■',^ixiWmicffg^ m 2400 .B4 1901 ^* leach, Harlan Page, 1854 ^'geography and atlas of P?otestant missions A GEOGRAPHY AND ATLAS OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS VOLUME I GEOGRAPHY A GEOGRAPHY AND ATLAS OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS THEIR ENVIRONMENT, FORCES, DISTRIBUTION, METHODS, PROBLEMS, RESULTS AND PROSPECTS AT THE OPENING OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY V By HARLAN P. BEACH, M.A. Educational Secretary Student Volunteer Movement Fellow of the American Geographical Society Member of the American Oriental Society VOLUME I GEOGRAPHY NEW YORK STUDENT VOLUNTEER MOVEMENT FOR FOREIGN MISSIONS 1901 COPYRIGHT, 1 901, BY STUDENT VOLUNTEER MOVEMENT FOR FOREIGN MISSIONS PREFACE The present work is the twenty-third in a series of text- books that have been pubHshed since 1894 for the use of students in the institutions of higher learning of North Amer- ica. As those for whom the books are primarily prepared are members of study classes conducted by the Student Volunteer Movement for Foreign Missions, their needs have determined the typographical peculiarities and the selection of material here found. The general aim of the present volume is to present in Part I of each chapter facts bearing on the geography, ethnography and religions of the country under discussion, thus placing the reader in possession of the main elements in the mis- sionary's environment. Part II follows with a statement of the missionary force, work and outlook. This part of each chapter is a present-day survey only. Volume II is a royal quarto. It contains, in addition to the maps especially prepared for this work, an index to mission stations and the statistics of more than four hundred independ- ent and auxiliary societies. Its size makes it possible to present on a single page extended tables, as well as to print far larger maps than could appear in a volume as small as this one. Unlike the missionary maps printed hitherto by the Volun- teer Movement and by most missionary societies, in which few towns except those occupied by missionaries appear, these maps are purposely made full in order to give some conception of the land yet to be possessed. The Station Index is likewise as VI PREFACE valuable as it is unique. So far as the author knows the lit- erature, nothing- of the sort has ever appeared. A superficial examination of the present volumes will reveal the differences between them and other works of somewhat similar scope. Usually these are prepared for the use of a sin- gle society, and even the most extensive and valuable publica- tion of the class, " The Church Missionary Atlas," 1896, con- fines its letter-press and maps almost solely to its own opera- tions and fields. Ecumenical volumes, such, for example, as Dean Vahl's " Missionsatlas med Forklaring," 1883-86, and Grundemann's " Kleine Missions-Geographie und -Statistik," 1901, have to do with the work of the larger societies only. Still others are either statistical and cartographical, like Dr. Dennis's " Centennial Survey of Foreign Missions," 1902, or cartographical alone, as Grundemann's " Neuer Missionsatlas," 1896. In so far as those volumes describe missionary opera- tions, the treatment is largely historical, little attention being paid to the present status of missionary effort. Much space is given to statistics of stations occupied, societies engaged and the results of missionary effort. The present work includes the operations of a larger number of societies than are found in any other publication, except Dr. Dennis's ; but, unlike his volume, it contains extended descrip- tions of the various fields and concise accounts of the present missionary status and outlook. While it gives in its Station Index more data with regard to the work of the various stations throughout the world than are found in any other volume, thousands of criticisms from students and professors, received during the past six years, have practically banished such de- tails from the descriptive volume. These friends object to be- ing obliged to read barren and categorical lists of towns, so- cieties, station statistics, etc., though they acknowledge their value in tabular form. The absence of the critical element, which makes Dr. Warneck's writings so valuable, was necessi- tated by the lack of space. The same necessity has prevented anything more than the barest reference to the fascinating and I'REFACE Vii instructive history of the planting and development of Prot- estant missions in the various fields. The reader is referred for such material to Warneck's " History of Protestant Mis- sions," 1901, or to text-books published by the Volunteer Movement on the leading missionary countries. The reader will likewise note that, unlike writers of the Con- tinental school, the author includes missionary operations among the Catholic populations of Latin America. In Volume II, statistics of Protestant missionary societies laboring in the Papal countries of Europe are likewise included, for the rea- son that an account of these societies would be incomplete without statistical reference, at least, to missions among com- munities that are not deemed proper mission fields by some distinguished writers. On the other hand, no reference is here made to labors for the colored population of the United States, though both Dr. Grundemann and Professor Warneck consider them as falling within the province of the " Heidenmission." While admit- ting the inconsistency which Dr. Warneck points out of in- cluding the colored population of the West Indies and omit- ting the negroes of the United States, it may still be said that when the Protestant colored churches of only six denomina- tions have a membership of 3,314,581, thirty-eight per cent. of the entire colored population according to the census of 1900, — a far larger proportion of church members than pre- vails among the whites, — they can hardly be considered as included in the list of heathen, notwithstanding their African ancestry. Another feature of Volume I will probably be criticised, namely, the large amount of space given to quotations. This is intentional. As no one writer can by any possibility per- sonally visit all the mission fields of the world and thus be- come competent, in a sense, to give first-hand views con- cerning them, the author has in lieu thereof attempted to se- cure information from the most reliable sources. Instead of burdening the volume with footnotes acknowledging the hun- Vlll PREFACE dreds of sources consulted, he has adopted the expedient of freely using quotation marks and giving in Appendices A and B most of the authorities that have been consulted. Part II of the various chapters owes much to the nearly two hundred missionaries from different parts of the world, whose names were suggested by their societies and who have so kindly and freely furnished the author with most valuable information. He hereby acknowledges his great indebtedness and gratitude to these workers who are in the thick of the fight. He is even more indebted to the nearly three hundred missionary societies that have so generously furnished him with detailed statistics, as well as with printed reports of their recent work. December, igoi. CONTENTS Part I Part II General Missionary I The Aborigines of America I 26 II Mexico 45 53 III Central America .... 67 76 IV The West Indies .... 83 92 V South America 103 124 VI Oceania 142 152 VII New Zealand and Australian Aborigines and New Guinea .... 166 175 VIII The Malay Archipelago, or Malaysia 184 191 IX Japan and Its Outlying Islands . 204 219 X Korea 236 247 XI China and Its Dependencies 257 275 XII Siam, Laos, Straits Settlements and Protected States .... 302 308 XIII Burma and Ceylon .... 319 33° XIV India 343 360 XV Persia, or Iran 390 400 XVI Turkey, or the Ottoman Empire 408 - 416 XVII Africa 431 453 XVIII Madagascar and Other African Islands 477 485 XIX Fields Practically Unoccupied . 493 507 XX Missions to the Jews 516 521 XXI Japanese and Chinese in Christian Lands 527 532 Appendix A — Missionaries Who Have Contributed to This Volume . 545 Appendix B — Bibliography 550 Index 559 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS THE ABORIGINES OF AMERICA Scope of this Work. — Its aim is to comprehensively pre- sent the fields, the forces and the work of Protestant Missions. To this end the first volume is devoted to a survey of all mis- sion lands occupied by Protestant missionaries, together with their varied activities, and of some special forms of work, such as missions to Jews, Indians and Chinese in Protestant lands. Though missionary effort in Catholic Europe is omitted, there are four chapters on missions laboring in Latin America. While some eminent missionary writers omit reference to efforts to reach nominal Christians in countries where Christianity of the Roman Catholic type is widely dominant, this volume de- viates from so defensible a position for the reason that prom- inent missionary societies count such operations as part of their legitimate program. In order to present their work, there- fore, theoretical objections have yielded before actual condi- tions. Volume II contains maps upon which is indicated the position of such mission stations — not outstations — as could be located, as well as other maps general in character and likely to be useful to those who desire to learn the orographical, climatic, racial and religious conditions prevailing in the world. In this volume are also found the latest missionary statistics kindly furnished by the societies, and a Station Index, exhibit- ing at a glance the location, working force and plant of each station. 2 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS The chapters in the first volume are subdivided into general and missionary sections. This is done to meet the convenience of those who wish to study these lands from one standpoint only. Thus many of the mission-study classes in American colleges and universities — for whom the volumes are pri- marily intended — desire to learn only about missionary opera- tions, while many others among our constituency are looking to foreign service and hence are desirous of undertaking a gen- eral study of each country, as well as that of its more strictly missionary aspects. It inevitably follows that there are occa- sional repetitions in the second part of each chapter, though an attempt has been made to reduce such duplication to a minimum. It will be noted that the space given to some countries is greater than their importance would seem to war- rant. This has usually been the case in those lands about which little information is commonly available. Thus Central America is so little written about in missionary periodicals and other literature that a seemingly undue amount of space is devoted to those republics, notwithstanding the fact that the work there, except on the Atlantic coast, is so recent. This will also account for the space devoted to the American aborigines and to Oceania, where only one American society is laboring among the heathen population, — other European societies are there, however, — and to Persia, about which few in America except Presbyterians know and only a small num- ber in Europe. In other cases, also, more space is devoted to one country than to another of equal or greater importance. For example, South America has proportionately far less material in the missionary section than Mexico. This is ex- plained by the fact that the latter is the first Latin America country treated, and as similar conditions exist in all Catholic lands in America, a less space is given to Part II of South America. In order to most profitably use this work, it is suggested that the atlas volume be kept open as Volume I is being studied, so that constant reference to the corresponding map may be THE ABORIGINES OF AMERICA 3 convenient. Separate volumes make this more easy than when maps are found in another part of the book studied. It is impossible in so brief a work to devote any space to the history of missions in a given country. Standard volumes in condensed form, like Professor G. Warneck's " Abriss einer Geschichte der protestantischen Missionen von der Re- formation bis auf die Gegenwart," 1901, or the more extended and popular " Conquests of the Cross," 3 vols., 1890, by E. Hodder, must be consulted for such information. Space limi- tations likewise prevent any extended mention of the work of particular boards ; the reader is referred to special histories, of which those of the Moravians, Church Missionary Society and London Missionary Society are the best illustrations of recent missionary literature in English. PART I. — GENERAL I. The Countries. — As Greenland and possibly Labrador were the first lands to be discovered on the Western Hemi- sphere, our survey will begin there. I- Greenland received its name from Erik the Red, who was banished from Iceland and in the year 986 a.d. established two colonies upon this continental island. Though he wrote that it was a country greener than his beloved fatherland, and that its " rivers were thick with fish and the grass dropped butter," a contemporary voyager, Biarni, truthfully described it as a coimtry of mountains and huge ice-hills, and naively says of Erik, " he called it Greenland because, quoth he, people will be attracted thither, if the land has a good name." The scenery of this home of icebergs and Eskimos is some- what diversified along the coast, where bold headlands, some of them nearly a mile high, tower heavenward, while deep fjords, into which slowly moving glaciers deposit with a roar like the discharge of artillery their gigantic progeny, are some- times fringed with a stunted growth of alder, birch and rowan- 4 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS trees. Inland nothing except a terrible waste of " ice — rough, crevasse-torn, white, earthless, moraineless, lifeless — is seen, until, in the far distance, the view is bounded by a dim, misty horizon of ice. The only exception to this general statement is to be found in the fact that here and there the ice has licked in and surrounded, but not yet covered, bits of high land which stand out black amid the surrounding icy whiteness." Resources. — If the land is cold and cheerless, sea and sky are remarkable for their teeming life and wealth of scintillat- ing color. Fur-bearing animals, fish of various sorts, including one species of whale whose weight has been estimated as equal to that of eighty-eight elephants, clouds of summer birds and maddening mosquitoes, and on land the useful dog and rapidly disappearing reindeer, are prominent representatives of the animate creation. The nightless day of summer and the winter days that know no sun, but flash with the matchless play of the aurora borealis, are also characteristic features of a Greenland experience. Aside from the fish and the furs with the flesh which they cover there is little of worth in this frozen land ; for, excepting cryolite, the minerals occurring are not com- mercially profitable. Fortunately the climate of those lands from which the earlier settlers came was almost arctic in character, or it would per- haps have driven them home. The lowest temperature reported from the northern settlements is — 66.5° F., and the maximum in the South is 68° F. Spring and autumn are disagreeable be- cause of rain, sleet, snow, ice and fog, and in winter the " exer- cise of the sometimes scurvied residents is confined to within a few yards of the houses, when the great depth of snow will ad- mit even of this." The hardship most keenly felt by mission- aries, however, is the lack of summer, rather than the severity of winter. Greenland being subject to Denmark, the Government is in the hands of representatives of its trade monopoly who sin- cerely desire to promote the highest welfare of the Eskimos. Their aim is " to prevent spirits being sold to them and the THE ABORIGINES OF AMERICA 5 vice, disease, and misery, which usually attend the collision between civilization of the trader's type and barbarism, being introduced into the primitive arctic community." While this commendable monopoly pays the Eskimos low prices for their produce, it also sells " them European articles of necessity at prime cost, and other stores, such as bread, at prices which will scarcely pay for the purchase and freight." One-sixth of the profits of trade is devoted to the interests of the Green- landers, and in strictly governmental matters there is an at- tempt to do entire justice to native rights and desires. Per- haps nowhere else in the world has a government succeeded so well in living up to its theory of dealing fairly by an inferior and subject race. 2. Labrador, usually explained as meaning " laborers' land," may owe its name to the thought of some early visitors that here might be found an American " slave coast." It is a triangular peninsula of perhaps 120,000 square miles, and is under the jurisdiction of Newfoundland on its Atlantic border, while the remainder belongs to the Dominion of Canada. Professor Hind describes the Atlantic coast as being "the edge of a vast solitude of rocky hills, split and blasted by frosts and beaten by waves. Headlands, grim and naked, tower over the waters — often fantastic and picturesque in shape — while miles on miles of rocky precipices, or tame mon- otonous slopes, alternate with stony valleys winding away along the blue hills of the interior." The inner plateau is in some places boulder-strewn and in others is covered with fine forest trees, while much of it is cut up by innumerable lakes. One writer says that it seems to have been left as a specimen to show what other countries may have been at the end of the glacial epoch, when the rivers had not worn down their beds and rocks had not been rounded and smoothed, and the soil was accordingly thin. Even the grandeur of the world's largest cataract — Grand Falls, little short of 2,000 feet in height — ill repays one for the hardships of interior travel. The wealth of this poverty-stricken land is still hidden in 6 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS its rocky bosom, though the shores swarm with fishermen of Newfoundland, Canada and the States during the brief sum- mer. Its fish, birds and fur-bearing animals make the lot of the few permanent inhabitants more enviable, Mr. Low as- serts, than that of the poorest in our large cities. On the other hand the " Encyclopaedia Britannica " states that " as a permanent abode for civilized man, Labrador is on the whole one of the most uninviting regions on the face of the earth." The control of eastern Labrador is vested in the Govern- ment of Newfoundland, of which it forms a part. Yet little legislation is required, jails and police being substituted ' for by a small revenue schooner with a justice of peace on board. Beyond some unpunished crime among the Eskimos and half- breeds, this simple system is satisfactory, thanks to the teach- ings of the devoted Moravians. 3. Alaska deserves the designation " continent " or " large country," which is the meaning of its original Aleutian name, Alakshak. Its area, estimated at from 531,000 to 570,000 square miles, makes it one-sixth as large as the United States and more than one-third as extensive as the so-called conti- nent of India. Originally regarded as a purchase far more profitable to Russia than to the United States, who bought it for $7,200,000 in 1867, it has steadily increased in im- portance until it is likely to become one of the most profitable of its territorial possessions. Disregarding the seven census divisions of the country, Alaska may be described as consisting of three main districts. The northernmost of these, situated north of the Alaska Range and containing the mighty Yukon, lies within the arctic circle in part and contains about five-sixths of the entire country. " It consists essentially of a vast expanse of moor or tundra, broken here and there by mountain spurs (an especially marked feature in the South), and varied by countless lakes, water- courses and sphagnous swamps." While the winters are frigid, during the short summers, with the great heat due to constant sunshine, the landscape quickly assumes a greenish THE ABORIGINES OF AMERICA J hue, and bright-colored, large flowers as well as a variety of berries abound in favorable situations. More than half the native inhabitants of Alaska, including nearly all the Eskimos, are found in this district. They subsist largely by the fisheries and fur trade, commerce being checked by the shallow waters of Bering Sea. The second or Aleutian district contains the Aleutian Islands and much of the peninsula of Alaska. It is mainly mountainous and boasts of some half dozen active volcanoes. There are several natural prairies covered with perennial wild grass, which nourish fat cattle, and promise one day to furnish the Pacific Slope with its finest butter and cheese. No timber larger than shrubs grows here and the few Aleutian inhabi- tants, supposed by some to be of Asiatic origin, support them- selves by the wonderful fisheries. The greatest fur-seal cen- ter of the world is located on the Pribilof Islands of this dis- trict, and the United States territory farthest west — so far west that San Francisco is near the center of the United States, reckoning from east to west — is the island of Attoo, not far from Kamchatka. The remaining portion of the country consists of a narrow strip of continental land extending southward to British Columbia, and the Alexander Archipelago, ranking favorably with the more famous archipelagoes of the southern seas. This section is extremely mountainous and in part densely wooded. It is also one of the great glacier regions of the world. Many of these " chisels in the hand of nature " have a working face of from five to twenty miles in width. Owing to the Japan Current the climate of this region is singularly mild for the latitude, the winters not being so cold as in New York; but the prevalence of rain is an offset to its mildness. The native inhabitants are Indians in the South — mainly Tlingits with a few Tsimsians and Haidas, while in the north- ern portion of the district they are Eskimos with about a thou- sand Athabascan Indians and fewer Tlingits. This is the region in which most of the foreigners live and where mines b GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS and commerce will be most largely developed. Its Kadiak portion promises more agriculturally than any other section of Alaska. It was of the southern district that Secretary Seward wrote while at Berlin : " We have seen of Germany enough to show that its climate is neither so genial, nor its soil so fertile, nor its resources of forests and mines so rich as those of southern Alaska." Bearing also in mind the prodigious wealth of its fisheries, the value of its peltries, its probable future as a pro- ducer of hay and dairy products, and the rich prophecy of its mines, especially those of gold, the future of this country must be such as to make its speedy Christianization most important, especially so in the case of its original inhabitants, as they are slowly diminishing in number before the onset of civilization. The relation of this territory to the United States is most unsatisfactory, in spite of improvement due to the recent great influx of gold-seekers. Repeated attempts to secure for it the same advantages as are enjoyed by other territories of the United States have only partially succeeded. So far as the native peoples are concerned, the main disadvantage arising from this lax control is the Government's inability to prevent smuggling of liquor into the country, though it is unlawful so to do. On the other hand, the Government is exerting itself to prevent future lack of subsistence in the far North by intro- ducing reindeer. It also provides fairly well for the education of its wards. 4. Dominion of Canada. — The Dominion includes all British North America except Newfoundland and that portion of Labrador under its jurisdiction. Its area, 3,653,946 square miles, is more than twenty-seven times that of Great Britain and Ireland and is equal to all of Europe except Austria-Hun- gary, Germany and Greece. Of this vast region a section as large as Europe, with the exception of Russia, is available for settlement. Those of its inhabitants with whom we have to do are scattered throughout its whole extent and have their homes in the kannatha, a native name for village or collec- THE ABORIGINES OF AMERICA 9 tion of huts, which Jacques Cartier mistakenly supposed to be the Indian designation of their country and which has been corrupted into Canada. In a region so extensive there is the utmost diversity of en- vironment, varying between the barren lands of the North with the arctic islands sparsely inhabitated by Eskimos and the fertile prairies lying between the Red River and the Rock- ies, or the rugged and picturesque stretches of British Colum- bia whose climate is said to be the finest in North America. Thousands of lakes with their network of tributary streams, and the great inland sea discovered by Henry Hudson, are an ideal environment for Indian fishers and trappers, while the fertile farms which are beginning to be occupied by them will be a defence under a watchful Government against their extinction. 5. The environment of Mexican, Central and South Ameri- can Indians is described in the chapters relating to those coun- tries, and hence will not be taken up at present. In the States they live almost entirely upon the reservations whose locations are indicated on the map of the United States in the accom- panying Atlas. II, The Eskimos, — i. Names and Distribution. — These " eaters of raw meats," as the corrupted Indian name signifies, know themselves as Inuit — " men," or " the people." They are the most thinly and widely spread aboriginal race of the globe, an estimated population of some 40,000 being scattered over 3,200 miles of territory, measured in a straight line from eastern Greenland to a point about 400 miles beyond the east- ernmost point of Asia. Yet they are not an inland people and only skirt the shores, rarely going farther from the coast than twenty miles. In spite of their wide separation, they are remarkably homogeneous. Their language differs so little that a Greenlander can easily understand the Eskimo of the remote West. All the members of the race, save the few in Eastern Asia, are included in the districts now under review. The highest authority on the subject, Dr. Rink, gives their lO GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS main divisions and numbers as follows : The Western Eskimos, inhabiting the Alaska territory and the Asiatic side of Bering Strait, rated at 13,200 souls; the Mackenzie Eskimos from Barter Island to Cape Bathurst, 2,000; the inhabitants of the central regions, including the Arctic Archipelago, 4,000 ( ?) ; the Labradorians, 2,200; the Greenlanders, upwards of 11,000; a branch family of impure blood, owing to intermarriage with Russians and others, inhabits the Aleutian islands and num- bers 2,400. 2. In appearance these people somewhat resemble the Mon- golian and the Indian and their origin has been attributed to both these sources, though the latter is now the most common theory, perhaps. They are of ordinary height, and their skin is " bacony " and found to be slightly brown when freed from the accumulated grease and dirt of years. Ablutions are un- known to most of them, except in the case of infants who are " sometimes cleaned by being licked with their mother's tongue before being put in the bag of feathers which serves as their bed, cradle and blankets." Coarse, black hair and little or no beard surround an oval face that broadens out at the base and breaks into a grin at slight provocation. The dress of tlie two sexes differs little, and consists of skins ingeniously sewn together, and in the case of the women prettily ornamented. In Greenland Western cloth is coming into use for inner gar- ments. 3. Dr. Brinton thus summarizes their salient characteristics: " They usually have a cheerful, lively disposition, and are much given to stories, songs, and laughter. Neither the long nights of the polar zone nor the cruel cold of the winters damp- ens their glee. Before their deterioration by contact with the whites they were truthful and honest. Their intelligence im many directions is remarkable, and they invented and improved many mechanical devices in advance of any other tribes of the race. Thus they alone on the American continent used lamps. They make them of stone with a wick of dried moss. The sledge with its team of dogs is one of their devices; and THE ABORIGINES OF AMERICA II gloves, boots and divided clothing are articles of dress not found on the continent south of them. Their ' kayak,' a light and strong boat of sealskin stretched over a frame of bones or wood, is the perfection of a sea canoe. Their carvings in bone, wood or ivory, and their outline drawings, reveal no small degree of technical skill ; and they independently dis- covered the principle of the arch and apply it to the construc- tion of their domed snow houses." 4. The homes of these people vary with the season. In the winter when they are stationary the Greenland abode has walls of stones and sod; in the central regions they are formed merely out of snow ; and in the West they are often constructed of planks or sticks covered with earth or sod. Whatever their material may be, these houses are in most cases more or less communal and accommodate a number of families. Approach- ing on all-fours through a low tunnel some ten feet in length and passing through enlargements occupied by dogs oftentimes or used for a variety of purposes, the missionary enters the communal room. It may be lighted through a clear block of ice or a window of intestine and at night by an ever-burning lamp, or in the West by driftwood fires. A sleeping platform is divided into sections according to the number of families. " The floor is usually very filthy, a pool of blood or a dead seal being often to be seen there. Ventilation is almost non- existent, and after the lamp has blazed some time, the family having assembled, the heat is all but unbearable ; the upper garment must be taken off, and the unaccustomed visitor gasps half asphyxiated in the mephitic atmosphere." Summer is the glad time of the Eskimo's life. The close atmosphere of the stone or ice hut is exchanged for the woman's boat — umiak — and the kayaks and the settlement journeys in these from place to place along the shore, pitching the skin tent where game is plentiful, until the rapidly shortening days warn them of the long night which must be spent in newly-made or renovated huts. 5. In their social life they are superior to many more culti- 12 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS vated races. Prolonged conflict with a stern environment has taught them to be mutually helpful one to another. Com- munism in the home and to some extent the sharing of products of hunting and fishing, have given them a fellow-feeling that is delightful. Harsh words and scolding are rare ; wars among themselves are practically unknown, though in their contact with Indians they have proven brave and formidable enemies. Aside from foreign domination, they have lived as old Fabri- cius said : " Sine Deo, domino, reguntur consuetudine." As the settlements contain from forty to two hundred — in rare cases — the government of the head of a family or of some person skilled in the chase and possessed of unusual strength and shrewdness is all the authority needed beyond the restric- tions of a few well-known and wise customs. The custom, still common in some sections, of putting the aged to death is regarded by the victims as a merciful deliverance from the necessary hardships of a helpless old age. 6. The religion of the Eskimos before the coming of Chris- tianity was a form of Shamanism, presided over by their anga- koks or magicians. Robert Brown, Ph.D., thus summarizes what has been written on their pagan beliefs by authorities like Dr. Rink : " The whole world is, according to the pagan Eski- mo's belief, governed by inuas, supernatural powers or 'owners,' each of whom holds his sway within natural limits. Any object or individual may have its, his, or her inua, though generally speaking the idea of an inua is limited to certain localities or passions — such as a mountain or lake, or strength or eating. The soul, for instance, is the inua of the body. The earth and the sea rest on pillars, and cover an under-world accessible by various mountain clefts, or by various entrances from the sea. The sky is the floor of an upper-world to which some go after death, while others — good or bad — have their home in the under-world. Here are the dwellings of the arsissut — the people who live in abundance. The upper one, on the con- trary, is cold and hungry; here live the arssartut or ball-play- ers, so called from their playing at ball with a walrus head, THE ABORIGINES OF AMERICA 1 3 which gives rise to the aurora borealis. The mediums between the inua and mankind are the angakoks or wizards, who pos- sess the pecuHar gift of angakoonek, — or the state of being angakok — which they have acquired by the aid of guardian spirits called tornat, who again are ruled by tornarsuk, the supreme deity or devil of all. Such is their religion in the barest possible outline. They also invoke a supernatural influ- ence which is called kusiunek or iliseenek, which may be trans- lated as witchcraft : this is believed to be the mystic agency which causes sudden sickness or death. In the folk-lore of the Greenlanders, as of other nations, divine justice manifests itself chiefly in the present life, though they have a faint belief in reward or punishment in the future world, according as the individual has behaved in this." III. The Indians. — These tribes perpetuate in their name the mistaken belief of Columbus that in reaching the shores of America he had arrived at his Asiatic goal, and that the inhabitants were natives of India. While not as homogeneous as the Eskimos, they are sufficiently alike from Alaska to Cape Horn to be treated under common headings. I. Leading Tribes and their Distribution. — According to a recent summary of Professor Keane's, these are as follows : Athabascan (Tinnc) of the Yukon, Mackenzie, Rio Grande and Colorado basins ; Algonquian from the Churchill River of Hudson Bay southward to Pamlico Sound, North Carolina, and from Labrador westward to the Rocky Mountains; Sali- shan, British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, and Montana; Shahaptian, Washington, Oregon, Idaho ; Haida, Queen Char- lotte Archipelago; Tsimsian, coastlands opposite Queen Char- lotte Archipelago ; Shoshonean, Oregon, Idaho, Nevada, Utah, Wyoming, Colorado, Texas, California; Siouan (Dakotan), Manitoba, Wisconsin, and most of the Missouri and Arkansas basins ; Iroquoian, shores of Lakes Erie and Ontario, Upper St. Lawrence River, parts of Virginia, both Carolinas, Tennes- see, Alabama, and Georgia; Muskogean, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Tennessee, Florida; Caddoan, Louisiana, Texas, 14 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS Nebraska, Kansas, North Dakota; Pueblos {Zuni, Tanoa, Moqui, Keresa), Arizona and New Mexico; Yuman, Arizona, Lower California; Piman, Northwest Mexico; Astec, Mex- ico and Nicaragua; Maya-Quiche, Vera Cruz, Tamaulipas, Yucatan, Chiapas, Guatemala; Chibcha, Colombia; Carib, Venezuela, the Guianas, Brazil ; Tupi-Guarani, Brazil, Para- guay; Amara-suichua, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia; Mocobi and Vilela-Lule, Gran Chaco ; Araucanian, Chili ; Tsoneca, Pata- gonia ; Ona Yahgaii and Alacaluf, Tierra del Fuego. It will be understood, of course, that some of these state- ments refer to the past rather than to the present. Thus those tribes spoken of as residing east of the Mississippi River have become extinct, or else their surviving members have been removed to reservations west of the Mississippi River. A few small reservations in New York, North Carolina, Michigan and Wisconsin, contain a comparatively small number of Indians. 2. Though it is exceedingly difficult to characterize stocks differing considerably one from another — particularly in the case of those tribes on the Northern Pacific coast, which are separately considered by Professor Ratzel — the following traits mentioned by Dr. Greene are applicable to most of them : In physique they are tall, robust and erect and in other phys- ical qualities they approximate closely to the Mongolian type. Despite their apparent vigor and strength, they have constitu- tions which are unable to withstand the epidemics, liquors and vices introduced by white men. The Indian is usually proud and reserved, serious, if not gloomy, in his views of life ; com- paratively indifferent to wit or pleasantry ; vain of personal endowments ; brave and fond of war, yet extremely cautious and taking no needless risks ; fond of gambling and drinking ; seemingly indifferent to pain ; kind and hospitable to strangers, yet revengeful and cruel, almost beyond belief, to those who have given offense. They often excel in horsemanship, and as a rule sight and hearing are wonderfully acute. 3. Indian homes vary greatly owing to the wide range of latitude and temperature of the country occupied. Fuegia THE ABORIGINES OF AMERICA 1 5 and Alaska conditions are the most trying, though Fuegian Indians do not need to have such close houses as their brothers of the arctic circle. Those who dwell within the tropics, on the contrary, can easily live under the rudest sort of shelter. In the Dominion and among those who are not affected by civilization, many of the lodges are conical and their skin coverings are adorned with paintings of legendary or historical scenes. Formerly scalp-locks hung upon them. Child-life abounds and dogs growl at the missionary who invades their domain. Dodging heads and peering eyes within are soon satisfied as the visitor enters and speedily seats himself to avoid as far as possible the blinding smoke. In the center of the lodge and prevented from spreading by a circular row of stones is the fire, over which hangs from a tripod a pot or some meat. Each member of the family has a bed, the head of the household occupying the place of honor opposite the door. As these radiate from the center like the spokes of a wheel, in a small lodge one needs to sleep with limbs drawn up, or else be burned. Guns, bags and various articles of neces- sity are hung about the lodge ; even the baby can be suspended as it lies in its laced bag filled with soft moss and ornamented with gay beads or porcupine quills. The communal houses that are found in Northwest America usually accommodate from six to eighteen persons, though Clarke saw one that was 230 feet long divided by a long pas- sageway into two rows of dwelling-places. A square opening in the roof permits the smoke to escape, while over the fire- place is a frame for drying clothes, smoking fish, etc. " Art is represented by carved totem-pillars between and in front of the houses, fantastic carvings on the inner walls, Shamans' graves gay with many colors." The furniture in these more elaborate homes consists mainly of various boxes containing clothing and all sorts of rubbish, water tubs, wooden troughs out of which they eat, baskets and matting pouches. General disorder reigns, except on the sleeping benches, where fine mats are spread. 1 6 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS Examples of the simplest homes are furnished by the abodes of nomadic tribes in South America. Professor Ratzel writes of these : " The architecture has httle beyond the rectangular or square ground-plan to distinguish it, except a general shaki- ness and want of durability. Some tribes do almost entirely without huts; the only traces left by those of the Botucudos are a few withered palm-leaves. Four posts, four walls of bamboo and a thatch of leaves are the elements which con- stantly recur. Three stones for the cooking-pot to stand on and one or two hammocks compose the furniture. The tribes that float about on the channels of the Amazon and Orinoco, like the Oyampis, hang up their hammocks every day under a fresh construction improvised of young trees. The booths of the Tobas are provided with walls on three sides only, and the gaucho-huts of the Guaharibos are conical and pointed, with so narrow a floor that the occupants have hardly room to squat." 4. The languages of the American Indians are estimated to equal in number those of Europe and Asia combined. Yet all of them — and the same is true of the Eskimo also — are marked by the common quality of polysynthesis, holophrasm, or encapsulation, as this peculiarity is variously called. By it is meant that the Indians " express their ideas of objects .and actions precisely as they are presented to their eyes and ears ; that is, in all their compound relations." Hence there is a " more or less complete amalgamation of the prominent ele- ments of the different words of a sentence or clause into one long complex word." Thus, to take a simple illustration from the Mexican, goat is kwa-kwauh tentsone, literally, " head- tree-lip-hair " — that is, " the horned and bearded one." A bet- ter example is the following Eskimo expression, which is really a sentence, but in the native mind is one prolonged word serv- ing in the place of seventeen English words : Savigiksiniariar- tokasuaromaryotittogog — that is, "he says that you will also go away quickly in like manner and buy a pretty knife." 5. As to Indian literature it is wanting, except as a few THE ABORIGINES OF AMERICA ij publications are printed to-day by civilized tribes, or as whites, notably Dr. Brinton, have collected oral and written material in recent years. Indeed, as Ratzel has remarked, one of the most important distinctions between Old and New World civ- ilization lies in writing. While the more cultured Indian races, such as the Mayas of Yucatan and the Incas of Peru, had advanced far beyond the painted stones of the savage tribes, containing a rude symbolic picture language, the knotted string quipus of Peru and the more advanced symbols of the Mayas still fall far short of writing in the sense of the older Eg\^ptian hieroglyphics even, or of the Chinese ideographs. Sequoyah, a German half-breed, who invented the Cherokee syllabary, Samson Occtmi, author of English h}Tnns, among which is the one beginning " Awaked by Sinai's awful sound," and George Copway, a well-known journalist and author, are ex- amples of what can be done along literary lines, while in the realm of orator}' the Indian is far above the average of civil- ized races. 6. Social Conditions. — In North ^Ajnerica these varv-, largely because of the possession of the horse. Tribes without this valuable servant are mainly forest dwellers and are quite scattered, or else live in the remote North. Those having the horse usually occupy the plains, and are more settled in their habits, though not necessarily so. In the Northwest and along the Pacific, communal life is emphasized, especially in a community work-room where the men make their various utensils, boats, etc. Until within a few years, that section of the country knew nothing of the barabara containing a single family; though at present even in that part of the continent it is common to find single fam- ilies living by themselves. Polygamy exists, though not so commonly as when wars were frequent and those thus made widows were obliged to marry a member of their own tribe or were taken captive by the enemy. Only the comparatively well-to-do are able to sup- port more than one wife. iS GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS Slavery, mainly following war, but also due to purchase and sometimes to gambling, is disappearing, thanks to the present rarity of war and to proximity of whites. Until within a few years, the price of these slaves was from $60 to $300. Their lot was pitiable, especially when an attempt to escape was made, as it resulted in death by most horrible tortures. In the Indian Territory within the United States a singular com- plication arose during the Civil War. Many Indians owned slaves and their status after the Emancipation Proclamation was unique. As a result there are in that Territory many freedmen who are, however, reckoned as Indians with their former masters. This class, of course, is very much diminished at the present time though their descendants are still Negro- Indians. In South America the condition of many of the Indi- ans is little different from that of slaves, though in this case they are under foreign masters. When unaffected by the whites, the government is essentially patriarchal, every man ruling his own household ; though the tribes are governed by hereditary chiefs who are treated most respectfully. With the incoming of civilization, the man who can best deal with whites is likely to be more powerful than the chief himself. Under this primitive regime crimes are pun- ished by the chief sufferer, who inflicts well-established penal- ties. Some evils, such as infanticide, are not regarded as crim- inal and so go unpunished. Those observances which hind the members of a tribe most closely together and frequently result in uprisings against the whites are the solemn dances, closely akin to those more relig- ious in character mentioned in the next section. These fre- quently lead to a perfect frenzy of enthusiasm. The old spirit of independence is also kept alive by the quieter gatherings, when the aged men describe most vividly the old hunting days and exultingly tell of scalps, battles, glorious captures and well nigh fatal wounds. Leaving such an exciting circle and seeing the home of an agent or missionary, they are confronted by the proofs of pale-face power. The bitter hatred rankling THE ABORIGINES OF AMERICA 1 9 in their breast is excited thereby and readily bursts into a destroying flame at the first favorable opportunity. 7, Indian Religions. — This element enters largely into the constitution of Indian society, particularly the totemic bond. The " eponymous ancestor of the totem was a mythical ex- istence and a sort of deity. Theoretically all members of the totem were kinsfolk of one blood." The utmost reverence is usually shown this tutelary animal or plant, with the expecta- tion that the totem will reciprocate. Conventional designs representing this deity, and elaborately carved representations of it found on totem posts, especially of the Pacific Coast, testify to the belief in this social and religious power. More powerful, however, in its influence on the individual is the personal totem or manitou. It is usually an animal and is revealed in a dream at the first fast undertaken when the In- dian becomes of age. Thenceforward this animal is wor- shipped, and his skin or likeness is thereafter borne about on his person. While zootheism, including many animate objects besides totems, is very prominent in the religion of the Indians, they also exalt the great objects in the heavens and the powers and forces of nature above the lower gods, thus arriving at what Miiller calls physitheism. Confused sometimes with this wor- ship, and rarely more than a step beyond it, is their belief in, and worship of, the Great Spirit. Less widely prevalent is hero worship — that of Hiawatha for example — and the wor- ship of ancestors. Prayer and fasting, demanding as a prerequisite cleanliness of body, belief in the immortality of the soul and in the long and difficult journey to the land of shadows which most be- lieve to be the same place for all whether good or bad, are other features of Indian religion. In the central western por- tion of South America, especially, the worship of the sun was a prominent feature. The Messiah Craze of 1890, which extended northward from the States into the Dominion, is an incident illustrating their 20 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS hope of regaining once more their old hunting grounds, and of their ultimate triumph over the hated white man. It may lead to many serious results, as was the case after their failure in the Minnesota Massacre to receive an answer to their prayers. The Indian medicine man strongly resembles the Eskimo angakok, as both of them are in reality Shamans. In their worship, however, their is a wide difference. It has been aptly characterized as terpsichorean. Seasons of worship are observed usually in four-day periods, when the medicine man recounts to the people mythical tales, creation myths, and the doings of the gods in general. Various dances follow which are extended to such a length that the people become crazed, and the more susceptible fall into a trance. " These terpsi- chorean ceremonies are largely invocations for abundant har- vests, rain, snow, successful hunting and fishing, and for health and prosperity generally ; and on especial occasions for success in war. It is difficult to conceive of a more impres- sive scene than the close of a war dance which has been con- tinued for four days, when the hell of passions seems to be open, and there pours forth a stream of weird song, ululation and imprecation, accompanied with symbolic mimicry of the horrors of war." 8. Government Efforts for the Indians. — Something must be said of the efforts made by the Dominion and the United States Governments for the amelioration of the unfortunate conditions surrounding the Indian. (i) In the Dominion, where perhaps the authorities have best solved the Indian problem, the following factors seem to have largely accounted for their success. In the first place it must be remembered that the Indian population there is not so dense as in the States, being only a little over 100,000 in the vast Dominion, nor are they so hard pressed by the influx of white settlers. Again, the French methods of dealing with the aborigines, which are in the main followed by the British Government, have led to a friendliness which is quite marked. THE ABORIGINES OF AMERICA 21 The authorities have always endeavored to deal fairly and generously by the Indians, so that they have never had any genuine Indian v^ar in the Dominion. Moreover, the system of mounted police and of Indian agents, the latter trained and continued in office through life, has brought about such a feeling of careful oversight and certainty of punishment in case of necessity, that there have been few collisions between the red men and those whom they regard as on the whole beneficent rulers. It should also be added that under the Hudson Bay Company's rule no Indian ever had occasion to complain of injustice. Consequently few crimes were com- mitted and " bars and bolts were not needed on any doors." Another feature of the British system in the more settled parts of the Dominion is the allotment of farms to Indians, where they are under the training of persons appointed to this work and are leavened by white society near them. In 1896 nearly two-thirds of them were located where civilizing and Christian influences were near. The authorities are also especially care- ful about the prohibition of liquor selling. A Canadian speaker, Egerton Young, at the Mohonk Indian Conference of 1900 could with much truth assert: " In Canada we have no Indian question. We get along very nicely with our Indi- ans there. They are all civilized and wear the white man's garb. They live on farms and till their own land. They have plenty of milk, eggs, corn, potatoes, and other nice things. We have no trouble about marriage laws in Canada. The law is the same for the Indian as for the white. If an Indian has two wives he is tried for bigamy. Our greatest difficulty is with the whiskey and the miserable saloons on the border." This distinguished speaker had especially in mind, however, Indians in the southern part of the Dominion where conditions are more nearly ideal than elsewhere. (2) In the United States one can point to no such enviable record. As the veteran Indian advocate, ex-Senator Dawes, has shown, the initial difficulty in the States was the acknowl- edgement in early colonial times of the sovereignty of the red 22 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS man, which was an actual fact at the time. Later on, as the whites pressed westward, the hunting-grounds of these Indi- ans were needed and the tribes were tossed from one meridian to another, until finally the reservation plan was adopted. Even these places of refuge, which the Government solemnly promised to hold inviolate from the white settler, were changed from time to time until the Indian now has scarcely any land east of the Mississippi. The area of all the reservations, from which the Indian is not supposed to depart, is approximately equal to that of the New England and Middle States without Pennsylvania. Within these great prison houses they are supposed to have sufficient means of subsistence ; but after killing off the game, this area becomes inadequate. Farming and other means of gaining a livelihood are distasteful, and what happened in the Indian Territory, given to the Five Civilized Tribes, is true to a limited degree of other sections. The Government had covenanted to prevent white men from entering that territory, but a railroad in some way gained a right to extend its lines through it. This brought in white station agents and others, until finally the whites in the territory numbered some 330,000, a far larger number than the Indians themselves. But this territorial problem has not been the greatest in- justice to which they have been subjected. The recommenda- tions of the Government Report of the Board of Indian Com- missioners for 1900 admirably summarizes the various wrongs under which they are suffering, as also some of the problems to be solved. These recommendations will bring the present situation in the United States clearly before the reader, (i) Stopping the issue of rations to able-bodied Indians who will not work. (2) A system of permanent records of all mar- riages, births, and deaths of Indians was strongly urged. (3) It was recommended that a law be passed requiring all mar- riages of Indians to be duly solemnized. This would put an end at once to the easy toleration of polygamy by the United States Government in dealing with a quarter of a million of its THE ABORIGINES OF AMERICA 23 people, more than 60,000 of whom have already become citi- zens. (4) Greater attention to cattle breeding and herding was recommended, since it would furnish a civilizing occupa- tion for Indians whose reservations are not adapted to agri- culture, but are well suited for grazing. (5) Another recom- mendation strongly advocated was the breaking up of tribal funds into separate holdings. This would put an end to the expectation of perpetual inheritance and new claims through an indefinite number of generations by people who may claim a strain of Indian blood, and therefore a share in undivided Indian tribal funds. (6) A compulsory law for school at- tendance for Indian children was an even more important recommendation. The Board of Commissioners urged that there be no separate schools, but that, so soon as possible, the children attend schools in common with the whites. (7) Caution in leasing Indian lands was also urged as being very necessary ; since, as in the case of rations, this tends to increase the Indian's laziness and dislike for manual labor. (8) Other points, more general in character, which this Board, includ- ing some of the strongest Christian philanthropists in the country, recommended are as follows : The need of a compre- hensive, unified policy in Indian affairs; the recognition of the individual, not the tribe ; the strengthening of personality and of the family; the discharge of needless agents, which would result in the necessity placed upon the Indian to manage his own property and affairs ; the need of school-gardening, of instruction in agriculture, of the practice in cooking for a group of three to six persons for Indian girls in government schools, and the need of surgical instruments for the agencies and for school physicians; the allotment of individual hold- ings to the Mission Indians of California; a more careful and scientific regulation of, and expenditure for, irrigation and water supply which, if not attended to, makes many reserva- tions practically barren; for the 20,000 Navajos with but 200 children in school, the establishment of a system of industrial day-schools; and above all, the appointment of Indian agents 24 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS only on the ground of their experience and fitness for the place and the withdrawal of these positions from partisan allot- ment. IV. The Decay of the Lower Races. — While this prob- lem is present in connection with many other nature peoples, notably in the Pacific Islands, where it is again alluded to, it can best be treated at this point, as it is a most serious ques- tion for the missionary among the Indians and Eskimos, and as here we have fuller statistics than in other countries so affected. 1. A partial knowledge of the aboriginal Americans leads one to believe that their viability is not great. Even before the discovery of the New World, " periodical pestilences fear- fully reduced the number of the population. The Spanish- Americans have a saying that when an Indian falls sick he dies; and the expression is scarcely too strong for the facts." 2. Statistics gathered since the discovery of America bear conflicting testimony in this matter. Thus in the Dominion they seem to prove that the race is increasing; yet those that know the Indians best believe that the figures are raised for the sake of the annual treaty payment. In Alaska, where there is no such inducement to falsify, they seem to be dying out. 3. If the reasons for this decay are sought, those who have spent years among them assign as the causes, drunkenness, small pox, measles, venereal diseases, dysentery, change of dress and food, idleness and other changes incident to reserva- tion life, and mental depression arising from their feeling that opposition to the white domination is hopeless. As secondary causes, are noted famine, infanticide and abortion. The al- leged non-fertility of savage women after bearing children to white men, and changes due to hybridization, apparently have little effect. 4. Can this decay be checked f or is it necessarily fatal? There is something well worth considering in the observations that Dr. Rink makes concerning the change of food due to the coming of the Danes to Greenland and the difficulties arising THE ABORIGINES OF AMERICA 25 from the destruction of native commerce by new trade condi- tions ; also in the statement of Nansen as to the resuhs of wearing thick garments for decency's sake in hot Greenland huts whence the man must go forth to icy waters and bitter cold. Dr. Brown may likewise be correct in reluctantly ad- mitting that the Alaskan's thick coat of dirt and grease may be removed to the physical detriment of the native imbued with the new idea of cleanliness. That decay is not necessary, however, is proved by the more accurate statistics of the United States, of those portions of the Dominion where they are carefully gathered, and above all, by those of Greenland where the enumeration is accurate and the utmost care is taken to shield the natives from universal vices, liquor, etc., of the European and to surround them with helpful incentives. Eskimos on the opposite shore of Davis Strait, who were once so numerous, are reduced to a mere handful because of the frequent visits of the whalers and at- tendant evils, and because no such wise provisions exist there as the Danes have enforced in Greenland. 5. This Decay not Chargeable to Missions. — While Hans Egede, the modern discoverer of Greenland, was a missionary, it is likewise true that he went to that land, not as a representa- tive of a missionary society, but rather as the head of the secu- lar trading colony. How many of the supposed evils that Nansen virulently charges against the early missionaries are due to missions and how much to trade he does not state. Per- haps the best answer to his popular tirade against missionaries is found in the words of Dr. Rink, whom he always quotes as his highest authority on Greenland matters : " In various dis- cussions on matters belonging to the history of culture we even find the question treated, whether one nation may be more or less adapted for Christianity than another. If, judg- ing merely from the outer appearance of the social state, this comparison has to be made, the laws and customs of the an- cient Greenlanders might, even more than those of highly civilized societies, appear to conform to the social conditions 26 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS of the earliest Christian countries. Passing from the Chris- tian rehgion itself to its first propagators in Greenland, the author is so far from accusing them of having the lion's share in the harmful influences above mentioned, that on the con- trary they must be regarded as true benefactors of the natives." We may add that Nansen's criticism and that of others written in a similar vein would charge the missionary makers of modern Europe with all the evils that have subse- quently been found in those countries and that are connected with a civilization not always truly Christian. PART II.— MISSIONARY I. Work for the Eskimo. — i. In Greenland. — So far as the Western Hemisphere is concerned, mission work began in Greenland. More than 900 years ago, when Erik led his colonies to these icy shores, they brought with them Christian- ity. Thus we read of twelve churches, several cloisters and even one nunnery. It is fitting, therefore, that in this land modern missionaries should have almost completed their work. With the exception of a small colony on the eastern coast, missions among heathen are not being prosecuted in that land, though Danish Christians still oversee and aid the churches among the evangelized Eskimos. The Moravians withdrew in 1900 from their old field for the reason that they considered their work of evangelization completed. Their converts are now under the care of the Danish Government mission. The station on the eastern coast just alluded to was started in 1894 by the Rev. Mr. Riittel at Angmagssalik, and is like- wise cared for by the Government. This is a most isolated station, though the missionary receives communications as often as those on many South Sea Islands, namely, once a year. The difficulties which he has experienced in learning the lan- guage and becoming acquainted with the people remind one of the earlier trials of the missionaries on the western coast. THE ABORIGINES OF AMERICA 2/ The tendency of the Eskimos is to annoy new missionaries by grotesque mimicry. It has been their lot to have their auditors Hsten to exhortations and then pretend to fall asleep ; or to ask that hymns be sung, only to drown them with drums or howl- ing. Learning the alphabet may be facilitated by offering a fishhook for every letter learned, but when able to read the Bible the people may tell of some wonderful performance by their angakoks for every miracle recorded in Scripture. The nomadic character of the Eskimos during parts of the year also proves an obstacle. No special health difficulty is ordi- narily experienced, nor would any one with good lungs suffer seriously in that climate despite the low temperature of winter. Missionaries note the singular simplicity and childlikeness of the natives which offer a fertile soil for the Gospel when once it finds lodgment. On the other hand, dulness and sensuality with a tendency to find in physical pleasure the highest good are great obstacles. In that section of Greenland amulets and fetishes, in the absence of idols, are prominent objects of re- gard; and these are employed by the wizards or angakoks against the missionary. A dim belief in God, though the people speak of him as a being far above their comprehension and reach, would seem to be a good starting-point for the mis- sionary. As a matter of fact, it is of no special value. The natives distinguish only between men of different degrees of skill, and do not otherwise recognize any special social dis- tinctions. Thus a man would be despised who was a poor fisherman, but moral and immoral qualities would not divide the community. The Danish missionaries who carry on the work among the Christianized Eskimos have a seminary for training workers, who to-day, as at the inception of the enter- prise, find that the simple story of the cross secures the readiest hearing. If one asks for other results of work in Greenland, they can be found from Cape Farewell to Upernivik in a Chris- tian community with all that one expects to see associated with it among that grade of people. Christian schools and school- books, hymn-books, a translation of the New Testament in con- 28 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS stant use and the Old soon to be completed, are literary achieve- ments that mean much when one considers the intractable nature of the language. A lack of self-dependence so greatly needed in church development has perhaps been the result of the domination of Denmark. So paternal a government being in charge of the country, self-development has been checked. The outlook is not especially hopeful; since in this barren country with the special problems incident to contact with civilization, the race cannot very largely increase. 2. Labrador Missions. — Here the Moravians are the prom- inent workers, though the Labrador Medical Mission is also in the field. When the preacher in his parish visitation finds a woman preparing bacon by chewing it before putting it in the frying-pan, and is liable to have the church lamps fail him be- cause the oil has congealed, one can realize that work is prose- cuted under unusual conditions. Another phase of the Mora- vian work, found also in other fields under their charge, such as Surinam and South Africa, is that of trade carried on under the superintendance of the secular arm of the Mission. This plan has led more than once to serious difficulties with the natives, particularly in Labrador ; hence its aims and necessity should be stated. Professor Hamilton writes concerning this matter as follows : " From almost the inception of the work in Labrador this had been carried on for a variety of reasons — not to make profit as a main purpose, but that the comforts and necessaries of life might be procured by the natives with- out their being at the mercy of conscienceless speculators, whose transient visits moreover inevitably produced demor- alizing results, and that the effort to advance the people in the scale of civilization might be facilitated by their being furnished an opportunity to dispose of the products of their industry at fair rates. Besides, the maintenance of a vessel afforded the mission its only sure connection with Europe." The vessel re- ferred to has been for nearly a century and a half a succession of ships named " Llarmony," but at present they are dependent upon transient vessels. THE ABORIGINES OF AMERICA 29 It is most interesting to see how these people appreciate the Word of God, and to note the spiritual growth of some of them. Early in the last century, when a Harmony of the Gospels was provided for them, the Eskimos of their own accord collected and sent to England what they could as a thank-offering for the much prized book. An indication of the kind of life fos- tered among the more thoughtful of them is seen in the remarks of one of their number : " I often think on rising in the morn- ing, About this time my Saviour was for my sins crowned with thorns, mocked and scourged; about noon I think, Now my Saviour was condemned to death ; and in the afternoon I re- member his crucifixion and death, and the full redemption he wrought for me; and in these thoughts the time passes very quickly," On the other hand Labrador missionaries are tried beyond measure by the sins of their converts. Thus, after some of them had become offended by fancied wrongs received from the missionary trader, an assembly was held at the house of the ringleader at which an actual descent of the Holy Spirit was claimed to have been witnessed. " A post in the house was worshipped as the cross of Christ, and the Eskimos were fetched in from neighboring houses that they might kneel be- fore it. The leaders then breathed upon their hands folded on their breasts, thus imparting to them the Holy Spirit. The celebration of the Lord's Supper was also travestied." Hap- pily these extravagances soon vanished. In the midst of such experiences of encouragement and sadness the Mission moves forward, establishing new stations and rarely giving one up, until twelve per cent, of the population are communicants. Another enterprise of small pretensions but of great useful- ness is that of Dr. Grenfell, the Labrador Medical Mission. In his hospital yacht, he steams about from point to point, healing the sick among the Eskimos and living and preaching the gospel. Two small hospitals have been established and are very greatly appreciated. Mr. Peck of the C. M. S. has done some excellent Labrador work, first from his old station on 30 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS the Little Whale River, Hudson's Bay, and more recently through a small book furnished the Ungava Bay Eskimos from his present headquarters on Cumberland Sound. One of the Moravians reports that the seed sown by Mr. Peck and nour- ished by the truth contained in his book, embodying in syllabic writing selections of Scripture, prayers and hymns, had so prepared the way that " it was touching to see how the major- ity of them literally devoured my words." Upon hearing Mr. Stecker sing hymns the words of which could be understood they were in ecstacies and immediately took some of them down. 3. Eskimos of the Dominion. — As one passes from Labra- dor northwestward toward Alaska, he is delighted to find true friends of the Eskimos laboring under the Church Missionary Society. The sailor missionary to these people. Rev. Edmund Peck, began his labors on the southeast shore of Hudson's Bay, in 1876. Setting himself the task of securing from eighty to one hundred Eskimo words a day either from the people or from a Labrador Testament, he was soon able to teach those of Little Whale River in an iron church forty feet by twenty that he had erected. After fourteen years' labor on the shores of Hudson's Bay he went boldly northward and with an asso- ciate began work among the natives of Blacklead Island, in Cumberland Bay. Here we see them fascinating the people with lantern slides, building most laboriously a church out of whalebone and seal-skin only to have it eaten up by hungry dogs at night, trying to find equivalents for sheep and other unknown terms as they translate the Scriptures, delighting the children with a Christmas tree made of two barrel hoops, liv- ing in snow houses, seeing their snow church broken through by dogs that drank up the oil in the lamps, and so impressing the Gospel upon the people that a woman started out and trav- eled a great distance along the shores of Davis Strait, taking her books with her and teaching the natives. No wonder that this converted sailor, who after his conversion '' was keenly desirous of being sent to the wildest and roughest mission THE ABORIGINES OF AMERICA 3 1 field in the world, if only he might there be privileged to win souls for Christ," should be able to say, after twenty-three years of service among the Eskimos, that he had never had such spiritual joy as in Cumberland Sound. A no less valuable work for these people has been accomplished along the western shores of Hudson's Bay by other missionaries of the Society, notably by Archdeacon Lofthouse, whose journeys were as ex- tensive as Mr. Peck's without his preparatory training before the mast. On distant coasts and islands he has had the pleasure of finding Eskimos who had learned the Gospel at his northern station of Churchill. Passing to the remote northwestern portion of the Dominion, one finds the scenes of the zealous and heroic labors of the veteran Bishop Bompas and the less well known Eskimo mis- sionaries of the C. M. S., Archdeacon McDonald, and the Rev. I. O. Stringer of the Canadian Church Missionary Associa- tion. The latter and his wife are teaching school, and he dis- penses medicine and itinerates over ground never before trav- ersed by whites. Beginning with a blacksmith's shop as a church, they have reached the luxurious stage of a sod house and frame building. 4. The Alaskan Eskimos. — A peculiarity of the work in this territory is the close relation between the United States Government and the missionaries. This is largely due to the fact that the most influential man in the territory, Rev. Sheldon Jackson, D.D., is at once the Government's General Agent of Education in Alaska, and is also deeply interested in missions from his earlier experience in that work. The reindeer stations which owe their existence to the care of Dr. Jackson serve the Eskimos as a training school in in- dustry, while they promise to provide for one of the greatest physical needs of the territory, a new supply of food of greater hygienic value than the rapidly disappearing fat of those regions. Moreover, the reindeer have already served an ad- mirable purpose as mail carriers and as transport animals in a land which, since the advent of gold-seekers, demands better 32 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS means of intercommunication. The Presbyterians, Congrega- tionalists, Episcopalians and the EvangeHcal Mission Union, as well as a number of Eskimos are profiting by their introduc- tion, and each of the reindeer stations is an object lesson in morality and industry. Where some of the Eskimos have been in the States there is a noticeable regard for cleanliness, cloth- ing, language and good behavior. Schools are much emphasized by the various missions in Alaska. The natives are not as well able to do good work as in a more favorable climate. Thus one teacher complains that in the winter a sort of hibernation makes the scholars late in reaching schools ; in the spring the children are wild to be out of doors ; and in the summer the intense heat makes it necessary to close school. Medical missions are more appreciated, and instances are known in which patients have come for relief a distance of more than 300 miles. The prevalence of itch makes these easily cured cases a leverage of great value. One of the Mora- vian nurses has gained a great reputation for herself by hasten- ing to the sick in a frail skin kayak while the river was full of ice that might have crushed it as easily as an egg-shell. At the point of mainland farthest west in America, Cape Prince of Wales, the Congregationalists have been enterprising enough to print the " Eskimo Bulletin," one of the native boys being its compositor and artist. At the same station the natives have built and found very useful a structure called " Thornton House," in memory of the missionary who was cruelly mur- dered by Eskimos some years since. It is used by them as a workshop, clubroom and for other purposes. Dr. Marsh and his wife of the Presbyterian Board occupy the most northerly mission station in the world except Upernivik in Greenland. Here the missionary appears in the new role of ministering to icebound whalers and caring for the reindeer relief expedition. The prayer meetings held in all the stations are such that Dr. Jackson has said, " I have been in all sections of the United States except Florida, but I have never seen such living prayer THE ABORIGINES OF AMERICA 33 meetings as they have among those native Christians in Alaska." The missionaries laboring here are troubled considerably by dampness and cold, but soon learn to accommodate their cloth- ing to these conditions. As they become acquainted with the people, they find them industrious, docile, peaceable, and will- ing to assume support of their own school and religious work so far as the Government does not furnish them with educa- tion. Like their Greenland neighbors, they are nomadic, which causes some difficulty. The obstacles in the way of developing Christian character among the people could be largely over- come on the one hand by securing, regular employment for these people, and on the other by acceptance of the Gospel, as is shown in the case of many converts. The shaman or medi- cine man is a great factor to draw them back into the old life, as well as their persistent belief in evil spirits supposed to be subject to him. As the Government has emphasized the work for children, so the missionary finds that in them and in the men are the most hopeful element of society. If the reader labors under the impression that mission work is not needed among the Alaskan Eskimos, he should read an address delivered by Dr. Jackson at Lake Mohonk, in 1900, in the course of which he says : " The Eskimos are heathen with all the cruelties that attend heathenism in the South Sea Islands or elsewhere ; and these are living under the Stars and Stripes ! Two years ago a Swedish missionary, learning that I was going to Washington, wanted me to plead with the Secretary of the Interior to see if some force could not be exerted in his parish to prevent parents from destroying their new-born babes, in- fanticide being so prevalent that he felt it was necessary for the Government to interpose with its strong arm. Last winter on St. Lawrence Island, a missionary, who had just gone there and who had not been there long enough to exert much in- fluence, was invited to a native house to witness the destruction of the grandmother. He went, hoping that he could prevent the killing, but this he was unable to accomplish. This woman 34 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS was one of seven in that small village killed by their families during that winter. The old lady was dressed in her best as if to celebrate her birthday. The children and grandchildren as- sembled, also dressed in their best, and when all the circle were present, the old lady took her seat in the center of the floor, adjusted the cord to her own neck, and her son, placing a stick between the cord and her neck, strangled her. This sort of thing is going on everywhere outside of the places where Christian churches are established. Polygamy prevails every- where outside of Christian communities. Witchcraft prevails. If I could give you the eye of omniscience, I could show you some mother ordering her newly-born babe to be thrown out of the hut to be frozen to death or torn in pieces by the dogs. You might see repeated the scene that occurred in one of the villages, where a man was about moving his home from one village to another. The family consisted of his wife and grown son and an invalid daughter. He loaded the sleigh, hitched up the dogs, and not being willing to trouble with the invalid daughter, drove his knife to her heart, and then they started on. You might see men, women and children tortured to death as witches. It occurred last year, and will occur every year until the Christian churches wake up and determine, God helping them, that such influence shall be poured in there as to make these things impossible." 5, Some Results of Eskimo Missions. — In addition to those already mentioned. Dr. Thompson's observations are worth quoting : " It is of comparatively small moment that the original Eskimo huts with windows of ice-slabs or seal-bladder have given place to houses with glass windows, an iron stove in the middle, and blankets instead of reindeer-skins for the bed; that the people have developed a creditable taste for music, learning tunes readily, many of the women and children pos- sessing sweet voices ; that the Eskimos succeed as draughts- men, while our Indians draw like children and Polynesians do not draw at all. Moral elevation is the main thing. The Week of Prayer is now observed at all the stations. Schools kept by THE ABORIGINES OF AMERICA 35 the missionaries are maintained at each station and all that could be reasonably expected has been accomplished." If we turn from Labrador, about which Dr. Thompson is writing, to Alaska, and compare present conditions with those existing be- fore the advent of missionaries, we note that the old communal life with its evils — and, it must be admitted, certain material advantages also — has given place in multitudes of cases to individual homes of some slight degree of comfort. Legal marriage is insisted upon ; children are cared for as never be- fore ; and it is reported that parents have learned to take pride even in their daughters. IL Missions among the Indians. — i. In Alaska. — The Indian field includes the interior regions of northern Alaska, especially along the Yukon, and the coast south of Mt. St. Elias. The societies engaged in Indian work are the Pres- byterian, Episcopal, and the Swedish Evangelical Mission Covenant. Schools are a main reliance. Everywhere successful, those which give special attention to practical training are of great- est value. The most extensive of these is the Sitka Training and Industrial School of the Presbyterians, established in 1880. The avowed object of the institution is to train Indian youth to " meet the changed conditions of life made necessary by the influx of white people, the taking up of fishing streams, the opening of mines, etc." This calls for a more liberal and broader education along intellectual and industrial lines than is secured in ordinary schools of the territory. " A common English education is given. The girls are trained in the do- mestic industries so that they are fitted to become intelligent housewives. The boys have a training in trades, such as boat- building and carpentry. They also make all the shoes worn by the entire school. One of the most interesting parts of the work is that of settling the graduates who unite in Christian marriage in the model village which is on the mission grounds. The terms are so liberal and the arrangement so satisfactory that these young people are anxious to avail themselves of 36 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS the Opportunity to secure a home for themselves." The in- fluence of young women who give their lives to this form of service is most elevating and important. In some of the coast stations liquor is clandestinely secured, and since women as well as men indulge, their children flee to the mission house as a haven of refuge from the home pandemonium. When in addition to education, the school makes provision for tak- ing those girls who are about to be sold to a life of shame, their value is still more apparent. Itinerating in a land where " men are few and miles are many," is a difficult, but important work. Little groups of Christians, isolated from Christian fellowship, and surrounded by superstitious opponents of their new faith, appreciate the visits of their white friends. Medical work is likewise a potent agency in winning friends and alleviating suffering. The hospitals of the Episcopal Board at Circle City and Skagway, though only partially devoted to Indian patients, and the Sitka hospital of the Presbyterians, are the means of reaching most effectively very many. The ustial forms of station work, however, have done the most for the Alaska Indians. The transformations wrought by such means are well described in an address made by Toy-a-att, a Christian chief at Fort Wrangell : " When I was young, I was a great fighter; now I have learned from Christianity to fight no more. Christianity has changed us. Formerly we thought the crow made us and made these mountains and the water and everything; now we know God made it. We not like as we used to do — fight, shoot, wound, trouble all the time. Now peace all the time. See my house — no ball or shot go through it. All God's work now. Before the devil say to quarrel and fight and do bad. I have a Saviour. He died on the cross to save me. I am now old. When I die, I know where I go : I am in a bay where no wind ; no wind now to upset my canoe and trouble me. The Lord is my light and my peace." Perhaps the most unique work for the Indians is that of THE ABORIGINES OF AMERICA 37 William Duncan at the Annette Islands. The original Metla- kahtla which this remarkable man founded was under the care of the Church Missionary Society in British Columbia. Owing to unwillingness to permit his Indians to partake of the Sacraments, and misunderstandings that were mutual, the work there was given up and a new settlement was started on Alaskan soil. What he has accomplished in civilizing the Indian is well summarized in a statement that Mr. Duncan makes concerning a critic who returned to the new settlement when it was ten years old: "We had about three miles of good sidewalks, eight feet broad, on which we could parade; 1 20 good houses, occupied by the natives, and each built on a corner lot. Back of the little town our beautiful church, with capacity for seating 800 people, also a large school- building, with its twelve gables, and a town hall, with separate apartments for the town council, Sunday-school teachers, mu- sicians and library and reading-room. Near the beach a guest- house for strangers, and mission premises to accommodate two families and twenty boarders under training, all which at- tracted him. The industrial plant next invited his attention. It consisted of a salmon cannery, employing in the salmon season upward of 200 natives, and two steamers, which are run and engineered by natives ; also, a sawmill of fifty horse- power, managed entirely by natives, and driven by water-power conveyed in iron pipes from a lake two and a half miles away, and 800 feet high. In addition to these he could see several general stores and workshops for boat-building, etc., all owned and carried on by natives. The giant forest of ten years before had disappeared, and the ground was producing veg- etables and small fruits. On this gentleman's return to the steamer he seemed humbled, and frankly confessed his sur- prise at the changes, for he saw that we had raised a home in ten years far superior, in every way, to the one we left in British Columbia, which had taken us twenty-five years to build. Whether or not he ascribed our progress to the right cause I cannot tell. We know, however, that the Gospel of 38 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS Christ accepted has done it all, and to God be all the praise and glory." The last sentence quoted is the secret of Mr. Duncan's suc- cess. In it the Church is a central object, and since remov- ing from British Columbia it goes by no denominational name, calling itself simply the Christian Church of Metlakahtla. The natives are taught that while they owe no exclusive alle- giance to any one denomination, they are to be in union and fellowship with all evangelical Christians. The Mission is under no Board, the Indians themselves by their industry earning enough to supply ample means for church, school, medical and other mission expenses. The church building cost- ing over $10,000 was paid for, with the exception of $3,000, by the Indians themselves. The foundation upon which Mr. Duncan originally started a Christian village was the agree- ment by the Indians to live up to the following fifteen regu- lations : " To give up their Indian devilry ; to cease calling in conjurers when sick; to cease gambling; to cease giving away their property for display ; to cease painting their faces ; to cease drinking intoxicating drink ; to rest on the Sabbath ; to attend religious instruction ; to send their children to school ; to be cleanly; to be industrious ; to be peaceful ; to be liberal and honest in trade ; to built neat houses ; to pay the village tax." So interested were these people in the new order of things that, although Indians usually go to bed with the sun, they turned night into day in order that they might be " fixed in God's ways " as they said. As late as midnight or one o'clock, Indians came in to receive instruction, and revival scenes of remarkable power have marked the history of the work at that time and frequently since. 2. Indian Missions in the Dominion. — According to the 1899 Report on Indian Affairs, of the 98,981 Indians in the country only 15,147 were still pagan. Though 39,794 were Catholics, the earnest work of Protestant missionaries has won great victories in the frozen land and along the southern border. The societies laboring in this field are the Colonial THE ABORIGINES OF AMERICA 39 and Continental Church Society, the Church Missionary Soci- ety, the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, the Mis- sionary Society of the Methodist Church in Canada, the Pres- byterian Church in Canada, the Woman's Baptist Home and Foreign Missionary Society of Manitoba and the Northwest, Qu'Appelle Dicoesan Mission, the New England Company, the Canadian C. M. A., and the Moravians. A few Indians are reported as being Seventh Day Adventists, Plymouth Brethren and adherents of the Salvation Army. Details as to the work of these societies may be seen in Volume 11. The denominational membership is given in the Report as follows : Anglicans, 16,362 Indians; Methodist, 10,757; Presbyterian, 1,367; Baptist, 922; Congregationalist, 72; other Christian beliefs, 460. One great secret of the success achieved by the Dominion Government in dealing with the Indians is found in the school system through which the children are brought into close touch with the civilization and Christian influence of the whites. Of the 281 Indian schools reported by the Government, 144 were conducted by Protestants, while of the two grades of schools exerting the greatest influence, 12 of the 22 industrial schools, and 18 of the 34 boarding schools were under their care. In the industrial and boarding schools of all grades, unusual attention is paid to moral and religious instruction, so that these Indian children and youth receive far greater care than do pupils in such schools in the States, and some of them surpass in this respect the record of Wales and Scot- land. A majority of schools of the two higher grades em- phasize as helpfully as the Sitka Industrial Institute of Alaska practical training in trades, farming and housework, and at the same time impart a good amount of instruction in the usual school studies. Boarding schools meet fewest objec- tions, as day-school work is sadly interfered with because of migratory habits. The school being on the reservation, the parents have an opportunity to see their children occasionally. The isolation felt by Indian workers in remote regions is 40 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS well pictured in a letter from a Mackenzie river missionary of the C. M. S. : " We reside not far from the arctic circle amid wild mountainous scenery. Either the wild fury of storms rages, or dead calm with intense cold prevails, inter- changed with bright sun and cheery ice and snow landscape for eight months of the year. Ice-blocked and snow-bound, dense forest covers the banks of the Mackenzie River, and beyond a trackless desert of beautiful, perfectly dry snow. Upward of 1,500 miles beyond the outer limit of Canadian frontier border of civilization, and our nearest missionary brother fifteen days' journey. Cut off from white people, shut up among red Indian savages ; oh, what vast solitudes ! what extreme loneliness ! Rough life, hard fare and our fam- ily in England call forth powers of endurance, good qualities of heart and head ; also much physical and spiritual strength are required." Notwithstanding such trials, as a result of this man's work and his wife's, constant recruits were won from the Tukudh tribes. It was from among them that the first Dominion native came who was ordained within the arctic circle, John Not-afraid-of-mosquitoes. The work done by the evangelistic missionary has been de- scribed with great vividness in the books of Egerton Young of the Methodist Church. Traveling from place to place in canoes or by dog train, the life is full of interest. The inven- tion by James Evans of a syllabary for use among Indians makes learning to read a comparatively easy matter, and the missionary with a burnt stick can use a convenient rock for his book. At present, however, this system is less used than formerly. The interest that they take in the Word of God, the delight in camp meetings, one of which is attended by more than a thousand Indians, and the fidelity of many of them to the truth when they must suffer for their faith, make one ready to assent to the assertion of Professor Warneck that " the redskins are quite capable of civilization when they are fairly treated, and are more accessible to Christianity than any other people." THE ABORIGINES OF AMERICA 4I Yet problems abound. The two most serious ones are the proselyting efforts of Romanists, and the ilHcit sale of liquor. They not infrequently trespass upon reservations where the Government authorizes Protestants to labor. They have been known to offer money to allow the priests to rebaptize children, or have prejudiced the people against Protestantism by distributing pictures of Luther and Mohammed going down to hell together. The sale of liquor cannot well be stopped, as the Indians desiring it will never betray the illegal dealer. 3. Indian Missions in the United States. — Here, as in the Dominion, Government effort and missionary activity coop- erate in the work of uplifting the Indian. As a result, in 1899 of the 187,319 Indians, exclusive of the Five Civilized Tribes, 31,655 were communicants of Catholic or Protestant churches. These Christians worshipped in 348 church build- ings, and were under the care of 266 male and 141 female missionaries, not counting those who were exclusively teachers. Twenty-three per cent of these Indians could read ; twenty- eight per cent used English well enough for ordinary purposes. They lived in 25,236 dwelling-houses; and sixty-eight out of every hundred had exchanged either w^holly or in part their savage costume for civilized dress. Catholic and Protestant religious societies and individuals had contributed during that year $119,407 for religious work and kindred purposes, and $261,515 for Indian education. The only criticism that seems to have any weight with officials is that missionaries by their advice and influence tend to foster tribal life instead of isolating Indians from their fellows and inducing them to enter the general life of a cos- mopolitan community. The following list shows the states or territories, churches or societies, and tribes — as they are known to the Government — associated with Protestant missionary effort. Arizona: Christian Reformed, Connecticut Woman's Indian Associa- tion, Gospel Union, Methodist, Presbyterian; Moqui, Navajo, Pima. California: Methodist, Moravian; Mission, Round 42 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS Valley. Colorado: Presbyterian; Southern Ute. Florida: Protestant Episcopal; Seminole. Idaho: Connecticut Woman's Indian Association, Methodist, Presbyterian; Nez Perce. Indian Territory: Baptist, Friends, Methodist, Presbyterian, Protestant Episcopal; Choctaw, Quapaw. Iowa: Presbyte- rian; Sac, Fox. Kansas: Moravian; Chippewa. Minnesota: Protestant Episcopal ; Chippewa, Medawakanton Sioux. Mon- tana: Presbyterian ; Fort Peck Sioux. Nebraska: Congre- gational, Presbyterian, Protestant Episcopal ; Omaha, Santee Sioux, Winnebago. New Mexico-: Methodist, Presbyterian, Reformed Church of America; Apache, Zuni Pueblo. New York Indians: Baptist, Friends, Methodist, Presbyterian, Protestant Episcopal. North Dakota: Congregational, Pres- byterian, Protestant Episcopal ; Fort Berthold Indians, Devil's Lake and Standing Rock Sioux. Oklahoma: Baptist, Friends, Methodist, Presbyterian, Reformed Church of America, Re- formed Protestant, Mennonite ; Fox, Iowa, Kiowa, Osage, Sac, Shawnee, Wichita. Oregon: Methodist, Presbyterian ; Siletz, Warm Springs. South Dakota: Congregational, Presbyter- ian, Protestant Episcopal ; Cheyenne River, Crow Creek, Lower Brule, Pine Ridge, Rosebud, Sisseton and Yankton Sioux. Utah: Protestant Episcopal; Ute. Washington: Congregational ; Skokomish. Wisconsin: Methodist ; Chip- pewa. The Woman's National Indian Association is auxiliary to a number of the above churches. Notwithstanding the fact that mission schools in the States are less helpful in a practical way than those of the Dominion, the Honorable W. A. Jones, Indian Commissioner, says of these schools in his last official report : " The labors which they do in an educational way are of inestimable value for civilizing these people, and while a heavy burden must rest, as it should, upon the shoulders of the Government, yet these little institutions of learning with their faithful Christian work- ers are important adjuncts." In 1899 more than eighty-two per cent, of the Indians in mission boarding-schools were found in those conducted by Protestants. That these efforts should THE ABORIGINES OF AMERICA 43 be maintained is evident from the statement of the Super- intendent of Schools in Indian Territory. He shows that the Five CiviHzed Tribes of that territory were benefited very largely while schools were carried on under the care of mis- sionary societies. Later when these tribes made educational appropriations, and took matters in their own hands, the schools began to retrogade, and nepotism was the order of the day. Thus one Indian chairman of a school board placed in office his sister, two sisters-in-law, an uncle, a niece, a brother-in-law's daughter, and six cousins. As for the evangelistic work of mission churches, it is espec- ially important for the very reason that religion is less taught in government schools than in Dominion Indian schools. It is found that where a church is planted near a government school, the pupils or students attend the services, and a re- ligious work can thus be accomplished outside the school build- ing which is most necessary. Moreover, the missionary's daily contact with Indians in their cabins is of the highest importance, since it is the only civilizing agency that comes close to the life of many. Multitudes feel the power of Christianity when they see the hand of Christian love stretched out to aid those whom the Indian agent or squatter may despise or treat roughly. Object lessons are very helpful in all Indian work. Thus the labors of Miss Sybil Carter as she lives and teaches the Gospel, while at the same time lace-making is taught the Indians, are proving very fruitful. Other strong missionaries like the Riggses, Miss Collins, and a multitude of equally successful workers impress themselves upon the Indians ; and when they see Moravians engaging in agriculture, and mis- sionaries of other denominations laboring with their own hands, the dignity of such work is greatly enhanced in their view. The organization of young Indian life into an aggressive evangelistic force is difficult, but very important. Thus the introduction of young people's societies, though attended with 44 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS great difficulties, and the annual conference of Young Men's Christian Association leaders with the young Indian men, are germinal forces that will grow into elements of great power. An Indian Secretary gives his entire time to the work, and local Associations are proving very useful. A section from the Report of the Board of Indian Commis- missioners to the United States Government in 1899 will fit- tingly close this section. " We wish to express our convic- tion that there has never been a time when the influence of Christian missionaries and of distinctively Christian schools among the Indians was farther reaching in its effects, or was more needed, than at the present time; and we trust that the churches and missionary societies, who in past years co- operated with the Government through the contract system by which their schools were in part supported, will continue and increase their efforts for the Christianization and civiliza- tion of the Indian. At the meetings of this Board at Lake Mohonk and in Washington, it is made evident by all reports which come to us from workers in the field that no influence is so potent in uplifting the Indians and fitting them for intel- ligent American citizenship, as is the example and the helpful teaching of Christian men and women who make their homes among the Indians." II MEXICO PART I. — GENERAL Passing southward through the United States we reach Mexico, the Egypt of the Western Hemisphere. Shaped Hke a vast cornucopia opening northward, this colossal horn of plenty seems ready to pour forth into the world its abundant tropical products and the wealth of its mines. I. Mexican Scenery and Climate. — The traveller is im- pressed variously according as he journeys through the three widely differing climatic zones, known since the Spanish in- vasion as the tierras calientes (hot or littoral lands), tierras templadas (temperate lands), and tierras frias (cold lands). 1. The mean annual temperature of the tierras calientes is yy° F., and save in the swampy forests or in those sections where irrigation is impossible, its general fertility variegates the landscape with stretches of maize, rice, pineapples, oranges and extensive banana jungles. Those coast lands not alluvial are usually occupied with low scrubby growths of cacti and spinous plants. Naturally this division is least healthful for foreigners, especially where yellow fever prevails in summer. 2. Rising rapidly from this lower terrace to the great central plateau, which varies in height from 3,000 to 5,000 feet above the sea, one finds oneself in the temperate climate of the tierras templadas, where the mercury ranges from 62° to 70° the year round. This has been called the Paradise of Mexico, combin- ing as it does a climate scarcely surpassed in the world with most magnificent scenery and a wealth of semi-tropical vegeta- 45 46 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS tion, including, however, all the cereals, fruits and vegetables of Central and Southern Europe. 3. The tierras frias, or cold lands, could only be so named by dwellers in a warm climate like that left by the Spanish in- vaders, as the mean temperature of these higher regions — varying from a mile above the sea-level to snow-capped sum- mits, ten of which are more than 12,000 feet in height, and two of them upward of 17,000 — is in the neighborhood of 60° F. " Most of the grand central plateau is located here. Its rain- fall is about five times less than in the temperate lands, and it produces all the products of the cold latitudes, as wheat, oats, apples, etc." 4. The rains in most sections begin in June, increase in July and end in November; though in districts farther inland the rainy season is shorter. They fall somewhat regularly during this time from one to three hours daily, the atmosphere being clear during the remainder of the day. As there is practically no winter, the rainy and dry seasons give the only variety to the year, since the trees lose their leaves one by one and hence are always covered with foliage. 5. So far as its missionary occupation is concerned, few missionary countries are so healthful. At high altitudes, how- ever, nervous persons are likely to suffer, and on the coast fevers are prevalent. As for general attractiveness, the aver- age Mexican missionary will endorse the somewhat enthusi- astic words of Minister Romero : " As a whole, the Mexican climate, if not of the most invigorating nature, is certainly one of the most delightful in the world. The zone of temperate lands — oceanic slopes — enjoy an everlasting spring, being exposed neither to severe winter nor to intolerable summer heats. In every glen flows a rippling stream. Every human abode is embowered in leafy vegetation, and here the native plants intermingle with those of Europe and Africa. Each traveller in his turn describes the valley in which he has re- mained longest as the loveliest in the world. Nowhere else do the snowy crests or smoking volcanic cones rise in more im- MEXICO 47 posing grandeur above the surrounding sea of verdure, all carpeted with the brightest flowers. In these enchanting scenes there is still room for millions and millions of human beings.'' II. Mineral Wealth of Mexico. — This, even more than the vegetable productions, is destined to make the republic in- creasingly important. In this particular Mexico stands in the foremost rank among the nations, and her riches are practically inexhaustible. While most of the metals are found, iron, silver and gold are the most valuable. Though gold first attracted the attention of the Spaniards, the immense silver deposits later came into greater prominence. From the main lode of Guanajuato, Humboldt said, in 1800, that one-fifth of the silver then current in the world had been obtained. While such esti- mates are apt to be defective, " the records of mints and other sources show an output from 1521 to 1891 of $3,570,370,247 in silver and $276,970,173 in gold, but these are probably very far below the true totals. Bancroft calculates that the entire mineral product of Mexico reaches $67,000,000 " a year. When the lack of transportation facilities and of coal is overcome, other mineral deposits will also be most profitable, as a single hill, the celebrated Cerro del Mercado, is estimated to contain 300,000,000 tons of iron ore averaging seventy per cent, of metal. III. Its Inhabitants. — Mexico, with a territory as large almost as that of Germany, France, Spain and Italy combined — more than a fourth the size of the United States — had a population in 1895 of 12,491,573, an average density of a trifle more than sixteen per square mile. To-day the United States has a population of only 25.7 per square mile. I. Nineteen per cent, of these are of pure, or nearly pure, white extraction. Many Spaniards come over when mere lads, and by dint of diligence, frugality and temperance, they be- come great farmers ; and, if they realize their ambition and marry the daughter of a rich land-owner, they end their life as retired millionaires. The Spaniard of Mexico " is forceful of 48 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS word and phrase, energetic in his movements, immensely vital, tremendously persistent and wonderfully enduring." The English, who formerly held much of the drygoods trade of Mexico, have yielded before the superior economy of the Germans. The latter succumb before the Barcelonnettes with their still closer methods. Many of the Americans are speculators and " dreamers of golden dreams," who " live for the eyes of other people." The better classes from the United States have effected many changes ; but they find it is less difficult to introduce improved means of transportation, finer hotels, electric lights, etc., than to overcome the noonday siesta and the incubus of feast-days, saints-days and holidays with the push and enterprise of their northern home. Romero says of these men : " It is easier for Americans in Mexico to fall into Mexican ways and Mexican moral views, than it is to convert the Mexicans to the American views of life." 2. The Indian race contributes thirty^eight per cent, of the population or 4,746,000, of whom 1,908,707 are of pure blood. Descendants of tribes that have amazed the antiquarian by the evidences of their early and remarkable culture, many proofs of which survive in the' extensive ruins of the country, they retain to-day few traits of their illustrious ancestors. While changes are gradually taking place, they generally " lead a life of their own, mingling but not mixing with the other races. From them chiefly are drawn the peons or agricultural laborers, who, through a system which keeps them permanently in debt, to-day are scarcely less slaves than were their ancestors under the Spaniards. The Indian is a poor workman and unreliable, though as a rule tractable, if well treated. His wants are few and his small surplus earnings usually find their way in a few hours into the pockets of the priest, the pulque sellers, or the proprietors of bull-ring, cock-pit, or monte table. He has no idea of honesty, however. He does not steal on a large scale, but tools, saddlery and crops must be constantly watched. The Indians who are not employed on the estates usually live in MEXICO 49 communities resembling the old village communities of Eu- rope." This class of Indians " betray that gloom and incurable sadness which seems to hang over nations destined to perish." Some of the prominent men of modern Mexico, like Juarez, President and statesman, and Morelos, the soldier, were pure- blooded Indians. Fortunately there is no prejudice felt toward this race, and if well educated, they are sought in marriage by the highest Spanish families. Like other branches of their race, however, they are decreasing, owing to insufficient nour- ishment and shelter, lack of care in sickness, small-pox, faulty treatment of infants and premature marriage. 3. The mixed white and Indian race, known as mestizos, make up the largest section of society, some forty-three per cent, in all. Their white blood usually gives character to the mestizos, and many of them are very intelligent and skillful. They are always courteous and polite — even to an enemy — and are so open-handed that the proverb says of the mestizo, " His purse burns." " The lower orders among them, the so- called leperos, are hopelessly idle and vicious." 4. Hopeful Elements in the Situation. — While the Mexicans as a whole have been accused of lack of enterprise and of in- dolence, this reproach is passing away with the coming of new and more favorable conditions and a more stable form of gov- ernment. Realizing the necessity of a majority rule, hot- blooded partisanship is yielding before optimism and a thor- ough belief in their country and its future. This new national consciousness is also beginning to assert itself in the over- throw of lower forms of sport, such as the bull-ring, cock- fighting, etc. Education, though still in a backward state, is becoming a matter of prime importance. " In 1898 the number of schools supported by the Federation and states was 6,738, and by the municipalities, 2,953; the number of teachers in both was 15,- 505 ; there were 702,685 enrolled pupils and an average at- endance of 470,557. The private and clerical schools num- bered 2,667 with 125,393 enrolled pupils and an average at- 50 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS tendance of 95,542. Of the average attendance, 347,884 were boys and 218,215 were girls. There is also one military and one naval college. The number attending the higher schools is stated at 21,000." It should be remembered that the Uni- versity of Mexico was formally established in 1553, eighty- three years before Harvard College, and that as late as 1824 Humboldt could say of this Athens of the New World : " No country of the New Continent, not excepting those of the United States, presents scientific establishments so great and so solid as those of the capital of Mexico." 5. Diseases Affecting the Inhabitants. — On the shores of the Gulf of Mexico marsh fever and phthisis are prevalent, and yellow fever is somewhat common up to the altitude of 2,500 or 3,000 feet. On the Pacific, bilious fevers and dysen- tery are foes to the natives, while on the highlands the skin is often covered with white, red, and black spots. The pla- teau people are often affected by the high altitude which is apt to induce anaemia and premature decay. Pneumonia, cancer and typhoid fever are also common maladies of the highlands. IV. Two Historical Races. — In addition to what has been said, further particulars should be given concerning two of the early races of Mexico, whose descendants are still numerous. A consideration of what these races have been in the past will furnish a basis for hope of their development under the new conditions of the present century. I. The names Asteca and Mexica are supposed to refer to the same group of races, and very probably Mexica comes from the name of the national war-god. In any case Prof. Tylor's statement concerning them was true in early times : " Based on conquest as the Aztec kingdom was, and with the craving for warlike glory fostered by the most bloodthirsty religion the world ever saw, it follows that the nation was above all other pursuits organized as a fighting community." If in war they were fiends, in the execution of justice they seem to have been thoroughly Draconian. The king when passing sentence usually sat with one hand on an orna- MEXICO 51 merited skull and with a golden arrow in the other. To steal a tobacco pouch or even twenty ears of corn was a crime pun- ished by death. When for so slight an offense the death pen- alty was exacted, there were naturally ingenious variations according to the degree of wrong. Thus for one crime, death might be inflicted by having the heart cut out on the altar, while for another the criminal's head was crushed between two stones, etc. The bloodthirsty character of their religion is referred to below, and is one of the most debasing elements in their life. Their material advancement in spite of such barbarity was most marked. Living on the plateau, they were the great archi- tects of the New World. The extensive palaces, no doubt less magnificent than the early Spaniards reported them, and a species of picture-writing almost alphabetic, are indications of their advanced condition, as were their system of govern- ment and their acquaintance with astronomy as exhibited in their complicated calendar. Agriculture was carried on with great skill and the utmost industry, while other trades were actively prosecuted. As we have seen, the present descendants of these wonderful people only give slight evidence of their former civilization ; yet it should be remembered that a large portion of the Indians in the state of Mexico and neighboring states are the descend- ants of these early men, and have in them innate possibilities of development. 