* I , i scP)?-?;V r/je ^PRESENTATION of CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS BOARD OF MISSIONARY PREPARATION 25 Madison Avenue, New York PRICE 50 CENTS BOARD OF MISSIONARY PREPARATION Professor Frederick L. Anderson, D.D. Reverend James L. Barton, D.D. Professor Harlan P. Beach, D.D. David Bovaird, M.D. Professor O. E. Brown, D.D. Professor Ernest DeWitt Burton, D.D. Miss Helen B. Calder Professor Ekiward W. Capen, Ph.D. Professor W. O. Carver, D.D. Reverend Wm. I. Chamberlain, Ph.D. Reverend George Drach Reverend James Endicott, D.D. Professor Daniel J. Fleming, Ph.D. Dean H. E. W. Fosbroke, D.D. Miss Margaret E. Hodge President Henry C. King, D.D. Professor Walter L. Lingle, D.D. Right Reverend Arthur S. Lloyd, D.D. R. P. Mackay, D.D. W. Douglas Mackenzie, D.D. Paul Monroe, Ph.D. R. Mott, LL.D, Reverend Frank Mason North, D.D. Principal T. R. O’Meara, D.D. President C. T. Paul, Ph.D. Professor Henry B. Robins, Ph.D. Professor T. H. P. Sailer, Ph.D. Miss Una Saunders Professor E. D. Soper, D.D. Robert E. Speer, D.D. President J. Ross Stevenson, D.D. Fermell P. Turner President Addie Grace Wardle, Ph.D. Reverend Charles R. Watson, D.D. Reverend Stanley White, D.D. President Wilbert W. White, Ph.D. Division Section President W. Douglas Mackenzie, D.D., Chairman Feimell P. Turner, Secretary Reverend Wm. I. Chamberlain, Ph.D., Treasurer Reverend Frank K. Sanders, Ph.D., Director 25 Madison Avenue, New York THE PRESENTATION OF CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEM. THE REPORT OF A COMMITTEE APPOINTED BY THE BOARD OF MISSIONARY PREPARATION President Charles R. Watson, D.D., ChairmaH Professor Duncan B. Macdonald, D.D. The Reverend James L. Barton, D.D. Miss Helen B. Calder Professor Daniel J. Fleming, Ph.D. Professor George F. Moore, D.D. T. H. P. Sailer, Ph.D. Robert E. Speer, D.D. President J. Ross Stevenson, D.D. Professor Charles C. Torrey, Ph.D. The Reverend Samuel M. Zwemer, D.D. PRESENTED AT THE SIXTH ANNUAL MEETING IN NEW YORK, DECEMBER, 1916. 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(V /•' M I I/ -' ■’ 7' Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2016 . ; ' f https://archive.org/details/presentationofchOOboar PREFACE The Board of Missionary Preparation, at its fourth an- nual meeting, held in New York City, December 2, 1914, adopted the recommendation of its Executive Committee that special committees be appointed “to investigate and report upon the special preparation necessary for foreign missionary candidates, if they are to be adequately prepared to present the Christian message to adherents of different non-Christian religions,” and authorized the Executive Com- mittee to make the appointments. At its meeting of March 23, 1915, the Committee constituted five committees on Animism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Hinduism and Moham- medanism, Rev. Charles R. Watson, D.D., becoming the chairman of the Committee on Mohammedanism. The following report is therefore one of a group prepared by the Board of Missionary Preparation on behalf of the Mission Boards of North America, each report being issued independently. These reports attempt the very difficult task of forrhulat- ing for the benefit of missionary candidates and of junior missionaries ^ the religious mind of the people influenced by each religion, their inherited tendencies and natural view- points, their presuppositions and habitual lines of thinking, the data of whatever nature with which he should become familiar who hopes to carry to them the Christian message and to get results. It was not until the fall of 1915, because of unforeseen delays, that the Committee on Mohammedanism was able to get at its specific task. It then drew up an outline of the proposed report. On November 15, 1915, the chairmen of the five com- mittees, with the secretary and the director of the Board, ^ In the reports issued by the Board of Missionary Preparation this con- venient term is used to designate the young missionary up to the end of the first missionary furlough. 3 PREFACE held a special meeting at which an outline of each report was discussed by the group, with excellent results. At the Fifth Annual Meeting, December 8, 1915, the re- port on the presentation of Christianity to Moslems was presented in still fuller outline to the whole Board, was care- fully discussed, and then remanded to the committee for further development. About a year later the report was ready for printing and for wide circulation as a preliminary report to receive careful criticism. It was then sent not only to each member of the Board of Missionary Prepara- tion but also to the following list of professional students of Islam, secretaries and missionaries, to each one of whom the Board is deeply indebted for the patient and painstaking cooperation so freely rendered by him: The Reverend Canon John Ali Bakhsh, Clarkabad, Punjab, India. Professor Mardiros H. Ananikian, S.T.M., Hartford, Conn. Associate Professor of History and Languages of Turkey in the Kennedy School of Missions. The Reverend W. B. Anderson, D.D., Philadelphia, Pa. Corresponding Secretary of the Board of Foreign Missions, United Presbyterian Church, N. A. Professor John Clark Archer, M.A., B.D., New Haven, Conn. Assistant Professor of Missions in the Yale School of Religion. The Reverend A. E. Armstrong, M.A., Toronto, Canada. Assistant Secretary of the Board of Foreign Missions, Presbyterian Church in Canada. The Reverend J. H. Arnup, Toronto, Canada. Assistant Secretary of the Missionary Society of the Methodist Church, Canada. The Reverend A. R. Bartholomew, D.D., Philadelphia, Pa. Secretary of the Board of Foreign Missions of the Reformed Church in the United States. Professor George A. Barton, Ph.D., LL.D., Bryn Mawr, Pa. Professor of Biblical Literature and Semitic Languages in Bryn Mawr College. Professor John K. Birgc, Smyrna, Turkey. -International College. Mr. Frank L. Brown, New York City. General Secretary of the World’s Sunday School Association. The Reverend J. G. Brown, D.D., Toronto, Canada. General Secretary of the Canadian Baptist Foreign Mission Board. The Reverend James Cantine, D.D., Basrah, Persian Gulf. The Arabian Mission of the Reformed Church in America. The Reverend R. E. Chambers, D.D., Canton, China. Foreign Mission Board. Southern Baptist Convention. The Reverend S. H. Chester, D.D., Nashville, Tenn. Secretary Foreign Correspondence and Editor of the Executive Committee of Foreign Missions of the Presbyterian Church in the U. S. (South). Professor Thomas F. Cummings, Ph.D., New York City. The Bible Teachers’ Training School. The Reverend Paul de Schweinitz, D.D., Bethlehem, Pa. Vice-President and Treasurer of the Society of United Brethren for Propagating the Gospel among the Heathen (Moravian Church). 4 PREFACE The Reverend Henry O. Dwight, LL.D., New York City. Recording Secretary of the American Bible Society. The Reverend D. Brewer Eddy, Boston, Mass. Associate Secretary of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Mi<3^ ns. G. Sherwood Eddy, New York City. Associate General Secretary of the International Committee of Young Men‘j Christi i Associations, Foreign Department. Mr. Charles H. Fahs, New York City. Curator of the Missionary Research Library. The Reverend Janies H. Franklin, D.D., BostOT, Mass. Foreign Secretary of the American Baptist Foreign Mission Society. The Reverend Canon W. H. T. Gairdner, B.A., Cairo, Egypt. The Church Missionary Society. Principal Alfred Gandier, LL.D., Toronto, Canada. Chairman of the Board of Foreign Missions, Presbyterian Church in Canada. The Reverend W. Goldsack, Royapettah, Madras, India. The Church Missionary Society. The Reverend Canon Malcolm G. Goldsmith, Madras, India. The Church Missionary Society. The Reverend Canon S. Gould, M.D., Toronto, Canada: General Secretary of the Missionary Society, Church of England in Canada. Mr. Ross A. Hadley, Richmond, Ind. •Assistant Secretary of the American Friends Board of Foreign Missions. The Reverend George F. Herrick, D.D., New York City. For many years at Constantinople, engaged in literary work for the American Board. Professor Samuel Ralph Harlow, Smyrna, Turkey. International College. Dr. Walter G. Hiltner, Medford Hillside, Mass. Harvard Medical School of China. Shanghai, China. Professor Edward W. Hopkins, Ph.D., LL.D., New Haven, Conn. Professor of Sanskrit and Comparative Philology in Yale University. The Reverend Franklin E. Hoskins, D.D., Beirut, Syria. Editor fourth edition First Font Reference Bible in Arabic. The Reverend S. S. Hough, D.D., Dayton, Ohio. General Secretary of the Foreign Missionary Society, United Brethren in Christ. The Reverend Charles E. Hurlburt, Philadelphia, Pa. General Director of the American Council, Africa Inland Mission. The Reverend E. M. Hursh, Freetown, Sierra Leone, West Africa. Foreign Missionary Society, United Brethren in Christ. The Reverend George Heber Jones, D.D., New York City. Editorial Secretary of the Board of Foreign Missions of the Methodist Episcopal Church, formerly a missionary in Korea. Professor Duncan B. Macdonald, M.A., D.D., Hartford, Conn. Professor oft Semitic Languages and Muhammadanism in the Hartford Theological Seminary. The Reverend A. McLean, D.D., Cincinnati, Ohio. President Foreign Christian Missionary Society (Disciples). Professor J. Allen Miller, Ashland, Ohio. President Foreign Missionary Society of the Brethren Church. Professor George F. Moore, D.D., A.M., LL.D., LittD., Cambridge, Mass. Frothingham Professor of History of Religion in Harvard University. The Reverend M. T. Morrill, D.D., Dayton, Ohio. President and Secretary of the Mission Board of the Christian Church. The Reverend J. Lovell Murray, New York City. Educational Secretary of the Student Volunteer Movement, formerly a missionary in India. The Reverend C. G. Mylrea, Lucknow, India. The Church Missionary Society. The Reverend W. W. Pinson, D.D., Nashville, Tenn. General Secretary of the Board of Missions of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. 5 PREFACE Mrs. Frederick G. (Mary SchaufBer) Platt, B.L., New Britain, Conn. Instructor in Missionary Practice at the Kennedy School of Missions, Hartford, Conn. The Reverend T. B. Ray, D.D., Richmond, Va. Secretary of the Foreign Mission Board, Southern Baptist Convention. The Reverend Walter A. Rice, Kerman, Persia. The Church Missionary Society. The Reverend Burton St. John, New York City. Statistician of the Continuation Committee of North America, formerly a missionary in China. The Reverend Canon Edward Sell, D.D., Vepery, Madras, India. The Church Missionary Society. The Reverend W. A. Shedd, D.D., Urumiah, Persia. Board of Foreign Missions of the Presbyterian Church in U. S. A. Professor R. Siraj-ud-din, Lahore, India. Forman Christian College, Lahore. Elder W. A. Spicer, Washington, D. C. Secretary of the General Conference of Seventh-Day Adventists. The Reverend Talib-ud-din, Kaulakha, Lahore, India. Presbyterian Mission. Dr. S. Earl Taylor, New York City. Corresponding Secretary of the Board of Foreign Missions of the Methodist Episcopal Church. Professor Charles C. Torrey, Ph.D., D.D., New Haven, Conn. .Professor of Semitic Languages in Yale University. The Reverend Stephen van R. Trowbridge, Cairo, Egy’pt. General Secretary of the M’brld’s Sunday .School Association in Moslem Lands. The Reverend Howard A. Walter, Lahore, India. Secretary for Mohammedanism of the Literary Department of the National Council of the Young Men’s Christian .Associations of India and Ceylon. The Reverend E. M. Wherry, D.D., Ludhiana, Punjab, India. Board of Foreign Missions of the Presbyterian Church in U. S. A. President George E. White, D.D., Marsovan, Turkey. Anatolia College. The Reverend W. A. Wilson, D.D., Indore, India. Board of Foreign Missions, Presbyterian Church in Canada. The Reverend L. B. Wolf, D.D., Baltimore, Md. General Secretary and Treasurer of the Board of Foreign Missions of the General Synod of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in the U. S. A. The Reverend Samuel M. Zwemer, D.D., Cairo. Egypt. Board of Foreign Missions of the Reformed Church in America. The result of the wealth of friendly criticism thus ob- tained is seen in this published report. The enforced ab- sence of the chairman, Dr. Watson, in the Near East for a long series of months made it necessary for other members of the committee, notably Professor Macdonald of Hart- ford, to cooperate with the Director in carrying through the work of revision, but the outcome of their labors has had the benefit of Dr. Watson’s own judgment. The committee is under great obligation also to Professor Charles C. Tor- rey of Yale University, to Professor Birge of Smyrna, to Professor Ananikian of Hartford and to the Reverend How- ard A. Walter of Lahore, for their generous assistance. 6 PREFACE The report as published may fairly be termed a consensus of wide-ranging expert opinion. No pains have been spared to have it represent the present judgment of the missionary world, and useful, not alone to the novice, but even, in important respects, to the missionary of considerable experi- ence; yet we do not regard what is here presented as a final statement on the preparation of missionaries for work among Moslems. Criticisms or suggestions will always be gratefully received, and should be addressed to the Director of the Board of Missionary Preparation. To determine the proper standardization of the spelling of technical terms and of proper names in a report of this sort, which aims at accuracy and yet must avoid pedantry, is not a simple matter. The editors have concluded to adopt in general the authority of the Standard Dictionary regard- ing good English usage, with a free use of transliterations and footnotes. Frank K. Sanders Director of the Board of Missionary Preparation. 25 Madison Avenue, New York City, September, 1917. Note: — The scientific transliteration used has been kept as simple as possible. In the order of the Arabic alphabet it runs : ’btthjhkhddhrzsshsrttz'ghfqklmnhwy. Vowels: a i u a i u aw or au ay or ai. 7 ANALYTICAL OUTLINE Introductory I. The Rise of Islam (1) The Environment of Islam (2) The Character and Experience of Mohammed (3) The Formulating of the New Faith II. The Spread and Extent of Islam (1) Its Three Missionary Periods (2) The Explanation of the Speedy Extension of Islam (3) Its Numerical Extension (4) Its Geographical Extension (5) The Racial Types which have Accepted Islam (6) The Linguistic Situation (7) The Political Situation III. The Social, Political and Constitutional Development of Islam ( 1 ) The Individual (2) The Family (3) The Community (4) Government (5) The Constitutional Development of Islam IV. The Doctrinal Content of Islam (1) Allah (2) Created Beings (3) The Nature of Mankind (4) Salvation (5) The Messengers of Salvation (6) The Sacred Books (7) Jesus and the Mahdi (8) The Day of Judgment V. The Religious Practices of Islam (1) Faith and its Public Confession (2) Worship (3) Fasting (4) Tithing and Almsgiving (5) Pilgrimage (6) Jihad 8 ANALYTICAL OUTLINE VI. The Legal and Theological Development of Islam (1) The Development of Canon La^w (2) The Theological Development (a) Free Will and Predestination (b) Allah and Flis Qualities (c) The Doctrine of the Koran (d) Anthropomorphisms (e) The Vision of Allah VII. Other Religious Organizations and Movements in Islam (1) The Shiites (2) The Mystical Organization and Life (3) Wahhabism (4) Babism and Baha’ism (5) The Ahmadiya (6) The Neo-Mutazilites (7) Other Developments VIII. The Existing Types of Moslems as a Result of These Influences (1) As Affected by Forces from without Islam (2) According to Their Inner Attitude (3) According to Race and Environment IX. What Christianity May Add to Islam (1) An Emphasis upon the Ethical Character of God and upon the Real Nature of Sin (2) The Conception of a Mediator between God and Man (3) The Thought of Man as Made in God’s Own Image (4) The Brotherhood of All Men and the Fatherhood of God (5) Freedom of Life under the Gospel (6) Freedom of Scientific Investigation (7) The Right of All to Education (8) The True Place of Womanhood in Life (9) Christianity and Childhood ( 10) The Significance of Suffering in Life (11) The Divine Share in Human Life (12) The Communion of Saints X. What Christianity and Islam Have in Common (1) The Unity of God and of the World (2) The Reality and Personality of God 9 ANALYTICAL OUTLINE (3) The Sinful Nature of Man (4) Each Man Standing Personally before God (5) That the Worship of God is a Comfort and Strength to Man (6) The Possibility of Immediate Intercourse between God and the Individual (7) That God has revealed His Will to Man through Men (8) The Reality of a Judgment and of a Life to Come XI. The Method and Attitude of the Missionary Approach to Islam (1) The Necessity of Varying Methods (2) The Primary Necessity to Present Christ (3) The Cosmic Christ (4) Redemption from Sin (5) The Simplicity and Clearness of the Bible (6) The Devout Life (7) Sympathy with Mystical Islam (8) Answering Theological Questions (9) The Factor of Greatest Importance (10) The Institutional Approach to Islam XII. The Preparation of the Missionary (1) Along Physical and Social Lines (2) Along Intellectual Lines (3) Along Spiritual Lines (4) In General XIII. Studies of Special Value to One who is to be a Mission- ary TO Moslems XIV. Bibliography of Islam XV. Suggested Reading Courses for Those Contemplating Missionary Work Among Moslems XVI. Selected References to Paragraphs XVII. Library Hints for the Missionary Scholar 10 THE PRESENTATION OF CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS Introductory This report deals with the practical missionary problem of presenting Christianity to the adherents of Islam/ and with the courses of preparation which will help the young missionary to gain efficiency in meeting this problem. It seeks to lay a broad basis for this efficiency in a preliminary study of the rise and development of Mohammedanism, the aim of which is to show its real values as understood by its votaries. The missionary to Moslems ^ confronts a system not only well organized, but very aggressive; not merely a product of the past, but still in process of development; a religion which cannot be summarily and sweepingly de- nounced, but has many interesting points of contact to which the thoughtful missionary will attach the broader and truer revelation of God in Christ. The missionary who sets himself to the study of Islam for the sake of ultimately winning Moslems to Christianity must be sympathetic, in heart as well as in mind, with his task, interested in it as one of the most difficult and important tasks of the present day. The Moslem must be studied as he actually is ; not merely from the standpoint of his intellectual difficulties in the acceptance of Christianity, but nationally, socially and re- ligiously, as a human being who is part of a great working unity to which he is very loyal, or at least strongly respon- sive, who is swayed by all the varieties of environment, 1 The word Islam literally means “giving over” [of oneself to Allah], It is a convenient and proper designation for the religious faith introduced by Mohammed. 2 An adherent of Islam is a Muslim, “om who gives over” [himself to Allah], The usual English spelling is retained in this report. 11 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS motive and habitual impulse that modify the action of men everywhere. This report is not intended to be a treatise, but rather a helpful and suggestive outline. Whole volumes have been written on phases of Islam which must find mention here in single sentences. For the full details of the history of Islam, of its theology and of its literature, the student must rely upon standard monographs to which due reference will be made; this report can only call attention to essential data. With all its brevity, however, its aim is to serve as a reliable guide to the student in regard to each particular phase of Islam’s development, and, further, to discuss adequately the Moslem mind and how to guide that mind along lines of Christian experience. It therefore essays a highly technical task, involving not merely a reference to the historical ori- gins of Islam and of the Moslem social fabric and govern- ment, but some insight into the legal, theological and relig- ious development of Islam, and some acquaintance with the resultant sects, parties and schools, both in history and at the present day. The technical terminology which even the ordinary Moslems use is indicated, because every missionary to Moslems should be familiar with it. The efficient mis- sionary needs to comprehend the intimate Moslem point of view clearly in order to make any real working connection between Moslems and Christianity. The report has been written primarily for the missionary candidate and for the young missionary out on the field for the first time. Yet, obviously, the long process of educa- tion which develops an experienced and efficient missionary to Moslem peoples must continue throughout life. Missions have their own ways of contributing to this educational process which must be furthered by contact and experience no less than through careful courses of study. Past experi- ence is beginning to show that a wise basis may be laid during the preparatory years for the acquisition of rich 12 THE RISE OF ISLAM experience, and that the first missionary furlough at home is capable of furnishing invaluable graduate training for the missionary to Moslems. He then realizes his short- comings and eagerly sets himself to overcome them. The report has each of these three phases of experience in mind. I. The Rise of Islam An acquaintance \vith the Moslem world as it has devel- oped during thirteen centuries into the organized unity of today, and which in its turn seems again to be break- ing into rationalistic multiplicity, is quite essential to the Christian missionary. This historic approach is invaluable by its explanation of many facts which would otherwise seem puzzling or actually unreasonable. Many factors en- tered into the beginning of Mohammedanism, some of them historical, some racial, still others personal. It is scarcely accurate to say that Islam is a mere composite of these fac- tors, for it has had a permanence and persistency for which only a real religious idealism can account. The personality of its founder is also deeply impressed upon Islam. What- ever may be our judgment on the character and influence of Mohammed,^ we will not question that he was a very great man. Throughout its theological development Islam has managed to absorb many strangely diverse elements, elements which might be regarded as foreign to its essential nature, and yet it has remained Islam. Now it is trying to absorb practically the whole Western civilization and its ideas, and still to remain Islam. Any one whose purpose is to deal with Moslems needs, therefore, a very clear grasp of the historical growth of Islam. (1) The Environment of Islam . — Islam had its birth- place in Arabia, a fact as important for a proper under- 1 The name in Arabic is pronounced Mukainmad. The customary English spelling is followed in this report. 13 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS Standing of its inner spirit and of its historical development as is the corresponding knowledge of Palestine and its his- tory to a sane interpretation of the origin and growth of the Christian religion. The student of Islam should there- fore become acquainted with Arabia, its peoples and their characteristics.^ The habitable portions of the Arabian desert in the sixth century after Christ were occupied by great tribes characterized by independence of spirit, democ- racy of organization under patriarchal forms and marked individualism, quickly passing into violence, revengefulness, and intolerance of discipline, and leading a type of life which gave a large opportunity for both austerity and fanaticism. They were also passing through a great poet- ical period. With regard to religion, the Arab was, and is, somewhat hard-headed and cynical, but it is undoubted that the desert assists a man of religious spirit in develop- ing a conception of God which is lofty and commanding. The last century of critical study by competent Western scholars has established the fact that Islam, as conceived by its great prophet, was a constructive composite which gave much recognition to the customary life of his people, while borrowing freely from Jewish and Christian sources and adding a stamp which was undeniably his own. (2) The Character and Experience of Mohammed . — It is supremely important that the missionary to Moslems should be quite familiar with the life, character and spiritual expe- riences of the prophet of Arabia. Three phases of his life call particularly for study: his personality, his environ- ment, and his career. Born about 570 A.D., a posthumous child, he early lost his mother also, and was brought up by his uncle. His early life was spent in an environment which brought him into contact with the vicissitudes of the life of the poor in a mercantile and purse-proud society. This ^ Noldeke has contributed a fine article on the “Ancient Arabs” to the “En- cyclopedia of Religion and Ethics,” vol. i, 659. See, too, the article “Arabia” in the “Encyclopedia of Islam.” 14 THE RISE OF ISLAM personal experience aroused in him a deep sympathy for the oppressed. He gained a wider outlook upon the world by accompanying caravans to various parts of Arabia and of Syria. The dates in his life are all very uncertain, except those of his death and of the migration to Medina, but it is substantially assured that at about the age of twenty-five he married a wealthy woman of strong personality but dubious social standing, and that they lived together in mutual es- teem and respect. It is also fairly certain that, at the age of forty, he came under certain arousing spiritual influences which led him to questionings about religion, and which especially raised in him the fear of an avenging God. How to escape that future vengeance was his problem, and it weighed upon him to such an extent that his personality evidently became unsettled. He had always, in all probabil- ity, been psychically pathological, and now he began to hear voices and see visions. For a long time he was in doubt regarding their source, whether from evil spirits or from God. How he was led to the fixed conclusion that they came from God we do not know. How, again, he was led to connect himself with the whole scheme of Old Testament prophecy we also do not know, but we know it was a fact. The influences bearing upon Mohammed in one degree and another were (1) the Judaism and Christianity of the day and their Scriptures, especially the stories of the prophets and patriarchs; (2) certain friends of his who were seeking a true religion just as he was (the so-called hantfs); and (3) his position as a member of the tribe of Koreish ^ with its inherited ritual, part of which he dis- avowed, another part of which he incorporated into Islam for reasons which seem to have been those of policy. There are distinct signs also of the direct influence on him of a heretical Christian teacher. After he assumed the role of a prophet there were two outstanding elements in his teach- * Quraish in Arabic. 15 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS ing, a theological and a social. By way of theology, he declared that the only God was Allah, a supreme God al- ready so-called and recognized by the Meccans, who had added, however, a pantheon of subordinate tribal and local gods who were the real objects of their worship; that Allah would have a great future day of judgment, and that men must flee from that day by surrendering themselves entirely to Allah — that is, by becoming Moslems. As a social mes- sage he, like Amos, reiterated the rights of the poor as over against the rich, and laid upon the rich the care of the poor. And affecting all these various influences which have been mentioned must be taken into account an imaginative power, a command of language, a physical presence and a charm of character which gave Mohammed a unique personality, and attracted to him men of the most diversified qualities, and which help to explain how a great world religion swung upon the hinges of his life. On another side he was de- ficient in sense of form beyond even the ordinary Semite; he was a preacher and not a theologian; he could not retell straightly a story which he had heard; and though he pos- sessed a poet’s imagination and feeling for words, he could not produce poetry because of his lack in sense of form. His career divides naturally into two periods at the year 622 A.D., the date of his migration (hijra) from Mecca to Medina. Before 622 the details of the life of Mohammed are very uncertain; after that date the events narrated have a better historical basis, yet only the most essential data can be held to be certain. In general, we know the facts of Mohammed’s mind with far greater assurance than those of his life — his ideas better than his deeds. It is, however, of importance that the missionary to Moslems should know what the traditional view of the life of Mohammed is and has been, but he must always remember that that traditional, life, as given in such biographies as that by Muir, or as characterized by Carlyle in “Heroes and Hero Worship,” is 16 THE RISE OF ISLAM now regarded as open to grave doubt and is being subjected to searching historical criticism. What is important for the missionary is that Moslems believe it, not that it is true. Thus it is of great importance that the missionary should realize that the whole life of Mohammed for the Moslem is wrapped in miracle from his birth to his death. Nor does the Moslem seem to find difficulty in squaring this belief with the fact that the Koran expressly disclaims for Mo- hammed any power of working miracles. The ideas of Mohammed, however, which we gain from the Koran ^ are relatively reliable. Whoever studies the two divisions of the life of the prophet can hardly fail to realize that he underwent a moral I deterioration in the second period. After the Hegira Mo- hammed became the absolute ruler of his party in Medina, and under these different conditions his character rapidly I altered. Through the doctrine of the imitation of Moham- ' med and through the influence of the Jihad (the laws governing the relation of Moslems and non-Moslems), a similar change is almost uniformly to be recognized in the lives of Moslem religious leaders, and especially in the lives of outstanding Mahdis. A holy person in Moslem history ; begins as a saint-reformer, but norm.ally he develops into , the founder of a new militant state, and his own character suffers under the change. From being a saintly reformer he passes into a conqueror by force of arms. In the case of I Mohammed, this change of character left its mark even on the style of the Koran. Nearly all the chapters {sura) be- longing to this later period seem to lack sincerity; their subject-matter becomes more and more mundane and pro- • saic; their fire, terseness and rhythmic beauty fade away I into prolixity, obscurity and wearisome repetitions.^ ] 1 In the Arabic the name of the Mohammedan Scriptures is Qur’an which probably meant originally “a piece to be recited.” The familiar English spelling ^ IS followed in this report. I 2 Yhis ^iii bg abundantly clear to any one who reads the Koran in some approximately chronological order as in Rodwell’s translation (No. 17). 17 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS (3) The Formulating of the New Faith . — While Islam has undergone important developments during the course of its all but world-wide spread, nevertheless the character and form it assumed during the lifetime of its founder were determinative of its type for all time. This was because it early became, in Islam, a positive religious duty to imitate the conduct of the prophet at all points. His usage (sunna) became a norm for all later Moslems. It is essential, there- fore, for a clear picture of the development of Islam to see it as it lay in the mind of its founder. There religion and statecraft were always intertwined. The recognition of Mohammed as a religious leader involved the acceptance of him as the head of the state. Moreover, his belief in Allah as the one God involved the destruction of the Meccan pan- theon. At first sight, therefore, the triumph of Mohammed seemed to mean the overthrow of the aristocratic system of the tribe of Koreish at Mecca and the loss of its privileged and vested interests, but that loss was avoided by the ac- ceptance in Islam of the whole ceremonial of the pilgrim- age ^ of which the Koreish were hereditary guardians. The basis for these developments, religious and political, lay in the revelations which came to Mohammed in fragments. These contained his theology and his system of law; parts were for edification, and parts for use in religious ritual; there were also political statements of his views and desires. Moslems themselves divide the content of the Koran into three : commands, prohibitions, and narratives. Before Mohammed the Arabs had had no Scriptures; the Jews and Christians did have such, and were respected in conse- quence; and it greatly added to the definiteness and stand- ing of the new faith that the revelations made by Moham- med should have claimed the value of sacred Scripture. Further, the enlarging community of the faithful needed a 1 In Arabic hajj, an ancient annual visit to the venerated Ka'ba at Mecca by pilgrims from all over Arabia. 18 SPREAD AND EXTENT OF ISLAM simple code of legislation. This Mohammed developed, partly by revelation, but largely from the customary law of the Arabs, and thus fitted the new religion very precisely to the needs of the community of which he was the head. I i II. The Spread and Extent of Islam The rapid expansion of Moslem authority constitutes one of the wonders of history. At the death of Mohammed, A.D. 632, his influence was still confined to Arabia, but during the short reign of the first caliph,^ Abu-Bakr, the ' course of conquest had begun. Within forty years the countries on the east as far as the Indus had submitted to Moslem rule. Within a century the caliphate had pushed its conquests on the west as far as Spain and southern France. Within the longer period it had fought its way northward to the Caspian and, possibly, far on the road to China. Thus, after about a century, “the empire of the Khalifas extended from the Atlantic to the Indus and from the Caspian to the cataracts of the Nile.” ^ These con- quests were not all permanent, but they gave Islam a recog- nized place in the world. It is very much worth the while of the young missionary to know the data of Moslem as- cendancy and occupation which relate to the district in which he is located. (1) Its Three Missionary Periods . — The student of the history of Islam will need to distinguish three periods of religious extension. Islam has not proceeded uniformly and steadily, but, like Christendom, it has had an apostolic, a I medieval, and a modern era of missionary expansion.^ j 1 In Arabic Khalifa. The customary English word, Caliph, is used in this I report. ii 2 Lane-Poole, “The Mohammedan Dynasties,” p. 6, a book which cannot be I too warmly recommended as a very full, very concise, and mainly tabulated I survey of Moslem history. ® Consult Arnold’s article “Mohammedan Missions,” in Encyclopedia of j Religion and Ethics, vol. viii. 19 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS The first period covered approximately the first century after the death of Mohammed. In A.D. 732, the victory of Charles the Hammer, the grandfather of Charlemagne, over the Saracens at Poitiers, set a barrier to the western sweep of Islam which it never overpassed. This first cen- tury was a period in which the lust of conquest was strengthened by the irresistible power of religious enthu- siasm. With fire and sword the Moslem hosts established Islam in the available world of their day, and by more peaceful means gave it an introduction to the Far East. For the next few centuries, under the often universal head- ship of the Abbasid dynasty ruling from Bagdad, which was founded in 762 by al-Man.sur, the second of the line, Islam was content to dominate this vast Asiatic empire. It also dominated North Africa and Spain under the Umay- yad dynasty ruling at Cordova, founded in 755 by Abdur Rahman. The second chapter of the attempted conquest of the world by Islam began with the rise of the Seljuks in the latter half of the eleventh century. The vast realm, once united under one Mohammedan ruler, had become a col- lection of scattered kingdoms. The Seljuks of Turkestan, when converted to Islam, swarmed over western Asia, exterminating each little dynasty, and again created a real Mohammedan empire ranging from the western border of Afghanistan to the Mediterranean. These conquests bred a race of fanatical Moslem warriors to whose prowess particularly was due the repeated failure of the crusaders. They controlled as far as the Bosphorus. But their great generals gradually divided the empire again into a group of dynasties which were destined to give way, in the thir- teenth and fourteenth centuries, to the Ottoman empire in western Asia and the Mongol empire in the East. The Mongols belonged to a great nomadic confederacy which originally ranged the country north of the desert of 20 SPREAD AND EXTENT OF ISLAM Gobi, owing allegiance to the Turks and to the Chinese, Their great leader, Genghis (Chingiz) Khan, was a sort of second Alexander the Great. Ascending the throne at an early age, he established his authority over the confed- eracy after thirty years of struggle, and in 1206 began a remarkable career of conquest. He was not a Mohammedan, but his successors, who had professed Islam, continued to conquer until they had brought China, eastern Turkestan, Afghanistan, and southern Russia under their sway. At about the same time India, of which only a corner had been held by Mohammedans, came as a whole under Mohammedan rule, and Islam became an established religious faith side by side with Hinduism.