii,  Gothic  tribes  bordering  on  the  Venedi,  who  were  Slavons. 
 The  amber  of  the  ^Istii  continued  to  be  celebrated  in  the  time  of 
 Theodoric  ;  but  at  what  precise  period  these  original  inhabitants 
 were  expelled,  or  subdued,  by  the  Slavonic  ti'ibes  on  the  east,  re- 
 mains uncertain.  Suffice  it  in  general  to  observe  that  the  Slavonic 
 tribes  extended  widely  over  the  N.  of  Germany  ;  after  the  old 
 Gothic  inhabitants  had  crowded  to  the  more  fertile  regions  of  the 
 S.  in  consequence  of  the  decline  and  fall  of  the  Roman  empire. 
 
 Progressive  Geografihy.]  The  progressive  geography  of  those 
 provinces  which  now  constitute  the  Prussian  territory,  would  form 
 an  embroiled  and  multifarious  topic.  One  of  the  most  singular 
 features  in  the  geography  of  these  regions,  during  the  middle 
 ages,  is  the  existence  of  Julin,  a  city  of  great  extent  and  com- 
 merce, on  the  right  bank  of  the  Oder  in  Pomerania,  which  was 
 destroyed  by  Waldemar  king  of  Deiunark.    Farther  to  the  E.  the 
 
PRUSSIA,  219 
 
 Slavonic  tribes  on  the  Baltic  continued  pagans  to  a  late  period  ; 
 and  the  country  M'as  litttle  known  or  visited,  except  by  a  species 
 of  crusaders,  who  went  to  assist  the  Teutonic  knights  in  subduing 
 those  Saracens,  as  they  were  styled  in  the  ignorance  of  the  times. 
 Historical  Efiochs.']  As  this  kingdom  is  recent,  and  composed 
 of  several  ancient  states,  its  historical  epochs  and  antiquities  arc 
 of  course  complex.  Not  to  mention  the  smaller  provinces,  among 
 which  is  the  distant  principality  of  Neufchatel,  on  the  frontiers  of 
 France  and  Swisscrland,  Prussia  may  be  regarded  as  consistiiig  of 
 four  great  divisions,  the  electorate  of  Brandenburg  ;  the  kingdom 
 of  Prussia  proper  ;  the  large  province  of  Silesia  ;  and  a  third  part 
 of  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Poland.  As  the  family  which  now 
 rules  those  extensive  domains  was  originally  the  electoral  house 
 of  Brandenburg,  it  Avill  be  proper  first  to  trace  the  progress  of  its 
 power. 
 
 1.  The  emperor  Chai'les  IV.  in  1373,  assigned  Brandenburg  to 
 his  second  son  Sigismund,  who  in  1415,  being  then  emperor  of 
 Germany,  sold  this  margraviate  and  electorate  to  Frederick  bur- 
 grave  of  Nuremburg,  for  400,000  ducats.  This  prince  was  the 
 ancestor  of  the  present  reigning  race. 
 
 2.  Joachim  II.  elector  of  Brandenburg,  embraced  the  Luthe- 
 ran religion  in  1539,  Avhich  has  since  been  the  ruling  system  of 
 the  state. 
 
 3.  John  Sigismond  becomes  duke  of  Prussia  in  1618- 
 
 4.  Frederic  William,  surnamed  the  great  elector,  succeeded  his 
 father  in  1640  ;  and  in  1656  compelled  the  king  of  Poland  to  de- 
 clare Prussia  an  independent  state,  it  having  formerly  been  held 
 of  the  Polish  sovereigns.  This  prince  is  highly  praised  by  his 
 royal  descendant,  the  author  of  Memoirs  of  the  house  of  Bran- 
 denburg, as  the  chief  founder  of  the  power  of  that  family.  He 
 was  succeeded  in  1688,  by  his  son, 
 
 5.  Frederic  III.  who  supporting  the  empei'or  in  the  contest  for 
 the  Spanish  succession,  was  by  him  declared  king  of  Prussia ;  un- 
 der Avhich  title  he  was  proclaimed  at  Konigsberg,  on  the  18th  day 
 of  January,  1,701,  he  himself  placing  the  crown  upon  his  head. 
 
 6.  Frederic  William  II.  ascended  the  throne  in  1713;  and  in 
 1721  founded  the  city  of  Potsdam.  But  he  was  chiefly  remarka- 
 ble as  the  father  of  that  great  prince  Frederick  II.  who  ascended 
 the  throne  in  1740,  and  died  in  1786,  after  a  long  and  glorious 
 reign  ;  the  most  memorable  and  lasting  event  of  which  was  the 
 acquisition  of  Silesia  from  the  hoHsc  of  Austria  in  1742. 
 
 7.  The  short  reign  of  his  nephew  is  known  to  every  reader. 
 The  failure  of  the  Prvissian  tactics  in  France  and  Poland  convmced 
 Europe  that  the  great  Frederic  had  been  the  soul  of  the  machine. 
 But  these  checks  were  recompensed  by  the  completion  of  the 
 Prussian  acquisitions  in  Poland.  The  reign  of  his  son,  the  pres- 
 ent monarch,  has  hitherto  been  distinguished  rather  by  prudence 
 than  enterprize. 
 
 The  historical  epochs  of  Prussia  proper  are  not  deserving  of 
 
 *  III  tlic  regal  genealogy  the  name  of  Frederic  alone  is  considered  as  distinct  from 
 that  of  Frederic-SVilUaui, 
 
^O  PRUSSIA. 
 
 much  elucidation.  The  knowledge  of  the  ancieiii's  concerning 
 this  country  has  already  been  explained.  A  faint  dawn  of  history, 
 in  the  middle  ages,  discloses  at  the  mouth  of  the  Vistula  the  Pruz- 
 zi^  a  Slavonic  nation,  who  were  afterwards  subdued  by  the  knights 
 of  the  Teutonic  order. 
 
 1.  This  order  originated  A.  D.  1 190,  in  the  camp  of  the  Cru- 
 saders before  Acca,  or  Acre,  from  some  citizens  of  Lubec  and 
 Bremen.  Next  year  a  bull  of  institution  was  obtained  from  the 
 pope,  with  all  the  privileges  granted  to  the  knights  templars.  The 
 crusades  to  Palestine  having  failed,  the  knights  directed  their  cn- 
 terprize  against  the  pagans  of  the  N.  of  Germany,  A.  D.  1 227  ;  and 
 in  a  few  years  conquered  Prussia,  and  founded  several  cities. 
 
 2.  The  knights  thus  established  in  Prussia  directed  their  efforts 
 against  the  Lithuanians,  and  other  pagans  in  the  east.  But  re- 
 peated wars  with  Poland  were  less  fortunate  ;  and  about  1446  the 
 four  chief  cities  of  Prussia,  Elbing,  Thorn,  Konigsberg,  and  Dant- 
 •zic,  withdrew  their  allegiance  from  the  Teutonic  order,  and 
 claimed  the  protection  of  Poland. 
 
 3.  In  1466,  Casimir  king  of  Poland,  forced  the  Teutonic  order 
 to  abaiadon  to  him  the  eastern  part  of  Prussia,  and  to  pay  homage 
 for  the  western  part. 
 
 4.  Albert  of  Brandenburg,  grand-master  of  the  order,  obtained 
 ffoni  his  maternal  uncle,  Sigismund  king  of  Poland,  the  hereditary- 
 investiture  of  all  that  the  order  possessed  in  Prussia,  and  embraced 
 the  Lutheran  religion. 
 
 5.  In  1618,  John  Sigismund  elector  of  Brandenburg  acquired 
 this  duchy  ;  and  in  1621  his  successor  I'cceived  the  solemn  invcs- 
 titvirc  from  the  king  of  Poland. 
 
 Silesia  affords  few  materials  for  history.  This  country  was  for- 
 merly a  Slavonic  province  of  the  Polish  dominion  ;  but  in  1339 
 •yvas  seized  by  John  of  Luxemburg  king  of  Bohemia,  and  passed 
 with  that  sovereignty  to  the  house  of  Austria.  The  house  of  Bran- 
 denburg certainly  had  some  ancient  claims  to  this  province,  which 
 \yere  finally  ascertained  by  the  sword  in  1742,  as  already  mention- 
 ed. The  cJiief  epochs  of  the  Polish  history  have  already  been 
 repeated. 
 
 ylnti(juities.~\  From  this  general  view  of  the  component  parts 
 of  tke  Prussian  history  it  will  appear  that  few  ancient  monuments 
 can  be  expected  in  regions,  where  even  a  lude  knowledge  of  the 
 arts  is  comparatively  so  recent.  Some  Slavonic  idols,  cast  ia 
 bronze,  constitute  almost  the  only  pagan  antiquities  ;  and  the  cas- 
 tles, and  churches,  erected  after  the  introduction  of  the  Christian 
 religion,  have  few  singularities  to  attract  particular  attention. 
 
 JieUgion.']  The  ruling  religion  of  Prussia  is  the  protestant,  un- 
 der its  two  chief  divisions  of  Lutheran  and  Calvinistic.  The  uni- 
 versal toleration  wisely  embraced  by  -the  Prussian  nipnarchs,  has 
 had  ns  usual  effect  of  abating  theological  enmity,  and  the  differ- 
 ent sects  seem  to  live  in  perfect  concord. 
 
 Ecck&iasticat  Geagrafihy.']  The  ecclesiastical  geography  of 
 Prussia  Avould  be  at  once  little  interesting,  and  of  difficult  detail. 
 The  bishoprics  in  Poland  aiid  Silesia  seem  to  retain  their  aHr 
 
PRUSSIA.  221 
 
 cient  limits,  while  the   power    of  the   prelates   is   considerably 
 abridged. 
 
 Government',  Istc.']  As  no  vestige  of  any  senate  or  delegates 
 from  the  people  is  known  in  this  kingdoaii,  it  must  be  pronounced 
 an  absolute  government  ;  but  the  spirit  and  good  sense  of  the  na- 
 tion unite  with  the  wisdom  and  mildness  of  successive  monarchs, 
 (Avho  have  ur.iformly  wished  to  invite  foreign  settlers  by  views  of 
 ease  and  freedom,  instead  of  expelling  their  own  people  by  rigor,) 
 to  render  the  sovereignty  as  conciliatory,  and  perhaps  more  be^ 
 neficent,  than  if  joined  with  a  venal  senate.  Tlie  late  great  mon- 
 arch reformed  many  abuses  in  the  laws ;  but  it  cannot  be  dis- 
 guised that  the  tenour  of  his  government  was  too  military,  a  fault 
 inherent  in  the  Prussian  system. 
 
 Army.']  The  army  of  Prussia  in  1806  amounted  to  239,667 
 men,  viz. 
 
 Infantry  -  ,   175,307 
 
 Cavalry  -  40,476 
 
 Artillery  -  13,240 
 
 Sundry  troops  -  7,470 
 
 Guards  -  -  3,174 
 
 The  xmfoitunate  monarch  in  1808  had  only  from  60,000  to 
 80,000  men,  and  of  these  only  20,000  were  equipped  and  ready 
 for  service. 
 
 Revenues.']     In  18,08  the  revenues  Avere  as  follows, 
 
 Guildei's. 
 
 From  the  March  of  Brandenberg  8,300,000 
 
 From  the  Duchy  of  Silesia  9,000,000 
 
 From  the  Duchy  of  Pomprania  3,000,000 
 
 From  Prussia  proper  6,000,000 
 
 26,300,000  guilders 
 or  about  13,150,000  dollars,  the  guilder  being  worth  51.85  cents. 
 Before  the  peace  of  Tilsit  the  revenue  was  annually  from  56  t» 
 58,000,000  guilders.  The  debt  of  Prussia  .is  stated  by  Hassel  at 
 50,000,000  guilders. 
 
 Pofiulation.]  The  number  of  inhabitants  in  Prussia,  in  1808 
 after  the  peace  of  Tilsit  was,  accorduig  to  Hassel's  tables, 
 5,030,000.  The  number  of  houses  was  516,600;  of  cities  431; 
 of  market  towns  81  ;  of  villages  20,687.  The  number  of  houses 
 in  1806  was  1,410,721  ;  of  cities  1062;  of  market  towns  219;  of 
 villages  46,345. 
 
 Prussia  lost  to  the  kingdom  of  Westphalia  602,1 19  inhabitants  ; 
 to  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Berg  266,436;  to  Bavaria  316,141  ;  to 
 France  about  478,000  ;  to  the  New  Hanse  Towns  about  84,000  ; 
 to  the  kingdom  of  Saxony  about  2,777,000  ;  and  to  Russia  about 
 183,300.  Sotzman,  a  German  writer,  estimtites  the  total  loss  at 
 4,805,000  which  differs  but  little  from  the  preceding  statement 
 and  estimates  of  Hassel. 
 
 Manners  arid  Ciist 07ns.']  The  manners  and  customs  of  a  coun- 
 try composed  of  such  va^'ious  inhabitant.?,,  recently  imited  under 
 
222  PRUSSIA. 
 
 one  sovereignty,  must  of  course  be  discordant.  Travellers  have 
 •remarked  that  in  comparison  with  the  Saxons,  who  are  a  lively  and 
 contented  people,, the  Prussians  appear  dull  and  gloomy  ;  a  char- 
 ajcter  which  they  impute  portly  to  the  militaiy  government,  and 
 partly  to  the  general  anxiety  which  must  have  been  excited  by  the 
 repeated  dangers  to  which  their  country  was  exposed,  when  con- 
 tending with  the  powers  of  Russia  and  Austria. 
 
 Languaffe.']  The  ruling  language  of  Prussia  is  the  German  ; 
 which  it  is  probable  may  in  time  supplant  the  Polish,  in  those  parts 
 which  are  subject  to  Prussia  and  Austria 
 
 Lile7-atu7-e.^  Tiie  literature  of  Prussia  may  well  be  conceived 
 to  be  of  recent  origin  ;  nor  even  after  the  restoration  of  letters  did 
 any  remarkable  author  arise  in  the  electorate  of  Brandenburg. 
 But  Dantzic  was  the  native  country  of  Cluverius,  an  eminent 
 geographer;  and  Copernicus  a  great  name  in  astronomy,  was  born 
 at  Thorn,  as  his  predecessor  Regiomontanus  was  at  Konigsberg, 
 his  name  being  a  Latin  translation  of  that  of  his  birth-place.  Sile- 
 sia has  likewise  few  pretensions  to  literary  fame,  nor  are  those  of 
 Poland  highly  illustrious.  Kadlubko,  the  most  ancient  Polish  his- 
 torian, Avrote  in  1223  ;  and  since  his  time  there  has  been  a  succes- 
 sion of  Latin  chroniclers.  J'rederic  the  Great  had  a  mean  opin- 
 ion of  German  literature  ;  and  though  he  wrote  in  French,  must 
 be  classed  among  the  most  distinguished  authors  of  his  kingdom. 
 Nor  is  count  Hertsbcrg,  his  minister,  without  merit.  Among  the 
 other  names,  either  natives  or  who  flourished  in  Prussia,  may  be 
 mentioned  Ramler  the  poet,  Nicolai  an  original  writer  of  ro- 
 mances, 8cc.  Busching  the  geographer,  Spalding,  and  Mendelsohn. 
 
 Education.~\  The  state  of  education  in  this  country  seems  to  be 
 equally  neglected  as  in  the  far  greater  part  of  Europe.  The  num- 
 ber of  recruits  wanted  for  the  army,  and  the  consequent  uncertain- 
 ty of  destination  for  life,  must  singularly  impede  the  national 
 instruction. 
 
 Univcrfiitics.~\  There  are  however  several  universities,  such  as 
 ♦hat  of  Frankfort  on  the  Oder,  foundedby  Joachim  elector  of  Bran- 
 denburg in  the  year  1516.  Konigsberg  in  Prussia  was  founded  in 
 1544. 
 
 Cities  and  Towns. ~\  Berlin  the  largest  of  all  the  Prussian  cities, 
 and  the  second  in  Germany,  is  built  on  the  banks  of  the  Spree,  in 
 Ut.  52°  3 1' 44"  N.  and  Ion.  l3°28'E.  It  was  founded  in  the  r2th 
 century  by  a  colony  from  the  Netherlands.  It  is  chielly  built  on  a 
 barren  sandy  plain,  much  exposed  to  dust.  A  part  of  it  however 
 stands  upon  two  islands  in  the  river.  It  is  4|.  miles  long  and  3 
 broad,  containing  in  1804,  156,664  inhabitants,  and  7241  houses. 
 The  houses  are  uncommonly  beautiful  from  without,  but  the  fin- 
 ishing within  docs  not  correspond  with  the  elegance  of  the  exte- 
 rior. The  streets  are  regular  and  of  convenient  breadth.  There 
 are  14  Lutheran  churches,  10  Calvinistic  and  1  Catholic,  all 
 strangely  decorated  with  Mercuries,  Apollos,  INIinervas,  and  Cu- 
 pids. The  town  is  surrounded  by  a  wall  and  palisadoes.  The 
 average  of  temperature  for  13  years,  from  176i)  to  1782,  was  49 
 degrees.  There  is  a  free  communication  by  canals,  with  the  Oder 
 and  the  Elbe. 
 
PRUSSIA.  253 
 
 Konigsbcrg-  was  founded  Ity  the  Teutonic  Knights,  in  1255, 
 and  is  well  fortified.  It  stands  on  the  Pvcgcl  near  its  entrance  in- 
 to the  Frisch-Haft',  and  maintains  a  considerable  commerce  with 
 the  Baltic.  It  contained  4,508  houses  in  1802,  and  56,410  inhab- 
 itants.    It  is  the  capital  of  Prussia  Proper. 
 
 Breslaw,  the  capital  of  Silesia,  has  long  been  celebrated,  as  one 
 of  the  most  beautiful  cities  of  Germany.  It  is  of  uncertain  an- 
 tiquity, but  was  burnt  by  the  Tatars  in  1211.  It  stands  upon  the 
 S.  bank  of  the  Oder,  in  lat.  51  3  N.  Ion.  17  8  45  E.  and  contained 
 in  1805,  62,923  inhabitants  and  3,338  houses.  The  town  is  very 
 extensive,  being  not  less  than  8  miles  in  length.  There  are  9  Lu- 
 theran Churches,  1  Calvinistic,  1  Greek,  several  Catholic,  and  2 
 Jewish  synagogues. 
 
 Elbing  is  in  West  Prussia,  on  an  arm  of  the  Vistula,  called  the 
 River  Elbing,  a  short  distance  from  the  Frisch-Haff,  in  lat.  54  7 
 54  N.  Ion.  10  27  27  E.  It  was  built  by  a  colony  from  Lubeck  iii 
 1239,  and  was  in  the  Hanseatic  League,  till  the  end  of  the  16th 
 century  Houses  in  1802,  2,159.  Population  19,274.  Its  com- 
 merce has  always  been  considerable.  In  1803,  it  owned  7110  tons 
 of  shipping,  besides  50  coasters  and  25  lighters,  employed  to  take 
 cargoes  to  the  large  ships  at  Pillau.  Vessels  of  100  tons  come  up 
 to  the  town.  It  has  a  large  manufactory  of  soap,  one  of  tobacco, 
 two  of  weed  ashes,  two  of  starch,  a  sugar-house  and  a  saw-mill  for 
 cutting  deals. 
 
 Stettin  stands  upon  the  Oder,  in  lat.  53  25  36  N.  The  river 
 here  divides  into  4  branches.  The  town  carries  on  an  extensive 
 commerce,  and  contained  in  1802,  1594  houses,  and  18,463  inhab- 
 itants. 
 
 Potsdam  a  recent  city,  is  built  on  an  island  in  the  Havel,  in-lat. 
 52  24  43  N.  and  long.  13  10  31  E.  No  expense  has  been  spared 
 in  its  decorations.  The  inhabitants,  in  1802,  amounted  to  17,982  ; 
 the  houses  to  1959.  It  was  till  lately  the  favorite  residence  of  the 
 Prussian  monarchs. 
 
 Brandenburg  is  also  on  the  Havel,  31  miles  from  Berlin.  It 
 was  made  a  Bishop's  Sec  in  949.  Manufactures  of  cloth,  fustian, 
 and  canvass  have  been  established  by  the  French  Calvinists. 
 There  is  a  lake  near  the  town  two  miles  long.  Inhabitants  in  1802. 
 10,329.      Houses  1485. 
 
 Frankfort  on  the  Oder,  is  in  Middlemark,  48  milfis  E.  of  Berlin. 
 It  contauied  in  1802,  13 14  houses,  and  10,291  inhabitants. 
 
 The  other  towns  are  in  Silesia,  Brieg,  8,682  inhabitants  ; 
 Schwcidnitz  8,232  ;  Neisse,  7,489  ;  Glatz  6681  ;  Hirschberg, 
 5,996  :  in  Prussia  Proper,  Tilsit  8,656  ;  Marienburg,  7,172  ; 
 Braunsberg,  5,798;  Mcmel,  5,111  ;  Chrisfrin,  in  Brandenburg, 
 5,400  ;   and  Stargard  in  Pomerania,  6,749. 
 
 Edijices.']  Some  of  the  most  splendid  edifices  of  this  country 
 adorn  Berlin  the  capital,  such  as  the  palace  and  the  theatre.  But 
 tJie  other  grand  buildings  seem  not  to  have  impressed  travellers 
 with  veneration,  being  barracks  for  soldiers  and  the  like  *     And 
 
 •  Wraxall's  Mem.  i.  101. 
 
824  PRUSSIA. 
 
 the  city  itself  is  almost  entirely  built  with  brick,  though  the  fronts 
 of  the  houses  are  disguised  with  stucco.  The  palace  at  Potsdam 
 deserves  superior  applause  ;  and  on  an  eminence  near  the  city 
 stands  the  royal  villa  of  Sans  Souci,  which  however  can  claim  no 
 ij;randeur  of  external  architecture.  Konigsberg,  andDantzic,  also 
 offer  to  view  respectable  public  buildings ;  but  in  general  this 
 kingdom  yields  even  to  Russia  in  this  respect. 
 
 Inland  .Yavigation.']  The  advantages  of  inland  navigation  seem 
 little  known  or  cultivated  in  the  Prussian  dominions  ;  and  though 
 several  small  canals  might  be  mentioned,  yet  they  I'ather  belong  to 
 the  office  of  the  topographer  than  to  a  general  system  of  geography. 
 
 JManMfactures  and  Com?nerce,']  If  we  except  the  linens  of  Si- 
 lesia, the  manufactures  of  the  Prussian  dominions  are  of  small 
 importance.  Yet  they  afford  for  home  consumption,  glass,  iron, 
 brass,  paper,  and  woollen  cloth  ;  and  Frederick  II.  introduced  a 
 small  manufactuj-e  of  silk.  Even  the  exports  of  Dantzic  consist 
 almost  entirely  of  timber,  corn,  tallow,  and  similar  articles. 
 
 If  we  except  the  ancient  staple  of  grain  so  abundant  in  the  level 
 plains  of  Poland,  the  commerce  of  Prussia  is  comparatively  of  but 
 little  consequence.  Amber  is  by  nature  constituted  a  monopoly 
 of  the  country,  but  fashion  has  rendered  this  branch  of  commeice 
 insignificani.  Yet  among  the  considerable  exports  may  be  named 
 excellent  timber  of  all  kinds,  skins,  leather,  flax,  and  hemp,  mad- 
 der, linseed,  pearlash,  and  every  species  of  grain  ;  nor  must  the 
 linens  of  Silesia  be  passed  in  silence,  many  of  which  are  sent  into 
 Holland,  and  sold  under  the  name  of  Dutch  manufacture.  In  re- 
 turn Prussia  receives  wine,  and  other  products  of  more  southern 
 and  favoured  countries. 
 
 CHAPTER   H. 
 
 NATURAL  GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 CLIMATE  AND  SEASONS,  FACE  OF  THE  COUNTRY,  SOIL  AND  AGRI- 
 CULTURE, RIVERS,  LAKES,  MOUNTAINS,  FORESTS,  BOTANT, 
 ZOOLOGY,  MINERALOGY,  MIMEHAL  WATERS,  NATURAL  CURI- 
 OSITIES, y 
 
 Climate  and  Seasons.^  THE  climate  of  the  Prussian  do- 
 minions is,  upon  the  whole,  cold  and  mmst.  Brandenburg  and 
 Pomerania  may  be  regarded  as  more  free  from  humidity  than 
 Prussia  proper,  which,  as  Busching  informs  us,*  has  about  eight 
 months  of  winter,  the  autumns  being  often  deluged,  with  rain. 
 Tlie  northern  part  of  Poland,  which  has  fallen  under  the  Prussian 
 sceptre,  abounds  with  forests  and  marshes,  which  cannot  be  sup- 
 posed to  render  the  air  salubrious.  The  lower  parts  of  Silesia 
 are  regarded  as  tlic  most  healthy  and  fertile  provinces  of  the  mon- 
 archy ;  but  the  southern  and  western  parts  of  that  duchy,  border- 
 ing on  elevated  mountains,  long  covered  with  snow,  are  exposed 
 even  in  summer  to  severe  freezing  gales. 
 
 •  ui.  5. 
 
PRUSSIA.  .  223 
 
 ^ace  of  the  Counirv.']  In  considering- the  general  appearance  of 
 these  extensive  regions,  Brandenburg  is  a  sandy,  and  uarrcn  coun- 
 try, but  Prussia  proper  formerly  abounded  in  woods,  and  displays 
 superior  fertility,  a  character  which  may  also  1:»e  extended  to  Prus- 
 sian Poland,  an  immense  plain.  Silesia  on  the  contrary,  displays 
 a  pleasing  diversity,  being  level  and  open  towards  Poland,  but 
 separated  from  Hungary  on  the  S.  by  the  Carpathian  mountains, 
 a  branch  of  which  proceeding  N.  W.  divides  this  country  from 
 Moravia  and  Bohemia.  It  is  every  where  watered  by  the  Oder 
 and  its  tributary  streams  :  nor  is  there  any  deficiency  of  rivers  in 
 tl:e  other  parts  of  the  Prussian  sovereignty. 
 
 Soil  and  y/gricuiticrr.^  The  soil  of  Brandenburg  is  meagre,  and 
 even  the  space  between  Berlin  and  Potsdam  resembles  a  MJlder- 
 ness  ;  but  that  of  Prussian  Poland  is  loamy  and  fertile.  The 
 northern  extreiiiity  of  Silesia  resembles  Brandenburp;,  yet  this 
 province  is  in  general  extremely  productive,  and  abounds  in  fruits 
 and  culinary  vegetables. 
 
 Agricultural  improvements  are  little  known,  and  Brandenburg' 
 chiefly  produces  buck  wheat  and  turnips,  with  scanty  crops  of  rye  ; 
 but  Prussia  proper,  and  the  Polish  provinces  display  every  kind  of 
 grain,  and  esculent  plant,  that  can  flourish  under  such  a  latitude  ; 
 and  among  the  productions  of  Silesia  must  be  classed  maize,  and 
 even  vines,  but  the  wine  is  of  inferior  quality. 
 
 The  peasants,  though  oppressed  by  heavy  taxation,  being  free 
 from  the  wanton  extortions,  and  capricious  personal  services,  ex- 
 acted by  the  Polish  aristocracy,  display  signs  of  comparative  ease 
 and  prosperity.  In  different  parts  of  Silesia  the  land  is  let  in 
 farms,  as  in  England,  and  the  peasants  hired  as  day  labourers ; 
 whiU-  under  the  detestable  government  of  Poland  they  were  mere 
 slaves,  and  every  avenue  to  industry  was  barred. 
 
 Jiive7-s.^  Among  the  chief  rivers  of  the  Prussian  dominions 
 may  be  first  mentioned  the  Elbe,  which  rises  in  the  S.  of  Bohe- 
 mia, and  pervades  the  duchy  of  Magdeburg.  The  Spree,  which 
 passes  i)y,  Berlin,  falls  into  the  Havel,  a  tributary  of  the  Elbe. 
 The  Oder,  the  Viadrus  of  the  ancients,  may  be  regarded  as  a  river 
 entirely  Prussian  ;  it  rises  in  the  mountains  of  Moravia,  and,  after 
 watering  Silesia,  Brandenburg,  and  Pomerania,  jouis  tjie  Baltic, 
 after  a  course  of  about  350  miles.  Next  appears  another  noble 
 stream,  the  Vistula,  whicii,  rising  in  the  Carpathian  mountains, 
 passes  Warsaw,  and  joins  the  sea  near  Dantzic,  after  a  circuit  of 
 about  450  miles.  The  Pregel,  passing  by  Konigsberg,  springs 
 from  some  lakes  and  marshes  in  Prussif.n  Poland  ;  and  the  Memel, 
 a  superior  river,  now  forms  in  part  the  Prussian  boundary  on 
 the  east. 
 
 Lakes.'\  The  lakes  in  the  Prussian  dominions  are  numerous, 
 ©•specially  in  the  eastern  purt,  where  among  others  may  be  men- 
 tioned the  Spelding  See,  which,  with  its  creeks,  extends  more 
 than  twenty  British  miles  in  every  direction.  That  region  con- 
 tains many  other  lakes,  which  supply  the  sources  of  the  river  Pre- 
 gel. At  their  estuaries  the  rivers  Oder,  Vistula,  and  Memel,  pre- 
 sent singular  inland  sheets  of  water,  in  rtie  German  language  o:tll^ 
 
 VOL.  ir.  29 
 
2-26  PRUSSIA. 
 
 ed  Haffs  ;  that  of  the  Oder  being  styled  Grass  llaH";  that  of  the 
 Vistula,  Frisch  Haff  (with  another  inland  creek  called  the  lake  of 
 Drausen  ;)  and  that  of  the  Menjel,  Curisch  Haff.  The  Frisch 
 Haff  is  about  seventy  miles  in  length,  and  from  three  to  ten  miles 
 broad,  being  separated  from  the  Baltic  by  a  long  slip  of  land,  saic^ 
 to  have  been  thrown  up  by  the  tempests  and  waves  about  the  vear 
 1 190.  This  lake  or  bay  is  of  small  depth,  and  will  not  admit  ves- 
 sels of  much  burthen.* 
 
 The  Curisch  Haff,  so  called  from  its  situation  in  the  ancient 
 duchy  of  Courland,  is  about  60  British  miles  in  length,  and  about 
 30  in  its  greatest  breadth.  A  similar  ridge  of  land  divides  it  from 
 the  Baltic  ;  and  it  is  full  of  dangerous  shelves,  and  infested  by  fre- 
 quent storms. 
 
 Mou7iCains.^  Magdeburg,  Brandenburg,  Pomerania,  Prussia, 
 and  Poland,  are  in  general  level  countries ;  and  the  only  moun- 
 tains in  the  Prussian  dominions  arc  those  of  Silesia.  The  moun- 
 tains in  the  S.  and  W.  of  this  province  maybe  regarded  as  a  north- 
 ern branch  of  the  Carpathian  chain,  which  itself  forms  the  most 
 southern  boundary.  This  branch  extends  from  Jablunka  S.  E.  to 
 Friedberg  in  upper  Lusatia,  N.  W.  near  200  British  miles  in 
 length,  and  is  called  Sudetische  Gebirge,  or  the  Sudetic  moun- 
 tains. In  the  north  western  parts  of  Silesia  are  also  detached 
 mountains  of  considerable  height,!  as  the  Spitzberg  and  Gratz- 
 berg.  Their  precise  height  seems  not  to  be  ascertained,  yet  they 
 may  safely  be  concluded  to  yield  greatly  to  the  Carpathian  chain, 
 aj4  account  of  which  will  be  found  in  the  description  of  the  Aus- 
 trian dominions. 
 
 Foresfs.']  Few  parts  of  the  Prussian  kingdom  are  destitute  of 
 Woods  and  forests,  which  particularly  abound  in  Prussia  proper, 
 and  in  the  recent  Polish  acquisitions.  Towards  Hungary,  Silesia 
 presents  a  continuation  of  thick  forests,  which  conspire  with  the 
 elevated  mountains  to  form  an  impenetrable  barrier. 
 
 BoUinij.']  The  indigenous  vegetables  of  the  Prussian  domin- 
 ions have  hitherto  been  viewed  in  only  a  very  cursory  manner. 
 Among  these  there  do  not  seem  to  be  any  which  have  not  already 
 been  sufficiently  noticed  in  the  preceding  accounts  of  Britain  and 
 Austria.  The  mountainous  ridges  of  Prussia  being  few,  and  of 
 little  importance,  there  is  in  consequence  a  great  deficiency  of  al- 
 pine plants,  the  prevailing  vegetables  being  those  that  inhabit  level 
 and  sandy  districts.  Tobacco,  originally  a  native  of  America,  and 
 probably  also  of  the  east,  having  been  long  cultivated  in  Prussia, 
 has  at  length  established  itself  in  the  soil,  and  is  found  in  the 
 plowed  fields  and  hedges  as  a  common  weed. 
 
 Zooloffij.^  The  breeds  of  horses  and  cattle  seem  not  to  have 
 impressed  travellers  with  any  distinction  from  those  of  the  adja- 
 cent countries ;  and  few  parts  are  calculated  for  excellent  breeds 
 of  sheep.  The  urus,  or  large  and  ferocious  wild  cat  of  Lithuania, 
 have  also  appeared  in  Prussia  proper,  but  the  race  seems  nearly 
 extuict.  One  of  its  chief  haunts  was  the  forest  of  Masavia  not  far 
 from  Warsaw. 
 
 '  Buschiog  iii.  10.  t  I^^hI.  >i.  21i. 
 
LOW  COUNTRIES.  227 
 
 Mineralogy.^  The  mineralogy  of  the  Prussian  dominions  will 
 not  afford  an  extensive  theme.  Sand  and  plains  rarely  contaiu 
 minerals,  and  even  the  mountains  of  Silesia  boast  of  few  hidden 
 treasures.  Yet  in  the  southern  districts  of  that  province  there 
 v/ere  formerly  mines  of  gold  and  silver,  but  the  produce  did  not 
 defray  the  expense.  Mines  of  copper  and  lead  however  still  exist, 
 and  there  are  considerable  founderies  of  iron.  Agates,  jaspers,  and 
 rock  crystal,  arc  also  found  in  the  Silesian  mountains.  Coal,  a 
 more  useful  mineral,  occurs  in  various  parts  of  Silesia,  and  the 
 level  districts  sometimes  offer  good  peat  moors. 
 
 But  the  most  distinguished  and  peculiar  mineral  production  of 
 Prussia  is  amber,  which  is  chiefly  found  on  the  Samland  shone  of 
 the  Baltic,  near  Pilau,  on  a  neck  of  land  formed  by  the  Frisch 
 Ilaff,  which  seems  to  have  been  the  chief  scat  of  this  mineral  from 
 the  earliest  ages.  It  is  found  at  the  depth  of  about  100  feet,  re- 
 posing on  wood  coal,  in  lumps  of  various  sizes,  some  five  pounds 
 in  weight,  and  is  often  washed  on  shore  by  tempests.  It  adds 
 about  /CSOOO  yearly  to  the  royal  revenue. 
 
 Mineral  waters.^  Silesia  presents  one  spring  of  hot  water  at 
 Warmbrun,  near  Hirschberg,  which  is  believed  to  be  the  only 
 mineral  water  Morth  notice  in  the  Prussian  dominions. 
 
 A'atural  mriosities.^  The  Sudetic  chain  of  mountains  lias  been 
 little  explored,  and  the  level  parts  of  the  Prussian  dominions  can, 
 of  course,  afford  few  objects  of  natural  curiosity,  if  we  except  the 
 mines  of  amber  above-mentioned. 
 
 LOW  COUNTRIES. 
 
 THE  Low  Countries  include  the  seven  United  Provinces,  or 
 Holland,  and  the  Austrian  and  French  Netherlands.  They  ob- 
 tained the  general  name  of  Low  Countries  from  their  i-elative  sit- 
 uation and  elevation  with  regard  to  Germany.  Though  they  arc 
 now  an  integral  part  of  the  French  Empire,  we  have  still  concluded 
 to  give  them  a  separate  description.  The  natural  characteristics 
 of  these  countries  are  entirely  different  from  those  of  France  ;  the 
 inhabitants  of  all  of  them  are  wholly  unlike  the  French  in  their  or- 
 igin, history,  language  and  character,  and  those  of  Holland  also 
 in  their  religion.  These  facts  authorize  us  to  hope  that  the  first 
 great  change  in  Europe  will  release  them  from  their  present 
 thraldom  ;  and  that  Holland,  at  least,  may  again  be  ranked  among 
 independent  nations. 
 
228 
 
 HOLLAND. 
 
 CHAPTER  I. 
 HISTORICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 NAMES,  EXTENT,  DIVISIONS,  COLONIES,  ORIGINAL  POPULATION', 
 PROGRESSIVE  GEOGRAPHY,  HISTORICAL  EPOCHS,  ANTIQUITIES, 
 RELIGION,  GOVERNMENT,  LAWS,  POPULATION,  ARMY,  NAVY, 
 REVENUE,  BANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS,  LANGUAGE,  LITERATURE, 
 EDUCATION,  CITIES  AND  TOWNS,  INLAND  NAVIGATION,  MANU- 
 FACTURES  AND   COMMERCE. 
 
 J\/'a?nes.']  HOLLAND  was  a  part  of  Gallia  Belgica.  Its 
 apj)ropriate  name  was  Batavia  from  the  Batavi^  a  people  highly 
 celebrated  by  Tacitus.  The  limits  of  Batavia  were  not  however 
 equally  extensive  with  those  of  modern  Holland.  The  name  o£ 
 Holland  is  said  by  some  to  be  derived  from  the  German  Avord 
 Holtland^  signifying-  woodland.  Pinkerton  with  more  probability 
 says  the  country  was  so  called  from  the  German  word  Hohl^  cor- 
 responding to  the  English  word  hollow.  The  name  was  original- 
 ly given  only  to  the  largest  of  the  provinces,  but  in  process  of  time 
 v/as  tranfcrred  to  the  whole  seven.  The  people  arc  called  Dutch^ 
 and  sometimes  Lonv  Dutch.^  from  the  German  Deutach  or  Teutsch  ; 
 as  the  Germans  are  High  Dutch  :  Dcut^chland  properly  signify- 
 ing the  whole  extent  of  Germany  and  the  Low  countries. 
 
 Extent.~\  The  length  of  Holland  from  the  N.  of  Groningen  to 
 the  southern  boundary  along  Austrian  Flanders  and  Brabant 
 is  about  150  miles  ;  the  Ijreadth  is  100.  The  square  miles  before 
 the  late  addition  of  East  Friesland  on  the  N.  E.  from  Germany, 
 were,  according  to  Hassel,  1 1,415,  East  Friesland  with  Fever,  Va- 
 rel,  and  Knipliauscn,  contains  1247. 
 
 Divisio7is.lf  There  were  originally  seven  provinces  in  Holland. 
 Zealand  and  Holland  lay  on  the  W.  Friesland  and  Groningen  or 
 Zutphen  on  the  N.  Overyssel  and  Guclders  on  the  E.  and  Utrecht 
 on  the  S.  Dutch  Flanders  was  afterwards  annexed  on  the  S.  W. 
 and  Dutch  Brabant  a  much  larger  territory  on  the  S.  and  S.  E — • 
 When  the  United  Provinces  in  1806  were  erected  into  a  kingdom, 
 East  Friesland  was  added  to  it  on  the  N.  E.  Holland  was  divided 
 into  Amstelland  and  INIaasland ;  Drentc  was  taken  from  Overys- 
 sel, and  formed  into  a  distinct  territory  ;  Brabant  was  made  an  in- 
 tegral part  of  the  kingdon^.  ;  and  Dutch  Flanders  was  annexed  to 
 France.  The  following  is  Hassel's  tabic  of  the  Departments,  wi^h 
 their  extent  and  population  in  1809. 
 
 1.  Amstelland,  960  458,000 
 
 2.  Maasland,  1296  341,978 
 
 3.  Utrecht,  513  108,820 
 
 4.  Zealand,  414  74,050 
 
 5.  Brabant,  1689  207,708 
 
 6.  Guelders,  209t  323,282 
 
7.  Overyssel, 
 
 1337 
 
 135,060 
 
 8.  Drente, 
 
 815 
 
 39,672 
 
 9.  Fricsland, 
 
 1192 
 
 96,846 
 
 10.  Groningen, 
 
 1107 
 
 103,000 
 
 1 1,  E.  Friesland, 
 
 1247 
 
 133,000 
 
 229 
 
 12,662  2,001,416 
 
 Colomes.~\  The  foreign  possessions  of  Holland  were  extensive 
 and  valtiablc  before  the  commencement  of  the  French  Revolution. 
 Since  that  event  they  have  all  except  Batavia  fallen  into  the  hands 
 of  the  English. 
 
 I.  In  Asia.  1 .  Factories  at  Gomson  and  Bassora  in  the  Persian 
 Gulf.  2.  At  Surat  Petra,  &c.  3.  Cochin  and  several  other  set- 
 tlements on  the  Malabar  and  Coromandel  coasts.  4.  The  Sea 
 coast  of  the  island  of  Ceylon.  5.  The  Government  of  Batavia  in 
 Java  916,000  inhabitants.  6.  Island  of  Madura  60,000.  7.  Gov- 
 ernment of  Amboyna  Banda  Ternate  Tidor  Motyr  and  Bachian 
 300,000.  8.  Government  of  Malacca.  9.  Possessions  in  Borneo, 
 Celebes  and  Timor.  10.  Chinsura  in  Bengal.  Population  of  the 
 three  last  500,000.   (Hassel.) 
 
 II.  In  Africa.  1.  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  2.  Thirteen  small  fac- 
 tories on  the  Coast  of  Guinea. 
 
 III.  In  the  West  Indies.  1.  Carra9as.  2.  Eustatia  and  Saba, 
 o.  St.  Martyn. 
 
 IV.  In  Sovith  America.  Surrinam,  Essequebo,  Berbice  and 
 Demarara. 
 
 Original  Po/iulation.']  The  original  population  appears  to  have 
 been  Celtic  :  but  when  the  Romans  conquered  this  country,  the 
 chief  inhabitants  were  the  Batavi,  the  most  northern  people  of 
 Belgic  Gaul,  and  incontestibly  a  German  or  Gothic  progeny  ;  who 
 appear  to  have  been  secure  in  their  marshes  and  islands,  till  the  Fri- 
 siajis,  the  next  adjacent  people  in  the  north,  in  the  seventh  centu- 
 ry extended  themselves  even  down  to  the  Scheld.  In  the  eighth 
 century  the  Frisians  were  subdued  by  the  Franks  under  Charles 
 Martel ;  but  the  Frisians  and  Franks  may  be  regarded  as  mingled 
 in  the  population  with  the  ancient  Batavians.* 
 
 Progresftiz'c  Geografihy.']  The  progressive  geography  of  this 
 region  becomes  curious  and  interesting,  from  the  singular  phe- 
 nomenon of  the  increase  of  the  sea.  Upon  inspecting  the  accu- 
 rate maps  of  the  ancient  and  middle  geography  of  Gaul  by  D'An- 
 villc,  it  will  be  perceived  that  the  R  line  divided  itself  into  two 
 grand  branches  at  Burginasium  or  Schenk,  about  5  miles  N.  W.  of 
 the  Colonia  Trajana,no\v  an  inconsiderable  hamlet  called  Koln  near 
 Cleyes.  The  southern  branch  joined  the  Mcuse  at  the  town  of 
 Mosa  or  Meuvi ;  while  the  northern  passed  by  Durstadt,  Utrecht, 
 and  Leydcn,  into  tlie  ocean.  From  the  northern  branch  was  led 
 the  canal  of  Drusus,  which  originally  joined  the  Rhine  to  the  Issil, 
 .  a  river  that  flowed  into  a  considerable  inland  lake  called  Flevo, 
 now  a  southern  portion  of  the  Zuyder  Zee.     This  canal  of  Drusus 
 
 *  D'Anvillc,  Etats  form,  en  Europe,  p.  26, 
 
230  HOLLAND. 
 
 being  neglected,  and  left  to  the  operations  of  nature,  the  Rhine 
 joined  the  Issil  with  such  force  that  their  conjunct  waters  in- 
 creased tlie  Lake  of  Flevo  to  a  great  extent;  and  instead  of  a  river 
 of  tlje  same  name,  which  ran  for  near  50  Roman  miles  from  that 
 lake  to  the  sea,  there  was  opened  the  wide  gulf  which  now  forms 
 the  entrance.  The  northern  and  chief  mouth  of  the  Rhine  was, 
 ut  the  same  time,  weakened  and  almost  lost  by  the  division  of  its 
 waters,  and  even  the  canal  of  Drusus  was  afterwards  almost  oblit- 
 erated by  the  deposition  of  mud  in  a  low  country,  in  the  same 
 manner  as  some  of  the  ancient  mouths  of  the  Nile  have  disap- 
 peared in  the  Delta  of  Egypt. 
 
 The  southern  branch  of  the  Rhine,  Avhich  flowed  into  the  estu- 
 ary of  the  Mcuse,  as  above  mentioned,  was  anciently  called  V^aha- 
 lis,  a  name  retained  in  the  modern  Waal ;  the  ancient  isle  of  the 
 Batavi  being  included  between  the  two  branches  of  the  Rhine, 
 and  thus  extending  about  one  hundred  Roman  miles  in  length  by 
 about  22  at  the  greatest  bi-eadth.  The  estuaries  of  the  Mcuse  and 
 the  Scheld  have  also  been  open  to  great  inroads  from  the  ocean  : 
 and  the  latter  in  particular,  which  anciently  formed  a  mere  delta, 
 with  four  or  five  small  branches,  now  presents  the  islands  of  Zea- 
 land, and  the  most  southern  of  those  of  Holland,  divided  by  wide 
 creeks  of  the  sea.  This  remarkable  irruption  is  supposed  to  have 
 happened  at  the  time  that  the  Goodwin  sands  arose.  These  great 
 changes  may  be  conceived  to  have  made  a  slow  and  gradual  pro- 
 gress ;  and  none  of  them  seem  so  ancient  as  the  time  of  Charle- 
 magne. Some  of  them  are  so  recent  as  the  15th  century  ;  for  in 
 1421  the  estuary  of  the  Meuse,  or  Maese,  suddenly  formed  a  vast 
 lake  to  the  vS.  E.  of  Dort,  overwhelming  72  large  villages,  with 
 one  hundred  thousand  inhabitants,  Avho  perished  in  the  deluge.* 
 
 By  a  subsequent  change  the  Rhine  was  again  subdivided  ;  and 
 a  chief  branch  fell  into  the  Lcck,  which  joins  the  estuary  of  the 
 Meuse  between  Dort  and  Rotterdam,  and  must  now  be  regarded 
 as  the  northern  mouth  of  that  noble  river ;  while  the  Vahalis  or 
 Waal  continues  to  be  the  southern  :  both  branches  being  lost  in  a 
 compar'atively  small  stream  the  Meuse.  The  less  important  va- 
 riations in  the  geography  may  be  traced  with  some  precision  in  the 
 Francic  historians,  and  other  writers  of  the  middle  ages. 
 
 Hintorical  Efiochs.]  Among  the  chief  historical  epochs  may  be 
 numbered ; 
 
 1.  The  actions  of  the  Batavi  in  the  Roman  period,  from  the  first 
 mention  of  that  nation  by  Julius  Caesar. 
 
 2.  The  conquest  by  the  Frisians,  and  afterwards  by  the  Danes, 
 and  by  the  Franks. 
 
 3.  The  countries  watered  by  the  Mcuse  and  the  Rhine  were  for 
 a  long  time  divided  into  small  earldoms;  but  in  the  year  923 
 Theodoric  or  Diedric,  brother  of  Herman  duke  of  Saxony,  and  of 
 Wickman  earl   of  Ghent,  was   appointed   count  of  Holland  by 
 
 •  Cluver.  96.  Guicciardini,  271.  Some  authers  arbitrarily  assign  these  cbiinges  tg 
 violent  lenipcsts,  A.  ]).  8G0;  others  to  1170.  A  Zealaiidie  chronicler,  <iuotc(l  by  the 
 same  avithor,  s:iys  tlmt  the  islands  of  Zealand  were  formed  by  violent  tcinpests  iu  the 
 .ve;)r  QJS,  a  dale  wiiich  seems  to  deserve  the  preference. 
 
HOLLAND.  231 
 
 Charles  the  simple,  king  of  France,  and  the  title  became  heredi- 
 tary. Zealand  and  Friesland  were  included  in  the  donation.  The 
 county  of  Gclderland  on  the  E.  was  erected  by  the  emperor  Henry 
 IV.  in  1079,  and  became  a  duchy  in  1339.  Utrecht  was  subject 
 to  its  powerful  prelates,  who  had  frequent  contests  with  the  earls 
 of  Holland. 
 
 4.  Frequent  contests  appear  between  the  earls  of  Holland  and 
 those  of  Flanders,  concernin;^  the  possession  of  the  islands  of  Zea- 
 land. Philipina,  daughter  of  William  HI.  earl  of  Hol!:ind,  was 
 married  to  the  prince  of  Wales,  afterwards  Edward  HI.  of 
 England,  a  princess  worthy  of  an  heroic  husband.  This  king  af- 
 terwards contested  the  earldom  of  Holland  with  Margaret  his  sis- 
 ter-in-law. Jacquclin  the  heiress  of  Holland  in  1417  wedded  John 
 IV.  duke  of  Brabant;  but  her  uncle  John  of  Bavaria,  Mho  had  re- 
 signed the  bishopric  of  Liege  in  the  hopes  of  espousing  her,  con- 
 tested the  succession.  A  kind  of  anarchy  following,  Jacquelin 
 went  to  England,  where  she  married  in  1423  Humphry  duke  of 
 Gloucester ;  and  this  marriage  being  annulled  by  the  pope,  she 
 wedded  in  1432  Borselen  stadtholder  of  Plolland  ;  and  the  next 
 year  was  forced  to  resign  her  states  to  Philip  the  Good,  duke  of 
 Burgundy. 
 
 5.  Holland  with  other  large  possessions  of  the  house  of  Bur- 
 gundy, fell  by  marriage  to  the  house  of  Austria. 
 
 6.  Holland  and  some  inferior  provinces  revolt  from  the  tyranny 
 of  Philip  II.  in  1566  ;  and  in  1579  formed  the  famous  union  of 
 Utrecht. 
 
 7.  By  the  end  of  that  century  the  Dutch  had  established  colo- 
 nies at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  in  the  East  Indies  ;  and  settle- 
 ments were  afterwards  gained  in  South  America.  During  the 
 17th  century  they  rivalled  tlie  English  in  the  empire  of  the  sea  ; 
 and  greatly  exceeded  them  in  commercial  advantages.  Their 
 power  began  somewhat  to  decline  after  the  obstinate  naval  con- 
 flicts in  the  time  of  Charles  II.  In  1 672  Louis  XIV.  invades  Hol- 
 land ;  and  Amsterdam  is  only  saved  by  opening  the  sluices. 
 
 8.  The  stadtholderate  declared  hereditary  1747.  The  war  in 
 1756  opening  great  connexions  between  Holland  and  France,  a 
 French  party  began  to  form  in  the  country,  which  opposed  the 
 stadtholder,  who  was  supported  by  the  English.  In  1780  a  war 
 arose  between  Great  Britain  and  Holland,  which  closed  in  1784, 
 after  exposing  to  Europe  the  decline  and  weakness  of  the  United 
 Provinces,  still  farther  displayed  by  the  entrance  of  the  duke  of 
 Brunswic  in  1788,  who  may  be  said  to  have  subdued  them  with- 
 out a  blow. 
 
 9.  The  Dutch  having  joined  tlie  coalition  against  the  French, 
 their  country  fell  a  prey  to  the  invaders,  during  the  hard  frost  of 
 the  winter  1794-5  ;  and  tlie  stadtholder  took  refuge  in  England  iii 
 1795. 
 
 10.  Holland  was  created  into  a  kingdom  and  given  to  Louis 
 Bonaparte  in  1809. 
 
 1 1  The  king  was  deprived  of  his  crown -on  account  of  his  clem- 
 ency, and  Holland  was  annexed  to  the  French  empire  in  18 10. 
 
2^3  HOLLAND. 
 
 A7iti(/uities.'\  The  ancient  monuments  of  the  United  Provinces 
 are  far  from  being  numerous  or  interesting.  The  chief  remain  of 
 the  Roman  period  is  the  ruined  tower  near  Catwick,  about  six 
 miles  N.  W.  from  Leyden,  at  the  ancient  mouth  of  the  Rhine.  In 
 the  middle  of  Leyden,  upon  an  artificial  hill,  stands  a  I'ound  tow- 
 er, fabled  to  have  been  built  by  Hengist  who  first  led  the  Saxons 
 to  England.  Among  the  antiquities  of  the  two  middle  ages  may 
 be  particvilarly  named  the  church  of  Utrecht,  vi'ith  a  tower  of  great 
 height,  commanding  as  it  were  a  map  of  the  surrounding  country, 
 and  worthy  of  the  great  power  of  the  ancient  bishops  of  that  sec. 
 
 Religion.']  Calvinism  was  the  established  religion  of  Holland. 
 The  states  in  1583  proposed  that  no  other  form  should  be  tolerat- 
 ed ;  but  this  was  wisely  rejected.  None  but  calvinists  however 
 could  hold  any  employment  of  trust  or  profit. 
 
 The  officers  of  the  church  are  pastors,  ruling  elders,  and  dea- 
 cons. All  the  clergy  are  on  a  level.  The  church  is  governed  by 
 consistories,  classes,  provincial  synods,  and  a  national  synod.  A 
 consistory  is  usually  composed  of  the  clergy  and  elders  of  a  par- 
 ticular town,  and  regulates  the  affairs  of  the  individual  churches 
 there.  A  class  consists  of  deputies  from  several  consistories,  and 
 meets  three  times  a  year.  The  provincial  synods  have  the  over- 
 sight of  the  churches  and  clergy  of  each  province.  They  assem- 
 ble every  year.  They  were  all  subject  to  a  national  synod,  which 
 met  only  on  the  most  important  occasions,  when  essential  doctrines 
 were  to  be  discussed  and  settled.  The  last  was  that  of  Dort  in 
 1618.  The  national  synod  was  subject  to  the  control  of  the  States 
 general  which  were  considered  the  head  of  the  church. 
 
 The  following  table  exhibits  the  state  of  the  established  church 
 in  1759, 1797  and  1803. 
 
 Classes. 
 
 Ministers. 
 
 1759. 
 
 irgr. 
 
 1S03. 
 
 1. 
 
 Guelderland 
 
 9 
 
 284 
 
 ■283 
 
 285 
 
 2. 
 
 South  Holland 
 
 11 
 
 531 
 
 332 
 
 JO  1 
 
 3. 
 
 North  Holland 
 
 6 
 
 222 
 
 218 
 
 220 
 
 4. 
 
 Zealand 
 
 4 
 
 173 
 
 159 
 
 163 
 
 5. 
 
 Utrecht 
 
 3 
 
 81 
 
 82 
 
 79 
 
 6. 
 
 Friesland 
 
 6 
 
 208 
 
 209 
 
 207 
 
 7. 
 
 Overyssel 
 
 4 
 
 84 
 
 84 
 
 84 
 
 8. 
 
 D rente 
 
 3 
 
 40 
 
 42 
 
 40 
 
 9. 
 
 Croningen 
 
 7 
 
 161 
 
 161 
 
 161 
 
 53  1584  1570  157(' 
 
 Besides  these  there  were,  in  1797,  2  ministers  in  the  island  of 
 Ameland,  and  52  in  the  colonies  ;  viz.  9  in  the  W.  Indies  and  43 
 at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  in  the  E.  Indies. 
 
 The  Walloon  calvinist  churches  are  50  in  number,  and  are  su- 
 perintended by  a  general  synod  which  is  the  oldest  body  of  the 
 reformed  church  in  the  Low  Countries.  There  were,  in  1803,  7 
 ■English  Presbyterian  congregations,  1  Scotch,  and  2  English  Epis- 
 copalian. 
 
 The  number  of  catholic  churches  then  in  the  seven  provinces 
 
IIOIXAND.  2;5a 
 
 was  350,  of  priests  400.  Of  these  5 1  churches  and  74  priests  were 
 of  the  Jansenist  party.  The  rest  were  Jesuits.  There  were  of 
 the  Lutherans  41  congregations,  and  70  ministers;  of  the  Re- 
 monstrants 34  congregations,  and  43  ministers;  of  the  Anabap- 
 tists, in  1791,  169  congregations,  and  251  ministers;  and  of  the 
 Rhinsburgers  20  congregations.  There  are  also  a  \^y  few 
 Quakers,  one  congregation  of  Arminians,  and  a  considerable  num- 
 ber of  Jews  in  the  large  cities. 
 
 Grjvcrnment.~\  Each  of  the  Seven  Provinces  was  a  republic, 
 retaining  its  own  states,  which  consisted  of  nobles  and  burgesses; 
 governed  by  its  own  laws  ;  and  exercising  most  otthe  rights  of  a 
 sovereign  state.  The  general  legislature  was  called  the  Statea 
 Ge7ieralf  composed  of  deputies  from  each  province  as  many  as  it 
 pleased.  The  right  of  war  and  peace,  laying  taxes,  appointing 
 and  receiving  ambassadors  and  naming  the  Secretary  of  State  and 
 all  the  staff  offit<rs  was  vested  in  this  body.  In  deliberations 
 each  province  had  but  one  vote.  The  government  was  adminis- 
 tered by  the  Stadtholder.  He  was  originally  a  kind  of  Dictator, 
 appointed  from  the  necessity  of  the  times  to  conduct  the  emanci- 
 pation of  the  state.  When  the  necessity  vanished,  the  office  be- 
 came of  dubious  authority,  till  William  III.  in  1672  procured  it  to 
 be  declared  hereditary.  He  was  captain  general  and  high  admiral 
 president  of  the  East  and  West  India  companies,  and  stadtholder 
 of  each  province.  The  second  officer  was  the  Grand  Pensionary 
 or  Advocate  of  the  republic. 
 
 Lmvs.~\  Justice  is  administered  according  to  the  local  customs 
 and  statutes  of  each  province  and  city,  the  ordinances  of  the  states 
 general,  and  in  defect  of  all  these  the  Roman  code. 
 
 Pofitilation.~\     See  table. 
 
 Army.']  The  Army  in  1801  amounted  to  22;384  men  ;  viz.  na- 
 tional troops  19,122,  German  troops  3,262.  Now  the  young  men 
 of  Holland  arc  drafted  for  the  French  conscription,  and  consider- 
 able numbers  of  French  troops  are  quartered  on  the  inhabitants. 
 
 JVavij.~\     The  navy  in  1806  consisted  of 
 
 Ships  of  the  Line  -         -         -  -  16 
 
 Frigates 10 
 
 Corvettes     ------  6 
 
 Brigs 9 
 
 Cutters  -._.--  5 
 
 Schooners        ------        1 
 
 manned  by  6000  seamen.  The  French  government  has  built  a 
 number  of  ships  since,  in  the  navy  yards  of  Holland.  Formerly 
 the  Dutch  navy  was  after  the  English  the  most  powerful  in  Eu- 
 rope. 
 
 Reveriue.']  The  revenue  in  1808  amounted  to  50,000,000  Dutch 
 guilders.  The  expenditure  was  74,1 19,354  ;  and  the  debt,  in  1807, 
 1,172,327,252  guilders. 
 
 Manners  and  Customs.]  The  towns,  villages,  and  houses  of 
 the  Dutch  are  distinguished  for  their  neatness  and  cleanliness. — 
 The  villas  of  the  opulent  are  thickly  planted  among  the  nu- 
 merous canals.     Their  dress  is  extremely  plain  and  little  affect- 
 
 VOL.  11.  30 
 
234  HOLLAND. 
 
 ed  by  fashion.  It  is  wisely  accommodated  to  the  cold  damp  na- 
 ture of  their  climate.  Their  chief  food  is  herrings,  in  the  curing 
 of  Avhich  they  are  unrivalled.  Their  butter  and  cheese  also  are 
 excellent.  The  Dutch  have  always  been  noted  for  their  cool 
 phlegmatic  temperament.  Their  courage  is  obstinacy  ;  their  in- 
 dustry licavy  perseverance.  All  classes  are  distinguished  for  their 
 frugality.  The  only  ruling  passion  is  avarice.  This  is  univerisal, 
 and  regulates  all  their  connections  and  all  their  intercourse. — 
 Skating  is  the  favorite  amusement  in  winter,  in  which  they  arc 
 uncommonly  alert  ;  and  the  canals  are  crowded  with  all  ranks, 
 und  of  both  sexes.  The  men  arc  somewhat  addicted  to  drinking, 
 and  both  men  and  women  to  smoking  tobacco.  Both  sexes  are 
 strong  built,  and  both  have  the  grossest  shapes  any  Avhere  to  be 
 met  with. 
 
 La)iguage.~\  The  Dutch  language  is  a  dialect  of  the  German  ; 
 and  the  Lord's  Prayer  runs  in  the  following  terms  : 
 
 On  se  Fader  die  daer  zijt  in  de  Hertielen.  Uwen  J\/ae7)i  word 
 gheheylight.  U  Rijcke  home.  Utuen  Wille  gheschiede  ofi  der  Aer- 
 den^  gclijck  in  deri  Hemel.  Onse  dagelijckt  Broodt  ghceft  ons  hed- 
 cn.  Ende  -vergheeft  ous  ouse  Schulden  ghelijck  ivy  oock  ousc 
 Schuldenaren  vergeveti.  Eiide  en  leyt  ons  niet  in  Vcrsoeckingc. 
 Alaer  -verlost  ons  vanden  Boosen.  Amen.  Both  English  and 
 French  are  spoken  freely  by  people  of  fashion. 
 
 Literature.']  The  literature  of  the  Seven  United  Provinces  is 
 more  respectable  than  that  of  the  other  Netherlands.  Not  to 
 mention  the  ancient  chronicle  of  the  church  of  Utrecht,  and  other 
 ecclesiastical  productions  of  the  middle  ages,  the  great  Erasmus, 
 the  restorer  of  letters  in  Western  Europe,  was  born  at  Rotter- 
 dam in  1467.  Johannes  Secundus,  or  Hans  de  Twede,  one  of  the 
 most. elegant  of  modern  Latin  poets,  was  a  native  of  the  Hague, 
 as  the  renowned  Grotius  was  of  Delft.  Boerhaave,  the  celebrated 
 physician,  was  born  at  Voorhoor  near  Leyden.  Dort  produced 
 Paul  Merula,  a  distinguished  antiquary,  who  at  the  beginning  of 
 the  seventeenth  century  first  discriminated  the  real  origins  of  Eu- 
 ropean nations.  Adrian  Junius,  or  Yung,  who  explored  the  anti- 
 quities of  his  native  country,  was  of  Hoorn  on  the  Zuyder  Zee. — 
 Among  other  eminent  names  may  be  mentioned  Meursius  of 
 Lausden,  Dousa  of  Leyden,  Heinsius  of  Ghent,  and  the  younger 
 Vossius.  Hoogeveen  of  Leyden  died  in  1794,  after  having  acquir- 
 ed the  reputation  of  being  the  first  Greek  scholar  in  Europe — 
 Haerlem  disputes  the  invention  of  printing  with  the  Germans, 
 and  Uie  magistrates  keep  two  copies  of  a  book  entitled  Speculuin 
 Saivationia,  printed  by  Kostcr  in  1440.  Many  of  the  most  elegant 
 editions  of  the  classics  have  come  from  the  Dutch  presses.  The 
 Dutch  divines  have  excelled  in  controversial  divinity. 
 
 Education^  life]  The  mode  of  education  pursued  in  these  prov- 
 inces seems  to  have  been  greatly  inferior  to  that  used  in  Scotland, 
 a  country  enjoying  an  ecclesiastic  government  someAvhat  similar. 
 The  Dutch  youths  being  chiefly  allotted  to  a  seafaring  life,  there 
 was  not  indeed  opportunity  for  numerous  parochial  schools,  and 
 consequent  diffusion  of  common  knowledge.     The  most  cclcbrat- 
 
HOLLAND.  235 
 
 ed  Latin  schools  were  at  Rotterdam,  Breda,  Middleburg,  Groniu' 
 gen,  8cc.  The  Universities  are  five  ;  Lcyden,  Utrecht,  Hardcr- 
 •wyck,  Franecker,  and  Groninc^en  ;  with  two  interior  colleges  at 
 Amsterdam  and  Deventer.  The  Dissenters  in  England  Mere  ac- 
 customed to  send  their  childreix  to  these  Universities  for  educa- 
 tion.    There  is  an  academy  of  sciences  at  Haarlem. 
 
 Cities  and  l^oivris.']  Amsterdam  in  North  Holland,  the  capital 
 of  the  United  Provinces,  is  situated  on  the  river  Amslel  and  an 
 arm  of  the  Zuyder  Sea  called  the  Fe  or  Wye,  about  2  leagues 
 from  the  mouth  of  the  latter.  In  1204  it  consisted  merely  of  a 
 few  huts  for  fishermen.  In  1490  it  was  surrounded  by  a  brick 
 ■wall  and  strongly  fortified.  It  is  seated  on  a  low  marshy  soil,  and 
 built  on  piles  of  wood.  The  haven  is  a  mile  and  a  half  in  length 
 and  about  looo  paces  in  breadth.  It  is  not  distinguished  by  natur- 
 al advantages ;  but  has  been  improved  and  secured  by  art.  In 
 1796  the  number  of  houses  was  27,351,  and  of  inhabitants  217,024. 
 The  houses  are  of  brick  or  stone,  and  are  universally  neat  and 
 cleanly.  The  streets  are  generally  narrow,  but  well  paved. — 
 There  are  14  Calvinistic  churches,  3  English,  1  or  more  Lutheran, 
 Arminian  and  Anabaptist,  several  Catholic  chapels,  and  2  syna- 
 gogues ;  one  the  largest  in  Europe.  The  chief  edifices  are  the 
 stadthouse  built  on  14,000  wooden  piles,  front  282  feet, depth  255, 
 height  to  the  roof  116;  the  Exchange  ;  the  Admiralty  office  ;  the 
 Post  Office  ;  and  St.  Catherine's  church.  The  canals  are  nume- 
 rous, and  have  many  stone  bridges  over  them.  They  cross  the 
 city  in  every  direction,  and  render  the  streets  clean  and  pleasant. 
 Rows  of  trees  are  planted  on  the  brink,  and  their  sides  are  lined 
 with  hewn  stone.  Amsterdam  before  the  late  troubles  was  sur- 
 passed in  its  commerce  by  no  city  in  Europe  but  London. 
 
 The  Hague,  about  half  a  league  from  the  German  Sea,  was  the 
 seat  ot  the  general  government  as  well  as  that  of  the  Pix)vince  of 
 Holland.  It  was  a  mere  village  till  William  III.  Comte  of  Hol- 
 land, removed  his  court  there  from  Gravesande  hi  1250.  It  stands 
 in  a  dry  soil  somewhat  elevated  above  the  neighboring  coun- 
 try ;  the  air  is  pure,  and  the  environs  delightful.  The  number  ot 
 houses,  in  1796,  was  6164  ;  and  of  inhabitants  38,433.  The  hous- 
 es are  uncommonly  good  ;  the  streets  long,  broad  and  cleanly  ; 
 many  of  them  being  adorned  with  rows  of  trees.  The  most  splendid 
 edifices  are  the  synagogue  and  several  of  the  palaces  and  hospitals. 
 
 Rotterdam,  also  in  Holland,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Rotter^ 
 with  the  Meuse,  is  first  spoken  of  as  a  considerable  town  about 
 1270.  Its  shape  is  triangular,  the  houses  handsomely  built  ot 
 brick,  the  streets  wide  and  well  paved.  The  haven  is  deep,  easi- 
 ly accessible  to  the  largest  ships,  and  free  from  ice  in  the  spring 
 much  sooner  than  the  Texel.  These  advantages  had  given  the 
 town  a  very  extensive  commerce  before  the  ruin  of  the  country. 
 The  Bomb  Quay  is  one  of  the  finest  in  Europe.  There  are  dis- 
 tinct walks  for  carriages  and  foot  passengers,  and  shaded  with 
 double  rows  of  trees.  The  city,  in  1796,  contained  6621  houses 
 and  33,800  inhabitants.  In  the  market  place  stands  the  well 
 known  statue  of  Erasmus. 
 
236  HOLLAND.     - 
 
 Utrecht  is  the  Ultrajectian  of  the  Romans.  They  called 
 it  also  Antonina  Civitas^  from  Antoninus,  a  senator,  Avho  built 
 it  in  the  time  of  Nero  ;  Trujectum  ad  Rhcnum  or  the  ferry- 
 ing place  over  the  Rhine  ;  and  Trajectum  Inferius.  It  stands 
 on  a  northern  branch  of  the  Rhine,  which,  before  the  great 
 change  in  the  bed  of  that  river,  was  a  principal  channel.  It  is  tlie 
 capital  of  the  province,  and  the  scat  of  a  very  celebrated  imivcr- 
 sity.  The  shape  of  the  town  is  oval.  The  principal  streets  arc 
 cut  through  with  canals,  two  of  which  run  the  whole  length  of  the 
 city.  The  hou  es  are  brick,  many  of  them  stately.  It  contained 
 in  'l796,  52,294  inhabitants. 
 
 Leyden,  the  LugdiDtum  Batavorum  of  Ptolemy,  is  situated  on 
 the  old  northern  branch  of  the  Rhine,  a  few  miles  above  the  spot 
 •where  it  loses  itself  in  the  sands.  The  river  divides  the  citv  into 
 about  tifty  islands  communicating  with  each  other  by  145  bridges, 
 upwards  of  100  of  which  arc  of  freestone.  The  university  has 
 been  celebrated  for  many  years,  hut  is  now  on  the  decline.  Ley- 
 den contained  in  1 796,  3017  houses,  and  ."0,955  inhabitants.  It 
 has  eight  gates.  The  land  and  gardens  aroinid  arc  very  produc- 
 tive, and  there  is  a  daily  intercourse,  by  canals,  with  the  other 
 large  cities  and  towns.  The  annual  fair  is  still  much  frequented. 
 Groningen,  the  capital  of  the  i:>rovince  of  the  same  name,  is 
 in  the  nortliern  part  of  Holland,  about  10  miles  from  the  sea. — 
 The  river  Hunes  runs  through  it  to  the  ocean  northward,  and 
 the  Dunster  runs  eastward  to  the  estuary  of  the  Ems.  Its  port  is 
 very  commodious,  into  which  ships  enter  with  great  ease  by  means 
 of  the  canal.  The  university  was  established  in  1614.  The  town 
 is  strongly  fortified,  and  adorned  with  many  excellent  buildings, 
 puolic  and  private.     It  contained  in  1796,  23,770  inhabitants. 
 
 Haerlcm,  or  Harlem,  in  Holland,  lies  on  the  Sparen,  about  3 
 miles  from  the  Sea  or  Lake  of  Haerlem.  It  contains  4  Dutch 
 Calvinist  churches,  !  French  Calvinist,  1  Lutheran,  1  Arminian, 
 4  Anabaptists,  and  sfveral  private  Catholic  chapels.  Here  are 
 extensive  manufactories  of  linen,  ribbands  and  tape.  The  num- 
 ber of  houses  iii  1796,  was  7,963,  and  of  inhabitants  21,360. 
 
 Dort,  or  Dordrecht,  in  Holland,  lies  on  a  small  island  in  the 
 Mouse,  which  v/as  first  detached  from  the  main  land  by  an  irrup- 
 tion of  the  river  in  1421.  Its  harbor  is  very  commodious  for  trade. 
 It  contained  in  1796  about  4000  houses  and  18,014  inhabitants. 
 
 Middlcburg,  the  chief  town  in  Zealand  and  the  capital  of  the 
 island  of  Walchcrcn,  was  surrounded  by  a  wall  in  1132.  The 
 town  house  is  a  large  magnificent  building.  The  fortificaiions 
 are  strong  and  regular.  The  situation  is  extremely  unhealthy. 
 In  1796  it  contained  17,687  inhabitants.  In  1809  the  town  and  tiie 
 island  were  taken  by  the  British,  but  Avere  soon  after  abandoned. 
 
 Lcuwa.'den,  the  capital  of  Friesland,  is  large,  and  well  fortified. 
 All  the  streets  are  straight,  broad  and  liandsomc.  Various  canals 
 connect  it  with  the  sea  and  with  otiur  parts  of  the  province,  by 
 jTicans  of  which  it  carries  on  a  considerable  trade.  In  1796  it 
 contained  15,525  inhabitants. 
 
 Nuncgucn,  inGuclderland,  stands  on  the  south  side  of  the  W4l- 
 
HOLLAND.  237 
 
 hal,  the  southern  branch  of  the  Rhine.  It  is  a  very  ancient  city, 
 has  13  gates,  and  is  well  fortified.  In  1796  it  contained  12,785  in- 
 habitants. 
 
 Delft,  in  Holland,  is  situated  on  a  large  canal  called  the  Schie, 
 connected  with  the  Meuse  at  Schiedam.  The  country  is  low,  but 
 pleasant.  It  contained  in  1796  about  5000  houses,  and  13,737  in- 
 habitants. Tlic  city  was  formerly  much  celebrated  for  its  beer, 
 and  for  \ts  d elf l -ware.  Of  the  remaining  towns,  Herzogenbusch,  in 
 1796,  contained  12,627  inhabitants,  Zwole  12,220,  Gouda  11,715, 
 Emden  11,128,  Arnhcim  10,080,  Zaandam  10,012,  Hoorn  9551, 
 Schiedam  9111,  Amersfoort  8584,  Tilbury  8532,  Alkmaar  8373, 
 Breda  8250,  Harlingen  7456,  Zutphen  6878,  Enkhuysen  6803,  and 
 Zierikzee  6086. 
 
 Inland  J\"avigation.~\  The  canals  of  Holland  arc  innumerable, 
 and  they  serve  the  purpose  of  public  roads.  By  those  of  Holland 
 and  the  Netherlands  a  prodigious  inland  trade  is  carried  on  between 
 those  countries,  and  France  and  Germany.  When  frozen,  the  in- 
 habitants travel  on  them  with  skaits  ;  while  heavy  burdens  are 
 conveyed  in  sleighs.  The  profits  which  have  accrued  from  them 
 have  been  incalculable.  They  are  generally  60  feet  wide  and  6 
 deep,  and  are  kept  well  cleansed;  the  mud  being  very  valuable 
 as  manure.     They  are  generally  level  and  need  no  locks. 
 
 Manufactures  and  Co7nmerce.^  The  chief  manufactures  of  Hol- 
 land are  linens,  many  of  which  however  are  made  in  Silesia  ;  pot 
 tcry,  and  painted  tiles,  especially  at  Delft;  leather,  wax,  snuff, 
 sugar,  starch,  paper,  besides  some  of  woollen,  cotton,  and  silk.* 
 But  the  most  precious  branch  of  commerce  consisted  in  spices 
 and  drugs,  brought  from  the  settlements  in  the  East  Indies  ;  and 
 the  Dutch  East  India  company  was,  for  a  considerable  time,  the 
 greatest  mercantile  firm  in  Europe.  The  fishery  in  the  Northern 
 Seas,  and  even  on  their  own  and  the  English  coasts,  was  also  an 
 object  of  great  commercial  importance.  Latterly  perhaps  the 
 chief  advantage  was  derived  from  Holland  being  the  grand  de- 
 posit of  commerce  between  Great  Britain  and  the  continent,  par- 
 ticularly Germany  and  France.  The  inland  trade  with  Germany, 
 by  the  canals  and  the  Rhine,  is  almost  the  only  branch  which  has 
 escaped  the  ravages  of  war.  Of  this  the  most  remarkable  feature 
 consists  in  the  vast  floats  of  timber,  Avhich  arrive  at  Dort  from 
 Andernach,  and  other  places  on  the  Rhine,  whoso  copious  stream 
 received  the  trees  of  the  German  forests.  The  lengtli  of  these 
 rafts  is  from  700  to  1000  feet,  the  breadth  from  50  to  90  ;  and  500 
 labourers  direct  the  floating  island,  which  is  crowned  with  a'  vil- 
 lage of  timber  huts  for  their  reception.  The  navigation  is  con- 
 ducted witl\  the  strictest  regularity  ;  and  on  their  arrival  at  Dort 
 the  sale  of  one  raft  occupies  several  months,  and  frequently  pro- 
 duccs^more  than  ;G30,000  sterling. f  The  other  branches  of  inland 
 traffic  are  numerous  :  and  the  Rhine  may  be  said  to  supply  Hol- 
 land with  insular  advantages,  secure  from  the  destructive  inroads 
 of  maritime  war.  At  present  the  Dutch  have  no  commerce  on 
 the  ocean. 
 
 •  Marshalj  vol.  i.  225—255.  f  Radcliffe,  ii,  lU. 
 
 I 
 
!?38  HOLLAND. 
 
 CHAPTER  n. 
 
 > 
 
 XATLRAL  GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 CLIMATE  AND  SEASONS,  FACE  OF  THE  COUNTRY,  SOIL  AND  AG- 
 RICULTURE, RIVERS,  LAKES,  BOTANY,  ZOOLOGY,  MINERALOGY, 
 ISLANDS. 
 
 CUmate  and  Seasons.']  THE  air  of  Holland  is  always 
 moist  and  cold.  Strangers  coaiplain  of  it  as  unhealthy  ;  but  the 
 natives  enjoy  more  than  commonly  firm  and  vigorous  constitu- 
 lions.  The  phlegm  of  the  Dutch  character  is  in  a  great  measure 
 attributable  to  their  climate. 
 
 Face  of  the  Country.']  The  coast  is  every  where  flat  and  sandy  ; 
 and  so  low,  that  the  inhabitants  have  been  obliged  to  build  dykes 
 or  movnids  along  a  great  part  of  it  to  prevent  inundations  from 
 the  ocean.  They  are  usually  25  feet  in  height  and  25  ells  in  thick- 
 ness. The  coast  of  the  small  province  of  Zealand  alone,  is  dyked 
 to  the  extent  of  40  miles,  at  an  original  expense  of  >C340,000  ster- 
 ling. Holland,  Fi'iesland,  Groningen,  and  East  Fricsland  are 
 similarly  defended.  The  general  face  of  the  interior  is  that  of  a 
 Harge  m.arsh  that  has  been  drained.  Much  of  the  surface  is  below 
 the  level  of  the  sea.  The  meadosvs  are  usually  under  water  in 
 the  winter;  but  the  inhabitants  in  the  spring  discharge  this  water 
 into  the  canals  and  ditches  by  mills  invented  for  the  purpose.  In 
 the  midst  of  these  SAvamps  and  marshes,  the  eye  is  surprised  and 
 delighted  to  sec  numerous  and  important  cities  and  towns  rising- 
 in  quick  succession,  and  all  the  intervening  country  wearing  the 
 appearance  of  a  continued  flourishing  village.  Industry  seems  to 
 have  selected  this  most  untoward  spot  as  her  favorite  residence, 
 and  here  the  extent  of  her  powers  is  most  strikingly  displayed. 
 Yet  the  E.  of  Dutch  Brabant  is  still  disfigured  by  the  large  morass 
 ©f  Peal  extending  about  30  miles  in  length  :  Over-Yssel  is  almost 
 wholly  composed  of  marshes  and  heaths  :  and  the  morass  of  Bour- 
 tang  rivals  that  of  Peal  in  extent.  The  S.  and  S.  E.  parts  ofp'ries- 
 land,  Groningen  and  E.  Fricslend  present  extensive  heaths  ;  Avhile 
 the  parts  towards  the  sea  rival  the  morasses  of  Holland.  Thus 
 the  whole  country  may  be  said  to  display  an  intimate  combination 
 of  land  and  water  ;  and  the  few  elevations  commonly  consist  of 
 barren  sand. 
 
 Soil  and  jlgriciilturc]  The  agriculture  of  such  provinces  can- 
 not be  expected  to  be  considerable,  the  land  being  mostly  under 
 pasturage,  except  a  few  crops  of  madder,  and  tobacco,  which  are 
 cultivated  with  great  predilection.*  The  pasturages  in  the  north 
 of  Holland,  especially  those  of  Bemster,  and  in  Friesland,  supply 
 such  quantities  of  excellent  butter,  as  to  become  a  staple  article 
 of  commerce.  The  cows  seem  to  have  been  originally  from  Hol- 
 stein,  and  the  utmost  attention  is  paid  to  warmth  and  cleanliness, 
 
 *  Marshall,  i.  26  i. 
 
HOLLAND.       .  23^. 
 
 so  that  even  in  summer  the  animals  appear  in  the  mcadov.s  cloth- 
 ed with  ludicrous  care.* 
 
 Haijs.^  The  Zuyder  Zee  is  a  great  hay  of  the  Gemian  Ocean, 
 setting  up  from  the  N.  into  the  United  Provinces.  It  is  so  called 
 irom  its  situation  towards  the  S.  and  is  said  formerly  to  have  been 
 a  lake  ;  an  opinion  which  the  great  number  of  the  shoals  and 
 islands  at  its  mouth  certainly  countenances.  It  is  of  a  winding 
 irregular  figure,  and  has  a  circuitous  h.ngth  of  about  120  miles. 
 It  abounds  in  shoals  and  flats.  Holland  and  the  islands  Texel, 
 Vlieland,  Scheling,  and  Amelandt  separate  it  from  the  main  ocean. 
 The  northern  branch  of  the  Rhine  called  the  IssqI  falls  into  the  S. 
 E.  part  of  this  sea  near  Campen. 
 
 The  common  estuary  of  the  Scheldt,  the  Meuse,  and  the  two 
 southern  branches  of  the  Rhine  is  a  broad  hay  setting  up  from  the 
 VV.  between  Holland  and  Dutch  Flanders.  The  Dutch  call  it  the 
 Zeeuwsc/ie  Stromen,  or  Sea-Streams.  Dollart  Bay,  between  Gro- 
 ningen  and  E.  Friesland,  was  formed  by  an  inundation  in  1277, 
 which  is  said  to  have  destroyed  33  villages.  It  receives  the  waters 
 of  the  Ems. 
 
 Jiivn-s.^  The  Rhine  has  three  sources,  all  of  which  rise  in  the 
 country  of  the  Oi'isons.  The  northeni  rises  from  a  glacier  on  the 
 summit  of  mount  Bedus  or  Bader.  The  Middle  Rhine  is  the  long- 
 est, and  rises  not  far  from  motmt  St.  Gothard.  These  united 
 receive  the  southern  which  rises  from  mount  Avicula  at  the 
 head  of  a  valley  about  nine  leagues  long,  called  the  RhincAvald. 
 These  heights  are  upwards  of  6000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
 The  course  is  E.  of  N.  to  the  southern  corner  of  the  lake  of  Con- 
 stance, whence  it  bends  west  to  Basil.  It  pervades  or  borders 
 Sv.'itzerland  for  the  space  of  250  miles.  From  Basil  it  runs  N.  E. 
 to  Spire,  and  thence  N.  W.  to  the  ocean.  From  its  northern 
 bend  to  its  entrance  irito  Holland  it  is  the  present  boundary  be- 
 tween Germany  and  France.  Its  principal  tributaries  are  the 
 Aar  from  Switzerland,  the  Neckar,  the  Mayn,  the  Lahn,  and  the 
 Lippe  from  Germany,  and  the  Moselle  from  France.  As  it  enters 
 Holland  it  divides  at  Schenkan  Schans.  The  southern  branch, 
 the  Wahal,  Vahalis,  pursues  a  south  westerly  course,  mingles 
 with  the  Meuse  at  the  small  island  of  Voorn,  separates  from  it, 
 and  joins  it  again  at  Warcum.  The  united  stream  flows  into  the 
 ocean,  after  passing  the  islands  of  Holland  and  Zealand.  The 
 northern  branch,  retaining  the  name  of  the  Rhine,  runs  N.  about 
 10  miles,  and  again  divides  near  Arnheim.  The  rigiit  branch 
 called  the  Issel,  Halla,  flows  N.  and  falls  into  the  Zuyder  Zee 
 at  Campen.  The  left  branch,  still  called  the  Rhine,  runs  west- 
 ward to  Wyck  where  it  divides  a  tliird  time.  The  larger  branch, 
 called  the  Lech,  runs  S.  of  W.  and  joins  the  Wahal  and  Meuse  at 
 Crimpc.  The  other  called  the  Old  Rf'Mic^  and  anciently  the  chief 
 arm  of  the  river,  runs  N.  W.  by  Utrecht,  ^Voerden  and  liCyden, 
 and  loses  itself  in  the  sand  a  few  miles  from  this  latter  city,  and  at 
 a  small  distance  from  the  German  ocean.  The  whole  length  of 
 the  Rhine  is  about  800  miles. 
 
 *  Marshall,  i.  C^ 
 
2.40  HOLLAND. 
 
 The  Meiise  rises  in  France  near  the  sources  of  the  Seine,  the 
 Saonc,  and  the  Moselle.  Its  course  is  principally  northerly,  in 
 France  and  the  Netherlands  ;  and  W.  in  Holland. 
 
 The  mouths  of  the  Scheldt  are  in  Holland. 
 
 The  Ems  also  is  now  in  part  a  Dutch  river. 
 
 The  Wechte  rises  in  Germany  and  empties  into  the  Zuydcr  a 
 little  north  of  the  Issel  at  Gelmuyden. 
 
 JLai-es.^  The  lakes  are  of  small  extent,  if  we  except  what  is 
 called  the  sea  of  Haarlem,  on  the  N.  of  which  is  the  Y,  a  broad 
 piece  of  water  passing  through  Amsterdam,  rather  wearing  the 
 semblance  of  a  creek  of  the  sea,  than  of  a  river.  There  are  oth- 
 er small  lakes  in  the  N.  of  Holland,  and  in  Frieslaud  and  in  Gron- 
 ingen  ;  not  to  mention  some  amidst  the  marshes  of  Over-Yssel. 
 
 Botany.']  Few  of  the  plants  or  trees  of  Holland  are  peculiar  to 
 it,  or  worthy  of  particular  notice. 
 
 Zoology.']  In  the  zoology  of  tlie  United  Province:^  there  is 
 nothing  peculiar,  or  worthy  of  remark ;  the  horses  are  chiefly 
 from  England  and  Flanders,  the  oxen  from  Holstein.  The  stork 
 is  here  frequent.  The  shores  abound  v/ith  excellent  fish,  partic- 
 ularly turbot  and  soals. 
 
 Mineralogy.]  Minerals  are  unknown,  if  we  accept  the  slight  inci- 
 sions for  peat ;  which  the  Dutch  not  only  procure  from  the  morass- 
 es, but  also  from  the  bottoms  of  the  river,  by  dragging  up  the  mud, 
 ■which  is  exposed  to  dry  on  the  shore,  then  cut  into  small  pieces, 
 and  again  dried  for  use.  No  mineral  waters  are  here  known  ; 
 and  there  are  few  uncommon  appearances  of  nature,  though  the 
 whole  country  may  be  deemed  an  artificial  curiosity,  from  the 
 number  of  canals,  and  from  the  vast  dykes  erected  to  exclude  the 
 sea. 
 
 Islands.]  Cadsand,  near  the  coast  of  Dutch  Flanders,  com- 
 mands the  entrance  of  the  West  Scheldt.  It  is  fertile  in  corn ; 
 the  meadows  are  luxui'iant ;  and  the  farmers  make  excellent 
 cheese.  Cassandria  is  the  pi'incipal  place.  Walcheren,  the 
 most  westerly  of  the  isles  in  the  province  of  Zealand,  is  13  miles 
 from  N.  to  S.  and  8  from  E.  to  W.  Flushing,  or  Vliessengcn.,  the 
 next  town  after  Middlcburg,  is  the  key  of  the  Scheldt  and  contain- 
 ed in  1796,  5691  inhabitants. 
 
 South  Beveland  is  about  20  miles  long  and  7  wide.  The  chief 
 town  Goes  is  well  fortified,  and  contt^ins  3700  inhabitants.  North 
 Beveland  is  6  miles  long,  and  4  broad. 
 
 Tolcn  is  10  miles  long,  and  4  broad.  Tolen,  the  capital,  is  a 
 handsome  town,  and  strongly  fortified. 
 
 Schouwen,  N.  E.  of  Walcheren,  is  14  miles  long  and  5  broad. 
 Ziriczee,  the  capital,  is  one  of  the  oldest  towns,  and  was  built  and 
 walled  in  859.  In  1796  it  contained  1800  houses  and  6086  inhab- 
 itants.    St.  Philip's  Land  and  Duyvelland  lie  east  of  Schouwen. 
 
 Ovarflakee  is  in  the  province  of  Holland.  Sommerdyk  is  the 
 capital. 
 
 Goeree  is  10  miles  in  circumference. 
 
 Voorn  is  20  miles  long  and  5  broad.  Briel,  the  capital,  is  on  the 
 N.  side,   has  a  good   harbor,  970  houses,  and    3170   inhabitants. 
 
NETHERLANDS.  241 
 
 Here  admiral  Tromp  was  born.  Helvetsluys,  on  the  8.  side  of 
 the  island,  ha^  a  noble  harbor,  and  is  the  general  port  for  packets 
 from  England, 
 
 Beyerlandtlics  between  Voorn  and  Dort.    Stryen  is  the  capital. 
 
 Isselmond  is  a  long  narrow  island  opposite  Rotterdam. 
 
 The  Texel,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Zuyder,  a  part  of  Holland,  is  15 
 miles  long,  and  6  broad.  The  town  of  the  same  name  has  an  ex- 
 cellent harbor,  and  a  fort  which  commands  the  entrance.  The 
 land  is  fertile  and  well  secured  with  dykes. 
 
 Vlieland,  8  miles  long  and  3  wide,  is  5  miles  from  fhe  Texel. 
 
 Schclling  is  a  narrow  sand  bank,  15  miles  long  and  3  wide. 
 
 Amelandt,  a  part  of  Friesland,  is  12  miles  long  and  3  wide.  Litr 
 tic  islands  are  scattered  eastward  along  the  whole  coast  of  Git/- 
 ningcn  and  East  Friesland. 
 
 NETHERLANDS. 
 
 CHAPTER  I. 
 HISTORICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 -XAMES,  EXTENT,  DIVISIONS,  ORIGINAL  POPULATION,  HISTORICAL 
 EPOCHS,  RELIGION,  GOVERNMENT,  POPULATION,  MANNERS  AND 
 CUSTOMS,  LANGUAGE,  UNIVERSITIES,  ARTS,  TOWNS,  EDIFICES, 
 INLAND  NAVIGATION,  MANUFACTURES  AND   COMMERCE. 
 
 OUR  account  of  this  country  must  be  very  brief,  as  it 
 will  be  included  under  the  next  article. 
 
 JVfi7?zt-,s.]  This  territory  was  a  part  of  Gallia  Belgica  ;  and  the 
 chief  tribes  were  the  iMena/iii,  the  Tungri^  the  jYi-rvi,  and  the  Mo- 
 riui.  After  the  irruption  of  the  Franks  it  formed  a  part  of  A'eus-^ 
 ttia,  or  the  new  kingdom  ;  the  ancient  kingdom  of  the  t'raaks  be- 
 ing on  the  E.  of  the  Rliine.  In  the  middle  of  the  9th  centuff  arose 
 the  powerful  house  of  the  Earls  of  Flanders  ;  a:;d  the  Counts  of 
 Hainaut  commence  about  the  same  period.  The  Dukes  of  Lower 
 Lorrain  and  Brabant  arc  little  known  before  the  end  of  the  luth. — 
 In  the  15th,  most  of  the  country  v.'as  subjected  to  the  Dukes  of 
 Burgundy.  The  title  of  Austria  to  the  Netherlands  came  through 
 the  heiress  of  the  latter  house.  The  inhabitants  of  Flanders  are 
 called  Fle7uings<,  and  this  name  is  sometimes  applied  to  all  the 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Extent.']  The  length  of  the  Netherlands,  from  Dunkirk  to  the 
 frontiers  of  Treves,  is  about  200  miles,  and  the  breadth  is  about 
 120.     They  contain  17,500  square  miles. 
 
 Boundaries.]  Bounded  N.  by  Holland  ;  E.  by  Germany ;  S.  and 
 S.  W.  by  France  ;  W.  by  the  German  ocean. 
 
 Divisions.]  This  territory,  before  the  French  Revolution,  com- 
 prised 40  provinces  ;  and  bejonged  to  Austria,  fhc  French,  and 
 the  Dutch. 
 
 VOL.  II.  "  1 
 
242  NETHERLANDS. 
 
 ^  1.    PROVINCE  OF  BRABANT. 
 
 Subili\isioU9.  Cliief  Town?. 
 
 fBoisleduc 
 
 Breda  J.     N. 
 
 _      ,   T.    ,      ^  j  BerGren-op-Zoom 
 
 I.Dutch  Brabant  <:  Grave,  n!  E. 
 
 Lillo  I       ^   y^ 
 
 ^Steenburgeii      3 
 'Brussels,  E.  Ion.  4  6,  N.  lat.  50  50 
 T»    1  J  Louvain     1 
 
 2.  Austrian  Brabant  <j  yiivorden  I   in  the -middle.  • 
 
 l^Landen      J 
 
 2.    ANTWERP;    AND   3.    MALINES, 
 
 Are  pi'ovinces  independent  of  Brabant,  though  surrounded  by  it, 
 and  before  the  late  revolution  subject  to  the  House  of  Austria. 
 
 4.    PROVINCE  OF  LIMBURG,  S.  E. 
 
 {Limburg,  E.  Ion.  6  5,  N.  lat.  50  37,  Austrian, 
 Maestricht  ~] 
 
 Dalem  (    ^^^^j^. 
 
 Fauquemont  or       j 
 Valkenburg  J 
 
 5.    PROVINCE  OF  LUXEMBURG. 
 Subdivisions.  Chief  Towns. 
 
 Austrian  Luxemburg.  Luxemburg,  E.  Ion.  6  8,  N.  lat.  49  45. 
 
 ^        ,  X  1.  CThionville    >     o  i? 
 
 French  Luxemburg.  ^Montmcdy   5    ^•^' 
 
 6.    PROVINCE  OF  NAMUR, 
 
 |K     In  the  middle,  formerly  subject  to  Austria. 
 
 {Namur,  on  the  Sambre  and  MaesCj  E.  Ion. 
 4  50,  N.  lat.  50  30. 
 Charleroy  on  the  Sambre. 
 
 7.  PROVINCE  OF  HAINAULT. 
 
 Subdivisions.  Cliief  Towns. 
 
 .      ,T  •       ,  CMons,  E.  Ion.  3  53,  N.  lat.  50  30>    in  the 
 
 Austrian  Hainauh.  jAethEnguien  _  5    middle 
 
 „        ,  ,x  •       ,  \  Valenciennes  Bouchain  Conde  >  <,  axt- 
 
 FrcnchHainault.  ^L^ndrecy  S  ^- ^' 
 
 8.  PROVINCE  OF  CAMBRESIS'. 
 
 CCambray,  E.  of  Arras,  E.  long.  3  15,  N. 
 lat.  50  15. 
 Crevccour,  S.  of  Cambray. 
 
 Subject  to  France.      <      lat.  50  15. 
 
NETHERLANDS. 
 
 243 
 
 Subject  to  France. 
 
 PROVINCE  OF  ARTOIS. 
 
 'Arras,  S.  W.  on  the  Scarpe,E.  Ion.  2  5,  N- 
 
 lat.  51  20. 
 St.  Omcr,  E.  of  Bolognc. 
 Aire,  S.  of  St.  Omer. 
 St.  Venant,  E.  of  Aire. 
 Bethune,  S.  E.  of  Aire. 
 Terouen,  S.  of  St.  Omer. 
 
 Subdivisions. 
 Dutch  Flanders. 
 
 Austrian  Flanders. 
 
 French  Flanders. 
 
 10.    PROVINCE  OF    FLANDERS. 
 
 Chief  Towns. 
 CSluys,    N.   Axel,   N.   Hulst,  N.   Sas   van 
 i     Ghent,  N. 
 
 Ghent  on  the  Scheldt,  E.  Ion.  3   36,  N. 
 lat.  51. 
 
 Bruges      1 
 
 Ostend       i.   N.  W.  near  the  sea. 
 
 Newport    j 
 
 Oudenard,  on  the  Scheldt. 
 
 Coutray      } 
 
 Dixmude   5 
 
 Yprcs,  N.  of  Lisle. 
 
 Tournay,  on  the  Scheldt. 
 ^Menin,  on  the  Lis. 
 
 Lisle,  W.  of  Tournay. 
 
 Dunkirk,  on  the  coast  E.  of  Calais. 
 
 Douay,  W.  of  Ari'as. 
 
 Mardike,  W.  of  Dunkirk. 
 
 St.  Amand,  N.  of  Valenciennes. 
 
 Gravelin,  E.  of  Calais. 
 
 On  the  Lis. 
 
 The  Netherlands  now  constitute  numerous  departments  of  the 
 French  empire. 
 
 Origi7iai  Population.']     The  Celts  Vfcve.  the    first  inhabitants . 
 
 They  were  driven  out  by  the  Bclgx,  a  Gothic  colony  ;  and  they 
 by  a  kindred  nation,  the  Franks. 
 
 Historical  Epochs.']  1.  The  occupation  of  the  country  by  the 
 Celts,  and  then  by  the  Belgae. 
 
 2.  The  partial  conquest  by  the  Romans.  I  « 
 
 3.  The  conquest  by  the  Franks. 
 
 4.  The  state  of  the  country  under  the  earls  of  Flanders  and 
 Hainaut. 
 
 5.  The  power  of  the  dvikes  of  Burgundy.  During  these  two 
 epochs,  the  Netherlands  became  the  great  mart  of  commerce  for 
 the  west  of  Europe. 
 
 6.  The  acquisition  of  the  country  by  Maximilian  of  Austria,  to- 
 wards the  end  of  the  15th  century.  After  the  liberty  of  Holland 
 had  been  secured  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  in  1579,  the  commerce 
 and  wealth  of  the  Netherlands  passed  cjuickly  to  tlieir  noitlicru 
 neighbors. 
 
244  NETHERLANDS. 
 
 7.  The  conquest  by  France,  and  annexation  to  its  territories- 
 
 ReUgion.~\  The  established  I'cligion  was  the  Catholic,  but  Pro- 
 testants were  unmolested.  There  was  one  archbishopric  at  Ma- 
 lines,  and  9  or  10  bishoprics. 
 
 GQvernme7it.~\  The  Austrian  Provinces  were  governed  by  a 
 Regent.  Each  had  its  own  governor  also,  and  an  assembly  con- 
 sisting of  the  clergy,  nobility  and  deputies  of  the  towns.  There 
 Avas  likewise  a  general  assembly  of  the  provinces  which  met  at 
 Brussels.  Notwithstanding  this  shadow  of  liberty,  the  Austrian 
 Court  had  absolute  poAver. 
 
 Pofiulation.~\  According  to  the  Imperial  Almanac  of  1808,  the 
 population  of  the  Netherlands  amounts  to  4,140,255;  of  which 
 1,410,670  belong  to  what  were  formerly  called  French  Nether- 
 lands ;  and  2,729,585  to  the  Austrian  and  Dutch  Netherlands. 
 This  is  a  population  for  the  whole  country  of  236  to  the  square 
 mile. 
 
 Manners  and  Custom!ir\  The  Flemings  on  the  frontiers  of 
 Holland  dress  like  the  Dutch  boors,  and  are  scarcely  distinguish- 
 able from  them  in  character  or  appearance.  The  inhabitants  of 
 French  Flanders,  on  the  contrary,  have  much  of  the  French  vivac- 
 ity, and  dress  like  their  southern  neighbors. 
 
 Language.^  The  Flemish  is  an  intermediate  dialect,  between 
 the  German  and  the  Dutch.  The  better  sort  of  people  speak  the 
 Fr'iich.  The  language  of  the  common  people  on  the  borders  of 
 Fraice  is  Flemisli  and  French  intermixed,  and  is  called  the 
 Walloon. 
 
 Universities.']  These  Avcre  at  Louvain,  Tournay,  Douay,  and 
 St.  Omer.  The  first  was  founded  in  1426,  had  great  privileges, 
 and  Avas  long  highly  celebrated. 
 
 y/n's.]  Tlie  Flemish  painters  and  sculptors  have  great  merit, 
 and  form  a  school  by  themselves.  Tne  Avorks  of  Rubens  and 
 Vandyke  cannot  be  forgotten.  The  Flem'ngs  formerly  engross- 
 ed tapestry  weaving  to  themselves.  They  have  invented  various 
 valuable  manufactures. 
 
 Cities  and  Toivns.~\  Brussels,  in  Austrian  Brabant,  was  built  in 
 the  latter  part  of  the  9th  century.  It  stands  partly  on  a  hill,  and 
 partly  in  a  valley,  on  the  banks  of  the  Sonne,  a  branch  of  the 
 Scheldt,  and  is  said  to  be  seven  miles  in  circumference.  The 
 chief  edifices  are  the  church  of  St.  Guduic,  the  palace,  the,  guild- 
 hall, an4  the  hotel  de  ville.  There  is  a  park,  a  green  walk  on  the 
 canal  2  miles  in  length,  7  market  places,  and  20  public  fountains 
 adorned  with  statues.  Its  camlet  and  tapestry  were  formerly  in 
 higii  estimation,  and  its  lace  and  its  carpets  are  known  all  over 
 the  woi'id.  It  contained,  in  1802,  66,297  inhabitants.  Before 
 the  revolution,  Brussels  was  the  capital  uf  the  Austrian  Nether- 
 lands. 
 
 Antwerp  is  built  in  a  large  plain,  on  the  east  bank  of  the 
 Scheldt  ;  which  is  deep  enough  to  admit  vessels  of  great  burthen 
 close  to  the  quays;  and  by  means  of  the  canals  vessels  may  be. 
 brought  to  unload  at  the  very  doors.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  wall 
 3Jid  regular  fortifications.     The   streets  are  genarally  wide  {ind 
 
NETHERLANDS.  245 
 
 straight.  The  chief  edifices  are  the  cathedral,  the  stadthouse, 
 and  the  exchange.  Its  population,  in  1803,  was  56,318  souls — 
 About  two  centuries  and  a  half  ago  Antwerp  was  the  most  com- 
 mercial city  in  the  world.  In  1543,  it  contained,  according  to 
 Guicciardini,  100,000  inhabitants.  When  the  Dutch  revolted 
 from  Spain,  they  destroyed  the  commerce  of  this  city,  by  sinking 
 obstructions  in  the  channel  of  the  river. 
 
 Ghent,  in  Austrian  Flanders,  anciently  TVanda,  was  the  chief 
 city  of  the  JVervii.  It  is  built  at  the  conflux  of  the  Scheldt,  the 
 Lys,  and  the  Licve  ;  and  was  in  the  time  of  Charles  V.  a  large, 
 strong,  and  splendid  city.  It  has  cloth,  linen,  and  silk  manufac- 
 tures, and  its  trade  is  greatly  facilitated  by  several  excellent  ca- 
 nals. It  contained,  in  1802,  55,161  inhabitants.  Charles  V.  was 
 born  here. 
 
 Lisle,  in  French  Flanders,  was  built  in  640.  It  stands  in  a  rich 
 marshy  plain  on  the  Deule,  and  was  fortified  by  Vauban.  Its  cit- 
 adel is  thought  the  strongest  in  Europe,  except  that  of  Turin. 
 The  inhabitants  carry  on  a  variety  of  manufactures,  and  in  1802, 
 amounted  to  54,756. 
 
 Bruges,  in  Austrian  Flanders,  is  built  at  a  small  distance  from 
 the  German  Ocean,  and  has  communication,  by  means  of  canals, 
 with  Dunkirk,  Ostend,  Nicuport,  Sluys,  and  Ghent.  In  the  13th 
 and  14th  centuries,  it  was  the  greatest  emporium  in  Europe.  It  is 
 still  a  place  of  considerable  trade,  and  has  manufactories  of  baize 
 and  linens.     In  1808,  it  contained  33,632  inhabitants. 
 
 Tournay,  Tumacum,  in  Austrian  Flanders,  the  most  ancient 
 town  of  the  Netherlands,  and  a  city  of  the  JVervii^  is  said  to  have 
 been  built  600  years  before  our  Saviour.  It  stands  upon  the 
 Scheldt,  near  tlie  frontier  of  these  provinces.  It  contained,  in 
 1802,  3800  houses,  and  21,349  inhabitants. 
 
 Dunkirk,  in  French  Flanders,  or  (he  church  on  the  downs,  is  a 
 large  maritime  town  with  one  of  the  best  harbours  on  the  coast. 
 The  strength  of  its  fortifications  and  the  fact  that  it  is  the  key  of 
 the  Netherlands,  have  rendered  it  the  object  of  perpetual  conten- 
 tion among  the  various  powers  of  Europe.  Few  towns  have  had 
 so  many  masters,  or  suffered  so  often  or  so  much  from  sieges  and 
 bombardments.  In  1636  it  contained  1639  houses,  and  14,374  in- 
 habitants ;  and  in  1802,  1800  houses,  and  21,158  inhabitants.  The 
 chief  manufactures  are  those  of  tobacco,  starch,  glass  and  leather, 
 beside  several  ropewalks,  distilleries  and  sugar-houses. 
 
 St.  Omcr,  in  Artois,  is  built  on  the  Aa,  and  strongly  fortified. 
 In  1802,  it  contained  20,109  inhabitants. 
 
 Arras,  jVcmetaciati,  on  the  Scarp,  was  the  capital  of  Artois.  The 
 fortifications  were  by  Vauban.  Houses,  in  1802,  3768  ;  inhabit- 
 ants, 19,958. 
 
 Douay,  Duacuiyi,  is  built  in  a  fertile  country  on  the  Scarp,  and 
 is  well  fortified.  Here  are  manufactwrcs  of  earthen-ware,  glass 
 "bottles,  soap,  oil,  tin,  linen,  cambric,  cambric  muslin,  thread,  and 
 thread  lace.  It  contained,  in  1802,  2737  houses,  and  18,230  inhab- 
 itants, 
 
 Monsj  in  Austrian  Hainaut,  on  a  branch  of  the  Scheldt,  is  said 
 
246  NETHERLANDS., 
 
 to  have  been  a  town  cf  some  standing  in  the  time  of  Caesar.  The 
 streets  arc  broad,  and  the  public  buildings  rich  -and  elegant.  In 
 1802,  it  had  4600  houses,  and  18,291  inhabitants. 
 
 Macstritcht,  in  Brabant,  on  the  Meuse,  with  a  small  territory 
 around  it,  belonged  to  the  Dutch.  It  is  one  of  the  strongest 
 places  in  Europe.     It  contained,  in  1802,  17,963  inhabitants. 
 
 Valenciennes,  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Scheldt,  iu 
 French  Hainaut,  is  said  to  have  been  built  by  the  emperor  Valcn- 
 tinian,  A.  D.  367.  The  fortifications  arc  regular  and  strong.  The 
 streets  are  generally  narrow,  dark,  and  crooked.  In  1802,  the 
 town  contained  2500  houses,  and  16,918  inhabitants.  Its  munici- 
 pal laws  have  been  celebrated  for  their  wisdom,  and  were  the 
 models  of  those  of  Venice  and  Nurcmburg. 
 
 Malines,  or  Mechlin,  on  the  Dyle,  a  tiibutary  of  the  Scheldt, 
 was  the  only  archbishopric  of  the  Netherlands.  Here  arc  manu- 
 factures of  bed-quiits,  thread,  and  lace.  These  last  are  celebrat- 
 ed. Here  is  also  an  extensive  cannon  foundery.  In  1802,  the 
 inhabitants  were  16,072. 
 
 Ypres,  or  Ipres,  in  Austrian  Flanders,  has  extensive  manufac- 
 tures of  cloth  and  serge.  It  stands  on  the  Ypre,  and  contained,  in 
 1802,  15,148  iniiabitants. 
 
 Namur,  in  a  valley  at  the  conflux  of  the  Meuse  and  the  Sambre, 
 is  tl  ought  not  to  be  sui^passed  in  the  strength  of  its  fortifications, 
 by  any  place  in  Europe.  The  motto  over  one  of  its  gates  is 
 "  Beddi  non  vinci  fiotcst."     Inhabitants  in  1802,  15,085. 
 
 Cambray,  Catnaracumy  in  Cambresis,  on  the  Scheldt,  near  its 
 source,  is  fortified  by  a  strong  citadel  and  a  fort.  It*  has  twelve 
 churches,  three  abbies,  two  convents,  and  two  hospitals.  Its  prin- 
 cipal manufactures  are  lace,  linen  cambric,  soap  and  leather.  In- 
 habitants in  1802,  15,830. 
 
 Courtrai,  or  Ccrtrick,  in  Austrian  Flanders,  stands  upon  the 
 Lys,  and  is  celcbiated  for  its  manufacture  of  table  linen.  It  has 
 suffered  severely  iu  the  wars  in  the  Netherlands.  Inhabitants,  in 
 1802,  13,572. 
 
 Ostcnd,  in  Austrian  Flanders,  is  built  on  an  excellent  harbor, 
 on  the  German  Ocean.  It  is  one  of  the  keys  of  the  Netherlands, 
 and  rivals  even  Dunkirk,  Namur  and  Maestricht  in  the  strength  of 
 its  fortifications.  At  the  beginning  of  the  1 7th  century,  it  endur- 
 ed a  siege  of  more  than  three  years,  and  was  not  surrendered  till 
 80,000  Spaniards  had  fallen  before  it.  Its  population,  in  1802, 
 amounted  only  to  10,459. 
 
 Luxemburg,  Augii:-ita  Romanorum.,  lies  on  the  Alsitz,  a  branch 
 of  the  Moselle,  and  had  9002  inhabitants  in  1802. 
 
 Edifices.']  Even  at  the  present  day,  every  traveller  is  impres- 
 sed with  surprise,  not  only  at  the  number,  but  the  great  extent  of 
 the  Flemish  cities,  towns,  and  even  villages  ;  in  which  respect  the 
 Netherlands  exceed  every  country  in  Europe,  except  the  United 
 Provinces.  The  chief  edifices  are  the  cathedrals,  churches  and 
 monasteries  ;  though  a  few  castles  belonging  to  ancient  families  or 
 ,  rich  merchants,  used  to  attract  some  notice;  thcjtaste  of  the  lat- 
 ter buildings  being   faithfully  copied  in  the   Flemish  landscapes, 
 
NETHERLANDS. 
 
 24* 
 
 and  more  remarkable  for  peaked  roofs,  fantastic  ornaments,  the 
 muddy  moat,  and  draw-bridge,  than  for  grandeur  of  design,  or 
 beauty  of  situation. 
 
 Inland  J\ravigation.'\  Idle  would  be  the  attempt  even  to  enu- 
 merate tlie  canals  which  intersect  tht-se  provinces  in  all  direc- 
 tions. Some  of  them  date  even  from  the  tenth  century,  and  the 
 canal  from  Brussels  to  the  Scheldt  is  of  the  sixteenth.  Other  im- 
 portant canals  extend  from  Ghent,  Ant«  erp,  Ostend,  and  other 
 cities  and  towns,  especially  in  the  western  districts  ;  but,  under 
 the  Austrian  domination,  these  important  means  of  intercourse 
 were  shamefully  neglected. 
 
 Manufacturca  and  ConunerceJi  The  manufactures  and  com- 
 merce of  the  Netherlands,  for  a  long  period  superior  to  any  in  the 
 west  of  Europe,  have  suffered  a  radical  and  total  decline,  owing 
 partly  to  the  other  powers  entering-  into  competition,  and  partly  to 
 the  establishment  of  freedom  in  the  United  Provinces,  whence 
 Amsterdam  arose  upon  the  ruins  of  Antwerp.  What  little  com- 
 merce remains  is  chieily  inland  to  Germany,  the  external  employ- 
 ing very  few  native  vessels.  The  East  India  Company  establish- 
 ed at  Ostend  was  suppressed  by  the  jealousy  of  England  and  other 
 powers  ;  and  the  chief  commerce  was  afterwards  carried  on  by 
 the  English  established  in  that  city.  Yet  of  the  manufactures  a 
 few  fragments  remain  :  Cambray,  is  still  renowned  for  the  cam- 
 brics which  thence  derived  their  name  ;  as  Tournay,  or  Dornick 
 ■was  anciently  famous  for  the  finest  linens.  At  Bruges  there  are 
 still  some  manufactures  of  broad  says,  baize  and  other  woolens  • 
 considerable  fabrics  of  broadcloth,  druggets,  shalloons,  and  stock- 
 ings, were  conducted  at  St.  Omer,  chiefly  with  wool  smuggled 
 from  England.*  But  the  chief  manufactures  are  of  fine  linen,  and 
 laces,  at  Mechlin,  Brussels,  Ghent,  Antwerp,  and  Louvain,  which 
 still  enrich  the  country  around,  and  induce  the  farmers  to  culti- 
 vate flax,  even  on  the  poorest  3oils.t  The  Netlierlands  produce, 
 for  home  consumption,  abundance  of  corn  and  vegetables ;  and  the 
 coal  mines  would  become  important,  if  the  operations  were  skil- 
 fully conducted.  There  is  besides  abundance  of  turf  for  fuel  ; 
 with  iron,  porcelain  clay,  and  other  commodities. 
 
 CHAPTER  II. 
 NATURAL  GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 CLMIATE,  FACE  OF  THE  COUNTRY,  SOIL.  AND  AGRICULTURE,  RIV- 
 ERS, FORESTS,  MINERALOGY. 
 
 Climate.']  THE  climate  is  equally  moist,  but  less  cold 
 than  that  of  Holland.  It  considerably  resembles  that  of  the  south 
 of  England,  though  the  seasons  are  m6re  regular.  The  vine  is 
 cultivated  with  success  in  Luxemburg. 
 
 Face  of  the  Country.]     Flanders  is  one  uniform  level,  in  whicli 
 tlie  rivers  and  the  canals  are  scarcely  distinguishable.     Farthel- 
 
 *  Marshall,  ii-  U.  r  Tbic^.fiS. 
 
248  NETHERLANDS. 
 
 east  the  country  is  pleasantly  diversified  -with  hills  and  valliesy 
 meadows,  fields,  and  forests. 
 
 '  Soil  and  jigriculture.']  The  soil  is  in  s^eneral  a  rich  sandy  loam, 
 sometimes  interspersed  Avith  fields  of  clay,  but  oftener  -with  large 
 tracts  of  sand.  The  agriculture  of  the  Netherlands  has  been  cel- 
 ebrated for  600  years,  ever  since  their  commerce  and  manufac- 
 tures were  extensive.  They  were  long  considered  the  garden  of 
 Europe  ;  a  praise  which  they  still  share  with  England  and  Lom- 
 bardy.  Flax  is  a  great  source  of  riches  to  the  country.  The 
 butter  and  cheese  equal  those  of  Holland. 
 
 Rivers.~\  The  Scheldt,  the  ancient  Scaldis,  rises  in  France, 
 about  8  miles  N.  of  St.  Quintin,  and  runs  N.  E.  to  Antwerp  7  and 
 thence,  N.  W.  to  the  German  Ocean.  About  15  miles  below  Ant- 
 werp, it  divides  into  numerous  branches,  which  encompass  the  isl- 
 ands of  Zealand.  These  branches  are  called  by  the  Dutch 
 Zecuivsche  Stromen,  or  sea  {itrea?ns,  being  chiefly  arms  of  the  sea. 
 The  length  of  this  river  is  about  150  iTiiles. 
 
 The  Lys  rises  in  France,  near  Lysburg,  and  runs  N.  E.  to  the 
 Scheldt,  which  it  joins  at  Ghent. 
 
 The  Dender  falls  into  the  same  river  at  Dendermondc. 
 
 The  Dyle  rises  a  little  N.  W.  of  Namur,  and  unites  with  the 
 Scheldt  at  Niel,  after  receiving  the  Derme,  the  Sennc,  and  the 
 Nette. 
 
 The  Meuse  has  been  described. 
 
 The  Sambre  rises  near  Nouvion,  and  runs  N.  E.  to  Namur, 
 where  it  falls  into  the  Meuse. 
 
 The  Moselle,  Mosella,  rises  in  the  mountains  of  the  Vosges, 
 runs  through  Luxeml^urg,  and  falls  into  the  Rliine  at  Coblentz. 
 
 Forests.^  That  of  Soigne  is  in  Brabant.  Further  to  the  cast 
 and  south,  are  immense  forests,  which  almost  pervade  Hainaut 
 and  Luxemburg,  from  Valenciennes  to  Treves,  forming  striking 
 remains  of  the  ancient  forest  of  Ardenne. 
 
 Mineralogy.  Coal  is  found  in  several  districts.  Lead  and  cop- 
 per are  found  in  Namur  ;  in  Hainaut  iron  and  slate  ;  and  Luxem- 
 burg derives  its  chief  wealth  from  its  iron  works.  Marble  and 
 alabaster  are  also  found  in  the  eastern  districts. 
 
FRENCH  EMPIRE.  249 
 
 *  C) 
 
 ,—i 
 
 ys 
 
 00    — 
 
 t^ 
 
 00 
 
 »n  CO 
 
 -1   CO  CO 
 
 to 
 
 C\ 
 
 a  '^'' 
 
 <o 
 
 vo 
 
 in  (y> 
 
 a> 
 
 00    V3 
 
 O    —    00 
 
 o 
 
 t^ 
 
 «  o 
 
 i-H 
 
 1^ 
 
 CM  (N 
 
 (N 
 
 n 
 
 O  1^ 
 
 vo  -^  »o 
 
 t>. 
 
 Oi 
 
 ■V  CO 
 
 >r> 
 
 rl< 
 
 a>  00 
 
 <o 
 
 <o 
 
 vn  l^ 
 
 o  av  — ' 
 
 C) 
 
 «— « 
 
 rt  CO 
 
 lO 
 
 lO 
 
 ■-H      .-H 
 
 <o 
 
 in 
 
 <— 4      >— < 
 
 —       « 
 
 '^ 
 
 ■* 
 
 •^ 
 
 ^~ 
 
 c/5  a.  "  Nl 
 
 5' 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 Chief 
 Bru 
 
 Ghe 
 
 lation. 
 
 ,121 
 
 ,964 
 
 f-  fi^S  wtoOT;,.  Ptfl       <U       U^S       6/34) 
 
 coir)>oh.-^»0-<i<  h-  '-C»-^  00 
 
 OOOO^CO^X^UD^G^  00  OOiOCO  C^ 
 
 "^  in  CTt     C7>     oco— 'OiioOt^  CO  00  O'.  c^  «? 
 
 £-<oc~i     CO     b--*co-^CNoo<o  — >  TifinTft  ^ 
 
 pll^^iO       00       >0'*-<*(NCM— "CN  to  C^C^CO  <£> 
 
 3 
 
 :^ 
 
 w 
 (J 
 
 ■< 
 
 to 
 
 OT 
 
 S.2 
 
 j2 
 
 •5 
 
 S 
 
 lU 
 
 ■a  ^ 
 
 ti 
 
 >, 
 
 .  <u 
 
 rt 
 
 c  0 
 
 C/3  ^ 
 
 QQ> 
 
 P5  -TJ  »  S 
 
 A 
 
 ^ 
 
 c: 
 
 -^ 
 
 c 
 
 J3 
 
 0 
 
 CJ 
 
 H 
 
 c  ?i 
 
 s      0 
 
 -S    rt 
 
 0     0 
 
 tf  C/2 
 
 ^    Pi 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 rt 
 
 Oj 
 
 (0 
 
 0 
 
 CL, 
 
 «  <*-   oT 
 
 X  r5  +_   3 
 
 r  "  ^-rt*3  !-_.  3<UiU 
 
 3K  ^t«  "^^O  **1~TI.  in 
 
 ^  1-  "S  ^'  .2   ^  t;  'r;  t"-  3  <^^  c«  <-  u-  ^  rt  -^ 
 
 r^Wfi,     <;  <  c«  ?;  p,  12;  p,  ^     a,p,p«(i,     ow 
 
 >?; 
 
 VOL.  II.  .  32^ 
 
250 
 
 FRENCH  EMPIRE. 
 
 »;  <o  Tf  C'}  --  —  »o  •^  — '  00 
 
 .•^IvTt-Tcryo'to'o  O  ^  O 
 a  Ti"  o»  --  to  — '  C~J 
 
 cri  CN  o  CO  >o  Tf  CO  o  — •  CO  T? 
 Oc^JcocnO^Ocooo'^'^^O 
 rrco^br-TaicTaToiooour 
 
 o 
 
 go 
 
 §  I  3  o  I  ^ 
 
 '    O    '^    ul 
 
 O     g     g     M 
 
 S  °  § 
 
 S  :z;  W  O  !^  <1  Q  S  > 
 
 c    „ 
 
 m  o 
 «h3 
 
 eo  to  h.  Ni  <0 
 
 c»  cj  o  o  r» 
 
 ci  a>  >o  T?  •* 
 
 -*"  o"  oiT  c<>  00 
 00  CO        -< 
 
 O    rt 
 
 y   fl   ^ 
 COS 
 
 3    <u    t« 
 
 Gpiw<^ 
 
 S—  co^oco»ncoo— 'incob-b-a>oooooM»o<o»oo 
 •^corNco^— 'CiC'-OOOCcoooo— ■ir!i^-*^Dcoi>--<j< 
 jS'O'OO'iJOO'^O^l^l^d    —   ^O^^c^ooxoo^    0^«3 
 
 5--CJdoocoo-*Oi^"*— "C^'*'*ooo^»~-t--'^t-^ 
 
 3"COCNtCICOC>'-    >O-^c0C0t^'*C0O00C0-*'*CTlCN    00 
 
 (i<£!Ti<eo-*o»coc»CM(MC^coc^co-^-<i'cocoT}>c-»(MC<» 
 
 ■3  CO  K  ^  O  ■* 
 
 :5  iv  —  c»  (N  b- 
 
 t^   CO    00^  CT>  «2L 
 
 S  ci  c"  ^  »o  i-o" 
 
 S5    •«*<    00    <£>    <N  -- 
 
 ~v  O   Ti<   ifj  T^  -"a* 
 
 o 
 
 <"  £  o  « 
 
 t-  c/:  O  S  O  W 
 
 #\ 
 
 u 
 
 0 
 
 t> 
 
 0 
 
 g 
 
 0 
 
 (h 
 
 [ii 
 
 P^ 
 
 « 
 
 n3 
 
 V 
 
 C 
 
 bo 
 
 c 
 
 4i 
 
 a 
 
 u 
 
 a 
 
 u 
 
 jg 
 
 0 
 
 U 
 
 •^ 
 
 o> 
 
 c 
 
 *N 
 
 60 
 
 ■iH 
 
 0 
 
 bo 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 q; 
 
 pq 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 73 
 
 -M 
 
 c 
 
 (1 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 hi 
 
 Pi 
 
 di 
 
 o 
 
FRENCH  EMPIRE. 
 
 251 
 
 'Jo  *n  9S        v5C^i^oo>ncocN-<cocooo«oo<o 
 
 00  fO  »n  vj  O  W 
 
 CM    C-l    >0   (N    O    <0 
 >rt   00    cT  CO    -*   Q 
 
 M  .2 
 
 o   o'C 
 
 ^  C  CO 
 
 «  5    • 
 
 %  <u 
 
 «  aj   rt 
 
 ^ « s 
 
 O      ;^      CS 
 
 c   o   t- 
 
 y        ^   u   cfi   2 
 
 S  <«  s  ^^ « s 
 
 »*    •>-<       fW      —I      >•     ^ 
 
 .^  ^  o  i> 
 
 «>;z;H^j<JHOuma«;z;pH 
 
 o  .t; 
 
 o  ■»-• 
 
 o  j: 
 
 ooo«c        (7ioo*oOMeoOoot»(N  —  b-jO— < 
 cO—        t>-o><o  —  cob-i^oom—  o— <■^^^ 
 
 qu>OV5  ■<i'C0C0'»*COC0<NC^(NCMC»CN(N<N 
 
 00  t^  u^   ■^   N-  «^ 
 
 »o  O  <^   C)   t^  O 
 
 <o  00  i^  cj^  "#  — « 
 
 (N  O  ■*    "O    —  C* 
 
 ■*  vo  ■*   CM   <N  O 
 
 (N  (M  (N    (N    CO  •* 
 
 JZ  >— 
 
 o 
 
 c  c  "J 
 
 (^1 
 
 o  g 
 
 DO-:; 
 
 -C  "C  'U 
 
 3 
 
 *->>s>-.t-it-t:j-ifc-r>?"C>— I 
 
 C 
 
 c 
 
 u   -;   o    c   " 
 
 OS 
 
 CO  "in 
 
 I 
 
 n 
 
 4) 
 
 o 
 
 u 
 
 S   c<i 
 
 c  o 
 
 cf 
 
 £-1  Q) 
 
 o      n 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 •  F^ 
 
 a 
 
 O 
 
 s 
 
 hJ 
 
 D 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 to 
 
 *-> 
 
 3 
 
 < 
 
 p* 
 
 T3 
 
 ta 
 
 m 
 
 c 
 
 d 
 
 O 
 
 bo 
 
 ^ 
 
 c 
 o 
 
 ■Ji 
 
U5^  FRENCH  EMPIRE. 
 
 o> 
 
 r 
 
 o 
 
 rt 
 
 3 
 
 CO 
 
 rt 
 
 •— • 
 
 CO   (N    <7i    OC   SO   <0    VO   S*-    >o   CTi    'ft   -J    Oi   —  "*    -*   c-i   o^   CO   Ci    ^O    O   t-  C^ 
 C0O<0tMC0CTi<0t--<;0<£>CTih.— -t^Oi    —    C^OC^    —    OO'OyS 
 
 l^Oi  ''>c^c>'^°o,i^^o^*^-^c^-^"^oooh-a>b-o<:oco^ 
 
 CT>   —   — <  lO— '   —    CO  —   CO   00  CO—' 
 
 :?^       42    SJoSd-Sx^^JS^^ShJo^^. 2  o-e:c,o  0^0053 
 3 
 
 d 
 
 c  j:~      00 
 
 0 
 
 >r) 
 
 r<> 
 
 xo 
 
 m 
 
 >o 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 fN 
 
 CO 
 
 <o 
 
 h- 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 T}- 
 
 0 
 
 CO 
 
 r^ 
 
 C71 
 
 (J> 
 
 CO 
 
 -* 
 
 '^ 
 
 K 
 
 v> 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 Ck 
 
 a» 
 
 Tl< 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 
 0 
 
 (J> 
 
 CN 
 
 ^^ 
 
 CM 
 
 to 
 
 ^ 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 — • 
 
 cr, 
 
 fN 
 
 00 
 
 ri< 
 
 0 
 
 >n 
 
 CO 
 
 «D 
 
 00 
 
 i>- 
 
 '— 
 
 00 
 
 0 
 
 UD 
 
 »n 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 CO 
 
 — " 
 
 — ' 
 
 — ^ 
 
 C7> 
 
 CO 
 
 'JO 
 
 C 
 
 <o 
 
 10 
 
 -<# 
 
 CO 
 
 V5 
 
 0 
 
 r^ 
 
 rN 
 
 o> 
 
 CO 
 
 _• 
 
 ^ 
 
 <o 
 
 CO 
 
 _ 
 
 ^ 
 
 0 
 
 <£> 
 
 c-^ 
 
 (N 
 
 'O 
 
 0 
 
 ^^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 h- 
 
 r^ 
 
 00 
 
 0 
 
 CO 
 
 .—4 
 
 >o 
 
 00 
 
 r>» 
 
 Ch 
 
 CO 
 
 0 
 
 00 
 
 0 
 
 CI 
 
 CO 
 
 <N 
 
 N. 
 
 M 
 
 'O 
 
 0 
 
 to 
 
 0 
 
 (N 
 
 n 
 
 0 
 
 CM 
 
 CO 
 
 -* 
 
 in 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 tN 
 
 CN 
 
 c< 
 
 CO 
 
 "^ 
 
 "" 
 
 Tf 
 
 CJ 
 
 CN 
 
 CO 
 
 ""^ 
 
 c^ 
 
 CN 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 C^ 
 
 in 
 
 CN 
 
 cs» 
 
 £3  O 
 
 rt 
 
 o 
 
 is 
 
 t)  O 
 
 o  -  -zp 
 
 C;  o  U 
 
 CO                           C  r^.  2Q 
 
 g  ,  CO  vl> 
 
 "^  OS 
 
 o 
 
 tJ 
 
 ^  w  r 
 
 P5  O  ffl 
 
 ,!_) 
 
 c 
 
 'U 
 
 5 
 
 "6 
 
 0 
 
 P^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 S 
 
 ^ 
 
 c 
 
 •N 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 -c 
 
 c 
 
 u 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 t/? 
 
 r^ 
 
 ;2 
 
 c 
 
 t. 
 
 0 
 
 w 
 
 fcO 
 
 c 
 
 :3 
 0 
 
 c5 
 
 0 
 
 ;3 
 
 rt 
 
 pi. 
 
 J 
 
 1—1 
 
 < 
 
 ■p. 
 
FRENCH  EMPIRE. 
 
 251 
 
 C<»0(NOfN'*'*a>>ri»Oh-C>»<OOC9'OVDO<OVO  'T^ 
 
 3  ^ 
 
 cjcN.  c->        c»  —  —  r»  —  1^        —  CO  00        —<       ^> 
 
 o  o    o    O    S 
 
 o 
 
 JyO  > 
 
 C     >    c<J 
 
 s-riio^.oC^'yoH 
 
 3 
 
 J>c 
 
 a^  S 
 
 >  <5  .=*  -r  o  ■"  -^  -r  •S  S 
 
 ^    O    ^    3    i,    U 
 
 ^.5 
 
 2  S 
 o   o 
 
 •  =h.lv-tO00O    —    Ob-00—    'O    _ 
 ^■CN    ■*    00   O    C^ 
 
 O'OCON-C^JCOiO'tOOt^C 
 
 ^     ^  -^  C-l    — '    30    >-l   C^    O   O    C    b^ 
 lO    00    «0    O    O    CO    •'f  C>»    ■*    oT  O^  C^  t^   CO 
 
 -SJ  -     CX      ^T      UU     ^-^*      ^'C      ^J^       ^^      ^1      ' — ■      L.X      U*!      wfi      U-i      Ul      IjX       ^      -"      U)      »-" 
 
 "»-    e"  CO    — '    CN    ^   "   CN    •*   CJ   O   —   C^    (N    •<3<   CO   (M   (M    CO   CO   — 
 
 fi  ^ 
 
 .2 
 
 0 
 
 D.  ^ 
 
 < 
 
 a< 
 
 o  <J 
 
 «5  —  o 
 5 
 
 *J    *J     cj 
 
 o 
 
 •g  .2  S:  c  G,  o 
 
 o  Jii 
 
 G    to 
 
 J 
 
 .a 
 
 o 
 
 £ 
 
 « 
 
 > 
 
 Sh 
 
 t3 
 
 1) 
 
 c 
 
 E 
 
 cJ 
 
 o 
 
 c 
 
 < 
 
 3 
 
 Q 
 
 ba 
 
 3 
 O 
 
 2  ^ 
 
 O    °    (L* 
 
 be*-  .2 
 
 3  5^ 
 
 n  +;;  o 
 
 *j  2  5  p 
 J5  5  o  rt 
 
 c 
 o 
 
 s 
 
 "3 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 O 
 
 S    S- 
 
 ^    " 
 
 ^  tf 
 
 o 
 
 u 
 
 2  » 
 
 4) 
 
 V 
 
 ^ 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 4^ 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 r> 
 
 tr, 
 
 JZ 
 
 <u 
 
 ►"1 
 
 r> 
 
 -»- 
 
 » 
 
 i^ 
 
254 
 
 FRENCH  EMPIRE. 
 
 The  annexation  of  what  was  lately  the  kingdom  of  Holland, 
 during  the  present  year,  has  added  to  what  is  called  France  12,662 
 square  milef,  and  2,001,416  inhabitants. 
 
 H.     DEPENDENXIES. 
 
 I.  In  Italy  and  the  Mediterranean, 
 
 1.  Etruria 
 
 1.  The  territory  of  Florence 
 
 2.  The  territory  of  Pisa 
 
 3.  The  territory  of  Siena 
 
 The  islands  Gorgona,  Giglio,  and  Gianuti 
 
 2.  Parma  and  Piacenza 
 
 1.  Duchy  of  Parma 
 
 2.  Duchy  of  Piacenza 
 
 3.  Ionian  Islands 
 
 1.  Corfu 
 
 2.  Paxo  with  Antepaxo 
 
 3.  Santa  Maura 
 
 4.  Cefalonia 
 
 5.  Theaki 
 
 6.  Zante 
 
 7.  Cerigo 
 
 4.  Lucca  and  Piombino 
 
 1.  Lucca 
 
 2.  Piombino 
 
 3.  Massa,  Carrara  and  Garfagnana 
 
 5.  Principality  of  Beneventum 
 
 6.  Principality  of  Ponte  Corvo 
 
 II.  In  Switzerland, 
 
 7.  Principality  of  Neufchatel 
 
 1 .  County  of  Neufchatel 
 
 2.  County  of  Vallcngin 
 
 III.  In  Germany, 
 
 1.  Hanoverian  States 
 
 1.  Calenburg  , 
 
 2.  Luneburg 
 
 3.  Lauenburg- 
 
 4.  Hadeln 
 
 5.  Duchy  of  Bremen 
 
 6.  Verdcn 
 
 7.  Hoya 
 
 8.  Diepholx 
 
 2.  Swedish  Pomerania 
 
 3.  Erfurt  with  Blankcnhayn 
 
 4.  Bayreuth 
 
 5.  Fulda 
 
 6.  Hanau 
 
 7.  Lower  Catzenebolgen 
 
 Square  Miles. 
 
 26,542 
 
 11,650 
 
 7,715 
 
 1896 
 
 965 
 
 1,074 
 
 175 
 
 44 
 
 362 
 
 14,530 
 
 InliabitaTits. 
 2,978,000 
 1,725,000 
 1,100,000 
 
 240,000 
 
 187,000 
 
 172,000 
 
 20,000 
 6,000 
 
 47,C«00 
 
 1 ,206,000 
 629,0Q|i) 
 
 1  1  6,000 
 5 1 ,000 
 
 335,000 
 9 1 ,000 
 66,000 
 18,000 
 
FRANCE. 
 
 CHAPTER  I. 
 HISTORICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 KAMES,  BOUNDARIES,  EXTEKT,  ORIGINAL  POPULATION,  PROGRES- 
 SIVE GEOGRAPHY,  HISTORICAL  EPOCHS,  ANTiqUITIES,  RELIGION, 
 GOVERNMENT,  POPULATION,  COLONIES,  ARMY,  FORTIFICATIONS, 
 NAVY,  REVENUE,  POLITICAL  IMPORTANCE  AND  RELATIONS, 
 MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS,  LANGUAGE,  LITERATURE,  EDUCATION, 
 CITIES  AND  TOWNS,  SEAPORTS,  EDIFICES,  ROADS,  INLAND  NAV- 
 IGATION AND    CANALS,  MANUFACTURES  AND  COMMERCE. 
 
 J^fames.']  THAT  the  Phenicians  occasionally  visited 
 France  in  their  voyages  to  Spain  and  England  is  highly  probable  ; 
 but  we  know  of  no  name  Avhich  the  country  then  bore,  except  that 
 which  it  received  in  common  with  the  rest  of  Europe,  from  the 
 early  Asiatics.  The  aborigines  styled  themselves  Celtae.  The 
 Gi'eeks  called  the  country  Galada,  and  the  inhabitants  Golatae. 
 Timaeus  Siculus  asserts  that  a  colony  of  lonians,  sailing  from 
 Phocea,  founded  Marseilles,  1 20  years  before  the  battle  of  Saiamis  ; 
 corresponding  with  600  before 'the  christian  era.  About  480 
 years  afterwards  the  Romans  explored  the  S.  E.  parts  of  France, 
 and  soon  founded  the  province  called  Gallia  Braccata.  They 
 gave  the  name  of  Gallia  to  the  whole  country,  though  the  name 
 Gain  was,  in  the  time  of  Caesar,  especially  appropriated  to  the 
 Celtae.  The  tribes  in  the  north  were  then  called  Belgae  ;  those 
 in  the  south  Aquitani.  The  name  Armorica,*  signifying  maritime^ 
 was  likewise  given  to  the  territory  of  the  Celtae.  The  country 
 was  called  Mranvia  or  France  after  it  was  taken  possession  of  by 
 the  Franks. 
 
 Boundaries.']  What  was  France  before  the  revolution  was 
 bounded  W.  by  the  Bay  of  Biscay ;  N.  W.  by  the  English  clian- 
 nel ;  N.  E.  by  the  Netherlands  ;  E.  by  Germany,  Switzerland  and 
 Italy ;  S.  E.  by  the  Mediterranean ;  and  S,  W.  by  Spain.  The 
 subsequent  annexation  of  Holland  and  the  Netherlands  makes  the 
 Bay  of  Biscay,  the  English  channel,  and  the  German  ocean,  the 
 western  boundary  ;  and  the  German  ocean  the  northern.  The  ad- 
 ditions in  the  S.  E.  have  still  left  Italy  a  part  of  the  eastern 
 boundary. 
 
 Extent.']  The  length  of  France,  in  1790,  from  Calais  to  the 
 Pyrenees,  was  620  miles  ;  and  its  greatest  breadth  from  Cape  St. 
 Mahe  to  the  Rhine,  560.  It  extended  from  42  10  to  51  N;  and 
 from  4  40  W.  to  7  'iO  E.  Its  contents  were,  according  to  Her- 
 bin  and  Chanlaire,  as  quoted  by  Hasscl,  exclusive  of  the  islands 
 
 •  Armorica  especially  denoted  the  country  betwec-.i  the  Seine  ."^nd  the  Loire ; 
 though,  ill  the  time  (it" C'lBSiii",  ii  w:is  give'i  to  the  whole  nurllicrii  and  vcsiern  co"st. 
 Between  these  two  nvers,  and  in  vai-ious  otIuT  ,iaris  of  the  eouiitn,  liie  Lellic  long 
 continued  the  vernacular  tongue.    This  dialect  ol'it  was  culled  the  Jltinuric. 
 
256  FRANCE. 
 
 Corsica  and  Elba,  187,385  square  miles,  or  119,926,400  acres, 
 Templeman  estimated  them  at  186,282  square  miles,  or 
 119,220,874  acres;  while  Neckar  made  them  205, Sl6  square 
 miles,  or  13,1,722.295  acres.  Pinkerton's  estimate,  at  148,840 
 square  miles,  is  doubtless  far  short  of  the  truth.  The  table,  which 
 is  taken  from  Hassel,  states  the  extent  of  France  in  1809,  when  the 
 Netherlands,  all  of  Germany  west  of  the  Rhine,  the  little  territory 
 of  Geneva,  and  the  western  part  of  Italy  had  been  added.  The 
 contents,  as  there  stated,  are  244,270  square  miles  ;  of  which  ' 
 4,135  are  contained  in  the  islands  Corsica  and  Elba  ;  and  17,500 
 were  added  from  the  Netherlands  ;  12,720  from  Germany,  and 
 22,530  from  Italy,  including  the  territory  of  Geneva,  containing 
 about  60  square  miles.  If  to  this  sum  we  add  the  square  miles  in 
 Holland,  we  shall  have  a  grand  total  of  256,932.*  The  present 
 length  of  France,  from  the  Pyrenees  to  the  north  coast  of  Holland 
 is  790  miles. 
 
 Origmal  Pojiulatioii.  The  Celts  were  the  first  inhabitants  of 
 Gaul ;  and.  for  a  long  period,  they  appear  to  have  occupied  the 
 whole  country  without  disturbance.  The  Ionian  colony  has  been 
 mentioned.  Before  the  time  of  C?csar,  the  Belgae,  a  Gothic  nation, 
 had  crossed  the  Rhine  ;  and,  in  his  first  campaign,  he  found  them 
 possessed  of  the  territory  N.  and  E.  of  the  Marne  and  the  Seine. 
 The  Jr/uitani,  also,  probably  of  African  origin,  had  advanced  fi'om 
 Spain,  and  driven  the  Celts  before  them  as  far  as  the  Garonne. 
 In  the  4th  century  a  Celtic  colony  from  Britain,  in  consequence  of 
 the  Saxon  invasion,  settled  in  Armorica.  In  the  5th,  the  Franks 
 or  Freemen  ;  an  assemblage  of  Gothic  tribes  from  the  district 
 between  the  Weser,  the  Rhine,  and  the  ocean ;  overspread  the 
 country,  and  became  the  governing  nation.  Early  in  the  1 0th,  the 
 J^ormen^  from  Scandinavia,  seized  upon  Normandy.  Their  de- 
 scendants are  now  possessed  of  that  province. 
 
 Progresfiive  Geografihy.~\  The  Romans  appear  at  first  for  a  long- 
 time to  have  had  very  confused  notions  of  the  situation  and  extent 
 of  Gaul.  The  name  Gallia  was  first  given  to  all  that  part  of  Italy, 
 which  lies  north  of  Ancona^  on  the  Adriatic,  in  lat.  43  37.  After 
 the  conquest  of  this  region  the  Roman  arms  advanced  westward ; 
 and,  about  the  year  120  B.  C.  reduced  the  S.  E.  part  of  France. 
 The  country,  before  called  Gallia  simply,  now  received  the  name 
 of  Gallia  Cisalpina  :  while,  on  an  indefinite  extent  west  of  the 
 maritime  Alps,  was  bestowed  the  name  of  Gallia  Transalfiina ; 
 and,  on  that  part  of  it  which  they  had  just  subdued,  the  name  of 
 Pro-vincia  Rornana^  including  the  late  provinces  of  Languedoc, 
 Provence,  Dauphine,  and  Savoy.  The  stale  of  the  country  in  the 
 time  of  Julius  Caesar  has  been  mentioned.  Transalpine  Gaul 
 was  then  considered  as  comprehending  Switzerland,  and  all  the 
 country  between  the  ocean,  the  Pyrenees,  the  Mediterranean,  the 
 
 '  Tlie  minister  of  the  Interior,  in  his  Exposition  of  the  ttate  of  the  French  empire 
 presented  to  the  1  cgislaiive  body,  .[line,  1811 — says,  "Since  your  last  cession,  the 
 empire  has  recciNedan  addition  of  IC  departments,  5,000,000  of  people,  a  territory 
 yielding  a  rcvL-iiUe  of  100,000.00.)  of  livres,  an  )iundreil  leaijiies  of  coast,  vilh  aH 
 their  maritime  means." 
 
FRANCE.  2A7 
 
 Alps,  and  the  Rhine.  Augustus  gave  the  nawnc  of  Gallia  jYurbo' 
 ?2e7isis  to  the  Provincia  ;  and  divided  the  rest  of  Transalpine  Gaul 
 into  ^(/uUatiia,  between  the  Pyrenees  and  the  Loire  ;  Gallia  Ccl- 
 tica^  between  the  Alps,  the  Loire  and  the  Seine  ;  and  Gallia  Bel- 
 fficay  north  of  the  Seine,  and  also  including  Switzerland.*  In  the 
 the  new  arrangeme^it  of  the  empire,  made  by  Constantine,  Trans- 
 alpine Gaul  was  divided  into  17  provinces.  At  its  final  subversion, 
 the  Armorici,  deserted  by  the  Romans,  formed  themselves  into  a 
 commonwealth,  to  resist  Clovis,  king  of  the  Francs.  This  they 
 did  with  success  ;  but  soon  after  were  amicabJy  received  into  the 
 number  of  his  subjects.  At  the  same  time  the  Burgundians,  whose 
 kingdom  lay  along  the  Rhine  and  the  Rhone,  maintained  their  in- 
 dependence, and  were  not  reduced  into  the  form  of  a  province,  till 
 the  year  5:14. 
 
 Historical  E/iochs.~\  I.  The  possession  of  the  country  by  th.3 
 Celtae,  the  Belgae,  and  the  Aquitani. 
 
 2.  The  conquest  by  Caesar,  in  the  yeaf  54  B.  C.  and  the  subse- 
 quent dominion  of  the  Romans. 
 
 3.  The  establishment  of  the  Merovingian  line  of  kings  in  448, 
 and  the  complete  overthrow  of  the  Roman  power  by  Clovis,  grand- 
 son of  Merovacus,  in  487.  Nine  years  afterwards  the  Francs,  with 
 Clovis,  v.erc  converted  to  Christianity. 
 
 4.  The  elevation  of  Pepin,  the  head  of  the  Carlovingian  race,  in 
 75 1  ;  followed  20  years  afterwards,  by  the  celebrated  reign  of 
 Cluirlemagne  ;  who  subdued  that  part  of  Spain  which  lies  north 
 of  the  Ebro,  Italy  north  of  Calabria,  the  whole  of  Germany,  and  a 
 part  of  Hungary.  He  was  the  founder  of  the  German  empire, 
 and  was  crowned  in  the  year  800. 
 
 5.  The  accession  of  the  House  of  Capet,  in  987,  which,  till  then, 
 had  borne  the  title  of  Counts  of  Paris. 
 
 6.  The  Crusades,  in  which  the  French  acted  a  conspicuous 
 part,  in  the  13th  century. 
 
 7.  The  wars  of  the  English  in  France,  and  the  temporary  con- 
 quest of  the  country  by  Henry  V.  in  1421.  These  wars  continu- 
 ed from  1337,  to  1450. 
 
 8.  The  accession  of  the  House  of  Valois,  a  collateral  branch  of 
 the  House  of  Capet,  in  1328. 
 
 9.  The  reign  of  Louis  XI.  beginning  1461.  He  rendered  tiic 
 monarchy  absolute. 
 
 10.  The  civil  wars  with  the  Pi-otestants,  and  the  massacre  of 
 St.  Barthclemy  in  1571. 
 
 11.  The  accession  of  the  House  of  Bourbon,  a  second  collater- 
 al branch  of  the  House  of  Capet,  in  the  persoai  of  Henry  IV.  justly 
 styled  the  Groat,  in  1588. 
 
 12.  The  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  often  styled  the  Augustan  age  of 
 France. 
 
 13.  The  French  revolution. 
 
 *  The  Rom.ins  also  ^ve  the  name  of  Gallia  To^cita,  to  Cis.Mpine  Gaul,  because 
 the  inhabitants  uore  the  Roman  toga ;  that  of  Galliu  Bvaccata,  to  the  Provinein,  on 
 account  also  ot"  the  (h-e&s  ot  the  inhabitants;  anil  that  of  Giillia  Cotnata,  to  (clfic 
 (jaul,  because  the  people  siiffeied  their  hair  to  grow  to  an  uncommon  length. 
 
 VOL.  II.  33 
 
l3o8  FRANCE. 
 
 14.  The  erection  of  France  into -an  empire,  and  the  accession 
 of  the  family  of  Bonaparte,  Dec.  2d,  1804. 
 
 yJntic/uities.^  Several  ancient  monuments  exist  in  France 
 Avhich  are  ascribed  to  the  first  epoch.  The  Greek  colony  at  Mar- 
 seilles seems  to  have  imparted  some  degree  of  civilization  to  the 
 country,  and  the  rude  Gallic  coins  are  evidently  an  imitation  of 
 the  Grecian  model.* 
 
 The  Roman  aiili'-;uities  in  France  are  numerous,  and  some  of 
 them  in  excellent  preservation.  Those  at  Nismcs  arc  particularly 
 celebrated,  consisting  chiefly  of  an  amphitheatre,  and  the  temple 
 called  La  Maison  Carre.  The  architeeCure  and  sculpture  of  this 
 building  are  so  exquisitely  beautiful,  that  it  enchants  even  the 
 most  ignorant ;  and  it  is  still  entire,  being  very  little  affected  ei- 
 ther by  the  ravages  of  time,  or  the  havoc  of  war.  At  Paris,  in  La 
 Rue  de  laHarpe,  may  be  seen  the  remains  of  a  palace,  or  thermse, 
 supposed  to  have  been  built  by  the  emperor  Julian,  surnamed  the 
 Apostate,  about  the  year  3.56,  after  the  same  model  as  the  baths  of 
 Dioclesian.  The  remains  of  this  ancient  edifice  are  many  arches, 
 and  within  them  a  large  saloon.  It  is  fabricated  of  a  kind  of  mas- 
 tic, the  composition  of  which  is  not  now  known,  intermixed  with 
 small  square  pieces  of  free  stone  and  bricks. 
 
 In  Aries  in  Provence  is  to  be  seen  an  obelisk  of  oriental 
 granite,  which  is  52  feet  high,  and  seven  feet  diameter  at  the  base, 
 and  all  but  one  stone.  Roman  temples  are  frequent  in  France. 
 The  most  curious  are  in  Burgundy  and  Guienne  ;  and  other  plac- 
 es, besides  the  neighborhood  of  Nismes,  contain  magnificent  ru- 
 ins of  aqueducts.  The  passage  cut  through  the  middle  of  a  rock 
 near  Eriancon  in  Dauphiny  is  thought  to  be  a  Roman  Avork,  if  not 
 of  greater  antiquity.  The  round  buckler  of  massy  silver,  taken  out 
 of  the  Rhone  in  1665,  being  20  inches  in  diameter,  and  weighing 
 21  pounds,  containing  the  story  of  Seipio's  continence,  is  thought 
 to  be  coeval  with  that  great  general.  It  would  be  endless  to  re- 
 count the  different  monuments  of  antiquity  to  be  found  in  France, 
 particularly  in  the  cabinets  of  the  curious.  These  have  been 
 greatly  increased,  during  the  revolution,  by  the  spoils  obtained  in 
 Italy,  Egypt,  Sec. 
 
 Accerding  to  Raymond  the  very  summit  of  Mount  Perdu,  the 
 highest  summit  of  the  Pyrenees,  10,000  feet  above  the  sea, 
 abounds  with  marine  spoils,  and  must  have  been  covered  by  the 
 sea.  This  observation  is  confirmed  by  La  Peyrouse.  Thus  the 
 everlasting  mountains  tell  the  reality  of  Noah's  deluge. 
 
 Other  periods  of  French  antiquity  have  been  ably  illustrated  by 
 the  learned  work  of  Montfaucon  ;  and  the  disclosure  of  the  grave 
 of  Childeric,  near  Tournay,  in  the  last  century,  presented  some  of 
 the  most  curious  fragments.  In  an  old  tower  of  St.  Germain  du 
 Pre  arc  representations  of  several  of  the   first  monarchs  of  the 
 
 *  In  Picardy  and  other  parts  possessed  by  the  Belgie,  there  are  circles,  and  oilier 
 monuments  of  t!ic  kind  which  we  call  druidic.  Neai-  the  town  of  Carnac,  on  the 
 coa-t  of  \'aniies,  in  Rietagne,  there  is  a  grand  monument  of  this  kind,  far  exceeding 
 Stonehenge,  if  the  account  be  not  exaggerated,  which  sajs,  tliUt  there  arc  about  iOOO 
 stones,  many  as  iiigli  as  18  or  '20  feel,  disposed  in  the  form  of  a  (juincunx  of  elevea 
 
FRANCE.  25^» 
 
 ^Francs,  and  many  of  their  efligies  were  presei'vcd  on  their  tombs  " 
 at  St.  Dennis,  and  other  places,  till  the  late  revolution.  The  ru- 
 ins of  an  amphitheatre  arc  to  be  found  in  Chalons,  and  likewise  at 
 Vicnne.  Nismes,  however,  exhibits  the  most  valuable  icmalns 
 of  ancient  arcliitecturc  of  any  place  in  France.  The  famous  Pont 
 du  Garde  was  raised  in  the  Augustan  age,  by  the  Roman  colony 
 of  Nismes,  to  convey  a  stream  of  water  l)ctween  two  mo\intains 
 for  the  use  of  that  city,  and  is  as  fresh  to  this  day  as  Westminster 
 bridge  :  It  consists  of  three  bridges,  or  tiers  of  arches  one  above 
 another  ;  the  height  is  174  feet,  and  the  length  extends  to  723. 
 
 The  monuments  of  the  Carlovingian  race  arc  yet  more  nume- 
 rous, and  Roman  mosaics  have  illustrated  the  fame  of  Ch.arle- 
 magne.  The  suit  of  tapestry,  preserved  in  the  Cathedral  church 
 of  Bayeux,  in  Normandy,  represents  the  beginning  and  termina- 
 tion of  the  grand  contest  between  William  and  Harold,  which  led 
 to  the  conquest  of  England  by  the  Normans.  It  is  said  to  have 
 been  the  work  of  Matilda,  wife  of  William ;  and  bears  every  mark 
 of  that  remote  antiquity. 
 
 Iieligio7i.~\  Before  the  revolution  the  established  religion  was 
 the  Catholic  ;  and,  after  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes,  in 
 1685,  no  other  christian  sect  was  legally  tolerated.  The  Jews, 
 however,  were  permitted  to  reside  in  various  parts  of  the  king- 
 dom, under  certain  restrictions.  The  Pope  had  always  less  inter- 
 est in  the  Galilean  church,  than  in  those  of  most  other  catholic 
 countries,  the  benefice  being  entirely  in  the  gift  of  the  king.  The 
 French  clergy  were  ntimerous,  and  their  livings  generally  well 
 endowed.  In  1784,  there  were  18  archbishops,  1 1 1  bishops,  166,000 
 inferior  clergy,  and  5,400  monasteries  and  nunneries,  containing 
 200,000  persons  devoted  to  a  monastic  life.  The  church  rcTcnucs 
 amounted  to  121  millions  of  livrcs.  During  the  anarchy  of  the 
 revolution,  the  established  religion  was  abolished,  and  the  worship 
 of  the  Goddess  of  Reason  was  substituted.  The  church  property 
 and  revenues  were  seized  upon  by  the  Sans-Culottcs ;  and  the 
 clergy  were,  in  immense  numbers,  banished  to  Cayenne,  or 
 brought  to  the  guillotine. 
 
 In  1800,  during  the  consulate  of  Bonaparte,  the  catholic  religion 
 was  reestablished  ;  but  the  various  sects  of  Protestants  were  toler- 
 ated. Fraiice  was  divided  into  10  archbishoprics  ;  that  of  Paris, 
 containing  8  bishoprics  ;  that  of  Malincs,  containing  7  ;  Besan9on, 
 5  ;  Lyons,  4  ;  Aix,  4  ;  Toulouse,  5  ;  Bordeaux,  3  ;  Bourges,  3  ; 
 Tours,  7  ;  and  Rouen,  4.  The  church  was  rendered  entirely  in- 
 dependent of  the  Pope.  The  salary  for  the  archbishops  was  fixed 
 at  15,0('0  livres  ;  that  of  the  bishops  at  10,000  :  both  are  appointed 
 by  the  government.  The  bishops  appoint  the  Cures.  The  Cal- 
 vlnistic  churches,  at  the  same  time,  were  placed  under  the  direc- 
 tion of  consistories  and  synods.  A  consistory  was  established  for 
 every  6000  souls  of  this  denomination,  and  3  consistories  formed 
 the  district  of  a  synod.  There  is  a  seminary  at  Geneva  for  the 
 education  of  the  Calvinistic  clergy.  The  Lutheran  churches  were 
 committed  to  local  consistories,  having  a  jurisdiction  equally  ex- 
 tensive v.ith  tl^osc  of  the  Calvinistic  churches  ;  inspections,  hav 
 
260  FRANXE. 
 
 ing  jurisdiction  Cvcr  5  consistories  ;  and  three  General  Consisto- 
 ries :  one  at  Strasburg,  for  Augsburg  emd  the  departments  of 
 Upper  and  Lower  Rhine  ;  a  second  at  Mentz,  for  those  of  Sarre 
 and  Mont  Tonnere  ;  a  third  at  Cohigne,  for  those  of  the  Rhine, 
 Moselle,  and  Roar.  A  seminary  is  established  in  the  east  of 
 France  for  the  education  of  the  Lutherau  clergy.  These  various 
 bodies  can  assemble  only  v.ith  permission  of  the  government. 
 
 As  to  the  present  state  of  the  Catholic  church,  few  of  the  cvu't-s 
 are  supplied  ;  and,  where  cures  arc  found,  they  are,  in  most  in- 
 stances, ignorant  and  profligate.  The  existing  public  schools  fur- 
 nish so  few  of  the  means  of  education  for  the  priesthood  ;  the  an- 
 nual stipend  of  the  inferior  clergy  is  so  little  ;  and  so  much  of  that 
 little  is  withheld ;  and  the  morals  of  the  French  community  are 
 so  generally  corrupt ;  that  few  can  be  found  with  the  disposition, 
 the  courage,  or  the  capacity,  to  discharge  the  clerical  office. 
 
 Go~ocrrnne7it.']  From  the  time  of  Louis  XL  to  the  death  of 
 Louis  XVL  the  French  government  had  been  an  absolute  mon- 
 archy, administered  sometimes  with  n:ildness,  often  with  cruelty. 
 During  the  14  years  of  the  revolution,  the  government  passed 
 through  almost  every  conceivable  form,  ajid  at  length  settled  into 
 an  iron  despotism,  under  Napoleon  Bonaparte.  This  despotism 
 is  military  in  its  character,  and  must  always  depend  on  the  army 
 for  its  support.  The  imperial  dignity  is  hereditary,  in  the  order 
 of  primogeniture,  to  the  exclusion  of  females  and  their  descent. 
 The  members  of  the  Emperor's  family  arc  to  be  princes.  The 
 Great  Dignitaries  are  the  Great  JElecCor,  the  Arch  Chancellor  of 
 the  Empire,  the  Arch  Clianccllor  of  State,  the  Arch  Treasurer, 
 the  Constable,  and  the  High  Admiral  ;  who  rank  next  to  the 
 princes,  form  the  great  council  of  the  Emperor,  as  well  as  that  of 
 the  Legion  of  Honor,  and  are  ex  officio  Senators.  The  Great  Of- 
 ficers of  the  Empire  are  the  Marshals,  the  Colonels  General,  and 
 the  Great  Civil  Officers.  The  most  important  of  these  last  arc 
 the  Minister  of  the  Interior,  of  the  Police,  and  of  the  Finances. 
 All  these  are  iri^movable.  The  Emperor  swears  to  respect,  and  . 
 cause  to  be  respected,  liberty  of  conscience,  and  the  laws  of  the 
 Concordat ;  the  equality  of  rights  ;  political  and  civil  liberty  ;  and 
 to  levy  no  tax,  but  by  virtue  of  a  law.  The  Senate  consists  of  the 
 Princes  ;  of  the  Great  Dignitaries  ;  of  80  members  chosen  by  the 
 Emperor  from  lists  formed  by  the  Electoral  Colleges ;  and  of 
 suca  other  citizens,  as  the  Emperor  shall  choose. 
 
 France  is  subdivided  in  110  De}iartments^\n  each  of  which  is 
 a  Prefect^  and  several  Sub- Prefects.  Their  business  is  mechanic- 
 ally to  execute  the  various  orders  of  the  government,  particularly 
 with  regard  to  taxes  and  the  conscription ;  and  to  act  as  spies  up- 
 on the  inhabitants.  The  departments  are  divided  into  communes^ 
 iu  each  of  Avhich  is  a  JMaijor,  subordinate  to  the  Prefects,  and  also 
 employed  to  administer  the  revenue  for  local  expenses.  There 
 are  assemblies  for  the  departments,  and  likewise  for  the  com- 
 ■Riunes.  The  time  and  duration  of  their  sittings,  and  the  subjects 
 of  their  deliberations,  are  regulated  beforehand  at  Paris.  They 
 do  little  more  than  vote,  and  apportion  ^hc  taxes  ordered  by  the 
 minister  of  Finance. 
 
FRANCE.  261 
 
 The  influence  of  the  government  is  absolutely  universal.  It  af- 
 fects every  iudiviclual,  in  all  his  conduct,  and  in  all  his  interests. 
 All  the  subordinate  civil  officers  are  spies.  They  investigate  ev- 
 ery man's  circumstances,  to  sec  whether  he  has  property  to  bo 
 taxed  or  extorted  ;  and  whether  he  is  a  candidate  for  the  conscrip- 
 tion or  the  bastiles. 
 
 The  great  means  adopted  by  the  government,  to  perpetuate  this 
 system,  has  been  to  corrupt,  hopelessly,  the  morals  of  all  the  offi- 
 cers, civil  and  military  ;  and  then  to  appeal  forcibly  to  their  ava- 
 rice and  their  love  of  power. 
 
 Population.']  The  Imperial  Almanac  of  1808  states  the  popu- 
 lation of  the  whole  empire,  according  to  the  census  of  1807,  ar 
 36,350,987.  Of  these,  26,775,397  belong  to  old  France  ;  and  of 
 the  remaining  9,575,600,  4,140,255  belong  to  the  Netherlands  ; 
 3,291,291  to  Italy,  including  that  of  Geneva;  and  2,144,054  to 
 Germany.  If  to  these  be  added  the  population  of  Holland,  that  of 
 the  whole  French  empire,  as  it  is  in  1811,  will  amount  to 
 38,352,403. 
 
 Colonies.']  At  the  commencement  of  the  revolution  France  had 
 very  valuable  colonics  in  the  West  Indies,  in  South  America,  in 
 Africa,  and  in  Asia.  At  present,  every  one  ot  them,  except  St. 
 Domingo,  is  in  the  hands  of  the  English.  That  island,  we  have 
 already  seen,  forms  an  independent  kingdom. 
 
 jir7ny.]  The  following  is  an  abstract  of  the  account  of  the 
 French  army,  at  the  close  of  the  year  1807,  as  given  in  the  Impe- 
 rial Almanac  of  1808, 
 
 Officers. 
 
 General  Staff  2,049 
 
 Imperial  Guards  847 
 Imperial  Gens  d'armes      693 
 
 Infantry  11,439 
 
 Cavalry  3,234 
 
 Artillery  2,367 
 
 Engineers  602 
 
 V^etcrans  770 
 
 Privates. 
 
 Total. 
 
 2,049 
 
 14,498 
 
 15,345 
 
 16,752 
 
 17,445 
 
 380,290 
 
 391,729 
 
 69,086 
 
 72,320 
 
 49,937 
 
 52,304 
 
 4,186 
 
 4,788 
 
 13,180 
 
 13,950 
 
 Total  22,001  547,929  569,930* 
 
 The  officers  in  the  first  column  are  all  commissioned.  The 
 second  column  includes  both  non-commissioned  oflicers  and  pri- 
 vates. 
 
 The  army,  since  1798,  has  been  raised  by  what  is  called  the 
 Conscrijitioyi.  This  takes  eflcct  every  year,  and  includes  all  the 
 male  population  from  the  age  of  20,  to  25.  All  of  this  description 
 are  liable  to  be  called  into  service  whenever  the  government  di- 
 rects. Those  of  20  are  drawn  out  first.  The  others  remain  lia- 
 ble, till  the  end  of  the  25th  year,  whenever  the  quota  required  is 
 deficient.     If  these  are  found  insufficient,  tlie  conscription  age  is 
 
 *  According  to  Herbin,  the  array  ot  180'2,  contained  600,949  men  ;  the  Political 
 Miscellany,  slates  that  ot"  1805  at  414,1'25  ;  ami  Uoicli  s;iys,  that  that  uf  1806  amounted 
 to  610,976  etlt'ctive  men.  In  June,  1811,  France  had  8W,UU0  men  under  ai'ins.— [£a'- 
 pp^e  of  the  ^Minister  of  the  Interior, 
 
262  FRANCE. 
 
 changed,  and  youths  from  1 6  to  20,  and  men  of  any  age,  over  '25, 
 arc  demanded.  If  the  conscript  can  find  a  substitute  whom  the 
 government  will  accept,  he  may  get  clear  frorn  personal  service  • 
 at  an  expense  of  from  4000  to  6000  francs*  ;  but,  if  the  substitute 
 desert,  the  conscript  still  must  go,  or  procure  another.  If  the 
 conscript  once  sets  out  for  the  army,  there  is  but  little  hope  of  his 
 return.  The  term  of  service  is  limited  only  by  the  duration  of  hos- 
 tilities. The  day  of  drawing  lots  for  the  conscription  is  a  day  of 
 public  mourning  ;  and  of  anguish  for  every  private  family.  For 
 this  reason,  the  public  functionaries  are  obliged  to  employ  every 
 possible  engine  to  accomplish  the  object  ;  threats  and  exhorta- 
 tions ;  force  and  persuasion  ;  fraud  and  violence.  Such  a  scheme 
 of  terror  and  oppression  was  never  before  known  or  imagined. t 
 
 FortiJicatiQns?\^  In  1810  and  1811  more  than  eight  millions 
 were  expended  on  the  forts  of  the  Scheldt.  Other  works  con- 
 structed at  Ostend,  Boulogne,  Cherbourg,  and  Havre.  "Havre 
 had  been  constructed  Uy  Vauban  :  some  years  before  the  Revolu- 
 tion, it  was  thought  proper,  under  foolish  pretences,  to  destroy  the 
 fortifications.  That  city  was  left  dismantled  and  exposed,  which 
 is  the  key  of  the  Seine,  and  which  maybe  propei-ly  called  the  port 
 of  Paris.     It  is  now  fortified,  and  in  a  state  to  support  a  siege." 
 
 At  Corfu,  a  place  already  very  strong,  great  works  have  been 
 constructing  for  the  last  four  years.  New  plans  have  been  adopt- 
 ed, and  this  key  of  the  Adriatic  is  guarded  by  12,000  troops,  hav- 
 ing provisions  for  two  years,  and  a  numerous  artillery  provided 
 for  a  siege  of  the  longest  duration. 
 
 Navy?^  Hassel  states  it,  in  1809,  to  amount  to  40  ships  of  the 
 line,  and  50  frigates.  It  has  since  been  increased.  By  the  an- 
 nexation of  Holland  to  France  she  gained  13  ships  of  the  line,  and 
 10,000  seamen.  Fifteen  ships  of  the  line  were  on  die  stocks  at 
 Antv.erp  in  the  summer  of  1811  ;  and  arrangements  were  dherc 
 made  to  add  annually  a  great  number  of  ships  of  war  to  the  squad- 
 ron in  the  Scheldt.  More  ships  of  the  line  were  in  building  at 
 'Cherburg,  L'Oricnt,  Rochfort,  Toulon,  and  Venice. 
 
 Re-venue.^     Hassel  states  the  revenue  of  four  years  as  follows: 
 
 TrHtiks.  Franks. 
 
 1803  664,500,000         1805    710,000,000 
 
 1804  700,000,000  1807  720,000,000 
 That  of  1807  was  raised  in  the  follo^ying  manner: 
 
 I.  DIRECT  taxe;5  511,840,635 
 
 •     1.  Land  tax  .         244,458,974  I 
 
 2.  Poll  and  furniture  tax  35,381,711 
 
 3.  Door  and  window  tax  16,000,000 
 
 4.  Patent  tax  16,000,000 
 
 II.  INDIRECT  TAXES  378,159,215 
 
 1.  Stamp,  Domain,  "J 
 
 Record,  and  \  180,000,000 
 
 Forest  taxes  J 
 
 2.  Tolls  and  salt  duties  80,000,000 
 
 *  Five  francs  are  commonly  sakl  to  make  a  dollar ;  but  a  iVanc  is  more  exactly  lii 
 (fents,  f^  or  4fi2  sterlbg.  f  See  titber's  Sketches. 
 
FRANCE.  26; 
 
 3. 
 
 Lottenc$ 
 
 12,000,000 
 
 4. 
 
 Post  office 
 
 1 1 ,000,000 
 
 5. 
 
 Trading  companies 
 
 68,000,000 
 
 6. 
 
 Tobacco  ahd  salt  pits 
 
 5,000,000 
 
 7. 
 
 Eastern  salines 
 
 4,625,739 
 
 8. 
 
 Powder  and  saltpetre 
 
 1 ,000,000 
 
 9. 
 
 Mint 
 
 540,000 
 
 lo- 
 
 Remainder of  former  taxes 
 
 8,000,000 
 
 ll. 
 
 Various  revenues 
 
 7,993,576 
 
 II. 
 
 EXTERNAL  REVENUES 
 
 30,000,000 
 
 720,000,000* 
 To  this  should  now  be  added  the  revenue  of  Holland,  amounting 
 to  £  4,375,000  sterling. 
 
 The  expenditure  of  that  year,  as  estimated  by  the  same  author, 
 equalled  the  revenue,  viz. 
 
 Interest  of  national  debt  75,1 59,000 
 
 Civil  list  28,000,000 
 
 Service  of  the  state  616,841 ,000 
 
 720,000,000 
 The  natioiial  debt,  in  1 807,  was  estimateid  at  2,000,000,000  francs'.t 
 A  sinking  fund  of  60,000,000  was  established  in  April,  1806. 
 The  French  Budget  foiM8 1 1,  was  as  follows,  viz. 
 
 Public  Debt.  Li\Tes. 
 
 Perpetual  debt  62,300,000 
 
 Ditto  of  HoUancI  26,000,000 
 
 Floating  debt  16,300,000 
 
 Ditto  of  Holland  1,200,000 
 
 105,800,000 
 Pensions. 
 Pensions  civil  and  Military  10,000,000 
 
 Ditto  of  Holland  3,300,000 
 
 Ecclesiastical  pensions,  28,900,000 
 
 Civil  list  and  French  princes  28,300,000 
 
 80,500,000 
 Services. 
 
 Judicial  salaries  27,466,000 
 
 Exterior  relations  8,800,000 
 
 Interior  60,000,000 
 
 Finance  24,000,000 
 
 Imperial  treasury  8,100,000 
 
 War  230,000,000 
 
 Commissariat  180,000,000 
 
 Marhic  1 40,000,000 
 
 Public  worship  16,500,000 
 
 General  police  2,000,000 
 
 Expenr.cs  of  negotiation  8,500,000 
 
 Fund  of  reserve  23,034,000 
 
 Grand  Total  ,  954,000,000 
 
 *  30,00n,0£)0/.  sterling.  |  83,333,33»/.  sterling. 
 
2G4  '  .^  FRANCE. 
 
 The  current  money  of  France  used  to  be  computed  at  ,C90,000,000^ 
 sterlins:^,  when  that  of  G.  Britain  was  estimated  at  C  40,000,000. 
 
 Political  Imfwrtance  and  Relations.^  France,  at  present,  is  by 
 far  the  mo&t  powerful  nation  on  the  continent,  and  has  command- 
 ing influence  in  almost  every  cabinet  of  Europe.  Holland,  the 
 Netherlands,  a  part  of  Germany  and  Italy,  are  integral  parts  of  her 
 einpire.  The  States  composing  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine, 
 Svv'itzerland,  and  the  residue  of  Italy  are  mere  dependencies. 
 Denmark  and  Sweden  are  barely  above  a  state  of  vassalage.  The 
 dissolution  of  the  Germanic  body,  the  late  misfortunes  and  losses 
 of  Austria,  and  the  disgraceful  alliance  by  which  they  v.'cre  ter- 
 minated, prove  at  once  how  low  her  government  is  sunk,  and  how 
 little  can  be  l)c  hoped  irora  her  exertions.  Prussia  must  side 
 with  France  or  Russia,  when  they  quarrel,  and  will  fall  to  the 
 conqueror.  Russia  has  always  been  at  a  distance  from  the  scene 
 of  action,  and  her  whole  strength  has  never  been  called  forth.  She 
 has,  on  the  Avholc,  been  a  gainer  by  the  troubles  of  Europe,  in  ex- 
 tent, wealth,  and  population.  With  a  great  man  to  direct  her  re- 
 sources, she  would  meet,  without  fear,  the  legions  of  the  French 
 Emperor,  and  stand  w  ith  Great  Britain,  a  bulwark  of  almost  sub- 
 jugated Europe.  But  the  House  of  Romanof  has  lost  its  original 
 .s:reatness.  Turkey  is  kept  from  crumbling  to  pieces  by  the  com- 
 pression from  without.  She  is  safe,  however,  so  long  as  France- 
 and  Russia  cannot  agree  as  to  the  division. 
 
 The  resources  of  France  may  be  estimated,  with  considerable 
 accuracy,  from  the  following  table,  in  round  numbers,  of  the  pop- 
 ulation, and  armies  of  the  empire,  and  bf  the  several  states  which 
 are  noAV  dependent : 
 
 Popul.ition.  Army. 
 
 France  36,351,000  570,000 
 
 Dependencies  2,978,000  20,000 
 
 Holland  2,001,000  22,000 
 
 Confed.  of  the  Rhine  16,928,000  205,700 
 
 Kingdom  of  Italy  6,389,000  40,000 
 
 Naples  4,964,000  21,600 
 
 Ecclesiastical  state  68,000  4,700 
 
 Switzerland  1,638,000  15,000 
 
 Denmark  2,609,000  75,000 
 
 Sweden  3,191 ,000  43,000 
 
 77,717,000  1,057,000 
 
 Maymcrs  and  Custoins.~\  The  French  are  distinguished  fo* 
 „  taste  and  elegance  in  their  houses,  furniture,  equipage,  and  dres  s 
 for  ease  and  gracefulness  of  manners  ;  for  quickness  of  apprchcn-; 
 sion  ;  for  vivacity  and  gaiety  of  temper  ;  and  for  a  perpetual  fond- 
 ness for  anmsement  and  pleasure.  This  is  the  bright  side  of  the 
 medal.  The  reverse,  painful  and  distressing  before  the  revolu- 
 tion, is  now  loathsome  and  awful.  During  the  revolutionary  peri- 
 od of  anarchy,  the  morals  of  the  nation,  distinguished  for  their 
 corruption  before,  were  rendered  immensely  more  corrupt  by 
 profligate  rulers  and  profligate  literati.     The  restraints  of  law,  of 
 
FRANCE.  2.p5 
 
 i;eUgion,  and  of  decency,  were  taken  off,  and  the  worst  passions 
 of  the  mind  were  kept  in  a  steady  and  violent  action.  This  state 
 of  things  produced  in  those,  who  were  already  grown  up,  a  hope- 
 less abandonment  of  principle  and  of  decency  ;  while  it  cut  off  the 
 young,  not  only  from  the  possession  of  them,  but  even  from  the 
 knowledge  of  what  they  w.ere.  The  present  government,  so  far 
 from  remedying  these  evils,  has  only  increased  them.  The 
 French,  as  a  nation,  are  at  present,  by  the  confession  even  of  sober 
 and  discreet  Frenchmen,  false  and  faithless  ;  revengeful  and  san- 
 guinary. The  law  of  divorces  has  rendered  marriage  the  mere 
 cover  for  prostitution  ;  and  France  presents  at  this  moment  the 
 picture  of  one  great  common  brothel,  in  which  every  variety  of 
 lewdness  is  indulged  without  shame  and  without  restraint.  The 
 only  liberal  education  is  that  for  the  army  ;  and  the  young  men  of 
 promise  and  of  rank  have  only  this  advantage  over  their  inferiors, 
 that  they  are  earlier  fitted  for  scenes  of  l^arbarity  and  bloodshed. 
 This  sanguinary  education  explains  the  havoc  and  the  ruin,  which 
 every  where  mark  the  progress  of  French  arms  ;  and  which  have 
 rendered  Frenchmen  the  objects  of  terror  and  abhorrence  wher- 
 ever they  are  known. 
 
 Languag-e.']  The  French  is  a  corruption  of  the  Latin,  with  many 
 Gothic  and  some  Celtic  words  intermixed.  Even  in  the  10th 
 century  it  was  called  the  Jio?nancc,  a  name  afterwards  transferred 
 to  the  tales  and  poems  of  chivalry,  which  are  written  in  this  dialect. 
 The  language  did  not  attain  to  classical  purity,  till  the  reign  of 
 Louis  XIV.  The  earlier  specimens  both  of  prose  and  poetry  are, 
 in  «.  greater  or  less  degree,  rough  and  barbarous.  It  was  always 
 a  commanding  object  with  the  government  to  extend  the  French 
 language  and  French  fashions;  and  at  this  time  the  language  is 
 more  universally  diffused  than  any  other  in  Europe.  Its  purity 
 has,  however,  been  very  much  corrupted  by  the  introduction  of 
 new  and  barbarous  words  and  phrases  since  the  revolution. 
 
 Literature.^  The  French  were  long  distinguished  for  their 
 attention  to  elegant  literature  ;  and  their  researches  in  mathe- 
 matical and  physical  science  have  been  highly  respectable.  Even 
 in  the  Roman  period  we  find  Ausonius,  Sidonius  ApoUinaris,  and 
 Sulpilius  Severus,  who  has  been  styled  the  christian  Sallust.  After 
 the  conversion  of  the  Franks  to  Christianity,  the  literature  of  the 
 nation  was  confined  chiefly  to  the  ecclesiastics.  Among  these 
 Gregory,  of  Tours,  is  distinguished  by  his  History  of  France,  his 
 Lives  of  the  Saints,  and  his  Credulity.  At  the  period  of  the  re- 
 formation, France  may  boast  of  having  given  birth  to  Calvin,  a 
 man  surpassed  by  no  one  of  the  reformers  in  vigor  of  intellect,  or 
 force  of  eloquence.  Descartes,  in  spite  of  his  whims  and  his  vor- 
 tices, ranks  nigh  among  natural  philosophers.  He  was  the  first 
 who  applied  algebra  to  the  solution  of  geometrical  problems. 
 Any  nation  might  have  been  proud  of  D'Alembert,  as  a  mathema- 
 tician. Buffon  in  natural  history  would  yield  the  palm  only  to 
 Linnaeus,  while  in  chemistry,  Lavoisier,  Fourcroy,  and  Chaptal 
 may  claim  a  fall  equality  with  Black,  Priestley,  and  Davy.  In  the 
 eloquence  of  the  senate  and  of  the  bar,  the  French,  for  obvioys 
 
 VOL.    II.  J4 
 
2&6  FRANCE. 
 
 reasons,  cannot  vie  v.-ith  the  English  ;  but  in  the  pulpit,  Bos- 
 suet,  Bourdaloiie,  IVIassillon,  and  Saurin  can  find  few  compet- 
 itors. Robert  Hali  alone  can  challenge  a  decided  superiority. 
 In  epic  poetry  the  French  have  as  yet  done  nothing  ;  for  the  Henri- 
 ade  of  Voltaire  is  the  effort  of  a  child.  But  the  tragedies  of  Cor- 
 neiile,  of  Racine,  and  of 'Crebillon,  and  the  comedies  of  Moliere, 
 can  never  be  forgotten  ;  Avhile  in  sound  criticism  and  elegant  sa- 
 tire, Boileau  stands  unrivalled  since  the  days  of  Horace.  In  the 
 lighter  belles  lettres,the  French  are  distinguished  for  the  number 
 of  their  agreeable  Avriters  ;  among  whom  may  be  mentioned  Mon- 
 taigne, D'Argens,  Rousseau  and  Marmontel.  At  the  present  time 
 science  is  encouraged,  only  as  it  has  a  tendency  to  promote  the 
 views  of  the  government.  The  attention  of  the  French  savans, 
 therefore  is  ctiiefly  directed  to  the  mathematics  and  the  various 
 branches  of  natural  history.  lordly  a  man  of  learning,  in  the  ap- 
 propriate sense  of  the  word,  is  to  be  found  in  the  nation.  The 
 study  of  the  Greek  and  the  oriental  languages  has  been  banished 
 from  the  public  schools,  and  the  writers  of  antiquity  are  seen  only 
 in  a  French  costume. 
 
 Jiducalion.l^  By  the  imperial  decree  of  Api'il  1808,  the  various 
 schools,  academies,  and  colleges  of  France  are  connected  together, 
 and  form  the  Imperial  Uni-vtrsity.  This  is  composed  of  as  many 
 Provmcial  jicademics^  as  there  are  courts  of  appeal  in  the  empire. 
 The  schools  belonging  to  each  Academy  are  arranged  in  the  follow- 
 ing order.  1.  The  Faculties^  for  the  more  profound  sciences,  and  for 
 the  conferring  of  degrees.  2.  The  Lyctums  or  Lycees,  for  the 
 classics,  history,  logic,  ma^ematics,  and  physics.  3.  The  Colleges^ 
 for  the  elements  of  the  classics,  of  history,  and  of  the  sciences. 
 4.  Schools  kept  by  private  musters^  in  which  the  instruction  ap- 
 proaches that  of  the  Colleges.  5.  Boarding  schools^  where  it  is 
 less  severe.  G.  Primary  schools,  were  reading,  writing,  and  arith- 
 metic are  taught.  The  members  of  the  faculties  are  men  of  mere 
 science,  and  those  who  are  soon  to  be  the  professors  of  the  infe- 
 rior institutions.  Of  the  Lyceums  there  are  45  in  the  empire. 
 Each  has  a  board  of  8  professors,  and  a  library  of  1500  volumes, 
 both  selected  by  the  government.  No  additional  books  can  be  in- 
 troduced without  the  permission  of  the  minister  of  the  interior. 
 The  government  also  prescribes  the  price  of  tuition,  the  internal 
 discipline,  and  the  course  of  instruction.  Arrest  and  imprison- 
 ment arc  the  only  punishments  inflicted  on  delinquents.  The 
 course  of  studies  embraces  the  latin,  history,  chronology,  geogra- 
 phy, the  belles  lettres,  the  mathematics,  and  natural  philosophy. 
 Beside  the  professors,  there  is  an  officer  intilled  L'  Officier  In- 
 utructeur,  who  is  charged  with  the  militi^ry  inst'uction  of  the  pu- 
 pils. They  are  divided  into  companies  of  25  with  each  a  sergeant 
 major,  a  sergeant,  and  4  corporals.  They  assemble  at  given 
 hours  of  the  day,  and  go  through  with  all  the  military  evolutions. 
 The  students  are  composed  of  the  children  of  the  weaitliy  families 
 of  France,  and  of  those  who  are  educated  at  tnc  public  expense. 
 Of  these  last  the  government  may,  by  law,  maintain  four  thousand 
 from  old  France,  selected  trom  the  best  proficients  in  the  colleges  ; 
 
FRANCE.  26r 
 
 and  two  thousand  four  hundred  from  the  territories  lately  an- 
 nexed. Those  who  maintain  themselves  may  enter  the  Lyceums 
 without  any  previous  instruction,  except  that  of  readins^  and 
 writing.  They  correspond  only  with  their  relations,  and  their  let- 
 ters are  subjected  to  the  perusal  of  the  faculty.  They  are  not 
 privileged  from  the  conscription ;  and  if  they  escape  it  during 
 their  scholastic  career  of  six  years,  they  are  then  drafted  for  it, 
 or  transferred  to  the  military  academies,  or  employed  as  public 
 functionaries  in  the  departments.  The  students  educated  at  the 
 public  expense,  are  said  to  exceed  in  number  those  educated  by 
 their  parents  at  the  Lyceums.  The  professors  are  generally  per- 
 sons of  slender  abilities,  and  are  very  miserably  supported  by  thcii 
 salaries.  The  buildings  appropriated  to  these  institutions  are  in  a 
 neglected  and  mouldering  state. 
 
 In  each  of  the  colleges  the  government  maintains  25  students. 
 Little  solid  instruction,  however,  can  here  be  obtained.  The  infe- 
 rior schools  are  absolutely  neglected.  The  poverty  of  the  rural 
 communes ;  and  the  want  of  capable  teachers,  are  the  reasons  as- 
 signed by  the  director  general.  Scarcely  any  of  the  common  peo- 
 ple are  able  to  read  and  write,  and  their  ignorance  is  not  compen- 
 sated by  religious  instruction.  The  instructors  of  all  these  va- 
 rious seminaries  are  appointed  directly  or  indirectly  by  the  gov- 
 ci-nment.  The  military  academies  contain  about  fifteen  hundred 
 young  men,  all  supported  by  the  state.  They  are  selected  from 
 the  alumni  of  the  Lyceums.  The  term  of  instruction  is  two  years. 
 They  are  supplied  with  the  ablest  professors,  and  are  in  every 
 respect  admirably  organized.  They  send,forth  annually  a  host  of 
 accomplished  officers,  engineers  and  mechanicians.* 
 
 Cities  and  Towns.']  The  number  of  large  and  populous  towns 
 in  France  is  so  great,  that  only  a  small  part  of  them  can  be  par- 
 ticularly described.  Exclusive  of  those  in  Holland  and  the  Neth- 
 erlands, there  are  considerably  more  than  100  towns  in  the  empire 
 whose  population  exceeds  10,000. 
 
 Paris,  Lutetia,  Lutctia  Farisiorum,  and  Farisii,  was  the  capital 
 of  tlie  Pcmi/,  a  tribe  of  the  Celts,  who  set  fire  to  it  when  they 
 were  invaded  by  Caesar.  It  was  rebuilt  by  the  emperor  Julian, 
 and  enlarged  by  Clovis,  who  made  it  the  royal  residence.  It  was 
 then  neglected,  till  about  954,  when  Hugh  Capet  made  it  the  cap- 
 ital of  the  kingdom.  It  has  been  the  capital  ever  since.  It  is 
 built  on  an  extensive  plain  on  both  sides  of  the  Seine,  and  on  three 
 islands  in  that  river,  in  a  healthy  and  pleasant  situation,  with  de- 
 
 •  "  All  public  education  ought  to  be  FeguUited  on  the  principles  of  military  disci- 
 pline, and  not  on  those  of  civil  or  ecclesiastical  police. — The  habituate  ofiiiililary  disr 
 cii)line  is  the  most  useful,  since  at  all  periods  of  life  it  is  rennisite  for  the  citizen  to  be 
 able  to  defend  his  property  against  internal  or  external  enemies. 
 
 ♦'Ten  yeai's  more  are  still  requisite  for  realizing  all  the  benefit  which  his  majesty 
 expects  from  the  University,  and  for  accomplishing  his  views;  but  already  great  advan» 
 tages  are  obtiiined,  and  what  exists  is  preferable  to  what  has  ever  existed. 
 
 *'  For  the  primary  instruction  of  children  his  majesty  perceives  with  pleasure  the 
 ,    establishment  of  small  schools ;  he  desires  their  increase. 
 
 "Besides  the  houses  of  St.  Dennis  and  — . — ,  six  houses  have  been  established  for  the 
 education  of  girls  whose  fathers  have  been  devoted  to  the  service  of  the  state." — [£-V- 
 pose  of  the  Mir\isCer  of  the  Interiov,  June,  1811. 
 
•268  FRANCE. 
 
 lightful  environs  ;  and  is  said  to  be  1 1  miles  in  circumference. 
 It  co\  ers  a  very  large  freestone  quarry,  which  has  furnished  ma- 
 terials for  most  of  the  houses,  and  has  been  so  extensively  exca- 
 vated, that  an  earthquake  might  easily  bury  the  citv-  The  num- 
 ber of  houses  is  32,000,  from  four  to  seven  stories  high,  generally 
 handsome,  and  with  uniform  fronts.  The  population  in  1807, 
 was  547,756.  The  tinest  public  buildings  are  the  Louvre,  one  of 
 the  noblest  specimens  of  modern  architecture,  the  church  of  St. 
 Genevieve,  the  Thuilleries,  the  Palais  Royale,  and  the  Hospital  of 
 Invalids.  The  city  has  beea  enlarged,  and  greatly  improved, 
 since  the  revolution:  particularly  by  the  collections  of  paintings, 
 statues,  and  other  objects  of  taste  and  curiosity,  which  have  been 
 plundered  from  the  conquered  countries.  Paris  surpasses  Lon- 
 don in  magnificence,  but  yields  to  it  greatly  in  cleanliness  and 
 convenience.  The  streets  are  generally  without  sidewalks  for 
 foot  passengers,  and  the  narrowness  of  many  of  them  renders  this 
 EL  very  serious  i^iconveniencc.  There  are  12  bridges  over  the 
 Seine,  and  26  fine  quays  along  its  banks.  There  were,  before  the 
 revolution,  88  churches,  40  chapels,  10  abbeys,  28  priories,  and 
 103  convents,  besides  numerous  hospitals  and  seminaries.* 
 
 Marseilles,  Massilia.,  has  already  laeen  mentioned  as  founded  by 
 the  Phoceans.  It  is  seated  at  the  foot  of  a  rocky  mountain  near 
 the  sea,  and  is  divided  into  the  old  and  new  town.  The  former  is 
 on  an  eminence,  has  narrow  crooked  streets,  and  mean  houses  ; 
 in  the  latter  the  streets  arc  straight  and  broad,  and  the  houses 
 handsome.  The  harbor,  a  parallellogram,  with  buildings  on  both 
 sides  and  one  of  the  ends,  is  well  defended,  capacious,  and  one  of 
 the  best  in  the  Mediterranean ;  but  the  entrance  has  not  depth  of 
 water  enough  for  men  of  war.  Here  is  a  large  arsenal,  and  one 
 of  the  finest  armories  in  the  kingdom.  The  population,  in  1807, 
 was  96,4  J 3. 
 
 Bourdeaux,  Burdcgala,  is  built  on  the  W.  bank  of  the  Garonne, 
 about  40  miles  from  its  mouth.  The  tide  flows  quite  up  to  the 
 city ;  its  port  is  ample,  commodious,  and  strongly  fortified  ;  and 
 ships  of  considerable  burden  may  unload  at  the  quays,  which  are 
 grand  and  extensive.  It  is  the  first  commercial  town  in  France, 
 and  formerly  it  was  not  unusual  to  see  400  or  500  vessels  in  the 
 harbor  at  once.     The  chief  exports  were  brandy  and  claret.    The 
 
 *  "  The  canal  of  rOiircqne,  and  the  distribution  of  its  waters  In  the  different  parts 
 of  Paris,  are  attended  with  an  expense  of  two  miUioo  and  a  half  of  francs  a  year.  In  a 
 few  years  these  works  will  be  completely  finished. 
 
 ''Already  ^ixty  fonntains  spread  the  waters  of  the  Ourcque  in  the  different  quarters 
 
 of  Paris.    The   water  arrives  there   constantly. The  Seine,   the   Marne,  the 
 
 Yonnc,  and  the  Oise,  have  considerable  works  constructing  on  them  to  improve  the 
 navigation. 
 
 •'  The  cut  of  St.  Maure  which  will  be  finished  in  the  next  year,  will  shorten  the 
 navigation  of  the  Marne  by  five  leagues,  and  will  spread  its  waters  by  numerous  chan- 
 nels.    'I'he  *.luices  constructed  at  Port  d  Arche,  at  Vernon,  and  at ,  will  facilitate 
 
 the  n.ivigation  of  the  Seine  ;  and  other  sluices  will  continue  it  to  'J'royes  and  I'Aube. 
 
 "The  bridges  of  Choisy,  Besen,  and  Jena,  facilitate  the  communications,  or  concur 
 in  the  establishment  of  the  cajiital.  > 
 
 "  The  Louvre  is  finishing  ;  tUcy  are  pulling  down  that  quantity  of  houses  which  was 
 between  the  I,ouvre  and  Uie  Thuilleries.  A  second  galltiy  ic-uuites  the  two  palacev.'* 
 J  Expose  vj  the  ^Minintcr  yftlie  Jntenor,  Jviir,  1811-. 
 
FRANCE.  269 
 
 theatre  is  the  most  magnificent  of  any  in  France.  The  tower-  gate, 
 constructed  in  the  lime  of  Augustus ;  the  amphitheatre,  an  oval 
 of  227  feet  by  140  ;  and  the  palace  of  Gallicnus,  are  among  the 
 vestiges  of  Romam  art  and  grandeur.  The  annual  tempera- 
 ture oi  Bourdcaux  is  56.8°.     The  population  in  1808,  was  90,992. 
 
 Lyons,  Lug-dunu»i,  at  the  conflux  of  the  Rhone  and  the  Saone, 
 was  built  by  Plancus  10  years  before  tlve  birth  of  Christ.  It  was 
 the  second  city  in  France  before  the  revolution,  and  is  said  to  have 
 contained  150,000  souls.  It  was  the  centre  of  the  inland  com- 
 merce in  this  part  of  the  kingdom,  and  the  seat  of  the  most  exten- 
 sive manufactvires.  Irreparable  injury  was  done  to  the  city  by 
 the  jacobin  party,  in  consequence  of  the  fidelity  of  the  inhabitants 
 to  the  king.     In  1802  it  had  1 1,000  houses,  and  88,919  inhabitants. 
 
 Rouen,  Rotonmgus,  the  ancient  capital  of  the  Velecasses,  is  built 
 on  the  Seine,  and  is  a  large  commercial  and  manufacturing  town. 
 In  1802  it  had  about  10,000  houses,  and  84,223  inhabitants. 
 
 Nantes,  Condi-vicnum,  the  ancient  seat  of  the  Ac/m^^t's,  is  situat- 
 ed on  the  Loire,  and  is  one  of  the  largest  trading  cities  in  France. 
 It  had  in  1807  about  13,000  houses,  and  77,162  inhabitants. 
 I  Toulouse,  Tolosa,  the  chief  city  of  the  Tolosates,  is  built 
 upon  the  Garonne.  The  streets  are  broad,  and  the  houses  chiefly 
 of  brick.  The  town  annals,  kept  since  1288,  contain  all  the  me- 
 morable transactions  of  the  kingdom.  A  few  miles  below,  the  ca- 
 nal of  Languedoc  joins  the  river,  which  here  becomes  navigable. 
 It  had  50,171  inhabitants  in  1802. 
 
 Strasburg,  or  the  city  of  the  street,  so  called  because  it  is  the 
 thoroughfare  between  France  and  Germany,  is  situated  at  the  con- 
 flux of  the  He  and  the  Brusch,  about  a  mile  from  their  entrance  into 
 the  Rhine.  The  cathedral  is  a  beautiful  Gothic  structure  of  the 
 11th  century.  The  town  was  taken  from  the  emperor  in  1682. 
 Most  of  the  inhabitants  are  Lutherans.  Here  are  manufactures  of 
 tobacco,  china,  steel,  lace,  carpets,  cloth,  and  leather.  Houses 
 4000;  inhabitants,  in  1802,49,056. 
 
 Cologne,  Colonia  ^grijifiina,  in  the  ancient  territories  of  the 
 Ubii,  is  built  in  the  form  of  a  crescent  on  the  Rhine,  and  is  fortified 
 in  the  ancient  manner ;  but  its  walls  are  weak  and  tottering.  It 
 extends  3-|  miles  along  the  river.  The  streets  are  narrow,  wind- 
 ing, and  gloomy  ;  and  most  of  the  houses  high,  old,  and  ruinous. 
 It  contains  very  numerous  churches,  chapels,  and  monasteries ; 
 and  an  uncommon  number  of  ecclesiastics  and  beggars.  The  few 
 protestants  who  live  here  engross  all  the  wealth  of  the  city.  This 
 place  is  two  centuries  behind  the  rest  of  Germany  in  improve- 
 ment. The  quay,  a  mile  and  a  half  long,  is  always  crowded  with 
 sliipping  ;  but  the  cargoes  are  the  property  of  foreign  merchants. 
 Inhabitants,  in  1807,  42,706. 
 
 Orleans,  Geitabuni,  in  the  country  of  the  ancient  Camu^e*,  stands 
 upon  the  Loire,  and  is  one  of  the  most  agreeable  cities  in  France. 
 The  principal  trade  is  in  stockings,  sheepskins,  brandy,  corn,  and 
 wine.     Inhabitants,  in  1802,  41,937. 
 
 Amiens,  Samarobriva,  the  capital  of  the  ancient  Ambiani^  is  built 
 pn  the  Sommc.     It  abounds  with  woollen  manufactures.     The 
 
'^ro  FRANXE. 
 
 cathedral  is  large  and  beautifully  liglit  and  decorated.     Houses,  in 
 1807,  5980  ;  inhabitants  41,279. 
 
 Nismes,  JVc7naususy  at  a  little  distance  from  the  Vistrc,  is  large 
 and  pleasantly  situated  on  the  side  of  a  hill,  covered  with  vine- 
 yards and  orchards  of  fruit.  Here  are  manufactures  of  cloth,  silk, 
 and  stockings.  Here  likcAvisc  are  reliques  of  Roman  art  of  uncom- 
 mon beauty  and  magnificence.  The  amphitheatre  is  a  prodigious 
 woi'k,  capable  of  holding  17,000  persons.  The  temple  ot  Diana, 
 the  grand  tower,  the  ancient  baths  and  the  IMaison  Quarre,  a  tem- 
 ple of  tlie  Corinthian  order;  all  discover  exquisite  taste,  and  arc 
 in  perfect  preservation.  Houses,  in  1807,  4,500;  inhabitants 
 39,594. 
 
 Angers,  Juliorvagus^  the  chief  town  of  the  ancient  ^Indrs,  stands 
 at  the  confluence  of  the  Maine,  the  Little  Loire,  and  the  Sartc.  It 
 has  1 6  parish  churches.  The  cathedral  is  a  beautiful  building. 
 The  castle  is  built  upon  a  rock.  It  had  in  1802,  5410  houses,  and 
 33,900  inhabitants. 
 
 Montpellier  stands  upon  a  rising  ground  fronting  the  Mediter- 
 ranean, which  is  about  nine  miles  to  the  south.  On  the  north  is 
 an  agreeable  plain  extending  about  the  same  distance  to  the  moun- 
 tains of  the  Cevenner.  In  clear  -weather  the  Alps  arc  distinctly 
 visible  to  the  east,  the  Pyrenees  to  the  southwest,  and  the  Mediter- 
 ranean to  the  south.  The  streets  are  generally  narrow,  and  the 
 houses  dark.  The  climate  was  long  famous  for  its  mildness  and 
 salubrity.  It  is  said  to  have  altered.  Here  are  manufactures  of 
 silk  and  woollen  goods.  Cette  is  the  port  of  Montpellier.  The 
 goods  are  carried  up  to  the  town  on  the  canal,  llouses,  about 
 8,000,  and  inhabitants,  in  1807,  32,723. 
 
 Metz,  Divodururn,  anciently  the  capital  of  the  Mtdiomalricit  and 
 afterwards  of  the  kingdom  of  Austrasia,  stands  at  the  conflux  of 
 tlie  Seillc  and  Moselle,  The  houses,  though  old  fashioned,  are 
 handsome,  but  the  streets  are  narrow.  The  town  is  well  fortihed, 
 and  in  1807,  contained  5,827  houses,  and  32,099  inhabitants. 
 
 Caen  lies  in  a  vallej ,  at  the  conflux  of  the  Orne  and  Odon," 
 about  seven  miles  from  the  English  channel.  It  has  a  good  trade 
 in  cloths  and  fine  linen.  The  royal  square  is  spacious  and  regular. 
 In  1807,  it  had  about  10,000  houses,  and  30,923  inhabitants. 
 
 Rheims,  Durocotorum^  anciently  the  capital  of  the  Rhcmi^  is  sit- 
 uated on  the  Vesle.  It  has  several  fine  remains  of  Roman  anti- 
 quities. Formerly  the  archbishop  of  Rheims  was  the  first  peer 
 of  France,  and  always  crowned  the  king.  In  1802,  it  had  30,225 
 inhabitants. 
 
 Clermont,  Augustonometiun^  a  town  of  the  Jrvern^  is  seated  on 
 a  small  eminence  at  the  foot  of  a  lofty  mountain.  A  wooden 
 bridge,  over  a  brook  in  one  of  the  suburbs,  is  completely  petrified. 
 Inhabitants,  30,000. 
 
 Besancon,  Fisontis,  on  the  Doubs,  the  ancient  capital  of  the  Se- 
 guani,  is  surrounded  by  high  mountains,  and  badly  fortified.  Here 
 ai-e  many  remains  of  Roman  magnificence.  It  contained,  in  1807, 
 3,293  houses,  and  28,436  inhabitants. 
 
 Nancy,  .A'wsmw,  the  capital  of  the  Lingoncf.  and   afterwards  ol 
 
FRANCE.  2ri 
 
 the  duchy  of  Lorraine,  stands  upon  the  Meurte,  in  a  beautiful  an4 
 fertile  plain.     In  1807,  it  contained,  28,227  inhabitants. 
 
 Versailles,  at  the  close  of  the  last  century,  was  a  little  village- 
 in  the  midst  of  a  forest.  Louis  XIV.  made  it  the  royal  residence. 
 It  contained,  in  1802,  27,574  inhabitants. 
 
 The  large  towns  taken  from  Italy  will  be  described  under  that 
 article. 
 
 The  following  towns  arc  not  in  the  table  :  Abbeville  18,125  in- 
 habitants; Aach  24,419;  Aix  21,009;  Aries  18,470;  Bayonne 
 13,190;  Beziers  14,535;  Chalons,  on  the  Marne,  11,120;  Cha- 
 lons, on  the  Saone,  10,431  ,  Cherbourg  1 1,389  ;  Coblcntz  10,691  ; 
 FAienne  16,259;  Falaise  12,549;  Issoudun  10,265;  Lisieux 
 10,171  ;  Luneville  10,436;  Mentz  21,583;  Moissac  10,035; 
 Montauban  21,958  ;  Orient  17,837  ;  St.  Quintin  10,458  ;  Rennes 
 25,984;  Riom  13,828;  Sens  10,603  ;  Servans  10,150;  Thiers 
 10,605  ;  Verdun  10,172;  Verviers  10,072  ;  Vienne  10,362  ;  Ville 
 Franche  10,009.. 
 
 St'a/ioris.l[  Several  have  already  been  mentioned.  Toulon'on 
 the  Mediterranean,  a  little  east  of  Marseilles,  has  an  outer  harboi- 
 which  is  large,  circular,  and  surrounded  by  hills.  The  entrance 
 on  both  sides  is  defended  by  a  foi't  with  strong  batteries.  This 
 harbor  communicates  with  two  inner  basins,  called  the  old  and  the 
 new  harbor,  which  are  also  connected  by  a  canal.  The  new  har- 
 bor is  an  artificial  basin,  the  work  of  Louis  XIV.  It  is  Avell  de- 
 fended l)y  batteries,  and  round  it  stands  the  arsenal,  where  every 
 man  of  war  has  its  own  particular  storehouse.  Here  cordage  and 
 cannon  are  extensively  manufactured.  Toulon  is  the  only  har- 
 bor for  the  navy  on  the  southern  coast.  Houses,  2400  ;  inhabi- 
 tants, 29,760. 
 
 Brest,  Partus  JBrivates,  is  the  chief  resort  of  the  navy  on  the 
 western  coast.  The  houses,  2600  in  number,  are  planted  on  the 
 declivity  of  a  hill,  on  one  side  of  the  harbor.  The  streets  are  few, 
 narrow,  and  inconvenient.  It  has  two  parish  churches,  a  marine 
 seminary,  a  court  of  admiralty,  and  25,865  inhabitants.  The  har- 
 bor, if  we  except  Toulon,  is  the  largest  and  safest  in  the  kingdom, 
 and  capable  of  containing  500  ships  of  war,  in  8,  10,  and  15  fath- 
 oms, at  low  water.  Its  entrance  from  the  W.  S.  W.  called  the 
 "Gullet"  is  narrow  and  rocky,  and  the  passage  is  diihcult  and 
 V.'.ngerous  on  account  of  the  sunken  rocks  on  both  sides.  The 
 entrance  is  also  guarded,  on  one  side,  by  a  strong  castle,  seated  on 
 a  rock,  and  defended  by  a  large  ditch  and  other  fortifications  ;  and 
 on  the  other  by  a  strong  tower.  On  one;  side  of  the  port  is  a  no- 
 ble quay,  more  than  a  mile  long,  and  two  hundred  paces  broad, 
 covered  with  storehouses  ;  and  a  quay  for  the  warehouses  on  the 
 other.  At  the  bottom  of  the  harbor  are  two  noble  docks  for  the 
 building  of  ships  of  war. 
 
 Boulogne,  Gesuriacumy  and  afterwards  Boyionia,  lies  on  the 
 English  channel,  on  the  declivity,  and  at  the  foot  of  the  chaik 
 mountain.  It  has  1600  houses,  and  10,685  inhabitants.  Tlic  har- 
 bor, formed  by  the  river  Liane,  is  defended  at  the  mouth  by  a  small 
 fort.     The  entrance  is  diflicuU.     Here  lay  the  flotilla,  in  18a4  and 
 
272  FRANCE. 
 
 1805,  prepared  for  the  invasion  of  Great  Britain.  Ships  oi  \yar 
 can  proceed  no  farther  than  the  road  of  St.  John,  where  there  is 
 from  5  to  15  fathoms,  and  a  hard  sandy  bottom.  The  famous 
 pharos,  built  by  Caligula,  and  repaired  by  Charlemagne,  fell  down 
 in  July  1644,  and  is  now  a  heap  of  rubbish.  The  channel  is  here 
 30  miles  wide,  and  much  frequented  by  English  smugglers. 
 
 Rochefort,  on  the  bay  of  Biscay,  has  15,024  inhabitants,  tlic 
 harbor  has  four  fathoms,  at  low  water,  and  is  defended  from  ev- 
 ery wind.  Here  are  excellent  docks  for  building  ships,  and  mag- 
 azines well  replenished  with  naval  stores.  A  part  of  the  navy 
 usually  lies  here. 
 
 Rochelle,  Partus  Saiitonum,  eight  leagues  N.  of  Rochefort,  con- 
 tains 17,331  inhabitants.  Its  commerce  is  extensive.  The  har- 
 bor is  safe,  but  its  entrance  is  narrow  -and  shoal.  The  fortifications 
 are  by  Vauban,  The  neighboring  salt  marshes,  here  as  well  as  at 
 Rochefort,  render  the  air  unwholesome. 
 
 Bayonne,  at  the  corner  of  the  bay  of  Biscay,  is  a  league  from  the 
 sea,  on  the  Nive,  which  forms  a  good  harbor,  with  a  narrow  and 
 dangerous  entrance.  The  commerce  with  Spain  is  valuable. 
 Masts,  from  the  Pyrenees,  are  brought  here,  and  shipped  to  Brest 
 and  other  ports.  The  common  people  speak  the  old  Biscayan  lan- 
 guage.    Inhabitants,  13,190,  houses  1520. 
 
 Dieppe,  the  nearest  sea  port  to  Paris,  is  a  handsome  well  built 
 town,  containing  20,000  inhabitants.  The  harbor  is  semicircular, 
 and  has  two  fine  moles  of  strong  brickwork.  In  time  of  peace,  the 
 commerce  is  extensive,  particularly  in  the  fisheries.  Here  are 
 numerous  thread  lace  manufactures.  The  shortest  route  from 
 London  to  Paris  is  through  Brighton  and  Dieppe. 
 
 Havre,  or  Havre  de  Grace,  Carrocotimun.,  a  town  of  the  Caletes, 
 lies  a  little  north  of  the  mouth  of  the  Seine.  The  harbor  has  depth 
 for  large  vessels,  and  the  water  does  not  ebb,  till  three  hours  after 
 full  tide,  being  as  it  were  dammed  up  by  the  current  of  the  Seine, 
 which  crosses  its  mouth.  Havre,  in  1802,  had  1500  houses,  and 
 20,620  inhabitants. 
 
 "  At  Antwerp,  since  the  end  of  the  year  1810,  the  dam  from  the 
 bason  has  been  removed.  Eighteen  ships  of  the  line,  even  three- 
 deckers,  can  enter,  and  go  out  fully  equipped.  In  the  beginning 
 oftliisycar,  two  80  gun  ships  have  been  coppered  and  refitted 
 there.  The  works  are  going  on  with  great  activity.  Before  ^^»^ 
 end  of  next  September,  the  bason  will  be  able  to  hold  thirty  ships. 
 
 "  Ships  of  the  line  can  only  enter  the  bason  of  Flushing  without 
 their  guns.  The  sluice  is  now  dried  and  insulated,  and  they  are 
 busied  in  lowering  it,  so  that  twenty  ships  will  be  able  to  enter  it 
 with  their  guns.  The  keys  that  the  English  had  overthrown,  arc 
 re-established.  Men  are  at  work  to  rebuild  the  general  magazine, 
 and  are  placed  put  of  the  reach  of  the  bombs. 
 
 "  The  first  funds  have  been  provided  for  the  bason  of  Terncuse  ; 
 i' "  foundation  is  laying.  Twenty  ships  of  the  line  entirely  armed, 
 will  be  able  to  depart  from  this  bason  in  a  single  tide.  It  will  be 
 capable  of  containing  more  than  forty. 
 
 "  The  tide  sluice  ^f  Qstend  is  terminated ;  it  has  done  the  great- 
 
FRANCE.  2/3 
 
 est  good  to  the  harbor  ;  that  of  Dunkirk  will  be  in  play  at  the  end 
 of  the  year ;  threat  advantages  are  expected  from  it  for  the  dig- 
 ging of  the  pass.  The  sluice  of  Havre  is  completed  ;  it  has  hap- 
 py effects. 
 
 "  At  Chcrbourgh,  the  expenses  of  the  road  are  of  two  sorts. 
 The  first  oncration  is  to  raise  the  dyke  above  the  low  water  mark, 
 and  this  will  be  accomplished  in  the  course  of  the  present  year ; 
 the  second  is  to  construct  forts  at  the  extremities  of  this  dyke  to 
 defend  the  road  ;  the  fort  of  the  centre  is  just  finished.  The 
 road  being  in  this  manner  secured,  it  remained  to  dig  the  port  of 
 this  great  work  ;  nine  tenths  arc  executed.  Thirdly,  ships  of  tli.e 
 line  will  be  able  to  lie  in  the  port  and  bason  ;  already  a  vessel 
 which  had  received  damage  at  sea  has  entered  the  Ijason,  and 
 been  refitted  there.  The  avant-fiort  and  bason  will  be  finished  in 
 1812.  The  building  docks  and  frames  already  exist.  The  works 
 of  Cherbourg  alone  require  more  than  three  millions  yearly."* 
 
 ^difices.']  Several  of  the  most  noble  edifices  of  France  are  in 
 Pans,  and  its  vicinity.  To  those  already  mentioned  must  be  add- 
 ed, the  palace  of  Versailles,  rather  remarkable,  however,  for  the 
 profusion  of  expense,  than  for  the  skill  of  the  architect ;  the  parts 
 being  small  and  unharnjonious,  and  the  general  effect  rather  idle 
 pomp  than  true  grandeur.  The  bridge  of  Neuille  is  esteemed  the 
 most  beautiful  in  Europe,  consisting  of  five  wide  arches  of  equal 
 size.  The  ancient  cathedrals  and  castles  are  so  numerous  that  it 
 would  be  idle  to  attempt  to  enumerate  them ;  and  the  l!^rench  no- 
 bility were  not  contented,  like  those  of  Spain,  with  large  houses  in 
 ihe  cities,  but  had  grand  chatteaux  scattered  over  the  kingdom,  to 
 ■which,  however,  they  seldom  retired,  except  when  compelled  by 
 formal  banishment  from  the  court. 
 
 Roads.']  In  the  improvement  of  the  roads  the  distances  are 
 lessened. — It  has  been  computed  that  Turin  has  already  been 
 brought  56  hours  nearer  Paris,  24  hours  by  the  passage  of  Mont 
 Cenis,  and  12  hours  more  by  the  new  road  of  Maurienne.  A  new 
 road  from  Paris  to  Chamberry  by  Tournees  has  been  established. 
 This  road,  by  avoiding  the  mountains,  will  be  shorter  by  eight 
 hours.  In  this  manner  Turin  will  be  brought  nearer  to  Paris  by 
 14  hours,  which  is  almost  half  the  distance.  Milan  is  by  the  road 
 of  Simplon  brought  nearer  Paris  by  more  than  a  march  of  59  hours, 
 if  the  present  road  is  compared  with  that  which  existed  ten  years 
 ago.  liayonne,  and  Spain  have  been  brouglit  nearer  to  Paris  by 
 18  hours,  by  the  road  which  has  been  made  through  the  sandy 
 plains  between  Bourdeaux  and  Bayonne.  Mayence  an<l  Germany 
 have  been  brou'^ht  12  hours  nearer,  by  the  road  which  has  been 
 made  in  the  sancis  from  Mayence  to  Metz.  Hamburg  will  be  nearer 
 by  more  than  60  hours  in  the  course  of  the  next  year,  by  the  road 
 made  across  tlu;  sands  of  Maestricht  to  Wescl,  and  from  that  to 
 Hamburg  :  and  this  will  be  the  first  exajuple  in  history  of  80  leagues 
 of  roads  made  in  the  course  of  two  years.     Ten  set*  of  workmen  are 
 
 *  Etpose  of  die  MiTiister  of  ihe  Interior,  ^une,  ISM. 
 VOL.  II.  35 
 
2*74  FRANCE. 
 
 employed ;  and  before  the  year  1811,  much  more  than  half  of  it 
 will  be  finished.  Amsterdam  will  be  brought  twelve  hours  neaixr 
 Paris  by  the  road  throui^h  the  sands  of  Antwerp  to  Amsterdam, 
 at  which  they  are  labouring-  at  many  points.  New  roads  are  open- 
 ed from  Spczia  to  Parma,  from  Florence  to  Rimini,  and  from  Nice 
 to  Genoa. 
 
 The  construction  of  a  great  number  of  bridges  is  begun.  Those 
 of  Bourdeaux,  Rouen,  as  well  as  that  over  the  Durance,  which  was 
 finished  last  year  were  considered  as  impossible.  A  great  num- 
 ber of  other  bridges  are  also  finished.* 
 
 Inland  navigation  and  Canals.~\  The  inland  navigation  of  France 
 has  been  promoted  by  several  capital  exertions.  The  canal  of 
 Briare,  otherwise  styled  that  of  Burgundy,  was  begun  by  Henry 
 IV.  and  completed  by  Louis  XIII.  opening  a  communication  be- 
 tween the  Loire  and  the  Sehie,  or  in  other  words,  between  Paris 
 and  the  Avestern  provinces.  Passing  by  Montargis  it  joins  the  ca- 
 nal of  Oiieans,  and  falls  into  the  Seine  near  Fontairibleau.  This 
 navigation  of  forty  two  locks,  is  of  great  utility  in  inland  <Mai- 
 merce.f 
 
 The  canal  of  Picardy  extends  from  the  Somme  to  the  Oise,  be- 
 ginning at  St  Quintin,  and  forming  a  convenient  intercourse  to  the 
 provinces  in  the  N.  E. 
 
 But  the  chief  work  of  this  description  is  the  celebrated  canal  of 
 Languedoc,  commenced  and  completed  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV. 
 by  Riquet,  the  engineer,  under  the  auspices  of  that  able  minister 
 Colbert.  Fifteen  years  of  labor  were  employed,  from  1666  to 
 1681.  This  noble  canal  begins  in  the  bay  of  Languedoc  ;  and  at 
 St.  Perriol  is  a  reservoir  of  595  acres  of  water :  it  enters  the  Ga- 
 ronne about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  below  the  city  of  Toulouse.  The 
 breadth,  including  the  towing  paths,  is  144  feet;  the  depth  6  feet; 
 the  length  64  French  leagues,  or  about  180  miles.  The  expense 
 was  more  than  half  a  million  sterling.  The  canal  of  St.  Quintin  is 
 finished.  From  the  beginning  of  this  year  (1811)  navigation  has 
 been  in  great  activity  upon  it;  its  effects  have  already  been  felt  in 
 the  prices  of  wood  and  coal  in  the  metropolis.  The  canal  of  tlie 
 North,  to  unite  the  Rhine  and  the  Scheldt,  was  one  third  part  fin- 
 ished, when  the  union  of  Holland  having  made  it  useless,  these 
 works  were  suspended.  The  canal  of  Napoleon,  which  joins  the 
 Rhine  and  the  Saone  is  to  be  finished  in  1815.  Three  millions  a 
 year  are  applied  to  it.  The  canal  of  Burgundy,  which  joins  the^ 
 Saone  and  the  Seine,  is  continued  with  spirit.  In  the  course  of 
 this  year  (1811)  a  million  and  a  half  will  be  expended  upon  it. 
 The  canal  of  Aries,  which  brings  the  Rhone  to  the  Pont-du-bonc. 
 is  one  third  part  executed.  That  which  cuts  the  peninsula  of  Bre- 
 tany,  in  joining  the  Rhone  to  La  Vilaine,  is  now  going  on.  The 
 canal  of  Blouet,  which  joins  Napolconville  to  L'Orient,  and  which 
 will  one  day  lead  from  Napoleonville  to  Brest,  is  almost  finished. 
 jMany  other  canals,  of  less  importance,  are  cither  finished  or  going 
 on  with  the  greatest  activity. | 
 
 '  Expose  of  the  minister  of  the  interior,  June,  1811.  t  Pliil'l'S,  51. 
 
 4  Expose  of  the  Miivister  of  the  interior,  Jime»  1811, 
 
FRANCE.  275 
 
 Manufactures.']  For  a  century  extending  from  1650  to  1750, 
 Mr.*  Young  supposes  France  to  have  possessed  the  most  flour- 
 ishing manufactures  in  Europe  ;  and  French  writers  effect  to  speak 
 of  the  English  manufactures  as  being  of  recent  fame.  A  sketch  of 
 this  important  subject,  is  here  traced  from  that  well-informed  au- 
 thor. At  Abbeville  was  a  famous  manufacture  of  broadcloth;  and 
 another  at  Louviere  in  Normandy.  At  the  same  place,  and  at 
 Amiens,  were  manufactures  of  stuffs,  worsteds.  Sec.  and  some  of 
 cotton.  The  manufactures  of  Orleans  were  stockings,  and  refin- 
 ed sugar.  At  Chatteau  Roux  another  manufactory  of  broad  cloths  ; 
 and  in  the  same  neighborhood  large  iron  forges.  At  Limoges  an 
 hundred  looms  were  employed  in  weaving  druggets  of  hemp  and 
 wool ;  and  the  paper  mills  amounted  to  seventy.  The  large  wool- 
 len manufactory  at  Cahors  had  declined  ;  but  those  of  Montauban 
 continued  to  flourish.  At  Montpellicr  were  considerable  manu- 
 factures of  blankets  and  silk  handkerchiefs  ;  but  those  of  Nismes 
 were  still  more  important  in  silk,  cotton,  and  thread  :  and  at  Gauge 
 Avas  the  chief  manufacture  of  silk  stockings  in  all  France.  The 
 Londrins  for  the  Levant  were  chiefly  made  at  Beg-de-Rieux,  and 
 at  Carcassonne.  At  Pan  are  large  manufactures  of  linen.  Tour 
 has  long  been  celebrated  for  silks.  Bcauvais,one  of  the  most  ac- 
 tive towns  in  France,  supplies  tapestries  and  printed  calicoes. 
 The  fabrication  of  plate  glass  at  St.  Gobin  is  well  known  as  the 
 first  in  Europe.  At  St.  Quintin  are  made  linen,  cambric,  and  gau- 
 zes. Cambricks  derive  their  name  from  Cambray ;  and  the  laces 
 of  Valenciennes  have  been  long  known.  Lisle  displays  fine  cloths 
 and  camblets.  Mr.  Young  styles  Rouen  the  Manchester  of  France, 
 being  a  town  eminent  in  commerce,  and  in  manufactures  of  vel- 
 vet, and  cotton  cloths  ;  and  Caen  boasts  of  her  silky  fleeces.  Bre- 
 tagne  in  general  has  numerous  manufactures  of  thread  and  lin- 
 en. The  fine  cloths  made  at  Louviere  our  author  esteems  the  first 
 in  the  world,  and  at  the  same  place  is  a  large  cotton  mill.  Rheims 
 is  remarkable  for  woollens.  The  silk  manufactures  of  Lyons  were 
 estimated  to  employ  60,000  people,  the  looms  being  computed  at 
 12,000.  Iron  manufactures  flourished  at  Nantes,  Mont  Cenis,  St. 
 Philippe-en-foret,  and  several  other  places. 
 
 Commerce.]  From  this  detail  some  idea  may  be  formed  of  the 
 commerce  of  France,  By  the  account  for  1784,  which  did  not  in- 
 clude the  provinces  of  Lorrain  and  Alsace,  nor  the  West  Indian 
 trade,  the  statement  was 
 
 Total  exports,         307,151,700  hvres, 
 ■..^—imports,  271,365,000 
 
 Balance,         35,786,700 or  /:  1,565,668  sterling. 
 
 The  trade  with  the  West  Indies  gave  a  large  balance  agains^ 
 France,  which,  in  1786,  exported  to  the  amount  of  more  than  64, 
 000,000  livres,  but  the  imports  exceeded  174,OO0,O0Q.     The  chie, 
 
 •  Youog's  France,  i.  569 
 
276  FRANCE. 
 
 articles  of  import  were  raw  silk,  raw  wool,  olive-oil,  linens,  cotton, 
 Bianufactured  cottons,  tobacco,  copper,  iron,  flax,  cattle,  brandy, 
 soda  and  potash,  timber,  coal,  steel,  wheat,  and  hemp.  The  av- 
 erage imports  oi'France  in  17S8  were  about  twelve  millions  and  a 
 half  sterling,  the  exports  nearly  1 5,000,000.  The  imports  of  Great 
 Britain  in  the  same  year  were  about  18,500,000,  the  exports  seven- 
 teen and  a  half.*  The  principle  exports  were,  woollen  and  cotton 
 manufactures,  claret,  other  wines,  brandy,  cattle,  wheat,  and  leath- 
 er.    At  present  France  has  no  commerce  on  the  ocean. 
 
 CHAPTER  II. 
 
 NATURAL   GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 CLIMATE  AND  SEASONS,  FACE  OF  THE  COUNTRY,  SOIL  AND  AGRI- 
 CULTURE, RIVERS,  LAKES,  MOUNTAINS,  FORESTS,  BOTANY, 
 ZOOLOGY,  MINERALOGY,  MINERAL  WATERS,  NATURAL  CU- 
 RIOSITIES. 
 
 Climate  and  Seasons.']  THE  eastern  part  of  France  is 
 warmer  than  the  western,  in  the  same  parallels.  Mr.  Young  di- 
 vides the  country  into  four  climates.  A  line  passing  from  Her- 
 bignac,  a  town  a  little  north  of  the  mouth  of  the  Loire,  nearly 
 straight  through  Beaumont,  Clermont  and  Couci,  to  the  Rhine, 
 will  leave  a  tract  to  the  N.  W.  called  the  northern  c/imate,  in  which 
 the  vine  will  not  grow.  It  is  considerably  warmer  than  England, 
 but  equally  moist ;  and  produces  a  great  variety  of  fine  fruits. 
 The  vine  climate  is  a  space  included  between  tliis  and  a  line  pass- 
 ing nearly  parallel  with  the  oUier,  from  the  mouth  of  the  Ga- 
 ronne, through  Ruffec  and  Luneville.  This  is  the  pleasantest, 
 .  The  air  is  light,  pure  and  elastic  ;  and  the  sky  is  generally  clear. 
 The  summers  are  not  fervid,  and  the  winters  are  mild.  The  maize 
 climate  is  broader.  Its  southern  boundary  is  a  line  passing  from 
 the  Pyrenees  through  Carcassonne  and  Grenoble  to  the  Alps. 
 The  vine  also  grows  here  luxuriantly.  The  tract  S.  E.  of  this 
 line  is  called  the  olive  climate.  It  is  much  the  smallest,  and  in 
 the  summer  season  is  crowded  with  myriads  of  flies.  Both  vines 
 and  maize  grow  here  abundantly.  This  division  of  France,  which 
 with  here  and  there  a  set-ofl",  is  strictly  accurate,  points  out  the 
 eastern  side  of  the  kingdom,  as  'l\  degrees  of  latitude  hotter  than 
 the  western,  or  at  least  more  favorable  to  vegetation. 
 
 Violent  storms  of  rain  and  hail  arc  trequent  in  the  two  middle 
 divisions.  In  seme  jirovinces  the  average  damage  for  a  given 
 number  of  years,  by  rain  and  hail,  equals  a  tenth  of  the  whole 
 produce  for  that  period.  In  these  districts,  also,  spring  frosts  arc 
 customaiy.  This  renders  the  vineyard  an  uncertain  culture,  and 
 explains  why  so  few  muJberi'ics  are  found  for  the  silk-worm  except 
 in  the  southern.     Even  there,  tliey  frecjuently  sufl"er. 
 
 I'^ace  of  the  Country.']  France,  north  of  the  moimtains  of  Au- 
 'vergne,  and  west  of  the   range  of  the  Vosges,  may  be  galled  an 
 
 *  Young,  i.  5'2a 
 
FRANCE.  277 
 
 uneven  country ;  but  is  no  where  mountainous.  The  surface  is 
 every  where  sufliciently  varied  to  render  the  prospects  interest- 
 ing. Between  the  Pyrenees  and  the  mountains  of  Auvergne,  lies 
 an  extensive  tract  of  the  same  description,  reaching  from  the 
 ocean  to  the  Rhone.  Limosiii  surpasses  every  province  of  France 
 in  beauty.  Hill,  dale,  wood,  inclosure,  streams,  lakes,  and  scat- 
 tered farms  are  mingled  into  a  thousand  delightful  landscapes. 
 The  banks  of  the  Seine  for  200  miles  from  its  mouth,  and  of  the 
 Loire  as  high  as  Angers,  are  also  eminently  beautiful.  The 
 course  of  the  Soane  is  marked  by  a  noble  tract  of  meadows.  The 
 country  east  of  the  Rhone  presents  many  pleasing  scenes,  and  the 
 course  of  the  Isere  is  a  scene  of  perpetual  beauty.  The  Pyrenees 
 '.xre  the  most  striking  of  the  mountains,  and  their  verdure,  their 
 woods,  their  rocks  and  their  torrents  have  all  the  character  of  tae 
 sublime  and  beautiful. 
 
 K)oU  cuid  jigriculturc.~\  The  north  part  of  France,  from  Dun- 
 kirk to  Caen,  thence  to  Tours  on  the  Loire,  and  thence  through 
 Nemours  and  Soissons,  to  the  Netherlands,  is  a  rich  calcarous 
 plain,  having  a  loam  of  considerable  depth,  and  of  an  admirable 
 texture.  Farther  W.  the  land  is  poor  and  stony.  The  rest  of 
 Normandy,  Brittany,  Maine,  Anjou,  Touraine,  Sologne,  the  upper 
 part  of  Poitou,  Berry,  Angoumois,  are  of  this  character.  The 
 S.  W.  part  of  the  kingdom  from  Audi  to  Bayonne  is  indifferent ; 
 but  the  plain  of  the  Garonne  and  its  branches,  from  Liniosin  S. 
 even  to  the  Pyrenees,  has  a  deep,  mellow,  friable,  sandy  loam, 
 with  sufficient  moisture  for  any  culture  :  much  of  it  is  calcareous. 
 The  east  provinces,  Champaigne,  Lorraine,  Franche  Compte, 
 Brcsse,  Dauphine,  and  Provence  are  calcareous,  but  less  uni- 
 formly rich  than  the  northern.  Lower  Poitou,  and  Alsace,  arc 
 eminently  fertile.  The  tract  between  the  IMeditcrranean  and  the 
 Cavennes  mountains,  is  of  the  same  description. 
 
 The  cultivation  of  the  vine  has  this  advantage,  that  the  farmer 
 can  draw  from  poor  and  otherwise  barren  hills  and  rocks,  as  great 
 a  profit,  as  from  the  richest  vallies.  In  the  maize  and  olive  cli- 
 mates, a  second  crop,  either  of  maize,  millet,  or  buckwheat,  al- 
 ways follows  the  wheat  harvest.  The  agriculture  of  France  is 
 greatly  behind  that  of  England.  About  one  third  of  the  country 
 is  divided  into  little  farms,  too  small  to  support  their  proprietors. 
 
 Rwers.~\  The  Rhine,  till  lately  a  boundary  of  France,  but, 
 since  the  annexation  of  Holland,  running  for  a  considerable  extent 
 through  it,  has  already  been  described.  Of  the  other  rivers  there 
 arc  four  of  considerable  size  ;  the  Seine,  the  Loire,  the  Garonne 
 and  the  Rhone. 
 
 The  Loire,  Liger,  rises  from  Mont  Gerbier,  one  of  the  Cevennea, 
 in  the  N.  of  ancient  Languedoc.  Its  course  is  a  little  W.  of  N.  to 
 Orleans  ;  and  thence  \V.  of  S.  to  the  ocean.  Its  whole  length 
 is  upwards  of  500  miles.     The  chief  branch  is  the  AUier,  Elcaver. 
 
 The  Rhone,  H/iodanus,  is  a  noble  and  rapid  stream,  rising  in 
 Mount  Furca,'about  5,400  feet  above  the  sea.  It  winds  about  90 
 miles^  westward,  through  the  vale,  called  the  Vallais,  and  enters 
 the  Geneva  lake  near  its  eastern  cxtrcmitv.     From  the  western 
 
278  FRANCE. 
 
 end  its  course  is  S.  W.  to  Lyons,  where  it  receives  the  Saone, 
 jirar,  a  remarkably  sluggish  stream,  from  the  Vosges.  Its  direc- 
 tion is  S.  from  Lyons  to  the  Gulf  of  Lyons,  which  it  enters  by  seve- 
 ral mouths.  A  little  below  Avignon  it  is  joined  by  the  Durance, 
 Druentia^  a  very  rapid  an^d  strong  stream  from  the  Alps.  Its 
 length  exceeds  400  miles 
 
 The  Garonne,  Garumna,  rises  in  the  valley  of  Arau  in  the  Py- 
 renees, and  runs  N.  W.  to  the  bay  of  Biscay.  About  12  miles  be- 
 low Bourdeaux  it  is  joined  by  the  Dordogne,  Duranius,  from  the 
 N.  E.  and,  for  the  remainder  of  its  course,  about  28  miles,  it  is 
 called  the  Gironde.  Its  banks  are  not  distinguished  for  their  beau- 
 ty. Its  length  is  300  miles.  The  canal  of  Languedoc  connects  it 
 with  the  Aude. 
 
 The  Seine,  Sequana,  is  of  about  equal  length  with  the  Garonne. 
 Rising  near  Saint  Seine,  it  runs  in  a  N,  W.  direction  to  the  Eng- 
 lish channel,  and  is  the  most  beautiful  stream  in  France.  Its 
 chief  tributary,  the  Marne,  Matrona,  joins  it  at  Charenton. 
 
 The  Moselle,  the  Meuse,  and  the  Scheld,  have  been  described. 
 The  Somme,  Samera,  runs  by  Amiens  and  Abbeville  to  the  Eng- 
 lish channel.  The  Adour  empties  below  Bayonne.  The  Var  falls 
 into  the  Mediterranean  about  4  miles  west  of  Nice.  It  was  for- 
 merly a  boundary  of  France. 
 
 Lafces.^  A  few  small  lakes  occur  in  Provence,  and  perhaps  in 
 some  of  the  other  provinces,  but  only  adapted  to  the  minute  de- 
 scription of  the  topographer,  France  and  Spain  being  singularly 
 deficient  in  this  pleasing  fcatAire  of  landscape. 
 
 Mou?itains.~\  Before  proceeding  to  the  grand  chain  of  moun- 
 tains in  the  S.  of  France,  it  maybe  proper  briefly  to  mention  a  few 
 mountainous  tracts  in  the  north.  Those  of  Brittany  are  granitic, 
 but  of  small  elevation.  They  divide  into  branches  towards  Brest 
 and  Alen^on.  The  Vosges,  in  the  department  of  that  name,  in 
 the  S.  of  ancient  Lorrain,  are  supposed  to  be  connected  with  the 
 moimtains  of  Swisscriand.* 
 
 Mont  Jura,  a  vanguard  of  the  Alps,  forms  a  boundary  between 
 France  and  Sivisserland.  If  Mont  Blanc  be  admitted  among  the 
 French  mountains,  the  other  Alps  cannot  rival  its  supreme  ele- 
 vation. The  ancient  province  of  Dauphine  displays  several  Al- 
 pine branches,  which  also  extend  through  great  part  of  Provence- 
 
 The  grand  chain  of  the  Cevennes  seems  to  run  from  N.  to  S. 
 and  to  send  out  branches  towards  the  E.  and  W.  Iiji  the  modern 
 departments  of  the  upper  Loire  and  Cantal,  are  appearances 
 which,  in  the  opinion  of  eminent  naturalists,  indicate  ancient  Tol- 
 canoes  ;  but  as  these  supposed  appearances  consist  chiefly  of 
 basaltic  columns,  and  elevations,  the  subject  remains  dubious. 
 The  northern  part  of  the  chain  is  styled  the  Puy  de  Dome,  while 
 the  southern  is  called  that  of  Cantal.f  The  Monts  D'Or  form 
 the  centre,  and  are  the  highest  mountains  in  France.  The  chief 
 elevation  is  that  .of  the  Puy  de  Sansi,  which  rises  about  6,300  feet 
 
 *  Lameth.  Theo.  de  la  Terre,  iv.  384. 
 t  Voy.  dans  les  depart.  CaDtal,  p.  5 
 
FRANCE.  279 
 
 ribovc  the  level  of  the  sea,  -while  the  Puy  dc  Dome  is  about  5000, 
 and  the  Plomb  du  Cantal,  the  highest  of  that  part,  is  about  6,200 
 feet.  Near  the  Puy  dc  Sansi  is  the  gigantic  mountain  I'Ango, 
 and  Ecorchade  a  shattered  and  wrecked  elevation.  The  Plomb 
 du  Cantal  is  also  accompanied  by  bold  rivals,  as  the  Puy  de  Griou, 
 le  Col-de  Cabre,  le  Puy  Mari,  and  the  Violent.  This  enormous 
 assemblage  of  rocks  covers  an  extent  of  about  120  miles,  and  ac- 
 cording to  the  French  authors  is  chiefly  basaltic.  The  Puy  dc 
 Sansi  is  capped  with  almost  perpetual  snow,  followed  in  the  de- 
 scent by  naked  rocks  and  ancient  pines  :  from  its  side  issues  from 
 two  sources,  the  river  Dordogne,  and  many  picturesque  cascades 
 devolve  amidst  basaltic  columns.*  On  the  23d  of  June,  1727, 
 Pradines,  a  village  on  the  slope  of  one  of  these  mountains,  was  to- 
 tally overwhelmed,  the  v/hole  mountain  with  its  basaltic  columns 
 rolling  into  the  valley.  The  inhabitants  were  fortunately  engaged 
 in  the  celebration  of  midsummer  eve,  around  a  bonfire  at  some 
 distance. t  These  mountains  are  in  winter  exposed  to  dreadful 
 snowy  hurricanes,  called  acirsy  which  in  a  few  hours  obliterate  the 
 ravines,  and  even  the  precipices,  and  descending  to  the  paths  and 
 streets,  confine  the  inhabitants  to  their  dwellings  till  a  communi- 
 cation can  be  opened  with  their  neighbours,  sometimes  in  the  form 
 of  anarch  under  the  vast  mass  of  snow.  Wretched  the  traveller 
 who  is  thus  overtaken.  His  path  disappears,  the  precipice  cannot 
 be  distinguished  from  the  level  ;  if  he  stand  he  is  chilled,  and 
 buried  if  he  proceed  ;  his  eye-sight  fails  amidst  the  snowy  dark- 
 ness ;  his  respiration  is  impeded  ;  his  head  becomes  giddy,  he 
 falls  and  perishes.  In  summer,  thunder  storms  are  frequent  and 
 terrible,  and  accompanied  with  torrents  of  large  hail,  which  de- 
 stroy the  fruits  and  flocks,  which  for  six  months  pasture  on  the 
 mountains,  guarded  by  shepherds,  who  have  temporary  cabins  of 
 turf  and  reed,  styled  buro?is. 
 
 The  Pyrenees  remain  to  be  described.  This  vast  chain,  known 
 and  celebrated  since  the  days  of  Herodotus,  may  be  considered 
 with  equal  justice  as  belonging  either  to  France  or  to  Spain  ;  but 
 as  the  most  productive  and  interesting  parts  are  on  the  side  of 
 France,  and  her  literati  have  exerted  themselves  in  the  descrip- 
 tion, while  those  of  Spain  have  been  silent,  it  seems  at  least  equal- 
 ly proper  to  introduce  the  delineation  here,  which  shall  be  chiefly 
 derived  from  the  recent  accounts  of  Raymond  and  Lapeyrouse4 
 To  the  surprise  of  naturalists,  the  Pyrenees  have  beei;  found  to 
 present  calcareous  appearances,  and  even  shells  and  skeletons  of 
 animals,  near  or  upon  their  highest  summits,  which  are  in  the  cen- 
 tre of  the  chain.  Mont  Perdu  is  considered  as  the  highest  eleva- 
 tion of  the  Pyrenees,  ascending  above  the  sea  1751  French  toises, 
 or  about  11, 000  feet  English.     Other  noted  heights  are   Marbore,, 
 
 *  Voy.  dans  les  depart.   Cental,  p.  13. 
 
 y  Voy.  dans  Ics  dupart.  Cantal,  p.  iJ4.  One  vast  block  of  stone,  90  feet  long  and 
 26  thick,  being  too  Ltavy  to  i-oU,  sunk  vertically,  and  the  shock  seemed  an  earthquake 
 even  at  the  distance  of  a  league.  Another  roouDtain  is  said  to  \\aie,  recently  sunk  kiid 
 disappeared  in  the  S.  of  Fiance. 
 
 \  Journal  des  Mines,  No.  37,  p.  35. 
 
280  FRANCE. 
 
 the  pic  de  IMicli,  the  Niege  Veille,  Sec.  The  Pvrciican  chain  ap- 
 pears at  a  distance  like  a  shaggy  ridge,  presenting  the  segment  of 
 a  circle  fronting  France,  and  descending  at  each  extremity  till  it 
 disappear  in  the  ocean  and  Mediterranean.*  Thus  at  St.  Jean  de 
 Lnz  only  high  hills  appear,  and  in  like  manner  on  the  east, beyond 
 the  summit  Canigou,  the  elevations  gradually  diminish.  The 
 liighcst  summits  are  crowned  with  perpetual  snoAv.  Blocks  of 
 granite  are  interspersed  with  vertical  bands,  argillaceous  and  cal- 
 careous, the  latter  primitive  or  secondary,  and  supplying  the  mar- 
 bles of  Campan  and  Antin,  of  beautiful  red  spotted  -with  white, 
 though  the  genei'al  mountain  mass  be  grey.  To  the  S.  and  W. 
 the  Pyrenees  present  nothing  but  dreadful  sterility,  but  on  the  N. 
 and  E.  the  descent  is  more  gradual,  and  affords  frequent  woods 
 and  pastures.  Besides  the  dreadful  fall  of  rocks,  undermined  by 
 the  waters,  they  are  exposed  to  Lavanges,  or  the  impetuous  de- 
 scent of  vast  masses  of  snow,  called  Avalanches  in  Swisserland, 
 and  have  their  glaciers  and  othei"  terrific  features  of  the  Alps. 
 
 According  to  Raymondf  the  very  summit  of  mount  Perdu 
 abounds  with  marine  spoils.  This  mountain  is  of  very  difficult 
 access,  as  the  calcareous  rock  often  assumes  the  form  of  perpen- 
 dicular walls,  from  100  to  600  feet  in  height  ;  and  the  snows,  ice, 
 and  glaciers,  increase  the  difficulty.  Near  the  summit  is  a  con- 
 siderable lake,  more  than  9000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea, 
 which  throws  its  waters  to  the  east  into  the  Spanish  valley  of  Be- 
 oussa.  Mr.  Townsend:}:  observes,  that  the  limestone  and  schistus 
 feed  the  vegetation  on  the  N.  of  the  Pyrenees,  while  the  south  is 
 barren  and  consists  of  granite  ;  though  mountains  are  generally 
 barren  and  precipitous  on  the  S.  and  W.  because  the  most  violent 
 rains  and  tempests  come  from  those  regions. 
 
 J^^orests.^  The  forests  of  France  are  numerous  and  extensive; 
 and  as  wood  is  the  general  fuel,  attention  to  their  growth  becomes 
 indispensable.  Two  of  the  most  remarkable  arc  those  of  Orleans 
 and  Ardennes,  the  former  for  extent  and  the  numerous  troops 
 of  banditti  Avho  used  to  infest  its  precincts  ;  the  latter  for  ancient 
 fame  and  events  of  chivalry.  The  forest  ot  Ardennes  extended 
 from  Rheims  to  Tournay,  and  on  the  N.  E.  to  Sedan  in  the  pres- 
 ent department  of  the  Ardennes.  To  these  names  might  be  added 
 the  forest  of  Fontainbleau,  and  many  others,  which  it  would  be 
 superfluous  to  enumerate. 
 
 Botany.^  The  country  which  produces  in  full  and  equal  per- 
 fection wdieat  and  apples,  maize  and  grapes,  oranges  and  olives, 
 the  oak  and  the  myrtle,  must  doubtless  exceed  all  other  European 
 countries  of  ecjual  extent  in  the  variety  and  richness  of  its  vegeta- 
 ble treasures. 
 
 Of  the  compoimd  flowers  the  lavender  cotton,  and  common 
 southern  wood,  arc  plentiful  on  the  rocks  of  Dauphine  and  Pro- 
 vence ;  the  alpine  Cacalia  abounds  on  the  mountainous  frontiers  ol 
 Savoy  and  Piedmont,  and  a  few  esculent  vegetables  grow  wild  in. 
 
 *   Voy.  dans  les  Dep.  No.  f)7,  p.  -4. 
 .^  -J<  uu.  lies  Mill.  N<i.  40,  p.  757.  !-  Spain,  i.  8'J 
 
FRANCE.  28l 
 
 Languedoc  and  Provence,  as  the  artichoke,  the  salsafy,  and  scor- 
 zonera. 
 
 The  cucumber,  the  melon,  the  gourd,  and  other  kindred  gene- 
 ra, though  cuhivatcd  largely  and  with  great  ease  in  the  South,  are 
 yet  natives  of  hotter  climates  ;  only  one  of  this  family,  the  Mo- 
 mordica  elaterium,  squirting  cucumber,  properly  belongs  to  France  ; 
 it  occurs  in  a  truly  wild  state,  on  low  loose  rocks,  in  Provence  and 
 Languedoc. 
 
 Of  the  bulbiferous  plants,  the  large  branched  Asphodel,  a  flow- 
 er of  great  beauty,  is  by  no  means  uncommon  in  Provence.  The 
 tawny  day-lily,  clustered  hyacinth  and  spiked  star  of  Bethlehem 
 all  are  found  in  the  Mediterranean  provinces  of  France,  as  are 
 also  the  orange,  pompadore,  and  martagon  lilies  ;  the  white  helle- 
 bore. Narcissus  and  Jonquil.  The  shore  of  Hieres  is  adorned  by 
 the  sea  daffodil,  growing  luxuriantly  on  the  very  beach  :  and  on 
 the  lower  cliffs  of  the  Nicene  and  Genoese  Alps,  the  gigantic 
 Agave,  ylmerican  aloe^  now  naturalized  to  the  soil  and  climate, 
 raises  its  stem  to  the  height  of  20  or  30  feet,  and  looks  down  on 
 every  herbaceous  plant  of  European  origin. 
 
 Of  the  papilionaceous  plants  that  are  natives  of  this  country, 
 several  deserve  notice  for  their  use  or  ornament.  Lathyrus  tube- 
 rosus,  a  vegetable  of  the  pea  kind,  grows  wild  in  Alsace,  r.nd  is 
 cultivated  in  many  parts  of  France  for  its  large  esculent  roots  ; 
 the  great  lupin,  varying  with  blue,  white,  or  flesh  coloured  blos- 
 soms ;  and  chick  pea,  are  met  with  in  the  southern  provinces 
 growing  spontaneously,  but  are  more  frequently  cultivated  in 
 large  fields  as  food  both  for  cattle  and  man. 
 
 The  broad  leaved  myrtle,  grows  with  great  luxuriance  along 
 the  whole  of  the  Mediterraiiean  coast  ;  the  Caper-bush,  the  lau- 
 rel leaved  and  Montpellier  cistus,  three  low  shrubs  of  exquisite 
 beauty,  hang  from  the  summits,  or  ciUi,lcr  round  the  sides  of  the 
 low  rocks  about  Toulon  and  Montpellier.  In  the  same  vicinity 
 also  are  found  the  Provence  rose,  the  pyracantha,  and  the  pome- 
 granate tree. 
 
 Zoology. '^^  The  horses  of  France  do  not  appear  to  have  been 
 celebrated  at  any  period  ;  and  it  is  well  known  that  the  ancient 
 monarchs  were  drawn  to  the  national  assemblies  by  oxen.  Many 
 English  horses  are  in  times  of  peace  imported  for  the  coach  and 
 saddle.  The  best  native  horses  are,  for  draught,  those  of  Nor- 
 mandy :  for  the  saddle,  those  of  the  Limo^in,  which  have  been 
 recently  improved  by  crossing  the  breed  with  the  Arabian,  Turk- 
 ish, and  English.*  But  the  greater  numuer  of  horses  in  France 
 consists  o€  Bidets,  small  animals  of  little  shew,  but  great  utility. 
 The  cattle  of  Limoges,  and  some  other  provinces,  are  of  a  beauti- 
 ful cream  colour.  The  sheep  are  ill  managed,  having  in  winter 
 only  straw,  instead  of  green  food  ?.s  in  England. f  The  consequen- 
 ces are  poor  fleeces,  and  rarity  of  sheep,  so  that  the  poor  are 
 forced  to  eat  bread  only,  and  large  quantities  of  wool  arc  import- 
 ed.    Of  ferocious  animals  the  most  remarkable  are  the  wild  boar 
 
 •  Young's  France,  ii.  55.  |  Ibid.  i.  4"r50. 
 
 VOL.  n.  36 
 
282  FRANCE. 
 
 and  the  wolf  ;  the  ibex  and  chamois   are  found  on  the  Pyrenees- 
 and  the  Alps. 
 
 Minei-alogy.']     Gold  mines  anciently  existed  in  the  9.  of  France, 
 and  some  of  the  rivulets  still  roll   down  particles  of  that  metal. 
 The  ancient  Gallic  coins  are  however  of  abase  gold  mingled  with 
 silver,  being  the   metal   styled  by  the  ancients  electrum.     There 
 are  silver  mines  at  St.  Marie-aux-Mines  in   Alsace,  and  at  Giro- 
 magny  in  the  depai'tment  of  the    Upper  Rhine.     The  same  dis- 
 trict contains  mines  of  copper,  a  metal  not   unfrequent  in  the  de- 
 partments of  the  Alps,  and  those   of  the  Loire,  the  Lozerc,  and 
 the  Ardeche.     The  duchy  of  Deux  Fonts,   a  valuable  acquisition 
 of  France  on  the   west  of  the  Rhine,  is  celebrated  for  mines  of 
 quicksilver.     The  mountains  which  contain  this  metal  embrace  a 
 district  often  or  twelve  leagues  in  length,  S.  to  N.  from  Wolfstein 
 to  Cruznach,   and  seven  or  eight  leagties  in  breadth,  being  of  a 
 reddish  bi'own  or  grey   sand-stone.     In  this   territory  among  nu- 
 merous mines  of  quicksilver,  are   those   of  Stahlberg,   and  Don- 
 nersberg,  which  have  been  explored  for  many  centuries.     The 
 adjacent  part  of  the  Palatinate  also  contains  similar  mines,  partic- 
 ularly in  the  mountain  of  Potsberg,   and   at   Wolfstein.     The  an- 
 nual product  of  these  mines  may  be  estimated  at  67,200  pounds  of 
 mercury.*     Two  thirds  of  the  lead  of  France  are  from  Bretagne, 
 particularly  the  mines   of  Poullaouen   and    Huelgoet  ;  mines  of 
 lead  also  occur  in  the  maritime    Alps,    and   in  the  mountains  of 
 Vosges,  in  the  departments  of  Lozerc,  Ardeche,  Sec.  Sec.     Anti- 
 mony occurs   in  the  Ardeche,  in  the  department  of  the  AUier,  at 
 AUemont  in  former  Dauphine,  and  in  that  of  Mont  Blanc.     There 
 are  noted  mines  of  calamine  near  Aix  la  Chapelle.     Manganese 
 occurs  in  the  department  of  the  Loire,  and  in  that  of  the  Vosges  ; 
 and  at  Romaneche,  in  the  department  of  the  Saone,  and  Loire  ;  it 
 is  also  found  near  Perigou,  whence  it  used  to  be  called  pierre  de 
 Perigord  :  Cobalt  is  another  product  of  Alsace.     The  new  acqui- 
 sitions in  Savoy  present  some  mercury  ;  and  there  is  a  mine  at 
 Menildot. 
 
 Iron,  the  most  important  and  universal  of  metals,  is  found  in 
 abundance,  particularly  in  some  of  the  northern  departments.  la 
 1798  it  was  computed  that  there  were  2000  furnaces,  forges,  Sec 
 for  the  working  of  iron  and  steel.t 
 
 The  coal  mines  of  France  were  at  the  same  time  estimated  at 
 400,  constantly  wrought  ;  and  200  more  capable  of  being  wrought. 
 Of  these  coal  mines  many  occur  in  the  provinces  which  formerly 
 belonged  to  Flanders,  ai.d  in  the  departments  of  Boulogne,  and 
 La  Manche.  Coal  is  also  not  unfrequent  in  the  centre  and  south 
 of  France.  Nearly  allied  to  coal  is  jet,  an  article  formerly  of 
 great  consumption,  chiefly  in  Spain,  where  it  was  made  into  ro- 
 saries, crosses,  buttons,  for  black  dresses,  Scc.^:  France  was  from 
 time  immemorial  in  possession  of  this  branch,  which  was  ccnter- 
 
 *  Journ.  des  Mines  xi.  43.  f  Ibid.  Ann.  vii.  p.  IT'l 
 
 -  ibid.  Ann.  iii.  No.  4,  p.  41. 
 
FRANCE.  283 
 
 ed  in  three  villages  in  the  department  of  the  Audc,  in  the  S.  W. 
 of  ancient  Langucdoc. 
 
 Besides  excellent  freestone,  the  entirons  of  Paris  contain  abun- 
 dance of  gypsum.  Alum  is  found  in  considerable  quantities  at 
 Aveyron.     The  Pyrenees  in  particular  supply  beautiful  marbles. 
 
 Mineral  ll'atersJ]  The  chief  mineral  •waters  of  France  arc 
 those  of  Barrege,  Bagneres,  Vichi,  and  Plombicres.  The  warm 
 baths  of  Barrege,  in  particular,  at  the  foot  of  the  Pyrenees,  have 
 been  long  celebrated,  and  there  the  Queen  of  Navarre  lays  the 
 scene  of  her  tales.  The  baths  of  Bagneres  are  in  the  same  neigh' 
 bourhood. 
 
 A''atural  Curiosities.']  Among  the  natural  curiosities  of  France,, 
 the  most  worthy  of  notice  is  the  plain  of  La  Crau,  which  lies  in 
 Provence,  not  far  from  the  mouth  of  the  Rhone.  This  is  the  most 
 singular  stony  desert  that  is  to  be  found  in  France,  or  perhaps  in 
 Europe.*  The  diameter  is  about  five  leagues,  and  the  contents 
 from  20  to  25  square  leagues,  or  about  150,000  English  acres.  It 
 is  entirely  composed  of  shingle,  or  round  gravel,  some  of  the 
 stones  as  large  as  the  head  of  a  maa,  and  the  shingle  of  the  sea 
 shore  is  not  niore  barren  of  soil.  Beneath  is  a  iimall  mixture  of 
 loam  with  fragments  of  stone.  In  the  winter  there  are  scattered 
 piles  of  grass,  which,  from  the  vast  extent  of  the  space,  pasture  a 
 considerable  multitude  of  sheep.  In  general  however  France,  be- 
 ing mostly  a  plain  country,  docs  not  present  much  singularity  of 
 feature  ;  and  the  scenes  of  the  Cevennes  and  Pyrenees  have  beea 
 little  explored  by  travellers. 
 
 FRENCH  ISLANDS. 
 
 Corsica,  called  by  the  Greeks  CalUste,  and  afterwards  Cijmus^ 
 is  1 10  miles  from  the  coast  of  Genoa,  55  from  that  of  Etruria,  and 
 11  from  that  of  Sardinia.  It  lies  between  41  11  and  42  54  N. ; 
 and  between  8  and  10  E. ;  having  the  gulf  of  Genoa,  N.  ;  the  Tus- 
 can sea,  E. ;  the  straits  of  Bonifacio,  S. ;  and  the  Mediterranean, 
 \V.  Its  length,  from  cape  Corso  to  the  straits,  is  106  miles  ;  its 
 breadth  varies  from  50  to  40  ;  and  it  contains  according  to  Hassel 
 3,977  square  miles.  The  first  inhabitants  were  the  Pheceans, 
 from  Ionia.  The  Carthaginians  took  it  from  them  in  the  reign  of 
 Cyrus,  B.  C.  542  ;  and  retained  it  till  B.  C.  231,  when  it  was  cap- 
 tured by  the  Romans.  The  Goths  subjugated  it  A.  D.  553.  The 
 Saracens  drove  out  the  Goths,  and  they  were  succeeded  by  the 
 Franks  under  Chaj'lcs  Martel,  about  725.  The  island  was  soon 
 ceded  to  the  popes  ;  and  the  Genoese,  after  many  unsuccessful  ef- 
 forts, at  length  subdued  it,  in  the  beginning  of  the  14th  century. 
 Their  dominion  was  oppressive  and  insecure.  The  Corsicans 
 often  revolted  ;  and,  at  length,  in  1736,  elected  Theodore,  one  of 
 the  noble  family  of  Neuhoff,  in  Westphalia,  their  king.  He  failed, 
 however,  of  success,  and  died  a  b  >  jgar  in  London.  General 
 Paoli  was  chosen  chief  of  the  island,  in  1 755.     His  measures  were 
 
 *  Young,  i.  379 
 
28*  FRANCE. 
 
 so  well  taken  that  the  Genoese  were  compelled  to  call  in  the 
 French  in  1764,  who  compkned  the  conquest  of  it  for  themselves, 
 in  1769.  The  English  conquered  the  island  in  1795  ;  but,  in  a 
 few  years,  the  inhabitants  returned  to  their  allegiance  to  France. 
 The  religion  is  the  catholic.  The  island  now  constitutes  two  de- 
 partments of  France.  The  northern,  Go/o,  contains  2,177  square 
 miles,  and  in  1807,  1 12,348  inhabitants.  The  southern  Liamore, 
 includes  also  the  island  of  Elba,  exclusive  of  which  it  contains 
 1800  square  miles,  and  73,347  inhabitants.  Total  population, 
 185,695.  The  population  in  1740,  was  120,380;  and  in  1802, 
 166,813.  The  language  is  the  Italian.  The  Genoese  purposely- 
 kept  the  inhabitants  in  ignorance.  There  was  a  university  of  some 
 reputation  at  Corte,  in  the  centre  of  this  island.  Bastia  on  the  N. 
 E.  side,  the  largest  town  in  the  island,  had  in  1807,  1  i,366  inhabi- 
 tants. It  has  a  small  good  harbor  for  merchant  ships.  A  moun- 
 tain in  the  neighborhood  commands  the  town.  Ajaccio  on  the  S. 
 E.  coast,  the  birth-piace  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  contains  6576 
 inhabitants.  Bonifacio,  in  the  S.  has  3187.  Manufactures  are  in 
 their  infancy.  Their  cloths  are  of  the  coarsest  kind.  Their 
 leather  is  not  tanned  but  dried.  Coral,  which  is  found  abundantly 
 on  the  coftst,  is  the  chief  article  exported.  The  commerce  might 
 be  extensive.  The  coast  every  where  offers  good  anchorage,  and 
 there  are  numerous  and  excellent  harbors  on  every  side  of  the 
 island.  San  Ficrenzo  in  the  N.  is  a  bay,  15  miles  long,  5  wide, 
 and  many  fathom  deep.  Calvi,  in  the  N.  W.  has  a  large,  deep, 
 and  commodious  harbor.  Porto  Vecchio,  in  the  S.  E.  is  5  miles 
 long,  1|  broad,  with  a  great  depth  of  water,  and  a  good  bottom. 
 It  is  one  of  the  best  in  Europe.  The  climate  is  mild ;  and  the 
 air,  except  in  the  neighborhood  of  marshes,  healthy.  Many  of 
 these  have  been  drained.  The  interior  of  the  island  is  mountain- 
 ous ;  and  a  chain  of  mountains  commences  near  the  coast,  about  20 
 miles  E.  of  Porto  Vecchio,  and  runs  N.  N.  E.  across  the  island  lea- 
 ving about  I  of  the  island  to  the  E.  Gradaccio,  the  highest  elevation, 
 is  near  the  centre.  The  whole  island,  together  -with  the  coasts  of 
 France  and  Italy,  are  visible,  from  its  tops.  There  ai'e  large 
 tracts  of  woodland.  The  inhabitants  live  chiefly  in  little  villages ; 
 many  of  which  are  built  on  the  summits  of  the  mountains,  at  such 
 a  height  that  they  are  visible  only  in  the  night,  when  the  shep- 
 herds kindle  their  fires.  The  soil  is  fertile,  even  on  the  moun- 
 tains. It  produces  flax,  wheat,  rye,  barley,  and  millet.  Excel- 
 lent wines  are  made  in  several  of  the  cantons ;  and  the  vine  and 
 the  olive  find  here  a  kinder  climate  than  in  France.  The  lemon, 
 orange,  pomegranate,  almond,  and  mulberry  are  thrifty.  Chest- 
 nut trees  are  wonderfully  numerous.  The  oak,  the  fir,  the  cedar, 
 and  the  pine  grow  to  a  great  height.  The  island  swarms  with 
 bees  :  the  honey  is  rather  sharp,  but  the  v.ax  is  excellent.  The 
 horses  arc  of  the  Sardinian  breed;  smail,  but  strong  and  active. 
 The  cattle  are  large  ;  but  i^iferior.  Oil  supplies  the  place  of  but- 
 ter. Sheep  are  numerous  ;  their  wool  is  coarse,  but  their  mut- 
 ton excellent.  The  Golo,  the  largest  river  rises  fron\  lake  Ino, 
 runs  N.  E.  70  miles,  and  empties  10  miles  S.  of  Bastia.     The 
 
FRANCE.  285 
 
 Tavignano  issues  from  lake  Creno,  ^nd  flows  E.  to  the  Tuscan 
 sea,  near  the  ancient  c"hy  of  Aleria,  havinj;  a  length  of  about  60 
 miles.  The  Ino  and  the  Creno  are  two  miles  apart,  are  both  on 
 mount  Gradaccio,  and  arc  of  considerable  extent.  Eels  and  trout 
 are  large,  fat,  and  abundant  in  the  rivers  and  lakes  ;  and  the  best 
 of  oysters  on  the  coast.  The  wild  boar,  the  fox,  the  hare,  and  the 
 muffoli  are  numerous.  Rabbits  and  apes  formerly  were  found 
 here.  The  woods  abound  with  game.  The  island  is  very  rich  in 
 minerals.  Lead  is  found  at  Buzaggia;  copper  at  Verde  ;  iron  at 
 Corte,  cape  Corso,  and  Farinole ;  antimony  at  Erza ;  silver  at 
 Caccia,  Farinole,  GaJeria,  and  near  St.  Fiorcnzo.  This  last  is 
 extremely  rich.  Corsica  has  also  alum,  granite,  talc,  jasper,  as- 
 bestos, saltpetre,  and  quarries  of  beautiful  black  porphyry,  and 
 serpentine.  Mineral  springs  abound.  The  inhabitants  are  thin 
 and  swarthy.  They  are  described  as  generally  indolent,  ignorant, 
 and  superstitious.  They  are  not  distinguished  for  their  probity, 
 and  are  said  never  to  forgive  an  injury,  or  an  affront.  At  the 
 same  time,  they  are  intrepid,  active,  sagacious,  and  hospitable. 
 
 Elba,  with  the  little  isles  of  Capraja,  Pianola,  Palmajoia  and 
 Monte  Christo,  was  added  to  the  French  territory  in  1802.  It  is 
 12  miles  from  Etruria,  and  50  from  Corsica.  It  is  chiefly  moun- 
 tainous. The  air  is  delightful.  The  soil  produces  the  fine  fruits 
 of  tropical  climates.  Wood  and  pastures  are  scarce.  It  is  won- 
 derfully rich  in  mineralogy.  Here  are  mines  of  gold,  silver,  cop- 
 per, iron,  magnet,  lead,  sulphur,  and  vitriol ;  and  quarries  of  mar- 
 ble, granite,  and  slate.  The  iron  mine  of  Rio  formerly  yielded  a 
 clear  annual  profit  of  50,00(^  crowns.  The  mines  are  now  farmed 
 for  500,000  livres.  The  island  contains  158  square  miles,  and  had 
 in  1807,  13,750  inhabitants.  Porto  Ferrajo  has  3000  inhabitants, 
 and  Marciana  2500.  The  blands  called  Hyeresnear  Toulon  have 
 a  barren  and  naked  appearance,  and  only  present  a  few  stinted  and 
 scattered  pines. 
 
 On  the  western  coast  first  occurs  the  isle  of  Oleron,  containing 
 158  square  miles,  celebrated  for  a  code  of  maritime  laws  issued 
 by  Richard  I.  king  of  England,  of  whose  French  territory  this  isle 
 constituted  a  portion.  To  the  N.  is  the  isle  of  Re,  opposite  Ro- 
 chelle,  having  1 18  square  miles,  and  noted  for  an  expedition  of  the 
 English  in  the  17th  century.  Ycu  is  a  small  and  insignificant 
 isle,  containing  45  square  itjiles,  followed  by  Noirmoutier^  M'hicli 
 became  remarkable  in  the  war  of  La  Vendee,  and  containing  1 60 
 square  miles.  Bellisle  has  been  repeatedly  attacked  by  the 
 English  :  it  contains  56  square  miles,  and  is  surrounded  by  steep 
 rocks,  which,  with  the  fortifications  render  the  conquest  difficult. 
 The  isle  of  Ushant,  or  Ouessant,  is  remarkable  as  the  furthest 
 headland  of  France,  towards  the  west,  being  about  1 2  miles  from 
 the  continent,  and  about  9  in  circumference,  with  several  hamlets, 
 and  abouf600  inhabitants.  Several  other  small  isles  may  be  pass- 
 ed in  silence,  but  those  of  St.  Marcou,  about  seven  miles  S.  E.  of 
 La  Hogue  are  in  the  possession  of  the  Englisii :  they  received 
 their  name,  it  is  believed,  from  a  Norman  saint,  Marcoul,  abbot  of 
 Nantouille,  who  died  in  558. 
 
,*x 
 
 GERMANY. 
 
 CHAPTER  I. 
 HISTORICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 KAMES,  EXTEST,  BOUNDARIES,  ORIGINAL  POPULATION,  ANCIEN  f 
 DIVISIONS,  PROGRESSIVE  GEOGRAPHY,  HISTORICAL  GEOGRAPHY, 
 ANTIQUITIES,  RELIGION,  LITERATURE  AND  UNI  VERSIFIES,  GOV- 
 ERNMENT, POPULATION,  REVENUES,  POLITICAL  IMPORTANCE 
 AND  RELATIONS,  FACE  OF  THE  COUNTRY,  RIVERS,  MOUNTAINS, 
 FORESTS,  BOTANY,  ZOOLOGY. 
 
 THE  geography  of  Germany  has  always  been  the  most 
 difficult  of  any  country  m  Europe.  It  is  subdivided  into  so  many 
 states,  and  these  again  into  so  many  petty  districts,  each  an  inde- 
 pendent principality,  governed  by  its  own  laws  and  regulatuig  its 
 own  pol'ce,  that  the  geographer  has  found  it  impossible  to  be  con- 
 cise, without  being  defective  ;  minute  without  being  tedious  ;  or 
 either,  witiiout  being  obscure.  The  late  changes  have  not  relieved 
 him  from  these  difficulties. 
 
 A'anirs.^  Tne  most  ancient  name  of  this  country  is  said  to  have 
 been  Trutschland.^  from  the  Tcutones  or  their  god  Tcuth.  The 
 common  people  still  call  themselves  Teutsc/icrs.*  The  Roman 
 name  was  Gennania.  The  French  call  the  country  Alemegna  from 
 the  ancient  Jlcmamii.  The  word  German  or  Garman  is  said  to 
 be  Celtic,  and  to  signify  a  warlike  man.* 
 
 Extent. ~\  Germany  anciently  reached  from  the  Rhine  to  beyoncj 
 the  Vistula,  and  from  the  Baltic  to  the  Danube.  Its  modern 
 breadth,  from  the  Rhine  to  the  eastern  confines  of  Silesia,  is  500 
 miles  ;  and  its  length,  from  the  Isle  of  Rugen  to  the  southern 
 limits  of  Austria,  is  600.  The  country  south  of  the  Danube,  in  the 
 circle  of  Austria,  is  the  ancient  jVoricum  ;  west  of  wliich  lay  Rhe' 
 tia  and  Vindelicia. 
 
 Boimdcries.']  On  the  N.  are  Denmark,  and  the  Baltic  ;  on  the 
 E.  Prussia,  Poland,  Hungary,  Sclavonia,  and  Croatia  ;  on  the  S. 
 Italy  and  Switzerland  ;  and  on  the  W.  France,  the  Netherlands, 
 Holland,  and  the  German  ocean. 
 
 Origi7ial  Fofiulation.~\  The  Celts,  the  earliest  occupants  of  Eu- 
 rope, appear  to  have  settled  principally  in  its  southern  regions. 
 The  Cimhri,  one  of  the  Celtic  nations,  appear,  however,  to  have 
 penetrated  farther  north.  They  occupied  a  large  portion  of  the 
 N.  W.  of  Germany,  and  from  them  Jutland  was  called  by  the  Ro- 
 mans Cimbrica  Chersonesus.  They  Avere  early  the  terror  of  Rome  ; 
 but  in  the  time  of  Tacitus  an  inconsiderable  people.  The  J'inns, 
 who  followed  them,  went  rather  to  the  E.  and  the  N  ;  and  appear 
 never  to  have  interfered  with  the  Celtic  tribes.  Several  of  ihe 
 Finnish  nations  in  the  time  of  Tacitus,  particularly  the  Estyi  or 
 
 *  Adam's  Ant.  Geog.  p.  555. 
 
GERMANY.  ^87 
 
 Msthes,  oecMpied  the  N.  E.  parts  of  Germany  ;  and  iltc  Huns,  the 
 only  one  of  them  that  ever  acquired  extensive  power,  have  long 
 been  settled  on  its  eastern  frontier.  Both  the  Celts  and  the  Finns 
 however  are  obliged  to  yield  to  the  invasion  of  the  Goths  or  Scy- 
 thians who  migrated  westward  from  their  original  seats  on  the 
 Euxine,  and  had  planted  colonics  in  Germany,  Britain,  Gaul,  and 
 Spain  long  before  the  Roman  interference  in  the  affairs  of  those 
 countries, 
 
 Ainricnt  Divisions.~\  The  tribes  on  the  Rhine  in  the  time  of 
 Tacitus  were  the  Calti  on  the  northwestern  skirts  of  the  Hercy- 
 nian  forest;  the  U.si/ifiii  and  Tcucteri  lower  down  on  the  river,  and 
 the  Bructeri  near  its  mouth.  North  of  its  mouth  lay  the  J'risii,  in 
 Avhat  is  now  Fiieseland ;  the  C/iauciy  an  extensive  tribe  directly 
 north,  and  also  on  the  Baltic  ;  and  east  of  these  last  the  Cherusci 
 and  the  Fossii.  The  Cimbri  were  in  what  is  now  Holstein,  and 
 probably  also  on  the  southern  bank  of  the  Elbe. 
 
 The  Generic  name  of  Suevi  was  given  to  the  tribes  lying  be- 
 tween the  Elbe  and  the  Vistula.  Their  names  were  the  Semnones, 
 the  I^OTig'obardi,  the  Reudigniy  the  Aviones,  the  Angli,  Avho  after- 
 Avards  gave  name  to  England,  the  Varini,  the  Encloses,  the  Suar- 
 doses  and  the  J\,''uit hones. 
 
 The  Estyi  were  on  the  S.  E.  of  the  Baltic.  The  Peucini  and 
 Bastarnte  lay  east  of  the  Vistula,  but  were  ranked  among  the  Ger- 
 man tribes.  The  states  of  the  Germans,  on  the  banks  of  the  Dan- 
 ube, were  the  Hermundurii,  the  J^arisci,  the  Marcomenori,  and  the 
 Quadi.* 
 
 On  the  decline  of  the  Roman  empire  Germany  was  formed  of  7 
 principal  nations,  the  Franks,  Sv/abians,  Alemans,  Frisians,  Sax- 
 ons, Thuringians,  and  Bavarians. 
 
 The  emperor  Maximilian  grandfather,  and  predecessor  of 
 Charles  V.  divided  Germany  into  10  circles. 
 
 f  1.  Pomerania 
 
 V  Upper  Saxont.        <!  I'  Electorate  of  Brandenburg 
 }  3.  Electorate  of  Saxony 
 1^4.  Thuringia 
 '1.  Holstein  (duchy  of) 
 
 2.  Lawenburg  (duchy  of) 
 
 3.  Brunswick  (duchy  of) 
 
 4.  Electorate  of  Hanover 
 
 H.  Lower  Saxoxy.     <(  f '  Luneburg 
 J  6.  Bremen 
 
 7.  Mecklenberg  (duchies  of) 
 
 8.  Hildeshein  (bishopric  of) 
 
 9.  Magdeburg  and  Halberstadt  (duch- 
 ies of) 
 
 III.  Westphalia.  J  Divided   into    very  many    petty  sove- 
 
 ^      reignties 
 
 IV.  Upper  Rhike.        |  Its  petty  sovereigns  were  styled  Land- 
 
 \     graves,  Counts  and  Dukes 
 
288  GERMANY. 
 
 fPalatine  "^ 
 
 V.  Lower  Rhine,  or  ^  Cologne  1^  Electorates  of 
 
 the  Electoral  Circle,    j  Mentz  | 
 
 (^Triers  J 
 
 ,,,    „  C  Subject   to  Princes^  Mai'^raves,  Bish- 
 
 \  I.    1-RAXCONIA.  <        ^i^     5^  .  c  7 
 
 I      ops,  &c. 
 
 "Austria  (archduchy  .of) 
 
 Stiria 
 
 Carinthia 
 
 _,._     .  J  Carmiola 
 
 \  II.  AusnuA.  <;^  (.^^.j^j^ 
 
 Tyrol 
 
 Brixin 
 
 Trent 
 
 VIII.  Bavaria. 
 
 IX.  SWABIA. 
 
 „    „  C  Which     comprehended     Holland,    the 
 
 A.  liURGUNDY.  J      Netherlands,  and  French  Burgundy 
 
 Dohemia,  Moravia,  Lusatia,  and  Silesia  are  not  comprized  in 
 the  10  circles  except  Burgundy,  which  was  early  dismembered. 
 These  circles  remained  with  a  few  variations  as  they  were  origi- 
 nally formed,  till  the  late  dissolution  of  the  Germanic  empire. 
 Since  that  event  Germany  has  been  formed  into  many  states  stiled 
 independent ;  and  actually  so  of  each  other.  They  are  all  mem- 
 bers of  what  is  called  The  Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  and 
 when  the  principles  of  that  confederation  are  infringed  are  obliged 
 to  furnish,  each  their  respective  contingent  of  men  and  money  to 
 support  them. 
 
 Progressive  Geography.~\  The  progressive  geography  of  Ger- 
 many, though  an  interesting  topic,  has  never  been  ably  illustrated. 
 It  appears  that  the  central  parts  of  Germany  were  little  known  to 
 the  ancients.  The  southern  and  western  districts,  as  bordering 
 on  the  Roman  empire,  fiad  been  partially  explored.  Roman  ships 
 had  navigated  the  Baltic,  and  the  Roman  arms  had  penetrated 
 nearly  in  a  direction  due  east,  to  the  nearest  circuit  of  the  Elbe 
 near  Magdeburg,  in  which  quarter  the  trophies  of  Drusus  were 
 erected.  On  the  south,  the  Sudetic  mountains  seem  to  bound 
 the  knowledge  of  the  ancients  ;  while  through  the  centre  of  Ger- 
 many, from  the  Rhine  to  the  Vistula,  extended  the  vast  Hercinian 
 forest. 
 
 The  interior  of  this  country  remained  unexplored  till  the  age 
 of  Charlemagne,  and  the  northern  parts  for  some  centuries  after 
 that  period. 
 
 Historical  Efiochfi.']  1.  The  state  of  savage  independence,  be- 
 fore Germany  was  known  to  the  Romans.  2.  The  subjugation  by 
 the  Roman  arms,  under  Germanicus,  A.  D.  17.  3.  The  success- 
 ful revolt  from  the  Roman  dominion  in  the  reign  of  Domitian. 
 4.  The  conquest  of  Rome  by  the  Hcruli,  who  made  Odoacer  their 
 general  king  of  Italy.  5.  The  establishment  of  the  empire,  by 
 Charlemagne  king  of  France.  He  conquered  both  Italy  and  Ger- 
 many and  was  crowned  emperor  of  the  west  A.  D.  800.     6.  The 
 
GERMANY.  289 
 
 rejection  of  the  Carlovinian  line  in  880,  since  which  time  Germa- 
 ny has  been  considered  as  an  elective  empire.  After  muc'i  con- 
 tention Henry  duke  of  Saxony  was  chosen  in  918  ;  and  this  line 
 failing  in  1024,  was  followed  by  that  of  Franconia.  To  this  suc- 
 ceeded the  line  of  Swabia.  7.  The  Interregnum  after  the  death 
 of  Frederic  II.  wliich  lasted  23  years.  No  less  than  six  candidates 
 claimed  the  empire,  all  of  whom  were  destfoyed.  8.  The  perma- 
 nent annexation  of  the  imperial  dignity  to  the  family  of  Austria  in 
 1440.  9.  The  reign  of  Charles  V.  which  was  the  period  of  the 
 Reformation.  10.  The  dissolution  of  the  Germanic  body  in  1809. 
 Since  that  time  the  western  and  middle  parts  of  Germany  have 
 been  divided  into  many  large  and  small  kingdoms  and  principali- 
 ties nominally  independent  and  really  sox)f  each  other,  but  actually 
 under  complete  subjection  to  France.  These  now  consltate 
 ■what  is  called  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine. 
 
 Anti<juitie.i.']  The  antiquities  of  Germany  consist  chiefly  of  a 
 few  Roman  remains  in  the  S.  and  W.  It  would  be  endless  to 
 enumerate  the  churches  founded  by  Charlemagne ;  or  the  nume- 
 rous castles  erected  by  powerful  princes  and  barons.  < 
 
 Religion.']  The  religion  of  the  greater  part  of  Germany  may- 
 be pronounced  to  be  the  Reformed,  first  introduced  into  Saxony 
 by  Luther.  Yet  the  south  continues  firmly  attached  to  the  Roman 
 Catholic  faith,  now  chiefly  supported  by  the  house  of  Austria. 
 
 Literature  and  Unix'ersities.]  The  Germans  can  boast  of  a 
 greater  number  of  useful  discoveries  and  inventions  in  arts  and 
 sciences,  than  any  other  European  nation.  They  have  the  honor 
 of  discovering  the  Art  of  Printing  about  the  year  1450.  It  would 
 be  easy  to  enumerate  nearly  one  hundred  of  their  inventions,  with- 
 out filling  up  the  list  with  mere  improvements  in  machines  and 
 mechanical  arts.  Literature  and  the  sciences  are  arrived  in  Ger- 
 many at  a  vei'y  high  degree  of  eminence,  both  with  respect  to  uni- 
 versality and  solidity.  Within  these  fifty  years  their  improve- 
 ments have  been  rapid  and  astonishing.  Universal  geography, 
 chronology,  antiquities  and  heraldry  owe  their  perfection  to  the 
 Germ.ans,  and  the  science  of  S/atislics  its  origin.  The  German 
 language  has  been  greatly  cultivated  and  enriched  with  many 
 excellent  compositions  in  all  branches  of  polite  and  useful  litera- 
 ture, which  have  been  marked  with  the  applause,  and  translated 
 into  the  languages  of  neighboring  nations.  Many  branches  of 
 useful  knowledge,  hitherto  confined  to  particular  classes  of  men, 
 and  diflPicult  to  be  acquired,  have  been  reduced  to  a  scientific 
 form  in  Germany  ;  they  form  indisj)cnsable  parts  of  polite  educa- 
 tion, and  are  publicly  taught  in  the  universities.  The  theory 
 of  trades  and  mechanical  arts,  the  principles  of  private  and  public 
 economy,  of  internal  administration,  and  the  science  of  finances  ; 
 the  knowledge  of  the  political  situation,  resources  and  wealth  of 
 every  state,  have  been  added  to  the  established  list  of  academical 
 sciences,  and  they  employ  the  talents  of  a  great  number  of  writ- 
 ers, under  the  name  of  Technology,  Economy,  Science  of  Finan- 
 ces, and  Statistics. 
 
 The  number  of  readers  in   the  German    empire,  and   in  tluj 
 
 VOL.  II.  57 
 
290  GERMANY. 
 
 neighboring  countries,  especially  in  the  north  of  Europe,  where,, 
 the  German  language  has  an  extensive  circulation,  is  large  enough 
 to  encourage  the  publication  of  no  less  than  5000*  annual  literary 
 productions,  of  which  two  thirds  are  original  performances,  and 
 one  third  translations  from  other  languages.  The  book  trade  is 
 no  where  equally  important  ;  at  the  Leipsick  fair,  books  are  sold 
 and  exchanged  to  the  value  of  several  hundred  thousand  dollars. 
 
 There  are  38  universities  in  Germany,  of  which  19  belong  to 
 the  Protestants,  and  17  to  the  Roman  Catholics  ;  though  the  lat- 
 ter ought  to  have  many  more,  considering  the  proportion  of  their 
 numbers  to  those  of  the  Protestants,  which  is  as  two  to  one.  Of 
 all  the  German  institutions  of  education,  the  universities  are  still 
 the  most  faulty,  considering  the  wants  of  our  age  ;  yet  most  of 
 the  Protestant  universities  in  Germany  are  the  least  exceptionable 
 institutions  of  that  kind  in  Europe.  The  number  of  literary  and 
 scientifical  societies,  public  libraries,  academies  of  arts,  collections 
 of  pictures,  military  academies,  Sec,  is  greater  in  Germany  than, 
 iii  any  other  country. 
 
 Go-vernme7it.~\  The  government  was  tliat  of  an  aristocracy, 
 which  elected  a  monarch,  who  may  be  of  any  family.  Catholic, 
 Lutheran,  or  Calvinist.  To  consider  the  constitution  at  length, 
 Avhich  has  been  called  by  a  German  writer  "  a  confusion  supported 
 by  providence,"  would  be  foreign  to  the  nature  of  this  work. — 
 There  is  now  no  empire  of  Germany,  nor  are  the  states  connected 
 by  any  common  bond. 
 
 Population.~\  'J  he  states  composing  the  confederation  of  the 
 Rhine  have,  according  to  Hassel,  a  population  of  16,927,600  ;  of 
 whom  2,277,000  are  in  the  duchy  of  Warsaw;  and  84,000  in  the 
 district  of  Dantzic.  The  remainder  14,566,600  are  in  Germany. 
 Of  the  present  Prussian  population  5,584,000  are  Germans  ;  and 
 of  that  of  Austria  8,660,000  :  to  which,  if  that  of  the  duchy  of  Hol- 
 stein  be  added,  the  whole  amount  of  the  population  of  Germany, 
 Avill  be,  according  to  Hassel,  27,140,600. 
 
 Army.']  The  whole  military  force  of  the  states  composing  the 
 confederation  of  the  Rhine,  is  stated,  by  Hassel,  at  205,700  men, 
 of  whom  they  are  obliged  to  furnish  1 16,750  men  as  a  contingent 
 to  the  French  Emperor,  the  head  of  the  confederacy,  whenever  its 
 principles  are  infringed  upon  by  other  nations.  What  proportion 
 of  tiie  Austrian,  Prussian,  and  Danish  troops  is  derived  from  Ger- 
 maiiy,  we  are  unable  to  state. 
 
 Revenucft.]  The  whole  revenue  of  the  confederation  of  the 
 Rhine  is  stated  by  Hassel,  at  94,193,000  guilders.  The  Austrian 
 revenues  derived  from  Germany  are  not  less  than  50,000,000 ;  the 
 Prussian  20,300,000,  and  those  of  Holstein  about  1,300,000  ;  mak- 
 ing a  total  of  165,793,000  guilders  annually  yielded  by  Germany. 
 
 Folitical  Imjiortance  and  Relatiori.s.']  The  states  which  compose 
 the  confederation  of  the  Rhine,  a'rc  at  present,  entirely  under  the 
 
 •  In  the  year  1792,  "at  the  Eastei-  fair,  (there  is  .another  not  so  procUictive,  ai 
 Michaehiias)  were  published  i!2iJ7  new  hooks,  inclusive  of  4G8  contiivialions,  I'.U  new 
 editions,  and  154  translations ;  most  of  them  in  the  Belle  Lcttrcs,  Geo-rapliy,  History 
 nnd  rhy  sic."    [  l^rofesnor  Ebelivg's  letter  to  the  Author. 
 
GERMANY.  291 
 
 'control  of  the  French  Emperor,  and  have  scarcely  the  indepen- 
 dence of  colonies.  The  Avcight  which  Prussia  lately  had  in  the 
 politics  of  Europe  is  entirely  gone  ;  and  it  is  difficult  to  say 
 whether  the  interests  of  Russia  or  France  will  predominate  in  her 
 councils.  Austria,  though  crippled  by  her  two  late  contests,  is 
 still  formidable.  With  a  wiser  monarch  and  an  abler  cabinet,  she 
 might  soon,  under  the  banners  of  the  Arch  Duke  Charles,  regain 
 what  she  has  lost. 
 
 The  manners,  customs,  and  dialects  of  Germany  vary  seriously 
 in  the  diff'erent  states.  The  Saxon  is  accounted  the  purest  and 
 most  classical  idiom  of  the  German  ;  and  the  southern  dialects  of 
 Suabia,  Bavaria,  and  Austria  the  most  uncouth.  The  literature 
 will  be  best  considered  under  each  state.  To  style  an  author  a 
 German  ;  being  almost  as  vague  as  to  call  him  an  European,  so 
 distinct  are  the  several  states,  the  dialects,  and  the  shades  of  civil- 
 ization. 
 
 Face  of  the  Country.']  To  the  north  of  the  jNIayn,  Germany 
 chiefly  presents  wide  sandy  plains,  which  seem  as  if  they  had  been, 
 in  the  first  ages  of  the  world,  overwhelmed  by  the  sea.  A  few  hills 
 begin  to  appear  ii\  the  neighborhood  of  Minden  ;  and  in  the 
 south  of  the  Hanoverian  dominions  arise  the  most  northern  moun- 
 tains of  Germany,  those  of  Blocksberg,  and  others  in  the  Hartz. 
 To  the  S.  W.  are  the  mountains  of  Hessia,  and  others,  extending 
 towards  the  Rhine  :  while  on  the  east  the  rich  and  variegated  coun- 
 try of  Saxony,  one  of  the  most  beautiful  and  fertile  in  the  empire, 
 extends  to  the  souchei'n  limits  of  the  mountains  of  Erzgeberg,  a- 
 Ijundant  in  mines  and  singular  fossils. 
 
 The  regions  to  the  south  of  the  Mayn  may  be  regarded  as  rath- 
 er mountainous. 
 
 Rivers.]  Both  portions  are  watered  l)y  numerous  and  impor- 
 tant rivers.  In  the  north  the  Elbe  is  the  most  distinguished 
 stream,  rising  in  the  Sudetic  mountains  of  Silesia  ;  and,  after  run- 
 ning south  for  about  50  miles,  it  suddenly  assumes  its  destination 
 of  N.  W.  receives  the  Bohemian  Muldo  and  Eger,  the  Mulda  and 
 Sala  of  Saxony,  and  the  large  ri'  er  Havel  from  the  east,  and  en- 
 ters the  sea  near  Cuxhaven,  after  a  comparative  course  of  more 
 than  500  British  miles.  The  chief  cities  on  the  banks  of  the  Elbe 
 are  Dresden,  Meissen,  Whittenbcrg,  Magdeburg,  from  which  it 
 runs  almost  a  solitary  stream  to  Hamburg.  The  tide  is  perceived 
 to  the  height  of  22  miles  ;  and,  when  raised  by  the  north  wind,  mid- 
 dle sized  vessels  may  arrive  at  Hamburg,  but  they  are  in  general 
 obliged  to  anchor  a  mile  below  the  city.* 
 
 Not  far  to  the  west  is  the  mouth  of  the  Wescr,  which  first  re- 
 ceives that  name  when  its  two  sources,  the  Werra  and  the  Fulda, 
 join  near  Mundcn  in  the  principality  of  Calenburg,  about  1 6  British 
 miles  S.  W.  of  Gottingen.  The  Werra  springs  in  the  principali- 
 ty of  Hildburghausen  ;  and  the  Fulda  in  the  territories  of  the  Bish- 
 opric so  called  ;  the  former  having  the  longest  course,  and  being 
 justly  considered  as  the  chief  source  of  the  Wcsscr,  which  thus 
 
 *  IJusching,  vi.  10. 
 
29^2  GERMANY. 
 
 flows  about  270  British  miles.  The  principal  towns  on  this  river 
 arc  Bevern,  Mindcn,  and  Bremen.  The  chief  tributary  stream 
 is  the  AUcr,  from  the  duchy  of  Brunswick.  The  inundations  of 
 the  Weser  are  terrible,  the  adjacent  towns  and  villages  seeming 
 to  form  islands  in  the  sea  :  hence  the  shores  are  esteemed  un- 
 healthy. 
 
 The  sources  and  mouths  of  the  Rhine  have  been  already  de- 
 scribed. This  noble  river  forms  the  grand  ancient  barrier  be- 
 tween France  and  Germany  ;  and  its  course  may  be  computed  at 
 about  600  British  miles.  On  the  German  side  it  is  diversified 
 ■with  mountains  and  rocks  ;  but  from  Basel  to  Spire  the  shores  are 
 flat  'i.nd  uninteresting.*  Near  Mentz  they  become  rich,  variegat- 
 ed, and  grand  ;  and  on  the  confluence  with  the  Mayn  the  waters 
 are  distinguishable  for  many  leagues.  The  Rhinegau  is  not 
 only  celebrated  for  its  wines,  but  for  the  romantic  appearance  of 
 the  country,  the  river  running  through  wild  rocks  crowned  with 
 iTiajestic  castles.  Hence  as  far  as  Bonn  the  shores  abound  with 
 beautiful  and  striking  objects,  the  Rhine  not  seeming  to  assume 
 his  grandeur  till  after  his  junction  with  the  Mayn. 
 
 The  Danube  has  already  been  described.  Its  chief  tributaries 
 in  Germany,  arc  the  Ilcr,  the  Lech,  the  Iser  and  the  Inn  from  the 
 S.  and  ihc  Naab  from  the  N. 
 
 The  Necker  is  a  tributary  stream  of  the  Rhine,  rising  in  the 
 Black  Forest,  not  far  from  the  Danube,  and  running  a  picturesque 
 course  of  about  1 50  British  miles  through  a  country  variegated 
 with  vineyards.  Another  and  grander  tributary  stream  of  the 
 Rhine  springs  from  the  lake  of  Fitchtel  See,  on  the  mountain  of 
 Fitchtelberg,  esteemed  among  the  most  elevated  parts  of  Ger- 
 many, as  it  gives  source  to  four  rivers  running  in  various  direc- 
 tions. This  source  is  called  the  White  INIayn  ;  while  another 
 source  the  Red  Mayn,  so  called  from  the  red  clay  through  which 
 it  flows,  rises  near  Haernleinsreuth,  in  the  principality  of  Bareuth. 
 The  Mayn,  after  receiving  the  Rednita  and  other  considerable 
 streams,  joins  the  Rhine  to  the  S.  of  Mentz.  The  Mayn  is  a  mud-s 
 dy  stream,  but  abounds  with  troi-.,';,  carp,  and  other  fish.  After 
 pervading  the  rich  bishopricks  of  Bamberg  and  Wurtzburg,  and 
 some  teiritories  of  the  See  of  Mentz,  it  waters  the  walls  of  Frank- 
 fort, formerly  a  city  of  celebrated  trade  ;  and  has  recently  acquir- 
 ed fresh  importance  from  being  considered  by  German  politicians 
 as  a  natural  boundary  between  the  power  of  Prussia  in  the  N.  of 
 Germany,  and  tliat  of  Austria  in  the  S. 
 
 LaHrs.^  To  the  north  of  the  Mayn  Germany  presents  few 
 lakes,  the  largest  being  in  the  duchy  of  Mecklenburg,  Avhere  the 
 lake  of  Plau  extends  under  various  names  about  25  British  miles, 
 in  length,  by  6  in  breadth,  it.  the  more  southern  and  Alpine  re- 
 gions, the  Bodcn  See,  or  lake  of  Constance,  is  the  most  distin- 
 guished expanse  of  water,  already  described  under  Swisserland. 
 Next  is  the  Chiem  See  in  Upper  Bava!-ia,  about  14  British  miles 
 in  length  by  five  in  breadth,  sometimes  largely  styled  the  Sea  of 
 
 ''■'  Gardnoi'"s  Vicus  ori  tlie  Rlirne. 
 
GERMANY.  MW         293 
 
 3avaria.     That  circle,  like  most  mountainous  Countries,  also  con- 
 tains many  other  lakes  of  smaller  account. 
 
 Mountain.',-.']  The  most  northern  mountains  in  Germany  are 
 those  of  the  Hartz,  called  the  Brocken  or  Blocksberg.*  These 
 mountains  rise  in  the  form  of  an  amphitheatre,  the  highest  being 
 what  is  called  the  great  Blocksberg.  The  river  Use  rises  from  the 
 bottom  ;  and  other  streams  spring  from  the  hills  to  the  N.  W. 
 and  to  the  E.  the  height  of  the  great  Brocken  is  302 1  feet ;  and  of 
 the  little  Brocken  2713. 
 
 In  Westphalia  there  are  some  hills  near  Minden  ;  and  in  the 
 duchy  of  the  same  name,  bordering  on  Hessia,  are  the  mountains 
 of  Winterberg,  Astenberg,  Schlossberg,  and  others.f  The  Hes- 
 sian teri'itories  may  be  regarded  as  generally  movmtainous,  espe- 
 cially towards  the  north.  Thence  S.  W.  towards  the  Rhine  are 
 tevcral  considerable  hills,  among  Avhich  may  be  mentioned  those 
 in  the  W.  of  Wetterau,  and  the  seven  hills  near  the  Rhine  almost 
 opposite  to  Andernach  ;  with  the  ridge  of  Heyrich  which  pro- 
 tects the  vines  of  Rhinegau.  To  the  east  of  Frankfort  on  the 
 Mayn  are  the  hilly  forest  of  Spessart,  with  the  metallic  heights  of 
 Fulda  and  Henneberg. 
 
 But  the  most  celebrated  mountains,  in  that  part  of  Germany 
 which  lies  to  the  N.  of  the  Mayn,  are  the  Ei'zgeberg,  or  Metallic 
 Mountains,  which  rise  to  the  N.  E.  of  the  Fichtelberg,  running  be- 
 tween Bohemia  and  Saxony,  but  supplying  both  countries  with 
 silver,  tin,  and  other  metals.  The  Erzgeberg  are  not  of  remarka- 
 ble height,  yet  contain  much  granite  like  those  of  the  Hartz  and 
 Hessia  ;  with  gneiss,  in  which  most  of  the  Saxon  and  Bohemian 
 mines  are  found.  Granular  limestone  also  appears  ;  and  in  Upper 
 Lusatia  an  entire  mountain  is  found  of  siliceous  schistus,  while 
 Flinzburg  consists  almost  entirely  of  milk-white  quartz. |  Mis- 
 nia  contains  mountains  of  pitchstone  ;  and  strata  of  hornblende. 
 In  Voigtland,  near  Averbach,  appears  the  famous  topaz  rock,  con- 
 sisting of  pale  topazes  in  hard  lithomarga.  Micaceous  schistus 
 and  slate  also  form  portions  of  the  Saxon  mountains  ;  with  large 
 masses  of  trap  and  basalt.  Those  of  Hessia  and  the  Hartz  pre- 
 sent nearly  the  same  substances  :  and  a  summit  of  the  Mcisner 
 consists  of  basalt  resting  on  coal.  The  metals  will  be  considered 
 in  the  account  of  each  country. 
 
 Among  the  German  mountains  to  the  S.  of  the  Mayn  may  first 
 be  named  the  Bergstrass,  a  ridge  passing  from  near  Manheim  to 
 the  vicinity  of  Frankfort.  On  the  cast  are  the  high  hills  of  Oden- 
 wald.  Farther  to  the  S.  are  the  mountains  of  Wurtemburg,  rising 
 both  on  the  E.  and  W.  of  that  extensive  duchy.  On  the  W.  the 
 mountains  form  a  continuation  of  those  of  the  Black  Forest,  the 
 mount  Abnoba  of  Tacitus,  whence  he  justly  derives  the  source  of 
 the  Danulic  ;  and  the  Helvetian  forest  of  Ptolemy.  The  moun- 
 tains of  the  Black  Forest,  in  German  Schwartzwald,  extend  from 
 near  Neuenburg,  in  the  territories  of  Wurtemburg  south  to  the 
 four  forest  towns  on  the  Rhine.§     The  southern  part  is  called  the 
 
 '   Biisching,  X.  251.  f  liiesbeck,  viii.  8,  9. 
 
 +  Kirwan,  Geol.  Ess.  17i-176  §  B  ishching,  viii.  4S1. 
 
 r#w<i 
 
294  GERMANY. 
 
 High,  and  the  northern  the  Lower  forest  :  the  length  being  about 
 30  and  the  breadth  20  British  miles.  The  eastern  part,  as  usual, 
 presents  a  gradual  elevation  ;  while  the  western  shews  precipitous 
 summits  to  the  inhabitants  of  Baden  and  Alsace,  The  appella- 
 tion seems  to  arise  from  the  thick  dark  forests  Avith  which  the 
 ascents  are  clothed.  A  branch  of  the  Black  Mountains  spreads 
 E.  from  near  Sulz  on  the  Necker  towards  the  country  of  CEtin- 
 gen,  being  more  than  60  miles  in  length.  This  chain  is  called 
 the  Alb,  and  sometimes  the  Suabian  Alps.  The  constituent  parts 
 of  these  extensive  ridges  have  been  little  detailed  ;  but  a  great 
 part  is  calcareous,  as  they  supply  excellent  marbles.  Near  Fru- 
 denstadt  in  the  Black  Mountains  are  mines  of  silver  and  copper. 
 
 The  south  east  of  this  portion  of  Germany  is  bounded  by  the 
 high  mountains  of  Bavaria  and  Salzia  or  Salzburg  ;  being  branch- 
 es or  continuations  of  the  Swiss  or  Tyrolesc  Alps,  but  without 
 general  appellations.  Those  bordering  on  Tyrol  are  granite  ; 
 thence,  as  usual,  argillacous  and  calcareous  in  the  lower  parts.* 
 Large  pieces  of  grass-green  quartz  arc  found  studded  with  red 
 transparert  garnets,  and  at  Munich  are  worked  into  elegant  snuff 
 boxes.  The  Alps  of  Salzburg  exceed  in  height  the  Carpathian 
 chain  or  the  Pyrenees,  and  only  yield  to  the  Swiss  and  Tyrolese 
 Alps,  the  highest  summits  being  computed  at  more  than  10,000 
 feet  above  the  sea. 
 
 Fo7-ests.']  Considerable  remains  yet  exist  of  the  ancient  for- 
 ests which  pervaded  Germany.  The  German  word  ivald.,  corres- 
 ponding with  the  old  English  weald,  denotes  a  forest.  The  chief 
 of  these  appear  always  to  have  extended  along  the  middle  regions 
 of  Germany,  from  the  N.  W.  towards  the  S.  E.  The  Dromling- 
 wald  is  to  the  north  of  Magdebvirg  ;  but  the  Solinger-wald,  the 
 woody  mountains  of  Hartz,  the  Lutten-wald,  the  wide  forest  of 
 Ti'.uringia,  may  be  said  to  be  connected  with  the  ancient  forests 
 of  Silesia,  hence  extending  far  to  the  E.  through  the  centre  of  Po- 
 land and  Russia.  More  to  the  south,  in  this  part  of  Germany,  are 
 the  Spcssart  forest,  and  others.  In  the  portion  south  of  the  Mayn, 
 the  vast  Black  Forest,  and  the  woods  along  the  Alb,  are  continued 
 by  others  i^n  various  parts  of  Bavaria.  In  general  the  passion 
 among  the  grandees  for  the  chase  of  the  wild  boar,  and  other 
 pleasures  of  hunting,  has  contributed  greatly  to  the  preservation 
 of  the  forests. 
 
 Botamj,']  As  Spain  is  distinguished  by  its  groves  of  cork  trees 
 and  ilex,  and  Scandinavia  by  its  fir  woods,  so  is  Germany  remark- 
 able for  its  deep  and  almost  impenetrable  forests  of  oak  :  not  in- 
 deed that  this  is  the  invariable  characteristic  of  the  country,  for  iu 
 an  empire  of  such  great  extent,  and  of  so  varied  a  surface,  it  must 
 needs  happen  that  the  native  vegetable  productions  on  the  shore 
 of  the  German  ocean  should  differ  considerably  from  those  in  the 
 Black  Forest  or  on  the  frontiers  of  Tyrol.  There  is  however  on 
 the  whole  more  uniformity  than  might  be  expected,  and  though 
 perhaps  few  plants  are  absolutely  peculiar  to  Germany,  yet  the 
 
 "  Tonr  in  Italy,  329. 
 
GERMAN  STATES.  295 
 
 abundance  of  some  species,  and  the  absence  of  others,  forms  a 
 striking  feature  in  the  natural  history  of  the  empire. 
 
 The  lilac  and  syringa,  are  by  no  means  of  unfrequent  occur- 
 rence in  the  hedges  of  the  north  of  Germany  ;  the  cornel,  the 
 sweet  briar,  and  cinnamon  rose,  are  also  common.  Of  the  smaller 
 plants  the  principal  are  lesser  honeywort,  winter  cherry,  yello'.v 
 and  least  star  of  Bethlehem,  evening  primrose,  and  coronilla  varia. 
 
 The  pastures  and  edges  of  woods  afford  several  kinds  of  iris  and 
 gentian  :  a  number  of  bulbous  rooted  plants,  particularly  snow- 
 flake,  narcissus  and  daffodil :  two  kinds  of  hyacinth,  the  muscari 
 and  racemosus,  and  branched  asphodel. 
 
 The  vegetables  of  the  woods  and  groves  may  be  divided  into 
 the  shrubby  and  herbaceous  ;  to  the  first  belong,  besides  the  com- 
 11  on  forest  trees  and  shrubs  of  England,  branched  elder  ;  Daphne 
 cneorum,  Mespilus  Germanica,  pendent  rose  ;  Bladder  Senna  and 
 laburnum.  Of  the  latter  the  most  worth  notice  are  millet  grass, 
 asclepias  vincetoxicum,  lily  of  the  valley,  clustered  hyacinth,  mar- 
 tagon  lily,  fraxinella,  baneberry,  monkshood,  green  hellebore,  and 
 hepatica. 
 
 A  few  characteristic  plants  also  are  met  with  in  the  cultivated 
 fields  and  vineyards,  such  as  tournesol,  blue  pimpernel,  and  Car- 
 thusian pink. 
 
 Zcoiogy.^  The  zoology  of  this  western  half  of  Germany  cor- 
 I'cspohds  so  much  with  that  of  the  Austrian  and  Prussian  domin- 
 ions, that  little  need  be  added.  The  German  horses  are  generally 
 more  remarkable  for  weight  than  spirit.  The  German  wild  boar 
 is  of  superior  size  ;  and  those  of  Westphalia  arc  in  particular  es- 
 timation. In  the  N.  of  Germany  the  lynx  is  sometimes  seen  ;  and 
 the  wolf  is  common  in  the  soutli. 
 
 GERiVIANIC  STATES. 
 
 HAD  Germany  been  one  empire  under  one  monarch,  its 
 power  would  probably  have  rivalled  that  of  any  nation  in  Europe. 
 Its  territory  is  extensive,  its  soil  every  where  fertile  ;  its  population 
 always  numerous,  and  its  wealth  very  great.  With  the  Baltic 
 for  its  northern  frontier,  the  Atlantic  for  more  than  half  of  its  west- 
 ern, and  an  opening  on  the  Adriatic,  its  foreign  commerce  would 
 only  have  been  surpassed  by  that  of  England  ;  while  its  large  and 
 numerous  rivers  would  have  given  life  and  circulation  to  its  do- 
 mestic industry.  These  advantages,  added  to  its  central  situation, 
 might  easily  have  given  it  great,  if  not  commanding  influence 
 over  the  powers  of  the  continent.  Germany  however  was  for 
 more  than  2000  years  composed  of  petty  principalities,  connectecl 
 by  no  common  bond,  and  united  only  against  each  other.  It  was 
 the  scene  of  more  domestic  jealousies  and  wars,  than  ail  the  other 
 countries  of  Europe;  jealousies  excited  by  foreign  intrigues,  and 
 wars  directed  by  ibrcign  cabinets.  Nations  inferior  in  population 
 and  in  wealth,  easily  surpassed  it  in  arms,  and  even  its  own  sub- 
 ordinate states,  safely  resisted  the  strength  of  the  empire.  The 
 constitution  of  the  Germanic  body,  tlieonly  semblance  of  union  be- 
 
295  GERMAN  STATES. 
 
 tween  its  various  sovereignties,  has  lately  been  dissolved  ;  but  its 
 numerous  divisions  still  remain  ;  and  the  same  disunion  will  proba- 
 bly prevail,  until  its  various  states  are  united  under  a  common  gov- 
 ernment. Of  these  Austria  and  Prussia  claim  separate  heads. 
 The  others  will  be  described  under  the  two  following  divisions. 
 
 GERMAN  STATES  NORTH  OF  THE  MAYN.  ' 
 
 I.  THE  kingdom  of  Saxony  is  the  most  powerful  state  in  this 
 division  of  Germany.  It  is  one  of  the  modern  kingdoms,  having 
 been  merely  an  electorate,  till  the  peace  of  Tilsit,  when  it  received 
 a  large  addition  from  Prussian  Poland,  called  the  Duchy  of  War- 
 saw. It  now  comprises  56,970  square  miles,  with  a  population  of 
 4,363,000.  The  name  Saxony  is  derived  from  the  ancient  nation 
 of  the  Saxons  ;  who,  in  the  m.iddle  ages,  held  the  greatest  part  of 
 the  N.  and  W.  of  Germany,  and  extended  themselves  over  Thu- 
 ringia,  towards  the  territories  of  the  Lusitzi,  a  Slavonic  tribe, 
 which  gave  name  to  Lusitz,  or  Lusatia. 
 
 Saxony  Proper,  lies  N.  W.  and  N.  of  Bohemia  and  reaches  from 
 the  head  of  the  Weser,  to  that  of  the  Oder.  It  is  about  220  miles 
 from  E.  to  W.  and  130  from  N.  to  S.  The  kingdom  comprises 
 the  following  territories. 
 
 1.  Old  Saxony,  containing  11,485  square  miles,  and  1,612,000 
 inhabitants,  and  divided  into  1 1  counties. 
 
 Wittenburg  Erzegeberge  Naumburg 
 
 Thuringia  Voigtland  Querfurt 
 
 Meissen  Neustadt  Henneberg 
 
 Leipsic  with  Wurzen    Merscburg 
 
 2.  Margravate  of  Lausitz,  or  Lusatia,  containing  4,915  square 
 miles,  and  474,000  inhabitants ;  and  divided  into  Upper  Lusatia, 
 and  Lower  Lusatia,  with  Korbus. 
 
 3.  Duchy  of  Warsaw,  containing  40,570  square  miles,  2,277,000 
 inhabitants  ;  and  divided  into  6  departments. 
 
 Posen  Warsaw  Kalwary 
 
 New  Silesia  Plock  Bromburg 
 
 This  duchy  is  in  the  western  part  of  Poland,  and  constitutes  the 
 great  part  of  the  acquisitions  of  Prussia,  in  the  division  of  that 
 kingdom.  The  possessions  of  Prussia  entirely  separate  this  duchy 
 from  Lusatia.  The  distance  across,  however,  in  the  narrowest 
 place,  is  not  more  than  40  miles.  And  in  the  treaty  of  Tilsit,  a 
 communication  was  stipulated  for  by  means  of  a  military  road. 
 The  ancient  dukes  of  Saxony  sprung  from  the  kings,  who  de- 
 fended themselves  with  such  valor  against  France.  Otho  III. 
 duke  of  Saxony  became  emperor  in  936,  and  resigned  Saxony  to 
 the  house  of  Stubcnskorn  or  Billing,  which  ended  in  1106;  and 
 soon  after  this  potent  dukedom  passed  by  marriage  to  the  iiouse  ol 
 Bavaria.  In  1180  the  eastern  part  of  Saxony  was  assigned  to 
 Bernard  of  Ascania,  the  western  half  being  given  to  the  archbish- 
 op ofCologne»    The  house  of  Ascania  ended  with  Albert  III. 
 
GERMAN  STATES.        .  59? 
 
 1422;  and  was  followed  by  that  of  Misnia.  Emest  and  Aftert, 
 sons  of  Frederic  II.  divided  the  territories  in  1485,  and  formed 
 two  branches  bearing  their  names.  The  Ernestine  branch  of  the 
 house  of  Misnia  ruled  till  1547,  when  John  Frederic  was  deposed 
 by  Charles  V.  and  the  electorate  assigned  to  Maurice  of  the  Al- 
 bertine  branch,  in  which  it  continues.  In  order  to  gain  the  crown 
 of  Poland,  the  vain  wish  of  the  Saxon  electors,  Frederic  Augustus, 
 1697,  abjured  the  protestant  religion  ;  but  neither  he  nor  his  suc- 
 cessors have  attempted  to  constrain  the  conscience  of  their  sub- 
 jects. The  electorate  suffered  greatly  by  the  invasion  of  the 
 Prussians,  in  the  war  of  seven  years ;  but  has  since  continued  the 
 trancjuil  and  flourishing  seat  of  arts  and  sciences. 
 
 The  religion  of  the  electorate  is  the  protestant,  which  was  here 
 introduced  by  Luther  ;  and  there  are  two  bishoprics,  Merseberg 
 and  Nauml)urg.  That  of  the  duchy  is  the  catholic.  The  govern- 
 ment is,  as  usual  among  the  German  princes,  nearly  absolute,  but 
 conducted  with  moderation  through  different  councils.  Yet  there 
 are  states  general  of  nobles,  clergy,  and  burgesses,  commonly  as- 
 sembled every  sixth  year  to  regulate  the  taxation  ;  and  the  sove- 
 reign can  issue  no  laws  without  their  consent.  The  army  is  65,000, 
 of  whom  30,000  are  raised  in  the  Duchy  of  Warsaw.  The  con- 
 tingent of  Saxony,  as  a  member  of  the  confederation  of  the  Rhine, 
 is  20,000  men.  The  revenue  is  stated  by  Hassel  at  17,500,00{.' 
 guilders,  the  expenditure  at  16,750,000,  and  the  debt  at  35,000,000. 
 The  credit  of  Saxony  has  always  been  high. 
 
 The  language  and  literature  of  Saxony  are  the  most  distin- 
 guished in  all  Germany,  most  of  the  writers  who  have  refined  the 
 language  having  been  born,  or  having  resided  in  this  country,  as 
 Gottshed,  who  first  introduced  a  superior  style,  aiid  many  others. 
 Leibnitz,  Wolf,  and  other  philosophers  w^ere  also  born  or  resided 
 in  Saxony  ;  among  the  artists  may  be  named  Mengs,  Haffe,  and 
 Gluck.  Leipsig  is  a  celebrated  mart  of  German  literature.  There 
 are  many  schools,  colleges,  and  academies  ;  among  the  latter,  the 
 mineralogic  academy  of  Freyberg,  instituted  in  1735,  is  esteemed 
 the  leading  school  of  that  sx;ience.  Dresden  the  capital  is  built 
 on  ilic  Elbe  where  the  Weissesitz  falls  into  it.  It  is  one  of  the 
 handsomest  towns  in  Europe,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been  built 
 in  the  10th  century.  It  contains  61  streets,  40  public  schools,  and 
 18  churches.  In  1803  the  population  amounted  to  49,094,  and 
 the  dwelling-houses  to  2,644. 
 
 Warsaw  the  former  capital  of  Poland  is  built  Upon  the  Vistula, 
 partly  on  a  plain  and  partly  on  a  gentle  ascent  rising  from  the 
 river.  The  town  i»  very  extensive,  and  wears  a  melancholy  ap- 
 pearance. The  palaces  are  numerous  and  splendid,  but  the  great 
 body  of  the  houses  are  mean  wooden  hovels.  Population  in  1805, 
 64,421  ;   houses  3,578.      52  14,  23  N. 
 
 Leipsig  stands  on  the  Plissc,  in  a  pleasant  fertile  plain.  Its 
 university,  founded  in  1409,  has  been  one  of  the  most  celebrated  in 
 Europe.  There  are  8  Lutheran  churches,  1  Calvinistic,  and  1 
 Catholic.     Three  annual  fairs  are  held  here,  and  the  commerce  is 
 
 VOL  II.  3"8 
 
t98  GERMAN  STATES. 
 
 very  extensive.     Inhabitants,  in  1801,  30,796  ;  houses   1340.     51 
 20  15  N. 
 
 Naumburg  lies  near  the  Saale,  and  contains  1,070  houses  and 
 12.000  inhabitants. 
 
 Posen  or  Posna,  in  the  Duchy  of  Warsaw,  is  built  on  the  War- 
 ta,  a  branch  of  the  Oder,  which  empties  at  Custrin.  It  is  well 
 and  compactly  built,  and  enclosed  witli  a  double  wall  and  a  deejr 
 moat.  Houses  in  1803,  1,391  ;  inhabitants  15,992.  Thcfini  in  the 
 same  Duchy,  contained  8,371  inhabitants,  in  1802,  and  1,070 
 houses,  and  Kalisch  6,313  houses.  Wittenberg,  in  Saxony,  is 
 much  reduced  ;  its  population  in  1806,  amounting  to  only  4,920, 
 It  was  the  residence  of  Luther. 
 
 The  manufactures  of  Saxony  are  thread,  linen,  laces,  ribbons,^ 
 velvets,  carpets,  paper,  colours  derived  from  various  minerals, 
 glass,  and  porcelain  of  remarkable  beauty,  and  various  works  in 
 serpentine  stone.  The  country  is  also  rich  in  native  products, 
 both  agricultural  and  mineral,  and  beautiful  pearls  are  found  in 
 the  Elster  in  shells  about  six  inches  long.*  With  such  advanta- 
 ges Saxony  maintains  a  considerable  inland  commerce  ;  and  Leip- 
 sig  is  esteemed  one  of  the  chief  trading  towns  of  Germany. 
 
 The  climate  is  so  favorable  that  wine  is  made  in  Misnia.  The 
 face  of  the  country,  especially  towards  the  south,  is  beautifully  di- 
 versified  with  hill  and  dale  ;  and  its  richness  between  Meissen 
 and  Dresden  is  esteemed  to  rival  that  of  the  north  of  Italy.  The 
 land  is  well  cultivated  ;  the  products,  all  kinds  of  grain  and  vege- 
 tables, with  hops,  flax,  hemp,  tobacco,  saffron,  madder,  Scc-f 
 Chief  rivers,  the  Elbe,  the  Saalor  Sala,  the  Mulda,  the  Pleisse,  the 
 Elster,  with  the  Spree  of  Lusatia  ;  all  except  the  Elbe  and  Sala, 
 rising  in  the  mountains  between  Saxony  and  Bohemia.  The 
 mountains  are  those  of  the  Erzgcberg,  already  described  in  the  gen- 
 eral account  of  Germany  ;  and  there  are  several  small  forests 
 supplying  fuel  for  the  mines  and  domestic  purposes.  The  botany 
 and  zoology  are  in  general  common  with  the  rest  of  Germany  ; 
 but  the  mineralogy  is  as  usual  particular,  and  few  countries  can 
 boast  of  such  fossil  opulence.  The  mines  of  Johngeorgenstadt 
 produce  silver,  tin,  bismuth,  manganese,  cobalt,  wolfram,  8cc. 
 The  other  mines  are  thoseof  Preyberg,  Annaberg,  Ehrenfrieders- 
 dorf,  Altenberg,  Eibenstock,  £cc.  producing  silver,  copper,  lead, 
 and  other  metals.  At  Schneckenstein,  near  Averbach  in  the 
 Voigtland,  appears  the  topaz  rock,  unique  in  its  kind.  The  tin  of 
 Saxony  is  not  only  a  rare  product,  but  is  excellent.  Jet  is  also 
 found  ;  and  abundance  of  fine  porcelain  clay,  with  fuller's  earth, 
 marble,  slate,  serpentine,  agates,  and  jasper.  The  annual  product 
 of  the  silver  mines  has  been  computed,  in  the  German  style,  at 
 four  tons  of  gold  or  /;40,000,  and  is  thought  to  be  rivalled  by  thai 
 of  the  cobalt  converted  into  the  blue  pigment  called  smalt.  The 
 tin,  copper,  lead,  and  iron,  are  also  very  productive.  Nor  must 
 coal  and  turf  be  forgotten  among  the  mineral  productions  of  this 
 remarkable  region. 
 
 •  Bustliing,  i.\.  3ai.'.  j  See  Hoeck's  Tables  for  mimte  particulais. 
 
GERMAN  STATES.  299 
 
 II.  The  next  kingdom  in  size  is  that  of  Westphalia.  It  con- 
 tains 15,120  square  miles.  Its  situation  is  nearly  central  in  this 
 part  of  Germany.  The  Saale,  and  the  Elbe,  on  the  E.  separate  it 
 from  Saxony  and  Prussia.  On  the  West  it  reaches  to  the  Ems. 
 It  is  formed  out  of  the  southern  part  of  the  circle  of  Lower  Sax- 
 ony, and  the  eastern  part  of  the  circle  of  Westphalia.  It  is  di- 
 vided into  8  departments,  which  are  subdivided  into  27  districts. 
 
 I.  Elbe,  V.  Oker, 
 
 1,  Magdeburg  Brunswick 
 
 2,  Newhalden  Helmstadt 
 
 3,  Stendal  Hildesheim 
 
 4,  Salzwedel  Goslar 
 II.  Fulda,  VI.  Saale, 
 
 1,  Cassel  Halberstadt 
 
 2,  Hoxter  Blankenburg 
 Paderborn                        Hable 
 
 III.  Harze,  VII.  Werra, 
 Heiligenstadt  Marburg 
 Drudenstadt  Hersfield 
 Nordhausen  Eschwege 
 Osterode  VIII.  Weser, 
 
 IV.  Leine,  Osnaburg 
 Gottingen  Minden 
 Einbeck  Bielefield 
 
 Binteln 
 
 The  departments  are  named  from  the  rivers  on  which  they  lie. 
 The  kingdom,  in  1807,  contained  1,941,561  inhabitants,  202  cities, 
 81  market  towns,  4,261  villages  and  hamlets,  and  522,000  houses. 
 The  revenue  is  14,430,502  guilders  ;  the  expenditure  tfte  same  ; 
 and  the  debt  40,000,000  guilders.  The  army  consists  of  25,000 
 men  ;  viz.  20,000  infantry,  3,500  cavalry,  and  1,500  artillery.  Its 
 contingent  is  25,000  men. 
 