2. According to some writers, even more marvelous were the early dwellers in Yucatan, whose descendants either of pure or mixed blood constitute perhaps four-fifths of the in- habitants. Their name, Maya, suggests the achievement which made their civilization in such a flat and dry country possible. It signifies " land without water," and this not so much because there is no rain, but because the porous upper strata permit all moisture to filtrate through, thus leaving the surface arid. In 1888 when Yucatan altogether had seven cities, sixty-two "ruined cities" were reported, an indication of the injury 52 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS brought to the country by the conquest and the consequent giv- ing up of irrigation works. Although the surface is dry, it is easy to obtain water by sinking a well for a few feet. In addi- tion to well-irrigation, the ancient Mayas spent many years in constructing reservoirs for unusually dry seasons. One of these subterranean cavities is 450 feet below the surface and the pas- sage leading to it is more than a quarter of a mile long. The " ruined cities " just alluded to are remarkable even in their present state of decay, the remains found at Uxmal being par- ticularly famous. What the origin of this culture was is still a matter of dispute among archaeologists. V. Religion. — i. Its Early Forms. — The very name of Mexico recalls the contrast between the warrior period and those ancient days when the mild religion of its inhabitants was exempt from sanguinary rites; of the age of temple and pyramid builders reminding one of their predecessors of Baby- lon and Egypt. Later came the " war-god " stage when the stain of sin was cleansed by bleeding hearts torn from human breasts and held up by gory-handed priests toward invisible spirits. One remembers also that still later development of Mexican religion when " every temple washed its foundations in the blood of captives, mingled with offerings of the precious metals, of pearls and the seeds of all useful plants. Some were entered through a door in the form of a throat, in which thousands of skulls lined the jaws of the monster," Nor can one forget the great national ceremonies in which not even a royal victim could suffice, and so it became necessary to first deify and worship the youthful victims before slaying and eating these gods incarnate. It is said that during the period immediately preceding the Spanish conquest, no less than 20,000 human victims, including infants, were annually immolated for propitiating the rain gods. 2. Religion of the Conquistador es. — The greatest of these, Hernando Cortes, landed at Vera Cruz in 15 19, and from the Conquest Catholicism has been Mexico's ruling religion. The transition was not so marked a change for the vanquished as MEXICO 53 might be supposed. Though the pious monk held that " long experience has shown the necessity of depriving these men of freedom and giving them guides and protectors," and though the district, now known as the state of Jalisco, lost all but 126,000 of its 450,000 in the process, they found it " easier to bend the neck to the yoke of the demigods armed with thunder, than to rulers of their own race." Moreover, the natives had at last secured a release from the terrorism of the old religion. Little was said by the Catholic priests of the redemption wrought by our Saviour's death ; " because the Spaniards, claiming immortality for themselves, were reluctant to teach the neophytes that their God could die." This faith increased in power, thanks to the Inquisition, and the Church controlled education and absorbed much of the wealth of the country until, by the proclamation of religious liberty in 1857, it ceased to be the state religion. 3. Religions Conditions To-day. — At present Church and State are absolutely separated and perfect freedom of worship is theoretically possible. Monastic orders are prohibited and ecclesiastical institutions are not permitted to acquire real es- tate. " No religious instruction or ceremony is allowed in the public schools, and never is a prayer offered as part of the program of a national celebration." There are at present thou- sands of progressive Catholics who are awake to the larger freedom of the times. Yet a great proportion of the Indian population keep to their old idolatry, having merely changed their idols for images of Catholic saints. The Emperor Maxi- milian's chaplain. Abbe Dominic, could say with much truth that the religion of the country was a baptized heathenism, a mixture of superstitions unworthy the name of Catholic. PART II. — MISSIONARY Protestantism approaches this republic and all Latin America with a different purpose from that which prompts its 54 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS adherents to go to non-Christian fields. Scattered over all the Mexican states are multitudes who for decades — or for centuries through their ancestors — have been reaping the benefits of Christianity. Few except the Indians are wholly ignorant of the great truths of our religion; in fact, of the Mexicans more than ninety-nine per cent, were Romanists in 1895. It is because of failure to emphasize what Protestant- ism regards as essentials, and because of gross ignorance con- cerning commonplace religious teachings, as well as in view of the divorce between religion and morality, that American and English Christians have stationed their representatives in Latin American lands. I. The Force. — North America has naturally sent to the aid of her sister republic by far the largest number of mission- aries and under the following societies : of Presbyterians, the Northern and Southern Boards, the Associate Reformed (South), and the Cumberland; the Methodist Boards, North and South ; the American Baptist Home Missionary Society, Independent Baptists of the South, and the Southern Baptist Convention; the Protestant Episcopal Board; the American Board (Congregational) ; the Christian Woman's Board of Missions ; the Friends' work ; the American Bible Society ; the Seventh Day Adventists and their medical work ; and the aux- iliary but, important Woman's Christian Temperance Union. Great Britain is represented by the Plymouth Brethren, and Mexico herself is furthering the cause through the Junta Mi- sionera Mexicana. Details of the work done by these societies are given in Volume II. II. The General Situation. — Mexico is like nearly all sections of Latin America in the general problems confront- ing missions ; hence much that is stated somewhat fully here will be understood as applicable in the three following chap- ters. Rev. H. W, Brown discusses them at length in Lecture V. of his " Latin America." We briefly summarize his discussion. I. The foremost one is found in the pagan or semi-pagan Indians who in Mexico especially constitute so large a proper- MEXICO 55 tion of the population. They are as yet scarcely touched and the work for their evangelization is as difficult as that in most pagan lands. Catholicism after four centuries of effort and with unusual helps of an external character has largely failed to reach them, thus standing in contrast with Catholic priests in the Dominion. 2. The second factor is found in the adherents of Romanism, who form so influential a section of tlie community. They " fall naturally into two groups, between which there are nota- ble contrasts. On the one hand are the mass of ignorant, super- stitious worshippers who accept what they are told and do what they are bidden with little or no thought. Over against these is a wealthy, conservative element, strong in social and political influence. They do not intend to yield without a struggle. Disestablishment has but served to arouse the Church to the putting forth of all her energies to make good what was lost in the struggle ; and for this reason we must reckon with a revived Romanism." 3. The liberal party is a hardly less important factor in the situation. While it has secured religious liberty in Mexico, the party can not do further work. In fact most of the leaders are very skeptical in their views, and hence the way is open to infidelity or marked indifference. 4. What is demanded from the last and numerically weak- est as well as the most suspected factor in the republic. Protestantism, is twofold in character. On the one hand it must elevate moral standards both of belief and practice, and on the other it must build up self-supporting and self-propa- gating churches of the Protestant type. III. Character of the People and Prevailing Evils. — As missionaries face this situation, they are confronted with helps and hindrances in popular character and morals. I. Those characteristics most helpful to the work are vari- ously emphasized by different missionaries, as will be seen from the following quotations. Rev. H. W. Brown, M.A., writes : " The present Government is liberal and there is free- 56 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS dom of worship. The foreign influence, especially of the large American, German, English and French colonies, is strong in Mexico City. The number of Americans in the whole repub- lic is increasing rapidly and is a liberalizing influence. Many hate Romish oppression of the past." Rev. Dr. Chastain speaks of the heart-hunger felt by many of the lowest classes for divine truth, leading them to eagerly buy Bibles and other religious literature, as well as to listen to the spoken Word. Others mention the desire for education, the love of liberty, the prevalent knowledge of God and nominal belief in Bible doctrines, the steadfastness of converts under persecution and native courtesy and hospitality, as being very helpful in their work. 2. But over against these characteristics are placed other serious obstacles. Fanaticism is most frequently mentioned as the great difficulty. Sometimes this is provoked by ignorant priests ; in other districts it is so universally present that it makes work practically impossible. Fear of consequences, either as it affects their industrial prospects or their standing in the community, is a potent objection in the way of many, especially when it involves contumely and sneers. The Chi- nese trait of conservatism holds back most of the Indians. Rev. G. B. Winton describes the case of many as " a sort of constitutional inertness of will, coupled with mental sluggish- ness. They exhibit also many calamitous results of an unmoral — often immoral — form of so-called Christianity. The divorce in their thought between religion and morals is a tre- mendous obstacle." Two prominent missionaries feel the dif- ficulty arising from previous contact with the United States, whence almost all of the workers come. The war of 1847 has not been forgotten and many Mexicans fear a " pacific con- quest " of their republic by its powerful northern neighbor. Specific sins that must be driven out before the Gospel can find place are drunkenness, gambling, impurity. Sabbath dese- cration, and a variety of superstitions which thrive in the favoring soil of Latin America's Romanism. MEXICO 57 3. How are these difficulties to be overcome? The mission- aries reply that schools, proper literature, nearer acquaintance with the suspected Protestants, the healing touch of medicine, emphasis of temperance, Bible teaching and biblical object- lessons in missionary lives, the strategic use of all means to reach the young, and above all the proclaiming of the pure gospel, will do more than all else to remove difficulties. This is the answer of Rev. W. I. Kelsey, editor of " El Ramo de Olivo " : " By gathering the children into boarding schools and educating them under Christian influences ; by the preaching of the gospel and all other means of grace. The object of all is to set up a right standard before them by word and deed, so that they may know the truth." IV. Religion and Ethics as Related to Missions. — I. That form of religion which most dominates Mexican life is Romanism in a greatly degraded form. What Dr. Abbott wrote of the early efforts of the Church as it came in contact with the Aztec, Toltec and Maya civilization, is said by mis- sionaries to be scarcely less true to-day : " Christianity instead of fulfilling its mission of enlightening, converting and sancti- fying the natives, was itself converted. Paganism was bap- tized, Christianity was paganized." Auricular confession is especially harmful in the way of early corrupting the minds and hearts of both sexes and all classes. 2. Stepping-stones to higher things are found in the widely prevalent fact that the Mexicans are a distinctly religious people. Outwardly and often at heart they are reverential, humble and manifest a devotional spirit. Faith in God is al- most universal ; the feeling that He can and will pardon the truly penitent is helpful ; while the simple words of Christ and the acceptance of the Bible as the Word of God and guide of life have attractions for many. Of course the fundamental truths of Romanism are in the main the same as those of Protestants, and hence missionaries share in the apostolic ad- vantage of building on a strong foundation already laid. 3. Religious views most difficult to combat are above all 58 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS those connected with Mariolatry, and to a less degree the adoration o£ saints. Even more than in other parts of Latin America is the worship of the Virgin made prominent, partly because the republic possesses two rival Marys, " Our Lady of Guadalupe " and the Virgin of Remedies. An illus- tration of the lengths to which this worship has gone may be seen in this translation of the prayer found on a tablet sus- pended before the Chapel of the Virgin of Guadalupe in the Cathedral of Puebla — ranking second to the Cathedral in Mexico City. " Most holy Virgin of Guadalupe, glorious daughter of God the Father, mother of God the Son, and wife of God the Holy Spirit, my Lady consecrated and sanctified before thou was created; I pray thee, my patron saint and Lady, that if to-day, if this moment, if this hour, or if during the remainder of my life, or in death, any sentence should be passed against me or against anything of mine, it may by thy intercession be revoked, and by the hand of thy Son our Lord Jesus Christ be turned aside. Amen, Jesus." A later author- ization for such intercession is found in the " Chapter of Holy Mary of Guadalupe," published in 1885 : " The Holy Spirit also has made thee the dispenser of all His gifts and graces. All the three divine persons concurred to crown thee at thy glorious ascension to the heavens, and then there was conferred upon thee absolute power over all created in heaven and on earth." It is but natural with such stupendous falsehoods over- laying fundamental truths of Romanism, " that the millions of Mexicans have failed to find their Savior, and that their services have degenerated into a heathenish spectacle." The supposed power of the priesthood is scarcely less en- thralling than Mariolatry. Some priests are unprincipled Spanish adventurers, but with the .new demands made by recent progress they are far less open to criticism than for- merly. A formal religion and salvation to be secured by works through association with the Church despite immoral living are factors which missionaries find hard to eradicate from the minds of Mexicans. Among the higher classes infidelity and MEXICO 59 spiritism are somewhat widely prevalent and must be met, if they are to be won for evangelical Christianity. V. Christian Strategics. — i. As to the point of least resistance, the old rule that has obtained everywhere among the more cultivated races except Japan holds here also, as the workers are almost unanimous in their verdict that the class most easily reached is the lower stratum. It is not the very poor, however, who are most readily and wisely won, but rather the artisans and others in lowly but self-respecting walks of life. And here the rural population is found somewhat more ap- proachable than artisans in cities. The Rev. H. P. McCor- mick suggests the following explanation of the greater ease in gaining converts from the poorer classes : " The priests give larger liberty to the middle and lower classes. If a well- to-do person has a Bible, it will almost surely be burned by the priest ; for he succeeds in getting somebody in every large family to confess regularly. The rich will not hear, read, or even witness. The poor, having little to lose socially, dare to hear and have the bravery to continue under instruction until conversion." A few missionaries plead for a wider evan- gelization of the Indians, and in view of their numbers, if not their influence, the appeal is a strong one. As an illustration of the value of this work, the case of Aztecs in Chiquatal is in point. Walking miles over the mountains they besought Mr. Haywood of the Methodist Board North to establish a school, promising to cut the timber, drag it down the steep mountain and across streams and build the schoolhouse as well as a bam- boo home for the teacher. One man over fifty years of age asked if he might receive instruction that he, too, might read the Bible and hymn-book. 2. Those methods that have proved most permanently use- ful are evangelistic and educational in character, though liter- ature is a most important adjunct in both these forms of work. The Rev. H. W. Brown thus puts the case : " The press with Bible, tracts and papers has opened the way in new regions. Evangelistic efforts follow this up and sometimes go hand 6o GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS in hand. Educational work is equally important, at least to supply evangelical teachers, preachers and colporteurs." A peculiar form of this combined work comes from Orizaba where a native Methodist pastor holds a night school two evenings in the week at the prison. Eighty prisoners are en- rolled, a class in morals has been started, and an influence per- vades the entire prison life that bids fair to make it a reforma- tory of morals. The authorities are delighted and permit him to hold a class for the children prisoners — one of whom, a boy of eleven, is a murderer. In itinerating from town to town the missionary is con- fronted with evidences of the great need of the gospel. Here is a sketch from the pen of a Presbyterian missionary writing from San Luis Potosi : " We are surrounded by vast multi- tudes of people of all classes that seem to be utterly beyond our reach. The language of the streets that constantly as- saults our ears is foul beyond description. Drunkenness is a prevailing vice, and it is a common event of daily street life to see two policemen dragging a man or a woman along to jail, where some of them remain for four of five days with- out food. On a Sunday afternoon or on a religious feast day, in the outlying wards of the town, crowds gather where there is music and dancing. The revel nearly always ends in drunken brawls and sometimes bloodshed. Conditions are no better in the smaller towns and villages." VI. The Denominations and Missions. — As is the case in most mission lands the supposed evils of denominationalism exist mainly in the minds of critics at home. A representative Mexican missionary says : " As yet the mass of our converts do not distinguish clearly the doctrinal differences of Protest- ants (with one exception), but all use the common name * evangelicals.' " I. Those features of denominational polity which most at- tract the majority are such as either remind them of the mother Church or else are in opposition to the old regime. Under the first category would be placed the remarkable sue- MEXICO 6l cess achieved by the first Protestant body to become fully or- ganized at the Capital, — the earlier Mexican work of Miss Rankin and of the American Bible Society were also important — known first as the " Church of Jesus " and later bearing the name of the Mexican Episcopal Church, now under the fostering care of the Episcopal Board of the United States. So, too, the system of bishops, presiding elders, etc., of the Methodist Church is said to be acceptable to many because of its resemblance to what they have been accustomed. Opposite tendencies make the Congregational system pleasing to the democratic desires of some, and more still, who are ardent Republicans, consider Presbyterianism most in accord with the new order of things. In doctrine the Protestant idea of a free gospel as contrasted with the mercenary spirit of the priesthood, the glorious truth of justification by faith alone, an open Bible and the sole mediatorship of Christ, are common Protestant beliefs that attract many. An itinerating ministry with an unfailing pas- toral supply for Methodist and Baptist flocks, the fervid Chris- tianity of the former, and the congregational singing which is made a feature in different individual churches are stated as being very helpful in winning converts. 2. Where the same methods in the main are employed by all, it is difficult to state what phases are most characteristic of the work of various denominations. From reports at hand it would seem that the Methodist bodies have the most widely distributed evangelistic force together with a very promising- medical work. The Baptist societies emphasize evangelistic effort also, and specialize in the direction of self-support and boarding schools. In this latter direction the Friends, Con- gregationalists and Presbyterians are likewise doing admir- ably. The Seventh Day Adventists are specializing along med- ical lines. The Episcopalians are showing what can be ac- complished by directing a native Church through a very small force of missionaries from the States. The Woman's Chris- tian Temperance Union through its missionary is winning the 62 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS gratitude of Church workers and native Christians, and the Bible and Tract Societies are furnishing leaves of healing for the nation. Eight of the societies have excellent periodicals, so that notwithstanding the small population compared with that of many mission lands, their circulation in Mexico ex ceeds that of Christian periodicals in any other mission coun- try save India. 3. An examination of recent reports from this republic re- veals elements of hope in the united body of Christian work- ers there. A feeling of comity among the societies leading to plans for a better distribution of the force is a striking fact in the situation. Gatherings in conferences for the discussion of mission problems and the special meetings of young people's societies are steps in the direction of unity. How much the people appreciate these is shown by the self-sacrifice of twelve young men of a Presbyterian Endeavor Society who went on horseback 300 miles to attend a convention, though the trip required twenty-one days. All along the line is evident a desire to come to self-support, — there are some recalcitrants, of course, — and many difficulties to be overcome. In indi- vidual churches pledges toward self-maintenance are called for ; in one case a home mission board was organized and two evan- gelists were supported by it, very largely through the efforts of an Endeavor Society of ten members. Gatherings of Sunday- school workers and the introduction of better methods of teaching are also yielding their fruit among all the denomina- tions. The adoption of some Association methods, as the Friends' plan of opening a reading and study room with games, etc., indicates the demand for institutional church work and for the Association. VII. Results of Contact with Protesi ant Lands. — I. A most natural result of such contact is the introduction of material helps to higher living. Modern machinery and manufactures have lightened labor; the multiplication of rail- roads, electrical plants and the accompanying energy and push are material blessings ; and the ferment of thought occasioned MEXICO 63 by newspapers and contact with enterprising foreigners are revolutionizing the former Hstlessness. But a far higher ben- efit accruing from this new contact is found in the entrance of thrift and self-reHance, in the overthrow of prejudice and superstition, in the broadening of vision incident to wider poHtical ideals and religious liberty. 2. The other side of the shield must also be described. We must reluctantly acknowledge that most Americans except missionaries are a hindrance to religious work. Those who are religiously inclined find few ways to aid in Christian work — partly because the missionaries are not thoughtful enough to enlist them ; the irreligious usually exert a very bad influence. They attend bull- and cock-fights, show an obstinate indiffer- ence to the Gospel, and by their intemperance, skepticism, gaming and Sunday desecration are a stumbling-block in the way of missionary effort. 3. As to the results of missionary work, while they are man- ifest, it is hard to say precisely how much is due to this factor and how much to the civilizing effect of higher appliances and ideas. Good judges who have been for years on the ground mention numerous fruits of Protestant missionary ef- fort. Only three testimonies from many are quoted, and first that of a leading Baptist worker : " An interest in education, especially of women, has been awakened, as also in public charity and sanitation. Toleration has been increased, so that it is possible as was not formerly the case for a Protestant to live in safety. The people have learned that Protestantism is not synonymous with obscenity and infidelity as they have been taught — and still are — by the clergy. Many small churches have been established and they are bound to grow in membership and influence." From a Methodist Presiding Elder is quoted the following : " The different churches work- ing here have evangelized the country extensively and gathered in many members. The organizations lack stamina, however, and many members have come in without thoroughly compre- hending the step and what is expected of them. The churches 64 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS organized are as yet far from self-supporting and consequent independence. Much school work has been done also." The Presbyterian editor of " El Faro " writes : " There is evident a general enlightening influence on the mental attitude of the people which is hard to define. An influence is likewise being exerted on the Roman Catholic Church which is slowly chang- ing and becoming outwardly more what it is apparently in the United States. Another result of missionary effort is the es- tablishment of churches which as centers of Christian life in the cities and country districts have advocated and illustrated Sabbath observance and practical morality." The Christians who are won from the lower walks of life are inspired with a new spirit at their conversion. Higher standards of truth, honesty, temperance, morality and true religion supplant the old indifference. The practical benefits derived from economy, industry and an interest in public affairs also tend to produce a better intellectual and moral environment. VIII. Outlook for the Future. — i. The great national problems that Protestantism must help to solve are three in number, two of them affecting the whole population and the third the Protestant Church as a factor in the national regenera- tion. The first and greatest of these is the question. Shall Romanism again dominate the republic? Although nominally the State ceased to be under the power of the Church in 1857, there are influences, especially outside of official circles, which make a return to ecclesiastical domination appear possible. Many are looking forward with foreboding to the time when President Diaz, who is now serving for his sixth term, shall cease to be their leader. Will there then be a return of revo- lutions with the consequent possibility of Roman leadership? Popular feeling would perhaps bring about such a change, with the consequence that peace and liberalism would end. A second question of national importance is the educational prob- lem. Schools of the Church are exceedingly poor and govern- ment schools are skeptical rather than colorless in religious matters. In proportion as schools increase and compulsory MEXICO 65 attendance is enforced the danger arising from such conditions grows. The cycle of problems surrounding the native Prot- estant Church, as it influences the republic, is a most perplex- ing one. Many of these churches have been organized by native preachers paid by missionary boards. Beginning thus in de- pendence, the precedent is a difficult one to overcome. A letter addressed in 1896 by the Presbytery of Mexico to the Boards laboring in that republic indicates the rising sentiment of independence felt by native leaders, and later accomplish- ments in different denominations prove that the movement is growing in power. The fear expressed by some that this spirit of independence may lead the Mexicans to cut loose from their foreign fellow-workers before they are competent to be left alone is not confirmed except in very slight measure. 2. The missionary solution of these problems is suggestive, if not likely to become operative. Combat the power of Ro- manism, they say, by preaching a positive faith, and by in- creased activity. If limited efforts have accomplished so much, a larger force and a stronger backing from Protestant lands will effect still more. In educational matters the boards might combine and establish one strong Protestant institution, sur- passing any Mexican college now in existence, thus creating a practical ideal for the state and for Romanism, as well as furnishing a place where Protestant leaders may gain the best education obtainable. And as to difficulties connected with the native churches an increased responsibility placed upon their membership — gradually in most cases — and the exer- cise of great patience and perseverence, together with a more careful training of those to be set apart by ordination as lead- ers of such churches, will greatly improve matters. A study of the work of the most nearly indigenous Protestant Church, the Mexican Episcopal Church, also furnishes suggestions to denominations holding widely different views as to polity and doctrine. 3. Elements in the situation inspiring hope for the future have already been given. A stable and strong government (>6 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS under the leadership of Mexico's noble President, an improv- ing public credit attracting to the republic new elements of progress, the better intellectual training of children and youth, and the Godspeed given Protestant schools in many places, are heralds of better things. Improved methods in mission work, the growing spirit of comity and cooperation among different branches of the Protestant Church, the dying out or lessening of prejudice and bigotry, the influence that must surely proceed from the rising generation, who have been reared and trained under Protestant influences, the fact that Spanish is very easy of acquisition, thus making the missionary very quickly effective, are other features more closely related to the missionary. The factor of momentum, which the above particulars imply, is carrying Protestant ideas into many high places which were previously hopeless territory. The work thus far has been greatly blessed of God and the consecrated workers in that land are looking toward far larger fruitage in the century which has just begun. Ill CENTRAL AMERICA PART I. — GENERAL As ITS name indicates, Central America forms the center of the American Continent, and constitutes " the land bridge " between its northern and southern sections. It is likewise near the geographical center of the world, as will be realized when commerce can find a way across it through the projected interoceanic canals. I. Physical Features. — i. Area and General Character. — The five Central American republics, together with the col- ony of British Honduras, occupy an area of 196,637 square miles, equal to that of the New England and Middle States, plus South Carolina, or a little less than that of Spain. The phys- ical features of this area make it " an epitome of all other coun- tries and climates of the globe. High mountain ranges, iso- lated volcanic peaks, elevated table-lands, deep valleys, broad and fertile plains, and extensive alluvions, are here found grouped together, relieved by large and beautiful lakes and majestic rivers; the whole teeming with animal and vegetable life, and possessing every variety of climate, from torrid heats to the cool and bracing temperature of eternal spring." The mountains, and the many beautiful volcanoes, are an especially marked feature of these republics. While eruptions have re- peatedly been destructive, as also the numerous earthquakes occurring in the same region, the volcanic ashes have accumu- lated into plains among the mountains and are a source of fertility. 67 68 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS The climate varies greatly according to the height above the ocean and the direction and extent of mountain ranges. Every- where, however, the range of temperature varies Httle — from 6° to 12° — between winter and summer. Severe thunder- storms are Hkewise universally prevalent; though Atlantic slopes are moister than those facing the Pacific, while the driest regions are districts protected by mountains from both oceans. Some of these districts at times seem arid and are wanting in the luxuriant vegetation which is at once the glory and danger of lands bordering on the oceans. Though the mountains prevent the extreme heat and dampness of Central America's tropical location, it is nevertheless somewhat trying to foreigners, unless observance of a daily siesta and other precautions are observed. If salubrity of climate is desired, it may be more surely found on the comparatively cool and dry Pacific slope than on the Atlantic side. 2. British Honduras. — This crown colony, famous for its exports of mahogany and logwood, lies in the extreme north- east of Central America, and is almost exactly the size of New Jersey, or a trifle larger than Wales. Looking down upon it from Victoria Peak, one sees a vast expanse of alternate ridge and valley densely wooded and dotted here and there, during the proper season, with groups of mahogany cutters and their pioneer " huntsmen " who guide the party to the finest trees, which often have trunks fifty feet in height and twelve feet in diameter. About 500 of its 35,226 inhabitants are white. More than one-third of the population lives in Belize, the chief town, where the blacks are allowed to be self-governing under a queen whom they elect and to whom they submit their dif- ferences. 3. Guatemala, the Land of the Quetzal. — This largest and most populous of Central American republics is about one- half as large as Great Britain, or a little smaller than the two Virginias, and contains almost one-half of all Central Amer- ican people. Though the climatic zones in all these republics closely resemble those already described in the chapter on CENTRAL AMERICA 69 Mexico, the following description of what the traveler might see in descending from Guatemala, the capital and chief mis- sionary center, to the coast will aid in making real the leading physical characteristics of the country and of other Central American republics as well. " The descent from the highlands of Guatemala to the coffee- growing zone is very rapid. In a few hours the traveler has left the tierra fria, passed through the tierra templada and is approaching the hot region. The vegetation rapidly changes ; alpine flowers give place to plants of a more luxurious foliage. The mountainsides now appear covered with ferns and creep- ing vines, growing in profusion under the lofty trees, and the deep ravines are almost hidden in a thicket of greenery. Oc- casionally magnificent views are obtained over the coast plains seaward; the tree-clad hills of the foreground slope gently away, and beyond stretches a velvet carpet of waving tree tops as far as the white shore of the sea. The intense green of the expanse is varied by the paler tints of sugar plantations and the dark shade of the coffee groves ; a silver line stream- ing through the woven woods, marking the course of a river, with a few small huts dotting its banks, the only sign of life in the ocean of forest." 4, Honduras. — This republic, which traditionally derives its name, " depths," from the difficulty experienced by Colum- bus in finding anchorage, is the third in size of the Central American countries, having almost the exact area of Missis- sippi. Table-lands crossed by fertile valleys and mountain ranges occupy most of the republic. The narrow coastal region is damp, the rainfall being about ten feet per annum along the Atlantic. In the North under the trade winds the rains are almost permanent, but the Pacific slope is dryer, and on the mountains the climate is bracing in winter, when frosts encrust the leaves. Honduras is richer in minerals than any of its sister republics. Silver, gold, rich magnetic iron and other metals only await means of transportation to become a source of large wealth. As it is, gold and silver constitute by far the yO GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS largest articles of export, bananas ranking next in value, with cattle as a third. The coming in of North Americans and other foreigners is introducing good roads, improved methods, etc., so that a better future is before the republic. 5. Salvador, in area the least of the sisterhood, is a little smaller than New Jersey, as British Honduras is a trifle larger. It makes up for limited area by a population second only to Guatemala's and greatly outranks them all in density of popu- lation, it being nine times as dense as the average of the other Central American countries. This is partly accounted for by its location on the Pacific slope. Seen from the west, " the plateau, comprising the great part of the country, presents the appearance of a mighty wall upheaved by nature, with a low range in front, but separated from the western seaboard by a line of cone-shaped volcanoes." Everywhere almost are proofs of volcanic action, and earthquakes are scarcely less destructive than volcanic eruptions, which are here almost as disastrous as in any region of the globe. Thus the capital, San Salvador, " has been overthrown and rebuilt on the same site no less than seven times during the last three centuries." 6. Nicaragua. — This republic, resembling an isosceles tri- angle in shape, is of special interest to the world because of its relation to international commerce through the proposed Nica- raguan Canal. In area somewhat smaller than Maryland and Virginia combined, it presents toward the Caribbean Sea an expanse of alluvial plain, covered with dense forests, which slope upward toward the West. The striking feature of the republic is a remarkable depression near the western border which is filled toward the south with Lakes Managua and Nicaragua, the latter being the largest body of fresh water between Lakes Michigan and Titicaca. Numerous volcanic cones, some of them active, stud this depression. One of them, named Conseguena, was in 1835 the scene of a most destruc- tive eruption, inferior only to that of Krakatao in 1883. Dur- ing four days it belched forth lava and sand, the latter being carried as far as Jamaica and Bogota. The accompanying CENTRAL AMERICA Jl roar was heard at a distance of 800 miles. It is said that no equally large region bears such marked traces of igneous action as that between the Nicaraguan lakes and the Pacific. It was this republic that the American filibuster, Walker, and 12,000 followers attempted to convert into a vast plantation like the Cotton States. Temporarily successful, he was overcome in 1857, and failing in his endeavor to revive slavery there, he said when dying : " I have defended the cause of the slave- holders abroad ; they will soon have to defend it themselves in their own sugar and cotton fields." Of its mines, 109 are worked by Americans, which are another link between Nica- ragua and the States. Its eastern portion, where most of the missionary work is done, is Mosquitia, or the Mosquito Coast. Belonging to Great Britain, it has been a part of Nicaragua since i860. It i-s inhabited by a mixed race of Indians and negroes, some 15,000 in number, and by aboriginal Indians. 7. Costa Rica, next to the smallest of the five republics, nearly equals West Virginia in size, and in character is a plateau between the two oceans, intersected by a volcanic range a mile in height, rising at one point to 11,500 feet. In popula- tion it is the least important of the five, having 310,000 in- habitants. Its name, meaning " Rich Coast," was probably given in derision because of its poverty, or else on the nomen est omen principle. Yet since the discovery of the precious metals, it has been growing in wealth and enterprise, so that it is perhaps the model Central American republic and one of the most prosperous. This, however, is mainly owing to its agricultural resources, rather than to mines, and secondarily to its relatively superior class of inhabitants, who are " the most industrious and cultured population in this division of the New World," It is certainly " rich " in a tropical flora. Its prime- val forests, covering more than half the Atlantic slopes, con- tain " an amazing variety of forms. In a space of 100 yards square, more types are here met than in 100 square miles in North Canada. Its fauna also is exceptionally rich compared ^2, GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS with that of other tropical regions." This is especially true of birds, the species numbering twice as many as are found in all Europe. II. Central American Peoples. — i. The six countries are not greatly dissimilar in the composition of their popula- tions. Numbering more than three and a half million (3,550,- 100), they are made up of Indians, mixed races, and a com- paratively small proportion of Americans and Europeans. Of the 950,000 abopigines, the larger portion are found in Guate- mala. " The majority of the population now consists of Spanish-speaking ladinos or mestizos, the offspring of Euro- peans and Indians. There are perhaps 30,000 whites, Creoles and immigrants, and a larger number of negroes, mulattoes, the offspring of negroes and whites, and zambos — the off- spring of negroes and Indians." While about thirty Indian languages are spoken, most of the aborigines themselves speak the prevailing Spanish tongue. 2. Distribution. — Central American plant and animal life most abounds in the moist, warm regions near the coast. Its human inhabitants, on the contrary, " flourish in the drier parts, where agriculture presents fewest difficulties and the conditions of health are favorable. The prevalence of malaria in the low ground, both moist and dry, leads similarly to a concentration of population on the highlands which are free from malarial fevers. Human habitations are found as high as 10,500 feet, but above that level the mountain slopes are uninhabited. On the low, hot plains of Peten in Guatemala there is only one person to two square miles, while in the high department of Totonicapam the density of population is 285 to the square mile." 3. Racial Characteristics. — Much that has already been said of Mexican populations is applicable to the inhabitants of Central American countries. Of the Indians two varieties should be noted. The Indios mansos have fixed settlements, and were agriculturists at the time of America's discovery. To this class belongs the major- CENTRAL AMERICA 73 ity.of Central American aborigines, and this number is con- stantly increasing. The Indios harharos are the wild prairie Indians who " everywhere withdraw to their woods before ad- vancing European culture, all contact with which invariably involves them in total and often rapid destruction. For them civilization is an insidious but a no less sure and deadly poi- son." Both classes appear youthful even in old age, and while not as robust as the negro, they display a large amount of endurance and suffer uncomplainingly. Their " women may daily be seen trudging to market, doing their three and a half miles an hour under loads of ninety to no pounds, with the baby perched on the hip. The Guatemala Indians are much addicted to the practice of eating an edible earth of volcanic origin. Christians going on pilgrimages also eat little earthen figures which they obtain at the holy shrines, and which are supposed to heal all maladies." The mestizos, descended from a white father and an Indian mother, are rapidly increasing and all other shades of color are disappearing before their light yellow hue. To this class belong servants, farmers, herdsmen, mendicants and banditti. " In social intercourse the pure Indians are preferable to the mestizos, in whom are concentrated the vices of both races — revenge and treachery, combined with laziness and cowardice, forming the main features of their character." A few mes- tizos have risen to positions of honor as artisans, traders, clergymen and even as state officials. Zambos, or sambos, half-breeds of negro and Indian ex- traction, live like the pure negroes and mulattoes in the coast districts and are not very numerous. Theirs is the heaviest work on plantations or on cattle ranches. Like other half- breeds, they try to pass for whites when possible. The ruling classes are the Creoles or pure whites, though they are less numerous than the preceding classes. Most of them are descendants of the Spanish conquerors. Residing in towns mainly, they constitute the higher stratum of society and fill the most honored positions. "Without the moral 74 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS character of the first Puritan settlers in North America, lack- ing both the steadfastness of the Anglo-Saxon and the trust- worthiness of the German, the Creoles allow themselves to be swayed by passions and capricious impulses which can be held in check only by the strong arm of despotism. They acquire knowledge readily, but superficially, shrinking from all earnest effort and ever irresistibly attracted by the allurements of pleasure." Immigration to these countries is slight, though Costa Rica encourages it and receives about i,ooo annually. The same re- public has a Chinese population of i,ooo, while in Guatemala the Tirolese are prominent among recent immigrants. 4. If the future of Central America's population may be judged from the past, the European element is likely to degen- erate and diminish in numbers until it dies out. " All observers are in accord that the pure Indians are steadily increasing, and that the ladinos [mestizos] are constantly drawing nearer to the Indian type. Here, therefore, the relations of the two races are the reverse of those prevailing in the United States, where the white man is visibly crowding out or absorbing the native Indian." This fact is interesting in view of the historic importance of Central American races. The most cultured of these are the Maya-Quiche peoples of Yucatan and Guatemala, of whom there still remain 500,000 of more or less pure blood ; the Chiapanec group, many of whom are found to-day in Nica- ragua; and the Lenca tribes of Honduras. III. Culture and Religion. — Roman Catholicism has tinged to a considerable extent the aboriginal religions and is the faith of descendants of the Spaniards and of the mixed races. Until Protestant missions began their work, the Church was the only source of both culture and religion. How rela- tively high a stage education had reached in Mexico has been already seen. Central Americans were not so favored by the Church, though their indigenous culture and religion were more elevating and milder in character than those of other races. CENTRAL AMERICA 75 1. Central American Culture. — In most of the republics education is free. Yet the incomplete returns from the six countries show only 3,926 lower schools with 173,855 pupils; 59 secondary schools with 2,788 students in 41 of them; and 7 colleges, one of which has 180 students. An official report of Nicaragua, issued in 1895, probably contains a fair state- ment of conditions existing in many towns of Central America. It asserts that in two of its most advanced cities, Granada and Leon, thirty per cent, of the children were enrolled, of whom only half learned anything; while, of the entire population of school age, only about three per cent, mastered the subjects taught. Newspapers and periodicals are published to some extent, and a few public libraries have been established. In general culture, Guatemala and Costa Rica are perhaps the leading Central American countries. 2. Religion and Superstition. — Complete religious freedom is found in all the republics, yet by far the most of the people are Romanists. In the case of the Indians, who are usually more fervent Catholics than the mestizos, the old religion is preserved in a new form. " In many places dolls, representing the gods of their forefathers, are hidden under the altars of the churches ; and by this device both divinities are simulta- neously worshipped. When kneeling before Saint Michael they light two tapers, one for the dragon, the other for the archangel. An old deity corresponds to each personage of the Christian religion, the sun to God the Father, the moon to the Madonna, the stars to the tutelar saints. Most of the Indians think there are two gods, one of whom, * God of the Forest,' at- tends specially to the aborigines, taking no notice of the ladi- nos [mestizos] or of the whites. He is often called Duefio del Palo — Lord of the Tree — because he dwells in the ceibas, and to the foot of these gigantic trees in the forest clearings are brought the first fruits of the harvest and the chase. The earth is also worshipped, but feared as representing the prin- ciple of evil." y^ GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS PART II. — MISSIONARY I. Phases of Central American Religion. — Some fea- tures not alluded to in Part I, but reported by missionaries, will show in a pictorial way the difficulties encountered by them in their work, as also the moral environment of the people. I. Religious features that are more or less common in all of the republics are pagan rather than Christian in character. Sefior Castells thus describes a temple in Tucuru in which Christians worship : " It consists of a palm-leaf hut, with a bare floor and no furniture whatever. Round the sides stand twelve life-size figures, made of canvas and stuffed with husks of corn, which some one of the Indian worshippers had painted with the features and dress of his own race. When I went in, two women lay prostrate on the floor, and one of them screamed in agonizing tones, ' My Lords, send the rod of your power to heal ' — evidently praying to these apostles on behalf of some sick relative. Here once a year a priest celebrates mass, and when he came last he had stuck a paper over the entrance which read, ' Haec est Domus Dei et Porta Coeli.' Even in San Jose, which is supposed to be the most cultured city of Central America, we have the four walls of a new church, consecrated to the Virgin of the Scapular, where recently a raffle was held on behalf of the projected edifice. As we enter, the first thing seen is an inscription professing to be a message to each visitor from the Virgin, who says, ' My son, behold me without a temple. Come, help in building it, and I will reward thee with Eternal Life.' Unless the authentic Gospel of Christ is al- lowed to change these things, we may fear that before long the people of Central America will have lapsed into practical heathenism." A devotee of the Immaculate Conception in Nicaragua thus described the proceedings : " We have had three days of carousal here. The young men were out all night, singing, drinking, firing rockets, shouting out salutations to the Virgin, and making merry in every way." In fact, so debased is CENTRAL AMERICA ^y the Church in most of the republics " that Roman CathoHc im- migrants from foreign countries will not uncommonly disavow all connection with the popular religion, and attend Protestant places of worship instead." Even those forms of Christianity which are found in Central America lie altogether beyond the reach of a large proportion who are adherents of Catholicism, while in the large cities and within sight of churches many grow up without the least notion of Christianity. 2. With the incoming of modern thought the educated and ruling classes have all lost faith in the Church. In Guatemala, where the Government at present is decidedly anti-Roman, a festival for public school children was organized in 1899. It was not in honor of the Virgin or of any saint, but of the god- dess Minerva. The Government sent an orator, who is offi- cially reported as thus addressing the children : " ' We who are censured for having no religion only because we have broken off the bans of superstition and love freedom, have also our God in Minerva, that is wisdom.' The journal which reports this eloquent address concluded its editorial comment with the following sentence : ' Let it be well understood, therefore, that the Minerva festival is the apotheosis of free thought, the one possible factor in our national culture.' " II. The Force. — The societies engaged include three from the United States, the Bible Society, Central American Mis- sion, the Presbyterians, Seventh Day Adventists ; four from Great Britain, the British and Foreign Bible Society, the So- ciety for the Propagation of the Gospel, the Wesleyan Meth- odist Mission, and the work of the United Methodist Free Churches ; and in addition the Moravian Mission, the opera- tions of the Jamaica Baptist Missionary Society, and of the Wesleyan Methodist Home and Foreign Missionary Society, Western Conference, West Indies. I. The largest body of 'workers is connected with the Mora- vian Mission on the Mosquito Coast, " where they have practi- cally evangelized the whole tribe of Indians, numbering 10,000, who inhabit this region." One of their workers, Rev. W. Sie- 78 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS borger, has translated the New Testament into the Mosquito language, the first edition of which was printed in Germany, in 1888. 2. The Bible Societies are doing an exceedingly important work in these republics. The pioneer was the British and Foreign Bible Society, which began operations in 1812, when it was still a criminal offence to introduce the Word of God into Spanish territory. Central America now has become so interested in the Bible that a gold medal was awarded the Bible Society at the Central American Exposition of 1897, and the Guatemala State Press has been permitted to be used in the publication of the Scriptures. In the case of one republic, Costa Rica, the bishop, " seeing the futility of his past efforts to arrest the circulation of the Scriptures, has begun to import Spanish Testaments published by a rival Roman Catholic Bible Society and which have scarcely any notes." With this fact should be coupled another statement, namely, that after the agent had reached the Costa Rican capital, in 1899, a weekly magazine was started for the express purpose of attacking Bible work. The priests warned the people from the pulpit against reading the Scriptures, and a French Paulist missionary is travelling about the country denouncing the agents as the vilest heretics, and is distributing controversial pamphlets. The American Bible Society, which began its labors as late as 1892, is already meeting with success under the experienced guidance of the South American hero, Penzotti. Reporting from Guatemala he states that as a rule the people are indif- ferent to all ideas of progress and look with suspicion upon in- novations ; hence his colporteurs are often exposed to assault, being wounded with stones and otherwise injured. A convert in San Salvador, who had been mainly won by the New Testa- ment, testifies : " I was an assassin, thief and gambler, and was the terror of my poor wife and children, but after this Bible reached my hands I noticed on reading it something that I can not explain ; but of one thing I can assure you, that such a change has come over me that what I used to love I now detest, CENTRAL AMERICA 79 and what I hated before I now love. I have not changed reH- gion, but rehgion has changed me." This testimony could be duplicated in various forms in many a regenerated life. 3. The Church of England, through the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, is doing an important work. From Belize, British Honduras, the cathedral city from the early days of British occupation, its operations have been continu- ously helpful, though much of it has been for English-speak- ing populations. Their lay readers are distributed along the Atlantic Coast of the Central American republics, and as a re- sult of their efforts the spiritual welfare of the people is being greatly advanced. Some of its clergymen have made a spe- cialty of native work, including the aboriginal tribes. 4. Baptist congregations also form a chain from Belize to the Isthmus. Their labors are chiefly among the English- speaking negroes from the West Indies. In the Republic of Costa Rica they have evangelized some native immigrants from Northern India, this work being accomplished through the medium of Hindi Scriptures, as the missionaries could not speak the Hindi dialect. Their mission in the same republic is the first Protestant organization that has become incor- porated in this part of the world. 5. The Wesleyan Methodist Mission has branched out from British Honduras where it originated in 1826, and has done considerable work in one of the Guatemala seaports. The mis- sionaries are at present working almost entirely through Eng- lish. 6. The American Presbyterians, North, have been estab- lished for nineteen years in Guatemala. This Mission is doing considerable for the Quiche Indians through their Quezalte- nango station, those dwelling in Merida and here being the de- scendants of Central America's most enlightened races. Their senior missionary, Mr. Haymaker, naturally laments the fact that a work which has proven successful should suffer from re- trenchment. He writes : " We are following the economy of a farmer who goes to the labor and expense of clearing a field, 8o GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS ploughing, sowing, cultivating, etc., and then is too economical to incur the expense of reaping more than a few handf uls of the heavy crop." He likewise reports what many stations in other parts of the world could often secure, if inclined, the valuable cooperation of a lady well advanced in life who, while resid- ing in the capital city, has voluntarily given herself to the work of aiding in missionary operations, thus following the example of a chosen few in Mexico who are similarly fruitful. 7, The Central American Mission has done a pioneer work that is somewhat unusual. Robert Arthington, of Leeds, whose philanthropic aid brought so much to Africa, sent through the republics in 1895 an exploring party under the leadership of the Rev. C. H. Dillon of this Mission. The information gained by this expedition will be of value to later missionaries who attempt to evangelize the aborigines. This Mission makes a specialty of laboring among the Spanish-speaking natives in all of the five republics. Women's work has likewise been emphasized through the appointment of a number of women missionaries. Operations of other societies not specifically described above proceed along similar lines. Further particulars concerning their work will be found in Volume II. HI. Some Characteristic Difficulties and Encourage- ments.— I. Among the Indians, despite the extent to which they have been evangelized on the Mosquito Coast, there are still difficulties to be overcome. Rev. A. Martin says that the belief that sickness or death is caused by the power of evil spirits, and that God is so benevolent as not to care if his chil- dren sin, together with their practical servitude to the sorcerer, are obstacles of great importance. Polygamy, superstition, vin- dictiveness and drunkenness are sins against which the con- vert must perpetually strive in view of his inheritance from the past evil life. As Christianity enters the interior and comes in contact with the aborigines, additional difficulties are men- tioned. These have already been alluded to in Part I. En- couragements in Indian work are also to be seen. There ap- CENTRAL AMERICA 8 1 pears to be a general desire on their part to remain no longer in heathenism. Christian family life is coming into existence with education, and peace and joy such as they have never known under the old religions come through faith. 2. The general work in the interior, mainly Spanish, is thus described by the missionary longest resident there. Those elements in the native character constituting the greatest ob- stacles to missionary effort are the inability to see any incon- sistency between a Christian profession and an abandoned life, the prevalent tendency toward revolution which makes church government also somewhat difficult, unreasoning fanat- icism among the Catholic population, a tendency to run to extremes carrying the inquirers beyond their former supersti- tion to a point where Christianity cannot reach them, and their inability to look beyond present trial to a greater good to fol- low. A patient and steady application of the Gospel in a variety of ways is the only remedy that has proven potent. Where applicants for church membership are sufficiently tested before admittance they are patient, charitable and ag- gressive. These converts are ever on the watch for those whose hold on Rome is loosening and who have not yet passed over the line into atheism. As they deal with these fellow- countrymen they encounter such objections as these: It is a sin to think or reason on religion ; the Virgin Mary is prac- tically a greater power in the universe than God himself; a pure belief does not necessarily require from the believer a pure life; and among the liberals one must contend with the most corrupt and bestial form of French Positivism. Perhaps the nearest point of contact is found in the pauper classes. The evangelistic message awakens new desires, educational work develops these, and the Church carries on the process to com- pletion. Medical missionaries in some parts of these republics are not especially necessary as physicians abound. 3. Except along the coast there has hardly been time yet for large fruitage from work attempted. In any place the tendency to measure success by the number of converts in a 82 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS new work is altogether a false criterion. An experienced Central American Missionary says : " In my opinion the num- ber of converts does not represent more than five per cent, of the aggregate results of our work, though commonly consid- ered one hundred per cent." A number of churches have been organized, religious liberty has been carried from the realm of theory to that of practice, an increasing number of people are reading for themselves the Word of God, the social and moral elevation of many converts is notable, and the evan- gelical atmosphere is constantly widening. IV. The Future. — Much still remains to be done. Seiior Castells asserts that " in Central America there are found at least a hundred towns with a population of over 8,000 to 100,000 souls still to be occupied, as indeed there are a thousand and more villages where the Gospel has never been proclaimed; and this, too, next door to a British colony and only three days' sailing from New Orleans. The field is an extensive one and therefore there is ample scope for the em- ployment of every gift; pastors to organize congregations among the foreign Protestants sojourning in our midst ; itiner- ant preachers to reach those who are scattered throughout the five republics ; men with a knowledge of Spanish to preach in the large cities ; Christian teachers of either sex for school work ; evangelists with a strong constitution to reach the Indians in their wilds ; printers to provide the necessary literature ; farmers W'ho will set up industrial missions for which indeed there is a grand outlook ; colporteurs that will go scattering the Word. When last year the President of Honduras visited the Bay Islands, he told the Protestant workers there that he would be glad to see them come into the interior ; and other presidents have been known to give similar invitations in behalf of the other states. One can easily find countries in other directions that have as large and even larger populations quite as needy and perhaps more neglected ; but we do not find anywhere a field at once so easily reached, so freely open to missionaries, so fruitful, and so inviting as Central America." IV THE WEST INDIES PART I, — GENERAL I. Bits of History. — The bow-shaped chain of islands extending from Yucatan to the central-northern shores of South America at once attracts and repels the reader. It was one of the Bahamas that was probably Columbus's landfall on the epoch-marking twelfth of October, 1492. These islands were the scene of Spanish cruelty which led to the decimation of the Carib Indians and the consequent introductiori of African slaves. On these waters bold buccaneers sought their prey, and here one of the greatest naval battles was fought when Rodney in 1782 defeated the French fleet. In the West Indies England set the world a glorious object lesson when she abolished slavery in her island possessions (1834-38). And it was here that the United States in 1898 forced Spain to bid adieu to that part of the New World which she had dis- covered, developed and so nearly ruined. II. The Groups. — i. The Bahamas, both by their location near Florida and their reef formation, may be regarded as a portion of the adjacent mainland. It is the most northern group of the West Indies and consists of twenty inhabited and many uninhabited islands and rocks off the coast. They belong to Great Britain and had in 1891 a population of 47,565, three-fourths of whom are black or colored. These are mainly occupied in sponge-fishing, salt-raking, and raising early veg- etables for the American market. Compared with the other groups, the Bahamas " are little more than barren wastes ris- 83 84 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS ing a few feet above sea-level, in some places so low that salt lagoons penetrate to great distances from the shore." As they lie in the path of the Gulf Stream, the climate and pro- ductions are almost tropical. 2. The four large islands of the next group, formerly known as the Greater Antilles, are Cuba, Porto Rico, Jamaica, and Haiti or Santo Domingo. These and some lesser islands in their neighborhood stretch eastward from the entrance to the Gulf of Mexico for a distance of more than 1,300 miles. They are essentially mountainous in character. In some instances the mountains rise abruptly from the sea, and in others they slope gently back through verdant tropical valleys to inland ranges 8,000 feet or more in height. An English admiral, wishing to illustrate the conformation of Haiti, crumpled a sheet of paper between his fingers and threw it on a table; and this equally well illustrates the surface of Cuba and Jamaica also." The general impression made upon the voyager as he approaches these and other West Indian islands is thus de- scribed by Mr. J. Rodway : " Rising from the deep blue sea, covered with rich green forests, and bathed in the splendor of tropical sunlight, the rocky islands are exceedingly beauti- ful. In sailing or steaming along from one to another they look like ocean gems ; here a mountain enwrapped in clouds, there a field of yellow-green canes, again a little town em- bosomed in precipices." Cuba, the largest and richest island of the West Indies, came under the protection of the United States January i, 1899, its fate having been sealed the previous July when San- tiago fell. That event brought under the influence of the United States an area of 45,872 square miles, — somewhat larger than Pennsylvania, — ten per cent, of which is cultivated, four per cent, is under forest, and the remainder is unreclaimed. The coast-line is 2,000 miles long, or with its bays and islands, 6,800 miles. " Except on the south central side the coast is abrupt and bordered by a narrow bench of coral reef elevated fifteen feet above the sea. The eastern coast, 600 feet high, THE WEST INDIES 85 is rugged with stair-like terraces. The land-locked harbors with narrow entrances are adapted for commerce and defence." The proverbial beauty of the island finds expression in one of Columbus's early letters to the Spanish Court, in which he says : " It is the most beautiful island that eyes ever beheld ; a country of such marvelous beauty that it surpasses all others in charms and graces, as the day doth the night in luster." An English missionary superintendent. Rev. G. Lester, ampli- fies this description : " Its beauty lies in its coast scenery, like that for instance of Baracoa and Matanzas ; in its forests, like those of the Calderones ; in its lofty mountains, like Turquino, and its charming valleys such as Yumuri ; in its tropical foliage, in which palms of almost every variety and gorgeous flowers form so conspicuous a feature ; in its azure skies, its glorious sunsets and its brilliant nights. The choicest tropical flowers flourish under its sunny skies without care or expense." Porto Rico, the most salubrious and fertile of the Antilles, became United States territory by the treaty with Spain of December 11, 1898. Picturesque hilly landscapes, clothed on the heights with virgin forests in some sections, are character- istic of the island. " The slopes are gently rolling divides, succeeded towards the littoral by well-drained plains. The undulating surface is adapted to pasture and the more ordinary kinds of cultivation, and is intersected by numerous perennial rivers. The land is mainly divided into small independent holdings belonging to the peasantry of the interior. Small fruit farms are the most numerous, but there are many small and some large coffee estates, and a number of sugar estates, cattle farms and some tobacco plantations." The adjacent Spanish islands of the Virgin group are now possessions of the United States and contain some 6,000 inhabitants. Jamaica is the largest of the British West Indies, its greatest length being about 150 miles, and its breadth from north to south fifty miles. This " land of springs," as its name signi- fies, sends down the mountain sides over falls and cataracts an abundance of water. Extensive forests and tropical pro- 86 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS ductions, which can here be grown to perfection, make the island a land of great natural beauty. " The sugar planta- tions, once so famous, have now dwindled to an area of only 30,000 acres ; and although other products have been largely increased by the introduction of banana and orange planting for the American market, the island has never regained the prosperity which it lost on the emancipation of the slaves." While its Government and the extent and character of its education and religion make this one of the most enlightened of the West Indian islands, depressed trade conditions have induced a state of grave discontent and the agitation of schemes — more or less wise — for some form of annexation either to the United States or Canada, or else of a federation of British West Indian Islands. It may be that conditions of climate and race present difficulties insuperable by any or all of the proposed solutions of the problem, Haiti, or Santo Domingo, is an island divided between two republics bearing those names. Despite its old Carib name, "rough land" — Haiti, it is a magnificent island, and was the first one to be colonized by Spain. " Horrible persecutions and massacres of the natives took place, which led to the entire extinction of the aborigines within about fifty years. Haiti was then almost deserted for a time, save as a place of call. Plantations were neglected; cattle, hogs and dogs ran wild and increased to a wonderful degree, until the French buc- caneers settled in some of the western bays, and especially on the small island of Tortuga." Later about one-third of the island was ceded to France, and from 1697 the portion now known as Haiti became the most flourishing of the West Indies. Blunders of the first French Republic and of Napo- leon I lost it to France. The revolt led to a series of mas- sacres, " ending in the erection of a negro republic where no white man could hold any real property. Since 1810 there have been negro emperors, kings and presidents ; Haiti has been joined to Santo Domingo, which proclaimed its independ- ence in 1 82 1, and again separated, and the whole island has THE WEST INDIES 87 been almost ruined. There are, however, no reasons why it should not be very prosperous, save the want of good govern- ment and the virtual absence of white men." In both republics the population is almost wholly made up of negroes and half- breeds who speak Spanish almost universally in Santo Do- mingo, and French or a patois in Haiti. The latter is the more prosperous republic, though smaller in area. 3. The Caribbean chains also known as the Lesser Antilles, is a line of small volcanic mountains whose summits project from 2,500 to 4,000 feet above the ocean. If Trinidad and Tobago are considered as belonging to the next group, the chain has a collective area of 2,620 square miles, with a popu- lation of more than 330 per square mile, a density very ex- ceptional for the Western Hemisphere. Indeed one of these, Barbados, probably has a larger number of inhabitants to the square mile than " any other separately governed colony or state," namely 1,140. These islands are under the govern- mental control of Britain, Denmark, France, Holland and Sweden. 4. The fourth group, known by the Spanish as the Leeward Islands, are more properly called the Venezuelan group, as they extend along its coast and are only outlying portions of South America. Barbados probably belongs to this group, as Trinidad and Tobago certainly do, though often reckoned as part of the Caribbean chain. The Netherlands own Curaqoa and its dependencies, and Venezuela possesses Margarita, while Trinidad and Tobago are British. III. Climatic Conditions. — i. Temperature. — Lying mostly within the tropics, these islands are almost constantly fanned by sea-breezes, so that the heat is not usually exces- sive. Moreover, the long, cool nights are a daily relief in most islands. Though the heat of the lowlands is trying, the missionaries can find refuge in the cooler highlands, since one-sixth of the area is more than 1,500 feet above the sea. With the exception of part of the Bahamas, the islands are within the isotherms of y7° and 82° F. 88 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS 2. Rains, Winds and Health. — The rainy season ordinarily lasts from June to October. During the same period the in- habitants must expect the dreaded hurricanes — a word cor- rupted from the Carib huracan, signifying a high wind. With the exception of the coast towns, where yellow fever is en- demic, the missionary can guard himself from disease during the summer, while the West Indies are becoming a popular health resort in winter for invalids as well as for tourists. Malarial fevers are, however, prevalent in some sections. IV. The Inhabitants. — i. Races. — These are of Euro- pean, Asiatic, or negro origin. The latter, mainly descendants of African slaves, greatly preponderate; though the Asiatics are increasing. Only a small remnant of the original Carib and other Indian tribes survive. At least sixty per cent, of the inhabitants of the West Indies are mulattoes, about 3,000,000 of the total population. The Chinese or Hindus are found in almost every island, the former in Spanish and the latter in English and French territory. In Jamaica alone in 1896 there were 14,118 East India immigrants, while the United States census of Cuba registers for 1899 a Chinese population of 15,020. Natives of the islands as distinguished from the immigrants are known as Creoles, whether white or colored. " They are usually well made, shapely, vigorous and active, brave, lively and quick-witted, but also at times vainglorious, untrustworthy and insolent." As the single island of Cuba contains about one-third of the population of the West Indies, a special paragraph describing its inhabitants is called for. We quote from a recent article by the English author named above. '' The Cuban of the city is generally a person of small stature, something of a fop, a student of propriety, a lover of pleasure and of gambling, and for the most part none too well informed. As to the negro, the prophecies which have declared that ' he will oust the white man ' are wholly unsupported by observation and inquiry. The life of a Cuban peasant is not a thing to be coveted. His house is a miserable shanty, his fields, thanks to his own THE WEST INDIES 89 neglect, are often overrun by vagrant pigs; the methods of agriculture which he employs are antiquated. Of domestic comfort he knows nothing. His food consists of sweet pota- toes, plantains, rice and sugar cane, with an occasional taste of pork, or tassajo (dried cow), or bacalao (dried cod). He manages to exist in defiance of the laws of hygiene; he is a slave of customs which the rest of the civilized world has long discarded. His great aversion is a government official ; his great ambition is to purchase a lottery ticket ; his constant desire is to avoid work. He spends his life in a sort of sullen contentment, ignorant, and devoid of aspiration." 2. Languages. — Reclus asserts that " as regards their speech, the negro-English patois is less harmonious than the French Creole, but it is equally lively and terse. Apart from a few simple expressions, the uninitiated Englishman would never succeed in understanding his mother tongue as spoken by the Jamaica or Barbados islanders. Of all the local jar- gons, the most corrupt is the papamiento of the Venezuelan seaboard, in which the chief elements are Dutch and Spanish, and which has preserved a few Carib and Goajir terms." In Cuba, which had in 1899 a white population of over a million, or sixty-six per cent, of the whole, Spanish is the prevalent tongue, as it is also in Porto Rico. In Haiti French is the official language. 3. Education is not common and where nominally obtain- able, it is of a very rudimentary and superficial character. Ambitious youths seek in other lands privileges which are denied them at home. The attitude of the United States to- ward Cuba and Porto Rico can not but be helpful in the future history of those islands; while the experiment of in- viting a number of native teachers to study at a special school provided for them at Harvard University in the summer of 1900, has likewise proved a great intellectual stimulus to those leaders. 4. The religious character of the islanders is far from satis- factory. Except on some of the English and Danish islands, 90 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS Catholicism is the nominal religion of the masses. As a matter of fact, however, superstition and ignorance are very prev- alent. Where the people are comparatively cultured, as in Cuban cities, there is considerable apathy felt toward the Church, due, no doubt, to the corruption of the priesthood. It is hoped that the result of the summoning to Rome of lead- ing Spanish ecclesiastics of the West Indies and South America will be to purify the Church, especially in the territory of the United States and in Cuba. Where there is absolute independence, as in the two black republics, there is said to prevail side by side with the State Church the superstitions of voodooism, extending according to report even to human sacrifice in interior and degraded sec- tions. V. " The West Indian Enigma." — i. The economic phase of the problem is becoming in some of the islands a most serious one. Mr. Rodway puts the case very concisely : " The great labor experiment of negro slavery was tried on a vast scale; and, whatever may have been the evils of that system, there is no doubt that it was successful from an economic point of view. It has resulted in peopling the islands with a tropical race which seems well fitted to carry out their development, and may perhaps some day make an impression on the world. Without the negro these beautiful islands would possibly have been abandoned long ago; for since the emancipation of slaves the whites are becoming fewer every decade, except in Cuba and Porto Rico. Experiments have been made in bringing laborers from India and China with good results in Trinidad, but the general position of all the islands in 1899 may be considered as almost stagnant. The future of the West Indies is bound up with the future of cane- sugar; other tropical products seem likely always to remain of secondary importance." As to this industry the British Royal Commission, appointed to inquire into the condition of West Indian sugar-growing colonies, reported: That the industry is in danger of reduc- THE WEST INDIES 9 1 tion or extinction through competition of sugar-growing coun- tries assisted by bounties; that in some of these islands no other industry can profitably take its place, and hence the labor- ing class would be so affected that the colonial revenues would be reduced to a point where they would not meet the cost of administration. In consequence relief measures were author- ized by the Colonial Loans Act of 1899 which appropriated to the British West Indies £663,000 ($3,315,000). If this meas- ure fails to relieve the situation, the future of the West Indies becomes more enigmatical than ever. 2. The political elements in the problem arise from the igno- rance and lack of independence of the masses. It should be remembered that the aboriginal races have almost entirely dis- appeared, and that the negroes have been in absolute slavery and to a considerable extent still are so in a sense. Hence they are not yet in a condition to have any influential part in the Government. In Cuba and Porto Rico the white race predomi- nates, constituting according to the census of 1899 fifty-five per cent, of the male population in the former island and sixty per cent, in Porto Rico. In strength of influence the whites have an even larger ascendancy ; so that in those islands the situation is not quite so acute, though friction with the United States presents still graver problems. A large major- ity in Jamaica and the other islands except Haiti are of the colored race and are subject in a real though not nominal sense. In islands where the colored majority is great, the home Government rules through a few of its representatives, and it is a question whether self-government is a practicable measure. If Haiti is looked to for an answer, it must be con- fessed that such government has been almost a failure ; though in the eastern or Santo Domingo section where the white ele- ment is more numerous, the case has not been so hopeless. Possibly the United States has come to the West Indies to show the world that education and a pure religion can fit men for self-government ; and if so, Porto Rico is undoubtedly the best place in which to initiate this object-lesson. 92 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS PART II. — MISSIONARY Work in these islands resembles more nearly than in Mexico and Central America what is usually called home missionary effort. Much of it is done through the medium of the English language, and many of those who are thus cared for are in a condition not greatly worse than the colored population of the United States. Missions among Spanish-speaking peoples are similar in character to those of Mexico, though the work is in a less fully developed stage. I. The Forces. — The following societies are engaged in missionary effort in the islands: American boards: American Baptist Home Mission Society; American Bible Society; American Church Missionary Society; American Friends' Board of Foreign Missions; American Missionary Association (Congregational) ; Board of Foreign Missions of the General Council of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in North America ; Board of Home Missions of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America ; Board of Missions, Methodist Epis- copal Church (South); Christian and Missionary Alliance; Christian Woman's Board of Missions ; Congregational Home Missionary Society ; Executive Committee of the Foreign Mis- sions of the Presbyterian Church in the United States (South) ; Foreign Christian Missionary Society ; Domestic and Foreign Missionary Society P. E. Church ; Foreign Mission Com- mittee of the Presbyterian Church in Canada ; Home and For- eign Missionary Society of the African Methodist Episcopal Church; Home, Frontier and Foreign Missionary Society of the United Brethren in Christ ; Independent Baptist Missionary Movement; International Medical Missionary and Benevolent Association ; Mission Board of the Christian Church ; Mission- ary Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church (North) ; Peniel Hall Mission ; Reformed Catholic Board ; Young Men's Chris- tian Association (Army Branch). British societies: Baptist Missionary Society; British and Foreign Bible Society; Ply- THE WEST INDIES 93 mouth Brethren ; Society for the Propagation of the Gospel ; United Methodist Free Churches, Home and Foreign Missions ; United Presbyterian Church of Scotland ; Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society, Other societies: Jamaica Baptist Mission- ary Society; Jamaica Church of England Home and Foreign Missionary Society ; Moravian Missions ; Presbyterian Church of Jamaica ; Wesleyan Methodist Home and Foreign Mission- ary Society of the Western Annual Conference, West Indies. 11. Three Lines of Missionary Effort. — If differentia- tion in work among the various classes in the West Indies can be made, it is along racial lines. In addition to the three races named below, there is much most necessary work being done for those of European birth or descent, especially by the Wes- leyans and by the Jamaica Church of England Home and For- eign Missionary Society. The latter society is not found in the statistical tables of Volume II for the reason that its work is so different from that usually followed that it could not be entered. In addition to its missions to East Indians, it has a very wide home-mission work in Jamaica, and otherwise is making its influence felt for good throughout the island. Its secretary says of this organization what, with modifications, might be written of some other churches on the islands : " The ordinary work of the Church of England in Jamaica is largely missionary and is performed by about 100 clergy, who are one- third Englishmen born and two-thirds Jamaica born; and the Jamaica Church of England Missionary Society is for the ex- tension of Christian effort among the population not hereto- fore reached by Christian influence. This is largely done through the agency of about 150 colored and black catechists, their work being superintended by the clergy aforesaid." I. Missions among Negroes. — Included under this heading will come efforts for " Creoles " and " the colored," as negroes of various degrees of purity are designated. In the distinctively negro island of Haiti and Santo Domingo Catholicism has a strong hold in an external way, and the same is true of the negroes of Porto Rico and Cuba, who constitute about one-third 94 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS of the inhabitants. In Jamaica, where they claim ninety-five per cent, of the population, they are very little under Catholic influence. So far as Romanism affects missions, it seems to have made the negroes feel that Protestants are fools or de- mons, and that if they heed evangelical teachings they will be- come mad. Protestantism's emphasis of the Bible leads the priests to direct their attacks against it as being the devil's book. In Protestant Jamaica, however, the Bible is the only book commonly found. Whether from superstition or some higher motive most who read have in their homes copies of the Scriptures and make use of them'. In this island and in Haiti voodooism or Obeahism is the su- perstition which causes the most trouble. The center of the sys- tem is the Obeah-man, usually a crafty old negro, whose hoary beard and forbidding aspect, as well as his acquaintance with medicinal and poisonous plants, qualify him for successfully imposing on the superstitious. The very sight of his ragged bundle, a coffin which is most useful, and a bottle containing parrot's feathers, graveyard earth, coffin-nails, etc., causes the stoutest negro to tremble before him. If hostile to the church, he may place some charm under the door in order to make the minister fall from grace, or at least keep the children from entering. If a negro imagines that Obeah is set for him, he will pine away and eventually die from fear. In addition to these difficulties are others of a different char- acter. Impurity, — indicated in Jamaica by the fact that over sixty per cent, of negroes are of illegitimate birth, — their love of pleasure and show, intemperance and laziness are sins to be overcome. In Jamaica the Creoles are " the cause of about nine-tenths of the disturbances at elections, parochial board meetings and church gatherings. They are less teachable than the negroes and there is a mutual dislike between the two classes." The work of missionaries has aimed to meet the special needs of negro life. Starting from a very common desire to have their children educated, mission schools have been a very sue- THE WEST INDIES 95 cessful agency in winning the people. Having learned to read, their natural reverence for the Bible makes its teaching very influential in life. The Catholic emphasis of the Mass makes the Bible view of the atonement an important point for the missionary to enlarge upon. In all kinds of work, the polite- ness of the people and their willingness to hear greatly aid the Protestant worker. Social purity agitation, young people's societies, stereopticon exhibitions, special meetings for children and mothers, are all aids to the more essential and fundamental work of preaching and teaching. House to house visitation, either with the object of selling religious literature, or in order to become acquainted with the people, is especially needful as a feeder and conserver of all forms of effort. Though little tried, some of the missionaries feel that medical missions might be most fruitful in negro work. 2. The Hindus are receiving, in proportion to their numbers, a large amount of attention, though very much more ought to be done for them. The majority are in British Government employ, if the indenture system may be so described. " The Government imports them and leases them to planters for a term of five years, for which the Government receives twenty- four cents per week, and the individual twenty-four cents per day if a man, and eighteen cents if a woman. They board and clothe themselves, having free rent and medical attendance. After being bound to the estate for five years they become * free coolies ' and can go anywhere on the island. During the second term of five years they may hire themselves to the planters, the Government still receiving for each twenty-four cents per week from the employers. After that they are free and can return to India or go where they choose. Those who intend to return home can not eat meat, lest on returning they offend the gods." Many of them remain on the islands and by their economy and business ability take trade from the natives. They usually retain the customs of India in their place of exile, so that the traveler notes signs of caste, a profusion of jewelry on ankles, arms and nose, and in the evening he may 96 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS hear Hindu music chanted to the accompaniment of hand- clapping and tin bells. Work among the coolies is very much like that in India with slight differences. The missionaries are more dependent upon interpreters and commit a larger part of the work to natives than in India. Moreover, they find much literature ready to hand in the publications prepared for Asiatic workers. Even- ing classes for those whose contracts require them to labor during the day are much appreciated, while Sunday-schools and the regular services of the Church are useful. Schools labor under difficulties, both because of sensitiveness on the part of parents in cases of discipline and for the reason that the children do not like the confinement of the school-room. The need for enlarging this important branch of effort is made evident in a communication addressed in 1898 to the Church Missionary Society by the Archbishop of the West Indies, located in Jamaica. Conditions which are strong in that island where there are about 15,000 Hindus are still stronger in Trinidad where the number is more than five times as great. The appeal calls attention to the fact that it is less difficult to reach these people in the West Indies than in the environment of their native land ; that the majority of these immigrants will remain permanently in the islands ; that the vast majority of the coolies are from the North- West Provinces and that ninety- five per cent, of them speak Urdu while Hindi is understood by all ; that efforts made by the Church of England and the Presbyterians show that excellent results may be secured, es- pecially where thoroughly consecrated and well-trained natives of India and missionaries who have had wide experience in that empire engage in the work ; and that the most feasible way to meet the need is to secure leaders trained in India who are accustomed to evangelistic work and have the power to train subordinates. This appeal is enforced by the thought that thousands return to their fatherland as thoroughly heathen as when they came to serve for years in a Christian community, and by the further consideration that many of these coolies, THE WEST INDIES 97 especially the Mohammedans among them, go about from house to house reading and preaching their own superstitions. While the Society in their reply do not promise to send aid, they have made inquiries in India in the hope that one or two well qualified missionaries may be found to do the work, and with the special hope that the native Indian Church may be led to undertake this peculiar form of home mission service. 3. Missions among the Spanish-speaking Romanists of the West Indies have not been actively prosecuted until the recent transfer of Cuba and Porto Rico to the United States. Since that time there has been a very ready response on the part of Christians of the States to the new obligations arising from open doors and the new national responsibility. The most successful missionary work previous to the Amer- ican occupation was done through the hero of Cuba, Dr. Alberto J. Diaz, laboring under the auspices of the Southern Baptists. Brought up as a Romanist and having never seen a Bible until as an adult he saw one in the United States, he became a new man in Christ Jesus. In spite of difficulties arising from six imprisonments and all sorts of opposition, he had baptized with his own hands 3,000 people within eleven years, besides plant- ing seven missions and setting fourteen men at work. During the war these missions were scattered and their helpers put to death; but 1,500 converts survived and now live in the new atmosphere of religious freedom. Less than three years of active effort on the part of many societies has seen work initiated, despite the serious difficulties of reconstruction and the perpetual friction between natives and the United States. The attitude of the priesthood of the two islands where almost all of the Spanish-speaking work is done, Cuba and Porto Rico, is well illustrated by this circular distributed as soon as missionaries began energetic efforts in Porto Rico. It is dated Ponce, Nov. 19, 1898. " To the Catholics. — Separate yourselves entirely from the Protestants and leave them in peace. By no means attend their meetings. Avoid all religious conversation. If they come to 98 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS your homes speaking of salvation or religion, throw them out in the act. By no means receive their Bibles and other litera- ture. Watch your younger children with great care that they may not attend any Protestant exercise, and that they may not receive of the Protestants either books or presents or play- things. I St. Because Protestantism is truly heretic and of the worst kind. 2d. Because the Protestants do not come of Christ; the first Protestant did not appear until 15 17 after Christ. 3d. Because the Protestants falsify the Bible in many points. They mutilate, and when they explain it, they do not present it without the words which favor their error. 4th. The Apostles' Creed they indignantly trample upon. The Creed says : ' Christ born of the Virgin Mary ' ; and they deny the virginity of Saint Mary. The Creed says : ' Believe in the Catholic Church.' They combat this. 5th. At other times they contradict the more clear words of Christ, e.g., ' My flesh is truly bread; My blood is truly drink.' Porto Ricans, be firm in the faith of your fathers ! Live and die in the Catholic religion, which is the only divine, the one which comes rightly of Christ and for the great and only truth. Note: With this action we advise the public of a series of leaflets of great in- terest to Catholics of Porto Rico, which will be distributed in the church free every Sunday. May the divine aid accompany them through the way of the Immaculate Mary. Now in her protection we place them ! " In contrast with this typical view of the missionaries must be placed other viezvs, illustrating the impression created upon workers by their new field. Almost everywhere among the men was present a state of apathy or else of decided hostility toward the Church. Religion had no hold upon any one save " old maids of both sexes," to quote a common Havana saying. Priestly corruption was so common that no one except a few devout women could abide their ecclesiastical guides. In the case of the reconcentrados the feeling against the Church was still stronger. General Weyler had driven the rural popula- tion into the cities. " Their homes were burned, their cattle THE WEST INDIES 99 were killed, their implements were destroyed. They had no money to pay expenses in the cities. No provision was made for their support. As a result of this diabolical policy, 400,000 men, women and children died. What did the Church do for their relief? Nothing. Was she able to help? Yes; what she needed was not ability but disposition. The Arch- bishop of Cuba offered to give Spain $20,000,000 to build four battleships to crush the insurrection. He proposed to strip the saints and the churches. Why could not this money be used to feed and clothe and house the reconcentrados ? It could have been so used, if the ecclesiastics had been willing. But to their thought the Cubans are no better than beasts and deserved no help whatever from the Church." Rev. A. McLean, Secretary of the Foreign Christian Missionary Society, speaks strongly in the above, but not more severely than hundreds of thousands felt toward their enemies in both Church and State at the end of the war against Spain. Dr. Carroll, late Commissioner of the United States to Porto Rico, writes, quoting from Mr. Brau, the Catholic historian of that Island : " ' In this island are many priests who do not lead very moral lives and who frequent gambling houses.' He speaks of priests who gamble, dance, go to the cock-pit, enter into the practices of the money-changer, and associate with the dissolute, and says that their mode of life seems more akin to that of Oriental seraglios, than to the austere silence of the rectory." Such being the attitude of the two parties, what means are being employed for the redemption of these islands ? Children are very evidently strategic material, judging from experience the world over, as well as from the Catholic proclamation just quoted. Too many of these are accurately described in a strong article by a recent visitor to Porto Rico. " The children have a short and cheerless childhood. Gambling with coffee grains for pennies is their standard amusement, though kite- flying has its season and cock-fighting its attraction. It is noticed that the children seldom sing. In fact it is a land lOO GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS without songs. The birds, as is common in the tropics, do little more than chirp." These children with their " banana stomach," due to distension with large quantities of bananas, their chief diet, gladly respond to the kindness of Christian school and Bible teachers. Scripture pictures and cards are gladly received and prove germs of blessing to the family in many cases. The magic lantern has especial charms for them, as well as for adults. Woman as the religious element of the population is also to be sought. The writer just quoted. Rev. J. M. McElhinney, says of them and of their homes : " The house has but few attractions for them. The few primitive articles of house- hold furniture are either reeking with filth or creeping with insects. The air is polluted with smoke of charcoal, which, having no chimney as an avenue of escape, takes its time in getting out through the chinks of the roof. There are no books or papers in the home. They could not be read if they were there. The mind gets its subsistence in conversation with neighbors at the ' rumshacks,' at the streams washing clothes, at the coffee plantation — somewhere in the open. The house is a place of last resort, a place to sleep in, where sense is dead to surroundings." From this description of a large majority of homes and their occupants, one can readily imagine the joy that the warm-hearted Christian woman can bring into such lives, after the deep-seated prejudice has been banished through a variety of more public ministries. The sick of both sexes are another strategic element in so- ciety. Dr. Carroll strongly pleads for this form of missionary effort. " There is a great deal of suffering among the poor for lack of medical attendance. All the municipalities pay ' titular doctors ' for service of the poor, but the poor get for various reasons little attention. If the municipal doctor shows re- luctance to respond to a call, the people hesitate to go to him again. They seemed to have a horror of going to the hospital. Forbidding-looking places they were, some of them. One of the best physicians in the island told me that hardly THE WEST INDIES lOI one person out of a hundred among the peasant class has a doctor at death. These common people are full of sympathy for one another, and a kindness done to them would win their hearts." Some lessons learned in the two years of recent missions among Spanish-speaking West Indians are the following. In a transition period, the best plan seems to be to have a morning service in English for Americans and other English-speaking people. Next comes a Sunday-school in Spanish and English for all children, and in the evening follows a service in Spanish only. Schools are being. established, though the character of those in Cuba especially, as well as the attitude of their leading teachers toward Christianity must be far better since nearly 2,000 of them came to Harvard at Government expense. For six weeks they learned in the United States much of modern educational methods and of Protestant civilization. The special care received by the women among them from the American Board's well-known Spanish missionary, Mrs. Alice Gordon Gulick, made a most favorable impression upon them. Despite the improvement in Government schools, those conducted by missionary societies are especially useful, both because the Bible and religion of the Protestant type can be taught in them, and also because they are the training places for church workers. The early tendency to secure small halls in out-of- the-way places is considered a mistake in view of the heat and the apparent cheapness of such missionary efforts, when compared with the costly edifices and plant of the Catholic Church. Dr. Carroll, now a Secretary of the Methodist Board (North), also recommends plenty of singing, an emphasis of young peoples' work, Sunday-schools, and all proper social features. Like all Latin races, the Cubans and Porto Ricans are social and given to pleasure. Yet there is no proper pro- vision for the development of this side of their nature, and Protestantism must supply what the past has not granted them. In places where parents are anxious to learn English; he urges the development of this form of work. But above all, as Dr. I02 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS Diaz so abundantly proved in the days of Spanish rule, what the missionary must most depend upon, is an open Bible taught by word and deed, and a wide application of its principles in all departments of life. An English missionary writer who knows the islands well says : " Before the people of the United States lies a task that is sufficient to tax their vast resources, their proverbial ingenuity and their Christian graces. But to free and then to mold for a nobler life a people of such capac- ities, is a mission that any great nation might honorably covet. ... As far as possible Cubans should be employed as mis- sionaries to their countrymen. There is a strong sense of fel- lowship in the Cuban mind; there are patriotic ambitions in which no foreigner can fully share. And in all labor and underlying all plans of service there must needs be a strong, fervent and triumphant expectation of success." SOUTH AMERICA PART I. — GENERAL! I. Panoramic View of South America. — If this conti- nent, containing some 7,000,000 square miles, — nearly one- seventh of the land surface of the globe — could pass north- ward beneath the eye of a beholder poised hypothetically in mid-air above its central meridian, a most varied and remark- able scene would greet his delighted vision. First he would see, as he looked southward toward the vast pear-shaped mass, the low-lying, verdure-clad shores skirting the Caribbean Sea and Atlantic. The well-wooded expanse of the Guianas would fade out into llanos of Venezuela and Colombia and the north- ern slopes of the Andes. Next would appear the Guiana high- lands succeeded by the selvas, — exuberant expanses of trop- ical vegetation filling the basin of South America's " liquid equator," the largest river in the world in respect to volume and extent of drainage area. Meanwhile the backbone of the continent has raised itself aloft in the Andes of Ecuador where twelve peaks tower three miles or more above the adjacent ocean. As regions further south appear the continent narrows. The Brazilian highlands on the east are less densely wooded, while the western mountain ridges make Peru an American Tibet. On its southeastern border, mainly in Bolivia, lies Titi- caca, the continent's one large lake, rivalling North America's Ontario in size. Passing these, one sees the Gran Chaco wil- 1 Reprinted from the author's contribution to "Protestant Missions in South America," 1900. 103 I04 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS derness and the famous pampas beyond. To the eastward are the hills of Uruguay, and on the west the Andes retreat far enough from the coast to form the fertile plain of Chile. There now remain on the south only the comparatively barren wastes of so-called Patagonia., and the fiords cutting into the moun- tains of southern Chile and tapering off into the bleak and stormy archipelago of which " The Land of Fire " is the larg- est. During this survey the aerial beholder has noted the reg- ularity of the coast and the fact that no extensive bays have indented the land, nor any large islands fringed the continent, save in the extreme southwest, if the more remote Falklands and South Georgia are neglected. II. River Systems. — Returning now to examine more in detail South America's characteristic features, one is struck at the outset with its remarkable river systems to which the con- tinent owes so much, and which when improved will provide it with a ramifying network of deep waterways, thus from a commercial and missionary point of view increasing greatly its accessibility. Only three of these systems will be de- scribed. I. The Orinoco. — This river, third in size on the continent, takes its rise far up on the mountain slopes of southeastern Venezuela. Early in its course it sends off the Cassiquiare, which strangely enough is the connecting link between it and the Rio Negro, a tributary of its powerful rival, the Amazon. Descending between the mountains and impenetrable forests of Venezuela and the Colombian llanos, it dashes over the fa- mous cataracts of Maipures and Atures, the latter nearly five miles wide and six miles long. Below its confluence with the Apure, it traverses the llanos with a width of four miles and later rolls its milk-white flood into the Atlantic through a delta, 125 miles long. Of its 1,550 miles, more than 1,400 are navigable in two stretches. Most of its larger affluents are likewise navigable; so that the Bogota missionary, if he so desired, could ascend it and the Meta to within sixty miles of his destination. Despite the extensive overflows of the rainy SOUTH AMERICA IO5 season, this river is of exceeding importance to the country's future. 2. The Amazon, or Amasons. — The disputed etymologies of this name were once its striking characteristics : one theory held that it was given because early voyagers saw female war- riors or Amazons on its banks ; the other etymology is traced to the name given by the Indians to its destructive tidal bore which they called Amassona — " boat-destroyer." To modern economists and merchants it stands preeminent among the streams of the world because of the vast extent of its naviga- ble waters — some 50,000 miles with its tributaries, one-half of which is by steamers, — and the commercial possibilities of its enormous basin which is estimated to include more than two-thirds as many square miles as all Europe contains. Though some unsuccessful attempts at colonization have been tried along its lower reaches, practically nothing has been accomplished by Western enterprise. Thus one notes the para- dox " that this forest, the largest and densest in the world, imports from North America much of its building timber, and some of the steamers on the river have found it cheaper to con- sume English coal than to burn the wood which grows so abundantly on every side." From the Atlantic to the heart of Peru and Ecuador a navigable highway stands ready for the missionary, not to speak of the great tributaries which will in the future carry him to remote tribes and districts one day to be opened up by modern exploitation. 3. The Rio de la Plata, or River of Silver, is more properly an estuary into which flow the waters of the Uruguay, Para- guay and Parana. Unitedly they pour into the ocean a vol- ume of water second only to the outflow of the Amazon and Congo. Though the Paraguay traverses the great marsh of Xarayes, elsewhere it passes through fertile districts abound- ing in excellent timber. Missionaries on board Brazilian steam- ers can journey up this river and its affluents to Cuyaba, 2,360 miles above Buenos Aires. Fortunately, too, they are open to the commerce of every nation. The Paraguay empties into I06 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS the Parana, which deserves its name, meaning " kinsman of the sea." Rising about a hundred miles northwest of Rio de Janeiro, it boasts of one of the most remarkable rapids in the world, ending near the mouth of the Iguassu. For a hundred miles up the river it extends " between ranges of frowning cliffs which confine the stream to a narrow, rocky bed, little more than lOO yards wide. Through this gorge the water pours in tumultuous fury." Like the Parana, the Uruguay is obstructed by rapids ; yet it is navigable by sea-going steamers to a point 373 miles from the sea, while coasting vessels can reach Salto, and other vessels above the rapids may proceed beyond Uruguay's northern boundary. According to Rohrbach the mean distance from the sea of any average district is 343 miles, this continent being surpassed in this respect only by Europe and North America. When to this fact is added its extensive river system, it will be evident that South America is remarkably accessible. III. Highlands and Mountains. — i. The Highlands of Guiana and Brazil, though separated by parts of the Amazon valley, present similar characteristics, and may be regarded as one area. They vary in height from 1,000 to 4,000 feet, on an average, with occasional elevations of 8,500 feet. Here may be the future sanitaria of the missionaries, though the bulk of their work will be in the more populous coastlands. Trees in the hilly region are less lofty and numerous than in the selvas, to be later described. In compensation for the charming lux- uriance of those regions, one here finds flowers in far greater abundance, with a vast variety of exquisite ferns, and on the higher elevations the Brazilian pine lends a new beauty to the rolling woodland. In the Guiana section the lofty mountains are bare, rugged and often grotesque. Most of these ranges are flat-topped, " appearing as though planed down by some titanic instrument." 