^ The Ottoman Turks were first driven out of their home in Central Asia by the invasion of Genghis Khan. For a long time they were settled in Asia Minor, gradually in- creasing their dominions at the expense both of the Seljuk Turks and of the Greek cities, until finally, in 1358, they crossed the Hellespont and began the conquest of the Euro- pean provinces of the Byzantine empire. After two cen- turies the Turkish rule was acknowledged from the Danube to the cataracts of the Nile, and from the Euphrates almost to the Straits of Gibraltar. The control of the Balkans and of Constantinople was, until recently, the evidence of this expansion of influence, however sharply checked to the north and west. The third period of missionary expansion is compara- tively modern. There was a great revival of Islam with an attempt at reconstruction in the Wahhabi ^ movement of the eighteenth century. This revival has found further expression in the dervish fraternities of Africa, in the “saints” who accompany the trading caravans, and in the pilgrims who return home after a stay at IMecca, the holy 1 Lane-Poole ; “Mohammedan Dynasties,” pp. 284, 286. 2 In Arabic Wahhabi, meaning an adherent of the reforming sect founded in the eighteenth century by Abd-el-Wahhab. See p. 64. 21 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS city. Islam has been taken by them not only throughout northern Africa and into India, but also “into Russia, into the Malay Archipelago, and even among the Finns of the Volga.” ' (2) The Explanation of the Speedy Extension of Islam. — It is evident from the above that, as in all history, more than one set of influences affected this career of expansion. On the one hand, the adherents of Islam undoubtedly re- garded themselves as the hosts of Allah, and the rush which carried all before them was truly inspired by that con- sciousness. There is no doubt that Islam was propagated, and by its essential nature must be propagated, by the sword. But this does not explain how the sword wielded by comparatively small armies conquered in so short a time so great a territory. There is a sociological explanation also. The time had come in Arabia, by reason of the over- pressure of population, for a general movement outward which was aided by the weakness of the surrounding powers and made irresistible by the spoils of conquest. Another important reason is to be found in the fine leader- ship of those who headed the early armies and who founded the later dynasties. But among the greatest reasons of all for the rapid growth of Islam since its inception may well have been its simplicity, its idealism, and its spirit of de- mocracy. It created a great brotherhood. This in turn led to great mass movements. Islam overcame the Chris- tianity and the Judaism of its day because neither had the spiritual power which could entitle it to world leadership. The Christianity of the seventh century was, in the main, an unaggressive, formal Christianity, a caricature of the faith which Jesus founded. It abounded in intermediaries between the soul and God, had lost its early simplicity, and was lacking in ethical strength. Ecclesiastical oppression and consequent disaffection played a large part in its life. 1 Zwemer, “Islam,” p. 58. 22 SPREAD AND EXTENT OF ISLAM This may well explain the rapid collapse of Byzantium in Syria, Egypt, and North Africa, while it succeeded in hold- ing the line of the Taurus for centuries. The fall of Spain was due to sociological causes. Present-day Islam must be estimated from various points of view. (3) Its Numerical Extension . — Very careful studies of the numerical strength of Mohammedanism throughout the world were made in connection with the Conference of 1911, at Lucknow. These figures, as revised by Professor Westermann and Dr. Zwemer, in 1914, gave a total of 201,000,000 of Moslems in the world. This includes 166,000 in North and South America, 2,374,000 in Europe, 156,- 000,000 in Asia, and 42,000,000 in Africa. Only six and a half percent, of the Moslems of the world were, in 1914, a part of the Ottoman empire.^ (4) Its Geographical Extension . — The reasons for the limits of the borders of Islam at the present day can be stated from different points of view. It has been said on high authority that Islam is in the main a religion of the heat belt,^ that is, of the tropics and the sub-tropics. There is undoubtedly a certain amount of truth in this position, but it cannot be laid down as the governing factor. Questions of race undoubtedly enter into the situation, both from the point of view of blood kinship and of environment. It may be said broadly also, that after the first century of con- quest no really civilized race has given itself as a whole to Islam. In quite modern times the traffic in coolies has tended to spread Islam in quarters which it would not otherwise have reached — in the West Indies, for example, and in South Africa. The consequence is, that while there are large portions of the earth’s surface which are sol- idly Moslem, Islam is also to be found sporadic in other 1 The Moslem World, April, 1914, pp. 145-156. Other excellent authorities regard the estimate of 201,000,000 as too low by about 30,000,000. 2 Margoliouth, “Mohammedanism.” See, however. Professor E. Huntington, “Civilization and Climate,” p. 333, Yale University Press. 23 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS quarters. In this the results of the artificially stimulated Moslem missions in Europe need not be reckoned. It is interesting, however, in this connection to notice that it is the quite heretical Moslem sects, which no orthodox Mos- lem would regard as being really Moslem at all, which have the greatest success. Examples of these are the Bahais ^ and the Ahmadiyas. All northern Africa, penetrating also far into the center, and coolies in South Africa, are Mos- lems. Western Asia is Moslem, with the exception of the scattered and scanty Armenian, Nestorian, Christian Syrian and Greek populations. At least a quarter of the popula- tion of India and the people of Afghanistan, with other tribes on the northwest frontier and a large proportion of Central Asia, are also Moslem. Further east, in the Dutch East Indies and Malaysia, there is roughly a Moslem popu- lation of about thirty millions. The Moslem population of China has been estimated in the most varying fashion.^ That in the northwest and southwest sections of the republic it is very considerable seems certain. In Japan there is only the same kind of Moslem propaganda as in England. It is significant for the geographical hold of Islam that when European territory has been reconquered by Christendom, the Moslem population has normally retired into solidly Moslem territory. Exceptions to this are Bosnia and Her- zegovina, where there is still a considerable Moslem ele- ment. The Albanians have the distinction of being the only European race which almost solidly embraced Islam, but in Albania today probably not over two-thirds of the population are Moslems, a large proportion of them being only nominally so. (5) The Racial Types Which Have Accepted Islam . — The rapid spread of Islam in animistic Malaysia and Cen- tral Africa and in shahmanistic Central Asia cannot but be 1 Baha’i and Ahmadiya are sects described later. See pp. 65, 67. 2 According to Broomhall it numbered in 1911 between five and ten millions. Moslem World, vol. i, 32 pp. 24 SPREAD AND EXTENT OF ISLAM significant. It is possible, too, that the statement above with regard to the Albanian race might be historically contested, for it seems certain that the races of Spain at the conquest must have accepted Islam very largely. Immigration from North Africa was not great. On the other hand, while the reconquest was slow, it was very complete, and was evi- dently a triumph of the real Spanish race. In southern Italy and Sicily there was a similar situation both of con- quest and of reconquest. The Greek population, on the other hand, does not seem to have accepted Islam to any large extent. It is also suggestive for the influence re- spectively of race and environment that the Hungarians became Christian and the Ottoman Turks Moslem. On the other hand, even yet there is a certain feeling of race kin- ship between the two. It has been suggested that the prog- ress of Islam along the North African coast was aided by kinship of Semitic blood, and certainly the complete dis- appearance of the Christian Church of North Africa still calls for explanation beyond the breaking up of the Roman power by the Gothic invasions. Against the influence of racial types we have always to remember that solidarity of the Moslem brotherhood which has already been discussed. This means some unity in thinking and also a religious kinship from the Atlantic to the Malaysian seas and from South Africa to Siberia. (6) The Linguistic Situation . — The four principal lan- guages of Islam are Arabic, Persian, Ottoman Turkish and Urdu. The primary fact is that Arabic is the language of religion, of law and of learning in the broadest sense for the whole Moslem world. For the Arabic speaking part of that world it is also the language of literature, and for all of that world of classical literature. It has thus the role in Islam of both Latin and Greek in Christendom. Non-Arabic speaking Moslem countries have their own vernaculars, and these often, as in Turkey and Persia, have 2? PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS highly developed literatures of their own; but even these literatures have been very largely affected by Arabic, both as language and as a form of literary expression, and have also affected one another. Thus Arabic has affected Per- sian and Persian and Arabic have still more affected Turk- ish. Of Turkish, it may be said, for example, that while the basal vocabulary and the machinery of grammar are its own, yet Arabic words and phrases of a religious and scientific character have so affected it as to make such writing almost unintelligible to one who does not know the Arabic and Persian vocabularies, while the forms of Per- sian literary art have so overcome Turkish belles-lettres that a Turkish poem may be quite unintelligible to one who is not a Persian scholar. This influence is seen also in India in the somewhat artificial distinction between Hindi, Hindustani and Urdu. Urdu, as the language of the camp, has been most largely affected by Persian and Arabic; the others feel this influence in a diminishing degree. The other Moslem languages, such as the dialects of eastern Turkish, Pushtu, Berber, Kurdish, Malay and the African dialects, have been influenced in the same ways. The Arabic, also, spoken in the different Arabic speaking re- gions from the Atlantic to the Persian Gulf, breaks up into marked dialects, and this has affected, in vocabulary, at least, the written Arabic of the different countries. In this connec- tion it may be well to emphasize the fact that the mission- ary in these Arabic speaking lands must carefully distin- guish between the language spoken by the people and that written by those who can write. The difference is some- times almost as great as between ancient and modern Greek, or even as between Latin and Italian. (7) The Political Situation . — There are five sorts of Moslem countries, past or present: (1) Those which are independent and under Moslem rule, such as the different Arabian states, Persia and Afghanistan. (2) Those which 26 ISLAM S POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT are still mainly Moslem, but under Christian protectorates, such as Egypt and the Moslem protected states of the In- dian empire. (3) Those which have been lost to Moslem rule entirely, but still have a Moslem population either in whole or in part, such as Bosnia and Herzegovina men- tioned above, Algeria, Tunisia, Tripoli, Cyprus and Crete, and British India. Morocco seems to come between the second and third classes. (4) Those which have been re- conquered by Christendom and have ceased to be Moslem even in population, such as Spain, Greece, Hungary. Rou- mania, Bulgaria and Servia. (5) The present situation of the Ottoman Empire is so uncertain and its future so dubious that it cannot be fitted into any classification. Of that great realm, for many centuries Constantinople has been in large measure the center of political influence and of persecuting activity; Cairo the great intellectual center, the brain of Islam, directing educational, controversial or propagandist measures; while Mecca has been the unquestioned center of religious activity, the heart that pulsates with a life which is felt to the farthest limits of Mohammedan influence. III. The Social, Political and Constitutional I Development of Islam Islam as a system must be judged in the light of its I social and political values, no less than from the standpoint i of its religious achievements. But first, what is Islam? There are four bases or sources for Islam, both as to theology {kalam) and canon law {fiqh ) : First, the Koran, , the absolute Word of Allah; second, the Usage (sunna) of the prophet, what he said, did or approved by silence, ex- I pressed in separate traditions, each called a hadlth; third, I Analogy (qiyas) from Koran and Usage; and fourth, the j general Agreement {ijma‘) of the Moslem people, expressed 27 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS through the opinions of those who by knowledge and study have a right to a personal judgment {ijtihcLd). It might be thought that the Koran, being the word of Allah him- self, would be the dominant source, but while in form it is always handled with the greatest reverence, its plain statements have been modified, and even reversed, by both tradition and agreement. Agreement, especially, has come to have the final and absolute voice. Its status is expressed in an alleged tradition from the prophet, “My people will never agree in an error.” In consequence, the Moslem people, when its judgment can be brought to an agreement, is deemed infallible. But the separate ijtihads, through which such a result has been reached, are only fallible opin- ions {sann). The present reforming party in Islam hopes to use this principle to make Islam possible in the modern world. Islam socially may be considered under three heads; the individual, the family and the community. (1) The Individual . — Islam emphasizes the independence of the individual. Although the Agreement of the Moslem people is the final basis for decision as to what is of faith and practice in Islam, yet the religious relationship of the individual to Allah and his responsibility to him are inde- pendent of any organization. No church or priest comes between him and Allah. It is, of course, more meritorious to worship with the community, but individual worship is equally valid. The Moslem has no special relation to any particular mosque, as we have to a particular church, nor does the pastoral relationship exist between him and any of the officials of a mosque. His nearest approach to any- thing of this kind is his membership in a fraternity of dervishes. There he is part of a community and worships as such. It is an individual duty upon the Moslem to gain such knowledge as will be necessary or useful for his life here 28 Islam’s political development in the world and to insure his salvation in the world to come. All sciences are divided into those thus useful or not. It is his religious duty while cultivating the one class to avoid giving time or attention to anything which cannot be clearly shown to be useful for these purposes. He must therefore restrain himself from any curiosity as to the merely interesting. This limitation has been one of the greatest handicaps upon the development of the civilization of Islam. Another real limitation has been the theological nature of all education. Beginning with the boy who learns his letters from the Koran, the whole system of edu- cation has been molded to produce theologians. This su- preme interest in things theological and religious has fos- tered the university end of education and has left unde- veloped the common school. The teaching of the three Rs and the fostering of a wide spirit of interest in life and in the workings of nature have been made subservient to the production of divinity students. Few, however, can hope to take such a university course, and the consequence is that illiteracy is very general among Moslems. In no Mos- lem land can as many as ten percent, of the inhabitants read or write, while even in Egypt, which has enjoyed signal opportunities through an entire generation of British occupation, only four percent, of the Mohammedan popu- lation can read and write. Illiteracy, however, does not carry the same reproach in the Orient that it does in the West. Mohammed Ali, one of the ablest and most influen- tial of Egyptian rulers, was illiterate. The moral side of the life of the individual is largely affected by the duty of imitating the prophet. It is the theory of Islam that a religious man should model his life in every possible way upon that of Mohammed. Naturally, each man selects those traits in the life and character of the prophet which conform best to his own character. Mo- hammed had a many-sided personality. It would be pos- 29 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS sible for a truly moral man to find in the record of his earlier life a basis for moral conduct. It would also be possible for a man who is sensual, revengeful, superstitious, ambitious or scheming to find in Mohammed’s life ample justification for the cultivation of those traits. It is also true that the casuistry of the schools of canon law has tended to put a system of minute rules of conduct in the place of moral principles. Yet we must remember that casuistry and legalism have everywhere exhibited this ten- dency. The ethical treatises of Islam, on the other hand, have always tended to go back to fundamentals. The indi- vidual Moslem will follow whichever of those two methods suits his character. A final handicap upon the moral life of the individual is that Islam positively requires him to make a distinction in his attitude towards those who are of his own faith and those who are not. It is impossible for a Moslem who fol- lows the Koran and the tradition, as is his duty, to be a sincere friend of a non-Moslem. Of course, many have been and are, but in so far they have abandoned explicit Islam. (2) The Family . — The essential elements in the theory of the family are patriarchal control with its accompanying conception of woman as an inferior being and the duty of marriage within Islam. Islam regards the married life and the sexual act as essentially religious. It recognizes ascetic practises, both positive and negative, but asceticism in Islam has never required celibacy. The social status of woman is lowered in four ways: (a) By seclusion and the institution of the veil. This has arisen through the Agreement of the Moslem people, and did not belong to original Islam. The passages in the Koran requiring it were meant to apply only to the wives of Mohammed and not to other women, but naturally later generations came to regard the treatment of the wives of the prophet as a guide for the action of all religiously 30 Islam’s political development minded men and women. The veil and seclusion have therefore been extended as a general religious duty. Cir- cumstances, however, have often militated against it. Thus the free life of the desert has never permitted either seclu- sion or the veil, and the same holds generally of the peasant classes everywhere. The higher the rank in society, the more carefully secluded have the women been, (b) By polygamy. The Koran, as interpreted by the Agreement, permits four legal wives at the same time. This, however, is limited in practice in many ways. The parents of a bride may so draw up the contract as to compel the husband to divorce her before he marries another wife. Also, they are often loth to permit their daughter to become a second wife. Conditions of expense are a real limitation, for each wife has strictly a right to a separate establishment. On the other hand, in certain classes, especially the agricultural, an additional wife may be a source of revenue, since the wives are all expected to work, (c) By concubinage. A man may lawfully treat his female slave as his concubine. The number of such concubines is limited, therefore, only by the number of female slaves he possesses. The children of such concubines rank, so far as freedom and inheritance are concerned, with the children of his free wives. It is, however, open to the master to deny that he is the father of the child, but this he seldom does. The mother of such a child cannot legally be sold. She remains a slave, but becomes automatically free at the death of her master and the father of her child. The practise is not unknown of a man buying a female slave, freeing her and then marrying her. This is supposed to secure a more submissive wife, since she has no family behind her to protect her. The essential difference between marriage and concubinage is that marriage and slavehood cannot exist together. A free man may be the husband of the slave of another man, but he cannot be the husband of his own slave. This has 31 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS produced some curious legal complications, (d) By divorce. The husband has the right to divorce at will, although this is often limited in different ways by terms in the marriage contract. He may thus be required in the contract to pay his divorced wife a very large sum as a sort of suspended dowry, if he divorces her against her will. The wife also has a right to divorce, but only on the action of a court of justice and for certain reasons, such as impotence, leprosy or non-support. To sum up, divorce is much more preva- lent than polygamy. It and the unlimited servile concu- binage are the great evils. Seclusion varies with social classes and in different countries and is regarded by Moslem women as a sign of consideration and care rather than as an imprisonment. Respectable Moslem women would in a very large majority resent being brought more openly before the world. At this point it becomes quite clear that the elevation of the social status of Moslem womanhood implies first her education. It should also be remembered that the oldest wife in the harem or the hus- band’s mother (al-kabira) has a position of respect and dominance which may under circumstances of character, etc., even override the patriarchal idea. The treatment of children in Islam, as everywhere, has varied with the social conditions. Religiously a child is regarded as entrusted by Allah to the parents. Children, therefore, are not merely regarded as a joy and comfort to their parents; the possession of them also has religious meaning. The status of the mother in Paradise will be affected by the fact of her having borne children, and the father may be aided after death by his predeceased children. .A.11 children are supposed to be born Moslems. Thereafter their parents may make them Christians, Jews, etc. Re- ligious Islam has laid great stress upon the training of children. It has not developed a science of pedagogy, but all religious manuals treat of their religious nurture. The 32 ISLAM S POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT nurture of children therefore is an excellent point of ap- proach to the individual Moslem. Love and sympathy expressed toward his children, admiration of them, pro- vided it is couched in a form that will not suggest the evil eye, will always bring a smiling response. All this, of course, is ideal Islam. The facts of actual life will be affected by personal disposition and by social conditions. (3) The Community . — While the Moslem stands as an individual immediately in the presence of Allah it is the whole community of Islam, by its Agreement, which has a right to tell him what Islam really is, what he must believe and do. It would not be easy to exaggerate the intensity of the community feeling uniting the whole of Islam. It is true that from time to time separate national conscious- nesses have arisen and that one of the most promising signs at the present time is the appearance of such in the Moslem world. A good example at the present day is the sharp division between Arab and Turkish Moslems. Yet the tendency has always been to knit all Moslems together in a common brotherhood, uniting them and setting them off against all non-Moslems. It is a chief glory of Islam that it has risen above the conception of inferior races. All races, black, brown, yellow and white, are equal as Moslems. This equality is not only religious; it is also social. There is in Islam nothing analogous to the social gulf between the European and the native which persists notwithstanding the uniting power of missionary teaching. With all this strength of community feeling it is a singu- lar fact that the Moslem world has not tended of itself to progress. It has enjoyed many more or less brief flowering periods, but these have always been under the stimulus of the patronage of an individual ruler or of a dynasty. They have always died down when that stimulus failed. Ex- planations have been sought for these individual cases of rise and fall; but their uniformity calls for a general 33 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS explanation, which is by no means easy to find. It may be that it is to be found, if in part only, in what has been written above on Moslem education (p. 28) and on the prohibition of interest in the non-immediately useful (p. 82). It is certain that the Moslem community has broadly exhibited a certain apathy and lack of public spirit. Islam has tended to encourage extreme submission to the will of Allah, no matter how desperate be one’s poverty. What each one has is, in theological language, the sustenance {rizq) which Allah has granted to the individual and, the theologians say, “Let not a man think that he will not eat his sustenance or that another than he will eat his suste- nance.” There can be no question that the institution of slavery has also played a part in hindering the development of the community, although the physical well-being of a slave in Islam has often been happier than that of the poor free- man. The fact in itself that slaves or their children may easily pass over into the ranks of free Moslems and that, in fact, the social intercourse between slaves and the free has always been easy, has tended to introduce into Moslem life the attitudes and vices that must characterize a slave population. The missionary should always remember that the two classes of Moslems with which he is brought most nearly into contact are analogous, on the one hand, to our slum population, and, on the other, to our social Four Hundred. In neither of these would we look for marked community virtues. (4) The Government of Islam . — A Moslem Sunnite gov- ernment is a singular combination of democracy and absolu- tism. The theory is that the Moslem people shall govern itself, but that it chooses as an executive a single individual and gives him what is practically absolute authority. It is for him to administer Islam. He cannot make or even 34 ISLAM S POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT promulgate either theology or law. He can only take what the Agreement of the people has reached and administer that. If he breaks any of the fundamental institutions of Islam, the people that chose and appointed him may recall him. This has meant in Moslem history absolutism tem- pered by revolution. But, of course, enterprising rulers and dynasties have found thmselves compelled to establish laws without basis in the Agreement and even in opposition to it. In Turkey today we find a parliament set up and ap- parently dividing authority with the older-fashioned head of the state. This is explained away by calling the parlia- ment a consultative body, and by pointing out that even Mohammed consulted with his followers at Medina. It must also be remembered that in theory the Moslem state is a church state and that Islam includes within itself both theology and law. The problem for the future Islam is to separate those two elements; and inasmuch as the combina- tion goes back to the prophet himself, and has been sanc- tioned by the Agreement for a thousand years, it is hard to see how that unity can be relaxed and Islam be turned into a modern political state. For this reason it has never been possible for non-Moslems to be citizens in a Moslem state; they have been the wards of the state. But now in practically all Moslem states, except perhaps those of cen- tral Arabia, the canon law of Islam applies only to matters of marriage, divorce, inheritance and to all personal re- ligious affairs, while other legal relations are under dif- ferent law^ codes. In Turkey, e.g., the code is a form of the Code Napoleon. This holds especially of Moslem states under non-Moslem protection or control, where the public law code has been imposed upon them from without. But the same tendency appeared in Islam practically from the first. (5) The Constitutional Development of Islam . — With the death of Mohammed the Mohammedan state faced a future 35 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS for which it had few precedents. Mohammed had been a prophet-ruler and though he had consulted with his follow- ers, yet no one could deny his divinely-given authority. Under his rule the Moslem state was a theocracy, because the ruler of the state was Allah through the mouth of Mohammed, his prophet, but under Mohammed’s succes- sors the rule passed in theory most absolutely to the Moslem people. The term theocracy, therefore, no longer applied to the Moslem state. The ruling successor of the prophet therefore could not be exactly like him, although he was to be called his successor {khalifa). The government of an Arab tribe afforded little guidance, for its sheiks have never exercised anything but a kind of influence and the people of Islam were facing a future for which some more centralized and autocratic government was essential. As has been said above, the Moslem people decided to select a single head and to make him their ex- ecutive. Two principles of selection were permitted, one of election by the people, the other of nomination by his predecessor. The first four caliphs, Abu Bekr {Abu Bakr), Omar {‘Umar), Othman {‘Uthnidn) and AH {‘Alt), were chosen in gradually increasing tribal jealousy and strife. Their rule covered about thirty years, looked back to by later Islam as a golden age. They are called the “rightly guided” caliphs. Political chaos followed for a time, until the Omayyad dynasty swung itself to power, and removed the seat of the government to Damascus. But another idea had been developing as to the government of the Moslem people. Many had come to believe that the method by democratic election was false; that the people had not the right to appoint, but that Allah himself was the appointer; further, that he had appointed the family of Ali and Fatima {Fatima), the daughter of Mohammed, to rule the people in virtue of blood-relationship. Some- times stress was laid on descent from the prophet, some- 36 Islam’s political development times on a right belonging to Ali, which in the end tended to see in his descendants an element of divinity. Thus a legitimist party, called the Shiah or “sect” {Shl‘a), came into being in Islam as opposed to the democratic Sunnites. The Abbasid dynasty followed the Omayyads and the legitimists split into different branches. “All Persia be- lieves that the twelfth in descent from Ali was removed by Allah from the sight of men and is now being pre- served alive in retirement until his time to reappear shall come. This withdrawal happened about A.D. 874, and still for Persians, after more than a thousand years, he is ‘the awaited one’ (Al-Muntazar), and the real head of their government. For them the Shah is only a locum tenens to keep public order and no successor of the prophet. This ‘invisible imam’ is believed also to control the destinies of his people by mysterious channels.” ^ The learned theolo- gians of Kerbela and Nejef, called mujtahids by Shiites, are regarded as his agents in this control, claiming to represent him. “Another legitimist party in Islam limits the right to the Khalifate to the descendants of the prophet, who are called ‘nobles’ (sharif). This party differs from the one above in that it is mostly Sunnite in theology and law, and while some sections of it ascribe hereditary saintship to the prophetic line with a power of working miracles there is no taint among them of incarnation doctrines. Their attitude is a development of the general Moslem respect for the family of Mohammed.” ^ This party is represented by the Zaidites in Yemen and by the present reigning house in Morocco. At Mecca there are two families of “nobles,” a representative of one of which has just been proclaimed ruler of the Hejaz.^ A final group of claimants of independent sovereignty may be described as Puritan and non-conformist. They are 1 Macdonald, article on The Caliphate in The Nation, July 13, 1916, p. 33, reprinted in The Moslem World for October, 1917. 2 Id. ib. p. 34. 3 Arabic Nijds, the province in which Mecca is situated. 37 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS descendants of seceders from the general body of Islam, because of its decadence from democratic simplicity and theological rigidity. In consequence they are to a great extent regarded as outside of the people of Islam, and their ideal in government is the primitive tribe in the desert with a chief who can exercise only influence over a democracy of individuals. Of these are the Ibadites of Oman at the entrance of the Persian Gulf and at Zanzibar, and another group in the mountains of southern Algeria. The Wah- habites and other reforming parties in Islam will be treated later.^ IV. The Doctrinal Content of Islam Every worker among Moslems should have a clear con- ception of the religious appeal which Islam makes to the Moslem mind as opposed to the reaction to it of the Chris- tian mind. What seems absurd to the latter may not be so at all to the former. Furthermore, in studying the Moslem theologia.! system it is necessary to keep strictly within its limits anvl not to draw all the logical implications which seem natural. No system ever devised could stand such treatment. In every Moslem country, moreover, a distinction has to be made between the book-Islam of the theologians and the Islam of the masses. Book-Islam is the same throughout the Moslem world; the Islam of the masses varies in every country, because it is a combination of the previous beliefs of the people with the new religion which they have adopted. Among the religious beliefs which hold a prominent place in the Mohammedan mind are the following: (1) Allah . — By far the most important theme in Moslem theology is the doctrine of the person of God. The question most carefully discussed is the relationship of his essence ' See article “The Arabian Situation” in The Nation for November 8, 1917. 38 ISLAM S DOCTRINAL CONTENT to his qualities, such as power, will, knowledge, etc., and it cannot be overemphasized for the missionary that he must go to the labor of thoroughly learning the list of qualities of Allah as given in Moslem textbooks with the different classifications of these qualities. Only in this way can he realize the extreme subtlety of the subject and its impor- tance for the Moslem mind. The ultimate position of or- thodox Islam is summed up in the words, “They arc not he nor are they other than he,” that is, the relationship is a theological mystery. Of these qualities the most impor- tant theologically is his will. Islam makes every effort to avoid any limitation of the will of Allah. It regards will as the sum of personality and even shrinks in the case of Allah from ascribing to him reason, because that would imply something prior to will.^ This, of course, holds true only in technical systematic theology. The Allah of religion is pictured in quite anthropomorphic terms. For the Allah of theology is worked out by logic on the basis of absolute unity, while the Allah of religion is worked out through the experiences of the religious mind. The Christian can con- verse sympathetically about God with a religiously minded Moslem so long as they are dealing with their own religious experiences; but let the Christian introduce anything which suggests Christianity as opposed to Islam and the Moslem will at once abandon the God of his religious experience and take refuge in the impregnable system of the logical theologians. Another very important quality of Allah is speech {kalam). It is said to have existed from all eternity in his essence and that by means of it Allah has created all things. The Koran is an earthly manifestation of this eternal quality and is, therefore, to be regarded as eternal and uncreated.^ 1 This is only one of the points which come under the doctrine of the dif- ference (mukhalafa) between Allah and all created beings. See p. 58. 2 See the article, “Allah,” by Professor Macdonald in the “Encyclopedia of Islam.” It has a full bibliography. 