 Westphalia  was  formed  into  a  kingdom  immediately  after  the 
 Treaty  of  Tilsit,  in  1807.  All  the  territories  of  Prussia,  west  of 
 the  Elbe,  were  allotted  to  it,  together  with  vai'ious  small  princi- 
 palities. Jerome  Buonaparte  was  made  king  ;  but,  for  reasons  of 
 state,  resigned  his  kingdom  in  1811. 
 
 Magdeburg,  the  capital,  lies  on  the  Elbe  ;  and  is  a  large,  beau- 
 tiful, wealthy  and  strongly  fortified  city.  It  was  a  town  of  con- 
 siderable size  in  the  time  of  Charlemagne,  and  has  often  suifered 
 severely  in  the  civil  wars  of  Germany.  Its  trade  is  extensive,  and 
 its  manufactures  numerous,  particularly  of  woollens,  silks,  cottons, 
 linen,  stockings,  hats,  gloves,  tobacco  and  snuff.  In  1802  it  con- 
 tained 3,233  houses,  and  52,013  inhabitants. 
 
 Cassel,  in  5  I  19,  20  N.  is  equally  divided  by  the  Fulda.  It  was 
 the  capital  of  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse-Cassel  before  he  was  driven 
 from  his  dominions.  There  are  several  manufactures  of  cloth  and 
 stuffs,  hats,  gold  and  silver  lace,  worsted  and  silk  stockings,  to- 
 bacco and  porcelain.  lu  1800  it  contained  1,^28  houses,  and 
 18,450  inhabitants. 
 
300  GERMAN  STATES. 
 
 Brunswick  lies  on  the  Ocker,  and  is  said  to  have  been  built  by 
 Bruno,  of  Saxony,  in  868.  It  contained  in  1804,  2,845  liouses,  and 
 31,714  inhabitants.     It  was  one  of  the  Hanse  Towns. 
 
 Hildesheim  was  also  one  of  the  Hanse  Towns,  and  is  an  old- 
 fashioned,  irregular  town,  containing,  in  1802,  2,300  houses,  and 
 1 1,108  inhabitants. 
 
 Mulhausen  on  the  Unstrutt,  a  branch  of  the  Saale,  had,  in  1802, 
 1576  houses,  and  9227  inhabitants. 
 
 Gottingen  is  in  a  spacious,  ferule  valley,  on  a  branch  of  the 
 Leine,  and  its  university  has  been  much  celebrated,  and  was  found- 
 ed by  George  II.  in  1734.  The  town  contains  5  Lutheran  church- 
 es, one  Calvinistic,  and  a  Catholic  chapel.  It  had,  in  1807,  969 
 houses,  and  8914  inhabitants. 
 
 Osnaburg  stands  on  the  Hase,  and  is  built  and  fortified  in  the 
 ancient  manner.  It  contained,  in  1805,  1,250  houses  and  8,240  in- 
 habitants. Wolfenbuttel,  in  a  low  marshy  situation  on  the  Ocker, 
 had,  in  1803,  998  houses,  and  7,126  inhabitant:;.  Minden  is  cele- 
 brated for  a  battle  fought  on  a  heath,  near  it,  in  1759,  between 
 Ferdinand  of  Brunswick,  and  the  French.  Houses  in  1802,  1,132  ; 
 Inhabitants  5,152.     Paderborn.     Houses  871.     Inhabitants  4,752. 
 
 III.  The  Hanoverian  States  bound  the  kingdom  of  Westphalia, 
 on  the  N.  W.  Since  their  subjugation  by  France,  they  have  not 
 been  formed  into  a  distinct  government,  but  are  merely  colonies 
 of  that  country.     They  consist  of  the  following  territories. 
 
 1 ,  Principality  of  Kalenburg  5,  Duchy  of  Bremen 
 
 2,  PrinrfpaUty  of  Luneburg  6,  Principality  of  Verden 
 
 3,  PrincivuTity  of  Lauenburg  7,  County  ofHoya 
 
 4,  District  of  Hadcln  8,  County  of  Diepholz. 
 
 They  extend  in  length  from  E.  to  W.  about  180  miles,  and  from 
 N.  to  S.  100.  Their  whole  coiflents  is  10,132  square  miles,  and 
 their  population  629,000.  These  are  descendants  of  a  branch  of 
 that  great  nadon,  called  the  Ost-Fali,  or  eastern  Falians  ;  while 
 another  branch  to  the  W.  gave  the  name  to  Westphalia.  Hano- 
 ver, before  its  seizure  by  the  French,  was  an  electorate;  and  the 
 kings  of  England,  from  the  time  of  George  I.  had  been,  until  thatf 
 event,  the  Electors.  The  Electors  sprang  from  the  ancient  Dukes 
 of  Brunswick.  Bruno  I.  margrave  of  Saxony,  A.  D.  955,  enlarged 
 and  embellished  the  city  of  Brunswick.  In  1071  the  emperor 
 Henry  IV.  gave  the  duchy  of  Bavaria  to  Welph,  son  of  Azo  of 
 Este,  a  powerful  marquis  in  Italy,  and  of  Cuniza,  heiress  of  the 
 first  Welphs  earls  of  Altorf  in  Suabia.  His  grandson,  Henry 
 duke  of  Bavaria,  acquired  Brimswick  along  with  Saxony.  In 
 1 195  William,  son  of  Henry  the  Lion,  and  of  Matilda  of  England, 
 accjnired  Luneburg  :  and  his  son  Otho,  1213,  was  the  first  duke 
 of  Brunswick  and  Luneburg.  His  son  Albert  I.  1252,  was  sur- 
 named  the  Great.  Magnus  II.  1368,  was  surnamed  Torquatus, 
 from  a  large  chain  which  he  wore.  His  son  Bernard  retained 
 Luneburg  ;  while  Brunswick  passed  to  Henry  the  second  son,  and 
 continued  in  his  descendants  till  1634.  The  dukes  of  Luneburg 
 fVcquifed  some  small  portions  of  adjacent  territory,     Henry,  being 
 
GERMAN  STATES.  301 
 
 put  to  the  ban  of  the  empire  in  1521,  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
 who  only  assumed  the  title  of  duke  of  Zell,  a  style  which  contin- 
 ued till  the  reii);n  of  George  William,  1665.  In  1617,  Christian 
 duke  of  Zcil  obtained  possession  of  Grubenhagen.  In  1692 
 George  William  duke  of  Zell  consented  that  the  electorate,  insti- 
 tuted in  favor  of  his  family,  should  be  conferred  on  his  younger 
 brother,  as  he  had  no  male  heir.  Ernest  died  in  1698,  having 
 married  Sophia  daughter  of  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  James  I.  of 
 England.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  George  Lewis,  elector, 
 1698,  and  kiuK  of  England,  1714. 
 
 The  religion  is  the  Lutheran.  The  government  was  conducted 
 by  a  council  of  regency,  and  there  Avere  provincial  states,  though 
 rarely  summoned.  The  revenue  is  now  3,600,000  guilders,  which 
 is  paid  to  the  Treasury  of  France.  The  literature  of  this  coun- 
 try has  deserved  considerable  applause,  since  the  institution  of  the 
 university  of  Gottingen  by  George  II  :  it  was  founded  in  1734, 
 and  solemnly  opened  1737.  It  is  now  in  the  kingdom  of  West- 
 phalia. The  chief  city  is  Hanover,  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
 principality  of  Calenburg,  situated  on  the  river  Leine,  amidst  nu- 
 merous gardens  and  villas.  This  city  is  first  mentioned  in  the 
 twelfth  century  ;  and  is  slightly  fortified,  containing  2,194  houses 
 and  21,360  inhabitants.  In  the  new  city,  on  the  left  of  the  Leine, 
 is  a  library,  particularly  rich  in  books  of  history  and  politics. 
 Verden,  near  the  junction  of  Aller  with  the  Weser,  is  of  small 
 account,  but  has  recently  sent  some  vessels  to  the  Greenland  fish- 
 cry  under  the  Hanoverian  flag.  Other  towns  are  Luneberg,  with 
 2,001  houses  and  12,100  inhabitants.  Zelle,  with  1,121  houses 
 and  7,847  inhabitants.  Lauenburg,  with  3,283  inhabitants.  The 
 manufactures  and  commerce  of  this  electorate  are  pretty  consid- 
 erable, in  metals  from  the  Hartz,  linen,  cotton,  some  broad  cloths, 
 &c.  The  silver  fabrics  of  Zelle  are  celebrated  in  Germany.  The 
 chief  exports  are  metals,  coarse  linens,  timber,  peat,  with  some 
 cattle  and  grain. 
 
 The  aspect  of  the  country  is  plain,  partaking  somewhat  of  the 
 sandy  nature  of  Brandenburg.  The  agricultural  products  are 
 wheat,  rye,  barley,  oats,  peas,  haricots,  and  pot-herbs  of  all  kinds; 
 with  abundance  of  potatoes,  good  fruits,  flax,  hemp,  tobacco,  mad- 
 der. Sec.  Wood  abounds  both  for  fuel  and  architecture,  and  af- 
 fords considerable  quantities  of  tar  and  pitch.  Bees  are  particu- 
 larly attended  to.  Horses,  cattle,  and  sheep  are  numerous.  The 
 chief  river  is  the  Elbe  towards  the  north  ;  and  the  Weser  and 
 Leine  on  the  west  ;  with  the  Aller  and  Ilmenau  in  the  centre. 
 Smaller  sU'eams  are  the  Loha,  the  Luttcr,  the  Fuse,  with  the 
 Siber  which  pervades  the  Hartzwald  in  the  south.  There  are  a 
 few  small  lakes,  as  that  of  Diopholtz,  and  Stinhudder  ;  Ijut  none 
 equal  in  size  to  those  in  the  adjacent  province  of  Mecklenburg. 
 The  Hanoverian  dominions  contain  many  small  forests,  and  woods. 
 The  mineralogy  is  rich,  consisting  of  silvei,  copper,  lead,  iron, 
 cobalt,  zinc  ;  with  marble,  slate,  coal,  turf,  and  limestone,  the  last 
 .  particularly  from  the  hill  of  Kalkberg  near  Luncburg.  Boracite 
 is  found  in  the  Kalkberg. 
 
502  GERMAN  STATES. 
 
 IV".  The  House  of  Mecklenburg.  The  territories  of  this  fam- 
 ily lie  between  Hanover,  on  the  S.  W.  and  Swedish  Ponierania  on 
 the  N.  E.  The  kingdom  of  Westphalia  borders  on  the  S.  The 
 country  is  divided  in  two  duchies,  that  of  Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 
 and  that  of  Mecklenburg-Strelitz.  The  former  contains  7000 
 .square  miles,  290,000  inhabitants,  furnishes  a  revenue  of  1,800,000 
 guilders,  and  an  army  of  1,800  men ;  the  latter  contains  800  square 
 miles,  66,000  inhabitants,  and  yields  a  revenue  of  525,000  guilders. 
 The  contingent  furnished  by  both  is  1,900  men.  The  whole  coun- 
 try is  full  of  lakes,  heaths,  and  marshes,  and  the  soil  being  sandy, 
 produces  little  except  rye  and  oats.  It  was  long  possessed  by  the 
 Veneii  or  IVends^  being  the  farthest  western  settlement  of  that 
 Slavonic  nation,  and  the  peasants  remain  in  a  state  of  servitude. 
 The  states  consisting  of  nobility  and  burgesses  are  assembled 
 yearly  to  regulate  the  taxation.  The  religion  is  the  Lutheran, 
 with  six  superintendents,  and  an  university  at  Rostock.  Rostock, 
 the  chief  town,  is  built  on  a  harbor  formed  by  the  mouth  of  the 
 Warne.  It  has  a  university,  founded  in  1419.  The  town  was 
 built  in  1030,  and  contained,  in  1803,  2,308  houses,  and  •  3,736  in- 
 habitants. Its  commerce  is  valuable.  Schwerin  is  built  on  a 
 beautiful  lake,  called  Schwerin-Sea,  through  which  runs  the  Elde. 
 Inhabitants,  9,801.  Houses,  984.  Wismar,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
 Elde,  is  well  fortified  ;  contains  6  churches,  1000  houses  and  6254 
 inhabitants.  The  manufactures  are  wool  and  tobacco.  The  ex- 
 ports partly  by  Lubeck  and  partly  by  Hamburg  are  grain,  flax, 
 hemp,  hops,  wax,  honey,  cattle,  butter,  cheese  and  timber.  The 
 ruling  family  descends  from  the  old  Venedic  sovereigns.  The 
 branch  of  Mecklenburg-Strelitz  began  in  the  1 7th  century. 
 
 V.  The  Grand  Duchy  of  Berg  reaches  fi-om  the  Lahn  to  Hol- 
 land and  from  the  Rhine  to  the  kingdom  of  Westphalia.  It  is 
 composed  of 
 
 1,  The  Duchy  of  Berg  5,  The  county  of  Lingen 
 
 2,  The  Duchy  of  Cleves  6,  The  county  of  Tccklenburg 
 
 3,  The  Duchy  of  Munster  7,  The  county  of  Dortmund, 
 
 4,  The  county  of  Mark  beside  several  lordships. 
 
 It  contains  6,900  square  miles,  and  922,649  inhabitants,  with  a 
 revenue  of  3,994,000  guilders,  an  army  of  8,000,  and  a  contingent 
 of  5,000. 
 
 VI.  The  Grand  Duchy  of  Hesse  consists  of  1,  The  Principality 
 of  Starkenburg,  which  lies  S.  of  the  Mayn  on  the  Rhine.  2,  The 
 Principality  of  Upper  Hesse,  and  3,  The  Duchy  of  Westphalia. 
 It  has  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Wirzburg  on  the  S.  that  of  Berg  on  the 
 W.  the  kingdom  of  Westphalia  on  the  N.  and  that  of  Saxony  on 
 the  E.  It  covers  an  extern  of  4,380  square  miles,  has  a  popula- 
 tion of  539,000,  a  revenue  of  3,500,000  guilders,  an  army  of  8,000, 
 and  a  contingent  of  5,000.  Hesse  was  the  seat  of  the  ancient  Cat- 
 ti.  The  present  inhabitants,  the  Hesd,  or  Hessians,  derive  their 
 name  from  the  river  Esse,  a  branch  of  the  Fulda.  The  country  is 
 generally  mountainous  ;  but  there  are  many  pleasant  vales,  some- 
 times containing  vineyards  and  fields  fertile  in  corn  and  pastur- 
 
GERMAN  STATES.  303 
 
 age.  There  arc  a  few  manufactures  of  linen,  cloths,  hats,  and 
 stockings.  The  religion  is  tlie  Lutheran.  Darmstadt,  in  Stark- 
 enburg,  is  the  capital,  and  contained,  in  1805,  791  houses,  and 
 1 1,350  inhabitants.  Giessen,  in  Upper  Hesse,  contains  5,174.  The 
 Hessians  have  been  much  employed  as  mercenary  soldiers,  and 
 were  hired  by  the  British  in  the  American  War. 
 
 VH.  The  House  of  Saxe.  The  territories  of  this  family  com- 
 pose five  duchies  : 
 
 Saxe-Weimar  Saxe-Hildburghausen 
 
 Saxe-Gotha  Saxc-Coburg. 
 
 Saxe-Meinungen 
 
 They  lie  between  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Wurtzburg,  on  the  b.  and 
 the  House  of  Schwarzburg,  on  the  N.  and  cover  an  extent  of  5,045 
 square  miles.  The  population  is  438,000  ;  revenues  3,226,000 
 guilders  ;  army  3,400  ;  contingent  2,800  men.  Gotha,  the  chief 
 town,  contained,  in  1805,  1330  houses,  and  12,400  inhabitants  ;  Al- 
 tenburg,  1264  houses,  and  9484  inhabitants  ;  Weimar,  in  1808, 
 800  houses,  and  8,500  inhabitants  ;  and  Coburg  745  houses,  and 
 7,096  inhabitants. 
 
 Vni.  The  Duchy  of  Oldenburg  is  divided  into  the  districts  of 
 
 Oldenburg  Wuhrden  Vechta 
 
 Delmenhorst         Warei  Kloppenburg 
 
 and  Wildeshausen, 
 
 *nd  contains  2,165  square  miles,  and  140,000  inhabitants.  It  lies 
 W.  of  the  Weser,  near  its  mouth,  and  lately  belonged  to  Denmark. 
 The  soil  is  fertile  in  pasturage,  and  produces  an  excellent  breed 
 of  horned  cattle.  Large  and  expensive  dykes  secure  the  shores 
 irom  inundations.  The  revenue  is  720,000  guilders,  and  the  ar- 
 my 1000  men.  Oldenburg,  the  capital,  contained,  in  1800,  §25 
 houses  and  4,500  inhabitants. 
 
 IX.  The  House  of  Nassau  comprises  the  Duchy  of  Usingen  and 
 the  principality  of  Weilburg,  beside  several  petty  lordships.  It 
 is  situated  near  the  mouth  of  the  INIayn,  and  contains  2,270  square 
 miles,  and  272,000  inhabitants.  The  revenue  is  1,757,000  guild- 
 ers ;  the  army  3000  men,  and  the  contingent  1680.  The  country 
 is  mountainous  and  covered  with  forests,  yet  not  without  fine  ara- 
 ble and  meadow  lands.  The  reigning  princes  arc  descended  from 
 Otho,  who  lived  in  the  10th  century.  Wisbader  contains  only 
 3,500  inhabitants. 
 
 X.  House  of  Anhalt.  The  territories  of  this  family,  one  of  the 
 most  illustrious  in  Germany,  are  the  Duchies  of  Dessau,  Bcrnburg, 
 and  Cothcn,  containing  1,05  2  square  miles,  and  124,000  inhab- 
 itants. The  revenue  is  1,190,000  guilders,  and  the  contingent  ' 
 800  men.  The  religion  is  Calvinism.  The  soil  is  good  and  fer- 
 tile in  grain.  The  mines  yield  lead,  copper,  silver,  iron,  and  coal. 
 Dessau  lies  on  the  Muldau,ii«Ar  its  mouth,  and  contained,  in  1802, 
 900  houses,  9,220  inhabitants,  2  Calvinistic  and  2  Lutheran 
 churches.  Lat.  51,  49.  Bcrnburg  contains  646  houses  and  4,844 
 inhabitants. 
 
 XI.  The  Duchy  of  Aremberg  lies  round  the  lower  part  of  the 
 
304  GERMAN  STATES. 
 
 river  Ems,  comprising  the  counties  of  Recklinghausen  and  IVIep- 
 pen,  and  the  lordship  of  Dulmen.  It  contains  1,107  square  miles, 
 and  59,000  inhabitants  ;  and  yields  a  revenue  of  300,000  guilders, 
 and  a  contingent  of  379  men.  The  town  of  Mcppen,  on  the  Ems, 
 contains  3,000  inhabitants. 
 
 XII.  The  territories  of  the  House  of  SchAvarzburg,  are  the 
 principalities  of  Sondci'shausen,  and  Rudolstadt.  The  extent  is 
 986  square  miles  ;  the  population  1 14,000  ;  the  revenue  450,000  ; 
 the  contingent  650  men  ;  Sondershauscn  stands  on  the  Unstrutt, 
 and  contains  4000  inhabitants  ;  Rudolstadt,  a  little  farther  S.  con- 
 tains 4,800. 
 
 Xin.  The  territories  of  the  House  of  Lippe  lie  N.  of  Paderborn, 
 and  S.  of  the  Wcser,  composing  the  principality  of  Detmold,  and 
 the  county  of  Schauenbvirg,  and  containing  942  square  miles,  and 
 95,000  inhabitants.  The  revenue  is  35,000  guilders  ;  the  contin- 
 gent 650  men. 
 
 XIV.  The  New  Hanseatic  League. 
 
 t    Ha    h   r  5  ^"^^  ^"^l^^^"^  ^^^^^^  ♦    119,000  inhabitants;  reve- 
 
 ^  ^  enue  1,500,000  guilders  ;   contingent  1800  men. 
 
 ^   ^     ,      ,  5  ^97  square  miles;  45,000  inhabitants  ;  revenue 
 
 ~'  ^^^"^^^  I  400,000  guilders. 
 
 „   „  C88  square  wiiles  ;  50,000  inhabitants  ;  revenue 
 
 o.  liremen  J  400,000  guilders  ;  contingent  500  men. 
 
 Dantzic  in  5"^'^  square  miles  ;  84,000  inhabitants;  revenue 
 
 Poland  ^700,000  guilders. 
 
 These  territories  were  called  by  the  French  government,  the 
 New  Hanseatic  League,  for  want  of  a  better  name.  Each  district 
 includes  the  city,  and  a  part  of  the  adjoining  country. 
 
 Hamburg  is  the  third  city  in  Germany,  and  contained,  in  1807, 
 7,904  houses  and  102,000  inhabitants.  It  was  fortified  by  Charle- 
 magne A.  D.  808.  The  Elbe  is  here,  including  the  islands,  near 
 a  mile  broad.  The  houses  are  rather  commodious  than  elegant, 
 and  there  are  few  fine  streets,  the  population  being  overcrowded 
 on  account  of  the  fortifications,  built  in  the  old  Dutch  taste,  with 
 spacious  ramparts,  planted  with  trees.  It  is  ruled  by  a  senate  of 
 37  persons,  the  form  being  aristocratic.  The  religion  is  Lutheran. 
 There  are  considerable  breweries,  and  works  for  refining  sugar, 
 M'ith  some  manufactures  of  cloth.  Formerly  the  trade  chiefly  con- 
 sisted of  linens,  woollens,  wine,  sugar,  coftee,  spicerics,  metals,  to- 
 bacco, timber,  leather,  corn,  dried  fish,  furs,  kc.  ;  but  at  present 
 it  is  the  great  mart  of  the  commerce  of  the  British  isles  with  the 
 continent.  The  bank  was  founded  in  1619;  and  the  numerous 
 libraries  do  honor  to  the  taste  of  the  inhabitants.  Its  chief  de- 
 pendencies are  the  river  of  Alster,  the  bailliage  of  Ham,  some 
 isles  and  lowlands  on  the  Elbe  ;  and,  besides  some  districts  ac- 
 quired from  Holstein,  the  bailliage  X)i'  Ritzcbuttel,  on  the  north  of 
 the  duchy  of  Bremen,  including  the  port  of  Cuxhaven,  and  the  isle 
 called  Ncuewcrlr,  situated  opposite  to  that  port*  It  lies  ia  53 
 34  32  N. 
 
 •  BuSchbg,  xi.  146— 16S, 
 
GERMAN  STATES.  305 
 
 Lubec  stands  on  the  Trave,  a  navigable  river,  emptying  into  the 
 Baltic.  It  was  one  of  the  chief  members  of  the  old  Hanseatic 
 league.  It  contains  3300  houses,  and  32,000  inhabitants.  Luthe- 
 ranism  is  the  established  religion.     The  town  was  built  in  1 144. 
 
 Bremen  is  on  the  Wescr.  It  contains  5350  houses,  and  42,000 
 inhabitants.  The  religion  is  Calvinism.  The  manufactures  and 
 trade  are  very  considerable. 
 
 Dantzic  stands  on  the  Vistula  four  miles  from  the  Baltic.  It 
 has  generally  been  stilcd  the  chief  of  the  Hansc  Towns,  and  so 
 early  as  997,  was  a  large  commercial  town.  It  lately  belonged  to 
 Prussia.  In  1804,  it  contained  5355  houses,  and  42,273  inhabitants. 
 Here  are  12  Lutheran  churches,  two  Calvinistic,  and  one  Roman 
 catholic.  The  inhabitants  are  almost  exclusively  Germans.  It  is 
 now  occupied  by  a  French  garrison.  From  forty  to  fifty  thousand 
 lacts  of  corn  arc  annually  exported,  also  timber,  wax,  honey,  hemp, 
 flax,  yarn,  potash,  cordials,  and  spruce  beer.  Its  manufactures 
 are  brandy,  woollen  cloth,  hardware,  and  refined  sugar. 
 
 XV.  The  house  of  Salm.  The  territories  of  this  family  are 
 north  of  tiie  Lippe,  on  the  frontiers  of  Holland,  and  are  divided 
 into  the  principalities  of  Salm-Salm,  and  Salm-Koburg.  Extent 
 680  square  miles  ;  population  56,000  ;  revenue  230,000  guilders  ; 
 contingent  323  men. 
 
 XVI.  The  territories  of  the  house  of  Reussen  lie  in  the  south- 
 ern part  of  Upper  Saxony,  rojiHd  the  sources  of  the  Saale,  com- 
 prising the  principalities  of  Graitz  and  Lobenstein,  and  the  coun- 
 ties of  Schleitz  and  Ebersdorf.  Extent  560  square  miles;  inhab- 
 itants 82,000 ;  revenue  420,000  guilders ;  contingent  450  men. 
 Graitz  on  the  Elster,  a  I)ranch  of  the  Saale,  contains  566  houses, 
 and  4500  inhabitants. 
 
 XVII.  The  principality  of  Waldeck,  consisting  of  the  lordship 
 of  Waldeck,  and  the  county  of  Pyrmont,  lies  soiith  of  Paderborn, 
 and  west  of  Hesse,  containing  475  square  miles  and  48,000  inhab- 
 itants. Its  revenue  is  375,000  guilders,  and  its  contingent  400 
 mien.     The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  Lutherans. 
 
 XVIII.  The  principality  of  Isenberg  lies  N.  E.  of  Francfort  on  the 
 Mayn,  comprising  the  counties  of  Birstein,  Budingen,  Wachters- 
 bach,  and  Meerholz,  and  containing  25  1  square  miles,  and  43,000 
 inhabitants.     Revenues  260,000  guilders;  contingent  291  men. 
 
 Beside  Hanover,  already  described,  there  are  five  other  districts 
 north  of  the  Mayn,  which  arc  provinces  of  France.  1.  Swedish 
 Pomerania,  including  the  island  of  Rugen,  with  Mecklenburg  on 
 the  S.  W.  and  Saxony  on  the  S.  It  contains  1446  square  miles, 
 and  1  1 6,000  inhabitants.  The  contribution  is  400,000  guilders. 
 2.  The  principality  of  Fulda,  N.  of  Wurzburg,  and  E.  of  Isen- 
 burg  ;  712  square  miles  ;  9  1 ,000  inhabitants  ;  revenue,  600,000 
 guilders.  3.  County  of  Hanau,  E.  of  Frankfort  on  the  Mayn. 
 482  square  miles  ;  66,000  mhabitants;  revenue  820,000  guilders. 
 4.  Principality  of  Erfurt  with  Blackenncyn,  in  Thuringia  ;  square 
 miles  350;  population  5 1,000  ;  revenue  300,000  guilders.  5. 
 County  of  Catzenelnebogen  on  the  Rhine  and  tlie  Mayn  ;  square 
 miles  137;  inhabitants  18,000  ;  revenue  80,000  guilders. 
 
 VOL.   II.  39 
 
1. 
 
 Mayn 
 
 6. 
 
 2. 
 
 Pegnitz 
 
 7, 
 
 o. 
 
 Naab 
 
 8. 
 
 4. 
 
 Rezat 
 
 9, 
 
 5. 
 
 Altmiihl 
 
 10 
 
 11. 
 
 Salzach 
 
 12. 
 
 Iller 
 
 13. 
 
 Inn 
 
 14. 
 
 Eisak 
 
 15. 
 
 Etsch 
 
 .506  GERMAN  STATES. 
 
 (lERMANY  SOUTH  OF  THE  MAYN. 
 
 THERE  are  two  kingdoms  also  in  tlfis  part  of  Germany,  botii 
 of  recent  origin  ;  but  the  smaller  states  are  much  less  numerous 
 than  in  the  other. 
 
 I.  The  kingdom  of  Bavaria  includes,  not  only  the  old  electorate 
 of  Bavaria,  but  tl>e  principal  part  of  Franconia,  about  one  third  of 
 Swabia,  and  the  whole  of  the  Tyrol.  Its  length,  from  Schwcin- 
 furth  on  the  Mayn,  to  the  southern  part  of  the  Tyrol,  is  300  miles. 
 Its  breadth,  from  above  Ulm  on  the  Danube  to  Passau,  is  160 
 miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the  E.  by  Bohemia  and  Austria ;  S.  by 
 Venice  ;  Vv''.  by  Swisserland,  the  grand  duchy  of  Baden,  and  the 
 kingdom  of  \yurtemburg  ;  N.  by  the  Mayn,  and  by  the  principality 
 of  Bayreuth.  It  contahis  35,870  square  miles,  and  is  divided  into 
 15  circles  which  are  named  from  the  rivers  on  which  they  lie. 
 
 Upper  Danube 
 
 Lech 
 
 Regen 
 
 Lower  Danube 
 
 Iser 
 
 Bavaria  is  part  of  the  Rhetia  V'mdelicia,  and  JVoricum  of  the  an- 
 cients, and  probably  derived  its  name  from  the  Boii^  who  first  inhab- 
 ited it.  In  the  6th  century  it  became  subject  to  the  Austrian 
 kings,  and  was  governed  by  dukes.  In  889  Luitpold,  the  first 
 duke  of  the  Francic  family  assumed  the  style  of  king.  His  prog- 
 eny extend  to  the  present  day,  though  interrupted  in  946,  when 
 Bcrthold  dying  without  issue,  the  emperor  Otho  gave  Bavaria  to 
 Jiis  brother  Henry  of  Saxony.  In  107 1  Welph  son  of  Azo  of  Erte 
 became  duke  of  Bavaria,  which,  in  1138,  passed  to  the  house  of 
 Austria,  and  in  1 154  reverted  to  the  family  of  Welph,  in  the  per- 
 son of  Henry  the  Lion.  In  1  180  it  finally  returned  to  the  family  of 
 Luitpold,  by  the  succession  of  Otho  of  Wittlebach. 
 
 The  Palatinate,  which  belonged  to  Bavaria  before  the  French 
 revolution,  lies  on  both  sides  of  the  Rhine.  The  western  half  is 
 now  inoiporated  with  France,  the  eastern  is  a  part  of  the  grand 
 duchy  of  Baden. 
 
 The  population  of  Bavaria,  in  1807,  Avas  3,231,570;  and  the 
 revenue  in  that  year,  17,375,080  guilders.  The  debt,  in  1808,  was 
 80,000,000  guilders.  The  army,  28,820  infantry ;  5504  cavalry, 
 and  1570  artillery  :  total,  35,894.  The  contingent  30,000  men. 
 The  established  religion  is  the  Roman  catholic,  with  some  Luthe- 
 rans in  the  provinces,  taken  from  Franconia  and  Swabia.  The 
 eastei-n  part  of  Bavaria  is  plain  and  fertile.  The  western  is  moun- 
 tainous and  forested,  and  interspersed  with  large  and  small 
 lakes.  The  Tyrol  is  almost  made  up  oi"  ranges  of  mountains,  call- 
 ed the  Tyrolese  Alps.  Their  direction  is  N.  E.  and  S.  W.  The 
 greatest  elevations  rise  to  the  N.  of  Stirzing,  whence  streams  pro- 
 ceed towards  the  In;',  on  the  N.  and  the  Adige  on  the  S.  The 
 glacier  of  Stuben  is  4692  feet  above  the  ocean,  the  Brcnucr  5i09, 
 and  the  Gcfrorn,  the  Tributaan  and  the  Bock-kogoarc  slillliighcr. 
 On  the  highest  mountahis  arc  found  rubies  and  emeralds,  and  on 
 
GERMAN  STATES.  307 
 
 the  lower,  silver,  copper,  lead,  mercury,  iron,  aium,  and  siilphur. 
 The  southern  ranj^jcs  are  rich  in  wood  and  pasturage,  the  north- 
 ern bleak  and  barren.  The  chief  rivers  of  this  kingdom  are  the 
 Danube,  the  Inn,  the  Iser,  the  Lech,  the  Nab,  and,  in  the  Tyrol^ 
 the  Adige.  The  lake  of  Constance  forms  part  of  the  -western 
 boundary.  i^- 
 
 Munich,  the  capital,  stands  upon  the  Iscr,  in  48  8  20  N.  It  is  on(v 
 of  the  handsomest  cities  in  Germany,  and  lately  contained  227C> 
 houses,  and  48,740  inhabitants.  Here  are  manufactures  of  velvcjtj 
 silk,  wool,  and  tapestry.     It  was  built  about  1 175.  .:■, 
 
 Nuremburg  contaii\s  3284  houses,  and  30,000  inhabitants.  It 
 stands  on  the  Pcgnitz,  and  is  environed  with  double  walls.  It 
 contains  17  churches.  The  town  has  long  been  celebrated  for 
 its  toys. 
 
 Augsburg,  between  the  Lech,  and  the  Wcrlach,  in  48  21  41 
 N.  is  in  a  fertile  and  delightful  country,  and  is  surrounded  with 
 ramparts,  walls,  and  ditches.  It  contained,  in  1807,  3680  houses, 
 Hud  28,534  inhabitants. 
 
 Anspach,  in  1801,  contained  1007  houses,  and  13,928  inhabi- 
 tants. It  lies  on  the  Rezat,  13  miles  from  Nuremburg.  Um  lies 
 on  the  Danube.  The  inhabitants  are  Lutherans.  In  1803  they 
 amounted  to  1 1,289,  and  the  houses  to  1626. 
 
 Innsi)ruck  on  the  Inn,  the  capital  of  the  Tyrol,  contains  1 1 ,000 
 inhabitants. 
 
 Trent  lies  in  a  valley,  on  the  Adige,  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
 Tyrol.  It  is  memorable  for  a  grand  council  held  there  from  1545 
 to  1563.  It  contains  700  houses,  and  7000  inhabitants,  a  cathedral, 
 three  parish  churches,  a  college,  and  several  convents. 
 
 Schweinfurt,  onthe  Mayn,  contains  two  churches,  a  hospital,  and 
 a  college.  Its  trade  is  in  cloth,  linen,  and  feathers.  It  has  879 
 houses,  and  6361  inhabitants. 
 
 Lindau  stands  on  an  island  in  the  lake  of  Constance,  connected 
 witli  the  main  land  by  a  bridge.  The  castle  and  the  wall,  are 
 reckoned  Roman  works.  The  religion  is  Luthei'an.  The  houses 
 are  700  in  number  ;  the  inhabitants  5176. 
 
 II.  The  kingdom  of  Wurtemburg,  in  the  central  part  of  Swa- 
 bia,  reaches  from  the  Taxt,  a  branch  of  the  Neckar,  to  within  20 
 miles  of  the  lake  of  Constance,  about  120  miles  in  length,  and 
 contains  7220  square  miles.  The  kingdom  of  Bavaria  lies  on  the 
 E. ;  the  same  and  the  grand  duchy  of  Baden,  on  the  S. ;  that 
 duchy  on  the  W. ;  and  the  laxt  and  the  Neckar  on  the  N.  There 
 were  earls  of  Wirtemburg  in  the  12th  century;  and  in  1495  the 
 ducal  title  was  conferred  on  earl  Evcrard.  The  present  duke, 
 like  the  electors  of  Saxony  and  Bavaria,  received  the  empty  title 
 of  royalty,  and  considerable  additions  to  his  territories,  as  a  com- 
 pensation for  his  want  of  fidelity  to  the  empire,  and  for  the  loss  of 
 real  independence.  The  population  of  the  kingdom,  in  1807,  was 
 1,181,372;  the  revenue  8,000,000  guilders,  and  the  debt  25,000,000. 
 The  army  was  20,000  men,  and  the  contingent  12,000.  The  king- 
 dom is  divided  into  12  counties,  Stutgard,  Ludwigsburg.  Hcil- 
 bronn,  Dehringen,  Calw,  Rothcnburg,  Rothweil,  Urach,  Ehingen, 
 
^08  GERMAN  STATES. 
 
 Altdorf  Schorndorf,  and  Elwangen.  The  soil  is  very  fertile.  The 
 mountains  of  the  Black  Forest  on  the  W.  and  those  of  the  Alb  on 
 the  E.  and  S.  diversify  the  face  of  the  country,  and  supply  timber, 
 fuel,  and  mines.  Spelt  is  the  chief  grain,  and  Rome  barley  and 
 ■wheat,  with  flax.  Wine  and  cyder  are  made  in  considerable 
 abundance.  There  are  mines  of  silver  at  Freudenstadt,  Konigs- 
 wart,  and  Konigstein  ;  and  of  copper  at  Guttach,  near  Hornberg. 
 The  religion  is  the  Lutheran,  Avith  some  Calvinists,  and  some  colo- 
 nies of  the  Vaudois.  The  church  is  ruled  by  four  abbots  and  38 
 deans.  Education  and  ecclesiastical  studies  arc  favored  by  laud- 
 able institutions,  particularly  the  seminariesof  Tubingen  and  Stut- 
 gard.  This  last  is  the  chief  town,  and  contained,  in  1808,  2012 
 houses,  and  22,680  inhabitants.  The  streets  are  large  and  straight, 
 and  the  houses  handsome.  The  town  stands  on  the  Nisenbach, 
 two  miles  from  the  Neckar,  and  contains  nanufactoriea  of  stuff's, 
 silk  stockings,  and  ribbands.  Tubingen  had,  in  1803,  700  houses, 
 and  5765  inhabitants.  It  is  a  place  of  great  antiquity,  and  stands  in 
 a  valley  on  the  Neckar.  Heilbronn,  the  same  year,  contained  900 
 houses,  and  5485  inhabitants.  It  is  well  built,  contains  three 
 churches,  two  convents,  a  seminary,  a  library,  and  public  baths. 
 
 III.  The  grand  duchy  of  Baden,  has  the  kingdoms  of  Wirtem- 
 berg  and  Bavaria  on  the  E.  ;  the  lake  of  Constance  and  the  Rhine, 
 which  divide  it  from  Swisserland,  on  the  S.  the  Rhine  on  the  W. 
 and  on  the  N.  by  the  principality  of  Stackenburg,  in  Hesse,  and  by 
 the  Mayn.  It  is  every  where  narrow,  except  near  its  southern  ex- 
 tremity ;  but  its  length  exceeds  1 50  miles,  and  the  number  of  square 
 miles  is  6030.  The  religion  is  the  Lutheran.  The  population  in 
 1807  was  922,649.  In  1808,  the  revenue  was  2,953,936  guilders, 
 the  expenditure  3,472,765  ;  and  the  debt  18,000,000.  The  army 
 contains  12,000  troops,  and  the  contingent  8000.  Manheim,  the 
 chief  town,  in  1800,  had  1548  houses,  and  18,8  18  inhabitants.  It 
 is  on  the  Neckar  near  its  mouth,  and  was  formerly  the  capital  of 
 the  Elector  Palatine.     It  is  strongly  lortified. 
 
 Friburg  stands  on  the  Traisam,  and  contains  900  hovises,  and 
 7916  inhabitants.  It  is  the  scat  of  a  university  and  contains  13 
 churches,  and  10  convents. 
 
 IV.  The  grand  duchy  of  Wurtzburg  lies  on  both  sides  of  the 
 jVIayn,  and  extends  from  the  Pegnitz,  westward  to  the  limits  of 
 Baden,  and  from  Mergenthcim  on  the  Taubcr,  northward  to  the 
 territories  of  the  house  of  Saxc.  It  contains  2126  square  miles, 
 and  311,000  inhabitants.  The  revenue,  is  2,800,000  guilders. 
 The  debt,  in  1802,  was  3,954,730.  The  army  is  2500  men,  and 
 the  contingent  2000.  Wurtzburg,  the  capital,  is  situated  on  the 
 Mayn,  and  is  well  fortified,  containing  1913  houses,  and  21,380 
 inhabitants. 
 
 V.  The  United  Principalities  compose  a  state  similar  to  the 
 New  Hanse-Towns,  and  consist  of  the  Principalities  of  Ratisbon, 
 on  the  Danube,  in  the  heart  of  Bavaria,  containing  90  scjuare  miles, 
 32,200  inhabitants,  and  Aschafi"enburg  on  ihe  Mayn,  containing 
 460  square  miles,  and  in  1802,  67,71 1  inhabitants  ;  of  the  county 
 pf  "Vyezlar  on  the  Lahn,  containing  1 1  square  miles,  and  498S  in- 
 
AUSTRIA.  309 
 
 Jiabitants ;  and  of  the  district  of  Frankfort  on  the  Mayn,  contain- 
 ing 88  square  miles,  and  52,000  inhabitants  :  besides  three  hered- 
 itary lordships  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Mayn,  near  Aschaffcnburg, 
 containing  203  square  miles,  and  18,137  inhabitants.  The  whole 
 revenue  is  1,800,000  guilders  ;  the  army  1500  men. 
 
 The  city  of  Ratisbon,  on  the  Danube,  is  an  ancient,  large,  well- 
 built,  and  commercial  town,  and  from  1662,  till  witliin  a  few  years, 
 was  the  scat  of  the  diet  of  the  empire.  It  exports  large  quantities 
 of  salt,  corn,  wood,  and  all  kinds  of  provisions,  to  ^^ienna.  It  con- 
 tains 1287  houses,  and  22,000  inhabitants. 
 
 Frankfort-on-the-Mayn,  so  called  to  distinguish  it  from  Frank - 
 fort-on-the-Oder,  was  anciently  the  residence  of  the  kings  of  the 
 Franks,  and  afterwards  of  the  immediate  successors  of  Charle- 
 magne in  the  empire.  Here  the  emperors  of  Germany  have  al- 
 ways been  crowned.  It  is  strongly  fortified,  contains  6  Lutheran 
 churches,  and  3  Roman  catholic,  a  synagogue,  2997  houses,  and 
 37,000  inhabitants.  Two  fairs  are  held  here  annually,  and  the 
 trade  is  considerable. 
 
 VI.  The  little  principality  of  Leyen,  lies  in  Baden,  on  theKint- 
 zig,  near  its  entrance  into  the  Rhine.  Square  miles  54.  Inhabi- 
 tants 4500  ;  revenue  34,000  guilders;  contingent,  29  men. 
 
 VII.  The  principality  of  Liechtenstein,  containing  the  lordship 
 of  Vadut^and  Schellenburg,  lies  on  the  Rhine,  before  its  entrance 
 into  the  lake  of  Constance.  Square  miles  54  ;  inhabitants 
 5100  ;  revenue  40,000  guilders  ;  contingent  40  men. 
 
 Here  ought  also  to  be  mentioned  the  principality  ofBayreuth,  or 
 Culmbach,  which  lies  north  of  Bavaria,  between  Wurtzburg  and 
 Bohemia,  containing  1225  square  miles,  and  233,000  inhabitants; 
 and  yielding  a  tribute  of  900,000  guilders.  Bayreuth,  the  capital, 
 contains  856  houses,  and  10,000  inhabitants.  Hoff,  on  the  Saale, 
 contained  in  1792,  620  houses,  and  4809  inhabitants.  Culmbach, 
 in  1800,  412  houses,  and  2859  inhabitants. 
 
 AUSTRIA. 
 
 THE  head  of  the  house  of  Austria,  was  styled,  till  1809, 
 emperor  of  Germany,  and  king  of  Bohemia  and  Hungary.  After 
 the  termination  of  the  unfortunate  campaign  of  tijat  year,  the  con- 
 stitution of  the  Germanic  body  was  dissolved,  and  Francis  II.  not 
 only  lost  a  part  of  his  own  hereditary  dominions;  but  also  resigned 
 the  imperial  crown  of  Germany.  His  remaining  territories,  how- 
 ever, were  at  that  time  formed  into  an  empire,  called  the  Empire 
 OF  Austria  ;  and,  as  its  hereditary  sovereign,  he  still  possesses 
 sufficient  power  to  claim  the  third  place  among  the  sovereigns  of 
 the  continent. 
 
510  AUSTRIA. 
 
 CHAPTER  I. 
 
 HISTORICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 KAMES,  EXTENT,  BOUNDARIES,  DIVISIONS,  ORIGINAL  POPULATION, 
 PROGRESSIVE  GEOGRAPHY,  HISTORICAL  EPOCHS,  ANTIQUITIES, 
 RELIGION,  GOVERNMENT,  LAWS,  POPULATION,  ARMY,  NAVY, 
 REVENUE,  EXPENDITURE  AND  NATIONAL  DEBT,  MANNERS  AND 
 CUSTOMS,  GYPSIES,  LANGliAGE,  LITERATURE,  EDUC  ATION,  UNI- 
 VERSITIES, CITIES  AND  TOWNS,  EDIFICES,  M ANUF ACTtRES  AND 
 COMMERCE.  . 
 
 J\fames.']  THE  archduchy  of  Austria  may  be  considered  as  be- 
 longing, in  part  to  ancient  Pannonia,  ihe  Vindobona  of  the  Romans 
 •being  the  modern  Vienna.  But  that  half  of  Austria,  Avhich  lies 
 north  of  the  Danul)e,  av as,  occupied  by  tlic  Quadi,  a  barbaric  na- 
 tion, who  anciently  infested  the  adjoining  provinces  of  J^aimonia 
 and  JK'oriciun  ;  for  the  western  part  of  Austria  on  the  S.  of  the 
 Danube,  falls  under  .the  latter  ancient  appellation.  The  German 
 name  and  division  of  Osterich,*  or  the  eastern  kingdom,  softened 
 into  Austria  by  the  Italian  and  Fiench  enunciation,  arose  after 
 Charlemagne  had  established  the  western  empire,  being  a  rem- 
 nant of  the  sovereignty  of  what  was  called  eastern  France,  estab- 
 lished by  that  conqueror.  It  was  also  styled  Marchia  Oricntalis^ 
 the  eastern  march,  or  boundary :  and  after  the  failure  of  the  Fran- 
 cic  line  became  a  marquisate  feudatory  to  the  dukes  of  Bavaria, 
 till  the  emperor  Frederic  Barbarosa,  in  1 156,  constituted  it  a  duchy 
 held  immediately  of  the  empire. f  Hungary,  a  part  of  which  be- 
 longed to  ancient  Baria,  derives  its  modern  appellation  from  the 
 Ugurs,  a  nation  of  Turkomanic  or  Tataric  origin,  who  after 
 spreading  devastation  through  a  great  part  of  Germany,  fixed 
 tlieir  residence  here  in  the  10th  century.  In  the  time  of  Charle- 
 magne it  was  possessed  by  the  Avars,  a  Slavonic  people.:}:  The 
 Hungarians  style  themselves  Magiar ;  and  their  language  is  a 
 Finnic  dialect.  Bohemia,  or  the  habitation  of  the  Boii,  was  a  cen- 
 tral province  of  Barbaric  Germany,  afterwards  seized  by  a  Slavo- 
 nic tribe,  whose  chiefs  were  originally  styled  dukes  of  Bohemia. 
 Transylvania,  and  the  Buckovina  are  parts  of  the  province  of  Dn- 
 cia,  founded  by  Trajan.  The  former  is  by  the  Flungarians  called 
 Erdeli:  by  the  Germans  Sieben-burgen,  or  the  Seven  towns,  from 
 a  colony  there  establislied  ;  the  more  common  name  seems  de- 
 rived from  the  woody  passes  of  the  Carpathian  mountains,  and 
 was  imposed  by  the  monkish  writers. 
 
 £ji.tc7i(.^  The  length  of  Austria,  from  the  eastern  limits  of 
 Transylvania,  to  the  western  of  Carinthia,  is  620  miles  ;  the 
 breadth,  from  the  Bug,  which   separates  Gallicia  from  the  grapd 
 
 *  Several  of  Uic  German  names  of  Austrian  provinces  <liftcr  considerably  .rom  our 
 appellations:  Carinthia  is  CarnlcH  ;  Carniola,  AVi/i/i;  Stiria,  Stei/ermtirh ;  Croatia, 
 C'rahati'ii ;  MtAicmia,  Boe/inien ;  Moravia,  Jlltehren.  Galitz,  or  Galitzia  is  wrongly 
 styled  (ialicia. 
 
 t  IJ'Auville,  EtalsfonTi«5s  enEurope,  p.  51.  i  (iibbon,  x.  iDk 
 
AUSTRIA.  311 
 
 duchy  of  Warsaw,  to  the  Save,  the  frontier  of  Turkey,  is  520. 
 The  area  is  given  in  the  table. 
 
 Boundaries.']  Bounded  on  the  W.  by  the  kingdoms  of  Bavaria 
 and  Saxony  ;  on  the  N.  by  Prussia  and  Saxony  ;  on  the  E.  by  Rus- 
 sia; on  the  S.  by  Turkey,  the  Adriatic,  Istria  and  Bavaria.  Aus- 
 tria touches  on  the  Adriatic  in  two  places.  The  territory  of 
 Trieste  has  a  little  line  of  seacoast;  and  Carniola,  cast  of  Istria, 
 has  a  greater  extent. 
 
 Divisions.']  The  principal  divisions  of  the  Austrian  dominions 
 are, 
 
 o 
 
 rN 
 
 -* 
 
 O 
 
 CO 
 
 '■i' 
 
 ^^ 
 
 ^o 
 
 >n 
 
 o 
 
 >-o 
 
 fN 
 
 (N 
 
 ,._ 
 
 t^ 
 
 'S" 
 
 ~^ 
 
 <y, 
 
 <o 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 (N 
 
 00 
 
 ■— • 
 
 >r> 
 
 'O 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 If) 
 
 •—1 
 
 ■_-. 
 
 ^^ 
 
 1- 
 
 c« 
 
 00 
 
 h- 
 
 00 
 
 oc 
 
 w 
 
 1^ 
 
 ■^ 
 
 CO 
 
 T»< 
 
 CO 
 
 vo 
 
 1^ 
 
 t-- 
 
 ■y. 
 
 CT> 
 
 CO 
 
 (T> 
 
 a> 
 
 ^ 
 
 1^ 
 
 o 
 
 00 
 
 t: 
 
 CD 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 x-i 
 
 >D 
 
 ^-. 
 
 -* 
 
 c 
 
 c^ 
 
 (O 
 
 "r;. 
 
 CI 
 
 >n 
 
 «D 
 
 ■^ 
 
 c^ 
 
 t^ 
 
 ^o 
 
 o 
 
 K 
 
 O 
 
 t^ 
 
 o 
 
 ■— • 
 
 VO 
 
 <o 
 
 t- 
 
 C) 
 
 Oi 
 
 VD 
 
 -^ 
 
 o> 
 
 — < 
 
 ^ 
 
 )— « 
 
 "O 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 cs 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 •-H 
 
 ^ 
 
 (N 
 
 CO 
 
 >n 
 
 o« 
 
 •^ 
 
 o 
 
 c» 
 
 <i. 
 
 .J^. 
 
 „ 
 
 c 
 
 r 
 
 ^ 
 
 'i" 
 
 CO 
 
 C7> 
 
 __ 
 
 , 
 
 (M 
 
 , 
 
 -* 
 
 >o 
 
 , 
 
 VD 
 
 CO 
 
 O 
 
 00 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 b- 
 
 o 
 
 CO           «    CN 
 
 <u 
 
 00 
 
 <c 
 
 >^ 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 — • 
 
 ■<*< 
 
 r^ 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 1^ 
 
 t- 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 00 
 
 rN 
 
 C<                 C 
 
 *f 
 
 (N 
 
 o 
 
 CT. 
 
 UO 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 « 
 
 o 
 
 »o 
 
 co 
 
 o^ 
 
 Tf 
 
 >o 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 o           c 
 
 ;^ 
 
 ^O 
 
 ^« 
 
 Oi 
 
 CO 
 
 (>) 
 
 CO 
 
 ^^ 
 
 CO 
 
 c>» 
 
 >r> 
 
 ^o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 CO                   "■ 
 
 >■ 
 
 CO 
 
 — < 
 
 -H 
 
 ^- 
 
 — ^ 
 
 (i. 
 
 w  ^ 
 
 ^? 
 
 ^M 
 
 t^  CN 
 
 CO 
 
 »o 
 
 00 
 
 ^H 
 
 o 
 
 ^^ 
 
 —I 
 
 Tj<     —    CO 
 
 O) 
 
 »^ 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 to 
 
 f^ 
 
 »;  ?, 
 
 00 
 
 »r>  r}« 
 
 o> 
 
 <N 
 
 »^ 
 
 C3>    O    a> 
 
 o\ 
 
 .-^ 
 
 CI 
 
 r-^ 
 
 «o 
 
 cr» 
 
 S5- 
 
 o> 
 
 CO  — 
 
 CO 
 
 (N    «|l 
 
 »- 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 ■* 
 
 t-    CO 
 
 o 
 
 ^^ 
 
 <T> 
 
 c< 
 
 ,    , 
 
 00 
 
 'O 
 
 —    l^    ^ 
 
 -* 
 
 >o 
 
 lO 
 
 CO 
 
 _^ 
 
 o» 
 
 00 
 
 40     IT) 
 
 n 
 
 ^^ 
 
 1-.. 
 
 >r> 
 
 Oi 
 
 c-i 
 
 -*   O   CO 
 
 00 
 
 to 
 
 I— « 
 
 i— * 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 Tf 
 
 c-« 
 
 <N   .^   — ' 
 
 CO 
 
 CO        --        .- 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 A 
 
 a. 
 
 to 
 
 -A. 
 
 b- 
 
 — > 
 
 to 
 
 o 
 
 o  '^o 
 
 ^ 
 
 2 
 
 r 
 
 CO 
 
 ■T" 
 
 O 
 
 — \ 
 
 ^  o 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 to 
 
 CO 
 
 >r5 
 
 o 
 
 in  O 
 
 ,-'  o  L::  o 
 
 oc  O 
 
 ^^ 
 
 CO 
 
 h- 
 
 o 
 
 O   :r.  o 
 
 o 
 
 o  rt 
 
 o 
 
 cz 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 c< 
 
 xf 
 
 'n 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 CO   to 
 
 .'^  o  :^  o 
 
 -  O 
 
 00 
 
 o 
 
 c> 
 
 o 
 
 O   =:  in 
 
 »n 
 
 o 
 
 d 
 
 o 
 
 en 
 
 'D 
 
 c» 
 
 'O 
 
 CT> 
 
 CO 
 
 b-  o 
 
 —  to'c'f  C 
 
 (»0 
 
 •— « 
 
 <— • 
 
 Ol 
 
 C  -"o 
 
 N. 
 
 —  so" 
 
 o 
 
 <£) 
 
 r^ 
 
 •— . 
 
 .-^ 
 
 00 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 CJ  c^ 
 
 ::  -:  S  <^' 
 
 7^  ''•-co 
 
 1^   V5 
 
 to 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 in 
 
 CO  2J  »^ 
 
 h- 
 
 00  3< 
 
 1^ 
 
 &. 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 t^ 
 
 00 
 
 c» 
 
 ■* 
 
 CI 
 
 0)  o 
 
 in 
 
 rN 
 
 »— < 
 
 00 
 
 C  =^Tj. 
 
 1^ 
 
 m  ^- 
 
 in 
 
 00 
 
 — ^ 
 
 -^ 
 
 CO 
 
 >o 
 
 CO 
 
 — 
 
 <n 
 
 t^ 
 
 "^ 
 
 CO 
 
 Cl 
 
 — <     >ncoo>»oc»»nc^co  ^  to  co'^N-tO'-<—  o^nin 
 
 •*     co»n— 'Oi— «totoin  i^  ci  c»»nc»co-*cj  rfinci 
 
 in^co^b-^Oco^— .—        00  cj  00  O  —  ON.O'3'  ooco 
 
 oi     tocc^T^in"— .        o  O  "  wrcJoTcT  bTbT  to^cn^S" 
 
 to     — •  —                            ci  — <  .  'n  CO  .^        o  00  c» 
 
 w  S 
 
 p:  o 
 
 6       < 
 
 hJ 
 
 C/2 
 
 H   W   o  -55       •-  ^   S   .,  ii       <  K  '3  "IT   cs  ? 
 
 ■^    :i  -^  =  i  o  ^ 
 
 -^   C<"  CO*        ^        ui  "^  r'x   CO  -^        c5   CO   -!? 
 
312  AUSTRIA. 
 
 Austria  also  possessed,  before  the  campaign  of  1805, 
 
 Square  IWiles.       Population. 
 
 1,  The  Tyrol,  10,154  •      620,854 
 
 2,  Part  of  Bavaria  >  -7071 
 
 E.  of  the  Inn,  5  ' 
 
 3,  Part  of  Swabia,  298,433 
 
 4,  Dalmatia,  7,230         296,415 
 
 5,  Venetian  territories,  9,349      1,630,179 
 
 The  three  first  are  noAV  attached  to  Bavaria.  Dalmatia  and  the 
 territories  of  Venice,  under  the  name  of  East  Lorabardy,  form  two 
 great  divisions  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy.  At  the  commencement 
 of  the  French  revolution  Austria  also  possessed  Lombardy,  or  the 
 Duchies  of  Milan  and  Mantua  ;  and  the  Austrian  Netherlands. 
 These  last  are  now  an  integral  part  of  France.  Milan  and  Mantua 
 belong  to  the  kingdom  of  Italy. 
 
 Original  Population. ~\  The  original  population  of  these  exten- 
 sive regions  is  various,  but  chiefly  Gothic  and  Slavonic.  The 
 native  ancient  Germans,  a  Gothic  race,  form  the  ruling,  most  in- 
 dustrious, and  most  important  part  of  the  inhabitants.  Bohemia 
 and  Moravia  were  originally  Slavonic  kingdoms  ;  the  people  of 
 Poland  may  be  referred  to  the  same  origin  ;  Avhile  those  of  Hun- 
 gary are  the  largest  of  the  Finnish  tribes,  and  the  ouly  one  that 
 ever  gained  the  rank  of  a  kingdom.  The  Transylvanians  are 
 diiefly  Slavonic.  But  a  great  number  of  Saxons  are  found  in  the 
 large  towns.  The  Croats  and  Slavonians  ai"e  almost  Avholly  of 
 Slavonic  origin.     The  number  of  JeAvs  has  been  mentioned. 
 
 Progressive  Geography.']  The  progressive  geograp'hy  of  the 
 southern  part  of  the  Austrian  dominions  commences  at  an  early 
 period.  Yet  the  Adriatic  was  not  a  favorite  sea  of  the  Greeks  ; 
 and  the  Roman  writers  throw  the  first  steady  light  upon  these  re- 
 gions. Passing  from  Cisalpine  Gaul  in  defiance  of  the  barriers 
 of  the  Rhactian,  and  Carnic,  or  Julian  Alps,  now  the  mountains  of  Ty- 
 rol, Carinlhia,  and  Carniola,  the  Roman  generals  subdued  many 
 barbarous  tribes  ;  and  founded  the  provinces  of  Noricum  and  Pan- 
 nonia,  their  most  northern  acquisitions  in  this  quai'ter,  till  Tra- 
 jan added  Dacia.  The  Rhaeiians  were  subdued  by  Drusus  in  the 
 reign  of  Augustus,  under  whose  sway,  or  rather  in  the  time  of  his 
 successor  Tiberius,  Pannoniaand  Noricum  also  became  provinces 
 of  the  Roman  empire.  Concerning  those  regions  much  informa- 
 tion may  be  derived  from  the  luminous  page  of  Tacitus  ;  an<l 
 soon  after,  the  geography  of  Ptolemy  opens  additional  illustra- 
 tions. The  common  resources  of  ancient  geography  are  contin- 
 ued by  the  Byzantine  writers  ;  and,  after  the  age  of  Charlemagne, 
 by  many  historians  of  the  west.  Since  the  invention  of  printing 
 to  the  present  period,  the  geography  of  these  extensive  provinces 
 has  been  gradually  improved,  though  not  with  the  rapidity  which 
 might  have  been  expected,  as  they  unfoi'tunately  have  not  pro- 
 duced many  men  of  acute  genius,  extensive  learning,  or  exact 
 science  ;  and  the  best  accounts  are  derived  from  Avriters  in  the 
 N.  of  Germany,  and  from  foreign  travellers. 
 
 Historical  £}ioclis.']     The  historical  epochs  of  various  kingdoms 
 
AUSTRIA.  313 
 
 and  states,  recently  united  undei*  one  sovereignty,  must  of  course 
 be  subdivided  into  their  original  distinct  portions,  beginning  in  the 
 order  , above-mentioned,  with  the  first  important  state,  around 
 which,  as  a  nucleus,  the  others  are  conglomierated  ;  but  proceed- 
 ing thence  to  the  other  provinces,  according  to  their  modern  ex- 
 tent and  importance. 
 
 1.  The  house  of  Austria,  which,  by  successive  fortunate  mar- 
 riages since  the  fifteenth  century,  has  arisen  to  such  a  summit  of 
 pov/er,  is  well  known  to  have  sprung  from  the  humble  counts  of 
 Hapsburg.  Those  lords  possessed  a  small  territory  in  Swisser- 
 land,  in  the  northern  corner  of  the  canton  of  Berne.  On  a  lofty 
 eminence,  crowned  with  beech,  stands  an  ancient  tower,  the  first 
 seat  of  the  house  of  Austria.  In  1273  Rodolph  of  Hapsburg- was 
 called  to  the  Imperial  throne,  being  at  this  time  loi'd  of  the  great- 
 er part  of  Swisserland  ;  by  the  extinction  of  the  powerful  house 
 of  Zaeringen,  and  that  of  the  counts  of  Kyburg,  whose  joint  in- 
 heritance devolving  to  Rodolph,  became  the  basis  of  his  powei', 
 and  that  of  his  successors.* 
 
 2.  Another  emperor  of  the  house  of  Austria  appeared  in  Al- 
 bert, A.  D.  1298  ;  from  whom  the  Swiss  made  their  signal  revolt 
 in  1307.  His  son  Frederic  was  obliged  to  yield  the  empire  to 
 Louis  of  Bavaria. 
 
 3.  Albert  II.  duke  of  Austria,  A.  D.  1438,  succeeded  to  three 
 crowns,  on  the  death  of  his  father-in-law  the  emperor  Sigismond ; 
 those  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia  by  inheritance,  and  that  of  the  em- 
 pire by  unanimous  election. 
 
 4.  Maximilian  leaving  married  the  heiress  of  Burgundy,  the 
 Netherlands  became  subject  to  the  house  of, Austria  in  1477  ;  and 
 his  son  Philip,  in  1496,  marrying  the  heiress  of  Arragon  and  Cas- 
 tile, the  ample  dominions  of  Spain  fell  afterwards  under  the  Aus- 
 trian sceptre.  Charles  V.  inherited  all  these  domains  :  but  on 
 his  resignation,  Spain  and  the  Netherlands  devolved  to  his  son 
 Philip  II.  ;  and  Austria,  Bohemia,  and  Hungary,  passed  to  Ferdi- 
 nand the  brother  of  Charles  V.  who  was  also  chosen  emperor  of 
 Germany. 
 
 5.  The  noted  bigotry  of  the  house  of  Austria  was  not  confined 
 to  the  Spanish  branch;  for  though  Maximilian  II.  about  1570, 
 had  granted  liberty  of  conscience  even  to  the  prutestants  of  Aus- 
 tria, yet  those  of  Bohemia,  and  other  parts,  were  afterwards  so  much 
 oppressed,  that  the  protestant  piinces  of  Germany  called  in  Gustaf 
 Adolf,  the  celebrated  Swedish  monarch,  to  their  assistance,  who 
 shook  the  empire  to  its  very  foundations.  Even  France  supported 
 the  protestants,  in  the  view  of  Aveakening  the  Austrian  power  ; 
 and  the  war  continued  till  1648,  when  the  famous  treaty  of  West- 
 phalia was  signed,  which  has  served  as  a  basis  for  otlier  diplo- 
 matic transactions. 
 
 6.  The  war  with  France  was  often  rekindled  during  the  long 
 reign  of  Leopold  I.  1658,  to  1705  ;  and  in  1683  the  Tiy-ks  were 
 so  successful  as  to  lay  siege  to  Vienna. 
 
 *  Planta's  Swiss,  i.  170. 
 
 Vol.  ir.  40 
 
•314  AUSTRIA. 
 
 7.  His  son  Joseph  I.  joined  the  allies  against  France,  and 
 shared  in  their  success.  He  married  the  daughter  of  John  Fred- 
 eric duke  of  Hauovcr. 
 
 8.  By  the  death  of  the  emperor  Charles  VI.  on  the  20th  Octo- 
 ber, 1740,  without  male  issue,  the  house  of  Austria  became  ex- 
 tinct. The  elector  of  Bavaria  seized  the  kingdom  of  Bohemia, 
 and  was  elected  emperor  in  1742,  but  died  in  1745. 
 
 9.  Francis  of  Lorrain,  son  of  Leopold  duke  of  Lorrain,  having 
 married  Maria  Theresa,  daughter  of  the  emperor  Charles  VI. 
 succeeded  to  the  Austrian  dominions,  which  continue  to  be  held 
 by  his  descendants.  In  1745  he  was  elected  emperor,  and  his  svic- 
 cessors  have  enjoyed  the  imperial  crown,  as  if  hereditary. 
 
 10.  The  reign  of  the  emperor  Joseph  II.  a  beneficent  but  im- 
 petuous prince,  whose  grand  designs  of  reformation  were  frus- 
 trated by  his  ignorance  of  the  inveteracy  of  habits  and  prejudices, 
 which  must  ever  be  considered  in  a  due  estimate  of  human  af- 
 fairs. 
 
 1 1.  The  formation  of  the  Austrian  States  into  an  empire  on  the 
 dissolution  of  the  Germanic  body  in  1809. 
 
 Having  thus  briefly  marked  the  chief  epochs  of  the  Austrian 
 power,  the  events  of  the  subject  kingdoms  and  states  must  be  as 
 much  compressed  as  possible.  The  next  in  importance  are  those 
 of  the  kingdom  of  Hungary. 
 
 1.  The  Roman  province  of  Dacia.  The  conquest  by  the  Huns  ; 
 and  afterwards  by  the  Avars,  and  other  Slavonic  tribes. 
 
 2.  The  conquest  by  the  Ugrians,*  who  continued  under  dukes 
 from  their  first  settlement  in  884. 
 
 3.  St.  Stephen  king  of  Hungary,  A.  D.  1000.  The  crown  is 
 partly  electii'e,  and  partly  hereditary  ;  and  among  the  chief  his- 
 torical events  are  the  wars  in  Dalmatia,  against  the  Venetians. 
 
 4.  Louis  I.  surnamed  the  great,  A.  D.  1342  ;  subdues  a  great 
 part  of  Dalmatia,  and  carries  his  arms  into  Italy.  He  was  suc- 
 ceeded by  his  daughter  Mary,  who  was  styled  Ki7ig  of  Hungary  ; 
 but  dying  1392,  the  succession  became  controverted,  and  at  last 
 terminated  in  the  election  of  Sigismond,  marquis  of  Brandenburg, 
 who  had  wedded  Mary  tlie  heiress.  In  1411  he  was  chosen  em- 
 peror of  Germany. 
 
 5.  Albert  of  Austria  having  wedded  Elizabeth  the  heiress  of 
 Sigismond,  was,  with  her,  crowned  king  and  queen  of  Hungary, 
 1438  :  an  event  which  forms  the  earliest  basis  of  the  Austrian 
 claim  to  the  Hungarian  monarchy.  Upon  the  death  of  Albert, 
 Ladislas,  king  of  Poland,  is  also  chosen  king  of  Hungary,  but 
 perishes  in  the  battle  of  Werna  against  the  Turks.  The  famous 
 John  Hunniades  is  appointed  regent  of  the  kingdom. 
 
 6.  On  the  death  of  another  Ladislas,  the  posthumous  son  of  Al- 
 bert of  Austria,  in  1457,   the  celebrated  Mathias  Corvinus,  son  of 
 
 *  The  Ugrians,  as  ihey  are  called  by  the  Russians,  or  Madshares,  as  they  call  them- 
 selves,  are  the  most  nvimerous  Finnish  tribe,  and  constitute  the  chief  part  of  the  Hun- 
 garian population.  Out  of  Ugrians  the  modern  Europeans  have  made  Hungariam. 
 U'hey  are  a  totally  distinct  race  from  the  Huns  in  language,  appearance,  and  origin, 
 
 Tooke, 
 
AUSTRIA.  513 
 
 Hunniades,  is  proclaimed  king  of  Hungary  by  the  states,  assem- 
 bled in  the  plain  of  Rakos,  near  Pest.  In  1485  he  seized  Vienna, 
 and  the  other  Austrian  states,  and  retained  them  till  his  death  in 
 1490.  Mathias  was  the  greatest  prince  who  had  ever  held  the 
 H-imgarian  sceptre  ;  brave,  prudent,  generous,  the  friend  of  arts 
 and  letters,  and  a  man  of  letters  himself.  He  founded  a  magnifi- 
 cent library  at  Buda,  and  furnished  it  with  the  best  Greek  and 
 Latin  books,  and  many  valuable  manuscripts. 
 
 7.  After  repeated  contests,  the  house  of  Austria  again  fills  the 
 throne  of  Hungary,  in  the  person  of  Ferdinand,  1527,  but  towards 
 the  end  of  his  reign  the  Turks  seized  on  the  greater  part  of  this 
 kingdom.  On  his  being  chosen  emperor  of  Germany,  Ferdinand 
 retained  the  crown  of  Hungary  till  1563,  when  he  resigned  it  to 
 his  son  Maximilian  ;  and  ii  has  since  continued  a  constant  appan- 
 age of  the  house  of  Austria. 
 
 Transylvania  v/as  a  part  of  ancient  Dacia.  Trajan  forn.rd  it 
 into  a  Roman  province.  The  Gaths  conquered  it  from  the  Ro- 
 mans. The  Scythian  Hunns,  a  Slavonic  nation,  next  subdued  it, 
 and  aftef  them  the  Ugrians  or  Hungarians,  the  most  powerful  of 
 the  Finnish  tribes.  In  1004  it  was  first  made  a  province  of  Hun- 
 gary, and  was  governed  by  a  waywode  till  1526,  when  two  rival 
 princes,  one  the  head  of  the  Protestants,  aided  by  the  Turks,  the 
 other  of  the  Catholics,  assisted  by  the  Emperor,  made  it  for  many 
 years  the  seat  of  a  civil  war.  In  1540  its  connection  with  Hun- 
 gary appears  to  have  been  wholly  and  finally  dissolved.  In  1694, 
 Michael  Abaffi,  the  last  prince,  yielded  the  sovereignty  to  the  em- 
 peror ;  and  in  1699  Transylvania  was  confirmed  as  a  Princedom 
 to  the  House  of  Austria  by  the  Turks.  In  1722  it  was  changed 
 from  an  elective  to  an  hereditary  principality. 
 
 Croatia  was  a  part  of  the  ancient  Illyricum.  The  Slavi  estab- 
 lished themselves  in  it  about  640.  In  the  middle  ages  it  foimed 
 a  kingdom  subject  to  the  Constantinopolitan  empire.  In  the  elev- 
 enth century  with  Dalmatia  it  devolved  to  Hungary,  and  in  1540 
 was  annexed  with  both  to  Austria. 
 
 Slavonia  was  also  a  part  of  ancient  Illyricum^  and  is  the  only- 
 territory  deriving  its  name  from  one  of  the  largest  aboriginal  na- 
 tions of  Europe.  The  Slavi  settled  here  about  640.  In  the  mid- 
 dle ages  it  was  possessed  alternately  by  the  Venetians  and  Hun- 
 garians. Solymaw  the  magnificent  took  it  from  these  last  in  1540, 
 and  the  Turks  retained  it  till  1687  ;  when  it  fell  under  the  do- 
 minion of  Austria. 
 
 The  historical  epochs  of  the  kingdom  of  Bohemia  deserve  more 
 attention. 
 
 1.  In  the  seventh  century  the  Slavons  seizing  on  Bohemia  were 
 ruled  by  chiefs  or  dukes,  seemingly  hereditary,  at  least  after  Bor- 
 zivoi,  who  embraced  Christianity  in  the  year  894.  In  the  eleventh 
 century  Bretislas  subdued  the  little  adjacent  kingdom  of  Moravia. 
 
 2.  Vratislas  duke  of  Bohemia  is  honored  with  the  regal  title 
 by  the  emperor  Henry  IV.  in  1086  ;  who  at  the  same  time" invest- 
 ed him  with  the  domains  of  Lusatia,  Moravia,  and  Silesia.  But 
 this  dignity  was  personal  j  and  die  constant  title  of  king  only 
 
316  AUSTRIA. 
 
 dates  from  Premislas  II.  in  1199.  He  and  his  immediate  suc- 
 cessors are  styled  Ottocari,  from  their  zeal  in  the  cause  of  the  em- 
 peror Otto. 
 
 3.  One  bf  the  most  renowned  monarchs  was  another  Preraislas 
 Ottocar,  who  ascended  the  throne  in  1255,  seized  Austria  and 
 Stiria,  and  other  provinces  to  the  south,  and  carried  his  arms  into 
 Prussia.  In  1271  he  refused  the  imperial  crown,  which  was  af- 
 terwards given  to  Rodolph  count  of  Hapsburg. 
 
 4.  The  ancient  lineage  having  failed,  John  count  of  Luxem- 
 bourg, who  had  married  a  daughter  of  Bohemia,  became  king  in 
 1310,  and  was  slain  at  the  battle  of  Creci,  fighting  against  the 
 English  in  1346.  His  son  and  successor,  Charles,  was  also  em- 
 peror of  Germany.. 
 
 5.  In  the  reign  of  Wenceslas  VI.  king  of  Bohemia,  and  em- 
 peror, John  Huss  having  read  the  books  of  Wickiiffe  the  English 
 reformer,  introduced  his  doctrines  into  Bohemia.  He  was  con- 
 demned to  the  flames  in  1415.  The  Bohemians  and  Moravians 
 have  since  become  remarkable  for  various  sects  of  religion,  and 
 consequent  intestine  commotions.  The  Hussites  under  Ziska, 
 repeatedly  defeated  the  troops  of  their  king  Sigismond,  brother  of 
 Wei]ceslas,  and  also  emperor  of  Germany. 
 
 6.  Albert  of  Austria,  having  wedded  the  daughter  of  Sigis- 
 mond, received  the  crowns  of  Bohemia  and  Hungary.  But  the 
 succession  was  afterwards  controverted  and  infringed  by  George 
 Podiebrad,  (a  Hussite  chief,  who  obtained  from  the  weakness  of 
 the  emperor  Frederic  HI.  of  ihe  house  of  Austria,  the  crown  of 
 Bohemia  in  1459,)  by  Vladislas  son  of  the  Polish  monarch,  and  by 
 Mathias  king  of  Hungary. 
 
 7.  Louis,  son  of  Vladislas,  succeeded  his  father  in  the  king- 
 doms of  Bohemia  and  Hungary;  but  being  slain  at  the  battle  of 
 Mohatz,  1526,  the  crown  finally  passed  to  the  house  of  Austria. 
 
 Antiquities.^  The  ancient  monuments  of  the  more  northern 
 kingdoms  and  provinces  belonging  to  Austria,  cannot  be  expected 
 to  be  very  numerous  or  important.  Vindobona,  and  the  adjacent 
 parts  of  Noricum  and  Pannonia,  occasionally  display  Roman  re- 
 mains ;  but  the  ruins  of  the  celebrated  bridge  of  Trajan,  over  the 
 Danube,  belong  to  Turkey  in  Europe,  being  situated  not  far  from 
 Widin,  in  Bulgaria  :  it  is  supposed  to  have  consisted  of  twenty 
 arches,  or  rather  vast  piers  of  stone,  originally  supporting  a  wood- 
 en fabric  of  the  length  of  more  than  3,300  English  feet.  In  Hun- 
 gary, and  other  parts  of  the  ancient  province  of  Dacia,  appear  ma- 
 ny relics  of  Roman  power,  as  military  roads,  ruins.  Sec.  and  an 
 elegant  historian  remarks,  "  that  if  we  except  Bohemia,  Moravia, 
 the  northern  skirts  of  Austria,  and  a  part  of  Hungary  between  the 
 Teyss  and  the  Danube,  all  the  other  dominions  of  the  house  of 
 Austria  were  situate  within  the  limits  of  the  Roman  empire."* 
 Hungary,  and  the  other  provinces  of  thi>  Austrian  dominions,  hav- 
 ing been  trequently  exposed  to  the  ravages  of  war,  many  ancient 
 monuments  have  perished  ;  yet   several   castles,  churches,  and 
 
 *  Gibbon,  vol.  i.  p.  22. 
 
AUSTRIA.  Sir 
 
 monasteries  still  attest  the  magnificence  of  the  founders.*  The 
 cathedral  church  of  St.  Stephen,  in  Vienna,  is  a  gothic  fabric  of 
 singular  pomp,  and  minute  decoration. 
 
 Religio7i.~\  The  established  religion  of  the  monarchy  is  the  Ro- 
 man Catholic.  Formerly  no  others  were  tol^^rated.  The  later 
 emperors  have  wisely  encouraged  the  settlement  of  protestants. 
 Various  sects  are  extensively  spread  over  Bohemia  and  Moravia ; 
 and  Lutherans  are  found  even  in  Vienna.  In  Hungary  the  Pro- 
 testants and  Greeks  are  thought  to  constitute  a  majority  of  the  in- 
 habitants ;  though  the  Catholic  religion  is  also  there  established. 
 In  Transylvania  Catholics,  Lutherans,  Calvinists,  Socinians,  Ari- 
 ans,  Greeks,  Mahometans,  enjoy  their  several  religions.  The 
 Mahometans  are  principally  in  the  eastern  parts.  The  Slavoni- 
 ans are  zealous  Catholics,  though  Greeks  and  Jews  are  tolerated. 
 This  is  equally  true  ol  the  Croatians. 
 
 Prague  is  an  arehbishopx'ic,  in  Bohemia  ;  and  Presburg,  Gran, 
 and  Colocza,  in  Hungary.  Konigsgi*atz  is  a  bishopric  in  Bohe- 
 mia ;  Olmutz  in  Moravia  ;  Neusaz,  Agria,  Vesprhi  and  Raab,  in 
 Hungary  ;  Hermanstadt  in  Transylvania  ;  Posega  in  Slavonia  ; 
 and  Agram  in  Croatia. 
 
 Go-vernment.~\  Austria  was  created  a  marquisate  by  Otho  I.  a 
 duchy  by  Frederic  Barbarossa,  and  an  archchichy  in  1477.  In 
 1809,  it  Avas  formed  into  an  heixditary  empire,  with  a  power  near- 
 ly absolute,  vested  in  the  sovereign.  Bohemia  is  really  an  hered- 
 itary kingdom,  of  which  the  head  of  the  House  of  Austria  has  been 
 king  since  1526.  The  States  pretend  to  claim  the  right  of  elec- 
 tion to  the  crown.  No  taxes  can  be  raised  without  their  consent, 
 nor  except  when  they  are  assembled ;  still  they  always  grant  the 
 supplies  proposed  by  the  Imperial  Commissioner.  It  is  divided 
 into  12  circles,  in  each  of  which  are  two  head  men,  appointed  an- 
 nually for  the  administration  of  government. 
 
 Hungary  also  is  a  hereditary  kingdom.  The  States  composing 
 the  Diet  consist  of  the  prelates,  barons,  gentry,  and  burghers. 
 These  meet  at  Presburg.  The  king's  representative  is  called  the 
 Palatine. 
 
 Transylvania  has  its  states,  which  meet  at  Hermanstadt.  The 
 pi'ince's  representative  is  called  the  Stadtholder. 
 
 Croatia  and  Slavonia  constitute  a  viceroyalty. 
 
 The  Transylvanians,  Slavonians,  and  Croats,  have  always  been 
 characterized  by  a  love  of  freedom,  and  an  impatience  of  control  ; 
 and  the  emperor  has  found  his  interest  in  letting  them  live  in  their 
 own  manner. 
 
 Latvs.']  The  laws  vary  according  to  the  different  provinces, 
 almost  every  state  having  its  peculiar  code.  The  Hungarians  in 
 particular  have  vigorously  defended  their  ancient  laws,  though  in 
 many  instances  illaudable,  the  peasantry  being  in  a  state  of  vil- 
 lanage  till  1785. t  In  1786  Joseph  II.  after  suppressing  tillanage 
 in  Bohemia  and  Moravia,  extended  the  like  freedom  to  Hungary  ; 
 and  this  decree  remains  uncancelled,  though  many  of  the  laws  of 
 
 *  Dr.  Brown's  Trav.  part  ii.  p.  80.  f  Townson,  10^  107. 
 
31»  AUSTRIA. 
 
 that  well-meaning,  but  injudicious,  monarch  expired  with  their  au- 
 thor. Yet  the  boasted  freedom  of  Hungary  is  rather  that  of  a 
 powerful  aristocracy,  than  of  the  people  at  large.  In  general  the 
 laws  may  be  regarded  as  mild  and  salutary  ;  and  the  Austrians  in 
 particular  are  a  well  regulated  and  contented  people,  while  the 
 Hungarians  are  loften  dissatisfied,  and  retain  much  of  their  ancient 
 animosity  against  the  Germans. 
 
 Pofiulation.']  Hassel  estimates  the  population  of  the  Austrian 
 dominions  in  1809  at  23,570,000.  The  latest  actual  census  is  that 
 of  1801,  which  gave  the  following  results  in  the  territories  now 
 belonging  to  Austria  : 
 
 Christian  families  4,284,408 
 
 Jewish         do.  100,315 
 
 Male  Christian  subjects  10,795,189 
 
 Female           do.  11,145,897 
 
 Strangers  and  Paupers  396,545 
 
 Jews  221,046 
 
 Jewesses  229,861 
 
 Duchy  of  Salzburg*  2 1 7,0 1 8 
 
 Army*  346,791 
 
 -4,384,723 
 
 -23,352,347 
 
 Of  the  male  population  41,009  were  clergy;  258,912  nobility  ; 
 36,998  officers  of  state  ;  545,714  tradesmen  ;  1,503,873  peasants  ; 
 1,013,045  assistants  of  tradesmen  and  peasants;  3,011,049  were 
 boys  under  12  years  of  age  ;  and  843,533  were  boys  between  12 
 and  17. 
 
 jirtny.']  The  Austrian  army  in  1809,  is  stated  by  Hassel  as 
 follows,  viz. 
 
 Infantry,  8 1  regiments, 
 
 266,296 
 
 Cavalry,  35  regiments, 
 
 -      47,579 
 
 Artillery, 
 
 13,514 
 
 Engineer  corps. 
 
 146 
 
 Miners,  4  companies,     - 
 
 420 
 
 Sappers,  4     do. 
 
 420 
 
 Pontonneers,  6  do. 
 
 -      629 
 
 Pioneers, 
 
 300 
 
 Sundry  other  corps, 
 
 17,000 
 
 Guards, 
 
 387 
 
 346,791 
 
 This  army  was  under  the  command  of  9  field  marshals,  21  mas- 
 ters of  ordnance,  U  generals  of  cavalry,  125  field  marshal  lieu- 
 tenants, and  272  major  generals.  The  Austrian  army  has  varied 
 as  follows,  under  different  emperors  : 
 
 *  The  census  of  Salzburg,  in  the  Archduchy,  appears  only  to  have  been  taken  ia 
 the  gross.    As  the  army  was  not  included,  we  have  added  it,  as  it  was  in  lii09. 
 
AUSTRIA. 
 
 Ferdinand  II.  who  flourished  about  1 639 
 
 150,000 
 
 Leopold  I. 
 
 60,000 
 
 Afterwards 
 
 97,000 
 
 Joseph  I. 
 
 130,000 
 
 Charles  VI, 
 
 150,000 
 
 Maria  Theresa 
 
 200,000 
 
 Joseph  II. 
 
 364,000 
 
 Francis  II. 
 
 496,000 
 
 Afterwards 
 
 346,000 
 
 ;i9 
 
 JVavy.']  Austria  has  a  few  armed  vessels  in  the  harbor  of 
 Trieste,  and  a  fleet  of  flat  bottomed  vessels  on  the  Danube. 
 
 Revenue,  Ex/icnditure,  a7id  National  Debt.~\  The  amount  of  the 
 ordinary  revenue,  in  1809,  was  104,000,000  guilders  ;  of  which 
 19,000,000  were  raised  from  the  royal  domains,  48,000,000  from 
 the  impost,  and  37,000,000  from  the  land,  poll,  aiid  circulation 
 taxes.  The  royal  domain,  in  1 803,  were  estimated  at  350,000,000  ; 
 and  the  ecclesiastical  domains  at  80,000,000. 
 
 This  revenue,  exclusive  of  that  from  the  royal  domains  was 
 proportioned  nearly  as  follows  :  from  .the 
 
 Hereditary  States  43,000,000 
 
 Gallicia  18,000,000 
 
 .  Hungarian  States  24,000,000 
 
 85,000,000 
 This  sum  is  chiefly  raised,  as  follows  : 
 
 Mountains,  salt,  and  mines  13,000,000 
 
 Post-office  1,800,000 
 
 Stamps  500,000 
 
 Tobacco  8,000,000 
 
 Lotteries  200,000 
 
 Tolls  24,000,000 
 
 Land  tax  28,000,000 
 
 Poll  tax  6,000,000 
 
 The  extraordinary  revenue  is  from  12  to  16,000,000. 
 
 The  expenditure  is  from  105  to  1 10,000,000. 
 
 The  sources  of  expenditure  are  stated  by  Hassel,  as  follows  : 
 Court  6,500,000 
 
 Corps  Diplomatique  800,000 
 
 Civil  list  16,600,000 
 
 Privy  purse  12,000,000 
 
 Public  buildings  4,000,000 
 
 Pensions  2,60o,000 
 
 Harbor  of  Trieste  60,000 
 
 Order  of  Theresia  126,000 
 
 Army  28,000,000 
 
 Interest  of  national  debt  25,000,000 
 
 Other  expenses  10,000,000 
 
 105,686,000 
 The  national  debt  is  estimated  at  from  1,200  to  1,600,000,000  in- 
 cluding from  800  to  1,000,000,000  guilders  in  paper  money,  capa- 
 
520     ,  AUSTRIA. 
 
 ble  of  being  redeemed  al  half  its  nominaf  value.  The  circulating 
 specie  amounts  to  from  100  to  120,000,000  guilders. 
 
 Manners  and  Customs.~\^  Various  are  the  manners  and  customs 
 of  the  numerous  kingdoms  and  provinces  subject  to  the  house  of 
 Austria.  Vienna,  the  capital,  presents  as  it  were  an  assemblage 
 of  nations,  in  their  various  dresses.  In  Austria  proper  the  peo- 
 ple are  much  at  their  ease  :  and  the  farmers,  and  even  peasantry, 
 little  inferior  to  those  of  England.  Travellers  have  remarked  the 
 abundance  of  provisions  at  Vienna,  and  the  consequent  daily  lux- 
 ury of  food,  accompanied  with  great  variety  of  wines.  The  Aus- 
 trian manners  are  cold,  but  civil  ;  the  women  elegant,  but  devoid 
 of  mental  accomplis.hments.  The  youth  of  rank  are  commonly  ig- 
 norant, and  of  course  haughty,  Ijeing  entire  strangers  to  the  culti- 
 vation of  mind,  and  condescension  of  manners,  to  be  found  among 
 the  superior  ranks  of  some  other  countries,  a  circumstance  more 
 striking  to  the  English  traveller  in  particular  from  the  very  great 
 contrast.  An  Austrian  nobleman  or  gentleman  is  never  seen 
 to  read,  and  hence  polite  literature  is  almost  unknown  and  unculti- 
 vated. In  consequence  of  this  ignorance  the  language  remains 
 unpolished;  and  the  Austrian  speech  is  one  of  the  meanest  dia- 
 lects of  the  German,  so  that  polite  people  are  constrained  to  use 
 French.  The  lower  orders  are,  however,  little  addicsed  to  crimes 
 or  vices,  and  punishments  are  rare  :  robberies  are  seldom  commit- 
 ted, and  murder  little  known.  When  capital  punishment  becomes 
 vmavoidable,  it  is  administered  with  great  solemnity,  and  accom- 
 panied with  public  prayers,  an  example  worthy  of  universal  im- 
 itation. 
 
 The  next  people  in  estimation,  and  the  lii'st  in  numbers,  are  the 
 Hungarians.  Their  manners  are  now  considerably  tinctured  by 
 those  of  the  ruling  Germans,  but  they  remain  a  spirited  people, 
 and  affect  to  despise  their  masters.  Their  dress  consists  of  a  tight 
 vest,  mantle,  and  furred  cap,  is  graceful  ;  and  the  whiskers  add  a 
 military  ferocity  to  their  appearance.  The  Transylvanians  are  a 
 medley  of  several  different  nations,  and  are  characterized  by  noth- 
 ing but  their  savage  manners,  and  their  impatience  of  restraint. 
 The  Slavonians  and  Croatians  are  equally  lawless. 
 
 Gy/isies.']  We  ought,  in  this  connection  to  mention  a  singular 
 race  of  people,  dispersed  indeed  over  almost  every  country  in  Eu- 
 rope ;  but  found  in  great  numbers  in  the  Austrian  dominions. 
 The  Gypsies  made  their  first  appearance  in  Germany,  in  the  16th 
 century.  Historians  inform  us,  that,  when  Sultan  Selim  conquer- 
 ed Egypt,  several  of  the  natives,  refusing  to  submit  to  the  Turk- 
 ish yoke,  revolted  under  one  Zinganeus,  (whence  the  Turks  call 
 them  Zingances  ;)  and  agreed  to  disperse  in  small  parties  over  the 
 world.  The  French  call  them  Bohemimis,  Mr.  Grellman  and  Mr. 
 Marsden  consider  them  of  Hindoo  origin.  They  wander  about  in 
 Asia ;  in  the  interior  of  Africa  ;  and,  like  locusts,  have  overrun 
 most  European  nations.  Their  whole  number  in  Europe  is  be- 
 lieved to  exceed  seven  hundred  thousand.  They  are  found  in  con- 
 siderable numbers  in  Great  Britain.  The  vigilance  of  the  police 
 has  rendered  them  less  numerous  in  France.     In  Spain  they  are 
 
AUSTRIA.  321 
 
 believed  to  amount  to  eighty  thousand.  They  are  somewliat  nu- 
 merous in  Germany,  Denmark,  Sweden  and  Russia.  In  Italy  they 
 aboKnd,  particularly  in  the  states  of  the  church.  But  their  chief 
 population  is  in  the  S.  E.  parts  of  Europe,  particularly  in  Hunga- 
 ry, Transylvania,  and  various  parts  of  Turkey,  which  seems  ever  to 
 have  been  the  place  of  general  rendezvous  for  the  Gypsy  tribes. 
 England  endeavoured  to  expel  them  in  1530;  France  in  1560; 
 and  Spain  in  1591  ;  but  never  with  complete  success. 
 
 For  three  centuries  they  have  continued  the  same,  wherever 
 they  have  gone  ;  unaltered  by  the  lapse  of  time,  the  variation  of 
 climate,  and  the  force  of  example.  Their  physiognomy,  and 
 their  manners  are  equally  singular  in  evei-y  country.  Their 
 swarthy  complexion  is  the  same  in  Africa,  and  in  Europe.  They 
 acquire  no  additional  laziness  in  Spain  ;  and  no  new  industry  in 
 England.  Religion,  powerful  in  its  influence  over  most  ignorant 
 tribes,  is  here  impotent  ;  and  the  cross  and  the  crescent  are  be- 
 held Avith  equal  indifference.  In  the  neighborhood  of  civilized 
 life,  they  continue  barbarous ;  and  in  the  midst  of  cities  and  vil- 
 lages, they  live  in  tents  and  holes  of  the  earth,  and  wander  from 
 place  to  place  as  fugitives  and  vagabonds. 
 
 They  are  passionately  fond  of  ornaments  and  of  plate.  Theii' 
 principal  occupations  are  smith's  work,  or  tinker's,  or  wooden 
 ware,  and  horse-dealing.  In  Hungary  and  Transylvania  they  are 
 executioners,  flayers  of  dead  beasts,  and  washers  of  gold.  The 
 women,  many  of  whom  are  addicted  to  prostitution,  deal  in  old 
 clothes,  and  fortune-telling.  The  majority  of  both  sexes  are 
 lazy  beggars,  and  thieves.  They  are  fond  of  their  children. 
 Their  diseases  are  the  measles,  smallpox,  and  weak  eyes,  occa- 
 sioned by  smoke.  They  live  to  an  advanced  age.  Their  reme- 
 dies in  sickness  are  saffron  in  their  soups,  and  bleeding.  The 
 Austrian  gypsies  are  particularly  fond  of  cattle  that  die  of  any  dis- 
 temper ;  acting  on  the  principle,  "  that  the  flesh  of  a  beast^  which 
 God  kills^  must  be  better  than  that  of  one  killed  by  7nan." 
 
 In  Transyh  ania,  they  have  a  sort  of  regular  government.  Their 
 chiefs  are  styled  JVaywodes,  and  are  elected  from  the  children  of 
 former  chiefs.  They  have  no  sense  of  religion.  They  speak 
 every  where  the  language  of  the  country  ;  but  have  all  one  pecu- 
 liar language,  which  is  every  where  the  same.  Music  is  the  only 
 science  of  which  they  are  fond. 
 
 Their  train  of  thinking  is  childish  ;  and  the  little  reason,  which 
 they  possess,  is  wholly  devoted  to  the  gratification  of  appetite. 
 They  are  lively,  loquacious,  and  chattering  ;  fickle  and  inconstant ; 
 faithless  and  ungrateful  ;  timid  and  servile  ;  cruel  and  revenge- 
 ful. They  are  excessively  addicted  to  ardent  spirits  ;  and,  what 
 would  hardly  be  expected,  are  universally  vain.  While  they  con- 
 tinue insensible  of  religion,  all  attempts  to  civilize  will  probably 
 be  ineffectual. 
 
 Latiffuag-e.']  The  languages  spoken  in  these  aggregated  do- 
 minions are  numerous  and  discrepant.  They  belong  chiefly  to 
 three  grand  divisions,  the  Gothic  or  German  of  the  ruling  nation  ; 
 
 VOL.    II.  41 
 
322  AUSTRIA. 
 
 the  Slavonic  oi'  tlic  Poles,*  part  of  the  Hungarians,  and  also  the- 
 ancient  speech  used  in  Bohemia  and  Moravia :  and  lastly  the 
 Hungarian.,  which  is  a  branch  of  the  Finnic,  Among  people  of 
 rank  at  Vienna,  the  French  was  formerly  prevalent. 
 
 Literature.~\  The  literaiy  history  of  the  Austrian  dominions 
 cannot  ascend  to  a  remote  period.  That  of  Austria  proper  in  par- 
 ticular, is  little  interesting,  and  even  the  chronicles  and  lives  of 
 saints  are  comparatively  recent.  If  the  emperor  Maximilian, 
 grandfather  of  Charles  V.  be  the  author  of  an  eccentric  poem  al- 
 luding to  the  events  of  his  own  life,  and  usually  ascribed  to  him, 
 though  many  assign  it  to  his  chaplain,  he  may  be  considered  as 
 the  father  of  Austrian  literature,  as  well  as  of  Austrian  greatness. 
 But  the  succession  of  authors  is  interrupted  ;  and  many  of  those 
 who  flourished  at  Vienna  were  aliens.  In  the  medical  branch, 
 Van  Swieten,  Storck,  and  others  have  acquired  deserved  celebrity. 
 
 Bohemia  and  Hungary  have  no  ancient  claims  to  literature. 
 Cosmas  of  Prague,  a  venerable  historian,  flourished  about  the  year 
 1 1  30  ;  and  Hungary  has  a  contemporary  father  of  history  in  the 
 anonymous  notary  of  king  Bela.f  The  encouragement  given  to 
 writers  by  the  celebrated  Mathias  Corvinus  little  stimulated  na- 
 tive literature.  There  is  no  Hungarian  writer  particularly  cele- 
 brated among  the  modern  Latin  classics ;  nor  is  the  native  lan- 
 guage yet  known  by  any  work  commanding  celebi'ity.  Baron  du 
 Born,  a  native  of  Transylvania,  has  written  many  able  works  in 
 natural  history  ;  but  he  used  the  Latin  and  French  languages. 
 The  causes  which  have  retarded  the  progress  of  letters  and  phi- 
 losophy in  the  Austrian  dominions  are  the  coarseness  of  the  Ger- 
 man dialect,  and  the  absence  of  the  Slavonic  and  Hungarian  from 
 the  learned  laj^guages  of  Europe  ;  the  military  education  of  the 
 nobility,  and  that  metaphysical  bigotry,  which  perverts  their  ra- 
 tional powers,  and  blights  every  bud  of  genius  and  solid  knowl- 
 edge. 
 
 Education.']  The  empress  Theresa  instituted  schools  for  the 
 education  of  children,  but  none  for  the  education  of  teachers. 
 Hence  the  children  are  taught  metaphysics  before  they  know 
 Latin  ;  and  a  blind  veneration  for  the  monks  forms  one  of  the  first 
 exertions  of  nascent  reason.  Yet  the  example  is  highly  laudable, 
 and  with  all  its  disadvantages  may  lead  to  important  consequences. 
 
 Universities.']  The  universities,  like  those  in  other  catholic 
 countries,  little  promote  the  progress  of  solid  knowledge.  The 
 sciences  taught  with  the  greatest  care  are  precisely  those  which 
 are  of  the  smallest  utility.  The  university  of  Vienna  has,  since 
 the  year  1752,  been  somewhat  improved.  Jtwas  founded  in  1237, 
 and  that  of  Prague  in  1347;  that  of  Inspruck  only  dates  from 
 1677,  and  Gratz  from  1585.  Hungary  chiefly  boasts  of  Buda, 
 though  the  Jesuits  instituted  academies  at  Raab  and  Caschau.  A 
 late  travellert  informs  us  that  that  the  university  of  Buda,  by  the 
 Germai.s  called  Offen,  possesses  an  income  of  about  twenty  thou- 
 
 >fof  is  it  disused  in  Bohemia,  which  may  be  regarded  as_  the  extreme  westeni 
 
 of  the  Slavonic  zo?jir?(e  /  lor   "  "  '      ' 
 
 t  Katoiia,  Hist,  Crit.  iimig.  Vi 
 
 limit  of  the  Slavonic  tongue  ;  for  the  people  extend  to  the  mouth  of  the  Elbe, 
 ^jolcg.  -1^  Townsoii,  p.  7'J. 
 
AUSTRIA.  323 
 
 sand  pounds  sterling,  only  four  thousand  of  which  are  applied  to 
 pay  the  salaries  of  the  professors.  "  Besides  the  usual  chairs 
 which  exist  in  every  university,  there  are  those  of  natural  history, 
 botany,  and  economy.  The  collection  of  instruments  for  natural 
 philosophy,  and  the  models  of  machines,  are  good  ;  and  the  mu- 
 seum of  natural  history,  which  contains  the  collection  of  the  late 
 professor  Filler,  besides  that  of  the  university  may  be  ranked 
 among  the  fine  collections  of  Europe."  There  is  a  calvinist  col- 
 lege or  university  at  Debretzin  :  and  the  bishop  of  Erlau  has  re- 
 cently established  a  splendid  university  at  that  city. 
 
 Cities  and  To%vns.'\  Vienna,  the  chief  city  of  the  Austrian  do- 
 minions, lies  on  the  S.  or  rather  W.  side  of  the  Danube,  in  a  fer- 
 tile plain  watered  by  a  branch  of  that  river,  (beyond  which  stands 
 the  suburb  of  Leopoldstadt,)  and  by  the  little  river  Wien.  The 
 Danube  is  here  very  wide,  and  contains  several  woody  isles  :  the 
 country  towards  the  N.  and  E.  is  level,  but  on  the  S.  and  W.  hilly, 
 and  variegated  with  trees.  It  is  founded  on  the  site  of  the  ancient 
 Vindobona  ;  but  was  of  little  note  fill  the  12th  century,  when  it  be- 
 came the  residence  of  the  dukes  of  Austria,  and  was  fortified  in  the 
 manner  of  that  age.  The  manufactures  are  little  remarkable, 
 though  some  inlcnd  commerce  be  transacted  on  the  noble  stream 
 of  the  Danube.  The  number  of  inhabitants  was  in  1801,  232,049, 
 and  of  houses,  6,649.  The  suburbs  are  far  more  extensive  than 
 the  city,  standing  at  a  considerable  dist,p.nce  from  the  walls.  The 
 houses  are  generally  of  brick  covered  with  stucco,  in  a  more  dura- 
 ble manner  than  commonly  practised  in  England  ;  the  finest  sand 
 being  chosen,  and  the  lime,  after  having  been  slacked,  remain- 
 ing for  a  twelvemonth,  covered  with  sand  and  boards,  before  it  is 
 applied  to  the  intended  use.  The  chief  edifices  are  the  metropo- 
 litan church  of  St.  Stephen,  the  imperial  palace,  library,  and  arse- 
 nal, the  house  of  assembly  for  the  states  tf  lower  Austria,  the 
 council  house,  the  university,  and  some  monasteries.  The  impe- 
 rial park,  is  an  island  on  the  Danube  well  planted  with  wood  ;  and 
 to  the  S.  is  the  chapel  of  Herenhartz,  which  during  Lent  is  much 
 frequented  for  the  sake  of  amusement,  as  well  as  of  devotion. 
 Provisions  of  all  kinds  abound  in  Vienna,  particularly  wild  boars, 
 venison,  and  game.  The  people  delight  in  the  combats  of  wild 
 beasts,  and  of  bulls.  In  one  of  the  suburbs  is  the  palace  of  Belvi- 
 dere,  which  foi'merly  belonged  to  prince  Eugene  ;  and  at  the  dis- 
 tance of  a  few  miles  stands  Schonbi'un,  another  imperial  palace. 
 Though  Vienna  be  much  exposed  to  the  northern  and  eastern 
 winds,  yet  the  southern  hills  serve  as  a  fence  against  the  rain,  and 
 the  traveller  rather  complains  of  dust  than  of  moisture.  The 
 pleasantness  of  the  environs  in  general  is  improved  by  the  happy- 
 aspect  of  the  Austrian  peasantry. 
 
 The  honor  of  the  second  city  in  the  Austrian  dominions  must 
 be  claimed  by  Prague,  the  population  being  80,317,  and  the  houses 
 3,237.  This  metropolis  of  Bohemia  stands  on  both  sides  of  the 
 river  Mulda,  over  wliich  there  is  a  noble  bridge  of  stone,  founded 
 in  1357.  The  fortifications  are  of  small  moment  ;  but  the  houses 
 are  of  stone,  and  commonly  three  stories  in  height.     This  city  has 
 
324  AUSTRIA. 
 
 liad  the  fatality  of  being  exposed  to  frequent  sieges,  commonly 
 fortunate  to  the  aggressors.  About  a  sixth  part  of  the  population 
 consists  of  Jews. 
 
 The  third  city  is  Lcmbevg,  or  Leopold,  in  Gallicia.  Its  situa- 
 tion is  low  on  the  banks  of  the  Pcltcw  just  above  its  entrance  into 
 the  Bug,  being  surrounded  with  hills  and  mountains,  which  com- 
 mand the  town.  It  Avas  made  an  archbishopric's  see,  in  1561. 
 The  fortifications  are  in  the  Polish  manner,  merely  of  timber. 
 The  houses  are  2850  in  number  ;  and  the  inhabitants  in  1808,  were 
 estimated  at  50,000,  being  a  mixture  of  several  nations. 
 
 Next  stands  Gratz,  the  capital  of  Stiria,  supposed  to  contain 
 40,000  souls,  and  4600  houses.  This  city  stands  on  the  west  side 
 of  the  river  Muehr,  joined  by  a  bridge  to  an  extensive  suburb  on 
 the  opposite  bank.  There  are  regular  fortifications  ;  and  on  a 
 bold  rock  near  the  river  is  placed  a  strong  citadel. 
 
 Pest  is  a  royal  and  free  town  of  Hungary  on  the  cast  side  pf  the 
 Danube,  opposite  Buda,  103  miles  3.  E.  of  Vienna.  It  has  suffer- 
 ed much  in  the  wars  with  the  Turks.  The  supreme  court  of  ap- 
 peal is  held  here.  The  town  contains  a  large  military  hospital,  6 
 convents,  several  churches,  and  in  1807,  2909  houses,  and  36,000 
 inhabitants. 
 
 Debrctzin,  also  in  Hungary,  stands  on  a  branch  of  the  Thcis  in 
 47  30  N.  Its  houses  in  1806  amounted  to  3600  and  its  inhabi- 
 tants to  35,000. 
 
 Presburg,  the  capital  of  Hungary,  only  contains  32,000  inhabi- 
 tants, its  precedence  being  of  modern  date,  after  Buda  the  ancient 
 capital  had  been  repeatedly  taken  by  the  Turks.  Presburg  is 
 beautifully  situated  on  the  Danube,  towards  the  western  extremity 
 of  Hungary,  being  only  about  35  British  miles  to  the  cast  of  Vien- 
 na ;  but  the  position  is  still  more  uncentrical  than  that  of  Buda. 
 The  Danube  is  here^cry  rapid,  and  about  250  yards  in  breadth. 
 About  one  quarter  of  the  inhabitants  are  Lutherans,  who  are  so 
 opulent  as  to  pay  about  one  half  the  taxes.  A  good  theatre,  and 
 convenient  cofTee-houses  contrilnite  to  the  pleasure  of  the  inhabi- 
 tants.    Jews  also  abound  in  this  city. 
 
 Theresienstadtin  lat.  46  6  N.  stands  near  a  branch  of  the  Theis, 
 and  contains  about  2380  houses,  and  28,000  inhabitants. 
 
 Szceedin    is  built  near  the    confluence  of  the    Maros  and  the 
 
 O 
 
 Theis,  and  is  well  fortified.  Its  trade  is  chiefly  in  cattle.  In 
 1808  it  contained  25,347  inhabitants. 
 
 Cracow,  in  Gallicia,  the  ancient  capital  of  Poland,  stands  on  the 
 Vistula,  near  it  source.  It  has  a  castle,  but  is  weakly  fortified. 
 In  1808,  its  houses  amounted  to  1,992,  and  the  inhabitants  to  about 
 25,000. 
 
 Buda,  by  the  Germans  called  Offen,  the  ancie'.it  metropolis  of 
 Hungary,  contained,  in  1787,  1,640  houses,  and  24,872  inhabitants. 
 Here  are  hot-springs  of  some  celebrity.  The  people,  like  those 
 of  Vienna,  delight  in  bull-fights  and  exhibitions  of  wild  beasts. 
 In  1784  the  seat  of  the  provincial  government  was  transferred 
 from  Presburg  to  this  place. 
 
 Brunn,  the  capital  of  Moravia,  is   built  at  the   conflux  of  the 
 
AUSTRIA.  325 
 
 Schwai'saw  and  the  Surtawa,  tvibutai'ies  of  the  Danube.  It  has 
 considerable  manufactures  of  cloth,  velvets  and  plush.  The  diets 
 are  held  alternately  at  Brunn  and  at  Olmutz.  It  is  defended  by  a 
 strong  fortress,  has  6  cloisters,  a  collegiate  church,  and  a  college 
 of  Jesuits,  and  in  1801  contained  1,621  houses,  and  23,598  inhab- 
 itants. 
 
 Trieste  lies  on  the  N.  E.  part  of  the  Adi-iatic,  called  the  gulf  of 
 Trieste.  The  harbor  is  well  fortified,  and  the  trade  considerable. 
 It  contained,  in  1801,  23,633  inhabitants,  and  only  1,210  houses. 
 
 Schemnitz,  the  largest  of  the  mine-towns  in  Hungary,  lies  be- 
 tween hills,  in  a  long  valley.  The  houses,  1692  in  number,  stand 
 scattered  a  considerable  way  up  the  acclivities  on  both  sides. 
 The  inhabitants  are  22,241  in  number,  of  whom  two  thirds  are 
 Protestants. 
 
 Brody,  on  the  confines  of  Russian  Poland,  was  estimated  to  con- 
 tain, in  1808,  21,000  inhabitants. 
 
 Laybach,  in  Carniola,  on  the  Laybach,  a  branch  of  the  Save,  in 
 1808,  contained,  1,394  houses,  and  20,000  inhabitants. 
 
 Linz,  or  Lintz,  lies  on  the  Danube,  in  14  E.  and  is  a  handsome, 
 well  built  town.  It  is  the  capital  of  the  province,  west  of  the  Ens, 
 sometimes  called  Upper  Austria,  and  in  1808  contained  998 
 houses,  and  18,754  inhabitants. 
 
 •  Cronstadt  is  in  the  S.  E.  part  of  Transylvania  near  the  borders 
 of  Walachia,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  lofty  mountains.  It 
 contains  2010  houses,  and  18,1 18  inhabitants,  consisting  of  Bulga- 
 rians, Hungarians  and  Saxotis. 
 
 Erlau,  in  Hungary,  in  lat.  47  53  N.  Ion.  20  30  E.  contained,  iu 
 1808,  15,942  inhabitants, 
 
 Salzburg,  on  the  borders  of  Bavaria,  contained,  in  1805,  15,508 
 inhabitants. 
 
 Zomber,  a  little  east  of  the  Danube,  in  Hungary,  near  the  con- 
 fines of  Turkey,  contained,  in  1808,  14,956  inhabitants. 
 
 Clausenburg,orColosvar,  in  Transylvania,  on  the  Samos,  a  trib- 
 utary of  the  Theis,  contains  1060  houses,  and  14,522  inhabitants. 
 This  is  the  Zeugma  of  the  ancients,  and  in  Latin  Claudiofwli^.  It 
 is  surrounded  by  an  ancient  thick  wall,  and  is  the  principal  seat  of 
 the  Unitarians  in  Transylvania. 
 
 Miskolez,in  Hungary,  near  the  confines  of  Silesia,  cotains  2400 
 houses,  and  13,500  inhabitants. 
 
 Hermanstadt  in  Transylvania,  on  the  river  Szeben,  is  fortified 
 with  a  double  wall,  and  a  deep  moat.  It  contained,  in  1785,  13,313 
 iuhabithnts. 
 
 Neusatz,  on  the  Danube,  in  Hungary,  opposite  the  village  of 
 Peterwardein,  in  Slavonia,  is  a  bishop's  see,  and  well  fortified. 
 The  inhabitants,  who  are  Rascians,  amounted,  in  1808,  to  13,262, 
 and  the  houses  to  2000. 
 
 Raab,  or  Gyor,  is  a  strong  fortress  of  Hungary,  28  miles  from 
 Presburg,  in  a  pleasant  country,  at  the  conflux  of  the  Danube,  the 
 Raab,  and  the  Rabnitz.  Its  houses,  1,610  in  number,  are  all  of 
 stone.      The  population,  in  1810,  was  13,071. 
 
 Of  the  remaining  towns  none  are  so  large  as  to  demand  a  minute 
 
826  AUSTRIA. 
 
 descripLion.  In  Bohemia,  Reichenberg  contains  10,500  inhabi- 
 tants :  in  Moravia,  Iglau,  10,948,  Olmutz  8,595,  Troppau  8000, 
 Nickolsburg  7,520  :  in  the  archduchy,  Neustadt  10,680,  Hallstadt 
 8000  :  in  Croatia,  Agram,  8,900,  Bukari  7,805,  Fiume  11,000  : 
 in  Carinthia,  St.  Andre,  8,900,  Klagenfurt,  on  the  Drave,  11,000  : 
 in  Carniola,  Goritz,  12,000:  in  Slavonia,  Semlin,  7,089  :  in  Gal - 
 licia,  Jaroslaw,  12,000,  Jaszbereny  12,000,  Lublin  7,400  :  in  Hun- 
 gary, Csaba  12,000,  Eger  7,544,  Eszeg  7,656,  Furfkirchcn  8,925, 
 Cardszag,  9,000,  Carlsburg  11,279,  Kaschau  12,000,  Comorn 
 12,067,  Kremnitz  10,200,  Fasarhely  8,500,  Nagykoros  12,000, 
 Oedenburg  12,319,  Smohiitz  9,000,  Stulweissenberg  12,248  :  and 
 in  Transylvania  Temeswar,  10,097. 
 
 Edifices.^  The  chief  public  edifices  are  at  Vienna,  Buda,  and 
 pest,  but  there  are  many  splendid  churches  and  monastei'ics  in 
 the  several  regions  of  the  Austrian  dominions.  ]Many  of  the 
 Hungarian  nobility,  who  have  vast  estates,  possess  castles  of  cor- 
 responding magnificence.  Amongst  the  chief  are  the  Palesy,  Scha- 
 lii,  Erdoby,  Sichy,  Forgathese,  Kohari,  Karoly  ;  but  above  all  Ester- 
 hazy,  whose  castle,  about  a  day's  journey  from  Presburg,  is  said 
 to  rival  Versailles  in  pomp  ;  and  seems  also  to  rival  that  palace 
 in  the  surrounding  desolation,  being  in  a  morassy  country  near 
 the  Neusidler  lake.^ 
 
 Manufactures  and  Conwierce.^  Manufactures  do  not  seem  to 
 be  cultivated  to  a  great  extent  in  any  part  of  the  Austrian  domin- 
 ions. Vienna  perhaps  equals  any  other  of  the  cities  in  manufac- 
 tures, which  are  chiefly  of  silk,  gold  and  silver  lace,  cloths,  stuffs, 
 stockings,  linen,  mirrors,  porcelain  ;  with  silver  plate,  and  sev- 
 eral articles  in  brass. f  Bohemia  is  celebrated  for  beautiful  glass 
 and  paper.  The  linen  manufactures  of  Bohemia  amount  annual- 
 ly, according  to  Hoeck,  to  16,000,000  floriiis,  beside  some  in  wool 
 and  in  cotton.  The  woollen  manufacture  at  Lintz,  employs 
 30,000  persons  ;  and  in  the  whole  archduchy  there  are  7  great 
 manufactures  of  cotton  cloth,  which  employ  140,000  persons.  But 
 the  commerce  of  the  Austrian  dominions  chiefly  depends  upon 
 their  native  opulence  ;  Austria  proper  and  the  southern  provinces 
 producing  aburidance  of  horses  and  cattle,  corn,  flax,  saffron,  and 
 various  wines,  with  several  metals,  particularly  quicksilver  from 
 the  mines  of  Idria.  Bohemia  and  Moravia  are  also  rich  in  oxen 
 and  sheep,  corn,  flax,  and  hemp  ;  in  which  they  are  rivalled  by 
 the  dismembered  provinces  of  Poland.  The  wide  and  marshy 
 plains  of  Hungary  often  present  excellent  pasturage  for  numer- 
 ous herds  of  cattle  ;  and  the  more  favored  parts  of  that  country 
 produce  corn,  rice,  the  rich  wines  of  Tokay,  and  tobacco  of  an  ex- 
 quisite flavor,  with  great  and  celebrated  mines  of  varioOs  metals 
 and  minerals.  The  Austrian  territories  in  general  are  so  abun- 
 dant in  the  various  necessaries  and  luxuries  of  life,  to  be  found 
 either  in  the  north  or  south  of  Europe,  that  the  imports  seem  to 
 be  few  and  inconsiderable.  The  chief  exports  are  from  the  port 
 of  Trieste,  consisting  of  qviicksiiver  and  other  metals,  with  wines 
 
 *  Riesbeck,  ii.  49, 66.  f  Buschh  g,  vi.  549,    See  Hocck. 
 
AUSTRIA.  3f2r 
 
 and  various  native  products.  Dr.  Townson  gives  a  table  of  the 
 exports  of  Hungary  for  one  year,  from  which  it  appears  that  they 
 consisted  chiefly  of  cattle,  hogs,  sheep,  fiour,  wheat,  rye,  wool, 
 and  wine,  carried  to  other  Austrian  provinces  i  and  only  about 
 one-seventh  part  sent  to  foreign  countries. 
 
 CHAPTER  H. 
 
 NATURAL  GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 CLIMATE  AND  SEASONS,  FACE  OF  THE  COUNTRY,  SOIL  AND  AGRI- 
 CULTURE, RIVERS,  LAKES,  MOUNTAINS,  FORESTS,  BOTANY,  ZOO- 
 LOGY, MINERALOGY,  MINERAL  WATERS,  NATURAL  CURIOSITIES. 
 
 Climate  and  Seasons.^  THE  climate  of  Austria  proper  is 
 commonly  mild  and  salubrious,  though  sometimes  exposed  to  vi- 
 olent winds,  and  the  southern  provinces  'in  general  enjoy  delight- 
 ful temperature,  if  the  mountainous  parts  be  excepted.  The 
 Biore  northern  regions  of  Bohemia  and  Moravia,  with  the  late  ac- 
 quisitions in  Poland,  can  likewise  boast  the  maturity  of  the  grape, 
 and  of  gentle  and  favorable  weather.  The  numerous  lakes  and 
 morasses  of  Hungary,  and  the  prodigious  plains,  are  supposed  to 
 render  the  air  damp  and  unwholesome,  the  cold  of  the  night  ri- 
 valling the  heat  of  the  day  ;  but  the  blasts  from  the  Carpathian 
 mountains  seem  in  some  measure  to  remedy  these  evils,  the  in- 
 habitants being  rather  remarkable  for  health  and  vigor. 
 
 Face  of  the  Country r\  The  appearance  of  the  various  regions 
 subject  to  Austria  is  rather  mountainous  than  level,  presenting  a 
 striking  contrast  in  this  respect  to  those  of  Russia  and  Prussia. 
 The  Tyrolese  Alps  branch  out  on  the  S.  and  N.  of  Carinthia  and 
 Carniola.  Stiria  displays  chains  of  considerable  elevation.  The 
 southern  limit  of  Austria  proper  is  marked  by  other  heights  ;  and 
 Bohemia  and  Moravia  are  almost  encircled  by  various  mountains, 
 which  on  the  east  join  the  vast  Carpathian  chain,  that  winds  along 
 the  north  and  east  of  Hungary  and  Transylvania,  divided  from 
 each  other  by  another  elevated  ridge  :  tlie  dismembered  provinces 
 of  Poland,  though  in  the  south  they  partake  of  the  Carpathian 
 heights,  yet  afford  tiie  widest  plains  to  be  found  within  the  limits 
 of  the  Austrian  power. 
 
 The  general  face  of  the  Austrian  dominions  may  be  pronounced 
 to  be  highly  variegated  and  interesting  ;  and  the  vegetable  pro- 
 ducts of  both  the  north  and  south  of  Europe  unite  to  please  the 
 eye  of  the  traveller. 
 
 Soil  and  jli;riciilture.'^  The  soil  is  upon  the  whole  extremely 
 fertile  and  productive,  in  spite  of  the  neglect  of  industry,  Avhich 
 has  permitted  many  parts  of  Hungary,  and  of  the  Polish  provinces, 
 to  pass  into  wide  forests  and  marshes.  The  latter  country,  par- 
 ticularly in  many  places,  exhibits  few  symptoms  of  an  inhabited 
 and  still  less  of  a  civilized  region.  Were  skill  and  labor  to  as- 
 sume the  axe  and  spade,  those  very  parts  might  display  the  great- 
 
32S  AUSTRIA. 
 
 est  exuberance  of  fertility.     The  state  of  agriculture  in  Moravia 
 is  superior  to  the  rest,  being  improved  by  Flemish  farmers. 
 
 The  following  is  the  estimate  furnished  by  Hassel  of  the  distri- 
 bution of  the  Austrian  territories. 
 
 Square  Jochs. 
 
 .Ploughland          -          -  19,500,000 
 
 Pasture          -          -          -  9,200,000 
 
 Meadows           -          -  12,500,000 
 
 Gardens        -          -          -  2,501,000 
 
 Wine-mountains      -  1,250,000 
 
 Water           -          -         -  1,500,000 
 
 Forests              -          -  28,407,500 
 
 78,858,500 
 
 The  square  joch  appears  to  be  a  very  little  more  than  two  acres- 
 
 Rivers.'\  After  the  Danube,  which  has  already  bee*i  described, 
 the  river  next  in  consequence  is  the  Teis,  which  rising  froni  the 
 Carpathian  mountains,  tOAvards  Buckovina,  and  bending  towards 
 the  Avest,  receives  many  tributary  streams  from  that  Alpine  chain  ; 
 and  afterwards  turning  to  the  S.  falls  into  the  Danube  not  far  to 
 the  W.  of  Belgrade,  after  a  course  of  about  420  miles.  At  Bel- 
 grade the  Danube  receives  the  Sau,  or  Save,  which  forms  a 
 boundary  between  Austria  and  Turkey,  rising  not  far  from  Idria 
 in  the  mountains  of  Carniola,  and  pursuing  a  course  nearly  eqvial 
 in  length  to  that  of  the  Ticss.  That  of  the  Drau,  or  Dravc,  ex- 
 tends to  about  350  miles,  from  its  source  in  the  eastern  mountains 
 of  Tyrol,  till  it  joins  the  Danube  below  Esseg, 
 
 The  Inn  rises  in  the  E.  of  Swisserland,  from  the  mountain  of 
 Maloggia  in  the  Grisons,  being  a  point  of  partition  dividing  the 
 waters  which  run  towards  the  Black  Sea,  from  those  which  flow 
 into  the  Adriatic*  This  powerful  river  is  more  gentle  near  its 
 source,  than  the  other  Alpine  streams,  but  soon  becomes  more 
 pi'ccipitous  ;  and  joins  the  Danube  at  Passau  with  a  weight  of  wa- 
 ter nearly  equal  to  that  stream,  after  a  course  of  about  250  miles. 
 It  is  now  only  a  frontier  of  Austria,  and  that  but  for  a  small  dis- 
 tance. 
 
 The  Raalj,  and  the  Leytha,  intermediate  streams  between  the 
 Drave  and  the  Inn,  only  desei've  a  brief  mention.  The  Mulda  is 
 a  considerable  river  which  rises  in  the  southern  mountains  of  Bo- 
 hemia, and  after  running  about  50  miles  S.  E.  bends  due  N.  and 
 joins  the  Elbe  near  Melnick,  after  passing  through  Prague.  The 
 Elbe  itself  rises  in  the  Sudetic  mountains  between  Bohemia  and 
 Silesia,  and  waters  a  great  part  of  the  former  kingdom  before  it 
 enters  Saxony,  bending  its  coiu'se  N.  W.  towards  the  German 
 ocean.  The  Morau,  whence  Moravia  derives  its  name,  also  rises 
 in  the  Sudetic  mountains  ;  and  passing  by  Olmutz  joins  the  Dan- 
 ube not  far  to  the  W.  of  Presburg. 
 
 Lakes.~\.  The  lakes  in  the  Austrian  dominions  are  numerous, 
 and  some  of  them  of  considerable   size.     Bohemia  presents  a  few 
 
 *  Coxc's  Swiss,  iii.  2S. 
 
AUSTRIA.  3.29 
 
 small  pieces  of  water  towards  its  southern  boundary  ;  tut  on  en- 
 tering Austria  proper,  the  lake  of  Traun,  the  Ebernsee,  and  oth- 
 ers, are  of  greater  extent.  Carinthia  contains  a  large  central 
 lake  not  far  from  Clagenfurt  ;  and  Carniola  another,  the  Cirknitz 
 See.  Hungary  contains  many  morasses,  and  lakes  ;  the  most  im-_ 
 portant  of  the  latter  being  that  of  Platte,  or  the  Flatten  See,  ex- 
 tending about  forty-five  British  miles  in  length,  by  eight  in 
 breadth,  and  abounding  with  fish.  The  Neusidler  lake,  about 
 thirty  miles  S.  E.  of  Vienna,  is  about  thirteen  miles  in  length  by 
 four'in  breadth.  It  is  almost  surrounded  by  fens  ;  and  is  chiefly 
 remarkable  for  being  in  the  vicinity  of  Eisenstadt,  the  princely 
 residence  of  the  family  of  Esterhazy.  On  the  E.  of  the  Tiess  is 
 the  lake  of  Palitzer,  about  eight  miles  in  length.  In  Transylva- 
 nia is  the  Tsege  To  :  and  many  small  lakes  are  situated  amidst 
 the  Carpathian  mountains. 
 
 Mountains.^  The  provinces  of  Carinthia  and  Carniola  present 
 many  considerable  chains  of  mountains  ;  as  that  of  Lobel  which 
 separates  these  countries  ;  and  the  Julian,  or  Carnic  Alps,  (noW 
 called  Birnbaumber  Wald)  which  divide  Carinthia  from  Italy. 
 
 Upper  Austria,  or  the  western  part  of  this  province,  contain?; 
 many  considerable  mountains,  the  highest  of  which  is  in  the  maps 
 called  Priel,  but  the  proper  name  is  Gressenberg.  Towai'ds  the 
 N.  Austria  is  divided  from  Bohemia  by  a  ridge  of  considerable  el- 
 evation, which  passes  to  the  N.  E.  of  Bavaria.  On  the  N.  W. 
 Bohemia  is  parted  from  Saxony  by  a  chain  of  metallic  mountains^ 
 called  the  Ertzgeberg,  a  word  that  implies  hills  containing  mines. 
 On  the  W.  of  the  river  Eger,  near  its  junction  with  the  Elbe, 
 stands  the  mountainous  group  of  Milessou,  supposed  to  be  the 
 highest  in  the  province.  On  the  N.  E.  the  Sudetic  chain,  which 
 branches  from  the  Carpathian,  divides  Bohemia  and  Moravia  from 
 Silesia,  and  the  Prussian  dominions. 
 
 The  Carpathian  mountains,  that  grand  and  extensive  chain, 
 which  bounds  Hungary  on  the  N.  and  E.  have  been  celebrated 
 from  all  antiquity.  By  the  Germans  they  are  styled  the  mountains, 
 of  Krapak,  probably  the  original  name,  which  was  softened  by  the 
 Roman  enunciation  :  the  Hungarians,  a  modern  people,  call  them 
 Tatra.  This  enormous  ridge  extends  in  a  semicircular  form 
 from  the  mountain  of  Javornik  S.  of  Silesia  towards  the  N.  W. 
 But  at  the  mountain  of  Trojaska,  the  most  northern  suncimit,  it 
 bends  to  the  S.  E.  to  the  confines  of  the  Buckovina,  where  it  sends 
 forth  two  branches,  one  to  the  E.  another  to  the  W.  of  Transyl- 
 vania ;  which  is  also  divided  from  Walachia  by  a  branch  running 
 S.  W.  and  N.  E.  The  whole  circuit  may  be  about  500  miles. 
 The  highest  summits  of  these  mountains,  according  to  Dr.  Town- 
 son,  do  not  exceed  8  or  9000  feet,  and  they  are  for  the  most  part 
 composed  of  granite  and  primitive  limestone. 
 
 J'orests.^  To  enumerate  the  forests  in  the  Austrian  dominions 
 would  be  a  task  at  once  laborious  and  fruitless.  Suflice  it  to  ob- 
 serve, that  numerous  and  extensive  forests  ax'ise  in  every  direc- 
 tion, particularly  along  the  Carpathian  mountains,  and  in  the 
 provinces  acquir^l  from  Poland.     Even  Bohemia  was  formerly 
 
 voL'ir.  42 
 
33.0  AUSTRIA. 
 
 remarkable  ibr  a  i'orest  of  great  extent,  a  remain  of  the  Het- 
 cijnia  Sylva  of  antiquity,  which  extended  from  the  Rhine  to  Sar- 
 matia,  from  Cologne  to  Poland.  The  Gabrata  Sylva  was  on  the 
 S.  W  of  the  same  country,  where  a  chain  of  hills  now  divides  it 
 from  Bavaria. 
 
 Botany.']  The  botany  of  Austria  proper  has  been  carefully  il- 
 lustrated by  Jacquin  ;  and  that  of  Carniola  by  Scopoli  and  Hac- 
 quct,  but  that  of  Hungary  is  still  very  impe'-fect ;  and  the  acqui- 
 sitions in  Poland  by  the  last  and  former  partitions  are  as  yet  in  ,a 
 manner  unknown  to  natural  history.  The  general  mild  tempera- 
 ture of  the  Austrian  states,  their  variety  of  soil  and  situation,  from 
 the  lakes  and  rich  levels  of  Hungary,  to  the  snowy  summits  of 
 Istria  and  Carinthia,  are  a  sufficient  evidence  of  the  richness  of 
 their  flora  ;  each  year  it  is  augmented  by  the  discovery  of  new 
 species,  and  will  doubtless  long  continue  to  be  increased  by  the 
 investigations  of  future  botanists. 
 
 Of  the  bulbous-rooted  plants,the  principal  are  the  tufted  and  clus- 
 tered hyacinth  ;  alium  victoriale,  one  of  the  most  stately  and  orna- 
 mental species  of  the  large  genus  gai-lic  ;  the  orange  lily  ;  martagon, 
 and  turncap  lily  ;  dog's  tooth  violet,  one  of  the  earliest  beauties 
 of  the  spring  ;  yellow  and  tawny  day  lily  ;  and  lastly,  though 
 perhaps  superior  in  beauty  to  any  of  the  preceding,  veratrum  al- 
 bum and  nigrum,  tvhite  and  black  hellebore. 
 
 Of  the  class  decandria,  are  the  alpine  and  maiden  pink  ;  fraxi- 
 nella  ;  and  two  species  of  rhododendron,  the  hairy  and  ferrugi- 
 nous. The  sides  of  the  mountains  from  the  Carpathian  chain  to 
 the  heights  of  Istria  are  adorned  by  the  soldanella  alpina  and  are- 
 tia  alpina,  the  former  with  purple,  the  latter  with  white  and  flesh- 
 Colored  blossoms.  Among  the  numerous  species  of  flax,  the  fol- 
 lowing very  elegant  ones  are  natives  of  Austria  :  hairy  flax  ;  yel- 
 low flowered  f.  ;  and  Austrian  f.  ;  with  large  deep-blue  blossoms  ; 
 the  stemless  gentian,  and  the  Pannonian  gentian,  bearing  large 
 purple  blossoms. 
 
 Among  the  native  plants  of  the  Austrian  dominions,  may  be  dis- 
 tinguished tv/o  species  of  Adonis  or  pheasant's  eye  ;  the  alpine 
 poppy,  with  snow-white  flowers  ;  mountain  anemone  ,  the  Christ- 
 mas rose  ;  and  potentilla  nitida  :  the  sacred  lotus  of  Egypt  and 
 India  has  also  of  late  been  found  in  some  lakes  in  Hungary. 
 
 The  flowering  shrubs  are,  the  laburnum,  the  flesh-colored  heath, 
 lilac,  and  German  tamarisk.  The  common  fruit-trees  of  Europe 
 are  largely  cultivated  in  the  provinces  of  Austria,  but  their  list  of 
 native  fruits  is  very  scanty.  The  forest  trees  are,  the  elm  ;  the 
 wych  elm  ;  lime-tree  :  birch  and  alder  ;  common  and  prickly- 
 cupped  oak  ;  sumach  ;  walnut  ;  chesnut  and  beech  ;  hornbeam  ; 
 black  and  white  poplar  and  aspen  ;  sycamore  and  maple  ;  the 
 ash,  the  pine,  the  fir,  the  yew-leaved  fir,  and  the  larch. 
 
 Zoology i^\  The  domestic  animals  in  the  Austrian  dominions  are 
 commonly  excellent,  particularly  the  cattle.  Many  of  the  native 
 horses  run  wild,  and  arc  sold  in  great  numbers  at  the  fairs,  before 
 they  have  suftered  any  subjection.  The  breed  of  cattle  is  mostly 
 ot  a  singular  color,  a  slaty  blue  ;  and  the  Hungarian   sheep    re- 
 
AUSTRIA.  331 
 
 bemble  the  Walachiaii  in  tlicir  long  spiral  horns,  and   pendant 
 hairy  fleece. 
 
 The  Urus  or  Bison,  is  said  lo  be  found  in  the  Carpathian  for- 
 ests, as  Avell  as  in  those  of  Lithuania  and  Caucasus.  Among  the 
 wild  quadrupeds,  may  also  be  named  the  bear,  the  boar,  the  wolf, 
 the  chamois,  the  marmot,  and  the  beaver.  The  Danube  boasts  of 
 some  fishes  seldom  found  in  other  rivers,  among  which  is  a  small 
 and  delicate  sort  of  salmon. 
 
 There  is  scarcely  a  province  of  this  extensive  territory,  from 
 the  frontiers  of  Bavaria  to  those  of  Tui'key,  which  cannot  boast  of 
 advantages  in  the  mineral  kingdom  ;  and  as  it  were  by  a  destiny 
 attached  to  the  house  of  Austria,  even  the  acquisitions  in  Poland 
 contain  one  of  the  most  i-emarkable  mines  in  Europe,  the  saline 
 excavations  of  Wielitska.  The  mines  of  Bohemia  have  been  cel^ 
 ebrated  from  ancient  times.*  Silver  is  found  at  Kuttenberg,  and 
 at  Joachinsthal,  on  the  western  frontier  towards  Saxony,  probably 
 a  continuation  of  the  veins  of  that  country:  and  gold  has  been 
 discovered  at  Keonstock.  One  of  the  most  singular  products  of 
 this  province  is  tin,  whicli  is  found  at  Zinwald  (that  is  the  tin  for- 
 est,) and  other  western  districts  of  Bohemia  ;  where  is  also  found, 
 at  Dreyhacken,  a  mine  gf  very  pure  copper.  Lead  occurs  at 
 Bleystadt,  in  the  same  quarter.  The  garnets  of  Bohemia  are 
 among  the  most  beautiful  of  the  kind.  They  are  chiefly  found  in 
 clay,  mingled  with  mica,  at  Meronitz  in  the  mountain  of  Stiefel- 
 berg,  whence  they  are  carried  to  Bilen.f  The  women  wash  the 
 clay  in  which  the  garnets  are  found  ;  after  which  they  are  sifted 
 and  arranged  according  to  size  ;  and  sold  by  the  pound  weight 
 from  about  three  to  ten  shillings.  Many  workmen  are  occupied 
 in  cutting  and  piercing  them,  for  necklaces,  and  other  ornaments  : 
 they  are  polished  in  facets,  with  emery  on  a  piece  of  freestcce, 
 and  pierced  with  a  small  diamond.  This  branch  of  commerce  is 
 of  great  antiquity  at  Carlsbad,  and  at  Walkirk  in  Suabia,  where 
 twenty-eight  mills  are  occupied  in  this  article  only. 
 
 The  fertile  archduchy  of  Austria  displays  few  minerals,  though 
 there  be  mines  of  gold  near  the  abbey  Goectwrg,  and  of  alum  near 
 Krems  :  saltpetre  is  however  prepared  in  abundance  ;  and  at  a 
 little  distance  from  St.  Annaberg,  near  the  frontiers  of  Stiria,  a 
 rich  mine  of  silver  was  opened  in  1754.  The  southern  provinceii 
 of  Stiria,  Carinthia,  and  Carniola,  afford  many  important  minerals. 
 The  iron  of  Stiria  supplies  the  finest  steel,  and  great  quantities  are 
 imported  into  England  :  there  are  considerable  lead  mines  near 
 Pegau  on  the  river  Mohr,  yielding  about  500  tons  yearly.  Stiria 
 also  affords  coal  at  different  places  ;  not  to  mention  minerals  of 
 mere  beauty  or  curiosity,  among  which  may  perhaps  be  named 
 the  singular  blue  granite,  which  is  fouod  near  Villach,  in  Carin- 
 thia. 
 
 On  the  E.  of  Stiria  extends  the  duchy  of  Carinthia,  also  yield- 
 ing excellent  iron,  the  mines  of  Friesach  on  the  N.  being  particu- 
 larly famous.     In  the  neighborhood  of  Villach,  at  Bleyberg,  are 
 
 •  Biischipg,  vol.  vi.  ^26.    Frepqji  edit.  Svo.         f  Joarn.  des  Min.  No.  iv.  3C". 
 
■332  AUSTRIA. 
 
 found  rich  lead  mines  ;  and  the  same  place  supplies  what  is  called 
 fire-marble  or  lumachelli. 
 
 Carniola,  or  Krain,  abounds  with  immense  caves,  and  other  nat- 
 ural curiosities  :  but  except  a  few  iron  works,  the  mineralogy  is 
 little  remarkable.  On  the  west,  towards  the  county  of  Gorz, 
 which  produces  excellent  wines,  lies  the  Ban  of  Idria,  a  district 
 immediately  subject  to  the  chamber  of  inner  Austria  at  Gratz. 
 The  quicksilver  mines  of  Idria  arc  celebrated  in  natural  history, 
 poetry,  and  romance.  They  were  discovered  in  the  year  1499  ; 
 and  the  hill  of  Vogelberg  has  annually  yielded  more  than  300,000 
 pound  weight  of  mercury.  The  common  ore  is  cinabar  ;  but 
 sometimes  pure  quicksilver  runs  through  the  crevices. 
 
 But  the  principal  mines  in  the  Austrian  dominions  are  situated 
 in  the  eastern  provinces  of  Hungary  and  Transylvania.  About 
 40  miles  to  the  S.  of  the  Carpathian  hills  are  the  gold  mines  of 
 Cremnitz  ;  and  20  English  miles  further  to  the  S.  the  silver  mines 
 of  Shemnitz  :  cities  which  have  arisen  solely  from  these  labors, 
 and  thence  called  mining  towns.  Shemnitz  is  esteemed  the  prin- 
 cipal. The  academy  here  instituted  for  the  study  of  mineralogy 
 is  highly  respectable,  and  only  rivalled  by  that  of  Freyberg  in  Sax- 
 ony. Hungary  contains  mines  of  copper  at  Schmclnitz  and  Her- 
 rengrund,  of  very  rich  antimony  at  Rosenau  ;  and  in  different 
 parts,  of  ooal,  salt,  and  alum.  Saltpetre  is  also  produced  in  con- 
 siderable quantities  :  and  natron  or  soda  is  found  in  a  lake  near 
 Kismaria,  towards  the  frontier  of  Transylvania.*  Butaminei'al 
 peculiar  to  Hungary,  and  as  yet  discovered  in  no  other  region  of 
 tlic  globe,  is  the  opal,  a  gem  preferred  to  all  others  by  the  oi-ien- 
 tal  nations.  The  opal  mines  are  situated  at  Czerweniza,  a  short 
 day's  journey  to  the  N.  of  Kaschaw,  and  nearly  under  the  same 
 latitude  with  Cremnitz.  The  hill  in  which  they  are  found  con- 
 sists of  decomposed  porphyry  ;  and  they  only  occur  at  the  dis- 
 tance of  a  few  fathoms  from  the  surface,  of  various  qualities,  from 
 the  opake  white,  or  semi-opal,  which  is  also  discovered  in  Corn- 
 wall, to  that  utmost  efTulgence  of  iridescent  colors  which  distin- 
 guishes this  noble  gem. 
 
 The  mines  of  Transylvania  and  the  Bannat  are  also  numerous 
 and  valuable.  Those  of  Najiag,  twelve  British  miles  to  the  N.  E. 
 of  Deva,  produce  the  grey  gold  ore.  They  are  the  richest  in 
 Transylvania.  At  Ofenbanya,  about  25  British  miles  to  the  N.  of 
 Karlsburg  is  found  the  white  gold  ore,  which  also  occurs  in  the 
 hills  of  Fatzebay,  in  the  same  quarter.  The  country  towards  the 
 W.  of  Karlsburg  presents  numerous  gold  mines  near  Zalathna  : 
 and  in  the  N.  of  this  province  are  those  of  Kapnick,  Felsobanya, 
 and  others.  The  chief  mining  tov/n  of  the  Bannat  is  Orawiza,  to- 
 wards the  S.  of  which  are  found  mines  of  copper  ;  and  gold  and 
 silver  at  Dognaska  to  the  N. 
 
 The  salt  mines  acquired  from  Poland  alone  remain  to  be  de- 
 scribed. They  are  situated,  as  already  mentioned,  at  Wielitska, 
 eight  miles  to  the  S.  of  Cracow,  being  excavated  at  the   northern 
 
 *  Journ.  des  Miu.  No.  2, 
 
SWITZERLAND.  5*33 
 
 extremity  of  a  branch  of  the  Carpathian  mountains.  The  descent 
 is  by  pits  of  great  depths  ;  and  the  galleries  and  chambers  are  of 
 immense  size,  commonly  supported  by  timber,  or  by  vast  pillars 
 of  salt,  out  of  which  material  even  subterraneous  chapels  ai'e  form- 
 ed ;  but  travellers  have  idly  exaggerated  the  splendor  and  extent 
 of  the  saline  apartments.*  The  salt  is  of  an  iron  grey  color, 
 sometimes  intermingled  with  white  cubes ;  and  sometimes  large 
 blocks  of  salt  appear  imbedded  in  marl.f  The  purest  sort  is 
 found  at  the  bottom  of  the  mine,  and  is  sparry.  The  length  of 
 the  mine  is  6,697  feet,  the  breadth  1,115,  and  the  depth  743.  It 
 has  been  worked  above  600  years,  and  is  apparently  inexhaustible. 
 Before  the  partition  it  yielded  annually  ,C97,222  sterling.  But  it 
 has  been  less  productive  since. 
 
 Mineral  Waters.~\  The  mineral  waters  in  the  Austrian  domin- 
 ions are  very  numerous,  as  is  to  be  expected  in  a  country  so 
 mountainous,  with  the  exception  of  the  great  plain  in  the  west  of 
 Hungary,  extending  more  than  250  miles  in  every  direction.  The 
 chief  are  those  of  Baden,  in  Austria  ;  those  of  Carlsbad,  Toplitzi 
 Agra,  and  Desny,  in  Bohemia  ;  and  those  of  Rank,  Bestfeld, 
 Gran,  Buda,  and  Groswardin,  in  Hungary.  These  last  are  fre- 
 quented for  the  hot-baths  by  the  neighboring  Walachians. 
 
 JVatural  Curio  sit  is  s.~\  Tlie  glaciers  and  peaks  of  the  Brenner, 
 the  calcareous  hills  of  Carinthia  and  Carniola,  may  be  ranked 
 among  the  most  prominent  curiosities.  Near  Trautenau,  in  Bohe- 
 mia, is  what  may  be  called  a  forest  of  stones,  from  60  to  150  feet 
 high  ;  they  are  by  some  thought  to  be  the  skeleton  of  a  hill. 
 
 The  lake  Cirkutz,  or  the  Zirchrictzer  See,  8  miles  long  and  4 
 broad,  in  the  month  of  June,  descends  through  many  apertures 
 into  the  ground  ;  in  September  it  rises  again,  after  yielding  rich 
 pasturage  through  the  summer.  In  the  winter  it  abounds  with 
 lish.  The  Lesero,  m  the  isle  of  Cherso,  diffuses  its  waters  only 
 every  fifth  year. 
 
 SWITZERLAND. 
 
 CHAPTER  I. 
 
 HISTORICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 ,JJAMES,  EXTENT,  BOUNDARIES,  DIVISIONS,  ORIGINAL  POPULATION,, 
 HISTORICAL  EPOCHS,  ANTIQUITIES,  RELIGION,  GOVERNMENT, 
 POPULATION,  ARMY,  REVENUE,  MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS,  LAN- 
 GUAGE, LITERATURE,  EDUCATION,  CITIES  AND  TOWNS. 
 
 JVhmes.]  WE  have  already  remarked,  that  this  country- 
 was  a  part  of  Gallia  Belgica.  The  principal  tribe,  which  possess- 
 ed it  in  the  time  of  the  Romans,  was  the  Helvetii,  after  whom  it 
 was  also  called  Helvetia.     The  name  Switzerland  was  not  given 
 
 *  Coxe's  Pol.  i.  200.  |  Townson,  388'. 
 
r^3A  SWITZERLAND. 
 
 to  it  till  early  iii  the  14th  century.  The  name  is  derived  from  one 
 of  the  cantons,  called  Schwitz,  from  the  circumstance,  that,  within 
 the  limits  of  that  canton,  the  first  league  was  formed  against  the 
 tyranny  of  Austria. 
 
 Jixte?^.']  The  length  of  Switzerland  from  E.  to  W.  is  about 
 200  miles  ;  its  breadth  from  N.  to  S.  about  1 30.  The  contents,  in 
 square  miles,  are,  according  to  Hassel,  15,755. 
 
 Bounda7-ies.']  Bounded  N.  W.  by  France ;  N.  by  the  Rhine 
 and  the  lake  of  Constance,  which  separate  it  from  the  grand  duchy 
 of  Cleves,  and  the  kingdom  of  Bavaria,  both  in  Germany  ;  E.  by 
 the  Tyrol,  which  is  a  part  of  Bavaria,  by  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  and 
 by  Piedmont ;   S.  W.  by  Savoy. 
 
 Di~jisions.~\  Switzerland  formerly  consisted  of  1 3  cantons,  with 
 their  allies  and  subjects.  Several  of  the  allied  and  subjected 
 states  have  been  annexed  to  France  and  Italy.  The  remainder 
 have  been  formed  into  new  cantons.  The  old  13  cantons  retain 
 their  former  names  and  extent,  and  are  the  first  in  the  following 
 table,  taRen  from  Hassel,  and  exhibiting  the  state  of  the  country  in 
 1809.  1  he  population  is  partly  from  from  a  census,  and  partly 
 from  his  estimate. 
 
 Cantons. 
 
 Inhabitants. 
 
 ( 
 
 Cantons.                        Inhabitants, 
 
 1. 
 
 C  Bern 
 I  Aargau* 
 
 232,508 
 
 11. 
 
 Zug                             14,735 
 
 2. 
 
 134,444 
 
 12. 
 
 Switz                        31,400 
 
 3. 
 
 Basil 
 
 42,193 
 
 13. 
 
 Uri                           17,500 
 
 4. 
 
 Schaffhauscn 
 
 27,590 
 
 14. 
 
 Underwald            21,200 
 
 5. 
 
 Zurich 
 
 182,123 
 
 15. 
 
 Grison's  Country  74,000 
 
 6. 
 
 Appenzcl 
 
 55,000 
 
 16. 
 
 St.  Gall                 162,000 
 
 7. 
 
 Giarus 
 
 19,280 
 
 17. 
 
 Tcssinot                161,000 
 
 8. 
 
 Friburg 
 
 89,610 
 
 18. 
 
 Thurgaul               74,000 
 
 9. 
 
 Lucern 
 
 110,000 
 
 19. 
 
 Pays  de  Vaud§     145,215 
 
 iO. 
 
 Soleui'C 
 
 43,610 
 
 The  following  countries  lately  belonged,  or  were  allied,  to  Swit- 
 zerland ;  Geneva,  now  a  part  of  France  ;  Neufchatel,  taken  from 
 Prussia  by  the  French,  v\ovr  a  dependency  of  France  ;  the  Valte- 
 line,  annexed  to  the  kingdom  of  Italy  ;  and  the  Valais,  still  a  dis- 
 tinct republic. 
 
 The  situation  of  these  various  districts  can  best  be  learned 
 from  the  map. 
 
 Original  Populction.~\  The  Helvetil,  the  first  occupants  of  the 
 country  with  whose  name  we  are  acquainted,  were  undoubtedly 
 a  Gothic  tribe  ;  and  there  is  little  reason  to  believe  that  the  Celts, 
 in  their  progress  westward,  ever  took  Switzerland  in  their  way. 
 
 Historical  Efiochs.~\  The  chief  historical  epochs  may  be  ar- 
 ranged in  the  following  order : 
 
 1.  The  wars  Avith  the  Romans;  the  subjugation  of  the  Helvetii 
 and  RhjEti,  and  the  subsequent  events  till  the  decline  of  the  Romany 
 empire  in  the  west. 
 
 *  Aargau  is  a  part  of  the  old  canton  of  Berne. 
 f  Tessino,  formerly  the  Italian  Bailliages, 
 t"  Thurgau  or  Twrgoria. 
 §  Pays  de  \'aud,  or  Waadt. 
 
SWITZERLAND.  S3a 
 
 2.  The  irruption  of  the  Alemanni  in  the  beginning  of  the  4th 
 century,  who  are  by  some  supposed  to  have  extirpated  the  ancient 
 Helvetians. 
 
 3.  The  subjugation  of  the  western  part  of  Switzerland  as  far  as 
 the  river  Reuss  by  the  Franks,  who  annexed  that  portion  to  Bur- 
 gundy. The  Grisons  on  the  e?.st  were  subject  to  Theodoric,  and 
 other  kings  of  Italy. 
 
 4.  The  conversion  of  the  country  to  Christianity  by  the  Irish 
 monks,  Columbanus,  Gallus,  and  others,  in  the  beginning  of  the 
 7th  century. 
 
 5.  The  invasion  of  Alemannia  by  the  Huns*  in  the  year  909  j 
 and  the  subsequent  contests  with  these  barbarians  till  the  middle 
 of  that  century. 
 
 6.  About  the  year  1030  the  provinces  which  now  constitute 
 Switzerland  began  to  be  regarded  as  a  part  of  the  empire  of  Ger- 
 many ;  and  in  the  course  of  two  centuries  they  gradually  became 
 subject  to  the  house  of  Hapsburg. 
 
 7.  The  commencement  of  the  Swiss  emancipation,  A.  D.  1307; 
 and  the  subsequent  struggles  with  the  house  of  Austria. 
 
 8.  The  gradual  increase  of  the  confederacy,  the  Burgundian 
 and  Swabian  wars  :  and  the  contests  with  the  French  in  lialy. 
 
 9.  The  history  of  the  reformation  in  Switzerland. 
 
 '    10.  The  insurrection  of  the  peasants  of  Bern,  in  the  middle  of 
 the  17th  century. 
 
 II.  The  dissolution  of  the  confederacy  by  the  French  invasion, 
 A.  D.  1798. 
 
 .4ntiquities.~\  The  ancient  monuments  of  Sv.itzerland  are  not 
 numerous,  consisting  chiefly  of  a  few  remains  of  the  Romans,  at 
 Aventicum  and  Vindernissa.  Some  also  occur  at  Ebrodunum,or 
 Yverdun,  and  at  Baden,  the  ancient  Thermae  Helvetica;.  Of  the 
 middle  ages  are  many  castles,  churches,  and  monasteries  ;  the 
 most  noble  among  the  lattei  being  the  abbey  of  St.  Gal,  the  libra- 
 ry of  which  supplied  the  manuscripts  of  three  or  four  classical  au- 
 thors, no  where  else  to  be  found.  Some  interesting  monuments 
 relate  to  the  emancipation  of  the  country,  and  have  contributed 
 to  extend  the  spirit  of  freedom  from  generation  to  generation. 
 
 Religion.']  The  inhabitants  compose  but  two  sects,  Calvinists 
 and  Catholics.  The  former  are  the  most  numerous.  The  pro- 
 portion is  more  than  9  to  7.  Berne,  including  Aargau,  Basil, 
 Schaff" hausen,  Zurich,  the  Pays  de  Vaud,  the  country  of  the  Gri- 
 sons, three  fourths  of  Glams,  and  two  thirds  of  Appenzel  and 
 Thurgau,  are  Calvinistic  ;  the  remainder  are  Catholic.  The  Cal- 
 vinistic  clergy  were  all  absolutely  on  a  level.  The  Catholics 
 were  subjected  to  one  archbishop,  and  six  bishops. 
 
 Governtnent.~\  Each  canton  was  formerly  an  independent  re-- 
 public,  governed  by  its  own  laws,  and  appointing  its  own  magis- 
 trates. The  form  of  government  in  the  cantons  was  various. 
 Berne,  Friburg,  Lucerne,  Zurich,  Soleure,  and  Schaff  hausen  had 
 
 *  The  Ugurs,  so  called  by  fhe  writers  of  the  tim-p.     The>'  •nere  a  brnne.h  of  xhn 
 V()gu^|(,  s  Fiunitih  nice. 
 
.'po  SWITZERLAND. 
 
 more  of  the  aristocratical  form,  while  the  others  incUneci  rather  to 
 a  democracy.  A  general  diet  composed  of  two  members  from 
 each  canton,  and  three  from  the  various  dependencies,  superin- 
 tended the  common  interests  of  the  country.  In  this  each  canton 
 •had  one  vote,  and  every  question  was  decided  by  the  majority. 
 Under  this  government  the  Swiss  had  enjoyed,  for  a  succession 
 of  ages,  more  civil  and  political  liberty,  than  any  nation  in  Europe. 
 No  nation  was  as  virtuous  ;  none  was  as  happy.  The  French 
 ■were  led  thither  by  no  provocation  but  innocence,  by  no  motive 
 but  plunder ;  and  when  they  came,  the  happiness,  the  virtue,  the 
 liberty,  and  the  glory  of  the  Swiss  were  all  buried  in  one  common 
 grave. 
 
 A  new  constitution  was  established  for  them  by  the  first  Con- 
 sul, in  1802.  The  government  consists  of  two  landammans,  a 
 senate,  and  a  diet.  The  diet,  composed  of  representatives  from 
 the  cantons,  meets  annually  ;  and,  at  the  proposition  of  the  senate, 
 declares  war  and  makes  peace,  ratifies  treaties,  and  adopts,  or 
 rejects,  such  laws,  as  less  than  two  thirds  of  the  cantons  have  ap- 
 proved. The  senate  consists  of  2  landammans,  2  stadtholders, 
 and  26  councillors.  It  names  all  public  functionaries.  A  depu- 
 tation Of  the  senate  administers  the  government  during  a  recess 
 of  that  body. 
 
 This  government  was  forced  upon  the  inhabitants  at  the  point 
 cf  the  bayonet. 
 
 Population?^  The  amount  of  the  various  sums  in  the  table  is 
 1,635,408.     Hassel's  general  estimate  is  1,638,000. 
 
 ArTiiy^\  The  military  force,  in  1809,  was  15,023  men.  There 
 were  then  from  20  to  30,000  Swiss  soldiers  in  foreign  countries. 
 France  alone  had  15,000  ;  the  rest  were  in  England,  Spain,  and 
 Holland. 
 
 Re-v€nucr\^  The  revenue  in  1809,  was  stated  by  Hassel  at 
 1,000,000  German  guilders,  or  555,500  dollars.  Formerly  it  was 
 computed  at  more  than  a  million  sterling.  Bern  is  still  the  rich- 
 est of  the  cantons,  and  is  said  to  have  large  sums  in  foreign  funds. 
 
 Manners  nud  Cusfo?ns.l^  The  houses  of  the  Swiss  are  of  wood, 
 constructed  in  the  most  simple  form,  with  staircases  on  the  out- 
 side. The  dress  of  the  inhabitants  in  most  of  the  cantons,  was 
 regulated  by  sumptuary  laws.  In  the  rest,  the  changes  of  fash- 
 ions were  little  regarded.  The  cleanliness  of  the  houses,  and  of 
 the  people,  v.  as  striking.  Even  the  cottages  conveyed  a  lively 
 idea  of  neatness  and  simplicity,  and  impressed  a  pleasing  convic- 
 tion of  the  peasant's  happhiess.  Each  had  its  little  territory  dis- 
 tributed into  a  garden,  afield,  a  meadow,  and  a  pasture,  frequently 
 skirted  with  trees,  and  well  supplied  with  water.  The  diver- 
 sions of  the  inhabitants  were  chiefly  of  the  active  and  warlike 
 kind,  such  as  running,  wrestling,  and  shooting  with  the  bow  and 
 musquet.  The  magistrates  were  exemplary  in  the  punishment, 
 and  prevention  of  petty  offences,  than  which  no  surer  method  can 
 be  taken  to  preserve  the  morals  of  the  community.  The  Swiss 
 •were  intensely  attached  to  their  native  country.  The  slightest 
 circumstances  reminded  the  absent  soldier  of  the  scenes  of  his  in- 
 
SWITZERLAND.  337 
 
 fancy,-  and  dl'e^v  him  back  by  an  irresistiblff"  attraction  to  the 
 streams  and  the  vallies,  the  mountains  and  ihe  forests,  among 
 which  he  passed  the  happiest  season  of  life. 
 
 Language,~\  The  French  is  spoken  in  the  Pays  de  Vaud.  Tlie 
 Ianguae;e  c?.lled  the  Vaudois  appears  to  have  been  confined  to  the 
 vallies  of  Piedmont. 
 
 Lite7'ature.'\  The  early  monuments  of  Swiss  literature  consist, 
 as  usual,  of  chronicles  and  lives  of  saints.  Since  the  restoration 
 of  letters,  and  the  reformation  of  religion,  Switzerland  boasts  of 
 many  eminent  names,  as  the  reformer  Ulric  Zwingli,  born  at 
 Wildhausen  ;  Herbsk,  who  called  himself  Oporinus,  the  printer  ; 
 Conrad  Gesner,  born  at  Zurich  in  1516,  who  published  an  univer- 
 sal library,  and  some  treatises  on  natural  history  ;  and  that  noted 
 quack  Paracelsus.  Among  the  writers  of  the  last  century  may  be 
 named  Bernoulli,  the  mathematician,  a  native  of  Basil ;  Scheuch- 
 zer,  the  natural  historian  ;  Haller  ;  John  Gesner,  the  natural  phi- 
 losopher ;  Solomon  Gesner,  the  poet  ;  Bonnet,  Hirzel,  and  Zim- 
 merman, physicians  ;  Rousseau,  and  Necker,  natives  of  Geneva  ; 
 Lavater,  the  physiognomist ;  Euler,  the  mathematician  ;  and  ma- 
 ny others. 
 
 Education.~^  Switzerland  resembled  Connecticut  in  the  gen- 
 eral diffusion  of  knowledge.  The  education  of  the  common  school 
 was  universally  shared  by  the  inhabitants.  Religious  instruction 
 was  communicated  successfully  every  sabbath,  and  the  inhabitants 
 generally  had  an  important  acquaintance  v.'ith  the  doctrines  and 
 the  duties  of  Christianity.  There  was  an  tmiversity  of  some  rep- 
 utation at  Basil,  founded  in  1469,  and  colleges  at  Berne,  Zurich, 
 and  Lucerne. 
 
 Cilies  and  Toivns.']  Basil,  or  Basle,  formerly  Basilea,  is  built 
 on  the  Rhine,  which  is  here  broad,  deep,  and  rapid,  very  near  its 
 great  northern  bend.  The  greater  part  of  the  town  lies  south  of  the 
 rivei'.  A  bridge  connects  it  with  the  other  part.  Its  extent  is 
 capable  of  containing  100,000  inhabitants,  and  it  is  said  to  have 
 220  streets  and  6  market  places.  The  environs  consist  of  fine 
 level  fields  and  meadows.  Here  were  extensive  manufactures  of 
 ribbands  and  cottons,  and  the  trade  of  the  place  was  considerable. 
 The  number  of  inhabitants  is  15,060.  The  cathedral  is  a  noble 
 Gothic  building,  containing  the  marble  tomb  of  Erasmus.  There 
 are  6  parochial  churches,  and  various  other  public  buildings. 
 Berne  stands  on  a  peninsula  formed  by  the  Aar,  the  neck  of  which 
 is  fortified.  The  streets  are  wide,  and  the  houses  mostly  of  stone. 
 The  great  church  is  a  most  beautiful  piece  of  architecture.  The 
 city  is  of  singular  neatness,  and  beauty,  and  the  environs  are  rich 
 and  fertile,  presenting  a  prospect  of  hills,  lawns,  wood,  and  water, 
 bounded  at  a  distance  by  the  long  chain  of  the  superior  Alps.  In- 
 habitants 13,339. 
 
 Zurich,  Tigiiruin,  stands  at  the  mouth  of  the  Lake  of  Zurich, 
 where  its  waters  are  discharged  northwards,  through  the  Lam- 
 mat  towards  the  Rhine.  Here  were  manufactures  of  linens,  cot- 
 tons, muslins  and  silk  handkerchiefs.  Inhabitants,  in  ISOr, 
 10,353. 
 
 VOL.  Hi  43 
 
53S  SWITZERLAND. 
 
 Lausanne,  in  the  Pays  de  Vaud,  is  prettily  built  en  three  small 
 hills,  about  half  a  league  from  Geneva  Lake.  Houses,  in  1798, 
 1,300  ;  inhabitants  9,965. 
 
 Freiburg  has  800  houses,  and  6,094  inhabitants. 
 
 Schaffhausen,  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Rhine,  near  a  celebrated 
 cataract,  has  81 1  houses,  and  7000  inhabitants.  It  had  4  church- 
 es, and  a  college  with  8  professors. 
 
 St.  Gall,  a  little  S.  W.  of  the  Lake  of  Constance,  has,  according 
 to  the  Helvetic  almanac  of  1808,  962  houses,  and  9000  inhabitants. 
 Here  were  extensive  linen  manufactures. 
 
 CHAPTER  II. 
 NATURAL  GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 CLIMATE,  FACE  OF  THE  COUNTRY,  SOIL  AND  AGRICULTURE,  RIV- 
 ERS, LAKES,  MOUNTAINS,  BOTANY,  ZOOLOGY,  MINERALOGY,  MIN- 
 ERAL WATERS,  NATURAL  CURIOSITIES. 
 
 Climate.']  MANY  of  the  mountains  are  covered  with 
 perennial  snows,  and  the  frosts  of  Avinter  are  often  very  severe. 
 But  the  summer  has  sufficient  heat  to  mature  the  grape,  though 
 the  \ine  harvest  is  I'endered  precarious  by  the  occasional  cold 
 ■winds  from  the  Alps,  Even  the  corn  harvest  is  so  often  injured 
 by  rains  and  tempests,  that  public  granaries  were  every  where 
 erected  to  supply  the  failure  of  crops.  The  vallies  are  generally 
 warm,  and  such  is  the  diversity  of  seasons  in  different  parts,  that 
 the  inhabitants  are  often  reaping  on  one  side  of  the  mountains 
 when  they  are  sowing  on  the  other. 
 
 I^'ace  of  the  Country.]  Switzerland  is  generally  mountainous, 
 hut  less  so  in  the  north,  than  in  the  south.  Basil,  Berne,  Zurich, 
 Schaffhausen,  Soleurc,  Friburg',  and  Thurgau,  are  the  most  level ; 
 but  even  here  are  eminences  from  2000  to  2500  feet  above  the 
 feea.  Some  of  the  mountains  are  barren,  inaccessible  rocks,  often 
 overspread  with  immense  fields  of  ice  ;  others  are  ci'owned  Avith 
 groves  and  forests,  and  ornamented  with  vineyards,  fields,  and 
 meadows  ;  while  others  are  every  where  studded  with  cottages 
 and  hamlets. 
 
 Soil  and  ..dgriculture.]  The  vallies  and  plains,  though  generally 
 stony,  are  fertile.  The  sides  of  the  hills,  also,  with  a  vigorous  cul- 
 tivation, repay  the  labor  of  the  husbandman,  and  perhaps  in  no 
 country^  except  Holland,  docs  the  eye  meet  with  more  numei'- 
 ous  proofs  'of  persevering  industry.  Sufficient  grain  is  commonly 
 raised  for  home  consumption.  Barley  is  cultivated  on  the  moun- 
 tain tops  ;  oats,  rye,  and  spelt,  require  successively  a  warmer  sit- 
 uation. Flax  and  hemp  are  cultivated  to  a  considerable  extent ; 
 and  tobacco  has  lately  been  introduced.  The  vine  is  cultivated 
 with  most  success  in  Berne,  Schaffhausen,  and  the  Pays  de  Vaud. 
 The  attention  of  the  Swiss  farmer  is,  however,  cliicfly  devoted  to 
 his  cattle,  and  most  of  the  fertile  land  is  used  for  meadow  and 
 j)asturc.     Apples,  pears,  plums,  cherries,  and  nuts,  arc  found  ev- 
 
SWITZERLAND.  539 
 
 eiy  where  in  abundance  ;  and,  in  the  warmer  districts,  peaches,, 
 almonds,  figs,  and  pomegranates. 
 
 Rive7-s.^  The  Rhine  and  the  Rhone  have  already  been  de- 
 scribed. 
 
 The  Aar  has  its  source  in  Mount  Grimsel,  in  the  southern  part 
 of  the  canton  of  Berne,  and  pursuing  a  winding  course  towards 
 the  N.  W.  passes  through  the  Lake  of  Thim,  to  Aarberg.  Here 
 it  turns  to  the  N.  E.  and  receiving  the  waters  of  the  Lake  of  Neuf- 
 chatel,  and  being  joined  by  the  Reuss  and  the  Limmat,  falls  into 
 the  Rhine,  opposite  Waldshut,  after  a  course  of  150  British  miles. 
 The  Reuss  issues  from  Mount  St.  Gothard,  and  passing  through 
 the  Lake  of  Lucern  runs  N.  to^the  Aar,  a  course  of  80  miles.  The 
 Limmat,  running  20  miles,  enters  the  Lake  of  Zurich  ;  from  which 
 it  runs  about  the  same  distance,  and  joins  the  Aaar,  a  little  below 
 the  Reuss. 
 
 The  Thur  runs  westward,  and  joins  the  Rhine  below  SchafF- 
 hausen.     The  Tessino  falls  into  the  Lake  of  Maggiore. 
 
 LaA-es"]  The  lakes  of  Switzerland  are  numerous  and  interest- 
 ing. The  most  considerable  are  those  of  Constance  on  the  N.  E. 
 and  Geneva  on  the  S.  W.  The  former  is  about  45  miles  in  length, 
 and  in  some  places  1 5  in  breadth.  This  beautiful  expanse  of  wa- 
 ter is  by  the  Germans  also  styled  the  Boden  Zee.  Like  all  the 
 other  lakes  of  Switzerland,  it  is  deeper  in  the  summer  than  in  the 
 winter,  owing  to  the  melting  of  the  snows,  and  is  remarkable  for 
 producing  large  red  trout. 
 
 The  lake  of  Geneva  extends  in  the  form  of  a  crescent,  about  40 
 amiles  in  length,  and  9  at  its  greatest  breadth.  The  beauties  of 
 this  lake  have  been  celebrated  by  Rousseau  ;  but  would  be  con- 
 siderably increased  if  it  were  sprinkled  with  islands. 
 
 Only  a  part  of  the  lake  Maggiore,  or  that  of  Locarno,  is  in  Swit- 
 zerland ;  but  the  lake  of  Lugano  forms  an  extensive  body  of  water 
 in  that  region.  The  lakes  of  Ncufchatel  and  Zurich  are  each 
 about  twenty-five  miles  in  length,  by  about  four  in  breadth.  That 
 of  Lucerne  is  about  fifteen  in  length,  and  the  breadth  no  where 
 above  three.  Next  to  these  are  the  lakes  of  Thun  and  Brientz  ; 
 of  Joux  and  Rouss,  on  the  French  confines  ;  the  lakes  of  Morat, 
 and  Bienne,  of  Sempach,  Zug,  Wallenstadt,and  others  of  inferior 
 note. 
 
 Motintains.']  The  Alps,  the  most  celebrated  of  the  mountains 
 of  antiquity,  commencing  near  the  Gulf  of  Genoa,  not  far  from 
 Monaco,  pass  between  Piedmont,  on  the  E.  and  France  and  Sa- 
 voy on  the  W.  through  Switzerland,  and  between  Italy  on  the  S. 
 W.  and  Germany  on  the  N.  E.  till  they  terminate  at  the  Gulf  of 
 Carnero,  on  the  E.  of  Istria.  The  whole  length  of  the  chain  is 
 about  550  miles.  Different  parts  of  it  have  received  different 
 naiiies,  but  the  common  name  of  Alps  has  been  extended  to  the 
 v/hole.  The  Maritime  Alps,  Jl/ies  JMaritimae,  vel  Liitoreae,  reach 
 jirom  the  Gulf  ot  Genoa  to  Mount  Cenis,  near  Susa  ;  though  the 
 northern  part  of  this  ridge,  from  Mount  Viso  N.  was  anciently- 
 called  .dl/ies  Cottiacy  now  Mont  Genevre,  in  which  are  the  springs 
 of  the  Durance.     The   Jl^ie?  Graiac,  now  Little  St.  Bernard,  in- 
 
340  SWITZERLAND. 
 
 elude  Mount  Cenis,  -and  pass  between  Savoy  and  Piedmont,  to 
 Great  St.  Bernard.  The  Pennine  Alps,  Allies  Pennmae.,  include 
 St.  Bernard  and  Mont  Blanc,  and  the  grand  chain  south  of  the 
 Rhone,  which  separates  the  Vallais  from  Piedmont,  and  terminate 
 at  Mount  St.  Gothard.  The  eastern  part  of  this  ridge  was  for- 
 merly called,  from  the  tribe  that  inhabited  it,  the  Leponiine  Alps, 
 and  gives  rise  to  the  Rhone  and  the  Tessino.  The  ridge  running 
 eastward  from  Mount  St.  Gothard,  to  the  sources  of  the  Piave,  is 
 called  the  Rhetian  Alps,  Alpes  Rheticae.  East  of  this  the  ridge 
 "was  anciently  called  Aljies  Moricae^  to  the  sources  of  the  Taglia- 
 mento  ;  at  the  eastern  extremity  of  which  the  chain  bends  more 
 to  the  S.  and  is  called  the  Carnic  Alps,  anciently  Alpes  Venetacy 
 Allies  Pannonicae,  and  afterwards  Alfies  Juliae.  These  are  all 
 regular  continuations  of  the  Great  Chain  of  the  Alps.  The  high- 
 est eminence  of  this  chain  is  Mont  Blanc,  separating  the  N.  W. 
 coraer  of  Piedmont  from  Savoy.  Its  summit  and  sides,  to  the 
 depth  of  4000  feet  perpendicular,  are  covered  with  perpetual  ice 
 and  snow.  The  first,  who  explored  its  svmimit,  was  Mr.  De 
 Saussure,  of  Geneva,  in  1787.  Sir  George  Shuckburgh  measured 
 its  height  Avith  great  accuracy,  and  found  it  to  be  15,662  feet 
 above  the  ocean,  a  greater  elevation  than  that  of  any  measured 
 luountain  in  the  old  Avorld.  The  other  high  summits  in  the  chain 
 are  St.  Bernard,  Mavidit,  Combin,  Ccrvin,  and  Rosa ;  the  last  of 
 which  is  midway  between  St.  Bernard  and  Lake  Lugano,  and  falls 
 only  60  feet  short  of  the  height  of  Mont  Blanc. 
 
 The  Helvetic  Alps  are  a  ridge  north  of  the  Rhone,  and  njjining 
 nearly  parallel  Avith  the  principal  chain  from  the  bend  of  that 
 river  to  Mount  St.  Gothard,  which  seems  to  be  a  bond  of  union 
 between  the  ridges,  for  it  is  described  as  belonging  to  both. 
 Thence  the  Helvetic  ridge,  however,  continues  its  former  course., 
 comprising  Mount  Badur,  and  the  glaciers  to  the  north  of  the 
 Farther  Rhine,  while  the  southern  chain  bends  more  to  the  S.  The 
 chief  eminences  between  the  Rhone  and  INIount  St.  Gothard,  are 
 Gemmi,  Jungfrau,  Sehreckhorn,  and  Finsteraar,  both  13,218  feet 
 high;  Grimsel,  Furca,  and  Titlis,  10,818;  while  St.  Gothard  is 
 estimated  by  Pfcffcr,  at  only  9,075.  Of  all  these  the  Jungfrau  is 
 Said  to  be  the  highest,  while  the  Schreckhorn  or  Peak  of  Terror^ 
 by  its  very  name,  announces  its  peculiar  ruggedness  and  horror. 
 
 Botany?^  The  rocks  of  the  higher  Alps,  arc  almost  wholly 
 destitute  of  vegetation  ;  the  crustaceous  lichen,  the  Silene  acau- 
 lis,  saxifraga  nivalis,  and  siellaris,  comprise  the  whole  of  their 
 ■scanty  flora. 
 
 Li  the  alpine  valleys,  are  the  juniperj  the  savine,  the  stonepine, 
 alder,  and  the  alpine  rose  ;  in  the  clefts  of  the  rocks  are  tufts  of 
 saxifrages,  and  auricula  ;  and  the  hillocks  are  adorned  with  the 
 rhododendron,  and  azalea. 
 
 Bciow  these  commence  the  forests  of  larch,  pine,  and  fir,  inlcr- 
 Tnixed  here  and  there  with  the  yew,  the  mountain  ash,  and  the 
 bircn. 
 
 Here  in  the  upper  meadows,  the  richest  of  Switzerland,  we  find 
 the  yellow  gentian,  the  white  hellebore,  the  actica,  the  alpine  ane- 
 mone, and  innumerable  other  mauntain  plants. 
 
SWITZERLAND.         ,  341 
 
 The  subalpine  regions  are  diversified  with  njieadows  and  corn- 
 fields, and  forests  of  deciduous  trees.  The  oak,  the  elm,  the 
 beech,  the  ash,  the  lime,  and  the  harnbeara  are  the  most  prevalent, 
 and  the  borders  of  the  streams  are  shaded  by  jf^plars  and  willows. 
 
 In  the  plains  and  broad  vallies  of  Geneva,  of  Basle,  and  of  the 
 -Pays  de  Vaud,  we  meet  with  numerous  vineyards.  The  walnut, 
 the  chestnut,  the  fig,  the  pomegranate,  the  bay,  and  laurel,  and  the 
 Cornelian  cherry,  are  among  the  trees  ;  the  lavender,  hyssop, 
 fraxinella,  sevei-al  kinds  of  cistus,  and  the  peony,  are  the  chief  of 
 the  plants  and  shrubs.  The  valleys  that  open  towards  Italy  con- 
 tain, the  lilac,  the  caper-bush,  the  almond,  the  Indian  fig,  and 
 American  aloe. 
 
 Zoology.']  The  horses  of  Switzerland  are  esteemed  for  vigor 
 and  spirit :  and  the  cattle  attain  great  size.  Among  the  animals 
 peculiar  to  the  Alps  may  be  first  named  the  ibex,  or  rock  goat. 
 This  animal  resembles  the  cominon  goat ;  but  the  horns  of  the 
 male  are  very  long  and  thick.  The  hair  is  long,  and  ash 
 colored,  with  a  black  list  along  the  back. 
 
 Another  singular  animal  is  the  chamois,  which  is  commonly 
 seen  in  herds  of  20  or  30,  with  a  centinel  who  alarms  them  by  a 
 shrill  cry.  The  color  is  yelloAvish  brown ;  but  they  sometimes 
 occur  speckled.  The  marmot  is  common  in  the  Swiss  mountains. 
 The  skin  of  this  animal  is  used  for  furs.  The  size  is  between  that 
 of  the  rabbit  and  the  hare.  Among  the  birds  may  be.  named  the 
 vulture,  called  also  the  golden  or  bearded  vulture.  It  inhabits  the 
 highest  Alps,  forming  its  nest  in  inaccessible  rocks. 
 
 Mineralogy.]  The  mountains  contain  iron,  sulphur,  and  Chrys- 
 tal.  This  last  is  found  in  pieces  weighing  from  7  to  800  weight. 
 Rock  salt  is  found  in  the  canton  of  Berne.  Granite,  porphyry,  as- 
 bestos, jaspers,  and  agates  are  abundant  in  the  Alps.  Tremolite 
 has  its  name  from  mount  Trem.ola,  near  St.  Gothard. 
 
 Mineral  Waters.]  Of  mineral  waters  the  most  remarkable  are 
 those  of  Leuk.  To  the  S.  E.  are  the  baths  of  Alvenew,  which  are 
 sulphureous  and  resemble  Harrowgate  water. 
 
 Natural  Curiosities.]  The  glaciers  of  the  Alps  are  immense 
 fields  of  ice,  unrivalled  in  their  extent  and  magnificence.  The 
 peaks  and  ridges  of  the  higher  summits  are  overspread  with  per- 
 petual snows;  and  the  intermediate  depths  and  spaces  between 
 them  are  filled  with  ice,  spread  out  like  a  sea,  and  reaching  often 
 a  great  distance  down  the  mountains,  even  to  the  borders  of  the 
 cultivated  vallies.  These  immense  masses  resting  on  an  inclined 
 plane,  and  often  feebly  supported,  sometimes  slide  down  the  de- 
 clivities, and  in  a  moment  overwhelm  the  villages  and  hamlets  be- 
 low. They  are  usually  intersected  by  numerous  deep  fissures, 
 and  chasms,  and  present  to  the  eye  a  thousand  fantastic  shapes  of 
 walls  and  pyramids,  of  houses  and  temples,  of  cascades  and  tor- 
 rents. In  some  places  the  ice  is  of  a  splendid  white  ;  in  others  of 
 a  beautiful  azure,  and  every  Avhere  trajisparent  and  dazzling. 
 Mr.  Coxc  compares  the  surface  of  the  glaciers  to  the  appearance 
 of  a  lake  frozen  in  the  midst  of  a  tempesc. 
 
 The  torrents  frcijueatly  undermine  large  masses  of  rock  and  of 
 
343  SWITZERLAND. 
 
 earth  on  the  mountains,  till  at  length  they  are  precipitated  into 
 the  vallies  below.  A  memorable  instance  of  this  kind  occurred  in 
 September  1806,  in  the  canton  of  Schweitz.  The  Knipperbuhl 
 rock,  the  summit  of  Rosenberg,  and  a  considerable  part  of  the 
 mountain  having  been  thus  undermined,  fell  from  an  immense 
 height  into  the  valley  and  a  lake  adjacent,  and  in  a  moment  buried 
 beneath  them  several  populous  villages,  with  their  churches,  and 
 numerous  mills  and  farms.  Upwards  of  1000  persons  perished. 
 General  Pfaffer,  from  his  knowledge  of  the  mountain,  had  predict- 
 ed such  an  event  20  years  before. 
 
 ,  THE  VALLAIS. 
 
 THIS  republic  was  separated  from  its  connection  with 
 Switzerland,  at  the  time  of  the  new  organization  of  the  govern- 
 ment of  that  country  and  was  annexed  to  France  in  1811.  It  has  - 
 Saxony  on  the  W.  Piedmont  on  the  S.  and  Switzerland  on  the  N. 
 and  E.  It  is  about  100  miles  long  fromN.  E.  to  S.  W.  and  about 
 25  broad,  containing  2027  square  miles.  This  territory  was  call- 
 ed FalesiUi  in  the  middle  ages.  In  1475,  the  inhabitants  withstood 
 the  power  of  Austria,  and  joined  the  cantons.  The  religion  is  the- 
 Roman  Catholic  ;  the  population  abovit  100,000;  and  the  revenue 
 80,000  guilders.  The  whole  country  is  one  large  valley.  The 
 soil  surpasses  that  of  Switzei'land.  The  iine  fruits  of  Italy  grow 
 in  full  perfection.  The  asthma  is  a  prevalent  disease,  ajid 
 most  of  the  inhabitants  are  afflicted  with  goiters.  The  languages 
 spoken  are  the  German,  French,  and  Italian.  Sion  is  the  capital 
 of  the  country.  It  stands  upon  Sion  river  near  its  junction  with 
 the  Rhone,  and  contains  a  college,  some  convents,  and  6  churches. 
 The  hills  and  vallies  breed  great  numbers  of  cattle,  and  afford 
 plenty  of  deers,  hares,  and  other  game.  Here  are  said  to  be 
 mines  of  silver,  coppei',  lead,  and  coal.  The  hot  baths  of  Brugg, 
 and  Leuckj  are  celebrated  mineral  waters. 
 
 GENEVA. 
 
 THIS  little  republic  was  situated  at  the  southern  extremity 
 of  Geneva  lake,  where,  contracthig,  it  forms  the  Rhone.  The  in- 
 habitants became  christians  in  the  3d  century,  and  in  the  middle 
 of  the  4th,  was  the  see  of  a  bishop.  After  the  overthrow  of  the 
 empire,  it  fell  successively  to  Burgundy,  France,  and  Germany. 
 In  1526,  it  entered  into  an  alliance  with  the  cantons,  to  resist  the 
 encroachments  of  the  dukes  of  Savoy.  In  1535,  the  doctrines  of 
 the  reformation  were  established,  and  the  celebrated  Calvin  here 
 found  a  safe  retreat  from  the  persecution  of  the  Catholics.  The 
 territory  belonging  to  the  republic  comprised  about  60  square 
 miles  ;  and  the  population  was  30,000.  The  city  of  Geneva  itself, 
 contained,  in  1802,  23,309  inhabitants.  The  Rhone  divides  it  into 
 two  unequal  parts.  The  town  and  territory  arc  nov/  an  integral 
 part  of  France. 
 
SPANISH  EMPIRE. 
 
 THE  Spanish,  like  the  British  Empire,  embraces  portions 
 ef  territory  in  all  the  four  quarters  of  the  globe. 
 
 1.  In  Europe, 
 Spain. 
 Major( 
 
 Minorca,  V  Islands  in  the  Mediterranean. 
 Ivica 
 
 Tca,l 
 irca,  > 
 >       J 
 
 2.  In  Africa. 
 
 African  Presidencies,  Ceuta,  Melilla,  and  a  few  other  cities. 
 
 Canary  Islands,  "1 
 
 Isle  of  Fernando  Po,    i    .     ^,       .^,       . 
 ■n  •     «'o  T  1     A  >  m  the  Atlantic. 
 
 Prnice  s  Island,  j  • 
 
 Annabon  Island,  J 
 
 / 
 
 3.  In  Asia. 
 
 Philippine  Islands, 
 
 Calamianes, 
 
 Ladrones,  or  Marian  Islands, 
 
 Carolinas, 
 
 Part  of  Magindanao, 
 
 Baihee  Islands  (south  of  Formosa.)  -^ 
 
 4.  In  America. 
 Floridas, 
 Mexico, 
 Cuba,  I. 
 Porto  Rico,  I. 
 
 New  Grenada,  or  Western  Terra  Firma, 
 -  "Peru, 
 Chili,  , 
 
 Buenos  Ayres,  or  Paraguay. 
 Falkland  Islands. 
 
 The  republic  of  Venezuela  was,  till  July  5th,  1811,  a  province 
 of  Spain,  called  the  Ca/itaing-eneralshi/i  of  Caraccas.  At  that  time 
 the  inhabitants  declared  themselves  free,  and  formed  an  inde- 
 pendent government.  Buenos  Ayres,  Chili  and  Peru,  acknowl- 
 edge also  but  little  dependance  on  the  mother  country,  and  prob- 
 ably, with  the  rest  of  the  Spanish  provinces  in  South  America, 
 will  soon  become  independent  states. 
 
SPAIN. 
 
 CHAPTER  I. 
 HISTORICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 EXTENT,  BOrXDARIES,  NAMES,  DIVISIONS,  ORIGINAL  POPULATION'- 
 HISTORICAL  EPOCHS,  PROGRESSIVE  GEOGRAPHY,  ANTiqUITIES, 
 KELIGION,  GOVERNMENT,  LAWS,  POPULATION,  ARMY,  NAVY> 
 REVENUE,  POLITICAL  RELATIONS,  MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS,  LAN- 
 GUAGE, LITERATURE,  UNIVERSITIES,  CITIES,  EDIFICES,  MANU- 
 FACTURES AND  COMMERCE. 
 
 Extent?^  SPAIN  lies  between  Ion.  9  17,  30  W.  and  3  45 
 E.  and  between  lat.  o^  6  30,  and  43  4630  N.  Its  greatest  length, 
 from  Cape  Finisterre  to  Cape  Ortegal,  is  620  miles  :  and  its  great- 
 est breadth  is  530,  The  number  of  square  miles,  according  to 
 Hassel,  is  195,510,  and  including  the  Balearic  islands,  193,330  ; 
 while  Pinkerton  estimates  it  at  only  148,000, 
 
 Boxmdaries^  Spain  is  bounded  N,  by  the  Bay  of  Biscay  and 
 France  ;  E.  by  the  Mediterranean  ;  S.  by  the  same  and  the  Atlan- 
 tic ;  W.  by  Portugal  and  the  Atlantic. 
 
 J\''amesr\^  The  Greeks  knew  this  country  by  the  name  of  Iber'm^ 
 derived  froin  the  river  Iberus^  now  the  Ebro.  The  Roman  poets 
 called  it  Hesjieria^  or  the  western  land,  and  Hesfieria  Ulterior,  to 
 distinguish  it  from  Hesfieria  Citcrior,  or  Italy.  Its  geographical 
 name  among  the  Romans  was  Histiaidan,  derived  undoubtedly  from 
 Sjianija,  the  name  originally  given  it,  according  to  Bochart,  by 
 the  Phoenicians,  from  S/ian,  a  rabbit,  because  it  abounded  with 
 those  animals.  From  Hispania  the  Spaniards  have  derived  J£s- 
 fiana  ;  the  Italians  Esfiagna  ;  the  French  Es^iagne  ;  the  English 
 Spain  ;  and  the  Germans,  Sjiajiicn. 
 
 Divisions.^  The  following  we  believe  to  be  an  accurate  ac- 
 count of  the  divisions  and  subdivisions  of  Spain,  with  the  extent 
 and  the  population  of  each  in  1 787  ;  together  with  the  number  of 
 cities,  boroughs,  villages,  and  parishes. 
 
 Kingdoms, 
 
 Provinces. 
 
 Extent. 
 
 Population, 
 
 Cit. 
 
 Bor. 
 
 A'iUa. 
 
 Par. 
 
 Gallicia, 
 
 14,030 
 
 1,343,803 
 
 1 
 
 120 
 
 187 
 
 306 
 
 Asturia, 
 
 COvicdo, 
 I  Santillana, 
 
 ^      5260 
 
 347,776 
 
 3 
 
 290 
 
 4757 
 
 1284 
 
 r  Biscay, 
 
 1430 
 
 116,042 
 
 124 
 
 Biscay, 
 
 -!  Alava, 
 
 1100 
 
 71,399 
 
 432 
 
 (_Guipuscoa, 
 
 800 
 
 120,716 
 
 76 
 
 Navarre, 
 
 3950 
 
 227,382 
 
 Arragon, 
 
 15,550 
 
 623,308 
 
 11 
 
 Catrilonia, 
 
 12,710 
 
 8 1 4,4 1 2 
 
 Valencia, 
 
 10,740 
 
 932,150 
 
S!>AIN. 
 
 545 
 
 Kingfloras. 
 Mallorca, 
 
 Murcia, 
 Granada, 
 
 Andalusia, 
 Estremedura, 
 
 Pi'ovihces. 
 
 r  Mallorca, 
 
 <  Minorca, 
 (_Irica, 
 
 C  Granada, 
 I  Antequera, 
 r  Seville, 
 
 <  Cordova, 
 (_Jaen, 
 
 } 
 
 Extent.  Population.  Clt.    Bor.  Villa.  Par. 
 179,066 
 
 Leon, 
 
 -fLeon, 
 I  Palencia, 
 j  Toro, 
 j  Zaniora, 
 I  Salamanca, 
 tValladolid, 
 fBurgos, 
 
 OIdCastille,<<'^^S.°^^^' 
 '    i  Soria, 
 
 1890 
 
 5't80 
 
 I2,riO 
 
 9250 
 
 6490 
 
 5260 
 
 14,950 
 
 )>1 7,640 
 
 1 
 J 
 
 337,686 
 661,661 
 19,638 
 754,293 
 236,016 
 177,136 
 416,922 
 250,134 
 112,514 
 92,404 
 74,669 
 210,389 
 196,839 
 465,410 
 174,289 
 i70,565 
 115,172 
 216,226 
 337,078 
 114,379 
 266,182 
 214,078 
 
 230 
 81 
 
 59 
 134 
 179 
 
 83 
 160 
 
 55 
 
 58 
 182 
 
 60 
 588 
 100 
 132 
 
 90 
 
 73 
 229 
 187 
 232 
 
 93 
 
 133 
 3203 
 
 185 
 502 
 554 
 229 
 26 
 
 11 
 172 
 
 1 
 
 1191 
 
 302 
 
 482 
 
 207 
 
 17 
 
 100 
 
 110 
 
 186 
 
 93 
 
 365 
 
 365S 
 
 67 
 
 249 
 
 76fi 
 
 493 
 
 329 
 
 219 
 
 63 
 
 74. 
 
 39r 
 
 108 
 
 182S 
 
 410 
 
 639 
 
 286 
 
 92 
 
 327 
 
 319 
 
 431 
 
 ,  iU 
 
 l^Avila, 
 
 fMadrid, 
 
 I  Toledo, 
 Ne\vCastiIle,<;  Guadalaxara   )>37,940 
 
 Cuenza,  266,182    2 
 
 LMancha,         J  214,078    2 
 
 Original  Po/iulation.']  The  Celts,  from  Gaul,  constituted  the 
 original  population  of  Spain.  They  were  called  Celtiberians,  as 
 they  were  Celts  in\iabiting  Iberia,  to  distinguish  them  from  the 
 Gallic  and  British  Celts  ;  and  appear,  in  very  early  periods,  to 
 have  overspread  the  whole  of  the  country.  Spain  was  occupied 
 by  them,  when  the  Egyptians,  Phenicians,  and  Tyrians  succes- 
 sively established  themselves  on  its  coasts,  and  made  its  ports  the 
 seat  of  an  extensive  commerce.  The  Celts  were  compelled  tore- 
 tire  before  the  Maui%  or  Moors,  from  western  Africa,  who  drove 
 them  from  the  southern  and  eastern  parts  of  Spain,  and  who  long 
 before  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar  had  passed  the  Pyrenees,  and,  un- 
 der the  name  of  Aquetani,  had  possessed  themselves  of  the  south- 
 western part  of  France.  The  Carthaginians  had  been  called  in 
 by  the  Tyrians  to  their  assistance  against  the  Spaniards  at  an  eai'ly 
 period,  even  a  short  time  after  they  had  built  Gadcs,  or  Cadiz  ; 
 ■and  had  subdued  the  neighbourig  country.  But  they  were  never 
 extensively  dispersed  over  Spain,  till  about  the  time  of  Hamilcar. 
 Probably  great  numbers  of  these  colonists  never  left  the  country. 
 The  Romans,  even  before  the  fall  of  Carthage,  had  conquered  Spain, 
 and  pi'odigious  numbers  of  them  emigrated  to  the  newly  acquired 
 territories.  No  one  of  the  subjugated  countries  appears  to  have  al- 
 lured away  so  many  of  the  inhabitants  of  Italy.  A  great  proportion 
 of  the  present  population  is  descended  from  these  colonists.  Tnis 
 fact  explains  the  reason  why  the  Spanish  language  so  near!  v  ■■  ■:«- 
 jles  the  Latin.  The  Vandals,  Alans,  and  Sueyi,  destroyed  theRomUn 
 VOL.  II.  44 
 
34.6  SPAIN. 
 
 power  in  Spain,  and  were  succeeded  by  the  Visigoths,  wiiose  em- 
 pire extended  over  a  considerable  part  of  the  country  for  1 30 
 years,  and  v^as  finally  overthrown  by  the  Saracens,  or  Mahome- 
 tan Moors,  in  the  early  part  of  the  8th  century.  The  Saracens 
 during  their  long  dominion  gave  a  decided  cast  to  the  Spanish 
 character  and  language,  and  various  places  in  Spain  still  retain 
 their  Arabic  names.  Few  however  of  their  descendants  remain 
 in  the  country ;  and  the  modern  Spaniards  may  be  considered  as 
 chiefly  descended  from  the  Romans,  the  Mauri,  the  Celts  or  Cel- 
 tiberians,  and  the  Visigoths. 
 
 Historical  E/iochs.']  The  following  are  the  chief  epochs  in 
 Spanish  history. 
 
 1.  The  original  settlement  by  the  Celts,  and  then  by  the  Mau- 
 ri. During  this  period  the  Egyptians,  Phenicians,  Tyrians,  Mi- 
 iCsians,  Carians,  Lesbians  and  Phoceans  are  mentioned  by  Euse- 
 bius,  as  having  successively  got  possession  of  a  part  or  the  whole 
 of  the  coast,  and  for  a  time  to  have  held  the  dominion  of  the  sea. 
 
 2.  The  Cai'thiginian  conquest  of  Spain  about  the  time  of  the 
 first  Punic  War. 
 
 3.  The  Roman  dominion,  which  lasted  from  B.  C.  196  to 
 A.  D.  411. 
 
 4.  The  domination  of  the  northern  barbarians.  The  Suevi, 
 Vandals,  and  Alans,  divided  Spain  and  retained  it  till  the  Visi- 
 goths, under  Euric,  subdued  all  the  country  except  Gallicia, 
 which  to  this  day  is  peopled  by  descendants  of  the  Suevi. 
 
 5.  The  domination  of  the  Saracens.  Their  first  descent  on 
 Spain  was  made  in  the  year  712.  In  eight  months  they  overthrew 
 Roderic,  the  Spanish  king,  and  his  army,  and  overran  the  whole 
 country,  except  Asturias,  Burgos,  and  Biscay.  In  718,  Don  Pela- 
 gio,  one  of  the  royal  family,  reestablished  the  Gothic  kingdom 
 among  the  mountains  of  the  Asturias.  His  successors  built  Ovie- 
 do  in  757,  and  made  it  their  capital.  Afterwards  conquerinc^ 
 Leon  from  the  Moors,  they  called  their  kingdom  the  kingdom  of 
 Oviedo  and  Leon.  In  758  the  christian  kingdom  of  Navarre  was 
 established  urder  Don  Garcia  Ximenes.  In  the  same  year,  Ab- 
 delrahman,  the  caliph's  viceroy,  assumed  the  title  of  Caliph  of 
 Spain,  and  made  Coi'dova  the  seat  of  his  government.  This  dy- 
 nasty lasted  till  A.  D.  1038,  when  the  Moorish  governors  of  To- 
 ledo, Cordova,  Seville,  Valentia,  and  Granada,  usurped  the  royal 
 style,  and  for  some  time  maintained  the  shadow  of  royalty.  The 
 christian  kingdoms  of  Castile  and  Arragon,  however,  had  been 
 formed  previous  to  this  last  epoch,  for  Don  Sanchez,  king  of  Na- 
 varre, had  bestowed  the  former,  in  the  year  1035,  on  his  eldest  son 
 Ferdinand  ;  and  the  latter,  the  same  year,  on  his  son  Ramira. 
 
 6.  The  union  of  the  crowns  of  Castille  and  Arragon  by  the 
 marriage  of  Isabella  and  Ferdmand  in  1474.  The  kingdom  of 
 Granada,  the  last  of  the  Moorish  possessions,  was  subdued  by 
 Ferdinand  in  1490. 
 
 7.  The  reign  of  the  emperor  Charles  V-  king  of  Spain,  and 
 emperor  of  Austria,  which  began  in  15 17.  The  power  of  Spain 
 was  now  at  its  zenith. 
 
 8.  The  conquest  of  Portugal  by  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  and  I.  of 
 
SPAIN.  547 
 
 Portugal,  in  1580,  soon  after  the  defeat  of  the  Portuguese,  in 
 Africa,  by  Muley  Moloch.  The  Spaniards  found  their  conquest 
 an  tinquiet  possession  during  the  60  years  of  its  subjugation.  In 
 1640,  John  duke  of  Braganza,  put  himself  at  the  head  of  the  Por- 
 tuguese, who  unanimously  shook  off  the  Spanish  yoke,  and  bravely 
 achieved  their  independence. 
 
 9.  The  termination  of  the  Austrian  dynasty  by  the  death  of 
 Charles  II.  November  I,  1700  :  and  the  accession  of  the  house  of 
 Bourbon,  in  the  person  of  Philip  grandson  of  Louis  XIV. 
 
 10.  The  kidnapping  of  the  Spanish  royal  family  at  Bayonne, 
 in  the  spring  of  1808,  by  the  French  emperor,  and  the  subsequent 
 attempt  to  impose  his  brother  Joseph  on  the  Spaniards,  in  the 
 room  of  Ferdinand  VII.  the  lawful  monarch. 
 
 Progressive  Geografihij.']  Before  the  Carthaginian  conquest 
 Spain  was  divided  into  a  multitude  of  petty  states,  of  which  even 
 the  names  have  not  reached  us.  We  are  equally  unacquainted 
 with  the  Carthaginian  divisions.  The  Romans  at  first  divided  the 
 country  into  Hispania  Citerior,  and  Ulterior.  The  former  reached 
 from  the  Pyrenees  to  the  mouth  of  the  Douro,  on  the  Atlantic, 
 and  to  the  eastern  boundary  of  Grenada  on  the  Mediterranean. 
 In  the  time  of  Augustus  it  received  the  name  of  Tarraconensis  ; 
 while  Hisjiania  Ulterior  was  subdivided.  That  part  between  the- 
 Douro,  on  the  N.  and  the  gulf  of  Cadiz,  was  called  Liisitania  ;  and 
 the  southeastern  division  Baetica.  The  principal  tribes  inhabit- 
 ing Spain  were  in  Tarraconensis,  the  Callaeci  in  Gallicia ;  the 
 Asturcsy  in  Asturia  ;  the  Contabri  in  Biscay,  after  whom  the  Bay 
 was  called  Sinus  Contabricus,  and  who  were  the  last  that  yielded  to 
 the  Romans  ;  the  Concani,  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  same  province, 
 famous  for  drinking  the  blood  of  horses  ;  the  Vasconcs  in  Navarre  ; 
 and  ihe  Celtiberi,  an  extensive  and  powerful  nation,  in  the  country 
 of  the  Ebro  ;  in  Baetica  the  Tnrdetani,  who  occupied  most  of  An- 
 dalusia ;  and  the  Bastuli  and  Bastitani  in  Grenada  :  in  Lusitania 
 the  Lusitani  in  the  S.  and  the  Veltones  in  the  N.  The  origin  of 
 the  modern  divisions  has  already  been  found  in  the  petty  states 
 and  kingdoms  of  the  Moors  and  Christians. 
 
 Antiquities.'^     No  remains  of  the  Celtae  or  Mauri  have  yet  beeri^ 
 discovered,  nor  any  of  the  Carthaginians,  except  coins  which  have 
 been  found  in  considerable  numbers. 
 
 Some  of  the  finest  reliques  of  Roman  art  are  found  in  Spain. 
 The  aqueduct  of  Segovia  was  built  in  the  time  of  Trajan,  and  has 
 braved  with  impunity  the  corrosion  of  1  6  centuries.  It  rests  on 
 161  arches,  three  of  which,  in  some  places,  stand  one  upon  another. 
 Its  greatest  height,  in  the  valley  which  it  crosses,  is  102  feet,  and  its 
 length  2220,  It  is  composed  of  square  stones,  placed  one  upon 
 another  without  any  appearance  of  cement.  In  Murviedro,  the  an- 
 cient Saguntum,  is  a  large  theatre  capable  of  holding  9000  persons. 
 Here  also  are  the  remains  of  an  ancient  circus,  and  a  temple  of 
 Bacchus.  In  Tarragona  and  Toledo,  also  are  various  remains  of 
 a  similar  nature. 
 
 The  Visigoths  have  left  few  relics,  except  their  coins,  which  are 
 of  gold,  a  metal  then  unknown  to  the  other  European  mints,     TIrt 
 
345  SPAIN. 
 
 Alcazar,  the  ancient  habitation  of  the  Gothic  kings,  at  Toledo,  \\di> 
 repaired  by  Charles  V.     It  is  now  in  ruins. 
 
 The  Moorish  antiquities  are  numerous  and  splendid.  Of  these 
 the  palace  of  the  Jl/ia?ndra,  at  Granada,  is  far  the  most  magnificent. 
 The  court  to  which  you  are  first  admitted  is  called  the  Coinmuna^ 
 a  large  room  150  feet  by  90,  with  a  deep  bason  of  clear  water  in  the 
 midst,  100  feet  in  length,  into  which  is  a  descent  by  two  flights  of 
 marble  steps,  and  on  each  side  a  parterre  of  flowers  and  a  row  of 
 orange  trees.  At  each  end  is  a  colonnade.  From  hence  you  pass 
 into  the  court  of  the  lions,  an  oblong  room  100  feet  long,  and  50 
 broad,  adorned  with  a  colonnade  of  140  marble  pillars.  In  the 
 centre  arc  twelve  ill-formed  lions,  muzzled,  bearing  on  their 
 backs  an  enormous  bason,  out  of  which  rises  another  of 
 smaller  size.  The  royal  bedchamber  has  two  alcoves,  adorned  with 
 columns,  and  a  founta'»i  between  them.  The  great  hall  is  40  feet 
 square,  and  60  high,  with  eight  windows,  and  two  doors,  all  in  deep 
 recesses.  Between  this  and  the  Connnuna  is  a  gallery,  90  feet  by 
 16.  The  dressing  room  of  the  Sultana  is  a  littte  tower,  in  one 
 corner  of  which  is  a  large  marble  flag,  penetrated  with  Iroles, 
 through  which  the  smoke  of  perfumes  ascended  from  furnaces  be- 
 low. A  long  passage  leads  hence  to  the  hall  of  the  ambassadors, 
 ."vvhich  opens  into  the  great  audience  hall,  36  feet  square,  36  feet 
 high,  to  the  cornice,  and  18  thence  to  the  centre  of  the  cupola. 
 On  the  south  side  of  the  court  of  the  lions  is  a  circular  drinking 
 room,  in  which  the  Abencarrages  were  put  to  death  by  Abouab- 
 dallah.  The  exquisite  manner  in  which  the  stucco  is  designed, 
 painted  and  finished  exceeds  all  power  of  description.  This  palace 
 "was  completed  in  1336.  TheGeneralif,  or  house  of  pleasure,  built 
 by  Omar,  stands  upon  a  high  mountain  at  a  small  distance,  ?.nd  is 
 surpassed  in  magnifice-ice  only  by  the  Alhambra.  The  beauty 
 of  its  situation  is  unrivalled. 
 
 Other  superb  monuments  of  Moorish  art  arc  found  at  Toledo, 
 Seville,  and  Cordova. 
 
 The  only  christian  antiquities   worthy  of  notice,  are  the  cathe- 
 drals and  castles.     The  cathedral  of  Cordova  is  474  feet  by  414, 
 adorned  by  600  columns  of  marble.     That  of  Grenada,  is  425    ect 
 Tong  and  249  broad,  with  a  dome  160  feet  high,  and  80  in  diameter. 
 Those  of  Burgos  and  Segovia  are  also  large  and  magnificent. 
 
 Religion.']  The  Catholic  is  almost  the  only  religion  known  or 
 tolerated  in  Spain,  and  is  here  exercised  in  all  its  ceremonial  or- 
 thodoxy. Only  at  Madrid,  and  the  most  important  sea-port  towns, 
 are  persons  of  different  persuasion  suffered  to  reside,  though  in 
 most  parts  of  the  country  there  arc  secretly  great  numbers  of  Jews 
 "and  Mahometans.  The  Court  of  Inquisitioi'i,  instituted  in  1178, 
 by  Ferdinand  the  catholic,  was  long  invested  with  exorbitant  power> 
 a  power  exercised  with  a  degree  of  intolerance  and  cruelty  known 
 in  no  other  country  but  Portugal.  The  high  court  is  at  Madrid, 
 and  8  subordinate  courts  arc  scattered  over  the  kingdom.  For 
 some  time  previous  to  the  late  revolution,  it  Avas  nearly  stript  of 
 its  terrors,  and  since  that  event,  an  edict  of  king  Joseph,  has  or- 
 dered it  to  be  abolished.     There  arc  in  Spain   8    archbishoprics. 
 
SPAIN.  349 
 
 48  bishoprics,  1 17  cathedrals,  18,537  parishes,  2,145  monasteries, 
 and  1023  nunneries.  The  revenues  of  the  archbishoprics  are  vcry 
 great.  That  of  Toledo  is  about  jC90,000  sterling-.  The  whole  number 
 of  clergy,  in  1787,  was  188,625,of  whom  22,460  were  parish  priests, 
 and  their  assistants ;  61,617  monks;  32,500  nuns;  and  2,705  in- 
 quisitors. The  clergy  have  three  spiritual  orders  of  knighthood, 
 those  of  Santiago,  Calatrava,  and  Alcantara,  all  possessed  of  very 
 large  estates.  The  Spaniards  are  bigotted  Catholics,  They  oftea 
 unite  a  ceremonial  piety  with  the  practice  of  every  vice. 
 
 Government.']  The  fundamental  laws  of  the  monarchy  are  the 
 indivisibility  of  the  monarchy,  the  right  of  primogeniture,  and  the 
 exclusion  of  females  from  the  throne,  tUl  after  the  whole  male  line 
 is  extinct.  The  government  is  now  a  despotic  monarchy,  balanced 
 however  by  the  power  of  the  church,  and  tempered  by  many  coun- 
 cils, who  are  responsible  for  the  success  of  their  own  measures. 
 Formerly  the  Cortes,  ov  states  of  the  kingdom,  met  annually* 
 and  for  a  longtime  limited  the  sovereign  power.  These  consisted 
 of  deputies  of  four  classes,  two  from  the  nobility,  one  from  the 
 clergy,  and  one  from  the  cities.  This  body  met  but  twice  during 
 the  last  century. 
 
 The  chief  councils  are,  1.  The  Cabinet  Council  composed  of  the 
 king  and  the  ministers  of  foreign  affairs,  of  war,  of  the  naarine,  oi" 
 finances,  of  the  Indies,  and  of  favor  and  justice.  2.  Tiie  Council 
 of  State.  3.  The  Council  of  Finances.  4.  The  Council  of  War. 
 5.  The  Council  of  Castile.  6.  The  Council  of  Arragon.  7.  The 
 Council  of  the  Inquisition.  8.  The  Council  of  the  orders  of 
 Knighthood.  9.  The  Council  of  the  Indies.  10.  That  of  the 
 Crusada,  which  determines  the  subsidies  to  be  granted  by  the 
 clergy.  There  are  12  tribunals  in  the  different  provinces,  called 
 Audiencias.  The  judges  of  the  inferior  courts  of  justice  in  the 
 smaller  towns,  are  called  Alcaides  ;  those  in  the  large  cities.  Cor- 
 regidores. 
 
 The  Spanish  grandees  ai'e  extremely  numerous.  All.tiie  Bis- 
 cayans  and  Asturians  are  reputed  noble. 
 
 Lanvs.~\  The  only  authentic  laws  by  which  justice  is  adminis- 
 tered are  registered  in  the  codes  published  by  the  ancient  kings. 
 The  principal  code,  and  that  which  is  in  constant  use,  is  called 
 Reco/iilacion.  It  is  a  collection  of  edicts  from  the  earliest  ages,  to 
 the  present  time.  A  new  edition  is  occasionally  published,  in 
 which  the  late  laws  are  inserted.  The  Roman  civil  law  is  fre- 
 quently consulted  in  practice.  The  canon  law  is  the  received  code 
 in  all  ecclesiastical  affairs^  Torture  is  not  wholly  disused.  Law- 
 suits are  exceedingly  expensive,  and  of  long  duration. 
 
 Fofiulation.']  The  census  of  1787  gave  a  population  of  10,268,150. 
 Hassel  estimated  it  in  1809,  at  10,396,000.  Since  tliat  time  it 
 must  have  been  seriously  diminished  by  the  indiscriminate  carnage 
 occasioned  by  the  armies  of  France.  Spain  hss  for  a  long  time 
 been  one  of  the  least  populous  countries  in  Europe.  This  defi- 
 ciency is  imputed,  by  Townsend,  to  the  expulsion  of  the  Jc-^s  and 
 floors,  to  the  contagious  fevers  in  the  south,  to  the  intcsUne  wars 
 vyiih  the  Moors,  carried  on  incessantly  for  7  centuries,  to  the  emi- 
 
550  SPAIN. 
 
 grations  to  America,  and  to  the  vast  number  of  the  clergy  who 
 never  marry.     A  more  operative  cause  than  either,  and  perhaps 
 than  all  of  these,  mav  be  found  in  the  extreme  indolence,  which 
 has  so  long  characterized  the  great  body  of  the  Spaniards. 
 The  population,  in  1787,  was  thus  divided. 
 Unmarried  Males  2,926,229 
 
 Married         do.  1,947,165 
 
 Widowers  23-5,778       5,109,172 
 
 Unmarried  females  2,753,224 
 
 Married         do.  1,943,496 
 
 Widows  462,258        5,158,978 
 
 10,268,150 
 
 The  numbers  of  each  rank  were  as  follows. 
 
 Male  Clergy  156,125 
 
 Knights  480,589 
 
 Lawyers  5,917 
 
 Scriveners,  notaries,  and  clerks  9,6 11 
 
 Scholars  50,994 
 
 Husbandmen  917,197 
 
 Day  laborers  964,571 
 
 Merchants  34,339 
 
 Manufacturers  39,750 
 
 Mechanics  270,989 
 
 Servants  280,092 
 
 Persons  in  the  king's  pay  36,465 
 
 Persons  with  military  privileges  77,834 
 
 Of  the  Knights,  401,040  were  in  the  provinces  of  Asturias,  Bis- 
 cay, Burgos,  Gallicia,  and  Leon. 
 
 The  census  of  1787  exceeded  that  of  1768-9,  by  960,346  souls, 
 jir?ni/.']  In  1806,  the  army  amounted  to  153,840  men,  consisting 
 of  infantry,  99,240  ;  cavalry,  8,894  ;  guards,  8,070  ;  artillery, 
 6,000;  engineers,  1,396;  provincial  troops,  50,240;  under  the 
 command  of  a  generalissimo,  5  captain-generals,  92  lieutenant- 
 genei'als,  136  major-generals,  and  225  brigadiers.  Since  the 
 revolution  almost  every  man  has  become  a  soldier,  and  the  Spanish 
 recruits  have  in  many  instances  exhibited  the  valour  and  intrepid- 
 ity of  veteran  troops.  The  want  of  talents  in  the  Spanish  gener- 
 als, and  of  vigor  and  unanimity  in  the  Junta,  will  be  the  chief 
 causes  of  the  ruin  of  the  patriots,  if  they  are  ultimately  unsuc- 
 cessful. 
 
 JVavy.']  In  1808,  the  navy  amounted  to  218  sail;  Avhereof  42 
 were  of  the  line,  30  frigates,  20  corvettes,  4  zebecks,  40  brigan- 
 tines,  15  bomb- vessels,  and  67  smaller  vessels.  These  were 
 manned  by  2,379  marines,  3,320  artillery,  and  36,000  sailors. 
 
 Revenue.']  Llerena  states  the  Spanish  revenue  at  6 1 6,295,675  Rials 
 de  vellon,  or  about  32,575,000  dollars.  Others  state  it  at  50  mill- 
 ions ofpiasters,  or  40  millions  of  dollars.  The  first  nearly  agrees  with 
 the  estimate  of  Hassel,  and  is  probably  correct.  Of  this  revenue 
 America  furnishes  about  2,100,000  dollars.  The  expenditure  usu- 
 ally somewhat  exceeded  the  revenue.     The  national  debt,  in  1 809, 
 
SPAm.  331 
 
 was  estimated  by  Hassel  at  about  3 1 1 ,000,000  dollars.  In  1 783,  ^t 
 was  81,364,000  ;  in  1790,  123,200,000;  and  in  1800,  203,000,000. 
 Spain  is  the  poorest  country  in  Europe,  although  it  annually  re- 
 ceives more  specie,  than  any  other.  About  40,000,000  dollars  are 
 annually  brought  hither,  pf  w^ich  about  32,000,000  come  from 
 America.  The  whole  amount  imported  in  the  registered  ships 
 alone,  from  the  discovery  of  the  mines  to  the  year  172  5,  was  5,185 
 millions  in  gold  and  silver.  But  it  merely  passes  through  Spain, 
 to  the  residences  of  industry  and  enterprize. 
 
 Political  Relations.']  The  power  and  proximity  of  France  had 
 long  rendered  Spain  in  a  measure  dependent ;  and  till  the  late 
 revolution  they  had  for  many  years  been  closely  united.  Nothing 
 but  the  American  colonies  gave  the  mother  countrv  any  influence 
 on  the  politics  of  Europe.  The  late  rude  attack  upon  her  independ- 
 ence, has  opened  the  eyes  of  her  own  citizens  to  the  I'eal  designs 
 of  the  French  government.  The  supineness  of  the  Spanish  char- 
 acter has,  to  a  good  degree,  been  shaken  off,  and  many  of  the  sol- 
 diers have  exhibited  as  great  valor,  as  the  pen  of  history  ever 
 described.  The  scenes  at  Saragossa  and  Gerona,  were  never 
 surpassed,  and  the  name  of  Palafox  can  find  few  competitors. 
 Hitherto  the  loss  of  men  has  been  the  greatest  on  the  side  of  the 
 invaders.  If  Spain  is  subdued,  she  will  prove  an  unquiet  con- 
 quest ;  and  the  natives  of  France  will  find  no  safety  but  in  the  neigh- 
 borhood of  their  forts  and  armies.  The  invasion  of  this  unhappy 
 country  was  like  an  invasion  from  the  infernal  pit ;  the  invaders 
 have  proved  themselves  the  mere  enemies  of  peace,  of  innocence, 
 and  of  happiness  ;  and  the  name  of  Frenchman,  for  a  succession 
 of  ages,  will  probably  here  be  felt  to  denote  all  that  is  wanton  in 
 lust,  all  that  is  fiend-like  in  cruelty. 
 
 Manners  and  Customs^]  The  houses  of  the  nobility  and  gentry 
 are  capacious  and  often  elegant;  but  the  others,  both  in  cities  and 
 in  the  country,  arc  small  and  miserably  built.  The  Spanish  inns 
 are  not  very  numerous,  but  they  are  every  where  dirty  and  desti- 
 tute of  conveniences.  In  many,  the  traveller  is  obliged  to  provide 
 and  cook  his  own  victuals.  The  wealthy  Spaniards  are  extremely 
 averse  to  living  in  the  country,  and  this  is  the  reason  why  there 
 are  so  few  cheerful  villas,  handsome  farmhouses,  and  fertile  thrifty 
 farms. 
 
 The  dress  of  the  Spaniards  is  subject  to  little  variation.  The 
 eloak,  the  long  sword,  and  the  large  round  hat,  are  national  fash- 
 ions, which  even  an  arbitrary  monarch  could  not  alter  for  the  more 
 elegant  modes  of  France.  Black  is  the  favorite  color.  Those 
 who  adopt  the  French  dress  make  choice  of  the  most  lively  col- 
 ors, and  it  is  not  uncommon  to  see  men  of  50  dressed  in  red,  or 
 sky-blue  silk. 
 
 The  Spaniards  are  often  indelicate  and  gross  in  their  conversa- 
 tion. In  their  language  and  their  topics  they  use  a  degree  of  free- 
 dom unknown  in  most  other  countries.  Loose  innuendoes,  volup- 
 tuous descriptions,  equivoque  and  obscenity  are  not  only  pardon- 
 ed, but  uttered  by  ladies  of  distinction  in  mixed  companies.  Both 
 •iexes  are  extremely  fond  of  dancing,  and  possess  the  greatest 
 
352  SPAIN. 
 
 aptitude  to  excel  in  the  art.  The  favoi-ite  dances  are  the  fan- 
 dango.)  and  the  seguidilla,  both  decidedly  of  Cyprian  origin,  and 
 wholly  offensive  to  the  eye,  even  of  decency.  They  are  also  de- 
 voted to  music,  and  balls,  and  concerts,  and  conversation  parties, 
 are  their  chief  social  amusement.  They  rarely  assemble  to  eat  at 
 each  others  houses.  Few  of  them  are  fond  of  the  chace.  Throw- 
 ing the  bar  is  the  most  customary  sport  of  the  common  peoplb. 
 But  the  bull-fights  are  the  favorite  national  amusement.  These 
 take  place  in  amphitheatres,  prepared  for  the  purpose,  and  usually 
 in  the  summer.  The  animal  is  first  attacked  by  horsemen,  armed 
 with  lances  ;  then  by  men  on  foot,  who  carry  a  kind  of  arrow,  ter- 
 minated like  a  fish-hook.  These  give  the  animal  exquisite  pain, 
 and  redouble  his  fury.  When  the  bujl  is  almost  exhausted,  a  man, 
 called  the  matador^  advances  alone  with  a  long  knife,  and  usually 
 with  a  single  blow  terminates  his  sufferings.  If  the  animal  ap- 
 pears deficient  in  spirit,  a  pack  of  dogs  is  let  in;  several  of  which 
 are  commonly  killed  before  their  purpose  is  accomplished.  Fre- 
 quently six  or  eight  of  the  horses  are  killed  in  a  single  fight,  and 
 sometimes,  though  rarely,  one  or  more  of  the  human  combatants. 
 In  spite  of  the  wanton  cruelty  of  this  amusement,  both  sexes,  of 
 every  age  and  rank,  crowd  to  a  bull-fight  day  after  day  with  en- 
 thusiasm, and  ge'.itry  and  nobles  do  not  disdain  to  appear  as  com^ 
 batants. 
 
 The  Spaniards  arc  generally  short,  thin,  and  well-proportioned. 
 Their  complexion  is  olive.  Their  mannei  s  are  grave  and  slow, 
 but  graceful.  They  are  distinguished  for  their  national  and  per- 
 sonal pride,  Tliese  prevent  them  from  stooping  to  the  more 
 grovelling  vices.  They  are  credulous,  superstitious,  and  bigot- 
 ted  ;  but  at  present  not  intolerant.  They  are  revengeful ;  but  as- 
 sasinalions  are  less  frequent  than  formerly,  and  are  not  common 
 except  in  Andalusia  and  Granada.  Jealousy  was  formerly  a  com- 
 mon characteristic  of  the  nation,  but  it  has  been  succeeded  by  a 
 more  criminal  indifference.  One  of  the  most  striking  of  the 
 present  national  manners  and  customs  is  the  common  practice  of 
 adultery,  under  the  mask  of  religion.  The  cicisbri  first  appeared 
 as  a  distinct  class  of  men  in  Italy  several  centuries  since,  and  were 
 soon  found  in  Austria,  Spain,  and  Portugal.  In  France  they  were 
 unnecessary.  In  Italy  they  are  usually  gentlemen.  In  Spain  they 
 are  often  monks  and  ecclesiastics.  They  are  called  cortcjos,  and 
 often  discover  a,  singular  degree  of  fidelity  and  constancy  in  their 
 criminal  attachment. 
 
 In  general  the  Spaniards  are  patient,  cautious,  distinguished  for 
 their  sobriety  and  temperance,  charitable,  friendly,  faithful,  and 
 strictly  honest  in  their  dealings.  They  are  obedient  to  the  laws, 
 and  willing  to  undergo  any  sacrifice  for  the  honor  of  their  country. 
 
 The  manners  of  tiie  different  Provinces,  have  each  also  their 
 particular  character.  The  Catalans  are  the  most  industrious,  ac- 
 tive and  ingenious.  They  are  fond  of  property.  Their  manners 
 are  rude  and  vulgar.  The  Valencian  is  mild  and  supple  in  his 
 manners,  idle,  subtle,  and  false.  All  the  mountebanks  and  tum- 
 blers come  from  ^^alcncia.     The  Andalusiun  is  well  made, nimble. 
 
SPAIN.  355 
 
 lively,  idle,  vain,  extravagant,  and  licentious.  The  Caslilian  is 
 haughty,  grave,  distant,  dienified,  mistrustful,  and  usually  well 
 informed  and  intelligent.  The  Gallicians  leave  their  own  coun- 
 try, and  are  employed  in  the  rest  of  Spain,  in  the  lowest  occupa- 
 tions, as  in  sweeping  chimneys  and  cleaning  shoes.  Most  of  the 
 servants  are  Asturians  :  they  are  faithful,  not  very  intelligent,  but 
 exact  in  the  performance  of  their  duty. 
 
 Lanffuag-c.']  The  Spanish  is  chiefly  derived  from  the  Latin, 
 and  resembles  it  more  than  the  French  or  Italian.  Many  of  the 
 words  however  are  of  Arabic,  and  some  of  Gothic  origin.  The 
 Moors  resided  so  long  in  Spain,  as  not  only  to  communicate  to  the 
 language  many  of  their  words  and  expressions,  but  also  gave  it 
 much  of  the  slow  formal  manner  of  the  orientals.  The  speech  is 
 grave,  sonorous,  of  superior  dignity,  and  of  exquisite  melody. 
 The  dialect  of  Castile  is  by  far  the  purest.  The  Biscayans  speak 
 an  entirely  different  language  from  the  Castilian.  It  is  of  Gothic 
 derivation.  The  Asturian  dialect  is  said  to  resemble  it,  and,  in  a 
 smaller  degree,  the  Gallician.  There  are  serious  varieties  in 
 those  of  the  other  provinces. 
 
 Literature.']     During    the   long  Rom.an   domination    Spain  re- 
 ceived so  many  colonists    from  Italy,  that  she  became  at  length 
 scarcely  inferior  to  it  in  civilization  and  learning.     Some  of  the 
 best  Latin  writers  were  natives  of  Spain.     Among  these  may  be 
 mentioned  Quinctilian,   Lucan,  Martial,  Pomponius  Mela,  Silius 
 Italicus,  and  Seneca.     The  Spaniards  had  translations  of  the  best 
 Greek    and   Latin  classics  before  the    close   of  the  15th  century, 
 which  was  long  before  they  were  translated  in  France  or  England. 
 Isidore  of  Seville  may  be  mentioned  among  the  fathers  of  litera- 
 ture in  this  country.     He  flourished  in  the  7th  century,  and  wrote 
 in  Greek  ;  and  is   inferior  in  merit  to  few  of  his   cotemporaries. 
 Under  the  Caliphs  of  Cordova  flourished  many  celebrated  writers. 
 Among  these  may  be  mentioned  Averroes,  Aben  Zoar  and  Rhazes. 
 The  History  of  Spain  by  Father  Mariana,  to  the  reign  of  Ferdinand 
 the  Catholic  is  written  in  an  admirable   style,  and  generally  with 
 accuracy.     The  chronicles  of  Fcrreras  de  Saavedra  are   in  great 
 estimation.     The  History  of  Catalonia,  by  a   bishop  of  Lerida,  is 
 no  contemptible  imitation  of  Livy.     The  best  memoirs  are  those 
 of  the  Marquis  of   Saint  Philip,  on    the   war   of  the   succession. 
 The  History  of  Mexico  by  Antonio  Solis   is  translated   into  every 
 European  language.     The  Conquest   of  Peru,  by  Garcilasso  de 
 la  Vega,  is  exact,  but  dry  and  uninteresting-     Hermondez's  His- 
 tory of  the  Indies  ought   also   to  be   mentioned   for  its  admirable 
 simplicity.     Francisco  Perez  Bayer,  author  of  a  dissertatien  on, 
 the  Phenician   language,  stands  in  the  first  list  of  Spanish  literati. 
 The  Spaniards  have  been  distifjuished  for  their  success  in  com- 
 positions of  gallantry,  in  fables,  and  ingenious  fictions.     P'or  nar- 
 rative invention   they  are  not  rivalled  by  any  European    nation. 
 The  plots  of  their  fables,  their  comedies,   farces,  novels,  and  ro- 
 mances, are   original  ;    and   have   been  borrowed  by  the  Italians, 
 French,  English,   and  Germans.     Cervantes    will   always    be  the 
 first  model  of  satirical  and  humorous  narrative.     Their  best  comic 
 VOL  II.  45 
 
354  SPAIN. 
 
 poets  are  Lopez  de  Vega,  Roxas,  Solis,  Moreto,  Arellano  aiut  the 
 immpi'tal  Caldei'on.  iM'cilla  was  a  soldier  in  Chili,  whenhe  wrote 
 his  Araiicana.  The  other  distinguished  poets  are  Luis  de  Leon, 
 Quevedo,  and  Villegas. 
 
 The  best  English  and  French  works  on  morality,  history,  and 
 philosophy  are  translated  into  Spanish.  In  philosophy  the  na- 
 tive authors  have  not  excelled.  For  some  time  past  the  nation  has 
 not  been  distinguished  by  its  progress  in  learning  or  science. 
 
 Univcrsilies.^  The  Spanish  universities  are  22  in  number.' 
 Six  of  these  were  devoted  to  the  education  of  young  men  of  fam- 
 ily. The  privileges  they  enjoyed  became  a  source  of  abuse,  and 
 in  1777,  they  underwent  a  thorough  reform.  The  University  of 
 Salamanca  has  a  library  of  more  than  20,000  volumes,  and  in  1785 
 contained  1909  students.  The  Logic  of  Aristotle,  and  the  Theol- 
 ogy of  Thoma.s  Aquinas  are  still  taught  in  all  the  universities. 
 Theje  are  academies  for  the  laws  of  Spain,  for  the  canon  law,  and 
 for  medicine  at  Madrid  ;  for  the  belles  lettres  and  for  medicine  at 
 Seville  ;  and  academy  of  the  arts  at  Valencia  and  Saragossa  ;  one 
 of  geography  at  Valladolid ;  one  of  mathematics  and  drawing  at 
 Gi'anada  ;  and  one  of  belles  lettres  at  Barcelona. 
 :  Cities.^  Accoi'ding  to  Hassel  there  are  in  Spain  145  cities, 
 4,364  borough  towns,  and  9,293  villages. 
 
 Madrid^  the  capital  of  Spain,  is  built  on  a  small  stream  call- 
 ed the  Manzanares,  which  empties  into  the  Xarama,  a  ti-ibutary  of 
 the  Tagus,  in  lat.  40  23  N.  and  3  12  W.  It  continued  an  obscure 
 town  in  Castile,  till  Charles  V.  made  it  the  royal  residence.  It 
 has  no  fortifications  nor  ditches,  being  only  surrounded  by  a  bad 
 Avail  with  15  gates.  The  streets  are  not  at  right  angles,  but  they 
 are  almost  all  straight,  wide,  clean,  and  well  paved.  It  has  also 
 several  squares,  or  areas,  not  very  spacious  or  regular;  but  the. 
 Plaza  Mayor  is  distinguished  for  its  beauty  and  regularity.  It  is 
 1536  feet  in  circuit,  a!id  inclosed  by  136  houses,  of  five  stories,  or- 
 namented by  balconies  which  are  supported  by  pillars.  This  is 
 the  scene  of  the  bull-fiQ;hts,  and  public  executions,  and  was  for- 
 merly qf  auto-da-fes.  The  streets  and  squares  are  adorned  with 
 fountains,  the  water  of  which  is  excellent,  and  the  air  of  the  town 
 is  ^  cry  pure  and  healthy.  Madrid  contains  18  parishes,  35  coa^ 
 veuLs  of  monks,  31  of  nuns,  39  colleges  and  hospitals,  14,100^ 
 houses,  and  156,672  inhabitants.  The  houses  are  chiefly  of  brick, 
 aiid  several  are  large  and  handsome.  The  Manzanares,  which 
 runs  W.  of  the  town,  a  small  distance  from  its  wails,  in  winter  is 
 a.  torrent,  but  dry  in  summer.  There  arc  two  bridges  over  it,  one 
 leading  to  Segovia,  the  other  to  Toledo.  Among  the  edifices  the 
 Palace  of  Madrid,  on  the  west  side  of  the  town,  near  the  river,  de- 
 serves the  first  mention.  It  is  new,  and  presents  four  fronts  of 
 470  feet  each,  and  100  in  height,  enriched  with  numerous  pillars 
 and  pilasters.  In  the  middle  is  a  spacious  court,  around  which 
 are  large  piazzas.  The  audience  chamber  is  a  double  cube  of  90 
 feet,  hung  with  crimson  velvet,  and  adorned  with  sumptuous  can- 
 opy, and  painted  ceiling.  In  almost  every  room  are  suspended 
 numerous  portraits,   and   other  paintings,  the  works  of  the   ^v<^\ 
 
SPAIN.  S55 
 
 masters.  The  palace  of  Buen  Retiro,on  the  east  side  of  the  town, 
 is  very  large,  but  destitute  of  beauty  and  magnificence.  It  fronts 
 upon  the  Prado,  a  public  walk,  a  mile  and  a  half  in  length,  which 
 has  long  been  famous  in  Spanish  comedy  and  romance.  It  is 
 planted  with  trees,  and  adorned  with  statues  and  fountains.  Se- 
 veral of  the  principal  streets  terminate  on  it.  That  of  Alcala,  the 
 widest  in  Europe,  crosses  it,  and  runs  by  the  side  of  the  gardens 
 of  the  palace.  The  churches  of  Madrid  are  not  distinguished  for 
 their  architecture.  Those  of  St.  Pasqual,  St.  Isabella,  and  the 
 Carmelites,  contain  collections  of  pictures,  which  cannot  be  seen 
 without  admiration.  Madrid  has  little  trade,  and  prospers  chiefly 
 by  the  presence  of  the  court.  The  royal  manufactures  of  china 
 and  salt-petre  are  established  here.  The  environs  of  Madrid  arc 
 far  from  being  handsome,  and  entirely  unadorned  with  palaces 
 and  villas. 
 
 Barcelona,  a  sea-port  of  Catalonia,  was  built  by  Amilcar  Barcas, 
 father  of  'Annibal  250  B.  C.  and  was  called  by  him  Barcino.  It 
 stands  on  a  plain  open  to  the  S.  E.  but  protected  by  hills  on  the  N. 
 and  W.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  double  brick  wall  with  1 4  bastions, 
 hornworks,  ramparts,  and  ditches.  The  old  and  new  town  are  se- 
 parated from  each  other  by  a  wall  and  ditch.  The  streets  are  nar- 
 roAv  and  crooked,  and  the  churches  are  rather  rich  than  beautiful. 
 The  arsenal  is  of  large  extent,  and  a  prodigious  gallery,  containing 
 28  forges,  has  been  erected  in  it  within  a  few  years.  The  other 
 chief  edifices  are  the  cathedral,  the  church  of  Notre  Dame,  the 
 exchange,  and  the  palaces  of  the  bishop,  the  governor,  that  for  the 
 deputation  of  the  nobles,  and  that  of  the  inquisition.  The  hospi- 
 tal contains  1,400  industrious  poor.  The  town  contains  8  parishes, 
 iO, 183  houses,  and  111,410  inhabitants.  The  inhabitants  are  in- 
 dustrious and  hospitable.  The  women  are  distinguished  for  their 
 beauty,  their  vivacity,  and  their  freedom  from  restraint.  The  har- 
 bor is  spacious,  deep,  and  secure.  A  mountain  called  Montjoui 
 rises  near  the  city,  in  the  middle  of  the  plain,  runs  into  the  sea  in 
 the  form  of  a  promontory,  is  covered  with  vineyards,  gardens,  and 
 groves,  and  a  strong  fort,  and  furnishes  a  quarry  of  fine  hard  free 
 stone.  On  the  other  side  of  the  entrance  is  a  large  mole,  with  a 
 light-house  and  fort  at  the  extremity.  This  is  the  second  com- 
 mercial town  in  Spain.  It  has  extensive  manufactures  of  silk,  cot- 
 ton, wool,  glass,  cutlery  and  fire  arms,  and  a  noble  foundery  of  can- 
 non. The  imports  are  corn,  codfish,  woollens,  silks  and  stockings  ; 
 she  exports  wine,  brandy,  cloth,  and  leather. 
 
 Valencia,  CELUed  Julia  Coionia,  and  afterwards  Valentia,  was  built 
 by  Junius  Brutus,  a  Roman  consul  about  A.  U.  C.  677.  It  stands 
 on  the  Guadalaviar,  about  half  a  league  from  its  mouth.  The 
 streets  are  narrow,  but  every  where  clean,  and  the  appearance  of 
 the  town  is  pleasing.  Here  are  a  military  school,  a  public  libra- 
 ry, and  45  convents.  Fine  edifices  are  not  numerous.  The  chief 
 are  a  large  cathedral,  and  the  church  of  the  Patriarch,  both  richly 
 ornamented  with  pa.intings,  and  the  temple,  a  church  entirely  mod- 
 ern, and  built  in  a  simple  and  noble  taste.  The  silk-manufaciures 
 ■  of  this  citv  arc  some  of  the  most  extensive  in  Europe.     About  4000 
 
356  SPAIN. 
 
 silk  looms  give  employiVient  to  more  than  20,000  of  the  inhabi- 
 tants, and  corjsume  yearly  627,000  lbs.  of  raw  silk.  Here  also  are 
 manufactured  soap,  tiles,  mats,  and  cordage.  A  fine  -walk  along 
 the  river  passes  five  handsome  stone  bridges,  and  leads  to  Grao,  a 
 little  village  at  its  mouth.  It  has  less  a  harbor,  than  a  bad  road 
 without  anchorage  or  shelter.  Vessels  seldom  approach  nearer 
 than  half  a  league.  The  cargoes  are  there  usually  put  into  barks, 
 which  are  rowed  almost  to  the  shore,  and  afterwards  towed  by 
 oxen,  till  they  are  out  of  the  water.  The  trade  of  the  city  is,  how- 
 ever, extensive  in  wine,  brandy,  salt,  fruits,  oil,  wool,  silk,  rice, 
 potash,  soda  and  barilla.  .  From  the  mouth  of  the  Ebro,  to  Car- 
 thagena  the  roads  of  Alicant  and  Santa  Pola,  are  the  only  places 
 where  anchoring  is  saie.  The  rest  of  the  coast  of  Valencia  is  low, 
 dangerous,  and  exposed  to  violent  east  winds.  The  environs  of 
 the  city  are  every  where  crowded  with  villages  and  orchards  in  the 
 midsi  of  a  fertile  and  beautiful  country,  and  the  top  of  a  very  lofty 
 tower  in  the  city  gives  one  of  the  most  beautiful  prospects  in  Eu- 
 rope.    Population,  105,000. 
 
 Sc-uilii,  the  HitijiaUs  of  the  Romans,  the  Hisfialia  of  the  Goths, 
 and  the  Ixhilla^  of  the  Moors,  was  built  long  before  the  Romans 
 ventured  into  Spaiii,  but  when,  or  by  whom,  is  vmcertain.  It 
 stands  in  the  midst  of  a  large  circular  plain,  on  the  south  side  of 
 the  Guadalquiver,  54  miles  from  its  mouth,  in  the  midst  of  a  coun- 
 try well  cultivated  and  adorned  with  orchards  and  villas.  It  is 
 surrounded  with  walls,  flanked  with  towers.  It  is  the  most  exten- 
 sive city  in  Spain,  and  contains  30  churches,  90  convents,  a  uni- 
 versity, several  hospitals  and  free  schools,  an  exchange,  and  a 
 mint,  13,500  dwelling  houses,  and  80,268  inhabitants.  When  Fer- 
 dinand took  Seville  from  the  Moors,  it  is  said  to  have  had  a  popu- 
 lation of  400,000  souls.  The  streets  are  irregular,  and  many  of 
 them  very  narrow.  The  houses  are  frequently  built  upon  poles, 
 and  are  generally  of  a  mean  appearance.  Seville  is  the  see  of  an 
 archbishop,  the  seat  of  an  audienza  real,  and  of  a  tribunal  of  inqui- 
 sition. Here  are  considerable  manufactories  of  salt-petre,  verdi- 
 grise,  leather,  silks,  cloth  and  gold  lace,  and  a  foundery  of  can- 
 non. Ferdinand  IV.  in  1757,  established  in  this  town  a  royal  to- 
 bacco manufactory,  at  an  expense  of  30,000,000  rials.  The  chief 
 building  is  a  square  of  750  feet,  two  stories  high  constructed  of 
 a  white  stone.  From  1500  to  2000  persons  are  here  daily  employ- 
 ed, and  80  mills  are  worked  by  100  horses  or  mules.  All  the  to- 
 bacco of  Spain  is  prepared  here.  The  Guadalquiver  is  navigable 
 by  ships  of  burthen  to  this  place  ;  but  thence  to  Cordova  only  by 
 small  craft.  It  was  the  seat  of  the  American  commerce,  till  1717, 
 when  it  passed  to  Cadiz.  The  exports  are  tobacco,  wool,  oil,  saf- 
 fron, wine  and  lemons. 
 
 Cadiz,  the  Gadir  of  the  Tyrians,  and  the  Gaden  of  the  Romans, 
 was  built  by  the  former  nation,  about  40  years  after  the  founding 
 of  Rome,  and  was  soon  transferred  to  the  Carthaginians,  who  held 
 it  several  centuries  before  their  conquest  of  Spain.  It  is  built  on  the 
 N.  W.  extremity  of  a  long  sandy  peninsula,  whicii  is  connected  by  a 
 very  narrow  isthmus  with  the  isle  of  Leon.     This  island  is  10  miles 
 
SPAIN.  357 
 
 in  length,  and  is  separated  from  the  continent  by  a  winding  narrow 
 strait,  which  at  its  N.  E.  end  opens  into  the  hai-bor  of  Cadiz.  The 
 harbor  stretches  from  E.  to  W.  and  opens  northwards  between 
 Forts  Matagordo  and  Lorenzo,  or  the  Funtalcs^  mto  the  Bay  of 
 Clidiz.  Both  the  Bay  and  harbor  are  secure  and  spacious.  The 
 Rota,  and  Fort  St.  Sebastian  defend  the  entrance  of  tne  bay.  Fort 
 St.  Catherine  is  farther  in,  and  Cantera  and  St.  Banez  are  inside 
 of  the  harbor.  On  the  S.  side  a  high  and  steep  shore,  on  the  N. 
 rocks  and  sand  banks,  and  on  the  west  a  ridge  of  rocks  render  it 
 inaccessible  from  the  Ocean.  Very  strong  fortifications  secure  it 
 from  an  attack  by  the  isthmus.  The  city  is  nearly  a  square. 
 The  streets  are  narrow,  yet  well  paved  and  clean.  Two 
 large  open  squares  contribute  to  ornament  and  health,  and  the 
 rampart  affords  an  airy  and  delightful  promenade.  The  houses 
 are  well  built,  and  very  lofty,  and  have  iiat  roofs,  which  are 
 covered  with  a  white  cement.  The  population  in  1 802  was  only 
 57,387.  Thirty  years  before,  it  was  estimated  at  80,000,  and  in 
 1787  it  was  67,987.  Many  of  the  inhabitants  are  foreigners. 
 Of  these  the  Irish,  Flemings,  Genoese,  and  Germans  are  most 
 numerous.  There  are  also  a  few  French,  English,  and  Dutch. 
 This  town  for  90  years  has  been  the  emporium  of  the  American 
 trade,  and  is  the  niost  commercial  in  Spain.  Its  commerce  em- 
 ploys about  1000  vessels,  of  which  nearly  one  tenth  are  Spanish, 
 The  exports  to4f America  in  1784,  amounted  to  ;C3, 62 1,443,  ster- 
 ling ;  the  imports  in  money  and  jewels,  to  )C8,297,164  ;  and  in 
 merchandize,  to  yJ2,990,757.  This  last  consisted  of  cochineal, 
 indigo,  cocao,  sugar,  hides,  vicugna  wool,  cotton,  copper,  tin,  to- 
 bacco, and  various  kinds  of  wood.  Ribbons  and  linen  are  man- 
 ufactured here  extensively,  and  wax  is  refined.  Salt  also  is  made 
 in  vast  quantities  on  the  other  side  of  the  bay,  with  little  labor  and 
 expense.  The  chief  edifices  are  the  two  cathedrals,  the  custom- 
 house and  the  theatre.  All  the  necessaries  and  luxuries  of  life 
 abound  here,  and  ar^  very  cheap,  except  fresh  water,  which  is 
 brought  from  across  the  Bay.  Consideral)Ie  inconvenience  has 
 been  experienced  from  this  source  during  the  present  siege  of 
 Cadiz  by  the  French. 
 
 Granada,  anciently  Iliberia,  a  municipal  town  of  the  Romans, 
 and  a  city  of  very  early  date,  stands  at  the  foot  of  the  snow-topped 
 Sierra  Nevada.  It  is  built  on  two  hills,  wluch  arc  separated  by 
 the  Darro,  and  its  walls  are  washed  by  the  Xenil,  a  tributary  of  the 
 Guadalquiver.  The  two  streams  unite  in  the  lower  part  of  the  tov/n. 
 To  the  S.  and  W.  lies  a  very  extensive  plain,  covered  witli  fertile 
 farms  and  thrifty  orchards,  and  interspersed  with  pleasant  towns 
 and  villages.  It  had  formerly  20  gf^tes,  of  which  only  12  remain. 
 The  streets  are  narrow,  irregular,  and  badly  paved.  Few  of  the 
 houses  are  splendid.  They  are  about  12,000  in  number,  and  the 
 population  in  1787,  was  52,345.  There  are  here  24  churches,  4 
 convents,  13  hospitals,  and  a  university.  Among  all  their  losses 
 in  Spain  the  Moors  are  said  to  lament  nothing  but  Granada,  and 
 in  their  evening  prayers  they  supplicate  Fleaven  to  restore  it  to 
 their  possession. 
 
 Murc/a  was  a  small  Carthaginian  village,  till  the  time  oi  Scipio. 
 
358  SPAIN. 
 
 The  Romans  dedicated  it  to  Venus  on  account  ol"  hs  luyrtlcs  and 
 fountains.  It  stands  on  the  N.  side  of  the  river  Segura,  about  20 
 i-niles  from  the  Mediterranean,  in  a  dciightful  valley,  25  leagues 
 long  from  E.  to  W.  and  a  league  and  a  half  bVoad.  The  environs 
 are  adorned  with  gardens  and  orchards  of  mulberries,  and  Venus 
 might  still  ov,  n  it  for  its  myi'tles.  The  town  contains  6  parish 
 churches,  a  cathedral,  16  convents,  and  a  large  library,  but  not 
 a  single  inn.  The  population  is  44,000.  The  river  is  decorated 
 "with  a  fine  stone  bridge,  and  a  magnificent  quay.  This  city  be- 
 longed to  the  Romans  616  years,  to  the  Goths  310,  to  the  Moors 
 $27.     They  lost  it  in  1241. 
 
 Sarag-ossa,  the  ancient  Caesaria  Augusta.,  and  the  present  capital 
 of  Arragon,  stands  in  a  fertile  plain,  on  the  southern  bank  of  the 
 Ebro,  which  by  its  windings  renders  the  neighborhood  extremely 
 rich  and  delightful.  The  streets  are  long  and  broad,  but  dirty  and 
 ill-paved.  Here  are  two  cathedrals,  15  parish  churches  and  10 
 convents  ;  also  some  distilleries,  and  manufactories  of  silks,  cot- 
 tons, and  hats.  The  vmiversity  has  been  mentioned.  Population 
 42,000. 
 
 Malaga.,  in  the  W.  part  of  Grenada,  wasbuilt  by  the  Phenicians, 
 who  called  it  Malacha^  from  the  quantities  of  salt-fish  sold  there. 
 The  harbor  is  safe  and  commodious,  being  protected  by  an  ex- 
 pensive mound  running  1200  feet  into  the  sea.  The  town  stands 
 at  the  foot  of  a  high  mountain,  and  is  small,  but  handsome.  It 
 contains  5000  houses,  and  in  1808,  41,982  inhabitants.*  The 
 neighboring  country  is  peculiarly  fertile  in  vines  and  fruits.  The 
 exports  are  wines,  brandy,  raisins,  oil,  lemons,  figs,  almonds, 
 sweetmeats,  and  black  sarsnet,  to  the  amount  of  ^'400,000.  The 
 imports  are  wheat,  barley,  linens,  stockings,  woollens,  cheese,  but- 
 ter and  fish  to  the  amount  of  j^200,000.  The  cathedral  is  elegant 
 and  noble. 
 
 Fcrrol  is  a  strong  fortress  and  seaport  on  the  Bay  of  Corunna, 
 or  the  "Groyne,"  with  one  of  the  best  and  safest  harbors  in  Eu- 
 rope. It  is  one  of  the  stations  of  the  navy,  has  a  large  sea-arsenal, 
 the  most  important  dockyards  and  sail-cloth  manufactories  in  the 
 kingdom,  and  a  large  marine  hospital,  capable  of  receiving  5000 
 patients.  It  had  in  1793,  30,Ouo  inhabitants,  and  as  late  as  1752, 
 was  merely  a  collection  of  fisherman's  huts. 
 
 Cartbagena.;  in  Murcia,  anciently  JVova  Carthago^  was  built  by 
 Asdrubal  the  brother  of  Annibal,  B.  C.  229.  The  environs  for 
 some  distance  are  ci'owded  witli  villages,  farms,  and  country  scats. 
 High  mountains  and  barren  rocks  protect  the  town  on  the  S.-and 
 W.  On  the  N.  and  E.  it  is  open.  The  harbor  is  the  best  in 
 Spain,  deep,  well  sheltered  and  well  defended  ;  and  affords  a  fine 
 fishery.  The  streets  are  wide,  and  the  houses  commodious.  They 
 have  fiat  roofs,  affording  an  agreeable  retreat  after  sunset.  In  the 
 middle  of  the  city  is  a  high  hill,  with  a  fort.  The  trade  is  in  silks 
 and  barilla.  Esparto  ropes  and  cables  arc  manufactured  here. 
 Population  29,000.     This  is  a  station  of  the  royal  navy. 
 
 *  Ilassel. 
 
SPAIN.  '  159 
 
 Ecija,  in  Andalusia,  is  delightfully  situated  on  the  banks  of  the 
 Xenil.  It  has  6  parish  churches,  8  chapels,  20  convents,  6  hos- 
 pitals, 6000  dwelling  houses,  and  28,176  inhabitants.  The  town 
 plat  is  large,  the  houses  are  well  built,  and  the  environs  abound,  in 
 villas  and  plantations  of  olive-trees. 
 
 Jac7i^  in  the  same  province,  on  a  small  tributary  of  the  Guadal- 
 quivir, is  built  in  a  country  fertile  in  corn,  wine,  oil,  silk,  and  ex- 
 cellent fruits.  It  is  surrounded  Avith  walls,  and  has  several  beau- 
 tiful churches  and  convents.     Population  27,500. 
 
 Toledo,'m  New  Castile,  anciently  Tolctum,  42  miles  from  Madrid, 
 is  built  on  a  rock  of  granite  that  is  almost  surrounded  by  the  Tagus. 
 The  town  is  large,  but  the  streets  are  solitary,  and  many  houses 
 are  in  ruins.  Toledo  was  formerly  the  capital,  and  contained 
 200,000  inhabitants.  It  has  now  but  25,000.  The  Toledo  rapiers 
 were  once  celebrated  for  their  temper,  ^|jd  the  secret  of  hardening 
 them  is  said  to  have  been  lately  recovereS. 
 
 Valladolidy'in  Leon,  is  an  ancient  handsome  town,  on  the  Pisu- 
 erga,  containing  15  churches,  16  convents,  and  24,000  inhabitants. 
 An  annual  fair  is  held  here,  and  the  streets  are  lively  and  full  of 
 business. 
 
 Lorca^  in  Murcia,  stands  on  a  hill  round  which  flows  the  Guada- 
 lentin.  It  is  a  large,  but  decayed  city,  containing  2000  houses,  and 
 21,866  inhabitants. 
 
 St.  Jago  di  Co7}!/iostel!a,ihe  capital  of  Gallicia,  stands  in  a  beau- 
 tiful valley  on  all  sides  surrounded  with  hills,  between  the  Tambra 
 and  Ulla.  The  public  squares  and  churches  are  magnificent,  and 
 the  dwelling  houses  well-built.  It  contains  a  cathedral,  1  i  parish 
 churches,  12  convents,  about  2000  houses,  and  21,334  inhabitants. 
 The  belief  that  the  body  of  the  apostle  James  was  buried  here,  for- 
 nierly  drew  hither  multitudes  of  pilgrims  from  all  parts  of  Chris- 
 tendom, and  still  draws  a  few  zealous  catholics  from  Spain. 
 
 Oi-i/mela,  on  the  Segura,  in  Valencia,  stands  in  a  delightful  plain, 
 environed  with  mountains,  and  fertile  to  a  proverb.  Its  manufac- 
 tures of  silk  and  salt-petre  are  considerable.     Population  21,000. 
 
 Cordova,  in  Andalusia,  the  ancieiit  Corduba,  and  the  birth  place 
 of  both  the  Senecas,  and  of  Lucan,  is  built  in  a  semicircular  am- 
 phitheatre, inclosed  by  a  brarxh  of  the  Sierra  Morena,  on  the  nortli 
 bctnk  of  the  Guadalquiver.  On  the  opposite  side  lies  an  extensive 
 and  fertile  plain.  The  bridge  is  of  stone,  a  Moorish  structure. 
 It  contains  26  churches,  and  40  convents,  many  of  the  houses  are 
 deserted,  and  many  in  ruins.  The  streets  are  long,  narrow,  and 
 ill  paved.  Population  20,274.  There  are  many  vineyards  and 
 gardens  in  the  town,  and  the  country  aroitnd  abounds  in  orange  and 
 lemon  groves. 
 
 Alicant,  in  Valencia,  is  built  between  a  mountain  and  the  sea, 
 and  is  well  defended  by  strong  bastions  ;  it  has  a  good  harboi ,  and  an 
 extensive  commerce.  Population  17,435.  Elchc,  a  few  miles 
 south,  contains  17,403  iphabitants. 
 
 Of  the  most  noted  smaller  towns,  Bilboa  has  13,000,  Burgos, 
 10,000,  Badajos  10,000,  Lerida  16,818,  Pampeluna  14,054,  Sala- 
 manca 15.000,  and  St.  Sebastian  12,000. 
 
S60  SPAIN. 
 
 £dfjces.']  The  palace  and  monastery  of  the  Escurial  liavebeen 
 described  at  great  length  by  many  travellers.  It  is  seated  m  a 
 deep  recess,  at  the  foot  of  hi[yh  mountains  ;  and  was  built  by  that 
 bigot  Philip  II.  in  the  strajige  form  of  a  gridiron,  the  instrument 
 of  the  martyrdom  of  St.  Lawrence,  upon  whose  anniversary  the 
 Spaniards  gained  the  victory  of  St.  Quintin.  The  convent  is  740 
 feet  by  580  ;  and  the  palace  forms  the  handle  of  this  imaginary 
 gridiron.  The  paintings  are  excellent  and  numerous;  and  the 
 vault  containing  the  royal  tombs  is  grand  and  impressire.  But  the 
 palaces  of  Aranjuez  and  St.  Ildefonso  are  greater  favourites  with 
 the  court.  The  gardens  of  the  former,  watered  by  the-«Tajo,  are 
 laid  out  in  a  just  and  natural  taste.  St.  Ildefonso  is  a  summer  resi- 
 dence exposed  to  the  north. 
 
 Manufactures  and  Commerce.']  The  most  flourishing  period  of 
 Spanish  manufactures  Ajj|as  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  At  that  time 
 Segovia  and  Seville  were  the  greatest  manufacturing  towns  in  Eu- 
 rope, and  Spanish  silks  went  every  where,  even  to  the  Levant. 
 There  are  now  respectable  woollen  manufactures  at  Segovia,  Se- 
 ville, Guadalaxara,  and  several  other  places,  that  produce  broad- 
 cloths, blankets,  flannels,  and  other  articles  of  a  good  quality. 
 Cotton  manufactures  are  also  found,  especially  in  Catalonia.  The 
 silk  manufactures  are  the  most  important  and  flourish  most  in 
 Catalonia  and  Valencia.  Great  quantities  of  silk  however  are 
 smuggled  in  from  France.  At  Carthagena,  Ferrol,  and  other 
 places  are  considerable  linen  and  sail  cloth  manufactories  ;  but 
 the  greater  part  of  these  articles  is  supplied  from  abroad.  Manu- 
 factures of  leather  are  found  in  every  considerable  town,  and  most 
 of  the  small  ones.  There  are  about  200  paper  mills  in  Spain, 
 the  most  and  best  in  Valencia  ;  where  china  is  also  manufactured, 
 which  rivals  that  of  Saxony.  The  salt-petre  works,  powder-mills, 
 and  tar  ovens,  yield  nearly  a  sufiicient  supply.  Soap  manufacto- 
 ries are  found  every  where.  The  Tobacco  manufactory  of  Seville 
 is  the  largest  in  the  world.  The  best  dockyards  arc  at  Seville, 
 Malaga,  Alioant,  Barcelona,  and  St.  Sebastian  ;  and  ship-building 
 is  reviving.  Salt  is  made  in  immense  quantities  in  Valencia,  and 
 Andalusia.  Manufactures  in  metals  are  almost  wholly  neglected. 
 All  sorts  of  hardware,  and  most  of  the  furniture  and  tools  that  are 
 used,  are  imported  from  France  and  England. 
 
 The  inland  trade  has  been  latterly  much  facilitated  by  the  in- 
 troduction of  a  unity  of  measures,  weights,  and  coins,  throughout 
 the  kingdom,  by  the  removal  of  various  burthens,  by  the  improve- 
 juent  of  the  roads,  and  by  the  construction  of  canals.  Still  it  is 
 chiefly  in  the  hands  of  the  rich.  The  poverty  of  the  husbandman 
 often  compels  him  to  sell  his  harvest  before  it  is  sown,  at  an  enor- 
 mous discount.  The  foreign  trade  is  mostly  carried  on  by  other 
 nations.  Spanish  ships  sail  to  the  ports  of  the  Mediterranean,  and 
 lo  the  colonics  of  Spain.  The  chief  imports  arc  hardware,  corn, 
 bvuter,  cheese,  fish,  (upwards  of /CI, 000,000  sterling  annually,)  fur- 
 niture, cpiicksilvcr,  guns  and  other  arms,  timber,  linen,  sail-cloth, 
 cordage,  flax,  hemp,  wax,  paper,  millinery,  sugar  and  spices. 
 The  chief  exports  are  wool,  (nearly  ,C1, 000,000  sterling  annually,) 
 
SPAIN.  '36  ^ 
 
 raw  and  manufactured  silks,  wine,  raisins,  brandy,  figs,  lemons, 
 salt,  iron,  saffron,  horses,  tobacco,  cork,  soda,  barilla,  ( 1 50,000  quin- 
 tals,) rice,  (^^2 50,000  sterling,)  saltpetre,  and  various  American 
 goods.  The  balance  of  trade  is  greatly  in  favor  of  Spain.  In 
 1784  the  imports  from  America  amounted,  in  money  and  jewels, 
 to  ;C9,29 1,237,  in  merchandize,  to  .^3,343,936,  the  exports  to 
 ;e4,348,078.  In  1796  tlie  exports  to  Gi'eat  Britain,  were  £809,881  ; 
 the  imports  £546,126. 
 
 It  will  readily  be  seen,  that  almost  all  we  have  already  said 
 respecting  Spain,  is  predicated  on  a  period  of  quiet  and  ordei',  a»d 
 that  few  things  capable  of  change,  can  remain  unaltered  in  the 
 present  season  of  uproar  and  misrule. 
 
 CHAPTER  II. 
 
 NATURAL  GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 CLIMATE,  FACE  OF  THE    COUNTRY,  SOIL    AND  AGRICULTURE,  Riy- 
 ERS,   MOUNTAINS,  BOTANY,    ZOOLOGY,  MINERALS. 
 
 Climate.']  MANY  of  the  highest  mountains  are  covered 
 with  perennial  snow.  The  winter  is  very  mild  in  the  low  and 
 southern  districts,  where  it  seldom  freezes ;  but  in  the  higher 
 tracts,  the  winter  is  often  as  severe  as  in  England  or  Germany. 
 In  the  south,  the  air  is  hot  and  damp  during  tho  summer  ;  in  the 
 north  it  is  cooler  and  drier  ;  but  every  where  liable  to  sudden 
 changes.  On  the  whole,  the  climate  is  less  salubrious  and  less 
 favorable  to  longevity,  than  that  of  the  more  northern  countries 
 of  Europe.  Infectious  and  malignant  fevers  originate  and  prevail 
 in  the  south,  and  sometimes  sweep  off  great  numbers.  On  the 
 Mediterranean  the  sea-breeze  blows  every  day  from  9  till  5 
 o'clock  ;  and  pleasantly  tempers  the  warmth  of  summer.  The 
 south  wind  from  A^frica,  called  the  Salano,  is  oppressive  and  un- 
 wholesome ;  but  the  Gallego,  a  N.  W.  wind,  from  the  mountains 
 of  Gallicia,  is  cool  and  refreshing.  In  many  parts  the  trees  re- 
 tain their  verdure  all  the  year,  and  where  the  leaf  falls  it  buds 
 again  in  January. 
 
 I'ace  of  the  Country. ~\  Spain  is  probably  the  most  mountainous 
 country  in  Europe.  The  western  part  of  New  Castille  is  open 
 and  plain.  The  centre  of  Arragon  is  level  and  sandy.  Valencia 
 and  the  northern  half  of  Murcia,  consist  chiefly  of  extensive  plains 
 and  vallies,  every  where  fertile  and  well  cultivated.  The  rest  of 
 the  country  is  rough  and  broken.  The  highest  mountains  are 
 chiefly  destitute  of  vegetation,  and  the\r  tops  are  always  white  with 
 snow.  The  lower  eminences  are,  still,  almost  universally  forest- 
 ed, and  in  this  respect  resemble  the  mountains  of  New-tngland. 
 The  rivers  and  streams  are  numerous,  and,  with  the  exception  of 
 Now  Castille,  the  country  is  well  watered. 
 
 Soil  and  yJgriculture,]  The  soil  is  generally  light  and  rests  on 
 beds  of  Plaister  of  Paris,  which  is  itself  an  excellent  manure. 
 Near  the  shore,  and  along  the  banks  of  the  rivers,  it  is  generally 
 
 VOL.  II.  46 
 
352  SPAIN. 
 
 more  fertile  than  in  the  central  districts.  The  two  Caslilles,  Bis- 
 cay, Navarre,  Arragon,  and  especially  Gallicia,  and  Leon,  have  an 
 indifferent  soil ;  yet  susceptible  of  high  fertility  under  skilful  and 
 vigorous  husbandry.  Asturia,  Estremadura,  and  the  Meditcrra-. 
 nean  provinces  ;  especially  Andalusia  and  Valencia,  have  natively 
 an  exuberant  fertility,  and,  with  moderate  cultivation,  yield  many 
 of  the  luxuries  of  life.  In  the  vale  of  Valencia  wheat  yields  from 
 20  to  40  for  one  ;  barley  from  IS  to  24  ;  oats  from  20  to  30; 
 maize  100;  and  rice  40.  The  Provinces  on  the  Mediterranean, 
 except  Andalusia,  especially  Valencia  and  Granada,  are  under 
 high  cultivation,  as  are  also  Gallicia,  Asturia,  Biscay  and  Navarre, 
 The  agriculture  of  the  other  provinces  is  much  neglected.  Leon 
 is  merely  a  sheep-pasture.  And  large  uncultivated  tracts  are 
 spread  over  New  Castille,  and  the  other  provinces.  In  this  part 
 of  Spain  the  villa.i;es  are  large  and  at  a  distance  from  each  other, 
 and  the  country  between  them,  except  about  a  league  round  each, 
 is  merely  a  forest  or  a  barren.  Frequently  there  is  not  a  single 
 habitation  in  the  space  of  four,  five,  or  six  leagues.  The  vine,  the 
 olive,  maize,  wheat,  rye,  barley,  hemp,  flax,  and  saffron,  are  culti- 
 vated in  every  province.  The  best  wine  districts  are  New  Cas- 
 tille, La  Mancha,  in  particular  ;  Malaga,  Seville,  Cadiz,  Valencia, 
 Arragon  and  Navarre.  Of  the  three  sorts  of  Malaga  wine,  Mala- 
 ga^ Mountain,  and  Tent,  about  30,000  ankers  are  yearly  export- 
 ed ;  and  of  the  Xeres  or  Sherry  wine,  about  20,000  pipes.  This  is 
 made  at  Xeres  do  la  Frontera,  10  miles  N-  E.  of  Cadiz.  A  great 
 part  of  the  wines  made  in  Spain  is  distilled  into  brandy  ;  of  a  qual- 
 ity, however,  much  inferior  to  the  French.  The  best  raisins  are 
 made  of  the  grapes  of  Malaga,  Alicant,  Valencia,  and  Grana- 
 da. Biscay  and  Asturia  abound  in  orchards,  and  make  the  best  of 
 cyder  in  great  quantities.  The  northern  provinces  raise  great 
 quantities  of  cattle.  The  sheep  are  of  two  kinds,  the  travelling  ov 
 Merinos,  estimated  at  5,000,000  in  number,  and  the  stationary  at 
 8,000,000.  The  first  winter  in  the  Sierra  Morena,  and  in  the  month 
 of  May  travel  northward  in  flocks  of  10,000  to  the  mountains  of 
 Old  Castille.  They  yield  the  finest  fleeces,  which  in  1792  amount- 
 ed to  1 1,250,000  lbs.  of  clear  wool.  The  stationary  abound  ifi  va- 
 rious provinces,  particularly  Leon  and  Estremadura.  The  mule 
 is  the  usual  beast  of  burden  in  Spain.  Goat's  milk  is  generally 
 used  instead  of  cow's  milk,  t-.nd  oil  instead  of  butter.  Rice  is  cul- 
 tivated chiefly  in  Catalonia  and  Valencia  ;  sugar  in  Granada,  hon- 
 ey there  and  in  Andalusia ;  cotton  and  the  best  olives  and  oil  in 
 the  south.  The  6a//co?v;ifl,  Oi' shrubby  glasswort,  is  raised  exten- 
 sively in  the  S.  E.  coast.  It  is  sown  in  plowed  or  well-manured 
 fields,  near  the  sea  or  salt-lakes  ;  it  is  reaped  in  the  same  manner 
 as  hay,  tied  up  in  bundles  and  burned  in  covered  holes  in  the 
 ground.  Under  the  iishes  the  barilla  is  found  in  firm  lumps.  The 
 Spanish  potatoes,  artichokes,  asparagus  and  other  products  of  the 
 garden  are  excellent;  but  horticulture  is  much  neglected. 
 
 Rivers.']  The  only  large  river  that  falls  into  the  Mediterranean 
 in  Spain,  is  the  Ebro,  the  ancient  Iberus.  It  rises  in  the  Asturian 
 mountains,  and  pursues  a  S.  W.  course  through  Old  Castille,  Na- 
 
SPAIN.  363 
 
 varre,  Arrag-on,  and  Catalonia.  Its  length  is  about  440  miles. 
 It  begins  to  be  navigable  at  Tudela  ;  and  its  water  is  remarkable 
 for  its  salubrity.  Tho  chief  branches  are  Arga  from  Navarre,  the 
 Xiloca  from  Arragon,  and  the  Sagre  from  Catalonia.  The  small- 
 er rivers  that  fall  into  the  Mediterranean  are  the  Guadalaviar, 
 fTuriasiJ  at  Valencia;  the  Xucar,  ( Sucro,)  below  Alzira ;  and 
 the  Segura,  (Tcrebus)  below  Orihuela. 
 
 The  Guadalquivir,  the  ancient  Baetis^  rises  in  New  Castille 
 from  the  Sierra  Morena,  and  runs  S.  W.  through  a  corner  of  Gra- 
 nada, and  through  Andalusia,  to  the  Atlantic,  at  St.  Lucar  de  Bar- 
 zameda,  about  20  miles  N.  W.  of  Cadiz.  Its  length  is  about  340 
 miles.  Anciently  it  is  said  to  have  had  a  southern  arm  which  emp- 
 tied at  Cadiz.  The  Xenil  (Singulis)  its  principal  branch  runs  by- 
 Granada,  and  falls  in  about  a  league  below  Ecija. 
 
 The  Gaudiana,  the  ancient  Jnas,  rises  in  the  mountains  of  To- 
 ledo, and  runs  S.  W.  through  New  Castille  and  Esti-emadura,  to  Ba- 
 dajos,  where  it  enters  the  province  of  Alentejo  in  Portugal.  Thence 
 its  course  is  S.  W.  and  then  S.  E.  till  at  length  it  becomes  a  boun- 
 dary of  the  two  kingdoms,  separating  Algarve  from  Andalusia,  and 
 falling  into  the  Atlantic,  after  a  course  nearly  equal  to  that  of  the 
 '  Ebro,     It  is  navigable  to  Mertola,  about  45  miles. 
 
 The  Tagus,  or  Tajo,  rises  in  the  mountains  of  Molina,  the  wes- 
 tern boundary  of  Arragon,  near  Albarracin,  and  runs  W.  S.  W. 
 through  New  Castille  and  Estremadura,  to  Alcantara.  Here  for 
 20  miles,  to  Errera,  it  separates  Estremadura  from  Beira,  in  Por- 
 tugal, where  entering  that  kingdom  it  flows  through  Estremadura 
 to  the  Atlantic  by  a  mouth  4  miles  broad  forming  the  harbor  of 
 Lisbon.  Its  course  is  rapid  and  the  upper  part  impeded  by  cata- 
 racts. Its  length  is  about  520  miles,  and  it  is  much  the  largest 
 river  of  Spain.  The  tide  flows  up  to  Santarem,  and  tlie  river  is 
 navigable  for  flat  vessels  about  ?  20  miles. 
 
 The  Douro,  or  Duero,  the  ancient  Duriiis,  rises  in  the  Molina, 
 and  runs  westward  through  Old  Castille  and  Leon,  to  Miranda. 
 Thence  it  runs  S.  W.  between  the  two  kingdoms,  about  80  miles, 
 separating  Leon  from  Tras-os-Montes.  Here  it  enters  Portugal, 
 and  runs  westward  to  the  Atlantic,  into  which  it  falls  a  little  be- 
 low Oporto.     Its  whole  course  is  about  400  miles. 
 
 The  Minho,  the  ancient  Minius,  rising  near  Mondonedo  in  Gal- 
 licia,  runs  S.  W.  180  miles  to  the  Atlantic,  into  Avhich  it  falls  15 
 miles  below  Tuy.  For  about  40  miles  it  constitutes  the  northern 
 boundary  of  Portugal.  Its  waters  abound  with  excellent  salmon 
 and  sturgeon.  Its  current  is  gentle,  and  it  is  navigable  about  25 
 miles.     A  bar  at  the  mouth  prevents  the  entrance  of  large  vessels. 
 
 The  Tinto  is  a  little  river  falling  into  the  Atlantic  about  25  miles 
 N.  W.  of  the  Guadalquivir.  Its  water  is  said  to  be  of  a  deep  yel- 
 low color,  and  to  have  very  singular  petrifying  powers.  It  withers 
 all  verdure  on  its  banks,  and  no  kind  offish  live  in  its  stream. 
 
 Mountains.~\  The  Pyrenees  between  France  and  Spain  have  al- 
 ready been  described. 
 
 The  Northern,  or  Cantabrian  chain,  commencing  near  Cipe  Fi- 
 nisterre,  runs  through  Gallicia,  south  of  Asturias  and  Biscay,  and 
 
364  SPAIN. 
 
 I 
 through  Navarre,  till  it  jpins  the  Pyrenean  chain,  of  which  it  is 
 merely  a  continuation.  It  is  called  in  different  parts,  the  Moun- 
 tains of  Mondopedo,  Asturias,  and  Biscay,  and  no  where  contains 
 very  lofty  suminits. 
 
 The  *Sierra  de  Molina  is  a  range  branching  from  the  Canta- 
 brian  in  Old  Castille,  and  running  S.  E.  through  that  province, 
 and  betv/een  New  Castille  and  Arragon,  and  advances  towards  the 
 Mediterranean  in  the  N.  of  Valencia. 
 
 The  mountains  of  Guadarama  break  from  the  last  mentioned 
 chain  in  a  W.  S.  W.  direction,  separate  the  two  Castilles,  and 
 crossing  the  northern  part  of  Estremadura  enter  Portugal,  across 
 which  they  run  in  a  S.  W.  direction  nearly  to  Cape  Roca.  In  Por- 
 tugal the  chain  is  called  *Serra  d'  Estrella. 
 
 The  mountains  of  Toledo,  farther  south,  run  nearly  parallel 
 with  these  between  the  Tagus  and  Guadiana,  across  Estremadura 
 and  New  Castille,  and  unite  also  with  the  range  of  Molina. 
 
 The  Sierra  Morena,  a  third  parallel  range  between  the  Avaters 
 of  the  Guadiana  and  the  Guadalquivir,  separates  Ncav  Castille 
 and  Estremadura  from  Andalusia,  and  after  being  pierced  by  the 
 Guadiana  enters  Portugal  and  serves  as  the  northern  boundary  of 
 the  province  Algarve.  The  chain  in  Portugal  runs  from  E.  to  W. 
 the  whole  M'idth  of  the  kingdom,  and  is  called  Serra  de  Mon- 
 chique. 
 
 The  Sierra  Nivada,  or  Snowy  Mountains,  run  between  the 
 Guadalquivir  and  the  Mediterranean,  nearly  parallel  with  the  lat'- 
 ter,  through  Andalusia  and  Granada;  and,  at  lengtii  turn  north- 
 ward, bounding  Murcia  on  the  W. 
 
 Montserrat,  or  the  Sawed  Mountain,  so  called,  on  account  of  its 
 jagged  pyramidal  summits,  lies  about  30  miles  N.  W.  of  Barcelona. 
 It  is  a  detached  solitary  rock  more  than  11,000  feet  high,  and 
 about  10^  miles  in  circumference,  from  the  top  of  which  Majorca 
 and  Minorca  are  distinctly  visible,  at  the  distance  of  50  leagues. 
 It  is  composed  of  limestone  and  gravel  united  by  a  calcareous  ce- 
 ment. A  large  convent  of  Benedictines  has  been  built  upon  it,  to 
 which  a  mira,culous  image  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  discovered  by  some 
 shepherds  in  880,  attracts  an  immense  number  of  pilgrims.  All 
 the  poor  Avho  come  here,  are  fed  gratis  for  thi'ee  days  ;  and  all  the 
 sick  are  received  into  the  hospital.  In  the  convent  are  60  monks, 
 who  live  in  a  recluse  manner,  and  adhere  to  very  rigid  rules  of 
 abstinence.  Higher  up  the  mountain  are  thirteen  hermitages, 
 each  having  a  small  chapel,  a  cell,  a  Avell  in  the  rock,  and  a  little 
 garden.  The  hermits  are  chiefly  persons  of  family  and  fortune, 
 who  have  retired  thither  from  the  worjd  to  devote  themselves  to 
 meditation  and  silerxe.  A  mule  is  sent  weekly  from  the  convent 
 with  thirteen  baskets  of  provisions,  one  for  each  of  the  hernuts. 
 One  of  the  hermitages  is  very  curiously  and  aAvfully  constructed 
 between  two  narrow  projections  of  the  rock  ;  and  though  it  is 
 2500  paces  distant  from  the  convent,  it  impends  so  much  over  it, 
 
 *  Sierra  in  Spani.'-li,  and  Serra  in  I'ortugnese,  tu-e.  general  denominations  of  clniin 
 of  mountains,  tlie  successive  peaks  of  which  inesent  tlie  reseinblauce  of  a  sa-c 
 
SPAIN.  3^5 
 
 I'hat  the  music  in  the  church  below  can  be  heard  very  distinctly. 
 This  church  contains  immense  treasures  of  gold  and  silver,  the 
 voluntary  spoils  of  numberless  pilgrims  ;  among  other  things  640 
 massy  silver  lamps,  a  great  number  of  golden  candlesticks,  whole 
 rooms  filled  with  busts  and  statues,  and  ministerial  vessels  also  of 
 gold.  The  traveller  is  surprised  to  meet  with  delightful  valleys 
 in  the  midst  of  these  threatening  rocks,  to  find  shade  and  verdure 
 surrounded  by  sterility,  and  to  see  natural  cascades  rushing  from 
 the  steepest  points  of  the  mountain  to  fertilize  the  scattered  ?var- 
 dens,  and  by  their  unvarying  murmurs,  to  give  a  deeper  gloom  to 
 the  surrounding  silence. 
 
 The  mountain  of  Cardona,  a  few  miles  N.  W.  of  Montserrat,  is 
 an  immense  mass  of  i-ock  salt,  rising  to  the  height  of  nearly  500 
 feet  above  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  nearly  5  miles  in  cir- 
 cumference. The  salt  is  of  almost  every  color,  and  the  various  em- 
 inences when  illuminated  by  the  sun  remind  one  of  the  mountains 
 of  emeralds,  rubies,  and  diamonds  in  Fairy-land.  Vases,  urns, 
 and  various  other  utensils  are  made  of  this  mineral,  some  of  ele- 
 gant orange,  others  of  violet,  green  and  blue,  all  beautifully 
 wrought  and  fearing  no  enemy  but  water.  Part  of  the  mountain 
 is  covered  with  shrubs,  and  the  top  is  shaded  by  a  forest  of  pines. 
 
 Botany.'^  The  forest  trees  of  Spain  are  the  pine,  the  white  oak  ; 
 the  evergreen,  sweet  oak  ;  the  kermes  oak,  under  the  prickly  leaves 
 of  which  is  found  the  gall-insect ;  the  suber  or  oak  which  produces 
 cork  ;  the  Encina  or  Spanish  oak  ;  the  beech  ;  the  walnut ;  the 
 lime  ;  the  ash  ;  the  yew  ;  the  larch  ;  the  holly  ;  the  juniper  ;  the 
 fir ;  the  carob  tree  ;  the  wild  olive  ;  the  wild  almond  ;  the  sumach  ; 
 the  laurel ;  the  bay  ;  the  laurus  tinus  and  Portugal  laurel  ;  the 
 great  palm-tree,  abounding  in  Valencia,  and  bearing  dates  of  from 
 15  to  25  lbs.  weight;  the  Indian  fig  tree;  the  cornicabra  or  tur- 
 pentine tree,  susceptible  of  a  fine  polish,  and  manufactured  into 
 snuff-boxes  ;  the  box,  and  the  chestnut. 
 
 The  fruit  trees  are  the  apple,  pear,  cherry,  peach,  apricot,  mul- 
 berry, olive,  lemon,  palm,  fig,  orange  lemon,  and  pomegranate. 
 Whole  forests  are  seen  of  these,  and  the  fruit  possesses  a  richness 
 of  juice  and  flavor  not  surpassed  by  that  of  Italy. 
 
 In  the  heaths  are  found  the  thyme,  the  lavender,  sage'and  rose- 
 mary ;  the  dwarf  myrtle  and  the  cistus :  in  the  dry  thickets  the 
 fan-palmetto,  yellow  laurel,  Spanish  broom  and  white  broom  :  and 
 in  the  moister  grounds,  the  asphodel,  yellow  amaryllis  jonquil, 
 violet,  orange  and  martagon  lily,  white  tulip,  oleander,  tamarisk 
 and  myrtle.  Samphire,  tree-violet,  tragacanth,  vetch  and  caper- 
 bush  overspread  the  rocks  on  the  shore  ;  and  on  the  sands  are 
 found  the  sea-daffodil,  the  salicarnia,  or  shrubby  glasswart ;  and 
 the  esparto-grass,  out  of  which  is  made  the  most  durable  kind  of 
 mats  and  cordage. 
 
 Zooloffij.~\  The  Spanish  horses  are  famous  for  their  beauty  and 
 elegance  of  shape,  in  which  they  surpass  even  the  African  horse. 
 The  Andalusian  are  the  finest.  Those  of  Asturia  are  highly 
 esteemed  for  strength  and  swiftness.  The  whole  cavalry  is 
 mounted  on  stallions  ;  mares  arc  not  much  valued,  being  generally 
 
365  SPAIN. 
 
 employed  for  breeding,  and  threshing  corn.  The  best  mules  arc 
 found  in  La  Mancha.  The  ass  of  La  Mancha  is  a  very  large  race 
 peculiar  to  that  province.  The  breeding  of  horned  cattle  meets 
 with  little  attention.  Those  of  Estremadura  are  the  best.  The 
 wild  bulls  of  Andalusia  are  employed  in  the  bull-fights  at  Madrid. 
 The  Spanish  sheep  have  been  mentioned.  Since  the  French  inva- 
 sion great  numbers  of  the  merinos  have  been  transported  to  England 
 and  the  United  States.  Goats  are  found  every  where  :  immense 
 flocks  of  them  browse  in  the  neighbourhoods  of  the  large  towns. 
 Hogs  are  very  generally  bred  ;  they  are  usually  black,  with  curled 
 bristles,  and  go  all  the  year  in  the  woods.  Rabbits,  and  every  k!?id 
 of  poultry,  ai'e  raised  in  the  greatest  abundance.  Wolves  are  found 
 in  immense  numbers  on  the  Pyrenees  ;  and  deer  and  almost  every 
 species  of  game  abound  in  the  forests. 
 
 Mmerals.'\  Spain  was  anciently  celebrated  for  its  mines  of  gold 
 and  silver,  which  were  long  wrought  by  the  Carthaginians,  and 
 proved  the  sinews  of  their  wars.  But  since  the  discovery  of  simi- 
 lar mines  in  America,  those  of  Spain  have  not  been  worth  working, 
 and  now  lie  neglected.  Tlie  iron,  copper,  tin,  lead,  and  quicksil- 
 ver mines,  on  the  contrary,  are  worked  with  great  advantage, 
 though  mostly  by  English,  French,  and  German  miners.  The 
 Spanish  iron  is  esteemed  for  its  elasticity  and  sofmess  ;  Biscay  in 
 particular  is  rich  in  this  metal,  where  the  ore  yields  from  30  to  40 
 per  cent,  pure  iron.  Most  of  this  metal  was  formerly  sent  abroad 
 to  be  manufactured,  but  latterly  the  Spanish  cannon  have  been 
 east  at  Lierganes  and  Cavada,  the  fire-arms  have  been  made  in 
 Guipuscoa  and  Placentia ;  and  cast-iron  fi'om  the  forges  of  Eugui 
 and  Muga.  In  Navarre  and  Catalonia  are  the  best  copper  mines. 
 A  great  part  of  the  cofijier  is  manufactured  into  verdigris.  At 
 Linarez,  in  Jaen,  there  are  lead  mines  so  uncommonly  rich,  that 
 the  ore  yields  from  60  to  70  per  cent :  they  are  worked  for  the 
 government,  and  contain  immense  quantities  of  this  metal.  In 
 Catalonia  and  Arragon,  tin  is  found  in  the  greatest  quantities.  It  is 
 equal  to  the  English.  The  richest  quicksilver  mines  are  at  Al- 
 mada,  in  La  Mancha.  They  are  worked  by  German  miners,  and 
 yield  annually  18,000  cwt.  of  mercury.  All  this,  with  that  obtained, 
 from  Andalusia,  is  transmitted  to  America.  Calamine  appears 
 near  Alcavas,  cobalt  in  the  Pyrenees,  antimony  in  La  Mancjia, 
 arsc7iic  in  various  places.  Coal  is  met  with  in  Asturia  and  Catalo- 
 nia, sulphur  in  Murcia,  amber,  jet,  lapis-lazuli  and  asbestos,  in 
 Asturia,  turkois  stones  in  Leon,  garnets  and  hyacinths  in  Granada, 
 fine  marble  there,  and  in  Arragon.  Alabaster,  free-stone,  pipe- 
 clay, and  fuller's  earth  are  also  common,  and  gypsum  is  as  abund- 
 ant as  chalk  in  England.  The  salt-works,  and  rock  salt  of  Spain, 
 have  already  been  mentioned.  Salt-petre  also  is  made  of  the  best 
 quality,  and  in  immense  quantities,  in  La  Mancha,  Arragon,  and 
 near  Madrid.  The  wjorks  at  Madrid  furnish  about  30,000  quin- 
 tals annually. 
 
SPAIN.  36? 
 
 SPANISH  ISLES. 
 
 Majorca,  Minorca,  and   Ivica,  the  ancient  Ealeares,  are  the 
 chief  Spanish  isles  in  Europe. 
 
 Majorca,  the  largest,  lies  between  the  other  tv/o,  23  miles  S.  W. 
 of  Minorca,  46  N.  E.  of  Ivica,  92  from  Barcelona,  and  120  from 
 Valencia.  It  is  55  miles  long,  and  46  broad,  containing  about 
 1200  square  miles,  with  a  population  of  135,900.  The  N.  W. 
 part  is  hilly,  but  has  many  rich  and  fertile  tracts.  The  S.  and. 
 E.  parts  are  laid  out  in  arable  lands,  pastures,  vineyards,  and 
 orchards.  The  chief  productions  are  corn,  wine,  oil,  honey,  fruits, 
 capers,  almonds,  figs,  saffron,  fish,  and  game.  In  these  articles, 
 and  in  silk,  wool,  soap,  and  salt,  a  considerable  trade  is  usually- 
 carried  on  with  France  and  Italy.  The  inhabitants  resemble  the 
 Catalonians  in  their  manners.  The  higher  order  spej-k  Spanish  ; 
 the  lower,  the  Lingua  Franca,  a  medley  of  Latin,  Greek,  Spanish, 
 French,  and  Arabic,  and  generally  spoken  on  the  Mediterranean 
 coasts.  The  capital,  Majorca,  not  long  since  called  Palma,  is  a 
 large  and  elegant  town,  on  a  handsome  bay,  on  the  S.  W.  coast. 
 It  has  a  good  harbor,  defended  by  three  citadels.  The  streets  are 
 broad,  and  the  squares  spacious,  and  the  houses  are  well  built 
 of  stone.  It  contains  a  university,  a  magnificent  cathedral,  and  22 
 other  churches,  6  hospitals,  an  exchange,  a  palace,  several  silk 
 and  woollen  manufactories,  and  29,259  inhabitants.  The  govenor, 
 the  audience,  and  the  bishop  of  the  province  reside  here.  Alcudia, 
 32  miles  N.  W.  of  Palma,  has  1000  houses,  and  7000  inhabitants, 
 and  lies  on  a  narrow  neck  between  two  harbors.  Porto  Pedro  is 
 a  town  on  the  S.  E.  having  a  safe  and  spacious  harbor,  defended  by 
 a  fort.  The  climate  of  the  island  is  warm,  but  healthy.  There  are 
 no  rivers,  but  excellent  and  numerous  wells  and  springs.  The 
 little  island  Cabrera,  or  Goat-island,  S.  of  Cape  Salinas,  is  all  over 
 mouintainous,  has  one  excellent  harbor,  guarded  by  a  castle,  and  is 
 a  place  for  exiles. 
 
 Minorca  is  37  miles  by  14,  and  has  about  30,000  inhabitants. 
 The  south  shore  is  smooth,  the  north  is  rugged,  with  deep  and 
 swampy  vales,  and  many  creeks  and  inlets.  Mount  Toro,  in  the 
 centre,  can  be  seen  18  miles  out  at  sea.  The  inhabitants  depend 
 on  their  cisterns  for  their  fresh  water.  The  soil  is  moderately 
 fertile.  The  annual  vahie  of  the  growth  of  the  vine  is  estimated 
 at  30,0001.  sterling.  The  fishery  on  the  coasts  is  valuable,  and 
 the  oysters  are  delicious.  The  minerals  are  iron,  copper,  lead, 
 and  marble,  and  great  quantities  of  salt  collected  in  the  cavities. 
 The  exports  are  wine,  oil,  wool,  salt,  and  cheese,  and  are  nearly 
 balanced  by  the  imports.  The  inhabitants  live  mostly  on  vegeta- 
 bles, have  a  turn  for  poetry,  and  are  still  celebrated  as  slingers. 
 Port-Mahon,  the  capital,  stands  at  the  foot  of  a  mountain  on  an  ex* 
 cellent  hai-bor  on  the  S.  E.  side.  Civitadella  on  the  N.  W.  was 
 formerly  the  capital.  The  English  owned  INIinorca  with  one  short 
 interruption  from  1708  to  1781,  since  Spain  has  possessed  it. 
 
 I-vica  is  about  .35  miles  east  of  Cape  St.  Mastin,  15  miles  long 
 and  12  wide.     The  soil  is  fertile  and  produces  corn,  grapes,  figsj 
 
-S-es  SPAIN. 
 
 and  other  fruits,  the  wild  olive  and  the  pine.  The  inhabitants  are 
 occupied  in  making  sal*^,  highly  esteemed  for  its  whiteness,  of 
 which  great  quantities  are  exported.  Ivica,  the  capital,  is  on  the  S. 
 E.  side.  It  is  little  more  than  a  garrison.  The  little  isle  of 
 Formentesa  lies  south  of  Ivica,  and  has  long  been  deserted  on  ac- 
 count of  its  exposure  to  the  African  corsairs.  It  is  now  occupied 
 by  the  wild  ass,  ajid  an  immense  multitude  of  snakes. 
 
 THE  FORTRESS  OF  GIBRALTAR. 
 
 This  fortress,  though  a  part  of  Spain,  has  so  long  been  in 
 possession  of  England,  that  a  separate  account  of  it  seems  to  be 
 proper.  It  lies  at  the  southern  extremity  of  Spain  in  36  6  30  N. 
 The  name  is  a  corruption  of  two  Arabic  words  Gabel  Tarek,  or  the 
 mountain  of  JWrc/C- from  Tarek,  the  Saracen  general,  who  conquer- 
 ed Spain  early  in  the  8th  century.  It  is  an  immense  rock  rising 
 perpendicularly  about  440  yards,  measuring  two  miles  from  N.  to 
 S.  and  one  from  E.  to  W.  On  the  E.  of  the  rock  is  the  INIediter- 
 rancan  ;  on  the  W.  Gibraltar  Bay,  a  beautiful  sheet  of  water  9  miles 
 long  and  5  broad,  receiving  several  small  rivers,  more  than  H 00 
 fathomr  deep  in  the  middle,  and  well  defended  against  every  wind. 
 This  bay  makes  a  small  harbor  on  the  N.  W.  side  of  the  rock  com- 
 modious for  small  vessels.  The  southern  extremity  of  the  rock  is 
 called  Europa  point.  The  town  lies  along  the  bay  on  a  declivity 
 of  the  rock,  and  contains  about  500  houses  chiefly  of  stone  and 
 brick,  and  in  1806,  8500  inhabitants.  They  are  supplied  with 
 fruits,  vegetables,  and  fresh  provisions  from  the  coast  of  Barbary, 
 At  the  extremity  of  a  rock,  which  advances  into  the  sea,  is  a  large 
 fort  covering  a  mole,  made  to  facilitate  the  anchoring  of  vessels. 
 The  garrison  consists  of  about  5000  men  with  upwards  of  300 
 'pieces  of  cannon.  The  town  of  Algeziras,  or  Old  Gibraltar,  is  5 
 miles  W.  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  bay.  A  little  distance  from 
 it  is  the  island  of  Algeziras.  The  town  of  St  Roche  stands  a  little 
 N.  W.  of  the  fortress  of  Gibraltar,  nearer  than  which  are  the  ruins 
 of  the  camp  of  St.  Roche,  between  which  and  the  fortress  lies  a 
 deep  marsh  extending  to  the  very  foot  of  the  rock,  and  affording 
 onlv  a  narrow  causeway  commanded  by  100  cannon. 
 
 This  important  fortress  first  attracted  attention  as  a  place  of  con- 
 sequence ill  7 1 2,  when  it  was  taken  jx)ssession  of  by  the  Moors,  who 
 kept  it  till  1462.  In  July  1704  the  English  under  Sir  George  Rookc 
 took  it  from  the  Spaniards  and  have  retained  it  ever  since.  In  Ju- 
 ly 1779  commenced  the  celebrated  siege  by  the  combined  forces 
 of  Spain  and  France.  The  reduction  of  the  fortress  was  a  darling 
 object  with  the  former  power,  and  every  scheme  which  ingenuity 
 could  devise,  which  rashness  could  hazard,  or  force  execute,  was 
 tried  by  the  besiegers  to  no  purpose.  The  siege  lasted  till  Feb- 
 ruary 1783,  and  General  Elliot  and  his  brave  companions  receiv- 
 ed the  applauses  of  Europe.* 
 
 / 
 
 *  For  a  more  full  account  of  this  cclcbr:ite<l  ibitress,  see  tlic  Gazetteer  of  the  East- 
 ern Continent,  article  Gibraltar- 
 
PORTUGUESE  EMPIRE. 
 
 1.    IN    EUROPE. 
 
 Portugal. 
 
 2.    IN    ASIA. 
 
 Goa  and  some  other  settlements  in  Western  Hindostan, 
 Timor  Island, 
 Macao  Island. 
 
 3.  IN    AFRICA. 
 
 The  Madeiras, 
 
 The  Azores, 
 
 The  Cape  Verd  Islands, 
 
 Territories  in  Congo, 
 
 Territories  on  the  S.  E.  coast. 
 
 4.  IN  AMERICA. 
 
 Brazil,  now  become  the  seat  of  the  empire. 
 
 PORTUGAL. 
 
 CHAPTER  I. 
 HISTORICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 •EXTENT,  BOUNDARIES,  NAMES,  HISTORICAL  EPOCHS,  DIVISIONS, 
 RELIGION,  GOVERNMENT,  POPULATION,  ARMY,  NAVY,  REVENUE, 
 MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS,  LANGUAGE,  LITERATURE,  UNIVERSI- 
 TIES, CITIES,  EDIFICES,  MANUFACTURES,  COMMERCE. 
 
 Extent.']  PORTUGAL  lies  between  lat.  36  56  34  and 
 42  7  30  N.  and  between  Ion.  9  35  30  and  6  W.  Its  length  from 
 N.  to  S.  is  360  miles  ;  its  greatest  breadth  in  the  N.  is  150  miles  ; 
 its  least,  in  Algarve,  90.  The  area,  according  to  Ebeling,  is 
 o5,998  square  miles. 
 
 Boundaries.']  Gallicia  and  a  part  of  Leon  in  Spain,  lie  on  the 
 N.  Leon  and  Estremadura  in  the  same  kingdom,  on  the  E.  the 
 gulf  of  Cadiz  on  the  S.  and  the  Atlantic  on  the  W. 
 
 A''ames.]  Portugal  S.  of  the  Douro,  together  with  a  part  of 
 Leon,  Estremadura,  and  Andalusia,  constituted  the  ancient  Lusi- 
 tania.  The  country  north  of  the  Douro  was  a  part  of  the  Provin- 
 cea  Tarraconensis.  After  the  irruption  of  the  Vandals  the  Roman 
 divisions  of  the  country  were  forgotten,  and  the  common  name  of 
 Spain  was  given  to  the  whole  peninsula.  The  present  name  is  of 
 modern  dale,  it  being  first  applied  to  the  whole  kingdom  about  the 
 year  1069.     Various  etymologies  have  been   given  of  it.     Snnie 
 
 VOL.  n.  47 
 
'^70  PORTUGAL. 
 
 insist,  that  the  town  Oporto,  in  the  time  of  the  Romans,  was  called 
 Ca/e  or  Gale,  and  its  harbor  Portus  or  Portu  Cale  ;  and  that,  as  the 
 town  became  flourishing  in  the  middle  ages,  the  name  was  given 
 to  the  circumjacent  region,  till  at  length,  as  the  country  was  grad- 
 ually recovered  from  the  Moors,  it  was  extended  to  the  whole 
 kingdom^  Others  assert  that  Opono  was  called  Portus  Gallorum 
 from  a  large  number  of  Gauls  having  landed  and  settled  there,  and 
 that  hence  the  present  name  of  the  kingdom  was  derived.  We 
 think  the  first  account  the  most  probable. 
 
 Historical  Efiochs.~\  Portugal  was  a  part  of  Spain,  and  shared 
 the  same  fate  under  the  Carthaginians,  the  Romans,  the  Vandals, 
 the  Visigoths,  and  the  Moors.  In  the  1 1th  century  it  began  to  be 
 a  separate  state.  Since  that  period  its  chief  histoi'ical  epochs  are 
 t'he  following ; 
 
 1.  The  grant  of  Portugal  to  Henry,  a  grandson  of  Robert  first, 
 duke  of  Burgundy,  by  Alphonso  VI.  of  Castille,  near  the  close  of 
 the  1 1th  century.  Alphonso  had  invited  several  French  princes  to 
 join  his  arms  against  the  Moors.  Among  these  Henry  signalized 
 himself  by  his  valor  and  his  many  victories.  To  reward  him  Al- 
 phonso gave  him  his  natural  daughter,  Theresa,  created  him 
 count  of  Portugal,  and  some  time  after  bequeathed  him  the  coun- 
 try as  his  absolute  property.     Henry  died  in  1112. 
 
 2.  The  erection  of  the  country  into  a  kingdom  by  Alphonso  I. 
 son  of  Henry,  after  the  battle  of  Ourique  in  1 1 39.  The  number  of 
 Portuguese  troops  was  inconsiderable  in  comparison  of  the  Moors, 
 and  the  victory  was  so  decisive  and  glorious,  that  the  soldiers  pro- 
 claimed Alphonso  king  on  the  field  of  battle,  a  title  which  he  ever 
 after  retained,  renouncing  all  dependence  on  Spain. 
 
 3.  The  conquest  of  Algarve,  and  the  final  expulsion  of  the 
 Moors  by  Alphonso  III.  in  1254. 
 
 4.  The  discovery  of  the  passage  to  the  East  Indies  by  Vasco  de 
 Gama,  in  1498,  in  the  reign  of  Emmanuel.  This  at  once  diverted 
 the  trade  of  Asia  from  its  old  channel  across  tvie  isthmus  of  Suez, 
 and  down  the  Red  Sea,  and,  at  a  stroke,  destroyed  the  commercial 
 preeminence  of  Venice.  By  the  wise  and  resolute  measures  of 
 their  magnanimous  sovereign,  the  Portuguse  in  24  years  erected  a 
 commercial  empire  in  the  east,  which,  for  its  extent,  its  opulence, 
 and  its  splendor,  had  had  no  rival  in  the  history  of  nations.  In  the 
 Same  reign  Brazil  was  discovered,  and  taken  possession  of  by  the 
 Portuguese. 
 
 5.  The  introduction  of  the  inquisition  into  the  kingdom  with  the 
 consent  of  John  III.  A.  D.  1526  ;  after  which  event  the  monarchy 
 rapidly  declined  in  wealth,  in  power,  and  commercial  enterprize. 
 
 6.  The  idle  expedition  of  Sebastian  the  son  of  John  III.  into 
 Africa,  in  1577,  where  he  and  his  army  were  destroyed  by  Muley 
 Moloch,  emperor  of  Morocco,  This  event  so  weakened  the  king- 
 dom, that,  on  the  death  of  Sebastian's  uncle  and  successor  without 
 issue  ;  two  years  after,  Philip  II.  of  Spain  found  little  difficulty  in 
 maintaining  his  right  to  the  throne,  and  thus  the  country  in  1580 
 again  became  a  part  of  Spain. 
 
 7.  The  revolution  of  1640,  in  which  John,  duke  of  Braganza. 
 
PORTUGAL. 
 
 ^ri~ 
 
 wSs  declared  king  by  the  title  of  John  IV.  The  Spaniards  made 
 frequent  attempts  to  regain  the  kingdom,  particularly  after  the 
 death  of  John  IV.  But  his  queen  acted  with  great  vigor  and  pru- 
 dence, forming  an  alliance  with  Charles  II.  of  England,  from  whom 
 she  received  large  reinforcements  of  men  and  money.  At  length 
 the  glorious  victory  of  Montes-Claros,  in  1665,  tenninated  the 
 ■war. 
 
 8.  The  invasion  of  the  country  by  the  French  in  November 
 1807,  and  the  consequent  removal  of  the  Portuguese  government, 
 and  a  great  multitude  of  the  nation,  to  Brazil,  on  the  20th  of  that 
 month.  Since  that  event  the  English,  who,  from  the  marriage  of 
 Charles  II.  with  the  princess  Catherine,  had  been  the  steady  allies 
 of  Portugal,  have  driven  the  invaders  out  of  the  kingdom  ;  and  the 
 Portuguese,  under  the  auspices  of  Wellington  and  Beresford,  have 
 recovered  the  braveiy  and  the  skill  with  which  their  fathers  fought 
 against  the  Spaniards  and  the  Moors. 
 
 Divisio7is.~\  Portugal  is  divided  into  the  six  following  provinces, 
 which  are  geographically  arranged  from  N.  to  S.  with  the  extent 
 and  population  of  each,  as  given  by  Ebeling,  in  his  geography  of 
 Portugal. 
 
 Names. 
 
 Entre  Douero* 
 
 e  Minho, 
 Tras-os-Montes, 
 Beira, 
 
 Estremadura, 
 Alentejo, 
 Algarve, 
 
 Total, 
 
 Extent.  Population.    Houses.    Juiisdic-  Cities.  Bor-  Parish- 
 
 2,389 
 
 3,002 
 10,082 
 
 7,803 
 10,520 
 
 2,192 
 
 817,167 
 
 308,984 
 
 1,123,245 
 
 876,289 
 
 339,555 
 
 93,472 
 
 35,99813,558,712 
 
 181,593 
 
 77,054 
 
 224,649 
 
 175,337 
 
 76,246 
 
 25,523 
 
 760,402 
 
 tions. 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 11 
 
 44 
 
 ouKhs.      es. 
 
 7 
 2 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 22 
 
 24 
 
 1,327 
 
 -  59 
 
 711 
 
 230 
 
 1,292 
 
 115 
 
 492 
 
 105 
 
 369 
 
 114 
 
 71 
 
 647 
 
 4,262 
 
 Religion.']  The  national  religion  is  the  Catholic,  and  the  Por- 
 tuguese have  been  characterized  for  their  strict  observance  of  its 
 ceremonial  duties.  The  church  establishment  comprizes  one  pa- 
 triarch, 2  archbishops,  15  bishops,  and  an  immense  number  of  in- 
 ferior clergy.  The  Patriarch  is  the  head  of  the  church  under  the 
 Pope.  He  resides  at  Lisbon,  and  his  salary  amounts  to  ,C  109, 124 
 sterling.  He  is  metropolitan  of  the  bishops  of  Castello-Branco, 
 Guarda,  Lamego,  Lciria  and  Portalegre,  and  of  all  those  in  the 
 colonies.  The  Archbishop  of  Braga,  of  the  bishops  of  Oporto, 
 Viseu,  Coimbra,  Braganza,  Miranda,  Aveiro,  and  Pinhel.  The 
 Archbishop  of  Evora  has  but  three  suffragans,  the  bishops  of  Elvas, 
 Be  jo  and  J'aro.  The  archbishops  have  the  rank  of  a  marquis,  the 
 bishops  that  of  a  count.  The  number  of  monasteries  is  418, 
 that  of  nunneries  108. 
 
 Government.']     The  fundamental  laws  of  the  kingdom  arc  the 
 
 *  Entre  Douero  e  Minho,  derives  its  name  from  being  situated  between  the  rivers 
 Douro  and  Minho;  Triis-os-Montes,  is  so  called,  from  its  position  with  respect  to 
 the  preceding,  as  it  lies  beyond  the  mountains  called  Seira  Maraon :  Estremadura 
 is  merely  Exti'ema  Durii,  or  the  extreme  province  beyond  the  Donro:  JUfutrjn 
 comes  from  akin  do  rio  'i\}f>,  bevond  the  Tajiis  .•  Al^arvc  is  a  Moorish  nasiic      * 
 
SriJ  PORTUGAL. 
 
 Statutes  of  Lamego,  issued  by  Alphonso  T.  in  1 145.  By  these  the 
 monarchy  is  hereditary,  and  in  case  of  the  king's  demise  without 
 male  issue,  his  next  brother  succeeds ;  but  his  sons  have  no  right 
 to  the  throne  till  confirmed  by  the  states.  By  these  statutes  the 
 monarchy  is  not  arbitrary,  for  the  consent  of  the  states  is  necessary 
 to  the  imposition  of  new  taxes,  to  the  settlement  of  the  succession, 
 and  other  important  concerns.  The  States  were  called  the  Cortes-, 
 and  consisted  of  the  clergy,  the  high  nobility,  and  the  commons. 
 But  as  this  assembly  has  not  met  since  1697,  the  power  of  the  king 
 was  in  fact  absolute.  The  royal  children  are  styled  infants  and 
 infantas  j  but  the  heir  apparent  is  entitled  the  Prince  of  Brazil. 
 In  1805,  there  were  65  noble  families,  2  dukes,  21  marquises,  29 
 counts,  7  viscounts,  and  6  barons.  Since  the  removal  of  the  royal 
 family,  the  government  has  been  administered  by  a  regency. 
 
 Pofiulation.~\  The  population  stated  in  the  table,  is  the  result 
 of  the  last  census,  taken  in  1780.  This  gave  3,558,712,  as  the 
 ■whole  number  of  inhabitants,  amounting  to  almost  99  on  a  square 
 mile.  The  most  populous  province,  Entre  Douero  e  Minho,  had 
 342  on  the  square  mile;  the  least  populous,  Alentejo,  had  only 
 32.  The  population  must  now  be  considerably  diminished  by  the 
 late  removal  of  great  numbers  to  Brazil,  and  by  the  battles  and 
 massacres  of  the  French  armies. 
 
 .■frmy."]     In  1803,  the  army  consisted  of  the  following  troops  : 
 
 Men. 
 
 24  Regiments  infantry  38,400 
 
 12          do.          cavalry  15,520 
 
 4         do.         artillery  4,944 
 
 1   Legion  light  hussars  1,323 
 
 1   Corps  engineers  128                 - 
 
 9   Independent  companies  1,312 
 
 8  Companies  royal  guards  80Q 
 
 52,427 
 45  Regiments  of  militia  3S,C00 
 
 86,027 
 
 A  much  larger  army  has  been  assembled  and  organized  since 
 the  late  invasion,  and  the  troops  have  evinced  the  most  generous 
 valor,  and  the  most  ardent  love  of  country, 
 
 JVai^z/.]  The  ships  of  war  consisted  in  1804,  of  13  ships  of  the 
 line,  of  from  60  to  80  guns,  15  frigates  of  from  24  to  48  guns,  and 
 about  30  smaller  vessels,  of  various  sizes,  manned  by  12,000  ma- 
 rines. The  greater  part  of  these  vessels  are  now  in  Brazil,  and  a 
 part  are  still  in  Portugal. 
 
 Beve7iuc.']  Ths  income  of  the  state  from  Portugal  and  the 
 colon'tcs  is  estimated  at  1  6,000,000  dollars,  and  the  debt  is  stated 
 to  be  20,000,000.  Great  quantities  of  specie  were  brought  every 
 year  from  Brazil,  but  the  industry  of  the  inhabitants  was  not  suf- 
 Hcient  to  retain  it.  The  whole  of  it  went  immediately  to  England, 
 in  exchange  for  her  manufactures. 
 
 Manners  and  Cusioni&.']    The  national  character  of  the  Portu- 
 
PORTUGAL.  573 
 
 guese  resembles  that  of  the  Spaniards  ;  their  bigotry,  their  ven- 
 eration for  the  clergy,  their  propensity  to  revenge,  their  aversion 
 to  labor,  their  dress,  and  their  love  of  pomp,  music,  dancing,  and 
 bull-fights,  are  nearly  the  same.  The  nobility  also  have  similar 
 prejudices,  and  there  is  the  same  Avant  of  that  general  intercourse 
 among  the  various  ranks,  which  imparts  knowledge,  and  vigor  to 
 society.  The  peasantry  are  miserable  vassals.  In  stature  the: 
 Portuguese  are  inferior  to  the  Spaniards.  Their  complexion  is 
 swarthy,  approaching  to  an  olive.  They  have  genei*ally  graceful 
 forms,  regular  features,  and  dark,  brilliant,  expressive  eyes.  The- 
 ladies  are  very  beautiful  when  young.  They  still  imitate  the  in- 
 dustry of  their  ancestors  in  spinning  flax  from  the  distaff.  The 
 inhabitants  of  the  northern  provinces  are  more  industrious,  intelli- 
 gent, sincere,  and  hospitable  ;  those  of  the  southern  more  polished, 
 shrewd,  and  indolent.  The  industry  of  the  inhabitants  of  Entrc: 
 Minho  e  Douero  would  not  suffer  on  a  comparison  with  that  of  the: 
 more  northern  countries  of  Europe,  and  accordingly  they  are  pos- 
 sessed of  opulence,  and  enjoy  all  the  comforts  and  luxuries  of  life. 
 Those  of  Tras-os-Montes  are  a  hardy  race,  and  industrious  also, 
 in  spite  of  their  natively  barren  and  mountainous  region.  In  Alen- 
 tejo  are  more  wandering  beggars,  than  in  all  the  vest  of  the  king- 
 dom. The  best  mariners  come  from  Algarve,  The  inhabitants 
 are  rough  and  coarse,  but  remarked  for  their  wit  and  shrewdness. 
 
 Language.~\  The  Portuguese  language  strongly  resembles  the 
 Spanish  ;  both  are  derived  chiefly  from  the  Latin  ;  but  the  lattei^ 
 is  more  remote  from  it  and  harsher  to  the  ear  than  the  former. 
 They  have  both  about  the  same  proportion  of  Arabic  ;  but  the 
 Portuguese  has  borrowed  none  of  the  guttural  sounds  of  that  lan- 
 guage, which  are  now  numerous  in  the  Spanish,  though  they  did 
 not  exist  in  the  first  ages  of  its  literature.  There  is  nothing  un- 
 pleasant in  the  Portuguese,  except  a  nasal  sound,  which  however 
 is  far  less  disagreeable  than  that  of  the  French. 
 
 Literature.^  The  poems  of  King  Diniz,  who  lived  in  the  latter 
 Imlf  of  the  13th  century,  are  said  to  be  among  the  earliest  efforts 
 of  the  Portuguese  muse.  It  is  not  known  whether  they  are  extant. 
 The  earliest  accessible  poems  are  the  Cancioneiro  of  Recende,  a 
 large  collection,  written  chiefly  in  the  reigns  of  Alphonso  V.  and 
 his  son,  but  comprising  a  few  of  an  earlier  date,  and  some  by  King 
 Pedro,  famous  for  his  unfortunate  amours  with  Ines  de  Castro. 
 The  volume  consists  of  complimentary  and  satyrical  verses,  love 
 songs,  and  lamentations.  The  popular  ballads  of  the  Portuguese 
 have  perished.  The  earliest  fashion  of  the  Spanish  poetry  was 
 derived  from  Gallicia  and  Portugal.  The  present  fashion  of  both 
 countries  is  of  Italian  origin.  Boscan  eftected  the  change  in  Spain, 
 and  Sa  de  Miranda  in  Portugal,  both  early  in  the  1 6th  century. 
 From  that  time  the  octave  stanza  became  the  heroic,  and  the  tri- 
 nal-rhyme,  the  moral  and  satirical  measure  of  both  countries,  and 
 sonnets  swarmed  as  they  have  done  in  Italy.  The  Ines  de  Castro 
 of  Ferreira  was  the  first  regular  tragedy  of  Portugal,  and  the  se- 
 cond of  modern  limes.  The  Sofonisba  of  Trissino  was  the  first, 
 Ferreira  introduced  the  epigram,  the  ode,  ar.d  the  epithalamium, 
 
i7i  PORTUGAL. 
 
 and  imitated  Miranda  in  the  sonnet,  the  elegy,  and  the  Horation 
 epistle.  The  Lusiad  of  Camoens,  settled  the  language  of  Portu- 
 gal. He  is  their  first  poet,  and  though  miserably  poor,  while  liv- 
 ing, he  is  now  felt  by  the  nation  to  be  its  boast  and  its  pride.  Tlic 
 translation  by  Mickle  surpasses  the  original  in  richness  of  de- 
 scription, but  not  in  vigor.  The  minor  poems  of  Camoens  are 
 totally  destitute  of  the  licentiousness,  every  where  appSirent  in  the 
 translations  of  Strangford.  Beside  the  Lusiad,  the  Portuguese 
 have  epic  poems  commemorative  of  the  founder  of  their  state, 
 Count  Henry ;  of  their  first  king  Don  Alphonso  ;  of  their  deliver- 
 ance from  Castille  by  Jo'hn  I ;  of  the  chivalrous  valor  of  Nunal- 
 varez  Pereira ;  of  their  victories  and  defeats  under  Sebastian  in 
 Africa  ;  of  the  discovery  of  India  ;  of  the  conquests  of  Goa  and 
 Malacca;  of  the  two  sieges  of  Diu;  of  the  Braganzan  revolution; 
 and  of  the  marriage  of  Charles  H  and  Catherine.  In  the  age  of 
 fable  also  they  have  fouOd  Ulysses  for  a  national  hero,  and  in  an- 
 cient history  the  great  Viriatus.  These  works  contain  many  pas- 
 sages of  striking  beauty,  and  many  more  of  whimsical  taste  and 
 extraordinary  absurdity.  Gil  Vicente,  their  celebrated  dramitist,  ' 
 was  estimated  by  Lope  de  Vega,  and  Quevedo,  and  Erasmus  learn- 
 ed Poi'tuguese  to  read  his  works.  Faria  e  Sousa  wrote  in  Span- 
 ish, a  man  of  great  learning,  and  considerable  genius,  but  of  mis- 
 erable taste.  Antonio  e  Silva  stands  unrivalled  in  the  latter  ages 
 of  Portuguese  poetry.  He  is  celebrated  for  his  Pindaric  odes,  his 
 dithyrambics,  and  especially  for  his  mock-heroic  called  the  Hys- 
 sopaida. 
 
 Amadis  de  Gaul  is  without  a  rival  among  prose  romances.  The 
 Palmerin  of  Francisco  de  Moraes,  is  a  similar  Avork  of  great  merit. 
 The  Portuguese  have  produced  nothing  like  the  modern  novel. 
 In  the  Portuguese  sermons,  the  finest  oratory  is  spoiled  by  the 
 most  fantastic  conceits.  The  lives  of  the  Saints  are  mere  roman- 
 ces. There  are  no  modern  travels  in  the  language.  Their  old 
 literature  is  rich  in  this  branch  of  knowledge.  Fernam  Lopez  is 
 the  best  cln'onicler  of  any  age  or  nation.  Gomez  de  Azurera  is 
 surpassed  only  by  Lopez.  These  have  been  followed  by  a  reg- 
 ular succession  of  historians  of  great  merit.  The  Decadas  de 
 Asia  by  Joam  de  Barros,  for  a  history,  display  an  uncommon  ex- 
 tent of  learning.  In  Mathematics  Pedro  Nunnez  distinguish- 
 ed himself  at  tlie  beginning  of  the  16th  century.  Of  late  years 
 natural  history  begins  to  be  a  little  studied  ;  but  books  of  devo- 
 tion and  petty  poems  constitute  the  bulk  of  the  yearly  productions 
 cf  the  Portuguese  press. 
 
 Universities.']  The  university  of  Coimbra  is  the  most  ancient, 
 and  was  founded  in  the  latter  part  of  the  13th  century.  It  lately 
 contained  800  students,  and  had  a  good  observatory,  a  fine  botan- 
 ical garden,  a  chemical  laboratory,  anatomical  theatre,  and  a  cabi- 
 net of  natural  curiosities.  The  university  of  Evora  was  founded  in 
 1553,  and  the  college  of  Mafra,in  1772.  This  last  has  a  philosoph- 
 ical apparatus,  and  a  library  of  40,000  volumes.  Education,  howev- 
 er, is  generally  neglected,  and  no  provision  l^  made  for  the  instruc- 
 tion of  the  common  people. 
 
PORTUGAL.  375 
 
 Cilies.']  Lisbon  the  capital  was  lately  the  second  city  of  Europe 
 in  commercial  importance.  It  was  the  Olisi/i/io  of  the  ancients, 
 and  is  said  to  have  been  built  by  the  Phenicians.  It  stands  on  sev- 
 en hills,  on  the  northern  side  of  the  Tagus,  not  far  from  its  en- 
 trance into  the  sea,  and  is  sheltered  on  the  N.  W.  by  a  ridge  of 
 tills.  The  harbor  is  one  of  the  best  in  the  world,  uniting  in  a  very- 
 unusual  degree,  the  four  qualities  of  size,  depth,  security,  and  con- 
 venience. The  Tagus  is  here  about  four  miles  broad,  and  has  two 
 outlets  separated  by  a  sandbank,  and  the  rock  of  Cachopos,  and 
 defended  by  forts.  Fort  St.  Julian,  1 1  miles  from  Lisbon  on  a  rock 
 in  the  sea,  defends  the  northern.  Opposite  to  it  is  the  Biijio,  which 
 is  built  on  piles  on  a  sandbank.  The  fort  of  Belem  is  4  miles  from 
 Lisbon  on  the  north  side,  and  entirely  commands  the  entrance  to 
 the  city.  On  the  south,  directly  opposite,  is  Fort  Sebastian  on  the 
 angle  of  a  mountain,  all  along  which  the  passage  is  defended  by 
 a  chain  of  12  forts.  An  old  Moorish  wall,  with  77  towers  and  56 
 gates,  incloses  the  eastern  part  of  the  city.  The  western  has  been 
 built  since.  The  breadth  of  the  town  is  inconsiderable  ;  but  it  is 
 very  long  from  E.  to  W.  The  vallies  of  the  hills  form  streets  of 
 above  three  miles  in  length,  most  of  them  narrow,  ill-paved,  and  dir- 
 ty, and  many  of  them  steep'and  troublesome.  On  one  of  the  hills  in 
 the  centre  stands  a  citadel,  which  commands  the  whole  city.  There 
 are  41  parish  churches,  40  monasteries,  II  colleges  fgr  noviciats, 
 24  nunneries,  99  chapels,  and  19  hospitals.  The  churches  in  gen- 
 eral are  elegant  and  rich  ;  but  that  belonging  to  the  patriarchato 
 is  of  surpassing  magnificence  ;  the  very  ornaments  e.nd  plate  in  it 
 containing  the  treasure  of  several  Brazil  fleets.  The  Dominican 
 church  is  very  large,  and  the  cathedral  on  one  of  the  hills  is  splen- 
 didly ornamented.  One  of  the  hospitals,  St.  Joseph's,  is  an  insti- 
 tution honorable  to  the  city.  In  1789,  it  received  1 1,020  patients  ; 
 and  the  foundling  hospital  in  the  same  year  received  1279  children. 
 Several  of  the  royal  palaces  are  magnificent,  and  many  belonging 
 to  the  nobles  are  stately.  The  Exchange  aad  the  India  house  are 
 particularly  deserving  of  notice.  But  the  aqueduct  to  the  north 
 of  the  city  is  one  of  the  noblest  works  of  modern  architecture.  It 
 Avas  built  in  the  years  1713 — 1732,  and  remained  unhurt  by  the 
 great  earthquake  of  1755,  which  destroyed  the  greatest  and  best 
 part  of  the  city.  It  rests  on  a  long  row  of  marble  pillars,  and  on 
 75  arches  is  carried  across  the  vale  of  Alcantara  from  one  moun- 
 tain to  another.  The  number  of  houses  is  44,057,  and  the  number 
 of  inhabitants,  accordii;;^  to  Ruders,  350,000.  Indolence, pride,  and 
 poverty  too  much  characterize  the  inhabitants.  The  foreigners, 
 who  are  settled  here,  are  very  numerous,  and  the  most  industrious 
 of  the  inhabitants.  The  number  of  servants  is  disproportionatcly 
 great.  The  police  is  very  indifferent ;  the  streets  swarm  with 
 beggars  in  the  day,  and  banditti  are  not  unfrequent  in  the  night. 
 The  ecclesiastics  are  also  very  numerous,  and  spend  their  time  in 
 the  greatest  luxury  and  idleness.  About  one  sixih  of  the  inhabit- 
 ants are  negroes  and  mulatoes.  Here  are  two  theatres,  one  for 
 Italian  operas,  the  other  for  Portuguese  plays.  There  is  also  a 
 Targe  circus  for  btillfights.      The  inhabitants  ha^^-c  a  peculiar  cus- 
 
37i>  PORTUGAL. 
 
 torn  of  throwing  water  on  passengers  in  the  street,  at  certain  sea- 
 sons. The  commerce  of  the  city  is  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  for- 
 eigners. The  extent  of  it  may  be  estimated  from  tlie  following 
 list  of  the  ships,  which  entered  the  port  in  5  different  years  exclu- 
 sive of  coasters. 
 
 1774  1784  1793  1797  1802 
 
 English,  348  252  234  553  383 
 
 Portnguese,  104  335  230  268  314 
 
 United  States,  23  96  154  175 
 
 Swedish,  45  80  76  135  130 
 
 Danish,  41  30  58  218  96 
 
 Rest  of  Europe,  107  226  148  128  271 
 
 645  964  864  1586  1369 
 
 The  chief  exports  are  corks,  drugs,  dyeing  stuffs,  fruit,  oil,  pot- 
 ash, raw-silk,  brandy,  vinegar,  5c c.  Manufactured  goods,  and  all 
 sorts  of  provisions  are  imported. 
 