2. The great mountains of South America, stretching along its entire western border, are most interesting. Characterizing them generally, Dr. Greene says : " The awful canons and SOUTH AMERICA lO/ chasms of the Andes, the subHme height of their peaks, the difficult and dangerous character of the passes, the rich and varied vegetable life of the eastern slope, and the steep descent of the generally barren Pacific slope, all give elements of great interest to this range." In formation " three main sections are clearly to be distinguished : The solitary chain of the Southern Andes ; the double chain of the Central Andes, with their ele- vated upland valleys, groups of connected hills and mountain lakes; lastly, the diverging Northern Andes, with their low- lying valleys and detached elevations." With its declivities and plateaux this chain occupies nearly a sixth part of the continent. Andean scenery is naturally varied. The southernmost sec- tion is marked by luxuriant and extensive forests, steep ravines and picturesque fiords, all crowned by one of " the most im- posing peaks of the whole Andean range. Mount Sarmiento, which rears its spotless cone of snow to a height of 6,910 feet. . . . The beauty of this peak is enhanced by the numerous blue-colored glaciers which descend from the snowy cap through the dusky woods of the mountain's base to the sea, looking, as Darwin expresses it, like so many frozen Niagaras." Perhaps the most striking features of the Chilian range are the fantastic shapes assumed by the weather-worn soft rock, resembling the spires and turrets of ruined churches and cas- tles, and the variety of coloring of the different soils. With the sparse vegetation of this region, the mountain slopes are strikingly beautiful, the blues, reds, yellows and whites pro- ducing wonderfully fascinating effects. The Bolivian Andes enclose " the navel of South America," a plateau as large as Ireland, having an elevation of some 13,000 feet and being mainly arid in character. The Bolivian missionary leaves the palms and banana groves of the lowlands and passes upward through forests of cactus and trees to the zones of pines, junipers and beds of resinous moss a foot deep. Above 15,000 feet rise the ever snowy crests of the Cordilleras, with scarcely a vestige of life, save the aspiring condor. I08 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS The Peruvian ranges on their western slopes, which rise abruptly from the Pacific, are practically rainless ; though from June to October they are refreshed by thick mists. In the interior its Tibetan characteristics appear, and here, also, is found the grandest scenery of the Andes. The Punas, wretched, wind-swept meadows affording scanty nourishment to llamas and alpacas ; " the cold, cheerless and uninhabitable Despobla- dos ; " the closed valleys with climate and products of the tem- perate zone, and redolent with memories of a marvellous Inca civilization ; the thousand streams which, " forcing their way over roaring cataracts and through the dark clefts of the Andes," gladden Brazilian plains with the matchless Amazon ; the many silver spires that one sees in the snow-clad peaks piercing the azure; the eastern, lower slopes of the Montaiia, " a tropical, wooded upland where the old and decayed vege- tation decks itself with bright twining and parasitic plants be- fore its thundering crash breaks the death-like stillness of the primeval forest ; " — these are some of the elements that will fascinate the Peruvian missionary, especially if he goes beyond beaten routes. The Ecuadorian section furnishes the mountain climber his paradise. One journeying southward from Quito to Rio- bamba over the narrow plain would pass, according to Bates, " fifty peaks on an average as high as Mount Etna, three of them emitting volumes of smoke, and all of them crowded into a space not much greater than the distance between London and Dover." Imagine a railroad journey of equal length in America — for example, from New York to Philadelphia, or Trenton, more correctly — between such heaven-piercing giants. One of them is the " silver bell " of Chimborazo, nearly four miles high ; while another, " turned out as if with the lathe," is Cotopaxi, " in absolute elevation without a rival amongst the active burning mountains of the Old World." Though slumbering now, it is, in Titus Coan's phrase, " in a state of solemn and thoughtful suspense " ; and when aroused it belches forth fire from a point nearly three miles higher than SOUTH AMERICA IO9 the Vesuvian crater, with a roar said to be audible 600 miles away. In Colombia the chain rapidly descends toward the Carib- bean Sea. Its parallel ranges are here intersected with cross- ridges " like the rungs of a ladder." Though nearing the end of their course, the Andes still have power to interest. Te- quendama Falls, one of the most celebrated cataracts of the New World, the romantic course of the Bogota, the increasing luxuriance of the tropical verdure as the traveler descends to the northern valleys, are Andean features not sooa forgotten. Some of the practical hearings of the Andean system on missionary geography and activities may be alluded to. With this volcanic ridge come not only the risk of eruptions, but the more disturbing one of frequent earthquakes, which occur along the entire western border of the continent. Moreover, sapping as the mountains do the moisture from the Atlantic winds, the Pacific slope will always remain dry and probably not be as fully peopled as the eastern republics. However, in the present undeveloped condition of llanos, selvas and pampas, the Western republics are almost as favorable fields as any on the continent. It may be that future prospectors will render this mountain region a thronging abode of men, if new Potosis are discovered, and if it is made as accessible everywhere as the splendid triumphs of civil engineering have made it in a few sections. IV. Habitable Plains. — i. Llanos of the Orinoco. — As the Spa*nish name indictates, these are " plains," and they occupy a region in Colombia and Venezuela almost as large as the New England and Middle States plus Ohio. While they slope downward from a height of 800 feet, and are in part forest, they are generally very level and sparsely wooded or else wholly devoid of trees. Reclus vividly describes an average llano scene, though for a more graphic picture the reader is referred to the account by a native, Don Ramon Paez. The former says : " In the central parts of the llanos where the surface seems perfectly no GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS level, where the line of the horizon is broken by no eminence, the firmament unfolds its azure dome above a silent sea of herbaceous growth, yellowish and scorched during the preva- lence of the dry trade-winds, dense and verdant from the first appearance of the winter rains. Although extremely rich in different species, the boundless prairie seems to merge all its plants in the same uniform element. Except a few objects close at hand, a drooping flower by the wayside, some startled beast or insect seeking the cover of the herbage, nothing stands out distinctly in the vast circuit lit up by the solar rays. Nature reposes in its strength and majesty, inspiring with a sense of awe and sadness the solitary wayfarer lost in the wilderness. Wherever the eye sweeps the horizon, the details of the land- scape are the same, though its physiognomy as a whole changes slowly with the hours, the shifting hues and shadows." 2. Selvas of the Amazon. — These vast "woodlands," ex- ceeding in extent the great Congo forest zone and almost equalling in area all the United States east of the Rocky Moun- tains, occupy the northern part of Brazil and extend slightly into the adjacent colonies and republics. The Matto Grosso — " great woods " — are a southeastern extension of the sel- vas. They are not wholly forest, however ; for, besides exten- sive grassy spaces toward the Atlantic, these selvas are trav- ersed by the Amazon which should be regarded, by reason of its labyrinth of streams, not so much as a single river, but rather as " an inland fresh water sea filled with islands." As seen by the Amazon traveler there is little visiblt; except a " compact wall of forest trees interlaced with lianas, over- topped by a continuous mass of verdure, the stems rising on both banks like a line of palisades straight as reeds, enveloped in gloom at their base, expanding overhead to the light of the sun." Bates, the Amazon naturalist, describes an interior view of the selvas : " With the exception of a few miles of road in the vicinity of the large towns, with difficulty kept free from encroachment of young vegetation, this forest is without path and impenetrable. Singular especially is the tendency both of SOUTH AMERICA III plants and animals in this world of trees, to assume the char- acter of creepers and climbers. . . . The flowers and fruits of the forest trees are all to be sought for in the leafy domes far above, where the crowns of the trees, locked together, are exposed to the light and heat. All below is dark, musty and cavernlike, and neither flowers nor green herbage varie- gate the damp ground." Some of the trees are colossal, as a ceaba described as covering a space of six acres where 25,000 persons might be accommodated. Another striking feature " of Amazonian arborescence consists in the great development of the outer walls sustaining, but detached from the stem, leaving an intervening space wide enough to afford refuge to several persons." 3. The Gran Chaco. — This region, occupying the western part of Paraguay, northeastern Argentina and the southern border of Bolivia, is about the size of Maine and California combined. It is the " great hunt " where multitudes of wild beasts attract the Indians who here are safe from white op- pression. While these plains are mainly arid, during the rainy season when the country is inundated they resemble a vast lake interspersed with verdant islands. Near the rivers, however, rich forests are found and vegetation is luxuriant. A night scene on the Gran Chaco has been thus depicted: " If the day with all its glories is so unspeakably attractive to the lover of nature, the marvellous nights of these regions still reserve fresh and unanticipated charms for him. There is nothing to compare with the impression of serene repose inspired by the sight of the starry heavens, especially in the more open meadow lands. Our thoughts revert unwittingly to those indescribable nights on the silent deep, when the ves- sel is borne along as by an unseen power on the unruffled surface of the waters, beneath the vault of a tropical sky. The charm is heightened by the countless swarms of fireflies whose phosphorescent lamps flash out and suddenly disappear in the gloom." 4. The Pampas. — This name is given to extensive level dis- 112 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS tricts in Peru covered with the primeval forests ; but it is more commonly applied to the immense grassy, treeless plains of Argentine Republic which rise in a series of terraces from the seaboard to the base of the Andes. They are in one place cov- ered with grass and absolutely level, at another brackish swamps appear, while toward the south and west salt steppes or Salinas occur. Portions of the pampas are very fertile, but stock raising is the industry that engages most of the region. In " The Great Silver River," Rumbold writes thus of a summer morning on the pampas: " The young sun floods the low and perfectly level horizon with a flush of pink and yellow light. The fiery disc emerges out of what seems a sea of verdure, all burned and brown though everything be in reality, and in its slanting rays the tip of each blade of grass, the giant thistles with their rose-purple crowns, the graceful floss- like panicles of the pampa grass, just touched by the breeze and all glittering with dew, undulate before the eye like the successive sparkling lines that mark the lazy roll of the deep in the dawn of a tropical calm. In the west the vapors of night have not entirely rolled away, while down in the deep depres- sions of the ground and over the reed-fenced lagunas a thin blue mist still lingers and mingles deliciously with the various subdued tints of brown and green around. This tender tonal- ity lasts but a very short time, the sun shooting upward with a speed and force that at once completely transforms the pic- ture; the scorching agencies of light revealing it in its true parched colors and reducing it to a burning arch above, and a scorching and featureless flat below. The fresh, rippling ocean turns into a weary wilderness, staring up at a breathless, pitiless sky." The moral effect of such an environment on foreigners, and on some, at least, of the Gauchos, is most striking. One of them thus writes : "In the presence of such an awe-inspiring solitude, one's thoughts are unconsciously drawn to dwell upon eternity ; a deep and yet a pleasant sadness takes possession of the thoughtful mind, a feeling intensified at the going down SOUTH AMERICA II3 of the sun; and in the darkness of the night merging in an overpowering sense of helplessness and terror. . . . Men are known who for years have toiled in the vain endeavor to hearken to the whisperings of reason alone, and who have smiled compassionately on those that spoke of a better future, and who yet at a sunset on the pampas become so unnerved that they are nearer to tears than to scoffs; nay, will listen with devotion to the evening chimes announcing the Ave Maria." It is said that this strange fascination of environ- ment often compels Europeans, who have returned home with a fortune, to go back again to the hardships of the old pampa life. V. Wastes AND Deserts. — i. Patagonian Desert. — Much of the territory above described, though not inhabited, is yet capable of sustaining a great population when the advantage or necessity for its occupation arises. Other sections, how- ever, can hardly become populous. Most of this area lies in that portion of the Argentine Republic commonly, though not justifiably, known as Patagonia. This expanse is usually called the Shingle Desert. In favored sections coarse gra'ss and stunted bushes and herbs are found ; but in general it deserves the Indian name of one portion of it, " the Devil's Country," since the ground is strewn with rolled pebbles, huge boulders, and is intersected with ridges of bare, sharp-edged rock. Charles Darwin calculated that these cover a territory 200 miles broad and 600 miles in length. The impression made by this desert upon the mind of the great scientist, he thus describes : " These plains are pro- nounced by all to be most wretched and useless. They are characterized only by negative possessions ; without habita- tions, without water, without trees, without mountains, they support only a few dwarfed plants. Why then — and the case is not peculiar to myself — have these arid wastes taken so firm possession of my mind ? Why have not the still more level, the greener and more fertile pampas, which are service- able to mankind, produced an equal impression ? I can scarcely 114 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS analyze these feelings, but it must be partly owing to the free scope given to the imagination. The plains of Patagonia are boundless, for they are scarcely passable and hence unknown. They bear the stamp of having lasted for ages, and there ap- pears no limit to their duration through future time." This impression is even more strongly emphasized by a later writer in " Idle Days in Patagonia." 2. The Atacama Desert. — This is the principal western waste of South America, though at various points west of the Andes, especially in Peru, there are barren reaches. Lying in Chile's northwestern section, it rises in rocky plateaux from the steep shore and is broken by precipitous mountains. The soil is rocky rather than sandy, and to-day has little veg- etation except the hardiest desert plants. By reason of its saltpeter works and silver, however, its solitudes are sparsely peopled. 3. Marshes. — Some of these are saline, notably one near the center of Argentine Republic. The largest of the fresh- water marshes is in southwestern Brazil, that of Xarayes. In the rainy season this is more properly a lagoon or lake, and covers a district as large as Maine. Above this temporary sea, stretching beyond the horizon, rise thickets of tall herbs and shrubs, and some artificial mounds, formerly used as Babel towers by the Indians who thus escaped the flood. The reader must again be reminded that many districts along the Amazon and Orinoco are little better than marshes, especially during the floods. VI. South American Productions. — i. Minerals and metals, so essential to the development of new countries, exist in considerable variety and abundance. If the El Dorado of early voyagers was a myth, the gold of the Guianas is not, nor the gold and diamonds of Brazil, the iron, copper, lead, bismuth and other metals of various sections. The nitre of Chile is a national source of wealth ; while the Andes are rich in precious metals, the mines of Potosi alone having furnished the world over $1,500,000,000 worth of silver since the Spanish SOUTH AMERICA II ^ first took possession of them. Coal, though not abundant, nor of high quahty, is nevertheless a valuable asset. 2. The products of the forest are a limitless source of future vvrealth, and a present cause of prosperity. Beautiful v^oods used by cabinetmakers are found in almost inexhaustible sup- ply ; a variety of gums and wax, and the extensive tracts where india-rubber trees flourish, furnish a large part of the exports ; modern medicine could hardly exist without South America's coca, which yields cocaine, and above all Peruvian bark, which Sir Clements R. Markham, in 1861, so shrewdly and labo- riously stole from Peruvian forests for the benefit of fever- smitten humanity. 3. Nor do the field products fall short in the inventory of the continent's wealth. Reclus is authority for the statement that South America has given to the world during the past four centuries more plants useful for alimentary purposes than any other division of the globe. Witness the potato, now the staple food of so many millions ; manioc and yams, more in- dispensable to certain negro and West Indian populations of Latin America than the potato can ever be to the Germans and Irish ; the tomato, peanut, pineapple, guava, mate or Para- guay tea, tobacco, etc. Other productions not indigenous to the continent, like the banana, which was carried there from without; wheat, the production of which is fast approaching that of the States; and above all coffee, are exceedingly val- uable factors in southern life and commerce. Brazil already supplies more than one-half of the world's coffee supply. 4. Important as these productions now are, the continent is almost wholly virgin soil awaiting the time of her develop- ment. It is not surprising, therefore, that writers on world- politics like Professor Reinsch, and practical men desiring to better their condition by emigration, are looking to South America as the theater of much of the twentieth century's development. VII. South American Races. — Without pausing to speak of the animal life of the continent, the most characteristic Il6 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS features of which are its many edentates, its gigantic reptiles, and its billions of birds of every variety of color, attention is called to a few general facts concerning the men found in its various sections. 1. Dr. Herhertson's Summary. — "South America has, at a rough estimate, thirty-seven and a half million inhabitants, giving a mean density of population of five and three-tenths per square mile. The coastal lands, the river valleys, espe- cially the alluvial plains of the Plata basin, are the most densely peopled. The inhabitants of the interior of the forest regions and in Patagonia consist mainly of aborigines of many races, differing in language more than in racial characteristics. The natives of the warmer regions are yellower than the brown inhabitants of the mountains, but all possess the same dark, lank hair, and scantiness of beard. The Caribs of the lower, the Nu-Aruak of the upper Amazon, the Tupi between the Amazon and Plata, and the Guaykuru of the Paraguay, the Ges of eastern Brazil, and the Patagonians and Fuegians of the south are among the most important of their races east of the Andes. The Araucanians of Chile, the old civilized Qui- chua, who formed the Inca State overthrown by the Spaniards, and the Chibcha of Colombia are among the Andean tribes. The name Andes was itself derived from the Antis. The in- habitants of the more densely peopled areas are of European and African origin, as well as American. Pure whites, ne- groes and yellow men exist, but the majority are of mixed race ; so that here, as Reclus has pointed out, men containing the greatest number of characteristics of all races can be found, the most typical average specimens of humanity." 2. Their Social Condition. — Neglecting the six million Indians, a study of the history of the continent for the past seventy years reveals great progress, not only in wealth and population, but in education and general advancement. In these respects South America has probably surpassed many European countries. This progression has led some writers to ask whether the Spanish tongue even may not one day rival SOUTH AMERICA II7 the English in its world-wide predominance. Carrasco, in the " Boletin de la Sociedad de Geografia de Madrid, 1891," pre- sents strong reasons for believing that with the present rate of increase, the Spanish and Portuguese, which are mere varie- ties of the same language, will be spoken by 180,000,000 in 1920, — a prophecy not likely to be fulfilled. In many centers of influence South Americans are awakening to the conscious- ness of their high destiny; and with increasing immigration and the growing desire to emulate North American and Euro- pean ideals there is hope for a great future, especially if im- purity, which is working ruin in more than one of the repub- lics, can be conquered by the Christian view of marriage and of the sanctity of the body. 3. Immigration. — The rapidly increasing stream of Euro- pean life is bringing to the continent new hopes and some problems as well. Thus far newcomers are mainly attracted to the Atlantic seaboard, especially to the colonies and to those countries south of the tropics. With the exception of Chile, the Pacific republics are not securing a great number, though the mines may one day allure considerable populations. So, too, the vast interior regions, now so largely pathless, will at- tract multitudes when communication is made easy by the development of railroads and a better steamer service. Six factors must be considered of special importance in thinking of South America as a field for extensive immigration. Habitable area is the first of these. In this respect the southern half of the hemisphere is vastly superior to the north- ern, as it has practically no frozen region, while about one- third of North America is covered with snow and ice wastes, or with tundras of moss and lichen. Probably the part now unoccupied but capable of ultimately sustaining large popula- tions will be found greater in South America than in any other continent save Africa possibly. Material resources are as essential for national develop- ment as mere habitable area. Enough has been said to show that these abound already, or can be readily developed ; so that Il8 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS Professor Reinsch places South America beside China — though for different reasons — as hkely to engage the atten- tion of economists, capitaHsts and immigrants in the century just dawning. Accessibility, as already stated, is decidedly in South America's favor, so far as natural features are concerned. Yet at present one must circumnavigate a good part of the continent to get to Rio from Lima or Quito, for instance, when developed Amazonian navigation would greatly reduce the time and present expense. Railways of the near future will supply other important lacks now existing. Moreover, if the proposed railroad lines running from the Mediterranean to African points like St. Louis or Monrovia materialize, and good trans- oceanic connections be established, it will be possible to reach Buenos Aires from Paris in eleven days, or a third of the time now required. This would greatly stimulate South American immigration and intercommunication. But can European and North American immigrants and capitalists thrive in South American climates? This question is an important one for the missionary also. While it is true that " South America is distinguished from other continents by not having a marked continental climate," it should be re- membered that, unlike the United States, Canada and Europe, which are almost wholly in the temperate zone, less than a fourth of South America lies in that zone best adapted to the development and prosperity of the white races. Measured on Berghmann's map there are in North America 4,000,000 square miles between the isothermals of 46° and 68° Fahrenheit to South America's 2,000,000 square miles. As for prevalent diseases encountered by missionaries and other foreigners, they are not especially serious for a country so largely tropical. Malaria is the commonest foe along the coast, though the Amazon is not as unhealthful as one would suppose. Both that region and the northern seaboard suffer less severely from malarious diseases than the Congo and coastal regions of Africa. The highlands of the western coast SOUTH AMERICA IIQ are practically free from such maladies. Yellow fever along the coast, except in the far south, and dysentery are quite common, but missionaries rarely suffer from elephantiasis, leprosy, goitre and many other illnesses peculiar to the con- tinent. Another factor influencing the flow of immigration is the degree of stability of government, safeguarding or jeop- ardizing life and property. Though a continent of republics, South America cannot boast of great permanence of law and order. Revolutions are frequent in some republics, though in lands naturally most attractive to foreigners society is more self-restrained. If, as a distinguished orator and author as- serts, the indispensable factors in an ideal republic are three, — fundamentally the Christian, formatively the scholar, and conservingly the patriot, — most of these republics possess only the latter element of ideality. Even their patriots are somewhat fickle and lacking in the strength of conviction be- gotten by a biblical faith and a cosmopolitan and universal scheme of education. When these two elements are made more prominent, there will be a disappearance of the common charge against southern republics, viz., that they are such in form while in reality they are oligarchies or veiled despotisms. Constant improvement is observable in most of them, and labor and capital are feeling more safe on the continent in consequence. VIII. Characteristic Features of Different Coun- tries. — A few facts concerning each of these countries are given below, the order being alphabetical for convenience of reference. I. Argentine Republic, including Patagonia. — Here in more than twenty times the area of the New England States is a population of less than three per square mile. With a superb climate and great possibilities of development, — only one per cent, of its cultivatibl'e area is now occupied, — it promises to become scarcely second to Brazil. It already surpasses it in railway mileage. Immigrants generally find this country best I20 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS adapted to their needs. The Welsh agricultural colony in Eastern Patagonia is a movement toward the reclamation of that section. 2. Bolivia equals in extent the continental state of Texas twice over, with Maine, New Hampshire and almost a Con- necticut besides. It is the highest region of its size in the world, averaging more than two-and-a-half miles above the sea level. Lake Titicaca also has the world's record as the highest large body of water. " Its lonely waters have no out- let to the sea, but are guarded on their southern shores by gigantic ruins of a pre-historic empire — palaces, temples and fortresses — silent, mysterious monuments of a long-lost golden age." Bolivia is probably richer than any other South Amer- ican country in minerals. Its present inaccessibility will be partially remedied by the railway from Antofagasta on the Pacific to La Paz, and by other lines under contemplation, especially the international route to the Argentine Republic, now being surveyed. The branches of the Madeira, however, offer the most promising outlet for the future commerce of Bolivia. At present it is probably the least developed of South American republics, and that despite the fact that an island in Titicaca was the home of the founders of the Inca Empire and hence the seat of the continent's highest indigenous civilization. 3. Brazil must be thought of as covering a region almost as large as the United States with Texas repeated a second time ; or as being " larger than European Russia, Germany, Austria- Hungary and France combined, and its natural resources are commensurate with its extent." Ocean steamers can ascend the Amazon and its tributaries to the boundaries of Peru, and smaller ones can go much farther. Hitherto it has mainly at- tracted immigrants belonging to the Latin races rather than to those of Northern Europe. With the excellent climate and soil of its southern portion, and perhaps the most delightful climate in the world on the great plateau, Brazil will attract multitudes. Her unparalleled possibilities for river transporta- tion, and the 8,718 miles of railway in operation, not to speak SOUTH AMERICA 121 of a still larger mileage constructing or under survey, may make this republic a formidable rival during the coming century. 4. Chile would be little more than covered were Montana and the two Dakotas torn into strips from seventy to 250 miles wide and stretched from north to south for a distance as great as from Portland, Me., to San Francisco, which is the ap- proximate length of this republic. An unbroken mountain wall, varying from 6,000 feet in average height in the south to 15,000 feet in the north, shuts off this prosperous and wealthy country from easy communication with the interior. However, less than fifty miles of the Trans-Andine railway are now lacking, and hence this limitation will soon be re- moved. At present the journey over the Andes from Santiago to Buenos Ayres requires only three days and a half. Its in- habitants of the upper class have kept themselves more purely Spanish than in any South American country. Immigration is not very marked ; yet with the good financial standing of the country, its cool climate and its spirit of progress in various directions, it presents great attractions to the immigrant. 5. Colombia — almost equaling Texas, Wyoming and Mon- tana combined — in proportion to its area has more forest land than any other South American republic. Its emerald mines are the richest yet discovered and furnish nearly all of the world's supply. While the coast and river valleys are hot and tropical in their products, the more populous part of the coun- try is elevated with a climate like perpetual spring and with the environment of temperate regions. Unfortunately the lack of railways, — there were less than 400 miles in 1898, — the practical absence of roads, the neglect of education and the frequency of civil wars have greatly retarded the country's development. 6. Ecuador is about as large as Germany, or the New Eng- land States plus New York and New Jersey. Professor Orton says of this country, " Nowhere on the face of the earth is there such a grand assemblage of mountains. Twenty-two 122 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS summits are covered with perpetual snow, and fifty are over 10,000 feet high." Here, too, is South America's center of volcanic activity. " To the antiquary it is a region very inter- esting from the remains of a past indigenous civilization. Rich in all the varied products of the temperate and tropical zones, it is a country of magnificent future possibilities, but needing population for its development." At present conditions are not very favorable for immigration, though they are improving very rapidly. 7. The Falklands and South Georgia. — The Falklands, be- longing to Great Britain and lying 340 miles east of Magellan Strait, are nearly the size of New Jersey with a population of slightly more than 2,000. It is a region of fogs and mists in spring and autumn, but it is favorable for sheep-raising, the leading industry. Penguins are numerous enough to give the governor the sobriquet of " King of the Penguins." So vio- lent at times are the winds that they " uproot and scatter like straw the very cabbages grown in the kitchen gardens of the settlers." South Georgia, 800 miles farther eastward, is un- inhabited and only occasionally visited by sailors and fisher- men. 8. The three Guianas are the only European colonies on the continent and are almost as large as Wyoming and Colorado combined. The Atlantic coast lands are low and in some parts high tides would flood the country for ten miles or more in- land, were they not held back by artificial sea-walls, built to make available this richest of soils. It is " a region of dense forests, heavy rains and immense heat," and while unhealthful, it is not peculiarly so except in French Guiana. The latter, commonly called Cayenne, is unlike the other two colonies in that it has elevated lands along the shore and several rocky islands off the coast. Though it has gained a bad name from its being used as a penal settlement, " it has all the capabilities of the other Guianas and could be developed with advantage." It is the only country in South America untouched by Prot- estant missions, a fact not so vital since its total population SOUTH AMERICA I23 was estimated in 1895 as only 35,065. Dutch Guiana, it may be remembered, was the purchase price paid by the Enghsh to the Dutch in 1667 for New York City, then New Amsterdam. 9. Paraguay is larger than Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York and Pennsylvania combined. This is the home of the mate, or Paraguay tea, which is in general use throughout most of South America. It is also the scene of the memorable experiment of the Jesuits, to whom in the seventeenth century was entrusted the civil and ecclesiastical administration of the country. Their interesting plans were practically overthrown upon their expulsion in 1768. " The country is so highly fa- vored by nature and its innate resources are so great that when for some twenty-six years it remained under the remarkable tyranny of the dictator. Dr. Francia, and was prohibited from holding intercourse with other nations, it was not only self- supporting, but actually accumulated wealth." The two domi- nations above named have attracted world-wide attention. ID. Peru, roughly speaking, could nearly cover the states lying west of the Rocky Mountains. Its mineral wealth is proverbial, though in output it is surpassed by Bolivia and Chile. Peru's once famous guano deposits are now nearly exhausted. Its history, made attractive by Prescott and others, constitutes one of the most interesting records of the New World. It is estimated that fifty-seven per cent, of Peru's present population consists of the descendants of this marvel- lous Inca race. 11. Uruguay is South America's smallest republic, being no larger than the New England States and Maryland. Stock raising is its principal industry, and for that the land is espe- cially adapted. In general it offers to immigrants the same inducements as Argentina. Extensive national and depart- mental roads; more than a thousand miles of railway, an active commerce and a delightful climate are doing much for Uru- guay's development, which, however, is somewhat retarded by its government, described as " a sham constitutionalism." 12. Venezuela is larger than France and Germany taken to- 124 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS gether, and about equals our Gulf States, plus Kentucky, Ar- kansas and Tennessee. It contains Maracaybo, the largest lake — so-called — in the northern part of the continent. Its basin and the coasts are among the hottest regions of South America. Venezuela's vast tracts of unutilized lands, and the prevalence of the cattle-breeding industry, remind one of Co- lombia. International friction with Great Britain and more recently with the United States is a disturbing element threat- ening her prosperity. PART II. — MISSIONARY I. Features Common to Mission Work in all the Re- publics. — Omitting for the present the three European col- onies of the northern coast, some characteristics of mission- ary effort in all the republics may be mentioned. I. Everywhere we find either an ignorant or a thought- less multitude following blindly in the footsteps of their fathers who inherited from their ancestors a form of Chris- tianity without its power. Evidences of religiosity are to be found on every hand. One notes on street corners such names as Christ, Rosary, The Cross and Regeneration. Over the door of a school is seen "Pedagogical Home, Jesus," while its director may be John of God. A gold mine is named Jesus Crucified ; the men met were christened Jesus Maria, Cross, Angel, Celestial, and women glory in the no less pious names of Jesus, Grief, Conception and Mary of the Saints. Even the theater presents such plays as " The Face of God." Cathedrals of every degree of magnificence and churches of all grades of squalor or decay thrust themselves upon the traveler's notice. Feasts, fasts, saints' days and the accompanying dissipation are not only marked features of the religious life, but they are also economical factors pre- senting grave difficulties. Thus the English manager of a coffee estate in Brazil gave up his work in despair for the SOUTH AMERICA 12$ reason that because of these interruptions he could not count on an average of more than 200 days' work a year from each employee, and it was impossible to manage a plantation suc- cessfully on such a basis. 2. Over against this popular devotion to religion, formal though it be, must be placed a minority, — very small in the Inca countries, but in lands more open to contact with Anglo-Saxon and Teutonic influences quite numerous, — who have become alienated from their ancestral faith, and are now either opposed to the Church, or else are the advocates of liberalism in some form, often as staunch Positivists. • In most of the countries this minority has become so influential that, while Catholicism remains the ^state religion, modified freedom is allowed to other forms of worship or belief. In the La Plata countries and Brazil, Protestantism has the great- est nominal freedom to do its work. Venezuela, Colombia and Peru are in form least open to missionary effort, though Bolivia and Ecuador are in reality as difficult fields for Protestant workers. 3. Helpful Factors. — In all the republics education and religious literature are important pioneers in ushering in the larger liberty of Protestantism. Multitudes who have not the courage to openly listen to the missionary's message or to seek it as did Nicodemus, will secretly buy a Testament or receive a tract from a friend. So, too, all are sufficiently interested in education to admire the work of mission schools, even if they do not allow their children to attend them. A scarcely less helpful auxiliary in the work is the Christian substratum which is everywhere found. The fundamental truths relating to God's fatherhood and human accountability to Him are pres- ent, even though they may be obscured by the nearer and more immediate teachings of Rome concerning the mediator- ship of the saints and especially of Mary. 4. No less omnipresent are the practical fruits of a formal religion. In many cases the last vestige of holiness and the life hid with Christ in God have disappeared. Morality 126 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS and religion do not often coexist. Even the priesthood is corrupt, as witness this extract from an Encyclical Letter ad- dressed by Pope Leo to the clergy of Chile in 1897: "In every diocese ecclesiastics break all bounds and deliver them- selves up to manifold forms of sensuality, and no voice is lifted up to imperiously summon pastors to their duties. The cler- ical press casts aside all sense of decency and loyalty in its attacks on those who differ, and lacks controlling authority to bring it to its proper use. There is assassination and cal- umny, the civil laws are defied, bread is denied to the en- emies of the Church, and there is no one to interpose. . . . It is sad to reflect that prelates, priests and other clergy are never to be found doing service among the poor ; they are never in the hospital or lazar house ; never in the orphan asy- lum or hospice, in the dwellings of the afflicted or distressed, or engaged in works of beneficence, aiding primary instruction or found in refuges and prisons. ... As a rule they are ever absent where human misery exists, unless paid as chap- lains or a fee is given. On the other hand, you [the clergy] are always to be found in the houses of the rich, or wherever gluttony may be indulged in, wherever the choicest wines may be freely obtained." 5. Protestant missionary methods are much the same in all parts of the continent. Those primarily labored for are in most cases Spanish or Portuguese-speaking populations, the aborigines being only incidentally considered. Exceptions to this general practice will be noted later. More emphasis is laid upon the Bible than in most missionary lands, for the manifest reason that what South America needs more than anything else is, not a knowledge of Christianity, but rather of that faith and life in their primitive biblical form. Chris- tian education is also made prominent in contrast to the ec- clesiastical or state system, in which the development of moral character is too often left out of the account. In its highest forms this education also has as a leading aim the raising up of those who are to aid in South America's regeneration, either SOUTH AMERICA 127^ as religious leaders, or as the dominant factor in evangelical Christian homes. Affecting the higher life of these republics is a further object aimed at in most parts of the continent. Reforms of various sorts are to be agitated, and for this pur- pose the press is freely used by many effective Protestant writers. II. The Work in Different Sections. — A glimpse, at least, of Protestant effort in the countries occupied by the missionaries must be taken, in order to realize the importance and extent of these labors. 1. The societies engaged in the work are American prin- cipally, though besides over a score from the United States and Canada there are eight from Great Britain and one from the Continent, together with the Moravians, the Salvation Army, two Wesleyan bodies of the West Indies and two Ang- lican organizations in the Guianas. Details as to their work may be found in Volume II. 2. If we begin with the Guianas and pass round the con- tinent in the direction of the hands of a clock, we shall follow approximately the order of Protestant missions as the gospel has passed from land to land. At present the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts and two allied Anglican societies are doing most of the work in British Guiana, the Moravians being found at only three stations. Seven other societies are also here, and in addition the Con- gregational Union, having in charge the work of the London Missionary Society, which is no longer carried on from Lon- don, though it still has one man here. A characteristic feature of missionary effort here is found in the attempt to reach the Hindus, who constitute nearly forty per cent, of the entire population, and the Chinese who num- ber almost 4,000. The latter have nearly all been converted to Christianity through the instrumentality of the Church of England. Many of their number are prominent merchants and others are thrifty shopkeepers ; hence they have been able to build their own churches and support their catechists. 128 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS " Even the press, which is singularly adverse to missionary effort, speaks well of them," while missionaries in China tes- tify to the consistent, faithful living of the returned emigrants. The Hindus, eighty per cent, of whom are adherents of Hin- duism and the remainder Mohammedans of strongly proselyt- ing tendencies, are far less susceptible to missionary influence. Notwithstanding the energetic efforts of various religious bodies, probably not more than two per cent, of these im- migrants have become Christians. The negro portion of the population has also become evangelized. Except for incre- ments derived from immigration the negroes are diminishing in number. They are a somewhat influential factor in the colony, some of them gracing the learned professions. A large work is also being done for the aboriginal Indians. All the principal rivers have mission stations on their banks and only a lack of missionaries and funds prevents the completion of the work. Canon Josa says of them : " In the opinion of many the Indians are doomed. Civilization seems to be the enemy of the native tribes, and the recent discovery of gold will prove fatal to the aborigines. Christianity is doing all it can ; but so long as Christians are greedy of filthy lucre, we shall see the sad spectacle of one Christian offering the gospel to save the native's soul and another offering rum to destroy his body." 3. Nearly all of the work in Dutch Guiana (Surinam) is carried on by the Moravian society, which " seeks to evangelize Indians, negroes and coolies from India and from China. The first are the feeble remnants of Carib and Ara- wak tribes of practically no significance to-day, having been supplanted by the more vigorous Africans. The third and fourth have entered into the life of Surinam only since the emancipation of the slaves in 1863, being imported as laborers on the plantations." In no other mission field save the West Indies does this heroic society have so many communicants, and this despite the fact that from first to last the climate has been deadly and the obstacles seemingly insurmountable. SOUTH AMERICA I2g Bush negroes, descendants of runaway slaves of the seven- teenth century, who found a safe asylum in the pestilential swamps of " the land of death," are the especial care of the missionaries. The present-day slavery to ancestral worship, reverence for a tribal mother who came from Africa and planted sacred trees in the forest swamps, devotion to a mul- titude of mighty spirits to whom the Great God delegated his powers when he withdrew from the visible world, and servi- tude to dreaded sorcerers, have left these poor people in direst need of the salvation so faithfully preached by the consecrated missionary. Turning from these to the negroes who live in the settlements and towns, we find a body of church at- tendants some 28,000 strong, who have been won by the Mo- ravians. A normal school in which are trained native evangel- ists, whose use the unhealthful climate makes imperative, and their seminary on one of the islands of Antigua where others of African blood are being raised up to take the place of the white missionaries, are hopeful elements in Surinam's future. Work for Indians is not so promising, though efforts in their behalf have been long continued and made glorious the mem- ory of such successors of the Apostles as Schumann and Dahne. Their nomadic tendencies having proven ineradic- able, no missionary efforts of a formal kind are now being carried on. 4. Passing by French Guiana where no Protestant mis- sionary society is laboring, we reach the United States of Brazil, occupying nearly half of South America's entire area and possessing about thirty-eight per cent, of its population. In addition to some work done for foreigners by other churches, thirteen missionary societies are established in this republic. Ten of them are from North America, two from Great Britain, and one is an international society with head- quarters in Canada. The reader should remember, when no- ticing the location of mission stations along the coast, what Professor Keane has written : " The three great inland States of Amazonas, Goyaz and Matto Grosso, with an area of over 130 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS 1,500,000 square miles, have a collective population of less than 640,000; whereas the twelve more important Atlantic States, with an area of less than 1,310,000 square miles, have a population of nearly 13,500,000, while the little Federal Dis- trict, a few hundred square miles in extent, has three times more inhabitants than the vast province of Amazonas, which is more than one-sixth the size of Europe." Four items connected with Protestant effort in Brazil are worthy of special mention. The first of these is the large number of workers among the Protestant foreign residents. Senor Castells stated at the Ecumenical Conference that they numbered 120 for the 140,000 residing in the republic, where- as only about half as many missionaries were laboring among a hundred times as many Brazilian Romanists and heathen. While this emphasis of work by Protestants for their com- patriots is characteristic of most South American countries, it is especially noticeable here, and is an exceedingly important aid in the Protestant movement, both for the sake of those directly benefited and also because it removes stumbling- blocks from the way of those who would otherwise argue against Protestantism from the lives of its unworthy profes- sors. Education is likewise emphasized in Brazil. The foremost Protestant institution on the continent is Mackenzie College of the Presbyterians, located at Sao Paulo. In 1900, at the end of its twenty-ninth year, it could report an enrollment of 546, of whom seventy-one were in the college department ; while during the preceding fourteen years it had educated 6,077 students and pupils of both sexes. To show its cos- mopolitan character, there were in the institution during the year reported 339 Brazilians, 48 Germans, 38 Italians, 18 Americans, 14 French, 12 English and 17 of other nation- alities. Religiously considered, 427 were Romanists, 117 were Protestants, and 2 were Hebrews. Notwithstanding the overwhelming proportion of Catholics, the Protestant charac- ter of the institution is always emphasized, thus showing the SOUTH AMERICA I3I hold that the College has on popular esteem. Other smaller institutions of higher learning have done admirable work in spite of priestly anathemas, which usually prove that they are the most effective form of advertisement by filling these schools. The most fully organized Young Men's Christian Associa- tion of the continent is likewise found in Brazil, though a be- ginning has been made in Buenos Aires also. A fine building at Rio de Janeiro and its energetic secretary have made it an agency of so great good, that it has the hearty support of the missionaries and has produced so powerful an effect that the Catholic community has been provoked to organize a young men's society in imitation of this one. In other cities of the republic Association work has been initiated in a modest way. Although the Indians of Brazil are supposed to number 800,- 000, of whom 500,000 are partly civilized, Protestant missions have done little for them. While they occupy just about half the republic's territory, they are concentrated chiefly along the Amazon and about the sources of its great affluents. Mr. Witte, formerly of the South American Evangelical Mission, but now laboring under the Presbyterian Board, North, and his former associate. Dr. A. Graham Taylor, have made spe- cial explorations with the object of devising plans for aggres- sive work among them. In a tentative report Mr. Witte rec- ommends the establishment of reservations from which the demoralizing whiskey and rubber traders should be excluded, and suggests for this purpose the regions south of the Ama- zon between the Araguaya and Madeira rivers, or a district north of the Amazon between the Rio Negro and Rio Branco. On account of the many tribes and the small number belonging to a single tribe, he recommends the establishment of mission- ary and manual training schools for educating and training promising youth from the various communities. So inter- ested did the governor of Para become, that a few years ago he yielded to Mr. Witte's request and induced the legislature to pass a bill authorizing the establishment of three manual 132 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS training institutions for Indian youth, to be modeled after Hampton Institute in the United States. This bill provides for each institute a reservation of three square miles; builds all necessary buildings, including a chapel ; pays expenses of missionaries coming from Europe, as well as their board and a salary in gold ; and in addition guarantees to pay all ex- penses of the schools for fifteen years. Protestants would be granted full freedom to carry on religious work, and would only be required to comply with certain educational conditions. 5. Present-day Protestant societies located in Paraguay are the South American Missionary Society of England, and from the United States the missionary society of the Northern Meth- odists, first to arrive. The now venerable Thomas B. Wood, LL.D., of the latter Board pioneered the Protestant enterprise and laid the foundations of a work which has great influence, both from an ecclesiastical and an educational standpoint. Hardly less helpful to the cause of a higher life was his suc- cessful vindication of the civil status of Protestantism. The struggle, prolonged for weary months, " resulted in liberaliz- ing the legislative provisions of the country, so that without sacrifice of their religious conviction, Protestants might se- cure the sanction of the civil law for the foundation of their families and homes. As a result many of those who had been living in virtual wedlock without such sanction, set themselves right before the community." Another very successful piece of missionary work done in this republic, is that for the Indians of the Gran Chaco, carried on by the representatives of the South American Missionary Society under the able leadership of Mr. W. B. Grubb. Begin- ning in 1888 with a presumption in their favor derived from a tradition that there should one day come to them men, not Indians but like them, as " guides in knowledge and a blessing to their race, and that great respect would require to be paid to these people for whom they looked," the mission has gone forward until it " has been the means of largely releasing the Indian tribes in that extensive region from the galling yoke SOUTH AMERICA I33 of dishonest traders and the desolating plague of intoxicating drink, and of introducing among them an amount of social happiness to which they were previously strangers." Spiritual results are also beginning to appear after more than a decade of severe toil, the men oftentimes wading for miles waist-deep or else fainting beneath the scorching rays of the sun, not to speak of the dangers arising from a few treacherous natives, one of whom almost killed Mr. Grubb. As to the prospects for missions among the Paraguayans, there is little opposition and fanaticism observable, but rather a willingness to avail themselves of educational advantages of- fered. The farmers also seem open to the gospel and all classes are at an impressionable stage in their national his- tory. The chief obstacles encountered are impure and de- grading literature ; a Church presided over by men who are regarded as especially holy, but whose immoral lives disgrace the name of Christian ; and materialism and scepticism, re- sulting from the use of certain scientific text-books and equally harmful teachers. 6. Uruguay has among the agencies which care for immi- grants from other lands a prosperous branch of the Walden- sian Church, as helpful in this republic as it is to the cause of pure religion in the mountain fastnesses of its Italian home. Pastors in German and Swiss colonies have also cared for the religious needs of their countrymen. Most of the regular missionary work, however, is done by the Methodist Board, North, with its headquarters in Montevideo. Dr. Thomson, in charge of its Spanish enterprises, has attracted considerable attention by frequent controversial discourses, and by lectures in the Atheneum. A group of six churches in different parts of the city and a chain of interior stations with their varied ministrations are an earnest of larger usefulness in the future. The problem facing Protestantism in this tiniest of republics is that of aiding the religious life of a population which con- tains scarcely any large body of Indians, but is made up of Southern Europeans, nearly a fourth of whom are recent ar- 134 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS rivals. While it is true that in the capital Protestants num- bered in 1896 more than 12,000 with 25,000 " not declared," this only increases the obligation. Are these nominal Prot- estants to be neglected and thus give rise to a colossal obstacle which threatens all missionary effort for Catholics, even when inconsistent Protestants form an exceedingly small minority? 7. In the Argentine Republic so large liberty is granted to those not of the State religion that " even the Jews are un- molested, and the flourishing agricultural settlement, founded by the late Baron Hirsch as a refuge for those driven from Russia by the anti-Semitic wave of persecution, is allowed the free exercise of its religion, as well as the enjoyment of re- ligious instruction in its own schools. It may be mentioned that this interesting philanthropic experiment has so far been fairly successful, and the Jewish settlers have here shown that they can be good farmers as well as traders and bankers. In 1898 the colony, founded in 1891, had a population of 8,000 Russian Jews, who had brought 80,000 acres under cultiva- tion and owned about 15,000 head of cattle and horses." It must not be supposed, however, that Catholicism is decadent in Argentina. On the contrary President Roca has recently " established relations with the Holy See and has himself re- ceived a Nuncio, along with the knighthood of St. Peter. Argentina is thus the first Latin-American nation which has a plenipotentiary at the Vatican ; and the Argentine bishops have this year [1900] returned from Rome laden with the relics of saints for their cathedrals." Fourteen societies are found in the republic, seven of them from North America, five from Great Britain, one from the Continent, and one international in character. The most heroic of these is the South American Missionary Society whose labors for the seemingly hopeless denizens of Tierra del Fuego, from the death of Captain Gardiner and his six associates in 1851 to the present day, constitute one of the most interesting chapters in missionary annals. Like the Danish and Moravian work in antipodal Greenland, comparatively SOUTH AMERICA I35 small populations have been found in this bleak and stormy parish and hence few have been added to the Kingdom of God from this southernmost mission field. Yet moral transforma- tions have been wrought that made Charles Darwin a firm believer in the miracle-working power of the missionary, as well as a financial supporter of the Mission until his death. At one of their stations " the weather chronicle for one year was 300 days rain continuously, twenty-five storms, other days neither fine nor wet." When the Bishop writes, " The climate and soil seem full of rheumatism, so wringing wet are they," one realizes at how great cost has been wrought out that note in the British Admiralty charts, " A great change has been effected in the character of the natives generally, and the Yahgan natives from Cape San Diego to Cape Horn and thence round to Brecknock Peninsula can be trusted." Sim- ple gospel testimony borne in loving lives of service, schools and industrial farms and shops, have done most of this work, so far as human agencies can produce such changes. And on the mainland with its race of Patagonian Anakim, the tallest in the world with the possible exception of the Bo- roros of Central Brazil, this Society has likewise done noble service. Thought its original name was " The Patagonian Missionary Society," the actual establishment of work there was most difficult, partly owing to the migratory character of these Patagonian Bedouins. If the missionaries established permanent headquarters, months might elapse before a single native reappeared again in their neighborhood ; while to ac- company them in their wanderings proved so fruitless that it was given up. The late Dr. Humble by his medical skill among them, as well as by his devotion to evangelistic work, so lived that at his death the " Buenos Ayres Standard " tes- tified " that there was no more familiar name in the far South, nor one more revered by Christians and Indians than his." The great problem facing these missionaries to Patagonians and Fuegians is that of their rapid diminution. This is due mainly to liquor left by sailing vessels and to diseases con- 136 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS tracted from their crews. Some years ago when the Argen- tine Repubhc found itself unable to subdue one of the Pata- gonian tribes, a concession of land was granted to an unscru- pulous foreigner who agreed to accomplish this result. He planted large tracts with potatoes from which a spirit was distilled and dispensed to the foredoomed natives. So rapid was the ruin wrought that in a short time the Argentinians accomplished their object, and this fine tribe is rapidly dying off. A distinguishing characteristic of the Argentine situation is the fact that, owing to the impossibility of supportng a large population in a state of nature and the delay in its agricultural development until slavery had passed away, there were few Indians and negroes with whom the Europeans might amal- gamate ; " hence the European settlers have here preserved their racial purity to a greater extent than in most other parts of Latin America." As multitudes are flocking in, mainly from Southern Europe, — in the period of twenty- five years ending in 1899 the total number of immigrants exceeded 2,000,000, — " the expectations of certain political economists that the Anglo-Saxons, or at least the Anglo-Teutons, might become the controlling element in Argentina seems doomed to disappointment." With this probability, and with the plastic nature of the new arrivals in their favor, Protestant Chris- tians ought to see the strategic character of this republic, which is destined to remain, as it already is, the leading power in temperate South America. 8. Chile, because of its unparalleled conformation, — sev- enty miles broad on an average and almost 3,000 miles long, with eastern and western defences of mountain and ocean, — " has easily acquired the command of the neighboring seas and thus become one of the most vigorous and aggressive pow- ers in the New World." Yet over against these favoring con- ditions must be placed the abject poverty of the laboring classes in the agricultural districts. According to Keane it can scarcely be paralleled in the whole world, and in many districts the SOUTH AMERICA 1 37 evil is intensified by over-population, as in Ireland before the potato famine. " The families of the oligarchy have secured for themselves the possession of the whole land, and the poor wretches hired by them are really worse off than slaves, or than the Russian serfs before their emancipation." Accord- ingly the National Society of Agriculture reported that while in France there is one emigrant to 2,000, in Germany one to 200, and in England one to 113, in Chile there was at that time one to every seventy-six! Of the 100,000 foreigners now in the republic, sixty-six per cent, are from Peru, BoUvia and Argentina, Germany and England coming next with eight and six per cent, respectively. Confronting these favorable and difficult conditions are one British and five American missionary societies. The leading ones are the Northern Methodist and Presbyterian Boards of the United States. In addition valuable work has been done by the Valparaiso Bible Society and by a Swiss Missionary Society, which has had workers among the colonists and also among the natives. The Methodists, whose workers are most numerous, have emphasized the plan of self-support from the beginning, and it is now one of the most prosperous mis- sions on the continent. The Presbyterians, who fell heir to the first Protestant missionary work in the republic, begun by the American and Foreign Christian Union, now operate from six centers through the ministry of education, the press and constant evangelization. In 1883 the missionaries of this Board established a flourishing Young Men's Christian As- sociation, the first of importance on the continent. In addi- tion to the chaplaincies of the South American Missionary Society, its representatives are doing a most interesting work among the descendants of the famous Araucanians, or, as they call themselves, the Mapuches. This " race, distinguished by its endurance, its valor and its indomitable character," is reached through two stations where schools, medical work and preaching services are carried on. The Canadian mem- bers of this Society have proven by successful experiments 138 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS that the Indians have a desire to learn farming, carpentering, etc., and Mr. Sadleir has done some excellent translational work also. Numbering less than 50,000, it seems probable that the Araucanians will soon become assimilated with the Chilians. 9. The three Inca countries of Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia are in substantially the same condition so far as regards mis- sionary occupation. The work has scarcely begun and in all of the republics is almost equally restricted by the Catholic authorities ; so that beyond freedom of worship for foreign residents there is little liberty granted to the missionary except to labor for individuals and promote education. Under such conditions the efforts of the Bible and tract colporteurs are the best means for widely acquainting the people with the Protes- tant message. How perilous this has been is evidenced by the persecution of heroes like Penzotti of the American Bible So- ciety and by the martyr blood of Mongiardino. The societies having representatives here are five from America, one from England and one international. Aside from the Bible Society's agents, the Presbyterians early began a work in Lima's port, Callao, now given over to the Methodists. What has been accomplished during less than two decades is the occupation of a few strategic points in all three countries. In Peru there are four spiritual lighthouses along the coast, besides the evangelical illumination emanating from Lima and Cuzco. Except at Lima, where the Methodists have a well developed school work, evangelistic efforts are the main re- liance. Bolivia's new capital. La Paz, has within it in the person of Canadian Baptist missionaries the new leaven and at Oruro> they have also made a good beginning. Ecuador, by recent changes in its constitution, has established religious liberty and has " sprung at once from the most backward to the most advanced position among the Inca countries. In 1899 the Government engaged the Methodist Presiding Elder to organize a system of national normal schools with foreign Protestants as the chief teachers." The consecrated activ- SOUTH AMERICA 1 39 ities of representatives of the Gospel Missionary Union and the Christian and Missionary Alliance have been the most potent factors in the opening chapter of Ecuador's evangel- ization. Dr. Wood, in summarizing the results thus far achieved, mentions the unexpectedly high type of spirituality found in the few converts gained ; the stalwart and willing assistants who have so soon been trained for the Church; the tendency toward revival movements among the English-speak- ing element, which, after the visit of Dr. Harry Guinness in 1897, had their effect upon the Spanish population as well ; the victory over legal restrictions which are constantly being gained ; and the hopeful beginnings of a movement that will disenthrall womanhood in these priest-ridden countries. Much yet remains to be done and the obstacles are still very serious. The Quichuan survivors of the illustrious Incan Em- pire number more than half the population and have fallen so far from their ancient estate that even when Christians, they are as devoted to the dragon as to their favorite St. Michael. Indian flagellants in religious processions lacerate their half- naked bodies with an endless variety of self-inflicted tortures, quite equaling anything seen in the Middle Ages and almost recalling the ceremonies preceding the sanguinary rites of the old Aztec teocalli. Their Christianity is further " associated with extremely rude and realistic observances. Indian dances are allowed, at certain feasts, to be introduced after the service of the mass." In addition to this moral debasement, some of the tribes are ignorant, notably the Chiquitos, whose arith- metical knowledge extends no farther than one, even if it includes that number, and the Mojos, who numerate no farther than four or five. 10. Conditions are so similar in Colombia and Venesuela that they may be considered together. Both republics have been opened comparatively recently and have been mainly in- debted to the American Bible Society and the Presbyterian Board, North, until the later coming of the Christian and Missionary Alliance, the Venezuela Mission, the West Indian 140 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS Wesleyans, the Plymouth Brethren and the South American EvangeHcal Mission. Colombia was entered by the Presby- terians in 1856, and the first Protestant church of six members followed in 1861. Venezuela was not invaded until the American Bible So- ciety's agent made arrangements for the sale of Scriptures in 1876, though even Bible work made no great progress until Messrs. Milne and Penzotti canvassed the republic in 1886. An orphan from Spain, Emilio Bryant by name, who came to Caracas in 1884 with his adopted father, was the pioneer whose firm stand for the right and burning testimony brought together the first company of Venezuelan believers. This manual laborer, feeble through consumption but mighty in the Word, nourished the little flock behind closed doors, until ordained missionaries could organize them into a church. Night-classes in English, French, bookkeeping, etc., have been the bait with which not a few have come within the reach of missionary influence, though these have not been of so great permanent value as the regular schools of the missions. Workers of the Brethren and of the Christian and Missionary Alliance have been singularly constant and earnest in their house-to-house visitation, tract distribution and other forms of evangelical effort. Two Alliance ladies are most faithful in their ministrations at the Lepers' Home, and one of their helpers has been equally useful in preaching at the barracks. Miss Tarbox, an independent worker, is very active at the vil- lage of El Valle and conversions have followed. Though this is the day of small things in these two re- publics and obstacles are many, especially the immorality and poverty of the people, they strongly appeal to North Americans as their near neighbors. Outside of Asia there is probably no field where leper work is so necessary, — Colombia alone has 28,000 of these unfortunates, — and other social and moral needs are even more imperative. Here, as elsewhere in South America, missionaries should be men and women of more than ordinary culture, with special knowledge of the history and SOUTH AMERICA 141 doctrines of Romanism, and of atheism, spiritualism and the- osophy as well. Nor should the men of holy daring and en- durance be lacking who would be willing to carry the gospel into the lairs of Colombia's 150,000 Indians and of Vene- zuela's 326,000. III. Political Complications. — The unstable political conditions prevalent in nearly all parts of South America are a source of some apprehension to the missionaries, especially in the northwestern and western republics. Happily they have thus far resulted favorably, even though during periods of revolution the work is interrupted. Brazil's attitude toward Protestantism shows what will eventually be true all over the continent, and the recent advances in Ecuador confirm this judgment. The ideas underlying a republic tend to intelligent views with regard to religion, as South America is already proving. Missionaries are therefore very hopeful as to Protestantism's future in this neglected continent. VI OCEANIA PART I. — GENERAL The usage of geographers varies greatly with regard to the proper term for the islands of the Pacific Ocean. In the pres- ent chapter all those are included under the name Oceania which lie east of the Philippines, New Guinea, Australia and New Zealand, except such groups as Japan, the Kuriles and islands along the American Continent. As a matter of fact, of the great islands to be discussed in the next chapter. New Zealand belongs to what will be called Polynesia, while New Guinea should be included in the Melanesian section of Oceania. For convenience of treatment, however, the term will be used in the sense stated. I. Oceania Physically Considered. — i. Sub-divisions. — From a racial standpoint, the most convenient line of cleavage between these multitudinous islands stretching over a vast extent of ocean, is the somewhat old division by which the Brown races, or the Polynesians proper, and the Micro- nesians lying almost wholly north of the equator and west of i8o° longitude, are differentiated from the Melanesians or islands of the Black race lying almost wholly south of the equator and extending as far east as and including the Fijis. The first of these divisions, Polynesia, extends as far north as the Hawaiian Islands, and southward to the southern point of New Zealand. To the eastward, this main division extends as far as Easter Island, while the Ellice Group lies on the west- em border. In area they are as follows ; Polynesia without New 142 OCEANIA 143 Zealand, 9,312 square miles; Micronesia, 1,226 square miles; Melanesia, 48,280 square miles. It will thus be seen that the three groups have a total area of 58,818 square miles, which is just about the same as that of Georgia, or of England and Wales. 2. In physical formation they vary decidedly. Mr. Whit- mee most clearly distinguishes them as belonging to three types which are here briefly described. The volcanic islands are almost wholly found on a volcanic ridge extending northwestward from the Tropic of Capri- corn between 140° and 150° W. to the equator and New Guinea. In addition must be mentioned the Hawaiian Archi- pelago, a few of the Carolines and the Marquesas Islands, as also the Bonin and Volcano Islands near Japan. Most of these islands are lofty in proportion to their size ; hence the voyager perceives while at a distance tapering peaks, and when near the shore precipitous spurs jutting into the sea. In many of them, however, the land slopes gently outward from the cen- tral ridge to the ocean. Most of these islands are also sur- rounded by coral reefs at some distance from the mainland where the wa<"er is shallow ; otherwise, they are located not far from the shore. While in origin they are volcanic, very few active volcanoes are now in existence. The elevated coral islands, while a species of the atoll, are likewise related to those just mentioned. There are compar- atively few of them in Oceania. All lie within or near the volcanic ridge. As to origin, it is doubtless true that they have been thrust upward by subterranean forces, and from being coral shoals have reached a considerable elevation. The Loyalty Islands are a sample of this formation. " On ap- proaching them one sees high coral cliffs, in appearance much like the chalk-cliffs of England, except that they are often some distance inland and not close on the shore. The Island of Mare may be taken as a good type of the class. Here be- tween the shore and the coral cliffs, there is a tract of level land varying from a few yards to perhaps one-quarter of a 144 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS mile or more across. On this level tract the people mainly dwell. At the back of this there rises a perpendicular wall of coral, in some places as much as lOO feet high. Still far- ther inland there are two similar though smaller cliffs indi- cating that there were three distinct upheavals." The atolls differ decidedly from volcanic islands. They have been called the Desert of the Sea because they are with- out much soil, and hence very sandy and far from fertile. They lie north of the two classes of islands just mentioned, along the equator and to its northward. The creation of the coral insect, they are formed by the accumulation of debris washed on the reefs during heavy winds. " The typical coral island consists of the somewhat ring-shaped reef enclosing a lagoon. Such reefs vary in size from less than a mile up to ninety miles long and may be ten miles wide, the breadth of the annular reef being on an average about a quarter of a mile." In most of these islands the circle of land is not com- plete, but is broken in upon on the leeward side. It should be added that no atolls are found on the volcanic ridge; though elevated coral islands are occasionally located there. 3. Scenery. — The late Robert Louis Stevenson, whose charming volume " In the South Seas " is in the main excellent from a scientific standpoint, as well as most graphic, writes thus : " No distinction is so continually dwelt upon in South Sea talk as that between the ' low ' and the ' high ' island, and there is none more broadly marked in nature. The Him- alayas are not more different from the Sahara. On the one hand, and chiefly in groups of from eight to a dozen, volcanic islands rise above the sea; few reach an altitude of less than 4,000 feet; one exceeds 13,000 [Mauna Kea in Hawaii, 14,- 000 feet] ; their tops are often obscured in cloud; they are all clothed with various forests, all abound in food, and are all re- markable for picturesque and solemn scenery. On the other hand, we have the atoll ; a thing of problematic origin and history, the reputed creature of an insect apparently uniden- tified ; often rising at its highest point to less than the stature OCEANIA 145 of a man — man himself, the rat and the land-crab, its chief inhabitants ; not more variously supplied with plants ; and of- fering to the eye, even when perfect, only a rim of glittering beach and verdant foliage, enclosing and enclosed by the blue sea." To this description of Stevenson may be added the words of Dr. Mill : " The grand contrast in all low coral is- ' lands is that of the two beaches, the inner beach facing the lagoon, which is the harbor and the site of all houses, and the outer beach on which the ocean surf always thunders, filling the whole island with its unceasing noise ; and this beach is deserted, shunned by the natives as the haunt of the spirits of the dead." A feature which these writers have not men- tioned is due to the rounding off of sharp outlines with the rich vegetation found everywhere on the higher islands. " The atmosphere is so laden with moisture that ferns, club- mosses, and even small shrubs grow upon the faces of the steepest rocks. Mainly on this account the scenery can rarely be said to be grand, but nearly all these islands are truly beau- tiful. There is a freshness about the vegetation all the year round which is rarely seen in other portions of the world." In the case of the elevated coral islands, which are not so well provided with vegetable soil and hence less fertile, there is less beauty. Occasionally these groups suffer from drought. As to the atolls, were it not for the palm and the screw pine and less than a hundred species of plants, perhaps little else would be discernable save a barren reef. Under the influence of the missionaries, however, new food-producing plants are being grown and attempts are made to prevent the suffering from drought, which is characteristic of the atoll. The inhabitants make the most of their barren environment by digging wide trenches, from which the sand is removed until they almost reach the sea level. Into these they put vegetable refuse and manure, and as there is some moisture at that level, these ex- cavated gardens are comparatively fertile, 4. The climate naturally varies little ; since, with the ex- ception of New Zealand and New Guinea, there are no exten- 146 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS sive bodies of land to modify the temperature. The elevated coral islands are very healthy for the tropics, being always well-drained and having a less dense vegetation than the vol- canic groups. Mr. Whitmee gives as an average reading of the thermometer over a large extent of Oceania about 80° Fah- *renheit, with only a rare fall below 60°. Owing to the small land areas and the prevalence of trade winds during most of the year, the heat is always modified. Those groups lying east of and including Fiji are much more healthful than those to the west. In the eastern or Polynesian section, " fever and ague are of rare occurrence. In the western section, European missionaries do not find it expedient to remain for long pe- riods, owing to the weakening effects of frequent attacks of these diseases." The difficulty of which Occidentals most complain is the absence of bracing winters to which they have become accustomed. Continuous warmth and much moisture are apt to be relaxing and difficult to endure. Aside from the maladies mentioned above, there are compar- atively few prevalent in any portion of Oceania. Native dis- eases are chiefly those affecting the skin. Even foreigners are subject to elephantiasis, which prevails more or less on the damp mountain islands. Leprosy, which is prevalent on the Gilbert and Hawaiian Islands, is restricted to the natives. European diseases that have been introduced by sailors and others work great havoc when they are epidemic ; not so much because measles and smallpox, for instance, are necessarily fatal, but rather because entire villages are attacked at once, and being without doctors and other medical care, and not be- ing trained to guard themselves, they become victims in great numbers. 5. Physical calamities to which Oceania is exposed have been very destructive. Perhaps the greatest evil is that due to the wind. Hurricanes sweep over the volcanic ridge be- tween the months of December and April, so that some of the islands rarely pass a year without being visited by a more or less destructive cyclone. Happily the most serious hurricanes OCEANIA 147 are confined to the higher groups, though occasionally the low atolls are visited by them. Earthquakes, with the frequently accompanying great sea wave, and volcanic eruptions, espe- cially the destructive overflow of lava on Hawaii, have slain their thousands. II. The Races of Oceania. — The inhabitants of these multitudinous islands with varying dialects and languages can be classed as belonging to two main races, while a mingling of these constitutes what may be called a third race. The popula- tion of the various main divisions is as follows : Micronesia, 98,507; Polynesia, without New Zealand, 180,193; Melanesia, 596,544. This gives a total of 875,244, with an average density per square mile of 15 persons. Micronesia's density is 80 per square mile, while Polynesia's is 19 and Melanesia's, 12. I. The first and lowest of these is the Melanesian, or as it was formerly called, the Papuan. This race is not confined to the islands of these groups, since it extends farther west- ward and northward. In Oceania these peoples are included in the Melanesian section. They are more or less black and have frizzly hair, just as is the case in New Guinea and to the westward. The Melanesian's lips are thick and the jaws pro- ject. They are small in stature, though in some islands of fair height when mixed with other races. They were origi- nally, and to some extent still are, cannibals, and their women hold a very inferior position, most of the work falling to them. So low are they in the scale that the relations between the sexes are of the most degrading character. They are a noisy people, as easily pleased as offended. While the Fijis are often considered as belonging to this group, those islands produce some of the finest men in Polynesia because of the admixture of Polynesian blood. The Melanesians are appar- ently the indigenous element in the Pacific, and probably oc- cupied in former times a much wider territory than at present. All readers of Dr. Paton's life will recall how bloodthirsty and treacherous the New Hebrides branch of this family is. In some islands they are divided into independent hostile 148 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS groups at perpetual feud with their neighbors, while in many places they are head-hunters and exceedingly savage and cruel. 2. The Polynesians, or as some prefer to call them, the Sawaiori — a word compounded of a syllable from the name of each of the three leading islands, 6'amoa, Hawaii and Maon- land, or New Zealand — are later arrivals, according to Profes- sor Keane, who supports the thesis that Samoa was the center of their dispersion. They have affinities with the Malays of the Eastern Archipelago, but the parent race has apparently dis- appeared, since there are striking differences between the Poly- nesians and the Malays of the West. Physically they are a fine race. One of the earlier anthropologists, De Quatrefages, regards the natives of Samoa and Tonga as the largest people in the world, forgetting two tall South American races. The average height, which he states as being 5 feet and 9.92 inches, is perhaps a little greater than later measurements would war- rant, however. When they are young many of the men and women are good-looking, the men paying greater attention to their personal appearance and adornment than the women even. On the more barren islands, where greater energy is demanded, they are strong, but the enervating climate of the more elevated groups has left them with little strength. Like the American Indian, they are remarkably fluent speakers and their addresses are of the highest order. Akin to this characteristic is their fondness for rank and titles, which leads to the use of honor- ifics in speech. Their women have occupied a relatively high position, and in some cases, before affected by Western ideas, they assumed high titles and held important offices. Infanti- cide in some of the islands was formerly prevalent, though not so much owing to a lack of feeling as to prevent over-popula- tion. Old age was honored, and in connection with their knowl- edge of the past which was handed down through the recital of songs and myths, old men exercised a strong influence. 3. The name of a third race, found on the Caroline, Mar- shall and Gilbert Islands in Micronesia, used by Whitmee and OCEANIA 149 Others, is Tarapon. This is likewise a compound word made up from the names of two islands, Tarawa and Ponape. A more usual name is Micronesian. These people resemble the Polynesians, but are somewhat smaller and less strong. They are very evidently a mixed race and are possibly the descend- ants of people who in later times migrated from the Indian Archipelago, and by a Papuan admixture of blood, with a pos- sible strain of Chinese and Japanese, have produced the pres- ent stock. As they are mainly atoll dwellers, their canoes and houses are inferior to those of Polynesia. Woman occupies an intermediate position between those of Melanesia and Poly- nesia. They have been less affected by missions and contact with traders than the Polynesians, and hence are less civilized. III. Oceanic Languages. — Dialects are very numerous, and in some cases where hostility between adjacent tribes is marked, many languages arie found within a limited area. Thus, in the New Hebrides, which contain a total area of 5,300 square miles — a little larger than Connecticut — with only 75,000 inhabitants, the difference between dialects is such that nearly twenty Bible versions are desirable, if the people are to be most effectively reached. While this is true, if one looks beneath the surface. Professor Keane's statement is encour- aging: "Nearly all Pacific languages appear to be members of the great Malayo-Polynesian family, which stretches across two oceans from Madagascar to Rapanui (Easter Island). However it is to be explained, the fact is now established that both the dark and brown peoples speak idioms derived from a common stock." A reflexion comforting to the missionary who may need to go from island to island, is derivable from J. M. Alexander's statement : " The forms of the Polynesian words change by regular laws from group to group ; so that if a word is given in the language of one group, it can often be determined what it would be in the language of another. These changes have consisted in dropping letters and abbrevi- ating words, till in Hawaii only fourteen letters were needed to spell all Hawaiian words." 150 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS IV. The Old Religions of Oceania. — The island world of the Pacific has been so largely influenced by the mission- ary that in most cases what is said below is no longer true of the inhabitants, though there are many groups or individual islands where the old heathenism still survives. 1. As would be expected, the Melanesians lack those histor- ical traditions, poems, and that religious development which mark their ocean neighbors. Their religious systems were little more than forms of fetishism. As the missionary liter- ature most commonly read, such as Miss Yonge's life of Bishop Patteson and the books describing the Apostolic labors of the venerable Dr. Paton, have to do with the Melanesians, as do the earlier accounts of the cannibalistic Fijis, a wrong im- pression has been created perhaps, since the other great divi- sions of Oceania are not quite so low in the religious scale. It may be added that the present large number of communi- cants on the Fijis raises the Melanesian division statistics very materially, thus making one forget the groups where heathenism dominates. 2. The Sawaiori, or Polynesian religion was originally poly- theistic, though many of their gods were deified men. Some of the deities were nature forces personified. Others were human passions, according to Dr. Ellis, but the conception which they had of Tongaloa was of a far higher order. The more intelligent of the Polynesians regarded him as " the first and principal god, uncreated and existing from the beginning or from the time he emerged from Po, or the world of dark- ness." In Samoa he was considered the father of all the gods, and creator of all things. So closely were men linked to these gods that in some islands when the birth of a child was ex- pected, the aid of the gods of the family was invoked, and the one prayed to at the instant of birth became the infant's god. In some of the groups, idols bearing more or less resemblance to the human form were made, though theoretically these were regarded simply as the dwelling-places of the divine spirits. In this connection one recalls the cyclopean images of the OCEANIA 151 Easter Islands, found also in the Carolines of Micronesia. Some of these stone images on Easter Island measure, from the top of the head to the collar-bone, twenty feet. No one knows how this gigantic sculpturing was accomplished ; though, as they exist in connection with great stone houses, paved avenues, etc., it may be that they are evidences of the work of those temple builders from India who have left their cyclopean mark upon the islands of the Malay Archipelago. A priesthood, hereditary in many cases, guided the people in their worship, and in the Society Islands at least, there was a privileged society known as the Areoi, a most licentious and cruel or- ganization. Human sacrifices were common, and all through these groups the system of tapu (tabu or taboo) was connected with their religious rites. This fearful system, which was like- wise connected with royalty, constituted the strongest chain with which heathenism has ever bound a people. The history of the Hawaiian Islands shows how the overthrow of such a domination immediately disenthralls a people. It should be remembered, however, that all of the Polynesians before their conversion were strict in their religious observances, and re- ligion came into almost every action of life. They were, in most instances with comparative ease led to accept Christian- ity, and this characteristic has remained. 3. The Tarapon, or Micronesian race, are strict in the ob- servance of religious rites, and the shrines of their gods are very numerous. These are chiefly spirits of great men of past ages, and the mediator between these people and the deified heroes is the chief, who is likewise the priest. In the Gilbert Islands one could see formerly in almost every house a small circle or square, formed of pieces of coral or shells, and in the center a block of coral, representing the household deity. Gods of villages or districts were quite similar, and offerings of food and garlands of cocoanut leaves were of- fered to them. The dead are affectionately remembered, so much so that women often carry the skulls of deceased children suspended by a cord to their neck. 152 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS V. Political and Economic Conditions. — i. The future of the island world is very largely in the hands of Occidental races, as will be seen from a consideration of their ownership. The territory of Oceania is under the jurisdiction of the follow- ing Powers, the order being that of the number of inhabitants beginning with the lowest : Chile, 200 inhabitants ; Japan, i ,270 ; France, 101,326; more or less independent, though under a European protectorate 101,450; United States, 118,820; Great Britain 263,141 ; Germany, 289,037. With the exception of Chile's territory which is only fifty-five square miles, and Japan's, thirty square miles, the area ruled or influenced by these powers increases in every case. New Zealand is here omitted. Had it and New Guinea been included in this state- ment, areas would have been different and vastly larger. 2. The jurisdiction over these islands by Occidental na- tions is usually exercised in the interest of the inhabitants, though complaint is constantly made against France, and naturally there is more or less irritation felt by all the strongest populations because of this foreign domination. Possibly this feeling is most pronounced in the New Hebrides and Santa Cruz Islands, where decided hatred of Europeans exists. PART II. — MISSIONARY This division of the world is in some respects hardly to be regarded as missionary ground. Thus in Hawaii, which is now part of the United States, missionary operations much resemble those included under home missions, though large Asiatic populations are the principal constituency. As for the islands in general. Rev. Joseph King, of the London Mission- ary Society, could say at the Ecumenical Conference in 1900, that in Oceania the average number of church members to the entire population is the highest in the world. There is still urgent necessity for missions among these islands, how- ever, as will appear below. OCEANIA 153 I. Points Common to Most of the Groups. — i. The methods employed by missionaries to bring these peo- ple into the light differ somewhat from those emphasized in other fields. As most of the groups contain numerous islets, it has necessitated the occupancy of central islands as headquarters for the white missionaries, whence they go out on tours of episcopal visitation from time to time. Moreover, these centers of religious life are the places where natives are trained before scattering to their island parishes. More than in ordinary fields, they have been used to carry the gospel to new islands and groups, the missionary accompanying them and after a brief stay leaving them to the cruel mercies of strangers, who have in many cases murdered and eaten their would-be benefactors. Missionary ships, with steam as an auxiliary in recent years, become an essential to every successful South Sea mission. With a succession of Daysprings, Southern Crosses, John Williamses, Morning Stars, etc., it has been possible to keep up communication with the scattered churches of the various missions. In some cases, notably that of the Melanesian Mission, these vessels bring to a healthful station like Norfolk Island, natives who spend in a cooler latitude the unhealthful portion of the year, the missionaries returning them to their homes in the healthy season when they can with safety visit them. The key to most South Sea success has thus been the training institute, and brave, tactful missionaries who can at once gain a foothold on hostile and savage islands in order to secure persons to be trained and later to be an indigenous leaven in their homes. Because communication is not easy, and hence visits cannot be frequent, meetings for counsel, held half-yearly in many missions, are a great aid in the work. On these occasions dele- gates from the native pastorate of an island or an entire group meet to consider the broader questions affecting their general work. The decisions arrived at are regarded as morally bind- ing, though in minor matters each pastor enjoys perfect liberty. 154 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS As an unusually large proportion of the work is here dele- gated to native church leaders and with very little oversight, the value of these conferences cannot be overestimated. 2. The native agency of Oceania is exceptionally effective. The reasons for this are suggested above, namely, the careful training given them, the independence which is strengthened by the missionary's inability to work beside them with the con- sequent responsibility placed upon them, and the remarkable spirit of heroism which has repeatedly secured two or three times as many volunteers as were needed to take the place of martyrs who had met a most tragic fate. They make fine preachers and fair pastors, and in Hawaii are almost the equals of their American co-workers. " As pioneers they are invalu- able; and in small islands where there is no necessity to make a new translation of the Scriptures or prepare other books, they can commence, carry on and complete, with an occasional visit from a missionary, the entire work of evangelization." 3. Scarcely less admirable is the native church of these islands. Though the statement of Rev. S. J. Whitmee, made in 1878, is still largely true, it might also be made with refer- ence to many other more favored fields. He said : " I do not think the standard of Christian character attained by the con- verts generally can be compared to that reached by the best, maturest and most devoted Christians in our own country. There is to a great extent a want of stamina in many of the converts. Many show themselves to be mere children, or even babes, in the divine life. Strong religious feeling is almost entirely absent from the Malayo- Polynesians. It should, how- ever, always be remembered that one of the most constant characteristics of the race to which they belong is an apathetic, easy-going disposition. Hence we ought not to expect in them the religious enthusiasm which we find among people of a warmer and more enthusiastic temperament." Mr. Whitmee in the same address, and many other South Sea missionaries, testify to favorable characteristics of the native Church. The domestic, social and moral life of nearly OCEANIA 155 all the islands have been regenerated under missionary influ- ence; the forms of religion are widely observed; nearly all the people attend service on the Sabbath, so that the Fiji island- ers to-day present the remarkable spectacle of being the banner church-goers of the world. Out of a total population, esti- mated in 1899 as 122,673, the " Statesman's Yearbook " for 1901 asserts that 94,032 were attendants at the native churches of the Wesleyans alone. " Family worship is almost uni- versally observed. Nearly all the people are able to read, and indeed they do read God's Holy Word, which they possess in their own language." In the matter of self-support they rank with the churches of Burma and Central Turkey, and in some points surpass them. Many of the older missions are entirely independent finan- cially. In Hawaii the Hawaiian Evangelical Association has for many years cared for nearly all the work on that group and extended its operations to other remote islands. The Wesleyan churches in Tonga were willing more than two dec- ades ago to bear the entire expense of mission work there, in- cluding the salaries of the English missionaries. When unable to carry such heavy burdens, small churches and islands have paid the expense of having parts or the whole of the New Testament printed for them, often saving for years to provide in advance for the cost. In addition to the enabling circum- stances of a warm climate and simple needs, easily provided for, another reason why these islanders have been so preeminent in this important feature of independence, is the fact that the mis- sionaries have always done their utmost to foster this spirit and to provide for its exhibition. They have also been led to see that the Church must be indigenous, and hence have quite willingly provided their own chapels, and paid the salaries of their native pastors and schoolmasters. 11. Obstacles to South Sea Missionary Effort. — I. The earliest of these, that of the baneful effect upon morals and health arising from contact with expeditions of discovery and the subsequent development of the sandalwood and whal- 156 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS ing industries, has its modern counterpart in the commercial enterprises that have invaded all the important islands. Trad- ers of every variety have threaded the archipelagoes and, through their floating Sodoms, have either inoculated with vice the already impure islanders, or else have by their unscru- pulous dealings and ferocious attacks, made bitter enemies for the missionary who belongs to the same white race. No form of commercial diabolism, except that of the following para- graph, can compare with the liquor traffic which is desolating these fair seas. Readers of Dr. Paton's life will recall the pathetic stories connected with this trade, which could be duplicated in sorrowfulness in many groups besides the New Hebrides. 2. The trade, euphoniously called the " labor traffic," but rightly described by the British Parliament when it passed its " Kidnapping Act," still persists ; though in its legitimate form under proper governmental regulations, it is doubtless of ad- vantage to such groups as the Fijis and the adjacent Australian mainland. Unfortunately, much of the trade is criminal in the highest degree. In some cases the laborers have been grossly deceived, but far worse than that is the well-known indictment brought against them by Dr. Paton. Some time since he esti- mated that fully 70,000 had been taken from their homes by these slave-dealers. When it is remembered that the fiends have even donned the garb of a missionary and secured victims while a Bible was under their arm, and have painted their slave- prisons to resemble the welcome missionary ship, one can readily see why such brave heroes as Bishop Patteson should have paid the well-merited penalty of their race by an awful death. Somewhat less infamous than this traffic, because death earlier releases the victims from a wretched existence, is the crime, more than once repeated, of putting ashore at different points patients ill with measles, in order to " sweep these creatures away and let white men occupy the soil," as three guilty captains explained to Dr. Paton. 3. One regretfully records as a most serious obstacle in the OCEANIA 157 way of Protestant missions in Oceania the unrighteous pro- pagandism of Rome. What the problem is in islands where Catholic powers have no direct control is suggested by the 1899 report of the Melanesian Mission. Ground won by the laborious efforts of the two Selwyns, Bishop Patteson, and other equally devoted heroes, is now exposed to the wiles of interloping priests, and the progress made will probably be followed by retrogression. In islands under French and the former Spanish rule, the chief mode of Catholic attack has been a political one, the priests siding with aspiring natives who have a grievance and then fomenting strife that may call for foreign intervention. Even when a Catholic Power grants religious freedom, it practically evicts Protestant missionaries who have taught in the vernacular by requiring all instruction to be given in French or Spanish, thus in most cases prevent- ing further work by English-speaking missionaries. III. The Societies and Typical Work. — In addition to the organizations named below, others listed in the statistical survey of Volume II, are doing some work in Oceania ; yet the bulk of it is carried on by the seven societies which follow. They are given in the order of entrance on the field. I. London Missionary Society. — This pioneer mission has been one of the most fruitful in the South Seas. From its en- trance in 1797 it has had missionaries on the Society, Mar- quesas, Friendly (Tonga-tabu), New Hebrides, Hervey, Samoan, Loyalty, and Savage Islands. At present, however, its representatives are found only on the last four of these. A survival of their former estate that has recently caused the churches much loss, is the war of two years since in Samoa. As it is a rule of the Society's churches that its members are not to engage in factional fights, many have been disciplined in consequence. It should here be added that this Samoan field of the L. M. S., so widely exploited by the late Robert Louis Stevenson, is not a typical group. Dr. Mill, of the Royal Geographical Society, says of its inhabitants : " The people appear to be amongst the least spoiled of the Pacific 158 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS folk, in spite of the measure of civilization they have assim- ilated." Yet these are the islanders whose ferocity and treach- ery were so great that after the murder of most of a French crew in 1787, no vessels from civilized lands dared touch those shores for many years. At the time of writing this a report comes that the German governor of Savii and Upolu, the islands owned by Germany in the Samoan group, has served an ultimatum on the officials of the London Missionary Society, ordering that a less rigorous observance of Sunday obtain ; that the annual gathering of the mission at Apia be omitted, at least those features of it which bring together the native Christians ; and that no more churches for the natives be built. Orders forbidding the teaching of English in the mission schools had been issued prior to this ultimatum. Nine, called by Captain Cook Savage Island because of the character and aspect of its inhabitants, illustrates the need of mission work, even after fifty-two years of occupation. Mr. Lawes reported in 1900 : " Half of the members suspended from church fellowship are cases of immorality ; the remaining half were suspended for quarreling, anger, bad language and other inconsistencies. Dealing month by month with these sins, failings and weaknesses is painful and disheartening, and we cannot understand how those who profess love for Christ can fall into such sin. Yet judging from the tone of his epistles, Paul was familiar with similar cases amongst the church members to whom he wrote." 2. Second on the field was the American Board of Commis- sioners for Foreign Missions. Their first field and their Pacific crown was the Sandwich Islands which they entered in 1819. To-day it is a Christian land in the same imperfect sense that the United States, of which it now forms a part, is Christian, and the missionary is the chief agent in this spirit- ual and political transformation. Though the Board still has its representatives there, they are working for the regions beyond, with this as a training base, and are also engaged in the evangelization of the Japanese immigrants — who num- OCEANIA 159 bered 24,407 in 1896, and the Chinese — who in the same year were less numerous by only some 3,000. The Board has followed the wise plan pleaded for in the West Indies, in that it has drawn trained missionaries from Japan and China to labor for these needy subjects of the United States. In view of the rapid increase in population — more than seventy-one per cent, in the decade just ended — and the fact that most of the increase comes from without, this missionary activity is fully war- ranted. Buddhists constitute two-sevenths of the 154,001 Hawaiians, and there are 4,886 Mormons; while in 1896 the 23,773 Protestants were offset by 26,363 Romanists. This will account for the growing sense of responsibility for these islands on the part of American societies having a smaller force. This same Board is following the United States flag to its newly-acquired possession, Guam, and has for years been doing a fruitful work in Micro nesian Islands. At present the inter- ruptions due to European Catholic interference, based upon a political foundation, are at an end and operations are being renewed. The old difficulty still survives, however, namely, the lack of a sufficient force to carry out a wisely planned edu- cational and evangelistic program. The Hawaiian Evangelical Association, which in germ be- gan four years after the first missionaries arrived, is one of the best organized of the Pacific missionary societies ; though it is hardly fair to compare others with this Association com- posed so largely of the descendants of early missionaries or natives who have become wholly civilized and well-to-do. Be- sides being a very efficient home missionary society for the Hawaiian group, its representatives work in cooperation with the American Board on the Gilbert, Marshall and Marquesas Islands. In the latter group the missionaries have to contend with what Dr. Mill thus describes : " The moral standard of the inhabitants is very low, worse than in the old days of heathen- ism ; and the European vices and diseases, which are rapidly killing them off, have become subordinate to the Chinese vice of opium-eating." l6o GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS 3. Considered as the direct continuators of the British Wes- leyans whose splendid consecration and indomitable courage won glorious laurels in the South Seas, the Australasian Wes- leyan Methodist Missionary Society must next be named. Though the first Wesleyan missionary in Oceania landed in , 1822 on one of the Tonga Islands, and though they have done a large work there, as well as for New Britain and the Samoan group, their greatest achievement — one of the striking mir- acles of missions — has as its theater the Fijis. A missionary historian writes : " Many and fierce were the conflicts which these brave missionaries and those who came after them had to encounter from the prevalence of war, cannibalism and super- stition. Perhaps there never was another such struggle between light and darkness,- truth and error, as that which took place in the course of the Fiji mission." And to-day the Wesleyan returns from Fiji are these: Churches, 973; missionaries, 11; native ministers, 72; catechists and teachers, 1,120; school teachers, 2,723; local preachers, 2,175; class leaders, 4,958; native members, 31,422; on probation, 8,251; catechumens, 10,107; Sunday-school scholars, 33,489; and adherents, 94,609. Other social and moral results, not reducible to figures, have also followed, so that these islands are in some respects an object lesson to the Christian world. 4. Next in chronological order must be placed the various Presbyterian bodies of Canada, Scotland and Australasia, which unite in a synodical union for evangelizing a single group, the New Hebrides. Perhaps no other Pacific field is so well known, partly because of the number of missionary martyrs who have there shed their blood and the fierceness which still makes every missionary take his life in his hands as he goes to his daily work, and partly because of the profound impression made by the presence and words of its best known advocate, the saintly John Gibson Paton. " The cruel, treach- erous and savage characteristics of the people — who believe that strangers are the cause of storms, disease and death — the exigencies of the climate and the utter remoteness from OCEANIA l6l the world's traffic, unite to make the New Hebrides one of the most dangerous of all mission fields." .What it cost Dr. Paton to make his favorite Tanna " The Lighthouse of the Southern Pacific," readers of his fascinating autobiography- well know. In a recent address he pleaded with overwhelm- ing pathos for those from 40,000 to 60,000 who still remain cannibals after some 3,000 have yielded themselves to Jesus Christ. In general the southern islands of the group have been largely evangelized; it is for those in the northern sec- tions that present effort is so much needed. 