39 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS (2) Created Beings. — All beings fall into two classes, Allah and his creatures. Allah has created by his will and power everything that exists besides himself. He alone possesses absolute existence; all created beings have only a dependent, relative existence. Intelligent created beings fall into three classes: the angels, the jinn and mankind. Angels are spirits who live in the very presence of Allah and execute his commands ; jinn are spirits in general, good or evil.^ All created beings are described by Islam as the slaves {‘ihad) or, as we might put it, the creatures of Allah. He is the Lord (rabb) that is, their owner. Islam is un- certain whether to classify Iblis^ and the devils generally as fallen angels or as malignant and unbelieving jinn. (3) The Nature of Mankind. — Man, according to the Koran, was created of clay and, therefore, by his created nature is unclean and sinful. Allah placed him, when created, in a Garden, but, on the temptation of Iblis he dis- obeyed Allah and was driven out. This is the Moslem idea of the fall; it was not a change of nature, but an expulsion from a happy life and a change of a mode of existence. Iblis and Allah since then have been in conflict to gain men to themselves, and will so be until the day of Judgment. Iblis acts upon man’s sinful nature, while Allah tries to instruct man in the way of salvation. (4) Salvation. — Allah, therefore, from the beginning has sent a series of messengers or prophets to mankind, in- structing them in all things of which they have need, both of the world and of religion, forbidding them and com- manding them. This is his guidance (huda) of mankind. Salvation for man consists in his repentance and complete submission to Allah, which involves acceptance of the laws of Islam as binding upon him. For that he must have belief (tmdn) in his heart and a confession (iqrdr) of that 1 See the article, “Demons and Spirits” (Muslim), “Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics,” vol. iv, pp. 615-619. Sec also vol. i, p. 669 f. 2 'Iblis is the Mohammedan equivalent of Satan. 40 ISLAM S DOCTRINAL CONTENT belief upon his tongue and must follow these up with good works {‘amal). He is then a believer and will not enter the Fire except, perhaps, as a kind of purgatory. If he dies a believer, but with a great sin unrepented, Allah may make him pass a certain time in the Fire as atonement for this sin, or may freely forgive. The Fire, therefore, is purgatory for those who have admitted their obligation to obey Allah; in the Fire their infractions of this admitted Law are purged away. But the Fire is hell for all unbe- lievers who have not so accepted the obligation of the law of Islam and in it they will abide eternally.^ Conversion takes place among Moslems as among Christians, but very frequently it is based upon what has been called other- worldliness. The fear of the Fire played an important part in Mohammed’s own religious experience, and has played a great part in that of the most spiritual Moslems since his day. (5) The Messengers of Salvation . — Prophets (nabi) are the messengers (rasfd) of Allah to men. He confirms their authority by means of evidential miracles {mu‘jizat), and often their message takes the form of an inspired book, a sacred Scripture. The first of the prophets was Adam and the last is Mohammed. After Mohammed there will come no prophet. In the Koran a certain number of proph- ets is mentioned and stories are told about them. These stories are taken mostly from the Old and the New Testa- ments, but there are others besides, some unidentified. All prophets have taught the same theology, which is that of Islam, but the ritual law of each has varied, and each has a special standing and name. Thus Abraham is called the friend (khalll) of Allah; Moses is the one who spoke (kalim) with Allah; and Jesus is the spirit (rilh) of Allah. For the peculiar position of Jesus in Islam see below. 1 For instance, one who neglects the observance of the fast at Ramadan (p. 48) will be temporarily punished in hell, Moslem casuists declare; lie who denies the necessity of keeping it is an unbeliever and will incur eternal punishment. 41 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS (6) The Sacred Books . — There is mention in the Koran of a large number of sacred books which have been sent down from heaven. Abraham had certain “leaves” (suhuf) revealed to him; Moses had the Law (taurat) ; David had the Psalms {zabur) and Jesus had the Gospel (injll). Finally the Koran {Qur'an) was revealed through Mohammed. It is eternal, unchangeable and incorruptible. The supreme authority and value of the Koran are unques- tioned. It is, however, often quite unintelligible, even to a Moslem, without explanation. It contains very varied material, often jumbled together. Each section is called a sura.^ Moslems know each one by its title, such as the Cow or the Pen, borrowed from some word or phrase in the section. Moslems vary in their positions regarding the sacred books of the Jews and the Christians. Some teach that the present existing books are absolute forgeries and that Allah has taken away the originals. Others admit that they are the originals, but have been defaced by fatal omissions, especially of prophecies regarding Mohammed. Still others state that while they are the originals, they have had actual changes made in them, and that, therefore, they cannot be regarded as trustworthy. The position of Mo- hammed himself seems to have been that the Jews possessed the original Law unchanged, but expounded it falsely. (7) Jesus and the Mahdi . — The statements about Jesus in the Koran give him a unique nature and position among the prophets of Islam. It is difficult to see why he was sent with that unique nature, and it is hard to escape the conclu- sion that Mohammed delivered up to a certain point what he had been taught and knew about Jesus, but omitted the reasons for his coming. We are led to the very border of a logos doctrine, but that doctrine is not stated. Jesus, as described in the Koran, is a semi-angelic being, created 1 Arabic sura, a word of uncertain derivation and meaning. 42 ISLAM S DOCTRINAL CONTENT immediately in the womb of Mary by the direct action of Allah. He is thus called also a “word” (kalima) from Allah, because he is the result of the creative word “be” (kun). He and his mother are spoken of as a “sign” and a “mercy” to mankind. He did not die, but was taken up by Allah into one of the heavens, where he still remains in the body in which he was born, and whence he will come before the last day to bring in the triumph of the true religion and of peace in the earth. It will be well for the missionary, then, to bring out clearly the unexplained ele- ments in the figure of Jesus. ^ There are two other points of contact for the Christian doctrine of the person of Christ: (a) There has grown up among Moslems a doctrine of the person of Mohammed which is almost exactly the Arian doctrine of Christ. It represents Mohammed as the •first of all created beings, created before the worlds, and that for his sake the worlds were created, (b) The rela- tionship of the quality of Allah called “speech” to the Koran is almost exactly that of the divine logos in the New Testa- ment to its earthly manifestation in Jesus. Speech is the quality of Allah existing from all eternity in his essence; it is not of the nature of letters or sounds. By that speech he created the worlds. The Koran is an earthly manifesta- tion of that quality of speech, even though it is written, spoken, heard and remembered; and because of this rela- tionship the Koran is called “the speech of Allah,” and is to be regarded as uncreated and eternal. There early grew up in Islam a belief that before the last day there would be a final, great conflict of good and evil. Then will appear an antichrist and then against him a great protagonist of Islam, who will finally overcome him, slay him and reduce the whole world to the true faith, Islam. This is the doc- trine of the “guided One” (mahdl), whom Allah will send. 1 C. H. A. Field in the Moslem l-Vorld, i, 68 pp., brings together passages in Mohammedan writers which refer to Jesus and which emphasize elements in his teaching on which the Koran is silent. 43 PRESENTINC. CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS He will not be an independent prophet, but a Moslem, fol- lowing the law of Islam. Confusion has entered as to whether he will be the same as Jesus, whose return to earth before the last day is also promised. When Jesus returns, he also will come as a Moslem and no longer as a prophet in his own right. This subject, about which the systematic theologians say very little, is a favorite one with writers for devotion and edification. (8) The Day of Judgment . — The consideration of the day of judgment plays an important part for religious edifi- cation in the Moslem mind. Islam, like a large section of the Christian Church, teaches that there are two judgments, the lesser at the death of the individual, the greater at the resurrection. The lesser judgment takes place after burial in the grave of the individual through two angels, Munkar and Nakir, who interrogate the deceased as to his faith- and conduct. The grave in which he continues to exist in a sentient state becomes for him thereafter a foretaste of the Garden or of the Fire, hence the Moslem regards the grave as inviolate. This will continue until the greater judgment on the general Judgment Day. From the Koran and from traditions many picturesque details are derived regarding the events of that Day. All living beings, men and beasts, will be raised from their dust and will stand in the presence of Allah. The beasts will be there, in order that they may bear witness against the men who have used them cruelly. Thereafter they will return to dust, except a few who, because of association with prophets, will enter paradise. Mankind will be kept standing before Allah, until in utter weariness they will appeal to the prophets to intercede with Allah that this standing (mawqif) may cease. Eventually Mohammed will intercede and the business of the Day will then pro- ceed. Actions, good and bad, will be weighed against one another in a balance. The books in which human deeds 44 Islam’s religious practices have been entered will be opened. Allah may exact the uttermost penalty or may freely forgive. For the relative value of faith and works on that Day, see below. When believers have all been gathered into the Garden and unbe- lievers into the Fire, they will abide there forever. It should be said, however, that while Islam undoubtedly pic- tures to itself the Garden and the Fire in sensuous and also in sensual terms, it declares that the highest beatitude at- tainable by the believer will be the vision of the face of Allah. V. The Religious Practices of Islam The four sources referred to on page 27 are the founda- tions of both systematic theology and canon law. Theology deals with what man must believe; canon law with what man must do. But the scope of canon law in Islam is much wider than that of any legal system with us. It covers private as well as public conduct, and it does not classify actions simply as commanded and prohibited, but into those which are commanded, recommended, indifferent, disliked and forbidden. It is for the individual Moslem, when in doubt, to apply to a canonist, who will then give him a legal opinion (fetwa). The canonist is then the mufti. In the same way the judge, or cadi (qddi), before whom a case comes in court, should apply to a mufti for a legal opinion on it. Any person of learning can give a legal opinion, but its value will depend on his reputation. Sal- aried muftis are often attached by the government to law courts. The religious practices of Islam are called ‘ibadat. That means that they are regarded as the actions of a slave {'abd) towards his owner, Allah, who in this connection is called his Lord (rabb). They are called also his works 45 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS {‘amal), and will form a part of his reckoning at the Last Day. These practices are all individual duties {fard ‘ain) incumbent upon every Moslem personally, and are; (1) Faith (iman) and Its Public Confession {iqrdr ). — This public confession consists of what are called the two words of witnessing (kalimata-sh-shahada) : “I bear wit- ness that there is no god except Allah and that Mohammed is the messenger of Allah.” The first of those meant to the Meccans, to whom it was originally delivered, that of the members of their pantheon the one whom they called Allah was the only real God. For later Islam it has become the foundation of practically all their theology and is consid- ered as stating the absolute unity, both external and in- ternal, of Allah. The external unity is the non-existence of any other being like Allah, and the internal that he in him- self is a unity. From this the whole doctrine of the person of Allah is developed and it forms nine-tenths of the theol- ogy of Islam. The second word of witnessing means that Mohammed was and is the messenger of Allah to mankind, bearing the message which is Islam. The utterer of these words becomes a Muslim, and it is a pious act to repeat them frequently. “On every occasion this creed is repeated by the believer. It is the key to every door of difficulty. It is the watchword of Islam. These words Mohammedans in- scribe on their banners and on their doorposts. They ap- pear on* all the early coins of the caliphs. This creed of seven Arabic words rings out in every Moslem village from the Philippines to Morocco. One hears it in the bazaar and the street and the mosque; it is a battle-cry and a cradle- song, an exclamation of delight and a funeral dirge. There is no doubt that this continual, public repetition of a creed has been a source of strength to Islam for ages, as well as a stimulus to fanaticism.” ^ (2) Worship. — It is the duty of every Moslem to pre- 1 Zwemer, “Islam,” p. 102. 46 Islam’s religious practices sent himself in worship before Allah five times in the twen- ty-four hours. The act is closely analogous to the paying of respects on the part of an inferior to a superior. Each act of worship (salat) consists of certain bowings and pros- trations combined in a fixed order with the repetition of certain phrases of worship and reverence. The details of this worship are very closely prescribed and the following of it is regarded as a kind of regimen or medicine for the soul. Theologians have abandoned the attempt to explain why the details should be so and not otherwise, and ex- plain them as being analogous to the prescription of a physician, which the patient should follow, even though he does not know how it works. After each act of worship and also at any time besides, the Moslem may offer up specific prayer in the sense of petition (du‘a) to Allah. In such ways he presents his needs and desires before his Lord. There are, besides, many other forms of devotional utterance in use among Moslems — ejaculatory prayers, pious formulae, statements of faith and submission, which are used by the religious-minded all the time. Dervishes especially, both full members and lay members (tertiaries), have a certain ‘‘office,” or liturgical service, which they are supposed to say daily, and they have also a weekly service in which they are expected to take part in common with their brethren at the monastery of their fraternity. But of all these, only the salat is absolutely prescribed. To omit it is sin; to perform it goes into the reckoning of good works. It must be preceded by certain acts of purification (wudu’’ and ghusl), varying according to circumstances, and by a statement of intention (nlya), and must be di- rected toward the Kaaba (Ka‘ba) at Mecca, called in this connection the qibla. The act of worship toward the qibla is regarded as the distinction between the Moslem and the non-Moslem. And this has even reached the formulation that any one who worships toward that qibla must be ac- 47 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS cepted as a Moslem and not further questioned as to his faith. The spirituality involved and expressed in the forms of the salat will, of course, depend on the state of mind and heart of the worshipper. It is possible to go through it as a purely mechanical exercise, and Islam would ascribe merit to such performance of this duty. It is also possible, and without doubt often occurs, that the performance of this duty has spiritual meaning and value as a real inter- course between the soul and God. (3) Fasting {sawm or sly am ). — During the month of Ramadan, which may fall at any time in the solar year, since the Moslem year is lunar, the believer must fast, in the most complete sense, going without food or drink from dawn to sunset, every day, unless he is hindered by his situation, e.g., being on a journey or at war, or suffering from bodily infirmities. Such omitted fasting must be made up, according to certain rules, at other times. It may be fair to add that feasting is equally permitted from each sunset to dawn. (4) Tithing and Almsgiving . — Two words are used in the Koran for the giving of alms, zakat and sadaqa. The canon law of Islam has distinguished between them. Zakdt has become a formal tithe imposed upon certain possessions in certain fixed proportions and devoted to certain pre- scribed purposes. These purposes are all exactly laid down by the different schools of canon law. Few Moslem states, however, except perhaps the Wahhabis in Arabia, insist upon the payment of the tithe. Sadaqa, on the other hand, has come to mean benevolences, and is applied to almsgiv- ing, both on certain occasions and in general, varying with the will of the giver. The example and precept of Moham- med have made the giving of alms assume an important place in a Moslem’s religious life. It is supposed to have atoning value for evil deeds. Organized charities and en- dowments have also from time to time been common in 48 ISLAM S RELIGIOUS PRACTICES Islam, funds having been left in mortmain (waqf) for the purpose. (5) Pilgrimage . — As a religious practice, the pilgrimage (hajj) to Mecca is regarded by Moslems as entitling the pilgrim to the highest consideration here on earth and the greatest favor in the life to come. Moreover, as a practical bond of union between Mohammedans of all races and as an expression of the solidarity of Islam, this pilgrimage undoubtedly has the greatest possible value. To gain a clear picture of the experience involved in a pilgrimage to Mecca, one must read such an account of the actual journey as Burckhardt, Burton and others have written. The kissing of the Black Stone which is so much revered, and which is set in the wall of the Kaaba at Mecca, and several other elements of the pilgrimage ritual are undoubtedly relics of the days which preceded the rise of Islam. In case of need the pilgrimage may be performed by a substitute whose ex- penses will be covered by the party desiring to gain such merit. To be a hajjl one must not only make the journey to Mecca, but must also do it at the right time in the month of pilgrimage (Dhu-l-hijja) , and especially must be present at the solemn sermon on Arafat. (6) Jihad . — The above practices are individual duties re- quired of all Moslems. Jihad, or fighting for the spread of Islam, is called technically a “duty of sufficiency” kifdya), i.e., when it is performed by a number of Mos- lems sufficient for the purpose the obligation falls away from the rest. It is, of course, conceivable that it might become an individual duty {fard ‘ain), which would mean that the whole Moslem world has been drawn into the con- flict. It is of the essential theory of Islam that Moslem and non-Moslem states must be at war, until the whole world is subdued to Islam. The fixed status of a non- Moslem state is therefore that of an enemy. It is allowable for the people of Islam to form temporary treaty relations. 49 rRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS but these can only be temporary, and in the early days of Islam it was considered the duty of the head of the Moslem state to lead an expedition at least once a year against his non-Moslem neighbors. This gradually became atro- phied into the annual equipping of such an expedition. It will, therefore, be seen that jihad is, in strict canon law, the natural relationship between Moslems and non-Mos- lems, and with this agrees undoubtedly the deep feeling of the Moslem masses. Every war, then, by a Moslem against a non-Moslem power is ipso facto a jihad, and needs no proclamation to make it so. The proclamation in 1914 of a jihad by Turkey was really a statement by the sultan-caliph of the Ottoman Turks that he stood in dire need, and a summons of all Moslems to his standard. The duty of sufficiency had become an individual duty, he de- clared. Its lack of success shows the growing weakness of the purely religious appeal in Islam, and that the principle of nationality is gaining strength. VI. The Legal and Theological Development OF Islam (1) The Development of Canon Law . — In every Sunnite Moslem country except that of the Wahhabites there exist at the present time, and have existed almost since the be- ginning, two separate systems of law. The one is a system of canon law based on religious sanctions, and supposed to cover the whole life of an individual, private and public. It may be called a system of duties. The other is a secular system of law arising out of the necessities of the case, the pre-Islamic customs of the separate countries and the will of their rulers. It is law in our sense, which forbids under penalty of punishment. In the beginning Mohammed had acted as judge in his community. His immediate successors tried to follow the same system and to judge as he had 50 Islam’s legal development done, but they could not fall back upon divine guidance. They had, therefore, to systematize the record of his de- cisions and to construct by that means a body of law. They took as a basis for this the laws contained in the Koran and in the prophet’s own recorded decisions. The resultant body of law was strictly a system of canon law, for it covered all the sides and aspects of life, developing in minute detail what a Moslem should do, think, and say in all situations. Further, it analyzed all actions under five categories: the absolutely forbidden (haram), the abso- lutely required {fard, wdjib), the merely disliked {makruh), the merely preferred {mandub, mustahabb) and the indif- ferent {jafiz, mubdh)d In the development of this system it was to be expected that different schools would arise, for different canonists would naturally incline to lay stress on different basal ideas and to follow different methods. The result has been four schools of canon law: the Hana- fites (al-hanaflya) , the Malikites (al-mdlikiya) , the Shafiites (ash-shdfi'lya) and the Hanbalites (al-hanbaliya) , after the names of their founders and in the order mentioned. Abu Hanifa, the founder of the first, died in A.H. 150 (767 A.D.). The characteristics of his system are that he ad- mitted comparatively few traditions and preferred to build up by the aid of analogy and reason what may be called a speculative system of law. In consequence the Hanafite code has the reputation of being more liberal than the others and of adjusting itself better to individual and local re- quirements. Central Asia, northern India and the Turks everywhere are Hanafites. The founder of the second school was Malik ibn Anas, who died A.H. 179 (795 A.D.). He was a working jurist, resident at the city of the prophet (al-Madina), and therefore in immediate touch with the local traditions of the prophetic decisions. But he also had behind him the customary law of Medina, and he felt him- ^ Slight differences as to this classification have arisen between the different schools. 51 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS self free to use it just as the prophet himself had done. Further, from his position as a judge sitting more or less in the seat of the prophet himself, he did not feel himself bound to follow the exact letter of the law as it had reached him, but also made free use of analogy, though hardly in so speculative a way as had Abu Hanifa, who was not in touch with actual judicial situations, but was simply build- ing up a hypothetical system. The Malikite school is largely followed through northern Africa. The founder of the third school was ash-Shdfit, who died A.H. 207 (A.D. 819). It is to him that Islam owes the clear fixing and defining of the four sources already mentioned on page 27 : Koran, tradition or usage of the prophet {sunna, expressed in traditions ahadlth), analogy (qiyds), and agreement (ijmd‘), and he especially worked out and gave its impor- tance to the principle of the agreement of the Moslem people. As distinguished from Abu Hanifa he gave great weight to traditions and as distinguished from Malik ibn Anas he defined and classified the province of reason. Lower Egypt, Syria, southern India and the Malay Archipelago are mostly Shafiite. The fourth school, the Hanbalite, bears the name of Ahmad ibn Hanbal, who died A.H. 241 (855 A.D.). He lived and died as a Shafiite with no thought of founding a rival school, but his followers saw his position more clearly than he himself had done, and the fourth, a purely tradi- tional school, came into existence. It minimizes reason and endeavors to find a basis in Koran or tradition for every decision. There have been also other attempts at schools. Thus there was one which existed for a time called the Zahirite. The word means “literalist,” and the charac- teristic of the school was an insistence upon taking the words of the Koran and of traditions in their absolutely literal sense, rejecting any consideration of circumstances or analogy. This school had long consequences and the principle which it advocated kept reappearing in the devel- 52 Islam’s legal development opment of Moslem thought, but it never held acknowledged rank beside the other four. At me present time the Han- balites are to be found practically only among the Wah- habites in Arabia. The four schools, however, are all equally orthodox, and their divergencies are regarded as a merciful provision of Allah to meet human weakness. But while a Moslem has a right to follow the ruling of any school without fear of being accused of heresy, yet he usually adheres consistently to one only, the choice of which is dictated by environment and geographical situation. Nevertheless, some eminent scholars have maintained an eclectic position. These, then, are the ideal codes whose bases and sanctions are religious. Except for a short period, however, at the beginning of Islam, they have never absolutely ruled, and they were very largely the product of legal ingenuity work- ing under unusual conditions, and were developed apart from contact with the facts of life and with the law courts. Inasmuch as the actual facts of life and the desires and will of rulers clashed violently with such ecclesiastical sys- tems, these codes came soon to apply only to personal mat- ters and to family law, having regard to marriage, divorce or inheritance. All other judicial questions came to be de- cided on other bases. In consequence, every Moslem coun- try has two sets of law codes, the religious and the secular. The canon lawyers have always regarded this situation as the outcome of flat usurpation by the government, and the pious have always agreed with them. But the governments, unless moved by fear of popular insurrection, have gone their own way, and Islam now can only look to the reign of the Mahdi, and does so look, for the reintroduction to full validity of its system of canon law. In Turkey, it may be added, the system of secular law is based on the Code Napoleon, and is called the Qawanln, while the canon law is the sharfa, or shar‘. 53 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS (2) The Theological Development of Islam. — Three prin- cipal factors have helped to develop and to organize Moslem religious thinking: tradition (naql), reason {'aql), and the inner vision of the mystic {kashf, ilham). Tradition means the Koran, the book of Allah, and the records of Moham- med’s sayings and doings. Reason manifested itself at first as the frank personal opinion {roly) of those close to Mo- hammed regarding his probable teachings. It narrowed down thereafter in law into analogy (qiyds), and still later, with the spread of philosophical thought, it utilized the speculative reason {‘aql, nazar), understood in the broadest sense. The open vision of the mystic has always existed in Islam. Mohammed himself was a mystic and for him the prophetic power was only a development and a giving of official status, as a message from Allah to mankind, to a power common to the human soul. But, while all these three were essentially present in Islam from the beginning, the formal statement of each in the development of Moslem thought was reached separately and later. Thus the first Moslems took the Koran and tradition and questioned them little. They were too much busied with the spread of the empire and of their faith to become self-conscious and to examine into the exact character of that faith. But the time soon came when questions arose and reason was brought into play with results that may be broadly classified as follows: (a) Free Will and Predestination. — The statements in the Koran regarding this paradox of the ages are quite contradictory. Mohammed himself was an opportunist preacher. In consequence radically different positions can be based upon statements in the Koran. Sects arose in Islam, some strongly declaring the unlimited will and power of Allah, others asserting his justice and the freedom of man. Still others interpreted the paradox psychologically rather than ethically. Allah, they agreed, could do what he 54 Islam’s legal development pleased for his creatures, but how did man come to feel that he was free? The final outcome were four sects, two orthodox and two heretical. One was an extreme predes- tinarian sect, called the Jabrites, which taught that Allah absolutely constrained (jabr) man in his actions, i.e., that man is really an automaton. Another sect, equally extreme, called the Qadarites, taught that man possesses power (qudra) over his own actions, even going so far as to say that he creates his actions. A third more generally recog- nized sect, the Asharites (al-ash'arlya), taught that Allah created the action and the will to perform the action, and also a certain “accepting” (iktisdb) of the action on the part of every man; while a fourth orthodox sect, the Maturi- dites {al~mdturldlya) , accepted the facts of experience at their face value, stating that while Allah is the creator of all actions, yet man possesses the exercise of free will for which he is rightfully rewarded and punished. The teaching of the Jabrites may be characterized as a crude attempt to uphold the absoluteness of Allah’s will and power; the Qadarites endeavored to give due weight to the ethical aspect of God’s actions and to the facts of man’s consciousness; the Asharites seemed to attempt to explain the origin of man’s belief that he is free, while Allah, as a matter of fact, is the creator of everything; and the Ma- turidites made a common sense acceptance of the facts of consciousness, merely stating the inevitable contradiction and leaving it there. The Qadarites eventually developed into the Mu'tazilites, who were the rationalists of Islam, and came to be the heirs of all the heresies that Islam produced. (b) Allah and His Qualities . — The problem of the per- son of God ^ arose very early in the religious thinking of Islam, and, probably under the influence of theologians of the Greek church, was handled in scholastic fashion. Allah, 1 See this same problem from a different point of view on pp. 38, 39. 55 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS it was agreed, possesses an essence (dhat) and qualities (sifdt). The essence is unchanging. The qualities are such as knowledge, power, will, sight, hearing, speech, etc., and were determined in the first instance by the descriptives applied to Allah in the Koran. They were thus, for the mind of Mohammed, anthropomorphic, but in the development of Islam they lost this descriptive value in proportion as the doctrine of Allah’s “difference” (mukhdlafa) developed. “Difference” means that no parallelism or likeness can exist at any point between Allah and His creatures. A full ap- preciation of this by the missionary is essential, since it preju- dices the Moslem against the acceptance of any doctrine which tends to bring God and man together, such as that of the fatherhood of God. The speculative puzzle concerned the relation of these qualities to the essence. Were they the essence of Allah, then that essence must be a com- pound and not a unit. Were they something else than the essence of Allah, then they must be attached externally to that essence and be separable in thought from it, that is, there would be a multiplicity of Allahs instead of one. This sort of reasoning developed an enormously multiplied Trinitarian type of controversy. Heterodox Islam tended to solve the problem raised by reducing Allah to a vague, indescribable, indeterminable unity. Orthodox Islam in- vented the formula, “They are not He, nor are they other than He,” i.e., the person of Allah is a theological mystery. The various qualities ascribed to Allah in Mohammedan theology were suggested in the first instance by Koranic texts, but historically the tendency has developed to prove their existence on a basis of pure reason, starting with the fundamental premise of the need of the world for a creator, and then working out what that creator must necessarily be. Moslems always draw a very clear line between what can be and must be reached by reason, and what man can only learn through revelation. Naturally, different schools 56 Islam’s legal development have reached different conclusions as to the amount of theological truth which Allah could require man to attain by his unaided reason. (c) The Doctrine of the Koran . — There arose very early in Islam a confusion regarding the meaning of the expres- sion “the word of Allah” {kaldm Allah). Speech was one of the eternal qualities posited as belonging to Allah, for in the Koran he is represented as speaking; but the Koran, too, was called the Word of Allah. Did that mean that the Koran itself was eternal and uncreated? The early discus- sions of this question were quite certainly affected by the Christian doctrine of the uncreated Word (logos). The Koran was declared to be the visible expression and em- bodiment of the eternal Word, just as Jesus was declared to be the earthly manifestation of the logos. However the idea developed, orthodox Islam soon came to teach definitely that the Koran in essence was uncreated, whatever was to be said of its written, spoken, remembered or heard forms. Some early enthusiasts for the idea even asserted that these forms were uncreated, but orthodox Islam has passed from a dislike to discuss the question to a recognition of a dif- ference between the essential Koran and its visible embodi- ment. While, then, orthodox Islam firmly holds to the eternity of the Koran, a Moslem is allowed to explain it in more than one form. (d) Anthropomorphisms . — The Koran, like the Old Tes- tament, is full of anthropomorphisms. Mohammed thought in concrete terms and his descriptions of Allah have in con- sequence given great trouble to the Moslem scholastics. Many felt compelled to take them literally and to assert that these held of Allah in just the same way as they would hold of man. So one theologian, when he came to one of the seven passages in the Koran which describe how Allah settled himself on his throne, would arise from his seat, sit down again and say, “He did it just as I am doing it now.” 57 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO 'MOSLEMS Such theologians were of the Zahirite school, already men- tioned under canon law (page 52). Others tried to find lexicographical methods of escape. The word “hand” in Arabic also means “strength.” They claimed that the prophet had the abstract rather than the concrete meaning in mind. But gradually there grew up the doctrine of Allah’s “difference” {mukhdlafa) referred to above. This, when pushed to the extreme, of course means that Allah is un- knowable to man, and there is a tendency among theologians to state it in such a form. But more moderately used it merely guards against thinking of Allah in human terms. At an early date this conclusion was voiced in the dictum that we must believe those Koranic descriptions of Allah “without inquiring how and without making comparisons” (bild kayfa wald tashblh). (e) The Vision of Allah . — It is taught in traditions that the high,est felicity for the believer in Paradise will be seeing the face of Allah. The scholastic objection was early raised that this could only mean that Allah exists in space. Orthodox Islam today asserts the truth of the vision, but states that it will not be in terms of our human seeing — a matter of space and direction and rays of light. For a long time after Mohammed’s day orthodox, tradi- tional believers contented themselves with simply affirming the essentials of the true faith, ignoring all these heresies, and refusing to permit reason to have anything to do with their religious thinking. Such an attitude could not con- tinue, and the year 300 A.H. (912-13 A.D.) saw what is called the return of al-AsVarl from the Mutazilite or rationalistic party to the orthodox fold. He brought back with him the Mutazilite principles and methods of discus- sion, so that, under his leadership, they were henceforth used in the building up of a scholastic orthodox religious system. Of course, many theologians, Hanbalites and Zahirites, for the most part, continued to protest against 58 Islam’s legal development this imitation of unbelievers, but the process went on until religion had been thoroughly organized into theology. The natural consequences followed. The religious life decayed; unbelief of many kinds appeared and antinomian attitudes became prevalent. Law and theology were secularized. It seemed to many that the faith of Mohammed was grad- ually dying out and that in its place arid scholastic sys- tems were growing up. It was then that the mystical tendency in human worship asserted itself and came to be accepted as a recognized element in Islam. It had always j been in Islam, both in its ascetic and in its speculative forms. It had formed the real religious life of the Moslem peoples, though often persecuted as heresy or even as un- belief. But it had not yet found definite public recognition. Hence, just as it had been the work of al-Ash‘ari to justify the use of the reasoning faculty in religion, so it became ' the work of al-Ghazzali (d. A.H. 505, A.D. 1111) to give validity and position to the vision of the mystic. In his own personal experience he had passed through a period of the most absolute skepticism. He could for a time find no basis for the traditional faith which he had been taught. He had even come to doubt the validity of the ordinary operations of his own mind. When, at length, he passed through a religious crisis which drove him away from his position as a professor of canon law to wander as a der- vish, he then in his personal religious experiences found something which he could trust and was led back by these to traditional Islam. After his day the accepted statement concerning the, relationship of the three factors — tradition, ' reason and the inner light — to the support of religion among I thinking men in Islam came to be substantially as follows: only through that individual enlightenment and teaching which God gives to the human soul can a man come to learn that the Islam taught by his fathers is really true. The inner light thus vouches for tradition. The principal 59 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS use, then, for reason is as a weapon of defense against the unbeliever. It can destroy; it cannot construct. To the end al-Ghazzali was intellectually a skeptic. Though he con- structed and stated intellectualist proofs of theological dog- mas, he did not regard them as valid. This attitude is today that of the religiously-minded; with it should be contrasted the scholastic, theological attitude given above which seeks to prove the doctrine of the person of God by reason. VII. Other Religious Organizations and Movements IN Islam (I) The Shiites . — The above gives the development of religion and theology in Sunnite Islam — the main stem. The Shiites were in the first instance a political sect. The reason for their existence is the claim of the descendants of Ali and Fatima that they by blood and by the choice of Allah have a right to the headship of the Moslem State. But this of necessity led to theological developments. The belief grew up that in the house of Ali there inheres some particle of divinity and that this divine particle can be passed down from generation to generation.