 Oporio,  the  capital  of  Entre  Minho  e  Douero,  and  the  second 
 city  in  the  kingdom,  is  built  on  the  north  side  of  the  Douro,  about 
 5  miles  from  its  mouth.  The  harbor,  formed  by  the  river,  is  dif- 
 ficult to  enter,  but  spacious  and  secure.  A  single  castle  is  a  suf- 
 ficient defence.  The  town  plot  is  uneven,  but  the  streets  are  well 
 paved,  neat,  and  handsome.  The  number  of  houses  is  15,138,  and 
 the  number  of  inhabitants  70,505.  It  contains  10  churches,  12 
 convents,  and  9  hospitals.  Here  are  considerable  manufactures  of 
 silks,  hats,  pottery,  and  several  ropewalks,  and  dockyards.  The 
 trade  of  the  city  is  extensive.  More  than  500  ships  annually  enter. 
 The  imports  in  1790  amounted  to  ;C600,000  sterling,  and  the  ex- 
 ports to  /;800,000,  of  which  about  80,000  pipes  of  wine  constituted 
 the  chief  article.  The  others  were  Brazilian  goods,  vinegar,  and 
 brandy. 
 
 JElvas,  tlie  capital  of  Alentejo,  is  a  fortified  city,  14  miles  W.  by  N. 
 of  Badajos.  It  has  a  castle  on  an  eminence,  and  is  commanded  by 
 Fort  La  Lippe.  The  city  contains  3  parish  churches,  and  a 
 cathedral,  2  hospitals,  7  convents,  3,000  houses,  and  12,500  inhab- 
 itants. The  streets  are  narrow  and  dirty,  and  the  houses  badly 
 built.  Here  is  a  remarkable  aqueduct,  supported  by  3  arches,  one 
 over  the  other,  4  miles  in  length,  which  conducts  the  water  into  a 
 very  large  reservoir.  At  some  distance  from  the  town  the  coun- 
 try is  bleak  and  barren. 
 
 Braga^  in  Entre  Minho  e  Douero,  the  ^.'ugusta  Braccara  of  the 
 Romans,  is  seated  in  a  pleasant  plain,  cultivated  and  shaded  by 
 trees,  near  the  Cavado.  Several  of  the  streets  are  wide  and  open, 
 but  the  houses  are  generally  small.  It  contains  6  parishes,  8 
 monasteries,  and  one  hospital.  The  nvimberof  houses  is  3087  ;  ot 
 inhabitants  12,362.  Here  is  an  extensive  hat  manufactory,  which 
 supplies  the  greater  part  of  the  kingdom ;  also  manufactories  ol 
 linen  and  knives.  Every  part  of  the  town  exhibits  marks  of  in- 
 dustry. The  old  gothic  cathedral  and  the  remains  of  a  Roman 
 amphitheatre,  and  aqueduct,  are  objects  of  curiosity  to  the  an- 
 tiquary. 
 
PORTUGAL.  377 
 
 St.  Ubes,  or  Setuval,  the  ancient  Cedobriga,  Is  Situated  on  a  fine 
 bay,  into  which  the  river  Sadaon  discharges  itself.  Tiie  harbor  is 
 not  large,  but  secure,  and  deep  enough  for  vessels  of  any  burden. 
 It  is  defended  by  the  strong  fort  of  St.  Jago.  The  town  is  for- 
 tified by  eleven  whole,  and  two  demi-bastions,  and  a  citadel.  It 
 contains  5  parishes,  9  monasteries,  2  nunneries,  1  almshouse,  1 
 hospital,  2090  dwelling  houses,  and  12,000  inhabitants.  About  500 
 sea  vessels,  and  as  many  coasters,  enter  here  annually.  Here  are 
 very  extensive  salt-ponds,  and  a  considerable  trade  is  carried  on 
 in  salt,  wine,  and  oil.     The  environs  are  fertile  and  well  cultivated. 
 
 Evovra,  in  Alentejo,  the  ancient  Ebora^  said  to  have  been  built 
 by  the  Phenicians,  and  walled  about  by  Sertorius,  stands  in  a  large 
 plain  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  mountains.  It  contains  5  churches, 
 3162  houses,  and  14,200  inhabitants.  The  aqueduct  built  by  Ser- 
 torius, still  in  excellent  preservation,  is  a  beautiful  monument  of 
 Roman  architecture. 
 
 Coimbra,  in  Beira,  the  ancient  Coninibrica^  was  built  about  300 
 years  before  Christ.  It  stands  in  an  elevated  situation,  on  both 
 sides  of  the  Mondego,  and  is  a  large  and  handsome  city.  Its  Ro- 
 man walls  are  still  standing,  having  several  towers,  and  6  gates. 
 The  town  contains  5  churches,  7  convents,  an  almshouse,  and  an 
 hospital,  3053  houses,  and  11,871  inhabitants.  Here  is  an  exten- 
 sive manufactory  of  earthen,  and  some  linen  and  woollen  manufac- 
 tures.    A  strong  stone  bridge  connects  the  two  parts  of  the  town. 
 
 E(lifi.cea.~\  In  the  town  of  Mafra  is  the  royal  palace,  built  by 
 John  V.  in  the  years  1717-1731,  which,  for  its  uncommon  magni- 
 ficence, is  called  the  Portuguese  Escurial.  The  whole  composes 
 one  immense  building  with  a  vaulted  covering,  866  rooms  lighted 
 by  5,200  windows.  The  apartments  of  the  court  are  large  and 
 sumptuous.  The  church  is  built  entirely  of  marble,  and  has  in. 
 its  towers  1 14  chiming  bells.  The  convent  furnishes  habitations, 
 and  a  large  income  to  200  capuchins,  besides  splendid  apartments 
 for  the  patriarch,  and  24  canons.  The  college,  also  a  part  of  the 
 palace,  has  a  library  of  40,000  volumes,  and  a  fine  mathematical 
 apparatus.  The  gardens  and  grounds  are  extensive,  and  kept  in 
 excellent  order,  and  are  richly  stored  with  exotics.  The  building 
 looks  towards  the  sea,  and  serves  as  a  landmark  for  mariners. 
 Portugal,  like  Spain,  exhibits  but  fev/  splendid  villas. 
 
 ManufactMrrf;.~\  The  hat  manufactory  at  Braga  is  the  most  im- 
 portant establishment  in  Portugal.  The  same  article  is  manufac- 
 tured at  Oporto  and  Lisbon.  Silk  is  extensively  fabricated  at 
 Oporto,  and  200  looms  are  employed  in  weaving  the  velvets  of 
 Bragan2!a.  Woollens  are  made  at  Elvas,  and  in  great  quantities 
 at  Covilhao,  for  the  army  and  the  court.  At  Azeitao  is  a  large 
 establishment  for  fine  cottons.  At  Coimbra  and  Estremos,  earth- 
 en ware  is  extensively  manufactured,  and  less  so  at  Oporto.  Linen 
 also  is  made  at  Braga,  and  Coimbra,  thread  at  Braganza,  glass  of 
 an  excellent  quality  at  Marinha,  salt  in  abundance  at  St.  Ubes,  and 
 great  quantities  of  a  peculiarly  white  salt  at  Alca;rur-do-Sol.  At 
 Braga  there  is  also  a  manufactory  of  knives. 
 
 Commerce.~\     The   trade  of  Portugal   is  principally  carried   on 
 
 VOL.    Ii:  48 
 
37S  PORTUGAL. 
 
 ■with  England  and  Brazil.  The  exports  to  England,  in  1799,  were 
 ^1,047,034  sterling,  and  in  1800,  ^^9  16,848  ;  the  imports  in  1799, 
 .^C  1,073,411,  and  in  1800, /;i,01 1,893.  In  1806,  468  vessels  cleared 
 out  for  England,  and  332  entered  from  that  country.  England 
 transmits  woollens,  hardwares,  cottons,  fine  linens,  salted  and  dried 
 fish,  to  the  amount  of  /;200,000  sterling  ;  and  receives  in  return, 
 bullion,  coin,  precious  stones,  wines,  brandy,  and  fruits.  Portugal 
 sends  to  Brazil  woollens,  linens,  stuffs,  gold  and  silver  lace,  glassj 
 dried  fish,  hams,  and  sausages.  The  goods  returned,  are  gold, 
 silver,  pearls,  precious  stones,  cotton,  dyes,  indigo,  rice,  coffee, 
 maize,  wheat,  ginger,  sugar,  molasses,  ornamental  wood,  and 
 drugs.,  The  other  exports  from  Portugal,  are  salt,  cork,  sumach, 
 sugar,  oil  and  vinegar,  and  the  various  articles  received  from  Bra- 
 zil. The  imports  from  the  United  States,  in  1806,  amounted  to 
 about  1,925,000  dollars.  The  exports  to  France,  in  1801,  were 
 about  1,937,000  dollars  ;  the  imports  about  734,000. 
 
 Of  port  wine  about  48,000  pipes  are  annually  exported,  valued  at 
 §4,200,000;  of  Lisbon  10,000  pipes,  valued  at  500,000  ;  of  wool 
 1,000,000  pounds  ;  of  oil  1200  pipes  j  of  salt  2,400,000  bushels  ; 
 and  of  fruits  95  cargoes. 
 
 CHAPTER  n. 
 
 NATURAL  GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 CLIMATE,     FACE      OF     THE     COUNTRY,     SOIL    AND    AGRICULTURE, 
 RIVERS,    MOUNTAINS,  ZOOLOGY,  BOTANY,    MINERALOGY. 
 
 Climate.~\  THE  breezes  from  the  ocean  temper  the  cold  of  win- 
 ter and  the  heat  of  summer  so  much  as  to  render  those  seasons 
 far  more  similar  here,  than  in  the  other  countries  of  Europe.  The 
 winters  of  Portugal  are  more  characterized  by  their  rains,  than 
 their  cold.  Both  heat  and  cold  in  Spain  are  more  excessive  than 
 in  Portugal.  The  spring  is  uncommonly  delightful.  Lisbon  has 
 been  the  great  resort  of  consumptive  persons  from  Great  Britain, 
 and  the  climate  of  the  whole  country  is  unus^mlly  salubrious.  The 
 number  of  clear  days  annually  in  Lisbon,  is  about  200,  and  of  set- 
 tled rain  about  80.     The  medial  heat  is  about  60  of  Fahrenheit. 
 
 Face  of  the  coiintr-y.']^  Portugal  is  a  far  more  level  country  than 
 Spain.  None  of  the  provinces,  except  Tras-os-Montes,  can  pro- 
 perly be  called  mountainous.  Alentejo  is  generally  level.  The 
 others  are  generally  diversified  by  hill  and  dale. 
 
 Soil  and  Jgriculture.']  The  soil,  like  that  of  Spain,  is  generally 
 light  and  shallow,  but  capable  of  producing  abundantly  everything 
 requisite  for  the  sustenance  and  comfort  of  man.  Entre  Douro  e 
 Minho,  Estremadura  and  Algarve  are  peculiarly  fertile.  The 
 vallies  of  Tras-os-Montes  are  rich  and  delightful,  but  the  province 
 on  the  whole  is  wild  and  barren.  Beira  and  most  of  Alentejo,  with 
 the  proper  cultivation,  may  be  made  to  produce  abundant  crops. 
 
 The  agriculture  of  Portugal,  generally  is  much  neglected.  The 
 northwestern  province,  however,  is  in  a  high  state  of  cultivation, 
 as  arc  the  vallies  of  the  northeastern.  The  chief  productions  are 
 corn,  maize,  wine,  oil.  honey,  flax,  wool,  silk,  and  fruits. 
 
PORTUGAL.  379 
 
 JRiver^.']  The  Minho,  the  Douro,  the  Tagus,  and  the  Guidia- 
 na  have  already  been  described. 
 
 The  Lima,  anciently  the  Lethe^  rises  in  Gallicia,  runs  a  S.  W. 
 course,  and  forms  the  harbor  of  Viana.  Its  current  is  gentle,  and 
 small  vessels  navigate  it  about  20  miles. 
 
 The  Cavado  runs  a  parallel  course,  and  is  boatable  about  5  miles. 
 
 The  Monde^o  rises  in  the  Serra  d'Estrclla,  near  Guarda,  runs 
 a  W.  S.  W.  course  of  about  110  miles,  of  which  about  60  are 
 navigable  for  boats. 
 
 The  Sadaon  is  a  small  stream  forming  the  harbor  of  St.  Ubes. 
 
 The  Soro  is  the  chief  tributary  of  the  Tagus  in  Portugal,  and 
 the  turbulent  Ardala,  of  the  Guadiana. 
 
 Mountainsi]  The  Serra  Monchique,  the  northern  boundary  of 
 Algarve,  is  separated  by  the  Guadiana  from  the  Sierra  Morena. 
 Its  course  in  Portugal  is  from  E.  to  W.  about  80  miles.  A  part 
 of  this  chain  is  called  the  Serra  de  Caldeirao.  In  Alentejo  is  a 
 small  chain,  about  30  miles  long  and  6  broad,  which  tei'minates  a 
 little  N.  W.  of  Evora.  It  is  merely  a  continuation  of  the  mountains 
 of  Toledo, 
 
 The  Serra  d'Estrella  is  the  longest  chain  in  Portugal.  It  may 
 be  considered  as  commencing  at  the  Rock  of  Lisbon,  and  running 
 N.  E.  through  Estremadura  and  Beira,  till  it  joins  that  part  of  the 
 mountains  of  Guadarama,  called  Sierra  de  Gata,  The  highest 
 summit  of  this  range,  the  Mons  Hermeniiis  of  the  ancients,  is  call- 
 ed Estrella,  and  gives  its  name  to  the  whole  chain.  At  its  foot 
 stands  Villa  St.  Romao,  a  village  of  Beira.  On  the  top  the  trav- 
 eller finds  verdant  pastures,  and  rivulets  of  clear  water.  But  that 
 which  most  arrests  his  attention  is  a  lake,  surrounded  by  high 
 rocks.  The  water  is  clear  and  tepid,  and  has  a  tremulous  mo- 
 tion in  the  middle,  and  now  and  then  small  vesicles  are  seen  to 
 rise  aloft  from  its  surface.  From  the  strong  current  in  it  at  one 
 particular  place,  it  is  believed  that  there  is  an  aperture,  through 
 which  it  feeds  another  lake  farther  down  the  mountain. 
 
 The  summits  of  Tras-os-Montes  appear  to  be  an  extensive 
 clump  of  hills,  pursuing  no  settled  course,  and  connected  with  no 
 regular  chain. 
 
 The  Rock  of  Lisbon,  or  the  Roca-di-Cintra,  consists  of  large 
 rocks  of  flint,  some  of  ten  feet  in  diameter,  lying  on  each  other 
 without  order  or  connection.  It  is  rich  in  ore,  and  produces  ma- 
 ny remarkable  plants.  Near  the  summit  are  seen  the  ruins  of  an 
 old  Moorish  town  and  fortress,  with  a  reservoir,  under  an  arch, 
 of  very  fine  water.  On  the  top,  which  is  3000  feet  above  the 
 ocean,  is  a  hermitage  and  a  convent. 
 
 Zoology. ~\  The  horses  of  Portugal  are  much  inferior  to  those 
 of  Spain,  and  great  numbers  of  the  latter  are  annually  imported. 
 Asses  and  mules  are  numerous.  Horned  cattle  are  too  much 
 neglected.  Less  attention  is  paid  to  the  breeding  of  sheep  than 
 in  Spain  ;  but  the  wool  is  in  all  respects  equal.  Hogs  abound. 
 They  live  in  the  woods,  on  acorns,  and  the  hams  are  excellent. 
 
 Botany.']  The  indigenous  plants  of  Portugal  are  the  same  as 
 those  of  Spain  ;  but  a  number  of  exotics  have  strayed  from  the 
 
380  ITALY. 
 
 gardens  and  groAvn  wild,  pai'ticularly  around  the  large  seaports. 
 Among  these  are  the  American  aloe,  the  Indian  fig,  the  magna- 
 lia  grandiflora,  the  date  palm,  the  Lusitanian  cypress,  originally 
 from  Goa,  the  tea  tree,  the  fragrant  olive,  the  Cape  jasmine,  the 
 ice  plant,  and  the  myrica  faya.  Wheat,  barley,  rye,  oats,  maize, 
 rice,  Guinea  corn,  millet,  sweet  potatoe,  plantains,  pulse,  lupins, 
 Monk's  beans,  Jerttsalem  artichoke,  the  tomato,  ^jurds,  cucum- 
 bers, and  melons,  are  among  the  esculent  plants  of  the  field  and 
 garden.     The  fruit  trees  have  been  mentioned. 
 
 -Mineralogy.^  The  mineralogy  of  Portugal  has  been  much 
 neglected.  Small  vems  of  gold  have  been  observed  in  the  moun- 
 tains of  Goes  and  Estrella  ;  and  it  is  still  found  in  the  sand  of 
 some  streams,  as  in  ancient  times  the  Tajo  was  celebrated  for 
 this  metal.  Under  the  dominion  of  the  Spaniards,  a  mine  of  sil- 
 ver was  worked,  not  far  from  Braganza,  so  late  as  the  year  1628. 
 Tin  was  also  found  in  various  parts  of  the  northern  provinces. 
 There  are  lead  mines  at  Mursa,  Lamego,  and  Cogo  ;  and  the  ga- 
 lena ores  are  very  productive  of  silver  ;  copper  is  found  near  El- 
 vas,  and  in  other  districts.  The  iron  mines  are  neglected,  from  a 
 deficiency  of  fuel  ;  though  coal  is  found  in  different  parts  of  the 
 kingdom,  and  that  of  Buarcos  supplies  the  royal  foundery  at  Lis- 
 bon. Emery  is  found  near  the  Douro  ;  and  many  beautiful  mar- 
 bles abound  in  this  kingdom.  Fullers  earth  occurs  near  Guime- 
 rans.  Portugal  also  boasts  of  antimony,  manganese,  bismuth,  and 
 arsenic  ;  and  near  Castello-Branco  are  mines  of  quicksilver, 
 Rubies  have  been  discovered  in  Algarvc  ;  jacinths  in  the  rivers 
 Cavado  and  Bellas  ;  beryl  or  aquamarine  in  the  mountain  of  Es- 
 trella. In  short,  Portugal  abounds  with  minerals  of  most  de- 
 scrJptioTis  ;  and  npthing  is  wanting  but  fuel  and  industry. 
 
 ITALY  IN  GENERAL. 
 
 CHAPTEPv  I. 
 
 BOUNDARIES,  EXTENT,  DIVISIONS,  NAMES,  ORIGINAL  POPULATION, 
 HISTORY,  RELIGION,  GOVERNMENTS,  LANGUAGE,  POPULATION, 
 CLIMATE,  FACE  OF  THE  COUNTRY,  SOIL,  AGRICULTURE,  RIVERS, 
 LAKES,  MOUNTAINS,  BOTANY,  ZOOLOGY,  MINERALOGY. 
 
 J3oundaries.~\  THE  Alps  divide  Italy  from  France,  Swit- 
 zerland, and  Germany  on  the  North  ;  the  Adriatic  Sea  bounds  it 
 on  the  Northeast  ;  on  the  South  and  West  it  is  washed  by  the 
 Mediterranean. 
 
 Extent.']  Italy  lies  between  37  and  46  50,  N.  lat.  and  6  10  and 
 18  35,  E.  Ion.  Its  greatest  length  is  740  miles,  and  its  greatest 
 breadth  is  400.  The  contents  in  square  miles,  exclusive  of  the 
 islands,  is  95,585,  viz.  31,505  in  the  kingdom  of  N?.p!es  ;  32,920 
 
ITALY. 
 
 ;si 
 
 in  all  the  annexations  to  France  ;*  and  31,160  in  tliat  part  of  the 
 kingdom  of  Italy  which  is  in  Italy. 
 
 niviaions.^  The  ancients  divided  Italy  into  Gallia  Cisal/ima  on 
 the  north,  Italia  Propria  in  the  middle,  and  Magna  Graecia  on  the 
 south.  These  divisions  were  recognized  till  the  time  of  Augus- 
 tus, who  subdivided  Italy  into  eleven  regions.  The  whole  of  the 
 Italian  dominions,  comprehending  Corsica,  Sardinia,  the  Vene- 
 tian and  other  islands,  before  the  late  revolutions,  were  divided  in 
 the  manner  exhibited  in  the  following  TABLE. 
 
 Countr 
 
 es  NamfS.                                  Squ 
 
 arc  Miles. 
 
 Length. 
 
 Breidth. 
 
 Chief  Cides. 
 
 "Piedmont 
 
 6,619 
 
 140 
 
 98 
 
 Turin 
 
 Savoy 
 
 3,572 
 
 87 
 
 60 
 
 Chambery 
 
 To  the  king  J 
 
 Montserrat 
 
 446 
 
 40 
 
 22' 
 
 Cassal 
 
 of  Sardinia.'^  Aiessandrine 
 
 204 
 
 27 
 
 20 
 
 Alexandria 
 
 Oneglia 
 
 132 
 
 24 
 
 7 
 
 Oneglia 
 
 ^Sardinia  Island 
 
 6,600 
 
 135 
 
 57 
 
 Cagliari 
 
 To  the  king  5  Naples 
 
 22,000 
 
 275 
 
 200 
 
 Naples 
 
 of  Naples.   ^  Sicily  Island 
 
 9,400 
 
 180 
 
 92 
 
 Palermo 
 
 ^     ,     .^       f  Milan 
 
 5,431 
 
 1 55 
 
 70 
 
 Milan 
 
 To  the  Em- Uj^^^^^ 
 
 700 
 
 47 
 
 27 
 
 Mantua 
 
 peror.       ^Mirandola 
 
 120 
 
 19 
 
 10 
 
 Mirandola 
 
 N.lat.41  54 
 
 Pope's  dominions  14,348 
 
 235 
 
 143 
 
 Rome 
 
 E.  Ion.  12  45 
 
 Tuscany 
 
 6,640 
 
 115 
 
 94 
 
 Florence 
 
 ,^     ,    .             Massa 
 
 82 
 
 16 
 
 11 
 
 Massa 
 
 To  their  re-     p^^.^^ 
 spective  <;  j^^^^^^ 
 
 1,225 
 
 48 
 
 37 
 
 Parma 
 
 1,560 
 
 65 
 
 39 
 
 Modena 
 
 pnnces. 
 
 Piombino 
 
 100 
 
 22 
 
 18 
 
 Piombino 
 
 ^Monaco 
 
 24 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 Monaco 
 
 1 
 
 Lucca 
 
 St.  Marino 
 
 2S0 
 
 28 
 
 15 
 
 Lucca 
 
 Republics.   "" 
 
 8 
 
 St.  Marino 
 
 1 
 
 .Genoa 
 
 2,400 
 
 160 
 
 25 
 
 Genoa 
 
 To  England     Corsica  Island 
 
 2,520 
 
 90 
 
 38 
 
 Bastia 
 
 Venice 
 
 8,434 
 
 175 
 
 95 
 
 Venice 
 
 To  the  re-     Istria  P. 
 
 1,245 
 
 56 
 
 32 
 
 Capo  d'lstria 
 
 public  of^  Dalmatia  P. 
 
 1,400 
 
 I  35 
 
 20 
 
 Zara 
 
 Venice.        Isles  of  Dalma- 
 >.     tia 
 
 1,364 
 
 ,i  'Cephalonia 
 
 428 
 
 40 
 
 18 
 
 Cephalonia 
 
 Corfu,  or  Cor- 
 
 194 
 
 31 
 
 10 
 
 Corfu 
 
 Islands    in       't'    ^  ^^      ^ 
 theVene.^2^"^'  °^'  ^^- 
 
 120 
 
 23 
 
 12 
 
 Zant 
 
 J         <<       cynthus 
 Han  do-       '  c..    Tvr 
 .   .                 St.  Maura 
 
 56 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 St.  Maura 
 
 mmions. 
 
 Little  Cepha- 
 
 lonia, Ithaca 
 
 14 
 
 7 
 
 ■3 
 
 olim 
 
 Total,     75,056 
 The  present  tlivisions  of  Italy  noil/  be  seen  in  the  sequel, 
 
 *  The  reason  why  the  number  of  square  miles  ami  population   annexed  to  France 
 from  Italy,  as  here  gi^cn,  iliffers  IVom  that  j^ivcii  in  t^e  acionnt  ot  France  is,  that  the' 
 
382  ITALY. 
 
 A'antes.']  This  celebrated  country  was  known  in  ifiorc  andent 
 limes  by  the  names  Saiurnia,  CEnotria,  Ausonia.^  and  Hesficria.  It- 
 aly, its  present  name,  was  probably  the  Aitolia  of  the  Greeks, 
 transferred  to  the  other  side  of  the  Adriatic,  though  some  authors 
 derive  it  from  Italiis.,  a  king  of  Arcadia. 
 
 Original  P ovulation. ~]  Ancient  writers  are  extremely  confused 
 in  their  account  of  the  first  inhabitants  of  Italy  ;  and  it  is  difficult 
 to  come  to  any  satisfactory  conclusion  with  regard  to  their  names, 
 numbers,  and  origin.  The  authors  of  the  Universal  History  con- 
 sider the  Umbri  as  the  aborigines  of  northern  and  central  Italy. 
 The  Gauls  drove  the  Uinbri  southward,  and,  in  the  first  ages  of 
 Rome,  were  possessed  of  a  great  part  of  Gallia  Cisalfiina.  The 
 Tyrrheni^  or  Etruscans  from  Lydia,  in  Asia  Minor,  possessed 
 themselves  very  early  of  the  central  parts  of  Italy,  and  appear  to 
 have  become  incorporated  with  the  Umbri.  The  v/hole  of  Italia 
 Propria  was  denominated  Tyrr/ienia  by  the  Greeks.  The  south- 
 ern parts  of  Italy  were  peopled  by  numerous  small  colonies  of 
 Greeks,  Avho  settled  there  in  different  periods,  and  gave  the  coun- 
 try the  name  of  Magna  Graecia.  It  is  doubtful  Avhether  Eneas 
 ever  settled  in  Latium  with  a  colony  of  Trojans  ;  but,  be  this  as 
 it  may,  the  Romans  were  chiefly  or  wholly  descended  from  the 
 Etruscans.  The  founders  of  their  city  Vv-ere  a  company  of 
 freebooters,  headed  by  Romulus  and  Remus,  the  first  of  whom 
 gave  a  name  to  the  city  and  nation. 
 
 History.']  Nothing  can  be  said  here  of  the  modern  petty  states ; 
 we  shall  merely  notice  those  great  events,  which  have  in  a  meas- 
 ure affected  the  whole  country. 
 
 1.  The  earliest  known  condition  of  Italy  when  the  northern  and 
 central  parts  were  in  the  possession  of  the  Umbrians ;  and  the 
 southern,  of  various  colonies  of  Pelasgi. 
 
 2.  The  settlement  of  the  Etruscans,  a  colony  from  Lydia,  in  the 
 ■middle  of  Italy,  probably  before  the  Trojan  war.  Their  empire 
 became  at  length  very  extensive.  The  Gauls  also  got  possession 
 of  all  the  continental  part  of  Italy,  driving  before  them  the  Um- 
 brians and  Etruscans. 
 
 3.  The  building  of  Rome  by  Romulus,  the  grandson  of  Numi- 
 tor,  about  750  years  before  Christ,  and  the  establishment  of  the 
 monarchy,  which  lasted  243  years. 
 
 4.  The  burning  of  the  city  by  the  Gauls  B.  C,  384.  Before  this 
 event  the  Sabines,  Veientes,  and  Fidcnates  had  been  vanquished 
 and  brought  into  subjection. 
 
 annexation  ofllie  States  of  the  Cluircli,  and  various  otlicr  districts,  was  not  known  to 
 she  Author  when  the  <Itscription  of  France  was  printed. 
 
 Since  tiie  above  was  written,  a  decree  of  the  J'lench  emperor  of  the  5th  of  Augnst, 
 ISll,  has  been  received,  which  ordains,  tiiat  the  "  river  Enza,  from  its  mouth  to  its 
 source,  sliall  be  tlie  boundary  between  France  and  the  French  kingdom  of  Italy. 
 From  the  source  of  the  Knza  the  boundary  shall  proceed  along  the  summit  ot  llic  Ap- 
 peniues,  to  the  present  frontier  of  the  (Jarsagnana,  and  of  ancient  Tuscany .  Hie 
 boundary  I)et"  ecu  the  kinj^dom  of  Italy  and  the  lllyrian  provinces,  shall  follow  the 
 course  of  the  Isonzo,  from  its  mouth  to  its  source  ;  th'eiice  it  shall  skirt  the  leri-iiory 
 of  Wessenfels  and  Tarvis,  which  shall  belong  to  the  kingdom  of  Italy  ;  and  thunc 
 shall  proceed  by  the  suniinit  oftltc  Julian  Alps,  east  and  west,  to  the  Irontiers  ol  t!ie 
 rvrol." 
 
ITALY.  383 
 
 5?  The  commencement  of  the  first  Punic  war,  in  the  year  B. 
 C.  263,  which  lasted  24  years,  and  was  the  first  which  the  Romans"" 
 ever  waged  out  of  Italy.  At  this  time  the  whole  of  central  and 
 southern  Italy  Avere  possessed  by  the  Romans,  who  had  subdued 
 the  Etruscans,  the  Umbrians,  Latins,  Equi,  Volsci,  and  Samnites, 
 and  all  the  smaller  tribes  in  this  part  of  Italy. 
 
 6.  The  second  Punic  war,  begun  in  218  B.  C.  during  which 
 Hannibal  marched  into  Italy  over  the  Alps,  subdued  every  thing 
 except  the  city  ;  but  was  at  length  defeated,  and  obliged  to  leave 
 Italy  in  order  to  defend  Carthage.  There  he  was  vanquished, 
 and  Carthage  reduced. 
 
 7.  The  termination  of  the  republic,  and  the  assumption  of  the 
 imperial  dignity  by  Julius  Caesar,  in  the  year  44  B.  C. 
 
 8.  The  various  invasions  of  Italy  by  Alaric,  king  of  the  Goths, 
 in  the  beginning  of  the  5th  century.  In  404,  Honorius  transferred 
 the  seat  of  the  empire  from  Milan  to  Ravenna.  The  invasion  of 
 the  Hunns  under  Attila  was  in  452,  and  that  of  the  African  Van- 
 dals under  Genseric,  in  455.  In  488,  Theodoric,  king  of  the  Os- 
 trogoths, planted  them  in  the  country,  and  established  a  kingdom 
 there,  the  capital  of  which  was  Verona.  It  lasted  64.  years,  and 
 was  finally  destroyed  by  Narses,  general  of  Justinian. 
 
 9.  Longinus,  under  Justin,  empei'or  of  the  east,  in  the  year  568, 
 settled  a  governor  in  every  city  of  Italy,  under  the  title  of  Duke, 
 and  took  himself  that  of  exarch,  which  form  continued  571  years 
 under  the  name  of  exarchate.  The  same  year,  under  Alboinus, 
 the  Lombards  entered  Italy,  from  Germany  directly,  but  original- 
 ly from  Scandinavia.  They  conquered  nmnerous  cities  in  the 
 north,  and  made  Pavia  their  capital. 
 
 10.  Pepin,  king  of  Fi-ance,  A.  D.  756,  invested  the  Pope  with 
 the  exarchate  of  Ravenna,  and  various  other  territories  which  had 
 been  seized  by  the  king  of  the  Lombards,  and  thus  rendered  him. 
 a  temporal  prince,  who  governed  the  exarchate  by  an  archbishop. 
 
 11.  Charlemagne,  in  770,  reduced  the  kingdom  of  the  Lom- 
 bards, and  sent  their  kimg,  Desiderius,  and  his  family  into  France. 
 This  kingdom,  at  the  time  of  its  overthrow,  comprized  all  of 
 northern  and  central  Italy,  except  the  possessions  of  the  Pope, 
 and  the  greater  part  of  the  present  kingdom  of  Naples  ;  the  re- 
 mainder of  which  was  still  held  by  the  emperors  of  the  east. 
 Charles  himself  was  crowned  king  of  Lombardy.  His  successors 
 retained  that  title  till  the  year  890. 
 
 12.  The  distracted  state  of  Italy,  after  the  termination  of  the 
 Carlovingian  dynasty.  The  country  became  the  scene  of  number- 
 less civil  wars,  v/as  repeatedly  and  terribly  invaded  by  the  Hun- 
 garians and  Saracens,  and  at  length,  in  961,  fell  to  the  possession 
 of  Otho  I.  emperor  of  Germany.  Apulia  and  Calabria  were  still 
 claimed  by  the  Greeks,  but  all  the  rest  v^as  subject  to,  or  held  of, 
 the  emperoi",  as  king  of  Italy.  The  imperial  govei'nment  contin- 
 ued with  various  oppositions  and  interruptions,  but  on  the  whole 
 unshaken  till  the  time  of  Frederic  II.  who  died  in  1250. 
 
 13.  After  the  loss  of  Italy  to  Germany,  various  unsuccessful 
 attempts  were  made  by  tlic  emperor,  and  the  kings  of  France  and 
 
3S4  ITALY. 
 
 Spain  to  reduce  it  under  their  dominion.  For  more  than  two  cen- 
 turies also  it  continued  the  scene  of  numberless  and  obstinate  wars 
 between  the  various  petty  states.  At  length,  in  1809,  the  French 
 came  into  possession  of  the  whole  country.  All  the  petty  states 
 are  now  abolished.  Naples  has  had  one  of  the  Bonaparte 
 family  placed  at  its  head.  One  third  of  the  countiy  is  annexed  to 
 France,  and  the  north-east  formed  into  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  of 
 which  the  French  emperor  is  sovereign. 
 
 Kcligio7i.~\  In  all  parts  of  Italy  the  Roman  Catholic  religion  is 
 established,  and  in  many  parts  no  other  is  permitted. 
 
 Governments.']  Before  the  late  changes  in  Europe,  Italy  con- 
 tained almost  every  species  of  government.  Naples  and  the 
 country  of  the  king  of  Sardinia  were  absolute  monarchies;  Ve- 
 nice, Genoa,  and  Lucca  were  aristocratical  republics,  and  St.  Ma- 
 rino a  democratical  one  ;  that  of  the  State  of  the  Church  was  a  non- 
 descript ;  the  petty  princes  had,  each,  different  degrees  of  inde- 
 pendence and  power  ;  and  the  three  duchies  of  Milan,  Mantua, 
 and  Mirandola,  were  colonics  of  Austria. 
 
 La72guage.~\  The  Italian  is  spoken  throughout  the  whole  of 
 Italy  ;  but  with  various  degrees  of  purity.  On  the  borders  of 
 France  and  Germany  it  is  corrupted  by  the  languages  of  those 
 countries.  The  purest  Italian  is  spoken  in  Tuscany,  and  at 
 Rome.  In  the  sea-ports  the  Lingua  Franca  is  generally  under- 
 stood. 
 
 Pojiulatio?!.']  The  Avhole  population  of  Italy,  comprising  all 
 the  territories  described  under  this  head,  according  to  Hassel's 
 estimate,  which  is  deemed  the  most  correct,  is  16,1 17,000. 
 
 Climate.]  The  climate  of  the  north  of  Italy  is  temperate  and 
 healthy  ;  and  near  the  foot  of  the  Alps  the  winters  are  often  se- 
 verely cold.  That  of  the  peninsula  is  extremely  warm.  In  the 
 central  parts,  particularly  in  Tuscany,  the  Ferrarese,  and  the 
 Campagna  di  Roma,  it  is  rendered  very  unhealthy  by  the  number 
 of  stagnant  marshes.  The  heat  of  Naples  would  often  be  intol- 
 erable, if  it  were  not  for  the  regular  recurrence  of  sea-breezes. 
 
 Face  of  the  Cowitry.]  Italy  presents  eveiy  variety  of  surface. 
 The  French,  Swiss,  and  Gerinan  frontiers  are  wholly  mountain- 
 ous, and  the  chain  of  the  Appenines  runs  along  the  Gulf  of  Genoa^ 
 and  through  the  whole  peninsula.  Between  the  Alps  and  the 
 western  Appenines  are  many  extensive  and  fertile  plains  and  val- 
 lics,  watered  by  the  Po  and  its  numerous  branches.  In  the  pen- 
 insula, also,  on  both  sides  of  the  mountains,  the  country  is  some- 
 times a  succession  of  hills  and  dales,  and  at  others  the  vallies 
 widen  into  plains  of  singular  richness  and  beauty.  The  warmth 
 of  the  climate,  the  richness  of  the  soil,  the  frequency  of  the  rains, 
 and  the  number  of  brooks  and  rivers,  give  a  beauty  to  the  Italian 
 landscape,  which  is  not  known  in  the  rest  of  Europe. 
 
 tioil  and  Jgricidlure.]  Every  part  of  this  country  possesses  a 
 fertile  soil,  capable,  with  moderate  cultivation,  of  bearing  in  abun- 
 dance all  kinds  of  grain,  vegetables,  and  fruits.  The  agriculture 
 of  the  north  is  proverbially  excellent ;  Lombardy  having  been 
 styled  for  many  centuries  the  garden  of  Lurojtc.  The  middle  and 
 southern  regions  are  generally  also  in  a  liigh  slate  of  cultivation. 
 
ITALY.  .385 
 
 Rivers.']  The  Po,  called  Padus  and  Eridanus,  by  the  ancients, 
 is  the  largest  river  of  Italy.  It  rises  in  Mount  Vise,  the  highest 
 of  the  Maritime  Alps,  on  the  western  frontiers  of  Piedmont,  7 
 miles  N.  of  Castel  Delfino,  and  18  W.  of  Saluzzo.  Its  course  is 
 N.  E.  to  Chivasso,  and  thence  almost  directly  E.but  on  the  whole 
 a  little  S.  to  the  Adriatic,  which  it  enters  by  several  mouths,  un- 
 der the  parallel  of  45.  Probably  no  river  in  the  world  of  the  same 
 size,  has  so  large  or  so  numerous  tributaries.  On  the  left  bank 
 it  receives  the  Doria,  at  Turin,  the  Grand  Doria  below  Chivasso, 
 the  waters  of  Lake  Maggiore  through  the  Tessino,  above  Pavia  ; 
 the  Adda  above  Cremona,  and  some  distance  below,  the  Oglio. 
 On  the  south  it  is  joined  by  the  Tanaro  below  Alessandria,  the 
 Trebia  at  Placenza,  the  Taro,  which  runs  by  Parma,  the  Lecchia 
 and  the  Panaro.  The  whole  length  of  the  river  is  about  350 
 miles.  Notwithstanding  the  Po  flows  chiefly  through  plains^  yet 
 its  course  is  generally  rapid,  and,  when  swelled  by  the  mountain 
 snows,  it  becomes  a  torrent  inundating  the  ncigboi-ing  country. 
 
 The  Tiber,  Jldeiis,  received  its  name  from  Tiberinus.)  a  king  of 
 Alba,  who  was  drowned  in  it.  It  rises  among  the  Appennines, 
 near  Borgo  di  St.  Sepolcro,  and  pursuing  a  southerly  coui'se,  pass- 
 es through  Rome,  and  falls  into  that  part  of  the  Mediterranean 
 which  is  called  the  Tuscan  sea,  below  Ostia.  Its  length  is  about 
 180  miles. 
 
 The  Adige,  the  Athesis  of  the  Romans,  and  Etsch  of  the  Ger- 
 mans, rises  among  the  Rhaetian  Alps,  near  Sterzing,  in  the  coun- 
 ty of  Tyrol,  runs  southward  by  Trent  to  Verona,  and  thence  turns 
 eastward  to  the  Adriatic,  into  which  it  falls  about  12  miles  N.  of 
 the  Po,  and  24  S.  of  Venice,  after  a  course  of  210  miles.  The  Pi- 
 ave  and  Tagliamento  fall  into  the  N.  W.  side  of  the  same  sea. 
 The  Primaro  runs  about  100  miles,  and  empties  about  12  miles 
 N.  of  Ravenna. 
 
 The  Arno,  ylrfius,  rises  among  the  Appennines,  in  Tuscany, 
 passes  by  Florence,  and  falls  into  the  sea  12  miles  N.  of  Leghoi'n, 
 and  below  Pisa,  to  which  it  is  navigable  in  small  vessels.  It  re- 
 ceives in  its  course  the  Siera,  the  Pesa,  and  the  Elsa.  Its  length 
 is  about  100  miles.  The  Voltorno  falls  into  the  Gulf  of  Gaeta. 
 The  famous  Rubicon,  is  a  small  stream,  which  forms  the  southern 
 boundary  between  Italy  and  the  ancient  Cisalpine  Gaul. 
 
 Z,af:es.~\  The  Lago  Maggiore  is  about  27  miles  in  length,  by 
 3  of  medial  breadth,  receiving  the*  waters  of  lake  Lugano  on  the 
 east.  This  lake  contains  the  Boromean  isles,  celebrated  by  many 
 travellers.  Still  farther  to  the  east  is  the  lake  of  Como,  which  is 
 joined  by  that  of  Lecco  :  the  lake  of  Como  is  about  32  miles  in 
 length,  but  the  medial  breadth  not  above  two  and  a  half.  Yet  far- 
 ther to  the  east  is  the  small  lake  of  Iseo,  which  is  followed  by  the 
 Lago  di  Garda,  an  expanse  of  about  30  miles  in  length  by  8  in 
 breadth. 
 
 In  the  central  part  of"  Italy  the  largest  lakes  are  these  of  Peru- 
 gia and  Bolsena,  that  of  Albano,  shaded  by  trees  and  rocks,  and 
 that  of  Nemi  in  the  same  vicinity,  about  17  miles  S.  E.  from  Rome, 
 vor,.  II.  49 
 
sag  ITALY. 
 
 In  the  Neapolitan  paPt  is  the  lake  of  Celano  in  the  north  ;  and 
 that  of  Varano,  near  mount  Gargano. 
 
 Mountains.'^     The  Alps  have  ah'eady  been  minutely  described. 
 
 The  Appennines  branch  from  the  Maritime  Alps  near  Ormea, 
 and  run  N.  E.  at  no  great  distance  from  the  coast,  and  parallel 
 with  it,  to  the  meridian  of  Genoa.  Thence  their  course  is  E.  for 
 about  50  miles,  and  thence  S.  E.  through  the  whole  peninsula, 
 generally  approaching  nearer  to  the  Adriatic,  than  the  Tuscan 
 sea.  In  Naples  the  chain  divides,  a  part  of  it  running  eastward 
 towards  Otranto,  the  other  southward  to  the  extremity  of  Italy. 
 Mount  St.  Angelo,  the  ancient  Garganus,  is  a  spur  from  the  Ap- 
 pennies,  running  N.  N.  E.  to  Cape  de  La  Teste.  These  mountains 
 are  every  where  covered  with  wood.  They  do  not  form  one  un- 
 interrupted level,  but  consist  of  distinct  hills,  the  middle  regions 
 of  which  meet  each  other,  while  you  have  an  open  prospect  of  the 
 horizon  between  their  summits. 
 
 Mount  Vesuvius,  a  solitary  mountain  6  miles  E.  from  Naples, 
 has  2  peaks.  The  north  peak  resembles  an  inverted  cone,  strik- 
 ing the  eye  with  the  view  of  an  accumulated  mass  of  stones,  sand, 
 and  cinders,  and  is  properly  the  volcano.  It  is  3600  feet  above 
 the  sea.  The  south  peak,  called  the  Somma,  does  not  exceed 
 3300.  The  south  and  west  sides  of  the  mountain  are  entirely  cov- 
 ered with  cinders  and  ashes,  the  north-east  is  well  cultivated  and 
 fertile,  producing  great  plenty  of  vines.  Vesuvius  has  been  lia- 
 ble to  frequent  eruptions.  The  first  on  record  is  that  of  the  year 
 79,  when  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum  were  completely  buried  by 
 the  lava.  In  1538,  a  mountain,  3  miles  in  circumference,  and  a 
 quarter  of  a  mile  high,  was  thrown  up  in  the  course  of  one  night. 
 The  eruption  in  August,  1769,  so  well  described  by  Sir  William 
 Hamilton,  was  the  most  remarkable  which  the  mountain  has  ex- 
 perienced. The  circumference  of  Vesuvius  is  50  miles.  The 
 circumference  of  the  crater  is  half  a  mile. 
 
 Botany.']  The  forest  trees  in  the  north,  among  the  Alps,  are 
 the  pine,  the  larch,  the  fir,  yew,  mountain  ash,  birch,  juniper,  sa- 
 vine,  stone  pine,  and  alder  ;  and  lower  down,  the  oak,  elm.  Under, 
 hasle,  service-tree,  lime,  ash,  horn-beam,  apple,  and  Avalnut ;  and 
 farther  south,  the  prickly  oak,  chesnut,  poplar,  cork  tree,  storax, 
 bread-tree,  pyracanthus,  carol-tree,  tree  of  Judas,  cypress,  manna- 
 tree,  and  ilex.  The  fruit  trees  are  the  apple,  pear,  peach,  plum, 
 cherry,  apricot,  nectarine,  pomegranate,  orange,  lemon,  fig,  date, 
 palm,  pistachio,  almond,  olive,  and  the  vine.  Of  these  most  grow 
 wild  in  the  woods,  and  of  the  smaller  plants  the  number  is  too 
 great  to  admit  of  an  enumeration.  Stolberg  gives  a  minute  ac- 
 count of  them. 
 
 Zoology.']  The  cattle  of  Italy  are  generally  large  and  excellent. 
 Those  in  the  north  are  of  a  clear  brown,  or  of  a  pale  rose  color  ; 
 those  in  the  middle  and  south,  are  of  a  light  grey.  The  buffalo  is 
 common.  It  was  broug^it  from  Asia.  Many  of  them  are  tame. 
 The  milk  is  thinner  than  that  of  the  cow,  but  sweet  and  healthy. 
 The  Italian  horses  are  little  esteemed  ;  but  those  of  Naples, 
 though  small,  arc-  beautiful  and  full  of  fire.     Asses  and  mules  are 
 
ITALY.  SB? 
 
 extensively  used  in  travelling.  The  goats  of  Savoy  are  numerous 
 and  fine,  and  the  sheep  of  Italy  generally.  The  hogs  are  large 
 and  black.  Wild-boars,  wolves,  and  foxes  are  still  found  in  the 
 forests,  as  well  as  plenty  of  game.  Birds  do  not  abound  in  the 
 woods,  as  they  do  in  many  other  countries. 
 
 Mineralogy.']  The  mountains  contain  marble,  alabaster,  jas- 
 per, porphyry,  iron,  lead,  alum,  sulphur,  and  some  gold  and  sil- 
 ver. 
 
 Arrangement.']  We  propose  to  consider  Italy  according  to  its 
 present  divisions.  The  western  part  which  is  annexed  to  France 
 claims  our  first  attention  ;  then  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  in  the  east, 
 then  that  of  Naples,  in  the  south,  with  dependar.t  islands,  and  last- 
 ly the  surrounding  islands  of  Sicily,  Sardinia,  Malta,  and  tlie 
 Ionian  Republic. 
 
 CHAPTER  IL 
 
 TERRITORY  OF  FRANCE  IN  ITALY. 
 SITUATION,  EXTENT,  DIVISIONS,  POPULATION,  ARMY,    CITIES. 
 
 Situation.]  THE  possessions  of  France  in  Italy  have  the 
 Alps  on  the  west.  North  of  the  Po  they  reach  to  the  former  we^t 
 frontier  of  Piedmont,  and  south  of  that  river  to  the  east  frontier  of 
 Parma.  The  line  runs  thence  nearly  south  to  the  territory  of 
 Massa,  and  thence  nearly  E.  to  the  Adriatic,  passing  a  little  south 
 of  St.  Marino,  Their  southern  boundary  is  the  kingdom  o,f  Na- 
 ples, which  has  the  same  limits  as  before  the  French  revolution. 
 
 jExtent.]  The  length  of  this  territory,  fix)m  the  river  Secco, 
 the  S.  W.  frontier,  to  Geneva  Lake,  is  400  miles.  The  breadth, 
 from,  the  opposite  boundaries  of  Piedmont  and  Parma,  is  170 
 miles  ;  at  Massa  it  is  not  20. 
 
 .Divisions.]  We  have  already  mentioned  the  former  divisions 
 of  this  territory.  It  is  now  divided  into  departments.  Those  of 
 Piedmont  and  Savoy  have  already  been  given  in  the  geography  of 
 France.  If  the  other  countries  have  been  thus  divided,  the  names 
 of  the  divisions  have  not  reached  us. 
 
 Population.]  We  must  be  indebted  for  our  account  of  the 
 population  of  this  territory,  as  of  most  other  countries  of  Europe, 
 to  the  excellent  statistical  tables  of  Hassel,  published  at  Gottin- 
 gen,  in  1809.  He  gives  the  population  of  the  various  districts, 
 which  now  compose  the  French  possessions  in  Italy,  under  the 
 names  they  then  bore,  as  follows.  In  the  departments  made  out 
 of  Savoy  and  Piedmont,  in  1808,  2,857,916;  in  the  duchies  of 
 Parma  and  Piacenza,  240,000  ;  in  Lucca  and  Piombino,  172,000  ; 
 in  the  kingdom  of  Etruria,  1,100,000  j  Ecclesiastical  State, 
 668,000,  or  about  5,040,000  in  the  whole. 
 
 Army.]  This  part  of  Italy  being  thus  brought  under  the  im- 
 mediate dominion  of  the  French  Emperor,  and  portioned  out  into 
 departments,  will,  l.ike  France,  be  liable  to  the  conscription.    The 
 
388  ITALY. 
 
 same  laws  also  Avill  regulate  the  fiscal  concerns  of  both  countries. 
 
 Cities.^  Borne,  once  the  mistress  of  the  world,  and  the  mother 
 of  so  many  kings  and  heroes,  is  now  ihe  chief  town  of  a  French 
 department.  It  was  built  by  Romulus,  B.  C.  753,  burnt  by  the 
 Gauls  in  384,  B.  C.  by  Nero,  A.  D.  64,  again  by  accident  in  191,  ta- 
 Icen  by  Alaric,  410,  and  since  that  time  by  numerous  invaders.  It 
 stands  on  a  bend  of  the  Tiber,  15  miles  from  its  mouth.  Over  the 
 river  there  are  6  bridges.  Almost  the  whole  of  the  city  is  on  the 
 east  side  of  the  river  ;  a  single  ward  is  on  the  other  side,  and 
 from  that  circumstance  called  Transtevere.  The  city  is  13  miles 
 in  circum.ference,  and  is  surrounded  by  a  wall,  only  a  small  part 
 of  which  flanks  upon  the  river.  The  walls  have  20  gates.  Some 
 of  the  seven  hills  upon  which  it  was  built,  appear  now  but  gentle 
 swellings,  the  intervals  having  been  gradually  raised  by  the  rub- 
 bish of  ruined  houses.  Several  of  them  are  entirely  laid  out  in 
 gardens  and  vineyards  ;  and  it  is  said  that  from  half  to'  two  thirds 
 oi  the  ground  Avithin  the  walls  is  thus  laid  out,  or  covered  with 
 rubbish.  The  streets  are  large  and  handsome,  but  not  kept  in 
 good  repair.  The  squares  also  are  numerous  and  beautiful. 
 The  number  of  parishes  is  96,  of  churches  300,  of  towers  as 
 many,  of  palaces  2200,  of  monasteries  64,  of  nunneries  40, 
 and  of  hospitals  30.  By  a  census  taken  in  1709,  the  popula- 
 tion was  138,568.  By  that  of  1797,  the  number  of  houses  was 
 35,900,  and  of  inhabitants  163,034.  The  churches  are  generally 
 elegant  ;  but  the  most  splendid  are  those  of  St.  John  de  Latcran, 
 St.  Peter  in  the  Vatican,  St.  Paul,  St.  Mary,  St.  Laurence,  the 
 Holy  Cross,  and  St.  Sebastian.  The  church  of  St.  Peter  is  the 
 most  superb  edifice  of  modern  times.  A  magnificent  portico  ad- 
 vances on  each  side  from  the  front,  by  which  means  a  large  square 
 is  formed,  open  on  one  side.  At  the  end  of  each  poriico  a  colo- 
 nade  commences,  of  four  columns  deep,  and  above  300  in  the 
 vhole,  forming  three  separate  walks  that  lead  to  the  advanced 
 portico,  and  from  that  to  the  church.  The  colonades  are  crown- 
 ed with  balustrades,  ornamented  by  numerous  statues  ;  and  run- 
 ning in  an  oval  direction,  embrace  a  much  larger  space  than  the 
 square.  Their  two  outer  extremities  are  just  the  width  of  the 
 square  apart.  In  the  middle  of  this  imoiense  area  stands  an 
 Egyptian  obelisk,  of  granite,  and  to  the  right  and  left  of  this  two 
 very  beautiful  fountains  are  constantly  playing.  The  length  of 
 the  front  is  730  feet,  and  the  breadth  of  the  church  520,  the  height 
 to  the  top  of  the  cross,  which  crowns  the  cupola,  450.  The  length 
 of  each  portico  216  feet,  and  the  breadth  40.  The  streets  and 
 squares  are  every  where  ornamented  with  fountains  and  statues. 
 
 Milan,  anciently  Mediolanum,  stands  in  a  fruitful  and  pleasant 
 plai!i,  near  the  A.dda.  It  is  ten  miles  in  circumference,  and  half 
 of  the  inclosed  ground  is  occupied  by  gardens.  It  is  surrounded 
 by  a  wall,  with  22  gates,  and  a  rampart.  The  citadel  is  a  large 
 hexagon,  and  is  one  of  the  strongest  fortresses  in  Italy.  The 
 streets  arc  broad  and  neat,  the  squares  spacious  and  handsome, 
 and  the  houses  lofty.  There  are  here  230  churches,  40  monas- 
 teries, 50  nunneries,  numerous  hospitals  and  religious  iVateruities, 
 
ITALY.  389 
 
 and  in  1805)  128,862  inhabitants.  The  cathedral  is  a  vast  struc- 
 ture, 500  feet  long  and  300  broad,  built  wholly  of  white  nnarble. 
 This  city  was  built  by  the  Gauls,  358  years  B.  C.  A  short  canal 
 connects  it  with  the  Adda,  and  a  much  longer  one  with  the  Tes- 
 sino.  About  2  miles  from  the  city  is  an  artificial  e^ho,  which 
 will  repeat  the  report  of  a  pistol  above  60  times.  The  environs 
 are  embellished  with  beautiful  villas,  gardens,  and  orchards. 
 
 Genoa  stands  at  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Genoa,  and  is  about  10 
 miles  in  circuit.  A  double  wall  defends  it  on  the  land  side,  and 
 several  bastions  are  erected  along  the  shore,  on  rocks,  which  rise 
 above  the  water.  About  500  cannon  arc  mounted  on  all  the  works. 
 The  streetii  are  well  paved  and  neat,  but  too  narrow  to  admit  of 
 coaches.  Two,  called  the  Sirada  JVuova,  and  Strada  Balbi.,  arc 
 filled  with  magnificent  palaces,  fronted  with  marble.  The  houses 
 are  handsome  and  very  lofty.  The  number  of  inhabitants  in  1789, 
 was  80,156.  The  harbor  is  large,  but  not  safe.  The  light-house 
 is  on  a  high  rock,  at  the  west  side,  and  is  one  of  the  loftiest  known. 
 
 Florence,  formerly  Flurentia^  in  Tuscany,  was  built  by  Sylla, 
 and  rebuilt  by  Charlemagne.  It  stands  at  the  foot  of  the  Appen- 
 nines,  on  both  sides  of  the  Arno.  Four  stone  bridges  connect  the 
 two  parts  of  the  city.  The  walls  are  6  miles  in  circuit.  The 
 streets  are  remarkably  clean,  the  houses  handsome,  and  some  of 
 the  churches  magnificent.  This  city  is  decorated  with  150 
 churches.  89  convents,  18  halls  for  merchants,  72  courts  of  jus- 
 tice, 22  hospitals,  6  obelisks,  2  pyramids,  7  fountains,  17  squares, 
 and  160  public  statues.  The  cathedral  is  a  noble  edifice,  with  an 
 outside  of  polished  marble.  Near  it  stands  a  tower  288  feet  high. 
 In  the  environs  are  near  2,000  villas.  The  nobles  of  Florence  are 
 engaged  in  merchandise.  The  principal  trade  is  in  wine,  oil, 
 fruits,  raw  silk,  and  gold  and  silver  stuffs. 
 
 Turin,  in  Piedmont,  anciently  Augusta  Taurinorum,  stands  7 
 miles  from  the  foot  of  the  Cottian  Alps,  on  a  plain,  at  the  conflu- 
 ence of  the  Po  and  the  Doina.  The  environs  are  beautiful.  The 
 walls  are  strong,  and  are  6  miles  in  circuit.  The  four  gates  are 
 highly  ornamental.  The  fortifications  are  regular,  and  the  cita- 
 del is  one  of  the  strongest  in  Europe.  The  streets  are  wide, 
 straight,  and  clean,  having  plenty  of  water  running  through  them. 
 The  houses  are  handsome,  and  are  chiefly  of  brick,  stuccoed. 
 There  are  130  churches  and  chapels  in  the  town,  and  17  in  the 
 suburbs.     The  population  in  1802  was  73,716. 
 
 Leghorn,  in  Tuscany,  comparatively  a  modern  city,  stands  on  the 
 Tuscan  sea,  12  miles  S.  of  the  Arno.  It  is  walled,  and  has  two  forts 
 towards  the  sea,  and  a  citadel  towards  the  land  side.  The  inner  har- 
 bor will  admit  but  a  few  vessels,  the  outer  is  formed  by  a  mole,  600 
 paces  long,  but  is  too  shallow  for  large  ships.  Leghorn  is  not  distin- 
 guished by  its  edifices,  but  is  wholly  singular  among  the  cities  of  It- 
 aly for  the  industry  and  commercial  enterprise  of  its  inhabitants. 
 The  streets  are  perfectly  straight,  and  the  houses  handsome.  The 
 town  is  intersected  by  several  canals,  which  have  drained  the 
 noxious  marshes  in  the  neighborhood.  Fresh  water  is  procured 
 from  Pisa.     The    number  of  inhabitants    is  58,000.     The  trade 
 
390  ITALY. 
 
 consists  in  silks,  cofTee,  cotton,  aniseed,  alum,  essences,  wine,  oil, 
 fine  wax,  and  straw  hats.  The  coffee-houses  are  the  finest  in 
 Europe. 
 
 Parma  is  unequally  divided  by  the  river  Parma,  which  falls  in- 
 to the  Po,  1 2  miles  below  the  city.  It  is  4  miles  in  circuit,  and 
 defended  by  a  citadel  and  regular  fortifications.  The  streets  are 
 broad  and  straight,  the  houses  are  well  built  and  regular.  Here 
 are  35  churches.  The  theatre  is  famed  tliroughout  Europe.  It 
 will  receive  12,000  auditors,  and  the  lowest  sound  may  be  heard 
 distinctly  by  all.  The  cathedralalso  is  large  and  beautiful,  and 
 surrounded  with  several  rows  of  pillars.  Its  dome  was  painted 
 by  Corregio,  who  passed  most  of  his  life  at  Parma.  Inhabitants 
 35,000. 
 
 Alessandria  is  situated  in  a  marshy  country,  on  the  Tenaro, 
 The  citadel  is  strong  ;  but  the  fortifications  are  mean.  Inhabi-" 
 tants,  in  1802,  32,225. 
 
 Lucca  is  delightfully  situated  in  a  beautiful  plain,  adorned  with 
 Tillas,  villages,  and  vineyards.  It  is  regularly  fortified  with  elev- 
 en bastions,  and  is  3  miles  in  circuit.  The  houses  are  handsome, 
 the  streets  broad  and  well  paved,  but  irregular.  Inhabitants 
 22,000. 
 
 Pisa,  in  Tuscany,  stands  on  both  sides  of  the  Arno,  4  miles 
 from  its  mouth.  Three  bridges  are  thrown  over  the  river.  The 
 streets  are  regular,  broad,  and  well  paved,  and  the  houses  well 
 built.  The  circumference  of  the  city  is  as  great  as  when  the 
 population  was  1 50,000.  Many  of  the  streets  are  now  overgrowa 
 ■with  grass,  and  many  of  the  houses  are  uninhabited.  Inhabitants 
 22,000. 
 
 Asti,  in  Piedmont,  the  capital  pf  the  department  Marengo, 
 stands  near  the  Tenaro,  in  the  midst  of  pleasant  and  fertile  en- 
 virons. It  contains  3 1  churches  and  convents,  and  is  generally 
 well  built.     Population  21,225. 
 
 Mondori,  in  Piedmont,  is  built  on  the  top  of  a  small  mountain, 
 near  the  Appennines,  and  in  1809,  had  21,577  inhabitants. 
 
 CHAPTER  HI. 
 
 KINGDOM  OF  ITALY. 
 
 SITUATION,  DIVISIONS,  HISTORY,  GOVERNMENT,  POPULATION,  AR- 
 MY AND  NAVY,  REVENUE,  CITIES,  ISLANDS. 
 
 Situation.']  THE  western  and  southern  fi-ontiers  have  already 
 been  mentioned  ;  on  the  N.  it  has  Bavaria  ;  on  the  E.  it  has  the 
 Illyrian  Provinces,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Isonzo  river, 
 from  its  mouth  to  its  source.  The  duchies  of  Milan,  Mantua, 
 Mirandola,  and  Modena,  the  possessions  of  Venice,  the  republic 
 of  St.  Marino,  the  Ferrarese,  Bolognese,  and  Romagna,  lately  a 
 part  of  the  ecclesiastical  state,  and  the  peninsula  of  Istria,  and 
 
ITALY.  291 
 
 territory  of  Dalmatia,  as  far  south  as  lat.  42,  on  the  coast  of  Tur- 
 key, are  the  districts  out  of  which  this  kingdom  is  composed. 
 Bivisions.']     I.  West  Lombardy,  10,275  square  miles,  2,5 19,194 
 
 inhabitants. 
 
 Departments.  Population. 
 
 1,  Agogna  329,245 
 
 2,  Adda  81,615 
 
 3,  Olona  515,718 
 
 4,  Lario  ^12,978 
 
 5,  Upper  Po  326,483 
 
 6,  Serio  288,333 
 
 7,  Mella  297,840 
 
 8,  Mincio  217,463 
 
 9,  Adige  149,519 
 
 II.  South  Lombardy,  1 1,485  square  miles,  1,922,554  inhabitants. 
 
 10,  Cfostolo,        >  16''071 
 withGuastalla5  "' 
 
 11,  Panaro  189,216 
 
 12,  Lower  Po  257,534 
 
 13,  Reno  379,010 
 
 14,  Rubicon  254,723 
 
 15,  Metaurol 
 
 16,  Musone    I  680,000 
 
 17,  Tronto     J 
 
 III.  East  Lombardy,  9,350  square  miles,  1,630,179  inhabitants. 
 
 18,  Adriatic  216,500 
 
 19,  Bachiglione  243,162 
 ao^.Brenta  284,066 
 
 21,  Istria  89,634 
 
 22,  Passeriano  383,305 
 
 23,  Piave  105,902 
 
 24,  Tagliamento  307,610 
 
 IV.  Dalmatia,  7,228  square  miles,  296,415  inhabitants. 
 
 Square  Miles.  Inhabitants. 
 
 1,  Dalmatia  Proper              4,480  100,491 
 
 2,  Islands  of  Quarnaro            297  36,000 
 
 3,  Dalmatian  Islands            1,547  59,000 
 
 4,  District  of  Ragusa               657  60,000 
 
 5,  Distinct  of  Cattaro               247  40,924 
 
 V.  Territory  of  St.  Marino,  30  square  miles,  and  7000  inhabi- 
 tants. 
 
 History r\  Venice  is  the  most  extensive  of  the  component  parts 
 of  this  kingdom.  The  city  was  founded  in  the  5th  century,  by  the 
 Veneti  from  the  opposite  shore,  on  the  islands  where  it  now  stands. 
 At  first  each  isle  was  governed  by  a  consul,  and  afterwards  by  a 
 tribune,  till  the  year  697  ;  when  the  first  Doge  was  elected,  and 
 unlimited  power  conferred  on  him.  In  1171,  the  power  of  the 
 Doge  was  curtailed,  and  the  sovereignty  vested  in  the  nobles.  The 
 Venetians  having  already  extended  their  dominions  over  Istria, 
 Dalmatia,  Syria,  and  Lombardy,  in  1 204,  possessed  themselves  of 
 Cajidia,  the  principal  islands  in  the   Archipelago,  and  several 
 
392     '^  ITALY. 
 
 Greek  provinces.  After  the  war  with  Genoa,  which  lasted  130 
 years,  and  terminated  in  1381,  they  were  the  first  commercial 
 power  in  the  world,  and  continued  to  be  sa  till  the  discovery  of 
 the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  by  Varco  de  Gama.  Since  that  time 
 they  have  sunk  into  insignificance. 
 
 The  Duchy  of  Milan,  the  territory  of  the  ancient  Insubrcs^  was 
 a  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Lombardy.  Charlemagne  appointed 
 governors  in  it.  It  next  fell  to  Germany,  and  affecting  inclepend- 
 ence,  was  severely  punished  by  the  emperor  Barbarossa,  in  1 15.3. 
 Otho  Visconti  was  proclaimed  lord  of  Milan,  in  1277,  and  the 
 family  possessed  this  opulent  principality,  till  1450.  The  first  of 
 them  who  took  the  title  of  duke,  was  John  Galeazzo,  in  1395. 
 They  were  succeeded  by  the  Sforza  family,  and  on  its  failure,  in 
 1536,  Charles  V.  declared  Milan  a  fief  of  the  empire,  and  gave  it 
 to  his  son  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  whose  successors  held  it  till  1706, 
 when  it  reverted  to  Austria. 
 
 The  Duchy  of  Mantua  was  taken  possession  of  by  Louis  de  Gonza- 
 ga,  a  German,  in  1 528,  with  the  title  of  vicar.  In  1 432,  it  Avas  made  a 
 marquisate,  and  a  dukedom  by  Charles  V.  when  Montserrat  was 
 annexed.  In  1707,  the  last  of  the  Gonz  family  was  put  under  the 
 ban  of  the  empire,  and  the  duchy  overrun  by  the  troops  of  Austria. 
 
 Mirandolawas  made  a  duchy  from  a  county  in  1619.  Its  ducal 
 house  was  the  family  of  Pico.  The  last  duke,  siding  with  Spain 
 in  the  war  of  the  succession,  was  put  under  the  ban,  and  the  duchy 
 sold  by  the  emperor,  in  171 1,  to  the  duke  of  Modena. 
 
 Ferrara  and  Modena  belonged  to  the  family  of  Este,  a  small 
 city  in  Padua,  of  which  Azo  was  marquis.  His  descendants  ac- 
 quired Ferrara,  Modena,  Reggio,  and  Rovigo.  Borsus,  in  1452, 
 was  created  duke  of  Modena  and  Reggio,  and  count  of  Rovigo, 
 and  in  1472,  duke  of  Ferrara.  Rovigo  fell  to  Venice  in  1500.  The 
 Este  family  failing  of  lawful  heirs,  in  1557,  the  Pope  seized  Fer- 
 rara. The  emperor  confirmed  INIodena  and  Reggio  to  the  ille- 
 gitimate heirs.  In  the  war  of  the  succession,  the  duke  lost  his 
 possessions,  but  had  them  restored  in  1748. 
 
 The  Bolognese,  the  ancient  seat  of  the  iJc?//,  became  a  republic 
 under  the  emperors.  Divided  by  two  factions,  one  of  them  had 
 recourse  to  Pope  Nicholas  II.  He  assumed  despotic  authority. 
 The  people  revolted,  and  chose  Thaddeus  Pepoli  their  first  ma- 
 gistrate. His  sons  sold  the  country  to  the  duke  of  Milan.  The 
 people  shook  oft' this  yoke,  and  in  1513  became  subject  to  the 
 Pope.  In  1802  this  territory  was  annexed  to  the  Cisalpine  Re- 
 public, and  in  1805  to  the  French  kingdom  of  Italy. 
 
 St.  Marino  was  founded  by  a  mason,  of  the  name  of  Marino,  in 
 the  6th  century.  Turning  hermit,  he  retired  to  this  mountain. 
 His  sanctity  drawing  numl)ers  to  the  spot,  in  time  it  became  a 
 state.  The  Pope  took  possession  of  it  in  1739,  but  immediately 
 gave  it  up.  Excluiiive  of  that  instance,  it  always  retained  its  ircc- 
 dom. 
 
 Istria  was  a  part  of  the  ancient  lUyricum.  After  the  first  Pu- 
 nic war,  the  Romans  annexed  it  to  Italy.  In  the  middle  ages  it 
 l)elongcd  to  the  marquisate  of  Aquileia.  In  1 190  it  was  conquer- 
 ed by  Venice. 
 
ITALY.  393 
 
 Dalniatia  was  conquered  by  the  Romans  about  240  years  B.  C. 
 subdued  by  the  Goths,  and  reconquered  by  Justinian.  The  Slavi 
 subdued  it  about  \.  D.  650.  It  then  fell  to  Hungary,  and  in  the 
 15th  century  the  maritime  parts  to  Venice.  The  people  are  still 
 Slavonians,  use  their  language  and  customs,  and  profess  the  Cath- 
 olic religion. 
 
 Government.^  The  French  emperor  has  been  king  of  this 
 monarchy,  since  its  formation  in  1805.  His  infant  son  also  has 
 this  title,  and  if  he  and  the  family  last,  will  probably  some  time 
 hence  enjoy  the  reality. 
 
 Fo/iulation.']  The  population  of  Lombardy,  contained  in  the 
 table,  is  the  result  of  the  census  in  1  808  ;  that  of  Dalmatia,  of  an 
 enumeration  in  1804.  That  of  St.  Marino  is  merely  calculated. 
 The  amount  of  the  respective  numbers  is  6,375,342.  Hassel  esti- 
 mated the  population,  in  1809,  to  be  6,389,000. 
 
 jirmy  and  J\,''axnj~^  The  army  consists  of  8  regiments  of  infant- 
 ry, 10  of  cavalry,  3  of  artillery,  1  of  invalids,  and  4  battalions  of 
 guards  ;  amounting  to  40,000  men.  The  navy  consists  of  3  ships 
 of  the  line,  5  frigates,  and  16  smaller  vessels. 
 
 Kevenuc.'\  The  revenue  of  1807  amounted  to  1 19,000,000  livres, 
 or  14,690,000  dollars.  The  debt  in  1809,  exceeded  20,000,000 
 dollars. 
 
 Cities.']  Venice  is  built  on  a  multitude  of  islands,  in  a  marshy 
 bay  of  the  Adriatic.  The  town  stands  5  miles  from  the  continent. 
 The  bay  is  too  shallow  for  large  vessels  to  pass  between.  This 
 marsh  is  separated  from  the  Adriatic  by  some  islands,  a  few  miles 
 from  the  town,  which  break  the  force  of  the  high  winds,  and  ren- 
 der the  bay  safe  and  quiet.  The  town  is  6  miles  in  circuit.  The 
 streets  are  narrow,  and  the  freestone  pavements  are  slippery  in 
 wet  v/cather.  It  contains  70  parish  churches,  40  chapels,  18  ora- 
 tories, 54  monasteries,  26  convents,  17  hospitals,  53  squares,  ISS 
 public  statues,  and  150  palaces.  The  houses,  15,000  in  number, 
 are  built  with  little  taste,  and  generally  make  a  mean  appearance. 
 The  population  is  137,240,  Numerous  natural  and  artificial  ca- 
 nals intersect  the  city.  Over  these  there  are  about  500  bridges, 
 the  largest  of  Avhich  is  the  Rialto,  over  the  middle  of  the  great 
 canal.  Scarlet  cloths,  silks,  looking-glasses,  and  gold  and  silver 
 stuffs  are  extensively  manufactured. 
 
 Milan,  the  ancient  Mediolanum,  stands  in  a  fruitful  and  pleasant 
 plain,  near  the  Adda.  Its  wall  has  22  gates,  and  is  10  miles  iu 
 circuit,  but  half  the  inclosed  ground  is  occupied  by  gardens.  The 
 citadel  is  a  large  hexagon,  and  is  one  of  the  strongest  fortresses 
 in  Italy.  The  streets  arc  broad  and  neat,  the  squares  spacious 
 and  handsome,  and  the  houses  lofty.  There  are  here  230  church- 
 es, 40  monasteries,  50  nunneries,  and  in  1805,  128,862  inhabitants. 
 The  cathedral  is  a  vast  structure,  500  feet  long  and  30u  broad, 
 built  wholly  of  white  marble.  Milan  was  built  by  the  Gauls,  B. 
 C.  338.  A  short  canal  connects  it  with  the  Aada,  and  a  much 
 longer  one  with  the  Tessino.  About  2  miles  from  the  city  isxm 
 artificial  echo,  which  will  repeat  the  report  Qi   a  pistol  60  times. 
 
 VOL.    II.  tO 
 
394  ITALY. 
 
 The  enviions  are  ehibellishcd  with  beautiful  villas,  y;aidens  and 
 orchards. 
 
 Bologna,  the  ancient  Felcina^  is  situated  in  a  beautiful  plain,  at 
 the  foot  of  the  Appennines.  The  river  Savona  washes  its  walls, 
 iuid  the  rivulet  Reno  passes  through  it.  A  solid  and  lofty  brick 
 wall,  5  miles  in  circuit,  surrounds  the  city.  The  streets  are  too 
 narrow.  The  public  buildings  a'-e  magnificent.  Here  are  near 
 200  churches,  35  monasteries,  and  38  convents.  The  cathedral  is 
 noble.  The  theatre  also  is  very  large  and  beautiful.  Many  of 
 the  houses  are  splendid,  and  have  lofty  porticoes.  The  popula- 
 tion, in  1805,  was  63,420.  The  manufactures  are  silks,  velvets, 
 laces,  crapes,  pape^r,  glass,  leather,  bottles,  playing  cards,  toys, 
 perfumes,  and  confectionary.  The  Bologna  hams,  sausages,  and 
 dried  tongues,  are  celebrated.  This  is  one  of  the  most  agreeable 
 cities  in  Italy. 
 
 Verona  lies  in  a  plain  on  both  sides  of  the  Adige,  over  which 
 there  are  4  stone  bridges,  the  longest  348  feet.  The  fortifications 
 are  some  of  the  strongest  in  Italy.  The  streets  are  narrow, 
 crooked,  and  dirty,  and  the  houses  mean.  The  population,  in 
 1805,  was  55,887.  The  environs  are  remarkably  pleasant  and 
 fertile.  Olives,  oil,  wine,  linen,  woollens,  and  sewing-silk  are 
 exported. 
 
 Padua,  the  ancient  Fctavium^  is  situated  on,  a  tributary  of  the 
 Brcnta.  The  walls  are  very  extensive,  but  much  of  the  inclosed 
 space  is  without  buildings,  and  many  of  the  houses  are  unoccu- 
 pied. The  houses  are  generally  well  built.  Population,  34,000. 
 Here  are  26  churches,  2  3  monasteries,  18  nunneries,  and  4  hos- 
 pitals- The  church  of  St.  Antonio  is  singularly  magnificent.  The 
 streets,  however,  are  narrow,  dark,  dirty,  and  ill-paved,  and  many 
 of  them  are  grass-grown.  The  first  of  historians*  was  a  native 
 of  Padua,  and  a  cenotaph  is  erected  to  his  memory. 
 
 Brescia,  the  Brixia  of  the  Romans,  was  built  by  Brenus.  It 
 stands  on  a  beautiful  plain,  on  the  Garza,  is  a  league  in  circuit, 
 well  fortified,  having  a  strong  castle  on  u  hill,  and  surrounded  by 
 walls,  which  have  5  gates.  The  streets  are  handsome,  and  the 
 buildings  good.  -The  number  of  inhabitants,  in  1805,  was  41,972. 
 It  has  20  churches,  and  30  convents.  Here  are  extensive  manu- 
 factures of  linen,  and  the  fire-arms,  swords,  and  cutlery  of  Bres- 
 cia, are  celebrated.  This  was  the  birth-place  of  Tartaglia,  the 
 mathematician,  and  of  Gambara,  the  poet. 
 
 Modena,  the  ancient  Mutina,  is  built  between  the  Secchio  and 
 Panaro,  and  surrounded  by  fortifications.  The  streets  are  broad 
 and  straight,  and  the  houses  ornamented  by  porticoes.  In  1805, 
 the  population  was  26,884.  Tasso  and  Corregio  were  born  al 
 Modena. 
 
 >  Bergamo,  anciently  Bcrgomuviy  stands  at  the  foot  of  a  mountain, 
 and  is  strongly  fortified  with  walls,  bastions,  and  ditches.  Tiie 
 inhabitants,  in  1805,  amounted  to  24,459,  and  are  noted  for  their 
 iadustrv.     Their  silks,  woollens,  and  serges  are  celebrated. 
 
 *  I.irr. 
 
ITALY.  395 
 
 Ferrara  stands  on  a  branch  of  the  Po,  and  is  4  miles  in  circum- 
 ference. The  streets  are  very  broad  and  regular,  and  the  houses 
 uniform.  There  are  many  magnificent  palaces,  and  beautiful 
 churches.  The  number  of  churches  is  100,  and  of  convents  38. 
 The  population  in  1805,  was  24,444.  Ariosto  lies  buried  here, 
 and  Tasso  here  wrote  his  "  Jerusalem  Delivered." 
 
 Pavia,  the  ancient  Ticinum,  stands  in  a  beautiful  plain,  on  the 
 Tesino.  It  was  founded  by  the  Gauls.  The  streets  are  broad 
 and  straight,  but  the  houses  are  indifferent,  and  it  has  little  the 
 appearance  of  having  been  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Lonibar- 
 dy.  The  fortifications  are  decayed,  and  the  citadel  in  ruins.  It 
 contains  25,237'  inhabitants,  19  churches, and  38  convents.  Fran- 
 cis I.  was  taken  prisoner,  while  besieging  this  town,  in  1525. 
 
 Ravenna  stands  on  the  Montonc,  3  miles  from  its  mouth,  and 
 was  founded  by  the  Thessalians.  When  the  capital  of  the  exar- 
 chate, it  stood  on  a  bay  of  the  Adriatic,  but  the  sea  has  gradually 
 retired.  The  iron  rings  are  still  in  the  wall,  to  which  ships  were 
 anciently  fastened.  It  contains  several  churches,  and  24  convents. 
 Here  are  some  remains  of  the  palace  of  Theodoric,  king  of  the 
 Ostrogoths,  and  in  a  wall  of  the  front,  is  his  coffin  of  porphyry. 
 The  tomb  of  Dante  is  in  a  Franciscan  convent.  He  died  here  in 
 1321.     The  citadel  and  fortifications  are  in  a  ruinous  state. 
 
 Cremona  was  built  391  years  B.  C.  It  stands  on  a  delightful 
 plain,  on  the  Oglio  and  the  Po,  and  is  5  miles  in  circumference. 
 A  canal  passes  through  the  town,  connecting  the  two  rivers.  The 
 streets  are  wide  and  straight,  but  the  houses  are  not  well  built. 
 Here  are  40  parish  churches,  43  convents,  and  21,039  inhabitants. 
 
 Mantua,  the  birth-place  of  V^irgil,  was  founded  many  years  be- 
 fore Rome.  It  stands  on  a  lake,  formed  by  the  IVIincio,  which  is 
 10  miles  long  and  2  broad.  The  walls  have  8  gates,  and  are  4 
 miles  in  circuit.  The  water  divides  the  city  into  two  equal  parts, 
 connected  by  6  bridges.  The  streets  are  long,  broad,  and  straight, 
 with  handsome  stone  houses,  fine  squares,  and  stately  churches. 
 Tht;re  are  39  churches,  1 1  oratories,  and  40  convents  within  the 
 walls  ;  and  5  churches  and  7  convents  in  the  suburbs,  yhe  pop- 
 ulation is  20,343. 
 
 Jfilandfs.~\  The  isles  of  Quarnaro  lie  in  and  near  the  Gulf  of 
 Fiume,  S.  E.  of  Istria.  The  chief  are  Cherso,  Veglia,  Arbo,  Pa- 
 go, and  INIelada.  Cherso,  the  largest,  is  150  miles  in  circumfe- 
 rence. They  are  all  stony  and  mountainous,  but  yield  a  great 
 deal  of  wood,  cattle,  wine,  oil,  honey,  and  some  salt.  The 
 town  of  Cherso  contains  3000  inhabitants,  and  is  in  the  centi-e  of 
 the  island.  The  tov.n  of  Veglia,  is  in  the  W.  part  of  that  island, 
 has  a  hartJOr  and  castle,  is  the  see  of  a  bishop,  and  contaiiis  3U00 
 inliabitants.     The  town  of  Pago  contains  200u. 
 
 The  chief  Dalmatian  isles  are  Grossa,  Brazza,  Leiiina,  Curzo- 
 la,  IMeleda,  Lagosta,  Cazzola,  Cazza,  and  Lissa.  The  high  parts 
 of  these  islands  are  barren  and  rocky  ;  the  plains  are  fertile. 
 The  chief  productions  are  wine,  oil,  figs,  almonds,  saffron,  honey, 
 aloc-s>  oranges,  avooI,  cheese,  s^lt,  and  wood.     Salt   fish   is  thf- 
 
396  ITALY. 
 
 chief  export.  The  town,  Lesina,  has  a  large,  strong,  and  safe 
 harhor,  is  surrounded  with  walls,  and  is  the  see  of  a  bishop. 
 Curzola  also  has  a  good  harbor,  and  is  well  fortified. 
 
 CHAPTER  IV. 
 
 KINGDOM  OF  NAPLEF. 
 
 EXTENT,  DIVISIONS,  HISTORY,  RELIGION,  GOVERNMENT,  POPULA- 
 TION, ARMY  AND  NAVY,  REVENUE,  CITIES,  BAYS,  SOIL  AND  PRO- 
 DUCTIONS, ISLANDS. 
 
 £:z;te7it.^  THIS  kingdom  liei  in  the  southern  extremity  of 
 Italy.  The  late  possessions  of  the  Pope  lie  oil  the  N.  VV.  The 
 Straits  of  Messina  separate  it  from  Sicily,  and  those  of  Otranto 
 from  Turkey.  On  the  Adriatic  it  reaches  to  lat.  42  50,  N.  on  the 
 Mediterranean,  to  41  15.  The  greatest  length  is  about  320 
 miles;  the  breadth  varies  from  100  to  .30.  The  number  of  square 
 miles  is  31,505. 
 
 Divisions.^  Naples  is  divided  into  12  provinces,  which,  with 
 their  population  in  1789,  as  given  by  Galanti,  are  as  follows. 
 
 Adriatic  Provinces.  Mcditerrane.m  Provinces 
 
 Farther  Abruzzo  258,000  Farther  Calabria     408,000 
 
 Hither  Abruzzo  227,000  Hither  Calabria       345,000 
 
 Molise  159,000  Basilicata                 4''7,000 
 
 Capitanata  364,000  Terra  di  Salerno     481,000 
 
 Terra  di  Bari  289,000  Terra  di  Lavora  1,245,000 
 
 Terra  d'Ot  ran  to  293,000  femral. 
 
 Prmcipato  Ultra     335,000 
 
 History.']  The  early  history  of  this  country  has  already  been 
 given.  The  chief  epochs  of  its  modern  history  are  the  followinir. 
 Arechis,  son-in-law  of  the  last  king  of  the  Lombards,  when  their 
 kingdom  was  destroyed  by  Charlemagne,  was  duke  of  Benevento, 
 a  dukedom  which  then  comprized  the  greater  pi>rt  of  Naples. 
 The  city  of  Naples  still  belonged  to  the  Greeks.  Compelkd  by 
 Charlemagne  to  acknowledge  him  as  king  of  Italy,  Arechis  soon 
 renounced  his  allegiance,  and  assumed  the  title  of  king.  The 
 Saracens  first  repeatedly  invaded  the  country  from  836  to  896, 
 when  they  wore  driven  out,  during  which  period  the  Greeks  got 
 possession  of  the  soutli.  In  1015  numerous  Normans  came  into 
 tlie  cou)itry,  and  in  1056,  under  Robert  Guiscard,  became  the 
 ruling  nation  in  Naples,  and,  in  1071,  in  Sicily.  In  1 195,  the  em- 
 peror got  possession  of  both  countries,  and  in  1266  they  were 
 granted  by  the  Pope  to  Charles,  duke  of  Anjou.  After  the  Sicil- 
 ian vespers,  1282,  Sicily  v.'.is  seized  by  a  fleet  sent  by  the  kings 
 of  Arragon,  but  Naples  continued  to  acknowledge  the  line  of  An- 
 jou, wt\ic',  expired  in  the  infamons  Jean,  1382.  In  1303,  the  two 
 kingdoms  were    ibrn)aHv   disjoined,   Sicily  falling  to  Fredcrir  of 
 
ITALY.  397 
 
 Arragon,  Naples  belonged  to  Charles'  successors,  till  the  begin- 
 )nng  of  the  16lh  century,  when  king  Frederic  resigned  it  to  Louis 
 Xli.  on  being  created  count  of  Anjou  ;  but  the  French,  in  1504, 
 were  compelled  by  the  Spaniards,  to  evacuate  the  country.  From 
 that  time  till  1707  they  retained  it,  when  the  emperor  took  it,  and 
 kept  it  till  1734.  Then  the  Spaniards  recovered  it,  and  kept  it 
 till  the  year  1806,  when  the  king  withdrew  to  Sicily,  which  he  still 
 retains,  and  Joseph  Bonaparte  took  possession  of  Naples,  who  has 
 since  resigned  it  for  another  kingdom. 
 
 Religion.']  The  inquisition  was  never  established  in  Napl';s. 
 The  catholic  religion  was  established  ;  but  protestants  had  con- 
 siderable privileges.  Before  the, late  revolution,  one  third  of  the 
 Avhole  property  of  the  kingdom  was  estimated  to  belong  to  the  ec- 
 clesiastics. Naples  then  had  21  archbishops,  and  UO  bishops. 
 The  whole  number  of  the  clergy  in  1803,  was  72,000. 
 
 Goveminent.']  The  late  king  was  nearly  despotic.  The  states 
 consisted  of  nobility  and  commons,  and  met  once  in  two  years. 
 The  chief  business  y/as  to  deliberate  on  the  customary  free  gifi 
 to  the  crown.  The  high  colleges  were  the  council  of  state,  privy- 
 council,  treasury,  Sicily  council,  and  council  of  war.  The  nobili- 
 ty were  extremely  numerous,  and  generally  poor. 
 
 Population. ~\  The  royal  calendar  for  1803,  gives  the  popula- 
 tion of  Naples  at  4,963,502. 
 
 Army  and  JVaxnjr]  In  1809,  the  number  of  troops  v/as  21,600 
 national  troops,  and  30,000  French  auxiliaries.  At  that  time  only 
 3  frigates,  and  a  few  galleys  and  gun-boats,  amounting  in  all  to  8 
 saii,  remained  of  a  navy,  which,  in  1790,  had  4  sail  of  the  line,  8 
 frigates,  and  27  smaller  vessels,  and  was  manned  by  2,874  ma- 
 rines. 
 
 Re-oenuer\  The  revenue,  in  1808,  amounted  to  about  9,880,000 
 dollars  ;  the  expenditure  nearly  equalled  it;  and  the  debt  amount- 
 ed lo  about  26,000,000  dollars. 
 
 OYifs.]  Naples,  the  ancient  Parthcnojie^  and  the  sepulchre  of 
 Virgil,  was  built  by  a  Greek  colony  from  Chalcis.  It  stands  at 
 the  head  of  a  large  harbor  of  the  Tuscan  sea,  of  a  nearly  circular 
 shape,  and  12  miles  \\\  diameter  ;  all  ;.!ie  borders  of  which  are  or- 
 namented by  mulberry,  olive,  and  orange  groves,  by  extensive 
 viueyards,  by  hills,  dales,  and  downs,  covered  Avith  verdure,  and 
 by  many  delightful  villas  and  flourishing  villagos.  It  is  built  in 
 the  form  of  a  vast  amphitheatre,  sloping  from  the  hills  towards 
 tlic  br.y.  On  the  east  lie  the  ricli  plains  leading  to  Vesuvius, 
 which  is  in  full  view  beyond  them.  On  the  west  are  the  grotto 
 ofPausilippo  and  the  hill  of  Virgil's  tomb.  On  the  north  fer- 
 tile hills  gradually  rise  from  tlic  shore  ;  and  on  the  south  is  t!ie 
 b.ay,  confined  by  two  promontories  of  Misenum  and  Minerva,  and 
 .npparently  separated  from  the  Mediterranean,  by  the  islands  Pro- 
 cida,  Ischia,  and  Caprea.  The  walls  are  only  9  mi!es  in  circuit, 
 but  the  circumference  of  the  whole  town  is  18.  The  streets  are 
 generally  broad  and  well  paved.  The  Strada  di  Toledo  is  one  of 
 the  handsomest  in  Europe.  Few  towns  are  better  built  than  Na- 
 ples.    Most  of  the  houses  are  *ive  and  si:^  slorias  high,  with  Hot 
 
598  ITALY. 
 
 voofs,  on  w  hich  are  ])laCed  numbers  of  (lower  vases,  or  fruit  Liees, 
 in  boxes  of  earth.  The  town  contains  149  convents,  45  hospitals, 
 106  churches,  130  oratories,  and  5  seminaries  for  ecclesiastics. 
 The  exterior  of  the  churches,  their  paintings  and  marble  orna- 
 ments arc  inferior  to  those  of  Rome  ;  but  every  thing  else  about 
 them,  in  beauty  and  richness  surpasses  ail  of  the  kind  in  Italy. 
 There  are  five  piazzas,  or  large  covered  walks,  for  the  nobility, 
 and  one  for  the  commonalty.  The  population  of  the  city,  in  17H9, 
 Avas  412,489.  Few  of  these  arc  employed  in  any  useful  labor,  and 
 the  streets  are  constantly  so  much  thronged  with  idlers  and  saun- 
 terers,  that  the  noise  of  carriages  is  completely  drowned  in  the  ag- 
 gregate clack  of  human  voices.  The  number  of  priests,  monks, 
 tidlers,  nobility,  footmen,  and  lazaronjs,  surpasses  belief.  These 
 last  are  persons  not  regularly  brought  up  to  any  trade,  but  ready 
 to  be  hired  for  any  kind  of  labor.  They  constitute  a  disthict  class 
 of  people,  have  their  chief  or  captain,  live  in  the  open  air  day  arid 
 J  light,  and  are  miserably  destitute  of  clothing  and  comfort.  Their 
 number  ts  about  40,000.  Numerous  banditti  also  make  it  their 
 steady  residence,  and  the  number  of  castrati  is  so  great,  that  many 
 of  them  cannot  procure  employment  in  their  professional  busi- 
 ness, and  have  therefore  been  admitted  among  the  secular  clergy. 
 Mobs  and  riots  however  are  very  unfrequent  in  the  streets,  aiid 
 the  common  people  are  rarely  inflamed  by  ardent  spirits.  The 
 lawyers  are  among  the  most  respectable  citizens  ;  their  numbers 
 are  very  great,  and  the  inhabitants  are  extremely  litigious.  Pro- 
 visions are  j)lentiful  and  cheap  ;  poultry,  fish,  and  game,  are 
 abundant,  and  the  finest  fruits  are  to  be  had  throughout  the  year. 
 Peas,  asparagus,  and  other  vegetables,  are  ripe  in  January.  Ice 
 is  always  abundant,  and  ice  punch  and  creams  are  constantly 
 liawked  about  the  streets.  The  trade  of  Naples  is  not  extensive. 
 The  chief  articles  manufactured  are  silk  stockings,  soap,  snuff- 
 i)oxcs  of  tortoise  shell  and  lava,  marble  furniture,  and  ornaments. 
 Their  pastes,  confections,  and  liqueurs  are  excellent.  Beside 
 these  articles  they  export  silk,  oil,  sulphur,  manna,  rosemary,  re- 
 sin, tartar,  figs,  and  other  truits.  The  harbor  has  a  canal,  and  a 
 inole  500  paces  long,  for  its  greater  security.  A  block  house  and 
 batteries  defend  the  mouth.  A  lofty  pharos  points  out  its  en- 
 trance. The  dock-yard  and  magazines  are  spacious.  Castello 
 Nuovo  is  on  the  east  side  of  the  harbor,  and  several  batteries  on 
 the  points  of  land  below  have  a  point  blank  shot.  Castello  del 
 Uovo  is  on  an  island  on  the  west  side,  which  is  connected  with  the 
 tov/n  by  a  bridge.  St.  Elmo  is  a  castle,  on  a  mountain  west  of  the 
 town,  and  resembles  a  star  of  six  rays,  which  arc  hewn  out  of  a 
 rock.  Its  subterranean  works  arc  wide,  lofty,  and  bomb-proof.  It 
 entirely  commands  the  city.  Water  is  conveyed  to  the  town  by 
 an  aqueduct,  a  nobiC  monument  of  antiquity,  from  the  foot  of 
 Mount  \'esuvius. 
 
 Taranto,  the  Ofbalia  of  the  aboiigines,  the  "J'ara.t  of  the  Greeks, 
 and  the  7>/;T/i///?/i  of  the  Romans,  was  taken  and  repaired  by  a 
 coloiiy  of  Spartans,  under  Piialanthus,  707  years  B.  C  It  is  built 
 on  a  smoll  oeni^-isub,  r.t  the,  head   of  the  Gulf  gf  Taranto.     Tiie 
 
ITALY:  599 
 
 harbor  was  once  excellent  ;  it  is  now  too  shallow  to  admit  any 
 thing  but  fishing  boats.  The  siveets  are  narrow  and  dirty,  and 
 the  houses  indifferent.     Population  in  1789,  18,457. 
 
 Bari  is  built  on  a  rocky  peninsula,  on  the  Adriatic,  and  is  de- 
 fended by  a  double  wall  of  an  old  castle.  The  houses  are  gen- 
 erally built  on  the  ruiws  of  former  edifices.  The  trade  is  exten- 
 sive.    The  population  in  1789,  was  18,191. 
 
 Reggio  is  in  farther  Calabria,  nearly  opposite  Messina.  Here 
 are  manufactures  of  stockings  and  gloves,  and  the  exports  arc 
 chiefly  olive-oil,  silk,  and  fruits.     Population  16,439. 
 
 Bays.']  These  are  the  Gulf  of  Manfredonia,  on  the  Adriatic, 
 the  Gulfof  Taranto,  in  the  south,  and  the  bays  of  Policastro,  Sa- 
 lerno, Naples,  and  Gaieta,  on  the  Mediterranean.  The  Straits  of 
 Messina  separate  Calabria  from  Sicily,  and  the  Straits  of  Otranto 
 lie  between  Otranto  and  Albania.  The  peninsula  on  the  east  side 
 of  the  Gulf  of  Taranto,  is ,  the  province  called  Terra  d'Otranto, 
 and  contains  2611  square  miles;  that  on  the  west  side  includes 
 the  two  Calabrias,  and  contains  6714  square  miles. 
 
 Soil  and  Prodnctio?7s.']  The  soil  of  Naples  is  every  where  of  un- 
 rivalled fertility,  being  productive  to  an  exviberance,of  wheat  of  ma- 
 ny species,  barley,iiiaize,  rice,  fiax,  manna,  and  saffron,  olives,  figs, 
 oranges,  pomegranates,  lemons,  grapes,  and  many  other  kinds  ot 
 fruit,  and  of  every  species  of  vegetable  in  the  greatest  perfection. 
 Silk  is  raise.d  in  great  abundance.  Alum,  vitriol,  sulphur,  rock 
 crystal,  and  marble,  are  abundant.  There  are  specimens,  also, 
 of  gold,  silver,  lead,  and  copper.  Their  chief  manufacture*  are  of 
 iron,  silk,  woollen,  and  glass.  A  species  of  shcU-fish,  at  Taranio, 
 called /<'m/7«,  about  an  ell  long,  affords  a  tuft  of  fine  hair  or  threads 
 of  polished  green  color.  Out  of  this  the  women  knit  gloves, 
 stockings,  and  other  articles  of  dress.  Various  sorts  of  lizards, 
 black  snakes,  and  the  tarantula,  are  very  common  throughout  the 
 country. 
 
 jVea/iolitan  Is/es.']  In  the  Adriatic,  in  lat.  42,  and  close  on  the 
 coast,  are  the  small  isles  of  TremUl,  St.  Do77ii?w,  Cajiraria.,  and  St. 
 JVicolo.  This  last  is  8  miles  in  circumference,  and  contains  a  few 
 little  hamlets,  a  convent,  a  castle,  and  25  soldiers.  Ca/iri,  the  an- 
 cient Caprea,  and  the  seat  of  Tiberius'  debaucheries,  lies  at  the 
 mouth  of  the  bay  of  Naples.  It  is  8  miles  in  circumference, 
 mountainous,  fertile,  and  abundant  in  game.  Ischia,  on  the  other 
 side  of  the  same  bay,  is  10  miles  round,  and  is  believed  to  be  the 
 offspring  of  a  volcano.  It  is  also  mountainous,  and  abounds  in 
 fruits  and  game.  Its  white  wine  is  noted.  The  air  is  fine  and 
 healthv.  Ischia,  its  capital,  is  a  bishop's  see,  and  contains  3,1.'>() 
 inhabitants.  A7,9/:/a,  farther  in  the  bay,  is  smaller,  and  is  merely 
 a  large  garden,  laid  out  in  slopes  and  terraces.  Procula,  N.  ot 
 Ischia,  produces  abundance  of  fruit,  and  excellent  wiiie,  and  also 
 of  pheasants  and  partridges.  It  is  6  miles  in  circuit,  and_co"ntains 
 4000  inhuliitants.  The  Ponzian  Isles,  Ponzu,  Palmaria,  and  Z.i- 
 nona,  li<i  off  the  Bay  of  Gaieta.  Ponza,  the  largest,  cortai:is  a 
 toivn-  a  harbor,  ?.n(i  considerable  salt -work  5. 
 
400  ITALY. 
 
 CHAPTER  V. 
 
 KIXGDOM  OF  SICILY. 
 
 SITUATION,  EXTKNT,  NAMES,  DIVISIONS,  ORIGINAL  PbPtrLATION, 
 HISTORY,  RELIGION,  GOVERNMENT,  POPULATION,  ARMY  AND  NA- 
 VY, REVENUE,  MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS,  LITERATURE,  CITIES, 
 MANUFACTURES  AND  COMMERC  E,  C  HM  ATE,  SOIL  AND  AGRICUL- 
 TURE, RIVERS,  MOUNTAINS,  BOTANY,  ANIMALS,  MINERALS. 
 
 Sitnatio7ir\  "WE  have  already  had  occasion  to  speak  of  Sicily 
 as  an  island  in  the  Mediterranean,  separated  from  Naples  by  the 
 Straits  of  Messina,  which,  in  the  narroivest  part,  are  only  3  miles 
 across. 
 
 Ejctent.']  The  length  of  the  island,  from  Cape  Passaro  to  Cape 
 Tioco,  is  170  miles.  Its  breadth  varies  from  120  to  50,  and  will 
 averag-e  about  30.  The  number  of  square  miles,  according  to 
 Tenipl.eman,  is  12,880. 
 
 A''a?nes.']  The  ancients  called  the  island  IVinacria,  and  Trig- 
 ;z(^ra,  from  its  triangular  shape  ;  Sicania^  {vovci  xhc  Sicani.,  a  peo- 
 ple of  Spain,  and  Siciiia,  from  the  Siculi,  a  people  of  Italy,  who 
 successively  possessed  it. 
 
 UUnsiofis.^  'i'he  provinces  are  three  in  number,  and  arc  called 
 vallies.  The  foUovv-ing  is  a  list  of  the  Sicilian  territories,  with 
 their  population,  as  given  in  the  royal  calendar  of  130r>. 
 
 Val  di  Mazzara  643,000 
 
 Val  di  Demona  52  1,000 
 
 Val  di  Noto  459,000 
 
 Lipari  Islands  18,000 
 
 AcgatiLm  Islands  "^12,000 
 
 Pantailarea  I.  3,000 
 
 1,656,000 
 Massel  estimates  them  in  1809,  at  1,056,000. 
 
 07-igmnl  P6lntlatwnr\  Leaving  the  Cyclofies  and  I.acstJ-igor.cs-, 
 •where  we  find  them,  in  fable  ;  the  first  occupants  of  the  island 
 were  the  ^'ica?:i,  a  Spanish  colony.  Some  Trojans  landing  in  the 
 island,  after  the  destruction  of  their  city,  built  Eryx  and  Egesta. 
 and  became  one  people  with  the  Sicani.  The  SiriiH,  several  cen- 
 turies after,  went  over  from  Italy,  and  got  possession  of  (he  great- 
 er part  of  the  island.  About  300  years  after,  the  fireeks  planted 
 numerous  colonies  l.ere.  One  of  these,  under  Archias  of  Corinth, 
 one  of  the  Heraclidae,  laid  th.e  foundation  of  Syracuse,  B.  C.  732. 
 which  after  a  time  became  the  mistress  of  the  island. 
 
 Bistorij.']  The  following  are  the  chief  epochs  of  Sicilian  his- 
 tory. 
 
 1 .  The  situation  of  the  island  under  the  Sicani,  Siciili  and  Cr(?eks. 
 Avho  successivc'lv  o!)tain<.d  the  donnuion  of  the  wl'olc  inland. 
 
ITALY.  40,1 
 
 2.  The  invasion  of  tlie  island  by  an  immense  army  and  fleet  of 
 Carthaginians,  under  Ilamilcar,  the  sonof  Hanno,  B.  C.  481.  Ga- 
 lon, king  of  Syracuse,  kills  or  captures  every  man  of  them,  and 
 sets  fire  to  their  fleet. 
 
 3.  The  Athenian  invasion,  under  Nicias  and  Demosthenes,  B. 
 C.  416,  in  which,  after  a  three  year's  war,  they  were  entirely  cut  off". 
 
 4.  The  Carthaginians  iuvade  the  island  a  second  time,  in  404 
 B.  C.  and  again  in  tlie  time  of  Hannibal,  but  at  length  the  whole 
 is  subdued  by  the  Romans,  B.  C.  198. 
 
 5.  The  overthrow  of  the  Roman  domination  by  Genseric,  king 
 of  the  Vandals,  A.  D.  439,  who  yielded  it  to  Odoacer,  king*  of  Ita- 
 ly. But  in  535  it  was -recovered  by  Belisarius,  and  made  a  part 
 of  the  eastern  empire,  till  828. 
 
 6.  The  Saracens,  who  had  before  repeatedly  disturbed  the  tran- 
 quillity of  Sicily,  in  828,  completely  subdued  it,  and  for  more  than 
 200  years  the  Mahometan  standard  waved  upon  the  walls  of  Sy- 
 racuse. 
 
 7.  The  Normans,  under  Roger,  brother  of  Robert  Guiscard  sub- 
 due the  Saracens,  and  get  possession  of  the  island,  A.  D.  1071. 
 Roger  is  made  count  of  Sicily,  in  subordination,  however  to  his 
 brother,  the  king  of  Naples.  The  succeeding  great  events  of  Si- 
 cilian history  are  enumerated  in  that  of  Naples. 
 
 Religion.^  The  Roman  Catholic  is  established,  but  Jews  are 
 tolerated.  There  are  2  archbishoprics  and  7  bishoprics.  A  sove- 
 reign ecclesiastical  tribunal  judges  of  all  matters  and  disputes  in 
 which  the  clergy  are  concerned.  The  number  of  churches,  con*- 
 vents,  and  religious  foundations,  is  considerable  ;  the  buildings  of 
 which  are  handsome,  and  the  revenues  great. 
 
 Go-ucrnment.']  The  monarchy  is  hereditary,  but  is  not  absolute. 
 The  Parliament  consists  of  clergy,  nobles,  and  deputies  from 
 some  of  the  towns.  The  archbishops,  bishops,  abbots,  and  priors, 
 to  the  number  of  66,  constitute  the  spiritual  arm,  239  nobles,  the 
 military  arm,  and  43  representatives  of  free  towns,  the  demanialo 
 arm.  Out  of  each  arm  four  deputies  are  chosen  to  transact  busi- 
 ness. No  tax  can  be  imposed  without  the  consent  of  the  Parlia- 
 ment ;  but  the  most  powerful  of  the  members  are  always  made 
 dependent  on  the  court.  The  whole  number  of  nobles  of  every 
 class,  is  616. 
 
 Pojiulatio7i.~\  By  the  table,  taken  from  the  royal  calendar  of 
 1 803,  the  whole  population  of  the  island  of  Sicily  is  1,623,000,  and 
 of  the  dependencies  33,000  :  in  all,  1,656,000.  This  however  ap- 
 pears to  be  derived  from  the  census  of  1797,  which  gave  the  num- 
 ber of  inhabitants  1,655,536,  of  cities  and  market  towns,  340,  and 
 of  houses  268,000. 
 
 Army  a7id  A'avy.~\  In  1809,  the  number  of  regular  troops  Avas 
 10,000  men,  country  miiitia  8000,  and  a  body  of  British  auxilia- 
 ries. The  navy  at  that  time  consisted  of  1  ship  of  the  line,  2  frig- 
 ates, and  5  smaller  vessels. 
 
 Reveimc.']  The  revenue  amounts  to  about  2,670,000  dollars, 
 of  which  about  1,080,000  arise  from  the  royal  domains,  and  the 
 land-tax.     HasscI  also   gives  an  estimate  of  the  Avhole  value  of 
 
 VOL.    II-.  5i 
 
402  ITALY. 
 
 moveable  and  immoveable  property  in  the  island,  amounting  to 
 111,612,400  dollars. 
 
 Mminers  and  Customs.  ]  The  Sicilians  are  described  as  big- 
 otted  Catholics.  They  have  always  discovered  an  ardent  love  of 
 liberty.  They  are  animated  in  conversation,  and  in  the  art  of  ges- 
 ticulation excel  even  the  French.  Their  women  have  remarkably 
 beautiful  hair,  they  marry  very  young,  and  early  lose  their  beau- 
 ty. Both  sexes  have  very  dark  complexions.  Both  sexes  are 
 amorous,  and  there  is  perhaps  less  chastity  here  than  in  Italy.  Ci- 
 cisbe<js  also  are  nearly  as  common.  The  whole  nation  are  poets, 
 even  the  peasants.  These  last  are  much  oppressed  by  the  nobil- 
 ity. Selfishness,  revenge,  and  a  want  of  good  faith,  are  too  com- 
 mon characteristics  of  the  people.  Their  climate  and  soil  also 
 have  contributed  to  render  them  extremely  indolent. 
 
 Literature.']  There  is  a  university  at  Catania,  the  only  one  in 
 the  island.  It  has  professors  of  languages,  mathematics,  philos- 
 ophy, law,  physic,  natui'al  history,  botany,  horsemanship,  fencing, 
 and  dancing.  There  is  al30  a  college  in  the  same  town  for  the 
 education  of  nobles.  The  students  in  physic  and  law  often  enter 
 themselves  at  Palermo  with  practitioners  ;  but  if  they  wish  for 
 employment,  they  must  complete  their  education  at  Catania.  The 
 common  people  here,  as  in  all  Catholic  countries,  are  extremely 
 ignorant. 
 
 Cities.']  Palermo,  in  the  Val  di  Mazzara,  the  ancient  Panor-^ 
 mus'i  is  the  capital  of  the  island,  and  is  situated  at  the  bottom  of 
 the  Gulf  of  Palermo,  on  the  north  coast.  The  harborls  large  and 
 dangerously  open  to  the  swell  of  the  sea,  and  its  entrance  is  de- 
 fended by  two  strong  citadels.  The  wall  is  nearly  circular.  The 
 best  houses  stand  chiefly  on  two  wide,  uniform,  and  well  built 
 streets,  of  about  a  mile  in  length,  that  divide  the  city  into  four 
 parts,  and  cross  each  other  at  right  angles,  where  there  is  an  oc- 
 tagon space,  adorned  with  fountains  and  statues.  In  these  streets 
 each  window  has  its  balcony  with  an  iron  railing.  The  other 
 streets  are  narrow,  crooked,  wretchedly  paved,  and  dirty.  The 
 streets  are  lighted  with  reverberating  lamps.  The  kennels  on 
 each  side  of  them,  become  torrents  in  wet  weather,  and  moveable 
 bridges  are  provided  for  crossing  them.  It  contains  numerous 
 churches,  8  royal  abbies,  5  seminaries,  71  convents,  and  several 
 hospitals.  The  palace  is  a  magnificent  structure,  and  is  flanked 
 with  lofty  towers.  The  cathedral  is  a  Gothic  building,  very  large, 
 with  4  lofty  towers,  and  supported  within  by  80  pillars  of  oriental 
 granite,  in  which  are  the  tombs  of  some  of  the  Norman  kings, 
 and  of  the  emperors  Henry  V.  and  Frederic  II.  of  most  beautiful 
 porphyry.  I'he  population,  about  50  years  since,  was  102,106. 
 Stolberg  says  it  had  increased  in  1792,  and  was  then  probably 
 120,000.  The  principal  amusements  are  the  Conversaziones. 
 There  is  one  public  one,  which  is  open  every  evening,  from  sun- 
 set till  midnight,  when  the  party  breaks  up,  and  resorts  to  the 
 Marina,  a  handsome  quay,  to  enjoy  the  fanning  breeze,  take 
 refreshments,  and  listen  to  the  serenades,  which  enliven  the  still 
 hour.     The  commerce  of  Palermo  is  extensive,  and  it  has  impor- 
 
ITALY.  40a 
 
 tant  manufactures  of  silk  and  woollen.  The  sirocco  Avinds  are 
 here  intensely  distressing  in  the  morning.  The  sea  breeze  cools 
 the  air  about  noon.  The  environs  abound  in  fruit  trees,  particu- 
 larly oranges,  lemons,  and  Indian  figs.  Great  numbers  of  the 
 nobility  have  villas  in  the  neighborhood. 
 
 Messina,  the  Zancle  of  the  Greeks,  and  the  Messmm  of  the  Ro- 
 mans, stands  on  the  east  side  of  the  island,  a  little  south  of  the 
 St'-aits,  and  6  miles  from  the  opposijfce  coast.  It  has  a  spacious 
 harbor,  in  the  form  of  a  crescent,  esteemed  one  of  the  best  in  the 
 Mediterranean,  being  5  miles  in  circumference,  and  very  deep, 
 and  the  quay  belonging  to  it  extends  a  mile  in  length.  It  is  de- 
 fended by  a  strong  castle,  and  other  fortifications,  and  has  an  arse- 
 nal in  good  order  and  well  supplied.  Mountains,  at  a  little  dis- 
 tance, completely  cover  the  town,  and  part  of  the  city  is  built  on 
 the  declivity  of  the  intervening  hills.  The  streets  are  narrow, 
 and  the  houses  generally  gloomy.  The  Palazzetta  is  a  regular 
 ornamental  range  of  lofty  houses,  following  the  semicircular  bend 
 of  the  port  for  one  mile  and  five  rods.  Had  the  design  been  com- 
 pleted, it  would  have  been  the  handsomest  street  in  Europe.  The 
 population,  according  to  Stolberg,  is  36,000,  and  the  number  of 
 houses,  according  to  Hassel,  12,196.  Vast  numbers  of  them  have 
 no  occupants.  Provisions  are  very  plenty,  and  rents  are  almost 
 gratuitous.  The  chief  manufactui-e  is  that  of  silks.  Fishing,  cul- 
 tivating vines,  and  mulberry  trees,  and  breeding  silk-worms,  em- 
 ploy many  of  the  inhabitants.     The  commerce  is  extensive. 
 
 Catania,  the  ancient  Catana^  was  built  by  the  early  Greek  set- 
 tlers, about  918  years  B.  C.  It  is  50  miles  S.  of  Messina,  and 
 stands  not  far  from  Mount  Etna,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Indicello, 
 which  flows  into  the  Gulf  of  Catania.  It  is  built,  walled,  and 
 paved  with  lava,  by  which  the  city  has  been  repeatedly  overwhelm- 
 ed. The  principal  streets  are  long,  broad,  and  straight.  It  con- 
 tains 4160  houses,  and  about  40,000  inhabitants.  The  number  of 
 convents,  churches,  and  palaces,  is  very  great.  The  eruption  of 
 Etna,  in  1693,  attended  by  an  earthquake,  entirely  destroyed  the 
 city,  when  1 1,000  persons,  who  had  fled  to  the  cathedral  for  shel- 
 ter, perished  by  the  fall  of  the  church.  In  1669,  also  a  torrent  of 
 lava  burst  from  the  side  of  Etna,  inundated  a  space  14  miles  in 
 length,  and  nearly  4  in  breadth,  rose  over  the  walls,  and  burying  a 
 part  of  the  city,  at  length  rolled  into  the  sea. 
 
 Modica,  near  the  S.  E.  Cape,  contains  23,500  inhabitants. 
 
 Siragoz"  or  Syracuse,  is  oa  the  east  side  of  the  island,  about 
 2o  miles  S.  S.  E.  of  Catania.  It  has  a  noble  harbor,  which  is 
 strongly  fortified.  Ortigia,  the  smallest  of  the  four  grand  quar- 
 ters of  which  the  city  was  once  composed,  alone  remains.  It  is 
 2  miles  in  circuit.  J  he  other  three,  are  nearly  22  miles  round, 
 but  the  whole  of  this  is  covered  with  ruins,  intermixed  with  vine- 
 yards, orchards,  and  corn  fields,  the  fences  of  which  are  made  of 
 broken  columns  and  walls  of  marble.  The  houses  are  not  well 
 built.  1  he  fountain  Arethusa,  supplies  the  town  with  water,  i  he 
 number  of  houses  is  4261,  and  of  inhabitants  17,044.  1  he  cathe- 
 dral is  an  ancient  temple  of  ?ylinerva.     Syracuse  was  the  scene  of 
 
404  ITALY. 
 
 the  exertions  of  Archimedes.  ■'His  mirrors  here  set  fire  to  the 
 Roman  fleet,  and  his  engines  lifted  their  vessels  out  of  the  water, 
 and  dashed  them  against  the  rocks. 
 
 Of  the  remaining  towns,  Augusta  has  15,000  inhabitants,  Ali- 
 cate  12,000,  Calascibetta  10,000,  Caltagironc  16,500,  Castel  Ve- 
 tra.no  1 1,000,  Castrogiovanne  1 1,000,  Girgenti  1 1,376,  NotoNuo- 
 yo  11,500,  Piazza  13,500,  Ranuzzo  14,000,  and  Trapani  17,000. 
 
 Manufactures  and  Comnie7xe,~\  Silk  is  the  most  important 
 nvinufacture.  Palermo  employs  900  looms,  Messina  1 200,  and 
 Catania  still  more.  Wines  are  made  in  every  part  of  the  country. 
 The  salt-pans  of  1  rapani  are  the  most  productive.  Corn  is  the 
 staple  of  the  island,  and  immense  quantities  are  exported.  Silk  is 
 the  second  source  of  riches.  The  annual  value  sent  out  of  the  isl- 
 and is  about  ;C200,000  sterling.  Girgenti  exports  the  most  al- 
 monds. Two  thousand  chests  of  oranges  are  annually  sent  from 
 Messina,  and  6000  of  pickled  lemons,  and  as  many  more  from  the 
 rest  of  the  island.  Two  hundred  and  eighty  barrels  of  lemon 
 juice,  and  27  cwt.  of  bergamot  juice,  are  exported.  Pistachio 
 nuts  and  carob  beans  are  also  an  article  of  trade.  The  Sicilian 
 •commerce  has  always  been  shackled  by  a  duty  on  exports. 
 
 Climate.']  The  weather  is  so  warm,  even  in  January,  that  the 
 shade  is  found  refreshing.  No  chilling  winds  are  felt,  except  a 
 few  days  in  March.  The  summit  of  ^tna  presents  the  only  ap- 
 pearance of  winter.  The  air,  however,  is  wholesome,  and  the  sea 
 breezes  of  summer  are  highly  refreshing.  The  Sirocco  or  warm 
 wind  from  Africa,  is  very  common  in  the  early  part  of  the  day. 
 Though  attended  with  a  slight  current  of  air,  yet,  when  it  pre- 
 vails, the  waves  of  the  sea  foam  and  roar  unceasingly.  It  brings 
 humidity  :  the  clothes  adhere  to  the  body,  at  ifi  touch,  the  limbs 
 lose  their  strength,  and  the  mind  its  energy. 
 
 Soil  and  Jgricidt are.']  In  fertility  of  soil  probably  Sicily  is  not 
 surpassed  by  any  country  on  the  globe.  Under  its  ancient  culti- 
 vation the  Romans  called  it  Komani  Imficrii  Horreum^  and  Diodo- 
 rus,  who  wrote  on  the  spot,  assures  us  that  it  produced  wheat  and 
 other  grain  spontaneously.  Its  plains  at  present,  without  inclo- 
 sures,  v/ithout  manure,  and  almost  without  culture,  rival  in  their 
 fertility  the  rich  fields  of  the  Netherlands  and  of  Lombardy.  The 
 principal  kinds  cf  wheat,  the  cicirello^  which  produces  60  fold,  the 
 ■ventina  and  trentina^  20  and  30,  the  triminia,  which  is  reaped  in  S 
 months,  the  barbamera.,  and  the  winter  wheat.  Maize  is  exten- 
 sively Cultivated.  Flax  is  abundant.  Rye  is  seldom  seen,  and 
 few  oats  are  grown,  the  horses  being  chiefly  fed  on  barley.  The 
 culture  of  the  vine,  the  mulberry,  and  the  olive  are  universal,  and 
 the  red  and  -white  muscadel  of  Syracuse,  improperly  called  Ca- 
 ■labrian  wines,  Castelvetrano^  and  the  Amarcnaforic^  are  among  the 
 best  wines  that  are  m^le.  Sugar,  honey,  wax,  and  saft'ron,  arc 
 among  the  objects  of  the  husbandman's  attention. 
 
 m-vers?^  'i'hese  must  of  course  be  small.  The  Salso,  the  an- 
 cient Himera,  vises  out  of  the  high  mountains  of  Madoniu,  in  the 
 north  paitofthe  inland,  and  flows  S.  about  70  miles, to  the  Afri- 
 <!an  sea,  as  it  is  called,  near  Alicoui.,    Its  \rdtcrs  are  rendered  salt 
 
ITALY.  405 
 
 by  the  salt  springs  of  Castvo  Giovanni.  The  Giaretta,  the  ancient 
 Syyneiiis,  rises  on  the  N.  side  of  JEtna,  and  passing  the  west  skirts 
 of  the  mountain,  falls  into  the  sea,  S.  of  Catania.  The  Belici,  in 
 the  W.  part  of  the  island,  runs  S.  \V.  The  Termini  runs  north- 
 •ward,  and  empties  at  Termini.  Lake  Biveri,  in  tlie  E.  near  Au- 
 gusta, is  the  only  piece  of  water  entitled  to  that  narne. 
 
 Mountai7is.^  The  sources  of  the  rivers  indicate  a  series  of  el- 
 evated land,  reaching  from  the  v'estern  extremity  of  the  island  to 
 the  promontory  of  Pelorus,  o\  Faro,  in  the  N.  E.  nearly  parallel 
 with  the  northern  coast,  and  at  no  great  distance  from  it.  The 
 ancients  called  the  eastern  half  of  the  chain  the  mountains  of  iycre, 
 or  Juno.  The  whole  chain  is  now  called  Peloris.  In  this  range 
 the  mountains  of  Madonia,  near  the  centre,  probably  present  the 
 highest  summits.     Pelorus  is  not  remarkable  for  its  elevation. 
 
 Mount  ^tna  is  in  the  eastern  part  cf  the  island,  called  Val  di 
 Demone,  from  a  notion  that  the  numerous  caverns  of  jEtna  are 
 inhabited  by  demons,  and  other  wicked  and  miserable  beings. 
 The  figure  of  the  mountain  is  that  of  an  obtuse  truncated  cone^ 
 extended  at  the  base,  and  terminating  in  two  eminences,  at  a  con- 
 siderable distauce  from  each  other.  The  circumference  of  the 
 mountain  is  180  miles  ;  its  height,  according  to  Sir  George 
 Shuckburgh,  is  10,954  feet,  and  the  circumference  of  the  visible 
 horizon  on  the  top  of  jEtna,  1093  miles.  Over  its  sides  are  scat- 
 tered 77  cities,  towns,  and  villages.  From  Catania,  which  stands 
 at  the  foot,  to  the  summit,  is  30  miles,  and  the  traveller  passes 
 through  three  distinct  climates,  or  zones,  the  cultivated,  the  rjocdij, 
 and  the  deaert.  The  lowest,  or  cultivated  zone,  extends  through 
 an  interval  of  ascent  of  16  miles.  Its  circumference  is  estimated 
 at  1 80  miles,  and  its  area  at  220  square  leagues.  It  is  bounded  by 
 the  sea  to  the  S.  and  S.  E.  and  elsewhere  by  tlie  rivers  Symetus 
 and  Alcantara,  which  almost  surround  it.  The  fertility  of  this 
 region  is  wonderful,  and  its  fruits  are  the  finest  in  the  island.  Its 
 lava  flows  from  numerous  small  mountains,  dispersed  over  the^ 
 immense  declivity  of  ^tna,  of  a  conical  form,  about  2  or  3  miles 
 in  circuit,  and  300  or  400  feet  high.  The  woody  region  forms  a 
 zone  of  the  brightest  green  all  round  the  mountain.  It  reaches 
 about  8  miles  up  the  mountain,  is  80  in  circumference,  and  com- 
 prehends a  surface  of  45  square  leagues.  The  trees  are  unusu- 
 ally verdant  and  stately,  and  consist  of  various  fruit  trees,  the 
 hawthorn,  chesnut,  oak,  beech,  and  pine.  The  desert  region  in 
 marked  by  a  circle  of  snow  and  ice,  and  extends  6  miles  from  its 
 border  to  the  summit.  It  is  generally  flat  and  even.  The  sum- 
 mit itself  is  a  plain  covered  with  scoriae,  ashes  and  sand,  and 
 with  snow  and  ice.  The  cold  here  is  benumbing,  and  the  wind 
 often  tempestuous.  The  upper  edges  of  the  crater  of  the  south- 
 ern summit,  when  visited  by  Spallanzani,  were  broken  and  in- 
 dented, and  formed  an  oval  a  mile  and  a  half  in  circuit,  the  longest 
 diameter  of  which  was  from  E.  to  VV.  Its  internal  sides  formed 
 an  irregular  funnel,  and  abounded  with  concretions  of  muriate  of 
 ammonia.  The  bottom  of  the  crater  was  nearly  an  horizontal 
 plain,  about  two  tliirds  of  a  mile  in  circuit,  in  whicii  there  was  au 
 
406  ITALY. 
 
 aperture  about  5  rods  in  diameter.  Within  this  was  a  liquid  ig- 
 nited matter,  undulating  and  boiling,  and  through  it  a  column  of 
 dense  white  smoke  ascended  perpendicularly  about  20  feet  in  di- 
 ameter. The  northern  eminence  is  a  quarter  of  a  mile  higher, 
 and  has  a  crater  about  half  as  large  as  the  other. 
 
 Botany.']  The  fruits  of  Sicily  are  oranges,  lemons>  grapes,  rai- 
 sin grapes,  citrons,  figs,  olives,  almonds,  pomegranates,  Berga- 
 mot  oranges,  mulberries,  dates,  apricots,  nectarines,  peaches, 
 plums,  and  currants.  Most  of  these  grow  wild,  and  often  form 
 extensive  forests.     They  are  all  in  high  perfection. 
 
 Animals.']  The  horses  of  Sicily  are  celebrated  by  Sophocles, 
 Pindar,  and  Virgil.  They  far  surpass  those  of  Italy  generally, 
 and  are  strong,  handsome,  animated  and  active.  The  mules  are 
 large  and  strong,  and  are  chiefly  used  in  the  country  among  the 
 •mountains.  The  cattle  pasture  the  whole  year.  They  are  all, 
 without  exception,  red,  and  have  prodigious  horns.  They  are 
 short,  strong,  and  numerous.  The  sheep  and  goats  are  of  a  good 
 kind.  The  hogs  are  universally  black.  The  wild  boar,  the  roe- 
 buck, the  wild  goat,  the  chamois,  and  many  species  of  smaller 
 game  are  found  in  the  mountains.  The  race  of  bears  and  stags 
 is  thought  to  be  extinct.  Lizards  of  various  kinds  abound. 
 Snakes  of  a  prodigious  size  are  occasionally  met  with  in  the  for- 
 ests. The  aspic  and  the  scorpion,  both  poisonous,  many  smaller 
 kinds  of  snakes,  and  the  harnlless  scorpion,  are  not  unfrequent. 
 Wasps,  ox -flies,  and  gnats,  are  peculiarly  venomous. 
 
 Minerals.]  The  mountains  produce  emeralds,  jasper,  agate, 
 porphyry,  lapis-lazuli,  and  catochite.  Between  Taormina  and 
 Messina,  are  mines  of  gold  and  silver  ;  they  are  not  worked. 
 Valuable  mines  of  antimony  are  found  near  Fiume  di  Nisi,  Abun- 
 dance of  coral  is  found  on  the  coast. 
 
 SICILIAN  ISLES. 
 
 Lifiari  Islands.]  These  were  the  Hejihacstiades  of  the  Greeks, 
 and  the  JEoliae  and  Vulcaniae  of  the  Romans.  They  produce  af- 
 um,  sulphur,  cinnabar  and  nitre,  corn,  almonds,  currants,  figs  and 
 raisins,  wines,  and  contain  18,000  inhabitants.  Lipari,  the  largest, 
 is  of  an  irregular  shape,  about  18  miles  in  circumference.  It  is 
 healthy  and  fertile,  and  exports  corn,  wine,  almonds,  figs,  raisins, 
 sulphur,  alum  and  bitumen.  Here  arc  some  noted  hot-springs. 
 Lipari,  the  capital,  is  a  bishop's  see,  and  strongly  fortified  by  na- 
 ture and  art.  This  and  all  the  other  islands  arc  high,  and  their 
 shores  are  steep.  They  have  all  vast  caverns.  Here,  say  the  po- 
 ets, dwelt  tRoIus,  and  in  these  caverns  he  confined  the  winds. 
 When  he  disappeared,  his  turbulent  prisoners  broke  loose,  and 
 have  never  ceased  to  raise  frequent  storms  and  tempests  around 
 their  gloomy  prison. 
 
 Volcano,  the  ancient  Niera,  is  6  miles  S.  of  Lipari.  It  has  two 
 volcanoes.     Vulcan  here  made  the  armor  of  yEnoas. 
 
ITALY.  40? 
 
 La  Salina,  3  miles  N.  of  Lipari,  and  8  in  compass,  is  uJiinhab- 
 ited.  It  contains  a  chapel  dedicated  to  the  Virgin  Mary,  and  a 
 few  vineyards. 
 
 Euonymos  is  inconsiderable. 
 
 Panaria,  20  miles  E.  N.  E.  of  Lipari,  and  7  in  circuit,  is  uncul- 
 tivated, but  uninhabited. 
 
 Strombolo,  30  miles  N.  E.  of  Lipari,  and  10  in  circuit,  is  a  burn- 
 ing mountain,  of  extraordinary  height,  pouring  forth  incessant 
 fire  and  smoke.     It  has  no  inhabitants. 
 
 Felicudi,  30  miles  W.  of  Lipari,  and  10  in  circuit,  is  uninhab- 
 ited, and  dangerous  to  approach,  on  account  of  rocks  and  shoals. 
 
 Alicuda,  15  miles  W.  of  Felicuda,  is  inhabited  by  a  few  fisher- 
 men, and  produces  heath  and  weeds. 
 
 Ustica,  80  miles  E.  N.  E.  of  Lipari,  is  desert  and  uninhabited. 
 
 Aegatian  Islands.  ]  These  lie  at  the  western  end  of  Sicily,  near 
 Trapani.  They  are  three  in  number,  Lavenzo,  ^Maretamo,  and 
 Favignana,  the  ancient  Phorbantia^  jEgusUjand  Hiera.  They  are 
 all  lofty.  They  produce  corn,  cheese,  good  wine  and  figs,  and 
 pomegranates,  and  breed  rabbits  and  the  chamois.  Population 
 12,000. 
 
 Pantalaria^  the  ancient  Cosyra,  is  half  way  between  Sicily  and 
 Cape  Bon,  and  about  60  miles  from  each.  It  is  25  miles  in  cir- 
 cuit, abounds  in  hills,  woods,  corn  fields,  wines,  oil,  fruits,  vegeta- 
 bles, and  particularly  in  eotton.  The  inhabitants,  4000  in  number, 
 breed  many  cattle  and  goats.  They  are  industrious,  and  are  ex- 
 cellent seamen. 
 
 KINGDOM  OF  SARDINIA. 
 
 The  island  is  160  miles  long,  and  70  broad,  and  contains,  ac- 
 cording to  Azuni,  9420  square  miles.  Its  Greek  names  were  Ich- 
 musa,  Sandalioiis,  and  Sardo. 
 
 It  is  divided  into  four  provinces,  which,  with  their  population 
 in  1780,  foiloAV. 
 
 Names. 
 
 Situation. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Towns. 
 
 Cagliari 
 
 S.  E. 
 
 115,541 
 
 Cagliari 
 
 Arborea 
 
 S.  W. 
 
 130,974 
 
 Oristano 
 
 Gallura 
 
 N.  E. 
 
 71,428 
 
 Terra  Nuova 
 
 Logodori 
 
 N.  W. 
 
 133,544 
 
 Sassari. 
 
 The  Phenicians  and  Greeks  colonized  the  island.  The  Car- 
 thaginians dispossessed  them,  and  yielded  it  to  the  Romans,  who 
 were  driven  out  by  the  Saracens,  hi  the  8th  century.  The  Geno- 
 ese next  took  it,  and  next  the  Spaniards,  who  were  expelled  by 
 the  emperor  in  1708.  The  Spaniards  recovered  it  in  1713,  but 
 lost  it  two  years  after,  when  it  fell  to  the  duke  of  Savoy,  who 
 then  took  the  title  of  king  of  Sardinia.  When  the  king,  in  1792, 
 lost  his   continental  dominions,  he  removed  to   Sardinia,     The 
 
40B  ITALY. 
 
 nearness  of  Corsica  renders  him  little  more  than  a  tiibutary  of 
 France. 
 
 The  religion  is  the  Roman  Catholic.  There  are  3  archbishop- 
 rics and  4  bishoprics,  and  the  clergy  enjoy  great  immunities  and 
 emoluments. 
 
 The  government  is  an  absolute  monarchy.  The  number  of  in- 
 habitants in  1780  was,  according  to  Azruni,  451,487  ;  the  number 
 in  1788,  was  456,990.  Many  of  the  nobility  and  others  removed 
 with  the  government  from  the  continent  ;  and  Hassel  estimates 
 the  population  in  1809  at  520,000.  The  number  of  regular  troops 
 was  then  4000,  besides  a  considerable  number  of  country  militia. 
 The  revenue  also  was  then  644,750  dollars.  The  Sardinians  are 
 I'epresented  as  proud,  brutish,  ignorant,  and  indolent.  The  nobil- 
 ity are  exempt  from  taxes,  and  for  all  offences,  except  treason, 
 are  tried  by  seven  of  their  peers.  While  they  riot  in  wealth  and 
 luxury,  the  lower  classes  are  plunged  in  indigence  and  slavery. 
 The  language  is  the  Spanish. 
 
 Cagliari,  anciently  Calaris^  is  the  capital.  It  stands  in  the  S. 
 at  the  head  of  the  bay  of  Cagliari,  and  is  built  on  the  declivity  of  a 
 hill.  That  part  of  the  town  near  the  shore  has  a  mean  appear- 
 ance ;  the  rest  is  well  built  and  handsome.  It  contains  6  church- 
 es and  25  convents.  The  cathedral  is  magnificent.  The  popu- 
 lation is  about  50,000,  and  the  commerce  is  considerable.  The  har- 
 bor is  large,  deep,  and  safe,  sheltered  by  an  island,  and  defended 
 .by  a  castle  and  battery. 
 
 Sassari  is  in  the  N.  W.  on  the  river  Tarres,  7  miles  from  the 
 sea.  It  contains  several  churches,  1 6  convents,  and  30,000  in- 
 habitants.    In  the  neighborhood  are  mines  of  gold  and  silver. 
 
 Oristano,  or  Oristagni,  stands  on  the  gulf  of  Oristano,  on  the 
 west  coast,  among  marshy  grounds  and  stagnant  waters.  The 
 harbor  is  shallow.     Population  5000. 
 
 Alghieri  is  on  the  west  coast,  north  of  Oriitano,  and  contains 
 6000  people.     It  has  a  coral  fishery. 
 
 The  air  of  the  island  is  unwholesome,  and  the  Romans  there- 
 fore fixed  upon  it  as  their  place  of  banishment.  The  soil  v/hen 
 cultivated  is  fruitful,  yielding  corn,  wine  and  oil,  plenteously,  with 
 citrons,  oranges,  plums,  pears,  and  chesnuts.  The  north  part  of 
 the  island  is  mountainous,  and  a  chain  of  mountains  runs  along 
 the  eastern  coast.  Sardinia  produces  cattle,  buffaloes,  foxes,  deer, 
 and  other  game.  The  only  venomous  animal  is  the  maffrone^  a 
 species  of  spider  resembling  a  frog. 
 
 The  minerals  are  gold,  silver,  lead,  iron,  alum,  and  sulphur. 
 
 The  islands  around  Sardmia,  are  Tara  and  Serpentara,  on  the 
 S.  St.  Pietro,  St.  Antiocho  and  Vacca  on  the  S.  W.  Asianara,  Ros- 
 sa,  Magdalena,  and  Tazzo,  on  the  N.  and  Tavolara,  Posata,  and 
 Ogliastro  on  the  E.  Asinaria,  the  largest,  is  28  miles  in  circum- 
 ference. 
 
ITALY.  409 
 
 MALTA. 
 
 MaltUythe  Iberia,  Ogygia,  and  Me/it e  of  the  Greeks,  from  which 
 last  the  Saracens  formed  Malta,  is  an  island  in  the  Mediterranean, 
 50  miles  S.  from  the  coast  of  Sicily.  The  island  is  a  rock  of  fine 
 free  stone,  of  an  oval  figure,  20  miles  by  12,  and  60  in  compass, 
 and  contains  134  square  miles.  It  has  been  successively  subject 
 to  the  Phoeacians,  Phenicians,  Greeks,  Carthaginians,  Romans, 
 Goths,  Saracens,  Normans,  Knights  of  Malta,  and  English.  These 
 knights  were  hospitalers  of  St.  John,  in  Jerusalem,  in  the  middle 
 of  the  11  th  century.  They  assisted  Godfrey  in  his  crusades,  and 
 maintained  themselves  in  the  Holy  Land,  till  1191,  when  they  re- 
 tired to  Cyprus,  and  then  to  Rhodes,  which  they  defended  for  two 
 centuries,  and  were  called  Knights  of  Rhodes.  Thence  tiiey  with- 
 drew to  Candia,  and  thence  to  Italy,  Avhere  they  remained  till 
 Charles  V.  gave  them  Malta. 
 
 The  religion  is  the  Catholic.  The  island  is  now  a  colony  of 
 England.  The  population  of  Malta,  as  given  by  Hassel,  is  74,705  ; 
 of  Gozzo,  a  neighboring  island,  12,464  ;  and  of  Comino,  603.  To- 
 tal, 87,772.  The  three  islands  contain  8  cities,  6  towns,  33  villa- 
 ges, and  10,966  houses.  There  are  on  these  islands  numerous 
 country  seats. 
 
 Valette,  the  capital,  is  surrounded  with  a  strong  -yvall.  It  stands 
 vipon  a  very  large,  safe,  and  commodious  harbor,  having  several 
 bays,  and  defended  by  Fort  Ricasoli,  and  the  celebrated  castle  of 
 St.  Elmo.  This  last  stands  on  the  point  of  a  peninsula,  separating 
 the  narbor  of  Valette  from  another  on  the  right,  and  commands 
 them  both.  It  contains  several  churches  and  convents,  a  large 
 hospital,  and,  in  1798,  23,680  inhabitants.  The  palace  and  St. 
 John's  church  would  ornament  any  city  in  Europe. 
 
 Civita  Vecchia,  the  only  other  town  of  any  size,  stands  on  a  hill 
 in  the  middle  of  the  island,  and  is  strongly  fortified.  It  is  a  bish- 
 op's see,  contains  several  churches  and  convents,  and  5000  in- 
 habitants. Every  village  has  an  elegant  church,  adorned  with 
 statues,  tapestry,  and  plate.  The  soil  is  only  about  8  or  10  inches 
 deep,  and  lies  on  the  rock.  The  industry  of  the  Maltese  is  incon- 
 ceivable. Much  of  the  soil  was  brought  fi'om  Sicily  in  boats. 
 Every  inch  of  ground  is  improved,  and  the  crops  of  cotton,  indigo, 
 grapes,  olives,  figs,  lemons,  oranges,  and  other  fruit,  pulse,  roots, 
 herbs,  and  culinary  vegetables  of  every  kind,  are  abundant.  About 
 half  of  the  corn  is  raised  which  is  necessary  for  the  support  of  the 
 inhabitants.  Wine  is  also  imported.  Here  is  plenty  of  pasture. 
 •  Cotton  is  the  staple.  The  sugarcane  is  cultivated.  The  oranges 
 are  among  the  finest  in  the  world.  Many  of  them  are  red.  The 
 heat  is  excessive,  and  the  inhabitants  are  much  incommoded  by 
 gnats.  One  side  of  the  island  is  of  a  great  height,  and  perpendic- 
 ular. The  fortifications  of  the  other  sides  are  a  most  stupendous 
 work.  The  ditches,  of  a  vast  size,  are  ail  cut  out  of  the  solid 
 rock,  and  extend  many  miles  in  length. 
 
 VOL.    IT.  5'1 
 
41C) 
 
 ITALY. 
 
 ,  Gozza  lies  to  the  N.  W.  of  Malta,  contains  40  square  miles, 
 several  good  harbors,  and  strong  forts,  and  is  fruitful.  Comingo 
 lies  between  them,  has  a  fort,  and  covers  3  square  miles. 
 
 IONIAN  REPUBLIC. 
 
 This  little  cluster  of  islands  received  this  name  from  the  French 
 government.  It  is  sometimes  called  the  Rejiublic  of  the  Seven 
 Islands,  and  sometimes  the  loniati  Islands.  They  have  been  captux'- 
 ed  the  present  year,  1811,  by  the  British,  having  till  then  enjoyed  a 
 nominal  independence,  under  the  protection  of  France,  to  which 
 they  were  ceded  by  Russia  in  1807.  Russia  took  them  from 
 France  in  1799,  and  France  from  Venice  in  1797.  Venice  had 
 then  had  possession  of  them  from  the  year  1224,  except  that  the 
 Turks  took  them  in  1479,  and  kept  them  20  years.  These  islands 
 lie  in  the  Ionian  Sea,  S.  E.  of  the  Straits  of  Otranto,  and  near  the 
 coast  of  Turkey.  Their  number  is  very  great,  but  seven  more 
 particularly  deserve  our  notice.  These  are  arranged  in  the  fol- 
 lowing table,  geographically,  beginning  with  that  farthest  north. 
 
 Names, 
 
 Ancient  Names. 
 
 Sq.  Miles. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Towns. 
 
 Corfu 
 
 Corcyra 
 
 219 
 
 65,000 
 
 Corfu 
 
 Paxo 
 
 Paxos 
 
 34 
 
 6,000 
 
 Sta  Maura 
 
 Leucadia 
 
 no 
 
 1  6,000 
 
 Amaxichi 
 
 Cephalonia 
 
 Cephalonia 
 
 350 
 
 55,000 
 
 Argostoli 
 
 Theaki 
 
 Ithaca 
 
 66 
 
 7,000 
 
 Theaki 
 
 Zante 
 
 Zacynthus 
 
 88 
 
 30,000 
 
 Zante 
 
 Cerigo* 
 
 Cythera 
 
 98 
 
 8,000 
 
 Cerigo. 
 
 965 
 
 187,000 
 
 The  climate  of  these  islands  is  warm,  but  healthy  ;  the  land 
 .generally  fertile  and  productive.  I'he  trees  blossom  in  the  win- 
 ter, and  bear  fruit  in  April  and  November.  The  last  are  the  small- 
 est. Corn  is  sown  in  the  winter  and  reaped  in  June.  Oranges, 
 citrons,  the  most  delicious  grapes,  olives,  figs,  melons,  peaches, 
 honey,  wax,  and  oil,  are  very  abundant.  The  chief  exports  are 
 oil,  muscadine  wine,  currants,  and  salt. 
 
 Corfu,  the  largest  town  in  these  islands,  is  fort' 'led  and  defended 
 by  two  forts,  contains  12,000  inhabitants,  several  Greek  and  Ro- 
 man churches  and  convents,  has  a  good  harbor,  and  carries  on  a 
 considerable  trade.  Zante  is  situated  on  the  east  coast  of  the  isl- 
 and Zante,  and  contains  12,000  inhabitants.  Argostoli,  in  Ceph- 
 alonia, has  a  large,  but  insecure  harbor,  and  contains  6000  inhab- 
 itants. Amaxichi,  in  Sta  Maura,  has  an  equal  population.  Lixu- 
 ri,  in  Cephalonia,  has  5000.  The  religions  of  these  islands  are  the 
 Greek  and  Roman  Catholic.  The  first  is  far  the  most  predomi- 
 nant, and  alone  prevails  in  Cerigo.     In  Zante  the  Greeks  have  40 
 
 *  Cerigo  lies  directly  S.  of  the  Morea,  at  a  small  distance  from  its  coast. 
 
TURKISH  EMPIRE. 
 
 411 
 
 churches,  numerous  convents,  and  a  bishop  ;  the  Catholics  3  con- 
 vents and  a  bishop.  In  Corfu,  the  Greeks  have  numerous  church- 
 es and  convents,  and  an  archbishop.  Their  clergy  are  proverbial 
 for  their  ignorance.    The  inhabitants  of  Cerigo  aro  chiefly  pirates. 
 
 TURKISH  EMPIRE. 
 
 THE  Turkish  Empire  is  central  to  the  Eastern  Continent, 
 embracing  a  portion  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa  ;  and  having 
 been  the  scene  of  most  of  the  transactions  recorded  in  the  Bible, 
 is  doubtless  the  most  interesting  portion  of  the  world.  Its  divisions, 
 according  to  Hassel,  follow. 
 
 Sqiwre  Miles. 
 
 Inhabitants. 
 
 I.  In  Europe,                        217,758 
 
 9,882,000 
 
 ■0 
 
 1,  Moldavia 
 
 19,178 
 
 420,500 
 
 2,  Bessarabia,  or  Bud-  > 
 ziac  Tartary           5 
 
 8,923 
 
 200,000 
 
 3,  Wallachia 
 
 24,658 
 
 950,000 
 
 4,  Servia 
 
 20,165 
 
 960,000 
 
 5,  Bosnia 
 
 16,000 
 
 850,000 
 
 1,  Bosnia  Proper 
 
 9,863 
 
 2,  Herzegovina,  or  > 
 Dalmatia           3 
 
 4,383 
 
 3,  Bielogrod 
 
 1,754 
 
 6,  Bulgaria 
 
 38,137 
 
 1,800,000 
 
 7,  Rumelia,  or  Romania 
 
 55,990 
 
 2,200,000 
 
 8,  Albania 
 
 48,526 
 
 1,920,000 
 
 1,  Macedonia 
 
 15,780 
 
 700,000 
 
 2,  Albania  Proper 
 
 15,210 
 
 207,000 
 
 3,  Janna,  or  Thessaly 
 
 3,618 
 
 300,000 
 
 4,  Livadia 
 
 6,028 
 
 249,000 
 
 5,  Morea 
 
 7,890 
 
 464,000 
 
 9,  Province  of  the  Cap- } 
 tain  Pacha                3 
 
 1,863 
 
 240,000 
 
 1,  Province  of  Gallipoli 
 
 L        833 
 
 100,000 
 
 2,  Negropont 
 
 482 
 
 40,000 
 
 0,  Tino 
 
 66 
 
 24,800 
 
 [4^000  to  45,()00. 
 
 Langdon. 
 
 4,  Santoririi 
 
 12,000 
 
 [30,000. 
 
 Langdon. 
 
 5,  Andros 
 
 12,000 
 
 6,  Naxia 
 
 8,000 
 
 7,  Lemnos 
 
 8,000 
 
 8,  Thermia 
 
 6,000 
 
 tsooo. 
 
 Langdon. 
 
 9,  Siphnos 
 
 5,00.0 
 
412 
 
 TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 
 
 Square  Miles. 
 
 10,  Nio,  or  Dios 
 10,  Candia,  or  Crete  4,318 
 
 II.  In  Asia,  531,775* 
 
 1,  Anatolia,  or  Asia' 
 
 Minor 
 
 2,  Scham,  or  Syria 
 
 3,  Algezira,or  the  upper 
 
 part  of  Mesopotamia ' 
 
 4,  Satabago,  or  Caucasus    28,100 
 
 5,  Irak  Arabi,  or  the  ^ 
 lower  part  of  Mes-  j 
 opotamia,  and  the  J>     69,040 
 country  around  the  I 
 
 .Persian  Gulf 
 
 6,  Curdistan 
 
 7,  Armenia 
 III.  In  Africa. 
 
 Egypt 
 
 1,  Zaid,  or  Upper  ^ 
 
 Egypt  S 
 
 2,  Vostani,  or  Middle 
 
 Egypt 
 
 3,  Bahira,  or  Lower  > 
 
 Egypt  S 
 
 J 
 
 32,572 
 
 34,937 
 
 192,770 
 
 15,780 
 
 Inhabitants. 
 3,700 
 281,000 
 11,090,000 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 1,500,000 
 
 800,000 
 
 300,000 
 
 1,040,000 
 
 500,000 
 
 950,000 
 
 3,500,000 
 
 TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 
 
 CHAPTER  I. 
 
 HISTORICAL  GEOGRAPHY, 
 
 NAMES,  EXTENT,  BOUNDARIES,  ORIGINAL  POPULATION,  HISTORI- 
 CAL EPOCHS,  ANTIQUITIES,  RELIGION,  GOVERNMENT,  POPULA- 
 TION, ARMY,  NAVY,  REVENUE,  MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS,  LAN- 
 GUAGE, LITERATURE,  CITIES  AND  TOWNS,  TRAVELLING,  MAN- 
 UFACTURES AND   COMMERCE. 
 
 JVames.']  THIS  country  had  anciently  no  one  name,  which 
 comprehended  the  whole  of  it,  but  was  composed  of  many  distinct 
 countries,  inhabited  by  different  nations.  Moldavia  and  Walla- 
 chia  were  a  part  of  Dacia,  and  Bessarabia  of  Sannatia.  Servia  and 
 Bulgaria  were  Maesia  Superior  and  Inferior.     Bosnia  belonged  to 
 
 *  The  correctness  of  the  number  of  S(iiiare  miles  in  the  Turkish  dominions,  in 
 Asia  and  Africa  is  doubted.  **■' 
 
TURKEY  IN  EUROPE.  413 
 
 I/lyricum ;  Ramelia,  or  Romania,  constituted  Thracia  ;  and  the 
 province  of  Albania,  the  whole  of  ancient  Graecia.  Of  the  subdi- 
 visions of  Albania,  Macedonia  retains  its  ancient  name  ;  Aloania 
 Proper,  is  E/iirus  ;  Janna,  Tfiessalia  ;  Livadia,  Graecia  Profiria  ; 
 and  the  Morea,  Pelofioimesus.  On  the  separation  of  the  Roman 
 Empire  into  Eastern  and  Western,  Turkey  became  an  important 
 part  of  the  Eastern  ;  but  it  did  not  assume  its  present  name,  till 
 some  time  after  the  capture  of  Constantinople,  by  the  Turks,  in 
 1453.  The  empire  is  often  called  the  Ottoman  Empire  ;  and  the 
 Turkish,  less  frequently,  Ottomans,  after  their  Caliph  Othman, 
 who  reigned  in  the  begmningof  the  14th  century. 
 
 Extent.']  The  length  of  Turkey,  from  Cape  Matapan  to  the 
 noi'thern  limit  of  Moldavia,  is  about  870  miles.  The  greatest 
 breadth,  from  the  western  boundary  of  Bosnia,  to  the  Black  Sea, 
 is  about  600.  The  extent  of  continental  Turkey  is  stated  in  the 
 table,  taken  from  Hassel,  at  212,410  square  miles;  while  the  Eu- 
 ropean Turkish  islands  are  estimated  at  5348. 
 
 B  undaries.~\  Bounded  N.  by  Austria  and  Russia  ;  E.  by  Rus- 
 sia, the  Black  Sea,  the  Straits  of  Constantinople,  the  Sea  of  Mar- 
 mora, the  Da^'danelles,  and  the  Archipelago  ;  S.  by  the  Mediter- 
 ranean ;  W.  oy  the  -oame,  the  Adriatic,  Venetian  Dalmatia,  and  a 
 part  of  Austrian  Croatia. 
 
 Original  Population.]  Herodotus  speaks  of  the  inhabitants  of 
 all  the  northern  provinces,  under  the  general  name  of  Scyt/iians, 
 now  generally  supposed  to  be  the  same  with  the  Goths.  These 
 were  the  successors  of  the  Celtae,  and  their  descendants  noAv  con- 
 stitute the  chief  population  of  Europe.  The  earliest  Greeks  were 
 called  lanes,  and  are  generally  considered  of  Scythian  oi'igin. 
 The  Sausomatae,  or  Slavi,  at  length  encroached  upon  the  Scythi- 
 ans, from  the  north,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  present  inhabitants 
 of  Moldavia,  Wallachia,  Servia,  Bosnia,  and  Bulgaria,  are  sup- 
 posed to  be  their  descendants.  Many  of  the  Wallachians  also  are 
 thought  to  be  descended  from  the  Roman  colonists  in  Dacia.  The 
 present  ruling  nation,  the  Turks,  are  more  recently  from  Asia. 
 This  name  is  given  by  the  eastern  historians  to  the  numerous 
 tribes,  which,  in  Europe,  are  called  Tartars.  The  ancient  Huns 
 are  a  kindred  race  with  the  Turks.  The  date  of  their  first  empire 
 in  Asia,  is  the  year  1200  before  Christ.  It  included  the  whole  of 
 Asiatic  Tartary,  and  was  at  length  dissolved  by  the  dissensions  of 
 the  reigning  family,  and  the  victories  of  the  Chinese.  The  dis- 
 persed Huns  emigrated  to  different  countries.  Part  of  them  in- 
 vaded Europe,  in  the  reign  of  the  emperor  Valens,  and  founded 
 an  empire,  which  lasted  till  A.  D.  468.  The  Tui-ks,  a  branch  of 
 this  anoient  nation,  were  first  heard  of  among  the  Altaian  moun- 
 tains, where,  for  450  years,  they  were  subject  to  the  Georgian 
 Tartars.  In  A.  D.  552  they  revolted,  and  wrested  the  empire 
 from  their  master. 
 
 The  Turkish  empire  thus  established,  extended  over  the  avIioIc 
 of  Tartary.  Its  western  limit  was  the  Palus  Maeotis.  Its  dura- 
 ration  was  2 1 1  years.  The  immediate  ancestors  of  the  European 
 Turks,  lived  originaliy  in  the  neighborhood  of  Mount  Caucasus. 
 
414.  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 
 
 Leaving  their  ancient  habitations,  and  passing  the  Caspian  Straits, 
 they  settled  in  Armenia  about  the  year  844.  There  they  contin- 
 ued, an  unknown,  despicable  nation,  till  the  civil  Avars  of  the  Sar- 
 acens raised  them  into  notice.  In  1289  they  first  invaded  Eu- 
 rope. In  1453  they  took  Constantinople,  and  soon  after  possessed 
 themselves  of  the  whole  of  European  Turkey, 
 
 Historical  Efiochs.~\  So  many  ancient  states  are  comprized 
 ■within  ther  limits  of  Turkey,  that  it  would  be  useless  to  recite  the 
 various  epochs  of  their  history.  This  article  will  therefore  be 
 confined  to  those  of  the  principal  nation. 
 
 1.  The  establishment  of  an  extensive  empire  in  central  Asia, 
 A.  D.  552,  among  the  Altaian  mountains,  and  its  subsequent  dis- 
 solution, followed  by  the  dispersion  of  the  Turks,  about  the  year 
 763. 
 
 2.  The  emigration  of  the  Turks  into  Armenia,  in  the  year  844. 
 
 3.  Mohammed,  Sultan  of  Persia,  calls  to  his  assistance  Tangro- 
 Hpix,  and  3000  Turks,  who  enabled  him  to  overcome  the  Sultan 
 of  Babylon,  A.  D.  1030.  After  this  victory,  Mohammed,  refus- 
 ing to  let  the  Turks  return,  Tangrolipix  fought  with  the  Persians, 
 and  soon  made  himself  master  of  Persia  and  Babylc^.  The  year 
 1041  was  the  commencement  of  their  attack:;  on  the  eastern  Ro- 
 man Empire. 
 
 4.  Their  permanent  settlement  in  Europe,  in  1357,  afrer  the 
 Ayhole  of  Asia  Muior  had  beeu  subdued.  In  three  years  they  took 
 Adrianople. 
 
 5.  The  capture  of  Constantinople,  and  the  complete  subversion 
 of  the  Roman  Empire,  in  1453.  Athens  and  Corinth  were  taken 
 in  1458,  and  the  whole  of  the  Morea  by  the  end  of  the  following 
 year.     Albania  submitted  in  1467. 
 
 6.  The  conquest  of  Egypt,  in  1517,  and  that  of  Hungary,  in 
 1540.  Before  this,  however,  the  northern  provinces  had  all  been 
 subdued. 
 
 7.  The  destruction  of  the  Turkish  maritime  power,  in  1571,  by 
 the  Venetians,  at  the  battle  of  Lepanto. 
 
 8.  The  loss  of  Hungary,  Transylvania,  Moldavia,  and  Walla- 
 chia,  in  1594. 
 
 9.  The  peace  of  Carlowitz,  in  1698,  by  which  the  Morea  was 
 given  to  Venice,  Transylvania  finally  ceded  to  Austria,  and  A*- 
 zof  to  Russia. 
 
 10.  The  late  wars  with  Russia.  By  that  of  1769,  the  bounda- 
 ry of  the  two  empires  was  transferred  from  the  Bog  to  the  Dnie- 
 per, and  the  Crimea  finally  lost.  The  Russians  have  since  taken 
 the  whole  of  the  country  between  the  Dnieper  and  the  Dniester, 
 while  Moldavia,  Wallachia,  and  Bessarabia  have,  within  the  last 
 two  years,  been  occupied  by  Russian  armies,  and  the  seat  of  war 
 is  transferred  across  the  Danube. 
 
 Antiquities. ~\  These  are  more  numerous,  and  more  interesting 
 in  Turkey,  than  in  any  other  country  in  Europe.  They  consist 
 principally  of  the  remains  of  Grecian  refinement,  the  ruins  of  an- 
 cient temples,  aqueducts,  theatres,  columns,  and  arches  ;  the  bare, 
 enumeration  of  which  would  rarrv  us  bcvond  our  limits.     The 
 
TURKEY  IN  EUROPE.  415 
 
 cathedral  of  Sancta  Sophia,  a  venerable  Tnonument  of  antiquity, 
 is  still  standing  within  the  city  of  Constantinople.  It  was  built  by 
 Justinian,  in  the  6th  century,  and  serves  the  Turks  as  a  model  of 
 {irchitecture.  All  their  principal  mosques  are  built  in  close  imi- 
 tation of  it. 
 
 Religio7i.']  The  Mahometan  is  the  established  religion  of  Tur- 
 key ;  but  at  least  two  thirds  of  the  inhabitants  are  Greek  Chris- 
 tians. The  Mahometans  divide  their  religion  into  two  general 
 parts,  faith  and  practice.  The  articles  of  faith  are  the  existence 
 and  unity  of  God  ;  the  existence  of  angels,  devils,  and  good  and 
 evil  genii  ;  the  inspiration  of  the  pentateuch,  the  Psalms,  the  Gos- 
 pel, and  the  Koran  ;  the  mission  of  the  prophets,  six  of  whom, 
 Adam,  Noali,  Abraham,  Moses,  Jesus,  and  Mahomet,  brought 
 new  dispensations,  which  successively  abrogated  the  preceding ; 
 a  general  resurrection,  with  a  consequent  judgment  and  retribu- 
 tion ;  and  the  ^^bsolute  predestination  both  of  good  and  evil.  The 
 articles  of  practice  are  circumcision  ;  prayer,  at  5  stated  seasons 
 of  the  day,  with  the  face  turned  towards  Mecca  ;  alms,  legal  and 
 voluntary  ;  ablutions,  fasting  throughout  the  month  Ramadan  ;  a 
 pilgrimage  to  the  temple  of  Mecca.  The  Mahometan  religion 
 prohibits  the  use  of  wine,  the  flesh  of  hogs,  and  the  blood  of  ani- 
 mals ;  also  the  slaughter  of  dogs  and  other  domestic  animals,  ex- 
 cept such  as  are  fit  lor  food.  Private  revenge  is  tolei'ated  by  the 
 express  declaration,  and  by  the  example  of  Mahomet.  Polygamy 
 and  divorce  ai^e  both  authorized  by  the  precepts  of  the  Koran. 
 
 The  Muftit  or  Sheik-Islam.,  is  the  head  of  the  Mahometan  re- 
 ligion. He  is  appointed  and  may  be  deposed  by  the  Sultan,  and 
 is  the  second  subject  in  the  empire.  He  is  chosen  from  those 
 who  have  been  Hadislekersy  or  military  judges  for  Europe.  He 
 resides  at  Constantinople,  and  is  the  head  of  the  Ule?na,  a  body 
 highly  respected  and  powerful,  the  guardians  of  the  religion  and 
 interpreters  of  the  laws.  These  possess  the  most  lucrative  em- 
 ployments, are  secure  from  the  extortions  of  office,  and  cannot  be 
 put  to  death  without  the  consent  of  the  Mufti  ;  Avhile  their  pi'op- 
 erty,  at  their  decease,  passes  as  a  right  to  their  heirs.  The  three 
 classes  of  the  Ulema  are  the  muftis.,  or  doctors  of  the  law  ;  the 
 cof/w,  or  ministers  of  justice  ;  and  the  whowjs,  or  ministers  of  re- 
 ligion. In  the  larger  mosques  there  are  preachers  ;  readers,  who 
 recite  the  prayers  ;  persons  Avho  summon  the  people  together, 
 and  sextons.  In  small  parishes,  the  imam  perforrns  all  these  du- 
 ties, and  is  sometimes  the  village  schoolmaster. 
 
 The  Dervises  are  an  entirely  distinct  order  from  the  imams,  or 
 priests.  There  are  two  classes  of  them.  '£hc  Mcvclavis^ov  fol- 
 lowers of  one  Mevelava,  live  in  convents,  and  are  very  numerous. 
 Their  chief  monastery  is  near  Cogna,  in  Anatolia,  where  the 
 chief  of  the  order  resides,  and  where  its  assemblies  arc  held.  All 
 the  others  are  dependant  on  this.  They  affect  great  modesty,  pa- 
 tience, humility,  and  chastity  ;  go  bare-legged  and  open-breasted  ; 
 submit  to  frequent  penances,  and  fast  every  Wednesday.  Their 
 chief  religious  solemnity  is  turning  violently  round  to  the  sound 
 of  a  flute,  till  thev  become  delirious.     Thev  leave  their  convents 
 
416  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 
 
 when  ihey  please,  and  then  arc  or  liberty  to  marry.  The  Bekta- 
 chis  have  no  fixed  habitations,  but  stroll  about  the  country.  They 
 are  generally  mountebanks,  and  lay  claim  to  skill  in  niasric,  sor- 
 cery, and  a  knowledge  of  future  events.  Some  attach  themselves 
 to  the  pashas,  others  to  the  companies  of  janizaries. 
 
 The  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  is  the  head  of  the  Greek 
 church,  enjoys  an  ample  revenue,  and  claims  precedency  of  the 
 patriarchs  of  Antioch,  Jerusalem,  and  Alexandria.  He  is  chosen 
 by  the  archbishops.  The  ofiice  is  uniformly  set  to  sale,  and  be- 
 stowed on  the  highest  bidder.  The  inferior  clergy  are  bishops, 
 archimandrites,  abbots,  arch-priests,  priests,  and  deacons.  The 
 Greeks  have  few  nunneries,  but  numerous  convents. 
 
 Governme7it.']  Mahomet  himself,  like  Moses  and  Joshua,  sus- 
 tained the  double  character  of  a  military  chief  and  an  inspired  le- 
 gislator. His  orders  and  regulations  were  professedly  the  dic- 
 tates of  inspiration.  His  successors,  the  Saracen  ctilifs,  claimed  a 
 high  sanctity  of  character,  as  descendants  of  the  Prophet,  and  as 
 guardians  and  expositors  of  the  law.  The  Ottoman  emperors,  at 
 the  suppression  of  the  califat,  separated  the  temporal  and  spiritu- 
 al authorities.  Eager  for  military  glory,  they  resigned  into  the 
 hands  of  the  theological  lawyers  the  spiritual  supremacy.  The 
 power  of  this  body  of  men  was  scarcely  perceptible  under  the 
 warlike  monarchs  ;  but  since  the  decline  of  the  military  spirit  of 
 the  Sultans,  it  has  been  great  and  formidable,  often  in  direct  op- 
 position to  the  will  of  the  sovereign,  always  in  balance  against  it. 
 This,  with  the  mutinies  of  the  janizaries,  and  the  insurrections  of 
 the  provincial  pachas,  is  the  only  barrier  tigainst  despotic  power. 
 
 The  empire  is  governed  by  a  code  of  laws,  called  multeka^ 
 founded  on  the  precepts  of  the  Koran,  the  oral  laws,  usages  and 
 opinions  of  the  Propiiet,  and  the  sentences  and  decisions  of  the 
 early  califs  and  doctors.  This  code  regulates  alike  religious,  civ- 
 il, criminal,  political  and  military  affairs.  On  matters  unprovided 
 for,  the  Sultan  pronounces  as  the  good  of  the  state  dcm?.nds.  The 
 Sultan  is  the  sole  fountain  of  honor  and  of  office,  and  claims  to  be 
 the  proprietor  of  all  the  immoveable  wealth  of  the  empire.  He 
 has  the  absolute  power  of  life  and  death,  arid  exercises  it  over  his 
 ministers  and  governors,  with  military  severity  and  promptitude. 
 The  eldest  surviving  male  of  the  imperial  family  is  always  the 
 heir  to  the  crown.  The  succession  is  limited  to  the  family  of  the 
 Othmanidae,  or  descendants  of  Osman  ;  and  in  case  of  failure,  to 
 the  late  sovereign  family  of  Crim  Tartary,  which  is  descended 
 from.  Jenghis  Khan.  The  presumptive  heirs  of  the  crown  are 
 kept  in  honorable  confinement,  in  a  state  of  the  most  deplorable 
 ignorance,  devoted  only  to  sensual  gratifications. 
 
 The  Sultan  usually  has  little  to  do  with  the  administration  of 
 the  governments.  His  substitute,  the  Grand  Vizir,  or  Vizir  azem^ 
 has,  under  the  Grand  Seignor,  absolute  authority.  In  time  of 
 peace,  he  regulates  the  internal  affairs  of  the  country  ;  in  time  oi 
 war  he  commands  the  armies,  and  a  lieutenant  is  appointed  for 
 the  home  administration.  He  is  president  of  the  Divan,  or  su- 
 preme council,  composed  of  the  mufti  ;  the  kiaija-bcy^  or  licuten- 
 
TURKEY  IN  EUROPE.  41- 
 
 ant  of  the  vizir  ;  the  reis-effendi,  ov  chancellor  of  the  empire,  and 
 minister  for  foreign  affairs  ;  tlie  tefterdar  effendi^  or  minister  of 
 the  finances  ;  the  tcheU-bi  effendi,  or  receiver  of  the  tax  on  mer- 
 chandise ;  the  tersand-emini,  or  minister  of  the  marine  ;  the  tchl- 
 aoux-bacM,  or  secretary  of  state  ;  two  ex-re.is-tffendi,  and  two  ex- 
 tefterdarscffcndi.  The  captain-pacha,  or  high  admiral,  and  the 
 kiaya  of  the  sultana-mother,  are  called  to  the  extraordinary  sittings 
 of  the  divan.  The  other  officers  are  the  two  radUeskejs,  or  supreme 
 military  judges  for  Europe  and  Asia  ;  the  istambol-effendi^  or  judge 
 of  Constantinople  ;  the  moulahs^  or  judges  of  the  large  towns  ; 
 the  cadis^  or  judges  of  the  small  towns,  and  their  substitutes,  the 
 naihs. 
 
 The  governors  of  the  provinces  are  styled  fiachas.  The  Pachas 
 with  three  tails  possess  absolute  power,  subordinate  only  to  that 
 of  the  Sultan,  and  command  the  troops  of  their  provinces.  Those 
 of  Romelia,  Anatolia,  and  Damascus,  have  the  title  of  beylerbeys. 
 
 PofiulatiQn7\  Pinkerton  calculates  the  population  of  Turkey 
 in  Europe  at  8,000,000  ;  Avhile  Hassel's  estimate  is  9,822,000. 
 This  last  is  derived  chiefly  from  Beaufort,  Pougneville,  and  Oli- 
 vier. 
 
 Army?!^  The  Political  Journal  for  1804,  quoted  by  Hassel, 
 gives  the  following  estimate  of  the  Turkish  forces. 
 
 1.  Infantry. 
 
 Janizaries  40,000 
 
 Artillery  20,000 
 
 Provincial  do.  80,000 
 
 Frontier  troops  50,000 — 190,000 
 
 2.  Cavalry. 
 
 Spahis  20,000 
 
 Provincial  cavalry   75,000 
 Frontier  do.  12,000 — 107,000 
 
 Total,         297,000 
 
 The  Janizaries  are  a  corps  of  infantry  instituted  by  Amurat  I. 
 At  first  they  were  prisoners  and  christians  ;  now  they  are  only 
 mussulmans.  They  are  scatte*-ed  and  organized  in  all  the  towns. 
 The  Spahis  are  a  more  ancient  corps,  and  constituted  at  first  the 
 chief  strength  of  the  Ottoman  armies.  The  Turks  at  present  are 
 indifferent  soldiers.  They  have  little  skill,  discipline,  or  subor- 
 dination. 
 
 Mtvy.']  The  navy,  in  1806,  comprized  20  ships  of  the  line,  15 
 frigates,  and  32  smaller  vessels,  carrying  2156  guns,  and  4000 
 marines.  Formerly  the  gallies  of  Tripoli,  Tunis,  and  Algiers, 
 AVGuld  have  been  added  to  this  list  j  but  over  these  the  Grand 
 Seignor  has  now  no  control. 
 
 Re-uemie.']  The  Turkish  revenue  is  divided  into  two  parts,  the 
 Miri  and  the  Hasne.  The  miri,  or  public  revenue,  is  raised  from 
 a  land-tax,  a  tax  on  moveables,  tolls,poll-tax,  monopolies,the  mines, 
 the  mint,  a  tribute  from  the  waiwodes  of  Moldavia  and  Wallachia, 
 and   a   provincial   tax.     Hassel   estimates   the  amount  of   it  at 
 
 VOL,    H.  53 
 
418  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 
 
 30,000,000  guilders,  or  15,555,000  dollars.  The  hasne^  or  revenue 
 of  the  Sultan,  arises  fi'om  the  roya.1  domains,  escheats,  presents, 
 and  extortions  from  the  rich  christians,  and  from  public  officers. 
 It  is  impossible  to  ascertain  its  exact  amount  ;  but  it  is'  known 
 greatly  to  exceed  the  miri.  The  expenses  of  the  seraglio  fall  far 
 short  of  Its  amount ;  and  the  excess  is  religiously  preserved  by 
 the  Sultans.  The  quantity  of  treasure  thus  accumulated  is  sup- 
 posed to  be  very  great. 
 
 The  national  debt,  in  1803,  is  stated  by  the  same  author,  at 
 106,700,000  guilders,  and  the  debts  then  due  the  government,  at 
 17,066,480  piasters,  or  about  15,300,000  dollars. 
 
 The  revenue  system  in  Turkey  is  bad  in  all  its  parts.  It  is  a 
 monopoly  in  the  hands  of  the  rich,  to  whose  benefit  the  produce  of 
 all  the  taxation  is  appropriated.  The  destruction  of  commerce 
 and  manufactures,  consequent  upon  this,  has  reduced  the  Turkish 
 subjects  to  poverty* 
 
 Maimers  and  Customs.']  The  Turkish  houses  are  generally  of 
 wood.  The  wall  is  generally  covered  v/ith  painted  planks  and 
 rather  ill  joined.  The  roofs,  in  most  parts  of  the  empire,  are 
 flat,  and  covered  with  hollow  tiles.  In  most  houses  there  are  no 
 ehimnies,  except  in  the  kitchen.  The  apartments  of  the  women 
 are  separate  from  the  rest  of  the  house,  and  are  never  entered  by 
 any  male,  except  the  master  of  the  family.  Every  room  in  a 
 Turkish  house  serves  for  every  purpose,  and  the  furniture  in 
 each  differs  only  in  its  quality.  The  sopha  extends  round  three  sides 
 of  the  chamber,  on  a  frame  raised  a  few  inches  from  the  floor.  On 
 these  are  placed  mattresses  covered  with  wool,  and  sometimes  with 
 Gotton.  These  are  the  only  beds  ;  and  the  bed  furniture  consists 
 m.erely  of  a  quilted  coverlet,  a  sheet  and  a  pillow.  The  floor,  in 
 Avinter,  is  covered  with  a  rich  carpet ;  in  summer,  with  Egyptian 
 matting.  The  dinner  is  served  on  a  large  circular  tray,  of  tinned 
 copper,  placed  on  a  low  stool,  at  a  corner  of  the  sofa  ;  the  chil- 
 dren sitting  on  cushions  spread  upon  the  floor.  The  dishes  are 
 brought  singly,  and  succeed  each  other  very  rapidly-  A  long  nap- 
 kin is  spread  over  the  knees,  instead  of  a  table-cloth.  The  fingers 
 perform  their  original  office,  and  wholly  supersede  the  use  of 
 knives  and  forks  ;  even  plates  are  considered  as  prohibited.  The 
 turban  of  the  men  is  of  white  muslin,  and  is  heavy,  thick,  and  un- 
 healthy. The  vvomen  instead  of  it,  wear  a  bonnet,  like  an  invert- 
 ed basket,  formed  of  pasteboard,  and  covered  with  cloth  of  gold. 
 In  other  respects  the  dress  of  both  sexes  is  nearly  similar.  The 
 bhirt  is  of  calico.  The  robe  is  of  fine  broadcloth,  and  generally 
 embroidered.  A  muslin  or  silk  sash  is  always  worn  round  the 
 waist.  The  breeches  are  large  and  fall,  fastened  at  the  knee,  and 
 hanging  down  in  a  fold  nearly  to  the  middle  of  the  leg.  The 
 shoes  are  slight  and  unfit  for  service.  Marriage  in  Turkey  is 
 merely  a  civil  contract.  The  parties  rarely  see  each  other  beiore 
 its  celebration.  Every  mussulman  is  permitted  by  law  to  have 
 four  wives,  and  as  many  concubines  as  he  pleases.     Divorces  ssl» 
 
 *  liansrdon. 
 
TURKEY  IN  EUROPE.  419 
 
 dom  occur,  except  for  sterility  ;  adultery  being  usually  followed 
 by  the  death  of  both  offenders,  inflicted  by  the  husband.  The  con- 
 cubines are  usually  slaves,  purchased  in  the  market.  The  mor- 
 als of  the  Turks  are  loose  in  the  extreme,  and  lewdness,  in  its 
 worst  forms,  is  common  throughout  Turkey.  Both  sexes  are  dis- 
 tinguished for  cleanliness,  and  bathing  is  one  of  their  stated 
 amusements.  The  public  baths  are  elegant  and  noble.  The 
 Turks  are  fond  of  conversation,  story-telling,  dramatic  exhibi- 
 tions, dancing  and  gladiatorial  shows.  Most  of  their  time,  how- 
 ever, is  spent  in  smoking  and  chewing  opium,  and  in  the  indul- 
 gence of  the  reverie  which  they  occasion.  The  miserable  ten- 
 ants of  the  haram  resort  also  to  these,  as  amusements,  when  tired 
 of  their  embroidery,  iheir  singing,  dancing,  and  music.  Games 
 of  chance  are  forbidden  by  the  Koran,  but  chess  and  draughts  are 
 universally  played.  The  period  of  mourning  is  very  short,  and 
 the  corpse  is  buried  on  the  day  of  decease.  The  burying  grounds 
 are  without  the  cities,  usually  by  the  road  side.  Slabs  of  marble, 
 or  coarse  stone,  are  placed  at  the  extremities  of  the  grave,  with 
 an  inscription  and  a  turban,  carved  in  stone,  on  the  tombs  of  the 
 males.     Over  every  new  grave  a  cypress  is  planted. 
 
 The  Turks  have  confidence  in  amulets  and  charms,  and  are  su- 
 perstitious observers  of  omens  and  dreams,  though  they  are  not 
 countenanced  in  these  delusions  by  the  Koran.  They  believe  it 
 unlawful  to  paint  or  carve  any  parts  of  the  human  body,  except 
 the  hands  and  feet  of  Mahomet,  and  they  firmly  believe  that  an- 
 gels can  enter  no  house  where  there  are  pictures  of  men.  Paint- 
 ing and  sculpture  are  of  course  in  a  great  measure  neglected. 
 The  mussulmans  are  courteous  and  humane  in  their  conduct  to 
 each  other,  but  they  refuse  to  unbelievers  the  salutation  cf  peace. 
 The  external  modes  of  good  breeding  among  the  Turks  differ  en- 
 tirely from  those  established  in  the  other  countries  of  Europe. 
 The  uncovering  of  the  head,  with  us  an  act  of  reverence,  is  not 
 only  ridiculed  by  them,  but  considered  as  indecent  and  improper. 
 Their  usual  form  of  salutation  is  natural  and  graceful.  In  greet- 
 ing an  equal,  they  put  the  hand  on  the  heart  ;  in  addressing  a  su- 
 perior, they  apply  the  right  hand  first  to  the  mouth,  and  then  to 
 the  foreliead.  In  many  respects  the  Turkish  customs  are  a  strik- 
 ing conti-ast  to  our  own.  Their  robes  are  large  and  loose,  en- 
 tirely concealing  the  form  of  the  body.  They  reverence  the  beard, 
 and  permit  it  to  grow  to  an  extravagant  length.  In  performing  their 
 devotions,  or  on  entering  a  dwelling,  they  take  off  their  shoes.  In 
 inviting  a  person  to  approach  them,  they  use  what  with  us  is  con- 
 sidered as  a  repulsive  motion  of  the  hand.  In  writing,  they  trace 
 their  lines  from  right  to  left.  The  master  of  a  house  does  the 
 honors  of  his  table  by  serving  himself  first  from  the  dish  ;  he 
 drinks  without  noticing  the  company,  and  they  wish  him  health 
 when  he  has  finished  his  draught.  They  lie  down  in  their  clothes. 
 The  Turks  exhibit  but  few  marks  of  taste  in  their  buildings. 
 Their  cities  are  not  adorned  with  public  monuments.  Their  tem- 
 ples, baths,  fountains,   sepulchral   monuments,   and  other  works 
 
420  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 
 
 connected  with  their  religion,  are  their  only  ornamented  structures. 
 Upon  bridges  and  aqueducts  they  bestow  no  ornamevit. 
 
 The  Greeks  are  gay,  witty,  and  cunning.  Those  on  the  coast 
 carry  on  almost  all  the  navigation  of  the  empire.  Those  in  the 
 interior  pursue  agriculture  with  a  degree  of  spirit  and  intelligence. 
 The  rich  are  well  informed,  supple  and  intriguing.  They  are 
 generally  superstitious,  timid,  and  exact  observers  of  holidays. 
 Their  priests  are  numerous.  The  superior  clergy  are  well  edu- 
 cated and  rich  ;  the  inferior  are  poor  and  ignorant. 
 
 The  Armenians  are  all  tradesmen,  and  are  the  most  intelligent 
 of  the  profession  in  Turkey.  They  travel  into  the  i.iterior  of  Asia 
 and  India,  and  are  patient,  economical,  and  indefatigable.  They 
 are  at  the  same  time  ignorant  and  superstitious. 
 
 Languagc.~\  The  'i'urkish  language  originally  was  far  from 
 being  copious,  and  a  great  proportion  of  its  words  is  deri\  cd  from 
 other  oriental  dialects.  The  arrangement  of  the  words  is  re- 
 markably inverted.  Their  expression  is  soft  and  musical,  and  the 
 language  is  well  fitted  for  colloquial  purposes  ;  but  it  is  not  char- 
 acterized by  elegance  or  force.  It  is  defective  in  teimsofart, 
 and  expresses  philosophical  ideas  imperfectly.  The  characters 
 are  fundamentally  the  same  with  the  Arabic  and  Persic.  They 
 are  28  in  number  ;  but  the  number  of  distinct  sounds  is  36.  A 
 distinguished  critic,  comparing  the  three  western  languages  of 
 Asia,  speaks  of  the  Persian  as  excelling  in  sweetness  and  melo- 
 dy ;  the  Arabic  in  copiousness  and  strength,  and  the  Turkish  in 
 gravity  and  dignity.  The  first  is  the  language  of  love,  the  sec- 
 ond of  eloquence  and  hci'oism,  the  last  of  narration  and  instruc- 
 tion. 
 
 JLiierature.']  The  Turkish  poetry  is  entirely  oriental  in  its 
 character,  and  has  the  same  boldness  of  personification,  the  same 
 extravagance  of  hyperbole,  the  same  minuteness  of  allegory,  and 
 generally  the  same  luxuriance  of  imagery,  with  the  Arabic  and 
 the  Persian.  I  he  Turks  have  many  historians,  but  the  ignorance 
 they  discover  of  geography  and  chronology,  renders  their  works 
 of  little  value.  Astrology  is  still  cultivated  with  the  utmost  assi- 
 duity. The  chief  of  the  astrologers  is  an  officer  of  the  seraglio, 
 and  is  consulted  on  eveiy  subject  which  relates  to  the  health  or 
 safety  of  the  Sultan  ;  and  it  is  even  considered  essential  to  the 
 public  warfare  that  he  should  determine  the  precise  instant  when 
 any  important  public  business  is  to  be  undertaken,  such  as  the 
 march  of  an  army,  the  sailing  of  a  fleet,  the  launching  of  a  ship  of 
 Avar,  and  especially  the  appointment  of  a  grand  vizir. 
 
 The  mode  of  education  among  the  Turks  is  completely  in  the 
 ancient  style.  They  study  the  logic,  philosophy,  and  metaphys- 
 ics of  the  dark  ages.  They  are  ignorant  of  the  modern  improve- 
 ments in  chemistry,  agriculture,  and  natural  philosophy,  'ihe 
 telescope,  microscope,  and  electrical  machine  are  unknown,  as 
 to  their  real  uses,  and  even  the  compass  is  not  universally  em- 
 ployed. They  have  no  principles  or  theory,  and  liicir  practice  is 
 a  servile  imitation.  Their  knowledge  of  geography  is  limited  to 
 their  empire.     iMeu  in  high  office  are  frequently  ignorant  of  the 
 
TURKEY  IN  EUROPE.  421 
 
 .relative  situation  of  their  neie^hbors.  In  astronomy,  they  barely 
 know  how  to  calculate  eclipses,  with  a  moderate  degree  of  accu- 
 racy. Medicine  is  still  considered  as  a  species  of  sorcery.  Their 
 surgery  is  rude  from  Avant  of  science,  of  skill,  and  of  instruments. 
 In  the  management  of  their  small  coasting  vessels,  they  are  by  no 
 means  inexpert.  This  however  is  done  chiefly  by  the  Greeks. 
 They  have  no  idea  of  physics  or  natural  history.  Few  of  the 
 Turks  can  read  or  write.  Those  who  study,  apply  themselves 
 chiefly  to  poetry,  and  the  Arabic  and  Persian  languages,  Avhile 
 the  doctors  of  the  law  are  well  I'cad  in  the  Koran,  and  the  impei-i- 
 al  constitutions.  They  reckon  time  by  lunar  revolutions,  and  the 
 hours  of  prayer  are  regulated  by  the  rising  and  setting  of  the  sun. 
 The  civil  day  begins  at  sunset.  Sculpture  in  wood  and  in  stucco, 
 and  the  engraving  of  inscriptions  on  monuments  and  seais,  are  per- 
 formed with  neatness  and  predion.  Their  paintings  have  little 
 merit  in  design  or  execution. 
 
 Cities  and  Towns.']  Constantinofile^  called  by  the  Turks  Stam- 
 bot,  or  Istambol.,  was  built  on  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  Byzantium, 
 by  Constantine  the  Great.  Eusebius  says  this  latter  city  was 
 founded  in  the  third  year  of  the  30th  Olympiad,  during  the  reign 
 of  TuUus  Hostilius  ;  while  Diodoi'us  Siculus  asserts  th?.t  its 
 foundations  were  laid  by  one  Byzas,  about  1263  years  before 
 Christ.  In  330,  it  received  its  present  name  from  Constantine, 
 who,  at  the  same  time,  made  it  the  seat  of  the  Roman  empire,  and 
 in  1453  was  taken  by  the  Turks,  under  Mahomet  II.  after  a  siege 
 of  53  days.  It  stands  at  the  mouth  of  the  Thracian  Bosphorus. 
 The  Sea  of  Marmora  lies  on  the  S.  W.  the  Bosphorus  on  the  S. 
 E.  the  Harbor,  anciently  the  Gulf  of  Ceras,  on  the  E.  and  a  wall 
 separating  it  from  the  adjoining  country  on  the  N.  W.  The 
 southeastern  side  is  so  short  as  scarcely  to  prevent  the  town-plat 
 from  presenting  the  appearance  of  a  triangle.  The  houses  rise 
 gradually  from  the  shore,  like  the  seats  of  an  amphitheatre.  Most 
 of  them  are  meanly  built  of  earth  and  wood,  and  none  exceed  two 
 stories  in  height.  The  streets  are  long,  narrow,  dirty,  and  badly 
 paved.  Many  of  the  public  buildings,  as  the  palaces,  the  mosques, 
 bagnios,  bazai's,  and  caravanseras,  are  magnificent.  The  seraglio 
 occupies  the  S.  E.  part  of  the  city,  and  is  supposed  to  cover  the 
 whole  of  the  site  of  the  ancient  Byzantium,  and  to  contaiiT  10,000 
 inhabitants.  A  wall,  36  feet  high,  separates  it  from  the  rest  of 
 the  city,  with  which  it  has  communication  by  9  gates.  It  is  above 
 6  miles  in  circumference,  including  the  gardens,  and  is  an  assem- 
 blage of  palaces  and  apartments,  placed  by  the  side  of  each  other, 
 without  symmetry  or  order.  The  Harem  is  that  part  of  the  se- 
 raglio appropriated  to  the  females  of  the  imperial  family.  The 
 Mosque  of  St.  Sophia  fronts  the  great  gate  of  the  seraglio,  and, 
 in  some  respects,  exceeds  the  church  of  St.  Peter,  at  Rome,  in 
 grandeur  and  in  beauty  of  architecture.  This  and  the  six  other 
 imperial  mosques  have  religious,  literary  and  charitable  founda- 
 tions annexed  to  them,  ihe  Gi'eeks  have  22  churches,  besides 
 the  patriarchal  church  ;  the  Armenians  have  an  archbishop  and 
 3  churches  ;  the  Roman  Catholics  have  6  convents,  and  the  Jews 
 
422  TURKEY  IN  EukoPE. 
 
 several  synas^ogues.  There  is  also  a  Swedish  Lutheran  church. 
 There  arc  in  Constantinople  518  seminaries  of  learning,  1250 
 schools,  and  35  public  libraries,  some  of  which  contain  15,000 
 volumes.  Hassel  states  the  number  of  houses  to  be  88,185  ;  and, 
 following  Eaton,  estimates  the  number  of  inhabitants  at  300,000. 
 Olivier  says  the  population  exceeds  500,000.  Probably  the  cal- 
 culation of  Dalloway  is  more  correct  than  these.  He  says  that 
 there  are  200,000  Turks,  100,000  Greeks,  and  100,000  Jews,  Ar- 
 menians, and  Europeans.  The  city  has  suffered  often  and  se- 
 verely by  the  plague  and  by  fires.  The  trade  of  the  city  is  chiefly 
 in  the  hands  of  the  Jews,  Armenians,  and  Greeks  ;  and  the  navi- 
 gation is  carried  on  by  Europeans,  who  are  all  confounded  under 
 the  general  name  ©f  Franks.  Besides  silk,  cotton,  Avool,  flax, 
 drugs,  cofFee,  sugar,  wax,  honey,  fruits,  hides,  and  tobacco,  Con- 
 stantinople exports  its  own  printed  muslins,  the  satins,  silk  stuffs 
 and  velvets  of  Brusa  and  Aleppo,  the  serges  and  camelots  of  An- 
 gora, the  crapes  and  gauzes  of  Salonica,  the  sword-blades  of  Da- 
 masciis,  and  the  carpets  of  Smyrna.  The  harbor  is  capable  of 
 holding  1200  ships.  Its  length  is  upwards  of  3^  miles;  its 
 breadth  varies  from  2000  to  3000  feet  ;  and  its  depth  is  every 
 where  sufficient  for  the  largest  ships.  On  the  east  side  of  the 
 mouth  of  the  harbor  is  Galita,  a  suburb,  inhabited  by  merchants  ; 
 and  east  of  this  lies  Pera,  where  the  foreign  ambassadors  reside. 
 Scutari  is  another  very  large  suburb,  opposite  the  seraglio,  on  the 
 coast  of  Asia. 
 
 /'/nYzyi'/?/,  orPhilippopoli,  on  the  river  Maritz,  was  founded  by 
 Philip  of  Macedon.  This  city  is  famous  for  two  battles  fought  in 
 its  neighborhood,  between  Augustus  and  Brutus.  To  the  inhab- 
 itants of  this  city,  and  of  Philippi,  St.  Paul  addressed  one  of  his 
 epistles.  The  town  is  meanly  built,  without  fortifications,  or  one 
 good  street  ;  the  situation  being  so  low  and  moist  that  the  mud  is 
 sometimes  two  feet  deep,  and  stones,  like  posts,  are  set  up  to  fa» 
 cilitate  the  progress  of  foot  passengers.  The  number  of  houses 
 in  1790  was,  according  to  Hassel,  26,000  ;  and  the  number  of  in- 
 habitants 120,000.     Lat.  42  22,  N. 
 
 Adrianople^  called  Edrene  by  the  Turks,  stands  also  on  the  Ma- 
 ritz, at  the  confluence  of  the  Tunsa  and  the  Hax'da,  and  rises  gently 
 on  the  ?ide  of  a  small  hill.  It  is  of  a  circular  form,  and  is  sur- 
 rounded by  decayed  walls  and  towers,  which  do  not  deserve  the 
 name  of  a  fortification.  Some  of  the  houses  are  of  brick  ;  gen- 
 erally they  are  of  mud  and  clay.  '1  he  streets  are  dirty  and  nar- 
 row. The  bazar,  or  market-place,  is  an  arched  building,  about 
 half  a  mile  long,  Avith  six  gates,  and  a  great  number  of  shop?. 
 There  are  four  mosques.  The  imperial  seraglio  stands  upon  a 
 plain,  near  the  Tunsa.  The  number  of  inhabitants  is  about 
 100,000,  and  the  commerce  is  very  extensive.  It  is  the  see  of  the 
 Greek  archbishop,  and  often  the  residence  of  the  Grand  Siguier 
 during  the  plague.     N.  lat.  41  41,  E.  Ion.  26  27. 
 
 Soloniki,  at  first  called  Therma,  and  afterwards  Thessalonica^  by 
 Cassander,  son-in-law  of  Philip  of  Macedon,  stands  at  the  head  of 
 an  extensive  gulf,  called  the  Gulf  of  Salonica,  in  Macedonia,  In 
 
TURKEY  IN  EUROPE.  423 
 
 the  N.  W-  corner  of  the  Archipelago.  Here  are  churches,  pillars, 
 and  triumphal  arches,  and  many  other  splendid  remains  of  ancient 
 architecture.  St.  Paul  addressed  two  of  his  epistles  to  the  ancient 
 Thessalonians.  The  number  of  inhabitants  is  62,000.  This  town 
 has  always  been  distinguished  for  its  commerce. 
 
 Serai,  Serajo,  or  Bosna ;  Serajo,  the  capital  of  Bosnia,  is  built 
 on  the  river  Bosna,  a  tributary  of  the  Save.  It  is  large,  rich,  and 
 commercial,  and  contains  12,000  houses,  and  4>8,000  inhabitants, 
 
 Sophia,  the  capital  of  Bulgaria,  was  built  by  the  emperor  Jusr 
 tinian,  on  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  Sardica.  It  is  the  see  of  a 
 Greek  archbishop.  The  town  is  commercial,  and  well  built,  but 
 without  walls,  and  the  streets  are  narrow,  uneven,  and  dirty. 
 Houses  8000  ;  inhabitants  46,000. 
 
 Bucharest,  the  capital  of  Wallachia,  stands  upon  the  Deinbro- 
 vitz,  a  tributary  of  the  Danube.  The  streets  are  paved  transverse- 
 ly, with  planks  of  wood,  badly  fastened,  and  much  decayed.  Here 
 is  a  singular  number  of  churches  and  convents.  Population, 
 42,000. 
 
 Belgrade.,  Alba  Graecorum,  the  capital  of  Servia,  stands  on  a 
 side  hill,  at  the  conflux  of  the  Save  with  the  Danube.  The  sub- 
 urbs are  extensive,  and  it  is  a  great  resort  of  merchants  from 
 many  different  nations.  The  chief  trading  streets  are  covered 
 with  wood,  as  a  shelter  from  the  rain  and  sun.  The  Armenians 
 and  Jew^  are  employed  as  factors.  The  adjoining  country  affords 
 fine  timber  for  ship-l>uilding.  Population  30,000.  The  fortifica- 
 tions of  Belgrade,  formerly  yery  strong,  were  demolished  in  1739. 
 
 Jarma,  or  Yanina,  in  Thessaly,  is  situated  on  a  lake  which  com- 
 municates with  the  river  Peneus.  It  is  a  considerable  town,  and 
 the  see  of  a  Greek  bishop.     Population  50,000. 
 
 Ibrail,  in  Wallachia,  stands  upon  the  Danube,  a  little  above  tlie 
 mouth  of  the  Sereth,  and  contains  30,000  inhabitants. 
 
 Seres,  or  Serra€,  in  Macedonia,  36  miles  E.  N.  E.  of  Salonica, 
 is  the  see  of  a  Greek  archbishop,  and  contains  30,000  inhabitants. 
 
 Sistove,  in  Bulgaria,  on  the  Danube,  contains  4000  houses  and 
 21,000  inhabitants. 
 
 Widdin,  also  in  Bulgaria,  is  the  see  of  a  Greek  arohbishop,  and 
 contains  20,000  inhabitants.  ,,■  i 
 
 Lai-issa,  in  Thessaly,  a  city  of  very  remote  antiquity,  stands  up- 
 on the  river  Peneus,  at  no  great  distance  from  the  celebrated 
 Olympus.     Its  present  population  is  20,000. 
 
 Scutari,  or  Iscodar,  in  Albania,  stands  on  a  small  lake,  which  is 
 conducted  to  the  Adriatic.  It  is  the  residence  of  a  Greek  ax'ch- 
 bishop,  and  contains  20,000  inhabitants. 
 
 Mco/ioli,  in  Bulgaria,  on  the  Danube,  is  the  see  of  a  Greek 
 bishop,  and  contains  a  population  of  20,000. 
 
 Bender,  in  Bessarabia,  on  the  Dniester,  is  the  celebrated  re~ 
 ti'eat  of  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,  when  he  put  himself  under  the 
 protection  of  the  Turks.     Population  20,000. 
 
 Akerman,  in  Bessarabia,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Dniester,  has  an 
 equal  population. 
 
 Choctim,ov  Choczim,  in  Moldavia,  on  the  Dniester,  at  the  nor- 
 
424  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 
 
 thern  extremity  of  the  empire,  is  noted  for  two  victories  gained 
 by  the  Poles  over  the  Turks,  in  the  17th  century.  Population, 
 20,000. 
 
 Of  the  remaining  towns,  little  more  can  be  mentioned  than  their 
 names  and  population.  In  Wallachia,  Giurgewo,  or  GeorgetoAvn, 
 contains  18,000;  in  Rumelia,  Gallipoli,  17,000,  and  frajanople  15, 
 000  ;  in  Macedonia,  Achrida,  16,000,  and  Vodina,  12,000  ;  in  Bos- 
 nia, Banjaluka,  15,000,  Mostar,  18,000,  Trawnik,  12,000,  and  Zwor- 
 nik,  14,000;  in  Moldavia,  Jassy,  15,000;  in  Bessarabia,  Ismail, 
 10,000;  in  the  Morea,  Tripolizza,  12,000;  in  Albania,  Paramith- 
 ia,  15,000;  in  Bulgaria,  Riischiuk,  50,000,  Schumla,  12,000  ;  and 
 Warna,  16,000  ;  and  in  Servia,  Semendria,  10,000. 
 
 Athiiiia^  or  Setines,  the  ancient  Athenae,  is  the  see  of  a  Greek 
 archbishop,  with  a  revenue  of  .-C1,000  sterling,  and  is  inhabited  al- 
 most exclusively  by  Greeks.  It  stands  on  the  N.  E,  coast  of  the 
 gulf  of  Engia,  with  a  safe  and  large  harbor,  narroAv  at  the  en- 
 trance, and  commanded  by  the  citadel.  Silk,  wax,  wool,  and  oil, 
 arc  the  chief  exports.  The  Athnians  are  still  distinguished  by 
 the  subtlety  and  acuteness  of  their  understandings,  and  are  more 
 polished  in  their  manners  and  conversation  than  their  neighbors. 
 The  population  is  12,000  souls.  The  houses  are  mostly  mean  and 
 straggling,  with  many  large  areas,  or  courts,  before  them.  The 
 Greeks  have  numerous  convents  and  churches.  The  monuments 
 of  ancient  art  remaining  in  this  city,  are  probably  unrivalled  in 
 their  magnificence. 
 
 Misi7'ia,  the  ancient  Sparta,  stands  upon  the  Eurotas,  and  is  de- 
 fended by  a  strong  castle. 
 
 The  Greeks  have  numerous  churches,  one  called  the  Perileptos, 
 distinguished  for  its  beauty.  The  Jews  have  their  synagogue, 
 and  the  Turks  a  superb  mosque.  It  is  the  residence  of  a  Greek 
 archbishop.     Population,  12,000. 
 
 £fi/iesus,  called  by  the  Turks  Ay  as  aluke.,  was  anciently  the 
 chief  metropolis  ofLydian  Asia,  and  the  seat  of  a  Roman  Procon- 
 sul. It  is  distant  fix>m  Smyrna  to  the  .S.  E.  about  46  miles,  and  is 
 situated  on  a  plain  south  of  the  river  Caystre.  The  plain  is  en- 
 compassed by  a  zone  of  hills,  leaving  a  communication  between 
 the  city  and  the  sea.  Ephesus  was  once  a  very  considerable  and 
 Avealthy  place,  and  has  been  the  scene  of  much  robbery  and  blood- 
 shed. In  the  3d  century,  it  was  plundered  by  the  Persians,  and 
 the  Scythians  ravaged  it  sometime  afterwards.  The  temple  of 
 Diana  Avas  plundered  and  destroyed  by  Constantine,  in  conse- 
 quence of  his  edict  to  destroy  all  the  heathen  temples.  Its  con- 
 sideration and  wealth  exposed  it  to  tli«  ravages  of  the  Mahometan 
 princes,  and  Tamerlane,  after  the  battle  of  Angora,  spent  a  month 
 in  plundering  the  city  and  its  neighborhood,  carrying  away  its  gold, 
 silver,  and  jewels,  and  even  the  clothes  of  the  inhabitants.  It  con- 
 tinued to  be  ravaged  and  destroyed  until  Mahomet  I.  obtained  pos- 
 session of  it.  Since  this  event,  it  has  been  under  the  quiet  domin- 
 ion of  the  Turks.  It  is  now  known  neither  as  a  place  for  trade, 
 nor  as  a  magnificent  city,  but  is  distinguisJied  only  by  its  ruins. 
 The  temple,  which  on   account  of  its  magnificence  and  gigantic 
 
TURKEY  IN  EUROPE.  425 
 
 Size,  was  formerly  ranked  among  the  wonders  of  the  world,  was 
 erected  at  the  expense  of  several  of  the  wealthiest  cities  of  Asia. 
 Pliny  says  it  was  425  feet  long,  and  220  feet  in  breadth.  Its  vault- 
 ed roofs  and  lofty  porticoes,  were  supported  by  127  pillars,  each  60 
 feet  high.  After  this  was  destroyed  by  Herostratus,  the  Ephe- 
 sians  sold  the  remains,  and  erected  another  of  superior  magnitude 
 and  beauty.  The  stones  which  composed  the  building  are  of  im- 
 mense size,  cut  out  from  mountains  in  the  vicinity.  The  ruins  of 
 this  magnificent  temple  are  scattered  throygh  a  considerable  ex- 
 tent of  country.  Five  and  twenty  miserable  Turkish  hovels  con- 
 stitute the  whole  of  modern  Ephesus.  Its  population  k  about  300. 
 The  country  around  is  fertile  and  pleasant.  Wheat  and  barley 
 grow  here  plentifully. 
 
 Travell'mg.]  The  high  roads  are  rarely  travelled  by  individu- 
 als, except  on  business.  The  Turkish  caravans,  both  in  Europe 
 and  Asia  are  composed  of  horses  and  camels  ;  and  merchandise 
 is  transported  by  these  conveyances  from  the  Hungarian  frontiers 
 to  the  Persian  Gulf.  Wheel  carriages  are  not  unknown,  but  are 
 little  used,  from  their  not  being  adapted  to  the  nature  of  the  coun-/- 
 try.  The  Tartars  are  public  couriers,  much  respected  for  their 
 good  conduct  and  fidelity.  They  are  strong  and  hardy,  and  per- 
 form their  journies  with  remarkable  celerity.  As  there  is  no 
 such  thing  as  a  general  post,  a  certain  number  of  these  Tartars 
 are  attached  to  the  court,  to  the  army,  and  to  the  governors  of 
 provinces,  and  are  occasionally  dispatched  to  all  pans  of  the  em- 
 pire. 
 
 Manufactures  a7id  Covwierce.^  The  Turkey  carpets  have  lono* 
 been  distinguished  for  their  beauty  ;  as  have  the  printed  muslins 
 of  Constantinople,  and  the  crapes  and  gauzes  of  Salonica.  The 
 brass  cannon  of  the  Turks  are  admired,  and  their  musket  and  pis- 
 tol barrels,  and  sword-blades,  are  held  in  great  estimation  by  for- 
 eigners. Morocco  leather  is  manufactured  in  large  quantities, 
 and  of  the  best  quality,  in  Gallipoli  and  the  Dardanelles.  The 
 commerce  of  Turkey  is  very  far  from  being  in  a  flourishing 
 state.  The  oppression  of  public  officers,  the  venality  of  tribunals, 
 and  the  general  want  of  common  honesty,  inspire  an  universal 
 distrust,  and  render  commercial  risks  extremely  precarious.  The 
 effect  of  this  state  of  things,  is  to  raise  the  interest  of  money,  and 
 the  price  of  goods,  to  an  exorbitant  height.  Commonly  money 
 cannot  be  borrowed,  nor  goods  purchased  on  credit,  without  a 
 pledge  aoovc  their  value.  The  interest  of  money  lent  to  Euro- 
 peans is  from  8  to  10  per  cent.  ;  to  Jews,  Armenians,  and  Greeks, 
 from  15  to  20  ;  to  private  Turks,  from  25  to  30  ;  and  to  Turks 
 Avho  belong  to  ihe  government,  from  40  tcf  50.  Turkey  depends 
 upon  no  foreign  country  for  subsistence.  The  corn  countries,  in 
 spite  of  the  impolitic  restrictions  of  the  government,  besides  pour- 
 ing plenty  over  the  empire,  secretly  export  their  superiluities  to 
 foreign  countries.  Their  corn,  their  maize,  and  their  rice,  are  all 
 of  superior  quality  ;  their  wine  and  oil,  though  deprived  of  half 
 their  excellence  by  the  unskilfulncss  and  negligence  of  prepara- 
 tion, arc  sufficient,  not  only  for  the  demands  of  an  extensive  home 
 
 VOL.  ir.  5^ 
 
426  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 
 
 consumplion,  but  for  the  supply  of  several  foreign  markets.  Their 
 wool,  camel's  hair,  goat's  hair,  cotton,  buffaloe's  hides  and  tongues, 
 hares'  skins,  morocco  leather,  silk,  flax,  coifee,  sugar,  honey,  to- 
 bacco, wax,  box,  copper,  hart's-horn,  furs,  horse-hair,  nutgalls, 
 currants,  figs,  saffron,  drugs,  and  Parian  marble,  are  distributed 
 over  both  continents. 
 
 CHAPTER  II. 
 
 NATURAL  GEOGRAPHY, 
 
 ctlMATE  AND  SEASONS,  RIVEHS,  GULFS,  STRAITS,  ISTHMUS,  MOUN- 
 TAINS, FORESTS,  BOTANY,  ZOOLOGY,  MINERALOGY,  NATURAL  CU- 
 RIOSITIES. 
 
 Climate  and  Seasons.']  THE  climate  of  Turkey  is  gener- 
 ally mild,  the  air  pure,  and  the  seasons  regular.  Indian  corn  and 
 the  vine  flourish  even  in  Moldavia  and  Wallachia  ;  and  rice  and 
 the  olive,  tog'ether  v/ith  these,  in  the  more  southern  regions.  The 
 Country  is  rather  mountainous.  Rumelia,  however,  is  chiefly  a 
 plain  country,  and  many  plains  and  vallies  are  found  in  the  other 
 provinces.  The  soil  is  almost  universally  fertile,  yielding  vast 
 quantities  of  excellent  grain,  particvilarly  wheat,  barley,  indian 
 corn,  and  rice.  The  characteristicai  indolence  of  the  Turks  suf- 
 fers extensive  tracts  of  fine  land  to  lie  in  an  uncultivated  state. 
 
 Rivcrs.~\  The  Danube  has  already  been  mentioned  as  in  part  a 
 Turkish  stream.  The  Save  also  separates  Slavonia  from  Bosnia. 
 The  most  considerable  tributary  of  the  Danube  from  Turkey,  is 
 the  Mo7'ava,  the  ancient  Margus^  which  rises  from  many  sources 
 in  Mount  Haemus,  and,  running  through  Servia,  falls  into  it  a  lit- 
 tle below  Semendria,  after  a  course  of  200  miles.  The  Esker 
 runs  120  miles,  and  falls  into  it  above  Nicopoli. 
 
 The  Maritz^  the  ancient  Hedrus,  rises  in  a  more  eastern  part  of 
 the  same  mountains,  near  Bagni,  and  running  S.  E.  and  afterwards 
 S.  W.  falls  into  the  Archipelago,  after  a  course  of  about  300  miles. 
 
 The  Vardari.,  formerly  the  ^xiur?,  issues  from  the  western  part 
 of  the  same  range,  called  Mount  Argentaro,  and  pursues  a  south- 
 easterly course  of  more  than  200  miles,  to  the  Gulf  of  Salonica. 
 
 The  Z)?-m  pursues  a  winding  course  of  about  120  miles,  and 
 empties  into  the  Gulf  of  Drin,  in  the  Adriatic.  Another  Drin  of 
 similar  size  falls  into  the  Save,  at  Ratsha. 
 
 Gulfs.']  The  Gulf  of  Lepanto,  Sinus  Corinthiacns.,  sets  up  east- 
 ward, about  120  miles  from  the  Ionian  sea,  separating  the  Morea 
 from  Livadia.  It  is  every  where  narrow,  though  wider  near  its 
 head,  than  near  its  mouth. 
 
 The  Gulf  ofEngia,  Sinus  Saronicus,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
 isthmus  of  Corinth,  extends  from  S.  E.  to  N.  W.  about  60  miles, 
 and  is  25  miles  wide  at  the  mouth.  A  little  farther  south  is  the 
 Gulf  of  Napoli,  Sinus  Jrcfolicus,  lying  in  the  same  direction,  and 
 nearly  of  the  same  extent. 
 
TURKEY  IN  EUROPE.  42r 
 
 The  Gulf  of  Salonica,  5mw.?  Thermaicics^  and  Macedonicus,  is 
 Uie  N.  W.  termination  of  the  x\rchipeIago.  It  is  about  120  miles 
 long,  and  30  wide.  Pelion,  Ossa,  and  Ohjmfms,  Ue  near  its  west- 
 ern coast,  and  the  Peneus,  the  Haliacinon,  the  Erigon,  the  Jxiu,s, 
 and  the  Echidorus,  contribute  to  its  waters. 
 
 (  Straits.']  The  Dardanelles,  and  the  Straits  of  Constantinople, 
 have  formerly  been  described.  The  channel  of  Negropont  sep- 
 arates that  island  from  the  coasts  of  Attica,  Boeotia,  Phocis,  and 
 Thessaly.  Its  whole  length  is  not  less  than  130  miles. .,  Its  great- 
 est breadth  is  about  15  miles,  while  that  of  the  narrowest  part, 
 near  the  town  of  Negropont,  called  the  Euripus,  scarcely  exceeds 
 the  breadth  of  a  galley. 
 
 Isthmus.']  '1  he  isthmus  of  Corinth  separates  the  Gulfs  of  Le- 
 panto  and  Engia,  and  connects  the  Morea  with  Livadia.  This 
 was  the  scene  of  the  celebrated  Isthmian  Games,  which  began  B. 
 C.  1326.  The  length  of  the  isthmus  is  25  miles,  and  its  breadth 
 14  miles. 
 
 Mountains.]  The  chains  of  mountains  are  numerous  and  ex- 
 tensive. To  the  W.  of  Moldavia  and  the  Buckovine,  runs  N.  and 
 N.  W.  for  about  200  miles,  part  of  the  grand  Carpathian  chain, 
 anciently  called  the  Bastarnic  Alps.  '1  he  most  southern  branch 
 of  this  grand  chain,  tending  S.  W.  for  more  than  200  miles,  forms 
 the  N.  and  W.  boundary  of  Wallachia. 
 
 On  the  S.  of  the  Danube  appears  the  grand  ronge  of  the  Hae- 
 mus,  which  Ptolemy  represents  as  running  from  the  S.  W.  to  the 
 N.  E.  while  modern  ob'scrvations  indicate  the  opposite  direction  ; 
 but  the  recent  maps  of  these  regions  are  still  very  imperfect. 
 However  this  be,  the  chain  of  the  Haemusis  deservedly  celebrated 
 by  the  ancients,  being  of  great  elevation  and  extent,  as  appears 
 from  the  numerous  and  large  rivers  w  hich  issue  from  its  sides. 
 This  mountainous  tract  extends  more  than  400  miles,  and  is  now 
 known  under  various  names,  as  Emineh,  or  Hemineh  Dag,  on  the 
 east ;  Bulkan  and  Samoco  in  the  middle  ;  Ivan  on  the  west  ; 
 while  the  Despoto  Dag  branches  off  to  the  S.  E.  and  may,  per- 
 haps, be  the  Rhodope  of  the  ancients. 
 
 From  the  western  extremity  of  the  Haemus  seem  to  branch  off 
 two  other  extensive  chains  ;  one  i-unning  N.  W.  between  Dalma- 
 tia  on  the  W.  and  Bosnia  and  Servia  on  the  E.  while  the  othev 
 passing  S.  forms  the  mountains  of  Albania  and  the  W.  of  Greece. 
 The  chain  running  to  the  S.  has  many  classical  appellations,  as 
 the  Acroceraunian,  Pindus,  &c.  The  E.  and  S.  of  Greece  are  al- 
 so crowded  with  small  chains  of  mountains  and  solitary  hills. 
 
 There  is  a  range  which  commences  near  the  Gulf  of  Volo,  Si' 
 tms  Fagasalus,  and,  after  winding  to  the  N.  W.  runs  parallel 
 with  the  coast  of  Thessaly,  as  far  as  the  river  Salambria.  The 
 southern  half  is  called  Mount  Pelion,  the  northern  Mount  Ossa. 
 The  continuation  of  the  chain  beyond  that  river,  is  the  celebrated 
 Olympus,  the  famed  residence  of  the  gods,  and  the  court  of  Jupi- 
 ter. Xenagoras,  in  the  4th  century  before  Christ,  measured  the 
 highest  summit,  and  found  it  to  be  10  stadia  and  1  plethrunij 
 wr*iting  6  feet,  or  6135   English  feet  in  height.     Mr.  Bernouilli, 
 
428  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 
 
 by  his  measurement,  finds  it  to  be  6501  feet.  Between  Ossa  and 
 Olympus,  winds  the  valley  of  Tempe,  painted  by  the  poets  as  the 
 most  delightful  spot  on  the  earth,  and  often  honored  by  the  pres- 
 ence of  the  gods.  Mount  Othrys^  the  residence  of  the  centaurs, 
 was  a  range  in  the  south  of  Thessaly  ;  and  Pindus,  the  favorite 
 resort  of  Apollo  and  the  Muses,  separated  it  on  the  west  fro- 1 
 Epyrus.  Farnasaus  Avas  merely  the  continuation  of  the  same 
 range,  through  Etolia  and  Phocis  ;  while  Mount  Helicon  was  its 
 southeastern  termination,  in  Boeotia,  near  the  head  of  ihe  Gulf  of 
 Lepanto.  Mount  Athos^  or  Monte  Sancto,  is  on  a  peninsula,  in 
 Macedonia,  having  the  Gulf  of  Contessa,  or  Orfana,  on  the  N.  E. 
 and  the  Gulf  of  Monte  S;uicto  on  the  S.  W.  It  consists  of  a 
 chain  of  eminences,  7  or  8  leagues  long,  and  3  or  4  broad,  the 
 loftiest  of  which  is  said  to  exceed  two  miles  in  height  ;  and  Plu- 
 tarch and  Pliny  assert  that  it  projected  its  shadow,  at  the  summer 
 solstice,  on  the  market  place  of  Myrina,  the  capital  of  the  island 
 ofLemnos.  The  cold  on  its  summit  is  extreme,  yet  it  abounds 
 with  many  kinds  of  plants  and  trees,  particularly  the  pine  and  the 
 fir,  and  supplies  a  multitude  of  springs  and  streams.  It  is  now 
 inhabited  by  the  Caloyers,  a  sort  of  Greek  monks,  of  the  order  of 
 St.  Basil,  who  never  marry,  and  live  chiefly  on  olives.  They  are 
 about  6000  in  number,  and  have  24  monasteries  on  the  mountain, 
 raised  to  the  height  of  5  or  6  stories,  and  well  fortified"  against  the 
 assaults  of  banditti. 
 
 Forestsr\^  The  forests  of  Greece,  the  Greek  islands,  and  the 
 provinces  bordering  the  Archipelago  to  the  north,  consist  of  the 
 common  and  yew-leaved  fir,  the  pine,  the  larch,  the  cedar,  the 
 ilex,  the  kermcs  oak,  the  common  oak,  the  oriental  plane-tree,  the 
 maple,  the  horn-beam,  the  sycamore,  the  elm,  the  walnut,  the 
 chesnut,  the  ash,  and  the  beech.  Considerable  forests,  composed 
 of  olive-trees,  mixed  with  the  broad-leaved  myrtle,  adorn  the 
 shores  of  Crete  and  Attica  ;  the  other  fruit  trees  are  the  orange, 
 the  fig,  the  vine,  the  pistachia  tree,  the  pear,  the  apple,  the  cher- 
 ry, the  mastich  tree,  the  mulberry,  and  the  pomegranate. 
 
 Botany?^  Of  the  shruljs  and  small  trees  the  most  worthy  of 
 notice,  are  the  bay-tree,  the  laurel,  two  kinds  of  arbutus,  the  cy- 
 press, the  oleander,  and  the  caper  bush.  A  large  proportion  of 
 the  soil  in  Greece  and  the  Greek  islands  being  calcareous,  the 
 Greek  flora,  in  its  present  imperfect  state,  consists  for  the  most 
 part  of  those  plants  that  are  peculiar  to  limestone  districts.  The 
 island  of  Crete  has  always  been  celebrated  for  its  vegetable  pro- 
 ductions, of  which  the  following  are  the  chief,  and,  all  of  them  in- 
 dicative of  a  calcareous  soil  :  Cretan  woundwort,  thistle-leaved 
 acanthus,  Cretan  origany,  Cretan  dittany,  tragacanth  vetch  (from 
 which  the  gum  of  this  name  is  procured),  and  iadanum  cistus  ;  an 
 elegant  shrub,  from  tlie  leaves  and  tender  stalks  of  which  the  fra- 
 grant gum  ladanon  exudes  ;  this  is  collected  by  whipping  the 
 plants  Avith  leathern  thongs,  to  which  the  gum  adheres,  and  oft" 
 which  it  is  scraped  from  lime  to  time. 
 
 Zoolo'^yP^     The  zoology  of  European  Turkey  presents  few  pe 
 culiaritios.     The  jackal,  frequent  in  Africa  and   Asia,   is   not  un- 
 
TURKEY  IN  EUROPE.  429 
 
 known  in  these  regions  ;  and  among  the  beasts  of  burden  must  be 
 classed  the  camel.  The  Turkish  horses  are  celebrated  for  spirit 
 and  form  ;  and  those  of  Wallachia  deserve  particular  praise.  The 
 breeds  or  qualities  of  their  cattle  have  been  little  explained.  The 
 sheep,  distinguished  by  the  name  of  Wallachian,  have  spiral  horns 
 of  singular  elegance  ;  but  the  fineness  of  the  fleece  would  be  a 
 more  useful  distinction.  The  roe  and  the  red-deer  are  notimfre- 
 quent.  The  buffalo  abounds  in  the  northern  provinces.  The 
 hare  is  very  numerous. 
 
 Mineralogy r\  The  mineralogy  of  these  provinces  is  also  a  bar- 
 ren field  ;  for  the  indolence  and  ignorance  of  the  Turks  have  gen- 
 erally neglected  this  branch  of  opulence  ;  though  ft-om  the  mines 
 in  the  adjacent  regions  of  Hungary  and  Transylvania,  and  from 
 the  ancient  accounts,  there  would  be  room  to  expect  great  min- 
 eral treasures.  The  gold  mines  of  Philippi,  about  80  miles  to  the 
 east  of  Saloniki,  in  the  time  of  Philip  of  Macedon,  produced  yearly 
 about  10,000  talents,  £2,880,000  sterling  ;  and  silver  mines  were 
 found  in  Attica,  and  other  quarters.  An  extensive  coal  mine  is 
 found  near  Rodosto. 
 
 Natural  Curiosities.^  The  natural  curiosities  in  the  northern 
 parts,  and  around  mount  Hsemus,  remain  undescribed.  Of  those 
 in  the  south,  the  principal  is  the  grotto  of  Antiparos,  one  of  the 
 islands  of  the  Cyclades,  to  the  west  of  Paros.  The  whole  isle  is  a 
 I'ock  of  fine  marble,  about  16  miles  in  circumference.  In  its 
 southern  part,  about  a  mile  and  a  half  from  the  sea,  rises  a  rugged 
 cavern,  with  some  ancient  inscriptions.  After  proceeding  about 
 twenty  paces,  appears  a  dark  and  low  passage,  whence  the  trav- 
 eller, being  provided  with  lights,  descends  by  a  rope,  and  after- 
 wards by  a  ladder  placed  by  the  side  of  deep  abysses.  The  path 
 now  becomes  more  easy,  and  conducts  to  another  steep  precipice, 
 which  is  descended  by  another  ladder.  After  much  fatigue,  and 
 some  danger,  the  traveller  at  length  arrives  in  the  grotto,  which  is 
 supposed  to  be  about  900  feet  from  the  first  opening.  Tournefort 
 estimates  the  height  of  the  grotto  at  about  40  fathoms.  The  sta- 
 lactitic  marble  hangs  from  the  roof,  in  the  most  elegant  and  pic- 
 turesque forms  ;  and  on  the  floor  are  large  masses  of  stalagmite, 
 brownish  and  less  pure,  produced  by  the  liquified  stone  dropping 
 from  above.  A  great  distinction  between  this  grotto  and  others 
 of  a  similar  kind  in  England,  and  other  countries  is,  the  pui'ity  of 
 the  material,  being  marble  of  a  snowy  whiteness,  and  the  finest 
 calcareous  spar.  The  marble  of  Paros  has  been  known  and  cele- 
 brated since  the  classical  times,  as  the  most  pure  the  sculptor  can 
 employ  ;  some,  however,  prefer  that  of  Carrara,  as  of  a  finer  and 
 closer  grain,  and  therefore  more  obedient  to  the  chisel  than  the 
 Grecian,  which  is  of  a  large  chrystalline  grain. 
 
 TURKISH  ISLANDS. 
 
 Candia.,  anciently  Crete,  lies  at  the  bottom  of  the  Archipelago, 
 and  is  one  of  the  largest  islands  in  the  Mediterranean.  It  extends 
 from  E,  to  W.  about  180  miles  in  length,   bctv.ctn  Ion.  23  30  and 
 
43u  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 
 
 26  30,  E.  and  about  40  from  N.  to  S.  containing,  aLcorciing  to 
 Hassel,  4318  square  miles.  This  island  was  settled  very  early, 
 but  historians  are  not  agreed  to  Avhat  nation  the  Cretans  belonged. 
 In  the  time  of  the  Trojan  war  it  contained  90  cities,  and  10  were 
 afterwards  built  by  the  Dorians.  Of  these  40  remained  in  the 
 time  of  Ptolemy.  The  government  Avas  for  a  long  period  mo- 
 narchical, in  the  family  of  Minos  ;  afterwards  it  was  republican. 
 In  A.  D.  66,  the  island  was  subdued  by  Metellus,  the  Roman 
 Consul,  and  continued  subject  to  the  Romans,  till  the  year  812, 
 when  the  Saracens  reduced  it.  In  962,  they  were  driven  out,  and 
 the  island  was  reannexcd  to  the  empire.  In  1204,  it  fell  into  the 
 hands  of  the  Crusaders,  and  in  121 1,  was  sold  to  the  Venetians. 
 In  1646,  the  Turks  made  a  descent  on  the  island,  and  laid  siege  to 
 the  city  of  Candia,  which  they  were  unable  to  reduce  till  the  yeat 
 1669  ;  when  the  whole  island,  a  few  forts  excepted,  fell  into  their 
 hands.    These  were  not  given  up  by  the  Venetians  till  1715. 
 
 Candia  is  divided  into  3  pachaliks,  that  of  Retimo,  in  the  west,  Ca- 
 nea,  in  the  middle,  and  Candia,  in  the  east.  The  governor  of  the  last 
 is  a  pacha  of  three  tails,  who  is  genei^al  in  chief  of  all  the  forces 
 of  the  island.  The  governors  of  Retimo  and  Canea  are  pachas  of 
 two  tails,  aiid  independent  of  the  pacha  of  Candia,  except  in  mili- 
 tary matters.  The  pachaliks  are  divided  into  districts,  each  com- 
 prising a  certain  number  of  villages,  some  of  which  belong  to  the 
 imperial  mosques,  some  to  the  sultana  mother,  and  the  greater 
 number  are  granted  for  life  to  the  agas,  or  lords,  who  superintend 
 the  police,  and  dispose  of  most  of  the  taxes.  The  Greek  inhabi- 
 tants appoint  a  cafiitam  to  decide  their  own  differences,  and  a 
 dascalos  to  register  their  names  and  taxes.  The  population  of 
 the  island  is  estimated  by  Olivier,  at  240,000.  One  half  of  these 
 are  Greeks.  The  mountains  to  the  S.  of  Canea  and  Retimo,  are 
 inhabited  by  the  S/iachiots,  supposed  to  be  descendants  of  the  ear- 
 ly Cretans,  and  distinguished  from  the  other  Greeks  by  their  tall 
 stature,  their  courage,  and  their  love  of  liberty.  Under  the  Ro- 
 mans, tlie  Saracens,  the  Venetians,  and  the  Turks,  they  preserved 
 their  laws  and  customs,  and  found  in  their  bleak  and  rugged  moun- 
 tains the  abode  of  health  and  strength,  and  the  safe  asylum  of 
 liberty.  A  few  remains  of  the  Saracens  are  found  on  Mount  Ida. 
 They  are  called  Abadiots^  occupy  20  villages,  and  are  4000  in 
 nunlber.  They  are  swarthy,  meagre,  of  middling  stature,  ma. 
 licious,  and  vindictive.  The  Turks  here  are  taller,  larger,  and 
 inore  corpulent  than  the  Greeks.  The  leprosy  is  the  only  conta- 
 gious disorder. 
 
 The  exports  arc  horses,  oil,  soap,  wax,  honey,  cheese,  raisins, 
 almonds,  walnuts,  chestnuts,  linse^,  and  liquorice  root.  The 
 islanders  carry  on  some  trade,  but  it  is  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  for- 
 eigners. There  is  scarcely  a  safe  anchorage  on  the  southern 
 coast,  but  many  fine  harbors  and  roadsteads  on  the  northern. 
 
 The  climate  has  from  remote  antiquity  been  celebrated  for  its 
 salubrity.  Winter  is  mei-ely  a  rainy  reason  on  the  plains,  though 
 fhe  high  mountains  arc  covered  Avith   snov/.     The  refreshing  sea- 
 
TURKEY  IN  EUROPE.  43J 
 
 breeze  constantly  tempers  the  heat  of  summer.     The  rivers  ai^ 
 little  more  than  torrents,  swelled  by  the  rains  of  v/inter. 
 
 Considerable  quantities  of  corn  are  annually  imported.  The 
 Candian  wines  are  still  delicious,  but  of  a  fiery  quality.  Jupiter 
 would  drink  no  other  nectar,  than  the  malmsey  of  Ida,  during  his 
 stay  on  the  island.  Some  cloths  are  manufactured  in  silk  and  cot- 
 ton, and  in  silk  and  flax.  Most  of  the  cotton,  some  of  the  flax,  and 
 all  the  silk  are  imported.  The  olive  is  not  very  abundant.  For- 
 ests of  pines,  cedars,  and  firs,  cover  the  declivities  of  the  moun- 
 tains. Mutton,  pork,  and  poultry  are  cheap  and  excellent. 
 Lambs  and  kids  may  be  obtained  in  the  large  towns.  The  argali 
 and  wild  goat  are  plentiful  on  the  mountains.  The  quail,  turtle, 
 ring-dove,  loriot,  roller,  thi'ush,  fig-pecker,  wood-cock,  black-bird, 
 lark,  ortolan  and  partridge,  abound  in  the  woods  and  fields. 
 
 The  town  of  Candia  is  the  capita!  of  the  island.  It  is  a  sea-port 
 on  the  northern  shore  about  the  middle  of  the  island.  The  har- 
 bor is  small,  but  well  fortified.  The  streets  are  straight,  and  at 
 right  angles.  The  town  contains  from  10  to  12,000  Turks,  from 
 2  to  3,000  Greeks,  and  about  60  Jews.  Here  are  23  soap  houses. 
 The  environs  present  a  few  fertile  plains  and  rising  grounds. 
 
 Canea,  near  the  western  extremity  lies  on  the  coast-  The 
 harbor  is  well  defended.  The  streets  are  straight  and  tolerably 
 wide.  In  the  public  squares  are  fountains,  that  flow  A^'ith  an 
 abundant  stream.  Most  of  the  houses  are  of  one  story,  and  have 
 flat  roofs  covered  with  tiles.  The  town  is  surrovmded  by  a  strong 
 ■wall  and  deep  ditch.  Here  are  20  soap  houses.  TJie  town  is  es- 
 timated to  contain  4000  Turks,  2  or  3000  Greeks,  150  Jews,  4 
 French,  and  some  Italian  houses.  Canea  is  the  most  commerciaT 
 town  in  the  island. 
 
 Rethno^  built  on  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  Ritlnjnma,  about  half- 
 way between  Candia  and  Canea,  is  also  a  sea-port,  on  the  northern 
 shore.  Its  harbor  is  small  and  shallow.  The  environs  are  de- 
 lightful. It  contains  about  6000  inhabitants  ;  half  Greeks  and  half 
 Tvirks.  The  citadel  on  the  N.  W.  of  the  town  is  built  on  a  mass 
 of  high,  steep  rocks  advancing  into  the  sea.  A  range  of  lofty 
 mountains  runs  the  whole  length  of  the  island.  This  range  is 
 called  the  White  Mountains.  Mount  Ida,  the  highest  summ.it, 
 and  once  the  nursery  of  Jupitei',  is  near  the  middle  of  the  island, 
 about  1 6  miles  W.  of  Candia. 
 ^  .A''egrojiont^  or  Euri/io,  the  ancient  Euboea,  stretches  from  S.  E. 
 to  N.  W.  along  the  coast  of  Graecia  Propria,  and  is  96  miles  long, 
 and  from  8  to  16  broad;  containing,  according  to  Hassel,  482 
 square  miles.  It  is  very  fertile,  abounding  in  grain,  Avine,  oil, 
 and  excellent  fruits.  Here  are  several  movmtains,  which  for  a 
 considerable  part  of  the  year  are  covered  with  snow.  The  high- 
 est of  these  is  Mount  Ocha,  in  the  south,  which  very  anciently 
 gave  name  to  the  Avhole  island.  The  v/hole  num.ber  of  inhabi- 
 tants is  stated  in  the  table  at  40,000,  which  is  far  less  than  the  an- 
 cient population.  Formerly  the  island  contained  numerous  cities, 
 the  chief  of  which  was  Chalcis.  The  only  places  now  worth  no- 
 tice are  Negropont  and  Castel  Rosso.     Negropont  stands  on  the 
 
43^2  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 
 
 western  side  of  the  island,  on  the  narrowest  part  of  the  Strait, 
 called  the  Euripus.  It  is  the  see  of  a  Greek  bishop.  The  har- 
 bor is  large  and  deep,  and  seldom  without  a  fleet  of  gal  lies. 
 The  town  is  the  I'esidence  of  the  admiral  of  Turkey,  who  is  the 
 governor  ofEuboea,  the  smaller  islands  and  of  the  district  of  Gal- 
 lipoli.  Population  16,000.  Castel  Rosso,  or  Caristo,  on  the 
 southern  extremity  of  the  island,  is  the  see  of  a  Greek  bishop,  and 
 a  town  of  considerable  size. 
 
 Lemnos^  called  by  the  Turks  Stalimene^  in  the  northern  part  of 
 the  Archipelago,  is  15  miles  long  and  11  broad.  The  eastern  part 
 of  the  island  is  dry  and  barren  ;  the  westei'n  is  fertile  and  abound- 
 ing in  springs.  There  are  two  high  mountains  in  the  island,  call- 
 ed Meschilae,  both  anciently  volcanic.  These  were  the  iron 
 works  of  Vulcan,  to  whom  the  island  belonged.  It  has  always 
 been  famous  for  a  peculiar  kind  of  earth  or  clay,  which  takes  the 
 impression  of  a  seal  like  wax.  Stalimene,  the  ancient  Myri7ia,  is 
 the  see  of  a  Greek  bishop.  The  other  town  is  Cochino,  the  an- 
 cient Hejihestias.     The  whole  population  is  8,000.* 
 
 Androsy  a  small  distance  S.  E.  from  Negropont,  is  90  miles  in 
 circumference.  It  is  generally  high  and  mountainous.  Its  plains 
 are  fertile  and  well  watered.  SiT.v  is  the  principal  produce,  of. 
 which  6000  okes  are  annually  exported,  as  well  as  a  considerable' 
 quantity  of  oranges  and  lemons.  The  other  productions  are 
 wheat,  barley,  wine,  oil,  legumes,  herbage,  various  fruits,  honey, 
 wax  and  cotton.  The  population  is  15,000  souls,  distributed  into 
 12  villages.  Andros  is  the  appanage  of  a  sultana,  and  yi&lds  an 
 annual  revenue  of  30,000  piastres. 
 
 Tinot  formerly  Tenos^  one  mile  S.  E  of  Andros,  is  60  miles  in 
 circui^iference,  contains  about  70  square  miles,  and  is  almost  every 
 where  lofty  and  mountainous.  The  inhabitants  are  the  bravest  in 
 the  Archipelago,  and  though  often  attacked,  did  not  submit  to  the 
 Turks,  till  J714,  when  they  were  probably  betrayed  by  the  gover- 
 nor. Here  are  reckoned  60  towns  or  villages,  inhabited  by  40,000 
 to  45,000  sowls.f  No  Turk  here  incommodes  the  inhabitants. 
 The  people  annually  elect  their  own  magistrates,  and  are  the 
 freest  in  these  seas.  The  soil  is  not  very  fertile,  but  this  is  more 
 than  compensated  by  the  persevei'ing  industry  of  the  inhabitants. 
 The  Europeans  and  Greeks  of  the  large  cities  in  Turkey  procure 
 their  domestics  from  Tina.  The  girls  usually  stay  in  service  5 
 years,  and  then  return  and  marry  in  the  island,  always  bringing 
 home  their  wages.  The  revenue  is  36,234  piastres.  Silk  is 
 largely  exported ;  and  figs,  oranges,  wines,  hay,  and  sheep  in 
 small  quantities. 
 
 Myconi,  12  miles  S.  E.  of  Tino,  is  far  from  fertile,  and  almost 
 all  mountainous.  The  inhabitants,  6,000  in  number,  all  reside  in 
 one  town  on  the  coast.  They  are  all  farmers  or  mariners.  A 
 little  barley,  and  wine  are  annually  exported.  The  impost  is 
 7,500  piastres. 
 
 MixiUy  or  Naxas,   is  chiefly  covered  with   high  mountains,  the 
 
 •  Langdon  says,  ■40,000^  ■\  According  to  H.^ssel,  24,800^      ^ 
 
TURKEY  IN  EUROPE.  43.3 
 
 Highest  of  which,  called  Dia,  or  Jupiter,  affords  an  extensive 
 prospect  of  the  Archipelago.  The  town  Naxos  containing  2000 
 souls  is  on  the  western  side.  The  other  inhabitants,  exceeding 
 8000,  are  scattered  through  41  villages.  The  taxes  exceed 
 iC1660  sterling.  About  600  of  the  inhabitants  are  Catholics;  the 
 rest  are  Greeks.  The  hills  are  covered  with  the  myrtle,  arbutus, 
 lentisk,  hypercum,  savory,  thorny  broom,  leguminous  shrubs,  and 
 rock-roses.  The  rivulets  are  bordered  with  the  plane-tree,  the 
 agnus-castus,  and  the  oleander.  The  exports  are  barley,  oil, 
 oranges,  lemons,  citrons,  cheese  and  salt. 
 
 Paros,  6  miles  west  of  Naxia,  contains  6,000  inhabitants.  It  has 
 4  excellent  harbors.  The  celebrated  Pariati  marble  is  obtained 
 from  this  island.     The  best  quarries  are  those  in  Movmt  Marpesus.. 
 
 Antiparos,7  rm\es?>.  W.  and  16  in  circumference,  is  chiefly 
 celebrated  for  its  grotto.  At  the  entrance  it  appears  to  be  a  rustic 
 eave,  in  the  side  of  a  hill,  about  30  feet  wide,  divided  by  some  nat- 
 ural pillars,  between  which  the  ground  slopes  gently,  and  then  more 
 precipitately,  to  the  bottom  of  the  cavern.  At  last  the  descent  is 
 by  a  ladder,  to  the  grotto  itself,  which  is  about  300  fathom  below 
 the  surf?.ce,  and  about  40  fathom  high,  and  50  wide.  It  is  full  of 
 large  and  beautiful  stalactites,  hanging  from  the  roof,  and  cover- 
 ing the  floor.  When  the  place  is  completely  lighted  up,  the 
 mind  cannot  conceive  of  a  scene  more  beautiful  and  magnificent. 
 The  ceiling  so  lofty,  that  the  eye  can  scarcely  reach  it,  and  hung 
 all  over  with  glittering  icicles,  transparent  as  glass,  yet  solid  as 
 marble.  The  sides  regularly  formed  with  spars  fastened  to  the 
 walls.  The  floor,  consisting  of  solid  marble,  supporting,  in  various 
 places,  magnificent  columns,  thrones,  and  altars,  as  if  nature  had 
 designed  to  mock  the  curiosities  of  art,  and  the  whole  presenting 
 the  idea  of  a  vast  and  brilliant  tlieatre  illuminated  with  an  immense 
 profusion  of  lights.  The  voice,  on  speaking,  or  singing,  is  re- 
 doubled to  an  astonishing  loudness  ;  and  upon  the  firing  of  a  gun 
 the  noise  and  reverberations  are  almost  deafening. 
 
 J^iOf  anciently  /os,  40  miles  in  circuit,  is  lofty  and  mountainous, 
 and  far  from  being  fertile.  It  contains  3700  inhabitants,  all 
 Greeks,  and  pays  a  tribute  of  9000  piastres.  Homer  is  said  to 
 have  been  buried  here. 
 
 M7o,  formerly  Melos^  the  southwesternmost  of  the  Cyclades,  is  60 
 miles  in  circumference,  and  has  a  very  large  harbor,  one  of  the  finest 
 in  these  seas.  The  population  does  not  exceed  1500.  A  little  east 
 of  the  ruins  of  the  town,  called  C/f?«c,  by  the  modern  Greeks,  in 
 a  hill  of  pumice  stone,  are  numerous  ancient  catacombs  in  excel- 
 lent preservation.  These  are  chambers  cut  out  in  the  rock  for 
 burying  places.  Most  of  the  catacombs  contain  7  sarcophagusses, 
 3  on  each  side,  and  1  at  the  farther  end.  Each  sarcophagus,  is 
 about  6  feet  long,  and  15  inches  high,  surmounted  by  an  arch,  the 
 whole  dug  in  the  rock.  Those  at  Alexandria,  on  the  contrary, 
 are  cells  dug  deeply  into  the  walls  of  galleries.  The  inhabitants 
 now  employ  these  catacombs  as  cisterns  to  catch  the  winter  rains. 
 .Ships  generally  stop  at  this  island  for'pilols,  through  the  Archipe- 
 lago. 
 
 VOL.  ri.  5*5 
 
434  ASIA. 
 
 Santori/ti,  formevly  Thera  and  Caliste^  is  40  miles  in  tircumt'er- 
 fence,  and  in  shape  like  a  horseshoe.  The  coast  rises  abruptly 
 from  the  sea,  often  to  the  height  of  600  feet.  The  road  is  7  miles 
 long,  and  6  deep.  The  water  in  it  has  a  depth  of  from  250  to  300 
 fathom,  so  that  ships  can  find  no  anchoring  ground.  The  popu- 
 lation exceeds  12,000  ;  about  one  sixth  of  which  are  Roman  Cath- 
 olics. Here  are  two  bishops,  one  Latin,  the  other  Greek,  and  two 
 nunneries.  The  inhabitants  are  distinguished  for  their  industry, 
 temperance,  probity,  and  good  morals.  The  men  are  employed 
 chiefly  in  the  culture  of  the  vine,  and  of  cotton.  The  women  make 
 cloths,  caps,  and  stockings,  which  ai'e  sent  to  Russia  and  Italy. 
 The  best  wine,  called  vitio  santo,  is  sent  to  Russia.*  The  revenue 
 is  55,000  piastres.  In  propoition  to  its  extent  this  is  the  richest 
 and  most  populous  of  all  the  islands  in  the  Archipelago.  There 
 are  5  large  villages,  and  numerous  smaller  ones. 
 
 The  other  considerable  islands  will  more  properly  fall  vmder  the 
 description  of  Turkey  in  Asia. 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 AS  Asia  exceeds  Europe  and  Africa  in  the  extent  of 
 it^  territories,  it  is  also  superior  to  them  in  the  serenity  of  its  air, 
 the  fertility  of  its  soil,  the  deliciousness  of  its  fruits,  the  fragrancy 
 and  balsamick  qualities  of  its  plants,  spices  and  gums  ;  the  salu- 
 brity of  its  drugs  ;  the  quantity,  variety,  beauty,  and  value  of  its 
 gems  ;  the  richness  of  its  metals,  and  the  fineness  of  its  silks  and 
 cottons.  It  was  in  Asia,  according  to  the  sacred  records,  that  the 
 all-wise  Creator  planted  the  garden  of  Eden,  in  which  he  formed 
 the  first  man  and  first  woman,  from  whom  the  race  of  mankind 
 has  descended.  Asia  became  again  the  nursery  of  the  world  after 
 the  deluge,  whence  the  descendants  of  Noah  dispersed  their  va- 
 rious colonies  into  all  the  other  parts  of  the  globe.  It  was  in  Asia 
 that  God  placed  his  once  favourite  people,  the  HebrcAvs,  whom  he 
 enlightened  by  revelation  delivered  by  the  prophets,  and  to  Avhom 
 he  gave  the  Oracles  of  Truth.  It  was  here  that  the  great  and 
 merciful  work  of  our  Redemption  was  accomplished  by  his  Divine 
 Son  ;  and  it  was  from  hence  that  the  light  of  his  glorious  Gospel 
 was  carried  with  amazdng  rapidity  into  all  the  known  nations,  by 
 his  disciples  and  followers.  Here  the  first  chi'istian  chuixhes 
 were  founded,  and  the  christian  faith  miraculously  propagated  and 
 cherished,  even  with  the  blood  of  innumerable  martyrs.  It  was 
 in  Asia  that  the  first  edifices  were  reared,  and  the  first  empires 
 founded,  while  the  other  parts  of  the  globe  were  inhabited  only 
 by  wild  animals.     On  these  accounts,  this  quarter  claims  a  supc- 
 
 *  Withlu  a  few  years>  howevc^r,  several  cargoes  have  been  purchased  ftJr  the  Eng- 
 \\^  market. 
 
s 
 
ASIA.  435 
 
 riority  over  the  rest ;  but  a  great  change  has  happened,  especially 
 in  that  part  of  it  called  Turkey,  which  has  lost  its  ancient  splendor, 
 and  from  the  most  populous  and  best  cultivated  spots  in  Asia,  is 
 become  almost  a  wild  and  uncultivated  desert. 
 
 Extent.']  This  division  of  the  earth  extends  from  the  Helles- 
 pont, the  most  westerly  point,  which  is  in  about  Ion.  26  E.  to  East 
 Cape,  in  about  190  degrees  E.  Ion.  from  London,  being  164  de- 
 grees of  longitude,  or  taking  the  degree  at  a  medial  latitude, 
 7583  miles  in  length.  In  breadth  it  is  5250  miles,  from  the  south- 
 ern cape  of  Malacca,  in  N.  lat.  2  to  cape  Cevero  Vostochnoi,  in 
 the  Arctic  Ocean,  N.  lat.  77. 
 
 Of  this  extensive  portion  of  the  world,  the  ancients  entertained 
 very  imperfect  ideas  ;  and  in  fact  the  discovery  of  this  great  divi- 
 sion of  the  world  may  be  said  to  have  commenced  with  the  travels 
 of  Marco  Polo,  the  Venetian,  m  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century  : 
 and  it  was  not  completed,  with  regard  to  the  eastern  extremities, 
 iill  the  recent  travels  through  Siberia  and  the  other  Asiatic  do- 
 minions of  Russia,  and  the  voyages  of  Beering,  Cook,  and  La  Pe- 
 rouse.  It  is  now  well  known  that  Asia  is  limited,  on  the  east,  by 
 a  strait  v/hich  divides  it  from  America,  and  which,  in  honour  of 
 the  discoverer,  is  called  Beering's  Strait.  The  northern  and 
 southern  boundaries  are  the  Arctic  and  Indian  oceans,  in  which 
 last  many  large  islands,  particularly  that  of  New  Holland,  now 
 more  classically  and  properly  styled  Australasia,  affords  a  vast  ad- 
 ditional extent  to  this  quarter  of  tlie  globe.  The  western  limits 
 of  Asia  have  already  been  defined. 
 
 Original  Fo/iuladon.']  The  population  of  Asia  is  by  all  anthors 
 allowed  to  be  wholly  primitive  and  original  ;  if  we  except  that  of 
 the  Techuks  or  Tchuktchi,  who,  by  the  Russian  travellers,  and 
 Mr.  Tooke,  are  supposed  to  have  passed  from  the  opposite  coast 
 of  America.  A  few  colonies  have  migrated  from  Russia  to  the 
 northern  parts,  as  far  as  the  sea  of  Kamchatka  ;  and  there  are  well 
 known  European  settlements  in  Hindostan  and  the  isles  to  the  S. 
 E. ;  but  the  first  serious  attempt  to  colonize,  what  is  esteemed  a 
 part  of  Asia,  was  the  recent  settlement  at  Port  Jackson.  With 
 these  and  other  trifling  exceptions  Asia  presents  a  prodigious 
 original  population,  as  may  be  judged  from  the  following  table, 
 which  will  be  found  more  clear  than  any  prolix  discussion  on  tlie 
 subject. 
 
 LINNiEAN  TABLE  OF  THE  NATIONS  AND  LANGUAGES  IN  ASIA. 
 Ordo.  Genus.  Species. 
 
 {Assyrians.  Chaldee. 
 
 Arabians.  Hebrew,  &c. 
 
 Egyptians, 
 r  Persians.  Armenians,* 
 
 II.         Scythians.     <  Scythians,intra  et  ex- 
 (_     tra  Imaum,  &c. 
 
 *  The  Pai'sl  and  Zend  are  cognate  with  the  Gothic,  Greek,  Latin,  according  to  Sir 
 William  Jones,  Indian  Dissert,  vol.  j.  fi.  206.  The  Pehla\i  is  Assyrian  or  Chaldaic 
 Id.  187,  188,  -206. 
 
436 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 Sarmats. 
 
 Genus. 
 5  Medes. 
 I  Parthians. 
 
 Hindoos. 
 
 C  Chinese. 
 (Japanese. 
 
 SpecicFii 
 
 Georgians. 
 Circassians. 
 Northern  and  South- 
 ern, &c. 
 
 Barbaric  Motions  from  north  to  south,  and  according  to  the  degrees 
 of  barbarism. 
 
 vr. 
 
 Samoieds. 
 
 Ostiacs,  Yurals, 
 
 Sec. 
 
 VII, 
 
 Yakuts. 
 
 Yukagirs. 
 
 (Expelled  Tartars,  ac- 
 cording to    Tooke 
 and  Lesseps.Y 
 
 VIII. 
 
 Koriacs. 
 
 Techuks  orTchuktchi.  \ 
 
 IX. 
 
 Kamchadals, 
 
 Kurillians. 
 
 § 
 
 X. 
 
 Mandshurs.or  ^ 
 
 (Ruling  people  in 
 
 Tunguses. 
 
 China.) 
 
 XI. 
 
 Monguls. 
 
 Kalmucs. 
 
 Soongars. 
 Tonguts. 
 Burats,  &c. 
 
 XII. 
 
 Tartars,  or 
 
 Turks. 
 
 Nogays. 
 
 Huns.ry 
 
 Khasars. 
 
 Uzes. 
 
 Siberians. 
 
 Bashkirs. 
 
 KirguseS  or  Kaizacks.^ 
 
 Teleuts. 
 
 ■f  These  have  a  Tartaric  form  and  face :  they  ape  probably  highly  civilized  Tartars, 
 Monguls,  or  Mandshurs. 
 
 \  From  the  oi)posite  coast  of  America.  Tookc's  Kussia.  The  Yukagirs  are  a  tribe 
 of  the  Yakuts  (around  Yakutsk),  aud  both  are  expelled  Tai'tars.  Tooke's  View,  ii. 
 80.     Lesseps,ii.  312. 
 
 §  These  resemble  the  Japanese. 
 
 ^  After  the  de.struction  of  Attila's  swarms,  and  the  effects  of  unfortunate  inroads, 
 the  Huns  became  subject  to  the  Monguls,  who,  under  Zingis,  or  Genghiz  Khan,  Ti- 
 mur,  &c.  constituted  the  supreme  nation  in  Asia. 
 
 The  great  share  of  population  which  Europe  has  received  from  Asia,  will  appea" 
 from  the  following  little  table  : 
 
 PRIMEVAL    INHABITANTS. 
 
 Oi-do. 
 
 Celts. 
 
 Genus, 
 
 C  Irish. 
 j  Welch. 
 
 II. 
 
 111. 
 
 W'. 
 
 Fins  (chief  godYum- 
 viula.J 
 
 Or-do. 
 Scythians,  Or  Gk)ths 
 C  Odin.  J 
 
 Sarmats  or  Slavons 
 fPerun.J 
 
 Armorican. 
 r-Finlanders. 
 N  Esthonians. 
 ^  Laplanders. 
 *- Hungarians. 
 
 COLONIES   FK6M    ASIA. 
 
 Genus. 
 ^Icelanders,  Norwegians. 
 ) Swedes,  Danes. 
 ^Germans. 
 
 Knglish. 
 
 Pofes. 
 
 f  P, 
 Ck 
 
 S/>eci<t, 
 Erse,  Manks. 
 Cornish. 
 
 Permians,  or  Biarmians. 
 
 Livonians. 
 
 Votiacs  and  Chermisses. 
 
 Voguls  and  Ostiacs. 
 
 Species. 
 
 Swiss,  F/isic. 
 Flemish,  Dutch.. 
 Heruli. 
 Vendi. 
 Leltes. 
 
 (.ii»sians. 
 Kossacs. 
 
 The  inhabitants  of  France,  Italy,  and  Sp.iin  are  also  of  Asiatic  origin;  and  speak 
 corrupted  Roman,  which,  like  the  Greek,  is  a  polished  dialect  of  the  Gothic,  according 
 to  Sir  William  Jones  and  other  able  antiquaries.  The  Heruli,  Wends,  an(l  Leltes, 
 used  mixed  and  imperfect  dialects  of  the  Slavonic.    Critical  Review,  vol.  xxvii.  p.  129. 
 
ASIA.  43? 
 
 Besides  these  iiumei'ous  original  nations,  the  Malays  ajnd  Asiat- 
 ic islanders  constitute  another  large  and  distinct  class  of  mankind, 
 with  a  peculiar  speech,  in  the  south  of  the  extensive  continent' of 
 Asia. 
 
 Divisio7is.1  Though  Pinkerton's  arrangemdit  will  be  folJowed 
 in  the  description  of  the  different  parts  of  Asia,  it  will  be  usefnl 
 here  to  insert  liassel's  Table  of  Divisions,  which  follows. 
 
 >^  . 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 «   4* 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 ."ti  i- 
 
 o 
 
 9. 
 
 5^ 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 f^*^ 
 
 00 
 
 CM 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o    . 
 
 m 
 
 o_  ^ 
 
 O     M 
 
 a> 
 
 •^  t-t 
 
 o"  5 
 o  2 
 
 §1 
 
 a 
 
 O   s 
 
 O    3 
 
 !m 
 
 o 
 
 (n 
 
 '" 
 
 r3 
 
 o  o  o  o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 -o  a 
 
 o  o  o  o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o      * 
 
 o  o  o^o^ 
 
 o 
 
 o^ 
 
 o^ 
 
 q^ 
 
 q^ 
 
 •~  bCv 
 
 cT  cT  o^o" 
 
 o 
 
 cT 
 
 Q 
 
 o" 
 
 o 
 
 •§-■«  ^ 
 
 o  m  o  O 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 v> 
 
 5  u  "^i  B 
 
 0^:^0   0^ 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 q^ 
 
 o 
 
 c*^ 
 
 o  O  o  « 
 
 cTcT  co'co' 
 
 o 
 
 ■*^ 
 
 fS 
 
 CT 
 
 ^§SS 
 
 -<            CO 
 
 00 
 
 c* 
 
 O  •*  "ImCN  i^ 
 
 c^ 
 
 b-  o  o> 
 
 h- 
 
 CO  o  o» 
 
 •^ 
 
 in 
 
 o>  CO 
 
 CO 
 
 b- 
 
 eo  O 
 
 o 
 
 IJ§§ 
 
 •^    CO    -<    <^    '- 
 
 >n 
 
 VO  t^   <0 
 
 t> 
 
 00   Ti.  k„ 
 
 - 
 
 >n 
 
 ■<*  t^ 
 
 '~' 
 
 CO 
 
 <o 
 
 (N  — 
 
 c* 
 
 o  o  o  o  o 
 
 o 
 
 o  o  o 
 
 o 
 
 o  o  o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o  o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o  o 
 
 o 
 
 j" 
 
 o  o  o  o  o 
 
 o 
 
 o  o  o 
 
 o 
 
 o  o  o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o  o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o  o 
 
 o 
 
 o  o  o  o  o 
 
 o 
 
 o  o  o 
 
 o 
 
 o  o^q^ 
 
 o^ 
 
 o^ 
 
 q^o 
 
 q 
 
 q^ 
 
 q 
 
 q^  q. 
 
 q^ 
 
 CS 
 
 o  o  o  o  o 
 
 o 
 
 O  00  »n 
 
 CO 
 
 cs'  cTcT 
 
 6~ 
 
 o 
 
 o^o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 «r  cT 
 
 cT 
 
 "3 
 
 o  o  o  o  o 
 
 o 
 
 O   >o  t~ 
 
 Ti< 
 
 O   O    v> 
 
 «o 
 
 ■* 
 
 o  o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 t-  o 
 
 o 
 
 >o  O  O  O   >r) 
 
 o 
 
 O   00   O 
 
 CO 
 
 -H   o 
 
 °x  9x 
 
 q^ 
 
 q 
 
 q 
 
 <^  q. 
 
 Vi 
 
 00   O   CO   CN   — 
 
 00 
 
 O  00  m 
 
 00 
 
 co'hT 
 
 ^H 
 
 CO 
 
 cf 
 
 oo"  lo 
 
 ■*" 
 
 00  40        ^ 
 
 —  b.  Tj. 
 
 c« 
 
 C»  'I 
 
 —  -^ 
 
 o  <o  o  o  o 
 
 o 
 
 o  o  o 
 
 o 
 
 O    O    T) 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 o  o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o  o 
 
 o 
 
 c< 
 
 o  -*  o  o  o 
 
 o 
 
 o  o  o 
 
 o 
 
 O  O  CO 
 
 CO 
 
 (N 
 
 o  o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o  o 
 
 o 
 
 «2  ri 
 
 O  IT)  o  o  o 
 
 o 
 
 O   in  O 
 
 o 
 
 <N    00    «3 
 
 ■* 
 
 J> 
 
 o  o 
 
 »f) 
 
 CO^ 
 
 q^ 
 
 q  '^ 
 
 q^ 
 
 's.-S 
 
 r\      ^ 
 
 *^      ^ 
 
 O   «N    CT>   C   00 
 
 "* 
 
 »o  ao  -H 
 
 V5 
 
 ^  -^ 
 
 O   CO 
 
 CN 
 
 ,-^ 
 
 cT 
 
 00  cn" 
 
 «o 
 
 4^ 
 
 »0    00    OO  b-    00 
 
 V) 
 
 •O    CN    >0 
 
 T) 
 
 0-.    CO 
 
 ■* 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 O    "> 
 
 b- 
 
 MJ^l-j^  -^CO 
 
 ■"■ 
 
 l-H    -^  U3 
 
 CO 
 
 •*  CM 
 
 00  eo 
 
 ■*  p^  cr 
 
 •^ 
 
 r^/^o 
 
 a 
 
 b 
 
 p 
 
 O 
 
 G 
 
 C/3 
 
 «c/5 
 
 .S' 
 
 :z; 
 
 "i2 
 
 5jjD  6C 
 
 ^     ;2 
 
 CO    « 
 
 C4 
 
 o 
 
 o  t;^ 
 
 s     § 
 
 CO 
 
 t;  S  «^ 
 
 So 
 
 o 
 
 tn 
 
 22  <3 
 o 
 
 .~   <U    t.    C  j_  {_    tn 
 
 "3    W  "^ 
 
 l-S  §  s 
 
 l£  o  O 
 h   o   u    t" 
 
 Z   cu 
 
 6 
 
 9i 
 
 < 
 
 w 
 
 1-4 
 
 5  o 
 
 1 
 
 rt   C   2   4)    fcri  fccT^   M)  B  -rj 
 
 J3 
 
 •S  rt  BS  S  S 
 
 cS   o    «;  .3   nS 
 
 q  O  c^  cq  "cH 
 
 o 
 
 CIS 
 
 t 
 
 en 
 
 < 
 
 5S  S 
 
 a;  o  s 
 
 '-'  cq  !/> 
 
 W  -«  CI  CO  -i" 
 
 in  vO 
 
 c^< 
 
 CO  'i'  \n 
 
 VD 
 
 N. 
 
 •— < 
 
 CN 
 
 to 
 
 ■* 
 
 >■" 
 
 CM 
 
a:>s 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 o^ 
 cT 
 
 o 
 
 ^ 
 
 o 
 o    . 
 
 02 
 
 o  ^ 
 o  ~ 
 xn  3 
 
 ^-©•H 
 
 0  0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0  0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0  0 
 
 0 
 
 0  0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0  0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0  0 
 
 0 
 
 5  -^  « 
 
 .2   Mo 
 
 0  0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0  0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0  0 
 
 0, 
 
 0  «o 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0  0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0  0 
 
 <r>* 
 
 -^■f.-^?, 
 
 0  -- 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 2  ° 
 
 00 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0  0 
 
 o» 
 
 0  o> 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 to  0 
 
 •^ 
 
 ««s|3 
 
 (N 
 
 CO 
 
 eo 
 
 0  c* 
 
 '* 
 
 CO 
 
 o\ 
 
 CO  0 
 
 ■<* 
 
 f^s^S 
 
 '-• 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 J=  C  o* 
 
 e»lM 
 
 ^  J!  0 
 
 «  CT> 
 
 to 
 
 0 
 
 00 
 
 0  "h 
 
 eo 
 
 0 
 
 CO  01  0  eo  0 
 
 eo 
 
 ^ 
 
 S 
 
 CO  '- 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 CO  -^ 
 
 ^     ^              C<1    r-» 
 
 (7« 
 
 0   0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0  0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 00000 
 
 0 
 
 <3 
 
 0 
 
 0   0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0  0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 00000 
 
 0 
 
 o_q^ 
 
 <^ 
 
 0 
 
 0^ 
 
 00 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 00000 
 
 0 
 
 *N 
 
 4S 
 
 cTo" 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 cTrf 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 00000 
 
 03 
 
 1. 
 
 0  b- 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0   b- 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0  0  0  a>  0 
 
 o* 
 
 o^o» 
 
 c» 
 
 CO 
 
 CM 
 
 O^C^ 
 
 0 
 
 CO 
 
 00000 
 
 0 
 
 *<l 
 
 c2 
 
 eo" 
 
 •-< 
 
 e<j 
 
 »n  oT 
 
 cT 
 
 ff<  a>  CO  — '  0 
 
 0 
 
 r-H 
 
 CN   — '           —   -H 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 0  0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0     0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 00000 
 
 0 
 
 0  0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0     0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 00000 
 
 0 
 
 0    CO 
 
 tO^ 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 00 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 >n  0  in  0  0 
 
 0^ 
 
 c  2 
 
 cTcT 
 
 CO* 
 
 00^ 
 
 C^  c^ 
 
 »o 
 
 cT 
 
 0   C?  CN   N   -^ 
 
 CO 
 
 o>  m 
 
 CO 
 
 c^ 
 
 P-M 
 
 00  t- 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 0    C-*    00    CO    CTi 
 
 e< 
 
 ^ 
 
 t£> 
 
 CO  00  -s?  »n  o> 
 
 .0 
 
 vrVwo 
 
 O 
 
 g 
 
 c3  _ 
 
 o  5  2 
 
 <U    rt    C 
 
 3  ,-<>i 
 
 Wet" 
 S  .^  ^ 
 
 "S  "o  "co  -^  ►^    g 
 
 CW      M 
 
 «   rt  e  o 
 
 eo  •>*  V5  «0 
 
 .JJ  .r;    cS    rt    pj 
 
 -^   g   U   o  'JH 
 
 *-■  s  H  H  ;^  dh  cw  ^ 
 
 ro/'-.^ru^^ 
 
 ■5  «^ 
 
 '•.'Jh  0)  '*< 
 
 *    S:  CJ    ® 
 
 H    H  O    3 
 
 5  < 
 
 jv.  00  oi  o  ^  c>»    . !_;  1 
 
 ;^(^^ 
 
 PC 
 
 w   Jj  ^ 
 
 fl- a?? 
 
 (/3     (U 
 
 X 
 
 t>"   »>■  »^  »^  HH 
 
 *  This  is  the  German  name,  ■wliich  we  cannot  translate, 
 t  Fabri,  14,020,000  ;  Teropleman,  14,050,000  ;  Montelle,  1 7.400,000. 
 i  Volney,  240,000,000  ;    Busehins,  300,000,000  ;    Gatterez,  500,000,000  ,    busS"- 
 m'llch,  650,000,000. 
 
ASlA.  439 
 
 Progressive  Geography.']  The  progressive  geography  of  this 
 <juarter  of  the  globe  might  afford  an  important  and  interesting 
 subject  of  discussion,  if  treated  at  due  length,  as  embracing  the 
 various  discoveries  which,  at  long  intervals  of  time,  successively- 
 disclosed  its  vast  extent.  The  most  authentic  information  con- 
 cerning the  knowledge  of  the  ancients,  is  to  be  found  in  the  ge- 
 ography of  Ptolemy  ;  but  modern  commentators  differ  in  the  elu- 
 cidation of  his  text ;  however,  it  appears  probable  that  not  above 
 one  quarter  of  Asia  was  known  to  the  ancients,  and  this  knowledge 
 was  little  increased  till  Marco  Polo,  whose  travels  became  well 
 known  in  Europe  in  the  beginning  of  the  14th  century,  established 
 a  memorable  epoch  in  geography,  by  passing  to  China,  and  dis- 
 closing the  extent  of  that  country,  the  isiands  of  Japan,  and  a  faint 
 intelligence  of  other  regions,  illustrated  and  confirmed  by  recent 
 accounts.  The  wide  conquests  of  the  famous  Zingis,  in  the  be- 
 ginning of  the  1 3th  century,  first  opened  the  discovery  of  the 
 distant  parts  of  Asia,  the  Monguls,  whose  sovereign  he  was,  being 
 •situated  to  the  east  of  the  Huns,  who  had  before  diffused  terror 
 over  Europe.  The  first  seat  of  the  Monguls  was  in  the  moun- 
 tains, which  give  source  to  the  river  Oiion  ;  and  at  a  short  dis- 
 tance to  the  S.  W.  was  Kara-kum,  the  first  capital  of  the  Mongul 
 empire.  The  victories  of  Zingis  extended  from  Cathay,  or  the 
 northern  part  of  China,  to  the  river  Indus  ;  and  his  successors  ex- 
 tended them  over  Russia,  while  their  inroads  reach  Hungary  and 
 Germany.  This  widely  diffused  power  of  the  Monguls  naturally- 
 excited  au  attention  and  curiosity,  never  stimulated  by  a  number 
 of  petty  barbarous  tribes;  and  at  the  same  time  facilitated  the 
 progress  of  the  traveller,  who,  as  in  Africa  at  present,  had  been 
 formerly  impeded  by  the  enmities  of  diminutive  potentates.  By 
 force  of  arms  the  Monguls  also  first  opened  the  obscure  recesses 
 of  Siberia.  Sheibani  Khan,  A.  D.  1242,  led  a  horde  of  15,000 
 families  into  these  northern  I'egions,  and  his  descendants  reigned 
 at  Tobolskoy  above  three  centuries,  till  the  Russian  conquest.* 
 Two  European  travellers,  Carpini  and  Rubruquis,  were  commis- 
 sioned to  inspect  the  power  and  resources  of  the  new  empire  of 
 the  Monguls  ;  the  latter  found  at  Kara-kum  a  Parisian  goldsmith, 
 employed  in  the  service  of  the  khan  ;  and  by  Carpini's  relation  it 
 appears,  that  from  their  brethren  in  Siberia,  the  Monguls  had  re- 
 reived  some  intelligence  concerning  the  Samoieds. 
 
 Thus  the  discovery  of  Asia,  which  had  been  nearly  dormant 
 since  the  time  of  Ptolemy,  began  to  revive  in  the  1 3th  centuiy. 
 Yet  after  the  publication  of  Marco  Polo's  travels,  little  was  done 
 for  two  centuries  ;  and  the  authenticity  of  his  accounts  even  be- 
 gan to  be  questioned.  One  man,  indeed,  of  great  mental  powers, 
 was  impressed  with  their  veracity,  and  in  consequence  accom- 
 plished a  memorable  enterprize.  This  was  Christopher  Colum- 
 bus, who  was  led  by  the  relation  of  Polo  to  conceive  that,  as  Asia 
 extended  so  far  to  the  east,  its  shores  might  be  reached  by  a  short 
 tlayigation  from  the  Avestern  extremity  of  Europe.     In  this  eno- 
 
 *  Gibbon,  xi.  42'5. 
 
440  ASIA. 
 
 neous  idea,  when  that  great  man  discovered  the  islands,  now  call- 
 ed the  West  Indies,  he  thought  that  he  had  arrived  at  the  Zipan- 
 go  of  Polo,  or  Japan  :  and  thus  the  name  of  India  was  absurdly- 
 bestowed  on  those  new  regions. 
 
 After  the  discovery  of  America  and  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
 the  maritime  parts  and  islands  of  Asia  were  successively  disclos- 
 ed. Yet  the  recent  voyages  of  the  Russian  navigat6rs,  of  the  im- 
 mortal Cook,  and  of  the  unfortunate  La  Pcrouse,  evince  that 
 much  remained  to  be  done  ;  and  concerning  the  interior  of  Sibe- 
 ria, scai'cely  any  solid  information  arose,  till  Peter  the  Great,  af- 
 ter the  battle  of  Pultowa,  sent  many  Swedish  prisoners  into  that 
 region,  and  Strahlenberg,  one  of  the  officers,  published  an  account 
 of  Siberia.  This  knowledge  was  greatly  improved  and  increased 
 by  the  well  known  genius  of  Pallas,  and  others.  Yet  our  knowl- 
 edge of  Asia  is  far  from  being  perfect,  especially  in  respect  to 
 Daouria,  and  other  regions  near  the  confines  between  the  Russian 
 and  Chinese  empires;  not  to  mention  central  Asia  in  general,  Ti- 
 bet, and  some  more  southern  regions,  nor  had  even  the  geogra- 
 phy of  Hindostan  been  treated  with  tolerable  accuracy  till  IVIajor 
 Rennell  published  his  excellent  map  and  memoir.  It  is  alnnosf 
 unnecessary  to  remind  the  reader  of  the  recent  discoveries  to  the 
 south  of  Asia,  in  v/hich  the  interior,  and  southern  coast  of  New 
 Holland,  remain  to  be  explored  ;  with  other  defects  of  Smaller 
 consequence. 
 
 The  principal  seas,  bays,  straits,  gulfs,  channels,  lakes,  moun- 
 t-ains,  and  deserts,  on  the  Eastern  Continent,  have  already  been 
 described.* 
 
 Governjjients.^  The  Asiatic  governments  are  almost  univer- 
 sally despotic,  and  the  very  idea  of  a  commonwealth  seems  to  be 
 unknown.  The  mildest  systems  are  perhaps  those  found  in  Ara- 
 bia. 
 
 Arrangement.']  The  Turkish  empire  in  Asia  constitutes  a  nat- 
 ural and  easy  transition  from  the  description  of  Europe  ;  and  the 
 Russian  em.pire,  though  in  population  far  inferior,  yet  in  military 
 and  political  force  transcends  that  of  China. 
 
 From  the  Russian  empire  in  Asia  the  transition  is  easy  to  that 
 of  China,  a  bordering  state  :  after  which  shall  be  described  Japan, 
 and  a  new  gi-eat  power,  the  Birman  empire.  Hindostan  and  Per- 
 sia being  now  di\  ided  into  several  distinct  sovereignties,  and  Ara- 
 bia containing  many  independent  states,  the  scale  of  political  im- 
 portance becomes  transitive  and  indistinct  ;  and  may  justly  yield 
 in  such  cases  to  mere  geographical  ai-rangement.  Hence  the 
 smaller  states  of  India  beyond  the  Ganges,  or  between  Hindostan 
 and  China,  will  follow  the  Birman  empire,  to  which,  or  to  China, 
 they  may  perhaps  soon  be  subjected.  A  western  progress  leads 
 to  Hindostan,  Persia,  and  Arabia  :  and  a  short  account  of  the  va- 
 rious interesting  and  important  islands  in  the  Indian  and  in  the 
 Pacifrc  oceans,  will  close  this  department  of  the  work. 
 
 *  P.  10  to  25. 
 
441 
 
 TURKEY  IN  ASIA. 
 
 CHAPTER  I. 
 HISTORICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 EXTENT  AND  BOUNDARIES,  DIVISIONS,  ORIGINAL  POPULATION, 
 HISTORICAL  EPOCHS,  ANTIQUITIES,  POPULATION,  MANNERS  AND 
 CUSTOMS,  LANGUAGES,  LITERATURE,  EDUCATION,  UNIVERSI- 
 TIES, CITIES  AND  TOWNS,  EDIFICES,  ROADS,  INLAND  NAVIGA- 
 TION,   MANUFACTURES     AND     COMMERCE. 
 
 Extent^)^  THIS  region  extends  from  the  shores  of 
 the  Archipelago,  to  the  confines  of  Persia  ;  a  space  of  about  J050 
 miles.  The  boundaries  towards  Persia  are  rather  ideal  than  nat- 
 ural, though  somewhat  marked  by  the  mountains  of  Ararat  and 
 Elwend.  In  the  north,  the  Turkish  territories  are  now  divided 
 from  the  Russian  by  the  river  Cuban,  and  the  chain  of  Caucasus  ; 
 in  the  south  they  extend  to  the  junction  of  the  Tigris  and  the  Eu- 
 phrates, which  last  river,  for  a  considerable  space,  divides  the 
 Turkish  possessions  from  those  of  the  Arabs.  Fi'om  the  river 
 Cuban  to  the  junction  cf  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  is  about  II 00 
 miles. 
 
 Divisions.']^  This  extensive  territory,  which  in  itself  would  con- 
 stitute an  empire,  could  it  resume  its  former  population,  is  divid- 
 ed into  nine  or  ten  provinces.  JVatolia,  the  most  westerll^,  is  fol- 
 loAved  by  Karaman  in  the  south,  and  Roam  in  the  north-east.  To 
 the  north  of  Armenia  are  Guria^  or  Gziriel,  Mingrelia.  and  the  Abk- 
 has  of  Caucasus,  the  ancient  Circassians.  Armenia  is  also  styled  ' 
 Turcomania  ;  to  the  south  of  Avhich  are  Kurdista?i,  and  Irak  Arabi, 
 a  part  of  ancient  Persia  around  the  celebrated  capital,  Bagdad. 
 The  ancient  Mesopotamia,  between  the  Tigris  and  the  Euphra- 
 tes, now  partly  coi'responds  with  the  province  of  .^/,§-ez/ra  ,•  and  the 
 classical  name  of  Syria,  or  Soria,  is  still  allotted  to  the  celebr^jted 
 countries  along  the  eastern  exti'emities  of  the  Mediterranean. 
 Some  of  these  provinces  are  of  comparatively  recent  acquisition  ; 
 Bagdad  having  belonged  to  Persia  till  1638;  Avhile  on  the  con- 
 trary Erivan,  reconquered  by  the  Persians  in  1635,  has  remained 
 free  from  the  Turkish  domination. 
 
 These  provinces  are  subdivided  into  governments,  arbitrarily 
 administered  by  pashas. 
 
 Original  Pofiulation.~\  The  original  population  of  these  regions 
 consisted  chiefly  of  Scythian  nations,  mingled  with  a  few  Assyri- 
 ans from  the  south.  At  present  the  ruling  language  is  the  Turk- 
 ish, next  to  which  may  be  placed  the  modern  Greek  ;  but  the 
 Arabic,  Syrian,  Persian,  and  Armenian,  with  various  dialects  used 
 by  the  tribes  on  the  Black  Sea,  indicate  the  diversity  of  popula- 
 tion, 
 
 VOL.  II.  56 
 
Ui  TURKEY  IN  ASIA. 
 
 Historical  jE/iochs.']  The  chief  epochs  of  Turkish  history  iiave 
 already  been  mentioned,  in  describing  their  European  possessions. 
 Armenia  and  Georgia  were  subdued  by  the  Turks  in  the  1 1th 
 century,  and  the  whole  of  Asia  Minor  rapidly  followed.  Their 
 kingdom  of  Roum  extended  from  the  Euphrates  to  Constantino- 
 ple, and  from  the  Black  Sea  to  the  confines  of  Syria.  Successive 
 warlike  princes  acquired  additional  territory  from  the  Mamelukes 
 of  Egypt  and  the  Persians.  Syria,  formerly  attached  to  Egypt, 
 was  conquered  by  Selim  II.  in  1516;  Tauris  and  Diarbekr,  which 
 last  had  formerly  belonged  to  Persia,  were  subdued  by  the  same 
 monarch  ;  and  in  1589,  Abbas,  the  great  sovereign  of  Persia,  was 
 obliged  to  yield  three  provinces  to  the  Ottomans  ;  and  Bagdad,  as 
 already  mentioned,  with  the  surrounding  province  of  Irak  Arabi, 
 became  subject  to  the  Turks  in  1638.  The  present  limits  seem 
 to  have  been  fixed  by  the  treaty  between  the  Porte  and  Persia, 
 1736,  since  which  period  the  Turks  have  been  chiefly  occupied  in 
 their  own  defence  against  the  Russians  ;  but  their  ascendancy- 
 over  Persia  had  been  such,  that  in  1727  they  had  acquired  the  ter- 
 ritory from  Erivan  to  Tauris,  or  Tebriz,  and  thence  to  Hamadan, 
 a  boundary  Avhich  seems  indeed  more  precisely  marked  by  nature 
 than  the  present. 
 
 Antiquities.~\  The  antiquities  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  once  the  chos- 
 en seat  of  the  arts,  are  numerous  and  important.  The  most 
 splendid  ruins  are  those  of  Palmyra,  or  Tadmor,  in  the  desert, 
 about  150  miles  to  the  S.  E.  of  Aleppo,  at  the  northern  extremity 
 of  the  sandy  wastes  of  Arabia. 
 
 Balbec,  the  ancient  Heliopolis,  is  about  50  miles  N.  W.  of  Da- 
 mascus, the  most  remarkable  ruin  being  that  of  a  temple,  sup- 
 posed to  have  been  dedicated  to  the  sun. 
 
 Recent  investigation  has  disclosed  another  remarkable  scene  of 
 antiquities,  in  the  site  and  celebrated  plain  of  Troy.* 
 
 Pojndaiio7i7\  l  he  Turkish  empire  in  Asia  is  estimated  by  Pin- 
 kerton  at  470,400  square  miles  ;  and  the  population  at  ten  mil- 
 lions ;  which,  allowing  eight  for  the  European  part,  will  rendev 
 the  total  1 8,000,000. t  Geographers  have,  contrary  to  the  united 
 voice  of  travellers,  considered  Egypt  as  a  Turkish  province  ;  while 
 in  fact  it  was  only  occasionally  tributary,  and  was  subject  to  the 
 military  aristocracy  of  the  Beys.  Some  of  the  mai'itime  Mahom- 
 etan powers  have  likewise  assisted  the  Porte  with  ships  in  time 
 of  war  ;  but  cannot  with  any  justice  be  regarded  as  subject  to  the 
 Ottoman  sceptre.  The  populatiori  of  these  African  states  is 
 therefore  foreign  to  the  present  consideration. 
 
 In  the  Caucasian  mountains,  not  far  from  the  Black  Sea,  is  a 
 people  called  Sonnas,  from  their  country  of  this  name,  amounting 
 to  about  200,000  souls,  inhabiting  60  villages,  some  of  which  arc 
 towns  of  900  houses.     These  people  acknowledge  Jesus  Christ  to 
 
 **  See  MorriU's  vimlicalion  of  Homer,  kc.  17'J8,  4lo  ;  Dallaway's  Constantinople, 
 and  Ualzell's  U-ansIatiou  f)r<Jlievalier's  memoir. 
 
 f  llassLl  estimates  the  square  miles  at  5.33,000,  and  the  population  at  11,000,000, 
 and  Montelle  and  iSIalte,  at  13,600,000.  But  both  tliese  geogi-aphers  include  Egypt 
 iu  their  calculations,  -which  accounts  for  the  diflbrence. 
 
TURKEY  IN  ASIA.  443 
 
 be  their  only  King  and  Saviour.  They  pray  that  God  would  bless 
 them  for  Christ's  sake,  observe  the  sabbath,  have  priests  who  bap- 
 tize their  children,  and  administer  the  sacrament  of  the  supper. 
 They  have  many  church  books,  but  know  not  the  meaning  of  them. 
 They  believe  in  a  future  judgment.  They  are  said,  some  of  them, 
 to  labor  under  deep  convictions  of  sin,  and  to  pray  night  and  day. 
 They  consider  their  preservation  and  the  preservation  of  Chris- 
 tianity among  them  as  a  miracle.  They  inoculate  their  children 
 for  the  small  pox  ;  have  gardens  enclosed  with  stone  walls,  and 
 abundance  of  fruit,  and  live  in  harmony  and  comfoi't.* 
 
 Manners  and  Customs.  See  Turkey  in  Europe.^  The  laxity  of 
 the  government  renders  travelling  in  Asia  Minor  very  unsafe,  and 
 has  proved  a  great  impediment  to  any  exact  geographical  knowl- 
 edge of  these  regions.  Under  a  prudent  government  the  wan- 
 dering hordes  of  Turcomans  and  Kurds  would  be  expelled  ;  and 
 regular  troops  and  garrisons  maintained  on  the  frontiers  ;  whence 
 industry  and  the  arts  might  again  visit  this  classical  territory. 
 
 Cities  a7id  Tonvns.']  The  capital  of  the  Turkish  empire  has 
 been  already  described.  Next  in  dignity  and  importance  is  the 
 city  of  Haleb,  or  Aleppo,  supposed  to  contain  about  250,000  in- 
 habitants. This  city  is  constructed  with  some  elegance,  and  the 
 tall  cypress  trees,  contrasted  with  the  white  minai'ets  of  numerous 
 mosques,  give  it  a  most  picturesque  appearance.f  The  buildings 
 and  population  seem  to  have  been  on  the  increase,  but  the  adja- 
 cent villages  are  deserted.  The  chief  languages  are  the  Turkish 
 and  Arabic.  The  manufactures  of  silk  and  cotton  are  in  a  flour- 
 ishing condition,  and  large  caravans  frequently  arrive  from  Bag- 
 dad and  Bassora,  charged  with  the  products  of  Persia  and  India  ; 
 Consuls  from  various  European  powers  reside  here,  to  attend  the 
 interests  of  the  I'espective  nations. 
 
 Damascus  is  supposed  to  contain  about  180,000  souls.  It  was 
 formerly  celebrated  for  the  manufacture  of  sabres,  which  seem  to 
 have  been  constructed  by  a  method  now  lost,  of  alternate  thin  lay- 
 ers of  iron  and  steel,  so  as  to  bend  even  to  the  hilt  without  break- 
 ing, while  the  edge  would  divide  the  firmest  mail.  AVhen  Timur 
 subdued  Syria,  about  the  beginning  of  the  15th  century,  he  ordered 
 all  the  artists  in  steel  to  migx-ate  into  Persia.  The  manufactures 
 now  consist  of  silk  and  cotton,  and  excellent  soap.  From  the 
 Mediterranean  are  impoi'ted  metals  and  broadcloths  :  and  the 
 caravans  of  Bagdad  bring  Persian  and  Indian  articles.  This  city 
 also  increases,  by  the  gradual  depopulation  of  the  villages  and 
 country,  which  last  always  presents  the  chief  symptoms  of  na- 
 tional prosperity,  or  decline.  The  Pashalik  of  Damascus  is  es- 
 teemed the  first  in  Asia  ;  and  the  office  of  Pasha  has,  in  the  de- 
 cline of  the  Turkish  empire,  become  in  some  measure  hereditary, 
 with  absolute  power  of  life  and  death,  and  without  any  appeal. 
 
 Smyrna  may  be  regarded  as  the  third  city  in  Asiatic  Turkey, 
 containing  about  140,000  souls.     This  flourishing  seat  of  Euro- 
 
 *  Brunton's  Letter,  Feb.  1806. 
 
 t  Kussel's  Aleppo.    Browne,  384,  &'c. 
 
444  TURKEY  IN  ASIA; 
 
 pean  cominerce,  and  chief  mart  of  the  Levant  trade,  is  said  to  have 
 been  founded  by  Alexander  the  Great,  eminently  distinguished 
 from  all  other  conquerors  by  the  foundation,  and  not  the  destruc- 
 tion of  cities.  In  the  wars  between  the  Turks  and  the  Greeks, 
 Smyrna  sunk  into  great  decline  ;  and  was  taken  with  vast  slaugh- 
 ter, by  Timur,  in  1402.  The  excellence  of  the  haven  renders 
 Smyrna  the  centre  of  all  the  traffic  of  Asia  Minor  ;  but  the  fre- 
 quent visits  of  the  pestilence  greatly  impede  its  prosperity.*  It 
 has  been  observed  that  the  sands  in  the  bay  of  Smyrna  gradually 
 increase,  and  may  probably  in  time  impede  the  Commerce.  Earth- 
 quakes are  here  tcrril)le.  The  city  of  Smyrna  is  poorly  built. 
 The  houses  in  general  are  mere  mud  huts,  and  the  streets  loath- 
 some and  filthy  in  the  extreme.  The  street  of  the  Franks  is  the 
 principal  commercial  street.  It  contains  many  well  built  houses. 
 The  warehouses  are  all  fire-proof.  The  merchandise  imported 
 here  is  dealt  out  to  the  purchasers  from  the  Bazars.  The  Ba- 
 zars are  long  covered  streets,  containing  many  large  stone  build- 
 ings, in  which  the  goods  are  deposited.  Many  of  these  Bazars 
 contain  merchandise  to  a  great  amount.  Each  Bazar  is  appropri- 
 ated to  one  species  of  goods  only.  The  Cassino  is  the  only  place 
 of  public  amusement  at  Smyrna.  It  was  built  by  the  Franks,  for 
 the  purposes  of  information  and  amusement.  It  consists  of  sev- 
 eral rooms  for  conversation  and  reading,  a  drawing  room,  and  a 
 ball  room.  The  newspapers  from  all  parts  of  Christendom  are 
 here  received,  and  lie  open  for  the  perusal  of  the  subscribers  and 
 strangers  invited  by  them.  The  only  public  buildings  in  Smyrna 
 are  the  mosques  awd  churches.  The  streets  of  Smyrna  are  too 
 narrow  to  admit  of  wheel  carriages  of  any  kind.  Packages  are 
 carried  by  porters.  Merchandise  sent  into  the  interior  always 
 goes  by  caravans  of  camels,  mules,  or  horses.  The  climate  of 
 Smyrna  is  temperate.  During  the  hot  summer  months,  the  in- 
 habitants resort  to  the  neighboring  villages,  which  are  but  a  few 
 miles  from  the  city.  The  locusts  of  Smyrna  are  a  very  se,:jus 
 evil,  and  the  destruction  they  cause,  immense.  Wherever  they 
 pass  they  devour  the  leaves  of  every  tree,  and  leave  no  vestige  of 
 vegetation.  At  one  season  it  is  said  they  destroyed  in  one  night 
 every  vegetable  matter,  and  even  the  roots  in  the  gardens  were 
 totally  devoured.! 
 
 Prusa  is  a  beautiful  city,  in  a  romantic  situation,  at  the  northern 
 bottom  of  mount  Olympus.  By  Tournefort's  compulation  offatn- 
 ilies  the  inhabitants  may  be  about  60,000.  It  is  enlivened  by  nu- 
 merous springs,  which  descend  from  the  mountains,  and  by  the 
 proximity  of  the  hot  baths.  Prusa  was  formerly  the  chosen  resi- 
 dence of  the  sultans,  and  contains  many  of  their  tombs.  Magnisi, 
 or  Magnesia,  is  also  a  city  of  some  repute  in  this  quarter  of  the 
 empire  ;  and  Kircagatch  has  risen  to  considerable  population, 
 from  the  cultivation  of  cotton,  being  about  40  miles  N.  E.  of  Mag- 
 nisi, on  the  route  to  Prusa. 
 
 Angora  contains  about  80,000  inhabitants  ;  and  is  a  striking,  and 
 
 *  Chandler,  G5.*  t  Langilon's  MS. 
 
^  TURKEY  IN  Asia:  445 
 
 agreeable  city,  in  a  lofty  situation.  The  trade  is  chiefly  in  yarn, 
 of  which  the  English  shalloons  are  made  ;  and  in  their  own  man- 
 ufacture of  Angora  stuffs,  made  chiefly  of  the  fine  hair  of  a  par- 
 ticular breed  of  goats,  which,  like  that  of  the  cats,  occurs  in  no 
 other  country. 
 
 Tukat  is  also  a  flourishing  place.  The  inhabitants  are  com- 
 puted at  60,000.  The  situation  is  singular,  amidst  rugged  and 
 perpendicular  rocks  of  marble,  and  the  sti'eets  are  paved,  which 
 is  a  rare  circumstance  in  the  Levant.  Silk  and  leather  are  man- 
 ufactures of  Tokat  ;  but  the  chief  is  that  of  copper  utensils, 
 ■which  are  sent  to  Constantinople ,  and  even  to  Egypt.  The  cop- 
 per is  from  the  mines  of  Gumiscana,  at  the  distance  of  three  days 
 journey  from  Trebisond  ;  and  from  those  of  Castan  Boul,  yet 
 richer,  and  situated  ten  days  journey  from  Tokat,  on  the  west  to- 
 wards Angora.* 
 
 Basra  or  Bassora,  on  the  estuary  of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris, 
 must  be  regarded  as  rather  belonging  to  an  independent  Arabian 
 prince,  who  pays  dubious  homage  to  tlie  Porte,  but  as  it  has  an  inti- 
 mate connexion  with  Asiatic  Turkey,  it  may  be  here  briefly  men- 
 tioned as  a  city  of  50,000  inhabitants,  and  great  commercial  con- 
 sequence, being  frequented  by  numerous  vessels  fi'om  Europe  and 
 Asia,  and  the  seat  of  an  English  consul.  Here  the  various  pro- 
 ducts of  Europe  and  India  are  exchanged  for  those  of  Persia  ;  and 
 opulent  caravans  proceed  to  the  chief  cities  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  to 
 all  which  it  is  the  most  central  part  of  oriental  trade. 
 
 The  great  and  romantic  Bagdad,  the  seat  of  the  Califs,  and  the 
 scene  of  many  eastern  fictions,  has  now  dwindled  into  a  town  of 
 about  20,000  inhabitants.  Not  far  to  the  south  are  some  ruins  of 
 the  celebrated  Babylon,  which  have  been  ably  illustrated  in 
 a  recent  work  of  Major  Rennell.f  It  was  the.  capital  of  Chaldea: 
 "  A  famous  city,  built  four  sqviare,  sixtij  viUes  in  circumference, 
 fifteen  on  each  side.  The  walls  were  87  feet  thick,  and  350  high, 
 ©n  which  were  built  316  towers,  or  according  to  others,  250,  three 
 between  each  gate,  and  seven  at  each  corner.  There  were  100 
 gates,  25  on  each  side,  all  of  solid  brass.  From  these  I'an  25 
 streets,  crossing  one  another  at  right  angles,  each  150  feet  wide, 
 and  15  miles  in  length.  A  row  of  houses  faced  the  wall  on  every 
 side,  with  a  street  of  200  feet  wide  between  them  and  it.  Thus 
 the  whole  city  was  divided  in  676  squares,  each  of  which  was  four 
 furlongs  and  a  half  on  every  side.  All  around  these  squares,  stood 
 the  houses  fronting  the  streets,  and  the  empty  space  within  serv- 
 ed as  gardens  and  other  needful  uses." 
 
 The  prophet  calls  Babylon  the  golden  city,  Isaiah,  xiv.  4.  The 
 glory  of  kingdoms,  the  beauty  of  Chaldea's  excellency.  Chap, 
 xiii.  19  ;  yet  the  prophets  presumed  to  foretel  its  complete  ruin. 
 Jeremiah  said,  "  The  mighty  men  of  Babylon  would  forbear  to 
 fight  ;  they  have  remained  in  their  holds  ;  their  might  hath  fail- 
 ed ;  they  became  as  women."  Agreeably  to  this  Xenophon  tells 
 us  that  "  when  Cyrus  came  before  the  place,  he  could  not  p.vovoke 
 
 Toaniefort,  ii.  i2i,  ■}•  Gcograpliv  of  Heroilotus, 
 
446  TURKEY  IN  ASIA. 
 
 them  to  venture  forth,  and  try  the  fortune  of  arms,  though  he  sent 
 a  challenge  to  the  king."  A  variety  of  other  circumstances  in  the 
 progress  of  its  destruction  are  foretold,  which  history  confirms. 
 The  same  prophet  said,  "  that  it  should  become  desolate,  that  it 
 should  not  be  inhabited,  that  the  luild  beasts  of  the  desert  should 
 be  there,"  Let  us  examine  if  Babylon  Aas  fallen  ;  if  these  cir- 
 cumstances have  taken  place  ;  if  so,  then  our  faith  in  revelation 
 is  confirmed.  Diodorus  Siculus  says,  that  in  his  time,  but  a 
 small  part  of  the  city  was  inhabited.  Its  destruction  had  then  be. 
 gun;  it  was  gradual.  Not  long  after,  Strabo  reports  that  the 
 Persians  had  demolished  a  part  of  the  city  ;  that  the  court  was 
 removed  to  Seleucia  ;  that  the  great  city  had  become  a  desert.  In 
 the  time  of  Pliny,  Babylon  was  a  place  of  "  solitude."  Maximus 
 Tyrius  mentions  its  "  lying  waste  and  neglected."  Constantine 
 the  Great  says,  he  had  been  an  eye  witness  of  its  "  desolate  and 
 miserable  condition."  In  the  4th  century  after  Christ,  Jerome 
 says,  "  Its  walls  served  as  a  fence,  and  the  city  as  a  park,  in  Avhich 
 the  kings  of  Persia  kept  wild  beasts  for  hunting."  In  the  12th 
 century  Benjamin,  a  Jew,  asserts  that  "  Babylon  was  laid  waste, 
 some  ruins  remaining,  over  which  men  dared  not  to  pass  on  ac- 
 count of  serpents  and  scorpions."  In  1574,  Rauwolf  says,  "  The 
 tower  of  Babylon  was  so  ruinous,  so  full  of  venomous  creatures, 
 that  no  one  dared  to  approach  nearer  than  half  a  league,  except 
 during  two  months  in  the  winter."  More  than  2000  years  before, 
 a  prophet  had  predicted  this  :  "  Their  houses  shall  be  full  of  dole- 
 ful creatures  ;  the  wild  beasts  of  the  islands  shall  cry  in  their 
 desolate  houses,  and  dragons  in  their  pleasant  palaces."  Petrus 
 Valensis  was  there  in  1616  ;  he  says  "  there  was  a  heap  of  ruined 
 buildings,  like  a  mountain,  which  was  probably  the  tower  of  Nim- 
 rod."  Jannier  says,  "  in  this  neighborhood  we  saw  the  foundation 
 of  a  city,  and  some  of  the  walls  standing,  upon  which  6  coaches 
 might  go  abreast."  The  chronicles  of  the  country  said,  "  Here 
 stood  Babylon."  INIr.  MauAvay  tells  us  that  in  1743,  "  These  ru- 
 ins were  so  cflTaccd,  that  there  was  hardly  any  vestiges  of  them  to 
 point  out  the  situation  of  the  city."  Mr.  Jackson,  in  1797,  was 
 at  Bagdad,  and  says,  at  a  little  distance  "  are  still  to  be  seen  so7n& 
 ruins  of  ancient  Babylon  ;"  but  it  seems  he  did  not  go  to  exam- 
 ine whether  it  was  true.  IVIr.  Wood,  v/ho  visited  the  ruins  of 
 Palmyra  in  1751,  presumes  to  say  "  There  is  not  a  stone  to  tell 
 where  Babylon  was  situated."  13y  these  brief  extracts  from  va- 
 rious travellers,  we  see  how  gradually,  how  punctually  the  proph- 
 ecies respecting  Babylon  have  been  fulfilled.  "  They  shall  not 
 take  of  thee  a  stone  for  a  corner,  nor  a  stone  for  foundations  ;  but 
 thou  shalt  be  desolate  for  ever,  saith  the  Lord." 
 
 Many  an  important  city  of  antiquity  has  sunk  into  a  village,  and 
 even  the  village  often  into  a  mass  of  rubbish,  under  the  destruc- 
 tive domination  of  the  Turks,  perhaps  the  only  people  whose  sole 
 occupation  has  been  to  destroy.  The  maps  are  crowded  with 
 many  names,  now  only  known  by  miserable  hamlets  ;  and  an 
 enimieration  vv'hich  would  seem  short  may  yet  be  complete. 
 
 The  ancient  and  celebrated  city  of  Jerusalem  is  reduced  to  a 
 
TURKEY  IN  ASIA.  Ut 
 
 mean  town,  chiefly  existing  by  the  piety  of  pilgrims.  This  city  will 
 ever  be  interesting  to  the  heart  of  sensibility.  The  divine  mis- 
 sion of  Jesus  Christ  is  authenticated  in  every  dismal  street.  The 
 naked  rocks  and  uninhabited  hills  proclaim  Ihe  truth  of  Christian- 
 ity. Jesus  Christ  foretold  the  most  deplorable  calamities  which 
 the  place  has  suffered.  It  is  impossible  to  read  the  prophecies 
 of  Christ,  and  the  history  of  Josephus,  and  retain  a  reasonable 
 doubt  of  the  divinity  of  the  Scriptures.  Christ  declared  that  the 
 place  "  should  be  trodden  down  of  the  Gentiles"  To  this  day- 
 Gentiles  possess  the  city.  It  is  inhabited  by  Turks,  Arabs,  and  a 
 few  Christians.  The  Jews  do  not  choose  to  dwell  here  ;  they 
 say  it  must  undergo  a  conflagration  and  inundation,  when  the 
 Messiah  comes  to  purify  it  from  the  defilements  of  Christians  and 
 Mahometans.  Towards  the  frontiers  of  Persia  the  ravages  of  fre- 
 quent war  have  spread  additional  destruction  ;  yet  Erzeron,  the 
 capital  of  Armenia,  retains  about  25,000  inhabitants. 
 
 Tyre  was  once  a  famous  city  of  Phenicia,  and  anciently  a  place 
 of  more  extensive  commerce  than  any  tovv^n  in  the  world.  In  the 
 time  of  the  prophet  Isaiah,  "  Her  merchants  were  princes."  In 
 the  time  of  Alexander,  it  was  encircled  by  a  wall  150  teet  high. 
 This  city  arrested  the  progress  of  his  conquering  army  for  seven 
 months.  But  for  their  wickedness  God  threatened  by  the  voice 
 of  prophecy,  that  this  mart  of  nations  should  become  desolate. 
 "  I  will  cause  the  noise  of  thy  songs  to  cease  ;  I  will  make  thee 
 like  the  top  of  a  rock.  Thou  shalt  be  a  place  to  spread  nets  upon. 
 Thou  shalt  be  built  no  more."  This  prophecy  was  evidently  de- 
 livered by  divine  inspiration  :  for  it  has  been  literally  fulfilled. 
 The  place  is  now  buried  in  its  own  ruins.  There  is  nothing  here 
 now  to  give  the  least  idea  of  its  former  glory  and  magnificence. 
 There  is,  indeed,  on  the  N.  side,  one  old  Turkish  castle,  beside 
 which,  nothing  is  to  be  seen,  but  fallen,  broken  pillars.  Not  a 
 single  habitation  for  human  beings  is  there  on  this  once  celebrated 
 spot.  It  is  totally  abandoned,  excepting  by  a  few  fishermen,  who 
 sometimes  visit  it  to  fish  in  the  surrounding  waters,  and  on  its 
 rocks  dry  their  nets,  sheltering  themselves  under  the  ruins  of  its 
 ancient  grandeur,  Ion.  35  48,  E.  lat.  33  23,  N. 
 
 Manufactures?!^  The  chief  manufactures  of  Asiatic  Turkey 
 have  been  already  incidentally  mentioned  in  the  preceding  ac- 
 count of  the  cities  ;  to  which  may  be  added  the  excellent  carpets 
 so  frequent  in  England  and  America.  These  with  rhubarb,  and 
 several  other  drugs,  may  be  regarded  as  the  chief  articles  of  com- 
 merce. 
 
 The  Levant,  or  Turkey  trade,  was  formerly  of  great  conse- 
 quence to  Great  Britain  ;  but  since  the  middle  of  the  last  century 
 has  been  more  advantaeeous  to  France. 
 
44iJ  TURKEY  IN  ASIA, 
 
 CHAPTER  II. 
 
 NATURAL  GEOGRArHV. 
 
 CLIMATE  AND  SEASONS,  FACE  OF  THE  COUNTRY,  SOIL  AND  AGRI- 
 CULTURE, RIVERS,  LAKES,  MOUNTAINS,  FORESTS,  BOTANY,  ZOO- 
 LOGY, MINERALOGY,  MINERAL  WATERS,  NATURAL  CURIOSITIES. 
 
 Cli?nate  and  Scaso7is.']  THE  climate  of  Asia  Minor  has 
 always  been  considered  as  excellent.  There  is  a  peculiar  softness 
 arid  serenity  in  the  air,  not  perceivable  on  the  European  side  of 
 the  Archipelago.  The  heat  of  the  summer  is  considerably  tem- 
 pered by  the  numerous  chains  of  high  mountains,  some  of  which 
 are  said  to  be  covered  with  perpetual  snow. 
 
 Face  of  the  Country.']  The  general  appearance  of  Asiatic  Tur- 
 key may  be  regarded  as  mountainous  ;  but  intermingled  with 
 large  and  beautiful  plains,  which,  instead  of  being  covered  with 
 rich  crops  of  grain,  are  pastvu'ed  by  the  numerous  flocks  and  herds 
 of  the  Turcomans.  The  soil,  as  may  be  expected,  is  extremely 
 various  ;  but  that  of  Asia  Minor  is  chiefly  a  deep  clay  ;  and  wheat, 
 barley,  and  durra,  form  the  chief  products  of  agriculture.*  But 
 excellent  grapes  and  olives  abound  ;  and  the  southern  provinces 
 are  fertile  in  dates.  In  Syria  the  agriculture  is  in  the  most  de- 
 plorable condition.  The  peasants  though  not  sold  Avith  the  soil, 
 like  those  of  Poland,  are,  impossible,  yet  more  oppressed  ;  barley 
 bread,  onions,  and  water,  forming  their  constant  fare.f 
 
 Rivers.']  The  principal  river  of  Asiatic  Turkey  is,  beyond  all 
 connparison,  the  Euphrates,  which  rises  from  the  mountains  of 
 Armenia,  a  few  miles  to  the  N.  E.  of  Erzeron  ;:}:  and  chiefly  pur- 
 sues a  S.  W.  direction  to  Semisat,  where  it  Avould  fall  into  the 
 Mediterranean,  if  not  prevented  by  a  high  ridge  of  mountains.  In 
 this  part  of  its  course  the  Euphrates  is  joined  by  the  Morad  from 
 the  east,  a  stream  almost  double  in  length  to  that  of  Euphrates  ; 
 so  that  the  latter  river  might  more  justly  be  said  to  spring  from 
 mount  Ararat,  about  160  British  miles  to  the  east  of  the  reputed 
 source.  At  Semisat,  the  ancient  Samosata,  this  noble  river  as- 
 sumes a  southerly  direction  ;  then  runs  an  extensive  course  to 
 the  S.  E.  and  after  receiving  the  Tigris,  falls  by  two  or  three 
 7nouths  into  the  gulf  of  Persia,  50  miles  S.  E.  of  Bassora.  The 
 comparative  course  of  the  Euphrates  may  be  estimated  at  about 
 1400  miles.  Its  water  is  remarkably  pleasant.  It  is  muddy  when 
 first  taken  up,  it  soon  becomes  clear  ;  and  is  by  Home  preferred 
 to  wine  or  spirits.  The  tide  raises  its  water  more  than  30  leagues 
 above  its  mouth,  Ion.  66  55,  E.  lat.  29  50,  N. 
 
 Next  in  importance  is  the  Tigris,  which  rises  to  the  north  cf 
 the  Medan,  about  150  miles  south  from  the  sources  of  the  Eu- 
 phrates, and  pursues  nearly  a  regular  direction  S.  E.  till  it  joins 
 
 *  Browno,  418.  |  Yoliicy,  ii.  4I3.  J:  Touruefort,  ii.  198. 
 
TURKEY  IN  ASIA.  449 
 
 the  -Euphrates.,  below  Korna,  about  60  miles  north  of  Bassova  ; 
 after  a  comparative  course  of  about  800  miles.  The  Euphrates 
 and  the  Tigris  are  both  navigable  for  a  considerable  distance  from 
 
 -the  sea.  - 
 
 The  third  river  in  Asiatic  Turkey  is  that  called  by  the  Turks 
 Kizil  Irmak,  the  celebrated  Halys  of  antiquity,  rising  in  mount 
 Taurus,  not  far  from  Erekli,  but  by  other  accounts  more  to  the 
 »ast,  and  pursuing  a  winding  course  to  the  north,  nearly  across 
 the  whole  of  Asia  Minor,  till  it  join  the  Euxine  sea,  on  the  west 
 of  the  gulf  of  Sansoun.  The  river  Sacaria,  the  ancient  Sangaris, 
 rises  about  50  miles  south  of  Angora,  and  running  to  the  N.  W. 
 joins  the  Euxine,  about  70  miles  east  of  Constantinople. 
 
 In  the  next  rank  may  be  placed  the  classical  river  of  Msander, 
 rising  north  of  the  ancient  city  of  Apamia,  and  running,  in  a  wind- 
 ing stream,  about  250  miles.  It  is  callod  by  the  Turks  the  Great 
 Mjeander,  to  distinguish  it  from  a  small  tributary  stream,  which 
 resembles  it  in  mazes.  The  Minder,  not  far  from  its  mouth,  is 
 about  100  feet  broad  ;  Avith  a  sv/ift,  muddy,  and  very  deep  current, 
 having  received  a  considerable  accession  of  waters  from  the  lake 
 of  My  us. 
 
 The  Sarabat,  or  ancient  Hermus,  renowned  for  its  golden  sands, 
 joins  the  Archipelago  about  90  miles  north  of  the  Mindcfr,  after 
 a  course  of  similar  length. 
 
 The  other  rivers  of  Asia  Minor  are  far  more  inconsiderable, 
 though  many  of  them  are  celebrated  in  classicaj  history  and  po- 
 etry. 
 
 The  chief  river  of  Syria  is  the  Orontes,  now  called  Oron  or  Osi, 
 rising  about  80  miles  N.  of  Damascus,  and  running  nearly  due 
 north  till  it  suddenly  turns  S.  E.  near  Antioch,  after  which  it  soon 
 joins  the  Mediterranean. 
 
 Jordan,  is  a  river  of  Palestine,  rising  from  lake  Phiala,  m  Anti- 
 Libanus.  It  runs  under  ground  15  miles,  then  breaks  out  at  Pe- 
 neum  ;  passes  through  Samachomite  Lake,  anciently  called  Me- 
 ron,  6  miles  long,  4  broad.  Two  miles  after  its  leaving  the  lake, 
 is  a  stone  bridge,  of  3  arches,  called  "  Jacob's  Bridge,"  supposed 
 to  have  been  built  before  the  days  of  Jacob.  After  separating 
 Galilee  from  Tracontis,  it  passes  through  the  lake  Tiberias  ; 
 thence,  after  a  course  of  65  miles,  part  of  the  way  through  a  vast 
 and  most  horrid  desert,  receiving  the  Carith,  (on  the  bank  of 
 which  Elijah  was  fed  by  ravens)  and  many  other  tributary  sti'eams, 
 it  empties  into  the  Dead  Sea.  It  is  a  very  rapid  river,  generally 
 about  4  or  5  rods  wide, "and  9  feet  deep,  and  except  in  freshets, 
 runs  2  yards  below  the  brink  of  its  channel-  The  waters  are  tur- 
 bid, but  very  wholesome. 
 
 Lakes.']  Asiatic  Turkey  also  contains  numerous  lakes.  That 
 of  Van,  in  the  north  of  Kurdistan,  is  the  most  considerable,  being 
 about  80  miles  in  length,  from  N.  E.  to  S.  W.  and  about  40  in 
 breadth  :  it  is  said  to  abound  with  fish. 
 
 In  Syria  is  As/ihaltites  Lake,  known  also  by  the  names  of  the  ScU 
 'Sea,  Dead  Sea,  and  Sea  of  Sodo?n,  is  S.  of  Jordan,  and  on  the  S.  E. 
 border  of  the  ancient  Canaan.    According  to  Josephus,  it  is  72  miles 
 VOL.  II.  57 
 
450  TURKEY  IN  ASIA. 
 
 long,  and  about  19  broad.  Modern  travellei's,  however,  make  it 
 only  24  miles  lont^,  and  6  or  7  broad.  The  rivers  Jordan,  Arnon, 
 Kidron,  and  other  streams,  empty  into  this  lake.  It  has  no  visi- 
 ble communication  with  the  sea.  The  great  quantities  of  bitumen, 
 slime  or  mineral  pitch  in  this  lake,  renders  its  waters  unfit  to 
 drink.  No  fish  can  live  in  it.  The  sulphurous  stream  affects 
 even  the  fruit  on  the  shore  in  some  parts.  This  lake  is  supposed 
 to  occupy  the  ancient  site  of  Sodom,  Gomorrah,  Admah,  and  Ze- 
 boim,  and  the  valley  of  Siddim.  After  these  cities  were  destroyed, 
 in  the  manner  related  in  the  scriptures,  it  is  supposed  the  spot  on 
 v/hich  they  stood  was  sunk  by  an  earthquake  ;  and  some  have  re- 
 lated that,  when  the  waters  of  this  lake  are  low,  the  ruins  of  these 
 cities  are  still  to  be  seen.  When  the  Saviour  speaks  of  "  the 
 lake  of  fire  and  brimstone,"  he  is  supposed  to  allude  to  this  lake 
 Asfihaltitesf  which  is  considered,  as  the  lasting  monument  of  those 
 awful  showers  of  fire  and  brimstone,  by  which  Sodom  and  Go- 
 morrah, and  the  other  cities  of  the  plain  perished  for  their  vile 
 lusts. 
 
 The  lake  of  Rackama,  to  the  south  of  Hilla,  and  the  ancient 
 Babylon,  is  about  30  miles  in  length,  and  flows  into  the  Euphra- 
 tes. 
 
 Towards  the  centre  of  Asia  Minor,  there  is  a  remarkable  saline 
 lake,  about  70  miles  in  length,  and  a  mile  or  two  in  breadth,  be- 
 ing the  Tatta,  or  Palus  Salsa  of  D'Anville's  ancient  geography. 
 
 Numerous  other  small  lakes  appear  in  Natolia,  among  which 
 may  be  particularly  mentioned  thatofUlubad,  anciently  styled  the 
 lake  of  Apollonia,  which,  according  to  Tournefort,  is  about  25 
 miles  in  circumference,  and  in  some  places  seven  or  eight  miles 
 wide,  sprinkled  with  several  isles  and  some  peninsulas,  being  a 
 grand  receptacle  of  the  waters  from  mount  Olympus.  The  larg- 
 est isle  is  about  three  miles  in  circuit,  and  is  called  Abouillona, 
 probably  from  the  ancient  name  of  the  city,  which  stood  on  it. 
 About  50  miles  to  the  N.  E.  was  the  lake  called  Ascanius,  by  the 
 ancients,  now  that  of  Isnik. 
 
 Mountains.']  Many  of  the  mountains  of  Asiatic  Turkey  de- 
 serve particular  attention,  from  their  ancient  celebrity.  The  first 
 rank  is  due  to  the  Taurian  chain  of  antiquity,  which  was  consid- 
 ered as  extending  from  the  neighborhood  of  the  Archipelago  to 
 the  sources  of  the  Ganges,  and  the  extremities  of  Asia,  so  far  as 
 discovered  by  the  ancients.  But  this  notion  little  accords  with  the 
 descriptions  of  modei-n  travellers,  or  the  researches  of  recent  ge- 
 ography. The  Caucasian  mountains  have  been  well  delineated 
 by  the  Russian  travellers,  as  forming  a  range  from  the  mouth  of 
 the  river  Cuban,  in  the  N.  W.  to  where  the  river  Ker  enters  the 
 Caspian,  in  the  S.  E.  A  chain  extends  from  Caucasus  S.  W.  to 
 near  the  bay  of  Scanderoon.  This  ridge  seems  the  Anti  Taurus 
 of  antiquity  :  but  various  parts  of  it  were  known  by  different 
 names.  At  the  other  extremity  of  the  Caucasus,  other  chains 
 branch  out  into  Persia  ;  whicli  they  pervade  from  N.  W.  to  S.  E. 
 but  they  may  all  be  justly  considered  as  terminating  in  the  des- 
 erts of  the  southeastern  part  of  Persia.     The   chain  of  Taurus, 
 
TURKEY  IN  ASIA.  4.51 
 
 now  called  Kurun,  extends  for  about  600  miles  E.  and  W.  from 
 the  Euphrates  to  near  the  shores  of  the  Archipelago.  A  recent 
 traveller  found  the  ascent  and  descent,  between  Aintab  and  Bos- 
 tan,  to  occupy  three  days  ;  and  the  heights  abound  with  cedars, 
 savines,  and  junipei's. 
 
 Towards  the  east  of  Armenia,  is  Ararat.  It  is  a  detached 
 mountain,  with  two  summits  ;  the  highest  being  covered  with 
 eternal  snow.  In  one  of  the  flanks  is  an  abyss,  or  precipice,  of 
 prodigious  depth,  the  sides  being  perpendicular,  and  of  a  rough 
 black  appearance,  as  if  tinged  with  smoke.  This  mountain  be- 
 longs to  Persia,  but  is  here  mentioned  on  account  of  connexion. 
 
 Beyond  Ararat  are  branches  of  the  Caucasian  chain  ;  to  which, 
 as  is  probable,  belong  the  mountains  of  Clevend,  which  seem  to 
 be  the  Niphates  of  antiquity. 
 
 In  Syria  the  most  celebrated  mountain  is  that  of  Lebanon,  or 
 Libanus,  running  in  the  southerly  and  northerly  direction  of  the 
 Mediterranean  shore,  and  generally  at  the  distance  of  about  30  or 
 40  miles.  It  is  about  100  leagues  in  circumference.  It  has  Mes- 
 opotamia E.  Armenia  N.  Palestine  S.  and  the  Mediterranean  W. 
 The  ruins  of  the  ancient  city  of  Sidon  are  near  this  mountain.  It 
 is  composed  of  4  enclosures  of  mountains,  which  rise  one  upon 
 the  other.  The  first  is  very  fruitful  in  grain  and  fruits  ;  the  sec- 
 ond is  barren,  covered  with  thorns,  I'ocks,  and  flints  ;  the  third, 
 though  higher,  enjoys  a  perpetual  spring,  the  trees  being  always 
 green,  and  the  orchards  filled  with  fruit ;  in  a  word,  it  is  so  agree- 
 able and  fertile,  that  some  have  called  it  a  Terrestrial  Paradise. 
 The  fourth  is  covered  with  snow,  and  uninhabited,  by  reason  of 
 its  cold.  Its  cedars  have  been  remarkable  from  the  days  of  Solo- 
 mon. But  16  aged  ones  remain.  One  of  them  is  thirty  six  feet 
 six  inches  in  circumference,  and  the  spread  of  its  branches  pro- 
 portionably  extensive. 
 
 The  Anti-Libanus  is  a  short  detached  chain,  running  nearly 
 parallel  on  the  east.  These  mountains  are  of  considerable  height, 
 the  summits  being  often  covered  with  snow  ;  and  they  seem  to 
 be  calcai'eous,  the  granite  not  appearing  till  in  the  neighborhood  of 
 mount  Sinai  and  the  Arabian  gulf.  The  chief  heights  are  between 
 Balbec  and  Damascus. 
 
 The  eastern  side  of  the  Archipelago  presents  many  mountaios 
 of  great  height  and  classical  fame,  chiefly  in  ranges  extending 
 from  N.  to  S.  Of  these  Olympus  (now  Keshik  Dag)  is  one  of 
 the  most  celebrated,  and  is  described  by  Tournefort,  as  a  vast 
 range  covered  with  perpetual  snow.  Many  small  streams  spring 
 from  Olympus,  and  the  large  lake  of  UUabad  is  another  receptacle 
 of  its  waters. 
 
 About  140  miles  west  of  Olympus  rises  mount  Ida,  of  great 
 though  not  equal  height.  The  summit  of  Ida  was  by  the  ancients 
 called  Garganus  ;  from  which  extend  western  pi-ominences 
 reaching  to  the  Hellespont,  and  amidst  them  stood  the  celebrated 
 city  of  Troy:  Garganus,  or  the  summit  of  Ida,  being  about  30 
 miles  from  the  shore  ;  and  giving  source  to  the  Granicus,  the 
 Simois,  and  other  noted  streams,  most  of  which  run  to  the  north. 
 
452  TURKEY  IN  ASIA. 
 
 South  of  the  Minder,  or  M,3eander,  the  Taurus  detaches  a  chain, 
 called  Cadmus  and  Grius,  bending  towards  the  isle  of  Cos  and 
 the  Cycladcs. 
 
 J'''ore.yfs.~\  The  numerous  inountains  in  Asiatic  Turkey  are 
 often  clothed  with  immense  forests  of  pines,  oaks,  beeches,  elms, 
 and  other  trees.  The  southern  shores  of  the  Black  Sea  also  pre- 
 sent many  gloo'uy  forests  of  great  extent.  The  abundance  of 
 timber  supplies  the  inhabitants  Avith  fuel ;  nor  has  pit  coal  been 
 explored  in  any  part  of  Asiatic  Turkey. 
 
 Botany. 1^  The  extensive  provinces  of  Natolia,  Syria,  and  Mes- 
 opotamia, since  their  reduction  under  the  Turkish  yoke,  have  been 
 but  little  accessible  to  European  curiosity.  The  natural  produc- 
 tions of  Syria,  however,  have  been  investigated,  though  imper- 
 fectly, by  several  naturalists  of  eminence,  while  the  mountains  and 
 rich  vales  of  Natoiia,  towards  the  great  Caucasian  chain,  are  al- 
 most wholly  unknown.  These  countries  having  been  inhabited 
 and  civilized  from  the  remotest  antiquity,  possessing  for  the  most 
 part  a  dry  rocky  soil,  Avith  fewer  rivers  than  any  tract  in  Europe 
 of  equal  extent,  contain  none  of  those  low  swampy  levels  that  form 
 so  characteristic  a  feature  in  almost  all  the  American  countries, 
 that  compose  the  greater  part  of  Holland,  and  occupy  no  small 
 proportion  of  Hungary,  and  the  dominions  north  of  the  Baltic. 
 Those  vegetables,  therefore,  that  grow  in  swamps,  lakes,  and 
 bogs,  will  be  very  sparingly  found  in  the  flora  of  Asiatic  Turkey  ; 
 nor  will  the  indigenous  alpine  plants  be  more  numerous,  not  in- 
 deed on  account  of  the  absence  of  high  mountains,  but  from  their 
 having  been  hitherto  almost  entirely  unexamined.  Of  the  scanty 
 catalogue  of  plants  that  have  been  found  wild  in  the  Asiatic  part 
 of  the  Ottoman  territory,  the  folloAving  are  the  most  Avorthy  of  no- 
 tice. 
 
 Among  the  trees  may  be  distinguished,  the  olive  tree,  abound- 
 ing throughout  the  Avhole  Archipelago  and  the  shores  of  the  Le- 
 A'ant  ;  the  Aveeping  Vv'illow,  Avhich  has  adorned  the  banks  of  the 
 Euphrates  from  time  immemorial  ;  the  Avild  olive,  bearing  a 
 small  sAveet  esculent  fruit ;  the  Avhite  mulberry  ;  the  storax  tree, 
 from  Avhich  exudes  the  fragrant  gum  resin  of  the  same  name,  the 
 pomegranate  ;  almond  tree,  and  peach  tree  ;  the  cherry,  a  native 
 ol  Pontusin  Natoiia,  whence  it  Avas  brought  to  Rome  by  Lucullus  ; 
 the  lemon  and  orange  ;  the  myrtle,  groAving  plentifully  by  the  side  . 
 of  running  streams  ;  the  plantain  tree  ;  the  vine,  in  a  perfectly 
 AV'ild  state  climbing  up  the  highest  trees,  and  forming  verdant 
 grottos  among  its  ample  festoons  :  the  mastich,  chio  turpentine, 
 and  pistachia  nut  tree  ;  the  cypress,  the  cedar;  a  few  large  trees 
 of  Avhich  still  remain  on  Mount  Lebanon,  the  venerable  relies  of 
 its  sacred  forests.  Hibiscus  Syriacuy,  distinguished  by  the  un- 
 common splendor  of  its  blossoms,  ard  on  this  account  much  cul- 
 tivated about  Constantinople,  and  other  parts  of  the  Turkish  em- 
 pire, Avhere  it  does  not  grov/  spontaneously  ;  the  fig  tree,  and  syc- 
 amore fig,  abounding  in  Palestine  and  other  parts  of  Syria  ;  the 
 date  tree,  the  prickly  cupped  oak,  fiom  Avhich  are  procured  the 
 finest  Aleppo  galls  ;  the  oriental  plane  tree,  highly  esteemed  for 
 
TURKEY  IN  ASIA.  453 
 
 lis  shady  tent-like  canopy  of  foliage  ;  and  menispcrmum  coccu- 
 lus,  the  berries  of  which,  commonly  callexi  cocculus  indicus,  are 
 much  used  by  the  natives  for  taking  fish,  on  account  of  their  nar- 
 cotic qualities. 
 
 Of  the  lower  trees  and  flowering  shrubs  the  principal  are  the 
 lilac,  abounding  on  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates;  the  yellow  and 
 common  jasmirye,  found  plentifully  in  the  thickets  and  woods  of 
 Syria  ;  the  long  hollow  stems  of  the  latter  of  these  are  in  great 
 request  among  the  inhabitants,  as  stems  to  their  tobacco  pipes  ; 
 Uie  Spanish  and  thorny  broom,  occupying  many  of  the  sandy  tracts 
 tliat  are  of  such  frequent  occurrence  in  Syria,  and  the  oleander,  a 
 common  ornament  of  every  rivulet. 
 