5. A year after the establishment of permanent work in the New Hebrides by the Presbyterians, the first Bishop Selwyn was making his way thither in his twenty-one ton schooner, the Undine, as the pioneer of the Melanesian Mission. In the person of that man, as versatile as Turkey's hero, Cyrus Ham- lin, and in the no less interesting personality of his successor, the polished and talented Bishop Patteson, lay hidden the secrets of the Mission's subsequent power. A training-school in the salubrious Norfolk Island, the Southern Cross as a floating school-room and transport ship for the small, well- trained and tested army of occupation, and a man who dared face every danger and was able to win friends from the camp of the bitterest enemies — these are the salient features that have marked the history of this noble mission up to the pres- ent moment. Most commendable is the ruling principle of the Mission, not to encroach upon other men's ground, and to cultivate comity with all Protestant bodies. Perhaps no life is so full of suggestion as to how to win nature peoples, and so charged with material to generate enthusiasm, as John Coleridge Patteson's memoir, written by the talented novelist, Miss Yonge. Besides operations in a few of the New Hebrides group, the Mission is ministering to multitudes in the Banks, Torres, Santa Cruz and Solomon Islands, thus occupying a great tri- angle in the heart of Melanesia. With how great success the work is done is hinted at in a message sent by a heathen chief l62 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS to one of their teachers, in which he asked " for how much he could buy the law of peace, so that he and his people might be able to live together in the same peaceable way in which they saw the people in the Christian villages living." If the Mission can be provided with a greatly augmented force of missionaries and a faster mission vessel, far greater successes than have marked the past are sure to be theirs in the im- mediate future. 6. The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel began in 1862 its labors for the inhabitants of Hawaii, as well as for British sailors and residents there; but in 1900, after the an- nexation of the islands by the United States, the Society's grants ceased. Two of its clergymen are Chinese and are do- ing a good work for their countrymen. By an arrangement with the American Episcopal Church this work will soon be transferred to them. Other work of theirs is carried on at Norfolk Island and on the Fijis. 7. In 1863 the Paris Societe des Missions evangeliques took charge of the old and well established mission of the London Missionary Society in the Society Islands, and in 1891 and 1900 they received from the same organization two sta- tions in the Loyalty group. They also have a representative in the Marquesas Islands, and are just about to undertake the evangelization of the Kanakas of New Caledonia, the Botany Bay of France, where one inhabitant out of five is a convict either undergoing sentence or discharged. In fact, the evan- gelization of New Caledonia is the principal reason for their occupying the stations on the Loyalty Islands. One of their workers, M. Koulinsky, hopes to establish there an industrial school where the young men of their churches may be taught the ordinary trades. At present if they desire to learn such trades, they must apply to freed convicts for instruction, a course fraught with much temptation. Another danger that the meager corps of missionaries is unable to fully meet, is that of providing a sufficient number of Protestant teachers in order to thus meet the active pedagogical enterprises of the OCEANIA 163 Romanists who are directing their chief efforts toward the children of French possessions in the Pacific. IV. Oceania's Future. — i. Opposite Vieivs. — A compe- tent anthropologist and student of this problem, Professor Keane, thus writes : " Everywhere the pure Polynesian race seems to be rapidly disappearing, a phenomenon attributed partly to the introduction of alcoholic drinks, partly to the abrupt change of habits, dress, diet, etc., enforced or encour- aged by the missionaries, but mainly to the ravages of leprosy, smallpox, syphilis, measles, and especially pulmonary affec- tions, by which whole communities have been decimated." Even the missionaries look upon the gradual encroachment of civilization, whose vices are far more attractive to the natives than its virtues, as the death-knell of the native races. Thus Dr. Pease, of Micronesia, writes : " The race of islanders has no future except in heaven. As civilization is introduced more and more, they will gradually become extinct. The entire group will be thoroughly evangelized in a few years more, and then the work will culminate and decline, as in the Ha- waiian Islands." In contrast with these statements may be quoted the opinion of another South Sea authority, Rev. J. M. Alexander : " Phy- sicians have proved beyond question that the diminution of the Pacific islanders has been caused by diseases introduced by the vices and intemperance of the white races. Christianity has only retarded this diminution. In the islands where mis- sions have not been established, the diminution has been the most rapid. In some of the islands the natives have become almost extinct. But in the other islands where missions have done their best work, and where foreigners have seldom come, the natives are increasing in number. In some of the secluded localities of the Samoa Islands the population has been increas- ing at the rate of one per cent, per annum. The Rev. Mr. Moulton, missionary in the Tonga group, has asserted that the population of the Tonga Islands has increased twenty-five per cent, in twenty years, and that in the island of Niue the 164 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS increase is more than three per cent, per annum. The expla- nation is that these islands lie out of the common track of ships, and that in them missions have been very successful." 2. Reluctantly assuming the truth of the probable decadence of these races, zvhat is Christianity's duty? The same spirit that has brought into existence hospitals and lengthened life by the development of medical science, that has fought for the recovery of classes of patients formerly considered doomed, will see in this almost certain decay an imperative summons to ar- rest the tendency. The activity of organizations in America and Europe that are rallying around such workers as Dr. Paton and M. Brunei of the Paris Missionary Society in the effort to stay these deathful tendencies, are being heeded to some extent by the governments concerned, whose selfish interests demand that the islands under their supervision should not suffer. The importation of Hindus as workers on Fiji plan- tations and the lack of laborers felt in other groups will make these European powers the allies of the missionary, as is al- ready the case with France, Great Britain and the United States. What is continuously needed is the moral policing and outspoken indictment of manifest wrongs that has marked the history of missionary work in these archipelagoes. Such pro- tests and watchfulness will eventually secure .the same safe- guarding of native life that one sees in Denmark's rule in Greenland and in Britain's care for her Canadian Indians. A higher duty presses upon the Church of God in connection with the islands of the Pacific. The white Christian of the temperate zone must help bear the burden of these weaker brethren of the tropics. A century did not accomplish much in the development of such favored races as our Anglo-Saxon, Teuton and Celtic forefathers ; and we must not expect these lower races to become fully confirmed in the Christian life and civilization in two generations. The latter will be fostered too rapidly, perhaps, without much farther effort on the part of missionaries. Their chief efforts must be directed toward es- tablishing the work already begun. The white man's spiritual OCEANIA 165 strength, no less than his sympathy and wisdom, will be needed for many decades before the islanders will have become able to carry on the work with assurance of permanent success. The record of the Marquesas Islands, " where through forty years the mission work was repeatedly begun and abandoned, and the natives thereby made indifferent and actually hostile to Christianity," is a perpetual reminder that quite as diffi- cult as the overthrow of paganism, is the upbuilding of Chris- tian institutions, and the far more serious task of imparting a stable, aggressive Christian character. In the desire to direct the natives, the leaven of evil coming from godless foreigners must be rooted out and victory won from threatened defeat at the hands of its friends. VII NEW ZEALAND AND AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES AND NEW GUINEA PART I. — GENERAL On the western border of Oceania, and — so far as New Zealand and New Guinea are concerned — properly belonging to it, are those two great islands, and Australia, the smallest of the continents. Here also is found Tasmania ; but as the last of its aboriginal inhabitants died in 1876, it does not fall within the scope of the present work. I. The Maoris of New Zealand. — i. Their Land. — New Zealand has been called the Switzerland of the southern hemis- phere, and in scenery it strongly reminds the tourist of that country. In some sections of the islands, however, the moun- tains which are so characteristic of New Zealand give place to plains. It is remarkable that a region exceeding only a trifle the area of the State of Colorado should contain such a variety of attractions. Thus on North Island is a wonderful " vol- canic belt remarkable for its hot lakes and pools, which possess great curative virtue for all rheumatic and skin diseases, its boiling geysers and steaming fumaroles, sulphur basins, and pumice plains. The exquisite siliceous terraces of Rotoma- hana, once the cynosure of the island, are now buried beneath the debris of Mt. Tarawera, shattered to dust by the gigantic steam explosion of June, 1886. In the South Island the Cen- tral Alps of the Mt. Cook district display to the visitor the grandest glaciers in the temperate zones, splendid clusters of snowy mountain peaks, and stupendous valleys set off by a 166 NEW ZEALAND, AUSTRALIA, NEW GUINEA 167 series of placid, yellow-tinted lakes. The southwest coast of Otago is pierced by a series of deep and tranquil sounds of ex- quisite beauty, charming the beholder now with their pictur- esque variety and anon with their precipitous grandeur and impressive quietness and gloom." In the North Island, which is the home of the great majority of the Maoris, there are level plains of great fertility on the eastern coast, while on the western side, their chief habitat, " the country is more undu- lating, swelling in places, and in others made up of low steep hills of a blue calcareous clay called papa, the soil of which is exceedingly well fitted for pasture." 2. The climate of these islands is singularly healthful, so much so that the death-rate among the whites is here the low- est in the world. Even in the remote south snow rarely remains on the lower levels more than a day. The only serious climatic drawback is the wind, with the exception of the almost unin- habited southwest coast, which is perpetually saturated with moisture. 3. Among the 796,389 persons who on the last day of 1899 inhabited New Zealand, 39,854 zvere Maoris, 3,503 of whom, however, were half-castes. A large proportion of these have become Christianized. The comparatively small number who are not Christians are anxious to rise in the social scale, and hence are very willing to have their children educated. Much of this education is received in Christian schools. As will be seen in Part II, the Hau-hau superstition has led to a singular compound of Christianity and heathenism, which makes many of them neither heathen nor Christian. II. Australian Aborigines. — i. Their Environment. — While these people are scattered over Australia, the most of them are found in Queensland, the northeastern section. A few of them have been employed as shepherds under Euro- pean settlers, and others have been made a sort of police against their fierce native brethren. Those who are remote from the settlers live in a land of very great limitations. As is well known, the central section of Australia is quite largely desert l68 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS or steppe land. A great deal of the country is cursed with salt, and hence is either barren or not very fertile. In other sections where there is considerable vegetation, the traveler is struck by its decidedly archaic character, reminding one of geological vegetation. Other plants are found here which have a tough, leathery texture enabling them to resist the wilt- ing effect of great evaporation, while still others present no reflecting surface but only narrow edges to the vertical sun- light. The Australian bush, however, is redolent with the aroma of gum-trees and volatile oils secreted to keep out the heat rays. The colossal eucalyptus attains a height of 400 feet, almost rivaling the Californian sequoia. Notwithstanding the somewhat arid character of these regions, there are in Aus- tralia about 10,000 species of plant life, considerably more than are to be found in all Europe. " The scrub " is one of the striking features of the landscape and " presents anything but a cheering prospect, with perhaps hardly one tree within visible distance and scarcely a bird to be descried overhead in flight. There is, however, one agreeable exception formed by the tea tree, a flowering shrub abounding in almost all parts of Australia." It is often utterly impossible to penetrate these growths, so dense are they. In cheering contrast to such scenery, the traveler comes upon some sheltered valleys clothed with most luxu- riant vegetation. " Indian figs draped with strange parasites, creepers, ferns, flame-trees and vines, and the loftiest trees are all intermingled in a labyrinth of the most graceful forms and brilliant colors." 2. The animal life of Australia is as peculiar as the vege- tation. Almost all the native mammalia belong to the archaic marsupial class — opossums, flying squirrels, wombats and some forty-five species of the kangaroo tribe, and the unique pouched mole, as well as those egg-laying mammals, the duck- bill and spiny echidna. These two latter are another indica- tion of still higher antiquity than the marsupials proper. Other forms of life, such as the whistling spider and burrowing cray- NEW ZEALAND, AUSTRALIA, NEW GUINEA 169 fish — which constructs and fills an underground tank in which to spend the dry season — and the giant earthworm, six feet in length, constitute part of the environment of the aborigines. 3. Climate and Mortality. — The climate of Australia is almost Saharan in the intensity of heat. Its worst feature, however, is the uncertainty and inequality of rainfall in all parts of the island, which result in alternations of drought and flood. When rain is withheld, vegetation withers over large areas, and in 1884 drought was said to have destroyed 10,000,000 sheep. The numbing influences of great diurnal ex- tremes of temperature are also injurious to the aborigines, who, when not employed by the settlers, are nomadic. Diseases are only partially due to climate, as the lack of nutrition and contact with foreigners are responsible for many of them. The traveler marks the large number of aged per- sons, but in reality this is not due to great age so much as to early senility. Among the children there is very great mor- tality. This is largely owing to the prevalence of infanticide, the child ordinarily being killed immediately after birth. " In i860 one-third of all the children born among the Narrinyeri were killed — every child that was born before the next elder could walk, all misshapen children, one or both of a pair of twins." It must not be supposed that parents are without nat- ural affection. " Fathers may be seen carefully leading their tired children or carrying them." If they die, mothers not in- frequently carry the bodies till they decompose. For climatic and other reasons, therefore, the mortality among the abori- gines is very great. These, with the wanton slaughters of " de- fenceless natives — veritable man-hunts accompanied by licen- tiousness with its soul and body-destroying consequences, the importation of spirits, etc." — readily account for their great diminution in numbers. 4. Racial Characteristics. — It is a question as to where these aborigines should be classed, as they bear some resem- blance to the negro; other features remind one of the Mon- 170 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS goHan, and still others suggest a Caucasian origin. Mr. C. H. Barton considers them a survival from the far distant past, and regards them as coeval with the existing condition of the land which they inhabit. As to mental characteristics, they are inferior to the Polynesians, but have considerable acuteness as well as remarkable ingenuity in devising and interpreting their message sticks, a species of picture-writing plus some- thing approaching alphabetic signs. It often happens that tribes containing but a few hundred people, living within a few miles of each other, have scarcely a phrase in common. Outside the mountain districts, however, languages are more widely spread. The black fellow's intellect is directed, not so much toward interchange of ideas, as to the means of procur- ing food. " He is unsurpassed in tracking and running down his prey, and his weapons, though of the most primitive kind, are well adapted to assist him in that purpose, while his rude, culinary and domestic apparatus manifest equal skill." The native Australian boomerang is as effective and unique in its way as the throwing stick of Greenland and South America, though of an entirely different character. Architecture he knows nothing of, but if caves are at hand they are ready- made homes. When these are not available, a screen of twigs and bushes covered with foliage or turf suffices. The wife usually carries on her back the whole household outfit, which is primitive, but sufficient. Woman's lot in such a commu- nity is a very hard one. She is bound to keep her husband in vegetable food, such as roots, seeds and leaves. If she fails in this, " she is liberally treated to mauling and spearings, so that a wife generally appears bruised and gashed all over." No government outside that of the family is prevalent and there are only a few traditional rules about property. 5. Religion. — Mr. Acton is authority for the statement that " the only idea of a god known to be entertained by these people is that of Buddai, a gigantic old man lying asleep for ages with his head resting upon his arm, which is deep in the sand. He is expected one day to awake and eat up the world. NEW ZEALAND, AUSTRALIA, NEW GUINEA I7I They have no religion beyond these gloomy dreams. Their notions of duty relate mostly to neighborly service and social interest, and they are not all thieves or liars, but are capable of many good deeds." It is hardly true, however, that Buddai is the only god known. Ratzel speaks of Daiamai who, among some of them, is regarded as the creator of men. " After man had been made the god sent his daughter Karakarak to kill the serpents. She had a stick which in breaking produced fire." A multitude of creation and fire myths are prevalent among them, and gods are commonly spoken of as returning to heaven after accomplishing great things and suffering ill- treatment. Sometimes these deities are changed into beasts or appear in beast incarnations. " The souls of the good go after death to the good gods, those of the evil perish. The widely spread notion that the dead become white men and return as such, is met with here, also ; indeed the natives have, in fact, greeted certain whites as departed friends." Naturally sorcerers and magic, with the evil spirits who are to be pro- pitiated, are prominent in their life. The strongest material for magic resides in certain parts of the human body; hence the black fellows try to obtain the bones of birds and fishes which have been consumed by the enemy, thinking that thereby they can acquire power over that man for life or death. A study of the religious and social conditions of these black fellows shows that they rank among the lowest races, with perhaps only two or three others whose condition is more pitia- ble or fitted to awaken Christian sympathy. III. New Guinea. — i. Area and Political Divisions. — Unlike the previous portion of the chapter, this section has to do with the entire population of a great island, the largest in the world, if Australia and Greenland be excluded. Its area is 312,329 square miles, divided among the three great Powers exercising authority over it as follows : British New Guinea, twenty-nine per cent, of the territory, the southeastern quarter of the island; German New Guinea, twenty-three per cent., its territory lying immediately north of that of Great Britain ; and 172 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS Dutch New Guinea, constituting forty-eight per cent., the western half of the island. 2. Physical Features and Climatic Conditions. — The phys- ical features of this country are diametrically opposed to those found in its great southern neighbor, Australia, with which it was apparently connected in geological times. It is a land of mountains, the highest in the Oceanic world, the Bismarck range, for instance, having two peaks, which have an approximate altitude of from 15,000 to 20,000 feet. The mountainous backbone of the island is clothed with dense and very damp forests. Government expeditions have in some cases attempted to force their way through the vegetation, and with their hatchets succeeding in making only a mile a day; though in other portions of the island freer access to the in- terior is possible. At present, however, foreigners know prac- tically nothing of the remote interior. Much in the scenery reminds one of the high volcanic islands described in the previous chapter. One characteristic feature that is very common is the presence of many varieties of birds of paradise. Indeed, it deserves the name of the Land of the Bird of Paradise quite as much as Guatemala does that of the Land of the Quetzal. Another characteristic reminding one of Mexico and Central America is the superimposed vegeta- tion zones. Sir W. MacGregor's party passed " successively through the domains of tropical plants, such as the cocoanut, sago, banana, mango, taro and sugar cane, and of such tem- perate sub-tropical growths as the cedar, oak, fig, acacia, pine and tree-fern, and were gladdened on the higher slopes by the sight of the wild strawberry, forget-me-not, daisy, buttercup and other familiar British plants. Toward the summits these were succeeded by true alpine flora." The rain-bearing clouds condensing on the alpine slopes oc- casion much rain and considerable snow at the higher altitudes. In general the great dampness and the malarious exhalations, the obstinate scaly ringworm and rheumatism, unfit the island for Occidental settlement. When the uplands beyond the fever NEW ZEALAND, AUSTRALIA, NEW GUINEA 1 73 zone are made accessible, however, health resorts for officials, traders and missionaries may relieve the present limitations to a prolonged and useful life. 3. The People of New Guinea. — The races are greatly mixed. Four main elements are discernible, however : the Negrito of the northwestern peninsula and central highlands ; the eastern Polynesian on the southeast coast ; the Malay along the northwestern sea border and around the shore of Geelvink Bay ; and the Papuan proper scattered over the entire island. The word Papua is a Malay one signifying " frizzled " in reference to the hair. This race is also found throughout Melanesia, and because it exists here in its greatest purity many writers contend that Papuan is a better adjective to apply, to the race than Melanesian. The total population is estimated at 660,000. Some of their leading physical characteristics are " a me- dium height ; fleshy rather than muscular frame ; color, a sooty brown, varying, but decidedly darker than the Malay ; high but narrow and rather retreating forehead with thick brows ; nose sometimes flat and wide but oftener hooked ; lips thick and projecting so as to make the chin seem retreating; high cheek-bones ; hair black, frizzly, trained into a njop." The civilization of these tribes, who are much isolated, varies, but seldom reaches even the average Pacific standard. 4. Papuan homes, like the Australian flora, remind one of remote antiquity. Thus some of those along the coast, nota- bly a pile village at Sovek on the north shore, is an almost exact reproduction of the lake dwellings of the archaeologists. Away from the coast also this custom of building some dis- tance from the ground is quite characteristic. Many houses " stand upon lofty piles which, with their sloping stays, pre- sent a highly original type of architecture. They hang like eagles' nests some fifty feet in the air on their thin swaying trestle-work, looking as if every puff of wind must sweep them away. These airy dwellings are entered by means of slanting tree stems with steps nicked in them." Another lofty 174 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS abode, the well-known tree-house, is also found on the island. A platform is erected at a distance from the ground and a house built thereon. The lower branches are then carefully trimmed away and entrance is by a vine ladder which can be drawn up at will. For convenience, another hut for times of security is built near the foot of the tree. A plentiful supply of stones and other weapons of defence in the tree-house con- vert it into a fort when the enemy appears. Evil spirits are kept away from residents of these lofty abodes as also the pre- vailing malaria. The pile houses are evidently modeled after the boat, as they have an inverted boat-shaped roof. Some of these buildings are 500 feet long and look when undivided like a dark tunnel, windows being guarded against because of the belief that they afford a ready entrance to hostile spirits. Each of these houses has a family head, the rest of its inhabitants being his relatives or slaves. 5. The religion of these peoples is of a primitive sort. " There is no general object of worship, consequently no regu- lar priesthood. The institution of tabu is less oppressive and its sanctions less awful ; but the transgressor may still have to reckon not only with the society of individuals who impose it, but also with the offended spirits." In western New Guinea the Dutch missionaries report the existence of a vague notion of a universal spirit, the combination of several malevolent powers, who resides in the woods. Another has its home in the clouds above the trees and carries off children. Still an- other lurks in the rocks by the sea and raises storm. Coinci- dent with such beliefs is the feeling that ancestral spirits are naturally interested in the welfare of their descendants. Hence, as a protection against malignant powers, the people construct rude images, each representing a dead ancestor, whose spirit is then urged to occupy the image and protect them against their enemies. " Omens are observed before starting on any expedition ; if they are unfavorable the person threatened re- tires and another day is chosen and the process repeated. They have magicians and rainmakers, and sometimes resort to or- NEW ZEALAND, AUSTRALIA, NEW GUINEA 1 75 deal to discover a crime. Temples, so called, are found in the North and West, built like the houses, but larger, the piles be- ing carved into figures, and the roof beams and other promi- nent points decorated with representations of crocodiles or lizards, coarse human figures, and other grotesque ornamen- tation, but their use is not clear." In the southeastern part of the island religious ideas are more rudimentary, but here also there is a prevalent dread of departed spirits, " especially those of the hostile inland tribes and of a being called Vata who causes disease and death." The ancestral cult is very simple. Instead of the Chinese tablet, Papuans keep as a relic of the departed either the head or the jawbone. Like the Chinese, they place food on the grave, and in addition make a path to the sea that the spirits may bathe. PART II. — MISSIONARY I. New Zealand. — Just now, when the attention of the world is being called to this " experiment station in social science," it is hard to realize that a century ago, instead of leading civilized countries as it does at present in land and labor regulations, the public ownership of great franchises, the extension of suffrage to women, etc., these magnificent islands were the abode of savages ! While many other factors, notably immigration from Great Britain, have entered into the making of the colony, the most significant of all of them was the coming in 1814 of the penal chaplain, Samuel Marsden, and his co-laborers, representing the Church Missionary So- ciety. Early in the next decade the Wesleyans appeared on the scene, and these two societies labored side by side for many years. The former is at present the only society doing any important work for the Maoris as a distinctively foreign mis- sionary undertaking. The New Zealand Wesleyan Confer- ence still has charge of such missions, but only as part of its regular church program. With the Presbyterians of the 176 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS Colony they have in their churches about 5,000 Maori Chris- tians, a smaller number being communicants. 1. Varied Fortunes of the C. M. S. — In the last report of this Society the number of native Christians belonging to its New Zealand Mission was 18,251, of whom only 2,482 were communicants. Though the first eleven years were a time of discouragement with not a single convert to gladden the mis- sionary, a marvelous movement began five years later, which aided by a similar experience of the Wesleyans, resulted in the conversion of almost the entire Maori people. Bishop Selwyn wrote on arriving at his new diocese in 1842 : " We see here a whole nation of pagans converted to the faith. Where will you find throughout the Christian world more signal manifes- tations of the presence of the Spirit, or more living evidences of the Kingdom of Christ ? " At that time the number attend- ing church services was not less than thirty-five or forty thou- sand. How explain the lapse from this happy condition to that hinted at in the statistics above given, there being less than 25,000 Maoris now counted as Protestants? 2. One cause for this. great falling off in sixty years is a series of wars beginning with 1843 and ending in 1869. These " arose partly from the jealousy of the power and influence of the colonists, but chiefly from endless disputes about land sales which were greatly complicated by the vague tribal tenure on which land was held by the natives." When it is added that, previous 'to the practical disappearance of war in 1838 through the teachings of Christianity, the introduction of mus- kets and powder had destroyed about one-fourth their race, and that intercourse with whites, especially whalers and buyers of tatooed heads, had its usual destructive effect on the abori- gines, the present state of the Maoris is an argument for in- stead of against missions. 3. A still greater obstacle to missionary effort that has re- sulted in a large falling off in church membership is the " Bide awhile," " Pai Marire," or " Hau-hau " superstition, which first gained power in 1864, and which to-day attracts NEW ZEALAND, AUSTRALIA, NEW GUINEA l^J many to this melange of Christianity and heathenism. It was an incident of the wars between the Maoris and foreigners, and was based on the Old Testament, — for which, like many nature peoples, they felt a special predilection, — plus current superstitions and idolatry. It arose " from the delusion of a half-witted man, who declared that the Angel Gabriel and the Virgin Mary had appeared to him and had promised that Maoris uttering a dog-like bark, ' Hau-hau,' should drive the white man into the sea. The king faction took up the term Hau-hau as their battle-cry, and the war party thus acquired the name for themselves. The votaries of the Hau-hau god excited themselves to a pitch of temporary insanity as they danced around a pole. The priests, whose influence had waned during the missionary supremacy, were only too eager to re- vive their power over the people, and thus they became the inspirers of the new superstition. They taught that Maoris had taken the place of the ancient Jews in the favoritism of Heaven. Maoris were the true Israel, and for their co-relig- ionists, the Jews, they manifested unbounded respect ; while on the other hand intelligent Hebrews spoke of the Hau-hau ceremonial as essentially Jewish. Of course the white man personated the Pharaoh and the rebel chief, Topare, became the Maori Moses, sent to rescue the New Zealand race by drowning the foreign yoke in the sea. The grossest immoral- ity was reintroduced into worship ; and this melancholy delu- sion, the offspring of lust and cruelty, had in a few months completely altered the character of the people whose rapid Christianization was one of the greatest triumphs of mission- ary enterprise in the nineteenth century." A full study of this strange development casts much light on the origin of some of the early extravagances of church history, and enforces the duty of carefully shepherding early converts until they fully understand the Bible and are settled in the faith and its out- growing life. Another recent defection, due to Mormon mis- sionaries, who, according to the C. M. S. " Intelligencer," have won 3,000 native converts, emphasizes this duty. 178 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS 4. The Maori' s future is not bright. Christianity has its roots deep down in the lives of many splendid representatives of the race, and missionary societies will doubtless continue their blessed ministrations to body, mind and spirit. Yet the final outcome is perhaps that pictured by Edwin Hodder: " While with one hand his English brother has ennobled the Maori, with the other he has destroyed him. Christianity has striven to say to him. Arise and go unto the Father; civiliza- tion has actually said, Succumb and go to the devil. Mission- aries now seeking the regeneration of the race speak alto- gether despairingly of its future. One of them, in language said to be none too strong, ascribes their decay to ' unclean- ness — inwardly and outwardly — in diet, dress and habita- tion, in body and mind, in all their thoughts, words and ac- tions.' For four centuries they multiplied, until the white man set his fatal foot on their shores, and introduced alongside of his heavenly message loathsome vices entailing disease and death. Since then they have been steadily diminishing and soon the New Zealander, predicted by the prophet Macaulay as surveying the ruins of our modern Babylon from London Bridge, will be as impossible a personage as his own Moa," now extinct. II. Aboriginal Australians. — i. The evangelization of the black fellows and the Chinese has engaged the attention of a number of agencies. English, German and Australian rep- resentatives of Catholic, Episcopal, Congregational, Metho- dist, Presbyterian, Quaker, Lutheran and Moravian societies or churches, often aided by the Government, have devoted themselves to this most philanthropic and Christian task. 2. Forms of Effort. — At the present time at least ten so- cities are prosecuting the work, while individuals and churches are laboring for the few scattered members of tribes who live in the larger towns. The most active of these are the Aus- tralian branch of the Church Missionary Society, the Wesley- ans, Presbyterians, Bible Christians and Moravians. An aid in the work is the assignment to reservations of the black NEW ZEALAND, AUSTRALIA, NEW GUINEA 1 79 fellows, coupled with some governmental restrictions and financial assistance. Government has also cooperated with missionaries in exploring expeditions, thus acquainting the public, and the societies as well, with the need for missionary- effort. As glorious exceptions to the general law laid down by Dr. Thompson, one finds such oases in the • mental and moral desert as exist in the Moravian station of Ramahyuck, where the famous veteran, Hagenauer, still labors, and in the union station of Mapoon among the cannibals, where work is carried on by a joint effort of Presbyterians, Lutherans and Moravians, aided by the funds of the commonwealth. In many cases children readily learn, homes are built, strong Christian lives are lived in the midst of fierce temptation, and the abodes of degraded cannibals become the refuge of shipwrecked sail- ors. Yet the old story of rapid decay obtains here also, and how long it will be before the less than 28,000 aborigines pass away may be guessed from the extinction of the Adelaide, Burra, Rufus and other tribes, and the further fact that it took but sixty-six years from the arrival of the first English- man in 1803 for the last Tasmanian to disappear. What the Church of God does for these brethren of the Lord Jesus must be done quickly. Only about 1,100 are regarded as Christian and many of these are only nominally so. 3. Work for the Kanakas of Oceania, imported as laborers mainly into Queensland where there are about 9,500, is far more encouraging. Though not aborigines of Australia, a word must be said concerning them. In Dr. Paton's autobiog- raphy an undue amount of space is taken up with the legal proof that these immigrants are possessed of a knowledge of gods and idols. Granting this universal truth, their religious need is none the less great. While most of these laborers have been brought from cannibal islands, the majority of them had been led to respect the missionary's efforts for their good; hence they have been more open than when at home to relig- ious influences. As a result of the activity of the Australian Baptists, especially, as well as of the Presbyterians, Lutherans l8o GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS and Anglicans, some 2,000 are numbered as Christian com- municants or adherents. Planters have been so struck by the unexpected improvement wrought by the gospel that not a few of them are financial supporters of the work. III. New Guinea. — i. The Dutch Portion of the island was the first to be entered by the missionary. Two repre- sentatives of the Gossner Society were the earliest to ar- rive — in 1855, but the only organization now laboring there is the Utrecht Missionary Society, which began its work in 1863. At five stations they are teaching and preaching, being financially aided by the Dutch Government in the former un- dertaking. The work is arduous, and after these many years the number of communicants in their New Guinea churches is only 124. It is a noticeable fact that commercial settlements and a knowledge of the country are mainly confined to those places which owe their largest development to the mission- aries. In 1895 the Dutch Resident, after officially visiting their schools, endorsed the mission very highly. In philan- thropic lines they are also doing a blessed work, so that per- sons are living to-day who have been rescued by them from mothers who had been on the point of burying them alive when children. 2. British New Guinea was next occupied. S. Macfarlane, LL.D., a representative of the London Missionary Society on Lifu of the Loyalty group, was, in 1871, assigned to the most difficult enterprise of opening this dangerous field. The ven- erable Mr. Murray accompanied him, as did eight Loyalty teachers, others following later. When recruits were called for and the grave perils of the expedition were pointed out, every student in their institution and every native teacher on the island offered his services. " Papua ! Papua ! " became the battle-cry of the Loyalty churches ; and wonderful were the meetings preceding the sailing of these pioneers, some of whom were shortly to be martyred, while in a few years eigh- teen of them lay in the Port Moresby cemetery. From the outset until the present time the London Mission- NEW ZEALAND, AUSTRALIA, NEW GUINEA l8l ary Society has accomplished the largest results in New Guinea, and has had the strongest force. The place it has occupied in the development of the colony is thus testified to by Sir William MacGregor, who has recently retired from the Lieutenant-Governorship after a successful administration lasting more than ten years : " The London Missionary So- ciety as the pioneer was exposed to special danger and hard- ship in obtaining a footing in different parts of the country, and perhaps much more so in maintaining it. It was more through it than by any other means that the way was prepared for the founding of the colony. Before annexation it had a checkered existence. Many teachers died of illness ; several were killed by the people for whom they had come to work. In the history of the mission there loom out conspicuously the names of two great missionaries, the Rev. Dr. W. S. Lawes and the Rev. James Chalmers ; the former typically a man of thought, the latter typically a man of action. Each of them has worked for and among the Papuans for over a score of years, and they still carry on work of the greatest impor- tance." Since Sir William penned the above, Chalmers, the wonderful peace-maker of savage New Guinea, after living unscathed, though a score of times condemned to death, has fallen a victim to his desire to extend the gospel to the regions beyond. He and his young colleague, Oliver Tomkins, were brutally murdered by a tribe of skull-hunters on the Fly River. Australian Anglicans, supported by the Sydney Australian Board of Missions, began in 1891 a most beneficent work on the northeast shore of the colony, aided by their mission ves- sel, Maclaren. More extensive, however, is the enterprise of the Australian IVesleyans, carried on in the two groups of out- lying islands off the eastern and northeastern shores of New Guinea. This mission was likewise opened in 1891. The pioneers numbered seven foreign missionaries — two of them women — and fifty-three native teachers from Tonga, Fiji and Samoa. The Governor of the colony had described the people " as being amongst the worst natives of New Guinea," l82 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS and the sight that greeted them on landing — skulls of men and women who had been eaten, exposed in front of the houses in various villages — confirmed his judgment. The enter- prise began with a larger number of agents and with more complex appliances for work than had been used in any of the Wesleyans' new missions. Results seem to have justified their wisdom; for after a single decade they report thirty- three churches, nine missionaries, seventy-seven catechists and teachers, twenty-four local preachers, 383 native members, 1,510 Sunday-school scholars, and 12,200 attendants on public worship. Nearly the same testimony concerning their most helpful services to the colony was borne by the Governor as has already been cited in connection with the L. M. S. In this same state paper of Sir William MacGregor, he says of the operations of all three Societies : " The lapse of time has steadily strengthened the conviction that mission labor is of immense value and importance in the Possession. The training and education of children and youth is practically in the hands of the missions. The figures will give a fair idea of the extent to which this very important task is attended to. The example of the regular and upright life of the mission- aries is of itself an object lesson of great significance. The humanity they practise in regard to the sick, the castaway, and the abandoned child, the moral force by which they exer- cise restraint over many bad characters and their sympathy with the weak and suffering, are all softening and ameliorat- ing influences that could not otherwise have been supplied to the natives." 3. In German New Guinea, or Kaiser Wilhelms-Land, two German societies are laboring. The first to enter was the Neuendettelsau Mission, whose pioneer, Mr. Flierl, arrived in 1886. Grundemann has described most vividly the early ex- periences of this mission as its missionaries tried to win the hostile natives and thread the mazes of the many difficult dialects, each of which could be understood by only a few villages. As usual in such circumstances the first serious NEW ZEALAND, AUSTRALIA, NEW GUINEA 1 83 impressions were made upon the score of youths who aided in the garden and household and thus came to appreciate the personal and family life of Christianity. To-day the society has four centers, located near the eastern end of the northern shore. At each of these is a day-school, and ninety pupils are under instruction. Nine communicants are the nucleus of those better things that are being earnestly labored and prayed for. The latest reports picture the missionaries as opposed by sorcerers, and aided by the dreams of the more serious natives and by the tactful ministration of missionary women. Only one year later, in 1887, the Rhenish Missionary So- ciety came to the country, locating at the center of the northern coast. Like their predecessors the missionaries labored in the midst of difficulties and under great losses. Even the schools, which so often are appreciated when evangelical work is not, have been held only irregularly and have been oc- casionally closed when opposition of the natives has necessi- tated it. Happily the coming of a medical missionary with surgical ability is gradually removing suspicion and has opened some doors. A small printing press, used by Mr. Hanke, has proven useful as well as interesting and attractive. But in Kaiser Wilhelms-Land, as in the rest of New Guinea, one of the greatest foes to missionary work is the deadly climate that keeps the devoted missionaries on furloughs, if it does not kill them. VIII THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO, OR MALAYSIA PART I.— GENERAL 1. Groups Described. — i. Area and Ownership. — Malaysia, lying between Southeastern Asia and Australia, is the " largest and most important system of island groups in the world, the richest in every respect." If Dutch New Guinea be included, — it is treated elsewhere, — it has an area of about 943,000 square miles, or almost one-third that of the United States. Fully seven per cent, of this area belongs to the Neth- erlands, and hence the Archipelago is often called the Dutch East Indies. It is thus about fifty-eight times as large as Hol- land, the mother country. Next in point of territory come the Philippine and Sulu Islands, as extensive almost as Great Brit- ain and Ireland, or as the New England and Middle States, minus New York. This region, so long under the Spanish Crown, came into the power of the United States in 1898. The native Sultanates of Brunei, and Sarawak of Borneo, now under British protection, follow with 53,000 square miles, while Great Britain has 31,000 in North Borneo and on the Island of Labuan. Portugal owns the remaining 7,500 square miles on the eastern portion of the Island of Timor, and the adjacent islet, Pulo Kambing. 2. Physical Features. — " This Archipelago is traversed throughout its whole extent by one of the most extensive and continuous volcanic belts upon the globe." Starting from the Philippines, this volcanic range extends like a capital J to the northwest extremity of Sumatra. These peaks and craters are seldom more than 100 miles apart, and a large proportion of 184 THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO, OR MALAYSIA 185 them are in a state of activity. Islands lying within the curve, as Borneo and most of the Celebes, are without any signs of recent volcanic action. Many of the mountains are lofty, vary- ing from 5,000 to nearly 14,000 feet in height. 3. Vegetation is naturally very luxuriant, as all except the Philippines lie within the tropics. Where undisturbed by man, most of the islands are covered nearly to the tops of the highest mountains with tropical forests. An exception to this rule is noted in the islands near enough to Australia to be influenced by its heated interior, and even there grassy plains are dotted with palms and thorny thickets. Further exceptions due to human agency are the stretches of open country found in North Borneo, Southern Celebes, and some of the Philippines and in the densely populous sections of Java and Sumatra. Rice, spices of many varieties, coffee, sugar-cane, and all kinds of delicious tropical fruits abound, including the celebrated du- rian, which has a detestable odor, but possesses a flavor so ex- quisite that Wallace, thinks it worth the journey to the East to taste it. Among the valuable trees are a variety of palms, san- dalwood, camphor, teak and ebony. These forest tracts " are crowded in addition with the most luxuriant and beautiful vegetation of other sorts ; creeping and climbing plants, gigan- tic ferns, orchids and pitcher plants, flowering plants in most gorgeous hues, and sometimes — like the parasitic Raf flesia in the island of Sumatra and elsewhere, a plant consisting of nothing but a corolla occasionally three feet in diameter — attaining an enormous size." 4. The climate is said to be more uniformly hot and moist than that of any other region between the tropics. The mean temperature, except in the higher sections, varies from 88° to 90° F. The midday heat is powerfully felt, Wallace saying of Timor, for example, that exposure to the direct rays of the sun at any time between 9 a.m. and 3 p.m. bUsters the skin in a few minutes almost as effectively as scalding water. The heat is tempered, however, by sea breezes and the general effect of the climate is not oppressive or unhealthy. 1 86 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS 11. The Inhabitants. — The two chief races are the dark, or Papuan, and the brown, or Malay. 1. The dark-skinned Papuan or Melanesian race may have originally come from New Guinea. They live chiefly in the eastern section of the Archipelago, and are represented to a lim- ited extent in the Philippines, as well as on Sumatra, Borneo, Celebes and other islands. Aside from their darker color they are also distinguished by their diminutive size and curly hair. They are quick, vivacious and loud-mouthed, as the Malays are not, 2. The Malays are the more numerous, highly developed, and important race. Not only has the Low Malay — the Ital- ian of the East — become the lingua franca of the entire Archi- pelago, but Malay domestic customs, animals and influence are diffused in the most extraordinary manner throughout the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Malays have a light brown com- plexion, straight black hair and are three or four inches shorter than the average Occidental. The sexes dg not differ much in appearance. They are slow and circumlocutory of speech, courteous and dignified, seldom offensive or quarrelsome, jealous of any en- croachment on personal freedom, and possess greater energy and acquisitiveness than other natives of the islands. On the other hand, they are gloomy, indolent, without self-control, strongly addicted to gambling and opium smoking, pitilessly cruel, and much given to theft and piracy. A distinction, how- ever, should be made as they are divided into two great groups, the savage and the semi-civilized. The head-hunting Dayaks are the best representatives of the former. They have no litera- ture or regular government, and wear only the scantiest cloth- ing. Some of the Indian tribes of Sumatra and of Borneo belong to the same group. The rest are semi-civilized, possess written languages, and a limited literature. They have es- tablished governments, and some form of religion, and are fairly well provided with weapons and tools. 3. The Chinese are a most important element in the popula- THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO, OR MALAYSIA 187 tion of the Archipelago, numbering nearly half a million in the Dutch possessions alone. Though nowhere liked and retaining their own customs, they largely monopolize trade and are the miners and mechanics of the islands. They number about 100,000 in the Philippines, and there also the principal industries are in their hands. Recently opposition has been openly expressed to them, and the United States Government has made certain restrictions in accordance with the Chinese policy in the home land. 4. Europeans and those assimilated to them numbered 62,- 061 in 1895, of whom 59,228 were Dutch, mostly born on the islands. They live under nearly the same governmental condi- tions as their friends in Europe. Java, by far the most popu- lous of the Archipelago, is the principal seat of Dutch power in the East. While their introduction of the " culture system," or forced labor of natives, who are required to raise coffee, sugar, etc., has been much criticised, it is now very greatly lightened. It is probably true that to this system " much finan- cial success and peaceful administration of the modern Dutch Government must be ascribed." Its officials are steadily in- creasing their efforts to improve the condition of the subject races. In 1897 there were in the Dutch possessions 12,000 miles of railway, 300 post-offices and 6,833 miles of telegraph lines. 5. Those of Arab descent occupy a different position in the Archipelago. Their largest influence has been exerted on the Greater Sunda Islands, whither they came as early as the thir- teenth century. Two centuries later most of the Malays had been converted to Mohammedanism, and Arab influence was paramount until the Dutch came, when their power was broken. At present they number only some 24,000, mostly priests or merchants. 6. While Spanish power was crushed by the war with the United States in 1898, Spaniards until that time had been a very influential factor in the development of the Philippines with their seven or eight million inhabitants dwelling in some 168 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS i,2oo islands. Though they number only about 14,000, these Spanish friars and representatives of the Home Government have been the source of the slight civilization and of the im- perfect form of Christianity possessed by the islanders. 7. One cannot foretell what the influence of the United States will be upon these northern islands, as they have not yet been fully pacified; but it will doubtless be advantageous to the people and serve as another object-lesson to Southeastern Asia, perhaps more helpful than the Dutch Colonial system has been. 8. The Netherlands colonial administration, seen in its best form on the island of Java, used to be considered the best illus- tration of the manner in which the semi-civilized colony should be governed. The great prosperity resulting to the mother coun- try was owing mainly to a scheme already alluded to and in- troduced by General Van den Bosch. " Under that system the natives were compelled to cultivate part of the ground and plant staple articles on it, whilst the produce was to be delivered at a fixed price to the magazines of the Government, and from there shipped to Europe and sold by the Netherlands Trading Company. Although this system brought large sums into the treasury of the Netherlands, a bitter opposition existed against it, almost from the beginning, since it pressed very hard upon the natives. As time went on the opposition gained ground and in name the system was given up and private planters ad- mitted." III. Religion of the Malaysians. — i. In the Dutch possessions, which contain most of the population, entire lib- erty is granted to all faiths. The partial failure of Christianity in the Archipelago has been due, perhaps, to the dominant pow- er, as " the Dutch have until lately studiously set their faces against both the education and Christianizing of the natives. Everything that tended to lessen the distance between the two races was discouraged. The island was terra clausa and the missionary was considered to have hardly more claim to enter it than the settler. Even as late as the second or third decade THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO, OR MALAYSIA 189 of this [last] century, the New Testament was considered a revolutionary work, and Herr Bruckner who translated it had his edition destroyed by the Government. All this, of course, is past, but so also is the opportunity for the moral and in- tellectual improvement of the native." The remainder of the population is mainly Mohammedan which is making a greater gain among the heathen element than Christianity. Moslem zeal is kept alive by Mecca pilgrim- ages, 9,575 natives having gone thither in 1897. Notwith- standing, the Mohammedan is semi-pagan still, as his faith has " only increased the number of supersensual beings to whom he prays. To Joseph he presents offerings that he may obtain beautiful children, to Solomon for honor and rank, to Moses for bravery, to Jesus for learning. The ritual of his religion — and his whole round of life is part of his religion — is intricate almost beyond conception and at the same time rigid and pre- cise." The heathen are believers in a primitive animism, or a devel- opment of this. Upon ancestor worship and a Sivaitic and Buddhist substratum, has been built a belief in or worship of fetishes, skulls and bones, trees, animals and the heavenly bod- ies, besides countless spirits, visible and invisible. A man's whole life " is enveloped in a mesh of mystery ; not the stars only and the heavens rain influence, but from every object a spiritual emanation, invisible for the most part but potent and exhaustless, flows forth to him for blessing or for curse." Before the introduction of Islam the faith of India must have had great power, if we may judge from the enormous remains of temples scattered over Sumatra and Java, including the ruins of the great temple, Boro-Bodor, one of the largest and most striking in the world. At present, however, Brahmanism, Sivaism and Buddhism are only believed in by the few immi- grants that are scattered over the islands, or else they are in- corporated in corrupted fragments into other faiths. 2. The religious condition of the Philippines deserves spe- cial mention in view of their recent opening to Protestant in- IQO geography of PROTESTANT MISSIONS fluence. The " Archipelago presents the anomalous instance of a country which has been conquered as much by ecclesiastical as by military power. Legaspi landed with his body of Au- gustinians, who were followed by the Dominicans and Francis- cans, and later — but not until the main work had been ac- complished— by the Jesuits." Naturally, therefore, Roman- ism is the prevailing faith even among the Malaysians. Until 1898 the public exercise of any religion except the Catholic was forbidden. The clergy numbered about 1,200, and of these 500 were Augustinians, 300 Jesuits and 200 each were Dominicans and Franciscans. Unlike Holland, Spain planted a church in almost every village and some 2,000 schools af- forded instruction to 200,000 children. It is probable that " a larger percentage of the Christian natives can read and write than of the peasantry of Spain, but the education does not go far." Here, as in the case of Mohammedanism, it must be added that " the Christianised Indians have in a manner grafted their new religion upon their former cult. Deeply superstitious and with boundless faith, the religious orders found them ready converts. The brilliant processions and rich robes and images of the Church appealed most strongly to them. Now the small- est village has its fetes, its band of musicians to accompany the processions, and plays of a semi-religious nature are very commonly given. The priest is the practical king of the vil- lage, and does not regard with a too favorable eye the spread of knowledge except it be through himself." " The sale of masses and indulgences, the distribution of crucifixes, sacred dolls, amulets and charms, and the influence upon simple souls of the confessional and absolution have all been used to make the poor ' Indios ' submissive to authority and the exaction of tribute for the State and the Church." While the above state- ments were written before the recent occupation of the United States, they are still prevailingly true. THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO, OR MALAYSIA I9I PART II.— MISSIONARY I. Protestant Work in Dutch Possessions. — It is doubtful whether more than one English-speaking Christian out of a hundred could give any adequate account of the re- markable missionary operations of Dutch and German Chris- tions in Netherlands India. Yet these islands contain a population but little less than half that of the United States and not differing much from the total number of inhabitants in the " neglected continent " of South America. Protestant preach- ers were sent to the heathen here seventeen years before the Pilgrims landed on Plymouth Rock ; and in this stronghold of Islam more converts have been won to Christianity from the camp of the False Prophet than in any other field. 1. In 1900, according to a Dutch authority, Dr. Callenbach, " some forty-one European clergymen and evangelists, aided by 355 ordained natives, native preachers and teachers, work among 234,073 natives of the undenominational Protestant Church of the East Indies. In this Church the clergymen of the parishes are chosen by a committee in Holland and after- ward appointed by the Minister of the Colonies. Their stipends are paid by the Government." Between this Colonial Church and the missionary societies laboring in the Dutch East Indies, no connection seems desirable, mainly because the colo- nial clergymen are rationalistic. An exception occurs in the case of several mission churches which have passed from the societies to the care of the Colonial Church, when the Govern- ment continues the missionaries and evangelists already em- ployed and simply pays their salaries. 2. Missionary Societies and their Fields. — The larger share in the evangelization of Netherlands India is borne by the missionary societies, ten of them being Dutch, and two Ger- man. The Salvation Army also has a small constituency in Java. The labors of other societies on the Malay Peninsula and adjacent islands are not here under review, but will be con- sidered in Chapter XII. 192 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS If we follow the order indicated by the number of societies engaged, Dutch Borneo must first be taken up. The pioneers were missionaries of the American Board who labored on the west coast from 1839 to 1849. At present only the Rhenish Society is found here, occupying stations on the southern half of that great island; though sub-agents of the British and Foreign Bible Society and a Plymouth Brother have done some temporary work. At nine centers these successors of men, who have endured all things and even died as martyrs at the hands of head-hunting Dayaks, are rendering excellent service. Dif- ficulties are great, as may be imagined from this extract : " Borneo is a huge, hot, forest-covered swamp, so thinly peo- pled that one may make a day's journey up a river without meeting a single village, and so unsteadily settled that the vil- lage of to-day may next week have been moved hundreds of .miles away. The inhabitants are agricultural nomads. When a ricefield turns out less fertile than was expected or becomes exhausted, the farmers take their houses on their backs and go to another place. There is a special call for work among the Dayaks who are not yet Mohammedan, but who are in danger of becoming such through the influence of Mohammedan Malays by whom they are surrounded." The 1,900 members of the congregations and half as many who are .communicants are the first-fruits of a greater multitude that is sure to follow. The smaller islands claim the next largest number of mis- sionary societies — five in all. These lie between New Guinea on the east and Java and Borneo on the west. It is in this region that one finds the largest remnants of the earlier Dutch government evangelization. Here, also, in the Celebes is a church at Tondano which seats 2,000 built of wood because of the frequent earthquakes. On those Sabbaths when the Lord's Supper is celebrated even this large building is too small for the number who gather. Schools in the Celebes are also largely attended ; and Mr. Alfred Lea says that among the islands of Malaysia there is " no spot of like dimensions whose THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO, OR MALAYSIA I93 people are so well taught, so intelligent and so well behaved; whose villages are so well ordered and clean ; whose houses are so well built and kept in such good repair ; and whose women and children are so well cared for." In the island of Sangir great success has followed a method thus described : " The missionary took in some ninety young natives with whose aid he planted gardens of nutmeg trees and did other field labor. During the season when such labor had to be discontinued, they got thorough instruction and were trained to be active and practical Christians before returning to their families. As these natives were treated by the missionary as his own chil- dren, he had the privilege of educating in his house the sons of the native nobility, who, under his influence, learned to work, a thing which in other cases they absolutely refused to do." Heathenism has nearly vanished from this island. In others, also, excellent and wide-reaching results have followed the faithful work of the missionaries. Sumatra likewise has representatives of five missionary so- cieties laboring in its behalf. Begun by a Baptist missionary in 1820 and sealed with the blood of Munson and Lyman, who went out under the American Board in 1834 and were brutally murdered soon thereafter, the work is now yielding a reward- ing harvest. The killing of seven missionaries of the Rhenish Society in Borneo led to the opening of their mission here, by far the largest in Sumatra. The Inspector of the Society, Dr. Schreiber, says of it : " Between 3,000 and 4,000 have come out of Islam and we have very great hope that we shall win other thousands. Our principal work there is to keep the heathen back and see that they do not become Mohammedans. It is quite a mistake to consider that Islam may be the first step from heathenism to Christianity. It is far easier to win people when heathen, than after they become Mohammedans." This is important testimony from one who has for years been a missionary among Moslems. He elsewhere writes : " I do not know if there is any other part of the mission field, with the exception of some parts of Java, where such large num- 194 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS bers of Mohammedans have been won for Christ as among the Battaks of Sumatra." Java may well be called Holland's " treasure-chamber " and " the most beautiful pearl in the crown of the Netherlands." Yet as a mission field it stands far behind what it ought to be among the Dutch possessions. Six Dutch societies, besides the Neukirchener Mission, which in its origin was also Dutch, are carrying on a variety of operations. One of the societies is the Java Committee which emphasizes education. Its crowning work is what Van Rhijn calls " an oasis in the desert," the seminary at Depok near Batavia. Here are trained men from various parts of the Archipelago. Aside from the varied mis- sionary preparation received, mutual contact of different races has proved an excellent means of developing character. The Mennonites have been exceptionally blessed in their stations in the northern center of the island, and the Dutch Bible Society makes this the headquarters of a wide dissemination of the Scriptures. Sub-agents of the British and Foreign Bible So- ciety have also circulated many copies of the New Testament or portions of it. The most distinguishing characteristic of the operations in Java is the fact that God has used these earnest efforts to the conversion of nearly 20,000 Mohammedans. Granted that many of these are far from being true Christians, vast multitudes have changed their faith at great cost and with true sincerity of heart. These miracles of grace should encour- age Christendom to persevere and enlarge this neglected form of missionary service. 3. Dutch Missionary Methods. — Four years since Dean Vahl wrote concerning them : " As the Dutch missionary meth- ods are somewhat singular and are best represented in Java, we may make some mention of them. The old practice of the last centuries is totally given up and defended by nobody. The work is done by the preaching of the Word, but the work is not done as aggressively as in the most evangelical missions. It seems that it is deemed enough to open a place for the preach- ing of the gospel, to preach to those who are gathered there, THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO, OR MALAYSL\ I95 and to hope that thereby knowledge of the gospel and spiritual life shall by and by be spread among the population. Preach- ing in the bazaar and in the open air and regular house-to-house visitation are almost unknown. No woman's work is done and it seems as if the value of it were not understood at all." Let a Hollander present other considerations. Dr. Callen- bach mentions the practical training of candidates before send- ing them forth and the coming forward in recent years of uni- versity men. These " mission homes " men are taught one or more Eastern languages, medicine and industrial work. On the field agriculture, education, medicine, labor for colonial troops and Eurasians as a help toward leavening the European population, and regular conferences of representatives of dif- ferent societies, are forms of effort which are certainly worthy of commendation, with the possible exception of learning the language of one's future field in the home land. 4. Government and Missions. — This is a burning issue in Holland, as well as among the missionaries on the field. In a word the question is this, " whether the government regula- tions which have in view the material and intellectual welfare of the native population are, or are not, favorable to the work of missions. In a paper read at the quadrennial Missionary Conference in Java it was stated that * it is expressly stipulated by the Government that all native officials must be Mohamme- dans, and that if one of them were to become a Christian he would be at once removed from his post.' As a result of this, ' the Dutch Government is intimately associated with Mohan? medanism in the native mind.' Christian missionaries are pro- hibited from working in Netherlands India without the per- mission of the Government, while ' no restriction whatever is placed on the movements of Mohammedan propagandists.' * The State forbids itinerating missionaries or traveling preachers, and also open-air preaching.' ' Permission from the Government is necessary for public religious worship outside buildings and closed places,' a permission seldom granted. It is feared that the Government may, while assisting mission 196 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS schools, be of greater help ' to the Mohammedan propaganda and other forces which are opposed to Christianity; for there are already 20,000 Mohammedan schools and 350 heathen Chinese schools in Java alone.' On the other hand, the num- ber of schools under missionary influence is considerable. In the directory for the Straits Settlements and Indo-China for 1897, it is stated that there are in Netherlands India ' 502 gov- ernment vernacular schools and 578 private vernacular schools, which give instruction to upward of 117,800 pupils. The greater number of their private schools are managed by the missionaries.' " Apologists for the Government suggest that much of the present prejudice of the Church against the colonial adminis- tration is due to past history rather than to present conditions. Thus critics are wont to remind the public that the Government once printed at its own expense an edition of the Koran, while it refused for a time to permit the publication of a translation of the Bible ■ — an act that cannot be imputed to the present administration. Moreover, critics are confronted by a Dutch writer with a very practical difficulty : " As our Government has to rule with a limited number of Europeans over many millions of natives, as much as possible it tries to maintain the local forms of government and jurisdiction. These are based on Mohammedan principles, with the result that native Christians meet many difficulties respecting marriage, inheri- tance, etc." Such obstacles the Government is now more ready and able to surmount than formerly. " A happy change for the better has recently occurred, and a great readiness to help has taken the place of former hostility. Now direct and in- direct assistance is given to mission work by the Government." After all is said, it is probably true that one of the greatest ob- stacles to the evangelization of Mohammedans in that field where, in spite of obstacles, this enterprise has been so signally blessed, is the failure of the authorities to adopt a more Chris- tian policy and aid still further in the evangelical transforma- tion of these rich possessions. The Christian sentiment of THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO, OR MALAYSIA I97 Holland is gradually awakening to the duties and privileges in- volved, and there is hope for the future. II. Missions in British Borneo. — With the exception of the Straits Settlements and an overflow of Bible Society agents to parts of Netherlands India, the only British workers are found in the northern and central-western portions of this vast island, though a Bible Society agency is located in the Phil- ippines. 1. British and Foreign Bible Society sub-agents and Plymouth Brethren are doing the more extensive work of an itinerating and seed-sowing enterprise, as contrasted with the fully organized and intensive operations described in the fol- lowing paragraph. Here the Chinese population is far more approachable than the Malay-speaking section of the com- munity. In most localities the people are so few that the Bible Society has found " it quite useless to keep men permanently on the same spot ; for as they hardly make any sales, they only get discouraged and downhearted." Yet it is able to report that while sales are fewer than formerly, better work is prob- ably done, especially by experienced sub-agents who have a good grasp of the language and can talk freely with the peo- ple. The efforts of the Brethren are also most encouraging among the Chinese, who have more than once personally aided them in it. Their persistent visitation among the people, and the wisdom shown in meeting the arguments of Mohamme- dans, especially the influential hadjis, who as returned Mecca pilgrims are the great propagandists of Islam, are noteworthy features of their program. 2. It is to the missionaries of the Society for the Propaga- tion of the Gospel that British Borneo is almost wholly indebted for a difficult and fruitful work done. In accordance with their policy, much time is given to the scattered British resi- dents in this far away land. So, too, in North Borneo most of the other work is expended on the Chinese, a worthy excep- tion being the mission among the Muruts at Kaningow. There are thousands of Muruts throughout the island, and if not won 198 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS for Christianity, they are Hkely to become Mohammedan. In the western mission, besides doing much for the Chinese, the Dayaks are being quite extensively reached. It is not an easy task ; for as Ratzel has pointed out, head-hunting is reHgious in character, being connected with skull-worship, and it is hard to destroy that tendency. The representatives of this High Church mission are often amused by the wide discrepancy be- tween their ecclesiastical ideals and actualities. Thus their chapels are nondescript affairs of leaves, grass and split plank ; a big gong must be sounded Saturday night to remind the people that the next day is Sunday; the solemn services may be interrupted by Methodistic indications of approval or cor- rection of statements ; and even a funeral has been enlivened by the wife's throwing herself in the grave, while the words of the burial service, " Blessed are the dead which die in the Lord " are drowned by the shout of a friend, " He never would have died, if he had not eaten salt fish." Educational work, carried on through five day-schools and eight of a higher order, and medical effort are the methods most acceptable to the people. How much the latter is needed may be seen from this account of native doctors, given by an S. P. G. missionary : " They look wise, chew some leaves, spit on the people who are sick, rub them up and down, tie a piece of string round the neck, fasten a stone, bone, or piece of stick to the end of it, finally ask a high price for the charm, and so get on and are sent for from all parts. To be able to do this, they must have a lot of dreams in which the Antoo tells them of drug, or stone, bone, pig's, dog's, or deer's tooth which is in a certain place and possesses certain properties. . . . Has any one a pain in his body? the manang will soon show you how to extract the cause. He passes his fingers over the spot and by pinches extracts the most wonderful things — porcu- pine quills, fishbones, teeth, stones, pieces of wood." And yet these same people are made earnest Christians and the gospel is increasing in power among them as the years go by. 3. An interesting development of Chinese Christianity is THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO, OR MALAYSIA I99 illustrated by the recent settlement in Borneo of a number of members of the Methodist Church, North, who have lately mi- grated from Foochow to this island. They are prominent church workers and among them are some promising young men and students. Their action necessitates visitation by the bishop in charge and may lead to a mission there. III. Missions in the Philippines. — Here almost the en- tire force is furnished by societies from the United States, which in the three years of government occupancy have quickly risen to the opportunity offered by the new national responsi- bility. At least nine American boards are on the field, besides the Salvation Army and the British and Foreign Bible Society. As the Dutch have accepted the main responsibility of evangel- izing their island possessions, so it is probable that the societies of Great Britain and the Continent will consider the Philip- pines a field as exclusively American as is Alaska. " Here then, in the Providence of God, is America's new vocation ; there is no mistaking the measure of it ; there should be no delay in assuming it." I. Spain's Preparation of the Soil. — How important a civ- ilizing and educative factor her religious representatives were, has been seen in Part I of this chapter. Yet the greatest as- sistance that they have rendered the cause of Protestant mis- sions is of a negative character, — the exhibition of an unspir- itual religion which has had little or no moral power over the people and not much more over the majority of the clergy. The reader should remember that the United States came upon the scene two years after the native revolt of 1896, whose man- ifesto specifies the following among other grievances : " Cruel extortion by the friars in the more secluded districts ; wives and daughters ruined ; the marriage ceremony too costly a luxury for the poor ; the dead refused burial without payment of a substantial sum in advance ; little encouragement for in- dustry and economy, since to acquire wealth meant to become a target for officials and friars alike." The more serious speci- fications of a political nature added fuel to the flames of revo- 200 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS lution, and made the overthrow of Spanish domination a bless- ing, even if the present regime is unwelcome to many. 2. Efforts of the United States are necessarily outside the realm of religion, yet they have been distinctly helpful to mis- sions. The late President McKinley stated very fairly what is actually being accomplished by United States' occupancy : " We shall continue, as we have begun, to open the schools, to set the courts in operation, to foster industry and trade and agriculture, and in every way in our power to make these people whom Providence has brought within our jurisdiction feel that it is their liberty and not our power, their welfare and not our gain, we are seeking to enhance. Our flag has never waved over any community but in blessing. I believe that the Fili- pinos will soon recognize the fact that it has not lost its gift of benediction in its worldwide journey to their shores." The sending to their islands of nearly a thousand school teachers, Protestant as well as Catholic, — many of the former undertak- ing the task largely as a Christian and missionary measure, — is a leaven of incalculable value as affecting the most impres- sionable portion of the population. While the Government's relation to the Roman Church is an impartial one, the position taken is well voiced in an inter- view between Cardinal Gibbons and Pope Leo, in which, ac- cording to the press reports, the Pope " sees the necessity of compelling the monastic orders to adapt themselves to the sit- uation created by the American occupation. Cardinal Gibbons made it clear to the Pope that unless they give way, the Amer- ican Government will expel them altogether." The dispatch further states that " the reports received at the Vatican from the Philippines are much more serious than those received from Cuba. The monks in the Philippines are accused of all kinds of atrocities." The agitation among Romanists, looking to- ward the substitution of American or Italian ecclesiastics for the detested and immoral Spanish friars, has not eventuated in any formulated plan at time of writing, though a recent report from Rome states that the superiors-general of the orders in the THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO, OR MALAYSIA 20I Philippines, obedient to instruction from the Vatican, have or- dered the emigration of the friars to Venezuela and Ecuador. That the type of Catholicism in the Philippines will materially improve thus seems evident. 3. Initiation of the Protestant Enterprise. — Remarkable progress has been made when it is recalled that until the capture of Manila in 1898 " a naval chaplain was not even allowed ashore in clerical dress, and the bodies of dead soldiers could only be carried to a burial place in a common carriage." In the short space of three years, during most of which time the pacification of the islands was going on and missionaries could reside only in Manila, the societies above alluded to have es- tablished a flourishing work. Schools, churches, the social ac- tivities of the Church and of the Christian Association, and the services of the Bible Societies — especially helpful among a community where ability to read has coexisted with a prohibited Bible, have come into being with most surprising rapidity. Even native preachers are ministering to Filipino Protestant churches ; though at this early stage these Christians have not attained the humility requisite to make them willing to go about from house to house for personal work or for Bible and tract distribution. The most hopeful aspect of this recent enterprise is not so much the ready welcome of evangelical truth and its repre- sentatives, as the splendid object lessons afforded by these islands in the matter of comity and essential union among Prot- estant forces of varying names. A discussion of the situation by representatives of the various boards in the Philippines eventuated in their agreeing on the following propositions : (i) That the field be so divided that each mission shall assume the responsibility of the evangelization of a certain well-defined district. (2) That all missions adopt a common name for the Filipino churches that shall be raised up, " La Iglesia Evan- gelica Filipina," placing in brackets when necessary the name of the mission under which it has been fostered, — for exam- ple, "La Iglesia Evangelica de San Fernando (Mision Meto- 202 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS dista Episcopal)." (3) That the church be so developed as to produce and promote practical unity. (4) That conferences be had among the missions in order to avoid unnecessary dupli- cation of general work, such as presses, newspapers, colleges, etc. In order to solve problems suggested by the third and fourth propositions, a federation of missions and churches was proposed and agreed to in April, 1901. It is known as " The Evangelical Union of the Philippine Islands." Already the field has been apportioned among the boards present, with Manila as a common ground ; and friction and rivalry seem likely to be sunk in a common enthusiasm for Philippine evan- gelization. Another advantage of the Union is anticipated from its annual meeting, when it is proposed that there be con- vened a large conference of all the Protestant workers, both native and foreign. Not only will cooperation be furthered by this yearly gathering, but the spiritual life and organized activ- ities of Protestantism will gain force by this annual Pentecost. 4. What of the Future f — No better augury for a very blessed one could be looked for than the Union just named. Yet problems are pressing in spite of the first eagerness of the Filipinos to enter into the evangelical fold. A two years' ex- periment has shown that native priests do not meet the need said to be due to the fact that the friars from Spain had crowded the natives out. In many respects they have been as corrupt and open to criticism as their predecessors, except in political matters ; and the experiment seems to have proven that after all it is Catholicism as it exists in the islands that is found wanting, rather than its Spanish representatives. Whether a purer priesthood from abroad will satisfy the people, remains to be seen. Meanwhile, a series of articles has recently appeared in an ecclesiastical paper of Manila entitled, " Precau- tions against the Pest," in which the believing faithful are warned against the horrors of the evangelical faith and people. On the other hand, a movement has recently been started by the Federal Party, which looks toward the espousal of evangel- ical truth, the maintenance of the Bible as the moral code for THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO, OR MALAYSIA 2O3 mankind, and the casting off of priestly domination and blind superstition of every sort. A Presbyterian missionary has been repeatedly asked to address large audiences assembled under the auspices of this movement, and has enjoyed the utmost freedom in proclaiming to them the simple gospel of Christ. That much friction is to be expected, no matter what plan of disposing of the estates of the Church and of its priesthood is decided upon, and that the people will feel aggrieved in the disposition of church buildings, etc., is a foregone conclusion. It is also evident that many would prefer to have missionaries from some other Protestant land than that of their conquerors. Yet the present outlook is full of hope. Thus far scarcely a thought has been given to any but the Filipinos and the army and navy, together with other foreigners in the archipelago. The grave problem of evangelizing the inland tribes, and es- pecially those that are Mohammedan, must soon be met. One officer has taken the position of Great Britain and Holland with regard to his territory, and has desired an opportunity for American justice and kindness to produce their effect before Islam is antagonized by the introduction of Christianity. Per- haps the large enterprise of evangelizing Spanish-speaking Romanists will engage all the forces before Mohammedan sec- tions can be entered very fully, and so the Government may have an opportunity to do its desired preparatory work. IX JAPAN AND ITS OUTLYING ISLANDS PART I. — GENERAL Many facts conspire to make this country the most fasci- nating, though perhaps not the neediest, of all mission lands. Natural beauty exceeding that of most countries, a history of deep interest to all scholars, a people attractive beyond almost any other nationality, and such a speedy assimilation of culture as has never been w^itnessed in any land, are included in these facts. I. The Kingdom of the Rising Sun. — This name is the translation of the Chinese characters, two of which are found in the common Japanese designation Dai Nippon — Great Sun- origin. I. Location and Leading Islands. — The Empire has with much reason been called the Great Britain of the Orient, not merely because its inhabitants are liable to become a great sea power and an important element in Asia's development, but also because it contains almost the same area as the United Kingdom and is the outlying section of Eastern Asia, just as its Western counterpart is of Europe. Within the limits of the Empire are included five large islands and some 2,000 smaller ones. They extend along the Asiatic coast through twenty-eight degrees of latitude, from the northernmost island of the Kurile group, just off Kamchatka, to the southern limit of Formosa, lying within the tropics. The large islands are Yezo, the northernmost; Hondo or Japan proper, three times the size of Yezo ; Kyushu, south of Hondo ; and Shikoku, the southwestern island of the 204 JAPAN AND ITS OUTLYING ISLANDS 205 main group. Its new possession, the large island of Formosa, will be spoken of later. The island nearest the mainland, Tsu- shima, lies only twenty-five miles from Korea. 2. Outstanding Physical Features. — Western nations can hardly think of Japan without recalling the omnipresent picture of Mt. Fuji. This beauiful truncated cone, towering magnif- icently above all other mountains to an elevation of more than 12,000 feet, is characteristic of Japanese topography. While there are occasional plains, the entire country is hilly or moun- tainous. Since the largest islands are narrow, varying from 100 to 200 miles, it naturally follows that there are no extensive rivers. It is also true that Japan has no lakes of importance, save Biwa. This lack, however, is compensated for by the possession of many lakelets of surpassing beauty, the delight of world tourists. Hardly twelve per cent, of Japan's total area is cultivated, owing to the mountainous character of the country. The ranges are jagged in appearance and are punc- tuated by many active volcanoes which occasionally emit fire and molten lava. The mountainsides are covered in most cases with a variety of beautiful trees. It is claimed that no other country in the East is so well supplied with useful timber. On Yezo alone thirty-six varieties, including oak, are to be found, and " the whole of the Hokkaido is one huge lumber yard." Among the trees are those furnishing camphor, most of the world's supply being entirely in the hands of Japan. There are no large farms to be seen. Little plots not much larger than Occidental vegetable gardens, cultivated most as- siduously by both women and men, take the place of our more extensive fields. A feature of the landscape which the trav- eler can never forget is due to Japanese enterprise and the lack of level land. Far up the mountainside, sometimes to the very summit, is built a giant staircase composed of successive arti- ficial platforms where most luxuriant crops are raised, the water descending from one level to the next until it finally reaches the sea. Rice is the prevailing production and more can be raised per acre here than elsewhere in the world. About 206 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS half of the cultivated land is covered with this grain. In cer- tain sections of the country, the cultivation of the tea shrub and mulberry trees, necessary in the silk industry, gives great beauty to the landscape, with its bevies of women busily en- gaged in the culture. Japan should be called the Flozvery Kingdom rather than China, as at certain seasons the whole country is aflame with color. Aside from its world-famed cherry blossoms and the chrysanthemum, the national flower, lotuses, lilies of every variety, and wild flowers in profusion are present almost throughout the year. Unlike Korea and China, Japan is admirably provided with highways and bridges, narrow indeed, but in the main, kept in excellent repair. Railroads are rapidly increasing in num- ber; while every grade of steamer, from a launch to ocean- going steamships, furnish easy communication along the coast. 3. No account of Japan can omit mentioning its famous Inland Sea. Extending between the main island and its two southern neighbors, it presents a combination of attractions that is nowhere surpassed. At places one is reminded of the lower Hudson, while elsewhere the Thousand Islands of the St. Law- rence are eclipsed. Lake Lucerne and Ireland's Killarney are also suggested as parallels ; but none of these have that added charm of wooded or terraced hills dotted with toy hamlets and alive with the strange activities of the Far East. 4. Nature's Perils. — This highly favored land is subjected to a variety of catastrophes, which cannot be guarded against by any human foresight. It is remarkably volcanic, and fre- quent eruptions have always wrought great havoc. The latest disaster of this sort occurred in 1888 when Bandai San, which had been quiescent for more than a millennium, suddenly broke forth, blowing off one side of the mountain and covering the country with debris. Many villages were destroyed and lives lost. Earthquakes are more frequent in Japan than in almost any other section of the globe. Government records show an aver- JAPAN AND ITS OUTLYING ISLANDS 207 ag-e of about one a day. While most of these are not notice- able, seismic disturbances have made the Empire famous. Thus in 1 89 1 fully 22,000 persons were killed or wounded by an earthquake, besides more than a million who were left homeless thereby. Destructive tidal waves, which are probably the results of seismic movements in the ocean are another terror dreaded by the Japanese. About 30,000 people on the north coast of Hondo lost their lives from a high wave in 1896. The Oriental cyclone, known as the typhoon, is a yearly visitant on the Japanese coast. Houses are overthrown, vil- lages along the coast are likely to be inundated, and shipping is an easy victim to these devastating winds. 5. Climatic Conditions. — The prevailing impression made by Japan's climate is that of dampness. Winter and summer alike, the rains and moisture resulting from its situation in the ocean make it somewhat disagreeable to the Occidental. So far as temperature is concerned, the main islands do not suffer from cold ; though a moderate degree of coldness is more noticeable than in dry climates, or where the houses are pro- vided with suitable heating conveniences. Most writers on the subject emphasize the lack of ozone in the air. It is esti- mated that only about one-third of the amount present in most countries enters into the composition of the Japanese atmos- phere. As a result of the trying heat of summer, the lack of ozone, and, as some contend, of electricity in the air, new mis- sionaries often suffer. Indeed one must learn to take life less seriously than the pressing demands of Europe and America require. Lung diseases, dysentery, and rheumatism are a men- ace to the health of new comers, and Japanese climate is some- what notorious as inducing breakdowns where one is inclined to nervousness. A redeeming feature of the climate is the fact that unlike India, Japan favors the children of Western parent- age, so that they do not need to be sent to the home lands at an early age. II. The Japanese. — People of the West have become tol- erably familiar with a class of Japanese residing in their midst 208 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS which, as compared with the Chinese seen, gives wrong im- pressions of the two countries. It should be remembered that in the case of the Chinese, nearly all of those met with belong to the lower or lowest classes. The Japanese in America and Europe, on the contrary, are with the exception of laborers and artisans on the Pacific Slope, representative of the middle or higher classes of the Empire and are here almost universally for the sake of education. I. The origin of this interesting people, who in 1898 num- bered nearly forty-four millions, exclusive of Formosa and the Pescadores, is a controverted question. A casual acquaintance with the masses in Japan enables one to recognize two general types. One is that of the better elements in the community, whose faces are oval with well chiselled features, and whose general appearance is refined and attractive. The lower classes in society, on the contrary, have faces anything but interesting. They are round and flattened, the eyes are oblique and almost level with the face, while the nose is straight and upturned at the roots. These types of the nobility and gentry on one hand, and, on the other, of the laboring classes, are variously ac- counted for. Some ethnologists contend for two streams of immigration. The first is from Northern Asia and is supposed to have reached Japan via Korea, or Sakhalin, which is sepa- rated from Siberia by a channel only five miles wide. The other stream of immigrants, according to this theory, came from the Malay Archipelago, having drifted in their boats on the cur- rent of the Black Stream. Another school claims that the dif- ferences noted do not mark different race stocks, but that both are variants of a common Mongolian origin. These immi- grants from the mainland may have come from the North or from Central China, and hence the differing physical charac- teristics. As this latter view is championed by such author- ities as Professor Rein, it is perhaps more commonly accepted than the first theory. Aside from the two types just mentioned, there is a third and widely different element in the North, the Ainu. This most JAPAN AND ITS OUTLYING ISLANDS 2O9 interesting though decaying people are probably the survivors of the aborigines, and are found on the northern island of Yezo. They are estimated to number about 17,000 only. Professor Chamberlain says of them : " They are the hairiest race in the whole world, their luxuriantly thick black beards and hairy limbs giving them an appearance which contrasts strangely with the smoothness of their Japanese lords and masters. They are of a sturdy build, and distinguished by a flattening of cer- tain bones of the arm and leg — the tibia and humerus — which has been observed nowhere else except in the remains of some of the cave-men of Europe. The women tattoo mustaches on their upper lips and geometrical patterns on their hands. Both sexes are of a mild and amiable disposition, but are terribly addicted to drunkenness. They are filthily dirty, the practice of bathing being altogether unknown. Their religion is a simple nature-worship. The sun, wind, ocean, bear, etc., are deified, and whittled sticks are set up in their honor. The bear, though worshiped, is also sacrificed and eaten with solemnities that form the most original and picturesque feat- ures of Ainu life." 2. The most striking impression made by the Japanese upon the traveler as he lands at one of their ports and is rowed by a man who is an aggregation of knotted muscles to the shore, there to be whirled away by a fellow-countryman in an exag- gerated baby carriage at a pace excelling that of an ordinary horse, is one of admiration for their physical development. The boatman and puller of the kuruma are not, however, repre- sentative of the nation as a whole; for, while they and the peasants, including their women, have great powers of endur- ance and much strength, physical weakness characterizes the upper and middle classes. 3. Socially considered the race is a most charming one. Ex- ternally happy and smiling, and polite to a distressing degree, they are in addition unusually gregarious. Well-known illus- trations of this instinct are the numerous parties formed dur- ing cherry-blossom time, and on other occasions of leisure ^iO GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS when multitudes gather to drink tea and enjoy social inter- course. While the position assigned to woman is far from ideal, her condition in Japan is much higher than in other lands and with the new education she is rising to the place where her social influence is being felt. 4. Another marked characteristic of this people is their un- usual mental capacity. They have a genuine thirst for knowl- edge, and, wholly unlike the Chinese, study for the sake of learning itself. At the close of 1897, however, when the num- ber of children between the ages of six and fourteen was 7,730,441, less than fifty-five per cent, of that number were under instruction of all ages and grades of advancement. Western acquaintance with young Japanese students is a suffi- cient commentary upon their rare intellectual gifts ; while the achievements of Japanese professors in botany, biology and seismology are indications of the practical value of the new education. They will undoubtedly furnish some of the greatest scholars and specialists of the twentieth century. 5. Their ccsthetic development has already far advanced. It is true that hitherto it has been normal only in the direction of appreciation and devotion to natural beauty. When it concerns art, Chinese conventionalism has been predominant. This, however, is rapidly changing as higher ideals are being grasped. Already the finest embroideries and cloisonne work are the production of Japanese artisans, possessed of a remark- able degree of taste. 6. If one seeks for the secret of Japan's recent successes, it will be found to have its root in an all-pervasive patriotism; some one has called it almost fanaticism. " From earliest in- fancy it is instilled into the minds of the children and there is not one of the little ones in whose heart his country has not the first place. A native writer has expressed the sentiments of every Japanese thus : ' My native land ! Everywhere and al- ways the first affections of my heart and the first labor of my hands shall be thine alone.' " During part of the last decade, this patriotic fervor and the keen appreciation of what they JAPAN AND ITS OUTLYING ISLANDS 211 deemed national wrong inflicted upon them by Western nations, — especially in the ex-territorial regulations, — occasioned an exaggerated nationalistic feeling with a decidedly anti-foreign coloring. 7. Idealism is another characteristic of the Japanese. It is nourished by the past and the anticipated future of their own national existence, and especially by the example of early heroes. These they worship in both a literal and figurative sense. Schoolbooks and other literature laud the deeds of noted individuals, and all classes in society are affected by men of national reputation. Mr. Gary quotes from a noted Japa- nese, Mr. Yokoi, one unfortunate result of this usually helpful characteristic. " The quiet, peaceful performance of daily duties, small and unheroic, but so necessary for the highest social welfare, seemed to fall into comparative neglect." The same author likewise repeats with approval Professor G. T. Ladd's opinion : " It is difficult to secure from natives friend- ship and devotion, or even much steadfast interest, for any one out of whom they cannot make and maintain a hero." 8. Like men of every nation, this interesting people have their weaknesses. Thus as yet they are not possessed of great inventive power, being rather at an imitative stage. So too, they are lacking in steadiness of purpose ; though the charge of fickleness is not wholly maintained, and is accounted for largely by the necessary experiments required in the rapid progress of the last fifty years. Percival Lowell has exag- gerated facts in his statement that they are without the idea of personality. As a matter of fact individual responsibility is not keenly felt, which is about as far as that criticism can be pressed. Missionaries have with some reason charged them with in- gratitude, and it is true that many of those who have been greatly indebted to their foreign teachers, have turned against them with little thought of previous obligations. It is also stated with some reason that the Japanese regard for life is not sufficiently cultivated. Statistics of suicide show the low estimate which the individual places upon man's most precious 212 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS possession. Such factors as heat and discomfort or the failure of the rice crop, increase the number of suicides. Other mat- ters affecting moraHty are mentioned below. III. Japanese Language and Literature. — i. The af- filiations of the Japanese language are still a matter of dispute. One of the foremost authorities on the subject, Professor Chamberlain, writes : " It is doubtful to what family of lan- guages the Japanese belongs. In structure, though not to any appreciable extent in vocabulary, it closely resembles Korean ; and both it and Korean may possibly be related to Mongol and Manchurian, and may therefore claim to be included in the Al- taic group. Be this as it may, Japanese is what philologists term an agglutinative language ; that is to say, it builds up its words and grammatical forms by means of suffixes loosely soldered to the root or stem, which is invariable." 2. The varieties of speech and writing are a notable feature of the language. This is due to the fact that when Chinese lit- erature was first introduced, the written and spoken Japanese were the same, but the new learning was so attractive to scholars that they immediately introduced many Chinese words into their vocabulary, while at the same time the Chinese ideo- graphs became part of the national possessions. This Chinese element, which has gained a large increment since the revolu- tion of 1868, when Western ideas demanded new words for their expression, has affected both the speech and the printed page. There are two Chinese pronunciations and one Japanese of very many words in common use. An illustration familiar to every reader is the Japanese-Chinese term san and the Japan- ese pronunciation yama of the same character meaning moun- tain. This double or triple naming of objects and actions is an occasion of serious labor to all foreigners. Scholars affect the Chinese pronunciations and thus speak a language which is somewhat unintelligible. In writing, also, one notices a large variation in the native books. The simplest are written almost entirely in the Japanese katakana or native syllabary. A medium grade of books is well sprinkled with Chinese char- JAPAN AND ITS OUTLYING ISLANDS 213 acters, while a higher class of literature is wholly in Chinese, either with or without marginal numerals indicating the order in which the characters are to be translated. 3. It is evident from the above that the missionary has no slight task before him if he intends to master Japanese ; since, aside from contending against the temptation to speak English only as would be possible in many quarters, he must learn the vernacular, and if he is ambitious he ought also to know the Chinese pronunciation, or even the Chinese characters for many words. Then, as in Korea, he is confronted by a complicated system of honorifics and, as in the Arabic-speaking countries, with a multitude of terms applicable to the same object. Thus, if he thinks he has learned once for all the word for rice, meshi, he is appalled upon experimenting with his new treasure to find that if he is speaking of a child's rice, he should use the word mama ; if addressing his teacher, he must call it gozen, while merchants call the unboiled rice kome, and growing rice is known as ine. It is not surprising that Protestant missionaries many years ago before English was so commonly used, unan- imously resolved : " Whether we regard the missionary's health, his efficiency as a worker, or his ability to work har- moniously with the Japanese brethren, it is our opinion that his highest and most permanent successes demand that for a period of at least three years he ought not to be expected to take any responsible charge, but should give his whole time and strength to the work of securing a knowledge of the lan- guage and people." This judgment still has weight with all who are really intent upon using in their work the most effi- cient and satisfactory medium of communication. 4. The literature of the country dates from the eighth cen- tury of our era, the two oldest works being the Kojiki, " Rec- ords of Ancient Matters," and the Nihongi, or " Chronicles of Japan." They contain the early history of the nation, as well as much fabulous material concerning its cosmogony and myth- ology, mingled with many indecencies. One striking feature about later books which in general are " meager and vapid 214 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS when compared with European literature," is the fact noted by the famous authority on the subject, W. G. Aston : " I beheve no parallel is to be found in the history of European letters to the remarkable fact that a very large proportion of the best writings of the best age of Japanese literature was the work of women." During the past century the cause of reform and national enlargement has been largely forwarded by literature ; though the Chinese element in it is increasingly useful because of the need of new nomenclatures. At the same time the Chi- nese is so burdensome and time-consuming, that it is a question whether it will survive the present century for popular use, IV. Religions and Morals. — India and Japan are equally prominent among the greater nations in their emphasis of religion. A few smaller countries, both cultivated and savage, are similarly devoted, but lack the religious intelligence found in the Sunrise Kingdom. I. Shintoism. — This is not only the national cult of Japan, but it is also the first historically. As the Chinese characters Shin-to indicate, this religion is the " god-way." Dr. Peery has written concerning it : " It has no moral code, no dogmas, no sacred book. Originally it consisted chiefly of ancestor- and nature-worship and of certain mythological ideas. A chief feature of it still is the worship of ancestors who are exalted to a high pedestal in thought and worshipped as gods. The divine origin of the Imperial Family and the obligation to wor- ship and obey it, is a prominent teaching of Shinto. The an- cestors of the Imperial Family were to be held in supreme rev- erence and were the objects of especial worship." As Mr. Kodera has said, it is " simply a remnant of the primitive wor- ship long prevalent among the rude tribes of the islands of Japan, and subsequently developed and shaped according to the degree of civilization to which they attained." It is question- able, however, whether Shintoism can be rightly called a religion, though it serves very well as a system for furthering loyalty and devotion to the reigning house. Shinto temples are very appropriately of the simplest char- JAPAN AND ITS OUTLYING ISLANDS 215 acter. They are built of plain uncolored wood, are thatched or covered with shingles, and their torii are made of trunks of fir with the bark removed. The most sacred shrines in the country are those of the Sun-goddess and the Goddess of Food in the province of Ise. They are annually visited by thousands of pilgrims from all parts of the Empire. " Enter- ing one of these temples, one is struck with the absence of images and the presence of the mirror, which has been vari- ously explained, and also of the gohei, a wand of unpainted wood upon which are suspended two strips of paper notched alternately on opposite sides. At the services ancient formulae are recited and offerings of rice, fruit, etc., made, these rites being often accompanied by shrill instrumental music." 2. Buddhism makes itself evident by a multitude of famous temples located most picturesquely and by sounds which, if once heard are never forgotten, coming as they do from sweet- toned bronze bells through the stillness of the night or early morning. It was introduced into Japan via the bridge of Korea about the middle of the sixth century. The nobles were favor- ably inclined toward the teachings of the Buddhist missionaries, but it was not until the ninth century that it gained any pop- ular following. Its doctrines are those of the northern type of this faith, but they vary greatly according to the peculiar views of its numer- ous divisions. The most influential of these is known as the Shin sect. One striking feature in the belief of this sect, is its theory as to the way of salvation. They hold that men of all conditions and times, if they will only put forth the believing heart and invoke Amida Buddha, will be born in heaven and so reach Nirvana. Consequently sect members repeat hundreds of times daily the formula Namu Amida Butsu, " Hail, Amida Buddha ! " and strive for the believing heart which is con- ferred by his power. Their idea is not so much to possess sal- vation as a reward, but to express gratitude for the boundless compassion of Amida and for the certainty of being born into his Pure Land. 2l6 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS While at the time of their entrance into Japan Buddhist priests were teachers of the Empire ancf "^ell versed in the cult- ure of their day, they later became "ignorant and despised. A persecuting spirit between the various sects arose and this led to great loss of power. At present re-formed. Buddhism is adopting the methods of Christianity, especially^thbse so help- ful in Sunday Schools and Young IVPen's Christian Associa- tions. They are also doing something 'in the way of missionary work in adjacent countries and islands. 