^ Hence, the religious head (imam) of the Shiites could almost be wor- shiped, and was certainly an infallible source of doctrine when he was among men. After he had vanished the learned men (mujtahid) of the Shiites have become the exponents of his will. But very curiously Shiite theology is strongly Mutazilite. How this came about is still histor- ically obscure, but there is no question of the fact. For the missionary, therefore, amongst Shiites in Persia, where most of them are to be found, or in India, a study of the See further details on p. 66. 60 RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS IN ISLAM Mutazilite development is necessary and a comparison of it with Shiite textbooks of theology and law. On this side very much remains to be done.^ In canon law, also, the Shiites have separate systems and collections of traditions. The historicity of their traditions and, it may be said, of their whole attitude toward the be- ginnings of Islam, is under the gravest suspicion. They use the same text of the Koran as the Sunnites, but there are in circulation amongst them passages favoring the family of AH which they assert to have been suppressed in the orthodox recension. (2) The Mystical Organisation and Life . — The begin- nings of the development of mysticism in Islam have been indicated above in the description of the work of al-Ghaz- zali (page 59), but the whole subject is of such importance that it deserves distinct treatment. The mystic (sufl) should not be regarded as belonging to a separate sect. He may be a Sunnite or a Shiite, and may even regard himself as outside of both. The feature which characterizes the mystic is that, whatever may be his theology, his religion consists in personal devout intercourse with God.^ This communion he may combine with ascetic practices in order to “keep the veil of the body thin and the mirror of the soul clear,” or he may follow a speculative pathway and combine with his emotional ecstacies a metaphysical search- ing into the nature of God and of the human soul and of the links between them. Historically, the most multifarious influences have worked upon the creed of the Moslem mys- tic. Among these influences, to show their singular variety, may be mentioned Neo-Platonism through the Christian mysticism of the pseudo-Dionysius, the so-called Areo- pagite, and also more directly Buddhism through Buddhist Goldziher is almost the only scholar who has done any work on Shiite theology, and this in scattered articles. His “Vorlesungen uber den Islam” is the most accessible reference work. The article “Ali in Shiah Tradition,” in the Moslem World, January, 1914, is full of value. 2 See further on p. 72. 61 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS ascetics, and even Vedantism. It is entirely possible for the Moslem mystic to profess a theology ranging from a merely devout, prayerful attitude to God, like that of Thomas a Kempis, all the way to a perfectly conscious pantheism. Most of them really hold pantheistic principles, although they may not know this. The problem, for example, with regard to Al-Ghazzali is as to whether he knew that he was a pantheist or not. These mystics have not formed a distinct sect, yet they tend to form organizations. From the beginning they formed circles of students, growing and dissolving around a teacher. These groups often continued after the death of the teacher who brought them into being, but not until after the time of Al-Ghazzali did there appear self-perpetu- ating and historieally avouched fraternities ^ of dervishes, such as the Qadarites (Qadiriya), founded in 1165, the .Shadhilites (Shadhillya), founded in 1258, and the Mev- levites, founded before 1273. Each of these connects with an historical founder, but also, through a quite unhistorical chain (silsila) of teachers, professes to connect itself with the prophet and his companions. Each has its rule and method of life. The fraternities are controlled by a sys- tem of heads and teachers and require from their members certain ritual practices. A part of these is the dhikr ^ (or cikr), but they have also a more personal ‘‘office” which each must say. The object of each of these is the expression of personal devotion to God. In the dhikr this is expressed by a more or less complicated ritual, varying in the different fraternities, but consisting partly of physical movements and partly in the repetition in chorus of religious formulae. In these the names of Allah often play a large part, and also the first article of the Moslem creed (see p. 46). These 1 For a clear, readable account of these orders see “The Religious Orders of Islam,” by the Rev. Canon Sell of Madras. 2 See on these Lane’s “Modern Egyptians,” ch. xxiv, and by index, George Swan in The Moslem World, vol. ii, pp. 380 ff., or Macdonald, “Aspects,” lectures v and vi. 62 RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS IN ISLAM tend to produce at the least a mild form of hypnosis, often developing into religious ecstasy and even catalepsy. The membership is composed of full members or of laymen, like the Franciscan tertiaries. They make a business of the religious life and are its vehicles. Their nearest analog are the separate congregations of the Christian Church with their religious activities. The dhikr, also, of dervish fraternities, plays the part in Islam that the prayer meeting plays with Protestants, and the frater- nity house is a combination of church and club. Each fraternity has its own practices. Thus the Mevlevites are the dancing dervishes, while the other fraternities do not dance. Each country also tends to have its own fraternities. There is, e.g., only one Bektashite establishment in Egypt, although there are very many in Turkey. The different Moslem governments have always tried to keep a control- ling hand on these organizations, if only from the outside. Such numerous and powerful bodies could not be left un- checked as an imperium in imperio. In consequence their chiefs are regularly kept in relation with the state. Thus the Sheik el BakrI is the governmental head of all the dervish fraternities of Egypt {shaikh shuyukh at-tnruq). The one exception to this adjustment is the Senusite fra- ternity, founded in 1843 by Sheik al-Senusi and number- ing about six millions of members. It has always studied to keep, and has succeeded in keeping, itself from state en- tanglements. As an offshoot of the Wahhabite movement it is opposed by its very nature to secular governments. This attitude has caused it to seek shelter for its mother house and central organization in remote deserts, where it may be free from worldly control. It may be said in con- clusion that it is most desirable that every missionary should make himself thoroughly acquainted with the der- vish fraternities of his field and should put himself into connection with them. The dervishes in some fields, such 63 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS as Turkey, are commonly misunderstood and distrusted by the modern Moslems. Their reputation for laziness, largely justified, is greater than their reputation for piety. But the missionary should bear in mind that, in however corrupt a form, they are the vehicles of the religious life of Islam and among its chief missionary agencies. But there is also, at least in the belief of the people, another organization. Among the dervishes there appear from time to time men of exceptional gifts, partly religious in character and partly what we would now call psychic. The technical term for these is wall (plural awliya, in Turkish evliyd), and that name indicates that they are be- lieved to be peculiarly near to Allah. They, as it were, live in His presence, even while going through their ordi- nary life among men. The masses of Islam firmly believe that these men are organized into a spiritual hierarchy in closest touch with Allah and enjoying miraculous powers, stretching down from a single head, called the Axis (Qutb), through gradually widening ranks until it embraces every true wali of Allah. Through this spiritual organization it is believed that Allah administers the affairs of the world. This is the nearest that Islam has come to the conception of a broad ecclesiastical organization like that of the Roman Church, and is evidently an effort of the popular imagina- tion to offset the secularization of Islam in its different governments. The administration of Islam may have passed into the hands of the merely worldly, but the people in this way have built up in their imaginations an adminis- tration that remains spiritual and religious. (3) Wahhabism . — Wahhabism is opposed to the mys- tical movement at almost every point, except that it also is an effort to purify the religion and to realize the ideal of Islam. It appeared in the middle of the eighteenth century as a reform movement, endeavoring to reproduce the situation and attitudes of the first generations. Its 64 RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS IN ISLAM ideal is the Islam of the Companions of Mohammed, and it seeks to do away with all later developments and changes, however they may have been accepted through the Agree- ment of the Moslem people. Its three bases are Koran and Sunna and the Agreement of the immediate Compan- ions. But reform movements in Islam almost inevitably pass from preaching to fighting and this Wahhabite move- ment soon swept over Arabia sword in hand. Mecca and Medina were taken, and, at one time, a new war of con- quest issuing from Arabia to flood the Moslem world seemed probable. But prompt action by Turkey through Egypt checked this aggressive movement; and now the only sovereign Wahhabite state left is that at Riyad in Central Arabia. But the reforming impulse, although checked and turned in its militant form, spread rapidly by propaganda through the Moslem world, and was undoubtedly an element in the general toning up of Islam in the nineteenth century. As opposed to the dervish fraternities and to the mystical life in general this movement emphasized salva- tion by precision of orthodox belief and through the close ob- servance of the customs of the Prophet and his Companions. Its ideal would be that the state should enforce the observ- ance of all details of the canon law, as was done in the time of the first caliphs. The state at Riyad is therefore now the only state which rejects the second, the secular, system of law mentioned above (p. 50). Wahhabism at one time took strong hold of many Indian Moslems, even to the extent of threatening revolt. Religiously it is still an influence There. The roots of the Senusite fraternity of dervishes also run back into Wahhabism, although as an organization it has long been entirely separate. (4) Bahism and Baha’ism . — The central idea of the Shifite faith is that authority to teach and to govern is vested in an individual appointed thereto by Allah, who is a descendant of the prophet through Ali and Fatima, and 65 PRESEInTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS in whom there is contained some element of divinity. He is called an imam, and inasmuch as the Persian division of the Shi'ites teaches that there have been twelve imams down to Mohammed ibn el Hasan, that division is called “the Twelvers” (ithnd ‘asharlya). This imam vanished from the sight of men in A.H. 260 (A.D. 873-4) and since then the Persian Shihtes, who believe that he is being kept alive by Allah in retirement, have looked for his return. For a number of years after his vanishing, i.e., up to A.H. 329 (A.D. 940-1), communication between him and his followers was supposedly maintained through four succes- sive intermediaries who were each called Bab (door). Thereafter it had ceased. But in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, there appeared in a sect called the Sheikhis the belief that there must always be amongst men a Bab in direct spiritual communication with the hidden Imam. In A.H. 1260 (A.D. 1844), just 1,000 lunar years after the vanishing, the position of Bab was claimed by Mirza ‘All Mohammed and the Babi sect was founded.^ It is naturally impossible here to trace out the history of this sect and of the splits which eventually brought forth from it the Baha’i sect, now by far the more numerous, and which itself, in the last few years, has split into the followers of ‘Abbas Efendi and those of Moham- med ‘AH. In the course of its historical development Babism has passed from being Mohammedan and Shi‘ite to being a new religion. From the very first its followers rejected the finality of the Koran and of the mission of Mohammed, but otherwise their thought was specifically Shi‘ite. The Baha’is, on the other hand, while showing manifold in- fluences from Islam, propound what is really a new theology 1 The writings of Professor E. G. Browne of Cambridge and, particularly, his valuable article “Bab” in volume ii of Hastings’ “Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics,” should be consulted by the student. Compare also the review of Roemer’s Die Babi-Beha‘i in IRM, i, 546-551, and the Report of Com. IV of the Edinburgh Conference of 1910. 66 RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS IN ISLAM and a new attitude toward life/ Their God is unknowable, transcending human comprehension, as, in a way, also, does the Allah of the Moslem scholastics. But their prophet, regarded also as divine, is to be completely followed and worshiped, being an absolute Head and teacher. As op- posed to Sufiism (p. 73) Bahahsm is dogmatic, accepting the utterances of the Head without reserve. As opposed to modern rationalism its positions are based upon super- natural sanctions often descending to arguments from the numerical value of letters, like the discussion among some Christians of the number of the Beast (Rev. 13:18). These distinctions are important because of the spread of Babism and Bahahsm in America. It is asserted that there have been gained several thousand North American adherents, since the beginning of their propaganda at Chicago about 1892. Of the numbers of Babis and Bahahs in Persia itself there are the most contradictory estimates. Some good authorities think that it has passed the zenith of its propaganda. (5) The Ahmadiya . — The Ahmadiya (ahmadiya) sect appeared in Qadiyan in the Punjab about fifty miles from Lahore, thirty or forty years ago, and was founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad,^ who combined three claims in himself : to be the Mahdi of Islam, to be a reincarnation of Jesus, and to be the final avatar of the Hindus. As a Moslem he was in essential heresy, and his followers are now rejected as Moslems by orthodox Islam, but the diver- gence of the sect is not so great as that of the Baha’ites. He taught that Jesus did not die on the cross, but came to India, settled at Srinagar in Kashmir and died there, where they show his tomb; and declared, further, that the Mahdi of Islam and Jesus, who, according to orthodox 1 See “Bahaism in Persia,” by Frame. The Moslem World, ii, 236, ff. 2 Rev. H. D. Gris\vold has published a pamphlet bearing the name of this leader which describes the movement. The most authoritative and satisfying account is in the book by Walter noted in the bibliography and in his articles in The Moslem World, vi, 66 ff. and in “Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics.” 67 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS Moslem belief, is to return to the earth before the judgment to introduce universal Islam, were united in his own person. That Jesus when he returns will also be the Mahdi has been held by many Moslems. The first public appearance of the Mirza was in 1880, but serious preaching of his cause did not come until after 1889. He professed to work miracles and to prophesy. His combination of Jesus with the Mahdi led to an essential change in his doctrine of the character of the latter. The Mahdi of orthodox Islam is a warrior who subdues the unbeliever with the sword, as also shall the returned Jesus of Islam, but the Ahmadiya movement has been throughout a peaceful one. It rejects jihad and condemns all fanaticism. Ghulam Ahmad used as his theological basis both the Koran and the Christian Scriptures, but was eclectic and even skeptical in his use of traditions. He believed in education and in literary propaganda and, regarding himself as “sent” to the whole world, pushed that propaganda beyond Moslem countries, and especially into England through the monthly Review of Religions. His support in Indian Islam has been mostly found amongst those who had some Western education. Since his death tendencies towards division have appeared, and also towards rationalism. In England the sect poses as orthodox Islam, a position denied to it by all orthodox Moslems. (6) The Neo-Mu^tazilites . — The Islam of India has haturally been more affected by Western education than that of any other Moslem country. Under that stimulus there has arisen a reformed Islam, the object of which is to make Islam a possible faith in the modern world. As advocates of a reformed and therefore a rationalized Islam its holders have fallen back quite a little on the Muhazilite sect of early rationalists and therefore, though all historical continuity is lacking, call themselves Mu'tazilites. Their theological attitudes also are very different from those of 68 RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS IN ISLAM the original Mu'tazilites, They are practically Unitarians who put Mohammed in the place of Christ, while the orig- inal Mu'tazilites, though applying reason to the doctrines of Islam, were in many respects more narrow, dogmatic and bigoted than the orthodox Moslems of their time. For example, they felt compelled on the basis of their a priori principles to teach that the prophets were all preserved by Allah from sin, a position that the modern Mu'tazilite would hardly maintain. The educational center of the movement is in the Anglo-Oriental College at Aligarh in northern India, an institution whose influence is un- doubtedly deep upon Moslem Indian life and thought, and is now spreading into other Moslem countries. (7) Other Developments. — Finally, the supposed unity of Islam was menaced from the very beginning by the in- fluences which it found awaiting it in the different countries to which it had spread. In that way, for example, the Islam of Sumatra has been deeply affected by Animism and therefore must be carefully differentiated from the Islam of, say, Egypt or Turkey. And, secondly, in the modern world, Islam is being affected by influences Chris- tian, intellectual, educational, social and economic to a degree which threatens to break up entirely even what unity has been left to it. Vni. The Existing Types of Moslems as a Result OF These Influences In order to gain clearness and to avoid logical cross divisions, it may be well to study the Moslem world under three general groupings: (a) as affected by the forces at present acting upon Islam from without; (b) according to its inner attitude toward Islam; and (c) according to race and environment. 69 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS 1. As Affected by Forces from Without Islam. (a) The Purists . — There are very many Moslems who, when confronted by the modern world, instinctively desire to flee away from it, to avoid any contact with it that may contaminate the purity of their faith, and especially to avoid such entanglements as may hinder them in the careful observance of the ritual and other requirements of their faith. The most conspicuous example of this type of mind is the Senusite fraternity of dervishes. It is shown by their steady retirement into less and less accessible recesses of the Sudan. This policy has been pursued, not only to avoid contact with Europe, but also to free themselves from the control of the supposedly contaminated Turkish Government. There are individuals to be found everywhere in Islam who show the same tendency to shrink away from what they deem to be dangerous influences. (b) The Conservatives . — There are also those whose im- pulse is to face the enemies of Islam and to hold to the old ways. These are conservatives and also fighters, whether intellectually or with actual weapons. Among them are everywhere to be reckoned the ‘Ulama, who are the pro- fessional theologians of each community in Islam. They would be found in such a representative body as the staff of the Azhar ^ University at Cairo and also among the Egyptian nationalists. (c) The Modernists . — But there are also those who realize that the old Islam cannot continue and must be essentially modernized. Among such there are two defi- nite tendencies. The first one is to regard the modernizing as the principal need, whatever may happen to Islam in the process. The most conspicuous example of this tendency 1 The fame of this institution is world-wide, but its influence in active propaganda may be overestimated. In 1909, according to Gairdner, its total number of students was less than a thousand. Its graduates are far more likely to settle down as law authorities in some well-Islamized district than to become missionaries. See Arminjon, “L’Enseignement” (72). 70 EXISTING MOSLEM TYPES is the Young Turkish movement. It cares little for Islam, if only the Ottoman Empire may be modernized and so may survive. But there is another reforming party to whom, not their country and their race, but their religion, is now the principal consideration. They wish to pro- duce an Islam that will be possible in the modern world, but it must still be Islam. The best example of this ten- dency is to be found in the Egyptian nationalists. They may call themselves Egyptian and nationalist, but it is of Islam that they are always thinking. The instrument which these last named hope to use in their reforms is the doc- trine of the Agreement. According to that doctrine the Moslem people, if they can only agree, can make of Islam what they please. The young Turks, on the other hand, are not greatly concerned to avail themselves of a legal device like this. If Islam should show itself standing obstinately in their way, they would not scruple to throw it over. This is what lies behind the New Turanian move- ment {Yenl Tiirdn).^ 2. According to Their Inner Attitude . — People natur- ally tend to be conservatives, individualists or reformers (progressives). So in Islam we find: (a) The Traditionalist . — He holds by the faith of his fathers through a natural instinct. He unreservedly ad- heres to what he has been taught. There often lies in this firmness a kind of patriotism. For him Islam takes the place of a fatherland. He is a fellow citizen with the other Moslems of the world. The mere carrying out of the prayers, of the prescriptions, of the various obligations of a true IMoslem according to the usage that he has learned satisfies his spiritual being. The theologian would say of him, half scornfully, that he was an imitator (muqallid), and some would even go the length of doubting whether he really possessed a saving faith, inasmuch as he could 1 See “The Arabian Situation” in The Nation for November 8, 1917. 71 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS give no argued reason for it. Of this type are the great masses of uneducated Islam. (b) The Legalist . — From the traditionalist develops an- other type. Its absorbing interest lies in the details of the ritual law, since its representatives believe that salvation lies in the settlement of matters of “mint, anise and cum- min.” This type has been educated in a typically Moslem school, such as the Azhar, along old lines. Its faith must be a reasoned faith, but reasoned on a scholastic basis. It is perhaps even further than the first type from the modern world, for it has the armor of a certain sort of education and learning. This is the class, not so large as influential, of the interpreters of the law U lama) , who are scholastic intellectualists, and have little contact with the visions and aspirations of the religious life. Islam for them is a theology and not an experience. They look for- ward across an intervening period of deterioration, whose conclusion will synchronize with the coming of the Mahdi, to a millennial day when a new life will quicken the failing system of Islam, but the goal they anticipate is that of Mohammed and the early fathers. (c) The Mystic . — When the thoughtful Moslem is also religiously-minded there appears a third type. The tra- ditionalist does not do much thinking; the legalist has little real religious spirit. But let a Moslem be both thoughtful and religious and he is bound to enter upon the path of the mystic. He is driven to think out for himself his personal relationship to Allah and that relationship will express it- self in free terms of experience and emotion rather than in the formulas of scholastic theology. He is not an intel- lectualist, except as he uses the intellect for its own self- destruction, and having thus reached an agnostic position falls back upon the experience of the individual as the only certainty. From this assumed personal basis the mystic may go back to the traditional faith of his fathers, or he 72 EXISTING MOSLEM TYPES may sweep out in metaphysical speculations as to the ultimate and basic nature of God, of the world or of him- self. He will commonly call himself a Sufi (Sfifl), a term derived from the woolen robe which the earliest ascetic mystics used to wear, but that term indicates nothing ex- cept that he bases his faith upon his own experiences in his intercourse with the Divine. The mystic may be a member of a dervish fraternity, or he may hold himself aloof from all organizations. The spell of Islam to him is neither its ritual nor its racial significance, but its lofty conception of God. The Sufi is the Platonist or even the Neo-platonist of Islam. (d) The Individualist . — Opposed to all these, at one point or another, is the individualist, who is also a modern- ist or reformer. He recognizes that the Islam of his fathers is impossible in the modern world and stands for its reconstruction. Only sentiment holds him to the older faith, but that tie may be very strong. The music and mystery of the Koran sound in his ears, while the figure of Mohammed assumes for him a rare personal attraction. He believes that Islam may assimilate, if it does not manifest, every vital element in religion. In consequence he has an instinct along with all his reforming insight and energy to revert either to the simple Koran or to what he can assure himself of regarding the position of Mohammed. He throws aside the dialectic of the scholastic or only retains it as a weapon against those who are without. He may be a mystic or not; but his individualism does not leave him self-centered, but rather urges him to seek the good of the community. He is missionary in spirit. His re- ligious passion often reaches the point of bigotry. In his relationship with his fellows he has naturally to be all things to all men. To effect the reforms which he seeks he cannot afford to offend the other types, however little sympathy he may have with them. Such men, of course, vary greatly 73 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS in weight of character, learning and influence. They vary, too, in sincerity and honesty as regards themselves and others. There are very many of them, but yet occa- sionally there even appears in this class a figure which reminds us of the wandering scholars of the Renaissance, such as Erasmus. For in this connection it should never be forgotten that the Moslem world is passing through a real renaissance with all its tangled motives and crossing currents, and this Erasmus of Islam may, on another side of his brain, be a political schemer. The individualist is represented by Aligarh in India, or by the type in Egypt which Lord Cromer called a modern Moslem. He is an ardent supporter of nationalist movements everywhere. (e) The Materialist . — There remains a type which is a problem and a danger, not only for the world of Islam, but for the world at large, the materialist. The young men who are going through the modern schools and receiving a so-called modern education are largely losing their own religion and gaining no other to put in its place. Islam with them is little more than a racial cult. The missionary will find that his task with such men is not to convert them from Islam to Christianity, but to convince them that there is need of any religion at all. They are indifferent and worldly, not reformers, because they have no ideals. When they maintain some relationship to Islam it is as the only religion for a sensible man or as the religion of the State. They are a natural product of an education in which religion has no part, and one of the problems for the mis- sionary of the future will be how to put religion back into their education. This problem, of course, is appearing everywhere in the mission field; but in Islam it is peculiarly difficult, for, except in the dervish fraternities, there is no organization in Islam for the broad teaching of religion, and the fraternities tend to affect the lower, uneducated classes only, and, on the other hand, on account of Islam’s 74 EXISTING MOSLEM TYPES definite antagonism to Christianity, some missionary educa- tional institutions have been too much inclined to minimize a positive Christian emphasis. Here, therefore, there is a wide field and opportunity for wise yet firm evangelistic work in such institutions and for such organizations as the Young Men’s and Young Women’s Christian Associations. 3. According to Race and Environment. (a) The Original Moslem Type . — This type can hardly be found outside of Arabia. There it still lives the life which the prophet lived and there only is his exact imitation a possibility. It might seem natural to take the Wahhabites as the example of this original type; but even among them, in spite of their endeavor to revert to the usage of the prophet and of his companions, much of the later scholas- ticism is to be found. Still more at Mecca is the university there an example of mediaeval and not of primitive Islam. In certain respects the court of the ibn Rashids at Hayil in the Nejd is a better example of the Arabia of Moham- med’s time, because it is more the capital of an Arab state, and is not affected by the puritanic rigors of Riyad or the scholastic theology and law of Mecca. The ancient civiliza- tion of Yemen, always different from that of central and northern Arabia, the Ibadite settlement at Oman (‘Uman) and the pearl divers and fishermen and reformed pirates of Bahrain on the coast of the Persian Gulf are examples of still other phases of the Arab type. (b) The Types Produced by National Mixtures . — When the adherents of Islam issued from the desert they en- countered other and different races and had to adapt the new regime to them. Some of these races were closely akin to them, such as the population of Syria; others were very different, such as the peoples of Persia, Egypt and North Africa. Still later came the contact with the differ- ent Turkish tribes and with the very mixed population of Asia Minor and with the peoples of Central Asia. Later 75 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS Still came the contact with India. The further that Islam had to travel and the stranger the races that it met, the greater were the modifications that it underwent, especially in its popular forms. The elasticity of the four separate schools of canon law (p. 51) helped the matter of adjust- ment, and even different systems of theology, as those of Ash‘ari and Maturldi, were accepted as possible in orthodox Islam. Another source of adjustment came with the split between the Sunnites and the Shifites, and the conflicting claims to the Caliphate were often an expression of separate nationality. And behind these differences recognized in Moslem theory and literature were the still greater differ- ences of popular belief, usage and law, which even reached formal expression in the different systems of secular law mentioned above. (c) Extreme Types . — Other races, lying still further away from Mecca, diverging still more clearly in type and reached still later, were those of Central Africa and of the Dutch East Indies. In these lands their primitive Animism has so altered their acquired faith that it is often hard to recognize that the people are Moslems at all. (d) Conclusion . — In view then of all these types within Islam, it is plain that while the missionary should secure a good knowledge of what may be called book-Islam, it will be necessary for him on his field and in contact with his people to study anew and with great care their particular type of religious development. It will be vital that he shall guard against being blinded to such divergencies by what he knows of book-Islam, and, on the other hand, avoid ac- cepting the attitudes and beliefs of his field for those of the Moslem world in general. This latter danger is in practice the real one. 76 IX. What Christianity May Add to Islam The fact that one-seventh of the human race professes Islam not only warrants but compels a careful study of the vital elements in the religion which Mohammed proclaimed. Islam is not moribund or quiescent, but aggressive. Its adherents are devoted, even fanatical. It has gripping power over the human heart, it sways innumerable lives along channels which are by no means those of least re- sistance, it manifests a real vitality. Christianity cannot brush Islam aside, but must prove that it deals more satis- factorily with the universe. It is a duty of the missionary to Moslems to consider how Christianity may best be pre- sented to them so that it may enlist their devotedness and their faithfulness and offer the richer life of the spirit through fellowship with the divine to which Islam scarcely aspires. First of all he may well consider what Christian- ity has to offer to the Moslem. (1) An Emphasis Upon the Ethical Character of God and Upon the Real Nature of Sin . — It is one of the great glories of the Hebrew people that in their religious thinking they came to regard Jehovah, their God, as a Being essen- tially moral, supremely holy. This emphasis on the ethical character of God has not taken place in any at all com- parable degree in the Allah of the Moslems. Good and evil for Islam are left in an ambiguous position. At one time they may be treated as though they were realities in themselves, but at another time they are made entirely dependent upon the will of Allah. In the theology of Islam it is explicitly declared that good is what Allah states to be good, and evil what he states to be evil, and to assign an essential existence to good and evil is heresy. Islam goes beyond even the most extreme historically Calvinistic teach- ings in asserting that “Allah leads astray whom He wills,” and that “there is no necessity upon Him to do that which 77 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS may be the best for the creature.” Christianity needs to make clear to the Moslem mind the essential inconceivability of such a position with regard to a being who can be called God, and while asserting the absoluteness of the will of God it must assert also His holiness, justice and truth. The missionary will grasp any opportunity to develop in detail the Christian conception of our just and merciful Heavenly Father. He will undoubtedly encounter theological subtle- ties in opposition, but he will likewise find a response in many a Moslem mind. The assertion of the ethical character of God makes necessary the consideration of sin as a fact in the world, however it may have entered the world. The missionary will probably discover that the Moslem is inclined to accept the fact of sin and of sinfulness in man as something that is there and cannot be helped. This is because for him sin is a part of the created nature of man, “Man that is created of clay, how can he be aught but sinful ?” The story of the Fall, however interpreted, has undoubtedly had large ethical value in Christendom by reason of its assumption that sin did not inhere in the first creation. Whoever discusses sin with a Moslem should acquaint him- self carefully with the Moslem doctrine of the nafs, which is practically equivalent to our “flesh,” ^ which must be sub- dued and brought into acquiescence with and rest in the will of God. This is analogous to the moral and spiritual transformation on which Christianity insists, and will serve to open the way to a helpful discussion of the real nature of sin. (2) The Conception of a Mediator Between God and Man . — It is a striking paradox in Islam that its theology labors to make God really unknowable to man, while its religious faith and experience assert that God reveals Him- self immediately to every man who turns towards Him. ^ Macdonald : “Religious Attitude.” Lecture 8. 