 Several  dying  drugs  and  articles  of  the  materia  medica  are  im- 
 ported from  the  Levant,  among  which  may  be  particularized 
 madder  ;  a  variety  of  this  called  alizari,  is  largely  cultivated 
 around  Smyrna,  which  yields  a  much  finer  red  dye  than  the  Eu- 
 ropean kind,  and  to  this  the  superiority  of  the  Greek  and  Turkish 
 reds  is  in  part  to  be  ascribed  ;  jalap,  scammony,  sebesten,  croton. 
 linctorium  ;  ricinus  communis,  the  seed  of  which  yields  by  ex- 
 pression the  castor  oil  ;  squirting  cucumber,  coloquintid?. ;  opi- 
 um poppy,  and  spikenard. 
 
 A  few  esculent  plants  not  commonly  made  use  of  elsewhere, 
 are  the  produce  of  Natolia  and  Syria,  such  as  the  mad  apple, 
 Jew's  mallow,  and  arum  colocasia,  remarkable  for  its  sweet  fari- 
 naceous root,  while  those  of  its  kindred  species  are  intolerably 
 acrid. 
 
 Zoology.'^  The  best  horses  in  Asiatic  Turkey  are  of  Arabian 
 extract,  and  are  sparingly  fed  with  a  little  barley  and  minc^ 
 straw,  to  accustom  them  to  abstinence  and  fatigue  ;  but  mules 
 and  asses  are  in  more  general  use.  Concerning  the  breed  of 
 cattle,  little  is  mentioned  by  travellers,  but  it  seems  inferior  to 
 those  of  Europe  ;  and  beef  is  scarce  and  bad.  The  mutton  is  su- 
 perior ;  and  the  kid  is  a  favorite  repast. 
 
 In  Asiatic  Turkey  appears  that  king  of  ferocjous  animals  the 
 lion,  which  is  unknown  to  any  i^egion  of  Europe,  and  even  to 
 Asiatic  Russia.  Yet  he  rarely  roams  to  the  v/est  of  the  Euphra- 
 tes ;  but  Tournefort  observed  many  tigers  on  Mount  Ararat.  He 
 must  mean  the  small  tiger,  or  perhaps  the  leopard  ;  for  the  royal 
 or  large  tiger  seems  to  be  restricted  to  the  wastes  of  Hindostan. 
 The  hyaena,  and  the  wild  boar,  are  known  animals  of  Asia  Minor, 
 together  with  troops  of  jackals,  which  raise  dreadful  cries  in  the 
 night.  The  cities  and  villages  swarm  with  dogs,  who  are  allow- 
 ed to  wander,  as  a  constant  defence  against  strangers  or  enemies. 
 
 The  ibex,  or  rock  goat,  appears  on  the  summits  of  Caucasus. 
 The  singular  goats  and  cats  of  Angora  have  been  already  men- 
 tioned. The  common  antelope  is  also  an  inhabitant  of  Asia  Mi- 
 nor, with  numerous  deer  and  hares.  The  partridges  are  gener- 
 ally of  the  red  legged  kind,  about  a  third  larger  than  the  common 
 European. 
 
 Mineralogy.']  The  mineralogy  of  those  extensive  and  moun- 
 tainous provijiccs  remains  in  a  deplorable  state   of  imperfection. 
 
454  TURKEY  IN  ASIA. 
 
 Ancient  Lydia  was  famous  for  the  production  of  gold  ;  but  in 
 modern  times  no  mines  seem  to  be  indicated,  except  those  of  cop- 
 per, which  supply  Tokat  ;  lead,  and  copper  ore,  with  rock  crys- 
 tals, have  been  observed  in  the  island  of  Cyprus.  The  mountains 
 of  Judea,  according  to  Haselquist,  are  of  a  very  hard  limestone,  of 
 a  yellowish  v/hite  ;  and  towards  the  east  of  a  loose  grey  limestone. 
 Mineral  Waters,  j  The  most  noted  mineral  waters  are  those  of 
 Prusa,  at  the  bottom  of  Mount  Olympus.  The  baths  arc  splendid, 
 and  paved  with  marble,  with  two  reservoirs  or  rather  cisterns  for 
 bathing,  one  for  the  men,  another  for  the  women.  The  water 
 smokes  continually,  and  is  so  hot  as  to  scald  the  hand  ;  but  in  the 
 baths  it  is  mingled  with  cold  water  from  the  numerous  streams  of 
 Olympus.  There  are  many  other  hot  spx'ings  in  different  quar- 
 ters of  Natolia. 
 
 ISLANDS  BELONGING  TO  ASIATIC  TURKEY. 
 
 The  chief  islands  in  the  Archipelago,  considered  as  belonging 
 to  Asia,  are  Mytilene,  Scio,  Samos,  Cos,  and  Rhodes. 
 
 Mytilene,  the  ancient  Lesbos,  is  the  most  northerly  and  largest 
 of  these  isles,  being  about  40  miles  in  length,  by  24  at  its  greatest 
 breadth.  Its  population  is  upwards  of  100,000.  The  mountain- 
 ous appearance  of  this  isle  is  agreeably  diversified  with  bays  and 
 inlets  of  the  sea,  and  plantations  of  olives,  vines,  and  myrtle.* 
 There  are  hot  baths  issuing  from  cliffs  resembling  those  of  St. 
 Vincent,  near  Bristol,  and  which  indicate  the  isle  to  be  chiefly 
 calcareous.  The  climate  is  exquisite  ;  and  it  was  anciently  noted 
 for  wines,  and  the  beauty  of  the  women. 
 
 Scio,  the  ancient  Chios,  is  about  36  miles  in  length,  by  about  13 
 in  medial  breadth.  The  Chian  wine  is  celebrated  by  Horace,  and 
 retains  its  ancient  fame.  The  town  of  Scio,  on  the  east  side  of 
 the  isle,  is  handsome  and  convenient.  The  Greeks  here  enjoy 
 considerable  freedom  and  ease  ;  and  display  such  industry,  that 
 the  country  resembles  a  garden.  This  particular  favor  arises 
 from  the  cultivation  of  the  mastic  trees,  or  rather  shrubs,  for  they 
 are  small  evergreens,  which  supply  the  gum  so  acceptable  to  the 
 ladies  of  the  sultan's  haram,  or,  as  we  term  it,  the  seraglio.  The 
 whole  isle  is  movmtainous.  Tournefort  observed  here  tame  par- 
 tridges, kept  like  poultry  ;  and  Chandler  saw  numerous  groves 
 of  lemons,  oranges,  and  citrons,  perfuming  the  air  with  the  odour 
 of  their  blossoms,  and  delighting  the  eye  with  their  golden  fruit. 
 The  Genoese  possessed  this  beautiful  isle  about  240  years,  but 
 lost  it  in  1566.  Opposite  to  Scio,  on  the  Asiatic  shore,  is  Chesme, 
 vv'here  the  Turkish  fleet  was  destroyed  by  the  Russians,  1770. 
 The  inhabitants  of  Scio  are  slTpposed  to  be  about  60,000. t 
 
 Samos  is  about  30  miles  in  length,  and  10  in  breadth.     This  islt 
 
 *  n^Uawaj's Constantinople,  p.  313. 
 
 t  Tournefort,  p.  281.    Van  Egraojit,  i.  237,  kc.    Chandler,  48: 
 
TURKEY  IN  ASIA.  455 
 
 is  also  crossed  by  a  chain  of  hills,  and  the  inost  agreeable  part  is 
 the  plain  of  Cora.  Tournefort  computes  the  inhabitants  at  1 2,000, 
 all  Greeks,  with  a  Turkish  Aga,  or  military  officer,  and  a  cadi,  or 
 judge.  The  pottery  of  Samos  was  anciently  excellent;  but  at 
 present  most  branches  of  industry  are  neglected.  Pitch  is  pre- 
 pared from  the  pine  trees  in  the  north  part  of  the  island,  and  the 
 silk,  honey,  and  wax  are  esteemed.  Most  of  the  mountains  are 
 of  white  marble,  and  swarm  with  game  of  various  descriptions. 
 The  best  haven  is  that  of  Vati  to  the  N.  W.  Some  remains  are 
 observed  of  the  celebrated  temple  of  Juno.* 
 
 Cos,  or  Coos,  is  about  24  miles  in  length,  by  3  or  4  in  breadth  ; 
 but  has  been  little  visited  by  modern  travellers.  Pliny  styles  Cos 
 a  most  noble  isle ;  and  from  it  was  first  derived  the  name  and 
 substance  of  the  whetstone.  It  is  now  covered  with  groves  of 
 lemon  trees,  and  there  is  an  oriental  plane  tree  of  vast  size.  The 
 chief  trade  is  in  oranges  and  lemons  ;  and  Cos  is  the  i*esidence  of 
 a  Turkish  Pasha.f 
 
 Rhodes  is  about  36  miles  in  length,  by  1 5  in  breadth,  an  island 
 celebrated  in  ancient  and  modern  times.  It  is  fertile  in  wheat, 
 though  the  soil  be  of  a  sandy  nature.  The  population  is  comput- 
 ed at  about  40,000.  The  city  of  the  same  name,  in  which  no 
 Christian  is  now  permitted  to  dwell,  stands  in  the  north  end  of 
 the  isle  ;  and  was  anciently  noted  for  a  colossus  in  bronze,  about 
 1 30  feet  high.  This  isle  was  for  two  centui'ies  possessed  by  the 
 knights  of  St,  John  of  Jerusalem,  thence  styled  of  Rhodes,  till 
 1523,  when  it  was  taken  by  the  Turks  ;  and  the  emperor  Charles 
 V.  assigned  to  the  knights  the  island  of  Malta.:}: 
 
 Along  the  southern  shore  of  Asia  Minor  there  are  some  small 
 isles,  among  which  is  that  of  Castel  Rosso,  S.  E.  of  Patira.  But 
 they  are  of  no  moment  when  Compared  with  the  large  and  cele- 
 brated island  of  Cyprus,  which  is  about  160  miles  in  length,  and 
 about  70  at  its  greatest  breadth.  It  was  long  possessed  by  the 
 Ptolemies  of  Egypt,  till  it  fell  under  the  Roman  power  ;  when  it 
 remained  a  portion  of  the  Byzantine  empire,  till  it  was  usurped 
 by  a  Greek  prince,  who  was  expyelled  by  Richaid  I.  of  England. 
 This  monarch  bestowed  the  kingdom  of  Cyprus  on  the  house  of 
 Lusignan,  as  a  compensation  for  the  loss  of  the  throne  of  Jerusa- 
 lem. In  the  15th  century  the  heiress  of  the  house  of  Lusignau 
 resigned  this  isle  to  the  Venetians  ;  but  in  1570  it  was  seized  by 
 the  Turks.  The  soil  is  fertile,  yet  agriculture  is  in  a  neglected 
 state.  The  chief  products  are  silk,  cotton,  wines,  turpentine,  and 
 timber.  The  wine  of  Cyprus  is  deservedly  celebrated.  The  or- 
 anges are  excellent ;  and  the  mountains  are  covered  with  hya- 
 cinths and  anemonies,  and  other  beautiful  flowers.  Cyprus  is 
 supposed  to  have  derived  its  name  from  the  abundance  of  copper 
 ore  ;  and  it  is  said  to  have  anciently  produced  gold,  silver,  and 
 emeralds.     What  is  called  the  Paphian  diamond  is  a  rock  crystal, 
 
 *  Tournefort,  i.  307.    Dallaway,  251. 
 
 •j"  Van  Eginont,  i.  262. 
 
 4  ib.  i.  2G8,  vho  gives  a  long  description  of  Rhodes. 
 
456  RUSSIAN  EMPIRE  IN  ASIA. 
 
 found  near  Paphos  ;  and  there  is  a  quarry  of  ainianllius,  while 
 several  hills  consist  chiefly  of  talc.  The  other  mineral  produc- 
 tions are  red  jasper,  agates,  and  umber.  The  Cypriots  are  a  tall 
 and  elegant  race  ;  but  the  chief  beauty  of  the  -women  consists  in 
 their  sparkling  eyes.  To  the  disgrace  of  the  Tui-kish  govern- 
 ment, the  population  of  this  extensive  island  is  computed  at  50,000 
 souls  !  Cyprus  is  pervaded  by  a  chain  of  mountains,  among 
 which  is  a  third  Olymjius^  some  primitive  natne,  which  seems  to 
 have  been  general  for  a  luountain  of  great  height.  There  is  not 
 one  river  in  the  island,  that  continues  its  course  in  the  summer  ; 
 but  there  are  many  ponds,  lakes,  and  fens,  producing  a  damp  and 
 malignant  air.  The  chief  cities  are  Nicosia,  the  capital  and  resi- 
 dence of  the  governor,  and  Famagusta.* 
 
 RUSSIAN  EMPIRE  IN  ASIA. 
 
 CHAPTER  I. 
 
 HISTORICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 NAMES,  EXTENT,  BOUNDARIES,  DIVISIONS,  ORIGINAL  POPULATION', 
 PROGRESSIVE  GEOGRAPHY,  HISTORICAL  EPOCHS  AND  ANTIQUI- 
 TIES, RELIGION,  ECCLESIASTICAL  GEOGRAPHY,  GOVERNMENT, 
 LAWS,  POPULATION,  COLONIES,  ARMY,  NAVY,  REVENUES,  POLIT- 
 ICAL IMPORTANCE  AND  RELATIONS,  MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS, 
 LANGUAGE,  LITERATURE,  EDUCATION,  CITIES  AND  TOWNS, 
 MANUFACTURES  AND  COMMERCE. 
 
 JI.xtent.~\  ASIATIC  Russia  extends  between  the  57th 
 and  the  190th  degrees  of  east  longitude  from  London,  computed 
 at  4570  miles  in  length.  Its  g'reatest  breadth,  from  the  Altaian 
 chain  of  mountains,  on  the  south,  to  the  Cape  of  Faimura  on  the 
 north,  28  degrees  of  latitude,  is  I960  miles. 
 
 Boundaries.^  East  by  a  part  of  Asia,  and  the  seas  of  Kamchat- 
 ka and  Ochotsk  ;  north  by  the  Arctic  ocean  ;  Avest  the  frontiers 
 correspond  with  tlioee  between  Asia  and  Europe.  The  southern 
 limits  require  more  explanation.  The  river  Cuban,  part  of  the 
 Caucasian  chain,  and  an  ideal  line,  divide  the  Russian  territory 
 from  Turkey  and  Persia.  The  boundary  then  ascends  along  the 
 north  of  the  Caspian,  through  the  steji/i,  or  desert  of  Issim,  and 
 the  eastern  shore  of  the  river  Ob,  to  where  it  issues  from  the  Al- 
 taian mountains,  when  it  meets  the  vast  empire  of  China  ;  and 
 proceeds  along  that  chain  to  the  sources  of  the  Onon,  where  it  in- 
 cludes a  considerable  region,  called  Daouria,  extending  about  200 
 
 *  Van  Egmont,  i.  281.    Maiiiii  6ic. 
 
RUSSIAN  EMPIRE  IN  ASIA.  45T 
 
 ■miles  in  breadth,  to  the  south  of  the  mountailis  called  Yablonny  ; 
 the  limit  between  Russia  and  Chinese  Tartary  being  partly  an 
 ideal  line  ;  and  partly  the  river  Argoon,  which  joined  with  the 
 Onon  constitutes  the  great  river  Amur.  Thence  the  boundary 
 returns  to  the  mountainous  chain,  and  follows  a  branch  of  it  to  a 
 promontory  on  the  north  of  the  mouth  of  the  Amur,  or  Amoor. 
 
 Divisions.']     These  have  been  already  given.* 
 
 Original  Pofiutation.']  The  population  of  Asiatic  Russia  may 
 be  regarded  as  wholly  primitive,  except  a  few  Russian  colonies 
 recently  planted,  and  the  Techuks  in  the  part  opposite  to  Ameri- 
 ca, who  are  supposed  to  have  proceeded  from  that  continent,  be- 
 cause their  persons  and  customs  are  different  from  those  of  the 
 other  Asiatic  tribes.  Next  to  the  Techuks,  in  the  farthest  north, 
 are  the  Yukagirs,  a  branch  of  the  Yakuts,  and  yet  farther  west  the 
 Samoides.  To  the  south  of  the  Techuks  are  the  Coriaks,  a 
 branch  of  the  same  race  ;  and  yet  farther  south  the  Kamchadals, 
 a  distinct  people,  who  speak  a  different  language.  The  Lamuts 
 are  a  part  of  the  Mandshurs,  or  Tunguses,  who  have  been  vague- 
 ly called  Tartars  or  Tatars,  though  they  neither  belong  to  that 
 race  nor  to  the  Monguls.  The  Tunguses  are  widely  diffused  be- 
 tween the  Yenisei  and  the  Amur  ;  and  the  southern  tribes  ruled 
 by  a  khan,  or  monarch,  conquered  China  in  the  17th  century. 
 The  Ostiaks,  and  other  tribes  of  Samoides  have  penetrated  con- 
 siderably to  the  south  between  the  Yenisei  and  the  Irtish,  and  are 
 followed  by  various  tribes  of  the  Monguls,  as  the  Calmucs,  Burats, 
 &c.  and  by  those  of  the  Tartars,  or  Huns,  as  the  Teluts,  Kirguses, 
 and  others.  The  radically  distinct  languages  amount  to  seven, 
 independent  of  many  dialects  and  mixtures.f 
 
 J\i'aTnes.~\  The  vast  extent  of  northern  Asia  was  first  known  by 
 the  name  of  Sibir,  or  Siberia  ;  but  this  appellation  seems  to  be 
 gradually  passing  into  disuse.  When  the  Monguls  established  a 
 kingdom  in  these  northern  regions,  the  first  residence  of  the  princes 
 was  on  the  river  Tura,  on  the  spot  where  now  stands  the  town  of 
 Tinmen,  about  1 80  miles  S.  W.  of  Tobolsk.^  But  the  khans  af- 
 terwards removed  to  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Irtish,  where  they 
 founded  the  city  of  Isker,  near  Tobolsk.  This  new  residence  was 
 also  called  Sibir,  and  the  name  of  the  city  passed  to  the  Mongul 
 principality.  When  the  Russians  began  the  conquest  of  the  coun- 
 try, being  unconscious  of  its  extent,  the  name  of  this  western 
 province  was  gradually  diffused  over  half  of  Asia. 
 
 Progressive  Geografihy.~\  The  progressive  geography  of  this 
 vast  part  of  Asia  commences  at  a  recent  period  :  nor  was  it  dis- 
 closed to  the  attention  of  civilized  Europe  till  the  middle  of  the 
 16th  century.  It  is  indeed  a  singular  circumstance  in  human  af- 
 fairs, thatAmei'ica  may  be  said  to  have  been  discovered  before  Asia, 
 though  it  be  natural  to  suppose  that  the  latter  would  have  engaged 
 
 *  Seep.  187,  188. 
 
 ]j"  See  the  Hist.  (Ics  Decoiivertes  Tlusses,  &c.;    Berne,   1779,   1787;  6vol3.  8vo. ; 
 being  an  abstract  of  the  Travels  of  Pallas,  (^mtlin,  Ghiorghi,  kc. 
 +  Tooke's  Russia,  ii.  60. 
 
 VOL.   II.  58 
 
458  RUSSIAN  EMPIRE  IN  ASIA. 
 
 a  more  deep  and  immediate  interest,  because  the  barbarous 
 swarms,  in  the  extremity  of  Asia,  had  repeatedly  astonished,  and 
 almost  subjugated  Europe.  It  has  already  been  mentioned,  that 
 in  1242  the  Monguls,  under  Sheibani,  established  a  principality  in 
 the  western  part  of  Siberia,  around  Tobolsk,  and  the  river  Tura, 
 whence  this  principality  was  sometimes  styled  that  of  Turan.* 
 The  history  of  this  distant  principality  is  obscure,  and  lost  in  the 
 superior  splendor  of  the  other  Mongul  dynasties. 
 
 In  the  reign  of  Ivan  Vasilivitch,  by  his  conquest  over  the  Tar- 
 tars, esteemed  the  founder  of  Russian  greatness,  some  incursions 
 were  made  as  far  as  the  river  Ob,  and  some  Mongul  chiefs  were 
 brought  prisoners  to  Moscow  ;t  but  more  than  half  a  century 
 elapsed  before  the  real  conquest  of  Siberia  commenced,  in  the 
 reign  of  Ivan  Vasilivitch  III.  who  ascended  the  Russian  throne  in 
 1534.  TrogonafP,  a  Russian  merchant  of  Archangel,  having  opened  a 
 traffic  for  Siberian  furs,  the  tzar  was  induced  to  attempt  the  con- 
 quest of  the  country  Avhich  supplied  them,  and  in  15  38  had  added 
 to.his  titles  that  of  lord  of  Siberia.  It  was  not  however  till  the 
 beginning  of  the  17th  century  that  they  had  firm  establishments, 
 and  one  Cyprian  was  appointed  first  archbishop  of  Siberia,  in 
 1621,  residing  at  Tobolsk,  where  he  drew  up  a  narrative  of  the 
 conquest.  1  owards  the  middle  of  the  I7th  century  the  Russians 
 had  extended  as  far  east  as  the  river  Amur  ;  but  Kamchatka  was 
 not  finally  reduced  till  the  year  1711.  Beering,  and  after  him 
 other  navigators,  proceeded  to  discover  the  other  extreme  parts 
 of  Asia.  In  his  first  voyage,  of  1728,  Beering  coasted  the  eastern 
 shore  of  Siberia,  as  high  as  lat.  67  IS,  but  his  most  important  dis- 
 coveries were  made  during  his  voyage  of  1741.  The  Aleutian  isles 
 were  visited  in  1745  ;  and  in  the  reign  of  the  late  Empress,  other 
 important  discoveries  folloAved,  which  were  completed  by  those 
 of  Cook. 
 
 In  the  south,  the  Mongul  kingdom  of  Cazan  having  been  sub- 
 dued in  1552,  and  that  of  Astracan  in  1554,  and  the  Russian  mon- 
 archy extended  to  the  Caspian  sea,  a  considerable  accession  was 
 made  to  the  progressive  geography  by  the  chart  of  that  sea  drawn 
 by  command  of  Peter  the  Great.  It  hence  appeared  that  all  ge- 
 ographers, ancient  and  modern,  had  mistaken  the  very  form  of 
 the  Caspian,  which  extends  greatly  from  north  to  south,  instead 
 of  spreading  from  east  to  west,  as  formerly  delineated.  In  the 
 reign  of  the  late  Empress,  many  important  additions  were  made 
 to  the  progressive  geography,  by  Pallas.  Beneyowski,  and  otlier 
 scientific  travellers,  and  a  Russian  atlas  was  published,  which  may 
 be  regarded  as  nearly  complete. 
 
 Hiatnrical  E/iochs.']  The  Russian  power  in'  Asia  is  of  such  re- 
 cent origin,  that  it  affords  few  historical  epochs,  except  those  Avhich 
 have  been  already  mentioned  in  the  progressive  geography.  The 
 city  of  Kazan  was  built  in  1257,  and  became  the  capital  of  a  small 
 independent  Mongul  principality,  partly  in  Europe,  and  partly  in 
 
 •  Thismiist  not  be  confounded  with  the  Touran  (or  Tartarj )  of  the  Persians, 
 t  Coxe'sliuss.  Dis.  {>.  177. 
 
RUSSIAN  EMPIRE  IN  ASIA.  459 
 
 Asia,  A.  D.  1441.  The  acquisitions  on  the  frontiers  of  Turkey 
 and  Persia  are  recent  and  well  known  events. 
 
 As  the  Russian  empire  in  Asia  borders  to  a  great  extent,  upon 
 Chinese  Tatary,  or  rather  the  Monguls  and  Mandshurs,  who  ac- 
 knowledge the  protection  and  supremacy  of  China,  it  may  be 
 proper  here  to  commemorate  a  few  events,  which  have  arisen 
 from  this  proximity.  About  the  middle  of  the  17th  century  the 
 Russians  had  advanced  to  the  river  Amur  ;  here  they  subdued 
 some  Tungusian  tribes,  and  built  some  small  fortresses.  The 
 Chinese.monarch,  Camhi,  having  formed  a  similar  design,  the 
 two  great  powers  unavoidably  clashed  ;  open  hostilities  com- 
 menced about  1680,  and  the  Chinese  destroyed  the  Russian  forts. 
 In  August  1689,  the  treaty  of  Nershinsk,  was  signed  by  the  Rus- 
 sian and  Chinese  plenipotentiaries,  and  the  limits  specified,  were 
 a  chain  of  mountains  far  to  the  north  of  the  Amur,  and  the  source 
 of  the  small  river  Gorbitza,  thence  to  where  that  river  joins  the 
 Amur,  and  lastly  along  the  Argoon,  or  Argounia,  Sec*  By  this 
 treaty  the  Russians  assert  that  they  not  only  lost  a  wide  territory, 
 but  also  the  navigation  of  the  river  Amur,  which  would  have 
 been  of  great  consequence  to  their  remote  possessions  in  Asia  ; 
 yet  the  advantage  was  gained  of  a  commercial  intercourse  with 
 the  Chinese.  In  1727,  the  limits  were  continued  westward,  from 
 the  source  of  the  Argoon,  to  the  mountain  Sabyntaban,  near  the 
 conflux  of  two  rivers  with  the  Yenesei  ;  the  boundary  being  thus 
 ascertained  between  the  Russians  and  the  Monguls  subject  to 
 China.  The  trade  with  China  has  been  latterly  conducted  at  Zu- 
 ruchaitu,  on  the  river  Argoon,  lat.  50,  Ion.  117,  and  at  Kiachta, 
 about  90  miles  S.  of  the  sea  of  Baikal,  lat.  51,  Ion.  106.  This 
 boundary  between  two  states  is  the  most  extensive  of  any  on  the 
 globe,  reaching  from  about  the  65th  to  the  145th  degree  of  longi- 
 tude ;  eighty  degrees  (latitude  fifty)  computed  at  39  geographical 
 miles,  will  yield  the  result  of  3120  milej.  Its  history,  therefore, 
 becomes  singular  and  interesting. 
 
 Antiqt(ities.~\  The  most  curious  antiquities  seem  to  be  the  stone 
 tombs  which  abound  in  some  steppes,  particularly  near  the  river 
 Yenesei,  representing  in  rude  sculpture  human  faces,  camels, 
 horsemen  with  lances,  and  other  objects.  Here  are  found  besides 
 human  bones  those  of  horses  and  oxen,  with  fragments  of  pottery 
 and  ornaments  of  dress. f 
 
 Religion.~\  The  Grecian  system  of  the  Christian  faith,  which 
 is  embraced  by  the  Russians,  has  made  inconsiderable  progress 
 in  their  Asiatic  possessions.  Many  of  the  Tartar  tribes  in  the  S. 
 W.  are  Mahometans  ;  and  others  follow  the  superstition  of  Dalai 
 Lama,  of  which  an  account  shall  be  given  in  the  description  of 
 the  Chinese  empire.  But  the  more  eastern  Tartars  are  generally 
 of  the  Shaman  religion,  a  system  chiefly  founded  on  the  self-exist- 
 ence of  matter,  a  spiritual  world,  and  the  general  restitution  of 
 all  things. ^:     The  Shamanians  believe  that  even  the  Burchans,  or 
 
 *  Coxe,  2'20.    Du  Halde,  iv.  f  Dec.  Russ.  vi.  210. 
 
 r  Tookt'a  Russia,  1783,  iv.  42. 
 
«60  RUSSIAN  EMPIRE  IN  ASIA. 
 
 ^ods  themselves,  arose  from  the  general  mass  of  matter  and  spir- 
 it. Their  epochs  of  destruction  and  restitution  somewhat  resemble 
 those  of  the  Hindoos.  While  common  souls  immediately  receive 
 their  final  decree,  the  virtuous  become  chubils,  or  wanderine 
 spirits,  who  are  purified  by  transmigration,  so  as  also  to  become 
 Burchans,  or  gods.  Between  men  and  gods  are  the  Tengri,  or 
 spirits  of  the  air,  who  direct  sublunary  affairs,  and  all  the  trifles 
 so  important  to  man,  but  beneath  the  most  remote  attention  of  the 
 gods.  The  infernal  regions  chiefly  contain  those  who  have  of- 
 fended the  priesthood.  This  system  is  intimately  connected  with 
 that  of  the  Dalai  Lama,  and  is  so  widely  diffused,  that  some  have 
 asserted  Shamanism  to  be  the  most  prevalent  system  on  the  globe. 
 In  Asiatic  Russia  it  is  professed  by  most  nations,  as  a  great  part 
 of  the  Tartars,  with  the  Fins,  Samoieds,  and  Ostiaks,  the  Mand- 
 shurs,  and  Burats,  and  Tunguses  ;  and  has  even  passed  td  the 
 Coriaks  and  Techuks,  and  people  of  the  eastern  isles.* 
 
 The  archiepiscopal  see  of  Tobolsk  is  the  metropolitan  of  Rus- 
 sian Asia  in  the  north,  and  that  of  Astracan  in  the  south.  There 
 is  another  see,  that  of  Irkutsk  and  Nershink,  and  perhaps  a  few 
 others  of  recent  foundation. 
 
 At  Karrass,  530  miles  S.  W.  of  Astracan,  and  260  N.  of  Tifflis, 
 is  a  missionary  station,  supported  by  a  missionary  society  at  Ed- 
 inburgh. The  Mohammedan  religion  prevails  in  this  region,  to 
 a  great  extent.  The  missionaries  have  been  patronized  by  the 
 Russian  government,  and  their  labors  have  been  successful.  Mr. 
 Brunton,  one  of  the  missionaries  on  this  station,  is  engaged  in 
 translating  the  Scriptures  into  the  Turkish  language,  which  is 
 understood  by  all  the  Tartars,  who  can  read,  from  the  banks  of 
 the  Wolga,  to  the  shores  of  the  Euxine,  and  is  also  spoken  over 
 many  extensive  and  populous  regions  in  the  east.  Types  and  pa- 
 per have  been  sent  to  the  amount  of  .-CGOO  sterling  to  this  station, 
 by  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  in  aid  of  this  benevolent 
 object,  and  the  New  Testament  has  been  already  published,  and 
 is  read  with  interest  by  some  of  the  most  learned  Mohammedans. 
 This  station  is  not  far  distant  from  the  Sonnas,  in  the  Caucasian 
 mountains,  already  noticed,!  and  who,  in  connexion  with  this  mis- 
 sion, may  be  of  essential  service  in  spreading  the  knowledge  of 
 the  Gospel  through  the  neighboring  countries. 
 
 '  Govern7nent.^  Siberia  is  divided  into  two  great  governments, 
 that  of  Tobolsk  in  the  west,  and  Irkutsk  in  the  east.  The  smaller 
 provinces  are  Kolivan,  Nershinsk,  Yakutsk,  and  Ochotsk.  In  the 
 S.  W.  is  the  government  of  Caucasus,  with  one  or  two  other  di- 
 visions, intermingling  Europe  and  Asia.  At  a  distance  from  the 
 capital  the  government  becomes  proportionably  lax,  and  tribute 
 is  the  chief  mark  of  subjection. 
 
 PoJiulation.~\  The  population  of  Siberia,  according  to  Tooke, 
 cannot  be  computed  at  above  three  millions  and  a  half.  Small 
 Russian  colonies  have  been  established  in  several  of  the  distant 
 provinces  and  isles.  The  political  importance  and  relations  ot 
 this  part  of  the  Russian  empire  chiefly  relate  to  China  and  Japan. 
 
 *  Tookc's  Russia.,  iii.  t  ^'-  '^^-- 
 
RUSSIAN  EMPIRE  IN  ASIA.  461 
 
 Manners  and  Customs.']  The  manners  and  customs  of  Asiatic 
 Russia  vary  with  the  numerous  tribes  by  whom  that  extensive  re- 
 gion is  peopled.  The  Tartars,  properly  so  called,  are  the  most  nu- 
 merous, not  only  remaining  in  their  ancient  kingdom  of  Siberia, 
 but  constituting  many  other  tribes  in  the  west,  as  the  Nogays,  the 
 Kirguses  or  Kaizaks,  the  Bashkirs,  and  other  tribes,  as  far  as  the 
 sources  of  the  river  Ob.  Next  in  importance  are  the  Monguls,  of 
 ■whom  one  tribe,  the  Kalmuks,  are  found  to  the  west  of  the  Caspi- 
 an ;  while  the  others,  called  Burats,  Tonguts,  8cc.  are  chiefly 
 around  the  sea  of  Baikal.  Yet  farther  to  the  east,  are  the  Mand- 
 shurs,  or  Tunguses.  Such  are  the  three  radically  distinct  divis- 
 ions of  men,  whom  former  European  ignorance  classed  under  the 
 general  name  of  Tai"tars,  or  Tatars. 
 
 The  manners  of  the  Tartars,  who  are  the  same  people  with  the 
 Huns  of  antiquity,  are  minutely  described  by  those  authors  who 
 have  delineated  the  fall  of  the  Roman  empire.  It  would  be  su- 
 perfluous to  enter  into  a  detail  of  the  manners  and  customs  of  the 
 various  nations  in  Asiatic  Russia,  for  which  the  reader  may  be  re- 
 ferred to  the  works  of  Pallas,  Tooke,  and  others.  The  manners 
 of  the  Monguls  may  be  chosen  as  a  specimen.  Those  oi  the  Rus- 
 sian empire  are  wholly  Nomadic,  their  herds  consisting  of  horses, 
 camels,  oxen,  sheep,  and  goats.  The  women  tan  leather,  dig  the 
 culinary  roots,  prepare  the  winter  provisions,  dried  or  salted,  and 
 distil  the  spirit  of  mare's  milk.  The  men  hunt  the  numerous 
 beasts  and  game  that  roam  through  ihe  vast  wilds.  Their  tents 
 are  formed  of  a  kind  of  felt,  and  in  some  parts  they  erect  little 
 temples,  and  the  priests  have  also  wooden  hovels  around  the  tem- 
 ples. The  Kalmuks  are  divided  into  three  ranks  :  the  nobility, 
 whom  they  call  Avhite  bones  ;  the  common  people,  who  are  bond- 
 men, and  termed  black  bones  ;  and  the  clergy,  descending  from 
 both,  who  are  free.*  In  like  manner  the  noble  ladies  are  called 
 white  flesh,  and  the  common  people  black  flesh,  but  the  pedigrees 
 are  only  reckoned  by  the  bones.  The  power  of  the  Tuidsha^  or 
 chief  prince,  consists  solely  in  the  number  and  opulence  of  his 
 subjects,  territory  being  of  no  estimation  in  so  wide  a  region. 
 These  subjects  form  an  0/mss,  divided  into  Imaks^  from  150  to 
 300  families,  each  Imak  being  commanded  by  a  Saissan,  or  noble. 
 If  there  be  a  great  khan,  or  emperor,  the  princes  are  only  guided 
 by  him  in  aff'aJrs  of  general  importance.  The  tribute  is  about  a 
 tenth  part  of  the  cattle  and  other  property  ;  but  on  the  first  sum- 
 mons every  man  must  appear  on  horseback  before  the  prince,  who 
 dismisses  those  who  are  unfit  for  the  fatigues  of  war.  The  weap- 
 ons are  bows,  lances,  and  sabres,  and  sometimes  fire-arms  ;  and 
 the  rich  warriors  are  clothed  in  mail  of  interwoven  rings,  like 
 that  used  in  Europe  till  the  15th  centuiy.  But  they  cannot  op- 
 pose regular  armies,  and  are  apt  even  to  throw  into  disorder  those 
 of  their  allies. 
 
 The  Monguls  are  rather  short  in  stature,  with  a  fl«.t  visage, 
 small  oblique  eyes,  thick  lips,  and  a  short  chin,   with  a  scanty 
 
 *  Tooke,  iv,  14. 
 
462  RUSSIAN  EMPIRE  IN  ASIA! 
 
 beai'd  ;  the  hair  black,  and  the  complexion  of  a  reddish  or  yellow- 
 ish brown  ;  but  that  of  the  women  is  clear,  and  of  a  healthy  white 
 and  red.  They  have  surprising  quickness  of  sight  and  appre- 
 hension, and  are  docile,  hospitable,  beneficent,  active,  and  volup- 
 tuous. Industry  is  a  virtue  entirely  female,  yet  great,  and  accom- 
 panied with  perpetual  cheerfulness.  Their  religious  books  are 
 in  the  dialect  of  Tangut,  or  Tibet,  and  there  is  a  schoolmaster  in 
 every  imak.  Animal  food  is  abundant,  and  sometimes  mixed 
 ■with  vegetable,  while  the  general  drink  is  water  ;  but  they  some- 
 times indulge  in  sour  milk,  prepared  after  the  Tartarian  manner, 
 butter-milk,  and  koumiss  ;  but  mead  and  brandy  are  now  greater 
 favorites.  When  pasturage  begins  to  fail,  all  the  tribes  strike 
 their  tents,  generally  from  ten  to  fifteen  times  in  the  year,  pro- 
 ceeding in  the  summer  to  the  northern,  and  in  the  winter  to  the 
 southern  wilds.  The  herds,  men,  women,  and  children,  form  a 
 regular  procession,  and  are  followed  by  the  girls,  singing  with 
 harmony  and  spirit.  The  amusements  of  these  jovial  wanderers 
 consist  in  running  races  on  horseback,  in  which  even  the  girls 
 excel  ;  archery,  wrestling,  pantomime,  dances,  and  the  songs  of 
 the  young  woimen,  generally  accompanied  by  the  lute,  viol,  and 
 pipe,  the  themes  of  their  ditties  being  gigantic  tales  of  chivalry, 
 and  amorous  adventures  and  sentiments,  but  the  sound  is  harsh 
 and  dismal.  Cards  are  not  unknown,  but  chess  is  the  favorite 
 game.  Such,  with  some  slight  shades  of  difTerence,  are  also  the 
 manners  of  the  Tartars  and  Mandshurs. 
 
 The  three  distinct  barbaric  nations  of  Tartars,  Monguls,  and 
 Tunguses,  or  Mandshurs,  are  by  far  the  most  interesting  in  these 
 iitiiddlc  regions  of  Asia,  as  their  ancestors  have  overturned  the 
 greatest  empires,  and  repeatedly  influenced  the  destiny  of  half 
 the  globe.  The  vague  name  of  Tartary  is  nearly  discarded  from 
 our  maps,  and  might  yield  with  far  greater  precision  to  names  de- 
 rived from  the  seats  of  the  chief  nations,  as  Tungusia,  or  Mand- 
 shuria,  in  the  cast,  IMongolia  in  the  centre,  and  Tartaria  in  the 
 ■west.  Of  these  the  Monguls  are  the  chief  people,  and  ihe  ac- 
 count already  given  of  their  manners  will  suffice  to  impart  an  idea 
 ©fthe  ethical  condition  of  Asiatic  Russia. 
 
 La7icfuagc.^  The  languages  of  all  these  original  nations  are 
 radically  different  ;  and  among  the  Tunguses,  Monguls,  and  Tar- 
 tars, there  are  some  slight  traces  of  literature  ;  and  not  a  few 
 manuscripts  in  their  several  languages.  The  history  of  the  Tar- 
 tars, by  Abulgasi,  is  a  favorable  specimen  of  Tartaric  composi- 
 tion. The  late  emperor  of  China  ordered  many  of  the  best  Chi- 
 nese works  to  be  translated  into  the  Mandshur  language,  which, 
 having  an  alphabet,  may  be  more  easily  acquired  t'^an  the  origi- 
 nal. In  the  Mongul  language  there  are  also  many  books,  written 
 in  the  various  countries  to  which  their  wide  conquests  extended. 
 Superior,  even  amid  their  barbarism,  to  the  chief  original  nations 
 of  Africa  and  America,  the  central  races  of  Asia  deserve  an  at- 
 tention, which  has  been  lavished  upon  inferior  objects. 
 
 Cities  and  Torjns.']  In  Asiatic  Russia,  the  principal  city  is  As- 
 tracan,  at  the  mouth  oi'    the  Volga,  which  is  supposed  to  contain 
 
RUSSIAN  EMPIRE  IN  ASIA.  46.3. 
 
 70,000  inhabitants.  This  city  was  founded  by  the  Monguls  of 
 Kipschak.  In  1554  the  Monguls  were  expelled.  Astracan  is 
 built  on' several  small  hills,  tliat  rise  amid  the  meadows  of  the 
 Volga,  The  fortress  on  the  west  is  triangular,  but  the  walls  of 
 the  city  are  neglected.  The  wooden  houses  have  exposed  it  to 
 frequent  conflagrations,  and  attempts  have  been  vainly  made  to 
 enforce  the  use  of  brick.  Vines  are  cultivated  in  the  neighbor- 
 hood, and  other  fruits  abound.  There  are  25  Russian  churches, 
 and  2  convents.  The  Armenians,  Lutherans,  and  Papists,  have 
 also  their  places  of  worship  ;  and  even  the  Hindoos  have  been 
 permitted  to  erect  a  temple.*  Tlie  chief  trade  of  Astracan  is  in 
 salt  and  fish,  particularly  sturgeon  and  kaviar,  from  the  Volga  ; 
 and  it  also  attracts  some  portion  of  oriental  commerce.  The  fish- 
 ery on  the  Caspian,  which  centers  at  Astracan,  is  esteemed  of  the 
 Utmost  consequence  to  the  empire. 
 
 Azof,  on  the  Asiatic  side  of  the  Don,  is  of  small  importance,  ex- 
 cept as  a  fortified  post.  The  chief  towns  on  the  Asiatic  side  of 
 the  Volga  are  Samara  and  Stauropol.  At  the  mouth  of  the  river 
 Ural,  or  Jaik,  stands  Gurief  ;  but  the  chief  place  after  Astracan 
 is  Orenburg,  founded  in  the  year  1740,  to  protect  the  acquisitions 
 in  these  parts,  and  promote  their  commerce.  Nor  have  these 
 views  failed,  for  Orenburg  is  the  seat  of  a  considerable  trade  with 
 the  tribes  on  the  east  of  the  Caspian. 
 
 On  passing  the  Uralian  chain,  first  occurs  the  city  of  Tobolsk, 
 which  contains  only  about  15,000  souls;  but  is  esteemed  the  cap- 
 ital of  Siberia.  Being  mostly  built  of  wood,  it  was  nearly  con- 
 sumed by  a  destructive  fire,  about  1786;  but,  it  is  believed,- is 
 now  rebuilt,  chiefly  of  stone.  Tobolsk  is  more  distinguished  as 
 the  residence  of  the  governor  and  archbishop,  than  for  the  import- 
 ance of  its  commerce.  The  upper  town  stands  on  a  hill,  on  the 
 east  side  of  the  Irtish,  and  contains  a  stone  fortress  of  some 
 strength.  Indian  goods  are  brought  hither  by  Kalmuck  and  Bu- 
 charian  merchants,  and  provisions  are  cheap  and  plentiful. 
 
 Kolyvan  is  a  town  of  some  consequence,  on  the  river  Ob:  In 
 the  neighborhood  there  are  silver  mines  of  considerable  produce. 
 To  the  north  of  Kolyvan  is  Tomsk,  said  to  contain  about  8000 
 souls. 
 
 Farther  east  the  towns  become  of  less  consequence,  but  a  vil- 
 lage attracts  attention,  when  situated  in  a  desert.  On  the  river 
 Yenisei,  is  a  small  town  of  the  same  name,  and  another  called 
 Sayansk,  whence  the  adjacent  part  of  the  Altaian  chain  is  called 
 the  mountains  of  Sayansk. 
 
 On  the  I'iver  Angara,  which  issues  from  the  seaof  Baikal,  stands 
 Irkutsk,  supposed  to  contain  12,000  inhabitants.  There  are  sev- 
 eral chiirches  and  other  edifices  of  sione,  and  the  wooden  houses 
 are  large  and  convenient.  Irkutsk  is  the  chief  mart  of  the  com- 
 merce between  Russia  and  China,  the  see  of  an  archbishop,  and 
 the  seat  of  supreme  jurisdiction  over  eastern  Siberia. t  The  nu- 
 merous officers  and  magistrates  have  introduced  the  customs  and 
 
 *  TgoIcc's  Russia,  iv.  311.  +  Lesseps,  ii.  344i 
 
464  RUSSIAN  EMPIRE  IN  ASIA. 
 
 fashions  of  Petersburg,  and  European  equipages  are  not  uncom- 
 mon in  this  distant  region. 
 
 On  the  wide  and  frozen  Lena,  stands  Yakutsk,  with  some  stone 
 churqhes ;  but  the  houses  are  mostly  of  wood,  and  inhabited  chief- 
 ly by  Prussians,  as  the  Yakuts  are  fond  of  a  wandering  life.  The 
 Lena  is  here  about  two  leagues  in  width,  (though  about  700  miles 
 from  its  mouth)  but  is  greatly  impeded  with  ice  ;  and  there  are 
 only  a  few  small  barks,  chiefly  employed  in  supplying  the  town 
 with  provisions.  Ochotsk,  on  the  sea  of  the  same  name,  may  be 
 rather  regarded  as  a  station  than  a  town. 
 
 Manufactures.']  There  are  some  manufactures,  particularly  in 
 leather,  at  Astracan  ;  and  salt  is  prepared  there,  and  in  several 
 other  places  in  Asiatic  Russia.  Isinglass  is  chiefly  manufactured 
 on  the  shores  of  the  Caspian,  from  the  sounds  or  air  bladder  of  the 
 sturgeon,  and  the  beluga.  Kaviar  is  the  salted  roe  of  large  fish. 
 There  is  a  considerable  manufacture  of  nitre,  about  40  miles  north 
 of  Astracan.  The  Tartars  and  Bashkirs  make  felts  of  a  large 
 size,  some  of  which  are  exported.  The  Russia  leather  is  chiefly 
 fabi'icated  in  the  European  provinces,  being  tanned  with  willow 
 bark,  and  afterwards  stained.  Shagreen  is  prepared  from  the 
 hides  of  horses  or  asses,  but  only  a  particular  part  of  the  back  is 
 fit  for  this  purpose  ;  and  the  grain  is  given  with  the  hard  seeds  of 
 the  greater  orach,  prest  into  the  leather  while  moist.*  Pitch  is 
 made  by  the  boors  from  the  pines  of  Siberia.  Near  the  Uralian 
 mountains  are  several  manufactures  in  iron  and  copper. 
 
 Commerce.~\  The  chief  commerce  of  this  part  of  the  Russian 
 empire  consists  in  sables,  and  other  valuable  furs,  which  are  ea- 
 gerly bought  by  the  Chinese,  who  return  tea,  silk,  and  porcelain  : 
 that  with  the  Kirguses  is  carried  on  by  exchanging  Russian  wool- 
 len cloths,  iron,  and  household  articles,  for  horses,  cattle,  sheep, 
 and  beautiful  sheep-skins.  On  the  Black  Sea  there  is  some  com- 
 merce with  Turkey,  the  exports  being  furs,  kaviar,  iron,  linen, 
 8cc.  and  the  imports  wine,  fruit,  coffee,  silks,  rice.  In  the  trade 
 pn  the  Caspian,  the  exports  are  the  same,  but  the  return  chiefly 
 silk.  The  principal  Russian  harbors  are  Astracan,  Gurief,  and 
 K-isliur,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Terek,  but  the  best  haven  is  Baku, 
 belonging  to  the  Persians.  The  Tartars,  on  the  east  of  the  Caspi- 
 an, bring  the  products  of  their  country,  and  of  Buchai'ia,  as  cotton 
 yarn,  furs,  stuffs,  hides,  rhubarb  ;  but  the  chief  article  is  raw  silk 
 from  Shirvan  and  Ghilan,  on  the  west  of  the  Caspian. 
 
 *  Tooke's  View,  iii.  531. 
 
RUSSIAN  EMPIRE  IN  ASL%  46-5 
 
 CHAPTER  II. 
 
 NATURAL  GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 CLIMATE  AND  SEASONS,  FACE  OF  THE  COUNTRY,  SOIL  AND  AGRI- 
 CULTURE, RIVERS,  LAKES,  MOUNTAINS,  FORESTS,  BOTANY,  ZOO- 
 LOGY, MINERALOGY,  MINERAL  WATERS. 
 
 Clhnate  and  Seasons.']  IN  Asiatic  Russia  the  climate  ex- 
 tends from  the  vine  at  the  bottom  of  Caucasus,  to  the  solitary  li- 
 chen, on  the  rocks  of  the  Arctic  ocean.  Through  the  greater 
 part  of  Siberia,  the  most  southern  frontier  being  about  50,  while 
 the  northern  ascends  to  78.  The  general  climate  may  more  justly 
 be  regarded  as  frigid  than  temperate  ;  being,  in  thi'ee  quarters 
 of  the  country,  on  a  level  with  that  of  Norway  and  Lapland,  un- 
 softened  by  the  gales  of  the  Atlantic.  To  the  south  of  the  sea  of 
 Baikal,  the  climate  parallels  that  of  Berlin  and  the  north  of  Ger- 
 many, so  that  the  finest  and  most  fertile  regions  in  middle  Asia 
 beloiig  to  the  Chinese.  The  chains  of  high  mountains,  which 
 form  the  southern  boundary  of  these  provinces,  also  contribute  to 
 increase  the  cold  ;  and  the  sea  of  Baikal  is  commonly  entirely 
 frozen  from  December  till  May.  The  finest  climate  in  these  east- 
 ern parts  is  that  of  Daouria,  or  the  province  around  Nershinsk  j 
 and  the  numerous  towns  on  the  Amur  evince  the  great  superioi'i- 
 ty  of  what  is  called  Chinese  Tartary,  which  is  comparatively  a 
 fertile  and  temperate  region.  The  change  of  the  seasons  is  very- 
 rapid  ;  the  long  winter  is  almost  instantaneouly  succeeded  by  a 
 warm  spring,  and  the  quickness  and  luxuriance  of  the  vegetation 
 exceed  description. 
 
 Face  of  the  Country.]  In  a  genei'al  view  of  Asiatic  Russia,  the 
 northei-n  and  eastern  parts  present  vast  marshy  plains,  covered 
 with  almost  perpetual  snow,  and  pervaded  by  enormous  rivers, 
 Avhichj  under  masses  of  ice,  pursue  their  dreary  way  to  the  Arctic 
 ocean.  Even  the  central  parts  of  Siberia  seem  destitute  of  trees, 
 vegetation  being  checked  by  the  severe  cold  of  so  wide  a  conti- 
 nent. Towards  the  south  there  are  vast  forests.  The  sublime 
 scenes  around  the  sea  of  Baikal  are  agreeably  contrasted  with  the 
 marks  of  human  industry,  the  cultivated  field  and  the  garden.* 
 Even  in  the  south  the  rivers  have  already  acquired  the  size  of  the 
 Danube  and  the  Rhine,  and  they  are  navir^able  with  safety  for  a 
 great  extent.  The  vast  plains,  called  steppes.,  constitute  a  fea- 
 ture almost  peculiar  to  Asia  ;  but  the  mountains  do  not  correspond 
 in  dignity,  rather  resembling  the  Apennines,  than  the  Andes,  the 
 Alps,  or  even  the  Pyrenees. 
 
 Soil  and  ylgriculture.]  Many  pa.rts  of  Siberia  are  totally  inca- 
 pable of  agriculture  ;  but  in  the  southern  and  western  districts 
 the  soil  is  of  remarkable  fertility.     Toward  the  north  of  Kolyvan 
 
 *  See  TjcU's  animated  description  of  this  region. 
 VOL.   ir.  .59 
 
466  RUSSIAN  EMPIRE  IN  ASIA. 
 
 barley  generally  yields  more  than  twelve  fold,  and  oats  commonly 
 twenty  fold.  Buck  Avheat,  in  this  black  light  mould,  is  apt  to  run 
 into  stalk,  but  sown  in  the  poorest  spots  yields  from  twelve  to  fif- 
 teen fold.  Exclusive  of  winter  wheat,  most  of  the  usual  European 
 grains  prosper  in  southern  Siberia.  The  culture  of  the  olive 
 tree  has  been  attempted  near  Astracan,  and  the  heat  of  the  sum- 
 mer was  sufficient,  but  the  winter  cold  too  severe.  The  best  rhu- 
 barb abounds  on  the  banks  of  the  Ural,  or  Jaik,  in  the  southern 
 districts  watered  by  the  Yenesei,  and  in  the  mountains  ofDaouria. 
 
 But  in  no  part  of  the  Russian  empire  has  agriculture  made 
 much  progress,  nor  indeed  is  it  possible,  while  the  peasantry  are 
 slaves,  and  sold  with  the  soil. 
 
 BiveTs.~\  Some  of  the  largest  rivers  of  Asia  belong  to  the  Rus- 
 sian empire,  nearly  equalling  in  the  length  of  their  course  any  oth- 
 ers on  the  globe.  Of  these  the  principal  are  the  Oby,  the  Yenesei, 
 the  Lena,  the  Amur,  and  the  Wolga,  which  have  been  already  de- 
 scribed.* 
 
 The  Selinga  is  a  noble  river,  farther  to  the  south,  which  flows 
 into  the  sea  of  Baikal,  after  receiving  the  Orchon  and  other  rivers, 
 among  which  is  the  Tula,  or  Tola,  the  last  stream  that  occurs  till 
 the  wide  desart  be  passed,  which  here  divides  the  Russian  empire 
 from  China  Proper.  The  territory  adjacent  to  the  Selinga  and 
 the  Onon  is  the  most  interesting  in  Siberia,  abounding  with  new, 
 and  properly  Asiatic  botany,  and  zoology. 
 
 The  Yaik  is  a  considerable  stream  which  flows  into  the  Caspi- 
 an :  the  name  was  recently  changed  for  that  of  Ural,  on  account 
 of  a  daring  insurrection  of  the  tribes  bordering  on  the  Yaik.f  The 
 Terek  also  joins  the  Caspian  on  the  west,  and  its  chief  conse- 
 quence is  derived  from  the  fertility  of  its  shores.  The  Kuban,  or 
 Cuban,  the  ancient  Hypanis,  runs  in  an  opposite  direction  into  the 
 Euxine.  The  lower  shores  are  plain,  and  destitute  of  wood  ;  near 
 the  sources  are  large  forests. 
 
 Towards  the  other  extremity  of  Asiatic  Russia  is  the  Anadir, 
 which  pervades  the  country  of  the  Fechuks.  The  long  course  of 
 the  Amur  belongs  to  the  Chinese  dominions.  The  Argoon  may 
 be  properly  considered  as  the  original  Amur,  while  the  Onon, 
 called  also  the  Schilka,  which  is  regarded  as  another  source  of 
 that  great  river,  may  be  considered  as  entirely  Russian.  The 
 course  of  the  Onon  is  about  500  miles  ;  and  it  receives  numerous 
 streams  from  mountains  on  the  N.  and  S. 
 
 Lakes.]  In  the  north  of  Siberia,  the  most  considerable  lake  is 
 that  of  Piazinsko.  In  die  south  the  sea  of  Baikal  is  fresh,  but  the 
 extent  far  exceeding  that  of  any  other  lake  ;  it  has  been  described, 
 with  the  Caspian,  among  the  inland  seas  of  Asia-t  Between  the 
 river  Ob  and  the  Irtish  is  a  large  lake,  about  half  the  length  of  the 
 Baikal,  or  170  miles  in  length,  divided  by  an  island  into  two  parts, 
 called  the  lakes  of  Tchany  and  Soumi.     In  this  quarter  there  are 
 
 *  See  p.  17,  Sec. 
 
 •j-  TIlis  liver  alone  rises  on  the  E.  of  the  Ural  mountains,  and  afterwards  pierces 
 the  granitic  chain,  and  passes  W.    Dec,  Russ.  iv.  3U'J. 
 +  P.  16. 
 
RUSSIAN  EMPIRE  IN  ASIA.  467 
 
 many  smaller  lakes,  and  others  north  of  the  Caspian,  some  of 
 which  are  salt,  particularly  that  of  Bogdo,  near  the  small  moun- 
 tain of  this  name. 
 
 The  Altan  Nor,  or  golden  lake,  sometimes  corruptly  called  El- 
 ton, is  a  large  saline  lake,  on  the  E.  of  Zaritzin.  The  lake  of  Al- 
 tin,  already  mentioned  in  the  account  of  the  river  Ob,*  is  called 
 by  the  Russians  Telctzko,  and  is  considerably  elevated  on  the 
 north  glde  of  the  Altaian  mountains  ;  but  from  the  best  maps  is 
 not  above  40  miles  in  length,  and  20  in  breadth. 
 
 Mountains.']  The  Uralian  and  Altaian  mountains  have  been  al- 
 ready described.! 
 
 The  mountains  of  Nershinsk,  or  Russian  Daouria,  send  branches 
 towards  the  Selinga,  and  the  Amur.  The  chief  heights  are  to- 
 v/ards  the  sources  of  the  Onon  and  Ingoda,  where  there  are  pre- 
 cipitous summits  of  granite.  A  ridge  passing  S.  W.  and  N.  E. 
 to  the  south  of  Nershinsk,  between  the  rivers  Onon  and  Argoon, 
 (the  last  of  which  is  the  real  Amur,  or  Amooi"),  is  the  most  fertile 
 in  minerals  of  all  Asiatic  Russia.  Among  the  products  may  be 
 named  granite,  porphyry,  jasper,  calcedony,  carnelian,  onyx,  large 
 smoky  topazes,  beryl,  or  aqua-marine,  the  real  topaz,  a,nd  the  ja- 
 cint.  In  this  opulent  district  are  also  salt  lakes,  and  warm  springs, 
 with  vitriolic  pyrites,  ores  of  alum,  native  sulphur,  and  coals.  The 
 metals  are  zinc,  iron,  copper,  and  many  mines  of  lead  ore,  con- 
 taining silver  and  gold.  The  zoology  and  botany  are  alike  curi- 
 ous and  interesting. I 
 
 The  chain  of  Stanovi,  otherwise  called  the  mountains  of  Ochotsk, 
 is  only  a  continuation  of  the  mountains  of  Daouria.  This  part 
 has  been  little  explored  ;  but  produces  nearly  the  same  substances 
 as  the  former.  A  great  singularity  of  this  ridge  is,  that  some  en- 
 tire branches  consist  of  beautiful  red  and  green  jasper.  That 
 branch  which  pervades  Kamchatka  is  little  known,  being  covered 
 with  perpetual  ice  and  suow.     It  abounds  with  volcanoes. 
 
 This  grand  chain  contains  almost  the  whole  mountains  of  Sibe- 
 ria, the  remainder  of  the  land  on  the  W.  of  the  Yenesei  being  lev- 
 el ;  and  to  the  E.  of  that  river  are  only  several  long  ranges  ex- 
 tending from  the  S.  to  the  N. 
 
 But  in  th*  S.  W.  part  of  Asiatic  Russia  some  ranges  deserve 
 attention,  as  the  lower  part  of  the  Uralian  chain,  which  bends  to 
 the  W.  above  Orenburg. 
 
 The  classical  range  of  Caucasus  forms  a  partial  limit  between 
 the  Russian  empire  and  those  of  Turkey  and  Persia.  Between 
 the  Euxine  and  the  Caspian,  the  Caucasian  chain  extends  for 
 about  400  miles  ;  and  where  the  chief  heights  are  distinctly  mark- 
 ed, about  5  miles  in  breadth,  but  in  many  places  20  or  30.  The 
 summits  are  covered  with  perpetual  ice  and  snow  ;  and  consist  of 
 granite,  succeeded  by  slate  and  lime-stone.  In  ancient  times  they 
 produced  gold  ;  and  there  are   still  vestiges  of  silver,   lead,  and 
 
 *  P.  18.  f  P.  22,  23. 
 
 *  The  mountain  Adonshollo,  celebrated  lor  minerals,  is  in  the  southern  extremity 
 of  Russian  Daouiia,  Dec.  Ru.ss.  v.  502. 
 
468  RUSSIAN  EMPIRE  IN  ASIA. 
 
 copper  ;  and  it  is   supposed  of  lapis    lazuli.     The  vaies  abound 
 with  excellent  forest  trees.* 
 
 Forests.']  Asiatic  Russia  is  abundant  in  forests.  On  the  west 
 of  the  government  of  Irkutsk,  an  enormous  dark  and  marshy  for- 
 est of  resinous  trees  extends  to  the  river  Kan. f  The  northern  and 
 eastern  parts  of  Siberia  are  bare  of  wood  ;  the  Norway  fir  not  be- 
 ing found  farther  north  than  lat.  60,  while  the  silver  fir  does  not 
 exceed  lat.  58.  In  Europe,  on  the  contraiy,  the  Norway  fir  forms 
 extensive  forests  in  Lapmark,  within  the  arctic  circle. | 
 
 Stefifis.']  After  the  forests,  may  be  considei'ed  the  extensive 
 level  plains,  or  Step/is,  an  appearance  of  nature  almost  peculiar 
 to  Asia,  and  some  parts  of  European  Russia  :  but  somewhat  sim- 
 ilar to  the  sandy  deserts  of  Africa.  The  stepps  are  not  so  barren 
 of  vegetation,  being  mostly  only  sandy,  with  scattered  patches  of 
 thin  grass,  and  at  wide  intervals  a  stunted  thicket.  Between  the 
 mouths  of  the  Don  and  Volga  is  a  stepp,  which  resembles  the  bed 
 of  a  sea  ;  with  spots  of  salt,  and  saline  lakes,  being  entirely  desti- 
 tute of  fresh  water  and  wood.§ 
 
 On  the  eastern  side  of  the  Volga  begins  an  extensive  stepp, 
 formerly  called  that  of  the  Kalmuks,  from  tribes  who  used  to 
 roam  there,  till  they  withdrew  from  the  Russian  dominions  in 
 1771.  To  the  S.  it  is  bounded  by  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  the  lake 
 Aral  ;  while  to  the  N.  it  may  be  regarded  as  connected  with  the 
 stepp  of  Issim  ;  and  on  the  east  may  be  considered  as  extending 
 to  the  river  Sarusa  ;  the  gi-eater  part  not  belonging  to  the  Rus- 
 sian dominions,  but  being  abandoned  to  the  wandering  Kirguses. 
 This  vast  desert  extends  about  700  British  miles  from  E.  to  W. 
 and  including  Issim,  nearly  as  far  from  N.  to  S.  but  on  the  N.  of 
 the  Casi>ian  the  breadth  does  not  exceed  220.  A  ridge  of  sandy 
 hills  stretches  from  near  the  termination  of  the  Uralian  chain  to- 
 wards the  Caspian  ;  the  rest  is  a  prodigious  sandy  level,  with  sea 
 shells,  and  salt  pools. 
 
 This  stepp  of  Barabin,  N.  W.  of  Omsk,  is  about  400  miles  in 
 length,  and  300  in  breadth,  containing  a  few  salt  lakes,  but  in 
 general  of  a  good  black  soil,  interspersed  with  forests  of  birch.H 
 That  of  Issim  aspires  but  rarely  to  the  same  quality  :  and  in  both 
 are  found  many  tombs,  inclosing  the  remains  of  pastoral  chiefs, 
 Tartar  or  Mongul, 
 
 The  vast  space  between  the  Ob  and  the  Yenesei,  from  the  noi  th 
 of  I'omsk  to  the  Arctic  ocean,  is  regarded  as  one  stepp,  being  a 
 prodigious  level  with  no  appearance  of  a  mountain,  and  scarcely 
 of  a  hill.  The  same  term  is  applied  to  the  wider  space  between 
 the  Yenesei  and  the  Lena,  between  the  Arctic  ocean  on  the  north, 
 and  a  river  Tunguska,  lat.  65  ;  and  to  the  parts  beyond  the  Lena 
 as  far  as  the  river  Kolyma,  or  Covima.** 
 
 *  Seethe  last  Travels  of  Pullas,  179o-4.  London,  ISOl,  '2  \ols.  4to. 
 
 t  Dec.  Russ.  vi.  183.  -  ■    Pennant,  A.  Z.  p.  clsxx, 
 
 §  Tooke'sView,  i.  178. 
 
 •fl  I'he  poverty  of  descriptive  language  is  frequently  to  be  regi-etted.  A  Rnssiii. 
 3le()p  sometimes  resembles  a  tlcsert,  at  other  times  a  savanna,  vavir.g  vith  luxuri'jfi; 
 grass. 
 
 *■■   .See  r.  C5.  . 
 
RUSSIAN  EMPIRE  IN  ASIA.  469 
 
 Botany.']  When  we  consider  the-  great  extent  of  the  Asiatic 
 provinces  of  the  Russian  empire,  the  scantiness  of  their  popula- 
 tion, and  the  few  years  that  have  as  yet  elapsed  since  the  first  at- 
 tempt to  examine  their  natural  productions,  we  shall  feel  rather 
 surprised  at  what  has  been  done,  than  disappointed  because  no 
 greater  progress  has  been  made  in  arranging  and  describing 
 their  indigenous  vegetables.  The  labors  of  Steller,  and  Gmelin, 
 and  lastly  of  Pallas,  under  the  munificent  patronage  of  the  Em- 
 press Catharine,  have  disclosed  to  the  view  of  science  the  wilds 
 of  Siberia  and  the  deserts  of  Tartary  ;  and  though  many  exten- 
 sive tracts  continue  wholly  unexplored,  yet  from  the  ample  speci- 
 men that  has  been  surveyed,  we  may  form  a  very  probable  con- 
 jecture concerning  the  botany  of  the  remainder. 
 
 Russia  in  Asia^  with  regard  to  its  flora,  is  divided  by  nature  in- 
 to two  unequal  portions  :  The  smaller  of  these  is  bounded  west 
 by  the  Don,  and  Wolga,  east  by  the  Uralian  mountains,  and  south 
 by  the  Caspian  sea,  and  the  Turkish  and  Persian  frontiers.  The 
 climate  of  this  district  is  delicious,  and  the  soil  fertile  ;  it  slopes 
 towards  the  south,  and  is  protected  from  the  northern  blasts  by 
 lofty  mountains  ;  in  its  botany  it  resembles  the  province  of  Tau- 
 rida  :  the  cedar,  the  cypress,  the  savine,  red  juniper,  beech,  and 
 oak  clothe  the  sides  of  the  mountains  ;  the  almond,  the  peachy 
 and  the  fig,  abound  in  the  warm  recesses  of  the  rocks  ;  the  quince, 
 the  apricot,  the  willow-leaved  pear,  and  the  vine,  are  of  frequent 
 occurrence  in  tlie  thickets,  and  on  the  edges  of  the  forests.  The 
 bogs  are  adorned  by  those  exquisitely  beautiful  plants,  the  rho- 
 dodendron ponticum,  and  azalea  pontica  ;  the  olive,  the  stately 
 wide-spreading  eastern  plane  tree,  the  laurel,  the  bay  and  laurus- 
 tinus,  grow  in  abundance  on  the  shores  of  the  sea  of  Azof,  and  the 
 Caspian  ;  and  the  romantic  vales  of  the  Caucasus  are  perfumed, 
 and  enlivened  with  the  syringa,  the  jasmine,  the  lilac,  and  the 
 Caucasian  rose.  From  so  flattering  a  specimen  it  is  not  to  be 
 doubted  that  future  naturalists  will  gather  an  abundant  harvest  of 
 useful  and  beautiful  vegetables  in  these  districts,  which  have  hith- 
 erto been  very  imperfectly  noticed. 
 
 By  far  the  larger  part  of  the  Russian  dominions  in  Asia  is  the 
 wide  expanse  of  Siberia,  sloping  towards  the  north,  and  shut  up 
 on  the  south  by  the  snowy  summitsof  the  Altaian,  and  other  moun- 
 tains. As  the  winters  are  of  great  length  and  severity  throughout 
 the  whole  of  this  tract,  none  but  the  hardiest  vegetables  are  found 
 to  inhabit  it.  The  oak  and  the  hazle,  which  endure  the  rigors  of 
 a  German  winter  without  shrinking,  cannot  exist  in  a  Siberian  cli- 
 mate ;  dwarfish  specimens  indeed  of  each,  may  be  traced  at  the 
 foot  of  the  Altaian  mountains,  quite  across  Asia,  as  far  as  the  banks 
 of  the  river  Amur,  in  Daouria,  where,  being  screened  from  the 
 northern  blasts,  they  resume  their  natural  size  ;  but  all  that  at- 
 tempt to  penetrate  northward,  become  more  diminutive  as  they 
 advance,  and  soon  entirely  disappear.  Even  the  common  heath, 
 and  bog  myrtle,  which  cover  the  lower  parts  of  Lapland,  venture 
 but  a  very  little  way  eastward  of  the  Uralian  mountains.  We  are 
 not  however  hence  to  conclude  that  the  mighty  rivers  of  Siberia 
 
470  RUSSIAN  EMPIRE  IN  ASIA. 
 
 pour  their  everlasting  streams  through  a  barren  waste  of  perpet- 
 ual snow  ;  on  the  contrary  they  are  bordered  with  inexhaustible 
 forests  of  birch,  of  alder,  of  lime,  of  Tartarian  maple,  of  black  and 
 white  poplar,  and  aspen,  besides  millions  of  noble  trees  of  the 
 pine  species,  such  as  the  fir,  the  Scotch  pine,  the  larch,  the  stone 
 pine,  and  yew-leaved  fir.  Nor  during  their  short  summer  are 
 they  destitute  of  many  beautiful  plants,  that  lie  concealed  under 
 the  snow  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year. 
 
 The  Siberian  plum,  and  crab,  the  mountain  ash,  Tartarian 
 lioney-suckle,  Tartarian  mulberry,  and  the  Daourian  rose,  form 
 thickets  of  exqusite  beauty,  under  shelter  of  which  arise  the  white 
 flowered  peony,  the  yellow  saranne  lily,  whose  roots  are  a  favor- 
 ite food  with  the  Tartarian  tribes,  and  a  multitude  of  others,  a 
 bare  list  of  whose  names  would  be  neither  amusing  nor  instruc- 
 tive. There  are  two  other  plants,  the  heraclcum  panaces,  and 
 iibiricum,  from  the  dried  stalks  of  which  the  natives  procure  a 
 saccharine  efflorescence,  whence  is  made,  by  fermentation  and 
 distillation,  a  coarse,  ardent,  intoxicating  spirit. 
 
 Zoologij.^  In  the  greater  part  of  Asiatic  Russia  the  rein-deer, 
 Avhich  extends  to  the  farther  east,  performs  the  office  of  the  horse, 
 the  cow,  and  the  sheep  ;  if  we  except  Xamchatka,  where  dogs  are 
 used  for  carriage.  But  the  south  may  perhaps  be  considered  as 
 the  native  country  of  that  noble  animal,  the  horse,  being  there 
 found  wild,  as  well  as  a  species  of  the  ass.*  The  terrible  urus, 
 or  bison,  is  yet  found  in  the  Caucasian  mountains  ;  and  the  argali, 
 or  wild  sheep,  is  hunted  in  Siberia.  The  ibex,  or  i-ock  goat,  is 
 frequent  on  the  Caucasian  precipices  ;  and  large  stags  are  found 
 in  the  mountains  near  the  Baikal,  with  the  musk  animal  ;  the  wild 
 boar,  wolves,  foxes,  and  bears,  of  various  names  and  descriptions, 
 are  also  found.  That  kind  of  weazel,  called  the  sable,  affords  a 
 valuable  traffic  by  its  furs.  Some  kinds  of  hares  appear,  little 
 known  in  other  regions  ;  and  the  castor,  or  beaver,  is  an  inmate 
 of  the  Yenesei.  The  walrus,  or  large  kind  of  seal,  once  termed 
 the  sea  horse,  is  no  stranger  to  the  Arctic  shores  ;  and  the  com- 
 mon seal  extends  to  Kamchatka,  while  the  manati,  perhaps  the 
 mermaid  of  fable,  inhabits  the  straits  of  Beering,  and  the  isles  be- 
 tween the  continents. 
 
 The  horses  of  the  Monguls  are  of  singular  Ijeauty,  some  being 
 ribbed  like  the  tiger,  and  others  spotted  like  the  leopard.  The 
 nostrils  of  the  foals  are  commonly  slitted,  that  they  may  inhale 
 more  air  in  the  course.  The  three  great  Nomadic  nations  of  the 
 centre  of  Asia,  the  Tartars,  Monguls,  and  Mandshurs,  have  no  a- 
 version  to  horse  flesh,  which  is  in  their  opinion  superior  to  beef  j 
 but  it  is  never  eaten  raw,  as  fabled,  though  they  sometimes  dry  it 
 in  the  sun  and  air,  when  it  will  keep  for  a  long  time,  and  is  eaten 
 without  farther  preparation.  The  adon,  or  stud  of  a  noble  Mon- 
 gul,  contains  sometimes  between  three  and  four  thousand  horses 
 and  mares.  The  cattle  are  of  a  middling  size,  and  pass  the  win- 
 ter in  the  stepps,  or  deserts.     As  these  nations  use  the  milk  of 
 
 *  Pennant,  A.  Z.  i.  3.    Sec  also  Dec.  Russ.  vi,  309-. 
 
RUSSIAN  EMPIRE  IN  ASIA.  471 
 
 mares,  so  they  employ  the  cow  for  draught,  a  string  being  passed 
 through  a  hole- made  in  their  nostril.  Mr  Bell  met  a  beautiful 
 Tartar  girl  astride  on  a  cow,  attended  by  two  male  servants. 
 
 The  best  sables  are  found  near  Yakutsk  and  Nershinsk  ;  but 
 those  of  Kamchatka  are  the  most  numerous,  and  several  stratagems 
 are  employed  to  catch  or  kill  the  animal,  without  any  injury 
 to  the  skin,  which  is  sometimes  worth  ten  pounds  on  the  spot. 
 The  black  foxes  are  also  highly  esteemed,one  skin  being  sometimes 
 sufficient  to  pay  the  tribute  of  a  village.*  The  rock  or  ice  fox, 
 generally  of  a  white  colour,  sometimes  blueish,  is  found  in  great 
 numbers  in  the  eastern  Archipelago  ;  this  animal  rivals  the  ape  in 
 sly  tricks  and  mischief.  The  bear  is  destroyed  by  many  ingenious 
 methods.  The  Koriakas  contrive  a  loop  and  bait  hanging  from 
 a  tree,  by  which  he  is  suspended.  In  the  southern  mountains  his 
 usual  path  is  watched,  a  rope  is  laid  in  it  with  a  heavy  block  at 
 one  end,  and  a  noose  at  the  other.  When  thus  entangled  by  the 
 neck,  he  is  either  exhausted  by  dragging  so  great  a  weight,  or  at- 
 tacking the  block  with  fury  he  throws  it  down  some  precipice, 
 where  it  seldom  fails  to  drag  him  to  destruction.  On  the  Euro- 
 pean side  of  the  Uralian  chain,  where  the  peasants  form  bee  hives 
 in  tall  trees,  the  bear  is  destroyed  in  his  attempt  to  seize  the  hon- 
 ey, by  a  trap  of  boards  suspended  from  a  strong  branch,  and  slight- 
 ly attached  to  the  entrance  of  the  hive  :  the  animal  finding  this 
 platform  convenient  for  his  purpose  undoes  the  slight  fastening  to 
 get^at  his  luscious  repast,  but  is  instantly  conveyed  to  a  great  dis- 
 tance, and  I'emains  suspended  from  the  branch,  till  he  be  discover- 
 ed and  shot  by  the  contrivers. 
 
 Mineralogy.']  The  mineralogy  of  Siberia  is  equally  fertile,  and 
 displays  many  singular  and  interesting  objects.  Peter  the  Great, 
 who  directed  his  attention  to  every  object  of  utility,  was  the  first 
 who  ordered  these  remote  mines  to  be  explored,  which  have  since 
 supplied  great  resources  of  national  wealth  and  industry. 
 
 The  chief  gold  mines  of  Siberia  are  those  of  Catherinburg,  on 
 the  east  of  the  Uralian  mountains,  about  lat.  57,  where  an  offi.ce 
 for  the  management  of  the  mines  was  instituted  in  1719.  The 
 mines  of  various  sorts  extend  a  considerable  distance  on  the  N. 
 and  S.  of  Cathei'inburg  ;  and  the  foundries,  chiefly  for  copper  and 
 iron,  are  computed  at  105.  But  the  gold  mines  of  Beresof,  in  this 
 vicinity,  were  of  little  consequence,  till  the  reign  of  Elizabeth. 
 The  mines  of  Nershinsk,  discovered  in  1704,  are  principally  of 
 lead  mixed  with  silver  and  gold  ;  and  those  of  Kolyvan,  chiefly 
 in  the  Schlangenberg,  or  mountain  of  serpents,  so  called  by  the 
 German  miners,  began  to  be  worked  for  the  crown  in  1748. 
 
 The  gold  is  sometimes  found  native,  but  generally  mingled 
 with  various  substances,  particularly  silver. 
 
 Besides  the  copper  mines  in  the  Uralian  mountains,  there  are 
 also  somie  in  those  of  Altai.  The  most  singular  ore  is  the  den- 
 dritic, sbmewhat  resembling  fern,  of  a  pale  color,  and  perhaps 
 containing  silver.     Malachite,   or   stalactitic   copper,  is  found  in 
 
 *  Tooke's  View,  iii.  ^X 
 
472  RUSSIAN  EMPIRE  IN  ASIA. 
 
 the  greatest  perfection  in  a  mine  about  30  miles  S.  of  Catherin- 
 burg  ;  what  is  called  the  Armenian  stone  is  a  blue  malachite.* 
 The  red  lead  of  Siberia  is  found  in  the  mines  of  Beresof,  on  a  mi- 
 caceous sand  stone.  This  substance,  it  is  well  known,  has  disclos- 
 ed a  new  metal  called  chrome. 
 
 But  the  iron,  mines  of  Russia  arc  of  the  most  solid  and  lasting 
 importance,  particularly  those  which  supply  the  numerous  foun- 
 dries of  the  Uralian  mountains.!  Yet  Russia  still  imports  quick- 
 silver and  zinc  ;  and  the  semi  metals  arc  rare. 
 
 Rock  salt  is  chiefly  found  near  the  Ilek,  not  far  from  Orenburg. 
 Coal  is  scarcely  known  ;  but  sulphur,  alum,  sal-amoniac,  vitriol, 
 nitre,  and  natron,  are  found  in  abundance. 
 
 Nor  must  the  gems  of  Siberia  be  omitted,  of  which  there  is  a 
 great  variety,  particularly  in  the  mountain  Adunshollo,  near  the 
 river  Argoon,  in  the  province  of  Nershinsk,  or  Daouria.  Com- 
 mon topazes  are  found  in  Adunshollo,  in  quadrangular  prisms,  as 
 is  also  the  jacint.  The  beryl,  or  aqua-marine,  is  found  in  Adun- 
 shollo, but  in  greater  perfection  in  what  are  called  the  gem  mines 
 of  Moursintsky,  near  Catherinburg,  along  with  the  chrysolite. 
 Red  garnets  abound  near  the  sea  of  Baikal  ;  and  a  yellowish  white 
 kind  was  discovered  by  Laxman.  The  green  felspar  of  Siberia  is 
 a  beautiful  stone,  by  the  Russians  carved  into  various  ornaments. 
 The  Daourian  mountains  between  the  Onon  and  the  Argoon  also 
 produce  elegant  onyx. 
 
 The  beautiful  stones  called  the  hair  of  Venus  and  Thetis,^e- 
 ing  limpid  rock  crystals,  containing  capillary  schorl,  red  or  green, 
 are  found  near  Catherinburg. 
 
 The  beautiful  red  and  green  jaspers  of  Siberia  are  froni  the 
 most  distant  mountains,  as  already  mentioned,  and  lapis  lazuli  is 
 found  near  the  Baikal.  The  Ui'alian  chain  also  presents  fine 
 white  marble  ;  and  in  the  numerous  primitive  ranges  there  arc- 
 many  varieties  of  granite  and  porphyry. 
 
 'Mineral  Waters.'^  Mineral  waters  do  not  abound  in  Asiatic 
 Russia.  There  is  a  fetid  sulphureous  spring  near  Sarepta,  on 
 the  frontier  of  Europe  and  Asia,  and  several  others  in  Siberia. 
 The  baths  on  the  Terek,  towards  the  Caucasus,  are  of  a  middle 
 temperature  ;  and  there  are  others  in  the  province  of  Nershinsk  ; 
 among  the  Kalmuks,  south  of  the  Altai,  in  the  country  sometimes 
 styled  Soongaria,  and  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  sea  of  Baikal. 
 Springs  impregnated  with  naphtha  and  petroleum,  are  found  near 
 the  Caspian  and  the  Baikal. 
 
 But  the  chief  mineral  waters  are  those  in  Kamchatka,  as  de- 
 scribed by  Lesseps.  The  hot  baths  of  Natchikin,  not  far  from  a 
 volcano  in  the  south  of  that  peninsula,  seem  not  to  have  been  traced 
 to  their  source,  but  they  fall  in  a  rapid  cascade  about  300  feet 
 above  the  baths,  benevolently  erected  by  Mr.  Kaslofl",  for  the  ben- 
 efit of  the  Kamchadals,  the  stream  being  about  a  foot  and  a  half 
 deep,  and  six  or  seven  feet  wide.     The    water  is  extremely  hot, 
 
 *  Guthrie,  Table  of  Gems.     Bee  XV.  p.  212. 
 
 t  Ne:ir  mount  Kmor,  or  Neniir,  not  far  tVoui  tlie  river  Yenisei,  in  the  south  of 
 Siberia,  Dr.  I'ailas  discovered  a  large  mass  of  native  iron.. 
 
CHINESE  EMPIRE.  473 
 
 and  of  a  very  penetrating  nature.  On  the  west  side  of  the  gulf  of 
 Penjina,  is  a  hot  spring,  which  falls  into  the  Tavatona,  being  of  a 
 great  size,  and  emitting  clouds  of  smoke. 
 
 ISLANDS  BELONGING  TO  ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 
 
 These  have  been  already  described  in  part.*  The  Kurilian  isles 
 extend  from  the  southern  promontory  of  Kamchatka  towards  the 
 land  of  Jesso  and  Japan,  being  supposed  to  be  about  20  irj  num- 
 ber, of  which  the  largest  are  Poro  Muschir,  and  Mokanturu.  Sev- 
 eral of  these  isles  are  volcanic  ;  and  some  contain  forests  of  birch, 
 alder,  and  pine.  Most  of  them  swarm  with  foxes  of  various  col- 
 ors. Even  after  the  discoveries  of  La  Perouse,  it  is  difficult  to 
 distinguish  what  particulai-  isles  in  the  south  of  this  chain  are  im- 
 plied by  the  Russian  appellations,  and  it  would  even  appear  that 
 the  Russian  navigators  had,  with  their  usual  confusion,  described 
 the  same  islands  under  different  names.  The  inhabitants  of  the 
 Kurilian  isles  seem  to  be  of  similar  origin  with  the  Kamchadals  ; 
 and  in  the  interior  of  some  is  a  people  called  hairy  Kurilians, 
 from  what  circumstance  is  not  explained. 
 
 THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE. 
 
 THE  Chinese  empire,  embracing  the  extensive  conquests, 
 of  the  western  countries,  made  the  last  century,  may  now  be  con- 
 sidered as  extending  from  those  parts  of  the  Pacific  ocean  called 
 the  Chinese  and  Japanic  seas,  ta  the  rivers  Sarasou  and  Sihon  in 
 the  west,  a  space  of  81°,  which,  taking  the  medial  latitude  of  30, 
 will  amount  to  nearly  4900  miles.  From  N.  to  S.  this  vast  em- 
 pire may  be  computed  from  the  Uralian  mountains,  lat.  jiO,  to  the 
 southern  part  of  China,  about  lat.  21,  being  29  of  latitude,  nearly 
 2030  miles. 
 
 This  empire,  therefore,  consists  of  three  principal  divisions  ; 
 that  of  China  Proper  ;  Chinese  Tartary,  or  the  territory  of  the 
 Mandshurs,  Monguls,  and  Cashgar,  on  the  north  and  west  ;  and 
 lastly.  Tributary  Dominions,  embracing,  among  other  countries, 
 the  singular  and  interesting  region  of  Tibet,  or  Tibbet.  These, 
 countries,  which  are  arranged  in  the  following  table,  from  Hassel, 
 are  not  only  so  wide  and  important,  but  are  so  radically  different 
 in  the  form  of  government,  in  the  manners,  and  other  circymstan- 
 ees,  that  it  will  be  proper  to  describe  each  apart. 
 
 *  See  p.  141,  Tol.  I. 
 vo.L.  II.  eo 
 
474 
 
 CHINESE  EMPIH^ 
 
 o  •^ 
 
 in  a>  --  *o     CO 
 
 i^     IT)     r-"     00  O 
 
 -^  CO  —  c<      « 
 
 CO     oooacN     vo     •MiocO'-'CO 
 
 —    CM    —  * 
 
 /^u^.x^ 
 
 •-50 
 
 o 
 
 o  o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o  o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 q>^. 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o  o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o  o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o  o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 00  «N 
 
 o> 
 
 p-^ 
 
 xn 
 
 CO 
 
 CO  CO 
 
 (M 
 
 <— ' 
 
 oooooooooooo 
 oooooooooo  o  o 
 
 o"crcrcrood"crcroocr 
 
 oooooooooooo 
 o^q^o,o^o^q^q,q^q^o^o,o^ 
 •<*co>nT^l^ootN'hr— <oooa> 
 
 •SB 
 
 o  o 
 o  o 
 o,  q^ 
 o  o 
 o  o 
 in  o 
 
 00  o 
 CO  in 
 
 o  a>  -*  O 
 
 ■<i<  CO   O   CT> 
 
 G<»  (N    O   C« 
 
 CM  o>  o^  -"i;^ 
 
 V5  »r>  —    V5 
 
 —  •*  —  -< 
 
 O  CO   00 
 
 »n  t^  — 
 
 cT  o  00 
 
 CO  CO  <o 
 
 CO  -^t--^ 
 
 <o  «r  oT 
 
 —  (>» 
 
 <0  «£)  -"t  (M  <M 
 —  t^  '-  Oi  c» 
 CJi   CJi    "*   00   t- 
 
 C-r  cC  bT  CO  cT 
 
 00  00  ■*  b,  o 
 
 t>;^  b^  OJ^  O^  ■* 
 
 cT  <0~  QO"  cT  CO* 
 
 ^s 
 
 iO  O 
 
 00   o 
 
 •*  o 
 
 o  o  o  o  o  o 
 
 o  O  O  O  lO  o 
 O    CO   O   vo   b-   CO 
 
 -T  bT  oT  co"  ■*  CO 
 00  c*  a>  v)  V}  c< 
 
 O   O   O 
 O    O    00 
 
 q_o^>x3^ 
 o>  c?»  »n 
 
 CO   CO  t^ 
 
 o  o  o  o  o 
 o  o  o  o  o 
 
 CO  O  O  O  ■* 
 oo"  O^  bT  00  00 
 CN  O  O  ■*  00 
 CJ   —    —   '- 
 
 s 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 <  5 
 
 c 
 
 3 
 cr" 
 I 
 
 o 
 
 O  /^A«»^ 
 
 -a 
 
 9    •-H 
 
 60 
 A    CI    G 
 
 "  3  s 
 
 D     —  W 
 
 55    O  s  c 
 
 I     f  ^  o 
 
 e     ■  — <  jj 
 
 C  V  c 
 
 o 
 -r-  Qi  n  -^  \n 
 
 !iJ!l3ffi(y3c/Dc/2^c/5tJO' 
 «Ob.ooo>o-"e»co-*vo 
 
 i4 
 
 W 
 
CHINESE  EMPIRE. 
 
 475 
 
 C4  oj  tt  _< 
 
 o/)  - 
 
 .5  S 
 
 *C^ 
 
 S5 
 
 §2 
 
 S 
 
 o  o  o 
 o  o  o 
 
 ^"^"^ 
 cT  ^  bT 
 o>  ^  o> 
 
 o  o  o  o 
 o  o  o  o 
 
 cT  'o'  «r  o 
 
 CO    b,    00   >^ 
 C-l    t^  CO 
 
 O  O 
 
 o  o 
 o  q 
 
 »fj       CN       CN   ■* 
 
 -a 
 
 i         C 
 
 C  1/3 
 P.  i^ 
 
 1 3 
 
 60^ 
 
 u  u 
 
 bli 
 
 S  i=  o  ®  "* 
 
 «    3  Ort  H  Ifl 
 -^    O     .     .    cJ 
 
 i  J 
 
 S,    ti  2  1" 
 f-  .3  .s  ^ 
 
 1^ 
 
 (C    O    _,    O 
 
 ^^  IS  <^   C  "^   «j^  s 
 
 -<  <N 
 
 co^-  c^ 
 
 «  §  o 
 
 c:  c!  ° 
 g  -c  o  " 
 .5  o  Ss^ 
 
476  CHINA  PROPER. 
 
 Ut  BIVISIOjX, 
 
 CHINA  PROPER. 
 
 CHAPTER  I. 
 
 HISTORICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 KAMES,  EXTENT,  BOUNDARIES,  ORIGINAL  POPULATION,  PROGRES- 
 SIVE GEOGRAPHY,  HISTORICAL  EPOCHS  AND  ANTIQUITIES,  RE- 
 LIGION, ECCLESIASTICAL  GEOGRAPHY,  GOVERNMENT,  LAWS, 
 POPULATION,  ARMY,  REVENUES,  POLITICAL  IMPORTANCE  AND 
 RELATIONS,  MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS,  LANGUAGE,  LITERATURE, 
 EDUCATION,  UNIVERSITIES,  CITIES  AND  TOWNS,  EDIFICES, 
 ROADS,  INLAND  NAVIGATION,  MANUFACTURES  AND  COMMERCE. 
 
 JVaryiesT]  THIS  distinguished  region  is  by  the  natives 
 styled  Tchon-Kou,  which  signifies  the  centre  of  the  earth,  as  they 
 proudly  regard  other  countries  as  mei'e  skirts  and  appendages  to 
 their  own.  After  the  conquest  of  the  northern  part  by  the  de- 
 scendants of  Zingis,  it  was  styled  Cathay,  a  name  celebrated  in 
 travels,  poetry,  and  romance  ;  vvhile  the  southern  part  was  called 
 Mangi.  The  origin  of  the  name  of  China,  or  Tsin,  is  uncertain. 
 The  Mahometan  travellers  of  the  9th  centuiy,  published  by  Re- 
 naudot,  call  this  country  Sin,  but  the  Persians  pronounce  it  Tchin.* 
 
 China  Proper  extends  from  the  great  wall  in  the  north,  to  the 
 Chinese  sea  in  the  south,  about  1530  miles.  The  breadth  from, 
 the  shores  of  the  Pacific,  to  tho  frontiers  of  Tibet,  may  be  com- 
 puted at  nearly  1030  British  miles.  In  square  miles  the  con'tents 
 have  been  estimated  at  1, 297,999,  and  in  acres  at  830,719,360.t 
 On  the  east  and  south,  the  boundaries  are  maritime,  and  to  the 
 north  they  are  marked  by  the  great  wall,  and  the  desert  of  Sha- 
 mo  ;  the  confines,  with  Tibet  on  the  west,  seem  to  be  chiefly  in- 
 dicated by  an  ideal  line,  though  occasionally  more  strongly  mark- 
 ed by  mountains  and  rivers  :  particularly,  according  to  D'An- 
 ville,  the  river  Yalon,  which  falls  into  the  Kian-ku,  the  country  of 
 Sifan  lying  between  Tibet  and  China,  on  the  south  of  the  Eluts  of 
 Kokonor. 
 
 Original  Polinlation?\  The  population  of  China  seems  wholly 
 aboriginal,  but  the  form  of  the  features  appears  to  imply  intimate 
 affuiity  with  the  Tartars,  Monguls,  and  Mandshurs  ;  yet  the  Chi- 
 nese probably  constitute  a  fourth  grand  division,  not  strictly  de- 
 rived from  cither  of  these  races. 
 
 Progressive  Geograjihy?^  The  progressive  geography  of  Chi- 
 na, as  known  to  the  western  nations,  is  not  of  ancient  date.  The 
 oldest  external  relation  which  we  possess,  i3  that  of  two  Mahome- 
 
 *  English  Tiansl-ation.     Remarks,  p.  40.         f  Matrartney's  Emb.  iii.  Appcn. 
 
CHINA  PROPER.  477 
 
 tan  travellers  in  the  9th  century,  who,  among  many  fables,  impart 
 high  ideas  concerning  the  Chinese  empire,  and  mention  Canefu, 
 supposed  to  be  Canton,  as  a  city  of  great  trade,  while  the  emper- 
 ors resided  at  Camdan,  which  seems  to  be  the  city  also  called 
 Nanki'-i,  or  the  Southern  Court,  in  contradistinction  to  Pekin,  or 
 the  Northern  Court.  This  wide  empire  continued,  however,  ob- 
 scure to  the  inhabitants  of  Europe,  till  the  travels  of  Marco  Polo 
 appeared,  in  the  end  of  the  13th  century.  Oderic,  of  Portenau, 
 described  his  voyage  to  China,  1318,*  and  Sir  John  Mandeville 
 visited  China  about  1340.  In  the  following  century  there  Avas  a 
 strange  and  unaccountable  intermission  of  intercourse  and  re- 
 search. ■  After  this  relapse  of  darkness,  however,  authentic 
 knowledge  was  gradually  obtained  by  means  of  the  discovery  of 
 the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  the  subsequent  enterprizes  of  the 
 Portuguese. 
 
 Nis(ortcal  Efiocha.~\  The  Chinese  history  is  said  to  commence, 
 in  a  clear  and  constant  narration,  about  2500  years  before  the  birth 
 of  Christ.  The  founder  of  the  monarchy  is  Fo-Hi ;  but  the  regu- 
 lar history  begins  with  Yao.f  The  dynasties  or  families  who  have 
 successively  held  the  throne  amount  to  22,  from  the  first  named 
 Hia,  to  the  present  house  of  Tsing-t  Yn,  the  first  emperor  of  the 
 house  of  Hia,  is  said  to  have  written  a  book  on  agriculture,  and  to 
 have  encouraged  canals  for  irrigation  ;  and  it  is  also  asserted  that 
 he  divided  the  empire  into  nine  provinces.  The  ancient  revolu- 
 tions of  China  would  little  interest  the  general  reader.  The  dy- 
 nasties, as  usual,  generally  terminate  in  some  weak  or  wicked 
 prince,  who  is  dethroned  by  an  able  subject.  Sometimes  the  mon- 
 archy is  divided  into  that  of  the  south,  which  is  esteemed  the  rul- 
 ing and  superior  ipheritance  ;  and  that  of  the  north.  The  em- 
 peror Tai  Tsong,  who  reigned  in  the  7th  century  after  Christ,  is 
 regarded  as  one  of  the  greatest  princes  who  have  filled  the  Chinese 
 throne.  The  Mandshurs  to  the  north  of  China  repeatedly  influenced 
 the  succession  to  the  empire  ;  but  the  Mopguls,  under  Zingis  and 
 his  successors,  seized  the  five  northern  provinces.  Hoaitsing, 
 ■who  began  to  reign  A.  D.  1627,  was  the  last  prince  of  the  Chi- 
 nese dynasties.  Some  unsuccessful  wars  against  the  Mandshurs, 
 had  rendered  this  emperor  melancholy  and  cruel  ;  and  insurrec- 
 tions arose,  the  most  formidable  being  conducted  by  two  chiefs, 
 Li  and  Techang.  The  former  besieged  Pekin,  which  was  sur- 
 rendered in  consequence  of  the  general  discontent,  and  the  em- 
 peror retiring  to  his  garden,  first  slew  his  daughter  with  his  sabre, 
 and  afterwards  hanged  himself  on  a  tree,  having  lived  but  36 
 years.  The  usurper  seemed  firmly  seated  on  the  throne,  when  a 
 prince  of  the  royal  family  invited  the  Mandshurs,  who  advanced 
 under  their  king  Tsong  Te.  The  Mandshur  monarch  had  scarce- 
 ly entered  China  when  he  died  ;  and  his  son,  of  six  years  of  age, 
 was  declared  emperor,  the  regency  being  entrusted  to  his  uncle. 
 The  young  prinrce,  named  Chun  Tchig,  was  the  first  emperor  Tjf 
 
 *  Forster's  Disc,  in  the  north,  p.  14". 
 
 t  W\ H.skle, iii. 7.  JIaje,  17:.G,  4to.  t  Tb.  i.  260,  J<e. 
 
478  CHINA  PROPER. 
 
 the  present  dynasty,  and  has  been  followed  by  four  princes  of  thd 
 same  Mandshur  family. 
 
 J.ntiquities.']  Among  the  remains  of  Chinese  antiquity  may  be 
 Jnentioned  the  coins  of  the  ancient  dynasties,  of  which  arraticjed 
 cabinets  are  formed  by  the  curious  natives.  The  artificial  moun- 
 tains present  on  their  tops,  temples,  monasteries,  and  other  edi- 
 fices. The  Chinese  bridges  cannot  be  sufliciently  admired.  They 
 are  built  sometimes  lipon  bari;;es  strongly  chained  together,  yet 
 so  as  to  be  parted,  and  to  let  the  vessels  pass  that  sail  up  and  down 
 the  river.  Some  of  them  run  from  mountain  to  mountain,  and 
 consist  only  of  one  arch  ;  that  over  the  river  Saffrany  is  400  cu- 
 bits long,  and  500  high,  though  a  single  arch,  and  joins  two  moun- 
 tains ;  and  some  in  the  interior  parts  of  the  empire  are  said  to  be 
 still  more  stupendous.  The  triumphal  arches  of  this  country 
 form  the  next  species  of  artificial  curiosities.  Though  they  ard 
 not  built  in  the  Greek  or  Roman  style  of  architecture,  yet  they 
 are  superb  and  beautiful,  and  erected  to  the  memories  of  their 
 great  men,  with  vast  labor  and  expense.  They  are  said  in  the; 
 whole  to  be  eleveil  hundred,  two  hundred  of  which  are  particular- 
 ly magnificent.  Their  sepulchral  monuments  make  likewise  a 
 great  figure.  Their  towers,  the  models  of  which  are  now  so  com- 
 mon in  Europe,  under  the  name  of  pagodas,  are  great  embellish- 
 Tnents  to  the  face  of  the  country.  They  seem  to  be  constructed 
 by  a  regular  order,  and  all  of  them  are  finished  with  exqusite 
 carvings  and  gildings,  and  other  ornaments.  That  at  Nankin, 
 ■which  is  200  feet  high,  and  40  in  diameter,  is  the  most  admired. 
 It  is  called  the  Porcelain  Tower,  because  it  is  lined  with  Chinese 
 tiles.  Their  temples  are  chiefly  remarkable  for  the  disagreeable 
 taste  in  which  they  are  built,  for  their  capaciousness,  their  whim- 
 sical ornaments,  and  the  ugliness  of  the  idols  they  contain.  The 
 Chinese  ai'c  remarkably  fond  of  bells,  which  gave  name  to  one  of 
 their  principal  festivals.  A  bell  of  Pekin  weighs  120,000  pounds, 
 but  its  sound  is  said  to  be  disagreeable.  The  last  curiosity  I  shall 
 mention,  is  their  fire  works,  which  in  China  exceed  those  of  all 
 other  nations.  In  short  every  province  of  China  is  a  scene  of  cu- 
 riosities. Their  buildings,  except  their  pagodas,  being  confined 
 to  no  order,  and  susceptible  of  all  kinds  of  ornaments,  have  a  wild 
 variety,  and  a  pleasing  elegance,  not  void  of  magnificence,  agree- 
 able to  the  eye  and  the  imagination,  and  present  a  diversity  of  ob- 
 jects not  to  be  found  in  European  architecture.  In  the  famous 
 Putawlaw,  or  temple  of  public  worship,  in  the  city  of  Pekin,  hangs 
 a  bell  which  the  Chinese  assured  Capt.  Turner  (who  saw  it) 
 weighs  upwards  of  20,000  pounds,  and  requires  a  hundred  men  to 
 ring  it-  This,  however,  is  never  attempted,  but  to  call  the  peo- 
 ple to  arms,  in  case  of  invasions,  insurrections,  or  on  public  thanks- 
 givings for  any  signal  blessing  or  victory.  In  one  of  the  gardens 
 of  the  emperor  stands  a  temple,  in  which  is  a  magnificent  throne, 
 upon  which,  it  is  an  ancient  and  invariable  custom  of  the  emper- 
 ors of  China,  to  seat  themselves  at  certain  times,  to  hear  and  de- 
 termine all  matters  of  complaint,  that  might  be  brought  before 
 them.     Such  extraordinary  virtue  is  conceived  to  be  attached  to 
 
CHINA  PROPER,  479 
 
 ihis  throne,  that,  according  to  the  justice  or  ijl justice  of  the  em- 
 peror's decrees,  his  existence  or  immediate  death  depend.  This 
 temple  and  seat  of  justice  is  said,  by  the  Chinese,  to  have  been 
 erected  by  divine  command,  and  had  existed  for  many  thousand 
 years. 
 
 But  the  chief  remain  of  ajicient  art  in  China  is  that  stupendous 
 wall,  extending  across  the  northern  boundary.*  This  work,  which 
 is  deservedly  esteemed  among  the  grandest  labors  of  art,  is  con'- 
 ducted  over  the  summits  of  high  mountains,  some  of  which  rise 
 ^o  the  height  of  5225  feet,  across  the  deepest  vales,  over  wide  riv- 
 ers, by  means  of  arches  ;  and  in  many  parts  is  doubled  or  trebled 
 to  command  important  passes,  and  at  the  distance  of  almost  every 
 hundred  yards  is  a  tower,  or  massy  bastion.  The  extent  is  com- 
 puted at  1500  miles  ;-  but  in  some  parts  of  smaller  danger,  it  is 
 not  equally  strong  nor  complete,  and  towards  the  N.  W.  is  only  a 
 rampart  of  earth.  For  the  precise  height  and  dimensions  of  this 
 amazing  fortification,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  work  already 
 quoted,  whence  it  appears,  that  near  Koopeko  the  wall  is  35  feet 
 in  height,  and  at  the  top  about  15  feet  thick  :  some  of  the  towers 
 which  are  square,  are  48  feet  high,  and  about  50  feet  wide.  The 
 stone  employed  in  the  foundatioiis,  angles,  &c.  is  a  strong,  grey 
 granite  ;  but  the  greatest  part  consists  of  blueish  bricks,  and  the 
 mortar  is  remarkably  pure  and  white. 
 
 Sir  George  Staunton  considers  the  era  of  this,  great  barrier  as 
 absolutely  ascertained,  and  he  asserts  that  it  has  existed  for  two 
 thousand  years.  Mr.  Bell,  who  resided  for  some  time  in  China, 
 and  whose  travels  are  deservedly  esteemed  for  the  accuracy  of 
 their  intelligence,  assures  us t  that  this  wall  was  built  about  600 
 years  ago  (that  is  about  the  year  1 160),  by  one  of  the  emperors,  to 
 prevent  the  frequent  incursions  of  the  Monguls,  whose  numerous 
 cavalry  used  to  ravage  the  provinces,  and  escape  before  an  army 
 cpuld  be  assembled  to  oppose  them,  Renaudot  observes  that  no 
 oriental  geographer,  above  300  years  in  antiquity,  mentions  this 
 wall  :J  audit  is  surprising  that  it  should  have  escaped  Marco  Po- 
 lo ;  who,  supposing  that  he  had  entered  China  by  a  different  route, 
 can  hardly  be  conceived,  during  his  long  residence  in  the  north 
 of  China,  and  in  the  country  of  the  Monguls,  to  have  remained  ig- 
 norant of  so  stupendous  a  work.  Amidst  these  difficulties,  per- 
 haps it  may  be  conjectured  that  similar  modes  of  defence  had 
 been  adopted  in  different  ages  ;  and  that  the  ancient  rude  barrier 
 having  fallen  into  decay,  was  replaced,  perhaps  after  the  invasion 
 of  Zingis,  by  the  present  erection,  which  even  from  the  state  of 
 its  preservation,  can  scarcely  aspire  to  much  antiquity. 
 
 Religion.']  According  to  Du  Halde,  the  ancient  Chinese  wor- 
 shipped a  supreme  being,  whom  they  styled  Chang  Ti,  or  Tien, 
 whiehis  said  to  imply  the  spirit  which  presides  over  the  heavens  ; 
 but  in  the  opinion  of  others  is  only  the  visible  firmament.  They 
 also  worshipped  subaltern  spirits,  who  presided  over  kingdoms, 
 provinces,   cities,   rivers,  and   mountains.      Under  this   system, 
 
 *  Sir  G.  Staunton,  ii.  S60,  8vo.         f  Travels,  ii,  112,  8vo.         ^t^  Ut  sopra,  137. 
 
480  CHINA  PROPER. 
 
 •which  corresponds  with  what  is  called  Shamanism,  sacrifices  AVerc 
 offered  on  the  summits  of  hills. 
 
 About  A.  D.  65  the  sect  of  Fo  was  introduced  into  China  from 
 Hindostan.  The  name  was  derived  from  the  idol  Fo,  (supposed 
 to  be  the  Boodh  of  Hindostan,)  and  the  chief  tenets  are  those  of 
 the  Hindoos,  among  which  is  the  metempsycosis,  or  transmigra- 
 tion of  souls  from  one  animal  to  another.  The  priests  are  denom- 
 inated Bonzes,  and  Fo  is  supposed  to  be  gratified  by  the  favour 
 shewn  to  his  servants.  Many  surbordinate  idols  are  admitted  ; 
 but  as  the  Jesuits  found  the  followers  of  Fo  the  most  adverse  to 
 Christianity,  they  have  without  foundation  called  them  Atheists. 
 
 Since  the  fifteenth  century  many  Chinese  literati  have  embraced 
 a  new  system,  which  acknowledges  an  universal  principle,  under 
 the  name  of  Taiki,  seeming  to  correspond  with  the  soul  of  the 
 world  of  some  ancient  philosophers.  This  opinion  may  indeed 
 deserve  the  name  of  Atheism  ;  nor  is  it  mnusual  to  find  ingenious 
 reasoners  so  far  disgusted  with  gross  superstitions  as  to  fall  into 
 the  opposite  extreme  of  absurdity.  But  such  opinions  are  con- 
 lined  to  very  few  ;  and  the  Chinese  are  so  far  from  being  atheists, 
 that  they  are  in  the  opposite  extreme  of  Polytheism,  believing 
 even  in  petty  demons,  who  delight  in  minute  acts  of  evil,  or  good. 
 There  is  properly  no  order  of  priests,  except  the  Bonzes  of  the 
 sect  of  Fo  ;  this  sect  and  that  of  Lao  Kian,  which  is  the  same  with 
 that  of  the  Tai  See,  admit  of  monasteries.  The  Chinese  temples 
 are  always  open,  nor  is  there  any  subdivision  of  the  month  known 
 in  the  country.* 
 
 A  Jewish  colony  appeared  in  China,  under  the  dynasty  of  Hauy 
 "who  began  to  reign  in  the  206th  year  before  Christ.  It  was  re- 
 duced to  seven  families,  when  F.  Gozani,  a  Jesuit  missionary,  vis- 
 ited it  ;  which  families  were  established  at  Cai-fong,  the  capital 
 of  the  provhice  of  Honan.  They  had  a  synagogue,  in  which  were- 
 thirteen  tabernacles,  placed  upon  tables,  each  surrounded  by 
 small  curtains.  The  sacred  Kim  of  Mosses  (the  Pentateuch)  was 
 shut  up  in  each  of  these  tabernacles,  twelve  of  which  represented 
 the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel  ;  the  thirteenth,  Moses.  1  he  books 
 were  written  in  a  neat,  distinct  hand,  on  long  pieces  of  parchment, 
 and  folded  on  rollers.  In  the  middle  of  the  synagogue  stands  the 
 chair  of  Moses,  in  which  every  Saturday,  and  on  days  of  great  so- 
 lemnity, they  place  the  Pentateuch,  and  read  some  portions  of  it. 
 
 They  were  in  possession  of  some  books  of  the  Old  Testament, 
 other  than  the  Pentateuch  ;  of  some  of  them  they  had  no  knowl- 
 edge ;  others  they  had  lost  in  an  inundation  which  happened  Oc- 
 tober 29,  1642. 
 
 These  Jews  preserve  circumcision,  and  several  other  ccremo- 
 aiies  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament,  such  as  the  paschal  lamb, 
 the  feast  of  unleavened  bread,  the  Sabbath,  8cc. 
 
 These  seven  Jewish  families  intermarry,  and  never  mix  with 
 their  neighbors.  They  also  abstain  from  blood.  They  say  their 
 ancestors  came  from  the  west,  from  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  Avhich 
 
 •  Pauw,  Rechcrches  PhilO&ophiques  sur  U's  EgypUens  et  les  Cliijiois,  torn.  ii.  217". 
 
CHINA  PROPER.  481 
 
 Joshua  conquered,  after  they  left  Egypt,  and  had  crossed  the  Red 
 sea,  and  traversed  the  desert  ;  and  that  the  number  of  Jews  who 
 left  Egypt  was  600,000.  They  neither  kindle  fire,  nor  cook  any 
 victuals  on  Saturday  ;  but  prepare  on  Friday,  whatever  may  be 
 necessary  lor  the  following  day.  They  read  the  Bible  witii  a  veil 
 over  their  faces,  in  remembrance,  of  Moses.*  The  Mahometans 
 also,  have  become  very  numerous  in  China.  During  the  time  of 
 a  terrible  famine  in  Chang-tong,  they  purchased  more  than  10,000 
 children,  for  whom,  when  grown  up,  they  procured  wives,  and 
 built  houses,  and  even  formed  whole  villages  of  them. 
 
 The  Holy  Scriptures  are  now  in  a  course  of  translation,  by  sev- 
 eral hands,  into  the  Chinese  language.  Christian  missionaries  are 
 sent  to  some  parts  of  these  vast  and  populous  dominions,  and  hope 
 is  entertained  that  these  people,  who  liave  so  long  sat  in  darkness, 
 will  receive  and  enjoy  the  light  and  blessings  of  the  Gospel. 
 
 Governrnent.']  The  government  of  China  is  well  known  to  be 
 patriarchal.  The  emperor  is  indeed  absolute  ;  but  the  examples 
 of  tyranny  are  rare,  as  he  is  taught  to  regard  his  people  as  his 
 ehildren,  and  not  as  his  slaves.  The  stability  of  the  government, 
 in  all  its  essential,  and  even  minute  foi-ms  and  customs,  justly 
 astonishes  those  who  are  the  most  versed  in  history.  It  arises 
 from  a  circumstance  unknown  in  any  other  government,  the  ad- 
 mission and  practice  of  the  principle  asserted  by  Lord  Bacon, 
 that  knowledge  u  fionver.  For  all  the  officers  of  government  pass 
 through  a  regu'fer  education,  and  a  progress  of  rank,  which  are 
 held  indispensable.  Of  these  officers,  who  have  been  called  man- 
 darins, or  comm.anders,  l:y  the  Portuguese,  there  are  nine  classes, 
 from  the  judge  of  the  village  to  the  prime  minister.  The  profes- 
 sion requiring  a  long  and  severe  course  of  study,  the  practice  of 
 government  remains,  like  that  of  medicine,  unshaken  by  exterior 
 events  ;  and  while  the  imperial  throne  is  subject  to  accident  and 
 force,  the  remainder  of  the  machine  pursues  its  usual  circle.  In 
 so  vast  and  populous  an  empire,  perhaps  the  stability  of  the  state 
 is  incompatible  with  much  freedom  ;  yet  the  ideas  of  an  Europe- 
 an are  shocked  by  the  frequent  use  of  the  rod,  a  paternal  punish- 
 ment, which  would  in  his  eyes  appear  the  most  degrading  species 
 ©f  slavery.  The  soldiers,  hovtrevcr,  shew  the  greatest  tenderness 
 to  the  people,  and  every  sentence  of  death  must  be  signed  by  the 
 emperor. 
 
 The  governors  of  the  provinces  have  great  and  absolute  power, 
 yet  rebellions  are  not  unt'requent.  Bribery  is  also  an  universal 
 vice  ;  and  the  Chinese  government,  like  most  others,  is  more  i^ir 
 in  the  theory,  than  in  the  practice.  Yet  the  amazing  population, 
 and  the  general  eas.e  and  bappiness  of  the  people,  evince  that  the 
 administration  of  the  government  must  be  more  beneficial  than 
 any  yet  known  among  mankind. 
 
 Laws.~]  The  Chinese  laws  bear  a  very  ancient  date  ;  the  great 
 body  of  them  were  in  existence  250  years  before  the  Christian 
 era,  and  although   subject  to   the  revision  and  alteration  of  the 
 
 *  Abbe  Grosier,  vol.  ii.  ch.  \ii.  p.  2.i?. 
 VOL.  ir.  61 
 
482  CHINA  PROPER. 
 
 reigning  prince  ;  yet  such  is  his  reverence,  and  ihat  of  ihc  people, 
 for  the  usages  of  their  ancestors,  that  a  material  change  seldom 
 occurs.  The  most  prominent  characteristics  of  the  laws  of  Chi- 
 na, are  clearness  and  consistency,  connected,  however,  with  a  mi- 
 nuteness and  accuracy  so  excessive,  as  must,  in  a  great  measure, 
 prevent  the  designed  effect  of  the  law.  Every  shade  of  guilt  is 
 provided  for  by  a  similar  gradation  of  punishments.  Another 
 peculiarity  of  their  penal  code  is  the  excessive  severity  with  which' 
 it  punishes  offences  against  the  government.  Not  only  the  per- 
 son guilty  of  treason,  but  all  his  male  relations  of  the  first  degree, 
 are  beheaded,  and  his  female  relations  sold  to  slavery.  The  bam- 
 boo is  the  instrument  Avith  which  corporal  punishment  is  usually 
 inflicted.  From  punishment  by  this  instrument,  the  highest  offi- 
 cers, civil  or  military,  are  not  exempted. 
 
 Persons  under  fifteen,  or  over  seventy,  can  redeem  themselves 
 from  all  but  capital  punishments,  by  the  payment  of  a  small  fine. 
 Those  under  seven,  or  above  ninety,  can  be  punished  for  nothing 
 but  treason.  Foreigners  are  subject  to  the  same  punishments 
 with  native  citizens. 
 
 Robbery  in  the  night  is  punished  with  death  ;  in  the  day,  with 
 a  hundred  blows,  and  banishment.  Theft  has  every  gradation  of 
 punishment,  from  sixty  blows  with  the  bamboo,  to  death.  Murder 
 is  punished  with  death.  Administering  poison  is  capital,  even 
 though  it  does  not  kill.  Striking  parents  is  death  in  ail  cases. 
 The  authors  of  all  anonymous  accusations  shall  suffer  deathf  though 
 the  charge  be  true.  Bribery  has  a  large  scale  of  punishments, 
 varying  in  severity,  according  as  the  bribe- is  large,  or  small,  taken 
 for  a  criminal  or  innocent  object.  Forging  an  imperial  edict  is 
 death.  If  a  person  accidentally  set  fire  to  his  own  dwelling,  and 
 the  flames  spread  to  an  imperial  palace,  he  suffers  death. 
 
 Notwithstanding  the  extreme  rigor  of  this  code,  in  theory,  Ave 
 have  reason  to  believe  that  it  is  very  rarely  carried  into  practice. 
 Bribery,  we  know,  is  a  common  crime  throughout  the  empire  ; 
 the  punishment,  however,  is  rarely  inflicted. 
 
 Their  revenue  laws  bear  a  striking  resemblance  to  those  recent- 
 ly adopted  in  Europe  and  our  own  country.  The  Chinese  have 
 not  only  the  tax  and  monopoly  of  salt,  but  a  regular  excise  upon 
 tea,  alum,  and  almost  every  sort  of  merchandise,  with  a  system  of 
 permits^  excise  ofliccrs,  inspectors,  licences  to  traders,  and  penal- 
 ties wpon^smuifgling,  almost  exactly  as  among  European  nations 
 and  our  own,  at  the  present  day.  The  smugglci-,  however,  is 
 treated  rather  more  mildly,  as  he  forfeits  only  half  of  the  unlicensed 
 goods,  beside  the  vessel  in  which  the  goods  were  conveyed. 
 
 The  interest  of  money  is  fixed  l)y  the  laws  of  China  at  36  per 
 cent,  per  annum.  In  a  country  so  populous  as  China,  where  the 
 competition  of  multitudes  must  have  reduced  the  profits  of  trade 
 to  their  lowest  rate,  it  seems  unaccountable  that  money  should 
 bear  so  high  a  price.  The  truth  probably  is,  that  this  is  the  max- 
 imum, and  that  the  interest  usually  given  is  greatly  inferior.  Mort- 
 gages have  been  long  knoAvnin  China,  and  many  regulations  made 
 with  regard  to  them. 
 
CHINA  PROPER.  483 
 
 The  establishment  of  a  government  post  has  long  been  known 
 as  one  of  the  ancient  institutions  of  China.  The  rate  of  travelling 
 with  public  dispatches  is  not  rauch  less  than  a  hundred  miles  in 
 a  day.* 
 
 Population.']  The  population  of  China  has  been  a  topic  of  con- 
 siderable debate.  Pauw,  a  bold  and  dedsive  asserter,  but  no  au- 
 thority, supposes  that  the  population  is  exaggerated  Avhen  it  is 
 computed  at  82,000,000.t  The  recent  English  embassy  was  as- 
 tonished at  the  excess  of  population  ;  and  Sir  George  Staunton 
 has  published  the  table,  inserted  in  the  General  Table,  from  the 
 information  of  a  mandarin  of  high  rank,  who  had  every  opportuni- 
 ty of  exact  knowledge. 
 
 How  far  this  table  may  deserve  implicit  credit,  may  be  ddubted 
 by  those  who  know  the  difficulty  of  such  researches,  even  in  the 
 most  enlightened  countries  of  Europe. 
 
 As  the  Chinese  laws  permit  no  native  to  leave  his  country,  there 
 can  be  no  colonies  properly  so  called.:!: 
 
 ylrmtj.']  The  army  has  been  computed  by  Barrow,  at  1 ,000,000 
 infantry,  and  800,000  cavalry.  Hasscl,  however,  from  iJes^'w/^'ne^, 
 estimates  them  only  at  600,000  infantry,  and  210,000  cavalry. 
 
 Revenue.']  Sir  George  Staunton  estimates  the  revenue  at  594 
 millions  of  guilders,  equal  to  /;66,000,000  sterling.  This  is  also 
 the  estimate  of  Barrow  ;  who  adds,  that  when  the  expenses  are 
 deducted,  only  12,000,000  sterling  are  left  for  the  treasury  of  the 
 empire,  out  of  which  the  expenses  of  the  empire  being  paid,  the 
 surplus  goes  into  the  crown  treasury.  Desguigncs  disputes  this 
 account,  and  fixes  the  highest  amount  of  the  revenue  at  only  180 
 millions  of  guilders,  more  than  a  third  less  than  the  estimates  of 
 Staunton  and  Barrow. 
 
 Political  Lnfiortance  and  Relations.]  The  political  importance 
 ;vnd  relations  of  China  may  be  said  to  be  concentrated  in  itself,  as 
 no  example  is  known  of  alliance  with  any  other  state.  It  has 
 been  supposed  that  one  European  ship  would  destroy  the  Chinese 
 navy,  and  that  10,000  European  troops  would  overrun  the  empire. 
 Yet  its  very  extent  is  an  obstacle  to  foreign  conquest,  and  perhaps 
 not  less  than  100,000  soldiers  would  be  necessaiy  to  maintain  the 
 quiet  subjugation  ;  so  that  any  foreign  yoke  might  prove  of  very 
 short  continuance.  Were  the  Chinese  government  persuaded  of  the 
 utility  of  external  relations,  an  alliance  with  the  English  might  be 
 adopted,  as  a  protection  against  maritime  outrage,  while  the  Rus- 
 sian power  might  be  divided  by  connections  with  the  sovereigns 
 of  Persia. 
 
 Maimers   and  Custoijis.]     The  Chinese  being  a  people  in  the 
 highest  state  of  civilization,  their  manners  and  customs  might  rc- 
 
 *  T:i  Tsiiig  Len  Lee,  being  the  fundamental  laws,  supplementary  statutes  and  pe- 
 nal code  of  China,  originally  published  at  Pekin,  and  translated  by  Sir  George  T. 
 ytaunton,  Bart.  London,  1808. 
 
 J  Recherches,  i.  78. 
 
 t  Yet  the  number  of  Chinese  at  Rata  via,  and  other  situations  in  the  Oriental  Ar- 
 chipelago, many  of  whom  pass  as  traders  to  and  from  their  country,  shews  tliat  these 
 luw's  are  little  regarded. 
 
484  CHINA  PROPER. 
 
 quire  a  long  description,  especially  as  they  are  very  different  from 
 those  of  other  nations.  The  limits  of  this  work  will  only  admit  a 
 few  hints.  In  visiting  the  sea  ports  of  China,  foreigners  have  been 
 commonly  impressed  with  the  idea  of  fraud  and  dishonesty ;  but 
 it  is  to  be  supposed  that  these  bad  qualities  are  not  so  apparent 
 where  there  are  fewer  temptations.  The  indolence  of  the  upper 
 classes,  Avho  are  even  fed  by  their  servants,  and  the  filthiness  of 
 the  lower,  who  cat  almost  every  kind  of  animal,  in  whatever  way 
 it  may  have  died,  are  also  striking  defects,  though  the  latter  may 
 be  occasioned  by  dire  necessity  in  so  populous  a  country.  To  the 
 same  cause  may  be  imputed  the  exposition  of  infants.  On  the 
 other  hand  the  character  of  the  Chinese  is  mild  and  tranquil,  and 
 imiversal  affability  is  very  rarely  interrupted  by  the  slightest  tinct- 
 ure of  harshness  or  passion.  These  qualities  may  be  partly  im- 
 puted to  the  vigilant  eye  of  the  patriarchal  government,  and  partly 
 to  strict  abstinence  from  heating  foods  and  intoxicating  liquors. 
 The  general  drink  is  tea,  of  which  a  large  vessel  is  prepared  in 
 the  morning  for  the  occasional  use  of  the  family  during  the  day. 
 It  is  not  permitted  to  bury  in  cities  or  towns,  and  the  sepulchres 
 are  commonly  on  barren  hills  and  mountains,  where  there  is  no 
 chance  that  agriculture  will  disturb  the  bones  of  the  dead*  The 
 color  of  mourning  is  white  ;  and  it  ought  on  solemn  occasions  to 
 continue  for  three  years, but  seldom  exceeds  twenty-seven  months.* 
 The  walls  of  the  houses  are  sometimes  of  brick,  or  of  hardened 
 clay,  but  more  commonly  of  wood  ;  and  they  generally  consist 
 only  of  a  ground  floor,  though  in  those  of  merchants  there  be 
 sometimes  a  second  story,  which  forms  the  warehouse.  The 
 houses  are  ornamented  with  columns,  and  open  galleries,  but  the 
 articles  of  furniture  are  few.  The  dress  is  long  with  large  sleeves^ 
 and  a  flowing  girdle  of  silk.  The  shirt  and  drawers  vary  accord- 
 ing to  the  seasons,  and  in  winter  the  use  of  furs  is  general  from 
 the  skin  of  the  sheep  to  that  of  the  ermine.  The  head  is  covered 
 with  a  small  hat  in  the  form  of  a  funnel,  but  this  varies  among 
 the  superior  classes,  whose  rank  is  distinguislied  by  a  large  bead 
 on  the  top,  diversified  in  colour  according  to  the  quality.  ihe 
 dress  is  in  general  simple  and  uniform  ;  and  on  the  audience  giv- 
 en to  Lord  Macartney,  that  of  the  emperor  was  only  distinguisned 
 by  one  large  pearl  in  his  bonnet.  The  chief  amusements  of  the 
 Chinese  seem  to  be  dramatic  exhibitions,  fire  works,  in  which 
 they  excel  all  other  nations  ;  and  feats  of  deception  and  dexterity. 
 Notwithstandmg  the  industry  of  the  people,  dieir  amazing  pop- 
 ulation frequently  occasions  a  dearth.  Parents,  who  cannot  sup- 
 port their  female  children,  are  allowed  to  cast  them  into  the  river, 
 but  they  fasten  a  gourd  to  the  child,  that  it  nray  float  on  the  water  ; 
 and  there  are  often  compassionate  people  of  fortune,  who  are 
 moved  by  the  cries  of  the  children  to  save  them  from  death.  The 
 Chinese,  in  their  persons  are  middle  sized,  their  faces  broad,  their 
 eyes  black  and  small,  their  noses  rather  short.  The  Chinese  have 
 particular  ideas  of  beauty.     They  pluck  up  the  hairs  of  the  lower 
 
 •  Du  Halde,  iii,  1-16, 
 
CHINA  PROPER.         '  486 
 
 pavt  of  their  faces  by  the  roots  with  twezers,  ieaving  a  few  strag;- 
 gling;  ones  by  Avay  of  beard.  Their  Tartar  princes  compel. them 
 to  cut  off  the  hair  of  their  heads,  and  like  Mahometans,  to  wear 
 only  a  lock  on  the  crown.  Tlieir  complexion  towards  the  north 
 is  fair,  towards  the  south,  swarthy,  and  the  fatter  a  man  is,  they 
 trunk  him  the  handsomer.  Men  of  quality  and  learning,  who  are 
 not  much  exposed  to  the  sun,  have  delicate  compltxions,  and  they 
 who  are  bred  to  letters  let  the  nails  of  their  fingers  grow  to  an 
 enormous  length,  to  shew  that  they  are  not  employed  in  manual 
 labor. 
 
 The  women  have  little  eyes,  plump  rosy  lips,  black  hair,  regu- 
 lar features,  and  a  delicate  though  florid  complexion.  The  small- 
 ness  of  their  feet  is  reckoned  3  principal  part  of  tJieir  beauty,  and 
 no  swathing  is  orrjitted,  when  they  are  young,  to  give  them  that 
 accomplishment,  so  that  when  they  grow  up,  they  may  be  said  to 
 totter  rather  than  to  walk.  This  fanciful  peace  of  beauty  was 
 probably  invented  by  the  ancient  Chinese,  to  pajliate  their  jeal- 
 ousy. 
 
 Their  dress  vaines  according  to  the  degrees  among  riiem.  The 
 men  wear  caps  on  their  heads,  of  the  fashion  of  a  bell  ;  those  of 
 quality  are  ornamented  with  jewels.  The  rest  of  their  dress  is 
 easy  and  loose,  consisting  of  a  vest  and  a  sash,  a  coat  or  gown 
 thrown  over  them,  silk  boots  quilted,  with  cotton,  and  a  pair  of 
 drawers.  The  ladies  towards  the  south  wear  nothing  on  their 
 heads.  Sometimes  their  hair  is  drawn  up  in  a  net,  and  sometimes 
 it  is  dishevelled.  Their  dress  differs  but  iittle  from  that  of  the 
 men,  only  their  gown  or  upper  gai'ment  has  very  large  open  sleeves. 
 The  dress  both  of  men  and  women  varies,  howe'vei',  according  to 
 the  temperature  of  the  climate. 
 
 The  parties  in  marriage  never  see  each  other  in  China,  till  the 
 bargain  is  concluded  by  the  parents,  and  that  is  generally  when 
 the  parties  are  children.  The  bride  is  purchased  by  a  present  to 
 her  parents.  Next  to  being  barren,  the  greatest  scandal  is  to 
 bring  females  into  the  M^orld  ;  and  if  a  woman  of  a  poor  family 
 happens  to  have  three  or  four  girls  successively,  it  not  unfrequent- 
 ly  happens  that  she  will  expose  them  on  the  high  roads,  or  cast 
 them  into  a  river.     Polygamy  is  allowed. 
 
 People  of  note  in  their  funerals,  cause  their  coffins  to  be  made, 
 and  their  tombs  to  be  built  in  their  life  time.  Every  Chinese 
 keeps  in  his  house  a  table,  upon  which  are  written  the  names  of  his 
 father,  grandfather,  and  great  grandfather,  before  which  they  fre- 
 quently burn  incense,  and  prostrate  themselves  ;  and  when  the 
 father  of  a  family  dies,  the  name  of  the  great  grandfather  is  taken 
 away,  and  that  of  the  deceased  is  added. 
 
 JLanguage.~\  To  obtain  a  knowledge  of  the  Chinese  language 
 was  formerly  deemed  the  labor  of  a  life.  The  accounts  of  trav- 
 ellers represented  that  the  number  of  their  words  was  immense  ; 
 that  for  each  idea  they  had  a  separate  character,  and  that  between 
 the  meanings  of  the  different  characters  there  was  no  connexion. 
 To  understand  the  language,  therefore,  it  was  necessary  to  learn  the 
 meaning  of  an  endless  number  of  arbitrary   characters.     Recent 
 
486  CHINA  PROPER. 
 
 investigation,  however,  has  proved  that  these  opinions  Mcre  with- 
 out foundation..  It  is  now  discovered  that  the  language  of  the 
 Chinese,  like  tliat  of  other  nations,  is  of  a  regular  and  systematic 
 formation.  Their  alphabet  is  composed  of  214  elementary  cha- 
 racters, or  lette.rft.  By  the  various  combinations  of  these  elements, 
 all  the  other  characters  or  ivords  in  the  language  are  formrfd. 
 Each  element  has  a  distinct  meaning  by  itself,  and  Avhen  two  or 
 more  are  united  in  one  word,  the  meaning  of  the  compound  par- 
 takes of  that  of  the  several  elements  of  which  it  is  composed. 
 Thus  the  two  elementary  characters,  signifying  ./?re  and  woody 
 when  united  form  the  Chinese  word  for  burn,  and  the  repetition  of 
 the  character  for  wood  fonns  a  compound  denoting  forest. 
 
 With  I'espccit  to  the  pronunciation  of  the  Chinese  language,  the 
 first  thing  which  strikes  us  is,  that  all  their  words  are  monosylla- 
 bles. They  have  selected  36  chai-acters  for  initial,  and  14  for  final 
 sounds.  The  imtial  sounds  are  all  consonants,  the  final,  all  vow- 
 els, liquids  or  nasals.  By  combining  these  are  formed  432  mono- 
 syllables, and  by  variously  modifying  the  sounds  of  the  finals, 
 together  with  t;he  application  of  accent  and  quantity,  the  whole 
 number  of  monosyllables  has  been  extended  to  2,178.  The 
 whole  number  of  characters  or  words  in  the  language  is  35,000. 
 Dividing  this  by  2,178,  the  number  of  monosyllables,  it  will  be 
 readily  seen,  that  the  same  pronunciation  is  used  for  sixteen  dif- 
 ferent words.  This  is  an  inconvenience  peculiar  to  the  Chinese 
 language,  and  in  colloquial  discourse  must  sometimes  prove  a 
 serious  embarrassment.  Mr.  Marshman,  who  has  lately  written 
 a  dissertation  on  this  subject,  and  from  whom  these  remarks  are 
 principally  collected,  gives,  as  the  result  of  his  research,  "  that 
 though  totally  different  in  its  nature,  the  Chinese  language  is  lit- 
 tle less  regular  in  its  formation,  and  scarcely  more  difficult  of 
 acquisition  than  the  Sungscrit,  the  Greek  or  even  the  Latin.'* 
 
 JLd'ucation.~\  The  schools  of  education  are  numerous,  but  the- 
 children  of  the  poor  are  chiefly  taught  to  follow  the  business  of 
 their  fathers.  In  a  Chinese  treatise  of  education  published  by 
 Du  Halde,  the  following  are  recommended  as  the  chief  topics. 
 1.  The  six  virtues,  namely,  prudence,  piety,  wisdom,  equity, 
 fidelity,  concord.  2.  The  six  laudable  actions,  to  wit,  obedience 
 to  parents,  love  to  brothers,  harmony  with  relations,  affection  for 
 neighbors,  sincerity  with  friends,  and  mercy  with  regard  to  the 
 poor  and  unhappy.  3.  The  six  essential  points  of  knowledge, 
 that  of  religious  rites,  music,  archery,  horsemanship,  Avriting, 
 and  accompts.  Such  a  plan  is  certainly  more  useful  than  the  ac- 
 quisition of  dead  languages,  dancing,  or  many  other  branches  of 
 our  English  education. 
 
 Cities  and  Towns.'\  The  chief  cities  of  China  are  Pekin  and 
 Nankin,  or  the  northern  and  southei^n  courts,  the  former  being  the 
 Cambula,  or  city  of  the  Chan,  in  writings  of  the  middle  ages,  the 
 capital  of  Cathsay,  as  Nankin  was  of  Mangi.  Pekin  occupies  z. 
 large  space  of  ground  ;  but  the  streets  are  wide,  and  the  houses 
 seldom  exceed  one  slorv.     The  length  of  Avhat  is  called  the  Tar- 
 
CHINA  PROPER.  4sr 
 
 tar  city  is  about  four  miles,  and  the  suburbs  arc  considerable.* 
 By  the  best  information  which  the  recent  embassy  could  procure, 
 the  population  was  computed  at  3,000,000.  The  houses  indeed, 
 are  neither  large  nor  numerous  ;  but  it  is  (common  to  find  three 
 generations  with  all  their  Avives  and  children  under  one  roof,  as 
 they  eat  in  common,  and  one  room  contains  many  beds.  The 
 neatness  of  the  houses  and  various  furniture  and  goods  of  the 
 shops,  delight  the  eye  of  the  visitoi*.  At  Pekin  the  grand  exami- 
 nations take  place,  wliich  confer  the  highest  degree  in  literature, 
 or  in  other  words  the  chief  offices  in  government.  Excessive 
 wealth  or  poverty  seem  equally  unknown,  as  there  is  no  right  of 
 primogeniture,  and  no  hereditary  dignity,  and  there  are  properly 
 but  three  classes  of  men  in  China,  men  of  letters  from  among 
 whom  the  mandarins  are  selected  ;  cultivators  of  the  ground,  and 
 mechanics  including  merchants.f  The  wrdls  of  this  capital  are 
 of  considerable  strength  and  thickness  ;  and  the  nine  gates  of  no 
 inelegant  architecture.  Strict  police  and  vigilance  are  observed, 
 and  the  streets  are  crowded  with  passengers  and  carriages.  The 
 grandest  ed»ifice  is  the  imperial  palace,  v/hich  consists  of  many 
 picturesque  buildings,  dispersed  over  a  wide  and  greatly  diversi- 
 fied space  of  ground,  so  as  to  present  the  appearance  of  cnohant* 
 ment. 
 
 Nankin,  Avhich  was  the  residence  of  the  court  till  the  fifteenth 
 century,  is  a  yet  more  extensive  city  than  Pekin,  and  is  reputed 
 the  largest  in  the  empire.  The  walls  are  said  to  be  about  1 7  miles 
 in  circumference. 
 
 The  chief  edifices  are  the  gates  with  a  few  temples ;  and  a 
 celebrated  tower  covered  with  porcelain,  about  200  feet  in  heip-ht. 
 Such  towers  were  styled  pagodas  by  the  Portuguese,  Avho  sup- 
 posed them  to  be  temples  ;  but  they  seem  to  have  been  chieflv 
 erected  as  memorials,  or  as  ornaments,  like  the  Grecian  and 
 Roman  columns. 
 
 To  the  European  reader  one  of  the  most  interesting  cities  is 
 Canton,  which  is  said  to  contain  a  million  and  a  half  of  inhabitants ; 
 numerous  families  residing  in  barks  on  the  river.  The  European 
 factories,  with  theii  national  flags,  are  no  small  ornaments  to  this 
 city.  The  chief  export  is  that  of  tea,  of  which  it  is  said  that  about 
 13,000,000  of  pounds  Aveight  are  consumed  by  Great  Britain  and 
 J»er  dependencies,  and  about  5,000,000  by  the  rest  of  Europe, 
 beside  the  immense  quantity  brought  to  America.  The  imports 
 from  England,  chiefly  woollens,  with  lead,  tin,  furs,  and  other 
 articles,  are  supposed  to  exceed  a  million  ;  and  the  exports  a 
 million  and  a  half,  besides  the  trade  between  China  and  the  Eno-- 
 lish  possessions  in  Hindostan.  Other  nations  carry  to  Canton  the 
 value  of  about  200,0001.  and  return  Avith  articles  to  the  value  of 
 about  600,0001.  So  that  the  balance  in  favour  of  China  may  be- 
 computed  at  a  million  sterling. 
 
 *  Staunton,  ii.  297. 
 t  lb.  ii.  329.    The  military  must  he  i-cgartled  as  n  fouitli  class. 
 
488  1  CHINA  PROPER. 
 
 The  other  large  cities  of  China  are  almost  innumerable  ;  and 
 many  of  the  villages  are  of  a  surprising  si2^e,  Of  the  cities,  Sin- 
 gan  is  by  some  esteen^ed  equal  to  Pekin.  In  general  the  plan  and 
 fortifications  are  similar  ;  and  a  raandshur  garrison  is  carefully 
 maintained. 
 
 Edijices.~\  The  most  striking  and  peculiar  edifices  in  China 
 are  the  pagodas  or  towers,  already  mentioned,  which  sometimes 
 rise  to  the  height  of  nine  stories,  of  more  than  twenty  feet  each. 
 The  temples,  on  the  contrary,  are  commonly  low  buildings,  always 
 open  to  the  devout  worshippers  of  polytheism.  The  whole  style 
 of  C^iinese  architecture  is  well  kno wr.  to  be  singular,  and  is  dis- 
 played with  the  greatest  splendor  in  the  imperial  palace  at  Pekin. 
 
 Roads.']  The  roads  are  generally  kept  in  excellent  order,  with 
 convenient  bridges.  That  near  the  capital  is  thus  described  by 
 Sir  George  Staunton  :  "  This  road  forms  a  mignificent  avenue  to 
 Pekin  for  persons  and  commodities  bound  for  that  capital,  from 
 the  east  and  from  the  south.  It  i's  perfectly  level  ;  the  centre,  to 
 the  width  of  about  twenty  feet,  is  paved  with  flags  of  granite, 
 brought  from  a  considerable  distance,  and  of  a  size  from  six  to 
 sixteen  feet  in  length,  and  about  four  feet  broad.  On  each  side 
 of  this  granite  pavement  is  a  road  unpaved,  wide  enough  for  car- 
 riages to  cross  upon  it.  The  road  was  uordcred  in  many  places 
 with  trees." 
 
 Inland  j\'avigation.~\  The  canals  of  China  have  long  excited 
 the  envy  and  wonder  of  other  nations.  As  the  two  grand  rivers 
 Hoanho  and  Kianku  bend  their  course  from  west  to  east,  the  chief 
 object  was  to  intersect  the  empire  from  north  to  south ;  which 
 was  in  a  great  measure  accomplished  by  the  imperial  canal.  This 
 wonderful  work,  which  in  utility  and  labour  exceeds  the  enormous 
 ■wall,  is  said  to  have  been  begun  in  the  tenth  century  of  the  Christ- 
 ian era,  30,000  men  having  been  employed  for  43  years  in  its 
 completion. 
 
 "  This  great  work  differs  much  from  the  canals  of  Europe, 
 which  are  generally  protracted  in  straight  lines,  within  narrow 
 bounds,  and  without  a  current,  whereas  that  of  China  is  winding 
 often  in  its  course,  of  unequal  and  sometimes  considerable  width, 
 and  its  waters  are  seldom  stagnant. 
 
 "  The  ground  which  intervened  between  this  bed  of  the  artifi- 
 cial river,  and  that  of  the  Eu-ho,  was  cut  down  to  the  depth  of 
 about  30  feet,  in  order  to  permit  the  waters  of  the  former  to  flow 
 with  a  gentle  current  into  the  latter.  Their  descent  is  afterwards 
 checked  occasionally  by  flood-gates  throAvn  across  the  canal, 
 wherever  they  were  judged  to  be  necessary.  This  canal  has  no 
 locks  like  those  of  Europe.  The  flood-gates  are  simple  in  their 
 construction,  easily  managed,  and  kept  in  repair  at  a  trifling  ex- 
 pense. They  consist  merely  of  a  few  planks  let  down  separately 
 one  upon  another,  by  grooves  cut  into  the  sides  of  the  two  solid 
 abutments  or  piers  of  stone,  that  project  one  from  each  bank, 
 leaving  a  space  in  the  middle  just  wide  enough  to  admit  a  passage 
 for  the  largest  vessels  employed  upon  the  canal.  As  few  parts  of 
 it  arc*  entirely  level,  the  use  of  these  flood  gates  assisted  by  others 
 
CHINA  PROPER.  489 
 
 cut  through  its  banks,  is  to  regulate  the  quantity  of  water  in  the 
 canal.  Some  skill  is  i-equired  to  be  exerted,  in  order  to  direct  the 
 barges  through  them  without  accident.  For  this  purpose  a  great 
 oar  projects  from  the  bow  of  the  vessel,  by  which  one  of  the  crew 
 conducts  her  with  the  greatest  nicety.  Men  are  also  stationed  on 
 each  pier  with  fenders  made  of  skins  stuffed  with  hair,  to  prevent 
 the  effect  of  the  vessels  striking  immediately  against  the  stone,  in 
 their  quick  passage  through  the  gates. 
 
 "  Light  bridges  of  timber  are  thrown  across  those  piers,  which 
 are  easily  withdrawn  whenever  vessels  are  about  to  pass  under- 
 neath. The  flood-gates  are  only  opened  at  certain  stated  hours, 
 when  all  the  vessels  collected  near  them  in  the  interval  pass 
 Ihrough  on  paying  a  small  toll,  appropriated  to  the  purpose  of 
 keeping  in  repair  the  flood-gates  and  banks  of  the  canal.  The 
 loss  of  water  occasioned  by  the  opening  of  the  flood-gate  is  not  very 
 considerable,  and  is  soon  supplied  by  streams  conducted  into  the 
 canal  from  the  adjacent  country  on  both  sides."* 
 
 The  same  author  describes  this  canal  as  beginning  at  Lin-sin- 
 choo,  where  it  joins  the  river  Eu-ho,  and  extending  to  Han-choo- 
 foo,  in  an  irregular  line  of  about  500  miles.  Where  it  joins  the 
 Hoan-ho,  or  Yellow  River,  till  it  is  about  three  quarters  of  a  mile 
 in  breadth.  In  the  south  the  river  Kan-Kian,  which  runs  from 
 S.  W.  to  N.  E.  supplies  a  very  considerable  part  of  the  navigation. 
 The  commodiousness  and  length  of  the  Chinese  canals  are  in- 
 credible. The  chief  of  them  are  lined  with  hewn-stone  on  the 
 sides,  and  they  are  so  deep  that  they  carry  large  vessels,  and 
 sometimes  they  extend  above  1000  miles  in  length.  The  royal 
 canal  from  Canton  to  Pekin  is  825  miles  long,  30  feet  v/ide,  and 
 9  feet  deep.  The  vessels  are  fitted  up  for  all  the  conveniences  of 
 life  ;  and  it  has  been  thought  by  some,  that  in  China  the  water 
 contains  as  many  inhabitants  as  the  kind.  They  are  furnished  v/ith 
 stone  quays,  and  sometimes  with  bridges  of  an  amazing  construc- 
 tion. The  navigation  is  slow,  and  the  vessels  sometimes  drawn 
 by  men.  About  10,000  boats  from  200  tons  and  under,  are  kept 
 at  the  public  expense.  No  precautions  are  v>  anting,  that  could 
 be  formed  by  art  or  perseverance,  for  the  safety  of  the  passengers, 
 in  case  a  canal  is  crossed  by  a  rapid  river,  or  exposed  to  torrents 
 from  the  mountains.  These  canals,  and  the  variety  that  is  seen 
 upon  the  borders,  render  China  the  most  delightful  to  the  eye  of 
 any  country  in  the  world,  as  well  as  fertile,  in  places  that  are  not 
 so  by  nature. 
 
 Manufactures  and  Commerce.'\  The  manufactures  of  China  are 
 so  multifarious  as  to  embrace  almust  every  article  of  industry. 
 The  most  notc;d  inanufacture  is  that  of  porcelain,  and  is  fohov/ed 
 in  trade  by  those  of  silk,  cotton.  Sec.  They  make  paper  of  the 
 bark  of  bamboo,  and  other  trees,  as  well  as  of  cotton,  but  not 
 comparable  for  records,  or  printing,  to  the  European.  Their  ink, 
 for  the  use  of  drawing,  is  well  known  in  England,  and  is  said  to 
 be  made  of  oil  and  lampblack.     Their  priming  is  done  by  cutting 
 
 *  Sir  G.  Staunton,  iii,  204. 
 vol..   II.  62 
 
490  CHINA  PROPER. 
 
 their  characters  on  blocks  of  Avood.  The  porcelain  of  China 
 has  been  celebrated  from  remote  ages,  and  is  chiefly  prepared 
 from  a  pure  white  clay  called  kaolin ;  while  the  petunsi  is  un- 
 derstood to  be  a  decayed  felspar.  Some  writers  add  soap  rock, 
 and  gypsum.* 
 
 The  internal  commerce  of  China  is  immense,  but  the  external 
 trade  is  comparatively  small,  considering  the  vastness  of  the  em- 
 pire ;  a  scanty  intercourse  exists  with  Russia  and  Japan  :  but  the 
 chief  export  is  that  of  tea,  which  is  sent  to  England  and  America, 
 between  one  and  two  millions  yearly.  The  principal  port  for 
 foreign  trade  is  Canton,  which  see. 
 
 CHAPTER  n. 
 
 NATURAL  GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 CLIMATK  AND  SEASONS,  TACE  OF  THE  COUNTRY,  SOIL  AND  AGKI- 
 CULTURE,  RIVERS,  LAKES,  MOUNTAINS,  FORESTS,  BOTANY,  ZOO- 
 XOGY,  MINERALOGY,  MINERAL  WATERS,  NATURAL  CURIOSITIES. 
 
 Climate  and  Seasons.']  THE  European  and  American 
 intercourse  with  China  being  chiefly  confined  to  the  southern 
 part  of  the  empire,  the  climate  is  generally  considered  as  hot, 
 whereas  the  northern  part  of  this  extensive  country  is  liable  to 
 all  the  rigors  of  the  European  or  North  American  winter.t  At 
 Pekin  such  is  the  efl'ect  of  the  great  range  of  Tartarian,  or  rather 
 Manshurian  mountains  covered  with  perpetual  snow,  that  the 
 average  degree  of  the  thermometer  is  under  20°  in  the  night  dur- 
 ing the  winter  months ;  and  even  in  the  day  it  is  considerably  be- 
 low the  freezing  point.  In  so  wide  an  empire,  such  a  diversity  of 
 climate  and  seasons  must  occur  that  no  general  description  can 
 suffice. 
 
 Face  of  (he  Coimtr-i/,]  The  face  of  tho  country  is  greatly  diver- 
 &ifled  ;  and  though  in  a  general  view  it  be  flat  and  fertile,  and  in- 
 tersected with  numerous  large  rivers  and  canals,  yet  there  are 
 chains  of  granitic  mountains  and  other  districts  of  a  wild  and 
 savage  nature.  Cultivation  has  however  considerably  reduced  the 
 number  and  extent  of  such  features,  whence  the  natives  seek  to 
 diversify  the  sameness  of  improvement,  by  introducing  them  in 
 miniature  jnto  their  gardens.  In  general  the  appearance  of  the 
 country  is  render^ed  singularly  picturesque  by  the  peculiar  style 
 of  the  buildings,  and  uncommon  form  of  the  trees  and  plants. 
 
 The  soil  is  various,  and  agriculture  by  the  account  of  all  travel- 
 lers is  carried  to  the  utmost  degree  of  perfection.  The  emperor 
 flimself  sets  an  annual  example  of  the  veneration  due  to  agricul- 
 ture, the   first  and  most  important  province  of  human  industrj-. 
 
 *  Sir  G.  Staunton,  iii.  500.  t  ^^-  '"•  ^^'^- 
 
CHINA  PROPER.  491 
 
 Sir  George  Staunton  thus  expresses  his  ideas  of  Chinese  agricul- 
 ture :* 
 
 "  Where  the  face  of  the  hill  or  mountain  is  not  nearly  perpen- 
 dicular to  the  level  surface  of  the  earth,  the  slope  is  converted 
 into  a  number  of  terraces,  one  above  another,  each  of  which  is 
 supported  by  mounds  of  stone.  By  this  management  it  is  not  un- 
 common to  see  the  whole  face  of  a  mountain  completely  culti- 
 vated to  the  summit.  The  stages  are  not  confined  to  the  culture 
 of  any  particular  vegetable.  Pulse,  grain,  yams,  sweet  potatoes, 
 onions,  carrots,  turnips,  and  a  variety  of  other  culinary  plants  are 
 produced  upon  them.  A  reservoir  is  sunk  in  the  top  of  the 
 mountain.  The  rain-water  collected  in  it  is  conveyed  by  channels 
 successively  to  the  different  terraces,  placed  upon  the  mountains' 
 sides.  In  spots  too  rugged,  barren,  steep,  or  high  for  raising- 
 other  plants,  the  camellia  sesanqua,  and  divers  firs,  particularly 
 the  larch,  are  cultivated  with  success, 
 
 "  The  collection  of  manure  is  an  object  of  so  much  attention 
 with  the  Chinese,  that  a  prodigious  number  of  old  men  and 
 ivomen,  as  well  as  of  children,  incapable  of  much  other  labour,  are 
 constantly  employed  about  the  streets,  public  roads,  banks  of 
 canals,  and  rivers,  with  baskets  tied  before  them,  and  ^holding  in 
 their  hands  small  Avooden  rakes  to  pick  up  the  dung  of  animals 
 and  offals  of  any  kind  that  may  answer  the  purpose  of  manure  ; 
 but  above  all  others,  except  the  dung  of  fowls,  the  Chinese  far- 
 mers prefer  night  soil.  This  manure  is  mixed  sparingly  with  a 
 portion  of  stiff  loamy  earth,  and  formed  into  cakes  dried  afterwards 
 in  the  sun.  In  this  state  it  sometimes  becomes  an  object  of  com- 
 merce, and  is  sold  to  farmers,  who  never  employ  it  in  a  compact 
 state.  Their  first  care  is  t<)  construct  large  cisterns  for  contain- 
 ing, besides  those  cakes  and  dung  of  every  kind,  all  sorts  of  vege- 
 table matter,  as  leaves  or  roots  or  stems  of  plants,  mud  from  the 
 canals  and  offals  of  animals,  even  to  the  shavings  collected  by  ths 
 barbers.  With  all  these  they  mix  as  much  animal  water  as  can 
 be  collected,  or  of  common  water  as  will  dilute  the  whole  ;  and  in 
 this  state  generally  in  the  act  of  putrid  fermentation,  they  apply 
 it  to  the  ;)lowed  or  broken  earth. 
 
 "  The  quantity  of  jnanure  thus  collected  must  however  be  still 
 inadequate  to  that  of  the  cultured  ground,  which  bears  so  vast  a 
 proportion  to  the  whole  surface  of  the  country.  It  is  reserved 
 therefore  in  the  first  instance,  for  the  purpose  of  procuring  a 
 quick  succession  of  culinary  vegetables,  and  for  forcing  the  pro- 
 duction of  flowers  and  fruit.  Among  the  vegetables  raised  most 
 generally,  and  in  the  greatest  quantities,  is  a  kind  of  cabbage, 
 called  by  the  Chinese  pe-tsai,  or  white  herb,  which  is  of  a  delicate 
 taste,  somewhat  resembling  cos-lettuce,  and  is  much  I'elished  in 
 China  by  foreigners  as  well  as  natives.  This  vegetable  and  rice, 
 together  with  a.  relish  of  garlic  or  of  onions,  in  room  of  animal 
 food,  and  followed  by  a  little  infusion  of  coarse  tea,  serve  oSten  as 
 a  meal  for  a  Chinese  peasant  or  i^'.cchanic.  The  Chinese  hus- 
 bandman always  steeps  the  seeds  he  intends  to  sow  in  liquid  ma= 
 
 •  Staunton,  iii.  306.  » 
 
492  CHINA  PROPER. 
 
 nurc,  nnlil  they  swell  and  gcrniination  begins  to  appeav:  which 
 experience,  he  says,  has  taught  him  to  have  the  effect  of  hastening 
 the  growth  of  plants,  as  well  as  of  defending  them  against  the  in- 
 sects hidden  in  the  ground  in  which  the  seeds  were  sown. 
 
 "  The  great  object  of  Chinese  agriculture,  the  production  of 
 grain,  is  generally  obtained  with  little  manure,  and  without  letting 
 the  land  lie  fallow.  Irrigation  is  practised  to  a  very  great  extent. 
 The  husbandry  is  singularly  neat,  and  not  a  weed  is  to  be  seen." 
 
 Rivers.^  In  describing  the  rivers  of  this  great  empire  two  are 
 well  known  to  deserve  particular  attention,  namely,  the  Hoan-ho 
 and  the  Kian-ku.  These  have  been  described.*  At  about  70 
 Tailes  from  the  sea,  where  this  river  is  crossed  by  the  imperial 
 canal,  the  breadth  is  little  more  than  a  mile,  and  the 'depth  only 
 about  nine  or  ten  feet ;  but  the  velocity  equals  seven  or  eight 
 miles  in  the  hour.f 
 
 To  these  grand  rivers  many  important  streams  are  tributary, 
 but  it  would  be  infinite  to  enumerate  the  various  waters  which 
 envich  and  ado'-n  this  wide  empire.  The  Yamour  and  Argun 
 form  the  boundary  between  Russian  and  Chinese  Tartary.  The 
 Kiam  and  the  Tay  are  also  considerable  rivers. 
 
 Common  water  in  China  is  very  indifferent,  and  is  in  some 
 places  boiled  to  make  it  fit  for  use. 
 
 Lakes.^  China  is  not  destitute  of  noble  and  extensive  lakes. 
 Du  Halde  informs  us  that  the  lake  of  Tong-tint-how,  in  the  pro- 
 vince of  Hou-quang,  is  more  than  80  leagues  in  circumference. 
 That  of  Poyang-hou,  in  the  province  of  Kiang-Si,  is  about  30 
 leagues  in  circumference,  and  is  formed  by  the  confluence  of  four 
 rivers  as  large  -as  the  Loire.  There  is  also  a  considerable  lake 
 /not  far  to  the  south  of  Nankin,  called  Tai-how.  Some  of  these 
 are  described  in  the  late  embassy.  Upon  a  lake  near  the  imperial 
 canal  were  observed  thousands  of  small  boats  and  rafts,  construct- 
 ed for  a  singular  species  of  fishery.  "  On  each  boat  or  raft  are 
 ten  or  a  dozen  birds,  which,  at  a  signal  from  the  owner,  plunge 
 into  the  water ;  and  it  is  astonishing  to  see  the  enormous  size  of 
 iish  with  which  they  return  grasped  within  their  bills.  They  ap- 
 pear to  be  so  well  trained  that  it  did  not  require  either  ring  or 
 cord  about  their  throats,  to  prevent  them  from  swallowing  any 
 portion  of  their  prey,  except  what  the  master  was  pleased  to  re- 
 turn to  them  for  encouragement  and  food.  The  boat  used  by 
 these  fishermen  is  of  a  remarkably  light  make,  and  is  often  car- 
 ried to  the  lake,  together  with  the  fishing  birds,  by  the  men  who 
 arethere  to  be  supported  by  it." 
 
 Mountains.']  Concerning  the  extensive  ranges  of  Chinese 
 mountains,  no  general  and  accurate  information  has  yet  been 
 given.  Du  Halde's  ample  description  of  the  Chinese  empire  only 
 informs  us  that  some  abound  with  mines  of  silver,  others  produce 
 marble  and  crystal,  while  some  supply  medicinal  herbs.  From 
 the  sanse  author  we  learn  that  the  provinces  of  Yunnan,  Koeit- 
 cheou,  Setchuen,  and  Fokien,  are  so  mountainous  as  greatly  to 
 ijnpede   their   cultivation  ;    and  that  of  Tchekiang  has   dreadful 
 
 *  Page  17.  t  Staunton,  iii.  23  k 
 
CHINA  PROPER.  493 
 
 ■mountains  on  the  west.  In  the  province  of  Kiangnan  there  is  a 
 district  full  of  high  mountains,  which  also  abound  in  the  provinces 
 of  Chensi  and  of  Shansi.  This  imperfect  information  is  little 
 enlarged  by  the  account  published  of  the  late  embassy;  and 
 perhaps  Mr.  Arrowsmith's  recent  map  of  Asia  contains  as  authen- 
 tic information  as  can  be  procured  concerning  the  course  and  ex- 
 tent of  the  Chinese  mountains.  It  hence  appears  that  a  consider- 
 able branch  extends  from  those  in  central  Asia,  running  south  to 
 the  river  Hoan-ho.  Two  grand  ranges,  running  E.  and  W.  inter- 
 sect the  centre  of  the  empire,  seemingly  continuations  of  the 
 enormous  chains  of  Tibet.  In  the  southern  part  of  China  the 
 principal  ridges  appear  to  run  from  N-  to  S. 
 
 jFo7-ests.^  Such  is  the  cultivation  diffused  throughout  China, 
 that  few  forests  remain  except  in  the  mountainous  districts.  Near 
 the  royal  palaces  there  are  indeed  forests  of  great  extent,  but  they 
 rather  bear  the  appearance  of  art  than  of  nature. 
 
 Botany.']  The  number  of  Europeans  who  have  been  allowed 
 to  visit  the  interior  of  China  is  so  small,  and  those  to  whom  this 
 privilege  has  been  granted  having  objects  of  more  urgency  to  at- 
 tend to  than  the  indigenous  plants  of  this  vast  empire,  we  are  as 
 yet  only  in  possession  of  some  scattered  fragments  of  the  Chinese 
 flora.  The  neighbouiiiood  of  Canton  has  been  surveyed  by  Os- 
 beck,  and  a  meagre  list  of  plants  is  to  be  found  in  Staunton's  ac- 
 count of  the  English  embassy  there.  These  are  almost  the  only 
 authentic  sources  that  have  been  hitherto  opened,  and  are  calcu- 
 lated rather  to  excite  ihan  to  satisfy  the  botanical  inquirer. 
 
 Among  the  trees  and  larger  shrubs  we  find  particularized  the 
 thuya  orientalis,  an  elegant  evergreen  ;  the  camphor  tree,  whose 
 \vood  makes  an  excellent  and  durable  timber,  and  from  the  roots 
 of  which  that  fragrant  substance  camphor  is  procured  by  distilla.- 
 tion  ;  the  oleander-leaved  euphorbia,  a  large  shrub  used  as  a  ma- 
 terial for  hedges  ;  the  tallow  tree,  from  the  fruit  of  which  a  green 
 wax  is  procured  that  is  manufactured  into  candles  ;  the  spreading 
 banyan  tree,  growing  among  loose  rocks  ;  the  weeping  willow  ; 
 Spanish  chesnut,  and  the  larch.  Of  the  fruit  trees  the  following 
 are  the  principal  :  China  orange  ;  the  plantain  tree  ;  the  tama- 
 rind;  the  Avhiu;  and  paper  mulberry  tree  ;  the  former  of  these  is 
 principally  cultivated  for  the  use  of  its  leaves,  on  which  the  silk 
 worms  are  fed  ;  and  of  the  bark  of  the  latter,  paper,  and  a  '.ind  of 
 cloth  are  made.  Nor  must  the  two  species  of  the  tea  tree  be 
 left  unnoticed,  whose  leaves  constitute  so  large  a  proportion  of  the 
 European  trade  with  China. 
 
 Several  beautiful  plants  grow  wild  in  the  hedges,  such  as  the 
 globe  amaranth ;  the  balsam;  and  that  elegant  climber  ipomca 
 quamoclit. 
 
 Zoo/ogi/.~'\  There  are  few  animals  peculiar  to  the  Chinese  ter- 
 ritory. Du  Halde  asserts  that  the  lion  is  a  stranger  to  this  coun- 
 try, but  there  are  tigers,  buffaloes,  wild  boars,  bears,  rhinoceroses, 
 camels,  tfeer,  &c.*     The  musk  deer  is  a  singular  animal  of  China 
 
 *  Staunton,  ii.  184.  i.  32. 
 
49  i  CHINA  PROPER. 
 
 as  well  as  Tibet-  Among  the  birds  many  arc  icniavkable  for 
 their  beautiful  forms  and  colours,  in  which  they  are  rivalled  by  a 
 variety  of  moths  and  butterflies. 
 
 Mineralogy.']  Among  the  metals  lead  and  tin  seem  to  be  the 
 rarest,  China  possesses  mines  of  gold,  silver,  iron,  white  copper, 
 common  copper  and  mercury,  together  with  lapis  lazuli,  jasper, 
 rock  crystal,  load  stone,  granite,  porphyry,  and  various  marbles, 
 According  to  some,  rubies  are  found  in  China  j  but  others  assert 
 that  they  come  from  Ava. 
 
 In  many  of  the  northern  provinces  coal  is  found  in  abundance. 
 The  common  people  generally  use  it  pounded  with  water,  and 
 dried  in  the  form  of  cakes. 
 
 Pekin  is  supplied  from  high  mountains  in  the  vicinity,  and  the 
 mines  seem  inexhaustible,  though  coal  is  in  general  use. 
 
 Mines  of  silver  are  abundant,  but  little  worked,  from  an  appre- 
 hension of  impeding  the  progress  of  agriculture.  The  gold  is 
 chiefly  derived  from  the  sands  of  certain  mountains,  situated  in 
 the  western  part  of  the  provinces  of  Sechuen  and  Yunnan,  towards 
 the  frontiers  of  Tibet.  That  precious  metal  is  seldom  used  ex- 
 cept by  the  gilders,  the  emperor  alone  having  solid  vessels  of  gold. 
 
 Tutcnag,  which  is  a  native  mixture  of  zinc  and  iron,  seems  to 
 be  a  peculiar  product  of  China,  and  in  the  province  of  Houquang 
 there  was  a  mine  which  yielded  many  hundred  weight  in  the 
 course  of  a  few  days. 
 
 The  copper  of  Yunnan,  and  other  provinces,  supplies  the  small 
 coin  current  through  the  empire  ;  but  there  is  a  singular  coppei 
 of  a  white  colour,  called  by  the  Chinese  petong^  v/hich  deserves 
 particular  notice.  This  metal  must  not  be  confounded  with  the 
 tutenag,  an  error  not  unfrequent.  It  is  indeed  sometimes  mingled 
 "wdth  tutenag  to  render  it  softer. 
 
 CHINESE  ISLANDS. 
 
 Numerous  isles  are  scattered  along  the  southern  and  eastern 
 coast  of  China,  the  largest  being  those  of  Taiwan,  also  called 
 Foi'mosa,  and  that  of  Hainan.  Formosa  is  a  recent  acquisition  of 
 the  Chinese  in  the  latter  end  of  the  seventeenth  century ;  the  na- 
 tives being  by  the  Chinese' accounts  little  better  than  savages.  It 
 is  divided  from  north  to  south  by  mountains,  and  the  chief  Chinese 
 possessions  are  in  the  western  part.  It  is  attached  to  the  province 
 of  Fokien,  Fochen,  or  Tootchien,  in  the  vicinity  of  which  it  lies, 
 E.  of  Canton.  It  contains,  according  to  Hassel,  about  22,000 
 square  miles.     Its  length  is  from  N.  to  S.  between  lat.  22  and  25  N. 
 
 The  southern  part  of  Hainan  is  mountainous,  but  the  northern 
 more  level  and  productive  of  rice.  In  the  centre  there  are  mines 
 of  gold  ;  and  on  the  shores  are  found  small  blue  fishes,  which  the 
 Chinese  esteem  more  than  those,  which  we  call  gold  and  silver 
 fish  ;  but  they  only  survive  for  a  few  days,  when  confined  to  a 
 small  quantity  of  water.  This  island  is  attached  to  the  province 
 of  Qinintjtong,  and  lies  S.  W.  of  Canton,  bclwccn  lat.  18  and  20  N. 
 
CHINESE  TARTARY.  495 
 
 2J  DJFISIOJV. 
 
 CHINESE  TARTARY. 
 
 UNDER  this  division  of  the  Chinese  Empire,  Hassel  in- 
 cludes the  country  of  the  Mandshurs,  Montchoos,  or  Tunguses, 
 and  the  province  of  Leatong,  which  lie  N.  of  China  Proper,  bor- 
 dering on  the  Great  Wall  ;  the  country  of.the  Monguls  on  the  N. 
 W.  the  province  of  Sifan  on  the  W.  between  China  Proper  and 
 Tibet,  and  Cashgar,  or  Little  Bucharia,  N.  W.  of  Tibet  ;  cover- 
 ing, together,  2,190,000  square  miles,  and  peopled  by  3,000,000  of 
 souls.  The  inhabitants  of  each  of  these  divisions,  according  to 
 Hassel,  have  their  own  hereditary  princes,  who  are  subject  to  the 
 Emperor  of  China.  Except  the  Mahometan  Buchares,  these  peo- 
 ple are  chiefly  the  followers  of  the  Lama.  They  contribute  to  the , 
 strength  of  the  empire  nothing  but  troops,  who  themseh'cs  must 
 be  kept  in  subjection,  by  a  military  force.* 
 
 In  the  further  description  of  this  division  of  the  Chinese  Em- 
 pire, we  shall  follow  Pinkerton,  whose  account  of  it,  though  im- 
 perfect, and  somewhat  perplexed,  is  probably  the  best  that  can  be> 
 obtained  of  this  unexplored  and  obscure  region. 
 
 CHAPTER  I. 
 
 HISTORICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 NAMES,  EXTENT,  BOUNDARIES,  ORIGINAL  POPULATION,  PROGRES- 
 SIVE GEOGRAPHY,  HISTORICAL  EPOCHS,  RELIGION,  GOVERN- 
 MENT, LAWS,  POPULATION,  DIVISIONS,  ARMY,  POLITICAL  IM 
 PORTANCE  AND  RELATIONS,  MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS,  LANGUAGE, 
 LITERATURE,  CITIES  AND  TOWNS,  MANUFACTURES  AND  COM- 
 MERCE. 
 
 A'aiues.']  THE  common  name  of  Tartary,t  was  originally 
 extended  over  the  vast  regions  lying  between  Tibet,  China,  auil 
 the  Arctic  ocean  ;  and  from  the  Black  Sea,  in  the  west,  to  the  ut- 
 most bounds  of  north-eastern  discovery  in  Asia.  As  more  precise-, 
 knowledge  has  arisen,  the  northern  part  has  acquired  the  name 
 of  Siberia,  while  the  southern,  in  some  maps  of  recent  date,  is 
 known  by  the  appellations  of  Western  and  Eastern  Tartary.  Yet: 
 even  in  this  part,  which  might  iiiore  properly  be  styled  Central 
 Asia,  the  Tartars  properly  so  denominated  are  fev,' ;  the  most  nu- 
 
 *  Hassel. 
 
 f  Pinkerton  thinks  it  moi'c  properly  Tatarv.    We  prefer  the  common  spelling, 
 however,  finding  no  sufficient  reason  to  change  it. 
 
496  CHINESE  TAI^TARW 
 
 merous  tribes  being  Monguls  in  the  Avest,  and  Mandshuvs  in  the 
 east. 
 
 This  extensive  region  might  therefore  more  properly  be  called 
 Mongolia,  as  the  greater  number  of  tribes  are  Monguls  ;  or  the 
 •vt'estern  part  might  be  styled  Tartary,  the  middle  Mongolia,  and 
 the  eastern  Mandshviria,  The  two  latter  are  the  objects  of  the 
 present  description  ;  as  that  of  Independent  Tartary  will  be  fovmd 
 after  the  account  of  Persia,  with  which  it  has  (as  now  limited)  in 
 all  ages  been  connected. 
 
 jExte7it.']  This  wide  and  interesting  portion  of  Asia,  which  has 
 repeatedly  sent  fortn  its  swarms  to  deluge  the  arts  and  civiliza- 
 tion of  Europe,  extends  from  Ion.  72°,  east  from  Greenwich,  to 
 tlie  145°,  a  space  of  not  less  than  73°  of  longitude,  which  at  the 
 medial  latitude  of  45,  will  yield  about  3100  geographical  miles. 
 The  breadth  from  the  northern  frontier  of  Tibet,  to  the  Russian 
 confines,  is  about  18  degrees,  or  1080  geographical  miles.  The 
 boundary  towards  Russia  has  been  already  described.  The  east- 
 ern boundary  is  the  sea ;  while  the  southern  extends  along  the 
 great  Chinese  wall,  and  the  northern  limits  of  Tibet.  The  west- 
 ern boundary  is  supplied  by  the  celebrated  mountains  of  Belur 
 Tag,  or  the  Cloudy  Mountains,  which  divide  the  Chinese  empire 
 from  Balk,  and  the  Greater  Bucharia  ;  Avhile  the  range  on  the 
 west  of  the  lake  Palkati  separates  the  Kalmucs,  subject  to  China, 
 from  the  Kirguses  of  Independent  Tartary. 
 
 Origmal  Fo^iulatio7i.~\  Part  of  the  wests  of  this  coimtry  ■vvg.s 
 held  by  the  Scythse  of  antiquity,  a  Gothic  race,  who  were  subdued 
 or  expelled  by  the  Tartars,  or  Huns,  from  the  east,  pressed  on 
 the  other  side  by  the  Monguls.  Beyond  the  latter  were  the 
 Mandshurs,  who,  though  inferior  to  the  Monguls  in  ])owcr,  yet 
 retained  their  ancient  possessions,  and  in  the  1  7th  century  con- 
 quered China.  At  present  the  chief  inhabitants  are  the  Mand- 
 shurs of  the  eastern  provinces  ;  with  the  tribes  denominated  Kal- 
 kas,  Eluts,  and  Kalmucs,  who  are  Monguls.  The  information 
 concerning  central  Asia  is  indeed  very  lame  and  defective  ;  and 
 though  the  late  Russian  travellers  afford  a  few  hints,  yet  the  jeal- 
 ousy of  the  Chinese,  and  other  causes,  have  contributed  to  pro- 
 long our  ignorance  concerning  this  interesting  region. 
 
 Progrtsfiive  GeograJihij.~\  Though  Ptolemy  has  laid  down  with 
 some  degree  of  accuracy  the  country  of  the  Seres,  or  Little  Bu- 
 charia, the  progressive  geography  of  central  Asia  may  be  said  to 
 commence  with  the  travels  of  Marco  Polo,  in  the  end  of  the  15th 
 century.  This  writer  is  justly  regarded  as  the  father  of  Tartaric 
 geography,  and  his  description  of  the  countries  to  the  north  of  Ti- 
 bet is  not  a  little  interesting. 
 
 The  more  recent  accounts,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  the 
 travels  of  Gerbillon,  published  by  Du  Haide,  and  those  of  Bell, 
 with  some  hints  of  Pallas,  may  be  said  to  embrace  but  small  por- 
 tions of  this  vast  territory.*     The  imperfect  state   of  knowledge 
 
 *  Tlie  notes  totlie  JJiMoire  Gmcalo^ique  (L'S  Tatars,  Levde,  1720,  Svo.  must  not 
 be  forgotten  amidst  the  few  miilerials. 
 
CHINESE  TARTARY.  ^97 
 
 concerning  this  country  may  be  imagined,  when  even  D'Anville 
 has  been  obliged  to  have  recourse  to  Marco  Polo. 
 
 Historical  Epochs.']  The  chief  historical  epochs  of  this  part  of 
 Asia  may  perhaps  be  more  certainly  traced  in  the  Chinese  annals, 
 than  in  any  other  documents.  The  first  appearance  of  the  Huns, 
 or  Tartars,  may  be  observed  in  the  pages  of  Roman  history.  The 
 annals  of  the  Mongols,  the  most  important  nation,  faintly  illumi- 
 nates the  pages  of  Abulgasi,  whence  it  would  appear  that  prior 
 to  Zingis  there  was  only  one  celebrated  chan  named  Oguz,  who 
 seems  to  have  flourished  about  the  130th  year  of  the  Christian 
 era.  The  reigns  of  Zingis  and  Timur  are  sufiiciently  known  in 
 general  history  ;  but  the  divisions  of  their  conquests,  and  the  dis- 
 sensions of  their  successors,  have  now  almost  annihilated  the  pow- 
 er of  the  Monguls,  who,  being  partly  subject  to  China,  and  partly 
 to  Russia,  it  is  scarcely  conceivable  that  they  can  again  disturb 
 the  peace  of  their  neighbors. 
 
 Antiquit.ics.~\  Few  antiquities  remain  to  illustrate  the  power  of 
 the  Monguls  ;  but  it  is  probable  that  when  this  region  shall  be 
 more  fully  explored  by  travellers,  several  tombs,  temples,  and 
 other  remains  of  antiquity  may  be  discovered. 
 
 Religio7i.~\  The  religion  most  universally  diffused  in  this  part 
 of  Asia,  is  what  has  been  called  Shamanism,  or  the  belief  in  a 
 supreme  author  of  nature,  who  governs  the  universe  by  the  agen- 
 cy ofnumerous  inferior  spirits  of  great  power.  The  Kalkas  were 
 accustomed  to  acknowledge  a  living  Lama,  or  great  spirit  embod- 
 ied ;  a  form  of  superstition  which  will  be  belter  illustrated  in  the 
 aijcount  of  Tibet. 
 
 Government,  j  The  government  was  formerly  monarchical, 
 with  a  strong  mixture  of  aristocracy,  and  even  of  democracy.  At 
 present  it  is  conducted  by  princes  who  pay  homage  to  ihe  Em- 
 peror of  China,  and  receive  Chinese  titles  of  honor  ;  but  many  of 
 the  ancient  forms  are  retained.  Though  writing  be  not  unknown 
 among  the  Monguls,  yet  the  laws  appear  to  be  chiefly  traditional. 
 
 Pofiulationr\  Of  the  population  of  these  regions  it  is  difficult 
 to  form  any  precise  ideas.  As  the  numerous  tribes  subject  to 
 Russia  are  found,  under  splendid  appellations,  to  present  but  a 
 slender  number  of  individuals,  not  exceeding  two  or  three  millions, 
 it  may  perhaps  be  reasonable  to  infer  that  amidst  the  wide  deserts 
 and  barren  mountains  of  central  Asia  there  do  not  inhabit  above 
 6,000,000.     Hassel  estimates  them  at  3,000,000. 
 
 Divisions.']  The  country  of  the  Mandshurs  is  by  the  Chinese 
 divided  into  three  great  governments.  1 .  That  of  Chinyang,  com- 
 prising Leaodong,  surrounded  in  part  by  a  strong  barrier  of  wood. 
 The  chief  town  is  Chinyang,  also  called  Mugden,  by  the  Mand- 
 shurs, still  a  considerable  place,  with  a  mausoleum  of  Kunchi,  I'e- 
 garded  as  the  conqueror  of  Chma,  and  the  founder  of  the  reigning 
 family.*  2.  The  government  of  Kircn-Ouia,  which  extends  far  to 
 the  N.  E.  where  there  are  many  forests  and  deserts  on  both  sides 
 of  the  great  river  Sagalien.     Kirem,  the    capital,   stands  on  the 
 
 *  La  Croix,  ii.  22!. 
 VOL.    II.  63 
 
Ws  CHINESE  TARTARY. 
 
 river  Songari,  which  falls  into  the  Sagalien,  or  Amoor,  and  was 
 the  residence  of  the  Mandshur  general,  who  acted  as  viceroy.* 
 3.  The  government  of  Tsitchicar,  so  called,  from  a  town  recently 
 founded  on  the  Noniii  Oula,  where  a  Chinese  garrison  is  stationed. 
 The  Russians  call  this  province  Daouria,  from  the  tribe  Tagouri, 
 who  possess  a  great  part  of  this  territory.  The  western  boundary 
 is  the  river  Argoon,  the  frontier  between  Russia  and  China. 
 These  provinces  having  been  the  seat  of  the  Mandshur  monar- 
 chy before  the  conquest  of  China,  have  since  that  event  remained 
 subject  to  their  ancient  sovereigns. 
 
 To  the  west  are  vaiious  tribes  of  Monguls,  as  the  Kalkas,  those 
 around  Koko  Nor,  or  the  Blue  Lake,  who  are  also  called  CElets, 
 Eluts,  or  Kalmucs,  the  terms  only  implying  particular  Mongul 
 branches.  The  Eluts  have  been  greatly  reduced  by  two  destruc- 
 tive wars  against  the  Chinese,  in  1720  and  1757  ;  and  the  great 
 chan  has  disappeared.  Their  country  may  be  considered  under 
 three  divisions.  1.  That  part  called  Gete  even  to  the  time  of  Ti- 
 naur,  which  some  regard  as  the  country  of  the  ancient  Massagetae, 
 towards  the  lakes  of  Palkati,  Balkash  or  Tengis,  and  Zaizan.  2. 
 Little  Bucharia,  so  called  to  distinguish  it  from  the  Greater  Bu- 
 charia,  which  is  subject  to  the  Usbeks,  a  Tartaric  nation  :  but  the 
 people  of  Little  Bucharia  are  an  industrious  race  of  a  distinct  ori- 
 gin, who  are  little  mingled  with  their  Kalmuc  or  Mongul  lords, 
 o.  The  countries  of  Turfan,  to  the  north  of  the  lake  called  Lok 
 Nor,  and  that  of  Chamil  or  Hami,  to  the  east,  regions  little  known, 
 and  surrounded  with  wide  deserts. .  Upon  the  whole,  it  may  per- 
 haps be  found  that  the  Mandshurs  are  the  most  populous  race  ; 
 and  that  the  Monguls,  though  diffused  through  a  vast  territory, 
 can  hardly  boast  the  name  of  a  nation.  The  Kirguses,  or  Tartars 
 proper  of  the  west,  are  confined  to  a  small  and  uncertain  district; 
 and  may  more  properly  be  considered  as  belonging  to  Independ- 
 ent Tartary.  To  these  Hassel  adds  the  Cashgars,  whose  num- 
 ber he  estimates  at  300,000,  spreading  over  a  territory  of  130,000 
 square  miles. 
 
 ylr7nij.~\  It  is  probable  that  this  part  of  the  Chinese  empire 
 might  muster  a  large,  but  ineffectual  army  ;  and  amidst  modern 
 tactics  and  weapons  little  need  be  apprehended  from  a  new  del- 
 uge of  Mongul  barbarians.  Besides,  their  interests  are  now  so 
 various  and  discordant,  that  while  the  empires  of  Russia  and  Chi- 
 na exist,  they  can  only  be  regarded  as  connected  with  the  policy 
 of  these  powerful  states. 
 
 Maniiers  and  Customs.']  The  manners  and  customs  of  the  Mon- 
 guls have  been  already  briefly  described  in  the  account  of  Asiatic 
 Russia. 
 
 The  Mandsh'.u's,  who  here  deserve  particular  notice,  are  little 
 distinguishable  in  their  manners  from  the  Monguls.  By  the  ac- 
 count of  the  Jesuits,  they  have  no  temples,  nor  idols,  but  worship 
 a  supreme  being,  whom  they  style  emperor  of  heaven.  But  prob- 
 ably their  real  creed  is  Shamanism,  or  a  kind  of  rational  poly- 
 theism. 
 
 •  Du  Halde,  ir.  7. 
 
CHINESE  TARTARS.  499 
 
 Language.']  The  three  languages  of  the  INIandshin-s,  Monguls, 
 and  Tartars,  radically  differ  from  each  other  ;  the  former  of 
 which  appears  to  be  the  most  learned  and  perfect  of  the  Tartaric 
 idioms. 
 
 Literature.']  Of  the  native  literature  of  the  Mandshurs,  little 
 is  known,  except  that  a  code  of  laws  was  drawn  up  by  the  order 
 of  one  of  the  monarchs,  prior,  it  is  believed,  to  the  conquest  of 
 China.  The  imported  literature,  by  the  translation  of  Chinese 
 works,  must  be  considerable. 
 
 Cities  and  Toivns.]  This  extensive  portion  of  Asia  contains 
 several  cities  and  towns,  generally  constructed  of  wood,  and  of 
 little  antiquity  or  duration.  These  shall  be  briefly  mentioned, 
 passing  from  the  west  towards  the  east. 
 
 In  Little  Bucharia  appear  the  cities  of  Cashgar,  Yarkand,  Ko- 
 tun,  and  Karia.  Cashgar  was  formerly  a  remarkable  town,  giv- 
 ing name  to  a  considerable  kingdom,  the  limits  of  which  nearly 
 corresponded  with  Little  Bucharia.*  This  town,  though  fallen 
 from  its  ancient  splendor,  still  retains  some  commerce.  Yarkand 
 stands  on  a  river  of  the  same  name,  which,  after  a  long  easterly 
 course,  falls  into  the  lake  of  Lop. 
 
 Turfan,  the  capital  of  a  detached  pi'incipality,  is  a  considerable 
 town,  which  used  to  be  frequented  by'the  merchants  passing  from 
 Persia  to  China.  Hami,  Chami,  or  according  to  others  Chaniil, 
 gives  name  to  a  small  district  in  the  immense  desert  of  Cobi  :  it 
 is  a  small,  but  populous  place,  about  half  a  league  in  circumfe- 
 rence, with  two  beautiful  gates.  It  stands  in  a  fertile  plain,  v-'a- 
 tered  by  a  river,  sheltered  by  hills  on  the  N.  Some  towns  occur 
 farther  to  the  south,  but  seemingly  are  only  usual  stations  for 
 tents,  the  Monguls  preferring  the  nomadic  life. 
 
 To  the  east  of  the  great  desert,  and  near  the  frontiers  of  China, 
 several  Mongul  towns  appear  in  the  maps.  Coucou  seems  to  be 
 the  Couchan  of  Du  Halde,  a  small  tovi^n  seated  on  a  hill  near  a 
 river,  which  falls  into  the  Hoan-ho.  The  others  are  yet  more  in- 
 considerable. 
 
 The  country  of  the  Mandshurs  contains  many  villages  and  cit- 
 ies, as  Ilotun  Sagalian  Oula,  so  called  from  its  position  on  that 
 river,  in  the  country  of  the  Tahouria,  modernized  Daouria  ;  like- 
 wise Tsitchikai*,  with  IMerguen,  Petouna,  Kirin  Oula,  and  Nin- 
 gouta.  On  the  north  and  east  of  the  great  river  Amoor,  scarcely 
 the  vestige  of  a  village  appears.  Of  those  here  enumerated,  Pe- 
 touna or  Pedne  was,  in  the  time  of  Du  Ilalde,  chiefly  inhabited  by 
 Mandshur  soldiers  and  exiles,  under  the  command  of  a  lieuten- 
 ant general.  Nincouta  was  also  the  residence  of  a  Mandshur 
 general,  and  the  seat  of  a  considerable  trade,  particularly  in  the 
 celebrated  plant  called  ginseng,  which  abounds  in  the  neighbor- 
 hood. Sagalian  Oulaf  Hotun,  signifies  the  city  of  the  black  river, 
 and  is  the  chief  Mandshur  settlement  on  that  i^oble  stream. i 
 
 •  HUtoire  des  Tatars,  388. 
 
 ■j-  111  the  Mandshur  langu.^je,  Oula  signifies  a  river,  as  in  the  Chinese  Kiang  Da 
 llaide,  iv.  530.  P/rw  implies  the  same.  \\\  tlie  iMongnl,  JMuren'Ktt.  river;  AUn  a 
 mountain,  also  Tabahan  ;  Jiata  is  a  lock.  In  the  Tatar,  or  Turkish,  Ta^  is  a 
 mountain,  Daria  a  river. 
 
 1  Du  lialde,  iv.  19. 
 
'5f60  CHINESE  TARTARY. 
 
 Trade.']  The  principal  trade  of  the  Mandshur  country  consists 
 in  ginsent^,  and  pearls,  found  in  many  rivers,  which  fall  into  the 
 Amoor.  Excellent  horses  may  also  be  classed  among  the  exports. 
 Cashgar  was  formerly  celebrated  for  musk  and  gold.  Their 
 towns  are  rather  stations  for  merchants  than  seats  of  commerce. 
 But  the  emporia  of  the  Russian  trade  with  China  must  not  be  for- 
 gotten, being  on  the  Russian  side  Zuruchaitu,  on  the  river  Ar- 
 goon,  and  Kiachta  ;  opposite  to  which,  on  the  Chinese  frontier, 
 are  correspondent  stations  erected  of  wood. 
 
 CHAPTER  n. 
 
 NATURAL  GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 CLIMATE  AND  SEASONS,  FAC£  OF  THE  COUNTRY,  SOIL  AND  AGRI- 
 CULTURE, RIVERS,  LAKES,  MOUNTAINS,  FORESTS,  BOTANY,  ZOO- 
 LOGY, MINERALOGY,  MINERAL  WATERS,  NATURAL   CURIOSITIES. 
 
 Climate.']  THOUGH  the  parallel  of  central  Asia  corres- 
 pond with  that  of  France,  and  part  of  Spain,  yet  the  height  and 
 snows  of  the  mountainous  ridges  occasion  a  degree  and  continu- 
 ance of  cold  little  to  be  expected  from  other  circumstances.  In 
 climate  and  productions  it  is,  however,  far  superior  to  Siberia. 
 
 Face  of  the  Cou?itry.]  The  appearance  of  this  extensive  re- 
 gion is  diversified  with  all  the  grand  features  of  nature,  extensive 
 chains  of  mountains,  large  rivers,  and  lakes.  But  the  most  sin- 
 gular feature  is  that  vast  elevated  plain,  supported  like  a  table,  by 
 the  mountains  of  Tibet,  in  the  south,  and  Altaian  chain  in  the 
 worth,  from  the  mountains  of  Belur  Tag,  in  the  west,  to  those  that 
 bound  the  Kalkas  in  the  east.  This  prodigious  plain,  the  most 
 elevated  continuous  region  on  the  globe,  is  intersected  by  some 
 chains  of  mountains,  and  by  the  vast  desert  of  Cobi,  or  Shamo. 
 Destitute  of  plants  and  water,  it  is  dangerous  for  horses,  but  is 
 safely  passed  with  camels.  This  desert  extends  from  about  the 
 S0°  of  E.  longitude  from  Greenwich,  to  about  the  1  10th°,  being 
 30°  of  longitude,  which  in  the  latitude  of  40°,  may  be  1380  geo- 
 graphical miles  :  but  in  this  wide  extent  are  Oases,  or  fertile 
 spots,  of  considerable  extent.  On  the  other  hand,  the  main  des- 
 ert sends  forth  several  barren  branches  in  various  directions. 
 
 Agricultwe.]  Among  the  southern  Mandshurs,  and  the  people 
 of  Little  Bucharia,  agriculture  is  not  wholly  neglected,  nor  is 
 wheat  an  unknown  harvest.  The  soil  of  so  extensive  a  portion  of 
 the  earth  may  be  supposed  to  be  very  various  ;  but  the  predomi- 
 nating substance  is  black  sand. 
 
 Rivers.]  The  most  important  river  is  that  called  by  the  Rus- 
 sians the  Amur,  or  Amocr,  by  the  Mandshurs,  Sagalian  Oula. 
 This  river  has  already  been  described.*     The  Russian  waters  of 
 
 *   P.  CO. 
 
CHINESE  TARTARY.  oOl 
 
 Selinga  and  Irtish  pervade  a  part  of  central  Asia.  Tlic  river  of 
 Yarkand  has  a  considerable  course  before  it  enters  the  lake  of 
 Lop.  The  Hi,  Avhich  falls  into  the  lake  of  Balkash,  is  noted  in 
 Tartaric  history. 
 
 Lak-es.l^  Some  of  the  lakes  arc  of  great  extent,  as  those  of 
 Balkash  or  Tengis,  and  Zaizan,  each  about  150  miles  in  length. 
 Next  is  the  Koko  Nor,  by  some  called  Hoho  Nor,  or  the  blue  lake, 
 which  gives  name  to  a  tribe  of  the  Monguls.  Aor  is  the  Mongul 
 term  for  a  lake,  which  by  the  Mandshurs  is  styled  0?no. 
 
 Mountains.']  The  vast  ranges  of  mountains  which  intersect 
 central  Asia  have  never  been  scientifically  described,  and  few  of 
 them  have  even  I'eceived  extensive  and  appropriate  appellations. 
 On  the  west  the  great  chain  called  Imaus  by  the  ancients,  the 
 Belur  Tag,  or  Dark  Mountains  of  the  natives,  runs  from  N.  to  S. 
 In  the  eastern  country  of  the  Mandshurs  the  i'idges  of  moun- 
 tains are  laid  down  in  the  same  direction. 
 
 The  chief  difficulties  attend  those  in  the  centre.  Those  on  the 
 Russian  frontier  have  been  well  described  ;  but  of  the  northern 
 mountains  of  Tibet,  and  the  sources  of  the  Ganges,  our  kriowledge 
 remains  imperfect.  Still  fainter  light  falls  on  the  ridges  which 
 run  in  an  easterly  and  westerly  direction  to  the  north  of  the  great 
 desert. 
 
 The  great  rivers  of  Onon  and  Argoon,  with  others  that  flow  in 
 an  opposite  direction  into  the  Selinga,  rise  from  the  high  ridge  pf 
 Sochondo,  the  summits  of  which  consist  of  large  rocks  heaped  on 
 each  other  in  successive  terraces.  There  are  two  vast  cavities, 
 or  abysses,  with  perpendicular  sides,  and  small  lakes  at  the  bot- 
 tom, which  receive  the  melting  snows,  and  give  source  to  torrents 
 which  precipitate  themselves  with  a  terrible  noise  amidst  the  dis- 
 jointed rocks.  This  ridge  is  clothed  with  perpetual  snow  ;  and, 
 after  dividing  the  rivers  of  Russian  Daouria  from  those  that  flow 
 into  the  Baikal,  passes  S.  W.  and  joins  an  icy  chain  which  runs 
 into  Mongolia. 
 
 Thei'e  are  some  forests  near  the  rivers  ;  but  in  general  the  ex- 
 treme elevation  and  sandy  soil  of  central  Asia  renders  trees  as 
 rare,  as  in^he  deserts  of  Africa. 
 
 Botany.']  Of  the  botany  of  the  whole  central  part  of  Asia,  in- 
 cluding the  vast  territories  of  Chinese  Tartary  and  Tibet,  we  are 
 as  yet  in  a  manner  totally  ignorant.  No  European  naturalist  has 
 ever  even  passed  through,  much  less  explored  the  vegetable  pro- 
 ducts of  these  extensive  regions.  From  their  elevated  situation, 
 and  their  rigorous  winters,  it  is  obvious  that  no  tropical  plants, 
 nor  even  those  of  the  more  temperate  Asiatic  countries,  are  to  be 
 expected  in  their  flora.  The  only  indigenous  plants  that  we  are 
 as  yet  certainly  acqi'ainted  with,  except  what  belong  lo  Siberia, 
 or  India,  are,  that  well-known  and  singular  fern,  the  polypodium 
 baromctz,  called  also  the  Scythian  lamb  ;  panax  quinquefolium, 
 giJiseng;  the  favorite  drug  of  China  ;  and  rheum  palmatum,  which 
 at  least  is  one  of  the  plants  that  furnishes  the  true  rhubarb. 
 
 Zoology.]  The  zoology  of  this  wide  portion  of  the  globe  would 
 supply  a  fruitful  theme,  in   which  the  camel  of  the  desert  might 
 
503  CHINESE  TARTARY. 
 
 ¥ 
 
 appear  with  the  rock  goat  of  the  Alps,  and  the  tiger  with  the 
 ermine.  The  wild  horse,  and  the  wild  ass,  and  a  peculiar  species 
 of  cattle,  which  grunt  like  swine,  arc  among  the  most  remarkable 
 singularities.  The  Avild  horse  is  generally  of  a  mouse  colour,  and 
 small,  with  long  sharp  ears. 
 
 Mineralogy .']  The  mineralogy  of  central  Asia  has  been  little 
 explored.  Gold  is  found  both  in  the  eastern  and  western  regions, 
 and  the  former  are  also  said  to  produce  tin.  As  Russian  Daouria 
 exhibits  so  many  valuable  substances,  it  is  reasonable  to  conclude 
 that  they  equally  abound  in  the  Chinese  territory,  if  similar  skill 
 and  industry  were  exerted  in  their  discovery.  The  mineral  wa- 
 ters, and  uncommon  appearances  of  nature,  have  been  little  inves- 
 tigated. 
 
 ISLAND  OF  SAGALIAN,  OR  TCHOKA. 
 
 TilUthis  large  island  was  explored  by  the  unfortunate  navigator 
 La  Perouse,  it  was  supposed  to  be  only  a  small  isle  at  the  mouth 
 of  the  Amoor,  the  southern  extremity  being  placed  by  D'Anville 
 about  4°,  or  240  geographical  miles,  to  the  north  of  Jesso.  By  the 
 account  and  maps  of  La  Perouse  it  is  only  divided  from  Jesso  by 
 a  narrow  strait  of  about  20  miles  in  breadth,  since  called  the  strait 
 of  Perouse.  The  discovery  and  account  of  this  large  island, 
 which  extends  from  the  46th°  of  latitude  to  the  54th°,  or  not  less 
 than  480  geographical  miles  in  length,  by  about  80  of  medial 
 breadth,  is  the  most  important  portion  of  that  navigator's  voyage. 
 The  natives  seem  to  approach  to  the  Tartaric  form  ;  and  the  up- 
 per lip  is  commonly  tatooed  blue.  The  dress  is  a  loose  robe  of 
 skins,  or  quilted  nankeen,  with  a  girdle.  Their  huts,  or  cabins, 
 are  of  timber,  thatched  with  grass,  with  a  fireplace  in  the  centre. 
 In  the  south  are  found  Japanese  articles.  A  little  trade  seems  also 
 known  with  the  Mandshurs  and  the  Russians.  The  native  name 
 of  this  large  island  is  Tchoka,  that  used  by  the  Japanese  Oku  Jesso, 
 perhaps  implying  father  Jesso  ;  while  the  Russians,  who  only 
 know  the  northern  part,  call  it  the  isle  of  Sagalian,  because  it  is 
 opposite  to  the  large  river  of  that  name.  The  centre  is  moun- 
 tainous, and  well  wooded  with  pine,  willow,  oak,  and  birch  ;  but 
 the  shores  are  level,  and  singularly  adapted  to  agriculture.  The 
 people  are  highly  praised  by  La  Perouse,  as  a  mild  and  intelligent 
 race  ;  and  he  expressly  informs  us  that  they  are  quite  unlike  the 
 M^nd<^b'M'e.  r."  f^,li'- cse. 
 
TRIBUTARY  DOMINIONS  OF  CHINA.  50^ 
 
 3d.  DU'lSIQjy. 
 
 TRIBUTARY  DOMINIONS. 
 
 THIS  division  of  the  Chinese  Empire,  according  to  Hassel, 
 covers  776,000  square  miles,  and  has  31,500,000  inhabitants.  It 
 embraces  the  following  kingdoms  : 
 
 Aln!rdo7ns.     '  Square  miks.  Population, 
 
 Corea                                          88,000  1,500,000 
 
 Tibet  or  Tangut  370,000  12,000,000 
 
 Annan                                         165,000  10,000,000 
 
 Tunquin                                      154,000  8,000,000 
 
 Leoo  Keoo  Isles. 
 
 1.    KINGDOM  OF  COREA. 
 
 This  kingdom  is  on  a  large  peninsula,  N.  E.  of  China,  fix)ni 
 which  it  is  separated  on  the  S.  W.  by  the  Yellow  Sea.  The  s©a- 
 of  Japan  on  the  N.  E.  which  divides  it  from  the  Japan  Isles ;  on 
 the  N.  lies  the  country  of  the  Mandshurs.  On  the  N.  W.  it  bor- 
 ders on  the  province  of  Leautong. 
 
 Corea  has  for  many  centuries  been  tributary  to  China.  It  has 
 its  own  king  ;  its  chief  city  is  Kinkatao,  of  which  we  know  only 
 the  name.  Its  productions  are,  gold,  silver,  iron,  beautifxil  yellow 
 varnish,  white  paper,  ginseng,  with  small  horses  about  3  feet  high, 
 furs  and  fossil  salt.  This  country  boasts  a  considerable  popula- 
 tion. According  to  Hassel  it  amounts  to  1,500,000.  All  com- 
 merce wi^  this  little  kingdom  is  prohibited,  of  course  little  i'i 
 known  of  its  former  or  present  state. 
 
 2.  TIBET,  OR  TANGUT. 
 
 This  extensive  kingdom  lies  W.  of  China,  and  N.  of  Hindoostaii, 
 and  borders  on  both.  It  covers  according  to  Hassel,  370,000 
 square  miles,  and  has  a  population  of  12,000,000.  It  embraces 
 the  empire  of  the  Dela  Lama,  the  empire  of  the  Teshoo  Lama, 
 the  rajahship  of  Bootan,  the  rajahship  of  Nepaul,  or  Nipal,  ami 
 the  kingdom  of  Setchuen.  Such  are  Hassel's  divisions  ;  v,  ho  ob- 
 serves, that  the  principal  parts  of  Tibet  are  governed  by  priests 
 of  the  Budhistic  order  ;  Dalai  Lama  governs  at  Lassa  ;  Teshoo 
 Lama,  at  Tishulamba ;  Rajah  Daeb,  who  is  a  Lama,  at  Boota)'. 
 Since  the  year  1792,  Nepaul  and  Segwin  have  been  under  the 
 protection  of  China. 
 
 As  the  latest  and  most  full  and  authentic  account  of  this  vast 
 interior  and  imperfectly  explored  region  of  Asia,  we  give  the 
 following  from  Pinkerton. 
 
j04  TRIBUTARY  DOMINIONS  OF  CHINA 
 
 #  TIBET. 
 
 CHAPTER  I. 
 
 HISTORICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 NAMES,  EXTKNT,  BOUNDAHIES  AND  PROVINCES,  PROGRESSIVE 
 GEOGRAPHY,  RELIGION,  GOVERNMENT,  POPULATION,  MANNERS, 
 LITERATURE,  CITIES  AND  TOWNS,  MANUFACTURES  AND  COM- 
 MERCE. 
 
 THE  account  of  tlie  interesting  country  of  Tibet  must  un- 
 fortunately be  limited  in  the  topics,  as  the  materials  are  far  from 
 being  ample.  The  recent  narrative  of  Captain  Turner's  journey 
 shall  be  selected  as  the  most  authentic  :  but  it  only  embraces  a 
 small  part,  and  for  the  general  geography,  recourse  must  be  had 
 to  more  antiquated  authorities.  Tibet,  with  its  numerous  inde- 
 pendencies, may  in  fact  be  still  arranged  among  the  undiscovered 
 countries  in  the  centi'e  of  Asia. 
 
 Mames.']  The  name  of  Tibet.,  which  is  probably  Hindoo  or 
 Persian,  is  in  the  country  itself,  and  in  Bengal,  pronounced  Tibbet, 
 or  Tibt.  But  the  native  appellation  is  Pue,  or  Pue  Koacliim.,  said 
 lo  be  derived  from  Pz^e,  signifying  northern,  and  Koac/ii/n,  snow  ; 
 that  is,  the  snowy  region  of  the  north.* 
 
 ILxte?it.^  According  to  the  most  recent  maps,  Tibet  extends 
 from  about  the  75th  to  the  101st  degree  of  longitude,  which  in  the 
 latitude  of  30°  may  be  about  1350  geographical  miles.  The 
 breadth  may  be  regarded  as  extending  from  the  27th  to  the  35th 
 degree  of  latitude,  or  about  480  geographical  miles. t  The  origi- 
 nal population  has  not  been  accurately  examined. 
 
 Boundaries  and  Provinces.^  There  is  every  reifton  to  believe 
 that  the  northern  boundary  of  this  country  maybe  |?ifdy  extended 
 two  degrees  farther  than  it  appears  in  our  best  ma|^,  in  which 
 there  is  no  portion  of  Great  Tibet  to  the  N.  E.  of  Cashmir. 
 
 Tibet  is  divided  into  three  parts,  Upper,  Middle,  and  Lower. 
 Upper  Tibet  chiefly  comprises  the  province  of  Nagari,  full  of 
 horrible  rocks,  and  mountains  covered  with  eternal  snow.  Mid- 
 dle Tibet  contains  the  provinces  of  Shang,  Ou,  and  Kiang  :  while 
 the  provinces  of  Lower  Tibet  arc  Takbo,  Congbo,  and  Kahang. 
 
 Many  of  these  provinces  are  again  subdivided  :  Nagari  for  in- 
 stance, is  considered  as  a  kingdom  of  three  departments,  Sangkar, 
 Pourang,  and  Tamo.  Shang  is  on  the  West,  boundedby  Ncpaul. 
 The  province  of  Ou  contains  Lassa,  the  capital  of  Tibet.  Kiang 
 is  to  the  north-ea.stof  Ou;  and  is  inhabited  by  mingled  Tibetans 
 and  Monguls  in  tents.  Kahang  is  in  the  S'.  E.  bordering  on  the 
 Birmans,  and  is  divided  into  twelve  departments. 
 
 *  Turner,  p.  v.  ami  30.). 
 
 t  Prot)Mbly  to  S7  dc^'iecs,  wliicli  would  aild  120  geognqiliical  miles:  for  .Miis  Tag 
 J9,  according  to  the  HUiS^iiiiis,  t!ie  uorlhtru  bou.udarv  ol  libct;  and  ilicy  place  lii.'i: 
 ranjre  in  o8  dcsrrees. 
 
TRIBUTARY  DOMINIONS  OF  CHINA.  50^ 
 
 To  these  must  be  added  the  wide  region  of  Amdoa,  if  it  be  not 
 the  same  with  Kahang,  but  it  seems  more  probably  to  embrace 
 the  confines  towards  China,  as  the  natives  are  remarkably  ingeni- 
 ous, and  speak  the  Chinese  langu?gc.  The  country  of  Hor  is 
 situated  betwixt  Tartary  and  the  provinces  of  Nagari  and  Kiang, 
 and  seems  to  be  the  Hohonor  of  our  maps.  Our  Bootan  is  by  the 
 natives  styled  Decpo,  or  Takbo  :  all  the  countries  to  the  west  of 
 which,  as  Moringa,  or  Morung,  Mocampour,  Nepaul,  Gorca,  and 
 Kemaoon,  are  not  considered  as  parts  of  Tibet.  The  confusion  of 
 Chinese,  Mongul,  and  Tibetan  appellations,  has  been  a  great  im- 
 pediment in  the  geography  of  this  extensive  country  ;  the  N.  E. 
 part  of  which  was,  with  the  Chinese  province  of  Shensi,  before  the 
 great  wall  was  extended  in  this  quarter,  the  celebrated  Tangut 
 of  oriental  history  and  geography.  On  the  western  side  high 
 mountains,  covered  with  perpetual  snow,  and  with  all  the  terrible 
 avalanches,  and  other  features  of  the  Swiss  Alps,  have  in  all  ages 
 prevented  the  Persians  and  the  conquerors  of  Bucharia  from  in- 
 vading this  country  ;  while  the  deserts  in  the  N.  E.  have  proved 
 ineffectual  barriers  against  the  Monguls  and  Eluts.  These  west- 
 ern mountains  have  also  prevented  travellers  from  penetrating  in 
 that  quarter,  which  is  little  better  known  at  present  than  in  the 
 time  of  Ptolemy. 
 
 Progressive  Geografihi/.']  The  progressive  geography  of  Ti- 
 bet chiefly  dates  from  a  recent  period  ;  for  there  is  no  room  to  be- 
 lieve that  the  snowy  mountains  of  Tibet  bad  been  penetrated  hy 
 the  ancients.  The  Portuguese  comm.erce  with  the  East  Indies 
 may  be  said  to  have  first  disclosed  this  ample  region,  of -which, 
 however,  our  knowledge,  even  at  this  day,  is  lamentably  defective. 
 Tibet  seems  to  have  been  the  southern  part  of  the  Tangut  of  Mar- 
 co Polo,*  who  describes  the  province  of  l^ebcthf  (which  he  says 
 contained  eight  kingdoms,  Avith  many  cities  and  villages,)  as  a 
 mountainous  country,  producing  some  gold  and  spices,  a  large 
 breed  of  dogs,  and  excellent  falcons. 
 
 About  1715,  the  Emperor  of  China  being  desirous  to  obtain  a 
 map  of  Tibet,  two  Lamas  were  sent  who  had  studied  geometry  in 
 a  mathematical  academy.t  These  Lamas  drew  a  map  from  Si- 
 ning,  in  the  province  of  Shensi,  to  the  sources  of  the  Ganges  ; 
 which  was  afterwards  examined  by  the  Jesuits,  and  improved  by 
 them,  so  far  as  their  materials  would  admit.  This  map,  publish- 
 ed in  the  atlas  of  Du  Haide's  work,  unfortunately  continues  al- 
 most the  sole  authority,  and  is  followed,  with  a  few  variations,  by 
 the  most  recent  geographers.  Yet  it  seems  but  of  doubtful  cred- 
 it ;  and  reasonable  suspicions  may  be  entertained  from  there  be- 
 ing no  distinct  names  of  small  kingdoms,  states,  or  provinces, 
 though  from  recent  accounts,  these  seem  particularly  to  abound 
 in  the  country  ;  and  from  the  great  river  Gogra  being  totally  un- 
 known and  omitted. 
 
 The  geography  of  Asia  cannot  be  said  to  be  complete  till  we 
 have  new  and  correct  maps  of  the  central  parts,  particularly  of 
 
 *  Cap.  xxxvi.  edit.  1537.  f  Du  Hulde,  ir.  571. 
 
 vol..   II.  64 
 
506  TRIBUTARY  DOMINIONS  OF  CHINA. 
 
 Tibet,  which  may  be  called  the  heart  of  Asia,  whence  the  streams 
 flow  into  the  vast  southern  regions  of  that  extensive  country. 
 The  sources  of  the  Ganges  and  Indus,  the  Sampoo,  and  all  the 
 prodigious  and  fertile  streams  of  exterior  India,  and  of  China,  be- 
 long to  this  interesting  region  ;  and  must  be  exactly  traced  and 
 delineated  before  we  can  have  precise  and  scientific  ideas  of 
 Asiatic  geography. 
 
 History.']  The  Lama  of  Tibet  was  probably  the  Prester  John 
 of  the  middle  ages  ;  and  this  strange  appellation  was  as  strangely 
 transferred  by  Portuguese  ignorance,  to  the  Emperor  of  Abyssin- 
 ia. Polo  informs  us  that  Tibet  had  been  ravaged  by  the  Monguls, 
 so  that  in  his  time  it  was  almost  desolate.  The  quiet  succession 
 of  the  lamas  would  afford  few  materials  for  history  ;  and  the  petty 
 secular  chiefs*  of  distinct  provinces,  or  kingdoms,  may  perhaps 
 sometimes  be  traced  in  the  Chinese  or  Hindoo  annals,  but  would 
 little  interest  an  European  'eader.  As  the  tombs  and  mon- 
 asteries are  often  constructed  of  stone,  some  may  remain  of 
 remote  antiquity.  But  the  idols,  cut  in  the  rocks,  are  little  calcu- 
 lated to  impress  travellers  with  the  idea  of  much  perfection  in 
 the  arts. 
 
 Religion.~\  The  religion  of  Tibet  seems  to  be  the  schismatical 
 offspring  of  that  of  the  Hindoos.!  It  is  reported  to  have  received 
 its  earliest  admission  in  that  part  of  Tibet  bordering  upon  India, 
 (which  from  hence  became  the  seat  of  the  sovereign  lamas  ;)  to 
 have  traversed  over  Mantchieux  Tartary,  and  to  have  been  ulti- 
 mately disseminated  over  China  and  Japan.  It  still  bears  a  very 
 close  affinity  with  the  religion  of  Brahma  in  many  important  par- 
 ticulars, but  differs  materially  in  its  ritual,  or  ceremonial  wor- 
 ship. Tibetians  assemble  in  chapels,  and  unite  together  in  pro- 
 digious numbers  to  perfoi'm  their  religious  service,  which  they 
 chant  in  alternate  recitative  and  chorus,  accompanied  by  an  ex- 
 tensive band  of  loud  and  powerful  instruments  ;  so  that  these 
 congregations  forcibly  recal  to  the  recollection  both  the  solejimi- 
 ty  and  sound  of  the  Roman  Catholic  mass. 
 
 There  are  also  numerous  monasteries,  containing  crowds  of 
 gylangs,  or  monks,  Avith  a  few  amiees,  or  nuns. 
 
 Gove7-7i7ne7it.'^  The  ruling  government  is  the  spiritual,  though 
 the  lama  was  accustomed  to  appoint  a  tipa.,  or  secular  regent,  a 
 right  which  has  probably  passed  to  the  Chinese  emperor.  The 
 laws,  like  the  religion,  bear  some  affinity  to  that  of  the  Hindoos. 
 
 Fojiulution.]  We  have  already  mentioned  Hassel's  estimate, 
 Pinkerton  differs  widely  from  his.  From  the  ease  with  which 
 their  conquest  was  effected  by  the  Eluts,  and  other  circumstances, 
 
 *  Yet  Tibet  was  foi*  some  time  subject  to  secular  kings,  called  Tsan  Pa  ;  ami  the 
 lama  resided  at  Lassa,  with  a  power  situilar  to  that  of  the  spiritual  prince  of  Japan. 
 Those  Monguls,  called  Eluts,  confjuered  tlie  secular  priuce,  and  transferred  the  \»  hole 
 power  to  the  lama.  (Du  Halde,  iv.  50.)  In  1792,  the  Nipalese  having  comniilted 
 great  ravages  in  Tibet,  the  Emperor  ot  China  sent  an  army  to  protect  the  lan)ii;  in 
 consequence  ot  which  the  Chinese  have  established  military  potts  on  the  frontiers,  so 
 that  the  intercourse  between  their  country  aud  Bengal  is  now  precluded.  Turner, 
 441. 
 
 f  Turner,  p.  306. 
 
TRIBUTARY  DOMINIONS  OF  CHINA.  507 
 
 it  can  scarcely  be  conceived  that  a  monarch  of  all  Tibet  could 
 have  brought  into  the  field  an  army  of  more  than  50,000  ;  and  al- 
 lowing that  (exclusive  of  the  numerous  monks)  only  every  tenth 
 person  assumed  arms,  the  population  would  be  half  a  million,  a 
 circumstance  which  will  not  surprise  those  who  consider  that  a 
 •few  families  in  central  Asia  assume  the  name  of  a  nation.  But 
 this  number  is  probably  far  too  small  ;  and  it  can  only  be  said 
 that  the  population  seems  scanty. 
 
 Mevenues.']  The  revenues  of  the  lama,  and  of  the  secular  prin- 
 ces, seem  to  be  trifling  ;  nor  can  Tibet  ever  aspire  to  any  political 
 importance.  In  a  commercial  point  of  view,  friendship  and  free  in- 
 tercourse with  Tibet  might  open  new  advantages  to  the  English 
 settlements  in  Bengal  ;  and  in  this  design  repeated  envoys  to  the 
 lama  were  sent  by  Mr.  Hastings,  a  governor  attentive  to  the  inter- 
 ests of  liis  country. 
 
 Character,  £5'c.]  Mr.  Turner  represents  the  character  of  the 
 Tibetians  as  gentle  and  amiable.  The  men  are  generally  stout, 
 with  something  of  the  Tartaric  features,  and  the  women  of  a  rud- 
 dy brown  complexion,  heightened  like  the  fruits,  by  the  proximity 
 of  the  sun,  while  the  mountain  breezes  bestow  health  and  vigor.  ' 
 
 "  The  ceremonies  of  marriage  are  neither  tedious  nor  intricate 
 in  Tibet.*  Their  courtships  are  carried  on  with  little  art,  and 
 quickly  brought  to  a  conclusion.  The  priests  of  Tibet,  who  shun 
 the  society  of  women,  have  no  share  in  these  ceremonies,  or  in 
 ratifying  the  obligation  between  the  parties,  which,  it  seems,  is 
 formed  indissolubly  for  life." 
 
 It  is  a  remarkable  characteristic  of  the  country,  that  polygamy 
 here  assumes  a  different  form  from  that  of  other  oriental  regions; 
 the  women  being  indulged  in  a  plurality  of  husbands,  instead  of 
 the  reverse.  It  is  the  privilege  of  the  elder  brother  to  select  a 
 wife,  who  stands  in  an  equal  relation  to  his  other  brothers,  what- 
 ever may  be  their  number.f 
 
 Such  is  the  respect  paid  to  the  lama,  that  his  body  is  preserved 
 entire  in  a  shrine ;  while  those  of  the  inferior  priests  are  burnt, 
 and  their  ashes  preserved  in  little  hollow  images  of  metal.  But 
 in  general  the  dead  bodies  are  exposed  to  the  beasts  and  birds  of 
 prey,  in  walled  areas  ;  and  an  annual  festival  is  held,  as  in  Bengal 
 and  China,  in  honor  of  the  dead. 
 
 A  curious  idea  of  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  Tibetians 
 may  be  formed  from  Mr.  Turner's  account  of  his  interview  with 
 the  lama,  then  an  infant,  not  capable  of  speech  ;  for,  in  the  spirit 
 of  the  eastern  metempsychosis,  they  suppose  that  the  soul  of  the 
 lama  passes  from  his  late  body  into  another,  which  they  discover 
 by  infallible  marks. 
 
 Upon  the  whole,  the  Tibetians  appear  to  have  made  a  consid- 
 erable progress  in  civilization  ;  but  the  sciences  continue  in  a 
 state  of  imperfection,  the  year  for  instance  being  lunar,  and  the 
 month  consisting  of  29  days. 
 
 Literature.']     The  literature  is  chiefly  of  the  religious  kind,  the 
 
 *  Turner,  p.  352.  -J-  Du  Halde  and  Turner. 
 
508  TRIBUTARY  DOMINIONS  OF  CHINA. 
 
 books  being  sometimes  printed  with  blocks  of  wood,  on  narrow 
 slips  of  thin  paper,  fabricated  from  the  fibrous  root  of  a  small 
 shrvib.  In  this  practice  they  resemble  the  Chinese;  while  the 
 Hindoos  engrave  their  works  with  a  steel  stylus  upon  the  recent 
 leaves  of  the  palmyra  tree,  (borassus  flal)elliformis,)  affording  a 
 fibrous  substance, which  seems  indestructible  by  vcrrhin.*  The  writ- 
 ing runs  from  the  left  to  the  right,  as  in  the  languages  of  Europe. 
 The  gylong's,  or  monks,  pass  through  a  regular  education  ; 
 and,  it  is  to  be  supposed,  sometimes  teach  children  not  destined  to 
 religious  confinement. 
 
 Cities  and  Toiviif^.'^  Of  the  cities  and  towns  of  Tibet  little-  is 
 known.  The  capital  is  Lassa  ;  and  several  other  names  in  the 
 southern  part  assume  the  character  of  towns  in  the  maps,  though 
 probably  mere  villages.  There  being  little  commerce,  there  is 
 no  middle  class  of  people,  but  the  transition  is  rapid  from  the  mis- 
 erable hut  to  the  stone  palace,  or  monastery. 
 
 Lassa,  the  capital  of  Tibet,  is  situated  in  a  spacious  plain,  being 
 a  small  city,  but  the  houses  are  of  stone,  and  are  spacious  and 
 lofty.f  The  noted  mountain  of  Putala,  on  which  stands  the  pal- 
 ace of  the  Lama,  is  about  seven  miles  to  the  east  of  the  city.  As 
 La  means  a  hill  in  the  native  tongue,  this  name  may  imply  the 
 hill  of  Pouta  or  Boodh.  To  the  north  of  Lassa  appears  another 
 vast  range  of  mountains,  covered  with  snow.  Lassa  is  in  the 
 province  of  Ou,  and  almost  in  the  centre  of  Tibet.| 
 .  .Edijices.~\  Among  the  edifices,  the  monasteries  may  be  first 
 mentioned.  Mr.  Turner  describes  that  of  Teshoo  Loomboo,  as 
 containing  three  or  four  hundred  houses,  inhabited  by  monks,  be- 
 sides temples,  mausoleums,  and  the  palace  of  the  sovereign  pon- 
 tiff. The  buildings  are  all  of  stone,  none  less  than  two  stories  in 
 height,  with  flat  roofs,  and  parapets  composed  of  heath  and  brush- 
 wood, probably  to  emit  the  melting  snow.  The  centre  window 
 projects  beyond  the  wall,  and  forms  a  balcony.  Some  of  the  pal- 
 aces and  fortresses  are  described  and  delineated  by  Mr.  Turner  ; 
 and  the  architecture  seems  respectable.  Bridges  occur  of  various 
 fantastic  forms  ;  sometimes  consisting  of  chains,  drav/n  from  pre- 
 cipice to  precipice  ;  sometimes  of  beams,  one  end  being  fixed  in 
 the  shore,  while  the  other  successively  increases  its  projection  till 
 the  uppermost  timbers  support  a  short  passage  of  planks,  thus 
 resembling  the  upper  section  of  an  octagon.  The  roads  amidst 
 the  rocky  mountains  resemble  those  of  Svvisserland,  and  are  par- 
 ticularly dangerous  after  rain. 
 
 AIaniifactures.~\  The  chief  manufactures  of  Tibet  are  shawls, 
 and  some  woollen  cloths  ;  but  there  is  a  general  want  of  industry  ; 
 and  the  fine  undermost  hair  of  the  goats,  from  which  shawls  are 
 manufactured,  is  chiefly  sent  to  Cashmir.  The  principal  exports 
 are  to  Ching^,  consisting  of  gold  dusi,  diamonds,  pearls,  lamb  skins, 
 some  musk,  and  woollen  cloths.  Many  of  the  Chinese  imports 
 are  manufactured  articles.  To  Nepaul,  Tioet  sends  rock  salt,  tin- 
 cal,  or  crude  borax,  and   gold  dust  ;  refcciving  in  return  base  sil- 
 
 '  Turner.  323.  H   Rcnnell,  30G.  t  licnioulli.iil.  227. 
 
TRIBUTARY  DOMINIONS  OF  CIIINA.'  509 
 
 ver  coin,  copper,  rice, and  coarse  cotton  cloths.  Through  Nepaul 
 is  also  carried  on  the  chief  trade  with  Bengal,  in  gold  dust,tincal, 
 and  musk.  The  returns  are  broadcloth,  spices,  trinkets,  emeralds, 
 sapphires,  lazulite,  jet,  amber,  £cc.  With  Asam  in  the  S.  E.  theVe 
 is  no  intercourse  ;  and  tlie  little  trade  with  Bootan,  ir*ay  rather  be 
 regarded  as  internal. 
 
 Tracle.^  The  trade  with  China,  which  is  the  principal,  is  chief- 
 ly conducted  at  the  garrison  town  of  Sining,  in  the  western  ex- 
 tremity of  the  province  of  Shensi,  where  tea  is  eagerly  bought  by 
 the  Tibetians.  There  is  no  mint  in  Tibet,  as  such  an  institution 
 is  prevented  by  religious  prejudices  ;  but  the  base  silver  of  Ne- 
 paul is  current  throughout  the  country. 
 
 CHAPTER  II. 
 
 NATURAL  GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 CLIMATE  AND  SOIL,    RIVERS,  MOUNTAINS,  ZOOLOGY,  MINERALOGY, 
 NATURAL    CURIOSITIES. 
 
 Climate.']  "  IN  the  temperature  of  the  seasons  in  Tibet,  a  re- 
 markable uniformity  prevails,  as  well  as  in  their  periodical  dura- 
 tion and  return.  The  same  division  of  them  takes  place  here  as 
 in  the  more  southern  region  of  Bengal.  The  spring  is  marked, 
 from  March  to  May,  by  a  variable  atmosphere  ;  heat,  thunder 
 storms,  and  occasionally  with  refreshing  showers.  From  June 
 to  September  is  the  season  of  humidity,  when  heavy  and  continued 
 rains  fill  the  rivei  s  to  their  brim,  which  run  off  from  hence  with 
 rapidity,  to  assist  in  inundating  Bengal.  From  October  to  March, 
 a  clear  and  uniform  sky  succeeds,  seldom  obscured  either  by  fogs 
 or  clouds.  For  three  montlis  of  this  season  a  degree  of  cold  is 
 felt,  far  greater,  perhaps,  than  is  known  to  prevail  in  Europe.  Its 
 extreme  severity  is  more  particularly  confined  to  the  southern 
 boundary  of  Tibet,  near  that  elevated  range  of  mountains,  whiclj 
 divides  it  fi'om  Asam,  Bootan,  and  Nepaul."* 
 
 Thus  the  distinguishing  characteristic  of  the  climate  is  that 
 extreme  dry  and  parching  cold,  which,  under  the  latitude  of  26, 
 near  the  torrid  zone  of  antiquated  geography,  rivals  that  of  the 
 Alps,  in  latitude  46. 
 
 Face  of  the  Country.]  Tibet  Proper  exhibits  only  Ioav  rocky 
 hills,  without  any  visible  vegetation,  or  extensive  arid  plains  of  an 
 aspect  equally  stern  ;  while  the  bleak  and  cold  climate  constrains 
 the  inhabitants  to  seek  refuge  in  sheltered  vales  and  hollows,  or 
 amidst  the  warmest  aspects  of  the  rocks.  Yet  Tibet  produces 
 great  abundance  and  variety  of  wild  fowl  and  game  ;  with  nu- 
 merous flocks  of  sheep  and  goats,  and  herds  of  cattle,  and  is  in- 
 fested by  many  beasts  of  prey.     Tibet  Proper  must  indeed  be  con- 
 
 *  Turner,  300. 
 
510  TRIBUTARY  DOMINIONS  OF  CHINA. 
 
 sidered  as  a  mineral  country,  the  mountains  presenting  a  pecu- 
 liarly naked  aspect,  indicative  of  rich  ores. 
 
 Soil.']  The  nature  of  the  soil  here  prohibits  the  progress  of  sl^- 
 riculture.  The  vales  are  commonly  laid  under  water  on  the  ap- 
 proach of  winter  ;  in  the  spring  they  are  plowed  and  sown,  while 
 frequent  showers,  and  a  powerful  sun,  contribute  speedily  to  ma- 
 ture the  crops.*  The  autumn  being  clear  and  tranquil,  the  har- 
 vest is  long  left  to  dry  on  the  ground,  and  when  sufficiently  hard- 
 ened, is  trod  out  by  cattle.  The  course  of  cultivation  is  wheat, 
 peas,  and  barley  ;  rice  being  confined  to  a  more  southern  soil. 
 
 Mivers.]  The  chief  river  of  Tibet  is,  beyond  all  comparison, 
 the  Sampoo,  or  Berhampooter,  which  rising  in  the  western  re- 
 gion, from  the  same  lofty  mountains  that  give  source  to  the  Gan- 
 ges, proceeds  in  an  E.  and  S.  E.  direction  for  about  the  space  of 
 1000  English  miles,  to  the  confines  of  Tibet  and  Asam,  where  it 
 bends  S.  W.  and  flows  into  the  estuary  of  the  Ganges,  after  a  far- 
 ther course  of  about  400  British  miles. 
 
 The  Hoan  Ho,  and  Kian  Ku  of  the  Chinese,  also  derive  their 
 origin  from  the  eastern  boundaries  of  Tibet.  Of  the  other  rivers 
 little  is  known  ;  but  the  great  Japanese  river  of  Cambodia,  or 
 Maykaung  of  Laos  ;  that  of  Nou  Kia,  supposed  to  pass  near  Mar- 
 taban,  into  the  ^If  of  Pegu  ;  and  the  Irrawady  of  this  last  coun- 
 try, are  all  believed  to  derive  their  sources  from  the  mountains  of 
 Tibet,  which  may  be  styled  the  Alps  of  Asia.  Nor  must  it  be  for- 
 gotten that  another  large  river,  called  the  Sardjoo,  or  Gagra, 
 which  after  a  course  of  about  600  miles,  nearly  parallel  on  the  E. 
 with  that  of  the  Ganges,  joins  it  near  Chupi^a,  also  derives  its 
 spring  from  the  lofty  western  mountains  of  Tibet. 
 
 Z,akes.]  These  Alpine  regions  contain,  as  usual,  many  lakes, 
 the  most  considerable  being  represented  under  the  name  of  Ter- 
 kiri,  about  80  miles  in  length,  and  25  broad.  The  Chinese  lamas, 
 have  also  depicted  many  other  lakes  in  the  northern  parts  of  the 
 country ;  where  there  certainly  exists  one  very  singular,  which 
 yields  the  tincal  or  crude  borax.  Equally  uncommon  is  the  lake 
 to  the  S.  of  Lassa,  which  our  maps  call  Jamdro  or  Palte.  This 
 strange  lake. is  represented  as  a  wide  trench,  of  about  two  leagues 
 broad,  every  where  surrounding  an  island  of  about  twelve  leagues 
 in  diameter  ;  if  true,  a  singular  feature  of  nature.  Even  the 
 smaller  lakes  in  the  south  of  Tibet  Proper  are  in  the  winter  frozen 
 to  a  great  depth. 
 
 Mou7itains.~\  The  vast  ranges  of  Tibetian  mountains  have  al- 
 ready been  repeatedly  mentioned ;  but  there  is  no  accurate  geo- 
 graphical delineation  of  their  course  and  extent.  Those  in  the 
 west  and  south  seem  to  bend  in  the  form  of  a  crescent,  from  the 
 sources  of  the  Ga]igcs  to  the  frontiers  of  Asam,  in  a  N.  W.  and  S. 
 E.  direction.  To  the  north  of  Sampoo  a  parallel  and  yet  higher 
 ridge  seems  to  extend,  the  northern  extremities  abounding  with 
 large  frozen  lakes.  The  chief  elevation  appears  as  usual  to  be 
 central,  to  the  south  of  the  lake  Terkiri,  being  called  Koiran. 
 
 *  Tamer,  35 iv 
 
TRIBUTARY  DOMINIONS  OF  CHINA.  511 
 
 From  these  great  ranges  many  branches  extend  N.  and  S.  as  in 
 the  Alps,  and  their  names  may  perhaps  be  traced,  but  with  little 
 accuracy,  in  the  general  map  of  Tibet,  and  atlas  of  the  provinces, 
 drawn  up  by  D'Anville  from  the  sketches  of  the  missionaries,  and 
 already  repeatedly  quoted. 
 
 Forests.]  Many  parts  of  Tibet  abound  with  forests  containing 
 many  European  trees,  and  others  peculiar  to  Asia.  The  high 
 snowy  mountains,  which  contain  the  sources  of  the  Ganges,  are 
 perhaps  barren  of  vegetation,  a  character  generally  applicable  to 
 Tibet  Proper. 
 
 Zoology.']  Tibet  abounds  with  game  of  various  descriptions. 
 The  horses  are  of  a  small  size,  or  what  we  term  ponies,  but  spir- 
 ited to  a  degree  of  obstinacy.  The  cattle  are  also  diminutive. 
 The  flocks  of  sheep  are  numerous,  commonly  small,  with  black 
 heads  and  legs  ;  the  wool  soft,  and  the  mutton  excellent.  It  is  a 
 peculiarity  of  the  country  that  the  latter  food  is  generally  eaten 
 raw.  When  dried  in  the  frosty  air  it  is  not  disagreeable  in  this 
 state,  to  an  European  palate.* 
 
 The  goats  are  numerous,  and  celebrated  for  producing  a  fine 
 hair,  which  is  manufactured  into  shawls,  and  which  lies  beneath 
 the  exterior  coarse  coat.  Nor  must  the  singular  brced  of  cattle 
 be  forgotten,  called  Yak  by  the  Tartars,  covered  with  thick  long 
 hair  ;  the  tail  being  peculiarly  flowing  and  glossj^,  and  an  article 
 of  luxury  in  the  east,  where  it  is  used  to  di'ive  away  the  flies,  and 
 sometimes  dried  for  ornaments.  These  cattle  do  not  low  ;  but, 
 when  uneasy,  make  a  kind  of  grunting  Sound,  whence  the  breed  is 
 called  the  dos  grunniens. 
 
 The  musk  deer  delights  in  intense  cold.  This  valuable  animal 
 has  two  long  curved  tusks,  proceeding  downwards  from  the  upper 
 jaw,  which  seem  intended  to  dig  roots,  his  usual  food.  The  figure 
 of  the  body  somewhat  resembles  the  hog,  while  the  hair  approaches 
 the  quills  of  the  porcupine.  The  musk,  which  is  only  found  in 
 the  male,  is  formed  in  a  little  tumour  at  the  navel ;  and  is  the 
 genuine  and  authentic  article  so  styled,  being  commonly  black, 
 and  divided  by  thin  cuticles.f 
 
 The  lakes  abound  with  water  fowl  in  the  summer,  many  of 
 which  may  perhaps  be  new  to  zoology  ;  and  little  is  discovered 
 concerning  the  fish  and  insects  of  this  singular  country. 
 
 Mineralogy.']  The  mineralogy  is  better  known  from  the  ac- 
 count appended  to  Mr.  Turner's  Journey  in  1783,  from  which  it 
 appears  that  Tibet  Proper  abounds  with  rich  minerals.  Gold  is 
 found  in  great  quantities,  sometimes  in  the  form  of  dust,  in  the 
 beds  of  rivers,  sometimes  in  '.arge  masses,  and  irregular  veins. 
 There  is  a  lead  mine,  two  days  journey  from  Teshoo  Lumboo,  the 
 ore  being  galena.  Cinnabar,  rich  in  quicksilver,  is  also  found  ; 
 and  there  are  strong  indications  of  copper.  Rock  salt  is  another 
 product  of  Tibet.  But  in  general  the  metals  camiot  be  worker!, 
 as  there  is  a  complete  deficiency  of  fuel  ;  and  coal  would  be  fu'- 
 more  precious  than  gold. 
 
 *  Turner,  S02.  f  lb.  200. 
 
512  TRIBUTARY  DOMINIONS  Or  CHINA. 
 
 The  most  peculiar  product  of  Tibet  is  tincal,  or  crude  borax, 
 concerning  Avhich  Mr.  Sanders,  who  accompanied  Mr.  Turner, 
 gives  the  following  interesting  information.  "  The  lake,  from 
 whence  tincal  and  rock  salt  are  collected,  is  about  fifteen  days 
 journey  from  Teshoo  Lumboo,  and  to  the  northward  of  it.  It  is  en- 
 compassed on  all  sides  by  rocky  hills,  Avithout  ajiy  brooks  or  rivu- 
 lets near  at  hand  ;  but  its  waters  arc  supplied  by  springs,  Avhich 
 being  saltish  to  the  taste  are  not  used  by  the  iiatives.  The  tincal 
 is  deposited  or  formed  in  the  bed  of  the  lake  ;  and  those  Avho  go 
 to  collect  it  dig  it  up  in  large  masses,  which  they  afterwards  break 
 into  small  pieces  for  the  convenience  of  carriage,  exposing  it  to 
 the  air  to  dry.  Although  tincal  has  been  collected  from  this  lake 
 for  a  great  length  of  time,  the  quantity  is  not  perceptibly  diminish- 
 ed ;  and  as  the  cavities  made  by  digging  it  soon  w-ear  out,  or  fill 
 up,  it  is  an  opinion  with  the  people  that  the  formation  of  fresh  tin- 
 cal is  going  on.  They  have  never  yet  met  it  in  dry  ground,  or 
 high  situations,  but  it  is  found  in  the  shallowest  depths,  and  the 
 borders  of  the  lake ;  which  deepening  gradually  from  the  edges 
 towards  the  centre,  contain  too  much  water  to  admit  of  their 
 searching  for  the  tincal  conveniently  ;  but  from  the  deepest  parts 
 they  bring  rock  salt,  Avhich  is  not  to  be  found  in  the  shallows,  or 
 near  the  bank.  The  waters  of  the  lake  rise  and  fall  very  little, 
 being  supplied  by  a  constant  and  unvarying  source,  neither  aug- 
 mented by  the  influx  of  any  current,  nor  diminished  by  any  stream 
 running  from  it.  The  lake,  I  was  assured,  is  at  Icdst  20  miles  in 
 circumference  ;  and,  standing  in  a  very  bleak  situation,  is  frozen 
 for  a  great  part  of  the  year.  The  people  employed  in  collecting 
 these  salts  are  obliged  to  desist  from  their  labour  as  early  as  Octo- 
 ber, on  account  of  the  ice.  Tincal  is  used  in  Tibet  for  soldering, 
 and  to  promote  the  fusion  of  gold  and  silver.  Rock  salt  is  univer- 
 sally used  for  all  domestic  purposes  in  Tibet,  Bootan,  and 
 Nepaul."* 
 
 Mineral  waters. "^  There  are  many  mineral  waters  in  various 
 parts  of  this  extensive  country  ;  nor  is  their  salutary  use  unknown 
 to  the  natives. 
 
 3.    BOOTAN. 
 
 This  country  may  be  regai-ded  as  a  southern  province  of  Tibet, 
 and  occupies,  according  to  Mr.  Rennell,  at  least  a  degree  of  lati- 
 tude between  Bengal  and  Tibet.  Its  capital,  Tassaseudon,  is  in 
 N.  lat.  27  43.  Paridrong,  in  lat.  28,  is  a  frontier  town  in  Tibet, 
 bordering  on  Bootan.  This  province  i:;  bounded  E.  by  Asam  ; 
 S.  by  Bengal ;  W.  by  Nepaul.  It  is  a  mountainous  country.  The 
 southernmost  ridge  of  its  mountains  rises  near  14^  mile  perpendic- 
 ular above  the  plains  of  Bengal,  in  a  hoi'izontal  distance  of  15 
 miles  ;  and  from  the  summit,  the  plains  below  appear  like  a  vast 
 ocean,  to  the  eye  cf  the  beholder.  Through  this  ridge,  there  arc 
 but  few  passes,  and  all  fortified.  Between  Tassaseudon  and  Pa- 
 ridrong, is  a  chain    of  still  higher   mountains,  visible  from  the 
 
 *  Turner,  400. 
 
TRIBUTARY  DOMINIONS  OF  CHINA,  51? 
 
 plains  of  Bengal,  at  the  distance  of  150  miles,  covered  with  snow. 
 These  are  the  Himmaleh  momitains,  which  lie  N.  of  Nepaul,  and 
 Mr.  Rennell  supposes  them  to  be,  in  point  of  elevation,  equal  to 
 any  mountains  of  the  old  hemisphere.  With  all  its  mountains, 
 however,  Bootan  is  covered  with  constant  verdure,  and  abounds  in 
 forests  of  lofty  trees.  The  oak  of  Europe  is  wanting.  The  sides  of 
 the  mountains  are  cultivated  by  the  hand  of  industry,  and  crowned 
 with  orchards,  fields,  and  villages.  Among  its  few  wild  animals, 
 are  monkeys  and  pheasants.  Mr.  Turner  visited  this  country  inu 
 1783,  and  says,  it  contains  no  metal,  except  iron  and  a  little  copper. 
 Compared  with  Tibet  Proper,  its  climate  is  mild,  though  its  win- 
 ters are  severe.  The  inhabitants  resemble  the  Chinese,  and  are  a 
 soecies  of  the  Tartaric  race. 
 
 "  The  government  of  Bootan  is  vested  in  a  prince  called  Daeb, 
 whose  authority  is  neither  stable  nor  extensive. 
 
 4.  THE  RAJAHSHIP  OF  NEPAULj  Oil  NIPAL.* 
 
 BOUNDARIES,  EXTENT,  POPULATION,  CHARACTER,  RELIGION,  HIS- 
 TORY, GOVERNMENT,  ANCIENT  LITERATURE,  CITIES,  CLIMATE, 
 PRODUCTIONS,  RIVERS,  MOUNTAINS,  ANIMALS,  MINERALOGY. 
 
 Bomidaries.~\  NEPAUL  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  Himma- 
 leh mountains,  which  separate  it  from  Tibet.  E.  by  the  province 
 of  Bootan.  S.  by  the  \'.rovinces  of  Baliar  and  Oude  in  Hindoostan, 
 and  W.  by  Kemaoon. 
 
 Extent.~\  The  valley  of  Nepaul  is  a  plain  of  an  oval  figure, 
 about  200  miles  in  circuit,  lying  between  lat.  27°  and  28°  6'  N. 
 
 Po/iulation.'y  There  are  several  populous  cities  within  the 
 valley,  and  a  great  number  of  villages  ;  but  the  whole  population 
 cannot  be  ascertained  with  any  accuracy.  It  is  staled,  however, 
 vaguely,  at  half  a  million. 
 
 Character.']  Two  distinct  races  of  men  with  different  languages 
 and  religion  inhabit  Nepaul.  The  first  and  most  numerous  race 
 consists  chiefly  of  the  two  superior  classes  of  Hindoos,  the  Brah- 
 mins and  the  Cshatriyas  ;  the  other  is  distinguished  by  the  name 
 of  Newars.  The  former  compose  the  army  and  engross  all  places 
 of  power  and  trust.  In  their  character  they  do  not  differ  mate- 
 rially from  their  brethren  in  Hindoostan.  The  Newars  are  repre- 
 sented as  robust  and  healthy,  though  in  some  of  the  valleys  they 
 are  subject  to  swellings  in  the  throat,  similar  to  those  of  the  inha- 
 bitants of  Switzerland.  Their  character  bears  so  striking  a  resem- 
 blance to  that  of  the  Chinese,  as  to  leave  little  doubt  of  their  origin. 
 Like  them  they  are  peaceable  and  timid  in  a  remarkable  degree. 
 They  are  skilled  in  the  same  art,  and  their  houses  are  built  in  the 
 
 *  The  information  contained  in  the  following  description  of  Nepaul  was  derived 
 from  the  review  of  Colonel  Kirkpatrick's  account  of  this  kingdom,  which  he  visited  in 
 ir93-  The  Key.  Dr.  BuchMnnan  visited  this  secluded  counUy  in  1S06;  but  his  journal, 
 v>iuch  doubtless  is  very  interasting,  for  reasons  unknown  to  us,  has  not  yet  been  pub- 
 lished, nor  is  there  any  notice  taken  of  this  co'inti-v  in  his  Researches. 
 VOL.   II.  65 
 
SU  TRIBUTARY  DOMINIONS  OF  CHINA. 
 
 same  style.  Like  them  too,  they  are  exceedingly  jealous  of  stran- 
 gers. The  food  of  the  peasantry,  and  indeed  of  the  bulk  of  the 
 inhabitants,  is  very  simple,  consisting  chiefly  of  milk,  honey,  rice, 
 fruits  and  vegetables.  Animal  food  and  spirituous  liquors  are 
 prohibited.  Judicial  astrology  ia  held  in  great  estimation  by  the 
 Newars.  Their  favourite  pui-Buit  is  that  of  consulting  their  des- 
 tiny at  the  temples. 
 
 Religion.^  The  popular  religion  of  Nepaul  does  not  differ  ma- 
 terially from  the  Hindooism  established  in  Bengal.  It  prohibits 
 the  use  of  all  animal  food,  except  that  of  the  Buffaloe,  on  which 
 they  are  allowed  to  feed  by  special  indulgence.  Nepaul  abounds 
 in  temples  and  idols.  There  are  almost  as  many  temples  as 
 houses,  and  as  many  idols  as  inhabitants.  Sixteen  remarkable 
 festivals  are  annually  celebrated,  some  of  which  occupy  so  much 
 time,  that  scarce  a  day  passes  without  the  public  performance  of 
 a  religious  ceremony.  They  have  besides  a  grand  occasional 
 festival,  Avhich  lasts  4  months.  It  consists  in  visiting  the  shrines 
 of  all  the  gods  in  Nepaul,  which  are  said  to  be  2733. 
 
 Histo?'!/.]  The  Newars,  it  is  supposed,  are  Chinese,  who  set- 
 tled in  Nepaul,  according  to  their  own  accounts,  about  900  years 
 ago.  The  Brahmins  and  other  Hindoos,  probably,  immigrated  at 
 different  times  since  that  period,  from  the  plains  below.  Nepaul 
 was  originally  divided  into  3  districts,  governed  by  as  many 
 Rajahs. 
 
 In  1769,  the  Rajah  of  Gorka,  a  neighboring  prince,  defeated 
 each  of  the  three  Rajahs,  and  got  complete  possession  of  the 
 whole  of  Nepaul.  Thus  he  united  the  2  countries  under  one 
 government,  which  has  continued  in  his  family  ever  since. 
 
 In  1792  the  Rajah  of  Nepaul  acknowledged  himself  a  tributary 
 to  the  Emperor  of  China,  reserving  to  himself,  however,  tlie  right 
 to  exercise  sovereign  power  within  his  own  dominions. 
 
 Govcrn7nent.~\  The  government  of  this  province  is  vested  in  a 
 Rajah,  or  Sovereign,  and  a  body  of  chieftains,  known  by  the  name 
 of  Thurgurs.  The  sovereign  is  deemed  to  be  oi'iginally  the  abso- 
 lute proprietor  of  all  lands;  and  in  him,  and  a  council  composed 
 of  the  principal  ministers  of  government,  is  vested  not  only  the 
 power  of  disposing  of  these  lands  at  pleasure,  but  of  punishing 
 and  rewarding  public  officers  according  to  their  merits,  and  of 
 bestowing  government  and  military  comm.ands.  This  council 
 meet  annually,  and  exercise  the  despotic  power  with  which  they 
 are  entrusted,  in  the  most  arbitrary  manner.  The  condition  of 
 the  lower  class  of  people  under  such  a  government  is  truly  de- 
 plorable. The  peasantry  of  Nepaul  are  dragged  from  their  houses 
 by  the  officers  of  government,  for  the  purpose  of  assisting  those 
 employed  in  the  public  service  ;  and  they  are  not  unfrequently 
 deprived  of  their  lands  at  the  moment  they  are  about  to  reap  their 
 harvest.  The  Dhurma-Shaster  forms  the  basis  of  civil  and  crimi- 
 nal jurisprudence  in  Nepaul,  as  well  as  in  Hindoostan.  Most  of- 
 fences, according  to  this  code,  are  punishable  by  fine. 
 '  ^hicient  Literature.']  There  is  probably  no  place  in  India 
 where  a  search  after  ancient  and  valuable  manuscripts  would  be 
 
TRIBUTARY  DOMINIONS  OF  CHINA.  515 
 
 more  successful  than  in  Nepaul.  In  this  secluded  valley  the  re- 
 volutions  and  contentions,  which  have  affected  the  other  parts  of 
 India,  have  had  no  influence. 
 
 Cities.']  The  three  principal  cities  are  Catmandu,  Lelit  Pattan, 
 and  Bhatgung.  The  first  containing  180,000,  the  second  24a,000, 
 and  third  120,000  inhabitants.  The  houses  are  generally  built  of 
 brick,  and  3  or  4  stories  high.  The  streets  are  paved  with  brick 
 or  stone.  At  Catmandu,  the  residence  of  the  Rajah  and  the  court, 
 is  the  royal  palace.  The  temples  are  said  to  vie  in  splendor  with 
 those  of  the  most  populous  and  flourishing  cities  of  Christendoin. 
 One  of  these,  near  Lelit  Pattan,  is  described  as  peculiarly  magni- 
 ficent :  the  court  is  paved  with  blue  marble,  inlaid  with  flowers  of 
 bronze.  Beside  these  cities  there  are  some  towns  of  importance. 
 That  of  Cirtipour  is  represented  as  very  considerable.  Bhatgung, 
 though  inferior  in  point  of  size,  exceeds  all  the?  rest  in  its  palace 
 and  buildings. 
 
 Climate.~\  The  climate  may  be  compared  with  that  of  the  south 
 of  Europe  ;  sometimes  a  sprinkling  of  snow,  and  now  and  then  a 
 hoar  frost  covers  the  ground.  The  inhabitants  have  the  means  of 
 varying  the  climate  by  ascending  the  heights  from  a  heat  equal  to 
 that  of  Bengal,  to  the  cold  of  Russia.  The  rains  set  in  about  the 
 middle  of  April,  and  break  up  in  October,  during  which  time  the 
 valley  is  occasionally  inundated.  This  country  is  generally 
 healthful,  excepting  a  narrow  tract,  which  runs  along  the  southern 
 border,  called  the  Turyani,  where  the  infectious,  vapor  arising 
 from  the  sAvampy  ground,  generates  putrid  fevers. 
 
 Productions.']  The  peach,  the  raspberry,  the  walnut,  and  mul- 
 berry, grow  spontaneously.  Their  oranges  are  superior  to  those 
 of  Silket,  and  are  probably  ivot  surpassed  by  any  in  the  world. 
 Their  pine  apples  are  excellent.  Rice  is  much  cultivated.  They 
 have  turnips,  cabbages,  and  peas,  but  all  of  them  indifi'erent ; 
 other  vegetables  good.  The  Turyani  is  very  rich  and  fertile, 
 abounding  with  extensive  forests.  The  pines  and  saul  trees, 
 •which  grow  there,  are  not  perhaps  surpassed  by  any  in  the  world 
 for  straightness  or  dimensions.  Besides  timber  for  masts  and 
 yards,  great  quantities  of  pitch,  tar,  and  turpentine  might  be 
 drawn  from  this  fertile  spot. 
 
 Rivers.]  Several  tributary  branches  of  the  Ganges  take  their 
 rise  here,  all  of  which  unite  at  the  S.  E.  part  of  the  valley,  and 
 rush  through  a  breach  in  the  mountains  upon  the  plains  of  Hin- 
 doostan.  The  Hindoo  recoi'ds  represent  the  val'.ey  of  Nepaul  as 
 having  been  originaVy  a  great  lake.  This  account  is  rendered 
 highly  probable  by  the  fact,  that  Nepaul  is  every  where  surround- 
 ed by  mountains,  excepting  a  narrow  spot  at  the  S.  E.  corner.  If 
 this  were  once  stopped,  we  can  easily  conceive  that  the  valley 
 must  speedily  assume  the  appearance  of  a  magnificent  lake. 
 
 Mountains.]  The  valley  of  Nepaul  is  surrounded  by  mountains, 
 whose  common  height  is  8000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  On 
 the  north  are  the  mountains  of  Himmalch,  supposed  to  equal  in 
 height  any  of  the  old  hemisphere.  Their  snowy  tops  are  visible 
 from  the  plains  of  Bengal,  at  the  distance  of  150  miles.     An  infe- 
 
516  TRIBUTARY  DOMINIONS  OF  CHINA. 
 
 rior  range  forms  the  southern  boundary.  In  this  there  are  fe^v 
 remarkable  eminences. 
 
 Animals.']  The  swampy  tract,  called  the  Turyani,  abounds  with 
 elephants,  tigers,  leopards,  buffaloes,  and  all  the  wild  and  ferocious 
 beasts  of  India.  The  Yak  of  Tartary,  known  in  India  by  the  name 
 of  Chowin,  and  the  Changra,  or  Shawl-goat  of  Cashmir,  are  also 
 natives  of  Nepaul.  They  have  sheep  with  4  horns,  which  are  the 
 common  beasts  of  burden. 
 
 Mineralogy.]  Nepaul  was  once  supposed  to  abound  in  rich 
 gold  mines.  This  however,  is  not  the  case.  They  have  mines  of 
 copper,  from  which  India  was  once  supplied.  Their  iron  is  not 
 surpassed  in  goodness.  They  have  plenty  of  marble,  and  other 
 stone  for  building,  also  good  limestone  and  slate. 
 
 The  other  division  of  Hassel,  viz.  the  kingdom  oiSetchuen  or  Seg- 
 win.,  is  included  in  some  of  the  divisions  of  Pinkerton,  under  a  differ- 
 ent name.   This  name  is  not  to  be  found  on  any  of  our  English  maps. 
 
 5.  KINGDOM  OF  ANNAN. 
 
 This  kingdom  lies  between  the  gulfs  of  Siam  and  Tunquin,  on 
 the  S.  W.  and  N.  E.  ;  on  the  S.  E.  is  the  China  sea ;  on  the  N.  W. 
 and  N.  are  Siam  and  Laos.  According  to  Hassel,  this  kingdom 
 covers  165,000  square  miles,  and  has  10,000,000  inhabitants.  It 
 includes  the  countries  of 
 
 Cambodia,   Ciam/ia,   and    Cochin   China. 
 
 Though  the  king  of  this  country  is  a  vassal  of  the  Chinese  Em- 
 peror, he  is  nearly  independent.  Modern  accounts  say,  that  Ton- 
 quin  has  become  subject  to  the  king  of  Annan.  His  finances  are 
 very  considerable.  He  maintains  113,000  land  troops,  30,000  of 
 ■whom  are  disciplined  according  to  European  tactics  ;  and  26,800 
 seamen.* 
 
 CAMBODIA 
 
 Is  the  northern  province  in  this  kingdom,  and  is  about  400 
 miles  long  by  150  broad.  Parts  of  it  border  on  the  gulf  of  Siam 
 and  the  Indian  ocean.  Like  Siam  it  is  enclosed  by  mountains  on 
 the  E.  and  W.  and  is  fertilized  by  a  large  river,  variously  called 
 Mecon,  Camboge,  and  Japanese,  which  begins  to  inundate  the 
 country  in  June.  Its  mouth  by  some  is  represented  as  full  of 
 low  isles  and  sand  banks,  Avhich  impede  the  navigation  ;  by  others 
 as  navigable  by  ships  of  the  largest  size  for  49  miles.  Its  port 
 and  town  is  Saigong,  40  miles  from  the  sea,  where  there  is  an  ex- 
 tensive naval  arsenal.  A  great  part  of  the  coast  of  this  country  is 
 covered  with  under  wood,  and  very  low.  The  sea  coast  in  some 
 parts  is  so  shallow,  that  at  the  distance  of  5  or  6  miles  from  the 
 shore,  the  water  is  seldom  more  than  4  fathoms  deep,  and  no  ves- 
 sel larger  than  a  boat  can  approach  within  two  miles  of  the  shore. 
 The  air  is  so  hot,  that  the  inhabitants  are  obliged  to  reside  on  the 
 banks  of  the  rivers  and  lakes,  where  they  are  tormented  by  mus- 
 quetoes. 
 
 •  Hasssl. 
 
TRIBUTARY  DOMINIONS  OF  CHINA.  5ir 
 
 The  soil  is  fertile,  and  produces  abundance  of  corn,  rice,  excel- 
 lent legumes,  sugar,  indigo,  opium,  camphor,  and  various  medi- 
 cinal drugs.  The  most  peculiar  product  is  the  Gamboge  gum, 
 which  yields  a  fine  yellow  tint.  Ivory  also,  and  silk,  are  very 
 plentiful,  and  of  little  value.  The  gold  of  this  country  is  said  to 
 be  very  pure  ;  and  it  furnishes  amethysts,  hyacinths,  rubies,  to- 
 pazes, and  other  precious  stones.  Cattle,  particularly  of  the  cow 
 kind,  arc  numerous  and  cheap.  Elephants,  lions,  tygers,  and  al- 
 most all  the  animals  of  the  deserts  of  Africa,  are  found  in  Cambo- 
 dia. It  has  several  precious  woods,  and  a  particular  tree,  in  the 
 juice  of  which  they  dip  their  arrows  ;  and  it  is  said,  that  though 
 a  wound  from  one  of  the  arrows  proves  fatal,  the  juice  itself  may 
 be  drank  without  danger.  The  country,  though  fertile,  is  very 
 thinly  peopled,  insomuch  that  the  king  is  hardly  able  to  assemble 
 30,000  men  :  and  its  trade  is  inconsiderable.  The  inhabitants  are 
 Japanese,  Chinese,  ard  Malays,  together  with  some  Portuguese, 
 who  live  without  priests,  and  have  intermarried  with  the  natives, 
 'ihe  men  are  generally  well  made,  of  a  dai'k  yellow  complexion, 
 with  long  black  hair  ;  their  dress  is  a  long  loose  robe,  the  dress 
 of  the  women  is  shorter  and  closer.  They  manufacture  very  fine 
 ♦cloth,  and  the  needle  work  of  the  females  is  much  admired.  Their 
 religion  is  idolatry. 
 
 CIAMPA.* 
 
 Ciampa,  another  province  of  this  kingdom,  lies  south  of  the  de- 
 sert of  Cochin  China,  and  east  of  Cambodia,  bordering  south  oh 
 the  China  or  Indian  sea.  As  seen  from  the  ocean,  it  appears  like 
 a  sandy  tract,  intersected  with  rocks.  The  inhabitants  are  said  to 
 be  large,  muscular,  and  well  made,  have  reddish  complexions, 
 Hat  noses,  and  black  hair,  their  dress  very  slight.  Feneri  is  their 
 capital,  where  their  chief  resides,  who  is  tributary  to  Cochin  Chi- 
 na. The  country  produces  cotton,  indigo,  and  silk.  Their  junks, 
 or  boats,  are  well  built,  and  employed  in  fishing. 
 
 COCHIN-CHINA. 
 
 This  is  the  largest  and  most  important  division  of  the  kingdom 
 cf  Annan.  It  is  long  and  narrow,  extending  from  lat.  S  40,  to 
 about  20  N.  and  from  20  to  60  miles  broad.  On  the  N.  it  is  sep- 
 arated from  Tunquin  by  the  river  Sun  gen  ;  on  the  W.  a  range  of 
 mountains  separates  it  from  the  kingdom  of  Laos  and  Cambodia. 
 On  the  E.  and  S.  it  borders  on  the  China  Sea.  It  is  divided  into 
 12  provinces,  which  succeed  each  other  from  N.  to  S.  all  border- 
 ing E.  on  the  Chhia  Sea.  The  whole  country  is  intersected  by 
 rivers,  Avhich  facilitate  inland  commerce. 
 
 The  climate  is  healthy,  its  heat  being  tempered  by  sea  breezes. 
 The  rainy  seasons  are  September,  October,  and  November,  -vyheu 
 the  low  country  is  overflowed  by  torrents  from  tlie  mountains,  ier- 
 tilizing  the  soil,  which  yields  three  crops  of  grain  in  the  year.    All 
 
 *  Ciampn,  Siarr.pn,  or  Tsiampa,  as  it  is  variously  called. 
 
518  TRIBUTARY  DO^nNIONS-  OF  CHINA. 
 
 the  fruits  of  India  are  found  here  in  the  greatest  perfection,  with 
 many  of  those  of  China.* 
 
 This  country  has  been  toni  for  years  past  by  divisions.  From 
 the  year  1790  to  1800,t  its  rightful  sovereign,  Caun-shung,  en- 
 joyed only  two  years  peace.  These,  however,  were  employed, 
 under  the  auspices  of  the  excellent  bishop  Adran,  in  making  im- 
 provements in  his  country.  He  established  manufactories  of  salt- 
 petre, pitch,  tar,  resin,  and  fire  arms  ;  opened  roads  of  communi- 
 cation between  principal  towns,  and  lined  the  roads  with  trees,  for 
 shade  and  ornament.  He  encouraged  the  culture  of  the  areca 
 nut,  betel  pepper,  silk,  and  sugar  cane  ;  opened  a  mine  of  iron 
 ore,  and  erected  iron  works ;  organized  his  military  forces,  and 
 established  military  schools  on  the  European  plan  ;  constructed 
 300  large  gun-boats,  5  luggers,  and  a  frigate,  on  the  French  plan, 
 and  taught  his  naval  officers  the  use  of  signals.  In  1800  an  En- 
 glish gentleman  saw  a  fleet  of  1200  sail,  under  the  command  of 
 the  prince  of  this  country,  in  fine  order,  and  under  excellent  dis- 
 cipline. During  this  interval  of  peace,  he  undertook  a  reform  in  the 
 system  of  jurisprudence,  abolished  torliu'es,  mitigated  punishments 
 which  were  too  severe  ;  established  public  schools,  to  Avhich  pa- 
 rents were  compelled  to  send  their  children,  at  the  age  of  4  years  ; 
 issued  regulations  to  promote  commerce  ;  caused  bridges  to  be 
 erected  over  rivers,  ordered  the  sea  coast  and  harbors  to  be  sur- 
 veyed, and  placed  buoys  and  sea  mirks,  to  guard  against  rocks 
 and  shoals,  and  sent  missionaries  into  the  western,  mountainous 
 districts  of  his  dominions,  to  civilize  their  barbarous  inhabitants. 
 
 In  short,  this  excellent  prince,  by,  his  own  indefatigable  appli- 
 cation to  the  arts  and  manufiictures,  roused,  by  his  example,  the 
 energies  of  his  people,  and  has  effected  an  almost  unexampled 
 reformation  in  his  country.  In  10  years,  from  a  single  vessel,  he 
 accumulated  a  fleet  of  1200  ships,  3  of  which  were  on  European 
 construction.  This  prince  professes  a  veneration  for  the  doctrines 
 of  Christianity,  and  tolerates  all  religions  in  his  dominions. 
 
 The  mililary  strength  of  this  exemplary,  intelligent,  and  enter- 
 prising prince,  in  1800,  according  to  Barrow,  consisted  of  113,000 
 land  forces,  and  26,800  mariners  ;  in  the  whole  139,800  men,  who 
 are  active,  vigorous,  and  well  disciplined. 
 
 The  inhabitants  of  this  country  go  bare  legged,  and  generally 
 bare  footed  ;  their  hair  is  twisted  in  a  knot,  and  fixed  on  the  crown 
 of  the  head.  Their  houses,  in  genei'al,  consist  of  4  mud  walls, 
 covered  with  thatch.  These  people  are  gay  and  talkative.  The 
 women  are  entrusted  with  the  chief  concerns  of  the  family,  and 
 engage  in  the  various  employments  connected  with  agriculture, 
 manufactures,  commerce,  and  naval  affairs,  in  all  which  they  take 
 an  active  and  laborious  part.  The  men  arc  employed  in  war, 
 fishing,  felling  timber,  building  ships.  Sec.  but  are  addicted  to 
 idleness  and  amusements.  Polygamy  is  here  practised,  and  gross 
 licentiousness  prevails.  Both  sexes  are  coarsely  featured,  of  a 
 dark  complexion,  with   red   lips,  and  black  teeth,  occasioned  by 
 
 *  Asiatic  Register,  iii.  S4.  t  Barrow. 
 
TRIBUTARY  DOMINIONS  OF  CHINA.  519 
 
 che-wing  areca  and  betel.  They  are  fond  of  theatrical  amusements, 
 and  cock-fighting,  and  are  expert  in  playing  at  foot-ball,  shuttle- 
 cock, and  leaping.  They  are  sturdy  beggars,  and  addicted  to  theft. 
 
 They  excel  in  naval  architecture,  and  have  abundance  of  the 
 best  ship  timber.  Their  country  is  well  situ?.ted  for  commerce. 
 The  best  harbor  is  that  of  Turon,  which  affords  a  safe  retreat  for 
 ships  of  any  burden.  The  principal  exports  from  this  counti-y 
 are  silks,  sugar  of  the  best  kind,  ebony,  Calamboe  wood,  edible 
 bird's  nests,  which  are  found  in  plenty  on  the  islands  on  this  coast, 
 gold  in  dust,  or  bars,  copper,  and  porcelain,  Avhich  is  brought 
 from  China  and  Japan.  The  articles  received  in  return,  are  salt- 
 petre, sulphur,  lead,  fine  cloths,  and  chintzes.  Pearls,  amber,  and 
 coral,  were  formerly  in  demand.  The  traders  of  Cochin-China 
 value  themselves  on  being  able  to  cheat  an  European. 
 
 The  Avritten  language  of  Cochin-China  is  correctly  that  of  Ghi- 
 ria  ;  but  the  language  spoken  is  a  corruption  of  the  Chinese. 
 
 Their  religion  is  a  modification  of  the  doctrine  of  Budha,  but 
 more  simple,  and  less  involved  in  mystery.  Fi^om  a  sentiment  of 
 gratitude  to  the  benevolent  spirit,  they  offer  to  the  image  of  the 
 protecting  Deity,  the  firstlings  of  their  living  flocks,  and  of  the 
 fruits  of  the  earth.  The  people  are  very  superstitious.  The 
 priests  are  reckoned  the  best  physicians,  but  they  have  more  skill 
 in  charms,  than  in  medicines.* 
 
 December,  January  and  February,  are  cold  and  moist,  pre- 
 senting the  semblance  of  an  European  winter.  The  inundations 
 only  last  two  or  three  days,  but  happen  once  a  fortnight  in  the 
 rainy  season.  Borri's  account  is -hat  the  rains  only  continue  for 
 three  days  regularly  in  each  fortnight  :  if  true,  a  singular  phe- 
 nomenon. March,  April,  May,  form  a  delicious  spring  ;  while 
 the  heat  of  the  three  following  months  is  rather  excessive. 
 
 The  horses  are  small,  but  active  :  there  are  also  mules  and  ass- 
 es, and  innumerable  goats.  The  products  of  agriculture  ai-e  rice 
 of  different  qualities,  yams,  sweet  potatoes,  greens,  pumpkins, 
 melons.  Sugar  also  abounds.  Gold  dust  is  found  in  the  rivers  :, 
 and  the  mines  yield  ore  of  singular  purity.  Silver  mines  have 
 also  been  lately  discovered.  Both  metals  are  used  in  ingots,  as  in 
 China. 
 
 Mr.  Pennant  mentions  tigers,  elephants,  and  monkeys,  as 
 abounding  in  Cochin-China. 
 
 The  Parades  form  a  long  chain  of  small  islands  with  rocl^s  and 
 shoals,  parallel  to  the  coast  of  Cochin-China. 
 
 4.    KINGDOM    OF    TUNqUIN. 
 
 This  country  is  divided  from  the  former  by  a  small  river,  and 
 may  at  present  be  considered  as  incorporated  with  it  by  conquest. 
 It  contains  154,000  square  miles,  and  8,000,000  inhabitants.!  The 
 inhabitants  resemble  their  neighbors  the  Chinese,  but  their  man- 
 ners are  not  so  civilized.     The  products  are  numerous,  and  seem 
 
 *  Barrow.  |  Ilusse!. 
 
520  JAPAN. 
 
 to  blend  those  of  China  -with  those  of  Hindoostan.  While  the  riv- 
 ers in  Cochin-China  are  of  a  short  course,  those  of  Tunquin  spring 
 from  the  Tnountaios  of  Yunnan  ;  and  in  the  rainy  season,  from 
 May  to  September,  inundate  the  adjacent  country.  The  chief  is 
 the  Holi  Kian,  which,  after  receiving  the  Lisien,  passes  by  Kesho, 
 the  capital.  This  city  is  described  by  Dampier,  as  approaching 
 the  Chinese  form,  with  a  considerable  population.  There  is  no 
 recent  description  of  this  country. 
 
 5.    THE    LEOO    KEOO    ISLES. 
 
 The  isles  of  Leoo-keoo,  between  Formosa  and  Japan,  constitute 
 a  little  civilized  kingdom,  governed  by  an  hereditary  king,  tribu- 
 tary to  China.  These  isles  are  said  to  be  thirty-six  in  number, 
 but  very  inconsiderable,  except  the  chief,  which  is  properly  and 
 peculiarly  called  Leoo-keoo  ;  by  the  Chinese  accounts  the  length 
 of  it  is  about  125  miles,  nearly  twice  the  extent  which  is  assigned 
 in  recent  maps.  These  isles  Avei*e  discovered  by  the  Chinese  in 
 the  7th  century  ;  but  it  was  not  till  the  14th  that  they  became 
 tributary  to  China.  The  emperor  Kiang-hi,  about  A.  D.  1720, 
 ordered  a  temple  to  be  erected  to  Confucius  in  the  chief  island, 
 with  a  literary  college.  The  language  is  said  to  differ  from  that 
 of  China  or  Japan  ;  but  the  civilization  seems  to  have  proceeded 
 from  the  latter  country,  as  the  Japanese  characters  are  commonly 
 used.  The  people  are  mild,  affable,  gay,  and  temperate  ;  and  '< 
 the  chief  products  are  sulphur,  copper,  tin,  with  shells,  and  moth- 
 er of  pearl. 
 
 JAPAN.* 
 
 CHAPTER  I. 
 
 HISTORICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 NAMES,  EXTENT,  ORIGIXAL  POPULATION,  PROGHESSIVE  GEOGRA- 
 PHY, HISTORICAL  EPOCHS  AND  ANTIQUITIES,  RELIGION,  GOV- 
 ERNMENT, LAWS,  POPULATION,  COLONIES,  ARMY,  NAVY,  REV- 
 ENUES, POLITIC  AL  IMPORTANCE  AND  RELATIONS,  MANNERS  AND 
 CUSTOMS,  LANGUAGE,  LITERATURE,  EDUCATION,  CITIES  AND 
 TOWNS,  EDIFICES,  ROADS,  INLAND  NAVIGATION,  MANUFAC- 
 TURES AND  COMMERCE. 
 
 THE  kingdom,  or,  as  it  is  by  some  styled,  the  empire  of 
 Japan,  has  by  most  geographers  been  classed  among  the  Asiatic 
 isles,  and  has  in  consequence  been  treated  with  more  brevity  than 
 
 •  Having  no  new  information  of  this  Empire,  Pinkcrton's  account  is  copied. 
 
JAPAN.  521 
 
 its  importance  demands  ;  for,  excepting  China,  no  existing  Asiat- 
 ic monarchy  can  aspire  to  superior  rank,  or  is  more  calculated  to 
 excite  rational  curiosity,  from  the  singularity  of  its  government, 
 abundant  population,  progress  in  the  arts  of  life,  and  peculiar 
 manners  of  the  people.  The  Japanese  islands  may  in  some  meas- 
 ure be  compared  with  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  forming  a  grand 
 insular  power  near  the  eastern  extremity  of  Asia,  like  that  of  the 
 British  isles,  near  the  western  extremity  of  hurope.  Nor  are 
 ample  modern  materials  wanting  in  the  travels  of  Kaempfer  and 
 Thunberg. 
 
 Kames.  ]  Marco  Polo,  the  father  of  modei-n  Asiatic  geography, 
 mentions  Japan  by  the  name  of  Zipangri  or  Zipangu.  The  in- 
 habitants themselves  call  it  Nipon,  or  Nifon,  and  the  Chinese  Sip- 
 pon  and  Jepuen. 
 
 Extent.']  This  empire  extends  from  the  30th  to  the  41st  de- 
 gi-ee  of  N.  latitude  ;  and,  according  to  the  most  recent  maps,  from 
 the  131st  to  the  I42d  degree  of  E.  longitude  from  Greenwich. 
 Besides  many  smaller  isles,  it  presents  two  considerable  ones  in 
 the  S.  W.  that  of  Kiufiu  (also  termed  Saikokf,  or  the  western 
 country),  and  that  of  Sikokf.  But  by  far  the  most  important  isl- 
 and is  that  of  Nipon,  to  the  N.  E.  of  the  two  former.  Tne  geog- 
 raphy of  K^mpferhas  been  corrected  by  recent  voyagers,  accord- 
 ing to  which  the  length  of  Kiufiu  from  N.  to  S.  is  about  two  de- 
 grees, or  140  miles  ;  the  greatest  breadth  about  90.  Sikokf  is 
 about  90  miles  in  length,  by  half  the  breadth.  The  grand  isle  of 
 Nipon  is  in  length  from  S-  to  N.  E.  not  less  than  750  miles  ;  but 
 is  so  narrow  in  proportion,  that  the  medial  breadtii  cannot  be  as- 
 sumed above  80,  though  in  two  projecting  parts  it  may  double 
 that  number.  The  Japanese  Empire,  according  to  Hassel,  con- 
 tains 189,000  square  miles.  These  islands  are  divided  into  prov- 
 inces and  districts,  as  usual  in  the  most  civilized  countries. 
 
 To  the  N.  of  Nipon  is  another  large  isle,  that  of  Jesso,  or 
 Chicha,  which  having  received  some  Japanese  colonics,  is  gen- 
 erally regarded  as  subject  to  Japan  ;  but  being  inhabited  by  a 
 savage  people,  is  rather  considered  as  a  foreign  conquest,  than  as 
 a  part  of  this  civilized  empire. 
 
 Original  Pofiulation.]  The  original  population  of  Japan  has 
 been  little  illustrated;  but  the  Japanese  seem  to  be  a  kindred  race 
 with  the  Chinese,  though,  according  to  Ivsempfer,  the  languages 
 be  radically  distinct.  But  if  compared  with  that  of  Corea^  the 
 nearest  land,  and  the  latter  with  the  Chinese,  perhaps  a  gradation 
 might  be  observable.  The  Japanese  may  have  migrated  trom  the 
 continent,  when  both  the  Chinese  and  themselves  were  in  the  ear- 
 liest stages  of  society  ;  and  the  complete  insular  separation  may 
 have  given  rise  to  a  language  rendered  peculiar  by  the  progress 
 of  a  distinct  civilization. 
 
 Progressive ,  Geography.']  Before  the  account  published  by 
 Ksempfer, 'Japan  had  been  imperfectly  explored  by  the  Portu- 
 guese ;  and  since  1730,  the  date  of  Koempfer's  publication,  many 
 important  improvements  have  been  made. 
 
 Historical  Ejioch^.]     The  history  of  their  own  country  is  uni-. 
 
 VOL.  II.  66 
 
522  JAPAN. 
 
 versally  studied  by  the  Japanese  ;  and  Kaempfer  has  produced  an 
 elaborate  abstract,  divided  into  three  epochs,  the  fabulous,  the 
 doubtful,  and  the  certain. 
 
 The  first  is  wholly  fictitious.  The  second,  or  uncertain  epoch, 
 is  by  Kaempfer  interwoven  with  the  Chinese  history  ;  this  part  of 
 his  woi'k,  demonstrating  that  the  Japanese  themselves  at  least  ac- 
 knowledge their  government  and  civilization  to  have  been  derived 
 from  China.  Sin  Noo,  one  of  these  Chinese  monarchs  admitted 
 by  the  Japanese  into  their  annals,  is  represented  with  the  head  of 
 a  bull,  or  with  two  horns,  as  having  taught  the  use  of  agriculture 
 and  herds  ;*  perhaps  the  simple  and  natural  origin  of  the  Jupiter 
 Ammon,  and  similar  images  of  classical  antiquity. 
 
 The  third,  or  certain  period,  begins  with  the  hereditary  succes- 
 sion of  the  ecclesiastical  emperors,  from  the  year  660  before 
 the  Christian  era,  to  the  year  of  Christ  1585,  during  which  107 
 princes  of  the  same  lineage  governed  Japan.  At  the  last  period 
 the  secular  princes  assumed  the  supreme  avithority.  In  general 
 tlie  reigns  are  pacific  ;  though  at  very  distant  intervals  the  Mand- 
 shvirs  and  Coreans  occasionally  invaded  Japan,  but  were  always 
 defeated  by  the  valor  of  the  inhabitants.  In  the  reign  of  Gouda, 
 the  nineteenth  Dairi,  or  spiritual  emperor,  the  Monguls,  under 
 Mooko,  attempted  a  grand  invasion  of  Japan,  after  havhig  con- 
 quered China,  about  fourteen  years  before.  The  number  of  small 
 •vessels  is  exagerated  to  4000,  and  that  of  the  army  to  240,000  ; 
 ?.nd  it  is  probable  that  numerous  Chinese  junks  contained  a  for- 
 midable army  of  Monguls.  But  they  were  dispersed,  and  almost 
 •wholly  destroyed  by  a  furious  tempest,  which  the  Japanese  pious- 
 ly ascribed  to  the  gods,  their  protectors.  In  1585,  the  generals 
 of  the  crown,  or  secular  emperors,  who  Avere  also  hereditary,  as- 
 sumed the  supreme  power  ;  the  Dairis  being  afterwards  confined, 
 and  strictly  guarded,  that  they  might  not  reassume  their  ancient 
 authority. 
 
 Antiquities.~\  The  temples  and  palaces  being  constructed  of 
 •wood,  few  monuments  of  antiquity  can  remain.  Some  of  the 
 castles  of  the  nobility  have  walls  of  earth  or  stone  ;  but  the  most 
 ancient  relics  are  probably  the  coins  and  idols. 
 
 Religion.'^  The  established  religion  of  Japan  is  a  polytheism, 
 joined  with  the  acknow^ledgment  of  a  supreme  creator.  There 
 are  two  principal  sects,  that  of  Sinto  and  that  of  Budsdo.  The 
 first  acknowledge  a  supreme  being,  far  superior  to  the  little  claims 
 and  worship  of  men,  whence  they  adore  the  inferior  deities  as  me- 
 diators, the  idea  of  a  mediator  being  indispensable  in  almost  every 
 form  of  religion.  They  abstain  from  animal  food,  detest  blood- 
 shed, and  will  not  touch  any  dead  body.f 
 
 The  priests  are  cither  secular  or  monastic  ;  the  latter  alone  be- 
 ing entrusted  witn  the  mysteries.  The  festivals  and  modes  of 
 worship  are  cheerful  and  even  gay  ;  for  they  regard  the  gods  as 
 beings  who  solely  delight  in  dispensing  happiness.  Besides  the 
 first  day  of  the  year,  and  three  or  four  other  grand  festivals,  the 
 
 •  KKmpfer,  i.  231.    French  translation.  t  Tbunberg,  it.  19. 
 
JAPAN.  523 
 
 first  day  of  the  month  is  always  kept  as  a  holiday.  There  are  sev- 
 eral orders  of  monks  and  nuns,  as  in  the  Roman  Catholic  system; 
 but  human  nature  is  every  where  the  same. 
 
 The  sect  of  Budsd(f  was  imported  from  Hir.dostan,  being  the 
 same  with  that  of  Budha,  or  Boodh,  reported  to  have  been  in  Cey- 
 lon about  1000  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ.  Passing  through 
 China  and  Corea  it  has  been  mingled  with  foreign  maxims,  but 
 the  tenet  of  the  metempsychosis  remains  :  wicked  souls  being 
 supposed  to  migrate  into  the  bodies  of  animals,  till  they  have  un- 
 dergone a  due  purgation. 
 
 Soon  after  the  discovery  of  this  country  by  the  Portuguese,  mis- 
 sionaries of  the  Jesuits  arrived  in  1549  ;  and  their  successors  con- 
 tinued to  diffuse  their  doctrine  till  1638,  when  37,000  Christians 
 were  massacred.  Several  persecutions  had  formerly  taken  place, 
 and  in  1590,  upwards  of  30,000  are  said  to  have  perished.  The 
 pride  and  avarice  of  the  Portuguese  conspired  with  the  vain  am- 
 bition of  the  Jesuits,  (who,  not  contented  with  their  station,  en- 
 deavoured to  introduce  themselves  into  the  governing  comicils  of 
 the  nation,)  first  to  contaminate  and  render  odious  the  religion 
 which  they  professed,  in  its  pure  principles  essentially  opposite 
 to  such  views,  and  aftex'wards  to  produce  this  melancholy  catas- 
 troplie  ;  the  existence  of  the  Christian  faith  being  through  such 
 perversion  found  incompatible  with  that  of  a  state  otherwise  uni- 
 versally tolerant.  Since  that  memorable  epoch  Christianity  has 
 been  held  in  supreme  detestation  ;  and  the  cross,  with  its  other 
 symbols,  are  annually  trampled  under  foot  ;  but  it  is  a  fable  that 
 the  Dutch  are  constrained  to  join  in  this  ceremony. 
 
 Government.']  The  Kubo,  or  secular  emperor,  is  now  sole 
 monarch  of  the  country  ;  but  till  near  the  end  of  the  17th  century, 
 the  Dairis,  pontiffs,  or  spiritual  monarchs,  held  the  supreme  au- 
 thority, being  appointed  by  the  high  ecclesiastical  court,  according 
 to  their  laws  of  succession.  Yet  occasionally  the  appointment 
 has  been  controverted  ;  and  Japan  has  been  ravaged  by  many  civ- 
 il wars.  The  ecclesiastical  dignities  were  of  six  orders,  some 
 belonging  to  particular  offices,  others  merely  honorary.  The  sec- 
 ular prince  is  accustomed  to  confer,  with  the  consent  of  the  dairi, 
 two  hoaorary  ranks,  equivalent  to  noblemen  and  knights.  The 
 ecclesiastical  court  is  chiefly  occupied  with  literary  pursuits,  the 
 Dairi  residing  atMiaco  ;  and  his  court  remains,  though  not  in  its 
 former  splendor. 
 
 The  government  of  each  province  is  entrusted  to  a  resident 
 prince,  who  is  strictly  responsible  for  his  administration,  his  fam- 
 ily remaining  at  the  emperor's  court,  as  hostages  ;  and  he  is  him- 
 self obliged  to  make  an  annual  appearance,  the  journey  being 
 performed  with  great  pomp,  and  accompanied  with  valuable 
 presents.  The  emperor,  as  in  the  feudal  times  of  Europe,  de- 
 rives his  chief  revenue  from  his  own  estate,  consisting  of  five  in- 
 ferior provinces,  and  some  detached  towns.  Each  prince  enjoys 
 the  revenues  of  his  fief,  or  government,  with  which  he  supports 
 his  court  and  military  force,  repairs  the  roads,  and  defrays  every 
 civil  expense.     The  princes  of  the  first  dignity  are  styled  Daimio, 
 
524  JAPAN. 
 
 those  of  inferior  I'ank  Siomio.  They  are  generally  hereditary, 
 but  the  Siomios  are  not  only  obliged  to  leave  their  families  at  Je- 
 do,  the  capital,  but  to  reside  there  themselves  for  six  months  in 
 the  year.  The  singular  constitution  of  J^ian  therefore  consists 
 of  an  absolute  hereditary  monarchy,  supported  by  a  number  of 
 absolute  hereditary  princes  ;  whose  jealousy  of  each  other's  pow- 
 er conspires,  with  domestic  pledges,  to  render  them  subservient 
 to  one  supreme. 
 
 Laws.]  The  superiority  of  the  laws  of  Japan  over  those  of 
 Europe  has  been  loudly  proclaimed  by  Kaempfer.  The  parties 
 themselves  appear,  and  the  caus«  is  determined  without  delay. 
 Yet  Kaempfer's  information  on  this  head  is  defective,  as  he  does 
 not  mention  any  code  of  laws.  Thunberg  informs  us  that  the 
 laws  are  few,  but  rigidly  enforced,  without  regard  to  persons,  par- 
 tiality, or  violence.*  Most  crimes  are  punished  with  death,  but 
 the  sentence  must  be  signed  by  the  privy  council  at  Jedo  Parents 
 and  relations  are  made  answerable  for  the  crimes  of  those  whose 
 moral  education  they  ought  to  have  superintended.  The  police 
 is  excellent,  there  not  only  being  a  chief  magistrate  of  each  town, 
 but  a  commissary  of  each  street,  elected  by  the  inhabitants  to 
 watch  over  property  and  tranquillity.  Two  inhabitants,  in  their 
 turn,  nightly  patrole  the  street  to  guard  against  fir^-. 
 
 The  best  proof  that  the  laws  are  salutary  is,  that  few  crimes 
 are  committed,  and  few  punishments  are  inflicted.  The  brief  code, 
 according  to  Thunberg,  is  posted  up  in  every  town  and  village,  in 
 large  letters,  on  a  spot  surrounded  with  rails. f 
 
 Population.]  The  population  of  the  Japanese  empire,  like  that 
 of  other  Asiatic  states,  cannot  be  treated  with  much  precision. 
 Ancient  and  modern  travellers  seem  to  have  passed  this  subject 
 in  silence.  Perhaps  the  Japanese  have  some  prejudice  against 
 any  enumei'ation,  or  choose,  from  political  views,  to  bury  it  in  ob- 
 scurity ;  while  the  Chinese,  with  like  design,  may  perhaps  mag- 
 nify the  population  of  their  country.  All  travellers  however 
 agree  that  the  population  is  surprising,  and  though  a  great  part 
 of  the  country  be  mountainous,  yet  even  the  mountains  are  the  ob- 
 jects of  obsthiate  cultivation.  Hassel  estimates  the  number  of 
 inhabitants  in  this  empire  at  15,000,000  ;  and  its  army  at  100,000. 
 Thunberg  observes  that  the  capital,  Jedo,  is  said  to  be  63  miles 
 in  circumference,  and  at  any  rate  rivals  Pekin  in  size.t  Many  of 
 the  villages  are  three  quarters  of  a  mile  in  length  ;  and  some  so 
 long  that  it  requires  several  hours  to  walk  through  them  :  and 
 these  large  villages  frequently  occur  at  very  short  distances. 
 Ksempfer  says  that  the  number  of  people  daily  travelling  on  the 
 highways  is  inconceivable,  and  the  tokaido^  the  chief  of  the  seven 
 great  roads,  is  sometimes  more  crowded  than  the  most  frequented 
 streets  of  European  capitals.^  Varenius,  the  geographer,  who 
 justly  esteemed  this  country  so  interesting  as  to  deserve  a  partic- 
 ular description,  has,  horn  the  best  authorities,  estimated  the 
 standing  army  maintained  by  the  princes  and  governors,  at  368,000 
 
 *  iv.  GV.  t  Thunberg,  iv.rS.  t-  iii-  282.  §  ii.  345,  and  iii.  318. 
 
JAPAN.  525 
 
 infantry,  and  38,000  cavalry  :  while  the  Kubo  emperor,  maintains 
 100,000  foot,  and  20,000  horse  ;  thus  constituting  in  all  a  regular 
 force  of  458,000  infantry,  and  58,000  cavalry.*  It  is  probable 
 that  this  army  does  not  bear  a  greater  proportion  to  the  popula- 
 tion, than  that  of  an  European  state  in  time  of  peace  ;  and  as  the 
 army  doubles  that  of  France  under  the  monarchy,  so  the  popula- 
 tion may  also  be  double.  Perhaps  a  more  safe  estimate  may  be 
 formed,  by  supposing  the  population  of  Japan  to  equal  that  of  Chi- 
 na ;  and  the  former  country  being  about  one  tenth  part  the  size  of 
 the  latter,  the  population  will  be  about  30,000,000. 
 
 Colo7ties.']  Though  the  national  laws  prohibit  emigration,  yet 
 where  the  Japanese  make  conquests,  they  seem  to  regard  the 
 country  as  their  own,  and  to  form  settlements  without  hesitation. 
 Hence  Japanese  colorvies  may  be  found  in  Jesso,  and  other  adja- 
 cent isles  :  nay  even  in  isles  of  the  Indian  Archipelago,  so  that 
 their  laws,  as  in  China,  seem  rather  theoretic, 
 
 ./f»?«z/."|  The  army  has  been  already  mentioned  as  amounting 
 to  more  than  half  a  million  ;  and  the  character  of  the  people  is 
 singularly  brave  and  resolute.  The  navy,  like  that  of  the  other 
 oriental  powers,  is  beneath  notice.  The  Japanese  vessels  are  open 
 at  the  stern,  so  that  they  cannot  bear  a  boisterous  sea  ;  and  though, 
 like  the  Chinese,  they  have  the  use  of  the  compass,  yet  it  is  in- 
 conceivable how  they  could  in  former  times,  make  voyages,  as  is 
 asserted,  to  Formosa,  and  even  to  Java. 
 
 Reveyiues.^  The  revenues  of  this  empire  are  minutely  slated 
 by  Varenius,  according  to  priiices  and  provinces,  the  sum  total 
 being  2834  tons  of  gold,  on  the  Flemish  mode  of  computation; 
 and  taking  the  ton  at  only  10,0001.  sterling,  the  amount  would  be 
 28,340,0001.  sterling,  besides  the  provinces  and  cities  which  are 
 immediately  subject  to  the  emperor.f  These  revenues  must  not, 
 however,  be  considered  as  national,  being  only  yielded  in  coin  to 
 the  various  princes.  The  emperor,  however,  besides  the  large 
 revenues  of  his  provinces,  has  a  considerable  treasure  in  gold  and 
 silver,  disposed  in  chests  of  lOOOtaels,  or  thayls,  each  being  near- 
 ly in  valae  to  a  Dutch  rix  dollar,  or  about  four  shillings  and  four- 
 pence  English  money.  As  the  frenzy  of  mankind  generally  ex- 
 pends the  public  revenue  in  the  supportof  an  army,  the  real  weight 
 of  the  Japanese  resouixes  may  best  be  estimated  from  the  num.er- 
 ous  army  supported.:}: 
 
 Political  I?}i/iortance  and  Relations.'\  Japan  maintains  no  polit- 
 ical relations  with  any  other  state  ;  and  consisting  of  islands 
 without  a  navy,  its  external  political  importance  is  of  course  con- 
 fined, if  not  annihilated. 
 
 Manners  and  Customs.~\  A  recent  traveller  has  described  the 
 persons  of  this  singular  people  in  the  following  terms.§     "The 
 
 *  Drrer.  Jap.  cap.  ix. 
 
 f  Hassel  states  the  revenue  at  424,500,000  guilders. 
 
 i  rhunbergiv.  8,  computes  the  revenue  ot"  the  crown  lands  at  more  than  forty-four 
 thousands  of  niiHions  of  sacks  of  rice,  each  sack  being  about  twenty  pounds  weight. 
 But  this  calculation  implies  nothing  to  an  European  reader. 
 
 §  Thunbergjiii.  251. 
 
526  JAPAN, 
 
 people  of  this  nation  are  well  made,  active,  free  and  easy  in  theii* 
 motions,  with  stout  limbs,  although  their  strength  is  not  to  be 
 compared  to  that  of  the  northern  inhabitants  of  Europe.  They 
 are  of  a  yellowish  color  all  over,  sometimes  bordering  on  brown, 
 and  sometimes  on  white.  Ladies  of  distinction,  who  seldom  go 
 out  in  the  open  air  without  being  covered,  are  perfectly  white. 
 Jt  is  by  their  eyes  that,  like  the  Chinese,  these  people  are  distin- 
 guishable. These  organs  have  not  that  rotundity  which  those  of 
 other  nations  exhibit ;  but  are  oblong,  small,  and  are  sunk  deep- 
 er in  the  head,  in  consequence  of  which  these  people  have  almost 
 the  appearance  of  being  pink-eyed.  Their  eyes  are  dark  brown, 
 or  rather  black  ;  and  the  eyelids  form  in  the  great  angle  of  the 
 eye  a  deep  furrow,  which  makes  the  Japanese  look  as  if  they  were 
 sharp  sighted,  and  discriminates  them  from  other  nations.  The 
 eyebrows  are  also  placed  somewhat  higher.  Their  heads  are  in 
 general  large,  and  their  necks  short ;  their  hair  black,  thick,  and 
 shining,  from  the  use  they  make  of  oils.  Their  noses,  though 
 not  flat,  are  yet  rather  thick  and  short." 
 
 This  highly  civilized  people  must  of  course  display  great  di- 
 versity of  character,  but  the  virtues  far  preponderate  over  the 
 vices  ;  and  even  their  pride  is  useful,  as  it  prevents  them  from 
 stooping  to  the  mean  tricks  of  the  maritime  Chinese.  The  Jap- 
 anese use  great  varieties  of  food  and  sauces.  The  master  or  mis- 
 tress of  the  house  is  not  harassed  with  the  trouble  of  carving, 
 the  meat  being  previously  cut  into  small  pieces,  served  up  in  ba- 
 sons of  porcelain,  or  japanned  wood.  The  general  drink  is  sacki, 
 or  beer  made  of  rice  ;  which  last  article  also  supplies  the  place 
 of  bread.  They  use  many  kinds  of  vegetables  and  fruits.  The 
 use  of  tea  is  also  universal  ;  but  wine  and  spirituous  liquors  are 
 unknown.  The  use  of  tobacco  seems  to  have  been  introduced  by 
 the  Portuguese  ;  and  the  practice  of  smoking  has  become  general. 
 
 The  houses  of  the  Japenese  are  of  wood,  colored  white,  so  as 
 to  resemble  stone  :  and  though  roomy  and  commodious,  never 
 exceed  two  stories  in  height,  the  upper  serving  for  lofts  and  gar- 
 rets, and  are  seldom  occupied.*  Each  house  forms  but  one 
 room,  which  maybe  divided  into  apartments  at  pleasure,  by  move- 
 able partitions,  sliding  in  grooves.  They  use  neither  chairs  nor 
 tables,  sitting  on  straw  mats,  the  meal  being  served  apart  to  each 
 on  a  smali  square  wooden  salver.  In  Jedo,  the  houses  are  cov- 
 ered with  tiles  ;  but  the  general  fabric  is  a  frame  work  of  wood, 
 split  bamboos,  and  clay. 
 
 The  dress  consists  of  trowsers :  and  what  we  call  night  gowns, 
 or  loose  robes  of  silk  or  cotton,  are  universally  worn  by  both 
 sexes.*  These  are  fastened  by  a  girdle  ;  the  number  being  in- 
 creased according  to  the  coldness  of  the  weather.  Stockings  are 
 not  used ;  and  the  shoes  are  commonly  of  I'ice  straw.  The  men 
 shave  the  head  from  the  forehead  to  the  nape,  but  the  hair  on  the 
 bide  is  turned  up  and  fastened  at  the  crown  of  the  head  :  conical 
 
 *  Thunberg,  iii.  112,  t  W-  »'•  2C/'- 
 
JAPAN.  52r 
 
 hats  made  of  grass  are  worn  on  journeys,  but  the  fashion  of  wear- 
 ing the  hair  forms  the  common  economical  covering  of  the  head. 
 The  Japanese  festivals,  the  games  and  theatrical  amusements, 
 equal  those  of  most  civilized  nations. 
 
 Language.']  Thunberg  has  published  a  curious  vocabulary  of 
 the  Japanese  language,  which  seems  indeed  to  have  little  connec- 
 tion with  the  monosyllabic  speech  of  the  Chinese.  There  are 
 also  dictionaries  drawn  up  by  the  Jesuits. 
 
 Literature.']  In  the  sciences  and  literature  the  Japanese  yield 
 to  few  of  the  oriental  nations.  This  sensible  people  study  house 
 keeping,  or  domestic  economy,  as  an  indispensable  science  ;  and 
 next  to  this  every  Japanese  is  versed  in  the  history  of  his  country.* 
 Astronomy  is  cultivated,  but  has  not  arrived  at  much  perfection. 
 They  survey  with  tolerable  accuracy  ;  and  their  maps  are  as  exact 
 as  their  imperfect  instruments  will  permit.  The  art  of  printing 
 is  ancient,  but  they  use  blocks,  not  moveable  types,  and  only  im- 
 press one  side  of  the  paper.  Some  of  tiieir  arts  and  manufactures 
 even  surpass  those  of  Europe.  There  are  excellent  workmen  in 
 iron  and  copper  ;  and  to  no  eastern  country  do  they  yield  in  man- 
 ufactures of  silk  and  cotton  ;  while  in  varnishing  wood  they  are 
 well  known  to  have  no  equals.  Glass  is  also  common  ;  and  they 
 even  form  telescopes.  The  porcelain  is  deemed  superior  to  that 
 of  China.  Their  swords  display  incomparable  skill  ;  and  many 
 varieties  of  paper  are  prepared  from  the  bark  of  a  species  of  mul- 
 berry tree. 
 
 Education.]  There  are  many  schools  in  which  the  cliildren 
 are  taught  to  read  and  Avrite  ;  their  education  being  accomplished 
 without  the  degradation  of  personal  chastisement,  while  courage  is 
 instilled  by  the  repetition  of  songs  in  praise  of  deceased  heroes. 
 
 Cities  a7id  Toivns.]  The  capital  city  of  the  Japanese  empire  is 
 Jedo,  centrically  situated  on  a  bay  in  the  S.  E.  side  of  the  chief 
 island  Nipon.  The  houses  never  exceed  two  stories,  with  numer- 
 ous shops  towards  the  streets.  The  harbor  is  so  shallow  that  an 
 European  ship  would  be  obliged  to  anchor  at  the  distance  of  five 
 leagues.  A  fire  happened  in  this  city  in  the  year  1772,  which  is 
 said  to  have  consumed  six  leagues  in  length,  and  three  in  breadth  : 
 and  earthquakes  are  here  familiar,  as  in  other  regions  of  Japan. 
 The  emperor's  palace  is  surrounded  with  stone  walls,  and  ditches 
 with  draw  bridges,  forming  of  itself  a  considerable  town,  said  to 
 be  five  leagues  in  circumference.f  In  this,  and  similar  instances 
 of  oriental  population  and  extent,  though  the  best  authorities  be 
 followed,  yet  the  reader  may,  with  the  author,  suspend  his  belief. 
 The  Japanese  affirm  that  Jedo  would  occupy  a  person  twenty-one 
 hours  to  walk  round  its  circumference,  which  might  thus  amount 
 to  about  twent>'-one  leagues  :  and  that  it  is  seven  leagues  in  length 
 by  five  in  breadth.  A  large  river  passes  through  the  capital,  and 
 besides  tlie  wide  ditches  of  the  palace,  supplies  several  canals. 
 There  are  no  Avails  nor  foi'tifications,  which  are  unknown  in  Jap- 
 anese cities  :  but  there  are  many  splendid  houses  of  U^e  numer- 
 ous princes. 
 
 *  Thunberg,  iv.  54.  f  Id.  iii.  189. 
 
528  JAPAN. 
 
 Miaco,  the  spiritual  capital,  and  second  city  of  the  empire,  is 
 placed  in  an  inland  situation  about  160  miles  S.  W.  from  Jedo,  on 
 a  plain.  Yet  it  is  the  first  commercial  city,  and  is  celebrated  for  its 
 manufactures.  It  is  also  the  seat  of  the  imperial  mint :  and  the 
 Dairi's  court  being  literary,  all  books  are  printed  here.  Ksempfer 
 informs  us  that,  upon  an  enumeration  taken  in  1674,  the  inhabi- 
 tants were  found  to  amount  to  405,642,  of  whom  were  males 
 182,070;  and  223,572  females,  without  including  the  numerous 
 attendants  of  the  Dairi. 
 
 Nagasaki,  being  the  nearest  city  to  the  Dutch  factory  in 
 the  isle  of  Dezima,  has  of  course  attracted  the  particular  attention 
 of  travellers.  The  harbor  is  the  only  one  in  which  foreign  ships 
 are  permitted  to  anchor,  a  privilege  now  enjoyed  only  by  the  Dutch 
 and  Chinese.  The  Portuguese  trade  raised  this  place  from  a 
 mere  village,  to  its  present  size  and  consequence. 
 
 The  other  cities  in  the  Japanese  empire  amount  to  about  thirty 
 or  forty  ;  but,  except  those  on  the  route  from  Nagasaki  to  the 
 capital,  few  have  been  explored  by  European  travellers.  Osacca, 
 and  Sakai,  boast  the  name  of  imperial  cities. 
 
 Ed{fices.~\  Of  the  principal  edifices  of  the  Japanese  some  idea 
 may  be  formed  from  the  descriptions  given  by  travellers  of  the 
 imperial  palace,  which,  like  those  of  the  Chinese,  consists  of  many 
 dwellings,  occupying  an  immense  space.  The  saloon  of  the  hun- 
 dred mats  is  600  feet  in  length,  by  300  in  breadth.  There  is  a 
 high  square  tower  (a  mark  of  dignity  not  permitted  here  to  the 
 grandees,  though  usual  at  their  own  courts,)  which  consists  of 
 several  stages  richly  decorated  ;  and  most  of  the  roofs  are  orna- 
 mented with  golden  dragons.  The  pillars  and  ceilings  are  of  ce- 
 dar, camphor,  and  other  precious  woods  ;  but  the  only  furniture 
 consists  of  white  mats,  fringed  with  gold.  The  emperor  gives 
 audience  in  a  smaller  chambei',  where  he  is  seated  on  carpets. 
 
 The  roads  seem  to  be  maintained  in  excellent  order  ;  but  the 
 mountainous  nature  of  the  country  has  prevented  the  formation  of 
 canals,  which  indeed  the  universal  proximity  of  the  sea  renders 
 almost  unnecessary  ;  otherwise  so  sensible  and  industrious  a  na- 
 tion would  doubtless  have  imitated  the  Cninese  example. 
 
 Manufactures  and  Comm€rcc7\^  The  chief  manufactures  of 
 Japan  have  been  already  mentioned  in  the  account  of  arts  and 
 sciences.  The  inland  commerce  is  very  considei'able,  being  free 
 and  exempted  from  imposts.*  The  harbors  arc  crowded  with 
 large  and  small  vessels  ;  the  high  roads  with  various  goods  ;  and 
 the  shops  well  replenished.  Large  fairs  are  also  held  in  different 
 places,  to  which  there  is  a  great  concourse  of  people.  Tlie  trade 
 with  China  is  the  most  important,  consisting  of  raw  silks,  sugar, 
 turpentine,  drugs.  Sec.  while  the  exports  are  copper  in  bars,  lack- 
 <:red  ware,  Sec.  Thunberg  represents  the  profits  of  the  Dutch 
 trade  as  very  inconsiderable,  so  that  the  company  only  employed 
 two  ships.  The  Japanese  coins  are  of  remarkable  form,  the  gold 
 being  called  Kobangs.     The   silver,  called    Kodama,  sometimes 
 
 *  Thunberg,  iv.  lOG. 
 
JAPAN.  52? 
 
 represents  Daikok,  the  god  of  riches,  sitting  upon  two  barrels  of 
 rice,  with  a  hammer  in  his  right  hand,  and  a  sack  at  his  left.  The 
 Seni,  of  copper  or  iron,  are  strung  like  the  Chinese  pieces  of  a 
 similar  value. 
 
 CHAPTER  II. 
 
 NATURAL  GF.OGKAPUY. 
 
 CLIMATE  AND  SEASONS,  FACE  OF  THE  COUNTRY,  SOIL  AND  AGRI- 
 CULTURE, RIVERS,  LAKES,  MOUNTAINS,  VOLCANOES,  FORESTS, 
 BOTANY,  ZOOLOGY,   MINERALOGY,  ISLES. 
 
 CUiAnte  and  Seasoiis.']  THE  heat  of  summer  in  Japan  is  ex- 
 treme, and  would  be  insupportable,  were  it  not  for  the  sea  breez- 
 es. Equally  severe  is  the  cold  in  v/inier,  when  the  -^ind  blows 
 from  the  north,  or  north-east.  The  weather  is  changeable  through- 
 out the  year  ;  and  there  are  abundant  falls  of  rain,  especially  in 
 the  satsaki,  or  rainy  months,  which  begin  at  midsummer.*  This 
 copious  moisture  is  the  chief  cause  of  the  fertility  of  Japan,  and 
 its  consequent  high  degree  of  population. 
 
 Thunder  is  not  unfrequent ;  and  tempests,  hurricanes,  and 
 earthquakes,  are  very  common.  Thunberg  has  published  his 
 thermomctrical  observations,  from  which  a  clear  idea  may  be 
 formed  of  the  climate.  Tlie  greatest  degree  of  heat,  at  Nagasa- 
 ki, was  98°,  in  the  month  of  August  ;  and  the  severest  cold  in 
 January  35°,  The  thunder  in  the  summer  months  is  generally 
 during  the  night  ;  and  the  snow  will  remain  on  the  ground  some 
 days,  even  in  the  south. 
 
 I'^ace  of  the  Cowitry.'^  Though  there  be  plains  of  considerable 
 extent,  as  appears  from  the  description  of  Miaco,  yet  Thunbo'g 
 assures  us  that  the  whole  country  consists  of  mountains,  hills,  and 
 vallies,  the  coast  being  mostly  rocky  and  precipitous,  and  invest- 
 ed with  a  turbulent  sea.  The  face  of  the  country  is  also  diversi- 
 fied with  many  rivers,  and  rivulets,  by  numerous  singular  tribes 
 of  vegetation  ;  and  generally  excites  the  social  ideas  of  industry, 
 more  calculated  perhaps  to  delight  the  heart,  than  the  wild  ap- 
 pearances of  deserted  nature.  The  soil  in  itself  may  be  said  to 
 be  rather  barren  ;  but  the  prolific  showers  conspire  with  labor 
 and  manure  to  overcome  even  this  obstacle.  Agriculture  is  a 
 science  in  the  highest  estimation  with  this  sensible  people,  so  that 
 except  the  most  barren  and  untractable  mountains,  the  earth  is 
 universally  cultivated  ;  and  even  most  of  the  mountains  and  hills. 
 Free  from  all  feudal  and  other  impedinienis,  and  highly 
 respected  by  other  social  classes,  the  farmer  cultivates  the  soil 
 with  freedom  and  industry.  There  are  no  commons  ;  and  if  any 
 portion  be  left  uncultivated  it  may  be  seized  by  a  more  industrious 
 
 ■   Thiuiberg,  iii.  23i. 
 VOL,    IT..  fjr 
 
»630  JAPAN. 
 
 neighbor.  The  Japanese  mode  of  manuring  is  to  form  a  mixture 
 of  excrements  of  all  kinds,  with  kitchen  refuse,  which  is  carried 
 in  pails  into  the  field,  and  poured  with  a  ladle  upon  the  plants^ 
 when  they  have  attained  the  height  of  about  six  inches,  so  that 
 they  quickly  receive  the  whole  benefit.  The  weeding  is  also 
 carried  to  the  utmost  degree  of  nicety. 
 
 The  sides  of  the  hills  are  cultivated  by  means  of  stone  walls, 
 supporting  level  plats  sown  with  rice  or  esculent  roots.  "  Thou- 
 sands of  these  beds  adorn  most  of  their  mountains,  and  give  them 
 an  appearance  which  excites  the  greatest  astonishment  in  the 
 breasts  of  the  spectators." 
 
 Rice  is  the  chief  grain  ;  buck  wheat,  rye,  barley,  and  wheat, 
 being  little  used.  The  sweet  potatoe  is  abundant  ;  with  several 
 sorts  of  beans  and  pease,  turnips,  cabbage,  Sec.  The  rice  is  sown 
 in  April,  and  gathered  in  November  :  in  which  last  month  the 
 wheat  is  sown,  and  reaped  in  June.  The  barley  also  stands  the 
 winter.  From  the  seed  of  a  kind  of  cabbage,  lamp  oil  is  express- 
 ed, and  several  plants  are  cultivated  for  dyeing  ;  there  are  also 
 cotton  shrubs,  and  mulberry  trees,  which  last  feed  abundance  of 
 silk  worms.  The  varnish  and  camphor  trees,  the  vine,  the  cedar, 
 the  tea  tree,  and  the  bamboo  reed,  not  only  grow  wild,  but  are 
 planted  for  numerous  uses. 
 
 Rivers.']  The  rivers  of  Nipon  have  not  been  delineated  with 
 much  care.  Among  the  few  named  are  the  Nogasa,  and  the  Jed- 
 ogawa,  which  passes  by  Osaka,  where  it  is  crowned  with  several 
 bridges  of  cedar,  from  300  to  360  feet  in  length.  The  river  Ojin- 
 gawa  is  one  of  the  largest  and  most  dangerous  in  the  country, 
 though  not  subject  like  the  others  to  swell  during  rains.  Fusi- 
 gawa  is  also  a  large  and  rapid  river,  as  is  that  called  Sakgawa. 
 The  largest  river  seems  to  be  the  Jodo,  or  Yodo,  which  Hows  S. 
 W.  from  the  central  lake  of  Oitz  ;  but  our  geography  of  the 
 Japanese  empire  is  far  from  being  complete.  Among  the  most 
 important  rivers  Ksempfer  names  the  Ujin  (the  Ojin  of  Thun- 
 berg),  the  Oomi  reported  by  the  Japanese  history  to  have  burst 
 from  the  ground  in  one  niglit,  and  the  Aska.* 
 
 Lakes.]  One  of  the  chief  lakes  is  that  of  Oitz,  which  emits 
 two  rivers,  one  towards  Miaco,  the  other  towards  Osaka,  and  it  is 
 said  to  be  50  Japanese  leagues  in  length,  each  about  an  hour's  ride 
 on  horseback  ;  and  the  breadth  is  considerable. 
 
 Alountains.]  The  principal  Japanese  mountain  is  that  of  Fusi, 
 covered  with  snow  almost  throughout  the  year.  The  Faconie 
 mountains  are  in  the  same  quarter,  surrounding  a  small  lake  of 
 the  same  namcf  Many  of  the  mountains  are  overgrown  with 
 wood  ;  and  others  cultivated  as  before  explained.  There  are 
 several  volcanoes,  and  in  general  they  abound  with  evergreen  trees, 
 and  crystalline  springs. 
 
 Volcanoes.']  Near  Firando  there  is  a  volcanic  island,  nor  arc 
 others  unknown  in  the  surrounding  seas^  In  the  province  of  Figo 
 there  is  a  volcano,which  constantly  emits  flamcs,and  anothcr,former- 
 
 *  Timnberg.i.  163.  f  l'^-  '"•  l*^*-  *  Kxmpfcr,  i.  160, 
 
JAPAN.  531 
 
 ly  acoal  mine,  in  the  province  of  Tsikuser.  The  course  and  extent 
 of  the  various  ranges  of  mountains  have  not  been  indicated. 
 
 Near  the  lake  of  Oitz  is  the  delightful  mountain  of  Jesan  ; 
 W'hich  is  esteemed  sacred,  and  is  said  to  present  not  less  than  3000 
 temples.* 
 
 J^oresii:']  In  the  high  state  of  cultivation,  few  forests  can  ap- 
 pear, except  those  already  mentioned,  as  decorating  the  sides  of 
 mountains. 
 
 Botany.']     The  vegetable  treasures  of  Japan  are  numerous,  and 
 have  been  ably  explored  by  Kaempfer  and  Thunberg  ;  on  account 
 however,  of  the  enormous  population  of  the  country,  and  the  ab- 
 solute necessity  of  paying  the  utmost  attention  to  the  introduction 
 of  whatever  may  contribute  to  human  sustenance,  it  is  not  easy  to 
 ascertain  how  far  several  of  the   esculent  plants  cultivated  here 
 are  truly  indigenous.     There  are  many  points  of  resemblance  be- 
 tween the  floras  of  China  and  Japan,  and  this  similarity  has  prob- 
 ably been  strengthened  by  a  mutual  interchange  of  useful  veget- 
 ables ;  if  indeed  both  countries  have   not  rather  derived   some  of 
 their  most  valuable  plants  from  Cochin-China,  or  the  Phillippine 
 islands  ;  the  ginger,   the  soy-bean,  black  pepper,   sugar,  cotton, 
 and  indigo,  though  perhaps  natives  of  the  more  southern  regions 
 of  Asia,  are  cultivated  here  v/ith  great  success,  and  in  vast  abun- 
 dance.    The  Indian  laurel,  and  the  camphor  tree,  are  found  in  the 
 high  central  parts  of  Japan,  as  is  also  the  rhus  vermix,  from  the 
 bark  of  which  exudes  a  gum  resin,  that  is  supposed  to  be  the  ba- 
 sis of  the  exquisitely  beautiful  and  inimitable  black  varnish,  with 
 which  the  inlaid  cabinets  and  other  articles  of  Indian  luxury  are 
 covered.     Besides  the  common   sweet,  or  China  orange,  another 
 species,  the  citrus  japonica  is  found  wild,  and  almost  peculiar  to 
 this  country  ;  two  kinds  of  mulberry  are  met  with,  both  in  an 
 indigenous  and  cultivated  state,  the  one  valuable  as  the  favorite 
 food  of  the  silk  worm,  the  other  esteemed  for  the  white   fibres  of 
 its  inner  bark,   which   are  manufactured  into  paper.     The  larch, 
 the  cypress,  and  weeping  Avillow,  found  in  all  the  warm  regions 
 between  Japan  and  the  Mediterranean,  here  arrive  at  the  extrem- 
 ity of  their  boundary  to  the  east ;  the  same  may  be  said  of  the  opi- 
 um, poppy,  white  lily,  and  jalap.     The  trumpet-flower   (bignonia 
 catalpa)  is  common  to  this  pai"t  of  Asia,  and  Peru  ;  in  Avhich  cir- 
 cumstance it  resembles  the  vanilla,  whose  berries  form  an  article 
 of  commerce,  being  largely  used  in  the  pi'eparation  of  chocolate. 
 The  tallow  tree,  the  plantain,   the  cocoa-nut  tree,  and  two  other 
 palms,  the  chamserops  excelsa,  and  cycas  circinalis,  adorn  the 
 woodland  tracts,  especially  near  the  shore,  by  the  variety  of  their 
 growth  and  foliage,  while  the  uncultivated  swamps  by  the  sides  of 
 the  rivers  are  rendered  subservient  to  the  uses  of  the  inhabitants, . 
 by  the  profusion  and  magnitude  of  the  bamboos  with   which  they 
 are  covered. 
 
 Zoology.']     It  is  not  a  little  remarkable  that  neither  'Sheep  nor 
 goats  are  found  in  the  whole  empire  of  Japan  ;  the  latter  being 
 
 *  Kcempfer  il.  "SS-, 
 
S52  JAPAN. 
 
 deemed  mischievous  to  cultivalion,  while  the  abundance  of  cotton 
 recompenses  the  want  ofvvool.  Swine  are  also  deemed  pernicious 
 to  agriculture  ;  and  only  a  few  appear  in  the  neighborhood  of 
 Nagasaki,  probably  introduced  by  the  Chinese.*  There  are  in 
 general  but  few  quadrupeds  ;  the  number  of  horses  in  the  empire 
 being  computed  by  Thunberg,  as  only  equal  to  those  of  a  single 
 Swedish  town.  Still  fewer  cattle  are  seen  ;  and  the  Japanese  nei- 
 ther use  their  flesh  nor  their  milk,  but  employ  them  only  in 
 ploughing  or  drawing  carts.  The  food  consists  almost  entirely  of 
 fish  and  foAvl,  with  vegetables.  Hens  and  common  ducks  are  do- 
 mesticated, chiefly  on  account  of  their  eggs.  A  few  dogs  arc 
 kept  from  motives  of  superstition  ;  and  the  cats  are  favorites  of 
 the  ladies. 
 
 The  wolf  appears  in  the  northern  provinces,  and  foxes  in  other 
 parts  ;  these  last  being  universally  detested,  and  considered  as 
 demons  incarnate. 
 
 Mineralogy.']  "  That  the  precious  metals  of  gold  and  silver  arc 
 to  be  found  in  abundance  in  the  empire  of  Japan,  has  been  well 
 known,  both  to  the  Portuguese,  who  formerly  exported  whole  ship 
 loads  of  them,  and  to  the  Dutch  in  former  times.  Gold  is  found 
 in  several  parts,  and  perhaps  Japan  may  in  this  respect  contest  the 
 palm  with  the  richest  country  in  the  world  :  but  in  order  that  this 
 metal  may  not  lose  its  value,  by  becoming  too  plentiful,  it  is  pro- 
 hibited to  dig  more  than  a  certain  stated  quantity  ;  not  to  mention 
 that  no  metallic  mine,  of  any  kind  whatever,  can  be  opened  and 
 wrought  without  the  emperor's  express  permission.  When  this 
 permission  is  obtained  two  thirds  of  the  produce  are  the  portion 
 of  the  emperor,  and  the  proprietor  of  the  land  receives  one  third 
 for  the  expenses.  The  finest  gold,  together  with  the  richest  gold 
 mines,  are  found  on  the  largest  of  the  Nipon  islands  near  Sado. 
 It  is  used  for  the  mint,  gilding,  and  embroidery  ;  but  is  not  car- 
 ried out  of  the  country. 
 
 "  Silver  must  formerly  have  been  found  in  much  greater  plenty 
 than  at  present,  as  a  large  quantity  of  it  was  then  exported  from 
 this  country.  The  Japanese  consider  it  as  being  more  rare  than 
 gold,  although  the  latter  metal  is  dearer.  It  is  said  to  be  found 
 in  the  province  of  Bingo  ;  and  in  the  more  northerly  parts  towards 
 Kattami,  \ery  rich  silver  mines  are  to  be  met  with.  Independ- 
 ently of  these  places,  the  two  islands,  which  are  called  the  gold 
 and  silver  isles,  fGinsima,  Kinniina,)  are  said  to  contain  a  gieat 
 quantity  of  both  of  these  precious  metals.  Silver  is  used  for 
 coining  and  for  plating. 
 
 "  Copper  is  quite  common  in  every  part  of  the  empire,  and  is* 
 richly  impregnated  with  gold,  constituling  the  main  source  of  the 
 wealth  of  many  provinces.  It  was  not  only  formerly  exported  in 
 amazing  quantities,  but  still  continues  to  be  exported  both  by  the 
 Dutch  and  Chinese  merchants.  The  finest  and  most  malleable  is 
 du;^-  in  Suruga,  Atsingo,  Kyno,  Kuni.  The  last  sort  is  esteemed 
 to  h&  the  most  malleable  of  any  j  whilst  |hat  from  Suruga  contains 
 
 *  Tluniljcrg,  iv.  93. 
 
BIRMAN  EMPIRE.  55" 
 
 the  greatest  quantity  of  gold.  Of  this  metal  are  made  small 
 pieces  of  money  for  change  ;  it  is  used  likewise  for  plating  and 
 for  making  utensils,  such  as  pots,  kettles,  &c. 
 .  "  Iron  seems  to  be  scarcer  than  any  other  metal  in  this  coun- 
 try. This  they  are  neither  fond  of  importing,  nor  yet  of  exporting 
 it  for  sale.  Of  it  they  manufacture  scymitars,  arms,  scissars, 
 knives,  and  various  other  implements,  of  v/hich  they  stand  in 
 need. 
 
 "  Brimstone  is  found  in  great  abundance  in  Japan.  Pit  coal  is 
 likewise  to  be  met  with  in  the  northern  provinces."* 
 
 Here  are  several  warm  mineral  waters,  which  the  inhabitants 
 use  for  various  diseases  ;  particularly  those  of  Obamma,  and 
 those  in  the  mountain  of  Omfcn.  The  natural  curiosities  of 
 Japan  have  been  little  investigated,  as  Europeans  have  seldom 
 visited  the  interior  of  the  country. 
 
 /.s/cs.]  There  are  many  small  isles  dependent  on  Japan,  par- 
 ticularly in  the  S.  and  E.  ;  among  which  is  Fatsifo,  the  place  of 
 exile  for  the  grandees.  This  and  the  other  small  isles  are 
 scarcely  known,  except  by  name. 
 
 THE  BIRMAN  EMPIRE.! 
 
 COMPRISING  THE  KINGDOMS  OF  AVA,  PEGU,  AND  AJIRACAX 
 CHAPTER  I. 
 
 HISTORICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 NAME,  EXTENT,  BOUNDARIES,  ORIGINAL  INHABITANTS,  PROGRES- 
 SIVE GEOGRAPHY,  MODERN  HISTORY,  RELIGION,  LAWS,  GO VERN- 
 MENT,  POPULATION,  ARMY,  NAVY,  REVENUES,  POLITICAL  IM- 
 PORTANCE, MANNERS,  LANGUAGE,  LITERATURE,  CITIES,  EDI- 
 FICES, MANUFACTURES,  COMMERCE. 
 
 jYame.']  BEFORE  the  appe.arance  of  a  recent  in- 
 teresting publication,^  scarcely  any  thing  was  known  concerning 
 this  new  empire  ;  and  geographers  were  constrained  to  detail 
 the  old  accounts,  which  are  little  satisfactory.  The  Birman  em- 
 pire derives  its  name  from  the  Birmahs,  who  have  been  long- 
 known  as  a  warlike  nation  in  the  region  formerly  styled  India 
 BEYOND  THE  Ganges  ;  the  capital  city  of  their  kingdom  being 
 Ava,  or  Awa.     Pegu  is  by  the   natives  styled  Bagoo  ;§  being  tht; 
 
 •  Tliiinler.E;,  iv.  102. 
 
 I  The  nccount  of  tliis  Empire, witli  few  additions,  is  from  Pinkeitnn. 
 
 I  Synics's  account  of  llie  Einbas'r\'  to  Ava. 
 
 §  Ib.i.  6.  8vo.  edit. 
 