3. Other Systems. — Confucianism has exerted a larger ethical influence upon Japan than either of the religions men- tioned, though deserving to be called a religion even less than Shintoism. It differs in no respect from the Confucianism of China ; but fortunately it has exerted a greater moral influence, especially upon the higher classes, than in its natal country. A sect of Shinto, called Kurosumi, has had a remarkable history, resembling in many respects the Christian Science of Western lands. While the Sun-god is the chief object of wor- ship, the healing of diseases is the prominent feature, as also the emphasis of righteousness to be conquered by overcoming selfishness. " Cheerfulness, thankfulness for the blessings re- ceived from the gods, faith, freedom from evil desires, and self- restraint are the virtues most emphasized." Another sect, known as Tenrikyo, " Doctrine of the Heav- enly Reason," during the century just closed, has had a most remarkable growth. Strange to say, its founder was a peasant woman who, at forty years of age, received in a trance revela- tions from the gods, who used her personality to enlighten man- kind. Her teachings are so nearly akin to those of Christian- ity that they are quoted more or less in Christian sermons of the Japanese. The most hopeful feature about this sect is the ex- hibition given of the possibilities of the missionary propaganda of Christianity. Everywhere, men of the lower classes who be- lieve in these doctrines, engage in preaching and otherwise spread the knowledge of their faith. Just now the sect seems to be loosening its hold upon the people. JAPAN AND ITS OUTLYING ISLANDS 217 4. Moral Defects of Japanese Character. — When, at the un- locking of Japan, foreigners first came into contact with this people, they were shocked by the open evidences of impurity, and it consequently was called " The Land of Licentiousness." While it is now not so manifest as in the earlier days, partly because of the government licensing of vice and its confinement to the yoshiwara sections of great cities, it is still a bane of the Empire. This evil is to a certain extent the result of a perver- sion of filial piety. Daughters of a family reduced to want are regarded as meritorious if they sell themselves to a life of shame for the sake of aiding their parents. The first great statesman from the West who came into con- tact with these people, Townsend Harris, was shocked by their lack of truthfulness, and went so far as to call them " the greatest liars upon the face of the earth." Had he been equally conversant with other non-Christian lands, perhaps he would not have judged them so harshly. Even in the present stage of Japan's advancement, truth is too little valued, and the priests do not hesitate to admit that they are teaching the people a mass of falsehoods. Dishonesty, especially in commercial affairs, is another trait which greatly influences Occidental merchants against this wonderful people. Many of them prefer to have at the head of their establishments Chinese compradores, for the reason that they are more trustworthy and honest. " Foreigners trad- ing in Japan are loud in their complaints against the native merchants who do not deliver goods equal to the sample, nor fulfil contracts that involve them in any loss. The peasantry is, in the main, honest. Domestic servants and other employees are in the habit of taking squeezes from what passes through their hands." Intemperance is also a weakness, not especially evident to the traveler, but nevertheless prevalent enough if one goes to the tea houses or to places where rice liquor, called sake, is freely imbibed. The introduction of cheap alcohol from Amer- ica and Europe, which is mixed with water, sugar and various 2l8 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS flavors, is greatly increasing the evils of intemperance, since it is sold at a very low price. V. Outlying Islands. — The Japanese chain is almost continuous from Kamchatka to Formosa ; yet aside from the main islands, only those that have been the scene of missionary effort will be mentioned. 1. The least important of these are the Riukiu Islands (Luchu, Loochoo), thirty-seven in number, which stretch like a bow most of the distance between Japan and Formosa. They abound in grass and trees and are picturesquely beautiful. Their inhabitants, estimated to number 170,000, are extremely similar in language and race to the Japanese, Their manners, customs and Shinto religious observances are almost identical with those of Japan. 2. Formosa is wholly deserving its name, " The Beautiful." The Chinese call it Tai-wan. The scenery along the eastern coast, where the mountainous backbone of the island lies near the shore, is " beautiful and fantastic. Domes and peaks and wall-like precipices succeed each other in striking variety. A brilliant verdure clothes their sides, down which dash cascades that shine like silver in the tropical sunlight." Our green- houses are enriched by a number or orchids and ornamental plants that came originally from Formosa. The eastern slopes of this central range constitute an extended alluvial plain gashed with many water channels and terminating in sand-flats. Here rice is so abundant that Formosa has been called " the granary of China." Its people are of varied races and numbered 2,728,817 in 1897. This is a little less than the population of Massachusetts in 1900, while Formosa's area is nearly the same as that of Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut combined. The Chinese occupy the western part of the island, and the re- mainder is peopled by aborigines who are of Malay extrac- tion. These are subdivided into a partly civilized section, in- habiting the western base of the mountains, while the remain- ing and most numerous portion are in their aboriginal state and JAPAN AND ITS OUTLYING ISLANDS 2I9 live in the eastern half of the island on the mountains. They are head-hunters and retain other primitive Malay customs. The tattooing of their women is very grotesque. With the cession of the island to Japan in 1895, a consider- able influx of Japanese resulted and under its Governor-gen- eral pacification is proceeding, though " the process of sub- jugation is ruthless and indiscriminate." The officials are genuinely desirous of securing a righteous administration, but the soldiery are often overbearing and brutal. Missionaries there are now subject to the Japanese regulations. PART XL — MISSIONARY I. Epitome of Protestant Progress. — As the first Prot- estant missionaries arrived in Japan only forty-two years ago, and as the real status of present-day missions can be better understood by a reference to the earlier work, a brief summary is given. I. Protestant missions sent their earliest representatives to the Empire five years after Commodore Perry had opened Japan's sea-gates to the Occident in 1854. Not until March, 1872, however, was the first church of eleven young men formed at Yokohama. It was prophetic of later events that this earliest Protestant society should be called " The Church of Christ in Japan," and that the opening article of its Constitution should read : " Our church does not belong to any sect what- ever ; it believes only in the name of Christ in whom all are one ; it believes that all who take the Bible as their guide and who diligently study it are the servants of Christ and our brethren. For this reason all believers on earth belong to the family of Christ in the bonds of brotherly love." At that date the edicts against Christianity were still in force and Prince Iwakura had recently said in response to the remonstrances of foreign min- isters against the persecution of Catholics : " This government rests upon the theory that the Mikado is tenshi, son of heaven, 220 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS that is, Son of God. Christianity would bring in a second Son of God; therefore we will resist it as we would an invading army." Nevertheless, in 1873, this same Prince recommended the removal of the edict-boards prohibiting the espousal of Christianity, when his visit to America and Europe in 1871 had convinced him that they were injuring the country in the esti- mation of Western nations who would not grant concessions while such evidences of barbarity remained. 2. The period of popularity, beginning with 1873, culmi- nated in 1868. The Revolution in 1868 had left men in a seeth- ing condition of unrest. The new possibilities dazed even their leaders. Of these fifteen years the late Dr. M. L. Gor- don, a witness of the events narrated, thus writes : " The state of things which followed is almost without parallel. Mission- ary schools were crowded with the sons and daughters of high and low. A missionary was called to lay the foundation of a national university and to be a general adviser to the Govern- ment. Statesmen, men of wealth, governors and lower offi- cials became the patrons of Christian schools and sometimes opened their houses for religious services. From all quarters came requests to hold meetings in schoolhouses and theaters. Audiences numbering several hundreds, sometimes 1,000 or 1,500, were readily got together, and they would listen to a suc- cession of speakers through four or five hours, or even longer. ' We have seen the power of God to-day ! ' was a frequent ejac- ulation. Witnesses of those scenes will never forget them. In every three years the Church was doubled. These years of the appropriation and more or less thorough assimilation of the best of Western thought and life were the most momentous in the nation's history. This period more than all others was creative of the New Japan." 3. Later followed a reaction which has been powerful almost to the close of the nineteenth century and still has some force. The author above quoted, thus continues : " The Conservatives were quick to seize upon extravagancies and excesses of the new movement as a reason for opposing the movement itself, JAPAN AND ITS OUTLYING ISLANDS 221 adroit in representing the unchristian acts of Christian nations as the legitimate fruit of the teaching of Christ, and skillful in appealing to the patriotism and the passions of their people. Assassination was the fate of more than one reformer. A mor- bid nationalism, constantly transforming itself into the hatred of foreigners, became epidemic. Cooperation with mission- aries, as with other foreigners, became impossible, and the schools so hopefully started on that basis a few years before were broken up. The pathway of the Japanese Christians was sown thick with thorns. Bowing before the Imperial portraits was made a test of loyalty. Confession of Christ was often followed by loss of position in school or government office. Along with assertions of the moribund condition of evangelical Christianity in America and the untrustworthiness of the Bible, doubts of the fundamental teachings of Christ were taught, and distrust of their, missionary teachers was fostered in the minds of Japanese believers by liberals from other countries and by Japanese who had studied abroad and now returned to aston- ish their people with a Christless Christianity. The flock of Christ was dazed and discouraged. Church attendance, Bible reading, pure and prayerful living, brotherly love and evangel- istic zeal received a chill — in the hearts of many ministers and laymen, the chill of death. The period of opposition had reached its culmination." With the revision of the treaties in 1899 and Japan's recognition as a most valuable factor in the Chinese Boxer uprising of 1900, the tide is again setting in the right direction and Christianity once more advances. II. Protestant Missions To-day. — i. The forces en- gaged are mainly American, thirty-one societies being from the United States and Canada, while seven are from Great Britain and one from the Continent, besides the Salvation Army, the Hephzibah Faith Mission and four local societies. Mr. Loomis's religious statistics, which are gathered annually in Japan, give the following data for 1900 : Missionaries, 757 ; stations, 157 (including many where more than one society labor, so that the number is too large by about fifty) ; organ- 12i GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS ized churches, 443, of which ninety-five are self-supporting; church members, 42,451 ; native ministers, 321 ; unordained preachers and helpers, 558 ; Bible women, 224. 2. The same authority furnishes these statistics of work done by the above force and by the churches to which they belong: sixteen boys' boarding schools with 2,270 scholars; forty-five girls' boarding schools with 3,361 scholars ; eighty- five day schools with 6,086 pupils ; 949 Sunday-schools with 36,310 scholars; sixteen theological schools with 120 students; thirteen schools for Bible women with 175 students; six hos- pitals and eight dispensaries at which 2,121 patients had been treated during the year. This by no means exhausts the list of activities of the Protestant Church. The noteworthy trans- lations of the Bible and other Christian literature, and the ex- tremely valuable original works in Japanese; the remarkable prominence of Japanese Christians in the literary, social and political world ; their intense interest in practical philanthropies and reforms, as seen in their score of orphanages and the homes for lepers, the aged and ex-convicts, the agitation against vice, etc. ; all these and many other forms of effort make Japan a re- markable mission field, so that any apparent setback follow- ing the reaction of a decade ago is only relative. If the present fruitage of work in Japan were found in other mission lands, it would be regarded as very satisfactory. 3. This progress is made under many discouragements. In Part I of this chapter were indicated those personal charac- teristics which would naturally make the soil a stony one for the lodgment of truth. Immorality is by common consent the one sin which most hinders the reception of a pure gospel ; while intemperance, untruthfulness, an exaggerated form of patriotism and a very natural materialism stand next in the list of moral obstacles that Christianity must overcome in sav- ing Japan's soul. The forms of false belief that come most often to the front as missionaries converse with the people are agnosticism and atheism among the modern scholars of the Empire. Ancestor JAPAN AND ITS OUTLYING ISLANDS 223 worship, SO powerful in the days of Japan's tutelage to China, has little force to-day except among elderly people. Pantheism has its hold on many who in consequence find it difficult to believe in the personality of God and also are inclined to hold it illogical to assent to the conscious survival of the soul after death. Indeed, many flatly deny immortality. Buddhism has a strong fascination for a multitude, especially in the modern forms mentioned in Part I. Its doctrine of " ingwa " — cause and effect, leading to practical fatalism, and the more common inclination to idol worship and the Buddhist ceremonies at death, enthrall many who would otherwise heed the Christian call. Unfortunately indifference to all religion makes scoffers of multitudes. 4. If obstacles are many, aids and encouragements are also numerous. Christianity of the Protestant type gained its first strong hold on the Samurai class, thus reversing the usual or- der according to which " to the poor the gospel is preached." Though they are now much less numerous than formerly, they number perhaps two millions, and are a powerful influence in the community. Character is being transformed through the Spirit's use of moral education, tact and wisdom on the part of the missionary, and above all through the testimony of a pure life endorsing the patient teaching and preaching of the gospel. In the realm of religion and ethics, workers have found a lev- erage in Confucianism's doctrines of filial obedience and loyalty to rulers, by means of which the higher and cognate duty of obedience to the Lord of all is exalted. The Buddhist view of " ingwa " is effective for Christianity just as it is an obstacle to its acceptance, and the doctrine of faith as held by the Shin sect is also helpful. The fact that the native religions contain no dynamic life is always a thought that aids the genuine seeker after righteousness. The thirst for a divine man and the love of the beautiful in morality as well as in nature, are the incen- tives in many lives that bring them to Jesus. Always the mis- sionary must proceed with great courtesy and kindness and must show that he has a logical mind, especially if dealing with 224 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS the mofe intelligent classes. While philosophy is not now so much affected as it was a decade since, a strong influence is sure to be exerted upon the educated by this form of meeting the views of the inquirer. 5. A crucial difficulty greatly hampering missionary work, is found in the government attitude toward religious education. The Imperial Edict on Education of 1890 had been utilized by enemies of Christianity for making an attack on its diver- gent system of morality; but a more serious obstacle presents itself in the Ministerial Regulation of August 3, 1899, which ran thus : " All schools which give a general education shall be independent of religion ; therefore it is not permitted in gov- ernment schools and in other public schools, as well as in those schools which are guided by the ordinances touching public schools, to impart religious instruction, or to celebrate religious ceremonies, whether within or without the regular school hours." Other rulings increase the difficulties here suggested. The seriousness of this problem may be seen from the fol- lowing considerations : Christian schools of the lower order cease to be as helpful to religion as formerly. The influence upon an impressionable child that may come from a Christian teacher who is at liberty to inculcate by word as well as by deed the truths of Christianity is very largely made inert. More important, however, is the effect that is produced upon Sunday-school work. Hitherto these missionary schools had the Sunday-school as part of their program, the one feeding the other ; this is impossible now unless additional buildings are available, and even then attendance would only be small be- cause entirely voluntary. Institutions of a higher grade are even more seriously affected. Either religion must be ban- ished from such instruction, or students must be subjected to examination in passing into higher government institutions, in- stead of their entering by certificate as in native schools, and even then they are not relieved of the possibility of military conscription. Under these conditions many promising Chris- tians are tempted to forsake Protestant institutions and enter j JAPAN AND ITS OUTLYING ISLANDS 225 government schools and colleges with all the temptations in- cident thereto. Colleges like Neesima's Doshisha and the Tokyo Meiji Gakuin are severely crippled by such a regulation. There are alleviating considerations, however. It is to be re- membered that Japan is not a Christian nation and that only about one in every three hundred and fifty of its population claims to profess Christianity of any sort. Of these forms of Christianity Romanism and Protestantism are at decided variance, while the Buddhists and to a less degree the Shinto- ists are ready to use the schools as places of propagandism. The authorities must be impartial and, while Christianity loses by the present regime, its opponents are equally hampered in their schemes. Moreover, private schools are not forbidden ; they can continue as religious as before, and, if they desire, can follow the admirable curriculum of the government schools. If satisfactory work is done, their pupils ought not to fear the prescribed examinations for entry into higher government in- stitutions. How long the present regulations will last is not known, but that they can be readily changed, since they are not laws, is evident; and strong remonstrances by missionary educators may eventually be heeded, notwithstanding present failure. It may be a providence in disguise; for, as Pastor Schiller has pointed out, it may lead to concentration on " the old apostolic means, preaching of the Word by speech or writ- ing, and the influence of exemplary Christian characters." He cites as a parallel the passing of medical missions because of Japan's medical progress, and the gain to the Christian cause incident thereto. In any case, missionaries are brought face to face with Rev. E. A. Booth's question : " Has the Church of God a legitimate call to maintain and carry on at great expense of money and men, purely secular education for the sake of reaching a possible few individuals among the pupils who may be induced to attend Christian services a few times a week ? This is a question upon which the voice of Christendom should be heard with no uncertain sound; especially when it is borne in mind that the system of education which must in that case 2.26 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS be followed is openly and avowedly unchristian." Theological schools will doubtless continue, unaffected by the Department of Education, and it is quite possible that a great union Chris- tian University may rise to meet the needs of the Church in all its branches, as was suggested with unanimous approval at a gathering of about one hundred educational missionaries early in 1900, III. The Outlook. — i. The Two Great Religions. — Of the two rivals of Christianity in Japan, Shintoism has practi- cally withdrawn from the field. The authorities at its Mecca, the central shrine of Ise, have renounced all claim to be repre- sentatives of a religion and have been incorporated " as an as- sociation to perpetuate the memory of Japan's single line of emperors and to foster the principles of Japanese patriotism. Many other Shinto sects retain their claim to be a religion, but this central association discourages them in every possible way ; and it is not improbable that all Shintoism will eventually be absorbed into the Ise movement, and every Japanese will be a Shintoist in the sense that he is profoundly loyal and pa- triotic. The significance of this movement seems to be that Shintoism as a religion has no future." Another fact looking in that direction is indicated by Dr. Correll in speaking of the Government's regulation concerning religion in schools : " It has long been a question whether the ceremony performed in the schools on the Emperor's birthday, November 3, when all teachers and scholars are required to pass in front of the por- traits of the Emperor and Empress and make their obeisance thereto, is a religious service or not, some holding that it is, and others that it is not; but this order settles the dispute, as it could not be allowed if it were a religious ceremony. This is a very important point gained." But Shintoism still retains prayers and acts of worship, and may yet prove an antagonist to Christianity. Buddhism has done its utmost within a few years to be rec- ognized as a state religion, urging its long history and the many benefits conferred on the Empire, and objecting that its modern JAPAN AND ITS OUTLYING ISLANDS 227 rival, Christianity, is an alien faith which is taxed and not men- tioned in the annual reports of the Government. Since the new treaties went into effect in 1899, however, missionaries came imder Japanese law and, as such, were required to register and to state their creeds, methods of work and places of preach- ing. Thus at last Christian missionaries are recognized and the Buddhist objection disappears. 2. The attitude of the Government to Christianity is evi- denced in another particular. More than a year ago it laid be- fore the Diet a religious bill that was passed and brought dis- may to the Buddhists. " It puts all religions on a level, all equally entitled to protection, their teachers exempt from mili- tary duty and their buildings free from taxation. It will mod- ify existing opposition ; it will give the new religion a kind of social standing; it will make it easier for the churches." 3. The Protestant churches are in a hopeful condition and are growing in influence and power. The tendency to ultra- liberalism in theology is yielding to a more reverent and bibli- cal belief ; Christ as the divine and supreme Lord is taking His rightful place in their teaching and lives ; the old-time inter- est in theater-preaching is again calling out audiences of as many as 3,500 who will listen for hours at a time to leading Japanese preachers ; and Christian officials, teachers, chaplains and literary men are once more raising aloft the banner of evangelical Christianity. Self-support is being emphasized and other marks of independence are manifest. Even the terra clausa of the higher government educational institutions is be- ing successfully entered by the College Young Men's Christian Association and by missionaries invited to give Christian lec- tures to their students. 4. The spirit of unity among various branches of the Prot- estant Church justifies Bishop Fyson of the Church Mission- ary Society in the appeal : " God has set before us in this land an open door for reunion such as cannot be found else- where in all the world. It is our duty and privilege to enter this open door and to seize upon every opportunity that pre- 228 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS sents itself for forwarding this movement." His appeal for practical unity was assented to by a meeting of the Sendai mis- sionary body in 1901. Other wider movements show still bet- ter the strength of this desire. For many years the various Presbyterian bodies of the United States, Canada and Scot- land have been united into a single " Church of Christ in Japan," while Episcopalians of every name have formed the " Nippon Sei Kokwai." And during the first month of the twentieth century the various Methodist societies met and agreed to take steps to organize themselves into one " Japan Methodist Church," a consummation which the boards in the home lands ought to make speedily possible. A movement of greater importance still is the report in April, 1901, of the persons appointed at the Conference of the previous October to draft a " Constitution of the Standing Committee of Co- operating Christian Missions in Japan." Its aims are quite similar to those described in the section on the Philippines in the previous chapter, though this report was issued about a fortnight before the Philippine missionaries had agreed upon their plan of union. Already the members of four societies have signed the report, which becomes operative so soon as two-thirds of the missionaries in the Empire assent to its pro- visions. A recent issue of the " Japan Evangelist " further reports that the committee appointed by the late Tokyo Con- ference is proceeding satisfactorily with their union edition of " One Hundred Hymns." When such proofs of harmony are to be seen on every hand, it is not surprising that all are read- ing one Bible and singing the same psalms of thanksgiving to God who has so marvelously transformed within a single life- time this great empire of the East, and so singularly united His servants laboring there. All these facts are a practical ex- emplification of the deliverance passed unanimously by a ris- ing vote at the Japan Conference of 1900: "Resolved, That this Conference of missionaries, in the city of Tokyo assem- bled, hereby declare their conviction that all who through faith are one in Christ, are also one body ; and they therefore implore JAPAN AND ITS OUTLYING ISLANDS 229 all those who love the Lord Jesus and His Church in sincerity to pray therefor and labor thereunto, in order that the true unity, for which the Master prayed on the night in which He was betrayed, may become a reality." 5. This growth in the Christian sentiment of the Empire has an evident effect on the community. How widely the nczv leaven is permeating society may be gathered from a pamphlet just issued by Rev. Dr. Greene, of Tokyo, from which the fol- lowing facts have been taken: In the present Diet Christians have thirteen members, besides the Speaker, and among them some of the most efficient men. " One of them was elected in a strongly Buddhist district by a majority of five to one." Last year, in the Executive Committee of the Liberal party, two of its three members were Christians ; and this year one of the three. Three per cent, of the officers of the army are said to be Christians, and a goodly proportion also of naval officers. The late Rear-Admiral Serata was an ardent and active Chris- tian. Christians in abnormal numbers abound in the universi- ties and government colleges, among both students and in- structors. Not less than three of the great dailies of Tokyo are largely in Christian hands, and Christians are at the head of editorial departments in several others. A very large volume of charitable work and the most successful charitable institu- tions are also under Christian management. From 2,500 to 3,000 youth pass every year out of Christian schools, where they have averaged four years spent under Christian influences. 6. It must not be supposed that the victory of evangelical Christianity has yet been won in Japan. While if we count the Japanese there is nominally one Protestant worker to every 34,000 of the population, after making all allowances there is scarcely one for every one hundred thousand. " Most mis- sions find it wise policy to have their base of operations in the capital. Thus twenty per cent, of all the workers are located at Tokyo ; and while this does not give that great city too many, large country districts are practically untouched. The work of Christianizing Japan has just begun. Only a small fraction of 230 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS this exceedingly important Oriental nation has been Christian- ized, and though this fraction has an influence out of all pro- portion to its size, yet now is the time not to relax effort, but to redouble it." The small number of Japanese theological students deeply concerns the missionaries there, and in addi- tion to that lack, the Tokyo Conference of last October felt from other considerations the necessity of passing the follow- ing minute : " Resolved, That, although the Japanese Chris- tians must in increasing measure undertake the responsibility of Christianizing their land, yet for a still longer time the ser- vices of missionaries from other countries are necessary. We accordingly request our missionary authorities, not only to maintain their present force here, but also to adequately con- sider our petition for a wider reenforcement for special needs." 7. The reenforcements needed are naturally men and women of somewhat unusual qualities of mind and heart. Yet evangel- istic gifts must not be lost sight of, when the reader remem- bers that from May 12 to June 30, 1901, the efforts of the Japan Evangelical Alliance's Twentieth Century Evangelistic Movement led in the city of Tokyo alone to meetings in fifty- two churches, attended by fully 100,000, and resulting in 5,307 converts or inquirers. " The cooperation of all bodies of Chris- tians, the simplicity of the message, the earnestness of the lead- ers, and the use of the open Bible have made a profound im- pression and prepared the way for larger harvests. This move- ment was initiated and in the main carried on by the Japanese themselves, while warmly supported by the missionaries. Able native pastors, prominent educators, and members of Parlia- ment and reformers were leaders in the work, pressing home the guilt of sin, redemption from sin through Jesus Christ, and the call for pure lives. It was a novel thing in Japan for women to take part in these efforts, distributing invitations and laboring with bands of workers in the street meetings. The campaign has extended to several cities and promises to be- come a national movement with far-reaching results." Pente- costal opportunities demand missionaries of spiritual power JAPAN AND ITS OUTLYING ISLANDS 23 1 and evangelistic desires, even though exceptional mental qual- ities are desirable. One of the most marked features of this evangelistic move- ment is the wonderful way in which it is affecting Japanese students. Thus in his tour of the world, Mr. John R. Mott spent the month of October, 1901, in Japan, and the meetings held by him and other Christian Association workers were greatly blessed. At two services held at Sendai 140 students decided to become followers of Christ, while at Tokyo great victories were won. One of the workers writes : " As was the case last night, hundreds of students were turned away because the hall was not large enough. A thousand had packed into the room, which seats about 600, a full hour be- fore the time of the meeting. About 170 students came out clearly in their decision to become disciples of Jesus Christ. This makes 439 such decisions in four meetings during the past three days — all of them students." As efficient com- mittees of earnest Christians were appointed to follow up the work, permanent results of great value are confidently ex- pected. IV. Japan's Outlying Islands. — i. Passing through the northern island of Yezo, where the Church Missionary Society is doing its beneficent work for the rapidly disappearing Ainu who have dwindled to 17,573, one comes to the southern ex- tremity of the Kurile chain. A work begun under one of the representatives of the American Baptist Missionary Union at this point, and now carried on by his widow, Mrs. H. E. Car- penter, accomplished something for the nearest islands of the group. While only touring work has been done, and though foreigners have been on the field in summer for the most part, some of the islanders are being brought into a knowledge of the truth. One of the representatives of the Church Missionary Society has also participated in the enterprise. 2. But little fruitage can be reported from the Riukiu or Luchu Islands, as no foreigner is permanently located there. It is a singular fact that, just as Commodore Perry made Naha -Z-^^. GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS (Nafa, Napha) his base of operations when he moved against Yedo and finally succeeded in opening Japan, so some British naval officers, after opening China to missions, felt so con- cerned about the souls of the Japanese who could not be di- rectly reached, that they formed a missionary society of their own and sent Dr, Bettelheim, a converted Hungarian Jew, as the first Protestant missionary to Naha in 1846. Very few missionaries have ever been so closely hounded and interfered with as he, and finally his health gave way and he withdrew. Mr. Moreton, who followed him, was obliged to leave the field soon, and the work was not again undertaken until a decade ago. At present representatives of the Church Missionary So- ciety, of the Methodist Board, North, and of the Baptist Mis- sionary Union visit it and carry on a permanent work through Japanese pastors acting under their direction. Though the most striking object that one sees on approaching this field is the ever present whited sepulchres that cover the hillsides, the peo- ple are dead only in trespasses and sins; and when brought under the power of Christianity, as many of them have been, they are worthy Christians, albeit very poorly fed and far from clean. What is just now most desired is a larger use of woman's kindly offices ; for nine years have elapsed since Mrs. Thomson " nearly upset the equilibrium of the city of Naha. Her appearance on the street was the signal for a general sus- pension of business. She could clear the public square, which was the general market place, of both merchants and customers inside of three minutes if it was known that she was out walk- ing in any of the streets. This disturbance of the traffic of the place led to the rather amusing request on the part of the police that the lady should stay indoors during the day, only coming out after dark." As compared with other new fields, and in view of the current prejudices against their Japanese masters, the progress made during the ten years of missionary occu- pancy is very satisfactory. 3. Still less has been done for the Bonin Islands, lying to the eastward of the Luchu group. Until their cession to Japan in JAPAN AND ITS OUTLYING ISLANDS 233 1876, the inhabitants were settlers from nearly every nation who had married half-breed wives from Guam, thus constitut- ing a Eurasian colony. To-day the Japanese settlers are the leading element. Mission work among this cosmopolitan com- munity has mainly depended upon the Society for the Propa- gation of the Gospel and its allied St. Andrew's Mission. Rev. C. Johnson, of Kobe, has likewise taken an interest in them, as has Miss Crosby of the Woman's Union Missionary Society. Though no foreigner resides here, occasional visits are made by missionaries, and J. Gonsalves, a very earnest and pious native of the islands, acts for the S. P. G. as resident teacher and evangelist. Emigration, absorption by the Japanese ele- ment, or extinction stares the islanders in the face, the probable outcome being their large intermarriage with Japanese women and the evangelization of the little community, which can never much exceed the present population of about 4,000. 4. Of Formosa one can tell a very different story. This has been practically the sole field of the Presbyterians of Canada, who under the marvelous labors of the recently deceased MacKay, accomplished so much for the northern third of the island, and the Presbyterians of England, who have cultivated the southwestern and central sections, with no less success. Mackay of Uganda wrought no more heroically and fruitfully in his African field than did this Formosan MacKay, whose last report ends thus : " I am not writing about this year 1900, but will state that to-day we are in the midst of progressive and aggressive work. The God of battles is with us. So we can sing ' Onward, Christian Soldiers,' ' Looking unto Jesus.' " This one man, almost unaided and never with more than a single foreign colleague, so lived and enthused his fourscore native assistants, that he gathered together in his churches nearly 1,900 communicants, while his schools had in training 1,314 pupils, and Oxford College forty-three students. His bravery, which never failed him even in the land of the head- hunters, and his large use of lay dentistry, so attracted the people that they willingly listened to the words of this man 234 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS of God. Few men have so successfully used the peripatetic training school as he with his student helpers. Some of the school work of this mission has been given up since the island came under the Japanese educational regulations. The English Presbyterians have found the years following the Japanese occupancy of Formosa the most prosperous in their experience. It is true that touring and visitation have been limited somewhat, but the overthrow of Chinese conserva- tism and the consequent greater openness of that portion of the population have more than counterbalanced this loss. Most of their converts are the civilized aborigines — perhaps two- thirds of them ; but beyond reaching those along the foothills, no attempt has been made to evangelize the wild savages of the eastern half of the island. School work is likely to be somewhat changed under the new order of things and perhaps Japanese will need to be taught ; yet as the new rulers have es- tablished schools everywhere and in the Tainan country alone have founded twenty-five normal schools, there will be less need for enlarging their educational work. The members of their churches not only feel responsible for furthering evangel- ization among their own people, but have also started a mis- sion on the Pescadores. An interesting development of Japanese Christianity is the care taken for their fellow-countrymen in these new fields by the Japanese churches. A number of missionaries from that Empire are laboring here in Formosa, some of them wholly supported by Japanese Christians. With an official exception to be noted below, they are doing little for the natives of the island, however. The attitude of Japanese officials to missions should be noted. The Formosan Republic, which was declared when Japan's sovereignty had been announced, yielded before Japa- nese arms within a few days in the northern part of Formosa; but in the southern portion of the island they gained the vic- tory over the Republic only after months of fighting and delay. This conflict and the losses thereby occasioned have created JAPAN AND ITS OUTLYING ISLANDS 235 subsequent hostility, but this has been far less in those hundred or more districts where Christianity has gained a foothold. Such indirect assistance has greatly pleased the officials, es- pecially in the case of the civilized aborigines. In fact, it has been noted that in one district at least, Japanese Christians have been sent as officials to such a difficult location. Instead of hampering the work, therefore, they encourage missions, though officials consider the missionaries as too conservative and regardful of Chinese feelings. When to this semi-official endorsement of their work are added the facts that the Chinese now feel less bound by their old traditions because they live in Japan rather than in China, and have been profoundly moved by seeing the fraternization of Japanese and Formosan Chris- tians, one can readily believe that the only thing to fear as to the future of Formosa is what Rev. T. Barclay gave expression to at the London Student Volunteer Conference of 1900 : " My chief apprehension for the future of the work on that island does not arise from any fear of what the rulers may do, or from any opposition on the part of the people, but from the in- difference of Christians at home, the unwillingness of divinity students to hear the call the Master is addressing to them." KOREA PART I. — GENERAL This name is a modification of a native appellation of one section of the country, Korai. It is popularly known as the Land of Morning Freshness or Serenity ; though since 1897 the official designation is Dai Han, or the Great Han. I. The Hermit Land. — i. The Interior. — This country, which is an Oriental Florida in form, has been kept hermetic- ally sealed against foreigners for many centuries, save that an occasional shipwreck, or the stealthy entrance of Catholic mis- sionaries, has afforded a few slight glimpses of the land. Since its opening to Occidental nations in 1882, it has become pretty well known. Looking at it from the west, the country roughly resembles the paper portion of an open fan. Along the eastern coast extends a range of mountains from which spurs set off toward the western coast. While these are little more than hills, in many sections they are ranges of considerable eleva- tion, as toward the eastern and northern boundaries. The ma- jority of these hills are denuded of forests, or covered with chaparral, but are in many cases clothed with birch and pine forests which, according to Mr. James, are succeeded higher up " by rich open meadows, bright with flowers of every im- aginable color, where sheets of blue iris, great scarlet tiger- lilies, sweet-scented yellow day-lilies, huge orange buttercups, or purple monkshood delighted the eye; and beyond were bits of park-like country, with groups of spruce and fir beautifully dotted about and spangled with great masses of deep blue gen- 236 KOREA 237 tian, columbines of every shade of mauve or buff, orchids white and red, and many other flowers." Not only is the country a vast checkerboard of hills and mountains, but inter-communi- cation is made difficult through the lack of large rivers and the absence of even respectable roads. 2. Korean Coasts. — As the traveler steams along the sh,ore he is impressed with the barrenness and desolation of the land, especially as there are few inhabited districts near the sea. On the west coast, however, the almost tideless feature that he has left on the eastern shore is replaced. by exceedingly high tides rising to a height of more than thirty feet, and leaving at low water great stretches of mud which sometimes extend almost out of sight from the land. It is this western shore that is crowded with island clusters and that gave the King the name of " Lord of the Ten Thousand Islands." 3. Cliniate and Health. — Of these the well-known traveler, Mrs. Bishop, writes very concisely, though she might have prolonged the three words *' hot and rainy " into a story of much discomfort. " The climate is undoubtedly one of the fin- est and healthiest in the world. Foreigners are not afflicted by any climatic maladies, and European children can be brought up in every part of the peninsula. July, August and sometimes the first half of September, are hot and rainy, but the heat is so tempered by sea-breezes that exercise is always possible. For nine months in the year the skies are generally bright, and a Korean winter is absolutely superb, with its still atmosphere, its bright, blue, unclouded sky, its extreme dryness without asperity, and its crisp, frosty nights. From the middle of September till the end of June, there are neither extremes of heat nor cold to guard against." II. Korean Resources. — i. Like China and India, Korea is almost wholly an agricultural country. The soil is fairly fer- tile where it can be cultivated ; and when " water is abundant and easily manageable, the lower valleys are utilized for rice, the higher portions for millet, beans, wheat, maize, cotton, hemp and tobacco." Rice is not merely a main staple of food, .238 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS "but is in many ways as useful almost as the bamboo or palm in tropical lands, Mr. Gifford writes: "If the Koreans could not live without rice, quite as little could they do without rice straw. With it the common people prepare the feed for their stock, thatch their roofs, make their sandals, braid ropes, weave cables for the anchors of their junks, make sails and mats for their floors, tie up their strings of ten eggs each, and make the sprawling- images of men filled with small coin which they throw upon the roadside the fifteenth day of the first moon of the year to carry away their ill-luck." Ginseng, which is as really useless as it is regarded valuable in China, is collected and cultivated with great assiduity ; since it brings a fabulous price in Chinese markets, $15 per pound often being paid. Forest products will be a considerable source of wealth when improved means of transportation make them generally avail- able. 2. Minerals are an uncertain factor in the wealth of the Em- pire, as they are little worked by the Koreans, and foreigners are practically not permitted to do so. Gold is present and ex- ported to a considerable extent, while silver, copper and iron are also obtained. When railways and roads are extended and a more liberal policy toward foreigners is adopted in the mat- ter of mines, the country will probably develop unexpected wealth, 3. The products of the ocean might be a far greater source of profit to the Koreans than is now the case. The shores swarm with fish, especially along the eastern coast ; but, as in other employments, the Korean will secure a large catch and then spend the proceeds before continuing in the work. Japa- nese fishing boats, after paying the tax required, are each able to earn as much as $500 a year, which, considering wages in Japan, is a good return for the work done. III. Inhabitants of Korea.' — i. Number and General Appearance. — The estimates of the population differ widely, varying from 8,000,000 to twice that figure. Missionaries think that 12,000,000 is as accurate an estimate as can be KOREA 239 given. ^ One who approaches a Korean port is struck by the white garments of the people, the odd-shaped indoor and out- door hats of the married men, and the long braids and hair parted in the middle, of the unmarried youths, which make it natural for the average foreigner to regard them as maidens. The selection of white cloth for their garments is an unfortu- nate one in a land where soap is a luxury indulged in by com- paratively few. It is not just, however, to trust to the aphorism of a world traveler who said that the dirtiest man he ever saw was a clean Korean. Any one who has journeyed inland will testify to the large number of clean-dressed persons, especially the women of the higher classes whom he may be privileged to get a glimpse of. Woolen clothes which are so commonly worn by Occidentals and which are naturally colored, are im- possible in Korea, as, with rare exceptions, sheep are not raised, and the people cannot afford to buy foreign woolens. It should further be said that women very frequently wear blue cotton garments, while boys and girls wear red or pink clothing, when they have reached the age where nakedness is abandoned. There is thus on a Korean street a play of colors, " green, red, pink, white and blue, mingled in kaleidoscopic richness. Some- times all of these are found in a single costume. In style there is no change. The fashion once set, everybody follows it and sticks to it. An odd commentary on this is the fact that the Chinese, who are the embodiment of conservatism, call the Koreans old-fashioned. The present style of dress is conceded to be about 400 years old and corresponds with the Chinese cos- tume of the fifteenth century. In dressing the hair, the Ko- reans use a pomade into the composition of which lampblack or some similar substance enters, since they desire the hair to be 1 "The Korea Review" for January, 1901, states that the official report of the last census "gives a total for the whole country of 5,608,351, but it is evident that is not the total population of Korea. It may be that minors were not included in this count, or that this represents only that portion of the population which pays taxes to the central Government. We incline to the latter hypothesis." 240 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS as black and shiny as possible. The consequence is that the boys soil sadly the backs and shoulders of their tunics and coats, their braids blowing loosely in the wind." After betrothal, the hair is made into a top-knot, and hence the clothing of adults is free from this stain. 2. Their Homes. — These differ very little in that nearly all of them are of one story and are made on the same general plan. The materials, however, vary greatly, ranging from the merest brush hovel, unequal to an Occidental pigstye, to palaces of officials and homes of the wealthy, which are of brick or stone and quite attractive. A bird's-eye view of a collection of ordinary houses reminds one of horseshoes or Greek geomet- rical patterns, the roofs assuming these forms. In the villages roofs are thatched deeply with rice straw, but in the cities and the case of the well-to-do, black tiles take the place of this com- bustible covering. The tiled roofs are gracefully turned up- ward at the corners, and in all cases project three or four feet beyond the building proper. In making floors, the Koreans have modified the k'ang or brick bed prevalent in North China. " By the use of stone and mud, perhaps six parallel flues are built up which converge at each end into an opening leading outside, one into the chimney, the other into the fireplace. These flues are covered over with matched stone slabs, and a smooth coating of mud is laid over all. At least one room has its fireplace so constructed that a couple of round, shallow iron kettles for boiling rice or heat- ing water may be fastened into them. For fuel they burn chopped wood, pine brush or hay." Brass-trimmed cupboards and an occasional painted or embroidered screen, more or less decorated, and the greasy lamp-stand of the Orient holding a little bowl of vegetable oil, with a bit of wick resting on the edge, are the common furnishings of a home. Women are more or less segregated from the family. They are nameless after childhood and are the tool or convenience of man. Slavery exists in a mild form, and bond-women who con- stitute part of well-to-do families, are a feature of Korean life KOREA 241 that awakens compassion; but as compared with the female slaves attached to magistracies — female criminals or the wives of criminals — they are not so much to be pitied. 3. Koreans at Work. — Casual visitors are inclined to deny- that they do any genuine work. An acquaintance with the peo- ple shows, however, that this so-called laziness is produced by official dishonesty leading to the utter discouragement of the poor. " Not only must the regular taxes be paid, but they are subject to the further exaction of officials, runners, inspectors, policemen, soldiers, not to mention the bands of robbers that roam the country every winter and spring." They certainly labor at a disadvantage. A four-in-hand shovel managed by a fifth man who holds the handle, is a fair illustration of Ko- rean waste of labor. On the other hand, surprise is sure to be elicited by the cruelly heavy loads borne by many porters in a frame upon their shoulders. Plowing is as primitive an operation as it was in Palestine in the days of our Lord. Not- withstanding the severe labor undergone, wages only amount to from ten to fourteen cents of American money, though it has a larger purchasing power than it has in any Western country. 4. The Koreans, however, have their pleasures. Like the Japanese, they are great lovers of the beautiful in nature and are as fond of picnics as city children of Occidental lands. " Several scholars will go to some picturesque spot and there compose spring poetry in Chinese, or a party will spend hours in the practice of archery, in which they are quite skillful." The clang of brass gongs, the notes of tambourines, circles of young men and boys — some of them dressed in female attire — engaged in dancing, are pleasing scenes. Their " stone- fights " are the antipodes of this sort of enjoyment and re- semble a snow-ball battle ; they are, of course, not infrequently accompanied by maiming or even death. Gambling rises to the height of a consuming passion. The players, after parting with everything else, have been known to stake and even lose their wives, who are sold into slavery because of an unfortu- ^4^ GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS nate strip of cardboard the width of one's finger. Liquor is likewise an accompaniment of their times of enjoyment. 5. Korean Caste. — It is somewhat remarkable that a coun- try which looks to China for its ideals and has depended upon that land for most of its institutions, should possess a system of caste, not on the same basis, indeed, as that of India, but still very divisive in the relations between man and man. Accord- ing to Mr. C. W. Campbell, " it appears that although in theory Korean society is broadly divided into an upper, a middle and lower class, the social grades are as endless as the Hindu castes themselves, all being distinguished by certain honorific forms of speech dictated by long-established usage and insisted upon, not merely as a matter of courtesy, but of right and privilege." The higher orders in society are free from arrest, except through the demand of the Emperor or provincial governor, and even then only for the gravest crimes. Should these per- sons engage in any occupation except the public service and teaching, they would lose standing in the community. This privileged class is unfortunately divided into factions, and it is largely owing to their rivalries that emeutes and divisions have proven so harmful a factor in recent years. The occupa- tion of Korea by two rival Powers in the middle of the last decade was largely due to the hopeless maladministration which led the lower classes to rebel against the official squeezing of these privileged parties. 6. Education and Literature. — Inasmuch as the educated members of the community are almost invariably of official rank or aspirants for the same, education is naturally along Confucian lines. Examinations are much like those demanded by China's civil service, and consequently the preparation there- for is substantially the same. The masses are not able to read Chinese books. The presence of an alphabet, very simple and effective, has made it possible, however, for a large number of the poor to read literature of a lower order. The language used in the Empire is of a twofold character. The vernacular is like the Japanese in its grammar, but differs KOREA 243 from it in vocabulary which, however, it somewhat resembles in the South, while on the northern border it is affected by the Chinese. From the Emperor to the lowest peasant this is commonly spoken. Missionaries experience difficulty in its acquisition because of euphonic changes, honorifics necessitat- ing the use of different forms for different grades of society, and the presence of a Sinico-Korean which would correspond to the Latin-English of Milton and other Latinized writers. The vernacular is also written, using therefor the simple Unmun alphabet above mentioned, and combinations of the letters in syllables. These are often learned by children without their being conscious of an underlying alphabet. It is one of the triumphs of missionary agitation and use and of recent prog- ress, that this once despised script is becoming officially recog- nized and widely used. Coordinately with the vernacular the Chinese is used as a medium of correspondence, in official documents and as the vehicle of the best literature. Most of the philosophical and religious works are in Chinese, and all who make any pretensions to scholarship must read and write it correctly. It is estimated that at least one-third of the male population is tolerably well versed in both this language and the written Korean. The literature of the country, aside from Chinese works, is comparatively simple, since the literary and ethical perfection of the Classics has prevented the development of native literary talent. A few primers or manuals of history are, however, printed in the Unmun for the use of women, children and the uneducated. This is true also of books on etiquette and the various duties which death — more than life — requires in Korea. Other light works of poetry, etc., are also published; and with the new regime, plus missionary effort, the body of literature is increasing. IV. Religions. — In general they are those of China, though Taoism has no special following. The second of Chinese religions, Buddhism, until within a few years, has been pro- hibited in the cities, though it was permitted in the country 244 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS districts. Its priesthood, however, is so grossly ignorant and despised that Buddhism is without any respectable influence. Aside from the nominal hold of Confucian ethics upon the upper classes and the widely prevalent reverence or worship of objects in nature, there are two features of particular promi- nence in Korean religious life. 1. The first of these is more fully set forth under China and need not be dwelt upon here, as ancestral worship in the two empires is practically the same. In Korea, however, the reverence and worship of the dead are maintained more strictly during the three years of mourning than in China itself. " Night and morning the children offer food, meat and to- bacco before the tablet in the room where the dead once lived, making besides numerous offerings at the grave. To neglect this is to make oneself an outlaw in the land of one's fathers — ' dogs that ought not to live.' " It is the most frequent cause of lapses from Christianity that missionaries have to cope with. 2. A universal prevalence of spirit worship, — demonism, or more strictly speaking. Shamanism, — is the second dominat- ing feature of Korean religion. This form of worship is cal- culated to cost Koreans $2,500,000 each year, and hence is an economic waste as well as a system of unspeakable bondage. One cannot enter a house without being puzzled by a bundle of straw set on some sticks, a shelf containing a scrap of cloth or a bit of straw rope and other forms of spirit " nests." Be- fore these objects, which are practically fetishes, offerings are placed on the first, second, third and fifteenth of the month. " Again in the shed room used for kitchen, the fetish of the kitchen may be seen in a piece of cloth or paper fastened to the wall above the fireplace." But outside the houses, no less than within, are omnipresent evidences of all grades of spirits. Here is a small tree by the roadside, to the limbs of which are at- tached rags and pieces of paper, some containing written prayers. Old women as they pass " pause and bow reverently, rubbing together their palms. An evil spirit dwells in the tree and it is considered wise in travelers to show him some mark KOREA 245 of attention, exhibited in these different ways." On mountain passes the traveler notes a spirit shrine, while near many a country village may be seen another where local spirits are worshiped every three years, the expense being borne by public taxation. The all-powerful Shaman, if a man, is called pansu ; if a woman, mutang. Concerning the latter, Mr. Gifford writes r " If you could only forget the horrid meaning of it all, the dancing of the mutang in her worship in time to the beat of the gong and the drum in the shape of an hour-glass, would impress one as quite picturesque. She is supposed to be under the control of a spirit of influence in the realm of darkness who, for a consideration, can be induced to appease the in- jured dignity of some malignant spirit who is afflicting a household. She also claims the power to foretell future events. No matter what her position in life, the calling of a woman by a spirit to become a mutang is considered irresistible. She will make plenty of money though at a high price ; for she becomes a social outcast, not on moral grounds, but by reason of her vocation. The pansu deals directly with the evil spirits, which he drives away by repeated exorcisms from a book handed down from the earliest ages, whose words are mean- ingless at the present time." The baleful influence of these Shamans may be imagined from the fact that in the city of Seoul alone, 3,000 sorceresses carry on their devilish work, earning on an average fifteen Japanese dollars a month apiece. V. The New Regime. — i. Leading Features. — This may be said to have begun when in 1876 Japan for a second time invaded the country and treaty relations were established. Not until 1882, however, was the first treaty with an Occidental power, the United States, consummated. In 1884 occurred the historic emeute, which brought Korea into wider relations with the outside world. From that time onward there has been spasmodic progress with the serious interruption caused by the tripartite war of 1894-95 between Korea, China and Japan. Proceedings not very creditable to Japan and Russia followed. 246 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS but in 1897 the King assumed the name and authority of Em- peror. The privileges of the aristocracy have been abolished for the most part, and the selection of government officers is made by the ministers, subject to the Emperor's approval. Internal jealousies between the higher classes have led to con- stant friction and occasional outbreak. The ten reforms ad- vocated by Minister Yi, who in 1898 represented Korea to the United States, are still crying to be introduced, though a good beginning has been made in some of these directions. The last four of these are worth quoting at this late date. " No. VII. The teaching of Korea Western knowledge by nations specially qualified, viz. : Germany for the army, England for the navy and finance, America for steam and electricity, Russia for cavalry drill, Japan for police, and China for silk manufacture. No. VIII. Government reform on the basis of English and German law. No. IX. The prohibition of white as the ordi- nary dress. No. X. The abolition of Chinese literature and the establishment of Unmun as the national script." If we add to these changes affecting the material interests of the Empire the general diffusion of enlightenment, and the acceptance of righteousness and true holiness, Korea will indeed become a land of " morning serenity." 2. Problems. — The political one is very perplexing. With a civilization and national character essentially Chinese, Korea must strongly incline to her ancient neighbor on the west. Yet Japan and Russia are ever on the alert, each striving to gain the leading place in her counsels, while Great Britain in the person of Dr. Brown, still has her hand on the Imperial purse — undoubtedly for Korea's good. A puppet Emperor, sur- rounded by native factions with no broad outlook, finds it most difficult to steer the ship of state between Scylla and Charybdis, especially as financial weakness is ever present. The industrial situation is an even greater occasion of solici- tude. The manufacture of white cotton cloth which gave em- ployment to a large percentage of the people, is rapidly ceas- ing, now that ports are opened and cheaper foreign cottons are KOREA 247 deluging the country. Similarly metal workers find their oc- cupation largely gone because of Japanese importations, while cheap American kerosene practically puts an end to castor-bean culture. The emptied kerosene cans make the bucket and crock-makers' trade all but obsolete. To raise money the na- tives ship from the country their beans and fish, thus robbing hungry mouths of much needed food. An increasing official class with a fad for Western inventions, from a watch to a steamship, squander the nation's money and add to the heavy burdens of the impoverished poor. Having no new callings to engage in, " the land is swarming with idlers and petty mer- chants who make a doubtful living in handling foreign goods." The Empire has reached an ominous crisis in its history, but any change must necessarily be for the better. PART II. — MISSIONARY Save in uncivilized lands, no mission field has yielded such large results in so brief a time as Korea, the Hermit Kingdom of less than twenty years ago. This is the more remarkable in view of the attitude of the rulers toward foreigners until its recent opening, and especially when one considers the awful persecutions of Catholic missionaries and their converts in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. I. The Beginnings. — Though Japan was the first power to conclude a complete treaty with Korea, it was only six years later, in 1882, that the United States led the van of Western nations in securing treaty rights. I. The Manchurian Wedge. — Missionaries of the United Presbyterian Church of Scotland have the honor of doing Protestantism's pioneer work for the Hermit Kingdom. Three missionaries of that Church laboring in the adjacent province of Manchuria became interested in these people, and Rev. John Ross, D.D., was enabled to translate portions of the Gospel of St. Luke into their tongue, and eventually to complete the en- 248 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS tire New Testament. The missionaries were free to itinerate along the northwestern border where Korean merchants con- gregated for purposes of trade, and through them and others who carried into the Kingdom Scripture portions, the pre- liminary seed-sowing was accomplished. The earliest work was done in 1873, and in the course of time, Dr. Ross and Mr. Webster at great personal peril penetrated the northern val- leys where the Word of God had been carried and to their joy found eighty-five men who were deemed worthy of baptism, besides many others who were reserved for further instruction. 2. The second step taken was by a missionary of the Pres- byterian Board, North, Dr. H. N. Allen. A Korean of rank, named Rijutei, was converted about 1880 while representing his Government in Japan. Perceiving the vast benefits to be derived from Christianity, this official, who in the end proved a very imperfect Christian, earnestly begged that missionaries might be sent to his people. In 1884 the Presbyterian Board responded to his appeal by appointing to Seoul Dr. Allen, whom the United States Minister at once made physician to the Lega- tion, thus securing his residence and safety at a time when the promulgation of Christianity was strictly forbidden. Near the close of that same year at an official dinner six Koreans were killed and the King's nephew seriously wounded as the result of a palace intrigue. Prince Min's injuries were very serious and the native practitioners proposed to pour wax into them. They were astonished to see Dr. Allen's skill in washing and sewing up the wounds, and when the Prince speedily recov- ered, the missionary doctor's reputation was unbounded. The King forthwith appointed him court physician and fitted up a government hospital which has been very useful ever since. 3. For some years only preparatory work could be done, owing to the official prohibition of Christianity ; but during this period came the opportunity for missionaries to perfect themselves in language, as well as to prepare helps for its study, translate portions of the New Testament, prepare school-books and teach some along secular lines. Medical work was nat- KOREA 249 urally a very great ally, especially as it often reached persons of much influence. II. The Present Force. — i. The societies laboring here are the Presbyterians of Canada and the United States, — both the northern and the southern branches of the Church, — and the Presbyterians of Australia, the two Methodist Boards of the United States, and the International Young Men's Chris- tian Association. From England the main workers are rep- resentatives of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel with the assistance in their hospital of the Sisters of St. Peter's, Kilburn, besides the agent of the British and Foreign Bible Society and three ladies supported by the Missionary Pence As- sociation. 2. With the exception of the common ground at Seoul, there is a pretty fair distribution of the forces throughout the Empire. On the east coast and in the southern part of the peninsula work is less vigorously carried on than at the two points of Pyeng Yang and Seoul. There is a partial under- standing among the leading societies that in the future occupa- tion of the country, regard shall be had to such a location of missionaries as shall insure the best results, both for evangel- ization and for comity. 3. A peculiarity of Korean missions is the unusually promi- nent part that the natives take in the work. The more than eight thousand communicants won have been educated to be- lieve that their main business as Christians is to live the divine life and to carry the gospel to others. How effectual such training is may be gathered from the achievements of Chris- tians in the Pyeng Yang district. Dr. Vinton, in writing of the activities of that city where the Presbyterians and Meth- odists are working, said in 1900: "This station was opened five years ago. Now sixteen adult missionaries, including wives, are working under two boards, shepherding a flock of 2,500 church members. The parish is 300 miles long and has more than 300 preaching places. Nearly 4,000 catechumens or applicants are enrolled and under instruction preparatory to 250 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS baptism. The rate of increase is 100 communicants and over 230 catechumens a month. These converts are brought in chiefly by their own countrymen; for the foreign force can find time only for instructing, examining and baptizing. This work is practically self-supporting, except for the salaries and personal expenses of foreign missionaries, and the coming har- vest promises to be far beyond the strength of the reapers, unless their number be speedily doubled or trebled. If any Korean Christian has not an evangelizing spirit, his fitness as a candidate for baptism is strongly doubted. Wherever a man or woman has taken the name of Christian, there the fact is being published and evidenced, according to that individual's light, by good works and by an effort to lead others to Christ. Each of the stronger congregations has from one to four home missionaries of its own sent out to preach the gospel in the re- gions beyond." Not all fields are so remarkable as this district where forty-two per cent, of Korea's Protestant converts are found. III. The Prevailing Policy of Work. — This peninsula was entered at a period when missionary methods had passed the experimental stage, and the first missionaries were wise enough to do much thinking during the time when no very ag- gressive efforts were possible. The visit of Dr. Nevius of China in 1890, before much had been openly attempted, in- spired several leading men to follow the plan which he had tried with mingled success and failure in his Shantung field. While one of the Methodist societies and the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel are not influenced largely by this modified form of Dr. Nevius's plan, it may be regarded as the policy of the other churches in the Empire. As it is more workable than the original scheme of Dr. Nevius, found want- ing in China, some of its main features will be given. I. Difficulties which the plan aims to obviate are thus stated by Dr. Avison : " You send a missionary to a country and he takes his money with him. He selects a man and pays him to be his language teacher. He wants a Christian helper and KOREA 251 pays him to help him preach. By and by he gathers around him a few Christians and in a Httle while they want a church building in which to worship; and again the missionary puts his hand into the treasury, brings out the money and builds a church. Then they want some one to take charge of the church and there are the current expenses to meet. Again the mis- sionary is called upon ; getting mission money, he pays the run- ning expenses of the church. By and by they want a preacher, but before they can get the preacher they must have the man educated ; and so the missionary comes again to the front and builds a school and equips it and puts in his teachers and pro- duces more teachers and preachers and gives them to the church. But having taken these men from their work and educated them and put them into the church where they are not able to carry on their ordinary work, why of course the missionary must come on again and pay these men. Very soon the missionary, instead of being simply looked upon as a preacher of the gospel for these people, introducing a principle into their minds which is to develop and make them into a different class of men and women, is regarded as the banker of the church and of the people, and this is viewed as his chief use. ... It is not hard for a man who does not believe any- thing particularly, to believe in Christianity. He is ready to profess his belief in God, in Christ, in anything, if he can see five or ten dollars a month at the other end of it. So there is a tendency for men to come to the church, or to apply for mem- bership in it, and to be very religious and devout, so that they deceive even the missionaries. Such men get into the church with the idea of being preachers or teachers or any thing that brings in money. So we are apt to develop men who are not sincere in their professions of belief. Then they are sent out to preach and are paid by the missionary. Those to whom they preach, knowing that they are paid for their preaching, smile, saying : ' That is all right ; he knows what he is about,' being suspicious of his preaching. How much will they be- lieve of what he tells them ? " 252 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS 2. Some of the leading principles of this scheme as set forth in a paper read at the Ecumenical Conference of 1900 and pre- pared by its leading Korean exponent, Dr. Underwood, are the following: (i) No complete church organization is aimed at at first ; it is made as simple as possible, and the leader may be one of the deacons or an elder. (2) Church architecture is adapted to the style and ability of the people, churches being well built and in accordance with native ideas in cities, and small thatch-roofed chapels sufficing in places with few Chris- tians. (3) The responsibility of giving the gospel to the heathen is placed upon the converts, thus developing local re- sponsibility and individual activity. Often the Christians send out selected men to preach in their stead, and in exceptional cases the societies bear half of the expense of helpers sanctioned by the mission. (4) Where congregations warrant it, church schools should be supported by the church, under missionary or other competent supervision. (5) High schools, or' academies, should be provided by the mission at its larger stations, the mis- sion furnishing the foreign teacher, most of the salaries of the native teachers and the beginning of an educational plant. From the outset the natives are to pay for lighting, heating, janitor and the board of pupils. (6) Training the workers is confessed to be the great problem, as yet unsolved. Still they believe that a satisfactory pastorate will yet be secured, and meanwhile the leaders in city and country work are gathered into Bible and training classes once or twice a year. The in- struction there given is very biblical and practical, and the oc- casion of their coming together is made use of for special evan- gelistic efforts. These training classes are also invaluable in other directions, as witness this extract from one of Mr. Baird's reports : " Their talking together about their common faith and hope, their stories of persecution and their accounts of the pain and sorrow connected with tearing loose from heathen superstitions, their prayer and song together in praise of a common Lord, have much to do in eradicating long-standing local and sectional jealousies and helping fulfill the Lord's KOREA 253 prayer that * they may be one.' " (7) A new departure is made in that native Christians are required to pay for books and other publications at a price almost meeting their cost. (8) Similarly, in medical work natives pay for medicines, food, etc., at the hospitals and dispensaries; while the rich pay full price for everything of the sort. 3. Naturally difficulties have beset the enterprise. The fact that other plans are being followed by some of the mission- aries in the same field occasions discontent on the part of many of the Koreans who are not willing to make much sac- rifice for the gospel's sake. Then the poverty of the Chris- tians is very great. Dr. Underwood says on this point : " A man with a capital of one or two hundred dollars would be considered well-to-do and almost a gentlemen of leisure. The poorer classes, from which in the main our church mem- bers come, live largely in low-thatched mud huts with one, or perhaps two, small rooms with a hole in one side covered with paper in lieu of a window and a small rough lattice door. Shan-tung is, I believe, classed as one of the poorer provinces of China; and yet Chinese merchants, carpenters, builders and others from that section who have come to Korea, tell us that the Koreans are far poorer than the men of their province. It certainly cannot be said that the measure of success that has been meted to our work is due to Korea's wealth." A peculiar temptation arising from the poverty of the higher castes causes trouble. Those who have no money to aid in church-building and who are too high in the social scale to do manual labor, strongly object to aiding the enterprise. The difficulty has more than once been overcome by the missionary who takes off his coat and joins the church members in doing any menial work that is called for in building. As for the very poor, con- tributions in kind enable even these to do some little thing for the work. 4. That the plan succeeds has already appeared. Dr. Un- derwood points to the 186 Presbyterian churches in Korea, out of a total of 188 at the time of writing, which are entirely 254 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS self-supporting. They had an adult membership of 2,873, who during the preceding year contributed out of their deep poverty Yen 6,274.43, about $3,200. At a rate of $1.50 per day, which a laborer of their type might receive in America, this would be equal to about $32,000, a contribution of $11.13 P^r member. And this remarkable sum does not include a large amount of produce of various kinds and voluntary labor coming from these members. The greatest value of the method, however, is that exemplified in the Pyeng Yang field, described above. IV. A Hopeful Outlook. — i. Government favor has been almost continuous in recent years. The relations between the Emperor and Dr. Allen, who opened the country to the foreign missionary and who is now United States Minister to Korea, are very cordial ; and women physicians have had a strong influence in his palace. The heir-apparent was sent to America in 1897 by the Emperor to pursue his education under the oversight of Secretary Ellinwood of the Presbyterian Board, North, another indication of friendliness to missions. Indeed, all who have the country's welfare at heart recognize the importance of the new life that comes from Christianity, even if they are not as frank as one of the Korean leaders who said to Mr. Speer : " The only hope of the country is in the churches. There is no moral character in Korea. It is being created in the churches. There is no cohesion, or unity, or confidence among men. There is no company of men, however small, capable of acting together. The churches are raising up bands of men who know how to combine for a common object, who are quickened intellectually, and are full of character, courage and hope. To convert and educate the common people is the only hope of the land." These facts ought to encourage the friends of missions, even in the face of possible impending calamity arising from the chronically predicted conflict be- tween Japan and Russia over this fair apple of discord. 2. One gains the most hopeful presages for the future of the Korean Church from the lives of many of its leading Chris- tians. Multitudes of the church members are ignorant and KOREA 255 Stupid, as well as unclean and erring. But that they are likely to endure for Christ's sake was abundantly proved when in 1866 the river Han ran to the sea red with the blood of thousands of Catholic believers who met death rather than sur- render their faith. It is these Christians, and not so much the missionaries, who are doing the marvelous work of evangeliz- ing northern Korea. And it is they who furnish the material for such touching character studies as appear in the pages of Mr. Gale, or in the more vivid pictures from Korean life drawn by Mr. Speer — such, for instance, as the account given in his " Presbyterian Foreign Missions," pages 169-172, of the examination of the candidate for Church membership in the Pyeng Yang Church, or the inimitable sketch of Blind An, converted sorcerer and preacher to women, found on pages 175-178 of the same volume. 3. The well known traveler, Mrs. Bishop, in her work on that land, depicts a scene at Pyeng Yang which rightly sym- bolizes the Christian situation in Korea. Describing the meet- ings with inquirers and Christians, she says : " At all these even- ing meetings the room was crammed within and without by men, reverent and earnest in manner, some of whom had been shunned for their wickedness even in a city ' the smoke of which ' in her palmy days was said ' to go up like the smoke of Sodom,' but who, transformed by a power outside them- selves, were then leading exemplary lives. There were groups in the dark, groups round the candles on the floor, groups in the doorways, and every face was aglow except that of poor, bewildered Im. One old man, with his forehead in the dust, prayed like a child that, as the letter bearing to New York an earnest request for more teachers was on its way, ' the wind and sea might waft it favorably,' and that when it was read, the eyes of the foreigners might be opened ' to see the sore need of people in a land where no one knows anything, and where all believe in devils and are dying in the dark.' " Later this same Christian traveler writes a stirring appeal to the Presbyterian Board : " The Pyeng Yang work which I 256 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS saw last winter and which is still going on in much the same way, is the most impressive mission work I have seen in any part of the world. It shows that the Spirit of God still moves on the earth, and that the old truths of sin and judgment to come, of the divine justice and love, of the atonement and of the necessity for holiness, have the same power as in the Apos- tolic days to transform the lives of men. What I saw and heard has greatly strengthened my own faith. Now a door is opened wide in Korea, how wide only those can know who are on the spot. Very many are prepared to renounce devil worship and to worship the true God if only they are taught how, and large numbers more who have heard and received the gospel are earnestly craving to be instructed in its rules of holy living. I dread indescribably that unless many men and women experienced in winning souls are sent speedily, the door which the Church declines to enter will close again." XI CHINA AND ITS DEPENDENCIES PART L — GENERAL I. The Middle Kingdom. — The most populous empire in the world and one whose territory exceeds that of all other powers, save that of England and Russia, has at the close of the century attracted the utmost interest, owing to the startling events of the year 1900. I. Extent. — The Chinese Empire, about one-third of whose area constitutes China Proper, covers a territory almost one-eleventh less than that of Europe, exclusive of Russia. It is more than one-third as large as the continent of Africa and its area equals that of the United States, the provinces of Ontario and Quebec and all of Mexico to a point beyond the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. As to China Proper, it is equal to nearly one and a half times that part of the United States lying east of the Mississippi, and so would furnish material for ten United Kingdoms. If Mukden, in Manchuria, were placed upon Boston, which has approximately its latitude, China's southernmost island would lie upon Yucatan, and Havana would correspond in approx- imate position with Canton. Kansas City would then be near the northwestern boundary, if the extension of Kan-su be ex- cluded, and the northern border would correspond to a line passing through Chicago and Detroit back to Boston again. It will thus be seen that all of China, with the exception of a nar- row southern fringe, lies in the temperate zone, and that very little of it reaches much higher than the northern boundary of Massachusetts. 257 258 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS 2. Configuration. — This great Empire is often regarded — especially since the recent war has called attention to its northeastern section, — as a land of level plains, a most er- roneous impression. If China Proper is divided by the mer- idian passing through Canton and by the parallel drawn west- ward from the mouth of the Yang-tsze River, it may be roughly stated that the level plains of China are found in the north- eastern section, while its hills constitute the southeastern por- tion. To the west of the Canton meridian the country is es- sentially mountainous, the ranges increasing in height as they pass westward toward the lofty mountains of Tibet. Another feature that strikes one as the map is examined is its regular coast line, on\y broken by the camel-head promontory of eastern Shan-tung. It will be further noted that if the sta- tionary leg of a compass is fixed on the city of I-chang lo- cated on the middle Yang-tsze, and the other leg describes a circle with a radius reaching the coast, all of China Proper will be included within it with only a little of the dependencies in addition. 3. Scenery. — This differs greatly according to the varied character of the country. In the Great Plain of the north- eastern section, some 700 miles in length and averaging per- haps 200 miles in breadth in the North and 400 in the South, the scene is a distinctively agricultural one. Vast populations are here dwelling in villages, which are surrounded on all sides by carefully cultivated farms or gardens. A census made by missionaries has shown that quite a territory of farming coun- try in Shan-tung contains an average of over 2,000 inhabitants per square mile, while in the southeastern section of the plain one of the islands at the mouth of the Yang-tsze, containing 400 square miles, has a population of 2,000,000 industrious peasants and fishermen, an average of 5,000 per square mile. Naturally such districts are characterized by abundant life and the absence of trees and waste lands ; though, owing to the inundations along the Pei-ho and Hwang-ho, considerable territory is an- nually flooded and hence is not very populous. Compact col- CHINA AND ITS DEPENDENCIES 259 lections of one-story houses embowered in trees form the cen- ters whence, early in the morning, all available workers swarm into the adjacent fields there to spend the day in the unsur- passed industry of the Chinese farmer. In the winter the ground appears perfectly barren, since all vestiges of life, even to the roots of wheat and stray grass, are pulled up for use as fuel. This apparent barrenness, however, is compensated for after the summer rains begin in July by the colossal mosaic made up of vegetation of every hue, disposed in varying pat- terns according the crop and size of the holding. The southeastern corner of the Empire is a region of hills which are cultivated sometimes to the very tops, though they are often wooded on their summits. The most populous of all the provinces is here found, namely, Fo-kien. The character- istic feature of this portion of China is the life along the rivers and manifold canals. Not only is the number of junks and smaller crafts beyond computation, but a large stationary pop- ulation is also here found living in house-boats. Industries of various sorts are being carried on either on the water or along the banks. This is the section of the Empire where mission- aries are best able to travel from point to point at every season of the year, though in the northern belt of provinces their fel- low-laborers in the dry season can penetrate to any given town with greater ease because of the omnipresent cart or wheel- barrow. The western tzvo-thirds of China are not so uniform. Lofty mountains are a barrier to ready communication between the various sections, and agriculture is confined to the valleys or favorable mountain slopes. The mountain regions in some sec- tions are characterized by mining life, while in the North es- pecially are seen miles upon miles in the aggregate of most magnificent and deadly poppy fields, covered at the proper sea- son with a population intent on gathering the juice for opium manufacture. In the extreme Northwest the region is decid- edly forbidding and, to a large extent, barren ; while the south- ern section of the country is marked by abundant forests. 26o GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS 4. The soil of China, especially in its northeastern, north- ern and middle-western sections, is most fertile. Much of the provinces of Shan-si — known as the granary of the Empire ' — and Shen-si are as fertile as the Great Plain, owing to the fact that the loess formation here abounds. In no section of the world is this deposit so remarkable and used to so good advantage. On the plains, especially where the rivers overflow somewhat during the rainy season, an annual deposit of loess gives great fertility to the soil. In the mountain regions this same formation furnishes many of the inhabitants with their cave-like houses, as well as with a productive soil. 5. Mineral Resources. — China is distinguished among the nations for its marvelous mineral resources. While the pre- cious metals and almost all the baser ones are present, the Em- pire's greatest wealth lies in its coal and iron mines. The coal measures are estimated by some to equal those of all other coal fields of the world put together, and certainly they cover re- gions at least five times as great as the coal measures of Europe. Iron ore, which in many cases is of the finest quality, is also very abundant. These two sources of wealth have been re- served for the time when modern inventions can make them most valuable. Naturally they are the objects of desire on the part of a horde of Western syndicates. Next to the province of Shan-si in richness of mineral resources is the southern-central province of Kwei-chau. Salt-wells in the West furnish a mar- velous exhibition of the patience and ingenuity of the Chinese, who have been known to spend as much as forty years in drilling a single artesian salt-well. Natural gas has been used for generations in the evaporation of this brine. 6. Intercommunication. — Though China is traditionally said to possess 20,000 roads, few travelers have the hardihood to assert that they have seen any outside of the ports that de- serve the name. They are not kept up with any degree of ef- ficiency and are most wearisome to the one employing them. Springless carts, creaking wheelbarrows with an immense wheel projecting through the center, litters swung between CHINA AND ITS DEPENDENCIES 261 two fidgety mules and horses and donkeys are the chief means of conveyance where roads are largely used. In the South, and among the mountains, the sedan chair, or a rude contri- vance, a mountain chair, is used along the narrow foot-paths which do not deserve the name of road, even according to the most charitable construction of the term. The water-ways of China are her greatest dependence. On the great highway of the Empire, the Yang-tsze, known as her girdle, — steamers abound. Ocean vessels of over 1,000 tons burden reach Han-kau, 680 miles from the sea, while steamers of 600 tons ascend to 1-chang, just below the rapids. The rapids themselves cannot be passed by boats of over 150 tons. The affluents of this mighty stream, especially those flowing into it from the north, are navigable, as are many of the other rivers, especially the Hwang-ho, the Hsi-kiang and Pei-ho, which are the other principal rivers. When it is recalled that the Yang- tsze alone has in its system some 12,000 miles of navigable water-ways which penetrate nearly half of China Proper, it can be seen that " no country can compare with her for natural facilities of inland navigation." The lakes of the Empire are unimportant, though picturesque, and the seat of a very abun- dant life. The Chinese have utilized commonly disused sources of labor to make these waters productive. Children are very largely employed in caring for vast flocks of artificially hatched ducklings, and even roosters are sometimes trained to keep this brood in order by flapping the wings and crowing lustily. A common sight is the trained cormorant which does most effective fishing for its master. 7. The Climate of China. — While the Chinese themselves regard the three provinces composing its southern and tropical tier as the unhealthful section of the Empire, there are many regions where malaria is more or less abundant ; yet it may be said that its climate is much cooler than that of any great sec- tion of the same latitude. One drawback, however, is the high range of temperature. Hot summers alternate with cold win- ters, these extremes being much greater in the North. The 262 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS northern provinces are among the most healthful in the world, save for two months in the summer. II. The Chinese. — i. Number and Distribution. — The fact which most impresses itself upon the traveler is the vast multitudes in China. Estimates vary widely as to the total population, the range being from 227,000,000 to upward of 400,000,000. The recent authorities incline to a population for China Proper of from 350,000,000 to 386,000,000. As we have seen, that of the Great Plain — especially in Shan-tung — and of the province of Fo-kien, is most dense ; but in general the seaboard and the Yang-tsze provinces have a population aver- aging some 400 per square mile. The northwestern and south- western provinces are least populous ; and even in the densely settled province of Shan-tung the possibilities of production have not been exhausted. Mountain regions now sparsely set- tled are destined, with the exploitation of mines, to attract a far larger number of people. 2. Their Economic Value. — Not only do the Chinese out- number every other nationality, but they also surpass their rivals in Asia and in the West as an industrial factor. Most of them are employed in agriculture. Nowhere is it held in great- er honor. " Nowhere, perhaps, is more care shown in the cul- tivation and irrigation of the ground, the selection of seeds and of the best varieties of cultivated plants, and the utilization of manure, above all domestic manure. Small holdings and spade industry are the general rule, and large numbers of plants are first sown in seedling beds, the seedlings carefully selected and transplanted. The soil and climate combine with this indus- try to bring forth remarkable abundance in many parts of the country." In other callings the Chinese show remarkable en- durance and great powers of imitation ; while as tradesmen and bankers they are not surpassed by any nationality in the world. This is evidenced by their record in countries to which they have emigrated from New York westward around the globe as far as the shore of Africa. A most competent authority who has explored China more extensively than any one else, and CHINA AND ITS DEPENDENCIES 263 studied it scientifically and economically, Baron Richthofen, maintains " that in the struggle for existence the Chinese have the advantage of the inhabitants of the tropics and over unciv- ilized races generally, of restless industry; over the people of Europe, that of extreme thrift; and apparently over the other inhabitants of the earth, that of being suited to any climate." Naturally, therefore, he looks upon the possibility of their adopting the usable elements of our civilization as a danger to be dreaded by the rest of the world and as introducing com- petition of an extremely formidable character. In this fear of the so-called " Yellow Peril," citizens of the United States and Australia especially share ; in the tropics they are more readily welcomed. 3. Their homogeneity is another most striking characteristic of this race. A common written language and uniform cus- toms and religions, together with their isolation for ages from surrounding nations, have made them a practical unit. A pa- triarchal government based intellectually upon a common lit- erature, which is the stepping-stone to all official employment, has welded them together with iron bands ; so that to-day they present a united front to the Powers of the West. 4. The Chinese are unexplainable without bearing in mind their most distinctive characteristic, namely love for antiquity. While the early traditions of the country reach back into un- certain mists, it is probable that most of the history dating from forty centuries ago — nearly a thousand years before the earliest assured event in Greek history, the Dorian invasion, and a century before Abraham was born ■ — has a strong foun- dation in actual facts. At the early period mentioned, there appears to have been in North China, in the province of Shan- si and Shen-si, a race hailing from the region south of the Cas- pian, with institutions, government and religion, with a fairly well developed literature and a knowledge of sciences and arts. So prematurely did the Chinese possess institutions adapted to the highest welfare of the people and a literature calculated to meet their needs, that their development was arrested. Hence 264 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS one finds in the " Erh Ya," Ready Guide, — claiming to be the work of Duke Chou, iioo B.C., though largely added to as late as a.d. 280. — descriptions and cuts of ancient tools and implements which are substantially the same as those in present use. This book itself is perhaps the oldest philological work extant and is still in use by scholars. The memorizing of these ancient Classics and their necessity as a preparation for official life, together with the comparative crudeness of sur- rounding countries, — have confirmed the Empire in thus clinging to the past. The claim made by Confucius in the " Analects " is the head-line which might be truthfully written over every page of Chinese history, " A transmitter and not a maker, believing in and loving the ancients." Conservatism, however, has been of some advantage to the nation ; since great essentials have after careful scrutiny always been accepted from without, when believed to be of advantage to the people. The past decade has shown that the Chinese have now reached a stage where slavery to the past is willing to yield to the free- dom of a brighter future. 5. Chinese Language and Literature. — Their isolating language has done as much as any single factor perhaps to make them a separate people. It is monosyllabic in character and consequently possesses comparatively few distinct vocables, the number heard in the court dialect of Peking being only 421 ; though in other parts of the Empire, especially in the South, this number is considerably increased. This has made necessary the introduction of tones, — four in Peking, and as many as twelve in the South. These tonal distinctions prac- tically increase the number of vocables ; but in addition synon- ymous words are grouped into dissyllables, while numera- tives, enclytics and conventional phraseology combine to make one's meaning understood. The written language, or wen-li, is intelligible to all who read throughout the Empire ; though the pronunciation of these ideographs varies as much as the names of Arabic numerals in the various languages of the world. These characters in the CHINA AND ITS DEPENDENCIES 265 Imperial Dictionary of Kang-hsi number 44,zi48; yet the first degree graduate does not need to write more than 6,000 of these, while 12,000 would be an abundance for even the most scholarly use. Having no alphabet, the Chinese have shown marvelous skill in arranging this mass of arbitrary characters so as to be readily found by their radicals. The literature, encased in these hieroglyphs like flies in am- ber, is one of the wonders of the world. Dating back for up- ward of 4,000 years, one finds here the wisdom of the ages. The early records as made current through Confucius are strongly moral in tone; and though having mainly to do with government and popular ceremonials, they have entered into the warp and woof of the entire popular life. The system of civil service examinations based upon this literature is per- haps the most remarkable in the world ; albeit the material is not adapted to modern conditions. One point differentiating the canonical literature from that of all other peoples, is its extreme purity and the absence of mythological elements. It must be confessed, however, that with the exception of coun- tries like Japan and Korea, where the Chinese written charac- ter is largely used in connection with vernaculars differing en- tirely from the written tongue, China presents greater linguis- tic obstacles to the missionary than any other land. III. Chinese Religions. — The missionary is at first sur- prised to see in China no marked expression of the religious life. In passing westward through Japan or approaching by way of India, he notes evidences of religiosity on every hand. In China, the temples are oftentimes dilapidated and but little frequented, and indications of a strong hold of religion on the people are almost wanting. Another fact that causes surprise is the lack of religious convictions on the part of most of the Chinese. Religions are like so many remedies to be used in case of necessity, each one for a particular need. The orthodox faiths of the people are three : I. Confucianism is by all means the most highly respected and is the only one confessed to by the literary men. It is based 266 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS upon the Five Books and Four Classics. Its great high priest is the dead Confucius, known as K'ung-Fu-tzii, the master K'ung. He is the " Throneless King " of nearly twenty-five centuries and of one-quarter of the human race. No other mere man, Buddha not excepted, has so extensive an influence as he, nor set such an ineffaceable stamp upon a nation, p Un- fortunately Confucianism is atheistic in tendency and its of- ficial expounder, Chu Fu-tzu, has, since the twelfth century, made this highest faith extremely materialistic, despite the fact that the earliest books give indications of a Supreme Be- ing who was possessed of personality and who easily outranked the objects of nature, which, even in that early age, seem to have been simultaneously worshiped. 2. Buddhism is an exotic germ brought into the Empire some time before the Christian Era, though it did not gain a positive foothold until about the time of St. Paul's death.* It is of the northern type, and hence is far more acceptable to practical men than the cold and cheerless views of Southern Buddhism with no higher goal than Nirvana. It has been of benefit to China in that it has helped the language somewhat in the way of lexical arrangement and also because of its contri- bution to the idea of a future life, about which Confucius had been practically silent. Its celibate priesthood is sunken in ig- norance and commonly very quiescent. Nothing like the preach- ing or religious instruction, so prevalent in Buddhist temples of Japan, is regularly known in China. A few Sanskrit phrases, the endless repetition of O-mi-t'o Fo, and the post mortem ser- vices of its exacting attendants, are the main features of Bud- dhist life ; though it is popularly exhibited in the " release of life," leading often to the capture of birds, in order that they may be set free for a price. A few works of charity are other manifestations of this faith. 3. Taoism, standing third in the common formula, ante- ceded Confucianism in the person of its founder, Lao-tzii. Its canon, the Tao-te Ching, can be read in a little more than half an hour, being less than half the length of St. Mark's Gospel CHINA AND ITS DEPENDENCIES 267 and thus the shortest of sacred books. There is scarcely a point in this faith which is not controverted, — the meaning of the word Tao, for instance, being most variously explained. It contains some teachings of the very highest character, Lao-tzii being called China's Pythagoras, " the first great awakener of thought." Under later Taoist leaders, it degenerated until it has become the most irrational of beliefs, and has been the basis of most of the popular superstitions. This sect has, however, given to China one of the most widely read religious books of the Empire, the Kan Ying P'ien, or " Book of Rewards and Punishments." So far is it from being imaginative or fanciful that it is little else than a list of virtues and vices which are to be cultivated or avoided. It is thus a system of moral book- keeping between man and the spirits, the spirit of the hearth enshrined in the kitchen god being a sort of detective to check up the facts. 4. The zvorship of ancestors, resting upon vague, historical foundations, is the leading factor in China's religious life, which cares comparatively little for the ethics of^Lao-tzu and of the great K'ung Fu-tzu and his Chinese Plato, Mencius, or Meng-tzii. The basis of Chinese ancestral worship is found in the belief that a man possesses three souls, which after death reside in the ancestral tablet, in the tomb and in Hades respec- tively. These souls have the same needs after death as before, the satisfaction of which rests with survivors, especially the eldest son of the deceased. To meet these needs, clothing, household articles, money, etc., made of paper, must be trans- mitted to the spirit-world through fire, thus becoming invis- ible and so suited to invisible spirits, while food can be im- mediately partaken in its essence by the spirits. The govern- ment of the lower world is the counterpart of that in China, and officials of Hades are open to bribery and look upon the out- ward appearance, just as in earthly ya-mens. This not only calls for much paper money, but also for the assistance of a cor- rupt horde of priests who mercilessly fleece survivors. The system presupposes that disembodied spirits are more power- 268 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS ful than in life, and if their wants are not fully supplied, they can, and probably will, bring varied calamities upon their pos- terity. Fear thus becomes the all-powerful spur to filial piety toward dead ancestors. 5. Chinese Geomancy. — Space does not permit a full state- ment concerning other forms of nature worship. Fetishes and totems are practically if not theoretically powerful, while animal worship is quite common, especially in the case of the hedge- hog, fox and snakes. A far more important place, however, in the popular esteem is occupied by the great mass of supersti- tions known as feng-shui, literally wind and water. While it may owe most to the Taoists for its development, it is the pro- duct of superstition-mongers of all the sects. Though founded on one of the most ancient classics, the Yi Ching, it became sys- tematized only in the twelfth century; yet in seven hundred years it has become " one of the most gigantic systems of de- lusion that ever gained prevalence among men." Evidences of the power of this system are seen almost every- where. Graves with their armchair configuration in the South, crooked streets, blank walls and screens to prevent spirits from gaining impetus through rectilinear motion, pagodas and tem- ples erected to improve feng-shui, the location of Peking and of the mausolea of grandees and emperors, theories about the height of new buildings near older ones, hostility to two-storied houses of foreigners and spires of Christian churches, and the prevalent dread of telegraphs, railroads and mines, so fear- fully inimical to good luck — these are a few samples of many. In a word the universal fear of bad feng-shui is expressed in their proverb, " A real man would rather die than to have his eyebrows inverted," i. e., lose his luck. And the key to this most enthralling system of superstition is held in the itching palm of the crafty geomancer, usually of Buddhistic or Taoist faith. , IV. China's Sanguinary Awakening. — This is not the place to rehearse the various steps by which, from the day when Marco Polo's fascinating account of Cathay first astonished CHINA AND ITS DEPENDENCIES 269 Europe, the Occident has attempted to enter the confines of the Middle Kingdom. The Opium War with Great Britain in 1841-42 was the first great stroke of modern China's destiny, and other wars have opened still wider her brazen gates. The recent encounter with Japan and the consequent entanglements with Russia and Great Britain, together with the seizure by the Germans of Kiao-chou in eastern Shan-tung, were the out- standing events which hastened the catastrophe of 1900. A more careful view of the situation, however, will reveal other important elements in the recent awakening. 1. As affecting the Chinese people the foremost of these factors is industrial in character. In a land of dense popula- tions, where competition is intense and capital almost entirely wanting, the extensive importation of foreign goods has greatly crippled house industries. This is especially true where for- eign cottons have been largely sold. Moreover, the introduc- tion of steamers and railroads and of cotton and silk mills, thus far only in the initial stage, has greatly incensed multitudes of the Chinese who see employment taken away from them with- out adequate compensation in the way of other substituted oc- cupations. Thus the tearing up of the railroad in the summer of 1900 was largely instigated by boatmen and carters of Tung- chau, who had been deprived of the means of livelihood through the railroad from Tientsin to Peking. While these inventions might ultimately prove of great benefit to the people at large, their rapid introduction would lead to a far greater disturbance of normal conditions than was experienced in England when machinery first threatened the ordinary artisan. 