78 WHAT CHRISTIANITY MAY ADD To the devout Moslem those two declarations seem irrecon- cilable ; but Christianity seeks to break down the theological conception of an absolute God which fosters the first con- clusion, and, by developing the Christian Trinity and the mediating work of Christ as a part of that Trinity, gives a reasoned basis for the second. Again, the second, the religious attitude, is in constant danger of passing into a pantheism in which the individual loses his entity in the Divine. But the Christian teaching of the spiritual union of the believer with Christ, even while fully retaining his own identity, is a real solution. The yearning of the Moslem mystic for absolute contact with his Lord can be satisfied, and yet the personality of both can be saved. On the theological side, also, Islam has tended towards pan- theism, because of the emphasis which it has laid upon the unique reality of Allah. The world of created things has, in consequence, tended to be regarded as an unreal, passing show. But the proper teaching of the Christian doctrine of the Trinity sets forth a God who is imminent in his crea- tion, but does not absorb it. (3) The Thought of Man as Made in God’s Own Image. — In the Christian doctrine that man is made in the image of God there is implied the possibility of man, approxi- mately yet sufficiently, knowing God. This is essential to all Christian thought and may well be emphasized with Moslems. But the missionary should also know that mys- tical Islam teaches the same doctrine which has been crys- tallized in a tradition put into the mouth of Mohammed. “Man was created in the image of Allah” {fl surati-lldh) . This, of course, is in flat contradiction with the doctrine of the Difference as that doctrine is commonly stated by the theologians. Mystics, however, reply that the Difference only affects the essence of Allah, his dhat which is absolute and unconditioned, while that of the creature is finite and conditioned. 79 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS (4) The Brotherhood of All Men and the Fatherhood of God . — With reference to those distinctive Christian teach- ings, also, we encounter another conflict between Islam’s theory and practice. Theological and legal Islam, on the basis both of the Koran and of tradition from the prophet, entirely reject the idea of the brotherhood of all men. Scholars argue that men are either Moslems or not. If they are Moslems they are brothers, otherwise not. True friendship even between Moslems and non-Moslems they declare to be explicitly forbidden. On the other hand, the mystics of Islam accept and reiterate the brotherhood of men and even the equality before Allah of the different faiths. When this last stage of conviction has been reached, the mystic, of course, has ceased to be a Moslem, but it is exceedingly difficult to state where this stage really begins. A similar situation holds with reference to the idea of the fatherhood of God. All Islam, theological and religious, refuses to use the terms “Father” and “Son” of God and man, but devout Islam, while not using these expressions, practically implies them, and describes a relationship be- tween the believer and his Lord that closely resembles that of Christian sonship. The equivalent for these terms in all Islam are the words slave and master ('abd and rabb). Even the thoroughly devout Moslem feels no difficulty in describing himself as a slave of Allah, just as Paul described himself as the doulos of Christ, meaning in both cases to indicate the acknowledged, absolute right of the Master to deal with his servant as may please Him, with, at the same time, a full reliance that that dealing will be kindly, loving and just. But for all this, and however the mystic may try by devout legend and exegesis to put re- ligious meaning into those words, the average Moslem does not think accordingly. Yet it is striking how the Johannine doctrine of sonship at- tracts the Moslem mystic. In spite of all his theological objections to the use of the terms “Father” and “Son” and 80 WHAT CHRISTIANITY MAY ADD although they are under the ban and unused by all Islam, theological and religious, it is precisely the Gospel of John with its teaching of the uncreated Word which most of all appeals to him. Through its explicit teaching of a universal brotherhood and of the divine fatherhood he finds expres- sion for conceptions which have been long and deeply felt. When, then, a Moslem has reached the conviction that all men are brothers and that God is the common father of all, he will be ready for self-sacrificing service to mankind as a whole and will cease to be indifferent to all but fellow Moslems. (5) Freedom of Life Under the Gospel . — When general revivals and individual conversions occur in Islam — and they have occurred and do occur often — they are almost always inspired by fear of the hereafter. It is even true in the case of mystical theologians of wide and deep religious experience that they have at first been driven to devoted- ness by the fear of hell and have,, thereafter, felt con- strained to live a life apart from the world in order to be able to retain their religious attitude. Of course, there are many sincerely devout Moslems who live in the every- day world; but a profound religious experience in Islam does not generally send the recipient back into the world to live there and to do his part in it, but rather seems to warn him to separate himself from all that is not specifi- cally and clearly religious. The believing Moslem who lives and works in the world may be said to hold his faith in a more formal way. The dervish fraternities, it is true, recog- nize the claims of this world by admitting tertiaries, who live and work in the world and yet are furnished by their fra- ternity with the means of devotion and of occasional retreat. Notwithstanding this device, the division in Islam between the things of this world (ad-dunya) and of the world to come {al-dkhira) is deep and broad, and the pious meddle with the first only at the risk of their eternal damnation. To those taught to accept this distinction the Christian 81 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS conception of the perfect freedom of the service of Christ comes like a breath of fresh, cold air. For in spite of the appearance in Christendom of these same phenomena, the reasonableness of Christ’s religion has never been long held under such bonds. The life of Christ in the Gospels, and especially in the Synoptics, with its healthy contact with all sides of life and its solutions, reasonable and yet deep- cutting, of the recurring problems of life, makes this free- dom perfectly evident. The mere reading of the Gospels establishes the true significance of the “Kingdom of Heav- en.” There have not, of course, been wanting in Christen- dom similar tendencies towards separating the two worlds, but they have not dominated Christian thinking. (6) Freedom of Scientific Investigation . — A student of the history of Islam is forced to note that time and again Moslem peoples have experienced renaissances of culture, literary and scientific, which have never endured for very long. They have always had a certain forced character and have usually grown out of the favor of ruling princes or of dynasties. The great example of this is, of course, the period under the early Abbasids, but they arose also under the Fatimids, and under the Spanish Umayyads. Yet Islam has never been able to show any definite thread of progress, one period leading to another, all being a part of a steady forward drift. The reason for this regular stoppage of such revivals is not entirely plain. It has been sought at different points. Many have explained it by the predestinarianism of Islam. But Protestantism a century ago was quite as predestina- rian in its theology, without abating its intellectual life. There is, however, a distinction to which religious Islam has always held, and which may in part be an explanation. It is that between useful knowledge and a knowledge which cannot at once show a practical purpose. By useful knowl- edge Islam means that which is useful either for this world 82 WHAT CHRISTIANITY MAY ADD or for that to come. Its utilitarianism has therefore a wide scope, but it is still utilitarianism. If a Moslem can- not show to himself that a study or task or sport produces specifically useful results, either for his life here or for his eternal salvation, then it is held to be better for him to leave that interest alone. This does not mean the complete avoidance of play or sport, because diversions can be justi- fied on the ground of health or of relaxation, but it does mean that the merely interesting, the pursuit of disinter- ested curiosity, should not be cultivated. In consequence, all scientific investigation has to justify itself to Moslems by the immediate production of some useful result. The early criticism in America of Benjamin Franklin’s experi- ments in electricity was exactly Moslem in type. No Mos- lem investigator, however, seems to have hit upon Frank- lin’s reply, “What is the good of a baby?” The scientific babies of Islam have been all too few. The Moslem philoso- phers and scientists of early centuries were often good pupils, learning eagerly from the Greeks and Indians, but they seldom added anything to what they learned. Mediae- val Europe undoubtedly owes them a debt, as the first link with the civilization of the Greeks, but not for anything which they contributed of themselves. In contrast, the practical working of Christianity has been clear. Christendom, despite its occasional narrowness, has never really handicapped intellectual life or scientific investigation. When European civilization made its fresh beginning with the Renaissance, intellectual life was fos- tered on all sides by the Christian Church. There have been conflicts between so-called religion and so-called sci- ence, but Christendom has always recognized that the world is a subject for study in the most absolute sense, and that it is man’s duty to seek to fathom its mysteries, and to make ever clearer its workings as those of God. Islam, on the other han^ has tended to admonish the faithful to take that 83 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS which Allah sends to them without considering it too care- fully, The world for Islam is the mystery of Allah; He only knows it and can know it and it is better for mankind to avoid too curious investigations. In this one respect Christianity has a vital message for the best minds of Moslem countries. (7) The Right of All to Education . — The natural result of the tendency described in the preceding section has been to limit technical training to the narrowly useful, and in- tellectual training to theology and canon law. Consequently the secular sciences and their technical applications have been gradually crowded out of Moslem higher education and reduced to the standing of arts and crafts. Still more serious has been the fate of primary education. Centering around the study of the Koran, often in a purely mechan- ical fashion, primary training has placed all its weight upon the training of the few boys who have been likely to go on to university studies, that is, to become theological or canon lawyers. The great mass of children who look to no such distinction have been neglected. Their intellectual discipline and the development of their powers seem never to have appealed to the Moslem mind. The conception that the intellectual progress of a people depends on the intel- lectual stimulus of the masses from whom the leaders must come has played no part in Islam. There is no trace in Moslem literature of the conception of the essential dignity of the village school. Rather the schoolmaster is always a butt for ridicule. It is true that Islam has always honored the learned man, whether a university teacher or a private scholar, but it has never honored either the life of the common school or its teacher. In consequence a snobbish spirit prevails among the learned. Like the old Pharisees they say, “This people that knoweth not the law is ac- cursed.” Christianity has a mighty appeal to the popular mind in Moslem lands through its demonstration of the 84 WHAT CHRISTIANITY MAY ADD right of all to education and of the fundamental importance of the primary school. (8) The True Place of Womanhood in Life. — The woman problem in Islam goes much deeper than any ques- tion of polygamy, concubinage or divorce. It begins with the attitude of Mohammed himself towards women, and works itself out practically through the application of the doctrine of the imitation of the Prophet. Mohammed’s attitude to women was frankly sexual. This set a tone for his followers, and even stamped indulgence with religious approval. In consequence even asceticism in Islam has not been extended to sex and the place of women in Islam has been hopelessly compromised. The first generations of Islam witnessed an outburst of sexualism; even the de- cent reserves of language which existed in the old pre- Moslem poetry vanished after Mohammed’s day. Early Moslem writers noted this fact with regret and speculated upon its cause. But there can be no question that the real cause was the personal example and influence of Mo- hammed. This fundamental question of morals is one of the most serious problems that modern Islam faces. Some Moslem apologists have been driven to the curiously in- verted conclusion that in this matter Mohammed is not to be imitated, because, as a prophet, he was not bound by ordinary rules. It is hardly necessary to stress the contrast of the Chris- tian position which recognizes that women are people among the people in the world, not existing simply because of and for their sex, and that they should contribute their distinctive share to social and to public life. The mission- ary cannot lay too great emphasis upon the education of girls. If true wives are to be provided for the young men of Islam, it can only be done by educating the girls. Other- wise whatever education may be given to boys will be almost eliminated in social and family respects by the 85 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS hampering and degrading influence of their uneducated wives. A very great part of the continuity of a civiliza- tion and perhaps the deepest and most essential part is carried by its women, and until the Oriental woman knows herself and has found her proper place, Oriental civilization will be crippled and discontinuous. (9) Christianity and Childhood . — Islam teaches that all children are born Moslems, but afterward their parents pervert them. This is expressed in a tradition from Mo- hammed: “Every infant is born on God’s plan, then his parents make him a Jew or a Christian or a Magian.” ^ This tradition has led to interminable discussion among theologians and canon lawyers, but religious Islam has accepted it as meaning practically that “children are of the kingdom of heaven.” What they really understand by this is that Islam is the natural religion and that the uncon- taminated human mind is Moslem. This, however, is dif- ferent from maintaining that the kingdom of heaven is best represented by the child mind and that therefore there must be in children along with the promise of the future a unique dignity and appeal. At this point appears Chris- tianity’s real contribution to the attitude toward children and child-life. (10) The Significance of Suffering in Life . — No religion solves the problem of the existence of suffering in a world ruled by a just and merciful God, but theological Islam is perhaps the most relentless of all in the unmerciful logic of its statements upon this point. In some forms it even uses the problem of suffering to increase the unknowableness of Allah. The Koran calls him “the most merciful of those who show mercy.” “But,” says the Moslem theologian, “experience demonstrates the absurdity of that statement in its literal meaning. Therefore these words cannot mean what they would mean, if said of a man, and we really do 1 See article Fitra in the “Encyclopedia of Islam.” 86 WHAT CHRISTIANITY MAY ADD not know what they do mean.” Christianity, on the other hand, is not so logical. It admits the mystery and incorpor- ates it in its religion as an essential part of the experience of the world, and sanctifies suffering through the suffering of its founder and the suffering even of God in him. Value and meaning are thus given to suffering and it ceases to be simply a horror, becoming a positive element in life. It is true that we do not know why it is there, but the whole drift of Christian thought, beginning with the example of Christ, is to accept it, to use it and to know that it can be accepted and used. The mystery of the Cross and of the suffering of our Lord thereon is part of the great mystery in the whole world, and the example of the patience and strength of our Lord has proven potent to deliver men from the power of sin and to emancipate them from the fear of suffering. The Christian Church has even taught that men can fill up the measure of the sufferings of Christ and by that means have fellowship with Him, understand Him and do some part for others with Him. Suffering, in a word, in Christianity is not a thing simply to be endured, but to be experienced and used, and in it the human and the divine can come into closest sympathy. (11) The Divine Share in Human Life . — In Islam the Divine guidance of man is wrought through a book. By it Allah commands, forbids and instructs mankind. It is the word of Allah addressing man. Islam therefore very early came to the conclusion that this was no ordinary book, but that there lay in it a mystery and that it, as the word of God to mankind, could be said to be uncreated and eternal. When, then, the Moslem recites it, hears it or remembers it, it is as though that uncreated word of Allah was sound- ing in his ears. Nevertheless, it is to him an unchanging revelation. On the other hand, the revelation of God to man in the Christian scheme is His coming in the person of Christ, His 87 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS living among men in the human Jesus and His continual manifestation in the Holy Spirit, the Comforter, the in- terpreter and guide of life. Christianity recognizes that with the incarnation there began a new working of the Divine in human life. Islam is still on the Old Testament religious basis. God is outside of life, although constantly directing it ; but in Christianity he has had and still has that share in human life that has been expressed at one time by immanence, which every generation must express for itself and for which our generation is now seeking a word. It is true that the mystics of Islam, like the mystics of all times, have come very close to this position, and on the basis of religious experience have taught that the individual soul can be and is guided personally by Allah. This, however, is in paradox with the fundamental theological position of the separation between Allah and his world, and mystical Islam has found no systematic way of solving this puzzle. But lacking the doctrine of the Trinity they tend to sway between pantheism, on the one hand, and intellectual agnos- ticism, on the other. The missionary should be very sure that he can state the doctrine of the Christian Trinity in terms that will meet this Moslem need. (12) The Communion of Saints . — As the government of the Moslem states became gradually infected with worldli- ness the religiously-minded in Islam withdrew from all con- tact with it, regarded the taking of government positions as dangerous for the welfare of their souls and doubted gravely the religious sincerity and honesty of all salaried government officials. There then gradually grew up the belief in the existence of a sort of heavenly board of ad- ministration. This was the government of Allah as opposed to that of those worldly princes and rulers. The members of this heavenly board were believed to be saints, alive and dead, who are arranged in a kind of hierarchy, the head beine the link between God and the world and the adminis- 88 WHAT IS IN COMMON trators being those ordinary-appearing men who went their way in the ordinary walks of life, but were really the saints of Allah. Those saints who had passed away but were believed to reside in a personal sense in their tombs were additional links between God and the world and their inter- cession should be sought and might be hoped for. In this fashion Islam built up in a curiously concrete bureaucratic, governmental form a conception of the communion of saints uniting both worlds in a fellowship of service and constitu- ting the real means by which Allah administers the world. A Moslem in trouble of any kind might hope that his trouble would be noticed and he himself relieved by the action of one or another of these functionaries. This is a beautiful conception, but it is not so helpful, appealing or spiritual a conception as the Christian teaching of ’the communion of saints uniting both worlds in prayer and service and with their prayers for each other ever ascending before the throne of God. The one is, as it were, a materialization of the other and the missionary should know how to use the Moslem conception to lead to the broader and more spiritual Christian view which covers all men and is separated from conventional machinery.^ X. What Christianity and Islam Have in Common (1) The Unity of God and of the World . — It may hardly seem necessary now to stress monotheism, and to show that Islam and Christendom unite in at least a fragment of the creed ‘We believe in one God.” But Christianity has some- times run risks of tritheism, and, at the present day, one wing of Christian believers tends somewhat to put Jesus in the place of God, and another wing, the more philosophical, seems adrift toward a kind of polydsemonism. The testi- 1 Cf. the Sufi hierarchy, p. 73. 89 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS mony of Islam, then, that there is no God save Allah may still be in point, and it will be well for the missionary to be sure that he understands exactly what Islam means by that, so that he will know how far he can follow his Moslem friends in the first and most important half of the Moslem creed. On the unity also of the world he will have to learn to distinguish. He will agree with Islam in unifying it all as the creation of God and as informed throughout by a one- ness as that creation. But he will not be able to follow the Moslem in his attitude of helpless wonder before the created world. His Moslem friends will say — “Md-sha- Allah!” (“What wonders hath Allah willed!”), and will stop there. The missionary may well defend the right and necessity laid upon men to investigate and to analyze these wonders. (2) The Reality and Personality of God . — Only through contact with Islam does a missionary learn to appreciate how real for the Moslem is the personality of Allah. This is not simply philosophical, that is, that Allah is the reality (al-haqq) as opposed to the semi- or non-reality of created things, but it is an absolute feeling of Him as an individual Person behind life with His hand upon all things, a person on whose will depends from moment to moment the exist- ence of all things. If, as one school of theologians has taught, Allah were to take His hand from the world for a moment, it would drop at once into nothingness. And this overwhelming personality is also imagined very concretely. The prophets and all the saints had known Him almost face to face. Many have seen Him in dreams, all the pious hope to see Him in paradise. The Hu! Hu! of the dervish in his ecstacy, a cry of “He, He,” is in itself a testimony to this overwhelming sense of personality. The Koran, too, is full of anthropomorphic details about Allah; and how- ever some theologians may explain them and may warn against psychological comparisons between man and God, 90 WHAT IS IN COMMON these have all gone to make still more real the Divine per- sonality. It is true that for the Moslem Allah does not mix with men, as God is represented in the Old Testament as doing with Abraham and the patriarchs, and that Islam finds the resting of God on the seventh day blasphemous and His “repenting Him of the evil” impossible, but in other respects He is as real and near to the devoted Moslem as to Moses and David. This the missionary will gradually learn to appreciate in its full extent, and will learn, too, to understand how man can adjust himself to life in this pres- ence and be not so very much affected by it in his personal conduct. (3) The Sinful Nature of Man . — For Islam man by his created nature is sinful. He did not become so by any fall or change, but being made of clay, he could not be anything else. He therefore, cannot perfectly please God. Islam, in fact, accepts this sinful nature somewhat as a matter of course, and relies in the end upon the forgiveness and mercy of Allah. The difference then is that Pauline Chris- tianity posits something of the nature of a Fall, a sinful change in the nature of man from his created nature, but Islam, while equally emphasizing his sinful nature, finds the solution of the problem of evil in the material out of which man was created. But it is also to be remembered that under the pressure of the admitted fact of the existence of certain sinless beings, Islam has shown a tendency to fall back upon an- other theory of the origin of sin, that is, that sin is due to the infant at birth being touched or pierced by Satan — a kind of sinful contagion being thus conveyed. In this way the sinless nature of Jesus and his mother can be main- tained, although they two were of flesh, for Satan was restrained by a miracle from touching them at birth. Man, therefore, is not really responsible for his sinful nature and this undoubtedly affects the attitude of Islam 91 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS toward sin. But the sin is there and must be repented ana on due repentance there will be forgiveness. Allah is merciful and forgiving and He loves the merciful and the forgiving. But this necessarily raises the question of what repentance means in Islam. The only safe answer is that it means as many different things as elsewhere. Undoubtedly there will be found in Islam an easy-going feeling that Allah is sure to forgive, more or less that it is His business to for- give. What would become of man, it is said, if Allah did not forgive. But this feeling deepens in the theologian into a more precise analysis of what Allah may require from man before He forgives. Repentance is consequently de- fined as consisting of three elements: “confession of the sin, compunction for it and determination not to return to it.” ^ A missionary must be on his guard against too sweeping generalizations in regard to repentance. Other- wise he may alienate the thoughtful Moslem with whom he is dealing. (4) Each Man Standing Personally Before God . — While Islam creates in the Moslem a strong community feeling as one of the people of Mohammed, distinguished in that from all others, yet the relationship of the individual to God is a purely personal one. It is for him personally to accept the guidance which God offers to all men and it is for men personally to do and to leave undone what God requires. He may seek advice as to details and about difficult cases, but he cannot shift off his responsibility upon another. Any conception of a priesthood standing between him and God is entirely abhorrent to Islam. This goes so far that Mos- lems find strange the idea even of the Protestant pastorate and admit no special relationship to the officials in charge of any mosque. They are simply conveniences through which he can better carry out his own personal worship. The only individual toward whom a Moslem can feel 1 Beidhawi on the Koran, Sura 2, v. 35. 92 WHAT IS IN COMMON himself standing in a peculiar spiritual relationship is the sheik of his fraternity house, if he is a dervish, and there the relationship is of teacher and pupil. The sheik has instructed him in sacred things, has opened his spiritual eyes and led him along the path of the mystic. Therefore there has been created between them a relationship that does not hold between any others. But this does not mean that even the dervish in his dhikr does not stand immedi- ately and personally before Allah. In the eschatology of Islam it is true that signs of a com- munity feeling break up the strict personal relationship. Each man has his “book” of good and evil deeds and these are individually weighed and reckoned in order to deter- mine how long a time, if any, he must pass in the Fire, — which for the Moslem is “purgatory,” — before he enters the Garden. However, because of the peculiar relationship of Mohammed to Allah, and because also of the feeling that it would be unseemly for the Fire to touch one who believes in Allah, there are traditions which maintain that Moslems will be admitted to the Garden immediately after the judg- ment in a body. But then there are others which maintain quite different positions. (5) That the Worship of God is a Comfort and Strength to Man . — It is in the five daily acts of worship (salat) that man most peculiarly stands personally before God. Worship for Islam is thus a paying of his duty on the part of man to his Lord, an act of respect like the duteous call upon any superior. But while it is thus an act of homage, it has also been so arranged by God as to be a comfort, healing and strength to man. Islam in fact believes that if any one with an open mind will go through the motions of this technical worship, it will affect him and make a believer of him, even though he is not one already. It is true that the Moslem theologians have had trouble in explaining why worship consists of just such utterances and motions of the 93 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS body. But the current explanation is to refer to the equally unknown elements in the prescription of a physician. Just as a patient takes what a physician prescribes and is healed by it, so man should go through these motions and may be sure that they will perform their perfect work in him. Thus it should be taken not only as a daily diet, but also for strength on particular occasions. There are traditions from Mohammed and from his immediate followers that tell how, when they were troubled by anything, such as a difficulty or a sorrow, they would gather strength and com- fort by going through the Salat} (6) The Possibility of Immediate Intercourse between God and the Individual . — When an individual man thus stands in the presence of God, God is not necessarily a God afar off, but is very near to the worshiper and intercourse is reciprocal. It is the paradox of Islam that while Mo- hammed, on the one hand, seems in the Koran to fix an absolute gulf between God and man and uses phrases that really imply that God is unknowable, on the other hand, he taught and practised that immediacy of intercourse which is the mark of the true mystic. Nor did he keep to himself and his fellow prophets all the possibilities of revelation and inspiration, but he taught that God could reveal himself, even did reveal himself to all men in some degree. Any man might hope to see God and be taught by him in dreams. “Dreaming,” said Mohammed, “is one forty-sixth part of prophecy.” Between the saints {azvliyd) and Allah, there is, of course, still more immediate and frequent intercourse and the saints are on the way to be prophets. The essential difference between the saint and the prophet is that the latter has received a message to be handed on to others. Christianity, then, may differ with Islam as to the precise character of sainthood, but they are at one as to the immedi- ate working of God in the human heart and His so revealing ^ For an analysis of the beneficial elements in worship, see Beidhawi on Koran II, 46. 94 WHAT IS IN COMMON Himself. Further, Islam lays down that it is a duty for man to love God, but is in doubt as to whether it may fit- tingly be said that God loves man, and if that is said, as to what is the meaning then of the word “love.” “For,” say the theologians, “love implies a lack in the lover which the beloved must supply and in Allah there can be no lack.” But these are the hair-splitting queries of theologians; the religious Moslem has no difficulty in describing the love of God for man and the beatitude of the immediate intercourse between God and man.^ (7) That God Has Revealed His Will to Man Through Men . — By definition a prophet is a messenger sent by God with a message to men, and God has chosen to use human beings as his messengers. Angels may mediate between God and the prophet, but angels are supposed to come to prophets only. Ordinary men could not endure their glory. Therefol'e, God has in His mercy made use of flesh to teach flesh. Some theologians have illustrated the place of the prophet by comparing him to the cartilage that separates between bone and flesh. The bone could not be nourished directly from the flesh because of the difference of nature between them, but the cartilage takes up the nourishment and passes it on. So the prophet takes from the revealing angel and passes on to man.^ (8) The Reality of a Judgment and of a Life to Come . — This was one of the cardinal elements in the original teach- ing of Mohammed. Not only is there a God who is ruling the world, but He will hold a great assize of judgment and thereafter man and the jinn, as lost or saved, will live an entirely different kind of life to all eternity. This judgment to come, therefore, is the most important thing in life, and all man’s endeavor should be set to meet it successfully. Islam, orthodox, heretical and mystical, is “other-worldly” 1 See the article “Blessedness in Mohammedanism,” Hastings’ “Encyclopsdia of Religion and Ethics.” * Beidhawi, Koran, II, 28. 