534  BIRMAN  EMPIRE. 
 
 country  situated  to  the  south  of  the  former,  and  justly  inferred  to 
 have  been  the  Golden  Chersonese  of  the  ancients. 
 
 Extent  and  Boundaries.^  It  is  difficult  to  ascertain  with  preci- 
 sion the  boundaries  of  the  Birrnan  empire.  Mr.  Symes  informs 
 us  that  "  it  appears  to  include  the  space  between  the  9th  and  26th 
 degree  of  noi'th  latitude,  and  between  the  92d  and  107th  degrees 
 of  longitude  east  of  Greenwich  ;  about  1050  geographical  miles  in 
 length  and  600  in  breadth  :  these  are  the  ascertainable  limits, 
 taken  from  the  Birman  accounts.  It  should  however  be  remark- 
 ed that  the  breadth  often  vax'ies,  and  is  in  many  places  very  incon- 
 siderable on  what  is  called  the  Eastern  Peninsula."*  According 
 to  Hassel,  this  empire,  embracing  Ava,  Pegu,  and  Arrakan,  con- 
 tains 223,750  square  miles. 
 
 The  geography  of  what  is  called  India  beyond  the  Ganges,  a 
 vague  name  for  the  wide  and  various  regions  between  Hindostan 
 and  China,  is  still  defective.  To  the  north  the  Birman  empire  is 
 divided  by  mountains  from  Asam,  a  country  little  visited  or 
 known  ;  and  farther  to  the  east  it  boi'ders  on  Tibet  and  China. 
 On  the  Avest  a  range  of  mountains  and  the  little  river  Naaf  divide 
 the  Birman  possessions  from  the  British  dominions  in  Bengal  ; 
 and  the  limit  is  continued  by  the  sea.  But  the  southern  and  east- 
 ern boundaries  still  remain  obscure.  Amidst  this  vmcertainty  it 
 must  suffice  to  observe  that  the  Birman  empire  constitutes  the 
 fifth  grand  native  power  in  Asia  since  Hindostan  and  Persia  have 
 been  divided,  and  may  probably  extend  its  authority  over  Laos  and 
 Cambodia,  while  it  remains  divided  by  desei'ts  and  ranges  of  lofty 
 mountains  from  the  united  kingdoms  of  Cochin-China  and  Tun- 
 quin. 
 
 Original  Population.']  The  original  population  of  this  region 
 has  been  little  illustrated.  The  alphabet,  literature,  and  religion, 
 are  derived  from  those  of  the  Hindoos ;  but  the  language,  the 
 grand  criterion  of  national  origins,  has  not  been  regularly  collated 
 with  those  of  the  adjacent  countries.! 
 
 Progressive  Geography.']  Although  this  country  appears  to 
 have  been  known  to  the  ancients,  constituting  the  utmost  boun- 
 dary of  their  knowledge  in  this  quarter  of  the  globe,|  yet  the  first 
 pi'ecise  ideas  concerning  this  part  of  the  globe  were  derived  from 
 the  discoveries  of  the  Portuguese,  but  the  geography  remains  so 
 imperfect  that  even  D'Anville  has  erred  in  the  delineation  ;  and 
 Mr.  Symes's  work  leaves  room  for  many  illustrations  and  improve- 
 ments when  future  travellers  shall  investigate  with  care  the  coun- 
 tries beyond  the  Ganges.§ 
 
 History.]  The  history  of  the  Birman  empire  is  detailed  at 
 some  length  in  the  introductory  part  of  the  recent  publication  ;  and 
 as  it  displays  the  origin  of  a  new  and  giipat  Asiatic  power,  it  may 
 
 *  Symes's  Account  of  the  Embassy  to  Av:i,  ii.  411. 
 
 f  See  vol.  vi.  of  the  Asiatic  Researches. 
 
 i  Geograph.  <les  Grccs.  Analvs.  139. 
 
 §  The  Fieiuh  inteicouise  wi'lh  Siain,  towards  the  end  of  the  sevcntcecth  century    ' 
 oitasioned  many  (lesciiplions  of  that  kingdom  ;  but  the  acconiits  of  Ava  and  >'ic;ii  are 
 rai-e.    Tliere  is  one  of  Tiiiiquiii  and  Lao?,  translated  I'rom  the  Italian  ol  Marinl,  Ta- 
 lis, IGCI,  -i'.u. 
 
BIRMAN  EMPIRE.  535 
 
 be  interesting  to  present  an  abstract.  From  the  Portuguese  ac- 
 counts it  appears  that  the  Birmans,  a  brave  and  warlike  race,  for- 
 merly subject  to  the  king  of  Pegu,  became  afterwards  masters  of 
 Ava,  and  caused  a  revolution  in  the  former  country  about  the  mid- 
 dle of  the  sixteenth  century,  when  they  took  Martaban.  The 
 Portuguese  continued  to  influence  these  countries,  till  they  were 
 expelled  by  the  Dutch,  Miio  obtained  settlements  in  various  parts 
 of  the  Birman  territory  ;  while  the  English  had  factories  at  Sirian, 
 and  even  at  Ava. 
 
 The  Birmans  continued  to  exercise  their  supremacy  over  Pegu 
 till  about  the  year  1740,  when  a  civil  war  arose,  during  which  the 
 British  factory  at  Sirian  was  destroyed  in  1744.  By  some  Euro- 
 pean aids  the  Pegue.sc  in  1750  and  1751,  gained  several  victories 
 over  the  Birmans  ;  and  in  1752  Ava  was  besieged  and  taken  ;  the 
 last  of  a  long  line  of  Birman  kings  being  reduced  to  captivity  ;  but 
 two  of  his  sons  escaped  to  Siam. 
 
 When  Binga  Delia,  king  of  Pegu,  had  completed  the  conquest 
 of  Ava,  he  returned  to  his  own  country,  leaving  his  brother  Ap- 
 poraza  to  govern  the  late  capital  of  the  Birman  king.  All  wore 
 the  aspect  of  tranquil  submission,  when  there  suddenly  arose  one 
 of  those  men  who  are  destined,  by  means  almost  invisible,  to  break 
 the  strongest  rod  of  power,  and  to  change  the  fate  of  empires. 
 Alonipra,  a  Birman  of  low  extraction,  was  the  chief  of  a  small  vil- 
 lage, and  was  continued  in  this  petty  office  by  the  victors.  With 
 one  hundred  devoted  followers  he  attacked  abandoffiftyPeguese, 
 whom  he  put  to  the  sword  ;  and  afterwards  defeated  a  small  force 
 sent  against  him  ;  and  about  the  autumn  of  1753,  took  possession 
 of  Ava,  while  the  Peguese  government  seems  to  have  been  lost 
 by  mere  infatuation.  After  i-epeated  defeats  Binga  Delia  himself 
 advanced  against  Alompra,  and  the  war  was  conducted  by  fleets 
 on  the  great  river  Irrawady,  as  well  as  by  land,  that  of  the  Pe- 
 guese being  utterly  defeated  in  close  combat  by  that  of  the  Bir- 
 mans. Alompra  proceeding  in  his  conquests  founded  the  town 
 now  well  known  by  the  name  of  Rangoon,  which  signifies  "  vic- 
 tory atchieved ;"  and  soon  after  chastised  the  people  of  Cassay, 
 who  had  revolted  from  the  Birman  authority.  In  1756  he  block- 
 aded Sirian,  which  yielded  to  his  arms  ;  and  after  having  deprivccl 
 the  capital  of  any  foreign  aid  by  water,  he  advanced  against  the 
 city  of  Pegu,  situated  on  an  extensive  plain,  and  then  surrounded 
 with  no  mean  fortifications,  while  the  stupendous  pagoda  of  Sho- 
 madoo  served  as  a  citadel.  This  capital  was  invested  in  January 
 1757,  and  in  about  three  months  became  a  prey  to  the  Birmans. 
 Alompra  then  proceeded  to  subdue  the  countries  to  the  eastward, 
 as  far  as  the  three  pagodas,  the  ancient  boundary  between  Pegu 
 and  Siam.  Tavoy  has  been  since  added  to  the  Birman  possessions 
 in  this  quarter, 
 
 Alompra  next  determined  to  chastise  the  Siamese,  for  the  cu- 
 couragement  they  had  given  to  his  rebellious  subjects,  and  order- 
 ed a  fleet  to  sail  to  Merghi,  a  sea-port  belonging  to  the  Siamese, 
 which  was  easily  taken,  and  was  followed  by  the  conquest  of  Tai»- 
 aserim,  a  large  and  populous  city. 
 
536  BIRMAN  EMPIRE. 
 
 The  victor  next  advanced  against  the  capital  of  Siam  ,  but  two 
 days  after  the  siege  had  commenced,  Alonipra  was  seized  with  a 
 deadly  disease,  which  saved  the  Siamese  from  destruction.  He 
 died  within  two  days  march  of  Martaban,  about  the  15th  of  May, 
 1760,  regretted  by  his  people,  who  at  once  venerated  him  as  their 
 deliverer,  and  as  a  great  and  victorious  monarch.  This  ibundci- 
 of  the  Birman  empire  had  not  completed  his  fiftieth  year;  his 
 person  strong  and  well  proportioned,  exceeded  the  middle  size  ; 
 and  though  his  features  were  coarse,  his  complexion  dark,  and  his 
 countenance  saturnine,  there  was  a  dignity  in  his  deportment  that 
 became  his  high  station. 
 
 He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Namdogee,  who  suppressed  sev- 
 eral insurrections,  and  died  in  1764,  leaving  an  infant  son,  Momien, 
 whose  uncle  Shembuen,  second  son  of  the  great  Alompra,  assumed 
 the  regency  and  afterwards  the  diadem. 
 
 Sheinbuan,  to  divert  the  national  attention,  as  usual  with  usurp- 
 ers, declared  war  against  Siam  ;  and  in  1760  two  armies  entered 
 that  country  from  the  N.  and  S.,  and,  being  united,  defeated  the 
 Siamese  about  seven  days  journey  from  their  capital.  The  Sia- 
 mese king  privately  withdrew  after  a  blockade  of  two  months,  and 
 the  city  capitulated ;  a  Siamese  governor  being  appointed  who 
 swore  allegiance  to  the  BirEian  sovereignty,  and  engaged  to  pay 
 an  annual  tribute. 
 
 The  Chinese,  apprehensive  of  the  progress  of  these  conquests, 
 ■advanced  an  army  from  the  province  of  Yun?.n,  but  were  com- 
 pletely defeated  by  the  Birmans.  Policy  spared  the  captives,  who 
 were  invited  \.o  marry  Birman  wives,  the  Hindoo  prejudices  being 
 here  unknown.  Shenibuan  rebuilt  Ava  Haung,  or  ancient  Ava, 
 the  metropolis  of  the  empire,  which  had  fallen  to  ruin  during  the 
 late  commotions.  The  Siamese  though  vanquished  remained  un- 
 subdued ;  and  there  is  an  inveterate  enmity  betwixt  the  nations, 
 which  will  prevent  cither  servitude  or  alliance.*  A  Siamese 
 prince  assumed  the  monarchy,  and  in  1771,  defeated  the  Birmans. 
 Shembuan  afterwards  turned  his  arms  to  the  west,  and  forced  the 
 raja  of  Cachar  to  pay  homage  to  his  power.  He  died  at  Ava,  in 
 1776,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Chenguza,  whose  tyrannnical 
 conduct  occasioned  a  conspiracy,  at  the  head  of  which  was  Shem- 
 buan Minderagee,  the  present  monarch,  younger  brother  of  the 
 deceased  Shembuan.     Chenguza  was  slain  in  I7b2. 
 
 The  southern  conquests  of  tlie  Birmans  had  already  extended 
 as  far  as  Merghi,  and  the  northern  provinces  formerly  belonging 
 to  Siam,  had  been  reduced  to  subjection  and  tribute.  Minderagee 
 determined  to  pass  the  mountains  of  Anoupec,  and  subdue  Arra- 
 can,  the  raja  or  prince  being  of  a  supine  character,  and  his  suB- 
 jecLs  unwarlike,  though  they  had  never  becri  reduced  to  pay  hom- 
 age to  any  foreign  power.  This  conquest  was  commenced  in 
 1783,  and  was  speedily  effected. 
 
 After  this  conquest  the  Birman  arms  were  again  turned  against 
 Siam,  and  in  1735  a  fiCCL  was  sent  to  subdue  the  isle  of  Junkseylon, 
 
 *  iSynieSj  i.  171. 
 
BIRMAN  EMPIRE.  537 
 
 ■which  carries  on  a  considerable  trade  in  ivory  and  tin,  and  is  the 
 only  remaining  mart  of  Siamese  trade  on  this  coast.  Meeting 
 with  a  repulse,  the  Birman  monarch  left  his  capital  at  the  head  of 
 30,000  men,  with  a  train  of  20  field  pieces  ;  but  was  defeated  by 
 the  king  of  Siam,  who  in  his  turn  failed  in  an  invasion  of  the  vice- 
 royalty  of  Martaban,  which  comprehends  Tavoy,  Merghi,  and  all 
 the  Birman  possessions  to  the  south.  In  1793  a  treaty  was  ratified 
 between  the  Birmans  and  Siamese,  by  which  the  latter  ceded  the 
 western  maritime  towns  as  far  S.  as  Merghi  inclusive.  But  with 
 this  exception,  and  that  of  some  northern  provinces,  the  Siamese 
 monarchy  retains  a  considerable  portion  of  its  ancient  fame.  Hence 
 it  appears  that  the  Birman  empire  can  scarcely  be  computed  to 
 extend  beyond  the  1 02  degree  of  longitude,  and  that  only  in  the 
 part  to  the  north  of  Siam. 
 
 Religion.^  The  Birmans  follow  the  worship  of  Hindostan,  not 
 as  votaries  of  Brahma,  but  as  disciples  of  Boodh,  which  latter  is 
 admitted  by  Hindoos  of  all  descriptions  to  be  the  ninth  Avatar,  or 
 descent  of  the  deity  in  his  capacity  of  preserver.*  The  Birmans 
 believe  in  the  transmigration  of  souls ;  after  which  the  radically 
 bad  will  be  condemned  to  lasting  punishment,  while  the  good 
 shall  enjoy  eternal  happiness  in  the  mount  Meru.  '1  hey  esteem 
 mercy  to  be  the  chief  attribute  of  the  divinity.  Of  the  religious 
 buildings  appropriated  to  the  Birman  worship,  are  temples  near 
 Rangoon,  at  Pegu,  and  Syriam. 
 
 Laivs.']  The  laws  of  the  Birmans  are  inseparable  from  their 
 i-eligion.  The  sacred  verses  or  forgeries  of  IMenu  are  illustrated 
 by  numerous  commentaries  of  the  Munis,  or  old  philosophers,  and 
 constitute  the  Dherma  Sastre,  or  body  of  laws.  Both  the  religion 
 and  laws  proceeded  originally  from  Ceylon,  and  passed  through 
 Aracan  to  Miama.  "  1  he  Birman  system  of  jurisprudence  is  re- 
 plete with  sound  morality,  and  is  distinguished  above  any  other 
 Hindoo  commentary  for  perspicuity  and  good  sense  ;  it  provides 
 specifically  for  almost  every  species  of  crime  that  can  be  committed, 
 and  adds  a  copious  chapter  of  precedents  and  decisions,  to  guide 
 the  inexperienced  in  cases  where  there  is  doubt  and  difficulty. 
 Trial  by  ordeal  and  imprecation  are  the  only  absurd  passages  in 
 the  book  ;  but  on  the  subject  of  women  it  is  to  an  European  of- 
 fensively indecent ;  like  the  immortal  Menu,  it  tells  the  prince 
 and  the  magistrate  their  duty,  in  language  austere,  manly,  and  en- 
 ergetic." 
 
 ^  GoverntneJit.']  Though  the  form  of  government  be  despotic, 
 yet  the  king  consults  a  council  of  ancient  nobles.  1  here  are  no 
 hereditary  dignities  nor  employments  ;  but  all  honours  and  offices, 
 on  the  demise  of  the  possessor,  revert  to  the  crown  The  tsalocy 
 or  chain,  is  the  badge  of  nobility,  the  number  of  strings  or  divisions 
 denoting  the  rank  of  the  person,  being  three,  six,  nine,  or  twelve, 
 while  the  king  alone  wears  twenty-four.  Rank  is  also  denoted  by 
 the  form  and  material  of  various  rrticles  in  common  use. 
 
 Pofiulation,'\     The  number  of  cities,  towns  and  villages,  in  this 
 
 Syraes  ii.3l3- 
 VOL.   li.  ^8 
 
538  BIRMAN  EMPIRE. 
 
 empire,  accord iiig  to  Col.  Symes,  is  8000.  He  states  its  popula- 
 tion at  17,000,000,  confessedly  however  the  result  of  a  very  vague 
 estimate.  Of  these  1 4,000,000  are  in  Ava  and  Pegu,  and  3,000,000 
 in  Arracan.* 
 
 Army  and  JVary.]  Every  man  in  the  empire  is  liable  to  mili- 
 tary service,  but  the  regular  army  is  very  inconsiderable.  Dur- 
 ing war  the  viceroys  raise  one  recruit  from  every  two,  three,  or 
 four  houses,  which  otherwise  pay  a  fine  of  about  jC40.t  sterling. 
 The  family  of  the  soldier  is  detained  as  hostages  ;  and  in  case  of 
 cowardice  or  desertion  suffer  death,  a  truly  tyrannic  mode  of  se- 
 curing allegiance.  The  infantry  are  not  regularly  clothed,  but 
 are  armed  with  muskets  and  sabres ;  while  the  cavalry  carry 
 spears,  about  seven  or  eight  feet  in  length.  The  royal  magazines 
 are  said  to  contain  about  20,000  indifferent  firelocks.  But  the  war 
 boats  form  the  chief  military  establishment,  consisting  of  about 
 500,  formed  out  of  the  solid  ti-unk  of  the  teak  tree,  the  length  be- 
 ing from  80  to  100  feet,  but  the  breadth  seldom  exceeding  eight. 
 They  carry  from  50  to  60  rowers,  the  prow  being  solid,  with  a  flat 
 surface,  on  which  a  piece  of  ordnance  is  mounted.  Each  rower  is 
 provided  with  a  sword  and  lance,  and  there  are  30  soldiers 
 armed  with  muskets.  The  attack  is  impetuous,  and  chiefly  con- 
 ducted by  grappling  ;  but  the  vessels  being  low  in  the  water,  the 
 greatest  danger  is  that  of  being  run  down  by  a  larger  boat  striking 
 the  broad  side.  Their  naval  actions  thus  recal  to  remembrance 
 those  of  classical  antiquity. 
 
 Revenues."^  The  revenue  arises  from  one  tenth  of  all  produce, 
 and  of  foreign  goods  imported;  but  the  amount  is  uncertain.  Yet 
 as  grants  are  commonly  made  in  land  or  offices,  and  no  money 
 leaves  the  royal  treasury  except  in  cases  of  great  emergency, 
 it  is  supposed  that  the  monarch  possesses  immense  treasures. 
 
 Potitical  Lnjiortance  and  Relations.']  The  political  importance 
 and  relations  of  the  Birman  empire  may  considerably  influence 
 the  commerce  of  the  east,  and  may  be  considered  as  a  barrier 
 against  the  ambition  of  the  Chinese,  who  might  perhaps  be  in- 
 duced to  extend  their  possessions  in  this  quarter,  and  might,  in 
 co-operation  with  the  native  princes,  endanger  the  British  posses- 
 sions in  Hindostan.  Such  is,  however,  the  superiority  of  European 
 arms,  that  this  event  is  little  to  be  apprehended.  But  if  the  Birmans, 
 as  is  not  improbable,  were  to  extend  their  authority  over  the 
 whole  of  that  part  called  India  beyond  the  Ganges,  they  might,  as 
 being  a  most  brave  and  determined  nation,  prove  dangerous  neigh- 
 bors to  the  English  possessions  in  Bengal,  especially  if  so  tar 
 advanced  in  policy  as  to  co-operate  with  the  western  princes  of 
 Hindostan.  The  temporary  disgusts  therefore  between  the  British 
 and  Chinese  ought  not  to  induce  the  former  to  forget  the  greater 
 danger  from  the  Birmans,  whose  empire  it  cannot  be  for  the  Brit- 
 ish interest  to  enlarge,  though  policy  will  prevent  their  offering 
 any  open  obstruction. 
 
 -  Manners  and  Customs.']  The  general  disposition  of  the  Birmans 
 
 is  strikingly  contrasted  with  that  of  the  Hindoos,  from  whom  they 
 
 *  llrtssel.  t  Symes,  ii.  352. 
 
BIRMAN  EMPIRE.  539 
 
 are  separated  only  by  a  narrow  range  ofmountains,  in  many  places 
 admitting  of  an  easy  intercourse.*  Notwithstanding  the  small 
 extent  of  this  barrier,  the  physical  difference  between  the  nations 
 could  scarcely  be  greater,  Had  they  been  situated  at  the  opposite 
 extremities  of  the  globe.  The  Birmans  are  a  lively,  inquisitive 
 race,  active,  irascible,  and  impatient ;  the  unworthy  passion  of 
 jealousy,  which  prompts  most  nations  of  the  east  to  immure  their 
 women  within  the  walls  of  an  haram,  and  surround  them  with 
 guards,  seems  scarcely  to  have  any  influence  over  the  minds  of 
 this  extraordinary  and  more  liberal  people.  Birman  wives  and 
 daughters  are  not  concealed  from  the  sight  of  men,  and  are  suf- 
 fered to  have  as  free  intercourse  Avith  each  other,  as  the  rules  of 
 European  society  admit ;  but  in  other  respects  women  have  just 
 reason  to  complain  of  their  treatment,  they  are  considered  as  not 
 belonging  to  the  same  scale  of  the  nation  as  men,  and  even  the 
 law  stamps  a  degrading  distinction  between  the  sexes ;  the  evi- 
 dence of  a  woman  being  not  received  as  of  equal  weight  with  that 
 of  a  man. 
 
 The  women  though  free  are  generally  too  much  occupied  in 
 the  labors  o/  the  loom  to  admit  of  infidelity,  the  offspring  of  idle- 
 ness. In  war  the  men  display  the  ferocity  of  savages,  while  in 
 peace  they  can  boast  a  considerable  degree  of  gentleness  and  civ- 
 ilization. The  Birman  year  comprises  twelve  months  of  29  or  30 
 days  alternately,  a  month  being  interposed  every  third  year.  Th^ 
 subdivision  of  the  month  is  peculiar,  as  they  number  the  days  not 
 only  from  the  new  moon,  but  from  the  full,  which  last  is  called  the 
 decreasing  moon.  They  are  fond  of  poetry  and  music,  and  among 
 their  instruments  is  the  heem,  resembling  the  ancient  pipe  of 
 Pan,  formed  of  several  reeds  neatly  joined  together,  and  sounded 
 by  a  common  mouth-piece,  so  as  to  produce  a  plaintive  melody. 
 
 Lariguage  and  Literature 7^  The  alphabet  represents  53  simple 
 sounds,  and  is  written  from  left  to  right  like  the  European.  The 
 Birman  books  are  more  neatly  executed  than  those  of  the  Hindoos, 
 and  in  every  kioul  or  monastery,  there  is  a  library  or  repository  of 
 books.  Colonel  Symes  was  surprised  at  the  number  contained  in 
 the  royal  library,  in  which  the  large  chests  amounted  to  about  1 00. t 
 The  books  were  regularly  classed,  and  the  contents  of  each  chest 
 were  written  in  gold  letters  on  the  lid. 
 
 The  study  of  the  laws  and  national  religion  must  of  course  con- 
 stitute a  considerable  branch  of  education  among  the  great  ;  that 
 of  the  poor  seems  to  be  utterly  neglected. 
 
 Cities?^  Ava,  the  ancient  capital,  has  been  permitted  to  sink 
 into  ruin  since  the  recent  foundation  of  Ummerapoora,  on  the 
 eastern  side  of  a  great  river  which  flows  into  the  Irrawady.  The 
 new  capital,  with  its  spires,  turrets,  and  lofty  piasath,  or  obelisk, 
 denoting  the  royal  presence,  seems  to  rise,  like  Venice,  from  the 
 waters,  being  placed  between  a  lake  on  the  S.  E.  and  the  large 
 river,  with  numerous  isles,  on  the  N.  W.  The  lake  is  called 
 Tounzemahn,  from  a  village  on  the  opposite   side,  ornamented 
 
 •  Symes,  ii.  383.  |  lb.  iii,  93. 
 
540  BlRMAN  EMPIRE. 
 
 •with  tall  groves  of  man^o,  palmyra,  and  cocoa  trees.  The  num- 
 ber and  sing-vilarity  of  the  boats  that  were  moored  in  the  lake,  snd 
 the  surrounding  amphitheatre  of  lofty  hills,  conspired  to  render 
 the  scene  grand  and  interesting.  The  fort  is  an  exact  square, 
 ■with  public  granaries  and  store  rooms  ;  and  there  is  a  gilded  tem- 
 ple at  each  corner,  jiearly  100  feet  in  height,  but  far  inferior  to 
 others  in  the  vicinity  of  the  capital.  In  the  centre  of  this  fort 
 stands  the  royal  palace,  with  a  wide  court  in  front,  beyond  which 
 is  the  Lotoo,  or  hall  of  council,  supported  by  77  pillars,  disposed 
 in  eleven  rows.  The  extent  and  population  of  this  city  have  not 
 been  accurately  stated,  but  are  probably  inconsiderable. 
 
 Ava,  formerly  the  capital,  is  also  styled  Aungwa,  but  is  in  a 
 state  of  ruin.  ''  The  walls  are  now  mouldering  into  decay?  ivy 
 clings  to  the  sides,  and  bushes,  suflercd  to  groAv  at  the  bottom, 
 undermine  tlie  foundation,  and  ha\c  already  caused  large  chasms 
 in  the  different  faces  of  the  fort.  The  materials  of  the  houses, 
 consisting  chiefly  of  wood,  had,  on  the  first  order  for  removing, 
 been'transported  into  the  new  city  of  Ummtrapoora :  but  the  ground, 
 unless  where  it  is  covered  with  bushes  or  rank  grass,  still  retains 
 traces  of  former  buildings  and  streets.  The  lines  of  the  royal 
 palace,  of  the  Lotoo,  or  grand  council  hall,  the  apartments  of  the 
 •women,  and  the  spot  on  which  the  piasath,  or  imperial  spire  had 
 stood,  were  pointed  out  to  us  by  our  guide.  Clumps  of  bamboos, 
 a  few  plantain  trees,  and  tall  thorns,  occupy  the  greater  part  of 
 the  area  of  this  lately  flourishing  capital.  We  observed  two 
 dwelling  houses  of  brick  and  mortar,  the  roofs  of  which  had  fallen 
 in  ;  these  our  guides  said  had  belonged  to  Colars,  or  foreigners. 
 On  entering  one  we  found  it  inhabited  only  by  bats,  which  flew 
 in  our  faces,  whilst  our  sense  of  smelling  was  offended  by  their 
 filth,  and  by  the  noisome  mildew  that  hung  upon  the  walls.  Nu- 
 merous temples,  on  which  the  Birmans  never  lay  sacrilegious 
 hands,  were  dilapidating  by  time.  It  is  impossible  to  draw  a 
 more  striking  picture  ot  desolation  and  ruin."* 
 
 Pegu,  formerly  the  capital  of  a  kingdom,  is  also  in  ruins,  having 
 been  razed  by  Alompra,  in  1757,  the  praws  or  temples  being  spar- 
 ed ;  and  of  these  the  vast  pyramid  of  Shomadoo  has  alone  been 
 reverenced,  and  kept  in  repair.  The  present  Birman  monarch 
 has  endeavored  to  conciliate  the  Taliens,  or  native  Peguese,  by 
 permitting  them  to  rebuild  their  ancient  city,  within  the  site  of 
 •which  a  new  town  has  accordingly  been  reared.  The  city  occu- 
 pies about  half  its  former  extent,  and  is  the  residence  of  the  May- 
 woon,  or  governor  cf  Pegu.  It  is  decorated  with  that  extraordi- 
 nary edifice  the  Shomadoo,  seated  on  a  double  terrace,  one  side  of 
 the  lower  being  1391  feet,  of  the  upper  €84.  The  building  is 
 composed  of  brick  and  mortar,  octagonal  at  the  base,  and  spiral 
 at  the  top,  without  any  cavity  or  aperture.  At  the  summit  is  a 
 Tee,  or  sacred  umbrella,  of  open  iron  work,  gilt,  56  feet  in  circum- 
 fei-cnce  ;  the  height  of  the  whole  being  S61  feet,  and  above  the 
 inner  terrace,   331    feet.     Tradition  bears   tli^at  it   was   founded 
 
 *  S;  roes,  ii.  270. 
 
BIRMAN  EMPIRE.  541 
 
 about  500  years  before  Christ.  A  more  complete  idea  of  this 
 very  singular  edifice  may  be  obtained  from  the  print  published  by 
 colonel  Symes,  than  any  verbal  description  can  convey. 
 
 One  of  the  chief  ports  of  the  Birman  empire  is  Rangoon,  which, 
 though  like  the  capital,  of  recent  foundation,  is  supposed  to  eon- 
 tain  30,000  souls.  Towards  the  mouth  of  the  river  Pegu,  stands 
 Sirian,  formerly  one  of  the  chief  ports  of  that  kingdom,  and  of 
 considerable  commerce  when  in  possession  of  the  Portuguese.  It 
 was  particularly  celebrated  for  the  export  of  rubies,  and  other 
 precious  stones,  which  seem,  however,  to  be  chiefly  found  in  the 
 northei-n  mountains. 
 
 Martaban  was  another  sea  port  of  considerable  eminence,  till 
 the  harbor  was  impeded  by  order  of  the  Birman  emperor.  Of 
 Tavoy  and  Merghi,  liltle  is  known  ;  but  Tanaserim  m.aintains  the 
 dignity  of  a  city. 
 
 The  grand  river  uf  Irrawady  is  bordered  vyfith  numerous  towns 
 and  villages.  Persain,  or  Bassien,  stands  on  its  western  branch. 
 At  a  considerable  distance  to  the  north  is  Prome,  celebrated  as 
 the  scene  of  many  long  sieges  and  bloody  conflicts.  The  number 
 of  inhabitants  exceeds  that  of  Rangoon.  Pagahm  is  also  a  con- 
 siderable place.  Nor  must  Aracan,  a  recent  acquisition,  be  for- 
 gotten, v/hich  is  divided  by  several  canals,  derived  from  a  river  of 
 the  same  name. 
 
 Towards  the  Chinese  frontier  are  Quangtong,  corresponding  iu 
 name  with  the  .distant  province,  called  Canton,  by  Europeans  ; 
 Bamoo,  and  in  the  county  of  Cassay,  Munnipora.  Monchaboo  is 
 a  considerable  town  to  the  north  of  the  capital. 
 
 Edijicesr\  The  most  remarkable  edifice  is  the  Shomadoo,  be- 
 fore described.  The  Kioums  are  often  of  singularly  rich  and  fan- 
 tastic architecture,  as  may  be  observed  iu  the  delineation  given 
 by  colonel  Symes ;  who  has  also  published  a  view  of  the  grand 
 hall  of  audience,  perhaps  as  splendid  an  edifice  as  can  well  be  ex- 
 ecuted in  wood.  His  reception  at  the  "  golden  feet,"  such  is  the 
 term  used  for  the  imperial  presence,  was  also  remarkably  grand, 
 the  pomp  in  some  degree  corresponding  with  that  of  the  ancient 
 Byzantine  emperors. 
 
 Inland  jYavigation.~\  Nature  has  so  ainply  provided  the  means 
 of  inland  navigation,  by  the  numerous  mouths  and  streams  of  the 
 grand  river  Irrawady,  that  additional  industry  seems  superfluous. 
 Manufaciures.~\  The  Birmans  excel  in  gilding,  and  several 
 other  ornamental  manufactures.  The  edifices  and  barges  are 
 constructed  with  singular  oriental  taste  aud  elegance  ;  and  at 
 Chagain  is  a  manufacture  of  marble  divinities,  the  material  being 
 remarkably  fine,  and  almost  transparent. 
 
 Commerce.~\  A  considerable  trade  is  carried  on  between  the 
 capital  and  Yunan,  the  nearest  province  of  China,  consisting  chief- 
 ly in  cotton,  with  amber,  ivory,  precious  stones,  and  betel  nut  ; 
 the  returns  being  raw  and  wrought  silks,  velvets,  gold  leaf,  pre- 
 serves, paper,  and  some  utensils  of  hard  ware.  Several  thousand 
 boats  are  annually  employed  in  transporting  rice  from  the  lower 
 provinces,  to  supply   Ummei  apoora,  and  the  northern  districts. 
 
$42  BIRMAN  EMPIRE. 
 
 Salt  and  gilapee,  a  kind  of  fish  sauce,  used  with  vice,  are  also  Ar- 
 ticles of  internal  commerce.  European  broad  cloth  and  liavd 
 ware,  coarse  Bencral  muslins,  China  ware,  and  glass,  are  imported 
 by  foreigners.  The  Birmans,  like  the  Chinese,  have  no  coin  ; 
 fcut  silver  in  bullion,  and  lead,  are  current. 
 
 CHAPTER  II. 
 
 NATURAL  fEOGRAPHY. 
 
 CLIMATE  AND  SEASONS,  FACE  OF     THE  COUNTRY,    RIVERS,  LAKES, 
 MOUNTAINS,  FORESTS,  BOTANY,  ZOOLOGY,  MINERALOGY,  ISLES. 
 
 Climate  and  Seasons.']  THE  vigorous  health  of  the  natives 
 attests  the  salubrity  of  the  climate,  the  seasons  being  regular,  and 
 the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  little  known. 
 
 Face  of  the  Country.]  The  face  of  the  country  affords  almost 
 every  variety,  from  the  swampy  Delta  of  the  Irrawady  to  pleasant 
 hills  and  dales,  and  considerable  ranges  of  mountains.  "  The  soil 
 of  the  southern  provinces  of  the  Birman  empire  is  remarkably 
 fertile,  and  produces  as  luxuriant  crops  of  rice  as  are  to  be  found 
 in  the  finest  pai'ts  of  Bengal.  Farther  northward  the  country  be- 
 comes irregular  and  mountainous  ;  but  the  plains  and  vallies, 
 particularly  near  the  river,  are  exceedingly  fruitful  ;  they  yield 
 good  wheat,  and  the  various  kinds  of  small  grain  which  grow  in 
 Hindostan  ;  as  likewise  legumes,  and  most  of  the  esculent  veget- 
 ables of  India.  Sugar  canes,  tobacco  of  a  superior  quality,  indi- 
 go, cotton,  and  the  different  tropical  fruits  in  perfection,  are  all 
 indigenous  products  of  this  favorite  land."*  Agriculture  seems 
 to  be  pursued  with  considerable  avidity,  but  tlie  mode  has  not  been 
 particularly  illustrated. 
 
 Rivers.]  I  he  chief  river  of  the  Birman  empire  is  the  Irrawa- 
 dy, which,  probably  passes  by  Moguang  to  Bamoo,  and  thence  by 
 Ummerapoora,  and  Prome,  towards  the  sea,  which  it  joins  by  ma- 
 ny mouths,  after  a  comparative  course  of  near  1200  British  miles. 
 The  Keen  Duem  seems  to  rise  in  the  mountains  towards  Asam,  be- 
 ing of  much  inferior  size  where  it  joins  the  Irrawady. 
 
 The  river  Sitang  is  the  next  on  the  east,  after  passing  the  small 
 yiver  of  Pegu,  but  seems  to  be  a  kind  of  remote  branch  of  the  Ir- 
 rawady. 
 
 The  Thaluan  enters  the  sea  near  Martaban,  the  length  of  its 
 course  exceeds  that  of  the  Irrawady,  though  not  being  fed  by  such 
 numerous  streams,  it  cannot  equal  it  in  size.  The  river  of  Siam, 
 or  Maygue,  also  pervades  a  part  of  the  Birman  territory.  The 
 geography  of  all  these  rivers  remains  imperfect. 
 
 Moujitains,]  It  is  probable  that  the  highest  range  of  mountains 
 is  on  the  frontiers  of  Tibet.     The  other  ranges  are  delineated  ais 
 
 *  Symcs,  ii.  572. 
 
BIRMAN  EMPIRE.  543 
 
 passing  N.  and  S.,  but  the  names  are  not  indicated,  except  those 
 of  Anoupec,  between  Ava  and  Arracan,and  a  small  range  running 
 E.  and  W.,  which  supplies  the  sources  of  the  river  of  Pegu. 
 
 Forests.^  The  forests  are  large  and  numerous,  many  parts  re- 
 maining in  a  state  of  nature.  They  supply  almost  every  descrip- 
 tion of  timber  that  is  known  in  Hindostan;  and,  about  four  days 
 journey  to  the  N.  of  the  capital,  firs  grow  in  abundance.  But  the 
 lord  of  the  Birman  forest  is  the  teak  tree,  superior  to  the  Euro- 
 pean oak,  which  is  thei*e  unknown :  the  teak  flourishes  in  many 
 parts  of  the  empire,  to  the  N.  of  the  capital  as  well  as  to  the  S. 
 
 Botamj.']  All  the  countries  that  compose  the  rich  and  exten- 
 sive territory  of  India  beyond  the  Ganges,  including  the  Birman 
 empire,  and  the  dominions  of  Pegu,  Siam,  Cambodia,  Cochin- 
 Chir*.  and  Malacca,  bear  such  a  similarity  to  each  other  in  their 
 vegetable  productions  as  far  as  they  have  been  investigated,  as 
 renders  it  impossible  to  give  a  generjal  and  separate  view  of  their 
 respective  floras  without  continual  repetitions.  Certain  districts 
 also  in  farther  India  have  been  examined  with  considerable  atten- 
 tion, while  others  similarly  situated  have  remained  almost  wholly 
 overlooked  :  it  is  only  therefore  from  analogy  (a  highly  pi'obable 
 one  indeed)  that  we  can  conjectui'e  the  most  characteristic  species 
 of  their  indigenous  plants.  The  mountains  of  the  interior,  and  \n 
 general  the  whole  northern  frontier,  are  still  totally  unexplored, 
 and  the  deep  forests  infested  with  tigers,  must  ever  continue,  even 
 in  the  moi^  accessible  parts,  to  oppose  no  trifling  obstacles  to  the 
 spirit  of  scientific  adventure. 
 
 It  is  in  those  parts  of  the  torrid  zone  that  abound  with  water, 
 and  where,  from  the  influence  of  the  monsoons,  the  country  is  ex- 
 tensively flooded  every  year,  that  vegetation  assumes  a  vigor  and 
 sublimity  wholly  inconceivable  by  the  native  of  more  temperate 
 climates  :  everlasting  verdure,  grace,  and  majesty  of  form,  height 
 and  amplitude  of  growth,  are  the  distinguishing  attributes  of  their 
 trees,  compared  Avith  which  the  monarchs  of  our  forests  sink  into 
 vegetables  of  an  inferior  order  :  the  same  exuberance  of  nature 
 is  conspicuous  in  their  shrubs  and  herbaceous  plants,  in  their  blos- 
 soms and  their  fruits,  whose  vivid  brilliancy  of  color,  sing-ularity 
 of  shape,  aromatic  fragrance,  and  exalted  flavor,  reduce  to  rela- 
 tive insignificance  the  puny  produce  of  European  summers. 
 
 Here  rises  in  proud  magnificence  the  white  sandal  tree,  whose 
 fragrant  wood  is  in  high  request  through  the  whole  east  for  the 
 grateful  odour  of  its  smoke.  The  teak  tree  (tectona  theca)  is  at 
 least  equal  even  to  British  oak  as  a  durable  material  for  ship- 
 building  :  the  true  jet  black  ebony  wood  is  the  produce  of  one  of 
 the  indigenious  trees  of  Cochin  China.  The  sycamore  fig,  the 
 Indian  fig,  and  the  banyan  tree,  itself  a  grove,  by  the  breadth  of 
 their  leaves  and  the  luxuriance  of  their  foilage,  afi'ord  a  most  de- 
 licious shelter,  impenetrable  even  by  the  meridian  ardor  of  an  In- 
 dian sun. 
 
 Of  the  plants  that  are  used  in  medicine  or  the  arts  some  of  the 
 most  important  are  natives  of  farther  India  :  the  nature  of  this 
 work  does  not  admit  of  specifying  the  whole,  but  those  of  most 
 
544.  BIRMAN  EMPIRE. 
 
 consequence  are  the  following.  The  ginger  and  cardamon,  two 
 pleasant  aromatics,  are  found  wild  on  the  river  sides,  but  are  also 
 cultivated  in  great  abundance  ;  the  turmeric,  whose  principal  use 
 in  Europe  is  as  a  dying  drug,  is  largely  used  by  the  natives  of 
 the  coast  to  tinge  and  flavor  their  rice  and  other  food  :  the  leaves 
 of  the  betel  pepper,  with  the  fruit  of  the  black  and  long  pepper, 
 are  the  most  favorite  of  their  native  spices,  to  which  may  also  be 
 added  three  or  four  kinds  of  capsicum.  The  cinnamon  laurel 
 grows  in  abundance  on  each  side  of  the  Malayan  peninsula,  and. 
 sometimes,  as  it  is  said,  accompanied  by  the  nutmeg.  The  su- 
 gar cane,  the  bamboo,  and  the  spikenard,  the  three  most  cele- 
 brated plants  of  the  grass  tribe,  are  found  throughout  the  whole 
 country  ;  the  two  former  in  rich  SAvamps,  and  the  latter  on  dry  hills. 
 The  sweet  potatoe,  mad  apple  and  loveapplc,  gourds,  melo"^,  wa- 
 ter melons,  and  a  profusion  of  other  esculent  plants,  enrich  tnis  fa- 
 vored country  ;  all  these  hov/cver  require  cultivation  :  but  the  plan- 
 tain, the  cocoa  nut,  the  sago  palm,  furnished  by  the  free  unstinted 
 bounty  of  nature,  contribute  most  plentifully  to  satisfy  the  wants 
 of  the  inhabitants.  Of  native  fruits  they  possess  a  vast  variety 
 and  an  inexhaustible  abundance.  The  vine  grows  wild  in  the 
 forests,  but  from  excessive  heat  and  want  of  cultivation  its  fruit 
 is  far  inferior  to  that  of  the  south  of  Europe  :  to  compensate  how- 
 ever for  this  deficiency,  they  have  the  luscious  mango,  the  pine 
 apple,  the  sapindus  edulis  (the  li-tschi  of  the  Chinese,)  the  man- 
 gosteen  plum,  the  custard  apple,  the  papaw  fig,  the  orange,  the 
 lemon  and  lime,  and  a  multitude  of  other  exquisite  fruits,  whose 
 very  names  are  scarcely  known  in  Europe. 
 
 Zoology.^  The  animals  in  general  correspond  with  those  of 
 Hindostan.  Elephants  principa.ily  abound  in  Pegu.  The  horses 
 are  small,  but  spirited.  A  kind  of  wild  fowl  called  the  henza,  and 
 by  the  Hindoos  the  braminy  goose,  has  been  adopted  as  the  symbol 
 of  the  empire,  like  the  Roman  eagle. 
 
 Mineralogy.'^  The  mineralogy  of  this  region,  the  Golden  Cher- 
 sonese of  the  ancients,  is  rich,  and  some  products  rather  singu- 
 lar. While  Malacca,  which  has  hitherto  been  supposed  the 
 Golden  Chersonese,  scarcely  produces  any  mineral,  except  tin, 
 and  is  in  truth  a  poor  country,  celebrated  chiefly  as  an  emporium 
 of  Portuguese  trade  with  China  ;  the  rivers  of  Pegu,  on  the  con- 
 trary, still  continue  to  devolve  particles  of  gold  ;  and  their  sands 
 must  in  ancient  times  have  been  yet  more  prolific  of  that  precious 
 metal.  Nor  is  it  improbable  that  the  practice  of  gilding  the  roofs 
 and  spires  of  temples  and  palaces  is  very  ancient,  as  we  are  told 
 that  the  Shomadoo  was  built  about  500  years  before  the  Christian 
 era  ;  in  which  case  the  splendid  appearance  might  natuially  give 
 rise  to  the  classical  appellation  of  the  country.  In  many  regions 
 gold  is  found  intermingled  with  silver;  and  six  days  journey 
 from  Bamoo  (probably  towards  the  north)  there  arc  mines  of  gold 
 and  silver  at  Badoucm,  near  the  frontiers  of  China.  By  a  singu- 
 lar conjunction,  there  are,  according  to  the  same  authority,  mines 
 of  gold,  silver,  rubies,  and  sapphires,  at  present  open  on  a  mouRr- 
 tain  called  Wooboloo-taun,  near  the  river  Keen  Duem. 
 
MALA.YA,  OR  MALACCA,  545 
 
 There  is  also  abundance  of  inferior  minerals,  as  tin,  iron,  lead, 
 antimony,  arsenic,  and  sulphur ;  and  amber,  a  rare  and  singular 
 product,  is  not  only  dug  up  in  large  quantities  near  the  river  Irra- 
 wady,  but  is  uncommonly  pure  and  pellucid. 
 
 The  most  singular  product  of  Pegu  is  the  ruby,  a  stone  next  to 
 the  diamond  in  value,  and  which  is  found  in  a  mountain  between 
 Sirian  and  Pegu,  this  substance  being  almost  as  peculiar  as  the 
 diamond  is  to  Hindostan.  Rubies  and  sapphires  are  also  found 
 in  the  north  western  part  of  the  empire  ;  but  the  most  valuable 
 mines  are  in  the  vicinity  of  the  capital,  or  rather  about  30  miles  to 
 the  north. 
 
 MALAYA,  OR  MALACCA. 
 
 PROGRESSIVE  GEOGRAPHY,  NAME  AND  EXTENT,  LANGUAGE,  PRO- 
 DUCTS, CITY  OF  MALACCA,  GENERAL  REMARKS  ON  THE  MA- 
 LAYS, ISLES  OF  ANDAMAN  AND  NJCOBAR. 
 
 THE  peninsula  appended  to  theBirman  territories  on 
 the  south  is  styled  Malaya  or  Malacca. 
 
 Progressive  Geografihy.~\  This  Chersonese  was  certainly  un- 
 known to  the  ancients,  and  seems  to  have  escaped  the  knowledge 
 of  Marco  Polo,  if  this  be  not  his  Maletur,  where  he  says  there 
 was  abundance  of  spices,  and  the  natives  had  a  proper  and  pecu- 
 liar speech. 
 
 However  this  be,  the  Portuguese  are  regarded  as  the  first  dis- 
 coverers of  Malacca  in  1509,  to  which  they  were  led  by  the  vain 
 idea  of  finding  the  golden  Chersonese  of  the  ancients.  In  1511 
 the  Portuguese  conqviei'cd  the  peninsula. 
 
 J^amcr^  The  name  is  derived  from  the  Malaya,  who  are  most- 
 ly Mahometans,  and  in  some  degree  civilized  ;  but  the  inland 
 parts  seem  to  be  possessed  by  a  more  rude  native  race,  little 
 known  amidst  the  imperfection  of  materials  concerning  this  coun- 
 try. The  northern  limits  are  not  strictly  defined ;  but  Malacca 
 is  about  8°,  or  near  560  miles  in  length,  by  about  150  miles  of  me- 
 dial breadth,  a  territory  sufficiently  ample  for  a  powerful  mon- 
 archy, had  its  native  productions  corresponded  with  its  extent. 
 
 Language.'^  The  Malayan  language  has  been  called  the  Ital- 
 ian of  the  east,  from  the  melody  of  frequent  vowels  and  liquids. 
 
 The  Arabic  character  is  made  use  of  ;  and  an  influx  of  words  of 
 that  language  has  followed  the  adoption  of  the  Mahometan  reli- 
 gion. They  write  on  paper,  using  ink  of  their  own  composition, 
 and  pens  made  of  the  twigs  of  a  tree.  The  purest  Malay  is  still 
 supposed  to  be  spoken  in  the  peninsula,  and  has  no  inflexion  of 
 nouns  or  verbs. 
 
 Divisions.']     Malacca  is  represented  as  divided  into  the  king* 
 
 VOL.    II.  69 
 
546  MALAYA,  OR  MALACCA. 
 
 dom  of  Patani  in  ihe  north,  and  that  of  Yohor  or  Jor  occupyuig  the  " 
 southern  extremity   of  the  peninsula,  the  chief  towns  being  Batu- 
 saber  the  capital,  Linga,  Bintam,  and  Carimon. 
 
 Products.~\  The  inland  parts  of  the  Malayan  peninsula 
 seems  to  re«i;ain  full  of  extensive  aboriginal  forests  ;  nor  do  the  an- 
 cient or  modern  maps  indicate  any  towns  or  villages  in  these  parts. 
 The  indolence  of  the  inhabitants  has  prevented  the  country  from 
 being  explored  ;  but  it  produces  pepper,  and  other  spices,  with 
 some  precious  gums  and  woods.  The  wild  elephants  supply 
 abundance  of  ivory ;  but  tlie  tin,  the  only  mineral  mentioned,  may 
 'perhaps  be  the  produce  of  Banka. 
 
 The  city  of  Malacca,  which  seems  to  have  been  founded  by  Ma- 
 hometans in  the  thirteenth  century,  Avas  held  by  the  Portuguese 
 till  1 641,  when  it  was  seized  by  the  Dutch.  It  was  considered  as 
 situated  in  the  southern  kingdom  of  Yohor  ;  and  in  the  last  cen- 
 tury was  supposed  to  contain  12,000  inhabitants,  of  which  how- 
 ever only  3000  dwelt  within  the  walls.  Not  above  300  were  na- 
 tive Portuguese,  the  others  being  a  mixed  race  of  Mahometan 
 Malays,  accounted  among  the  chief  merchants  of  the  east.  The 
 Portuguese  settlement  did  not  extend  above  five  leagues  around  ; 
 vet  became  highly  important  from  its  advantageous  position  for 
 Indian  and  Chinese  comn(\erce.* 
 
 The  disgraceful  jealousy  of  the  Dutch  concerning  their  oriental 
 possessions  renders  the  recent  accounts  of  this  city  imperfect. 
 
 In  general  the  Malays  are  a  well  made  people,  though  rather 
 below  the  middle  stature,  their  limbs  well  shaped,  but  small,  and 
 particularly  slender,  at  the  wrists  and  ancles.  Their  complexion 
 is  tawney,  their  eyes  large,  their  noses  seem  rather  flattened  by  art 
 than  nature  ;  and  their  hair  is  very  long,  black,  and  shining. 
 
 Besides  the  tiger  and  elephant,  Malacca  produces  the  civet  cat 
 described  by  Sonncrat,  who  also  mentions  that  wild  men  are 
 found  in  this  .peninsula,  perhaps  the  noted  Orang  Outang. 
 
 They  are  restless,  fond  of  navigation,  war,  plunder,  emigrations, 
 colonies,  desperate  enterprizes,  adventures,  and  gallantry.  They 
 talk  incessantly  of  their  honor  and  their  bravery,  whilst  they  are 
 universally  considered  by  those  with  whom  they  have  intercourse, 
 as  the  most  treacherous,  fei'ocious  people  on  the  globe  ;  and  yet, 
 they  speak  the  softest  language  of  Asia. 
 
 This  ferocity  is  so  well  known  to  the  European  companies,  who 
 have  settlements  in  the  Indies,  that  they  have  universally  agreed 
 in  prohibiting  the  captains  of  their  ships,  who  may  put  into  the 
 Malay  islands,  from  taking  on  board  any  seamen  of  that  nation, 
 except  in  the  greatest  distress,  and  then  on  no  account  to.  exceed 
 two  or  three. 
 
 It  is  nothing  uncommon  for  a  handful  of  these  savages  suddenly 
 to  embark,  attack  a  vessel  by  surpvize,  poniard  in  hand,  massacre 
 the  people,  and  make  themselves  masters  of  her.  Malay  barks, 
 with  25  or  30  men,  have  been  known  to  board  European  ships 
 of  30  or  40  guns,  in  order  to  take  possession  of  them,  and  murder 
 
 •  Mandelslo,  i.  Col.  337. 
 
SI  AM.  54r 
 
 with  their  poniards  g'reat  part  of  the  crew.  The  Malay  history  is 
 full  of  such  enterprizes,  which  mark  the  desperate  ferocity  of 
 these  barbarians. 
 
 Opposite  to  the  coast  of  Malacca,  though  at  a  considerable  dis- 
 tance, are  the  islands  of  Andaman  and  of  Nicobar.  The  great 
 Andaman  is  about  140  miles  in  length,  but  not  more  than  20  in 
 the  greatest  breadth,  indented  by  deep  bays  affording  excellent 
 harbors,  and  intersected  by  vast  inlets  and  creeks,  one  of  which, 
 navigable  for  small  vessels,  passes  quite  through  the  isle.*  The 
 soil  is  chiefly  black  mould,  the  cliffs  of  a  white  arenaceous  stone. 
 The  extensive  forests  afford  some  precious  trees,  as  ebony,  and 
 the  Nicobar  bread  fruit.  The  only  quadrupeds  seem  to  be  wild 
 hogs,  monkeys,  and  rats.  The  sea  supplies  numerous  fish,  and 
 excellent  oysters.  The  people  of  the  Andamans.  are  as  little 
 civilized  as  any  in  the  world,  and  are  probably  cannibals.  They 
 have  woolly  heads,  and  perfectly  resemble  negroes.  Their  char- 
 acter is  truly  brutal,  insidious,  and  ferocious,  and  their  canoes  of 
 the  rudest  kind.  On  Barren  isle,  about  15  leagues  east  of  the 
 Andamans,  is  a  violent  volcano,  which  emits  showers  of  red  hot 
 stones  ;  and  the  whole  island  has  a  singular  and  volcanic  appear- 
 ance. A  British  settlement  has  been  recently  formed  on  the 
 Greater  Andaman,  and  some  convicts  sent  thither  from  Bengal. 
 The  natives,  about  2000,  have  already  profited  by  the  example  of 
 English  industry. 
 
 The  Nicobars  are  three  ;  the  largest  being  about  five  leagues 
 in  circumference.!  They  produce  cocoa  and  areca  trees,  with 
 yams  and  sweet  potatoes  ;  and  the  eatable  bird's  nests,  so  highly 
 esteemed  in  China,  abound  here  as  well  as  in  the  Andamans. 
 The  people  are  of  a  copper  colcur,  with  small  oblique  eyes  and 
 other  Tartar  features.  In  their  dress  a  small  stripe  of  cloth 
 hangs  down  behind  ;  and  hence  the  ignorant  tales  of  seamen, 
 which  led  even  Linnaeus  to  infer,  that  some  kind  of  meiT  had  tails. 
 The  only  quadrupeds  are  swine  and  dogs.  The  traffic  is  in  cocoa 
 nuts,  of  which  one  hundred  are  given  for  a  yard  of  blue  cloth.    ' 
 
 SIAM. 
 
 CHAPTER  I. 
 
 HISTORICAL  GEOGRxVPHY, 
 
 KAME,  EXTENT,  BOUNDARIES,  ORIGINAL  POPULATION,  PROGRES- 
 SIVE GEOGRAPHY,  HISTORICAL  EPOCHS,  RELIGION,  GOVERN- 
 MENT, LAWS,  POPULATION,  ARMY,  NAVY,  REVENUES,  POLITICAL 
 IMPORTANCE,  MANNERS,  LANGUAGE,  LITERATURE,  CITIES, 
 EDIFICES.  MANUEACTURES,  COMMERCE. 
 
 TILL  the  recent  extension  of  the  Birman  empire,  the 
 rich  and  flourishing  monarchy  of  Siam  was  to  be  regarded  as  the 
 
 »  As.  Res.iv.  385.  f  't'jid- "»•  149« 
 
548  SIAM. 
 
 chief  state  of  exterior  India,     This  kingdom,  with  Malacca,  con- 
 tains, according  to  Hassel,  about  143,000  square  miles. 
 
 J\i''anie.'\  The  name  of  this  celebrated  country  is  of  uncertain 
 origin,  and  in  appearance  first  delivered  by  the  Portuguese,in  whose 
 orthography  Siam  and  Siao  are  the  same,  so  that  Sian,  or  Siang, 
 might  be  preferable  to  Siam  ;*  and  the  Portuguese  wi'iters  in 
 Latin  call  the  natives  Siones.  The  Siamese  style  themselves  Tai, 
 or  freemen ;  and  their  country  Menang  Tai.,  or  the  kingdom  ot 
 freemen.  It  is  probable  that  the  Portuguese  derived  the  name 
 Sian  from  intercourse  with  the  Peguese.f 
 
 Extent  and  Boundaries^  The  extent  of  the  Siamese  doininions 
 has  been  recently  restricted  by  the  encroachments  of  the  Birmans, 
 nor  can  some  of  the  limits  be  accurately  defined.  On  the  west  of 
 the  Malaian  peninsula  a  few  possessions  may  remain,  to  the  south 
 of  Tariaserim  ;  and  on  the  eastern  side  of  that  Chersonese  Ligor 
 may  mark  the  boundary.  On  the  west  a  chain  of  mountains  seems 
 to  divide  Siam,  as  formerly,  from  Pegu, — but  the  northern  prov- 
 ince of  Yunshan  would  appear  to  be  in  the  hands  of  the  Birmans, 
 who  Itere  seem  to  extend  to  the  river  Maykang.  To  the  south 
 and  east  the  ancient  boundaries  are  fixed  ;  the  ocean,  and  a  chain 
 of  mountains,  dividing  Siam  from  Laos  and  Cambodia.  Thus  the 
 ancient  idea  may  be  retained,  that  this  kingdom  is  a  large  vale  be- 
 tween two  ridges  of  mountains. 
 
 The  length  of  the  kingdom  may  be  about  ten  degrees,  or  near 
 700  British  miles  :  but  of  this  about  one  half  is  not  above  70  miles 
 in  medial  breadth. 
 
 Original  Population.'^  The  original  population  of  Siam,  and 
 other  regions  of  exterior  India,  can  only  be  traced  by  affinity 
 of  language  :  and  the  topic  has  been  little  illustrated. 
 
 Progressive  Geograjihy.^^  The  progressive  geography  of  Siam 
 ascends  to  classical  antiquity,  if  the  people  be,  as  is  resonably  in- 
 ferred, tliie  Sina;  of  Ptolemy.  In  the  reign  of  the  emperor  Justin- 
 ian, Cosmas,  called  Indicopleustes,  mentions  the  silk  of  the  Sinse, 
 as  imported  into  Taprobana;  which  he  also  calls  Sielediva,  coin- 
 ciding with  Selendib,  the  oriental  name  of  Ceylon :  and  when  he 
 adds  that  this  isle  was  at  an  equal  distance  from  the  Persian  gulf, 
 and  the  region  of  the  Sinse,  he  affords  an  additional  proof  that  the  lat- 
 ter was  Siam.  This  country  is  not  indeed  at  present  remarkable  for 
 the  production  of  silk,  the  staple  article  of  the  ancient  Sinae  ;  but  it 
 appears  that  the  silk  of  the  early  classics  was  the  growth  of  a  tree, 
 a  kind  of  silky  cotton,  still  abundant  in  Siam ;  and  perhaps,  as 
 Malacca  afterwards  became  famous  for  products  not  its  own,  so 
 Siam,  in  a  similar  centrical  position  between  China  and  Hindostan, 
 might,  in  ancient  times,  be  the  mart  of  this  and  other  more  oriental 
 articles. 
 
 Some  faint  notices  concerning  Siam  may  probably  occur  in  the 
 oriental  geographers  of  the  middle  ages ;  but  such  inquiries  are 
 more  proper  for  an  antiquarian  dissertation.     Suffice  it  to  observe 
 
 *  Louhere,  i.  If),  edit.  Amsf.  1714. 
 
 I  S/ian  h  the  ojit-iitul  tejin,  as  ^])iie:irs  fiora  several  iKiiJers  in  the  Atiatic  Kc- 
 searclii's. 
 
SI  AM.  549 
 
 tTiat,  till  the  Portuguese  discoveries,  Siam  may  be  said  to  have  re- 
 mained unknown  to  Europeans.  In  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth 
 century  Mandelslo*  has  compiled  a  tolerable  account  of  this 
 country;  but  the  French  descriptions  present  more  precision  of 
 knowledge,  as  well  as  more  extent  of  information.  By  the  latter 
 was  reformed  a  singular  error  in  the  geography,  which  deduced 
 the  great  rivers  of  Ava,  Pegu,  and  Siam  from  a  large  inland  lake, 
 called  Chiamai,  in  lat.  SO,  while  Tibet  is  placed  in  hit.  40.  But  on 
 comparing  the  maps  of  Asia  in  the  beginning  of  last  century,  the 
 reader  will  be  sensible  of  the  great  progress  of  geography  in  re- 
 cent times. 
 
 Histo7-ical  E/iochs.']  The  Siamese  history  is  imperfect,  and 
 abounds  with  fables.  By  Loubere's  account  their  first  king  began 
 to  reign  i^  the  year  1300  of  their  epoch,  or  about  756  years  after 
 the  Christian  era.  Wars  with  Pegu,  and  occasional  usurpations 
 of  the  throne,  constitute  the  hinges  of  Siamese  history  siljce  the 
 Portuguese  discovery.  In  1568  the  Peguese  king  declared  war  on 
 account  of  two  white  elephants,  which  the  Siamese  refused  to  sur- 
 render, and  after  px-odigious  slaughter  on  both  sides,  Siam  became 
 tributary  to  Pegu.  But  about  1 620,  Raja  Hapi  delivered  his  ci'own 
 from  this  servitude.t  In  1630,  Phalcon,  a  Greek  adventurer,  be- 
 ing highly  favored  by  the  king  of  Siam,  opened  an  intercourse 
 with  France,  in  the  view  of  supporting  his  ambitious  designs  ;  but 
 they  were  punished  by\his  decapitation  in  1 689,  and  the  French  con- 
 nexion ceased  in  censequence.  The  latter  events  of  Siamese 
 history  may  partly  be  traced  in  that  of  the  Birman  empire.  In 
 1775,  Siam  regained  its  freedom,  having  lost  much  of  its  former 
 grandeur.^: 
 
 Religion.']  The  religion  of  the  Siamese,  like  that  of  the  Bir- 
 mans,  resembles  that  of  the  Hindoos  ;  and  the  transmigration  of 
 souls  forms  an  essential  part  of  their  doctrine  ;  but  they  imitate 
 the  Chinese  in  their  festival  of  the  dead,  and  in  some  other  rites 
 of  that  singular  nation. 
 
 Govcrmnent.']  The  government  of  Siam  is  despotic  ;  and  the 
 sovereign,  as  among  the  Birmans,  revered  with  honors  almost  di- 
 vine.    The  succession  to  the  crown  is  hereditary  in  the  male  line. 
 
 Laws.]  The  laws  are  represented  by  all  writers  on  this  country 
 as  extremely  severe,  death  or  mutilation  being  punishments  even 
 of  unimportant  offences. 
 
 Fo^iuUition.]  Concerning  the  population  of  Siam  there  are  no 
 adequate  documents.  If  the  Birman  empire  contain,  as  is  assert- 
 ed, more  than  fourteen  millions,  it  might  perhaps  be  rcsonable  to 
 conclude  that  the  Siamese  dominions  may  be  peopled  by  about 
 eight  millions.  Yet  Loubere  assures  us,  that  from  actual  enume- 
 ration, there  were  only  found  of  men,  women,  and  children, 
 1,900,000.§  This  last  estimate  corresponds  with  that  of  Bruns. 
 So  uncertain  are  the  computations  in  oriental  countries  ! 
 
 Army.]  Loubere  says  that,  in  his  time,  there  was  no  army  ex- 
 cept a  few  royal  guards ;  but  Mandelslo  estimated  the  army,  which 
 
 *  Col.  304 — 331.        f  Mandelslo,  522.        +  Ilassel.  §  Mandelslo,  i.  30. 
 
550  SI  AM. 
 
 may  be  occasionally  raised,  at  60,000,  -vrith  not  less  than  3000  or 
 4000  elephants.  The  manner  of  raising  this  army  resembles  that 
 already  described,  as  practised  in  the  Birman  empire. 
 
 .Aarv-l  The  navy  is  composed  of  a  number^f  vessels  of  va- 
 rious sizes,  some  of  which  are  richly  decorated.  Hence,  as  in  the 
 Birman  history,  naval  engagements  are  not  uncommon ;  and  the 
 large  rivers  of  exterior  India  are  often  reddened  with  human  gore. 
 Both  the  Birman  and  Siamese  vessels  frequently  display  a  singu- 
 lar, fantastic  elegance. 
 
 Mez-enues.^  The  revenues  of  this  sovereignty  are  of  uncertain 
 computation.  There  is  a  royal  treasury,  as  in  most  other  eastern 
 states,  but  voyagers  have  not  attempted  to  define  its  probable 
 amount- 
 
 Pz'.iiical  Imfiortance  and  Relations. ~\  'Siam  appeared  of  consid- 
 erable political  importance  to  the  French  in  the  reign  of  Louis 
 the  XIV.,  who  aspired  to  form  lasting  settlements,  and  render  it 
 a  mart  of  Indian  commerce,  and  a  source  of  great  opulence  to 
 themselves.  Were  the  Birmans  to  become  dangerous  to  the  Brit- 
 ish possessions  in  Bengal,  a  firm  alliance  with  Siam  might  be 
 highly  serviceable  to  that  nation.  In  a  merely  commercial  pK)int 
 of  view,  as  it  may  be  difficult  to  preserve  the  frendship  both  of  the 
 Birmans  and  the  Siamese,  it  is  matter  of  calculation  from  which 
 state  superior  advantages  may  be  derived. 
 
 Manners  and  Cu-itoTngTl  There  is  a  considerable  similitude  in 
 the  manners  and  custom^s  of  all  the  states  between  the  vast  coun- 
 tries of  China  and  Hindostan  ;  with  shades  of  difference,  as  they 
 approximate  to  either  of  these  foci  of  civilization.  Siam,  though 
 centrical,  has  embraced  a  branch  of  Hindoo  faith,  and  the  manners 
 are  rather  Hindostanic  than  Chinese. 
 
 The  women  are  under  few  restraints,  and  are  married  at  an  ear- 
 Iv  age.  The  espousals  are  concluded  by  female  mediation  ;  and 
 on  the  third  visit  the  parties  are  considered  as  wedded,  after  the 
 exchange  of  a  few  presents,  without  any  farther  ceremony,  civil 
 or  religious.  Polygamy  is  allowed  ;  and  one  wife  is  always  ac- 
 knowledged as  supreme. 
 
 The  Siamese  funerals  considerably  resemble  those  of  the  Chi- 
 nese." The  body  is  enclosed  in  a  wooden  bier,  or  varnished  cof- 
 fin ;  and  the  monks,  called  Talapoius,  ^^^perhaps  from  their  talepan^ 
 or  peculiar  umbrella.''  sing  hymns  in  the  Bali  tongue.  After  a 
 solem.n  procession  the  body  is  burnt  on  a  funeral  pile  of  precious 
 woods,  erected  near  some  temple  ;  and  tlie  spectacle  is  often  ren- 
 dered more  magnificent  by  the  addition  of  theatrical  exhibitions. 
 The  tombs  are  in  a  pyramidal  form,  and  those  of  the  kings  large 
 and  lofty.  Mourning  is  not  prescribed  by  the  laws,  as  in  China  : 
 and  the  poor  are  buried  with  little  ceremony. 
 
 The  common  nourishment  of  the  Siamese  consists  in  rice  and 
 fish,  both  which  articles  are  abundant-  They  also  eat  lizards, 
 rats,  and  several  kinds  of  insects. 
 
 The  houses  are  small,  and  constmcted  of  bamboos,  up)on  pillars, 
 to  guard  against  inundations,  which  are   common  ui  this  country. 
 
 *  Louiere,  L  orL  • 
 
SIAM.  551 
 
 They  are  speedily  destroyed  and  replaced  ;  and  a  conflagration, 
 if  a  common,  is  at  the  same  time  a  slight,  calamity.  Even  the 
 palaces  only  exceed  the  common  habitations  by  occupying  a  more 
 extensive  space,  and  being  constructed  of  timber,  with  a  few  or- 
 naments :  they  are  also  of  a  greater  height,  but  never  exceed  one 
 floor. 
 
 In  person  the  Siamese  are  rather  small,  but  well  made.*  "  The 
 figure  of  the  countenance,  both  of  men  and  women,  has  less  of  the 
 oval  than  of  the  lozenge  form,  being  broad,  and  raised  at  the  top 
 of  the  cheeks  :  and  the  forehead  suddenly  contracts,  and  is  al- 
 most as  pointed  as  the  chin.  Besides,  their  eyes  rising  somewhat 
 towards  the  temples,  are  small,  and  dull :  and  the  ivhite  is  com- 
 monly completely  yellow.  Their  cheeks  are  hollow,  because  the 
 upper  part  is  too  high  ;  the  inouth  is  very  large,  with  thick  pale 
 lips,  and  teeth  blackened  by  art.  The  complexion  is  coarse,  be- 
 ing brown,  mixed  with  red,  to  which  the  climate  greatly  contrib- 
 \ites."t 
 
 Hence  it  would  appear  that  the  Siamese  are  much  inferior  in 
 personal  appearance  to  the  Birmans  ;  and  rather  approach  to  the 
 Tartaric  or  Chinese  features. 
 
 The  dress  is  very  slight,  the  warmth  of  the  climate  rendering 
 clothes  almost  unnecessary. 
 
 The  Siamese  excel  in  theatrical  amusements.  The  subjects 
 are  often  taken  from  their  mythology,  and  from  traditions  con- 
 eerning  their  ancient  heroes.  They  have  also  races  of  oxen,  and 
 those  of  boats,  combats  of  elephants,  cock-fighting,  tumbling, 
 wrestling,  and  rope-dancing,  religious  processions,  and  illumina- 
 tions, and  beautiful  exhibitions  of  fire-works-  The  men  are  gen- 
 erally indolent  to  excess,  and  fond  of  games  of  chance,  while  the 
 women  are  employed  in  works  of  industry. 
 
 Language.~\  Like  the  other  languages  of  farther  India,  the  Si- 
 amese has  not  been  completely  investigated,  and  compared  with 
 the  adjacent  tongues.  There  are  thirty-seven  letters,  all  conso- 
 nants ;  the  vowels  and  diphthongs  constituting  a  distinct  alpha- 
 bet. The  R  appears,  which  is  not  known  to  the  Chinese,  and  the 
 W.  There  is  a  considerable  chant  in  the  enunciation,  as  in  other 
 ancient  languages.  There  are  no  inflexions  of  verbs  or  nouns  ; 
 and  the  idioms  being  very  remote  from  those  of  Europe,  any 
 translation  becomes  very  difficult.  The  words  seem  mostly  mon- 
 osyllabic, like  the  Chinese. 
 
 The  Bali  of  the  Siamese  resembles  that  of  the  Birmans,  and  has 
 thirty-three  letters. 
 
 Literature.']  In  literature  the  Siamese  are  far  from  being  de- 
 ficient, and  Loubere  has  well  explained  their  modes  of  education. | 
 At  the  age  of  seven  or  eight  years  the  children  are  often  placed 
 in  the  convents  of  the  Talapoins,  where  they  are  instructed  in 
 reading,  writing,  and  accompts  ;  for  the  mercantile  profession  is 
 very  general.     They  are  also  taught  precepts  of  morality  :  but  it 
 
 •  Loub.  i.81. 
 
 t  Kampfer,  i.  29,  calls  tliera  negroes,  so  dark  did  their  complexion  appear  to  hiai  ; 
 and  he  compares  their  persons  lo  apes. 
 \  i.  180. 
 
552  SIAM. 
 
 is  to  be  i-egretted  that  BooJh  is  not  only  the  god  of  wisdom,  but  of 
 cunning,  which  is  esteemed,  if  not  a  positive  virtue,  yet  a  proof  of 
 superior  abilities.  Books  of  history  are  not  unknown,  and  there 
 is  an  excclleent  code  of  laws.  Poetry,  tales,  and  mythologic  fa- 
 bles, seem  to  constitute  the  other  departments  of  Siamese  litera- 
 ture. 
 
 Cities  and  Towns.~\  The  capital  city  of  the  kingdom  has  been 
 called  Siam,  by  the  vague  ignorance  of  the  Portuguese  navigators. 
 In  the  native  language,  the  name  approaches  to  the  European  enun- 
 ciation of  Yuthia.  It  is  situated  in  an  isle  formed  by  the  river 
 Meinam.  The  walls,  in  Loubere's  time,  were  extensive  ;  but 
 not  above  a  sixth  part  was  inhabited.  Its  condition,  since  it  was 
 delivered  from  the  Birman  conquest  in  1766,  has  not  been  de- 
 scribed. 
 
 The  other  chief  towns  in  the  Siamese  dominions,  are  Bankok, 
 at  the  mouth  of  the  Meinam  ;  with  Ogmo  and  others  on  the  east- 
 ern coast  of  the  gulf  of  Siam.  In  general  these  towns  were  only 
 collections  of  hovels,  sometimes  surrounded  with  a  Avooden  stock- 
 ade, and  rarely  with  a  brick  wall.  As  there  is  no  recent  descrip- 
 tion of  the  country,  it  would  be  superfluous  to  dwell  oa  old  de- 
 scriptions of  places,  perhaps  ruined  in  the  frequency  of  oriental 
 revolutions  ;  while  other  cities  may  have  arisen  as  yet  unknown  in 
 geography. 
 
 Edijices.~\  Ksempfer,  in  1690,  visited  Siam;  and  his  account) 
 though  brief,  is  solid  and  interesting.  IJe  minutely  describes  two 
 remarkable  edifices  near  the  capital.*  The  first  is  the  famous 
 pyramid,  called  Puka  Thon,  on  a  plain  to  the  N.  W.  erected  in 
 Miemory  of  a  victory  there  obtained  over  the  king  of  Pegu.  It  is 
 a  massy,  but  magnificent  structure,  about  120  feet  in  height,  in  a 
 square  spot,  enclosed  by  a  wall.  The  first  stage  is  square,  each 
 side  being  about  115  paces  long.  The  others  vary  in  foi'm  ;  and 
 there  are  open  galleries,  ornamented  with  colunms.  At  the  top 
 it  terminates  in  a  slender  spire. 
 
 The  second  edifice  consists  of  two  squares  to  the  east  of  the 
 city,  each  surrounded  with  a  fair  wall,  and  separated  by  a  channel 
 of  the  river.  They  contain  many  temples,  convents,  chapels,  and 
 columns,  particularly  the  temple  of  Berklam,  with  a  gi'and  gate, 
 ornamented  with  statues  and  other  carvings  :  the  other  decora- 
 tions were  also,  by  his  account,  exquisite. 
 
 That  intelligent  voyager  also  describes  some  other  edifices  ; 
 and  his  ideas  on  the  subject  deserve  to  be  contrasted  with  those 
 of  Loubere,  who,  accustomed  to  the  pomp  of  Louis  XIV.  or  dis- 
 gusted by  the  massacre  of  his  countrymen,  may  in  this,  and  some 
 other  instances,  have  perhaps  given  unfavorable  representations 
 of  this  celebrated  country. 
 
 Manufactures?^  Though  the  Siamese  are  an  indolent,  yet  they 
 are  an  ingenious  people,  and  some  of  their  manufactures  deserve 
 praise.  They  are  little  skilled  in  the  fabrication  of  iron  or  steel  ; 
 but  excel  in  that  of  gold,  and  in  miniature  painting.     The  com- 
 
SI  AM.  553 
 
 mon  people  are  mostly  occupied  in  procuring  fish  for  their  daily- 
 food,  while  the  superior  classes  are  engaged  in  a  trifling  traffic. 
 
 Cotnmerce.']  The  commercial  relations  are  chiefly  with  Hindos- 
 tan,  China,  Japan,  and  the  Dutch. 
 
 The  productions  of  the  country  are  grain  in  prodigious  quanti- 
 ties, cotton,  benjamin  ;  sandal,  aguallo,  and  sapan  woods  ;  antimo- 
 ny, tin,  lead,  iron,  load-stone,  gold,  and  silver  ;  sapphires,  eme- 
 ralds, agates,  crystal,  marble,  and  tombac* 
 
 CHAPTER  II. 
 
 NATURAL   GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 CLIMATE  AND  SEASONS,  FACE  OF  THE  COUNTRY,  SOIL  AND  AGRI- 
 CULTURE, RIVERS,  LAKES,  MOUNTAINS,  BOTANY,  ZOOLOGY,  MIN- 
 ERALOGY. 
 
 Climate  and  Seasons.'']  THE  two  first  months  of  the  Siam- 
 ese year,  which  correspond  with  our  December  and  January,  form 
 the  whole  winter  of  this  country  :  the  third,  fourth,  and  fifth,  be- 
 long to  what  is  called  their  little  summer  ;  the  seven  others  to 
 their  great  summ.er.f  Being  on  the  north  of  the  line,  their  win- 
 ter of  course  corresponds  with  ours  ;  but  is  almost  as  warm  as  a 
 French  summer.  The  little  summer  is  their  spring  ;  but  autumn 
 is  absolutely  unknown  in  their  calendar.  The  winter  is  dry  ;  the 
 summer  moist ;  the  former  is  distinguished  by  the  course  of  the 
 wind,  which  blows  almost  constantly  from  the  north,  refreshed 
 with  cold  from  the  snowy  mountains  of  Tibet,  and  the  bleak  wastes 
 of  Mongolia. 
 
 Face  of  the  Country.']  This  country,  as  already  mentioned,  is 
 a  wide  vale  between  two  high  ridges  of  mountains,  thus  somewhat 
 resembling  Egypt,  on  a  wider  scale.  Compared  with  the  Birman 
 empire,  the  cultivated  level  is  not  above  half  the  extent  either  in 
 breadth  or  length.  Nor  do  the  Siamese  seem  so  industrious  as 
 the  Birmans,  as  their  agriculture  does  not  appear  to  extend  far 
 from  the  banks  of  the  river  and  its  branches  ;  so  that  towards  the 
 mountains  there  are  vast  aboriginal  forests,  filled  with  wild  ani- 
 mals, whence  the  numbers  of  deer  and  other  skins,  exported  as 
 merchandise.  The  rocky  and  variegated  shores  of  the  noble  gulf 
 of  Siam,  and  the  size  and  inundations  of  the  Meinam,  conspire 
 with  the  rich  and  picturesque  vegetation  of  the  forests,  illumined 
 at  night  with  crowds  of  brilliant  fire-flies,  to.impress  strangers 
 "with  delight  and  admiration. 
 
 SoiL]  The  soil  towards  the  mountains  is  parched  and  barren, 
 but  the  shores  of  the  river  consist,  like  that  of  Egypt,  of  a  very 
 rich  and  pure  mould,  in  which  it  is  even  difficult  to  find  a  pebble. 
 It  is  in  fact  a  muddy  deposit,  accumulating  fr<»:n  early  ages,  and 
 manured,   as  it  were,   by  regular   inundations,  so  as  to  produce 
 
 *  Dalryrnple's  O.ientp.l  Repertorj-,  p.  118.  |  Loubere,  i,  53 
 
 VOL.   II.  70 
 
55  4  SI  AM. 
 
 abundance  of  rice.  The  countiy  would  be  a  terrestrial  paradise, 
 were  it  not  subject  to  the  most  absurd  despotism,  which  impov- 
 erishes itself,  and  may  perhaps  be  classed  among  the  worst  of 
 governments,  being  far  inferior  to  that  of  their  neighbors,  the  Bir- 
 mans. 
 
 jlgricultureJ]  Agriculture,  as  usual  in  the  cast,  is  simple  and 
 primitive.  The  chief  product  is  rice  of  excellent  quality;  but 
 wheat  is  not  unknown,  in  lands  at  a  distance  from  the  inundations. 
 Peas,  and  other  vegetables,  also  abound.  Maize  is  confined  to 
 their  gardens.  From  indolence  or  prejudice,  seldom  more  than 
 one  crop  in  a  year  is  taken  from  the  same  land.* 
 
 Rivers.'\  The  grand  river  Meinam,  a  name  which  signifies  the 
 mother  of  tvater^  is  the  largest  among  the  Siamese  streams.  It  is 
 very  deep  and  rapid,  ahvays  full,  and,  according  to  Kaempfer,  larg- 
 er than  the  Elbe.f  He  adds  that  the  inhabitants  suppose  its  source 
 to  be  in  the  mountains,  which  give  rise  to  the  Ganges,  and  that  it 
 branches  through  Cambodia  and  Pegu.  The  inundations  are  in 
 September,  after  the  snows  have  melted  in  the  northern  mountains, 
 and  the  rainy  season  has  commenced.  In  December  the  waters 
 decline,  and  sink  by  degi-ees  to  their  former  level.  The  water, 
 though  muddy,  is  pleasant  and  salutary. 
 
 The  banks  of  the  Meinam  are  generally  low  and  marshy,  but 
 thickly  peopled  from  Yuthiato  Bankok,  below  which  are  wild  des- 
 erts, like  the  Sunderbunds  of  the  Ganges.  Monkeys,  fire-flies, 
 and  musketoes,  swarm  on  the  fertile  shores. 
 
 To  the  north  of  the  Siamese  dominions,  some  rivers  join  the 
 IMeinam  ;  but  their  names  are  unknown,  and  they  belong  to  the 
 Birman  territories. 
 
 LakesT^  In  the  east  of  the  kingdom  a  small  lake  is  delineated, 
 giving  source  to  a  river  which  flows  into  that  of  Cambodia  ;  and 
 it  is  probable  that  others  may  exist  near  the  mountains,  though 
 unknown  to  geographers. 
 
 Alountains.]  The  extensive  ranges  of  mountains,  which  en- 
 close this  kingdom  on  the  east  and  west,  have  been  repeatedly 
 mentioned.  These  may  be  called  the  Siamese  chains,  till  the 
 native  names  be  ascertained.  A  small  ridge  also  passes  east  and 
 west,  not  far  to  the  north  of  Yuthia.  In  the  north  Siam  terminates 
 in  plains  ;  nor  does  it,  even  by  conquest,  seem  ever  to  have  reach- 
 ed the  mountains  on  the  Chinese  frontier. 
 
 J'^oj-ests.^  The  forests  arc  numerous  and  large,  and  produce 
 many  kinds  of  valuable  woods. 
 
 Zooloffy.^  The  chief  animals  of  Siam  are  elephants,  buff'alocs, 
 and  deer.  Horses  seem  little  known  or  used,  though  found  wild 
 in  Tibet  ;  yet  there  are,  or  were,  a  few^  ill-mounted  cavalry.  The 
 elephants  of  Siam  are  of  distinguished  sagacity  and  beauty  ;  and 
 those  of  a  white  color  are  treated  with  a  kind  of  adoration,  as  the 
 Siamese  believe  the  souls  of  such  are  royal.  Wild  boars,  tigers, 
 and  monkeys,  are  also  numerous.  The  Meinam  is,  at  distant  in- 
 tervals of  time,  infested   with  small  poisonous  serpents  ;  and  the 
 
 *  Loubere.  i.  5o.  .  t  '•  ^^>  ^''-  ^^^'^* 
 
LAOS.  555 
 
 trees  on  its  banks  are,  as  already  mentioned,  beautifully  illumin- 
 ated with  swarms  of  fire-flies,  which  emit  and  conceal  their  light 
 as  uniformly,  as  if  it  proceeded  from  a  machine  of  the  most  exact 
 contrivance. 
 
 Mineralogy.']  There  are  some  mines  of  gold,  and  others  of 
 copper,  mixed  with  a  variable  proportion  of  gold ;  but  the  mines 
 chiefly  wrought  by  the  Siamese  are  of  tin  and  lead.  The  tin, 
 called  calin,  by  the  Portuguese,  was  sold  throughout  the  Indies, 
 but  was  soft  and  ill  refined  ;  all  of  it,  except  that  of  Junkseylon, 
 was  a  royal  perquisite.* 
 
 Near  Louvo  was  a  mountain  of  load-stone  :  fine  agates  abounded 
 in  the  mountains,  nor  were  sapphires  unknown. 
 
 Isles-I  Among  the  numerous  and  minute  isles,  which  oM-e  a 
 doubtful  subjection  to  Siam,  Junkseylon  alone  deserves  mention. 
 By  Captain  Forest's  account,  who  visited  this  isle  in  1784,  it  annu- 
 ally exports  about  500  tons  of  tin,  and  contains  12,000  inhabitants. 
 
 LAOS. 
 
 LAOS,  a  country  of  Asia,  bounded  N.  by  the  Chinese  prov- 
 ince of  Yun-nan,  E.  by  Tunquin,  S.  by  Cambodia,  W.by  Siam  and 
 Ava.  It  is  a  flat  country,  surrounded  by  mountains,  covered  with 
 forests,  which  serve  as  barriers  against  the  potent  kingdoms  in  its 
 neighborhood,  and  difficult  of  access  by  water.  From  these  moun- 
 tains descend  many  streams,  which  foi'm  the  large  river  Mecon, 
 or  Meinamkong,  that  crosses  the  whole  region,  from  N.  to  S.  In 
 Mr.  Dalrymple's  valuable  map  of  exterior  India  this  grand  stream 
 is  called  the  Kiou  Long,  or  Maykaung  ;  and  Mr.  Arrowsmith  de- 
 rives it  from  the  Tibetian  alps,  where  it  is  styled  the  Satchou,  and 
 afterwards  by  D'Anville,  the  Lan-tsan  Kiang  ;  which  seems  to 
 identify  it,  as  implying  the  I'iver  of  Lan-tsang,  orLeng,  the  capital 
 of  Laos. 
 
 The  climate  is  temperate  and  healthful ;  the  soil  generally  very 
 good,  rendered  fruitful  by  a  number  of  canals  cut  from  the  great 
 river  Mecon.  The  principal  drugs  are  benjamin  and  lak.  The 
 soil  is  fertile  in  rice.  It  furnishes  Cambodia  with  the  best  ben- 
 zoin and  lacca  ;  also  with  musk.  The  forests  are  of  great  extent ; 
 on  the  plains  are  many  flowers,  which  yield  abundance  of  honey 
 and  wax.  Here  are  mines  of  iron,  lead,  tin,  gold,  silver,  rubies, 
 and  the  fresh  water  mya,  which  yields  pearls  ;  the  inhabitants  col- 
 lect those  metals  out  of  the  river.  The  inhabitants  are  well-shap- 
 ed and  robust^  and  of  an  olive  color.  They  ai'e  good  natured,  af- 
 fable, courteous,  upright,  faithful,  and  obliging.  When  they  see 
 what  pleases  their  fancy,  they  seldom  cease  importuning  the 
 owner  till  they  obtain   it.     In  case  of  a  refusal,  they  never  use 
 
 *  Loubere,  i.  28r.  • 
 
556  LAOS. 
 
 force.  The  country  is  very  populous,  containing  3,000,000,*  and 
 the  inhabitants  live  to  a  great  age.  The  Laos  are  not  of  a  warlike 
 disposition,  nor  expert  in  the  use  of  fire-arms.  If  enemies  make 
 an  inroad  upon  them,  they  poison  their  rivers.  It  was  thus  that 
 the  king  ofTunquinwas  obliged  to  retreat,  after  having  lost  a 
 great  part  of  his  army,  with  which,  abo"ut  the  year  1650,  he  pro- 
 posed to  annex  this  monarchy  to  his  own. 
 
 The  Laos,  or  Lanjans,  apply  themselves  to  nothing  but  agricul- 
 ture and  fishing,  neglecting  all  arts  and  sciences.  They  are  idle 
 and  amorous  ;  their  belief  in  witchcraft  and  magic  is  still  more 
 pernicious.  They  have  a  notion  that  if  the  head  of  an  elephant 
 be  rubbed  with  wine,  enriched  with  a  drop  or  two  of  human  gall, 
 the  beast  will  become  more  robust,  and  his  owner  more  coura- 
 geous. In  this  ridiculous  conceit,  the  governors  sometimes  em- 
 ploy desperate  fellows,  Avho  for  25  or  30  crowns,  v/ill  go  into  the 
 forests  to  hunt  men  ;  and  the  first  they  meet  with,  they  open  his 
 belly  and  stomach,  while  alive,  and  taking  out  the  gall  bladder, 
 cut  off  his  head,  to  convince  the  more  savage  purchaser  he  has 
 not  deceived  him.  In  case  the  assassin  does  not  perform  his  en- 
 gagement in  the  limited  time,  he  is  obliged  to  kill  himself,  his 
 wife,  or  child,  that  his  employer  may  take  out  the  gall  of  the  un- 
 happy victim. 
 
 The  food  of  the  Laos  consists  of  rice,  fish,  legumes,  and  the 
 flesh  of  buffaloes.  They  wear  gowns  close  to  their  bodies.  They 
 go  with  their  feet  bare,  and  the  head  commonly  uncovered.  Their 
 hair  is  clipped  round,  and  short,  excepting  one  lock  on  the  tem- 
 ples, which  is  left  to  grow  and  run  through  holes  made  in  the 
 ears  for  that  purpose.  The  Laos  approve  of  having  only  one  wife  ; 
 but  they  make  their  female  slaves  subject  to  their  pleasure,  whom 
 they  marry  ;  they  choose  the  oldest  married  couple  they  can  find, 
 who  have  lived  happily  together,  and  promise  before  them  to  fol- 
 low their  example  till  death.  But  they  often  separate  and  marry 
 others.  When  any  of  their  relations  die,  they  make  a  feast, 
 which  lasts  a  month  ;  and  celebrate  the  funeral  with  great  mag- 
 nificence. The  corpse  is  put  in  a  cofhn,  daubed  with  bitumen. 
 They  employ  great  part  of  their  time  in  repeating  certain  hymns, 
 adapted  to  the  occasion  ;  by  means  of  which  the  soul,  as  they  say, 
 is  taught  the  way  to  heaven.  After  this  ceremony  the  relations 
 think  no  more  of  the  defunct,  nor  ever  name  him  :  because,  ac- 
 cording to  the  docti'ine  of  the  transmigration,  which  is  received  in 
 this  country,  they  believe  the  soul  is  gone  to  the  place  destined 
 for  it,  consequently  belongs  no  longei*  to  them. 
 
 The  language  of  the  Laos  is  like  that  of  the  Siamese  ;  who, 
 they  say,  have  had  the  art  of  writing,  and  their  sacred  language, 
 from  them  :  but  they  cannot  pronounce  the  letters  L  and  R.  They 
 w  rite  on  the  leaves  of  trees,  like  the  Pcguese  and  Malabars  ;  but 
 matters  relating  to  civil  affairs,  are  inscribed  on  a  sort  of  coarse 
 -paper,  Avith  earthern  pins. 
 
 The  religion  of  the  Laos,  resembles  that  which  prevails  in  aU 
 
 *  HhsscI. 
 
HINDOSTAN.  557 
 
 the  countries  comprised  in  the  Farther  Peninsula  of  the  Indies. 
 They  lived  a  long  time  in  form  of  a  republic,  and  observed  the 
 laws  of  nature,  rather  than  those  of  the  Chinese,  their  neighbors. 
 They  were  formerly  a  powerful  state.*  The  open  sky  was  their 
 temple  ;  and  they  adored  one  being,  whom  they  esteem.ed  above 
 all  things,  under  the  name  of  commander.  Presently  after  the 
 disciples  of  Shaka  arrived  in  this  kingdom,  the  Laos  saw  them- 
 selves surrounded  with  temples  consecrated  to  idols,  and  priests, 
 named  talapoy,  destined  to  their  service.  The  king  of  Laos  is  an 
 absolute  independent  pi^ince,  and  acknowledges  no  superior,  ei- 
 ther in  temporal  or  spiritual  affairs.  The  property  of  lands  lies 
 wholly  in  him,  who  disposes,  at  pleasure,  of  the  effects  belonging 
 to  his  subjects  ;  nor  can  any  family  in  the  kingdom  inherit  or 
 possess  any  thing  left  them  by  will.f 
 
 The  description  of  the  various  kingdoms  of  exterior  India  be- 
 ing thus  completed,  as  far  as  the  present  design  and  the  imperfect 
 materials  would  admit,  the  geographical  progress  must  return  to 
 the  westward,  and  discuss  the  wide  regions  of  Hindostan. 
 
 HINDOSTAN.  J 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS,  ARRANGEMENT,  NATURAL    AND    POLIT- 
 ICAL   DIVISIONS,  PLAN    OF    THIS    DESCRIPTION. 
 
 General  Geografihy.']  THE  description  of  this  interesting 
 portion  of  Asia  is  not  a  little  difficult,  from  its  vast  and  irregular 
 extent,  from  the  want  of  grand  subdivisions,  from  the  diversity  of 
 nations  and  powers,  large  foreign  settlements,  and  other  causes, 
 so  that  the  first  object  must  be  to  determine  a  clear  and  natural 
 arrangement. 
 
 Mr.  Pennant,  who  often  excels  in  geographical  delineation,  has, 
 in  his  view  of  Hindoston,  been  contented  with  the  vague  divisions 
 of  Western,  Eastern,  and  Gangetic,  or  that  part  which  is  pervaded 
 by  the  Ganges,  and  its  tributary  streams.  Major  Rennell,to  whom 
 \vc  are  indebted  for  an  excellent  map  and  memoir,  which  have 
 thrown  great  light  on  Indian  geography,  first  considers  the  sea 
 coast  and  islands  ;  as,  in  the  construction  of  a  map,  the  outline  of 
 the  coast  is  the  earliest  object.  He  then  describes  Hindostan  iu 
 four  other  sections  :  1.  That  part  occupied  by  the  Ganges  and  its 
 principal  branches  :  2.  That  occupied  by  the  course  of  the  Sinde, 
 Sindeh,  or  river  Indus :  3.  The  tract  situated  between  the  river 
 
 *  Krempfer.  -j- Gaz.  of  Eastern  Continent. 
 
 +  We, copy  Pinkcrton's  accoimt  of  tliis country,  ititei-weaving;  such  later  information, 
 as  has  corac  to  our  kiiowlcigc. 
 
558  HINDOSTAN. 
 
 Kistna'and  the  two  former  divisions  :  4.  The  countries  to  the  south 
 of  the  Kistna,  or  what  is  perliaps  improperly  called  the  southern 
 peninsula,  as  no  part  of  Hindostan  can  be  styled  a  peninsula,  in  t,he 
 modern  acceptation  of  being  nearly  surrounded  by  the  sea. 
 
 General  Divismis.~\  The  general  plan  adopted  by  Major  Ren- 
 nell  seems  to  be  best,  not  only  in  itself,  as  was  to  have  been  ex- 
 pected from  his  profound  acquaintance  with  the  subject,  but  as 
 having  the  advantage  of  being  familiar  to  the  public,  from  the 
 ■widely  diffused  reputation  of  his  work.  Amidst  the  want  of  im- 
 portant ranges  of  mountains,  rivers  alone  can  be  assigned  as  nat- 
 ural divisions  :  and  as  in  Hindostan  they  do  not  form  limits,  the 
 countries  pervaded  by  their  courses  and  tributary  streams  may  be 
 considered  as  detached  by  the  hand  of  nature.  Hence  the  Gan- 
 getic  part  of  Hindostan,  to  use  Mr.  Pennant's  term,  includes  the 
 space  from  the  confines  of  Tibet  to  the  sources  of  the  Chumbul 
 and  Sippra,  and  from  the  mountains  near  Agimei-e  and  Abugur 
 hills,  to  the  most  eastern  boundary  of  Hindostan. 
 
 That  portion  watered  by  the  Sinde  or  Indus,  and  its  subsidiary 
 streams,  may  in  like  manner  be  termed  Sindetic  Hindostan  ;  and 
 as  a  supplement  to  this  division  may  be  considered  the  country  of 
 Sirhind,  and  other  tracts  to  the  west  of  Gangetic  Hindostan. 
 
 The  southern  part  is  encompassed  by  the  sea,  except  on  the 
 north,  where  the  River  Kistna  and  its  subsidiary  streams  form  the 
 boundary.  In  ancient  times  this  portion  was  styled  Deccan,  a 
 native  term  implying  the  south.  But  the  Deccan  of  the  Hindoos 
 extended  twice  as  far  in  a  northerly  direction,  even  to  the  river 
 Nerbudda  ;  so  that  it  would  in  fact,  with  the  Gangetic  and  Sin- 
 detic divisions,  nearly  complete  the  whole  of  Hindostan.  The 
 term  Deccan  is  therefore  here  used  for  the  portion  to  the  south  of 
 the  Kistna. 
 
 That  portion  on  the  north  of  the  Kistna,  reaching  to  Gangetic 
 Hindostan  on  the  north  and  east,  and  the  Sindetic  with  its  supple- 
 mentary provinces  on  the  north  and  west,  may  be  styled  Interior  or 
 Central  Hindostan. 
 
 In  this  arrangement  the  Gangetic  part  will  include  Bengal, 
 Bahar,  Allahabad,  Oude,  Ayra,  and  a  part  of  Delhi  and  Agimere. 
 The  Sindetic  contains  Kuttore,  Cashmir,  Cabul,  Candahar,  Lahore, 
 Moultan,  and  Sinde. 
 
 The  central  division  represents  Guzerat  in  the  west,  with  Can- 
 deish,  Berar,  Orissa,  the  Sircars,  the  chief  part  of  Golconda,  Vi- 
 siapour,  Dowlatabad,  and  Concan, 
 
 The  southern  division  includes  a  small  portion  of  Golconda, 
 Mysore,  the  extensive  region  called  in  modern  times  the  Carnatic, 
 with  Madura,  and  other  smaller  districts,  the  westei-n  coast  being 
 called  that  of  Malabar,  and  the  eastern  that  of  Coromandel.  In 
 this  part  is  naturally  included  the  island  of  Ceylon. 
 
 Political  Divisions.^  The  next  topic  to  be  considered,  in  a  gen- 
 eral view  of  Hindostan,  is  its  political  situation  as  divided  among 
 various  powers.  Of  these  the  English  is  at  present  preponderant, 
 rot  only  from  European  tactics,  but  from  an  actual  extent  of  ter- 
 ritory at  least  equal  to  thavof  any  native  power.     To  their  former 
 
HINDOSTAN.  55^ 
 
 ■wide  possessions  in  Gangetic  Hindostan,  with  a  large  portion  of 
 the  eastern  coast  from  below  the  estuary  of  the  Kistna  to  the  lake 
 pf  Chilka,  and  the  detached  government  of  Madras,  have  been 
 recently  added  extensive  regions  in  the  south  and  west  of  Mysore, 
 with  Seringapatam,  the  capital,  not  to  mention  Bombay  and  other 
 detached  establishments.  And  the  large  and  important  island  of 
 Ceylon  has  been  taken  from  the  Dutch. 
 
 Next  in  consequence  are  the  Maratta  states,  chiefly  comprised 
 in  the  central  division  of  Hindostan. 
 
 The  Nizam,  or  Soubah  of  the  Deccan,  the  firm  ally  of  the  Eng- 
 lish, has  considerably  enlarged  his  territory  in  the  south  at  the 
 expense  of  Tippoo  ;  the  central  part  of  whose  dominions,  except 
 Seringapatam,  is  subject  to  the  raja  of  Mysore,  a  descendant  of 
 the  race  dethroned  by  Hyder,  an  usurper. 
 
 The  British,  the  Marattas,  and  the  Nizam,  may  be  regarded  as 
 the  three  leading  powers,  to  which  may  be  added  on  the  west,  or 
 on  the  Sindetic  division,  the  Seiks,and  Zemaun  Shah,  or  whatever 
 prince  holds  the  eastern  division  of  Persia. 
 
 The  following  table,  extracted,  with  a  few  alterations,  from 
 major  Rennell's  memoir,  will  convey  a  more  complete  and  satis- 
 factory idea  of  this  important  topic. 
 
 I.  British  Possessions. 
 
 1.  Bengaland  Bahar  with  the  Zemindary  of  Benares, 
 
 2.  Northern  Sircars,  including  Guntoor, 
 *3.  Barra-Mahal,  and  Dindigul. 
 
 4.  Jaghire  in  the  Carnatic. 
 *5.  The  Calicut,  Palicaud,  and  Coorga  countries. 
 
 II.  British  Allies. 
 }.  Azuph  Dowlah.      Oude. 
 
 2.  Mahomed  Alii.      Carnatic. 
 
 3.  Travancore,  and  Cochin. 
 
 III.  Maratta  States. 
 PooNA  Marattas.  Tributaries 
 
 1.  Malwa.  1,  Rajah  of  Jyenagur. 
 
 2.  Candeish.  2. Joodpour. 
 
 3.  Part  of  Amednagur,  or  Dowla-    „  ^    ,. 
 
 tabad.  -^ Oudipom. 
 
 4.  Visiapbur.  '      4. Narwah. 
 
 5.  Part  of  Guzerat.  5.  — ■ Gohud. 
 
 6.  Agra.  6.  Part  of  Bundelcund. 
 
 7 Agimere.  7.  Mahomed  Hyat.  Bopaltol. 
 
 8.  Allahabad.  8.  Futty  Sing.  Amedabad. 
 
 *  The  countries  thus  raarke*!,  are  acquisitions  from  Tippoo  Stiltan  under  the  late 
 treaty  of  Seringapatum.  To  which  must  now  be  added  Coimbetore,  Canara,  and 
 ether  districts  acquired  in  1799.  See  Ueiinel's  Supplementary  Map,  dated  5th  April, 
 1800.  ' 
 
560  HINDOSTAN. 
 
 9.  Shanoor,  or  Sanore,  Bancapour,   9.  Gurry  Mundella,  &c.  £cc. 
 Darwar,  Sec.  situated  in  the 
 Dooab,or  country  between  the 
 Kistna  and  Tombudra  rivers. 
 
 Berar  Marattas.  Tributary. 
 
 1.  Berar.  Bcmbajee. 
 
 2.  Orissa. 
 
 IV.  Nizam  Ali,  Soubaii  of  the  Deccan. 
 
 1 .  Golconda.  bam)  and  Gandicotta  or 
 
 2.  Aurungabad.  (Ganjecotta.) 
 
 3.  Beder.  7.  Part  of  Gooty,  Adoni,  and 
 
 4.  Part  of  Berar.  Canoul. 
 
 5. Adoni,  Rachore,  and         8.  Part  of  the  Dooab. 
 
 Canoul.  [9.  Other  districts  acquired 
 
 6.  Cuddapali.      Cummum  (or  Com-  in  1799.J 
 
 V.  Seiks. 
 Lahore,  Moultan,  and  the  western  parts  of  Delhi. 
 
 As  the  other  great  power  chiefly  extends  over  Persia,  and  may 
 be  regarded  as  foreign,  it  only  remains  to  mention  the  small  states. 
 
 1.  Successors  of  Zabeda  Cawn.     Sehaurunpour. 
 
 2.  Jats. 
 
 3.  Pattan  Rohillas.     Furruckabad. 
 
 4.  Adjig  Sing.     Rewah,  See. 
 
 5.  Bundelcund,  or  Bundela, 
 
 6.  Little  Ballogistan, 
 
 To  which  may  now  be  added  the  Raja  of  Mysore. 
 
 The  British  possessions  prior  to  the  fall  of  Tippoo,  1799,  were 
 supposed  to  contain  197,496  square  British  miles,  being  about 
 60,000  more  than  are  comprized  in  the  united  kingdoms  of  Great 
 Britain  and  Ireland  :  the  number  of  inhabitants  was  computed  at 
 ten  millions.  The  acquisition  in  1799  probal)ly  adds  15,000  square 
 miles,  and  the  population  subject  to  Great  Britain  is  supposed  to 
 be  12  or  14,000,000.  The  net  revenue  exceeded  three  millions 
 before  the  cessions  of  Tippoo  in  1792  computed  at  400,0001.; 
 "while  those  in  1799  do  not  appear  much  to  exceed  half  that  sum. 
 This  great  power  and  revenue  of  so  distant  a  country,  maintained 
 in  the  midst  of  a  highly  civilized  foreign  nation,  is  perhaps  unex- 
 ampled in  ancient  or  modern  times. 
 
 The  Marattas  are  divided  into  two  states  or  empires,  that  of 
 Poona,  or  the  western,  and  Berar,  or  the  eastern  ;  each  ruled  by 
 a  number  of  chiefs  or  princes,  who  pay  a  nominal  obedience  to  the 
 paishwa,  or  sovereign.  An  account  of  the  Marattas  belongs  to  the 
 central  division  of  Hindostan.  The  Seiks,  a  new  religious  sect, 
 first  appeared  in  the  middle  of  the  1 7th  century,  and  have  gradu- 
 a,lly  become  formidable  to  the  neighboring  states.  The  Jats,  or 
 Jets,  were  a  tribe  of  Hindoos,  who  about  a  century  ago  erected  a 
 state  around  the  capital  Agra.  The  Afghans,  another  peculiar 
 people,  originated  from  the  mountains  between  Persia  and  India. 
 
HINDOSTAN.  561 
 
 Before  closing  these  general  considerations  with  regard  to  this 
 extensive  country,  it  may  be  proper  to  observe,  that  the  name  of 
 Hindostan  has  been  considered  as  synonymous  with  the  empire  of 
 the  great  Mongul,  But  the  power  of  the  Monguls,  which  com- 
 menced under  Baber,  1518,  Avas  most  eminent  in  the  northern  parts, 
 the  Deccan,  or  south,  remaining  unsubdued  till  the  time  of  Aurun- 
 zeb,  1 678,  Avhen  that  region,  with  what  is  called  the  peninsula,  a  few 
 mountainous  and  inaccessible  tracts  only  excepted,  were  either 
 vanquished  or  rendered  tributary  to  the  throne  of  Delhi.*  When 
 Aurunzeb  died  in  170T,  in  his  90th  year,  the  Mongul  empire  had 
 obtained  its  utmost  extent  from  the  10th  to  the  35  th  degree  of  lat- 
 itude, (about  1750  miles,)  and  about  as  much  iu  length:  the  rev- 
 enue exceeding  thirty-two  millions  sterling,  in  a  country  where 
 provisions  are  about  four  times  as  cheap  as  in  England,  or  Amer- 
 ica. The  number  of  his  subjects  may  be  computed  at  about 
 60,000,900.  But  this  great  power  declined  so  rapidly  that,  within  50 
 years  after  his  death,  it  may  be  said  to  have  been  annihilated,  and 
 the  empire  of  the  great  Mongul  nas  vanished  from  modern  geog- 
 raphy. 
 
 The  plan  t€>  be  pursued,  in  the  subsequent  brief  account  of  Hin- 
 dostan, iias  been  above  indicated,  as  divided  into  four  parts  ;  the 
 region  on  th'j  Ganges,  those  on  the  Indus,  the  central,  and  the 
 southern.  In  three  of  these  divisions  the  British  possessions  are 
 powerful,  if  not  predominant  ;  and  it  is  difficult  to  connect  the  po- 
 litical with  the  natural  geography.  Doubts  may  justly  arise, 
 whether  the  British  territories  ought  not  to  form  a  separate  and 
 distinct  portion  in  a  perspicuous  arrangement,  this  being  another 
 of  the  peculiar  difficulties  which  attend  the  geography  of  Hindos- 
 tan. But  as  the  grand  mass  of  the  population  in  these  settlements 
 consists  of  native  Hindoos,  and  the  natural  geography  of  the  coun- 
 try must  not  be  sacrificed  to  any  extraneous  consideration,  it  still 
 seems  preferable  to  abide  by  the  division  already  laid  down. 
 Hence  that  form  of  description  must  be  chosen,  which,  resting  on 
 the  perpetual  foundations  of  nature,  cannot  be  injured  or  obliter- 
 ated by  the  destinies  of  man. 
 
 These  considerations  being  premised,  a  similar  arrangement 
 shall  here  be  followed  in  describing  Hindostan,  a  labyrinth 
 of  eastern  geography,  with  that  used  in  delineating  Germany, 
 that  labyrinth  of  European  geography.  A  general  view  of  the 
 whole  region  shall  be  followed  by  successive  chapters  on  each  of 
 the  above  divisions  ;  in  which  the  several  states,  chief  cities,  and 
 other  geographical  topics  shall  be  briefly  illustrated. 
 
 *  Rennell's  Memoir,  page  Isi. 
 
 Vol.  it. 
 
56:  HIXDOSTAN. 
 
 CHAPTER  I. 
 
 GENERAL  VIEW  OF  HIXDOSTAX. 
 
 :CAME,  EXTEST,  BOUXDARIES,  ORIGIKAL  POprLATIOS,  PKOGRES- 
 SltE  GEOGRAPHY,  BISTORT,  CHE.0XOLOGT,  HISTORIC AL  EPOCHS, 
 AXCIEXT  MOSUMEXT5,  MYTHOLOGY,  RELIGION',  GOTERXMEST, 
 LAWS,  POFCLATIOX,  GEXERAL  REVEXCES,  POLITICAL  IMPOR- 
 TASCE,  MAXXERS  AXD  CCSTOMS,  LAXGUAGES.  LITERATURE, 
 AXCIEXT  CIVILIZATIOX,  CXIVERSITIE3,  IXLAXD  XATIGATIOX, 
 MAXCFACTVRES.  XATIVE  PRODUCTS,  CLIMATE  AXD  SEASOXS, 
 GEXESAL  FACE  OF  THE  COUXTRT,  SOIL,  RIVERS,  LAKES,  MOCS- 
 TAIXS,  DESERTS,  FORESTS,  BOTAXY,  ZOOLOGY,  JIIXERALOGT, 
 ?.ItXERAL  WATERS.  XATURAL   CURIOSITIES. 
 
 .Yame.'j  THE  original  name  of  this  celebrated 
 country  is  said  to  be  in  the  ancient  Sanscrit  languag^e  Bharata.* 
 That  of  Hindostan  seems  to  have  been  imposed  by  the  Persians, 
 and  derived,  like  the  classical  name  India,  from  the  great  western 
 river,  with  the  Persian  termination  Tan^  or  Stan,  which  signifies  a 
 country.  It  was  long  known,  as  already  mentioned,  by  the  name 
 of  the  Empire  of  the  Great  Mongul,  because  it  was  then  subject  to 
 Mongul  emperors  successors  of  Timur. 
 
 i'JSxteni.~\  This  portion  of  Asia  extends  from  cape  Comari, 
 Called  by  navigators  Comorin,  in  the  south,  to  the  mountains 
 which  form  the  nonhem  boundary  of  Cashmir  ;  that  is,  according 
 to  the  most  recent  maps,  from  about  the  8th  to  about  the  35th  de- 
 gree of  northern  latitude,  being  27  degrees,  or  1520  g.  miles, 
 nearly  equal  to  1890  British.  The  northern  boundary  may  be  yet 
 farther  extended  to  the  Hindoo  Koh,  and  mountains  running  E.  and 
 W.  on  the  noith  of  the  province  of  Kuttore. 
 
 From  tfae  river  Araba,  on  the  west  of  the  province  of  Sinde,  to 
 the  mountains  which  divide  Bengal  from  Cassay  and  the  Birman 
 dominions,  that  is  from  about  the  65th  to  the  92nd  degree  of  east 
 longitude  from  Greenwich,  there  are  25'  which  in  the  latitude  of 
 25^  constitute  a  breadth  of  more  than  1400  g.  miles,  or  1600  Brit- 
 ish. Comparauvely  if  we  exclude  Scandinavia,  the  former  king- 
 dom of  Poland  and  the  Russian  empire,  the  extent  may  be  consid- 
 ered as  equal  to  that  of  the  remainder  of  Europe. 
 
 Boundarie^.'j  The  bomidaries  are  marked  on  the  north  by  the 
 mountains  above  mentioned.  On  the  west,  tovrards  Persia,  other 
 ranges  and  deserts  constitute  the  frontier  till  the  southern  separa- 
 tion ends  in  the  river  Araba.  The  other  boundaries  are  supplied 
 by  the  Indian  ocean,  and  Bay  of  Bengal,  vrhere  the  eastern  ex- 
 tremity is  limited  by  the  little  river  Naaf,  and  those  mountains 
 which  divide  the  British  possessions  from  Aracan,  Cassay,  and 
 Cashur.     The  northern  boundary  generally  consists  of  the  south - 
 
 *  BcomUjXx.  foooi  WHkiu:  bat  tbe  proper  native  term  seems  to  be  ^Medbrama, 
 ad  Bharat  vu  tLe  first  klos.    As.  Rt».  L  4l9. 
 
HINDOSTAN.  563- 
 
 ern  ridges  of  the  Tibetian  Alps.  On  the  N.  E.  of  Bengal  pj 
 similar  ridge  divides  Hindostan  from  the  small  territory  of  Asamj? 
 which  seems  an  independent  state,  never  having  formed  a  portion 
 of  Hindostan,  of  dubious  connection  with  Tibet,  and  as  yet  unsub- 
 dued by  the  Birmans. 
 
 Original  Pofiukition.']  The  original  population  may  be  gener- 
 ally considered  as  indigenous,  or  in  other  words  peculiar  to  tl^e 
 country.  Yet  in  so  extensive  a  region,  and  amidst  the  great 
 diversity  of  climate  and  situation,  the  native  race  presents 
 considerable  varieties,  especially  as  being  fairer  in  the  northern 
 parts,  and  in  the  southern  almost  or  wholly  black,  but 
 without  the  negro  wool  or  features.  Still  the  tinge  of  the 
 women  and  superior  class  is  deep  olive,  with  sometimes  a  slight 
 and  agreeable  mixture  of  the  ruddy,  and  the  Hindoo  form  and  fea- 
 tures may  be  said  to  approach  the  Persian  or  European  standard. 
 The  sole  ancient  conquests  of  Hindostan  having  proceeded  from 
 the  N.  W.  and  W.  there  may  be  some  slight  admixttire  of  the 
 Persians,  of  the  Greeks  of  Bactriana,  and  of  the  ancient  Scythians. 
 More  recently  Mahmud  of  Ghizni,  introduced  a  group  of  Mahom- 
 etans of  various  origins.  The  Patans  or  Afghans  proceeded  from 
 the  mountains  toward  Persia,  being  asserted  to  be  a  tribe  of  Alba- 
 nians, who  emigrated  to  the  eastward.  The  Monguls  are  AveU 
 known  to  have  included  many  Tartars,  and  Mahometan  tribefi 
 from  the  east  of  the  Caspian.  These,  with  tlie  Arabs  and  Per- 
 sians, are  generally  called  Moors. 
 
 Progressive  Geograji/nj.']  The  progressive  geography  of  Hin- 
 dostan may  be  said  to  begin  with  the  victories  of  AlexaiKler  thfe 
 Great.  After  the  age  of  this  prince  many  Greek  and  Roman  au^ 
 thors,  particularly  Strabo,  Arrian,  and  Pliny,  have  left  information 
 concerning  the  state  of  India.  One  of  the  most  important  ancieiit 
 records  is  the  description  and  map  of  Ptoleiny,  but  they  are  so 
 much  distorted  as  to  embarrass  the  most  learned  inquirer. 
 
 This  celebrated  country  received  little  farther  illustration  till 
 the  6th  century  :  the  intelligence  however  of  Cosmas  is  of  no  con- 
 sequence, except  as  it  elucidates  the  Persian  traffic  with  India. 
 Some  materials  may  also  be  derived  from  the  accounts  of  the  M^^ 
 hometan  travellers  in  the  9  th  century,  and  the  oriental  works  tX. 
 geography  ;  nor  Avas  the  great  English  king,  Alfred,  incurious  coH- 
 cernmg  this  celebrated  region.*  Marco  Polo,  the  father  of  eastern 
 geography  as  known  to  Europeans,  was  followed  by  other  travel- 
 ers ;  and  at  length  the  Portuguese  discovery  of  the  Cape  of  Good 
 Hope,  gradually  led  the  way  to  the  precision  of  modern  knoAvled^, 
 to  which  Major  Rennell,  has  contributed  with  great  success  antl 
 deserved  celebrity. 
 
 Hiiitory.'^  The  history  of  Hindostan,  is  obscure  andembarrassed, 
 aseitherno  native  chronicles  were  written,  or  they  were  destroyed 
 
 *  The  Saxon  chronicle,  and  other  English  writers,  mention  that  Snitbelm  bishop  of 
 Shirelmrn  carried  a  \)rcsent  tVoni  Alfred  lo  the  shrine  of  St.  Thomas  in  India,  and  ro- 
 turned  in  safety  with  some  curiosities  from  the  countrj .  This  Thom."»s  was  not  the 
 apostle,  but  some  Nestoriaii  missionary  ;  and  his  shrine  is  at  Melapour,  near  Madras, 
 on  the  coast  of  Coromandel.  Alfred  little  foresaw  that  an  English  setllenieiit  was  to 
 include  this  holy  ground. 
 
564  HINDOSTAN. 
 
 by  the  Bramins,  anxious  to  obliterate  the  memory  of  former  and 
 happier  ages,  ^hen  their  inoi'dinate  power  was  not  cstub;i::>hed. 
 Sir  William  Jones,  and  Anquetil  du  Perron,  have  bestowed  some 
 attention  on  this  subject ;  but  their  investigations  are  more  inter- 
 esting to  the  antiquary,  than  to  the  general  reader.*  The  native 
 traditions  seem  to  describe  the  northern  part  of  Hindostan,  as  sub- 
 ject to  one  rajah  or  sovereign,  which  is  little  probable,  as  the  most 
 ancient  extraneous  accounts  represent  this  wide  country  divided, 
 as  was  to  be  expected,  into  many  monarchies.  By  ail  accounts, 
 however,  the  Deccan,  or  southern  part,  was  subject  to  a  distinct 
 emperor,  even  to  modern  times.  "  Its  emperors  of  the  Bahmineah 
 dynasty,  (which  commenced  with  Hassan  Caco,  A.  D.  1347,)  ap- 
 pear to  have  exceeded  in  power  and  splendor  those  of  Delhi,  even 
 at  the  most  flourishing  periods  of  their  history;  The  seat  of  gov- 
 ernment was  at  Calberga,  which  was  centrical  to  the  great  body  of 
 the  empire,  and  is  at  this  day  a  considerable  city.  Like  other 
 overgrown  empires,  it  fell  to  pieces  with  its  own  weight,  and  out 
 of  it  were  formed  four  potent  kingdoms,  under  the  names 
 of  Visiapour  (properly  Bejapour),  Golconda,  Berar,  and  Amed- 
 nagur,  of  whose  particular  limits  and  inferior  members  we  are  not 
 well  informed.  Each  of  these  subsisted  with  a  considerable  de- 
 gree of  power  until  the  Mongul  conquest;  and  the  two  first,  as  we 
 have  seen  above,  preserved  their  independency  until  the  time  of 
 Aurungzebe."t 
 
 Chronology.']  The  Hindoo  chronology  published  by  Anquetil 
 du  Perron,  is  that  of  the  rajas  or  sovereigns  of  Bengal ;  and  the 
 most  remarkable  facts  are  repeated  invasions  by  the  Persians,  one 
 of  them  supposed  to  be  fourteen  centuries  before  the  Christian  era. 
 This  kingdom  of  Bengal  seems  to  have  included  almost  the  whole 
 of  Gangetic  Hindostan.  But  the  names  and  extent  of  the  early 
 kingdoms  of  Hindostan  are  little  know^  or  investigated. 
 
 Historical  Epochs.]  The  Hindoo  epochs  consisting  of  millions 
 of  years,  and  other  fabulous  circumst?nces,  have  hitherto  attracted 
 more  attention  than  a  clear  arrangement  of  the  Hindoo  sovereign- 
 ties, and  an  account  of  the  most  authentic  facts  that  can  be  recovered 
 concerning  them.  While  these  chronologies  differ  by  one  or  two 
 thousand  years  concerning  the  incarnation  of  Buddha,  we  may 
 judge  of  their  exactness  in  less  important  events. 
 
 Tlie  Hindoos  never  seem  to  have  bqasled  of  one  native  historian, 
 and  the  best  materials  are  derived  from  Persian  memoirs ;  from 
 "which  Ferishta  himself,  a  Persian,  compiled  his  histories  of  Hin- 
 dostan towards  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century.  Indeed 
 in  the  whole  complex  maze  of  Hindoo  literature  there  is  a  striking 
 deficiency  of  good  sense. |     In  this    defect  of  native   records   we 
 
 *  Asiatic  Resenrches,  vol.  ii.  and  Bcrnoullis's  collection  concerning  Intlia.  Berlin, 
 1786,  4to.  tome  ii.  f  Iteniiell,  Ixxix. 
 
 +  iVlr.  Ik'iitley  observes,  As.  Res.  v.  31;>,  that  the  Hindoo  eras  and  dates  are  n!l 
 Mended  together  into  one  mass  of  absurdity  and  conlradictii.n.  A  envious  instance  of 
 this  ajipears  vulh  regard  to  the  celebrated  lemi>les  of  f.llora,  and  the  singular  lortrcM 
 of  Deoghir,  or  Dowa'tabad,  formed  on  a  liigh  conic  rock  ;  lor  the  ISliihomeians,  whom 
 we  Kurojif-ans  regard  as  rather  extravagant  in  chronology,  say  that  they  were  ended 
 900  years  ago;  while  the  Bramins  affirm  that  they  have  stood  not  less  lh;»n  IVii^ 
 years  !  As.  Uts.  >'i.  385. 
 
HINDOSTAN.  565 
 
 must  be  contented  with  the  epochs  derived  from  foreign  sources. 
 
 1.  The  invasion  by  Alexander  the  Great,  who  found  western 
 India  divided  among  numerous  potentates,  though  he  advanced 
 little  farther  than  Lahore.  If  even  the  northern  half  of  Hindos- 
 tan  had  been  subject  to  one  sovereign,  as  fabled  in  the  native  t?.les, 
 the  circumstance  would  have  been  clear  and  apparent. 
 
 2.  At  a  long  interval  appears  the  conquest  of  the  north-western 
 part  by  Mahmoud  of  Ghizni,  A.  D.   1000. 
 
 3.  The  dynasty  of  the  Patan,  or  Afghan  emperors  begins  with 
 Cuttub,  A.  D.  1205,  and  ends  Avith  Mahmoud  III.    1393. 
 
 4.  The  great  Moguls  or  Mongul  emperors  begin  with  Babar, 
 1525  ;  and  continued,  with  a  short  interruption,  by  the  Patans  to 
 Shah  Aulum,  to  1760. 
 
 The  invasion  by  Timur,  and,  at  a  distant  interval,  that  by  Nadir, 
 also  form  remarkable  epochs  in  the  history  of  this  passive  coun- 
 try. The  latter  may  be  said  to  have  virtually  dissolved  the  Mo- 
 gul empire.  The  Portugese  settlements  were  followed  by  those 
 of  the  Dutch.  The  French  power  began  to  predominate  in  1749, 
 but  speedily  closed  in  1761,  with  the  loss  of  their  principal  settle- 
 ment Pondicherry.  As  merchants  the  English  had  long  held 
 small  settlements  in  Hindostan  ;  but  the  expedition  into  Tanjore, 
 1749,  was  the  first  enterprise  against  a  native  prince.  Other  con- 
 tests followed  concerning  Arcot,  in  the  kingdom  of  Carnada,  or 
 what  we  call  the  Carnatic.  In  1756,  the  fort  of  Calcutta,  the 
 chief  settlement  of  the  English  in  Bengal,  was  taken  by  the  na- 
 bob, and  many  of  their  brave  countrymen  perished  in  a  shocking 
 maniiCr,  from  being  confined  in  a  sniall  chamber.  The  battle  of 
 Plassey,  fought  in  June,  1757,  laid  the  foundation  of  the  subse- 
 quent power  of  Britain.  Lord  Clive,  governor  of  Bengal,  1765, 
 ©btained  a  grant  from  the  nominal  Mogul,  of  Bengal,  Bahar,  and 
 part  of  Orissa,  on  condition  of  an  annual  tribute.  Soon  after  the 
 English  were  engaged  in  a  contest  with  Hyuer  Alii,  a  soldier  of 
 fortune,  who  had  dethroned  the  lineal  sovereign  of  Mysore,  and 
 extended  his  conquests  to  the  adjacept  territories.  Some  conflicts 
 followed  on  the  confines  of  Carnada  and  Mysore  ;  but  the  event 
 was  little  advantageous  to  either  party.  Hydcr,  dying  in  1783, 
 was  succeeded  by  his  son  Tippoo,  who  seems  to  have  been  a 
 prince  of  inferior  abilities,  and  expiated  his  ill  arranged  plans  by 
 his  death,  and  the  partition  of  his  territories,  in  1799. 
 
 The  Bengal  provinces  have  been  in  possession  of  the  British 
 since  1765  ;  and  Benares  was  added  in  1775.  This  portion  might 
 constitute  a  considerable  kingdom,  and  is  sufficiently  compact  and 
 secure  by  natural  advantages,  independently  of  a  formidable  force. 
 The  Sircars,  or  detached  provinces,  partly  belong  to  Golcon- 
 da,  and  partly  to  Orissa,  forming  a  long  narrow  slip  of  country 
 from  twenty  to  seventy-five  miles  wide,  but  about  three  hundred 
 and  fifty  in  length.  The  word  Sircar  is  almost  synonymous  with 
 an  English  county,  implying  a  division  of  a  Souba,  or  great  prov- 
 ince ;  and  these  detached  Sircars,  or  comities,  being  to  the  north 
 of  Madras,  on  which  they  are  dependent,  arc  commo.nly  styled  the 
 
56S  HINDOSTAN. 
 
 northern  Sircars.*     In  1754,  thejr  were  acquired  by  the  French  ; 
 and  conquered  by  the  English,  under  Colcncl  Clive,  in  1759. 
 
 The  English  settled  at  Madras  about  the  year  1640  ;  and  their 
 territory  here  extends  about  108  miles  along  the  shore,  and  47  in 
 breadth,  in  the  centre  of  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Cai'nada.  The 
 recent  and  extensive  acquisitions  in  the  south  haA^e  been  already 
 mentioned. 
 
 Nor  among  the  modern  historical  epochs  of  Hindostan  must  the 
 celebrated  battle  of  Panniput,  not  far  to  the  N.  W.  of  Delhi,  be 
 omitted,  which  was  fought  in  1761,  between  the  Mahometans  un- 
 der Abdalha,  king  of  Candahar,  and  the  Marattas,  in  which  the 
 latter  were  defeated:  the  Mahometans  were  computed  at  15'0,000, 
 and  the  Marattas  at  200,000. 
 
 Ancient  Monuments.']  The  ancient  monuments  of  Hindostan 
 are  very  numerous,  and  of  \afious  descriptions,  exclusive  of  the 
 tombs  and  other  edifices  of  the  Mahometan  conquerors.  Soittc 
 of  the  most  remarkable  are  excavated  temples,  statues,  relievos, 
 £;g.  in  an  island  near  Bombay. t  The  idols  represented  seem 
 clearly  to  belong  to  the  present  mythology  of  Hindostan  ;  but  at 
 what  period  these  edifices  were  modelled,  must  be  left  in  the 
 darkness  of  Hindoo  chronology.  Several  ancient  gi'ants  of  land, 
 aome  coins,  and  seals,  have  also  been  found.  Yet  all  these  re- 
 mains little  correspond  with  the  exaggerated  ideas  entertained 
 concerning  the  early  civilization  of  this  renowned  country  ;  while 
 the  Egyptian  pyramids,  temples,  and  obelisks,  strongly  confirm 
 the  accounts  preserved  by  the  ancient  historians. 
 
 Mythology.]  Though  the  mythology  of  the  Hindoos  may  pre- 
 tend to  great  antiquity,  yet  their  present  form  of  religion  is  sup- 
 posed to  vary  considerably  from  the  ancient.  It  is  inferred  that 
 while  the  religion  of  Boodha,  still  retained  by  the  Birmans  and 
 other  adjacent  nations,  was  the  real  ancient  system  of  Hindostan, 
 the  artful  Bramins  have  introduced  many  innovations  in  order  to 
 increase  their  own  power  and  influence.  In  a  system  so  full  of 
 imagination  it  is  no  M^onder,  that  the  analyses  are  sometimes  dis- 
 cordant, but  it  appears  that  the  fabric  rests  on  that  almost  univer- 
 sal system  of  the  east,  the  belief  in  a  supreme  Creator  too  inefl'a- 
 fele  and  sublime  for  human  adoration,  which  is  therefore  address- 
 ed to  inferior,  but  great  and  powerful,  divinities. 
 
 Religion.]  The  religion  of  the  Hindoos  is  artfully  interwoven 
 with  the  common  offices,  of  life;  and  the  different  casts  are  sup- 
 posed to  originate  from  Brahma,  the  immediate  agent  of  creation, 
 under  the  supreme  power,  in  the  following  manner  : 
 
 The  Brahmin  from  the  mouth  (wisdom)  :  To  pray,  to  read,  to 
 instruct. 
 
 The  Chehteree^  from  the  arms  (strength)  :  To  draw  the  bow,  to 
 fight,  to  govern. 
 
 The  Brice^  from  the  belly  or  thighs  (nourishment)  :  To  provide 
 the  necessaries  of  life  by  agriculture  and  traffic. 
 
 The  Sooder,  from  the  feet  (subjection)  :  To  labour,  to  serve. :f 
 
 *  Ilennell,  exxxir.      f  -'^s-  Res,  vol.  i.  and  vi.      t  Robertson's  Disquisition,  p.  Z3S. 
 
HINDOSTAN.  567 
 
 The  ancients  sometimes  enlarged  the  number  of  these  casts,  or 
 perpetual  orders  of  men,  by  an  erroneous  subdivision  of  two  or 
 more,  yet  it  is  impossible  to  read  their  accounts  without  perceiv- 
 ing that  the  casts  themselves  existed  from  time  immemorial,  but 
 with  one  important  variation.  For  it  would  appear  that  in  ancient 
 times  the  Brahmans,  like  the  priests,  or  monks  of  Ava,  Siam,  and 
 other  states,  which  still  follow  the  worship  of  Boodh,  were  not 
 hereditary  or  a  distinct  levitical  tribe,  but  that  any  member  of  the 
 other  casts  might  enter  into  this  order,  which  was  of  course  deem- 
 ed inferior  to  the  chief  secular  or  military  cast.  At  present  the 
 meanest  Brahmin  will  not  condescend  to  eat  with  his  sovereign. 
 Setting  the  i-idiculous  and  fanciful  tales  of  this  interested  tribe 
 wholly  out  of  the  question,  it  would  appear  that  in  the  usual  circle 
 of  human  affairs,  a  contcothad  arisen  between  the  regal  and  eccle- 
 siastical powers.  The  latter,  instead  of  being  subdued,  as  in 
 China  and  Japan,  acquired  the  superiority,  as  in  Tibet.  But  in 
 Hindostan,  frum  a  most  refined  and  cunning  policy,  the  priesthood 
 asserted  the  divine  institution  of  the  several  casts,  and  as  was  nat- 
 ural, pronounced  their  own  to  be  the  supreme,  and  possessed  of 
 innate  and  hereditary  sanctity. 
 
 Governvtent.^  Hindostan  is  now  divided  into  many  govern- 
 ments, the  form  of  which  must  be  considered  in  describing  the 
 several  states.  Suffice  it  here  to  observe,  that  though  the  Bra- 
 mins  be  the  most  dignified  cast,  yet  there  do  not  seem  to  have 
 been  one  or  more  high  priests,  as  in  the  surrounding  countries. 
 The  sovereignty  was  abandoned  to  the  military  cast,  and  the  mon- 
 arch was  presumed  to  be  the  proprietor  of  all  the  lands,  except 
 those  belonging  to  the  chuixh.  The  Ryots  held  their  possessions 
 by  a  lease,  at  a  fixed  rate,  and  considered  as  perpetual.  The  Ze- 
 mindars were  in  the  opinion  of  some,  only  collectors  of  the  royal 
 tents  from  the  Ryots  ov  farmers ;  but  according  to  others,  the 
 Zemindars  were  landed  gentlemen,  who  had  a  hereditary  right  to 
 these  rents,  upon  paying  a  settled  proportion  to  the  crown. 
 
 Laivs.^  The  laws  of  the  Hindoos  are  intimately  blended  witli 
 their  religion,  and  the  curious  reader  may  consult  the  code,  trans- 
 lated and  published  by  the  direction  of  Mr.  Hastings. 
 
 Pofiulationr\  The  population  of  this  extensive  part  of  Asia,  is 
 supposed  to  amount  to  sixty  millions,  of  which  the  British  pos- 
 sessions may  now  perhaps  contain  a  quai'ter,  especially  as  fre- 
 quent recent  conflicts  have  thinned  the  population  in  many  other 
 parts  of  Hindostan.  When  it  is  considered  that  China  is  about 
 one  quarter  less  than  Hindostan,  and  yet  is  said  to  contain  333 
 millions,  we  may  judge  of  the  boasted  effects  of  Hindoo  philoso- 
 phy, more  fit  for  the  visionary  call  of  the  recluse,  than  to  promote 
 enterprise  and  industry.  • 
 
 General  Revenues.']  The  general  revenues  of  Hindostan  Avere 
 computed  in  the  time  of  Aurunzeb,  as  already  mentioned,  by  a 
 precise  calculation  of  those  of  the  several  provinces,  at  thirty-two 
 millions  sterling  ;  equal  perhaps,  considering  the  comparative 
 price  of  products,  to  one  hundred  and  sixty  niillions  sterling  in 
 modern  Knarland. 
 
^68  HINDOSTAN. 
 
 ■  Potitical  Imfiortayice.']  The  political  iinportaiice  and  relatione 
 of  Hinclostan  ai-e  now  divided  among  many  powers.  So  m'<^orable 
 was  the  internal  constitution  that  this  wide  and  populous  country, 
 defended  on  all  sidesby  ranges  of  mountains,  has  in  all  ages  fallen 
 a  prey  to  every  invader.  The  fantastic  institutions,  like  those  of 
 the  ancient  Persians,  prevent  the  Hindoos  from  forming  a  marl- 
 time  power  ;  and  even  the  small  fleets  of  Siam  and  Pegu,  which 
 follow  the  more  liberal  doctrines  of  Boodh,  seem  unrivalled  in  the 
 history  of  Hindostan. 
 
 Manners  and  Customs?^  The  manners  and  customs  of  the  Hin- 
 doos are  intimately  blended  with  their  religion,  and  ai"e  univer- 
 sally similar,  with  a  few  exceptions  in  mountainous  and  other  pe- 
 culiar districts.  One  of  the  most  singular  begins  to  expire,  that 
 of  giving  the  living  widow  to  the  same  flames  with  her  husband's 
 corpse.  The  ancients  represent  the  Bramins  as  accustomed  to 
 terminate  their  own  lives  on  funeral  piles  lighted  by  themselves. 
 But  by  what  refinement  of  cruelty  this  custom  was  extended  to 
 involuntary  and  helpless  females,  has  not  appeared  ;  perhaps  the 
 cause  was  to  enforce  the  preservation  of  their  husband's  health, 
 by  making  their  life  depend  on  his.  But  this  and  other  monstrous 
 institutions  of  the  Bramins  are  treated  with  lenity,  and  even  re- 
 spect, by  many  authors,  who  seem  to  inherit  the  Greek  astonish- 
 ment at  these  fanatics. 
 
 The  other  manners  and  customs  of  the  Hindoos  have  been  il- 
 lustrated by  many  travellers.  As  soon  as  a  child  is  born,  it  is 
 carefullj;  registered  in  its  proper  cast,  and  astrologers  are  con- 
 sulted concerning  its  destiny  ;  for  the  Hindoos,  like  the  Turks, 
 are  strict  predestinarians.  A  Bramin  imposes  the  name.  The 
 infant  thrives  by  what  we  should  call  neglect ;  and  no  M'here  are 
 seen  more  vigor  and  elegance  of  form.  The  boys  are  generally 
 taught  reading  and  writing  by  Bramins,  but  the  girls  are  confined 
 at  home  till  their  twelfth  year.*  Polygamy  is  practised,  but  one 
 wife  is  acknowledged  as  supreme.  It  is  well  known  that  the  Hin- 
 doos are  extremely  abstemious,  and  wholly  abstain  from  animal 
 food  and  intoxicating  liquors  ;  yet  if  we  judge  from  the  fanatic 
 penances,  suicides,  and  other  superstitious  frenzies,  no  where  on 
 earth  is  the  mind  so  much  disordered.  The  houses  are  built  of 
 earth  or  bricks,  covered  with  mortar,  and  sometimes  with  ex- 
 cellent cement,  with  no  windows,  or  only  small  apertures.  There 
 is  generally  only  a  ground  floor,  inclosing  a  court,  Avith  a  small 
 gallery,  supported  by  slight  wooden  pillars.  The  amusements 
 consist  of  religious  processions  ;  but  though  dancing  girls  abound, 
 yet  theatrical  exhibitions  do  not  seem  so  common,  as  in  the  coun- 
 tries farther  to  the  east. 
 
 Languages^^  The  general  ancient  language  of  Hindostan  is 
 believed  to  have  been  the  Sanscrit,  an  original  and  refined  speech, 
 compared  by  Sir  William  Jones  with  the  Greek  and  Latin.  Thc 
 more  common  dialects  are  chiefly  the  foUowiiig.f 
 
 *  See  a  voyage  to  the  East  Indies  by  IVa.  Paoiino  da  San  IJaitoloraeo,  ISOO,  8vo 
 Tlie  aiitlior's'luv  name  was  Wcsdin,  au  Austrian. 
 t  Wcsdin,  oTr. 
 
HINDOSTAN.  569 
 
 1.  That  of  Kandi,  in  the  interior  of  Ceylon,  which  is  said  nearly 
 to  resemble  the  Sanscrit. 
 
 2.  The  Tamulac,  used  in  the  Deccan,  or  southern  part,  in  Ma- 
 dura, Mysore,  and  some  parts  of  the  Malabar  coast. 
 
 3.  The  Malabar  language,  extending  from  cape  Comari  to  the 
 mountain  Illi,  which  divides  Malabar  from  Canara. 
 
 4.  That  of  Canara,  which  extends  as  far  as  Goa. 
 
 "  5.  The  Marashda  language.  It  is  prevalent  throughout  the 
 whole  country  of  the  Marashdi^  who  are  very  improperly  called 
 ■Marattas. 
 
 "  6.  The  Talenga,  an  harmonious,  nervous,  masculine,  copi- 
 ous, and  learned  language,  which,  like  the  Sanscrit,  has  fifty -two 
 characters  ;  and  these  are  sufficient  to  write  the  latter.  It  is 
 spoken  on  the  coast  of  Orixa,  in  Golconda,  on  the  river  Kishna, 
 and  as  far  as  the  mountains  of  Balangat.  All  these  languages 
 have  their  own  alphabets  :  so  that  in  every  province  you  must 
 make  yourself  acquainted  with  a  distinct  kind  of  characters,  if 
 you  wish  to  express  your  thoughts  in  the  dialect  common  in  each. 
 
 "  7.  The  common  Bengal  language  :  a  wretched  dialect,  cor- 
 rupted in  the  utmost  degree.  It  has  no  V,  and  instead  of  it  em- 
 ploys the  B.  It  is  spoken  at  Calcutta,  and  in  Bengal,  on  the  banks 
 of  the  Ganges. 
 
 "  8.  The  Devangaric,  or  Hindostan  language,  called  by  some 
 Nagru,  Nagari,  and  also  Devanagari.  It  is  spoken  at  Benares,  or 
 Venares,  and  consists  of  fifty-two  characters,  with  which  the  Sans- 
 crit may  be  written. 
 
 "  9.  The  Guzaratic,  which  has  been  introduced  not  only  into 
 the  kingdom  of  Guzarat,  but  also  at  Barsche,  Surat,  Tatta,  and 
 the  neighborhood  of  the  Balangat  mountains.  Its  characters  are 
 little  different  from  those  of  the  Devanagaric. 
 
 "  10.  The  Nepalic,  which  is  spoken  in  the  kingdom  of  Nepaul, 
 and  has  a  great  similarity  to  the  Devanagaric." 
 
 Literature.^  The  literature  of  Hindostan  doubtless  contains 
 several  valuable  and  curious  monuments  ;  but  their  epochs  are 
 extremely  uncertain.  There  seems  no  chronology  of  authors, 
 who  successively  quote  or  mention  each  other  ;  and  there  is  not 
 even  any  great  land  mark,  like  the  age  of  Confucius,  among  the 
 Chuiese.  Hence  little  else  than  confusion  and  contradiction  are 
 to  be  found  in  the  numerous  accounts  published  of  Hindoo  litera- 
 ture. 
 
 The  most  important  books  are  the  Vedas  ;  there  are  also  some 
 epic  poems,  which  pretend  to  contain  fragments  of  genuine  his- 
 tory. "  i  he  most  ancient,  called  Ramayna,*  was  written  by  Val- 
 meeki,  and  next  in  celebrity,  is  the  Mahabarat  of  Vyasa,  who  is 
 said  to  have  been  the  author  of  some  Pui^anas,  and  of  course  could 
 not  have  flourished  above  seven  hundred  years  ago  ;  and  it  is 
 probable  that  the  more  ancient  poem  cannot  aspire  to  a  much 
 higher  date.     It  is  a  great  singularity  that  the  old  Hindoo  grants 
 
 *  This  work  ha»  been  translated  by  Rev.  Drs.  Carey,  and  Marshman,  and  printed 
 at  Serampore,  in  180G.  i 
 
 VOL.    II.  72 
 
570  HINDOSTA>5'. 
 
 of  land,  many  of  which  have  been  translated  and  published,  are 
 extremely  long,  and  in  a  strange  poetical  or  inflated  style,  some 
 of  the  compound  words  consisting  of  not  less  than  one  hundred 
 and  fifty  syllables  !  When  we  compare  these  singularities  with 
 the  brevity  and  clearness  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  inscriptions, 
 and  the  unbiassed  dictates  of  plain  good  sense,  we  are  led  to  con- 
 clude that  the  Hindoos  are  the  puerile  slaves  of  a  capricious  im- 
 agination. And  though  some  translations  of  their  best  works 
 have  already  appeared,  they  have  not  acquired  the  smallest  de- 
 gree of  European  reputation  ;  and  have  very  little  interested  a 
 few  curious  inquirers,  though  eager  to  be  pleased.  To  compare 
 such  tedious  trifles,  alike  destitute  of  good  sense,  vigorous  genius, 
 or  brilliant  fancy,  with  the  immortal  productions  of  Greece  or 
 Rome,  would  only  confirm  the  idea,  that  the  climate  itself  impairs 
 judgment,  while  it  inflames  imagination. 
 
 The  Hindoos  are  ignorant  of  the  Chinese  art  of  printing,  nor 
 have  we  any  rules  for  determining  the  antiquity  of  their  manu- 
 scripts. To  an  exact  inquirer  this  would  have  been  the  first  topic 
 of  investigation  ;  but  it  has,  on  the  contrary,  been  completely  neg- 
 lected. We  have  merely  the  bold  assertions  of  Bramins,  eagerly 
 imbibed  by  European  credulity,  instead  of  successive  arguments 
 and  proofs. 
 
 Ancient  Civilization?^  The  ancient  civilization  of  the  Hindoos 
 has  probably  been  greatly  exaggerated,  both  with  regard  to  its 
 degree,  and  its  duration  ;  they  are  nevertheless  at  present  in  gen- 
 eral highly  civilized,  and  of  gentle  and  amiable  manners.  But 
 perhaps  in  no  art  nor  science  are  they  equal  to  the  Chinese  or 
 Japanese  ;  and  in  most  are  confessedly  greatly  inferior. 
 
 Universities.']  The  chief  university  in  the  north,  is  that  of  Be- 
 nares, a  most  celebrated  and  ancient  school,  now  included  in  the 
 Eng-lish  possessions.  In  the  Deccan,  the  academy  of  Triciur,  on 
 the  Malabar  coast,  is  also  in  great  repute.  "  At  Cangiburam.,  in 
 Carnate,  there  is  still  a  celebrated  Brahman  school,  which,  ac- 
 cording to  the  testimony  of  Ptolemy,  existed  in  the  first  century 
 of  the  Christian  era  ;  and  its  members  are  certainly  equal  in  ce- 
 lebrity to  the  Brahmans  of  Fanares,  or  Benares.*  It  is  to  be  hop- 
 ed that  the  recent  acquisitions  in  the  south  will  lead  to  the  dis- 
 covery of  new  literary  treasures  in  that  quarter,  where  it  is  to  be 
 expected  that  native  knowledge  is  more  perfect,  than  in  the  north, 
 where  it  was  so  long  trampled  under  foot  by  the  Mahometan  con- 
 querors. 
 
 Inland  Nitvigation.']  With  respect  to  inland  navigation,  Hin- 
 dostan  forms  a  striking  contrast  with  China.  In  the  1 4th  centu- 
 ry, Feroz  III.  of  the  Patau  dynasty,  ordered  some  short  canals  to 
 be  dug  in  the  neighl)orhood  of  Delhi  ;  and  had  an  intention  of 
 uniting  the  Ganges  with  the  Indus,  or  Setlege.  This  intended 
 canal,  which  would  not  have  been  above  one  quarter  the  length  of 
 the  p:veat  canal  of  China,  has  been  praised,  as  a  wonderful  design  ; 
 a  sufficientproof  of  the  great  inferiority  of  the  Hindoos,  and  their 
 Mahometan  victors,  in  the  solid  and  useful  arts. 
 
 »  Wesdin,  283. 
 
HINDOSTAN.  571 
 
 Manufactures.']  The  manufactures  of  Hindostan  have  been 
 celebrated  from  early  antiquity,  particularly  the  muslins  and  other 
 fabrics  from  cotton.  Piece  goods  are  mentioned  by  the  author  of 
 the  Periplus,  and  other  ancient  writers,  who  praise  the  raanufac* 
 ture  and  its  beautiful  colors.  The  Hindoos,  in  the  time  of  Stra- 
 bo,  were  also  noted  for  elegant  works  in  metals  and  ivory.  Nor 
 is  Hindostan  celebrated  at  this  day  for  any  manufacture,  except 
 those  of  muslins  and  calicoes,  the  other  exports  consisting  of  dia- 
 monds, raw  silks,  with  a  few  wrought  silks,  spices,  drugs,  8cc. 
 The  shawls  ofCashmir  are  also  deservedly  esteemed  ;  being  there 
 woven  from  a  material  chiefly  supplied  by  Tibet.  Painting  is  in 
 its  infancy  ;  and  they  arc  strangers  to  shade  and  perspective. 
 Sculpture  is  as  little  advanced  as  painting,  the  design  and  execu- 
 lion  being  alike  bad  ;  yet  the  temples  are  sometimes  majestic  and 
 solemn.  In  most  trades  very  few  tools  are  em.ployed.  The  sim- 
 ple loom  is  reared  in  the  morning  under  a  tree,  and  carried  home 
 in  the  evening. 
 
 JVative  Products.']  It  is  the  abundance  of  native  products, 
 ■which  has  in  all  ages  rendered  Hindostan  the  centre  of  great  trade. 
 Diamonds,  and  some  other  precious  stones,  are  products  almost 
 peculiar  ;  as  well  as  many  spices,  aromatics,  and  drugs.  In 
 modern  times  the  tea  and  porcelain  of  China,  and  other  oriental 
 articles,  have  been  vaguely  included  among  those  of  the  East  In- 
 dies. But  rice,  sugar,  and  many  articles  of  luxury,  are  products 
 of  Hindostan. 
 
 Climate  and  Seasons.]  The  climate  and  seasons  are  consid- 
 erably diversified  by  difference  of  latitude,  and  local  situation. 
 Yet  in  general,  though  the  northern  Alps  of  Tibet  be  covered 
 with  perpetual  snow,  there  is  some  similarity  of  climate  through 
 the  wide  regions  of  Hindostan.  In  Bengal  the  hot,  or  dry  season, 
 begins  with  March,  and  continues  to  the  end  of  May,  the  ther- 
 mometer sometimes  rising  to  110°:  this  intense  heat  is  some- 
 times interrupted  by  violent  thunder  storms  from  tJie  lK)rth^\^st, 
 the  seat  of  the  grand  Alps  of  Asia.  The  rainy  season  continues 
 from  June  to  September  :  the  three  last  months  of  the  year  are 
 generally  pleasant  ;  but  excessive  fogs  often  prevail  in  January 
 and  February.  The  periodical  rains  are  also  felt  in  Sindetic  Hin- 
 dostan, except  in  Cashmir,  where  they  seem  to  be  excluded  by 
 tlie  surrounding  mountains.  In  the  rest  of  Hindostan  they  al- 
 most deluge  the  country,  descending  like  catai'acts  from  the  clouds, 
 and  the  Ganges  and  other  rivers  spread  to  a  wide  extent,  the  in- 
 undation ceasing  in  September.  By  the  latter  end  of  June  the 
 Ganges  has  risen  fifteen  feet  and  a  half,  out  of  thirty-two,  which 
 is  the  total  of  its  overflow.*  In  the  mountains  the  rainy  season 
 begins  early  in  April  ;  but  rarely  in  the  plains  till  the  latter  end 
 of  June.  "  By  the  latter  end  of  July  all  the  lower  parts  of  Bengal, 
 contiguous  to  the  Ganges  and  Burampooter,  are  overflowed,  and 
 form  an  inundation  of  more  than  a  hundred  miles  in  width  ;  noth- 
 ing appearing  but  villages  and  trees,  excepting  very  i-arely  the 
 
 *  Renncll,  3>i9. 
 
572  HINDOSTAN. 
 
 top  of  an  elevated  spot  (the  artificial  mound  of  some  deserted  vil- 
 lage) appearing  like  an  island." 
 
 In  the  southern  division  the  chains  of  the  Gauts,  or  mountains 
 of  Malabar  and  Coromandel,  supporting  the  high  table  land  in  the 
 centre,  intercept  the  gi'eat  mass  of  clouds  ;  and  the  alternate  S. 
 W.  and  N.  E.  winds,  called  the  Monsoons,  occasion  a  rainy  season 
 on  one  side  of  the  mountains  only,  that  is,  on  the  windward  side. 
 Yet  it  appears  that  during  the  first  part  of  the  rainy  monsoon,  in  May 
 and  June,  on  the  coast  of  Malabar,  a  considerable  quantity  of  rain 
 falls  in  the  upper  region,  or  table  land,  of  Mysore.  The  monsoon 
 is  from  the  N.  E.  from  October  to  April  ;  and  from  May  to  Sep- 
 tember in  the  opposite  direction.  The  rainy  season  on  the  coast 
 of  Coromandel  is  with  the  N.  E.  monsoon  ;  and  on  that  of  Mala- 
 bar with  the  S.  W.  :  in  general  Marcli,  April,  May,  and  June,  are 
 the  dry  months. 
 
 Hence,  while  in  Tibet  the  winter  nearly  corresponds  with  that 
 of  Switzerland  and  the  rest  of  Europe,  in  the  whole  extent  of  Hin- 
 dostan,  except  in  Cashmir,  there  can  hardly  be  said  to  be  a  vest- 
 ige of  winter,  except  the  thick  fogs  of  an  English  November: 
 and  excessive  rains,  or  excessive  heats,  form  the  chief  varieties  of 
 the  year. 
 
 General  Face  of  the  Country.']  The  aspect  of  this  wide  coun- 
 try is  greatly  diversified  ;  but  in  general  there  are  no  mountains 
 of  any  considerable  height,  the  highest  Gauts  in  the  south  not  be- 
 ing estimated  at  above  three  thousand  feet.  The  frontier  moun- 
 tains of  Tibet  are  of  small  elevation,  compared  with  those  of  the 
 interior  of  that  country  ;  and  the  wonderful  extent  of  Hindostan 
 consists  chiefly  of  extensive  plains,  fertilized  by  numerous  rivers 
 and  streams,  and  interspersed  with  a  few  ranges  of  hills.  The 
 periodical  rains  and  intense  heats  produce  luxuriance  of  vegeta- 
 tion, almost  unknown  to  any  other  country  on  the  globe  ;  and  the 
 variety  and  richness  of  the  vegetable  creation  delight  the  eye  of 
 every  spectator. 
 
 Soil.~\  'i  he  soil  in  some  places  consists  of  black  vegetable 
 mould,  to  the  depth  of  six  feet.  Rice  is  the  chief  grain  ;  and  on 
 the  dry  sandy  lands  of  the  coast  of  Coromandel,  great  industry  is 
 displayed  in  watering  it.* 
 
 Maize  and  the  sugar-cane  are  also  favorite  products.  Great 
 attention  to  manure  seems  far  from  being  so  general  as  in  China, 
 or  Japan  ;  nor  perhaps  is  it  necessary.  The  cultivation  of  cotton 
 is  also  widely  diffused  ;  and  this  plant  particularly  thrives  on  the 
 dry  coast  of  Coromandel. 
 
 Rivers.']  In  describing  the  large  and  numerous  rivers  of  Hin- 
 dostan, the  Ganges  and  Indus  shall  be  first  considered,  with  their 
 chief  tributary  streams  ;  and  a  short  account  of  the  principal 
 rivers  in  the  central  part  shall  be  followed  by  those  in  the  south- 
 ern division.  This  arrangement  naturally  arises  from  the  four 
 grand  divisions  formerly  mentioned. 
 
 The  Ganges  must  still  be  considered  as  the  sacred  sovereign  of 
 
 *  Sonnerat,  i.  TOG. 
 
HINDOSTAN.  573 
 
 the  Hindoo  rivers,  an  attribute  not  infringed  by  the  recent  discov- 
 er)' of  the  Burrampooter.  It  receives  such  a  number  of  important 
 tributary  streams,  that  its  magnitude  exceeds  what  might  have 
 been  expected  from  the  comparative  length  of  its  course  ;  which 
 may  however  be  estimated  at  about  fourteen  hundred  British 
 miles,  while  the  Hoan-ho  of  China  has  been  computed  at  two 
 thousand,  and  the  Kian-ku  at  two  thousand  two  hundred.  The 
 source  of  the  Ganges  remains  a  curious  object  of  investigation  ; 
 nor  can  much  reliance  be  placed  on  its  delineation  in  the  map  of 
 Tibet,  by  the  Chinese  Lamas,  published  by  Du  Ilalde,  and  follow- 
 ed by  all  succeeding  geographers.  Tieffenthaler  has  laid  down 
 the  latitude  of  the  noted  Gangoutra,  or  Cow's  mouth,  in  lat.  33°, 
 being  a  celebrated  cataract,  where  the  Ganges  is  said  to  pass 
 through  a  vast  cavern  in  a  mountain,  falling  into  a  large  bason, 
 which  it  has  worn  in  the  rock.  At  Hurdwar,  about  two  hundred 
 and  eighty  miles  to  the  south  of  the  Cow's  mouth,  (if  this  last  be 
 not  a  dream  of  the  fabling  Hindoos,)  the  Ganges  enters  the  wide 
 plains  of  Hindostan  ;  and  pursues  a  south-east  direction  by  the 
 ancient  city  of  Canoge,  once  the  capital  of  a  kingdom,  by  Allaha- 
 bad, Benares,  Patna,  Sec.  till  dividing  into  m.any  grind  and  capa- 
 cious mouths,  it  forms  an  extensive  delta  at  its  egress  into  the 
 gulf  of  Bengal.  The  extreme  mouths  of  the  Ganges  are  inter- 
 sected witn  isles,  called  the  Sunderbunds,  overgrown  with  tall 
 bamboos  and  other  luxuriant  vegetation,  the  impenetrable  haunts 
 of  the  royal  tiger,  and  other  beasts  of  prey.  On  the  westernmost 
 outlet  of  the  Ganges,  called  the  Hoogley,  or  Ugli,  stands  Calcut- 
 ta, the  capital  of  British  Hindostan.  This,  and  the  most  eastern, 
 which  receives  the  Burrampooter,  are  the  widest  and  most  im- 
 portant branches. 
 
 The  noblest  tributary  stream  of  the  Ganges  is  the  Burrampoo- 
 ter, or  as  styled  by  the  people  of  Asam,  the  Burrampoot,  being 
 the  Sampoo  of  the  Tibetans.  The  course  of  the  river,  and  its 
 junction  v/ith  the  Ganges,  were  first  ascertained  by  Major  Ren- 
 nell.  This  noble  river  runs  for  four  hundred  miles  through  the 
 British  territory  ;  and  for  the  last  60  miles  before  its  junction 
 with  the  Ganges,  is  from  four  to  five  miles  .wide.  On  their  union 
 below  Luckipour,  they  form  a  body  of  running  fresh  water,  re- 
 sembling a  gulf  of  the  sea,  interspersed  with  islands,  some  of 
 which  rival  in  size  and  fertility  the  Isle  of  Wight.  In  the  mouths 
 of  the  Ganges,  and  the  Megna,  or  Burrampoot,  the  bore  or  sud- 
 den influx  of  the  tide  will  rise  instantaneously  to  die  height  of  from 
 five  to  twelve  feet.*  Between  Bengal  and  Tibet,  the  Burram- 
 poot passes  through  the  country  of  Asam,  a  region  hitherto  little 
 known,  and  which  may  be  here  briefly  described.  It  is  divided  into 
 two  parts  by  the  river  ;  the  northern  being  called  Uttercul,  and 
 the  southern  Dachincul.  The  mountains  of  Duleh,  and  Landa, 
 divide  Asam  from  Tibet.f  Asam  is  intersected  by  several  streams 
 which  run  into  the  Burrampoot ;  among  which  is  the  Donee,  in 
 the  south,  the  environs  of  which  present  fields,  groves,  and  eai- 
 
 *  Hcnncll,  S58  -  t  As.  Res.  ii.  171  = 
 
^U  HINDOSTAN. 
 
 dens.  Among  the  products  are  many  kinds  of  valuable  fruits, 
 with  pepper,  cocoa  nuts,  sugar,  and  ginger.  The  silk  is  said  to 
 equal  that  of  China;  nor  are  the  musk  deer  unknown.  The 
 northern  province,  Uttarcul,  surpasses  the  southern  in  tillage  and 
 population  ;  gold  and  silver  are  said  to  be  found  in  the  sand  of  the 
 rivers,  and  to  furnish  employment  to  many  of  the  natives.  The 
 Hindoo  tenets  are  not  known  by  the  generality,  though  thei*e  be 
 Bome  Bramins,  and  the  vulgar  dialect  somewhat  resembles  that  of 
 Bengal.  The  raja,  or  king,  resides  at  Ghargon,  the  capital,  which, 
 by  this  account,  stands  on  the  south  of  the  gi*eat  river  :  it  is  fenced 
 ■with  bamboos,  and  has  four  gates,  constructed  of  stone  and  earth. 
 The  palace,  public  saloon,  8cc.  seem  rudely  to  resemble  those  of 
 the  Birmans.  The  natives  are  a  stout  and  brave  race  ;  and  re- 
 peatedly foiled  the  invasions  of  the  Moguls. 
 
 The  course  of  the  Burrampoot  is  supposed  to  be  nearly  equal 
 in  length  to  that  of  the  Ganges.  The  sources  of  these  great  I'iv- 
 ers  are  stated  to  be  very  near,  yet  they  separate  to  the  distance  of 
 more  than  a  thousand  miles,  and  afterwards  join  in  their  termina- 
 tion. 
 
 The  most  important  tributary  streams  which  swell  the  Ganges, 
 are  the  Gagra,  also  called  Sarjoo,  (a  great  part  of  whose  course, 
 like  those  of  the  Cosa  and  Teesta,  belong  to  Tibet)  ;  the  Jumna, 
 or  Yumena,  which  receives  many  considerable  rivers  from  the 
 south,  particularly  the  Chumbul  and  the  Betwa  :  and  lastly  the 
 Soan. 
 
 The  Gagra,  after  pursuing  a  long  course  from  the  mountains 
 of  Tibet,  pervades  the  province  of  Oude. 
 
 The  Jumna  rises  from  the  mountains  of  Sirinagur,  pursuing 
 nearly  a  parallel  course  to  the  Ganges,  on  the  west,  as  the  Gagra 
 does  on  the  east  ;  but  its  comparative  course  has  not  exceeded 
 five  hundred  miles  when  it  flows  into  the  Ganges  at  Allahabad. 
 By  receiving  numerous  and  extensive  streams  from  the  south, 
 the  Jumna  contributes  greatly  to  increase  the  breadth  of  Gangetic 
 Hindostan  ;  and  the  Chumbul,  which  joins  the  Jumna,  is  itself 
 swelled  with  many  tributary  streams. 
 
 The  Soan  is  said  to  spring  from  the  same  lake  with  the  Nerbu- 
 da  (which  flows  in  an  opposite  direction  to  the  gulf  of  Cambay,) 
 and  joins  the  Ganges  not  far  below  its  union  with  the  Gagra. 
 Several  streams  of  smaller  account  fall  into  the  Hoogley,  or  west- 
 ern branch  of  the  Ganges. 
 
 The  Indus,  and  Its  confluent  streams,  form  the  next  object. 
 This  celebrated  river  is  by  the  natives  called  Sonde,  or  Sindeh, 
 and  in  the  original  Sanscrit,  Seendho.  It  is  also  called  Nilab,  or 
 the  Blue  River.  The  source,  like  that  of  the  Ganges,  remains 
 unknown.  From  the  map  of  Islcnieff,  1777,  it  appears  that  the 
 chain  of  mountains  which  gives  source  to  the  Amu,  or  Gihon,  on 
 one  side,  and  on  the  other  to  the  rivers  of  Little  Bucharia,  is  that 
 of  the  Beluv  Tag,  or  Cloudy  mountains  ;  from  the  eastern  side  of 
 Avhich  chain  the  Indus  seems  to  arise.  Its  comparative  course 
 may  be  about  a  thousand  British  miles,  when  it  forms  a  delta  in 
 the  province  of  Sinde,  enteinng  by  many  mouths  into  the  Indian 
 sea. 
 
HINDOSTAN.  575 
 
 The  tributary  rivers  of  the  Sinde  chiefly  join  it  in  the  northern 
 half  of  its  course,  where  they  form  the  Panjab,  or  country  of  five 
 rivers.  From  the  west  run  into  the  Indus  the  Kameh,  with  its 
 tributary  streams,  and  the  Comul  :  from  the  east  the  Behut,  or 
 Hydaspes  ;  the  Chunab,  or  Acesinas;  the  Rauvee,  or  Hydrastes; 
 and  the  Setlege,  or  Hesudrus,  with  a  tributary  stream  on  the 
 west,  the  Hyphasis  ;  the  Panjab  country  being  on  the  east  of  the 
 Sinde.  The  whole  of  this  part  of  Hindostan  is  little  known  to  the 
 moderns  ;  and  it  is  uncertain  whether  the  Caggar,  a  considerable 
 and  distant  river  to  the  east,  join  the  Sinde,  or  fall  into  the  gulf  of 
 Cutch.* 
 
 Having  thus  briefly  described  the  most  important  rivers  in  the 
 two  first  grand  divisions  of  Hindostan,  those  of  the  central  part 
 must  next  be  considered,  being  chiefly  the  Pudda,  Nerbudda,  and 
 Taptee,  on  the  west  ;  and  on  the  east  the  Subanrceka,  or  Subun- 
 reka,  which  joins  the  sea  about  thirty  miles  to  the  west  of  that 
 mouth  of  the  Ganges  called  the  Hoogley,  or  more  properly,  from 
 a  city  on  its  shore,  the  Ugli.  The  Subunreka  being  here  consid- 
 ered as  the  N.  E.  boundary  of  Central  Hindostan,  is  followed  by 
 the  Bramnee,  the  Mahanada  ;  and  after  passing  the  little  streams 
 of  the  Sircars  by  the  Godaveri,  the  last  and  most  important  stream 
 of  Central  Hindostan. 
 
 The  Godaveri  rises  at  Trimbuck  Nassor,  in  the  western  Gaute, 
 more  properly  called  the  Suckhien  mountains,  from  several 
 sources,  about  seventy  miles  to  the  N.  E.  of  Bombay. f  This 
 great  river  was  little  known  in  Europe  till  recent  times  ;  and  is 
 also  called  the  Ganga,  a  Hindoo  term  for  a  river  in  general,  though 
 applied  by  pre-eminence  to  the  Ganges. |  About  ninety  miles 
 from  its  egress  into  the  sea,  the  Godaveri  receives  a  large  river, 
 the  Bain  Gonga,  which  pervades  immense  teak  forests  in  a  singu^ 
 lar  wild  country  inhabited  by  savages,  in  the  centre  of  Hindostan, 
 and  as  yet  little  known  or  explored.  The  Bain  Gonga  was  first 
 discovered  to  Europeans  by  the  late  Colonel  Camac,  its  course 
 being  about  four  hundred  miles,  while  that  of  the  Godaveri  may 
 be  seven  hundred.  This  last  great  river,  like  another  Nile  or 
 Ganges,  fertilizes  the  country  ;  and  from  the  benefits  which  it 
 confers  is  esteemed  sacred.  Besides  the  Bain  or  Eaun  Gonga,  it 
 receives  many  tributary  streams,  as  the  Burda  and  others  from 
 the  north  ;  and  from  the  south  a  circuitous  large  river,  the  Mun- 
 zora,  which  passes  by  Beder. 
 
 The  next  in  consequence,  in  the  central  division  of  Hindostan,  is 
 the  Nerbudda,  which  may  be  called  a  solitary  stream,  as  it  receives 
 so  few  contributions.  Its  course  is  almost  due  west,  and  about 
 equal  to  that  of  the  Godaveri.  The  Taptee,  which  passes  by  Su- 
 rat,  is  also  a  considerable  river,  about  four  hundred  miles  in  length. 
 To  the  south  of  this  river  the  superior  elevation  of  the  Sukhien 
 mountains,  or  western  Gauts,  ditluses  all  the  rivers  towards  the 
 east. 
 
 *  Major  Rennell's  excellent  map  may  here  be  compared  vith  that  of  de  la  Ro- 
 cheUe,  published  by  Faden,  1788,  which  is  well  execuled,  and  compiled  with  great 
 care.  f  As.  Res.  v.  1.  5.  i  Reimel'.,  244. 
 
576  HINDOSTAN. 
 
 In  the  arrangement  here  tbllowed,  the  Deccan,  or  most  south- 
 ern part  of  Hindostan,  is  considered  as  bounded  and  enriched  by 
 the  Kistna,  and  its  tributary  streams.  The  Kistna,  a  sacred  river, 
 rises  at  Balisurin  the  chain  of  Sukhien,  not  far  to  the  south  oi" 
 Prona,  and  forms  a  delta  near  Masulipatam,  after  a  comparative 
 course  of  about  500  hundred  miles.  This  river  rivals  any  Indian 
 stream  in  the  fertility  diffused  by  its  inundations ;  and  the  richest 
 diamond  mines  in  the  world  arc  in  the  neighboring  hills  to  the 
 north.  The  chief  tributary  streams  in  that  quarter  are  the  Bee- 
 ma;  passing  near  the  diamond  mines  of  Visiapour,  and  the  Musi, 
 or  Moussi  by  those  of  Golconda.  But  the  most  considerable  river 
 joins  the  Kistna  from  the  south,  being  the  Toombuddra  of  Ren- 
 nell's  last  map,  the  Tunge-badra  of  D'Anville  ;  on  the  banks  of 
 which  have  been  recently  discovered  many  populous  provinces, 
 and  flourishing  towns. 
 
 To  the  south  of  the  Kistna  appear  the  Pennar,  the  Paliar,  and 
 above  all  the  Caveri,  another  large  and  sacred  stream,  which  pas- 
 ses by  Scringapatam  the  capital  of  Mysore,  and  forms  a  wider  del- 
 ta than  any  other  southern  river,  when  it  enters  the  sea  after  a 
 course  of  about  three  luuidred  iniles.  The  Caveri  in  general  per- 
 vades a  country  in  which  public  monuments,  unequivocal  marks  of 
 civilization  and  opulence,  are  more  common  than  in  the  northern 
 parts  of  Hindostan.*  As  the  course  of  the  Caveri  is  compartively 
 short,  its  tributary  streams  are  unimportant. 
 
 Lakes.~\  The  lakes  seem  to  be  fev.'.  Rennell  mentions  that  of  Co- 
 lair,  during  the  inundations  about  forty  or  fifty  miles  in  extent, 
 and  a  considerable  piece  of  water  in  all  seasons,  lying  about  mid- 
 way between  the  Godaveri  and  Kistna,  in  the  new  soil  gradually 
 formed  by  the  inundations  of  these  rivers,  about  twelve  miles 
 north  of  Masulipatam.  That  of  Chilka  bounds  the  British  Sircars 
 on  the  N.  being  a  kind  of  a  salt  crock  communicating  with  the  sea. 
 The  lake  of  Pulicat  is  of  a  similar  kind.  One  or  two  lakes  may 
 also  be  traced  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Ganges  and  the  Indus.  The 
 country  of  Cashmir  is  supposed  to  have  been  originally  a  large 
 lake,  as  reported  in  the  native  traditions  ;  and  a  considerable  ex- 
 panse of  water  stiM  remains  in  the  northern  part  of  this  delightful 
 country,  called  the  lake  of  Ouller  or  Tal,  bemg  about  fifty-three 
 British  miles  in  circuit. 
 
 Moicntains.']  Ilie  mounlains  chielly  celebrated  by  the  Hmdoos 
 may  be  said  to  be  only  visible  from  their  country,  being  the  north- 
 ern chain  of  the  Tibetian  Alps,  covered  with  perpetual  snow. 
 Plence  they  are  called  Ilimmala  from  a  word  denoting  snow.  This 
 name  may  perhaps  be  the  source  of  the  Imaus  of  the  ancients. 
 Ptolemy  not  only  describes  an  Imaus  as  running  north  and  south, 
 or  the  Bclur  Tag  of  the  Russians  and  Tartars,  with  its  ridges  to  the 
 west,  now  called  Argun,  Ak  Tau,  Sec.  but  another  Imaus  pass- 
 ing E.  and  W.  to  the  N.  of  Hindostan. 
 
 As  the  northern  Imaus  of  Ptolemy  is  clearly  the  Eelur  Tag,  so 
 his  southern  Imaus  may  be  fafely  regarded  as  the  Himmala  of  the 
 
 '*  Rennell,  275. 
 
HINDOSTAN.  577 
 
 Hindoos,  which  may  be  admitted  to  have  been  known  to  the  an- 
 cients, who  were  no  strangers  to  tlie  rich  Gangetic  regions  of 
 Hindostan. 
 
 It  must  be  observed  however  that  there  is  no  small  confusion, 
 even  in  the  most  recent  delineations,  of  the  Indian  I'anges  of 
 mountains,  or  rather  hills,  and  their  exact  denominations.  The 
 ridges  to  the  south  of  Nepaul  and  Bootan  are  far  inferior  in 
 heif^ht  to  the  Himmala,  or  sj-owy  ridge  ;  nor  can  we  much  depend 
 on  the  Tibetian  names  given  by  Du  Halde,  An  equal  defect  at- 
 tends the  mountains  from  Sirinagur  to  Cashmir.  The  ridge  of 
 Kuitore  is  properly  on  the  north  of  that  province,  running  east 
 and  west :  and  is  followed  by  the  Hindoo  Koh  of  oriental  geogra- 
 phers. 
 
 The  mountains  to  the  west  of  the  Indus,  or  on  the  Persian  fron- 
 tier, seem  to  be  the  Becius  and  Parvetius  of  Ptolemy  ;  but  the 
 modern  names  are  little  known. 
 
 In  Major  Rennell's  excellent  map  of  Hindostan  the  ridges  are 
 rather  inserted  in  the  minute  and  antiquated  manner  of  D'Anville, 
 than  treated  with  a  bold  and  scientific  discrimination. 
 
 The  Gauts,  are  ranges  which  run  along  the  western  and  eastern 
 coasts  of  the  Deccan.  The  former  is  by  the  natives  called  the 
 mountains  of  Sukkien.* 
 
 The  chains  of  mountains  rise  abruptly  on  each  side,  but  partic- 
 ularly the  west,  forming  as  it  were  enormous  Avails,  supporting  a 
 high  terrace  or  table  land  in  the  middle.  This  elevated  tract, 
 passing  through  a  great  part  of  the  Marattateri'itories  to  the  north 
 of  Mysore,  is  termed  in  general  the  Balla  Gaut,  through  its  whole 
 extent,  while  low  passes  are  called  Payen  Gaut.f  Opposite  to 
 Paniany,  on  the  western  coast,  there  is  a  break  or  interruption  of 
 the  mountains,  about  sixteen  miles  in  breadth,  chiefly  occupied  by 
 a  forest ;  exclusive  of  this  gap  the  mountains  of  Sukhien  extend 
 from  Cape  Comorin  to  Surat,  at  the  distance  of  from  forty  to  sev- 
 enty miles  from  the  shore.:}:  Their  eftect  on  the  seasons  has  been 
 already  mentioned  ;  and  it  ceases  at  Surat,  where  the  S.  W.  wind 
 carries  uninterrupted  moisture  over  Hindostan.  The  high  ter- 
 race in  the  middle  of  the  Deccan  receives  little  rain ;  and  the 
 coast  cf  Coromandel,  which  receives  its  rain  from  the  N.  E.  mon- 
 soon, is  also  of  a  dry  soil,  as  already  described. 
 
 The  sandy  desert  on  the  east  of  the  Indus  must  not  be  omitted, 
 extending  in  length  between  four  and  five  hundred  miles,  and  in 
 breadth  from  sixty  to  a  hundred  and  fifty.  Of  this  great  desert 
 the  accounts  are  imperfect ;  but  it  is  styled  that  of  Agimere,  and 
 seems  to  have  been  known  to  Herodotus.  Such  wide  expanses  of 
 barren  sand  form  features  peculiar  to  Asia  and  Africa. 
 
 Forests.~\  Of  this  extensive  portion  of  Asia  a  great  ptirt  re- 
 maining in  primitive  wildness,  there  are  large  forests  in  various 
 quarters,  particularly  near  the  mouth  of  the  Ganges,  and  in  the 
 wide  unexplored  regions  on  the  west  of  the  Sircars.     These  forests 
 
 *  As.  Res.  V.  1.5.  \  Kennell,  cxxvii. 
 
 \  Rennell,  276,  and  his  map  of  the  Deccau  1800,  in  which  the  southern  mountains 
 are  well  expressed. 
 
 VOL.    ir.  7.'^ 
 
578  HIND03TAN. 
 
 surpass  in  exuberance  of  vegetation  any  idea  which  Europeans 
 can  imagine  ;  creeping  plants  of  prodigious  size  and  length,  ex- 
 tended from  tree  to  tree,  forming  an  impenetrable  gloom,  and  a 
 barrier,  as  it  were,  sacred  to  the  first  mysteries  of  nature. 
 
 Botaiiy.']  The  general  observations  which  were  made  on  India 
 beyond  the  Ganges,  apply  with  still  greater  propriety  to  the  botany 
 ofHindostan.  A  more  fertile  soil,  and  a  climate  better  adapted 
 to  the  most  profuse  luxuriance  of  vegetation  than  the  well-watered 
 tracts  in  this  vast  peninsula,  cannot  possibly  be  found  in  any  part 
 of  the  known  world.  The  liberality  Avith  which  nature  has  scat- 
 tered over  this  favored  country  the  choicest  of  those  plants  that 
 contribvite  to  the  sustenance,  the  convenience,  and  elegance  of  hu- 
 man life,  is  boundless,  and  almost  without  competition  :  double 
 harvests,  two  crops  of  fruit  from  many  of  the  trees,  and  from  most 
 of  the  rest  a  copious  and  regular  supply  during  the  greater  part 
 of  the  year,  are  the  bases  that  support  its  swarming  population, 
 while  its  timber  of  every  quality,  its  plants  of  medicinal  virtue, 
 its  numerous  and  exquisite  dyeing  drugs,  and  its  cottons  and  other 
 vegetable  articles  of  clothing,  offer  to  its  inhabitants  the  materials 
 of  enjoyment  and  civilization. 
 
 The  most  distinguished  feature  in  tropical  landscapes  is  the 
 multitude  of  lofty  trees  of  the  palm  kind  ;  all  these  rise  with  a 
 simple  trunk  to  a  considerable  height,  terminated  by  a  tuft  of 
 large  leaves,  and  wholly  destitute  of  branches  except  while  they 
 are  in  fruit  :  of  these  many  species  are  natives  of  India.  The  co- 
 coa nut  tree,  perhaps  the  most  widely  diffused  of  any,  is  found  in 
 abundance  on  the  coasts  of  Malabar  and  Coromandel  ;  its  fruij 
 supplies  an  agreeable  nutriment,  and  the  fibrous  covering  of  the 
 nut  is  manufactured  into  the  most  elastic  cables  that  are  known. 
 The  areca  palm  is  another  of  this  family,  of  rare  occurence  in  a 
 truly  wild  state,  but  cultivated  over  all  India  for  its  nuts,  which, 
 mixed  with  the  leaves  of  the  betel  pepper  and  a  little  quick-lime, 
 are  in  general  request  for  chewing  as  tobacco  is  used  in  Europe. 
 The  smaller  fan-palm  (borassus  flabelliformis)  is  distinguished 
 for  its  broad  fan-shaped  leaves,  which  are  used  for  writing  on  and 
 for  thatching :  its  wood  is  in  high  esteem  for  rafters  ;  and  of  its 
 juice  the  best  palm  toddy,  the  common  distilled  spirit  of  the  coun- 
 try, is  made.  This,  although  a  large  tree,  is  far  inferior  to  the 
 greater  fan-palm  (corypha  umbraculifera)  which  abounds  on  the 
 lower  mountains  of  the  Carnatic  ;  each  leaf  of  this  vast  tree  is 
 capable  of  covering  ten  or  a  dozen  men,  and  two  or  three  of  them 
 are  sufficient  to  roof  a  cottage.  The  most  beautiful  of  all,  the 
 sago  palm,  is  also  found  here,  though  not  so  plentifully  as  in  some 
 of  the  Indian  islands.  Besides  these  may  be  mentioned  the  elate 
 sylvestris,  whose  sweet  mealy  fruit  is  the  favorite  repast  ol  the 
 elephant  ;  and  the  plantain,  distinguished  by  its  tuft  of  broad,  sim- 
 ple, light,  green  leaves,  and  its  wholesome  farinaceous  fruit. 
 
 Of  the  other  fruit  bearing  trees  the  number  is  so  great,  and 
 they  are  for  the  most  part  so  little  known,  even  by  name,  to  Euro- 
 peans, tliat  only  a  few  of  the  principal  need  be  here  mentioned  : 
 these  are,  the  papaw  fig  ;  two  species  of  the  genus  known  to  bot- 
 
HINDOSTAN.  579 
 
 anists  by  the  name  of  eugenia,  and  remarkable  for  the  sweetness 
 and  rose  flavor  of  their  fruit  ;  and  the  spondius  dulcis,  whose 
 sweetness,  pleasantly  tempered  with  acid,  renders  it  peculiarly 
 agreeable  in  this  hot  climate.  The  pillaw  is  a  tree  of  equal  sin- 
 gularity and  use :  from  its  trunk  and  larger  branches  are  pro- 
 duced fibrous  bags,  sometimes  of  the  weight  of  25  pounds,  which 
 are  filled  with  nuts  like  the  chestnut,  and  resembling  the  almond 
 in  flavor.  The  dillenia  indica  is  remarkable  for  its  beauty, 
 and  valuable  for  its  large  pomaceous  fruit  of  a  pure  acid,  and 
 equal  to  the  white  lily  in  fragrance.  The  averrhoa  carambola 
 produces  three  crops  of  fruit  in  the  year,  and  another  of  the  same 
 genus,  the  a.  bilimbi,  is  in  a  manner  covered  with  large  juicy  ber- 
 ries of  the  size  of  a  hen's  egg,  and  resembling  the  grape.  The 
 mango  however  is  reckoned  the  most  exquisite  of  the  Indian  fruits, 
 and  is  found  in  considerable  abundance,  both  wild  and  cultivated 
 through  the  whole  peninsula,  nor  ought  the  elephant  apple,  (fero- 
 nia  elephantum,)  to  hp  omitted,  almost  equally  a  favorite  with  the 
 animal  whose  name  it  bears,  and  with  the  native  Hindoos. 
 
 Of  the  trees  whose  produce  is  used  in  medicine  orthe  arts,  the 
 most  worthy  of  notice  are  the  cassia  fistula  ;  the  tamarind  ;  the 
 gambogia,  from  whose  bark  exudes  the  gum  of  the  same  name  ; 
 the  laurus  cassia,  whose  bark  is  a  common  substitute  for  cinna- 
 mon ;  csesalpina  sappan,  a  red  wood  used  in  dyeing  ;  sandal 
 wood;  strychnos  potatorum,  the  fruit  of  which,  called  the  clearing 
 nuts  is  in  general  use  for  clearing  muddy  water  ;  and  semecar- 
 pus  anarcardium,  or  marking  nut  used  for  giving  a  durable  black 
 stain  to  cotton.  The  chief  timber  trees  are  the  teak,  used  espe- 
 cially for  ship-building  ;  a  large  tree  called  by  botanists  gyro- 
 carpus,  whose  strong  liglit  wood  is  in  great  request  for  rafts,  or 
 catamarans  ;  the  ebony  ;  the  ferreola,  the  hardest  of  all  the  In- 
 dian woods  ;  and  the  dalbergia,  a  dark  gi'ey  wood  with  light  col- 
 ored veins,  very  heavy,  and  capable  of  a  most  exquisite  polish  ;  it 
 is  much  used  for  furniture. 
 
 A  few  other  trees  require  notice  from  their  size  or  beauty,  such 
 as  the  banyan  tree  and  Indian  fig;  the  hibiscus  ficulneus  is  re- 
 markable by  its  magnitude,  and  the  pi'ofusion  of  its  elegant  blos- 
 soms, and  is  of  peculiar  value  in  a  tropical  climate,  as  hardly  any 
 insects  are  found  under  its  shade.  The  cotton  tree  rises  with  a 
 thorny  trunk  eighteen  feet  in  circumference  to  the  height  of  fifty 
 feet  without  a  branch,  it  then  throws  out  numerous  boughs,  which 
 are  adorned  in  the  rainy  season  with  purple  blossoms  as  large  as 
 the  open  hand,  and  these  are  succeeded  by  capsules  filled  with  a 
 fine  kind  of  cotton.  The  shrubs  and  herbaceous  plants  are  i^mu- 
 merable,  and  multitudes  would  be  well  worth  recording  for  their 
 beauty  or  use,  if  the  nature  of  this  work  allowed  an  opportunity  ; 
 we  cannot  however  omit  the  indigo  and  the  Indian  madder, 
 whence  the  beautiful  colors  of  the  Indian  chintzes  are  procured. 
 The  nyctanthes  hirsuta,  and  the  jasminum  grandiflorum,  boast 
 the  most  fragrant  blossoms  of  the  whole  east,  the  former  perfum- 
 ing the  night,  and  the  latter  scenting  the  day.  The  gloriosa  su- 
 perba,  cecropegia  candelabrum,  and  Indian  vine,  form  by  their 
 
680  HINDOSTAN. 
 
 union  bov/ers  worthy  of  Paradise  ;  and  the  butea  superba,  a  small 
 tree,  by  the  striking  contrast  of  its  green  leaves,  its  black  flower- 
 stalks,  and  its  large  scarlet  papilionaceous  blossoms,  attracts  with 
 its  ostentatious  charms  the  notice  and  admiration  of  the  most  in- 
 curious. 
 
 Zoology.']  For  an  ample  account  of  the  zoology  of  Hindostan, 
 the  curious  reader  may  consult  Mr.  Pennant's  view  of  this  country, 
 this  being  the  peculiar  province  of  that  great  naturalist.  The 
 numerous  cavalry,  which  form  the  armies  of  the  Hindoo  princes, 
 suppose  great  numbers  of  horses  ;  and  the  breeds  most  celebrated 
 are  those  of  Lahore  and  Turkistan,  but  the  grandees  are  supplied 
 from  Persia  and  Arabia.  The  inferior  breeds  though  ugly,  are 
 active,  and  in  some  regions  there  are  poneys  not  exceeding  thirty 
 inches  in  height*  The  horses  of  Tibet,  generally  pyed,  arc 
 often  used  in  Gangetic  Hindostan.  The  animal  called  the  wild 
 mule,  and  the  wild  ass,  sometimes  pass  in  herds  to  the  northern 
 mountains,  from  the  centre  of  Asia  and  the  desert  of  Gobi. 
 
 The  cattle  of  Hindostan  are  numerous,  and  often  of  a  large  size, 
 with  a  hunch  on  the  shoulders.  The  sheep  are  covered  with  hair 
 instead  of  wool,  except  in  the  most  northern  parts. 
 
 Antelopes  abound,  of  various  beautiful  kinds,  particularly  that 
 called  the  Nilgau,  which  is  of  a  considerable  size.  Bernier,  the 
 most  intelligent  of  travellers  in  India,  gives  an  account  of  the  chase 
 of  the  antelopes  by  means  of  the  hunting  leopard,  trained  as  in 
 Persia  to  this  sport. t 
 
 The  Arabian  camel,  or  that  with  a  single  hunch,  is  not  unfre- 
 quent  about  Patna.  The  elephant  has  been  frequently  described  ; 
 the  usual  height  of  this  intelligent  animal  is  about  ten  feet.  Apes 
 and  monkeys  abound  in  various  regions  of  Hindostan ;  and  the 
 orang  outang  is  said  to  be  found  in  the  vast  forests  on  the  W.  of 
 the  Sircars.  The  dogs  are  generally  of  the  cur  kind,  with  sharp 
 erect  ears  and  pointed  noses  :  die  smallest  size  is  that  kept  by  the 
 Pariars,  or  degraded  poor,  rendered  doubly  miserable  by  the  fan- 
 atic prejudices  of  the  abominable  system  of  the  Bramins.  The 
 other  animals  are  wild  boars,  boars,  wolves,  foxes,  jackals,  hyenas, 
 leopards,  panthers,  lynxes :  in  the  north,  musk  weasels,  and  many 
 other  quadrupeds  of  inferior  size. 
 
 The  lion  seems  to  have  been  always  unknown  in  Hindostan, 
 where  the  ancient  sculptors  have  attempted  in  vain  to  represent  an 
 animal  which  they  never  saw ;  but  Mr.  Pennant  assures  us  Uiat 
 they  are  found  near  the  celebrated  fort  of  Gvvaiior,  about  Marwah, 
 and  near  (Jashmir.  The  royal  tiger  of  Bengal  is  however  a  far 
 more  terrible  animal  than  the  stoutest  lion,  and  was  kiiOwnin  clas- 
 sical times,  as  Seneca  the  poet  calls  it  Gaiigctica  ti,^risy  or  the 
 Gangetic  tiger.  Such  is  their  size  and  strength  that  cuey  are  said 
 to  carry  off  bullocks,  the  height  of  some  being  said  to  ue  five  teet, 
 and  the  length  in  proportion.  Parties  of  pleasure  oa  the  isles  at 
 the    mouta   of    the  Ganges    have   often   been   shockingly   iuter- 
 
 *  Pennant,  vol.  ii.  239. 
 
 f  'rhose  of  Tippoo  are  in  the  Tower  of  London;  their  legs  are  much  higher  in 
 pi'oportiou  than  those  ol  any  other  seline  aniiual. 
 
HINDOSTAN.  S8i 
 
 rupted  by  the  sudden  appearance  of  the  tigej,  prepared  for  his 
 fatal  spring,  which  is  said  to  extend  a  hundred  feet,  not  improba- 
 ble when  compared  with  that  of  the  cat.  Siich  is  the  nature  of  the 
 animal,  that  if  disappointed  in  this  first  leap,  he  couches  his  tail 
 and  retreats.  The  rhinoceros  with  one  horn,  an  animal  of  the 
 swamps,  also  abounds  in  the  Gangetic  isles.  Wild  peacocks  abound 
 in  Tibet  and  Ceylon  ;  our  common  fowl  are  also  found  wild  in  the 
 jungles,  whence  they  are  called  jungle  fowl.  Hence  it  seems 
 reasonable  to  conclude,  that  as  these  animals  have  been  diffused 
 over  the  civilized  world  from  time  immemorial,  they  must  have 
 passed  from  Hindostan  to  Persia,  whence  they  were  distributed  to 
 the  western  countries. 
 
 Mineralogy.^  The  mineralogy  of  Hindostan  may  be  opened  by 
 its  most  distinguished  and  peculiar  product,  celebrated  in  all  ages 
 of  the  world,  that  of  diamonds,  which  are  indeed  also  found  in 
 Brazil,  but  of  far  inferior  quality.  This  substance  is  the  most 
 hard,  transparent,  and  brilliant  of  all  minerals  ;  and  is  commonly 
 colourless,  but  is  found  occasionally  of  a  citron  yellow,  grey,  brown, 
 or  black.  It  is  found  in  beds  of  torrents,  or  in  yellow  ferruginous 
 earth,  under  rocks  of  quartz  or  sand  stone. 
 
 The  chief  and  most  celebrated  diamond  mines  are  those  near 
 Visiapour  and  Golconda,  both  near  streams  that  flow  into  the  Kist- 
 na  in  the  southern  division  of  Hindostan,  Golconda  being  in  the 
 territory  of  the  Nizam,  while  Visiapour  belongs  to  the  Marattas.* 
 
 Raolconda,  a  famous  diamond  mine  in  the  territory  of  Visiapour, 
 about  forty  British  miles  N.  W.  from  the  junction  of  the  Beema 
 and  Kistna,  seems  to  be  the  most  noted  of  those  in  that  quarter.! 
 A  district  on  the  river  Mahanada,  to  the  S.  of  Sumboulpour,  is  also 
 celebrated  for  this  rich  product ;  as  is  Gandicotta,  on  the  southern 
 bank  of  the  river  Pennar.f 
 
 The  mine  near  the  Mahanada  is  not  the  sole  example  of  the 
 diamond  being  found  to  the  north  of  the  Deccan,  for  this  mineral 
 unexpectedly  occurs  so  far  north  as  Penna,  in  the  territory  of  Bun- 
 delcund,  about  sixty  miles  south  of  the  river  Jumna,  which  flows 
 into  the  Ganges.§ 
 
 Next  in  value  to  the  diamond  are  the  sapphire  and  the  ruby, 
 which  are  chiefly  found  in  the  Birman  territories ;  but  the  ruby- 
 also  occurs  in  Ceylon,  which  likewise  produces  an  inferior  kind 
 cf  sapphire,  the  topaz,  and  other  precious  stones. 
 
 Among  the  metals  gold  is  found  in  the  rivers,  which  flow  from 
 Tibet  into  the  Ganges  and  Indus ;  but  no  gold  mines  seem  ever  to 
 have  been  known  in  Hindostan,  which  has  rather  been  celebi'ated 
 for  attracting  this  metal  in  commerce  from  other  countries.  On 
 the  other  hand  Tibet,  a  mountainous  country,  abounds  in  this  pre- 
 cious metal.  Silver  seems  rai*e  in  general  thronghout  the  oriental 
 regions,  and  there  is  no  indication  of  this  mineral  throughout  all  In- 
 dia. Taunberg  mentions  iron  ore  and  plumbago  among  the  min- 
 erals of  Ceylon  ;  but  says  nothing  of  copper,  which  seem  also  little 
 known  in  Hindostan. 
 
 *  Colore,  another  diamond  mine,  is  on  the  southern  bank  of  the  Kistna,  not  lav 
 from  Condavir.     Rennell,  ii90. 
 
 t  Reauell,  '233.  i  lb.  240.  §  lb.  233. 
 
582  HINDOSTAN. 
 
 Mineral  Waters^  The  natives  sometimes  seek  for  the  cure  of 
 diseases  by  bathing  in  the  sacred  streams  ;  and  their  devotion  to 
 •\vater  in  general  seems  to  prevent  their  exploring  any  medicinal 
 sources.  Yet  there  are  a  few  exceptions,  and  several  warm 
 springs  are  reputed  sacred. 
 
 Matural  Curiosities,^  Among  the  singular  features  of  nature 
 jnay  be  mentioned  the  appearance  of  the  provinces  on  the  rivers, 
 during  the  season  of  inundation,  when  an  access  is  opened  by  nu- 
 merous channels  to  places  before  inland.  The  grand  aspect  of 
 the  northern  mountains  covered  with  snow,  and  the  wide  desert  on 
 the  east  of  the  Indus,  are  also  grand  features  ;  as  is  the  high  table 
 land  of  Mysore,  supported  by  natural  buttresses  of  mountains.  The 
 Sunderbunds,  and  prodigious  forests,  have  been  already  mentioned. 
 The  detached  ridges  of  rock,  sometimes  crowned  with  strong  for- 
 tresses, may  also  be  named  among  the  natural  curiosities.  But 
 one  of  the  most  noted  in  the  Hindoo  tradition  is  the  Gangoutra,  or 
 fall  of  the  Ganges,  sometimes  called  the  Cow's  Mouth.  Accord- 
 ing to  the  report  of  a  Bramin,  Avho  pretended  to  have  visited  the 
 spot,  the  Ganges  springs  from  the  peak  of  Cailasa,  seven  days 
 journey  to  the  south  of  Ladac,  or  Latac,  the  capital  of  a  small  ri- 
 betian  principality.*  This  peak  is  about  two  miles  to  the  south 
 of  Mansaror  ;  and  the  river  thence  flows,  for  about  seven  or  eight 
 miles,  when  it  finds  a  subterranean  passage,  until  it  again  emerges 
 in  the  country  of  Kedar  Nauth,  at  the   place  called  Gungowtry. 
 
 Adam's  bridge  is  also  a  noted  fable  of  the  Bramins,  for  in  their 
 strong  imaginations  and  weak  judgments  every  thing  assumes  a 
 fabulous  tinge.  It  is  a  kind  of  sand  bank,  with  some  isles  stretch- 
 ing from  a  promontory  to  the  opposite  isle  of  Ceylon  ;  but  the 
 name  of  Rama  has  been  exchanged  by  the  Mahometans,  for  that 
 of  Adam. 
 
 CHAPTER  II. 
 
 GANGETIC  HINDOSTAN,  OR  THE  COUNTRIES  ON  THE  GANGES. 
 
 EXTENT  AND  DIVISIONS,  BRITISH  POSESSIONS,  REVENUE,  GOVERN- 
 MENT, COLLEGE,  ARMY,  NAVY,  CITIES  AND  TOWNS,  SURROUND- 
 ING STATES. 
 
 Extent  and  Divisions.']  THIS  grand  division  of  Hindos- 
 tan  extends  from  the  eastern  boundaries  of  Bengal,  to  the  country 
 of  Sirhind,  a  length  of  about  1000  miles.  The  greatest  breadth, 
 from  the  sources  of  the  Chunibul  to  the  mountains  of  Sewalik,  is 
 about  450  ;  and  the  least,  on  the  west  of  the  province  of  Bengal, 
 about  230  miles.  It  comprises  the  provinces  of  Bengal,  Bahar, 
 Allahabad,  Oude,  Agra,  with  part  of  Delhi  and  Agimere,  and  of 
 Malwa  in  the  south  ;  most  of  them  equal  in  celebrity  to  any  in 
 Hindostan,  and  the  chosen  seats  of  the  power  of  the  Monguls,  as 
 "vvell  as  of  mighty  kingdoms,  even  in  classical  times. 
 
 *  As.Res.  v.45j  vi.  102. 
 
HINDOSTAN.  583 
 
 British  Poses.'.ions.']  Bengal,  Bahar,  with  Benares,  and  some 
 other  districts  to  the  west,  forming  the  chief  basis  and  centre  of 
 English  power  in  this  country,  it  is  proper  first  to  consider  them 
 apart,  and  then  proceed  to  some  account  of  the  other  pi^ovinces. 
 The  British  settlements  here  extend  about  550  miles  in  length  by 
 300  in  breadth,  in  themselves  a  powerful  kingdom.  The  native 
 population  is  computed  at  ten  or  eleven  millions  of  black  subjects, 
 exclusive  of  the  English,  whose  number  seems  not  authenticated. 
 
 Revenue.l  The  revenue  of  these  British  provinces  is  computed 
 at  4,210,0001.  sterling;  the  expense  of  collection,  military  and 
 civil  charges.  Sec,  2,540,0001. ;  so  that  the  clear  revenue  is  1,670- 
 OOOl.*  They  are  well  situated  in  respect  to  security  from  foreign 
 invasion  ;  and  since  they  were  in  posession  of  the  British  have  en- 
 joyed more  tranquility  than  any  part  of  Hindostan  has  known  since 
 the  reign  of  Aurungzeb. 
 
 Government.']  The  government  of  Bengal  and  its  wide  depen- 
 dencies, was  first  vested  in  a  governor  general  and  a  supreme 
 council,  consisting  of  a  president  and  eleven  counsellors  :  but  in 
 1773  these  were  restricted  to  four,  with  Warren  Hastings  the 
 governor  general,  who  were  to  direct  all  affairs,  civil  and  military, 
 in  the  kingdoms  of  Bengal,  Bahar,  and  Orissa  ;  and  to  controul 
 the  inferior  governments  of  Madras  on  the  E.  and  Bombay  on  the 
 W.  with  Bencoolen  in  the  island  of  Sumatra. t  The  court  of 
 judicature  consists  of  a  chief  justice  and  three  other  judges,  with 
 civil,  criminal,  naval,  and  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction.  The  Hin- 
 doos are  governed  by  their  own  laws  ;  but  it  is  to  be  wished  that 
 in  these  and  the  other  British  possessions  the  abominable  influence 
 of  the  Bramins  were  extinguished,  and  the  casts  totally  abolished, 
 as  the  most  shocking  obstacle  to  all  the  best  feelings  and  exertions 
 of  human  nature,  that  ever  was  imposed  by  crafty  superstition 
 upon  consummate  ignorance. 
 
 College.^  jThe  College  of  Fort  William,  at  Calcutta,  in  Bengal, 
 was  founded  on  the  fourth  of  May  1800.  During  the  seven  first 
 years  of  its  establishment  it  produced  nearly  one  hundred  volumes 
 in  Oriental  literature.  This  College,  after  encountering  several 
 difficulties,  is  now  in  a  flourishing  condition,  and  has  received  the 
 sanction  and  patronage  of  the  East-India  Company.  The  benefit 
 of  this  institution  consists  principally  in  diffusing  a  knowledge  of 
 the  Scriptures  over  the  East.  There  is  a  department  for  the 
 translation  of  the  Bible  into  the  Oriental  languages,  And  a  com- 
 mencement had  been  made,  in  1805,  in  five  languages. | 
 
 Jrtny.]  The  military  establishment  in  Bengal  is  always  re- 
 spectable, but  varies  according  to  the  situation  of  affairs.  The 
 British  troops  are  supported  by  the  Sepoys,  a  native  militia,  who 
 are  accustomed  to  have  numerous  idle  followers,  so  that  the  effect- 
 ive men  seldom  constitute  more  than  a  quarter  of  the  nominal  army. 
 A  force  of  20,000  British  soldiers  might  probably  encounter  and 
 vanquish  200,000  blacks  or  Hindoos.  The  decisive  battle  of  Plas- 
 sey,  which  secured  to  the  British  the  possession  of  these  opulent 
 
 *  Pennaut,  ii.  327.  fRennellj  c\iv.  ^  Buchannan's  Researches. 
 
584  HINDOSFAN. 
 
 provinces,  was  gained  by  the  formidable  array  of  nine  hundred 
 Europeans.* 
 
 Citits  and  Towns.']  The  chief  city  of  Bengal,  and  of  all  the 
 British  possessions  in  Hindostan,  is  Calcutta.  The  latitude  is  22 
 S3  north,  and  the  longitude  88°  28'  east  from  Greenvvich. 
 
 "Generally  speaking,  the  description  of  one  Indian  city  is  a 
 description  of  all ;  they  being  all  built  on  one  plan,  with  exceedingly 
 narrow,  confined,  and  crooked  streets  ;  Avith  an  incredible  number  of 
 reservoirs  and  ponds,  and  a  gi'eat  many  gardens,  interspersed. 
 A  few  of  the  streets  are  paved  with  brick.  The  houses  are  vari- 
 ously built,  some  of  brick,  others  with  mud,  and  a  still  greater 
 proportion  with  bamboos  and  mats  :  and  these  different  kinds  of 
 fabrics,  standing  intermixed  with  each  other,  form  a  motley  ap- 
 pearance :  those  of  the  latter  kind  are  invariably  of  one  story,  and 
 covered  with  thatch.  Tlwse  of  brick  seldom  exceed  two  floors,  and 
 have  flat  terraced  roofs.  The  two  former  classes  far  outnumber 
 the  last,  which  are  often  so  thinly  scattered,  that  fires,  which  often 
 happen,  do  not  sometimes  meet  with  the  obstruction  of  a  brick 
 house  through  a  whole  street. 
 
 "  Calcutta  is,  in  part,  an  exception  to  this  rule  of  building  ;  for 
 there  the  quarter  inhabited  by  the  English  is  composed  entirely  of 
 brick  buildings,  many  of  which  have  inore  the  appearance  of  pala- 
 ces, than  of  private  houses  ;  but  the  remainder  of  the  city,  and  by 
 much  the  greatest  part,  is  built  as  above  described.  Calcutta  is 
 the  emporium  of  Bengal,  and  the  seat  of  the  Governor  General  of 
 India.  It  is  a  very  extensive  and  populous  city,  being  supposed 
 at  present  to  contain  at  least  500,000  inhabitants.  Calcutta  is  sit- 
 uated on  the  western  arm  of  the  Ganges,  about  100  miles  from 
 the  sea  ;  and  the  I'iver  is  navigable  up  to  the  tow^n  for  the  largest 
 ships  that  visit  India.  It  is  a  modern  city,  having  risen  on  the  site 
 of  the  village  of  Govindpour,  about  ninety  years  ago.  The  citadel 
 is  superior  in  every  point,  as  to  strength  and  correctness  of  design, 
 to  any  fortress  in  India  ;  but  on  too  extensive  a  scale  to  answer  the 
 useful  purpose  intended,  that  of  holding  a  post  in  case  of  extrem- 
 
 ity.t" 
 
 In  this  grand  capital  of  British  Asia,  the  mixture  of  people  and 
 manners  presents  a  picturesque  and  interesting  scene.  The  black 
 Hindoo,  the  olive-coloured  Moor  or  Mahometan,  contrasted  with 
 the  fair  and  florid  countenances  of  the  English  ;  and  the  charms 
 of  the  European  damsel  receive  a  foil  from  the  dark  Hindoo  beau- 
 ties. The  luxuries  of  the  Asiatic  are  added  to  the  elegance  and 
 science  of  the  English  life.  Even  the  newspapers  are  drawn  up 
 with  care,  and  printed  with  elegance  ;  and  the  Asiatic  society,  in- 
 stituted by  the  late  excellent  Sir  William  Jones,  forms  a  noble 
 monument  of  science  in  a  distant  country. 
 
 The  commerce  of  Calcutta  is  very  great  in  salt,  sugar,  opium, 
 jilks,  and  muslins,  &c.  The  poppy  which  yields  the  opium  is 
 particularly  cultivated  in  the  province  of  Bahar.  On  the  Ganges 
 are  transported  to  Asam  cargoes  of  salt,  in  exchange  for  gold,  sil- 
 
 •  Rennndl,  xcv  t  Rcnnell,  58,  59 
 
HINDOSTAN.  585 
 
 Ver,  ivory,  musk,  and  a  particular  kind  of  silky  cotton.  Tlie  cowry 
 shells,  used  as  a  small  coin,  are  imported  from  the  Maldives  in 
 exchange  for  rice.  The  fine  muslins  are  chiefly  fabricated  in  the 
 rainy  season  from  May  to  September,  and,  with  calicoes,  foi'm  a 
 great  part  of  the  exports  to  Europe. 
 
 In  the  eastern  part  of  the  British  possessions  the  most  consider- 
 able town  is  Dacca,  beyond  the  principal  stream  of  the  Ganges,  but 
 defended  on  the  east  by  the  Megna  or  Burrampoot.  Dacca  is 
 celebrated  for  manufactures  of  the  most  delicate  muslins,  so 
 much  in  request  in  the  European  market,  and  which  are  made 
 from  the  cotton  of  the  district.  It  was  once  the  capital  of  Bengal, 
 and  was  succeeded  by  Moorshedabad,  a  modern  city.  Hoogley, 
 or  Ugli,  is  a  small  but  ancient  city,  about  26  miles  above  Calcutta, 
 on  the  grand  western  branch  of  the  Ganges,  which  thence  receives 
 its  name. 
 
 Patna  is  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Bahar,  situated  about  400 
 miles  N.  W.  from  Calcutta,  being  tolerably  fortified,  and  a  place 
 of  considerable  trade  ;  most  of  the  saltpetre  in  particular,  exported 
 to  England,  is  made  in  the  province  of  Bahar. 
 
 Benares  approaches  to  the  western  frontier  of  the  British  pos- 
 sessions, the  district  having  been  ceded  to  the  East  India  Company 
 in  the  year  1755.  It  is  a  rich,  populous,  and  compact  city,  on  the 
 northern  bank  of  the  Ganges,  about  460  miles  from  Calcutta.  Be- 
 nares, anciently  called  Kasi,  was  the  most  early  seat  of  Bramin- 
 ical  knowledge  in  the  north. 
 
 On  leaving  the  British  possessions,  and  proceeding  towards  the 
 west,  first  occurs  Allahabad,  in  the  province  so  called,  at  the  con- 
 fluence of  the  Jumna  and  the  Ganges,  a  city  belonging  to  the  na- 
 bob of  Oude,  but  of  little  consequence.  Not  far  to  the  S.  W.  of 
 Allahaliad,  are  the  diamond  mines  of  Penna,  in  the  small  detached 
 province  of  Bundelcund. 
 
 Lucknow  is  the  present  capital  of  Oude,  having  superseded 
 Fyzabad,  a  city  on  the  Gogra,  near  the  ancient  city  of  Aiudh, 
 which  seems  to  have  given  name  to  the  province.  At  a  consider- 
 able distance  to  the  N.  W.  is  Boriili,  a  small,  but  noted  town, 
 near  the  northern  frontier. 
 
 The  great  and  good  emperor  Acbar  constituted  Agra,  the  capi- 
 tal of  the  Mogul  empire,  about  A.  D.  1566.  It  was  then  a  small 
 fortified  town,  but  it  soon  became  an  extensive  and  magnificent 
 city,  and  has  as  rapidly  declined. 
 
 To  the  N.  W.  of  Agra,  near  the  confines  of  Sindetic  Hindostan, 
 stands  the  celebrated  city  of  Delhi,  the  Mahometan  capital  of  In- 
 dia, said  to  be  of  considerable  antiquity,  by  the  name  of  Indarput. 
 That  intelligent  traveller,  Bernier,  computes  the  extent  of  Delhi, 
 in  1663,  at  three  leagues,  exclusive  of  the  fortifications  ;  and  he 
 represents  Agra  as  of  wider  circuit.  This  metropolis  may  be 
 said  to  be  now  in  ruins  ;  but  there  are  many  noble  and  splendid 
 remains  of  palaces,  with  baths  of  marble.*  The  grand  mosque  is 
 a  magnificent  edifice,  of  marble  and  red  free-stone,  with  highmin- 
 
 *  As.  Res.  ir.  417. 
 VOL.   II.  74 
 
$86  HINDOSTAN. 
 
 arets,  and  domes  richly  gilt.  One  of  the  quarters  of  the  city  has 
 been  very  thinly  inhabited  since  the  dreadful  massacre  1^-  Nadir 
 Shah,  in  which  one  hundred  thousand  people  are  said  to  have 
 perished. 
 
 The  city  of  Agimere,  or  Ajimer,  maybe  more  properly  allotted, 
 with  the  greater  part  of  that  province,  to  Sindetic  Hindostan  :  but 
 Oujein  may  be  considered  as  the  farthest  city  in  the  south  of  that 
 portion  now  under  view.  Oujein  is  about  six  miles  in  circumfe- 
 rence, surrounded  by  a  strong  wall,  with  round  towers.  The 
 houses,  partly  brick,  partly  wood,  covered  with  lime,  tarass,  or 
 tiles  :  the  bazar,  or  market,  is  spacious,  and  paved  with  stone  : 
 there  are  four  mosques,  and  several  Hindoo  temples,  with  a  nev/ 
 palace  built  by  Sindia.  On  the  south  runs  the  river  Sip  para, 
 which  here  suddenly  turns  north,  pursuing  its  eourse  into  the 
 Chumbul,  the  last  a  large  river,  not  less  than  three  quarters  of  a 
 mile  in  breadth,  at  some  distance  from  its  egress  into  the  Jumna.* 
 
 Turning  to  the  east,  the  river  Nerbudda  may  for  a  part  be  con- 
 sidered as  the  most  southern  limit  of  Gangetic  Hindostan  ;  yet 
 concerning  Gurrah,  a  city  ©r  town  of  some  note,  there  are  no  de- 
 tails ;  and  the  other  names  are  too  unimportant  for  general  geog- 
 raphy. But  the  noted  fort  of  Gwalior  must  not  be  omitted,  being^ 
 a  striking  object  in  Hindoo  topography.  The  insulated  rock  ou 
 which  it  stands,  is  about  four  miles  in  length,  but  narrow  :  the 
 sides  are  almost  perpendicular,  from  two  to  three  hundred  feet 
 above  the  surrounding  plain. f  On  the  top  there  is  a  town,  with 
 wells  and  reservoirs,  and  some  cultivated  land.  This  celebrated 
 fortress,  which  is  about  80  miles  to  the  south  of  Agra,  was  taken 
 by  surprise  by  a  fc\;v  English,  under  Major  Popham,  in  1779. 
 Such  isolated  forts  on  rocks,  were  not  uncommon  in  ancient  In- 
 dia ;  and  that  of  Aornos  is  distinguished  in  the  history  of  Alex- 
 ander. 
 
 Surrounding  States.']  Before  closing  this  brief  delineation  of 
 Gangetic  Hindosian,  the  most  large,  celebrated,  and  best  known 
 quarter  of  that  extensive  region,  it  may  be  proper  to  offer  some 
 remarks  on  the  surrounding  states  on  the  E.  and  N.  The  Ro- 
 shawnof  Rennell  is  the  same  with  Aracan,  being  merely  a  Hindoo 
 term  for  that  country.  His  Cossay  is  only  another  name  for  jMcck- 
 ley,  or  the  country  of  the  Muggaloos,  a  people  between  Asam  on 
 the  north,  and  Aracan  on  the  south,  whose  chief  town  is  Munni- 
 pura.f  These  eastern  tribes  of  rude  mountaineers  arc  little 
 known,  but  approach  to  the  savage  state.  Asam  has  been  al- 
 ready briefly  described  in  the  account  of  the  river  of  Burrampoot  ; 
 but  to  the  west  open  the  wide  and  obscure  regions  of  Tibet. 
 
 Of  Sirinagur,  laid  down  in  the  maps  as  the  most  northern  fron- 
 tier country,  an  interesting  account  has  recently  appeared.§  To 
 the  north  is  seen  the  lofty  chain  of  snowy  mountains,  passing  in  an 
 extensive  line  from  east  to  west  at  the  distance  of  about  80  miles 
 to  the  N.  of  the  town  of  Sirinagur. 
 
 *  As.  Res.  vl.  40.  \  Ilodgcs,  139. 
 
 t  As.  Kea.  v.  223,  and  230.  :^  As.  Kcs.  vi.  309. 
 
IIINDOSTAN.  58r 
 
 One  of  the  most  conspicuous  summits  is  that  of  Hem,  rising  in 
 four  or  five  conical  peaks  ;  and  near  its  base  is  a  place  of  Hmdoo 
 worship,  called  Buddrinaut.  Several  rivulets  descer.d  mto  the 
 Aliknundra,  here  acknowledged  by  the  Hindoos  as  the  genume 
 and  divine  Ganges.  The  raja  and  natives  are  of  the  Hmdoo 
 faith  ;  but  the  country,  a  mass  of  mountains,  extremely  poor. 
 The  channel  of  the  river  is  here  not  less  than  250  yards  in  breadth. 
 The  sands  are  washed  for  gold  ;  and  about  forty  miles  to  the 
 north  of  the  town  are  two  copper  mines,  with  one  of  lead,  about 
 fifty  miles  to  tlie  east. 
 
 CHAPTER  HI. 
 
 SINDETIC  HINDOSTAN  i  OR  THE  COU'^rTRTES  QN  THE  RIVER  SIN- 
 DEII,  OR  INDUS. 
 
 EXTBNT,  WESTEHN  BOUNDARY  OF  HINDOSTAN,    CHIEF  CITIES  AND 
 
 TOWNS. 
 
 Extent,']  THIS  part  extends  from  the  northern  mountains 
 of  Cashmir,  and  the  Hindoo  Koh,  in  the  north  of  Cabul,  to  the 
 mouth  of  the  Indus,  a  length  of  about  900  miles,  and  about  350 
 in  medial  breadth.  Besides  part  of  the  provinces  of  Delhi  and 
 Agimei',  it  contains  the  extensive  province  of  Moultan,  with  La- 
 hore, Cashmir,  Cabul,  the  frontier  region  of  Candahar,  and  that 
 of  Sindi,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Indus.  These  provinces  are  the 
 most  remote  from  the  seat  of  British  power,  and,  the*  greater  part 
 of  modern  travellers  having  visited  Hindoatan  by  sea,  they  are 
 less  accurately  known  than  any  other  quarter. 
 
 The  chief  cities  which  occur  in  this  extensive  region,  are  La- 
 bore,  Cashmir,  Cabul,  Ghisni,  or  Gasna,  Candahar,  Moultan,  and 
 Tatta,  in  the  Sindean  Delta.  On  the  east  of  the  Indus,  or  in  Pan- 
 jab,  the  Seiks,  a  new  religious  sect,  form  the  leading  power  ; 
 while  on  the  west,  and  even  as  far  as  Cashmir,  the  dominions  of  a 
 Persian  Shah,  whose  seat  of  empire  is  at  Candahar,  comprise  all 
 the  provinces,  with  several  in  the  east  of  Persia,  and  to  him  even 
 Sindi  is  tributary. 
 
 This  brief  account  of  Sindetic  Hindostan  shall  begin  with  the 
 N.  E.  and  end  with  the  S.  W.  after  mentioning  that  Agimer, 
 ■which  may  be  regarded  as  the  most  eastern  city  of  this  division, 
 is  little  remarkable,  except  for  a  strong  fortress  on  a  hill. 
 
 Chief  Cities  and  Towns.]  The  town  of  Sirhind  is  placed  by 
 modern  maps  on  the  river  Caggar,  which  D'Anville  bends  west 
 into  the  Indus,  but  Major  Rennell  supposes  it  to  follow  a  detached 
 course  into  the  gulf  of  Cutch  :  perhaps  it  may  be  lost  in  the  great 
 sandy  desert. 
 
 Lahore,  now  the  capital  of  the  Seiks,  was  the  residence  of  the 
 first  Mahometan  conquerors  before  they  advanced  to  the  more 
 central  parts  ;  and,  including  the  suburbs,  v/as  supposed  to  be 
 
583  HINDOSTAN. 
 
 three  leagues  in  length.  From  Lahore  to  Agra,  near  500  English 
 miles,  there  was  an  avenue  of  shady  trees.*  The  river  Rauvee 
 passes  by  Lahore,  being  the  R^va  of  the  Hindoos,  said  by  them  to 
 derive  its  source  from  the  mountain  Vindhia,  as  the  Sarjou  from 
 the  Himar,  or  Himala.f 
 
 Nearly  north  from  Lahore,  at  the  supposed  distance  of  about 
 200  miles,  stands  Cashmir,  the  capital  of  the  delightful  province, 
 so  called.  This  city  is  said  to  be  also  called  Sirinagur,  having 
 been  confounded  with  the  town  of  the  same  name,  already  men- 
 tioned in  the  account  of  Gangetic  Hindostan.  To  avoid  the  con- 
 fusion arising  from  identity  of  names,  it  is  better  to  follow  the  au- 
 thoiities  of  Bernicr  and  Forster,  who  denominate  the  capital  of 
 Cashmir  by  the  same  term  as  the  country.  "  The  city,  which  in  the 
 anci<  ;it  annals  of  India  was  known  by  the  name  of  Siringnaghur, 
 but  now  by  that  of  the  province  at  large,  extends  about  three  miles 
 on  each  side  of  the  river  Jalum,  over  which  are  four  or  five 
 wooden  bridges,  and  occupies  in  some  part  of  its  breadth,  which  is 
 irregular,  about  two  miles.  The  houses,  many  of  them  two  and 
 three  stories  high,  are  slightly  built  of  brick  and  mortar,  with  a 
 large  intermixture  of  timber.  On  a  standing  roof  of  wood  is  laid  a 
 covering  of  fine  earth,  which  shelters  the  building  from  the  great 
 quantity  of  snow  that  falls  in  the  winter  season.  This  fence  com- 
 municates an  equal  warmth,  in  winter  as  a  refreshing  coolness  in 
 the  summer  season,  Avhen  the  tops  of  the  houses,  which  are 
 planted  with  a  variety  of  ilowers,  exhibit  at  a  distance  the  spacious 
 view  of  a  beautifully  checkered  parterre.  The  streets  are  narrow, 
 and  choaked  with  the  filth  of  the  inhabitants,  who  are  proverbially 
 unclean.  No  buildings  are  seen  in  this  city  worthy  of  remark  ; 
 though  the  Kasmirians  boast  much  of  a  wooden  mosque,  called  the 
 Jumah  INIussid,  erected  by  one  of  the  emperors  of  Hindostan  ; 
 but  its  claim  to  distinction  is  very  moderate.":}:  The  country  of 
 Cashmir  is  a  delicious  vale,  extending  in  an  oval  form,  about  90 
 miles  from  S.  E.  to  N.  W.  It  was  subject  to  the  Zagathai  prin- 
 ces (a  Tartaric  race,  who  speak  the  same  language  with  the 
 Turks,)  till  A.  D.  1586,  when  it  became  subject  to  the  Monguls, 
 and  afterwards  to  the  Afghans.  Rice  is  the  common  product  of 
 the  plains  :  while  the  surrounding  hills  yield  wheat,  barley,  and 
 other  crops.  The  celebrated  shawls  arc  only  manufactured  here  ; 
 the  material  being  from  Tibet,  especially  those  districts  which  lie 
 at  a  month's  journey  to  the  north-east.  Tiie  price,  at  the  loom, 
 is  from  26s.  to  5l.  and  the  revenue  is  transmitted  to  the  Afghan 
 capital  in  this  fabric.  The  Cashmirians  are  stout  and  well  form- 
 ed, but  their  features  often  coarse  and  broad,  even  those  of  the 
 women,  who  in  this  northern  part  of  India  are  of  a  deeper  brown 
 complexion  than  those  of  southern  France  or  Spain.  The  dress 
 is  inelegant,  but  the  people  gay  and  lively,  and  fond  of  parties  of 
 pleasure,  on  their  delicious  lake.  The  Afghan  government  iias, 
 however,   somewhat  crushed  their  spirit.     The  language  is  dc- 
 
 •  Rennell,  82  ;  but  others  oiJv  extenil  it  to  Dellji,  t  Wesilin,  Q3.3, 
 
 ?  Foiiter,  vol.  ii. 
 
HINDOSTAN.  589 
 
 rived  from  the  Sanscrit,  but  the  Persian  is  chiefly  used  in  elegant 
 composition.  During  the  summer  heats,  the  great  Moguls  used 
 to  retire  to  Cashmir,  where  they  enjoy  a  cool  and  refreshing  cli- 
 mate. 
 
 The  wide  space  from  Cashmir  to  Cabul,  is  more  remai'kable 
 for  numerous  streams  and  mountains  than  any  other  circuinstance  ; 
 and  the  conquerors  of  India  preferred  the  south.  Even  in  Cabul 
 the  moimtains  are  said  to  be  covered  with  perpetual  snow  ;  but 
 the  country  is  diversified  Avith  gentle  hills,  fertile  vales,  and  state- 
 ly forests.  It  is  also  intersected  by  many  streams,  and  besides 
 delicate  fruits  and  ilowers,  is  abundant  in  other  productions. 
 Ghizni  was  the  ancient  capital  of  the  country,  of  which  Candahar 
 was  then  reckoned  a  part.*  The  city  of  Cabul  is  the  capital  of 
 the  dominions  of  the  Persian  Shah,  usually  styled  king  of  Canda- 
 har, whose  dominions  extend  westward  beyond  the  sea  of  Durrah, 
 including  a  great  part  of  Corasan,  with  the  large  Persian  province 
 of  Segistan,  being  about  800  miles  in  length  by  about  half  that 
 breadth.  Cabul  is  esteemed  a  considerable  city,  in  a  romantic 
 and  healthy  situation. 
 
 Ghizni,  or  Gasna,  is  remarkable  as  the  seat  of  the  first  Mahom- 
 etan conquerors  of  Hindoatan,  Avhose  empire  almost  corresponds 
 with  the  modern  kingdom  of  Candahar. 
 
 The  city  which  gives  name  to  the  last  is  of  small  account,  ex- 
 cept as  a  noted  pass  from  Persia  into  Hindostan. 
 
 Having  thus  reached  the  most  western  frontier,  and  nothing 
 farther  worthy  of  observation  arising  on  that  side  of  the  Sindeh, 
 it  will  be  proper  to  pursue  the  course  of  that  grand  stream  to- 
 wards the  south.  The  small  city  and  fortress  of  Attock  were 
 built  by  Acbar,  1581  ;  but  the  vicinity  was  memorable  in  ancient 
 times  as  the  general  passage  from  India  to  the  west.  The  Indus, 
 about  twenty  miles  above  Attock,  is  a  rough,  rapid  stream,  about 
 a  mile  in  breadth,  where  not  interrupted  by  isles.  This  size  indi- 
 cates ..  remote  source,  and  many  tributary  streams. 
 
 Moultan,  the  capital  of  the  province,  so  called,  is  about  170 
 miles  to  the  south  of  Attock,  on  the  large  river  Chunab,  not  far 
 from  its  junction  with  the  Indus,  along  which  there  is  an  unin- 
 terrupted navigation  for  vessels  of  200  tons,  not  only  to  this  city, 
 but  as  far  as  Lahore.f  Moultan  is  a  small  city,  and  of  little  con- 
 sequence, except  for  its  antiquity  and  cotton  manufacture. 
 
 The  last  remarkable  city  on  the  Indus  is  Tatta,  the  capital  of 
 the  province  of  Sindi,  and  situated  within  the  Delta,  the  upper 
 part  of  which  is  well  cultivated,  while  the  lower,  instead  of  the 
 lofty  forests  of  the  Ganeetic  Sunderbunds,  presents  only  low 
 brushwood,  swamps,  and  lakes.  In  the  months  of  July,  August, 
 and  September,  when  the  S.  W.  monsoon  brings  rain  in  most 
 parts  of  India,  the  atmosphere  is  here  often  clouded,  but  no  rain 
 falls  except  near  the  sea.  At  Tatta  the  heats  are  so  violent,  and 
 the  winds  from  the  sandy  deserts  on  the  E.  and  N.  W.  so  perni- 
 
 *  Rennell,  152. 
 
 fib.  irS;  yet,  pnge  03,  he  mentions  the  rlvei' of  Moultan  as  heiirg  cliOaVejJ  un 
 aljout  1605. 
 
6'90  HINDOSTAN. 
 
 cious,  that  many  precautions  are  used.  The  manufactures  of  this 
 city  in  silk,  wool  from  Kerman,  and  cotton,  have  greatly  declined. 
 The  Mahometan  prinoe  of  Sindi  is  tributary  to  Candahar. 
 
 CHAPTER  IV. 
 
 CENTRAL  HINDOSTAN,  OR  THE  MffiDLE  PROVINCES. 
 BOUNDARIESj  CHIEF    CITIES,  SIRCAUS,  ANCIENT    TRADE,  PIRATES. 
 
 JBoundaries.']  THIS  division  is  chiefly  bounded  by 
 Gangetic  Hindostan  on  the  north,  and  on  the  west  by  the  sandy 
 desert  and  the  ocean.  The  southern  limit  is  the  river  Kistna, 
 with  its  tributary  stream  the  Beema,  while  the  E.  is  washed  by  the 
 bay  of  Bengal.  The  length  from  E.  to  W.  from  Jigat  point  to  Cape 
 jPalmiras,  is  little  less  than  1200  miles  ;  while  the  medial  breadth 
 is  about  400.  In  it  are  comprehended  the  province  of  Orissa,  with 
 part  of  Golconda,  Berar,  Dowlatabad,  Candeish,  and  Guzerat, 
 and  other  districts  of  inferior  name  ;  and  on  the  eastei*n  shore  are 
 the  British  provinces  of  the  Sircars. 
 
 Chief  Cities.']  In  a  natural  transition  from  the  division  of  India 
 last  described,  the  province  of  Guzerat  first  presents  itself,  like  a 
 large  promontory,  but  the  shores  seem  little  adapted  to  commer- 
 cial purposes.  The  chief  city,  Amedabad,  is  considerable,  and 
 •well  fortified,  taken  by  the  English  under  General  Goddai'd  in 
 1780,  restored  to  the  Marattas  in  1783.  Cambay,  at  the  distance 
 of  more  than  50  miles,  may  be  called  the  sea  port  of  this  capital  ; 
 itself  a  handsome  city,  formerly  of  great  trade  in  spice,  ivory, 
 silk,  and  cotton  cloths ;  but  the  harbor  was  impeded  with  sand 
 and  mud,  and  is  now  little  frequented,  the  trade  being  "Jiiefly 
 transferred  to  Surat.  The  sovereigns  of  Guzerat  were  formerly 
 powerful,  and  long  withstood  the  power  of  the  Monguls. 
 
 Surat  was  formerly  more  celebrated  as  the  port  whence  the  Ma- 
 hometans of  India  embarked  on  their  pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  than 
 for  any  other  circumstance,  though  reported  to  have  been  an  im- 
 portant city  in  ancient  times.  The  Portuguese  seized  Surat  soon 
 after  their  arrival  in  Hindostan  ;  and  it  was  among  the  first  places 
 in  this  country  frequented  by  the  English.* 
 
 Bombay,  at  a  considerable  distance  to  the  south,  is  a  well  known 
 English  settlement,  on  a  small  island  about  seven  miles  in  length, 
 containing  a  very  strong,  capacious  fortress,  a  large  city,  a  dock 
 yard,  and  a  marine  arsenal. f  It  was  ceded  to  the  English  in  1662 
 by  the  Portuguese,  as  part  of  the  dower  of  the  queen  of  Charles  II. 
 
 *  For  a  recent  account  of  Surat  see  Stavorinus,  vol.  ii.  p.  479.  T^.e  ioh.ibitantsare 
 Enid  to  be  SOO.OOO,  a  considerable  part  of  whom  are  Jfoors,  that  is  Arabs,  Persians, 
 JSIor.guls,  Turks,  professing  Mahometanisni,  but  retaining  some  Pagau  rites. 
 
 t  Kennel,  31.  j  the  name  m  Portuguese,  Buon  baliia,  a  good  bay. 
 
HINDOSTAN.  591 
 
 In  %he  same  sound,  or  small  bay,  are  the  isles  of  Salsette  and  EI- 
 ephanta,  in  which  are  subterraneous  temples. 
 
 Juggernaut  in  the  province  of  Orissa,  is  noted  for  being  the 
 seat  of  a  famous  idol  of  the  Hindoos.  At  the  celebration  of  the 
 annual  festival  the  multitude  collected  at  this  spot  is  immense. 
 The  natives  when  speaking  of  the  number  say,  that  100,000 
 would  not  be  missed.  The  pilgrims  are  from  all  parts  of  India, 
 of  all  characters  and  all  ages.  Multitudes  perish  on  their  jour- 
 ney, and  for  the  distance  of  50  miles  from  Juggernaut  the  ground 
 is  strewed  with  human  bones  and  skulls.  1  he  fatigue  of  long 
 journies  in  the  hottest  season  of  the  year,  together  with  extreme 
 famine,  but  above  all  the  immense  number  of  voluntary  human 
 sacrifices,  has  occasioned  so  large  a  collection  of  dead  bodies, 
 that  the  vultures,  dogs  and  jackalls,  seem  to  live  on  human  prey. 
 The  vicinity  of  Juggernaut  to  the  sea  probably  prevents  the  con- 
 tagion, which  otherwise  would  be  produced  by  the  putrefactions 
 of  the  place.* 
 
 On  leaving  the  shore  and  proceeding  towards  the  east  of  central 
 Hindostan,  first  occurs  the  city  of  Burhampoui',  of  small  note. 
 EUichpour  is  of  considerable  importance,  being  the  chief  city  of 
 Berar.  Nagpour  is  the  capital  of  the  eastern  division  of  the  Ma- 
 ratta  empire,  as  Poena  is  of  the  western,  being  a  modern  city  of 
 small  size.  At  Nagpour,  which  may  be  called  the  central  eity  of 
 Hindostan,  the  rainy  season  commences  with  the  S.  W.  monsoon. 
 
 Not  far  to  the  east  of  this  city  begins  that  extensive  and  unex- 
 plored wilderness,  which  is  pervaded  by  the  great  river  Bain  or 
 Baun  Gonga,  and  terminates  in  the  mountains  bounding  the  En- 
 glish Sircars.f  The  acquisition  of  these  provinces  has  been  al- 
 ready mentioned  in  the  first  chapter.  They  present  little  worthy 
 of  notice.  Nor  does  there  appear  to  be  any  capital  city,  or  chief 
 town,  in  the  Delta  of  the  Godaveri,  or  throughout  the  Sircars,  the 
 wide  tract  of  forest  on  the  N.  W.  having  prohibited  inland  trade 
 or  intercourse.  Masulipatam  is  indeed  a  place  of  some  account ; 
 but  standing  on  the  northern  branch  of  the  Kistna,  may  be  arrang- 
 ed in  the  southern  division  of  Hindostan. 
 
 On  turning  towards  the  west,  few  places  of  note  arise,  except 
 Aurungabad,  a  modern  city,  deriving  its  name  from  Aurungzeb. 
 in  whose  time  it  was  the  capital  of  the  Deccan,  or  parts  to  the  si 
 of  Hindostan  proper.  It  was  afterwards  the  metropolis  of  the 
 Nizam's  territory,  till  the  preference  was  given  to  Hydrabad. 
 Near  this  city  is  Dowlatabad,  which  gives  name  to  the  province, 
 with  a  singular  fortress  on  a  pealed  rock.|; 
 
 This  central  part  of  Hindostan  nearly  corresponds  with  the  Dec- 
 can,  or  southern  countries  of  the  Monguls,  who  did  not  pass  the 
 Kistna  till  a  recent  period  ;  and,  instead  of  using  the  term  in  its 
 
 *  Buchannan. 
 
 f  See  Mr.  Bliint's  journey,  above  quoted,  for  minute  details  conceming  this  for- 
 merly obscure  region.  Asiat.  Keg.  ii.  128— 2ii0.  This  inipoitant  journey  Mppears  to 
 have  been  undertaken  solely  with  geographical  views  ;  and  it  is  said  that  the  East  India 
 Company  entertain  the  highly  laudable  intcutioa  of  publishing  aa  entirely  new  mop 
 of  Hindostan. 
 
 ■f  See  the  print,  Bernoulli,  i.  4S0. 
 
5p.2  HINDOSTAN. 
 
 just  acceptation,  applied  it  to  the  southern  provinces  of  their  em- 
 pire. Though  formerly  the  seat  of  great  power,  and  the  western 
 coasts  greatly  frequented  by  foreign  merchants  of  all  nations,  the 
 harbors  have  since  been  impeded,  and  the  commerce  has  declined, 
 being  now  chiefly  transferred  to  the  Ganges,  which  presents  such 
 superior  advantages  as  amply  compensate  for  the  greater  distance 
 of  the  voyage.  The  Roman  and  Arabian  fame  of  the  western 
 shores  has  vanished  ;  and  silence  prevails  in  the  streets  of  Bary- 
 gaza  or  Baroach,  the  port  of  the  great  inland  city  Tagara,  whence 
 the  products  of  India,  gems,  ivory,  myrrh,  pepper,  ginger,  and 
 cotton  cloths,  plain  or  ornamented  with  flowers,  were,  in  the  time 
 of  Arrian,  exported  to  the  western  world. 
 
 In  later  times  the  southern  part  of  this  coast  was  remarkable 
 \ipon  another  account,  being  the  chosen  residence  of  daring  pii'ates. 
 Yet  these  freebooters  were  known  even  to  Pliny  and  Ptolemy, 
 being  stimulated  in  all  ages  by  the  richness  of  the  commerce. 
 They  resembled  on  a  small  scale  the  piratical  states  of  Barbary, 
 and  a  succession  of  A7ignas  was  continued  till  1756,  when  the 
 English  seized  Gheriah,  the  piincipal  fortress. 
 
 CHAPTER  V. 
 
 THE  sou  FHERN  DIVISION  OF  HINDOSTAN. 
 
 BOUNDARIES,    BRITISH    POSSESSIONS,    CHIEF    CITIES    AND    TOWNS. 
 
 Boundaries.']  THIS  pUrt,  which  may  also  be  called  the 
 Deccan  or  South,  in  the  most  proper  acceptation  of  the  term,  is 
 bounded,  as  already  explained,  by  the  river  Kistna,  and  its  most 
 northern  subsidiary  streams  flowing  into  the  Beema.  Hence  it 
 will  extend  from  the  latitude  of  Bombay,  to  the  southern  point  of 
 Cape  Comorin,  about  830  miles  in  length,  and  about  350  of  medial 
 breadth.  It  contains  nearly  the  whole  of  the  province  of  Visia- 
 pour,  and  the  most  important  part  of  that  of  Golconda,  with  the 
 central  kingdom  of  Mysore,  the  long  eastern  province  of  Carnada, 
 or  the  Carnatic,  the  principalities  of  Tanjore,  Travancore,  and 
 the  Samorins  of  Calicut,  the  pepper  coast  of  Canara,  and  other 
 districts,  of  which  Conam  is  supposed  to  be  the  Kamkam,  which 
 the  Arabian  authors  mention  as  adjoining  to  the  territory  of  the 
 Balhara.  In  this  division  of  liindo&tan  may  also  be  included  the 
 island  of  Ceylon,  the  coasts  of  which  are  now  possessed  by  the  En- 
 glish, who  have  supplanted  the  Dutch  ;  while  the  native  princes 
 retain  the  extensive  inland  parts. 
 
 British  Possessiojis.']  In  addition  to  the  district  around  Mad- 
 ras, the  British  power  was,  in  1792  and  1799,  extended  over  wide 
 provinces  in  the  south  and  west  of  Mysore,  and  Seringapatam, 
 the  capital,  is  also  in  their  possession,  so  that  their  territories  in 
 this  portion  of  Hindostan  only  yield  in  extent  and  consequence  to 
 
HINDOSTAN.  593 
 
 those  on  the  Ganf^es.  Seringapatam  is  not  only  detached,  but  is 
 by  its  inland  situation  little  adapted  for  a  commercial  capital ;  it 
 may  therefore  be  perhaps  expected  that  Calicut,  an  ancient  and 
 celebrated  emporium,  or  some  other  place  on  that  coast,  will  be 
 selected  as  a  metropolitan  town  of  the  new  acquisitions. 
 
 Chief  Cities.'\  In  recent  times  Seringapatam  may  be  regarded 
 as  the  most  important  city  in  this  portion  of  Hindostan.  It  is  sit- 
 uated in  an  isle,  surrounded  by  the  river  Caveri,  Avhich  is  even 
 here  about  five  feet  deep,  and  runs  over  a  rocky  channel.  The 
 length  of  this  isle  is  about  four  miles,  and  the  breadth  about  a  mile 
 and  a  half;  the  western  side  being  allotted  to  the  fortress,  distin- 
 guished by  regular  out-works,  magnificent  palaces,  and  lofty 
 mosques  ;  for  i  ippoo  and  his  father  were  Mahometans.  The  en- 
 virons were  decorated  with  noble  gardens  ;  and  among  the  means 
 of  defence  Avas  what  is  called  the  bound  hedge.,  consisting  of  evcv 
 thorny  tree  or  caustic  plant  of  the  climate,  planted  to  the  breaUtn 
 ©f  from  thirty  to  fifty  feet. 
 
 In  this  central  territory  the  British  also  possess  several  consider- 
 able towns,  Salem  and  Attore  in  the  E. ;  Dindigul,  Coimbetore,  Pa- 
 licaud,  on  the  south  ;  and  on  the  western  coast,  Paniany,  Feroka- 
 bad,  Calicut,  now  nearly  deserted,  Tellicherri,  Mangalore,  and 
 the  northern  British  possession  of  Carwar  is  within  forty  miles  of 
 the  Portuguese  settlement  of  Goa  ;  while  on  the  S.  they  approach 
 within  a  like  distance  of  Cochin.  Of  shese  places,  Calicut  is  me- 
 morable as  the  first  Indian  port  visited  by  the  Portuguese  under 
 Vasco  de  Gama,  and  as  the  seat  of  the  Zamorins,  who  at  that  pe- 
 viod  appear  to  have  possessed  the  whole  Malabar  coast  from  Goa 
 to  Cochin. 
 
 The  native  rajahs  of  Mysore,  a  part  of  whose  dominions  have 
 been  conquered  by  the  British,  were  princes  of  some  eminence, 
 supplanted  by  the  Mahometan  usurpation  of  Hyder.  In  the  C'ar- 
 natic  the  British  have  long  held  Madras,  where  they  settled 
 about  1640  ;  but  the  fortress,  which  is  strong,  and  includes 
 a  regular  well  built  city  is  of  modern  date.  Unhappily  there  5s  no 
 port,  nor  is  there  indeed  one  haven  for  large  vessels,  from  the 
 mouth  of  the  Ganges  to  Trincomali,  on  the  eastern  side  of  Ceylon, 
 ■which  renders  this  last  of  singular  benefit  to  the  English  com- 
 merce. Through  this  wide  extent  of  fifteen  degrees,  or  more 
 than  1000  miles,  the  coast  forms  nearly  an  uniform  line,  infested 
 with  a  dangerous  surf,  and  scarcely  accessible  except  in  the  flat- 
 bottomed  boats  of  the  country.  But  if  found  necessary,  European 
 industry  might  certainly  form  a  port  at  the  wide  but  impeded 
 mouths  of  tiie  Godaveri,  the  Kistna,  or  the  Cavei'i ;  and  when  the 
 British  colonies  shall  have  assumed  a  permanent  and  steady  prog- 
 ress of  population,  it  is  probable  that  such  designs  may  be  ex- 
 ecuted. 
 
 Not  far  from  the  vrestern  frontier  of  the  British  settlement  at 
 Madras  stands  Arcot,  esteemed  the  capital  of  Carnada  or  the  Car- 
 natic.     The  Nabob*  oiten  resides  at  Madras.     In  his  dominions 
 
 *  This  word,  also  written  J\'avab.  implies  tieuteiiant-j^'ernorj  or  Ticeroy  :  Viv*^  the 
 title  became  hereditary, 
 
 VOL.    II.  75 
 
^94.  IIINDOSTAN. 
 
 there  are  several  celebrated  temples,  visited  bj-  numerous  pil- 
 grims ;  and  in  general  the  southern  parts  of  Hindostan  display 
 morc  numerous  edifices,  and  other  marks  of  civilization,  than  the 
 northern. 
 
 Having-  thus  briefly  mentioned  the  British  possessions  in  this 
 quarter  of  Hindostan,  and  their  nearest  ally,  it  may  be  proper  to 
 indicate  a  few  other  remarkable  places  to  the  south  of  these  pos- 
 sessions. Tranquebar  is  a  noted  Danish  settlement  in  the  king- 
 dom of  Tanjore,  which  embraces  the  wide  Delta  of  the  Caveri. 
 This  settlement  was  formed  about  1617,  and  has  been  chiefly  re- 
 markable on  account  of  the  Lutheran  missionaries,  who  resorted 
 liither  to  convert  the  Hindoos,  and  have  sometimes  contributed  to 
 illustrate  natural  history.  Pondicherri  was  the  principal  settle- 
 ment of  the  French,  founded  in  1674,  and  before  the  war  of  1756, 
 was  a  large  and  beauiiful  city.  " 
 
 On  the  western  cc^ast,  or  that  of  Malabar,  stands  Cochin,  on  the 
 northern  point  of  a  long  tract  of  land,  forming  a  kind  of  island, 
 surrounded  on  the  east  by  a  creek  of  the  sea,  which  receives 
 several  streams.  But  this  seemingly  ample  harbor  is  obstructed 
 by  a  dangerous  bar.  When  the  Portuguese  first  visited  Hindos- 
 tan, Cochin  and  the  surrounding  territory  were  possessed  by  a 
 native  rajah,  and  the  celebrated  Vasco  de  Gama  died  here  1525. 
 This  city  remained  subject  to  the  Portuguese  till  1660,  when  it 
 was  taken  by  the  Dutch.  The  surrounding  creeks  and  marshes 
 of  this  low  and  unhealthy  shore  abound  with  fish  and  game.* 
 
 About  a  mile  from  the  city  of  Cochin,  is  a  town  called  Jews'- 
 Town.  It  is  almost  wholly  inhabited  by  Jews,  who  have  two  re- 
 spectable synagogues.  There  are  Jews  here  from  remote  parts 
 of  Asia,  so  that  this  is  the  fountain  of  intelligence  concerning  that 
 people  in  the  East.  The  resident  Jews  are  divided  into  two  class- 
 es, called  the  Jerusalem,  or  white  Jews,  and  the  ancient  or  black 
 Jews.  The  white  Jews  reside  at  Jews'-Town.  The  black  Jews 
 have  a  synagogue  there,  but  the  great  body  of  that  tribe  inhabit 
 towns  in  the  interior  of  the  province.  The  black  Jews  have  been 
 settled  here  much  the  longcst.f 
 
 To  the  north  of  the  British  territories  first  occurs  Goa,  for- 
 merly a  capital  settlement  of  the  Portuguese,  and  a  noted  seat  of 
 their  Inquisition.  This  city,  once  magnificent,  stands  on  a  small 
 isle  in  the  midst  of  a  beautiful  bay,  which  receives  a  rivulet  called 
 the  Gonga,  and  two  or  three  others  from  the  Balagauts,  or  highest 
 mountains  of  Suckhicn,  which  form  a  grand  distant  prospect, 
 ■while  the  intervening  scene  is  variegated  with  hills,  woods,  con- 
 vents, and  villas.  It  was  seized  by  the  celebrated  Albuquerque, 
 the  greatest  of  the  Portuguese  commanders  in  India,  A.  D.  1513. 
 It  afterwards  became  another  Malacca,  another  centre  of  Portu- 
 guese trade, I  The  harbor  is  ranked  among  the  first  in  India,  and 
 if  in  the  hands  of  the  English,  would  probably  resume  its  former 
 consequence. 
 
 There  is  an  Old  and  New  Goa  on  the  W.  coast  of  Hindostan. 
 
 ''  \Vc?'Vm,  130.  gives  a  good  accouat  of  Cochin.  f  Buchannan. 
 
 T  remiatit,  Wi. 
 
HINDOSTAN.  5.9/. 
 
 The  old  city  is  about  8  miles  up  the  river  Mandova.  The  Viccroy 
 and  chief  Portuguese  inhabitants  reside  at  New  Goa,  which  is  at 
 the  mouth  of  the  river,  within  tlue  forts  of  the  harbor.  The  old 
 city,  where  the  inquisition  and  churches  are,  is  now  almost  en- 
 tirely deserted  by  the  secular  Portuguese,  and  is  iiihabitcd  by  the 
 priests  alone.  The  unhealthiness  of  the  place,  and  the  ascenden- 
 cy of  the  priests,  are  the  causes  assigned  for  abandoning  the  an- 
 cient city.  The  churches  of  Old  Goa,  are  remarked  for  their 
 magnificence.  Old  Goa  is  properly  a  city  of  churches  ;  and  the 
 wealth  of  provinces  appear  to  have  been  expended  in  their  execu- 
 tion. The  chapel  of  the  palace  is  built  after  the  plan  of  St.  Peter's 
 at  Rome.  The  cathedral  of  Goa  is  worthy  of  one  of  the  principal 
 cities  of  Europe.  In  this  place  is  the  noted  inquisition,  so 
 remarkable  for  its  secret  and  excessive  cruelty  towards  the  ene- 
 mies of  the  Romish  church.  This  inquisition  was  suppressed  by 
 Royal  Edict  in  the  year  1775,  and  established  again  in  1779.  There 
 are  upwards  of  three  thousand  priests  belonging  to  Goa,  who  are 
 resident  at  the  place,  ov  reside  with  their  cures  at  a  distance.* 
 
 The  other  parts  of  the  coast  presenting  few  renaarkable  objects, 
 it  will  be  proper  to  pass  the  mountainous  ridga,  and  first  visit 
 Porna,  the  capital  of  the  western  empire  of  the  Marattas,  but  a 
 mean,  defenceless  city  ;  the  archieves  of  the  government,  and  in 
 all  appearance  the  chief  seat  of  power,  being  at  Poorunder,  a  for- 
 tress about  eighteen  miles  to  the  south-east. 
 
 Visiapour,  in  the  Maratta  territory,  also  called. Bejapouv,  is  a 
 considerable  city,  and  was  once  the  capital  of  a  large  kingdom  of 
 the  same  name.     In  the  vicinity  are  celebrated  diamond  mines. 
 
 Hydrabad  is  the  metropolis  of  the  Nizam's  territory,  and  par- 
 ticularly of  the  celebrated  kingdom  or  province  of  Golconda,  but 
 seems  otherwise  little  remarkable.  Betwij^  these  two  last-named 
 cities  stands  Calberga,  formerly  the  capital  m  a  powerful  kingdom, 
 that  of  the  Deccan,  under  the  Bamineah  dynasty,  as  already  men- 
 tioned in  the  general  view  of  Hindostan.  On  passing  the  Kistna, 
 few  places  of  distinguished  note. occur.  The  regions  on  the  great 
 river  Toombuddra,  which  rises  nearly  in  the  parallel  of  Seringapa- 
 tam,  and  pursues  a  northern  course  of  about  350  miles  till  it 
 joins  the  Kistna  after  passing  Canoul,  have  been  delineated  with 
 superior  accuracy  in  Rennell's  last  map,  April  1800. 
 
 In  the  interior  of  Travancore  and  Malabar,  on  the  S.  point  of 
 Hindostan,  near  Ceylon,  are  the  Syrian  Christians  ;  a  people  who 
 have  been  settled  here,  though  long  unknown  to  Europeans,  from 
 the  first  ages  of  Christianity.  The  Portufuese,  in  their  discove- 
 ries of  the  sixteenth  century,  make  the  first  mention  of  them. 
 Since  that  time  little  notice  has  been  taken  of  their  accounts,  and 
 in  modei'n  times  their  existence  be gu^^  to  be  questioned.  Di".  Bu- 
 channan,  however,  in  the  year  1 806,  travelled  into  their  country,  and 
 confirms  the  Portuguese  accounts.  He  says,  that  their  churches 
 bear  some  resemblance  to  the  old  parish  churches  in  England. 
 In  the  articles  of  their  faith,  and  in  their  church  government,  they 
 
 *  Di-.  Buchannan , 
 
596  CEYLON, 
 
 agree  in  every  material  point  with  the  church  of  England.  Their 
 archbishops,  bishops,  deacons,  and  other  inferior  officers,  are  the 
 same.  TJiey  have  a  Liturgy,  from  which  they  read  prayers 
 in  public  :  and  their  manner  of  performing  divine  service  agrees 
 with  that  of  the  Episcopal  church.  Their  churches  are  55  in 
 number.  Among  these  Christians  have  been  preserved  in  manu- 
 script the  ancient  copies  of  the  Bible,  which  will  probably  be  of 
 essential  service  in  throwing  light  upon  many  disputed  passages. 
 
 ISLAND  OF  CEYLON. 
 
 EXTENT  AND  NAME,  RELIGION,  POPULATION,  MANNEllS  AND 
 CUSTOMS,  TOWNS,  MANUFACTURES,  CLIMATE,  PRODUCTIONS, 
 RIVERS,  MOUNTAINS,  FORESTS,  ZOOLOGY,  MINERALOGY,  PEARL 
 FISHERY,    OTHER    ISLES. 
 
 Extent  and  JVamer\  THOUGH  this  island  be  not  above 
 a  fifth  part  of  the  size  ascribed  to  it  by  the  strange  exaggeration 
 of  the  ancients,  it  still  approaches  to  that  of  Ireland,  being  gen- 
 erally supposed  to  be  about  260  miles  in  length  by  about  150  in 
 breadth  :  but  in  the  wide  continent  of  Asia,  territory  is  on  so  large 
 a  scale,  that  what  in  Europe  would  constitute  a  ivingdom,  is  here 
 scarcely  a  pi'ovince.  This  isle  is  the  Trapobana,  Salice,  and  Sie- 
 ledeba  of  the  ancients,  the  Serendib  of  the  Arabians  :  in  the  Hindoo 
 language  it  is  called  Lanca ;  and  the  people  are  doubtless  of  Hin- 
 doo origin.  Its  history  is  little  known.  In  the  reign  of  Claudius, 
 ambassadors  were  sent  to  Rome  by  a  Singalese  rajia,  raja,  or  king, 
 whom  Pliny,  mistaking  his  title  for  his  name,  has  called  Rachia.* 
 When  the  Portuguese  seized  this  island,  1506,  the  chief  monarch 
 was  the  king  of  Cotta ;  but  the  central  province  of  Candca,  or 
 Candi,  afterwards  appears  as  the  leading  principality.  The  Por- 
 tuguese retained  possession  of  the  shores  (the  inland  parts  rising 
 to  a  high  table  land,  bounded  by  forests  and  difficult  passes,)  till 
 about  1660,  when  they  were  expelled  by  the  Dutch,  between  whom 
 and  the  king  of  Kandi  a  war  arose  1759,  which  terminated  1766  by 
 the  subinission  of  the  latter,  who  surrendered  all  the  coasts,  and 
 agreed  to  deliver  yearly  a  quantity  of  cinnamon  at  a  low  rate.f 
 From  the  sordid  domination  of  the  Dutch  it  has  recently  passed 
 under  the  more  liberal  banrier  of  British  power. 
 
 Religion.']  The  religion  of  Ceylon  is  the  ancient  w^orship  of  Boodh> 
 whose  images  appear  with  short  and  crisped  hair,  because  it  is 
 fabled  that  he  cut  it  with  a  golden  sword,  which  produced  that  ef- 
 fect.:}:    The  worship  of  Boodh  is  supposed  to  have  originated  in 
 
 *  Pliny,  vl.  22.  r  Wcsdin,  42.  ;  As.  Res.  Ti.  i?% 
 
CEYLON.  597 
 
 Ceylon  ;  and  thencft  to  have  spread  to  ancient  Hindostan,  to  exte- 
 rior India,  Tibet,  and  even  to  China  and  Japan.  Such  are  the  tra- 
 ditions in  Siam,  Pegu,  &c.  which  suppose  that  Boodh,  probably  a 
 kind  of  Confucius  or  deiiied  philosophei-,  flourished  about  540 
 years  before  the  Christian  era  ;  and  as  the  Boodhis  in  general 
 shew  a  prodigious  superiority  of  gcvod  sense  to  the  visionary  Brah- 
 mins, tneir  accounts  deserve  more  credit  than  the  idle  dreams  and 
 millionary  chronology  of  the  Pundits.  Others  however  suppose 
 that  the  worship  of  Boodh  originated  in  exterior  India.* 
 
 Ceylon  is  believed  by  some  of  the  Easterns,  both  Mahomedans 
 and  Hindoos,  to  have  been  the  residence  of  the  first  man,  because 
 it  abounds  in  trees  pleasant  to  the  eyes,  and  good  for  food,  and  is 
 famous  for  its  rare  metals,  and  precious  stones.  There  is  gold, 
 bdellium  and  the  onyx  stone.  The  rocky  ridge,  which  connects 
 this  happy  island  with  the  main  land,  is  called  Admn's  Bridge  \  the 
 lofty  mountain  in  the  middle  of  the  island,  and  visible  from  all 
 parts  of  it,  is  called  Adam's  Peak,  and  there  is  a  sepulchre  of  im- 
 mense length,  called  AheCs  tomb.  All  these  names  were  given 
 many  ages  before  Christianity  was  introduced  from  Europe. 
 
 Population.']  In  this  island  the  population  under  the  British 
 government  ainounts  to  upwards  of  500,000  ;  one  third  of  which 
 profess  Christianity.    The  number  of  natives  is  unknown. 
 
 The  hundreds  of  cities  mentioned  by  ancient  wa-iters  are  now  es- 
 teemed completely  fabulous  ;  nor  does  there  seem  to  be  one  place 
 deserving  the  name  of  a  city,  mentioned  either  in  ancient  or  mo- 
 dern record.  This  island  is  only  important  in  a  commercial  view, 
 from  its  celebrated  products  of  cinnamon  and  gems.  The  harbor 
 of  Trincomali  on  the  E.  is  to  the  British  of  great  conseqitencc,  be- 
 cause there  is  none  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Hindostan  :  and  it  has 
 even  been  suggested  that  in  case  any  revolution,  to  which  all  hu- 
 man affairs  are  subject,  should  expel  the  British  from  the  conti- 
 nent of  Hindostan,  this  island  might  afford  an  extensive  and  grand 
 asylum,  where  the  British  name  and  commerce  might  be  perpet- 
 uated. 
 
 Alarmers  and  Customs.~\  The  natives  of  Ceylon,  called  Singalese, 
 either  from  a  native  or  Portuguese  term,  are  not  so  black  as  those 
 of  Malabar,  and  have  a  few  manners  and  customs  distinct  from 
 other  Hmdoos.  It  is  said  that  several  brothers  may  have  one  wife 
 in  common,  as  in  Tibet,  but  the  polygamy  of  males  is  also  allow- 
 ed.! In  general,  chastity  is  little  esteemed  in  the  oriental  coun- 
 tries ;  and  the  morality  of  many  nations  is  so  lax  in  this  respect, 
 that  the  intercourse  of  the  sexes  is  considered  as  far  more  indif- 
 ferent than  the  use  of  certain  foods.  The  language  is  rather  pe- 
 culiar; but  some  of  the  natives  understand  both  the  Tamulic  and 
 that  of  Malabar. 
 
 Tow7is.~\  The  native  town  Kandi,  in  the  centre  of  the  isIC; 
 seems  to  be  of  small  size  and  consequence,  and  probably  only  dis- 
 
 *  There  are  three  cliicf  distinctions  between  tlie  priests  of  Boodh  and  the  Bramins  : 
 the  tbi-niei'  may  lay  down  the  priesthood  ;  thej-  eat  flesh,  but  will  not  kill  the  animal; 
 and  ihey  form  no  cast  nor  tribe,  but  are  frum  the  mass  of  the  people. 
 
•598.  CEYLOK", 
 
 tinguishcd  by  a  palisade  and  a  few  temples."  It  was  taken  by  the 
 Portuguese  in  1390  ;  but  no  recent  traveller  appears  to  have  visited 
 this  deep  recess  of  sovereign  power. 
 
 The  chief  town  of  the  Portuguese,  Dutch,  and  English  posses- 
 sions, is  Colombo,  on  the  W.  side  of  the  Island,  a  handsome  place, 
 and  well  fortified  ;  the  residence  of  the  governor  is  elegant,  but 
 only  consists  of  one  floor,  with  a  balcony  to  receive  the  cool  air.] 
 Ceylon  being  exposed  on  all  sides  to  the  sea  breezes,  the  climate 
 is  not  so  hot  as  that  ofHindostan;  far  less  pestiferous,  like  the 
 marshy  exhalations  of  Batavia.  At  Colombo  there  is  a  printing 
 press,  where  the  Dutch  published  religious  books  in  the  Tamulic, 
 Malabar,  and  Singalese  languages.  The  name  of  Colombo  seems 
 indigenous,  as  well  as  that  of  Nigombo,  a  fortress  a  few  miles  to 
 the  N.  of  this  capital. 
 
 The  northern  parts  of  Ceylon  are  chiefly  left  to  the  natives,  but 
 the  town  of  Jafnapatam,  or  Jafna,  was  a  Dutch  settlement  in  a 
 detached  isle.  The  grand  pearl  fishery  is  conducted  in  the  gulf 
 of  Manar,  near  Condatchey,  a  miserable  place  in  a  sandy  district, 
 to  which  water  is  brought  from  Aripoo,  a  village  four  miles  to  the 
 south  :  the  shoals  near  Rama's  bridge  supply  inexhaustible  stores 
 of  this  valued  production. | 
 
 On  pursuing  the  shore  towards  the  east,  it  is  mostly  guarded 
 by  sandbanks,  or  rocks  ;  but  the  whole  harbor  of  Trincomali  opens 
 at  the  mouth  of  the  MoM'il  Ganga,  the  Ganges  of  Ptolcmey's  large 
 map  of  Taprobana  ;  and  was  defended  by  a  strong  fortress.  Ba- 
 lacola  is  an  inferior  haven  on  the  same  side  of  the  Island. 
 
 But  the  southern  side  of  Ceylon  has  been  chiefly  visited,  abpund- 
 ing  with  gems  and  other  rich  productions.  IMatura  was  a  Dutch 
 factory  near  the  most  southern  promontory  called  Dondra,  Avherc 
 excellent  kinds  of  cinnamon  were  collected,  and  varieties  of  pre- 
 cious stones  abound  in  the  vicinity.§  Not  far  to  the  W.  of  Matura 
 is  Gale,  or  Galle,near  a  point  so  called,  a  handsome  town,  strongly 
 fortified,  on  the  projecting  angle  of  a  rock.*! 
 
 Majiufacturcn.']  There  is  little  mention  of  any  manufactures 
 conducted  in  this  island  ;  but  the  natives  seem  not  unskilled  in 
 the  common  Avorks  in  gold  and  iron.  The  Dutch  ships  ufeed  to 
 sail  from  Galle,  laden  with  cinnamon,  pepper,  and  other  spices  ; 
 nor  must  pearls  and  precious  stones  be  forgotten  among  the  arti- 
 cles of  export.  The  Colombo  wood,  a  bitter  in  recent  use,  receives 
 its  name  from  the  capital  ;  but  its  native  country  or  district  secras 
 still  imknown. 
 
 Climate.]  The  climate  and  seasons  correspond  in  some  degree 
 with  the  adjacent  continent ;  yet  the  exposure  on  all  sides  to  the 
 sea  renders  the  air  more  cool  and  salubrious.  The  general  aspect 
 of  the  country  somewhat  resembles  that  of  southern  Hindostan  ;  a 
 high  table  land,  in  the  centre,  being  surrounded  with  low  shores, 
 about  six  or  eight  leagues  in  breadth.  High  mountains,  prodi- 
 gious forests,  full  of  aromantic  trees  and  plants,  and  many  pleas- 
 ant rivers  and  streams  diversify  this  country,  which  by  the  Hin- 
 
 *   Mandetslo,  2"9.  who  gives  a  list  of  the  other  towns.  t  Thunberg,  iv._175. 
 
 i  As.  Kes.  V.  597.  §  Thunberg,  Jv.  195.  231.  If  lb.  lOi. 
 
CEYLON.  509 
 
 doos  is  esteemed  a  second  paradise.  The  vales  are  of  a  rich  fat; 
 soil ;  and,  when  cleared,  amazingly  fertile  in  rice,  and  other  useful 
 vegetables, 
 
 Productionsr\  Ceylon  is  chiefly  distinguished  for  its  spices. 
 The  groves  of  cinnamon  are  sometimes  a  mile  in  length.  The 
 soil  is  very  sandy,  and  in  this  respect  favorable  to  the  growth  of 
 the  cinnamon  trees. 
 
 Rivers.']  There  are  five  considerable  rivers  described  by  Ptol- 
 emy ;  of  which  the  chief  is  the  Morvil  Ganga,  on  which  stood 
 Maagramum,  the  capital  in  his  time,  and  modern  Kandi  stands  on 
 the  same  stream,  one  of  the  royal  palaces  being  on  an  isle  in  that 
 river,  where  the  monarch  keeps  a  treasure  of  gems  ;  and  his  offi- 
 cers, like  those  of  exterior  India,  are  decorated  with  slight  chains 
 of  gold. 
 
 Mountains.']  The  chain  or  chains  of  mountains  run  N.  and  S. 
 These  mountains  seem  granitic  ;  and  are  peculiarly  rich  in  pre- 
 cious stones  imbeded  in  primitive  quartz.  What  the  Mahometans 
 have  teiTrted  Adam's  Peak  is  esteemed  the  highest ;  and  is  in  San- 
 scret  called  Salmala,  Boodh  being  fabled  to  have  ascended  from  it 
 to  heaven. 
 
 Forests.]  The  forests  are  numei'ous  and  large,  the  haunts  of 
 innumerable  elephants,  like  the  Gauts  of  soviihcrn  Hindostan. 
 An  ample  account  of  the  botany  of  this  island  is  given  by  the  skil- 
 ful Thunberg  :  one  of  the  most  peculiar  and  precious  trees  is  that 
 producing  the  best  cinnamon. 
 
 Zoology.]  The  elephants  of  Ceylon  are  supposed  only  to  yield 
 in  beauty  to  those  of  Siam,  and  chiefly  frequent  the  southern  part 
 of  the  island.  Buff*aloes  are  also  found  in  a  wild  state,  while  the 
 tame  are  used  in  rural  economy.  The  wild  boars  are  numerous 
 and  extremely  fierce  ;  nor  is  the  tiger  unknown.  Bears,  chakals, 
 and  many  tribes  of  deer  and  monkeys  are  also  natives  of  Ceylon. 
 The  alligator,  frequent  in  the  Hindoo  rivers,  here  sometimes 
 i'eaches  the  length, of  eighteen  feet.  Among  a  vast  variety  of  el- 
 egant birds,  the  peacock,  that  rich  ornament  of  the  Hindoo  forests,. 
 swanTjs  in  this  beautiful  island. 
 
 Mineralogy.]  Ceylon,  opulent  in  every  department  of  natural 
 histoi-y,  presents  many  minerals  of  uncommon  beauty.  Not  to 
 mention  iron,  gold,  plumbago,  &c.,  Thunberg  has  given  a  list  of 
 the  precious  stones,  among  which  are  the  genuine  ruby,  sapphire,, 
 and  topaz.  The  finest  rock  crystals,  both  the  colorless,  and  those 
 ef  a  violet  color  called  amethysts,  are  found  here  in  abundance,  and 
 ai-e  generally  dai'k  brown  or  yellowish  ;  while  those  of  other  col- 
 ors come  from  Brazil  and  Tyrol.  It  is  also  asserted  that  this  island 
 produces  the  genuine  emerald,  which  is  commonly  esteemed  pe- 
 culiar to  Peru.  The  cat's  eye  seems  the  characteristic  mineral  of 
 Ceylon,  as  the  noble  or  genuine  opal  is  of  Hungary. 
 
 Pearls.]  Nor  must  the  pearl  fishery  be  forgotten,  which  com- 
 monly begins  on  the  N.  W.  shore  about  the  middle  of  February, 
 and  continues  till  about  the  middle  of  April,  when  the  S.  W.  mon- 
 soon commences.*     The  village  of  Condatchey  is  then  ciowded 
 
 *  As.  Res,  Y.  394, 
 
600  PERSIA. 
 
 with  a  mixture  of  thousands  of  people  of  different  colors,  couu- 
 tries,  casts,  and  occupations  ;  with  numerous  tents  and  huts,  and 
 bazars,  or  shops  ;  while  the  sea  presents  many  boats  hastening  to 
 the  banks,  or  returning  with  the  expected  riches.  The  divers  are 
 chiefly  Christians  or  Moslems,who  descend  from  five  to  ten  fathoms, 
 and  remain  under  water  about  two  minutes  each,  bringing  up  about, 
 a  hundred  oysters  in  his  net.  These  pearls  are  ahvays  formed  like 
 the  coats  of  an  onion,  around  a  grain  of  sand  or  some  other  extran- 
 eous particle.  The  yellow  or  gold  colored  are  most  esteemed  by 
 the  natives  ;  and  some  are  of  a  bright  red  lustre  ;  the  dull  grey 
 and  blackish  are  of  no  value. 
 
 Other  Isles.~\  There  are  no  other  isles  of  any  consequence  near 
 the  coast  of  Hirdostan.  Those  called  Lacadives  and  Maldives 
 scarcely  merit  a  particular  description  in  a  work  of  this  general 
 nature,  and  the  Andaman  and  Nicobar  isles  properly  belong  to 
 exterior  India,  where  a  short  account  of  them  may  be  found  after 
 the  peninsula  of  Malacca,  to  which  coast  they  aie  the  nearest.  It 
 may  here  suffice  to  observe  that  in  the  Hindoo  language  dive  im- 
 plies an  isle  :  and  Ptolemy  imputes  those  which  mariners  saw 
 before  they  reached  Ceylon,  that  is  the  Maldives,  at  more  than 
 thirteen  hundred.  They  form  as  it  were  an  oblong  inclosure  of 
 small  low  regular  isles,  around  a  clear  space  of  sea  with  very 
 shallow  water  between  each.  They  are  governed  by  a  chief  call- 
 ed Atoll,  and  the  trade  is  in  cowrie  shells,  with  cocoa  nuts  and 
 iish.t  The  language  is  Singalese,  and  there  are  some  Mahome- 
 tans. The  Lacadive  islands  form  a  more  extended  group,  though 
 only  thirty  in  number.  They  also  trade  in  cocoa  nuts  and  fish  ; 
 and  ambergris  is  oken  found  floating  in  the  vicinity. 
 
 Goa  is  a  small  fertile  island  8  leagues  in  circumference  N.  oi 
 the  Lacadives,  on  the  W.  coast  of  Hindostan,  lat.  1 5  30  N. 
 
 PERSIA.+ 
 
 CHAPTER  I. 
 HISTORICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 DIVISIONS,  NAME,  EXTENT,  POPULATION,  PROGRESSIVE  GEOGRA- 
 PHY, PROVINCES,  HISTORICAL  EPOCHS,  ANCIENT  MONUMENTS, 
 MODERN  HISTORY,  EASTERN  PERSIA,  RELIGION,  GOVERNMENT, 
 POPULATION,  ARMY,  NAVY,  REVENUES,  POLITICAL  IMPORTANCE 
 AND  RELATIONS,  MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS,  LANGUAGE,  LITERA- 
 TURE, EDUC  A  1  ION,  CITIES,  MANUFACTURES  AND    COMMERCE. 
 
 Divisions.']  THE  ancient  and  powerful  monarchy  of  Persia 
 has,  duruig  the  greater  part  of  me  last  century,  been  in  a  most 
 distracted  and  divided  condition,  and  the   inhabitants,   formerly 
 
 t  Pennant,  i,  51.  n  From  Pinkerton's  Abridgment,  w'l'«  improvement. 
 
PERSIA.  601 
 
 renowned  for  wisdom  and  benignity,  have  been  degraded  by  civil 
 discord,  and  mutual  enmity  and  distrust,  into  a  temporary  debase- 
 ment both  moral  and  political.  This  empire  seems  at  length,  in 
 some  degree,  to  have  settled  in  two  divisions,  the  eastern  and  the 
 western  ;  while  the  provinces  near  the  Caspian,  secured  by  moun- 
 tains and  fastnesses,  have  asserted  a  kind  of  independence.  These 
 circumstances  are  unfavorable  to  a  just  and  exact  delineation  of 
 the  present  state  of  the  country  ;  but  the  chief  limits  and  many  of 
 the  most  important  geographical  topics  have  been  inviolably  fixed 
 by  the  hand  of  nature;  and  the  following  description  shall  embrace 
 modern  Pei-sia  in  general  as  it  was  in  the  time  of  Chardiu,  com- 
 bined with  the  most  recent  and  authentic  information. 
 
 J\/avie.']  The  name  of  Persia  spread  from  the  province  oi  Pars 
 or  Fars  throughout  this  mighty  empire.  Thb  name,  has,  howev- 
 er, been  little  known  to  the  natives,  who  in  ancient  and  modern 
 times,  have  termed  their  country  Iran,  under  which  denomination 
 were  included  all  the  wide  regions  to  the  S.  and  W.  of  the  river 
 Oxus,  or  Gihon,  the  Amu  of  the  Russians  and  Tartars  ;  while  the 
 countries  subject  to  Persia  beyond  that  celebrated  river  were  in 
 ancient  times  styled  Aniran. 
 
 Extent.~\  From  the  mountains  and  deserts,  which,  with  the 
 river  Araba,  constitute  the  eastern  frontier  towards  Hindostan, 
 Persia  extends  more  tlian  1200  miles  in  length,  to  the  western 
 mountains  of  Elevend,  and  other  limits  of  Asiatic  Turkey.  From 
 south  to  north,  from  the  deserts  on  the  Indian  sea,  in  all  ages  left 
 to  the  wild  tribes  of  Arabs,  who  live  on  fish,  to  the  other  deserts 
 near  the  sea  of  Aral  are  about  1000  miles.  It  lies  between  lat.  25 
 and  44  N.  and  Ion.  At!  and  70  W.  and  is  estimated  to  contaiji 
 about  1,300,000  square  miles.* 
 
 The  limits  of  Persia,  according  to  Sir  John  Chardin,  differ  from 
 those  of  other  countries,  which  are  separated  from  their  neighbors 
 by  a  line,  a  rivulet,  or  some  other  such  artificial  or  natural  boun- 
 dary. "  Persia  has,  on  almost  every  side  of  it,  a  space  of  three  or 
 four  days'  journey,  uninhabited,  though  the  soil  be,  in  many  places, 
 the  best  in  the  M^orld,  particularly  on  the  sides  of  the  east  and  the 
 west.  The  Persians  look  upon  it  as  a  mark  of  true  grandeur,  to 
 leave  thus  abandoned  the  counti'ies  that  lie  between  great  empires, 
 which  prevents,  they  say,  contests  about  their  limits,  these  desert 
 countries  serving  as  walls  of  separation  between  kingdoms."! 
 
 Original  Po^iulation.']  The  original  population  of  the  moun- 
 tainous country  of  Persia  appears  to  have  been  indigenous,  that  is, 
 no  preceding  nation  can  be  traced  ;  and  in  the  opinion  of  all  the 
 most  learned  and  skilful  inquirers,  this  nation  is  Scy^Jiic  or  Goth- 
 ic, and  the  very  source  and  fountain  of  all  the  celebrated  Scythian 
 nations.  While  the  southern  Scythians  of  Iran  gradually  became 
 a  settled  and  civilized  people,  the  barbarous  northern  tribes  spread 
 around  the  Caspian  and  Euxine  seas  ;  and  besides  the  powerful 
 settlements  of  the  Getse  and  Massagetae,  the  Gog  and  Magog  of 
 oriental  authors,  and  others  on  the  north  and  east  of  the  great  I'idge 
 
 *  HasseJ.  f  Harmav's  Observ.  vol.  iv.  p.  276, 
 
 VOL.   II.  76 
 
§Q?  PERSIA. 
 
 of  mountains  called  Imaus,  orBelur  Tag,  they  detached  victorious 
 colonies  into  the  greater  part  of  Europe  many  centuries  before 
 the  Christian  era.  The  ancient  Modes  and  Parthians,  in  the  north 
 of  Persia  appear  however  to  have  been  of  Sarmatic,  or  Slavonic  or- 
 igin, and  to  have  spread  from  their  native  regions  on  the  Volga, 
 towards  the  Circassian  mountains,  along  ■which  ridge  they  passed 
 to  the  south  of  the  Caspian,  the  ancient  site  of  Media  and  Par- 
 thiene.  The  grand  chain  of  Caucasus  forms  a  kind  of  central 
 point  of  immigration  and  emigration  from  the  E.  and  W.  whence 
 the  great  variety  of  nations  and  languages  that  arc  traced  even  in 
 modern  times.  The  late  very  learned  and  excellent  Sir  William 
 Jones,  who  did  honor  to  his  country  and  century,  has  repeatedly 
 expressed  his  opinion,  that  while  the  Parsi  and  Zend,  or  proper 
 and  peculiar  Persian  language,  is  of  the  saine  origin  v»ith  the 
 Gothic,  Greek,  and  Latin  ;  the  Pehlavi  is  Assyrian  or  Chaldaic. 
 
 Progressive  GeograJihij.'\  The  contests  of  ancient  Persia  with 
 Greece  and  the  Greek  colonies  established  in  Asia  Minor,  then 
 within  the  Avxde  limits  of  the  Persian  empire,  have  rendered  the 
 ancient  geography  of  this  country  not  a  little  luminous.  Hero- 
 dotus, the  father  of  history,  was  born  at  Halicarnassus,  one  of 
 these  colonics  ;  and  his  account  of  the  twenty  satrapies,  or  great 
 provinces  of  the  Persian  empire,  in  the  reign  of  Darius  Hystaspes, 
 has  been  ably  illustrated  in  a  late  work  of  Major  Rennell.  The 
 present  design  however  only  embraces  the  modern  provinces  and 
 limits ;  and  the  former  may  be  thus  arranged,  proceeding  from 
 the  W.  towards  the  N.  E.  after  remarking  that  the  limits  of  the 
 ancient  and  modern  provinces  often  coincide,  as  they  consist  of 
 rivers  and  ranges  of  mountains. 
 
 Provinces.']  1.  Georgia,  or  more  properly  Gurgustan,  in  which 
 may  be  included  Daghistan  and  Shirvan.  These  may  he  consid- 
 ered as  constituting  the  Albania  of  the  ancients  ;  a  name  applied 
 in  different  quarters. to  mountainous  regions. 
 
 2.  Erivan,  a  large  portion  of  ancient  Armenia,  between  the  riv- 
 er Kur,  or  Cyrus,  on  the  north,  and  the  Aras,  or  Araxes,  on  the 
 south. 
 
 3.  Aderbijan,  including  Mogan,  the  Atropatena  of  the  ancients, 
 
 4.  Ghilan,  to  the  east  of  the  last,  on.  the  Caspian  sea,  and  sy- 
 nonymous with  the  ancient  Gela. 
 
 5.  To  close  the  list  of  countries  on  the  Caspian,  Mazendran  ap- 
 pears encircled  on  the  south  by  a  lofty  branch  of  the  Caucasian 
 chain,  the  scat  of  the  Mardi  of  antiquity  ;  to  the  E.  of  which  was 
 the  noted  province  of  Hyrcania,  now  Corcan  and  Dahistan. 
 
 6  Returning  to  the  W.  frontier,  you  come  to  Irac  Ajemi, 
 chiefly  corresponding  with  the  ancient  Ecbatana.  In  the  south  of 
 this  province  is  Ispahan,  the  modern  capital  of  Persia. 
 
 7.  Chosistan,  extending  to  the  river  Tigris  ;  but  the  capital, 
 Bussora,  or  Basea,  after  a  recent  vain  attempt  of  the  Arabs,  re- 
 mains subject  to  the  Turks.  This  province  corresponds  with 
 the  ancient  Susiana. 
 
 8.  The  celebrated  province  of  Ears,  Persis,  or  Persia  proper, 
 surrounded  with  mountains  on  the  N.  the  W.the  S.,  and  on  tiie  E. 
 
PERSIA.  603 
 
 separated  by  a  desert  from  Kerman.     Fars  contains  the  beautiful 
 city  of  Shiraz,  with  Istakar,  and  the  ruins  of  Persepolis. 
 
 9.  Kerman,  the  ancient  Carmania. 
 
 10.  Laristan,  a  small  province  on  the  Persian  gulf,  to  the  S.  E. 
 of  Pars,  of  which  some  regard  it  as  a  part  ;  nor  does  the  subdi- 
 vision seem  to  be  known  in  ancient  times,  though  the  long  ridges 
 of  mountains  on  the  S.  of  Fars,  and  generally  about  60  miles 
 from  the  Persian  gulf,  seem  here  naturally  to  indicate  a  maritime 
 province  ;  which,  if  the  ancient  Persians  had  been  addicted  to 
 commerce,  would  have  been  the  seat  of  great  wealth  by  inter- 
 course with  Arabia,  Africa,  and  India. 
 
 11.  To  the  E.  of  Kerman  is  the  large  province  of  Mekran, 
 which  extends  to  the  Indian  deserts,  and  is  the  ancient  Gadrus- 
 tan,  or  Gcdrosia.  This  province  has  always  been  unfertile  and 
 full  of  deserts  ;  and  classical  geography  here  presents  only  one 
 mean  town,  called  Pura,  probably  Borjian,  on  the  W.  frontier. 
 
 12.  Segistan,  another  wide  frontier  province  towards  India,  was 
 chiefly  the  Arachosia  and  Saranga  of  antiquity  ;  while  the  prov- 
 ince of  Paropamisus,  in  the  N.  E.  encroached  on  Candahar,  and 
 the  modern  limits  of  Hindostan. 
 
 13.  The  grand  and  terminating  division  of  modern  Persia  in  the 
 N.  E.  is  Corasan,  bounded  by  the  Gihon,  or  Oxus,  on  the  N.  E. 
 and  on  the  S.  by  the  lake  of  Zere,  or  Zurra,  the  grand  Aria  Pa- 
 ins of  antiquity.  The  classical  provinces  comprised  within  Co- 
 rasan, are,  in  the  N.  Margiana,  and  in  tlie  S.  Aria. 
 
 Besides  these  provinces,  and  exclusive  of  Asiatic  Tui'key  on 
 the  W.  the  ancient  Persian  empire  comprised  Bactriana  or  Balk, 
 which  may  be  termed  a  wide  and  well  watered  kingdom,  of  be- 
 tween 300  and  400  miles  square;  and  on  the  other  side  of  the 
 Oxus,  Sogdiana,  or  the  country  on  the  river  Sogod,  which  passes 
 by  modern  Samarcand.  The  fifteenth  satrapy  of  Herodotus  com- 
 prises the  Sacse  and  Caspii,  probably  the  country  of  Shash,  and 
 some  other  tribes  nearer  the  Caspian  sea.  This  province  ad- 
 joined on  the  W  to  Corasmia,  which  belonged  to  the  sixteenth 
 satrapy,  and  is  now  the  desert  space  of  Kharism;  with  the  small 
 territory  of  Khiva. 
 
 The  countries  last  mentioned  form  so  considerable  a  part  of 
 what  is  called  Independent  Tartary,  and  have  in  all  ages  been  so 
 intimately  connected  with  Persian  history,  that  some  account  of 
 them  shall  be  annexed  to  this  article  ;  which,  joined  with  that  in 
 the  Chinese  empire,  will  complete  the  description  of  the  countries 
 between  the  dominions  of  that  great  state  and  those  of  Russia  and 
 Persia,  so  far  as  the  very  imperfect  materials  will  allow.  The 
 progressive  geography  of  Persia  may  be  traced  through  Straboi 
 Pliny,  the  historians  of  Alexander,  and  other  classical  sources  ; 
 and  afterwards  through  the  Arabian  authors,  Ebn  Haukal,  Abul- 
 feda,  8cc.  Sec.  lo  the  modern  labors  of  Chardin,  and  other  intelli- 
 gent travellers. 
 
 Historical  Ejioclis.']  The  chief  historical  epochs  of  the  Persian 
 empii'e  may  be  arranged  in  the  foiiowing  order  : 
 
 1.  The  Scythians,  or  barbarous  inhabitants  of  Persia,  according 
 
€04  PERSIA. 
 
 to  the  account  of  Justin,  conquered  3  great  part  of  Asia,  and  at- 
 tacked Egypt,  about  1500  years  before  the  reign  of  Ninus,  the 
 founder  of  the  Assyrian  nnonarchy  ;  that  is,  so  far  as  the  faint 
 light  of  chronology  can  pretend  to  determine  such  remote  events, 
 about  3660  years  before  the  Christian  era.  The  Egyptians,  a 
 people  of  Assyrian  extract,  as  the  Coptic  language  seems  to  evince, 
 were  from  superior  local  advantages  civilized  at  a  more  early 
 period,  and  their  genuine  chronology  seems  to  begin  about  400 
 years  before  Christ.  The  venerable  historical  records  contained 
 in  the  scriptures  attest  the  early  civilization  and  ancient  polity  of 
 the  Egyptians.  The  first  seat  of  the  Persian  monarchy  was 
 probably  in  the  N.  E.  on  the  river  Oxus  ;  while  the  Assyrians 
 possessed  the  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris,  and  the  S.  W.  of  Persia. 
 The  history  of  the  Assyrian  empire  begins  with  Ninus,  about 
 2160  years  before  Christ,  who  is  said  to  have  formed  an  alliance 
 with  the  kiiig  of  Arabia,  and,  in  conjunction  with  him,  to  have 
 subdued  all  Asia,  except  India  and  Bactriana  ;  that  is,  according 
 to  the  ancient  knowledge,  he  subdued  Asia  Minor  and  the  west 
 of  Persia. 
 
 2.  Zoroaster,  king  of  Bactriana,  is  said  to  have  been  contem- 
 porary with  Ninus,  and  to  have  invented  magic  ;  that  is,  he  was 
 a  wise  man,  who  could  produce  uncommon  effects  by  common 
 causes.  But  the  history  of  this  Persian  lawgiver  is  lost  in  remote 
 antiquity. 
 
 3.  Cyrus  founds  what  is  called  the  Persian  empire,  557  years 
 before  the  Christian  era,  and  soon  after  takes  Babylon.  This 
 great  event  may  be  said  only  to  have  disclosed  the  Persians  to  the 
 civilized  nations  of  the  west,  for  the  native  Persian  histories  as- 
 cend to  Kayumarras,  great  grandson  of  Noah,  and  the  ancient 
 traditions  chiefly  refer  to  wars  against  Touran  and  India,  which 
 indicate  the  primitive  eastern  position  of  the  people. 
 
 4.  The  overthrow  of  the  first  Persian  empire  by  Alexander,  B. 
 C.  328,  followed  by  the  Greek  mowarchs  of  Syria,  and  the  Grecian 
 kingdom  of  Bactriana,  of  which  last  an  interesting  history  has 
 been  compiled  by  the  learned  Bayer.  It  commenced  about  248 
 years  before  Christ,  and  contained  several  satrapies,  among  which 
 was  Sogdiana. 
 
 5.  'i  he  Parthian  empire,  which  likewise  began  about  248  years 
 B.  C.  This  was  a  mere  revival  of  the  Persian  empire,  under  a 
 new  naiTie. 
 
 6.  Ardshur,  or  Artaxerxes,  about  the  year  220  of  the  Christian 
 era,  restores  the  Persian  line  of  kings  ;  this  dynasty  being  called 
 Sassanides. 
 
 f .  The  conquest  of  Persia,  by  the  Mahometans,  A.  D.  636. 
 The  native  kingdom  was  revived  in  Corasan,  A.  D.  820  ;  and  after 
 several  revolutions  resumed  its  former  situation. 
 
 8.  The  accession  of  the  house  of  Boniah,  A.  D.  934. 
 
 9.  i  hat  of  the  house  of  Scfi,  or  Sofi,  A.  D.  1501,  whence  the 
 title  of  Softs  of  Persia,  for  it  is  unnecessary  here  to  repeat  the  con- 
 quests of  Zingis  and  Timur,  and  the  subsequent  divisions  and 
 revolutions. 
 
PERSIA.  605 
 
 10.  The  reign  of  Shah  Abas,  surnamed  the  Great,  A.  D.  1586. 
 
 11.  The  brief  conquest  by  the  Afgans,  1722;  and  consequent 
 extinction  of  the  house  of  Sefi,  and  elevation  of  Nadir,  surnamed 
 Thamas  Kouli  Khan,  A.  D.  1736.  This  ferocious  chief  was  born 
 in  Corasan  ;  and  after  a  reig'n  of  eleven  years  was  slain,  20th 
 June,  1 747,  near  the  city  of  Meshid,  in  the  same  country. 
 
 Ancient  Monument s.~\  Some  account  of  the  modern  history 
 and  state  of  Persia  shall  be  given,  after  a  very  brief  view  of  the 
 ancient  monuments.  Of  these  the  ruins  of  Persepolis  are  the 
 most  celebrated  and  remarkable.  They  are  situated  at  the  bot- 
 tom of  a  mountain,  fronting  S.  W.  about  forty  miles  to  the  north 
 of  Shiraz.  They  command  a  view  of  the  extensive  plain  of  Mer- 
 dasht,  and  the  mountain  of  Rehumut,  encircles  them  in  the  form 
 of  an  amphitheatre  ;  the  nature  of  these  ruins  may  be  seen  in  the 
 numerous  plates  which  have  been  published  ;  and  it  would  be  an 
 idle  attempt  to  describe  in  few  words  the  grand  portals,  halls,  and 
 columns,  and  numerous  relievos  and  devices.  There  are  many 
 inscriptions  in  a  character  not  yet  explained,  the  letters  of  which 
 somewhat  resemble  nails,  disposed  in  various  directions. 
 
 Several  small  edifices  and  caverns  of  similar  architecture,  arc 
 found  in  various  parts  of  Persia,  all  which  undoubtedly  preceded 
 the  Mahometan  conquest,  but  it  is  difficult  to  ascertain  their  pre- 
 cise era. 
 
 In  many  parts  of  Persia  there  must  I'^main  several  curious 
 monuments  of  antiquity,  which  might  well  excite  the  curiosity  of 
 the  learned  traveller  to  investigate  this  interesting  country.  The 
 design  of  the  present  work  rather  requires  some  information  con- 
 cerning the  modern  state  of  this  once  powerful  monarchy,  which 
 shall  be  chiefly  derived  from  Mr.  Franklin's  view  of  the  transac- 
 tions in  Persia  from  the  death  of  Nadir  Shah,  1747,  to  1788  ;  co\n- 
 baned  with  the  accounts  of  Gmelin,  who  by  command  of  the  Em- 
 press of  Russia  inspected  the  northern  provinces  and  Ghilan  ; 
 and  tliose  of  Pallas,  in  his  last  travels,  during  the  years  1793  and 
 1794. 
 
 Modern  History.^  Nadir  Shah  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew, 
 Adil,  who,  after  a  transitory  reign,  was  followed  by  his  brother 
 Ibrahim.  Mean  while  Timur  Shah  reigned  in  Cabul,  Candahar, 
 and  the  Persian  provinces  adjacent  to  Hindostan  ;  and  availing 
 himself  of  the  confusion  in  Persia,  he  besieged  Meschid,  which  he 
 took  after  a  blockade  of  eight  months. 
 
 This  event  was  followed  by  such  anarchy  and  confusion,  that  it 
 seems  impossible  to  settle  the  chi^onology  of  the  crimes  which 
 were  committed  during  the  contests  of  numerous  chiefs,  which 
 desolated  almost  every  province  from  Gombroon  to  Russia,  leav- 
 ing indelible  marks  of  destruction  throughout  the  kingdom,  and 
 cnanging  even  the  very  character  of  the  people,  whose  prudence 
 is  degenerated  into  cunning,  and  their  courage  into  ferocity. 
 
 At  length  the  government  of  western  Persia  was  happily  settled 
 for  a  considerable  space  of  time  in  the  person  of  Kerim  Khan,  who 
 however  never  assumed  the  title  of  Shah,  but  v/as  contented  with 
 that  of  Vakeel,  or  regent.     This  great  and  mild  prince  had  been  a 
 
60&  PERSIA. 
 
 favorite  officer  of  Nadir  ;  and  at  the  time  of  that  tyrant's  death 
 tvas  in  the  southern  provinces,  where  he  assumed  the  power  at 
 Shiraz,  and  was  warmly  supported  by  the  inhabitants  of  that  city, 
 who  had  observed  and  revered  his  justice  and  beneficence.  In  rc- 
 tvard  he  embellished  this  city  and  its  environs  with  noble  palaces, 
 gardens  and  mosques,  improved  the  highways,  and  rebuilt  the  car- 
 avanseras.  His  reign  was  established  by  the  sword,  but  was  af- 
 terwards unsullied  by  blood  ;  and  its  chief  peril  arose  from  ex- 
 treme mercy.  His  charity  to  the  poor,  and  his  attempt  to  restore 
 the  commerce  of  the  country  are  gratefully  remembered  by  na- 
 tives and  Europeans. 
 
 Another  unhappy  period  of  confusion  followed  the  death  of  Ke- 
 tim  ;  his  relation  Zikea  or  Saki  seized  the  government,  which 
 was  contested  by  another  kinsman,  Ali  Murad.  The  detestable 
 cruelty  of  Zikea  led  to  his  own  destruction,  and  he  was  massacred 
 fey  his  troops  at  Yezdekast,  about  six  days  jonrney  N.  of  Shiraz,  on 
 the  road  to  Ispahan. 
 
 Abul  Futtah  was  then  proclaimed  king  by  the  soldiers,  and  to 
 him  Ali  Murad  submitted  ;  but  Sadick,  brother  of  Kerim,  opposed 
 his  nephew's  elevation.  Sadick  marched  from  Bussora  at  the 
 head  of  an  army,  dethroned  the  young  monarch,  and  after  depriv- 
 ing him  of  his  sight,  ordered  him  into  strict  confinement. 
 
 Ali  Murad,  tlien  at  Ispahan,  rebelled  against  this  usurper,  and 
 with  an  army  of  12,000  men  besieged  and  took  Shiraz,  and  put  Sa- 
 dick to  death  with  three  of  his  children.  A  son  Jaafar  was  ap- 
 pointed by  the  new  king  governor  of  Kom,  a  city  or  pi'ovince  to 
 the  N.  W.  «f  Ispahan. 
 
 Ali  Murad  was  now  regarded  as  peaceable  possessor  of  the 
 Persian  throne  ;  but  an  eunuch  called  Aga  Mamet  or  Akau,  had, 
 since  the  death  of  Kerim,  assumed  an  independent  sway  in  the 
 Caspian  province  of  Maaendran.  When  advancing  against  him, 
 Ali  Murad  fell  from  his  horse  and  instantly  expired.  Jaafar  hav- 
 ing assumed  the  sceptre,  was  defeated  by  Akau  at  Yezdekast, 
 and  retired  to  Shiraz. 
 
 In  1792,  Akau  again  collected  an  army,  and  conquered  the 
 cities  of  Kasbin  and  Tekheran  or  Tahiran.  Having  then  rein- 
 forced his  troops  with  those  of  Ali  Khan  of  Hamfa,  a  prince  who 
 had  asserted  a  kind  of  independency  since  the  death  of  Ali  Mu- 
 rad, he  advanced  against  Jaafar,  Avho  retreated  to  Shiraz,  where 
 he  perished  in  an  insurrection,  and  his  son  Lutuf  fled  to  the  south. 
 
 Akau  had  now  no  rival  except  Hidaet,  khan  of  Ghilan,  Avho 
 was  forced  to  fly  from  Rasht  his  place  of  residence,  but  was  killed 
 near  the  port  of  Sinfili.  In  consequence  of  these  events  Akau  be- 
 came monarch  of  all  western  Persia  ;  and  being  an  eunuch,  had 
 nominated  for  his  successor  his  nephew  Baba  Serdar. 
 
 Eastern  Persia.]  Having  thus  as  briefly  as  possible  discussed 
 the  recent  history  of  western  Persia,  the  eastern  half  yet  remains, 
 being  unhappily  separated  in  a  great  degree  by  high  ridges  of 
 mountains  and  sandy  deserts,  a  circumstance  which  has  been  re- 
 peatedly productive  of  great  disasters  to  this  wide  empii'c. 
 
 This  natural  separation  has   occasioned  great  obscurity  in  the 
 
PERSIA.  60r 
 
 ancient  history  of  Persia,  the  eastern  half  remaining  a  distinct  and 
 independent  country,  of  the  same  general  name  with  the  western, 
 but  with  limits  and  history  totally  distinct. 
 
 The  best  materials  concerning  the  kingdom  of  Candahar  seem 
 to  be  those  collected  by  Rennell  ;  and  they  are,  if  possible,  yet 
 more  scanty  than  those  concerning  the  western  half.  Ahmed  Ab- 
 dalla,  first  king  of  Candahar,  was  originally  the  chief  of  an  Afgan 
 tribe,  conquered  by  Nadir  Shah,  on  whose  death  he  suddenly  ap- 
 peared among  his  former  subjects,  and  soon  erected  a  considera- 
 ble kingdom  in  the  eastern  part  of  Persia,  including  most  of  the 
 Indian  provinces  ceded  by  the  Mogul  to  Nadir,  He  established 
 the  capital  at  Cabul,  at  a  secure  distance  behind  the  mountains  of 
 Hindoo  Koh. 
 
 Ahmed  died  about  the  year  1773,  and  was  succeeded  by  Timur, 
 who  continued  to  reside  at  Cabul  ;  but  the  monarchy  has  been 
 styled  that  of  Candahar  from  a  central  province.  The  successor 
 of  Timur  was  Zemaun,  who  probably  still  rules  this  extensive 
 country,  which  has  happily  been  free  from  the  intestine  commo- 
 tions which  have  desolated  western  Persia.  Since  the  great  bat- 
 tle of  Panniput,  fought  by  Ahmed  Abdalla  against  the  Marattas 
 1761,  the  kingdom  of  Candahar  seems  to  have  remained  in  a  pa- 
 cific state,  and  the  government  is  of  applauded  lenity. 
 
 The  farthest  extent  of  this  monarchy  on  the  east  comprizes 
 Cashmir,  which  was  probably  subdued  about  1754.*  In  the  west» 
 according  to  the  opinion  of  Rennell,!  it  extends  to  the  vicinity  of 
 the  city  of  Tershiz,  or  Turshiz,  in  the  same  line  of  longitude  with 
 Meshid,  a  length  of  about  900  miles.  The  province  of  Sindi,  at 
 the  mouth  of  the  Indus,  is  also  subject  to  Zemaun,  with  the  west- 
 ern part  of  Moultan  ;  but  the  remainder  on  the  east  bank  of  that 
 river,  and  the  wide  and  fertile  province  of  Lahore,  are  possessed 
 by  the  Seiks,  a  warlike  nation.  The  other  provinces  are  Kuttore, 
 Cabul,  Candahar,  and  within  the  Persian  boundary  Segistan,  and 
 probably  Mekran,  with  the  eastern  part  of  Corasan,  and  the  prov- 
 ince of  Gaur,  the  medial  breadth  being  probably  about  500  miles. 
 The  remainder  of  Balk  and  Great  Bucharia  belong  to  Independent 
 Tartary.  The  chief  subjects  of  Zemaun  are  the  Afgans,  or  peo- 
 ple of  the  mountains  between  Persia  and  Hindostan,  who  may  be 
 considered  as  the  founders  of  the  empire  ;  the  others  are  Hmdoos, 
 Persians,  and  a  few  Tartars. 
 
 Meligion.']  The  Persians  are  Mahometans  of  the  sect  of  Ali ; 
 for  which  reason  the  Turks,  who  follow  the  succession  of  Omar 
 and  Abu  Bekr,  call  them  heretics.  Their  religion  is,  if  possibk, 
 in  some  things  more  fantastical  and  sensual  than  that  of  the 
 Turks  ;  but  in  many  points  it  is  mingled  with  some  Bramin  su- 
 perstitions. When  they  are  taxed  by  the  Christians  with  drink- 
 ing strong  liquors,  as  many  of  them  do,  they  answer  very  sensibly, 
 "  You  Christians  whore  and  get  drunk,  though  you  know  you  are 
 committing  sins,  which  is  the  very  case  with  us." 
 
 In  one  point  they  far  excel  many  professing  christians,  who 
 
 *  Forster,  ir.  14.  f  PagelS2. 
 
508  PERSIA. 
 
 would  be  as  ashamed  to  be  seen  at  pi'ayer,  or  attending  the  ordi- 
 nances of  Christ,  as  in  the  commission  of  some  disgraceful  crime. 
 The  Persians  have  no  marks  of  this  false  modesty.  If  a  bold, 
 masculine  piety,  and  a  sincere,  awful  sense  of  the  Deity  are  very 
 consistent  things,  then  this  fear  of  raan  among  Christians  must  be 
 ov/ing  to  an  error  in  education.* 
 
 Having  mentioned  the  Bramins,  the  comparison  between  them 
 and  the  Persian  guedres,  or  gaurs^  who  pretend  to  be  the  disci- 
 ples and  successors  of  the  ancient  magi,  the  followers  of  Zoroas- 
 ter, may  be  highly  worth  a  learned  disquisition  :  That  both  of 
 them  held  originally  pure  and  simple  ideas  of  a  Supreme  Being, 
 may  be  easily  proved  ;  but  the  Indian  bramins  and  parsees  accuse 
 the  gaws,  who  still  worship  the  fire,  of  having  sensualized  those 
 ideas,  and  of  introducing  an  evil  principle  into  the  government  of 
 the  world.  A  combustible  ground,  about  10  miles  distant  from 
 Baku,  a  city  in  the  north  of  Persia,  is  the  scene  of  the  gucbres  de- 
 votion. It  must  be  admitted,  that  this  ground  is  impregnated 
 with  very  surprising  inflammatory  qualities,  and  contains  several 
 old  little  temples  ;  in  one  of  which  the  guebres  pretend  to  pre- 
 serve the  sacred  flame  of  the  universal  fire  Avhich  rises  from  the 
 end,  and  a  large  hollow  cane  stuck  in  the  ground,  resembling  a 
 lamp,  burning  with  very  pure  spirits.  If  any  tube  be  inserted  in 
 the  ground,  and  the  top  of  the  ground  touched  with  a  coal,  a 
 flame  bursts  forth.  They  have  no  floors  ;  this  is  the  mode  of 
 their  lighting  their  rooms,  of  cooking  their  victuals,  and  by  these 
 tubes,  piling  the  stones  over  them,  they  burn  their  lime.  Their 
 springs,  particularly  on  the  isle  of  Wetoy,  furnish  a  black  naph- 
 tha in  great  quantities.  When  scattered  on  the  sea  it  burns  ; 
 the  flame  is  often  wafted  to  a  great  distance. 
 
 The  Mahometans  are  the  declared  enemies  of  the  gaurs,  who 
 were  banished  out  of  Persia  by  Shah  Abbas.  Their  sect  is  said 
 to  be  numerous,  though  tolerated  in  very  few  places. 
 
 The  long  wars  between  the  Persians  and  the  Romans,  seem 
 early  to  have  driven  the  ancient  Christians  into  Persia  and  the 
 neighboring  countries.  Even  to  this  day,  many  sects  are  found 
 that  evidently  have  Christianity  for  the  ground-work  of  their  re- 
 ligion. Some  of  them,  called  Souff'ees,  who  are  a  kuid  of  quiet- 
 ists,  sacrifice  their  passions  to  God,  and  profess  the  moral  duties. 
 The  Sabean  Christians  have,  in  their  religion,  a  mixture  of  Juda- 
 ism and  Mahometanism  ;  and  are  numerous  towards  the  Persian 
 gulf.  We  have  already  mentioned  the  Armenian  and  Georgian 
 Christians,  who  are  very  numerous  in  Persia.  The  present  race 
 of  Persians  are  said  to  be  very  cool  in  the  doctrines  of  Mahomet, 
 owing  chiefly  to  their  late  wars  with  the  Turks. 
 
 Government. ~\  The  government  of  Persia,  like  that  of  all  other 
 oriental  states,  appears  to  have  been  always  despotic  ;  but  its  ad- 
 ministration in  Eastern  Persia,  or  the  kingdom  of  Candahar,  is 
 represented  as  mild.  The  state  of  the  people  seemb  to  be  de- 
 plorable, being  subject  to  the  arbitrary  power  and  extortions  of 
 
 *  Ilunwaj", 
 
PERSIA.  609 
 
 vhe  numerous  Khans,  or  chiefs.  These  are  sometimes  governors 
 of  provinces,  sometimes  only  possessors  of  small  districts,  and 
 pretend  to  hereditary  succession,  though  liable  to  be  forfeited  or 
 put  to  death  by  the  arbitrary  mandate  of  the  sovereign.  The 
 great  Khans  are  sometimes  styled  Beglerbcgs,  or  lord  of  lords  ; 
 and  in  time  of  war  Serdars,  or  generals.  Those  who  command 
 cities  are  commonly  styled  Darogas,  or  governors.* 
 
 Po}iulatiQn7\  1  he  present  state  of  the  population  of  Persia  is 
 reckoned  by  Hassel  at  22,000,000,  of  which  3,000,0001  are  in  W. 
 Persia,  and  19,000,000^  in  E.  Persia.  Pinkerton  strangely  re- 
 duces the  number  in  both  to  only  10,000,000. 
 
 Though  Mr.  Franklin  have  supposed  that  the  rival  kings  in 
 western  Persia  could  not  muster  more  than  twenty  thousand  men 
 each,  yet  from  the  account  of  Pallas,  Aga  Mamet  raised  an  army 
 of  seventy  thousand.  But  supposing  western  Persia  united,  and 
 somewhat  reinstated  in  prosperity,  it  is  not  probable  that  the  army 
 could  exceed  !0o,000  effective  men,  which  may  probably  also  be 
 the  amount  of  that  of  Candahar.  Yet  the  Afgans  alone,  who  are 
 a  brave  people,  are  supposed  by  Hassel,  able  to  raise  an  army  of 
 300,000  men  ;  and  Western  Persia,  in  the  opinion  of  the  same  au- 
 thor, can  raise  100,000  men. 
 
 A'a-y?/.]  From  some  particular  precepts  in  the  laws  of  Zoroas- 
 ter, which  it  was  impossible  to  observe  at  sea,  the  ancient  Persians 
 were  never  a  maritime  people,  though  they  commanded  an  am- 
 ple gulf  with  the  mouths  of  the  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris.  The 
 commerce  on  the  Indian  ocean,  as  well  as  on  the  Caspian  sea,  has 
 been  always  chiefly  conducted  by  the  Armenians,  a  most  irciustri- 
 ous  and  respectable  people.  Hence  the  commerce  of  this  coun- 
 try, so  advantageously  situated,  has  always  been  in  the  hand  of 
 strangers  ;  while  the  natives,  with  feudal  pride,  attend  to  their 
 horses  and  the  chace,  and  lead  what  is  called  the  life  of  a  gentle- 
 man, neither  improving  their  own  property  nor  the  coimtry  in 
 general  ;  scarcely  one  Persian  vessel,  therefore,  has  in  any  age 
 navigated  the  sea. 
 
 Re-venues?\  The  actual  revenues  of  Persia  it  is  impossible  to 
 estiniate  ;  but  the  ruinous  state  of  the  country  must  render  it  un- 
 productii^  The  Turkish  revenue  has  been  computed  at  seven 
 millions  sterling  ;  and  it  may  perhaps  be  conjectured  with  some 
 slow  of  probability,  that  the  monarcii  of  Candahar  may  draw  from 
 his  various  and  extensive  provinces  about  three  millions  sterling  j 
 while  western  Persia  scarcely  supplies  two  millions.  Charclin 
 says  tiiat  the  ancient  revenue  consisted  partly  in  contributions  in 
 kind  ;  Kurdistan,  for  instance,  furnishing  butter,  while  Georgia 
 supplied  female  slaves  ;  and  partly  arose  from  the  royal  aon»aias, 
 witi'.  a  third  of  metals,  precious  Siones,  and  pearls  ;  and  a  few  du- 
 ties and  taxes.  The  whole  revenue  was  by  some  estimated  at 
 7o0,uoo  tonians,§  or  about  thirty-two  millions  of  French  livres. 
 
 *  Ctiaidin,  vi  41.  \  Schamiiig.  +  Olivier. 
 
 §  Tlie  toitiaii  is  computed   at  about  .31.  7s.  being   ratlier   more   tlian   equal   to    two 
 gold  hiiiliiiis,  r<giil.l  coin  of  Hii.dosUiii,  \iorlli  aboutthirty-two  shiiiings.     Chardin  coiw- 
 puies  iIk-  I   fiiaii  at  Tort)  -five  livris  of  bis  time. 
 VOL.  II.  77 
 
610  PERSIA. 
 
 Political  Im/iortcaicc  and  Relations.~\  The  political  importance 
 and  relations  of  Persia  are  now  greatly  restricted.  Were  the 
 western  part  united  under  one  sovereign,  it  might  lend  effectual 
 assistance  to  the  Russians  in  any  design  against  the  Turks.  But 
 in  its  recent  distracted  state,  Persia  has  been  little  formidable, 
 even  to  the  declining  power  of  Turkey  ;  and  the  Russians  seem 
 to  entertain  no  desire  of  extending  their  conquests  over  the  moun- 
 tainous Caspian  provinces,  which  Peter  the  Great  once  held  and 
 abandoned,  so  that  Persia  seems  secure  on  the  side  of  Russia,  as 
 well  as  on  that  of  Turkey  and  Arabia ;  this  unhappy  security  be- 
 ing in  fact  one  grand  cause  of  the  civil  anarchy.  This  part  of 
 Persia  is  in  confederacy  with  France.* 
 
 Eastern  Persia,  or  the  kingdom  of  Candahar,  appears  to  have 
 little  to  apprehend  from  the  Seiks  on  the  other  side  of  the  Indus  ; 
 and  the  Uzbek  Khans  of  Balk,  Bucharia,  and  Kharism,  are  disunit- 
 ed and  little  formidable,  though  they  command  a  warlike  peopk. 
 It  is  therefore  more  probable  that  these  countries  may  be  van- 
 quished by  the  kings  of  Candahar,  than  that  any  danger  should 
 arise  from  the  Uzbeks.  A  contest  may  probably  happen  between 
 eastern  and  western  Persia  ;  but  even  if  united  under  one  sove- 
 reign, it  would  be  long  before  this  country  could  resume  her  rank 
 among  powerful  nations. 
 
 Manners  and  Customs.']  The  manners  and  customs  of  the  Per- 
 sians, in  the  17th  century,  have  been  amply  detailed  by  Chardin, 
 Thevenot,  Sanson,  and  other  travellers. 
 
 More  modern  ideas  of  Persian  manners  may  be  derived  from 
 the  travels  of  Gmelin,  in  Ghilan.f  The  Persians  still  pride  them- 
 selves in  universal  politeness,  and  are  hospitable,  not  however 
 without  the  expectation  of  presents  in  return.  They  seem  to  con- 
 sider themselves  as  more  wise  and  sagacious  than  other  nations, 
 yet  are  passionate  ;  and  the  recent  commotions  have  imparted  a 
 taint  of  cruelty  to  the  national  tharacter.|  Of  a  sanguine  temper- 
 ament, both  rich  and  poor  are  generally  gay  ;  and  immoderate 
 mirth  will  succeed  the  most  violent  quarrels.  They  are  extreme- 
 ly attached  to  the  fair  sex,  and  not  averse  to  wine.  The  general 
 complexion  is  fair,  somewhat  tinged  with  olive;  but  those  in  the 
 south  about  Shiraz,  of  Candahar,  and  the  provinces  towaMs  India, 
 are  of  a  dark  brown.  They  are  commonly  fat,  with  black  hair, 
 high  forehead,  aquiline  nose,  full  cheeks,  and  a  large  chin,  the 
 form  of  the  countenance  being  frequently  oval.  The  men  are 
 generally  strong  and  robust,  and  inclined  to  martial  exercises,  but 
 they  are  particularly  subject  to  disorders  of  the  eyes.  They  gen- 
 erally shave  the  head,  and  wear  high  crimson  bonnets  ;  but  the 
 beard  is  sacred,  and  tended  with  great  care.  They  often  wear 
 three  or  four  light  dresses,  one  above  the  other,  fastened  with  a 
 belt  and  sash  ;  and  they  are  fond  of  large  cloaks  of  thick  cloth. 
 The  women  wrap  around  their  heads  pieces  of  silk  of  different 
 
 *  Hiissel. 
 
 f  Histoire  <les  Decoiivertes  faites  par  divers  savans  Vovageiirs  clans  plusicurs  con- 
 «rees  de  la  Unssie  et  tie  la  Perse.     Si.\  vols.  8yo.  Bttne,  1"79 — ITSi. 
 t  Decoiiv,  Kuss.  ii.  '270. 
 
PERSIA.  611 
 
 colors  ;  and  their  robes  are  rather  shorter  than  those  of  the  men. 
 The  Persians  eat  twice  or  thrice  a  day,  dining  about  noon,  but 
 the  chief  repast  is  the  supper,  as  with  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Ro- 
 mans. The  most  usual  dish  is  boiled  rice,  variously  prepared. 
 The  meat  is  boiled  to  excess,  and  the  meal  is  enlarged  with  pot- 
 herbs, roots,  and  fruit,  cakes,  hard  eggs,  and  above  all  sweet- 
 meats, of  which  they  are  extremely  fond.  They  are  remarkable 
 for  cleanliness,  both  in  their  persons  and  habitations. 
 
 Marriages  are  conducted  by  female  mediation  ;  and  the  pomp 
 and  ceremonies  somewhat  resemble  the  Russian.  Polygamy  is 
 allowed  ;  but  the  first  married  is  the  chief  wife.  The  tombs  of 
 the  rich  are  often  grand,  as  are  the  cenotaphs  of  the  twelve  Imams, 
 or  vicar*  of  the  prophet,  regarded  by  the  Chias,  as  his  only  lawful 
 successors. 
 
 Language.']  The  language  of  Persia  is  perhaps  the  most  cele- 
 brated of  all  the  oriental  tongues,  for  strength,  beauty,  and  melo- 
 dy. The  excellent  work  of  Sir  William  Jones,  on  oriental  poetry, 
 discloses  part  of  the  treasures  to  be  found  in  this  language.  In 
 general,  the  Persian  literature  approaches  nearer  to  the  Europe- 
 an, in  solid  good  sense,  and  clearness  of  thought  and  expression, 
 than  that  of  any  other  Asiatic  nation  ;  as  the  language  itself  has 
 been  long  known  to  bear  a  strong  affinity  to  the  German,  though 
 softened  by  the  long  usage  of  a  polished  people.  One  of  the  old- 
 est remains  of  Persian  literature  is  the  famous  Sha  Nama,  or  his- 
 tory of  kings,  a  long  heroic  poem  of  Ferdusi.  Sadi,  an  excellent 
 and  entertaining  moralist,  writes  in  prose,  mingled  with  verse, 
 like  several  of  the  Icelandic  Sagas. 
 
 Hafiz  is  the  Anacrcon  of  the  east,  and  his  tomb  is  venerated  in 
 the  vicinity  of  Shiraz,  being  itself  the  chosen  shrine  of  parties  of 
 pleasure,  who  proceed  thither  to  enjoy  the  delicious  situation,  and 
 offer  libations  of  the  rich  Shirazian  wdne,  to  the  memory  of  their 
 favorite  bard,  a  splendid  copy  of  whose  works  is  chained  to  his 
 monument.  But  the  sciences  in  general  are  little  cultivated  by 
 the  Persians,  who  are  lost  in  abject  superstition,  and  fond  believ- 
 ers in  astrology  ;  a  proud  sophistry,  which  connects  the  little 
 brief  destiny  of  man  with  the  vast  rotation  of  innumerable  suns 
 and  w^orlds. 
 
 The  Persian  language  is  known  far  beyond  the  limits  of  Per- 
 sia Proper.  It  is  spoken  at  all  the  Mussulman  Courts  in  India, 
 and  is  tl%e  usual  language  of  judicial  proceedings  under  the  British 
 government  in  Hindostan.  It  is  next  in  importance  to  the  Ara- 
 bic and  Chinese,  in  regard  to  the  extent  of  territory  through  Avhich 
 it  is  spoken,  being  generally  understood  from  Calcutta  to  Da- 
 mascus.* 
 
 Education.]  The  education  of  the  modern  Persians  is  chiefly 
 military  ;  and  their  gross  flatteries,  and  obliquity  of  expression, 
 evince  that  they  have  totally  forgotten  the  noble  system  of  their  an- 
 cestors, who  in  the  first  place  taught  their  children  to  speak  truth. 
 
 Cities.]     The   capital   city   of  modern  Persia  is  Ispahan.     In- 
 
 *   Bnchannan's  Researches.. 
 
612  PERSIA. 
 
 eluding^  the  suburbs,  its  circuit  is  computed  by  Chardin*  at  about 
 24  miles,  and  the  inhabitants  at  600,000.  It  stands  on  the  small 
 river  Zenderud,  which  rises  in  the  mountains  of  Yaibat,  three 
 days  journey  towards  the  north  ;  but  Abas  the  Great,  at  a  pro- 
 digious expense,  pierced  some  mountains,  about  30  leagues  from 
 Ispahan,  and  introduced  another  stream,  so  that  the  Zenderud 
 was  as  large  during  the  spring,  as  the  Seine  at  Paris  in  the  win- 
 ter ;  for  in  that  season  the  melting  of  the  snows,  in  the  high 
 range  of  mountains,  greatly  swelled  the  river.  The  walls  are  of 
 earth,  and  ill  repaired,  with  eight  gates,  and  the  streets  nari'ow» 
 devious,  and  badly  paved.  But  the  royal  square,  and  its  grand 
 market,  the  palace  of  the  Sefi,  and  those  of  the  Grandees,  the 
 xnosks,  the  public  baths,  and  other  edifices,  are  for  the  ii;ost  part 
 splendid.  The  suburb  of  lulfa,  or  Yulfa,  is  very  large,  and  pos- 
 sessed by  the  Armenians,  i'he  environs  of  Ispahan  are  pleasaiit, 
 and,  like  most  other  Persian  towns  and  cities,  diversified  by  the 
 neighborhood  of  mountains.  This  capital,  after  the  visit  of  Char- 
 din,  was  greatly  reduced,  insomuch  that  a  Persian  mcrci.ant  as- 
 serted to  Mr.  Hanway,  that  not  ahove  5000  houses  were  inhabited, 
 having  been  taken  and  plundered  by  the  Afgans,  in  1722. 
 
 The  second  city,  at  least  in  fame,  is  S.iiraz,  which  has  been  re- 
 cently visited  and  described.  This  capital  of  Farsistao,  or  Per- 
 sia, is  situated  in  a  fertile  valley,  about  26  miles  in  length,  and  12 
 in  breadth,  bounded  on  all  sides  by  lol'ty  mountains  :  the  circuit 
 of  the  city  is  about  4  miles,  surrounded  with  a  wall  25  feet  high, 
 and  10  thick,  with  round  towers  at  the  distance  of  80  paces.  The 
 citadel  is  built  of  brick ;  and  before  it  is  a  great  square,  with  a 
 park  of  miserable  artillery.  The  mosk  of  the  late  Kerim  is 
 splendid  but  unfinished.  The  tomb  of  Hafiz  is  on  the  N.  E.  side, 
 about  2  miles  distant  from  the  walls,  and  at  the  foot  of  the  moun- 
 tains, in  the  same  direction,  is  the  tomb  of  Sadi,  with  a  remarka- 
 ble channel  for  water  hollowed  in  the  rock.  Many  summer 
 houses  with  gardens,  in  the  vicinity  of  Shiraz,  were  built  by  the 
 late  regent  Kerim,  the  plantations  being  avenues  of  cypress  and 
 sycamore,  leading  to  parterres  of  flowers,  and  refreshed  with  foun- 
 tains. The  neighboring  fields  are  fertile  in  rice,  wheat  and  bar- 
 ley, the  harvest  beginning  in  May.  and  ending  in  the  middle  of 
 July.  Provisions  are  cheap,  and  the  mutton  excellent.  The  fa- 
 mous horses  of  Pars  now  yield  greatly  to  those  of  Dush  Tistan,  a 
 province  to  the  S.  W.  At  Shiraz  there  is  a  glass  manufactory  ; 
 but  woollen  goods  and  silks  are  brought  from  Yezd  and  Kerman, 
 copper  from  Tauriz,  sword-blades  from  Kom.  Abu  Shehai',  or 
 Busheer,  supplies  Indian  articles.  The  climate  of  this  celebrated 
 city  is  very  pleasant,  particularly  in  the  spring,  when  numerous 
 flowers  perfume  the  air  ;  and  the  Boolbul,  or  oriental  nightin- 
 gale, the  goldfinch,  linnet,  and  other  warblers,  delight  the  car.t 
 
 Having  thus  briefly  described  the  two  most  celebrated  cities, 
 the  others  shall  be  mentioned  in  a  geographical  progress  from  the 
 north,  beginning  with  those  of  western  Persia.     Teflliz,  the.  cap- 
 
 •  Chardin,  torn,  iii  j  Franklin,  pasBim. 
 