2. The encroachment of foreign Powers above alluded to had the same effect upon the Government that manufactured goods and improved means of communication exerted upon the common people. Not only did the rulers of the Empire see strategic points like Port Arthur and Wei-hai-wei occupied by leading nations of the West, but Germany had also invaded her Holy Land, the province of Confucius and Mencius; Great Britain had extended her Hongkong possessions on the adja- 270 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS cent mainland ; France, after gaining a foothold, was clamoring for a southern sphere of influence ; Japan had practically prom- ised to her the first right to China's most populous province, Fo- kien; and even feeble Italy put in a claim for San-men Bay. The open-door scheme of America and Great Britain, which brought the manufactures of the West into the populous prov- inces bordering on the Yang-tsze, was another menace. The natural inference of the Emperor and his advisers was that China was rapidly being seized ; for, aside from the sections mentioned, the Powers had by a more or less tacit understand- ing secured a mortgage upon all the important portions of the Empire. Hence they must face the question of speedy im- potence, or else of actual division of the country into spheres of influence. Dissatisfaction with foreign governments was increased by the emergence of a large number of Western syndicates seek- ing rights of every description, which would deprive China of her most profitable possessions. Many of these, backed by their governments, had secured concessions which, when more fully interpreted, involved China in serious international en- tanglements. Each nation seemed determined to outdo other Powers in the number of concessions secured ; so that Peking and Tientsin were scenes of most unrighteous contests for rights that were palpable and egregious wrongs. 3. Coincident with the condition just alluded to was the rise of a coterie of reformers. A few keen men, most of them com- paratively young, saw the inevitable, and realized that contin- ued national existence demanded marked changes. Those which occasioned the greatest opposition had to do with the examination system which affected all literary men of the Em- pire. If the stilted and useless wen-chang, or literary essay, to properly write which demanded the strenuous study of years, was to be superseded by a knowledge of Western sciences and inventions. Christian converts, who practically alone possessed this knowledge, would, with their few years of study, carry off the prizes which multitudes of scholars of the old school CHINA AND ITS DEPENDENCIES 2/1 had long striven for. This meant poverty to vast multitudes; since the popular proverb expresses the great aim of Con- fucian scholarship, namely, " Study books to become an offi- cial." Being an official was synonymous with richly lining one's nest with gains, for the most part ill-gotten. Moreover, the reformers advocated changes in government which would reduce the number of offices for which so many were striving. Industrial complications, anticipated because of the proposed introduction of many modern methods and inventions, had an undoubted influence in stirring up the people against the new regime. The arch-reformer, K'ang Yii-wei, found in the Em- peror, however, a willing hearer. His Imperial Majesty read a large number of books prepared by missionaries and other Occidentals, and even began the study of English. At this juncture the Empress Dowager appeared upon the scene and by the coup d'etat of 1898 shattered the glass castles which the Emperor and the reformers had so laboriously erected. The Emperor's revolutionary edicts were mostly rescinded and re- action was the order of the day. 4. Religion was made at once the scapegoat and means of upbuilding the Dowager's regime. According to existing trea- ties, the only foreigners who had a right to reside outside the ports and the capital were the missionaries. In the ports an uprising against foreigners was practically impossible, owing to the ever-present gun-boat or soldier. In the remote regions of the Empire where the missionaries were scattered, there was no such powerful arm ready to defend, and hence in those places friction often led to serious consequences. Law-suits or political intervention frequently resulted in the loss of of- ficial position to influential mandarins. It is to be remem- bered that the killing of two Catholic missionaries in Shan- tung was the occasion of the German occupation of part of that province. At the door of Christianity was also laid the charge of inciting the Emperor and his advisers to reform ; since most of the books influencing him were either the products of mis- sionaries or of mission presses. 272 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS On the other hand, the religions of the Empire played an important part in the initial impulse of the revolution. A sud- den recrudescence of religious fervor was simulated and the cry, " The gods in danger ! " aided in inciting the populace, es- pecially when ancestral worship, which had been opposed by both Catholic and Protestant, became the central point of em- phasis. Many of the Boxer posters placed in the forefront the religious dangers with which the Empire was threatened. Ac- tual conflict between these hordes and Catholic Christians only deepened the animosity felt toward this form of Christianity, which had previously been often engaged in law-suits with disastrous results to officials. For these reasons, and also be- cause of the eternal enmity between light and darkness, books had been written and pictures used with the intent of inflam- ing the people against the only foreigners with whom most were acquainted, the missionaries. This had been true, more or less, throughout the whole decade, but increased in intensity in 1899 and 1900. 5. The Boxer outbreak was a natural sequence of the condi- tions and events just narrated. Starting as the work of secret sects, which have for centuries been a source of terror to the Empire, bands of men in the province of Shan-tung began to practice a rude sort of gymnastics, combined with an equally crude form of hypnotism, supposed to render the Boxers in- vulnerable. Some of them having practiced in Peking before high officials, these men became convinced, as did the Empress Dowager, of their invulnerability and consequent value in this time of crisis. Apparently believing that with such allies she could drive out the hated foreigner, a secret edict was issued, ending with this statement : " Let no one think of making peace, but let each strive to preserve from destruction or spolia- tion his ancestral home and graves from the ruthless hands of the invader." The die had been cast, and all the world knows the series of events which make the year 1900 the annus mirabilis in a century full of marvelous happenings. Every one remembers the details of the siege in Peking of represen- CHINA AND ITS DEPENDENCIES 273 tatives of the great Powers of the Occident, and the virulent hatred which put to death missionaries and Christians of the Protestant and GathoHc faiths, not so much because they were Christians, as for the reason that they represented the hated foreigner. In a brief summer the work of 300 years of Catho- lic missions and of almost a century of Protestant effort was either destroyed or most seriously crippled. As to Western civilization, the beginning of the new century presents problems of great complexity, with the probability that civilization and its handmaid, Christianity, will solve them, and soon make more rapid strides than ever before. V. Manchuria. — This dependency, equaling in extent the New England and Middle States, plus the two Virginias, Ohio, Indiana and Michigan is the home of the Manchus, China's present Imperial rulers. Russia's essential occupation of the country, despite the opposition of China, has brought Man- churia prominently before the public. I. Of the country itself, which, as its Chinese name indicates, consists of "Three Eastern Provinces," Captain Younghus- band thus writes: "The fertility of the soil is extraordinary; the plain country is richly cultivated and dotted over with flourishing villages and thriving market towns, and the hills are covered with magnificent forests of oak and elm. The mineral resources are undeveloped, but coal and iron, gold and silver, are known to be procurable. The climate is healthy and invigorating, but very cold in winter, when the tempera- ture varies from 10° F. below zero in the South to 40° or more below zero in the North." Native poets regard it as "the fair- est land in the world, with its woodlands, sunny glades, and sparkling streams, all bathed in the bright atmosphere of heaven." Until the trouble with Russia, in 1900, the native Manchus had been constantly drawn off to reenforce Manchu garrisons, in China, while an ever-increasing tide of Chinese had been pouring in. This immigration has received a tempo- rary check, and, with brigandage so common in the northern provinces of Manchuria, further development is now arrested. 2^4 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS 2, Its people are estimated as numbering from 7,500,000 to 23,000,000. These are almost all Chinese, though the ruling spirits are the comparatively small Manchu element. Their national customs and even their alphabet and language are passing rapidly away before the conquering Chinese, who were originally banished from Manchuria as convicts or noble exiles. Dr. Williams regarded the Manchus as the most improvable race in Central Asia, if not on the continent. The people as a whole are better off materially — receive higher wages and are better clothed and fed — than in any other part of the Chinese Empire. Though moral and spiritual culture — pre- vailing religions are those of China — have not kept pace with material advancement, the Pentecosts of the past decade, wit- nessed in the southern half of the country, show that Man- churia is likely to be one of the most inviting fields for Chris- tian missions. VI. Mongolia. — i. The Land of "the Brave." — This ex- tensive upland country, stretching westward from Manchuria, is more than thrice as extensive as its eastern neighbor, and fully two-thirds as large as China Proper. The southern por- tion of it, with the exception of the work of the early represen- tatives of the London Missionary Society, who labored in the North, has been practically the only field occupied by Protest- ant missionaries. This section, lying south and southeast of the desert regions, is an elevated plateau of rolling prairie, sparsely covered with grass, upon which flocks and herds pasture. Nomad life gives character to the scenery. Scattered here and there over the prairie are clusters of circular felt tents, surrounded with the inevitable stacks of argol — dried dung,, used as fuel — and with swarms of children and wolfish Mon- gol dogs. Prayer flags fluttering over the encampment, horse- men watching their widely scattered herds of cattle and camels, lazy lamas on pilgrimage, possibly a group of mounted soldiers of mediaeval appearance pricking over the plain, and, above all, a sky of fleckless azure, vocal with sky-larks and overarch- ing a land blue with forget-me-nots, are features in an August CHINA AND ITS DEPENDENCIES 275 landscape. The land of the agricultural Mongol on the Chinese border differs in no essential respect from North China. 2. While the Mongols do not now suggest their name, sig- nifying " brave " or *' courageous," it is to be remembered that they are of the same Tatar race that sent the armies of the Khans, Genghis and Kublai, to the very heart of Europe dur- ing the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Professor Douglas says of Kublai Khan, an Emperor of the Mongol dynasty : "Never in the history of China was the nation more illustrious, nor its power more widely felt, than under his sovereignty. At this time his authority was acknowledged from the Frozen Sea almost to the Straits of Malacca. With the exception of Hindustan, Arabia and the westernmost parts of Asia, all the Mongol princes, as far as the Dnieper declared themselves his vassals, and brought regularly their tribute." In addition to their supreme characteristic of religiosity, the Mongols are hos- pitable, addicted to cattle stealing and strong drink, good- hearted, lacking in foresight, and abounding in laziness and dirt. VII. Tibet and Hsin-chiang. — These two dependencies, the former occupying "the roof of the world," and the latter including in a nineteenth province all the rest of Chinese Cen- tral Asia north of Tibet, are described in Chapter XIX, since only a bare beginning has been made in their evangelization. PART II. — MISSIONARY I. The Missionary Force and Its Distribution. — A serious difficulty is encountered in attempting to report the statistics of Chinese missions. At the time when data had to be applied for in order to enter them in Volume II of the pres- ent work, very few of the missionaries north of the Yang-tsze River had returned to the field. To give only those figures that could be ascertained on January i, 1901, would, accord- ingly, be to wholly misrepresent the missionary situation in that 2^6 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS Empire. On consultation with board secretaries and Chinese missionaries, it was decided that, as most of the stations for- merly occupied will doubtless be soon reopened and as com- paratively few of the missionaries were massacred during the Boxer uprising, the fairest approximation to truth could be gained through the statistics which have been furnished by the societies of the situation on January i, 1900. The main error arising from this course is found in the number of Christians, many thousands of whom were slain later in the year 1900, and in the details of station force and activities. 1. According to the figures given in Volume II of the present work, the total number of foreign missionaries laboring in China at the beginning of 1900 was 2,785, Of these 610 were ordained, 578 were unordained men, 772 were missionaries' wives, and there were 825 other missionary women. Of the above number, 162 were male physicians and 79 women phy- sicians. The number of native workers of both sexes was 6,388, and another important element of the force was a body of 112,808 native Christians. The leading German missionary statisticians. Professor Warneck and Dr. Grundmann, in works published in 1901, do not make use of as recent statistics, nor do they report as large a list of societies. 2. The number of missionary organizations laboring in the Empire and reported in Volume II is sixty-seven. This includes Bible societies and other organizations having foreign workers on the field, with the exception of the Mission to Lepers in India and the East, which furnishes a large plant, but depends upon other societies for its workers. While the statistics of Volume II do not indicate the provincial distribution of native communicants, a sufficiently accurate statement is found in the authorized translation of Professor Warneck's "Abriss einer Geschichte der protestantischen Missionen," 1901. According to this translation, the province of Fo-kien contained the larg- est number of Christians, 25,409, after deducting those in For- mosa. Kwang-tung came next, with 15,000 Christians; Shan- tung, 12,500 Christians; Manchuria, 9,900; Che-kiang, 9,250; CHINA AND ITS DEPENDENCIES 277 Chi-H, 8,000; Hu-pei, 4,650; and Kiang-su, 4,570. Here Dr. Warneck gives the round numbers of Hartmann's statistics, which appeared in the May, 1900, issue of the "Allgemeine Missions-Zeitschrift." Because of an error in footing, Hart- mann's 4,576 should be 4,306. Other provinces had less than 2,000 Christians each, according to the Hartmann tables, fol- lowed by Dr. Warneck. It will thus be seen that the seaboard provinces of the Empire contained by far the largest number of Christians, though missionaries were widely distributed in all of the eighteen provinces. 3. It is difficult to measure the efficiency of various boards ; for the educational and spiritual qualifications of the mis- sionary forces are a variable quality. Moreover, men like the late Dr. Faber, of the Allgemeiner evangelisch-protestantischer Missionsverein, Dr. Young J. Allen, of the Methodist Episcopal Board, South, and Timothy Richard, representing the English Baptists and the Society for the Diffusion of Christian and General Knowledge among the Chinese, have had a wider in- fluence upon the Empire during the past few years than scores of missionaries less strategically situated and employed. If communicants are taken as the criterion, this, too, is exceedingly misleading; as some societies, like the Northern Methodists of the United States, whose number of communicants is the larg- est, include under this head those who are baptized, but not fully received. It may be said with a fair degree of accuracy that the leading boards in the several provinces are as follows : In Manchuria, or Sheng-king, the United Presbyterian Church of Scotland, the Irish Presbyterians and the Danish Missionary Society; in Chi-li, the American Board, the Methodist Episco- pal Board, North, the London Missionary Society and the So- ciety for the Propagation of the Gospel ; in Shan-titng, the Pres- byterian Board, North, the English Baptists and the China In- land ]\Iission; in Kiang-su, the Presbyterian Board, South, the China Inland Mission, the Presbyterians, North, and American Methodists, South; in Che-kiang, the China Inland Mission, the Church Missionary Society, the American Baptist Mission- 2y% GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS ary Union and the Presbyterian Board, South ; in Fo-kien, the Church Missionary Society, the Methodist Board, North, the EngHsh Presbyterians and the American Board ; in Kzvang- timg, the Basel Missionary Society, the Presbyterians, North, the Enghsh Presbyterians, the American Baptist Missionary Union, the Rhenish and Berhn Missionary Societies and the Church Missionary Society ; in Kzvang-si, the Christian and Missionary AlHance, the EngHsh Wesleyans, the Church Mis- sionary Society and the British and Foreign Bible Society; in Yun-nan, the China Inland Mission ; in Ssc-chwan, the China Inland Mission, the Church Missionary Society, the American Baptist Missionary Union, the Friends' Missionary Society and the Canadian Methodists ; in Kan-su, the China Inland Mission ; in Shen-si, the China Inland Mission and the English Baptists; in Shan-si, the China Inland Mission, the English Baptists and the American Board ; in Mongolia, the London Missionary Society, the Scandinavian Mission Alliance of North America, the Christian and Missionary Alliance ; in Ho- nan, the China Inland Mission and the Canadian Presby- terians ; in N gan-hwci, the China Inland Mission, the Foreign Christian Missionary Society and the American Episcopalians ; in Hii-pei, the London Missionary Society, the Wesleyan Mis- sionary Society, the Swedish Missionary Society, the American Episcopalians and the China Inland Mission; in Kiang-si, the China Inland Mission and the Methodist Board, North; in Hu-nan, the London Missionary Society, the China Inland Mis- sion, the Presbyterian Board, North, the American Episco- palians and the Cumberland Presbyterians ; and in Kwei-chau, the China Inland Mission. It should be added that the Bible societies, especially the American, the British and Foreign, and the National of Scotland, together with the Society for the Diffusion of Christian and General Knowledge among the Chinese and the various tract societies, are exceedingly in- fluential throughout^ the entire Empire, notwithstanding the fact that their agents are few and located only in leading centers. CHINA AND ITS DEPENDENCIES 279 11. Forms of Work Most Useful in 1900. — China is so large and typical a mission field that a somewhat full state- ment of these will be made, though with the understanding that since the recent uprising most of these forms of activity have been intermitted, and that in the future other elements will be more largely emphasized, perhaps, than the methods here named. The present tense is employed, however, for the reason that, while largely given up at the time of writing, the work will always need to make these forms of effort fundamental in the great majority of stations that for some time to come will be unaffected by China's new life. 1. Efforts for China's Physical Alleviation. — Medicine has been the wedge used to open the doors of hundreds of un- friendly homes. From the first moment of his arrival, the physician is most useful, and though the natives may not real- ize the priceless worth of the gospel message, release from pain and from many diseases which Chinese practitioners can- not heal, is appreciated most gratefully. While dispensaries are far more common than hospitals, the latter are apt to yield more encouraging spiritual results. Leisure to learn through oral instruction the gist of the gospel is there afforded, and hundreds have also embraced the opportunity to learn to read, through the medium of Christian tracts, which are carried later to their homes as a silent leaven. 2. Educational Work. — ( i ) Day-schools, usually for pupils of one sex — though sometimes mixed schools are opened for very young children — are the commonest sort of educational institutions. Boys and girls, mainly from poor Christian fam- ilies whose parents could not afford to have them go to an or- dinary school, make very rapid progress in their studies, thanks to a rational system of instruction and to heredity. Reading, writing and the rudiments of Western learning are imparted, but the staple of instruction is the Bible. Hundreds of pupils in day-schools memorize the gospels, and many the entire New Testament. Better still, they are taught to look upon it as a divine seed, and in many a child's heart it has germinated and 28o GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS brought forth fruit in heathen court-yards. In some of these schools the pupils need to be induced to come by the gift of a few cash, picture-cards, etc. ; but in older communities Chris- tians so much appreciate them, that their partial or entire sup- port is often obtained. Native teachers, many of them trained in mission schools of a higher grade, are usually in charge, though foreign supervision is always helpful. (2) Boarding-schools are attended by a comparatively few picked pupils ; but the close contact with the missionaries and with the community of Christians isolated from the heathen mass has been an inestimable benefit to the leaders of the Church, who would otherwise have had no definite conception of what Christianity can effect in associated life. This ad- vantage more than offsets the objection that a hot-house atmos- phere, which unfits them for sterner experiences of service, is the penalty of such schools. These institutions are especially valuable for the young women, the future wives and mothers of the Christian community, who there learn lessons in home- making that will prove invaluable. The studies pursued in such schools are disappointingly limited in range in the opinion of the newly arrived foreigner ; yet in many cases they are such as are best adapted to the peculiar needs of the Chinese. Ancient and modern languages — except English along the coast and in the ports — are not worth learning, as dense ig- norance on more vital topics exists, and the study of their own Classics is indispensable as an element of Chinese culture, and as a mental discipline is almost as valuable as Greek and Latin to the student of the West. (3) Only a very few genuine colleges exist. Yet there is pressing need of a body of well-trained natives who can enter the vast fields opening to the civil engineer, the mining expert, the electrician and the topographical engineer. Astron- omy and mathematics, which have previously been desired, must also be taught. It can be said with perfect truth that thus far the missionaries have been China's best, and almost only, instructors, and in the higher institutions students are CHINA AND ITS DEPENDENCIES 281 being trained who receive a moral education second to that imparted in no Western college, and a mental development that compares favorably with that of our students. (4) Educatio>i for Christian service is an endeavor that even those societies approve of which do not encourage a general educational work. Station-classes for men and women — sepa- rate, of course — bring together for a few weeks or months, usually in the winter season when people are least busy, a com- pany of interested Christians or inquirers anxious to be fitted for usefulness in their homes. It is a rare privilege to have in charge such a class. Some are stupid, but all are eager learn- ers ; for, as they often say, " This is heaven," and such heavenly privileges are rarely undervalued or misimproved. Hundreds every year gain information and inspiration in these classes that enable them to stand alone in the midst of persecution, and become a savor of life unto life among unbelieving multitudes. The few theological schools established attempt to do more thoroughly for chosen young men of the Church what station-classes accomplish for the uneducated many in more advanced life. Chinese seminary students are most thoroughly educated in all that pertains to the work of evangelization and the regular ministry, and in these institutions are men, some of whom have mastered the contents and drunk in the spirit of the Bible as no seminary students of the Occident have done. 3. Literature in Chinese Missions. — As no other missionary country honors literature so highly as China, so literary work has had a correspondingly large amount of attention given it. (i) The preparation of literature of every variety, Bibles, religious treatises, educational works, and periodicals both secu- lar and religious, has fallen almost entirely on the shoulders of the missionaries. Many have become authors who have no gifts in that direction, but it is probably true that no country has had so large a number of competent translators and authors as China. Bible translators, like Morrison, Medhurst, Bridg- man, Blodget, Burdon and Schereschewsky, and the present committees working on revised versions, are men to be grateful 282 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS for, even if some of the earlier generation aimed at perspicuity and elegance of diction, rather than at faithfulness in translat- ing the sometimes ambiguous, and to the Chinese, distasteful statements of the Scripture writers. (2) The manufacture of books is an effort which mission presses have undertaken in spite of the fact that this means competition with thousands of native printers, the entire outfit of many of whom might be packed in a hand-satchel. The ex- periment of Pi, made nearly 900 years ago, has become effec- tive in the elegant movable type of to-day, and though the mission-press compositor may be bewildered at first as he stands, like a man in a museum, in the midst of the 6,000 and more compartments of his gigantic type-cases, he can far out- strip the block-cutter, both in speed of composition and beauty of type. (3) Practically every Protestant missionary and native Christian worker in China aids in the distribution of this litera- ture. Inquirers are taught to read by means of books ; schools and training-classes cannot exist without them ; and they are the best and almost only agency through which to reach the gentry and officials of the Empire, from local Nicodemuses to the occupant of the Dragon Throne. Missionaries and colpor- teurs sell books or judiciously loan or give them away in chapels and tea-shops, at fairs and near the gates of govern- ment examination-halls. Books are a legitimate excuse for the foreigner's presence in a hostile district, and the native Book-lending Societies of the South gain an entrance for Christian truth by their means into country schools and the homes of grandees. 4. Evangelistic Work. — (i) Perhaps the most profitable ef- forts on the Chinese field are those in which the missionary labors with individuals, as did Jesus at the Samaritan well. This form of effort is so similar to that of the West that it needs no description. (2) If most of the work thus far described resembles that done in missions at home, chapel preaching presents some CHINA AND ITS DEPENDENCIES 283 unique features. These buildings are usually rented shops, located on frequented city streets and open to all comers. Though the place is a cheerless one and provided with rude, backless seats and only doubtful means of warmth in the win- ter, a respectable audience, or even a crowd, soon gathers to gaze at the " foreign devil," or to hear singing which is so un- orthodox, because not falsetto in character. The singing over, and politeness having overcome their prejudices, they are seated. In new districts it will hardly do to offer prayer, as this proceeding might be mistaken for a magic incantation to entrap them, and so cause a stampede. Few can hope to hold an audience if a long passage of Scripture is read. Beginning immediately, therefore, the missionary, by conversation or sim- ple address, attempts to bring before his auditors the great facts of God, sin and salvation. Interruptions are numerous ; pea- nut venders may shout their wares ; old friends recognize each other across the room and start an animated conversation ; an opium-smoker attempts to create a disturbance ; an intermittent procession of smokers circulates about the stove or incense- spiral to light their pipes ; a passing mandarin or a street brawl calls out the entire audience to " behold the hot racket," etc., etc. But they soon return, and comers and goers keep the chapel supplied all day long. Preaching alternates with tea- drinking, conversations with groups, reading and the sale of books and Scriptures, and instruction of any inquirers present. (3) Itineration requires some nerve and great powers of adaptation. Journeying on foot, by wheelbarrow, cart, sedan- chair, or boat, a walled city is visited, usually on a day when a fair is being held. Armed with books and Scriptures, the itiner- ant takes up his position on the side of the narrow, crowded street and amid the bedlam of shouting sellers of all kinds of commodities he speaks his message as he is able. Very rarely is one stoned out of the city and work can be continued till nightfall, if throat permits. The curious crowd tenders an evening reception at the inn, but this is compensated for at its close, when not infrequently an awakened searcher after Truth 284 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS remains to continue till midnight, perhaps, a conversation that angels might rejoice to hear. In villages this itineration is much less taxing and more fruitful. Seated beside the village well, or standing on the steps of the dingy temple, groups of farmers just in from the fields and often w^omen — v^^ho rarely appear in public in the cities — gather round to look on and hear the stranger's words. A talk-sermon, general friendliness, catechisms or tracts bought and perhaps a few simple characters written on the hard earth of the highway or threshing-floor to testify to the truth of the gospel, are the means used by the Spirit to regenerate lives. Where such itineration is systematic and progress can be made, as in the field of the American Presbyterians and Eng- lish Baptists in Shan-tung, this work is exceedingly valuable. The German missionaries in Kwang-tung are also great be- lievers in country work, as contrasted with the more unfruitful efforts made in Chinese cities. The late Dr. Nevius was the leading advocate of the fully developed village-circuit system, which is described in his " Methods of Mission Work." In a word, his plan is to interest villages through itineration, and as soon as inquirers appear, make the ablest of them the leader of the group. These meet periodically for the study of a graduated series of lessons and for worship. The leaders are themselves instructed through station-classes at the mission- aries' homes. III. The Boxers and the Christian Church. — In Part I of this chapter a few of the leading causes of the recent cata- clysm in China have been given. Some of the factors men- tioned there are more fully discussed here, though in this place the effect of the uprising on Christianity is under consideration. I. That missionaries and converts, both Catholic and Protes- tant, had some share in producing the awful events of 1900 must be admitted ; though the feeling against them was due to their foreign origin or sympathies, rather than to their Christian activity. So far as Protestant missionaries were concerned, they were more omnipresent than their Catholic fellow-laborers, CHINA AND ITS DEPENDENCIES 285 since the latter seclude themselves in great measure and do little promiscuous and public work. As has been seen, the writings of some of these missionaries, notably Timothy Richard and Young J. Allen, had a large share in influencing, not only the reformers, but the Emperor as well. " The North China Her- ald," the best informed periodical in the Far East, " has stated that a proposal was made to the Emperor by the Secretary of the Board of Rites that Protestant Christianity should be the State religion of the Empire, a Parliament formed and the queue abolished; that this memorial was intercepted by the President of the Board, who denounced his subordinate to the Emperor; that the Emperor thereupon promoted the Secre- tary and cashiered the President ; and that this led to the coup d'etat." Whether this is true or not, there is evidence that the Emperor was favorably inclined toward Protestant work. This was a sufficient reason for utter abhorrence of missionaries on the part of the Chinese Court and the conservatives. Native Protestant Christians are usually more pronounced than Catholics in their unwillingness to conform to such prac- tices as ancestral worship, the observance of the spring festival for sweeping the graves, etc. When to this is added the occa- sional differences between Protestants and other Chinese, in which the former are usually in the right and consequently may win in lawsuits or village quarrels, we discover an additional cause of friction. Other causes of animosity are the difficulty in securing property for mission purposes, in which the native Christians often aid the foreigner; their refusal to contribute to the fund for holding theatrical exhibitions, which causes their neighbors to pay an extra quota; their often injudicious manner of presenting Christianity as it stands related to Con- fucianism, etc. Aside from the causes for irritation already mentioned, there was in a number of localities, especially in the southern half of the Empire, mutual hostility betzveen Protestants and Catholics, almost wholly due to the latter. While such a statement may be attributed to the odium theologicum, so far as it emanates 286 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS from the missionary body, or to international jealousies ex- hibited by officials of Catholic and Protestant countries, the impartial observer must certainly acknowledge that a large preponderance of wrong is to be attributed to Catholicism. Sufficient has been said to show that there was necessarily much feeling between non-Christians, especially of the official class, and the Church, whether Protestant or Catholic. 2. When the storm burst in 1899 and 1900, the leaders of the new sects were most in disfavor. Upon the missionaries, therefore, was vented the utmost injury that Chinese hatred could suggest. Happily, martyrdoms were confined to the provinces of Shan-tung, where one missionary was martyred ; Che-kiang, where eight adults and three children were slain; Chi-li, where seventeen — including four children — met their death; and Shan-si, the bloody field of persecution, where 113 adults and forty-six children received their crown. This makes a total of 135 adults and fifty-three children, 188 in all. An incomplete list of Catholics who were slain gives the number of men as thirty-five and the women as nine. The heroism of these nineteenth century martyrs is admira- bly set forth in Mr. Broomhall's " Martyred Missionaries," 1 901, a volume concerning which Professor Warneck says: " The most penetrating glimpse of this fearful slaughter, which has nothing to compare with it in the history of modern mis- sions, is given by Broomhall." Readers are referred to that volume and to Dr. Smith's "China in Convulsion" for the sad details. Suffice it to say that the great heroism displayed by the sufferers, and their continuance, even during the death march, to bless the Chinese by word and deed, have resulted in the same fruitage that was noted in the case of the early Chris- tian witnesses. 3. As for the native martyrs, some tens of thousands in num- ber, it is remarkable with what fortitude they endured the fear- ful tortures that were the fiery chariot upon which they rose to heaven. There is no item mentioned in Hebrews xi. 35-38 that was not true of these Chinese heroes of the faith ; and thost CHINA AND ITS DEPENDENCIES 287 who escaped the sword and " wandered in deserts and moun- tains and caves and holes of the earth " were more to be pitied perhaps than their brethren whose sufferings were compara- tively brief. One of the most pathetic features of this time of persecution was the willingness of the Christians to befriend the missionaries, even when it meant death or grave peril to themselves. Even in the province of Shan-si, where the Gov- ernor had given orders to kill all Christians and where those who wrote letters to the foreigners were mercilessly slain, this loyalty was constantly manifest. " The manner in zvhich the Christians met their terrible suf- ferings was a perpetual astonishment to their tormentors. They could not understand what inspired the calm courage of the tall and stalwart Teacher Liu of Shan-si, who sat calmly in his room fanning himself and awaiting the advent of the Boxers, who killed him instantly ; nor that of the Peking dea- con, who put on his best clothes and went out to meet them joyfully, facing death with a smile. Was it any wonder that the Boxers in their superstition cut out the hearts of such peo- ple to ascertain the source of their more than human courage ? " Fear and hatred of Christians did not cease with their san- guinary deaths. " The notion widely prevailed that within three days they would rise from the dead, unless energetic steps were taken to prevent it. It was for this reason that so many were cut in pieces and burned, in exceptional cases the ashes being passed under stone rollers and dispersed to the winds." 4. What has been the effect of these persecutions upon the Chinese Church f It was a time of sifting. As would happen in Christian lands, if church members had to face the alterna- tives of awful torture and death, or the renunciation of their Master, so in China many have denied their Lord. In the case of some others who have survived without such denial, the return of partial peace finds them full of bitterness or even revenge toward neighbors who had turned Boxers and been guilty of such cruelty to members of their families or to them- 288 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS selves. In a few instances they have even given their consent that these authors of their sufferings should be punished by death. In still other cases the reaction in favor of followers of the foreigners and the opportunity to share in the ill-gotten gains of the foreign soldiery have made them care more for money and loot than for their religion. In the case of Catho- lics there is a disposition to exact exorbitant reparation, both in money and lives, for the injuries endured, which makes them, and to a certain extent all Christians, an offense to the people at large. Having said the worst that can be urged against the native Church, it is an occasion for gratitude to be able to add that the uprising has not been without its blessings. An unexpected strength has been evidenced and multitudes of Christians will find all future ostracism and persecution trifling compared with the sufferings of the past. The object-lesson of testify- ing even unto death has been a salutary one to both Christians and their opposers in scores, if not hundreds, of districts. Future converts will count the cost as never heretofore, with the result that few will enter the Christian Church who are not really changed men and women. The burden of holding the little circles of believers together has necessarily come upon the native leaders, and this has shown what is possible for them in the new day which is dawning over blood-stained China. But the strongest impression that is left as a legacy to the native Church is that of God's providence and care for His own. In the two provinces of Chi-li and Shan-si, where the losses were the greatest, this confidence is quite prevalent among the Christians. When the French Minister, M. Pichon, in a cold state document sent to the President of France, is impelled to file a long series of " ifs," the existence or non- existence of which circumstances would have been the doom of diplomats and Christians alike, one is not surprised at its introductory and closing paragraphs. " It is a wonder the be- sieged were able to resist and be saved. A series of extraordi- nary events, the origin of which was less the will of men than CHINA AND ITS DEPENDENCIES 289 the occurrence of circumstances which could not be foreseen, was the only thing which prevented the general massacre to which they seemed condemned. . . . Our salvation, there- fore, resulted from a chain of events which cannot be explained by logical reason and rational considerations." Professor Gamewell, the Methodist missionary whose skill in erecting the fortifications of the besieged legations had more to do with their salvation than almost any other human factor, has ever since been proving to deeply awed audiences that only the providence of God and the prayers of countless thousands in every quarter of the globe can account for M. Pichon's " series of extraordinary events," the origin of which was not the will of men. Chinese Christians cannot learn of the agonizing prayer of all Christendom offered in behalf of themselves and their missionary leaders, without being filled with gladness and the strength begotten of a real communion of saints and the manifest intervention of God, the Father Almighty. When, therefore, the blood-red balance line is drawn in this divine ledger of gain and loss, the balancing entry is " an exceeding weight of glory." A virile stock is still left in the earth, prov- ing that in this Chinese Armageddon, though there has been " a tumultuous noise of the kingdoms of nations gathered to- gether, the Lord of hosts mustereth the host of the battle." IV. Protestant Missions and the New Regime. — i. On returning to their stations, the missionaries face nearly the same conditions in the South that surrounded them early in 1900. There is greater insolence in many cases, but this is more than offset by a marked friendliness on the part of officials who are clear-sighted enough to realize the needs of the future and the large place in the coming renaissance that must be filled by missionaries. The once bitterly hostile Hu-nan grants a royal .welcome to Protestant missionaries, who have responded in some cases only to urgent invitations before entering the prov- ince. And in the North the only male survivor of the Amer- ican Board's Mission in Shan-si, Dr. Atwood, writes thus of the reception accorded to representatives of different societies 290 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS whose members were brutally slaughtered, some of them by the Governor's own hands. " When the missionaries returned to Tai-yuen-fu for the first time after the massacre, it was a sad but triumphal return." It should be noted that this settlement of the troubles had been arranged in a conference between Rev. Timothy Richard — who had been invited to Peking for the purpose — and the Chinese Peace Commissioners and the Shan-si Governor. So wise were the suggestions of this " best known and most repre- sentative Protestant missionary in China " that Li Hung-chang was " exceedingly pleased with the moderation of the demands, exclaiming that never yet had there been in China such an en- lightened and moderate gentleman as Dr. Richard had shown himself to be, and that if these suggestions were put into effect, there would be no more missionary troubles in the Empire." 2. Problems of course there are, and how to solve them is the crucial question facing the missionaries in at least three- fourths of the Empire. Even the brick and mortar question of a place of abode and the adjustment of indemnities are most serious, since there is not a single mission station north of the Yang-tsze that remains uninjured, with the single excep- tion of P'ang-chuang, the home of the well-known author, Arthur Smith. Providentially the Imperial province of Chi-li has not only approved of the action taken by the much traduced missionary, Dr. Ament, in arranging for suitable indemnities, but they have carried on his unfinished work, and friction aris- ing from this cause will not occasion much trouble. In Shan-si, however, the case is different, and in other parts of the Em- pire ill-will is to be expected. The readjustment of stations will be a difficult matter to arrange, especially if comity is regarded and the recommenda- tions of the missionary secretaries of the United States and Canada are carried out. Where work has been taken up for providential reasons that no longer exist, and in places where different missions have been located so near each other as to occasion a duplication of work, it will be wise to reconsider CHINA AND ITS DEPENDENCIES 29I locations, with the possibiHty of occasioning bitterness among brethren or of leaving a work uncared for. In case nezv buildings are erected and helpers reengaged, a whole group of questions arises. Has too much money been spent on the plant heretofore? If so, what shall be the new rule of expenditure? Has not the missionary in the initial stages of the work in a given place depended too much on paid helpers? In that case, how can a higher stage of independence be insisted upon when many Christians have been impover- ished, or thrown wholly out of employment ? It may be a good opportunity to drop from the list of employees men who have been inefficient or lacking in character ; but to do so now will increase ill-will when the closest of ties ought to unite mission- ary and converts. Moreover, the missionary cannot at present visit many stations and must depend upon these helpers. The question of what is to be done with church members who, in the recent troubles, recanted or otherwise compromised with heathenism is the most delicate problem of all. Dr. Smith, in the January, 1901, " Missionary Review of the World," thus states the questions involved : " What ought to be the principle in dealing with cases of this sort, and are they all to be treated as on the same footing? There are many cases in which there is reason to suspect that a church member has displayed a wholly unchristian spirit, and has taken vengeance upon his persecutors, as well as upon those who were not in any way identified with the Boxer movement, by getting them punished as such. The line between the satisfaction of justice and the thirst for vengeance per se is often by no means an easy one to trace, and the missionary who finds himself with a tangled crop of such cases on his hand has need for the wisdom which is at once pure and peaceable." As to Christians guilty of re- cantation at a time when human nature was under so terrible a strain, divine wisdom is requisite in order to maintain the pur- ity of the Church and at the same time not to fall short of that sympathy which said, " Neither do I condemn thee ; go, and sin no more." 292 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS 3. A different series of problems arises in the attempt to answer the question, What lines of effort and what changes of method are demanded by the new conditions of the twentieth century, the first of China's modern life? Two representative Chinese, — Minister Wu, at Washington, and the late Li Hung- chang, — have repeatedly said that educational and medical missionaries were needed, with an implication that others were not desired. The one book that has been Imperially endorsed and most widely read by the Chinese — over a million copies having been published — is " China's Only Hope," by the most far-sighted and influential of the Empire's great triumvirate. The Viceroy Chang Chih-tung wrote before the late uprising, but his words are indicative of the present sense of need throughout China, in so far as it is adequately appreciated. A few points made by Viceroy Chang may be suggestive in the formulation of a new policy for some classes and sections of China. Speaking of the daily press of Western lands, he lauds its power as making the five continents as if they lived face to face, and he urges the establishment and wide use of this en- lightening agency. Commenting upon that section of the book an English missionary writes : " In this respect the work of the missionary press cannot be overestimated. In Fu-chau, Shang-hai, Han-kau, Canton, there are large establishments, nearly all American, entirely occupied in the production of Christian and educational literature, either in permanent book form, or as magazines or papers. Many millions of pages are issued annually from these Christian presses for the enlighten- ment and intelligence of China." After discussing the weakness and strength of the existing competitive examination system and suggesting changes, the Viceroy takes up the broader question of general education. He enlarges upon that reform edict of the Emperor in which the establishment of common schools was ordered throughout the land, using therefor Buddhist and Taoist temples and monasteries ; above and in addition to these, universities and CHINA AND ITS DEPENDENCIES 293 colleges must be founded. Concerning these he writes : " The Imperial province should have a university, the prefectures should have colleges and the counties should have day-schools. In the day-schools the course of study should comprise Confucius, Mencius, the geography and history of China, mathematics, map-drawing and the elements of science. The curriculum of the colleges should comprise all this, and in addition the remainder of the Classics, a wider grasp of history, the science of government and the study of foreign languages. In the university the study of these subjects should be pursued more thoroughly." Another sort of missionary that will be more useful than hitherto is the experienced worker, who for decades has lived himself into the life of the people, thoroughly learned their language, read their Classics, and assimilated their views. Many a man besides Timothy Richard is now being cultivated by high officials, and under the surface is exerting an influence of inestimable value on the coming China. A well-known col- lege president in a private letter queries whether with these new opportunities he ought not to lay aside most of his college duties and give himself to this form of effort. V. The Outlook. — This has already been anticipated, though only as it affects work already begun. The question has been widely raised by the occurrences of the past two years, whether after all it is worth while to press the missionary enterprise among a people capable of such ingratitude, who, as a rule, are satisfied with things as they are and prefer not to have missionaries reside among them. Others are asking whether the Chinese are really worth saving. I. So far as official utterances go, the prospects for the future are encouraging. The document emanating from the Court and relating to the establishment of a new Council of State is most significant. Only one of its ten articles can be quoted : " 5. Where native methods come short, Western methods are to be used to supplement them. With a view to this the translations of foreign books are to be collected 294 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS and compared, and our Ministers to Japan and other countries are to be called on for reports on the state and progress of those nations. For us the example of Japan is of special interest — not only as belonging to Asia, but for having in a short time risen to a place of power and influence." In Sir Robert Hart's epitome of the Emperor's recent Reform Edict are other signs of great promise. A few extracts will give a fair idea of the whole. " The Empress Dowager has decided to push on reform and, as a preliminary, sets aside such hampering distinctions as ancient and modern, native and foreign. Whatever is good for the State or for the people, no matter what its origin, is to be adopted ; whatever is bad is to be cast out, no matter what be its antiquity. Our national fault is that we have got into a rlit hard to get out of, and are fettered by red tape just as diffi- cult to untie. Bookworms are too numerous, practical men too scarce ; incompetent red-tapists grow fat on mere forms, and officials think that to pen a neat dispatch is to dispose of business. Old fossils are continued too long in office, and openings are blocked for men possessing the talents and quali- fications the times require. One word accounts for the weak- ness of the Government — selfishness ; and another for the de- cadence of the Empire — precedent. All this must be changed. Those who have studied Western methods have so far only mastered a smattering of language, something about manufac- ture, a little about armaments ; but these things are merely the skin and hair ; they do not touch the secret of Western superi- ority — breadth of view in chiefs, concentration in subordi- nates, good faith in undertakings, and effectiveness in work. What must be insisted on as a principle is that self shall be nothing and public duty everything. We ourselves and the Empress Dowager have long cherished these ideas ; and now the time has come to put them in force. Whether the State is to be safe or insecure, powerful or feeble, depends on this." ^ Even allowing for the foreign equation evident in this edict, there is still much ground to believe that the Emperor CHINA AND ITS DEPENDENCIES 29$ is anxious for reform, and as such he should have the hearty sympathy of Christendom. Moreover, prayer should not be lacking for one who, as Rev. Arnold Foster, in a letter to the London " Spectator " of December 29, 1900, asserts " was studying the Bible and was favorable to Christianity. And he sees no reason to doubt what has further been said, that ever since the Emperor's practical deposition he has been praying to God — the God of the Christians — that He would restore him to the throne, and that even in the darkest days through which he has been passing, he has steadfastly believed his prayers will be answered." One is the more ready to credit this report, for the reason that others near to the Emperor, whose names cannot be made public, are, according to the most indubitable evidence, studying Christianity, and in a few , cases are ready to profess their faith in Christ so soon as it \/» is permissible. ; 2. Turning from the Court to the reform element in the Em- pire, there is good reason to hope that Protestant missions will be more influential in the future than in the past. In a notable series of articles on " China : the Outbreak and the Outlook," written — presumably by Rev. G. F. Smith — for the Church Missionary Society " Intelligencer," February to April issues, 1901, are these words : " If we have succeeded in showing that the Reform Movement is the brightest and indeed the only hope that is left for China, and that it has hitherto received from Christian missions its best impulses, does it not follow that the zealous prosecution of missionary work is the most promising of all means whereby it is within the power of for- eigners to assist the Chinese to set their house in order? So far from the foreign governments being called to trammel mis- sions by restrictions, as some of them have been, we are per- suaded that it would be an excellent investment on their part to subsidize them generously, — on their part, but for the sake of the missions themselves we rejoice to know that such a thing is impossible ; for such assistance would undoubtedly hinder their good work even more than any coercive measures 296 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS of restraint could effect. On the one hand, let the pecuniary cost and the moral effects of military expeditions be con- sidered : the former in a few months computed to have amounted to over sixty millions sterling, many times more than all the Protestant missions of America and England have cost during the sixty years that they have had access to China ; the latter calculated to leave an indelible dishonor on the troops of some, at least, of the Christian nations. And on the other hand, let it be realized how much missionaries have succeeded in winning the respect and confidence of the reflecting classes in China : the facts just adduced, showing how their counsel and help have been welcomed in regard to matters of vital moment to China and yet considerably removed from the proper business of their special vocation, are eloquent wit- nesses as to this. The fact, also, that the United States and Great Britain — the two nations which furnish the majority of the Protestant missionaries in China — are the most trusted by the people, and especially so in the provinces — such as Fo- kien — where missionaries are most numerous, also tells in the same direction." 3. Does any one believe that the Chinese converts are a hopeless element in the future of the Empire? Their con- stancy and the encomiums showered upon them by men who had previously slandered them, such as the famous London " Times " correspondent, Dr. Morrison, are a sufficient answer to any such scepticism. We add a testimony from a writer whose opportunities for comparative study of Asiatic peoples have been unsurpassed, Mrs. Bishop, F.R.G.S. At the New- castle Church Congress, of September, 1900, she said : '' In the course of two years I traveled 8,000 miles in inland China ; and in the course of these journeys visited seventy-three mis- sion stations. Everywhere small, ofttimes very small, com- munities of persons had been formed, who by their abandon- ment of ancestral worship and idolatrous social customs, were subjected to a social ostracism, and who, partly in consequence, dung together as brethren with a tenacity similar to that which CHINA AND ITS DEPENDENCIES 297 finds its secular expression in the powerful Chinese organiza- tions known as guilds. These converts live pure and honest lives ; they are teachable, greedy of Bible knowledge, generous and self-denying for Christian purposes, and so anxious to preserve the purity of their brotherhood that it would be im- possible for such abuses as disfigured the Church of Corinth to find a place in the infant churches of China. Above all, every true convert becomes a missionary, and it is in this spirit of propagandism that the hope for the future lies. After eight and a half years of journeyings among Asiatic peoples, I say unhesitatingly that the raw material out of which the Holy Ghost fashions the Chinese convert, and ofttimes the Chinese martyr, is the best stuff in Asia." Such words from a person, who was once a disbeliever in missions are doubly significant. 4. Among the non-Christian masses of China, there is a deep need of better things. Their representative, Chang Chih-tung, speaks of material wants to be satisfied by the West. " If the circulation is good, it naturally follows that the body will be in health. If the ears and eyes are open, reliable information can enter; and if the heart and brain are exercised, proficiency will result. The ears and eyes are the foreign periodicals, the heart and brain are the colleges, and the circulation is the railway." While a professed Confucianist, he cannot forget that China also has a soul and that its needs may find satisfac- tion from Christian springs. " Just now Christianity is in the ascendant. Buddhism and Taoism are decadent; their in- fluence cannot long hold its own. Buddhism has long since passed its meridian ; Taoism has only demons, not gods." Men by the million in unconscious need are also those who may effect much for the future Church of China, if brought into the light. Said Rev. W. T. A. Barber, formerly of Wu-chang, at the 1900 Convention of British Student Volunteers : " What think you, then, will happen when they feel that glorious glow ? Think of their tremendous power of organization by which their guilds have had a continuous and powerful life for cen- turies past. Yes, it is such a practical race, possessed of strong 298 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS organizing power that, once turned, must be a mighty mis- sionary factor in the furthest East. Unlovely now, they need but His light to make them shine ; and notwithstanding all dis- couragements, do you wonder that Chinese missionaries be- lieve in the material on which they have to work, and are the most hopeful of men? Said I not rightly, O young men and women, that before you lies in China the toughest-fibred, sturdiest, most vertebrate of the nations of the East, whom to win to Christ is worth the utmost and most joyous self-sacri- fice and toil ? " 5. Another hopeful feature in the New China is the colossal advertising that has been given this field. Prayer and sym- pathy without stint have been lavished upon this age-old Em- pire. The very seriousness of the missionary crisis has brought the boards of the United States and Canada and the societies of Europe together in a common council of war. Missionary sec- retaries and delegations have been specially dispatched to study on the ground the pressing needs of the immediate future. As many of these are working in unison, there is a strong proba- bility that the new campaign will be conducted more in ac- cordance with comity and with the teachings of the rapidly formulating science of missions. 6. Possibly the reader will object, that while the above grounds of hope have a substantial basis, there is yet to be considered the missionaries themselves, who have been under a galling fire of criticism. True; but in the opinion of those best informed, they have come out of the worse than Boxer up- rising of humorist, ignorant and prejudiced tourist, omniscient stay-at-home journalist, and atheist, with some wounds, yet with colors flying and a reputation increased rather than sul- lied. Mr. Bredon, Deputy Inspector-General of Chinese Cus- toms, who was in Peking and witnessed all that happened in that storm-center of anti-missionary criticism, administers a deserved rebuke to all such persons. Writing to the " North China Daily News," he says : " I regret extremely to see pub- lished in some papers and reproduced in others the following CHINA AND ITS DEPENDENCIES 299 Statement regarding missionary behavior during the Legation siege at Peking : ' Their conduct during the siege has not been very creditable. They have exhibited anything but a Christian spirit, and have the reputation of being the biggest looters in Peking.' I cannot conceive where the writer gets justification for such a statement. I was during the siege a member of the General Purposes Committee, which had surveillance of prac- tically everything but the fighting, and in that position had the best possible opportunity of knowing what was going on, and I can say that the conduct of the missionaries was, in my opin- ion, not only creditable, but admirable. ... I heard in the Legation before we were enabled to leave it, that the mis- sionaries had taken quantities of loot. I took special pains as a committeeman to investigate the truth of this assertion, and I found absolutely nothing to confirm it." When such color- less testimony of one little interested in Christianity is supple- mented by the official utterances of Ministers Pichon, Conger and MacDonald, warmly commending the missionary body, the carpings of misinformed or disingenuous critics may be neglected. One strong objection still remains. It is said by some that if missionaries are what the most impartial testimony claims for them, it is nevertheless wholly impracticable or even zvrong for ladies to return to so sanguinary a field ; or if they do go back, they certainly ought not to leave the neighborhood of foreign soldiers and diplomats. The best reply to this objection is found in the weighty " Intelligencer " articles already quoted. " No mission agents have proved so effective in these last days as Christian women. They have gone forth in hundreds and have spread like the gentle dew over the land. By their very helplessness they have disarmed hostility, and then by their love and tact have won esteem. A ready entrance has been yielded to them by their Chinese sisters to their homes and to their hearts. The soil they cultivate has been the most neg- lected, the ignorance of Chinese women might well appal ; but their plodding labors have denied all suggestion to despair, and 300 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS the little ones at least have responded brightly to their efforts. China has treated some of them cruelly ; but it would be wholly unfair to let the wild acts of a few fanatics in two or three provinces, or of an excitable and superstitious peasantry un- der incitement from their superiors, cause us to forget the im- munity which our sisters have enjoyed for many years in nearly all the eighteen provinces of the Empire. China needs them ; and we believe it has learnt the fact and would say so with sin- cere and pathetic earnestness, if the question were referred to it. China needs them, if reform is to reach below the surface and to be a living and a lasting thing. And they will go ; of that there is no doubt. As the door reopens, they will return to pursue their work of patient, untiring love. Whatever safe- guards for their protection experience can suggest will of course be availed of; but under normal conditions their own character and conduct, next to their trust in the Everlasting Arm, will be in the future, as they have been in the past, their best and surest safeguards." 7. A final word from Griffith John, one of the most heroic figures now on the field, should be a clarion call to Christians the world around. " The great need of China to-day is vital religion. What the Chinese need above all else is a heavenly principle that shall infuse a new moral and spiritual life into the nation, a mighty power that shall transform them in their in- most being, a divine inspiration that shall create within their own breast aspirations after holiness and eternal life. In other words, what they need is the gospel of Jesus Christ. Apart from Christianity I can see no hope for China. There is no power in the religious systems of the country to develop a holy character, a true manhood. China cannot advance in the path of true progress without a complete change in the religious life of the nation. It is Christ alone who can lead in the glo- rious dawn of the Chinese renaissance ; the new birth of a mighty nation to liberty and righteousness and ever-expanding civilization. Feeling this to be true, in our heart of hearts, we, the missionaries, have come to China to preach Christ, unto CHINA AND ITS DEPENDENCIES 3OI one a stumbling block and unto another foolishness, but unto them that are called, Christ the power of God and the wisdom of God. This is our work, and woe to us if we turn our backs on it. Let the people of God in Christian lands be of good courage. These troubles in China will soon be over and the demand for missionaries will be greater than ever. China will soon be prepared for the churches ; will the churches be pre- pared for China? May God so move the Christians at home that they shall be prepared to joyfully undertake the new duties and responsibilities which the new China shall devolve upon them." XII SIAM, LAOS, STRAITS SETTLEMENTS AND PRO- TECTED STATES PART I. — GENERAL SiAM, " the brown race," is known locally as Muang Thai, " kingdom of the free," while Laos, or Lao, is from the Chi- nese word meaning ancient. The latter country constitutes the northern and northeastern frontier of Siam, and together they occupy the central portion of the Indo-Chinese Peninsula. I. The Land. — i. The area of Siam is somewhat uncer- tain; but deducting the 110,000 square miles appropriated by France in 1893- 1896, some 200,000 square miles still remain, an area almost equal to that of France or of the New England and Middle States plus Virginia. It is necessary to add 35,000 square miles to the above if we would include the Straits Set- tlements and states protected by Great Britain. 2.' Configuration. — Three distinct areas are here to be noted. The first of these is the hasin of the Menam River, which is a plain rising slowly at first and then rapidly, as one ascends toward the northern mountains. This district, 400 miles long by 150 broad, constitutes most of the kingdom proper and a portion of the northern tributary states. It also contains Siam's most wealthy section. The basin of the Mekong, or the Lao plateau, is more ele- vated than that of the Menam and covers a territory to its eastward, 250 miles by 300 miles in extent. Notwithstanding the Anglo-French arrangement of 1896, the region may still be regarded as under French influence. 302 SIAM, LAOS, STRAITS SETTLEMENTS 3O3 The Malay Peninsula is made up of a backbone of moun- tains flanked by descending stretches of undulating- and dense forests, interspersed with occasional open grassy plains. Nearer the coasts, swamps occasionally appear. The southern portion of this peninsula contains the Straits Settlements, a crown colony of Great Britain, whose influence also extends as far northward as the southern limits of Burma, though the protected Malay states reach no further than 6° N. It is in these protected states that the extensive tin deposits are found which furnish half the output of the entire world. 3. Scenery and Vegetation. ■ — Except along the rivers the country is covered with pathless jungles or primeval forests, which, owing to the. hot moist climate and fertile soil, are scarcely inferior in exuberance and variety to those of neigh- boring tropical archipelagoes. " In addition to the teak and gum trees, the bamboo, vanilla, rattan, palms and gutta percha plants, the tourist notes the more familiar oaks, pines and chestnuts of Occidental countries. Siam also claims to be the garden-land of the world — the land of fruits and flowers and of never-ending summer, with grand old trees overshadowing every hamlet, and plant life in fullest variety bursting on every side from the fertile soil." While the cultivated plants in- clude many tropical products, rice of some forty varieties is the chief article of diet. A journey through the forests would disclose herds of wild elephants, the number of which may be imagined from the fact that in two Lao states alone 18,000 have been domesticated and are thus an important source of wealth. II. Climate and Health. — i. Considering the fact that these countries lie wholly within the tropics, the climate is very endurable. " April is the hottest month of the year, but even then the temperature rarely rises above 94° in a well- constructed house, and as a rule there are cool breezes at night. The average temperature for the year is 81 °." 2. As for healthfulness, Dr. Dean, a missionary resident in Bangkok, said, when nearly eighty years of age, " Do not rep- 304 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS resent the climate of Siam as insalubrious. People die here ; so they do everywhere else except in heaven. Here people sometimes die of fever, of dysentery, of cholera, and sometimes men dig their own graves with a brandy bottle. The report that Siam is unhealthful is a libel on the climate." At one time there were eight aged Americans in the city of Bangkok who had spent from twenty to forty years there and were still hale and hearty. III. The People. — i. The population of Siam as it stands since the French annexation is estimated at 5,000,000. Be- fore annexation its estimated 8,000,000 were divided as fol- lows : Siamese, 2,500,000 ; Laotians, 2,000,000 ; Chinese, 1,000,000; Malays, 1,000,000; other races, 1,500,000. Latterly the Chinese have rapidly increased so that they may number 3,000,000 or more. A further population of 1,230,000 should be added for the Straits Settlements and Protected States. 2. " The Siamese," writes Mr. Black, " are essentially peace- ful and indolent. They are very social, vain, and fond of bright dresses and jewelry. Their intercourse with each other is conducted with a ceremonious attention to distinctions of rank. They are a small, well-proportioned race, with olive- colored skin, black hair, slight black mustache and no beard. They shave the heads of their children with the exception of a tuft on the crown, which is cut off with great ceremony at puberty. The hair is then allowed to grow in the usual fashion, both sexes being alike closely cropped. The national dress both for men and women consists of a bright colored panung — a cotton or silk cloth arranged somewhat in the form of Turkish trousers and reaching to the knee. The houses are built of wood or bamboo thatched with the leaf of the attap palm, and are raised a few feet from the ground on piles. Fur- niture there is none, unless a mosquito net, a mat or two, and cooking and betel utensils be reckoned furniture." Rice and curry, dried fish and fruit, are the food stuffs, while betel- nut chewing and smoking — from infancy almost — are uni- versal. Travelers are repelled at first by the black and pol- SIAM, LAOS, STRAITS SETTLEMENTS 3O5 ished teeth of the Siamese, due to the use of betel-nuts. A characteristic vice of Siam is gambhng, which, however, may be indulged in only in licensed government gambling houses, save at the New Year and on two or three other great holidays when it is allowed elsewhere. 3. The Lao and Shan inhabitants of Siam, though having different names, are essentially the same race. Some have re- garded them as originally inhabiting the Yang-tsze basin, whence they were driven southward into Indo-China by the advance of the Chinese. They were possibly the primitive stock of the Siamese race. They are described as being taller and better formed than the Siamese, are " strong, slender and rather graceful. Their skin is yellowish-white, becoming brown on exposed parts of the body. The eyes are oblique, the hair straight and black and is usually shaved off, except a tuft on the top of the head. They are garrulous, vain, cunning, gentle, peaceable, lazy and not exclusive." They care much for the family life and are said to be morally superior to the surrounding races. The men dress much like their neighbors in the South, though among some of the tribes the common people are tat- tooed from the waist to the knees with devils, monkeys, bats, etc. The garments of their women, however, differ widely from those of the Siamese, being more complete and modest. 4. The languages of the Siamese, Laotians and Shans are said to be dialects of the Shan proper. Indeed, so nearly alike are the two former that until within a decade the missionaries were not fully agreed as to whether preparing a separate Bible for the Laotians was a justifiable expenditure of time and money. Like the Chinese the language is monosyllabic and labors under the consequent difficulties of tones, aspirates and the multiplication of synonyms. It lacks the article, distinct forms for singular and plural, declension and conjugation ex- cept by auxiliaries, and is deficient in connective particles. The written character differs, that of Laos being of the same type as the Burmans and Shans use and based on the Pali, 3o6 ■ GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS while the Siamese alphabet is said to be of Cambodian origin. The latter is written below the line, if on ruled paper, and " the words run together unbroken by spaces, points or capitals. There are marks to denote the beginning and end of the para- graphs." While the difficulties named above and others, such as the blunder of using holy nouns and pronouns for one's self instead of with reference to the King and Buddha only, delay the early and intelligent preaching of missionaries, they can always secure auditors, since the natives listen with the idea that there is merit derivable from permitting religious sounds to fall on the ear, even if not understood. If English is resorted to in teaching natives, a tinge of Orientalism ap- pears, as witness these equivalents given by a Siamese teacher, as told by Miss Cort : Flattery, a good kind of curse-word ; whiskey, sin-water; preach, a missionary-verb; large, an ad- jective of preacher ; daughter, a girl-son ; modesty, a good ad- jective of girl; angel, God's boy. Both in Siam and Burma the language has been for centuries in written form and a considerable literature, largely religious, was in somewhat common use long before the coming of missionaries. 5. The Chinese, 212,194 of whom landed in the Straits Set- tlements in 1895 alone, besides large numbers who enter Siam proper every year, are mostly from the province of Kwang- tung and resemble their countrymen in industry and thrift. " Chinese coolies do the chief part of both skilled and un- skilled labor in the South, especially in the mills and in min- ing." The principal commerce of the capital itself is in their hands also. Their energy and rapid increase, as well as their organization through secret societies, are a source of difficulty and foreboding. 6. Social conditions and progress are far from satisfactory. Domestic slavery at present is only allowable in case of debt. Throughout the whole of Siam, however, natives are liable to forced labor for the Government from one to three months annually. This law sadly interferes with private enterprises, especially agriculture, and gives a great advantage to Chinese, SIAM, LAOS, STRAITS SETTLEMENTS 307 Hindus and other immigrants who are not subject to it. Another obstacle to progress is the fact that all male Siamese are obliged to enter the priesthood for a time and be clad in yellow robes, with head and eyebrows shaved, and then beg their bread from door to door. Until the King's European visit of 1897, Siam was further hampered by the unjustifiable actions of France. M. Hanotaux's abrogation of the objec- tionable clause of the 1893 treaty has, however, removed this obstacle. During recent years telegraph lines, railways, elec- tric cars, steam mills and an internal and international postal system have been introduced, and promise much for the future. IV. Religions. — i. The State religion is Buddhism of the southern variety and consequently is based on the Pali books. Siam is thus intimately connected with Ceylon, and is regarded as the protector of Buddhism. It is even said that it is found in greater purity in this kingdom than anywhere else in the world, and the oft-repeated statement that Bud- dhism costs its worshipers $2.50 per capita annually is proba- bly true in Siam. Siamese Buddhism is divided into two sects. The older, or unreformed, is again subdivided, one party " holding more to meditation, the other to the study of the Scriptures. The reformed sect attaches more weight to the observation of the canon than to meditation." A missionary writes: " We seldom go out but we meet persons on their way to or from the temples, and they never go empty-handed. The most fragrant flowers, and largest, ripest and most lus- cious fruit, the whitest rice and most savory curry and daintiest sweetmeats, the richest and best of all foods and drink are daily offered. Scores of people who may never have a coat or jacket for their own bodies will yet buy yards and yards of white cloth and give it for funeral and other ceremonies, or dye it yellow for the priests." 2. The above description should he modified by Coutts Trot- ter's statement that " Buddhism is corrupted by a general wor- ship or propitiation of nats or phees (spirits, or demons) ; superstition in the more remote districts constitutes practically 308 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS the only religion of life. There are local earth divinities to whom temples or shrines are erected ; others with human or animal forms dwell in the water; others cause children to sicken and die ; others wander and deceive as ignes fatui. By certain spells men can become tigers or werewolves. The numerous offerings and honors paid to these spirits lead to drunkenness and to killing animals in sacrifice. Phallic wor- ship prevails to a considerable extent, notwithstanding the at- tempts of the king to put it down." PART II.— MISSIONARY Approaching Indo-China in our missionary tour of the globe, we first reach the Straits Settlements and the neigh- boring protected states to the North. Thence we shall pass onward to Siam and to the inland mission field of Laos. I. Straits Settlements and Protected States. — In the early days of China's closed doors, Malacca, Singapore and other places in the vicinity, were the training school and work- shop of Chinese missions. Here such famous men as Milne, Medhurst and later Dr. Legge, learned the language, prepared literature, and founded schools and an Anglo-Chinese College, while they labored along evangelical lines among the thousands of Chinese who were here accessible as their brethren in the Middle Kingdom were not. With the opening of that Empire in i860, the necessity for working outside its limits ceased, and Chinese missionaries here were drawn off to China. 1. The organisations at zvork are the Society for the Prop- agation of the Gospel, the English Presbyterian Mission, the British and Foreign Bible Society, Plymouth Brethren, Church of England Zenana Mission, and the Methodist Board, North, from the United States. The Young Women's Christian As- sociation is also doing good service in Singapore. 2. A distinguishing feature of missionary operations here, especially in the great cosmopolitan port of Singapore, is its SIAM, LAOS, STRAITS SETTLEMENTS 309 polyglot character. While English or Malay comes nearest being a common tongue, church services are more or less of a Babel in some cases. Thus in S. P. G. chapels the polyglot dif- ficulty " is partially met by the prayers being said in one dia- lect, the lessons read in two others, while the sermon is preached in Hokien and rendered by the catechist into Can- tonese." This Society, and others also, need to employ helpers of various nationalities, especially those speaking three or four Chinese dialects, and others who know Tamil, and Malay. The missionary is always handicapped when a colleague is on fur- lough who speaks another language than his substitute; and as in educational work English is the commonest medium of instruction, the pressure of school duties prevents such mis- sionaries from fully mastering any new language. 3. Much of the work here is self-supporting. Naturally the foreign community would meet most or all of the expense of the church where they worship, and would also contribute lib- erally to the strictly missionary operations of that church. This is especially true in the case of the S. P. G. and the Meth- odist societies. Then the Chinese among whom most of the missionary work is done, are well-to-do, some of them hav- ing the reputation of being millionaires even. This compar- ative ease in securing financial independence is different from anything that we have hitherto seen. With the grants-in-aid received from the British Government for schools, local con- tributions in many instances more than meet the local expenses of the mission and pay part of the salaries as well. One fea- ture of the missionary program aiding in this direction is Wes- tern education, which is of such manifest advantage to the boys and young men that their parents gladly meet the fees. 4. The question is often asked. Is this support gained at too great a price, paid in the direction of being obligated to do what is not for the best interests of missions? The English Presbyterians were inclined to think that in school work that was true, and consequently they have just handed over their strongest institution to the Methodists. The ground which 3IO GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS this Church holds is thus stated by Rev. C. C. Kelso, who is speaking of the Methodist Anglo-Chinese School at Singa- pore which has had as many as 1,007 pupils in a single year, two-thirds of them from Chinese homes : " The School has been thoroughly loyal to Christ and the Bible. These boys sing Moody and Sankey songs. All the work is done in English. We begin the school with singing, then read from one of the Gospels which is explained and then applied as di- rectly as possible ; so that five days in the week we preach a sermon to our boys. Many hear the gospel in this way for the first time and our hearts are made glad as we note the in- terest they show. Many of them become Christians. Loyalty to the Bible has been maintained at great expense in the loss of boys that we might otherwise get. Through the boarding department of the School, it is made a thoroughly Christian home. Our school buildings some time ago were in bad con- dition. The Chinese trustees resolved to rebuild them and pledged or secured $9,000 of the $14,000 necessary; but when the old buildings had been torn down a few men tried to force us, by threats of the withdrawal of subscriptions, to ex- clude the Bible. When we said that ours was a mission school, their subscriptions were withdrawn. We decided to go on with the work depending on God for the necessary money, and last April the building was opened, the money having all been provided. A great impression was made on the community. Surely the Lord was with us. We can do better work now than before and provide for the future, especially in the line of higher education." One result of receiving government aid is at once an advantage and a source of anxiety to those in charge of schools. The money paid is dependent on the grade of scholarship attained, thus securing on the one hand a far higher degree of excellence, and on the other demanding a larger corps of superior instructors. 5. Though this field is a comparatively new one in its mod- ern occupation, it is regarded as very promising. To be sure the constituency is constantly changing, as the Chinese and SIAM, LAOS, STRAITS SETTLEMENTS 3II Hindus are migratory in their habits ; and it is Hkewise true that the Malay Mahommedan looks upon the missionaries as being without true religion, and hence resolutely opposes the Occidental heretic. Aside from his rejection of the foreign teacher, the latter does not find him especially hopeful at his ordinary valuation. Here is Dr. Oldham's pen portrait of the native : " The Malay is lethargic because of the condition in which he finds himself. Life under the equator does not tend to activity. The sea is full of fish, the shores covered with cocoanut-groves, the rice-fields easily produce their crops. He builds himself a house on stilts on the margin of the sea, or on the bank of a river, so that when the tide comes in the water will flow under the house. The windows are built so that leaning on his elbow he can look out of them and fish, the kindly ocean bringing the fish to his very window. Lying there he may catch enough for his wants. The cocoanut-grove behind the hut, without any care from him, will produce its unfailing crop of nuts. The rice-fields need but little atten- tion. Why should the Malay exert himself? You talk to him concerning the civilized life of other men and the unceasing ac- tivity and tireless energy of the West, and he looks at you through his large, soft eyes, shrugs his shoulders and says a single word, * Susa,' • — * It is difficult.' " If he is so fortunate as to own even a single superior durian tree, he may be able to sell the year's yield for from fifty to seventy-five dollars while the fruit is yet half-grown. In the Chinese, and especially those who are the sons or grandsons of early immigrants and who have Malay blood in their veins, there is much hope. Of these " Straits-horn " Chi- n^.y^, Bishop Thoburn writes: " What is witnessed in Singapore and Penang will probably be repeated with modifications all over the islands. The Chinese will penetrate everywhere ; will take the lead in every form of industrial enterprise ; will become in time amalgamated with the present inhabitants ; and thus there will gradually rise up a new people, combining in their character the patient power of application of the Chinamen with 312 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS the pride and courage of the Malay. In other words, a new race will ultimately and at no distant day appear upon the stage, and enter upon a career of progress worthy of the splen- did heritage which God in His providence appears to be pre- paring for it. They cherish no dream of returning to the land of their ancestors, and they not only take pride in the fact that they are British subjects, but speak with unaffected contempt of ' those Chinamen,' as they designate the China-born portion of the community to which they belong." Conversions among them are of frequent occurrence, and the S. P. G. missionaries report that they prove very helpful to the Church in China, in case they return to their homes. II. Siamese Missions. — i. Societies. — This work which began with the arrival of Giitzlaff and Tomlin in 1828 and was afterward taken up by the American Board and the American Baptists, has in later years been mainly in the hands of the Presbyterian Board, North. The Baptists still have representatives in Bangkok, though the American Board with- drew in 1850; and the American Bible Society also has an agent in the same city, whence the Scriptures go out all over Siam and Laos. It is thus a field worked wholly by Ameri- cans, as is true of its neighbor on the North. 2. Government favor has been continuous since the death of the usurping monarch in 1851. His nephew, the rightful King, had been obliged to flee to a Buddhist monastery, and there he engaged the services of an American Board Mission- ary, Mr. Caswell, as his private tutor. Partly in consequence of the training thus received, he and his successors have ranked among the most enlightened of Asiatic sovereigns. Though nominally the defenders of the Buddhist faith, that very fact has possibly made them even more tolerant than Buddhists or- dinarily are. A series of royal decrees and deliverances could be quoted, testifying to the great value of Protestant missions to the Kingdom. This favor has been shown in a multitude of ways. The King has often had interviews with the missionaries, has given SIAM, LAOS, STRAITS SETTLEMENTS 313 money once and again to aid in their work, has requested per- sons chosen from their number to take charge of government hospitals and other philanthropic institutions, and has in most public ways endorsed their activities and lives. Thus the Hon- orable John Barrett, formerly Minister to Siam, said recently in a public address : " It is interesting to note that this King is to-day the great head of the Buddhist faith, and yet the man of all Asiatics who is helping the American missionaries ; the man who told me the first time I met him, that he wished me to understand that he approved of the American missionaries; that their work had been greatly for the benefit of his people, and that I could tell the people in America they were welcome there, and that he wished to do all in his power, by law and by contributions of money, to help the important work to go on." 3. Though a missionary of what is now the American Bap- tist Missionary Union, the first Mrs. Judson, was really the pioneer in Siamese work, — she studied the language for a year and a half and translated into Siamese a catechism, a tract and the Gospel of St. Matthew as early as 1818, ten years be- fore Giitzlaf f 's arrival, — that society gave up its Siamese work in 1869 and since then its representatives have confined their labors to the Chinese living in that country and to the Peguans. One of the happy results of missionary effort in Burma is seen in the fact that the Peguan Christians in that land have taken such interest in their fellow countrymen in Siam that a chapel recently erected in Tapowlom mainly owes its existence to their cooperation and interest. 4. It must be regretfully confessed that, while in very few lands missionaries have had a greater and more honorable part in moulding the character of the regenerated nation, there are comparatively few Siamese who after so long a period of seed- sowing, can exhibit the fruits of the Spirit. Referring to this fact, the writer of the Siamese section in the " Historical Sketches of Presbyterian Missions " says : " Patient, arduous labor has been expended in Siam for many years without large visible results. The enervating climate, necessitating frequent 314 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS changes in the mission force; the mobile, unretentive charac- ter of the people whose easy acquiescence is more discourag- ing than opposition, are obstacles which call for faith and en- durance. Yet grounds for encouragement are not wanting. Buddhism is losing ground; fewer men go into the priest- hood, so that in Bangkok there are but half as many as there were some years since. Those who do enter the priesthood remain for a shorter term than formerly. ' The King himself only remained in the priesthood a month, and his younger brother recently entered it for three days.' Our inference from such a fact is confirmed by the further statement that the leading priests are themselves becoming so alarmed that they are taking vigorous measures to defend Buddhism by printing and distributing books which attack Christianity and uphold the native religion." The Buddhist high priest has been recently appointed to establish schools at important temples all over the land, while on the other hand the Chris- tian Sabbath has been made a day of rest. The door is wide open, as is proven by recent friendly acts of the King and Queen toward the mission schools and hospitals, by the uni- formly kind reception given the missionaries by officials and the people in all parts of the Kingdom, by the respectful atten- tion paid to preaching, and by the expressed desire of the people for the establishment of Christian schools. This is especially true of higher schools, and of those for girls. It was of one of the latter, the Harriet M. House School for Girls, located at Bangkok, that United States Minister Barrett said: "The King often spoke of it to me; and the young Siamese princes who are educated are coming back and seeking those girls as their wives, and as their only wives, instead of following the old usage." HI. Laos Missions. — Penetrating inland 500 miles from Bangkok, — a longer journey in the time it requires than from New York to Siam, — one finds an entirely different sort of reception accorded to the gospel, though the Laotians are like- wise Buddhists and of nearly the same race. " In the northern SIAM, LAOS, STRAITS SETTLEMENTS 315 Laos States a simpler, more natural people have opened their hearts to a message that speaks of deliverance from evil spirits and the terror of sin." Hence we find seven times as many Christians here as in Siam, though the field has been occupied only a little more than half as long. As previously stated, this country is under the sole care of the Presbyterian Board, North. Thus far their stations are along the border line be- tween this country and Siam proper. I. A presumption in favor of Christianity that has proven very helpful in this field is derived from a widely prevalent tradition concerning Punyah Turn, the John the Baptist of a predicted Buddhist saviour. Mr. Dodd thus summarizes this tradition after describing the salvation expected : " Its advent is to be heralded by a forerunner, Punyah Turn, who will pre- pare the way; the rough places shall be made as smooth as ' temple ground.' Then the elder brother of Buddha is to be- come incarnate as a saviour. His name is Alen-yah Mettai. Only the good shall be able to see him, but all who see him shall be saved. The proclamation to the Laos people of this fulness of time and the completed salvation is predicted to be by a foreigner from the South. He is to be a man with white hair and a long beard, who will not fly in the air like a bird, neither will he walk on the earth like a beast, but who will come bringing in his hands the true ten commandments. All this has been remarkably fulfilled. In 1868 the Rev. D. Mc- Gilvary and the Rev. J. Wilson came to Cheungmai from the South. They came by boat and personally they very well an- swered the description of the heralds of the true religion. Nearly every year in the sixth month there is an excitement somewhere in the Laos country over the reputed appearing of the Messiah or his forerunner. Frequently we are told, when urging people to accept Christ at once, * Wait this year ; if Punyah Turn does not appear in the sixth month, then Jesus must be the one for whom we are looking.' " The practical zvorkings of this belief are interesting to note. In touring it leads to a semi-worship of the books and pictures, 3l6 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS and of the missionaries themselves, by the people who get the idea that Jesus is to be the next Buddha. Even colporteurs are treated as messengers of the Messiah, offerings of food, flow- ers and wax tapers being made to them and they being expected in turn to bless the worshipers. Yet the tradition is likewise a disadvantage. The reign of the predicted Messiah is ex- pected to usher in great temporal as well as spiritual blessings. " What more natural, then, than that the early converts, not to say the later ones, should expect great worldly prosperity by becoming Christians ? " None of the missionaries use this tradition to further their cause, but rather as a starting point from which to reason in doing away with this untruth. Yet it aids the work in spite of denial, just as the first convert and foremost worker, Nan Tah, a prominent Buddhist priest, was won at first by the missionary's announcement in advance of a coming eclipse. 2. The methods employed are the usual ones, though evan- gelistic effort is more extensive than in some fields, reaching northward as far as the southwestern province of China, west- ward into Burma and eastward into the domain of France. So much objection has been made by the French officials to the presence of American missionaries within their territory, that the Laos Christians have now undertaken the work in that direction. The press is an agency of great usefulness, and medicine is a very fruitful means of spiritual as well as of bodily blessing. In the training of Christians, the ideas of the late Dr. Nevius are found very useful. His plan of having all the Christians learning and applying the Scriptures and at the same time teaching others is being followed with great profit and delight. 3. Self-support and independence in other matters are just now the leading features of Laos missions ; and here again much is due to Dr. Nevius, whose views have been largely ac- cepted by the younger men. How this movement is progres- sing is indicated in a recent article by Mr. Dodd, who has just been quoted : " In the past five years day-schools have been SIAM, LAOS, STRAITS SETTLEMENTS 317 established in all of the five stations, — several in some sta- tions, — all of these schools being taught by Laos and patro- nized and supported by Laos. In the youngest station, Cheung Hai, last year there was manifested such a desire to cut loose from the traditional dependence upon the missionary that the time seemed ripe for turning the management of the school over wholly to the church. They elected a board of control, the chairman a missionary, but the members all Laos except one. The increased ease of maintaining the school and de- fraying its expenses has seemed to justify the step. " This same church is now building a good brick house of worship on a native plan and with contributions made wholly on the field, instead of building an expensive church of for- eign style, largely with American money, as is often done on foreign fields. More than one Laos church has its member- ship divided into sections, each section in turn doing evan- gelistic work in the vicinage on Sundays. Several of the churches, in addition to this, support their own evangelists to the heathen of their own parish. These evangelists are under the direction of the church sessions, not of the missionaries alone. And two churches together support a Laos minister in a new and weak parish. For two years all the churches have supported evangelists from Siamo-Laos territory into French- Laos on the East and British-Laos on the North. " Last year the attendance on the sessions of the Mission's Training School for Christian Workers was nearly, if not quite, equal to what it had been in the palmy days when every evangelistic worker had before him the prospect of steady em- ployment by foreign funds. This year two teak timber work- ers, one a Siamese Christian, the other a Laos elder, have of- fered to furnish the whole support of a native minister among their foresters. This is the latest and most striking instance yet shown of purely native initiative in Christian work among the Laos." The plan adopted a few years since of securing self-support by settling farmer pastors over native churches is somewhat 3l8 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS unique. The church is required to furnish a rice-field and give the pastor some aid in working it. He has his expenses paid to his parish and then his salary is reduced in a decreasing ratio for four or five years, the period during which he obli- gates himself to serve the parish. His work is under the supervision of the local church, thus relieving the mission of the friction likely to arise from direct business relations with the pastor. As the church controls the matter, it fosters inde- pendence in a marked degree. 4. That this varied work has gained for the missionaries great influence in the country is but natural. Not only does it appeal to the Christian, but it commends itself equally to the business man and student of national progress. It is not sur- prising that an English traveler who journeyed through Burma and the Laos country in the interest of railroads, Mr. Hallett, should have dedicated his volume, " A Thousand Miles on an Elephant," to the American missionaries in Burma, Siam and Laos, doing it, he says, " as a mark of the high esteem in which I hold the noble work the American Baptist Mission and the American Presbyterian Mission are accomplishing in civilizing and Christianizing the people of Indo-China." In the book itself is this paragraph, which is quoted by Mr. Speer : " Noth- ing struck me more during my journeys than the high es- timation in which the American missionaries were held by the chiefs. Not only were they on friendly and kindly footing with them, but by their bold strictures upon acts of injustice, and by exposing and expostulating against the wickedness and senselessness of certain reigning superstitions, they had be- come a beneficent power in the country." XIII BURMA AND CEYLON PART I. — GENERAL These two countries, one the most extensive province of the Indian Empire, the other Britain's principal Crown Colony, are treated together for the reason that both are prominent Bud- dhist lands, and also because missionary operations in these countries present some features that deserve fuller notice than would be possible if they were discussed in the same chapter with India proper. I. Burma. — i. The Country. — (i) This province ex- tends from the mountains of Tibet southward to the Malay Peninsula, a distance of some i,ioo miles, with a width from the Chinese border to the Bay of Bengal of 700 miles. The old province of Lower Burma occupies more than one-third of the entire estimated area of 288,000 square miles. Upper Burma, annexed to the Indian Empire in 1886, is somewhat smaller; and the Upper Burman and Lower Burman tracts, which have not yet been incorporated into British India, constitute the re- mainder. (2) Appearance of the Country and Its Products. — The level cultivable plains, which are about as extensive as Eng- land and a little larger than New York State, are intersected by a network of creeks which render it an ideal agricultural country like Bengal. During the floods tens of thousands of native boats are busy carrying cargoes along these highways. At this season the Irawadi sometimes overflows the country for a distance of ten or fifteen miles on either side to a depth 319 320 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS of from four to fourteen feet. The inundated villages suffer very little, however, as the houses are built on piles and the waters rise slowly. A description of a city intimately connected with mission history will give the reader some conception of Burmese scen- ery at its best. Shway Yoe — James George Scott — writes of Maulmain as follows : " It is situated on the slopes of a series of hills. Each of these is surmounted by its pagoda, some glittering bright with gold leaf or brilliantly white in the sunlight, others crumbling away into decay and covered with moss and grass and shrub growth ; while beside these are the striking outlines of the various monastic buildings richly or- namented with carved work, gilding and bright color, and sur- rounded by masses of well-foliaged trees. Altogether the town is one of the prettiest in the East, and the river from the central ridge is certainly without its equal in Burma. The town clings to the water's edge, and is surrounded by ex- tensive growths of every shade from the sombre green of the mango and the mangosteen to the light tints of the pagoda tree, interspersed with feathery clumps of bamboo and the gorgeous drooping plumes of the Amherstia nobilis. Beyond, green islands are set in a silvery expanse of water, their out- lines broken by the graceful shape of the pagoda spire with its tinkling bells. Farther off, dark hills contrast with the silvery lines of the winding rivers and the ruddy gold or tender green of the rice fields ; and away to the north rise abruptly from the plain fantastic needled peaks, honeycombed through and through with caves, most of them rendered sacred by images of the Buddha." The remainder of the country, consisting of hills and moun- tains, is covered for the most part with forests of useful and ornamental trees, the most valuable of which is the teak. Some of these have a girth of twenty-five feet and rise one hundred and twenty feet before the first branch is reached, while the giant bamboo attains the height of one hundred feet. " Orchids, ferns and mosses of great beauty are found in BURMA AND CEYLON 321 abundance. Ground flowers are comparatively few ; but a Burma forest, and particularly in the month of March, is quite bright with the many colors and sweet with the varying scents of thousands of flowering trees, flowering creepers, flowering shrubs and orchids." Cleared portions of the upland and hill regions are connected by tracks where the jungle has been cut away. These so- called roads are pulverized into dust by the slab wheels of bullock carts in the dry season, or are churned into a quagmire by animals after the rain has come. The tea plant, wheat, maize and cotton thrive here as rice does on the plains. (3) Its Fauna. — Elephants, rhinoceroses, tigers and buf- faloes run wild in the unsettled districts, where also are found pythons, cobras and the rarer but deadliest of eastern snakes, the hamadryad. The birds of Burma are varied and most brilliant, particularly the peacock and different varieties of the pheasant. A large share of the food of the Burmese comes from the waters and includes everything — except the alli- gator — from the shark to the sea slug. Domesticated an- imals are the ox, buffalo, horse and a few elephants. (4) Intercommunication. — Though the Irawadi, constitut- ing a great artery of travel, is provided with steamers, and while at the beginning of 1898 some 887 miles of railway were opened to traffic, " the existence of numerous extensive swamps in the more level tracts of the interior and the defec- tiveness of the communications " coupled with the mountainous character of much of the country, make intercommunication inconvenient. These facts and the incursions of robber bands largely account for the sparsity of population. In recent years, however, this is increasing and immigrants from India have come in. Moreover, since the Government has become stable under British occupation. Lower Burma has been much like other countries newly opened for colonization. 2. Climate, Rainfall and Health. — These vary with the lo- cation. At points on the coast the annual rainfall is over six- teen feet, though as one goes inland it decreases, except in the 322 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS Shan States where it is again heavier. The rainy season along the coast lasts about half the year. In the littoral regions, though it is moist, the heat is not excessive. As one journeys toward the interior the temperature is more comfortable, and for three months in winter is quite cool. Yet it must be con- fessed that Occidentals find the climate more trying here than on the plains of India. Prevalent diseases of foreigners in British Burma are fever, dysentery and hepatic complaints. The climate on the whole, however, is better for health than that of any part of India, and British troops show a very low rate of disease and mortality. 