95 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS to the highest degree. Wherever, therefore, a revival has come in Islam or an individual has passed through the process of conversion, it has been wrought by fear of the Fire. This holds even of the greatest saints. In fact, one of the greatest weaknesses in Islam is the absence in it of the broad, healthy-minded saint. The worldly-minded may take his chance of escape through the mercy of Allah and enjoy the world, but it seems hardly possible for the thoroughly religious Moslem to enjoy the world. This, of course, has appeared also in some phases of Christianity, but is not essential to it, and is strictly opposed to the healthy-mindedness of Christ. The missionary will have to be on his guard against overemphasizing the fear of the consequences of sin as opposed to a shrinking from sin itself. XL The Method and Attitude of the Missionary Approach to Islam (1) The Necessity of Varying Methods . — It must be al- ready clear that there are several outstanding types of Moslems, and within these types there may, as with Chris- tians, be great individual variety. The argument which arouses one Moslem or meets his need may have no eifect at all upon another. It is necessary, therefore, for the missionary to avoid settling on one method. He will find that almost every case must be taken by itself. But it is true that there are certain types, and to meet the need of those types there are certain definite aspects of Christian truth. These may not be the aspects which appeal most to the missionary himself, but they will always be essential. It is precisely here that the practical importance for the missionary of knowing thoroughly the ideas of Islam and the psychology of the Moslem mind appears. If he has 96 THE MISSIONARY APPROACH not, through study and experience, acquired what might be called a Moslem side to his brain, he will not be able to enter into the difficulties of the individual Moslem before him, and in public speaking it will be impossible for him to establish that rapport with his audience which is the secret of all persuasion. (2) The Primary Necessity to Present Christ. — The missionary goes as a preacher of Christ. But Christ has very many aspects, and the question for him before each audience and with each individual must always be which aspect will most immediately and effectively present the essential Christ. Three methods will bear emphasizing: (a) The Direct Approach. — The gospels will always in- terpret themselves and will present Christ to the Oriental in a way impossible to any Occidental interpretation. The gospels are Oriental to their core and Orientals understand them. The missionary therefore may consider that a great part of his work is done when he has once fairly set his Moslem inquirer face to face with Christ in the gospels themselves. One man may care more for one gospel, an- other for another, but the one Figure stands out in all. (b) Through the Prologue of John. — An individual case of approach is to be found in the prologue to the gospel according to St. John. In fact, there is hardly in all the Bible another passage which affords so simple and immedi- ate a development from Islam into Christianity. As verse after verse is read, the Moslem may feel that some of the phrasing is a little careless, but he will, at the same time, assent to its broad truth. Only when he comes to the great assertion : “And we beheld His glory, the glory of the only Begotten of the Father” (John 1:14) will he have passed beyond Islam. (c) Through PhiUppians 2:7. — Another individual case of immediate contact is found in Philippians, 2:7. “Tak- ing the form of a doulos.” Here the Moslem will think at 97 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS once of the passage in the Koran where Christ speaks of himself as an 'abd, a slave, or, as we might render it broadly, a creature, exactly the same as the Greek doulos. The missionary then can develop what Paul meant and what the Christian Church understands by the use of this term. The whole conception of the serving Christ, of how he humbled himself for our sakes, can be developed from it. It should be noted that Islam in general does not think of a prophet as humble or as serviceable in the broad way of Christian thought. The Moslem conception of the prophet has always been that of the ruler and dominator, that of Moses, in fact, eliminating his meekness. This deeper conception, then, in connection with Christ, is of primary importance, and can be followed up further by the fact that the stories current among Moslems exhibit him almost uniformly on the side of the helper or healer. (3) The Cosmic Christ . — But there is one aspect of Christ which has such close parallels in Islam and is so suggestive for Moslems that it must be taken by itself. Christ as a great personal force in relation to the whole world rather than as an individual meeting the needs of separate souls, appeals to the more philosophical and mys- tical Moslem mind. With them as with us there are many to whom the problem of the world rises as a broad and general one. They desire to know the whence and the why of the universe, the great purpose and idea in it all, rather than to reach any strictly personal help and salvation. Their peace of mind is found in seeing the world as a cosmos, an ordered creation with an intelligible place for themselves in it, rather than any saving of themselves from the power and penalty of sin. It is to such minds as this that the prologue to the Fourth Gospel comes with luminous clearness. At once it raises in their minds two parallels. The first is with the uncreated quality of Allah which they call kaldm (see p. 39), that quality of Allah by which He 98 THE MISSIONARY APPROACH created the universe and which found its earthly expression in the Koran. It is unnecessary to follow out the details of this parallel, but one detail of the development of the Christian position should be made clear to the Moslem. It is that the “word” in John’s Gospel is not simply “speech,” the utterance, i.e., of the Divine thought, but is the Divine thought itself ; that logos is inadequately rendered by “word” or by kalani and still more by kalima, an “individ- ual, single word.” It is rather the equivalent of “reason” as well as “speech.” The Moslem finds it easy to posit behind the universe, not simply an uncontrolled, unreasoned will of Allah, but a Divine Reason ordering and explaining the creation. As the first parallel was with the Athanasian conception of Christ, so the second is with the Arian. It is an article of faith in Islam that Mohammed was the first of all created beings and that for his sake all the rest of creation was thereafter produced. This belief connects with the doctrine of the “light of Mohammed” — that appearance on the forehead of all his ancestors in the direct line, an out- ward sign of the prophetic personality which was being passed along through them. These ideas are not Koranic, but are among the additions which the syncretism of Islam adopted, probably under Persian influence. The parallel here is by no means so rich in meaning as the first and will lead at once to a direct clash as to the relative positions of Mohammed and Christ in the scheme of things, but still it is very close. Through it the Moslem has the idea of a being closer to Allah than any other, and of this being as a real cause of the universe. (4) Redemption From Sin . — The place of sin in Islam has been stated above (p. 77), and the difference between it and the Christian conception has been stated. Probably a preaching of salvation as a deliverance from the tortures of hell would appeal most nearly to the average Moslem. 99 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS But it may be doubted whether the Christian missionary will desire to make this declaration quite so literally and concretely as his Moslem audience will understand it. It will be necessary to emphasize the idea of redemption from the power of sin, which will be a new idea and a distinct advance for the majority of Moslems. For this emphasis Paul’s idea as developed in Romans will be found useful. But the missionary will need to make sure that his inquirers or converts do not stop short with the Moslem part of that idea and that they go on to understand Paul’s whole position. The phrase “the body of this death” (Rom. 7:24) and the allegory of the potter and the pots (Rom. 9:21) might be accepted by a Moslem without any grasp of the real Christian position. (5) The Simplicity and Clearness of the Bible . — Every missionary to Moslems has discovered that the testimony of the Bible to itself is truly impressive, and they have learned also by experience that to lead a Moslem to study the Bible itself with an open mind is by far his best intro- duction to Christianity. The infinite variety of the Bible plays its part in this. It may be the figure of Christ in one or more of the gospels that appeals; it may be the psy- chology of Paul; it may even be the fascinating stories or the clear development of historical narrative with one king following another in chronological sequence. The mission- ary must not be surprised at any apparent vagary of interest. Wherever the beginning is made, it nevertheless has been made. It is true that the Bible also has great handicaps. In no translation can it possibly ^ attain the magical influence of the musical cadences of the Koran. Moreover, there is much in its frank anthropomorphism that might repel and has repelled Moslem readers. But these objectors have mostly been theologians and there is enormous evidence that the masses of Islam read the Bible eagerly. The only question for the missionary will be what 100 THE MISSIONARY APPROACH part of the Bible to present to each individual Moslem. It will be a question of tact or opportunity. (6) The Devout Life . — Every missionary comes to admit that genuine devotion exists in Islam. Whatever we may think of the character of Mohammed, the fact is fixed that he was devout. And devotional exercises therefore have been common in Islam from the beginning. The mission- ary’s problem will be how to make the transfer from these formal exercises into Christian devotion. He may easily find that some imitation of the devotional forms of Islam with a Christian content may be necessary. Moslem con- verts sometimes miss in Christian religious services the fervid ecstasies of the dervish dhikr. The singing of hymns and praying, either formal or free, cannot completely take the place of the more emotional devotions of dervishes, so numerous among the uneducated masses of Islam. This is one of the present problems of missions to Islam and should be constantly borne in mind by the missionary as he surveys his task, although it is also true that the dervish and his dhikr are viewed by the educated Moslem only with contempt. In Turkey especially the dervish is too often a wandering, greedy impostor, believed to be capable of any sin. There and in Persia many of them are admittedly anti- nomian. This tendency has reacted on the popular estimate. On the other hand, religious freedom and free personal de- votion are of the very essence of the Mevlevite and Bek- tashite positions, and much is to be expected from them in the reform or the breakup of Islam. Another point of contact of the same nature is the use of devotional phrases. The Moslem, as he walks or sits, repeats to himself with the assistance of his rosary the ninety-nine most beautiful names of Allah. There is a tendency amongst Christians to shrink from such supposedly mechanical devotions, but their being mechanical depends entirely on the spirit in which they are done. There can 101 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS be no question that a missionary will come very close to the soul of a devomt Moslem simply by sitting by him and exchanging with him for his most beautiful names of Allah the names and epithets of God and Christ which occur in the Scriptures. In such intercourse as this the missionary will learn the part that beauty of language plays in Islam, and will be stimulated to the purifying, polishing and per- fecting of his religious vocabulary. (7) Sympathy with Mystical Islam. — The missionary will find that his contact with the mystics of Islam is more immediate and sympathetic than with all other Moslems. These men have broken with the stiff orthodoxy of formal Islam. Details of the canon law mean comparatively little to them. They interpret all rules and doctrines in the widest way and believe most fixedly in the “light that lighteth every man.” For them, therefore, this Christian, while technically he is an unbeliever and will necessarily go to the h'ire, may yet be a person of religion and devo- tion. The missionary, therefore, should cultivate intercourse with such men. He should learn their methods of devotion and read their books. He will find much there to remind him of the Golden Legend of Medieval Europe and of the stories told of the early Egyptian hermits. Perhaps in his actual intercourse with the mystics even these hagiologies may become real and human to him. The Moslem mystical literature is undoubtedly the most human side of the Mos- lem theology, and in it the Divine spirit has most clearly worked with the Moslem heart and mind. (8) Answering Theological Questions . — It is coming to be recognized that controversy, while it may at times be necessary, is not the principal part of a missionary’s task. His business, first and always, is to present Christ, and it has been suggested that that may best be done through the Gospels themselves. But the time will come when an inquirer will begin to ask questions. These will differ ac- 102 THE MISSIONARY APPROACH cording to his knowledge of his own religion and theology, but it is in the answering of these questions that the mis- sionary will need to know the systematic theology of Islam. That is not a light task and it will not be achieved simply by studying the Koran. He will need to take some texts of theology, some creeds with their expositions, and master them thoroughly. In doing this he will find it worth while to trace out their parallelism with Christian systems of theology and to note the divergencies. For example, the parallel of the stricter theologians with Calvinism will be found very close and illuminative, while that of the more mystical theologians with the Roman system as stated by Aquinas will be closer. This latter parallel is probably not accidental, for it seems demonstrable that the mystical sys- tem of Al-Ghazzali influenced Aquinas indirectly through Spanish thinkers. (9) The Factor of Greatest Importance . — In conclusion it should be said that in dealing with Moslems the person- ality of the missionary may be the decisive factor. This can be viewed on two sides. First: the doctrine of love by which many a Moslem will learn to distinguish Christianity will appeal with attractive power or act as a powerful de- terrent according to the life of the individual missionary. If the missionary is so interested in the welfare of the people that he works heart and soul for their physical, in- tellectual and spiritual advancement, a good basis is fur- nished immediately for the closest relation with Moslems of similar ideals, and the way is paved to the breaking down of prejudice and opposition. If the missionary’s in- terest in the people be found to be keen and sympathetic, leading him earnestly to seek to see all that is best in them, and to support all that is best, no matter by what name it may go, then friendships will develop which will give greater opportunities than any other relationship to pre- sent to the people Christ in all his attractiveness. This 103 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS capacity for sympathy with the people and for real friend- ship is the most important factor in the equipment of the missionary. Second: from the very nature of Islam its adherents are men and must be met by men. The theology of Islam has sometimes, even like some Christian theolog- ical systems, developed intolerance, bitterness and narrow- ness, but it has also fostered dignity, strength and manliness. These qualities the missionary must seek for with sympathy and understanding. He has no need of posing as a patron of an irreligious people. Once he knows them well he will discover the absurdity of such an attitude. He may even come to realize that they have a simplicity and fixity of faith which he would fain possess. To do anything with them, then, he must understand them, like them, trust them, and so give himself to them with all his heart and soul. (10) The Institutional Approach to Islam . — While it is unnecessary to discuss in a detailed way the approach to Islam through the social and religious institutions of Chris- tendom, the significance of this approach can hardly be overestimated. Islam is a fortress not readily battered down by artillery fire; it can only be captured by slow and indirect processes. This is all the more true, because Islam is not inert nor unagg^essive, nor lacking in an institutional development of its own. The work of the medical missionary and of the hospital goes far in breaking down prejudice and opening the way of the general missionary. These talk in universal terms a language of human brotherhood and friendship which not only invites, but forces a response in the hearts of the most bigoted or ignorant. Closely allied to medical work is that of education. The average Moslem is densely ignorant. Islam makes little provision for the relief of this ignorance. The Christian school is highly efficacious in dispelling this ignorance and in arousing a healthy ambition for progress, which is in the long run dangerous to orthodox Islam. 104 THE PREPARATION OF THE MISSIONARY The press is wonderfully efficient in preparing the stony soil of Mohammedan society for the seed of Christian truth. The mission presses at Cairo, Beirut and Lahore find an uninterrupted demand for all the good literature they can produce. But above every other agency in opening the way of the missionary to Moslems should be ranked the native Chris- tians, who, although not at present constituting a missionary force, have great latent possibilities. The missionary should not overlook the cultivation among them of the missionary point of view. Such Christians speak their languages/ are capable of dealing with them directly, and should be trained to understand and appreciate the Moslem mind. The de- spised Armenian or Copt may be, nevertheless, an adept in putting truth in ways to which a Mohammedan can react. XII. The Preparation of the Missionary A perusal of the preceding pages will convince any can- didate for missionary service among Moslems that his course of preparation will be arduous and exacting. He does not get ready to face a simple people ready to drop their superstitions and to adopt Christianity. He rather will face a people full of religious pride and led by men who in their way, at least, are scholarly and sincere. His task will be exceedingly difficult, hence the most thorough preparation is desirable. (1) Along Physical and Social Lines . — Islam fosters a very real “pride of life.” There is a poise, a presence, a dignity, a haughtiness, a capacity for scorn, a strange ca- pacity for making the impact of personal influence felt, that one often finds among Moslem leaders. Some of this 1 It is to be remembered, however, that the phrasing used by an Armenian and by a Turk, and the meanings ascribed by them to many words and phrases may differ widely. A close analogy may, perhaps, be found in St Paul’s application of Greek, whether speaking to Jews or to pagans, to express Chris- tianity’s ideas. Did the Jews and the pagan peoples always and immediately understand the ideas involved in those new usages? 105 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS is a matter of religious training, a scorning of unbelievers; some of it is due to the fact that they hold themselves above the races subject to them, but in part it is physical. The leaders of Islam have all been described as men of splendid physical development. Colorless and savorless characters v^ill not gain the respect and confidence of Moslems; missionaries ought to be men whose influence will tell, search and penetrate. While such influence does not necessarily accompany physical strength, yet personal presence and poise of personality contribute richly to the desired end. The importance of social grace and courtesy in dealing with Mohammedans can scarcely be overemphasized. The need for emphasis on this point grows in part out of our naturally brusque and direct Western ways which constantly offend the Oriental, and in part out of our national lack of discipline in deferring to others. When arriving on the field, it will be well to heed Rice’s suggestions, “It is well worth while to endeavor to acquire, as far as possible, the polite forms of speech used by the natives of the country in their intercourse with one another.” But long before leaving the homeland, the prospective missionary to Mos- lems will do well to give heed to the little amenities of life which make for courtesy, grace, thoughtfulness for others, Christian kindliness and true Christlikeness. (2) Along Intellectual Lines , — Here a plea should be made for thoroughness. It is not so much a question of how much territory the student covers, as it is the acquiring of knowledge in a way that makes it an instrument ready for instant use in later years. The reasoning powers need to be developed to enable the future missionary to cut to the heart of his subject, to avoid becoming entangled in false reasonings and to be enabled always to set forth his conceptions of truth in clear and forceful form. The value of the study of logic will be manifest; it is the strongest 106 THE PREPARATION OF THE MISSIONARY weapon of the defender of Islam, In philosophy, Platon- ism and Neo-Platonism are to be recommended in outline at least, for Islam in certain periods absorbed many elements from Neo-Platonism. Nor is the fundamental value of all philosophical study to be lost sight of : nothing perhaps is so productive of that elasticity of mind which gives due consideration to an opponent’s viewpoint and makes a sympathetic dealing with it possible. The sciences provide much valuable information concerning the facts of the physical world which, though often unappreciated by the Oriental Moslem, serves as an argument at the very point where Islam is weakest. The study of sociology should have a large place in the preparation of the student for future life work among the Moslems. A facile use of German for reading important works, alone available in German and dealing with the problems of Islam, may be added to the list of requirements for indirect preparation. (3) Along Spirittial Lines . — Christian influence is not a trick, but a life; fundamentally a question not of method, but of spiritual attainment. No man can lift men spiri- tually beyond his own spiritual height. The supreme con- sideration, therefore, is that the young missionary shall possess a genuine spiritual experience. To know God, to be conscious of His being and power, to have dealt directly with Him, to have talked with Him and to feel that He also has replied, to know Christ and to be following his leadership, to rejoice in personal salvation and personal fellowship with God; these are fundamental requirements for all missionary service, but preeminently for him who would deal with Moslems. To the Moslem’s consciousness of God’s presence and reality such an experience opposes a conception of God which is holier, truer and purer and which lends itself after all more really to the consciousness of God’s reality and nearness than does the Moslem con- ception of Allah, 107 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS Add to this, uprightness of life and conduct. On the Moslem, disassociating too constantly religious experience and moral conduct, nothing makes a profounder impression than a religious profession backed up by blameless integrity of character. Absolute integrity was the secret of the power which was possessed by the Lawrences of the Punjab or by Gordon of Khartum, and the basis of the influence which their lives exerted. Unselfishness, pure human love, disinterestedness; these are Christian virtues that are sorely needed and severely tested where Christian men and women undertake to lift Moslem men and women to a knowledge of Christ. There will be need for the root impulse of genuine love, though guided by wisdom and judgment so that love may have its widest manifestation, its farthest outreach, and its most abiding influence. A life of prayer should characterize every prospective missionary to Islam. It is of little value to criticize the formality of Moslem prayer unless over against it is set a really adequate devotion to prayer. The prospective mis- sionary may well ask himself whether his prayer life, if laid bare (and its ultimate discovery to others is not likely to be long delayed), might fairly claim, in its measure as well as its character, to illustrate the higher gospel which he preaches of God’s readiness to draw near unto men. Furthermore, there is no world to which a missionary may go where the difficulty, the apparent impossibility of his missionary task, constitutes so distinct a challenge to prayer as in the Islamic fields. The Moslem loves and reverences the Koran; he listens by the hour to its readings; he memorizes whole pages of it, often the whole. Dare the Christian missionary be less reverent with his Bible or be less a master of its teachings? He must go farther. Only as the Sacred Scriptures are found to be a pathway by which he finds his way into 108 STUDIES OF SPECIAL VALUE the presence of God, only as they serve as a spiritual tele- phone over which he hears the living voice of a living God speaking to him individually; only so will the Bible retain its rightful place in his life throughout the years and be- come his most useful tool. (4) In General . — One of the best ways of gaining a true perspective and a real enthusiasm, along with definitely helpful ideas regarding the real work of a missionary among Moslems, is for the candidate to lose no chance of consulta- tion and of acquaintance with actual missionaries from the Moslem field. Such an experience will give reality and vitality to his plans, will help him to avoid many difficulties and will direct his attention to unrealized possibilities. At the same time, the candidate should remember that he has his own life to live and his own work to carry through. He needs a good start rather than a carefully adjusted scheme for a series of years. A good missionary finds abundant use for all the learning he can acquire of the sort suggested in this report; he will find good advice exceedingly useful, yet, after all, his su- preme need is a genuine missionary passion directed by love. Without it no one can succeed in the most complete sense; with it every element of culture or training finds its proper place, and initiates a long career of sacrificing service. XIII. Studies of Special Value to One Who is to be A Missionary to Moslems The following lists are intended to suggest the lines of study which a missionary student of Islam might well take up in the course of his career. They are not exhaustive, but will serve to guide the judgment of the candidate or of the junior missionary. Those general studies which are common to missionary preparation for all fields and for 109 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS every type of service have been omitted, since they are adequately discussed in reports already issued. 1. To be Pursued at College or at a Training School. Public speaking and debate. Moslems, especially in India, like public discussion. Every aggres- sive missionary is drawn into it more or less. He is wise who becomes able to stand on his feet and think and argue. Formal logic. * The Moslem teacher has a logical mind and uses closely reasoned argument. Psychology, Philosophy and Ethics. The average Moslem learned man is very much like a mediaeval schoolman. Where a course on Mediaeval Psychology is offered, it will be worth while to take it. German and French. One who dwells in the Near East finds these languages of great value, French for speaking, German for studying. To the serious student of Islam they are almost indispensable. Ethnology. This will introduce the student to the mixed Moslem world of today. 2. To be Pursued at the Professional or Graduate Training School. Hebrew and New Testament Greek. The Mohammedan scholar has a greater respect for the missionary who knows his own Scripture in the original tongues. Moreover, Hebrew affords a natural introduction to the study of the Semitic mind and of the Arabic language. • The principles and methods of the historical study of the Bible. These will have an important bearing on the Moslem’s attitude to his own scriptures. Early Church History through the great Christological contro- versies and the development of the Eastern Church. To understand the beginnings of Mohammedanism the student must be acquainted with the history of the first six centuries. Christian Apologetics. The History of Christian Missions. Mysticism: Christian and Non-Christian. A grounding in Christian mysticism with a study of the mystical consciousness will prepare the student to understand the Moslem mystic. The Comparison of Religions. Islam is a very complex affair and needs to be studied in the light of all religious phenomena. no STUDIES OF SPECIAL VALUE 3 . To be Pursued during the Period of Specialization. Classical Arabic with some reading in the Koran. Phonetics with especial reference to the Semitic languages. The Koran in English compared with the New Testament. The antecedents and early history of Islam. The comparative study of Christian and Moslem theology. The comparison of the religious thinking of Islam with that of the Roman system of Aquinas, and of Islam and Calvinism will be especially helpful to the student of Moslem theology. The political and social problems of the Moslem land to which the candidate is to go. Modern developments in Islam ; tendencies, sects and religious orders. The missionary approach to Islam : points of contact, divergence, etc. The history of Christian missions in the country to which the candidate is to go. 4 . To he Pursued during the First Period of Active Mis- sionary Service. The thorough mastery of the vernacular of the people in the dis- trict to which the missionary goes. The reading of periodical and popular literature in this vernacular. The study of the Koran in the Arabic. The literature of Islam. The intensive study of the Islam of the missionary’s own field. A study which takes into account the modifications due to environ- ment and the development due to surrounding religions. The study of the Moslem controversy with Christianity. 5 . To he Pursued during the First Furlough. Reading in the standard Arabic grammarians and interpreters and in literature. Exercises in writing Arabic. A study of the leading Moslem creeds. Hebrew and Rabbinical history and thought from 500 B.C. to 550 A.D. A comprehensive survey of world-wide Mohammedanism. Ill PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS A survey of missionary methods used with Moslems. A review, as far as feasible, of philosophy, ethics and theology, so as to become adjusted to their progress. 6. Themes for the Permanent Attention of a Missionary to Moslems. The accurate rendering of the Koran into the vernacular of his district. The adaptation of the essential Christian message to the Moslem mind and heart. The vital forces in Islam and its future contribution to Christianity. Islam as a true Moslem sees and feels it. The animistic element in Islam. The attitude of the Christianized Moslem to Mohammed. The development of Moslem society. XIV. The Bibliography of Islam The following list of books has been prepared with the needs of the thoughtful student of Islam in mind. It in- cludes many titles which will be out of the reach of the average missionary, but none about which it would not be well for him to have some general knowledge. In the sections which follow the bibliography the most useful and essential volumes are indicated. The most complete biblio- graphy for the Koran, for the Traditions and for Moham- med is in Parts 10 and 11 of Chauvin’s Bibliographie Arabe. Every missionary library on Islam which aims at working completeness would wisely include at least these two Parts. A. SOURCES (MAINLY IN TRANSLATIONS) 1. Al-Baghawi. Masabib as-sunna. Many Oriental editions. A large and miscellaneous collection of traditions without asnad. For its place and importance, see Moslem World, July, 1916, p. 309. 2. El-Beidawl. Commentary on the Koran. Best edit, by Fleischer, Leipzig, 1846-48. There are also Oriental editions, some with super-commentary. A universally respected commentary in Arabic on the Koran, exegetical, theological, philological and historical. Valuable also in the study of Arabic. 112 THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ISLAM 3. EI-Bukharl. Les Traditions Islamiques. Translated by O. Houdas and W. Marcais. Four vols. Paris, Leroux, 1903-14. There is a European edition of the original Saliih by Krehl and Juynboll and many Oriental editions, some with super-commentaries. 4. Fadl, Mirza abu-1. The Quran : Arabic text and English translation. Two vols. Allahabad, Ashgar, 1911. A literal translation by a Moslem, done with care. 5. Fluegel, G. Corani Textus Arabicus. Pp. viii, 529. Leipzig, 1881. This edition of the Koran in Arabic dates from 1834 but remains the standard edition for scholarly use. Ofteti reprinted. The edition by Redslob should be avoided, since the verses are not numbered. The missionary will also require an Oriental edition fcr public use. 6. Al-Ghazzall. ad-Dourra al Fakhira. Arabic and French translation by L. Gautier. Pp. 200, Geneva, 1878. An important work for the student of Moslem eschatology. 7. Al-Hanifi, AH al-Marghinani. al Hedaya fil-furu‘. Translated by Charles Hamilton, 1870. The standard digest in English of Hanafite canon law. 8. Ibn Hisham. Edit, by Wiistenfeld with indices. Also Cairo, A.H. 1295. A standard life of the Prophet in Arabic based on ibn Ishak (A.H. 151). It was translated into German by Gustav Weil in 1864, 2 vols., Stuttgart. 9. Hitti, P. K. The Origins of the Islamic State (Columbia University Studies). Vol. I. Pp. 578. New York, Longmans, 1916. A good translation with notes of a part of al-Baladhuri’s Futuh al-Buldan. 10. Hujwirl, ‘AH b. ‘Uthman al-Jullabi. The Kashf al-Mahjub, the oldest Persian Treatise on Sufiism. Pp. xxiv, 447. Translated by R. A. Nicholson. London, Luzac, 1911. A very important treatise on mystical religion. 11. Jalalu’d Din, The MesnevI, Book I. Translated by J. W. Redhouse. (Triibner’s Oriental Series.) Pp. 290. London, Triibner, 1881. The advantage in this translation of the first book of the Mesnevi is that there is prelixed a sort of Acts of the Apostles of the Mevlevi dervish fathers, translated from Turkish and giving a good picture of the beliefs and practices of the fraternity. There is another translation by Whinfield, London, 1898. The second book was translated by C. E. Wilson, London, 1910. 12. Mathews, A. N. The Mishkat ul Masabih. Calcutta, 1809. The only English translation of this — or of any — extensive collection of Moslem tradi- tions. A very rare and expensive book. 13. Palmer, E. H., translator. The Qur'an (Sacred Books of the East, Vols. VI, IX). Two Vols. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1880. Also in one volume. The best idiomatic-, spirited, rhythmical version of the Koran, but disfigured by strange lapses of care. Has a rather poor historical introduction and a useful abstract of contents. 14. Patton, W. W. Ahmed ibn Hanbal and the Mihna. Pp. 208. Leyden, Brill, 1897. A valuable monograph bearing on the attempt of al-Ma’mun to force the Mutazilite doctrine of the creation of the Koran on Islam and on the orthodox opposition of Ibn Hanbal. 15. Ragg, Lonsdale and Laura. The Gospel of Barnabas. Oxford. Claren- don Press, 1907. Italian text with English translation. Inserted because of the use made of this gospel by Moslem apologists. 16. Rahmat-Ullah. Idhhar (Izhar) ul-Haqq. Translated from the Arabic into French by P. V. Carletti. Two Vols. Paris, Leroux, 1880. A Moslem reply to Pfander’s Mizan-al-haqq. 113 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS 17. Rodwell, J. M., translator. The Koran (Everyman’s Library). Pp. 506. London, Dent. ^ Valuable for indicating the chronological order of suras, thus showing in a broad way the sequence of ideas, The most readable Koran translation for a beginner, but to be used with caution. 18. Sale, G., translator. The Koran. Many editions. A good one in the Chandos Classics. London, Warne and Co. A translation still valuable for its full commentary. It is based on Maracci and ap- peared first in 1734. All later translations have been affected by it. 19. El Zamakhshari. Commentary on the Koran. Two Vols. Cairo. Also an edition by Nassau Lees in the Bibliotheca Indica. A Mutazilite commentary in Arabic on the Koran, basing the exegesis on close philolo- gical work with details of grammar. The basis of El Beidawi. B. HISTORY AND LITERATURE OE ISLAM 20. Ali, Syed Ameer. The Spirit of Islam. Pp. lix, 440. Calcutta, Kegan Paul, 1902. A clever though historically inaccurate survey of Mohammed’s life and work and of the development of Islam by an English-educated Moslem, who inclines toward rationalism. 21. — The History of the Saracens. Pp. 368. London, Macmillan, 1899. 22. Arnold, T. W. The Preaching of Islam. Pp. xvi, 467. Second revised edit. London, Constable, 1913. A brilliant book of great value but incorrect in its overemphasis of preaching as a method of promulgating Islam and in minimizing the extent of armed invasion as a factor contributing to the propagation of Islam. 23. Broomhall, M. Islam in China. Pp. 332. London, Morgan and Scott, 1910. Discusses the history of Islam in the Chinese empire, the present Mohammedan popula- tion and the problems of their evangelization. Scientific, critical, based on thorough investigations, and reliable. 24. Caetani, Leone. Annali dell’ Islam, Rome. A critical reconstruction of the early history of Islam from the existing evidence. A monumental work for the use of specialists. 25. — Chronographia Islamica. London. Williams and Norgate, 1913. An abridgment of the preceding. 26. Cambridge Mediaeval History. Vol. II. London, Cambridge University Press, 1913. Contains important articles on “Rise of the Saracens,** and on the “Foundations of the Western Empire.