PERSIA.  6  IS 
 
 ital  of  Georgia,  is  a  large  and  populous  town,  but  meanly  built, 
 rising  from  the  river  Kur  along  the  side  of  a  hill.*  There  are 
 fine  springs  of  hot  water,  a  favorite  resort  of  the  inhabitants. 
 The  chief  trade  is  in  furs,  sent  to  Turkey  and  the  south  of  Per- 
 sia. The  present  circuit  is  about  2  English  miles,  and  it  is  sup- 
 posed to  contain  20,000  inhabitants,  more  than  half  being  Arme- 
 nians.t  It  must  not  be  forgotten,  that  during  the  late  confusion  in 
 Persia,  Georgia  has  effected  at  least  a  temporary  independence, 
 supported  by  Russia  ;  so  that  the  dominion  of  prince  Heraclius  is 
 only  nominally  included  within  the  Persian  boundary, 
 
 Derbent  was  formerly  a  place  of  noted  strength  on  the  Caspian 
 sea,  but  was  taken  by  Peter  the  Great  of  Russia,  and  afterwards 
 by  Catherine  II.  in  1780.  Gmelin  visited  this  city  a  few  years 
 before,  and  describes  it  as  situated  on  the  side  of  a  mountain,  ex- 
 tending almost  to  the  sea  1  he  shores  are  unfit  for  anchorage, 
 so  that  there  is  little  commerce,  except  inland  with  Ghilan  prin- 
 cipally in  saffron.  The  gardens  near  the  town  are  productive  of 
 excellent  grapes,  and  most  kinds  of  European  fruits. 
 
 Westward  on  the  Turkish  frontier,  stands  the  city  of  Erivan,  of 
 considerable  extent,  and  the  capital  of  Persian  Armenia,  but  the 
 houses  are  meanly  built,  like  most  of  those  in  Persia.|  Provisions 
 are  plentiful,  and  good  wine  is  produced  in  the  neighborhood. 
 After  repeated  contests  with  the  Turks,  the  Persians  have  remain- 
 ed masters  of  Erivan  since  1635.  Not  far  to  the  S.  W.  is  the  cel- 
 ebrated Armenian  mcDastery  of  the  three  churches:  and  the  noted 
 mount  Ararat,  on  which  Noah's  ark  rested,  which  may  be  regard- 
 ed as  a  kind  of  frontier  between  the  Turkish  and  Persian  domin- 
 ions, rises  about  30  miles  to  the  south  of  Erivan.  The  summit  is 
 inaccessible. 
 
 The  province  of  Aderbijan  contains  few  places  of  note,  except 
 Tebriz,  or  Tauriz,  a  considerable  city,  which  was  however  greatly 
 injured  by  an  earthquake  tov/ard  the  beginning  of  the  last  centu- 
 ry. The  bazars  or  market  places,  and  other  public  edifices,  are 
 grand  and  spacious ;  and  it  is  said  that  the  great  square  has  held 
 30,000  men  drawn  up  in  order  of  battle.  In  the  neighborhood 
 there  are  quarries  of  white  marble  ;  and  there  was  a  mine  of  gold, 
 now  abandoned  ;  but  copper  is  still  wrought.  Being  situated  on 
 the  west  side  of  the  great  Caucasian  mass  of  mountains,  on  which 
 the  snow  remams  for  nine  months  of  the  year,  the  climate  is  ex-. 
 tremely  cold,  but  dry  and  healthy. 
 
 The  Caspian  provinces  of  Ghilan  and  Mazendran  present  their 
 capitals,  Rasht  and  Sari.  The  former,  though  the  residence  of 
 an  independent  Khan,  has  neither  walls  nor  gates,  but  is  the  seat 
 of  considerable  commerce,  and  the  number  of  houses  may  amount 
 to  2000.  The  palace  of  the  Khan  was  composed  of  several  large 
 pavilions,  arranged  in  the  form  of  a  square,  and  communicating 
 with  each  ether  by  handsome  gallei'ies.  In  the  midst  was  a  gar- 
 den with  fountains,  and  behind  was  the  haram  with  another  gar- 
 den, the  apartments  being  richly  furnished  with  tapestry,  mirrors, 
 
 ■^  Tournefort,  ii.  233.        f  KHis,  Memoir,  p.  49.        -i  Tournefort,  ii.  255. 
 
§JM  PERSIA. 
 
 and  other  elegant  articles.  Rasht  is  the  staple  of  the  silk,  which 
 is  produced  in  great  abundance  in  this  province.  Sari,  the  resi- 
 dence of  the  Khans  of  Mazendran,  is  of  small  account,  when  com- 
 pared with  Aschraff,  a  favorite  residence  of  Abas  the  Great  ;  its 
 splendid  palaces  and  gardens  have  however  become  ruinous,  since 
 the  commotions  that  followed  the  death  of  Nadir. 
 
 On  returning  towards  the  S.  W.  there  appears  Bistan,  a  small 
 city  on  tlie  north  of  the  great  salt  desert,  rarely  visited  by  travel- 
 lers ;  and  to  the  W.  Chover  or  Khaver,  with  a  pass  of  the  same 
 name,  through  a  branch  of  the  Caucasian  mountains  of  Mazendran, 
 which  is  preferred  to  the  passage  through  the  desert.  Kom,  oi' 
 Khums,  was  visited  by  Cliardin,  who  in  travelling  from  Sava  pass- 
 ed a  wide  plain,  with  a  hill  in  the  middle,  called  the  mountain  of 
 the  Talifman.  He  represents  Kom  as  a  considerable  city,  at  the 
 foot  of  high  mountains,  and  near  a  river,  which  is  lost  in  the  great 
 salt  desert.  The  houses  were  computed  at  15,000  ;  and  the  chief 
 manufactures  were  while  earthen  ware,  soap,  and  sword  blades. 
 Plerc  are  the  superb  tombs  of  Sefi  I.  aj>d  Abas  II. 
 
 Towards  the  Turkish  frontier,  one  of  the  largest  rivers  of  Per- 
 sia, the  Ahwaz,  or  Ancient  Choaspcs,  flows  into  the  Tigris ;  but 
 though  the  ancient  Susa  decorated  its  banks,  the  modern  towns  of 
 Kiab  a.nd  Ahwaz  are  of  small  account. 
 
 The  celebrated  Persian  gulph  has  been  always  more  remarka- 
 ble for  the  factories  of  foreigners,  than  for  native  establishments. 
 Bander  Abassi  was  a  port  opposite  to  the  isie  of  Ormus,  or  rather 
 on  the  coast  between  Ormus  and  Kishmish,  or  Kishma,  and  is 
 now  more  commonly  known  by  the  name  of  Gombroon.  The 
 trade,  once  considerable,  is  now  greatly  declined  ;  and  even  the 
 Dutch  left  it,  and  settled  in  the  isle  of  Karek  or  Garak.  The 
 French  Indian  commerce  has  failed  ;  and  the  English  staple  is 
 Bussora. 
 
 In  the  small  isle  of  Ormus,  at  the  entrance  of  the  Persian  gulph, 
 was  formerly  a  celebrated  mart  of  Portuguese  trade,  established 
 there  by  consent  of  the  petty  king  of  the  country,  who  also  pos- 
 sessed some  districts  on  the  opposite  coast.  But  the  Portuguese 
 were  expelled  by  Abas  the  Great,  with  the  assistance  of  the  Eng- 
 lish, A.  D.  1622. 
 
 The  province  of  Kerman  contains  a  city  of  the  same  name  ;  but 
 some  late  authors  represent  Yezd,  as  the  capital,  though  generally 
 supposed  to  belong  to  the  province  of  Ears.  This  city  is  cele- 
 brated for  the  manufacture  of  carpets,  and  stuff's  made  of  camel 
 hair  :  but  the  chief  manufactures  of  carpets  are  in  the  fertile  vale 
 of  Segistan,  in  eastern  Persia. 
 
 In  passing  to  the  eastern  division,  or  kingdom  of  Candahar,  it 
 iiiay  be  proper  to  observe  that  Cabul,  the  metropolis,  is  situated 
 within  the  limits  of  Hindostan  ;  but  Candahar  is  by  D'Anville  and 
 others  ascribed  to  Persia,  being  however  a  city  of  small  size, 
 and  chiefly  memorable  as  the  grand  passage  between  these  exten- 
 sive empires. 
 
 The  dominion  of  Zemaun  Shah  comprises  a  considerable  por- 
 tion of  Corasan.     The  ciiv  of  Herat  stands  on  a  spacious  plain,  in- 
 
PERSIA.  t>i^ 
 
 lersected  with  many  rivulets,  which,  with  the  bridges,  villages, 
 and  plar.tations,  delight  the  traveller,  fatigued  in  passing  the 
 eastern  deserts  cf  Afgahistan,  or  the  country  of  the  Afgans.*  It 
 is  a  smaller  city  than  Candahar,  but  maintains  a  respectable  trade, 
 and  provisions  are  cheap  and  abundant.  Some  European  goods 
 pass  hither  from  the  gulph  of  Persia;  but  coarse  strong  woollens 
 are  manufactured  in  the  at^jacent  districts.  This  city  was  the 
 capital  of  Corasan,  till  the  first  Sefi  of  Persia  transferred  this  rank 
 to  the  northern  city  of  Mcshid,  which  contained  the  tomb  of  Mu- 
 za,  his  supposed  ancestor,  and  one  of  the  twelve  great  Imams  of 
 Persia. 
 
 Edifices.']  In  the  recent  desolation  of  the  country  many  of  the 
 most  splendid  edifices  are  become  ruinous,  and  among  others  the 
 palace  of  Ashref  in  Mazendran.  The  late  Kerim  has  however 
 decorated  Shiraz  with  many  beautiful  buildings.  Pie  also  im- 
 proved the  roads  in  the  vicinity  ;  but  in  Persia,  which  may,  as 
 Chardin  observes,  be  called  a  country  of  mountains,  the  roads  are 
 not  only  difiicult,  but  kept  in  bad  repair.f 
 
 The  tombs  of  the  kings  of  Persia  are  stupendous  v/orks,  being 
 cut  out  of  a  rock,  and  highly  ornamented  with  sculptures.  The 
 chief  of  the  modern  edifices  is  a  pillar,  to  be  seen  at  Ispahan,  60 
 feet  high,  consisting  of  the  skulls  of  beasts,  erected  by  Shah  Ab- 
 bas, after  the  suppression  of  a  rebellion.  Abbas  had  vowed  to 
 erect  such  a  column  of  human  skvills;  but  upon  the  submission  of 
 the  rebels,  he  performed  his  vow  by  substituting  those  of  brutes^ 
 each  of  the  rebels  furnishing  one. 
 
 Manufactures  and  Connnerce.]  The  manufactures  and  com- 
 merce of  this  great  country  may  be  said  to  be  annihilated,  though 
 a  few  carpets  still  reach  Europe  at  extravagant  prices.  Even  the 
 trade  with  the  Russians  on  the  Caspian  is  of  small  account,  con- 
 sisting of  salt  and  naphtha  from  Baku,  and  some  silk  from  Shirvan, 
 called  by  the  Russians  Shamakia,  but  chiefly  from  Ghilan,  where 
 there  is  a  Russian  consul  at  Enseli  or  Sinsili.  'I'he  Persian  mer- 
 chants also  bring  goods  to  Balfrush,  tlie  largest  town  in  Mazen- 
 dran, wliere  they  trade  vwith  those  of  Russia. 
 
 That  intelligent  traveller,  Chardin,  has  given  an  ample  view  of 
 the  Persian  manufactures  and  commerce  in  the  17th  century. 
 Embroidery  was  carried  to  the  greatest  perfection,  in  cloth,  silk, 
 and  leather.  Earthen  ware  was  made  throughout  Persia;  but 
 the  best  at  Shiraz,  Meshid,  Yezd,  and  particularly  beautiful  at 
 Zarand,  which  equalled  the  Chinese  porcelain  in  fineness  and 
 transparency  :  the  fabric  was  so  hard  as  to  produce  lasting  mor- 
 tars lor  grinding  various  substances.^  That  of  Yezd,  which  Char- 
 din places  in  Kirman,  was  noted  for  its  lightness.  The  manufac- 
 tures of  leather,  and  shagreen,  were  alsp  excellent  ;§  and  they  ex- 
 celled iu  braziery,  using   the   tin  of  Sumatra  to  line  the  vessels. 
 
 *  Foster,  ii.  115. 
 
 "i?  'Die  CMUse.v  ot'  AI)as  Uie  Great  is  a  nol>le  monument,.  extendi\ig  about  SOU  \\.  ': 
 on  tilt-  S.ot'tlie  C:i'^pi;in.     Hanway,  j.  19S. 
 +  Cli;ir(1"ui,  iv.  24.S. 
 §  The  {)rop€r  term  \% scoria,  froin  the  Per=nin  won.]  Sn^ru    Ch?.!d.  iv.  250. 
 
dI6  PERSIA. 
 
 The  bows  of  Persia  were  the  most  esteemed  of  all  in  the  east,  and 
 the  sabres  finely  damasked,  in  a  manner  which  Chardin  thinks  in- 
 imitable in  Europe  ;  for,  not  content  with  their  own  mines  of  steel, 
 they  imported  it  from  India,  and  wroU;j;ht  it  in  a  particular  manner 
 described  by  our  author.  Their  razors,  and  other  works  in  steel, 
 were  also  good  ;  and  they  excelled  in  cutting  precious  stones,  and 
 dyeing  bright  and  lasting  colors.  Their  cotton  and  woollen  cloths, 
 and  those  made  of  goats'  and  camels'  hair,  with  their  silks,  bro- 
 cades, and  velvets,  were  superior  manufactures.  The  carpets,  as 
 already  mentioned,  were  chiefly  from  the  province  of  Segistan  ; 
 and  Chardin  adds,  that  in  his  time,  they  were  called  Turkey  car- 
 pets, because  they  were  brought  to  Europe  through  that  country  ; 
 and  were  valued  by  the  number  of  threads  in  the  inch,  being  some- 
 times fourteen  or  fifteen.  The  stuffs  made  of  camels'  hair  were 
 chiefly  from  Kirman,  and  those  of  goats'  hair  from  the  mountains 
 of  Mazendran,  but  the  cotton  cloths  principally  from  Hindostan  : 
 and  the  fabric  of  broadcloth  was  unknown,  and  supplied  by  a  kind 
 of  felt. 
 
 Tlie  king  himself  was  engaged  in  merchandize  of  silk,  bro- 
 cades, carpets,  and  jewels  ;  probably  with  as  little  advantage  to 
 the  country  as  the  royal  monopolies  in  Spain.  The  standard  na- 
 tive merchandize  was  silk  of  various  qualiues.  To  Hindostan 
 were  sent  tobacco,  preserved  fruits,  especially  dates,  wines, 
 horses,  porcelain,  and  leather  of  diff'erent  colors.  To  Turkey,  to- 
 bacco, and  kitchen  utensils  ;  to  Russia,  manufactured  silks.  Such 
 were  formerly  the  manufactures  and  commerce  of  this  extensive 
 countrv. 
 
 CHAPTER  II. 
 
 I 
 
 NATURAL   GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 CLIMATE,  FACE  OF  THE  COUNTRY,  SOIL  AND  AGRICULTURE, 
 RIVERS,  LAKES,  MOUNTAINS,  DESERTS,  FORESTS,  BOTANY,  ZOO- 
 LOGY, MINERALOGY,  MINERAL  WATERS,  NATURAL  CURIOSITIES, 
 ISLES. 
 
 Climate.']  PERSIA  has  been  said  to  be  a  country  of 
 three  climates  ;  but  even  in  the  south  the  high  mountains  con- 
 tribute to  allay  the  extreme  heat.  The  northern  provinces  on 
 the  Caspian,  are  comparatively  cold  and  moist  ;  the  exhalations 
 from  that  sea  being  arrested  by  the  mountains  to  the  south  of 
 Mazendran.  In  the  centre  of  the  kingdom  Chardin  observes  that 
 the  winter  begins  in  November,  and  continues  till  March,  com- 
 monly severe,  with  ice  and  snow.  From  March  to  May  high 
 winds  are  frequent  ;  but  thence  to  September  the  air  is  serene, 
 refreshed  by  breezes  in  the  night.  From  September  to  Novem- 
 ber the  winds  again  prevail.  In  the  centre  and  south  the  air  is 
 generally  dry,  thunder  or  lightning   are  uncommon,  but  hail  is 
 
PERSIA.  6ir 
 
 often  destructive  in  the  spring.     Near  the  Persian   gulf  the  hot 
 wind  called  Samiel  sometimes  suffocates  the  unwary  traveller. 
 
 Face  of  the  Countri/.']  Persia  may  be  called  a  country  of  moun- 
 tains ;  and  where  great  plains  occur  they  are  generally  desert. 
 The  most  remarkable  feature  of  the  country  is  the  want  of  rivers  ; 
 in  which  respect  it  yields  to  all  the  Asiatic  regions,  save  Arabia. 
 Except  in  the  north,  and  some  parts  of  the  western  mountains,  even 
 trees  are  uncommon  ;  and  the  respect  paid  by  the  Persian  mon- 
 archs  to  planes,  and  other  trees  of  diffuse  shade,  is  no  matter  of 
 surprize.  Considered  in  a  general  scale,  one  of  the  most  singu- 
 lar features  of  the  country  is  its  division  intot.v'O  parts  by  deserts 
 and  mountains  ;  a  circumstance  which  in  all  ages,  as  already  ex- 
 plained, has  greatly  influenced  its  history  and  destinies. 
 
 Soil  and  ylgrkulture.']  The  soil  may  be  regarded  as  unfertile, 
 and  even  the  valleys  are  sometimes  sandy  and  stony,  or  of  a  hard 
 dry  clay;  both  unproductive,  if  not  well  Avatered.  Hence  the 
 chief  industry  of  the  Persian  farmer  is  employed  in  watering  his 
 lands.  These  remarks  however  must  be  restricted  to  the  central 
 and  southern  provinces  ;  for  those  in  the  north  are  sufficiently 
 rich  and  fertile. 
 
 The  most  common  grain  of  Persia  is  wheat,  which  is  excellent ; 
 but  I'ice  is  a  more  universal  aliment,  and  regarded  by  the  Persians 
 as  the  most  delicious  of  food.*  It  is  generally  produced  in  the 
 northern  or  best  watered  provinces.  Barley  and  millet  are  also 
 sown.  The  plow  is  small,  and  the  ground  merely  scratched. 
 After  which  the  spade  is  also  used,  to  form  the  ground  into 
 squares,  with  ledges  or  little  banks  to  retain  the  water.  The 
 dung  is  chiefly  hum.an,  and  that  of  pigeons  mingled  with  earth, 
 and  preserved  for  two  years  to  abate  its  heat. 
 
 Rivers.']  The  noble  streams  of  the  Euphrates  and  the  Tigi'is 
 can  scarcely  at  any  period  be  considered  as  strictly  Persian, 
 though  Ctesiphon,  the  capital  of  the  Parthian  monarchy,  and  Se- 
 leucia,  stood  on  the  latter  river.  The  river  of  Ahwaz  rises  in 
 the  mountains  of  Elwend,  and  pursues  a  southern  course  till  one 
 branch  enters  the  Tigris  above  its  junction  with  the  Euphrates, 
 while  the  main  stream  flows  into  the  estuary  of  these  conjunct 
 I'ivers.  This  seems  to  be  the  Gyndes  of  Herodotus,  now,  accord- 
 ing to  D'Aiiville,  called  the  Zeindeh,  and  by  the  Turks  Karu- 
 Sou,  or  the  black  river.  The  course  of  this  stream,  one  of  the 
 most  considerable  in  Persia,  little  exceeds  400  miles. 
 
 From  the  range  of  mountains  on  the  N.  E.  several  rivers  of 
 short  course  fall  into  the  Persian  gulph,  one  of  the  most  consid- 
 erable being  the  Rud  or  Divrud,  which  joins  the  mouth  of  that 
 gulph.  The  rivers  of  Mekran  are  of  more  considerable  course, 
 as  the  Krenk  and  Mekshid,  which,  conjoined,  form  the  river  of 
 Mend,  so  called  from  a  town  by  which  it  passes.  The  Haur  and 
 the  Araba  are  of  small  consequence,  except  that  the  latter  serves 
 as  a  nominal  boundary  towards  Hindostan. 
 
 In  the  N.  E.  the  large  river  of  Gihon,  better   styled  Amu,  to 
 
 *  Chardin,  iv.  2'22. 
 VOL.    U\  78 
 
618  PERSIA. 
 
 avoid  the  confused  similarity  with  another  large  river,  the  Sihoii, 
 rather  belongs  to  Independent  Tartary,  with  its  numerous  tribu- 
 tary streams  ;  except  the  Margus  or  Margab,  called  also  the 
 Mourgab,  which  however,  in  the  opinion  of  D'Anville  and  La 
 Rochette,  is  rather  lost  in  the  sands.  To  the  W.  the  river  of 
 Tedjen  or  Tedyen,  the  ancient  Ochus,  flows  into  the  Caspian  ; 
 which  also  receives  many  small  streams  from  the  mountains  of 
 IMazendran.  D'Anville  assigns  a  veiy  considerable  course  to  the 
 river  of  Kizil  Ozen,  or  Seesid  Rud,  which  he  derives  from  the 
 mountain  of  Elwend,  not  far  to  the  north  of  Hamadan  ;  so  that, 
 by  a  very  winding  course  to  the  Caspian,  its  length  doubles  what 
 is  assigned  in  more  recent  maps.  This  river  is  the  Mardus  of 
 antiquity,  and  must  be  the  Swidura  of  Gmelin,  rising  on  the  con- 
 fines of  Turkey,  ajid  falling  into  the  sea  below  Langorod.*  It 
 produces  numerous  pike,  cavp,  and  other  kinds  of  fish,  esteemed 
 by  the  Persians  :   Gmelin  says  that  it  abounds  in  sturgeons. 
 
 Farther  to  the  N.  the  large  river  Aras,  the  ancient  Araxes,  falls 
 into  the  Kur  or  Cyrus,  both  rising  in  the  Caucasian  mountains, 
 and  pursuing  a  very  rapid  course.  The  Kur  abounds  with  stur- 
 geon and  other  larg-e  fish  ;  and  at  its  mouth  are  several  isles,  lia- 
 ble to  be  overflowed  in  the  spring. f 
 
 The  central  rivers  of  Persia  remain  to  be  mentioned,  most  of 
 which  are  soon  lost  in  sandy  deserts,  but  deserve  attention  from 
 their  historical  celebrity.  The  Zenderud  rises  in  the  western 
 chain  of  Elwend,  and  passes  by  Ispahan,  beyond  which  capital  its 
 course  is  soon  lost  in  the  sand  :  this  I'iver  seems  to  have  been  the 
 second  Gyndes  of  the  ancients. 
 
 But  the  most  important  river  in  this  quarter  is  that  which  pass- 
 es between  Shiraz  and  Istakar,  or  the  celebrated  ruins  of  Perse- 
 polis,  called  the  Bundamir,  and  supposed  to  be  an  ancient  Araxes. 
 This  celebrated  river  flows  into  a  salt  lake  called  Baktegan,  and 
 which  also  receives  a  considerable  stream  from  the  N.  E.  called 
 the  Kuren.:j:  Between  these  two  rivers  a  branch  of  the  moun- 
 tains of  Elwend  extends  S.  E.  on  the  western  side  of  which  stand 
 the  ruins  of  Persepolis. 
 
 The  largest  and  most  remarkable  inland  river  is  the  Hinmend 
 of  the  province  of  Segistan,  which  rises  from  two  widely  separated 
 sources,  one  in  the  mountains  of  Gaur,  a  part  of  the  Hindoo  Koh, 
 and  the  other  far  to  the  S.  from  the  mountains  of  Gebclabad. 
 These  streams  join  not  far  to  the  E.  of  Bost,  whence  the  river  pur- 
 sues a  westerly  course,  and,  according  to  the  account  of  Ottor,§ 
 divides  into  many  branches,  which  are  lost  in  the  central  deserts 
 of  Persia.  Our  geographers,  on  the  contrary,  suppose  that  the 
 Hinmend  passes  by  Zaraiig  into  the  sea  of  Zerch. 
 
 Lakes.^     Among  the  lakes  of  Persia,  the  most  considerable  bc- 
 
 *  Decouvertes  Riisses,  ii.  S";?.  See  also  Hanway,  i.  179,  and  2T5,  where  this 
 river  is  called  Sefietrod.  Thert;  is  a  bar  at  the  tulrance,  but  a  coiisiderablc  depth 
 ■within. 
 
 •(•  Gnierm,  ib  23G. 
 
 i  Tl'.is  river  Lu  }ioch«tte,  in  his  elen;ant  inap  of  the  marches  of  Alexander,  supposes 
 was  the  .Me<his,  and  ^lerhaps  a  .%iar(lns  of  the  ancients. 
 
 §  Voyaijeen  Turkic  et  eu  Terse..  Faris  1748,  two  vols.  I'imo.  tome  i.  '-'17. 
 
PERSIA.  619 
 
 yond  all  comparison  is  the  Aria  Palus  of  antiquity.  This  large 
 lake  is  in  the  western  part  of  the  province  of  Segistan,  and  is  call- 
 ed in  the  French  maps  the  lake  of  Zere,  from  a  village  of  that 
 name  near  its  -western  extremity  ;  but  in  the  English,  the  sea  of 
 Durra,  from  another  village  situated  on  a  river  at  the  distance  of 
 twenty  miles  from  the  lake,  the  length  is  thirty  leagues  by  a  day's 
 journey  in  breadth  ;   and  the  water  is  fresh  and  full  of  fish. 
 
 The  salt  lake  of  Baktegan,  about  fifty  miles  East  of  Shiraz,  re- 
 ceives, as  already  mentioned,  the  rivers  of  Kuren  and  Bundamir. 
 It  is  represented  in  the  maps  as  about  40  miles  in  length,  and  the 
 breadth  about  10  ;  but  the  imperfection  of  Persian  geography  af- 
 fords no  farther  information. 
 
 Far  to  the  N.  W.  appears  the  large  lake  of  Urmia,  so  called 
 from  a  town  near  its  southern  extremity.  This  lake  is  represent- 
 ed as  about  50  miles  in  length,  by  about  half  the  breadth,  and  is 
 said  to  be  considerably  impregnated  with  salt,  and  the  neighbor- 
 ing mountains  were  remarkable  as  the  seats  of  the  Assassins. 
 The  lake  ofErivan,  about  120  miles  to  the  N.  is  about  25  leagues 
 in  circumference,  with  a  small  isle  in  the  middle  :  it  abounds  in 
 carp  and  trout ;  and  is  the  Lychnites  of  Ptolemy.* 
 
 Mountains.~\  The  precise  and  exact  knowledge  of  mountains, 
 particulaT'ly  of  the  direction  and  extent  of  the  chief  ranges,  which, 
 with  their  side  branches,  often  resemble  the  leading  bone  of  a  fish, 
 having  been  one  of  the  most  recent  improvements  even  in  Euro- 
 pean geography  ;  it  cannot  be  expected  that  the  oriental  should 
 aspire  to  much  exactness  in  this  topic,  and  in  the  present  instance 
 early  travellers  are  unanimous  in  representing  Persia  as  a  plain 
 country,  so  blind  were  they  to  the  most  striking  objects  around 
 them.f 
 
 The  first  object,  even  in  a  short  account  of  the  Persian  moun- 
 tains, must  be  to  trace  the  direction  of  the  chief  chains.  It  is 
 clear,  from  the  accurate  description  of  Gmelin,  that  the  Cauca- 
 sian ridge  extends  to  the  west  of  Gliilan  and  south  of  Mazendran, 
 tUl  it  expire  in  Corasan,  on  the  S.  E.  of  the  Caspian  sea. 
 
 The  southernmost  chain  of  great  height  is  described  by  Mr. 
 Franklin  as  running  parallel  with  the  Persian  gulph  N.  W.  and  S. 
 E.  at  about  the  distance  of  50  miles. 
 
 A  third  range  of  mountains,  of  very  great  height,  seems  to  con- 
 tinue in  the  same  direction  with  this  last,  to  the  S.  of  the  lake  of 
 Urmia,  where  it  is  connected  with  the  Caucasian  ridge.  This  is 
 the  grandest  range  of  mountains  in  Persia. 
 
 A  parallel  ridge  on  the  W.  called  by  the  Turks  Aiagha  Tag, 
 is  supposed  to  be  the  Zagros  of  the  ancients,  which  separated  As- 
 syria from  Media.:}:  1  his  western  chain  seems  to  extend  to  the 
 lake  of  Van,  for  mount  Ararat  is  represented  as  standing  solitary 
 in  the  midst  of  a  wide  plam,  and  from  proximity  might  rather  be 
 classed  with  the  range  of  Caucasus. 
 
 Hetzardara,  or  the  thousand  mountains,  form  a  branch  on  the 
 
 *  Chardiu.  ii.  222.     Toiirnef.  ii.  256.  /. 
 
 f  See  the  Persia  among  the  Elzevir  Republics,  163S,  12mO. 
 I  D'Anville,  Anc.  Geog.  ii.  103. 
 
620  PERSIA. 
 
 north  of  Fars,  and  one  part  of  it,  which  gives  rise  to  the  river  of 
 Ispahan,  is  called  Koh  Zerdeh,  or  the  yellow  mountain. 
 
 The  province  of  Fars  is  represented  by  some  wi'iters  as  separ- 
 ated from  Kerman  by  mountains  ;  but  the  real  barrier  is  a  desert 
 of  sand,  extending  from  the  S.  of  the  lake  of  Baktegan,  to  the 
 proximity  of  Zarang,  and  connected  Avith  the  great  desert  which 
 divides  Persia  into  two  parts.  Nor  are  there  any  mountains  of 
 consequence  in  the  east  of  Fars.  A  low  range,  called  Medcr, 
 by  D'Anville,  passes  N.  E.  through  the  heart  of  Kerman  ;  while 
 that  country  is  divided  from  Mekran  by  a  range  in  the  same  di- 
 rection, called  by  D'Anville  Kofez.  Some  other  nameless  ranges 
 cross  Mekran  in  the  same  direction,  that  nearest  Hindostan  being 
 called  by  Rochctte,  the  Lakhee  mountains. 
 
 ,  Farther  to  the  N.  the  mountains  of  Wulli  extend  from  the  neigh- 
 borhood of  Shatzan  across  to  the  lake  of  Vachind,  and  may  thus 
 be  considered  as  forming  one  range  with  that  on  the  N.  of  Mek- 
 ran, called  Gebelabad  by  La  Rochette.  This  range,  however,  ex- 
 pires in  the  great  desert  to  the  S.  of  Zarang. 
 
 In  the  E.  of  Segistan  is  a  ridge  N.  and  S.  called  Soliman  Koh, 
 or  the  mountains  of  Soliman.  It  is  probable  that  there  are  moun- 
 tains of  considerable  height  on  the  N.  and  W.  of  the  sea  of  Zur- 
 va  ;  one  of  which  is  called  Bershek,  and  another  Ouk,  the  former 
 being  noted  for  a  fire  temple,  the  resort  of  the  Guebers. 
 
 Desertsr^  The  deserts  must  not  be  passed  in  complete  silence, 
 though  few  words  may  suffice.  On  the  east  of  Tigris,  lat.  33,  a 
 considerable  desert  commences,  which  is  pervaded  by  the  river 
 of  Ashwaz,  and  extends  to  the  N.  of  Skuster.  This  desert  may  be 
 about  140  miles  in  length,  E  to  W .  and  the  breadth  about  80.  It 
 is  now  chiefly  possessed  by  the  wandering  tribe  of  Arabs,  called 
 Beni  Kiab,  a  people  who,  like  the  desert,  are  not  a  little  obscure.* 
 
 The  Great  Saline  Desert  extends  from  the  neighborhood  of 
 Kom,  to  that  of  the  sea  of  Zurra,  in  a  line  from  E.  to  W.  of  about 
 400  miles  :  the  breadth  from  N.  to  S.  may  be  250  ;  but  in  the  lat- 
 ter quarter  it  may  be  said  to  join  with  the  great  desert  of  Kerman, 
 by  the  Nauben  Dejian,  which  extends  about  350  miles.  These 
 tAVO  extensive  deserts  may  thus  be  consit<iered  as  stretching  N.  W. 
 and  S.  E.  for  a  space  of  about  700  miles,  by  a  medial  breadth  of 
 about  200  (even  not  including  in  the  length  other  200  miles  of  the 
 desert  of  Mekran)  ;  thus  intersecting  this  wide  empire  into  two 
 nearly  equal  portions,  as  before  explained.  This  vast  extent  is 
 impregnated  with  nitre  and  other  salts,  which  taint  the  neighbor- 
 ing lakes  and  rivers  ;  but  its  natural  history  has  not  been  investi- 
 gated with  the  precision  of  modern  knowledge.  In  the  S.  of 
 Mekran,  and  towaids  the  Indus,  are  other  deserts  of  great  extent. 
 
 A  third  great  desert,  that  of  Karakum,  or  the  Black  Sand,  forms 
 the  northern  boundary  of  Corasan  and  modern  Persia  ;  but  the  de- 
 scription more  properly  belongs  to  Tartary. 
 
 Fore!itfs.'\  Ihe  Persian  forests  are  unhappily  restricted  to  a 
 few  spots  in  Corasan,   the  mountains  of  Mazendran  and    Ghilan, 
 
 •  See  Xicbuhr  ;  but  this  tribe  seems  rather  to  the  S.  of  the  desert. 
 
PERSIA.  621 
 
 and  those  towards  Kurdistan.  But  timber  is  chiefly  supplied  by 
 Mazendran,  which  thence  receives  a  name  signifying  the  land  of 
 axes. 
 
 Botany.']  An  accurate  account  of  the  indigenous  vegetables  of 
 Persia  yet  remains  a  desidei-atum  in  the  science  of  botany  :  the 
 productions  of  the  eastern  and  south-eastern  provinces  arc  almost 
 wholly  unknown  to  us,  and  "the  slight  acquaintance  that  we  have 
 with  those  on  the  shores  of  the  Caspian,  and  the  frontiers  of  Rus- 
 sia, is,  for  the  most  part,  derived  from  the  short  and  imperfect 
 notices  that  occur  in  tlie  travels  of  Pallas  and  Gmclin  in  the  neigh- 
 borhood of  the  Caspian. 
 
 A  considerable  part  of  the  Persian  territory,  especially  on  the 
 side  of  Q;reat  Tartary,  appears  to  be  occupied  by  salt  deserts  ;  these 
 are  for  the  most  part  destitute  of  trees,  and  support  hardly  any 
 plants,  except  such  of  the  saline  succulent  kind,  as  are  also  found 
 on  the  sea  shore. 
 
 Of  the  high  mountains,  as  far  as  they  have  been  examined,  we 
 ai*e  only  informed  in  general,  that  their  vegetable  inhabitants  are 
 for  the  most  part  the  same  as  those  observed  on  the  Alps  of  Swit- 
 zerland and  Italy. 
 
 The  plants  of  the  hills  and  cultivated  parts  adjoining  the  Cas- 
 pian sea  are  better  known  to  us,  and  from  the  few  whose  names 
 we  are  already  in  possession  of,  it  is  reasonable  to  infer  the  pres- 
 ence of  many  more,  that  are  usually  observed  to  accompany  them. 
 On  the  mountainous  ridges  are  found  the  cypress,  the  cedar,  and 
 several  other  kinds  of  pines,  while  the  lower  hills  and  scars  of 
 rock  are  shaded  and  adorned  with  lime  trees,  oaks,  acacias,  and 
 chesnuts  ;  the  sumach,  whose  astringent  wood  is  so  essential  to 
 the  arts  of  dyeing  and  tanning,  grows  here  in  vast  abundance  ;  and 
 the  manna  ash  tree  is  scarcely  less  common.  The  most  esteemed 
 cf  th6  cultivated  fruits  of  Europe  are  truly  indigenous  in  Persia, 
 and  have  probably  hence  been  diffused  over  the  whole  west. 
 These  are  the  fig,  the  pomegranate,  the  mulberry,  the  almond, 
 ^ach,  and  apricot.  Orange  trees  also  of  an  enormous  size,  and 
 apparently  wild,  are  found  in  the  sheltered  parts  of  the  mountains  ; 
 and  the  deep  warm  sand  on  the  shore  of  the  Caspian  is  peculiarly 
 favorable  to  the  culture  of  the  citron  and  the  liquorice.  The  vine 
 grows  here  in  great  luxuriance,  and,  farther  south,  both  cotton 
 and  sugar  are  articles  of  common  cultivation.  Poplars  of  unusual 
 size  and  beauty,  and  the  weeping  willow,  border  the  course  of  the 
 streams,  and  the  marshy  tracts  abound  with  a  peculiar  kind  of 
 rush,  that  forms  the  material  of  the  fine  Persian  matting.  The 
 ornamental  shrubs  and  herbaceous  plants  of  this  country  are  but 
 little  known  ;  four  of  them,  howevei",  from  their  abundance  and 
 beauty,  give  an  air  of  elegance  to  the  country,  especially  in  the 
 eyes  of  an  European,  superior  to  that  of  any  other  region  ;  these 
 are  the  jasmine  and  the  blue  and  scarlet  anemone  in  the  thickets, 
 and  the  tulip  and  ranunculus  in  the  pastures. 
 
 Zoology,  j  According  to  Chardin,  the  Persian  horses  are  the 
 most  beautiful  of  any  in  the  east  ;  but  in  speed  they  yield  to  the 
 -Arabian,  which  arc  less  distinguished  by  elegance  of  form.     The 
 
622  PERSIA.. 
 
 Persian  steeds  are  rather  taller  than  our  saddle  horses  ;  the  head 
 small,  the  legs  delicate,  and  tlie  body  well  proportioned  ;  of  a 
 mild  disposition,  very  laborious,  lively  and  swift.  Tartarian  hors- 
 es are  also  used,  of  lower  stature,  lind  not  so  well  formed  as  the 
 Persian,  but  more  capable  of  enduring  fatigue.*  Mules  are  also 
 in  considerable  request ;  and  the  ass  resembles  the  European,  but 
 a  breed  of  this  animal  is  brought  from  Arabia,  which  is  excellent, 
 the  hair  being  smooth,  the  head  high,  while  it  moves  with  spirit 
 and  agility.  'I  he  camel  is  also  common,  but  not  admitted  into 
 the  province  of  Mazendran,  where  they  eagerly  eat  the  leaves  of 
 box,  though  to  them  a  rank  poison.  The  Persian  cattle  resemble 
 the  European,  except  towards  Hindostan,  where  they  are  marked 
 by  the  hunch  on  the  shoulders.  Swine  are  scarce,  save  in  the  N. 
 W.  provinces.  Of  the  large  tailed  sheep,  that  appendage  some- 
 times weighs  more  than  thirty  pounds,  enlarging  at  the  bottom,  in 
 the  form  of  a  heart.  The  flocks  are  most  numerous  in  the  north- 
 ern provinces  of  Erivan,  or  the  Persian  part  of  Armenia  and  Balk. 
 The  few  forests  contain  abundance  of  deer  and  antelopes  ;  while 
 the  mountains  present  wild  goats.  Hares  are  common  in  the 
 numerous  wastes.  The  ferocious  animals  are  chiefly  concealed 
 in  the  forests,  as  the  bear  and  boar,  the  lion  in  the  western  parts, 
 ■with  the  leopard,  and  according  to  some  accounts,  the  small,  or 
 common  tiger.  Seals  occur  on  the  rocks  of  the  Caspian.  The 
 wild  ass  is  found  in  the  central  deserts  ;  but  the  hyena  and  chakal 
 belong  to  the  southern  provinces.  The  seas  abound  with  fish  of 
 vai'ious  descriptions  ;  the  Caspian  displays  sturgeon,  and  some 
 kindred  species,  with  a  fat  and  delicious  kind  of  carp.  Pigeons 
 are  particularly  numerous  ;  and  the  partridges  ai'e  uncommonly 
 large  and  excellent.  The  boolbul,  or  oriental  nightingale,  enlivens 
 the  spring  with  his  varied  song.  The  Persians  have  been  long 
 accustomed  to  tame  beasts  of  prey,  so  as  to  hunt  with  leopards, 
 panthers,  and  ounces.f 
 
 Mineralogy. ~\  The  mineralogy  of  this  extensive  country  seems 
 neither  various  nor  important,  though  the  numerous  mountains 
 probably  abound  with  unexplored  treasures.  The  lead  mines  of 
 Kerman  and  Yezd  produce  the  usual  mixture  of  silver.  In  the 
 northern  provinces  there  are  many  mines  of  iron,  but  the  metal  is 
 harsh  and  brittle.  Copper  is  chiefly  found  in  the  mountains  of  Ma- 
 zendr?n,  and  near  Casbin;  but  is  brittle,  and  commonly  mingled 
 by  the  melters  with  a  twentieth  part  of  the  Japanese  or  Swedish. 
 
 The  only  precious  stone  yet  discovered  seems  to  be  the  turkoise, 
 ■which  has  indeed  almost  ceased  to  be  regarded  as  such,  being 
 only  bone  or  ivory  tinged  with  copper.  There  are  two  mines  of 
 this  substance,  one  at  Nishapour,  in  Corasan,  and  another  about 
 four  days  journey  to  the  S.  of  the  Caspian,  in  the  mountain  called 
 Feruzkoh.  Pearls  abound,  as  is  well  known,  in  the  Persian  gulf, 
 especially  near  the  isles  of  Bahrin  on  the  Arabian  side.  Some  will 
 ■weigh  fifty  grains ;  but  those  are  esteemed  large,  which  weigh 
 from  ten  to  twelve  grains. 
 
 •  Chardin,  iv,  72.  f  lb.  iv.  94. 
 
PERSIA.  623 
 
 Chardin  adds  that  sulphiu'  and  nitre  are  found  in  the  mountain  of 
 Demavend,  which  he  places  on  the  south  of  Hyrcania,  or  Mazen- 
 dran.  Sometimes  whole  deserts  are  covered  with  sulphur,  and 
 others  with  salt,  which  near  Cashan  is  remarkably  pure.  Rock 
 salt  is  found  near  Ispahan ;  and  in  the  dry  climate  of  Kerman  it  is 
 even  employed  in  buildmg. 
 
 Mineral  Waters.']  Mineral  waters  of  various  descriptions  a- 
 bound  in  this  mountainous  country  ;  but  they  are  generally  alike 
 neglected  byj:he  physicians  and  the  people. 
 
 N'atural  Curiosities.]  Among  the  chief  natural  curiosities  must 
 .be  named  the  fountains  of  naphtha,  or  pure  rock  oil,  in  the  neigh- 
 borhood of  Baku,  on  the  western  coast  of  the  Caspian,  particular- 
 ly in  the  adjoining  promontory  of  Ashberon.  The  land  is  dry  and 
 rocky,  and  there  are  several  small  ancient  temples,  in  one  of 
 which,  near  the  altar,  a  large  hollow  cane  is  fixed  in  the  ground, 
 and  from  the  end  issues  a  blue  flame,  seemingly  more  pure  and 
 gentle  than  that  produced  by  ardent  spirits.*  From  a  horizontal 
 gap  in  an  adjoining  rock  there  also  issues  a  similar  flame. 
 
 "  The  earth  round  this  place  for  above  two  miles  has  this  sur- 
 prising pi'operty,  that,  by  taking  up  two  or  three  inches  of  the 
 surface,  and  applying  a  live  coal,  the  part  which  is  so  uncovered 
 immediately  takes  fire,  almost  before  the  coal  touches  the  earth  : 
 the  flame  makes  the  soil  hot,  but  does  not  consume  it,  nor  affect 
 what  is  near  it  with  any  degree  of  heat. 
 
 "  If  a  cane  or  tube,  even  of  paper,  be  set  about  two  inches  in 
 the  ground,  confined  and  close  with  the  earth  below,  and  the  top 
 of  it  touched  with  a  live  coal  and  blown  upon,  immediately  a 
 flame  issues,  without  hurting  either  the  cane  or  paper,  provided 
 the  edges  be  covered  with  clay  ;  and  this  method  they  use  for  light 
 in  their  houses,  which  have  only  the  earth  for  the  floor :  three  or 
 four  of  these  lighted  canes  will  boil  water  in  a  pot,  and  thus  they 
 dress  their  victuals.  The  flame  may  be  extinguished  in  the  same 
 manner  as  that  of  spirits  of  wine.  The  ground  is  dry  and  stony, 
 and  the  more  stony  any  particular  part  is,  the  stronger  and  clear- 
 er is  the  flame  ;  it  smells  sulphureous  like  naphtha,  but  not  very 
 off'ensive. 
 
 "  Lime  is  burnt  to  great  perfection  by  means  of  this  phenome- 
 non ;  the  flame  communicating  itself  to  any  distance  where  the 
 earth  is  uncovered  to  receive  it.  The  stones  must  be  laid  on  on6 
 another,  and  in  three  days  the  lime  is  completed.  Near  this 
 place  brimstone  is  dug,  and  naphtha  springs  are  found. 
 
 "  The  chief  place  for  the  black  or  dark  grey  naphtha,  is  the 
 small  island  Wetoy,  now  uninhabited,  except  at  such  times  as 
 they  take  naphtha  from  thence.  The  Persians  load  it  in  bulk  in 
 their  wretched  vessels,  so  that  sometimes  the  sea  is  covered  witl> 
 it  for  leagues  together.  When  the  weather  is  thick  and  hazy  the 
 springs  boil  up  the  higher  ;  and  the  naphtha  often  takes  fire  on  the 
 surface  of  the  earth,  and  runs  in  a  flame  into  the  sea  in  great 
 quantities,  to  a  distance  almost  incredible.     In  clear  weather  the 
 
 •  Hanway,  i.  263. 
 
624  PERSIA. 
 
 springs  do  not  boil  up  above  two  or  three  feet.  In  boiling  over, 
 this  oily  substance  takes  so  strong  a  consistency  as  by  degrees  al- 
 most to  close  the  mouth  of  the  spring;  sometimes  it  is  quite  clo- 
 sed, and  forms  hillocks  that  look  as  black  as  pitch  ;  but  the  sprinj^-, 
 which  is  resisted  in  one  place,  breaks  out  in  another.  Some  of 
 the  springs,  which  have  not  been  long  opened,  form  a  mouth  of 
 eight  or  ten  feet  diameter. 
 
 "  The  people  carry  the  naphtha  by  troughs  into  pits  or  reser- 
 voirs, drawing  it  off"  from  one  to  another,  leaving  in  Jthe  first  re- 
 servoir the  water,  or  the  heavier  part,  with  which  it  is  mixed, 
 when  it  issues  from  the  spring.  It  is  unpleasant  to  the  smell,  and 
 used  mostly  amongst  the  poorer  sort  of  the  Persians,  and  other 
 neighboring  people,  as  Ave  use  oil  in  lamps,  or  to  boil  their  vict- 
 uals, but  it  communicates  a  disagreeable  taste.  They  find  it 
 burns  best  with  a  small  mixture  of  ashes ;  and  as  they  procure  it 
 in  great  abundance,  every  family  is  well  supplied.  They  keep  it 
 at  a  small  distance  from  their  houses  in  cartnen  vessels,  under 
 ground,  to  prevent  any  accident  by  fire,  of  which  it  is  extremely 
 susceptible. 
 
 "  There  is  also  a  white  naphtha  on  the  peninsula  of  Apcheron, 
 of  a  much  thinner  consistency  ;  but  this  is  found  only  in  small 
 quantities.  The  Russians  drink  it  both  as  a  cordial  and  a  medi- 
 cine, and  also  use  it  as  an  external  application.  Not  far  from 
 hence  arc  also  springs  of  hot  water,  which  boil  up  in  the  same 
 manner  as  the  naphtha,  and  very  thick,  being  impregnated  with  a 
 blue  clay  ;  but  it  soon  clarifies.  Bathing  in  this  warm  water  is 
 found  to  strengthen  and  procure  a  good  appetite."* 
 
 The  justly  celebrated  Kaempfer  had  visited  these  remarkable 
 springs  in  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century  ;t  and  Gmelin,  1  773, 
 has  added  little  to  the  account  of  Hanway,  except  that  the  soil  is 
 a  coarse  marl,  mixed  with  sand,  and  effervescing  with  acids. 
 There  are  many  other  wells  in  an  adjoining  peninsula  ;  and  the  re- 
 venue arising  from  this  uncommon  product  to  the  khan  of  Baku 
 ■was  computed  at  forty  thousand  rubles. I 
 
 Isles.^  The  few  Persian  isles  in  the  southei'u  gulf,  among  which 
 the  most  remarkable  arc  Ormuz,  once  famous,  now  abandoned  ; 
 Kishma ;  and,  towards  the  other  extremity,  Karek,  from,  which 
 the  Dutch  were  expelled  in  1765,  do  not  merit  a  particular  de- 
 scription in  a  work  of  this  nature  ;  and  far  less  those  in  the  Cas- 
 pian sea,  the  chief  of  which  are  on  the  coast  of  the  Uzbeks. 
 
 *  Ilanw.'iy,  i.  2C3,  ^c.        f  See  his  Amoen.  0\ot.         i  Dec.  des  Russes,  ii.  21.'>. 
 
INDEPENDENT  TARTARY. 
 
 CHAPTER  I. 
 
 GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 NAME,  EXTENT,  CHIEF  DIVISIONS,  PROGRESSIVE  GEOGRAPHY, 
 MODERN  GEOGRAPHY,  CONNEXION  WITH  LITTLE  BUCHARIA, 
 AND  REVIEW^  OF  THE  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN  GEOGRAPHY  OF 
 THAT    COUNTRY,    RELIGION,    POPULATION,    AND   CHARACTER. 
 
 THE  descriptions  already  given  in  this  volume  of  Asiatic 
 Russia  and  the  Chinese  empire,  comprise  the  fai'  greater  part  of 
 what  geographers  denominated  Tartary,  by  a  vague  term  applied 
 to  a  country  exceeding  all  Europe  in  extent,  and  possessed  by  va- 
 rious and  distinct  nations  and  races  of  men. 
 
 By  repeated  victories  over  the  Eluts  and  Kalmuks  of  Mongoliaj 
 the  Chinese  dominion  has  been  extended  to  the  mountains  of  Be- 
 lur,  thus  including  Little  Bucharia  ;  while  in  the  E.  Mandshuria 
 remained  subject  to  its  sovereigns,  who  had  become  emperors  of 
 China. 
 
 J^ame.']  The  title  of  Independent  Tartary  becomes  however 
 unexceptionable,  when  confined  to  the  bounds  of  the  present  de- 
 scription, for  the  Uzbeks  and  Kirguses  are  of  undoubted  Tartar 
 origin  ;  and  their  country  must  still  be  regarded  as  independent 
 ©f  the  great  neighboring  powers,  China,  Russia,  and  Persia. 
 
 Extent.']  The  extent  of  territory  possessed  by  these  tribes 
 may  be  measured  from  the  Caspian  sea  to  the  mountains  of  Belur, 
 a  space  of  not  less  than  870  miles.  From  the  mountains  of  Gaur, 
 in  the  south,  to  the  Russian  boundaries,  on  the  north  of  the  desert 
 of  Issim,  may  be  near  1500  miles  ;  but  of  this  length  a  great  part 
 is  desert. 
 
 JDivision8.~\  The  chief  divisions  are  the  wide  stepps  or  baa'ren 
 plains  in  the  N.  held  by  three  hordas  of  Kirguses,  the  Great,  Mid- 
 dle, and  Lesser  ;  with  some  small  Tartaric  tribes  near  the  sea  of 
 Aral.  This  portion  was  anciently  called  Western  Turkistan : 
 the  capital  being  Taraz,  on  a  stream  which  flows  into  the  Sirr  or 
 Sihon,  not  far  above  Otrar,  and  which  was  also  sometimes  denom- 
 inated Turkistan,  from  the  name  of  the  country. 
 
 To  the  S.  of  the  mountains  of  Argun  the  land  begins  to  fertilize 
 along  the  course  of  the  Siri',  Sirt,  or  Sihon,  the  laxartes  of  the  an- 
 cients, also  called  the  river  of  Shash  from  the  chief  territory  ;  and 
 on  the  banks  of  its  tributary  streams,  which  devolve  from  the  Ar- 
 gun on  the  N.  and  the  Ak  Tau  or  white  mountain  on  the  S.  while 
 
 *  From  PinkertoB. 
 VOL.  li.  79 
 
6:26  INDEPENDENT  TARTARY. 
 
 the  river  itscir  springs  from  the  mountains  of  BcKir.  Ilak  and 
 Shash,  the  most  northern  provinces  on  the  Sihon,  are  followed  by 
 Fergana,  and  a  district  called  Orushna,  round  a  town  of  the  same 
 name.  Divided  from  these  pi'ovinces  by  deserts  and  mountains, 
 the  kingdom  of  Kharizm,  formerly  so  powerful  as  to  oppose  the 
 great  Zingis,  has  gradually  yielded  to  the  encroaching  desert. 
 
 To  the  S.  of  the  range  of  the  Ak  Tau  appears  the  fertile  region 
 of  Sogd,  the  ancient  Sogdiana,  with  its  capital  Samarcand.  On 
 the  S.  the  provinces  of  Balk,  Kilan,  Tokarestan,  and  Gaur,  termi- 
 nate the  bounds  of  Independent  Tartary,  here  separated  by  deserts 
 on  the  W.  from  the  Persian  province  of  Corasan.  In  general, 
 Kharizm  on  the  W.  is  not  considered  as  a  part  of  Great  Bucharia, 
 but  this  last  appellafion  must  be  regarded  as  embracing  the  whole 
 extent,  from  the  mountains  of  Argun  and  sources  of  the  river 
 Ilak,  tor  the  confines  of  Hindostan. 
 
 Pi'Qgrcssive  Geografihy.']  Jn  ancient  periods  Western  Turkis- 
 tan,  and  the  north  of  the  Caspian,  were  the  seats  of  the  Massage- 
 tae  ;  to  the  S.  of  whom  were  the  Scythians  on  this  side  of  the  Im- 
 aus  or  Belur  Tag. 
 
 Modern  Geog-ra/ihy.']  As  few  materials  will  arise  for  a  de- 
 scription of  the  present  state  of  Independent  Jartary,  a  country 
 exceeding  the  German  empire  in  extent,  it  may  not  be  uninterest- 
 ing to  offer  some  observations  on  the  modern  geography  of  this 
 country,  which,  to  the  disgrace  of  science,  remains  in  a  wretched 
 state  of  impei'fection.  The  natural  and  unavoidable  connection 
 between  the  ancient  Scythias,  on  both  sides  of  the  Imaus,  and  in 
 later  times  between  western  and  eastern  Turkistan,  Great  and 
 Bucharia,  will  authorize  and  demand  some  previous  acquaintance 
 with  the  latter  country,  though  recently  subjugated  by  the  Chi- 
 nese, and  briefly  included  in  the  description  of  that  empire. 
 
 The  north-western  province  of  China,  called  Shen-si,  presents 
 a  remarkable  district,  narrow,  but  of  considerable  length,  extend- 
 ing like  a  promontory  between  the  great  desert  on  the  N.  E.  and 
 the  Eluts  of  Koko  Nor  on  the  S.  W.  The  great  wall  is  here  low, 
 and  rudely  constructed  of  turf  or  hardened  clay.  This  tract 
 formerly  belonged  to  the  kingdom  of  Tangut, being  a  modern  ad- 
 dition to  China. 
 
 Beyond  these  parts,  which  are  the  first  approached  by  the  car- 
 avans, several  rivers,  lakes,  towns,  and  stations,  are  laid  down  in 
 the  maps  by  the  Jesuits,  as  the  river  Etzine,  with  the  towns  of 
 Ouey-yuen  and  Chao-maing  ;  and  the  lakes  Sopou  and  Souhouc. 
 To  the  W.  runs  another  considei'able  river,  the  Polonkir,  near 
 which  is  the  city  of  Sha-cheou,  where  the  river  runs  into  a  lake 
 called  Hara  or  Kara  Nor,  the  black  lake. 
 
 With  the  southern  boundaries  and  provinces  of  Little  Bucharia 
 we  aj-e  almost  wholly  unacquainted  ;  but  the  western  and  north- 
 ern parts  are  known  with  more  accuracy  from  various  accounts, 
 and  from  the  maps  of  D'Anville  and  Islenieff.  To  avoid  the  dif- 
 ficulties of  sandy  deserts,  rendered  alrriost  impassable  by  broken 
 rocks,  the  caravans  proceed,  to  Hami  by  a  circuit  to  the  north  ; 
 
INDEPENDENT  TARTARY.  627 
 
 where,  at  the  bottom  of  the  mountains  of  Alak,  which  afford  some 
 protection  from  the  piercing  cold,  stand  the  cities  and  towns  of 
 Little  Bucharia,  in  all  its  features  one  Qf  the  most  singular  regions 
 in  the  world. 
 
 Toivris.]  The  chief  towns,  by  all  accounts,  are  Cash  gar  and 
 Yarcand,  followed  towards  the  N.  E.  by  Axu  or  Aksu ;  Chialish, 
 also  called  Yulduz,  and  by  the  Turks  Karashar  or  the  black  city  ; 
 and  Turfan.  Hami  or  Camil,  with  its  surrounding  villages,  is 
 rather  considered  as  a  detached  province,  for  some  ages  under 
 the  protection  of  China. 
 
 History.']  Little  Bucharia  was  subject  to  the  Kalmuks,  who 
 were  recently  conquered  by  the  Chinese.  In  more  ancient  times 
 it  was  the  country  of  the  Seres  ;  but  was  little  known  till  the  time 
 of  Zingis,  after  whose  death  it  became  the  portion  of  his  son  Za- 
 gathai.  It  was  considered  as  apart  of  Mogulistan,  or  Mongolia  ; 
 and  the  northern  provinces  belonged  to  the  country  of  Gete,  in 
 which,  to  the  N.  E.  of  Turfan,  were  the  ancient  habitations  of  the 
 Eygurs  or  Ugurs,  a  Finnish  race  who  spread  dismay  throughout 
 Europe  in  the  10th  century,  and  afterwards  settled  in  Hungary. 
 The  late  wise  and  benevolent  emperor  of  China,  Riang  Long,  or 
 Chen  Lung,  made  repeated  visits  to  Mongolia,  in  order  to  over- 
 awe the  Kalmuks,  the  most  dangerous  neighbor  of  the  empire, 
 by  the  display  of  superior  power.  In  1759,  he  completely  van- 
 quished these  people,  and  thus  annexed  a  vast  territory  to  his  do- 
 minions. Independently  of  the  regions  to  the  north,  the  extent  of 
 Little  Bucharia,  as  it  is  absurdly  named,  from  the  confines  of  Hami 
 to  the  mountains  of  Belur,  is  more  than  1000  miles:  and  the 
 breadth,  from  the  mountains  of  Tibet  to  those  of  Alak,  more  than 
 500. 
 
 Religion.!.  The  prevailing  religion  is  the  Mahometan,  for  the 
 Kalmuk  conquerors,  though  they  retained  their  idolatry,  were 
 tolerant. 
 
 Pofiulation.)  i^c'\  The  population  cannot  be  extensive,  and  is 
 supposed  chiefly  to  consist  of  original  Bucharians,  who  are  de- 
 scribed as  of  a  swarthy  complexion,  though  some  be  very  fair,  and 
 of  elegant  forms.  They  are  said  to  be  polite  and  benevolent,  and 
 their  language  is  probably  that  called  the  Zagathian,  which  is  the 
 same  with  the  Turkish,  that  speech  having  supplanted  their  na- 
 tive tongue  ;  for  that  the  chief  population  is  original  seems  to  be 
 allowed,  though  there  be  a  great  mixture  of  Tartars,  or  Turco- 
 mans, and  a  few  Kalmuks.  The  dress  of  the  men  does  not  reach 
 below  the  calf  of  the  leg,  with  girdles  like  the  Polish.  The  female 
 raiment  is  similar,  with  long  ear-rings,  like  those  of  Tibet :  the 
 hair  is  also  worn  in  very  long  tresses,  decorated  with  ribbons. 
 They  tinge  their  nails  with  henna.  Both  sexes  wear  trowsers, 
 with  light  boots  of  Russia  leather.  The  head-dress  resembles  the 
 Turkish.  The  houses  are  generally  of  stone,  decorated  with  some 
 Chinese  articles.  They  are  cleanly  in  their  food,  which  often  con- 
 sists of  minced  meat ;  and,  like  the  Russians,  they  preserve  their 
 victuals  frozen  for  a  considerable  time.  Tea  is  the  general  drink. 
 The  wives  are  purchased  ;  and  the  ceremonies  of  marriage,  Sec 
 
628  INDEPENDENT  TARTARY. 
 
 differ  little  from  those  of  other  Mahometans,  the  mullahs  or  priests 
 having  great  influence.  They  have  small  copper  coins  ;  but 
 weigh  gold  and  silver  like  the  Chinese,  with  whom  they  maintain- 
 ed a  considerable  commerce  before  the  Kalmuk  invasion,  and 
 which  is  now  probably  more  productive  than  ever  by  their  union 
 under  the  same  sovereign.  They  ure  not  warlike  ;  but  use  the 
 lance,  sabre,  and  bow,  while  the  rich  have  coats  of  mail.  The 
 country  is  very  productive  of  many  kinds  of  fruits,  and  particularly 
 wine.  They  are  said  to  have  many  mines  of  gold  and  silver,  but 
 neither  the  natives  nor  Kalmuks  had  sufficient  skill  to  work 
 them  :  on  the  melting  of  the  snows  abundance  of  gold  is  found 
 in  the  tori'ents,  which  they  carry  to  China,  and  even  to  i'obolsk  in 
 Siberia.  Precious  stones,  and  even  diamonds,  are  also  found  ; 
 and  one  of  the  products  is  musk,  probably  from  the  southern 
 mountains  near  Tibet,  in  which  last  country  the  animal  abounds. 
 In  contradiction  to  the  usual  course  of  nature,  the  southern  part 
 bordering  on  the  vast  Alps  of  Tibet  is  colder  than  the  northern, 
 which  is  pi'otected  by  the  inferior  ridge  of  Alak.  As  the  dress  is 
 chiefly  cotton  it  is  probable  that  the  plant  abounds  in  the  country. 
 Such  are  the  chief  particularities  concerning  this  interesting 
 countiy  to  be  collected  from  the  accounts  above  quoted.  Dr. 
 Pallas,  in  his  travels  in  Russia,  gives  some  idea  of  Bucharian 
 commerce,  in  describing  the  city  of  Orenburg.*  But  as  he  joins 
 the  Bucharians  with  the  people  of  Khiva,  he  probably  implies 
 Greater  Bucharia.  He  seems  to  mention  raw  silk  as  a  product  of 
 the  country,  as  well  as  lamb-skins  of  a  remarkably  fine  kind,  and 
 the  hair  of  camels.. 
 
 CHAPTER  II. 
 
 DESCRIPTION  OP  INDEPENDENT  TARTARY. 
 
 KIRGUSES,  STEPP  OF  ISSIM,  HORDS,  NUMBER,  MANNERS,  DRESSj 
 TRADE,  HISTORY,  KHARIZM,  NAME,  KHIVA,  TRADE,  GREAT  BU- 
 CHARIA, NEPTHALITES,  EXTENT  AND  BOUNDARIES,  HISTORY, 
 RELIGION,  MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS,  PROVINCES,  CITIES,  MANU- 
 FACTURES, CLIMATE,  RIVERS,  LAKES,  MOUNTAINS,  MINERALO- 
 GY, CHARACTER  OF  THE  PEOPLE. 
 
 Kirguses.']  ABOUT  one  half  of  Independent  Tartary 
 is  occupied  by  the  Kirguscs  in  the  north,  a  people  of  imdoubted 
 Tartaric  origin,  and  the  Uzbeks  in  the  south. 
 
 Ste/iji  of  Issim.']  The  great  stepp,  or  desert  of  Issim,  divides 
 these  Kirguses  from  Siberia.  This  stepp  is  intersected  by  a 
 river  of  the  same  name  ;  and  there  are  other  streams,  which 
 either  join  that  river,  are  lost  in  the  sands,  or  fall  into  extensive 
 lakes,  for  the  most  part  either  saline  or  bitter.f     Even  the  soil  ia 
 
 *  pec.  Russ.  jii.  123.  t  Dec,  Rass.  iv.  456.    Pallas  calls  it  the  stfipp  of  ^s^tf. 
 
INDEPENDENT  TARTARY.  6^9 
 
 impregnated  with  salt  and  nitre.  This  extensive  plain  must  not 
 however  be  regarded  as  a  mere  desert,  destitute  of  all  vegetation  ; 
 •and  it  is  said  that  many  ancient  tombs  occur  in  its  wide  expanse, 
 as  well  as  the  Barabinian  stepp,  between  the  Iitish,  and  the  Orb, 
 vhich  last  consists  of  a  tolerable  soil,  and  presents  several  forests  ^ 
 of  birch,  with  the  appearance  of  having  been  formerly  a  prodigious 
 saline  marsh. 
 
 Oil  the  Avest  of  the  Kirguses  there  still  remain  some  tribes  of 
 Kalmuks,  thouf';h  the  greater  part  migrated  from  tlie  Volga  in 
 1770,  when  they  sought  the  protection  of  the  Chinese.  The  Kir- 
 guses are  supposed  to  be  so  called  from  the  founder  of  their 
 bord ;  and  have  from  time  immemorial  been  here  classed  under 
 three  divisions  of  Great,  Middle,  and  Lesser,  though  quite  un- 
 known to  Europe  till  the  Russian  conquest  of  Siberia,  some  tribes 
 becoming  subject  to  that  empire  in  1606.*  They  are  considered 
 as  faithless,  pusillanimous,  yet  restless  ;  but  the  Great  Hord,  de- 
 fended by  mountains  on  the  S.  and  E.  asberted  their  independence 
 in  repeated  contests  with  the  Kalmuks  of  Soongaria.  The  Mid- 
 dle and  Little  Hords  have  acknowledged  the  Russian  sovereignty 
 since  1751  ;  but  this  subjection  is  merely  nominal,  for  the  Rus' 
 siansare  obliged  to  fortify  themselves  against  these  allies.  These 
 two  hords  are  each  estimated  at  30,000  families  ;  and  supposing 
 the  Great  Hord  to  contain  60,000,  and  each  family  6  persons,  the 
 population  of  this  wide  region  would  amount  to  720,000  ;  but  it 
 probably  does  not  exceed  half  a  million. 
 
 Man7iers,  ijfc.^  The  Kirguses  have  gradually  moved  from  the 
 east  towards  the  west.  Their  manners,  comiiTon  to  the  Tartars, 
 have  been  described  at  considerable  length  by  Pallas. f  Their 
 tents  are  of  a  kind  of  felt ;  their  drink  kumiss,  made  of  acidulated 
 mare's  milk.  The  Great  Hord  is  considered  as  the  source  of  the 
 two  otiiers.  Being  settled  near  the  mountains  of  Alak,  also  called 
 Ala  Jau,  this  hord  has  been  called  the  Alatanian  Kirguses. | 
 They  lead  a  wandering  life,  from  the  borders  of  the  Upper  Sirr, 
 or  Syrt,  near  Tashkund,  to  the  stepp  of  Issim.  Each  hord  has  its 
 particular  Khan  ;  but  the  Middle  hord,  when  Pallas  approached 
 this  country,  was  contented  with  a  Saltan,  or  prince,  who  seemed 
 to  acknowledge  the  Khan  of  the  Lesser  hord  :  and  in  1  777,  this 
 Khan  of  the  Lesser  hord,  whose  election  had  been  confirmed  by 
 Russia,  Avas  called  Nur  Hali,  a  sensible  and  equitable  prince. 
 1  heir  features  are  Tartaric,  with  the  fiat  nose  and  small  eyes  ; 
 but  not  oblique,  like  those  of  the  Monguls  and  Chinese.  They 
 have  horses,  camels,  cattle,  sheep,  and  goats.  It  was  asserted 
 that  some  individuals  in  the  Middle  hord  had  10,000  horses,  JLO 
 camels,  3  or  4000  cattle,  20,000  sheep,  and  more  than  2000  goats : 
 while  in  the  Lesser  hord,  were  proprietors  of  50.00  horses,  and  a 
 proportional  number  of  the  other  animals.  Their  dromedaries 
 furnished  a  considerable  quantity  of  woolly  hair,  which  was  sold 
 to  the  Russians  and  Bucharians,  being  annually  clipped  like  that 
 ot  sheep.     Their   chief  food  is  mutton,  of  the  large  tailed  sort ; 
 
 *  Toojie,  ii.  78.,  |  Dec.  Iluss.  iii.  375.  t  lb.  379. 
 
G30  INDEPENDENT  TARTARY. 
 
 and  so  exquisite  is  the  lamb,  that  it  is  sent  from  Oi'cnburg  to  Pe- 
 tersburg, for  the  tables  of  the  palace.  The  lamb  skins  are  the 
 most  celebrated  after  those  of  Bucharia,  being  damasked,  as  it 
 -.vere  by  clothing  the  little  animal  in  coarse  linen.  But  the  wool  of 
 the  sheep  is  coarse,  and  only  used  in  domestic  consumption  for 
 felts  and  thick  cloths.  The  stepps  supply  them  with  objects  of 
 the  chace,  wolves,  foxes,  badgers,  antelopes,  ermines,  weasels, 
 marmots,  Sec.  In  the  southern  and  eastern  mountains  are  found 
 •wild  sheep,  the  ox  of  Tibet,  which  seems  to  delight  in  sjowy  alps  ; 
 with  chamois,  chacals,  tigers,  and  wild  asses.* 
 
 As  the  Kirgusians  regard  each  other  9.5  brethren,  they  are 
 obliged  to  employ  slaves,  being  captives,  whom  they  take  in  their 
 incursions.  Their  dress  is  the  common  Tartaric,  with  large 
 trowsers  and  pointed  boots.  The  ladies  ornament  their  heads 
 ■with  the  necks  of  herons,  disposed  like  horns.  They  appear  to 
 be  Mahometans,  though  rather  of  a  relaxed  creed. 
 
 Trade.']  The  Kirgusians  carry  on  some  trade  with  Russia. 
 The  chief  traffic,  which  is  wholly  by  exchange,  is  at  Orenburg, 
 but  the  Middle  hord  proceed  to  Omsk.  Sheep,  to  the  amount  of 
 150,000,  are  annually  brought  to  Orenburg  ;  with  horses,  cattle, 
 lamb  skins,  camels  wool,  and  camlets  ;  sometimes  they  offer  slaves, 
 Persians  or  Turcomans.  In  return  they  take  manufactured  arti- 
 cles, chiefly  clothes  and  furniture.  From  Bucharia,  Khiva,  and 
 Tashkund,  they  receive  arms  and  coats  of  mail,  which  Russia  re- 
 fuses them,  in  return  for  camels  and  cattle.  They  are  extremely 
 fond  of  the  Kalmuk  women,  who  long  retain  their  form  and  charms  ; 
 and  often  marry  them  if  they  will  adopt  the  Mahometan  religion. 
 There  is  an  annual  festival  in  honor  of  the  dead.  About  the  be- 
 ginning of  the  17th  century  this  people,  who  were  formerly  Sha- 
 manians,  became  children  of  circumcision,  by  the  exertions  of  the 
 priests  of  Turkistan  ;  but  Pallas,  in  1769,  found  them  addicted  to 
 sorceries  and  other  idle  superstitions. 
 
 History.]  Even  this  barren  region,  now  inhabited  by  the  Kir- 
 guees,  has  been  the  scene  of  considerable  events  ;  and  it  is  not  im- 
 probable that  its  numerous  deserts  and  plains  may  formerly  have 
 been  more  fertile,  at  least  in  pasturage.  The  gradual  desiccation, 
 observed  in  the  southern  stepps  of  Siberia,  may  warrant  the  con- 
 clusion that  the  hills  and  plains,  on  the  north  of  the  Caspian  and 
 Aral,  anciently  presented  more  numerous  streams  and  richer 
 verdure.  However  this  be,  these  regions  have  been  held  by  suc- 
 cessive nations  of  high  repute,  from  the  Massagetae  of  early  times 
 to  the  Turks.  These  last  imparted  the  name  of  Turkistan,  hav- 
 ing migrated  from  their  habitations  near  the  mountains  of  Bogdo, 
 adjoining  to  those  of  Altai.  In  the  6th  century  these  Turks  had 
 already  spread  to  the  Caspian  ;  while  the  Eygurs  seem  to  have 
 succeeded  them  in  their  original  seats.  They  soon  after  subdued 
 the  people  of  Sogdiana,  and  the  Nepthalites  of  Great  Bucharia, 
 called  in  that  ignorant  age  White  Huns.  As  the  Turks  founded 
 th^ir  first  v/estern  settlements  in  the  regions  now  held  by  the 
 
 ■'*  Dec.  Russ.  ii,  3?Qv 
 
INDEPENDENT  TARTARY.  631 
 
 Kirguses,  they  thence  received  the  name  of  Turkistan.  From 
 this  centre  of  their  power  issued  those  Turkish  armies,  wliich 
 have  changed  the  destinies  of  so  many  nations.  Little  Bucharia 
 was  called  Eastern  'J  urkistan,  from  a  similar  cause  ;  but  appears 
 to  have  been  first  subdued  by  the  Turks  of  Cathay,  on  the  N.  W. 
 of  China.  The  Turks  and  Huns  may  be  considered  as  one  and 
 the  same  Tartaric  race,  totally  unknown  to  Europeans  till  the  ap- 
 pearance of  the  latter,  who  first  passed  the  stepps,  deserts,  and, 
 mountains  which  had  concealed  them  from  classical  observation, 
 till  the  fourth  century.  The  Huns,  who  appeared  about  A.  D. 
 375,  by  their  peculiar  features  impressed  the  writers  of  the  time, 
 as  a  new  and  unknown  race,  having  seemingly  passed  in  one 
 course  of  depredation  from  Asia  to  Europe  ;  while  the  Gothic 
 and  Slavonic  nations  had  left  many  of  their  settlements  vacant,  in 
 their  progress  into  the  Roman  empire.  But  the  Turks,  though 
 originally  the  same  people,  perhaps  warned  by  tjie  fate  of  their 
 brethren,  made  a  slow  and  gradual  progress  ;  and  appear  to  have 
 been  mingled  by  marriages  and  conquests  with  the  Slavonic  and 
 Gothic  tribes,  on  the  N.  arid  E.  of  the  Caspian.  Such  was  the 
 origin  of  the  natne  of  Turkistan  ;  from  which  the  Turks  spi-ead 
 desolation  over  the  most  beautiful  counti'ies  of  the  east,  and  even 
 threatened  the  liberties  of  Europe. 
 
 K/iaris?n.']  Before  proceeding  to  Great  Bucharia,  it  may  be 
 proper  briefly  to  describe  the  country  of  Kharism,  which  extends 
 from  the  Gihon,  or  Amu,  to  the  Caspian  sea,  bounded  on  the  N. 
 and  S.  by  wide  deserts,  the  chief  town  being  now  Khiva,  but  an- 
 ciently Urghenz.  This  country  is  about  350  miles  in  length  and 
 breadth,  and  in  the  time  of  Zingis  was  a  powerful  kingdom,  but 
 at  that  time  included  Corasan,  and  a  part  of  Great  Bucharia. 
 
 At  present  this  state  is  almost  restricted  to  the  district  of  Khi- 
 va, the  circuit  of  which  may  be  performed  on  horseback  in  three 
 days  ;  but  there  are  five  walled  cities,  or  rather  towns,  within 
 half  a  day's  joumey  of  each  other.*  "  The  khan  is  absolute,  and 
 -entirely  independent  of  any  other  power,  except  the  Mulla  Bashi, 
 or  high  priest,  by  whom  he  is  controlled.  The  Kievinski  Tartars 
 differ  very  little  from  the  Kirguses  ;  but  surpass  them  in  cun- 
 ning and  treachery.  Their  manners  are  the  same,  only  that  the 
 Kirguses  live  in  tents,  whilst  the  others  inhabit  cities  and  villages. 
 Their  only  trade  is  with  Bokhara  and  Persia,  whither  they  carry 
 cattle,  furs,  and  hides,  all  which  they  have  from  the  Kirguses  and 
 Turkoman  Tartars,  who  often  prove  very  troublesome  neighbors 
 to  them.  The  place  itself  produces  little  more  than  cotton,  lamb 
 furs  of  a  very  mean  quality,  and  a  small  quantity  of  raw  silk,  seme 
 of  which  they  manufacture. "f  1  he  same  author  informs  us  that 
 the  town  of  Khiva  stands  on  a  rising^  ground,  with  three  gates, 
 and  a  strong  wall  of  earth,  very  thick,  and  much  higher  than  the. 
 houses  :  there  are  turrets  at  small  distances,  ai)d  a  broad  deep 
 ditch  full   of  water.     It  occtipies  a.  considerable  space,  and  com- 
 
 *  HanwavJ.  241.  rVM. 
 
6:^  INDEPENDENT  TARTARY. 
 
 iiiands  a  pleasant  prospect  of  the  adjacent  plains,  wlucii  the  in- 
 dustry of  the  inhabitants  has  rendered  very  fertile  ;  but  the  houses 
 are  low,  mostly  built  with  mud,  the  roofs  flat,  and  covered  with 
 earth. 
 
 Khiva  is  said  to  stand  at  the  distance  of  seventeen  days  from 
 the  Caspian  sea,  and  from  Orenburg  thirty-three,  computing  the 
 day's  journey  forty  versts.*  In  1739,  the  khan  of  Kliiva  assem- 
 bled an  army  of  20,000,  to  oppose  Nadir  ;  but  the  city  surrender- 
 ed at  discretion. 
 
 Pallas  informs  us  that  the  people  of  Khiva  bring  to  Orenburg 
 considerable  quantities  of  raw  cotton. f  But  the  coasts  of  the  Cas- 
 pian are  held  by  some  remains  of  Turkomans  in  the  north,  and 
 by  Uzbeks  in  the  south.  The  bay  of  Balkan  is  visited  by  Rus- 
 sian vessels  :  the  isles  yield  rice  and  cotton,  and  one  of  them, 
 Napthonia,  a  considerable  quantity  of  naphtha,  the  bed  seeming 
 thus  to  pass  the  sea  from  Baku,  in  a  S.  E.  direction  ;  but  they  arc 
 inhabited  by  Turkoman  pirates.  A  more  considerable  trade  is 
 maintained  with  Mangushlak,  which  our  maps  represent  as  stand- 
 ing at  the  egress  of  the  river  Tedjen  ;  but,  according  to  tlie 
 learned  Wahl,  that  river,  and  another  which  flows  by  Meshid,  are 
 received  by  an  inland  lake,  the  Kamysh  Teshen,  on  the  S.  of  the 
 bay  of  Balkan  ;  a  circumstance  which  seems  to  be  confirmed  by 
 the  chart  of  the  Caspian,  published  by  Hanway,  in  which  the 
 mouth  of  the  Tedjen  does  not  appear.|  To  the  N.  of  the  large 
 bay  of  Balkan  are  the  lake  of  Karabogas,  and  another  inlet, 
 Avhich  is  followed  by  the  port  of  Alexander,  or  Iskander. 
 
 As  the  merchants  of  Khiva  brought  gold  and  gems  to  Astrakan, 
 prubably  from  the  two  Bucharias,  an  idea  was  suggested  to  Peter  the 
 Great,  that  these  precious  products  were  found  in  Kiiarism,  and  he 
 in  consequence  attempted  a  settlement.  But  the  Russians,  to 
 the  number  of  3000,  advancing  under  the  command  of  a  Circas- 
 sian prince,  called  Beckawitz,  towards  Khiva,  were  all  cut  off  by 
 the  Uzbeks. 
 
 The  history  of  Kharism  has  been  ably  illustrated  by  its  king,  or 
 khan,  Abulgazi,  in  his  general  history  of  the  Tartars,  written, 
 about  166).  He  was  born  in  1605,  and  elected  khan,  1643,  alter 
 a  long  imprisonment  in  Persia.  He  died  in  1663,  revered  as  an 
 excellent  prince,  and  a  man  endowed  with  the  rarest  qualities. 
 
 Great  Buc/iaria.~\  By  far  the  most  important  pait  of  Independent 
 Tartary  is  comprised  under  the  name  of  Great  Bucharia,  general- 
 ly supposed  to  have  originated  from  the  city  of  Bokhara,  the  first 
 which  the  Persian  merchants  entered  on  visiting  the  country.  It 
 is  part  of  the  Touran  of  the  ancient  Persians,  and  was  chiefly 
 known  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans  by  the  names  of  Sogdianaand 
 Bactriana ;  the  former  being  the  Maweralnahar,  or  country  beyond 
 
 *  Equal,  by  Hanway's  account,  to  27  miles  :  hence  the  distance  of  Khiva  from  the 
 Caspian  would  be  459  miles,  while  our  maps  scarcely  allow  3U(), 
 
 t  Dec.  l{ii,ss.  iii.  \.-2i. 
 
 i  Wahl,  probably  after  D'Anville,  places  Mangushlak  far  to  the  north,  near  the 
 Dead  Gult,  in  the  country  of  the  Mankats,  called  Karakalpaks,  by  the  Russians.  The 
 mapofRuisia,  1787,  gives  tliegull'of  Mangushlak  on  the  north  of  cape  Kalagan,  (Jol- 
 orrel  Bruce  can  deserve  no  credit  in  opposition  toail  the  Russian  accounts. 
 
INDEPENDENT  TARTARY.  ^i^ 
 
 the  river,  of  oriental  geography ;  while  Bactriana  corresponds  with 
 Balk.  From  the  second  son  of  Zingis,  it  received  the  name 
 of  Zagathai.  By  the  Byzantine  historians,  the  people  are  called 
 Ephthulites,  or  corruptly,  Nepthalites,  a  name  derived  from  the 
 Oxus,  or  Amu,  by  the  Persians  styled  Abtelah,  or  the  river  of 
 gold.  Those  Byzantine  writers,  who  affect  to  imitate  classical 
 language,  call  the  Ephthalites,  White  Huns. 
 
 Extent  and  Boundaries.']  Great  Bucharia  extends  more  than 
 700  miles  in  length,  from  N.  to  S.  by  a  medial  breadth,  if  Fergana 
 be  included,  of  about  350,  thus  rather  exceeding  Great  Britain  in 
 size,  but  much  inferior  to  the  country  called  Little  Bucharia. 
 The  northern  boundary  appears  to  be  the  mountains  of  Argun, 
 On  the  western  bide  a  desert,  the  ri\er  Amu,  and  other  deserts, 
 divide  Bucharia  from  Kharism,  and  Corasan  :  v/hile  on  the  S.  and 
 E.  the  mountains  of  Gaur,  or  Paropamisus,  the  Hindoo  Koh,  and 
 the  chain  of  Belur,  are  perpetual  barriers. 
 
 History.]  The  original  population  of  this  country  was  Scythi- 
 an, like  that  of  Persia.  Its  history  might  be  traced  from  the  ear- 
 liest periods,  as  the  seat  and  source  of  the  most  ancient  Persian 
 monarchy.  This  region  became  better  known,  by  the  expedition 
 of  Alexander,  and  the  establishment  of  the  Greek  monarchy  of 
 Bactriana.  But  it  is  not  till  after  the  Mahometan  conquest  of  Per- 
 sia, in  the  7th  century,  that  the  history  of  this  country  becomes 
 sufficiently  clear.  In  1494,  Sultan  Baber,  a  descendant  of  Timur, 
 was,  with  his  Monguls,  expelled  from  Great  Bucharia  ;  and  pro- 
 ceeding into  Hindostan,  there  founded  the  Mogul  power.  Th& 
 Tartarian  victors,  called  Uzbeks,  established  a  powerful  monar- 
 chy in  Bucharia  ;  and  successive  khans  held  the  sceptre  from 
 1494  to  1658,  soon  after  which  period  this  great  and  fertile  coun- 
 try appears  to  have  been  divided  into  several  dominations,  under 
 numerous  khans.  In  1741,  the  city  of  Bokhara,  with  a  small  ter- 
 ritory around  it,  constituted  all  the  monarchy  of  one  of  these 
 khans.*  Nadir  first  distinguished  himself  in  Corasan,  in  combats 
 with  the  Uzbeks.  The  province  of  Gaur,  is  subject  to  the  kings 
 of  Candahar  ;  but  Balk  and  Samarcand  appear  to  remain  subject 
 to  their  own  Uzbek  khans.  In  the  deficiency  of  recent  accounts, 
 it  can  only  be  conjectured,  that  the  chief  powers  of  this  country- 
 are  the  khan  of  Balk  in  the  S.  and  of  Samarcand  in  the  N. 
 
 Religioii.~\  The  religion  of  the  Uzbeks  and  Bucharians  is  the 
 Mahometan,  of  the  Sunni  sect,  and  the  government  of  the  khans 
 is  despotic.  There  is  no  precise  evidence  of  the  state  of  the  pop- 
 ulation, which  consists  of  the  Tartars  and  of  the  Bucharians.  It 
 is  probable,  that  upon  an  emergency,  an  army  might  be  mustered 
 of  100,000  ;  but  though  Nadir  reduced  Bokhara  and  Khiva,  he 
 seems  to  have  respected  Balk  and  Samarcand,  considering  them 
 as  allied  states,  which  furnished  him  with  the  best  troops  in  his 
 army  :  and  he  even  regarded  himself  as  a  Tartar,  not  as  a  Per- 
 sian. Tliere  is  no  statement  of  the  revenue  of  these  fertile  prov- 
 iftces.     From  an  account  published  by  Hanway  of  the  revenues  of 
 
 *  Hanway,  i.  2-i3. 
 VOL.   lU  SO 
 
634  INDEPENDENT  TARTARY. 
 
 Nadir,  it  appears  that  Corasan  yielded  half  a  million  sterling  an- 
 nually, being  equal  to  that  of  Erivan,  and  superior  to  any  othei* 
 Persian  province.  It  is  probable  that  the  revenue  of  Great  Bu- 
 charia  is  at  least  equal  to  that  of  Corasan. 
 
 Manners  and  Customs.']  The  manners  and  customs  of  the  Uz- 
 beks are  similar  to  those  of  the  other  Tartars  :  but  they  are  sup- 
 posed to  be  the  most  spirited  and  industrious  of  these  barbarians. 
 Though  many  reside  in  tents  in  the  summer,  yet  in  winter  they 
 inhabit  the  towns  and  villages.  They  are,  however,  addicted  to 
 make  sudden  inroads  into  the  Persian  provinces.  Those  of  Balk 
 are  the  most  civilized,  and  carry  on  a  considerable  trade  with  Per- 
 sia and  Hindostan.  The  native  Bucharians,  or  Tadjiks,  are  com-, 
 paratively  fair  ;  and  correspond,  inelegance  of  form  and  features, 
 with  tliose  of  Little  Bucharia,  whom  they  also  resemble  in  the 
 m.ode  of  dress.  The  Bucharians  never  bear  arms.  The  Uzbeks, 
 On  the  contrary,  are  no  strangers  to  the  use  of  the  musket  ;  and  it 
 is  said  that  even  their  women,  who  surpass  those  of  the  other 
 Tartars  in  beauty,  are  not  averse  to  warfare,  but  will  sometimes 
 attend  their  husbands  to  the  field.  The  language  is  Zagathaian, 
 that  is,  Turkish,  or  Turkomanic  ;  but  that  of  the  Bucharians  has 
 never  been  investigated,  though  it  be  probably  Persian,  like  their 
 physiognomy,  but  intermingled  with  Turkish,  Mongolian,  and 
 even  Hindoo  terms.  The  literature  of  Great  Bucharia  would 
 furnish  an  ample  theme,  Samarcand  having  been  a  celebi'ated 
 school  of  oriental  science,  cultivated  even  by  monarchs,  as  Ulug 
 Beg,  and  others  :  it  was  still,  in  the  beginning  of  last  century,  the 
 most  celebrated  of  Mahometan  universities.* 
 
 Provjnces.']  The  cities  in  Great  Bucharia  generally  give  name 
 to  the  provinces,  or  receive  their  appellations  from  them.  In  the 
 noilh  the  province  of  Fergana  appears  to  be  subject  to  the  Kir- 
 guses  of  the  Greater  llord  ;  and  of  Andcgan,  its  capital,  there  is 
 no  recent  account.  The  other  chief  provinces  are  the  western 
 part  of  Sliash,  and  a  district  called  by  D'Anvillc  Ofrushna,  from 
 a  town  of  the  same  name.f  The  most  fertile  and  celebrated  prov- 
 ince is  that  of  Sogd,  so  called  from  the  river  which  pervades  it. 
 Next  are  Vash,  Kotlan,  and  Kilan.  Tokarestan  and  Gaur  are 
 the  most  southern  provinces. 
 
 Cities.']  The  chief  city  of  Great  Buchai'ia  is  Samarcand,  on 
 the  southern  bank  of  the  river  Sogd,  which,  at  the  distance  of 
 above  a  hundred  miles,  after  Avashing  the  walls  of  Bokhara,  pass- 
 es through  a  considerable  lake,  and  is  supposed  to  join  the  Oxus, 
 or  Amu. 
 
 Of  this  celebrated  capital  there  is  no  recent  account,  but  it 
 seems  greatly  to  have  declined  since  the  time  of  Timur,  the  fes- 
 tivities of  whose  court  at  his  palace  here,  and  villas  in  the  vicinity, 
 have  been  so  well  described  by  his  Persian  historian.  Towards 
 the  beguming  of  the  last  century,  Bentink  says  that  Samarcand 
 Was  fortified  with  ramparts  of  turf,  the  houses  being  mostly  of 
 
 *  B«ntinkon  AbuJgar.i,  p.  279. 
 
 t  The  SetrushU'h  ol  i:bii  Haukal,  p.  C61'. 
 
INDEPENDENT  TARTARY.  635 
 
 hardened  clay,  though  some  were  of  stone,  from  quarries  in  the 
 neighborhood.  The  khan  of  Great  Bucharia  commonly  encamp- 
 ed in  the  adjacent  meadows,  the  castle  being  almost  ruinous.  The 
 excellence  of  the  paper  made  of  silk,  recommended  it  to  all  the 
 countries  of  the  east  :  and  it  is  supposed  that  this  invention  is 
 derived  from  Samarcand.*  The  rich  vale  of  Sogd  produced  such 
 abundance  of  exquisite  grapes,  melons,  pears,  and  apples,  that 
 they  were  sent  to  Persia,  and  even  to  Hindostan. 
 
 Bokhara,  on  the  same  rive^,  has  repeatedly  contested  the  metro- 
 politan dignity  Avith  Samarcand.  When  visited  by  the  English 
 agents  in  1741,  it  was  a  large  and  populous  city,  subject  to  its 
 khan  ;  standing  on  a  rising  ground,  with  a  slender  wall  of  earth ; 
 the  houses  of  clay,  but  the  numerous  mosques  of  brick. f  The  citi- 
 zens manufactured  soap  and  calico  ;  and  the  chief  products  were 
 cotton,  rice  and  cattle.  From  the  Kalmuks  they  received  rhu- 
 barb and  musk  ;  and  from  Badakshan,  the  capital  of  a  country  so 
 called,  they  used  to  receive  lapis  lazuli,  and  other  precious 
 stones;  that  city  being  computed  at  sixteen  day's  joui'ney  from 
 Bokhara.  There  v.'as  gold  and  copper  coin  :  and  after  Nadir 
 took  this  city,  the  Persian  and  Indian  silver  became  common.  In 
 the  tenth  century  it  was  distinguished  by  the  manufacuire  of  fine 
 linen.  ^ 
 
 Balk  is  a  distinguished  city  on  the  river  Dehash,  Avhich  flows 
 into  the  Amu  from  the  southern  mountains  of  Gaur,  or  Paropa- 
 misus,  probably,  as  in  the  beginning  of  the  last  century,  still  sub- 
 ject to  its  particular  khan  of  the  Uzbeks  ;  being  then  the  most 
 considerable  of  all  their  cities,  large  and  populous,  with  houses 
 of  brick  or  stone  ;  while  the  castle  or  palace  consisted  almost  en- 
 tirely of  marble  from  the  neighboring  mountains.  This  beautiful 
 city  Avas  an  object  of  ambition  to  the  neighboring  powers  of  Per- 
 sia and  Hindostan  ;  but  was  secure,  not  only  from  their  mutual 
 jealousy,  but  from  the  difficult  access  through  high  mountains  on 
 one  side,  and  deserts  on  the  other.  The  people  were  the  most 
 civilized  of  all  the  Tartars,  and  beautiful  silks  were  prepared 
 from  the  product  of  the  country,  which  seems  then  to  have  in- 
 cluded the  whole  of  Great  Bucharia  to  the  S.  of  the  Amu,  which 
 in  this  part  of  its  course  is  also  called  the  Harrat.  It  is  the 
 chief  seat  of  the  trade  between  Bucharia  and  Hindostan. 
 
 Zouf,  which  is  also  called  Gaur,  from  the  province  of  which  it 
 is  the  capital,  is  said  to  be  now  subject  to  the  kingdom  of  Canda- 
 liar,  and  Bamian,  in  the  same  province,  must  have  shared  the 
 same  fate.  The  latter  city  was  remarkable  for  numerous  images, 
 and  other  monuments,  carved  in  the  adjacent  mountains.  Aude- 
 rab  is  the  chief  city  of  Tokarestan  ;  near  a  pass  through  the  moun- 
 tains of  Hindoo  Koh,  strictly  guarded  by  the  khan  of  Balk.  In 
 the  neighborhood  of  this  city  were  rich  quarries  of  lapis  lazuli,  a 
 
 •  This  manufacture  is  said  to  liave  been  known  A.  D.  650.  Ouseley's  Kbn  Har- 
 kal,  p.  300.  Ihe  same  work  may  be  Bonsulted  for  the  state  of  this  great  city  in  tl  e 
 tenth  century. 
 
 f  Hanway,  i.  242. 
 
^36  INDEPENDENT  TARTARY. 
 
 substance  with  which  Great  Bucharia  seems  chiefly  to  have  sup- 
 plied the  ancient  and  modern  world. 
 
 Not  far  to  the  north  stands  Badakshan,  on  the  river  Amu,  or 
 Harrat.  In  the  last  century  this  city  belonged  to  the  khan  ot~ 
 Great  Bucharia,  or  ratlier  of  Samarcand  ;  and  being  secluded  in 
 &  branch  of  the  Belur  alps,  was  used  as  a  state  prison  for  rivals  or 
 insurgents.  Badakshan  Avas  small,  but  well  built  and  populous  ; 
 and  its  inhabitants  were  enriched  by  the  gold,  silver,  and  rubies, 
 found  in  the  neighborhood  ;  the  grains  of  gold  and  silver  abound- 
 ing in  the  torrents  which  descend  from  the  mountains,  when  the 
 snow  melts  in  the  beginning  of  summer.*  Several  caravans  for 
 Little  Bucharia  and  China  pass  by  this  city. 
 
 Kotlan,  or  Khotlan,  is  the  capital  of  a  province  so  called,  but 
 Otherwise  seems  little  memorable.  Termed,  situated  on  the 
 Amu,  is  scarcely  known  in  modern  accounts  :  and  in  general  the 
 northern  cities  seem  greatly  to  have  declined  under  the  domina- 
 tion of  Uzbeks. 
 
 Manufactures.']  The  chief  manufactures  have  been  already 
 mentioned  in  the  account  of  the  cities.  Besides  the  caravans  to 
 Persia,  Hindostan,  and  China,  some  trade  is  carried  on  with  the 
 Russians,  the  Bucharian  merchants  not  only  furnishing  their  ow» 
 products,  but  others  from  the  eastern  countries  to  which  they 
 trade. 
 
 Climate.']  The  climate  in  general  appears  to  be  excellent,  the 
 heat  even  of  the  southern  provinces  being  tempered  by  the 
 high  mountains  capped  with  perpetual  snow  ;  and  though  situated 
 in  the  parallel  of  Spain,  Greece,  and  Asiatic  Turkey,  the  proxim- 
 ity of  the  Siberian  deserts,  and  the  lofty  Alps,  render  the  summer 
 more  temperate.  The  face  of  the  country  presents  a  great  vari- 
 ety ;  but  though  there  are  numerous  rivers,  hills,  and  mountains, 
 there  seems  to  be  a  deficiency  of  wood.f  Near  the  rivers  the  soil 
 is  very  productive,  so  that  the  grass  sometimes  exceeds  the  height 
 of  a  man  ;  and  in  some  parts  considerable  industry  is  shewn  in  the 
 cultivation  of  rice  and  other  grain.  In  any  other  hands  but  those 
 of  the  Tartars,  this  country  might  rival  any  European  region. 
 
 Rivers.]  The  chief  rivers  of  Independent  Tartary  are  the  Amu 
 and  the  Sirr,  or  river  of  Shash.  The  former  is  the  ancient  Oxus, 
 and  near  its  source  is  called  the  Harrat :  oriental  geographers 
 also  term  it  the  Gihoon,  as  they  call  the  Sir  the  Sihoon. 
 
 The  Amu  rises  in  the  mountains  of  Belur,  more  than  200  miles 
 N.  E.  from  Badakshan,  and  before  it  reach  that  city  has  already 
 received  the  Ortong  from  the  E.  From  Badakshan  it  passes  W. 
 to  Termed  after  receiving  numerous  streams  from  the  Ak  Tau 
 on  the  N.  and  from  the  Hindoo  Koh  on  the  S.  After  being  joined 
 from  the  same  quarter  by  the  Dehash,  or  river  of  Balk,  with  col- 
 lected streams  from  the  mountains  of  Gaur,  the  Amu  fellows  a  N. 
 W.  direction,  and  fails  into  the  sea  of  Aral,  which  appears,  as  be- 
 fore mentioned,  to  have   been   in  all  ages  its  chief  receptable, 
 
 *  Benlink  on  Abvilgazi,  p.  55. 
 
 f  It  is  probable  there  may  be  Lirge  forests  on  the  western  siile  of  the  Belur,  as  Boa- 
 tiiik,!).  '258,  says  that  timber  abounds. 
 
INDEPENDENT  TARTARY.  637 
 
 though  a  branch  formerly  passed  by  Urghenz  towards  the  Cas- 
 pian, and  another  seems  t6  have  been  detached  near  Hazarasp. 
 The  whole  course  of  this  noble  river  surpasses  that  of  the  Tigris, 
 being  probably  not  less  than  900  miles.  It  abounds  with  fish  of 
 various  sorts. 
 
 The  Sirr,  or  river  of  Shash,  also  rises  in  the  mountains  of  Belur, 
 and  falls  into  the  eastern  side  of  the  sea  of  Aral,  after  a  course  of 
 about  550  miles.  According  to  Islenieif  the  furthest  source  of 
 the  Sirr  is  the  river  Narin,  which  rises  to  the  S.  of  the  lake  Tuz- 
 kul  in  the  chain  of  Alak,  near  its  junction  with  the  Belur  alps  ; 
 and  by  the  account  of  Pallas  the  source  is  near  that  of  the  river 
 Talas,  The  Narin  itself  consists  of  numerous  streams  collected 
 from  the  ridges  of  Alak  and  Argun,  bending  to  the  S.  while  the 
 other  rivers  in  this  quarter  flow  in  a  north  direction  ;  but  the  Sirr, 
 peculiarly  so  called,  rises  in  the  mountains  of  Terek  Daban,  or 
 northern  part  of  the  Belur  chain,  where  it  joins  that  of  Alak. 
 After  passing  Andegan  and  Cojend,  the  Sirr  or  laxartes  runs  N. 
 W.  by  Tashkund  and  Tuncat,  where  it  is  joined  by  a  considerable 
 river  from  the  E.  At  Otrar  it  receives  the  river  Taraz.  The 
 remaining  course  of  the  Sirr  is  chiefly  through  the  desert  of  Bur- 
 zuk  ;  and  it  is  doubtful  if  it  be  joined  by  the  Sarasu,  a  large  river 
 from  the  N.  so  imperfect  is  the  geography  of  these  regions. 
 
 In  the  country  possessed  by  the  three  Herds  of  Kirguses  are 
 also  other  considerable  streams,  as  the  Dzui,  which  rises  on  the 
 N.  of  the  lake  Tuzkul  ;  and  the  Irghiz  and  Turgai,  which  flow 
 into  a  lake  on  the  N.  of  the  Aral  ;  not  to  mention  the  Issim,  per- 
 vading the  stepp  of  the  same  name.  Several  of  these  lakes  and 
 rivers,  now  obscure,  are  remarkable  in  the  history  of  Zingis  and 
 his  successors,  when,  directing  their  conquests  to  the  N.  of  the 
 Caspian,  they  subdued  the  greater  part  of  European  Russia. 
 
 Lakes.~\  The  most  considerable  lake  is  the  sea  of  Aral,  or  of 
 eagles,  already  mentioned  in  the  general  view  of  Asia.  The  lake 
 Tengis,  Baicash,  or  Palkati,  is  near  140  miles  in  length,  by  half 
 that  breadtli,  being  the  largest  lake  in  Asia,  after  the  seas  of  Aral 
 and  Baikal  ;  but  this,  with  two  other  very  considerable  lakes  to 
 the  E.  properly  belong  to  the  Kalmuks  subject  to  China.  The 
 lakes  in  the  country  of  the  Kirguses  and  in  Great  and  Little  Bu- 
 charia  are  of  less  moment. 
 
 Mountains.']  The  principal  range  of  mountains  is  that  of  Be- 
 lur, which,  according  to  all  accounts,  is  a  great  alpine  chain, 
 covered  with  perpetual  snow.  The  chief  branches  proceed  to- 
 wards the  W.  for  on  the  E.  is  the  high  central  plain  of  Asia,  full 
 of  deserts,  as  if  nature  had  here  performed  her  earliest  operations, 
 ■when  this  first  and  greatest  continent  emerged  from  the  primeval 
 waters.  Of  this  extensive  table-land  the  Belur  may  be  regarded 
 as  the  western  buttress,  continued  by  the  mountains  of  Jimbal  and 
 Kisik  Tag  to  the  Altaian  chain,  which  forms  the  northern  buttress 
 on  the  S.  of  the  sea  of  Baikal.  On  the  E.  this  plain  gradually  de- 
 clines from  the  sources  of  the  Onon  and  Kerlon,  and  the  S.  limit 
 of  the  desert  of  Shamo,  while  the  numerous  alps  of  Tibet,  to 
 which  country  there  is  a  gradual  ascent  from  China,  form  thfe 
 
%38  INDEPENDENT  TARTARY. 
 
 southern  and  cKcrescent  buttress.  Except  in  some  few  places, 
 sheltered  from  the  N.  and  E.  this  extensive  elevation  is  exposed 
 to  extreme  cold,  the  reverse  of  the  deserts  of  Africa.  It  is  inter- 
 sected with  great  ranges  of  mountains,  whose  height  must  be 
 enormous  superadded  to  that  of  the  bases  ;  the  western  parts  in 
 particular,  between  Siberia  and  Tibet,  abound  with  irregular 
 ridges  of  naked  rocks,  presenting  as  it  were  the  ruins  of  moun- 
 tains. 
 
 The  chain  of  Behtr,  the  ancient  Imaus,  proceeds  nearly  N.  and 
 S.  and  is  continued  by  the  mountain  of  Alak  or  Alak  Oola  on  the 
 K.  of  Little  Bucharia,  which  join  the  great  Bogdo,  the  highest 
 mountain  in  central  Asia,  according  to  the  reports  of  the  Monguls 
 and  Tartars.  On  the  S.  the  Belur  seems  more  intimately  con- 
 nected with  the  Hindoo  Koh  than  with  the  northern  ridges  of  Ti- 
 bet. The  Hindoo  Koh,  and  mountains  of  Gaur,  must  not  be  for- 
 gotten among  those  of  Great  Bucharia,  being  seemingly  an  ex-, 
 tension  of  the  chain  of  Belur,  without  any  interruption,  except  a 
 narrow  pass  to  the  S.  of  Anderab  The  mountains  of  Argjun  or 
 Argun  seem  to  form  one  chain  with  the  Kara  Tau,  though  broken, 
 as  not  unusual,  by  the  transition  of  a  river  ;  and  like  the  Ak  Tau 
 in  the  S.  appear  a  branch  detached  from  the  Belur, 
 
 Mmeralogy.~\  Neither  the  botany  nor  zoology  of  this  country 
 have  been  explored  by  any  intelligent  naturalist.  We  have  seen 
 that  the  alpine  regions  present  many  of  the  animals  of  Tibet. 
 The  mineralogy  is  not  so  obscure,  though  the  Monguls  and  Tar- 
 tars, who  may  be  said  to  have  possessed  this  country  for  a  thou- 
 sand years,  have  not  industry  for  the  proper  pursuit  of  metallur- 
 gy. The  alpine  heights  in  the  S.  E.  contain  gold,  silver,  and  a  pe- 
 culiar production,  the  balay,  or  pale  rose-colored  ruby  ;  not  to 
 mention  lapis  lazuli.  In  the  10th  century,  before  the  native  in- 
 dustry had  expired  under  long  oppression,  Fergana  produced  sal 
 ammoniac,  vitriol,  iron,  copper,*  gold,  and  turkoises :  and  quick- 
 silver is  added,  a  rare  and  valuable  product.  In  the  mountain  of 
 Zai'ka  there  were  springs  of  naphtha  and  bitumen,  and  "  a  stone 
 that  takes  fire  and  burns,"  which  must  iinply  coal.  In  the  coun- 
 try of  Setrushteh,  D'Anville's  Ofrushna,  there  was  a  cavern, 
 Avhence  a  vapor  arose,  which  in  the  night  seemed  fiery,  and  from 
 which  sal  ammoniac  was  procured.  On  digging  the  ground  a 
 similar  vapor  would  arise,  as  we  arc  told  of  the  fires  near  Baku. 
 In  the  mountains  of  Ailak  or  Ilak,  the  most  northern  prov- 
 ince around  Otrar,  there  Mxre  mines  of  gold  and  silver.  The 
 venerable  father  of  Arabian  geography,  Ebn  Haukal,  has  compen- 
 sated for  the  penury  of  his  information  respecting  natural  history, 
 by  an  animated  character  of  this  country  and  its  people,  which 
 may  be  here  introduced  as  a  relief  from  the  dryness  of  some  of 
 the  details,  unavoidable  in  describing  a  country  highly  celebrated, 
 but  the  geography  of  M'hich  unaccountably  remains  the  most  de- 
 fective of  any  in  Asia,  with  the  single  exceptionof  interior  Arabia. 
 
 "  Such  are  the  generosity  aud  liberality  of  the  inhabitants,  thai 
 
 •  Ebn  Haukat 
 
INDEPENDENT  TARTARY.  635^ 
 
 no  one  turns  aside  from  the  rights  of  hospitality ;  so  that  a  person 
 contemplating  thern  in  this  light,  would  imagine  that  all  the  fami- 
 lies of  the  land  were  but  one  house.  When  a  traveller  arrives  there 
 every  person  endearors  to  attract  him  to  himself,  that  he  may 
 have  opportunities  of  performing  kind  offices  for  the  stranger  : 
 and  the  best  proof  of  their  hospitable  and  generous  disposition  is, 
 that  every  peasant,  though  possessing  but  abai-e  sufficiency,  allots 
 a  portion  of  his  cottage  for  the  i-eception  of  a  guest.  On  the  ar- 
 rival of  a  stranger  they  contend  one  with  another  for  the  pleasure 
 of  taking  him  to  their  home,  and  entertaining  him.  Thus,  in  acts 
 of  hospitality,  they  expend  their  incomes.  I  happened  once  to  be 
 in  Sogbd,  and  there  I  saw  a  certain  palace,  or  great  building,  the 
 doors  of  which  were  fastened  back  with  nails  against  the  walls.  I 
 asked  the  reason  of  this,  and  they  informed  me  that  it  was  an  hun- 
 •dred  years  and  more  since  those  doors  had  been  shut,  all  that  time 
 they  had  continued  open  day  and  night,  strangers  might  arriv© 
 there  at  the  most  unseasonable  hours,  or  in  any  numbers,  for  the 
 master  of  the  house  had  provided  every  thing  necessary  both  for 
 the  men  and  for  their  beasts  ;  and  he  appeared  with  a  delighted 
 and  joyful  countenance  when  the  guests  tarried  awhile. 
 
 "  In  all  the  regions  of  the  earth  there  is  not  a  more  flourishing 
 or  a  more  delightful  country  than  this,  especially  the  district  of 
 Bokhara.  If  a  person  stand  on  the  Kohendiz  (or  ancient  castle)- 
 of  Bokhara,  and  cast  his  eyes  around,  he  shall  not  see  any  thing 
 but  beautiful  and  luxuriant  verdure  on  every  side  of  the  country  ; 
 so  that  he  would  imagine  the  green  of  the  earth  and  the  azure  of 
 the  heavens  were  united  :  and  as  there  are  green  fields  in  every 
 quartei',  so  there  are  villas  interspersed  among  the  green  fields. 
 
 "  The  walls  and  buildings,  and  cultivated  plains  of  Bokhara,  ex- 
 tend above  13  farsang,  by  12  farsang ;  and  the  Soghd,  for  8  days 
 journey,  is  all  delightful  country,  affording  fine  prospects,  and 
 full  of  gardens,  and  orcliards,  and  villages,  corn  fields,  and  villas, 
 and  running  streams,  reservoirs,  and  fountains,  both  on  the  right 
 hand  and  on  the  left.  You  pass  from  corn  fields  into  rich  mead- 
 ows and  pasture  lands  ;  and  the  fruits  of  Soghd  are  the  finest  in 
 the  world."* 
 
 *  Ebn  Haukal,  hy  Sir  Wm.  Ousely,  p.  23i. 
 
ARABIA. 
 
 CHAPTER  I. 
 
 HISTORICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 EXTENT,  BOUNDARIES,  NAME,  DIVISIONS,  ORIGINAL  POPULATIONj 
 PROGRESSIVE  GEOGRAPHY,  HISTORICAL  EPOCHS,  RELIGION, 
 GOVERNMENT,  MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS,  DRESS,  LANGUAGE,  LIT- 
 ERATURE, CITIES  AND  TOWNS,  EDIFICES,  MANUFACTURES, 
 PROPUCTS,  COMMERCE. 
 
 ExtentJ]  ARABIA,  taken  in  its  largest  extent,  lies 
 between  lat.  12  30  and  31  30  N.  and  Ion  34  14  and  59  14  E.  and 
 forms  one  of  the  largest  peninsulas  in  the  world. 
 
 Boundaries.']  It  is  bounded  on  the  E.  by  the  Euphrates,  the 
 Persian  gulf,  and  the  bay  of  Ormus  ;  on  the  W.  by  Palestine,  part 
 of  Syria,  the  isthmus  of  Suez,  and  the  Red  Sea  ;  on  the  S.  by  the 
 straits  of  Babelmandel,  and  the  Indian  ocean ;  and  on  the  N.  by 
 part  of  Syria,  Diarbekir,  Irak  and  Khuzestan.  Its  northern  limits, 
 however,  are  less  strongly  marked,  than  the  others  ;  but  in  both 
 ancient  and  modern  times  they  rise  to  an  angle  about  an  100 
 miles  to  the  E.  of  Palmyra,  which  is  not  included  in  Arabia. 
 Thence  the  line  proceeds  S.  W-  to  the  S.  E.  angle  of  the  Medi- 
 terranean, a  northern  boundary  of  Arabia  Petraea.  Moses,  how- 
 ever, with  a  geographical  accuracy  that  defies  the  severity  of 
 criticism,  determines  the  boundaries  of  this  kingdom,  when  he  tells 
 us,  that  on  the  south  it  reached  to  the  sea  of  Suph  or  Red  Sea ;  on 
 the  W.  to  Paran  and  Tophel  ;  on  the  N.  to  Laban,  Hatseroth,  and 
 Di-Zahab,  that  is,  to  the  borders  of  Syria ;  and  on  the  E.  to  Kadesh-> 
 Barnea,  about  1 1  days  journey  from  mount  Horeb. 
 
 From  the  cape  of  Babelmandel  to  the  extreme  angle  on  the 
 Euphrates,  the  length  is  not  less  than  1800  miles  ;  while  the  me- 
 dial breadth  is  about  800;  containing  about  1,440,000  square 
 miles. 
 
 JVaine.']  The  revolutions  of  time  have  produced  no  change  in 
 its  primitive  denomination  ;  since  even  in  the  ages  bordering  on 
 the  deluge  it  was  known  by  the  name  ol  Ji-abah.  By  the  Syrians, 
 nnd  many  of  the  orientals,  it  was  called  Aralmtan  ;  and  in  the 
 scriptures  it  is  spmetimes  denominated  the  la7id  of  Cash  :  Moses 
 himself  styles  the  western  Arabia,  ylrabah,  which  affords  a  strong- 
 presumption  that  its  original  name  was  derived  from  a  Hebrew 
 word  signifying  the  we&t  ;  and  when  the  Ishmaelitci,  who  pos- 
 sessed it,  gradually  reduced  the  adjacent  parts,  they  carried  with 
 them  the  appellation  of  Arabah,  and  applied  it  to  the  whole  penin- 
 sula :  the  first  part  of  the  peninsula  of  the  Arabs  was  divided  into 
 Kedem  and  Arabah,  as  we  learn  from  scripture. 
 
 Divisio72s.]  The  best  eastern  writers  have  divided  this  penin- 
 sula into  five  provinces  or  kingdoms,  viz.  Yaman,  Hejaz,  Tehcma, 
 
ARABIA.  641 
 
 Naid  antl  Yamama.  It  was  divided  by  Ptolemy  into  Arabia  Pe- 
 trea,  Arabia  Deserta,  and  Arabia  Felix  ;  and  since  his  time  this 
 division  has  generally  prevailed  :  Arabia  is  divided  by  the  inhab- 
 itants themselves  into  eight  provinces,  entirely  independent  on 
 one  another,  viz.  Yemen,  on  the  S.  towards  the  straits  of  Babel- 
 mandel,  Hadramant,  on  the  shores  of  the  Indian  ocean,  Omam,  on 
 the  S.  of  the  entrance  of  the  Persian  gulf,  Hadsjar  or  Hajar,  Ned- 
 siedor  Neged,  and  Hedjas  or  Hejaz.  The  territory  of  the  Bedu- 
 ins».  or  of  the  Arabs  in  the  desert  of  Syria,  may  be  reckoned  a 
 seventh  province,  and  to  this  again  may  be  added  the  Arabian  es- 
 tablishments on  the  southern  coast  of  Persia.* 
 
 Original  Pofiulation.^  The  population  is  original  and  indi- 
 genous, the  Ai'abians  being  the  same  race  with  the  Assyrians  of 
 remote  antiquity,  the  probable  fathers  of  the  Syrians,  Egyptians, 
 and  Abyssinians,  whose  languages  are  intimately  allied,  as  is  that 
 of  the  Hebrews  ;  being  totally  different  in  form  and  structure, 
 from  that  of  the  Persians,  their  powerful  neighbors  in  the  E.  By 
 all  accounts,  sacred  and  profane,  the  Assyrians  were  the  most  an- 
 cient civilized  and  commercial  people  ;  and  when  modern  philos- 
 ophy is  divested  of  its  prejudices,  there  will  be  no  reason  to  infer 
 superior  pretensions  from  China,  and  far  less  from  Hindostan. 
 Situated  in  a  country  nearly  central,  between  Asia,  Africa,  and 
 Europe  ;  and  m  the  wide  intercourse  of  the  Mediterranean,  and 
 the  Arabian  and  Persian  gulfs  ;  it  was  natural  that  the  variety  of 
 productions  and  wants  should  occasion  the  first  rise  of  commerce 
 in  Syria  ;  and  the  merchants  of  Tyre  had  explored  the  shores  of 
 Britain,  while  the  Chinese  seem  not  to  have  discovered  those  of 
 Japan.  This  early  civilization  will  excite  the  less  surprise,  when 
 it  is  considered  that  even  the  modern  Arabians  are  a  most  saga- 
 cious and  intelligent  race  of  men,  remarkable  also  for  spirit  and 
 valor,  whose  country  alone  has  never  been  subdaed  by  any  invader, 
 and  who  alone,  of  all  Asiatic  nations,  have  preserved  the  sacred 
 flame  of  freedom,  which  their  progenitors  kindled  in  their  inac- 
 cessible mountains.  In  comparatively  modern  times  they  have 
 vindicated  the  fame  of  their  ancient  pre-eminence  by  giving  re- 
 ligion and  laws  to  half  of  Asia  and  Africa,  and  a  great  part  of  Eu- 
 rope. The  Arabian  califs  in  Spain,  Africa,  and  Egypt,  as  well  as 
 at  Bagdad,  cultivated  the  arts  and  sciences  ;  and  shewed  a  great 
 superiority  to  the  barbarous  powers  of  Europe  at  that  period. 
 From  Samarcand  to  the  centre  of  Africa,  the  Arabian  language 
 and  manners  are  held  in  veneration. 
 
 Progressive  Geograjihi/.^  This  distinguished  country  is  known 
 in  the  earliest  records  of  history  and  geography;  and  being  cele- 
 brated for  products,  v/hich  could  only  be  procured  by  navigation, 
 must  have  been  no  stranger  to  mercantile  enterprize  on  its  fur- 
 thest shores  towards  the  Indian  ocean.  Strabo,  and  even  Eratost- 
 henes, appear  to  have  known  the  southern  coasts,  though  not  so 
 distinctly  as  those  on  the  east  of  the  Arabian  guif.  Ptolemy's  de- 
 scription of  Arabia  evinces  a  considerable   portion  of  accurate 
 
 *  Rees'  Cyclopedia,  article  Arabia. 
 VOL.   n,  81 
 
642  ARABIA. 
 
 knowledge  ;  and  of  the  interior  parts,  as  well  as  those  of  AfricSi 
 he  probably,  from  his  residence  and  opportunities  in  Es^ypt,  had 
 acquired  a  knowledge  far  superior  to  any  possessed  at  the  present 
 moment.  He  has  however  greatly  diminished  the  length  of  the 
 Arabian  gulf;  and  by  increasing  the  size  of  the  Persian  has  con- 
 siderably injured  the  just  form  of  the  country.  Some  of  these 
 errors  have  been  rectified  by  the  later  Arabian  geographers,  and 
 our  knowledge  of  the  interior  of  the  country  has  received  consid- 
 erable additions  from  the  same  authors.  Yet  even  the  just  geog- 
 raphy of  the  shores  is  recent,  and  has  been  improved  since  the 
 time  of  D'Anville.  Niebuhr,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  the 
 best  account  of  this  country,  penetrated  but  a  little  v/ay  into  the 
 interior  ;  and  many  discoveries  here  remain  for  the  enterprizing 
 traveller  :  but  the  passage  is  extremely  difficult,  the  country  be- 
 ing divided  among  a  surprising  number  of  Imams  and  Sheiks, 
 who  often  carry  on  petty  wars,  and  plunder  all  strangers  that  fall 
 into  their  hands. 
 
 Historical  E/iochs.^  The  present  Arabians,  according  to  their 
 own  historians,  are  sprung  from  two  stocks.  Kahtan  or  Joktan, 
 ihe  son  of  Eber  and  Adnan,  descended  in  a  direct  line  from  Ish- 
 mael,  t)ie  son  of  Abraham  and  Hagar,  of  whose  posterity  it  was 
 foretold,  that  they  shall  be  invincible,  "  have  their  hands  ag«.inst 
 every  man,  and  every  man's  hands  against  theirs."  They  are  at 
 present,  and  have  remained  from  the  remotest  ages,  during  the 
 various  conquests  of  the  Greeks,  Romans  and  Tartars,  a  con- 
 vincing proof  of  the  divinity  of  this  prediction.  According  to 
 prophecy  they  still  "  dwell  in  the  presence  of  their  brethren." 
 
 Sometime  after  the  confusion  of  tongvies  at  Babel,  or  above 
 3600  years  ago,  Yarab,  the  elder  of  Joktan's  sons,  succeeded  his 
 father  in  the  kingdom  of  Yemen  ;  and  Jorham,  the  younger, 
 founded  the  kingdom  of  Hejaz,  where  his  posterity  possessed  the 
 throne,  till  the  time  of  Ishmael.  The  former  kingdom  lasted,  ac- 
 cording to  Abulfeda,  2020  years  ;  or  as  other  Ai'abian  writers 
 say,  above  3000. 
 
 The  first  great  calamity  that  befel  the  tribes  settled  in  Yemen, 
 was  the  inundation  of  Aram,  Avhich  is  said  to  have  happened  soon 
 after  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great.  On  this  occasion,  eight 
 tribes  were  forced  to  abandon  their  dwellings  ;  and  some  of  them 
 in  their  migration  gave  rise  to  the  two  kingdoms  of  Ghassan  and 
 Hira  ;  both  of  them  out  of  the  proper  limits  of  Arabia.  The 
 founders  of  the  former  maintained  their  kingdom,  according  to 
 Abulfeda,  616  years  :  five  of  these  princes  were  named  Hareth, 
 written  by  the  Greeks  Aretas  ;  and  it  was  the  governor  of  one  of 
 these,  who  ordered  the  gates  of  Damascus  to  be  Avatched,  for  the 
 purpose  of  apprehending  the  apostle  Paul. 
 
 Jorham,  the  son  of  Kahtan,  who  founded  the  kingdom  of  Hejaz, 
 and  his  posterity,  remained  in  possession  of  it,  till  the  time  ot 
 Ishmael.  Arabia  never  appears  to  have  been  united,  cither  in  a 
 republic  or  under  one  monarch,  except  in  the  time  of  Mahomet 
 and  his  successors.     The  Romans  m'adc  several  incursions  into 
 
ARABIA.  643 
 
 Arabia,  but  neither  they  nor  any  other  foreign  power  were  ever 
 able  to  subdue  it. 
 
 We  think  it  proper  to  subjoin  to  this  article,  the  following 
 sketch  of  Mahomet,  as  casting  light  on  the  history  and  religion  of 
 this  country. 
 
 Mahomet  was  born  in  the  6th  century,  A.  D.  569,  in  the  reign 
 of  Justinian  II.  emperor  of  Constantinople.  Though  descended 
 of  a  mean  parentage,  illiterate  and  poor,  Mahomet  was  endowed 
 with  a  subtile  genius,  like  those  of  the  same  country,  and  pos- 
 sessed a  degree  of  enterprize  and  ambition  peculiar  to  himself, 
 and  much  beyond  his  condition.  He  had  been  employed,  in  the 
 early  part  of  his  life,  by  an  uncle,  Abuteleb,  as  a  factor,  and  had 
 occasion,  in  this  capacity,  to  travel  into  Syria,  Palestine  and  Egypt. 
 He  was  afterwards  taken  into  the  service  of  a  rich  merchant,  upon 
 whose  death  he  married  his  widow,  Cadiga,  and  by  her  means 
 came  to  be  possesed  of  great  wealth,  and  of  a  numerous  family. 
 During  his  peregrinations  into  Egypt  and  the  East,  he  had  ob- 
 served the  vast  variety  of  sects  in  religion,  whose  hatred  against 
 each  other  was  strong  and  inveterate,  while  at  the  same  time  there 
 were  many  particulars  in  which  the  greater  part  of  them  were 
 agreed.  He  carefully  laid  hold  of  these  particulars,  by  means  of 
 which,  and  by  addressing  himself  to  the  love  of  power,  riches  and 
 pleasure,  passions  universal  among  them,  he  expected  to  raise  a 
 new  system  of  religion,  more  general  than  any  which  hitherto  had 
 been  established.  In  this  design  he  was  assisted  by  a  Sergian 
 monk,  whose  libertine  disposition  had  made  him  forsake  his  clois- 
 ter and  profession,  and  engage  in  the  service  of  Cadiga,  with 
 whom  he  remained  as  a  domestic  when  Mahomet  was  taken  td 
 her  bed.  This  monk  was  perfectly  qualified  by  his  great  learn- 
 ing, for  supplying  the  defects  which  his  master,  for  want  of  a  lib- 
 eral education,  labored  under,  and  which,  in  all  probability,  must 
 have  obstructed  the  execution  of  his  design.  It  was  necessary, 
 however,  that  the  religion  they  proposed  to  establish  should  have 
 a  divine  sanction  ;  and  for  this  purpose  Maliomet  turned  a  calam- 
 ity, with  which  he  was  afflicted,  to  his  advantage.  He  was  often 
 subject  to  fits  of  the  epilepsy,  a  disease  which  those  whom  it  af- 
 flicts are  desirous  to  conceal  ;  Mahomet  gave  out  therefore  th?t 
 these  fits  were  trances,  into  which  he  was  miraculously  thrown  by 
 God  Almighty,  during  which  he  was  instructed  in  his  will,  which 
 he  was  commanded  to  publish  to  the  world.  By  this  strange  story, 
 and  by  leading  a  retired,  abstemious,  and  austere  life,  he  easily  ac- 
 quired a  character  for  superior  sanctity  among  his  acquaintance 
 and  neighbors.  When  he  thought  himself  sufficiently  fortified  by 
 the  numbers  and  the  enthusiasm  of  his  followers,  he  boldly  de- 
 clared himself  a  prophet,  sent  by  God  into  the  world,  not  only  to 
 teach  his  will,  but  to  compel  mankind  to  obey  it. 
 
 As  we  have  already  mentioned,  he  did  not  lay  the  foundation  of 
 his  system  so  narrow  as  only  to  comprehend  the  natives  of  his  own 
 country.  His  mind,  though  rude  and  enthusiastic,  was  enlarged 
 by  travelling  into  distant  nations,  whose  manners  and  religion  he 
 had  made  a  peculiar  study.     He  proposed  that  the  system  he  es- 
 
644  '  ARABIA. 
 
 tablished  should  extend  overall  the  neighboring;  nations,  to  whose 
 doctrines  and  pre judices  he  had  taken  care  to  adapt  it.  Many  of 
 the  inhabitants  of  the  eastern  countries  were  at  this  time  much  ad- 
 dicted to  the  opinions  of  Arius,  who  denied  that  Jesus  Christ  was 
 co-equal  with  God  the  Father,  as  is  declared  in  the  Athanasian 
 creed.  Egypt  and  Arabia  were  filled  with  Jews,  who  had  fled  into 
 those  corners  of  the  world  from  the  persecution  of  the  emperor 
 Adrian,  who  threatened  the  total  extinction  of  that  people.  The 
 other  inhabitants  of  these  countries  were  Pagans.  These,  how- 
 ever, had  Utile  attachment  to  their  decayed  and  derided  idolatry  ; 
 and,  like  men  whose  religious  principle  is  weak,  had  given  them- 
 selves over  to  pleasure  and  sensuality,  or  to  the  acquisition  of 
 riches,  to  be  better  able  to  indulge  in  the  gratifications  of  sense, 
 which,  together  with  the  doctrine  of  predestination,  composed  the 
 sole  principles  of  their  religion  and  philosophy.  Mahomet's  system 
 was  exactly  suited  to  these  three  kinds  of  men.  To  gratify  the  two 
 former,  he  declared  that  there  was  one  God,  who  created  the 
 ■world  and  governed  all  things  in  it  ;  that  he  had  sent  various 
 prophets  into  the  world  to  teach  his  will  to  mankind,  among  whom 
 Moses  and  Jesus  Christ  were  the  most  eminent ;  but  the  endeav- 
 ors of  these  had  proved  ineffectual,  and  God  had  therefore  now- 
 sent  his  last  and  greatest  prophet,  with  a  commission  more  am- 
 ple than  what  Moses  or  Christ  had  been  entrusted  with.  He  had 
 (Commanded  him  not  only  to  publish  his  laws,  but  to  subdue  those 
 ■who  were  unwilling  to  believe  or  obey  them  ;  and  for  this  end  to 
 establish  a  kingdom  upon  earth  which  should  propagate  the  di- 
 vine law  throughout  the  world  ;  that  God  had  designed  utter  ruin 
 and  destruction  to  those  who  should  refuse  to  submit  to  him  ;  but 
 to  his  faithful  followers,  he  had  given  the  spoils  and  possessions 
 of  all  the  earth,  as  a  reward  in  this  life,  and  had  provided  for  them 
 hereafter  a  paradise  of  all  sensual  enjoyments,  especially  those  of 
 love  ;  that  the  pleasures  of  such  as  died  in  propagating  the  faith, 
 would  be  peculiarly  intense,  and  vastly  transcend  those  of  the  rest. 
 These,  together  with  the  prohibition  of  drinking  strong  liquors,  (a 
 restraint  not  very  severe  in  warm  climates)  and  the  doctrine  of 
 predestination,  Avere  the  capital  articles  of  Mahomet's  creed. 
 They  were  no  sooner  published  than  a  vast  number  of  his  coun- 
 trymen embraced  them  with  implicit  faith.  They  were  written 
 by  the  priest  we  formerly  mentioned,  and  compose  a  book  called 
 the  Koran^  or  Alkoran,  by  way  of  eminence,  as  we  say  the  Bible, 
 which  means  the  Book.  The  person  of  Mahomet,  however,  was 
 familiar  to  the  inhabitants  of  Mecca  ;  so  that  the  greater  part  of 
 them  were  sufficiently  convinced  of  the  deceit.  The  more  en- 
 lightened and  leading  men  entered  into  a  design  to  cut  him  off' ; 
 but  Mahomet,  getting  notice  of  their  intention,  fled  from  his  na- 
 tive city  to  Medina  Tahmachi,  or  the  city  of  the  Prophet.  1'hc 
 fame  of  his  miracles  and  doctrine  was,  according  to  custom,  great- 
 est at  a  distance,  and  the  inhabitants  of  Medina  received  him  with 
 open  arms.  From  his  flight  which  happened  in  the  622d  year  of 
 Christ,  the  54th  year  of  Mahomet's  age,  and  the  lOth  of  his  niin- 
 
ARABIA.  645 
 
 Istiy,  his  followers,  the  Mahometans,  compute  their  time,  and  the 
 era  is  called  in  Arabic,  Hegira,  "  the  Flight." 
 
 Mahomet,  by  the  assistance  of  the  inhabitants  of  Medina,  and  of 
 others  whom  his  insinuation  and  address  daily  attached  to  him, 
 brought  over  all  his  countrymen  to  a  belief,  or  at  least  to  an  ac- 
 quiescence in  his  doctrines.  The  speedy  propagation  of  his  sys- 
 tem among  the  Arabians,  was  a  new  argument  in  its  behalf  among 
 the  inhabitants  of  Egypt  and  the  East,  who  were  previously  dis- 
 posed to  it.  Arians,  Jews,  and  Gentiles,  all  forsook  their  ancient 
 faith,  and  became  Mahometans.  In  a  word,  the  contagion  spread 
 over  Arabia,  Syria,  Egypt,  and  Persia  ;  and  Mahomet,  from  a  de- 
 ceitful hypocrite,  became  the  most  powerful  monarch  in  his  time. 
 He  was  proclaimed  king  at  Medina,  in  the  year  627  ;  and  after 
 subduing  part  of  Arabia  and  Syria,  he  died  in  632,  leaving  two 
 branches  of  his  race,  both  esteemed  divine  among  their  subjects. 
 These  were  the  caliphs  of  Persia  and  of  Egypt,  under  the  last  of 
 which  Arabia  was  included.  The  former  of  these  tui'ned  their 
 arms  to  the  East,  and  made  conquests  of  many  countries. 
 
 The  caliphs  of  Egypt  and  Arabia  directed  their  ravages  to- 
 wards Europe,  and  vmder  the  name  of  Saracens,  or  Moors  (which 
 they  obtained,  because  they  entered  Europe  from  Mauritania,  in 
 Africa,  the  country  of  the  Moors)  reduced  most  of  Spain,  France, 
 Italy,  and  the  islands  in  the  Mediterranean. 
 
 In  this  manner  did  the  successors  of  that  impostor  spread  their 
 religion  and  conquests  over  the  greatest  part  of  Asia,  Africa,  and 
 Europe  ;  and  they  still  give  law  to  a  very  considerable  part  of 
 mankind. 
 
 Religion.']  The  Arabian  religion  was,  in  the  state  of  ignorance, 
 as  they  called  the  period  before  Mahomet,  Sabian  ;  but  the  Sa- 
 bian  faith  is  not  clearly  and  satisfactorily  ascertained.  It  is  gen- 
 erally allowed  that  they  admitted  the  existence  of  one  supreme 
 God,  the  Creator  and  Lord  of  the  universe,  whom  they  denominat- 
 ed "  Allah  Taala,"  the  most  high  God  :  and  the  religion  of  the 
 noble  and  learned  Arabs,  as  well  as  of  the  poets,  was  pure  theism. 
 We  have  Arabian  verses  of  unsuspected  antiquity,  which  contain 
 pious  and  elevated  sentiments  with  respect  to  the  goodness,  jus- 
 tice, and  omnipotence  of  God-  It  is  certain,  however,  that  they 
 very  soon  degenerated,  and  fell  into  idolatry.  This  consisted 
 chiefly  in  the  worship  of  the  fixed  stars  and  planets.  To  the 
 worship  of  these  they  were  easily  led  by  observing  the  regularity 
 of  their  motions,  and  also,  that  the  changes  of  the  weather  hap- 
 pened at  the  rising  or  setting  of  some  of  them  for  a  considerable 
 period  ;  and  hence  they  ascribed  to  them  a  divine  power,  and 
 conceived  themselves  indebted  to  them  for  their  rruns,  which 
 were  highly  beneficial  to  their  parched  country.  These  they 
 honored  as  inferior  deities*  and  as  m.ediators  with  God,  implored 
 their  intercession.  This  kind  of  worship  was  proscribed  by  Mo- 
 ses, and  is  frequently  alluded  to  in  the  book  of  Job,  particularly 
 ch.  xxxi.  26-28.  Accordingly  they  had  seven  celebrated  temples, 
 dedicated  to  the  seven  planets  ^  and  this  planetary  worship  ha'? 
 been  supposed  by  some  to  Jiave  been  the  first  species  of  idolatry. 
 
Ud  ARABIA. 
 
 The  Magian  religion  was  introduced  among  some  tribes  of 
 Arabia,  a  long  time  before  Mahomet,  in  consequence  of  the  vi- 
 cinity of  the  Persians,  and  their  intercourse  with  the  Arabians  • 
 and  hence  this  impostor  borrowed  many  of  his  institutions  from 
 it.  Judaism  also  is  said  to  have  been  introduced  among  the  idol- 
 atrous Hamyarites,  by  Abu  Carb  Asad,  about  700  years  before 
 Mahomet,  and  the  Jews,  who  fled  into  Arabia,  in  great  numbers, 
 after  the  destruction  of  their  country  by  the  Romans,  made  pros- 
 elytes of  several  tribes,  and  in  time  became  very  powerful,  and 
 obtained  possession  of  several  towns  and  fortresses.  At  length, 
 Yusef,  king  of  Yemen,  raised  a  dreadful  persecution  against 
 them,  and  put  them  to  death  by  various  tortures,  one  of  which 
 was  throwing  them  into  a  glowing  pit  of  fire. 
 
 Christianity  had  likewise  made  great  progress  in  Arabia,  be- 
 fore the  time  of  Mahomet.  Whether  St.  Paul  preached  in  any 
 part  of  Arabia,  properly  so  called,  it  is  not  easy  to  determine  ; 
 but  that  the  Christian  religion  was  planted,  at  a  very  early  period, 
 in  this  country,  is  an  unquestionable  fact.  When  the  eastern 
 church,  soon  after  the  beginning  of  the  third  century,  was  much 
 harassed  by  disorders  and  persecutions,  great  numbers  of  them 
 sought  shelter  in  Arabia  The  principal  tribes  that  embraced 
 Christianity  were  Hamyar,  Ghassan,  Rabia,  Taghlah,  Bahra, 
 Tomuh,  part  of  those  of  Tay,  and  Kodaa,  the  inhabitants  of  Najran, 
 and  the  Arabs  of  Hira.  Such  were  the  principal  religions  which 
 obtained  among  the  ancient  Arabs.  For  an  account  of  the  mod- 
 em religion  of  these  people,  see  the  preceding  article. 
 
 Governj7ient.~\  The  primitive  form  of  government,  among  the 
 Arabs,  was  of  the  patriarchal  kind  ;  and  the  same  form,  according 
 to  Niebuhr-,  has  ever  subsisted  without  alteration  ;  a  circumstance 
 which  pro  v-es  the  antiquity  of  this  people.  Among  the  Beduins, 
 Or  pastoral  Arabs,  the  descentlants  of  the  ancient  Scenites,  or 
 Sunnites,  it  is  preserved  in  all  its  purity.  Of  these,  such  as  live 
 in  tents,  h^ve  many  sheiks,  each  of  whom  governs  his  own  family 
 with  a  power  almost  absolute.  All  the  sheiks,  however,  who  be- 
 long to  the  same  tribe,  acknowledge  a  common  sheik,  whose  au- 
 thority is  limited  by  custom.  The  dignity  of  grand  sheik  is  he- 
 reditary in  a  certain  family  ;  but  the  inferior  sheiks,  upon  the 
 death  of  a  grand  sheik,  choose  a  successor  out  of  his  family, 
 withovi  t  regard  to  age,  or  lineal  succession,  or  any  other  consid- 
 eration, except  superiority  of  abilities.  This  right  of  election 
 obligCiS  the  grand  sheik  to  treat  those  of  the  inferior  order  rather 
 as  associates,  than  subjects,  sharing  with  them  his  sovereign  au- 
 thori  ty. 
 
 M^anners  and  Customs.']  The  manners  and  customs  of  the  in- 
 habitants are  for  the  most  part  similar  to  those  of  the  other  Be- 
 duius,  so  frequently  described  by  numerous  travellers.  Those  of 
 the  country  of  Yemen  have  been  accurately  delineated  by  Niebuhr  ; 
 an<i  this  province  will  probably,  after  the  utmost  discovery,  con- 
 tinue to  be  regarded  as  the  most  interesting  portion  ;  represent- 
 in  g,  as  Gibbon  has  observed,  the  Arabia  Felix  of  antiquity.  In 
 Y^emen  murder  is  punislied  with  death,  but  oftener  left  to  private 
 
ARABIA.  647 
 
 I'evenge,  which  octiasions  family  feuds,  that  pestilence  of  society. 
 In  politeness  the  Arabs  vie  with  the  Persians,  and  there  are  still 
 remains  of  their  ancient  hospitality.  The  common  salutation  is 
 the  Salam  Alekum^  or  Peace  be  with  you  ;  in  pronouncing  which 
 words  they  raise  the  right  hand  to  the  heart,  but  this  form  is  sel- 
 dom addressed  to  Christians.  On  meeting  in  their  wide  deserts, 
 the  salutations  are  multiplied  ;  and  the  hand  of  a  superior  is  kiss- 
 ed in  token  of  respect.  The  houses,  though  of  stone,  are  meanly 
 constructed  ;  the  apartments  of  the  men  being  in  front,  those  of 
 the  women  behind.  Of  a  middle  stature,  thin,  and  dried  as  it 
 were  by  the  sun,  the  Arab  is  moderate  in  his  food,  the  common 
 people  seldom  exceeding  a  i-epast  of  bad  bread  made  from  durra, 
 a  kind  of  millet,  mixed  with  camel's  milk,  oil,  butter  or  grease  ; 
 the  only  drink  being  water.  This  bread  of  durra,  custom  has 
 taught  them  to  prefer  to  that  of  barley,  Avhich,  though  pleasant, 
 they  think  unsubstantial.  Meat  is  little  used,  even  by  the  rich, 
 who  deem  it  unhealthy  in  a  hot  climate.  The  orientals  in  gener- 
 al being  water-drinkers,  they  are  very  fond  of  pastry.  The  most 
 noted  drink  is  coffee,  which  they  prepare  like  the  Turks,  by  burn- 
 ing it  in  an  open  pan,  and  then  bruising  in  a  stone  or  wooden  mortar. 
 In  Yemen  it  is  rarely  used,  as  in  their  opinion  it  heats  the  blood  ; 
 but  of  the  shells,  or  husks  of  the  coffee,  they  prepare  a  liquor  in 
 the  manner  of  tea.  The  most  distinguished  Arabs  u&e  porcelain 
 from  China,  while  the  common  people  have  recourse  to  earthen 
 ware.  Spirituous  liquors,  though  forbidden,  are  not  absolutely 
 unknown  ;  and  they  sometimes  smoke  a  plant  resembling  hemp, 
 which  produces  intoxication  ;  nor  is  tobacco  neglected,  which  is 
 smoked  either  in  the  Turkish  or  Persian  naanner. 
 
 DressT^  There  is  a  great  vai'iety  in  the  national  dress  of  the 
 Arabians.  Their  head-dress  consists  of  fifteen  caps  laid  over  one 
 another  ;  some  of  which  are  of  linen,  and  the  rest  of  thick  cloth, 
 cotton.  The  uppermost  one  is  richly  embroidered  with  gold,  and 
 some  sentence  of  the  Koran  ;  and  over  all  they  wrap  a  large  piece 
 of  muslin,  ornamented  at  the  ends,  and  flowing  loose  upon  the 
 shoulders,  with  silk  or  golden  fringes.  The  Arabs  of  the  com- 
 mon classes  wear  only  two  caps,  with  the  sash  carelessly  bound 
 on  the  head.  Some  have  drawers  and  a  shirt ;  but  the  greater 
 number  have  only  a  piece  of  linen  about  their  loins,  a  large  girdle 
 and  a  piece  of  cloth  upon  their  shoulders  ;  in  other  respects  they 
 are  naked,  having  neither  shoes  nor  stockings.  In  the  highlands, 
 where  the  weather  is  colder,  the  people  wear  sheep-skins  ;  and 
 in  the  night,  as  a  security  against  insects,  they  sleep  in  sacks. 
 Persons  of  middle  rank  wear  sandals,  instead  of  shoes.  The  or- 
 dinary dress  of  the  Arabs  is  very  simple  ;  but  they  have  also  2^ 
 sort  of  great  coat  without  sleeves,  called  "  abba,"  which  is  still 
 more  simple.  In  several  parts  of  Arabia  the  men  wear  no  draw- 
 ers ;  but  these,  with  a  large  shirt,  are  the  whole  dress  used  by  the 
 women.  In  several  provinces,  they  wear  different  sorts  of  veils. 
 All  wear  rings  on  their  fingers,  ai'ms,  nose,  and  ears.  They  stain 
 their  nails  red,  and  their  hands  and  feet  of  a  brownish  yellow, 
 with  juice  of  the  alhenna  j  and  they  paint  the  circle  of  the  eyes, 
 
^48  ARABIA. 
 
 and  even  the  eyc-iashes  black,  with  a  preparation  of  lead  ove. 
 The  women  of  Yemen  also  make  punctures  in  the  face,  to  im- 
 prove their  beauty.  All  wear  the  beard  of  its  natural  length  ;  but 
 the  Arabs  keep  the  mustaches  very  short.  The  Jews  are  forbid- 
 den the  vise  of  the  turban,  wearing  instead  of  it,  a  small  bonnet  ; 
 nor  are  they  permitted  to  dress  in  any  color  but  blue.  The  dress 
 of  the  Banians,  settled  in  Arabia,  consists  of  a  red  turban  of  a  par- 
 ticular form,  a  piece  of  white  linen  upon  their  shoulders,  another 
 about  their  loins,  and  slippers. 
 
 Language.']  The  language  of  the  Arabs  was,  even  in  ancient 
 times  divided  into  several  dialects,  as  may  be  suspected  from  its 
 wide  diffusion.*  Even  in  Yemen  there  are  subdivisions  ;  and  po- 
 lite people  use  a  different  enunciation  from  the  vulgar.  The  lan- 
 guage of  the  Koran  is  so  different  from  the  modern  speech  of 
 Mecca,  that  it  is  taught  in  the  colleges  there,  as  the  Latin  is  at 
 Rome.  The  chief  poets  are  now  found  among  the  wandering- 
 Arabs  in  the  country  of  Jof,  or  Mareb,  adjoining  to  Yemen  on  the 
 E.t  Some  also  appear  in  the  towns,  where  they  amuse  the  com- 
 pany in  coffee-houses  ;  in  this,  as  in  other  respects,  resembling 
 the  Turkish.  -The  ancient  treasures  of  Arabian  literature  are 
 well  known  to  the  learned  world  ;  but  few  of  these  noble  monu- 
 ments were  composed  in  Arabia,  being  mostly  produced  in  the 
 conquered  countries  from  Samarcand  to  Cordova. 
 
 Literature.]  The  mode  of  education  among  the  Arabs  is  very 
 different  frora  that  of  the  Europeans.  The  former  strive  to  hasten 
 the  age  of  maturity,  as  much  as  the  latter  endeavor  to  retard  it. 
 The  Arabs,  says  Niebuhr,  are  never  children  ;  but  many  Euro- 
 peans continue  children  all  their  Jife.  As  soon  as  boys  leave  the 
 haram,  about  the  age  of  five  or  six  years,  they  are  accustomed  to 
 think  and  speak  with  gravity,  and  to  pass  whole  days  in  the  com- 
 pany of  their  fathers  or  preceptors.  In  the  cities  many  of  the 
 lowest  rank  are  taught  both  to  read  and  write.  Persons  of  dis- 
 tinction retain  preceptors  in  their  families  to  instruct  their  chil- 
 dren and  young  slaves.  In  almost  every  mosque  is  a  school,  hav- 
 ing a  foundation  for  the  support  of  teachers,  and  the  maintenance 
 and  instruction  of  poor  scholars.  In  great  towns,  there  are  like- 
 wise other  schools,  to  which  people  of  middle  rank  send  their 
 children  to  receive  religious  instruction,  and  to  learn  reading, 
 writing,  and  arithmetic.  There  are  no  girls  taught  in  these  schools, 
 but  they  are  privately  taught  by  women.  Besides  these  small 
 schools,  there  are  more  considerable  seminaries  of  education  in 
 some  of  the  great  towns  of  Arabia. 
 
 There  are  colleges,  in  which  the  sciences  of  astronomy,  astrolo- 
 gy, philosophy,  and  medicine  are  taught  :  but  the  Arabians,  for 
 the  want  of  books  and  good  masters,  make  little  progress  ;  and 
 
 *  In  regard  to  the  extent  of  country  tlirough  wliicli  the  Arabic  is  spoken.  Air. 'Alar- 
 tyn  observes,  that  the  Arabic  ti'anslation  is  of  more  importance  than  one  fomlii  otall 
 the  translations  now  in  liand.  "  We  will  begin," sa\  s  he,  "  to  preaeli  to  Arabia,  h)  iia, 
 Persia,  Tartary,  part  of  India  and  of  China,  half  of  Africa,  all  the  sea-i.  ast  of  the 
 Medileri-anean,  andTuikev  j  aiul  one  tongue  shall  suffice  for  ihein  all." 
 
 Jiuchannan^s  Researches. 
 
 t  Niebuhr,  93. 
 
ARABIA.  649 
 
 their  attainments  are  very  partial  and  imperfect.  In  the  domin- 
 ions of  Imam,  there  have  been  for  a  long  time  two  famous  acade- 
 mies ;  one  at  Zebid,  the  other  at  Damar.  The  chief  employment 
 of  men  of  letters  among  the  Arabians,  are  the  interpretation  of 
 the  Koran,  and  the  study  of  the  ancient  history  of  the  Mahometans. 
 
 Some  seeds  of  the  sciences  seem  to  have  sprung  up  in  Arabia 
 before  they  were  known  to  other  nations.  They  were  the  first 
 who  studied  the  laws  of  the  heavenly  bodies.  Their  knowledge 
 of  astronomy,  however,  was  neither  very  accurate  nor  very  exten- 
 sive. In  Arabia  we  find  the  cradle  of  poetry  and  eloquence, 
 which  had  scarcely  appeared  before  ihey  arrived  at  sudden  matu- 
 rity. Among  the  ancient  Arabs,  eloquence  was  in  high  repute. 
 Their  orations  were  of  two  sorts,  metrical  and  prosaic  :  the  one 
 being  compared  to  pearls  strung,  the  other  to  loose  ones.  They 
 attempted  to  excel  in  both  ;  and  whoever  was  able  in  an  assembly 
 to  persuade  the  people  to  a  great  enterprise,  or  to  dissuade  them 
 from  a  dangerous  one,  or  gave  them  any  other  salutary  advice, 
 was  honored  with  the  title  of  "  Khatab,"  or  orator,  which  is  now 
 given  to  the  Mahometan  preachers. 
 
 The  Arab  learning  in  the  first  period,  called  the  time  of  igno- 
 rance, consisted,  according  to  Abulpharagius,  in  the  knowledge 
 of  their  language,  the  propriety  of  discourse,  the  composition  of 
 verse,  and  the  science  of  the  stars  ;  but  their  chief  attention  seems 
 to  have  been  directed  to  oratory  and  poetry.  The  second  period 
 is  more  distinguished,  at  least  from  the  time  of  Al  Mamon,  who 
 flourished  about  the  year  820,  and  has  the  honor  of  being  the 
 founder  of  the  modern  Arabian  learning.  Almanzor,  about  fifty 
 years  before  AI  Mamon,  commenced  the  literary  reform,  when  he 
 moved  the  imperial  seat  from  Damascus  to  Bagdad  ;  and  when 
 he  extended  the  Arabian  literature,  which  had  been  confined  to 
 medicine  and  a  few  other  branches,  to  sciences  of  every  denomi- 
 nation. His  grandson,  Al  Mamon,  completed  the  work  which 
 was  only  begun,  and  sent  for  all  the  best  books  out  of  Chaldea, 
 Greece,  Egypt,  and  Persia,  relating  to  physic,  astronomy,  cosmog- 
 raphy, music,  chronology.  See.  and  pensioned  a  number  of  learned 
 men,  skilled  in  the  several  languages  and  sciences,  to  translate 
 them  into  Arabic.  By  this  means,  divers  of  the  Greek  authors, 
 lost  in  their  own  country  and  language,  have  been  preserved  in 
 Arabic.  The  eastern  conquerors  carried  their  empire  from  Asia, 
 even  into  the  remote  regions  of  Spain  ;  and  letters  followed  them 
 wherever  they  went. 
 
 From  that  time  Arabia  became  the  chief  seat  of  learning  ;  and 
 we  find  mention  made  of  learned  men  and  books,  without  number. 
 The  revival  of  learning  in  the  tenth  century,  by  Gorbert,  known 
 after  his  elevation  to  the  "pontificate,  by  the  title  of  Silvester  II. 
 and  afterwards  among  the  Europeans  in  general,  may  be  ascribed 
 to  the  instructions'  and  writings  of  the  Arabian  doctors  and  phi- 
 losophers, and  to  the  schools  which  they  founded  in  several  p;irts 
 of  Spain  and  Italy.  And  in  the  twelfth  century,  the  inquisitive  of 
 different  countries  frequented  the  schools  of  the  Saracens  in  Spain, 
 and  disseminated  the  knowledge  which  they  obtained  there,  after 
 
 VOL.  II.  82 
 
650  ARABIA. 
 
 their  leturn.  At  this  time,  many  of  the  learned  productions  of 
 the  Arabians  were  translated  into  Latin,  which  facilitated  the  gen- 
 eral progress  of  science. 
 
 Cities  and  Tonvns.^  Arabia  has  been  compared  to  a  cloke  of 
 frize,  laced  with  gold,  the  skirts  alone  presenting  cities  and  other 
 marks  of  civilization,  while  the  great  mass  of  the  country  is  pos- 
 sessed by  wandering  tribes.  The  most  celebrated  cities  arc 
 Mecca  and  Medina  ;  but  being  sacred  ground,  the  infidels  are 
 not  permitted  to  approach  ;  and  v/e  are  obliged  to  trust  to  the  in- 
 accuracy and  exaggeration  of  oriental  writers.  Mecca  "  was 
 known  to  the  Greeks  under  the  name  of  Macoraba,  and  has  not,  in 
 thd'most  flourishing  period,  exceeded  the  size  and  populousness 
 of  Marseilles.  Some  latent  motive,  perhaps  of  supei-stition,  must 
 have  impelled  the  founders  in  the  choice  of  a  most  unpromising 
 situation.  They  erected  their  habitations  of  mud  or  stone,  in  a 
 plain  about  2  miles  long  and  1  mile  broad,  at  the  foot  of  three  bar- 
 ren mountains  :  the  soil  is  a  rock  ;  the  water  even  of  the  holy 
 well  of  Zemzem  is  bitter  or  brackish  ;  the  pastures  are  remote 
 from  the  city  ;  and  grapes  are  transported  above  seventy  miles, 
 from  the  gardens  of  Tayef.  The  fame  and  spirit  of  the  Kore- 
 ishites,  who  reigned  in  Mecca,  were  conspicuous  among  the  Ara- 
 bian tribes  ;  but  their  ungi'ateful  soil  refused  the  labors  of  agri- 
 culture, and  their  position  was  favorable  to  the  enterprises  of 
 trade.  By  the  sea-port  of  Jedda,  at  the  distance  only  of  forty 
 miles,  they  maintained  an  easy  correspondence  with  Abyssinia. 
 The  treasures  of  Africa  were  conveyed  over  the  peninsula  to 
 Gerrha  or  Katif  in  the  province  of  Bahrein,  a  city  built,  as  it  is 
 said,  of  rock  salt,  by  the  Chaldean  exiles  :  and  from  thence,  with 
 the  native  pearls  of  the  Persian  gulf,  they  were  floated  on  rafts 
 to  the  mouth  of  the  Euphrates.  Mecca  is  placed  almost  at  an 
 equal  distance,  a  month's  journey,  between  Yemen  on  the  right 
 and  Syria  on  the  Icfc  hand.  The  former  was  the  winter,  the  latter 
 the  summer  station  of  her  caravans.  In  the  markets  of  Saana 
 and  Merab,  in  the  harbors  of  Oman  and  Aden,  the  camels  of 
 the  Koreishites  were  laden  with  a  precious  cargo  of  aromatics  : 
 a  supply  of  corn  and  manufactures  was  purchased  in  the  fairs  of 
 Bostra  and  Damascus  ;  the  lucrative  exchange  diffused  plenty 
 and  riches  in  the  streets  of  Mecca  ;  and  the  noblest  of  her  sons 
 united  the  love  of  arms  with  the  profession  of  merchandize.*'* 
 
 The  government  of  this  holy  city  is  vested  in  a  sheref,  who  is  a 
 temporal  prince  ;  and  his  revenue  is  increased  by  the  donations 
 of  Mahometan  sovereigns. 
 
 Medina  stands  about  300  miles  N.  of  Mecca,  being,  as  well  as 
 the  latter,  about  a  day's  journey  from  the  shores  of  the  Red  Sea. 
 It  is,  according  to  Nicbuhr,  a  small  town,  surrounded  with  a 
 paltry   wall,  little  remarkable  except  for  the  tomb   of  Mahomet* 
 
 Sana,  or  Saana,  in  Yemen,  is  reputed  at  present  the  chief  city 
 of  Arabia.  It  is  situated  at  the  bottom  of  a  mountain  called  Nik- 
 kum,  near  which  is  a  spacious  garden.     The  city  is  not  very  ex- 
 
 *  Gibbon,  ix.  '22.7 ■ 
 
ARABIA.  ^3% 
 
 tensive,  as  one  may  walk  round  it  in  the  space  of  an  hour,  so  that 
 the  circuit  cannot  exceed  four  miles  ;  and  even  of  this  small  space 
 a  part  is  occupied  by  gardens.*  The  walls  are  of  brick,  with 
 seven  gates  ;  and  there  are  several  palaces  of  burnt  brick,  or  of 
 stone ;  but  the  common  houses  are  of  bi'icks  dried  in  the  sun. 
 There  are  several  caravanseras  for  merchants  and  travellers. 
 Fuel  is  extremely  rare  though  there  be  some  pit-coal  and  peat ; 
 but  wood  is  scarce,  even  in  the  Happy  Ai'abia.  There  are  excel- 
 lent fruits,  particularly  grapes  of  many  varieties.  About  6  miles 
 to  the  north  there  is  a  pleasant  dale,  enlivened  with  several  rivu- 
 lets ;  and  to  the  .west  is  a  considerable  stream. 
 
 When  such  is  the  chief  city  of  Arabia,  the  description  of  the 
 others  cannot  be  very  interesting.  Mocha  is  well  built,  the  houses 
 very  lofty,  and  are  Avith  the  walls  and  forts  covered  with  a  chi- 
 nam  or  stucco,  that  gives  a  dazzling  whiteness  to  them.  The  har- 
 bor is  semicircular,  the  circuit  of  the  wall  is  two  miles,  and  there 
 are  several  handsome  mosques  in  the  city. 
 
 Suez,  the  Arsinoe  of  the  ancients,  is  surrounded  by  the  desert^ 
 and  but  a  desolate  place.  The  ships  are  forced  to  anchor  a  league 
 from  the  town,  to  which  the  leading  channel  has  only  about  nine 
 feet  water.  It  stands  at  the  extremity  of  the  Red  Sea,  having  the 
 sea  to  the  E.  the  harbor  to  the  S.  which  is  formed  by  an  island  E. 
 No  water  can  be  procured  within  six  cr  seven  hours  journey  to  the 
 N.  E.     It  lies  in  lat.  29  50  N.  Ion.  30  28  E.f 
 
 Jedda  is  the  place  of  the  greatest  trade  in  the  Red  Sea,  and  is 
 the  sea  port  of  Arabia,  for  there  the  comm.erce  between  Arabia, 
 and  Europe  meets  and  is  interchanged,  the  former  sending  her 
 gums,  drugs,  coffee,  &c.  and  from  Europe  comes  cloths,  iron,  furs 
 and  other  articles  by  the  way  of  Cairo.  The  port  of  Jedda,  ac- 
 cording to  Mr.  Bruce,  is  very  extensive,  consisting  of  numberless 
 shoals,  small  islands,  and  sunken  rocks,  with  deep  channels  be- 
 tween them.  The  harbor  is  very  secure,  but  difficult  of  entrance  ; 
 the  pilots,  however,  are  very  skilful  and  accidents  seldom  happen. 
 
 Kesem  or  Keschin  belongs  to  the  country  called  Mahrah  :  to 
 the  sheik  of  this  town  the  noted  isle  of  Socotra  belongs,  which  is 
 celebrated  for  aloes.|  The  province  of  Omon  is  divided  among 
 many  sheiks,  but  Rostak  is  esteemed  the  capital.  Maskat  is 
 however  the  most  considerable  town,  and  the  best  known  to  Eu- 
 ropeans, having  an  excellent  harbor,  and  being  from  early  times  a 
 staple  of  trade  between  Arabia,  Persia,  and  the  Indies.  It  was 
 taken  by  the  Portuguese  in  1508,  and  they  retained  it  for  a  century 
 and  a  half.  It  is  visited  by  English  ships  from  Hindostan  ;  and 
 such  is  its  consequence,  that  the  Imam  or  prince  of  Oman  is  often 
 styled  Imam  of  Maskat. 
 
 Lahsa,  the  capital  of  the  province  so  called,  is  a  large  and  well 
 built  town,  standing  on  a  torient  which  falls  into  a  considerable 
 bay  opposite  to  the  isle  of  Bahrin,  celebrated  for  the  pearl 
 fishery.^ 
 
 •  Nifb.  Deac.  201.  f  Journ!,!  to  Sinai. 
 
 ±  Niebuhr,  248.  §  lb.  'i'Jt. 
 
652  ARABIA. 
 
 £dijice's.']  Among  the  chief  edifices  of  Arabia  must  be  named 
 the  Kaba,  or  temple  of  Mecca,  which,  according  to  the  represen- 
 tation of  Niebuhr,  rather  resembles  the  old  Asiatic  temples  of 
 Hindostan  and  Siam  than  a  mosque,  being  an  open  square,  encom- 
 passed with  a  colonade,  and  ornamented  with  minarets,  as  the  oth- 
 ers are  with  pyramids  or  obelisks.  In  this  open  space,  which,  as 
 well  as  that  of  Medina,  it  seems  improper  to  call  a  mosque,  there 
 are  five  or  six  houses  of  prayer,  or  chapels  ;  while  in  the  cen- 
 tre is  a  small  square  edifice,  peculiarly  styled  the  Kaba,  in  which 
 is  fixed  a  black  stone,  the  early  object  of  Arabian  adoration. 
 
 Manufactures .~\  Although  the  Arabians  are  ingenious  and  dil- 
 igent, their  manufactures  are  of  little  consequence.  The  me- 
 chanical arts  could  not  well  be  brought  to  any  considerable  degree 
 of  perfection  among  a  people,  who  knew  but  few  wants.  As  their 
 productions  are  less  splendid  than  useful,  it  is  rather  in  towns,  than 
 in  the  bosom  of  deserts  that  they  grow  up  ;  because  necessity  is 
 the  parent  of  industry.  The  Arabs,  entirely  occupied  in  warring 
 against  man  and  beast,  excelled  only  in  the  manufacture  of  scym- 
 etars,  bows  and  arrows,  and  darts  ;  their  musquets  being  mere 
 matchlocks  of  mean  execution  :  nor  have  they  made  any  great 
 progress  in  modern  times. 
 
 Even  in  Yemen,  the  works  in  gold  and  silver,  and  the  coin  itself, 
 are  produced  by  Jewish  manufacturers.  In  the  whole  country  of 
 Ai'abia  there  are  neither  wind-mills  nor  water-mills.  At  Mocha 
 there  is  one  glass-house  ;  and  in  Yemen  there  are  some  coarse 
 linen  manufactures.  Their  cotton  stuff's  were  never  greatly  es- 
 teemed ;  and  few  of  their  other  manufactures  are  the  produce  of 
 the  skill  and  labor  of  native  Arabians. 
 
 Co7nmerce^  The  commerce  of  Arabia  was  formerly  very  con- 
 siderable, as  its  ports  facilitated  a  communication  between  the 
 eastern  and  western  world.  But  since  the  Portuguese  opened  a 
 passage  to  India  by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  its  intercourse  with 
 Hindostan  has  very  much  declined.  From  Yemen  are  exported 
 coff"ee,  aloes,  myrrh  (the  best  of  which  is  from  Abyssinia,)  oliba- 
 num,  or  an  inferior  kind  of  frankincense,  senna,  ivory,  and  gold 
 from  Abyssinia.  The  European  imports  were  iron,  steel,  cannon, 
 lead,  tin,  cochineal,  mirrors,  knives,  sabres,  cut  glass,  and  false 
 pearls.  Niebuhr  regards  aloes  and  frankincense,  (the  latter 
 chiefly  from  Hadramaut,)  as  the  only  native  articles  of  com- 
 Tiierce,  before  coff'ee  came  into  use.*  The  principal  trading 
 ports  are  Jedda  or  Gedda,  the  harbor  of  Mecca,  Loheia,  and  Beit 
 cl  Fakih,  carrying  on  a  considerable  trade  in  coff'ee  ;  Hodeida, 
 Mocha,  Aden,  Mascat,  Sur  or  Seger,  Faitach  and  Dafar,  on  the 
 Arabian  ocean  ;  Bahrin  and  El  Katif  in  the  gulf  of  Bassora. 
 
 Besides  the  maritime  commerce,  a  considerable  traffic  is  car- 
 ried on  by  land  by  means  of  the  caravans  of  Aleppo  and  Suez, 
 ■yyhich  bring  hither  velvets,  sattins,  armoisins,  and  all  sorts  of  rich 
 stuiFs  ;  saff'ron,  mercury,  vermilion,  ^c.  and  take  in  return  partly 
 
 *  p.  245. 
 
ARABIA.  653 
 
 the  natural  products  of  the  country,  partly  manufactures,  and 
 partly  foreign  merchandize  brought  from  the  Indies,  from  Aleppo, 
 and  from  Europe. 
 
 CHAPTER  II. 
 NATURAL  GEOGRAPHY, 
 
 CLIMATE  AND  SEASONS,  FACE  OF  THE  COUNTRY,  SOIL  AND  AG- 
 RICULTURE, RIVERS,  MOUNTAINS,  DESERTS,  BOTANY,  ZOOLOGY, 
 MINERALOGY,  NATURAJ.  CURIOSITIES,  ISLES. 
 
 Climate  and  Seasons.']  IN  the  mountains  of  Yemen 
 there  is  a  regular  rainy  season,  from  the  middle  of  June  to  the  end 
 of  September;  but  even  then  the  sky  is  rarely  covered  with 
 clouds  for  twenty-four  hours  at  a  time  ;  and  during  the  remainder 
 of  the  year  a  cloud  is  scai-cely  to  be  seen.  At  Maskat,  and  in  the 
 easiern  mountains,  the  rainy  season  extends  from  the  middle  of 
 November  to  the  middle  of  February  ;  and  in  Omon  there  is  rain 
 from  the  middle  of  February  to  the  middle  of  April.  In  the  plains 
 of  Yemen  rain  is  sometimes  unknown  for  a  Avhole  year  :  and  in 
 July  and  August  the  thermometer  will  be  98°,  while  at  Sana  in  the 
 mountains  it  is  85°.  In  general  the  wind  from  the  sea  is  moist, 
 and  that  from  the  interior  deserts  is  dry,  in  the  northern  parts  of 
 which  are  chiefly  perceived  the  disastrous  effects  of  the  burning 
 •wind  called  Samiel. 
 
 Face  of  the  Country.']  The  general  aspect  of  Arabia  presents 
 a  central  desert  of  great  extent,  with  a  few  fertile  oases  or  isles,  as 
 in  Africa  ;  while  the  flourishing  provinces  are  those  situated  on 
 the  shores  of  the  sea,  which  supplies  rain  sufficient  to  maintain  the 
 vegetation.  In  Yemen  there  are  mountains  of  considerable  height, 
 but  chiefly  barren  and  unwooded ;  while  the  temperature  and 
 plants  form  a  striking  contrast  with  those  of  the  plains  :  yet  the 
 •want  of  rivers,  lakes,  and  perennial  streams,  must  diffuse  ideas 
 of  sterility  through  the  Arabian  landscape. 
 
 Soil  and  Agriculture.]  The  nature  of  the  soil  has  not  been  in- 
 dicated. The  grain  in  general  yields  little  more  than  ten  for  one  ; 
 but  the  durra  sometimes  greatly  exceeds  this  ratio,  yielding  in  the 
 high  lands  140,  and  in  the  Tehama,  or  plain,  from  200  to  400.  By 
 their  mode  of  sowing  and  watering  this  grain  the  inhabitants  of 
 Tehama  reap  three  successive  crops  from  the  same  field  in  the 
 same  year.  The  plow  is  simple  :  and  the  pick  is  used  instead  of 
 the  spade.  The  chief  exertion  of  agi*icultural  industry  is  to  water 
 the  lands  from  the  rivulets  and  wells,  or  by  conducting  the  rains. 
 The  harvest  is  torn  up  by  the  roots,  and  forage  cut  with  the  sickle. 
 Barley  is  reaped  near  Sana  in  the  middle  of  July  ;  but  the  season 
 depends  on  the  situation.  At  Maskat  wheat  and  barley  are  sown 
 in  December,  and  reaped  in  March. 
 Asnong  the  chief  vegetable  products  of  iVrabia,  Niebuhr  reck- 
 
654  ARABIA. 
 
 ons  aloes,  myrrh,  frankincense  of  an  inferior  kind,  and  cofFee  ; 
 and  also  cocoa  trees,  pomegranates,  dates,  apricots,  peaches,  al- 
 monds, filberts,  pears,  figs,  and  tamarinds.  But  the  best  frankin- 
 cense, with  spikenards,  cinnamon,  cassia,  cardamums,  and  pep- 
 per, are  imported  from  Hindostan.  The  orange  trees  are  brought 
 from  Portugal,  and  the  lemon  from  Italy  ;  the  mangosteen  and 
 cocoa,  with  several  others,  are  imported  from  Hindostan. 
 
 Rivers.^  In  the  defect  of  rivers  strictly  belonging  to  Arabia, 
 the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  which  pass  through  Irak  Arabi,  have 
 been  claimed  by  some  geographers  ;  and  the  Euphrates  may  be 
 aptly  considered  as  an  Arabian  river.  But  in  Arabia  Proper  wl^at 
 are  called  rivei*s  are  mere  torrents,  which  descend  from  the  moun- 
 tains during  the  rains,  and  for  a  short  period  afterwards.  The 
 most  important  river  is  probably  that  which  rises  near  Sana,  and 
 joins  the  Indian  sea  below  Harjiah.  The  smaller  streams  of 
 Yemen  may  be  traced  in  Niebuhr'smap  of  that  country.  The  lit- 
 tle river  of  Krim  flows  from  Mahrah  into  the  same  s&a,  and  is 
 followed  by  two  or  three  brooks  in  Omon.  One  or  two  small  sa- 
 line lakes  occur  in  situations  encircled  wich  hills,  which  prevent 
 the  water  from  passing. 
 
 Mountains  and  Deserts.']  The  chief  range  of  mountains  seems 
 to  proceed  in  the  direction  of  the  Red  Sea  ;  towards  the  N.  not 
 more  than  30  miles  distant,  but  sometimes  in  the  S.  about  150,  a 
 circumstance  which  imparts  extent  and  fertility  to  Yemen.  The 
 hills  of  Onaon  seem  a  continuation  of  those  on  the  other  side  of 
 the  Persian  gulf;  and  the  isles  in  the  mouth  of  that  gulf  may  be 
 regarded  as  summits  of  that  range.  In  the  country  of  Seger, 
 commonly  ascribed  to  Hadramaut,  there  is  a  range  of  hills  re- 
 jtnarkable  for  the  product  of  frankincense. 
 
 What  is  called  the  desert  of  Sinai,  is  a  beaHttfr.l  plain  nearly 
 nine  miles  long,  and  above  three  in  breadth  ;  it  lies  open  to  the 
 north-east,  but  to  the  southward  is  closed  by  some  of  the  lower  em- 
 inences of  Mount  Sinai ;  and  other  parts  of  that  mountain  make 
 such  encroachments  upon  the  plain  as  to  divide  it  into  two,  each 
 so  capacious  as  to  be  sufficient  to  receive  the  whole  camp  of  the 
 Israelites. 
 
 From  Mount  Sinai,  may  be  seen  Mount  Horeb,  where  Moses 
 kept  the  flocks  of  Jtthro,  his  father-in-law,  when  he  saw  the  burn- 
 ing bush.  On  those  mountains,  are  many  chapels  and  cells,  pos- 
 sessed by  the  Greek  and  Latin  monks,  who,  like  the  religious  at 
 Jerusalem,  pretend  to  shcAv  the  very  spot  where  every  miracle  or 
 transaction  recorded  in  scripture  happened. 
 
 Sinai  is  a  lofty,  steep  mountain,  ascended  by  14,000  stone  steps. 
 On  the  summit  is  a  Christian  church,  and  a  Turkish  mosque.  In 
 a  vale  not  far  remote  stands  the  solitary  rock,  now  called  by  the 
 Arabs,  the  stone  of  Moses  ;  by  the  Greeks,  the  stone  of  the  foun- 
 tains, which  Moses  struck  and  the  water  flowed.  It  is  twelve 
 feet  higli,  eight  or  ten  broad.  It  is  a  granite  marble,  of  brick 
 color.  There  remain  on  it  to  this  day,  the  lively  impressions  of 
 the  miracle.  Still  we  see  the  place  whence  the  water  gushed. 
 Twelve  different  openings,  as  so  many  mouths,  proclaim  the  gen- 
 uineness of  scripture  history.     Exod.  xvii.  1 . 
 
ARABIA.  655 
 
 In  the  wilderness  of  Pai-an  is  also  the  rock  mentioned  Mimb. 
 XX.  2,  which  Moses  struck  twice,  before  the  water  flowed,  thirty- 
 eight  years  distant  from  the  other  transaction.  This  is  a  large 
 rock,  and  like  the  other  shows  various  openings  from  top  to  bot- 
 tom, whence  the  water  burst  when  smitten  by  the  rod  of  Moses.* 
 
 The  sandy  deserts  of  Arabia  are  more  striking  objects  than  the 
 mountains.  From  Omon  to  Mecca  the  greater  part  of  Neged  is 
 one  prodigious  desert,  interrupted  towards  the  frontiers  of  Hejaz 
 and  Yemen,  by  Kerje,  containing  the  district  of  Sursa,  and  some 
 fertile  spots  and  towns,  indicated  by  Niebuhr.  The  N.  W.  part 
 of  Neged  presents  almost  a  continued  desert,  a  prolongation  as 
 appears  of  the  other,  with  an  ocsw,  Ared  on  the  W-  of  Lahsa,  in- 
 cluding Jabrin,  and  some  other  places  mentioned  by  the  same  au- 
 thor. In  this  desert  there  is  also  the  oasis  of  Mount  Schamer,  and 
 perhaps  several  others,  which  may  remain  for  a  long  time  un- 
 known to  geography. 
 
 Botany.']  The  greater  pai't  of  Arabia  being  composed  of  dry 
 barren  deserts  of  sand,  wholly  destitute  of  rivers,  and  containing 
 but  here  and  there  a  few  scanty  springs  of  brackish  water,  offers 
 no  adequate  recompense  to  botanical  investigations.  The  veget- 
 ables in  these  districts  are  of  rare  occurrence,  and  consist  chiefly 
 of  the  saline  succulent  species  able  to  endure  the  full  force  of  a 
 vertical  sun,  with  no  other  refreshment  than  what  is  afforded  by 
 the  nightly  dews.  The  greater  part  of  them  have  little  external 
 beauty,  and  when  found  in  more  propitious  climates  obtain  notice 
 only  from  their  singularity  :  here,  however,  they  serve  to  miti- 
 gate the  thirst  of  the  parched  camel,  and  to  keep  up  the  spirits  of 
 the  toiling  caravan,  by  breaking  in  occasionally  on  the  melan- 
 choly uniformity  of  the  desert.  A  more  interesting  scene,  how- 
 ever, is  presented  to  the  botanist  on  the  western  side  of  the  Ara- 
 bian desert ;  here  numerous  rivulets  descend  from  the  mountains 
 into  the  Red  sea,  and  scatter  with  a  lavish  hand  fragrance  and 
 verdure  wherever  they  flow :  the  mountains  themselves  too, 
 whence  these  streams  originate,  abound  in  vegetation,  so  that  the 
 plants  in  this  part  of  Arabia  may  be  conveniently  distributed  into 
 three  classes,  namely,  those  that  inhabit  the  sea  shore,  the  plains, 
 find  the  mountains.  The  first  of  these  divisions  bears  a  near  affin- 
 ity to  the  scanty  flora  of  the  desert :  a  sandy  soil  im.pregnated 
 with  salt,  and  an  open  exposure  to  the  influence  of  the  sun,  pro- 
 duce similar  effects  in  both  situations.  The  champain  country, 
 between  the  shore  and  the  mountains,  though  traversed  by  streams, 
 is  yet  too  deficient  in  water  to  support  the  luxuriant  vegetation 
 that  distinguishes  the  plains  of  India  ;  the  lower  parts  are  chiefly 
 occupied  by  grasses  and  other  humble  plants,  which  afford  a  most 
 grateful  sustenance  to  the  flocks  and  herds  of  the  pastoral  tribes 
 that  wander  over  them.  The  sides  of  the  rivers,  the  valleys 
 timong  the  mountains,  and  the  plains  at  their  feet,  are  far  superior 
 to  the  rest  of  the  country.  Here  cultivation  and  nature  seem  to 
 contend  with  each  other  in  the  richness  of  their  productions  ;  nov 
 
 *  Journal  to  Sin«'i: 
 
656  ARABIA, 
 
 is  it  easy  to  assign  exactly  the  limits  of  each.  Many  of  the  Indian 
 and  Persian  plants,  distinguished  for  their  beauty  or  use,  have 
 been  transported  hither  in  former  ages,  and  are  now  found  in  a 
 truly  indigenous  state  ;  this  is  probably  the  case  with  the  tama- 
 rind, the  cotton  tree,  the  pomegranate,  the  banyan  tree,  or  Indian 
 fig,  the  sugar  cane,  and  a  multitude  of  valuable  species  and  varie- 
 ties of  melons  and  gourds.  Two  valuable  trees  however  are  the 
 peculiar  boast  of  Arabia  Felix,  namely,  the  coffee,  found  both  cul- 
 tivated and  wild,  and  the  amyris  opobalsamum,  from  which  is  pro- 
 cured the  balm  ofe  Mecca,  the  most  fragrant  and  costly  of  all  the 
 gum  resins.  There  arc  no  proper  forests  in  Arabia,  although 
 groves  and  scattered  trees  are  by  no  means  unfrequent  among  the 
 mountains.  Of  the  palms,  it  possesses  the  date,  the  cocoa  nut, 
 and  the  great  fan  palm.  The  sycamore  fig,  the  plantain,  the  al- 
 mond and  apricot,  the  bead  tree,  the  mimosa  nilotica  and  sensitiva, 
 and  the  orange,  nearly  complete  the  catalogue  of  its  native  and 
 cultivated  trees.  The  list  of  shrubs  and  herbaceous  plants  does 
 TiOt  contain  many  that  would  be  interesting  to  the  general  reader: 
 among  these,  however,  may  be  particularized  the  ricinus,  the  li- 
 quorice, and  the  senna,  all  used  in  medicine  ;  and  the  white  lily 
 and  greater  pancratium,  distinguished  for  tneir  beauty  and  frag- 
 rance. 
 
 Zoology.~\  The  horse  is  the  glory  of  Arabian  zoology.  Ac- 
 cording to  Zimmerman  this  animal  is  found  wild  in  the  extensive 
 deserts  on  the  N.  of  Hadramaut.*  They  are  here  divided  into  two 
 great  classes,  the  Kadis/ii,  or  common  kind,  whose  genealogy  has 
 not  been  preserved  ;  and  the  Kochlaiiiy  or  noble  horses,  whose 
 breed  has  been  ascertained  for  two  thousand  years,  proceeding,  as 
 they  fable,  from  the  stalls  of  Solomon.  They  are  reared  by  the 
 Bedouins,  in  the  northern  deserts,  between  Bassora,  Merdin,  and 
 the  frontiers  of  Syria  ;  and  though  they  are  neither  large  nor 
 beautiful,  their  race  and  hereditary  qualities  being  the  only  objects 
 of  estimation,  the  preservation  of  their  breed  is  carefully  and  au- 
 thentically witnessed  ;  and  the  offspring  of  a  Kochlani  stallion 
 with  an  ignoble  race  is  reputed  Kadischi.  These  will  bear  the 
 greatest  fatigues,  and  pass  whole  days  without  food,  living,  ac- 
 cording to  the  Arabian  metaphor,  on  air.  They  are  said  to  rush 
 on  a  foe  with  impetuosity  ;  and  it  is  asserted  that  some  of  them, 
 when  wounded  in  battle,  will  withdraw  to  a  spot  Avhere  their  mas- 
 ter may  be  secure  ;  and  if  he  fall  they  will  neigh  for  assistance. 
 Accordingly  their  value  is  derived  from  their  singular  agility,  an 
 extreme  docility,  and  an  uncommon  attachment  to  their  masters. 
 The  Arabian  steeds  are  sometimes  bought  at  excessive  rates  by 
 the  English,  at  Mocha.  There  is  also  in  this  country  a  superior 
 breed  of  asses,  apprcaching  in  foa-m  and  qualities  to  the  mule,  and 
 sold  at  high  pricei. 
 
 This  region,  or  Africa,  seems  also  the  native  country  of  the 
 camel,  emphatically  styled  by  the  orientals  the  ship  of  the  desert; 
 being,  by   the  expansion  of  its  feet,  the  faculty  of  bearing  tnirst 
 
 *  Zoologla  Geogi-apliica,  1777,  4lo.  p.  140,  from  Leo  Afiic. 
 
ARABIA.  6^7 
 
 and  hunger,  and  other  qualities,  peculiarly  adapted  by  the  author 
 ©f  nature  to  perambulate  the  sandy  wastes,  which  would  otherwise 
 remain  unpassable 
 
 The  buffalo  seems  unknown,  being  an  animal  which  delights  in 
 mud  and  water  ;  but  the  cattle  have  generally  a  hunch  on  the 
 shoulder.  The  breed  of  sheep  has  not  been  particularly  illustrat- 
 ed ;  but  it  would  appear  that  both  the  wool  and  mutton  are  coarse. 
 The  rock  goat  is  said  to  be  found  in  the  mountains  of  Arabia  Pe- 
 trea.  The  other  animals  are  the  jakkal,  or  chacal ;  the  hyena  to- 
 wards the  Persian  gulf  ;  numerous  monkeys  in  the  woods  of  Ye- 
 men ;  the  jerboa,  or  rat  of  Pharaoh,  in  Neged  :  there  are  also  an- 
 telopes, and  wild  oxen,  with  Avolves,  foxes,  and  wild  boars,  and 
 the  large  and  small  panther.  The  tiger  seems  utterly  unknown  ; 
 and  the  lion  only  appears  beyond  the  Euphrates.  Among  tlie 
 birds  may  be  named  the  pheasant,  common  in  the  forests  of  Ye- 
 men, as  the  grey  partridge  is  in  the  plains  ;  while  the  ostrich  is 
 no  stranger  in  the  deserts.  A  bird  of  the  thrush  kind,  venerated 
 because  it  destroys  the  locusts,  is  thought  to  come  annually  from 
 Corasan.  Land  tortoises  abound  ;  and  are  eaten  by  the  Chris- 
 tians in  Lent.  A  little  slender  serpent,  called  baetan,  spotted 
 with  black  and  white,  is  of  a  nature  remarkably  poisonous,  the 
 bite  being  instant  death.  The  locust  too  is  numerous  ;  but  the 
 natives  esteem  the  red  kind  as  a  fat  and  juicy  food,  and  view  it 
 with  no  more  avei'sion  than  shrimps  or  prawns  are  beheld  by  us. 
 
 Mineralogy.']  The  mineralogy  of  Arabia  is  of  small  importaace. 
 It  has  no  native  gold,  nor  any  silver,  besides  that  which  is  mingled 
 in  the  lead  mines  of  Oman.  In  the  northern  district  of  Yemen, 
 called  Saade,  there  are  some  mines  of  iron,  which  is  brittle.  Its 
 precious  stones  have  been  imported  from  Hindostan  :  its  agates, 
 called  Mocha  stones,  are  brought  from  Surat,  and  the  best  cor- 
 nelians from  the  gulf  of  Cambay.  Yemen,  however,  produces 
 onyxes  ;  a  kind  of  sardonyx  is  found  near  Damar.  Rock  salt  ap- 
 pears near  Loheia,  and  in  Ajemen.  Niebuhr  has  observed  pen- 
 tagonal pillars  of  salt,  with  blueish  alabaster,  selenite,  and  vari- 
 ous spars  ;  but  it  does  not  appear  that  any  of  the  gems  are  pro- 
 duced in  Arabia.  The  pearls  and  spices,  of  which  Arabia  for- 
 merly boasted,  were  probably  the  products  of  the  Indies  and  the 
 coasts  of  Africa.  Near  Haraada,  in  a  district  of  Yemen  called 
 Kaukeban,  there  is  a  warm  spring  of  mineral  water. 
 
 JVatural  Curiosities.']  Several  of  those  uncommon  appearances 
 which  geographers  style  natural  curiosities,  may,  no  doubt,  be 
 found  in  this  extensive  country,  when  more  thoroughly  explored. 
 Amidst  the  deficiency  of  water,  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  grand 
 reservoir  near  the  ancient  city  of  Mareb,  though  in  a  small  part 
 a  work  of  art,  was  regarded  as  a  singular  exertion  of  nature.* 
 Mareb  ic  still  the  chief  town  of  the  province  cf  Jof,  about  75 
 miles  N.  E.  from  Sana,  containing  about  300  mean  houses,  with  a 
 wall  and  three  gates.  In  an  adjacent  vale,  about  20  miles  in 
 length,  were  united  six  or  seven  rivulets,  running  from  the  west 
 
 *  Niebuhr,  240. 
 vol..   ir.  83 
 
eVa  ASIATIC  ISLANDS. 
 
 and  from  the  south,  partly  from  Yemen  ;  and  some  said  to  be  pe- 
 rennial streams,  full  of  fish.  The  two  chains  of  mountains,  in-, 
 closing  this  vale,  approach  so  near  at  the  east  end  that  the  space 
 might  be  walked  over  in  five  or  six  minutes ;  or  was  about  a 
 quarter  of  a  mile.  This  opening  being  shut  by  a  thick  wall,  the 
 water  was  retained,  and  imparted  particular  advantages  to  agri- 
 culture. But  the  Avail,  constructed  of  large  masses  of  hewn  stone 
 to  the  height  of  forty  or  fifty  feet,  was  neglected  after  the  fall  of 
 the  Sabean  kingdom ;  and  burst  in  the  middle,  leaving  only  the 
 ruins  on  both  sides,  so  that  the  water  is  noAV  lost  in  the  desert  on 
 the  N.  of  Hadramaut. 
 
 Isles-I  Besides  several  isles  of  little  consequence  in  the  Ara- 
 bian gulf,  there  arc  two  islands  which  deserve  particular  notice. 
 Socotra,  about  340  miles  from  the  southern  coast  of  Arabia,  ap- 
 pears in  all  ages  to  have  belonged  to  that  country,  and  to  have 
 been  celebrated  for  the  prodviction  of  aloes,  still  esteemed  superi- 
 or to  any  other.  The  inhabitants  are  clearly  of  Arabian  extract. 
 Thei'c  are  two  bays,  and  some  secure  harbors  ;  and  the  isle  is  al- 
 so said  to  produce  frankincense,  while  ambergris  and  coral  arc 
 found  in  the  neighboring  seas.  The  isle  of  Bahrin  is  in  the  Per- 
 sian gulf,  near  the  Arabian  coast,  and  remarkable  for  the  great 
 pearl  fishery  in  its  neighborhood.  The  name  Bahrin'\%  a  moderu 
 appellation  ;  for  Abulfeda,  as  well  as  the  Arabs  of  Lahsa,  call 
 the  large  isle  Aual.  The  inhabitants  of  Aual,  and  the  smaller 
 isles,  are  Arabs,  of  the  Chia  persuasion.  In  the  large  isle  there 
 is  a  fortified  tov/n  ;  and  in  the  whole  group  there  may  be  forty  or 
 fifty  mean  villages. 
 
 ASIATIC  ISLANDS. 
 
 INTRODUCTIOX. 
 
 GENERAL  AKUANGEMENT  OF  THE  ASIATIC  ISLANDS,  IXQXUDlSG- 
 AUSTRALASIA  AND  POLYNESIA- 
 HAVING  thus  completed  the  description  of  the  wide  con- 
 tinent of  Asia,  so  far  as  the  limits  assigned  to  this  work  would 
 admit,  a  difficult  field  of  investigation  opens  in  the  innumerable 
 Asiatic  islands,  and  those  situated  in  the  Pacific,  or  more  prop- 
 erly Great  Oriental  Ocean. 
 
 These  regions  are,  however,  of  so  wide  and  distinct  a  nature, 
 consisting  of  almost  a  new  continent  in  the  south  of  Asia,  and 
 scattered  groups  of  isles  in  the  Pacific,  many  of  them  nearer  to 
 South  America  than  to  Asia,  that  they  cannot  well  be  blended  un- 
 der one  denomination,  as  was  long  since  observed  by  the  learned 
 liresident  Des  Brosscs,  who,  nearly  half  a  cenLury  ago,  proposed 
 
ASIATIC  ISLANDS.  659 
 
 that  the  countries  to  the  south  of  Asia,  namely  New  Holland, 
 New  Guinea,  and  New  Z.ealand,  Sec.  should  be  styled  Australasia, 
 and  the  numerous  isles  in  the  Pacific,  Polynesia,,  from  a  Greek 
 term  implying  many  islands.*  A  desci'iption  of  the  large  island^ 
 or  rather  continent  of  New  Holland,  with  its  appendages,  naturally 
 follows  tl^at  of  Asia,  and  the  Asiatic  islands  in  the  Indian  ocean  ; 
 and  will  be  properly  succeeded  by  that  of  Polynesia,  or  the  isl- 
 ands in  the  Pacific  ;  which  are  far  remote  fi'om  the  American 
 coast,  but  are  connected  by  short  passages  with  Australasia,  the 
 Sandwich  islands  alone  excepted,  which  may  however  be  follow- 
 ed by  groups  to  be  discovered  to  the  S.  W.  so  as  to  be  connected 
 with  Polynesia.  The  reader  needs  scarcely  be  reminded,  that  in 
 this  quarter  alone  of  the  world  this-remarkable  exception  occurs  ; 
 for  the  islands  belonging  to  both  Americas,  to  Africa  and  to 
 Europe,  are  stifficiently  distinct  and  appropriated,  while  the  name 
 £)f  Asiatic  islands,  enormous  as  Asia  itself,  might  be  diffused  to 
 such  an  extent,  as  to  embarrass  the  utmost  powers  of  geograph- 
 ical description,  and  present  only  vague  confusion,  instead  of  sci- 
 entific precision.  Before,  however,  a  correct  arrangement  can 
 be  followed,  it  will  be  proper  to  fix  some  limits  between  the  In- 
 dian and  Pacific  Oceans. 
 
 As  the  continent  of  America  divides  the  Atlantic,  or  Great 
 Western  Ocean,  from  the  Pacific,  or  Great  Eastern  Ocean,  (both 
 so  termed  in  relation  to  the  ancient  and  civilized  world;)  and  as 
 AJi'ica  divides  the  Atlantic  from  the  Indian  ocean,  so,  by  parallel 
 usage  and  deduction,  what  is  called  New  Holland,  may  be  con- 
 sidered as  the  fixed  division  between  the  Indian  and  Pacific,  thus 
 claiming  Avith  justice  the  authority  of  a  continent,  washed  by  the 
 Indian  ocean  on  the  west,  and  the  Pacific  on  the  east ;  while  a 
 line  drawn  from  the  most  prominent  central  capes,  in  the  North 
 and  South,  may  be  regarded  as  a  boundary  of  these  two  oceans. 
 The  southern  extension  of  this  imaginary  line  is  of  little  moment ; 
 but  in  the  north  it  must  be  considered  as  a  division  of  great  im- 
 portance to  precise  discussion,  as  the  isles  on  the  west  must  be 
 considered  as  strictly  Asiatic,  and  intimately  connected  with  the 
 description  of  Asia  ;  Avhilc  those  on  the  right  belong  to  Austra- 
 lasia and  Polynesia.  Tiiis  division  must  naturally  and  unavoid- 
 ably depend  on  the  observation  of  the  widest  channel  betv.'een 
 the  Molucca  islands,!  and  Papua,  or  New  Guinea  :  and  the  de- 
 gree of  longitude,  130°  from  Greenwich,  seems  nearly  to  amount 
 to  a  boundary.  Hence  Amboyna  belongs  to  the  Asiatic  isles, 
 while  Timor-laut  belongs  to  Australasia.  The  meridian  of  bound- 
 ary passes  through  Coram  ;  but  the  proximity  of  that  isle  to 
 Amboyna,  may  properly  connect  it  with  the  Asiatic  isles,  with 
 which  Mysol  may  also  be  classed.  From  the  N.  W.  extremity  of 
 Papua,  or  rather  some  small  islands  lying  at  that  extremity,  a 
 clear  line  may  be  drawn,  following  the  same  meridian,  and  leav- 
 ing Gilolo  among  tlie  Asiatic  isles  on  the  W.  and  tiiosc  of  Pelew 
 
 *  Histoire  des  Navigations  aux  Terres  Australes.    Parts,  175G,  2  vols.  4to. 
 ■j"  This  name  oi-iginally  confined   to   live   smail   islands,  has  l)een  extended,  by  die 
 French  geograpkers^  to  a  large  group  between  Borneo  and  New  Guiuc:}. 
 
660  ASIATIC  ISLANDS. 
 
 amon^  the  Polynesian,  in  the  Pacific.  This  line  then  bending  N. 
 W.  would  include  the  Phillippine  islands  and  the  Bashees,  passing 
 to  the  S.  of  Formosa  ;  the  other  limits  and  appellations  being 
 sufficiently  clear. 
 
 Such  may  therefore  be  the  assumed  boundary  between  the  In- 
 dian ocean  and  Chinese  sea  on  the  W.  and  the  Pacific  on  the  E. 
 and  between  the  Asiatic  isles,  and  Australasia  and  Polynesia.  The 
 boundary  between  the  two  latter  great  divisions  may  be  traced  by 
 regarding  what  is  called  New  Holland,  as  a  continent,  or  great 
 leading  island,  with  which  those  most  adjacent  must  be  regarded 
 as  connected.  Hence  Papua  belongs  to  Australasia  :  and  a  line 
 drawn  in  the  latitude  of  three  or  four  degrees  to  the  N.  of  the 
 equator,  and  then  passing  S.  in  the  meridian  of  170  E.  from 
 Greenwich,  so  as  to  include  the  New  Hebudes,  thence  in  the  par- 
 allel of  50  S.  gradually  stretching  to  175  W.  from  Greenwich, 
 including  New  Zealand,  and  the  isle  called  Chatham,  will  present 
 the  natural  and  precise  boundary  of  Australasia. 
 
 That  division  called  Polynesia,  by  far  the  most  extensive,  adjoins 
 the  W.  to  the  line  above  drawn  around  the  Asiatic  isles ;  thence 
 it  ascends  about  lat.  18,  long.  128  E.  in  a  N.  E.  direction,  so  as  to 
 include  the  isle  called  Rica  de  Plata,  long.  161,  and  thence 
 curving  S.  E.  and  encompassing  the  northern  Sandwich  islands, 
 where  our  great  navigator  fell,t  and  the  Marquesas,  and  extending 
 to  120  W-  from  London.  Any  isles  to  the  N.  E.  or  E.  of  this  line 
 of  demarkation  may  be  regarded  as  belonging  to  North  or  South 
 America. 
 
 The  southern  boundary  of  the  Asiatic  isles  may  be  considered 
 as  sufficiently  ascertained  by  the  wide  channel  between  them  and 
 New  Holland  ;  while  the  N.  VV.  extremity  of  Sumatra  may  pre- 
 sent a  meridian  of  separation  on  the  W.  between  the  Asiatic  isles, 
 eminently  so  styled,  and  those  in  the  Indian  ocean.  The  same 
 ■western  boundary  may  be  assigned  to  Australasia. 
 
 The  southern  limits  of  the  last,  and  of  Polynesia,  alone  remain  ; 
 but  as  few  or  no  islands  have  been  discovered  to  the  S.  of  New 
 Zealand,  the  parallel  of  30  S.  lat.  may  be  lastly  assumed  as  the 
 boundary  of  both. 
 
 Polynesia  v,^ill  thus  extend  from  50  S.  lat.  to  about  35  N. 
 lat.  that  is  85°  or  5100  g.  miles:  while  the  breadth  taken  from 
 long.  170  E.  from  Greenwich,  to  130  W.  upon  the  equator  itself, 
 will  yield  sixty  degrees,  or  3600  g.  miles. 
 
 The  length  of  Australasia  may  be  computed  from  95  of  the 
 same  longitude  to  185,  that  is  40°  in  lat.  30,  or  nearly  5000  g. 
 j-niles  ;  while  the  breadth  lat.  3  N.  to  lat.  50  S.  will  be  3180  g. 
 miles. 
 
 Even  the  smallest  division,  that  of  the  Asiatic  isles,  which  has 
 been  called  the  Oriental  Archipelago,  is  of  great  extent  from  13 
 S.  lat.  to  22  N.  lat.  that  is  35°,  or  2100  g.  miles ;  while  the  length 
 from  95  E.  long,  to  132,  yields  37  degrees  not  far  from  the 
 equator,  nearly  corresponding  with  the  breadth. 
 
 t  There  nre  other  S.nndwich  islnmls,  Int.  59  S.  or  benciith  the  parallel  of  Cape 
 Horn.     Such  is  the  perplexity  of  tl>e  received  nomenelature. 
 
A3IATIC  ISLES.  661 
 
 ASIATIC  ISLES. 
 
 ARRANGEMENT  OF  THOSE  IN  THE  ORIENTAL  ARCHIPELAGO. 
 1.  ISLES  OF  6UNDA,  OR  SUMATRAN  CHIAN.  2,  BORNEO.  3. 
 MANILLAS.       4.    CELEBEZIAN    ISLES.       5.    SPICE    ISLANDS. 
 
 AN  inspection  of  the  maps  and  charts  of  this  part  of 
 the  globe,  will  sheiv  that  a  great  chain  of  islands  ex^ends  from 
 Sumatra  N.  W.  to  Lackal  or  Lachal  S.  E.  This  chain  includes 
 Sumatra,  Java,  Balii,  Sumbava,  Florcz,  and  Timor,  as  the  chief 
 isles  ;  with  Suraba  in  the  S.  and  in  the  N.  Madura,  Billiton,  Ban- 
 ca,  &c.  This  chain  might  either  be  termed  the  Suniatran  islands, 
 from  the  chief,  or  the  received  name  of  the  isles  of  Sunda  may  be 
 extended  and  restricted  to  this  group  ;  which,  besides  the  strait 
 so  called,  presents  many  other  sounds  or  passages,  from  the  In- 
 dian ocean  towards  the  Pacific  and  the  Chinese  sea. 
 
 Borneo,  an  island  of  vast  extent,  should  not  be  considered  as 
 belonging  to  any  group  ;  but  the  small  isles  around  it  may  be 
 termed  the  Bornean  islands,  as  the  Sooloos,  Pulo  Laut,  Anumba, 
 •Natuna. 
 
 The  Phillippine  islands  may  already  be  regarded  as  the  most 
 regular  and  precise  group  in  these  seas,  including  the  Bashees, 
 and  other  little  groups  in  the  north,  and  Mindanao  and  Palawan 
 in  the  south. 
 
 There  remains  the  large  island  of  Celebez,  which  may  be  con- 
 sidered as  grouped  with  Shulla,  Boutan,  Salayar,  &c.  and  the 
 ivhole  may  be  termed  the  Celebezian  isles. 
 
 The  Molucca  islands,  an  ancient  and  venei'able  name,  are  prop- 
 erly only  five,  of  small  size,  on  the  west  of  Gilolo  ;  but  it  seems 
 j)roper  to  extend  this  appellation  to  Gilolo,  Mysol,  Ceram,  Am- 
 boyna  and  Banda.  The  remaining  isles  in  the  S.  E.  belong  to 
 Papua  in  Australasia. 
 
 »    These  five  divisions  are  not  only  indicated  by  the  hand  of  nature, 
 but  seem  sufficient  for  a  description  of  this  vast  archipelago. 
 
 1.    THE    ISLES    OF    SUNDA,    OR    THE    SUMATRAN    CHAIN. 
 
 This  division,  as  already  explained,  comprises  Sumatra,  Java, 
 Balli,  Lomboky  Sumbava,  Florez,  and  Timor  ;  with  several  isles  of 
 less  note  in  the  vicinity  of  these. 
 
 Sumatra  is  an  island  of  great  extent,  being  not  less  than  950 
 miles  in  length,  by  about  200  in  breadth,  containing  177,000  square 
 miles  ;*  on  so  vast  a  scale  are  the  regions  connected  with  Asia, 
 that  Great  Britain,  if  situated  in  the  oriental  archipelago,  would 
 only  in  size  rival  Sumatra  and  Borneo.  The  English  settlement 
 of  Bencoolen,  in  the  S.  E.  pan  of  this  island,  has  occasioned  par- 
 
 *  Hassel, 
 
66b  ASIATIC  ISLES. 
 
 ticular  attention  to  its  nature  and  productions,  especially  sincc'Mi. 
 Marsden  published  an  ample  and  intelligent  account  of  this  inter- 
 esting island,  from  Avhich  this  brief  description  shall  be  abstract- 
 ed.* It  was  certainly  unknown  to  the  ancients,  the  information  of 
 Ptolemy  terminating  considerably  to  the  north,  and  the  mountain 
 of  Ophir,  whence  some  have  supposed  this  country  known  to  Sol- 
 omon, is  a  modern  Eui*opean  denomination.  The  Arabs  seem  lo 
 have  been  acquainted  with  this  island  in  the  9th  century,  but  it 
 became  hrst  known  to  the  Europeans  in  the  16th.  A  chain  of 
 mountains  runs  through  the  whole  isle,  the  ranges  being  in  many 
 parta  double  and  treble,  generally  nearer  to  tlie  western  coast, 
 whei^e  they  approach  within  20  miles  of  the  sea  ;  but  the  height 
 is  not  so  considerable  as  to  retain  snow.  Mount  Ophir,  immediate- 
 3y  under  the  equinoctial  line,  is  13,842  feet  above  the  sea,  only 
 yielding  about  2000  feet  to  mount  Blanc.  Between  the  ridges  of 
 mountains  are  elevated  plains  with  lakes  and  water-falls,  one  of 
 Avhich  is  from  the  summit  of  a  conic  mountain.  There  are  many 
 rivers  on  the  western  coast,  but  commonly  impeded  by  sand- 
 banks, so  as  to  present  few  means  of  navigation.  In  the  midst  of 
 what  is  called  the  Torrid  Zone,  the  thermometer  seldom  rises 
 above  85°,  while  in  Bengal  it  attains  101° ;  and  the  Inland  inhabit- 
 ants of  the  mountains  use  fires  to  dispel  the  morning  cold  ;^yet 
 frost,  snow,  and  hail  are  unknown.  Thunder  and  lightning  arc 
 frequent,  particularly  during  the  N.  W.  monsoon.  The  year  has 
 two  divisions,  called  the  rainy  and  dry  monsoons  ;  the  S.  E.  or  dry, 
 beginning  about  May,  and  ending  with  September  ;  the  N.  W.,  or 
 wee,  beginning  with  November,  and  ending  about  March  ;  the 
 intermediate  months,  April  and  May,  October  and  November, 
 being  variable  :  on  the  west  coast  the  sea  breeze  begins  about  ten 
 in  the  forenoon,  and  continues  till  six  in  the  evening  ;  being  suc- 
 ceeded by  the  land  breeze  during  the  night.  The  soil  is  generally 
 •a  stift"  reddish  clay,  covered  with  a  layer  of  black  mould,  the  source 
 of  perpetual  verdure  ;  but  three  quarters  of  the  isle,  especially 
 towards  the  south,  present  an  impervious  forest.  On  the  west, 
 betvicen  the  mountains  and  the  sea,  there  are  large  swamps ;  but 
 even  here  the  face  of  the  country  is  remarkably  broken  and  un- 
 even. There  seem  to  be  many  mines  of  gold,  though  mostly  ne- 
 glected ;  and  the  copper  is  mingled  with  that  metal.  There  arc 
 excellent  ores  of  iron  and  steel  :  and  that  rare  mineral,  tin,  is  one 
 of  the  chief  exports,  being  principally  found  near  Palimbang  on 
 the  eastern  shore,  a  continuation  probably  of  the  rich  be-dsof  Ban- 
 ca.  Gold  is  found  near  Bencoolen,  and  in  other  places,  but  of  in- 
 ferior quality.  The  little  island  of  Poolo  Pisang,  close  to  the  foot 
 of  mount  Poogon,  is  mostly  a  bed  of  rocky  crystal.  There  are 
 several  rolcanic  mountains  in  Sumatra,  as  in  most  of  the  other 
 islands  of  the  oriental  arcliipelago,  but  eruptions  arc  unfrequent. 
 The  number  of  inhabitants  in  this  island  is  estimated  by  Hasscl,at 
 4,500,000  ;  by  Bruns,  only  at  2,250,000.  The  sea  coast  is  chiefly 
 occupied  by  the  Malays,  who  seem  to  be  recent  settlers,  and  their 
 
 *  llirtarv  of  Sumatra,  1784,  4to  2J  edit. 
 
ASIATIC  ISLES.  663 
 
 language  a  dialect  of  a  speech  most  widely  extended,  from  Malac- 
 ca, and  perhaps  the  south  of  Hindostan,  nearly  as  far  as  the  west- 
 ei'n  coasts  of  America,  through  the  innumerable  islands  of  the 
 Pacific.  By  the  account  of  Mr.  Marsden  there  are  inland  races, 
 of  whom  the  Googoo  are  covered  with  long  hair,  and  little  supe- 
 rior to  the  Ourang  Outangs  of  Borneo.  The  chief  native  sove- 
 reignty is  that  of  Menang  Cabou,  but  the  Rejangs  seem  to  retain 
 the  purest  race  and  manners.  They  are  rather  short  and  slender  : 
 the  noses  of  infants  are  flattened,  and  their  ears  are  extended ;  but 
 the  eyes  are  dark  and  clear.  The  complexion  is  properly  yellow, 
 being  without  the  red  tinge,  which  constitutes  a  tawneyor  copper 
 color  :  but  the  superior  class  of  women  is  fair,  and  commonly  of 
 not  unpleasing  countenances. 
 
 The  chief  distinction  between  the  natives  and  the  Malays  of  the 
 coast  seems  to  be,  that  the  former  are  fairer  and  stronger.  The 
 original  clothing  is  made  of  the  inner  bark  of  trees,  as  in  Otaheite  • 
 but  the  dress  of  the  Malays  consists  of  a  vest,  a  robe,  and  a  kind 
 of  mantle,  with  a  girdle,  in  which  is  the  crees  or  dagger.  The  vil- 
 lages are  commonly  on  hills,  and  surrounded  with  fruit  trees  ;  the 
 balli,  or  common  hall,  being  in  the  centre.  The  houses  are  of 
 wood  and  bamboos,  covered  with  leaves  of  palm,  standing  on  pil- 
 lars, and  scaled  by  a  rude  ladder.  The  furniture  is  of  course  sim- 
 ple, and  common  food  rice  :  sago,  though  common,  being  less 
 used  than  in  the  islands  farther  to  the  east.  The  horses  are  small 
 but  well  made,  and  hardy  :  the  cows  and  sheep  also  diminutive, 
 the  latter  probably  from  Bengal.  Here  are  also  found  the  ele- 
 phant, rhinoceros,  hippopotamus,  tiger,  bear,  otter,  porcupine, 
 deer,  wild  hog,  civet  cat,  with  many  varieties  of  the  monkey. 
 The  buffalo  is  employed  in  domestic  labour.  Among  birds,  the 
 Sumatran  or  Argus  pheasant  is  of  distinguished  beauty.  The 
 jungle  fowl,  or  wild  poultry,  also  appear  ;  and  there  is  a  breed 
 in  the  south  of  remarkable  height  likewise  found  in  Bantam  on 
 the  west  of  Java,  which  also  gives  name  to  the  well  known  small 
 breed.  Insects  of  all  kinds  swarm,  particularly  the  destructive 
 termites.  The  most  abundant  article  is  pepper,  the  object  of  the 
 British  settlement ;  being  produced  by  a  climbing  plant  resem- 
 bling a  vine.  The  white  pepper  is  procured  by  stripping  the 
 outer  husk  from  the  ripe  grains.  Camphor  is  another  remarkable 
 vegetable  product,  and  cassia,  a  coarse  kind  of  cinnamon,  is  found 
 in  the  central  parts  of  the  country.  Rattans  are  exported  to  Eu- 
 rope for  walking  canes.  "  The  silk  cotton  (bombax  ceiba)  is  also 
 to  be  met  with  in  every  village.  This  is  to  appearance,  one  of 
 the  most  beautiful  raw  materials  the  hand  of  nature  has  present- 
 ed. Its  fineness,  gloss,  and  delicate  softness,  render  it  to  the 
 sight  and  touch  m.uch  superior  to  the  labor  of  the  silk  worm  :  but 
 owing-  to  the  shortness  and  brittleness  of  the  staple,  it  is  esteemed 
 unfit  for  the  reel  and  loom,  and  is  only  applied  to  the  unworthy- 
 purpose  of  stuffing  pillows  and  mattrasses.  It  grows  in  pods  froni 
 four  to  six  inches  long,  which  burst  open  when  ripe.  The  seeds 
 entirely  resemble  the  black  pepper,  but  are  without  taste.  The 
 tree  is  remarkable,   from  the  branches  growing  out   perfectly 
 
664  ASIATIC  ISLES. 
 
 straight  and  horizontal,  and  being  always  three,  forming  equal  an- 
 gles at  the  same  height  :  the  diminutive  shoots  likewise  grow  flat; 
 and  the  several  gradations  of  branches  observe  the  same  regular- 
 ity to  the  top.  Some  travellers  have  called  it  the  Umbrella  tree, 
 but  the  piece  of  furniture  called  a  dumb  waiter  exhibits  a  more 
 striking  picture  of  it.* 
 
 The  commerce  is  chiefly  with  Hindostan  and  China.  The  Ma- 
 lays excel  in  gold  and  silver  fiilagree,  and  in  Aveaving  silk  and  cot- 
 ton ;  but  the  manufactures  are  imperfect,  and  the  sciences  little 
 cultivated.  Besides  the  Malays,  several  languages  are  spoken, 
 which  seem  however  to  have  a  manifest  afiinity  amongst  them- 
 selves, and  with  that  widely  diffused  speech  which  may  be  called 
 the  Polynesian,  as  it  is  diffused  through  innumerable  islands  in  the 
 Pacific.  Even  the  rudest  tribes  of  Sumatra  and  the  other  Asiatic 
 isles,  as  far  as  the  utmost  bounds  of  Polynesia,  display  a  certain 
 degree  of  civilization.  The  panjeran  or  prince  presides  over 
 many  magistrates  ;  but  his  government  is  limited,  his  power  be- 
 ing confined  by  his  poverty.  Laws  are  unknown,  the  chiefs  ren- 
 dering judgment  according  to  customs.  Most  crimes  are  com- 
 pensated by  money,  murder  itself  not  excepted.  The  difficulties 
 attending  marriage  form  an  exception  to  the  general  customs  of 
 uncivilized  countries,  and  the  general  chastity  seems  remarkable. 
 The  celebration  is  commonly  in  the  balli,  or  village  hall,  and  is 
 accompanied  with  dances  and  songs.  Combats  of  cocks  and  quails 
 are  among  the  most  favorite  amusements,  together  Avith  dances, 
 dice,  and  other  games.  The  use  of  opium  is  extensive,  but  rarely 
 leads  to  other  excesses.  What  is  called  a  muck,  by  the  natives 
 mongamo^  rather  proceeds  from  revenge,  or  a  sense  of  oppression, 
 than  from  intoxication.  The  Christian  religion  is  unknown  in  Su- 
 matra, the  missionaries  having  unaccountably  neglected  this  large 
 island.  The  natives  of  Sumatra  and  the  other  Malay  islands,  are 
 of  three  casts  ;  Pag-ans,  Mahometans,  and  Christians.  The  Pa- 
 gans generally  inhabit  the  interior  of  the  islands.  The  barbarism 
 of  these  Pagans  almost  exceeds  belief.  Marsden,  in  his  history  of 
 Sumatra,  informs  us  that  they  kill  and  eat  each  other.  And  the 
 researches  of  Dr.  Leyden  have  led  to  the  discovery,  that  they 
 sometimes  eat  their  own  relations,  and  this  not  so  much  to  gratify 
 their  appetite,  as  to  perform  a  pious  ceremony.  When  a  man  be- 
 comes aged  and  infirm,  he  invites  his  children  and  friends  to  come 
 and  eat  him.  He  ascends  a  tree,  round  which  his  relations  and 
 friends  assemble,  and  join  in  a  funeral  dirge,  the  import  of  which 
 is,  "The  season  is  come,  the  fruit  is  ripe, and  must  descend."  Af- 
 ter which  the  victim  descends,  and  is  eaten  by  his  children.! 
 The  kingdom  of  Acheen  in  the  N.  W.  extremity  of  the  island  car- 
 ries on  a  considerable  trade  Avith  the  coast  of  Coromandel.  J  he 
 natives  are  more  stout  and  tall,  and  of  d  darker  complexion  than 
 the  other  Sumatrans. 
 
 Several  small  isles  encompass  Sumatra.     Banca  is  particularly 
 
 Marsden,  127.  \  Buclianuan's  Bcseaixbcs, 
 
ASIATIC  ISLES.  665 
 
 celebrated  for  its  tin.*  Of  Billcton  little  is  known ;  nor  of  the 
 isles  that  lie  between  Sumatra  and  Malacca  called  Pitti,  and  other 
 names,  with  the  common  addition  q{  Fulo,  which  in  these  seas  ap- 
 pears to  imply  an  island,  being'  a  Malay  term. 
 
 The  JVassau  or  Poggij  isles,  lie  off  the  W.  coast  of  Sumatra, 
 distant  20  or  30  leagues.  The  northern  extreme  of  the  northern 
 island  is  in  lat.  2  18  S.  and  the  southernextremity  of  the  southern 
 island  is  in  lat.  3  16  S.  These  are  separated  by  a  narrow  passage 
 in  lat.  2  40  S.  Ion.  100  43  E.  The  islands  rise  into  rough  hills 
 and  mountains,  exhibiting  strong  marks  of  some  powerful  convul- 
 sion. Excellent  timber  is  found  to  the  summit  of  the  mountains. 
 The  tree  called  Bintangoor  or  Pohoon  is  of  sufficient  size  for  the 
 lower  masts  of  the  largest  ships.  The  Jago,  cocoa  nut,  and  bam- 
 boo, are  plenty.  Pine  apples,  iiiagnostans,  and  plantains,  are  com- 
 mon. The  woods  are  impervious  to  man,  inhabited  by  a  few  red 
 deer,  hogs,  and  monkeys.  Pork,  and  fish  are  a  favorite  food  with 
 the  islanders.  Their  language,  their  manners,  and  character  are 
 very  different  from  their  neighbors  on  Sumatra.  The  two  princi- 
 pal islands  have  about  1400  people,  divided  into  small  tribes,  each 
 occupying  a  stream  of  water.  Their  houses  are  of  bamboos,  raised 
 on  posts:  the  under  pait  is  inhabited  by  hogs  and  poultry.  Their 
 clothing  is  a  piece  of  coarse  cloth  made  of  bark,  worn  round  the 
 waist.  Beads  and  other  ornaments  are  worn.  They  file,  or  grind 
 their  teeth  to  a  point.  Their  color  is  brown  ;  their  stature  seldom 
 exceeds  5  feet  and  a  half  They  live  together  in  great  harmony, 
 believe  in  God  and  a  Providence.  A  fowl  or  hog  is  sometimes 
 sacrificed  to  avert  distress,  but  they  have  no  stated  religious  wor- 
 ship. Omens  of  good  or  ill  fortune  are  drawn  from  appearances 
 in  the  entrails  of  their  victims.  Their  government  is  democratic, 
 the  whole  village  assembles  to  try  a  criminal.  Estates  descend  to 
 the  males.  When  a  thief  cannot  make  restitution,  he  is  punished 
 with  death.  A  murderer  is  delivered  to  the  relations  of  the  de- 
 ceased, who  may  put  him  to  death.  Marriages  are  settled  by  the 
 parents  ;  when  the  bride  is  taken  home,  a  hog  is  generally  killed, 
 and  a  feast  made.  Polygamy  is  not  tolerated.  In  case  of  adultery, 
 when  the  wife  is  the  offender,  the  husband  may  seize  all  the  effects 
 of  the  paramour,  and  punish  his  wife  by  cutting  off  her  hair. 
 When  the  husband  offends,  the  wife  may  quii  him.  The  geneial 
 custom  of  tatooing  themselves,  and  the  manner  of  their  disposing 
 of  their  dead,  bear  a  striking  resemblance  to  that  of  the  Otaheit- 
 ans.f 
 
 Java  is  not  only  an  extensive  island,  about  650  miles  in  length, 
 by  about  100  of  medial  breadth,  but  is  remarkable  for  the  city  of 
 Batavia,  the  ctlebrated  capital  of  the  Dutch  possessions.  This 
 island,  like  the  former,  abounds  with  forests,  and  presents  an  en- 
 chanting verdure.     It  is  also  intersected  by  a  ridge  of  mountains, 
 
 *  The  industrious  translator  of  Stavorinna,  vol.  i.    p.  oSZ,  says  that  these  mines 
 wjfe  ouly  discovered  iu  I'lO  or  1/1 1,  and  thougli  the  Dutch  reeeive  ai^out  tbi'ee  mill- 
 ions of  pounds  wcJijht,  the  vein  seetns  inexhaustible, 
 j  Asiatic,  liesearche^. 
 VOL-,  ir-.  84 
 
666  ASIATIC  ISLES. 
 
 like  a  spine  pervading  its  length.*  Batavia  is  strongly  fortified 
 with  M'alls,  and  a  citadel  towards  the  sea.  There  are  many  canals 
 about  four  feet  in  depth,  and  the  town  is  large,  and  well  built  oi 
 stone.  This  metropolis  of  the  oriental  archipelago  presents  many 
 nations  and  languages ;  and  the  Chinese  constitute  the  greater 
 part  of  the  inhabitants,  being  contented  for  the  sake  of  gain  to  for- 
 get the  tombs  of  their  ancestors,  and  the  laws  of  their  country 
 against  emigration.  The  Malay  language,  the  French  of  the  east, 
 is  here  universally  understood.  The  streets  are  planted  with  large 
 trees,  which  practice,  with  the  Dutch  canals,  probably  contributes 
 to  the  unhealthiness  of  this  spot.  The  heat  is  not  so  intense,  con- 
 sidered in  itself,  being  between  80  and  86^*,  as  from  the  low  situa- 
 tion of  the  town,  and  the  murky  exhalations  from  the  bogs,  canals> 
 and  a  muddy  sea,  whence  from  nine  o'clock  till  four  it  is  impossi- 
 ble to  walk  out.  The  sun  being  nearly  vertical,  rises  and  sets 
 about  six  throughout  the  year ;  but  the  noctufnal  repose  is  infest- 
 ed by  moskitos.  In  the  evening,  from  six  to  nine,  parties  are 
 formed,  and  intemperance  assists  the  poison  of  the  climate.  The 
 water  is  also  of  a  bad  quality.  The  air  is  so  unwholesome, 
 from  fetid  fogs  and  other  causes,  that  dysenteries  and  putrid  fe- 
 vers destroy  prodigious  numbers  ;  and  of  three  settlers  it  is  rare 
 that  one  outlives  the  year.  The  rainy  season  begins  with  De-. 
 cember,  and  lasts  till  March.  Crocodiles  abound  in  the  rivers, 
 as  in  most  of  the  oriental  isles.  Java  is  divided  into  three  of  four 
 principalities,  the  chief  being  the  emperor  of  Surikarta.  The 
 products  resemble  those  of  Sumatra  ;  and  the  existence  of  the 
 poisonous  tree,  which  has  supplied  Dr.  Darwin  with  a  highly  po- 
 etical description,  appears  to  be  completely  confuted.  This  isl- 
 and Was  captured  by  the  British,  August,  1811. 
 
 The  small  isle  of  Madura,  on  the  N.  of  Java,  had  its  independ- 
 ent prince,  whose  sufferings  under  the  tyranny  of  the  Dutch  have 
 been  related  by  Mr.  Pennant.f  The  Dutch  phlegm  seems  to 
 have  led  them  to  greater  cruelties  than  the  fanaticism  of  the  Por- 
 tuguese or  Spaniards  ;  and  it  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  English 
 had  not  retained  for  some  years  the  possession  of  the  Dutch 
 settlements,  to  convince  the  Batavians,  by  example,  that  con- 
 quests may  be  better  maintained  by  lenity  than  by  sordid  cruelty. 
 The  isle  of  Balli  seems  only  remarkable  for  furnishing  slaves, 
 cotton,  yarn,  and  pickled  pork.:}:  It  has  600,000  inhabitants,  who 
 are  pagans,  black  and  addicted  to  war. 
 
 OfLoMBOK,  SuMBAVA,  and  Florez,  little  is  known.  Timor 
 was  discovered  in  1522  by  the  companions  of  Magalh?,cns,  who 
 found  in  it  alone  the  white  sandal  wood.§  The  Portuguese,  after 
 a  long  struggle,  effected  a  settlement  ;  but  were  expelled  by  the 
 Dutch  in  1613,  who  regard  this  isle  as  a  kind  of  barrier  of  the 
 spice  trade.    Timor  is  nearly  200  miles  in  length,  by  60  ia  breadth  ; 
 
 "  Thuuberg,  ii.  213.     For  a  tolerable  miip  of  Java  see  llie  voj-age  of  Stavorinus, 
 irOS,  V.  i.  p.  313,  where  therois  also  a  l(jui>;  and  minute  description  of  the  Island, 
 t  Outlines,  iv.  31.  Hue,  ib.  2!>.  the  mjssacrc  of  l'i,OUO  Chinese  in  1740. 
 t  See  Forrest,  170. 
 §  Frenujer  Voyage  RW  tout  du  nwnde  par  Pigafctta.  Paris,  an  9,  p.  213,  214. 
 
ASIATIC  ISLES.  667 
 
 and  the  inhabitants  are  esteemed  the  bravest  in  the  Oriental  Aj> 
 chipelago.     It  was  captured  by  the  British  in  1811. 
 
 II.    BORNEO. 
 
 THIS  island  is  reputed  the  largest  in  the  world  ;  and  eveii 
 after  recent  discoveries  seems  only  to  yield  to  Now  Holland, 
 which,  as  it  rivals  Europe  in  size,  may  more  properly  be  regarded 
 as  a  continent.  Borneo  seems  clearly  to  be  the  Greater  Java  of 
 Marco  Polo,  which  he  says  is  3000  miles  in  circuit,  as  it  is  about 
 900  miles  in  length,  6y  600  in  its  greatest  breadth,  containing  about 
 313,500  square  miles.* 
 
 The  interior  parts  of  the  great  island  of  Borneo  are  little  knoTvn, 
 though  a  considerable  river  flows  from  the  centre  of  the  country 
 almost  due  south,  forming  the  harbor  of  Bender  IMassin  ;  and  the 
 names  of  several  villages  on  the  banks  are  laid  down  by  D'Anville. 
 "  The  far  greater  part  of  Borneo,  next  to  the  sea,  especially  the 
 northern  side,  consists  of  swamps,  covered  with  forests  of  trees  of 
 numberless  species  and  great  sizes,  which  penetrate  for  scores  of 
 miles,  towards  the  centre  of  the  island.  The  unstable  muddy  flats 
 are  divided  by  rivers,  which  branch  into  multitudes  of  canals,  and 
 are  the  only  roads  into  the  interior  parts.  Lofty  mountains  are 
 said  to  rise  in  the  middle  of  the  island  :  many  are  volcanic,  and 
 often  occasion  tremendous  earthquakes."!  This  island  has  five 
 millions,  some  say  six  millions  inhabitants.^  The  houses  are  often 
 built  on  posts  fixed  in  rafts,  which  are  moored  to  the  shore,  and 
 may  be  moved  from  place  to  place  according  to  the  convenience 
 of  the  inhabitants.  The  coasts  are  held  by  Malays,  Moors,  Ma- 
 cassars from  Celebez,  and  even  Japanese.  The  natives  in  the  in- 
 terior are  blacks,  with  long  hair,  of  a  middle  stature,  feeble  and 
 inactive  ;  but  their  features  are  superior  to  those  of  negroes. 
 European  settlements  have  been  unsuccessful,  the  adventurers 
 having  been  massacred.  Pepper  abounds  in  the  interior  country, 
 with  the  gum  called  the  dragon's  blood,  camphor,  and  sandal  wood. 
 Edible  birds'  nests  are  abundant.  Gold  is  found  in  the  interior 
 country  ;  where  there  are  also  said  to  be  diamonds,  but  inferior 
 to  those  of  Golconda.  The  Ourang  Outang  abounds.  The  na- 
 tives are  called  Biajos,  but  their  language  has  not  been  explained ; 
 they  are  said  to  offer  sacrifices  of  sweet  scented  wood  to  one  su- 
 preme beneficent  deity  ;  and  the  sentiments  of  piety,  or  in  other 
 words,  of  delightful  gratitude,  are  accompanied  by  laudable  mor- 
 als. The  Biajos  come  down  the  great  river  of  Banjar  to  the  port 
 of  Masseen  in  rude  boats,  with  gold  dust,  and  other  articles,  the 
 Moors,  called  Banjareens,  being  the  factors.  These  Biajos  are  ta- 
 tooed  blue,  with  a  small  wrapper  about  the  loins.  The  chiefs  extract 
 one  or  two  of  the  fore  teeth,  substituting  others  of  gold ;  and 
 strings  of  the  teeth  of  tigers,  a  real  badge  of  knighthood,  or  cour- 
 age, are  worn  round  the  neck.  The  town,  called  Borneo,  on  the 
 N.  W.  consists  of  about  three  thousand  houses,  floating  as  above 
 
 •  Uassel.  f  Pennant's  Ontliiics^  iv.  61?.  $  Hassel  and  Briitw. 
 
668  ASIATIC  ISLES. 
 
 described  ;  it  was  greatly  frequented  by  the  Chinese,  who  proba- 
 bly continue  to  be  the  chief  traders  to  Borneo. 
 
 This  large  island  is  surrounded  with  many  small  isles  which, 
 from  their  relation  to  this  comparative  continent,  may  be  termed 
 Bornean  islands.  Such  is  the  group  of  Sooloo  in  the  N.  E. ;  of 
 which  Mr.  Dalrymple,  whp  visited  them,  has  given  a  good  account. 
 They  are  rich  in  pearls,  for  which  u-ey  were  noted  in  the  time  of 
 Magalhaens.  The  chief  isle  is  thirty  miles  by  twelve  :  the  natives 
 rather  polished,  the  government  being  vested  in  a  sultan,  for  the 
 Mahometan  religion  extends  thus  far.*  The  isle  of  Taivee  lies 
 between  the  Sooioos  and  Borneo.  At  the  northern  extremity  is 
 Banguey.)  not  far  from  Balubac,  the  most  S.  W.  of  the  Philippines  ; 
 and  Bala?nbangan.f  remarkable  for  a  settlement  attempted  by  the 
 English  in  1773,  but  evacuated  either  on  account  of  the  unhealthy 
 climate,  or  of  a  Dutch  invasion.  To  the  W.  of  Borneo  are  the 
 groups  of  Aaiuna  and  Anamba  little  visited  or  known  ;  an  obser- 
 vation applicable  also  to  several  isles  in  the  S.  of  Borneo  ;  hwtFulo 
 Laut,  which  by  D'Anvillc  is  represented  as  an  isle,  is  by  later  dis- 
 coveries attached  to  the  continent  of  Borneo. 
 
 III.    THE  MANILLAS,  OR  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS. 
 
 This  large  group  was  discovered  by  Magalhaens  in  1521,  who 
 called  them  the  archipelago  of  St.  Lazarus  ;  but  they  were  after- 
 Avards  styled  the  Philippines,  in  honor  of  that  infamous  tyrant  Philip 
 II.  of  Spain.     They  contain  3,800,000  inhabitants.! 
 
 Luzon  is  the  largest  and  most  important  of  these  isles,  being 
 more  than  seven  degrees,  or  near  500  miles  in  length,  by  about 
 100  of  medial  breadth.  The  jealousy  of  the  Spaniards  has  pre- 
 vented the  acquisition  of  precise  knowledge  concerning  this  im- 
 portant island,  which  is  pervaded  in  its  length  by  a  chain  of  high 
 mountains  towards  the  east.  Gold,  copper,  and  iron  are  among 
 the  certain  products  ;  and  the  soil  is  reported  to  be  uncomm.only 
 fruitful.  The  natives,  who  are  of  a  mild  character,  are  called 
 Tagals,  like  all  those  of  the  Philippines,  and  seem  of  Malay  origin.^ 
 They  are  tall  and  well  made,  wearing  only  a  kind  of  shirts  with 
 loose  drawers,  but  the  dress  of  the  women  is  chiefly  a  large  mantle, 
 and  their  black  and  beautiful  hair  sometimes  reaches  the  ground, 
 the  complexion  being  a  deep  tawny.  The  houses  are  of  bamboo 
 covered  with  palm  leaves,  raised  on  pillars  to  the  height  of  eight 
 or  ten  feet.  The  chief  food  is  rice,  and  salted  fish.  There  are 
 many  lakes  in  .  'le  isle  of  Luzon,  the  most  considerable  being  that 
 which  gives  source  to  the  river  of  Manilla.  Several  volcanoes 
 occur,  and  earthquakes  are  not  unknown.  1  he  cotton  is  of  pecu- 
 liar beauty  ;  and  the  sugar  cane  and  cocoa  trees  are  objects  of 
 particular  culture.  The  city  of  Manilla  is  well  built  and  fortified, 
 but  a  third  partis  occupied  by  convents  :  the  number  of  Christian 
 inhabitants  is  computed  at  12,000.      Between  this  city  and  Aca- 
 
 *  See  alsothe  A'oyagesof  Soinierat  and  Foirest.     I  Hassel.      t  Scnnerat  ii.  lOS. 
 
ASIATIC  ISLES.  66^ 
 
 pulco,  nearly  in  the  same  parallel  on  the  W.  of  Mexico,  was  con- 
 ducted a  celebrated  commerce  through  a  space  of  about  140  de- 
 grees, or  about  8400  g.  miles,  more  than  one  third  of  the  circum- 
 ference of  the  globe.  The  Manilla  ships,  or  galleons,  were  formerly 
 of  great  size,  but  latterly  smaller  vessels  have  been  used.  The 
 city  of  Manilla  was  taken  by  the  English  in  1762.  The  Chinese 
 were  here  numerous  till  the  beginning  of  the  i7th  century,  when 
 the  Spaniards  committed  a  terrible  massacre  of  that  industrious 
 people.  In  1769  it  is  said  that  they  were  again  expelled  from  all 
 these  isles,  by  the  bigotry  of  the  governor  :  since  which  time  there 
 has  been  a  great  decline  in  industry  and  produce. 
 
 Next  in  size  is  3Iindanao,  a  beautiful  and  fertile  island,  the  chief 
 Spanish  settlement  being  at  Sambuang  in  the  S.  W.*  This  island 
 is  in  general  mountainous ;  but  the  vales  consist  of  a  rich  black 
 mould,  watered  with  the  purest  rivulets.  The  Lano  is  a  large  in- 
 land lake,  about  60  miles  in  circumference.  Horses  and  buffaloes 
 have  here  mu'tiplicd  to  a  s\irprising  degree.  In  the  south  there 
 is  a  volcano  of  constant  eruption,  Avhich  serves  as  a  sea  mark. 
 
 The  other  chief  Philippines  are  Pulanvain,  Mindoro,  Pani  Bug- 
 las  or  isle  of  JVeffroes,  Zedu,  JLeyt,  or  L,eita,  and  Samar.  On  the 
 E.  of  Zebu  is  the  small  isle  of  il/acfa??,  where  the  celebrated  navi- 
 gator Magalhaens  was  slain.  The  other  little  islands  might  be 
 counted  by  hundreds.  In  general  this  grand  and  extensive  group 
 presents  many  volcanic  appearances  ;  such  as  lava,  volcanic  glass, 
 sulphur,  and  hot  springs.  These  isles  present  wild  boars,  deer, 
 and  useful  animals  of  various  kinds  ;  and  among  vegetables  the 
 bread  fruit  must  not  be  forgotten,  which  first  appears  on  the  east- 
 ern coasts  of  Sumatra,  and  thence  extends  its  benefits  thtough 
 innumerable  islands  in  the  Indian  and  Pacific  oceans. 
 
 IV.    THE  CELEBEZIAN  ISLES. 
 
 Celebez  is  an  isle  of  great  and  irregular  length,  more  than  GOO 
 miles,  but  divided  into  various  portions  by  great  bays,  so  that  the 
 breadth  is  commonly  not  above  60  miles,  containing  about 
 92,000  squai-e  miles,  and  3,000,000  inhabitants,!  Ion.  from  116  to 
 124  E.  lat.  1  30  to  5  30  N.  This  island  is  lofty  and  mountainous, 
 especially  towards  the  cC'lre,  and  there  are  several  active  volca- 
 noes. Though  the  Asiatic  isles  abound  in  sublime  and  beautiful 
 scenery,  this  is  depicted  as  exceeding  them  all4  Rivers  abound, 
 rising  in  the  high  mountains,  and  precipitating  down  vast  rocks, 
 amidst  a  sylvan  scene  of  lofty  and  singular  trees.  The  Portu- 
 guese obtained  a  settlement  near  Macassar  in  the  S.  W.  being  fa- 
 vored by  the  king  of  that  region,  but  were  expelled  by  the 
 Dutch  in  1660,  who  continue  to  control  the  island,  the  Chinese 
 alone  being   permitted  to  trade.     The   natives,  commonly  called 
 
 *  Sonnerat,  ii.  116.  For  an  amjile  ami  emions  account  of  this  island  the  reader  may 
 consult  Foreft's  Vojage  to  New  tiuinea.  'I'he  Haraforas,  or  black  natives,  are  sold 
 viih  the  land. 
 
 t  Hassel.  if  Pennaflt  i\>.  8f6. 
 
670  ASIATIC  ISLES. 
 
 Macassars,*  often  degrade  their  eourage  in  the  quality  of  free- 
 booters, attacking  vessels  with  surprising  desperation,  and  often 
 with  lances,  or  arrows  poisoned  with  the  juice  of  the  notorious 
 tree  called  upas.  Their  houses  are  raised  on  pillars,  as  usual,  on 
 account  of  the  rainy  season,  or  W.  monsoon,  from  November  till 
 March.  The  Celebezian  group  might  aptly  be  termed  the  Isles 
 of  Poison,  being  full  of  poisonous  trees  and  plants  ;  though  the 
 noted  upas  be  exaggerated  and  ascribed  to  Java,  where  it  seems 
 less  known.  Nature  has  thus  contrasted  the  salutary  productions 
 of  the  spice  islands  with  the  most  pernicious  proofs  of  her  power. 
 This  large  island  having  been,  like  Borneo,  little  explored,  there 
 as  a  great  deficiency  in  its  natural  history.  The  inhabitants  are 
 said  to  cultivate  great  quantities  of  rice. 
 
 Around  Celebez  are  n>any  small  isles,  as  Sanguy  in  the  N.  the 
 Shullas  and  Peling  in  the  E.  with  Boutan  and  Sala  in  the  S.  and 
 some  of  smaller  note  in  the  W.  Even  the  smallest  isles  are 
 mostly  inhabited,  and  governed  by  chiefs.  In  Sarguy  and  some 
 others  there  are  small  Dutch  garrisons,  as  advanced  guards  to 
 protect  the  Spice  islands.  Boutan  is  probably  still  ruled  by  a 
 Mahometan  sultan. 
 
 V.       THE    SPICE    ISLANDS,    INCLUDING    THE    MOLUCCAS. 
 
 THE  Moluccas, originally  and  strictly  so  termed,  are  only 
 five  small  islands  on  the  W.  of  Gilolo,  namely  Ternat,  Tidore, 
 MoTiR,  Makian,  and  Bakian  or  Batchian  :t  but  as  the  kings 
 of  the  Moluccas  have  possessed  territory  in  Gilolo  and  other  ad- 
 jacent isles,  and  as  the  term  Moluccas  is  considered  as  synony- 
 anous  with  that  of  Spice  Islands^  the  appellation  has  been  extend- 
 ed. The  Moluccas  of  D'Anville  include  all  the  islands  in  the 
 oriental  Archipelago,  except  those  of  Sunda  and  the  Philippines  ; 
 but  this  extension  is  objectionable,  as  leading  to  vague  ideas  and 
 confused  description  ;  and  it  seems  preferable  to  include  under 
 the  name  of  Spice  Islands  those  from  Mortay  in  the  N.  to  Banda 
 in  the  S.  and  from  Mysol  in  the  E.  to  Bouro  and  Oubi  in  the  W. 
 Thvis  the  chief  Spice  Islands  will  be  Gilolo,  Ceram,  and  Bouro, 
 with  MoRTAY,  Oubi,  Mysol,  Bouro,  that  of  Amboyna,  and  the 
 group  of  Banda,  with  such  small  isles  'S  approximate  nearer  to 
 these  than  to  the  Celebezian  group,  or  Sumatrian  chain.  In  this 
 description  are  specially  included  the  five  celebrated  isles,  origi- 
 nally and  peculiarly  termed  the  Moluccas. 
 
 GoLiLO  is  of  considerable  extent;  but  in  irregularity  of  form 
 similar  to  Celebez.  The  length  is  about  230  miles  ;  the  breadth 
 of  each  limb  seldom  above  40.  The  shores  are  low  :  the  interior 
 rises  to  high  peaks.  Gilolo  is  said  to  have  been  once  governed 
 by  one  sovereign,  a  sheref  from  IVlecca  ;  but  the  sultans  of  Ternat 
 and  Tidore  seem  now  to  share  this  large  isle  between  them  \\  a 
 
 •  The  most  powerful  people   are  the  Bonians,  on  the  bay  of  Boiii,   cnlle<l    Bitg- 
 'passes  by  English  seamen,  and  by  other  nutions  Jiou^nfse.       StavoriniEjil,  181-. 
 t  Pigal'etta,  IC7.  ±  Pennant,  iv.  193: 
 
ASIATIC  ISLES,  KTl 
 
 circumstance  which  adds  to  the  propriety  of  including  Gilolo  in 
 the  same  description  with  the  Moluccas.  One  of  the  chief  towns 
 is  Tatany,  situated  on  a  point  or  small  promontory  of  the  eastern 
 limb,  faced  with  precipices,  so  as  to  be  only  accessible  by  ladders. 
 This  isle  abounds  with  oxen,  buffaloes,  goats,  deer,  and  wild  hogs  ; 
 but  the  sheep  are  few.  The  bread  fruit  is  frequent  in  Gilolo,  with 
 the  sago  tree.  The  natives  are  industrious,  particularly  in  weav- 
 ing, but  their  exertions  are  suppressed  by  Batavian  jealousy. 
 
 Cekam  is  another  island  of  considerable  size,  being  about  190 
 miles  in  length  by  40  in  breadth  ;  low  towards  the  shore,  but  with 
 inland  mountains.  Mr.  Forrest  specially  mentions  that  Ceram 
 produces  clove  trees  ;  and  there  are  large  forests  of  the  sago 
 fee,  which  forms  a  considerable  article  of  export :  yet  this  large 
 island  has  been  little  explored,  and  is  almost  unknown. 
 
 As  in  geographical  description  the  size  of  an  island  is  a  leading 
 feature,  the  next  mentioned  must  be  Bouro,  about  90  miles  ia 
 length,  by  50  in  br'  adth.  This  isle  was  nominally  subject  to  the 
 king  of  Ternat  ;  but  in  1660  the  Dutch  built  a  fort,  and,  though 
 they  burned  the  exterior  woods,  seem  to  have  improved  the  in- 
 dustry of  the  inhabitants.*  The  civet  weasel  is  found  here,  and 
 the  curious  hog  called  babiroussa.  The  isle  of  Bouro  I'ises  sud- 
 denly from  a  deep  sea,  being  encompassed  as  with  a  wall.  The 
 interior  mountains  are  so  lofty,  that  they  may  sometimes  be  des- 
 cried at  the  distance  of  28  leagues.  Green  ebony,  and  a  kind  of 
 iron  wood,  are  mentioned  among  the  trees  ;  and  it  is  probable  that 
 the  clove,  and  perhaps  the  nutmeg,  defy,  in  the  mountain  recess- 
 es, the  wild  avarice  of  man. 
 
 Of  the  other  large  islands  Bakian  orBatchian  will  be  described 
 with  the  Moluccas  strictly  so  called.  Of  Mortay,  Mysol,  (Mix- 
 oal  or  Michoal,)  and  Oubi,  little  is  known.  Mortay  is  a  beauti- 
 ful isle,  but  thinly  inhabited,  though  full  of  sago  trees,  which  are 
 cut  by  the  people  of  Gilolo  ;  and  is  subject  to  the  king  of  Ternat. 
 Mysol,  the  most  eastern  of  this  group,  is  of  a  triangular  3hape» 
 with  a  bold  shore.  The  villages  are  built  in  the  water  upon 
 posts  ;  and  there  are  picturesque  forests  visited  by  the  birds  of  par- 
 adise, which  seem  to  migrate  from  Papua,  and  are  caught  in  con- 
 siderable numbers.  These  romantic  and  beautiful  birds  strictly 
 belong  to  Papua,  or  New  Guinea,  but  their  flight  extends  over 
 most  of  the  Spice  Islands,  where  they  always  descend  as  from 
 heaven,  and,  as  the  natives  believe,  float  in  aromatic  air.  Oubs 
 abounds  in  cloves,  and  the  Dutch  have  a  small  foit  on  the  west 
 side  :  but  the  inhabitants  are  chiefly  fugitive  slaves  from  Ternat- 
 
 But  the  most  celebrated  and  important  islands  of  this  group  re- 
 main to  be  described.  The  Moluccas,  strictly  so  called,  in  the 
 western  extremity  ;  and  Amboyna  and  Banda  in  the  south.  The 
 little,  or  proper  Moluccas,  as  already  mentioned,  are  Ternat, 
 TiDORE,  MoTiR,  Makian,  and  Batchiax.  In  1510  they  were 
 V^isited  by  Portuguese  navigators  from  the  west  ;  and  the  fame  of 
 the  discovery  was  one  of  the  chief  inducements  to  the  first  cir- 
 
 *  Pennamt,  iv.  174. 
 
era  Asiatic  isles. 
 
 cumnavigation  of  the  Spaniards,  conducted  by  Magalhacns,  a  Por- 
 tuguese  conimodove.  These  two  great  mariduie  nations  after- 
 wards contested  this  precious  property  ;  but  the  Moluccas  were 
 finally  resigned  to  the  Portuguese,  who  were  supplanted  by  the 
 Dutch  about  the  year  1607.  The  English  also  clairaing  this  opu- 
 lent commerce,  a  treaty  was  signed  in  1619,  declaring  the  Moluc- 
 cas, A:nboyna,  and  Banda,  common  to  both  :  the  English  to  have 
 one  third  of  the  produce,  and  the  Dutch  t>vo  thirds  ;  each  contrib- 
 uting a  similar  proportion  to  defend  the  islands  from  invaders.* 
 But  in  the  short  course  of  three  years  the  Dutch,  actuated  by  their 
 insatiable  avarice,  determined,  by  the  most  diabolical  means,  to 
 free  themselves  from  all  competitors.  They  forged  a  plot  of  the 
 English  against  their  lives  and  liberties,  and  put  them  to  death  by 
 the  most  exquisite  tortures. 
 
 The  clove  is  said  to  have  abounded  particularly  in  iVIakian,  but 
 the  g;rowth  was  afterwards  confined  by  the  Dutch  to  Amboyna. 
 The  nutmeg  s-pecially  flourished  in  the  group  .  f  Banda  ;  and  the 
 Romans  appear  to  have  known  the  clove,  but  not  the  nutmeg, 
 which  was  probably  brought  to  Europe  by  the  Mahometans.  The 
 largest  of  the  little  Moluccas  is  Batchiak,  being  governed  by  a 
 sultan,  who  is  likewise  sovereign  of  Oubi  and  Ceram,  with  Go- 
 ram,  a  little  isle  S.  E.  of  Cerara,  reputed  the  most  eastern 
 boundary  of  the  Mahometan  faith.  This  monarch  has  a  pension 
 from  the  Dutch,  either  for  the  destruction  or  supply  of  nutmegs, 
 but  is  otherwise  little  subservient.  Batchian  rises  into  woody 
 hills  ;  and  on  the  shores,  as  in  most  isles  of  this  archipelago,  there 
 are  prodigious  rocks  of  coral,  of  infinite  variety  and  beauty.  Ma- 
 KiAN  is  a  small  isle  at  a  greater  interval,  to  tlie  N.  of  Batchian,  than 
 appears  between  the  otlier  Moluccas,  and  rises  like  a  high  conic 
 mountain  from  the  sea.  This  was  regarded  as  the  chief  Dutch 
 settlement  before  Amboyna  became  the  metropolis  of  the  Moluc- 
 cas. Next  is  MoTiR,  formerly,  said  to  be  the  seat  of  Venus  and 
 voluptuousness.  The  most  distinguished  of  the  proper  Moluccas 
 are  Tidore  and  Tzrnat-  While  Portugal  was  united  to  Spain 
 the  Dutch  were  defeated  near  Tidore  in  1610  by  the  Spanish  ad- 
 miral Sylva  ;  but  by  the  assistance  of  the  king  of  Ternat  the  Bata- 
 vians  seized  the  fort.  In  Tidore  there  are  25  mosques  ;  and  the 
 sultan,  as  already  mentioned,  possesses  also  the  south  of  Gilolo, 
 and  claims  tribute  from  Mysol. 
 
 Ternat  is  the  most  northern  and  most  important  of  the  Mo- 
 luccas, though  it  scarcely  exceed  24  miles  in  circumference. 
 The  sultan  controls  r^Iakian  and  Motir,  with  the  north  of  Gilolo, 
 Mortay,  and  even  some  Celebezian  isles,  and  part  of  Papua, 
 whence  he  receives  a  tribute  of  gold,  amber,  and  birds  of  Paradise. 
 In  1638  the  Batavians  formed  an  alliance  with  the  king  of  Ter- 
 nat and  the  lesser  princes,  which  has  been  repeatedly  renewed  ; 
 but  garrisons  are  established  to  enforce  the  observance,  and  the 
 sultans  of  Ternat  and  Tidore  are  watched  with  great  attention. 
 Ternat  consists   chiefly  of  high  land,  abounding  with   streams. 
 
 "  Rvmei'srocilera.  xAii.  171*.  • 
 
ASIATIC  ISLES.  673 
 
 "iwhich  burst  from  the  cloudy  peaks  :  and  there  is  a  volcano  which 
 displayed  great  force  in  1693.  The  chief  quadrupeds,  are  goats, 
 deer,  and  hogs,  and  the  birds  are  of  distinguished  beauty,  particu- 
 larly the  kingfisher,  clothed  in  scarlet  and  mazareen  blue,  called 
 by  the  natives  the  Goddess.  In  Ternat  the  Boa-serpent  is  some- 
 times found,  of  the  length  of  thirty  feet  ;  and  by  its  power  of  suc- 
 tion and  constriction  is  reported  sometimes  to  swallow  even  small 
 deer. 
 
 Equally  distinguished  are  the  most   southern   spice  islands  of 
 Amboyna  and  Banda,  cloves  being  now  restricted,  so  far  as  Dutch 
 avarice  could  effect,  to  Amboyna,  and  nutmegs  to  Banda.     The 
 governor  of  Amboyna  makes  an  annual  progress   throughout  the 
 Spice  Islands,  to  see  that  treaties  are  observed,  and  suppress  any- 
 new  object  of  jealousy.     Amboyna  was  discovered  by  the  Por- 
 tuguese about  1515,  but   was  not  seized  till   1564;  and  was  con- 
 quered by  the  Dutch  about  1607.     This  celebrated  isle  is  about  60 
 miles  in  length  from  N.  to  S.  and  on  the  west  side  thei'e  is  a  large 
 bay,  which  divides  it  into  two  limbs  or  peninsulas.     On  the  east- 
 ern side  is  another  bay,  with  a  bad  harbor,  where  the  Portuguese 
 erected  their  chief  fortress  Victoria.     The  town  of  Amboyna,  the 
 capital  of  the  isle,  stands  near  the  S.  W.  extremity  and  is  neatly 
 built  ;  the  houses,  on  account  of  the  frequent  earthquakes,  seldom 
 exceed  one  floor.     The   face  of  this  island  is  beautiful,  woody- 
 mountains  and  verdant  vales  being  interspersed  with  hamlets,  and 
 enriched  by  cultivation.*     The  clove  tree  grows  to   the  height  of 
 about  40  or   50  feet,  with  spreading  branches   and   long  pointed 
 leaves.    In  deep  sheltered  vales  some  trees  will  produce  30  pounds 
 weight  annually,  the  chief  crop  being  from  November  to  February. 
 The  soil  is  mostly  a   reddish  clay,  but  in  the  vales  blackish  and 
 sandy.     When  Amboyna   was  recently  seized  by  the  English,t  it 
 was  found,  with  its  dependencies,  to  contain  45,252  souls,  of  which 
 17,813    were   Protestants,   the    rest    Mahometans,  except  a  few 
 Chinese  and  savages.     The  Dutch  are  tolerably  polished,  this  be- 
 ing the  next  settlement  to  Batavia  in  wealth   and  consequence. 
 The  natives  cannot  be  praised,  they  differ  little  from  other   Ma- 
 lays ;  and  when  intoxicated  with  opium  will  commit  any  crime. 
 The  dress  is  a  loose  shirt,  or  frock,  of  cotton  cloth  ;  and  the  chiefs 
 are  called   rajahs.     Cattle,  grain,  Sec.   are  imported  from   Java. 
 The  Dutch  discouraged  the    growth  of  indigo,  lest   the  natives 
 should  become  rich  and  rebellious  ;  but  the  sugar  and  coffee  are 
 excellent,  and  among  many  delicious  fruits  is   the  mangosteen  of 
 Hindostan.     About  eleven  years  ago  nutmegs  were  permitted  to 
 be  cultivated  in  Amboyna,  Banda  not  furnishing  a  sufficient  sup*- 
 ply.     The  chief  animals  are  deer  and  wild  hogs,  and  among  the 
 birds  is  the  cassowary.     The  most  curious   woods  are  brought 
 from  Cei'am. 
 
 •  An  account  of  the  Spice  Islands,  since  they  have  been  in  the  possession  of  Great 
 Britain.  Asiatic  Register,  18U0,  p.  200.  There  was  a  most  violent  eaithquake  in 
 1755. 
 
 ■j-  The  Islands  of  Amboyna  .ind  Banda  m  ere  taken  without  resistance  in  Februaiy 
 and  March,  1796,  by  the  English  admiral  Rainier, 
 
 VoL.Ti.  85 
 
674  AUSTRALASIA. 
 
 Banda,  or  Lantor,  is  the  chief  isle  of  a  group  which  com- 
 prises six  or  seven  others  ;  it  does  not  exceed  8  miles  in  length, 
 W.  to  E.  and  the  greatest  breadth  at  its  eastern  extremity  may  be 
 5  miles.  The  nutmeg  tree  is  the  principal  object  of  cultivation  in 
 these  isles  ;  and  flourishes  not  only  in  the  rich  black  mould,  but 
 even  amidst  the  lavas  of  Gonong,  which  is  the  highest  isle,  the 
 summit  being  1940  feet  above  the  sea.  When  the  English  seized 
 these  isles  in  1796,  the  annual  produce  was  about  163,000  pounds 
 of  nutmegs  and  46,000  pounds  of  mace.*  The  nutmeg  tree  grows 
 to  the  size  of  a  pear  tree,  the  leaves  resembling  those  of  the  lau- 
 rel, and  bears  fruit  from  the  age  of  ten  to  one  hundred  years. 
 The  nutmeg,  when  ripe  on  the  tree,  has  both  a  very  curious  and 
 beautiful  appearance  :  it  is  about  the  size  of  an  apricot,  and  nearly 
 of  a  similar  color,  with  the  same  kind  of  hollow  mark  all  round  it ; 
 in  shape  it  is  somewhat  like  a  pear  :  when  perfectly  ripe  the 
 rind  over  the  mark  opens,  and  discovers  the  mace,  of  a  deep  red, 
 groAving  over  and  covering  in  part  the  thin  shell  of  the  nutmeg, 
 which  is  black.f 
 
 The  ground  being  chiefly  occupied  with  these  precious  planta- 
 tions, cattle,  grain,  8cc.  are  imported  from  Batavia  ;  and  the  Chi- 
 nese merchants  carry  European  articles  even  to  Papua  or  New 
 Guinea.  The  inhabitants  of  the  Banda  isles  were  found  to  be 
 5763.  The  English  were  expelled  from  Lantor,  and  Rohn,  or 
 Pulo  Rohn,  prior  to  the  massacre  of  Amboyna  j  but  seized  the 
 whole  Spice  Islands  in  1796,  and  restored  them  to  their  Bato.vian 
 masters  by  the  treaty  with  France,  1801.  In  1810,  they  were 
 again  taken  by  the  British,  in  whose  possession  they  now  remain. 
 
 AUSTRALASIA. 
 
 AUSTRALASIA,  as  already  explained,  contains  the 
 following  countries  : 
 
 1.  The  central  and  chief  land  of  New  Holland,  with  any  isles 
 which  may  be  discovered  in  the  adjacent  Indian  ocean,  twenty  de- 
 grees to  the  W.  and  between  twenty  and  thirty  degrees  to  the  E. 
 including  particularly  all  the  large  islands  that  follow  : 
 
 2.  Papua,  or  New  Guinea. 
 
 3.  New  Britain  and  New  Ireland,  with  the  Solomon  Isles. 
 
 4.  New  Caledonia,  and  the  New  Hebudes. 
 
 5.  New  Zealand. 
 
 *  The  hurricane  ami  earthquake,  1778,  almost  annihilated  Uie  nutmeg  trees  ia 
 Banda,  so  that  the  Dutch  have  become  the  dupes  of  their  own  avarice.  From  1796  to 
 1798  the  English  East  India  Company  imported  817,312  lb.  cloves,  93,732  lb  nut- 
 megs, 4G,7oO  lb.  mace,  besides  private  trade,  araountins  to  about  a  third  part  of  the 
 above.     Stavoi'inus,  ii.  418. 
 
 t  Asiatic  Register,  1800,  p.  21(7. 
 
AUSTRALASIA.  675 
 
 5.  The  large  island  called  Van  Diemen's  Land,  recently  dis- 
 covered to  be  separated  from  New  Holland  by  a  strait,  or  rather 
 channel,  called  Bass's  strait. 
 
 1.      NEW    HOLLAND. 
 
 SOME  suppose  that  this  extensive  region,  when  more  thor- 
 oughly investigated,  will  be  found  to  consist  of  two,  three,  or  more 
 vast  islands,  intersected  by  narrow  seas.  However  this  be,  the 
 most  recent  and  authentic  charts  still  indicate  Nev^  Holland  as  a 
 country  fully  entftled  to  the  appellation  of  a  continent.  The  length 
 from  E.  to  W.  is  about  43  degrees  of  longitude,  in  the  medial  lat- 
 itude of  25°,  that  is  about  2730  miles.  The  breadth  from  N.  to  S. 
 extends  from  1 1°  to  39°,  being  28  degrees,  1960  miles.  Eui'ope, 
 the  smallest  of  the  ancient  continents,  is  supposed  to  be  about 
 3300  miles  in  its  utmost  length,  and  its  greatest  breadth  2350. 
 New  Holland,  appears  therefore,  to  be  a  quarter  less  than  Europe. 
 But  the  proximity  of  so  many  large  islands  recompenses  this 
 defect ;  and  the  whole  of  Australasia  Avill  probably  be  found  great- 
 ly to  exceed  the  European  continent.  It  must  at  the  same  time 
 be  remembei'ed,  that  New  Holland  may  be  discovered  to  consist 
 of  two  or  more  islands,  so  that  Australasia  is  not  admitted  as  anew 
 continent.,  but  merely  as  a  new  division  of  the  globe  ;  in  which 
 view  this  and  Polynesia  may  be  termed  maritime  divisions,  while 
 the  four  ancient  quarters  are  strictly  terrene. 
 
 Although  the  northern  parts  of  Papua  were  probably  not  unknown 
 to  the  Chinese,  yet  there  is  no  evidence,  that  they  had  discovered 
 New  Holland  ;  there  is  therefore  room  to  believe  that  the  first 
 civilized  people  to  whom  it  was  disclosed  were  the  Spaniards  or 
 Portuguese,  the  earliest  European  navigators  in  this  portion  of  the 
 globe.  An  ancient  map  now  lodged  in  the  British  museum  has 
 been  thought  to  evince,  that  a  considerable  portion  of  the  coast, 
 now  called  New  South  Wales,  was  known  to  the  Spaniards  or 
 Portuguese  ;  but  the  precise  epoch  of  the  map  or  discovery 
 seems  uncertain. 
 
 The  Portuguese  being  supplanted  by  the  Dutch,  the  latter  are 
 regarded  by  the  learned  president  Des  Brosses,  as  the  chief  dis- 
 coverers of  Australasia,  between  the  year  1616  and  16%4.*  The 
 first  discovery  he  dates  in  the  month  of  October  1616,  when  the 
 western  extremity  was  explored  by  Hartog.  The  northern  part, 
 called  Diemen's  Land,  was  disclosed  by  another  Dutch  navigator, 
 named  Zeachen,  who  bestowed  the  appellation  in  honor  of  Antony 
 Van  Diemen,  governor  general  in  the  East  Indies.  In  like  man- 
 ner Carpentaria  was  named  from  general  Carpenter,  being  discoy- 
 ered  in  1628. 
 
 In  1642,  that  celebrated  navigator,  Tasman,  leaving  Batavia 
 with  two  ships,  performed  almost  a  circuit  of  Australasia,  and  dis- 
 covered the  southern  land  of  Van  Diemen^  with  New  Zealand,  and 
 
 *  Des  Brosses,  i,  WC,  * 
 
676  AUSTRALASIA. 
 
 some  isles  of  less  consequence.  It  would  be  foreign  to  the  pre- 
 sent purpose  to  detail  the  other  discoveries,  \vhich  preceded  the 
 voyages  of  Cook,  in  1768,  1772,  and  1776,  which,  from  the  super 
 rior  amplitude  and  accuracy  of  the  details,  may  be  said  to  amount 
 to  a  new  discovery. 
 
 The  eastern  coast  having  been  carefully  examined  by  Cook,  and 
 justly  appearing  of  great  importance,  was  formally  taken  posses- 
 sion of  in  the  name  of  the  king  of  Great  Britain,  1770.  On  the 
 close  of  the  American  war,  it  being  difficult  to  select  a  proper 
 place  of  ti'ansportation  for  criminals  sentenced  to  that  punishment 
 by  the  laws  of  their  country,  this  new  territory  was  at  length  pre- 
 ferred, in  1786,  and  the  first  ship  sailed  from  Spithead  on  the  30th 
 January  1787,  and  arrived  on  the  20th  of  the  same  month  in  the 
 following  year.*  Botany  Bay  being  found  to  be  a  station  of  infe- 
 rior advantages  to  what  were  expected,  and  no  spot  appearing 
 proper  for  the  colony,  it  was  immediately  resolved  by  Governor 
 Phillip  to  transfer  it  to  another  excellent  inlet,  about  twelve  miles 
 farther  to  the  north,  called  Port  Jackson,  on  the  south  side  of 
 which,  at  a  spot  called  Sidney  Cove,  this  settlement  is  now  fixed. 
 Port  Jackson  is  one  of  the  noblest  harbors  in  the  world,  extending 
 about  fourteen  miles  in  length,  with  numerous  creeks  or  coves. 
 
 Difficulties  with  regard  to  subsistence  and  some  unexpected 
 misfortunes  attended  the  new  colony,  the  sheep  being  stolen,  and 
 the  cattle  wandered  into  the  woods.  For  a  minute  account  of  the 
 progress  of  this  interesting  colony  till  1797,  the  reader  may  con- 
 sult the  work  of  Mr.  Collins,  who  held  an  eiuinent  situation  in  the 
 establishment.t  A  space  of  about  50  miles  around  the  colony  had 
 then  been  explored,  and  two  rivers  called  Nepean  and  Hawksbu- 
 ry,  and  some  mountains,  had  been  discovered.  The  cattle  v/erc 
 found  grazing  in  a  remote  meadow,  in  1795,  after  they  had  been 
 lost  for  seven  years,  and  had  increased  to  a  surprizing  degree. 
 The  most  I'ecent  accounts  seem  to  authenticate  the  flourishing 
 state  of  the  colony.  The  mode  of  cultivation  has  been  improved, 
 coal  and  rock  salt  discovored  ;  and  there  is  room  to  expect  that 
 this  wide  territory  will  not  be  found  deficient  in  the  usual  riches 
 of  nature. 
 
 Division.']  The  name  of  Cumberland  county  is  given  by  the 
 government  to  the  settlement  at  Sidney  Cove.  It  is  about  50 
 miles  in  length,  and  30  in  breadth  ;  bounded  W.  by  Caermar- 
 then  and  Lansdown  Hills  ;  N.  by  Broken  Bay,  and  S.  and  S.  W.  by 
 Botany  Bay.  The  chief  place  of  settlement,  is  at  Sidney  Cove, 
 near  the  centre,  where  a  town  has  been  regularly  laid  out,  and 
 built.  The  principal  streets  are  200  feet  wide.  •  The  climate  is 
 said  to  be  equal  to  the  finest  in  Europe. 
 
 I7ihabitants.~\  These  historical  outlines  being  premised,  it  will 
 be  proper  to  offer  a  brief  and  indeed  necessarily  defective  descrip- 
 tion of  this  new  continent,  as  it  is  conceived  to  be  in  its  original 
 state.  From  the  accounts  of  various  navigators,  there  is  room  to 
 infer  that  this  extensive  tract  is  peopled  by  three  or  four  races  oi 
 
 *  Cdllins,  i.  p.  ii. 
 
 t  For  later  information,  the  reade/  is  referred  to  Peron's  vCjage  to  Australasia. 
 
AUSTRALASIA.  677 
 
 men,  those  observed  in  the  S.  W.  being  desbribed  as  different 
 from  those  in  the  N.*  and  both  from  those  in  the  E.  with  whom 
 alone  we  are  intimately  acquainted.  These  are  perhaps  in  the 
 most  early  stage  of  society  which  has  yet  been  discovered  in  any 
 part  of  the  globe.  They  are  merely  divided  into  families,  the  se- 
 nior being  styled  Be-ana,  or  Father.  Each  family  or  tribe  has  a 
 particular  place  of  residence,  and  is  distinguished  by  adding  jr«/  to 
 the  name  of  the  place  ;  thus  the  southern  shore  of  Botany  Bay  is 
 called  Gwea,  and  the  tribe  there  Gwea-gal.  Another  tribe  nume- 
 rous and  muscular,  has  the  singular  prerogative  of  exacting  a 
 tooth  from  young  men  of  other  families,  the  sole  token  of  govern- 
 ment or  subordination.  No  religion  whatever  is  known,  though 
 they  have  a  faint  idea  of  a  future  existence,  and  think  their  peo- 
 ple return  to  the  clouds,  whence  they  originally  fell.  They  are 
 of  a  low  stature,  and  ill  made  ;  the  arms,  legs,  and  thighs,  being 
 remarkably  thin,  perhaps  owing  to  their  poor  living  on  fish,  the 
 only  food  of  those  on  the  coast,  while  a  few  in  the  woods  subsist 
 on  such  animals  as  they  can  catch,  and  climb  trees  for  honey,  fly- 
 ing squirrels,  and  opossums. f  The  features  of  the  women  are 
 not  unpleasant,  though  approaching  to  the  negro.  The  black 
 bushy  beai'ds  of  the  men,  and  the  bone  or  reed,  Avhich  they  thrust 
 through  the  cartilage  of  the  nose,  gives  them  a  disgusting  appear- 
 ance :  which  is  not  improved  by  the  practice  of  rubbing  fish  oil 
 into  their  skins,  as  a  protection  from  the  air  and  moskitos,  so  that 
 in  hot  weather  the  stench  is  intolerable.  They  color  their  faces 
 with  white  or  red  clay.  The  women  are  marked  with  the  loss  of 
 the  two  first  joints  of  the  little  finger  of  the  left  hand,  as  they  were 
 supposed  to  be  in  the  way  when  they  coiled  their  fishing  lines. |: 
 It  is  however  not  improbable  that  this  practice,  and  the  extraction 
 of  a  tooth  from  the  boys,  may  be  meie  initiations,  rude  lessons  that 
 they  may  learn  to  bear  pain  with  apathy.  The  children  are  sel- 
 dom disfigured,  except  by  accidents  from  fire  ;  and  their  sight  is 
 surprisingly  acute.  Some  are  nearly  as  black  as  Afi'ican  negroes, 
 while  others  exhibit  a  copper  or  Malay  color,  but  the  hair  is  long, 
 not  woolly  like  the  African.  Their  noses  are  flat,  nostrils  wide, 
 sunk  eyes,  thick  brows  and  lips,  with  a  mouth  of  prodigious  width, 
 but  the  teeth  white  and  even.  «  Many  had  very  prominent  jaws  ; 
 and  there  was  one  man  who,  but  for  the  gift  of  speech,  might  very 
 well  have  passed  for  an  ourang  outang.  He  was  remarkably  hairy  ; 
 his  arms  appeared  of  an  uncommon  length  ;  in  his  gait  he  was 
 not  perfectly  upright  ;  and  in  his  whole  manner  seemed  to  have 
 more  of  the  brute,  and  less  of  the  human  species  about  him,  than 
 any  of  his  countrymen."§ 
 
 *  Yet  the  description  of  Dampier,  who  visited  this  part  in  1688.  presents  a  g:reat 
 similarity  with  that  of  the  natives  in  the  colony  near  Port  Jackson.    (Vol.  i.  p.  462.) 
 
 t  Collins,  i.  550. 
 
 T  Patterson,  in  his  travels  in  Africa,  tells  us  that  he  met  with  a  tribe  of  Hottentots, 
 near  Orange  River,  all  of  whom  had  lost  the  first  joint  of  their  little  finger  :  the  reason 
 they  gave  for  cutting  it  off  was,  that  it  was  a  cure  for  a  particular  sickness  to  which 
 ihey  were  subject  when  young.  It  would  be  a  curious  coincidence,  should  it  be  dis- 
 covered that  the  natives  of  New-HoUand  do  it  for  any  similar  reason. 
 
 $  Collins,  i.  654. 
 
678  AUSTRALASIA. 
 
 The  huts  ave  most  rudely  constructed  of  the  bark  of  trees,  in 
 the  form  of  an  oven,  the  fire  being  at  the  entrance.  Here  they 
 sleep  promiscuously,  if  not  interrupted  by  their  frequent  enmities 
 and  assassinations.  Fish  are  killed  with  a  kind  of  prong,  or  taken 
 by  the  women,  with  lines  of  bark  and  hooks  of  the  mother  of  pearl 
 oyster,  rubbed  on  a  stone,  till  the  proper  form  be  obtained.  The 
 fish  are  often  broiled  on  a  fire  laid  on  sand  in  the  canoe.  Beasts 
 are  taken  in  a  kind  of  toils.  Caterpillars  and  worms  are  likewise 
 articles  of  food.  The  canoes  are  made  of  bark,  extended  on  a 
 timber  frame. 
 
 These  poor  savages  are  the  abject  slaves  of  superstition,  believ- 
 ing in  magic  and  witchcraft  and  ghosts  ;  they  have  also  spells 
 against  thunder  and  lightning,  and  pretend  to  foretell  events  by 
 the  meteors  called  falling  stars.  They  have  not  only  personal 
 property  in  their  weapons  and  fishing  tackle,  but  some  are  sup- 
 posed hereditary  proprietors  of  certain  spots,  perhaps  assigned 
 as  rewards  for  public  services,  ar  acts  of  great  bravery.  They 
 have  names  for  the  sun  and  rsoon,  some  few  stars,  the  Magellanic 
 clouds,  and  the  milky  way.  Young  people  are  buried,  but  those 
 who  have  passed  the  middle  age  are  burnt ;  a  rude  tumulus  being 
 erected  by  way  of  tomb. 
 
 Language.']  Of  the  language  Mr.  Collins  has  given  an  ample 
 vocabulary,  and  it  is  reported  to  be  grateful  to  the  ear,  expressive 
 and  sonorous,  having  no  analogy  with  any  other  known  language  ; 
 but  ihe  dialects  of  the  various  regions  seem  entirely  different. 
 Whether  these  people  be  remains  of  aboriginal  tribes  from  the 
 most  southern  extremities  of  Asia,  or  have  passed  from  Madagas- 
 car and  the  eastern  shores  of  Africa,  are  matters  of  future  discov- 
 ery and  investigation. 
 
 Climate  and  Seasons.']  From  its  situation,  on  the  southern 
 side  of  the  equator,  the  seasons  are  like  those  of  the  southern  part 
 of  Africa  and  America,  the  reverse  of  those  in  Europe  ;  the  sum- 
 mer corresponding  with  our  winter,  and  the  spring  with  autumn. 
 Mr.  Collins  found  the  weather  in  December  very  hot,  but  the  cli- 
 mate was  allowed  to  be  fine  and  salubrious.  The  rains  were 
 heavy,  appearing  to  fall  chiefly  about  the  full  and  change  of  the 
 moon  ;  and  at  intervals  there  were  storms  of  thunder  and  light- 
 ning. In  Norfolk  island  there  is  what  may  be  called  a  rainy  sea- 
 son, from  February  to  August.  As  the  south  is  in  this  hemis- 
 phere the  region  of  cold,  there  must  be  great  difference  in  the 
 temperature  of  this  wide  continent ;  which  may  also  be  affected 
 as  usual  by  chains  of  mountains,  and  other  circumstances  yet  un- 
 discovered. 
 
 I'^acc  of  the  Country.]  It  would  be  idle  to  attempt  any  delinea- 
 tion of  the  general  aspect  of  this  country.  The  small  portion 
 known  seems  hilly,  but  not  mountainous,  partly  covered  with  tall 
 trees  clear  from  underwood  ;  which  last  however  covers  exten- 
 sive tracts  towards  the  shores,  in  which  large  swamps  also 
 occur.*     The  soil  around  Botany  Bay  is  black  and  fat,  and  fertile 
 
 *  Pennant's  Outlines,  iv.  108 ;  but  tliis  excellent  uatui-alist  seenjs  prejudiced  against 
 the  country  and  the  colony. 
 
AUSTRALASIA.  679 
 
 of  plants,  whence  the  name  arose  ;  but  tliese  favorable  appear- 
 ances were  counteracted  by  geat  disadvantages  ;  it  is  to  be  hoped 
 that  when  experience  has  indicated  the  proper  means,  this  may- 
 be rendered  a  productive  country. 
 
 liiversy  Lakes^  and  Mountains.']  Concerning  the  rivers,  lakes, 
 and  mountains  of  New  Holland  there  is  little  information.  Ne- 
 pean  river  in  New  South  Wales,  is  34  miles  S.  W.  of  Port  Hunter, 
 and  46  from  the  town  of  Paramatta.  The  Paramatta  river  passes 
 the  town  of  this  name,  which  is  the  residence  of  the  missionary, 
 and  is  a  flourishing  place.  A  chain  of  mountains  is  said  to  run 
 N.  and  S.  between  fifty  and  60  miles  inland,  but  not  easily  accessi- 
 ble on  account  of  numerous  deep  ravines.  Basaltic  columns  often 
 appear  ;  and  in  Howe  island  they  rise  to  such  a  height  as  to  be 
 visible  at  the  distance  of  twelve  leagues. 
 
 Zoology.']  This  wide  country  presents  a  peculiarity  in  the  ani- 
 mals, being  mostly  of  the  opossum  kind,  and  leaping  habitually 
 upon  the  hind  legs  :  the  chief  in  size  is  the  Kangooroo.  The 
 native  dogs  are  of  the  chacal  kind,  and  never  bark  ;  they  are  of 
 two  colors,  black  or  white  with  tinges  of  red,  and  some  are  very 
 handsome.*  Among  the  few  other  quadrupeds  yet  described  are 
 weazels  and  ant-eaters,  with  that  singular  animal  the  duck-billed 
 platypus,  in  which  nature  seems  to  delight  in  transgressing  her 
 usual  law,  the  jaws  of  a  quadruped  being  elongated  into  the  com- 
 plete bill  of  a  bird.  Among  the  birds  are  the  brown  eagle,  sevex'^ 
 zX  falcons,  and  many  elegant  parrots  ;  there  are  also  bustards  and 
 partridges,  with  some  pigeons.  A  new  kind  of  cassowaiy  must 
 not  be  omitted,  said  to  be  seven  feet  in  length  :t  it  is  not  uncom- 
 mon, and  th6  flesh  tastes  like  beef.  A.mong  the  aquatic  birds  are 
 the  heron,  and  gigantic  pelicans.  There  are  also  peculiar  ducks 
 and  geese  ;  and  the  black  swan  is  a  rare  progeny  of  the  new  con- 
 tinent. "  It  is  in  size  superior  to  the  white.  The  bill  is  of  a  rich 
 scarlet ;  near  the  tip  is  a  small  yellow  spot.  The  whole  plumage 
 of  the  most  intense  black,  except  the  primaries  and  secondaries, 
 which  are  white,  the  eyes  black,  the  feet  dusky :  it  is  found  in 
 Hawksbury  river,  and  other  fresh  waters  near  Broken  Bay,  and  has 
 all  the  graceful  actions  of  the  white  kind."| 
 
 The  tortoises,  called  green  turtle,  appear  on  the  coast  of  New- 
 Holland.  There  are  several  lizards  and  serpents.  Of  the  fish 
 may  be  named  dolphins,  porpoises,  and  a  singular  amphibious 
 kind  which  leaps  like  a  frog,  by  the  help  of  strong  breast  fins ;  so 
 that  nature  has  not  only  here  blended  the  bird  with  the  quadruped, 
 but  brought  fish  upon  land.  The  blue  crab,  of  an  ultramarine 
 color  is  of  exquisite  beauty. 
 
 Mineralogij.]  As  the  interior  mountains  of  this  region  have  not 
 been  explored,  little  can  be  said  concerning  the  mineralogy.  In 
 1797  a  ship  from  Bengal  being  wrecked  on  the  southern  shore,  of 
 seventeen  men  only  three  reached  the  settlement,  after  a  journey 
 of  eighty  days :  on  their  way  they  discovered  immense  strata  of 
 coal,  Avhich  may  prove  far  more  valuable  than  mines  of  gold.§ 
 
 *  Collins,  i,  567.  f  Pennajit,  iv.  12".  =  lb.  1.30.  §  Collins,  i,  617, 
 
680  AUSTRALASIA. 
 
 Islands.']  A/oi'folk  Island  lies  in  S.  lat.  29  4,  E.  Ion.  168  12  ;  at 
 the  distance  of  1000  miles  N.  E.  Port  Jackson,  containing  1 1,000 
 acres  of  an  excellent  soil ;  it  is  seven  leagues  in  circumference, 
 discovered  by  Capt.  Cook,  in  1774,  w^ho  observed  the  flax  plant 
 luxuriant  here  ;  but  the  chief  produce  is  spruce  pine,  which  grows 
 to  a  large  size,  many  of  the  trees  as  thick  as  two  men  could  fath- 
 om, very  straight  and  tall.  For  about  200  yards  from  ihe  shore, 
 the  ground  is  covered  so  thick  with  shrubs  and  plants,  as  hardly 
 to  be  penetrated  farther  inland.  The  woods  are  perfectly  clear 
 and  free  from  underwood,  and  the  soil  is  deep.  The  island  is  very 
 hilly.  The  highest  peak,  named  Mount  Pitt,  is  1200  feet  high. 
 The  clifts  round  the  coast  are  240  feet  perpendicular.  In  Febru- 
 ary, 1788,  twenty  six  persons  from  the  New  Holland  colony  took 
 possession  of  this  island,  which  was  inhabited,  with  a  view  to  cul- 
 tivate maize,  wheat,  and  particularly  the  flax  plant,  which  has 
 since  been  discovered  at  Sidney.  The  settlement  was  formed  on 
 Sidney  bay,  on  the  S.  side  of  the  island.  This  settlement,  for 
 want  of  a  harbor,  was  removed  to  Port  Dalrymplc,  in  1805.  Green 
 turtle  abound  on  the  shores  of  this,  and  of  Howe  island. 
 
 JVe/iean  Island,  is  opposite  Port  Hunter,  on  the  S.  coast  of  Nor- 
 folk Island.  It  is  a  mass  of  sand,  surrounded  by  a  border  of  hard 
 rocks.  The  surface  is  covered  with  coarse  grass,  and  upwards 
 of  200  fine  pines  are  growing  on  it. 
 
 Middleton's  Island,  was  discovered  by  Shortland,  appeared  about 
 six  leagues  long  ;  the  land  very  high,  with  a  remarkable  peak, 
 Ion.  159  5  E.  lat.  28  10  S. 
 
 II.       PAPUA,    OR    NEW    GUINEA. 
 
 THIS  country  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  in  Australasia, 
 as  partaking  of  the  opulence  of  the  Moluccas,  and  their  singular 
 varieties  of  plants  and  animals.  The  land  of  Papua  is  said  to  have 
 been  first  discovered  by  Saavedra,  a  Spanish  captain,  in  1528,  who 
 had  sailed  from  Mexico  by  the  command  of  Cortez,  to  explore  the 
 Spice  Islands  from  that  quarter.*  Other  Spaiiish  navigators  en- 
 larged this  discovery ;  and  the  strait  between  this  country  and 
 New  Holland  was  explored  by  Cook,  while  the  learned  President 
 Des  Brosses,  and  even  Bougainville,  the  French  circumnavigator, 
 had  doubted  whether  such  a  passage  existed.f  This  extensive 
 country  is  still  far  from  being  completely  investigated,  but  is  con- 
 ceived to  be  a  vast  island,  extending  from  a  cape,  absurdly  styled  of 
 Good  Hope,  but  more  properly  White  Point,  in  the  N.  W.  proba- 
 bly to  Cape  Rodney  in  the  S.  E.  a  length  of  more  than  1200  miles, 
 by  a  medial  breadth  of  perhaps  300,  and  thus  far  superior  ia  size 
 to  Borneo,  formerly  x-eputed  the  largest  of  islands. 
 
 •  Des  Brosses,  i.  159. 
 
 t  Introduction  to  Cook's  last  voyage  (hy  Bishop  Douglas,  p.  xvi  )  The  reader  who 
 wishes  for  more  pai-ticular  details  concerning  liie  progress  of  discoveries  in  the  Pacific 
 may  be  referred  to  the  work  of  Des  Brosses,  often  quoted  ;  and  to  Mr.  Dalrymple  s 
 collection  of  voyages  in  the  Pacific,  \7~Q,  4io.  Tlie  learned  French  publication  was 
 translated  by  J6hn  Callander,  Edin.  1766,  S  vols  8to,  who  seems  disposed  to  pass  it  as 
 an  original,  under  the  title  of  Terra  A^istralis  Cog-nitn. 
 
AUSTRALASIA.  681 
 
 Original  Foundation.']  On  this  extensive  territory,  in  a  situation 
 so  highly  favored  by  nature,  and  probably  enriched  with  the  choic- 
 est productions,  there  is  no  European  settlement.  The  inhabi- 
 tants of  the  northern  part  are  called  Papous,  whence  the  name  of 
 the  country.  The  traditions  bear  that  they  are  brethren  of  the 
 Moluccans,  and  the  language  seems  to  have  no  affinity  with  that 
 of  New  South  Wales,  but  is  probably  connected  with  that  of  Bor- 
 neo, &c.  on  the  west,  and  that  of  New  Britain  and  the  isles  on  the 
 other  side,  being  part  of  the  wide  Malay  diffusion.  The  inhabi- 
 tants are  black,  and  even  said  to  have  the  woolly  hair  of  negroes ; 
 but  this  last  circumstance  will  pi'obably  be  discovered,  as  in  New 
 Holland,  to  proceed  from  art,  and  in  some  parts  it  would  seem  that 
 the  inhabitants  have  the  true  Malay  complexion  and  features.  In 
 the  interior  is  a  race  called  Haraforas,  who  live  in  trees,  which 
 ihey  ascend  by  a  notched  pole,  drawing  it  after  them  to  prevent 
 .surprise.  The  appearance  of  the  Papuans  and  their  habitations  is 
 grotesque,  the  latter  being  built  on  stages  in  the  water ;  in  which 
 they  resemble  the  Borneans  and  other  nations  in  the  Asiatic  isles. 
 The  women  seem  the  most  industrious  in  making  mats,  and  pots 
 of  clay  which  they  afterwards  burn  v/ith  dry  grass,  or  brush  wood  ; 
 nay  they  will  even  wield  the  axe,  while  the  men  are  indolent,  or 
 preparing  for  the  chace  of  wild  hogs.* 
 
 "  The  aspect  of  these  people  is  frightful  and  hideous  ;  the  men 
 are  stout  in  body,  their  skin  of  a  shining  black,  rough  and  oftea 
 disfigured  with  marks  like  those  occasioned  by  the  leprosy  ;  their 
 eyes  are  very  large,  their  noses  flat,  mouth  from  ear  to  ear,  their 
 lips  amazingly  thick,  especially  the  upper  lip  ;  their  hair  woolly, 
 either  a  shining  black  or  fiery  red.  It  is  dressed  in  a  vast  bush,  so 
 as  to  resemble  a  mop  ;  they  sometimes  ornament  their  hair  with 
 feathers  of  the  birds  of  Paradise  ;  others  add  to  their  deformity 
 by  boring  their  noses,  and  passing  through  them  rings,  pieces  of 
 bone,  or  sticks  ;  and  many  by  way  of  ornament,  hang  round  their 
 necks  the  tusks  of  boars.  The  heads  of  the  women  are  of  less 
 size  than  those  of  the  men,  and  in  their  left  ear  they  wear  small 
 brass  rings." 
 
 The  religious  tenets  of  the  Papuans  have  been  little  examined. 
 They  make  tombs  of  the  rude  coral  rock,  sometimes  with  sculp- 
 tures. The  chief  commerce  is  with  the  Chinese,  from  whom  they 
 purchase  their  instruments  and  utensils.  Their  returnS  are  am- 
 bergris, tortoise-shell,  small  pearls,  birds  of  paradise,  and  other 
 birds,  which  the  Papuans  dry  with  great  skill.  Some  slaves  are 
 also  exported,  probably  captives  taken  in  intestine  wars. 
 
 The  coasts  of  Papua  are  generally  lofty,  and,  inland,  mountain 
 rises  above  mountain,  richly  clothed  with  woods.  The  shores 
 abound  with  cocoa  trees,  and  the  whole  country  seems  to  have 
 impressed  every  navigator  with  delight,  and  well  deserves  more 
 cultivated  and  industrious  inhabitants.  But  by  a  singular  fatality 
 many  extensive  and  beautiful  portions  of  the  globe  are  thinly  in- 
 habited by  a  few  savages,  while  cold  and  barren  provinces  are  the 
 crowded  seats  of  civilized  nations. 
 
 *  Forrest's  voyage  to  New  Guraea.    Pennant's  Outlines,  iv.  208. 
 VOr..    II.  86 
 
68^  AUSTRALASIA. 
 
 The  natural  history  of  this  country  is  little  kno^vn,  but  the  zool- 
 ogy is  striking  and  romantic.  Papua  is  the  chosen  residence  of 
 the  splendid  and  singular  birds  of  paradise,  of  which  ten  or  twelve 
 sorts  are  enumerated  by  Mr,  Pennant.  They  seem  to  be  chiefly 
 caught  in  the  adjacent  isles  of  Arroo,  being  supposed  to  breed  i-i 
 Papua,  and  reside  there  during  the  Avet  monsoon  ;  while  during 
 the  dry,  or  western,  they  i-etire  to  Arroo,  migrating  in  flocks  of 
 thirty  or  forty.  During  their  flight  they  cry  like  starlings,  but 
 when  surprised  witli  a  strong  gale  they  croak  like  ravens,  and  as- 
 cend to  the  superior  regions  of  the  air.  They  alight  on  the  high- 
 est trees,  seeming  to  feed  on  berries,  and  according  to  some  on 
 nutmegs  and  butterflies  :  and  are  either  shot  with  blunt  arrows, 
 or  caught  with  birdlime,  or  nooses.  The  bowels  and  breast  bone 
 being  extracted,  they  are  dried  with  smoke  and  sulphur,  sold  for 
 nails  or  bits  of  iron,  and  exported  to  Banda.  Papua  also  boasts  of 
 elegant  parrots  ;  while  the  crowned,  or  gigantic  pigeon  almost  e- 
 quals  a  turkey  in  size. 
 
 Captain  Forrest,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  an  interesting 
 voyage  in  these  seas,  only  visited  the  harbor  of  Dory  in  the  north- 
 ern part  of  Papua,  so  that  our  knowledge  of  this  large  island  re- 
 mains extremely  imperfect.  He  observed,  at  a  considerable  dis- 
 tance, the  mountauis  of  Arfac  of  a  remarkable  height.  Near  the 
 harbor  of  Dory  he  found  in  some  little  isles  abundance  of  nutmeg 
 trees,  and  there  is  room  to  infer  that  the  land  of  Papua  is  not  des- 
 titute of  the  same  productions,  and  may  perhaps  also  boast  of 
 cloves. 
 
 Some  of  tlie  small  adjacent  islands  are  better  knoAvn  than  the 
 main  land  of  Papua.  At  the  N.  W.  extremity  the  chief  isles  arc 
 Waijoo,  and  Salwatti  ;  besides  several  smaller  ones. 
 
 Farther  to  the  S.  are  the  Papuan  islands  of  Arroo  and  Timor- 
 laut. 
 
 Waijoo,  or  Wadjoo,  is  an  isle  of  considerable  size,  and  is  said 
 to  contain  100,000  inhabitants.  The  land  is  high  with  lofty  moun- 
 tains, and  on  the  north  side  are  two  excellent  harbors,  Piapis  and 
 Off"ak.* 
 
 Salwatti  is  also  a  populous  island,  governed  by  a  raja.  The 
 people  of  these  two  large  islands  resemble  those  of  the  main  land 
 of  Papua,  being  a  singular  race  of  horrible  appearance,  and  great 
 ferocity.  They  live  on  fish,  or  turtle,  and  sago,  that  tree  abound- 
 ing in  Papua,  but  the  substance  is  chiefly  prepared  by  the  people 
 of  Waijoo. 
 
 Timorlaut  is  another  Papuan  island  of  considerable  size,  but  of 
 which  there  is  no  particular  account.  The  Arroo  islands  appear, 
 in  Arrowsmith's  cliart,  divided  into  five  by  intervening  straits,  and, 
 as  already  mentioned,  are  the  remarkable  seats  of  the  birds  of  pa- 
 radise. The  chief  product  is  sago;  and  the  people  make  expedi- 
 tions to  the  main-land,  where  they  seize  captives  and  sell  them  at 
 Banda.  In  political  geography  the  Arroo  isles  have  been  consid- 
 ered, since  1623,  as  belonging  to  the  Dutch  East  India  Company, 
 and  subservient  to  those  of  Banda. t 
 
 •  See  Fon-est's  Voyaj^  anil  the  Chart.  t  ^^  TBrosses,  i.  443. 
 
AUSTRALASIA.  683 
 
 On  the  N.  of  the  main  land  of  Papua  are  the  isles  of  Mysory 
 and  Jobi,  with  several  others  of  smaller  consequence  ;  nor  indeed 
 are  the  discoveries  sufficiently  complete  to  trace  with  precision 
 the  northern  shores  of  Papua,  or  the  isles  adjacent. 
 
 III.    NEW    BRITAIN,    AND    NEW    IRELAND,     WITH    THE    SOLOMON 
 AND    navigators'  ISLES. 
 
 New  Britain  Avas  first  explored  and  named  by  Dampier,  that 
 navigator  having  passed  a  strait,  to  which  his  name  is  given,  be- 
 tween this  country  and  Papua.  In  1767  Captain  Carteret  passed 
 through  a  channel  between  New  Britain  and  New  Ireland,  which 
 last  is  a  long  slip  of  land  stretching  from  N.  W.  to  S.  E.  ;  and  it 
 is  also  probable  that  New  Britain  may  be  found  to  be  divided  into 
 two  or  more  islands.  In  these  parts  the  nutmeg  tree  is  found 
 abundant,  being  perhaps  the  most  remote  region  towards  the  east, 
 of  that  valuable  plant.  Dampier  visited  a  bay  in  New  Britain, 
 called  Port  Montague,  A.  D.  1700,  and  found  the  land  mountainous 
 and  woody,  but  interspersed  with  fertile  vales  and  beautiful 
 streams.  The  country  seemed  very  populous,  the  natives  resem- 
 bling those  of  Papua,  and  navigating  their  canoes  with  great  skill. 
 The  chief  product  seemed  to  be  cocoa  nuts,  but  there  were  yams, 
 and  other  roots,  particularly  ginger  ;  and  the  sea  and  rivers  swarm- 
 ed with  fish.  Inlhe  main  land,  and  adjacent  isles,  there  are  several 
 volcanoes. 
 
 I7ihubitants.'\  Captain  Carteret  found  the  natives  of  New  Ire- 
 land very  hostile,  having  lances  headed  with  flint.  Their  faces 
 wei*e  streaked  with  white,  and  their  hair  dabbed  with  powder  of 
 the  same  color.  They  are  black,  and  said  to  be  woolly  headed, 
 but  without  the  thick  lips  or  flat  nose  of  the  negro.  Some  of  the 
 canoes  of  New  Ireland  were  ninety  feet  in  length,  formed  out  of 
 a  single  tree.  Bougainville  also  visited  this  country,  and  observ- 
 ed here  the  pepper  plant,  while,  among  the  numerous  birds,  was 
 the  great  crowned  pigeon. 
 
 A  more  ample  description  is  unnecessary,  as  these  countries 
 are  far  from  being  completely  discovered.  The  same  observation 
 must  be  extended  to  what  are  called  the  Solomon  Islands,  which 
 appear  to  have  been  discovered  by  Mendana,  who  sailed  from  Li- 
 ma to  the  westward  in  1575. 
 
 The  Solomon  islands,  as  laid  down  in  Mr.  Arrowsmith's  chart 
 of  the  Pacific,  may  be  considered  as  a  large  group,  extending 
 iVom  Lord  Anson's  isle,  or  the  Bouka  of  Bougainvil!e,.in  the  N. 
 W.  to  the  isle  called  Egmont  by  Carteret  in  the  S.  E.  Some  of 
 the  islands,  towards  the  centre,  seem  of  considerable  size,  partic- 
 ularly in  length.  If  these  be  the  Solomon  Isles  of  the  Spaniards, 
 it  is  asserted  that  they  are  rich  in  gold.  Some  of  the  natives 
 were  of  a  copper  color,  others  of  a  deep  black,  with  a  wrapper 
 of  linen  around  the  waist,  while  the  neck  was  ornamented  with 
 little  beads  of  gold.     The  canoes  were  small,  two  being  common- 
 
684  AUSTRALASIA. 
 
 ly  fastened  together.     In  baskets  of  palm  leaves  they  carry  a  kind 
 of  bread  made  of  roots.* 
 
 A''avigators  Islands^  are  a  clust-rr  of  islands  in  the  S.  Pacific 
 Ocean.  The  inhabitants  are  asti'ong  and  handsome  race  :  scarcely 
 a  man  of  them  is  less  than  6  feet  high,  and  well  proportioned. 
 The  women  are  delicately  beautiful  ;  their  canoes,  houses,  &c. 
 well  constructed  ;  and  they  are  much  more  advanced  in  internal 
 policy,  than  any  other  island  in  this  ocean  ;  Ion.  169.  W.  lat.  14 
 19  S.f  These  islands  are  the  land  of  the  Arsacides  of  Bougain- 
 ville. 
 
 IV.  NEW  CALEDONIA,  AND  THE  NEW  HEBUDES. 
 
 THESE  regions  were  discovered  by  Captain  Cook  in  1774  ;  but 
 Bougainville  in  1768  had  sailed  through  the  New  Hebudes  ;  and 
 the  most  northern  is  supposed  to  be  the  land  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
 ol  Quiros. 
 
 New  Caledonia  is  a  large  island,  the  southern  part  of  which  in 
 particular  has  been  little  explored.  The  natives  are  said  to  be  a 
 muscular  race,  of  a  deep  brown  complexion,  resembling  those  of 
 New  Zealand. 
 
 The  north  western  part  of  this  large  island  was  explored  by  Cap- 
 tain Cook,  who  says  that  this  district  was  called  Balade.  The 
 name  of  Tee,  which  in  the  Society  isles  implies  a  guardian  spirit, 
 seems  here  to  denote  a  chief.  The  women  are  more  chaste  than 
 in  the  other  isles  of  the  Pacific.  The  houses  are  neat,  some 
 having  carved  door  posts,  and  they  rise  in  the  form  of  a  bee  hive, 
 warm  but  full  of  smoke.  The  dress  is  a  slight  wrapper  ;  and 
 the  hair  which  is  frizzled,  not  woolly,  is  ornamented  with  a  comb, 
 while  the  beard  is  worn  short.  They  subsist  on  roots  and  fish, 
 the  couritry  being  very  barren  and  rocky.  In  New  Caledonia  Dr. 
 Forster  found  lai'ge  rocks  of  quartz,  with  layers  of  gold  colored 
 mica,  blended  with  serpentine,  hornblende,  talc,  and  garnets. 
 The  bread  fruit  and  cocoa  nut  are  scarce  ;  but  many  new  plants 
 were  observed. 
 
 Among  the  New  Hebudes  Captain  Cook  has  given  the  most 
 particular  account  of  Mallicollo  in  the  north,  and  Tanna  in  the 
 south.  Dr.  Forster  thought  that  the  people  of  the  former,  who 
 are  ugly  and  diminutive,  had  a  language  difTerent  from  any  they 
 met  with  io  the  voyage.  In  Tanna  there  is  a  remarkable  volcano, 
 with  some  hot  springs.  Here  are  found  plantains,  sugar  canes, 
 yams,  and  several  kinds  of  fruit  trees.  The  natives  rather  resem- 
 ble those  of  New  Holland  than  the  Friendly  Islanders,  and  arc 
 particularly  dexterous  in  the  use  of  the  spear. 
 
 V.       NEW    ZEALAND. 
 
 THIS  country  was  first  discovered  by  Tasman  in  1642,  but 
 he  did  not  land.  '1  he  natives  however  came  on  board,  and  some 
 intercourse  took  place,  during  which  seven  of  the  Dutch,  who  had 
 
 "•  Des  BrosECo,  i.  259.  f  Peyrouse. 
 
AUSTRALASIA.  685 
 
 gone  ashore  unarmed,  were  cruelly  slaughtered.  The  people 
 %vere  described  to  be  of  a  coior  between  brown  and  yellow,  with 
 lone^  black  Iiair  resembling  the  Japanese. 
 
 Our  great  navigator  Cook  explored  these  regions  in  1770,  and 
 discovered  a  strait  which  divides  the  country  into  two  large  islands. 
 The  southern  was  supposed  to  be  called  by  the  natives  Tavia  Poe- 
 ramoo,  and  the  northern  Eaheianowmawe,  names  which  equal  the 
 Russian  in  length,  and  which  might  well  be  contracted.  The 
 first  is  not  less  than  600  miles  in  length,  by  about  150  in  medial 
 breadth  ;  and  the  second  is  little  inferior  in  size. 
 
 One  of  these  islands  appears  to  be  far  more  fertile  than  the 
 other  ;  but  both  enjoy  a  temperate  climate,  similar  to  that  of 
 France.  The  natives  were  again  observed  to  be  of  a  brown  com- 
 plt,xion,  little  deeper  than  the  Spanish,  and  some  are  even  fair. 
 They  equal  the  tallest  Europeans  in  stature ;  and  their  features 
 are  commonly  regular  and  pleasing.  It  is  singular  to  observe 
 such  a  diversity  between  them  and  the  natives  of  New  Holland, 
 when  theory  would  expect  to  find  them  the  same  race  of  men. 
 So  far  as  present  discoveries  extend,  the  natives  of  New  Holland 
 and  Papua  seem  to  display  an  African  origin  ;  while  most  of  the 
 other  islands  in  the  Pacific  appear  to  have  been  peopled  from  Asia. 
 
 Manners  and  Cic&toms.^  The  New  Zealanders  inter  their  dead  ; 
 they  also  believe  that  the  third  day  after  the  interment  the  heart 
 separates  itself  from  the  corpse,  and  is  carried  to  the  clouds  by  an 
 attendant  spirit. 
 
 Suicide  is  very  common  among  the  New  Zealanders,  and  this 
 they  often  commit  by  hanging  themselves  on  the  slightest  occa- 
 sions ;  thus  a  woman  who  has  been  beaten  by  her  husband  will 
 pei'haps  hang  herself  immediately. 
 
 They  have  no  other  division  of  time  than  the  revolution  of  the 
 •moon,  until  the  number  amounts  to  one  hundred,  which  they  term 
 "  Ta-iee  E-tow,"  that  is  one  Etow,  or  hundred  moons  ;  and  it  is 
 »hus  they  count  their  age,  and  calculate  all  other  events. 
 
 Captain  Cook's  last  voyage  contains  considerable  information 
 relative  to  the  southern  isle,  from  which  a  few  brief  hints  may  be 
 added,  as  this  region  only  yields  to  Papua  in  size  and  consequence. 
 Storms  were  found  to  be  not  only  frequent  but  violent,  and  ofteii 
 changed  in  their  direction  by  the  height  of  the  mountains,  which 
 at  these  times  are  always  loaded  with  vapours.  The  natives  have 
 no  ?norai,  or  place  of  worship  ;  but  the  priests  alone  address  the 
 gods  for  prosperity. 
 
 The  enormous  lizards  described  by  the  natives  are  probably  al- 
 ligators. The  bases  of  the  mountains  seem  to  be  sand  stone  ;  and 
 the  soil  resembles  yellow  marl  ;  even  the  hills  are  covered  with 
 trees  of  the  most  lofty  luxuriance,  seeming  to  retain  their  foliage 
 till  expelled  by  the  succeeduig  leaves  in  spring  ;  for  in  June, 
 which  corresponds  to  our  December,  the  verdure  was  complete. 
 The  flax  of  New  Zealand  has  excited  particular  attention,  being 
 of  a  beautiful  silky  appearance,  and  the  plant  remarkably  tall. 
 The  culture  has  been  attempted  both  in  France  and  England  with- 
 cut  success  ;  perhaps  from  some  remarkable  difiercnce  in  soil,  or 
 
QSd  AUSTRALASIA. 
 
 the  entire  reversion  of  seasons.  The  birds  seem  to  be  often  pe- 
 culiar in  species  and  color  ;  and  it  is  not  a  little  remarkable  that, 
 in  this  extensive  land,  no  quadruped  was  observed,  except  a  few 
 rats,  and  a  kind  of  fox  dog,  which  is  a  domestic  animal  with  the 
 natives. 
 
 The  general  dress  is  an  oblong  garment  made  by  knotting  the 
 silky  flax  ;  and  the  ears  are  ornamented  with  bits  of  jad  or  bads, 
 the  face  being  often  besmeared  with  a  red  paint,  seemingly  iron 
 ochre  mingled  with  grease.  The  habitations  are  far  superior  to 
 those  in  New  Holland  ;  and  the  boats  are  Avell  built  of  planks, 
 raised  upon  each  other,  and  fastened  with  strong  withes.  Some 
 are  fifty  feet  long,  and  so  broad  as  to  be  able  to  sail  without  an  out- 
 rigger, but  the  smaller  sort  commonly  have  one,  and  they  often 
 fasten  two  together  by  rafters.  The  large  canoes  will  carry  thirty 
 men  or  more  ;  and  have  often  a  head  ingeniously  carved.  They 
 bake  their  fish  in  a  rude  oven  ;  and  the  use  of  bread  is  supplied 
 by  a  kind  of  fern,  which  yields  a  gelatinous  substance  like  sago. 
 They  ai*e  ingenious  mechanics  with  their  rude  tools,  which  are 
 mostly  of  green  jad.  Their  weapons  are  spears  and  javelins,  with 
 the  pa-too,  a  kind  of  club  or  rude  battle-axe  ;  and  in  combat  they 
 distort  their  features  like  demons.  The  yet  warm  bodies  of  their 
 enemies  are  cut  in  pieces,  broiled,  and  devoured  with  peculiar 
 satisfaction.*  The  warlike  actions  of  their  ancestors  are  preserv- 
 ed in  traditional  songs,  which  are  frequently  sung,  and  accompa- 
 nied with  their  rude  flute. 
 
 Mount  Edgecumbe  is  a  prodigious  high  peak,  on  the  W.  side 
 of  the  entrance  of  Cook's  strait  in  New  Zealand. 
 
 VI.       VAN  DIEMEN  S  LAND. 
 
 THIS  is  the  last  great  division  yet  discovered  of  the  wide 
 expanse  of  Australasia.  The  name  was  imposed  by  that  eminent 
 Dutch  navigator  Taeman,  as  already  mentioned,  in  honor  of  the 
 Dutch  governor-general  in  the  East  Indies.f  It  has  been  recently 
 discovered  to  be  an  island,  in  the  form  of  an  oblong  square,  about 
 160  miles  in  length  by  half  that  breadth,  being  divided  from  New 
 Holland  by  a  strait,  or  rather  channel,  more  than  thirty  leagues 
 ■wide,  which  in  recent  maps  is  called  Bass's  strait,  and  contains  a 
 chain  of  small  islands  running  N.  and  S.  During  his  last  voyage, 
 Captain  Cook,  in  January  1777,  visited  Diemen's  land  for  supplies 
 of  wood  and  water,  and  grass  for  the  animals  on  board.  They 
 were  met  by  some  of  the  natives,  who  were  entirely  naked ;  of  a 
 common  stature,  but  rather  slender,  the  skin  being  black,  and  the 
 hair  as  woolly  as  that  of  any  native  of  Guinea,  but  their  lineaments 
 were  more  pleasing  than  those  of  African  negroes.     The  hair  and 
 
 *  Cook,  ib.  i.  162. 
 
 t  Tlicre  is  another  Van  Diemen's  Land,  a  northern  cape  of  New  Holland.  Such 
 duplicate  names  are  injurious  to  i.iie  study  of  geography,  ami  ought  to  be  fornrjally  ab- 
 rogatcil,  if  a  ''nard  of  Nonicniliiture,  so  nmcli  wanted,  were  instituted.  The  stiuthern 
 Van  Dicii-ien's  Land,  on  one  of  the  isles  of  New  Zealand,  should  be  called  Tasmania, 
 in  honor  cf  the  discoverer. 
 
POLYNESIA.  6.8r 
 
 beards,  and  of  some  the  faces,  were  smeared  with  red  ointment. 
 They  seem  to  prefer  birds  to  all  other  food.  The  land  is  chiefly 
 of  a  good  height,  diversified  with  hills  and  valleys,  and  every 
 ■where  of  a  greenish  hue,  being  well  wooded  and  watered.  The 
 Fluted  Cape  appears  to  be  composed  of  a  very  fine  white  sand- 
 stone, which  in  many  places  bounds  the  shore,  and  the  soil  is  ei- 
 ther sandy,  or  consists  of  a  yellowish  mould,  and  in  some  places 
 of  a  reddish  clay.  The  forest  trees  seem  to  be  all  of  one  kind, 
 growing  quite  straight  to  a  great  height,  and  may  be  well  adapted 
 for  masts.  The  only  quadrupeds  discovered  were  opossums  and 
 kangoorooS  ;  and  the  birds  cannot  differ  much  from  those  of  New 
 Holland,  to  which  there  is  as  it  were  a  passage  by  intermediate 
 isles.  The  hovels  resemble  those  of  New  Holland  ;  but  some- 
 times large  trees  are  hollowed  out  by  fire  to  the  height  of  six  or 
 seven  feet,  so  as  to  form  a  rude  habitation. 
 
 Dusky  Bay  is  a  bay  on  the  S.  W.  coast  of  New  Zealand.  It  is 
 between  three  and  four  miles  broad  at  the  entrance,  and  seems  to 
 be  as  deep  as  broad,  affording  a  very  good  shelter  for  vessels.  The 
 land  behind  consists  wholly  of  mountains,  totally  barren  and  rocky ; 
 but  the  land  bordering  on  the  sea  coast  is  thickly  covered  with 
 wood.  Dusky  bay  abounds  with  fish  ;  and  there  is  also  a  great 
 plenty  of  ducks.  The  most  mischievous  animals  are  the  small 
 black  sand  flies,  which  are  very  numerous.  The  inhabitants  of 
 this  bay  belong  to  the  same  race  of  people  with  those  in  the  other 
 parts  of  this  country.  They  live  a  wandering  life,  and  seem  not 
 to  live  in  amity  with  one  another.* 
 
 POLYNESIA. 
 
 THE  boundaries  of  this  extensive  divisioft  of  the  globe 
 have  already  been  briefly  mentioned  in  the  introduction  to  the  Asi- 
 atic Islands.  A  line  passing  due  north,  in  the  meridian  of  Ion. 
 130  E.  from  Greenwich,  will  leave  the  Philippine  Islands  in  the 
 oriental  archipelago,  divided  by  a  wide  sea  from  the  Pelew  Isles, 
 the  most  western  group  of  Polynesia,  though  a  few  small  detached 
 isles  appear  to  the  S.  W.  About  20  N.  lat.  the  line  of  demarka- 
 tion  bends  N.  E.  so  as  to  include  the  isle  of  Todos  los  Sa7itos,  and 
 that  called  Rica  de  Plata,  thence  proceeding  E.  so  as  to  include  the 
 Sandwich  Islands,  and  pass  S.  about  Ion.  122  W.  till  it  reach 
 the  southern  lat.  of  50,  Avhere  it  tui'ns  to  the  west,  and  joins  the 
 boundary  of  Australasia. 
 
 It  is  probable  that  future  navigations  may  greatly  improve  and 
 enlarge  the  geography  of  Polynesia,  by  the  discovery  of  new 
 groups,  and  the  more  accurate  arrangement  of  those  already 
 known.  At  present  the  following  appear  to  be  the  chief  subdi- 
 visions : 
 
 ''  Hawksworth. 
 
688  POLYNESIA. 
 
 1.  The  Pelew  Isles. 
 
 2.  The  Ladrcnes,  a  chain  extending  in  a  northerly  direction, 
 the  small  islands  in  the  Pacific  seeming  to  be  mostly  the  summits 
 of  ranges  or  groups  of  mountains. 
 
 3.  The  Carolines,  a  long  range  from  E.  to  W.  so  as  perhaps,  in 
 strictness,  to  include  the  Pelews. 
 
 4.  The  Sandwich  Isles. 
 
 5.  The  Marquesas. 
 
 6.  The  Society  Isles,  so  named  in  honor  of  the  Royal  Society. 
 
 7.  The  Friendly  Isles. 
 
 There  are,  besides,  many  isles  scattered  in  different  directions, 
 Avhich  it  would  be  Jifficuit  to  connect  with  any  gro\ip,  and  indeed 
 none  of  them,  yet  discovered,  appears  to  be  of  any  consequence. 
 
 I.    THE    PELEW    ISLES. 
 
 THIS  group  lying  between  Ion.  130  and  136  E.  and  lat.  5  and  9 
 N.  recently  attracted  considerable  attention,  from  an  ingenious 
 and  pleasing  account  of  them,  drawn  up  by  Mr.  Keate,  from  the 
 papers  of  captain  Wilson,  who  suffered  shipwreck  on  these  islands 
 in  1783.  The  narrative  is  doubtless  heightened  by  Mr.  Keate's 
 imagination,  but  the  people  appear  to  be  a  most  gentle  and  amia- 
 ble race,  the  gay  and  innocent  children  of  nature.  It  is  a  pecul- 
 iarity, in  the  oriental  archipelago,  that  the  small  isles  are  the  chief 
 seats  of  comparative  civilization,  by  the  concentration  of  soci- 
 ety. To  this  circumstance  may  be  added,  that  in  large  islands 
 the  natives  split  into  distinct  tribes,  generally  hostile  to  each  other, 
 whence  the  pleasurable  passions  almost  expire  in  the  constant 
 succession  of  fear  and  rage,  while  in  the  small  islands,  there  being 
 no  room  for  secession,  the  society  becomes  as  it  were  one  family. 
 
 The  Pelewans  are  a  stout  well  made  people,  rather  above  the 
 middle  stature.  Their  complexions  are  of  a  far  deeper  color 
 than  what  is  understood  by  the  copper  hue,  but  not  black,  and  their 
 hair  is  long  and  flowing.*  The  men  are  entirely  naked,  while  the 
 women  only  wear  two  little  aprons,  or  rather  fringes,  made  of  the 
 husk  of  the  cocoa  nut.  Both  sexes  are  tatooed,  and  the  teeth  are 
 dyedblack.  Polygamy  is  allowed,  and  the  dead  arc  interred.  There 
 seems  no  appearance  of  religion  of  any  kind,  though  they  have  an 
 idea  that  the  soul  survives  the  body.  Mild,  affable,  and  industrious, 
 this  little  tribe,  like  the  inhabitants  of  Otaheite,  form  an  exception 
 to  the  general  rule  of  savage  existence.  The  language  is  probably 
 a  dialect  of  the  Malay,  so  widely  diffused  through  these  seas. 
 
 The  government  is  in  the  hands  of  a  king,  under  whom  there  are 
 rupahs^  or  chiefs,  who  also  constitute  a  kind  of  nobles.  Tlie  prop- 
 erty of  all  the  land  is  supposed  to  be  vested  in  the  sovereign  ; 
 while  that  of  the  people  is  only  personal,  as  a  canoe,  weapons,  or 
 rude  articles  of  furniture.  Our  domestic  poultry  arc  here  wild  in 
 the  woods,  and  were  neglected  by  the  natives,  till  taught  by  the 
 English  that  they  were  proper  for  food.    'Ihoir  chief  nourishment 
 
 •  Keate, . 31 8 
 
POLYNESIA.  689 
 
 appears  to  be  fish  ;  but  they  make  a  kind  of  sweetmeat  from  the 
 sugar-cane,  which  seems  indigenous.  The  chief  drink  is  the 
 milk  of  the  cocoa  nut.  They  commonly  rise  at  daylight,  and  im- 
 mediately go  to  bathe  in  fresh  water.  Their  houses  are  raised  on 
 large  stones,  about  three  feet  from  the  ground,  being  constructed 
 of  planks  and  bamboos,  and  the  fire-place  in  the  middle,  sepured 
 with  hard  rubbish.  Tliere  are  large  mansions  for  public  meet- 
 ings. The  best  knives  are  of  mother  of  pearl,  others  of  a  large 
 muscle  shell,  or  split  bamboo.  They  make  oval  vessels  of  coarse 
 earthen  ware.  In  general  their  articles  resemble  those  of  Ota- 
 heite,  and  other  isles  in  the  South  Sea.  The  Aveapons  are  spears, 
 darts,  and  slings  :  and  the  canoes  are  formed  of  the  trunk  of  a 
 tree,  neatly  ornamented. 
 
 These  isles  had  scarcely  been  visited  by  any  European  till  cap- 
 tain Wilson  landed  at  Oloolong.  They  are  in  general  of  a  mod- 
 erate height,  well  covered  with  wood  ;  and  are  circled  on  the 
 west  side  by  a  reef  of  coral,  from  two  to  six  leagues  from  the 
 shore,  and  of  great  length.  The  ebony  tree  is  found  in  the  forests, 
 and  the  bread  fruit  and  cocoa  tree  seem  to  abound,  with  sugar- 
 canes  and  bamboos.  No  kind  of  grain  was  seen,  uor  any  quad- 
 rupeds, except  some  rats  in  the  woods,  and  three  or  four  cats  in 
 the  houses,  probably  drifted  ashore  from  some  wi'eck.  Of  birds, 
 pigeorrs  seem  the  most  numerous  :  and^  the  wild  poultry  have 
 been  already  mentioned. 
 
 II.    THE    LADRONES.  • 
 
 THIS  appellation  implies  the  Isles  of  Robbers,  and  ^tas  given 
 by  that  distinguished  navigator  Magalhaens,  Avho  first  discovered 
 these  islands  in  1521,  the  natives  shewing  great  dispositions  to 
 pilfer,  and  much  address  in  the  execution  of  their  designs. 
 
 According  to  the  Jesuit  Gobien,  who  has  published  a  particu- 
 lar history  ot  the  Ladrones,  or  Marian  Islands,*  the  inhabitants, 
 till  the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards,  regarded  themselves  as  the  only 
 men  in  the  world.  When  they  vv-cre  visited  by  the  Spaniards  and 
 Dutch,  they  inferred  that  these  strangers  were  brethren,  who  bad 
 lost  the  primitive  Guamese  language.  In  color,  speech,  man- 
 ners, and  government,  they  considerably  resemble  the  Tagals  or 
 people  of  the  Philippines,  before  the  Spanish  conquest.  These 
 isles  were  then  very  populous,  Guam,  in  40  leagues  of  ciixuit,  hav- 
 ing 30,000  inhabitants. 
 
 In  the  reign  of  Philip  IV.  of  Spain  these  isles  were  also  called 
 the  Marians,  in  honor  of  his  queen,  Mary  of  Austria.  The  largest 
 is  that  of  Guam,  but  Tinian  has  attracted  more  attention,  from  the 
 romantic  description  in  Anson's  voyage.  There  is  no  doubt  that 
 mariners  who  harve  been  long  at  sea,  and  suffered  many  diseases 
 and  privations,  will  be  infinitely  delighted  with  any  verdant  landj 
 and  find  beauties  where  none  exist.     Hence  swb-icqucut  navigators 
 
 ■   I';ii-is,  1700.  12mo. 
 VOL.    u.  87 
 
690  POLYNESIA. 
 
 have  been  greatly  disappointed  in  Tinian.  Anson  lound  here 
 abundance  of  wild  cattle,  of  a  white  color,  except  the  ears,  which 
 are  generally  black  or  brown.  But  they  had  probably  been  ini- 
 ported  by  the  Sptiniards,  as  a  supply  for  the  garrison  at  Guam. 
 Here  were  also  found  oranges,  limes,  and  cocoa  nuts,  with  that  cel- 
 ebrated and  remarkable  tree  which  bears  the  bread  fruit. 
 
 The  Ladrones  are  computed  to  be  twelve  or  fourteen  in  num- 
 ber ;  but  not  above  three  6r  four  are  inhabited.  Their  vessels, 
 called  flying  proas,  have  been  esteemed  singular  specimens  of 
 naval  architecture,  and  at  a  distant  interval  impressed  Pigafetta 
 and  Anson  with  the  ingenuity  of  the  contrivance.  The  natural 
 history  of  these  islands  is  little  known.  It  appears  from  the  voy- 
 age of  La  Perouse  that  some  of  them  are  volcanic. 
 
 To  the  N.  of  the  Ladrones  are  many  small  islands,  extending  to 
 Todos  Los  Santos,  lat.  30,  those  fartlier  to  the  N.  belonging  to 
 Japan.  This  group  may  either  be  arranged  among  the  Ladrones, 
 or  might  perhaps  admit  of  a  distinct  appellation. 
 
 The  Golden  and  Silver  Isles  seem  to  be  so  styled  from  Japanese 
 fables,  and  with  a  few  other  scattered  isles  on  the  N.  of  the  Caro- 
 lines, merit  little  attention.  In  these  seas  is  the  stupendous  rock 
 called  Lot's  Wife,  rising  in  the  form  of  a  pyramid,  and  thus  de- 
 scribed by  Mr.  Meares  in  his  voyage  :  "  The  latitude  was  29  50  N. 
 the  longitude  143  23  E.  of  Greenwich.  The  waves  broke  against 
 its  rugged  point,  v/ith  a  fury  proportioned  to  the  immense  distance 
 they  had  to  roll  beforothey  were  interrupted  by  it.  It  rose  almost 
 perpendicular  to  the  height  of  near  350  feet.  A  small  black  rock 
 appeared  just  above  the  water,  at  about  40  or  50  yards  from  the 
 western  edge.  TJicrc  was  a  cavern  on  its  south-eastern  side,  into 
 which  the  waters  rolled  with  an  awful  and  tremendous  noise.  In 
 regarding  this  stupendous  rock,  which  stood  alone  in  an  immense 
 ocean,  we  could  n.ot  but  consider  it  as  an  object  which  had  been 
 able  to  resist  one  of  those  great  convulsions  of  nature  that  change 
 the  very  form  ol  those  parts  of  the  globe  which  they  are  permitted 
 to  desoiate." 
 