3. The People. — (i) Number and Races. — The popula- tion in 1891 was for Upper Burma 2,946,933, while in Lower Burma there were 4,658,627, a total of 7,605,560. To this may be added 116,493, the number of persons estimated to occupy border tracts not yet fully incorporated into British India. The Burmans proper constitute the bulk of this pop- ulation; next in number come the Shans, who are followed by the Karens, and they by other hill tribes and immigrants from China, India and the West. In all there are said to be forty-two races in Burma. (2) The Burmese "are a short-statured, thick-set people; they wear long hair on their heads, but have little hair on their faces. They are flat-featured and nearer the Chinese than the Aryan type. They are excitable and impulsive, fond of shows of all kinds ; and up to a certain point courageous. They are callous to suffering in others and ready to commit crimes of violence." Mr. Scott adds : " They are most marvelously and inconceivably lazy. Energetic people declare that a Burman is good at nothing but steering a boat or driving a bullock cart. In Burma no one can starve and there is not a beggar to be seen, except the poor lepers on the pagoda steps. The or- dinary Burman takes a job at carpentry work or in the harvest field to get a little money, and then he does nothing till he has got rid of it all. So he jogs on through a calm and contented existence, the most cheerful of mortals, troubled by no cares BURMA AND CEYLON 323 and free from all the temptations of ambition." The men al- most universally are tatooed from the waist to the knee. Their ivoineti probably enjoy more freedom than those of any Asiatic nation, and when married are said to be more independent in financial matters than women of European countries. They are allowed to manage their own matrimonial affairs after a period of courting; when married, usually attend to business matters or advise their husbands in so doing; and can pro- cure divorce for good cause. Almost from infancy, women as well as men smoke immense cigars and they may carry a half-smoked one in their earrings, or rather bell-mouthed ear tubes. Polygamy is rare. Both men and women are well dressed and delight in gay colors and in silk attire. All big and little of both sexes carry umbrellas. (3) The Shans, who are practically the same as the Lao- tians of Siam, do not differ much from the Burmans, " but being highlanders are poorer, hardier and more courageous. They have a remarkable turn for trading of all kinds." (4) The Karens, who were obliged under their cruel masters to live in the mountains have, under British rule come into the lowlands to some extent and dwell mostly in Central and Low- er Burma between the Irawadi and Menam rivers. They are divided into many tribes, the chief of which are " the Sgaus, the most numerous ; the Pwos, the most Burmanized and sturdy ; the Bghais, the most fierce and warlike." They are said to be more persevering and methodical than the Burmans and have been remarkably open to the teachings of mission- aries. (5) Without describing other races, mention must be made of the Chinese of whom the Burman authority already quoted, Mr. Scott, says : " It seems almost certain that in no very long time Burma, or, at any rate, the large trading towns of Burma will be for all practical purposes absorbed by the Chinese trad- ers, just as Singapore and Penang are virtually Chinese towns." They unwearyingly plod on, entering the British firms in preference to Burmans, whose pride causes them to 324 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS take offense easily, and always gaining from their employers hints and instructions which are afterward utilized in a busi- ness of their own. They own all the large stores except the European ones. 4. Burman Religion. — (i) Though the census of 1891 shows that among every one hundred Burmese there were three Mohammedans, two each of Hindus and Animists, and one Christian — less numerous sects are disregarded in this statement — Buddhism, of the southern type described under Siam, constitutes the religion of ninety-two per cent, of the people. A few features peculiar to Burma may be noted here. It is said to exist in greater purity in this country than in any other with the possible exception of Ceylon. (2) Every male Burman at some time in his life must re- side in a monastery, shave his head, wear the yellow robe and, renouncing the world, " go at least once around the village with a begging-bowl hung around his neck with the regular members of the monastery." The entry into this monastery is the most important event in a Burman's experience and in- fluences the entire populace. Naturally, therefore, men are friendly to the religion after they have doffed the monastic habit. While foreigners have enjoyed religious toleration, one of the most serious obstacles to missions in early times was that Burmese rulers regarded the adoption of Christianity as an interference with their allegiance. (3) The fully initiated monks, who number over 20,000, are the most respected class in the community. They observe their vows of celibacy and poverty somewhat closely, and as every- where except in China and Japan, they are the educators of the young. It is due to their influence that long before mis- sionaries and the English established schools, " every Burman boy was taught to read and write." All boys go to these mo- nastic schools ; for " in democratic Burma none pay for educa- tion and all are treated alike." Their studies, though inclusive of reading, writing and arithmetic, are mainly ecclesiastical, Buddhist books being used. " Fluency of speech and great BURMA AND CEYLON 325 skill in carrying on an argument according to their own sys- tem of dialectics are the common possession of the educated Burmese, and an unshaken conviction in the truth of their re- ligion is almost universal." Girls are not admitted to the mo- nastic schools, but special instruction for them is gradually be- ing introduced, and they now constitute about ten per cent, of those taught. II. Ceylon. — i. The Land. — (i) This pear-shaped " Pearl of the Eastern Seas " is England's principal Crown Colony. The name is misleading, however, since the colonists from the Occident are only a drop in the bucket compared with the native population, and this will always be the case. It is called a colony because it has no responsible representa- tive government of its own, being administered directly under the Crown. While the benefits derived from this connection with Great Britain are manifest, it is likewise true, as the late Judge of the Ceylon Supreme Court, L. B. Clarence, has writ- ten : " No doubt many material advantages are now enjoyed by the people — the roads, the hospitals, the education and a host of other things ; yet we have not sufficiently adapted our law, substantive law as well as procedure, to the conditions of the native community. Three serious evils have grown up under our rule — drink, gambling and the disastrous passion for mischievous and fraudulent litigation. Our law fails. to ef- fect justice. The judiciary is pure and fearless, but the ma- chinery is defective and not sufficiently accessible to the peo- ple. It is not too much to say that under our rule a new horror has come into existence armed with fangs derived from the very strength of our executive authority and the weakness of the demonstration of justice. No native, however blameless may be his life, is safe from the success of a false and malicious accusation." (2) The physical features of this island, — which is a trifle larger than West Virginia, or about four-fifths the size of Ireland, — remind one of the conformation found in Formosa. Undulating plains cover four-fifths of the island and the re- 326 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS maining section is occupied by the mountains of the central- south. This mountain roof, several thousand feet high, di- vides it into different districts, varying according to the rain- fall. Some parts are dry, and there one finds scorching sand and thorny scrub. In other sections where nearly seventeen feet of rain fall yearly everything is " green and leafy, moist and steamy. You may have ten inches of rain- fall in one night. These moist parts of the country are trying to an English constitution. You feel as if you were in a perpetual poultice. Moreover, mosquitoes swarm by night, and the grass and bushes are full of leeches which crawl up your legs in scores." About five-sixths of the total area is uncultivated, and hence largely overgrown with forests. Owing to a care- less system of burning down the trees to secure arable land, these fields being soon abandoned for new forest stretches, the island has been very seriously impoverished ; though the present forestry department is remedying this defect. A singular feature found in some parts of the island is the enor- mous surfaces of bare scorching rock, a mile or more in length or width, starting abruptly from the plain and towering hun- dreds of feet above the trees below. In the old days some of these were hewn into fortresses, or converted into gloomy temples. The northern part of the country is variegated by dry, ired plains, dotted over with groves of dark Palmyra palms, straight and stiff, or by the cocoanut palm which twists and leans about and always marks the nearness of a human dwelling. The Singhalese have a proverb that it will not grow out of hearing of the human voice. In another section one comes upon deep, shady forests bound together by great cables of creeping plants which form the play-ground of in- numerable monkeys. In the hills the scenery is grand indeed. Rocks and cliffs and waterfalls, shaggy forests clothing the steep heights, and grassy slopes where great rhododendron trees grow are its striking features. (3) Where cultivated land appears, a characteristic differen- tiating Ceylon from the adjacent mainland is evident. Many BURMA AND CEYLON 327 extensive paddy fields rise up the steep mountainside in suc- cessive terraces, as in Japan. Other great sections are occu- pied by the tea shrub, which marks the grave of much British money expended on preceding plantations of coffee trees and cinchona, both of which fell victim to disease. This plantation system has made the country a very interesting and profitable one, now that tea has taken the place of coffee. Travelers are much interested in the clever manner in which the natives clear the land for these great plantations. Beginning at the bottom of the steep mountain, they cut the trees half way through until they reach the upper section of the clearing. They then chop down a few of the uppermost trees in such a way that they fall upon and fell those below them, and these in turn crash down upon those beneath. (4) Mr. Shand says of the climate: " Ceylon has a great ad- vantage over the mainland of India, and as an island enjoys a more equable temperature. The average for the year in Colombo is 80° in ordinary seasons. April is the hottest month, and in May the southwest monsoon commences amid a deluge of rain. The beautiful tableland of Nuwara-Eliya is now used as a sanatorium. Here the thermometer in the shade never rises above 70°, while the average is 62°." Jaffna and other sections of the North have less rain and consequently de- pend upon irrigation. 2. The Inhabitants. — ( i ) They are roughly divided into two classes. The Singhalese constitute about two-thirds of the population and occupy the southern and south-central sec- tions, while the remaining third, the Tamils, inhabit the northern portion of Ceylon. Some 250,000 Moormen, a race of mixed Arab and Indian blood, are scattered about through the island. " They are indefatigable traders — the Jews one may say of the island. The Moorman's shop is in every vil- lage; and in his smart jacket and high cap of gaudy colours, marvelously adhering to his shaven skull, with his assortment of gems and curiosities, he is the first to greet the visitor on arrival." The inhabitants of Ceylon, especially the Tamils, do 328 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS not differ greatly from their brothers in India, though they are more addicted to Htigation. Tamils are more deliberate and notorious offenders than the Singhalese in this latter respect. (2) The missionary is amused, until the novelty disappears, by certain peculiarities of their speech; thus, a Singhalese will indicate the distance of his neighbor's house by saying that " it is within a talk," " within a loud talk," or "within a hoo- call." Like the Chinese they will indicate time by pointing to a section in the heavens, stating that " the sun was so high," or else they may say, " it was about the time priests eat "(11 A. M.) ; or " it was about the time when bees play " (4 p. m.) ; or " the time when parrots fly home to roost " (5 p.m.). The • people, especially in the neighborhood of the ports, are nat- urally very cosmopolitan, since Ceylon is the great crossing place of the nations in southeastern Asia, some 7,000,000 tons of shipping clearing annually from Colombo. 3. Religion and Education. — ( i ) Prevalent Faiths. — Of the population which numbered in 1891 about 3,000,000 in all, 877,043 were entered as Buddhists, 615,932 as Hindus, and 211,995 were Mohammedans. The number of Christians at that time was reported as 302,127; other religious creeds hav- ing a smaller number of adherents are not given. It will thus be seen that a little over ten per cent, of the population was nominally Christian. It should be remembered, however, that this number includes a large proportion who have descended from the nominally Protestant and Catholic Christians of early days, the Dutch having been extremely superficial in their method of admitting the natives to church membership; as it was the stepping-stone to many positions of importance during their rule, and also a practical requirement for the full priv- ileges of citizenship. Ceylon's place in the history of Buddhism was a most im- portant one; since in the days of Asoka it was a great mis- sionary field, where a propaganda was carried on by his own son and daughter which left the island Buddhistic in faith. BURMA AND CEYLON 329 The religion is that of the original southern system ; and with Burma and Siam, Ceylon ranks as a professor of the original tenets of Buddha. Singhalese Buddhism, however, is less pure than in those lands and has been considered a proper field of labor for Burman reformers. The presence of Hindu deities and the permission of caste in a modified form are the leading lapses that are deplored by orthodox believers. At Kandy is preserved one of the most famous relics of all Buddhadom, the well-known though spurious tooth of Gau- tama. Adam's Peak, a most striking and beautiful mountain, though by no means the loftiest on the island, has for more than 1,500 years been a great resort for pilgrims who flock to its summit " because they believe that there on the very topmost crag Gautama Buddha, the founder of the Buddhist religion, left his footprint 2,400 years ago. In the dry sea- son thousands of pilgrims — men, women and children — toil up the steep and reach the little shrine at the top which covers the supposed footprint. They make their little offer- ings before it and sprinkle sweet-scented flowers and then the children kneel at the holy spot and receive their parents' bless- ing. There is an awful majesty about this lone rock up- lifted in the clear air, high above the mountain wall. To the Singhalese the place is Sri-pada — the Holy Footprint ; to the Tamils it is the Sivanolipathei — the Worshipful Footmark of their God Siva. The Mohammedans associate it with Adam," saying that when expelled from Eden he found in Cey- lon a second Paradise. Except in their intensity, perhaps, the leading religions do not differ from those described in con- nection with India, Burma and Siam. (2) In the matter of education the island is worthy of spe- cial note. It has taken remarkable forward strides since it was organized under a separate government department with a di- rector of public instruction and a corps of inspectors. In 1896 a little more than one-seventeenth of the population was receiv- ing regular instruction. Vernacular education is chiefly cul- 33° GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS tivated by the Government, while EngHsh instruction is so de- sired that it is becoming gradually self-supporting. Promis- ing students are encouraged by the offer of scholarships of fi5o a year for four years, which enable them to study in an English university. An agricultural school and more than twenty industrial schools and orphanages are also helpful in promoting the intelligence of the islanders, while a technical college is likewise in operation. PART II. — MISSIONARY I. Missions in Burma. — There are the following mis- sionary organizations laboring in this land : From the United States, the American Baptist Missionary Union and the Meth- odist Board, North ; from Great Brit-ain, the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, the Wesleyans, the British and Foreign Bible Society, the National Council of the Young Men's Christian Associations, the Mission to Lepers and the Missionary Pence Association ; from Germany the Leipzig Evangelical Lutheran Missionary Society ; the International China Inland Mission laboring at Bhamo, near the Chinese frontier; and the World's Young Women's Christian Asso- ciation at Rangoon. A glance at some of the characteristic features of the four largest societies is all that will here be at- tempted. I. The American Baptist Missionary Union is by far the most important of these, as it was the first to enter the field in any force ; though Felix Carey preceded Judson by six years, having arrived in Rangoon in 1807. Broadly speaking, their work varies according to its subjects, being most successful among the Karens. ( I ) The Biirmans were the first to be cultivated by the mis- sionaries. Though the ruling race and by far the most numer- ous of all those in Burma, few converts have been won from that nationality. When they have become Christians, they are BURMA AND CEYLON 33^ far less aggressive in propagating their new faith than the Karens. The fact that they are Buddhists and comparatively well educated prevents the vast majority of Burmans from giving a fair hearing to Christianity. The attempt to induce Karens to evangelize their high-born neighbors is not relished by them and still less by the Burmans. Yet the Church is making steady gains even here, usually along regular lines, supplemented by the splendid work of the Rangoon press and the higher educational institutiops of the mission. (2) Missions among the Karens, which began in Maulmein in 1827, have been about tenfold as fruitful as work for Bur- mans. While the Karens are supposed to be hill-dwellers, as many are now found on the plains as in their original hill homes. Dr. Bunker, a worker for them of thirty-six years' standing, writes that the marvelous success among these peo- ple cannot be understood without bearing in mind the charac- ter of the Karens and especially their traditions. These state that they came originally from the North, " across the river of running sand," — possibly the desert of Gobi, though that is not certain. Their traditions remind one strongly of the Old Testament account of the creation, of the temptation and fall and of the flood. They claim to have had religious books formerly, which were lost by their ancestors, and they even retain the Hebrew name of God. Such likenesses are un- doubtedly a help to the missionaries; yet their less bigoted character and low forms of spirit and demon worship make them hospitable to any better faith. Thus while they are being won in large numbers to Christianity, Buddhism and Catholicism are likewise gaining many converts from their ranks. The seal and aggressiveness of the Karens must also be taken into account. Naturally bold, brave and trustworthy, the enlightenment and power imparted by Christianity has made them " fine evangelists, teachers, preachers, etc., when converted and educated, having a natural talent for that work, aptitude for spiritual truths, and being faithful unto death in 332 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS a remarkable degree." Quite as much must one bear in mind the special emphasis and training that have been given the Karen Church along lines of self-support and independent propagation, in which respects they rank among the first in the mission world. The early controversies in this mission, chron- icled in Mr. Carpenter's volumes and others bearing on the topic, have resulted in measures that have proven their value not only in Burma, but elsewhere as well. Widely opened doors and few workers to supervise the native force are the striking features in this most promising field, whose inhab- itants are increasing more rapidly than any other people in Burma. These providential conditions constitute a strong ap- peal when coupled with the words of one of the Secretaries of the Union : " They believe in one God who is good, but who has Httle to do with the world at present. They also be- lieve in spirits, good and bad, and in a personal devil who is the author of all the evil and suffering of life. This devil and the evil spirits are the principal objects of their worship, as they think thus to appease them and so avoid the harm they might inflict. God and good spirits they neither fear nor worship. The Red Karens are said to believe in seven worlds, three above and three below, and all worse than this ; so that, in dying, they expect to go inevitably to a worse place than they leave. They also have a system of meritorious works; but it does not involve much sacrifice, as it is so arranged that those things they wish to do are meritorious, and only those they do not care for are sinful." (3) Minor Missions. — " Although the principal efforts of Baptist missions in Burma have been exerted among the Bur- mans and the Karens, missionary operations have been gradu- ally enlarged so as to reach nearly all the numerous races in that country, which are said to number as many as forty-seven. Separate missions are maintained among all of the principal races which are important enough to be mentioned by name in the census report of 1891, with the exception of the Chi- nese. The numerous minor divisions of the people of Burma BURMA AND CEYLON 333 are allied to one or another of these principal races among whom missions are maintained, and so are in some degree reached by the gospel of Christ." The most important minor work is done for the Shans, Chins, Kachins, Taungthus, Ta- kings, and the Telugu and Tamil immigrants. When to this wide ministry to native peoples, is added the service which is being rendered foreigners resident in the country, the debt of Burma to this society is manifestly great. 2. The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel is doing a wide-reaching work in this province, (i) Being formally be- gun in 1859 at Maulmein, it now occupies important positions both in Upper and Lower Burma. St. John's College at Ran- goon has been, and now is, the most important institution con- nected with the mission ; and with its former head, Dr. Marks, it has been a large factor in promoting Christianity in Burma. In this college Dr. Marks exerted so strong an influence over students of fifteen leading Burman races, that when he went to distant places, his old students would receive him with open arms. As government officials and teachers these graduates have been a leaven for good. It was his personal hold upon the prince that led to the mission in Upper Burma, where the King carried on for four years, under Dr. Marks, a school for 1,000 boys. The King also built a church at his own ex- pense, only permitting Queen Victoria to present a baptismal font. While he subsequently showed his insincerity and even expelled Dr. Marks from the land, the seed had been sown, and to-day the work there is proceeding. The beneficent in- fluences coming to the country from the 15,000 students that have studied under Dr. Marks are of incalculable value. Hardly less stress is placed upon female education, and the success achieved by St. Mary's School of the Ladies' Associa- tion, is very notable. About one-third as many girls and young women are under instruction as are found in institutions for males. (2) The Society's labors among the i^ar^w.f,though the cause of some controversy, have been extensive and successful. 334 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS Like the Baptists, the S. P. G. clergymen have found it much easier to win these people than the Burmans. The mission- aries are looked upon by them as the predicted " white sons of God " who were to bring them deliverance and their long lost Bible. The new doctrine is received gladly, being welcomed as a release from their old bondage, and as in some sort a re- turn to a still older worship of a supreme and loving God, whom their traditions have not permitted them to forget. (3) This Society also has on its heart the sad conditions of the natives oi the out\y'mg Nicobar and Andaman Islands. The latter group has been described as an earthly paradise and its inhabitants as among the lowest in the scale of humanity. These people, seldom exceeding five feet in height, " have no form of worship or religious rites whatsoever; though they believe in a Great Being, the author of all good, and in multi- tudes of evil beings, of whom the chief are three spirits dwell- ing respectively in the woods, in the anthills and on the sea. The Nicobar islanders do not even have a name, beyond a word signifying " up there," for the dim idea of a divine being which they possess. They believe that a good spirit dwells in the moon, as they distinctly see his lineaments in it ; but no wor- ship is offered to him. The evil spirits are said to be the souls of father, mother and other near relatives who loved them dearly in life. These malignant beings are constantly in mind ; " much of the time and thoughts of every man, woman and child are devoted to conciliating the evil one and disembodied spirits. They live in constant dread and abject terror of the unseen world, spending their little fortune and being kept in poverty by the bribes they offer to the spirits which they sup- pose to be ready to pounce down and eat the life out of them." In 1885 the first work for these by the Society was initiated, and something has been done spasmodically since then. " The plan adopted is to bring relays of children from Car Nico- bar, a populous island on the north of the group, to Port Blair in the Andamans, and after a stay of a few months in the or- phanage to return them to their parents. This work is con- BURMA AND CEYLON 335 ducted by a catechist. They are taught to repeat over and over again in their own tongue short sentences on the good- ness, love and holiness of God and His mercy and loving kind- ness in the gift of His Son, to be repeated hereafter in many a Nicobar hut, where the blood of pig and fowls has been sprinkled for fear of demons — sweet sounds strangely min- gled with the weird, excited and drunken utterances of Men- loonas — head devildoctors." Thus after a century the self- denying work which brought twenty-four Moravians to the grave is being again taken up. 3. Of the four leading societies, the Methodist Board, North, next appeared on the scene. This was made possible by the grant of money in 1878 by an Illinois Conference, and the consequent sending forth of a missionary and his wife. This mission was begun and carried on, like the one in Malaysia, from an English work as a basis. The weakness of such a plan of organizing a mission lies mainly in the insufficient sup- port furnished to carry on projects hastily inaugurated. Thus the present Presiding Elder writes : " Prolonged observation on the field has led me to the following conclusions : ( i ) Wher- ever we have given good and continuous supervision, the work has prospered. Wherever this care has been intermittent or wanting, a hopeful beginning has dwindled into an actual dis- appointment. (2) If reenforcements are surely not coming so that all departments of our work can be cared for, the ques- tion is on us whether we are to close up such fragmentary work as we have begun and confine our efforts only to that which we can immediately direct. I am not in favor of start- ing any new work that has no missionary for its guide." A number of their enterprises are crippled because lack of funds permits only of a very Hmited development of wise plans. The beginning made in industrial missionary effort for Eurasians and Anglo-Indians is very hopeful, and also the schools for girls, as well as efforts for seamen. 4. The English Wesleyans began their operations in Burma less than fifteen years ago. Like the American Methodists, 2,3^ GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS they do some work for the EngUsh in their Mandalay station, though their principal labors are expended on the natives. Schools during the week and on Sunday are the chief means employed to win the people. Another most important enter- prise is a large leper asylum at Mandalay. While most of its 115 inmates enter as heathen, scarcely one fails to yield before the claims of Jesus Christ, as He is faithfully taught and lived by those in charge. This mission is rendering a still more helpful service to the Church and community through its Girls' Training School, likewise at Mandalay. It has now reached the status of a normal training institution, the first of the kind in Upper Burma, and recognized as such by the Department of Public Instruction. This school is invaluable from a mission- ary standpoint ; inasmuch as it not only furnishes teachers of a high degree of excellence for use in mission and public schools, but it also affords a high grade of young women with an hon- orable means of livelihood, and gives them an influence over the non-Christian community that is unique. II. Missions in Ceylon. — This land, so famous as a propagator of the Buddhist faith in other countries, has not responded very readily to the work of Christian missions with- in her own borders. The vast majority — probably eighty-five per cent. — of those whom the census enumerates as Chris- tians are Roman Catholics, the descendants of vast multitudes whom the Portuguese and Dutch practically forced to become Christians. At the present time they are comparatively well instructed in their religion, and so central is Ceylon that the missionaries in charge regard it as one of the keys of Asia. A strong body of Jesuit educators have established a college here, which ranks highest in the island ; though there are Prot- estant institutions of a very high grade. I. The societies working in Ceylon are the following: The American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions and the International Department of the Young Men's Christian Associations from the United States ; from England, the Bap- tist Missionary Society, the Society for the Propagation of the BURMA AND CEYLON 337 Gospel, the Church Missionary Society, the Church of Eng- land Zenana Missionary Society, the Wesleyan Methodist Mis- sionary Society, the Friends' Foreign Mission Association, the World's Young Women's Christian Association, the Christian Literature Society for India and the Salvation Army. Of these the pioneers were the Baptists, who entered in 1806, though at present they are not represented in any considerable force. A few salient features of the work of the four leading societies are given below ; details as to the varied activities of these organiza- tions as well as of the other societies may be found in Volume II. 2. After the Baptists, the next to undertake work on the island were the Wesleyans, who came in 1814; and to-day they have the most numerous following among the natives and the greatest number of stations. They report that their largest evangelistic gains come through the educational work carried on in all the stations. Wesley College is exceptionally useful and its best graduates complete their education in England. High schools for girls are a splendid index of the change ef- fected by missions in public sentiment, which only a few decades ago was correctly mirrored in a remark made by a native gentleman when asked to allow his daughter to attend school. Pointing to a horse by the roadside, he said, " Sir, could that horse learn to read? " Being answered in the nega- tive, the gentleman rejoined, " Well, if an intelligent animal like a horse could not learn to read, how do you think a woman could learn ? " Special attention has been given to evangelism since 1897, when there was much earnest thought and prayer devoted to this theme. As a result, workers' conventions have been held, and continuous missions in selected heathen centers have been conducted for twelve days, the workers going in bands. Hundreds of people hear the gospel first in the great tent, and then are more open to the personal appeal made by visitors in their homes. Not only are many converts gained by this plan, but the result on the speakers has been most help- ful and stimulating. Evangelical efforts for the Veddahs are thus commented on in a recent report: "-There were twelve 338 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS baptisms among this remnant of an interesting but dwindling aboriginal race. Perhaps the gospel may prove salvation to the race as well as to the individual." The immense output of the printing department of this mission is also another very im- portant element in Ceylon's evangelization. 3. In 1817 the American Board's first representatives began those labors which have meant so much for Northern Ceylon. Two of their numerous educational enterprises deserve a word. Jaffna College is an admirable illustration of what a missionary institution should aim to produce, though it must be said that this college is only formally connected with the Board at present. Thoroughness and breadth in its curriculum and the predominance of the idea that the institution is to have as its fundamental object the service of the Church, rather than the lower aim of emphasizing those studies which are most in demand for the government service, are what have given the college its prominence. A very strong missionary spirit is the natural outcome of this ideal, and its students have formed a Foreign Missionary Society, with the object of send- ing the gospel in the person of its members to the adjacent Indian mainland. Long before this a People's Foreign Mis- sionary Society had been formed in the same mission, and very recently a Woman's Missionary Society has been launched. Its constitution requires each member to pay an entrance fee of one rupee and to accept a mite-box into which she is to de- posit each day a small coin, accompanying it with a prayer for the work of the Society. As this interest in those outside the limits of Ceylon is coordinate with great activity for fel- low-countrymen on their own peninsula, the movement is promising. Even more unique is the record of the Oodooville (Uduville) Girls' Boarding School, which celebrated its sev- enty-fifth anniversary in 1899. At that time it had trained 1,233 girls, 538 during the first fifty years and 701 in the last twenty-five years. Its principal during most of this time was the well-known Miss Agnew, who for forty years remained at her post without once revisiting America. So signal was BURMA AND CEYLON 339 the service of this " mother of a thousand daughters," that at her funeral " government officials, missionaries' families, v^^ives of native pastors, teachers, catechists and a large con- course of people gathered around one old worn face, and wept as though they had lost a mother." Probably this institution ranks first in the percentage of heathen girls won for Jesus Christ and in the large influence exerted by its graduates. In the matter of self-support this mission has been the leader in Ceylon, and that, though a careful census of part of its field showed that the average value of the property of each family was $666, while forty-four per cent, of these families had less than $17 worth of property. About ten per cent, of the whole expense for church work is granted by the Board, the re- mainder being raised by the Christians. This means that sys- tematic and proportionate giving is practiced to the point where it costs much self-denial. And not money alone is given. " Each morning when a Christian woman measures out the rice for the family for the day — so many handfuls for her husband, for each child and for herself, — she takes one hand- ful or more and puts it into a box marked ' The Lord's Box,' thus diminishing by a little the amount the family would have eaten. This custom is almost universal among Christians. From time to time the church treasurer of each church visits all the Christian homes, collects the rice from these boxes, sells it, and sends the money to the native missionary society." They are thus imitators of the self-sacrificing Karens, many poor Koreans and dwellers on the Harpoot plain, and God is bless- ing them abundantly. 4. In 1818, a year later than the American Board's entrance, the first missionaries of the Church Missionary Society landed in Ceylon. Like the Wesleyans and Congregationalists, the value of education has made it a central feature of all this work, including, as their scheme does, a number of day schools. Girls' High schools, and as its apex Trinity College at the old Buddhist center of Kandy. Trinity is remarkable for the number of non-Christians who are won for Christ. The secret 340 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS of this may be found in a custom that has prevailed since 1883, when Mr. Garrett reported : " Every evening the resident masters and divinity students meet to pray over those who are, in our boarding estabhshments, more especially entrusted to our care. We take the roll and go from beginning to end by fives, each night bringing five names before God in prayer; and thus in ten days we feel that each name has been individually carried by faith to Jesus, and He never refused to hear and grant the requests of those who brought their children to Him while on earth." Other notable work of the Society are two evangelistic enterprises, both dating from the middle of last century, the Tamil Coolie Mission and the Singhalese Itineracy. In a variety of activities the Society is advancing, until it ranks next to the Wesleyans in the number of communicants. Yet it is a labor that has its discouragements as well as its inspirations, as is seen in the following extract from the last report, well describing the " White Missionary's Burden " : " A trusted teacher falsifies her school register ; four of our Christians become teachers in Buddhist schools ; six of our people re-baptized by the Romanists ; two of our old Christian schoolgirls married to Buddhists ; three of our former school- masters start opposition schools ; some who seemed to be in earnest have fallen away; whilst the majority of the Christians make not the slightest effort to lead their heathen relatives or neighbors to Christ. It is next to impossible to get a voluntary worker for Christian work. The cry is always ' Pay, pay, pay.' " This lament comes from the southern end of the island, and not from the Tamil district of the North, where independence and self-support are so strongly emphasized. 5. In 1842 the last of the four organizations to be men- tioned, the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, began its work in an organized way, though a beginning had been made at Colombo two years earlier. At the middle of the last century the intemperance of men from Christian lands was so well-nigh universal that the Christian religion itself was BURMA AND CEYLON 34I regarded as synonymous with drunkenness. " What ! " said a Kandyan chief whose son was a candidate for baptism and whose permission to allow the rite was sought, " would you have me make him a drunkard ? " Under these circumstances, it is not surprising that when the natives were desirous of education, while they despised the foreigners' religion, the Bishop should have regarded schools as " the real field of hopeful labor, of increasing and boundless, but not unfruitful labor, and as the seed-plot of an abundant harvest." Thus beginning, education has been very prominent ever since ; and to-day St. Thomas College at Colombo is a tower of strength. Hardly less important, in that it trains the Christian wives and mothers of the Church, is the Orphanage at Buona Vista, though at present having few boarding pupils. Industrial education also owes its introduction and development in the island to one of the Society's representatives, Mr. Thurston, whose contention was this : " If we can but train up the rising generation in such schools, the idleness, poverty and wickedness with which the villages now abound, must, by God's blessing, be lessened ; the inability of the villagers to contribute toward the maintenance of Christian teachers be removed ; Satan's stronghold must be undermined and a high- way opened through his territory for the glad tidings of salvation." The beginning thus made and endorsed by the Government, which had failed in its own attempts of the same sort, has been most helpful to other societies, — especially the American Board, — who are profiting to-day from this initial experiment and object-lesson. Aside from mission work among Tamils, the Society's ministrations to Europeans and its emphasis of self-support have aided much to raise the membership of the Church of England to 25,000. Its own communicants and baptized adherents number less than 3,000, however. 6. Nearly all the societies complain of the inroads upon their membership, and of interference with their work, by an aroused Buddhism. The present recrudescence of that 342 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS ancient cult is mainly due to the visit of the Occidental Theosophists, Colonel Olcott and Madame Blavatsky, who organized in Ceylon twenty years since a branch of the Theosophical Society " for the diffusion of Buddhistic knowl- edge, as a set-off against the Christians." The Colonel's avowed object was to " entirely uproot Christianity in the island." The Bible was denounced, and at Kandy was publicly kicked about the street. Sunday-schools for the training of children in the Buddhist Catechism ; a Young Men's Buddhist Association ; the observance of Buddha's birthday in May, in much the same way as Christmas is celebrated ; the estab- lishment of schools and a college at government expense, — so far as they comply with its regulations ; the publication of tracts and periodicals, one of them in English, " The Buddhist " ; teaching their coreligionists all the stock argu- ments against Christianity, — these are some of the weapons used against the religion of Jesus Christ. It is a favorable fact that, with increased attention to education, the priests are also insisting upon a better morality, especially the observance of the Five Precepts — not to kill, not to steal, not to lie, not to be impure, not to drink liquors. Doubtless the temporary injury caused by this revival will be found in the end helpful to the work, as was the case in the similar revival of 1862-64. 7. Despite this opposition of Buddhists, the outlook in the island is most hopeful. Revivals are not infrequent, one of special power having occurred at Colombo within a few months, when Europeans, Tamils and Singhalese alike were moved to the very depths by the simple gospel of sin and salvation. The work of the Young Men's Christian Associa- tion, especially as it affects the student class, is another indication of the ripeness of this field for a larger influx of reapers. XIV INDIA PART I. — GENERAL I. The " Continent " of India. — In ordinary usage the word " continent " indicates one of the principal divisions of the globe, and in general, the idea of great extent is connected with the term. India certainly does not deserve the name in any such sense, since it is not much larger than Arabia, for instance, and is far smaller than the Chinese Empire. In the typical use of the word, however, it is a continent, since it is an extended body of land bounded by very marked barriers, and projecting like a wedge into the water hemisphere. More- over, it contains within itself every fifth man, woman and child born into the world, and these multitudes live in every climate from the torrid to the frigid, and speak a babel of tongues. I. Position and Area. — If this " Wonderland of the East," which extends into the Indian Ocean from Central Asia to a distance of 1,900 miles from north to south, were laid upon the map of America, its northernmost point would be in the latitude of Richmond, Va., while its southernmost cape would reach a little farther south than Panama. If the extreme eastern boundary were placed on Baltimore, the western limit would be near Salt Lake City. Within its boundaries could be placed twice over, the United States east of the Mississippi, if Ohio and Indiana were left out. Its area is thus almost equal to that of Europe less Russia. Geographers have com- pared its shape with that of an equilateral triangle ; but there 343 344 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS is a far stronger resemblance to the head and neck of a Hon, facing westward and wearing a crown. Others writers have called it " The Rudder of Asia," not so much because of its dominating influence over the continent, as because of its peculiar position, shape and relation to the ocean. 2. Main Natural Divisions and Their Scenery. — Sir William Hunter, the highest authority on Indian matters, says in general of the country : " This noble Empire is rich in varieties of scenery and climate, from the highest mountains in the world to vast river-deltas, raised only a few inches above the level of the sea. It teems with the products of nature, from the fierce beasts and tangled jungles of the tropics, to the stunted barley crop, which the hillman rears, and the small furred animal which he traps within sight of the eternal snow. But if we could look down on the whole from a balloon, we should find that India is made up of three well- defined tracts. The first includes the Himalayan mountains, which shut India out from the rest of Asia on the North ; the second stretches southward from their foot, and comprises the plains of the great rivers which issue from the Himalayas ; the third tract slopes upward again from the southern edge of the river plains, and consists of a high, three-sided table- land, dotted with peaks and covering the southern half of India." The first of these regions is the vast " Abode of Snow," or in its Sanskrit equivalent, the Himalayas. It is some 1,500 miles long, with a breadth in sections nearly five times as great as the entire width of the Alps. It has been said that '' along the range of the Himalayas there are valleys into which the whole Alps might be cast without producing any result that would be discernible at a distance of ten or fifteen miles." This is the region which furnishes the water for India and Burma, the principal rivers of which rise in a great trough 13,000 feet above the sea, lying between the two nearly parallel Himalayan chains. Vast glaciers, one of them sixty miles long, slowly move down these valleys. In the upper INDIA 345 ranges one sees great bare masses of gray rock and soil. Lower down, where this soil is deep enough, a forest springs up, and at the foot of the mountains are dense fever-breeding jungles inhabited by only a few rude tribes and wild beasts. Tree ferns and bamboos are found on the eastern ranges, as well as great tracts of rhododendron, blazing with red and pink blossoms in the spring. In the autumn the lower Himalayas are beautiful with variegated crops of red and yellow millet, which run in stripes down the hillsides. The few inhabitants of this region may be seen straggling down the mountains along narrow paths, cut in places out of the sheer precipice, and bearing loads of potatoes and other vegetables, or great conical baskets of grain. This region is also the wood-yard of the Empire. The high price of fuel on the plains has, however, caused many of the hills to be denuded of forests, and as a result the rains rushing down the bare slopes prevent new growths from springing up. As in Ceylon, the hillman clears his potato ground by burning the great trees and laying out the side of the mountain into terraces. The trees rot, and in many cases after the soil is exhausted, the peasants leave their homes, burn down new jungle, and proceed to exhaust this second region. Proceeding southward from the vast scimitar with its cutting edge facing India, we reach the river plains which extend across the country from east to west and contain the three greatest Indian rivers with their tributaries. As they have their rise in the mountains where the greatest recorded rainfall of the globe is found, they bring down into the plains such vast deposits of fertile soil that this district is the most populous one of India. The scenery of the plains is charming. Streams, tilled fields, mango growths, mud villages shaded by magnificent trees, feathery thickets of bamboo, wide- spreading banyans and a multitude of palms make it a fairyland. It is not surprising that the early Aryan immi- grants were quite content upon reaching this part of the country to cease their wanderings. These plains thus became 34^ GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS the theater of the great race movements of India's history and the seat of its early civilization. With the exception of the Great Plain of China, no portion of the world is so densely inhabited as this. The Bengal delta especially is fertile beyond belief and correspondingly populous. In most of these plains the same fields yield two crops annually, thus giving the farmer no rest except during the hot weeks of May, when he anxiously awaits the rain. To the south of the river plains lies the third main division of India, the table-land known as the Deccan, or " The South." Two sacred mountains stand as its eastern and western sentinels, while between them stretches a cordon of confused hills and mountains. These ranges constitute the northern wall on which rests the central plateau. A vast mass of forest ridges and peaks, broken by cultivated valleys and plains, extends southward toward the Indian Ocean. On the eastern and western sides is found an elevated rim known as the Ghats, a word commonly used of flights of steps by the river side. Though this table-land was once buried under forests, if the Sanskrit poets may be believed, increased tillage has driven back the jungle to the hill recesses. The black soil of the cleared country is proverbially fertile, almost rivaling the Bengal delta in its palms, rich rice harvests and abundant crops of every description. Were it not for artificial lakes used as irrigating reservoirs, the liability to drought would make this fertile region almost valueless. By carefully hus- banding the water, it may be used throughout the year in ordinary seasons. The Burman section of India has already received special mention, and is not included here. 3. Indian Rivers. — The place of these rivers in the economy of the Empire is of the greatest moment to its inhabitants. They are at once the source of life-giving water, and, quite as important, they bring down in their flood vast deposits of fertilizing silt. Mr. F. G. Carpenter estimates that the amount of soil thus brought down annually by the Ganges alone would fill freight cars enough to reach twice around the INDIA 347 earth and leave enough cars over to run two continuous trains through the center. Hardly less important is its service to the populace as the maker of land. The delta is constantly en- croaching upon the sea, and elsewhere adding depth to the soil. One attempt to find the bottom of this fertile deposit failed when the drill had reached a depth of nearly 500 feet, and still the deposits are continuing to be made. As a means of inter- communication these rivers are of the utmost value. Ocean steamships can ascend to a considerable distance, while river steamers and native craft can penetrate far into the interior. At certain places great collections of vessels of every sort con- stitute floating towns as marked almost as those of Southern China. It must be said, however, that the rivers are likewise de- stroyers. " Scarcely a year passes without floods, which sweep off cattle and grain stores, and the thatched cottages with anxious families perched on their roofs. In the upper part of their courses, where their water is carried by canals to the fields, rich irrigated lands breed fever and are in places de- stroyed and rendered sterile by a saline crust. Farther down, the uncontrollable rivers wriggle across the face of the country, deserting their old beds and searching out new channels for themselves, it may be at a distance of many miles. During these restless changes they drown the land and villages that lie in their path. Even in their quiet moods the rivers steadily steal land from the old owners and give it capriciously to a fresh set. Each autumn the mighty currents undermine and then rend away the fields and hamlets on their margins." Because of their twofold character as benefactors and de- stroyers, they are the dit'inities of vast multitudes of inhabi- tants. It is well known that the Ganges is not only lovingly called Mother Ganges and worshiped as such, but that other rivers are also regarded as sacred. This is especially true of the Narbada. Ablutions in these rivers free from all sin, and death on their banks or in their waters is ardently desired. 4. Natural Resources. — The Empire is not comparable in 348 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS these respects with China or South America. Nevertheless it is well provided with forests and other means of subsistence. Not including Burma and Bengal, the forests of India would cover a section almost as large as the New England States and New Jersey. Teak, ebony, larch, immense elms capable of seating 600 persons in their shade, bamboos attaining the height of sixty feet, and the very remarkable banyans and sacred figs are prominent among trees ; while the mango, orange and palm furnish highly prized fruits. The denudation of forests, above alluded to, is now being checked and the 100,000 square miles under the jurisdiction of the Forestry Commission arc yearly becoming increasing sources of national wealth. What Kipling so vividly pictures in his " letting in the jungle " is an illustration of what can be accomplished where the wasteful use of land is regulated by law. The agricultural possibilities of India are its preeminent source of wealth. Notwithstanding the dense population, only about one-third of the country is at present cultivated or used as pasture land. Nearly one-fourth of its area lies idle, though entered in statistics as capable of cultivation. This fact speaks volumes for the agricultural future of the Empire, and when the Department of Agriculture educates the people still more generally along agricultural lines, and when in- creased irrigation is available, these resources will be still larger. Tea occupies the smallest number of acres, while rice and other food grains cover the largest territory, with an inter- mediate area devoted to indigo, sugar cane, oil seeds and cotton. The reader will naturally ask how it happens that, with such vast agricultural resources, millions* should be destroyed by periodical famines, accompanied by the awful experiences of the one which has just ceased its ravages. It should be remem- bered that about seventy per cent, of the Empire's area contains only eighty-seven persons to the square mile, while the rest supports about 400 per mile. As India grows its own food in- stead of importing it, and as some sixty per cent, of the peo- INDIA 349 pie are entirely dependent upon agriculture for their living, with twenty per cent, more indirectly indebted to Mother Earth in the same way, any condition which prevents abundant har- vests is apt to affect many millions. When to this is added the fact that the ground is cultivated by oxen and that the people are vegetarians almost exclusively, the gravity of the situation is increased when there is a lack of rain and the oxen die. The village and caste system, to be described later, still further ag- gravates the situation ; since each village has been accustomed to depend upon itself, and each caste regards as defilement certain forms of contact with the men and products of another caste. Failure in rains always produces disasters, and when this is serious or occurs in consecutive years, the results are most calamitous. Any one who has read the paper on this sub- ject by the late census commissioner for India, Mr. J. A. Baines, will be filled with admiration for the remarkable scope of the Government's plan for relieving suffering without pauperizing the people. China, and other countries subject to famine, might well study the provisions there described. Yet how inadequate they are when confronted by the conditions of the past two years the whole world knows, and men of every race are moved to alleviate the disasters affecting so many millions. 5. Climate. — In a country extending over twenty-six de- grees of latitude and including within it such great differences in elevation, there can be no statement made covering all points. In general, the cool months extend from November to the mid- dle of February. The dry, hot weather precedes the periodical rains and the moist heat follows them. Missionaries usually suffer from the heat in inverse proportion to their distance from the equator, Northern India being far more trying than Southern. Most of the Empire lies between the July isotherm of 80° in the South and 90° in the North, while in January it lies between the lines of 80° in the South and 60° in the North. The rains are dependent to a large degree upon the mon- soon and the location of the mountains, against which the 3SO GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS vapor-bearing clouds impinge. In one section of the country the fall averages thirty feet, and in one year it reached as high as sixty-seven feet ; but in the Deccan and along the upper basin of the Ganges and Indus it is only two and a half feet. Were it not for the extensive reservoirs and irrigating canals, India would suffer greatly from aridity. During the cool and pleasant season of the winter health conditions are favorable, while in the hot term there is no great danger if undue exposure is avoided. This extends from Feb- ruary to May. With the wet season lasting from June to Oc- tober, unhealthiness is prevalent. 6. The effect of environment upon the inhabitants of India has been often alluded to, though perhaps it has been unduly emphasized. It is most probable, however, that the leisure af- forded by the fertile river plains and the favoring climate were a rich endowment to the early Aryan settlers. A native author thus writes concerning his countrymen : " All nature con- spired to make them thoughtful and imaginative. What was more pleasant than on a hot afternoon to sit under the um- brageous banyan or pipal tree and reflect or discuss? Micro- cosm was the study of the Hindu as macrocosm has been that of the modern European. Moral science was the intellectual basis of Hindu civilization, as natural science is that of the modern civilization of Europe." Whether the result of en- vironment or not, it is true that compared with the Anglo- Saxon, the Hindu has been overcome by nature rather than made himself its conqueror. Hence we have a weaker race than the Western Aryans have come to be. A helpful, though in- direct, influence upon the inhabitants has been exerted because Indian soil from early times has been the " Prize of the East." This led inevitably to a continuous influx of new race elements, and in consequence the Hindu shares some of the advantages of the intermixture of varied bloods. If caste and other causes had not prevented a larger amalgamation of races, he would, however, have been a stronger man than he is. Foreigners find the climate less favorable than that of the INDIA 351 temperate zone. While some are unable to endure it, most persons live to a good old age, if they exercise proper care. A sufficiency of sleep and due regard to diet and recreation have won many a missionary battle that would otherwise have re- sulted in physical defeat. It should also be remembered that the magnificent hills and mountains of India offer in every section a picturesque and healthful place of refuge during the trying months. The chief obstacle that confronts the mission- aries is the necessity of sending to the home land their chil- dren at an early age. If retained too long in their adopted country, they are apt to be feeble and short-lived. II. The Peoples of India. — Nowhere outside of the Chi- nese Empire can be found so many people who call one country their fatherland, and nowhere in the world are there so many races enclosed within such limited boundaries. In its great sister Empire to the northeast are greater populations, but the Chinese are practically homogeneous, while the Indian Em- pire is lacking in that most important element of strength. I. Leading Races and Sectional Differ entice. — The simplest classification of the many races of India would reduce the di- visions to four. According to the census of 1891 these include all those numbering more than one and a half millions. By the census just completed but not published in detail, it appears that the entire population of India, including the Native States, has increased from a little more than 287,000,000 to 294,266,701. The comparatively small rate of increase — 4.44 per cent, in British territory, with a loss of 4.34 per cent, in the Native States, thus leaving a net gain of only 2.42 per cent, during the years 1891-1901 — is reduced still further by the fact that tracts are here reckoned in that were not enumerated in 1891. Famine and other unfavorable conditions only par- tially account for the small actual gain of 1.49 per cent, as com- pared with 1 1.2 per cent, during 1881-1891. Burma and Shan- land have added 30 per cent, to their populations during the past decade, according to the " London Times," from which the above facts are derived. 352 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS Below is given a brief statement concerning the four main race groups and their distribution. The numbers are from the census of 1891. The Kolarians may have been the first to enter India. Coming from the Northeast they apparently spread westward over the northern plains. At present " they dwell chiefly along the northwestern ranges of the central table-land which covers the southern half of India," and num- ber 2.96 millions. The Tiheto-Burmans seem to have come at various times from Tibet into Northeastern India. They still remain in the mountainous sections of the Northeast and num- ber 7.29 millions. These two race stocks are probably of Mon- gol origin. The Dravidians apparently entered India from the Northwest, and driving the Kolarians before them to the mountainous region of Northern Deccan, they eventually burst through their territory and scattered over South India. They now dwell in the southern part of the peninsula and are reported as numbering 52.96 millions. The most numerous race is the Aryo-Indic. The Aryans entered the country from the Northwest and gradually overspread the northern half of India. By a process of absorption and accretion they have be- come the most numerous race in the Empire, some 195.46 mil- lions in all. Sectional differentice, largely due to local environment, though partly racial, are thus described by Keane : " In the Punjab and in the Indus Desert, where the earth has only yielded her increase to strenuous labor, the peasantry are strong and warlike ; in the eastern provinces, where the water supply is abundant, the inhabitants are densely packed but physically weak ; in the central parts the conditions are of an intermediate character ; a fertility somewhat less than in Bengal and with less certainty of rainfall produces races which from Oudh to the Narbada have always been robust and laborious, almost — but not quite — as much so as in the drier regions of the far West." The height, strength and courage of those dwelling in the North are generally greater than are found in Southern India. While these general statements are in the main true, INDIA 353 the Brahman maintains his individuality in all sections. Every- where he is, like all others of his fellow-religionists, " imbued with a lofty pride transmitted through long generations." 2. From the missionary point of view a very serious diffi- culty is encountered in the languages of India. Notwithstand- ing the great number of distinct tongues and dialects, there were in 1891 only eleven that were spoken by five millions or more. In the absence of the full statistics of 1901 the figures of ten years ago are printed with the caution that they are now not quite correct. An average of two per cent, should be Where spoken. speaking it. N. W. Provinces, Rajputana, Punjab, etc., 85.68 Lower Bengal, 41-34 Lower basins of Kistna and Godavari, 19.89 Bombay and N. W. Deccan, 18.89 Punjab, 17-72 Southern India, as far north as Madras, 15.23 Region around Gulf of Cambay, 10.62 Mysore and districts northward, 9.75 Orissa, 9.01 Burma, 5.56 Travancore and rest of Malabar coast, 5.43 Race stock. Language. Aryo-Indic, Hindi, Aryo-Indic, Bengali, Dravidian, Telugu, Aryo-Indic, Marathi, Aryo-Indic, Punjabi, Dravidian, Tamil, Aryo-Indic, Gujarati, Dravidian, Kanarese, Aryo-Indic, Uriya, Tibeto-Burman, , Burmese, Dravidian, Malayalam, The English language stood twenty-eighth in order with a population of 238,499. Hindustani, with a Southern variety of it, the Dakhani, has become the lingua franca of India and is " the official tongue under English rule, except so far as Eng- lish itself is used." 3. Characteristics Common to Most Hindus. — In the midst of differences there are some characteristics common to most Hindus. Physically considered, the average person is pos- sessed of greater powers of endurance and of continuous bodily exertion with but scanty sustenance than one sees in America or Europe ; indeed, the Hindu is scarcely excelled by any race in this respect. At the same time, it has been estimated that in the matter of strength he has not half that of the European, while in nervous power he has about one-third our strength. 354 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS As a workman, therefore, he is worth only one-sixth as much as an Occidental. " Epidemics commit fearful ravages among these enfeebled populations. Cholera is domiciled in all large towns ; elephantiasis, under various forms, is very common, afflicting one-fifth of the inhabitants in some provinces ; and in 1872 there were as many as 102,000 lepers in the three Presidencies alone. The mean death rate for the whole of India is stated by Hunter to be 32.57 per thousand, or one- third higher than West Europe." The weakness of this race can hardly be explained by the climate and their vegetable diet. Early marriages and the inter-marriage for centuries of more or less consanguineous parties doubtless have much to do with their feebleness. Social Characteristics. — Caste naturally unites the people of a given subdivision very closely. At the same time it re- produces in the little village the same evils of class divisiorts that our cities have to contend with. Happily for their peace, these differences are looked upon as decreed and are no occa- sion for heartburnings. In the family there is little of the social spirit. Yet in the matter of labor there is a general care for the interests of all. This is the key to the industrial situa- tion rather than caste alone. Thus the European in India needs to have a troop of servants, each doing the work appro- priate to his caste and also that which will not encroach on the interests of other workmen. Apart from the caste and trade guild regulations, altruism in India is lost in an intense egoism, and this holds true in one's relations to those outside one's own caste, to the country at large and to the gods above. The losses, sufferings and cruelties that come to others are regarded with supreme uncon- cern. Such a thing as patriotism does not exist among the masses, while the disinterested benevolence of missionaries is looked upon with suspicion. There are, of course, exceptions to this broad statement, many of the wealthy being munificent in their gifts, while the indigent are frequently aided by the very poor. INDIA 355 That the Aryo-Indic section of the population has possessed intellectual power in the past is abundantly evidenced by the Sanskrit language and the earlier literature embalmed within it. Max Miiller does not unduly laud these writers of a purer age when he writes: "If I were asked under what sky the human mind has most fully developed some of its choicest gifts, has most deeply pondered on the greatest problems of life, and has found solutions of some of them which will de- serve the attention of those who have studied Plato and Kant, I should point to India." At the present time, also, India pos- sesses men of marked ability in the scholarly walks of life, thus proving her right to be called intellectual. The masses do not rank high in this direction, but in time the present edu- cational movement on the part of the Government and mission- ary societies will introduce scholarly blood into their veins. Widely differing estimates as to the moral nature of the Hindu here confront us, the historian Mill, for example, paint- ing their character in somber colors, while a recent native author adduces a multitude of Occidental witnesses to prove that his countrymen rank high in respect to morals. Another writer puts the case thus : " There is no degree of cruelty, no excess of vice, no hardened profligacy, no ineffable abomina- tion, of which we cannot find examples among the Hindus; but neither is there, on the other hand, any height of virtue which they have not reached." Dr. Murdoch thus epitomizes feminine characteristics. The woman, who is nearly always a wife, is faithful and devoted to her husband, affectionate toward her children, attentive to household duties, sympathetic toward the poor and distressed, modest, and, compared with women of the Occident, remark- ably free from crime. Over against these excellencies are placed the following defects: she is ignorant, absorbed with petty littlenesses, is passionately fond of jewels, exhibits a false modesty, is an unrivaled scold, is unable to train her children properly, exerts little moral influence over her husband and is extremely superstitious. 356 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS The ordinary woman seems to be much stronger physically than women of the West, as she performs heavy labor on the farm and on the roads; yet Hon. M. L. Sircar, M.D., states that " from medical observation extending over thirty years, he could say twenty-five per cent, of Hindu women die pre- maturely through early marriage, twenty-five per cent, more were invalided by the same cause and the vast majority of the remainder suffered in health from it." This remark applies especially to women of the higher castes, but it is true to a less degree of the poorer women also. HI. Two Distinguishing Social Institutions. — i. The village is the home of the masses, as widely isolated dwell- mgs are almost unknown, and comparatively few live in the cities. Census reports show that about ninety per cent, of the population dwell in villages of less than 2,000 inhabitants. In appearance they do not greatly vary. Two main sections are noted; one inhabited by the higher caste, the other by the outcastes and non-castes. Houses belonging to the well-to-do are shaded to some extent by palms, banyans, margosas and other trees. In the absence of sanitary regulations, dust, filth and stifling odors abound. The village tank for watering cat- tle, washing clothes and irrigating fields, and the well and open market-place are the common places of resort. The village system has won the admiration of Western writ- ers. It is a miniature republic presided over by a potail or " head inhabitant," aided by a clerk and panchayet, or " council of five," who decide cases of a moral nature. Other function- aries are the village priest, schoolmaster and watchman. " Be- sides these, almost every village has its astrologer, smith, car- penter, potter, barber and bard, all of whom are rewarded out of the produce of the village lands." Each village is thus self- sufficient and constitutes a unit, which cares little for other villages and the central Government. 2. The Caste Curse in India. — This is the Hindu's environ- ment and the greatest obstacle encountered by the Christian missionary. It is popularly considered as a religious institution INDIA 357 dating from the Vedic period and buttressed by the Laws of Manu. Modern writers like Muir, Miiller and Cornish argue that instead of having this divine origin, caste is due to differ- ences in race, employment and location. The original system recognized but four castes, the priests, warriors and agriculturists, who were the " twice born," and the " once born " Sudras who were menials, artisans, etc. At present the original castes do not exist in their purity, the Brahmans and Sudras remaining most distinct. Caste sub- divisions are extremely numerous and complicated. Hunter states the number as at least three thousand, though according to the Madras census returns for 1881 there were 19,044 caste names. The members of the Sudra sub-castes are most nu- merous and constitute more than four-fifths of the popula- tion. There are some advantages in the system. Missionaries have noted its value in the matter of securing the economic ad- vantages of division of labor and the protection coming from the larger caste family. It promotes to some extent cleanli- ness and is a moral restraint in certain directions. It has also proven its value to the British Government from a political and police point of view ; it has kept alive a learned class which might otherwise have been blotted out of existence. To the higher classes it has been a temperance element of great value in that it forbids the use of Hquor. Caste has made the Hindus content with their lot, and among those who contend most strenuously for it are the lowest of the people. The disadvantages far outweigh, however, these caste bene- fits. A native scholar, Shiva Nath Sastri, scores the follow- ing points against the system. It has produced division and discord ; it has made manual labor contemptible ; it has checked internal and external commerce ; by confining marriage within narrow circles, it has produced physical degeneracy ; it has fos- tered an injurious conservatism ; it has checked the develop- ment of individuality and independence of character; it has encouraged harmful customs such as early marriages, heavy 358 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS wedding fees, etc. ; it has prevented the growth of national worth by confining to a Hmited number the benefits of culture ; by imposing on the people the most abject spiritual slavery, it has prepared the country for foreign slavery. Its general op- position to the Christian doctrine of universal brotherhood and compassion are too manifest to be enlarged upon. IV. The Religious Life of India. — Prof. Duncker in his " History of Antiquity " has very truly remarked, " Religion has dominated the life of the Indians more thoroughly than that of almost any other nation." Occidentals who have trav- eled in the Empire have come to realize this, but those living at home conceive of India's religious life from the standpoint of " The Sacred Books of the East " and special volumes dealing with Indian religions. If one would get a true view of the religious life prevalent there, he would need to practically eliminate the Brahmans who compose a very limited portion of the inhabitants, and consider the masses, about two-thirds of whom are entered in the census as Hindus. Before sum- marizing the religious conditions of the vast majority of the people, however, a word must be said about other faiths. 1. Though Buddha is India's most widely known son, Hinduism trampled under foot his teachings, so that in the land of the sacred fig tree less than ten millions, of whom all except about one-quarter of a million, are resident in Burma, are now following in Gautama's footsteps. 2. A larger number are entered as animistic in faith. This means that scattered through the Empire are several millions who are devoted to the worship of objects of nature and spirits without any thought of higher divinities. In this respect, how- ever, all Hindus are more or less animistic and differ from those entered as such mainly through their nominal devotion to Hindu deities of the book religions. 3. The Mohammedans — Muhammedans — of India far outnumber those found in any other single country. The Ot- toman Empire, ruled by the Sultan and containing the sacred cities of the Prophet, has a far smaller number of the faithful INDIA 359 than are obedient to the sceptre of Britain's Christian King, the Emperor of India. The Mohammedan population is nearly six-sevenths as numerous as the total population of the United States. Nowhere else in the world is there so large a number of Mohammedans under the rule of a single man. This fact is, however, subject to many limitations. Any one conversant with the history of Northwestern India will recall the per- petual atmosphere of unrest prevailing there and will realize the force of Mr. Baine's words : " It is not irrelevant, in view of the present state of the Ottoman Empire, to remind those interested in India that conditions are much the same as those existing between Islam and Eastern Christianity in Armenia; though fortunately another creed being in political power in our dependency, the tension between the two is not made so unpleasantly apparent as in Asia Minor. Incidents, all the same, are constantly occurring which, though local and com- paratively of a trifling character, are quite enough to make manifest to us in England what is a constant source of appre- hension to those responsible for the peace of India in the coun- try itself, namely, the smouldering fire of religious animosity which is only awaiting a favorable opportunity to burst into open violence." 4. Popular Hinduism. — As defined by the veteran mis- sionary, Dr. Murdoch, this is the religion of the Ramayana, Mahabharata, the Puranas and the Tantras. About ninety- nine out of every hundred accept Hinduism in this form. It is almost universal among the women, and is that which they teach their children. The basis of this popular faith is found in the literary works named above and in aboriginal traditions. The Tantras, con- sisting of dialogues, incantations and magic services, furnish its most licentious and abominable features. Connected with the superstitions and harmful teachings in these books is a nature worship, ranging from that of plants, water, tools and animals, to the higher worship of ancestors and of living men deemed divine, — the entire Brahman caste. 360 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS Tutelar deities, demons, gods and goddesses, — popularly reckoned as 330,000,000 in number, — are almost universally believed in and evidences of religion are to be seen on every hand. Pilgrimages are a most important feature of Hinduism and enlist a larger number of the faithful than vi^end their way to the holy cities of Islam. 5. The effects of religion, especially of popular Hinduism, upon the life are most injurious, though they undoubtedly have some helpful features. Poverty and wholesale destruction of life are partly the result of caste. The peculiar views held concerning religious teachers prevent the ordinary Hindu, even if he were so inclined, from attaining to the best in Hinduism. Fear is everywhere present ; man, as well as children and women, are constantly in dread of demons, the evil eye, etc. No other form of religion, not even the most exaggerated phase of Pharisaism, has so emphasized the formal element in the religious life. So, too, popular Hinduism is impure, the ma- jority of the temples in India containing under their roofs symbols which put to the blush ancient Baal worship, and often sheltering women who are sold to the gods to work iniquity. It is well known that portions of the Sacred Books are so ob- scene that the English Government restricts their translation. The deities themselves are represented as being so licentious that even Greek and Roman gods seem pure in comparison. Pantheism and transmigration are the two beliefs of Hindu- ism which are the most destructive of true relations and of fu- ture hope. Notwithstanding these awful facts the religious de- sire is present in wonderful power, and the ground is more ready to receive the gospel seed than in atheistic China or bigoted Turkey. PART II. — MISSIONARY Part I of this chapter may possibly have filled the reader's mind with despair as to the missionary's ever effecting any great transformations in an Empire where everything is on so INDIA 361 vast a scale. The very numbers appal the thought ; how can Protestantism, which in the entire world exceeds the Indian population by only about one-third, ever hope to carry the gospel to India's nearly three hundred millions? Even if re- ceptive and ready for the message, the task would be colossal ; but how infinitely more difficult when the appeal is made to people who are mad upon their idols — exceedingly religious, like the Athenians of old — and bound by the strongest fetters that have ever enthralled a race — those of a caste that is at once economic, social and religious, as well as anchored to the bedrock of a venerated past ! I. Obstacles. — Those which confront missionaries in most foreign countries — unhealthful climate, difficult lan- guages, poor means of intercommunication in many sections, etc., are not mentioned, as India is far superior to many mis- sion lands in these respects. 1. The immense population is at once an advantage and an obstacle. Instead of being a land where one must traverse great distances to find the people, in this Empire they are everywhere. The difficulty presented by India's millions lies in the very large force required in order to reach the 566,048 villages which in 1891 contained 500 inhabitants or less, three- fifths of them having under 200 inhabitants. Moreover, where the population is so great, the converts gained appear as so infinitesimal a proportion that the influence of a hostile and overwhelming majority militates against the entrance of many into the Church. 2. If these masses were of one language or race, the diffi- culties in the way of their evangelization would be less than at present, when so many different peoples are to be reached. These races are as distinct as the Spaniards and Russians ; hence a missionary may be dwelling in a district one-half of whose people he can scarcely communicate with through the medium of a language that is perfectly familiar to the others of that region. Happily the number understanding each of the leading languages is so great, that this obstacle is not at 362 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS all serious, as in the case of missionaries in such fields as the New Hebrides. The seriousness of these enthnographic diver- gences lies in the fact that between some of the races so great prejudices exist that a single united Indian Church and real fellowship in the missionary enterprise of the Empire is im- possible, especially with the superadded difficulty of caste sur- vivals in the Church's rank and file. 3. One element in this gathering of the nations is frequently a decided drawback to the cause of missions. While Euro- peans in civil, military and mercantile life are often most help- ful to the missionary, too many of them are persons of god- less life, whose example and hostility to the work rank among his greatest trials. The mischief does not end with India ; but in the ports and elsewhere missionaries are often ridiculed or maligned, with the result that such superficial travelers as trouble to make any inquiries return home with scores of stories reflecting upon missionaries and their noble work. A feeling of moral responsibility for these Anglo-Indians and for the often despised Eurasians, the offspring of Europeans and native women, divides the heart of earnest workers who not infrequently attempt to minister to them, as well as to the Hindus, with resultant breakdowns. 4. We must regretfully add that one section of the foreign population, devoted to the interests of religion and often men of the most self-denying life, the Romanists, are in some sec- tions a more serious foe than any European or native opponent. " The Jesuit advance in India " is a very real problem, espe- cially in the Krishnagar, Chota Nagpore, Sialkot and Tanna fields, as well as in a district south of Calcutta. It is not so much the truths taught by this proselyting force, as the meth- ods used, that occasion friction. Well authenticated testimony shows that this system includes buying inquirers or converts off with gifts of food, clothing and confectionery ; the hiring of subordinate Christian helpers who have been working gratis for Protestantism; providing Saturday night entertainments for those who would attend church on Sunday; slandering INDIA 363 Protestant missionaries, especially those who are married ; per- mitting the converts to observe caste rules in districts where Protestants pursue the opposite policy; loaning natives money and when unable to pay the debt, offering to remit it if they will join the Catholic Church, the debt being held over their heads in case they return to their former faith ; and encourag- ing Christians to indulge in vicious and intemperate habits, and when under consequent discipline, receiving them to their own Church. When due allowance is made for intemperate and partisan statements, the facts seem to prove that such proselytes are not benefited by the change, but rather are worse than in their heathen days. The reasons for the success of this proselyting agency are found in Mr. V. N. Narasimmiyengar's Mysore Census Re- port of 1891 : " Roman Catholicism is able to prevail among Hindus more rapidly and easily [than Protestantism] by rea- son of its policy of tolerating among its converts the customs of caste and social observances, which constitute so material a part of the Indian social fabric. In the course of the investi- gations engendered by the census, several Roman Christian communities have been met with, which continue undisturbed in the rites and usages which had guided them in their pre- conversion period. They still pay worship to the Kalasam at marriages and festivals, call in the Brahman astrologer and purohita, use the Hindu religious marks and conform to various other amenities which have the advantage of minimiz- ing friction in their daily intercourse with their fellow-caste brethren." 5. Local opposition from Hindus is far more common than Catholic interference. It is not unusual in all parts of India, especially during the initiation of a work, to be subjected to a wearisome variety of annoyances. The missionary is pre- vented from finding a favorable position for even an hour's service; and if he desires to remain permanently, it is with the utmost difficulty that he can secure good sites for residence, church, school and hospital. High rents are charged him; 364 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS almost impossible conditions are imposed ; titles are beclouded ; building is hindered, if not altogether stopped. In the case of natives this opposition is far worse. Insults, abuse, breaking up of meetings, depriving them of water from the village well, despite the government regulation forbidding it, are common experiences in districts newly opened. And what shall be said of the opposition encountered by the young convert? If he is in his minority, relatives can do what they will with him, and even English law is often unable to prevent his death or such serious drugging that lifelong imbecility may result. Baptism is the crucial hour when the storm clouds, that have been gathering ever since his interest was evident, burst like the monsoon upon his defenceless head, and God alone can save the convert from the despair that follows such persecution and the ostracism from men of his caste. Of course this persecution is by no means universal, but it is to be expected in the case of students and others of note in the com- munity, unless they chance to be so high in position that they are immune from attack. 6. Governments are a doubtful dependence in such emer- gencies. While British law as administered in India is gen- erally very helpful, the Government is neutral in religious mat- ters and does not afford the same aid that would be available, if it were what it is in Great Britain. This neutrality and the recognition of certain points of Mohammedan law abate some- what the freedom which converts from Islam are supposed to find under the aegis of English protection, though even with this weakness British rule makes it more possible for a Mohammedan to become a Christian in India than elsewhere in civilized lands except in China and the Malay Archipelago. The chief hardship is found in the Native States where old laws still prevail and where many a convert has met death as the punishment for deserting the faith of his fathers. 7. A more vital opposing force is found in the personal char- acter of the people of the Empire. Courage is manifestly needed to break with the past and with one's caste, and cow- INDIA 365 ardice is said by missionaries to be quite prevalent. Even if converted, instability of character often leads to a relapse into' former habits of idolatry. Immorality is the atmosphere sur- rounding all in India, and when the gratification of the lower desires and appetites receives religious sanction, it is very easy to fall from the purity of Christianity into impurity at the beck of the temple nautch girl or the siren voices of prurient sacred books. Even more hostile to Christianity's message is the power of " custom " over the average Hindu. The conserva- tism of China cannot equal, as a deterrent force, this tyrannical master of India. One who ventures to depart from it in vil- lages and towns that are unfamiliar with the new life of the Occident is " peculiar " to an infinitely greater degree than any in Christian lands who for this reason are kept from show- ing their colors. 8. The power of superstition and religion is another potent factor that must be reckoned with in the conversion of India's millions. This land stands foremost among the great nations of the world in its devotion to the gods, and second to none of them in the deference shown to superstitions. Missionaries report that those features of the native religion causing the greatest practical difficulties are the following: Unbounded confidence in the sacredness and supremacy of their sacred books and religious leaders ; errors as to the nature of sin and salvation, leading the people to lay great stress on supposedly good works, especially upon difficult pilgrimages ; sincere be- lief in the agency of evil spirits and careful observance of signs and portents ; devotion to Krishna and to the cultus of Vishnu, in whose lives they see resemblances to the Incarnation and life of Jesus, thus denying the exclusive claims of the Christian Incarnation ; the Vedanta system, with its doctrine of 8,400,000 transmigrations, which seems to them the best ex- planation of life's inequalities — a belief leading to fatalism ; and an all-pervasive pantheism that makes God the author of evil as well as of good, destroys responsibility for sin and logically makes it impossible, fosters idolatry by teaching that 366 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS God is within the idol, and asserts that any rehgion is good enough if sincerely followed. Among Mohammedans the disbelief in the Incarnation and divinity of Christ and His consequent degradation to a mere prophet, the surpassing claims of Mohammed, the self-right- eousness that exalts works above the underlying motive, and the misinterpretation of Christian doctrines accompanied with the utmost bigotry, are the weapons with which Islam's vo- taries meet the missionary attack. In the case of the educated who have seen the folly of current beliefs and who blush be- fore India's unexpurgated sacred books, two tendencies are to be met : one is that of universal scepticism which leads the man to agnosticism or utter disgust with all religion ; the other, a desire to find in some reform movement as promulgated by the various Samajes an Oriental substitute for past faith on the ground of its greater fitness for the Hindu mind. 9. But the great upas tree of India, poisoning the life and weakening the moral sense of every community, is caste. While it is a part of religion, it is far more than that, as was seen in Part I. This and ancestral worship in China stand as the two greatest existing obstacles to Christian missions, and it is little wonder that so eminent a missionary as the Abbe Dubois despaired of the higher classes of India ever becoming Christians, though he was ready to acknowledge that there was a great field among the low castes and outcastes. What this Romanist regarded as impossible, the grace of God, accompany- ing such wise efforts as those of Duff, — who reached India with his scheme of Christian education about the time that the Abbe left it for Europe, — has accomplished in multitudes of cases. Still, it remains true that a vast majority of the con- verts are from the low castes, and that even among these the spirit of brotherhood has so little influenced even the Protest- ants that to some extent and in one or two branches of the Church in South India the caste spirit and regulations are re- garded. As this problem does not beset work for the aborigines, many missionaries turn to them with a sense of relief. INDIA 367 10. Earnest workers find heavy burdens in other issues that are in a sense subsidiary to their regular work. Thus abuses and social crimes flourish all about them and they would be false to their trust if these were not met. The well-known evils of child-marriage and widowhood, the perplexing prob- lems of polygamous marriages in the case of applicants for church membership, actions of the Government such as licensed immorality and the opium trade, and a number of other moral and social questions call for discussion and in some cases ac- tive opposition. 11. Protestant Forces. — i. As the second volume makes evident, these are significant in point of numbers and in the diversity and extent of work done. Yet when the statistics are compared with those of smaller countries, or of a continent like Africa, it should be remembered that India's population is about twice as great as that of the Dark Continent ; while its Mohammedans alone almost equal in number the entire popu- lation of the Ottoman Empire plus that of South America. In comparing the missionary maps, also, remember that while India is dotted somewhat thickly with mission stations, the villages and towns are more numerous there than in any other mission land save China. Thus in Bengal there are three villages or towns on every two square miles, and in the most sparsely populated province, that of Bombay and Sind, there is one town or village to every five square miles. The reader will also learn from the map and the Station Index that the Protestant fields first occupied are those most fully cared for to-day. Including Catholics, two-thirds of all Indian Chris- tians were found in the British provinces of Madras and Coorg and in the Madras Native States, when the census of 1891 was taken. 2. As for the societies represented, America furnishes the greatest number, thirty- five ; England has thirty- four, the Con- tinent, nine, while international societies and missions from other lands number fifteen. For details concerning all these societies the reader is referred to the second volume of this 368 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS work. Note especially the relative proportion of men and women, both among the missionaries and the native assistants. Concerning the latter, Sir William Hunter in his admirable work, "The Indian Empire," writes: "Between 1851 and 1890 the number of mission stations increased threefold; while the number of native Protestant Christians has multiplied by more than fivefold, the number of communicants by nearly fif- teenfold, and the number of churches or congregations by six- teenfold.- This was largely due to the extended employment of native agency in the work. The native ordained pastors in- creased from twenty-one in 1851 to 797 in 1890, and the native lay preachers from 493 to 3,491. The Protestant Church in India greatly gained in strength by making freer use of, and reposing a more generous confidence in, its native agents." At the Newcastle Church Congress of 1900 the late Lieutenant- Governor of Bengal, Sir Charles Elliott, not only endorsed all that is said above, but urged the Church to crown its work of organization by the appointment of native Bishops, basing his argument on the experience of the civil administration in India. He says : " I was the first Governor of a province who ap- pointed a native to be a commissioner of a division with Eng- lish magistrates under him, but no one caviled at the justice and wisdom of the selection. On the contrary the men thus promoted have risen to the height of their position, their self- respect has been aroused and with it the self-respect of the community to which they belong, and new qualities have been evolved in them. I believe that if our Bishops would take courage in both hands and imitate the example of the Civil Government, it would be a great stimulus to the native clergy and converts, and the result would not be disappointing." The Church Missionary Society has within a few months definitely lecommended such a course as Sir Charles advocates. These opinions are cited to emphasize the power resident in a portion of the missionary force which is often wholly unappreciated by the reader. 3. The new emphasis of the true missionary dynamic, a INDIA 369 greater fulness of spiritual life, cannot be omitted in any enumeration of Protestant forces, especially as workers in this field realize the importance of such enduement as do those in no other perhaps. During the last six years there has been much individual desire for divine power, and this longing has led to meetings of missionaries in small groups and occasion- ally in national conferences, the main or sole object of which has been to deepen the spiritual life. In the case of many mis- sionaries the old thirtyfold measure of fruitfulness has given place to an abiding joy in the Lord and capacity to bring forth fruit an hundredfold. Nor should reference to outside increments to the mission- ary ranks, provided by the increasingly frequent visits of prom- inent religious leaders from the Occident, be omitted in a cen- sus of forces. This contingent includes such evangelists as Dr. Pentecost and Rev. F. B. Meyer ; students of religion and philosophy like Professor Ladd, President Barrows and Prin- cipal Fairbairn ; and practical leaders of men, of whom John R. Mott, Secretary of the World's Student Christian Federation, and Dr. Clark, founder of the Christian Endeavor Movement, are types. The exceeding value of their labors to India is an indication of the possibilities in all the great mission fields of such special service. III. Classes Ministered to. — As these differ, not merely in condition, but also in the methods employed to reach them, they will be mentioned separately. I. Children are a strategic element in society, not only be- cause of the greater ease of reaching them, but also for the reason that, as ethnologists have shown, children of lower races or castes do not differ greatly in receptivity from those in civilized lands, while after adolescence they relapse into a stupidity that makes impression difficult. Moreover, the de- structive work needing to be done at that period is far less than in adult life. Day-schools for boys and girls, either coeduca- tional or separate, are the commonest line of approach. Ver- nacular instruction seems to be best except where the better 370 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS classes are aimed at, in which case EngUsh is an attraction. Though difficulties are experienced in this work, notably in the direction of securing teachers with proper spiritual and educa- tional qualifications, they are gradually disappearing, and the leavening influence upon the heathen homes of the children, as well as upon their own lives, is of great value. Sunday- schools are far more helpful, especially in cases where Moham- medan and Hindu children are afraid of places of Christian worship. They can be won by taking the school to them as is sometimes done — going into a company of boys and girls and marking out parallel lines on the ground with aisles appro- priately placed, thus enabling the children to be seated in an orderly way. The lively singing and other exercises so attract them that the Sunday-school idea soon takes root. The use of Scripture cards helps to overcome prejudice, and they are prized in the homes as well. The labors of the late Rev. J. L. Phillips, Secretary of the India Sunday-school Union, and of his successor. Rev. R. Burges, have greatly increased the ef- ficiency of this most important agency. 2. The zvomen of India are among the most needy in all the world, as the various volumes treating of their wrongs abundantly show. In wealthy homes the only way of reach- ing these prisoners of the zenana is through the ministry of medicine, — especially if the practitioner is a lady, — and by means of zenana teaching. The occupants of these better homes are more to be pitied than those in the hovels of the poor. Shut in for months or years from the outside world, with po- lygamy to cause endless pain, these women and girls look upon the zenana worker as an angel from heaven oftentimes. Many of them prove apt pupils and not a few become obedient to the truth. If Dr. Mullen's advice to use caution without compro- mise is heeded, even the most suspicious may become willing learners. This form of work relieves the missionary from the tedium of ordinary Hindu visits, and with the attraction of teaching fancy work homes of men of wealth and position are often opened. Among poor women, meetings are easily ar- INDIA 371 ranged for, especially where competent Bible women are em- ployed as intermediaries. Miss Greenfield strongly appeals for this latter work : " Go out to the poor outcastes and tell them of a Burden-bearer for them. Go out into the villages, and as the women flock around you, tell them in song and speech of the love of Jesus. Go out into the melas and fes- tivals and lay hold of the women there, and tell them of the water of life and the blood of Christ that can cleanse their pol- luted hearts." Though her plan of having women go forth by twos on evangelistic tours is still in its infancy, it has been greatly blessed. 3. The aboriginal tribes, most of whom are in the Native States, at first sight present a discouraging field of labor. Thus the hillmen of Madras include the wild-looking Puliyars who worship devils and subsist upon jungle products, mice, etc. ; the Mundaver nomads who shelter themselves in caves and leaf sheds ; the old military race, the Nairs, among whom one woman is the wife of several husbands and the property descends to the sister's children. If one goes into the Vindhya Range, he must be ready to follow the Bhils as " they move about with their herds of sheep and goats through the jungly highlands and eke out a spare livelihood by the chase and the natural products of the forest," or dwell in little hamlets, " each homestead being built on a separate hillock so as to render it impossible for their enemies to surprise a whole village at once." In the Central Provinces the Gonds have made some advances in civilization ; but what a huntsman the missionary must be to catch a Mari, who is so shy that even the messenger of the local Raja can secure rightful tribute only by beating a drum outside the hamlet and then withdrawing while the timorous villager creeps forth and places the tribute in the ap- pointed place, only to run back to his place of hiding. The leaf- wearers of Orissa ; the Assam hillmen who have no word for mile, but measure distances by the number of plugs of tobacco or of betel-leaf chewed upon the journey, and two of whose clans bear the suggestive names of " The eaters of a 372 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS thousand hearths " and " The thieves who lurk in the cotton field " ; the more advanced Santals ; the 100,000 Kandhs, or Kondhs, with their purely patriarchal form of government, marriage by capture and system of serfdom; the three non- Aryan stocks, the Tibeto-Burmans, the Kolarians and the Dravidians of the southern extremity of the peninsula, — all of these tribes have peculiar traits or customs that are barriers to missionary effort. Despite these facts, the aboriginal and non-Aryan races are far easier of approach in many respects than the Hindus proper. Caste has little or no power among them ; they do not meet with anything like the opposition that Hindus encounter when they try to raise themselves ; not having merged the individual into the family or caste, they are less hampered in judging as to the path of duty ; and when they decide to become Chris- tians they do not labor under the social disabilities of Hindu- ism. 4. The outcastes, or lozv caste peoples, who form the main missionary constituency, are rightly denominated " the de- pressed classes," though the phrase sometimes includes the ab- origines also. Very many of them are shoemakers, scaven- gers, coolies and village watchmen, though multitudes are farmers and weavers. In general they are poor and in many instances are in such abject circumstances that they are little better than slaves. Apart from the missionary efforts, they have never been educated, few of them being able to even read and write. In proportion to the degradation of these unfortunates are they more accessible to the missionary, the reasons therefor be- ing thus stated by the late Bishop Parker : " Their religion is not, as a rule, the orthodox Hinduism, but some side-issue that is much less firmly established and tenaciously held, and hence has no such strong hold on the people as Hinduism has upon the regular castes. It is accordingly not so difficult to change their religion. They have not the pride of caste that raises them in their own estimation above all other people, and they INDIA 373 readily receive the Christian teachers. Besides, whatever is done for these poor people is usually considered as a kindness — a favor, and it is seldom resented. Many of them have an idea of * moving on.' In many places they have broken away from their old traditions to some extent and are doing work that their fathers did not think of ever attaining. Being thus willing to rise, they will take hold of those who may seem able to aid them ; hence the way is open to teach and lead them." The methods employed among these people are much the same as in all mission work in India, though for the masses evangelistic work and lower schools are especially empha- sized. In the field which is yielding such large results in North India, the Methodists are successfully employing a Christian mela, at which as many as 2,000 Christians come together in a modified camp meeting. Simple organizations, like the Christian Endeavor Society and the Epworth League, seem fitted to increase the activity as well as deepen the spir- itual life of the members. So important has this work seemed, that the former organization sent out in 1901 as a permanent Secretary of the Society, Rev. F. S. Hatch, a prominent Amer- ican Endeavorer. Social improvement, industrial training, cleanliness and better sanitation, and agitation looking toward the actual removal of existing disabilities, are externals that missionaries keep constantly in mind. 5. The importance of zvork for the two classes just men- tioned is manifest. Civilians are as fully aware of this as are the missionaries. Witness this extract from the high author- ity already quoted. Sir William Hunter : " I should not be candid, if I left the impression that I expect, even with the im- proved missionary methods, any large accessions from ortho- dox Hinduism or Islam to the Christian Church. It is rather from the lower castes and the so-called aboriginal peoples, that I believe direct conversions will chiefly come. At this mo- ment there are fifty millions of human beings in India, sitting abject on the outskirts of Hinduism or beyond its pale, who, within the next fifty years, will incorporate themselves into 374 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS one or other of the higher faiths. Speaking humanly, it rests with Christian missionaries in India, whether a greater pro- portion of these fifty miUions shall accept Christianity or Hin- duism or Islam." Its great success is an additional argument in favor of fur- thering work for the depressed classes, not to speak of the fun- damental obligations of human brotherhood and the almost unbroken order of the Kingdom, " to the poor the gospel is preached." Nearly all the great ingatherings of the Empire have been among the lower or lowest castes; and with such evidences of power as have been witnessed in the Tinnevelli and Telugu fields of South India and in the no less wonderful Pentecosts of the North, there is every reason to believe that now, as in Apostolic times, God has chosen the foolish and weak and base things to confound wise and mighty adversa- ries. 6. Next to these low castes stand Eurasians, the outcastes among Occidentals. As they are often in care of their native mothers during early years, they are frequently little better than heathen. Speaking of them and immoral Europeans whose offspring they are. Sir Andrew Scoble raised this note of warning : " Let me tell you that if, while sending mission- aries to the heathen for the purpose of preaching the gospel to them, you are neglecting the claims of the Europeans and Eurasians in that country, you create a class of missionaries who do infinitely more harm to God's Church than all the heathen together can do; because every European and every Eurasian who neglects his duty as a Christian, becomes an evil to the people around him." Aside from the low estima- tion in which they are held, there are other difficulties in the way of their evangelization. In the cities they are often pau- pers, — 22.3 per cent, of them according to the Calcutta Pauperism Committee's report, — and are so low in the social scale that it is hard to raise them from their semi-heathenism. The means used to win Eurasians are similar to those em- ployed to reach the lower classes in our cities, with slight dif- INDIA 375 ferences. The children are the best material and school work for them is especially valued. Owing to their poverty, they cannot meet the expense of English schools and hence often attend Catholic institutions. The Roman Church thus adds to her strength, while Protestantism loses those who have proven their ability to become excellent missionaries to their fellow- townsmen. 7. The Mohammedans of India are mainly found in the northeastern and northwestern portions of the Empire, though about one-fourth of the entire number are scattered through- out other sections of the country. They are the most ag- gressive missionary race of modern India. Professor Ar- nold of the Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College quotes estimates ranging from 10,000 to 600,000, of the annual number of converts thus won. This work is mainly car- ried on by the Wahabi reformers who have gone through northern India " purging out the remnants of Hindu su- perstitions, awakening religious zeal and spreading the faith among unbelievers." They have adopted Protestant meth- ods, such as street preaching, tract distribution and other agen- cies. They direct much of their attention " towards counter- acting the anti-Islamic tendencies of the instruction given by Christian missionaries, and the efforts made are thus defensive rather than directly proselyting. Some preachers, too, turn their attention to the strengthening of the foundation already laid, and endeavor to rid their ignorant coreligionists of their Hindu superstitions and instil in them a purer form of faith. The influence of Christian mission schools has been very great in stimulating among some Mohammedans of the younger gen- eration a study of their own religion and in bringing about a consequent awakening of religious zeal." The fountainhead of orthodox Indian Mohammedanism is the Arabic College at Deohand, ranking with the so-called Uni- versity of Al Azhar in Cairo, with the one connected with the Mosque of Palms in Tunis and with the institution at Kair- wan, the holy city of Fez. This college is " not meant in any 376 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS way to fit men for the world's work ; its aim is purely relig- ious. The Koran and Hadis and all that has sprung up around them alone constitute true knowledge. The revelation of God is as all-embracing as it is final and fixed. It is a waste of life and perilous to a man's eternal interests to give heed to the new-fangled notions and latter-day knowledge which make up modern education. . . . Since its institution, the college has turned out some 383 maulvies and 93 hafizes of the Koran. It has attained great celebrity and will be a force to be reck- oned with." Notwithstanding these evidences of life, St. Clair-Tisdall asserts : " It cannot be said that at the present day in India the Mohammedans are superior or even equal to the Hindus in morality, industry, or culture. In fact the Gov- ernment of India finds it necessary to show special encour- agement to Mohammedan youths, in order to prevent Hindus from filling almost every post of importance under Govern- ment. But their number and their fanaticism for their relig- ion render the Mohammedans an important factor in the pop- ulation of the country." Despite these facts, Christian missionaries have made much progress in winning Indian Moslems. At the World's Parlia- ment of Religions in 1893, i" ^ paper prepared by the late Dr. Imad-ud Din, a list of 117 notable converts was given, the learned writer being the most famous perhaps. Controversy and literature are characteristics of work among these peoples. In the Punjab in 1894-95 the deepest interest was awakened by a notable discussion, which was to be supernaturally de- cided — the leading Moslem advocate prophesied — by the death of his opponent within fifteen days, corresponding with the length of time devoted to the disputation. As death did not occur, Mohammedanism received a serious blow and in that city one missionary alone baptized thirty-two Moslems within less than five years thereafter. A most potent force used by the workers is a translation of the Koran, made for the first time into idiomatic Urdu by Dr. Imad-ud Din. The ef- fect of divesting this unholy volume of its concealing Arabic INDIA 377 veil may be guessed from the fact that two Mohammedan writers who aided in preparing the book for the press revolted from Islam in consequence. Hardly second to this and other original volumes by the same author, are works by such protag- onists as Dr. Pfander, and Sir William Muir, and the Syrian Christian who wrote " Sweet First Fruits " and the " Beacon of Truth." Concerning this last book a distinguished Mo- hammedan has recently said that no one in the Moslem world was able to answer its positions. The advantage gained from such books lies in the fact that " a written argument appeals to the mind and conscience in solitude. There is no pride in answering back glibly or irreverently to a printed page. If prejudice prevents preaching by word of mouth, let us use the press and speak to the eye; if fanaticism shuts the door of the mosque, let us use the door of the post-office." A prom- inent worker among them, Dr. Wherry, writes of the method of distributing this literature : " It does seem like an imper- tinence, if not an insult, to ask a man to buy such a book. A better plan is to send it as a present, either by a messenger or through the post-office, always accompanying it with a kindly letter duly signed by the sender. Sometimes it is wise to loan books rather than to sell or give them away. The return of the books will always afford an opportunity for conversation on the subject nearest the heart." 