** 27. Caussin de Perceval, A. P. Essai sur I’Histoire des Arabes avant I’lslam- isme, etc. Three vols. Paris, Geuthner, 1902. A reprint of the original edition of 1847. A mine of generally reliable information concerning the pre-Islamic Arab kingdoms and their union under Mohammed and Abu-Bekr. 28. Clouston, W. A. Arabian Poetry. Pp. Ixxii, 472. Glasgow, 1881 (rare). Contains a choice collection of Arabian poetry. 29. Creasy, Sir Edmund S. History of the Ottoman Turks. Pp. xvi, 558. New York, Holt, 1877. 30. Dozy, R. P. A. Essai sur I’histoire de I’islamisme. Translated from the Dutch by Victor Chauvin. Leyden, 1879. A useful introduction, 114 THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ISLAM 31. Eliot, Sir Charles, (“Odysseus”). Turkey in Europe. Second edit. Pp. 345. London, Arnold, 1908. The first-hand observation of a diplomat regarding the Turkish empire in Europe. An admirable book. 32. Garnett, Lucy M. J. Turkey of the Ottomans. Pp. 304. London, Pitman and Sons, 1911. A very general discussion of the Ottomans, their origin, spread and character. 33. Gibb, E. J. W. Ottoman Poems. Pp. Iv, 272. London, Triibner, 1882. A collection of the poetry of the Ottoman Turks. 34. — A History of Ottoman Poetry. Six vols. London, Luzac & Co., 1900-1909. A monumental work. 35. Gibbons, H. A. The Foundations of the Ottoman Empire. Pp. 379. New York, The Century Co., 1916. A clear, important historical study of the formative period of the Ottoman nation. 36. Gilman, Arthur. The Saracens. (Story of the Nations Series.) Pp. ii, 493. New York, Putnam, 1902. A popular compilation on the history of the Saracens, bringing out their achievements in literature, art and science. 37. Grimme, H. Mohammed. Two vols. Pp. 164, 186. Munster, 1892-95. Short but thorough and at first-hand. 38. el Halebi, ’All ibn Burhan-ud-din. Insan el ‘Uyun. Three vols. Cairo, 1908. A popular life of the Prophet in Arabic, quoting much later tradition. Worth pos- sessing. 39. Holland, E. The Story of Mohammed. Pp. 192. London, Harran & Co., 1914. Brief, concise and clear account of the early struggles of Islam. A second-hand account which rather idealizes Mohammed. 40. Huart, Cl. Histoire des Arabes. Two vols. Pp. 380, 512. Paris, Geuth- ner, 1912-13. A condensed account of the growth of Islam during thirteen centuries. 41. Hurgronje, C. Snouck. Mohammedanism: Its Origin, Religious and Political Growth and Present State. Pp. 184. New York, Putnam, 1916. A very important summary of these four aspects of Islam by a leading western student of Islam. A sane book well worth careful reading. 42. Johnstone, P. de Lacy. Muhammad and His Power. Pp. xviii, 238. London, Clark, 1901. An unpretentious but well-balanced little biography, useful as a first sketch. 43. Ibn Khallikan. Biographical Dictionary. Translated into English by MacGuckin de Slane. Four vols. Paris, 1842-71. Highly important and very readable. 44. Kremer, Alfred von. Culturgeschichte des Orients unter den Chalifen. Two vols. Wien, 1875-77. Still of high value. 45. — Geschichte der herrschenden Ideen des Islams, Leipzig, 1868. Still of value, although the ground is now better covered by Goldziher, “Moh. Studien" (No. 86). 46. Lammens, Henri. Le Berceau de I’lslam, Vol. I. Le Climat-Les Bedouins. Pp. xxiv, 372. Rome, 1914. The first volume of an elaborate study of the environment out of which Islam arose. Most learned, suggestive and fresh. 47. — Fatima et les filles de Mahomet. Pp. 'viii, 170. Rome, 1912. Father Lammen works in the spirit of Goldziher towards the criticism of the usually accepted life of Mohammed. 115 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS . 48. Lane-Poole, S. A History of Egypt in the Middle Ages. Pp. xvi, 382. London, Methuen, 1901. This history ranges from the conquest by the Arabs tov the Ottoman conquest. The best history for its period. 49. — Mediaeval India under Mohammedan Rule. (Story of Nations.) Pp. xviii, 449. New York, Putnam, 1914. very careful study of this period, of very great value. 50. — The Mohammedan Dynasties. Pp. xviii, 361. London, Constable & Co., 1894. A skeleton manual of Islamic history. One of the first half-dozen indispensable books. Reliable but not absolutely comprehensive. Based on coins and therefore omits Central Africa and Malaysia. 51. — The Speeches and Table-talk of the Prophet Mohammed (Golden Treasury Series). Macmillan. Very readable but uncritical on traditions. 52. — The Story of Cairo. Pp. 360. London, Dent, 1902. (Medieval Towns Series.) ."Vn excellent history and description of Cairo which every missionary in Egypt may read with profit. 53. Lyall, Sir Charles J. Ancient Arabian Poetry. Pp. Hi, 142. London, Williams & Norgate, 1885. The standard collection of old Arab verse. Has a very valuable introduction, and is n,ore reliable than Clouston. 54. Margoliouth, D. S. Mohammed and the Rise of Islam. (Heroes of Nations.) Pp. 481. New York, Putnam, 1905. A life of Mohammed, based on Moslem sources, intended to be perfectly fair. It pictures Mohammed as a hero rather than as a prophet. Interesting and scholarly. It is reviewed at length and incisively in Church Quarterly Review, July, 1906. 55. Merrick, J. L. The Life and Religion of Mohammed, as contained in the Sheeah traditions of the Hyat-ul-Kuloob. Boston, Phillips, 1850 (rare). 56. Muir, W. The Caliphate: Its Rise, Decline and Fall. New edit, by T. H. Weir. Pp. 628. Edinburgh, John Grant, 1916. 57. — The Life of Mahomet. Four vols. 1861. Abridged ed. in one vol. Pp. 536, 1894. London, Smith, Elder & Co. New revised ed. by Weir. Pp. 556. Edinburgh, Grant, 1912. These two works by Muir have set a standard for half a century. Their survey of early history now seems to be somewhat uncritical. The introduction to the latter is still quite valuable. 58. Miiller, A. Der Islam im Morgen-und Abendland [Islam in East and West]. Two vols. Berlin, 1885-87. The best general history of Islam extant, with maps and illustrations. 59. Ndldeke, Th. Sketches from Eastern History. Translated by J. S. Black. Pp. 288. London, Black, 1892. Valuable studies of the Semites, the Koran, Islam, etc., by one of the greatest living students of Islam. 60. Sell, Rev. Canon E. The Life of Muhammad. Pp. 235. London and Madras, Christian Literature Society for India, 1913. Based on original authorities, this volume echoes and answers the opinions of the modern school of Moslem apologists in India. 61. — The Islam Series. London and Madras, Christian Literature Society for India. The Four Rightly-Guided Khalifas. Pp. 59. 1909. The Ottoman Turks. Pp. 130. 1914. The Umayyad and the ’Abbasid Khalifates. Pp. vii, 108. 1914. Muslim Conquests in North Africa. Pp. 82. 1914. Muslim Conquests in Spain. Pp. 100. 1914. Mamluks in Egypt. Pp.' 56. 1914. Muslims in China. Pp. 50. 19l4. Inexpensive pamphlets of varying but real value. 116 THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ISLAM 62. Sprenger, A. Das Leben und die Lehre des Mohammed (Life and Teach- ings of Mohammed). Pp. xxiv, 583, 548, clxxx, 599. Berlin, 1869. An exhaustive and, for its time, authoritative discussion. 63. Sykes, Percy M. History of Persia. Two vols. Pp. 544, 565. New York, Macmillan, 1915. The best modern account of the history of Persia. 64. de Tassy, Garcin. De la Religion Musalmane dans ITnde. Pp. 108. Paris, 1869. 65. Weil, G. Geschichte der islamitischen Volker [History of Moslem Peo- ples]. Pp. 504. Stuttgart, 1866. A sketch of the political and cultural history of the principal Moslem nations from Mohammed’s time to the sixteenth century. 66. — Mohammed der Prophet, sein Leben und seine Lehre. Stuttgart, 1843. The first critical life of the Prophet. 67. — Geschichte der Chalifen. Three vols. Mannheim, 1846-51. Based on original sources throughout. Very full. Extends to the capture of Bagdad, A.D. 1258. 68. Wellhausen, J. Reste arabischen Heidenthums [Remains of Arabian Heathenism]. Pp. viii, 250. Second edit. Berlin. 1897. Critical essays on the Hajj, the ancient Arab cultus and the origin and literature of Islam. 69. Wherry, E. M. Islam and Christianity in India and the Far East. Pp. 237. New York, Revell, 1907. A study of Islam’s progress in India, Malaysia and China. 70. Zwemer, S. M. Arabia the Cradle of Islam. Second edit. rev. Pp. 437. New York, Revell, 1900. Studies in the geography, peoples and politics of the Peninsula. C. THE CONTENT OF ISLAM 71. Ali, Syed Ameer. Islam (Religious, Ancient and Modern). Pp. 78. Lon- don, Constable, 1914. Digest of the content of Islam by an Indian Moslem who sees it through rose-colored glasses. 72. Arminjon, P. L’Enseignement, la doctrine et la vie dans les Universites Musulmanes d’Egypte. Pp. 294. Paris, 1907. The life and methods of the Azhar, etc. 73. Baillie, N. B. E. Digest of Muhammedan Law. Hanifi Code, 1865 ; Imameea Code, 1869. 74. Blunt, W. S. The Future of Islam. Pp. 215. London, Kegan Paul, 1882. 75. de Boer, T. J. The History of Philosophy in Islam. Translated by E. R. Jones. Pp. xiii, 216. London, Luzac, 1903. Parallels Macdonald’s “Muslim Theology” on the philosophical side. A good hand- book. 76. Bosworth-Smith. Mohammed and Mohammedanism. Third edit. Pp. 312. London, Murray, 1889. One of the first British studies of Islam which aimed to be sympathetic in its treat- ment. 77. Doutte, E. Magie et Religion dans I’Afrique du Nord. Pp. 618. Alger, 1909. By far the most imnortant book on magic and superstition in Islam. 117 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS 78. Fahmy, Mansour. La Condition de la Femme dans la Tradition et revolu- tion de ITslamisme. Paris, Librairie Felix Alcan, 1913. A thorough critical study of the position of woman in Islam. 79. Field, C. Mystics and Saints of Islam. Pp. 215. London, Griffith, 1910. A sketcli of fifteen Moslem saints and mystics from 728 A.D. to 1661 A.D. Very interesting and illuminating. He traces Sufiism back to Mohammed and the Koran. 80. Gairdner, W. H. T. The Muslim Idea of God (Islam Series). Pp. 69. London, Christian Literature Society for India. 81. Garcin de Tassy. LTslamisme. Third edit. Paris, 1874. A very useful book. 82. Gardner, W. R. W. The Quranic Doctrine of God. Pp. 72. The Quranic Doctrine of Salvation. Pp. 59. The Quranic Doctrine of Sin. Pp. 43. (The Islam Series.) London and Madras, Christian Literature So- ciety, 1914. All very careful, first-hand investigations. 83. Geiger, A. Judaism and Islam. Translated by Lady Mackworth Young. Pp. 170. London, Simpkins, 1898. Originally written in 1833, but still of value because based on original documents. Aims at showing to what extent and why Mohammed borrowed from Judaism. There is an important review in Fleischer’s “Kleinere Schriften,” Vol. II, p. 10 ff. 84. Goldsack, Rev. W. Muhammad in Islam. Sketches of Muhammad from Islamic Sources. Pp. 114. London, Christian Literature Society for India, 1916. An excellent brief picture of the Mohammed of Moslem tradition, giving the original sources in Arabic of all quotations. 85. Goldziher, I. Vorlesungen fiber den Islam. Pp. 341. Heidelberg, 1910. Lectures on Mohammed, Moslem law, sects, etc. A basal work for the real mastery of Islam. There is a French translation. 86. — Mohammedanische Studien [Studies in Islam]. Two vols. Pp. xii, 280; X, 420. Halle, 1889-90. Vol. I studies Arabian paganism and the rise of Islam. Vol. II has an epoch-making essay on Hadith and is of special interest to the missionary student. 87. Hauri, J. Der Islam in seinem Einfluss auf das Leben seiner Bekenner. Leiden, 1882. 88. Herklots, G. A. Qanoon-i-Islam, or The Customs of the Mussulmans of India. Second edit. Pp. 296. Madras, J. Higginbotham. (Rare.) This book is the translation of an original by Jaffur Shurreef (Ja’far Sharif) and is an invaluable source for the study of Islam in India. 89. Juynboll, Th. W. Handbuch des Islamischen Gesetzes. Pp. 384. Leyden, E. J. Brill, 1910. The best introduction to Mohammedan canon law; it follows chiefly the Shafiite school. 90. Klein, F. A. The Religion of Islam. Pp. viii, 241. London, Kegan Paul, 1906. A good general introduction to the study of Islam. The references are given in the original Arabic and the subject is handled in Moslem fashion. Especially good on doctrines and duties. 91. Koelle, S. W. Mohammed and Mohammedanism Critically Considered. London, Rivington, 1889. (Rare.) A review bv a missionary making many contrasts between Mohammed and Christ. Rather one-sided. 92. Lane, E. W. The Thousand and One Nights, commonly called in England the Arabian Nights Entertainments. Three vols. London, 1839-41. Many later editions, complete and incomplete. An encyclopedia of .Arabic customs, beliefs and methods. The student should see that he owns an edition with the full commentary, the diacritical signs and the W. Harvey illustrations. The right editions are always in three volumes and are now published by Chatto and \Vindus, London. The versions by Burton and Payne are more com- 118 THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ISLAM plete, but are thereby unfitted for general use. The editions of the Arabic text, printed in Egypt, are complete and cheap. There is a very good Indian lithograph edition in four large volumes published at Bombay. 93. Lane-Poole, S. Studies in a Mosque. Second edit. Pp. 326. London, Eden, Remington & Co., 1893. A trustworthy series of studies of various phases of Islam. 94. Macdonald, D. B. Aspects of Islam. Pp. 375. New York, Macmillan, 1911. Addressed to those who have the responsibility of interpreting Christianity to Islam. A good introductory volume. A set of lectures written after a year in the East. 95. — The Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence and Constitu- tional Theory. Pp. 386. New York, Scribner, 1903. Explains inner Islam and its historical development. Very important. Has a useful, illustrative appendix. 96. — The Religious Attitude and Life in Islam. Pp. 317. Chicago, Univer- sity Press, 1909. A study of the inner, mystical, experimental side of Islam. Very valuable to a worker among Moslems. Original and fresh, based on modern psychology. 97. Margoliouth, D. S. The Early Development of Mohammedanism. Pp. 265. London, Williams and Norgate, 1913. Deals with the Koran as the basis of Islam and with its legal, ritual, ethical and theological supplementation. 98. — Mohammedanism. Pp. 257. London, Williams and Norgate, 1912. An exposition of Islam, very compendious. 99. Michell, R. L. N. An Egyptian Calendar. Pp. 130. London, Luzac, 1900. For the Coptic year 1617 (A.D. 1900-01), but of permanent use. Gives the festivals, notes about crops and a calendar of annual events. 100. Pautz, O. Mohammed’s Lehre von der Offenbarung. Leipzig, Hinrichs, 1898. Contains much new material with abundant references to Moslem writers. 101. Reinaud. Description des monumens musalmans du cabinet de M. le due de Blacas. Two vols. Pp. xvi, 400, 488. Paris, 1828. The best book on amulets. Ten plates contain many examples. 102. Sachau, E. Muhammedanisches Recht nach Schafiitischer Lehre. Stutt- gart und Berlin, 1897. 103. Sell, Rev. Canon E. The Hanifs. (Islam Series.) Pp. 19. London and Madras, Christian Literature Society, 1908. 104. — The Faith of Islam. Third edit. Pp. xvi, 427. London, S.P.C.K., 1907. An important study, the outcome of 35 years’ experience in south India. The best handbook of Islam from the Indian viewpoint. Deals only with the faith. 105. — Historical Development of the Quran. Third edit. Pp. xi, 271. Lon- don, S.P.C.K., 1898. A valuable aid to the study of the Koran. 106. Smith, W. Robertson. Lectures on the Religion of the Semites. First Series. New edit. Pp. 507. London, Black, 1894. Contains much of permanent value. 107. Tisdall, W. St. Clair. The Original Sources of the Quran. Pp. 287 London, S.P.C.K., 1905. A very good handbook for the beginner, based on original texts, describing the various elements, Arab, Jewish, Christian and Zoroastrian, incorporated into the Koran. 108. — A Word to the Wise. (Islam Series.) London, C.L.S. for India, 1913. A reply to two Moslem writers who attacked Dr. TisdalTs “Original Sources,” to which this will serve as a useful appendix. 119 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS 109. — The Religion of the Crescent. Pp. xvi, 251. London, S.P.C.K., 1895. A good, very general and popular introduction. 110. Zwemer, S. M. The Moslem Doctrine of God. Pp. 220. New York, American Tract Society, 1905. Discusses the character and attributes of God and their implications Rather con- troversial. D. MODERN MOVEMENTS IN ISLAM 111. Rihani, Ameen. The Book of Khalid. Pp. 349. New York, Dodd, Mead & Co., 1911. Shows how some modern Moslem and Syrian-Christian minds work when face to face with European literature and ideas. 112. Brown, J. P. The Dervishes or Oriental Spiritualism. Pp. 415. London, Triibner, 1868. .^n early study of the Dervishes. Has important Turkish material but is very rare. 113. Browne, E. G. A Year Amongst the Persians (1887-8). Pp. ix, 594. London, Black, 1893. The best account of modern Persian life and thought. Especially important because of the data about Babism. 114. — The Persian Revolution of 1905-1909. Pp. xxvi, 470. Cambridge, 1910. A full, documental history of the period. 115. — A Literary History of Persia. Two vols. Pp. 521, 568. New York, Scribner, 1902-6. The first volume contains a general introduction. The second volume only covers the literary history to Sa'di. 116. Bukhsh, S. Khuda. Essays, Indian and Islamic. (Probsthain’s Oriental Series.) Pp. 295. London, Probsthain & Co., 1912. Very valuable critical study of present day Mohammedanism by an English-educated Moslem with an unbiased histone and critical sense. 117. Le Chatelier, A. Les confreries musulmanes du Hedjaz. Bibl. or. Elzev., Paris. A most valuable little book on the dervish fraternities. 118. Depont, O., et Cappolani. Les Confreries religieuses Musulmanes. Pp. 576. Algiers, Jourdan, 1897. Discusses the present distribution and activity of the dervish orders. 119. Farquhar, J. N. Modern Religious Movements in India. Pp. 471. New York, Macmillan, 1915. Includes a useful summary of the recent movements among Indian Moslems. 120. Gairdner, W. H. T. The “_Way” of a Mohammedan Mystic. Pp. 22. Paper. Leipzig, Harrasowitz, 1912. A contribution to the study of esoteric Sufiism. 121. Garnett, Lucy M. J. Mysticism and Magic in Turkey. Pp. 202. London, Pitman, 1912. An account of the religious doctrines, monastic organizations and ecstatic powers of the dervish orders of Turkey. 122. Haines, C. R. Islam as a Missionary Religion. (Christian Religious Systems.) Pp. xvi, 208. London, S.P.C.K., 1889. 123. Headley, Rt. Hon. Lord. A Western Awakening to Islam. London, J. S. Phillips & Co., 1914. An idealized treatment of Islam with depreciation of Christianity by the much- vaunted convert of the Moslem mission in Woking, England, and president of the British Moslem Association. 120 THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ISLAM 124. Massignon, Louis. al-Hallaj. Pp. xxiv, 223. Paris, Geuthner, 1913. Marks an epoch in our understanding of earlier Moslem mysticism. Contains an edition of Tawasin with other related texts. 125. Nicholson, R. A. The Mystics of Islam. (Quest Series.) Pp. vi, 178. London, George Bell & Sons, 1914. A clear, strong presentation, based on original sources of the development of Sufiism. 126. Pelly, Col. Sir Lewis. The Miracle Play of Hasan and Husain. Revised by A. N. Wollaston. Two vols. Pp. 303, 352. London, W. H. Allen & Co., 1879. The text of this Persian Passion Play which profoundly affects all Shiites. 127. Phelps, M. H. Life and Teachings of Abbas Effendi. Pp. xliii, 259. New York, Putnam, 1904. A study of the founder of the Bahai movement and of his work. 128. Roemer, Dr. Hermann. Babi-Bahai. Eine Studie zur Religionsgeschichte des Islam. Pp. 200. Potsdam, Tempel, 1911. An account of the growth and significance of this modern movement, strikingly like to and distinct from Christianity. Unprejudiced. 129. Sell, E. Essays on Islam. Pp. 267. London, Simpkin, 1901. Studies in Sufiism, Babism, the religious orders of Islam, the recensions of the Quran and the Hanifs. VV'orth studying. 130. — The Religious Orders of Islam. Pp. 132. London, Simpkin, Marshall & Co., 1908. Gives a full account of all the important dervish orders, ancient and modern, in the Moslem world, especially of the Senusis, the Rahmanis and the Qadiris. 131. — Bahaism. Pp. 50. The Cult of ’Ali. Pp. 60. Sufiism. Pp. 79. (Islam Series.) The Christian Literature Society, London and Madras, 1910-12. Brief but clear sketches of each of these cults. 132. Speer, R. E. Missions and Modern History. Two vols. New York, Revell, 1904. Chapter 3, “The Religion of the Bab,” is a clear and thoughtful account of Babism and Bahaism, with valuable supplementary notes. Chapter 9, “The Armenian Mas- sacres,” makes a study of Armenian history and the conditions of the massacres. 133. Sykes, P. M. The Glory of the Shia World: The Tale of a Pilgrimage. Pp. 279. London, Macmillan, 1910. A story of Shiah Persian life which is very vivid and true, describing their customs and ideas. Very suggestive. A modern Hajji Baba. 134. Walter, H. A. The Ahmadiya Movement. (The Religious Life of India Series.) London, Oxford University Press, 1918. A thorough study of this significant modern movement in India. 135. Weir, T. H. The Shaikhs of Morocco in the 16th Century. Pp. xlvii, 316. Edinburgh, George A. Morton, 1904. A picture of the everyday life of the learned and pious classes in the Mohammedan world, and especially of the Saints. 136. Wilson, S. G. Bahaism and its Claims. Pp. 298. New York, Revell, 1915. A clearly written history of this movement which aims at adapting Islam to the needs of the age. Somewhat polemical but based on sources. 137. — Modern Movements Among Moslems. Pp. 305. New York, Revell, 1915. Discusses on the basis of long experience in Persia religious, educational, social and political reforms in Islam. Less valuable in its discussion of Islam in India. 138. Zwemer, S. M. The Disintegration of Islam. Pp. 231. New York, Revell, 1916. 121 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS E. ISLAM AND CHRISTIANITY 139. Barton, James L. Daybreak in Turkey. Pp. 306. Boston, Pilgrim Press, 1908. A careful study of conditions in Turkey by an experienced missionary statesman. 140. Becker, C. H. Christianity and Islam. Tr. by H. J. Chaybor. Pp. 114. London, Harpers, 1904. An important contribution to the subject of the interaction of thought between Christianity and Islam by the leading German Islamist. 141. Bliss, Frederick J. The Religions of Modern Syria and Palestine. Pp. 354. New York, Scribner, 1912. Deals with the Eastern Churches and with Islam. 142. Bonet-Maury, G. LTslamisme et le Christianisme en Afrique. Pp. vi, 295. Paris, Hachette, 1906. A monograph on the conflict between Christianity and Islam in Africa. 143. Dods, Marcus. Muhammad, Buddha and Christ. Pp. 240. London, Hod- der & Stoughton, 1893. 144. Gairdner, Rev. W. H. T. The Reproach of Islam. Pp. 367. S.P.C.K., 1909. Surveys the call to the evangelization of Mohammedans. 145. Goldsack, W. Christ in Islam. Pp. 44. London, C.L.S. for India. A valuable, accurate study of the Christology of Islam by a long-time student of Islam in India. 146. — Muhammad and the Bible. London, C.L.S. for India. Pp. 60. 1915. A study of the Bible passages alleged by Moslems to foretell the coming of Mohammed. 147. Goldziher, I. Hadith and the New Testament. Pp. 48. London, S.P.C.K. A sketch of importance to those who cannot read “Muhammedan Studies.” 148. Greene, J. K. Leavening the Levant. Pp. xii, 353. Boston, Pilgrim Press, 1916. Written by a missionary for over fifty years. Contains a helpful survey of Turkish conditions. 149. Halliday, G. Y. Islam and Christianity. A letter to a Muslim friend. Pp. 225. American Tract Society, 1901. A useful comparisouj by a missionary, of the Koran with the Bible. 150. Hamlin, Cyrus. Among the Turks. Pp. xii, 378. New York, American Tract Society, 1877. An interesting narrative superseded in part by ‘‘My Life and Times” (No. 188). 151. Herrick, G. F. Christian and Mohammedan. A Plea for Bridging the Chasm. Pp. 253. New York, Revell, 1912. A sympathetic and helpful study of the relations between Moslems and Christians, political, social and historical, by a missionary of fifty years* experience in Turkey. 152. Abd Isa. Food for Reflection. Pp. 152. London, C.L.S. for India, 1914. Reprint of a book by Dr. Koelle which deals convincingly with the Moslem conten- tion that Islam supersedes Christianity in the same way that Christianity claims to supersede Judaism. 153. Jessup, H. H. The Mohammedan Missionary Problem. Pp. 128. Phila- delphia, Presbyterian Board of Publication, 1879. 154 Mesnage, J. Le Christianisme en Afrique. Vols. I-III. Paris, Picard, 1914-15. A series of researches into the Christian history of North Africa. THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ISLAM 155. Muir, W. Sweet First Fruits. Pp. xix, 176. New York, Revell, 1893. A translation of al-Bakura al Shahiya, an Arabic book written by a convert from Islam. Of value for the new missionary especially. 156. — The Apology of Al Kindy, written at the court of Al Mamun. Second edit. Pp. 122. London, S.P.C.K., 1887. A discussion between a Moslem and a Christian in the ninth century. 157. — The Mohammedan Controversy. Pp. 220. Edinburgh, Clark, 1897. An essay on the controversial writings concerning the relations of Islam and Chris- tianity. 158. Mylrea, C. G., and Iskander ’Abdu’l Masih. The Holy Spirit in Qur’an and Bible. Pp. 53. C.L.S.I., 1911. A careful, detailed comparison of the teachings of each source. 159. Rice, W. A. Crusaders of the Twentieth Century. Pp. 511. London, C.M.S., 1910. An invaluable, exhaustive handbook for missionaries to Mohammedans, written by an experienced scholar with missionary experience in both India and Persia. 160. Richter, J. A History of Protestant Missions in the Near East. Pp. 435. New York, Revell, 1910. A thorough presentation of mission history both as regards Eastern Christians and Moslems. 161. Robinson, C. H. History of Christian Missions. (International Theo- logical Library.) Pp. 534. New York, Scribner, 1916. Contains much of value to a missionary to Moslems. 162. Shedd, W. A. Islam and the Oriental Churches. Pp. vii, 253. Philadel- phia, Presbyterian Board of Publication, 1904. A study of the influence of Christianity on Islam at its beginnings and until modern times. 163. Simon, G. The Progress and Arrest of Islam in Sumatra. Pp. 328. London, Marshall, 1912. A study of the problem of dealing with Animists who have become Mohammedans. A noteworthy monograph. A revised and abbreviated translation of Islam und Christenthum. (Berlin, Warneck, 1910.) 164. Smith, H. P. The Bible and Islam. Pp. 319. New York, Scribner, 1897. A scholarly study. 165. Stephens, W. R. W. Christianity and Islam. Pp. 168. London, Bentley, 1877. 166. Takle, J. The Faith of the Crescent. Pp. 188. Calcutta, Association Press, 1914. A useful introductory study text-book on Islam by the secretary of the Missionaries to Muslims League for India and the Far East. 167. — The Straight Path (Siratu’l Mustaqim). Pp. 85. C.L.S., 1914. An excellent short outline of Christian teachings adapted to reach the educated Moslem mind. Helpful for use with an inquirer. 168. Tisdall, W. St. Clair. A Manual of the Leading Muhammedan Objections to Christianity. Pp. 239. London, S.P.C.K., 1904. A valuable book for a missionary who expects to reach Moslems with the Gospel. 169. — The Key of Mysteries. (Miftahu’l Asrar.) (The Islam Series.) Pp. 228. London, C.L.S. for India, 1913. A translation and revision of D. C. G. Pfander’s “Miftahu’l Asrar,’’ a treatise on the doctrine of the Trinity in Unity for Moslem readers. A companion volume to "The Balance of Truth.’’ 170. — The Path of Life (Tariqu’l Hyat). Pp. 336. London, C.L.S. for India, 1913. A translation of Dr. Pfander’s work on Sin and Salvation in Christianity and in other religions. 123 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS 171. — Mizanu’l Haqq (Balance of Truth). Pp. 390. London, R.T. Soc., 1910. Published originally in Persian by Pfander in 1835. Weakley’s translation into English, made in 1867, has been brought up to date by Tisdall. Valuable as a formulation of Christian truth for presentation to the Moslem. 172. Vital Forces of Christianity and Islam. Pp. 250. New York, Oxford University Press, 1915. A reprint of a series of most valuable papers by missionaries and converts from Islam contributed to the International Review of Missions. 173. Walter, H. A. Handbook of Work with Student Enquirers in India. Pp. 75. Calcutta, Association Press, 1915. A symposium containing valuable suggestions as to dealing with Moslem enquirers, especially in India. 174. Watson, A. The American Mission in Egypt. Pp. 484. Pittsburgh, U. P. Board of Publication, 1898. An account of the development of the U. P. Mission, mainly among Copts from 1854 to 1896. 175. Wherry, E. M. The Muslim Controversy. Pp. 145. London, C.L.S. of India, 1905. A most useful survey and digest of the books written chiefly by Indian Christians in controversy with Muslims. Really an Indian supplement to Muir’s “The Muhammedan Controversy.’’ 176. — Lucknow, 1911. Pp. 293. London, Christian Literature Society for India, 1911 (printed for private circulation only). The report of the administrative discussions at the Lucknow Conference, relating especially to preparation and literature. 177. Wherry, Zwemer and Mylrea, editors. Islam and Missions. Pp. 298. New York, Revell, 1911. A general survey of the Mohammedan world of 1911 from the missionary viewpoint. Contains the papers on survey read at the Second Conference at Lucknow, 1911. 178. Wherry, Zwemer and Barton, editors. The Mohammedan World of Today. Pp. 302. New York, Revell, 1906. A valuable series of sketches of the world situation as regards Islam. Papers pre- sented to the Cairo Missionary Conference of 1906. 179. Wishard, J. G. Twenty Years in Persia. Pp. 349. New York, Revell, 1908. A narrative of missionary activity under the last three Shahs. 180. Zwemer, S. M. Mohammed or Christ. Pp. 292. London, Seeley, Service & Co., 1916. An account of the rapid spread of Islam, its methods of successful propaganda, and of the means by which these may be met. 181. — Islam, A Challenge to Faith. Pp. xx, 295. Second rev. edit, 1907. New York, Student Volunteer Movement. A popular sketch of the Moslem world and the problems of Missions to it. 182. — The Moslem Christ. Pp. 198. New York, American Tract Society, 1912. A monograph on the Christology of Islam. It shows how ignorant even learned Mos- lems are of the actual facts regarding our Lord. Quite useful to the missionary. F. MISSIONARY AND CHRISTIAN BIOGRAPHY 183. Andre, M. Le Bienheureux Raymond Lulle. Pp. 216. Second edit Paris, Lecoffre, 1900. The best biography of Lull from Roman Catholic sources. Contains much matter not usually found. 124 THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ISLAM 184. Barber, W. T. A. Raymond Lull : the Illuminated Doctor. A Study in , Mediaeval Missions. Pp. 172. London, Kelly, 1903. This volume deals -with Lull as a scholar and shows how he joined with Roger Bacon in pleading for the necessity of a complete scientific education for missionaries. A fine historical study. 185. Birks, H. The Life and Correspondence of Thomas Valpy French, First Bishop of Lahore. Two vols. Pp. 407, 422. London, Murray, 1895. Should he included among helpful biographies. The story of a great missionary, scholar and saint, well told. 186. Dwight, H. O. A Muslim Sir Galahad. Pp. 188. New York, Revell, 1913. An entertaining and suggestive account of the experiences of a convert from Islam. The life story of a “seeker,” illustrating the struggle required from a Mohammedan who begins to feel the power of Christianity. Well worth the reading of a young missionary. 187. Gairdner, W. H. T. The Life of Douglas M. Thornton. Pp. 283. London, Hodder, second edit., 1908. The story of the life work of a C.M.S. missionary in Egypt among Moslems. 188. Hamlin, Cyrus. My Life and Times. Pp. 538. Pilgrim Press, 1893, The inspiring career of the founder of Robert College. 189. Heanley, R. M. A Memoir of Edward Steers, third Missionary Bishop to Central Africa. Pp. xii, 448. London, Universities Mission to Cen- tral Africa, 1898. 190. Imad-ud-Din. A Mohammedan Brought to Christ. New edit. Pp. 22. London, C.M.S., 1885. The story of the conversion of an Indian Moslem who became a great Christian controversialist. 191. Jessup, H. H. Fifty-three Years in Syria. Two vols. Pp. 404, 428. New York, Revell, 1910. A combined history of missionary development in Syria and record of important per- sonal experiences. The autobiography of a missionary statesman, showing a great series of achievements. 192. — Kamil Abdul Messiah. Pp. 156. Philadelphia, Westminster Press, 1899. The story of a Syrian convert to Christianity whose active career was brief but illus- trative of great possibilities. 193. Nelson, W. Habeeb the Beloved. Pp. 102. Philadelphia, Westminster Press. 194. Pennell, Alice M. Pennell of the Afghan Frontier. Pp. xv, 464. New York, Dutton, 1914. The remarkable life of a medical missionary, Theodore L. Pennell, M.D., by his wife. He was a real hero who did a wonderful work. 195. Pennell, T. L. Among the Wild Tribes of the Afghan Frontier. Pp. xvi, J' 324. Philadelphia, Lippincott, 1909. Dr. Pennell’s own story of sixteen years of service on the Northwest Frontier. Well illustrated and giving a clear picture of the people. 196. Prime, E. D. Forty Years in the Turkish Empire. Eighth edit. Pp. xii, 489. Boston, American Board, 1891. The memoirs of Rev. William Goodell, a pioneer missionary to Syria. 197. Sargent, John.- Life of Rev. Henry Mart}^. Pp. 463. London, Seeley. The standard story of Martyn’s spiritual history. 198. Sinker, R. Memories of the Hon. Ian Keith-Falconer. Pp. viii, 246, Cambridge, Deighton, 1890. The best available memoir of a remarkable life given to Mohammedan missions. 199. Smith, George. Henry Martvn, Saint and Scholar. Pp. 580. New York, Revell, 1892. A picture of the life and work of this first modern missionary to Mohammedans. 1781- 1812. 125 PREbENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS 200. Speer, R. E. The H?»kim Sahib, the Foreign Doctor. Pp. 384. New York, Revell, 1911. The biography of Joseph P. Cochran of Persia. The accurate photograph of a very unusual man, a Presbyterian medic..' missionary for twenty-seven years in Persia. Very valuable for a medical man with a strong message. 201. Washburn, G. Fifty Years in Constantinople and Recollections of Robert College. Pp. xxxi, 317. Boston, Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1909. A book to be read along with Hamlin’s "Life and Times.” Very valuable. 202. Zwemer, S. M. Raymond Lull : First Missionary to the Moslems. Pp. 319. New York. Funk, 1902. An illustrated biography of this great missionary, vivid and interesting. G. DESCRIPTIVE WORKS AND STORIES 203. “Adalet.” Hadjira, a Turkish Love Story. Pp. 314. London, Arnold, 1896. A true picture of Turkish life. 204. Bell, Gertrude L. From Amurath to Amurath. Pp. 370. New York, Dutton, 1911. A volume of travel from Aleppo down the Euphrates, up the Tigris and through Armenia. A good picture of the life and thinking of the people during the second Turkish revolution. 205. — Syria the Desert and the Sown. Pp. 364. London, 1907. A fresh and vivid description of the border of the Syrian desert. Suggestive for the psychology of the people. 206. Burckhardt, J. L. Travels in Arabia. Two vols. London, 1829. 207. — Notes on the Bedouins and Wahabys. Two vols. London, 1831. These two works are each a classic. 208. Burton, Sir R. F. Personal Narrative of a Pilgrimage to Al-Madinah and Meccah. One vol. Pp. 492. New York, Putnam, 1856. Two vols. Pp. xxxviii, 436, 479. London, Tylston and Edwards, 1893. A good and very cheap edit, in G. Bell and Sons York Library. A classic of adventurous exploration. Tells a fascinating and accurate stor> of the pilgrimage, and gives a view, still valuable, of the ritual service of Islam. 209. Carhout, A. F. Masoud the Bedouin. Pp. 249. New York, Missionary Education Movement, 1915. Stories which embody the writer’s real knowledge of Syrian life in contact with missionaries. 210. Doughty, C. M. Travels in Arabia Deserta. Two vols. Pp. 622, 690. Cambridge University Press, 1888. The standard work on Bedouin life. Gives the clearest idea of the workings of the Arab mind. 211. Duff-Gordon, Lady. Letters from Egypt, 1863-65. Pp. 371. London, Macmillan, 1865. A very vivid description of life in Egypt. 212. — Last Letters from Egypt. Pp. 346. Macmillan, 1875. Very intimate and sympathetic pictures of country life in Egypt. 213. Dwight, H. O. Constantinople and its Problems. New York, 1901. 214. Forder, A. Ventures Among the Arabs in Desert, Tent and Town. Pp. xii, 292. New York, Gospel Publishing House, 1909. A narrative of thirteen years of pioneer missionary life with the Ishmaelites of Moab, Edom and Arabia. 126 THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ISLAM 215. 216. 217. 218. 219. 220 . 221. 222 . 223. 224. 225. 226. 227. 228. 229. 230. 231. 