 Liquor  is  an  island  in  the  western  ocean,  so  named  by  the  com- 
 panions of  Beneyowski,  who  landed  here  in  177!,  in  a  most  perish- 
 ing condition,  without  water  or  provisions.  They  found  excellent 
 water,  fowls,  lish  and  hogs  ;  also  cocoa,  orange,  and  banana  trees. 
 It  is  a  pleasant  island.  Beneyowski  set  up  a  cross  here,  with  an 
 inscription,  lat.  34  47  N.* 
 
 III.       TUli    CAROLINES. 
 
 THIS  is  the  largest  group,  or  rather  the  most  extensive  range 
 of  islands  in  the  Pacific  ocean.  This  chain  appears  to  have  been 
 first  discovered  by  the  Spaniards  in  1686,  and  wr.s  named  from  the 
 Spanish  monarch  Charles  11.  They  arc  about  thirty  in  number, 
 and  very  jjopulous,  except  three  which  were  uninhabited.  The 
 natives  resemble  those  of  the   Philippines,   ar.d  chielly    live  upon 
 
 *  Bciicvottiiki. 
 
POLYNESIA.  691 
 
 fish  and  cocon  nuts  :  and  it  is  probable  that  their  language  only 
 differs  in  a  few  shades.  According  to  the  letters  of  the  Jesuits, 
 each  isle  was  subject  to  its  chief,  but  all  respected  a  monarch,  who 
 resided  at  Lainurec. 
 
 Thej-  believe  in  certain  celestial  spirits,  and  think  they  descend 
 to  bathe  in  a  sacred  lake  in  Fallalo,  but  there  are  neither  temples 
 nor  idols,  nor  any  appearance  of  worship.  The  dead  are  some- 
 times thrown  into  the  sea,  and  at  others  interred,  the  grave  being 
 surrounded  with  a  stone  wall.  It  is  said  that  those  of  Yap  worship 
 a  kind  of  crocodile,  and  have  their  magicians.  Polygamy  is  al- 
 lowed, and  the  Tamul  or  chief  of  the  large  isle  of  Hogaleu  had 
 nine  wives.     Criminals  are  banished  froin  one  isle  to  another.* 
 
 They  do  not  appear  to  have  any  instruments  of  music,  but  their 
 dances  are  accompanied  Avith  songs.  Their  only  weapons  are 
 lances,  armed  with  bone.  Even  in  this  distant  quarter  of  the  globe 
 negro  slaves  are  not  unknown  :  and  in  one  or  two  of  the  islands 
 the  breed  is  said  to  be  mingled,  twenty-nine  Spaniards  having 
 been  left  on  one  of  these  islands,  who  are  supposed  to  have  maPr 
 ried  and  settled.  The  people  of  Ulea  are  reported  to  be  more 
 civilized  than  the  rest,  and  appear  much  to  resemble  those  of  the 
 Pelews. 
 
 The  most  considerable  of  the  Cai'olines  is  Hogoleu,  about  90 
 miles  in  length  by  40  in  breadth.  Next  is  Yap,  in  the  western 
 extremity  of  this  chain,  but  not  above  a  third  part  of  that  size. 
 The  Caroline  islands  have  been  little  visited  by  receuit  navigators ; 
 but  a  few  small  groups  have  been  discovered  in  their  eastern  ex» 
 iremities,  which  may  properly  be  classed  in  the  same  range. 
 
 IV.       THE    SANDWICH    ISLES. 
 
 THESE  islands  appear  to  have  been  first  discovered  by  the 
 i^reat  navigator  Cook,  and  the  island  Owhyhee,  the  largest  in  the 
 group,  being  about  280  miles  in  circumference,  is  unfortunately- 
 distinguished  as  the  place  where  this  able  commander  was  slain 
 by  the  natives  in  February  1779. 
 
 These  islands  were  so  named  by  Cook  in  gratitude  to  the  earl 
 of  Sandwich,  a  minister  who  had  warmly  promoted  his  labors. 
 The  natives  are  rather  of  a  darker  complexion  than  those  of  Ota- 
 heite,  but  the  features  are  pleasing ;  and  the  death  of  Cook  was 
 not  owing  to  ferocity,  but  a  sudden  impulse  of  undeserved  resent- 
 ment. The  hair  is  sometimes  long,  sometimes  curled,  c.s  among 
 Europeans :  but  the  nose  is  always  spread  at  the  point,  perhaps 
 owing  to  the  mode  of  salutation,  in  which  they  press  their  noses 
 together.  Captain  King  represents  them  as  a  mild  and  affection- 
 ate people,  free  from  the  Otaheitan  levity,  and  the  proud  gravity 
 of  those  of  the  Friendly  Isles,  'i'his  ingenious  people  has  even 
 made  some  progress  in  agricultiM'c  and  manufactures  ;  yet  they 
 hlill  sacrifice  human  victims,  but  do  not  e«t  them  like  the  people 
 
 *  D  .'b  15ro3scs,  ib  -iSfi. 
 
692  POLYNESIA. 
 
 of  New  Zealand,  at  least  so  far  as  information  could  be  obtained. 
 The  beard  is  generally  worn  ;  and  among  the  ornaments  of  both 
 sexes  is  a  kind  of  fan  to  drive  away  flies,  made  of  the  fibres  of  the 
 cocoa  nut,  or  of  long  feathers.  Like  the  other  nations  of  Polyne- 
 sia, they  tatoo  their  bodies  ;  and  among  females  even  the  tip  of 
 the  tongue.  The  dres's  consists  of  a  narrow  piece  of  coarse  cloth 
 called  the  maro,  prepared  in  the  same  manner  as  at  Otaheite, 
 ■which  passes  between  the  tegs  and  is  fastened  round  the  loins.  In 
 battle  the  men  throw  a  kind  of  mats  ovcv  their  shoulders,  and  this 
 armor  is  neatly  manufactured.  On  solemn  occasions  the  chiefs 
 wear  dresses,  artfully  and  beautifully  formed  of  feathers.  The 
 women  have  only  a  slight  wi'apper,  and  the  hair  is  cut  short  be- 
 hind, but  turned  up  from  their  forehead.  The  food  consists  chief- 
 ly of  fish,  to  which  are  added  yams,  plantains,  and  sugar  canes  ; 
 while  people  of  rank  feast  on  the  wild  boar,  and  sometimes  the 
 flesh  of  dogs.  The  government  is  in  a  supreme  chief  called  Eree 
 T-aboo,  whose  funeral  is  accompanied  by  the  sacrifice  of  two  or 
 more  servants.  The  inferior  chiefs  are  styled  Erees ;  and  there 
 is  a  second  class  of  proprietors,  and  a  third  of  laborers,  all  these 
 i*abk3  seeming  to  be  hereditary.  Though  human  sacrifices  be 
 licre  more  frequent,  the  other  rites  appear  to  correspond  with 
 those  of  the  Society  Islfinds,  which  shall  be  described  in  the  ac- 
 count of  Otaheite. 
 
 .  Climate.']  The  climate  appears  to  be  more  temperate  than  that 
 of  the  West  Indies  ;  and  in  Owhyhce  the  mountams  arrest  the 
 clovids,  and  produce  rain  inland,  while  there  is  sunshine  on  the 
 shore.  The  winds  seem  generally  easterly,  and  there  is  a  regular 
 land  and  sea  breeze. 
 
 Zoology.]  The  quadrupeds,  as  usual  in  Polynesia,  are  few  ; 
 ©nly  hogs,  dogs,  and  rats,  being  discovered.  The  kinds  of  birds 
 are  not  numerous,  being,  among  others,  large  white  pigeons, 
 plovers,  owls,  and  a  kind  of  raven.  These  islands  produce  abun- 
 dance of  the  bread  fruit,  and  sugar  canes  of  amazing  size.  Upon 
 the  whole  this  discovery  was  important  ;  and  Owhyhee  is  the 
 largest  island  yet  found  in  the  wide  extent  of  Polynesia. 
 
 V.    THE    MARQUESAS. 
 
 * 
 
 THESE  islands  were  discovered  by  Meiidana,  who  imposed  the 
 lianle  in  honor  of  Don  Garcia  dc  Mendoza,  marquis  of  Caniente, 
 Ticeroy  oi  Peru,  whence  they  are  also  sometimes  styled  the  Isles 
 of  Mendoza.  One  of  the  best  known  to  Europeans  is  the  isle  of 
 Ohittihoo,  to  the  S.  of  the  larger  Isle  Ohevahoa. 
 
 In  1774  the  Marquesas  were  visited  by  captain  Cook,  and  in 
 1789  by  the  French  circumnavigator  Marchand.  The  best  recent 
 account  of  them  is  that  given  in  the  Missionary  Voyage,  captain 
 Wilson  having  visited  the  Marquesas  in  1797. 
 
 The  natives  are  said  to  surpass  all  other  nations  in  symmetry 
 of  shape,  and  regularity  of  features  ;  and  were  it  not  for  the  prac- 
 tice of  tatooing,  which  blackens  the  body  by  numerous  puncture?. 
 
POLYNESIA.  693 
 
 the  complexion  -would  be  only  tawny,  wlule  the  hair  is  of  many 
 colors,  but  none  red.  Some  of  the  Avomen  are  nearly  as  fair  as  Eu- 
 ropeans,  and  among  them  tatooing  is  not  so  universal.*  A  long 
 narrow  piece  of  cloth  was  wrapt  round  the  waist,  the  ends  being 
 tucked  up  between  the  thighs,  while  a  broad  piece  of  their  cloth 
 was  thrown  over  the  shoulder,  reaching  halfway  down  the  leg. 
 
 The  religious  ceremonies  resemble  those  of  Otaheite  ;  and 
 they  have  a  Moral  in  each  district,  where  the  dead  are  buried  un-^ 
 der  a  pavement  of  large  stones.  Their  deities  are  numerous, 
 and  the  chiefs  seem  to  have  little  power,  custom  alone  being  fol- 
 lowed, instead  of  laws.  Like  most  uncivilized  i^ations,  they  have 
 no  regular  meals,  but  eat  five  or  six  times  a  day,  or  oftener.  The 
 women  seem  more  subjected  to  the  men,  than  at  Otaheite.  The 
 canoes  are  made  of  wood,  and  the  bark  of  a  soft  tvee,  being  com- 
 monly from  sixteen  to  twenty  feet  in  length,  the  prow  carved  in  rude 
 resemblance  of  a  human  face. 
 
 No  quadrupeds  were  discovered  except  hogs,  but  there  are 
 tame  poultry  ;  and  the  woods  are  filled  with  many  beautiful  birdsi 
 In  one  of  these  isles  an  English  missionary  was  left,  in  the  benev- 
 olent intention  of  discouraging  mutual  slaughter,  and  human  sac- 
 rifices. 
 
 The  largest  isle  of  the  Marquesas,  Noabeva,  is  not  above  half 
 the  size  of  Otaheite  :  and  in  general  the  multitude  of  small  isl- 
 ands in  these  seas  presents  a  won/ierful  variety  in  the  woi-ks  of 
 nature,  the  largest  island  yet  discovered  in  Polynesia  being  O- 
 whyhee,  which  is  about  100  miles  in  length. 
 
 VI.    THE    SOCIETY    ISLES. 
 
 THIS  group  has  attracted  more  attention  than  any  other  in  P6«- 
 lynesia,  and  our  admiration  of  Otaheite  has  excited  some  degree 
 of  ridicule  on  the  continent. 
 
 All  the  islands  from  longitude  160  west  from  Greenwich,  to  the 
 eastern  extremity  of  Polynesia,  may  be  included  under  the  gene- 
 ral nam,e  of  Society  Islands,  a  range  which  will  thus  even  exceed 
 the  Carolines  in  number,  amounting  to  sixty  or  seventy.  Of 
 these,  Otaheite  is  still  by  far  tlie  most  considerable  in  size,  being 
 about  120  miles  in  circumference.  It  consists  of  two  peninsulas, 
 joined  by  a  neck  of  land,  about  three  miles  in  breadth,  the  small-' 
 est  peninsula  to  the  S.  E.  being  about  fifteen  miles  in  length,  by 
 ten  in  breadth,  while  the  large  peninsula  to  the  N.  W.  is  almost 
 circular,  and  about  twenty-five  miles  in  diameter :  the  whole  length 
 being  thus  about  forty  g.  miles,  or  about  forty-six  British.  From 
 the  map  drawn  by  captain  Cook,  and  republished  with  some  im- 
 provements in  the  Missionary  Voyage,  this  island  appears  to  con- 
 sist of  two  mountains,  a  larger  and  a  smaller,  joined  by  the  narrow 
 ridge  above  mentioned  ;  and  the  habitations  are  entirely  confined 
 to  the  level  coastn.     This  circumstance  seems  universal  in  Poly-; 
 
 Misoinnary  Voyage,  London,  ir?9.  4lo.  p.  14?. 
 
694  ,         POLYNESIA. 
 
 nesia,  as  the  nj.tivcs  crowd  to  the  shores  for  fish,  their  chiel'  ali- 
 ment ;  and  it  is  probable  that,  the  original  colonies  having  settled 
 on  the  coasts,  indolence  has  prevented  them  from  visiting  the  in- 
 land heigh' s.  Nor  is  it  improbable  that  even  in  the  laige  countries 
 of  Australasia  a  similar  singularity  may  be  observed,  the  scarcity 
 of  animal  food  probably  compelling  the  natives  chiefly  to  reside 
 on  the  shores. 
 
 Near  the  central  summit  of  the  large  mountain  of  Otaheite, 
 which  in  circumference,  though  not  in  height,  resembles  Etna, 
 there  is  a  curious  lake  of  some  extent  :  but  no  river  appears, 
 there  being  only  rivulets,  which  spring  from  the  skirts,  and  pursue 
 a  brief  course  of  two  or  three  miles  to  the  ocean. 
 
 Inhabit  ant  s.~\  The  natural  color  of  the  inhabitants  is  olive,  in- 
 clining to  copper.  Men  exposed  to  the  sun  become  very  dark  ; 
 but  the  women  are  only  a  shade  or  two  deeper  than  an  European 
 brunette.  They  have  fine  black  eyes,  with  white  even  teeth,  soft 
 skin,  and  elegant  limbs  ;  while  their  hair  is  of  a  jetty  black,  per- 
 fumed and  ornamented  with  flowers.*  But  with  ail  these  advan- 
 tages they  yield  infinitely  in  beauty  to  the  women  of  the  Marque- 
 sas, the  face  being  widened  from  continual  pressure  from  infancy, 
 which  by  distending  the  mouth,  and  flattening  the  nose  and  fore- 
 head, gives  a  broad  masculine  appearance.  Hence  it  is  evident 
 that  the  Grecian  and  academical  forms,  given  by  artists  void  of 
 real  taste  or  precision,  to  the  people  of  the  Soiith  Seas,  in  the  prints 
 that  accompany  the  English  and  French  voyages,  are  totally  false 
 and  iroaginary. 
 
 The  chiefs  are  taller  than  the  people,  few  being  under  six  feet ; 
 and  as  personal  size  and  strength  arc  the  chief  distinctions  in  early 
 society,  it  is  probable  that  their  ancestors  were  selected  for  these 
 advantages,  which  have  been  continued  by  superior  food  and  ease. 
 The  dress  of  both  sexes  is  nearly  the  same,  except  that  the  men 
 wear  the  viaro^  a  narrow  piece  of  cloth  wrapped  round  the  waist, 
 and  passing  between  the  tliighs  ;  an  oblong  ])iece,  cut  in  the  mid- 
 dle to  admit  the  head,  hangs  down  before  and  behind  ;  and  anoth- 
 er piece  is  wrapped  round  the  middle,  and  a  square  mantle  is 
 thrown  over  all.  Both  sexes  wear  garlands  of  flowers  and  fea- 
 thers ;  and  the  women  use  a  kind  of  bonnet  made  of  cocoa  leaves. 
 Parturition  is  easy  ;  and  the  infant  can  swim  as  soon  as  it  can  walk. 
 
 Their  voice  and  speech  are  soft  and  harmonious  ;  and  their  di- 
 alect is  the  Italian  of  the  Pacific  oeean.  Their  rude  manufactures 
 are  truly  wonderful,  and  evince  the  greatest  ingenuity.  Their 
 dwellings  arc  about  eighteen  feet  in  length,  with  a  few  articles  of 
 furniture,  such  as  trays,  baskets,  mats,  and  a  large  chest. 
 
 Rcligion.~^  Their  deities  are  numerous;  each  family  haying  its 
 Tee,  or  guardian  spirit,  whom  they  worship  at  the  Morai ;  but 
 they  have  a  great  god,  or  gods  of  a  superior  order,  styled  Fwha- 
 now  Po,  or  the  progenv  of  night.  These  benevolent  people  cannot 
 conceive  a  future  punishment ;  and  regard  the  idea  alone  as  the  ut- 
 inqst  clTort  of  human  malignity.     But  they  admit  the  immortality 
 
 *  Miss.  A'ovagCj  '627. 
 
POLYNESIA.  695 
 
 of  the  soul,  and  degrees  of  future  eminence  and  happiness,  pro- 
 portioned to  its  virtue  and  piety.  The  Tahouras,  or  priests,  are 
 numei'ous,  and  have  great  power ;  but  all  the  chiefs  officiate  on 
 certain  occasions.  The  human  victims  are  commonly  criminals, 
 and  are  killed  during  sleep  ;  a  curious  instance  of  ferocious  su- 
 perstition, mingled  with  mildness  of  character. 
 
 ZnologLj.']  The  chief  animals  are  hogs,  as  usual  in  all  the  isles 
 of  Polynesia,  and  they  have  also  dogs  and  jroultry.  The  bread 
 fruit  tree  abounds  ;  and  large  plantations  are  made  of  cocoa  trees 
 and  plantains.  The  seas  swarm  with  fish,  and  in  catching  them 
 great  ingenuity  is  displayed,  the  canoes  having  outriggers,  or  be- 
 ing doubled,  by  lashing  two  together. 
 
 Though  the  people  of  the  Friendly  Islands  be  superior  in  im- 
 provem-cnls  and  government ;  and  the  women  of  the  Marquesas 
 far  superior  in  beauty  ;  yet  the  people  in  Otaheite  are  so  polite  and 
 affable,  and  their  manners  so  engaging,  that,  joined  with  the  ro- 
 mantic beauty  of  the  country,  the  numerous  streams,  and  the  su- 
 perabundance of  spontaneous  productions,  this  island  is  still  pre- 
 ferred to  all  others  in  Polynesia. 
 
 It  has  already  been  mentioned  that  this  island  consists  as  it  v,'erc 
 of  two  mountains.  These  are  encircled  by  a  border  of  low  land, 
 from  the  beach  to  the  rising  of  the  hills,  in  some  places  near  a  mile 
 in  breadth,  while  in  others  the  rocks  impend  over  the  sea.  The 
 soil  of  the  low  lands,  and  of  the  vales  which  intersect  the  ridge  to- 
 wards the  ocean,  is  remarkably  fertile,  consisting  of  a  rich  black- 
 ish mould.  When  the  trade  wind  gets  far  to  the  south  it  rains  on 
 that  side  of  the  island  ;  but  on  the  north  the  showers  are  less  fre- 
 tjuent  and  violent.  In  the  latter  the  harvest  of  bread  fruit  begins 
 about  November,  and  continues  till  the  end  of  January :  while  in 
 the  southern  part  it  often  begins  in  January  and  continues  till  No- 
 vember, On  ascending  the  hill.s,  the  soil  changes  from  a  rich 
 loam  into  veins  of  clay,  or  marl,  of  various  colors.  Beneath  is  a 
 soft  sand  stone,  of  a  brownish  color  j  and  basalt  also  abounds,  of  a 
 fine  grain,  of  which  they  used  to  make  their  tools.  The  black 
 volcanic  glass,  called  obsidian,  is  said  to  be  found  in  the  rivers, 
 and  also  pumices,  sure  indications  that  a  volcano  once  existed. 
 The  large  fresh  water  lake  above  mentioned  may  perhaps  have 
 been  its  crater.  This  lake  is  said  to  be  fathomless  ;  but  its  chores 
 are  well  peopled  by  an  industrious  race.  The  chief  harbor  of  O- 
 taheite  appears  to  be  Matavai,  on  the  north  side  of  the  island  j  but 
 there  is  another  of  similar  note  in  the  S.  E.  called  Langaras. 
 
 The  next  island  in  regard  to  size  is  Uiitea  :  and  the  others  of 
 this  group,  even  taken  in  its  utmost  extent,  are  of  far  inferior  di- 
 mensions to  Otaheite,  nor  has  any  striking  singularity  yet  been 
 observed  which  might  claim  attention  in  a  general  description. 
 
 As  an  appendage  to  this  article,  some  account  may  be  added  of 
 Easter  Island,  a  detached  and  remote  region,  which  however,  so 
 far  as  the  discoveries  yet  extend,  seems  rather  to  belong  to  Polv- 
 nesia  than  to  South  America.  This  isle  appears  to  have  been  firs; 
 seen  by  Davis  in  1GS6;  and  was  afterwards  visited  by  Cook  and 
 I.a  Pcrousc.     It  is  of  a  trjanguUr  forni,  tiic  longest  side  bein:< 
 
696  POLYNESIA. 
 
 about  twenty-five  miles  in  length,  and  at  one  extremity  there  ap- 
 pears to  kave  been  a  volcano.  The  inorais,  or  burial  places,  are 
 of  a  remarkable  structure  ;  being  a  kind  of  platform,  in  which  are 
 fixed  shapeless  and  uncouth  masses,  rudely  carved  in  imitation  ot" 
 busts,  sometimes  about  fifteen  feet  in  height.  In  these  a  red  lava, 
 very  porous  and  light,  is  chiefly  employed.  There  is  scarcely  a 
 tall  tree  in  Easter  Isle,  nor  any  brook,  the  water  being  retained  in 
 cavitres  made  in  the  rocks  ;  but  the  natives  are  very  industrious, 
 and  plant  paper-mulberries,  and  bananas,  with  I'egular  fields  of 
 potatoes  and  yams.  They  have  the  same  language  and  features 
 with  the  other  natives  of  Polynesia. 
 
 Vll.       THE  FRIENDLY  ISLES: 
 
 THIS  group  extends  chiefly  from  S.  W.  to  N.  E.  including 
 the  Fecjee  Isles,  those  called  the  Isles  of  Navigators,  and  several 
 detached  isles  in  a  more  northerly  position.  The  name  was  im- 
 posed by  Captain  Cook,  in  testimony  of  the  disposition  of  the  peo- 
 ple ;  but  tliey  had  been  discovered  by  Tasman  in  1643,  who  called 
 the  chief  isle,  now  styled  by  the  native  term  Tongataboo,  by  the 
 name  of  Amsterdam.*  His  account  of  the  manners  of  the  people 
 corresponds  with  the  more  recent  and  precise  information  given 
 by  Captain  Cook,  and  other  late  navigators.  They  are  contrasted 
 with  those  of  Otaheite,  as  being  of  a  more  grave  and  regular  be- 
 havior; and  the  power  of  the  chiefs  is  more  despotic.  A  greater 
 security  of  property  has  also  superinduced  moi'e  ingenuity  and  in- 
 dustry :  but  in  general  the  manners  and  customs  approach  so 
 nearly,  that  a  farther  account  might  appear  repetition  ;  and  the 
 persons  of  the  natives  are  likewise  similar,  though  the  chiefs  seem 
 inferior  in  stature. 
 
 In  the  Missionary  Voyage,  1797,  there  is  an  interesting  map  of 
 Tongataboo,  which  thence  appears  to  be  a  plain  country,  in  an 
 universal  and  surprising  state  of  cultivation,  the  whole  island  con- 
 sisting of  inclosurcs,  with  reed  fences  about  six  feet  high,  inter- 
 sected with  innumerable  roads.  The  whole  is  such  a  picture  of 
 industry,  as  to  form  a  reproach  to  nations  who  call  thembelves  civ- 
 ilized. The  length  of  Tongataboo  is  only  about  sixteen  miles,  by 
 about  eight  at  its  greatest  breadth.  On  the  north  side  there  is  a 
 lagoon,  with  several  isles,  constituting  a  tolerable  harbor.  The 
 commodities  are,  as  usual,  hogs,  bread  fruit,  cocoa  nuts,  and  yams. 
 
 Though  the  people  of  the  Friendly  Isles  be  more  free  from  Avars 
 than  those  of  the  group  before  described,  yet  Tongataboo  is  often 
 stained  with  human  victims  ;  nor  do  their  ideas  of  property  pre- 
 vent their  stealing  from  strangers.  Some  missionaries  were  here 
 left,  who  imparted  some  useful  arts  to  the  natives,  but  the  rat.s 
 were  very  destructive  to  the  European  plants.  These,  with  hogs, 
 dogs^  and  guanos,  consiituted  the  only  quadrupeds,  till  cats  were 
 ieft  in  the  voyage  of  1797.     The  morais  seem  to  be  here  called 
 
 *   Sec  hii  ucs.cfiiiiron  um!  prints  in  D;t!rvmple's  Collection,  vol.  ii.  p-  ~  ■. 
 
POLYNESIA.  697 
 
 fialookas  ;  and  are  constructed  in  the  form  of  terraces  with  high 
 steps,  the  material  being  coral  stone. 
 
 To  the  N.  W.  are  the  Feejee  isle*,  which  the  English  missiona- 
 ries discovered  to  be  now  subject  to  Tongataboo. 
 
 From  the  accounts  of  La  Perouse  it  would  appear  that  the  isles 
 discovered  by  Bougainville  in  1768,  and  by  him  called  the  Islands. 
 OF  Navigators,  are  by  far  the  most  important  in  this  large  group. 
 At  Maouna,  one  of  these  islands,  Captain  De  Langle,  Lamanon  the 
 naturalist,  and  nine  seamen  w^re  massacred  by  the  inhabitants, 
 the  captain  having  unadvisedly  given  beads  to  a  few  of  the  chiefs, 
 while  he  neglected  the  others.  From  the  chart  of  La  Perouse  it 
 appears  that  the  largest  of  these  islands,  which  he  calls  Pola,  is 
 about  thirty-seven  g.  miles  in  length,  by  about  half  that  breadth, 
 being  tnus  inferior  to  Otaheite,  though  far  surpassing  Tongataboo, 
 Next  in  gradual  diminution  of  size,  and  in  position  from  W.  to  E. 
 are  Oyolava,  Maouna,  and  Opoun.  If  the  accounts  of  La  Perouse 
 be  not  greatly  exaggerated,  the  Islands  of  Navigators  constitute 
 the  most  important  group  yet  discovered  in  southern  Polynesia, 
 in  regard  to  fertility  and  population.  At  Maouna  the  frigates 
 were  surrounded  with  two  hundred  canoes,  full  of  different  kinds 
 of  provision,  fowls,  hogs,  pigeons,  or  fruit.  The  women  were 
 very  pretty  and  licentious  ;  and  the  men  of  remarkable  stature, 
 strength,  and  ferocity  :  so  that  they  despised  the  comparatively 
 diminutive  size  of  the  French.  The  villages  are  delightfully  sit- 
 uated in  the  midst  of  spontaneous  orchards,  and  the  huts  neatly 
 erected,  with  rude  colonades,  and  covered  with  leaves  of  the  cocoa 
 palm.  Hogs,  dogs,  and  fowls  abotuided  ;  with  the  bread  fruit 
 tree,  the  cocoa  nut,  the  banana,  the  guava,  and  the  orange.  Iron 
 and  cloth  v/ere  despised,  and  beads  alone  acceptable. 
 
 According  to  La  Perouse  the  island  of  Oyolova  is  at  least  equal 
 to  Otaheite,  in  beauty,  extent,  fertility,  and  population  ;  and  he 
 supposes  that  this  isle,  with  the  larger  isle  of  Pola,  and  that  of  Ma- 
 ouna, contain  400,000  inhabitants.*  Such  is  the  abundance  of 
 provisions,  that  at  Maouna  500  hogs,  and  an  immense  quantity  of 
 fruit  were  procured  in  24  hours.  The  natives  of  Oyolava  are  also 
 of  great  stature  ;  and  hei"e  was  observed  the  largest  village  in  all 
 Polynesia,  smoking  like  a  city,  while  the  sea  was  covered  with  ca- 
 noes. Though  the  people  be  remarkable  for  a  ferocity  of  char- 
 acter, scarcely  to  be  observed  in  any  other  part  of  Polynesia,  they 
 are  still  industrious  and  ingenious,  polishing  their  wooden  works 
 very  highly,  with  tools  made  of  basalt.  They  have  not  only  the 
 bark  cloth,  but  a  kind  composed  of  real  thread,  probably  from  flax, 
 resembling  that  of  New  Zealand.  Their  speech  was  vmdersiood 
 by  a  native  of  the  Philippines,  being  derived  from  the  Malay,  a 
 language  diffused  through  all  the  scattered  isles  of  Polynesia. 
 
 The  Islands  of  Navigators  are  covered  with  fruit  trees  of  vari- 
 « 
 
 •  La  Perouse,  414.     So  Cook  over-rated  the  people  cf    Otaheite,  now  asce»tained 
 to  be  only  I6,u50.     Miss.  Voy.     i'orster,  Obs.  'il9.  sagely  argues  iliai  Otaheiie  con- 
 tains at  least  1 60,OHO.     In  like  manner  La  Perouse's  400,000  nray  probably  be  40,000, 
 It  is  probable  that  there  are  not  .S00,000  souls  in  a!l  Au^Cralsnia  ju!<l  Polyne*?. 
 VOL.  II.  88 
 
693  POLYNESIA. 
 
 ous  descriptions,   in  which  wood  pigeons  and  lurtle  doves  swarm, 
 and  to  tame  them  is  a  favorite  amusement  of  the  natives.    » 
 
 OPAno    ISLAND. 
 
 THIS  island  was  discovered  by  Vancouver,  December  1794, 
 15  in  the  Pacific  ocean,  lat  27  36  S.  Ion.  144  E.  and  is  18  miles  in 
 circumference.  Tlie  shores  are  smooth,  covered  with  verdure  to 
 the  water's  eCl^e.  A  range  of  high  craggy  mountains  extends 
 across  this  island,  bearing  the  resemblance  of  vast  fortifications, 
 and  at  a  distance  exhibit  a  very  romantic  appearance.  The  num- 
 ber of  inhabitants  is  about  1500  ;  they  are  of  middling  stature,  well 
 made  ;  their  countenance  is  open  and  cheerful,  and  indicates  a 
 disposition  given  to  hospitality.  A  fashion  prevails  among  them 
 of  cutting  their  hair  short.  Their  only  clothing  is  a  large  green 
 leaf  of  a  plant,  tied  about  the  waist.* 
 
 Botany  of  the  Asiatic  Isles,  of  Australasia,  and  of  Polynesia. 
 
 THE  plants  which  have  already  been  mentioned  as  charac- 
 terizing the  peninsula  of  Hindostan  and  India  beyond  the  Ganges, 
 form  a  very  essential  feature  in  the  botany  of  those  crowded  groups 
 that  geographers  have  distinguished  by  the  names  of  the  Philip- 
 pines, the  Moluccas,  and  the  isles  of  Sunda,  and  which,  on  this  ac- 
 count, may  be  regarded  as  forming  a  large  and  important  appendix 
 to  the  Indian  continent.  Situated  as  they  are  directly  under  the 
 equator,  and  extending  to  the  distance  of  about  10  degrees  north 
 and  south  on  each  side  of  it,  every  thing  that  can  be  produced  in 
 vegetation  by  the  combined  influence  of  heat  and  moisture,  is 
 here  exhibited  in  complete  perfection.  Being  inhabited  by  a  vig- 
 ilant and  warlike  people,  and  unhealthy  in  the  extreme  to  an  Eu- 
 ropean constitution,  only  a  few  commercial  settlements  have  been 
 established  on  the  sea  coasts,  so  that  we  remain  almost  entirely 
 ignorant  of  their  interior  vegetable  productions,  many  of  which 
 are  probably  peculiar  to  these  countries. 
 
 All  the  East  Indian  palms,  such  as  the  cocoa  nut,  the  areca,  the 
 sago,  the  palmetto,  and  the  great  fan-palm,  abound  in  tliese  isl-* 
 ands,  and  furnish  food  and  wine  to  the  natives  at  the  least  possible 
 expense  of  labor  :  nor  are  they  destitute  of  any  of  those  fruit-bear- 
 ing trees  that  adorn  and  enrich  the  neighboring  continent :  the  lus- 
 cious mango,  the  scented  eugenia,  the  fever-cooling  tamarind,  the 
 ppmegranate,  and  the  orange,  with  all  its  kindred  species  and  va- 
 rieties, ofTer  themselves  on  every  side  to  the  choice  of  the  inhab- 
 itants. The  plantam-tree,  the  ginger,  the  sugar-cane,  the  turmer- 
 ic, the  pine-apple,  the  yam,  the  sweet  potatoe,  rice,  and  an  infinite 
 variety  of  kidney  beans,  cucumbers,  melons,  and  gourds,  are  found 
 both  cultivated  and  wild  in  inconceivable  luxuriance  ;  the  larger 
 grasses  also,  audi  as  the  bamboo,  and  the  canna,  which  have  b\cn 
 
 ■j"  A'aucoTiver. 
 
POLYNESIA.  699 
 
 already  noticed  as  inhabitants  of  India,  acquire  a  still  more  stately- 
 growth  in  the  swamps  of  Java  and  Sumatra  than  on  the  banks  of 
 the  Gangeo.  The  sandal  wood  and  the  precious  calambac  or  aloes 
 -ivood,  the  canaria,  from  whose  bark  flows  the  gum  elcmi,  the  an- 
 notta,  the  cassia,  and  the  ebony,  together  Avith  many  other  valua- 
 ble woods  and  gums,  whose  uses  and  even  names  are  unknoAvn  to 
 Europe,  are  produced  in  these  islands  in  higher  perfection  than 
 elsewhere. 
 
 The  excessive  heat  and  abundance  of  moisture  that  distinguish 
 the  Indian  islantls,  constituie  a  climate  peculiarly  favorable  for 
 the  growth  of  those  plants  whose  active  qualities  and  high  aro- 
 matic flavor  place  them  at  the  head  of  the  vegetable  world  :  this 
 therefore  is  the  native  country  of  the  most  valued  spices.  Pep- 
 per, both  the  long  and  the  round,  is  found  wild,  and  is  largely  cul- 
 tivated in  all  these  islands  :  the  laurus  cinnamomum,  the  inner 
 bark  of  which  constitutes  the  pungently  fragrant  spice  of  the  same 
 name,  is  produced  chiefly  in  Sumatra  and  the  neighljoriug  isles  ; 
 caryophyllus  aromaticus,  the  receptacle  of  whose  blossom  is  knovm 
 in  the  European  markets  by  the  name  of  cloves,  abounds  for  the 
 most  part  in  the  Moluccas  ;  and  the  myristica,  whose  fruit  is  the 
 nutmeg,  and  its  inner  covering  the  mace,  by  the  mean  jealousy  of 
 the  Dutch  East  India  Company  has  been  almost  entirely  restricted 
 to  the  little  islands  of  Banda  adjoining  to  Amboyna.  But  if  this 
 part  of  the  globe  be  enriched  by  the  most  precious  aromatics,  it  is 
 also  aiTned  v.ith  the  most  active  and  deadly  poisons  :  the  same 
 burning  sun  that  exalts  the  former  matures  the  latter.  In  the  isl- 
 and of  Celebez  is  produced  the  drea,dful  Macassar  poison,  a  gum 
 resin  which  exudes  from  the  leaves  and  bark  of  a  kind  of  rhus  ; 
 this  species,  together  with  the  other  poisonous  trees  of  the  same 
 island,  is  called  by  the  natives  ipo  or  upas,  a  name  now  immortal- 
 ized by  the  genius  of  Dr.  Darwin.  Such  indeed  is  the  deleterous 
 activity  of  this  tree  that,  when  deprived  of  all  poetic  exaggeration, 
 it  still  remains  unrivalled  in  its  powers  of  destruction  :  from  the 
 sober  narrative  of  Rumphius  we  learn  that  no  other  vegetable  can 
 live  within  a  nearer  distance  of  it  than  a  stone's  throw  ;  that  small 
 birds  accidentally  alighting  on  its  branches  are  immediately  killed 
 by  the  poisonous  atmosphere  which  surrounds  it ;  and  that  in  or- 
 der to  procure  the  juice  with  safety,  it  is  necessary  to  cover  the 
 %vhole  body  with  thick  cotton  cloth  :  if  a  person  approaches  it  bare- 
 headed, it  causes  the  hair  to  fall  off" ;  and  a  drop  of  the  fresh 
 juice  applied  on  the  broken  skin,  if  it  should  fail  to  produce  im- 
 mediate death,  will  cause  an  ulcer  very  difficult  to  be  healed. 
 
 All  that  we  know  of  the  indigenous  vegetables  of  New  Holland 
 is  confined  to  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  the  British  settle- 
 ment at  Port  Jackson.  The  forests  here  are  for  the  most  part 
 composed  of  lofty  trees,  with  little  or  no  interruption  of  under- 
 "vvood,  so  that  they  are  rpadily  penetrable  in  any  direction,  the  prin- 
 cipal shelter  afforded  to  the  few  wild  animals  being  in  the  long 
 matted  grass  several  feet  in  length,  which  overspreads  the  open 
 country.  In  no  discovered  region  has  nature  been  less  lavish  of 
 her  vegetable  treasures  than  in  this  part  of  the  great  southern 
 
700  POLYNESIA. 
 
 continent :  the  only  fruit-beaving  plant  is  a  climbing  shrub,  the 
 seeds  of  which  are  enveloped  in  a  yellow  cylindrical  pulp  tasting 
 like  a  roasted  apple.  The  loftiest  of  the  trees,  and  which  some- 
 times rises  to  the  height  of  a  hundred  feet,  is  the  eucalyptus  ro- 
 busta ;  it  yields  the  brown  gum,  and  its  compact  hard  red  wood 
 has  been  imported  into  England  by  the  name  of  New  Holland  ma- 
 hogany. The  red  gum  is  procured  from  the  ceratopetalum  gum- 
 iniferum,  almost  the  only  one  of  the  native  woods  that  will  float 
 in  water.  A  considerable  proportion  of  the  vegetables  belong  to 
 the  natural  class  of  the  papilionaceous,  yet  few  even  of  these  are 
 referable  to  any  of  the  old  genera ;  two  elegant  species,  the  platy- 
 lobium  formosum  and  pultnaea  stipularis,  have  been  introduced  in- 
 to our  hot-houses.  The  other  indigenous  plants  are  for  the  most 
 part  but  little  remarkable  for  their  beauty  or  use,  and  the  notice 
 that  they  obtain  in  our  gardens  is  chiefly  owing  to  their  being  for- 
 eigners. 
 
 As  we  advance  farther  in  the  great  Pacific  Ocean  towards  A- 
 merica,  and  examine  the  botany  of  those  numerous  clusters  of 
 islands  which  extend  in  breadth  from  the  Ladrones  to  Easter  isl- 
 and, and  in  length  from  the  Sandwich  Islands  under  the  northern 
 f'opic,  to  New  Zealand,  twenty  degrees  beyond  the  southern  one, 
 we  shall  find  many  features  of  general  resemblance,  modified 
 however  in  such  a  manner  as  may  naturally  be  expected  by  the 
 different  proportions  which  each  i-eceives  of  warmth  and  moistiire, 
 the  two  great  supports  of  vegetation.  The  four  following  escu- 
 lent plants  are  found  either  wild  or  cultivated  in  all  the  islands 
 of  this  ocean  that  have  yet  been  visited,  namely,  the  swe  et  potatoe 
 aranged  in  the  Linnsean  system  as  a  species  of  convolvulus  ;  the 
 yam,  whose  tuberous  root  in  the  gardens  of  Otaheite  sometimes 
 attains  the  weight  of  thirty  pounds  ;  and  two  species  of  arum, 
 ■which,  by  culture  and  roasting,  become  a  mild  farinaceous  food. 
 Of  the  plants  peculiar  to  the  tropical  islands,  the  chief  is  the  ar- 
 tocarpus,  or  bread  fruit  :  this  valuable  tree  rises  to  the  height  of 
 more  than  forty  feet,  with  a  trunk  about  the  thickness  of  a  man's 
 body ;  its  fruit,  which  is  nearly  as  large  as  a  young  child's  head> 
 being  gathered  while  yet  unripe,  and  roasted  in  the  ashes,  is  a  most 
 ■wholesome  nourishment,  ^and  in  taste  resembles  new  Avheaten 
 bread  :  for  eight  successive  months  every  year  does  this  tree  con- 
 tinue to  furnish  fruit  in  such  abundance,  that  three  of  them  are 
 amply  sufficient  for  the  support  of  one  man  ;  nor  is  this  the  whole 
 of  its  value,  the  inner  bark  is  manfactured  into  cloth,  the  wood  is 
 excellent  for  the  construction  of  huts  and  canoes,  the  leaves  serve 
 instead  of  napkins,  and  of  its  milky  glutinous  juice  a  tenacious 
 cement  and  birdlime  is  prepared.  Of  almost  equal  importance 
 with  the  breadfruit,  and  even  more  generally  diffused  through  the 
 islands,  are  the  plantain  and  cocoa  nut  trees.  The  sweet  orange 
 is  found  sparingly  in  the  New  Hebudes,  and  the  fan  palm  is  met 
 with  on  the  movmtains  of  the  Friendly  Isles.  The  sugar-cane,  the 
 paper  mulberry,  and  figs,  are  inhabitants  of  all  the  larger  and  rocky 
 isles  ;  and  the  piper  methysticum,  from  which  is  prepared  tl^c  in- 
 toxicating a  va  or  kava,  is  unhappily  but  too  frequent. 
 
AFRICA 
 
 AFRICA  is,  in  size,  the  third  of  the  four  great  quarters  of 
 the  globe  ;  being  less  than  America  or  Asia,  and  larg.er  than  Eu- 
 rope. It  lies  between  lat.  37  18  N.  and  34  50  S.  ;  and  between 
 Ion.  17  33  W.  and  51  E.  Its  length,  from  cape  L'Jguillas^  its 
 southern  extremity,  to  cape  Serra^  its  northern,  is  4990  miles.  Its 
 greatest  breadth  from  cape  Verdt  to  cape  Guardefan^  is  4600.  Its 
 bi'eadth,  on  the  N.  shore  is  2300  ,  from  the  head  of  the  gulf  of 
 Guinea,  to  the  coast  of  Adel  2800,  from  Angola  to  the  coast  of 
 Zanguebar,  1950  ;  and  on  the  southern  coast  about  700. 
 
 On  the  N.  lies  the  Mediterranean  ;  on  the  E.  the  isthmus  of 
 Suez,  the  Red  Sea,  and  the  Indian  ocean  ;  on  the  S.  the  southern 
 ocean,  and  the  gulf  of  Guinea  j  and  on  the  W.  and  N.  W.  the  At- 
 lantic. 
 
 The  religion  of  Mahomet  is  professed  in  the  Barbary  States,  in 
 Egypt,  Sennaar,  and  the  coast  of  Ajan.  It  is  also  the  religion  of 
 the  tribes  of  the  desert ;  and  of  all  the  Moors,  and  many  of  the  ne- 
 groes, of  Soudan.  Christianity,  in  a  remarkably  corrupted  form, 
 is  esiablished  in  Abyssinia  ;  and  prevails  extensively  in  Egypt. 
 It  was  long  since  introduced  by  the  Portuguese  on  the  coasts  of 
 Congo  and  Zanguebar.  Into  the  colony  of  the  Cape,  and  in  other 
 parts  of  S.  Africa  it  has  lately  been  inti'oduced  by  the  venerable 
 Vaiiderkemp,  and  other  missionaries. 
 
 The  native  governments  of  this  continent  are  throughout  des- 
 potic and  oppressive.  All,  hewever,  appear  to  be  independent. 
 Egypt  is  little  more  than  nominally  dependent  on  Turkey,  The 
 Cape  of  Good  Hope  is  the  only  considerable  European  colony. 
 
 We  have  heretofore  stated  the  population  at  50,000,000.  It 
 doubtless  exceeds  this  number,  though  it  may  not  amount  to 
 98,945,000,  which  is  Hassel's  estimate. 
 
 The  great  natural  features  of  Africa,  the  desert,  the  Nile,  and 
 the  Niger,  and  the  chains  of  Jibbel  Kiimra^  and  Atlas,  have  here- 
 tofore been  illustrated. 
 
 Our  description  of  the  various  divisions  of  Africa  will  com- 
 mence with  Morocco  in  the  N.  W.  and  proceed  along  the  coasts 
 of  the  Mediterranean,  the  Red  sea,  the  Indian,  Southern,  and  At- 
 lantic oceans,  and  will  conclude  with  some  account  of  the  slates  in 
 the  interior  of  Soudan,  and  some  of  the  oases  of  the  desert.  The 
 geography  of  the  African  islands  -will  close  our  long  and  arduous 
 undertaking. 
 
KINGDOM  OF  MOROCCO. 
 
 INCLUDING  SUSE  AND  TAFILELT. 
 CHAPTER  I. 
 
 HISTORICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 KOCTENT,  BOUNDARIES,  DIVISIONS,  NAMES,  ORIGINAL  POPULATION, 
 HISTORY,  RELIGION,  GOVERNMENT,  POPULATION,  ARMY,  NAVY, 
 MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS,  LANGUAGES,  CITIES,  MANUFACTURES 
 AND  COMMERCE. 
 
 JExient.'^  THIS  kingdom  reaches  from  cape  Spartel  to 
 cape  Noon  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  upwards  of  630  miles,  and  on  the 
 Mediterranean,  from  cape  Spartel  to  the  mouth  of  the  Muluwia, 
 about  240.  Its  breadth  near  the  middle  and  at  the  southern  ex- 
 tremity is  about  350. 
 
 Boundaries.']  On  the  W.  is  the  Atlantic  ;  on  the  N.  the  Med- 
 iterranean ;  on  the  E.  Algiers,  the  desert  of  Angad,  and  Bled-el- 
 jerede  ;  and  on  the  S.  Sahara,  or  the  Great  Desert. 
 '  Divisions.']  The  divisions  of  the  emperor  of  Morocco  comprise 
 the  former  petty  kingdoms  of  Fas,  Morocco,  Tarudant  or  Suse, 
 and  Tafilelt,  together  with  the  wandering  tribes  of  Mount  Atlas. 
 They  are  now  united  under  one  government,  and  are  divided  as 
 follows, 
 
 I.      NORTHERN    DIVISION,    OR    KINGDOM    OF    FAS. 
 
 Situation.  Towns. 
 
 Erreef,     IVIediterranean,  Gomera, 
 
 El  Garb,           "J  Tetuan, 
 
 Benihassan,       i-  Atlantic,  Rabat, 
 
 Temsena,          J  Dar  el  Beida, 
 
 Shawia,  1 
 
 District  of  Fas,   S-   Inland,  Fas,  Meqincz,  Mulcy-Driti, 
 
 Tedla,  J 
 
 II.       CENTRAL    DIVISION,    OR    KINGDOM    OF    MOROCCO. 
 
 Duquella,  '^  Mazagan, 
 
 Abda,  •     y^^j^jj^-j,  Saffee, 
 
 Shedma,  [    *  '  Mogndor, 
 
 Haha,  J  Tidsi, 
 
 District  of  Morocco,  Mediterranean,  Morocco. 
 
 III.       SOUTHERN    DIVISION,    OR    KINGDOM    OF    TERODANT 
 
 Suse,     Atlantic,  Terodant, 
 
 Lower  Suse,   >    ^  i      t  Akka, 
 
 Draha,  ^    I"^^^^'  Draha, 
 
 IV.       EASTERN    DIVISION,    OR    KINGDOM    OF    TAFILElT- 
 
 Tafilelt,  Tafilelt. 
 
KINGDOM  OF  MOROCCO,  ro^ 
 
 JS/ames.']  The  Romans  called  this  country  Mauritania,  and 
 Maurusia,  or  the  country  of  the  Mauri,  or  Moors  ;  and  Tingitania, 
 from  its  principal  city,  Tingi.  The  Arabs,  or  modern  Moors,  call 
 it  Maroksh,  and  the  proper  English  name  is  Marocco,  and  not 
 Morocco,  as  it  is  now  written. 
 
 Original  Population.']  The  Misraim,  or  first  settlers  of  Egypt,  are 
 supposed  to  have  been  the  earliest  colonists  of  Mauritania  ;  for  the 
 authors  of  the  Universal  History  remark,  that  the  Misraim  are 
 called  Mauretani,  in  the  Jerusalem  Targum,  on  Gen.  x.  Numer- 
 ous colonies  of  Phosnicians  also,  were  early  planted  here.  Pi'oco- 
 pius  mentions  two  pillars  of  white  stone,  as  standing  there  in  his 
 time,  with  the  following  inscription  in  the  Phoenician  language 
 and  character :  "  We  are  the  Canaanites,  who  Jied  from  Joshua, 
 the  son  o/Nun,  that  notorious  robber."  Augustus  planted  9  Ro- 
 man colonies  here,  and  Claudius  3.  The  present  Moors  are  prin- 
 cipally Arabs. 
 
 History.]  The  chief  events  in  the  history  of  this  country  are, 
 1.  Its  situation  when  occupied  by  the  Mauri,  with  whom  the  vari- 
 ous nations,  that  commanded  the  navigation  of  ti'ie  Mediterranean, 
 eai'ried  on  an  extensive  commerce.  2.  Its  subjugation  by  the 
 Romaus,  under  Julius  Csesar,  B.  C.  46.  Augustus  gave  it  to  Ju- 
 ba,  in  lieu  of  his  oym.  kingdom  of  Numidia.  The  Romans  kept 
 the  country  upwards  of  400  years,  and  were  driven  out  by  the 
 Goths  ;  they,  about  A.  D.  600,  by  the  Vandals,  they  by  the  Greeks, 
 and  they  by  the  Saracens,  who  have  ever  since  possessed  it. 
 
 Religion.]  The  religion  is  the  Mahommedan,  which  was  first 
 planted  here  by  Muley  Dris  Zerone.  Great  numbers  of  Jews  are 
 found  in  the  country,  but  they  are  extremely  oppressed. 
 
 Government.]  The  government  is  strictly  despotic,  the  whole 
 power  over  life,  liberty,  and  property,  being  vested  in  the  emper- 
 or. The  only  written  laws  are  the  Koran,  and  the  comments  on  it. 
 The  laws  are  very  severe.  Murder,  adultery,  and  theft,  are  pun- 
 ished with  death,  a  death  usually  preceded  by  torture.  The  em- 
 peror and  his  bashaws  are  frequently  the  executioners. 
 
 Fofiulation.]  The  following  is  the  account  given  by  Jackson 
 of  the  population  of  Morocco,  taken  from  the  Imperial  Register. 
 The  sources  of  his  information  appear  to  warrant  the  belief,  that 
 it  is  as  accurate  a  statement  as  can  be  obtained  in  such  a  country, 
 where  no  census  is  ever  taken.  The  estimate  is  given  first  of  the 
 larger  towns,  and  secondly  of  the  provinces,  exclusive  of  those 
 towns. 
 
 Province  of  Erreef,  A*  200,000 
 
 El  Garb,  A  200,000 
 
 Beni  Hassan,  A  3D0,000 
 
 Temsena  and  Shawia,  A  1,160,000 
 
 District  of  Fas,  A  1,280,000 
 
 Largo  towns  in  this  kingrlom,  574,500 
 
 >■     ■  ■3,714,300 
 
 *  Tlie  T-rovinc€s  marked  A,   are  peopled  whollv,   oi"  cliicflv,  vith  Arabs;  lho?<- 
 
r04  KINGDOM  OF  MOROCCO. 
 
 Province  of  Duquella,  A  966,000 
 
 Abda,  A  500,000 
 
 Shedma,  A  550,000 
 
 Haha,  S  708,000 
 
 District  of  Morocco,  A  and  S  1,250,000 
 
 Large  towns  in  INIorocco,  295,000 
 
 I 4,269,000 
 
 Province  of  Draha,  S  350,000 
 
 Suse,  including  Lower  Suse,  S  2,417,000 
 
 Large  towns  in  Terodant,  S  26,300 
 
 2,793,300 
 
 Tafilelt,  A  650,000 
 
 Tribes  of  Berebbefs  of  North  Atlas,  3,000,000 
 
 14,886,600 
 
 This  population  is  divided  by  Jackson  into  four  classes.  Moors, 
 Arabs,  Berebbers,  and  Shullahs.  The  Moors  are  the  descendants 
 of  those  who  were  driven  out  of  Spain.  They  inhabit  the  cities  of 
 Morocco,  Fas,  Mequinas,  and  all  the  coast  towns  in  the  northern 
 and  central  divisions.  The  Ai-abs  have  their  original  stock  in  Sa- 
 hara, whence  they  emigrate  to  the  plains  of  Morocco,  whenever 
 the  plague,  famine,  or  any  other  calamity  makes  room  for  a  new 
 colony.  The  Berebbers  inhabit  the  mountains  of  Atlas,  north  of 
 the  city  of  Morocco.  They  are  probably  descended  from  the  an- 
 cient Maurif  with  many  Romans,  Goths,  and  Vandals,  intermixed. 
 The  Shclluhs  inhabit  the  mountains  of  Atlas,  south  of  Morocco, 
 the  provinces  of  Suse,  and  the  greater  part  of  Draha.  Many  fam- 
 ilies cf  the  Shelluhs  are  said  to  be  descended  from  the  Portu- 
 guese, who  possessed  all  the  ports  on  the  coast  before  the  discov- 
 ery of  America.  Other  travellers  mention  a  fifth  class,  namely 
 Negroes.  These  were  introduced  in  large  colonies,  from  Guin- 
 ea, by  a  late  emperor  Muley  Ishmael,  who  built  towns  for  them,  as- 
 signed them  lands,  and  gave  thern  many  privileges.  By  au  in- 
 termixture with  the  other  inhabitants,  a  numerous  race  of  Mulat- 
 toes  has  started  up  in  the  kingdom. 
 
 jirmtj.~\  The  array  amounts  to  36,000  men.  Of  these,  about 
 6000  constitute  the  emperor's  body  guard,  3500  are  artillery,  and 
 the  rest  are  light  dragoons.  The  greater  part  of  the  troops  are 
 negroes  and  mulattoes.  Their  arms  are  a  sabre,  a  long  musket, 
 a  small  red  leather  box  in  front  for  balls,  and  a  powder-horn  slung 
 over  tlieir  shoulders. 
 
 Afavy.']  The  navy  consists  of  10  frigates,  of  from  16  to  30 
 guns,  and  14  galliots,  of  from  2  to  10  guns,  manned  by  6000  sailors. 
 These  vessels  are  kept  for  piracy,  and  seldom  unite  in  a  fleet. 
 An  admiral,  however,  has  the  command  of  them. 
 
 Re-venue.~\  The  revenue  amounts  to  somewhat  more  than  a 
 Tnillion  of  dollars,  and  the  expenses  to  a  little  over  300.000  ;  of 
 ivhich  180,000  are  expended  on  the  army  and  navy. 
 
 Manners  a>id  Customs.^  The  dress  of  the  Moors  consists  of  a 
 red  cap  and  turban,  a  (kunaja)  s!)irt,  which  haiig-s  outside  of  tl>e 
 
KINGDOM  OF  MOROCCO.  705 
 
 cjirawers,  and  reaches  below  the  knee  ;  a  (caftan)  coat,  which  but- 
 tons close  before  from  top  to  bottom,   with  large  open  sleeves  ; 
 and  when  they  go  out,  a  long  shawl  (hayk)   of  white  cotton,  si'k, 
 or  wool,  five  or  six  yards  long,  and  five  feet  wide,  thrown  careless- 
 ly round  the  shoulders.    The  dress  of  the  women  is  similar.    They 
 wear  also  a  profusion  of  ribbands,  rings,  necklaces,  and  bracelets. 
 The  Arabs  dispense  with  the  coat,  and  often  with  the  shirt.     The 
 Berebbers  wear  drawers,  and  a  cloak  of  dark  blue  cloth,  with  yel- 
 low sandals.     The  houses  of  the  Moors  have  flat  roofs,  covered 
 v.ith  terrace,  a  composition  of  lime  and  small  stones.     The  Arabs 
 live  in   tents.     They   are  restless   and  turbulent,  and  their  ka- 
 byles,  or  clans,  are   frequently    at   war   with  each  other.      The 
 Berebbers  also  live  in  tents.     They  are  a  hardy,  industrious  race, 
 and   are  occupied  chiefly  in    husbandry,  and  the  rearing  of  bees-. 
 The  Shelluhs  live  in  towns,  are  occupied  in  husbandry,  live  chief- 
 ly on  barley,  and  are  a  small,    meagre  ^leople.     The  natives  gen- 
 erally are  of  a  middling  stature,  with   less  nerve  than  Europeans. 
 Deformed  persons  are  rarely  met  with  ;  though  the  Moors,  from 
 their  habit  of  sitting  cross-legged,  have  clumsy  legs  and  ancles. 
 The  blind  are  more  numerous  than  in  Eui-ope  ;  but  lame  people 
 are   seldom  seen.     All  shades  of  complexions   are   found   here. 
 Both  sexes  hare  very  fine  teeth.     The  Moors  are  scarcely  darker 
 than  the  Spaniards.     The  women  of  Fas  are  as  fair  as  Europeans, 
 and  are  generally  of  a  pale   complexion.     The  women  of  Mequi- 
 nas  are  celebrated  for  their  beauty.     They  have  all  dark  hair,  and 
 black  sparkling  eyes,  with  a  complexion  of  clear  red   and  white 
 admirably  blended.     All  the  women  fade  very  early.     The  Moors 
 are  distinguished  for  their  pride  and  arrogance.     Their  sensuali- 
 ty knows  no  bounds,  and  the  worst   crimes  committed  by  man  are 
 common.     Marriages  take  place  very  early  on  the  part  of  the  fe- 
 male, and  though  the  law  allows  to  each  man  four  wives,  yet  few, 
 except  the  most  wealthy,  indulge  in  this  latitude.     Many,  however, 
 marry  four  in  succession,  waiting  till  the  blof^m  of  the  preceding 
 one  is  passed,  before  a  new  one  is    taken.     Many   of  them   have 
 concubines,  and  these   are  usually  black  women.     The  situation 
 of  the  women  is  deplorable.     The   husband  is   safe  in  exercising 
 any  degree  of  cruelty  on  them  from  the  extreme  difficulty  of  de- 
 tection.    Both   sexes   are    very  cleanly   in  their  persons,      i  hey 
 wash  before   every   meal,   and   eat  with  their   fingers.     In  their 
 houses  they  sit  cross-legged,  in  the  manner  of  tailors,  on  carpets 
 and  cushions,   and  at  meals  the  bowl,  or   dish,  stands  upon  the 
 floor.     The  usual   games  are   leap-frog,  jumping,  and  foot-ball. 
 Some  of  the   well  educated  Moois  are  courteous  and  polite,  and 
 slow  at  taking  offence,  and  where  they  repose  confidence,  affable 
 and  communicative.     They   all  possess   uncommon  fortitude  un- 
 der misfortune. 
 
 Languages.^  The  language  of  the  Moors  is  a  corrupt  Arabic, 
 intermixed  with  Spanish.  That  of  the  Arabs  is  the  language  of 
 the  Koran,  somewhat  corrupted.  That  of  the  Berebbers  is  prob- 
 ably the  language  of  the  ancient  Mauri,  which  was  a  kindrea  dia- 
 fect  to  that  of  Num.idia,  and  strongly  resembled  the  Phceniciajn. 
 
 vol..    IT.  8^ 
 
706  KINGDOM  OF  MOROCCO. 
 
 The  languacre  of  the  Shelluhs  is  different  from  aii  the  others, 
 AH  classes  are  extremely  ignorant.  Even  the  Moors,  so  distin- 
 guished for  their  literature  in  Spain,  appear,  immediately  after 
 their  removal,  td  have  renomiccd  all  iheir  attention  to  learninp; 
 and  the  sciences.  The  physicians  of  the  country  are  mere  em.- 
 pirics  ;  their  whole  materia  medica  consisting,  with  hardly  an  ex- 
 ception, in  herbs  and  vegetables. 
 
 Ci;iesr\  Morocco  was  built  by  Jusuf  Teshfin,  of  the  family  of 
 Luntuna.  a  tribe  of  Arabs  inhabiting  the  plains  E.  of  Atlas,  about 
 the  middle  of  the  1 1th  century,  and  stands  in  a  fruitful  plain,  very 
 nearly  in  the  centre  of  the  country.  It  is  about  120  miles  from 
 the  sea,  and  at  a  small  distance  from  a  spur  of  Mount  Atlas.  The 
 environs  are  delightful,  and  richly  cultivated.  They  abound  witlx 
 cornfields,  with  groves  of  palm,  with  the  apricot,  peach,  pear, 
 plum,  pomegranate,  and  vine,  and  with  numberless  flov/ers,  all 
 growing  spontaneously.  The  walls  are  very  thick,  and  composed 
 of  lime  and  sandy  earth,  hardened  in  moulds.  The  houses  are 
 all  behind  high  walls,  of  the  rudest  construction,  and  are  not  visi- 
 ble from  the  street.  Some  of  them  are  built  with  elegance  and 
 taste.  The  palace  is  of  hewn  stone,  ornamented  with  marble. 
 The  architecture  of  the  principal  gates  is  Gothic,  embellished  with 
 various  Arabesque  ornaments.  The  walls  of  some  of  the  rooms 
 are  of  filJagree  work,  and  others  of  glazed  tiles,  like  the  Chinese. 
 To  the  palace  are  attached  three  gardens,  containing  the  flowers 
 and  fruits  of  Barbary  Timbuctoo  and  Soudan,  and  numerous  pa- 
 vilions, about  40  feet  square,  with  pyramidal  roofs.  There  are 
 many  private  gardens  also,  similarly  encircled  and  ornamented. 
 The  town  has  numerous  mosques,  sanctuaries,  and  temples.  One 
 of  these,  built  l)y  Muley  el  Monsore,  is  7  stories  high,  in  each  of 
 which  are  windows  narrow  without,  but  wide  within.  The  body 
 of  it  is  supported  by  many  pillars  of  marble,  and  the  walls  are  4 
 feet  thick.  The  tower  is  square,  and  the  ascent  is  by  a  gradui-lly 
 winding  terrace.  The  population  of  the  city  is,  according  to 
 Jackson,  270,000.  About  2000  families  of  Jews  reside  in  the  east- 
 ern part  of'it.  Great  numbers  of  these  people  have  emigrated  to 
 the  neighboring  mountains,  to  escape  from  oppression.  The  city 
 is  supplied  with  water  from  numerous  springs  and  wells  in  the 
 suburbs.  The  rich  procure  it  from  the  Tensift,  which  flows  a 
 small  distance  to  the  north.  There  is  also  a  subterraneous  aque- 
 duct of  brick,  20  feet  below  the  surface,  which  goes  round  the 
 town,  from  which,  at  about  every  hundred  yards,  pipes  of  brick- 
 work branch  ofl\  and  convey  the  Avatcr  to  the  different  houses. 
 The  streets-are  far  from  being  cleanly.  Many  of  them  are  filled 
 ■with  heaps  of  dung  and  other  filth,  and  with  the  ruins  of  decayed 
 houses  :  for  the  towri  was  some  centuries  ago  several  times 
 more,  populous  than  it  is  at  present.  'l"hc  air  is  generally  calm. 
 The  days  of  summer  are  intensely  hot  ;  the  nights  are  cool.  In 
 winter  the  cold  is  sensibly  felt.  The  neighboring  Atlas  keeps  off 
 the  Shiune^  or  hot  wind,  of  the  desert. 
 
 Fas,  or  Fez,  as  it  is  commonly  written,  was  founded  about  A.D., 
 78G,  by  Idvis  a  descendant  oX  Mohammcdj  \\  ho  had  fled  from  Me- 
 
KINGDOM  OF  MOROCCO.         «  707 
 
 dina  to  avoid  the  persecution  of  the  Khalif  Alxlallah.  The  town 
 is  divided  into  Old  and  New.  The  centre  of  Old  Fas  is  low,  and 
 in  the  winter  dirty.  The  rest  of  the  town  is  built  on  gentle  ac- 
 clivities. The  houses  are  lofty  and  spacious.  They  all  have  flat 
 roofs,  on  which  carpets  are  spread  in  the  summer  evenings.  A 
 small  turret  is  erected  on  each  roof  for  the  use  of  the  females. 
 In  the  centre  of  each  house  is  an  open  quadrangle,  surrounded  by 
 a  gallery,  which  communicates  with  the  staircase,  and  with  the 
 doors  of  the  difierent  apartments.  The  portals  of  the  houses  are 
 supported  Avith  pillars  of  brick,  plastered  over.  The  best  houses 
 have  cisterns  for  the  baths,  B»/ery  house  also  is  supplied  with 
 •Avater  by  a  branch  of  the  Scboo,  from  Mount  Atlas,  which  eniers 
 the  town  in  two  places  by  covered  channels.  The  number  of 
 mosques  is  very  great,  and  about  50  of  them  are  very  sumptuous 
 edifices,  ornamented  with  a  most  beautiful  kind  of  marble,  un- 
 known in  Evii'ope,  and  procured  from  Mount  Atlas.  A  public 
 bath  is  attached  to  each  mosque  for  religious  ablutions.  There 
 are  also  other  public  baths,  in  various  parts  of  the  town.  The 
 hospitals  are  few,  and  in  a  wretched  condition,  'i  here  are  about 
 200  caravanseras,  each  3  stories  high,  and  containing  from  50  to 
 100  apartments.  The  lodger  provides  his  own  bedding  and  food. 
 Each  trade  has  a  separate  part  of  the  town  allotted  to  it.  New 
 Fas  is  contiguous  to  the  old  town,  is  well  built,  and  contains  the 
 machinery  for  the  different  trades.  The  population  of  both  parts 
 of  the  town  is  stated  by  Jackson  at  380,000. 
 
 Mequinas  stands  near  the  river  Seboo,  and  at  a  small  distance 
 from  Fas,  in  the  midst  of  a  beautiful  valley,  surrounded  by  gentle 
 eminences.  These  are  ornamented  by  groves  of  the  richest  fruit- 
 trees.  In  the  plain,  on  the  east  of  the  city,  is  a  wall  of  circumval- 
 lation,  6  feet  in  height,  built  as  a  defence  against  the  Berebbers. 
 At  the  south  end  is  the  palace,  a  very  large  square  edifice,  built 
 wholly  on  the  ground  floor.  The  rooms  are  all  25  feet  long,  12 
 wide,  and  IS  high.  To  this  are  annexed  several  beautiful  gar- 
 dens. The  Miilah,  or  that  part  of  the  city  occupied  by  the  Jews, 
 is  walled  round,  extensive,  and  in  good  repair.  Contiguous  to 
 this  is  the  Negroes'  quarter.  The  streets  are  not  paved,  and  in 
 ■winter  are  almost  impassable.  The  population  is  1 10,000.  The 
 inhabitants  are  generally  hospitable.  Their  manners  are  more 
 mild  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  empire. 
 
 -Terodant,  formerly  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Suse,  or  Tero- 
 dant,  is  now  the  metropolis  of  the  south.  It  is  extensive  and  an- 
 cient. There  is  a  noble  palace  here,  adorned  with  gardens,  con- 
 taining the  most  delicious  fruits.  The  population  is  25,000,  and 
 was  formerly  far  greater.  The  town  is  now  famous  for  salt-pctre 
 of  a  superior  quality,  for  the  manufacture  of  leather  and  saddles, 
 and  for  dyeing.  The  river  Suse  passes  through,  and  the  inhabi- 
 tants show  massive  iron  rings  in  the  castle  walls,  to  prove  that  it 
 was  once  navigable  for  ships  to  the  town. 
 
 Rabat  is  a  seaport,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Bu-Rcgreg,  on  its  south 
 bank.     The  environs  abound    with  excellent  fruits.     The   wails 
 
 arc  about  2  milos  in  circuit,  and  are  strengthened  by  squ.aro  two.- 
 
fOS  KINGDOM  OF  MOROCCO. 
 
 ers.  The  houses  are  poorly  built.  The  population  is  25,00Q. 
 There  is  here  a  manufactory  of  cotton  cloth,  and  docks  for  ship- 
 building*. Here  are  the  ruins  of  a  spacious  mosque,  built  by  Sul- 
 tan el  Mansor,  the  roof  of  which  was  supported  by  350  marble  pil- 
 lars. Near  it  are  the  ruins  of  a  large  subterranean  cistern  attached 
 to  the  mosque,  the  tower  over  which  is  built  of  hewn  stone,  and 
 180  feet  high.  The  view  from  it  is  pleasing  and  extensive.  On 
 the  E.  side  of  Rabat  is  a  walled  town,  called  Sheila.  This  is  sa- 
 cred ground,  and  contains  many  Moorish  tombs.  Various  Roman 
 and  African  coins  have  been  dug  up  hi;re. 
 
 Salee  is  a  walled  town  at  the  mouth  of  the  same  river,  on  the 
 opposite  side  from  Rabat.  It  was  formerly  a  nursery  of  pirates, 
 and  the  Salce  rovers  were  the  common  terror  of  all  ships  sailing 
 near  the  coast.  The  population  is  18,000.  The  road  of  Salee  is 
 daijgerous  for  shipping,  and  the  sand  bank  at  the  mouth  of  the  river 
 -will  scarcely  permit  vessels  of  100  tons  to  enter.  The  road  of 
 Rabat,  without  the  river,  is  safe  from  April  to  September  inclu- 
 sive. Violent  winds  from  the  S.  render  it  unsafe  the  rest  of  the 
 year.  A  battery  in  Salee,  of  24  cannon,  commands  the  entrance 
 of  the  river. 
 
 Tetuan  stands  4  miles  from  the  Meditei-ranean,  a  little  S.  E.  of 
 the  straits.  The  environs  abound  with  the  most  delicious  fruits. 
 Its  oranges  are  celebrated.  Its  population  is  16,000.  It  was 
 much  greater  when  the  Moors  v/ere  driven  from  Spain.  The  in- 
 habitants are  Moors  and  Jews,  who  both  speak  a  corrupt  Spanish. 
 From  the  raisins  and  figs  of  the  neighboring  gardens,  the  Jews  dis- 
 til an  ardent  spu'it,  called  mahaya^  much  like  the  Irish  esquebaugh. 
 
 Saffee,  or  AsFEE,  is  S.  of  Cape  Cantin.  It  lies  between  two 
 hills,  which  render  the  town  intolerably  hot  in  summer,  and  in 
 winter  very  disagreeable,  as  the  rains  run  from  the  hills  into  the 
 town,  and  discharge  themselves  through  the  main  street  into  the 
 ocean,  deluging  the  lower  apartments  of  the  houses,  and  some- 
 times so  suddenly,  that  there  is  no  time  to  remove  the  property 
 from  the  stores.  The  walls  of  the  tOAvn  are  thick  and  high,  and 
 were  probably  built  before  the  Roman  invasion.   Population  12,000. 
 
 MuLEY  Duis  Zerone  is  an  inland  town,  eastof  Mequinas,  among 
 the  mountains,  and  contains  12,000  inhabitants. 
 
 MoGoDou,  or  Sueuah,  is  built  about  70  miles  S.  W.  of  SafFec,  on 
 a  low  flat  cicsert  of  accumulating  sand,  which  separates  it  froni  the 
 cuiuvatcd  country,  and  is  defended  from  the  encroachment  of  the 
 sea  by  rocks,  which  extend  from  the  northern  to  the  southern 
 gate  ;  though  at  spring  tides  it  is  almost  surrounded.  Within  the 
 harbor  al  the  landing  place,  are  two  long  batteries  mounted  with 
 handsome  brass  eigjueen  pounders.  On  the  land  side  also  is  a 
 battery  of  considerable  force.  The  harbor  is  formed  by  a  little 
 island  3  miles  in  circumference  lying  S.  of  the  town.  Between 
 this  and  tl)e  main  land  ships  anchor,  but  there  is  only  12  feet  wa- 
 ter at  low  tide.  The  houses  are  all  of  stone  and  white,  and  look 
 beautifully  from  the  sea.  the  streets  cross  each  other  at  right  an- 
 gles and  are  narrow.  The  houses  have  few  windows  lov.'ards  the 
 street  Those  of  the  foi'eign  merchants  are  the  most  spacious  and 
 elegant.     Population  10,000. 
 
KINGDOM  OF  MOROCCO.  709 
 
 Tangier,  the  ancient  Tingis,  is  situated  near  the  west  mouth  of 
 the  straits,  a  few  miles  from  Cape  Spartel.  The  Goths  took  this 
 town  from  the  Romans,  then  the  Arabs  obtained  it,  and  next  the 
 Portuguese  in  the  15th  century,  who,  in  1662,  gave  it  to  the  En- 
 glish. They,  in  1684,  destroyed  the  fortifications,  and  abandoned 
 it.  It  still  has  some  good  batteries.  The  inhabitauts  are  6,  000 
 in  number.     They  supply  Gibraltar  with  provisions. 
 
 Ceuta,  or  CiBTA,  stands  close  by  Mount  Abyla,  or  Apes  moun- 
 tain, as  the  Moors  call  it.  The  town  belongs  to  the  Spaniards. 
 The  emperor  twice  attempted  to  take  it,  aboutthc  close  of  the  last 
 century,  without  success. 
 
 Melilla  is  in  the  northeastern  part  of  vhe  country,  beyond  the 
 cape  of  the  Three  Forks.  The  country  around  is  pleasant,  and 
 abounds  with  wax  and  honey.  This  also  belongs  to  the  Spaniards. 
 These  towns  are  called  by  them  the  African  presidencies,  and  con- 
 tain together  about  1 5,800  inhabitanis.    Garrisons  are  kept  in  both. 
 
 Manufactures  and  Conwierce.^  Few  manufactures  are  attempt- 
 ed in  this  country,  and  most  of  those  which  exist  are  inferior  to 
 European.  Shawls,  and  sashes  of  silk  and  gold,  hayks  of  cotton, 
 cf  silk,  of  cotton  and  silk  mixed,  and  of  wool,  are  made  of  a  supe- 
 rior quality  at  Fas  and  at  Tafilelt.  Morocco  leather,  both  of  goat 
 and  calf  skins,  is  made  extensively,  also  tallow  candles  in  small 
 quantities.  The  gun  powder  made  by  the  Arabs  of  Wooled- 
 Abussebah,  south  of  the  river  Suse,  is  of  a  quality  far  superior  to 
 that  of  Europe,     Carpets  are  made  in  the  province  of  Tedla. 
 
 The  commerce  of  Morocco  is  Avith  foreign  nations,  and  with  the 
 interior  of  Africa.  That  by  sea  is  entirely  passive.  The  exports 
 are  sweet  and  bitter  almonds,  gums,  Barbary,  Senegal,  and  San- 
 drac,  bees-wax,  goat,  cow,  and  calf-skins,  oil  of  olives,  wool,  os- 
 trich feathers,  ivory,  pomegranate  peals,  dates,  raisins,  worm- 
 seed,  rose-leaves,  wild  thyme,  glue,  anniseed,  fennel,  gingelin 
 seed,  walnuts,  straw, tallow,  tallow-candles,  and  string:  the  im- 
 ports are  woollens,  linens,  silks,  nankeens,  cottons,  cotton,  gum- 
 benzoin,  musk,  slick-lack,  capilaise,  gin,  sugar,  teas,  cloves,  pota- 
 toes, sal  ammoniac,  tin,  iron,  steel,  copperas,  alum,  silk  handker- 
 chiefs, raw  silk,  looking  glasses,  hardware,  red  and  white  lead, 
 arsenic,  lavender,  amber  beads,  china  and  earthen  v/are,  dollars, 
 Hebrew  Bibles,  drugs,  and  confectionary.  Mogodor  is  the  prin- 
 cipal port.  The  exports  from  that  town  in  1804,  amounted  to 
 ;G  127,679  sterling,  and  the  imports  to  .-CI 5 1,450  sterling. 
 
 The  inland  trade  is  chiefly  with  Timbuctoo,  across  the  desert. 
 The  articles  are  carried  on  camels,  accompanied  by  the  Arabs, 
 \f\\o  let  them  at  a  low  rate  to  the  merchants.  This  tedious  and 
 perilous  journey  is  usually  made  between  September  and  April 
 inclusive.  Several  hundred  camels  usually  go  together.  A  guard 
 of  soldiers  accompanies  the  caravan  to  protect  them  fiom  the  wild 
 Arabs  of  the  desert.  The  course  of  the  caravan  is  net  in  a  direct 
 line  ;  but  is  determined  by  the  oafics  or  fertile  spots,  interspersed 
 like  islands,  in  this  ocean  of  sand.  At  each  of  these  it  usually 
 halts  about  a  week.  In  the  intermediate  journeys  the  shumc  is 
 often  so  violent  as  to  exhale  the  water,  carried  in  skins  bv  the 
 
710  KINGDOM  OF  MOROCCO. 
 
 camels.  TLie  guides  of  the  caravan  s*eer  by  the  stai's  in  the  night, 
 which  is  far  the  pleasantest  time  for  marching.  The  journey 
 from  Fas  to  Akka,  the  place  of  rendezvous  on  this  side  of  the  de- 
 sert takes  up  18  days.  Here  they  halt  a  month  ;  and  then  in  16 
 days  reach  Tagassa,  where  they  remain  15.  In  7  more  they  reach 
 Arawan,  where  they  make  a  similar  stop,  and  in  6  days  reach  Tim- 
 buctoo,  making  a  journey  of  54  days  actual  travelling,  and  75  of 
 repose.  The  articles  carried  to  Tirnbuctoo  are  linens,  cottons, 
 muslins,  fine  cloths,  coral  and  amber  beads,  pearls,  raw  silk,  brass 
 nails,  coffee,  tea,  refined  sugar,  Italian  silks,  rexl  woollen  caps, 
 turbans,  nutmegs,  cloves,  ginger,  pepper,  tobacco  and  salt,  and 
 the  various  manufactures  of  Moi'occo.  The  articles  brought  back 
 are  gold  dust,  twisted  gold  rings  of  Wangara,  gold  rings  of  Jinnie, 
 bars  of  gold,  elephants'  teeth,  gum  of  Soudan,  grains  of  Sahara, 
 odoriferous  gums,  and  slaves.  Ostrich  feathers  and  ambergris 
 are  also  collected  on  the  confines  of  the  desert. 
 
 CHAPTER  II. 
 
 NATURAL   GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 CLIMATE,  FACE  OF  THE  COUNTRY,  SOIL  AND  AGRICULTURX,  RIV- 
 ERS, CAPES,  MOUNTAINS,  FORESTS,  ZOOLOGY,  BOTANY,  MINE- 
 RALOGY. 
 
 Climate.']  FROIM  March  to  September  the  atn>osphere 
 is  hardly  ever  charged  with  clouds,  and  in  the  rainy  season  the 
 sun  is  rarely  hid  a  whole  day  at  once.  The  summer  days  are 
 excessively  hot,  and  in  the  south  the  inhabitants  are  often  visited 
 by  the  shume,  or  parching  wind,  from  the  desert.  Many  loath- 
 some and  distressing  diseases  prevail  in  Morocco.  Children  are 
 often  afflicted  with  bahlness  and  epilepsy.  The  women  are  very 
 subject  to  the  latter.  Pains  in  the  head,  stomach,  bowels,  and  bones 
 are  very  common.  Schirrous  ulcers,  and  other  eruptions,  fre- 
 quently break  out  on  the  bodies  and  limbs  of  the  inhabitants.  The 
 leprosy  is  very  common,  especially  in  Haha.  There  they  are  seen 
 k\  parties  of  10  and  20  begging  charity.  In  the  city  of  Morocco 
 tlierc  is  a  separate  quarter  for  them,  outside  of  the  walls.  When-t 
 ever  thev  leave  home,  as  the  disorder  is  thought  contagious,  they 
 are  obliged  to  wear  a  straw  hat,  with  a  very  broad  brim,  tied  on  in 
 a  particular  manner,  as  a  badge  of  their  disease.  They  intermar- 
 ry only  with  one  another.  The  want  of  eye-brows  is  the  only  ex- 
 ternal mark  of  disease.  In  damp  weather  they  may  be  seen  in 
 clusters  sitting  round  a  fire,  warming  their  bones,  for  they  ache 
 all  over,  till  the  weather  resumes  its  Avonted  dryness.  Tlie  c/e- 
 phcmtiaais.)  and  hydrocele.,  are  frequently  met  with.  JJroJisij  and 
 hernia  are  more  rare  than  in  Europe.  Ophthalmia  is  very  common. 
 The  plague  also  occasionally  visits  Morocco,  and  is  awfully 
 destructive  in  its  ravages.  That  of  179'J  carried  off  about  50,000 
 of  the  inhabitants  of  Morocco,  and  about  65,000  of  those  of  Fa^. 
 
KINGDOM  OF  iVlOROCCO.  7U 
 
 But  the  most  prevailing  disease,  is  that  which  has  so  long  proved 
 the  scourge  of  voluptuousness,  and  which  is  one  of  the  few  direct 
 punishments,  which,  on  this  side  of  the  grave,  are  seen  to  be  in- 
 flicted by  God  on  transgression.  It  is  said  to  have  been  introduced 
 into  Morocco  by  the  Jews,  on  their  expulsion  from  Spam  ;  and 
 now  there  is  scarcely  a  Moor  in  the  Barbary  States,  who  has  not 
 the  virus  in  his  veins. 
 
 Face  of  the  Country.']  The  kingdoms  of  Morocco  and  I' as,  W. 
 of  Mount  Atlas,  except  the  province  of  Haha,  are  a  pleasant 
 champaign  country,  every  where  covered  with  vegetation,  and 
 generally  cultivated.  Except  in  the  towns  on  the  coast,  and  in 
 the  four  inland  cities  of  Mequinas,  Fas,  Muley  Dris  Zerone,  and 
 Morocco,  the  only  dwellings  are  tents  inhabited  by  Arabs.  The 
 provinces  of  Haha  and  Suse  are  interspersed  with  mountains  and 
 valleys,  hills  and  dales.  Here  villages  and  walled  habitations  are 
 scattered  over  the  country.  The  houses  in  Haha  are  built  ot 
 atone,  each  having  a  tower  ;  and  stand  on  elevated  situations, 
 forming  a  pleasing  view  to  the  traveller.  Draha  and  Tafilelt  are 
 chiefly  plain  countries,  and  are  very  scantily  supplied  with  water. 
 Between  Tafilelt  and  Atlas  lies  a  plain,  five  days  journey  in  width  ; 
 nearly  destitute  of  vegetation,  on  which  rain  never  falls.  The 
 soil  is  a  whitish  clay,  which,  when  moistened,  resembles  soap. 
 The  dwellings  in  these  provinces  are  walled  houses;  and  are 
 chiefly  placed  near  the  two  principal  rivers,  which  pass  through 
 them,  Draha  and  Fillelly. 
 
 Soil  and  Jffriculture.']  The  soi!  of  all  the  provinces  west  of  the 
 mountains  is  very  fertile.  That  of  the  kingdom  of  Fas  is  gener- 
 ally black,  but  sometimes  red,  without  stones  or  clay,  generally 
 without  trees,  but  incalculably  productive.  Suse  is  the  richest 
 province  of  the  empire.  The  soil  of  Draha  and  Tafilelt  is  of  a. 
 saline  nature,  communicating  a  strong  briny  taste  to  the  rivers. 
 It  is  not  generally  productive,  except  on  their  banks.  All  the 
 provinces  north  of  Haha  are  extremely  productive  of  wheat  and 
 barley,  and  with  superior  cultivation  might  export  immense  quan- 
 tities. As  a  specimen  of  their  agriculture  the  inhabitants  reap 
 the  grain  high  from  the  ground  and  burn  the  stubble  for  manure. 
 They  also  throw  the  grain  on  the  ground,  and  afterwards  plow  it. 
 Beans,  peas,  caravances,  and  Indian  corn,  are  cultivated  here 
 occasionally.  The  fragrant  tobacco,  called  Megumasi  grows  ia 
 Benchassan  and  near  Mequinas.  Cotton,  of  a  superior  quality, 
 and  hemp  are  grown  near  Salee  and  Rabat.  The  fruits  cultiva- 
 ted in  this  part  of  the  country  are  figs,  grapes,  most  delicious  or- 
 anges, pomegranates,  citrons,  lemons,  limes,  the  opuntia,  or  prickly- 
 pear,  a  native  of  the  Canary  Isles,  apricots,  peaches,  plums,  ap-. 
 pies,  pears,  melons,  and  strawberries.  These  also  grow  wild,  and 
 many  of  the  fruit  trees  form  extensive  groves  and  forests.  Th^i 
 productions  of  Haha  arc  v.^ax,  gum  sancb'ac,  and  arable,  olives, 
 .  almonds  bitter  and  sweet,  oil  of  olives  and  of  argan,  besides  all  the 
 fruits  of  the  north.  Barley  is  here  more  abundant  than  wheat. 
 Grain  is  ^ot  generally  cultivated  in  Suse,  only  enough  for  ther. 
 gwn  consumption  ;  bvit  ajl  the  fruits,  vrhich  have  been  m'm'io':!Cf*.'. 
 
712  KINGDOM  OF  MOROCCO. 
 
 together  with  the  date,  are  abundant.  The  grapes  of  Edautcnatl 
 are  exquisite.  The  sugar  cane  grows  spontaneously  about  Tero- 
 dant.  Near  Terodant  and  Ras-cl-Wed,  are  forests  of  olives  of  two 
 days'  journey  in  breadth.  Those  of  almonds  also  are  very  nume- 
 rous and  extensive.  The  Jews  in  this  province  manufacture  wine 
 and  brandy.  Cotton,  indigo,  and  stick-liquorice,  gums,  amarad, 
 arabic,  soudan,  eupharbium,  and  sandrac,  wax,  wild  thyme,  or- 
 chilla  weed,  orriss-root  and  coloquinth,  are  also  among  the  pro- 
 <iuctions  of  this  province.  Indian  corn,  rice,  and  indigo  are  raised 
 near  the  rivers  of  Draha  and  Tafilclt,  and  a  little  wheat  and  bar- 
 ley in  the  latter.  The  dates  of  both  are  astonishingly  abundant 
 and  of  an  excellent  quality.  They  constitute  the  chief  food  of  the 
 inhabitants.  In  Tafilelt  alone  there  are  upwards  of  thirty  varie- 
 ties of  this  fruit.  'J'he  produce  of  a  single  plantation  near  the  im- 
 perial palace,  on  the  river  Fillclly,  was  750U  camel-loads,  or  quin- 
 tals, which  sold  for  5000  dollars. 
 
 Rivers.']  The  Muluwia  separates  Morocco  from  Tlemsen,  or 
 West  Algiers,  and  empties  into  the  Mediterranean  in  Ion.  1  30 
 "VV.  from  Greenwich.  It  is  a  deep  and  impetuous  stream,  and  im- 
 passable in  Liali,  or  the  40  shortest  days.  In  summer  it  is  always 
 Ibrdable,  and  often  dry.  El  Kose,  or  Luccos,  runs  westward,  and 
 empties  at  El  Araiche.  It  is  extremely  crooked,  and  abounds  in 
 the  fish  called  shebbel.  Ships  of  ]  50  tons  may  enter  it  at  high 
 ■water. 
 
 The  Baht  rises  in  Atlas,  and  loses  itself  in  the  swamps  and  lakes 
 of  EI  Garb. 
 
 The  Scboo  rises  from  a  lake  in  a  forest,  near  the  foot  of  Atlas, 
 and  winding  through  the  plains,  passes  within  6  miles  of  Fas,  he- 
 low  which  it  receives  the  branch  which  flows  through  that  city. 
 This  river  is  impassable,  except  in  boats,  or  on  rafts.  At  Ma- 
 mora,  a  village  of  300  inhabitants,  where  it  enters  the  sea,  it  is 
 lai'ge,  deep,  and  navigable. 
 
 The  Bu  Regreg,  also  rises  in  Atlas,  and  winds  through  the  val- 
 leys of  Fas,  and  the  plains  of  Benihassan,  to  the  sea,  between  Sa. 
 lee  and  Rabat.     Here  some  of  the  emperor's  frigates  are  wintered. 
 
 The  Morbeya  issues  from  the  same  range,  and  dividing  the 
 provinces  of  Fas  and  Tcdla,  passes  through  those  of  Morocco  and 
 Shawia,  and  separates  Temsena  from  Duquclla.  At  Bulawan,  on 
 the  confines  of  Duquella,  the  river  is  passed  qu  a  raft  of  rushes, 
 reeds,  and  goat-skins.  There  was  formet'ly  a  bridge.  Azamor,  a 
 town  of  1000  inhabitants,  lies  at  its  mouth.  Its  waters  abound  in 
 the  shebbel  fish. 
 
 The  Tensift  rises  in  the  Atlas,  cast  of  Morocco,  and  passing  5 
 miles  N.  of  that  city,  winds  through  the  province,  and  nearly  dl- 
 vidiog  Abda  and  Shedma,  falls  into  the  ocean,  16  miles  below  Saf- 
 fee.  Its  chief  tributary  is  the  Nissis.  The  Tensift  is  a  torrent 
 during  the  iJali,  or  40  shortest  days,  but  in  summer  is  fordable, 
 though  not  safely,  without  a  guide.  At  the  ferry,  near  the  mouth, 
 at  low  tide,  the  water  in  summer  reaches  only  to  the  stirrups. 
 About  G  miles  from  Morocco  is  a  bridge,  built  by  Muley  El  Man- 
 sor.  It  is  very  strong,  but  flat,  Avith  many  arches,  and  the  cement 
 so  hard  tliat  the  stones  can  scarcely  be  separated. 
 
KINGDOM  OF  MOROCCO.  719 
 
 The  Tidsi  rises  in  a  spur  of  Atlas,  and  is  a  short  and  small 
 river,  emptying  a  little  below  the  town  of  Tidsi. 
 
 The  Suse  issues  from  the  main  range  of  Atlas,  30  miles  above 
 Terodant,  and  after  a  winding  course,  falls  into  the  sea,  6  miles 
 S.  of  Santa  Cruz,  a  village  of  300  inhabitants.  At  its  mouth  is  a 
 bar  of  sand,  which,  at  low  water,  almost  separates  it  from  the 
 ocean.  The  Messa,  a  small  stream,  flows  from  Atlas,  and  falls 
 into  the  ocean  at  Messa,  a  town  of  1000  inhabitants.  The  Akassa, 
 near  the  southern  boundary,  is  navigable  to  Noon,  and  empties  at 
 Cape  Noon. 
 
 The  Draha  is  a  river  which  flows  from  the  east  side  of  Atlas 
 to  the  south,  and  passing  through  the  province  of  Draha,  is  lost  in 
 the  sands  of  the  desert.     Its  waters  are  brackish. 
 
 The  Fillelly  rises  on  the  east  side  of  Atlas,  and  runs  N.  E.  to 
 Tafilelt,  where  it  is  as  large  as  the  Thames  at  Putney.  Thence 
 it  runs  towards  the  Mediterranean,  and  is  finally  lost  in  the  Des- 
 ert of  Angad.  It  is  the  largest  river  of  Morocco,  and  its  whole 
 course  is  450  miles.  Its  waters  also  are  brackish.  It  has  several 
 castles  of  terrace  wall  on  its  banks,  inhabited, by  the  princes  of  the 
 reigning  family  of  Morocco.;  ,.^   ;  .,,^  .^  .    .j^j,  ^„..  „jr.   ^^.    ,^, 
 
 Ca/ies.']  The  Cape  of  the 'thi'e^  i^orks/'is  a  tittle^lS^^^ 
 Melilla,  Abyla  is  a  noble  promontory,  opposite  Gibraltar.  Cape 
 Spartel  is  a  fine  headland,  and  the  N.  W.  point  of  Africa.  Cape- 
 Cantin  is  a  height  visible  from  the  tower  of  Morocco.  Cape  d^, 
 Geerisanoble  bluff",  and  the  termination  of  a  branch  of  Atlas., 
 Cape  Noon  is  the  southwestern  limit  of  the  country.  The  coa^^f 
 on  the  Straits  is  every  where  rugged,  and  interspersed  with  pro- 
 jecting cliffs.  The  western  coast  is  defended  by  numerous  rocks^ 
 level  with  the  surface  of  the  water,  and  occasionally  an  interme- 
 diate beach  between  them,  Avhere  the  water  is  shallow,  and,  the 
 surf  runs  high.  South  of  Santa  Cruz,  even  to  Cape  Bojador,  the 
 coast  is  every  where  deceitful  and  dangerous.  Thq  waves  break 
 violently  over  the  rocks,  and,  the  rapid  current,  which  loyariably, 
 sets  in  towards  the  land,  frequently  drives  vessels  ashore.  ,  '■'■■ 
 
 MQuntains.~\  The  mountains  of  Atlas  have  already  been  men-, 
 tioned.  Only  that  part  of  the  .range,  called  West  Atlas,  whichi 
 runs  from  S.  W.  to  N.  E.  is  ia'^Slorocco.  The  names  North  and 
 South  Atlas,  are  also  applied  to  the  diff"erent  parts  of  it.  The 
 western  border  of  the  range  passes  about  30  miles  east  of  the  city 
 of  Morocco,  v/here  they  are  immensely  high,  and  covered  with 
 eternal  snows.  A  lofty  eminence  here  assumes  the  form  of  a  sad- 
 dle, and  is  visible  at  Mogodor  in  a  clear  day,  and  indeed  several 
 leagues  out  at  sea.  These  mountains  are  very  fertile,  and  pro- 
 duce excellent  fruits,  having  at  different  heights  the  advantage  of 
 various  climates.  The  inhabitants  of  the  upper  regions  of  Atlas 
 live  four  months  of  the  year  in  excavations  of  the  mountains. 
 
 Forests.']  At  El  Araiche  commences  a  forest,  consisting  chief- 
 ly of  oak,  with  a  few  cask  and  other  trees  intermixed,  which  i  cach- 
 es a  great  distance  eastward.  A  little  S.  E.  there  is  another,  con- 
 sisting wholly  of  cork  trees.  In  Haha  are  extensive  forests  of 
 the  Argan,  and  in  Suse  of  the  palm  and  the  olive. 
 
 A'oi>.  II.  90 
 
71^1  KIN'GDOM  OF  MOROCCO. 
 
 ^'■'Zoology.']  The- horses  of  West  Barbary  are  renowned  for  fleet- 
 ness  and  activity.  The  breed,  however,  has  been  hiuch  nep-lect- 
 ed,  except  in  Abda  and  the  province  of  Morocco.  These  horses 
 have  stronger  sinews  than  those  of  Europe,  and,  after  a  little  man- 
 agement, are  extremely  tractable.  The  stallions  only  are  rode  ; 
 the  mares  are  kept  for  breeding  ;  geldings  are  unknown  in  Ma- 
 hometan countries.  Mules  and  asses  abound  every  where,  also 
 camels  and  horned  cattle.  Lions  are  very  common  in  the  forests, 
 and  often  infest  the  roads,  so  as  to  render  them  impassable.  The 
 hyena  (duhbab)  is  found  in  all  the  rocks  and  caverns  of  the  moun- 
 tains, Avhere  he  is  far  less  ferocious  than  when  confined.  The 
 detb  resembles  the  hyena  in  his  propensity  to  devour  dead  bodies, 
 but  is  only  half  of  his  size,  and  is  far  more  fierce  in  his  disposition. 
 The  leopard  (nimmer)  is  spotted,  and  has  the  size  of  the  royal 
 tiger  of  Asia.  His  strength  and  agility  are  wonderful.  The 
 -wild  boar  is  the  favorite  game  of  the  Morocco  hunters,  and  abounds 
 in  the  southern  provinces.  The  rhinoceros  (rtcm)  is  highly  val- 
 ued for  his  horn.  The  wild  cat  is  very  fierce,  and  sometimes 
 liardy  enough  to  attack  a  man.  The  s/i^ifd  is  an  intermediate  ge- 
 inis,  between  the  rat  and  the  squirrel,  and  in  its  form  resembles 
 thfe  ichneumon.  It  is  very  active,  and  lives  in  holes  in  the  rocks. 
 The  antelope  (■gazel)  is  the  favorite  of  the  Arabian  poets..  It  has 
 strdight  dark  Irorns,  with  a  beautiful  and  prominent  black  eye,  and 
 ittbyes  swift'as  the  wind.  The  harreh  is,  among  the  Arabs,  the 
 embltnr^f  purity.  The  head  and  back  are  of  a  light  red,  the 
 b^lly'of  a  beautiful  white.  It  is  not  found  north  of  the  river  Susc. 
 Tfe'Hlzoai^Vtonc  is  produced  by  the  harreh.  The  aoiidad^  in  size 
 aiid  color,  resembles  a  calf,  and  is  the  Avildest  animal  of  the  Afri- 
 can woods.  The  red' fox  (thaleb)  is  like  that  of  Europe  in  its 
 sceht  and  disposition.  The  ape  is  of  a  very  large  size  in  North 
 Atlas.  The  jinnar  is  the  offspring  of  the  bull  and  the  ass.  It  is 
 very  uncommon.  The  heirie^  or  camel  of  the  desert,  is  more  ele- 
 gantly formed  than  the  camel  of  burdeh.  They  will  generally  go 
 7  day's  journey  in  one,  and  continue  3  days  without  eating.  They 
 gb  from  Timbuctoo  to  Tafilelt  in  7  days.  The  sh'rubah  er^reeh^  a 
 horse  ofthe  desert,  travels  also  *vil.h  astonishing  swiftness,  but 
 requires  to  be  fed  once  a  day  Jn  camels' milk.  The  sheep  of 
 Suse  feed  only  on  the  wild  aromatic  herbs,  and  are  wholly  singu- 
 lar in  the  fineness  of  their  flavor.  The  wool  of  some  of  them  is 
 also  extremely  fine.  The  wool  ofthe  sheep  of  Tedla  has  the  s"oft- 
 ness  of  silk.  The  goat  is  very  common,  but  peculiarly  so  in  Tafi- 
 lelt, Mdierc  the  finest  morocco  leather  is  manufactured. 
 
 The  camelion,  Sahara  lizard,  locust,  scorpion,  musquitoe,  gnat, 
 and  cricket  are  among  the  insects  of  Morocco.  The  buska  is  a 
 black  venohious  serpent,  7  or  8  feet  long.  When  attacking  trav- 
 ellers it  coils  itself  up  and  then  darts  to  a  very  great  distance. 
 The  wound  inflicted  is  small,  but  the  sufierer  in  a  few  minutes 
 turns  black  and  expires.  The  haffah  is  2  feet  long,  as  thick  as 
 a  mail's  arm,  and  beautifully  spotted  with  yellow  and  brown.  Its 
 poison  is  almost  instantaneous  in  its  operation.  The  qisaivie,  or 
 charmers  of  serpents,  carry  these  animals  about  for  a  show.     The 
 
KINGDOM  OF  MOROCCO.  ,7 is 
 
 6oa,  or  serpent  of  the  desert,  is  often  80  feet  long*,  as  thick  as  a. 
 man's  body,  and  of  a  dingy  color,  but  not  venomous.  It  moves 
 witli  such'  swiftness,  that  it  is  impossible  to  escape  froni  it.  It 
 will  twist  itself  round  an  ox,  and  after  crushing  its  bones  will  swal- 
 low it  gradually,  after  which  it  lies  supinely  on  the  ground  for  two 
 or  three  days  unable  to  proceed,  till  the  animal  is  digested.  Do- 
 mestic serpents  are  found  in  alniost  every  house,  and  are  treated 
 as  members  of  the  family.  The  tortoise  is  very  large  and  com- 
 mon ;  those  of  the  desert  weigh  from  400  to  600  weight.  The  os- 
 trich, eagle,  vulture,  bustard,  white  heron,  wild  goose,  ox-keeper, 
 pelican,  stork,  flamingo,  partridge,  pigeon,  wood  pigeon,  cream- 
 colored  dove,  turtle-dove,  ring-dove,  curlew,  plover,  lark,  crested- 
 lark,  black-bird,  starling,  cuckoo,  nightingale,  and  owl,  arc  among 
 the  birds  of  this  country,  as  well  as  the  rogr,  a  dark  kind  of  par- 
 tridge, the  tibib,  a  species  of  sparrow,  and  the  hage,  a  little  ash-col- 
 ored bird  that  feeds  on  beetles. 
 
 The  shebbel,  a  fine  species  of  salnioti,  is  taken  in  all  the  rivers. 
 The  fish  on  both  coasts  are  the  mullet,  red  and  gray,  brim,  anchovy, 
 sardine,  herring,  mackarel,  rock  cod,  skate,  sole,  plaice,  turbot, 
 and  turtle.  The  azaliwgi,  tasargalt,  and  irgal  are  peculiar  to  the 
 western  coast  of  Morocco.  They  are  taken  in  the  bay  of  Aga- 
 deer,  or  Santa  Cruz,  and  prepared  in  the  ovens  of  Agurani, 
 whence  they  are  transported,  in  immense  quantities,  to  Bled-cl- 
 Jerede.     Whales  are  frequently  cast  on  the  shore. 
 
 Botany.~\  The  fruits,  and  medicinal  herbs,  have  already  been 
 mentioned.  The  gum-sarbac  tree  looks  like  the  juniper.  Its 
 ■wood  has  a  fine  fragrance,  and  is  impenetrable  to  the  worm. 
 The  tizrcif  a  plant  3  feet  high,  the  snobar  and  the  rassul,  are  us- 
 ed by  tanners.  The  hasMs/ia,  or  African  hemp,  is  reared 
 for  the  manufacture  of  ropes.  When  smoked  instead  of  tobacco, 
 it  produces  an  agreeable  intoxication.  A  decoction  of  the  suniag 
 is  a  powerful,  but  dangerous  stimulant.  The  lotus,  or  water  lily, 
 grows  in  the  rivers.  Mallows  are  every  where  cultivated.  Truf- 
 fles ai'e  roots  which  grow  in  sandy  places.  '1  hey  are  highly 
 stimulating  and  very  palatable.  The  gum  euphorbiem  is  pro- 
 cured from  a  curious  succulent  plant,  resembling  the  wild  thistle  ; 
 gum  ammoniac  from  one  which  is  like  the  European  fennel  ; 
 and  gum  arable,  from  the  attaleh,  a  high  thorny  tree  with  leaves 
 Jike  those  of  the  juniper.  Pitch  is  made  in  great  quantities  from 
 the  wild  juniper. 
 
 Mineratogij.']  Gold  and  silver  mines  are  found  in  various  parts 
 of  Morocco,  but  more  particularly  near  Messa  in  Suse,  on  the 
 south  bank  of  the  river.  The  Portuguese  formerly  worked  them. 
 About  Shtuka  and  Elala,  in  the  same  province,  are  very  rich 
 mines  of  silver.  There  is  another  in  the  plains  of  Msegina,  near 
 Santa  Cruz.  Gold  is  also  found  in  many  places  on  the  mountains. 
 In  Suse,  near  Idaultil,  there  is  iron,  which  the  people  manufac- 
 ture into  gun-barrels  and  other  articles.  At  Teselagt,  a  little  N. 
 E.  the  copper  mines  are  very  abundant.  They  work  them  only 
 .as  they  want  the  ore.  In  the  neighborhood  there  are  lead  r^iines. 
 Ih  Tafilelt  arc  mines  of  antimony,  of  a  peculiarly  fine  quality,  and 
 
ri6  ALGIERS. 
 
 abundance  of  lead  ore.  Morocco,  Bled-el-Jerrede^  and  parts  of 
 Sahara  abound  in  mineral  salt,  which  is  dug  from  quarries  and 
 mines.  In  Abda  is  a  large  salt  lake,  which  furnishes  great  quan- 
 tities of  salt  of  a  remarkably  pure  quality.  Vast  quantities  of  salt 
 are  conveyed  by  the  caravans  to  Timbuctoo,  where  they  have  none. 
 Salt-petre  is  made  abundantly  at  Fas,  Morocco,  and  Terodant 
 This  last  is  distinguished  for  its  strength  and  purity. 
 
 ALGIERS. 
 
 CHAPTER  I. 
 
 HISTORICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 EXTENT  AND  BOUXDARIES,  DIVISIONS,  NAMES,  HISTORY,  RELIGION, 
 GOVERNMENT,  POPULATION,  ARMY,  NAVY,  REVENUE,  MANNERS 
 AND    CUSTOMS,  CITIES,  MANUFACTURES. 
 
 Extent  and  Bomidaries.']  THE  length  of  this  territory, 
 on  the  Mediterranean,  from  the  mouth  of  the  Muluwia,  in  Ion.  1 
 30  W.  to  the  mouth  of  the  Zane,  in  Ion,  9  16  E.  is  610  miles.  Its 
 breadth  in  the  W.  is  not  more  than  60  miles  ;  but  E.  of  Algiers  it 
 exceeds  100.  It  has  Morocco  W.  the  Mediterranean  N.  Tunis  E. 
 and  the  desert  of  Angad  S. 
 
 Divisions.']  It  is  divided  into  three  provinces  :  Tlemsen,  some- 
 times called  Tremeccn,  and  sometimes  Mascara,  in  the  W.  ;  Ti- 
 teri  in  the  S.  and  Constantina  in  the  E.  This  last  is  much  the 
 largest  and  richest. 
 
 Mames.']  This  country  was  the  ancient  JVumidia  ;  and,  after  the 
 reduction  of  Africa  by  the  Romans,  was  called  Mamntania  Casa- 
 riensis  ;  while  Morocco  was  then  called  Mauritania  Tingitana. 
 
 History.]  The  Numidians  had  the  same  origin  with  the  Mau- 
 ri;  but  we  know  very  little  of  their  early  history.  In  the  time  of 
 the  first  Punic  war  it  contained  two  kingdoms  ;  that  of  the  Mas- 
 syli  in  the  E.  extending  about  130  miles  on  the  coast,  and  that  of 
 Massaesijli  in  the  W.  occupying  the  rest  of  the  country.  Massi- 
 nissa,  king  of  the  former,  a  very  brave,  able  and  honorable  prince, 
 imited  them  both  under  his  dominion  about  190  years  B.  C.  Cae- 
 sar reduced  the  country  lo  a  Roman  province  B.  C.  46.  The  Van- 
 dals drove  out  the  Romans  ;  Belisarius  expelled  them  for  the 
 Greek  emperor  ;  and  the  Saracens  terminated  the  Greek  domina- 
 tion about  A.  D.  650.  Till  105!  this  country  was  divided  up  into  a 
 great  number  of  petty  states,  when  Abubeker,  an  Arab  of  the  Zin- 
 hagian  tribe,  drove  out  the  Sheiks,  or  petty  chieftains,  and  poS- 
 ses^jcd  himself  of  Morocco  and  Algiers.     In  the  1 2tK  century  Ijis 
 
ALGIERS.  7ir 
 
 ^esceadant  Braham  Ali  was  expelled  by  the  Marabouts,  or  priests, 
 with  Mohavedin  at  their  head  ;  they,  by  the  governor  of  Fas  ;  and 
 he,  in  the  13th,  by  the  Sherrifs  of  Hascen,  the  descendants  of  the 
 Sheiks ;  who  divided  the  country  into  four  kingdoms,  Tlemsen, 
 Tenez,  Algiers  and  Bujeyah,  which  lasted  till  1517,  when  Barba- 
 •rossa  M'as  master  of  them  all.  In  1505,  and  fi-equently  afterwax'ds, 
 the  Spaniards  invaded  the  country,  and  took  the  principal  towns. 
 In  one  of  these,  in  1541,  the  emperor  Charles  V.  lost  the  greater 
 part  of  an  immense  fleet  and  army,  and  hardly  escaped  with  his 
 life.  Haraydin,  the  brother  and  successor  of  Barbarossa,  in  1530 
 put  Algiers  under  the  protection  of  the  grand  seignor,  and  for  a 
 long  period  the  Ottoman  court  nominated  the  dey.  In  1555,  Bu- 
 jeyah, the  last  of  their  possessions,  was  taken  from  the  Spaniards. 
 The  power  of  appointing  their  own  deys  was  obtained  early  in  the 
 17th  century,  and  in  1630  the  Ottomon  yoke  was  entirely 
 shaken  oflP. 
 
 Religion.^  The  Algerines  are  Mahometans,  and  more  super- 
 stitious than  the  Turks.  Their  three  chief  ecclesiastical  officers 
 are  the  Mufti,  the  Cadi,  and  the  grand  Marabout. 
 
 Government.']  The  government  is  composed  of  the  Dey,  and 
 -the  Douwan.  The  dey  is  chosen  out  of  the  army,  each  rank  hav- 
 ing an  equal  right,  and  every  bold,  aspiring  soldier  is  an  obvious 
 candidate.  Every  election  is  usually  attended  with  tumult  and 
 bloodshed.  The  dey,  for  a  long  period  has  been  possessed  of  ab- 
 solute power.  When  he  exercises  it  tyrannically,  however,  he  is 
 always  murdered.  Scarcely  one  in  ten  has  the  good  fortune  to 
 die  in  his  bed.  The  next  officer  to  the  dey,  is  the  aga,  who  is 
 general  of  the  Janizaries.  He  keeps  the  keys  of  the  city,  and  is- 
 sues, in  his  own  name,  all  military  orders  ;  but  enjoys  his  post  for 
 two  months  only,  when  he  is  succeeded  by  the  c/iiah  or  next  senior 
 officer.  Tbc  chiah-bashaivs,  or  chief  colonels,  are  about  30  in 
 number,  and  with  the  mufti  and  cadi  compose  the  Douwan,  which 
 is  now  convened,  as  a  mere  matter  of  form,  to  sanction  measures 
 before  resolved  on. 
 
 I^/iulation.']  The  population  of  Algiers  cannot  be  stated  with 
 accuracy.  Hassel  estimates  it  at  1,500,000  ;  but  does  not  give  his 
 authority. 
 
 Jrmy.']  The  army  amounts,  in  time  of  peace,  to  about  6500 
 men,  of  whom  4000  are  Turks ;  but  25,000  can  be  raised  on  an 
 emergency. 
 
 JVavy.^  The  navy  consists  of  8  ships,  of  from  36  to  50  guns,  10 
 or  12  sloops  of  war,  and  30  gunboats,  which  never  leave  the  har- 
 bor. 
 
 Revenue.']  Hassel  states  the  revenue,  on  the  authority  of  Bruns, 
 at  §670,400,  of  which  450,400  are  certain,  and  220,000  accidental. 
 Shaw  says  it  was,  in  1732,  300,000  from  taxes,  and  about  as  much 
 from  accidental  sources. 
 
 Manners  and  Customs.']  The  inhabitants  are  Turks,  Moors, 
 Cabyles,  Arabs,  Christians,  and  Jews.  The  Turks  have  been  es- 
 tablished since  the  middle  of  the  16th  century.  They  form  the 
 highest  rank  ii)  the  country,  and  possess  most  of  the  offices  aufl 
 
71 S  ALGIERS. 
 
 employments.  No  native  can  be  a  Turk.  He  alone  is  conr^idcrcd 
 one,  who  is  born  of  Mussulman  parents  within  the  grand  seit^nor'a 
 dominions.  The  number  of  Turks  is  about  10,000,  and  thcv  are 
 characterized  as  ignorant,  proud,  indolent,  voluptuous,  jealous, 
 and  revengeful;  but  at  the  same  time,  faithful,  courageous,  and 
 tolerant.  They  pay  no  poll-tax,  are  punished  only  by  an  express 
 order  from  the  dey ;  when  condemned  to  die,  are  strangled ; 
 purchase  the  necessaries  of  life  lower  than  others,  and  may  take 
 as  much  fruit  from  gardens  and  vineyards,  as  they  can  Qat.  Their 
 children,  by  Algerine  women,  are  called  ColorU.  They  are  nu- 
 merous, form  a  middle  class  between  the  Turks  and  Moors  ;  and 
 have  more  industry,  and  the  same  pride,  courage,  jealousy,  and  vo- 
 luptuousness with  the  former.  In  size  and  strength,  also,  they 
 resemble  them,  and  the  most  expert  artists  and  artificers  are  of 
 this  class. 
 
 The  Moors  are  the  descendants  of  those,  who  were  driven  out 
 of  Spain.  Those,  who  live  in  towns  and  engage  in  commerce, 
 have  a  degree  of  polish  in  their  manners,  and  are  many  of  them 
 wealthy.  Others  are  artificers  and  mariners,  and  in  the  lowest 
 class  of  them  are  found  most  of  the  thieves  and  profligates  of  Al- 
 giers. Few  of  the  Moore  that  live  in  the  country  are  wealthy. 
 They  are  ignorant  and  rude  ;  strangers  to  the  pleasures  of  social 
 life,  and  distinguish  themselves  by  their  tribe.  They  practise  po- 
 lygamy, which  is  not  done  by  the  Moors  in  the  cities.  They  arc 
 much  more  profligate  than  the  I  urks. 
 
 The  Cabyles  are  the  same  people  with  the  Berebbers  of  INIo- 
 rocco,  though  their  language  is  more  complex  by  an  intermixture 
 of  Arabic.  Many  of  them  do  not  acknowledge  the  sovereignty  of 
 the  dey. 
 
 The  Arabs  live  in  tents,  and  constitute  numerous  distinct  tribes, 
 many  of  which  are  independent  of  the  dey,  and  the  others  are  only 
 tributaries.  They  live  in  the  mountains,  and  in  the  desert,  and 
 are  wilder  than  the  Arabs  of  Morocco.    ^ 
 
 The  Jews  are  not  numerous,  and  are  despised  and  oppressed. 
 They  cannot  own  land,  nor  ride  in  the  city,  or  through  thei^ates, 
 and  are  obliged  to  wear  a  peculiar  dress  of  a  dark  color.  They 
 are  generally  perfidious,  and  addicted  to  cheating  and  fraud. 
 
 The  Christians  are  chiefly  transitory  residents.  In  the  W.  the 
 Spaniards  possess  Oran  and  Massalquiver,  where  they  keep  gar- 
 risons. In  the  other  towns  the  Christians  are  slaves,  captured  by 
 the  corsairs,  and  sold  at  auction.  From  150  to  180  negroes  arc 
 annually  imported  as  slaves  from  the  S.  The  women  are  often  kept 
 as  concubines  by  the  wealthy  Turks.  Slaves  of  any  color,  who  turn 
 Mahometans,  gain  their  freedom.  The  Jews  and  Christians,  who 
 do  thi^.,  are  called  renegadocsf  and  may  be  advanced  to  honorable 
 and  lucrative  employment. 
 
 C"nics.~\  Algiers,  the  capital,  formerly  IMesgana,  is  built  on 
 the  west  side  of  a  bay  of  the  Mediterranean.  This  bay  opens  be- 
 tween Cape  Matisou,  on  the  E.  and  Cape  Caxines  on  the  W.  1  he 
 mole,  wiuch  forms  the  harbor,  is  500  paces  long,  in  the  lorm  of  a 
 semicircle,  and  reaches  to  a  little  island  facing  the  town.     The 
 
ALGIERS.  risr 
 
 harbor  has  anchorage  in  from  18  to  25  fathom  water,  acd  is  de- 
 fended  by  a  castle  with  three  batteries  of  cannon,  which  stands  on 
 the  solid  rock  of  the  island,  and  serves  also  for  a  light  house.  At 
 the  south  end  of  the  island  is  another  fort  of  three  batteries,  and 
 there  arc  several  others  along  the  coast.  The  walls  are  high,  and 
 12  feet  thick,  flanked  with  square  towers,  but  greatly  decayed. 
 The  large  ditch  beneath  is  nearly  filled  up.  There  are  five  gates, 
 which  are  open  from  sunrise  to  sunset.  The  town  is  built  on  a 
 declivity,  in  the  form  of  an  amphitheatre,  the  houses  rising  grad- 
 ually above  one  anothci-,  so  that  at  sea  their  white  terraced  roofs 
 look  like  a  whitener's  ground  covered  with  linen.  There  is  but 
 one  handsome  street,  which  nuis  E.  and  W.  through  the  city. 
 The  others  are  so  narrow,  that  carriages  cannot  run  in  them.  The 
 houses  are  built  of  brick  or  stone,  of  a  square  shape,  with  a  paved 
 court  in  the  middle.  A  chimney  at  each  corner  of  the  flat  roof 
 rises  like  a  cupola.  The  palace  of  the  Dey,  in  the  middle  of  the 
 city,  has  too  spacious  halls,  one  for  the  Dowan,  and  is  a  magnifi- 
 cent building.  'Ihe  barracks  for  the  Turkish  soldiers  are  also 
 grand  edifices.  The  mosques  are  numerous,  and  seven  of  them, 
 very  large.  The  baths  also  are  many  and  spacious.  In  1732,  Dr.. 
 Shuw  computed  the  population  at  100,000  ;  now  it  is  estimated  at 
 80,000  :  in  Avhich  number  are  included  several  hundred  Jewish 
 families.  The  city  is  supplied  with  water  from  the  adjacent 
 mountains,  by  two  aqueducts,  Avhich  distribute  it  to  a  number  of 
 fountains  at  convenient  intervals.  The  environs  are  every  where 
 fertile,  and  pleasantly  uneven,  adorned  with  gardens,  groves,  and 
 villas.  The  gardens  are  stocketl  with  plenty  of  fruit-trees,  mel- 
 ons, and  pot-herbs.  The  villas,  are  little  white  houses,  shaded 
 with  a  variety  of  fruit-trees  and  evergreens,  and  present  a  beauti- 
 ful prospect  at  sea.     Lon.  2  12  t5,  E.  lat.  36  49  30,  N. 
 
 Tlemsev,  the  capital  of  the  western  province,  stands  on  arising 
 ground,  at  the  foot  of  several  rocky  precipices,  from  which  issue 
 a  number  of  springs.  The  walls  are  of  a  composition  of  sand, 
 lime,  and  gravel.  About  1670,  the  greater  part  of  the  town  was 
 laid  in  ruins,  and  it  has  never  recovered.  Among  these  are  found 
 some  fragments  of  Roman  antiquities.  In  the  west  part  of  the 
 town  is  a  large  bason,  of  Moorish  workmanship,  200  yards  long, 
 and  100  wide.     It  may  easily  be  filled  from  the  adjohiing  hills. 
 
 Oran  is  built  on  the  declivity,  and  near  the  foot,  of  a  high 
 mountain,  about  50  miles  E.  of  Tlemsen. 
 
 Blkeda,  the  capital  of  Titeri,  is  built  under  the  shade  of  a  spur 
 of  Mount  Atlas,  is  a  mile  in  circumference,  and  tolerably  populous. 
 The  oiher  towns  are  Marcara,  Tenez,  and  Medea. 
 
 Alanufac lures.']  There  are  manufactures  here  of  silk,  cotton, 
 wool,  leather,  and  other  commodities.  The  carpets  are  good,  but 
 inferior  to  those  of  Turkey.  In  the  city  of  Algiers  there  are  looms 
 for  velvet  and  taftety,  and  a  coarse  kind  of  linen  is  made  in  mo^t 
 parts  of  the  kingdom.  The  exports  are  ostrich  feathers,  wax, 
 hides,  wool,  copper,  rags,  silk  sasiies,  embroidered  handkerchiefs, 
 dates,  and  Christian  slaves.  Wheat  and  barley  were  formerly  ship- 
 ped, to  tlie  amount  of  70C0  or  8000  tons.     The  imports  consist 
 
720  ALGIERS. 
 
 chiefly  of  gold  and  silver  stuffs,  d&masks,  cloths,  spices,  the  met- 
 als, naval  stores,  fire-arms,  ammuiiition,  paints,  rice,  sugar,  soap, 
 cotton,  and  drugs.  The  commerce  of  this  country  is  chiefly  car- 
 ried on  by  the  corsairs,  and  most  of  the  imports  are  captures. 
 
 CHAPTER  II. 
 
 NATURAL  GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 SEASONS,  AGRICULTURE,    RIVERS,    MOUNTAINS,  BOTANY,  ZOOLOGY 
 AND   MINERALOGY. 
 
 Seasons.']  THE  winds  here  generally  blow  from  the  sea, 
 or  from  the  east  or  west.  East  winds  are  common  from  May  to 
 September,  and  then  the  westerly  winds  become  the  most  fre- 
 quent. The  southerly  winds  from  the  desert,  are  unusually  hot 
 and  violent,  but  not  frequent.  When  they  blow  for  5  or  6  days  in 
 July  and  August,  they  are  very  suftbcating,  and  the  inhabitants 
 sprinkle  the  floors  of  their  rooms  with  water  or  vhiegar.  rhe 
 quantity  of  rain  at  Algiers  averages  27  or  28  inches  ;  of  which 
 little  falls  in  summer,  and  in  most  parts  of  the  Desert,  they  have 
 no  rain  at  all. 
 
 Jgticulture.']  The  first  rains  fall  in  September  or  October,  af- 
 ter which  wheat  is  sown,  and  beans  are  planted.  Barley  is  sown 
 about  the  end  of  November.  The  latter  rains  in  April  secure  the 
 ci'op.  Rice,  Indian  corn,  and  millet,  are  also  cultivated.  The  pa- 
 triarchal mode  of  threshing  is  still  continued.  i  he  sheaves  are 
 spread  upon  the  threshing-floors,  and  horses  or  mules  are  driven 
 over  them.  They  winnow  the  gi-ain  by  throwing  it  up  against  the 
 wind  with  a  shovel.  Of  the  pulse  kind,  beans,  lentils,  kidney- 
 beans,  and  the  chick-pea,  are  the  most  abundant.  Of  the  roots, 
 herbs,  and  fruits,  of  the  kitchen  garden,  they  have  considei  able 
 variety.  The  soil  is  generally  fertile,  more  especially  on  the  coast 
 and  in  the  valleys.  There  are  few  forests,  but  tracts  of  thickets 
 and  bushwood  are  more  common.  The  district  round  Bugia  sup- 
 plies the  greatest  quantity  of  timber.  In  the  spuih,  the  fertility 
 is  less,  though  even  in  the  desert,  and  on  its  borders,  there  are 
 some  cultivated  districts,  which  produce  corn,  figs,  aiid  dates. 
 
 Jiivers.]  The  chief  rivers  of  this  country  are  the  Zha,  which 
 runs  across  the  Desert  of  Angad  and  Tlemsen,  and  falls  into  the 
 sea  near  Tabecrita  ;  the  Haregal  comes  down  from  the  greater 
 Atlas,  crosses  the  same  territories,  and  falls  into  the  sea  5 
 leagues  from  Oran  ;  the  Mina,  a  large  river,  Avhich  runs  through 
 the  plains  of  Bathala,  and  empties  near  Arzcw  ;  the  She- 
 lif,  which  descends  from  Mount  Guanexeris,  runs  through  the 
 desert  of  Angad,  the  lake  Titteri,  and  the  province  of  Tlcmscn, 
 and  empties  near  Mostagan  ;  the  Celef,  which  runs  only  60  miles, 
 and  falls  into  the  Mediterranean,  3  leagues  west  of  Algiers  ;  the 
 IIued-Alquivir,  which  runs  down  with   a  swift  cwirse  from  the 
 
TUNIS.  rsi 
 
 high  mountains  of  Cuco,  and  empties  near  Bugia ;  the  Suf-Gemar 
 lias  its  source  on  Mount  Auras,  on  the  confines  of  Atlas,  and  after 
 ■watering  the  desert  and  the  fertile  plains  of  Constantina,  where  it, 
 receives  numerous  tributaries,  falls  into  the  sea  a  little  east  of  Gi- 
 geri  ;  the  Ladag,  which  empires  near  Bona ;  and  the  Guadi, 
 which  comes  from  Tripoli,  and  empties  near  Tabarea. 
 
 Mozmtains.~\  Several  smaller  chains  of  the  Atlantean  range, 
 lie  beneath  it  to  the  north.  These  give  birth  to  some  of  the  riv- 
 ers, and  by  some  of  them  they  are  all  broken.  The  mountain  of 
 Jurjura  is  the  highest  in  Barbary,  being  about  eight  leagues  iri 
 length,  m  a  N.  E.  and  S.  W.  direction,  full  of  rocks  and  precipi- 
 ces, and  only  covered  witli  snow  in  the  winter.  It  is  about  60 
 miles  S.  of  Algiers,  and  is  a  noble  spur  from  Mount  Atlas. 
 
 Botany^  Zoology^  and  Mmeralogy .]  The  botany  and  zoology  of 
 this  country  are  the  same  with  those  of  Morocco.  In  the  m.oun- 
 tains  are  found  lead  and  copper,  and  various  other  minerals. 
 
 TUNIS. 
 
 'SITUATION  AND  EXTENT,  HISTOnV,  RELIGION,  GOVERNMENT,  MIL- 
 ITARY FORCE,  REVENUES,  POPULATION,  CITIES,  MANUFAC- 
 TURES, COMMERCE,  MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS,  CLIMATE,  SOIL  AND 
 PRODUCTIONS,  RIVERS,  LAKE,  MOUNTAINS,  ANTiqUITIES,  ISL- 
 AND. 
 
 Situation  and  Extent.']  THIS  country  lies  next  to 
 Algiers,  and  is  300  miles  long,  from  N.  to  S.  and  170  from  E.  to 
 W.  Having*tJie  Mediterranean  on  the  N.  the  same  sea  and  Tri- 
 poli on  ihe  E.  Tripoli  and  the  desert  on  the  S.  and  Algiers  on  the 
 W.  It  is  divided  into  two  circuits,  the  northern,  which  the  Bey 
 rides  through  in  the  summer,  and  the  southern  in  the  winter. 
 
 J-Iirjory.~\  Tunis  is  the  western  part  of  the  Jfrica  Propria  of 
 the  Romans,  and  the  ancient  seat  of  Carthaginian  power.  After 
 the  destruction  of  Carthage,  it  fell  under  the  dominion  of  the  Ro- 
 mans, from  v/hom  it  passed  to  the  Goths,  and  then  to  the  Vandals. 
 The  Saracens  were  its  next  occupants,  who  governed  it  by  vice- 
 roys, or  emirs,  till  at  length  it  was  conquered  by  the  emperor  of 
 JMorocco.  After  a  short  subjection,  it  became  an  independent  and 
 powerful  kingdom.  In  1538,  during  the  Spanish  attacks  on  the 
 Barbary  States,  it  was  seized  by  Barbarossa,  and  became  subject 
 to  Turkey.  About  120  years  the  Tunisians  claimed  the  right  of 
 electing  their  own  Beys,  and  since  that  time  they  have  been  inde- 
 pendent. 
 
 Religion^  Goverri7nent,  ts'c.']  The  religion  is  the  Mahometan. 
 The  government  is  now  despotic  and  hereditary.  The  Bey  nom- 
 inates his  successor,  and  is  not  confined  to   his  own  faipily.     The 
 
 VOL.  ir.  9  1  '  ■ 
 
722  TUNIS. 
 
 Douvvaii  now  retains  only  the  shadow  of  authority,  and  Is  comiJos- 
 ed  of  the  creatures  of  the  Bey.  It  was  formerly  possessed  of  con- 
 siderable power.  The  Bey  is  able,  at  any  time,  at  a  short  warn- 
 ing, to  bring  from  40  to  50,000  men  of  his  militia  into  the  field, 
 more  than  three  fourths  of  which  are  cavalry.  He  has  besides  in 
 his  service  about  6000  Turks,  who  arc  reckoned  better  soldiers 
 than  the  natives. 
 
 Revenuesr\  The  revenues  of  the  Bey  are  regular  and  acci- 
 dental. The  regular  revenue  arises  from  the  tythes  of  produce, 
 the  domains,  licences  to  trade,  duties,  monopolies,  taxes  on  the 
 Jews,  and  from  the  sale  of  slaves.  It  amounts  to  about  6000  pi- 
 astres. The  accidental  revenue  arises  from  extortions,  from  seiz- 
 ures of  the  wealth  of  those  who  die,  and  from  the  Bey's  profit  in 
 trading.  The  present  Bey  is  extremely  rich.  He  is  called  Ha- 
 Tnooda  Basha  Bey,  and  ascended  the  throne  in  1782,  being  then  30 
 years  old.     He  is  a  man  of  superior  talents. 
 
 Population.']     The  population  of  the  country  is  estimated  at, 
 2,000,000  ;  (though  Hasscl  estimates  it  at  1,000,000  only)  of  whom  ' 
 100,000  are   Jews,  and  20,000  Christians.     A  plague  in  1785,  and 
 .a  famine  in  1803,  swept  off  great  numbers  of  the  inhabitants. 
 
 Cilies.~]  The  city  of  Tuxis  is  situated  on  a  rising  ground  on 
 the  west  bank  of  a  lake,  about  6  miles  from  the  head  of  the  Gul-f 
 of  Tunis.  This  lake  is  of  salt  water,  and  is  connected  by  a  nar- 
 row passage  with  the  sea.  The  city  is  enclosed  by  a  miserable 
 wall  of  mud  and  stone,  neither  useful  nor  ornamental.  The  hous- 
 es are  of  stone,  but  of  the  most  miserable  architecture.  Ihe  new 
 palace  of  the  Bey,  the  only  decent  building  in  the  city,  is  occupied 
 by  shops  on  t^e  ground  floor,  and  stands  in  a  very  unpleasant  situ- 
 ation. The  streets  arc  narrow,  dirty,  and  ill  paved,  'ihe  cistern:; 
 furnish  the  only  supply  of  fresh  water.  The  bazars,  or  shops,  arc 
 miserable  buildings,  and  indifferently  stocked  Avith  merchandise. 
 The  port  of  funis  is  at  the  Goletia,  or  entrance  of  the  I^ake, 
 through  which  there  is  a  constant  current  from  the  sea.  Here 
 are  two  forts  built  bj;' the  Spaniards  in  the  time  of  Charles  V,  iu 
 tolerable  repair.  At  the  upper  v  nd  of  the  city  is  the  gaspa,  or 
 citadel,  built  also  by  the  Spaniards,  which  commands  the  town, 
 and  might  keep  it  in  complete  subjection.  The  population  oK 
 Tunis  probably  exceeds  100,000.  The  Tunisians  estimate  it  at 
 150,000.     Jerba  is  an  interior  manufacturing  town. 
 
 Manufaclurcs.']  The  chief  manufactures  are  tiiose  of  scull- 
 caps,  woollen  stuffs,  and  morocco  leather.  The  caps  are  of  Span- 
 ish wool,  and  are  dyed  of  a  crimson  color  at  Zaivan,  about  30 
 railes  from  Tunis  ;  because  the  waters  of  that  place  communicate, 
 a  singular  richness  to  the  coloring.  Formerly  50,000  people 
 were  occupied  in  this  manufacture,  and  3,000  bales  of  Spanisii 
 wool  were  consumed  by  it,  with  a  clear  profit,  after  all  expenses 
 ■were  deducted,  of  7,000,000  piastres.  At  present  it  is  reduced  to 
 one  third  of  its  original  extent.  They  are  sold  on  the  Barbary 
 coast,  and  in  the  Levant.  The  v.oollen  stuffs  are  of  a  thin  tex- 
 ture, but  cxtre-iely  beautiful,  and  many  thousands  are  occupied 
 in  m'aking  them.     Thc^-  are  the  common  dress  of  the  inhabitants. 
 
TUNIS.  ^23 
 
 The  exports  consist  of  grain  of  different  kinds,  oil,  vrool,  hides, 
 wax,  soap,  dates,  senna,  madder,  coral,  oil  of  roses,  and  ostrich 
 feathers. 
 
 Commerce.']  Tunis  has  an  extensive  commerce  with  the  inte- 
 rior of  Africa,  by  means  of  caravans.  These  go  not  only  to  Tim- 
 buctoo  and  other  places  in  Soudan  ;  but  crossing  the  Niger,  and 
 the  mountains  of  the  Moon,  they  visit  the  coast  of  Guinea.  Three 
 of  these  caravans  arrive  yearly  at  Tunis.  They  bring  gold  dust, 
 senna,  ostrich  feathers,  and  black  slaves  ;  and  carrv  away  cloths, 
 muslins,  linen,  silks,  morocco  leather,  cochineal,  and  spices.  Car- 
 avans also,  in  time  of  peace,  pass  and  repass  from  Constantina,  in 
 Algiers,  bringing  hides  and  bees-waj^,  and  carrying  away  Euro- 
 pean and  Tunisian  manufactures.  Cai-avans  from  Gerida,  the 
 country  of  Dates,  come  loaded  with  the  fruit  of  the  palm,  and  a 
 lew  coarse  woollens.  Those  from  Jerba,  a  t^wn  in  the  interior 
 of  Tunis,  bring  immeiS^e  quantities  of  the  v/oollens  so  much  Avorn 
 by  all  classes. 
 
 The  commerce  with  Algiers  has  for  a  long  time  been  interrupt- 
 ed by  war,  in  which  the  Tunisians  have  generally  been  successful. 
 The  foreign  commerce  also  is  extremly  shackled  by  monopolies, 
 and  by  the  privileges  which  the  present  Bey,  who  is  the  first  mer- 
 chant in  the  regency,  secures  to  his  own  mercantile  connections. 
 Manners  and  Customs.]  The  Tunisians  are  more  superstitious 
 than  other  mussulmen.  They  will  not  allow  Christians  to  ap- 
 proach their  mosques.  These  buildings  are  numerous  and  inhab- 
 ited by  many  saints,  who  are  all  distracted  people,  and  are 
 believed  to  have  the  power  of  prophesying  and  working  miracles. 
 The  merchants  of  Tunis  are  universally  dishonest,  and  avarice  is 
 a  common  characteristic  of  all  classes.  The  inhabitants,  however, 
 are  more  polished  in  their  manners,  and  discover  less  of  the  sav- 
 age in  their  character,  than  those  of  the  other  Barbary  States. 
 They  have  scarcely  any  of  the  common  jealousy  of  Mahometans. 
 The  Tunisian  women  are  not  confined  to  the  Harani,  but  are  at 
 liberty  to  walk  the  streets  as  freely  as  the  ladies  of  Europe. 
 
 Clwiate.]  The  climate  of  this  country  is  commonly  salubrious 
 and  pleasant.  Rain  is  rare  in  the  summer.  The  season  for  it 
 usually  commences  in  October,  and  lascs  till  April. 
 
 Soil  and  Productions.]  The  soil  is  every  Avherc  rich  and  yields 
 an  abundant  harvest.  In  the  eastern  part  of  the  country,  it  pro- 
 duces, in  a  favorable  year,  one  hundred  fold.  The  annual  crop  of 
 wheat  in  the  regency,  is  estimated  at  7,200,000  bushels,  and  with 
 the  proper  cultivation  might  be  tenfolded ;  that  of  barley  is  still 
 greater  ;  that  of  beans  180,000  bushels,  and  that  of  Indian  corn 
 90,000.  The  produce  of  the  oil  of  olives  is  estimated  at  5,130,000 
 gallons,  and  every  third  year  a  greater  crop  is  expected.  Of  ihis  one 
 fourth  is  fine  eating  oil,  and  the  rest  is  used  in  lamps  and  the  man- 
 ufactories. The  quantity  of  wool  exported  is  only  about 
 3,000,000  lbs.  ;  but  the  quantity  raised  in  tlie  regency  is  immense. 
 About  100,000  hides  are  annually  exported.  The  bccs-wax  is  ex- 
 cellent, and  about  27,500  lbs.  are  annually  collected.  The  barilla 
 of  Tuni^:  is  excellent,  and  the  quantity  of  ^oan  depends    upon  tU< 
 
724  TRIPOLI. 
 
 clemanil.     The  Tunisian  oil  of  roses  vvill  command  sixteen  times 
 the  price  of  that  made  in  the  Levant. 
 
 Spring  water,  in  the  country,  is  generally  either  salt  or  hot. 
 The  inhabitants,  liowevcr,  drink  it  without  inconvenience.  The 
 ]iot  baths  of  Gurbis  are  celebrated.  Rain  is  never  known  in  the 
 Tsouth  country,  particularly  in  Gerida.  The  palm  tree  is  there 
 ■watered  by  the  hand,  and  the  water  of  the  rivers  is  hot  and  brack- 
 ish. The  black  cattle  arc  small.  The  mutton  is  not  esteemed. 
 AH  the  sheep  are  of  the  broad-tailed  breed.  Goats  are  numerous. 
 The  horses  are  a  degenerate  race.  The  mules  and  asses  are 
 •good,  and  much  used.  Camels  are  the  ordinary  beasts  of  biirden. 
 The  race  of  dromedaries  is  almost  extinct.  The  wild  animals  re- 
 ■semble  those  of  Morocco. 
 
 Bivers,  iJ'c.']  The  chief  river  is  the  Mejerda,  the  ancient  Ba- 
 grada.  There  is  a  large  lake  in  the  interior,  called  Lake  Low- 
 deah,  the  Palus  Tritonis  of  the  ancients,  jjjl  is  not  yet  ascertained 
 -whether  the  chain  of  mountains  crossing  the  regency  in  a  N.  E. 
 direction,  and  terminating  at  Cape  Bon,  is  the  real  Atlas,  or  mere- 
 ly a  spur  from  it. 
 
 ^ntiijuities.']  The  ruins  of  Carthage  are  15  miles  N.  E.  of 
 Tunis.  It  was  built  B.  C.  869,  in  the  time  of  Livy,  was  23  miles 
 an  circumference,  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  third  Punic  war 
 contained  700,000  inhabitants.  It  was  many  times  destroyed,  and 
 again  rebuilt  ;  but  the  last  destruction,  by  the  Saracens,  A.  D. 
 €98,  left  few  traces,  even  of  its  ruins.  All  its  remains  in  1732, 
 ■were  the  area  of  a  spacious  room,  on  one'  of  the  hills,  with  several 
 smaller  ones  at  a  little  distance  ;  the  common  sewers,  not  in  the 
 least  impaired  by  time,  and  the  cisterns,  which  are  nearly  perfect. 
 
 Island.]  The  little  island  of  Tabarka,  near  the  mouth  of  the 
 liaine,  the  western  frontier,  is  highly  valuable  for  its  coral  fish^ 
 cry.  About  150  boats,  each  manned  by  10  men,  are  annually  ena- 
 ployed  in  it  from  Sicily  and  Naples,  who  pay  a  premium  for  the 
 permission.  The  French  keep  a  consul  here,  merely  to  attend  to 
 their  interest  in  this  fishery. 
 
 TRIPOLI,  INCLUDING  BARCA. 
 
 EOrXDARlJES  AND  EXTENT,  HISTORY,  RELIGION',  GOVERNJ^ENT,  S;C, 
 •     CITIES,  SOIL,  Sec. 
 
 BounzlarLcs  and  Extent.']  This  extensive  country  has  Tu- 
 i^is  on  the  W.  the  Desert  on  the  S.  Egypt  on  the  E.  and  the  Med- 
 ucrranean  on  the  N.  Its  length,  on  that  sea,  from  the  Gulf  of 
 Cabes,  or  Lesser  Syrtis,  to  the  Tower  of  the  Arabs,  is  about  1 100 
 tniles..  The  breadth  of  the  western  part,  or  Tripoli  Proper,  ia 
 \ 
 
TRIPOLI.  725 
 
 about  200  miles  ;  while  that  of  Barca  is  about  90  or  100.     It  con- 
 T^ains  194,420  square  miles.* 
 
 History.']  This  country  comprehends  the  ancient  Regio  Sijrti- 
 ca^  or  the  country  between  the  two  Sijrtes,  in  the  W.  Cyrenaica 
 ill  the  middle,  and  Marmarica  in  the  E.  Like  the  other  Barbary 
 states,  Tripoli  was  a  successive  prey  to  the  Romans,  Vandals,  and 
 Saracens.  It  afterwards  fell  under  Morocco,  Fas,  and  Tunis,  and 
 during  this  period  the  capital  was  takee  by  the  Normans  from 
 Sicily,  in  1146,  and  retained  till  1159.  The  inhabitants,  about. 
 1450,  shook  off  the  Tunisian  yoke,  and  chose  a  monarch  of  their 
 own.  The  emperor  Charles  V.  took  the  capital  soon  after  he  as- 
 cended the  throne,  and  with  the  knights  of  Malta,  retained  it  a 
 little  more  than  40  years,  when  it  was  taken  by  the  Turks,  in  the; 
 reig-n  of  Solyman.  The  Turkish  influence  has  continued  from 
 that  time  to  the  present,  though  now  considerably  impaired. 
 
 Religmi,  Government,  l^c.\  The  religion  is  the  Mahometan. 
 The  governor  is  a  Turkish  bashaw,  but  possesses  little  authority. 
 Tripoli  Proper  is  divided  by  the  Turks  into  seven  provinces,  over 
 each  of  which  is  placed  a  Bey. 
 
 PoJmlation.~\  The  population  of  Tripoli  is  1,000,000.  The 
 army  amounts  to  6000  land  ti'oops.  The  government  has  one  50  gun 
 ship  and  6  galliots.  The  revenue  amounts  to  750,000  guilders. 
 The  sultan  of  Fezzan  is  powerful  and  respected.  He  pays  no 
 tribute  to  the  pasha  of  Tripoli,  but  presents  him  annually  with  a 
 few  negro  slaves. f  The  settled  inhabitants  resemble  these  of  the 
 other  states  of  Barbary  in  their  manners,  customs,  classes,  and 
 character. 
 
 C'Ules.']  Tripoli,  the  capital,  stands  on  the  Mediterranean,  on 
 a  sandy  plain  of  considerable  extent,  and  is  surrounded  by  high 
 ^v'alls  and  stout  ramparts,  and  is  flanked  with  pyramidical  towers. 
 The  Avall  has  an  inland  gate  on  the  S.  and  another  towards  the  sea. 
 The  harbor  is  a  very  fine  one,  and  the  western  side  of  it  is  defend- 
 ed by  a  strong  castle,  and  by  fortifications  in  the  modern  stylo. 
 The  town  was  extensive  and  magnificent,  till  destroyed  by  Omar 
 II.  The  streets  are  now  narrow,  dirty,  and  irregular ;  and  tht; 
 houses  low  and  mean.  The  inhabitants  procure  their  fresh  water 
 from  cisterns.  They  have  few  slaves,  and  manufacture  great 
 quantities  of  linen.  The  harbor  is  much  frequented  by  corsairs,, 
 who  capture  many  of  the  Levant  ships.  The  hills  Avhich  linii: 
 the  view  S.  of  the  town,  are  covered  with  forests  of  palm  trees  ; 
 lal.  32  35  N.  Ion.  13  12  E.  275  miles  S.  E.of  Tunis,  and  570  E.  S.  E. 
 of  Algiers. 
 
 Derxe  is  the  chief  town  of  Barca,  and  stands  about  half  a  mile 
 from  the  Mediterranean,  in  Ion.  22  55  E.  The  soil  around  it  is 
 fertile  and  productive.  Derne,  in  1805,  was  the  scene  of  the  ex« 
 ploits  of  the  gallant  general  Eaton,  and  his  handful  of  intrepid 
 Arabs. 
 
 The  other  chief  towns  of  Tripoli  are  Gerbi,  Mesurada,  and 
 Kasr  Ahmed  ;  aiTd  of  Barca,  Porto  Raccaliiio,  Porto  Tabarca,  So.- 
 lona,  and  Angela. 
 
 *  JIassf\  t  Ibitl.- 
 
rz.$  e:gypt. 
 
 Soli,  cifc]  The  soil  of  this  country  is  generally  barren,  and 
 inost  of  the  settled  inhabitants  live  in  the  towns  on  the  coast ;  but 
 the  great  body  of  the  population  is  composed  of  the  Bedouin  Arabs, 
 who  wander  in  search  of  prey  over  the  pathless  Avilds  of  the  de- 
 sert.   Barca  itself  is  merely  a  northern  arm  of  the  great  Sahara. 
 
 EGYPT. 
 
 CHAPTER  I. 
 
 HISTORICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 i^JCTENT,  BOUNDARIES,  DIVISIONS,  NAMES,  HISTORY,  ANTIQIJITIES, 
 RELIGION  AND  GOVERNMENT,  POPULATION,  ARMY,  REVENUE, 
 MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS,  LANGUAGES,  CITIES,  COMMERCE. 
 
 JSsctent.']  THE  length  of  Egypt,  from  Syene  in  lat.  23,  to 
 Cape  Burlos,  the  northern  extremity  of  the  Delta  in  lat.  313  N. 
 is  560  miles.  Its  greatest  breadth,  on  the  Mediterranean,  from 
 the  Tower  of  the  Arabs,  in  Ion.  29  48  E.  to  its  eastern  limit  be- 
 tween Refah  and  Gazah,  in  Ion.  34  30  E.  is  about  280  miles.  S.  of 
 the  Delta,  however,  the  cultivated  part  is  merely  a  narrow  strip, 
 di\jided  by  the  Nile,  and  terminated  on  the  E.  and  W  by  parallel 
 ridges  of  hills,  or  mountains.  The  desert,  included  between  this 
 valley  and  the  Red  sea,  is,  however,  geographically  included  in 
 the  territory  of  Egypt,  while  that  on  the  W.  is  assigned  to  Barca 
 and  Sahara.  The  average  width  of  the  country,  therciore,  from 
 Suez  S.  is  about  170  miles. 
 
 Boujidaries.']  On  the  N.  is  the  Mediterranean  ;  on  the  E.  Ara- 
 bia Petraea,  the  gulf  of  Suez  and  the  Red  sea ;  on  the  S.  Nubia  ; 
 and  on  the  W,  Barca  and  Sahara. 
 
 Divmons.']  This  country  is  usually  divided  into  Upper  and 
 Lower  Egypt.  Lower  Egypt  is  called  Bahri,  and  includes  the 
 countiy  N.  of  Cairo  and  Suez.  Upper  Egypt  commences  a  little 
 S.  of  Cairo,  and  is  divided  into  Vostani  and  Said.  Vostani  termi- 
 nates at  Siut,  or  Assiut,  horth  of  which  town  the  crocodile  is 
 never  known  to  advance. 
 
 JVa7ncs.^  Egypt  is  sometimes  called  in  the  Bible,  the  Land  of 
 Ham  ;  but  generally  Misraim,  and  the  land  of  the  Misraim  or  ciiil- 
 dren  of  Mcsr,  one  of  the  sons  of  Ham,  by  whom  it  was  peopled 
 soon  after  the  ilood.  The  Arabs  still  call  it  Mesr  or  JIassar, 
 The  Greeks  gave  it  the  name  of  Egypt. 
 
 IHstortj.j  1.  According  to  Blair,  Mesr,  the  son  of  Ham,  set- 
 tled in  Egypt  and  establishxid  the  Egyptian  mouvuchv,  in  the  yea;.' 
 B.  C, 2188. 
 
EGYPT.  727 
 
 2.  Alter  an  unascertaioed  succession  of  kings  the  country  was 
 irtvaded  by  the  Auritx^  Hycsos,  or  Shefiherds,  a  band  of  fortunate 
 adventurers  from  the  E.  Manet  ho  says  they  were  Arabians. 
 Bryant  supposes  them  to  have  been  Arkites,  expelled  from  Baby- 
 lon by  the  children  of  Shem;  at  the  time  of  the  second  dispersion. 
 Usher  places  their  invasion  of  Egypt  in  the  year  B.  C-  2048.  They 
 drove  the  original  inhabitants  into  Upper  Egypt,  and  held  the  do- 
 minion of  Lower  Egypt,  till  the  year  B.  C.  V825.  They  ^¥entfronl 
 Egypt  toPhenicia,  Syria,  Greece,  andntli^r  regions,  carrying  with 
 them  their  inventions  and  improvements.  The  original  monarchy- 
 was  then  reestablished. 
 
 3.  Jacob  went  down  to  Egypt  with  his  family  from  Canaan,  and 
 settled  in  the  land  of  Goshen  B.  C.  1706.  His  posterity  remained 
 there  215  yeaa's,  and  in  1491  B.  C.  departed.  '1  he  Egyptian  king, 
 supposed  to  have  been  Amenophis,  the  father  of  Sesostris,  follow- 
 ing after  them,  was  drowned  with  his  host  in  the  Red  Sea. 
 
 4.  The  monarchy  was  overthrown  by  Cambyses  the  son  of  Cy- 
 rus, who  made  Egypt  tributary  to  Persia  B.  C.  525.  The  inhabi- 
 tants revolted  from  Artaxerxes  Longimanus  B.  C.  463,  but  were 
 soon  reduced.  They  revolted  again  from  Darius  Nothus,  B.  C. 
 414,  and  for  a  short  interval  enjoyed  their  own  kings,  but  were 
 reduced  again  B.  C.  350. 
 
 5.  Alexander  the  Great  having  overrun  Persia,  invaded  Egypt, 
 B.  C.  331  which  submitted  to  him  without  resistance. 
 
 6.  After  his  death,  Ptolemy,  one  of  his  generals,  took  possession 
 of  the  country,  B.  C.  323.  He  and  his  posterity  sat  on  the  throne 
 283  years.     The  last  of  them  was  the  infamous  Cleopatra. 
 
 7.  Augustus  Caesar  reduced  Egypt  to  a  Roman  province,  B.  C 
 30  :  and  entrusted  the  government  of  it  to  several  Roman  knights. 
 
 8.  Amrou,  the  general  of  Omar  the  caliph  of  the  Saracens,  sub- 
 dued Egypt  A.  D.  640.  The  country  under  his  administration 
 became  rich  and  populous,  and  Amrou  opened  a  canal  80  miles  in 
 length,  between  the  Nile  and  the  Red  sea. 
 
 9.  Saladin  A.  D.  1174  conquered  Egypt,  as  vizir  of  Nuroddin, 
 caliph  of  Bagdad,  established  the  empire  of  the  Turks  in  Africa, 
 and  soon  assumed  the  title  of  sultan. 
 
 10.  In  the  year  1250,  the  Turkish  empire  was  overthrown  by 
 the  Mamelukes.  These  were  originally  slaves,  procured  from  the 
 regions  of  Caucasus,  who  were  taken  prisoners  by  the  Tartars  iri 
 1227,  and  to  the  number  of  12,000  were  bought  by  the  sultan,  and 
 educated  at  his  expense  as  soldiers.  They  were  introduced  into 
 Egypt  to  maintain  the  existing  government,  and  by  their  superioi" 
 skill  and  bravery  became,  in  about  30  years,  absolute  masters  of 
 the  country,  and  chose  a  sultan  from  among  themselves.  They 
 constantly  replenished  their  numbers  by  purchasing  Circassian 
 slaves,  and  educating  them  as  soldiers. 
 
 11.  Selim,  the  Turkish  sultan,  in  1517,  reconquered  Egypt,  and 
 annexed  it  to  the  Turkish  dominions.  The  conquest  was  a 
 bloody  one,  and  many  of  the  INIamclukes  were  massacred.  Out  of 
 those  that  remained,  Selim  appointed  the  governors  of  the  24  prov- 
 inces into  which  he  divided  Egypt,  with  the  title  ©f  Beijs  or  ^^jj^i* 
 
728  EGYPT.  * 
 
 giacs.  The  government  of  the  whole  country  he  left  to  aTurkiah 
 bashaw  ;  but  the  chief  powxr  was  lodged  in  the  hands  of  the  beys, 
 as  his  divan,  who  were  even  authorized  to  displace  him  for  propcv 
 reasons. 
 
 12.  The  Turkish  power,  at  first  considerable,  at  length  grew 
 weaker  and  weaker,  and  the  beys  had  the  supreme  control  for  a 
 long  period,  acknowledging  the  sovereignty  of  the  grand  seignor. 
 But  in  1746,  Ibrahim  Kiaya,  of  the  Janizaries,  rendered  himself 
 master  of  the  country.  He  was  followed  in  1766,  by  Ali  Bey,  and 
 he  by  Mohammed  Bey  in  1773.  From  that  time  the  Beys  Avere 
 constantly  contending  for  superiority,  till  1798,  when  they  and  the 
 rest  of  the  Mamelukes  were  compelled  to  unite,  in  order  to  resist 
 the  French,  under  general  Bonaparte.  The  French  armies  drove 
 the  Mamelukes  before  them,  as  far  as  Syene,  and  on  their  retura 
 were  driven  out  of  Egypt  by  the  British  troops,  under  Sir  Ralph 
 Abercrombie,  in  August  1  SO  i , 
 
 Antiquities.']  The  pyramids  of  Egypt  are  the  most  wonderful 
 monuments  of  ancient  architecture.  Three  large  ones  are  nearly 
 opposite  Cairo  on  the  W.  side,  about  1 1  miles  from  the  river's 
 bank.  They  stand  in  the  desert,  and  a  large  mass  of  each  has  been 
 covered  by  the  sands,  which  have  been  piled  up  around  them. 
 Their  bases  are  squares,  and  each  side  an  isosceles  triangle.  The. 
 four  corners  of  each  point  to  the  four  cardinal  points.  The  length 
 of  one  side  of  the  base  of  the  largest  is  about  700  French  feet  ; 
 Herodotus  made  it  800.  Its  height  is  now  upwards  of  600  ;  He- 
 rodotus made  it  just  equal  to  a  side  of  the  base.  It  is  composed 
 of  layers  of  flat,  calcareous  stones,  212  in  number,  and  from  2  to  i 
 feet  in  height,  which  overleap  each  other,  and  thus  form  steps 
 from  the  bottom  to  the  top.  The  interior  contains  various  rooms, 
 one  a  large  parallelogram,  the  roof  of  which  is  composed  of  seven 
 enormous  stones  of  granite,  which  reach  from  one  wall  to  the 
 other.  At  one  end  of  it  is  a  sarco/i/iagus  made  of  a  single  block 
 of  marble.  To  these  rooms  the  light  of  the  sun  never  penetrated, 
 and  for  a  long  period  Uiey  have  been  tenanted  by  immense  num- 
 bers of  bats,  who  remain  here  undisturbed,  from  century  to  ecu- 
 liu-y,  except  when  the  unwelcome  lamp  of  the  traveller  faintly  il- 
 lumes their  dark  retreat. 
 
 On  the  east  side  of  the  second  pyramid  is  the  sphynx,  an  enor- 
 mous mass  of  one  solid  stone,  of  which  the  head  and  neck  only 
 are  visible  above  the  sand,  and  are  27  feet  high.  The  distance 
 from  tlic  ear  to  the  neck  is  15  feet.  Pliny  says  that  the  head  was 
 102  lectin  circumference,  and  the  body,  (he  probably  means  tire 
 whole  figure  from  the  feet  to  the  neck)    143  feet  high. 
 
 At  Saccarah,  about  18  miles  farther  south,  there  are  also  many 
 pyramids,  one  of  which  is  as  large,  but  not  as  high,  as  the  one  we 
 have  described.  There  are  others  at  Meidum  and  Hilahum,  still 
 farther  up  the  river. 
 
 The  Egyptian  catacombs  arc  grottoes  and  subterranean  excava- 
 tions lor  the  burial  of  the  dead.  Those  of  Alexandria  begin  where 
 the  ruins  of  the  old  city  terminated,  and  extend  along  the  shore  for 
 'a  long  diiitance.     They  consist  of  long  i^allerics  with  apartmcntj. 
 
EGYPT.  723 
 
 on  each  side  excavated  in  the  rock.  In  the  sides  of  these  apart- 
 ments are  three  tiers  of  holes,  or  niches,  where  the  bodies  were 
 deposited.  These  galleries  sometimes  cross  each  other,  but  are 
 generally  parallel.  The  niches  have  all  been  despoiled  of  their 
 mummies.  Near  the  pyramids  of  Saccara  is  a  series  of  catacombs, 
 extending  about  half  a  mile.  They  are  entered  by  various  wells 
 4  feet,  and  from  20  to  30  deep,  cut  through  the  rock.  At  the  bot- 
 tom is  a  passage  50  feet  long  and  5  Avide,  which  leads  to  a  gallery 
 of  the  same  size,  6  feet  high.  On  one  side  of  this  gallery  there 
 are  apartments  with  platforms  2  feet  high,  and  on  the  other,  nar- 
 row cells  for  coffins.  To  this  succeeds  another  gallery  inucli 
 narrower,  with  niches  for  -upright  coffins.  There  are  similar  ex- 
 cavations near  Siut  and  at  Gebel  Silsilis.  But  those  of  Thebes 
 are  far  more  extraordinary.  They  are  on  the  N.  W.  of  the  city, 
 on  a  step  of  the  lower  part  of  the  Lybian  chain,  an  arid  and  deso- 
 late spot,  devoted  by  nature  to  silence  and  death.  The  rock  cut 
 down  on  an  inclined  plain  presents  three  sides  of  a  squra-e,  ia 
 which  double  galleries  have  been  excavated,  and  behind  theia  se- 
 pulchral caves.  These  excavations  occupy  a  space  of  nearly  a 
 mile  and  a  half  square,  and  are  called  the  Necropolis,  A  little 
 farther  N.  are  the  sepulchres  of  the  kings  of  Tiiebes.  Of  these 
 there  are  18,  of  Avhich  only  9  can  be  entered.  The  entrance  of 
 each  grotto  is  a  square  doorway  opening  into  the  rock,  through  a 
 long  arched  gallery  12  feet  wide,  and  20  high,  every  where  riciily 
 ornamented  with  painted  and  sculptured  hieroglyphics.  Four  or 
 five  of  these  galleries,  one  within  the  other,  generally  lead  to  a 
 spacious  room  containing  the  sarcophagus  of  the  king,  composed 
 of  a  single  block  of  granite,  12  feet  long  by  is  wide,  square  at  one 
 end,  and  rounded  at  the  other.  They  are  covered  by  a  lid  of  enor- 
 mous thickness,  sliutting  with  a  groove.  Tiie  figure  of  the  king 
 is  sculptured  on  the  lid. 
 
 Religion  a?id  Government.']  The  great  body  of  the  present  in- 
 habitants are  Mahometans.  The  Copts  are  JMonophysite  Christ- 
 ians, who  hold  that  the  divine  and  human  nature  iri  Jesus  Christ, 
 were  so  blended  as  to  make  but  one  nature.  This  is  also  the  doc- 
 trine of  the  Syrian,  Armenian,  and  Abyssinian  churches.  Egypt 
 had  been  a  Christian  country  a  long  time,  when  Amrou,  in  640, 
 conquered  it,  and  introduced  Mahometanism.  The  Greeks  and 
 Monophysites  were  then  very  numerous  in  Egypt,  and  the  for- 
 mer, aided  by  the  Greek  einperor,  persecuted  the  latter,  and  re- 
 duced them  to  poverty  and  distress.  Tiie  Greeks  fought  Anircu, 
 and  were  expelled  the  country;  the  Monophysites  receiv'ed  the 
 Saracens,  as  the  deliverers  of  their  church.  Their  patriarch  re- 
 sides at  Cairo,  though  called  the  patriarch  of  Alexandria.  Their 
 second  officer,  the  patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  rebides  at  the  same  place, 
 and  is  merely  a  bishop  of  Cairo.  He  goes  to  Paksiino  every 
 Easter.  The  subordinate  officers  are  bishops,  arclumandrites, 
 priests,  and  deacons.  The  clergy  are  divided  into  secular  and 
 regular,  are  extremely  ignorant,  and  are  allowed  to  marry.  They 
 have  monasteries  and  nunneries.  Their  worsliip  is  very  disor- 
 derly.    They  have  three  liturgies.     The  Copts  are  numerous  in 
 
 VOL.  u.  92 
 
r.3Q  "  EGYPT. 
 
 the  Said,  whcvc,  in  the  desei't  of  Nitria,  they  have  a  very  large 
 monastery  strongly  fortified.  As  to  the  government,  it  is  difficult 
 to  say,  who  at  present  have  the  dominion  over  the  country.  The 
 Turks  however  still  claim  it  as  a  province  ;  but  since  the  French 
 and  English  invasions  their  authority  has  been  annihilated. 
 
 Po/iulation.']  Hassel  estimates  the  number  of  inhabitants  at 
 3,500,a')0.  Volney  cailculated  it  at  2,300,000.  This  population 
 is  divided  into  various  classes.  I.  The  Cophti,  or  Copts,  are 
 descended  from  that  mixture  of  Egyptians,  Persians,  and  Greeks, 
 who,  under  the  Ptolemies  and  Constantines,  Avere  so  long  in  pos- 
 session of  Egypt.  Several  families  of  them  are  found  in  the  Delta. 
 Numbers  also  live  at  Cairo,  where  they  form  the  class  of  writers, 
 the  head  of  which  is  the  writer  to  the  principal  Bey,  Avho  disposes  of 
 all  employments  in  that  department.  They  are  here  the  intend- 
 ants,  secretaries,  and  collectors  of  government.  But  the  great 
 body  of  them  is  in  the  Said,  or  Upper  Egypt,  where,  in  some 
 places,  they  occupy  whole  villages.  II.  The  Arabs.  These  are 
 of  three  kinds.  1.  The  Saracenic  Arabs  arc  the  descendants  of 
 the  followers  of  Amrou,  who  came  into  Egypt  in  640.  They  are 
 husbandmen  and  artisans.  2.  The  Mograbians,  who  have  arrived 
 at  different  periods,  and  under  different  chiefs,  from  the  W.  and 
 united  with  the  former.  They  are  emigrants  from  the  Barbary 
 States,  and  descendants  also  of  the  early  Saracens.  They  are 
 settled  chiefly  in  the  Said,  where  they  are  artisans  and  husband- 
 men. 3.  The  Bedouins,  or  Eedotveensf  the  ancient  SceirJes,  or 
 dwellers  in  tents,  are  the  Arabs  of  the  desert.  They  live  in  small 
 independent  tribes,  wandering  from  place  to  place,  and  are  only 
 Tobbcrs  and  marauders.  In  Egypt  they  roam  between  the  Nile 
 and  the  Red  sea,  and  along  the  isthmus  of  Suez,  and  along  the 
 skirts  of  the  western  mountains  ;  and  number  in  all  about  30,000 
 horsemen.  III.  The  Turks  are  settled  chiefly  about  Cairo.  They 
 claim  to  be  the  dominant  nation,  but  have  now  no  influence.  They 
 are  chiefly  artisans,  priests,  and  military  ofhcers,  and  arc  not  nu- 
 merous. IV.  The  Mamelukes  are  chiefly  Georgians,  Circassians, 
 and  Mingreliaijs.  They  have  the'  flaxen  hair  so  universal  at  the 
 foot  of  Caucasus,  and  marry  only  wdth  slaves  from  that  country, 
 "who  are  constantly  sold  in  the  market.  They  never  have  descend- 
 ants beyond  the  second  generation,  and  those  are  greatly  inferior 
 to  themselves  in  activity  and  energy.  Hence  they  are  constantly 
 obliged  to  replenish  their  number  by  youths  from  Georgia,  and 
 the  neighboring  countries  ;  who  are  brought  to  Egypt,  sold  as 
 slaves  to  the  jNIamelukes,  educated  as  soldiers,  and  then  set  free. 
 V.  The  Jews  devote  themselves  to  commerce  and  manufactures. 
 Many  of  them  arc  goldsmiths,  and  their  works  in  fiUagree,  and 
 precious  stones,  are  greatly  admired.  Some  of  them  manufac- 
 ture light  stufls  out  of  Bengal  cotton,  and  Syrian  silk.  VI.  The 
 Berebbers,  Brebcs,  or  Barabras^  in  the  upper  part  of  the  Said,  and 
 in  Nubia,  are  undoubtedly  the  descendants  of  the  earliest  Egyptian 
 colonists,  of  those  who  were  driven  from  the  Delta  by  the  shep- 
 shcrds,  to  the  country  which  they  now  occupy.  They  have  a 
 common  name  with  the  Berebbers  of  Mount  Atlas,  and  in  com- 
 
EGYPT.  rsi 
 
 mon  with  them  pass  as  the  descendants  of  the  aborii^inal  Africans. 
 Those  of  Egypt  are  probably»  however,  less  intermixed  with  other 
 nations  ;  for  those  of  Morocco  are  known  to  have  sprung  from 
 the  inhabitants,  who  occupied  that  country  at  the  time  of  the 
 fearacenic  invasion  ;  and  those  were  a  mixture  of  Egyptian  col- 
 onists, of  Phenicians,  and  of  Romans. 
 
 ^rmy.^  The  regular  military  force  of  Egypt  should  be  20,000 
 infantry,  and  12,000  cavalry.  At  present  it  is  not  possible  to  as- 
 certain its  actual  amount.  Every  Bedouin  however  spends  his  life 
 in  arms. 
 
 Re-ue7iue.'\  The  regular  sources  of  the  Egyptian  revenue  are 
 the  customs,  a  land  tax,  and  a  capitation  tax  on  Jews,  and  Christ- 
 ians. The  amount  of  the  customs  of  Alexandria,  Uamietta,  Ro- 
 setta,  Suez,  Cosseir,  Cairo,  and  Assiut  is  very  considerable.  The 
 Beys  make  the  land  tax  yield  a  million  and  a  quarter  sterling,  and 
 even  more  ;  though  regularly  it  should  produce  only  j(;420,000. 
 The  capitation  tax  is  supposed  not  to  exceed  1500  purses,  or 
 £73,000.  The  whole  regular  revenue  may  be  calculated  at 
 iJ,000,C)00  sterling.  The  uncertain  revenue  is  obtained  by  extor- 
 tions, and  is  very  great,  but  merely  enriches  the  individual  plun- 
 dei'er.  The  prii.- ,pal  copt,  the  secretary  of  the  ruling  Bey,  had 
 the  control.of  the  taxes.  He  was  the  comptroller  and  farmer- 
 general,  regulated  the  customs,  appointed  the  collectors,  had  va- 
 rious monopolies,  and  was,  in  short,  the  despot  of  commerce. 
 The  copts  under  him  had  registers  of  each  village,  and  w  ere  ex- 
 tremely rigorous  in  exacting  the  land-tax.  The  customs  were 
 formerly  farmed  to  the  Jews;  but  when  they  were  ruined  by  the 
 extortions  of  Aii  Bey  in  1769,  this  branch  of  the  revenue  went. 
 into  the  hands  of  the  Syi'ian  Christians  of  Damascus,  of  whom 
 there  are  about  500  families  in  Cairo,  all  very  opulent. 
 
 Maimers  and  Customs.'^  The  Copts  have  a  dusky  brown  com- 
 plexion ;  dark  hair  and  eyes,  the  former  often  curled  like  that  of 
 Europeans,  but  not  at  all  like  the  wool  of  the  negro,  aquiline 
 noses,  and  lips  usually  of  moderate  thickness.  Their  women  have 
 large  black  eyes,  and  a  genteel  form.  They  are  despised  by  the 
 Turks  and  hated  by  the  common  people.  The  Saracenic  Arabs 
 have  a  complexion  nearly  black,  and  are  taller  and  more  robvist 
 than  the  present  inhabitants  of  Arabia.  They  have  deep,  lively, 
 and  penetrating  eyes,  a  short  beard  hanging  in  filaments,  lips 
 thin,  and  open,  displaying  fine  teeth,  fleshy  arms,  and  much  ac- 
 tivity of  body.  The  Bedouins  are  divided  into  tribes,  each  of 
 which  has  a  distinct  portion  of  land.  They  live  in  tents,  and 
 sleep  on  the  ground.  They  have  numerous  camels,  live  on  their 
 milk  and  on  dates,  and  are  constantly  roaming  from  one  place  to 
 another.  They  are  gfcnerally  about  five  feet,  two  inches  high, 
 and  have  a  deep,  tawny  complexion.  Their  great  business  is 
 robbery  and  plunder.  The  Berebbers  have  neither  flesh  nor  fat, 
 but  simply  bones,  nerves,  muscles,  and  tendons.  1  heir  skin  is 
 of  a  shining,  jetty  black.  Their  eyes  are  deep  and -sparkling, 
 with  the  brows  hanging  over  ;  the  nose  pointed  ;  the  nostrils 
 large  ;  the  jnouth  wide  ;  the  lips  of  moderate  size  j  and  the  hair 
 
732  EGYPT. 
 
 scanty,  and  in  scattered  locks.  They  wear  a  piece  of  white  wool- 
 len cloth,  and  subsist  on  almost  nothing.  Many  of  them  go  down 
 to  Cairo,  and  are  employed  to  guard  the  magazines  and  timber- 
 yards.     They  are  faithful,  and  strongly  attached  to  their  masters. 
 
 Langnaffcs.']  The  Arabic  is  spoken  by  all  the  Arabs,  by  the 
 Copts,  the  Jews,  and  the  Greek  and  Syrian  Christians.  The  Mam- 
 elukes speak  both  that  and  the  Turkish,  as  do  some  of  the  Turks. 
 The  Bercbbers  have  a  language  of  their  own,  but  those  who  live  at 
 Cairo,  and  probably  some  of  those  on  the  frontiers,  speak  Ara- 
 bic. The  Copts  have  also  an  appropriate  language,  called  the 
 Cophtic  ;  but  for  three  centuries  they  have  ceased  to  use  it,  ex- 
 cept in  their  religious  services.  In  these  they  rehearse  the  Gos- 
 pels and  Epistles  twice  over,  first  in  Cophtic  and  then  in  Arabic. 
 This  language  is  a  mixture  of  the  ancient  Egyptian  and  the  Greek. 
 From  the  time  of  Ptolemy  the  Greeks  abounded  in  Egypt  for 
 nearly  1000  years,  till  they  were  banished  by  Amrou.  The  lan- 
 guage of  the  earliest  colonists  before  corrupted  by  the  intercourse 
 with  the  shepherds,  the  Jews,  and  the  Persians,  now  lost  much  of 
 its  oriental  character.  The  Greek  letters,  first  taught  in  Egypt, 
 in  the  reign  of  Psammeticus,  about  660  B.  C.  became  in  a  meas- 
 ure the  national  alphabet.  In  the  Coptic  vc  ""jion  of  the  New 
 Testament,  made  a  long  time  before  the  invasion  of  .Amrou,  the 
 letters,  in  their  form  and  names,  have  a  strong  resemblance  to 
 those  of  the  Greek,  and  in  their  force  are  exactly  the  same,  with 
 the  addition  however,  of  seven  sounds  from  the  old  Egyptian, 
 which  the  Greek  had  not.  A  great  number  of  the  words,  also, 
 are  pure  Greek  ;  the  rest  are  Egyptian,  with  a  vcy  few  Arabic.  The 
 declensions  of  the  nouns  and  verbs,  even  of  those  from  the  Greek, 
 are  made  as  in  the  Hebrew,  by  prefixes,  and  not  by  a  change  of 
 termination. 
 
 Ci/ies']  Cairo,  or  Grand  Cairo,  was  founded  A.  D.  968,  by 
 Jauhar,  general  of  Moaz,  tne  first  caiiph  of  the  race  of  the  Fati- 
 mites.  It  stands  on  the  E.  side,  nearly  a  mile  from  its  bank,  and 
 about  10  from  the  angle  of  the  Delta.  To  the  E.  and  S.  E.  at 
 a  small  distance  lies  the  ridge,  called  Mokattam,  of  the  extensive 
 chain  which  runs  parallel  with  the  Nile  to  Upper  Egypt.  This 
 ridge  is  here  totally  destitute  of  verdure,  and  presents  nothing  to 
 the  eye  but  dry  sand  and  stones  calcined  with  the  sun.  To  the 
 N.  a  fertile  plain  reaches  to  the  Delta.  Immediately  under  the 
 mountain  is  the  castle,  nearly  a  mile  in  circumference,  which 
 commands  the  town,  a  place  of  great  strength  before  the  use  of 
 cannon.  Within  the  castle  is  a  well,  called  the  well  of  Joseph, 
 280  feet  deep,  and  42  in  circumference.  The  walls  of  the  city 
 are  9  miles  in  circumference.  Its  length  from  N.  to  S.  is  nearly 
 3  miles,  and  its  breadth  2.  The  streets  are  narrow,  crooked,  and 
 tinpaved,  intersected  here  and  there  with  large  vacancies,  which 
 become  lakes  during  the  increase  of  the  Nile,  and  are  gardens  the 
 rest  of  the  year.  They  are  greatly  infested  with  dogs.  The 
 Khalig,  or  canal  of  Amrou,  traverses  Cairo  from  N.  to  S.  and  loses 
 itself  12  miles  E.  of  the  city,  in  the  lake  of  the  pilgrims.  Ii  for- 
 merly extended  to  the  Red  8ea  ;  but  eastward  of  that  lake  it  is 
 
EGYPT.  73$ 
 
 now  entirely  choaked  wp,  and  the  part  ■which  remains  contains  no 
 water,  except  durii.g  the  inundation.  During  the  rest  of  the  yeai', 
 it  is  a  mere  receptacle  for  the  filth  of  the  city.  The  principal 
 street  runs  parallel  to  the  Khalig-,  and  on  this  canal  are  all  the 
 houses  of  the  Europeans.  The  houses  of  the  city  are  chiefly  of 
 earth  and  bricks,  badly  burnt;  the  rest  are  of  a  soft  stone,  from 
 the  neighboring  mountains.  They  have  two  or  three  stories,  ovei' 
 ■which  is  a  fiat  terrace  of  stone  or  tiles.  They  look  like  prisons, 
 for  they  have  no  windows  towards  the  street,  and  the  doors  arc 
 extremely  low.  Those  of  the  wealthy  have  a  lai*ge  square  open 
 inner  court,  planted  with  fiowers  and  fruit  trees  ;  through  which 
 light  is  admitted  into  the  various  rooms.  The  front  door  also 
 opens  into  a  vast  hall,  paved  with  marble,  and  ornamented  with  a 
 fountam  in  the  centre,  which  spouts  into  a  marble  reservoir.  The 
 floors  of  the  rooms  in  these  houses,  are  generally  covered  with 
 mats  and  matrasses,  over  which  is  spread  a  rich  carpet,  on  which 
 they  sit  cross-legged.  Around  the  wall  is  a  sort  of  sofa  with  cush- 
 ions to  support  the  back  and  elbows,  andabove,  a  range  of  shelves, 
 ornamented  with  porcelain.  The  windows  have  no  glass,  but  only 
 an  open  lattice  work.  Mr.  Browne  estimates  the  population  at 
 300,000.  The  Saracenic  Arabs  form  thebody  of  the  people.  The 
 Copts  are  numerous.  The  Mamelukes  are  about  12,Oob  in  num- 
 ber. The  Syrian  Christians  have  upwards  of  500  flimilies.  'J  here 
 are  some  Greeks  and  Armenians.  The  Mograbians  have  a  dis- 
 tinct quarter  assigned  them,  and  are  frugal  and  industrious.  Few 
 of  the  Turks  are  steady  residents.  l"he  Jews  are  numerous. 
 There  are  many  negro  slaves  from  Guinea,  and  a  number  of  Be- 
 rebbers  from  Said  and  Nubia.  The  women  are  generally  well 
 formed,  but  not  tall.  Those  of  the  higher  ranks  are  tolerably 
 fair  ;  they  marry  at  14,  and  are  passed  their  prime  at  20.  Among 
 the  amusements,  are  dancing  girls,  and  rope  dancers  ;  chess  and 
 drafts  are  favorite  games.  Fireworks  are  occasionally  exhibited. 
 The  ladies,  oi#  Friday,  make  parties  of  pleasure  to  a  mosque  with- 
 out the  walls,  and  in  gondolas,  on  the  increase  of  the  Nile.  The 
 diseases  here  prevalent,  are  opthalmia,  syphilis,  hydrocele,  ma- 
 lignant fevers,  and  the  plague.  The  mean  annual  heat  is  73°. 
 Within  the  walls  are  more  than  300  mosques,  most  of  which 
 have  several  minarets  or  high  steeples,  surrounded  with  galleries. 
 They  have  no  bells.  The  people  are  assembled  by  criers,  about 
 800  of  whom  are  employed  at  once,  in  every  quarter  of  the  town. 
 The  city  abounds  with  large  and  sumptuous  reservoirs,  which 
 supply  passengers  with  water,  and  also  with  commodious  and  mag- 
 nificent baths.  Cairo  had  once  an  extensive  commerce,  and  it  is 
 now  the  metropolis  of  the  trade  of  eastern  Africa.  Caravans  leave 
 it  for  Syria,  Arabia,  Abyssinia,  Sennaar,  Darfur,  Fezzan,  Tripoli,  • 
 Tunis,  and  Morocco.  The  okals,  or  warehouses,  for  v/holesalc 
 goods,  are  spacious,  strongly  built,  convenient,  and  clean  ;  the  ba- 
 zars are  extensive  buildings,  with  convenient  shops,  each  trade 
 being  allotted  its  OAvn  quarter,  and  having  its  own  shiek,  or  leader. 
 There  are  manufactured  in  the  town,  indifferent  sugar,  sal-ammo- 
 tuap  of  an  excellent  quality,  glass  lamps,  salt-petrc,  coarse  gun 
 
734  EGYPT. 
 
 powder,  red  and  yellow  leather,  and  iinen  clotli,  of  the  fine  Egyp- 
 tian flax.  The  silk  stuffs  also  are  carried  to  a  high  degree  ot" 
 perfection.  To  the  N.  E.  of  the  town,  are  extensive  gardens,  and 
 elegant  country  houses.  The  ground  under  the  mountains,  to  the 
 E.  is  filled  with  tombs. 
 
 Between  Cairo  and  the  river  lies  Boulac,  Avhich  is  really  a  sub- 
 urb, and  is  the  port  of  Lower  Egypt.  It  extends  nearly  2  miles 
 along  the  river,  but  is  narrow.  Here  all  the  merchandize  is  land- 
 ed from  the  Mediterrane?n.  It  was  taken  by  th«.  French  under 
 Bonaparte,  July  23,  1797,  but  afterwards  abandoned*.  Lon.  31  27 
 E.  lat.  30  2  N, 
 
 Alexandria,  called  by  the  inhabitants  Scanderia,  was  built  by 
 Alexander,  B.  C  332,  12  miles  west  of  the  Canopic  branch  of  the 
 Kile.  The  lake  Mareotis  bathed  its  walls  on  the  south,  and  the 
 harbor  on  the  north.  For  1800  years  it  was  the  grand  emporium 
 of  eastern  commerce.  Diodorus  Siculus  says  it  was  1 1  miles  in 
 circuit,  and  contained  600,000  inhabitants.  When  taken  by  Am- 
 rou,  it  consisted  of  three  towns,  Alenna,  or  the  part  including  the 
 island  of  Pharos  ;  Alexandria  Proper,  or  the  modern  Scanderia  ; 
 and  Nekita,  or  the  Necropolis  of  Strabo.  The  modern  city  is 
 built  near  the  brink  of  the  sea,  on  a  kind  of  peninsula,  on  each  side 
 of  which  is  a  harbor.  That  on  the  cast,  assigned  to  Europeans, 
 has  an  entrance  clogged  with  sand,  a  rocky  bottom,  and  is  very 
 unsafe.  The  other  to  the  west,  is  called  the  port  of  Africa,  and 
 is  much  larger  and  nearer  the  town.  The  walls  are  6  miles  in 
 circuit.  They  are  flanked  with  large  towers  at  the  distance  of 
 200  paces.  Much  of  the  inclosed  space  is  occupied  with  ruins. 
 The  streets  are  narrow,  irregular,  and  unpaved.  The  commerce 
 of  the  town  is  now  of  considerable  importance.  The  languages 
 spoken  here  are  Arabic,  Italian,  and  the  Lingua  Franca.  The 
 reservoirs,  built  2000  years  ago,  vaulted  with  much  art,  and  ex- 
 tending under  the  whole  town,  are  still  entire.  They  furnish  the 
 ivhole  supply  of  fresh  water  to  the  city.  The  frtfcit  of  Caesar's 
 palace  is  still  standing,  and  a  few  of  the  porphyry  pillars.  One 
 of  Cleopatra's  needles  is  still  standing.  The  other  is  thrown 
 down.  They  are  two  obelisks,  each  a  single  stone,  60  feet  high, 
 and  7  feet  square  at  the  base.  The  lake  of  Mareotis  is  now  filled 
 up  by  the  sands  of  the  desert,  and  the  island  of  Pharos  has  be- 
 come a  part  of  the  continent.  Pompey's  pillar,  and  the  catacombs, 
 are  half  a  league  south  of  the  walls.  Tiie  canal  of  the  Nile  com- 
 municates with  the  eastern  hr^rbor.  It  is  40  miles  long,  and  was 
 cleared  out,  by  the  order  of  Bonaparte,  in  1798. 
 
 Damietta  stands  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  eastern  branch  of 
 the  Nile,  about  2  miles  from  its  mouth.  The  river  has  here  a 
 semicircular  bend,  which  gives  that  form  to  the  city,  and  the  east- 
 ern bank  is  merely  a  narrow  tongue  of  land,  from  2  to  6  miles 
 wide,  between  the  river  and  lake  Menzale.  The  houses  are  lof- 
 ty, and  have  generally  handsome  saloons  built  on  the  terraces.  It 
 has  several  large  public  squares.  The  bazars  are  well  built,  and 
 filled  witii  merchants.  The  commerce  of  the  town  is  carried  on 
 almos;t  wholly  by  Christians,  from  Damascus  and  Aleppo.     Scv- 
 
EGYPT.  7.3^ 
 
 f.Yfd  lai'J^e  mosques,  with  loFty  minarets,  are  scattered  over  the 
 city,  and  the  public  baths  are  lined  with  marble,  and  admirably- 
 well  attended.  The,  harbor  is  indifterent,  but  constantly  crowded 
 with  vessels.  The  population  is  about  80,000.  The  environs  are 
 singularly  fertile,  and  throughout  the  year  present  flowers,  fruits, 
 and  harvests.  The  climate  is  always  temperate  and  healthy.  In 
 the  neighborhood  of  the  town  are  many  pleasant  and  flourishing 
 village  s. 
 
 RosETTA  is  built  on  the  west  bank  of  the  west  branch  of  the 
 Nile,  and  is  now  about  6  miles  from  its  mouth,  although  it  stood 
 upon  tl>e  shore  when  it  v/as  founded  in  the  8th  century.  It  ex- 
 tends on  the  river  3  miles,  and  is  1  mile  wide.  The  streets  are 
 nearly  straight,  and  are  wider  than  is  usual  in  Egypt.  The  hous- 
 es are  handsome.  Several  of  the  mosques  are  magnificent.  Ex- 
 tensive gardens  lie  north  of  the  city,  in  which  citron,  orange,  date, 
 and  sycamore  trees  are  promiscuously  planted.  The  commerce 
 of  the  town  is  extensive. 
 
 Suez  is  built  on  a  peninsula,  at  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Suez, 
 in  the  midst  of  a  desert.  The  houses  are  indifferently  built,  and 
 stand  so  near  together  that  there  are  but  two  passages  into  the 
 city.  The  only  water  comes  from  Naba,  6  miles  off",  on  the  other 
 side  of  the  gulf,  and  the  only  provisions,  except  fish,  from  Cairo, 
 and  from  places  in  Arabia  still  farther  distant.  The  population  is 
 small.  The  commerce,  by  caravans,  with  Cairo,  and  by  sea,  with 
 Jidda,  is  extensive. 
 
 CossEiR  lies  on  the  west  shore  of  the  Red  Sea,  in  lat.  2$  8,  N". 
 and  Ion.  35  4,  L.  about  280  miles  S.  E.  of  Suez.  It  stands  among 
 hillocks  of  floating  sand,  and  is  defended  by  a  square  fort  of  hewn 
 stone,  with  three  square  towers  in  the  angles,  mounted  with  four 
 guns.  The  houses  are  built  of  clay.  The  inhabitants  are  Arabs, 
 from  the  opposite  shore.  The  harbor  is  formed  by  a  rock,  which, 
 runs  400  yards  into  the  sea.  Rough  and  lofty  rocks  of  porphyry 
 and  granite  environ  the  town  at  a  small  distance.  The  number 
 of  settled  inhabitants  is  small,  but  great  numbers  of  strangers  are 
 constantly  passing  and  repassing.  The  commerce  is  considera- 
 ble, particularly  in  coffee. 
 
 SiuT,  or  AssiuT,  is  built  on  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  Lycopolis, 
 and  stands  about  2  miles  from  the  west  bank  of  the  Nile,  and 
 about  200  in  a  direct  line  S.  of  Cairo.  It  is  a  large,  populous,  and 
 'well  built  town,  and  the  sec  of  a  Coptic  bishop.  The  gardens 
 abound  with  vegetables  and  fruits. 
 
 GiRGEH  is  the  chief  town  of  the  Said,  and  stands  close  to  the 
 west  bank  of  the  Nile,  which  grazes  its  vt^alls,  and  80  miles  in  a 
 direct  line  from  Siut.  It  is  5  miles  in  circumference,  and  con- 
 tains several  mosques,  bazars,  and  squares. 
 
 Syene  is  on  the  east  side  of  the  Nile,  and  on  the  confines  of 
 Egypt,  about  200  miles  S.  ofGirgeh.  The  houses  are  indifferent, 
 but  the  population  is  numerous,  and  its  commerce,  in  senna  and 
 dates,  is  extensive.  The  island  of  Elephantina  is  opposite  the 
 town.  The  ruins  of  the  ancient  Syene  are  on  a  hill  a  little 
 south.     The  ancients  supposed  that  it  lav  directly  under  the  trop- 
 
736  EGYPT. 
 
 ic.     Eratosthenes  here  made  the   first  attempt  to  measure  the 
 circumference  of  the  earth. 
 
 Commerce.']  Tne  commerce  of  Egypt  is  on  the  Mediteriane- 
 an,  on  the  Red  Sea,  and  over  land  by  caravans.  The  chief  har- 
 bors on  the  Mediterranean  are  Alexandria,  Rosetta,  and  Danii- 
 etta.  Fron!  these  are  exported  rice,  and  linseed  in  immense 
 quantities,  kali,  linens,  flax,  sal-ammoniac,  sugar,  grain  of  vari- 
 ous kinds,  the  flower  of  the  charthamus,  dates,  oranges,  figs, 
 lemons,  and  pomegranates,  all  the  produce  of  the  country  ; 
 coffee,  assafoetida,  senna,  cinnamon,  cassia,  tamarinds,  gums,  in- 
 cense, myrrh,  aloes,  spikenard,  ostiich  feathers,  balm  cf  Mecca, 
 coloquiutida,  buffaloes',  bulls',  and  cows'  hides,  and  precious 
 stones.  The  imports  in  return,  are  hard-ware,  firc-aims,  cuilery, 
 gun-powder,  and  cloths,  from  England  ;  wines,  velvets,  aiid  oth- 
 er silks,  from  Sicily  ;  almonds,  nuts,  cloth,  paper,  and  n.oney, 
 from  Marseilles  ;  money,  copper  vessels,  and  furs,  from  Turkey  ; 
 •wines  from  Zante  ;  and  beads,  paper,  mirrors,  cutlery,  china 
 ware,  and  money,  from  Italy.  According  to  Niebuhr,  about  1600 
 bales  of  broadcloth,  400  of  pepper,  200  barrels  of  cochineal,  and 
 60  of  pewter,  are  sent  yearly  from  Europe  to  Egypt.  Egypt 
 procures  from  the  Red  Sea  the  coffee,  odors,  gems,  and  drugs  of 
 Yemen,  the  perfumes  of  Arabia,  the  spices  of  Ceylon,  the  pearls 
 of  the  Baharean  isles,  the  muslins  and  linens  of  Bengal,  and  the 
 shawls  of  Cashmir.  The  coffee  alone  is  an  annual  object  of  11 
 millions  of  livres.  Every  year  a  caravan  leaves  Morocco  for 
 Mecca,  in  Arabia.  It  passes  along  the  Mediterranean  shores,  col- 
 lecting pilgrims  and  merchants  as  it  moves,  and  usually  arrives 
 at  Cairo  in  May,  bringing  the  gums  of  Morocco,  and  elephants* 
 teeth,  tamarinds,  parrots,  ostrich  feathers,  gold  dust,  and  black 
 slaves,  from  the  other  side  of  the  Sahara.  About  50,000  per- 
 sons usually  come  in  the  caravan  to  Cairo,  and  the  number  of 
 camels  is  still  greater.  They  stay  here  upwards  of  a  month. 
 The  city  all  this  time  presents  the  appearance  of  a  fair,  and  the 
 resort  of  strangers  to  it  is  immense.  Here  it  is  joined  by  the 
 pilgrims,  and  merchants  of  Egypt,  and  usually  doubles  its  num- 
 bers. It  proceeds  to  Suez,  where  it  is  greatly  increased  by  ad- 
 ditions from  Syria  and  Persia,  and  in  its  rout,  on  the  eastern  side 
 of  the  Red  Sea,  from  Hindostan.  At  Mecca  it  is  found  usually 
 to  contain  200,000  persons.  The  western  part  of  it  returns  to 
 Cairo  in  100  days  from  the  time  it  left  there,  loaded  with  the 
 merchandise  of  Arabia  and  the  east,  collected  at  Mecca  and  at 
 Suez-  A  part  of  this  is  left  in  Egypt  ;  and  the  remainder,  with 
 cloths  and  clotlung  of  every  description,  glass-ware,  broad-swords, 
 false  pearls,  coral,  and  amber,  purchased  at  Cairo,  are  carried 
 westward  for  the  Barbary  States,  and  for  Timbuctoo. 
 
 Other  caravans  go  from  Cairo  to  Damascus,  Scnnaar,  Abyssin- 
 ia, and  Fezzan. 
 
EGYI»T.  737; 
 
 CHAPTER  II. 
 
 NATURAL   GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 CLIMATE,  FACE  OF  THE  COUNTRY,  SOIL  AND  AGRICULTURE,  RIV- 
 ERS, LAKES,  BOTANY,  ZOOLOGY,  MIXERALOGV,  MINERAL  W.V- 
 TERS. 
 
 Cli7nate.']  THE  climate  of  Egypt  is  extremely  liot,  as  wo 
 iTiight  infer  from  its  latitude,  commencing  at  the  torrid  zone,  and 
 extending  8°  into  the  temperate.  The  heat  of  the  day,  in  July 
 and  August  is  usually  86°  or  88'^  of  Fahrenheit,  in  the  shade,  and 
 in  the  Said  it  is  much  higher.  The  small  elevation  of  the  land 
 is  also  the  reason  why  the  heat  of  Egypt  exceeds  that  of  other 
 countries  in  the  same  latitude.  From  March  to  November  iiy:lu- 
 sive,  the  heat  is  hardly  supportable  to  an  European.  The  sky  is 
 then  sparkling,  the  air  inflamed,  and  nearly  destitute  of  moisture, 
 and  during  the  three  first  months  the  weather  is  variable,  and  the> 
 feeason  very  unhealthy.  In  June,  July,  August,  the  autumn  and 
 winter,  diseases  are  less  prevalent,  and  the  weather  is  more  vini- 
 form.  The  heat  of  winter  never  exceeds  52°  or  50°;  of  course 
 snow  and  fc ail  are  unknown.  In  the  nights  of  the  warm  season, 
 particularly  in  the  spring,  the  dews  are  very  copious,  but  rains 
 all  this  time  are  unknown  ;  and  they  occur  very  rarely  in  the 
 winter.  Rains  are  most  frequent  in  the  Delta,  and  the  dews  are 
 there  most  copious.  Both  are  brought  on  only  by  winds  from  the 
 Mediterranean.  The  winds  of  Egypt  have  a  singular  degree  of 
 regularity.  In  June  they  blow  from  the  N.  and  N.  W.  ;  in  July 
 between  the  N.  W.  and  N.  E.  ;  thence  to  the  equinox  they  are 
 constantly  N.  and  moderate,  brisker  by  day  than  by  night.  At 
 this  period  an  universal  calm  remains  on  the  Mediterranean. 
 From  the  equinox,  till  December,  they  are  chiefly  from  the  N. 
 and  E.  In  the  three  winter  months  they  become  more  violent 
 and  tempesuious,  change  frequently,  and  yet  blow  from  the  N. 
 W.  and  W.  In  March  and  April  they  come  from  the  S.  E.,  S. 
 and  S.  W.  ;  and  in  May  the  east  v/ind  divides  with  the  north  the 
 empire  of  the  sea.  The  south  winds  are  hot  and  parched  ;  al- 
 though, when  they  occur  in  winter,  they  are  as  cold  as  the  north. 
 The  climate  is  generally  healthy.  The  inhabitants  are  robust, 
 and  live  many  of  them  to  old  age.  The  dryness  of  the  air  pre- 
 vents meat  from  putrifying,  even  in  summer.  Almost  all  the  in- 
 habitants drink  of  the  Nile.  Its  waters,  though  turbid,  are  con- 
 sidered as  highly  s:dubrioUo,  and  as  rendering  the  Egyptian  wo- 
 men remarkably  prolific.  The  plague  does  not  originate  in 
 Egypt,  but  is  brought  there  from  abroad.  Herniae  are  not 
 common.  Cutaneous  diseases  are  prevalent,  and  would  be  more 
 so  were  it  not  for  the  daily  use  of  the  bath.  The  leprosy  and  el- 
 .ephantiaris  arc  rare.     Ophthalmia  is  almost   universal ;  an,d  the 
 
 VOL.  II,  9.:. 
 
yse  EGYPT. 
 
 number  of  the  blind  is  very  great.     The  ravages  of  the  syphilis 
 are   dreadful.     Malignant   fevers  sometimes  become   epidemic. . 
 The  Egyptians  are  generally  of  a  bilious  habit,   and  the  colic  is 
 the  habitual  malatiy.  " 
 
 Face  of  the  Country.']  The  habitable  part  of  Upper  Egypt  is 
 a  long  narrow  valley,  commencing  at  Syene,  and  terminating  a 
 little  south  of  Cairo.  Two  chains  of  mountains,  taking  their  rise 
 from  the  lower  cataracts  of  the  Nile,  bound  this  valley  on  tlie 
 east  and  west.  The  width  of  the  valley  is  from  12  to  30  miles. 
 At  Cairo  the  chains  separate  to  the  right  and  left.  Tlie  western, 
 consisting  of  sandy  hillocks  over  a  bed  of  calcareous  stone,  winds 
 to  the  N.  W.  and  terminates  in  the  sand  banks  near  Alexandria. 
 The  other,  Mount  Mokattara,  composed  of  high  and  steep  rocks, 
 turns  to  the  E.  and  runs  to  the  Red  sea.  Between  these  insur- 
 mountable barriers  the  Nile  winds  upwards  of  6  degrees  of  lati- 
 tude, with  varied  current,  sometimes  smooth  and  tranquil,  at 
 others  impetuous,  and  overflowing  the  valley,  which  it  fertilizes 
 with  its  waters.  Beyond  the  eastern  range  is  the  desert  of  the 
 Red  sea,  of  which  the  Egyptian  part  is  480  miles  long,  200  wide 
 in  the  south,  and  70  in  the  north  ;  a  barren  expanse,  intersected 
 by  various  ranges  of  hills,  which  abound  in  marble  and  porphyry, 
 but  are  destitute  of  water  and  of  vegetation,  and  are  chiefly  cover- 
 ed W'ith  sand.  Across  these  hills  runs  the  solitary  road,  which 
 leads  from  Cosseir  to  Keft  and  Keueh,  on  the  Nile.  Beyond  the 
 •western  range  stretches  a  vast  desert  of  sand,  AVhich  is  the  eastern 
 skirt  of  the  Sahara.  This  is  also  intersected  by  chains  of  barren 
 hills,  and  roads  from  Girgeh  and  Siut  lead  to  the  two  Oases,  the 
 greater  and  the  less,  which  are  considered  as  belonging  to  Egypt. 
 Below  Cairo  the  valley  of  the  Nile  widens,  and  embraces  not  only 
 the  Delta,  but  all  the  country  watered  by  the  canals  connected 
 with  the  easicrn,  or  Peiusiau  branch  of  the  Nile.  The  country 
 N.  E.  of  Suez,  to  the  Mediterranean,  is  also  chiefly  a  barren,  sandy 
 plain.  '1  he  coast  of  Egypt,  on  the  Mediterranean,  is  so  low  that 
 it  can  be  seen  but  a  very  short  distance  ofl'at  sea.  The  coast  on 
 the  Red  sea  is  rocky^  and  often  elevated. 
 
 Soil  and  Agriculture.']  The  basis  of  Egypt  from  Syene  to  the 
 Mediterranean,  is  a  continued  bed  of  calcareous  stone,  of  a  whit- 
 ish hue,  and  somewhat  soft,  containing  shells  of  echini,  volutes, 
 bivalves,  and  a  species  in  the  shape  of  lentils.  The  soil  upon  this 
 bed  in  the  valley  of  the  Nile,  and  in  and  near  the  Delta,  is  a  black 
 fat  loam,  of  a  clayey  cementing  quality,  and  eminently  productive. 
 When  left  uncultivated,  it  is  liable  to  be  cracked  by  the  intense 
 heat  of  the  sun,  to  the  depth  of  several  feet.  The  most  fertile 
 districts  are  the  Delta,  and  tlie  province  of  Fayoum,  between  the 
 Canopic  branch  and  the  canal  of  Alexandria.  The  harvest  of  rice 
 on  the  Delta  is  very  great.  The  value  of  600,000  livi-es  is  ex- 
 ported from  DanVietta  alone.  Grain  grows  every  where.  The 
 chief  species  being  whe?.t,  and  barley  for  the  horses.  The  wheat 
 of  Upper  Egypt  is  the  sustenance  of  Arabia,  and  is  shipped  at 
 Cosseir.  1  lie  Delta  and  the  neighboring  country  are  watered  by 
 the  overflowing  of  the  Nile.     Most  of  the   water  in  Upper  Egypt 
 
EGYPT.  rs$ 
 
 is  conveyed  to  the  lands  by  machinery.  Indian  corn,  flax,  hemp, 
 and  tree  sugar,  are  very  extensively  cultivated.  Lentils  form  a 
 considerable  article  of  food  in  the  Said.  The  Egyptian  onions 
 and  leeks  are  remarkably  mild,  and  most  of^the  European  vegeta- 
 bles grow  in  the  gardens.  Millet  and  Turkey  corn,  the  vine,  and 
 the  Egyptian  privet  ;  the  carthamus,  senna,  coloquintida,  and 
 several  other  medicinal  plants  ;  and  fence-greek  and  barsim,  two 
 species  of  fodder,  are  also  extensively  cultivated. 
 
 Bivers.']  A  minute  description  of  the  extent  and  course  of  the 
 Nile  has  already  been  given.  The  water  begins  to  rise  about  the 
 19th  of  June,  and  subsides  in  October.  Before  the  20th  of  August 
 it  usually  has  risen  at  least  16  cubits,  the  increase  necessary  to 
 insure  a  favorable  crop.  This  rise  in  the  Nile  is  owing  to  the 
 rains  of  Abyssinia. 
 
 Lakes. J  The  largest  lake,  Mcnzala,  the  ancient  Tarns,  lies  east 
 of  the  Pelusian  arm  of  the  Nile.  It  is  60  miles  long,  and  12  broad, 
 and  lies  parallel  with  the  Mediterranean,  from  which  it  is  separat- 
 ed by  a  narrow  strip  of  sand.  Several  canals  connect  it  with  the 
 river,  the  waters  of  which  discharge  themselves  copiously  into  the 
 lake  during  the  inundation,  and  render  its  water  soft.  In  winter 
 the  reflux  of  the  sea  renders  it  brackish.  There  are  several  isl- 
 ands in  the  lake,  built  over  like  towns,  as  Nabli,  Touna,  Samnaa, 
 and  Hassan-El  ma,  which  can  only  be  approached  by  boats.  Of 
 these,  about  1200  continually  fish  on  the  lake,  and  pay  an  annual 
 tribute  of /; 2 160  sterling  for  the  privilege. 
 
 Lake  Berelos  is  in  the  Delta,  between  Damietta  and  Rosetta. 
 It  is  32  miles  long  and  10  broad,  in  the  middle,  but  contracts  at 
 both  ends.  It  also  contains  several  islands.  Lake  Elko  is  a  long 
 narrow  strip  of  water  near  Aboukir.  Lake  Kerun  lies  S.  W.  of 
 Cairo,  and  is  about  30  miles  long  and  6  broad.  Though  at  a  con- 
 siderable distance  from  the  Nile,  it  is  in  a  fertile  district,  which 
 shoots  out  like  an  excrescence  westward.  The  Natron  Lakes  are 
 in  the  desert,  west  of  the  Nile,  about  half  way  between  Kerun  and 
 the  sea.     They  produce  natron,  or  the  mineral  alkali. 
 
 Botany. ~\  Fruit  trees  abound  in  this  country.  The  figs  are  of 
 excellent  flavor.  The  date-palm  and  the  sycamore-fig,  rises  in 
 every  khid  of  soil,  even  in  the  sands.  Its  bark  affords  filaments, 
 out  of  which  are  manufactured  ropes  and  sails  ;  baskets  are  made 
 of  its  leaves,  and  javelins  of  its  branches.  The  orange,  the  lem- 
 on, olive,  and  pomegranate,  are  abundant.  A  species  of  cyperus 
 here  produces  a  delicious  fruit,  resembling  the  earthnut,  wi)ich 
 yields  a  pectoral  emollient  juice.  The  banana-tree  grows  in 
 Lower  Egypt.  The  fruit  of  the  custard  apple-tree  has  a  fine  fra- 
 grance and  flavor.  The  apricot,  peach,  almond,  and  pistachio- 
 nut,  are  cultivated  with  success.  The  lotus,  a  species  of  water- 
 lily,  covers  the  canals  and  pools  after  the  inundation.  The  papy- 
 rus is  still  found  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile.  The  oriental  plane- 
 tree,  the  caper-bush,  the  arum-colocasia,  the  cotton  tree,  sugar- 
 cane, plantain,  mallow,  Jew's  mallow,  the  esculent  hibiscus,  senna, 
 mimosa  nilotica,  coloquintida,  hcnne,  carthamus,  and  helbe,  ought 
 "also  to  be  mentioned  in  the  botany  of  Egypt,     Tlie  atlc,  a  large 
 
r40  •  EGYPT. 
 
 species  of  tamarisk,  is  the  only  wood  that  is  common  for  fuel,  of 
 manufactures. 
 
 Zoology.']  The  ox  was  anciently  one  of  the  Dii  majorcs  of 
 Egypt ;  and  then,  thc^brced  was  eiccellent.  Since  that  time  the 
 aiumber  of  these  animals  has  greatly  decreased,  and  their  quality 
 has  degenerated.  They  are  now  of  a  fawn  color,  their  horns  are 
 small,  and  they  arc  employed  in  tillage,  and  hydraulic  machines. 
 The  buffalo  was  brought  from  Persia.  The  female  is  reared  fo^ 
 Its  milk,  and  the  male  for  its  flesh,  which  is  red,  hard,  and  dry, 
 and  has  a  musky  fragrance.  There  arc  numerous  species,  all  do- 
 mestic. The  horses  of  Egypt  are  scarcely  inferior  to  those  of 
 Arabia,  in  spirit,  activity,  or  beauty.  Their  reputation  has  been 
 high  since  the  time  of  Solomon,  who  here  supplied  his  4000  stalls. 
 The  male  horse  is  permitted  to  i-jtain  his  perfect  character.  The 
 JEgyptian  ass  is  rivalled  only  by  the  ass  of  Nubia  and  Arabia.  Those 
 of  the  Said  particularly,  are  highly  valued  for  their  vigor  and 
 beauty.  They  are  hardier  than  the  horse,  less  diflicult  as  to  the 
 quality  and  quantity  of  their  food,  and  better  fitted  for  traversing 
 the  desert.  The  mules  are  equally  excellent.  The  Egyptian  dogs 
 are  a  race  of  large  gray  hounds,  that  never  leave  the  quarter  where 
 ihey  arc  born,  and  form  distinct  tribes.  They  throng  the  streets 
 of  all  the  cities,  and  the  Bedouins  have  great  numbers,  which  they 
 defend  with  theii-  lives.  The  cat  was  once  sacred.  They  are  now 
 numerous,  and  are  still  treated  with  great  attention  and  tender- 
 ness in  every  house.  Sheep  and  goats  are  not  found  in  great 
 3iumbers.  The  tyger,  jackal,  antelope,  deer,  fox,  and  hare,  are 
 found  in  desert  places.  The  Egyptian  ape  has  a  head  like  that  of  a 
 dog,  and  is  strong  and  ferocious.  Crocodiles  are  very  numerous 
 on  the  banks  of  the  Nile,  between  Syene  and  Siut.  Tiie  ichneu- 
 3non,  one  of  the  ancient  deities,  destroys  the  eggs  of  the  crocodile, 
 but  is  also  very  fond  of  poultry.  This  propensity  has  lost  him  the 
 respect  of  the  inhabitants,  notwithstanding  he  is  an  excellent 
 inouse  and  rat  catcher.  He  is  less  common  in  the  Said,  than  far- 
 ther north.  The  thirse,  a  species  of  tortoise  in  the  Nile,  is  the 
 •worst  enemy  of  the  crocodile ;  he  kills  and  devours  the  young 
 ones,  as  soon  as  they  creep  into  the  river.  The  number  of  rats 
 and  mice  Avould  render  the  country  uninhabitable,  were  it  not  for 
 the  annual  deluge.  Camcleons  are  numerous  about  Cairo,  and 
 lizards  and  vipers  in  various  places.  Scorpions  are  very  large  in 
 the  Said,  and  also  venomous.  Wasps  are  there  very  common. 
 The  gnat  has  a  dismal  sting,  and  comes  in  swarms  after  the  rice 
 harvest.  Swarms  of  winged  insects  float  in  the  air,  and  furnish 
 incessant  employment  for  swallows  and  wag-tails.  Great  atten- 
 tion is  paid  to  the  culture  of  honey.  The  hives  of  several  villages 
 in  Lower  Egypt,  are  put  on  board  large  boats,  and  sent  up  the 
 river  to  cull  the  earlier  sweets  of  Vosthani  and  the  Said.  The 
 1)oatmen  stop  at  every  place  where  they  find  flowers  and  verdure. 
 The  bees  at  day -break  quit  their  cells  by  thousands,  and  soon  re- 
 turn loaded  with  the  spoils  of  the  orange-flower,  the  rose  and  the 
 icssaminc,  and  the  numberless  wild  flowers  that  adorn  the  valley 
 j!f  the  Nile.     The   flqet  u'^uallv  returns  in  three  month."?,  and  the 
 
NUBIA.  ?4l 
 
 boatmen  receive  their  recompense  in  the  honey,  Avhich  the  bees 
 have  collected. 
 
 Mineralogy  J^  Immense  quarries  of  marble  are  found  near  Cos- 
 seir,  and  in  the  road  from  that  place  to  Keneh.  Similar  quarries 
 extend  more  than  25  leagues  from  Mon^ut  to  Sawadi.  It  is  also 
 found  in  the  mountains  N.  E.  of  Syene.  A  range  of  porphyry 
 mountains  commences  on  the  coast  of  the  Red  sea,  in  lat.  24  N.  at 
 Hamra,  and  reaches  to  23  30  in  Nubia.  On  the  road  from  Cairo 
 to  Suez  are  found  great  numbers  of  Egyptian  pebbles.  Copper  is 
 the  only  metal  found  here  by  the  ancients.  Quarries  of  red  granite 
 reach  from  the  cataracts  below  Syene.  N.  W.  of  that  town  is  a 
 quarry  of  serpentine,  of  which  the  inhabitants  make  vessels  which 
 stand  the  fire.  In  the  same  parallel  there  was  anciently  a  mine  of 
 emeralds,  the  traces  of  which  are  now  lost. 
 
 Mineral  Waters.^  The  situation  of  the  Natron  lakes  has  been 
 mentioned.  They  are  two  in  number,  3  or  4  leagues  long,  and 
 about  a  mile  broad,  with  a  solid  stony  bottom.  For  9  months  they 
 are  without  water.  In  the  winter  there  oozes  out  of  the  earth  a 
 reddish  violet  colored  water,  which  fills  the  lakes  to  the  height  of 
 5  or  6  feet.  This  is  evaporated  by  the  heat  of  the  spring,  and 
 There  remains  a  bed  of  salt  2  feet  thick,  which  is  broken  with  iron 
 bars.     Thirty  tliousand  quintals  are  produced  annually. 
 
 NUBIA. 
 
 THIS  name  has  long  been  given  to  a  tract  of  indefinite 
 extent,  lying  between  Egypt  and  Abyssinia.  On  the  Nile  it  may 
 be  considered  as  commencing  a  little  above  Syene,  immediately 
 mider  the  tropic  ;  and  in  the  same  latitude  on  the  Red  sea.  Its 
 proper  southern  limit,  on  the  Red  sea,  is  the  northern  bovmdaryof 
 Abyssinia,  in  lat.  16.  On  the  E.  bank  of  the  Nile,  it  reaches  a  lit- 
 tle above  the  mouth  of  the  RahacU  or  Dcndtr  ;  and  on  the  W. 
 bank,  as  far  S.  as  the  cataracts  in  that  river.  It  extends  west- 
 ward beyond  the  Bahar  El  Abiad^  as  far  as  the  frontiers  o{ Dar  Fur. 
 The  northern  part  of  this  country  is  an  extensive  desert,  called 
 the  Great  Desert  of  JViibia.  This  desert  commences  at  the  tropic^ 
 The  mountains,  which  run  parallel  with  the  western  shore  of  the 
 Red  sea,  from  Suez  to  Babelmandel,  are  its  eastern  limit.  West- 
 ward it  extends  beyond  the  Nile,  joining  the  desert  of  Libya  ;  of 
 Avhich  it  is  merely  a  continuation.  On  the  S.  it  terminates  at 
 GoQs,  in  lat.  1 8,  just  below  the  mouth  of  the  Atbara.  liiuce cross- 
 ed this  desert  on  his  return  from  Abyssinia.  From  Goos  he  v/ent 
 nearly  in  a  straight  course  to  Syene.  The  country  is  here  an  im- 
 mense expanse  of  sand;  the  level  surface  of  which  is  here  and 
 '.here  broken  bv  sharp  ridges  of  rock  rising  out  of  the  plain,  and 
 
742  NUBIA. 
 
 sometimes  attaining  a  considerable  elevation.  The  wild  Arabs 
 roam  over  it  to  attack  the  travellers,  who  cross  it  on  the  road  to 
 Syene  ;  and  those  who  proceed  from  the  interior  of  Africa  in  car- 
 avans, to  Mecca.  The  only  interesting  objects  remarked  by 
 Bruce,  were  the  vioving  fiillars  ofsaytd,  and  the  simoom.  The  pil- 
 lars of  sand  at  times  proceed  with  great  celerity,  and  at  times  they 
 stalk  with  majestic  slowness.  When  Bruce  was  at  the  halting 
 place,  called  Ikssa  7tagga,  in  lat.  19  20,  he  saw  eleven  of  them  about 
 3  miles  distant.  They  followed  the  course  of  the  wind,  and  often 
 with  such  rapidity,  that  the  swiftest  horse  would  in  vain  have  at- 
 tempted to  escape  them.  The  greatest  diameter  of  the  largest, 
 appeared,  at  that  distance,  as  if  it  would  measure  10  feet.  Their 
 tops  often  seemed  to  reach  to  the  clouds,  and  were  frequently  sep- 
 arated from  the  bodies.  In  this  case  they  were  immediately  dis- 
 persed in  the  air.  Sometimes  they  were  suddenly  broken  near 
 the  middle,  as  if  struck  with  a  large  cannon  shot.  Sometimes 
 they  pass  between  the  traveller  and  the  sun,  and  then  assume  the 
 appearance  of  pillars  of  fire.  The  simoom^  or  poisonous  blast  from 
 the  desert,  at  a  distance,  has  ihe  appearance  of  a  haze,  iu  color, 
 Jike  the  purple  part  of  the  rainbow,  but  less  compr.eased  and 
 thick.  The  one,  which  Bruce  describes,  Avas  not  more  than  20 
 yards  in  breadth,  and  about  1 2  feet  from  the  ground.  It  was  a 
 I;ind  of  blush  upon  the  air,  and  moved  very  rapidly.  The  only  re- 
 source of  the  traveller  is  to  fall  flat  upon  the  ground  with  his  face 
 to  the  earth.  An  inhalation  of  the  fatal  atmosphere,  which  it 
 brings,  is  soon  succeeded  by  death.  After  the  purple  meteor  has 
 vanished,  a  light  air  still  blows,  of  a  heat  to  threaten  suffocation. 
 
 DoNGOLA  is  a  town  on  the  E.  bank  of  the  Nile,  in  lat.  15  30  N. 
 and  Ion.  32  E.  It  is  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Dcnt'ola  ;  which 
 lies  on  both  sides  of  the  Nile,  and  is  considerably  extensive.  We 
 have  seen,  however,  no  satisfactory  account  of  it. 
 
 Of  Sennaar,  the  southern  kingdom  of  Nubia,  Bruce  has  given 
 an  interesting  descriplion.  It  may  be  considered  as  Comprising 
 the  country  between  the  Red  sea  and  the  Nile,  as  far  S.  as  the  N. 
 W.  limits  of  Abyssinia  ;  as  reaching  on  the  E.  bank  of  the  Nile, 
 between  it  and  the  Atbara  or  Tacazzc,  to  about  lat.  13  ;  as  com- 
 prehending all  the  country  between  the  Nile  and  the  Bahar  el  Abi- 
 ad,  as  far  S.  as  the  cataracts  of  the  Nile  ;  and  also  as  including  the 
 provinces  of  Shillook  and  Kordofan  on  the  W.  of  the  latter 
 river.  The  kingdom  of  Darfur  is  its  S.  W.  boundary.  The 
 tract  between  the  Atbara  and  the  Nile,  is  called  Atbara.  The 
 province  of  Sennaar,  includes  the  northern  part  of  the  country  be- 
 tween the  Bahar  cl  y\biad  and  the  Nile  ;  and  that  of  Fezcuclo^  the 
 southern,  as  far  as  the  cataracts.  The  province  of  Shillook  lies 
 W.  of  the  Bahar  el  Abiad,  in  the  latitude  of  Sennaar  ;  and  that  of 
 Kordofan.,  lies  S.  of  ShiUook,  and  W.  oi  Fczcuclo. 
 
 From  the  time  of  Saladin,  to  the  conquest  of  Selim,  emperor  of 
 the  Turks,  who  finished  the  reign  of  the  Mamelukes  in  Egypt,  i.  c. 
 from  the  12th  to  the  16th  century,  the  Arabs  in  Nubia  had  been 
 incorporated  with  the  old  indigenous  inhabitants  of  the  country, 
 which  were  the  shepherds.     The  only  distinction  that  remained. 
 
NUBIA.  743 
 
 xvas,  that  the  Arabs  lived  chieny  in  tents,  while  the  aborigines 
 lived  in  villages,  mostly  by  the  sides  of  rivers,  and  amo.ig  planta- 
 tions of  date  trees.  Those  of  tlie  Arabs,  however,  who  belonged 
 to  the  race  of  Bejii  Koreish,  i.  e.  Mahomet's  own  family,  lived  in 
 towns.  The  Arabs,  after  a  while,  became  the  ruling  nation,  and 
 the  aborigines  were  connected  to  Mahcmetanism.  The  title  of 
 the  Arab  prince,  was  Ali  Welled  Ageeb^  and  he  always  was  of  the 
 race  of  Beni Koreish.  His  residence  was  at  Gerri,  on  the  E.  bank 
 of  the  Nile,  just  below  the  junction  of  the  two  great  branches  of 
 that  river,  and  at  the  northern  limit  of  the  tropical  rains,  in  lat.  I6N. 
 In  the  year  1504,  a  black  nation,  hitherto  unknown,  called  the 
 Shillook  nation.)  inhabiting  the  western  banks  of  the  Bahar  el  Abiad, 
 in  about  lat.  13  N.  made  a  descent  in  a  multitude  of  canoes  or 
 boats  on  the  Arab  provinces  ;  and  in  a  battle  near  Herbagi,  a  town 
 opposite  the  mouth  of  the  Deader.,  defeated  the  Welled  Ageeb, 
 and  forced  him  to  a  capitulation.  The  Arabs  agreed  to  pay  the 
 negroes  half  of  their  stock,  and  every  year  half  of  the  increase. 
 The  negroes  founded  Sennaar,  as  their  own  capital  in  1504,  and 
 removed  the  seat  of  government  of  the  Welled  Ageeb,  from  Gerri 
 to  Herbagi,  that  he  might  be  more  under  their  own  eye.  Bruce 
 was  at  Sennaar,  in  1770.  In  the  266  years  that  had  followed  the 
 foundation  of  the  monarchy,  20  kings  had  reigned  in  Sennaar. 
 Amrou,  the  first  king,  reigned  from  1504  to  1534.  Eight  of  the 
 30  had  been  deposed.  Ismain  the  king,  in  1770,  was  a  man  34 
 years  of  age,  and  had  reigned  3  ycai's. 
 
 The  Shillooks  were  pagans  when  they  invaded  the  country. 
 Soon  after  they  were  converted  to  Mohammedism  ;  when  they 
 took  the  name  of  Fungc,  or  conquerors.  It  is  a  fundamental  law  of 
 the  monarchy,  that  the  king  may  lawfully  be  put  to  death,  when  a 
 council  of  the  great  officers  decrees,  that  it  is  not  for  tlie  advantage 
 of  the  state  that  he  should  reign  any  longer.  The  king  ascends 
 tlie  throne  under  an  admission  of  the  force  of  this  law ;  and  there 
 is  always  one  officer  of  his  own  family,  the  sid  el  coom,  or  master  of 
 the  household,  to  whom  the  death  of  the  king  is  on  such  occasions, 
 by  law,  entrusted.  This  officer  has  no  vote  in  deposing  him.  The 
 only  weapon  he  may  lawfully  use  for  this  purpose  is  a  sword.  The 
 eldest  son  of  the  king  succeeds  by  Tight,  and,  immediately  after- 
 wards, puts  to  death  as  many  of  his  brothers  as  he  can  apprehend. 
 A  female  cannot  succeed  to  the  throne.  The  crown,  since  1504, 
 has  always  been  in  the  family  of  Amrou.  The  king  is  styled  the 
 Mek  of  Sennaar.  The  forces  at  Sennaar,  around  the  capital,  con- 
 sists of  about  14,000  JSfuha,  who  figlu  naked,  having  no  armor  but 
 a  short  javelin,  and  a  round  shield;  and  about  1800  cavaliy,  all 
 blacks,  mounted  on  black  horses,  armed  with  coats  of  mail,  and 
 broad  Slavonian  swords.  These  last  arc  remarkably  brave,  and 
 weii  disciplined. 
 
 The  revenue  derived  from  the  province  of  Kordofan  consists 
 chiefly  of  slaves  procured  from  Dyre  and  Tcgla.  That  of  Fez- 
 Guclo  is  in  gold  ;  as  is  that  from  Atbara  and  the  country  E.  of  the 
 river  of  that  name.  The  Welled  Jgeeb  collects  all  the  re\enuc 
 from  the  Arabs.     It  amounts  to  a  very  large  sum  in  gold.  CKceetl- 
 
7U  •  NUBIA. 
 
 ing  that  of  all  the  other  provinces.     He  pays  it  to  the  Mek.     Hxs 
 own  revenues  from  the  Arabs  are  said  to  be  six  times  as  large. 
 
 The  dress  of  Sennaar  is  very  simple.  It  consists  of  a  long  shirt 
 of  bhie  Surat  cloth,  called  Maroivty,  which  covers  them  from  the 
 lower  part  of  the  neck  to  the  feet.  That  of  the  women  covers  the 
 neck  also.  The  men  have  sometimes  a  sash  about  the  middle. 
 Both  sexes  go  barefoot  in  the  house.  Their  floors  are  covered 
 ■with  Persian  carpets.  In  fair  weather  they  wear  sandals  without, 
 and  sometimes  a  kind  of  wooden  patten,  ornamented  With  shells. 
 Both  sexes  anoint  themselves  at  least  once  a  day  with  camel's 
 grease,  mixed  with  civet,  and  sleep  in  shirts  similarly  treated. 
 Their  beds  are  merely  tanned  bull's  hides,  much  softened  by  this 
 constant  greasing.  The  principal  diet  of  the  poorer  sort  is  millet, 
 made  into  flour  and  bread.  The  rich  make  a  pudding  of  millet, 
 and  also  eat  beef  partly  roasted  and  partly  raw.  Their  horned 
 cattle  are  remarkably  fine  ;  but  the  common  meat  sold  in  the  mar- 
 ket is  camel's  flesh. 
 
 Bruce  was  called  upon  by  the  Mek  to  administer  to  several  of 
 the  sable  bodies  of  his  seraglio.  He  gives  us  the  following  ac- 
 count of  his  visit.  "  I  was  admitted  into  a  large  sqviare  apartment 
 very  ill  lighted,  in  Avhich  were  about  fifty  women,  all  perfectly- 
 black,  without  any  covering  but  a  very  narrow  piece  of  cotton  rag 
 about  the  waist.  While  I  was  musing  whether  or  not  these  all 
 might  be  queens,  or  whether  there  was  any  queen  among  them  ; 
 one  of  them  took  me  by  the  hand,  and  led  me,  rudely  enough,  in- 
 to another  apartment.  This  was  much  better  lighted  than  the 
 first.  Upon  a  large  bench,  or  sofa,  covered  with  blue  Surat 
 cloth,  sat  three  persons,  clothed  from  the  neck  to  the  feet  w^ith 
 blue  cotton  shirts. 
 
 "  One  of  these,  who  I  found  was  the  favorite,  was  about  6  feet 
 high,  and  corpulent  beyond  all  proportion.  She  seemed  to  me, 
 next  to  the  elephant  and  rhinoceros,  the  largest  living  creature  I 
 had  met  with.  Her  features  were  perfectly  like  those  of  a  negro  ; 
 a  ring  of  gold  passed  through  her  under  lip,  and  weighed  it  down, 
 till  like  a  flap  it  covered  her  chin,  and  left  her  teeth  bare,  which 
 were  very  small  and  fine.  The  inside  of  her  lip  she  had  made 
 black  with  antimony.  Her  ears  reached  down  to  her  shoulders, 
 and  had  the  appearance  of  wings  ;  she  had  in  each  of  them  a  large 
 ring  of  gold,  somewhat  smaller  than  a  man's  little  finger,  and 
 about  5  inches  in  diameter.  She  had  a  gold  necklace,  like  what 
 ■we  used  to  call  esclavag-c,  of  several  rows  one  below  another  ;  to 
 which  were  hung  rows  of  sequins  pierced.  She  had  on  her  an- 
 cles two  manacles  of  gold,  larger  than  any  I  had  ever  seen  upon 
 the  feet  of  felons  ;  with  which  I  could  not  conceive  it  was  possible 
 for  her  to  walk,  but  I  afterwards  found  that  they  were  hollow. 
 The  others  were  dressed  much  in  the  same  manner.  Upon  my 
 coming  near  them  the  eldest  put  her  hand  to  her  mouth,  and 
 kissed  it ;  saying  at  the  same  time,  in  very  vulgar  Arabic,  "  f^if- 
 halek  honuaja  .?"  (how  do  you  do,  merchant  ?)  1  never  in  my  life 
 was  more  pleased  v/ith  distant  salutations  than  at  this  time.  I  an- 
 swered "  Peace  be  among  you  I  I  am  a  physician,  au,d  not  a  mer- 
 chant." 
 
NUBIA.  74S 
 
 «  I  shall  not  entertain  the  reader  with  the  mnltitude  of  their 
 complaints  ;  being-  a  lady's  physician,  discretion  and  silence  are 
 my  first  duties.  It  is  sufficient  to  say,  that  there  was  not  one  part 
 of  their  whole  bodies,  inside  or  outside,  in  which  some  of  them 
 had  not  ailments.  The  three  queens  insisted  upon  being- blooded, 
 which  I  complied  with,  as  it  Avas  an  operation  that  required  short 
 attendance  ;  but  upon  producing  the  lancets,  their  hearts  failed 
 them.  I  sent  my  servant  home  for  the  cupping  instrument,  which 
 performed  the  operation  with  great  success.  The  room  was  over- 
 flowed with  royal  blood,  and  the  whole  ended  with  their  insisting 
 that  I  should  give  them  the  instrument  itself ;  which  I  was  obliged 
 to  do,  after  cupping  two  of  their  slaves  before  them,  who  had  no 
 complaints,  merely  to  show  them  how  the  operation  was  per- 
 formed. 
 
 "  Another  night  I  was  obliged  to  attend  then*,  and  gave  the 
 queens,  and  two  or  three  of  the  great  ladies,  vomits.  The  ipeca- 
 cuanha had  great  effect,  and  warm  water  was  .drank  very  copious- 
 ly. The  patients  were  numerous,  and  the  floor  of  the  room  re- 
 aaived  all  the  evacuations.  It  was  prodigiously  hot,  and  the  hor- 
 rid black  figures,  moaning  and  groaning  with  sickness  all  around 
 me,  gave  me,  I  think,  some  slight  idea  of  the  punishment  in  the 
 world  below.  My  mortificatior.s  did  not  stop  here.  I  have  ob- 
 served, that,  on  coming  into  their  presence,  the  queens  were  all 
 covered  with  cotton  shirts  ;  but  no  sooner  did  their  complaints 
 make  part  of  our  conversation,  than,  to  my  utmost  surprise,  each 
 of  th6m  in  her  turn  stript  herself  entirely  naked,  laying  her  cotton 
 shirt  loosely  on  her  lap,  as  she  sat  cross-legged,  like  a  tailor.  The 
 custom  of  going  naked  in  these  warm  countries  abolishes  all  her 
 delicacy  concerning  ic.  I  could  not  but  observe  that  the  breasts 
 of  each  of  them  reached  the  length  of  their  knees. 
 
 "  This  exceeding  confidence  on  their  part,  they  thought  merited 
 some  consideration  on  mine  ;  and  it  was  not  without  great  aston- 
 ishment that  I  heard  the  queen  desire  to  see  me  in  the  like  dish- 
 abille in  which  she  had  spontaneously  put  herself.  The  whole 
 court  of  female  attendants  flocked  to  see  the  spectacle.  Refusal 
 or  resistance  were  in  vain.  I  was  surrounded  by  fifty  or  sixty- 
 women,  all  equal  in  stature  and  strength  to  myself.  The  whole  of 
 my  clothing  was  like  theirs,  a  long  loose  shirt  of  blue  Surat  cot- 
 ton cloth,  reaching  from  the  neck  to  the  feet.  The  only  terms  I 
 could  possibly  make  for  mysel^  were  that  I  should  strip  no  farther 
 than  the  shoulders  and  breast.  Upon  seeing  the  whiteness  of 
 my  skin  they  gave  all  a  loud  cry  in  token  of  dislike  ;  and  snudder- 
 ed,  seeming  to  think  it  rather  the  eff'ects  of  disease,  than  natural. 
 I  think  I  never  in  my  life  felt  so  disagreeably.  I  have  been  in 
 more  than  one  battle,  but  surely  I  would  joyfully  have  taken  my 
 chance  again  in  any  one  of  them  to  have  been  freed  from  that  ex- 
 amination. I  could  not  help  likewise  rcflcciing,  that  if  the  king 
 had  come  in  during  this  exhibition,  the  consequence  would  either 
 have  been  impaling,  or  stripping  off  that  skin  they  were  so  curi- 
 ous about  ;  though  I  can  solemnly  declare  there  was  not  an  idea 
 i-n  my  breast,  since  eyor  I  had  the  honor  ©f  seeing  these  royal  beau- 
 
 VOT,.    11'.  94 
 
746  NUBIA. 
 
 ties,  that  could  have  given  his  majesty  of  Sennaar  the  smallest 
 reason  for  jealousy." 
 
 The  Arabs,  like  the  Creoles  of  the  West  Indies,  prefer  the 
 black  women  to  their  own  in  summer,  on  account  of  the  superior 
 coolness  of  their  skins.  It  is  remarkable,  that  the  issue  of  an 
 Arab  and  negro  has  uniformly  the  light  copper  complexion  of  the 
 Arab,  with  no  mixture  of  the  black  ;  and  it  makes  no  difference 
 whether  the  Arab  be  the  father  or  the  mother.  Bruce  says  he 
 never  saw  one  black  Arab  in  Sennaar,  notv/ithstanding  the  gener- 
 ality of  this  intercourse. 
 
 The  town  of  Sennaar  is  in  lat.  13  34  36,  N.  and  in  Ion.  33  30  30, 
 E.  It  is  built  on  the  west  side  of  the  Nile,  close  to  its  bank,  on 
 ground  just  high  enough  to  save  it  from  inundations.  The  site 
 of  the  town  is  extensiv'>.  The  king's  pala"e  covers  a  great  deal 
 of  ground.  It  ie  all  of  one  story,  built  of  clay,  and  the  floors  o£ 
 earth.  The  houses  of  the  great  officers  are  of  two  stories,  and 
 have  parapet  roofs.  The  other  houses  are  of  but  one,  and  they 
 are  all  built  of  clay,  with  very  little  straw  mixed  with  it. 
 
 jE/-.4ic<?,  or  ^i//f/s,  is  the  capital  of  the  Shillook  country-  Itp 
 on  the  Bahar  el  Abiad,  in  about  lat.  13  30,  N.  The  river  dividiiig 
 forms  a  great  number  of  islands.  On  these  and  the  neighboring 
 banks  the  town  is  situated.  The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  fisher- 
 men, and  sail  in  their  canoes  with  incredible  rapidity. 
 
 Nerdagi  is  the  residence  of  the  Welled  Ageeb.  It  stands  on  the 
 W.  bank  of  the  Nile,  in  lat.  14  39,  N.  It  is  a  large  and  pleasant 
 village,  but  thinly  inhabited,  on  a  dry,  gravelly  soil.  The  Welled 
 Ageeb^  the  hereditary  piince  of  the  Arabs,  is  subject  to  the  king  of 
 Sennaar  and  his  lieutenant,  according  to  treaty.  He  collects  a 
 tribute  from  all  the  Arabs,  not  only  of  Atbara,  but  even  to  the 
 Red  sea.  The  tribes  living  east  of  the  Nile  and  of  the  Atbara, 
 subject  to  him,  are  numerous,  ricli,  and  powerful. 
 
 Suakem  is  a  port  on  the  Red  sea.  It  is  the  place  of  rendezvous 
 for  the  caravans,  which  cross  the  desert  on  their  way  to  Jidda. 
 
 Formerly  Indian  goods  were  brought  in  large  quantities  from 
 Jidda  to  Sennaar;  and  the  articles  returned  were  gold,  civet,  rhinoc- 
 eros' horns,  ivory,  ostrich  feathers,  slaves,  and  glass.  A  caravan  also 
 once  came  from  Timb-uctoo.  At  present  a  small  caravan  goes 
 yearly  from  Goos  to  Suakem,  and  the  Davcina  Arabs  carry  the 
 ivory  to  Abyssinia. 
 
 The  climate  of  this  country  is  neither  pleasant  nor  healthy. 
 The  seasons  are  the  same  as  in  Abyssinia.  At  Sennaar,  from  70" 
 to  78°  of  Fahrenheit,  is  cool  ;  from  79°  to  92°  temperate.  The 
 mercury  often  rises  to  120°.  The  diseases  are  the  dysentery,  in- 
 termittent fevers,  epilepsies,  schirrous  livers,  the  gravel,  and  sy- 
 philis. The  small  pox  desolates  once  in  12  or  15  years.  The 
 soil  and  climate  of  the  capital  arc  very  unfavorable  to  longevity, 
 both  in  man  and  beast.  "  No  horse,  mule,  ass,  or  any  beast  of 
 burden,  will  breed,  or  even  live  at  Sennaar,  or  many  miles  around 
 it.  Poultry  does  not  live  there.  Neither  dog  nor  cat,  sheep  nor 
 bullock,  can  be  preserved  a  season.  Neither  rose  nor  any  spe- 
 cies of  jessamine  grow  there  ;  no  tree  but  the  lemon  flowers  nea« 
 the  city." 
 
ABYSSINIA.  f4r 
 
 ,  In  the  latter  part  of  the  dry  season  this  whole  country  appears 
 a  barren  waste.  But  in  August  and  September  it  is  every  where 
 verdant.  The  corn  now  spl'inging  up  and  covering  the  ground, 
 the  whole  of  this  imnaense  plain,  appears  a  level  green  land, 
 interspersed  with  great  lakes  of  water,  and  ornamented,  at  cer- 
 tain intervals,  with  groups  of  villages,  the  conical  tops  of  the 
 houses  presenting,  at  a  distance,  the  appearance  of  small  encamp- 
 ments. Soon  after,  the  rains  cease  ;  the  vegetable  matter  on  the 
 ground  turns  yellow,  ai^  rots  ;  the  lakes  putrefy,  smell,  and  are 
 filled  with  vermin.  Dora  or  millet  is  the  common  grain.  Wheat 
 and  rice  are  cultivated  ;  but  even  in  years  of  plenty  they  are  sold 
 by  the  pound.  The  produce  of  millet  is  said  to  be  300  for  1.  At 
 ShadcUyt  a  collection  of  villages  12  miles  N.  W.  of  Sennaar,  sub- 
 terranean granaries  are  erected,  C2i\\c6i..mattamores.  Large  quan- 
 tities of  millet  are  deposited  here  to  sell  to  the  Arabs,  at  a  low 
 price,  in  seasons  of  scarcity.  At  Wed  Aboud^  24  miles  N.  of  Shad- 
 dly,  is  a  still  larger  foundation  of  the  same  kind.  On  these  two 
 charities  they  chiefly  depend  for  subsistence. 
 
 To  the  W.  of  Shaddly  and  Aboud,  the  country  is  full  of  trees, 
 which  makes  it  a  favorite  station  for  camels.  The  Arabs  have 
 immense  numbers  of  these  animals.  The  tribe  of  Refaa,  in 
 1770,  had  about  200,000.  The  tribute  of  that  tribe  to  \\\c  Mek 
 was  100,000  ounces  of  gold,  or  £250,000  sterling.  There  were 
 then  10  such  tribes,  which  owned  this  species  of  subjection. 
 
 ABYSSINIA. 
 
 CHAPTER  I. 
 
 HISTORICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 .EXTENT,  BOUNDARIES,  DIVISIONS,  NAMES,  RELIGION,  GOVERN- 
 MENT, POPULATION,  ARMY,  REVENUE,  MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS, 
 CITIES,  COMMERCE. 
 
 Extent.']  THE  country  known  by  this  name  may  bo 
 considered  as  reaching  from  lat.  7  to  16  N.  and  from  Ion.  35  to  44 
 E.  Its  length  from  E.  to  W.  is  about  580  miles,  and  its  greatest 
 breadth  from  Masuah,  to  the  S.  line,  according  to  the  map  of 
 Bruce,  is  about  560.  It  reaches,  on  the  Red  sea,  from  Masuah  to 
 the  straits  of  Babelmandel,  420  miles.  The  northern  boundary- 
 proceeds  from  Masuah,  on  a  course  nearly  W.  S.  W.  to  the  Nile. 
 The  Mediterranean  limits  are,  however,  very  badly  defined. 
 
 Boundaries.']     The  Red  sea  lies  on  the  N.  E. ;  the  kingdom  of 
 Adel,  on  the  E,  and  S.  E. ;  Gingiso  and  Alaba  on  the  S. ;  the  Nile 
 
748  ABYSSINIA. 
 
 on  the  W.  ;  Sennaar  on  the  N.  W. ;  and  the  country  of  the  Jaha- 
 leen,  or  wild  Arabs,  and  of  the  Shankala,  or  descendants  of  the  an- 
 cient Ethiopians  on  the  N. 
 
 The  Gallas,  a  wikl  and  marauding  nation,  have  encroached  on 
 the  limits  of  Abyssinia,  and  now  occupy  various  provinces  on  the 
 S.  W.,  S.  and  S.'E. 
 
 Divisions.']  This  country,  according  to  Mr.  Bruce,  is  divided 
 into  the  following  provinces,  nz. 
 
 1.  Massuah  5.  Amhara  9.  Maisha 
 
 2.  Tigre  6.  Walaka  10.  Dembea 
 
 3.  Samen  7.  Gojam  1 1  Kuara 
 
 4.  Begemder  8.  Damot  12.  Nara 
 
 jyames^]  Bruce  tells  us,  that  the  Chronicle  of  jixum,  the  most 
 ancient  Abyssinian  history,  declares  that  the  S/ieba,  or  Sada  of  the 
 scriptures,  whose  queen  visited  Solomon,  was  Abyssinia,  Sheba 
 merely  means  the  South.  The  Arabs  call  the  country  Habescb^ 
 the  origin  of  our  Ahyssiiiia.,  and  denoting  the  same  with  the  Latin 
 "word  Conve7i£.,  i,  e.  a  country  of  mingled  tribes  or  nations. 
 
 Iieligia?i.j  The  Jewish  religion  is  said,  by  Bruce,  to  have  been 
 prevalent  in  Abyssinia,  till  near  the  middle  of  the  4th  century. 
 Frumentius',  a  disciple  of  St.  Athanasius  at  Alexandria,  and  the 
 first  Christian  bishop  of  Abyssinia,  was  ordained  about  A.  D.  333. 
 This  was  about  the  time  of  their  conversion ;  and  the  primitive 
 faith  of  the  Abyssinians  having  been  received  through  this  chan- 
 nel, must  have  accorded  with  the  peculiar  tenets  of  the  Greek 
 chnrch.  The  first  attempt  to  spread  the  Romish  faith  was  made 
 about  the  year  1430,  in  the  reign  of  Zara  Jacob.  That  prince  ob- 
 tained from  the  pope  the  establishment  of  a  convent  for  the  Abys- 
 sinians at  Rome.  A  similar  one  had  long  before  been  established 
 at  Jerusalem.  From  this  latter  ambassadors  were  sent  to  the  cel- 
 ebrated council  of  Florence,  wJio  adhered  to  the  opinion  of  the 
 Greek  church,  about  the  proceeding  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  About 
 the  year  1560,  Menas  banished  the  Portuguese  monks,  and  the 
 Catholic  faith  was  wholly  discountenanced,  till  1600  ;  when  Peter 
 Paez,  a  missionary  from  Goa,  arrived  in  Abyssinia.  In  1604,  Za 
 Denghel  the  reigning  monarch  was  converted  to  the  Catholic 
 faith,  and  Paez  was  created  Catholic  patriarch.  In  1626,  Soci- 
 nias,  the  existing  king,  with  his  court,  abjured  the  Greek  religion, 
 and  took  oaths  of  obedience  to  the  pope.  The  clergy  were  reor- 
 dained  ;  their  churches  consecrated  anew  ;  adults  and  children 
 rebaptized  ;  the  festivals  reduced  to  the  forms  and  times  of  the 
 church  of  Rome  ;  and  circumcision,  polygamy,  and  divorce,  ab- 
 rogated forever.  In  consequence  of  the  violent  measures  of  Paez, 
 subsequent  to  this  change,,  the  Catholics  became  unpopular,  and 
 in  1632  their  hierarchy  was  abolished.  They  were  allowed  how- 
 ever to  remain  in  the  country,  till  1714,  when  their  clergy  were 
 executed.  Since  that  time  there  have  been  few  or  no  Catholics 
 in  the  country. 
 
 iThe  patriarch  of  the  Abyssinian  church,  is  styled  the  Abiina.  By 
 
ABYSSINIA.  749 
 
 an  ancient  canon,  he  must  not  be  a  native  of  the  country,  and  is  al- 
 ways sent  from  Egypt.  He  very  seldom  understands  the  lan- 
 guage, and  has  no  share  in  the  government.  There  are  two  or- 
 ders of  monks,  those  oi  Debra  Libanos^  and  those  of  Abba  Eusta- 
 thius.  They  differ  merely  about  the  meaning  of  a  few^  equivocal 
 ■words,  used  to  define  the  mode  and  moment  of  our  Saviour's  in- 
 carnation :  but  this  is  sufficient  to  make  them  enemies  all  their 
 lives.  Every  new  Abuna  publicly  declares,  in  an  assembly  of  the 
 clergy,  to  which  party  he  belongs.  The  king  does  the  same. 
 Tht  head  of  the  monks  of  Debra  Libanos,  is  called  the  Itchegue  ; 
 and  he  is  really  the  chief  of  the  monks  in  general.  The  head  of  those 
 of  St.  Eustatius,  is  the  chief  of  the  convent  of  Mc/ierAar  Selasse,  in 
 the  N.  W.  corner  of  Abyssinia.  The  monks  do  not  live  in  convents, 
 but  in  separate  houses  round  their  church;  and  each  cultivates  a 
 part  of  the  church  lands.  The  priests  have  their  maintenance  as- 
 signed to  them  in  kind,  and  do  not  labor.  The  direction  and  dis- 
 tribution of  the  church  revenues,  is  wholly  in  the  hands  of  officers, 
 appointed  by  the  king.  All  the  clergy  are  deplorably  ignorant, 
 heretical  in  their  tenets,  and  licentious  in  their  lives.  There  is  no 
 country  in  the  world,  in  which  there  are  so  many  churches  as  in 
 Abyssinia.  It  is  seldom  that  less  than  5  or  6  are  in  sight,  in  any 
 part  of  the  country  ;  and,  on  a  commanding  ground,  one  may  see 
 five  times  as  many.  They  are  usually  planted  near  running  wa- 
 ter, for  the  purposes  of  purifications  and  ablutions,  in  which  they 
 strictly  observe  the  Levitical  law.  They  are  all  round,  with 
 thatched  roofs  ;  and  their  summits  are  perfect  cones.  The  inside 
 is  covered  with  wretched  daubings  of  their  various  saints.  Among' 
 these,  are  St.  Pontius  Pilate,  and  his  wife  ;  St.  Balaam  and  his  ass, 
 
 GoTjer7i7p.e7it.^  The  government  is  an  absolute  monarchy. 
 The  crown  is  hereditary  in  one  particular  family,  supposed  by  the 
 Abyssinians  to  be  that  of  Solomon,  by  the  queen  of  Sheba ;  but 
 probably  that  of  Ha?iiyar,  or  Saba,  in  Yemen  or  Arabia  Felix.  In 
 this  family  however,  it  is  elective  ;  and  there  is  no  law,  nor  cus- 
 tom, which  gives  the  eldest  son  an  exclusive  title.  The  royal 
 family  were  formerly  imprisoned  in  the  high  mountain  of  Geshen^ 
 in  the  province  of  Amhara.  On  the  death  of  the  king,  if  any  one 
 of  his  sons,  of  sufficient  age  to  take  the  crown,  happened  to  be  in 
 the  low  country,  he  was  commonly  his  successor.  If  not,  the  ex- 
 isting minister  usually  chose  an  infant,  that  he  might  direct  the 
 whole  government  during  a  long  minority  ;  and  his  choice  was 
 called  the  choice  of  the  people.  Seven  noblemen,  the  chief  of 
 Uhom  is  the  Azeleffa  el  Camisha,  or  groom  of  the  stole,  constitute 
 the  Baalomaal,  or  gentlemen  of  the  bedchamber.  The  royal 
 council  is  composed  of  the  great  officers  of  state.  When  Bruce 
 left  the  country,  the  power  of  the  king  was  insignificant ;  the  7?as, 
 or  governor  of  Tigre,  having  almost  the  whole  direction  of  the 
 government.  The  different  capital  punishments,  are  crucifixion, 
 flaying  alive,  lapidation,  and  plucking  out  the  eyes. 
 
 Population^  We  have  no  data  on  which  to  form  a  correct 
 judgment  of  the  population  of  this  country.  It  has  been  estimated 
 at  3,000,000,     Hassel  reckons  only  1,800,000. 
 
750  ABYSSINIA. 
 
 Jrmij.j  Bruce  9>ays,  that  the  largest  armies  ever  collected  in 
 the  country,  were  at  the  battle  of  Serbraxos.  The  rebels  had  then 
 60,000  men,  and  the  king  40,000,  The  usual  amount  of  the  army 
 does  not  exceed  20,000.  Hassel,  however,  reckons  the  number 
 at  40,000.  The  cavalry  is  good.  The  king's  household  troops 
 consist  of  8000  infantry.  They  are  armed  with  matchlocks. 
 Most  of  the  other  troops  have  only  lances  and  shields. 
 
 Jievenue.'\  The  royal  revenue  is  paid, partly  in  ounces  of  gold; 
 and  partly  in  honey,  cattle,  horses,  cloths,  and  various  other  articles. 
 
 Manners  and  Cuntomfi.']  The  principal  part  of  the  dress  of  the 
 natives  is  a  large  cotton  cloth,  24  cubits  long,  and  1  ^-  broad,  with  a 
 blue  and  yellow  stripe  round  the  bottom.  They  are  called  kuuras, 
 2.nd  are  very  beautiful  and  light.  The  other  pieces  of  dress  are 
 breeches,  which  reach  to  the  mid-thighs.  Those  of  the  common 
 people  are  gi'.t  with  a  white  cloth  girdle ;  while  the  better  sort 
 •wear  red  Indian  cotton  cloths  for  breeches,  and  silk  or  wors- 
 ted colored  girdles.  When  they  ride  they  hold  the  stirrup  be- 
 tween the  great  and  second  toes.  Even  the  king  rides  bare-foot-r 
 ed.  Almost  all  the  houses  are  built  of  clay,  with  thatched  conical 
 roofs.  The  chief  articles  of  food  are  cakes  of  unleavened  bread, 
 and  raw  flesh,  which  as  far  as  possible  they  cut  from  the  animal 
 while  living,  that  it  may  be  the  more  tender.  At  their  feasts  an 
 equal  number  of  both  sexes  are  invited,  and  they  always  terminate 
 in  drunkenness  and  extemporaneous  debauchery.  The  ordinary 
 jTiai'riage  is  contracted  by  mutual  consent  without  any  ceremony, 
 and  is  dissolved  by  the  dissent  of  either  party.  As  soon  as  this 
 takes  place,  both  parties  marry  again.  They  also  divide  the  chil- 
 dren, the  eldest  son  falling  to  the  mother  and  the  eldest  daughter 
 to  the  father.  Marriages,  according'  to  the  churc/i,  are  celebrated 
 as  follows.  The  man  sends  some  one  to  ask  the  girl  of  her  father, 
 and  is  rarely  refused.  He  is  then  invited  to  the  house,  and  an 
 qath  is  reciprocally  taken  by  both  parties  to  be  faithful  to  each 
 other.  He  then  receives  her  fortune,  usually  a  sum  of  gold,  and 
 some  oxen,  sheep,  or  horses.  He  is  at  the  same  time  obliged  to 
 find  security  for  the  goods,  in  case  he  should  dismiss  his  wife,  and 
 be  unable  to  refund  them  ;  and  also  to  promise  a  certain  sum  of 
 money,  should  he  abandon  her.  On  the  day  of  marriage  a  feast  is 
 prepared  at  the  house  of  the  bride's  father  ;  the  oaths  are  renew- 
 ed, and  she  is  taken  to  the  bridegroom's.  In  20  or  SD  days  they 
 appear  before  the  priest  to  receive  the  sacrament,  at>d  acknowl- 
 edge each  other  to  be  man  and  wife.  No  distinction's  made  in 
 Abyssinia  betv/een  legitimate  and  illegitimate  children.'  Nothing 
 is  known  of  personal  purity  among  any  of  the  inhabitants.  From 
 the  family  of  the  king  to  that  of  the  beggar  the  same  licentiousness 
 and  profligacy  are  prevalent.  When  an  Abyssinian  approaches 
 into  the  presence  of  the  monarch,  he  falls  upon  his  knees,  then  on 
 the  palms  of  his  hands,  and  then  inclines  his  head  till  the  forehead 
 touches  the  earth  ;  and,  in  case  he  has  an  answer  to  expect,  re-. 
 mains  in  that  posture,  till  he  has  received  it.  The  country  has 
 for  many  years  been  tlie  scene  of  civil  wars,  which  have  called  into 
 exercise  all  the  ferocious  passions,  and  exhibited  a  constant  sac- 
 cession  of  treachery,  murder,  and  assassiuation. 
 
ABYSSINIA.  Tol 
 
 tiiies.']  GoNDAR,  the  capital,  is  in  lat.  12  34  50,  N.  and  in  Ion. 
 37  S3.,  E.  Il  is  situated  on  a  hill  of  considerable  height,  which  is 
 every  where  surrounded  by  a  deep  valley.  This  valley  has  three 
 outlets  ;  one  to  the  S.  E.  to  Dembea  ;  a  second  to  the  N.  W.  over 
 Debra  Tzai,  ov  the  mountain  of  the  Sun,  towards  Sennaar  ;  a  third 
 to  the  N.  towards  Tigre  and  the  Red  sea,  over  the  high  mountain 
 Lamalman.  The  river  Kaha,  coming  from  Debra  Tsai,  flows  N". 
 of  the  town,  and  the  Angrab  skirts  the  hill  on  the  S.  They  to- 
 gether almost  encircle  the  town,  and  unite  a  qu;^rter  of  a  mile  from 
 it,  at  the  foot  of  the  hill.  The  top  of  the  hill  is  a  plain  of  very 
 considerable  extent.  The  length  of  the  town  is  3  miles  from  E, 
 N.  E.  to  W.  S.  W.  and  its  breadth  1  mile.  It  contains  about 
 10,000  houses,  and  about  50,000  inhabitants.  Immediataly  on  the 
 bank,  opposite  Gondar,  is  a  large  Mahometan  village,  of  about 
 1000  houses.  The  royal  palace  is  at  the  \V.  end  of  the  town,  in 
 the'middle  of  a  square  court,  which  is  a  mile  in  circumference. 
 Originally  it  was  a  square  building,  erected  by  rnaso«s  from  In- 
 dia, flanked  with  square  towers,  4  stories  in  height,  and  built  of 
 stone.  As  this  gradually  decayed  for  want  of  repairs,  different 
 princes  added  small  houses  of  one  story  in  dificrcnt  parts  of  the 
 court.  These  are  comj>osed  of  wood  and  clay,  thatched  with 
 straw.  The  two  lov/er  stories  of  the  original  palace  still  remain. 
 The  audience  chamber  is  120  feet  long.  A  substantial  double 
 stone  wall  surrounds  the  square.  It  is  30  feet  high.  There  are 
 battlements  on  the  outer  wall,  and  a  parapet  roof  between  the 
 outer  and  inner.     The  town  contains  numerous  churches. 
 
 AxuM,  the  ancient  capital,  is  in  lat.  14  6  36,  N.  and  Ion.  33  40, 
 E.  It  stands  in  a  plain,  140  miles  N.  E.  from  Gondar,  and  120 
 from  the  Red  sea.  It  is  now  a  mere  heap  of  ruins.  In  one  square, 
 apparently  near  the  centre,  there  are  40  obelisks.  They  are  each 
 a  single  piece  of  granite.  Two  magnificent  flights  of  steps,  each 
 several  hundred  feet  long,  are  the  only  remains  of  a  superb  tem- 
 ple. It  is  watered  by  a  small  perennial  stream,  which  still  flows 
 into  a  magnificent  bason,  130  feet  square.  The  present  tov.n,  at 
 a  little  distance  from  the  ruins,  contains  about  600  houses. 
 
 Sire  is  larger  than  modern  Axum.  It  is  in  lat.  14  4  35,  N. 
 and  in  Ion.  38,  E.  Its  form  is  that  of  a  half  m.oon,  and  the  town  is 
 famous  for  the  manufacture  of  coarse  cottons, 
 
 Masuah  is  on  a  small  island,  which  is  only  three  quarters  of 
 a  mile  long,  and  of  half  that  width.  Not  more  than  a  third  of  it^ 
 surface  is  covered  with  houses.  The  island  is  in  the  large  bay  of 
 Masuah,  in  lat.  15  35  5,  N.  and  Ion.  39  36  30,  E.  About  20  of  the 
 houses  are  of  stone,  6  or  8  of  which  are  of  two  stories.  The  othtr 
 houses  are  composed  of  poles  and  bent  grass. 
 
 Arkeeko  is  on  the  bay  of  Masuah.  There  is  water  enough 
 for  large  vessels  close  to  the  town  ;  but  the  bay  being  open  to  the 
 N.  E.  makes  it  uneasy  riding  in  blowing  weather.  The  town  con- 
 tains about  400  hoases,  built  principally  of  coarse  grass,  like  reeds. 
 
 Commerce.'^  lieforc  the  discovery  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
 the  commerce  of  this  country  was  valuable.  It  was  carried  on 
 chiefly  with  Arabia,  aad  India,  and  Masuah  was  a  harbor  of  grea-t 
 
752  ABYSSINIA. 
 
 resort.  Gold,  ivory,  elephants,  and  buffaloes'  hides,  were  ilie 
 chief  exports  ;  and  they  are  now  exported  to  some  extent.  Slaves 
 also  are  exported  to  India  and  Arabia.  The  imports  from  Ara- 
 bia are  blue  cotton,  Surat  cloths,  cotton  in  b?les,  Venetian  beads, 
 drinking  and  looking-glasses,  and  crude  antimony.  A  small  car- 
 avan goes  yearly  to  Cairo,  laden  with  gold  dust. 
 
 CHAPTER  II. 
 
 NATURAL  GEOGRAPHY. 
 CLIMATE,  FACE  OF  THE  COUNTRY,  RIVERS,  LAKE,  5I0UNTAINS. 
 
 Climate.']  THE  rainy  season  commences  in  April,  and 
 ends  about  the  8th  of  September.  An  unpleasant  sickly  season 
 follov/s,  till  about  the  20th  of  October,  when  the  rain?  recommence. 
 They  then  continue  constant,  but  moderate,  till  about  the  8th  of 
 November.  All  epidemic  diseases  cease  Avith  the  latter  rains. 
 The  heat  depends  on  the  elevation  of  the  gi'ound.  Bruce  kept  a 
 register  of  the  weather  at  Gondar  upwards  of  a  year  and  three 
 months.  The  greatest  elevation  of  the  mercury  was  91°,  in  April, 
 the  least,  54°,  in  July.  The  hills  are  generally  healthy,  and  great 
 numbers  of  the  towns  and  villages  are  built  on  them.  The  more 
 prevalent  diseases  are  violent  fevers,  which  prove  fatal  on  the  5th 
 day  ;  the  tertian  fever  ;  the  dysentery  ;  the  hanzea^  a  species  of 
 king's  evil  ;  the  farcnteit,  or  worm  of  Pharaoh  ;  and  the  elephan- 
 tiasis. 
 
 /•^acc  of  the  Countrij.~\  The  surface  in  the  middle  and  S.  is 
 generally  rugged  and  mountainous,  and  abounds  with  forests  and 
 morasses.  It  is  also  interspersed  with  many  fertile  valleys  and 
 plains.     In  the  N.  it  is  chiefly  a  flat  country. 
 
 «So27  and  Agriculture. ~\  The  soil,  though  often  thinly  spread, 
 is  rendered  extremely  productive  by  the  rains,  and  the  overflow- 
 ing of  the  rivers.  Wherever  it  can  be  tilled  and  w^ell  watered,  it 
 yields  abundant  crops.  The  inhabitants  first  sow  a  crop  of  bar- 
 ley about  the  last  of  April.  It  ripens  in  the  rains  in  June,  and  is 
 carried  from  the  fields  to  prevent  its  rotting.  They  then  sow 
 fitches,  which  ripen  in  August.  In  September  they  sow  wheat 
 ©r  teff.^  which  is  cut  down  in  December.  Those  who  have  water, 
 sow  barley  or  fitches  again  in  January.  At  a  medium  "a  harvest 
 is  only  about  20  for  I.  They  never  manure  the  grounti,  and  the  rats 
 and  ants  constantly  devour  the  crop.  All  their  harvests  are  not 
 equal  to  one  in  Egypt. 
 
 Rivers.~\  The  eastern  branch  of  the  Nile,  called  the  Eahar  El 
 ylsrcky  rises  in  Abyssinia,  and  is  for  some  distance  its  eastern  boun- 
 dary.    It  has  heretofore  been  minutely  described. 
 
 The  Atbara,  heretofore  called  the  Siris,  the  Jstaborasn,  and  the 
 Tacazzc,  has  three  sources,  the  most  remote  of  which  rises  near 
 the  village  of  Gourie  in  the  province  of  Angot,  250  miles  E.  S.  E- 
 
EASTERN  COAST  OF  AFRICA.  753^ 
 
 of  Gondar.  It  pursues  a  N.  W.  course  of  about  800  miles,  join- 
 ing the  Nile,  in  lat.  17  50,  N.  The  northern  ^?2^'TaZ>,  which  rises 
 near  Gondar,  falls  into  the  Atbara  on  the  W.  and  still  lower 
 down  the  Guangue.  The  Mareb  is  a  stream  which  rises  in  the 
 mountains,  on  the  borders  of  the  Red  sea ;  and,  passing  about 
 midway  between  Arkeeko  and  Axum,  runs  N.  W.  to  join  the  At- 
 bara in  the  desert  of  Sennaar. 
 
 The  Rahad,  or  Dender,  is  a  considerable  river,  that  joins  the 
 Nile  from  the  E.  40  miles  below  Sennaar. 
 
 Lake.']  The  lake  of  Tzana,  or  Dembea,  lies  24  miles  S.  S.  W. 
 of  Gondar.  It  is  49  miles  in  length,  from  N.  to  S.  and  35  ia 
 breadth.  It  contains  10  or  12  islands,  some  of  considerable  size. 
 The  Bahar  el  Asrek  passes  through  it. 
 
 Mountains.']  A  chain  of  mountains  runs  along  the  whole  coast 
 of  the  Red  sea,  from  Suez  to  Babelmandel.  In  lat.  1 3,  a  chain 
 leaves  it  to  the  S.  W.  and  W.  which  crosses  the  Nile  at  its  cat- 
 aracts, and  unites  with  the  mountains  of  Tugula.  Still  farther  S. 
 a  chain  seems  to  separate  from  it  in  the  same  direction,  and  pass- 
 ing S.  of  the  Nile,  to  join  the  mountains  of  the  Moon. 
 
 EASTERN  COAST  OF  AFRICA. 
 
 THE  coast,  from  Cape  Gardefan,  to  the  equator,  is  called 
 Jjan^  the  Azania  of  Ptolemy,  and  includes  the  kingdoms  of  Adel^ 
 and  MagadaxQ. 
 
 Adel.  Adel  lies  S.  E.  of  Abyssinia,  has  the  country  of  the 
 G alias  on  the  W.  and  Magadaxo  on  the  S.  We  do  not  know  its 
 exact  limits.  It  commences,  on  the  N.  W.  at  the  Straits  of  Ba- 
 belmandel. It  I'cvolted  from  Abyssinia  about  the  year  1320  ;  and 
 after  having  since  been  repeatedly  subjugated  by  that  coxmtry,  is 
 now  independent.  The  inhabitants  are  Mahometans.  The  king 
 is  absolute.  Heretofore  he  has  been  tributary  to  the  Grand  Seign- 
 ior, and  has  been  assisted  by  troops  from  Arabia,  against  the 
 Abyssinians.  The  country  is  populous,  and  has  proved  too  pow- 
 erful for  its  enemy.  Several  of  the  pi'ovinces  of  Abyssinia  are 
 now  subject  to  Adel.  The  inhabitants  ai'e  tawney,  and  have  long, 
 sraighthair.  Zeila.,  its  principal  sea-port,  is  about  50  miles  S.  of  the 
 Straits  of  Babelmandel,  at  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Zeila.  Adel^ 
 the  royal  residence,  is  in  lat.  8  5,  N.  Ion.  44  20,  E.  on  the  Ha- 
 wash.  Assem  is  a  sea-port  on  the  eastern  coast,  and  Meta  on  the 
 northern.  The  country,  though  it  seldom  has  any  rain,  is  so  well 
 v/atered  by  rivers  and  canals,  that  it  is  very  fertile  and  productive. 
 It  yields  abundance  of  wheat,  barley,  and  millet.  The  chief  ex- 
 ports are  gold  dust,  frankincense,  ivory,  and  slaves.  The  Arabs 
 come  to  Zeila  lo  tr?.de  with  the  Adelites.  The  dress  of  the  in- 
 habitants consists  of  a  piece  of  cotton,  which    rovers  them  from 
 
 vei,.  ir.  95  ^ 
 
?54  EASTERN  COAST  OF  AFRICA. 
 
 the  girdle  to  the  knee.     The  Arabs  call  them  the   Gibberiis,  or 
 Jaithful. 
 
 INIagadoxo.  This  kingdom  is  said  to  extend  on  the  coast 
 from  about  lat.  5,  N.  to  the  mouth  oi" the  Jubboo,  whieh  empties 
 under  the  equator.  It  bounds  N.  on  Adel,  and  S.  on  Melinda. 
 Its  limits  in  the  interior  are  not  ascertained.  The  inhabitants,  of 
 whatever  extract,  (for  some  of  them  are  white,  others  tawney, 
 others  olive,  and  others  quite  black,)  speak  Arabic.  They  are 
 stout,  and  warlike  ;  and,  among  other  Avcapons,  use  poisoned  ar- 
 rows and  lances.  The  king  and  his  court  are  Mahometans,  and 
 most  of  the  inhabitants  are  of  the  same  religion.  A  few  in  the. 
 interior  are  Abyssinian  christians.  Magadoxo,  the  capital,  in. 
 about  lat.  2  50,  N.  is  a  place  of  great  commerce  with  the  Arabs, 
 and  the  people  of  Ad-el.  Gold,  ivory,  wax,  and  slaves,  are  export- 
 ed for  cotton,  silk,  spices,  and  drugs.  The  city  stands  at  the 
 mouth  of  a  very  large  river,  called  by  the  Arabs  The  A'iie  of  Mag' 
 adoxo.  It  is  said  to  rise  in  the  mountains  of  the  Moon.  The 
 country  is  less  fertile  than  Adel,  particularly  on  the  coast. 
 
 The  coast  south  of  the  equator,  as  far  as  about  lat.  24,  is  called 
 The  Const  of  Zanguebar  ;  which  is  said  to  import  the  coast  of  the 
 negroes.     It  comprehends  a  number  of  kingdoms. 
 
 Melinda.  This  kingdom  bounds  N.  on  Magadoxo,  reaching 
 to  the  equator.  The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  Mahometans,  but 
 some  are  idolaters.  The  king  is  absolute,  and  is  held  in  great 
 veneration  by  his  subjects.  He  is  to  a  deg-ree  dependent  on  Por- 
 tugal. The  proper  aborigines  arc  negroes,  but  great  numbers  of 
 Arabs  are  found  here.  The  men  wear  the  Mahometan  turban. 
 Their  other  dress  is  a  piece  of  cotton,  reaching  from  the  girdle  to 
 the  knees.  ISIelinda,  the  capital,  is  in  lat.  2  50,  S.  The  Abyssin- 
 ians  call  it  Tarshlsh.  It  is  in  a  beautiful  plain,  on  the  coast,  sur- 
 rounded by  fine  gardens  and  orchards.  The  houses  are  built  of 
 square  stone.  They  are  for  the  most  part  handsome,  and  some 
 tire  even  magnificent.  It  is  the  habitation  of  many  wealthy  mer- 
 chants, Arabs,  and  Portuguese.  The  exports  are  gold,  copper, 
 ivory,  wax,  and  drugs.  The  harbor  is  difficult  of  access,  because 
 of  the  rocks  and  shelves.  On  this  account  vessels  are  obliged  to 
 anchor  at  a  distance  from  the  town.  The  Portuguese  have  a  for- 
 tress here,  and  several  churches.  The  territory  is  generally  rich 
 and  fertile.  The  necessaries  of  life  are  abundant,  and  the  fine 
 tropical  fruits  are  found  in  high  perfection. 
 
 MoMBAZA.  This  is  the  next  country  S.  of  Melinda.  The  Por- 
 tuguese early  subjugated  it,  but  were  driven  out  by  an  Arabian 
 Sheikh,  in  1631.  They  reconquered  it  in  1729  ;  and,  we  believe, 
 have  now  the  sole  government.  The  people  are  more  civilized 
 than  any  others  on  the  coast.  The  aboriginal  blacks  are  partly 
 idolaters,  and  partly  Mahometans.  The  Arabs  are  Mahometans, 
 and  are  numerous.  The  Portuguese  are  also  numerous,  and  are 
 Christians.  Mombazo,  the  capital,  is  in  lat.  3  45,  S.  It  has  a  deep 
 and  commodious  harbor,  and  is  well  defended.  The  streets  arc 
 straight  and  narrow.  The  houses  arc  built  of  stone,  with  terraced 
 i*oofs.     Its  commerce  is  extensive.     The  climate   is   said  to  be 
 
EASTERN  COAST  OF  AFRICA.  757 
 
 Healthy,  and  the  soil  is  highly  productive.     Millet  and  rice  are 
 principally  cultivated. 
 
 QuiLOA.  The  Portuguese  possess  Quiloa,  a  country  lying  S. 
 of  Mombazo,  and  extending  about  60  leagues  from  N.  to  &. 
 Most  of  the  inhabitants  are  Mahometans.  The  king  is  absolute 
 over  his  OAvn  subjects,  but  tributary  to  the  Portuguese.  The  Ar- 
 abic is  universally  spoken.  The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  negroes, 
 but  some 'are  Arabs.  The  city  of  Quiloa  is  in  lat.  8  50,  S.  It 
 stands  on  an  island,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Coaro,  and  is  said  to 
 be  large,  rich,  and  well  built.  The  houses  are  of  stone,  several 
 stories  high,  and  have  large  gardens  behind  them.  The  climate 
 is  healthy,  and  on  the  coast,  temperate.  The  soil  is  generally 
 fertile,  and  produces  millet,  rice,  fruits,  and  good  pastui^. 
 
 MosAMBiQUE.  South  of  Quiloa  lies  Mosambique.  It  is  of 
 very  considerable  extent  along  the  coast,  reaching  from  about  lat. 
 10  to  15,  S.  Vasco  de  Gama  landed  at  the  capital  in  1492.  At 
 that  time  the  country  was  subject  to  the  king  of  Quiloa.  We 
 know  not  when  it  became  independent  of  that  monarch.  The  in- 
 habitants are  chiefly  black,  and  the  Arabs  are  not  numerous.  Ar- 
 abic, however,  is  extensively  spoken.  The  Portuguese  have  long 
 been  the  real  masters  of  the  kingdom.  The  capital  is  situated 
 on  the  small  island  of  iMosambigue,  2  miles  from  the  mahi,  in 
 about  lat.  14,  S.  It  is  handsomely  built,  has  a  number  of  elegant 
 churches  and  convents,  and  is  protected  and  kept  in  subjection,  by 
 a  very  stron  g  fort,  at  a  little  distance.  There  are  several  con- 
 siderable ports  on  the  main.  Ivory,  ebony,  slaves,  and  cattle,  are 
 exported.  The  soil  of  the  island  is  a  white,  barren  sand.  That 
 of  the  country  is  rich,  and  produces  millet,  rice,  and  various 
 fruits  and  vegetables.  Vast  numbers  of  cattle  are  here  raised. 
 The  forests  abound  with  elephants,  wild  boars,  and  stags. 
 
 MoNOMOTAPA.  This  is  also  an  extensive  country,  reaching; 
 from  about  lat.  15  to  20  S.  and  stretching  420  miles  along  the 
 coast.  About  two  centuries  ago,  the  whole  of  the  coast  of  Zan- 
 giicbar,  S.  of  Mosambique,  was  subject,  or  tributary  to  the  empe- 
 ror of  Monomotapa  ;  but  the  country  S.  of  lat.  20  was  divided  into 
 several  tributary  kingdoms.  Whether  these  are  now  dependant 
 or  not,  we  cannot  learn.  The  emperor,  however,  is  still  power- 
 ful. The  influence  of  the  Portuguese  is  considerable.  The  na- 
 tives are  all  black.  They  are  well  shaped,  robust,  active,  and 
 fond  of  M'ar.  Their  dress  consists  of  a  single  piece  of  cloth,  de- 
 pending from  the  girdle.  That  of  the  common  people  is  of  dyed 
 cotton,  that  of  the  rich,  of  India  silk.  Polygamy,  to  any  extent,  is 
 allowed.  The  emperors,  in  this  particular,  often  rival  the  Jewish 
 monarch.  The  metropolis  is  called  Benemetapay  and  is  a  large 
 spacious  city,  several  days  journey  from  the  coast.  The  houses 
 are  neat,  and  are  generally  whitewashed.  The  palace  is  a  very 
 large  edifice,  well  flanked  with  towers,  with  four  gates,  defended 
 by  a  numerous  guard.  The  Portuguese  are  settled  on  the  coast, 
 and  are  the  merchants  of  the  country.  Gold  and  ivory  are  ex- 
 tensively exported.  The  climate  is  described  as  healthy,  and 
 temperate,  and  the  surface  as  chiefly  upland.     There  is  a  chain  of 
 
756   COLONY ^F  THE  CAPE  OF  GOOD  HOPE. 
 
 high  mountains  in  the  interior,  called  Lufiata^  from  which  most  ot 
 the  gold  is  procured.  The  Zambeze^  or  Ciiaina.,  is  a  long  river 
 in  the  southern  part.of  Monomotapa  Proper. 
 
 SoFALA.  This  country,  bounding  Monomotapa  on  the  S.  is 
 described  as  reaching  about  140  miles  along  the  coast,  and  350  into 
 the  interior.  We  know  not  whether  the  king  is  a  tributary  of  the 
 emperor  of  Monomotapa.  A  considerable  number  of  the  inhabi- 
 tants are  Mahometans.  The  capital,  Sq/ata,  is  at  the  mouth  of  a 
 large  river  of  the  same  name,  in  about  lat.  21  S.  Bruce  supposes 
 that  it  was  the  Ofihir  of  Solomon.  The  Portuguese  have  here  a 
 strong  fort.  The  natives  are  black,  with  curley  hair.  Their  dress 
 is  the  same  with  that  of  the  Monomotapans.  Large  quantities  of 
 ^old  are  procured  from  the  mountains, 
 
 Sabia,  or  Sedanda,  is  a  country  of  small  extent,  S.  of  Sofala, 
 jich,  fertile,  and  populous. 
 
 Inha^wbane  lies  S.  of  Sabia.  "With  this  terminates  the  Zau- 
 ffiiebar  coast. 
 
 De  La  Goa  The  bay  of  De  La  Goa,  lies  in  lat.  26  S.  and  Ion. 
 S2  E.  ;  is  often  visited  by  the  southern  whalers,  and  is  of  considera- 
 ble extent.  The  Manica  and  Mafumo,  are  two  large  rivers  which 
 fall  into  it.  Mr.  White*  informs  us,  that  a  king  named  Capellah, 
 rules  the  country  S.  of  the  Mafumo,  100  miles  along  the  coast, 
 and  200  into  the  interior  ;  and  that  he  has  14  chiefs  tributary  to 
 him.  The  inhabitants  are  Pagans,  of  a  bright  black  color.  They 
 are  tall  and  stout,  and  go  nearly  naked.  The  dry  season  lasts 
 from  April  to  October.  The  soil  is  a  rich  black  mould.  Rice, 
 maize,  millet,  and  the  sugar  cane  are  cultivated.  Cattle  and  poul- 
 try are  very  cheap.  The  wild  beasts,  are  the  tiger,  rhinoceros, 
 ■wild  boar,  antelope,  hare,  and  rabbit. 
 
 Natal  is  the  name  given  to  the  whole  coast  S.  of  the  coast  of 
 Zanguebar,  as  far  as  the  colony  of  the  Cape. 
 
 The  Coffers,  or  Xoussis,  are  a  numerous  race,  inhabiting  on  the 
 borders  of  the  Cape  colony.  The  eastern  part  of  that  colony  was 
 also  formerly  in  their  possession. 
 
 COLONY  OF  THE  CAPE  OF  GOOD  HOPE. 
 
 CHAPTER  L 
 
 HISTORICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 EKfENT,  BOUNDARIES,  DIVISIONS,  NAMES,  HISTORY,  RELIGION, 
 MISSIONS,  GOVERNMENT,  POPULATION,  REVENUE,  MANNERS  AND 
 CUSTOMS,'  TOWNS,  TRAVELLING,  COMMERCE. 
 
 jExtcjit.']  ACCORDING  to  Barrow,  M'hose  judicious 
 work  will  be  made  the  basis  of  our  remarks  on  this  important 
 colony,  its  eastern  limit  is  the  mouth  of  Great  Fish  river,  ia  Ipn» 
 
 *"  Yoy.igc  lo  Madi-a^j  ISOO,  4t» 
 
COLONY  OF  THE  CAPE  OF  GOOD  HOPE.       757 
 
 28  20  E.  Its  northern,  on  the  Atlantic,  is  the  mouth  of  the  Kous- 
 sie,  in  lat.  29  55  S.  Cape  L'Aguillas,  the  southern  extremity  of 
 the  continent,  is  in  lat.  34  50  S.  The  length  on  the  S.  coast,  irom 
 Cape  Point  to  Great  Fish  river,  is  580  miles  ;  on  the  N.  from  the 
 river  Koussie,  to  Zuureberg,  520.  The  breadth  in  the  W.  from 
 the  Koussie  to  Cape  Point,  is  315  ;  in  the  middle  from  Nieuweldt 
 mountains,  to  Plettenberg's  bay,  1 60  ;  in  the  E.  from  the  mouth 
 of  Tush  river,  to  Plettenberg's  Baaken,  225.  These  measures 
 give  a  parallellogram,  whose  mean  length  is  550  miles,  and  mean 
 bi'eadth  233  ;  comprehending  an  area  of  !  28,150  square  miles. 
 
 Boundaries.']  On  the  N.  lie  several  extensive  arid  plains,  and 
 several  large  tracts  of  country  inhabited  by  the  Bosjesmen  ;  on  the 
 E.  the  land  of  the  Caffres  ;  on  the  S.  the  Southern  ocean  ;  and  on 
 the  W.  the  Atlantic.  The  JVaniaquas,  on  the  N.  W.  are  chiefly 
 within  the  colony  ;  as  are  some  of  the  Caffres^  and  many  of  the 
 Bofijesmen. 
 
 Divisions']  The  colony  is  divided  into  four  ditricts  ;  1.  Cafie 
 district  in  the  S.  W.  which  reaches  on  the  Atlantic  ocean  to  Helena 
 bay,  about  120  miles  ;  and,  on  the  southern,  only  to  the  middle  of 
 False  bay  :  2.  Stellenborch  district  in  the  W.  which  reaches 
 from  the  Koussie  to  Helena  bay,  on  the  Atlantic  ;  and  from  the 
 middle  of  False  bay  to  the  mouth  of  Breede  river,  on  the  southern ; 
 while,  in  the  interior,  it  stretches  eastward  to  Lion's  river,  as  far 
 as  Ion.  23  E.  :  3.  Ziuellendam  district,  which  reaches  from  Breede 
 river  to  Great  river,  that  falls  into  Camtoos  bay,  on  the  coast,  and 
 no  where  extends  far  into  the  interior  :  4.  Graaft  Reynet  dis- 
 trict, which  comprizes  all  the  country  E.  of  Lyon's  river,  and  N. 
 E.  of  Zwellendam. 
 
 JVcmcs.]  Bartholomew  Diaz  first  discovered  the  Cape,  which 
 gives  name  to  the  colony.  He  called  it  Cado  dos  Torme?itos,  or 
 the  Cajie  of  Storms  ;  but  his  master,  John  IL  king  of  Portugal^ 
 gave  it  a  name  of  better  omen,  the  Cafie  of  Good  Hope. 
 
 History r\  Diaz  discovered  the  Cape  in  1487,  but  went  no 
 farther.  Vasco  de  Gama,  also  a  Portuguese,  reached  the  Cape  on 
 the  20th  of  November,  1497,  on  his  way  to  Calicut;  and  was  the 
 first  voyager,  that  ever  coasted  the  southern  shore  of  Africa ;  un- 
 less we  admit,  that  Sesostris  circumnavigated  that  continent. 
 The  Portuguese,  soon  after,  planted  a  settlement  at  the  mouth  of 
 Great  Fish  river,  then  called  by  them  Rio  cVInfante.f  after  the  ad- 
 miiral,  who  projected  the  settlement,  on  the  eastern  frontier  of  the 
 present  English  colony.  This  place  they  abandoned  for  want  of 
 shelter  for  their  shipping,  which  they  found  farther  E.  in  the  bay 
 ofDELAGoA.  After  this  the  English,  Dutch,  and  Portuguese, 
 made  use  of  the  cape  merely  as  a  watering  place,  till  1620  ;  when 
 the  commanders  of  two  English  fleets,  bound  for  Surat  and  Ban- 
 tam took  formal  possession  in  the  name  of  James  \. ;  but  the  Eng- 
 lish did  nothing  towards  planting  a  colony.  \\\  1650  the  Dutch 
 East  India  company,  in  consequence  of  the  favorable  representa- 
 tions of  Van  Riebeck,  a  surgeon  of  an  India  ship,  sent  to  the  cape 
 a  colony  of  100  males  ;  and  soon  after  as  many  females  from  the 
 houses  of  industry  \\x  Holland.     The  company  laid  the  colony  un- 
 
VSB       COLONY  OP  THE  CAPE  OF  GOOB  HOPE. 
 
 der  such  severe  restrictions,  that  it  never  flourished.  The  English, 
 under  Sir  James  Craig,  in  September  1795,  took  possession  of  the 
 cape  in  the  name  of  the  prince  of  Orange.  They  restored  it  to 
 Holland,  at  the  peace  of  Amiens,  in  March  1 802.  An  English 
 squadron,  under  Sir  Home  Pophan,  anchored  in  Saldanha  bay,  on 
 the  6th  of  January,  1806.  On  that,  and  the  following  day,  7000 
 troops  we'-e  landed  under  Sir  David  Baird.  The  capitulation  was 
 signed  on  the  10th,  by  general  Jansen,  the  Dutch  governor. 
 
 Re/igion.']  Calvinism  was  the  established  religion  of  the  colo- 
 ny while  in  the  hands  of  the  Dutch.  Other  sects  were  tolerated. 
 The  Lutherans  and  Methodists  had  each  a  church  at  Cape  Town. 
 The  Malay  Mahometans,  having  been  refused  a  church,  per- 
 formed their  public  service  in  the  stone  quarries  at  the  head  of 
 the  tov/n.  The  funds  of  the  Calvinistic  church  at  that  place,  in 
 1798,  amounted  to  22,168/.  8s.  Sd.  ;  and  their  annual  grants  to  the 
 pool-,  to  1,112/.  17s.  The  funds  of  the  Lutherans  Avere  14,829/. 
 13.?.  2d.  ;  and  their  grants  to  the  poor,  194/.  9s.  2d.  The  Church 
 of  England  is  probably  now  established. 
 
 Missions.^  The  Moravians,  many  years  ago,  established,  and 
 have  to  this  time  successfully  maintained,  a  mission  at  Bavian's 
 Kloof,  within  the  limits  of  this  colony.  About  the  beginning  of 
 the  present  century,  immediately  after  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
 and  its  dependencies  came  into  the  possession  of  the  British  na- 
 tion, a  number  of  mibsionaries,  with  the  venerable  Dr.  Vander- 
 KEMP  at  their  head,  were  sent  to  this  southern  part  of  Africa,  by 
 the  London  Missionary  Society,  whose  labors  among  the  colonists, 
 but  especially  among  the  natives,  have  been  attended  with  vari- 
 ous degrees  of  success,  and  are  still  continued. 
 
 Government.~^  Previous  to  the  first  seizure  by  the  English,  the 
 colony  was  committed  to  the  direction  of  a  governor,  appointed  by 
 the  East  India  Company.  After  the  capture  it  was  entrusted  to 
 a  governor  and  lieutenant  governor,  appointed  by  the  crown  ; 
 who  also  constituted  the  high  court  of  appeals.  A  burgher 
 senate,  or  council  of  burghers,  consisting  of  7  members  chosen 
 out  of  the  burghers  of  the  town,  is  a  court  having  original  juris- 
 diction in  the  cape  district,  and  appellate  jurisdiction  in  the  other 
 three.  Over  each  district  is  placed  a  civil  magistrate,  called  a 
 Landrost  ;  who,  with  six  Hemraaden.,  o^  2l  council  of  county  bur- 
 ghers, have  power  to  regulate  the  police  of  the  district,  superin- 
 tend the  affairs  of  government,  and  adjust  litigations.  An  appeal 
 lies  from  them  to  the  burgher  senate. 
 
 Pofiulation.~\  Barrow  estimated  the  population  of  the  whole 
 colony,  in  1797,  whites,  slaves,  and  Hottentots,  at  60,000,  or  1  to 
 every  2  square  miles  ;  of  whom  22,000  were  christians.  The  pop- 
 ulation of  the  cape  district,  at  that  time,  consisted  of  6,261  free 
 persons,  chiefly  whites,  and  11,891  slaves;  total  18,152.  As  the 
 colony  was  very  flourishing  during  its  former  possession,  and  has 
 been  equally  so  since  Uic  late  capture,  its  population  must  have 
 greatly  increased. 
 
 Revenue.']  The  revenue  is  collected  from  rents  of  leased 
 Jands  ;  taxes  on  produce,  ancticns,  the  of  sale  lands  and  buildings, 
 
COLONY  OF  THE  CAPE  OF*  GOOD  HOPE.   !?59 
 
 llie  customs  and  port  fees,  portage,  seizures,  fines  and  penalties,' 
 licenses,  loans,  and  stamps.  In  1801  it  amounted  to  90,142/.  13s. 
 Ad.  sterling  ;  and,  during  the  whole  government  of  Lord  Macart- 
 ney,  was  more  than  adequate  to  the  expenditure. 
 
 Manners  and  CuntojnsJ]     The  free  inhabitants   of  the  colony 
 consist  of  4  classes  :  the  inhabitants  of  the  capital,  wine-growers, 
 corn-farmers,  and  graziers.     The  inhabitants  of  the  town  consist 
 of  the  magistrates  and  clergy  ;  of  a  sort  of  gentry,   who,  having 
 estates  m  the  country,  retail  the  profits  of  them  by  means  of  their 
 agents,   usually  Jew  brokers,  with   whom  they   lodge  while  iu 
 town;  of  a  number  of  petty  dealers,  who   call   themselves  mer- 
 chants ;  of  mechanics,  who  carry  on  their  several  professions  by 
 their  blacks  ;  and  of  free  people  of  color,  many  of  whom  are  me- 
 chanics and  fishermen.     Almost  all  of  these  are  petty  dealei's  iu 
 some  v/ay  or  other  ;  and  they  have  all  a  remarkable  pi'opensity 
 for  public  vendues.     Their  chief  amusemeiit&  are  eating,  diunk- 
 ing,  and  smokuig.     There  is  not  a  bookseller's  shop  in  the  town. 
 The  wine-growers  are  chiefly  of  French  extract.     They  live  on 
 lands  possessed  in  fee,  and  occupy  the  best  houses  and  most  valu- 
 able estates  in  the  country.     These  estates  are  each  of  about  120 
 acres,  and  lie  principally  in  the  Cape  District.     The  corn-boors 
 live  in  the  same  district,  and  in  those  parts  of  Stellenborch  withiu 
 .3  days  journey  of  the  town.     They  are  next  in  rank  to  the  wine- 
 boors.     They  have  little  intercourse  with  each  other,  and  spend 
 the  day  in  smoking,  in  lording  it  over  a  few  Hottentots,  and  in  in- 
 dulging to  excess  in  the  gratification  of  every  sensual   appetite. 
 The  graziers  are  in  the  more  distant  parts  of  the  colony,  and  are 
 the  least  advanced  in  civilization.     They  live  in  hovels,   having 
 two  rooms,  in  which  the  parents,  children,  and  house  Hottentots 
 ail  sleep.     Their  bedding  consists  of  skins.     The  walls  of  their 
 hovels  are  formed  of  mud  or   clay,  baked   in  the  sun.     As   to 
 their  clothing,  they  wear  a  broad-brimmed  hat,  a  blue  shirt,  and 
 leather  pantaloons,  no  stockings,  and  a  pair  of  dried  skin  shoes. 
 The  women  have   a  thick  quilted  cap  that  ties  with  two  broad 
 flaps  under   the  chin,  and  falls  behind  across  the  shoulders ;  a 
 short  jacket  and  a  petticoat,  but  no  stockings,  and  often  no  shoes. 
 A  large  iron  pot  serves  both  to  boil  and  broil  their  meat.     They 
 have  neither  linen  for  the  table,  nor  knives,  forks,  or  spoons.    The 
 bon  carves  with  a  large  jack-knife  for  himself  and  the  family. 
 Their  huts  and  their  persons  are  equally  dirty  ;  and  their  whole 
 appearance  betrays  an  indolence  of  body,  and  a  grovelling  mind. 
 The  women  are  greater  drudges  thaji  the  men,  and  yet  these  are 
 not  industrious.     Thongs   cut  from   skins   serve  for  i-opes,  and 
 fibres  for  thread.     The  kraals,  or  folds  of  the  cattle,  are  in  front 
 of  the  doors  of  their  houses,  and  are   never  cleaned  out-     All  the 
 boors  are  extremely  cruel  in  their  treatment  of  tlie  Hottentots. 
 
 To7vns.~]  Cape  Town,  the  capital,  is  situated  on  the  S.  E.  an- 
 gle of  Table  Bay.  The  Bay  is  faulty  in  every  point  that  consti- 
 tutes a  proper  place  for  the  mart  of  shipping,  and  so  boisterous 
 for  4  months  in  the  year.  May,  June,  July,  and  August,  when  th<; 
 •N.  and  N.  W.  winds  are  stvongest,  that  u®  ship  call  enter  it.     Duiv 
 
760   COLONY  OF  THE  CAPE  OF  GOOD  HOPE. 
 
 ing  those  months  ships  put  into  Simon's  bay,  a  cove  or  indent  on 
 the  western  shore  of  False  bay,  where  they  find  a  safe  harbor. 
 During;  the  otlier  8  months,  when  the  S.  E.  winds  are  predomin- 
 ant, Table  bay  affords  a  most  secure  shelter.  The  town  is  built  on  a 
 sloping  plain,  that  rises  with  an  easy  ascent  to  the  feet  of  Devil's 
 hill,  on  the  E.  of  Table  mountain  on  the  S.  and  of  Lion's  Head  on 
 the  N.  W.  The  citadel  or  castle,  is  a  pentagonal  fort,  which  com- 
 mand§  the  town  and  the  anchorage  ;  bvit  is  itself  commanded  by 
 the  commencing  acclivity  on  the  E.  'Jhis  acclivity  is  now  occu- 
 pied by  various  redoubts,  batteries,  and  block  houses,  command- 
 ing each  other.  Fort  Knokke  is  connected  with  the  citadel  by  a 
 rampart  drawn  along  the  shore,  called  tfie  sea  lines,  defended  by 
 several  batteries,  mounted  with  heavy  guns,  and  furnished  with 
 ovens  for  heating  shot.  On  the  W.  of  the  bay  are  three  strong 
 batteries,  Rogge-bay,  Jlmsterdam,  and  Chavonne  ;  all  the  guns  of 
 which  bear  upon  the  anchorage.  The  Mouille  is  another,  com- 
 manding the  entrance.  The  streets  arc  straight,  and  cross  each 
 other  at  right  angles.  Many  of  them  are  well  paved,  open,  and 
 airy  ;  with  canals  of  water  running  through  them,  walled  in,  and 
 planted  on  each  side  with  rows  of  oaks.  Three  or  four  public 
 squares  give  an  openness  to  the  town.  In  one  is  held  the  public 
 market ;  another  is  the  resort  of  the  peasantry  with  their  wag- 
 gons ;  and  another,  near  the  shore  of  the  bay,  and  between  the 
 town  and  the  castle,  is  a  place  of  parade  for  the  troops.  This  is 
 an  open,  airy,  and  extensive  plain,  perfectly  level,  composed  of  a 
 bed  of  firm  clay,  covered  with  small  hard  gravel.  It  is  surrounded 
 by  canals  or  ditches,  which  i-eceive  the  waters  of  the  town,  and 
 convey  them  into  the  bay.  Two  of  its  sides  are  completely 
 built  up  Avith  large  and  handsome  houses  ;  and  a  third  is  occu- 
 pied by  the  barracks,  a  large,  well-designed  regular  build- 
 ing, with  tv/o  wings.  The  upper  part  of  this  building  is  large 
 enough  to  contain  4000  men.  The  castle  contains  barracks  for 
 1000,  lodgings  for  the  officers  of  one  regiment,  magazines  for  ar- 
 tillery, stores,  and  ammunition,  and  most  of  the  public  offices  of 
 government.  The  other  public  buildings  are  a  Calvinist,  Luther- 
 an, Episcopal,  and  Methodist  church,  a  guard  house,  in  which  the 
 Burgher  Senate  meet,  a  large  building  for  the  government 
 slaves, and  a  court  house.  The  houses,  1145  in  number  in  1797, 
 are  built  with  great  regularity  and  order.  They  are  generally 
 white-washed,  with  the  doors  and  windows  painted  green,  two 
 stories  high,  with  flat  roofs,  and  a  kind  of  pediment  in  the  centre 
 of  the  front.  The  population  at  that  time  consisted  of  about 
 5,500  whites,  and  12,000  blacks.  The  number  of  marriages  for 
 8  years  (1790-1798)  was  1449,  of  baptisms  2589,  and  of  burials 
 1173.  The  whites  are  on  the  whole,  an  idle,  dissolute  race  of 
 men,  subsisting  chiefly  on  the  labor  of  their  slaves.  Provisions 
 are  very  cheap,  while  labor  is  dear  ;  as  are  house -rent,  fuel,  and 
 clothing.  Immense  numbers  of  dogs  prowl  about  the  streets, 
 particularly  by  night,  when  they  quit  their  dens  and  lurking  places 
 in  quest  of  the  offals  of  butcher's  shops  ;  and  the  wolves  and  hye- 
 nas occasional! V  descend  from  their  dens  in  the  Table  Mountain, 
 
COLONY  OF  THE  CAPE  OP  GOOD  HOPE.   761^ 
 
 to  dispute  their  spoil  with  the  dogs.  At  such  times  the  town  re- 
 sounds with  their  hideous  howlings  during;  the  whole  night.  The 
 settlers  seem  to  have  fixed  on  this  spot  for  the  site  of  the  town, 
 for  tlie  convenience  of  water,  which  rushes  in  a  plentiful  stream 
 out  of  the  Table  mountain. 
 
 Travelling.']  The  roads  near  the  cape  are  good.  But  in  the 
 great  body  of  the  colony,  their  character  depends  on  the  nature 
 of  the  surface  and  of  the  soil  ;  as  they  are  wholly  neglected  by  the 
 boors.  The  passes  of  the  mountains,  and  the  fords  of  the  rivers, 
 are  often  extremely  difiicult  and  dangerous.  The  established 
 mode  of  performing  long  journies,  is  in  covered  waggons,  drav/n 
 by  bullocks.  These  carriages  are  strong,  light,  and  expensive  ; 
 and  in  them  are  carried  all  the  necessaries  for  a  journey  in  a  coun- 
 try where  there  are  no  taverns,  and  where  often  the  houses  are 
 many  days' journey  apart.  They  are  drawn  by  a  team  of  10  or 
 12  oxen.  Each  day's  journey  is  from  5  to  15  hours,  according  to 
 local  circumstances.  It  is  customary  to  travel  by  night,  that  the 
 cattle  may  graze,  or  rather  browse,  by  day.  Where  the  country 
 is  tolerably  level,  and  the  surface  hard,  an  ox  will  travel  3  miles 
 an  hour  ;  at  which  rate  he  will  continue  10  or  12  hours  without 
 halting.  As  a  specimen  of  the  common  difficulties  of  travelling, 
 Barrow  mentions  the  manner  of  crossing  Breede  river,  a  stream 
 40  yards  wide.  This  is  done  by  a  small  flat  bottomed  tub,  about 
 6  feet  by  3.  In  this  machine  two  travellers  haul  themselves  over, 
 by  a  rope  fixed  to  two  posts,  one  on  each  side  of  the  river.  When 
 a  horse  is  to  cross,  the  saddle  is  taken  off,  the  rider  gets  into  the 
 tub,  and  drags  the  animal  after  him.  But  when  a  waggon  is  to  be 
 transported,  it  must  first  be  unladen,  and  the  baggage  carried 
 over  in  the  vessel  ;  the  carriage  is  then  made  fast  by  one  end  to 
 the  tub,  and  the  other  is  buoyed  up  by  a  cask,  and  in  this  manner 
 it  is  dragged  over.  Thus  half  a  day  is  spent,  when  a  few  planks 
 properly  put  together,  would  enable  a  waggon  to  pass  in  5  minutes. 
 
 Hospitality  to  strangers  characterizes  ail  the  boors.  A  coun- 
 tryman, a  foreigner,  a  relation,  a  friend,  are  all  equally  welcome  to 
 whatever  the  house  will  afford.  A  Dutch  farmer  never  passes  a 
 house  on  the  road  without  alighting,  except  indeed  his  next  neigh- 
 bor's, with  whom  it  is  ten  to  one  he  is- at  variance.  If  two  peasaiits 
 meet,  though  perfect  strangers,  they  instantly  dismount  to  shake 
 hands.  When  a  traveller  arrives  at  a  habitation,  he  alights,  en- 
 ters the  house,  shakes  hands  with  the  men,  kisses  the  women,  and 
 sits  down  without  farther  ceremony.  When  the  table  is  served, 
 he  takes  his  place  without  an  invitation.  If  there  is  a  bed  in  the 
 house,  he  has  it.  If  not,  he  sleeps  on  a  bench  or  a  heap  of  sheep 
 skins,  among  the  rest  of  the  family.  In  the  morning,  after  a  solid 
 breakfast,  he  takes  his  so/iie,  or  a  glass  of  brandy,  orders  his  Hot- 
 tentot to  get  ready  the  horse  or  w3.ggon,  shakes  hands  with  the 
 men,  and  kisses  the  women  ;  he  wishes  them  health,  and  they 
 wish  him  a  good  journey.  In  this  manner  he  may  pass  through 
 the  whole  country. 
 
 Commei'ce.']  Wine  and  brandy  are  the  staple  commodities  of 
 ihe  Cape.  Ten  or  twelve  different  kinds  of  wiue  are  manufactured. 
 
 VOL,  II*.  96 
 
762   COLONY  OF  THE  CAPE  OF  GOOD  HOPE. 
 
 The  other  exports  are  grain  and  pulse,  wool,  hides  and  skins, 
 whale  oil  and  bone,  dried  fruits,  salt  provisions,  soap  and  candles, 
 aloes,  ivory,  ostrich  feathers,  and  tobacco.  The  value  of  wine  and 
 brandy  exported,  is  about  g50,000 ;  that  of  aloes  6500  ;  that  of 
 skiiiS  6000;  that  of  dried  fruit  3000  ;  that  of  ivory  1600  ;  and  that 
 of  ostrich  feathers  1000.  The  total  value  of  exports  for  4  years, 
 (1799 — 1802)  was  S3(X),925.  The  imports  for  the  same  period, 
 amounted  to  ;C  1,195,507  3s.  6d.  currency.  The  imports  from 
 England  were  woollens,  cottons,  hardware,  cutleiy,  haberdashery, 
 millinary,  boots,  shoes,  stationary,  furniture,  paints  and  oils,  earth- 
 en ware,  naval  stores,  smoked  meats,  cheese,  and  pickles ;  from 
 the  E.  Surat  piece-goods,  tea,  coffee,  sugar,  pepper,  spices,  and 
 rice  ;  from  America,  lumber,  salt-fish,  pitch  and  turpentine ; 
 from  the  N.  of  Europe,  iron,  plank,  French  v/ines,  beer,  gin,  Selt- 
 zer water,  coffee,  and  preserves  ;  and  slaves  from  the  coast 
 of  Guinea.  The  small  amount  of  exports,  was  owing  to  the 
 previous  severe  x'estrictions  of  the  Dutch  East  India  company,  by 
 which  the  enterprize  of  the  colony  had  been  completely  cramped; 
 and  from  the  effects  of  which,  it  will  demand  a  considerable  pe- 
 riod oWiheral  encouragement  to  raise  it. 
 
 CHAPTER  n. 
 
 NATURAL  GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 CLIMATE,  FACE  OF    THE  COUNTRY,    AGRICULTURE,  RIVERS,  BAYS, 
 MOUNTAINS. 
 
 Climate!^  THOUGH  it  has  been  usual  to  consider  the 
 year  as  consisting  of  two  periods,  the  good  and  the  bad  monsoon  ; 
 yet,  as  these  are  neither  regular  in  their  returns,  nor  certain  in 
 their  continuance,  the  division  into  four  seasons,  the  reverse  of 
 those  in  northern  latitudes,  is  more  proper.  The  spring,  from  the 
 first  of  September  to  the  first  of  December,  is  the  most  agreeable. 
 The  summer,  from  December  to  March,  is  the  hottest ;  the  au- 
 tumn, from  March  to  June,  is  variable,  but  generally  fine  and 
 pleasant  weather.  The  winter,  from  June  to  September,  though 
 the  greater  part  of  the  time  pleasant,  is  frequently  stormy,  rainy, 
 and  cold.  The  two  most  powerful  winds,  are  the  N.  W.  and  S.  E. 
 The  first  commences  towards  the  end  of  May,  and  blows  occa- 
 sionally to  the  end  of  August,  and  sometimes  to  the  end  of  Sep- 
 tember ;  usually  about  4  months  in  each  year.  1  he  S.  E.  pre- 
 dominates the  rest  of  the  year  ;  and,  when  the  cloud  shows  itself 
 on  the  mountain,  blows  with  great  violence.  "In  the  midst  of  one 
 of  these  storms  of  wind,"  says  the  Abbe  De  la  Caille,  "  the  stars 
 look  larger,  and  seem  to  dance  ;  the  moon  has  an  undulating  tre- 
 mor ;  and  tlie  planets  have  a  sort  of  beard,  like  comets." 
 
 The  approach  of  winter  is  first  observed  by  the  S.  E.  winds 
 becoming  less  frequent,  less  violent,  and  blowing  clem\  without 
 
COLONY  OF  THE  CAPE  OF   GOOD  HOPE.       763 
 
 the  fleeey  cioud  on  the  mountain.  '  Dews  then  begin  to  fall  very 
 heavy,  and  thick  fogs  hang,  in  the  morning,  about  the  hills.  The 
 N.  W.  winds  feel  raw  and  cold,  and  increase  at  length  to  a  storm, 
 -with  heavy  rain,  thunder  and  lightning,  continuing  generally  for 
 two  or  three  days.  When  the  weather  clears  up,  the  high  nnoun- 
 tain  tops  appear  buried  in  snow,  and  the  Table  Land  has  also  a 
 slight  sprinkling  of  snow  or  hail.  At  such  times  the  thet  mometer 
 at  sunrise  is  about  40°,  and  at  aeon  rises  to  70°  ;  making  a  varia- 
 tion of  30°  in  5  or  6  hours.  The  general  standard  for  the  three 
 winter  months  may  be  reckoned  from  50°  at  sunrise,  to  60°  at  noon. 
 In  the  middle  of  summer  it  varies  frc-m  70°  to  90°  ;  but  generally 
 rests  for  days  together  at  83°  or  84°.  It  has  been  known  to  ex- 
 ceed 100°,  but  tills  is  rare.  The  heat  of  summer  is  seldom  op- 
 pressive. The  mornings  ai'e  sometimes  close  and  sultry,  but  the 
 nights  are  always  cool.  A  S.  E.  breeze  usually  blows  from  noon 
 till  evening.  When  violent,  and  accompanied  with  the  fleecy 
 cloud  on  the  mountain,  a  storm  of  rain  usually  commences  at 
 2  P.  M.  and  continues  in  squalls  till  midnight.  From  November 
 to  April,  a  shower  of  rain  scarcely  ever  falls. 
 
 The  barometer  stands  higher  in  the  clear  cold  days  of  winter, 
 than  in  the  settled  serene  weather  of  summer.  The  height  of  the 
 column  varies  in  the  former  season  from  29.46  to  30.35  inches  ; 
 one  point  indicating  a  storm,  with  rain,  thunder,  and  lightning  ; 
 and  the  other  settled  fair  weather.  The  changeable  point  is  about 
 29.95  or  30  inches.  The  slightest  alteration  is  sure  to  indicate  a 
 change  of  weather.  The  range  of  the  mercury  in  summer  is  still 
 less,  being  scarcely  ever  above  30.10,  or  below  29.74.  The  S.  E. 
 winds  seldom  occasion  a  change  of  more  than  0.15.  Happy  for 
 the  inhabitants  of  the  town,  these  winds  keep  up  a  constant  circu- 
 lation ;  without  which,  the  i-eflected  heat  from  the  naked  front  of 
 the  Table  mountain,  would  make  the  town  insupportable. 
 
 Most  of  the  fatal  diseases  proceed  rather  from  the  mode  of  liv- 
 ing, than  from  the  climate.  The  very  frequent  consumptions  are 
 attributable  partly  to  the  sudden  changes  of  temperature  ;  and 
 partly  to  imprudent  exposures,  and  the  very  free  use  of  spiritu- 
 ous liquors.  A  confined  and  sedentary  life  ;  eating  to  excess, 
 commonly  thrice  a  day,  of  animal  food  swimming  in  fat,  or  made 
 up  into  high-seasoned  dishes  ;  drinking  raw  ardent  spirits  ;  smok- 
 ing'tobacco  ;  and,  when  satiated  with  sensual  indulgence,  retiring 
 in  the  middle  of  the  day  to  sleep  ;  seldom  using  any  kind  of  ex- 
 ercise, and  never  such  as  requires  bodily  exertion  ;  are  the  usual 
 habits,  in  which  a  native  of  the  Cape  is  educated.  An  apo/ilexy^ 
 ov  schirrous  /n^er  is  the  consequence.  The  former  is  seldom  im- 
 mediately fatal,  but  terminates  in  a  dropsy.  The  diseases  of  chil- 
 dren are  eruptions  and  sore  throats.  The  small-pox  and  measles 
 are  not  endemic.  Instances  of  longevity  are  rare  ;  few  living 
 more  than  60  years.  The  mortality  in  the  town  among  the  whites 
 is  2|  in  the  100,  and  among  the  slaves  3  in  the  100.  Bilious  fe- 
 vers carry  off  a  good  many  of  the  slaves  in  the  country. 
 
 Face  of  the  Country. '\  The  Cape  Peninsula  is  a  high  moun- 
 tainous tract,  between  Table  and  False  Bays,  36  miles  from  N.  to 
 
764      COLONY  OF  THE  CAPE  OF  GOOD  HOPE. 
 
 S.  and  8  from  E.  to  W.  connected  with  the  main  by  a  low  flat  isth- 
 mus, from  20  to  30  feet  above  high  water  mark.  This  isthmus 
 has  few  irregularities  of  surface,  except  such  as  are  made  by- 
 ridges  of  sand,  adventitiously  brought  thither  by  the  strong  S.  E. 
 winds  from  the  shores  of  False  Bay.  The  Table  Mountain,  flank- 
 ed by  the  Devil's  Hill  on  the  E.  and  the  Lion's  Head  on  the  W. 
 forms  the  northern  extremity  of  the  peninsula  It  is  composed, 
 properly  speaking,  of  one  m'juntain,  called  the  Table  Zawc/,  broken 
 indeed  into  masses  more  or  less  connected  by  several  gorges. 
 Some  of  these  masses  have  horizontal  summits  ;  others  peaked 
 and  conical  ;  some  consist  of  broken  fragments  6f  rock  ;  others 
 are  clothed  with  verdure.  The  sandy  isthmus  is  limited  on  tlie 
 E.  by  a  short  range  of  hills,  called  the  Tigerberg^  at  the  foot  of 
 which  are  several  fertile  farms,  gardens,  vineyards,  and  fruit  yards. 
 On  the  southern  coast  lies  an  irregular  belt  of  land,  from  20  to 
 60  miles  broad,  generally  level  or  agreeably  uneven,  indented  by 
 several  bays,  intersected  by  numerous  streamlets,  well  clothed 
 with  grass,  and  small  arboreous,  or  fruitescent  plants,  well-wood- 
 ed in  many  parts  with  forest  trees,  supplied  with  frequent  rains, 
 and  enjoying  »  mild  and  agreeable  temperature.  The  first  chain 
 of  mountains  bounds  it  on  the  north.  Beyond  this  chain  lies  a 
 valley,  about  as  wide  as  the  belt  on  the  shore,  of  a  very  varied 
 surface,  composed  in  some  parts  of  barren  hills  ;  in  otliers  o£  na- 
 ked arid  plains,  called,  by  the  Hottentots,  Karroos  ;  and  in  others 
 of  choice  patches  of  well-watered  and  fertile  grounds.  The  gen- 
 eral surface  of  this  second  belt,  has  a  considerable  elevation  above 
 the  first,  and  a  less  uniform  temperature  ;  it  is  far  less  valuable. 
 On  the  N.  it  is  limited  by  the  Zevarte  Berg.,  or  Black  mountains. 
 Beyond  this  chain  lies  the  Great  Karroo.,  or  arid  desert,  inhabited 
 by  no  human  creature.  This  is  about  300  miles  from  E.  to  W. 
 and  80  in  breadth,  and  is  far  more  elevated  than  the  second  belt. 
 It  IS  scarcely  ever  moistened  by  a  shower  of  I'ain,  exhibits  a  sur- 
 face of  clay,  thinly  sprinkled  over  with  sand,  out  of  which  a  few 
 shrivelled  and  parched  plants  here  and  there  m.eet  the  eye,  faintly- 
 extending  their  half  withered  fibres  along  the  ground,  and  struij- 
 gling,  as  it  were,  to  preserve  their  existence  against  the  exces- 
 sive heat  of  summer,  and  the  severe  frosts  of  winter.  The  JVieu- 
 •wveldt's  GebergtCf  limits  the  Grand  Kooroo  on  the  north. 
 
 On  the  western  coast,  the  country  likewise  ascends  from  the 
 shore,  in  successive  terraces.  Only  a  single  chain  of  mountain* 
 runs  due  N.  and  S.  This  commences  at  the  Hangli/i,  tiie  S.  E. 
 promontory  of  False  Bay  ;  and,  crossing  Berg  River',  continues  a 
 direct  course  to  Olifani's  River,  210  miles.  The  belt  between  it 
 and  the  sej  is  about  as  broad  as  that  on  the  southern  shore,  but 
 far  less  fertile.  The  other  belts  and  chains  run  from  S.  E.  to  N. 
 W.  are  successively  higher  than  tlie  first,  and  arc  merely  con- 
 tinuations of  those  heretofore  mentioned,  in  a  N.  W.  direction. 
 The  most  elevated  chain,  the  Roggei^cld,  falls  in  witn  the  A'/Vm- 
 loveldt,  and  is  indeed  the  same.  North  of  01if;uit's  River,  the 
 Continuation  of  the  Zevarte  Bcrgy  here  called  Karrc  Berg,  is  the 
 «hain  nearest  to  the  shore.     Between  this  and  the  Roggeveld  lies 
 
COLONY  OF  THE  CAPE  OF  GOOD  HOPE.       765 
 
 the  continuation  of  the  Great  KaiToo.  The  whole  tract  of  coun- 
 try to  the  N.  of  the  Cape,  is  much  moi*e  sandy,  barren,  and  thinly- 
 inhabited,  than  to  the  E.  in  which  direction  it  increases  in  beauty 
 and  fertility  with  the  distance. 
 
 JgricuCtiire.^  Barrow  calculates  that  at  least  half  of  the  land 
 in  the  colony  may  be  considered  as  an  unprofitable  waste,  unfit  for 
 any  sort  of  culture,  or  even  to  be  employed  as  pasture  for  cattle. 
 The  lands  of  this  description  are  either  kooroos,  level,  arid  plains, 
 producing  a  few  straggling  tufts  of  acrid  saline,  and  succulent 
 plants  ;  or  chains  of  mountains  either  totally  naked,  or  clothed  in 
 parts  with  sour  grasses  only,  or  such  plants  as  are  noxious  to  an- 
 imal life.  In  Europe  the  breath  of  horned  cattle  is  proverbially 
 sweet  ;  in  this  colony,  owing  to  the  multitude  of  these  acrid 
 plants,  it  is  altogether  nauseous. 
 
 The  lands  are  held  by  the  colonists  by  different  tenures.  Those 
 in  fee  simple  are  chiefly  in  and  near  the  Cape  District,  and  are 
 the  choicest  patches  of  land,  consisting  of  120  acres  each.  The 
 quit  rents  are  waste  grounds,  contiguous  to  other  estates  leased  by 
 government  for  15  years,  at  a  shilling  per  acre.  Of  these  there 
 are  35.  The  gratuity  lands  are  a  sort  of  customary  copy-holds, 
 107  in  number,  not  of  any  determinate  size,  and  paying  a  ront  of 
 24  rix-dollars  a  year.  The  loan-lands  were  farms  granted  to  the 
 first  settlers,  and  are  each  a  square  of  S  miles  on  a  side,  (9  square 
 miles,  or  3760  acres)  paying  a  rent  of  24  dollars  per  farm.  In 
 1798  the  number  ofthese  farms  was  1832,  containing  16,488  square 
 miles,  or  10,552,320  acres,  renting  at  43,978  rix-dollars. 
 
 Wine  is  chiefly  cultivated  in  an  extensive  valley  on  Berg 
 Kiver,  called  Drakenstein  Valley^  commencing  about  60  miles  E. 
 ^of  the  Cape.  This  valley  is  a  remarkably  fertile  tract  of  land,  and 
 is  owned  wholly  in  fee  simple.  About  5000  vine-stocks  are  plant- 
 ed on  an  acre,  and  1000  of  these  will  yield  a  leaguer^  or  pipe  of 
 154  gallons.  The  variety  of  wines  is  very  great.  About  6000 
 league7-s  are  made  annually  in  this  valley.  Great  quantities  of 
 choice  fruits  are  also  raised  here  ;  and  every  month  in  the  year, 
 at  Cape  Town,  the  table  may  be  supplied,  at  a  very  low  rate, 
 with  10  or  12  different  sorts  of  fruit,  all  excellent.  The  cele- 
 brated Constantia  wine  is  raised  on  two  farms,  close  under  the 
 mountains,  about  midway  between  False  and  Table  Bays.  One 
 of  the  farms  produces  the  iv/iite,  and  the  other  the  red  Con- 
 stantia. From  150  to  200  leaguers  are  annually  made  of  both. 
 The  following  table  shows  the  quantity  and  value  of  the  genuine 
 Constantia,  exported  in  four  years. 
 
 Tears. 
 
 Leaguers. 
 
 Rix-Dollais. 
 
 1799, 
 
 157 
 
 11,752 
 
 1800, 
 
 188 
 
 14,070 
 
 1801, 
 
 173 
 
 13,007 
 
 1802, 
 
 210 
 
 15,745 
 
 The  other  Cape  wines  are  often  fraudulently  sold  for  Constantia. 
 The  colonists  are  generally  very  bad  agriculturalists.     They 
 
766   COLONY  OF  THE  CAPE  OF  GOOD  HOPE. 
 
 rarely  manure,  except  for  barley  ;  and  the  plows  they  use  are 
 Dutch  instruments.  The  common  returns  are  15  for  1  ;  in  the 
 good  lands,  from  20  to  30.  The  grain  is  trodden  out  by  cattle. 
 Cotton  succeeds  well  in  the  light  sandy  soils.  The  tea  plant  has 
 long  been  in  the  colony,  but  is  totally  neglected.  The  coffee 
 and  sugar  cane  may  both  be  profitably  cultivated.  Two  species 
 of  indigo  grow  wild.  Flax  yields  two  crops  a  year.  Hemfi  is 
 raised  in  lieu  of  tobacco.  The  cactus,  on  which  the  cochineal 
 insect  feeds,  grows  wild.  All  the  distant  farms  are  devoted  td 
 grazing,  and  immense  numbers  of  cattle  are  annually  raised  for 
 txpoi'tation,  and  driven  from  100  to  600  miles  to  Cape  Town. 
 
 Rivers.]  All  the  large  rivers  of  the  colony  rise  from  the 
 JVieuwveldt  range,  and  from  the  Roggeveld,  its  continuation.  They 
 all  have  bars  of  sand  at  their  mouths.  Great  Fish  River  empties 
 in  lat.  38  ^b,  S.  and  Ion.  27  37,  E.  580  miles  E.  of  the  Cape.  It  is 
 here  very  deep,  and  from  300  to  400  yards  broad.  It  rises  in  the 
 N.  E.  part  of  the  colony,  issuing  from  that  part  of  the  Nieuwveldt, 
 called  the  Zivereberg  ;  on  the  other  side  of  which  the  head  waters 
 of  Orange  river  are  turned  off  to  the  western  coast.  It  runs  in  a 
 S.  and  S.  S.  E.  course  about  300  miles. 
 
 Sundatj  River  rises  in  that  part  of  the  same  chain,  called  Com- 
 passberg  ;  from  the  opposite  side  of  which  flows  Sea-Cow  River, 
 a  large  branch  of  the  Orange.  It  is  at  least  250  miles  long  ;  and, 
 running  S.  and  S.  S.  E.  falls  into  Ztvartkofi's  Bay. 
 
 Great  River  runs  about  the  same  distance,  first  S.  and  then  S, 
 E.  falling  into  Camtoos  Bay.     It  crosses  the  Great  Karroo. 
 
 Gauritz  River  empties  a  little  W.  of  Muscle  Bay.  It  may 
 properly  be  called  the  Sink  of  the  Colony.  All  the  waters  that 
 originate  within  150  miles  to  the  E.  or  W.  upon  the  Great  Kar- 
 roo, and  along  the  Nieuwveldt,  meet  in  one  immense  chasm  of 
 the  chain  of  mountains  nearest  the  sea,  and  are  discharged  through 
 the  channel  of  the  Gauritz.  In  the  dry  season,  it  is  easily  ford- 
 ed ;  in  the  rainy  seasons,  it  has  been  known  to  rise  to  the  height 
 of  nearly  100  feet,  leaving  ruin  and  desolation  behind  it.  The 
 Ghamka,  or  Lion's  River,  is  its  principal  source  ;  which  rises  on 
 the  opposite  side  of  the  same  mountain,  that  turns  off  Sack  River^ 
 to  the  northward,  and  running  about  180  miles  S.  and  S.  W.  re- 
 ceives Olifant's  River  from  the  E.  a  large  stream,  issuing  from 
 the  Zwartberg,  near  Great  River,  and  flowing  due  W.  120  miles. 
 About  20  or  30  miles  below,  it  is  joined  by  Bnjffaloe  River  from 
 the  N.  W. 
 
 Breede,  or  Broad  River,  rises  in  the  Zwarteberg,  and  runs  S.  E. 
 to  St.  Catherine's  Bay,  about  150  miles. 
 
 Berg  River  I'ises  in  the  opposite  side  of  the  same  mountains^ 
 and  runs  N.  W.  to  St  Helena  Bay,  about  the  same  distance. 
 
 Olifarit's,  or  Elephant'' s  River,  an  Atlantic  stream,  heads  near 
 the  sources  of  the  Buffaloe,  and  runs  N.  W.  and  W.  about  300 
 miles,  emptying  in  lat.  31  30,  S.     It  has  several  large  branches. 
 
 The  Koussie  is  the  N.  W.  limit  of  the  colony. 
 
 Bayn.']     St.  Helena  Bay  resembles  Table  Bay  in  its  position  a"nH 
 
COLONY  OF  THE  CAPE  OF  GOOD  HOPE.       767 
 
 jRgure,  is  a  little  more  open  and  exposed  to  the  N.  and  N.  W. 
 winds,  but  has  much  clearer  anchorage. 
 