232. Giffen, J. K. The Egyptian Sudan. Pp. 252. New York, Revell, 1905. Goldsack, W. Ghulam Jabbar’s Renunciation. A Tale of Eastern Bengal. London, C.L.S. for India, 1914. An instructive and inspiring story of the conversion of two Indian Moslem young men. It deals specially with the Moslem charge of corruption of the Christian Scrip- tures. Hogarth, D. G. The Penetration of Arabia (The Story of Exploration) Pp. 360. New York, Stokes, 1904. Hurgronje, Prof. Dr. C. Snouck. Mekka. Two vols. Pp. xxiii, 228; xviii, 597. The Hague, Nijhoff, 1888-89. Containing a full description of what the author saw during a period of residence in the sacred city of Islam. A classic on the significance of the city and on the pil- grimage, also on the more recent history of Mecca. Those who read Arabic will find an excellent parallel account in the Rihia al-hijazlya of Muhammed Labib al-Batanuni, Cairo, A. II. 1329. Hunter, W. W. The Indian Musalmans. Pp. 219. Third edit. London, Triibner & Co., 1876. A study of Islam in India during the last century by one of the most distinguished and scholarly of the members of the British Civil Service in India. A student of the subject should not overlook the criticisms of Dr. Hunter^s work by Sir Sayyiad Ahmad Khan in 1871 and “Indian Musulmans,*’ by W. N. Lees, 1872. Jenkins, Hester D. Behind Turkish Lattices. Pp. 180. Philadelphia, Lippincott, 1911. An analysis of the life of Turkish women of the city. Jessup, H. H. The Women of the Arabs. New York, 1874. Lane, E. W. An Account of the Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians. London, 1836 and ever since. An indispensable book for every missionary to Islam. An excellent cheap edition with all the original illustrations is in the Everyman Series. Loti, Pierre. Disenchanted. London, Nelson. A story which sets forth the romance of the modern East. Malcolm, Sir John. Sketches of Persia. Many edit. An inexpensive one in Cassell’s National Library. Abdullah Mansur. The Land of Uz. Pp. 354. New York, Macmillan, 1911. A valuable account of travels in Southern Arabia. Morier, James. The Adventures of Haji Baba of Ispahan. (Everyman Series.) Pp. 399. New York, Dutton. A truthful word picture of Persian life in all its aspects, including the ways and ideas of a Mohammedan imam. First published in 1823, but still instructive. Palgrave, W. G. Narrative of a Year’s Journey Through Central and Eastern Arabia. Second edit. Two vols. London, Macmillan, 1865. Very vivid and real. It contains much that is true and much that is false, so that it may mislead. The descriptions of central Arabia are the best. Palmer, E. H. The Desert of the Exodus. Cambridge, Bell, 1871. A journey on foot full of contact with the Bedawin. Pears, Sir Edwin. Turkey and its People. Pp. 409. London, Methuen, 1911. An account of the various peoples in Turkey, discussing possible reforms and describing the various churches under Turkish sway. Perron. Femmes arabes avant et depuis I’lslamisme. Paris, 1858. The only comprehensive book on the subject. Poole, Sophia. An Englishwoman in Egypt. Two vols. Pp. 232, 240. London, Knight, 1845, Contains some good Egyptian ghost stories. Prowse, C. The Lure of Islam. Pp. 225. London, Sampson, 1914. A realistic novel which throws vivid light on the methods of propagating Islam. 127 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS 233. Ralli, Augustus. Christians at Mecca. Pp. 278. London, Heinemann, 1910. Gives the narratives of as many as twenty attempts between 1503 and 1894 to visit the holy city of Islam. 234. Ruchdi Pacha, Madame H. Harems et Musulmanes d’Egypte. Paris, Juven, 1902. An admirable study of Egyptian life, especially of female and slave life. 235. — Les Repudiees. Pp. 288. Paris, 1908. .\ story of Egyptian female and family life. 236. Schauffler, Rachel C. The Goodly Fellowship. Pp. 325. New York, Macmillan, 1912. Written by a missionary’s daughter and based on her brother-in-law’s martyrdom. Persia furnishes the background. 237. Small, A. H. Suwarta and Other Sketches of Indian Life. .'Kn excellent sketch of women’s work among Mohammedan women. 238. St. John, Bayle. Two Years’ Residence in a Levantine Family. London, Chapman and Hall, 1850. Native Christian life in Alexandria in the middle of the last century. A very sug- gestive sketch. 239. Taylor, Meadows. Confessions of a Thug. Pp. 552. Oxford, 1916. (World’s Classics.) Eirst published in 1839. Important for Indian Islam. 240. Vaka, Demitra. Haramlik or Some Pages from the Life of Turkish W’omen. Boston, Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1909. 241. — Child of the Orient. Pp. 298. Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1914. .'tn imaginative but very instructive Oriental tale. It may also mislead the reader. 242. Van Sommer, A., and Zwemer, S. M., editors. Our Moslem Sisters, A Cry of Need. Second edit. Pp. 299. New York, Revell, 1907. vivid, attractive set of sketches of the life of Moslem women. The gist of a series of papers presented at the Cairo Conference of 1906. 243. — Daylight in the Harem. A New Era for Moslem Women. Pp. 224. New York, Revell, 1911. A volume of the papers relating to work among Moslem women presented to the Lucknow Conference of 1911. 244. Watson, C. R. In the Valley of the Nile. Pp. 249. New York, Revell, 1908. 245. Wherry, E. M. Zeinab the Panjabi. Pp. 80. New York, American Tract Society, 1895. A story showing how the gospel affected a Mohammedan widow. 246. Zwemer, S. M. Childhood in the Moslem World. Pp. 274. New York, Revell, 1915. A study of the environment of childhood in Islam, showing the lack of religious and moral education. H. REFERENCE WORKS 247. Brockelmann, Karl. Geschichte der arabischen Litteratur. Two vols. Pp. 528, 714. Weimar, Felber, 1898-1902. • Not a history, but a collection of bibliographical and biographical materials. The most generally used reference book on Arabic literature. Indispensable for all who can read German. 248. Dozy, R. Supplement aux Dictionnaires Arabes. Two vols. Leyden, 1881. Contains many words and phrases not found in other lexicons. 249. Encyclopedia Britannica. 11th edit. Cambridge Univ. Press, 1910. The 9th edition still retains its value for its oriental articles, notably those by Wellhausen and Nbldeke on Mohammed, the Koran and on Arabic subjects generally. They are often fuller than those in the 11th edition. 128 THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ISLAM 250. The Encyclopedia of Islam : A Dictionary of the Geography, Ethnography, and Biography of the Mohammedan Peoples. Edited by Dr. M. Th. Houtsma, T. W. Arnold, Dr. Seligsohn and A. Schaade. Four vols. in 60 parts. London, Luzac & Co., 1915. Authoritative, scholarly articles, with excellent bibliographies. Quite exhaustive and very valuable. Only twenty-two parts have appeared to the date of 1916. 251. Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics. Edited by Hastings. New York, Scribner, 1908. The standard reference work representing up-to-date opinion. Very valuable to a student of religion and should be in every general mission library. 252. Field, Claud. A Dictionary of Oriental Quotations (Arabic and Persian). London, Sonnenschein. A good collection of well-chosen quotations from leading Arabic authors, given in the original, transliterated and translated. 253. Fluegel, G. Concordantiae Corani Arabic*. Leipzig, 1842 and after. The standard Koran concordance. 254. Hava, J. G. Arabic-English Dictionary. Pp. 909. Beirut, Catholic Press, 1899. Uses small type. Less well arranged than Salmone, but useful. 255. Huart, Cl. A History of Arabic Literature. Pp. 478. London, Heine- mann, 1903. A compact, reliable history by a French Orientalist of distinction. 256. Hughes, T. P. Dictionary of Islam. London, W. H. Allen & Co., 1885. A valuable book, obtainable in an anastatic reprint, written rather largely from the standpoint of India, but helpful to one who approaches Islam from the missionary standpoint. An encyclopedia of the doctrines, rites, ceremonials and customs, as well as of the technical terms of religion. Very useful as a key to the Koran. 257. Le Strange, (^y. Lands of the Eastern Caliphate, Mesopotamia, Persia and Central Asia from the Muslim Conquest to the Time of Timur. Pp. 554. Cambridge, 1905. (Cambridge Geographical Series.) Descriptive, historical and economic geo^aphy, with maps, a valuable index, and full references to native geographies. An original book. 258. — Baghdad during the Abbasid Caliphate from contemporary Arabic and Persian Sources. Pp. 411. Oxford, University Press, 1900. Descriptive and historical topography. 259. Nicholson, R. A. A Literary History of the Arabs. Pp. xxxi, 5(X). New York, Scribner, 1907. A very valuable compendium and conspectus of the literature. 260. Noldeke, Th. Geschichte des Qorans. Gottingen, Dieterich, 1860. Second edit.. Part First, revised by Schwally. Pp. xlii, 261. Leipzig, 1909. The standard help for the critical study of the text of the Koran. The original edition is still very valuable. 261. Penrice, J. A Dictionary and Glossary of the Koran. London, 1873. An excellent special lexicon of the Koran. 262. Saladin, H., and Migeon, G. Manuel d’Art Musulman. Two vols. Paris, 1907. 263. Salmone, H. A. An Arabic-English Dictionary. Pp. 1252. London, Triibner, 1890. Beautifully printed and clearly arranged. Becomes fuller after the first few letteis. 264. Wherry, E. M. A Comprehensive Commentary on the Qur’an. Four vols. Pp. 391, 466, 414, 340. London, Kegan Paul, 1882-86. Best available commentary in English, based on Sale’s translation, expanded from Indian and other authorities. Der Islam. A Quarterly. Strassburg, Triibner. The Moslem World. A Quarterly edited by Dr. Zwemer. London, C.L.S.I. Revue du Monde Musulman. A Monthly. Paris, Leroux. The specialty of Der Islam is scholarship and past historv; of The Moslem World is missions, and of the Revue is sociology, contemporary history and politics. All are excellent. 129 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS XV. Suggested Reading Courses for Those Contem- plating Missionary Work Among Moslems The preceding report is intended to be of service to the missionary candidate, to the junior missionary and even to the missionary of considerable experience. Its bibliography has, consequently, been given a wide range, including not a few books which are far from easy to obtain, in order, on the one hand, to encourage missionary research, and, on the other, to be sure of including the books about which a varied number of students need to know. To prevent the bibli- ography from bewildering the inexperienced student and to guide the reading of those who are in various stages of preparation and who have varying needs, the following sug- gestions are made: 1. For the Reading of a Student in College or Undergraduate Train- ing School. — The books mentioned below are untechnical but excellent in quality. They will serve to give a beginner some idea of Islam. (a) A Bird’s Eye View. — One of the very best books for a first impression of Islam is Takle’s “Religion of the Crescent” (166). It is published in Calcutta, but may be secured through the Association Press. Zwemer’s “Islam” (181) is another useful introduction. (b) The History of Islam. — Muir’s “Life of Mahomet,” one volume edition, is useful. It needs to be corrected by Hurgronje, “Mohamme- danism” (41), which is hard reading but accurate. (c) The Atmosphere of Islam. — The “Thousand and One Nights” (92), furnishes a library of suggestions. A capital story is Morier’s “Haji Baba of Ispahan” (226). Lane’s “Manners and Customs” (222) or Burton’s “Pilgrimage” (208) are classics. Lady Duff- Gordon’s “Letters” (211, 212) and Demitra Vaka’s harem stories (240, 241) are full of interest, although the latter are not reliable. (d) Conditions of Missionary Life. — Barton, “Daybreak in Turkey” (139) or Zwemer, “Cradle of Islam” (70) gives an illuminating por- trayal of the environment of a missionary. 130 SUGGESTED READING COURSES (e) Missionary Biography . — Hamlin, “Life and Times” (188). Dwight, “A Muslim Sir Galahad” (186), Pennell’s “Wild Tribes” (195), Speer’s “Hakim Sahib” (200) and Zwemer’s “Lull” (202) are entertaining, varied and highly instructive. 2. For the General Reading of the Graduate or Professional Student. — This list and those following represent books of a more advanced character. It may be taken for granted that books in French or Ger- man mentioned in the bibliography are among the best of their kind. (a) The History of Islam . — Ali’s “Spirit of Islam” (20) and Ar- nold’s “Preaching of Islam” (22) should be read together. Gilman’s “Saracens” (36) and Lane-Poole’s “Dynasties” (50) merit careful at- tention. Margoliouth’s “Mohammed” (54) and Muller’s “Der Islam” (58) are very dependable. Ali’s “History of the Saracens” is ex- cellent (21). (b) Arabic Literature. — A good and reliable general history is Nicholson’s “Literary History” (259). (c) Poetry. — The best collection of the poetry of the Arabs is that by Lyall, “Ancient Arabian Poetry” (53). A valuable collection of more modern verse is that by Gibb, “Ottoman Poems” (33). (d) Religious Sects. — Nicholson’s “Mystics” (125) is a strong study of Sufiism. Sell’s “Essays” (129), his “Religious Orders” (130) and the cult monographs (131) are very valuable and suggestive. Walter’s “Ahmadiya Movement” (134) discusses fully a very important modern movement. (e) Modern Movements in Islam. — Browne, “A Year” (113) for Babism, Farquhar, “Modern Movements” (119), Wilson, “Modern Movements” (137) and Zwemer, “Disintegration” (138) will, with Walter (134), already mentioned, and numbers 117 and 118 give an admirable conspectus of these movements. (f) Christian Missions. — The best book to serve as an introduction is Macdonald’s “Aspects of Islam” (94). Greene’s “Leavening the Levant” (148) and Jessup’s “Fifty-three Years” (191) cover a half- century of marvelous changes. For a general history see Richter’s “Protestant Missions” (160). For the world situation in regard to Islam in 1906, see No. 178. For a particularly puzzling problem see Simon’s “Progress and Arrest” (163). (g) Social and Economic Problems. — Dwight, “Constantinople” (213), Van Sommer, “Daylight in the Harem” (243) and Zwemer, 131 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS “Childhood in the Moslem World” (246) ; each throw a flood of light upon social conditions. Hurgronje’s “Mekka” (218) is a very thorough study of conditions and problems. (3) For Reading During the Period of Specialization . — There is little real difference between the books mentioned above and those in this list. A genuinely advanced student will be putting in much of his time on original sources in Arabic, Persian, etc. (a) The Comparison of Islam with Christianity . — Becker’s “Chris- tianity and Islam” (140) is well worthy careful study, likewise Her- rick, “Christian and Mohammedan” (151). Muir, “The Apology of A1 Kindy” (156) will be helpful, while Rice, “Crusaders” (159) and Tisdall’s “Manual” (168) seem indispensable. (b) The Problems of Islam . — Hurgronje’s “Mohammedanism” (41) deserves very careful reading. Blunt, “Future of Islam” (74), Geiger, “Judaism and Islam” (83), Goldziher, “Mohammedanische Studien” (86) and Macdonald, “Religious Attitude and Life” (96) are other indispensable books. (c) Islam in Various Countries. — Broomhall, “Islam in China” (23),, Wherry, “Islam in India” (69), Zwemer, “Arabia the Cradle” (70), Simon, “Progress and Arrest of Islam in Sumatra” (163), and Hunter, “The Indian Musalmans” (219), together with the monographs in the Islam Series (61), are thoughtful studies. (d) Moslem Theology. — The absolutely basal book for the thought- ful student of Islam is Goldziher’s “Vorlesungen” (85). A translation of this was prepared for the Yale University Press in 1917, under the title of “Mohammed and Islam,” but was withdrawn because of defects. It may be looked for, quite probably, in 1918. The best book in English is Macdonald’s “Development of Muslim Theology” (95). There is a French translation of Goldziher’s book. XVI. Selected References to Paragraphs The following references are intended to be of service to the student who desires to study intensively any of the num- bered sections of the report. The figures and titles indicate the sections referred to. They are not exhaustive. They aim as a rule to direct the student who is attempting to under- 132 SELECTED REFERENCES TO PARAGRAPHS Stand Islam to the literature most immediately available. This literature -will in turn serve to lead the way to a more intensive study. I. (1.) The Environment of Islam . — Note the bibliographical refer- ences in Noldeke’s article on the “Ancient Arabs” in the Hastings “Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics” (251). I. (2.) The Character and Experience of Mohammed. — Muir’s “Life” (57) is valuable as a basis, but must be used guardedly and in the light of recent criticism of the traditions. The first lecture in Hurgronje’s “Mohammedanism” (41) discusses the unraveling of tradition, while Macdonald’s “Aspects of Islam” (94) discusses the person of Mohammed. All biographies of the Prophet may be con- sulted. Section B of the Bibliography mentions nine of them. I. (3.) The New Faith. — See Margoliouth’s “Mohammedanism” (98) and Macdonald’s “Development” (95). II. The Spread and Extent of Islam. — The standard history is Muller’s “Der Islam, etc.” (58). It covers the subject thoroughly. Muir’s “Caliphate” (56) is of value. The various histories referred to under section B of the Bibliography are helpful. II. (1.) The Three Missionary Periods. — Arnold’s “The Preaching of Islam” (22) and Zwemer’s “Islam” (181) discuss these periods. II. (2.) The Explanation. — In contrast with “Preaching” (22) Amir AH’s “History of the Saracens” (21) gives a Mohammedan explanation of Islam’s development. II. (4.) Geographical Extension . — The various histories and such monographs as Broomhall’s “Islam in China” (23) will be helpful. II. (5.) Racial Types . — Simon’s “Progress and Arrest” (163) is a helpful monograph regarding one field. Noteworthy articles relating to Northern Asia and Africa will be found in the volumes of The Moslem World. II. (7.) The Political Situation . — Eliot’s (“Odysseus”), “Turkey in Europe” (31) and Zwemer’s “Disintegration” (138) are useful studies. III. The Development of Islam . — The encyclopedias, notably the “Encyclopedia of Islam” (250), have valuable articles. In the last- mentioned encyclopedia look under each technical term in Arabic. 133 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS III. (1.) The Individual. — See the chapter on Education in Mac- donald’s “Aspects” (94) with its references. The best possible book to read is “The Thousand and One Nights” with Lane’s notes (92) passim. III. (2.) The Fatnily. — Fahmy’s “La Condition” (78), Perron’s “Femmes arabes” (230), “Haji Baba” (226), the books by Madame Ruchdi Pacha (234, 235), Zwemer’s “Childhood” (246) and all the books written by women, who were able to get below the surface of Mohammedan society. III. (4.) The Government. — Gibbon’s “Foundations of the Otto- man Empire” (35) discusses at second hand, but ably, one phase of this subject. III. (5.) Constitutional Development. — Macdonald’s “Development” (95), and Hurgronje’s “Mohammedanism” (41), take this up most helpfully. IV. (1.) Allah. — Zwemer’s “Doctrine of God” (110), Gardner’s “Quranic Doctrine of God” (82), Gairdner’s articles scattered through The Moslem World, his “Muslim Idea of God” (80) and Macdonald’s articles on “Allah” in the “Encyclopedia of Islam” (250), and in the “Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics” (251). IV. (2.) Created Beings. — Read “The Thousand and One Nights” (92), passim. Herklots’ “Qanoon” (88) has much regarding magic and jinn. Macdonald’s “Religious Attitude” (96), lectures 1-5, with the references, covers the subject broadly. IV. (3.) Nature of Mankind. — Gardner’s “Doctrine of Sin” (82) is helpful. IV. (4.) Salvation . — Gardner’s “Quranic Doctrine of Salvation” (82). IV. (6.) Sacred Books. — The various Histories of the Koran and the Introductions will be valuable. Nbldeke’s “Sketches” (59) and Macdonald’s “Attitude” (96), especially the chapter on Sacred Books, are directly useful. IV. (8.) Day of Judgment . — Gautier’s translation in French of al- Ghazzali (6) affords a fine description of the Day of Judgment. V. Religious Practices . — Lane’s “Modern Egyptians” (222), Sell’s “Faith of Islam” (104) and the article “Worship” in Hughes’ “Dic- tionary of Islam” are very illuminating. 134 SELECTED REFERENCES TO PARAGRAPHS V. (1.) Faith. — Klein’s “Religion of Islam” (90) is a good general book to read. See also articles in the “Encyclopedia of Islam” (250) on tman and iqrar (not yet appeared). V. (2.) Worship. — Lane’s “Modern Egyptians” (222) is full of suggestion. Hurgronje’s “Mekka” (218) is good. Hughes’ “Dic- tionary of Islam (256) may be consulted under the various rubrics. V. (3.) Fasting. — See Lane’s “Modern Egyptians” (222) for vivid illustrations of the methods of fasting. V. (5.) Pilgrimage. — Burckhardt’s “Travels in Arabia” (206) and Burton’s “Personal Narrative” (208) are classics on the subject. Hur- gronje’s “Mekka” (218) is more recent. Ralli’s “Christians at Mecca” (233) should also be noted. V. (6.) Jihad. — Arnold’s “Preaching” (22) and Hurgronje’s “Mo- hammedanism” (41) have opposing views of its value. Note the “Encyclopedia of Islam” (250) under “Djihad.” VI. (1.) Canon Law. — Macdonald’s “Development” (95) and Hur- gronje’s “Mohammedanism” (41) discuss this subject fully. The “En- cycloj)edia of Islam” (250) has valuable articles on the various techni- cal themes. VI. (2.) (a.) Free Will. — The references given under VI (1) are adequate. VI. (2.) (b.) Allah and His Qualities. — The references given under IV (1) apply here also. VI. (2.) (c.) Doctrine of the Koran. — The student may consult the various “Introductions” to the Koran. Sell’s “Historical Develop- ment” (105) and Noldeke’s “Geschichte” (260) are valuable. VI. (2.) (d.) Anthropomorphisms. — One who wishes to go into this subject should read Goldziher’s “Die Zahiriten.” VII. (1.) Shiites. — Morier’s “Haji Baba” (226) throws much light upon the relations of Shiites and Sunnites. Goldziher (85) is a mine of exact information. Merrick’s rare book (55) is of much value. ,Sykes’ “Glory of the Shia World” (133) is the best, readily available, recent book. VII. (2.) Mysticism. — Nicholson’s “Mystics of Islam” (125) Garnett’s “Mysticism and Magic” (121), Macdonald’s “Religious Atti- 135 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS tude” (96), as well as Chapter 11 of Simon’s “Progress and Arrest” (163), are excellent books, all available. VII. (3.) Wahhabism. — Burckhardt’s “Notes” (207) and Pal- grave’s “Narrative” (227) are the best available sources of informa- tion. See also the encyclopedias. VII. (4.) Babism . — Notice the footnote on page 67. VII. (5.) Ahmadiya. — Walter’s book with its references (134) is reasonably exhaustive on this subject. VII. (6.) N eo-Mutazilites . — Amir AH is their spokesman. Notice his various books (20, 21, 71). VIII. Moslem Types . — Study “Vital Forces” (172). IX. What Christianity May Add . — This is a subject for meditation rather than reading. Simon’s “Progress and Arrest” (163), in Part III, approaches the problem from this angle. IX. (8.) Womanhood . — Note the various volumes written by women about women in Islam (211, 231, 234, 235, 240), also the two Conference reports (242, 243), and such works as Perron’s “Femmes arabes” (230), or Jessup’s “Women of the Arabs” (221). X. (9.) Childhood . — See Zwemer’s “Childhood” (246) with its references. XVII. Library Hints for the Missionary Scholar WHO USES Arabic Just as a knowledge of Sanskrit is of great value to the missionary of scholarly tastes who seeks to become a real interpreter of religion to the Hindu mind, so a good knowl- edge of Arabic is of value to the thorough student of Islam. The following represents the sort of information which such a student is glad to have at his command. It has been con- tributed to this report by Professor Duncan B. Macdonald, D.D. of the Hartford Theological Seminary. The student who uses Arabic should have, for his study of the Koran, besides his ordinary dictionary and grammar, a native com- mentary (Baidawl by preference), Fliigel’s concordance, ar-Raghib 136 LIBRARY HINTS FOR THE MISSIONARY SCHOLAR al-Isfahani’s “Dictionary of the Koran,” called Al-Mufradat ft gharlb al-Qur’dn (there is a good vocalized ed., Cairo, A. H., 1324) and Palmer’s translation. Other good commentaries are the Kashshdf of Zamakhshari, which is the basis of Baidawl, the Tafsir of RazI and the Tafsir of Tabari. Zamakhshari was a Mutazilite and a great grammarian. Razi was a theologian and his book is a topical treat- ment of theology; Tabari’s commentary is a compilation of exegetical traditions. For his study of Moslem literature, civilization, history and theology certain works are of prime importance. One would mention as a storehouse of folk-lore, tradition, popular medicine, lexicography, legends, racial psychology and law, al-Damiri’s Haydt al-Hayawdn, which professes to be a zoological lexicon. An English translation by Col. A. S. G. Jayakar (London, Luzac, 1906), covering so far about three-quarters of the whole work, makes the original generally ac- cessible. Both the text and the translation should be in every good Arabic library. There are several Oriental editions. Jayakar’s trans- lation is generally excellent, but needs to be compared with the origfinal, the details and flavor of which it occasionally misses. Another work of much value is Ibn Khaldun’s history, Kitdh al Tbdr (Book of Examples), the most truly scientific book in the Arabic language, covering all phases of Moslem civilization and intended by the author to be a history of the world. Its preface, the Muqaddima, was translated in 1862-68 into French, with the title “Les Prolego- menes d’ Ibn Khaldoun” (3 vols., Paris, Imprimerie Imperiale). This translation and the original text should be in every Arabic library. There is a very complete Paris edition of the text and several Oriental editions. Of the latter the Egyptian editions are to be preferred to those of Beirut. The student should have accessible, also, to be used along with Juynboll’s “Handbuch” (No. 89), such a textbook of canon law as Ibrahim al-Baijuri’s Hashiya (detailed comment) on the Shark (run- ning commentary) of Ibn Qasim on the Main (fundamental text) of Abu Shuja‘. There are several Cairo editions, and there is an analysis in Macdonald’s “Development,” pp. 351-357. He should read as much as possible of the Ihyd ‘ulum ad-din by al-Ghazzali. There are many Oriental editions, one in ten volumes with a very full commentary, Ithaf as-sdda, by the Sayyid Murtada. He should read also in the “Stories of the Prophets” {Qisas al- anbiyd) by ath-Tha‘labi, of which there are many Oriental editions. 137 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS It is a history of revelation in biographical form and a historical com- mentary on the Koran. Illuminating Muslim creeds are the “Articles of Belief” {‘Aqa'id) of an-Nasafi, of which there is a trustworthy edition with several com- mentaries, especially one by at-Taftazani, Cairo, A.H., 1321, and the “Sufficiency” (Kifdya) of al-FadalT, of which there are several Cairo editions with the commentary of al-Baijuri. Ability to quote a few lines from the Mu‘allaqdt, Arab poems of the pre-Islamic period, will be of the first value toward giving a mission- ary standing as a man of education and literary refinement. There are many editions, some with commentaries. A good short history is the Fakhrl of Ibn at-Tiqtaqa, edited by Ahlwardt, Gotha, 1860; by Derenbourg, Paris, 1895, and at Cairo, A.H., 1317, which extends to the fall of Bagdad. There is a French translation by E. Amar, Paris, 1910. Another is the Arabic text of which No. 9 is a translation, ed. by de Goeje, Leyden, 1866, and at Cairo, A. H., 1319. There are several good and cheap Oriental eds. of the Arabic text of No. 43, Ibn Khallikan’s “Biographical Dictionary” (Wafaydt ol-Aydn). A good manual of the constitution of the Muslim state is the Ahkam as-sultdnlya by al-Mawardi, ed. by Enger, Bonn, 1853, and at Cairo, A.H., 1298. There is a partial translation by Leon Ostrorog, “Traite de droit public musulman,” Paris, 1901. For the life of Mohammed the fundamental text is Ibn Hisham (No. 8). With it should be taken the Sahth of BukharT (No. 3) and whatever other collections of traditions may be accessible. With these should be used anything by Goldziher and Lammens. The standard European Arabic grammar is that of William Wright, 3rd ed. 2 vols. Cambridge, 1896, 1898. Pp. xiv, 318, xx, 450. A still fuller treatment of grammar can be had by combining De Sacy’s Grammaire arabe, 2nd ed. 2 vols. Paris, 1831. Pp. xx, 608, xii, 698, with Fleischer’s elaborate commentary on the same in his Kleinere Schriften, vol. i, pp. 1-844. Oriental grammars are multitudinous. The admirable little Ajurrumlya is a good introduction to their method and the two most useful larger books are probably the Alfiya of Ibn Malik with the commentary of Ibn ‘Aqil (ed. Dieterici, Leipzig, 1850, and very often in the East), and the Mufassal of Zamakhsharl (2nd ed. Broch, Christiania, 1879, and in the East). 138 LIBRARY HINTS FOR THE MISSIONARY SCHOLAR In lexicons there are two single-volume books which can be recom- mended: Salmone (No. 263) and Hava (No. 254). Beyond these handy volumes the only recourse is to the great but unfinished work of E. W. Lane in 8 vols. (London, Williams and Norgate). The gaps in Lane can be filled to a certain extent from H. Dozy’s “Supplement aux Dictionnaires Arabes’’ (2 vols., Leyden, E. J. Brill), an invaluable work, especially for mediaeval Arabic, but very rare and very dear. Every statement in Freytag (“Lexicon Arabico-Latinum,” 4 vols.) must be verified. Of the native lexicons, the Qatnus and the Sahah have now been pushed aside by the Lisan al-arab (in 20 parts; binds in 5 thick vols.) and by the Taj al- arils no vols.), a commentary on the Qdmus and the foundation of Lane’s “Lexicon.” There are several others, but Arabic is still incompletely booked in them and also words and meanings may be found in some of the smaller of them that have not been taken up into the larger. Of modern compilations the Muhit aUMuhit of Butrus al-Bustani (2 vols., Beirut, 1867-1870) is still useful for the width of its vocabulary, classical, mediaeval and modern. A dictionary of a different kind but of the greatest use to the serious student is the “Dictionary of Technical Terms used in the Sciences of the Musalmans,” edited by Sprenger and Lees in the “Bibliotheca Indica” (2 vols., together pp. 72, 1564, Calcutta, 1862). It is a modern compilation in Arabic with additions in Persian and is the best single key which we have to the scholastic sciences of Islam. The Kitdh at-ta‘rifat (Book of Definitions) by Jurjani (many eds.) is small but good. XVIII. Library Hints for the Missionary Scholar WHO USES Persian The missionary to Persian speaking peoples requires re- search tools of his own. The following statement has been prepared by Professor M. H. Ananikian of the Kennedy School of Missions. 1. Dictionaries. — The student who is beginning to use Persian will find Palmer’s concise Persian Dictionary (London, 1876) indis- pensable. Berge’s “Dictionnaire Persan-Franqais” (Leipzig, 1869) is helpful. Each work is limited in scope. The older scholar will use 139 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS Steingass’s recension of the old Johnson-RichardscJn lexicon, a com- prehensive work but far from perfect. Vuller’s “Lexicon Persico- Latinum” quotes copiously from native and Europ>ean authorities. Wollaston’s “English-Persian Dictionary” (London, 1889) is reliable. Much difficulty arises from the presence in Persian of many words derived from Turkish or Persian dialects and of Arabic words used in Persian in a more or less modified sense. Redhouse’s “Turkish- English Lexicon” (London, 1890) often becomes a convenient guide to the solution of such problems. Among the many Persian lexicons the Burhdni-qdti‘, the Bahdrl-i-Ajami and the F arhang-i-J ahangiri may be mentioned with approval. 2. Grammars. — For Westerners the classical grammar is still Lumsden’s two clumsy volumes. There is an excellent grammar by J. T. Platts in two volumes, or in a one volume edition by Rankin (Oxford University Press). Mirza Mohammed Ibrahim’s “Gram- mar of the Living Persian Language” (also in an improved German edition by Fleischer) and Salemann and Shukovski’s “Persische Grammatik” in the Porta Linguarum Orientalium series deserve men- tion. For the study of modem (conversational, official, journalistic) Persian, not excluding the classical language, the student is largely dependent on St. Clair Tisdall’s “Modern Persian Conversation- Grammar” (Heidelberg, 1902). The native grammarians, of which the Ferheng i Reshidi (ed. by Splieth, Halle, 1846) is one of the best known, are more interesting than useful to the ordinary student. 3. History of Literature. — The Britannica gives an excellent gen- eral survey by Hermann Ethe (see under “Persia,” 9th and 11th edi- tions) and a large number of articles on the important poets under their names. Further in the “Litteraturen des Ostens” series (vol. 8) Paul Horn offers a short sketch of the development of Persian literature. The best works of some extent on the subject are Her- mann Ethe’s “Neupersische Litteratur” in Geiger-Kuhn’s “Iranische Philologie” and E. G. Brown’s very interesting “Literary History of Persia.” The latter, of which only two volumes have appeared (cov- ering to the 14th century), is really an intellectual history of Persia. The student, after acquiring a sound knowledge of the grammatical forms of Persian and Arabic, should proceed to the analytical study of Sa'di’s “Gulistan.” Platts’ edition offers a good text, an excellent vocabulary and tables of the metres. He who has mastered both the prose and poetry of this book has not only learned Persian, but also 140 LIBRARY HINTS FOR THE MISSIONARY SCHOLAR a good deal about Eastern thought, life and manners. From Sa'di to Jami', Hafi, Jalal-ad-DIn Rumi, Nizami and Firdausi is only a short step. Griinert’s lithographed “Neupersische Chrestomathie” offers a fairly good choice of graded reading matter with a good vocabulary and analysis of metres. The Persian translation of the “Arabian Nights” uses a very good prose style on closely and badly lithographed pages. The student will find in Ethe’s “Neupersische Litteratur” a reliable guide to the popular fables and stories. 4. History and Travel . — The best general introduction again is the article “Persia” in the Britannica, 11th edition. The similar article in the 9th edition was written by great scholars and is still of great value and interest. For the ancient history of Persia, the more promi- nent authorities are Eduard Meyer, Justi (in Geiger-Kuhn, 2nd volume) emd Prasek. Hall’s “Ancient History of Western Asia” gives an excellent survey of the whole situation. Sykes’ recently published “History of Persia” (2 vols., London, 1915) covers also the Muhammedan period down to our times and is most highly recom- mended. For the Muhammedan Period, besides Sykes, the authori- ties are the Britannica article (9th and 11th eds.) and Aug. Muller’s “Der Islam.” But Malcolm’s classical “History of Persia” still holds a unique place. For dates and dynasties see Lane-Poole’s “Mohamme- dan Dynasties.” Browne’s “A Year among the Persians” and Morier’s most enter- taining “Haji Baba” are probably the best descriptions of the land and the peoples. 5. Religious Literature . — The religious literature of Persia has re- ceived little and one-sided attention in European circles. The most popular and practical commentary on the Koran in Persian is the Mowahib ‘alliyya by Husayn Ibn ‘All al-Wa‘iz. The Persians have their own sets of Hadith. Of these the Hayat al-Qulub has been translated into English by J. L. Merrick under the title of the Life and Religion of Mohammed (Boston, 1850), See No. 57 in the bibliography. Generally speaking, both systematic theology (Kalam) and law (Fiqh) are usually treated in the Arabic language, and popular books in Persian on these subjects seem to be less accessible than in Turk- ish. Further Shi'ite piety and religious literature revolve mostly around the cult of ‘All and the rights and virtues of his descendants. The student should begin with Goldziher’s last lecture in his “Vorle- 141 PRESENTING CHRISTIANITY TO MOSLEMS sungen iiber den Islam,” and add to this, perhaps, the article on Shi‘a in Hughes’ “Dictionary of Islam.” As Shi'ite theology is Mu‘ta- zilite in origin, Galland’s “Essai sur les Mo‘tazelites” (Geneva, 1906) may be read with profit. The most important source on the Mu'tazila is Ibn al-Murtada’s Kitab al-milal zval-nihal. The chapter on the Mu'tazila was separately edited by T. W. Arnold, Leipzig, 1903. Sufiism has almost become the specialty of the Persians whose poetic literature and philosophical spirit are permeated with all shades of mysticism. From the nature of the subject a general introduction that will do justice to it as a whole is practically impossible. Yet see R. A. Nicholson’s “Mystics of Islam” in the Quest Series (129). The student will find a good introductory textbook in al-Ghazzali’s Kimi'yd- i-sa'adat (translated into English). But the most important Sufi work in Persian is Jalal ad-Dln Rumi’s Mathudis. The first book of this was translated into English by Redhouse and the second by Pro- fessor C. E. Wilson (London, 1910) ; selections from the whole cycle are given by Whinfield in Triibner’s Oriental Series. Next to Jalal, ad-Din comes, perhaps, the poems of his friend, Shams-i-Tabrizi (ed. by R. S. Nicholson). Among the innumerable mystic treatises (both general works and textbooks of dervish orders) we may mention Jami‘’s Lawa’ih, translated by Whinfield and Mirza Muh-Kazvinl (London, 1906). On Babism and Bahaism the reader may be referred to E. G. Browne’s article in Hastings’ “Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics” (2d vol.) and the same author’s earlier volume on the same subject. Browne’s article is also a good guide to the literature of these move- ments as far as Persia is concerned. The later developments of Bahaism do not belong to Persia proper. 142 ] 'i { I ) I V .1