 Saldanha  Bay,  as  a  spacious,  secure,  and  commodious  sheet  of 
 inland  sea-water,  for  the  reception  of  shipping,  can  scarcely  per- 
 haps be  equalled.  It  extends  in  length  about  15  miles  in  the  direc- 
 tion of  the  coast,  which  is  here  about  N.  by  E.  and  S.  by  W.  The 
 entrance  is  near  the  N.  end,  through  a  ridge  of  granite  hills,  mod- 
 erately high.  In  the  entrance  are  three  rocky  islands,  two  of 
 which,  named  Jetten  and  Malagas^  are  partly  without ;  and  the 
 third  a  flat,  naked  rock,  called  Marcus,  is  directly  in  the  mouth 
 of  the  passage,  a  little  rnore  than  a  mile  from  the  southern  shore, 
 and  three  fourths  of  a  mile  from  the  northern.  These  and  the 
 island  once  fortified  would  render  the  bay  absolutely  inaccessible 
 to  an  enemy's  fleet.  The  north  part  of  the  bay,  called  Hootjes 
 Bay,  is  the  best  anchoring  ground,  and  is  only  15  miles  across  to 
 Helena  Bay.  The  want  of  fresh  water  alone  prevented  the  estab- 
 lishment of  the  town  on  Saldanha  Bay. 
 
 Table  Bay  has  heretofore  been  described. 
 
 False  Bay  is  a  large  body  of  water  in  the  shape  of  a  parallelo- 
 gram, E.  of  the  Cape  Peninsula,  opening  into  the  Southern  Ocean, 
 between  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  on  the  W.  and  Hanglip  Point  on 
 the  E.  It  sets  up  northward  about  30  miles,  and  is  of  about  the 
 same  breadth.  On  its  west  shore  are  numerous  small  bays  or  in- 
 dentations. 
 
 Muscle  Bay,\\\.Q  all  those  on  the  southern  coast,  is  open  to  the  S. 
 E.  but  has  a  safe  and  good  anchorage  in  most  winds.  The  westera 
 point,  Cape  St.  Blaize,  is  in  lat.  34  10  S.  and  Ion.  22  18  E.  240 
 miles  from  the  cape.  A  magazine  for  the  reception  of  grain  is  e- 
 rected  near  the  landing  place.  It  is  a  strong  stone  building,  150 
 feet  long,  and  will  conveniently  hold  10,000  bushels.  The  bay  a- 
 bounds  with  excellent  fish. 
 
 Plettenberg's  Bay  is  320  miles  from  the  cape.  The  west  point, 
 called  Rebenberg's  Point,  is  in  lat.  34  6  S.  and  Ion.  23  48  E.  The 
 eastern  shore  rounds  off"  into  the  general  tending  of  the  coast.  At 
 the  landing  place  are  a  new  and  handsome  dwelling  house  ;  a 
 magazine  for  the  reception  of  timber,  200  feet  long  ;  and  a  strong 
 commodious  building  for  the  reception  of  troops. 
 
 Camtoos  Bay  is  merely  a  wide  open  indentation  of  the  coast. 
 
 Zwartkop's,  or  .dlgoa  Bay,  is  open  to  all  winds  from  N.  E.  toS. 
 E.  It  has  a  good  bottom,  and  five  fathoms  depth,  at  the  distance 
 of  a  mile.  The  landing  place  is  in  lat.  53  56  S.  and  Ion.  26  53  E. 
 500  miles  from  the  cape.  The  mouth  is  20  miles  broad.  Fresh 
 water  is  abundant. 
 
 Moimtains.']  The  north  front  of  the  Table  Mountain  directly 
 facing  the  town,  has  a  horizontal  ridge  two  miles  in  length.  The 
 bold  face,  that  rises  almost  at  right  angles  to  meet  this  ridge,  is 
 supported,  as  it  were,  by  a  number  of  projecting  buttresses  which 
 rise  out  of  the  plain,  and  fall  in  with  the  front,  a  little  higher  than 
 midway  from  the  base.  The  height  of  the  ridge  is  3,582  feet. 
 The  E.  side  is  still  bolder,  and  has  one  point  considerably  higher. 
 The  W.  side  alotig  the  shore  is  rent  into  deep  chasms,  and  is  worn 
 
768  WESTERN  COAST 
 
 away  into  a  number  of  pointed  masses.  In  advancing  to  the 
 southward  about  four  miles,  the  mountain  descends  by  a  succes- 
 sion of  terraces  to  the  level  of  the  chain  that  extends  to  the  cape. 
 Devil's  Hill  is  merely  a  wing  of  the  Table  Mountain,  on  the  E. 
 3,315  feet  high  ;  as  is  Lion's  Head  another  on  the  W.  2,160  feet 
 high. 
 
 Barrow  does  not  mention  the  name  of  the  chain  nearest  the 
 southern  coast.  Its  elevation  is  no  where  great,  and  it  is  broken 
 by  all  the  considerable  I'ivers.  The  Zivartberg  is  much  more  lof- 
 ty and  rugged,  and  consists  in  many  instances  of  double,  and  some- 
 times of  treble  ranges.  He  says  that  the  height  of  the  JVieuivvcldt 
 is  at  least  10,000  feet.  Its  summits  are  usually  covered  with  snow 
 six  months  in  the  year. 
 
 WESTERN  COAST  AND  INTERIOR  OF 
 AFRICA. 
 
 SCARCELY  any  thing  is  knoAvn  of  the  coast  betAVcen 
 the  mouth  of  the  Koussie  in  lat.  29  55  S.  the  northern  limit  of  the 
 colony  of  the  Cape  ;  and  Cape  Negro  in  lat.  16  15.  Very  few  of 
 the  Namaquas  are  found  N.  of  the  Koussie.  Barrow  says,  that 
 the  whole  coast  between  the  Koussie  and  the  Orange,  in  lat.  28  S. 
 is  a  mere  desert,  perhaps  a  continuation  of  the  Great  Karroo.  Or- 
 ange river  rises  in  the  country  of  the  Bosjesmen,  in  the  N.  E.  cor- 
 ner of  the  Cape  colony,  in  about  lat.  31  S.  and  ion.  27  E.  and  emp- 
 ties in  lat.  28  S.  and  Ion.  16  E.  ihe  distance  of  these  two  points, 
 in  a  direct  line,  is  about  650  miles.  Its  whole  length  is  at  least 
 1000.  Barrow  saw  it  70  or  80  miles  from  its  source.  It  was  from 
 300  to  500  yards  broad,  and  the  volume  of  water  was  immense. 
 Like  the  Nile,  it  has  its  inundations  and  its  cataracts. 
 
 The  whole  coast,  from  Cape  Negro,  in  lat.  16  15  S.  to  the  head 
 of  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  is  called  the' Coast  of  Congo  ;  because  it  is 
 said  to  have  been  all  formerly  subject  to  the  king  of  Congo. 
 
 Benguela.  This  is  a  kingdom  of  considerable  extent,  and  is 
 said  to  reach  from  Cape  Negro  to  the  mouth  of  the  Coanza,  in  lat. 
 9  54  S.  about  150  leagues.  It  was  formerly  powerful  ;  but  the 
 Jagas^  or  Giagas,  who  border  it  on  the  E.  have  greatly  reduced  its 
 strength.  St.  PhUiJi  de  Benguela  is  a  town,  in  lat.  12  8  S.  on  the 
 S.  side  of  a  large  bay,  called  Bahia  das  Faccas,  in  which  the  Por- 
 tuguese have  a  fort  and  a  settlement.  Old  Benguela  is  a  town  on 
 a  high  mountain,  near  the  coast,  in  lat.  1 1  5  S.  carrying  on  a  con- 
 siderable trade  in  provisions  and  ivory  ;  for  which  it  receives 
 muskets  and  other  fire  arms.  The  country  is  chiefly  mountam- 
 ous,  and  swarms  with  wild  beasts.  It  is  said  to  be  extremely  un- 
 wholesome near  the  coast. 
 
AND  INTERIOR  OF  AFRICA.  769 
 
 Angola.  The  extent  of  this  country,  on  the  coast,  is  not  very 
 ^reat,  as  it  reaches  only  to  the  mouth  of  the  river  Dando,  in  lat.  8  S. 
 Benguela,  however,  is  so  far  dependent  on  it,  that  it  is  often  spok- 
 en of  as  a  part  of  Angola.  The  Portuguese  have  several  forts  on 
 the  coast. 
 
 Congo.  The  northern  boundary  of  Congo  is  said  to  be  the 
 Zair,  or  River  of  Congo,  which  divides  it  from  Loango,  in  lat-  6  30 
 S.  It  reaches  very  far  into  the  interior,  and  has  Fungono  on  the 
 N.  E.  and  Matamba  on  the  S.  E.  When  the  Portuguese  first  dis- 
 covered this  country,  in  1484,  it  was  covered  with  large  towns  tind 
 villages,  and  the  capital  contained  50,000  inhabitants.  The  army 
 of  the  king  was  numerous  and  powerful.  He  is  despotic,  is  elect- 
 ed by  the  nobles  out  of  the  seed  royal^and  is  the  proprietor  of  all 
 the  lands  in  his  dominions.  He  has  a  brilliant  court,  a  strong 
 body-guard,  and  a  numerous  haram.  Great  numbers  of  petty 
 princes  are  tributaries.  Treason  and  murder  are  punished  with 
 decollation,  and  surcery  with  burying  alive.  Hanging,  the  bastinado, 
 fines  and  imprisonment,  are  the  punishments  for  lesser  offences. 
 The  king  was  early  converted  by  the  Portuguese  to  the  Catholic 
 faith,  and  a  profession  of  that  faith  is  said  now  to  be  an  indispen- 
 sable requisite  for  the  succession  to  the  throne.  Numbers  of  the 
 Congoese  also  are  Catholics  ;  but  a  great  majority  are  Pagans. 
 These  worship  various  animals.  The  natives  are  blacks,  with 
 curled  hair,  and  deep  black  eyes.  Thoy  have  not  the  flat  noses 
 and  thick  lips  of  the  Guinea  negroes  ;  and  are  of  a  middle  stature- 
 They  are  described  as  indolent,  licentious,  cruel,  faithless,  and 
 without  natural  affection.  Banza,  or  St.  Salvador,  their  capital, 
 is  situated  40  leagues  up  the  Zair,  on  a  rocky  eminence,  and  is 
 said  to  contain  a  number  of  churches,  and  about  40,000  inhabi- 
 tants, of  whom  about  4000  arc  Portuguese,  who  reside  in  a  quar- 
 ter by  themselves.  The  inhabitants  receive  the  products  of  Bra- 
 zil, and  the  manufactures  of  Europe,  in  return  for  slaves,  of  whom 
 about  16,000  are  annually  procured  for  the  Portuguese.  The 
 rainy  season  lasts  from  October  to  March.  The  first  harvest  is 
 sown  about  the  last  of  January,  and  reaped  in  April ;  the  second 
 is  sown  in  September,  and  I'eaped  in  December.  The  soil  is 
 generally  excellent,  and  the  surface  uneven.  Millet,  maize,  the 
 sugar-cane,  and  various  excellent  fruits,  particularly  scvei-al  vari- 
 eties of  the  palm  are  cultivated.  The  Zair  is  a  very  long  and  large 
 river,  probably  not  inferior  in  size  to  Orange  river.  Copper  and 
 iron  are  procured  from  the  mines. 
 
 Loango.  We  know  not  how  far  this  country  reaches  to  the  N. 
 Some  writers  extend  it  to  Benin  ;  but  Biafra  is  certainly  between. 
 Perhaps  Cape  Lopez  de  Gonsalvo  may  be  taken  as  its  northern 
 limit.  It  was  anciently  dependent  on  Congo  ;  but  the  7}iani,  or 
 petty  princes,  revolted,  and  one  of  them  at  length  subdued  the 
 others.  The  king  is  powerful,  and  is  addressed  by  his  subjects 
 by  the  title  of  Sambo  Pongo,  the  name  of  their  deity.  The 
 country  is  populous.  The  inhabitants  are  Pagans,  but  use 
 circumcision.  Their  dress  is  formed  of  the  leaves  of  the 
 palm,  and    consists  of  a  garment  fastened    at  the   girdle,   and 
 
 VOL.   ir.  97 
 
770  WESTERN  COAST 
 
 depending  to  the  ancles.  They  wear  numerous  beads  roTind 
 the  neck.  Polygamy  is  common.  They  are  licentious  to  an 
 extreme.  Loango,  the  capital,  is  in  latitude  4  40  S.  on  a 
 considerable  river,  about  2  leagues  from  the  sea.  The  streets  are 
 wide  and  clean,  and  are  planted  with  palm-trees.  The  palace 
 consists  of  an  immense  number  of  buildings,  surrounded  by  a 
 palisade,  and  having  a  large  open  square  in  front.  The  haram  is 
 numerous.  The  houses  are  of  one  story,  and  are  fenced  round 
 with  hedges.  The  town  is  large  and  populous.  The  exports  ar© 
 principally  slaves  and  copper  ;  ivory,  tin,  and  iron,  are  also  arti- 
 cles of  commerce.  The  climate  is  remarkably  hot.  The  soil  is 
 fertile,  but  the  agriculture  is  miserable. 
 
 BiAFRA  This  kingdom  is  said  to  be  powerful  and  populous. 
 It  bounds  N.  W.  on  Benin,  reaching  to  the  head  of  the  gulf  of 
 Guinea.  It  has  a  capital  of  the  same  name,  and  the  bay  on  its 
 coast  is  called  the  Bite  of  Biafra.     The  natives  are  idolaters. 
 
 Guinea.  The  whole  coast,  from  the  mouth  of  the  Del  Rey^ 
 in  Ion.  8  30  E.  to  that  of  the  Mesuradain  11°  W.  about  500  leagues, 
 is  called  the  Coast  of  Guinea  ;  and  the  country  of  Guinea,  is 
 considered  as  extending  northward  to  the  Mountains  of  the  Moon  ; 
 an  immense  chain,  heretofore  described,  stretching  from  E.  to 
 W.  parallel  with  the  coast,  at  the  distance  of  about  6  degrees 
 of  latitude.  On  the  coast  it  is  divided  into  Benifi,  on  the  E.  reach- 
 ing to  the  River  Volta,  220  leagues  ;  Guinea  Proper,  reaching 
 thence  to  Cape  Palmas  180  ;  and  Malaqiieta^  or  the  Grain  Coast? 
 between  Cape  Palmas,  and  the  Mesurada. 
 
 Benin.  The  country  so  named,  is  divided  into  Benin  Proper, 
 in  the  E.  Whidah  in  the  middle,  and  Ardra  in  the  W.  Each  of 
 these  has  its  own  monarch.  The  king  of  Benin  Proper  has  a 
 large  revenue,  and  can  bring  100,000  men  into  the  field.  Their 
 arms  are  swords,  noinards,  javelins,  bows,  and  poisoned  arrows. 
 The  inhabitants  acknowledge  a  Supreme  Being  ;  but  they  chiefly 
 worship  an  evil  spirit,  who  is  considered  as  the  author  of  all  their 
 calamities.  Polygamy  is  common.  They  have  no  idea  of  per- 
 sonaUpurity.  The  dress  of  the  better  sort  is  of  fine  calico,  made  in- 
 to a  species  of  drawers,  covered  with  a  sort  of  calico  apron.  They 
 cultivate  the  ground,  and  carry  on  various  manufactures.  Almost 
 all  the  labor  devolves  on  the  women.  Benin,  the  capital,  is  in  lat. 
 6  38  N.  and  Ion.  4  47  E.  on  the  river  Benin,  or  Formosa,  69  miles 
 from  Agatten,  at  its  mouth.  It  is  said  to  be  4  miles  in  circum- 
 ference, and  to  contain  30  long,  broad,  and  straight  streets,  of  io>? 
 houses.  The  streets  are  adorned  with  a  variety  of  shops,  filled 
 with  European  wares.  The  palace  is  very  extensive.  None  but 
 natives  are  permitted  to  live  here.  The  entrance  to  the  city  is 
 through  a  wooden  gate,  where  a  guard  is  stationed  to  collect  the. 
 customs  on  merchandize. 
 
 This  country  has  been  one  of  the  principal  marts  for  slaves. 
 All  those  purchased  on  this  coast,  except  a  tribe  known  by  the 
 name  of  "  Tl/ocof*,"  are  called  in  the  West  Indies,  "  Eboes,"  prob- 
 ably from  Archo,  a  town  on  the  river  Benin.  In  general  they  ap- 
 pear to  be  the  lowest,  and  most  wretched  of  the  African  nations 
 
AND  INTERIOR  OF  AFRICA.  771 
 
 In  complexion  they  are  much  yellower  than  those  from  Guinea 
 Proper  ;  but  it  is  a  sickly  hue,  and  their  eyes  appear  as  if  suffused 
 with  bile.  The  features  of  most  of  them  resemble  those  of  the 
 baboon  ;  particularly  in  the  great  elongation  of  the  lower  jaw.  As 
 slaves  in  the  West  Indies,  they  are  constitutionally  timid  and 
 despondent  ;  often  seeking  relief  from  their  melancholy  in  volun- 
 tary death.  The  women  labor  better  than  the  men.  In  their  own 
 country,  they  ^re  nevertheless  cannibals.  There  they  worship 
 the  guana,  a  species  of  lizard,  and  offer  to  it  human  sacrifices. 
 They  also  practise  circumcision.* 
 
 The  coast  of  Benin  is  generally  low  and  marshy,  and  the  cli- 
 mate unhealthy.  The  soil  is  fertile,  and  produces  a  great  variety 
 of  fruits,  also  millet,  maize,  and  pepper.  The  River  Benin  is  a 
 considerable  stream,  emptying  by  a  number  of  mouths.  The  Ca- 
 labar is  a  large  river  near  the  eastern  frontier. 
 
 Whidah  is  a  much  smaller  kingdom  than  the  preceding  ;  but 
 is  remarkably  fertile  and  populous.  It  is  described  as  being  a 
 continued  village.  It  is  divided  into  a  number  of  lordships,  all 
 subject  to  one  monarch,  who  resides  at  Sabi,  a  town  about  8  miles 
 from  the  sea.  The  inhabitants  know  many  of  the  arts  of  civilized 
 life.  They  are  enterprising  and  industrious.  The  commerce  of 
 the  country  is  extensive,  and  the  manufactures  are  important. 
 Slaves  are  the  chief  exports. 
 
 These  slaves  in  the  West  Indies  are  called  Pa/iaws,  and  are  the 
 most  docile,  submissive,  and  well-disposed  of  any  that  are  im- 
 ported from  Africa,  l  hey  are  'ngenious  and  industrious  ;  addict- 
 ed at  the  same  time  to  thieving  and  gambling;  and  extremely- 
 apprehensive  of  death.     Many  of  thera  are  circumcised.f 
 
 The  natives  are  generally  tall,  well  made,  straight  and  robust  ; 
 of  a  deep  black,  but  less  glossy  than  those  of  Guinea  Proper. 
 Their  money,  called  Besjis,  consists  of  shells  strung  on  a  cord. 
 Tne  country  is  well  cultivated,  and  is  described  as  a  continued 
 g  arden . 
 
 Ardra  lies  between  Whidah  and  the  Volta,  and  extends  far 
 into  the  interior.  Its  government  is  despotic,  and  the  crown  he- 
 reditary. The  court  is  numerous  and  splendid.  The  chief  priest 
 is  prime  minister.  The  soil  is  fertile,  producing  millet,  maize, 
 yams,  potatoes,  lemons,  oranges,  cocoa  nuts,  and  the  palm.  Salt 
 is  made  near  the  sea.  The  manners  of  the  people  resemble  those 
 of  Whidah.     The  country  is  populous. 
 
 GuLjJEA  Proper.  This  country  is  divided  into  the  Gold  Coasty 
 on  the  E.  and  the  Ivory  Coast,  on  the  W.  The  latter  is  the  most 
 extensive,  reaching  eastward  nearly  to  Cape  Three  Points.  Both 
 are  divided  into  numerous  petty  principalities,  independent  of 
 each  other,  and  engaged  in  almost  constant  wars.  This  renders 
 them  intrepid  and  ferocious.  The  prisoners  are  always  sold  as 
 slaves.  The  climate  is  healthy  to  the  natives,  but  prejudicial  to 
 Europeans.  Slaves,  ivory,  and  gold,  are  exported  to  a  great  ex- 
 tent There  are  several  establishments  of  the  English  on  the 
 coast.  All  the  slaves  from  this  coast  are,  in  the  West  Indies, 
 *  Edwards  West  Iodic,  ii.  280— ^93.  t  F-'l^ards, 
 
yril  WESTERN  COAST 
 
 called  Koromantyns.  They  are  distinguished  from  all  the  oLhci 
 negroes  by  firmness,  both  of  body  and  mind,  by  activity,  courage, 
 and  an  elevation  of  soul,  which  prompts  them  to  enterprises  ol 
 difficulty  and  danger,  and  enables  them  to  meet  tortures  and  death 
 with  fortitude  or  indifference.  They  sometimes  labor  Avith  great 
 promptitude  and  alacrity,  and  have  constitutions  well  adapted  for 
 it.  These  are  usually  such  as  hare  been  slaves  in  their  own 
 country,  having  been  sold  for  their  debts,  or  their  crimes.  The 
 great  body  of  them  are  prisoners  of  war,  always  ready  by  the 
 most  desperate  measures  to  regain  their  freedom.  Most  of  the 
 insurrections  in  the  islands  are  owing  to  them.  Edwards*  gives 
 an  account  of  a  formidable  insurrection  in  Jamaica,  in  1760,  occa- 
 sioned by  100  newly  imported  Koromantyns,  all  on  one  planta- 
 tion. After  it  was  quelled,  three  of  them  were  made  examples  of. 
 One  was  burnt  alive,  and  two  were  gibbetted.  "  The  wretch  that 
 was  burnt,  was  made  to  sit  on  the  ground,  and  his  body  being 
 chained  to  an  iron  stake,  the  fire  was  applied  to  his  feet.  He  ut- 
 tered not  a  groan  ;  and  saw  his  legs  reduced  to  ashes  with  the 
 utmost  firmness  and  composure  :  after  which,  one  of  his  arms  by 
 some  means  getting  loose,  he  snatched  a  brand  from  the  fire  that 
 was  consuming  him,  and  flung  it  in  the  face  of  the  executioner. 
 The  two  that  were  jibbetted  were  indulged,  at  their  own  request, 
 with  a  hearty  meal  immediately  before  they  were  suspended. 
 From  that  time  till  they  expired,  tliey  never  uttered  the  least 
 complaint,  except  of  the  cold  in  the  night,  but  diverted  themselves 
 all  day  long  in  discourse  with  their  countrym.en.  One  of  them 
 fizYcn^/z/ expired  on  the  morning  of  tlie  8th  day,  and  the  other  on 
 that  of  the  9ih."  Even  the  children  of  the  Koromantyns  discover 
 the  same  evident  superiority,  both  in  hardiness  of  frame,  and  vig- 
 or of  mind.  "  A  gentleman  of  my  acquaintance,"  says  Edwards, 
 "  having  bought  10  Koromantyn^  and  10  Eboe  boys,  caused  them, 
 to  be  collected  iu  my  presence,  to  be  marked  on  the  breast. 
 This  operation  is  performed  by  heating  a  small  silver  brand.,  com-- 
 posed  of  one  or  two  letters,  in  the  flame  of  spirits  of  wine,  and 
 applying  it  to  the  skin,  v/hich  is  previously  anointed  with  sweet 
 oil.  When  the  first  boy,  who  happened  to  be  one  of  the  Eboesy 
 and  the  stouttst  of  the  whole,  was  led  forward  to  receive  the 
 iTtiark,  he  screamed  dreadfully  ;  while  his  companions  of  the 
 same  nation  manifested  strong  emotions  of  terror.  The  gentle- 
 man stopped  his  hand  ;  but  the  Koromantyn  boys,  laughing 
 aloud,  immediately  came  forward  of  their  own  accord,  ijftercd 
 their  bosoms  undauntedly  to  the  brand,  and  receiving  its  impres- 
 sion without  flinching  in  the  least,  snapt  their  fingers  in  exulta- 
 tion over  the  poor  Eboes"  One  cannot  surely  but  lament  that  a 
 people  thus  naturally  emulous  and  intrepid  should  be  sunk  into 
 so  deplorable  a  state  of  barbarity  and  superstition  ;  and  that  their 
 minds  should  ever  be  broken  by  the  yoke  ot  slavery. 
 
 In  their  own  country  masters  have  the  power  of  life  and  death 
 Over  their  slaves,  and  parents  over  their  children.     Prisoners  lak- 
 
 *  11,  2G8-2-3 
 
AND  INTERIOR  OF  AFRICA.  vrs 
 
 en  in  war  are  either  sold  or  butchered,  with  circumstances  of 
 outrageous  barbarity.  When  a  great  man  dies,  several  of  his 
 wives,  and  great  numbers  of  his  slaves,  are  sacrificed  at  his  fu- 
 neral. They  believe  in  a  God  of  the  Heavens,  the  Creator  of  all 
 things,  called  Accomfiong^  to  whom  they  offer  only  praise  and 
 thanksgiving.  Assarci  is  the  god  of  the  earth  ;  to  him  they  offer 
 the  first  fruits,  and  pour  out  libations.  Ijiboa  is  the  god  of  the 
 sea  :  if  the  arrival  of  ships  trading  on  the  coast  is  delayed,  they 
 sacrifice  a  hog  to  deprecate  his  wrath.  Obboney  is  the  author  of 
 all  evil  ;  to  him  they  sacrifice  prisoners,  or  slaves.  Besides 
 these  every  family  has  a  tutelar  saint,  who  is  some  ancestor  :  on 
 the  anniversary  of  whose  burial  all  his  descendants  assemble 
 round  his  grave,  and  sacrifice  a  cock  or  a  goat. 
 
 Grain  Coast,  or  Malagueta.  This  country,  100  leagues  in 
 extent,  from  Cape  Falmas  to  the  Messurada,  produces  a  great 
 abundance  of  Guinea  pepper,  called  Malagueta  by  the  Portuguese, 
 and  often  Grains  of  Paradise  by  the  English.  Hence  its  names. 
 It  is  said  to  be  subject  to  a  single  monarch,  whose  power  is  des- 
 potic, and  vho  assumes  great  pomp  and  magnificence.  The 
 people  are  Pagans,  worshipping  the  moon,  and  believing  in  sorce- 
 ry. Great  numbers  of  them  are  mulattocs.  These  carry  on  the 
 commerce  of  the  country,  and  are  the  reliques  of  the  old  Portu- 
 guese traders  ;  that  nation  having  long  since  been  banished  from, 
 the  coast.  The  natives  freely  of^'er  their  wives  and  daughters  to 
 Europeans.  They  are  strongly  addicted  to  stealing.  But  fev/ 
 slaves  are  procured  here.  The  English  engross  the  whole  com- 
 merce.    Guinea  pepper  is  the  chief  export. 
 
 The  remainder  of  the  coast,  between  the  Mesurada  and  Cape 
 Bojador,  the  S.  W.  extremity  of  Morocco,  may  be  considered  un- 
 der two  grand  divisions,  Soudan  on  the  S.  and  Sahara  on  the  N. 
 Soudan,  as  we  are  informed  by  Jackson,  is  the  name  given  by 
 the  Moors  to  the  immense  tract  lying  between  the  Jibbel  Kmiira, 
 or  Mountains  of  the  Moon,*  on  the  S.  and  the  Desert  on  the  N. 
 
 Soudan.  This  region  may  be  considered  as  reaching  from  N. 
 to  S.  on  the  coast  from  the  Mesurada,  to  several  degrees  N.  of 
 the  Senegal,  the  exact  southern  limit  of  the  Desert,  on  the  coast, 
 not  being  known.  Both  the  Desert  and  the  chain  of  Jibbel  Kum- 
 ra  reach  eastward  across  the  continent.  It  is  probable  that  Sou^ 
 dan  will  be  found  to  do  the  same.  Park  explored  the  western 
 part  of  this  extensive  tract,  descending  the  Niger,  as  far  as  Sillas^ 
 a  village  of  Bambarra,  in  about  lat.  15,  N.  and  1  SO,  W.  He 
 found  it  throughout  fertile,  well  watered,  thickly  peopled,  and  di- 
 vided into  numerous  kingdoms.     Jackson,  from  information  ob- 
 
 *  Although  the  country  hetween  the  Mesurada  and  Rio  Grande  seems  Jianllr 
 v.ithiu  the  limits  of  Soudan  here  set  ;  yet,  as  the  Jibbel  Kumra  are  believed  not  I'o 
 extend  to  the  coast,  (their  western  ternunation  not  being  known)  and  as  the  iniiabilkiits 
 in  this  tract  difter  so  m:iterially  ii-oni  those  of  Guinea,  and  resemble  in  raanv  resi)et'.s 
 those  of  Soudan,  wo  liave  concb;d'-'d  to  corapi-i??  a  'ni  our  account  of  the  lallei-. 
 
m  WESTERN  COAST 
 
 tained  of  the  Moorish  traders  to  Tombuctoo,  tells  us  that  the 
 Niger  ruiis  eastward  to  the  Nile,  and  that  the  country  through 
 ■which  it  flows,  continues  of  the  same  description.  Horneman 
 communicates  the  same  information.  The  petty  kingdoms  lying 
 W.  of  the  sources  of  the  Nile,  Bar  Baghermi,  Dar  Bergoo^  and 
 Dar  Fur^  are  probably  a  continuation  of  Soudan,  which  apparently 
 widens  towards  the  E.  and  Sennaar  oxxA  Abyssinia  are  in  that  case 
 its  eastern  termination. 
 
 The  Setiegal,  the  Gambia,  the  Grande,  and  the  Mestirada,  are 
 the  great  rivers  of  the  western  coast ;  and  the  JViger  of  the  inte- 
 rior. The  Senegal  is  formed  by  two  branches.  The  Kokoro  ris- 
 es, according  to  the  map  of  Park,  in  the  mountains  of  Manding, 
 and  pursues  a  N.  W.  course  of  300  miles.  The  Bajing  heads  in 
 the  chdan  oi  Jib bcl  Awmra,  and  pursues  a  more  northerly  course 
 of  350  miles,  joining  the  other  in  about  lat.  14,  N.  and  9,  W.  The 
 united  stream,  called  the  Senegal,  pursues  the  course  of  the  for- 
 mer, and,  about  150  miles  below',  receives  the  Famele  from  the 
 last  mentioned  chain,  which  heads  near  the  Gambia.  Its  course 
 is  thence  N.  W.  and  W.  almost  to  the  shore  of  the  ocean,  parallel 
 with  which  it  runs  southward,  from  80  to  100  miles,  emptying  in 
 about  lat.  16,  N.  Its  whole  length  must  exceed  1000  miles.  The 
 quantity  of  water  depends  on  the  season. 
 
 The  Gambia  heads  in  the  same  chain,  and  runs  N.  W.  and  W. 
 about  700  miles,  emptying  in  about  lat.  13  SO,  N.  Cape  Verd  is 
 about  equidistant  between  the  two  rivers. 
 
 Of  the  Grande,  we  can  only  say  that  it  is  less  than  the  Gambia, 
 and  empties  in  about  lat.  1 1,  S.  and  of  the  Mesurada,  that  it  runs 
 S.  W.  and  is  said  to  rise  in  the  Jibbel  Kuvira. 
 
 Of  the  inhabitants  of  this  tract  we  may  remark  here  generally, 
 that  they  are  of  two  great  classes,  J^egroes  and  Moors.  The  ne- 
 groes are  the  most  numerous.  Their  kingdoms  occupy  the  whole 
 of  the  coast,  and  the  southern  division  of  the  interior,  perhaps 
 about  two  thirds  of  the  breadth,  from  the  Desert  to  the  Jibbel 
 Kumra.  A  few  negroes  are  in  the  Moorish  division.  They  are 
 all  of  a  much  lighter  color  than  the  negroes  of  Guinea.  Park 
 supposes  that  at  least  two  thirds  of  the  population  of  the  negro  di- 
 vision are  slaves.  Great  numbers  of  the  negroes  are  Mahome- 
 tans ;  the  rest  are  Pagans.  The  Moorish  kingdoms  occupy  the 
 northern  division,  but  great  num.bers  of  the  Moors  are  scattered 
 over  the  negro  kingdoms.  The  Moors  are  all  zealous  Mahome- 
 tans. 
 
 Southern  FouLAHS.  These  occupy  a  great  extent  of  coun- 
 try between  the  Mesurada,  the  Rio  Grande,  and  tlie  Mountains  of 
 the  Moon.  Their  capital  is  Teembo.  It  is  said  they  can  bring 
 ]  6,000  cavalry  into  the  field.  Many  of  them  are  Mahometans, 
 though  they  border  E.  and  S.  E.  on  many  Pagan  nations,  with 
 Tvhom  they  have  carried  on  incessant  wars  merely  for  slaves. 
 They  have  a  very  dark  complexion,  but  are  not  blacks. 
 
 SiERiiA  Lkone,  where  the  English  have  a  colony,  and  an  im- 
 portant mission,  under  the  direction  of  the  African  institution,  is 
 near  the  middle  of  the   country  of  the  Southern  Foulahs.     Some 
 
AND  INTERIOR  OF  AFRICA.  rfS 
 
 extend  its  limits  from  the  Grain  Coast  on  the  S.  E.  to  Cape  Ver- 
 ga  or  Vcp;a  on  the  N.  W.  ;  that  is,  between  7  and  10  N.  lat.  Oth- 
 ers confine  the  country  between  cape  Verga  and  cape  Tagrin.  In 
 the  open  and  plain  parts,  the  heat  of  the  sun,  before  any  breeze 
 arises,  is  almost  intolerable  ;  but  as  a  refreshing  gale  constantly 
 springs  up  about  noon,  it  renders  the  country  supportable.  The 
 whole  tract,  on  each  side  the  river,  is  fruitful  in  rice  and  millet, 
 which  is  the  chief  sustenance  of  the  inhabitants. 
 
 The  Sierra  Leone  river,  which  gives  name  to  this  country,  has 
 not  been  traced  to  its  source.  Its  mouth,  in  Ion.  12  30  W.  lat.  8 
 15  N.  is  9  miles  wide.  In  1791,  an  act  of  parliament  was  obtain- 
 ed, incorporating  a  company,  called  the  Sierra  Leone  Company, 
 for  the  purpose  of  cultivating  W.  India  and  other  tropical  produc- 
 tions, on  the  banks  of  this  river.  The  first  settlers  amounted  to 
 460  ;  400  were  blacks,  60  white  women  of  lewd  conduct  ;  they 
 ■were  afterwards  reduced  to  276.  The  second  embarkation  in 
 1792,  consisted  of  1200  free  blacks  from  Nova  Scotia.  The  na- 
 tives appeared  to  be  extremely  friendly,  and  a  few,  in  1792,  had 
 come  to  work  for  the  colony.  On  the  setting  in  of  the  rains,  about 
 the  latter  end  of  May,  the  same  year,  sickness  and  mortality  pre- 
 vailed, occasioned  chiefly  by  the  insufficiency  of  the  temporary 
 habitations,  wiiich  could  not  be  completed  before  the  rains  set  in : 
 35  white  persons  (of  whom  14  were  soldiers)  and  many  of  the 
 blacks  died  of  this  sickness,  1  he  colonists  were  put  into  posses- 
 sion of  small  lots  of  land,  and  a  new  town,  on  a  regular  and  ex- 
 tended scale,,was  begun.  Beside  the  Nova  Scotia  blacks,  a  large 
 paj'ty  of  the  natives  were  at  work  for  the  company,  and  the  experi- 
 ments in  sugar,  cotton,  8tc.  appeared  promising.  I  he  native 
 chiefs  and  people  continued  to  be  friendly  ;  and  the  company's 
 schools  were  regularly  attended  by  300  children,  among  whom  were 
 some  children  of  the  natives.  In  Sept.  1794,  a  French  squadron 
 destroyed  the  settlement,  and  captured  several  of  the  company's 
 ships ;  but  from  this  disaster  they  have  since  recovered  ;  and  a 
 jfcctory  was  established  in  the  Rio  Pongos,  in  1795,  which  is  likely 
 to  beconiie  the  means  of  a  lucrative  trade.  Missionaries  are  set- 
 tled, who  also  labor  to  spread  the  gospel  among  the  neighboring 
 tribes.  Schools  are  established.  In  Nov.  1801,  an  unprovoked  and 
 unsuccessful  attack  was  made  on  this  settlement,  stimulated  by 
 the  Timmanys,  a  neighboring  tribe  of  Africans.  A  second  attack 
 of  the  same  nature  and  issue,  and  from  the  same  tribe,  was  made 
 tlie  11th  of  April,  1803. 
 
 Sierra  Leone,  or  Lion  Mountains,  divide  Nigritia  from  Guinea, 
 and  extend  as  far  as  Abyssinia.  They  were  styied  by  the  ancients 
 tlie  Mountains  of  God. 
 
 Sherbro  is  anoilier  English  colony  100  miles  S.  E.  of  Sierra 
 Leone. 
 
 Feloops.  The  Feloofis  ave  a  wild  unsociable  race,  near  the  coast 
 S.  of  the  Gambia.  They  are  fierce  and  unrelenting,  but  grateful, 
 affectionate,  and  honest.  They  are  employed  in  collecting  honey- 
 in  the  woods,  which  they  convert  into  wax.  This  they  carry  tu 
 Vintein,  a  settlement  two  miles  up  a  creek,  which  empties  into  the 
 
776  WESTERN  COAST 
 
 Gambia  fiom  the  S.  about  60  miles  from  its  mouth.  They  also 
 carry  thither  rice,  which  grows  plentifully  in  the  country  ;  also 
 goats  and  poultry  ;  and  employ  Manclingo  brokers,  who  cheat  them 
 out  of  most  of  their  profits.     They  speak  a  peculiar  language. 
 
 Governor  Ludlam  gives  the  following  account  of  the  baneful 
 effects  of  the  slave  trade,  witnessed  by  himself,  in  the  country  on 
 the  banks  of  the  river  Sherbro,  100  miles  S.  of  Sierra.  Leone ; 
 "  Thus  has  this  fertile  country  been  rendered  a  desert,  and  its 
 ti'ade,  once  extensive,  been  almost  annihilated.  Some  thousands 
 of  square  miles  are  now  without  an  inhabitant.  In  this  extent  is 
 included  the  richest  land  on  the  Windward  coast.  No  place 
 equalled  Boom  in  fertility.  Finer  sugar  cane  is  not  found  in  the 
 West  Indies,  than  grows  wild  in  Bagroo.  And  as  for  tiie  interior 
 country  behind  the  Sherbro,  it  must  also  be  rich  from  the  quantity 
 of  rice,  and  cotton  cloth  brought  thence."* 
 
 Mandingoes.  These  originated  from  Mandhig,  on  the  head- 
 Avaters  of  the  Kokoro,  and  also  on  the  J^iger,  near  its  source.  They 
 are  now  far  the  most  numerous  nation  in  the  W.  of  Soudan.  They 
 commence  on  the  coast  at  the  mouth  of  the  Gambia,  borderiiig  S. 
 on  the  Feloojis^  Barra^  Yani^  and  Woolli,  three  kingdoms  on  both 
 sides  of  the  Gambia  from  its  mouth  eastward  ;  Te?ula  JVeola,  and 
 Dentila^  districts  on  its  N.  side  ;  Saladoo,  Konkodoo,  JVoradoo^ 
 JCuUoo,  and  Gadou,  districts  in  the  same  parallels,  between  the 
 Faleme  and  the  Kokoro  ;  Manding  on  the  Kokoro  and  Niger  ; 
 Kaarta,  a  large  kingdom  N.  of  Manding,  and  W.  of  Bambarra  ;  and 
 JCasson,  a  kingdom  W.  of  Kaarta  ;  are  jMa7idingo  teri;itories.  The 
 Mandingoes  also  constitute  the  chief  population  of  western  Bam- 
 barra. 
 
 The  men  are  well  shaped,  above  the  middle  size,  strong,  and 
 capable  of  enduring  labor.  The  women  are  good  natured,  spright- 
 ly, and  agreeable.  They  breakfast  about  daybreak,  on  gruel  made 
 of  meal  and  water,  acidified  by  the  juice  of  the  tamarind.  At  2  P. 
 M.  they  dine  on  a  sort  of  hasty-pudding,  with  ^Am  butter.  Supper, 
 their  principal  repast,  is  seldom  ready  before  midnight,  and  con- 
 sists o^  kouskous,  a  prepartion  of  meal,  with  a  small  portion  of  an- 
 imal food  mixed  with  it.  Their  beverages  are  beer  and  mead. 
 With  a  few  diversities  this  is  the  mode  of  living  of  all  the  negro 
 nations.  Both  sexes  dress  in  cotton  of  their  own  manufacture. 
 That  of  the  men  is  a  loose  frock,  Avith  drawers  reaching  half 
 down  the  leg,  sandals  on  the  feel,  and  white  cotton  caps  on  the 
 heads.  The  women  wrap  two  pieces  of  cotton  round  the  waistj 
 which  hang  down  to  the  knees  in  lieu  of  a  petticoat ;  and  throw  ?. 
 third  piece  over  the  shoulders  and  bosom.  This  is  the  common 
 dress  of  the  Soudan  tribes,  the  only  diversities  being  found  in  the 
 head-dress  of  the  women.  Like  the  other  negroes,  the  Mandin- 
 goes live  in  huts  consisting  of  a  circular  mud  wall  4  feet  high,  on 
 which  is  placed  a  conical  roof  of  bamboo  canes,  thatched  with 
 grass.  A  hurdle  of  canes  placed  upon  upright  stakes  2  feet  high, 
 on  which  is  spread  a  mat,  or  bullock's  hide,  serves  for  a  bed.     A 
 
 *  Rcpni't  2J  of  ihe  Gommittee  of  the  African  Institution,  r-  '5- 
 
AND  INTERIOR  OF  AFRICA.  777 
 
 •^'ater  jar,  some  earthen  pots  to  cook  in,  a  few  wooden  bowls  and 
 calabashes,  and  one  or  two  low  stools,  compose  the  rest  of  their 
 furniture.  Polygamy  is  universal,  and  each  wife  has  her  own 
 hut.  All  the  huts  of  one  family  are  enclosed  by  a  hedge  fence. 
 Agriculture  and  pasturage  are  the  favorite  employments  of  the 
 Mandingoes.  These  occupy  them  through  the  rainy  season.  In 
 the  dry  season  they  catch  fish  in  wicker  baskets,  or  small  cotton 
 nets,  and  hunt  birds  and  beasts,  i'he  women,  at  the  same  time, 
 manufacture  cotton  cloth,  coarse,  but  durable.  One  woman  will 
 make  8  or  9  garments  a  year.  They  die  it  a  rich  and  permanent 
 blue  color.  Tanners  and  blacksmiths  arc  the  only  mechanics  by 
 profession.  Their  instruments  of  music  are  the  koonting^  a  sort 
 of  guitar  with  3  strings  ;  the  korro^  a  large  harp,  with  18  strings  ; 
 the  simbing,  a  small  one  with  7  ;  tlie  balajou^  composed  of  20  pieces 
 of  hard  wood  of  different  lengths,  with  shells  of  gourds  hung  un- 
 derneath, to  increase  the  sound  ;  the  tangtang^  a  drum  open  at 
 the  lower  end  ;  and  the  tabala.  a  war  drum.  They  have  singing 
 men,  both  Pagans  and  Mahometans.  The  former  are  extempo- 
 raneous poets,  and  are  stationary  :  the  latter  are  strollers.  Both 
 are  much  employed  and  respected. 
 
 Park  describes  the  Mandingoes  as  gentle,  cheerful,  inquisitive, 
 credulous,  simple,  and  fond  of  flattery.  They  are  prone  to  steal 
 from  strangers  ;  but  are  at  the  same  time  hospitable  and  kind. 
 A  lively  natural  affection  subsists  between  the  mothers  and  their 
 children.  The  practice  of  truth  is  strongly  inculcated  in  child- 
 hood. They  have  double  names  ;  the  last  denoting  the  clan  ;  the 
 first  sometimes  the  family,  but  often  the  result  of  accident.  Sa- 
 lutations are  observed  among  all  the  negroes,  when  they  meet. 
 Circumcision  is  universal,  and  takes  place  at  the  age  of  puberty. 
 The  value  of  two  slaves  is  the  common  price  of  a  wife.  If  the 
 father  receives  it,  the  girl  must  marry  the  lover,  or  always  remain 
 single.  The  authority  of  the  husband  over  his  wives  is  great,  but 
 the  women  are  not  generally  treated  with  cruelty.  They  partake 
 of  all  public  diversions,  and  are  little  given  to  intrigue.  Adultery, 
 murder,  and  witchcraft  are  the  crimes,  that  are  punished  with 
 slavery.  1  he  Pagan  negroes  always  offer  a  short  prayer  to  God, 
 at  the  appearance  of  the  new  moon,  and  this  is  their  only  wor- 
 ship. The  belief  of  one  God,  and  of  a  future  state  of  rewards  and 
 punishments,  is  universal.  They  rarely  survive  55  or  60,  and  are 
 gray  and  wrinkled  at  40. 
 
 Barra  is  the  kingdom  at  the  mouth  of  the  Gambia  on  both 
 sides,  reaching  up  sbout  180  miles,  ^The  necessaries  of  life  are 
 abundant,  and  the  chief  trade  is  in  salt,  Avhich  they  carry  up  the 
 river  a  great  distance,  and  bring  back  maize,  cottons,  ivory,  and 
 a  little  gold  dust.  A  duty  of  near  £20  sterling  is  collected  for  the 
 king,  by  an  officer  stationed  at  Jillifrey,  a  town  on  the  N.  bank,  on 
 every  ship,  great  or  small,  that  enters  the  river. 
 
 Yani  lies  E.  of  Barra,  reaching  about  100  miles  up,  on  both 
 sides  of  the  Gambia.  Pisania  is  a  well  known  English  fort  in  this 
 kingdom,  on  theN.  bank. 
 
 W'ooLi,  E,  pf  Yani,  reaching  about  as  far  along  the  Gambia, 
 
 VOL.  n.  98 
 
lus  WESTERN  COAST 
 
 has  Foota  Torra  N.  and  Bondou  N.  E.  The  chief  pi'oducts  are 
 cotton,  tobacco,  maize,  and  vej^etables.  Medina,  the  capital,  con- 
 tains about  1000  housts,  has  a  high  wall  built  of  clay,  and  an  out- 
 ward fence  of  pointed  stakes. 
 
 Tenda,  JVeola,,  Deniila,  Satadoo,  Konkodoo,  Worodoo,  KuiloOf 
 and  Gadoo,  are  Mandingo  districts,  the  inhabitants  of  which  appear 
 to  be  subject  to  no  monarch,  and  to  have  no  government,  but  that 
 of  their  respective  towns.  A  considerable  part  of  this  tract  is  a 
 Avilderness, on  which  the  Jallonkas  from  the  S.  have  encroached. 
 
 Manding  is  a  sort  of  oligarchy,  each  town  has  a  particular  chief, 
 called  a  Mansa  ;  and,  in  case  of  invasion,  the  supreme  power  is 
 lodged  in  an  assembly  of  the  whole.  Fooladoo  lies  N.  W.  of  Man- 
 ding,  and  both  bound  Kaarta  on  the  S. 
 
 Kaarta  a  kingdom  of  considerable  extent  ;  having  Bambarra 
 on  the  E.  and  Ludamar,  a  Moorish  kingdom,  on  the  N.  Kevimoo 
 its  capital  is  in  the  S.  W. 
 
 Kasson  lies  N.  W.  of  Foolado,  W.  of  Kaarta,  and  bounds  N.  on 
 the  Moors.     Kooniakary  is  the  capital. 
 
 FooTA  Jallo.  This  is  an  extensive  kingdom  of  the  southern 
 Foulahs,  lying  S.  of  Neola,  and  Dentila. 
 
 Jallonkahs.  The  country  of  this  nation  lies  E.  of  Foota  Jal- 
 lo, and  S.  of  the  districts  of  Satadoo,  Konkodoo,  Worodoo,  Kulloo, 
 Gadoo,  and  Manding;  and  is  called  Jia/Zo/zXrarfoo,  reaching  S.  to  the 
 Mountains  of  the  Moon.  Jallonkadoo  is  divided  into  several  petty 
 kingdoms.     Their  language  has  some  affinity  to  the  Mandingo. 
 
 Wassela.  This  bounds  N.  on  the  eastern  part  of  Mandingy 
 and  W.  on  Jallonkadoo. 
 
 Ko.vG.  This  is  probably  the  most  extensive  and  powerful  king- 
 dom of  western  Soudan.  It  has  Wassela  on  the  W.  and  Bambar- 
 ra on  the  N.  ;  and  reaches  eastward  a  great  distance  along  the 
 Mountains  of  the  Moon.     It  has  not  been  explored. 
 
 Bambakra.  In  the  S.  W.  Bambarra  commences  on  the  Niger, 
 at  Bamiyiakoo,  and  reaches  down  that  river,  on  the  N.  bank,  to 
 iMoorzan  about  300  miles,  and,  if  we  include  its  ti'ibutary  king- 
 dom Afasina,  to  lake  Dibbie  about  400.  On  the  S.  bank  it  reaches 
 also  to  lake  Dibbie.  Below  Seg'o  it  is  narrow  ;  unless  we  include 
 Masina.  Above,  it  is  from  200  to  250  miles  wide.  Wassela, 
 Manding,  Fooladoo,  Kaarta,  and  Ludamar,  lie  on  the  S.  W.  and 
 W. ;  Beero,  and  Masina,  a  tributary  kingdom  to  Bambarra,  on  the 
 N.  ;  Gottoo  a  powerful  kingdom,  Baedoo,  and  Maniana,  on  the 
 E.  and  S.  E.  and  Kong,  on  the  S.  The  subjects  of  the  king  in  the 
 S.  W.  are  of  Mandingo  ori^n,  and  speak  a  corrupted  dialect  of 
 that  tongue.  Those  i;i  the  E.  speak  a  different  language.  Great 
 numbers  of  Moors  are  scattered  over  the  kingdom.  They  will 
 probably  in  time,  !)ccome  the  ruling  nation. 
 
 Sfgo,  the  capital  of  the  kingdom,  is  on  Pork's  map,  in  lat.  14- 
 15  N.  and  in  Ion.  2  30  W.  ;  on  both  sides  of  the  Niger.  It  con- 
 sists, properly  speaking,  of  4  towns  :  Scgo  Korro,  and  Sego  Booy 
 on  the  N.  Bank  ;  and  Sef^o  Soo  Korro,  and  Srg-o  Sec  Korro,  the 
 king's  residence,  on  the  S.  These  are  all  surrounded  with  high 
 mud  walls  ;   the  streets  are  sufficiently  broad  ;    the  houses  are 
 
AND  INTERIOR  OF  AFRICA,  fr9 
 
 built  of  clay,  of  a  square  form  with  flat  roofs  ;  some  of  them  have 
 two  stories,  and  many  are  whitewashed.  Moorish  mosques  are 
 seen  in  every  quarter.  The  town  contains  about  30,000  inhabi- 
 tants. The  king  derives  a  considerable  revenue  from  the  ferry- 
 boats on  the  Niger,  which  are  numerous,  and  are  rowed  by  liis 
 slaves.  The  fare  is  10  Kowrie  shells  an  individual.  The  sur- 
 rounding country  is  in  a  high  state  of  cultivation. 
 
 Jenne,  like  Masina^  in  which  it  lies,  belongs  to  the  king  of 
 Bambarra.  The  inhabitants  of  Masina,  are  northern  Foulahs^  em- 
 ploy themselves  chiefly  in  pasturage,  and  pay  an  annual  tribute 
 for  their  lands.  Jenne  stands  on  an  island  in  the  Niger,  half  way 
 from  Manzo7i  to  lake  Dibbe.  It  is  even  larger  than  Sego.  Bam- 
 mikoo^  on  the  S.  W.  frontier,  is  a  considerable  town  on  the  river, 
 carrying  on  a  large  trade  in  salt.  Maraboo  is  about  the  same 
 size,  50  miles  below ;  and  KooUkorro  is  about  as  large  30  miles 
 farther.      Yamina  and  Sansanding  are  still  larger,  between  this  and 
 
 JiNBALA.  This  kingdom  occupies  the  large  island  in  the  Ni- 
 ger, below  lake  Debbe.  On  Park's  map,  it  is  100  miles  long,  and 
 50  broad.  Tombuctoo  lies  N.  and  N.  E.  ;  Gotto  S.  and  S.  E.  The 
 soil  is  remarkably  fertile  ;  and  the  whole  country  so  full  of  creeks 
 and  swamps,  that  the  Moors  have  been  baffled  in  every  attempt  to 
 subdue  it.  The  inhabitants  are  only  negroes,  and  live  in  consid- 
 erable affluence.  The  capital,  Jindala,  is  on  the  Jin,  the  N.  arm 
 ^f  the  Niger. 
 
 Gotto.  This  is  a  powerful  negro  kingdom,  bounding  N.  on 
 Jinbala  and  Tombuctoo,  from  both  of  which,  it  is  separated  by  the 
 Niger.     Moossedoo  is  tlie  capital. 
 
 Baedoo.  The  king  of  Bambarra  conquered  Baedoo  about  7 
 years  before  Park's  joui'n&y,  when  it  was  tributary  to  him.  It 
 lies  S.  W.  ofGottoo. 
 
 Maniana.  This  lies  S.  W.  of  Baedoo,  and  bounds  both  on  Bom- 
 barra  and  Kong.  The  inhabitants  are  cruel  and  ferocious,  and 
 are  said  to  be  cannibals.  We  know  not  to  what  nation  the  inhab- 
 itants of  these  four  last  kingdoms  belong. 
 
 FouLAHS.  This  is,  next  to  the  Mandingoes,  the  most  extensive 
 negro  race  in  the  W.  of  Soudan.  FooLadoo  was  tlieir  original 
 country  ;  having  the  Kokoro  on  the  S.  W. ;  Manding  on  the  S.  E.  ; 
 Kaarta  ou  the  N.  E.  ;  and  Kasson  on  the  N.  W.  They  are  btill 
 inhabitants  of  that  country,  and  also  oi  Brooko^  Bambouk,  Bondou^ 
 Foota  Tarra,  and  the  country  thence  W.  on  the  S.  bank  of  the 
 Senegal.  They  have  already  been  mentioned  as  constituting  the 
 population  of  Masina,  and  are  extensively  dispersed  over  the  king- 
 doms of  Kaarta  and  Bambarra.  Most  of  the  negroes  in  the  Moor- 
 ish kingdoms  are  Foulahs.  Many  of  them  are  settled  as  agricul- 
 turists in  the  Mandingo  districts  on  the  Gambia.  They  appear 
 to  be  of  a  diff'erent  race  from  the  Souther7i  Foulahs.  Their  com- 
 plexion is  tawney,  and  they  have  small  pleasing  features,  and  soft 
 silky  hair.  The  great  body  of  them  are  Mahometans,  and  the  Ko- 
 ran is  both  their  statute  book  and  Bible.  They  are  reserved,  not 
 distinguished  for  their  hospitality,  but  not  intolerant.     Schools 
 
!i'SO  WESTERN  COAST 
 
 are  kept  by  the  Mahometan  priests  in  all  their  villages.  The 
 children  are  taught  to  read  the  Koran,  and  discover  great  docili- 
 ty and  submission.  Most  of  the  Foulahs  speak  Arabic  ;  but  they 
 have  a  language  of  their  own,  abounding  in  liquids,  though  un- 
 pleasant in  its  enunciation.  Most  of  them  are  engaged  in  agri- 
 culture and  pasturage.  They  are  commendably  industrious,  and 
 discover  great  skill  in  the  management  of  their  cattle.  They 
 possess  some  excellent  horses.  A  considerable  number  of  the 
 Foulahs  are  robbers. 
 
 FooLADoo  is  long,  from  S.  E.  to  N.  W.  and  narrow.  Park  did 
 not  traverse  it  ;  nor  Brooko  or  Bamboiik,  on  the  W.  of  it,  which 
 lie  between  the  Senegal,  on  the  N.  and  the  Mandingo  districts  on 
 the  S. 
 
 BoNDOu  lies  W.  of  Bambouk,  and  has  Kajaaga  on  the  N.  Ten- 
 da  on  the  S.  and  Wooli  on  the  S.  V/.  The  soil  is  not  surpassed 
 in  fertility.  The  inhabitants  are  wealthy  and  industrious.  They 
 sell  large  quantities  of  salt  to  the  inhaoitants  of  the  interior,  and 
 the  great  body  of  the  slaves  from  the  E.  pass  through  Bondou. 
 Most  of  the  merchants,  hov/cver,  are  Mandingocs  and  Serawoolies. 
 The  customs  are  very  heavy.  Fatteconda,  the  capital,  is  a  con- 
 siderable town  about  15  miles  E.  of  the  Faleme.  The  houses  of 
 the  king  are  surrounded  by  a  lofty  mud  wall,  which  converts  the 
 whole  into  a  kind  of  citadel.  The  king's  troops  are  well  supplied 
 with  fire  arms  and  ammunition. 
 
 Foota  Torra  is  a  considerable  kingdom  W.  of  Bondou,  and  N* 
 of  Wooli. 
 
 Jaloffs.  The  Jaloffs  are  an  active,  powerful,  and  warlike 
 race,  inhabiting  an  extensive  tract  of  country,  between  the  Fou- 
 lahs of  the  Senegal  N.  Foota  Torra  E.  the  Mandingo  states  on 
 the  Gambia  S.  and  the  coast  W.  They  are  of  a  jet  black.  Their 
 noses,  howevei',  are  less  flat,  and  their  lips  less  prominent  than 
 those  of  most  negroes.  They  are  divided  into  several  inde- 
 pendent kingdoms,  frequently  at  war  with  their  neighbors,  or 
 each  other.  In  their  government,  superstitions,  and  manners, 
 they  resemble  the  Mandingoes  ;  but  excel  them  in  the  manufac- 
 ture of  cotton  cloth,  spinning  the  wool  to  a  finer  thread,  weaving 
 it  in  a  broader  loom,  and  dying  it  of  a  better  color.  Their  lan- 
 guage is  appropriate,  copious,  and  significant. 
 
 Serawoolies.  These  occupy  only  one  independent  kingdom, 
 that  o{  Kajaaga  ;  bdt  many  of  them  arc  dispersed  as  merchants, 
 brokers,  and  slave-drivei's,  over  the  whole  country,  particularly 
 near  the  coast.  They  are  of  a  jet  black.  Their  language  abounds 
 in  gutturals,  and  is  less  harmonious  than  the  Fouiah  ;  but  is  very 
 generally  understood  in  Kasson,  Kaarta,  Ludamar^  and  the  north- 
 ern parts  of  Bambarra.  In  all  these  countries  the  Serawoolies 
 are  the  chief  traders.  They  are  habitually  a  trading  people,  but 
 always  look  upon  Kajaaga,  as  their  country.  They  trade  with 
 the  British  factories  on  the  Gambia,  are  tolerably  fair  and  honest, 
 indefatigable  in  the  pursuit  of  wealth,  and  derive  coMsiderablc 
 profit  from  the  sale  of  salt  and  cottons  in  distant  countries. 
 
 Kajaaga  has  Bondou  on  the  S.  W-  Bambouk  on  the  S.  E.  and  is 
 
AND  INTERIOR  OF  AFRICA.  ^81 
 
 separated  by  the  Senegal  from  Kasson  on  the  N.  E.  and  Gedumah 
 on  the  N.  The  king  is  absolute  and  powerful.  The  climate 
 is  peculiarly  healthy,  and  the  soil  fertile.  Maatia  is  the  capital. 
 Joag  is  a  frontier  town  of  2000  inhabitants,  on  the  Senegal. 
 
 Moors.  The  Moors  possess  a  number  of  kingdoms  between 
 the  desert  on  the  N.  and  the  negro  kingdoms  on  the  S.  The  Sen- 
 egal divides  them  from  the  negroes,  as  far  up  as  about  opposite 
 to  Joag.  Thence  eastward,  they  bound  S.  on  Kasson,  Kaarta, 
 Bambarra,  Masina,  and  Jinbala. 
 
 They  are  divided  into  numerous  tribes,  or  kingdoms.  Trasart 
 and  Il-brakeHf  lie  N.  E.  of  the  Foulahs,  on  the  Senegal  ;  Gcduma^ 
 N.  of  Kajaaga  ;  Jafnoo,  of  Kasson  ;  Ludamar,  of  Kaarta  ;  Bec- 
 roo,  of  Bambarra  and  Masina  ;  Tombuctoo,  of  Jinbala  and  Gotto  ; 
 and  Houssa,  still  farther  E. 
 
 The  origin  of  these  Moorish  tribes  is  explained  by  John  Leo, 
 the  African.  Before  the  Arabian  conquest,  about  A.  D.  65t),  all 
 the  inhabitants  of  Africa,  whether  descended  from  Numidians, 
 Phoenicians,  Carthaginians,  Romans,  Vandals,  or  Goths,  were 
 comprehended  under  the  general  name  of  Mauri,  or  Moors.  All 
 these  nations  were  converted  to  Mahommedism  during  the  Ara- 
 bian empire  under  the  Caliphs.  About  this  time  many  of  the 
 Numidian  tribes,  who  led  a  Avandering  life  in  the  desert,  and  sup- 
 ported themselves  upon  the  produce  of  their  cattle,  retired  south- 
 •ward  across  the  Great  Desert,  to  avoid  the  fury  of  the  Arabians  ; 
 and  by  one  of  these  tribes,  Leo  says,  that  of  Zaiihaga^  the  negro 
 nations  on  the  Niger  were  discovered,  and  many  of  them  conquer- 
 ed. There  is  reason  to  believe,  says  Park,  that  their  dominion 
 stretches  from  W.  to  E.  across  the  continent,  in  a  narrow  belt, 
 from  the  mouth  of  the  Senegal  to  Abyssinia. 
 
 Their  complexion  resemlales  that  of  the  mulattoes  of  the  West 
 Indies  ;  but  their  features  bespeak  low  cunning  and  cruelty,  and 
 their  eyes  have  a  staring  wildness.  Park  conjectures  that  thef 
 are  a  mixture  of  the  northern  Moors,  and  the  Negroes.  Their 
 dress  resembles  that  of  the  negroes,  except  that  they  universally 
 wear  turbans  of  white  cotton  ;  and  that  their  drawers,  or  smaft 
 clothes,  are  miuch  fuller  and  larger.  Their  houses  are  built  of 
 clay  and  stone.  Many  of  them  live  in  tents,  and  roam  from  place 
 to  place.  The  chief  wealth  of  these  consists  of  camels,  cattle,  and 
 goats,  and  their  chief  business  is  pasturage.  They  are  all  extreme* 
 ly  indolent,  but  rigid  taskmasters  to  their  slaves.  Their  country 
 being  nearer  the  Desert  is  far  hotter  andjess  fertile  than  that  of 
 the  negroes.  It  is  subject  to  a  sand  wind  from  the  N.  E.  which 
 is  extremely  distressing.  They  hav^fine  horses,  and  are  excel- 
 lent horsemen.  They  pay  scarcely  any  attention  to  agriculture, 
 purchasing  their  corn,  cotton,  and  other  necessaries  of  the  negroes, 
 in  exchange  for  salt,  which  they  dig  from  the  pits  in  the  Desert. 
 They  manufacture  cloth  for  their  tents,  and  leather  for  saddles  and 
 bridles  ;  also  spears,  knives,  and  pots  ;  but  sabres  and  fire  arms 
 are  purchased  of  Europeans,  in  exchange  for  slaves. 
 
 They  are  all  rigid  Mahometans,  bigotted,  superstitious,  and  in- 
 tolerant.    All  the  males  read  and  write.     Their  language  is  Ara- 
 
y82  WESTERN  COAST 
 
 bic.  Their  women  are  taught  nothing,  except  voluptuou'sTiess 
 and  submission.  Corpulency  in  their  females  is  the  fisst  charac- 
 terietic  of  beauty.  They  are  extremely  unkind  to  their  slaves  and 
 to  strangers.  Park  describes  them  as  universally  proud,  ferocious, 
 false,  and  treacherous. 
 
 Trasa7-t  and  Il-braken  are  both  formidable  tribes.  Those  of 
 Geduitiali  and  Jafnoo^  are  less  numerous,  but  equally  warlike. 
 Their  chiefs,  or  kings,  have  absolute  jurisdiction. 
 
 Ludamar  bounds  W.  on  Jafnoo,  S.  on  Kaarta,  S.  E.  for  some 
 distance  on  Bambarra,  E.  on  Beroo,  and  N.  on  the  Desert.  Jarra 
 is  a  town  in  Ludamar,  of  considerable  extent,  on  the  confines  of 
 Kaarta.  The  houses  are  of  clay  and  stone  intermixed.  The  ma- 
 jority of  the  inhabitants  are  negroes,  who  pay  tribute  to  the  Moors, 
 rather  than  be  exposed  to  their  hostile  incursions.  Benown  is 
 the  capital  of  the  kingdom.  Deena  and  Sampika  are  of  about  the 
 same  size  as  Jarra,  and  farther  E. 
 
 Of  BeeroQ  we  know  nothing,  but  that  it  bounds  the  greater  part 
 both  of  Bambarra  and  Masina,  on  the  N.  and  that  its  capital  is 
 Walet. 
 
 Tombuctoo,  called  by  Jackson,  Timbuctoo^  extends  on  the  N. 
 bank  of  the  Niger,  from  Beroo  to  Houssa.  The  Moors  are  the 
 ruling  nation,  but  great  numbers  of  the  inhabitants  are  slaves. 
 The  king  is  powerful,  and  has  a  magnificent  cour:.  Tombuctoo^ 
 his  capital,  is  situated  on  a  plain,  130  miles  E.  of  Beroo,  and  12 
 miles  N.  of  the  Niger  ;  in  about  Ion.  1  30,  E.  and  90  miles  from 
 the  confines  of  the  desert.  It  is  a  very  large  town  ;  the  Moors 
 told  Jackson,  about  12  miles  in  circumference.  The  houses  are 
 spacious,  and  of  a  square  form  ;  of  one  story,  with  a  hollow  open 
 square  in  the  centre.  The  government  of  the  town  is  in  the 
 hands  of  a  divan  of  12  ^ lemma,  men  learned  in  the  Koran,  ap- 
 pointed for  3  years.  Its  police  is  excellent.  Kobra  is  its  port  on 
 the  Niger.  The  commerce  of  Tombuctoo  is  very  important.  The 
 articles  brought  by  the  Akkabaahs  from  Morocco  to  the  capital, 
 are  sent  from  Kabra,  both  up  and  down  the  Niger.  A  caravan 
 goes  also  to  Fezzan,  and  another  to  Egypt.  The  soil  is  generally 
 fertile.  Rice,  millet,  and  maize,  are  extensively  cultivated ; 
 wheat  and  barley  also  in  the  plains.  Coflee  and  indigo  grow  wild. 
 The  cotton  manufactures  are  superior.  Great  quantities  of  honey 
 are  annually  collected. 
 
 HoussA.  This  kingdom  lies  E.  of  Tombuctoo,  on  both  sides 
 of  the  Niger.  An  extftisive  desert  on  the  S.  is  said  to  separate  it 
 from  Gotto.  Houssa,  the  city,  lies  aboujL  60  miles  from  the  N. 
 bank  of  the  river,  and  is,  according  to  Park,  1 1  days  journey,  or 
 530  miles  below  Kabra.  It  is  said  to  be  even  larger  than  Tom- 
 buctoo, and  is  likewise  a  great  commercial  emporium.  Hornc- 
 ir.an  was  informed,  that  the  kingdom  of  Housaa  reached  eastward 
 to  the  limits  of  Bourno,  beyond  Ion.  15,  E.  and  that  it  compre- 
 hended several  large  provinces,  of  which  Kas/nia  and  Gana,  or 
 Kano,  were  the  most  eastern.  Kashna,  the  capital  of  the  first  is 
 said  to  be  far  the  largest  town  in  the  country,  and  in  the  interior 
 of  Africa.     The  Houssians  are  chiefly  negroes. 
 
 BoURXou.     This  is  a  very  extensive  country,  placed  by  Rennol 
 
AND  INTERIOR  OF  AFRICA.  783 
 
 E.  of  Houssa,  beyond  which  lie  the  kingdoms  of  Dar  Bagherme 
 and  Dai  Fur.     The  inhabitants  of  all  these  are  mere  negroes. 
 
 Sahara.  We  know  of  no  exteoisive  oases  in  the  western  part 
 of  the  Sahara  ;  but  in  the  eastern  part  there  are  several  very  in- 
 teresting to  the  geographer  and  historian. 
 
 TuARicK.  Horueman  tells  us,  that  that  part  of  the  Desert,  ly- 
 ing N.  of  Houssa,  and  N.  W.  of  Bouinou,  is  occupied  by  the  Tua- 
 rick,  a  very  extensive  nation,  that  roams  over  the  whole  desert, 
 even  to  Morocco.  They  are  divided  into  many  different  tribes, 
 who  all  speak  the  same  language.  Most  of  those  near  Soudan, 
 as  the  KoUuvian  Tuarick,  are  very  dark,  and  some  quite  black, 
 but  they  have  no  other  resemblance  to  negroes-  Those  more  to  the 
 N.  and  W.  are  yellow,  like  the  Arabs.  All  the  Tuarick  seen  by 
 Horneman,  were  thin,  and  rather  tall,  with  a  swift,  firm  walk,  a 
 stern  look,  and  a  warlike  demeanor.  They  discover  strong  nat- 
 ural powers  of  mind.  Their  character  is  much  esteemed.  Their 
 clothing  consists  of  wide,  dark  blue  breeches,  a  short  narrow 
 blue  shirt,  with  wide  sleeves,  over  this  a  larger  shirt,  or  frock, 
 and  a  black  cloth  on  the  head.  They  are  chiefly  Mahometans, 
 but  the  Tagama  Tuarick-,  on  the  borders  of  Tombuctoo,  are  whites, 
 and  are  Pagans.  They  always  carry  in  their  hands  a  small  lance, 
 about  5  feet  long.  Over  the  frock  a  long  sword  hangs  from  the 
 shoulder.  The  travelling  merchants  alone  have  fire  arms.  They 
 carry  on  a  commerce  between  Soudan,  Fezzan,  and  Gadamis, 
 near  Tripoli.  Most  of  the  Tuarick  lead  a  wandering  life.  Some 
 live  in  the  small  oases  in  the  Desert. 
 
 TiBBoos.  These  are  an  extensive  nation  living  E.  of  the  Tw 
 arick,  in  the  Desert. 
 
 Fezzan.  This  country  limits  the  Tuarick ox\  the  N.  E.  Horne- 
 man says  that  it  is  of  an  oval  shape,  about  300  miles  from  N.  to 
 S.  and2'i0  from  E.  to  W.  Kennel  lays  it  down  between  Icn.  14 
 and '17,  E.  and  about  150  miles  S.  from  the  shore  of  the  Greater 
 Syrtis.  Arabs,  nominally  dependent  on  Tibet,  border  it  on  the  N.  ; 
 the  country  of  the  Tibboos  on  the  E.  and  S.  E.  ;  that  of  the  noma- 
 dic Tuaricks  on  the  S.  and  S.  W. ;  and  Arabs  on  the  W.  The  king- 
 dom contains  101  towns  and  villages.  The  religion  is  the  Ma- 
 hometan. It  is  governed  by  a  sultan,  a  descendant  from  the 
 family  of  the  Sherretfs.  The  tradition  is,  that  the  ancestors  of 
 thft  reigning  piince,  coming  from  western  Africa,  invaded  and 
 conquered  Fezzan,  about  500  years  since.  The  sultan  is  abso- 
 lute ;  but  holds  his  dominions  of  the  Bashaw  of  Tripoli,  to  whom 
 he  pays  4000  dollars  as  a  yearly  tribute.  An  officer  of  the  bashaw 
 comes  annually  to  Mourzouk  to  receive  this  sum,  or  its  value  in 
 gold,  senna,  or  slaves.  The  throne  is  hereditary  in  one  fam- 
 ily. The  eldest  prince  of  the  royal  family  always  succeeds.  The 
 dignity  of  chief  judge,  or  cadi,  is  hereditary  in  one  family.  The 
 cadi  is  also  chief  priest.  The  sultan  gives  public  audience  to  his 
 subjects  daily.  His  official  attendants  are  the  kaledyma,  or  first 
 minister,  the  keijuvima,  or  second  minister,  the  general  of  his 
 troops,  and  a  number  of  black  and  white  slaves.  The  chief  inilu-. 
 ence,  ia   1800;  was  iu  the  hands  of  the  Mamelukes.     Horneman 
 
784.-  WESTERN  COAST 
 
 estimates  the  population  at  75,000.  The  revenue  arises  iVom 
 taxes  on  gardens  and  cultivated  lands  ;  from  arbitrary  fines  and 
 requisitions ;  from  duties  on  foreign  trade,  paid  by  the  several 
 caravans  ;  and  from  predatory  excursions.  The  expenditure 
 consists  chiefly  in  the  maintenance  of  the  sultan,  his  court,  and 
 palace.  The  cadi  and  each  one  of  the  royal  family  has  a  district 
 assigned  for  his  support. 
 
 In  the  northern  part  of  the  country  the  complexion  is  like  that 
 of  the  Arabs.  In  the  S  it  is  mixed.  The  indigenous  Fezzans 
 are  small,  of  a  deep  brown  cole,  short  black  hair,  vv-ith  regular 
 features,  and  noses  like  Europeans.  The  mien,  walk,  and  every 
 motion  and  gesture,  denote  a  want  of  energy  either  of  body  or 
 mind.  The  only  tradesmen  are  shoemakers  and  smiths.  The 
 women  fabricate  coarse  woollens,  called  abbes.  The  dress  con- 
 sists of  a  shirt  or  frock,  made  of  coarse  linen,  or  cotton,  brought 
 from  Cairo,  and  of  the  abbe.  The  middling  classes  also  wear 
 frocks  of  the  blue  cloth  of  Soudan.  The  rich  dress  in  the  Tripo- 
 litan  habit.  The  Avomen  Avear  many  ornaments.  They  are  fond 
 of  dancing,  and  every  amusement  ;  and  are  v.anton  and  licentious. 
 The  men  arc  addicted  to  drunkenness,  contracted  by  drinking  the 
 fresh  juice  of  the  date.  Singing  girls  are  common.  The  houses 
 are  miserably  built  of  stones,  or  of  bricks,  composed  of  a  calca- 
 reous earth,  mixed  with  clay,  and  dried  in  the  sun.  As  to  diet,  no 
 people  are  more  abstemious.  Mourzouk^  the  capital,  is  in  about 
 lat.  27  23  N.  and  in  Ion.  1 5  40  E.  420  miles  in  a  direct  line  S.  S.  E. 
 of  Tripoli.  Zeula  lies  about  70  miles  E.  by  N.  of  Mourzouk*. 
 The  commerce  of  Fezzan  is  considerable.  From  October  to  Feb- 
 ruary Mourzouk  is  the  great  emporium  for  the  caravans  from 
 Cairo,  Tripoli,  Gadamis,  Bengasi,  a  town  on  the  N.  coast,  Soudan, 
 and  various  others.  The  inhabitants  of  AugUa  carry  on  the  trade 
 from  Cairo  ;  those  of  Sockna.,  that  of  Tripoli  ;  and  the  Kolluvian 
 Tuarickn,  that  of  Soudan.  Slaves,  ostrich  feathers,  ribette,  tiger 
 skins,  and  gold  came  from  Soudan  ;  copper  from  Bornou  ;  silks, 
 melayes.,  (striped  blue  and  white  calicoes,)  woollens,  glass,  mock 
 coral,  beads,  and  East  India  goods  from  Cairo  ;  tobacco,  snuff, 
 and  sundry  Turkish  wares  from  Bengasi  ;  paper,  mock  coral,  fire- 
 arms, sabres,  knives,  and  red  worsted  caps  are  brought  from 
 Tripoli,  and  Gadamis  ;  butter,  oil,  fat,  and  corn  by  the  smaller 
 Tuarick  and  Arab  caravans  from  the  W.  and  senna,  ostrich  fesKh- 
 ers,  and  camels  by  those  from  the  S. 
 
 The  climate  is  at  no  season  temperate  or  agreeable.  In  sum- 
 mer, the  heat  is  intense,  and  when  the  wind  blows  from  the  S. 
 scarcely  supportable.  Through  the  winter,  a  bleak,  chilling, 
 damp  N.  wind  prevails.  Thunder  slorms  arc  not  frequent  ;  but 
 tempests  and  whirlwinds  are  common,  both  from  the  S.  and  N- 
 Syphilis,  hemorrhoids,  and  fever  and  ague  arc  the  common  dis- 
 eases. Dates  are  the  natural  and  staple  produce.  Senna  is  grown 
 in  the  W.  Pot-herbs  and  vegetables  are  plentiful.  Wheat  and 
 barley  are  suited  to  the  soil  and  climate.  Ilorned  cattle  are  found 
 only  in  the  most  fertile  districts.  Goats  are  the  common  don:(jstic 
 animal.     Sheep  arc  bred  in  the  S.     Horses  arc  few  ;  asses  are  the 
 
AND  INTERIOR  OF  AFRICA.  7mi 
 
 ordinary  beasts  of  burden.  Camels  are  very  dear,  and  are  owned 
 only  by  the  chief  people  or  richer  merchants.  All  these  animals 
 are  fed  on  dales. 
 
 Gademis.     This  is  an  oasis,  near  the  S.  W.  corner  of  Tripoli, 
 We  have  no  information  respecting  it. 
 
 AuGiLA.  This  small,  but  celebrated  territory,  lies  nearly  mid- 
 way between  Egypt  and  Fezzan.  It  is  about  165  miles  from  the 
 coast,  in  lat.  29  30  N.  and  Ion.  23  E.  ;  and  is  450  miles,  in  a  direct 
 line  E.  N.  E.  of  Mourzouk.  It  is  an  oasis,  flat,  well  watered,  fer- 
 tile, and  surrounded  by  arid  deserts,  either  sandy  or  rocky.  Its 
 dates  are  celebrated.  These  and  its  gardens  constitute  the  chief 
 culture.  There  are  3  towns,  Augila,  Mojabra,  and  Meledila  :  the 
 two  last  near  together,  and  both  4  hours  E.  from  the  first,  jiugi' 
 la,  well  known  in  the  time  of  Herodotus,  covers  a  space  of  one 
 mile  in  circumference.  It  is  badly  built.  The  streets  are  nar- 
 row and  dirty.  The  houses  are  of  one  story,  of  limestone,  with 
 an  open  hollow  square  in  the  centre.  The  apartments  are  dark. 
 The  public  buildings  are  mean  and  wretched.  Mojabra  is  small- 
 er, but  proportionally  more  populous.  The  inhabitants  are  chiefly 
 merchants.  Those  of  Meledila  are  employed  in  the  culture  of 
 the  ground.  The  men  employed  in  trade,  generally  keep  ihree 
 houses  ;  one  at  Kardaffi,  near  Cairo,  one  at  Mojabra,  and  one  at 
 Zuila  or  Mourzouk.  Many  have  a  wife  and  family  at  each  estab- 
 lishment. The  women  manufacture  abbes.  Wheat  is  imported 
 by  the  Arabs  from  Bengasi.  The  inhabitants  can  speak  Arabic, 
 but  their  vulgar  tongue  is  that  of  Siiva/i,  the  same  with  that  of  all 
 the  Tuarick.  Augila  is  governed  by  a  vicegerent  for  the  bashaw 
 of  Tripoli. 
 
 SiwAH.  Siwah  lies  210  miles  a  little  S.  of  E.  of  Augila,  The 
 route  of  the  caravans  is  an  almost  straight  course  from  one  to  the 
 other,  along  the  foot  of  the  Mountains  of  Gerduba.  It  is  1 5U  miles 
 from  the  Mediterranean,  and  260  W.  S.  W.  of  Cairo.  The  road 
 to  Cairo  crosses  the  Nation  valley.  The  I'oute  of  the  caravan  to 
 Cairo,  is  about  50  miles  N.  E. ;  and  the  rest  of  the  way  in  an  E. 
 by  N.  course,  along  the  foot  of  the  Bills  of  Mogurra. 
 
 Siwah  is  a  small  independent  state.  It  acknowledges  the  grand 
 seignior  paramount,  but  pays  him  do  tribute.  The  territory  is  of 
 considerable  extent ;  its  principal  and  most  fruitful  district  is  a 
 ■well  watered  valley,  50  miles  in  circuit,  hemmed  in  by  steep  and 
 barren  rocks.  It  is  supposed,  with  great  probability,  to  have  been 
 the  ancient  Oasis  of  Ammon  ;  and  a  pile  of  ruins  on  the  W.  of  the 
 capital  are  said  to  be  the  remains  of  the  celebrated  temple  of  Ju- 
 piter Ammon.  As  the  language  of  the  present  Siwahans  is  Tua- 
 rick, they  are  believed  to  be  of  Tuarick  origin.  They  are  all  Mar 
 hommedans.  The  government  of  the  territory  is  in  the  hands  of 
 32  sheikhs,  who  sit  in  a  general  council.  Justice  is  administered 
 according  to  ancient  usage.  Sivjah  the  capital  is  nearly  in  the 
 centre  of  the  valley.  It  is  built  upon  a  round  mass  of  rock.  The 
 houses  might  be  taken  for  caves.  The  streets  are  so  narrow,  that 
 the  houses  almost  touch  each  other.  Many  stand  on  the  declivity 
 of  the  I'ock.     It  resembles  a  bee  hive  in  its  shape,  and  Ln  the  buzz 
 
 VOL.   II.  99 
 
rse  AFRICAN"  ISLANDS. 
 
 of  its  streets.  At  the  foot  of  the  rock  are  erected  stables  for  the 
 camels,  horses  and  asses,  which  cannot  ascend  to  the  town  above. 
 Five  villages  surround  the  town,  at  one  or  two  miles  distance. 
 The  dress  of  the  men  consists  ofa  white  cotton  shirt  and  breeches  ; 
 a  iiuUiyef  folded  round  the  person,  and  thrown  over  ihe  left 
 shoulder  ;  and  a  red  worsted,  or  cotton  cap.  The  women  wear 
 •wide  blue  shifts,  reaching  to  the  ancles,  and  a  melaye  wrapped 
 round  the  head,  and  falling  over  the  body,  like  a  cloak.  They 
 also  wear  many  ornaments.  The  Siwahans  are  great  thieves. 
 Many  of  them  are  rich.  Each  individual  has  one  or  more  gar- 
 dens, and  these  it  is  his  whole  business  to  water  and  cultivate. 
 The  soil  is  a  sandy  loam,  yielding  corn,  oil,  and  vegetables,  but 
 the  chief  produce  is  dates.  These  are  all  kept  in  a  public  store- 
 house. N.  W.  of  the  capital  there  is  a  stratum  of  salt,  extending 
 a  full  mile,  and  near  it  salt  is  found  on  the  surface,  lying  in  clods, 
 or  small  lumps. 
 
 AFRICAN   ISLANDS. 
 
 IN  our  account  of  these  we  will  begin  with  Madagascar, 
 the  only  one  of  any  considerable  size.  The  smaller  African  Isl- 
 ajids  shall  be  considered  in  a  geographical  order. 
 
 MADAGASCAR. 
 
 THIS  noble  island,  the  largest  in  the  world,  except  New 
 Holland  and  Borneo,  lies  between  lat.  11  22  and  25  42  S.  Ion,  41 
 14  to  48  14  E.  Its  length,  from  Cape  St.  Mary  to  Cape  Natal,  is 
 about  9uO  miles,  und  its  mean  breadth  is  about  250.  It  lies  in  the 
 Indian  ocean  ;  and  the  channel  of  Mozambique,  90  leagues  across, 
 bounds  it  on  the  W.  and  separates  it  from  the  continent  of  Africa. 
 It  is  divided  into  28  provinces. 
 
 Marco  Polo,  in  the  13tli  century,  describes  it  under  its  present 
 name  ;  having  been  indebted  for  his  knowledge  to  the  Arabs. 
 Three  races  among  the  inhabitants  are  erident  ;  that  of  Qafc 
 Ibi'ahirn,  or  Abraham  ;  these  practise  circumcision,  and  the 
 names  of  Isaac,  Jleuben  and  Jacob,  are  familiar  with  them.  The 
 second  race  is  thatof  Qaferamini,  who  have,  it  is  supposed,  been 
 here  six  centuries.  The  third  race  is  of  the  Arabian  extraction, 
 and  more  modern. 
 
 This  island  was  discovered  by  the  Portuguese  in  1506.  The 
 French  took  possession  of  it  in  1641,  but  were  driven  out  in  1652. 
 A  considerable  settlement  was  made  here  again  under  the  French 
 government  from  1772  to  1776,  by  the  Baron  .lieneyowski.  He 
 erected  buildings,  raised  fortifications,  dug  canals,  opened  roads^ 
 exerted  himself  to  civilize  tlie  people.     He   fell   here  worthy  a 
 
AFRICAN  ISLANDS.  *^^ 
 
 better  fate.  On  the  18th  of  February,  1811,  this  island  surren- 
 dered to  the  British.  The  eifcct  of  this  conquest,  it  is  expected, 
 will  be  the  freedom  of  these  seas  from  the  French  flag,  and  the 
 security  to  the  British  of  an  unmolested  traflic  with  this  fruitful 
 and  important  island. 
 
 The  population  of  the  island  is  reckoned,  by  Rochon,  at  4,000,000 
 souls.     The  language  of  all  these  islanders  is  nearly  the  same. 
 
 The  inhabitants  believe  in  a  Supreme  Being,  whom  they  call 
 Zanhare,  i.  e.  Creator  of  all  things.  They  have  no  temples,  no 
 idols,  no  priests  ;  but  make  sacrifices  of  sheep  and  oxen.  They 
 believe  the  soul  immortal,  but  suppose  the  wicked  and  good  re- 
 warded in  this  life.  They  are  a  friendly,  intelligent,  excellent 
 people,  possessing  a  quick  sense  of  honor  and  gratitude,  far  less 
 mindful  of  injuries  done  themselves,  than  of  those  offered  their 
 family.  Some  are  of  a  deep  black,  and  have  ivoolly  hair ; 
 others  are  tawney,  and  others  copper-colored ;  but  most  of  an 
 olive.  They  are  all  portly  in  their  persons,  and  nse  above  the 
 middle  stature.  Writing  is  not  unknown.  They  have  some  kis- 
 torical  books  in  their  own  languages  ;  but  their  men  of  learning, 
 whom  they  call  Ombiasses,  use  only  the  Arabic  character.  That 
 language  has  made  some  progress  in  the  N.  of  the  island  Their 
 hospitality  is  worthy  of  notice  and  imitation.  The  traveller,  though 
 a  stranger,  enters  the  cottage,  sits  down  v^^ith  tlie  family,  and  par- 
 takes of  their  I'epast.     This  custom  is  general. 
 
 The  oaths,  which  tliese  islanders  arc  not  known  to  violate,  are 
 taken  in  a  solemn,  impressive  manner.  The  most  sacred  is  the 
 ^ath  of  blood.  The  left  breast  of  the  person  engaging  is  opened 
 with  a  razor,  from  Avhich  the  other  sucks  a  drop  of  blood,  wishing 
 anathemas  on  him,  who  shall  violate,  and  blessings  on  him,  who 
 shall  keep  the  oath.  A  barbarous  custom  has  prevailed  here  of 
 destroying  those  infants,  who  have  any  natural  defect,  or  are  born 
 on  those  days,  they  call  unlucky. 
 
 They  have  dancers  and  comedians  to  amuse  them  ;  and  phy- 
 sicians to  visit  them  when  sick.  These  amiable  people  are  torn 
 from  their  country,  their  famiUes,  their  parents,  their  children, 
 their  lovers,  and  sold  in  thousands,  in  the  French  colonics,  and 
 more  cruelly  treated  than  beasts  of  burden.  Under  the  blazing 
 sun  of  Bourbon,  or  the  isle  of  France,  the  wretch  toils,  almost 
 naked,  with  an  iron  collar  fastened  round  the  neck,  from  which 
 rise  plates  of  iron,  foi'ming  a  mask  and  head  piece  ;  before  the 
 ■  mouth  is  a  round  plate  of  iron,  in  which  are  small  holes  to  emit  the 
 breath  ;  there  is  a  place  for  the  nose  ;  a  flat  piece  of  iron  passes 
 through  the  mouth,  as  a  bit  in  the  horse's  mouth.  The  skin  is 
 soon  worn  from  the  moutn,  nose,  face  and  chin.  This,  with  the 
 heat  of  the  iron  in  a  hot  day,  renders  the  torment  intolerable. 
 Their  punishments  are  insupportable,  and  they  giadly  met  t  death. 
 They  often  hang  or  poison  themselves,  or  rush  into  the  open  ocean 
 in  a  little  boat. 
 
 All  the  artisans  of  Europe  are  not  found  here  ;  but  they  have 
 ■manufactures  of  iron  and  steel.  They  are  ingenious  goldsmiths, 
 potters,  joiners,  carpenters,  rope-makers  and    weavers.     Their 
 
f8«  AFRICAN  ISLANDS. 
 
 linens  are  woven  by  women  ;  they  are  very  fine,  and  beautifully 
 colored. 
 
 The  climate  of  Madagascar  is  healthy ;  the  heat  is  not  excessive, 
 being  in  some  parts  tempered  by  land  breezes,  from  sun-setting, 
 till  10  or  1 1  o'clock  in  the  morning.  They  live  in  towns  and  vil- 
 lages. The  towns  are  surrounded  by  a  ditch  and  pallisadoes, 
 guarded  by  10  and  20  soldiers.  The  houses  of  private  people 
 consist  of  a  convenient  cottage,  surrounded  by  smaller  ones  for 
 their  wives  and  slaves.  They  are  of  wood  covered  with  leaves  or 
 straw.  The  houses  of  the  wealthy  are  spacious  and  divided  into 
 several  apartments.  The  princes  have  buildings  of  taste  and 
 beauty. 
 
 This  island  is  watered  by  a  greatnumber  of  considerable  rivers, 
 which  form  at  their  mouths  many  bays  and  gulfs,  in  which  are 
 found  good  roads  and  harbors.  Foulepointe  is  the  port  most  fre- 
 quented on  the  N.  coast.  The  harbor  is  surrounded  by  a  reef  of 
 rocks,  which  defend  the  vessel  Irom  the  force  of  the  waves.  The 
 shores  are  bold,  and  the  depth  23  feet,  at  low  water. 
 
 The  country  produces  oxen,  sheep,  goats,  and  cotton  in  abun- 
 dance. Ebony,  gum  guttae,  cucumbers,  peas,  beans,  barley,  rice, 
 and  citrons,  are  plenty.  Cardaman  plants,  banana,  and  orange 
 trees  flourish.  Rock  crystals,  copper,  silver,  gold,  iron,  and  pre- 
 cious stones  are  found  here.  A  great  variety  of  ornamental  plants, 
 of  fruit  trees,  and  valuable  timber,  grow  on  this  island. 
 
 SMALLER  AFRICAN  ISLANDS. 
 
 Porto  Santo.  This  is  a  small  island,  about  20  miles  in  com- 
 pass, in  lat.  32  55,  N.  and  125  leagues  W.  of  Cape  Blanco  ;  dis- 
 covered and  possessed  by  the  Portuguese.  It  has  one  good  har- 
 bor, safe  from  all  winds  but  the  S.  W.  Here  the  India  ships  usu- 
 ally stop  to  refit,  both  going  and  returning.  The  island  is  inhab- 
 ited by  Portuguese,  is  very  rich,  and  produces  wheat  and  maize, 
 cattle,  wild  boars,  and  rabbits.  Dragon's  blood,  honey,  wax,  and 
 fish,  are  exported. 
 
 Madeira.  The  form  of  Madeira  is  a  triangle  of  150  miles  in 
 circuit,  lying  in  lat.  32  30,  N.  and  Ion.  16  50,  W.  120  leagues  VV. 
 of  Cape  Cantin.  It  is  divided  into  two  provinces.  The  Portu- 
 guese discovered  it  in  1431.  The  population  is  said  to  amount 
 to  70,000.  The  forces  are  150  infantry,  and  2000  militia.  Fun- 
 chal,  the  capital,  is  in  a  valley,  on  the  S.  coast.  The  harbor  is 
 defended  by  several  oatteries,  and  a  castle.  The  town  is  divided 
 into  6  parishes,  and  contains  6  convents,  as  many  churches,  and 
 about  15,0U0  inhabitants,  consisting  of  Portuguese,  French,  En- 
 glish, Irish,  mulattoes,  and  blacks.  The  streets  are  straight,  and 
 the  houses  neat.  The  windows  are  sashed  with  lathwork.  The 
 town  is  the  see  of  a  bishop,  and  the  residence  of  the  governor. 
 The  principal  merchants  are  English  and  Irish  catholics,  though 
 the  island  belongs  to  Portugal.  The  climate  is  agreeable,  and 
 the  soil  very  fertile.     The  chief  exports  are  Madeira  wine,  ^0,000 
 
AFRICAN  ISLANDS.  m 
 
 hogsheafis,  and  sweet  meats.     Every   species  of  tropical  fruit 
 grows  to  perfection. 
 
 Canaries.  There  is  a  group  of  13  islands  lying  otf  Cape  Non, 
 or  Nun,  between  lat.  27  15,  and  29  50,  N.  and  between  13  and 
 17  30,  W-  Six  are  small  and  uninhabited  ;  Graciosa,  RoccOf 
 Allegranza.,  Sla.  Clara.,  Inferno,  and  Lobos.  Some  also  considet 
 the  Salvages,  a  cluster  of  rocks  to  the  N.  W.  as  in  the  group. 
 The  seven  large  islands  are  Lancerotia,  Forteventura,  Grand 
 Canary,  Teneriffe,  Gomera,  Ferro,  and  Palma.  They  arc  thought 
 to  be  the  same  with  the  Fortunate  Islands  of  the  ancients.  They 
 were  impei'fectly  known  to  the  Spaniards  about  the  year  1300. 
 John  de  Bethencourt  conquered  and  took  possession  of  them, 
 for  Henry  III.  of  Castile,  about  1404.  With  the  king's  consent 
 he  soon  after  assumed  the  title  of  King  of  the  Canaries.  They 
 still  belong  to  Spain.  The  natives  were  called  Guanches.  The 
 race  is  nearly  extinct.  They  were  stout,  robust,  of  a  tawney  com- 
 plexion, with  large  flat  noses,  lively,  cunning,  brave,  and  addict- 
 ed to  war.  They  were  polygamists  and  idolaters.  The  I'eligion 
 is  the  Catholic.  The  bishop  has  a  revenue  of  >G  10,000,  and  is  suffra- 
 gan to  the  archbisliop  of  Seville.  A  tribunal  of  the  inquisition  is 
 established  at  Palma,  the  capital.  The  government  is  vested  in 
 a  governor  and  royal  audience.  The  audience  sit  at  Palma,  xhG 
 capital  of  Grand  Canary.  The  population  of  the  whole  group  is 
 stated  at  196,500,  distributed  as  follows  : 
 
 Teneriffe,  100,000*  Lance'rota,  8,000 
 
 Grand  Canary,     40,000  Comera,  7,000 
 
 Palma,  30,000  Ferro,  1,500. 
 
 Forte  Ventura,       10,000 
 
 These  islands  yield  a  revenue  to  the  crown  of  about  ;C60,000 
 sterling.  The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  Spaniards.  Most  of  them 
 ai'e  poor,  and  are  tenants.  Bread  is  eaten  only  by  the  rich.  The 
 poorer  sort  subsist  on  goffio^  a  parched  grain,  ground  by  a  little 
 hand-mill.  The  commerce  with  England,  Spain,  and  Spanish 
 America,  is  important.  The  exports  to  Spanish  South  America, 
 in  1788,  amounted  to  yC88,255  sterling,  and  the  imports  to  ;C7 1,586. 
 Wine  is  chiefly  exported  from  the  islands  of  Teneriffe  and  Palma. 
 Tropical  fruits  are  raised  in  great  abundance. 
 
 The  climate  is  temperate  and  mild.  The  soil  is  generally  fer- 
 tile. The  articles  of  culture  arc  the  vine,  sugar-cane,  cotton, 
 wheat,  barley,  and  rice.  All  the  islands  are  well  supplied  with 
 cattle. 
 
 Forteventura,  50  miles  long,  and  from  8  to  24  broad,  is  40  leagues 
 W.  from  Cape  Non.  It  is  fertile,  well  watered,  and  productive, 
 abounding  in  goats.  La  Villa,  in  the  centre,  and  Olivia,  in  the 
 N.  are  the  largest  towns. 
 
 Lancerotta  lies  directly  N.  of  the  preceding,  and  is  30  miles  by 
 8.  The  capital  of  the  same  name  has  100  houses.  Its  vallies  are 
 fertile,  and  it  abounds  in  goats. 
 
 Grand  Canary  lies  S.  S.  W.  of  Forteventura,  and  100  miles  N". 
 W.  by  N.  of  Cape  Bojador,  and  is  100  miles  in  compass.  Palma, 
 X\\Q  capital,  is  on  the  S.  W.  side,  at  a  small  distance  from  the  sea, 
 
?90  AFRICAN  ISLANDS. 
 
 and  is  about  a  league  in  circuit.  It  contains  12,00©  inhabitants. 
 The  houses  are  of  one  story,  Avith  flat  roofs,  but  are  well  built. 
 Jlerc  are  4  convents.  The  soil  is  a  rich  mould,  yielding  two  har- 
 vests.    Filtering  stones  are  among  the  exports. 
 
 Teneriff'e  is  70  miles  west  of  Grand  Canary,  and  1 60  N.  W.  of 
 Cape  Bojador.  Its  length  is  70  miles,  and  its  mean  breadth  22. 
 Santa  Cruz,  the  capital,  on  the  S.  E.  has  a  good  harbor,  and  is  a 
 liandsome,  populous  town.  The  governor  resides  here.  No  soil 
 is  more  fertile  than  that  of  this  island.  About  40,000  pipes  of 
 •wine  are  made  annually.  The  climate  is  remarkably  healthy. 
 The  celebrated  Peake  of  Tcnerifle  is  a  vi^ell  known  land-mark, 
 visible  more  than  120  miles. 
 
 GoMERA  lies  W.  of  TenerifFe,  is  20  miles  long,  and  10  broad, 
 and  has  a  capital  of  the  same  name,  on  the  E.  coast,  with  a  good 
 harbor.  It  is  fertile  and  well  cultivated,  producing  great  quanti- 
 ties of  silk. 
 
 Ferro,  orHiERRO,  the  m©st  western  of  the  Canaries,  and  the 
 naost  western  land  known  to  the  ancients,  constituted,  for  several 
 centuries,  the  only  first  meridian  of  geographers.  It  is  about  5 
 leagues  in  circuit,  and  not  very  fertile.  The  longitude  of  its 
 west  coast  is  17  46,  W. 
 
 Palma,  N.  by  E.  of  Ferro,  is  20  leagues  in  circuit.  It  is  very 
 fertile  and  productive,  and  has  a  capital  of  its  own  name. 
 
 Cape  Verd  Islands.  These  are  a  cluster  of  islands,  130 
 leagues  W.  of  Cape  Verd,  between  lat.  16  and  18,N.  The  prin- 
 cipal ones  are  St.  Anthony,  St.  Vincent,  St.  Nicholas,  Bonavista, 
 and  St.  Jago.  They  have  long  belonged  to  the  Portuguese.  The 
 inhabitants  of  all  are  said  to  amount  to  100,000.  By  long  resi- 
 lience, and  by  intermixture,  they  have  become  nearly  of  the  ne- 
 gro complexion  and  features.  The  manufactures  of  leather  and 
 salt  form  the  principal  riches.  The  soil  is  indifferent.  Tropical 
 fruits  abound.  The  first  modern  who  visited  them,  was  Antonio 
 Nolli,  a  Genoese,  in  1449. 
 
 GoREE.  This  is  a  little  island,  two  miles  in  circuit,  close  to 
 the  coast,  S.  of  Cape  Verd.  The  Dutch  planted  it  in  1617.  The 
 French  drove  them  out  in  1677,  and  wxre  lately  driven  out  by 
 the  English. 
 
 BissAo.  This  island  is  80  miles  in  ciicuit,  and  is  close  to  the 
 coast,  in  lat.  1 1  30,  just  N.  of  Rio  Grande.  It  is  the  only  posses- 
 sion of  the  Portuguese  near  the  coast,  between  Cape  Verd  and 
 the  Coast  of  Congo. 
 
 BissAGos.  These  form  a  little  aixhipclago,  lying  along  the 
 coast,  near  the  mouili  of  Rio  Grande. 
 
 Fernando  Po.  This  isle  is  about  30  leagues  in  circuit,  in  lat. 
 3  20,  N.  and  Ion.  10  45,  E.  near  the  coast  of  Benin.  It  belongs  to 
 Spain,  is  high,  has  a  fertile  soil,  and  produces  manioc,  sugar, 
 rice,  fruits,  and  tobacco. 
 
 Prince's  Island.  This  lies  directly  S.  of  the  former,  in  lat.  1 
 30,  N.  and  is  20  leagues  in  circuit.  The  town  on  the  N.  coast 
 has  a  good  harbor,  and  contains  200  houses.  The  soil  is  good, 
 and  the  produce  like  that  of  Fernando  Po.     It  belongs  to  Spain. 
 
AFRICAN  ISLANDS.  791 
 
 S-f.  Thomas.  St.  Thomas  is  about  20  leagues  in  circuit,  and 
 lies  a  little  W.  of  S.  from  Prince's  Island,  directly  under  the 
 equator,  and  about  50  leagues  N.  W.  by  W.  from  Cape  Lopez.  It 
 was  discovered  and  settled  by  the  Portuguese,  in  1460,  and  made 
 a  sort  of  Botany  Bay  for  the  heroes  of  the  Lisbon  Old  Bailey. 
 These  are  now  amalgamated  with  the  negroes. 
 
 Annobon.  This  is  a  high,  mountainous,  and  fertile  island, 
 about  6  leagues  in  circuit,  in  lat.  1  45,  S.  80  leagues  from  Cape 
 Lopez.  It  was  settled  by  the  Portuguese,  and  is  said  now  to  be- 
 long to  Spain. 
 
 St.  Matthew.  The  Portuguese  discovered  it  in  1516,  and 
 soon  after  settled  it.     It  lies  in  lat.  1  45,  S. 
 
 Ascension.  Lat.  7  56  30,  S.  Ion.  14  22  31,  W.  It  was  discov- 
 ered in  1501,  is  10  miles  long  from  N.  W.  to  S.  E.  and  5  or  6 
 broad.     It  is  barren  and  desolate,  but  abounds  with  turtle. 
 
 St.  Helena.  This  is  a  beautiful  island,  20  miles  in  circum- 
 ference, belonging  to  the  English  East  India  Company.  It  has 
 some  high  mountains,  particularly  one  called  Diana's  Peak,  which 
 is  covei-ed  with  wood  to  the  very  top.  There  are  other  hills  al- 
 so, which  bear  evident  marks  of  a  volcanic  origin ;  some  have 
 huge  rocks  of  lava,  and  a  kind  of  half  vitrined  flags.  Every  valley 
 is  watered  by  a  rivulet,  and  the  island  can  support  3000  head  of 
 its  small  cattle.  The  number  of  inhabitants  does  not  exceed 
 2000,  including  near  500  soldiers  and  600  slaves,  who  are  supplied 
 with  all  sorts  of  manufactures  by  the  company's  ships,  in  return 
 for  refreshments.  The  town  is  small,  situated  in  a  valley,  at  the 
 bottom  of  a  bay  on  the  south  side  of  the  island,  between  two  steep 
 dreary  mountains;  has  a  church,  and  is  well  defended  by  forts 
 and  batteries.  It  lies  between  the  continents  of  Africa  and  South 
 America,  about  1200  miles  west  of  the  former,  and  1800  east  of 
 the  latter.  Ion.  5  49,  west,  lat.  15  55,  south. 
 
 The  Company's  affairs  are  here  managed  by  a  governor,  depu- 
 ty governor,  and  store-keeper,  who  have  standing  salaries  allowed 
 by  the  Company,  besides  a  public  table  well  furnished,  to  which 
 all  commanders,  masters  of  ships,  and  principal  passengers  are 
 welcome. 
 
 Saxemberg,  Tristran  de  Cunba,  DiegOy  and  Gough's  Island,  are 
 small  islands  to  the  W.  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Prince  Ed- 
 ward's and  Desert  Islands,  lie  to  the  S.  L.  of  that  Cape.  The 
 Isle  of  Desolation,  called  by  the  Fi'ench,  Kerguelen's  Land,  is 
 about  equidistant  from  Africa  and  New  Holland. 
 
 Bourbon.  The  Portuguese  discovered  it  in  1545,  and  called 
 it  Mascarcnhas.  The  French  took  possession  in  1642,  and  called 
 it  Bourbon.  They  have  lately  called  it  Isle  de  Reunion,  and  still 
 later,  Bonaparte.  It  is  60  miles  long,  and  40  broad,  370  miles  E. 
 from  Madagascar.  The  island  is  difficult  of  access.  St.  Denis 
 is  the  principal  port.  It  has  lately  been  taken  by  the  English. 
 Its  first  inhabitants  were  pirates,  who  planted  themselves  hei'e  in 
 1657.  The  island  has  now,  according  to  St.  Pierre,  60,000  blacks, 
 and  5,000  other  inhabitants  :  Ion.  55  30,  E.  lat.  20  52,  S. 
 
 Mauritius.     This  island,  150  mileg  in  circumference,  lies  E. 
 
7n  AFRICAN  ISLANDS. 
 
 N.  E.  of  Bourbon,  and  400  miles  E.  of  Madagascar,  was  discover- 
 ed and  settled  by  the  Dutch,  in  1598,  and  relinquisr.ed  in  1710. 
 The  French  took  possession  soon  after,  and  retained  it  till  1810, 
 when  it  was  taken  by  the  English.  The  climate  is  healthy ;  but 
 the  soil  not  very  fertile.  There  are  many  mountains,  some  of 
 which  are  so  high,  that  their  tops  are  covered  with  snow  :  They 
 produce  the  best  ebony  in  the  world.  The  vallies  are  well  wa- 
 tered v/ith  rivers,  and  are  made  very  productive  of  cultivation,  of 
 which  indigo  is  the  principal  object.  The  town  and  harbor  arc 
 called  Port  Louis,  and  are  strongly  fortified  ;  Imt  in  the  hurricane 
 months,  the  harbor  cannot  afford  shelter  for  more  than  eight  ves- 
 sels. Here  are  large  store  houses,  and  every  thing  necessary  for 
 the  equipment  of  fleets. 
 
 The  number  of  inhabitants  on  the  island,  exclusive  of  the  mili- 
 tary, is  8,000  whites,  and  12,000  blacks.  These  black  slaves  cul- 
 tivate the  soil,  do  all  the  drudgery,  and  are  treated  in  the  most 
 cruel  manner.  In  desperation,  they  often  hang  or  drown  them- 
 selves. More  frequently,  they  fly  to  the  woods,  where  they  are 
 hunted  and  shot,  like  beasts,  by  parties  of  pleasure  formed  for  the 
 purpose  1 1     Lon.  57  28  E.  lat.  20  9  S.* 
 
 CoMORA  Islands,  a  cluster  of  islands  in  the  Indian  ocean,  be- 
 tween the  coast  of  Zanguebar  and  the  N.  part  of  the  island  of  Ma- 
 dagascar. They  afe  4  in  number,  viz.  Johanna,  Mayotta,  Mohilla, 
 and  Comora,  which  last  is  6  leagues  long  and  3  wide,  and  gives 
 its  name  to  the  group.  It  has  no  safe  harbors.  Its  high  moun- 
 tains are  richly  covered  with  verdure  and  fruit  trees,  and  give  rise 
 to  numerous  fertilizing  streams,  on  which  are  many  beautiful  cas- 
 cades. The  vallies  between  the  mountains  are  extensive,  and  in 
 richness  and  beauty  are  exceeded  by  none  in  the  world.  These 
 islands  produce  rice,  peas,  yams,  indian  corn,  purslain,  cocoa-nuts, 
 plantains,  oranges,  lemons,  citrons,  limes,  pine  apples,  cucumbers, 
 tamarinds,  sugar  canes  and  honey.  Their  animalsare  bufi'aloes, 
 goats,  tortoises,  camelions,  hens,  and  a  great  variety  of  birds,  many 
 of  which  are  not  known  in  Europe.  Johanna,  though  not  the  larg- 
 est, is  yet  in  many  respects  the  principal  island.  The  Arabs  are 
 settled  here,  and  exact  tribute  from  the  natives  of  this  and  the 
 other  islands.  The  Arabs,  about  3000  in  number,  professing  the 
 Mahometan  religion,  are  settled  together  in  a  v/alled  town  on  the 
 S.  E.  part  of  the  island.  The  town,  which  is  the  residence  of  the 
 king  of  all  the  isles,  contains  about  900  houses,  one  story  of  15 
 or  20  feet  high,  and  thatched  with  cabbage-tree  leaves.  The 
 town  covers  about  10  acres.  A  mosque  of  stone  rises  in  its  cen- 
 tre. The  walls  ai'e  about  6  feet  high,  and  encompass  the  whole 
 town,  leaving  but  one  place  of  entrance,  and  are  mounted  with  18 
 cannon,  taken  from  the  wreck  of  a  French  ship  ;  but  they  are  of 
 no  use  for  defence,  as  the  inhabitants  arc  without  ammunition,  and 
 ignorant  of  the  manner  of  managing  them.  The  streets  are  dirty, 
 and  so  narrow  as  to  admit  but  tvvo  persons  abreast.  The  drink  of 
 the  inhabitants  is  the  milk  of  the  cocoa-nut,  from  which  they  have 
 
 *  St.  Plenv, 
 
AFRICAN  ISLANDS.  795 
 
 the  art  of  extracting  an  intoxicating  liquor.  From  the  sugar-canes 
 they  extract  molasses.  The  Arabs  in  the  town  are  clothed,  and  in 
 some  degree  civilized  ;  but  the  aborigines,  about  7000  in  num- 
 ber, who  inhabit  the  hills,  and  who  are  often  at  war  with  the  Arabs, 
 go  naked,  are  of  a  dark  complexion,  and  stupid.  In  the  interior 
 of  the  island  is  a  lake,  held  sacred  by  the  natives,  in  which  are 
 ducks,  which  are  also  venerated.  All  strangers,  who  visit  this 
 lake,  are  required  to  leave  their  guns  5  miles  from  it.  The  birds 
 thus  protected,  are  tame,  and  fearlessly  approach  those  who  visit 
 them.  The  Arabs,  though  they  dare  not  openly  oppose,  yet  de- 
 test this  superstition.  The  East  India  ships  often  touch  here  for 
 refreshment.  The  Arabs,  some  of  them,  speak  broken,  but  intel- 
 ligible English — preserve  the  manners  of  Arabia,  and  are  not  so 
 dark  as  the  natives.  These  isles  lie  between  1 1  and  13  S.  lat.  and 
 44  and  47  E.  Ion.* 
 
 MoNFiA,  Zanzibar  and  Pemba,  lie  along  the  coast  of  Zangue- 
 bar.  The  latter  is  governed  by  a  king,  who  pays  tribute  to  the 
 Portuguese,  and  who  receives  a  tribute  from  the  other  two. 
 
 ZocoTRA  or  SocoTRA.  This  is  a  large  island,  25  leagues  from 
 Cape  Guardefan,  and  80  from  Arabia.  It  is  75  miles  in  length, 
 from  E.  to  W.  and  50  broad.  It  has  a  fine  bold  shore,  and  many 
 excellent  harbors.  It  is  fertile  and  populous  ;  and  is  governed 
 by  a  prince  who  is  tributary  to  the  Sheikh  of  Keschin^  a  town  of 
 Hadramaut  in  Arabia.  The  inhabitants  are  of  Arabian  descent, 
 and  are  Mahometans.     The  island  is  very  productive. 
 
 '  Capt.  Ham,  Walker,  Grose.  ["  , 
 
 THE  END, 
 
 VOL,  tT.  100 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL  Tx^BLL' 
 
 OF    REMARKABLE 
 
 EVENTS,  DISCOVERIES  AND  INVENTIONS  : 
 
 COMPREHENDING,    IN    ONE    VIEW, 
 
 THE  AJVAL  YSIS  OR  0  UTBIXES  OF  GEA''ERAL  HISTOR  Y* 
 FROM  THE  CREATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 
 
 Bef.  Oirist. 
 
 4004  'I'HI'j  creation  of  the  worlJ,  and  of  Adam  and  Eve. 
 
 3017  Enoch  translated  into  Iieaven. 
 
 254-8  The  old  world  destroyed  by  a  deluge,  which  continued  ii77  days.    • 
 
 3247  The  tower  of  Babel  is  built  about  this  time  by  Noah's  posterity;  upon  \v)iicl« 
 
 God  miraculously  confounds  their  language,  and  thus  disperses  them  into  dif- 
 ferent nations. 
 2234  Celestial  ob.servations  arc  begun  at  Babylon,  t]>e  city  which  first  gave  birth  to 
 
 learning  and  tiie  sciences. 
 21SS  Misraim,  the  son  of  Ham,  founds  the  kingdom   of  Egypt,  which  lasted   1G03 
 
 years,  to  the  conquest  of  Oambyses. 
 2059  Ninus,  the  son  of  Belus,  founds  the  kingdom  of  Assyria,  which  lasted  above  1000 
 
 years. 
 1921  The  covenant  of  God  made  with  Abraham,  when  he  leaves  Haran  to  go  into 
 
 Canaan,  which  begins  the  4:^0  years  of  sojourning. 
 1897  The  wties  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah  are  destroyed  for  their  wickedness  by  fire 
 
 from  heaven. 
 1822  Memnon  the  Egyptian  mvents  the  letters. 
 
 1635  Joseph  dies  in  Egypt,  which  concludes  the  book  of  Genesis,  containing  a  peri- 
 od of  23C9  years. 
 1574  Aaron  born  ;  1490,  appointed  by  God  first  high  priest  of  the  Israelites. 
 1571   Moses,  born  in  Egypt,  an<l  adopted  by  Phanioh's  daughter. 
 155G  Cecrops,  with  a  coJony  from  Egypt,  settles  Athens  inGreece- 
 1546  Scamander  from  Crete  begins  tlie  kingdom  of  Troy. 
 1503  Deluge  of  Deucalion  in  Thessaly. 
 
 1493  Cadmus  canied  the  Pboeniciar\  letters  into  Greece,  and  built  Thebes. 
 1491  Moses,  .after  a  nundjcr  of  miracles  in  Egypt,  departs  with  600,000  Israelites, 
 
 which  completed  the  4:50  years  of  sojourning. 
 1485  The  first  ship  that  appeared  in  (Treece  brought  from  Egypt  by  Danaus  to  Rhodes, 
 
 and  brought  with  him  his  fifty  daughtei-s. 
 1453  The  first  Olympic  games  celebrated  at  Olympia  in  Greece. 
 1452  The  Pentateuch,  or  five  first  books  of  Moses,  are  written  in  the  land  of  Moab, 
 
 vhere  he  died  the  following  year,  aged  110  years. 
 1451    The  Israelites,  after  sojourning  in  the  wilderness  forty  years,  are  led  under 
 
 Joshua  into  the  land  of  Canaan,  where  they  settle,  having  subdued  the  natives  j 
 
 and  the  period  of  the  s.abbatical  year  commences. 
 1406  Iron  is  foimd  in  Greece  from  the  accidental  burning  of  the  woods. 
 1263  Argonautic  expedition. 
 1198  The  rape  of  Helen  by  Paris,  in  1193,  gave  rise  to  the  Trojan  war,  which  con- 
 
 tTuufcil  ten  years,  when  that  city  was  taken  and  burned. 
 1G48  David  is  sole  king  of  Israel. 
 1004  The  Temple  is  solemnly  dedicated  by  Solomon. 
 8yfi  Elijah,  ihe  prophet,  is  translated  to  heaven. 
 894  Money  fii-st  made  of  gold  and  silver  at  Argos. 
 8f)9  The  city  of  Carthage  in  Africa,  founded  by  Queen  Dido. 
 814  The  kingdom  of  Alacedon  begins. 
 776  The  first  Olympiad  begins. 
 
 753  ^ra  of  the  building  of  Rome  by  Romulus  fir.'st  king  of  the  Romans. 
 720  Samaria  taken,  and  the  kingdom  of  Israel  overthrown  by  Salmanaser  Kihg  of 
 
 Assyria,  who  carried  the  ten  tribes  into  captivity. 
 The  first  eclii»se  of  the  moon  on  peconl. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE.  795 
 
 t.  c. 
 
 658  Byzantium  (now  Constantinojile)   bnilt  by  a  colony  of  Athenians. 
 
 C04  By  order  of  Necho,  King  of  Egypt,  some  Pliffiuicians  sailed  from  the  Red  Sea 
 round  Africa,  and  retui-ned  by  the  Me<hterranean. 
 
 600  ThalesofMiletustravelsinto  Egypt,  acquires  tlie  knowledsc  of  geometry,  astron- 
 omy and  philosophy;  returns  to  (irecce,  Wilculates  ecli[)ses,  and  gives  general 
 notions  of  the  universe,  and  maintains  that  one  Supreme  Intelligence  regulates 
 all  its  motions. 
 Maps,  globes,  and  the  signs  of.  the  Zodiack,  invented  by  Anaximander,  the 
 scholar  of  Thales. 
 
 :"97  Jehoiakin,  King  of  Juda]i,  is  carried  away  capti>'e  by  Nebuchadnezzar  to  Baby- 
 lon. 
 
 •■687  The  city  of  Jerusalem  taken  after  a  siege  of  18  months. 
 
 5C2  The  first  comedy  at  Athens  acted  upon  a  moveyble  scaffold. 
 
 5.59  Cvrus  the  first  King  of  Persia. 
 
 53S  The  kingdom  of  Kabylon  destroyed;  that  city  being  taken  by  Cyrus,  vlio,  itt 
 530,  issued  mi  edict  for  the  return  of  the  Jews. 
 
 53i  The  first  tragedy  acted  at  Atliens,  on  a  waggon,  by  Thespis. 
 
 5'26  Learning  is  greatly  encouraged  at  Athens,  and  a  public  library  first  founded. 
 
 515  The  second  temple  at  Jerusalem  is  finished  under  Darius. 
 
 509  Tarquin  the  seventh,  and  last  king  of  the  Homans  is  expelled,  and  Rome  is 
 governed  bv  two  eousuls  and  other  republican  magistrates,  until  tlie  battle  of 
 Pharsalia,  461  years. 
 
 504  Sardis  taken  and  burnt  by  the  Athcniiins,  XihicU  gave  occasion  to  the  Persian  in- 
 vasion of  Greece. 
 
 4SG  -5;schylus,  the  Greek  Poet,  first  gains  the  prize  of  tragedy. 
 
 481  Xerxes,  King  of  Persia,  begins  his  expedition  against  Greece. 
 
 458  Ezra  is  sent  from  Babylon  to  Jerusalem,  with  the  captive  Jews,  and  the  vessels 
 of  gold  and  silver,  kc  being  seventy  weeks  of  years,  or  490  years  before  the 
 crucifixSon  of  our  Saviour. 
 
 454  The  Romans  send  to  Athens  for  Solon's  laws. 
 
 451  The  Decemvirs  created  at  Rome,  and  the  laws  of  the  twelve  tables  compilejl 
 and  ratified. 
 
 443  Censors  created  at  Rome. 
 
 438  Nineteen  years  cycle  invented  by  Meton. 
 
 4.^0  The  history  of  the  Old  Testament  finishes  about  this  time. 
 
 430  Malachi,  the  last  of  the  prophets. 
 
 401  Retreat  of  10,000  Greeks,  under  Xenoplion. 
 
 400  Socrates,  the  founder  of  mora!  philosophy  among  the  Greeks,  put  to  deatli  by 
 the  Athenians,  who  soon  after  repent  and  erect  to  his  memory  a  statue  of 
 brass. 
 
 336  Philip  King  Macedon  murdered,  and  succeeded  by  his  son  Alexander  the 
 Great 
 
 332  Alexandria  in  Egypt  built. 
 
 331  Alexander,  king  of  Macedon,  conquers  Darius  King  of  Persia,  and  other  nations 
 of  Asia. 
 
 323  Dies  at  Babylon,  and  his  empire  is  divided  by  his  generals  into  four  kingdoms. 
 
 S591  Darkness  at  Rome  at  noon  day. 
 
 290  Solar  quadrants  introduced  atRome. 
 
 285  Dionysius,  of  Alexandria,  began  his  astronomical  era  on  Monday,  June  26,  being 
 the  first  who  found  the  solar  year  to  consist  exactly  of  365  days,  5  hours  and 
 49  minutes. 
 
 284  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  King  of  Egypt,  employs  seventy -two  interpreters  to 
 translate  the  Old  testamemt  into  the  Greek  language  which  is  called  the 
 Septuagint. 
 
 269  The  first  coinage  of  silver  at  Rome.  *" 
 
 264  The  first  Punick  war  begins,  and  continues  24  years. 
 
 260  The  Romans  first  concern  themselves  in  naval  afiiurs,  and  defeat  the  Carthagini- 
 ans at  sea. 
 
 250  Eratosthenes  first  attempted  to  measure  the  earth. 
 
 218  The  second  Punic  war  begins  and  continues  17  years.  Hannibal  passes  the  Alps, 
 and  defeats  the  Romans  in  several  battles. 
 
 J  90  The  first  Roman  army  enters  Asia,  and  from  tlie  spoils  of  Antiochus  brings  the 
 Asiatic  luxury  to  Rome 
 
 170  Eighty  thousand  Jews  massacred  by  Antiochus  Epjphanes. 
 
 168  Perseus  defeated  by  the  Romans,  which  ends  the  Macedonian  kingdom. 
 
 167  The  first  librai^  erected  at  Rome,  of  books  brought  from  Macedonia. 
 
 163  Tlie  government  of  Judea  under  the  Maccabees  begins  anci  contitiues  126 
 years. 
 
 146  Carthage  and  Corfntl)  rossd  to  (!he  gi'oijral  by  the  Romans,- 
 
796  CHRONOLOGICAt,  TABLE. 
 
 B     C. 
 
 145  A.  hundred  thousand  inhabitants  of  Autioch  massacred  in  one  day  hy  the  Jews. 
 135  The  history  of  the  Apocryi>ha  ends. 
 5'2  Julius  CiEsar  makes  Ihs  first  expedition  into  Britain. 
 
 4r  Tlie  battle  of  Pharsalia  between  Cicaar  and    Pompey,  in  wl\ich  the  latter  is  de- 
 feated. 
 The  Alexandrian  library,   consisting  of  400,000  valuable  books,  hnrnt  by  acci- 
 dent. 
 45  The  war  of  Africa,  in  which  Cato  kills  iiimself. 
 
 The  solar  year  introduced  by  Caesar. 
 a  Caesar  killed  in  the  senate  house,  alter  having  fought  50 pitched  battles  an^  over- 
 turned the  liberties  of  his  country . 
 43  Brutus,  one  of  the  conspiritors  as;ainst  Cxsar,  and  chief  of  the  republicans,  be- 
 ing vanquished  in  the  battle  of  Philippi,  kills  himself. 
 41  The  battle  of  .\ctium  fought,  in  which  Mark  Antony  and  Cleopati-a  are  totally 
 
 de*eated  by  Octavius,  nephew  to  Julius  Cwsar. 
 30  Alexandria  taken  by  Oc-tavius,  and  Egypt  reduced  to  a  Roman  province. 
 27  Octavius,  bv  a  decree  of  the  senate,  obtains  the  title  of  Augustus  Csesar,  and  an 
 exemption  from  the  laws,  is  the  first  Roman  emperor. 
 S  Rome  is  at  this  time  50  miles  in  circumference,  and  contains  4G3,000  men  fit  to 
 bear  arras. 
 The  temple  of  Janus  is  shut  by  Augustus,    as  an  emblem  of  universal  peace; 
 and  JESUS  CHRIST  is  supposed  to  have  been  born  in  September,  or  or 
 Monday,  December  25. 
 
 After  Christ. 
 12  Christ  disputes  witli  the  doctors  in  tlie  temple. 
 29    ■■  .      ■  is  baptized  in  the  wilderness  by  John. 
 S3  _____  is  crucilied  on  Friday,  April  3,  at  3  o'clock,  P.  M. 
 
 His  resarrection  on  Lord's  Day,  April  5  :  His  ascension,  Thursday,  May  14, 
 3f>  St.   Paul  converted. 
 39  St.   Matthew  writes  his  Gospel. 
 
 Pontius  Pilate  kills  himself 
 ^0  The  name  of  Christians  first  given  at  Antioch  to  the  followers  of  Christ, 
 
 43  Claudius  Ctesar's  expedition  into  Britain. 
 
 44  St.   Vlark  writes  his  Gospel. 
 46  Christianity  carried  into  Spain. 
 
 49  London  is  founded  by  the  Romans. 
 
 51  Caractacus,  the  British  king,  is  carried  in  chains  to  Rome. 
 
 •"52    The  council  of  the  .Apostlei  at  Jerusalem. 
 
 !>!i  St.  Liikc  writes  his  Gospel. 
 
 69  The  tyrant  Nero  puts  his  inother  and  brotliers  to  death. 
 fiO  Christianity  preached  in  Britain. 
 
 CI  Boadicea,  the  British  queen,  defeats  the  Romans;  but  is  conquered  soon  after 
 
 by  Suetonius  governor  of  Britain. 
 62  St  Paul  is  sent  in  bonds  to  Rome — writes  his  epistles  between  51  and  06. 
 03  The  Acts  of  the  Apostles  written. 
 
 Christianity  is  supposed  to  be  introduced  into  Britain  by  St.  Paul,  or  some  of  his 
 
 disciples  about  this  time. 
 64  Rome  set  on  fire,  and  burned  foi-  six  days;  upon   which  began,  under  Nero  the 
 
 first  persecution  against  the  Christians. 
 67  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul  put  to  death. 
 
 70  Titus  takes  Jerusalem,  which  is  rased  to  the  ground,  and  the  plough  made  to 
 
 pass  Dver  it. 
 79  Herculaneum  overwhelmed  by  an  eruption  of  Mount  Vesuvius. 
 96  St.  John  the  Evangelist  wrote  his  Revelation — his  Gospel  in  9". 
 136  The  second  Jewish  war  ends,  when  they  were  all  banished  Judea. 
 139  Justin  writes  his  first  apology   for  the  Christians. 
 
 152  The  Emperor  Antonins  Pius  stops  the  persecution  against  the  Christians. 
 5274  Silk  first  brought  from  India,  and  the  manufacture  of  \t  introduced  into  Europe 
 
 551. 
 .103  The  tenth  genevat  persecution  begins  under  Dioclesian  and  Galerius. 
 .^06  Consfantinc  the  Great  begins  his  reign. 
 308  Cardinals  first  instituted. 
 313    rhe  tenth  persecution  ends  by  an  edict  of  Constantine,  who  favors  the  Christians, 
 
 and  gives  full  liberty  to  their  religion. 
 335  The  first  general  council  at  Nice,  when  318  fathers  attended  against  Aritis,. 
 
 tvherc  was  composed  the  fiiraous  Nicene  Creed. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE.  7Q7 
 
 A.  C.  ... 
 
 •328  Consfantine  removes  the  seat  of  empire  from, Rome  to  Byzantium,  Avliich  is 
 
 thenceforward  called  Constantinople. 
 SSI  Constantino  orders  all  the  heathen  temples  to  be  destroyed. 
 
 563  The  emperor  Julian,  the  apostate,  endeavors  in  vain  to  rebuild  the  temple  of 
 
 Jerusalem. 
 
 564  The  Roman  empire  is  divided  into  the  eastern  (Constantinople  the  capital)  and 
 
 western  (of  which  Rome  continued  to  be  the  capital ;)  each  being  now  undel- 
 
 the  government  of  difterent  emperors. 
 400  Bells  nivented  by  bishop  Paulinus  of  Nola  in  Campagnn. 
 •410  Rome  taken  a«d  plundered  by  Alarick,  King  of  the  Goths. 
 412  The  Tandals  begin  their  kingdom  in  Spain. 
 420  The  kingdom  of  France  begins,  under  Pharamond. 
 432  St.  Patrick  began  to  preach  in  Ireland  :  died  493  aged  122  years. 
 447  Attila,  (called  the  scouige  of  God)  with  his  Huns  ravages  the  Roman  empire. 
 476  The  western  empire  entirely  destroyed ;  upon  the  ruins  of  which  several  new- 
 states  arise  in  Italy  ;  under  whom  literature  is  extinguished,  and  the  woriis  «i 
 
 the  learned  are  destroyed. 
 496  Clovis,  king  of  France,  baptized,  and  Christianity  introduced. 
 510  Paris  becomes  the  capital  of  France. 
 
 516  The  computing  of  time  by  the  Christian  era  is  introduced  Dyonysius  the  moiik. 
 529  The  code  of  Justinian,  the  eastern  emperor,  is  published. 
 557  A  terrible  plague,  all  over  Europe,  Asia,  aud  Afiica,  which  continues  near  fifiy 
 
 years. 
 581  Latin  ceased  to  be  spoken  about  this  time  in  Italy. 
 600  Bells  first  u.sed  in  churches. 
 606  The  power  of  tlie  Popes  begins  by  the  concessions  of  Phocas,  emperor  of  the 
 
 east. 
 622  IVIahomet  flies  from  Mecca  to  Medina  in  Arabia.    His  followers  compute  tlieii; 
 
 time  from  this  era,  called  Ilegira,  i-  e.  the  Flight. 
 637  Jerusalem  taken  by  the  Saracens  or  followers  of  Mahomet. 
 642  Alexandria  in  EgAptis  taken  by  the  S.^racens,  and  the  grand  librajy  there  1>iTrji- 
 
 ed  by  order  of  Omar  their  caliph,  or  prince. 
 664  Glass  invented  in  England  by  Benalt,  a  monk. 
 696  Churches  first  began  to  be  built  in  England. 
 713  The  Saracens  conquer  Spain. 
 
 726  The  controversy  about  images  begins,  which  disturbs  the  Eastern  empire, 
 748  The  computing  of  years  from  the  birth  of  Christ  begins. 
 761  Thirty  thousand  books  burnt  by  order  of  the  emperor  Leo. 
 SOO  Charlemagne,  king  of  France,  begins  tlie  empire  of  Germany,  afterwards  cjiVieff 
 
 the  western  empire,  and  endeavors  in  vain  to  restore  learniiig  in  Euroi)e, 
 828  Egbert  unites  the  Heptarchy  by  the  name  of  England. 
 886  Juries  first  instituted. 
 896  Alfred  the  Great,  after  subduing  the  Danish  invaders,  composes  his  body  of  laws 
 
 divides  England  into  counties,  hundreds,  and  ty things;  founds  the  University 
 
 of  0.\ford. 
 ei."?  The  University  of  Cambridge  founded.! 
 
 936  The  Saracen  empire  divided  into  seven  kingdoms  by  usurpation. 
 94-0  Christianity  established  in  Denmark. 
 989  Christianity  established  in  Russia. 
 991  The  figures  in  Arithmetic  are  brought  into  Europe  by  the  Saracens,  from  Arabia. 
 
 Letters  of  the  alphabet  were  hitherto  used. 
 iOOO  Paper  made  of  cotton  rags  comes  into  use,  that  of  linen  do.  1170. — The  manufac- 
 
 tory  introduced  into  England  at  Dartford  1588. 
 
 1014  The  famous  battle  of  Clontarf  was  fought  wherein  the  Danes  were  completely  de- 
 
 feated with  the  loss  of  11,000  men,  and  driven  out  of  Ireland. 
 
 1015  Children  forbidden  by  law  to  be  sold  by  their  parents  in  England. 
 Priests  forbidden  to  many. 
 
 1017  Canute,  king  of  Denmark,  gets  possession  of  England. 
 1025  Musical  gamut  invented. 
 
 1040  The  Danes  driven  out  of  Scotland. 
 
 1041  The  Saxon  line  restored  under  Edward  the  Confestor. 
 1043  The  Turks  become  formidable  and  take  possession  of  Persia. 
 1054  Leo  IX.  the  first  Pope  that  kept  up  an  army. 
 
 1065  The  Turks  take  Jerusalem  from  the  Saracens. 
 
 J066  The  battle  of  Hustings  fought,  between  Harold  and  William  duke  of  N orman(!y, 
 
 after  which  William  becomes  King  of  England. 
 1070  William  introduces  the  feudal  law. 
 1075  Henry  IV.  Emperor  of  Germany  and  the  Pope  quarrel  about  the  nomination  of 
 
 the  German  bishops.    Henry  iri  penance,  walks  barefooted  to  Rome,  towards 
 
 the  end  of  Januarv, 
 
79S  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE. 
 
 A,    C. 
 
 1080  Doomsday  bookbef;an  to  be  compiled  by  order  of  William,  from  a  survey  of  all 
 
 the  Estates   in  Kngland,  and  linislied  in  lOSo. 
 Tiie  lower  of  Lnndoti  built  by  the  same  prince,  to  curb  his  English  subjects. 
 lOSG  Kingdom  of  Uohemia  begi\n. 
 103i  The  Saracens  iu  Spain,  being  hard  pressed  by  the  Spaniards,  call  to  their  assis- 
 
 tance  Josepii,  King  of  Morocco ;  by  which  the  MoOrs  get  possession  of  all  the 
 
 Sar.'icen  dominions  in  Spain. 
 109G  The  first  crusade  to  the  Holy  Land  to  drive  thence  the  infidels. 
 ll.'il  The  canon  law  collected  by  Gratian,  a  monk  ofliologna. 
 1163  London  bridge,  first  built  of  stone.  • 
 
 1180  (ilass  windows  began  to  be  used  in  private  houses  in  England. 
 1182  Pope  Alexander  III.  compelled  the  kings  of  England  and  France  to  hold  the  stir- 
 rups of  bis  saddle  when  he  mounted  his  horse, 
 1186  The  gi-eat  conjunclioa  of  the  sun  moon  and  all  the  planets  in  Libra,  happened  iji 
 
 September. 
 1192  The  battle  of  Ascalon,  in  .Tudea,  in   which  Riohard,  King  of  England,  defeats 
 
 Saladinc'.*  army  consisting  of  SOO,OW  combatants 
 1200  Chimnios  were  not  known  in  England. 
 
 SLU-iianies  now  began  to  be  used  ;  first  among  the  nobility. 
 1208  London  incorporated,  and  obtained  its  first  charter  from  King  John. 
 1215  Magna  Charta  is  signed  by  King  lohn  and  the  barons  of  England. 
 1227  The  Tartars,  a  new  race  of  Barbarians,  under  Gingis  Khan,  emerge  from  the 
 
 northern  part  of  Asia,  conquer  the  gi-eatest  part  of  that  continent,  and  in  22 
 
 years  destroy  upwards  of  14  millions  of  people. 
 12.3.3  The  inquisition,  begun  in  1204,  is  now  trusted  to  the  Dominicans. 
 
 1252  Magnifying  glasses  invented  by  Roger  Bacon. 
 
 1253  The  famous  astronomical  tables  composed  by  Alonzo  Kins  of  Castile. 
 12.58  The  Tartars  take  Bagdad,  which  ends  the  empire  of  the  Saracens. 
 
 1263  Acho,  King  of  Norway,  invades  Scotland  with  IGO  sail,  and  lands  20,000  men  at 
 the  mouth  of  the  Clyde,  but  most  of  them  are  cut  to  pieces  by  Alexander  111. 
 who  recovers  the  western  isles. 
 
 1273  The  empu-e  of  the  present  Austrian  family  begins  in  Germany. 
 
 1280  Pulvis  fulminans  and  gunpowder  invented  by  Roger  Bacon. 
 
 1282  Wales  united  to  England. 
 
 1285  Spectacles  invented  by  Alexander  Spina,  a  Spanish  monk. 
 
 1298  The  present  Turkish  empire  begins  in  Bithynia  under  Ottoman. 
 
 Silver  hafted  kaives,  spoons,  and" cups,  a  great  luxury.     Splinters  of  wood  gene- 
 rally used  "br  lights 
 Wine  sold  by  apothecaries  as  a  cordial. 
 
 1299  Windmills  invented. 
 
 1300  About  this  time  the  mariner's  compass  w.as  invented,  or  improved  by  John 
 
 Gioia,  or  Goya,  a  Neapolitan.  The  flo.ver-de-luce,  the  arms  of  the  dukeof 
 Anjou,  then  king  of  Naples,  was  placed  by  him  at  the  point  of  the  needle,  ia 
 compliment  to  tliat  prince. 
 
 1307  The  beginning  of  the  Swiss  Cantons. 
 Intei-est  of  money  in  England  at  45  per  cent. 
 
 1308  The  Popes  remove  to  .Avignon  in  France  for  70  years. 
 1320  Gold  first  coined  in  Christendom — in  England  1344. 
 
 1336  Two  Brabant  weavers  settled  at  York,  wliich,says  Edward  III.  may  prove  of 
 
 great  benefit  to  us  and  our  subjects. 
 
 1337  The  first  comet  apj>cared  whose  course  is  described  with  astronomical  exactness. 
 1340  Gunpowder   first  suggested  as  useful  for  warlike  purposes  by  Swariz,  a  monk  of 
 
 Colonge;  134G,  Edward  III,  had  four  pieces  of  cannon,  which  coutjibuted  to 
 
 gain  him  the  battle  of  Cressy. 
 Oil  painting  first  made  use  of,  by  John  Vaneck. 
 1344  The  first  creation  to  titles  by  patent  used  by  Edward  III. 
 1352  The  Turks  first  enter  Europe. 
 1356  The    battle  of  Poictiers,  in  which   king  John  of  France  and  his  sons  are  taken 
 
 prisoners  by  Edward  the  Black  Prince. 
 1S57  Coals  first  brought  to  London. 
 13G2  The  law  pleadings  in  England^  changed  from    French  to  English,  as  a  favor  of 
 
 Edw.ard  III.  to  his  people. 
 1386  A  company  of  linen  weavers  from  the  N«;therlands  established  in  London. 
 1391  Cards  invented  in  France  for  the  king's  amusement. 
 
 1402  Bajazet  defeated  by  Tamerlane,  and  the  power  of  the  Turks  almost  entirely  de- 
 stroyed. 
 1404  Hats  for  men  invented  at  Paris  by  a  Swiss. 
 1422  Denmark  united  with  the  crown  of  Norway. 
 1415  Tbe  battle  of  Agiiicoui't,  gained  otct  the  French  by  Ifenry  V.  of  England. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE.  799 
 
 U28  The  sie,e  of O.Jeans  The  celebrated  Ma.d  of  Orle^-PP^J-J^''^^  S-yes^^^^ 
 first  blow  to  the  English  power  in  France.    She  is  afteiwaid*  taken  i...soDei 
 
 U30  Uurt^:;^'Ke^:lrt.nts  the  art  of  r-.n.ojlch  1.  J>J^tJd  .Hj 
 separate  uooden  types.  Gottenburg  altervv^.ds  .'"^^  'te  i  cut  ^«=^«»  ^^^'^'j 
 Pe[er  Schceffer  invented  the  mode  of  casting  t>;  pes  '"  "^^^V^'^^^^^f'i^laoXs, 
 authentic  accounts  ascribe  the  iuvent.en  ot  rr.ntms  to  Dr.  Faust,  or.iraostus. 
 
 The  sea  breaks  ir.  at  Dort,  in  Holland,  and  drowns  100,000  people. 
 J  446    The  Vatican  library  founded  at  li'ime.  ,.„..t^vnw<;  tlip  Rnraan  em- 
 
 1453  Constantinople  taken  by   the   Turks,  which  utterly  o^erthl0^vs  the  Koraan  em 
 
 1454  Otto  Guerick,  a  German,  invents  the  air-pump.  Jud-vment  of 
 Duelliug  appointed  in  certain  cases  m  France,  in  order  to  haAe  the  jUii^raeni  oi 
 
 1460  Engravings  and  etchings  in  copper  in%'ented.  tv-.Mnomctrv  introduced, 
 
 U7i  Decimal  arithmetic  invented,  and  the  use  of  tangents  mti.gonomctry  introaucea, 
 
 bv  Regioraentanus.  ...  * 
 
 1485  Great  numbers  carried  off  by  the  sweating  sickness.  Polumbiis 
 
 1489  Maps  and  sea  charts  first  broughtito  England  by  Lartholomeyv  Lclumb^s. 
 
 1492  .\MERI(;\  discovered  by  Columbus. 
 
 1494  Algebra  fii-st  known  in  Europe.  /^  «„  „r  Pn^l  TTnnp 
 
 1497  The  Portuguese  first  sail  to  the  East  Indies  by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
 
 South  America  discovered  by  Americus  \  espusius. 
 
 North  America  discovered  by  Cabot.  . 
 
 1503  Mines,  used  in  tlic  attack  and  defence  of  places,  inventea. 
 1509  Gardening  introduced  into  England  from  the  Jietherlands. 
 
 The  island  of  Jamaica  settled  by  Spain. 
 1512  Florida  discovered.  ,.      t         i"-- 
 
 1515  Paraguay  discovered  by  the  Spaniards,  and  settled  by  them  i^oj. 
 
 1517  Martin  Luther  began  the  Reformation. 
 
 Egvpt  conquei-ed  by  the  Turks.  .         ,  .  ,   i        .• 
 
 1518  Magellan,  in  the  service  of  Spain,  discovers  the  straits  which  bear  his  name, 
 
 makes  the  first  voyage  round  the  world,  but  is  killed  by  the  savages  m  the  Ma- 
 rianne islands.  ' 
 
 R«;pub!ic  of  Geneva  founded.  ,      •  .      r « r*  c    j 
 
 1520  Htury  Vlll.  for  his  writings  in  fovor  of  Popery,  receives  the  tit  e  At     Uetendef 
 of  the  Faith"  from  the  Popo.  , 
 
 Chocolate  first  brought  from  Mexico  by  the-Spaniards.  _  •    ♦   t. 
 
 1529  The  name  of  Protestant  t.ikes  it  rise  from  the  Reformed,  protestmg  against  the 
 
 church  of  Rome,  at  the  diet  of  Spires  in  Germany- 
 
 1530  Copernicus  revives  the  Pythagorean  system  of  astronomj'.  ,  n  •  v. 
 
 1539  'l"he  first  English  edition  of  the  Bible'aulhorised  ;  the  present  translation  hnish* 
 
 ed  1611. 
 About  this  time  cannon  began  to  he  used  in  ships. 
 
 1540  The  order  of  the  Jesuits  established  by  Ignatius  Loyola,  a  Spaniard. 
 1543  Silk  stockings  first  worn  bv  the  French  king. 
 
 Pins  first  used  in  England,"  before  wliich  time  the  ladies  used  skewer.s. 
 
 1545  The  famous  council  of  Trent  begins,  and  continues  18  years.    ■ 
 
 1546  Interest  of  money  first  establibhed  in  England  by  law  at  10  per  cent. 
 Potosi  mountain  discovered.     The  richest  mine  in  America. 
 
 1549  Brazil  settleil  by  the  Portuguese.     Discorered  in  1500.  ,  . 
 
 1553  Circulation  of  the  blood  through  the  lungs  first  published,  by  Michael  SciTetUS. 
 1557  Groats  ftnd  half  groats  the  greatest  silver  coin  in  England. 
 1560  John  Knox  establishes  Presbyterianisra  in  Scotland. 
 
 Siberia  discovered  in  the  reign  of  the  Czar  Ivan  Basilides. 
 
 1562  John  Ribalt,  with  a  fleet  from  France,  discovers  the  river  St  M»Ty. 
 
 1563  Knives  first  made  in  England. 
 
 The  39  articles  of  the  English  faith  established, 
 1565  Potatoes  first  brought  to  Ireland  from  New  Spain,  in  America. 
 1569  Circulation  of  the  blood  published  by  Cisalpmus. 
 1572  The  great  massacre  of  Protestants  at  Pai'is,  August  24. 
 1577  Sir  Francis  Drake  sets  sail  on  his  voyage  round  tlie  world— returned  1580,  being' 
 
 the  first  English  circumnavigator. 
 1579  The  Dutch  sliake  off  the  Spanish  yoke,  and  found  the  republic  of  Holland. 
 
 English  East  India  Company  incorjKirated — established  1600. 
 1581  J.  Usher,  Archbiehop  of  Armagh,  born  in  Dublin,  drew  up  104  articles  f»f  religion 
 for  Ireland,  1615  j  wfeick  \t&rc  establ»#ied  1635.— JJied  1656. 
 
800  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE. 
 
 A.    C. 
 
 1582  PopcGi'6garyin(ro(luces  the  New  Style  in  Italy;  the  5th  of  October  being  coont- 
 
 ed  15. 
 
 1583  Tobacco  first  brought  from  Virginia  into  England — first  discovered  by  the 
 
 Spaniards  in  Yucatan  in  1320. 
 15S5  Davis*  Straits  discovered. 
 
 1587  Man-,  Queen  of  Scots,  beheaded  by  order  of  Elizabeth,  after  18  years' impris- 
 
 oniTient. 
 Duelling  introduced  into  England. 
 
 1588  The  Spanish  Armada  destroyed  by  Drake  and  other  English  Admirals. 
 Heni-y  IV.  passes  the  famous  edict  of  Nantz,  tolerating  the  Protestants. 
 The  Niatiufacture  of  paper  inlro<luced  into  England  at  Dartford. 
 
 15S9  Coaches  first  introduced  into  England. 
 
 Bombs  invented  at  Venlo. 
 1590    I'elescopes  invented  by  Jansen,  a  Dutchman. 
 1597  Watchesfirst  brought  into  England  from  Germany. 
 1600  TJuilding  with  brick  introduced  into  England  by  the  earl  of  Arundel. 
 160'2  Decimal  arithmetic  invented  at  Bruges. 
 
 New  England  discovered  by  Capt.  Gosnold. 
 1603  Queen  Elizabeth  (the  last  of  the  Tudors)  dies,  and  nominates  James  VI.  of  Scot- 
 land (and  first  of  the  Stuarts)    as  her  successor  ;  which  unites  botli  kiugdoms 
 under  the  name  of  Great  Britain. 
 1605  The  gun  powder  plot  discovered  at  Westminster. 
 
 Keplf.r  lays  the  foundation  of  the  Newtonian  system  of  attraction. 
 
 1607  Jamestown  in  Virginia  settled- 
 
 1608  llenry  Hudson  discovers  the  river  in  New-York,  which  bears  his  name. 
 Galileo,  of  Florence,  first  discovers  the  satellites  about  the  planet  Jupiter,  by  the 
 
 telescope  then  just  invented  in  Holland. 
 Quebeck  settled  by  the  French. 
 IGIO  Ilenry  IV  is  murdered  at  Paris,  by  Ravilliac,  a  priest. 
 
 Hudson's  Bay  discovered  by  Capt.  Henry  Hudson,  who  is  left  by  his  men,  with 
 
 seven  others,  to  perish  on  that  desolate  coast. 
 Great  famine  in  Virginia. 
 1614  Napier,  of  Marcheston,  in  Scotland,  invents  the  logarithms. 
 New-York  and  New-J«rsey  settled  by  the  Dutch. 
 
 The  Aborigines  of  New-England  thinned  by  pestilence,  in  the  vicinity  of  Plym- 
 outh. 
 1618  New  Holland  discovered  by  the  Dutch. 
 1019  Dr.  W.  Harvey,  an  Englishman,  fully  confirras  the  doctrine  of  the  circulation  of 
 
 the  blood. 
 1620  About  100  persons  (Puritans)  settletl  at  Plymouth,  in  Massachusetts,  being  the 
 
 first  English  settlers  in  New-England. 
 1G20  &  21  One  hundred  and  fifty  young  women  of  good  characters  were  sent  from 
 Bngland  to  marry  planters  in  Virginia.    The  price  of  a  wife  to  a  husband  who 
 purchased  her,  was  100  pounds  of  tobacco  ;  but  it  soon  rose  to  150.    Tobacco 
 was  then -worth  3  pence  per  pound. 
 2500  settlers  an-ived  in  this  and  the  next  year  in  that  colony. 
 Negroes  imported  into  Virginia. 
 
 1622  Nova-Scotia  first  settled  by  the  Scotch.  '         .^ 
 
 1623  New-Hampshire  settled  by  an  English  colony. 
 
 Great  scarcity  in  New-England,  llie  inhabitants  obliged  to  subsist  chiefly  ou 
 ground-nuts,  clams,  muscles,  and  the  gleanings  of  the  forest  and  the  seashore. 
 \  lobster  with  water,  but  without  any  vegetables,  was  their  best  dish. 
 
 1624  Charter  of  Virginia  vacated  after  the  company  had  transported  to  it  more  than 
 
 900(1  English  subjects,  and  expended  150,000/.  in  forwartling  the  settlement. 
 
 1625  The  island  of  Barbadoes,  the  firet  English  settlement  in  the    West-Indies,  is 
 
 planted. 
 
 1626  The  barometer  invented  by  Torricelli. 
 
 1627  The  thermometer  invented  by  Drebellius. 
 
 A  colony  «f  Swedes  settled  on  the  Delaware  river,  Pennsylvania.! 
 1631  Newspapers  first  published  at  Paris. 
 1633  Mai7land  settletl  by  Lord  Baltimore,  with  a  colony  of  Roman  Catholics  ;  the 
 
 Charter  being  granted  the  year  before. 
 1635  Connecticut  and  Rhode-Island  scUled. 
 
 1637  The  Pequots destroyed  by  Connecticut.    In  carrying  on  this  war,  the  white  set 
 
 tiers  used  only  one  pint  of  rum,  which  was  given  to  the  sick. 
 
 1638  The  Laudean  persecution  in  this  year,  and  the  precedinjj  17,  had  driven  more 
 
 than  20,000  inhabitants  from  Old  to  New-England. 
 African  slaves  imported  into  New-England  from  the  West-Indies,  in  the  way  of 
 tcadc. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE.  801 
 
 A.   C.  - 
 
 i  638  Harvard  College  in  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  established. 
 
 1639  A  general  contribution  over  the  province  of  Maryland,  to  erect  a  water  mill  for 
 
 the  use  of  the  province. 
 
 1640  Tiie  massacre  in  Ireland,  when  40,000  English  Protestants  were  killed. 
 
 1642  Civil  war  begins  in  England. 
 
 The  first  printing-office  in  New-England  established  at  Cambridge. 
 
 1643  The  colonies  of  Massachusetts,   Plymouth,  Connecticut,   and  New-Haven,  be- 
 
 come one  for  defined  purposes,  by  the  name  of  the  United  Colonies  of  New- 
 England.  This  union  not  only  promoted  peace  and  harmony  among  the  colo- 
 nies, while  civil  war  raged  in  England,  but  mad?  them  formidable  both  to  the 
 Dutch  in  New-Arasterdam,  and  the  aborigines  of  the  country  It  was  algo  in- 
 strumental in  promoting  the  civilization  and  conversion  of  the  Indians.  The 
 Society  incorporated  in  England,  l»ir  propagating  the  gospel  among  the 
 Indians  in  New-England,  made  the  commissioners  of  the  United  Colonies  their 
 correspondents  and  agents  for  dispersing  their  charitable  donaiiciis  This  cor- 
 respondence and  agency  continued  from  1656,  till  the  dibsoliuion  of  the  Un- 
 ion in  1686,  and  was  eminently  useful  in  reforming  and  meliorating  the  condi- 
 tion of  the  Indians. 
 
 1644  A  great  massacre  by  the  Indians  in  Virginia.  * 
 
 1646  Episcopacy  abolished  in  England. 
 
 Massachusetts  passes  an  act  for  evangelising  the  Indians. 
 
 1647  A  very  mortal  epidemical  sickness  prevails  in  New-England. 
 The  first  Selenographie  maps  made  by  Hevelius. 
 
 1649  An  association  entered  into   in  New-England,  by  the  Governor  and  Council  of 
 Massachusetts,  against  wearing  long  hair. 
 Charles  I.  beheaded  at  Whitehall,  January  SO,  aged  49. 
 
 1652  The  speaking  trumpet  invented  by  Kircher,  a  Jesuit. 
 Mint  erected  in  New-England  for  coining  money. 
 
 1653  Great  fire  in  Boston  ;  also  in  the  years  1676,  1679)  1711,  1760. 
 
 1654  Cromwell  assumes  the  Proteatorship. 
 
 1655  The  English  under  admiral  Penn  take  Jamaica  from  the  Spaniards. 
 
 1656  The  inhabitants  of  Massachusetts  respectfully    refuse   Cromwell's  request  to  mi- 
 
 grate to  Jamaica,  tliough  he  offered  them  ample  protection,  and  all  the  powers 
 of  government. 
 1558  Cromwell  dies,  and  is  succeeded  in  the  Protectorship  by  his  son  Richard. 
 J  659  Transfusion  of  blood  first  suggested  at  Oxford. 
 
 1660  King  Chai-les  II.  is  restored  by  Monk,  commander  of  the  army,  after  an  exile  of 
 twelve  years  in  France  and  Holland. 
 Episcopacy  restored  in  England  and  Scotland. 
 
 The  people  of  Denmark  being  oppressed  by  the  Nobles,  surrender  their  privi- 
 leges to  Frederic  111    who  beconjes  absolute. 
 1662  The  Royal  Society  established  in  London,  by  Charles  II. 
 
 Pendulum  clocks  invented  by  John  Fromentel,  a  Dutchman. 
 Fire  engines  invented. 
 
 1664  The  Bible  translated  into  the  Indian  language,  by  Elliot,  the  Apostle. 
 
 1665  The  plague  rages  in  London,  and  carries^  oft" 68,060  inhabitants. 
 
 1666  The  great  fire  of  London  be^an  September  2,  and  continued  five  days,  in  which 
 
 were  destroyed  13,000  houses  and  400  streets. 
 Tea  first  used  in  England. 
 Academy  of  sciences  established  in  France. 
 
 1667  The  peace  of  Bi-eda,  whicli  confirms  to  the  Eiiglish  the  New  Netherlands,  now 
 
 known  by  the  names  of  Pennsylvania,  New-York  and  New-Jersey. 
 
 1669  South-Carolina  planted   by  an  English  colony,   under  Governor  Sayle,  under  a 
 
 patent  granted  by  Lord  Clarendon,  1064.  ' 
 
 1670  The  English  Hudson's  B.ay  Company  incorporated. 
 
 1671  Academy  of  Architecture  establisheil  in  France. 
 
 1672  Lewis  XIV.  overruns  great  partof  Hoiland,  v.hen  the  Dutch  open  their  sluices, 
 
 being  determined  to  drown  their  coiuitry,  and  retire  to   their  settlements  iu 
 the  East  Indies. 
 1676  Repeating  clocks  and  watches  invented  by  Barlow. 
 
 1678  The  habeas  corpus  act  pa.ssed. 
 
 1679  Darkness  at  London,  tliat  one  could  not  read  at  noon -.lay,  January  12. 
 New-Hami)shire,  M'hich  had   been  hitherto  as  under  the  same  jurisdiction  with 
 
 Massachusetts,  erected  into  a  separate  government. 
 1580  A  great  comet  appeared,  and  continued  visible  from  Nov.  3  to  March  9. 
 
 William  Penn  receives  a  patent  for  Pennsylvania,   March  4th — and   grants  % 
 
 charter  to  adventurers,  16S3. 
 Charleston,  S.  C.  founded. 
 1682  College  of  FhysiciaQs  at  Edinburgh  incorporated. 
 
 VOL.  II.  ioi 
 
802  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE. 
 
 A.    C. 
 
 168'2  Royal  Acailemy  established  at  Nismes. 
 
 1683  William    Penn   purchases  from  James,  Duke   of  York,  that  part  of  the  New 
 Netherlands  now  known  by   the  name  of   "  the  State  of  Delaware." — Phila- 
 delphia began  to  be  built. — India  stock  sold  from  360  to  500  per  cent. 
 First  legislative  assembly  in  New-York. 
 
 Printing  presses  forbidden  in  Vii-ginia,  by  its  royal  governor. 
 16S4  Massachusetts  deprived  of  its  charter. 
 
 1685  The  edict  of  Nantz  infamously  revoked  by  Lewis  XIV.  and  the  Protestants  cru- 
 
 elly persecuted. 
 
 1686  Sir  Edmund  Andross  appointed  Governor  General  of  New-England,  and  shortly 
 
 after  of  New-York  and  New-Jersey,  with  powers  subversive  of  colonial  privi- 
 leges. He  ruled  the  whole  with  a  rod  of  iron,  till  the  revolution  of  1688,  in 
 England,  freetl  both  the  mother  country  and  the  colonies  from  arbitrary  power. 
 
 1688  The    revolution   in    Great  Britain   begins,    Nov.   5.     King  James  abdicates  the 
 throne,  and  retires  to  F" ranee,  December  3,  following. 
 
 1589  King  William  and  Queen  Mary,   daughter  and  son  in  law  to  James  II.  arc  pro- 
 claimed, Feb.  16. 
 
 1690  Sir  William  Phips  reduces  Port  Royal,   and  takes  possession  of  the  wjiole  sea- 
 coast  from  it  to  the  New-England  settlements. 
 Paper  money,  the  first  emission  in  the  colonies,  was  issued  by  Massachusetts,  to 
 
 defray  the  e.xpenses  of  these  expeditions. 
 French  refugees,  who  had  been   exiled  in  consequence  of  the  revocation  of  the 
 edict  of  Nantz,  settle  in  Virginia,  New- York,  Carolina,  and  Boston. 
 
 1692  A  nev/  charter  established,    which   constituted   Massachusetts  a  royal  province, 
 
 and  added  to  it  the  colony  of  Plymouth,  the  province  of  Maine,  kc.  but  separ- 
 ated New-Hampshire  from  it. 
 Witchcraft  delusion  in  Massachusetts 
 
 1693  Bayonets  at  the  end  of  loaded  musV^ets  first  used  by  the  French. — Bank  of^  En- 
 
 gland established  by  king  William. — The  first  public  lottei-y  was  drawn  this 
 year. — Stamp  duties  instituted  in  England. 
 
 1694  Rice  i.itroduceil  into  South-Carolina  by  Langrave  Smith. 
 
 1696  The  peace  of  Ryswick. 
 
 1697  The  debt  of  Great  Britain  was  about  Jive  millions  sterling — in  1790  it  was  270 
 
 7nillions. 
 
 1698  French  make  a  settlement  in  Florida,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Missisippi,  now  the 
 
 Orleans  Territory  of  the  United  States. 
 
 1699  The  Scots  settled  a  colony  at   the  Isthmus  of  Darien,  in  America,  and  called  it 
 
 Caledonia. 
 
 1700  Yale  Colhge  established  at  Saybrook,  Connecticut— removed  to  New-Haven  1716. 
 There  .vere  only  two  colleges  in   the  English  colonies,   now  United  States.     At 
 
 the  declaration  of  Independence,  in  1776,  there  were  only  nine.  In  the  fol- 
 lowing 25  years,  18  new  ones  were  incorporated,  and  most  of  them  established. 
 
 1701  Prussia  erected  into  a  kingdom. 
 Cottonian  library  settled  for  public  benefit. 
 
 Society  for  the  proiwgation  of  the  Gospel  in  foreign  parts  established. 
 
 1702  King  William  dies,   aged  50,   and  is  succeeded   by   Queen  Anne,  daugliter  to 
 
 James  II. 
 1704  Gibraltar  taken  from  tlie  Spaniards  by  the  combined  fleets  of  Britain  and  Hol- 
 land under  admiral  Rooke,  July  23. 
 The  battle  of  Blenheim,  won  by  the  duke  of  Marlborough  and  allies  against  the 
 
 French. 
 The  Court  of  Exchequer  instituted  in  England. 
 
 1706  England  and  Scotland  united  under  the  name  of  "  The  Kingdom  of  Great  Brit- 
 
 ain," June  22. 
 
 1707  The  French  invade  Carolina,  but  are  repulsed  witli  great  loss. 
 
 1708  Sardinia  erected  into  a  kingdom,  and  given  to  the  dnke  of  Savoy. 
 
 1709  Peter  the  Great,  Czar  of  Muscovy,  defeats  Charles  XII.  at  Pultowa,  who  flies  to 
 
 Turkey. 
 
 1710  The  cathedral  church  of  St.  Paul,  London,  rebuilt  by  Sir  Christopher  Wren, 
 
 in  37  years,  at  the  expense  of  one  million   (4,440,000  dollars)  paid  by  a  duty 
 
 on  coals. 
 Port  Royal  was  taken  by  the  New-England  colonies. 
 Post  Oflice  first  established  in  Americaby  act  of  the  British  Parliament. 
 2700  Palatines  ari'ive  in  New-York. 
 
 1712  The  French  make  a  settlement  in  Carolina,  near  the  river  Missisippi,  in  what  is 
 
 now  called  the  .Missisippi  Teri-ilory,  and  give  grants  of  land  as  high  up  the 
 Missisippi  as  its  junction  wiih  the  Illinois  river. 
 
 1713  The  peace  of  Utrecht,  whereby  Newfoundland,  Nova  Scotia,  New  Britain,  and 
 
 Hudson's  Bay,  in  North  America,  were  yielded  to  Great  Britain  :  Gibraltai' 
 and  Miuorcaj  in  Eiu-opc,  were  also  confirmed  to  the  said  crown  by  U»^  treaty. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE.  803 
 
 A.    C. 
 
 1714  Queen  Anne  dies,  at  the  age  of  50,  and  is  succeeded  by  George  I. 
 
 1715  Lewis  XIV.  dies,  and  is  succeeded  by  his  great  grandson  Lewis  XV. 
 The  rebellion  in  Scotland. 
 
 A  general  rising  of  the  Indians  against  South-Carolina. 
 
 1716  Aurora  Dorealis  first  taken  notice  of  in  England— 1719  in  Xew-England. 
 
 1717  New-Orleans,  anf!  Beaufort,  S.  C.  founded. 
 
 1719  The  Missisippi  scheme  at  its  height  in  France.  v» 
 
 Lombe's  silk  throwing  machine,  containing  !26,586   wheels,   erected  at  Derby; 
 
 takes  up  one  eighth  of  a  mile  ;  one  water  wheel  moves  the  rest ;  and  in  24 
 
 hours  it  works  SlSj.'iOijgCOyards  of  organzine  silk  thread. 
 
 The  South  Sea  scheme  in  England  begun  April  7,  was  at  its  height  at  the  end 
 
 of  June,  and  sunk  about  September  '29. 
 
 1721  Inoculation  for  the  small-pox,  on  the  suggestion  of  Cotton  Mather,  was  intro- 
 
 duced into  Boston  by  Dr.  Boylston. 
 
 1722  Rector  Cutler,  and  five  other  Congregational  ministers  turn  Episcopalians. 
 1727  King  George  dies  in  the  68th  year  of  his  age,  and  is  succeeded  by  his  only  son, 
 
 Geerge  li. 
 
 Russia,  formerly  a  dukedom,  is  now  established  as  an  empire. 
 
 A  great  earthquake  in  New-Eagland.  Thi.s  extended  from  Kennebeck  to  the 
 river  Delaware.  There  have  been  five  great  earthquakes  in  New-England, 
 viz.  in  1638,  1658,  1663,  1727,  1755,  and  minor  ones  in  1653,  1068,  16C9, 
 1670,1705,1720,  1732,  1744,  1755,  1757,  1760,  1769,  1771,  178.3.  These 
 were  all  described  as  coming  from  about  N.  W.and  going  oft' about  S.  E. 
 1729  Carolina  purchased  by  the  crown  for  17,5001.  and  divided  into  North  and  South. 
 
 6208  emigrants  arrive  in  Pennsylvania. 
 
 1731  The  first  person  executed  in  Britain  for  forgery. 
 
 1732  Kouli  Khan  usurps  the  Persian  throne,  conquers  the  Mogul  empire,  and  returns 
 
 with  two  hundred  and  thirty -one  millions  sterling. 
 GEORGE  WASHINGTON  bom  February  22,  O.  S. 
 Several  public  spirited  gentlemen  begin  the  settlement  of  Georgia,  the  most 
 
 southern  of  the  United  States  of  America. 
 
 1733  Col.  Pury  leads  a  colony  of  Swiss  to  South  Carolina,  and  builds  Purysburgh. 
 1735  The  throat  distemper  prevailed  in  New-England,  and  afterwards  in  1754  and  5, 
 
 and  in  1804,  5,  6,  and  7. 
 
 1737  The  earth  proved  b}'  admeasurement,  to  be  flatted  towards  the  poles. 
 
 1738  Westminster  bridge,  consisting  of  fifteen  arches,  begun  ;  finished  in  1750,  at  the 
 
 expense  of  389,0001.  defrayed  by  Parliament. 
 1740  Insurrection  of  negroes  in  South  Carolina. 
 
 1742  A  Spanish  fleet  of  32  sail,  with  more  than  3000  men,  invaded  GeorE,ia,  bot  were 
 
 repulsed. 
 
 1743  The  culture  of  the  indigo  plant  introduced  into  South-Carolina,  by  Miss  Lucas. 
 
 1744  War  declared  against  France, by  Britain. 
 
 Commodore  Anson  returns  from  his  voyage  round  the  world. 
 
 1745  Rebellion  in  Scotland. 
 
 Louisburg  taken  by  the  New-Englanders,  with  the  aid  of  a  small  British  fleet. 
 The  French,  fired  with  resentment,  prepare  to  attack  Boston,  and  to  ravage 
 the  coast  from  Nova  Scotia  to  Georgia. 
 
 1746  D  Ainville,  with  a  formidable  French  armament,  greatly  magnified  b)-  common 
 
 fame,  but  really  consisting  of  forty-one  vessels,  of  which  eleven  were  ships  of 
 the  line,  and  3130  soldiers  from  Europe,  who  were  to  bejoined  with  16(X)  Canadi- 
 ans, French,  and  Indians,  threatens  destruction  to  the  northern  English  colo- 
 nies, but  is  providentially  discomfited  by  stonny  weather,  and  contagious  dis- 
 eases. The  arrival  of  D'Ainville.on  the  coast,  gave  an  alarm  to  the  colonies, 
 nearly  equal  to  that  which  England  experienced  from  the  Spanish  Armada, 
 in  1588. 
 
 Electric  shock  discovered. 
 
 Lima  and  Callao  swallowed  up  by  an  earthquake,  October  20.  This  earthquake 
 continued  till  November  20th,  and  destroyed  50,000  persons. 
 
 1748  The  peace  of  Aix  la  Chapelle,  by  which  a  restitution  of  all  places  taken  daring 
 
 the  war,  was  to  be  made  on  all  sides. 
 Halifax,  in  Nova  Scotia,  built. 
 
 1749  The  interest  of  the  British  funds  reduced  to  three  per  cent. 
 
 1750  The  British  Parliament  pass  an  act  prohibiting  any  slitting  mill  or  forge,  or  any 
 
 iron  works  in  America,  .June. 
 
 1751  Pennsylvania  hospital  founded.    The  first  institution  of  the  kind  in  the  English 
 
 colonies. 
 
 1752  Antiquarian  Society  at  London  incorporated. 
 
 The  new  style  introduced  into  Great  Britain  ;  the  third  of  September  being 
 counted  the  fourteenth. 
 
804'  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE. 
 
 A.    C. 
 
 1752  Adrianople  destroyed  by  an  earthquake. 
 
 1753  'I'he  British  Museum  erected  at  Montague  House. 
 
 Society  of  Arts,  Manufactures,  and  Commerce,  instituted  in  London, 
 
 George  Washington  s.;nt  on  a  mission  to  the  Ohio,    with  a  remonstrance  to  the 
 
 French  commandant,  against  his  occupation  of  territory  within  the   chartered 
 
 limits  of  Virainia. 
 
 1754  A  Congress  met  at  Albany,  (New- York)  when  Dr.  Franklin  proposes  a  plan 
 
 for  the  union  of  all  the  colonies. 
 Sept.  2.     Grand  Cairo  had  40,000  inhabitants  destroyed  by  an  earthquake. 
 King's  (now  Columbia)  College  (N  Y.)  founded. 
 
 1755  Lisbon,  in  Portugal,  destroyed  by  an  earthquake. 
 
 General  Braddock  .lefeated  on  his  way  to  attack  Fort  Duqucsne,  on  the  Ohio. 
 
 3756  War  declared  between  France  and  Great  Britain.     The  Ohio  lands  the  princi- 
 pal cause  of  the  contest. 
 One  hundred  and  forty -six  Englishmen  are  confined  in  the  black  hole  at  Calcut- 
 ta, in  the  East  Indies,  by  order  of  the  Nabob,  and  123  found  dead  next  morn- 
 ing. 
 
 1757  Identity  of  electric  fire  and  lightning  discovered  by  Dr.  Franklin,  who  thereup- 
 on invented  a  method  of  securing  buildings  from  thunder  storms,  by  metallic 
 conductors. 
 
 175S  Fortdu  Quesne  (now  Pittsburg)  taken  from  the  French  by  General  Forbes, 
 February  28. 
 
 1759  General  Wolfe  is  killed  in  the  battle  of  Quebec,  which  is  gained  by  the  English, 
 
 and  General  Montcalm  is  slain. 
 
 1760  Black  Friar's  bridge,  consisting  of  nine  arches,  beg^n  ;  finished  1770,  at  the  ex- 
 
 pense of  152,8401.  to  be  discharged  by  a  toll. 
 George  II.  dies,  and  is  succeeded  by  George  111. 
 Canada  conquered — French  power  in  North  America  destroyed. 
 
 1762  War  declared  ag.iinst  Spain. 
 
 -    Peter  III.  Emperor  of  Russia,  is  deposed,  imprisoned,  and  murdered. 
 
 1763  Peace  of  Paris — England  retaining  Canada  and  Florida,  extends  her  American 
 
 empire  from  the  gulf  of  Mexico  to  the  northern  extremity  of  the  continent. 
 In  this  and  the  preceding  four  years  of  English  victories,  upwards  of  4000  fam- 
 ilies returned  to  their  plantations,  on  the  frontiers  of  the  middle  and  southern 
 states,  from  which  they  had  been  previously  driven  by  the  events  of  war. 
 
 1764  Anatomical  lectures  first  delivered  by  Dr.  Shippen,  in  Philadelphia. 
 
 The  Parliament  granted  10,0001.  to  Mr.  Harrison,  for  his  discovery  of  the  lon- 
 gitude by  his  time  piece. 
 College  at  Providence  (R.  I.)  founded. 
 
 1765  Stamp  Act  passed,  and  next  year  repealed. 
 
 Virginia,  on  motion  of  Patrick  Henry,  passed  the  first  resolutions  denying  the 
 right  of  Parliament  to  tax  the  colonies. 
 
 1766  A  great  spot  passed  the  sun's  centre. 
 GihraUar  almost  destroyed  by  a  storm. 
 
 1707  British  tnxation  renewed  by  a  tax  on  tea,  painters'  colors,  &c.  payable  on  their 
 landing  in  the  colonies. 
 
 1768  Academy  of  painting  established  in  London. 
 
 British  troops  are  stationed  in  Boston,  to  awe  the  inhabitants. 
 Non-importation  agreements  entered  into  by  the  colonists. 
 
 1769  Electricity  of  the  Aurora  Borealis  discovered  by  Wideburg,  at  Jena. 
 Dartmouth  College  founded.  New -Hampshire. 
 
 1770  A  riot  at  Boston.     The  British  troops  fire   upon   and  kill   five  or  six  of  the  in- 
 
 habitants, but  the  killers  are  acquitted  by  a  Boston  jury. 
 
 1771  Dr.  Solander  and  Mr,  Banks,  in  his  Majesty's  ship  the  Endeavor,  lieutenant  Cook, 
 
 return  from  a  voyage  round  the  world,  having  made  several  important  dis- 
 coveries. 
 Insurrection  in  North-Carolina,  against  lawyers  and  courts,  quelled  in  a  battle  at 
 Alamance,  in  which  200  of  the  insurgents  were  killed.    Twelve  were  taken, 
 tried,  and  condemned.     Of  these  six  were  executed. 
 
 1772  Twelve  hundred  and  forty  people  killed  in   the  island  of  Java  by  an  electrified 
 
 cloud. 
 
 The  emperor  of  Germany,  empress  of  Russia,  and  the  king  of  Prussia,  strip  the 
 king  of  Poland  of  great  part  of  his  dominions,  which  they  divide  among  them- 
 selves, in  violation  of  the  most  solemn  treaties. 
 
 Committees  of  correspondence  instituted  throughout  the  colonics. 
 i775  Captain  Phipps  is  sent  to  explore  the  North  Pole;  but  having  m.ide  eighty -one 
 degrees,  is  in  danger  of  bting  locked  up  by  the  ice,  and  returns. 
 
 The  Jesuits  expelled  finm  the  Pope's  dominions,  and  suppressed  by  his  bull. 
 
 DutiedU-a,  340  chests  destroyed  bv  the  Bostouiaus. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE.  805 
 
 A.   C.  r        1        • 
 
 1774  Inconsequence  of  tliis  trespass  on  private  property,  a  penal  statute  for  sluitting 
 
 up  the  port  of  Boston  was  passed  in  England,  and  resisted  in  America. 
 A  general  Congress  meets  in  Philadelphia— petitions  for  a  redress  ot  grievances, 
 and  resolves  on  a  general  non-importation  and  non-exportation  of  all  merchant- 
 able commodities 
 
 1775  April  19.     The  first  action  happens  in  America  between  the  British  troops  and 
 
 the  Americans,  at  Lexington,  in  which  the  former  are  defeated. 
 
 Ticonderoga  and  Crown  Point  taken  by  colonels  Allen  and  Easton. 
 
 A  dreadful  fire  in  Grenada  ;  loss  computed  at  500,0001. 
 
 Articles  of  confederation  and  perpetual  union  agreed  on  by  the  American  colo- 
 nies. May  20. 
 
 Paper  money  emitted  by  Congress  to  the  amount  of  three  millions  of  dollars,  ana 
 aftenvards,  at  different  periods,  during  the  war,  to  the  amount  of  two  hundred 
 million?.     In  1781  it  ceases  to  circulate. 
 
 General  George  Washington  is  by  Congress  unanimously  appointed  Commander 
 in  Chief  of  the  \merican  array,  June,  16  ;  on  July.  2d  arrives  at  Cambridge, 
 (Mass.)  and  takes  upon  him  the  command- 
 
 A  bloody  battle  fought  at  Bunker's  Hill  between  the  king's  troops  and  the  Amer- 
 icans, when  the  latter  being  overpowered  by  numbers  are  forced  to  retreat, 
 June  17.     Charlestown  burnt  the  same  day. 
 
 Post  ofliee  established  by  Congress,  July  26. 
 
 Falmouth,  in  the  District  of  Maine,  des"troyed  by  the  British,  October  18. 
 
 General  Montgomery  takes  Montreal,  November  12. 
 
 An  unsuccessful  attack  made  by  the.  Americans  on  Quebec,  when  the  gallant 
 Montgomery  is  slain,  December  31. 
 
 1776  Norfolk,  in  Virginia,  burnt  by  order  of  Lord  Dunmore,  January  1. 
 Boston  evacuated  by  the  British,  March  17. 
 
 Congress,  in  consequence  of  the  repeated  provocations,  received  from  Great 
 Britain,  declare  the  colonies  free,  sovereign  and  independent,  under  the  name 
 of  the  United  States  of  America,  July  4. 
 The  battle  of  Flatbush  in  Long-Island,  when  the  Americans  are  defeated  with 
 the  loss,  of  2000  men  killed,  and  1000  prisoners  ;  New-York,  is  soon  after  taken 
 possession  of  by  the  British.  August  27. 
 Rhode-Island  taken  by  the  British,  December  6. 
 
 Nine  hundred  !k-.5siaris  taken  by  general  Washington,  at  Trenton,  December  2&. 
 Religious  toleration  was  granted  in  Austria. 
 31777  January  2.     General  Washington  defeats  the  British  at  Princeton. 
 Ticondero.ga  evacuated  by  general  St.  Clair,  July  6. 
 Marquis  Do  la  Fayette  appointed  major-seneral  in  the  American  army. 
 Lieutenant-general  Burgoj-ne  is  obliged,  at  Saratoga,  to  surrender  his  whole  ar- 
 my, consisting  of  5790  men,  to  the  Americans,  under  generals  Gates,  Lincoln 
 and  Arnold,  October  17. 
 The  American  army,  under  general   Washington,  retire  to  winter  quarters  at 
 Cherry  Valley,  where  they  suffer  severely  from  famine  and  want  of  clothing, 
 December. 
 1778  Dominica  taken  by  the  French,  September  7. 
 
 St.  Lucia  taken  from  the  French.  December  28. 
 
 Alliance  with  France-  A  French  fleet  is  sent  to  the  aid  of  the  new  formed 
 states.  Philadelphia  evacuated  by  the  British.  Battles  of  Monmouth  and 
 Khode  Island.  British  commissicnei-s,  when  too  late,  offer  to  the  Americans 
 terras  of  accommodation,  which  came  up  to  all  they  a.sked  for  in  their  unan- 
 .swered  petitions  to  the  king  of  Great  Britain,  in  1774  and  1775. 
 J779  Savannah,  in  Georgia,  taken  by  the  British. 
 
 The  Spaniards  unite  with  France  and  America  against  Britain,  June. 
 St.  A'incent  taken  from  the  French  by  the  English,  June  17. 
 A  predatory  expedition,  under  the  command  ofgovernorTryon,sets  out  for  Con- 
 necticut ;  the  party  sets  fire  to  Fairfield  and  East  Haven  ;  plunders  New  Ha- 
 ven, and  commits  many  other  enormities,  in  July. 
 Stony  Point  taken  by  the  Americans  under  the  command  of  general  Wayne. 
 1780  The  Protestant  Association,  to  the  number  of  50,000  men,  headed  by    Lord 
 George  Gordon,  go  to  the  House  of  Commons  with  a  jictition  for  the  repeal 
 of  an  act  passed  in  favor  of  the  Roman  Catholics,  June  2      1  his  event  is  fol- 
 lowed by   the  destruction  of  Catholic  chapels,  several  prisons,  and  the  most 
 daring  riots  for  several  succeeding   days,  wliich  are  at  last  quelled  by  the  in- 
 terposition of  the  military  ;  when  numbers  of  the  mob  are  killed,  and  many 
 of  the  rioters  soon  after  tried  and  executed 
 July  19.     .\  maritime  treaty  between  Russia,  Sweden  and  Denmark  was  signed 
 
 at  Copenhiigen,  having  for  its  object  the  protection  of  neutral  commerce. 
 Count  Roehambeau  .nrrivcs  at  Rhode-Island  \\"ith  6000  land  forces,  July  10. 
 
806  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE. 
 
 A.    C. 
 
 1780  Torture  abolished  in  France,  August  25. 
 
 General  Arnold,  after  having  iu  vain  attempted  to  deliver  up  West  Point  to 
 the  British,  deserts  to  their  service,  and  is  by  them  appointed  brigadier-gen- 
 eral, September  26. 
 
 Major  Andre,  adjutant-general  to  the  British  army,  is  hanged  as  a  spy  at  Tap- 
 pan,  state  ofNew-York,  October  2. 
 
 The  British  government  declares  war  against  Holland,  December  10. 
 
 Charleston  surrenders  to  the  British  on  terms  of  capitulation.  South  Carolina  is 
 overrun  by  the  conquerors,  but  is  gallantly  defended  by  generals  Sumter  and 
 Marion.     Gates  defeated  near  Camden. 
 
 Constitution  of  Massachusetts  established. 
 
 American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences  incorporated. 
 
 May  19th,  an  uncommon  darkness  took  place  all  over  New  England,  for  about 
 14  hours,  or  from  10  or  11  A.  M.  till  midnight.  The  darkness  was  so  great 
 that  people  were  unable  to  read  common  print,  to  tell  the  time  of  the  day  by 
 their  watches,  to  dine,  or  transact  their  ordinary  business  without  the  light  of 
 candles.  The  people  became  dull  and  gloomy.  Candies  were  generally 
 lighted  up  in  their  houses.  The  birds  became  silent  The  fowls  retired  to 
 roost.  Objects  could  not  be  distinguished  but  at  a  very  little  distance,  and 
 every  thing  bore  the  appearance  and  gloom  of  night.  Similar  days  are  said  to 
 have  occurred,  but  inferior  in  degree  and  extent  of  darkness.  October  21, 
 1716;  Airgust  9,  1732;  October  9,  1762  ;  in  the  northern  or  eastern  states, 
 and  also  on  October  29,  1789,  in  Kentucky.  These  unusual  appearances 
 v/ere  not  the  effect  of  eclipses,  but  were,  supposed  to  result  from  layers  of 
 vapors,  some  ascending  and  other  descending,  so  as  to  intercept  the  rays  of  the 
 sun  in  their  passage  to  the  earth. 
 17S0  and  1781.  This  winter  is  remarkable  for  its  uncommon  severity  ;  so  that  in  Jan- 
 uary the  passage  between  New  York  and  Staten  Island  is  practicable  for  the 
 heaviest  cannon. 
 
 1781  The  Dutch  island  of  St.  Eustatia  taken  by  the  British,  February  3  ;  retaken  by 
 
 the  French,  November  27; 
 
 The  island  of  Tobago  taken  by  the  French,  June  2. 
 
 Count  de  Grasse,  with  28  sail  of  the  line,  arrives  in  the  Chesapeake,  and  lands 
 3200  forces. 
 
 Treaty  of  amity  and  commei'ce  between  America  and  Holland,  October  8. 
 
 Earl  Cornwallis  surrenders  his  whole  army,  consisting  of  7000  men,  to  the  Amer- 
 ican and  French  army,  under  the  command  of  general  Washington,  at  York- 
 town,  in  Virginia,  Octsbcr  19. 
 
 Henry  Laurens  is  released  from  his  long  confinement  in  the  Tower  of  London, 
 December  31. 
 
 Virginia  cedes  to  the  United  States  all  her  territory  northwest  of  the  Ohio, 
 about  200,000,000  acres. 
 
 Virginia  adopts  the  preliminary  measures  for  and  consents  to  the  erection  of 
 Kentucky  into  a  separate  state. 
 
 1782  Planet  Herschel  discovered. 
 
 The  first  impression  of  the  Bible  iu  the  United  States  is  published  by  Robert 
 Aitken,  Philadelphia. 
 
 The  island  of  Minorca  taken  by  the  Spaniards,  February  5. 
 
 St.  Christopher's  taken  by  the  French,  February  12. 
 
 Montserrat,  in  the  West  Indies,  taken  by  the  French,  February  18. 
 
 The  British  House  of  Commons  address  the  king  against  the  further  prosecution 
 of  offensive  war  with  North  America,  March  4. 
 
 Holland  acknowledges  the  sovereignty  of  the  United  States,  April  19. 
 
 Sir  Guy  Carleton  arrives  at  New  York,  with  powers  to  treat  of  peace  with  the 
 Americans,  May  5 
 
 The  Spaniards  defeated  in  their  gr.ind  attack  on  Gibraltar,  when  their  floating 
 batteries  are  destroyed,  September  13. 
 
 Treaty  concluded  between  the  United  States  and  thd  Republic  of  Holland,  Oc- 
 tober 8. 
 
 Ninety-six  Christian  Indi.tns  of  the  Moravian  sect,  living  at  Gnaden  Huatten, 
 within  the  limits  of  what  is  now  the  stale  of  Ohio,  were  cruelly  murdered  ia 
 cold  blood  by  white  savages.  The  murderers  could  assign  no  justification,  nor 
 even  apology  for  the  unhallowed  deed.  The  victims  of  their  fury  had  always 
 been  |)eaceable  and  iuoftensive,  and  had  taken  no  part  in  the  war  then  drawing 
 to  an  end.  The  Indi.<ins  submitted  to  their  unavoidable  fate  with  patient  re- 
 signation, and  without  making  any  resistance.  The  only  charge  that  could 
 be  alicdged  against  them  was,  that  they  were  Indians.  Congress  did  tbera 
 justice,  :is  far  as  was  in  their  power,  by  reinstating  the  survivors  in  the  posses* 
 '  sion  ot  their  Ijinds  fraiu  which  t{iey  had  been  driven. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE.  8or 
 
 A.  C. 
 
 1782  A  ship  of  74  guns  built  at  Portsmouth,  N.  H.    This  was  the  first  line  of  battle 
 
 ship  ever  built  in  America. 
 
 Provisional  articles  of  peace  signed  between  the  American  and  British  commis- 
 sioners at  Paris  ;  by  which  the  United  States  are  declared  by  the  king  of 
 Great  Britain,  to  be  free,  sovereign  and  independent,  November  30. 
 
 The  inquisition  abolished  at  Naples. 
 
 1783  Preliminary  articles  of  peace  between  Fr^ice,  Spain  and  Britain,  signed  at  Ver- 
 
 sailles, January  20. 
 
 1783  Three  earthquakes  at  Calabria  Ulterior  and  Sicily  ;  -which  destroy  a  great  num- 
 
 ber of  towns  and  inhabitants ;  Febuary  5,  7  and  28. 
 
 Treaty  of  Amity  and  commerce  between  the  United  States  and  Sweden,  con- 
 cluded April  1,  ratified  by  Congress  Sept  25,  following. 
 
 New-York  evacuated  by  the  British  troops,  and  General  Washbgton  makes  a 
 public  entry  into  that  city,  November  25. 
 
 General  Washington  resigns  his  commission  to  Congress,  at  Annapolis,  Decem- 
 ber 23. 
 
 Dickinson  College  (Carlisle,  Penn.)  founded. 
 
 1784  The  definitive  treaty  of  peace  between  the  United  States  and  Britain  ratified  by 
 
 Congress,  January  4. 
 M.  Lunardi  ascends  in  a  balloon  from  London;  being  the  first  attempt  of  the 
 
 kind  made  in  England,  September  15. 
 The  Empress  of  China,  a  ship  of  360  tons,  sails   from  New-York  for  Canton. 
 
 This  was  the  beginning  of  the  trade  of  the  United  States  with  China. 
 Bank  of  Massachusetts  incorporated. 
 
 1785  Mr.  James  Madison  brings  forward  a  motion  in  the  House  of  Delegates  of  Vir- 
 
 ginia, to  appoint  commissioners,  who,  in  concurrence  with  others,  to  be  ap- 
 pointed by  the  different  states,  should  form  a  system  of  commercial  regula- 
 tions, to  be  recommended  for  adoption  to  the  diftereut  state  legislatures. 
 
 Friars  and  nuns  suppressed  in  Germany. 
 
 The  first  cistern  in  Charleston,  S.  C.  for  collecting  and  preserving  rain-watef 
 for  domestic  use,  was  built  by  William  Somersalf. 
 
 Humane  Society  of  Massachusetts  incorporated.  Similar  institutions  about  the 
 same  time  were  formed  in  most  of  the  large  towns  on  the  sea-coast. 
 
 An  organ  set  up  m  a  Congregational  church  ni  Boston. 
 
 1786  An  insurrection   breaks  out  in  the  state  of  Massachusetts,  under  Daniel  Shay.<? 
 
 and  others ;  it  is,  however,  happily  suppressed  by  the  prudence  and  decision  of 
 Generals  Lincoln  and  Shepard,  with  the  loss  of  very  few  lives,  December. 
 
 The  Philt.delphia  Dispensarj'  for  the  gratuitous  medical  care  of  the  sick  poor  in 
 their  own  houses  established. 
 
 Connecticut  cedes  to  the  United  States  all  the  lands  within  her  chartered  limits 
 vest  of  Pennsylvania,  with  a  reserve  of  about  four  millions  of  acres.  500,000 
 acres,  part  of  this  reserve,  was  granted  by  the  State  to  the  inhabitants  of  New- 
 London,  Fairfield,  and  Norwalk,  whose  property  had  been  destroyed  by  the 
 British  troops  in  the  revolutionary  war.  The  remainder  was  sold  in  1795  foi- 
 ^1,200,000  and  the  proceeds  appropriated  as  a  perpetual  fund  for  the  support 
 ot  schools  in  the  state. 
 
 Louis  XVI.  issues  an  edict  for  convening  the  notables,  who  afterwards  meet  at 
 Pans,  Febuary  26,  and  December  29,  following. 
 
 1787  The  Federal  Convention,  which  had  for  some  time  been  assembled  at  Philadel- 
 
 phia, report  to  the  different  states  the  new  constitution,  or  present  system  of 
 federal  government,  September  17. 
 
 A  bridge  built  over  Charles  river,  connecting  Boston  and  Charlestown. 
 
 A  society  for  propagating  the  gospel  among  the  Indians  and  others  in  North 
 America,  was  incorporated  in  Massaclmsetts.  The  Moravians  for  half  a  cen- 
 tury preceding  had  been  zealously  and  successfullv  attentive  to  the  propaga- 
 tion of  the  gospel  among  the  Indians  in  America  ;  but  the  period  between  1787 
 and  1812  may  be  called  the  sera  of  Missions. 
 
 A  series  of  essays,  the  work  of  Alexander  Hamilton,  James  IMadison,  and  John 
 Jay,  with  the  title  of  Publius,  or  the  Federalist,  published  soon  after  the  pro- 
 mulgation of  the  constitution,  had  a  decided  influence  in  procuring  its  accep- 
 tance, by  enlightening  the  public  mind  in  the  true  principles  of  government, 
 and  removing  prejudices  in  favor  of  a  high  toned  state  sovereignty  incompat- 
 ible with  the  general  good. 
 
 The  Presbyterians  form""  four  Synods,  and  a  General  As.sembly. 
 
 1788  George  Washington  was  unanimously  elected  President  of  the  United  States,  and 
 
 John  Adams,  Vice-President. 
 Georgia  University  instituted. 
 Card  manufactory  set  up  in  Boston.     A   machine  for  cutting  card-tecfli   had 
 
 been  prcvtotisly  invented  by  Mr.  Chittenden  of  Connecticut. 
 
808  CHRONOLOGK^AL  TABLE. 
 
 A.   C. 
 
 1789  Congress  met  at  Nevv-Yoik  for  the  first  time  under  the  new  constitution, 
 
 March  4. 
 
 April  30.  George  Washhigton  was,  in  due  form,  publicly  invested  with  the  office 
 of  President  of  the  United  States  of  America. 
 
 The  National  Assembly  of  France  first  convened,  May  5,  and  on  the  17th  of 
 June  following  the  tiers  etat,  or  representatives  of  the  people,  after  using  va- 
 rious efforts  to  obtain  a  union  with  the  clergy  and  nobility,  without  success,  de- 
 clare themselves  the  General  Assembly,  and  proceed  to  business. 
 
 They  take  an  oath  '•  never  to  separate  till  the  constitution  shall  be  completed," 
 June  20th 
 
 University  of  Nortli-Carolina  founded. 
 
 The  Bastile,  in  Paris,  taken  by  the  national  gards;  July  14. 
 
 Dr.  Carrol  of  Maryland  consecrated  bishop,  and  soon  after  archbishop  of  the  Ro- 
 man Catholic  church.  He  was  the  first  and  only  Roman  CathoUc  bishop  in 
 North  America. 
 
 Influenza  pervades  the  United  States,  and  again  in  1S08. 
 
 1790  The  French  king  voluntarily  appears  before  the   National  assemblv,  and   de- 
 
 clares "  that  he  will  defend  the  new  constitution  to  the  last  moment  ofliis 
 existence,"  Febuary  4. 
 
 Friars  and  nuns  suppressed  in  France. 
 
 General  Harmar  defeated  by  the  Miami  Indians,  with  the  loss  of  183  men  kil- 
 _  led,  and  31  wounded,  September  30. 
 
 Kentucky,  detached  by  common  consent  from  Virginia,  is  made  an  independent 
 State. 
 
 Secretary  Hamilton  makes  his  celebrated  report  on  providing  for  the  public 
 debt.  This  was  substantially  adopted,  and  produced  a  sudden  and  extraordi- 
 nary melioi'ation  of  the  state  of  the  country. 
 
 A  law  passed  for  securing   cony  right  to  authors. 
 
 1791  This  year  a  census  taken  of  the  inhabitants  of  tlie  United  States,  when  the  num- 
 
 ber is  found  to  be  3,929,.s26. 
 The  king  of  France  and  family  privately  depart  from  Paris,  with  a  view,  as  was 
 
 believed,  of  escaping  into  Germany,  June  20  ;  are  intercepted,  near  V'arennes, 
 
 and  re-conducted  to  Paris  on  the  S.'Jth. 
 Seven  islands  discovered  in  the  South  Pacific  Ocean,  between  the  Marquesas  and 
 
 the  Equator,  by  Capt.  Joseph  Ingraham,  of  Boston. 
 May  3.     The  crown  of  Poland  was  made  hereditary. 
 
 First  Folio  and  Royal  Quarto  Bibles  printed  in  America,  at  Worcester,  Massa- 
 chusetts; small  Quarto  at  Trenton,  New-Jersey. 
 A  Treaty  is  concluded  at  Pilnitz,  in  Saxony,  by  a  number  of  crowned  heads,  of 
 
 which  the  partition  of  France,  Poland,  &c.  is  said  to  have  been  the  principle 
 
 object,  July. 
 Gen.  St.  Clair  defeated  by  the  Indians,  near  the  Miami  Village,  with  the  loss  of 
 
 640  Americans,  bis  whole  baggage,  arid  eight  i)ieces  of  artillery,  Noveniber4. 
 United  States  bank  with  a  capital  of  SlO,n()6,00(),  is  eslablished  in  Philadelphia, 
 
 with  branches  at  Boston,  New  York,  Baltimore,  and  Charleston,  S.  C. 
 
 1792  The  French   National  Assembly   declare  war  against   tlie   kihg  of  Hungary  and 
 
 Bohemia,  April  20 
 
 Natioir.d  mint  established. 
 
 A  plan  of  union  between  the  general  assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  church  in  the 
 United  States,  and  the  general  association  of  Congregational  churches  in  Con- 
 necticut, adopted. 
 
 Louis  XVI.  brought  to  trial,  December  11  ;  condemned  January  19,  1793,  and 
 beheaded  on  the  21st  of  the  same  month. 
 
 1793  The  French  Convention  declare  war  against  the  king  of  Britain  and  the  Stad- 
 
 tholder  of  Holland,  February  1. 
 
 The  king  of  Sweden  is  shot  at  a  masquerade,  by  Capt.  Ankerstrom,  March  16, 
 and  dies  of  his  wounds  the  29th  of  the  same  month 
 
 A  dreadful  disorder  known  by  the  name  of  the  yeUoio  fever,  begins  at  Philadel- 
 phia, in  Jul)'  ;  and  does  not  cease  its  depopulating  ravages  till  the  middle  of 
 November,  following,  during  which  time  al)out  5000  people  lose  their  lives. 
 
 The  lute  Queen  of  France  beiicaded,  Octob.n-  16. 
 
 Neutrality  between  the  belligerents  of  Europe  proclaimed  by  Washington. 
 
 The  Proprietors  of  the  Middlesex  ciinal  in  INliiSsachusc-ttSi  for  connecting  Mer- 
 rimack river  with  Boston,  were  incorporated.     In  1S04  the  canal  was  finished. 
 
 1794  A  bill  passed  by  Congress,  laying  ai»  embargo  for  30  days,  which  is  afterwards 
 
 continued  for  30  more,  March  26. 
 J'ohn  .lay.  Chief  Justice  of  the  Uf.ited  States,  appointed  envoy  cxtraordinaiy  to 
 
 Britain,  .\pril. 
 The  island  of  Guadaloupe  taken  from  the  British  by  the  French. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE.  809 
 
 A.  C. 
 
 1794  Union  College  (at  Schenectady,  N.  Y.)  foundeil. 
 
 General  Wayne  defeats  the  Indians  and  Canadian  militia  near  the  rapids  of  the 
 Miami  of  the  lakes,  August  20. 
 
 The  suburb  of  Praga,  near  Warsaw,  taken  by  tlie  Russian  General  Suwarrow, 
 who  gives  the  barbarous  oi-ders  to  his  army  to  give  quarters  to  no  one  ;  in  con- 
 sequence of  which,  upwards  of  30,000  Poles,  men,  Momeu,  and  children,  are 
 msssacred,  November  4. 
 
 Insurrection  in  Pennsylvania,  against  the  excise  on  spirituous  liquors.  Wash- 
 ington puts  himself  at  the  heud  of  a  large  army  to  quell  the  insurgents,  which 
 was  effected  without  bloodshed. 
 
 John  Jay  makes  a  treaty  with  Great  Britain.  In  consequence  thereof  the  Brit- 
 ish surrender  all  their  posts  within  the  limits  of  the  United  States. 
 
 Massachusetts  Historical  Society,  for  collecting  materials  for  the  history  of  the 
 United  States,  was  incorporated.  In  about  12  years  after  a  similar  one  was 
 established  in  New  York. 
 
 1795  The  old  government  of  the  Dutch  in  Holland  abolished,  and  a  revolution  in  favor 
 
 of  liberty  commences  without  any  public  commotion,  January  19. 
 
 St.  Lncia  captured  by  the  French,  April  19. 
 
 The  King  of  Prussia  concludes  a  separate  pe:.ce  with  the  French  republic,  A]iril. 
 
 A  treaty  of  friendship,  limits,  and  iiavigalion,  concluded  between  Spain  and  the 
 United  States,  October  20. 
 
 A  treaty  of  peace  and  amity  concluded  between  the  Dey  of  Algiers  and  the  U- 
 nited  States,  November  8. 
 
 The  unfortunate  King  of  Poland  made  a  formal  surrender  of  his  crown,  for  a 
 pension,  November  25. 
 
 About  this  time  general  Eaton,  when  consul  at  Tunis,  sent  to  Philadelphia  a 
 ram  of  the  broad  tailed  breed  of  sheep  in  Africa.  From  tliis  source  this  valu- 
 able species  of  sheep  has  been  extensively  propagated.  Its  fleece  is  of  the  first 
 quality. 
 
 Pennsylvania  passes  a  law  for  establishing  schools  throughout  llic  state. 
 
 The  first  Massachusetts  Turnpike  Corporation  established.  The  construction  of 
 artificial  roads  began  a  few  years  before  in  Pennsylvania  and  Connecticut,  and 
 rapidly  extended  north  to  the  falls  of  Niagara,  and'south  as  far  as  the  Potomac. 
 
 Washington  declines  a  reelection  as  president,  and  in  a  solemn  valedictory  ad- 
 dress to  his  fellow  citizens,  inculcates  on  them  "to  bear  incessantly  on  their 
 rouids,  that  nations  as  well  as  individuals  were  under  the  moral  government 
 of  an  infinitely  wise,  just  and  good  providence — that  the  foundation  of  their  hap- 
 piness was  morality  and  religion — that  union  among  themselves  was  their 
 rock  of  safety — and  that  to  veuerate  their  constitution  and  laws  was  to  insure 
 their  liberties." 
 
 The  second  cotton  mill  was  erected  in  Rhode  Island.  The  first  had  been  erected 
 in  1791.  In  the  succeeding  15  years  there  were  87.  In  these  the  number  of 
 spindles  was  80,000— persons  employed  4000— Cotton  used  3,600,000  lbs— yarn 
 spun  2,880,000  lbs— value  3,140,000  dollars. 
 
 1796  Machines  for  beating  out  rice  by  water,  contrived  by  Mr.   Lucas,  are  generally 
 
 introduced,  and  save  an  immensity  of  manual  labor. 
 J797  A  signal  victory  gained  over  the  Spanish  fleet  by  John  Jarvis,  February  14. 
 
 John  Adams,  elected  president  of  the  United 'States,  and  Thomas  Jeffer- 
 SON,  vice  president. 
 
 An  alarming  mutiny  on  board  the  channel  fleet,  at  Spithead,  (England)  April 
 15,  and  at  Sheerness. 
 
 Messrs.  Pinckney,  Marshal  and  Gerrj-,  sent  as  envoys  to  France,  (July)  to  ac- 
 commodate existing  difterences  between  the  United  States  and  the  French  Re- 
 public— Returned  unsuccessful,  1798. 
 
 Lord  Duncan's  victory  over  the  Dutch  fleet,  October  11. 
 
 Treaty  of  peace  between  Austria  and  France  signed  at  Campo  Formic,  Oct.  17. 
 
 1798  George  Washington  appointed,  and  accepted  the  commission  of  Com- 
 
 mander in  Chief  OF  THE  Armies  of  the  United  States,  Jul/. 
 Rebellion  in  Ireland  suppressed  after  much  bloodshed. 
 Lord  Nelson  obtained  a  victory  over  the  French   fleet,  at  Aboukir,  near  the 
 
 mouth  of  the  Nile,  in  which  nine  French  ships  of  the  line  were  taken,  and  two 
 
 burnt,  August  1. 
 
 1799  The  French  driven  from  nearly  all  their  conquests  in  Italy  by  the  Austrians  and 
 
 Russians  under  Suwarrow. 
 Seringapatam  taken  by  lieutenant-general  Harris,  and  Tippoo  Sultan  killed. 
 
 May  4. 
 Tlie  directorial  government  abolished  in  France,  and  a  new  constitution  framed. 
 
 Bonaparte  made  fii-st  consul  for  ten  years. 
 The  French  frigate  Insiugente  taken  by  Tru.\ton. 
 VOL.  11.  103 
 
81.(>  CHRONOLOGICAL    TABLE. 
 
 A.  C. 
 
 1799  President  Adams  nominated  Messrs.  Ellsworth,  Davie,  and  Murray,  lo  inake  a 
 further  attempt  to  adjust  differences  with  the  French  Kepublic,  Feb. — The 
 envoys  embarked  for  France,  November. 
 
 GEORGE  WASHINGTON  died  December  14,  aged  67,  and  left  his  country 
 in  tears. 
 
 The  American  militia   was  upwards  of   354,000   and  the   seamen  upwards  ot 
 63,000. 
 ISOO  The  American  envoys  concluded  a  convention  with  the  French  Republic,  •which 
 was  signed  at  Paris,  September  3. 
 
 A  bill  for  uniting  Ireland  with  Great  Britain,  signed  July  2. 
 
 American  navy  consisted  of  4'2  vessels  and  9.^0  guns 
 
 \accination  introduced  by  Dr.  Waterhouse,  and  extensively  propagated  over  the 
 United  States  by  many,  and  particularly  by  John  Vaughan  of  Philadelphia. 
 
 Boats  begin  to  pass  through  the  canal  in  South  Carolina,  extending  22  miles  be- 
 tween Santee  and  Cooper  rivers.  This  work  cost  the  proprietors  above 
 §600,000 — a  sum  exceeding  seven  times  the  amount  of  what  the  province  had 
 sold  for  72  years  before. 
 
 1 801  The  maritime  treaty  of  1780,  between  the  three  northern  powers  of  Europe, 
 
 was  renewed,  January. 
 
 Treaty  of  peace  between  Germany  and  France,  signed  at  Luneville,  Feb.  9. 
 
 The  Legislature  of  Massachusetts  agreed  to  present  a  respectful  address  to  Jon  v 
 Adams,  on  the  occasion  of  his  retiring  from  the  presidency  of  the  United 
 States,  expressive  of  "  the  grateful  and  high  sense  the  legislature  entertain  of 
 the  numerous  and  eminent  services  he  has  rendered  his  country,  particularly 
 as  President  of  the  United  Slates  ;  and  assuring  him  of  their  undiminished 
 confidence  in  his  character,  and  of  an  affectionate  welcome  into  the  bosom  of 
 tiis  country,"  March  3. 
 
 Thomas  Jefferson,  elected  president  of  the  United  States,  and  Aaron 
 Burr,  vice  president. 
 
 National  government  removed  to  Washington. 
 
 The  manufacture  of  straw  bonnets  commenced  in  Wrentliam,  ISIassachusetts, 
 and  proceeded  so  rapidly,  that  after  eight  years  the  proceeds  amounted  annu- 
 ally to  S  100,000. 
 
 Oct.  1.  Preliminary  articles  of  peace  between  France,  Great  Britain,  Spain  and 
 Holland,  signed  at  London. 
 
 1802  March  25.    Definitive  treaty  between  the  above  powers  signed  at  Amiens,  by 
 
 Bonaparte,  Comwallis,  Azaza  and  Schimmelpenninck. 
 IMerino  sheep  were  introduced  by  R.  R  Livingston,  and  Col.  Humphries,  and 
 extensively  propagated.  About  the  same  time  the  recently  extensive  cultiva- 
 tion of  cotton  in  the  southern  states  and  the  more  extended  use  of  plaster  of 
 Paris  as  a  manure  had  become  so  general  as  to  add  immensely  to  the  wealth 
 of  the  United  States. 
 
 1803  March.    The  king  of  Great  Britain,  in  consequence  of  the  formidable  military 
 
 preparations  in  the  ports  of  France  and  Holland,  embodied  the  militia  of  the 
 country. 
 
 July.     War  commenced  between  France  and  Great  Britain. 
 
 Oct.  11.  A  treaty  of  peace  was  signed  between  the  United  States  and  the  em- 
 peror of  Morocco. 
 
 Louisiana  purchased  bv  R.  R.  Livingston,  for  the  United  States,  from  the  Frencli, 
 for  g  15,000,000. 
 
 1804  Dec.  3.     Bonaparte  crowned  emperor  of  ?■  ranee,  by  his  holiness  the  Pope,  by  the 
 
 title  of  Napoleone  I.  with  great  splendor.    The  emi)eror  presented  the  Popt- 
 
 a  triple  crown,  valued  at  20,000 1. 
 Dec.  13.    Spain  declared  war  against  Great  Britain. 
 Great  huriicane  in  South  Carolina  and  Georgia. 
 
 1805  Mai'ch  4.     Thomas  Jefferson   and  George  Clinton,  inaugurated  president  and 
 
 vice  president  of  the  United  States. 
 
 Samuel  Chase,  one  of  the  Associate  Judges  of  the  L^nited  States,  having  been 
 impeached  by  the  House  of  Representatives,  and  tried  by  the  Senate,  is  iion- 
 OuAEi.Y  acquittwl. 
 
 A  Botanic  garden  instituted  ip  Charleston,  and  a  Botanic  Society  incorporated 
 •by  the  legislature  of  South  Carolina.  Botanic  gardens  were  formed  about  the 
 same  time  in  the  vicinity  of  New  York,  and  Boston.  The  foriuer  by  Dr.  Ho- 
 sack,  the  latter  by  the  University  of  Cambridge. 
 18p6  Captains  Lewis  ami  Clarke,  returned  to  St.  Louis,  after  having  with  the  loss  of 
 only  one  man'  out  of  45  traversed  the  North  American  continent,  from  the 
 mouth  of  the  .Missouri  to  the  Pacific  ocean  in  £8  months  and  10  days,  making 
 the  whole  distance  from  the  confluence  of  the  Missouri  and  Mississippi  to  the 
 disphargc  of  the  Columbia  river  into  tUt  Pacific  ocean,  to  be  3555  miles  in  a 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL   TABLE.  811 
 
 A.  C. 
 
 line  correspoading  with  the  course  of  these  rivers,  and  in  a  direct  line  of  about 
 40  miles  from  one  to  the  other.  The  distance  between  the  source  and  the 
 mouth  of  the  Missouri  was  3096  miles. 
 
 1807  Four  seamen  are  killed  on  board  the  American  frigate  Chesapeake,  within  the 
 waters  of  the  United  States,  by  order  of  the  British  admiral  Berkely.  The 
 act  of  Berkely  was  disavowed  by  his  royal  master,  and  has  since  been  amicably 
 settled  between  the  two  governments. 
 
 !  808  A  general  embargo  imposed  by  law  on  the  United  States  operates  through  the 
 whole  of  the  year,  to  the  incalculable  injury  of  the  morals  and  interests  of  the 
 people. 
 A  Theological  institution  was  established  at  Andover,  in  Massachusetts.  Funds 
 for  its  support  to  an  amount  exceeding  %  110,000  were  raised  by  private  sub- 
 scriptions. From  this  source  provision  was  made  not  only  for  the  mainte- 
 nance of  candidates  for  the  ministry,  but  for  adequate  salaries  to  professors  in 
 every  department  necessary  to  form  the  complete  Theologian  and  accomplish- 
 ed preacher.  Divinity  had  been  regularly  taught  by  professors  in  Harvard 
 College  ever  since  the  year  I7ii2,  and  in  Yale  College  since  1756,  and  occasion- 
 ally in  the  college  of  Princeton  since  1768.  A  plan  for  the  instruction  of  The- 
 ological students  was  devised  about  the  year  1770,  by  the  Reformed  Dutch 
 Church,  which,  though  for  several  years  suspended,  has  been  carried  into  full 
 eft'ect  under  the  direction  of  Dr.  Livingston  ever  since  1796.  An  institution  of 
 the  same  kind  was  formed  by  the  Associate  Reformed  Synod  of  North  Amer- 
 ica, and  committed  to  the  care  of  Dr.  Mason,  which  had  been  in  complete 
 operation  since  the  year  1806.  In  the  third  year  after  the  institution  of  the 
 Andover  Theological  Institution,  four  of  its  pupils  by  name  Adoniram  Judson 
 jim.  Samuel  Nott  jun  Gordon  Hall,  and  Samuel  Newell,  magnanimously  of- 
 fered themselves  to  serve  as  missionaries  to  Heathen  nations  for  life,  and  with 
 Luther  Rice,  in  February  1812,  sailed  for  Calcutta,  in  expectation  of  spending 
 their  lives  in  some  part  of  India. 
 
 1808,  9,  10   Fifteen  Bible  Societies,  composed  of  Christians  of  various  sects,  were 
 formed  for  the  purpose  of  gratuitously  distributing  cheap  editions  of  the  Bible. 
 Thomas  Jefferson  declines  a  reelection  as  president — James  Madison  elected  his 
 successor. 
 
 1809  In  this  and  the  i)receding  19  years  upwards  of  1200  patents  for  inventions  were 
 
 issued  from  the  patent  office  of  the  United  States. 
 There  were  2000  post  offices  in  the  United  States.    In  1793  there  were  only 
 195.    In  1773  only  52. 
 
 1 810  The  History  of  Printing  in  America  was  published  by  Isaiah  Thomas.    An  use- 
 
 ful original  work,  easting  great  light  on  the  early  literature  of  the  English  col- 
 onies. From  this  work  it  appears  that  "  There  are  in  the  United  States  up- 
 wards of  169  paper  mills.  Of  these  are  in  New  England  66,  in  Vermont  9, 
 New  York  12,  Delaware  4,  Maryland  3,  Virginia*,  Kentucky  6,  Tennessee  4, 
 South  Carolina  1."  In  this  one,  coarse  paper  is  made  from  corn  husks. 
 These  mills  are  constantly  employed,  and  the  demand  for  paper  is  daily  rising. 
 Besides  a  large  number  of  presses  for  printing  books,  "The  number  of  estab- 
 lishments for  printing  newspapers  is  about  349.  Of  these  27  are  daily  papers. 
 The  whole  number  of  newspapers  annually  circulated  in  the  United  States  is 
 above  22,000,000.  These  newspaper  establishments  are  distributed  throughout 
 the  United  States  as  follows  :  In  New  England  62,  in  Vermont  14,  New  York 
 66,  New  Jersey  8,  Pennsylvania  71,  Delaware  2,  Maryland  21,  District  of  Co- 
 lumbia G,  Virginia  23,  North  Carolina  10,  South  Carolina  9,  Georgia  13,  Ken- 
 tucky 17,  Tennessee  6,  Ohio,  14,  Indiana  Territory  1,  Missisippi  Territory  4, 
 Orleans  Territory  10,  Louisiana  1." 
 
 From  a  census  of  the  nation  of  Cherokee  Indians  it  appeared  that  their  number 
 is  12,395. 
 
 The  emperor  of  France  makes  a  general  seizure  of  floating  American  properly 
 in  European  ports  subject  to  his  control. 
 
 The  manufactory  of  artificial  mineral  waters,  which  had  before  originated  in  the 
 middle  and  northern  States,  was  introduced  in  Charleston,  S.  C. 
 1813  March  26.     An  earthquake,  which  lasted  a  minute  and  a   half,  destroyed  the 
 town  or  port  of  Laguira,  and  city  of  Carraccas,  in  Venezuela,  (South  Amer- 
 ica,) antl  from  12,000  to  15,000  people  are  said  to  have  perished  in  their  ruins. 
 
 April.  An  embargo  laid  by  Congress  for  90  days ;  declared  by  high  authority  to 
 be  the  precursor  of  war  with  Great  Britain. 
 
 April  3.  The  Washington  Benevolent  Society  of  1500  members  celebrate  in 
 Boston  the  inauguration  of  the  Father  of  his  Country,  as  the  first  president  of 
 the  United  States. 
 
LIST  OF  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN  LEARNED 
 AND  EMINENT  MEN. 
 
 \_£i/  the  Hates  is  implied  the  time  tvhen  the  follo~i'ing  Writers  died;  but  when 
 that  Period  happens  not  to  be  knoiun,  the  Age  in  ivfnch  they  flourished  is  SiVra- 
 Jied  by  il] 
 
 B.    C. 
 
 907  HOMER,  The  first  profane  writer  ami  Greek  poet,  flourished. 
 Hesiod,  the  Greek  poet,  supposed  to  live  near  the  time  of  Homer. 
 
 884  Lycur^iis,  ttie  Spartan  lawgiver. 
 
 600  Sappho,  the  Greek  lyrick  poetess,  fl. 
 
 558  Solon,  lawgiver  of  Athens. 
 
 556  iEsop,  the  first  Greek  fehulist. 
 
 548  Thales,  the  first  Greek  astronomer  and  geographer. 
 
 497  Pythagoras,  founder  of  the  Pythagorean  philosophy  in  Greece. 
 
 474  Anaereon,  the  Greek  lyric  poet. 
 
 456  jEschylus,  the  first  Greek  tragic  poet. 
 
 435  Pindar,  the  Greek  lyric  poet. 
 
 413  Herodotus,  of  Greece,  the  first  Mi-iter  of  profane  history. 
 
 407  Aristophanes,  the  Greek  comic  poet,  fl. 
 
 Euripides,  the  Greek  tragic  poet. 
 406  Sophocles,  ditto.  , 
 
 Confucius,  the  Chinese  plxilosopher,  fl. 
 400  Socrates,  the  founder  of  moral  philosophy,  in  Greece, 
 591  Thucydides,  the  Greek  historian. 
 561  Hippocrates,  the  Greek  Physician. 
 Democritus,  the  Greek  philoshopher. 
 
 359  Xenophon,   ditto,  and  historian. 
 
 348  Plato,  the  Greek  philosopher,  and  disciple  of  Socrates. 
 
 336  Isocrates,  the  (ireek  orator. 
 
 332  Aristotle  the  Greek  philosopher,  and  disciple  of  Plato. 
 
 313  Demosthenes,  the  Athenian  orator,  poisoned  himself. 
 
 288  Theophrastus,  the  Greek  philosopher,  and  scholar  of  Aristotle . 
 
 285  Theocritus,  the  first  Greek  pastoral  poet,  fl. 
 
 277  Euclid,  of  Alexandria,  in  Egypt,  the  mathematician,  fl. 
 
 270  Epicurus,  founder  of  the  Epicurean  philosophy  in  Greece. 
 
 264  Xeno,  founder  of  the  stoic  philosophy  in  Greece. 
 
 24+  Callimnchus,  the  Greek  elegiac  poet. 
 
 208  Archimedes,  the  Greek  geometrician. 
 
 184  Plautus,  the  Roman  comic  poet. 
 
 159  Terence,  of  Carthage,  the  Latin  comic  poet. 
 
 155  Diogenes,  of  Babylon,  the  stoic  philosopher. 
 
 124  Polyhius,  of  Greece,  the  Greek  and  Roman  liistoiian. 
 
 54  Lucretius,  tlie  Roman  poet. 
 
 44  Julius  Ciesur,  the  Roman  historian  and  commentator  killed. 
 Diodorus  Siculus,  of  Greece,  the  universal  historian   fl. 
 Vitruvius,  the  Roman  architect,  fl. 
 
 43  Cicero,  the  Roman  orator  and  philosopher,  put  to  death. 
 Cornelius  Nepos,  the  Roman  biographer,  fl. 
 
 34  Sallust,  the  Reman  historian. 
 
 30  Djonysius  of  llalicarnassus,  the  Roman  historian,  fl. 
 
 t9  Virgil,  tl)e  Roman  epic  poet. 
 
 11  Catullus,  Tibullus  and  Propertius,  Roman  poets. 
 8  Horace,  the  Roman  lyric  and  satiric  poet. 
 
 A.  c. 
 17  Livy,  the  Roman  historian. 
 
 19  Ovid,  the  Roman  elegiac  poet. 
 
 20  Celsus,  the  Roinan  philosopher  and  physician,  fl. 
 25  Strabo,  (he  (ircek  geographer. 
 
 33  Pba;dru.s  tlie  Roman  fabulist."* 
 
LEARNED  AND  EMINENT  MEN.  Sl'3 
 
 A.  C,  .        .         J, 
 
 45  Paterculus,  the  Roman  historian,  fl. 
 
 C2  Persius,  the  Roman  satiric  poet.  .     r>      *  a 
 
 04  Quintius  Ciirtius,  a  Roman  historian  of  Alexander  the  Great,  H. 
 Seneca,  of  Spain,  the  philosopher  and  tragic  poet,  put  to  death. 
 65  Liican  the  Roman  epic  poet,  ditto. 
 79  Pliny  the  elder,  the  Roman  natural  historian. 
 
 93  Josephus,  the  Jewish  historian. 
 
 94  Epictetus,  the  Greek  stoic  philosopher,  fl. 
 
 95  Quintillian,  the  Roman  orator  and  advocate. 
 
 96  Statius,  the  Roman  epic  poet. 
 
 98  Lucius  Florus,  of  Spain,  the  Roman  historian,  fl. 
 
 99  Tacitus,  the  Roman  historian. 
 
 104  Martial,  of  Spain,  the  epigrammatic  poet. 
 Valerius  Flaccus,  the  Roman  epic  poet. 
 
 116  Pliny  the  younger,  historical  letters. 
 
 117  Suetonius,  the  Roman  historian,  fl. 
 119  Plutarch  of  Greece,  the  biographer. 
 128  Juvenal,  the  Roman  satiric  poet. 
 
 140  Ptolemy,  the  Egyptian  geographer,  mathematician,  and  astronomer,  fl. 
 
 150  Justin,  the  Roman  historian,  fl. 
 
 161    \  I  riau,  the  Roman  historian  and  philosopher,  fl. 
 
 167  Justui,  of  Samaria,  one  of  the  oldest  Christian  authors  after  the  apostles. 
 
 ISO  Luciaii,  the  Roman  philologer  and  satirist. 
 
 Marcus  Aurelius  Antonius,  Roman  emperor  and  philosopher. 
 193  Galen,  the  Greek  philosopher  and  physician. 
 200  Diogenes  Laertius,  the  Greek  biographer,  fl. 
 2'29  Dion  Cassius  of  Greece,  the  Roman  historian,  fl. 
 254  Origen,  a  Christian  father  of  Alexandria. 
 
 Herodian,  of  Alexandria,  the  Roman  historian,  fl. 
 £J58  Cyprian,  of  Carthage,  suffered  martyrdom. 
 273  Longinus,  the  Greek  orator,  put  to  death  by  Aurelian. 
 520  Ldctantius,  a  father  of  the  church,  fl. 
 
 356  Arius,  a  priest  of  Alexandria,  founder  of  the  sect  of  Arians. 
 .•)42  Eusebius,  the  ecclesiastical  historian  and  chi-onologer. 
 379  Basil,  bishop  of  Csesarea. 
 389  Gregory  Nazianzen,  bishop  of  Constantinople. 
 397  Ambrose,  bishop  of  Milan. 
 41 5  Macrobius,  the  Roman  grammarian. 
 428  Eutropius,  the  Roman  historian. 
 524  Boetius,  the  Roman  poet  and  Platonic  philosopher. 
 529  Procopius,  of  Cxsarea,  the  Roman  historian. 
 
 ENGLISH,  SCOTCH  AND  IRISH  AUTHORS. 
 
 A.  C. 
 
 753  BEDE,  a  priest  of  Northumberland  <  history  of  the  Saxons,  Scots,  kc. 
 
 901  liing  Alfred  ;  histoid,  pl.ilosoiihy,  and  poetrj. 
 1269  Matthew  Paris,  monk  of  St.  Albans;  history  of  England. 
 1292  Roger  Bacon,  Somersetshire ;  natural  philosophy. 
 1308  John  Fordun,  a  priest  of  Mernshire,  history  of  Scotland. 
 
 1403  GeoS'ry  Chaucer,  London  ;  the  father  of  English  poetry. 
 
 1404  John  Gower,  Wales  ;  the  poet. 
 
 1535  Sir  Thomas  More,  London  ;  history,  politics,  divinity. 
 1552  John  Leland,  London  ;  lives  and  antiquities. 
 1568  Roger  Ascham,  Yorkshire  ;   philologv  and  polite  literature. 
 1572  Rev.  Joseph  Knox,  the  Scotch  reformer;  history  of  the  church  of  Scotland. 
 1582  George  Buchanan,  Dumbartonshire  ;  history  of  Scotland,  Psalms  of  David,  Pol- 
 itics, &c. 
 159S  Edmund  Spenser,  London  ;  Fairy  Queen,  and  other  poems. 
 1615-25  Beaumont  and  Fletcher  ;  53  dramatic  pieces. 
 
 1616  William  Shakespeare,  Stratford  ;  42  tragedies  and  comedies. 
 
 1617  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  histoi-y  of  the  world. 
 
 If  22  John  Napier,  of  IMaixheston,  Scotland  :  discoverer  of  logarithms. 
 
 162.;  William  Camden,  London  ;  history  and  antiquities. 
 
 1626  Lord  Chancellor  Bacon.  London  ;  "natural  philosophy  and  liieratore  m  general. 
 
 1634  Lord  Chief  Justice  Coke,  Norfolk  ;  laws  of  England. 
 
 1638iBen  Johnson,  London  ;  53,dramatio  pieces. 
 
iu  LEARNED  AND  EMINENT  MEN. 
 
 A.  C. 
 
 1G38  Joseph  Mead,  B.  D.  dissertations  ou  the  prophecies,   and  various  learned  atuj 
 
 critical  works. 
 1641  Sir  Henry  Spelman,  Norfolk  ;  laws  and  antiquitiee. 
 1654  John  Shelden,  Sussex  ;  antiquities  and  laws. 
 
 1657  Dr.  William  Harvey,  Kent ;  discovered  the  circulation  of  the  blood, 
 l(jQ7  Abraham  Cowley,  London  ;  miscellaneous  poetry. 
 1674  John  Milton,  London;  Paradise  Lost,  Regained,  and  various  other  pieces  in 
 
 verse  and  prose. 
 ,,_.  ^yde.  Earl  of  Clarendon,  Wiltshire  ;  History  of  the  civil  wars  in  England. 
 16/ D  James  Gregory,  Aberdeen  ;  mathematics,  geometry  and  optics. 
 
 Rev.  Dr.  John  Lightfoot ;  divinity  and  criticism. 
 1677  Rev.  Dr,  Isaac  Barrow,  London  ;  natural  philosophy,  mathematics  and  sermojis. 
 1680  Samuel  Butler,  Worcestershire;  Hudibras,  a  burlesque  poem. 
 1685  Thomas  Otway,  London  ;  ten  tragedies  and  comedies,  with  other  poems. 
 
 1687  Edmund  Waller, Bucks;  poems,  speeches,  letters, kc. 
 
 1688  Dr.  Ralph  Cud  worth,  Somersetshire  ;  intellectual  system. 
 
 1689  Dr.  Thomas  Sydenham,  Dorsetshire  ;  History  of  Physic. 
 
 1690  Nathaniel  Lee,  London  ;  eleven  tragedies. 
 
 Robert  Barclay,  Edinburgh  ;  Apology  for  the  Quakers. 
 1C91  Hon.  Robert  Boyle  ;  natural  and  experimental  philosophy  and  theology. 
 
 Sir  George  M'Kenzie,  Dundee  ;  Antiquities  and  Laws  of  Scotland. 
 
 Rev.  Richard  Baxter  ;  divinity. 
 1694  John  Tillotson,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  Halifax  ;  254  sermons. 
 1697  Sir  \Villiam  Temple,  London  ;  politics  and  polite  literature. 
 1(.99  Rev.  Dr.  William  Bates,  divinity. 
 1701  John  Dryden,   Northamptonshire  ;  27  tragedies  and  comedies,   satiric  poems, 
 
 Virgil. 
 J  704  John  Locke,  Somersetshire  ;  philosophy,  government,  and  theology. 
 1705  John  Ray,  Essex  ;  botany,  natural  philosophy,  and  divinity. 
 1707  George  Farquhar,  Londonderry  ;  eight  comedies. 
 1713  Ant.  Ash  Cooper,  Earl  of  Siiaftsbury  ;  characteristics. 
 
 ■^71     ?r"?^'^^  Burnet,  Edinburgh,  bishop  of  Salisbury  ;  history,  biographv,  divinity ,ke. 
 1718  Nicholas  Rowe,  Devonshire;  seven  tragedies,  translation  of  Lucan's  Pharsalia. 
 1/19  Rev.  John  Flarastead,  Derbyshire  ;  mathematics  and  astronomy. 
 
 Joseph  Addison,  Wiltshire  ;  Spectator,  Guardian,  poems,  politics, 
 -o.  ?/■  "^"''^  ^^''''  Edinburgh  ;  mathematics  and  astronomy. 
 1  /  21  Matthew  Prior,  London  ;  poems  and  politics. 
 ]l^f  William  \yollaston,  Staffordshire  ;  Religion  of  Nature  delineated. 
 i-in  o"^  isaac Newton,  Lincolnshire  ;  mathematics,  georaetrv,  astronomy,  optics. 
 1/1^9  Rev.  Dr.  Samuel  Clarke,  Norwich  ;  mathematics,  divini'ty,  &c. 
 
 ^"'  'f'chard  Steele,  Dublin  ;   four  comedies,  papers  in  Tatler,  &c. 
 '<"-o  T  J"'^  Congi-eve,  Staffordshire  ;   seven  dramatic  pieces. 
 liby  John  Gay,  Exeter  ;  poems,  fables,  and  eleven  dramatic  pieces. 
 
 -/*'t  1^'"  i°      Arbuthnot,  Mearnshire  ;  medicine,  coins,  politics. 
 J/4i,  Dr.  Edmund  Halley  ;  natural  philosophy,  astronomy,  navigation. 
 i~i'    \     ^"^"*''''  I^entley,  Yorkshire  ;  classical  Icaming,  criticism. 
 174*  Alexander  Pope,  London  ;  poems,  letters,  translation  of  Homer. 
 
 1746  Rev.  Dr.  Jonathan  Swift,  Dublin  ;  poems,  politics  and  letters. 
 
 1747  Colin  M'Laurin,  Argjleshire  ;  algebra,  view  of  Newton's  philosophy. 
 
 1748  James  Thomson,  Roxburgshire  ;  Seasons,  and  other  poems,  fjveU-agcdies. 
 Rev.  Dr.  Isaac   Watts,  Southampton;   logic,  philosophy,  psalms,  hymns,  ser- 
 mons, &c. 
 
 Dr.  Francis  Ilutcheson,  Airshire  ;  syster*  of  moral  philosophy. 
 
 1750  Rev.  Dr.  Convers,  Middleton,  Yorkshire  ;  l,ife  of  Cicero,  kc. 
 Andrew  Baxter,  Old  Aberdeen  ;  metaphysics  and  natural  philosophy. 
 
 1751  Henry  St.  John,  lord  Bolingbroke,  Surry  ;  philosophy,  metaphysics  and  politics. 
 Dr.  Alexander  Monro,  Edinburgh  ;  anatomy  of  the  human  body. 
 
 1754  Dr.  Richard  Mead,  Lwidon  ;  on  poisons,  plague,  small-pox,  medicine,  precepts. 
 Henry  Fielding,  Somersetshire  ;  Tom  Jones,  Joseph  Andrews,  fecc. 
 
 1755  Dr.  Nathaniel  Lardner,  History  of  the  Apostles  and  Evangelists,  writers  of  the 
 
 New  Testament,  Credibility,  &c. 
 1^57  CoUey  Cibher,  London  ;  25  tragedies  and  comedies. 
 1761  Thomas  Sherlock,  bishop  of  London  ;  69  sermons,  &c. 
 
 Benjamin  Hoadley,  bishop  of  Winchestei- ;  sermons  and  controversy. 
 
 Samuel  Richardson,  London  ;  Grandison,  Clarissa,  Pamela. 
 
 Rev.  Dr.  John  Leland,  Lancashire  ;  Answer  to  Deistic.al  writers. 
 1765  Rev.  Dr.  Edward  Young  ,  Night  Thoughts,  and  other  poems,;3  tragedies. 
 
 Robert  Simson,  (Glasgow  ;  conic  sections,  Euclid,  AppoUonius. 
 1768  Rev.  LawrciiccSternc  ;_45  sermons,  Senliiuculaljuuniey,  Tristram  Sliandy. 
 
LEARNED  AND  EMINENT  MEN.  S15 
 
 A.  c;  .  . 
 
 1769  Robert  Smith,  Lincolnshire  ;  liarmonies  and  optics. 
 
 1770  Rev.  Dr.  Jortin  ;  Life  of  Erasmus,  Ecclesiastical  History  and  sermouf- 
 Dr.  Mark  Akenside,  Newcastle  upon  Tvne  ;  poems. 
 
 Dr.  Tobias  SmoUet,  Dunbartonshire  ;  History  of  England,  novels,  translations. 
 
 1771  Thomas  Gray,  Professor  o''  Modern  History,  Cambridge  ;  poems, 
 
 1773  Philip  Dormer  Stanhope,  Earl  of  Chesterfield  ;  letters. 
 George  Lord  Lj'ttleton,  Worcestershire  ;  History  of  England. 
 
 1774  Oliver  Goldsmith  ;  poems,  essays,  ana  other  pieces. 
 
 Zachary  Pearce,  bishop  of  Rochester ;  Annotations  on  the  New  Testament,  8c<?. 
 
 1775  Dr.  John  Hawksworth  ;  essays. 
 
 1776  David  Hume,  Mearse  ;  History  of  England,  and  essays. 
 James  Ferguson,  Aberdeenshire  ;  astronomy. 
 
 1777  Samuel  Foote,  Cornwall ;  plays. 
 
 1779  David  Garrick,  Hereford  ;  plays.  Sec. 
 
 William  Warburton,  bishop  of  Gloucester;  Dlviue  Legation  of  Moses,  and  va- 
 rious other  works. 
 
 1780  Sir  William  Blackstone,  chief  justice,  London  ;  Commentaries  on  the  Laws  of 
 
 England. 
 Dr.  John  Fothergill,  Yorksliire  ;  philosophy  and  medicine. 
 James  Harris,  Hermes ;  Philological  Inquiries,  and  Philosophical  Arrangements. 
 
 1782  Thomas  Newton,   bishop  of  Bristol,  Litchfield  ;  discourses  on  the  prophecies 
 
 and  other  works. 
 Sir  John  Pringle,  Bart.  Roxboroughshire  ;  Diseases  of  the  Army. 
 Henry  Home,  Lord  Kaimes,  Scotland  i  Elements  of  Criticism,  Sketches  of  the 
 
 HistoiT  of  Man. 
 
 1783  Dr.  William  Huoter,  Lanerkshire  ;  anatomy. 
 
 Dr.  Benjamin  Kennicott,  Devonshire  ;  Hebrew  Bible,  dissertations,  Sec. 
 
 1784  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson,   Lichfield  ;  English  Dictionary,  biography,  essays,  poctiy, 
 
 died  Dec.  13,  aged  71. 
 
 1785  Rev.  Richard  Burn,  LL.  D.  author  of  the  Justice  of  Peace,  Eccles.  Law,  Sec. 
 
 died  Nov.  20. 
 Richard  Glover,  Esq.  Leonidas,  Medea,  &c.  died  Nov.  25. 
 
 1786  Jonas  Hanway,  Esq.  Travels,  miscellanies,  died  Sept.  5,  aged  74. 
 
 1787  Dr.  Robert  Lowth,  bishop  of  London;  criticism,  divinity,  grammar,  died  Nov.  S. 
 Soame  Jenyns,  Esq.  hnternal  Evidence  of  the   Christian  Religion,   and  othrr 
 
 pieces  ;  died  Dec.  18. 
 
 1788  James  Stuart,  Esq.  celebrated  by  the  name  of"  Athenian  Stuart;"  diedFeb.  1, 
 Thomas  Gainsborough,  Esq.  the  celebrated  painter,  died  Aug.  2. 
 
 Thomas  Sheridan,  Esq.  English  Dictionary,  works  on  education,  elocution,  8cc. 
 died  Aug.  14. 
 
 1789  William  Julius  Mickle,  Esq.  Cumberland  ;  translator  of  the  Lusiad,  died  Oct.  2.=;. 
 
 1790  Dr.  William  Cullen,  Scotland;  Practice  of  Physic,  Materia  Medica,  died  Feb.  5. 
 Dr.  Adam  Smith,   Scotland  ;  Moral  Sentiments,   Inquiry   into^  the   Wealth  of 
 
 Nations,  died  April  17. 
 John  Howai-d,  Esq.  Middlesex  ;  Account  of  Prisons,  Lazarettos,  kc. 
 Rev,  Thomas  Warton,  B.  D.  poet  laureat ;  History  of  English  Poetry,  poems, 
 
 died  April  21. 
 
 1791  Rev.  Dr.  Richard  Price,   Glamorganshire;  on  Morals,  Providence,  Civil  Liber- 
 
 ty, Annuities,  Reversionary  payments,  Sermons,  &c.  died  Feb.  19,  aged  08. 
 Dr.  Thomas  Blacklock,  Annandale  ;  poems,  Consolations  from  natural  and  re- 
 vealed Religion,  died  July,  aged  70. 
 
 1792  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  Devonshire  ;  President  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Painting ; 
 
 Discourses  on  Painting  delivered  before  the  Academy,  died  Feb.  23,  aged  68. 
 
 1793  Rev.  Dr.  William  Robertson,  Principal  of  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  and  His- 
 
 toriographer to  his  majesty  for  Scotland  ;  History  of  .Scotland,  of  the  Reign 
 of  Charles  V,  History  of  America,  and  Histo.  Disquisition  concerning  India, 
 died  June  11,  aged  72. 
 
 1794  Dr.  George  Campbell,  Aberdeen  ;  Rlietoric,  Dissertation  on  Miracles. 
 Edward  Gibbon,  Esq.  Surry  ;  History  of  the  decline  and  fall  of  the  Roman  Em- 
 pire, died  Jan.  16. 
 
 1795  Dr.  Andrew  Kippis,  author  of  Cook's  Voyages,  Life  of  Doddridge,  Sec. 
 
 Sir  William  Jones,  one  of  the  Judges  of  India,  and  President  of  the  Asiatic  So- 
 ciety, several  law  tracts,  translation  of  Isreus,  and  of  the  JNIoallakat,  or  seven 
 Arabian  Poems,  and  many  valuable  papers  in  Asiatic  researches. 
 
 1796  Robert  Burns,  the  Scotch  poet,  died  July  21. 
 
 James  Fordyce,  I).  D.  Addresses  to  young  people.  Sermons,  Sec.  died  Oct.  1. 
 
 1797  Edmund  Burke,  Esq.  Sublime  and  Beautiful,  traits  on  the  French  Revolution. 
 ir99  W.  Melmoth;  Tr=»nstations  of  Pliny's  and  Cicero's  Letters,  Fitzosborne's  I.e. '. 
 
 ters,  &Ci 
 
816  LEARNED  AND  EMINENT  MEN. 
 
 A.c. 
 
 Lord  Moiibntldo  ;  origin  and  progress  of  language. 
 1800  Dr.  Hu,e;h  Blair  ;  Sermons,  Rhetoric,  and  Belles  Lettres. 
 
 Rev.  William  Mason,  two  tragedies,  Odes,  &c  died  April  5. 
 
 William  Cowper.  Poenjs,  translation  of  Homer,  Sec.  died  April  25. 
 1802  Henry  Hunter,  D.  D.  Sacred  Biography,  translation  of  Lavater,  St.  Pierre,  &c, 
 
 died  Oct.  27. 
 I81'2  Home  Tooke,  History,  Philology,  died  March. 
 
 OTHER  EUROPEAN  AUTHORS. 
 
 980  AVICENNA,  the  Mahometan  philosopher  and  physician. 
 1118  Anna  Comraena  ;  Ale.xiad,  or  life  of  her  father  Emperor  Alexias  Commenus. 
 1206  Averroes,  Corduba,  the  Arabian  philosopher. 
 1321   Dante,  Florence;  poetry. 
 137i  Petrarch,  .Vi-czzo  in  Italy  ;  poetry. 
 1376  Boccace,  Tuscany  ;  the  Decameron,  poems,  &c. 
 1481  Platina,  Italy  ;  Lives  of  the  Popes,  kc. 
 1502  Montaigne,  Perigord  in  France  ;   essays. 
 1509  Philip  de  Comines,  Flanders  ;  historical  memoirs. 
 1517  Martin  Luther,  the  Great  Reformer,  fl. 
 
 John  Calvin,        do.        fl. 
 1530  Machiavel,  Florence  ;  politics,  comedies,  &c. 
 1534  Ariosto,  Lombardy  ;  Orbindo  Furioso,  and  five  comedies. 
 1536  Erasmus,  Rotterdam  ;  Colloquies,  Praise  of  Folly,  &c. 
 1540  Guicciardini,  Florence  ;   History  of  Italy. 
 1543  Copernicus,  Thorn  in  Prussia  ;  astronomy. 
 
 1543  Michael  de  Cervantes,  Saavedi-a  Alcalain  Spain;  Don  Qui.\ote,  See. 
 1566  Hannibal  Caro,  Civita  Nuova  ;  poems  and  translations. 
 
 Vida,  Cremona;  art  of  poetry,  and  other  didactic  poems. 
 1579  Camoens,  Lisbon  ;  tlie  Lusiad,  an  epic  poem. 
 1590  Davila,  Isle  of  Cyprus;  history  of  the  civil  wars  of  France. 
 1595  Torquato  Tasso,  Italy  ;  Jerusalem  Delivered,  an  epic  poem,  Aminta,  kc. 
 1605  Ulysses  Aldrovandus,  Bologna  ;  natural  history. 
 1608   Mendez,  Castile  ;  history  of  China,  fl. 
 1612  Battista  Guarini,  Ferrara  ;  the  Faithful  Shepherd,  a  pastoral  poem. 
 
 1623  Father  Paul  Sarpi,  Venice  ;  History  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  Rights  of  Sove. 
 
 reigns  and  Subjects,  letters,  ice. 
 
 1624  John  Mariana,  Castile  ;  History  of  Spain. 
 
 1625  John  Baptist  Marino,  Naples  ;  poetry. 
 
 1627  Lewis  de  Congora,  Cordova  ;  poetry  and  plays. 
 
 1628  Francis  de  Malherbe,  Normandy  ;  poetry. 
 1630  John  Kepler,  Wittemberg;  astronomy. 
 1635  Trajan  Boccolini,  Rome  ;  satirical  pii-ces,  fl. 
 
 l6-i5  Hugo  Grotins  ;  commentaries  on  tlie  scriptures,  jurisprudence. 
 1646  Lewis  Veliz  de  Guevera,  Andalusia  ;  comedies. 
 1650  Des  Cartes,  Touraine  ;  philosophy  and  inaihemalics. 
 
 1654  John  Lewis  de  Balzac,  Angoultme  ;  letters,  ice. 
 
 1655  Peter  Casscndi,  Provence  ;  astronomy. 
 
 1662  Pascal,  Auvergne  ;  Thoughts  upon  Religion,  kc. 
 
 1673  Moliere,  Paris  ;  comedies. 
 
 1675  .lames  Robault,  Amiens  ;  physics. 
 
 1680  Francis,  Duke  of  Rochefoucault,  France ;  maxims. 
 
 Dr.  Lewis  Moreri,  Provence  ;  Historical  Diciionary. 
 168.3  Mezeray,  Lower  Normandy  ;  Abridgment  of  the  history  of  France. 
 1684  Peter  Corneille,  Rouen  ;  thirty  dramatic  pieces. 
 1689  Dr.  Bonet,  Geneva  ;  medicine. 
 1692  Giles  .Menage,  Angers  ;  philology,  miscellanies  in  verse  and  prose. 
 
 1694  Antoniettade  la  (iardc  Des  Houlieres,  Paris  ,  peetry. 
 
 in  plantt^. 
 A  miciiuui'i,  ujqjer  Ouxony  ;  iurisi^**'i*'*''^'''^  ni\ti  inctrti-ir 
 
 1695  D'llerlielot.  Puiia  •   R;i.i;,%tl,eque 
 
 Marcellus  Malpighi,  Bologna  ;  discovered  the  circulation  of  the  sap  : 
 
 Puflendorf,  Upper  Saxony  ;  jurisprudence  and  history. 
 
 D  Merlielot,  Paris  ;  Bibliotheque  orientale 
 
 ''".^■gcns,  Hague;  mathematics  and  astronomy. 
 1696  John  de  la  Bniyere,  France  ;  characters. 
 
 Marchioness  de  Sevigne,  France  ;   letters. 
 J 609  John  liucine,  France  ;  tragedies. 
 1703  Musc:itoii,  iMarseilles ;  funeral  orations. 
 
LEARNED  AND  EMINENT  MEN.  817 
 
 A.    C. 
 
 1704  Bocconi,  Palermo  ;  natural  lilstorr. 
 
 Bf'iisset,  Dijon  ;  discourse  upon  universal  history,  funeral  orations,  &C. 
 Bourdaloue,  France  ;  Sermons. 
 
 1706  Bailet,  Pieardy  ;  Judgments  of  the  Learned,  biography,  &c. 
 
 1707  Rev.  James  Sauriri  ;  sermons,  tracts,  fl. 
 
 1709  ThomasCorncillejbiother  to  Peter  ;  tragedies. 
 
 1710  Flechier,  Avignon  ;  sermons,  funeral  orations,  &c. 
 
 17lii  Boileau,  Paris;  satires,  epistles,  ait  of  poetry  ;  the  Lutrin,  &«. 
 Cwssiiii,  Italy  ;  astronomy. 
 
 1715  Malebranche,  Paris  ;  philosophy. 
 
 1716  Francis  de  Saiignac  de   la  motte  Fenelon,  archbishop    of  Cambray,   P&rigord  ; 
 
 Telenuichus.TJialogues  of  the  Dead,  Demonstration  of  the  Being  of  God,  &«. 
 
 Leibnitz,  Leipsick  ;    philosophy,  &c. 
 1720  Madame  Daoier,  France  ;  translation  of  Homer,  Terence,  he. 
 17:23  Ht  iM-y,  Paris  ;  history. 
 
 Bav  le,  Foix  ;  Histoi-ical  and  Critioal  Dictionary. 
 1725  Rai)in  de  Thoyras,  Languedoc  ;  history  of  England. 
 1728  Father  Daniel,  Rouen  ;  history  of  France. 
 17S5  Vertot,  France  ;  Revolutions  of  Rome,  Portugal,  Sweden,,  he. 
 1738  Dr.  Boerhave,  Leyden  ;  botany,  &c. 
 1741  Rollin,  Paris  ;  history.  Belles  Leltres. 
 
 John  Baptist  Rousseau,  Paris  ;  odes,  epistles,  epigrams,  curacdies,  letters. 
 
 Le  Sage,  Bretany  ;    Gil  Bias,  he. 
 1743   Masillon,  France  ;  Sermons. 
 1755  Montesquieu,  Bourdcaux  ;  Spirit  of  laws.  Grandeur  and  Declension  of  the  JRcf- 
 
 mans,  Persian  letters,  &c. 
 1757  Reaumur,  Roche"le  ;  natural  history  of  insects. 
 1767  Muratori,  Italy  ;  history,  antiquities. 
 
 Metastasio,  Italy  ;  (h-amatic  pieees,  fl, 
 1778  Voltaire,  Paris  ;  the   Henriad,  an  epic  poem,  dramatic  pieces,  poetry,  history, 
 
 literature  in  general. 
 1788  The  Count  De  Budbn,  Pai-is  ;  natural  history. 
 1794  Marquis  de  Beccsria  ;  Dissertations  on  Crimes  and  Ptmishments. 
 r796  Abbe  Ravnal  ;  histoi-v  of  the  Indie?. 
 
 VOL.    11.  103 
 
ilSBEX  TO  VOL.  II. 
 
 Pago. 
 
 Aalhorg  Iti.-j 
 
 A:'r  river  3S'l 
 
 Anrhuus  163 
 
 Aberileen  104 
 
 university  102 
 
 Abo  university  176 
 
 Abyssinia  747 
 
 A  chill  island  142 
 
 Acirs  or  snowy  hurricanes  of  Frauce   279 
 
 Adam's  bridge  582 
 Adei  kingdom 
 
 Adige  river  385 
 
 Adrianople  422 
 
 ^^atian  islands  407 
 
 iEtna  mount  405 
 
 Africa  701 
 
 Agiraere  '                    586 
 
 Agra  585 
 
 Agriculture  and  soil  of  Abyssinia  752 
 
 Algiers  720 
 
 Arabia  653 
 
 Austria  327 
 
 Birniau  Empire  542 
 
 Ceylon  598 
 
 Denmark  165 
 
 Egypt  73S 
 
 England  76 
 
 France  2/  / 
 
 Good  Hope,  cape  of  765 
 
 Hiiido'^tan  572 
 
 Holland  238 
 
 Jai^fjn  530 
 
 Ireland  136 
 
 Italy  384 
 
 N.iples  399 
 
 Kepaul  515 
 
 Netherlands  248 
 
 Norw  ay  1 52 
 
 Pei-sia  617 
 
 Portugal  578 
 
 Prussia  *                  225 
 
 Russia  in  Europe^  205 
 
 Russia  in  Asia  465 
 
 Sofjlland  109 
 
 Siam  553 
 
 Sicily  404 
 
 Spain  361 
 
 Sweden  ISO 
 
 Switzerland  338 
 
 Tartary  Chinese  500 
 
 Tibet  510 
 
 Turkey  '                 448 
 
 Ajan  753 
 
 Aland  isles  184 
 
 Aleppo  443 
 
 Alessandria  590 
 
 Alexandria  732 
 
 Alghieri  408 
 
 Algiers  71& 
 
 city  718 
 
 Alhambra  palace  348 
 
 Alicaut                                  "^  359 
 
 Allahabad  585 
 
 Alps  339 
 
 Alsen  island  167 
 
 Altai  mountains  22 
 
 Altan  Nor  Lake  467 
 
 Alten  river  145 
 
 Altona  162 
 
 Amboyna  island  673 
 
 Amedabad  590 
 
 Amelandt  island  241 
 
 Amiens  269 
 
 Amoor  river  20 
 
 Amsterdam  285 
 
 Amu  river  636 
 
 Andrews,  St.  university  102 
 
 Andros  island  432 
 
 Angers  270 
 
 Angola  kingdom  769 
 
 Angora  444 
 
 Anhalt,  House  of  303 
 
 Annan  kingdom  510 
 
 river  109 
 
 Annobon  island  791 
 
 Anspach  307 
 
 Anliparos  grotto  429 
 
 Antiparos  island  433 
 
 Antwerp  044 
 
 harbour  272 
 
 Antiquities  ol  Austria  316 
 
 China  Proper  478 
 
 Chinese  Tartary  497 
 
 Denmark  I58 
 
 England  36 
 
 Egypt  728 
 
 France  258 
 
 Germany  289 
 
 Hindostau  566 
 
 Holland  232 
 
 Japan  522 
 
 Ireland  128 
 
 Persia  605 
 
 Poland  214 
 
 Prussia  22O 
 
 Russia  in  Europe  194 
 
 in  Asia  459 
 
 Scotland  95 
 
 Spain  347 
 
 Sweden  171 
 
 Switzerland  335 
 
 Turkey  in  Asia  442 
 
INDEX 
 
 &ig 
 
 Antiquities  of  Turkey  in  Europe 
 
 Appenines 
 
 Arabia 
 
 original  population  of 
 progressive  geography  of 
 Arabian  sea 
 Aral  sea 
 
 Ararat  mountain 
 Architecture  of  Irelaad 
 Ardra  kingdom 
 Aremberg,  duchy  «f 
 Arkeeko 
 Army  of  Abyssinia 
 
 Algiers 
 
 Austria 
 
 Birman  Empire 
 
 Ciiina  Proper 
 
 Chinese  Tartary 
 
 Denmarlt 
 
 En^land 
 
 Egypt 
 
 France 
 
 Gangetic  Hindostan 
 
 Germany 
 
 Holland 
 
 Japan 
 
 Ireland 
 
 Italy 
 
 Morocco 
 
 Nfiples 
 
 Norway 
 
 Poland 
 
 Poitugal 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Russia  in  Europe 
 
 Siam 
 
 Sicily 
 
 Spain 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Turkey  in  Europe 
 Arno  river 
 Arran  islands 
 Arras 
 Arroo  isles 
 Ascension  island 
 Asia 
 
 original  population  of 
 progressive  geography  of 
 Asphaltites  lake 
 Asti 
 
 Astracan 
 Atbara  river 
 Athinia  or  Setines 
 Athos  mount 
 Atlas  mountains 
 Augila 
 Augsburg 
 Aur 
 
 Australasia 
 Austria 
 
 original  population  of 
 progressive  geography  of 
 Ava 
 Axum 
 Azof  sea 
 
 town 
 Babe^waiid'el 
 
 Page. 
 
 414 
 S86 
 640 
 041 
 641 
 IS 
 637 
 451 
 135 
 771 
 303 
 751 
 750 
 717 
 318 
 538 
 48  3 
 498 
 159 
 49 
 731 
 261 
 583 
 290 
 23.i 
 525 
 131 
 393 
 704 
 397 
 150 
 215 
 372 
 221 
 196 
 549 
 401 
 350 
 174 
 336 
 417 
 385 
 120,  148 
 245 
 68'2 
 791 
 434 
 435 
 439 
 449 
 390 
 46'2 
 752 
 424 
 428 
 23 
 785 
 307 
 105 
 G74 
 309 
 312 
 312 
 539 
 751 
 11 
 463 
 15 
 
 Fag>. 
 
 Babylon,  Us  rain's 
 
 445 
 
 Badakshan 
 
 636 
 
 Baden 
 
 308 
 
 Baedoo 
 
 779 
 
 Bagdad 
 
 445 
 
 Bahrin  isle 
 
 658 
 
 Baikal  sea 
 
 16 
 
 Baktegan  lake 
 
 fil9 
 
 Balbee 
 
 442 
 
 Balk 
 
 635 
 
 Baltic  sea 
 
 11 
 
 Bambara 
 
 778 
 
 Banda  or  Lantor  iiland 
 
 674 
 
 Banna  river 
 
 137 
 
 Barabin  stepp 
 
 46S 
 
 Barca 
 
 72« 
 
 Barcelona 
 
 355 
 
 Bari 
 
 399 
 
 Barra  kingdom 
 
 777 
 
 Barrow  river 
 
 137 
 
 Basil  or  Basle 
 
 337 
 
 Basra  or  H;isora 
 
 445 
 
 Batchian  island 
 
 672 
 
 Bavaria 
 
 306 
 
 Bayonne 
 
 272 
 
 Bayreuth,  principality  qf 
 
 ao9 
 
 Beeroo 
 
 782 
 
 Belfast 
 
 134 
 
 Belgrade 
 
 423 
 
 Beliisle 
 
 285 
 
 Belur  mountains 
 
 637 
 
 Benbecula  isle 
 
 123 
 
 Benares 
 
 58» 
 
 Bengal,  bay  of 
 
 13 
 
 Benguela  kingdom 
 
 768 
 
 Benin  kingdom 
 
 770 
 
 Ben  Nevis  mountain 
 
 114 
 
 Berelos  lake 
 
 739 
 
 Bergamo 
 
 394 
 
 Berg,  grand  duchy  of 
 
 302 
 
 river 
 
 766 
 
 Bergen 
 
 151 
 
 Berh^impooter  river 
 
 710 
 
 Berlin 
 
 222 
 
 Berra  isle 
 
 123 
 
 Besancon 
 
 270 
 
 Beveland  islands 
 
 240 
 
 Bhatgung 
 
 515 
 
 Biafra  kingdom 
 
 770 
 
 Bielo-Ozero  or  White  lake 
 
 208 
 
 Birman  Empire 
 
 533 
 
 original  population  of 
 
 534 
 
 progressive  geography  of 
 
 534 
 
 Biscay,  bay  of 
 
 13 
 
 Bissagos  island 
 
 790 
 
 Bissao  island 
 
 790 
 
 Bistan 
 
 €14 
 
 Blackwater  river 
 
 137 
 
 Bleeda 
 
 719 
 
 Blocksberg  mountains 
 
 293 
 
 Boden  Zee 
 
 339 
 
 Bog  or  Bogue  river 
 
 206 
 
 Bosrs  of  Ireland 
 
 139 
 
 Bokhara 
 
 .  635 
 
 Bologna 
 
 394 
 
 Bombay 
 
 590 
 
 Bondau 
 
 780 
 
 Bootan 
 
 512 
 
820 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 rase. 
 
 P»g.. 
 
 Borneo  ish'nd 
 
 667 
 
 Cairo 
 
 732 
 
 Bornholm  island 
 
 1G7 
 
 Cambay 
 
 590 
 
 Botany  of  Arabia 
 
 CSS 
 
 Cambodia 
 
 516 
 
 Australasia,  and  Polynesia 
 
 G98 
 
 Cambray 
 
 246 
 
 Austria 
 
 3.J0 
 
 Cambridge  univeraty 
 
 57 
 
 Birman  Empire 
 
 541 
 
 Campbeltown 
 
 106 
 
 China  Proper 
 
 493 
 
 (>anals  of  France 
 
 27i 
 
 Chinese  Tartary 
 
 5i)l 
 
 Canaries 
 
 789 
 
 Denmark 
 
 IGO 
 
 Candia 
 
 429 
 
 Egypt 
 
 739 
 
 Canea 
 
 431 
 
 England 
 
 81 
 
 Oantabrian  chain  of  mountains 
 
 363 
 
 France 
 
 280 
 
 Canton 
 
 487 
 
 Germany 
 
 294 
 
 Cape  of  Good  Hope 
 
 755 
 
 Hindostan 
 
 578 
 
 Cape  town 
 
 759 
 
 Holland 
 
 240 
 
 Cape  Verd  islands 
 
 790 
 
 Japan 
 
 531 
 
 Cardona  mountain 
 
 365 
 
 Ireland 
 
 139 
 
 Carlscrona 
 
 177 
 
 Italy 
 
 386 
 
 Carolines  isles 
 
 690 
 
 Lapland 
 
 145 
 
 Cai'pathian  mountain's 
 
 329 
 
 Morocco 
 
 715 
 
 Carthage,  ruins  of 
 
 724 
 
 Persia 
 
 6'21 
 
 Carthagena 
 
 358 
 
 Portugal 
 
 379 
 
 Cashgar 
 
 499,  62/ 
 
 Prussia 
 
 12'26 
 
 Cashmir 
 
 588 
 
 K  issia  in  Europe 
 
 S09 
 
 Caspian  Sea 
 
 16 
 
 Russia  in  Asia 
 
 469 
 
 Cassel 
 
 299 
 
 Scotland 
 
 116 
 
 Catania 
 
 403 
 
 Sicily 
 
 406 
 
 Catacombs  of  Egypt 
 
 728 
 
 Spain 
 
 365 
 
 Catmandu 
 
 515 
 
 Sweden 
 
 181 
 
 Caucasian  mountains 
 
 450,  467 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 340 
 
 Caveri  river 
 
 570 
 
 Turkey  in  Europe 
 
 4'28 
 
 Celebezian  isles 
 
 669 
 
 Turkey  in  Asia 
 
 452 
 
 Central  Hindostan 
 
 590 
 
 Bourbon  island 
 
 791 
 
 Ceram  island 
 
 671 
 
 Bourdeaux 
 
 258 
 
 Cerigo 
 
 410 
 
 Boulogne 
 
 271 
 
 Cephalonia 
 
 410 
 
 Bournou 
 
 782 
 
 Cevennes  chain  of  mountains 
 
 278 
 
 Bouro  island 
 
 G71 
 
 Ceuta  or  Cibtu 
 
 709 
 
 Boyne  river 
 
 137 
 
 Ceylon  island 
 
 590 
 
 Eraga 
 
 376 
 
 Character  and  manners  of  Abysinia        750 
 
 Braiidenburgh 
 
 223 
 
 Algiers 
 
 717 
 
 Breede  river 
 
 766 
 
 Arabia 
 
 646 
 
 Ereme» 
 
 305 
 
 Austria 
 
 320 
 
 Brescia 
 
 394 
 
 Birman  Empire 
 
 538 
 
 Breslau 
 
 223 
 
 Bucharia 
 
 634 
 
 Brest 
 
 271 
 
 Ceylon 
 
 597 
 
 Briai-e  canal 
 
 274 
 
 China  Proper 
 
 483 
 
 Bridges  of  England 
 
 68 
 
 Chinese  Tartary 
 
 498 
 
 British  Empire 
 
 30 
 
 Denmark 
 
 160 
 
 possessions  in  Hindostan    553, 
 
 592 
 
 Egypt 
 
 731 
 
 Brody 
 
 325 
 
 England 
 
 52 
 
 Brunu 
 
 324 
 
 France 
 
 264 
 
 Brunsv.ick 
 
 300 
 
 Good  Hope,  cape  of 
 
 759,  761 
 
 Bruges 
 
 245 
 
 Hindostan 
 
 568 
 
 Brussels 
 
 214 
 
 Holland 
 
 233 
 
 Eucharia,  Great 
 
 f)34 
 
 Japan 
 
 525 
 
 Bucharest 
 
 423 
 
 Ireland 
 
 131 
 
 Buda 
 
 324 
 
 Lapland 
 
 144 
 
 Bundamir  river 
 
 618 
 
 Nepaiil 
 
 513 
 
 Burrampootcr  river                 010,5" 
 
 '5,21 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 244 
 
 Bute  island 
 
 120 
 
 New-Holland 
 
 676 
 
 Cabul 
 
 589 
 
 Norway 
 
 150 
 
 Cadiz 
 
 356 
 
 Persia 
 
 610 
 
 Cadsand  iilaud 
 
 2-iO 
 
 Poland 
 
 215 
 
 Cj»en 
 
 270 
 
 Portugal 
 
 372 
 
 Oaffa,  straits  of 
 
 15 
 
 Prussia 
 
 221 
 
 Gaffers 
 
 756 
 
 llussia  in  Europe 
 
 197 
 
 Capliari 
 
 408 
 
 Siam                        ' 
 
 550 
 
 Culciifta 
 
 iS4 
 
 Sicily 
 
 402 
 
INDEX. 
 
 821 
 
 Bcotlatul 
 Spain 
 S  weden 
 Switzerland 
 Tartary,  Independent 
 Tibet 
 
 Turkey  in  Europe 
 Turkey  in  Asia 
 Gherbourgh 
 Cherso 
 Chiea  Proper 
 
 original  population  of 
 progressive  geography  of 
 China  Sea 
 Chinese  Empire 
 Tartary 
 
 original  population  of 
 
 progressive  geography  of 
 Christiana 
 Christiansand 
 Ciampa 
 Cii'kutz  lake 
 Cirtipour 
 Clara  river 
 Clermont 
 Clausenburgli 
 Cobi  desert 
 Cochin 
 Cochii\China 
 Coimbra 
 
 Coimbra  university 
 Colair  lake 
 Cologne 
 Colombo 
 
 Colonies  of  France 
 Comingo  isle 
 Coniera  islands 
 Commerce  and  manufactures  of 
 
 Algiers 
 
 Arabia 
 
 Austria 
 
 Abyssinia 
 
 Birman  Empife 
 
 Buchari 
 
 Ceylon 
 
 China  Proper 
 
 Chinese  Tartary 
 
 Denmark 
 
 England 
 
 Egypt 
 
 France 
 
 Good  Hope,  Cape  of 
 
 Hindostan 
 
 Holland 
 
 Ireland 
 
 Japan 
 
 Lapland 
 
 Norway 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 Persia 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Russia 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Siam 
 
 Sicily 
 
 Spain 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Page. 
 
 'J9 
 350 
 175 
 33C 
 €29 
 607 
 4t8 
 4  is 
 273 
 395 
 476 
 476 
 47C 
 
 14 
 473 
 495 
 496 
 496 
 151 
 151 
 517 
 
 sss 
 
 515 
 
 180 
 270 
 325 
 25 
 594 
 517 
 377 
 374 
 576 
 269 
 598 
 261 
 410 
 
 792 
 
 719 
 652 
 
 326 
 751 
 541 
 636 
 59« 
 4S9 
 600 
 164 
 .70 
 736 
 275 
 761 
 571 
 237 
 135 
 528 
 144 
 152 
 247 
 C15 
 377 
 223 
 202 
 107 
 552 
 4'Ji 
 360 
 178 
 
 Tartary,  Independent 
 Tibet 
 
 Turkey  in  Europe 
 Turkey  iu  Asia 
 Conp'O  kingdom 
 Constance  lake 
 Constantinople 
 
 straits  of 
 Copenhagen 
 Copper  mine  of  Fahlun 
 Roraas 
 Cordova 
 Corea  kingdom 
 Corfu  fortifications  of 
 
 town  of 
 Corinth,  isthmus  of 
 Cork 
 
 Corrib  lake 
 Corsica 
 
 Cos  or  Coos  island 
 Cosseir 
 Cossacks 
 
 Courtra  or  Cortrick 
 Courts  of  Denmai'k 
 Cracow 
 Cremona 
 Cronstadt 
 
 Curiosities  oatural  of  Arabia 
 
 Austria 
 
 England 
 
 France 
 
 Hindostan 
 
 Ireland 
 
 Norway 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Russia 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Tmkey  in  Europe  429 
 
 Curiseh  Haff  226 
 
 Customs.     See  character 
 
 Cyprus  island  455 
 
 Dacca  585 
 
 Dahl  river  180 
 
 Dalmatian  isles  395 
 
 Damietta  ^34 
 
 Damascus  443 
 
 Danisli  Empire  147 
 
 Dantzic  305 
 
 Danube  river  22 
 
 Dardanelles  15,  427 
 
 Dchnetzin  324 
 
 Delft  237 
 
 Delhi  585 
 
 De  la  Goa  755 
 
 Denmark  156 
 
 original  population  of  156 
 
 progressive  geography  of        156 
 
 Derbent  613 
 
 Derne  725 
 
 Deserts  of  Arabia  GSS 
 
 Europe  24 
 
 Persia  620 
 
 Dieppe  272 
 
 Dnieper  river  206 
 
 DoUart  bay  239 
 
 Don  river  205 
 
 Dort  or  Dordrecht  235 
 
 Page. 
 630 
 508 
 425 
 447 
 769 
 339 
 421 
 15 
 162 
 183 
 154 
 359 
 503 
 262 
 410 
 427 
 133 
 137 
 283 
 455 
 735 
 19t 
 246 
 159 
 324 
 395 
 200 
 657 
 333 
 87 
 ,283 
 582 
 141 
 155 
 227 
 212 
 119 
 341 
 
?22 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Douay  245 
 
 Dnuro  rirea-  563 
 
 Dover  straite  15 
 
 Draha  river  7J3 
 
 Dresdea  297 
 
 Drin  4'26 
 
 Drontheina  151 
 
 Dublin  133 
 
 Dublin  universIXy,  13'^ 
 
 Dimifries  105 
 
 Dundalk  134 
 
 Dundee  104 
 
 Dunfermline  105 
 
 Duokeld  105 
 
 Dunkirk  245 
 
 Durra  sea  619 
 
 Dusky  Bay  687 
 
 Dwina  river  207 
 
 Eastern  Contineut  9 
 
 Eboes  negroes  772 
 
 Ebro  river  36'2 
 Ecclesiastical  Geography  of  Irekind      130 
 
 Ecija  359 
 
 JEdifices  of  Arabia  652 
 
 Austria  326 
 
 Birman  Empire  541 
 
 China  Proper  488 
 
 Denmark  183 
 
 France  273 
 
 Japaa  528 
 
 Netherlands  246 
 
 Persia  615 
 
 Portugal  377 
 
 Prussia  223 
 
 Siam  1 552 
 
 Spain  360 
 
 Sweden  178 
 
 Tibet  508 
 
 Edinburgh  103 
 
 university  102 
 
 Etlucation  of  Austria  322 
 
 China  Proper  486 
 
 Denmark  161 
 
 England  56 
 
 Franca  266 
 
 Holland  234 
 
 Japan  527 
 
 Ireland  132 
 
 Norway  151 
 
 Persia  611 
 
 Prussia  222 
 
 Russia  199 
 
 Scotland  101 
 
 Sweden  176 
 
 SwitztjrlfiBd  337 
 
 Egypt  726 
 
 El-Aicc  746 
 
 Elba  island  285 
 
 Elbe  river  291 
 
 Elbing  223 
 
 Elko  lake  739 
 
 filvas  376 
 
 Enara  lake  145 
 
 Engia  gulf  4^26 
 
 England  31 
 
 list  of  the  kjngs'o'f  45 
 
 English  channel  15 
 
 Encntekis  144, 
 
 Ephesus 
 
 Erivan 
 
 Erlau 
 
 Ern  lake 
 
 Krzgeberg  mountains 
 
 Ku[ibraies  river 
 
 Europe 
 
 Euxine  sea 
 
 Eyora 
 
 university 
 Eyder  river 
 Fahlun 
 Falster  island 
 False  Bay 
 Femeren  island 
 Fe  loops 
 
 FernKrido  Po  island 
 Ferrara 
 Ferrol 
 
 Ferro  islands 
 Ferro  or  Hierro  island 
 Fez  or  Fas,  city  of 
 Fezzan 
 Fillelly  river 
 Fingal'scave,  or  grotto 
 Finns 
 Fish  river 
 Florence 
 Folmund  lake 
 Foolado 
 Fonta  Jallo 
 Foota  Torra 
 Formosa  island 
 Forests  of  Austria 
 
 Birman  Empire 
 Ceylon 
 China  Proper 
 Denmark 
 England 
 France 
 Germany 
 Hindostaii 
 Japan 
 Morocco 
 Netherlands 
 Norway 
 Persia 
 Prussia 
 
 Russia  in  Europe 
 Russia  in  Asia 
 Scotland 
 Sweden 
 Tibet 
 
 Turkey  in  Europe 
 Turkey  in  Asia 
 Forth  river 
 Forteventura 
 Fort  William  College 
 Foulahs 
 
 Foulabs,  Southern 
 Foyle  liver 
 France 
 
 original  population  of 
 progressive  geography  of 
 Frankfort 
 
 en  the  Alayn 
 Fredcricksnall 
 Frejjth  Empire 
 
 4^4 
 613 
 325 
 1.37 
 2t»3 
 ■448 
 26 
 It 
 377 
 374 
 165 
 178 
 If^ 
 7-7 
 17 
 775 
 790 
 39J 
 358 
 167 
 790 
 706 
 785 
 7»3 
 121 
 190,  192 
 76S 
 389 
 153 
 780 
 778 
 780 
 494 
 329 
 543 
 599 
 493 
 166 
 80 
 280 
 2l'4 
 577 
 531 
 713 
 248 
 153 
 620 
 226 
 209 
 468 
 116 
 181 
 511 
 428 
 452 
 109 
 789 
 583 
 779 
 774 
 137 
 255 
 256 
 256 
 223 
 309 
 152 
 249 
 
INDEX^. 
 
 French  possessions  in  Italy 
 
 Frieiidl}  isles 
 
 Frisch  Hafl" 
 
 Fu!fla,  |>iiiicipality  of 
 
 Fiinen  island 
 
 Fusi  raountaift 
 
 Gaderuis 
 
 Ga5;ra  i-iver 
 
 Galway 
 
 Gambia  river 
 
 Gane;es  river 
 
 Gangetic  Hindostan 
 
 Garonne  river 
 
 Gaucliana  river 
 
 Gawritz  river 
 
 Gauts 
 
 Gefle 
 
 Geneva 
 
 lake  \ 
 
 Genoa 
 
 George's,  St.  channel 
 Germany 
 
 original  population  of 
 progressive  geography  of 
 German  ocean 
 Ghent 
 
 Ghizm  or  Gasna 
 Giants'  Causeway 
 Gibraltar  fijrtreSs 
 Gibraltar  straits 
 Gilolo  island 
 Girgeh 
 
 Glamme  river 
 Glaciers  ot  the  Alps 
 Glasgow 
 
 university 
 Gluckstadt 
 Goa 
 
 Godaveri  river 
 Gold  coast 
 Goniera  island 
 Gondar 
 
 Good  Hope  cape  e^f 
 Goree  island 
 Gotha  river 
 Gothenburg 
 Gothland  island 
 Gottingen 
 Gotto ' 
 Government  of  Abyssinia. 
 
 Algiers 
 
 Arabia 
 
 Austria 
 
 Asia 
 
 Birinan  Empire 
 
 China  Proper 
 
 Chinese  Tartary 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Egypt 
 
 England 
 
 Europe 
 
 France 
 
 Germany 
 
 Good  Hope,  cape  of 
 
 Gangetic  Hindo3t«n 
 
 Hindostan 
 
 Holland 
 
 Japati 
 
 21, 
 
 572, 
 
 rage 
 
 3S, 
 69() 
 226 
 305 
 15C 
 530 
 785 
 57-^ 
 134 
 774 
 57-2 
 58'J 
 278 
 36.. 
 76t, 
 577 
 178 
 342 
 339 
 389 
 
 15 
 368 
 268 
 288 
 
 14 
 245 
 589 
 141 
 368 
 
 15 
 670 
 735 
 152 
 341 
 103 
 102 
 163 
 594 
 575 
 771 
 790 
 751 
 756 
 790 
 189 
 177 
 184 
 300 
 779 
 747 
 717 
 646 
 S17 
 440 
 537 
 481 
 497 
 158 
 729 
 
 43 
 
 29 
 260 
 
 eofi 
 
 758 
 583 
 563 
 2.'5-' 
 
 Ireland 
 
 Italy  in  general 
 
 Italy,  kingdom  of, 
 
 Lapland 
 
 Morocco 
 
 Naples 
 
 Nepaul 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 Norway 
 
 Persia 
 
 Poland 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Russia 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Siam 
 
 Sicily 
 
 Spain 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Tibet 
 
 Turkey  in  Enrope 
 Gozza  isle 
 Gramy)ian  Hills 
 Grain  Coast 
 Gi-anada 
 Grande  river 
 Gratz 
 Great  river 
 
 Groningen  • 
 
 Greenock 
 
 Guadarana  rmountainS 
 Guadalquivir  river 
 Guernsey  isle 
 Guinea  kingdom 
 Guinea  proper 
 Gulden  river 
 Gypsies 
 Haerlem 
 
 aea  of 
 Hssmus  chain  of  mountains 
 Hague 
 
 Hainan  island 
 Hamburg 
 Hanover 
 
 Hanoverian  states 
 Han.seatic  League 
 Havre 
 
 Havre,  fortifications  of 
 Hebudes 
 
 Helena,  St.  island 
 Helena,  St.  bay 
 Helicon  mount 
 Herbagi 
 Hern)anstfldt 
 Hesse,  giand  duchy  o£ 
 Hildeshiem 
 Himmaleh  mountains 
 Hindostan 
 
 original  population  of 
 progressive  geography 
 Central 
 Gangetic 
 Sindetic 
 Southern 
 Hirta  or  St.  Kild  isle 
 Historical  Epochs  of  Algiers 
 Arnl'ia 
 
 82S 
 
 Page. 
 
 130 
 384 
 393 
 143^ 
 
 703 
 397 
 514 
 
 244 
 149 
 
 608 
 2i4 
 371 
 221 
 
 195,  46e 
 98 
 •  549 
 401 
 349 
 172 
 335 
 506 
 416 
 410 
 113 
 773 
 657 
 774 
 324 
 •765 
 236 
 105 
 ;364 
 363 
 89 
 770 
 771 
 165 
 320 
 236 
 240 
 427 
 235 
 494 
 304 
 301 
 300 
 304 
 272 
 262 
 120 
 791 
 766 
 428 
 746 
 325 
 302 
 300 
 
 515,  576 
 557 
 563 
 56a 
 590 
 582 
 587 
 592. 
 122 
 716 
 C42 
 
 f  of 
 
8'24. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 historical  Epochs  of  Austria 
 
 rage. 
 
 31-2  I 
 
 Birman  Empire 
 
 534 
 
 Biicharia 
 
 633 
 
 China  Proper 
 
 477 
 
 Chinese  Tartary 
 
 497 
 
 Denmark 
 
 157 
 
 E?ypt 
 
 726 
 
 England 
 
 36 
 
 France 
 
 257 
 
 Germany 
 
 288 
 
 Good  Hope,  cape  of  757  | 
 
 HiufioPtau 
 
 563 
 
 jHollaiid 
 
 230 
 
 -                                Japan 
 •                                Ireland 
 
 521 
 
 127 
 
 IiaSv  in  general 
 
 S8i 
 
 Italy  kingdom 
 
 301 
 
 Morocco 
 
 703 
 
 Naples 
 
 396 
 
 NepHul 
 
 514 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 243 
 
 Norway 
 
 149 
 
 Persia                603 
 
 605 
 
 Poland 
 
 214 
 
 Portugal 
 
 370 
 
 Prussia 
 
 219 
 
 Russia  in  Europe 
 
 194 
 
 in  Asia 
 
 458 
 
 Scotland 
 
 94 
 
 Siam 
 
 549 
 
 Sicily 
 
 400 
 
 Spain 
 
 346 
 
 .Sweden 
 
 170 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 334 
 
 Tibet 
 
 506 
 
 Tartary,  Indepeod 
 
 .6-27 
 
 Turkey  in  Asia 
 
 442 
 
 in  Europe 
 
 414 
 
 Iloang-ho  river 
 
 17 
 
 Holland 
 
 228 
 
 original  population  of 
 
 229 
 
 progressive  geography  of 
 
 229 
 
 Horses  of  Arabia 
 
 656 
 
 Horticulture  of  England 
 
 77 
 
 Houssa 
 
 782 
 
 Humbcr  river 
 
 77 
 
 Hydrabad 
 
 595 
 
 Jaea 
 
 359 
 
 Jago,  St.  di  Compostella 
 
 359 
 
 Jaloss 
 
 780 
 
 Jallonkhas 
 
 478 
 
 Janna 
 
 423 
 
 Japan 
 
 520 
 
 original  population  of 
 
 521 
 
 progressive  geography  of 
 
 521 
 
 sea 
 
 14 
 
 .Taroslau 
 
 201 
 
 Java  island 
 
 605 
 
 sea 
 
 14 
 
 Icolmkill 
 
 121 
 
 Ida  inoMiit 
 
 451 
 
 Jedburgh 
 
 105 
 
 Jedda 
 
 651 
 
 Jedo 
 
 527 
 
 Jenne 
 
 779 
 
 Jersey  isle 
 
 S9 
 
 Jerusalcn; 
 
 446 
 
 Da  ijlaiid 
 
 120 
 
 Ilmen  lake 
 Indus  river 
 inhanibane 
 Inn  river 
 Innspruck 
 Inverness 
 Johnkioping 
 Jordan  river 
 Ionian  Republic 
 Ireland 
 
 original  population  of 
 progressive  geography  of 
 Irkutsk 
 Irrawady  river 
 Iron  mines  of  Norway 
 Isrhia  island 
 Isefiord  bay 
 Isenberg  principality 
 Isle  of  Man 
 
 Wight 
 Ispahan 
 Issimstepp 
 Italy  in  general 
 
 original  population  of 
 
 French  territory  within 
 
 kingdom  of 
 Judicature  of  England 
 Jumna  river 
 Jura  island 
 Juggernaut 
 Ivica  island 
 Ivory  coast 
 Kaarta 
 Kajaaga 
 
 Kalmuks,  stepp  of 
 Kamschatka  sound 
 Kandi 
 
 Karroo  desert 
 Kas  <in 
 
 Karskoi  channel 
 Kemi  mountains 
 Kerun  Lake 
 Kesem  or  Keschin 
 Kharism 
 Khiva 
 
 Kiamku  river 
 Kiel 
 
 tmiversily 
 Kilkenny 
 Killarney  lake 
 Kiou 
 
 Kirguslans 
 Kistna  rivei- 
 Kiiil  Iimak 
 Kola 
 
 Kolcn  mountains 
 Kolyvan 
 Kom 
 
 Kong  kingdom 
 Kongsberg  silver  mines 
 Konigsberg 
 
 Koromantyn's  negroes 
 Kunlian  isles 
 Lndoga  lake 
 Ladrones  isles 
 Lahore 
 Lahsa 
 Language  of  Arabia 
 
 Fijt. 
 
 208 
 574 
 750 
 328 
 307 
 106 
 178 
 449 
 410 
 126 
 126 
 127 
 463 
 542 
 154 
 399 
 166 
 305 
 
 90 
 
 88 
 611 
 628 
 380 
 382 
 387 
 390 
 
 45 
 574 
 120 
 591 
 S67 
 771 
 778 
 780 
 468 
 
 13 
 597 
 764 
 778 
 
 1« 
 145 
 739 
 G51 
 C3l 
 632 
 
 17 
 
 163 
 
 162 
 
 135 
 
 138,  141 
 
 200 
 
 C2S,  630 
 
 57G 
 
 449 
 
 144 
 
 145,  153 
 
 463 
 
 614 
 
 778 
 
 223 
 772 
 473 
 16 
 689 
 587 
 G51 
 648 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Language  ef  Austria 
 
 Page 
 
 3'21 
 
 Birman  Empire 
 
 539 
 
 China  Proper 
 
 485 
 
 Chioese  Tartaiy 
 
 499 
 
 Denmark 
 
 161 
 
 Egypt 
 
 732 
 
 England 
 
 54 
 
 France 
 
 265 
 
 Germany 
 
 291 
 
 Hindostan 
 
 568 
 
 Holland 
 
 234 
 
 Japan 
 
 52- 
 
 Ireland 
 
 132 
 
 Italy 
 
 3S4 
 
 Lapland 
 
 144 
 
 Malaya 
 
 545 
 
 Morocco 
 
 705 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 244 
 
 New  Holland 
 
 678 
 
 Norway 
 
 151 
 
 Persia 
 
 611 
 
 Poland 
 
 215 
 
 Portugal 
 
 373 
 
 Prussia 
 
 222 
 
 Russia  in  Europe 
 
 198 
 
 in  Asia 
 
 462 
 
 Scotland 
 
 100 
 
 Siarti 
 
 551 
 
 Spain 
 
 353 
 
 Sweden 
 
 175 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 337 
 
 Turkey  in  Etirope 
 
 420 
 
 Languedoe  canal 
 
 274 
 
 Laos  country 
 
 555 
 
 Laos  people 
 
 556 
 
 Lapland 
 
 143 
 
 original  population  of 
 
 143 
 
 Larissa 
 
 423 
 
 Lassa 
 
 508 
 
 Lausanne 
 
 338 
 
 Laws  of  Austria 
 
 317 
 
 Birman  Empire 
 
 537 
 
 China  Proper 
 
 481 
 
 Denmark 
 
 158 
 
 Hindostan 
 
 567 
 
 Holland 
 
 233 
 
 ^apan 
 
 5-24 
 
 Norway 
 
 149 
 
 Russia 
 
 196 
 
 Siani 
 
 549 
 
 Scotland 
 
 '       99 
 
 Spain 
 
 349 
 
 Lead  hills  of  Scotland 
 
 113 
 
 Lebanon  mountain 
 
 451 
 
 Leghorn 
 
 389 
 
 Leipsij, 
 
 297 
 
 Lelit  Pattan 
 
 515 
 
 Lemberg  or  Leopold 
 
 324 
 
 Lemnos  island 
 
 437 
 
 Leoo  Keoo  isles 
 
 520 
 
 Lena  river 
 
 17 
 
 Lepanto,  gulf  of 
 
 426 
 
 Lewis  isle 
 
 123 
 
 Leuwardett 
 
 236 
 
 Leyden 
 
 236 
 
 Leyen 
 
 soa 
 
 Liechtenstein 
 
 309 
 
 Liffy  river 
 
 .137 
 
 VOL.  II,                 104 
 
 Limerick 
 Limmat  river 
 Lindau 
 Linz  orLintz 
 Lipari  islands 
 Lippe,  House  of 
 .Lisbon 
 Lisle 
 
 Literature  of  Arabia 
 Austria 
 
 Liverpool 
 
 Livonians 
 
 Loango  kingflorn 
 
 Loch  Linne 
 
 Loch  Awe 
 
 Loch  Ericht      « 
 
 Loch  Lochy 
 
 Loch  Shin 
 
 Loch  Tay 
 
 Loire  river 
 
 Lomond  lake 
 
 London 
 
 Londonderry 
 
 Lorca 
 
 Low  Countries 
 
 Lubec 
 
 Lucca 
 
 Lucknow 
 
 Ludamar 
 
 Lund  university 
 
 Luxemberg 
 
 Ltizon  isle 
 
 Lymford  bay 
 
 Lyons 
 
 Lys  river 
 
 Madagascar 
 
 Madeira 
 
 Madras 
 
 Madrid 
 
 Madura 
 
 Macaiuler  j-iver 
 
 Maestritcht 
 
 Magadoxo  kingdom 
 
 Magdeburg 
 
 Mau:f;ione  lake 
 
 Majorca  island 
 
 Birman  Empire 
 
 Chinese  Tartary 
 
 Denmark 
 
 England 
 
 France 
 
 Germany 
 
 Hindostan 
 
 Holland 
 
 .Ta])aa 
 
 Ireland 
 
 Nepaul 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Russia  in  Europe 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Siam 
 
 Sicily 
 
 Spain 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Tibet 
 
 Turkey 
 
 825 
 
 134 
 339 
 307 
 325 
 406 
 304 
 375 
 245 
 648 
 322 
 539 
 499 
 161 
 55 
 265 
 289,  291 
 569 
 234 
 527 
 132 
 «14 
 37S 
 222 
 198 
 101 
 551 
 402 
 353 
 175 
 337 
 507 
 420 
 60 
 192 
 769 
 111 
 lU 
 112 
 111 
 112 
 112 
 277 
 311 
 58 
 134 
 359 
 227 
 305 
 390 
 585 
 782 
 176 
 .24S 
 66S 
 166 
 269 
 24S 
 786 
 788 
 593 
 354 
 666 
 449 
 245 
 754 
 299 
 38> 
 
82(3 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Makifin  islands 
 
 67'2( 
 
 Malaga 
 
 358 
 
 Malaya  or  Malacca 
 
 •  545 
 
 Malagueta 
 
 773 
 
 Malines  or  Mechlia 
 
 246 
 
 Malstrom  whirlpool 
 
 155 
 
 Majta 
 
 409 
 
 Religion 
 
 ib. 
 
 Population 
 
 ib. 
 
 Man,  isle  of 
 
 90 
 
 Manchester 
 
 61 
 
 Maniaiiana 
 
 779 
 
 Manding  kingdom 
 
 778 
 
 Mandingoes 
 
 775 
 
 Manillas,  or  Piiilippine  islands 
 
 668 
 
 Manners.    See  Character 
 
 Mantua 
 
 395 
 
 Maritz 
 
 426 
 
 Marmora,  Sea  of 
 
 10 
 
 Mar^nesas  isles 
 
 692 
 
 Marseilles 
 
 268 
 
 Marlaban 
 
 541 
 
 Masuah 
 
 751 
 
 Matthew  St.  island 
 
 791 
 
 Mauritius  island 
 
 791 
 
 Mayn  river 
 
 292 
 
 Mecca 
 
 650 
 
 Medina 
 
 650 
 
 Mediterranean  Sea 
 
 10 
 
 Mecklenburg,  House  of 
 
 302 
 
 Meinani  river 
 
 554 
 
 Meier  lake 
 
 180 
 
 Melilla 
 
 700 
 
 Melinda  kingdom 
 
 754 
 
 Menzala  lake 
 
 739 
 
 Meisey  river 
 
 77 
 
 Megnino 
 
 707 
 
 Messina 
 
 403 
 
 Mesurada  river 
 
 774 
 
 Metz 
 
 270 
 
 Meuse  river 
 
 240 
 
 Miaco 
 
 528 
 
 Middleburg 
 
 230 
 
 Midflleton's  island 
 
 680 
 
 Milan 
 
 383 
 
 Milo  island 
 
 433 
 
 Mioss  lake 
 
 153 
 
 Minho  river 
 
 363 
 
 Mindanao  island 
 
 669 
 
 Minorca  island 
 
 367 
 
 Misitra 
 
 424 
 
 Mineralogy  and  mineral  waters  of 
 
 Arabia 
 
 657 
 
 Austria 
 
 SSl 
 
 Birman  Empire 
 
 544 
 
 Bucharia 
 
 638 
 
 Ceylon 
 
 599 
 
 China  Proper 
 
 494 
 
 Chinese  Tarlary 
 
 502 
 
 Denmark 
 
 160 
 
 Egvpt 
 
 741 
 
 England 
 
 80 
 
 France 
 
 282 
 
 Hindoslau 
 
 581 
 
 Holland 
 
 240 
 
 Japan 
 
 532 
 
 Ireland 
 
 140 
 
 Italy 
 
 587 
 
 Mineralogy  and  mincrai  waters  of 
 
 Lapland 
 
 146 
 
 Morocco 
 
 715 
 
 Nepaul 
 
 516 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 24g 
 
 New-Holland 
 
 679 
 
 Norway 
 
 153 
 
 Persia 
 
 622 
 
 Portugal 
 
 380 
 
 Prussia        ♦ 
 
 227 
 
 Russia  in  Europe 
 
 211 
 
 Russia  in  Asia 
 
 471 
 
 Scotland                                 115 
 
 ,118 
 
 Siam 
 
 555 
 
 Sicijy 
 
 406 
 
 Spain 
 
 366 
 
 Sweden 
 
 182 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 341 
 
 Tibet 
 
 511 
 
 Turkey  in  Europe 
 
 429 
 
 Turkey  in  Asia 
 
 45^ 
 
 Modena 
 
 394 
 
 Moen  island 
 
 16C 
 
 Mosodor 
 
 708 
 
 Moluccas 
 
 670 
 
 Mombaza  kingdom 
 
 754 
 
 Mondori 
 
 390 
 
 Monomotapa  kingdom 
 
 75.'; 
 
 Monsoons 
 
 572 
 
 Mons 
 
 245 
 
 Montpellier 
 
 270 
 
 Montserrat 
 
 364 
 
 Moors 
 
 78! 
 
 Morocco 
 
 702 
 
 city  of 
 
 706 
 
 Mortay  island 
 
 671 
 
 Mosambique  kingdom 
 
 755 
 
 chaunel 
 
 14 
 
 Moscow 
 
 199 
 
 Moselle  river 
 
 248 
 
 Moskoestrora  whirlpool 
 
 155 
 
 Motala  river 
 
 180 
 
 Moultan 
 
 589 
 
 Mulhauscu 
 
 300 
 
 Mull  isle 
 
 121 
 
 Munich 
 
 307 
 
 Murcia 
 
 357 
 
 Muscle  Bay 
 
 767 
 
 Myconi  island 
 
 432 
 
 Mysol  island 
 
 671 
 
 Mytilene  island 
 
 454 
 
 Nagasaki 
 
 528 
 
 Namur 
 
 246' 
 
 Nancy 
 
 270 
 
 Nankin 
 
 487 
 
 Nantes 
 
 269 
 
 Naples  kingdom 
 
 396 
 
 city 
 
 397 
 
 Nassau,  House  of 
 
 303 
 
 or  Poggy  islands 
 Natal 
 
 665 
 756 
 
 Natron  lakes 
 
 739 
 
 Navigation,  inland,  of 
 
 Birman  Empire 
 
 541 
 
 China  Proper 
 
 48S 
 
 1                        Denmark 
 
 163 
 
 England 
 
 68 
 
 Fi-ancii 
 
 274 
 
INI 
 
 )EX, 
 
 827 
 
 PaE.e. 
 
 Page 
 
 Navigation,  inland,  of 
 
 Okka  river 
 
 207 
 
 Hindostan 
 
 570 
 
 Okotz  bay 
 
 13 
 
 Holland 
 
 237 
 
 Gland  island 
 
 183 
 
 Ireland 
 
 135 
 
 Oldenburgh,  duchy  of 
 
 303 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 247 
 
 Oleron  isle 
 
 285 
 
 I'russia 
 
 224. 
 
 Olipliants  or  Elephants  river 
 
 766 
 
 Hussia  in  Europe 
 
 -20) 
 
 Olonetz  mountains 
 
 209 
 
 Scotland 
 
 106 
 
 Olympus  mount 
 
 427,457 
 
 Sweden 
 
 178 
 
 Omer  St. 
 
 245 
 
 Navigators  islands                          C84,  697 
 
 Onega  river 
 
 205^ 
 
 ■Navy  of  Algiers 
 
 717 
 
 lake 
 
 16 
 
 Austria 
 
 319 
 
 Oparo  isles 
 
 698 
 
 Birman  Empire 
 
 538 
 
 Oporto 
 
 376 
 
 Denmark 
 
 160 
 
 Oran 
 
 719 
 
 England 
 
 49 
 
 Orihuela 
 
 359 
 
 France 
 
 262 
 
 Oristano 
 
 408 
 
 Italy- 
 
 3B3 
 
 Orkneyisles 
 
 123 
 
 Morocco 
 
 704 
 
 Orleans 
 
 269 
 
 Naples 
 
 397 
 
 Orontes  river 
 
 449 
 
 Persia 
 
 609 
 
 Osnaburg 
 
 300 
 
 Portugal 
 
 372 
 
 Ostend 
 
 246 
 
 Russia  in  Europe 
 
 197 
 
 Otaheite  isle 
 
 •691 
 
 Siam 
 
 550 
 
 Owhyhee 
 
 692 
 
 Sicily 
 
 401 
 
 Oxford  university 
 
 57 
 
 Spain 
 
 350 
 
 Oyolova  isle 
 
 .697 
 
 Sweden 
 
 174 
 
 Padua 
 
 394 
 
 Turkey 
 
 417 
 
 Palermo 
 
 402 
 
 Naxia  or  Naxas  island 
 
 432 
 
 Pal  ma  island 
 
 790 
 
 Neagh  lake 
 
 138 
 
 Palmyra 
 
 442 
 
 Necker  river 
 
 292 
 
 Pantalaria 
 
 407 
 
 Negropont  island 
 
 431 
 
 Papua  or  New  Guinea 
 
 ^80 
 
 Nepaul  or  Nipal 
 
 513 
 
 original  population  of 
 
 '    681 
 
 Nepeau  island 
 
 fiSO 
 
 Paris 
 
 267 
 
 Nerbudda  river 
 
 575 
 
 Panua 
 
 390 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 241 
 
 Parnassus  mount 
 
 428 
 
 original  population  of 
 
 243 
 
 Paros  island 
 
 433 
 
 Neuille  bridge 
 
 273 
 
 Patna 
 
 585 
 
 Neusidler 
 
 329 
 
 Pavia 
 
 395 
 
 Neva  river 
 
 207 
 
 Pearls  of  Ceylon 
 
 699 
 
 New-Britain  island 
 
 683 
 
 Pegu 
 
 540 
 
 New-Caledonia 
 
 684 
 
 Peipus  lake 
 
 207 
 
 New-Hebudes 
 
 684 
 
 Pekin 
 
 287 
 
 New-Holland 
 
 675 
 
 Pelew  isles 
 
 688 
 
 New-Ireland 
 
 684 
 
 Persia 
 
 600 
 
 New-Zealand 
 
 684 
 
 original  population  of 
 
 601 
 
 'Nieper  river 
 
 206 
 
 progressive  geography  of 
 
 602 
 
 Niester  river 
 
 207 
 
 Persian  Gulf 
 
 12 
 
 Niger  river 
 
 19 
 
 Perth 
 
 104 
 
 Nile  river 
 
 19 
 
 Pest 
 
 324 
 
 Nimeguen 
 
 236 
 
 Petersburgh  St. 
 
 200 
 
 Nio  islands 
 
 433 
 
 university 
 
 199 
 
 Nismes 
 
 270 
 
 Petshora  river 
 
 207 
 
 Nordkioping 
 
 177 
 
 Philippi  or  Philippopoli 
 
 422 
 
 Norfolk  island 
 
 680 
 
 Philippine  islands 
 
 668 
 
 Norway 
 
 147 
 
 Pisa 
 
 390 
 
 original  population  of 
 
 148 
 
 Piazinsko  lake 
 
 466 
 
 progressive  geography  of 
 
 149 
 
 Plettenbergs  bay 
 
 767 
 
 mountains  of 
 
 153 
 
 Po  river 
 
 385 
 
 Nova  Zembia 
 
 212 
 
 Political  importance  of 
 
 Nubia 
 
 741 
 
 Birman  Empire 
 
 538 
 
 Nuremberg 
 
 307 
 
 China  Proper 
 
 483 
 
 Oases  of  Africa 
 
 24 
 
 Denmark 
 
 160 
 
 Oby  Gulf 
 
 13 
 
 France 
 
 264 
 
 river 
 
 18 
 
 Germany 
 
 290 
 
 Ochill  hills 
 
 113 
 
 Hindostan 
 
 56S 
 
 Odensee 
 
 163 
 
 Japan 
 
 525 
 
 Oder  rivet 
 
 225 
 
 Ireland 
 
 131 
 
 Oitz  lake 
 
 530 
 
 Persia 
 
 610 
 
384, 
 
 828 
 
 Political  iraportaoce  of  Siatu 
 SpaiQ 
 Poland 
 Polynesia 
 
 Pomerania,  Swiedisli 
 Porto  Santo  island 
 Portugal 
 Posen  or  Posna 
 Potsdam 
 Population  of  Abys^ihia 
 
 Africa 
 
 Algiers 
 
 Austria 
 
 Birman  Empire 
 
 Ceylon 
 
 China  Proper 
 
 Chinese  Tartary 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Egypt 
 
 Eneland 
 
 t ranee 
 
 Germany 
 
 Good  Mope,  Cape  of 
 
 Hindostan 
 
 Japan 
 
 Ireland 
 
 Italy 
 
 Lapland 
 
 Morocco 
 
 Naples 
 
 Nepaul 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 Norway 
 
 Persia 
 
 Poland 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Russian  Empire 
 iu  Asia 
 
 Siam 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Sicily 
 
 Spain 
 
 S  vveden 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 'I'artary,  Independent 
 
 Tibet 
 
 Turkey  in  Europe 
 
 Turkey  in  Asia 
 
 WorUl 
 Prague 
 Pregel  river 
 Presburg 
 Princes  island 
 Prusa 
 l^russia 
 
 original  population  of 
 progressive  geography  of 
 Pyramids  of  Egypt 
 Pyrenees 
 Quarnaro  isles 
 Quiloa  kingdom 
 Raab 
 Kabat 
 
 Hackama  lake 
 Rands  lake 
 Rangoon 
 Raniiock  moor 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Page 
 550 
 361 
 212 
 687 
 305 
 788 
 369 
 298 
 
 223    : 
 
 740 
 701 
 717 
 318 
 537 
 597 
 483 
 497 
 159 
 730 
 
 48 
 261 
 290 
 758 
 567 
 524 
 131 
 393 
 143 
 703 
 397 
 513^ 
 244 
 150 
 609 
 215 
 372 
 221 
 189 
 460 
 549 
 
 99 
 401 
 349 
 173 
 336 
 627 
 506 
 417 
 442 
 9 
 S23 
 625 
 324 
 790 
 444 
 216 
 218 
 218 
 728  i 
 279 
 395 
 755 
 525 
 707 
 450 
 153 
 541 
 116 
 
 Rasht 
 
 Ratisboii 
 
 Rav«nna 
 
 Red  Sea 
 
 Beggio 
 
 Religion  of  Abyssinia    . 
 
 Algiers 
 
 Arabia 
 
 Austria 
 
 Birman  Empire 
 
 Bucharia 
 
 Ceylon 
 
 China  Proper 
 
 Chinese  Tartary 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Egypt 
 
 England 
 
 France 
 
 Germany 
 
 Good  Hope,  Cape  of 
 
 Hindostan 
 
 Holland 
 
 Japan 
 
 Ireland 
 
 Italy 
 
 Lapland 
 
 Morocco 
 
 Naples 
 
 Nepaul 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 Persia 
 
 Poland 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Russia  195, 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Siam 
 
 Sicily 
 
 Spain 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Tartary,  Independent 
 
 Turkey 
 Retimo  island 
 Reussen,  house  of 
 Revenue  of  Abyssinia 
 
 Algiers 
 
 Austria 
 
 Birman  Empire 
 
 China  Proper 
 .  Denmark    " 
 
 Egypt 
 
 England 
 
 France 
 
 Gerraaii)- 
 
 Good  Hope,  Cape  of 
 
 Gangetic  Hindostan 
 
 Hindostan 
 
 Holland 
 
 Japan 
 
 Ireland 
 
 Italy 
 
 IVIorocco 
 
 Naples 
 
 Norway 
 
 Persia 
 
 PoLand 
 
 Portugal 
 
 613 
 
 309 
 395 
 
 12 
 399 
 748 
 717 
 645 
 317 
 537 
 633 
 597 
 479 
 497 
 158 
 729 
 
 39 
 290 
 289 
 758 
 566 
 232 
 523 
 129 
 384 
 143 
 703 
 397 
 514 
 244 
 607 
 214 
 371 
 220 
 459 
 
 96 
 549 
 401 
 348 
 173 
 335 
 027 
 415 
 431 
 305 
 ,750 
 717 
 319 
 538 
 483 
 160 
 731 
 
 50 
 262 
 290 
 75S 
 583 
 567 
 233 
 523 
 131 
 393 
 704 
 397 
 150 
 609 
 215 
 372 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Revenue  of  PrusaA 
 
 Russia  in  Europe 
 
 Siam 
 
 Sicily 
 
 Spain 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Tibet 
 
 Turkey 
 Rheims 
 Rhine  river 
 Rhodes  island 
 Rhone  river 
 Riga 
 
 Ringkiobing  bay 
 Roads  of  China  Proper 
 France 
 Ireland 
 Norway 
 Sweden 
 Rochefort 
 Roehelle 
 
 Roggeveld  mountains 
 Rome 
 Rona  isles 
 Roraas  copper  mine 
 Rosetta 
 Rostock 
 Rotterdam 
 Rouen 
 
 Russian  Empire 
 Russia  in  Europe 
 
 original  population. of 
 
 221 
 
 197 
 
 550 
 
 401 
 
 S50 
 
 •174 
 
 336 
 
 507 
 
 417 
 
 •   270 
 
 239,  292 
 
 455 
 
 277 
 200 
 166 
 488 
 273 
 135 
 152 
 178 
 272 
 272 
 764 
 388 
 122 
 154 
 735 
 302 
 235 
 269 
 184 
 189 
 190 
 
 Russia  in  Asia 
 
 Sabia  or  Sedanda 
 
 SafFae 
 
 Sagalian  island 
 
 Sahara 
 
 Sahara  desert 
 
 Sau'anhaBar 
 
 Salm,  house  of 
 
 Salonica,  gulf  of 
 
 Saloniki ' 
 
 Salt  mines  of  Austria 
 
 Salee 
 
 Salwatti  island 
 
 Samarcand 
 
 Sambre  river 
 
 Samos  island 
 
 Sana  or  Saana 
 
 Sandwich  isles 
 
 Santorini  island 
 
 Sarabat  river 
 
 Saragossa 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 Sari 
 
 Sasari 
 
 Saxe,  House  of 
 
 Saxony 
 
 Schaffhausen 
 
 Scheldt 
 
 Schemnitz 
 
 Schleswick 
 
 Schouwen  island 
 
 Schwarzburg,  House  of 
 
 Schweinfuat 
 
 Schwerin 
 
 progressive  geography  of  1 93 
 
 456 
 756 
 708 
 502 
 783 
 24 
 766 
 305 
 427 
 422 
 332 
 708 
 682 
 G34 
 248 
 454 
 650 
 691 
 434 
 449 
 358 
 407 
 613 
 408 
 303 
 296 
 338 
 248 
 325 
 163 
 240 
 304 
 307 
 302 
 
 Scio  island 
 Scboo  river 
 Scilly  isles 
 Scotland 
 
 original  population  of 
 progressive  geography  of 
 Sego 
 
 Seine  river 
 Selinga  river 
 Senegal  river 
 Sennaar 
 Serai  or  Serajo 
 Serawoolies 
 Seringapatara 
 Serra  d'Estrella 
 Serra  Mtjnchique 
 Severn  river 
 Seville 
 
 Shannon  river 
 Shetland  isles 
 Shiraz 
 Siam 
 
 original  population  of 
 progressive  geography  of 
 Sicily 
 
 original  population  of 
 Sierra  de  Molina  mountains 
 
 Nivada  mountains 
 Sierra  Leone 
 river 
 
 mountains 
 Silver  mine  of  Kolhyvan 
 Kongsberg 
 Sinai  mount 
 
 desert 
 Sindetic  Hindostan 
 Sire 
 Sirian 
 Sirr  river 
 Sitang  river 
 Siut  or  Assiut 
 Siwah 
 Skey  isle 
 Slavonians 
 Smyrna 
 Soan  river 
 Society  isles 
 Socotra  isle 
 Sofala 
 
 Soil.    See  Agriculture 
 Solomon  islands 
 Sooloo  isles 
 Sophia 
 Soudan 
 Spain 
 
 original  population  of 
 progressive  geography  of 
 Spanish  empire 
 Spelding  See 
 Spey  river 
 Spice  islands 
 Statta 
 
 Stanovi  ridge  of  mountains 
 Stepps  of  Russia  in  Asia 
 Stepp  of  Siberia 
 Sterling 
 Stettin 
 Stockhohn 
 
 829 
 
 Page. 
 
 454 
 
 712 
 89 
 91 
 93 
 93 
 
 778 
 
 S7S 
 
 774 
 742 
 423 
 780 
 593 
 379 
 379 
 77 
 356 
 137 
 125 
 612 
 547 
 54s 
 S4g 
 400 
 400 
 S64 
 364 
 774 
 775 
 775 
 211 
 154 
 ^  654 
 <54 
 58/ 
 751 
 541 
 637 
 542 
 735 
 785 
 122 
 190,191 
 443 
 574 
 693 
 658 
 756 
 
 683 
 66S 
 423 
 773 
 344 
 345 
 34r 
 343 
 225 
 110 
 670 
 121 
 467 
 468 
 25 
 105 
 223 
 176 
 
830 
 
 Strasbuig 
 
 Suakera 
 
 Suez  051 
 
 Sumatra  island 
 
 Sunday  river 
 
 Siirat 
 
 Stise  river 
 
 Svir  river 
 
 Sweden 
 
 original  population  of 
 
 progressive  geography  of 
 Switzerland 
 
 original  population  of 
 Swuckustoet  mountain 
 Syene 
 Sj'racuse 
 Syrian  Christians 
 Szeged  in 
 Tabarka  island 
 Table  mountain 
 Tagus  river 
 Tana  river 
 Tangier 
 Taranto 
 
 Tartary,  Independent 
 Tatta 
 
 Tanrian  mountains 
 Tay  river 
 Tchoka  island 
 Tebriz  or  Tawria 
 Teffliz 
 Teis  river 
 TenerifFe 
 Tensift  i-iver 
 Terkire  lake 
 Ternat  island 
 Terradant 
 Tetvan 
 Texel  island 
 Thaluan  river 
 Thames  river 
 Thereseinstadt 
 Thon^is  St.  island 
 Tibboo3 
 Tiber  river 
 Tibet  or  Tangut 
 
 progi-essive  geography  of 
 Tidsi  river 
 Tigris  river 
 Timor  island 
 Timorlaut  island 
 Tino  island 
 Tinto  river 
 Tipteri  nation 
 Tirey  isle 
 Tlemsen 
 Tobolsk 
 Tokat 
 Toledo 
 Tolen  island 
 TombuctoD 
 Tonningen 
 Tonquin  guU 
 Tornea 
 
 river 
 Toulon  harbor 
 Toulouse 
 Tournay 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 S2b9 
 746 
 ,  735 
 GCl 
 7Cf) 
 591 
 713 
 307 
 168 
 170 
 170 
 3»3 
 334 
 153 
 735 
 403 
 
 sgs 
 
 324 
 724 
 764 
 363 
 145 
 709 
 398 
 625 
 589 
 450 
 109 
 502 
 613 
 612 
 328 
 790 
 712 
 510 
 672 
 707 
 70S 
 241 
 742 
 
 77 
 324 
 791 
 783 
 385 
 503 
 505 
 713 
 448 
 666 
 682 
 432 
 363 
 193 
 122 
 719 
 4C3 
 245 
 359 
 240 
 782 
 1G3 
 
 13 
 144 
 145 
 271 
 
 26g 
 
 245 
 
 Tranquebar 
 
 rag. 
 594 
 
 Travelling,  state  t>f,  among  the  Turk; 
 
 425 
 
 Trent 
 
 307 
 
 Trieste 
 
 325 
 
 Tripoli 
 
 724 
 
 Tschuvasches 
 
 193 
 
 Tuarick 
 
 783 
 
 Tula 
 
 201 
 
 Tunis, 
 
 721 
 
 city 
 
 722 
 
 Tunquin  kingdom 
 
 519 
 
 Torfan 
 
 499 
 
 Turin 
 
 389 
 
 Turkey  in  Asia 
 
 441 
 
 in  Europe 
 
 412 
 
 original  population  of  441 
 
 Tweed  river 
 
 109 
 
 Tyre 
 
 447 
 
 Tyri  lake 
 
 153 
 
 Tyrolese  Alps 
 
 306 
 
 Tzana  or  Dembea  lake 
 
 758 
 
 Valday  mountains 
 
 209 
 
 Valencia 
 
 355 
 
 Valenciennes 
 
 346 
 
 Vallette,  city  of 
 
 409 
 
 Valladolid 
 
 359 
 
 Vallais 
 
 542 
 
 Van  lake 
 
 449 
 
 Vandiemen's  land 
 
 686 
 
 Vardari 
 
 426 
 
 Ubes,  St.  or  Setuval 
 
 377 
 
 Vecchia  Civita 
 
 409 
 
 Venice 
 
 393 
 
 Verona 
 
 394 
 
 Versailles 
 
 271 
 
 palace 
 
 273 
 
 Vesuvius  mount 
 
 386 
 
 Vienna 
 
 323 
 
 VisiapouK 
 
 595 
 
 Vistula  river 
 
 225 
 
 Vitima  river 
 
 IS 
 
 Ulubad  lake 
 
 450 
 
 United  Principalities 
 
 308 
 
 Universities  of  Austria 
 
 322 
 
 England 
 
 57 
 
 Germany 
 
 289 
 
 Hindostan 
 
 570 
 
 Ireland 
 
 132 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 244 
 
 Poland 
 
 215 
 
 Portugal 
 
 374 
 
 Russia  in  Europe  • 
 
 199 
 
 Scotland 
 
 102 
 
 Spain 
 
 354 
 
 Sweden 
 
 176 
 
 Volcanos  of  Japan 
 
 530 
 
 Voorn  island 
 
 240 
 
 Upsala 
 
 177 
 
 Upsal  university 
 
 176 
 
 Ural  mountains 
 
 23 
 
 Urmia  lake 
 
 619 
 
 Usbecks                                           633 
 
 ,634 
 
 Utretcht 
 
 236 
 
 Waldeck,  principality  of 
 
 305 
 
 Waijoo  or  Wadjoo  isle 
 
 €S2 
 
 Warsaw 
 
 297 
 
 Wassela  kingdom 
 
 778 
 
 Waterford 
 
 134 
 
inde:^:. 
 
 Wenner  lake 
 Weser  river 
 Westphalia 
 Wetter  lake 
 Weygat  straits 
 Wexford 
 Whidah  kingdom 
 White  6ea 
 Wilna 
 Wiltenberg 
 Wolga  river 
 Woole  kingdoni 
 Wurtemburg,  kingdom  of 
 Wurtzburg,  grand  duchy  of 
 Yaik  river 
 Yakutsk 
 Yani 
 Yarkaiid 
 Yellow  sea 
 Yenisea  river 
 town 
 Ypres  or  Ipress 
 Ythan  river 
 Yuthia 
 Zante 
 Zealand  island 
 
 New,  island 
 Zocotra  or  Socotra  island 
 Zoology  of  Arabia 
 
 Austria 
 
 Birman  Empire 
 
 Ceylon 
 
 Chirift  iVoper 
 
 Page. 
 
 180 
 291 
 299 
 180 
 
 16 
 1.34 
 771 
 
 12 
 201 
 298 
 
 20 
 777 
 307 
 508 
 466 
 464 
 777 
 499 
 
 13 
 
 18 
 4&3 
 246 
 110 
 552 
 4l0 
 156 
 684 
 793 
 656 
 330 
 544 
 599 
 493 
 
 Zoology  of  Chinese  Tartary 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Egypt 
 
 England 
 
 France 
 
 Germany 
 
 Hindostan 
 
 Holland 
 
 Japan 
 
 Ireland 
 
 Italy 
 
 Lapland 
 
 Morocco 
 
 ?Jepaul 
 
 New-Holland 
 
 Norway 
 
 Pei-sia 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Russia  ia  Europe 
 
 Russia  in  Asia 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Siam 
 
 Sicily 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Tibet 
 
 Turkey  in  Europe 
 
 Turkey  ia  Asia 
 Zouf 
 Zurich 
 Zuyder  Zee 
 Zwartcaps  or  Algoa  Bay 
 
 331 
 
 166 
 74<» 
 84 
 5281! 
 295 
 580 
 240 
 531 
 140 
 370 
 146 
 
 sm 
 
 979 
 153 
 621 
 370 
 226 
 210 
 470 
 
 lis 
 
 554 
 
 406 
 182 
 341 
 511 
 428 
 45  .S 
 635 
 S27 
 2.i9 
 767 
 
 ^  I  N  I  fi, 
 
ERRATA— VOL.  I. 
 
 '  la  a  work  of  this  kind,  containing  so  many  uncommon  names,  and  piluted,  in  great 
 'fart  from  manuscript,  will  not  be  expected  to  be  wholly  free  from  errors  of  the  press. 
 The  Reader  is  requested  to  correct  the  following. 
 
 For- 
 
 Page. 
 
 Line, 
 
 32 
 
 31 
 
 33 
 
 10 
 
 90 
 
 6 
 
 _ 
 
 28 
 
 94 
 
 16 
 
 96 
 
 13 
 
 99 
 
 24 
 
 102 
 
 16 
 
 106 
 
 25 
 
 124 
 
 11 
 
 129 
 
 7 
 
 157 
 
 29 
 
 169 
 
 13 
 
 18'9 
 
 49 
 
 226 
 
 13 
 
 384 
 
 10 
 
 586 
 
 21 
 
 387 
 
 28 
 
 468 
 
 39 
 
 614 
 
 12 
 
 613 
 
 18 
 
 712 
 
 30 
 
 Pa^e, 
 
 Line. 
 
 23 
 
 37 
 
 25 
 
 16 
 
 25 
 
 40 
 
 27 
 
 23 
 
 42 
 
 41 
 
 89 
 
 23 
 
 172 
 
 5 
 
 218 
 
 3 
 
 284 
 
 32 
 
 287 
 
 4 
 
 288 
 
 18 
 
 346 
 
 17 
 
 377 
 
 •11 
 
 387 
 
 16 
 
 407 
 
 5 
 
 _ 
 
 24 
 
 424 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 26 
 
 704 
 
 18 
 
 713 
 
 48 
 
 716 
 
 24 
 
 717 
 
 1 
 
 729 
 
 7 
 
 757 
 
 20 
 
 -lUmuniiion,                       1 
 
 [lead 
 
 —diminution. 
 
 in  winter  than  in  sumti^. 
 
 - 
 
 in  summer  than  in  winter 
 
 those  children. 
 
 - 
 
 the  children. 
 
 JBedoxvns, 
 
 - 
 
 Bedouins- 
 
 ■virtue. 
 
 _ 
 
 virtues. 
 
 I'resbyteriatxs, 
 
 _ 
 
 Episcopalians. 
 
 Petsfwra, 
 
 _ 
 
 the  Fetshora. 
 
 3320, 
 
 _ 
 
 3230. 
 
 Mississippi, 
 
 - 
 
 Missinipi. 
 
 great  bend. 
 
 _ 
 
 mouth  of  the  Missouri, 
 
 gulf  oj  Mexico, 
 
 _ 
 
 gulf  of  California. 
 
 Sir  David  Keith, 
 
 - 
 
 Sir  David. 
 
 Rising  Lake, 
 
 _ 
 
 Rainy  Lake. 
 
 JImerican  Methodists, 
 
 _ 
 
 Armenian  Methodists, 
 
 fludsmi. 
 
 _ 
 
 James. 
 
 iOO  feet. 
 
 _ 
 
 4000  feet. 
 
 Corchangs, 
 
 - 
 
 Corchaugs. 
 
 Oyster  Point  Bay, 
 
 » 
 
 Oyster  Pond  Point 
 
 influence. 
 
 - 
 
 affluence. 
 
 Escetan, 
 
 _ 
 
 Esceleu. 
 
 cultivation. 
 
 _ 
 
 cultivators. 
 
 unsuccessful. 
 
 successful. 
 
 ERRATA—VOL. 
 
 II. 
 
 Bled-el-Jezrede, 
 
 ^ 
 
 Rled-el-Jerrede, 
 
 began. 
 
 — 
 
 be  given. 
 
 these. 
 
 — 
 
 three. 
 
 Kaff, 
 
 - 
 
 Kaffa. 
 
 diffidents. 
 
 - 
 
 dissidents. 
 
 215,000, 
 
 ~ 
 
 21,500. 
 
 Wisbray, 
 
 - 
 
 Wisbuy. 
 
 of. 
 
 — 
 
 or. 
 
 K. 
 
 _ 
 
 AV. 
 
 are. 
 
 _ 
 
 were. 
 
 ,  except — These, 
 
 - 
 
 .  Except— these. 
 
 to  have. 
 
 - 
 
 as  having. 
 
 JSvovra, 
 
 - 
 
 Evora. 
 
 ivest. 
 
 *- 
 
 east. 
 
 uncultivated. 
 
 - 
 
 cultivated. 
 
 4000, 
 
 _ 
 
 3000. 
 
 Jlthniane, 
 
 _ 
 
 Athenians; 
 
 Mistria, 
 
 _ 
 
 Misitra. 
 
 Tarudanf, 
 
 .. 
 
 Terodant. 
 
 cask. 
 
 .. 
 
 cork. 
 
 JVumisia, 
 
 ,. 
 
 Nuinidia.  • 
 
 Maraboiets, 
 
 .. 
 
 Marabouts. 
 
 ^feet, 
 
 ... 
 
 4  feet  wide. 
 
 Stellenborch. 
 
 -- 
 
 Stellenbosch 
 
1 
 
 i 
 
w