8. There is comparatively little being done for the great re- ligious leaders of India, the Brahmans. Granting that their influence, which has moulded the entire Indian community and fashioned its thought in the past, is slightly waning to-day, there is still unbounded power resident in these men. Though comparatively few have been won for Jesus Christ, they have powerfully aided Christianity. Probably the Brahmans who were converted under the labors of Alexander Duff accom- plished many times more for the evangelization of India than any equal number of representatives of other castes. What nobler names grace the roll of the native Church than that of the converted Brahman, Dr. K. M. Bannerji, one of modern 378 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS India's greatest and most original scholars, or of the brilliant orator, Babu Kali Churn Bannerji, or of Dr. Nehemiah Goreh, whom Max Miiller called a real philosopher, the father of the authoress of the hymn, " In the Secret of His Pres- ence " ? As the surest way of reaching the younger Brahmans is through education, nothing further is said of this work here. Readers desirous to learn how these men are won through private interviews or in public controversy, are referred to the pages of " The Indian Missionary Manual," by the veteran, Dr. John Murdoch. 9. How important it is in Christian lands to reach relig- iously the educated classes, is evidenced by the 1901 edition of "Who's Who in America." Of the 11,551 best known men and women of the United States and Canada mentioned in that publication, 8,141 furnished educational data, from which it appears that a trifle more than seven out of ten are colle- gians. If higher education is so dynamic a factor in lands where the average grade and intelligence of the masses are so high, what must be the importance of winning the student class in an Empire of which the Rev. W. Miller, LL.D., of Madras, says : " True as is the fact that educated and trained men the world around determine to a large extent what all other classes think and feel and are, there has probably never been a country in which it is so largely and plainly true as in India." The 1901 " Statesman's Year-book " gives the following facts concerning Indian education: Number of educational in- stitutions, March 31, 1899, 149,948, of which 65,650 are private and unaided; scholars under instruction, 4,357,821; number of colleges for men, 164, with 20,842 students; women's col- leges, 5, with 164 students; students in the five great uni- versities in 1898, 6,997. Details of the 1901 census have not been received; yet from the tables for 1891 in Sir William Hunter's " Indian Empire " some significant facts appear con- cerning the proportion of Hindus, Mohammedans and Chris- tians who are under instruction or literate. Of the Hindu pop- INDIA 379 ulation they constituted eleven per cent, of the males and four out of every thousand of the females; seven per cent, of the male Mohammedans and three out of every ten thousand of their females were under instruction or literate; while among the Christians they included thirty-six per cent, of the males and seventeen per cent, of the females. This startling contrast between Christianity and the two most numerous of Indian re- ligions in the matter of literacy shows the importance, not only of education for the masses, but also of still further cultivating the educated leaders of the Empire. The students and graduates, known as young India, or New India, are the product of two sources, government institutions and missionary schools and colleges. " Thousands of young men pass yearly from the former with their religious beliefs severely shaken, with the reasoning and critical faculty highly cultivated, but with the conscience and the will comparatively untrained ; while a similar number pass from the daily instruc- tion and atmosphere of missionary institutions with sympathies and convictions set, in many instances, in a Christian direction. Both these classes need to be followed up by organized evan- gelistic effort which shall, in the one case, overtake a purely secular teaching with spiritual instruction, and, in the other, so till the quickened soil that the good seed, already sown, may become fruitful." Their numbers and wide diffusion, their in- fluence as leaders of society and of public opinion as well as in reform, their need of the gospel in most cases, enforce the Church's responsibility for reaching them. Moreover, the bearing of their evangelization upon the Indian Church is most intimate and vital, as what the Empire needs fully as much as it does reinforcements from without is an efficient force from within. The religious attitude of these students and graduates varies with the institution in which they have been educated. Al- most always they pass through the stage of religious unsettle- ment. All shades of religious thought, indigenous and exotic, as well as all the atheistic and agnostic views of the Occident, 380 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS Struggle for the mastery. Brahmoism and the vision of a purified Hinduism make their seductive appeal, enforced by the movings of a latent nationalism. On the other hand, Christianity warms them in its blissful sunshine, or repels them by its inherent demands or by the ungodly lives of representa- tives of Christianity. As if this were not enough, these young men are sorely tempted. The fires of passion are fed by temple precincts even more than by the Sodom in which they live. Ambition for government position stifles the desire to take time for the study of the Bible and other courses which would make them stronger men and fit them for highest min- istry to their fellows. JVJiat can the missionary do to rescue New India from the awful maelstrom which threatens speedy ruin? Undoubtedly the English language must be the medium of approach for most. Sympathy and wise and candid dealing must charac- terize all the work done. Classes for Bible study, public lec- tures for larger groups, helpful literature specially prepared for them, unions of various sorts, have all been largely used to gain these men, though best of all are the heart-to-heart talks that are the privilege of successful workers with India's Nico- demuses. Some of the special work of the Oxford Mission in Calcutta and of the Cambridge Mission at Delhi, and the wider program of the Young Men's Christian Association at the great centers, are found particularly fruitful in this enter- prise. The intensive work which may be done by professors and teachers in government institutions and especially in those under mission care, where more freedom is possible, is perhaps the most uniformly crowned with success. IV. The Product of Protestant Missions. — Always premising that missionaries are only the lesser members of that synergism whose dynamic factor is the Triune God, some facts may be mentioned concerning the Christians and churches of this great field. The strength of Indian Christians has been well shown in various apologies written by missionaries, but perhaps more forcefully in articles written by that brilliant INDIA 381 native professor of Logic and Moral Philosophy in the Presi- dency College, Madras, S. Sattianadhan, and in the first vol- ume of a native work by S. Modak, the " Directory of Protes- tant Indian Christians." I. They are strong numerically, though in proportion to the entire population they are still wofully few. The encourag- ing feature in the matter of numbers is the increase perceived by a comparison of figures in successive decades. Professor Sattianadhan gives this table of Protestant statistics, to which we have added data for 1900. Inclusion of women accounts for the great increase of missionaries in 1900. Foreign Ordained Native Commu- Year. Missionaries. Natives Christians. nicants. PupUs. 1 85 1 339 21 91,092 14,661 64,043 1861 479 97 138,731 24,816 75.995 1871 488 225 224,258 182,722 122,132 1881 586 461 417,372 "3,325 187,652 1890 857 797 559,651 182,722 279,716 1900 3.836 — 591,310 376,617 342,114 In 1890 sixty-six per cent, of the Protestants lived in the Ma- dras Presidency, nineteen per cent, in Bengal, and fifteen per- cent, in the remainder of India. If the percentage of increase during the next decade equals that of the last one, 1910 will see a Protestant Christian community of 1,258,305. 2. That they are intellectually strong in comparison with the majority of the population is evidenced by statistics of education previously given. An address by an eminent civil- ian, delivered before the National Indian Association in Lon- don pays this tribute to the missionary's emphasis of female education : " The missionaries have been the pioneers of all education in India — of education for the highest as for the lowest classes, and especially for the women of India. The result is now becoming apparent. A generation of educated Indian women, few in numbers at present, but full of promise for the future, has grown up. You will find that almost all those educated women of India who have made their mark 382 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS in our day were native Christians, or were educated under missionary influence." 3. Professor Sattianadhan says of the social condition of church members: " It is to a great extent free from the social drawbacks under which the Hindu community labors. The Indian Christians have ceased to be restrained by tyrannical social customs and caste prejudices. ' It is the gospel of Christ,' says the Rev. T. E. Slater, a veteran missionary, ' that has made them free. The absence among them of that great social evil, the early marriage system, and the increasing num- ber of intelligent wives and mothers, largely account for their present position. Unlike Hindus, whose religious existence is one series of expensive ceremonies from birth to death, they have no burdensome rites to perform and learn to practice econ- omy in weddings and funerals. Hinduism drains the purse and exhausts the time and strength of its votaries. The mo- ment a Hindu becomes a Christian, he leaves the land of sla- very and breathes the air of liberty. One has only to com- pare the Christian with Hindvi homes to be assured that it is the leaven of Christ's religion that can alone quicken the inert mass of Hindu society.' " Charges of denationalization are not true of the majority of converts, though it is inevitable that this change should lead to persecution and separation from for- mer friends ; since, " in the eyes of a Hindu, nothing is more degrading than one of his own kith and kin becoming a Chris- tian." Naturally, also, these converts strive after Western ideals, and turn their back upon the tyrannical past of their idolatrous countrymen. 4. If the moral condition of native Christians is inquired into, the results will be found very favorable. A native jour- nal, often hostile to them, the " Pioneer," says on this point : " As the community has developed, there can be no question that its aspirations in the direction of purity of life and morals have been to a large extent realized. Industry has developed among them, and the modern missionary is much less often the victim of the loafing rogue who is ever ready to barter his INDIA 383 faith for a mess of pottage. With the establishment of a community on a self-supporting basis, which is in many places already secured, its progress in self-respect and conception of the duties of citizenship must continue to increase." That false shame which looks down on certain forms of manual la- bor is gradually being overcome, and will further disappear with the enlargement of missionary industrial school work. Two testimonies typical of many, are adduced to show what men of the highest reputation for truth in this Empire think of the converts. Sir William Muir, formerly Lieutenant-Gov- ernor of the Northwest Provinces, has said : " Thousands have been brought over, and in an ever increasing ratio converts are being brought over to Christianity. And they are not sham nor paper converts, as some would have us believe, but good and honest Christians and many of them of a high standard." One who knew them more intimately than a civilian could, Bishop Caldwell, thus wrote : " I maintain that the Christians of our Indian Mission have no need to shrink from comparison with Christians in a similar station in life and similarly circum- stanced in England or in any other part of the world. I think I do not exaggerate when I affirm that they appear to me in general more teachable and tractable, more considerate of the feelings of others and more respectful to superiors, more uni- formly temperate, more patient and gentle, more trustful in Providence, better churchgoers, yet free from religious bigotry, and in proportion to their means, more liberal than Christians in England holding a similar position in the social scale." 5. We who have been " basking for centuries under the sunshine of Christian faith," must not expect to find these Christians as strong spiritually as the majority of Occidental church members. Yet with such examples of personal faith, righteousness and spirituality as N. Goreh, R. C. Bose, Nar- ayen Sheshadri, Dr. Imad-ud Din, Pundita Ramabai, and others, one cannot but praise God for the abundant fruitage of the Spirit that India has seen. In proportion as their for- eign leaders are men and women of the Spirit, will their con- 384 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS verts feel the need of this indwelling in order to supply the most serious lack in the life of the Indian Church. V. Present Position and Needs of the Christians. — In a recent issue of " The Indian Christian Guardian," a native clergyman, Rev. J. J. Caleb, B.A., states these in the form of an acrostic reading Indian Christian. Despite the artificiality resulting from its acrostic character in two or three instances, a summary of his view of the situation is given. I. Their present position is (i) one of Isolation. As Rev. W. G. Peel wrote in 1892, " The growth of spiritual life in Indian Christians is harmed by the isolated and unique posi- tion which is incidental to the profession of their faith in Christ. The Hindu casts them off. The Mohammedan regards them with horror as deserters from Islam. The Parsee closes the doors of his home to them. The Europeans, generally speak- ing, — missionaries excepted, — pay but little heed to them. They regard them coldly. They seldom or never visit them. They often speak unkindly of them in the mass, because of some experience of an untoward kind in connection with a few individuals. They pray little for them. They do not worship with them, and almost in no way do they show sympathy with them or for them." (2) It is a position of Need. A Hindu's conversion often renders him penniless ; but what most feel even more than the need of money is the hunger for sympathy and for Christian friends and fellowship. (3) It is one of Disunion. Separated for ages by differing castes, habits, cus- toms,, trades and prejudices, as well as by the stronger lines of religious differences, the Christian community finds it most difficult to become one body in Christ. Yet if men anywhere needed to combine into a single body, closely knit together, it is the Indian Church. The past must be buried; prejudices and the marks of caste must be laid aside; self-interest must become the servant of the common good. (4) Imitation is the grave charge that has been brought against Indian Chris- tianity. As already stated, this has been most natural. The present difficult task of developing a native Church, Oriental INDIA 385 and Indian in character, and yet wholly Christian, must be wrought out by a people whose experience under a dominating priesthood for many millenniums has unfitted them to take this initiative. (5) Aspirations and Ambitions are, thank God, also present in the native Church. " If there is ever a time to be ambitious and aspiring it is not when ambition is easy, but when it is hard. ' Fight in darkness ; fight when you are down ; die hard, and you won't die at all,' are the noble words of Henry Ward Beecher ; and to Indian Christians fighting the battle of life against so many opposing influences, they must come with a double meaning." (6) The native Church is Numerically small. What is this little band of believers " compared to the teeming millions of men and women who have not yet heard the Shepherd's voice and are consequently out of the fold? They are like a drop of water in the ocean, a little leaven, which will, let us hope, leaven the whole." 2. The wants of Indian Christians are many and varied, (i) Chances to enter more fully into higher forms of mission- ary work are pleaded for by such native writers as Mr. Caleb and Professor Sattianadhan, as well as by clear-headed men like the late Archbishop Benson. To quote from the latter: " The position of India and the tone and character of India will be the most important factor in the future and I must avow my own deliberate conviction — having thought and read about it a great deal — that we Westerns shall never convert Moham- medans. Why, look at everything in the Western and Eastern minds ; they are opposed to each other down to their preposi- tions and adverbs. They look at everything from an entirely different point of view. I do not believe that Westerns will produce any effect on Mohammedans. They must be ap- proached by Oriental missionaries. Oriental missionaries need not be such bad fellows ; the Apostles were Oriental mission- aries. They must be Oriental missionaries to produce an effect upon the thought and feeling of Orientals." (2) Humility is as desirable as in the case of the early Christians to whom St: Augustine wrote : " Should any man ask me what is the first 386 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS thing in religion, I would reply, ' The first, second and third thing therein is humility.' " (3) Representation is likewise needed, if the native Church is to have a healthy life. While the wisdom 'of foreign missionaries is desired, its native mem- bers ought also to be fully represented in its counsels and in the shepherding of its members. (4) Individuality is necessary for a strong Church ; but when its members are largely de- pendent upon foreign money and missionaries, it is especially difficult to cultivate this. The fear of giving offence or of showing ingratitude must be overcome, and Christians should be actuated by love for the work of the Church and with a sense of personal responsibility for it. (5) Self-sacrifice is pe- culiarly needed. " Christ's whole life was a life of self-sacri- fice, and if we wish to attain to this goal of blessedness, to a life entirely free from self, a life spent in the services of the Master, a life of self-sacrifice given and spent to bring our countrymen to a knowledge of Christ, let us remember that it is our duty to copy and imitate the life of our Master in every possible way." (6) The virtue of Temperance is the more important in view of the feeling among many that the use of liquor is inseparable from Christianity, judging from the drunkenness that is so prevalent among dissolute Euro- peans. (7) The Indian Church wants Institutions to promote life and the growth of that life, to promote union and all other virtues needed for its advancement. Such institutions as the Indian Christian Union in Great Britain, the Christian En- deavor Society, Epworth League, Young Men's Christian As- sociation, etc., in India, are harbingers of the better day near at hand. (8) Action and Advance are words that should pos- sess the Indian Christian. Foes are innumerable and the forces of Immanuel few ; energy and fearless onset are indispensable, if the seemingly impregnable citadel of Mansoul is to be car- ried in India. (9) If anything of Note is to be accomplished by the native Christians, there must be constant activity with- out the lacks named above and with the provisions that have been seen to be essential. Mr. Caleb closes thus : " The great INDIA 387 writer, Ruskin, says : ' Neither days nor lives can be made holy by doing nothing in them. The best prayer at the begin- ning of a day is that we may not lose its moments ; and the best grace before meat, the consciousness that we have justly earned our dinner.' True well-wishers of the Indian Christians, who wish to see this community rise higher and nobler, need a spirit of this kind. Let each one lend a helping hand in every possible way he can for the social, moral and religious awaken- ing and uplifting of this community. Let our best efforts be directed towards the attainment of this object. To each In- dian Christian let the words come home : 'Do something — do it soon — with all thy might; An angel's wing would droop, if long at rest ; And God Himself, inactive, were no longer blest.' " VI. Outlook for the Future. — Great problems face the Indian missionaries, but despite their gravity, the workers are very hopeful and call loudly for adequate reinforcements. Elements in the situation that inspire hopefulness are the fol- lowing : I. The attitude of the press and of Hindu writers is, on the whole, far more helpful to missions than it was a few years since. Thus one of the leading native journals, the " Indian Spectator," said recently : " Whether by virtue or by necessity, the Indian people have acquiesced in the policy of a fair field for all faiths, and in the case of Christian missions, they have even learnt to value them for the wholesome moral influence which they diffuse all around. We absolutely subscribe to Lord Lawrence's opinion, that ' notwithstanding all that the English people have done to benefit India, the missionaries have done more than all other agencies combined.' " One other extract, taken from the organ of the advanced Brahmo- Samajists, " The New Dispensation," must suffice : " It is an undoubted fact that the moral code of Christians and even the personality of their founder are finding an increasing accept- ance with the better classes of the Hindu population in the 388 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS advanced presidencies of Bombay and Bengal. The growing public spirit among all classes has an unmistakable likeness to what is done by people in Christian countries, and the Bible is read in places where its very name was tabooed half a cen- tury ago. The life and character of Jesus Christ are studied with genuine reverence, and it is not an unusual thing to find a likeness of Christ hung up in the parlor of an educated Hindu householder. Our determination is to take the universal prin- ciples of spiritual life inculcated by Christ Himself." 2. Among the non-Christian masses there are many who are filled with unrest. They seek something better, than Hinduism or Mohammedanism ; and as society in many places is slightly leavened with Christianity, they become readers of the Bible or of Christian tracts and books. Wherever known, Christ is honored if not accepted. With this new outlook comes a de- sire to gain at least a rudimentary education, and in some cases industrial schools are also hailed with delight. Many mission- aries find the open doors so prevalent that they boldly assert that millions may be won and raised to a high type of Chris- tian living. The recent famine and plagues have raised the missionaries and native converts to a position of physical saviours of vast multitudes, and this exhibition of Christian love is winning many. 3. Christians of India are of such a character that, as already shown, there is every reason for being hopeful about their future. Not only do the mass movements that are beginning in some parts of the Empire rapidly augment the number of Christians, but this very fact is furnishing a Christian atmos- phere and inspiring hope and confidence. Jn some sections the number of high-caste converts is increasing ; while in some quarters there are many secret inquiries from the ranks of the educated. Often these men do not dare to risk interviews, but correspond with the missionary. Church members are learn- ing that Christianity must become indigenous, and hence self- support and independence are more common. Especially among the younger members do these desires find expression. INDIA 389 There is also manifest in many communities a greater spirit of unity which finds joy in the coming together of various classes to partake of the Lord's Supper. Naturally such communities are growing in spirituality and seek always after higher ideals. 4. Nor are the missionaries themselves what they once were. Each year comity is being more regarded ; larger opportunities for knowing each other draw them together ; conferences bring new suggestions into their work and kindle the fire of spiritual desire. Such calamities as famines and plagues have brought these faithful men and women into the wider fellowship of Christians the world over, and to-day more prayer is being offered in their behalf than at any previous time. 5. No wonder that they long intensely for reinforcements that India's salvation may be hastened. As long ago as 1893 the Bombay Decennial Conference uttered this Macedonian cry: " Face to face with two hundred and eighty-four millions in this land — for whom in this generation you as well as we are responsible — we ask, Will you not speedily double the present number of laborers? Will not you also lend your choicest pastors to labor for a term of years among the millions who can be reached through the English tongue? Is this too great a demand to make upon the resources of those saved by Omnipo- tent Love? At the beginning of another century of missions in India let us all ' expect great things from God — attempt great things for God.' For the reflex blessings to yourselves, as well as for India's sake, we beseech you to ' hear what the Spirit saith unto the churches.' The manifestation of Christ is to those who keep His commandment, ' Go ye into all the world and preach the gospel to every creature.' " A present- day echo of this cry — emanating from the North India Con- ference, convened in September last at Missoorie, — is a call for prayer that the wave of revival, now visiting Japan, may sweep over India with mighty power. Orare est laborare. XV PERSIA, OR IRAN PART I. — GENERAL The native name of Persia is Iran, which reminds one of the fact that here was a part of the original territory of our Aryan race. It constitutes the western portion of the great table-land extending with interruptions from the Indus to the Tigris, and stretches to a distance of 700 miles from north to south, with a width of 900 miles from east to west. Its area of 628,000 square miles is approximately equal to that of France, Great Britain, Ireland, Greece and Italy combined ; or of Mon- tana, Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona and Nevada. I. The Land, Climate and Calamities of Iran. — i. One who has long resided in that country and written extensively concerning it, Sir Frederick J. Goldsmid, has given this com- prehensive picture of the land: " Suppose a table-land drop- ping to the Caspian Sea for nearly one-third of its northern frontier, and to the Persian Gulf for its southern limit. The lowlands naturally are the coast-tracts. In the North these are covered with forest, and the climate there is damp, feverish, relaxing; in the South they are dry and barren, and the winds are hot and violent, yet a relief to the scorching summer at- mosphere. In the central highlands — that is, Persia gener- ally— there are few rivers, and the country is either com- posed of parallel mountain-ranges and broad intervening plains, or of irregular mountain-masses with fertile valleys, basins and ravines. One plain of the East is of exceptionally large extent, and is called the Salt Desert of Khorassan. The theory 390 PERSIA, OR IRAN 391 that this was once a sea is supported by the circumstance that at one of its extreme edges is the village of Yunsi, so called be- cause the prophet Jonah (Yunas) is locally believed to have been cast up there by the whale. For irrigation the plains and valleys depend on the mountains, and at the base of these are ' kanats,' or underground canals, with water courses on the surface. Yet where rain and snow fail during the year there is scarcity of water, and where both are wanting there is always distress and sometimes famine. The valleys and ravines are more fertile than the plains, affording often bright, picturesque and grateful prospects, while the latter are for the most part barren and sandy wastes, scored or streaked, as it were, rather than ornamented with patches of green oases. Forests are rare and, except in the Ghilan, not dense; numerous gardens are commonly found in the neighborhood of large towns, not cared for as in Europe, yet pleasant in their wildness ; and there are many beautiful trees usually also near the centers of population. 2. " Persian cities are not like cities in Europe. The passing stranger sees no street or house in any of them at all com- parable to a respectable street or building, as England, France or Germany rate structural respectability. Blank mud-walls and narrow, ill-paved thoroughfares are the rule ; the win- dowed or terraced front of a Persian house is for the inner court or inner precincts of the abode, and not for the world without. Some mosques are handsome, some caravansaras solid, some bazaars highly creditable to the designer and builder ; but everything is irregular, nothing is permanent, and architectural ruin blends with architectural revival in the midst of dirt, discomfort and a total disregard of municipal method." 3. The villages which are the homes of the masses of Per- sia — the farmers, gardeners and shepherds — are even hum- bler than the mean abodes of the cities. Unlike Ameri- can and European farming communities, the houses are all crowded together in villages. '' The stable is just beside the living room, with one yard for both. The roof of the stable 392 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS and corners of the yard are filled with stacks of hay, thorn bushes and manure fuel. The latter is prepared by being kneaded, formed into cakes and stuck upon the walls to dry. In all villages it is ever present to sight and smell. The village streets are narrow, crooked and as filthy in rainy weather as an undrained barnyard. Fleas, flies, sandflies, mosquitoes, body-lice and sheep-ticks are common nuisances." From these compacted centers of life, the farmers go out long distances to their work. One of the peculiar crops that they care for is " the harvest of thorns." On the cultivated land and on the fields after harvest spring up great quantities of camel thorns. These are diligently gathered and brought on donkeys' backs to be used in baking bread, burning limestone or brick and heating bath-houses. Besides the varied crops, the setting of the village includes numerous flocks and herds pastured in common by a herder and some boys, aided by fierce yellow curs that are a terror to the traveler. 4. Additional items concerning the climate should be noted. On the high table-lands — and this means the majority of Per- sian territory — it is in winter very cold, and in summer hot ; though owing to the dryness of the atmosphere it is not as uncomfortable as in many lands where a lower temperature prevails. In the Caspian provinces, owing to their depression below sea level, they are exposed to a degree of heat in sum- mer almost equal to that of tropical islands, but as a com- pensation their winters are mild. Rains are here frequent and heavy, and marshy tracts are exceedingly unhealthful. In the southern provinces of Persia, known as the Dushtislan, the winter and spring are marked by a most delightful climate, the summer by heat that is tolerable, while in the autumn it is almost unbearably warm. On the whole, however, the atmos- phere of Persia surpasses that of almost any other country in its dryness and purity. Diseases are not very common except among children. Mr. Wilson states that " perhaps not one in six survives ; indeed it is said that not one in ten reaches ma- turity. Nature carries on the struggle for existence against PERSIA, OR IRAN 393 the neglect, ignorance and indifference of parents. Exposure, improper clothing, injudicious diet and other breaches of sani- tary laws carry off the children to early graves." 5. Calamities which frequently visit Persia and make it a land of poverty and suffering are mainly due to famine and earthquake. In earlier times the former was not so common as at present, since irrigation, which is so essential to success- ful agriculture in much of Persia, is not provided for so well as formerly. Moreover, the introduction of new crops is par- tially responsible for famine. Thus in 1879 the awful suffer- ings were partly caused by the substitution of the culture of opium for grain. The ravages of locusts are also liable to cause a scarcity of food, as was notably the case in a portion of the country in 1890. Earthquakes, too, are a serious source of danger. Very frequently the shocks are severe enough to cause walls and houses to fall, burying multitudes beneath. " On November 17, 1893, an earthquake destroyed every house in Kuchan, Khorassan. On that occasion 12,000 persons were killed out of a population of some 25,000, and 50,000 head of cattle perished. Within a week 160 distinct shocks were felt. The town had been partially rebuilt when it was again destroyed in January, 1895." II. People and Languages. — While one would expect to find here many descendants of the Aryan in a comparative state of purity, as a matter of fact they have in their veins a very large intermixture of foreign blood. In all, Persians are said to number at the present time about 9,000,000, though es- timates only a trifle over half this total are strongly defended. I. Racial Divisions. — The settled population are mainly Tajiks, descendants of the ancient Persians. They are almost wholly agriculturists, merchants and artisans. They are de- scribed as " timid, cunning and servile, but Vambery testifies to their interest and their capacity for, and love of, culture." The nomad or pastoral tribes are of four different races, the Turks, Kurds, Luurs and Arabs. Of these the Turks are the most numerous. The Kurds are few in Persia, though many 394 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS of them are found in the eastern section of Turkey. The Arabs are Hkewise few, and have so fully adopted Persian manners and languages that they cannot well be distinguished from the Persian. The Luurs are of almost pure Persian blood. " Nomad races are distinguished from the Tajiks by their cour- age, manliness and independence of character ; but they are in- veterate robbers and have been the cause of many civil wars and revolutions." 2. Their Language. — This belongs to the great class of the Indo-European tongues ; and the term Persian applies to the language spoken, with few exceptions, throughout Persia, and in some other places formerly under Persia's control. The con- nection of the modern speech with preceding idioms, so im- portant in Persian literature, is quite close ; though the present language is the offspring of the Parsei or Farsi, which was in use from 700 to looo a.d. Sir R. Murdoch Smith thus characterizes it: "In general the language is pronounced by universal consent to be the richest and most elegant of those spoken in modern Asia. It is the most sonorous and muscular, while at the same time it is the most elegant and most flexible of idioms ; and it is not to be wondered at that in Moslem and Hindu realms it should have become the language of the court and of the educated world in general, as French used to be in Europe. Its chief characteristic, however, is the enormous intermixture of Arabic words, which, indeed, make up almost half of its vocabulary." 3. The Homes of the Masses. — Books of travel usually describe the better class of homes found in Persian cities ; but as the missionary has mainly to do with the poorer stratum in society the following word picture by S. G. Wilson may be taken as a characteristic interior. He is here describing the Persian New Year, which comes at the vernal equinox in March, just as was the case in England until 1752. " We knocked at the outer door, that the women might have a chance to conceal themselves. Bending low, we stooped down and passed under a long arched way, and entered a little yard with PERSIA, OR IRAN 395 mud-plastered walls. The cahvakhana or hall opened into a half-underground room, in one end of which was a poorly made window, covered with oiled paper, its cracks being sim- ilarly pasted over to keep out the wind. Its flopping, ill-fitting door was low, while the sill was very high, in order that the shoes may be taken off in the hall and not obstruct the opening and shutting of the door. The rafters overhead were unceiled. The furniture consisted of common carpets (ghelim), a mir- ror brought with the wedding outfit, a copper basin and ewer, a small tea-urn and some glasses and a kalean on the lower niches. On the upper niches were a few bottles, and on the once whitened walls had been pasted some cigarette-papers, caricature prints and verses from the Koran. The host greeted us with a hearty ' Welcome ! You have done me a great favor.' We replied, ' May your festival be blessed, may your house be blessed ! ' He answered, ' It is a present to you.' The other guests rose, placed their right hands first on their hearts, then to their foreheads, and bowed low. We knelt on our knees on calico cushions, the weight of the body resting on the heels. The host, though his circumstances were straitened, was bright in conversation. A small boy dressed like a grown man en- tered, and we inquired, 'Who is this?' * He is your slave,' he replied ; which meant, ' He is my son.' A dish of wheat was growing on the window-sill, a symbol of the renewal of the year. A fish was swimming in a pan which called forth a re- mark from him that fish always look toward Mecca at Noruz. He placed before us a few candies, some boiled eggs and pickled grapes. He had the samovar already boiling, and sat down beside it, washed the cups and saucers, and placed tea before us. We did not decline to drink, for the poor man would feel aggrieved. He honored us specially by almost filling our tea-glasses with sugar, though he himself sipped his tea through a small lump which he held within his teeth and retained to sweeten succeeding sups. What does a poor man have besides the things within sight? His goods consist of a few rude dishes of native pottery, a jar or two of pickled 396 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS herbs and dried vegetables, a flour-bin, some copper pots and a chest of clothing. With his wages of a dime a day as a la- borer or servant he must provide for his Khadija and Ismiel, Husain and Fatima. He thanks God for the blessing of such a family; but how do they live on such a pittance? Most of it goes to buy bread, which, with some salty cheese to give it taste, or a glass of weak tea, constitutes his breakfast; his luncheon is bread and sour milk, garlic or onions or some cheap fruit ; for dinner a stew of meat and vegetables highly seasoned with red peppers and onions — a large quantity for a little meat — makes his bread palatable. Lack of employ- ment or high prices reduce him to bread and water. In winter a few shahis' worth of charcoal lasts the family a long while under the kurisee." 4. The condition of ivoman in Persia is like that of her sex in the rest of Southwestern Asia, the most characteristic fact being her seclusion. This means, of course, that there is in this country no common social life, men associating with men only and woman with her sisters in so far as they are within reach. The chief hardship of this seclusion falls upon women of well- to-do families ; since they are very closely guarded, and have the additional bitterness of being cooped up within walls where rival wives and concubines occasion jealousy. In the homes of the rich, eunuchs act as guardians and stewards of the fam- ily. " The wife never sits at a feast with her husband's guests nor receives male visitors." Wives must be in subjection to their husbands, and they become so abject that they do not even dream of possessing those rights which have become the glory of Occidental womanhood. Woman is a slave to man's pleas- ure and comfort, and is accustomed to cruelties of many sorts. Her family is the center of life, and all her interests are con- fined within the narrow walls of the harem. Of course, in the case of wives of peasants and of the poor, there is far more freedom, and polygamy with its evils is not often afforded. 5. One cannot think of the Persians without recalling the political conditions which grind many of the people to pow- PERSIA, OR IRAN 397 der. Taxation is not so heavy a millstone about the neck of the peasant as in Turkey, perhaps, but it is nevertheless one of the crying evils of the land. Official corruption is perpetually showing itself in other ways than through taxation and, as in China, it is a great incubus upon the entire population. So, too, there is the greatest need for a codification of the civil law with a definite code of punishments. At present, while the country is nominally ruled by the Shah as the vicegerent of Mohammed and the administrator of the Koranic law, as a matter of fact the common people are left to the caprice of the Hakim, " who is both governor and judge. According to his state of digestion the decision may be death or release. The most common punishment is a fine. Murder is compounded for blood money with the consent of the victim's friends. A life is valued at as low as $50. Imprisonment is not for fixed times. The prisons are foul and damp. The dungeons are full of insects and vermin. The threat of putting a prisoner in a dungeon is often used to extort money. The prisoners are not separated and often engage in vile and abominable practices." III. Persian Religions. — The inhabitants are for the most part Mohammedans of the Shiite division, and of the re- mainder nearly 800,000 belong to the Sunnite sect, who con- stitute the leading party in Turkey and of the Moslem world. The " Statesman's Year Book " asserts that " the Persian priesthood (Ulema) is very powerful and works steadily against all progress. Any person capable of reading the Koran and interpreting its laws may act as a priest." I. The Shiites. — The religion of nearly ninety per cent, of the people is that of the " sectaries," Shiite being from Shiah, a party. It was the name given by the orthodox Mohamme- dans or Sunnites to the followers of Ali. This party were champions of All's right to be Mohammed's successor on the ground that he was his cousin and son-in-law. The Persians who hold to the divine right and even the divine nature of kings, as opposed to an elected successor, support this party, and hence this is the seat of greatest Shiite power. They all 39^ GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS allegorize the Koran, have their own modes of religious wash- ing, as well as their own postures in prayer. Being ill-used in Arabia, they do not go on Mecca pilgrimages as commonly as the Sunnites. Instead, they make journeys to the tombs of AH and Hussein in the Pashalic of Bagdad, and to the tombs of other saints. A striking feature of this form of Moham- medanism is the reverence for the twelve Imams or successors of Mohammed. Indeed, so prominent is this characteristic that Persia has been known as " The Kingdom of the Twelve " (sc. Imams of the House of Ali). The last of these is popu- larly supposed to have disappeared and will some day come forth from his place of seclusion as the Mahdi or director of the faithful, who will be entitled to absolute rule over the world, 2. Another recent party that has considerable influence de- spite the persecutions which it has endured, came into existence through this doctrine of the Mahdi. The system is denomi- nated Babism. It originated with the son of a merchant born in 1819, who early manifested strong religious proclivities. The word bab means a door, and he professed to be the door to the Mahdi, and his forerunner. Later he laid aside the title of Bab, and assumed that of Nokteh, " point," claiming to be the center in which all preceding dispensations met. Mission- aries were sent out, the most famous being a woman, who was remarkable for beauty and ability, and who preached against polygamy. The sect became numerous, and through persecu- tions and indiscretions on their own part it has subsequently lived a checkered existence. It has, however, gained in strength, and is to-day widely diffused throughout Persia. While its members live as apparently orthodox Mohammedans, they privately hold the Bab's doctrines, which are a mixture of Mohammedan, Christian, Jewish and Parsee elements. It " enjoins few prayers and those only on fixed occasions ; en- courages hospitality and charity; prohibits polygamy, concu- binage and divorce ; discourages asceticism and mendicancy ; and directs women to discard the veil and share as equals in the intercourse of social life." It is thus a healthier and more PERSIA, OR IRAN 399 practical offshoot of Sufism, even appealing to Occidentals, some 3,000 Babists being found in the United States. 3. While the Koran discourages mysticism, Persia is so es- sentially the home of the mystic that Shiism embodied these tendencies in Siifism. This party claimed as their founder a woman named Rabia. It is probable, however, that a Persian of Khorassan, who founded a monastery about 815, is its orig- inator. Their name, Sufis, meaning " woolers," comes from their ascetic garb. " The object of all Sufism was to deliver the soul from the sway of the passions by destroying human nature and the power of flesh, and so to make the soul merely spiritual, uniting it by love with God from whom it had ema- nated as a ray emanates from the sun." It has been the religion of some of the most cultured of Persian litterateurs, men like Hafiz, Sadi, and of many of the great Persian poets. Their strength seems to be increasing rather than waning, and it is probable that the Sufis may include half of the Persian mid- dle class. 4. Reference must be made to another sect which, in India, is perhaps ten times as numerous as in Persia. As this is their original home, they are described here. They are the Parsees, or as Persians call them, the Guebers, the modern followers of the ancient sage Zoroaster. No sect in Persia is so exclusive as they, nor is any looked upon by their fellow-countrymen with anything like the superstitious fear arising from their sup- posedly baneful influence and mysterious rites. " They be- lieve in the existence of one supreme God, the existence of an evil spirit, the immortality of the soul, the merit of good works and have a reverential regard, amounting to worship, for the four elements." It is their reverence for fire, especially, that has differentiated them from other sects. Yet they deny that fire is in any true sense considered an object of worship, and say that it is merely a symbol of the most appropriate emblem of the divine nature. Another characteristic custom, that of burial in their towers of silence, is due to their attempt to pre- vent earth, air and water from being contaminated by cor- 460 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS rtiption. Notwithstanding their comparatively pure faith, there is no marked difference between Parsee morality and that of other Orientals, though in the matter of truthfulness they may perhaps surpass their neighbors. In India, however, they are far superior to the Hindus and Mohammedans, and there, as well as in China, they are prominent in the mercantile world. PART II. — MISSIONARY This field Is a difficult one because of the strong Moham- medan element, as well as for the reason that the governmen- tal restrictions placed upon missionary work prevent its full development. Moreover, the force employed is small, and just at present in the largest mission lack of funds is crippling the enterprise. 1. The Societies. — i. The Presbyterian Board, North, is by far the largest one on the field, as it was the earliest of those still existing. In 1871 it fell heir to the American Board's pioneer labors, initiated in 1833, by their first mission- aries, Justin Perkins and Dr. Grant. Their field lies north of the thirty- fourth parallel, though a vast majority of their Christians are in the northwestern section of the country around Lake Urumiyah. While Jews, Moslems to a certain extent, and Armenians are labored for, most of the converts are drawn from the Nestorians. The record of missionary effort for the bold Kurds, from the early times down to the present, is one full of interest. Touring among these people of the mountains and the more prosaic but exceedingly prof- itable work of education and medicine in the cities and on the plain, together with most valuable contributions to the Chris- tian literature of the country and a prolific press, make up the bulk of its missionary operations. 2. Near neighbors of the Presbyterians are the representa- tives of the Archbishop's Mission to the Assyrian Christians, who began their permanent labors in 1886. It is the only mis- PERSIA, OR IRAN 4OI sion which does not aim to proselyte, though in the early days the American missionaries also sought to work within the Nes- torian Church and only established a distinct Protestant body when the impracticability of effecting anything within that Communion became manifest. All the activities of the missionaries are regulated by the at- tempt to aid the Nestorians to return to early ecclesiastical decisions, and have been as successful as so difficult a task would permit. The absorption by the Russian Church of many thousands of Nestorians must have been in one sense a severe blow to the Mission, though the consequent loss of much of their constituency was partly atoned for by their restoration to a more orthodox Confession. The missionaries still have some of their former constit- uency left them, besides aiding in educational work that was transferred to the Russian Greek Church. It is their hope that permisison may be granted by the Sultan to establish schools within the Turkish border, thus enabling them to con- tinue with greater efficiency former efforts for those people, and to do the same work for Turkish Nestorians that Russia's entrance removed the necessity for doing in Persia. The English clergy live together with a common purse and conduct their work on a very economical basis. Much valuable assistance, as well as one of their missionaries, have come from the General Theological Seminary of New York. It is reported under the head of The Assyrian Mission Committee in the records of the Protestant Episcopal Domestic and Foreign Missionary Society. This American Society, it may be added, had sent out Rev. Dr. Southgate, as early as 1836, to investigate and report on the Persian field. 3. As a connecting link between Northern and Southern Persia is the London Society for Promoting Christianity amongst the Jezvs, which began its operations in 1847 ^^^ oc- cupies the cities of Teheran and Ispahan. Lord Curzon gives the number of Hebrews at the capital as 4,000, with 3,700 at Ispahan. Outside of the large cities, where most of Persia's 402 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS 35,000 Jews are found, other descendants of ancient Assyrian and Babylonian captivities are scattered in more than a hun- dred villages. They have not been well treated, though since the energetic British remonstrance against the massacre of more than a score of them in 1866, they have fared better than before. Missionaries of the Society are permitted to preach in the synagogues, after the manner of St. Paul. Like the Apostle, the modern missionary spends much of his time in going from house to house, explaining the Scriptures, — for which there is a good demand, — and arguing with them concerning the meaning of Old Testament prophecies. A modern method of work, the school, is also most effectively used. English, Per- sian and Hebrew are taught, and the pupils use the Lord's Prayer. Jewesses are quite open to the truth and gather about the preacher, as did Lydia and her companions at Philippi. 4. The southern half of the country is the field of the Church Missionary Society. Dr. Bruce stopped at Julfa, when in 1869 he was returning to India, and, through a series of providences, was led to establish the Persian Mission. Medical and school work, and Bible translation are the forms of effort which make possible and feed evangelistic activity of the mission. One of their missionaries says that the love of hearing and seeing new things inclines the people to come to the mission, and that once there, politeness leads them to listen to the gospel. If an appeal is made to accept the truth, want of earnestness, the self- righteousness begotten of Mohammedanism, the fear of man and the various stumbling-blocks that Islam finds in the Bible prevent. This missionary gladly notes that so early in the his- tory of the mission a kindlier and more respectful attitude to- ward the foreigner is evident, though Protestant workers are representatives of a nation that sends to them indecent photo- graphs and other coarse pictures. They also suffer from be- ing identified with Catholics whose saints give Persians the idea that all Christians depend upon such mediators. The PERSIA, OR IRAN 4O3 liberty to give or sell the Scriptures is an offset to this wrong impression, as the Bible does not authorize such customs. 5. The work of the Bible Societies is of surpassing import- ance in this country where open interest in the gospel often in- volves one in difficulty, while secret Bible reading does not bring persecution. In the case of the Jews, especially, is this work crowned with success. Many of them are modern Bereans who search the Scriptures daily in order to learn whether the new teachings are true. At present the American Bible Society has no resident agent, but Presbyterian mission- aries are constantly using their publications in corportage, etc. The British and Foreign Bible Society has an energetic agent at Ispahan's southern suburb, Julfa. Wholesale orders for use in Parsee boys' schools are mentioned in the last Report. 6. Other less important labors are those of the Community of the Sisters of Bethany who worked in conjunction with the Archbishop's Assyrian Mission until three years ago ; a little enterprise of the Hermannsburg Society, not deemed worthy of report by them ; two German orphanages, one at Urumiyah and the other at Khoi, this latter ministering to loo orphans ; and the Swedish Missionary Society's labors. II. Two Characteristic Methods. — i. Educational work has been emphasized from the beginning. Its necessity is manifest from this statement made by Secretary Speer, who has recently spent considerable time in the country : " There is no system of popular education in Persia. Outside of Ta- briz and Teheran the only teacher is the Moslem ecclesiastic, the limitations of whose knowledge make the instruction which he is capable of giving most meager and pitiable. Of history, of even the simplest elements of science, of mathematics, he knows nothing and attempts to teach nothing. Yet all the education which a Persian receives, unless he goes to the Shah's colleges in Teheran or Tabriz, or enters one of the so- called religious colleges, he gets in a village school taught in the street or in a court, or in the mosque, by a mollah whose curriculum includes the Persian alphabet, the rudiments of 404 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS arithmetic, a parrot-like knowledge of the Arabic Koran. No attempt is made to teach writing or reading, save the Persian alphabet. Some have maintained that less than seven-eighths of the population are illiterate. For the girls there are no schools at all, while of the results of boys' education, Dr. Wills says : ' The repeating from memory of a few prayers and passages from the Koran, with some verses of poetry, is all that remains to a villager generally of his education.' There are no higher or grammar schools. The ecclesiastical colleges, to be found in the larger cities, are frequented in the main by prospective mollahs, who study there the Koran, Persian litera- ture and the nonsense of Eastern philosophy. The only serious attempt at higher education in the country has been made in the Shah's college at Teheran, the Tabriz school being largely discredited. The college has military, medical and language departments and another called ' science and art ' ; but the de- partments overlap and the physical laboratory is a curiosity room of which no use is made." The two missionary institutions most famous in Persia on account of their age and standing are Urumiyah College and Fiske Seminary for young women. They are under Presby- terian auspices and labor mainly for the Nestorians. The aim of both institutions is to raise up Christian leaders in the home and in the community, and what they have accomplished is witnessed by the usage of the people themselves, who call those villages where their influence has been felt " light villages," whereas those where their power is unknown are " dark vil- lages." Fidelia Fiske, for whom the Seminary is named, left an indelible impress on northwestern Persia, as she " was con- tent with nothing less than the absolute transformation of the characters which came under her influence." The Church Missionary Society at Julfa and the Archbishop's Mission — previous to the Russian invasion — have also done much in educational lines. How cosmopolitan and influential a constituency mission schools reach is indicated by this extract relating to the Amer- PERSIA, OR IRAN 405 ican Presbyterian Boys' School at Teheran, where last year the enrolment included forty-one Armenians, twenty-two Mos- lems, two Jews and one Parsee : " Of these twenty-two Mos- lems, two are princes of the Khajar family, being second cousins of the present Shah ; two were of the family of the chief of the Bactrians; three are Sayeds, or descendants of Mohammed ; one is a mollah, or priest of Islam ; of the re- mainder all but one are of noble birth. It was inspiring to hear those sixty boys singing in the Persian tongue with vim and earnestness, ' Joy to the world, the Saviour reigns.' In Eng- lish they sang ' Jewels,' ' America ' and the Doxology. All students have daily Bible lessons which have not failed to bear fruit. Almost all of the pupils have expressed their belief in Christianity as a way of salvation ; but most of the Moslems are reluctant to utterly reject the religion which they have known and believed from childhood, and cling to it as another true way of life. The two Jews have both professed their faith in Christ and have asked to be admitted to church mem- bership by baptism. Two other boys, one from an old Ar- menian family and the other a Kurdish Khan, have pro- fessed their faith in Christ." Outside of the capital and Hama- dan, the missionaries have not ventured to emphasize Moham- medan school work. Indeed, at Teheran they probably would not have done so had not the late Shah's Council requested it in writing, while Nasr-i Din Shah personally visited the schools in order to show the favor in which he held them. 2. Medical missionaries are even more appreciated by the Persians. Mr. Speer in " Presbyterian Foreign Missions," writes: "Dr. Cochran saved Urumiyah in 1880 from capture by Sheikh Abidullah and his Kurds, through the influence he had acquired over them by his kindness and skill. In Tabriz, Dr. Holmes so commended the religion of Jesus that even an infidel was heard to remark, ' If there is a heaven, Dr. Holmes will go to it.' When the late Shah was shot, Dr. Wishard was called to see him. Dr. Vanneman was the only man the new Shah could trust to bring his family to Teheran, and Dr. 406 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS Holmes was at once summoned to become his personal phy- sician and could only with difficulty avoid obeying." Elsewhere the same writer says of Dr. Cochran: " He was our passport and defense. The chief of the village of Evaglu, the end of the first stage of the journey, was chief also of a band responsible for many robberies and murders on this road. He came to see Dr. Cochran, who is a quiet little man, and who looked him in the eye and said : ' So you are the rascal who commits these outrages? I have heard of you. Your name is a stench in the country. Would it not be well to stop ? ' The man's face turned pale and he went out soon very quietly. Those who speak of the unpopularity of the mission- aries should have been with us. At this village Moslem women came in throngs. Men came running from the fields and the threshing floors. Now Dr. Cochran was the leader. Again he was called to act as referee or peacemaker. At Khoi it was the Governor who sent for him and insisted on his spending the day with him, sending him on later with soldiers to over- take us. At Gavilan it was only a village full of simple folk who loved him, who came out to give him a warm welcome home. Ten miles from Urumiyah people began to meet us, the numbers increasing until a messenger from one of the Governors came leading a gaily caparisoned horse to be taken before him in honor; and then at last a poor man, whom he had healed, came running out and kissed his foot and pros- trated himself in the road beside him. And this was but the beginning. Each day would bring bishops of the Old Nesto- rian Church for counsel, prominent Moslem ecclesiastics for help or healing, governors or leading noblemen to congratulate him on his return and to show their respect for him, or poor people, for whom he was living, to bless him. All this showed me, as I had never seen it before, how a good physician can lay hold of the heart and mind of a people." It is not surprising that the Shah conferred upon Dr. Holmes the decoration of the order of the " Lion and the Sun " of the first degree, and upon Dr. Wishard the second degree of the same order. PERSIA, OR IRAN 407 Medical efforts for Persian women are even more necessary and beneficent. " Suffering women turned out of doors to die, even in midwinter, by those to whom they have a right to look for support and care; "little children burned nearly to death, not by accident, but by deliberate intention, or mutilated by the miserable quackery of some native practitioner; girls become mothers when they should be themselves under a mother's care, — these are the kind of cases brought to the woman doctor, which would break her heart if they did not employ her hand." How divine this ministry is can only be realized when one reads such details as are given by a British Student Volunteer, Dr. Emmeline Stuart, in the Church Mis- sionary Society's report for 1901 of Bagum, the fourteen-year- old child wife whom her husband tried to burn to death. III. The Outlook. — This is one of mingled hopefulness and foreboding. A Board Secretary says that the most diffi- cult task set before men is confronted by missionaries in Per- sia and Syria. Nevertheless, the Church's duty is manifest, and was thus hinted at in 1892 by Lord Curzon, who previous to his work as India's Viceroy was not a favorable critic of missions : " Those philosophers are right who argue that moral must precede material and internal reform in Persia. It is useless to graft new shoots on to a stem whose sap is ex- hausted or poisoned. We may give Persia roads and railroads ; we may work her mines and exploit her resources; we may drill her army and clothe her artisans ; but we shall not have brought her within the pale of civilized nations until we have got at the core of the people, and given a new and a radical twist to the national character and institutions." Certainly no other influence has done so much to bring about this moral reform as the missionary physician's operating table, the trans- lator's pen, the school teacher and the Protestant missionary's home, with its new revelation of woman's queenly power and of the love which must exist in the great Persian family of races, before age-long abuses disappear, and all become one in the family of God, XVI TURKEY, OR THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE PART I. — GENERAL I. Divisions and Area. — The center of gravity of Turkey- has so far shifted that at present only a few remnants of its former power are found in Europe, while its real weight lies east of the Bosporus. 1. The immediate possessions of Turkey are as follows: In Europe, a region of country occupying a narrow strip of the Balkan Peninsula between the Adriatic and the ^gean and Black Seas, 62,744 square miles ; in Asia, all the region lying south of Russia and the Black Sea as far eastward as Persia, and south to Arabia, of which latter country Hejaz and Yemen are subject to Turkey, 650,097 square miles ; in Asia, Tripoli and Bengazi, 398,900 square miles, — making a total of 1,111,741 square miles, equal in area to one-third of the United States. 2. In addition, the following countries having a more or less nominal subjection to Turkey are sometimes added : Bulgaria — including Eastern Roumelia — which is autonomous, 37,860 square miles ; Bosnia, Herzegovina and Novibazar under Aus- tria-Hungary, 23,570 square miles ; Crete, 3,326 square miles ; Samos, a tributary principality, 180 square miles ; Egypt, under British influence, 400,000 square miles. This gives a total of nearly half a million square miles which, if added to the above, would make the Ottoman Empire about half as extensive as the United States. 408 TURKEY, OR THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE 4O9 11. The Land. — This varies with the location, yet one can gain a fair idea of the entire Empire by glancing at four typi- cal sections. 1. The first of these is the European strip extending west- ward from Constantinople. This is mountainous, rising in some peaks to a great height and peopled by a mixture of races among whom the Turks are somewhat in the minority. The only power holding this medley of races together is that of force of arms and international jealousy on the part of the great Powers. Much of it is historic territory, and in Mace- donia especially it abounds in beautiful scenery. Constantino- ple likewise is one of the great centers of interest of mediaeval and modern times. 2. Passing eastward from the Bosporus, one comes to Asiatic Turkey. Of the natural divisions of this section, that of Anatolia — Anatolia is sometimes used as equivalent to Asiatic Turkey — is the most important in extent, population and natural resources. It is an elevated and fertile plateau enclosed by historic mountain ranges. The Armenian up- lands present another plateau of limited extent, but rugged and crowned by " the tower-crested Ararat, the converging point of three empires." In the Euphrates section are the vast and fertile plains of Mesopotamia. This latter region is the his- toric center of ancient Accadian and Assyrian culture, as well as of later Moslem power. The Syrian region is so well known because of its Biblical associations that no description is needed. On the whole, Turkey in Asia is so illy supplied with water that the plains and many of the valleys, especially those of the Euphrates and Tigris, are reduced to the condition of sandy deserts during the parching droughts of summer. Those ancient provisions for irrigation, which once made it a paradise of vegetation, have fallen into decay, and hence the present sparsity of population. 3. About one-seventh of the vast peninsula of Arabia is included in the two Turkish provinces of Hejdz and Yemen bordering on the Red Sea. Within their confines are found 410 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS the two great points of religious interest of the Mohammedan world, the cities of Mecca and Medina. Their natural fea- tures, population and religion are so similar to those of Arabia that a further account of them will be found in Chapter XIX. 4. Tripoli and Bengasi, lying on the northern shores of Africa, are as large as Texas and the New England States plus New York. While this region is less mountainous than the Barbary States, there are found here two chains parallel to the coast and not rising higher than 4,000 feet above the sea. Having no rivers, and with little rain, the summers are long and hot ; and though the dew is heavy and sufficient to cause vegetation in favored localities, the land on the whole is not fertile. In consequence sheep and cattle rearing is the chief occupation, now that the abolition of the slave trade has stopped the demand for many of the commodities supporting the traffic. Its capital is still the point of arrival and departure of camel caravans which cross the deserts to the Sudan States. 5. The climate of these lands is quite varied, ranging from the severe cold of European Turkey and the highlands of Ar- menia to the almost equatorial heat of the Dead Sea, and the scorching rays of the sun in southern Mesopotamia, which is so intense that people usually pass the summer days in under- ground chambers. The winters are in general quite pleasant, though in eastern Anatolia the mercury often falls to 15° or 20° F. below zero. Malaria is prevalent in some of the low and hot regions, especially in the swampy sections of Mesopo- tamia and along the Red Sea. III. Races of the Ottoman Empire. — Common usage gives the one name of Turk to all the peoples living in this extensive territory, numbering approximately 23,834,500, ex- clusive of inhabitants of countries only nominally tributary to Turkey. As a matter of fact, the people themselves disclaim that name, though if prefixed by the adjective Osmanli, it is not so seriously objected to. The real Turk is found in the remote eastern part of Asia, whom we speak of as the Uigur or Tatar. The natives of Turkey claim that with the intro- TURKEY, OR THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE 4I I duction of Arabo-Persian culture, they no longer deserve to be classed with people who are so lacking in civilization. I. The largest element in the Empire is made up of Osman- lis or Ottomans. Their ancestors poured into this region from Central Asia at different periods in the past. A rather old es- timate of their number — which can at best only be guessed at — is 9,000,000. " The Ottoman peasant of Asia Minor is a man far different from the ordinary conception. As a rule quite peacefully inclined, a hard worker, a faithful servant, courteous and dignified in his bearing, rather proud of his as- sumed superiority to the ' meanness of his Christian fellows/ there is still an inherent element of ferocity in his nature ; and when religious fanaticism is aroused, his fatalism makes him a most dreaded enemy. The Ottoman of the city is, however, quite a different man. With as much Christian as Tatar blood in his veins and influenced by the strife of Western and Eas- tern civilization, studiously polite, easily adapting himself to the circumstances of his associates, he develops a power of intrigue, a facility for deception, an unblushing delight in bribery that makes him the scorn of his sturdy compatriot of Anatolia. There are notable exceptions; but as a rule — and this is the testimony of those who have traveled most in the in- terior of Asiatic Turkey — the native, unadulterated Ottoman Turk is a man with many noble characteristics, and present- ing great possibilities for Christian influence. " Of the other elements making up the Moslem population the most important races in Asia are the Arabs and Kurds ; in Europe, the Albanians. As a rule they are hostile to the Turks, feeling that the latter are oppressors, and even their recognition of the Sultan or Caliph is weakened by the race enmity and the sense of subjection. Next to them in im- portance are the Circassians, including the Circassians proper and the Lazes, who have driven Russian rule from the Cau- casus to Asia Minor. They furnish the most turbulent ele- ment of the population, and by far the greater amount of the depredations committed in Asia Minor are by them. There 412 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS are also large numbers of Turkomans, — another Turkish race, — chiefly found in northern Syria. The Druses and Nusai- riyeh of Syria and the Yezidees of Mesopotamia probably rep- resent the small remnant of the ancient paganism of the Levant which has accepted the form, though not the spirit, of Mohammedanism. The original races of Asia Minor are represented among the Mohammedans by a number of tribes of somewhat uncertain extent and character, found chiefly in the mountains of the western part. Such are the Yuruks of Bithynia and the Xeibecks of the region of Smyrna." 2. The Christians of Turkey include those divisions named in Section IV immediately following, together with minor subdivisions not mentioned there. Little need be said of the characteristics of Turkey's Christians, beyond the two most numerous subdivisions. Again quoting " The Encyclopaedia of Missions," the source used above : " The Armenians are a race by themselves, as distinct as at any time in their history. Formerly occupying the northeastern part of Asiatic Turkey, they have spread until they are found all over Asia Minor. The Greeks are found chiefly in western Asia Minor and along the shores of the Black Sea. They, too, have kept their race distinctions very sharp, and retain many of the characteristics of their ancestors, who founded the Euxine and Doric colo- nies. Sharp, keen in enterprise and speculation, the commerce of Turkey is largely in their hands, while the traders and bank- ers are chiefly Armenians. Those in the interior are of a higher grade of character than those at the seaboard." In the latest volume on Turkey, Dr. Dwight's " Constanti- nople and Its Problems," the importance of Christians to the Empire, notwithstanding their small numbers, is thus stated : " From the beginning of Turkish history very many of the greatest men of the Empire have been of Christian origin — men who took Mohammedan names and the Mohammedan re- ligion as stepping-stones to greatness. To-day the army de- pends on foreign Christians for its organization, as well as for its arms and ammunition, and to a considerable degree for the TURKEY, OR THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE 4I3 instruction of its officers. The Treasury would go to pieces, if Christian counsellors were not at the side of the Minister of Finance. Rarely does a wealthy Turk venture to keep up an establishment without a Christian to manage his accounts. A Mohammedan banking house is almost unthinkable. The most important book-publishing houses for Mohammedan lit- erature are owned by Christians, and the most influential Mo- hammedan newspapers are Christian property. No Moslem machinist succeeds unless he has a Christian for chief. The architect who builds the mosque is a Christian. Turkish steamers are bought from abroad, or if built at great expense in Turkey, the man who makes the plan and the builder who follows it are both Christians. The steamers are rarely trusted to Moslem captains, and when they are, they can be recognized as far as they can be seen by their dilapidation and disorder." Such considerations show how strategic is the work for the real leaders of the Empire, the Christians. IV. Religion. — In order to claim legal existence the various religions must be recognized by the Porte and be rep- resented in the councils of the Empire. Those non-Moham- medan creeds that are so recognized are as follows : ( i ) " Latins, Franks or Catholics, who use the Roman Liturgy, consisting of the descendants of the Genoese and Venetian settlers in the Empire, and proselytes among Armenians ; Bul- garians and others. (2) Greeks. (3) Armenians. (4) Syr- ians and United Chaldeans. (5) Maronites under a Patriarch at Kanobin in Mount Lebanon. (6) Protestants, consisting of converts chiefly among the Armenians. (7) Jews. These seven religious bodies are invested with the privilege of pos- sessing their own ecclesiastical rule. The Bishops and Patri- archs of the Greeks and Armenians, and the Chacham-Baschi, or high-rabbi of the Jews, possess, in consequence of those functions, considerable influence." A few of these deserve particular mention, as well as two divisions of Mohammedan- ism. I. The Sunnite division of the Moslem world here finds its 4i4 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS greatest stronghold. As stated in the previous chapter, they hold that Mohammed's successor should be elected instead of following through the succession of the prophet's son-in-law, Ali. They regard and call themselves Orthodox, because in their rule of faith and manners they follow the traditionary teaching of the Prophet, which was added to the inspired Koran. " According to Islam the human mind is incapable of attaining light in law or religion, but through the Prophet all expressions of God's will are equally met. Reason and con- science are here of no value ; memory is all. Hell-fire is an award due a;like to him that prays without being properly washed and to him that denies the word of the Prophet." Their clergy are subordinate to the Sheik-ul-Islam ; their of- ficers are hereditary and they can be removed only by Im- perial order. It is hardly proper, however, to speak of a separate class recognized as a priesthood, as such a one hardly exists in Turkey. These Mohammedans encourage public ed- ucation, and schools have consequently been long established in the largest Turkish towns. So-called colleges and public libraries are likewise attached to most of the leading mosques, but the instruction furnished by the Mohammedans is rather limited. The " Statesman's Year Book " gives the number of mosques throughout the Empire as 2,120 with which are connected 1,780 elementary free schools. Three-fourths of the urban property of the Empire is supposed to be that which has been bequeathed to the Church. Naturally, this gives Mohammedanism very large power. While nominal liberty to profess the recognized faiths is granted, those Moslems who formerly turned aside from the religion of their ancestors fre- quently disappeared from public view in consequence. A movement which has made considerable progress in Northern Africa had its widest development in Tripoli and is known as the Se^iiissi fraternity. Mohammed es-Senussi be- came famous about 1830 in Fez because of his great sanctity. He established a brotherhood, holding most austere and fanat- ical doctrines with the object of uniting Mohammedans in hos- TURKEY, OR THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE 415 tility and resistance to foreign and infidel influences. Subse- quent to the death in 1885 of the Egyptian Mahdi, of whom their leader, or Mahdi, was a rival, they extended their in- fluence and power into the Sudan, and to-day they are a lead- ing element in Mohammedan movements of North Africa. 2. Next in number to the Mohammedans comes the Greek or Orthodox Church, which is a direct descendant of the By- zantine Church. " In general doctrine, as found in the creeds and confessions, it is in sympathy with the Protestant Church, and only separated from the Armenian by a distinction so shadowy that it is claimed by some Armenians that the theo- logical difference was a pretext rather than a cause for the separation, the real reason lying in the effort of the Byzan- tine Church to compel the Armenians to use the Greek Lit- urgy." The position of the Greek Church in Turkey is to-day primarily a political one, it being said that a stranger could hardly tell the difference between its services and those of the Armenians. It is not to be supposed, however, that the Patri- arch of Constantinople, who is nominally the head of all branches of the Greek Church, is really so. As a matter of fact, the Synods of Russia, Greece and Servia, as well as other branches, claim absolute independence. They may number in the Turkish Empire nearly 2,000,000. 3. Third in number of adherents stands the Armenian Church with about one million and a quarter members. Like the Greek Church, this faith is to-day a political bond giving unity and nationality to the races calling themselves Armen- ians, rather than a form of religion. Originating from the earlier efforts of Gregory, the Illuminator, this Armenian or Gregorian Church underwent severe persecutions through suc- ceeding centuries until, under Mohammedan rule, it gained the right to a political organism. The leading doctrines so much emphasized in earlier days have to do mainly with forms and with worship. The two tenets originally so emphasized are the confession of both one nature and one person in Christ, and the belief that the Spirit proceeds from the Father only. This 4l6 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS religion has influence largely because of the greater progres- siveness of the Armenian element in Turkey. Just as they are persevering and shrewd in financial dealings and lovers of liberty as well as of education, so their Church, which is the rallying standard, so to speak, of their nationality, is regarded with respect or hatred. The Armenian massacres of the last decade have brought this Church more prominently before the public than any other ecclesiastical body in Turkey. 4. The Druses of Northern Syria are a small Mohamme- dan sect who number possibly 70,000. They believe in one God before whom man is dumb and blind. Ten times has God revealed himself in human form. Hakim Biamr Allah, Caliph of Egypt some nine centuries ago, being the last one of these revelations. While they do not acknowledge the claims of any other religion, they sanction an outward profession of any faith according to expediency, and hence unite with the Mo- hammedan and Maronite in their widely divergent rituals. They do not desire nor admit converts, and the members are required to keep their religion sacred and concealed if neces- sary. Prayer is regarded as an impertinent interference with the Creator. Polygamy is not permitted, and a number of other regulations affecting conduct make them a peculiar peo- ple. 5. Smaller churches are of interest despite the limited num- ber of adherents. Among them are the Jacobites, the Maro- nites of Syria, and the Chaldean Christians, who are Nestorians converted to the Roman Catholic faith. PART II. — MISSIONARY While African countries are included in the Turkish Em- pire, they will be considered in the following chapter, and Arabia in Chapter XIX. Labors in European Turkey will also be treated here. I. The Societies. — i. Nationality and Number. — Those TURKEY, OR THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE 4I7 which have missionaries in European and Asiatic Turkey are the following: American societies, five; British, three. In Syria and Palestine there are representatives of four American societies, eleven British societies and two German societies. Besides, there are five British societies that have missiona- ries in both Turkey and Syria, the Church Missionary Society, the British and Foreign Bible Society, the United Free Church of Scotland, the London Society for Promoting Christianity amongst the Jews and the Church of Scotland Jewish Commit- tee. Thus of the thirty societies, nine are American, nineteen are British and two are German. 2. Outstanding Characteristics. — Notwithstanding the considerable number of organizations, there is a remarkable degree of comity, so that the committee having that important matter in hand at the late Brummana Conference practically found nothing to do. In Turkey the strongest work by far is that of the American Board, which expends here nearly one- third of its funds ; in Syria the Presbyterian Board, North, has the broadest plans and most effective force; while in Pales- tine the Church Missionary Society easily stands foremost. In these fields of the Bible are some of the very strongest edu- cational institutions and one of the most important of mission presses. Very appropriately the Bible itself is the most potent agency in the land of its birth. II. Classes Labored Among. — i. First may be placed the Moslems, who constitute the vast majority of the popula- tion. Work for these is not usually done in public, but the law does not interfere with private interviews, nor with oper- ations intended for non-Moslems at which they are present on their own initiative. Thus many Mohammedans attend mis- sionary schools and colleges. This is never sought by the authorities of those institutions ; yet if such students apply, they are usually received. In case there are no conversions, such attendance at schools and meetings is ordinarily winked at by the civil authorities. If conversions follow, the situation completely changes. Though the death penalty may not be 4l8 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS Openly visited upon such perverts, the Government often sends the men on miUtary duty to a distant outpost where they are subjected to peril. If they recant, all goes well ; if not, per- secution may be followed by disappearance. Some of the few who have become Christians have found it best to leave their native land and live in Christian countries. In the nature of the case such work must very largely be through the printed page and by private intervieivs. The for- mer is by far the most common. Indeed, missionaries do not encounter special difficulty in selling Scriptures to Moslems; as the facts that Mohammed refers to the Bible and that all Scriptures are received with reverence and with ceremonially pure hands aid in their careful keeping. In addition to the Bible, controversial literature is of great value. As a pi-ominent missionary to Mohammedans has re- cently said, " Controversy is not evangelization and must not take its place, but in Moslem lands especially it holds some- what the same relation to evangelization that plowing does to seed-sowing. Books, like ' The Balance of Truth,' break up the soil, stir thought, kill stagnation, convince the inquirer and lead him to take a decided stand for the truth. Missionary work as regards Moslems is impossible, if controversy be in- terdicted. Christianity must be polemic because it is exclusive. Islam is in one sense a Christian heresy and calls for wise apol- ogetic. Islam has attacked and is attacking all the vital doc- trines of Christianity. Weapons are drawn from every ar- senal and used in any way, so long as they may be made to hit the cross and the divinity of our Lord. Sophistry is too good a word to describe the mental process of the learned Mos- lem when engaged in argument. Henry Martyn described the tmollahs of Persia as a * compound of ignorance and bigotry ; all access to the one is hedged up by the other.' " It will be remembered that two exceedingly useful tracts employed in this way, " Sweet First Fruits " and " Beacon of Truth," were written during the last decade by a native Syrian Christian, who according to a competent authority, has done more there TURKEY, OR THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE 419 by " to shake the whole fabric of the False Prophet than all the missionaries since Henry Martyn." 2. Members of the various Oriental Churches are the open field which lies before the various societies. The bulk of the work and of the converts are from the Greek and Armenian Churches. A well-known missionary likens the former to the Greeks of St. Paul's day, as its members are ever ready to hear some new thing, but lack stability and depth of con- viction. Consequently fewer converts are gained from that Communion. The same authority compares the Armenian Church to the Jews, who have a genius for religion. In many respects it resembles the Church of England more closely than it does that of Rome. Much that might be said of the Greek Church is equally true of the Armenian. In both, the liturgies are enshrined in an obsolete dialect that makes the edification of the worshiper practically impossible. The Greek Church is more apt to place obstacles in the way of Protestantism than the Armenian, for the reason that a glorious history lies behind it, and those who imbibe evan- gelical sentiments are regarded as traitors to the national or- ganization. They are not only excommunicated and anathe- matized in consequence, but are also liable to social ostracism, persecution and boycott. Two tendencies are very marked in the Greek Church, due to the wave of scepticism and infidel- ity arising from the work of Koraes and his coadjutors a cen- tury ago. Not only did they initiate an archaeologico-liter- ary renaissance, but they likewise brought in from Western Europe a flood of immoral literature and a science which was opposed to revelation, and that swept their young men into the vortex of agnosticism or atheism. " Thus the stream of life flows on in this Communion, consisting of two distinct cur- rents which will not mingle and neither of which has force enough to overcome and control the other. The devout and orthodox are mostly ignorant and superstitious, while the more intelligent and educated bring the name of their Church into disrepute by their irreligion and often by their immorality. 420 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS Both are equally loyal to the outward name of their Church, and both are equally shy of the plain teachings of an open gospel." The Bulgarian branch of the Greek Church, for which the American Board and Methodist Board, North, are doing so important a work, differs little from the original Church, ex- cept that its members have so strongly imbibed the spirit of in- dependence that it cannot easily be induced to follow its Greek neighbors. Then, too, there is more religious freedom pos- sible in Bulgaria than in Turkey proper. In the Armenian Church there is little spirituality. " Cen- turies of oppression by a race of unscrupulous and fanatical conquerors have driven them to all manner of subterfuge ; and this habitual practice of deception has had a most baleful in- fluence on their spiritual, moral, social, commercial, domestic and personal character. There is, however, a conserving pow- er in the primitive simplicity of Oriental customs, and, still more, a seasoning grace in the fundamental doctrines of Chris- tianity." Five other difficulties of this field have been thus stated : " The national idea that the Church is coextensive with the Armenian race, and so one who withdraws from the Church rejects his nationality; that the Church is already Christian, and consequently that the Christian life has little relation to the Christian profession; the difficulty from the side of the Turkish Government in erecting buildings and in maintaining Christian and educational institutions ; the existing poverty and oppression, accompanied by Oriental penuriousness ; the pres- ent turning of the attention of young men to the Western world, and the consequent emigration of large numbers from the ranks of the laborers, students and congregations. This has also had a tendency to increase salaries of helpers, without a corresponding increase in the ability of the people to give." In spite of these factors, the religious nature of the people, their acceptance of the Bible as the Word of God, their strong desire for education, and the strategic relation of the Armen- ians to their neighbors who must be largely leavened through them, have made missionary labors encouraging. TURKEY,, OR THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE 42 1 III. Most Successful Methods. — i. Education has accomplished more toward the regeneration of these lands than anything else. While it has been very broad, especially in the higher institutions, it has likewise been thoroughly per- meated with Christianity. Though Robert College is not di- rectly connected with any missionary society, it " has exerted an incalculable influence for Christian life all over the Em- pire. Among its graduates are many of the most prominent men in Bulgaria, and it is perhaps not too much to say that that nation really owes its existence to the influence exerted by President George Washburn and his associates. Its students have included representatives of twenty nationalities, and its Young Men's Christian Association is unique among the col- lege Associations of the world in that it is divided into four departments according to the prevailing languages spoken, — . English, Greek, Armenian and Bulgarian." The Syrian Prot- estant College at Beirut is likewise independent, though in closest sympathy and cooperation with the Presbyterian Board, North. Concerning the College, Mr. John R. Mott writes: " This is one of the three most important institutions in all Asia. In fact there is no college which has within one gener- ation accomplished a greater work and which to-day has a larger opportunity. It has practically created the medical pro- fession in the Levant. It has been the most influential factor in promoting popular education in Syria and in other parts of the East. It has been and is the center for genuine Chris- tian and scientific literature in all that region. Fully one- fourth of the graduates of the collegiate department have en- tered Christian work either as preachers or as teachers in Chris- tian schools." In less degree the same results noted in the case of these two institutions are furnished by the records of the American Board's colleges at Aintab, Harpoot, Samakov, Marsovan, and of its colleges for girls at Marash and Constan- tinople, as well as of the less ambitious Bishop Gobat School of the Church Missionary Society and the Beirut Female Semi- nary of the Presbyterians. 422 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS 2. The great press at Beirut, under Presbyterian manage- ment, is a factor of inestimable importance to the Arabic-speak- ing world, as is suggested in the last report. " The number of pages printed during the past year was 24,882,680, making the total since the beginning, 667,974,597; of these pages, 17,884,000 were Arabic Scriptures, and of these 58,500 were bound; 8,193 copies were sold in Syria and 34,657 in Egypt. The entire number of books and tracts sold was 83,749, not- withstanding the fact that, owing to alterations and repairs, the presses were idle for more than two months. The total number of Scriptures sold to the Russian schools in Syria and Palestine during the year has been 4,0^6. In addition to these, they have bought 7,893 volumes of scientific and educational works." Thus Protestantism is aiding the Russian Greek Church toward a higher life. Translational and other literary work has quite kept pace with the presses of Beirut and Constantinople. The late Dr. Elias Riggs, who served in Turkey for sixty-eight years with but a single furlough, was acquainted with twenty languages and was fluent in the use of twelve. His literary work in the line of Bible translation, periodical editing, hymnology, etc., is of the utmost value, and is supplemented by such masters of the art as Eli Smith, Van Dyck and Post. The Arabic- reading Mohammedan world, from Sierra Leone to North China, not to speak of its own populations, is under obligation to missionaries of Turkey. 3. Medicine is one of the most efficient agencies in reach- ing hostile Moslems. Dr. Post of Syria sets forth very clearly the importance of medical knowledge in these lands : " The in- tense fanaticism of Mohammedan men makes direct evangel- ism well-nigh impossible. Street preaching is wholly out of the question. The death-penalty always impends over a con- vert from Islam. The mere fact that a Moslem is reading the Scriptures, or conferring with a Christian, exposes him to most serious peril. But Moslems sicken and suffer pain Hke other men. And notwithstanding the fatalism which leads them TURKEY, OR THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE 423 to attribute disease to direct divine appointment, they have a traditional respect for doctors. The Arabians of Spain and Africa were once the chief depositaries of medical learning and skill. Their doctors bore the honorable title of hakim — wise man. It is true the ancient skill is lost. The native hakim is an arrant quack. But when a true hakim appears, armed with the wonderful appliances of modern science and art, Mohammedans are ready to concede to him the honor which belonged to their illustrious ancestors. The mission- ary physician is a privileged person among them, and when his healing work is done, he can fearlessly explain to them the person and doctrines of Christ. Mohammedan women are no less fanatical and far more difficult of access than men. Med- ical missions, however, have broken down this barrier. Under the stress of pain or danger the doctor is called, or the sick woman comes to him, and so hears the gospel of Christ. Noth- ing is more encouraging in all our work than the eagerness with which Mohammedan and Druse men and women listen to the story of Christ from the lips of the doctors in mission hos- pitals." In the land where Jesus set so many demoniacs free has been established the first asylum for the demented of the mis- sion field, the Lebanon Hospital for the Insane, of which Mr. T. Waldemier is the director. It is at Asfariyeh at the foot of Lebanon and is built on the cottage plan. Already two cot- tages with a capacity of twenty men and as many women are ready for occupancy. Dr. Maag of Ziirich, a nerve special- ist, is in charge. IV. Problems of the Field. — i. Emigration of multi- tudes, especially among the Armenians and Syrians, presents a very real difficulty. Its cause Dr. H. H. Jessup thus states: " Information as to the success of American institutions and in- creasing facilities for cheap ocean travel have stirred up a spirit of restlessness and led tens of thousands of the strongest and most active men of the land to emigrate to the United States, Mexico, South America and Australia. The departure 424 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS of SO many men has had a disastrous effect on the wives and children left behind." In the case of those who have come to Western lands for study, or even to prepare for the ministry, the effect upon them is not helpful. They too often are alien- ated from their people ; they become accustomed to the Occi- dental style of living and hence demand higher salaries than their native brethren in the same work ; and they are restive under foreign guidance. A few of them have even raised in Christian countries for alleged evangelistic enterprises at home money which only partially reaches the object for which it is solicited. The Turkish Empire and Persia are the two mis- sion lands in which this difficulty is most acute. 2. The Turkish Government is an ever changing problem. The missionary tries to live according to its laws, but finds himself perpetually hampered in his work in consequence. At the 1901 meeting of the International Missionary Union, Dr. E. M. Bliss said : " Politically the situation is very bad. The Sultan, a prisoner in his palace, has concentrated everything on himself, and controls every department of Government. He has spies in every marketplace and compels all ministers to report directly to himself. He is suspicious of everything and everybody, as is manifest in his recent instructions not to allow typewriters to be introduced into the country, lest they be used for the duplication of dangerous matter." Press cen- sorship is most inconvenient and obstructive; religious liberty is more nominal than actual, especially in the case of Moslems. What Freeman said in his " History and Conquest of the Sar- acens " is still true : " The rule of the Turk is not government ; it is not even misgovernment. It is the domination of a gang of robbers." The practical problems presented by such a Government are mainly threefold in their obstructive effect upon missions. (i) Taxation, though the undeniable right of the Sultan, is so oppressive that it is one of the leading causes of emigration, as well as of Sabbath desecration. (2) Among the Armenians, especially, the spirit of revolu- TURKEY, OR THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE 425 tion has been awakened by centuries of oppressive taxation and innumerable disqualifications devised by an unscrupulous Gov- ernment. Undoubtedly the teachings of missionary colleges have aroused their students to a sense of what other nations possess that is denied them. This feeling is strengthened by letters from fellow-countrymen living in lands where freedom prevails ; and as a result of Armenian restlessness and asser- tion of rights and Government attempts to meet the rising tide, the blood of thousands flows in the Armenian massacres, so fresh in all memories, and just now being renewed. (3) The massacres occasioned the loss of mission property and this brought the missionaries into unpleasant prominence at the Sublime Porte, where the United States Minister has persisted in his claim until the indemnity has finally been paid. Naturally the Sultan is embittered toward those who have cost him so much irritation. At the same time the massacres have been the means of endearing the brave missionaries to hosts of Armenians, and the orphan relief work that has since that time blessed so many children will far more than counterbalance any loss arising from those sad events. 3. Russia is always an ominous cloud on the missionary horizon. Its aggressions are both political and religious. European Turkey is the center of most of the political uncer- tainty, and Bulgaria is the apple of discord. The recent inva- sion of Persia by the Russian Greek Church is a fact in Tur- key, as witness this news of 1900: " Russian missionaries are roaming among the Armenians, promising them that if they abandon the Gregorian to join the Russian Orthodox Church, they will be protected by the Czar against the Kurds and other Moslems better than they are protected by the Sultan. In the villayet of Erzerum more than 5,000 Armenians have already passed to the Muscovite orthodoxy." In a less direct way Russian influence is being used to guard the Greek Church against Protestantism. Thus a Church Missionary Society representative writes : " The Greeks have had for many years past a theological seminary at the Convent of the Cross just out- 426 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS side Jerusalem. Quite recently they have opened a large col- lege in a fine building within Jerusalem itself for the purpose, I understand, of training teachers for their schools. The Patriarchate is thus providing for the educational w^ants of the Greek communities throughout the land w^ith the view^, no doubt, of making them independent of our mission schools." Another missionary says : " Russia has begun in Syria the process of licking preparatory to swallowing. By virtue of her Greek orthodoxy Russia has opened some 300 schools in orthodox Syrian communities, and is subsidizing them to the extent of about $300,000 a year. They pay all bills, even to those for books, paper, pencils and — in many cases — cloth- ing. The study of Russian is obligatory. There is a training school for young men in Nazareth and one for young women in Bethlehem, in which teachers are prepared for the village schools. The most promising teachers are taken to Russia for further education, whence they return to Syria as Russian citizens. If this process continues for a few years, Russia will have revisionary interests in Syria which no power on earth can deny or ignore." What effect the Kaiser's recent visit to Palestine and the subsequent understanding between Germany and Turkey will have upon Russia and the cause of Protestant missions cannot yet be affirmed. 4. The Roman Catholics furnish another occasion of fore- boding. They have granted concessions to the Greek and Ar- menian Churches that have made their members willing to unite themselves to Rome, the word United being prefixed to their national name. The main concessions are three : mar- riage of the secular clergy, use of the national language in the liturgy and of both elements in the Lord's Supper. The United Greek Church is most numerous in European Turkey, while the United Armenian Church is mainly found in Asiatic Turkey. The Jesuits are the missionary body most active in propa- gandism. In some quarters the work is carried on with lit- tle energy, but in other sections " they have gained great in- TURKEY, OR THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE 427 fluence and won many permanent adherents through their col- leges and other educational establishments. They command large sums of money with which to carry on these institutions. Instruction in the French language is very thorough, as a knowledge of that tongue is considered the key to political and social preferment. Instrumental music is another very pop- ular means for gaining influence. In other departments of education, however, they are often superficial, and the essen- tial elements of character-building are too much neglected." When it is added that Romanists are told by their leaders that it is far better to be a Moslem than a Protestant, one can readily see how harmful such bigotry may be to evangelical work. 5. Another question which missionaries have from the first differed upon is the relation that Protestant workers and con- verts should maintain toward the Oriental Churches. The ultra position of the Archbishop's Mission to Assyrian Chris- tians has been held to some extent by all missionaries. The early work of the American Board was intended merely to reform these venerable Christian communities from within. When persecution and excommunication followed, this course had to be changed. " An excommunicated man had no rights that a Turkish court could recognize. He was nobody ; could neither marry nor be buried ; could not buy, sell or employ. He had absolutely no status as a citizen. The result was that the formation of a Protestant civil community became abso- lutely essential to the very life of Protestantism." While nearly all the missionaries follow the course thus made neces- sary, a great deal of preaching is done by them in the old churches, and many natives whose spiritual life has been quick- ened by Protestantism remain within their own Church as a leaven of evangelical earnestness. In the American Board's Turkish missions " the endeavor has been made to let the re- ligious life of the people express itself in its outward form in accordance with their national and political conditions. Hence the church organization is not pure Congregationalism ; 428 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS neither has it adopted the form of any particular denomina- tion." 6. Self-support can hardly be called a problem in some por- tions of the field, especially in most of the churches of the American Board and of the Northern Presbyterians. The war for this principle, so persistently and victoriously waged by Dr. C. H. Wheeler, has made Harpoot and its environs rank with the Karen field and the circuit of Dr. Nevius in North China. While the principle has been recognized, it is exceedingly hard to live up to it at present, owing to the massacres in Eastern Turkey and to emigration in Syria. V. Accomplishment and Hopefulness. — i. Hope for the future is based upon a very successful past, if the difficul- ties above named are borne in mind. What Dr. Jessup sum- marized in a paper read at the World's Congress of Missions, held in Chicago in 1893, is still truer to-day: " Protestant mis- sions have given the entire population the Bible in their own tongue; have trained hundreds of thousands of readers; pub- lished thousands of useful books ; awakened a spirit of in- quiry; set in motion educational institutions in all the sects in all parts of the Empire, compelling the enemies of education to become its friends, and the most conservative of Orientals to devote mosque and convent property to the founding of schools of learning. Protestantism has forced Oriental patriarchs, bishops and priests to modify, if not abandon, their arbitrary oppressions and exactions. Protestantism has made ignorance unfashionable and persecution disgraceful. It has broken the fetters of womanhood, created directly and indirectly the sys- tem of female education spreading over the Empire, and let the light into unnumbered homes where woman before had been consigned to ignorance and inferiority. The work it has done for women and girls would of itself justify all the labor and expense of seventy years, and is a noble monument to the wis- dom and loving sagacity of its policy. Every evangelical church is a provocation and stimulus to the old sects, a living epistle to the Mohammedans with regard to the true nature of TURKEY, OR THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE 429 original apostolic Christianity. The Protestant translation of the Bible into Arabic by Drs. Eli Smith and Cornelius Van Dyck forced the Jesuit Father Von Ham to make another trans- lation based on the Vulgate. Encouraged by the spirit of re- form and modern progress, even the Mohammedan doctors of Constantinople have issued orders that all editions of old Mo- hammedan authors which recount the fabulous stories of Mos- lem saints and Welys are to be expurgated or suppressed and not to be reprinted." The statistical resume of work done, found in Volume II, is a further testimony to the success of evangelical Christianity in the lands of the Bible and the stronghold of Islam. 2. But in addition to the hopefulness begotten of past achieve- ment, there is enough in the present to encourage the worker. Perhaps the most recent occurrence, the second missionary con- ference, convened at Bnunmana on the slopes of Lebanon, August 13, 1901, is inclusive of all the hopeful aspects of mis- sionary operations in the Turkish Empire. Two hundred mis- sionaries, representing more than a third of the societies la- boring in this field, met for days of closest fellowship. " An American Congregationalist might find himself a tent-mate of a Scotch Presbyterian, a German Evangelical and an English Episcopalian or Friend. Their fields of labor will be Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine and Egypt; and their channel of ef- fort the school, the press, the hospital and the church. Where- as a former conference dealt with missionary plans and meas- ures, it was determined to organize this one on the model of Northfield or Keswick. Mr. F. B. Meyer of London accepted an invitation to be present and has spoken twice a day on the privileges and possibilities of life in Christ. It has been a most tender, heart-searching, blessed season. We had come together hungry, expectant, eager, and we were not disap- pointed." The chairman of the Conference, writing of Mr. Meyer to the London " Christian," says : " His teachings will be reechoed along the Bosporus and the Black Sea, the Oron- tes, the Jordan and the Nile. He has left the seed-thought 430 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS that will germinate and bring forth blessed fruit on the plains of Galatia and Cilicia, of Syria and Palestine, and in the fer- tile soil of Egypt." Far above all material results rises this arch of promise for lands whose central points are Calvary and the upper room where the first missionaries gained Pentecos- tal power, and whence they went forth to conquer the world. XVII AFRICA PART L— GENERAL This continent is still truthfully characterized as to its great divisions in Professor Drummond's sententious description : " Three distinct Africas are known to the modern world — North Africa, where men go for health ; South Africa, where they go for money; and Central Africa, where they go for adventure. The first, the old Africa of Augustine and Carthage, every one knows from history; the geography of the second, the Africa of the Zulu and the diamond, has been taught us by two universal educators — war and the Stock Exchange ; but our knowledge of the third, the Africa of Liv- ingstone and Stanley, is still fitly symbolized by the vacant look upon our maps which tells how long this mysterious land has kept its secret." Though this " vacant look " is not so marked as when the latest edition of " Tropical Africa " was issued, there is still much land to be explored and continents within a continent wait to be occupied by the Church of Jesus Christ. I. Africa Geographical. — i. Area and Continental Rank. — This continent stands second only to Asia in size, if the two Americas be reckoned separately. With an area of from eleven and a quarter to twelve million square miles, it could accommodate Europe or the United States thrice over and still have space to spare; while in order to cover its sur- face North America would have to be spread out upon it one and a half times. 431 432 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS Though its 1 6, 1 GO miles of coast-line place it after Asia, Europe and South America in length of shore, its mean dis- tance from the sea, 417 miles, is excelled only by Asia's 482 miles. This latter obstacle to accessibility is partly overcome, however, by its extensive waterways. The fact of its having within the tropics seven-tenths of its area is relieved by its mean elevation, 2,035 f^^^' surpassed on- ly by Asia's average, 3,085 feet above sea level. According to the last issue of Wagner and Supan's " Die Bevolkerung der Erde," now ten years old, Africa's popula- tion stands next to that of Asia and Europe, equaling the pop- ulation of North America plus that of South America twice over. More recent statistics differ from the Wagner-Supan estimate of 163,950,000 for the entire continent. Thus Scobel's " Geographisches Handbuch," 1899, gives the popula- tion as 161,993,000, while Professor Keane's "Africa," 1895, reduces it to 138,462,000, and the " International Geography," 1900, places the number at 148,420,601. In point of density Wagner and Supan give thirteen per- sons per square mile to Africa, while North America has eleven, Asia forty-nine and Europe ninety-six. The " Inter- national Geography " would diminish this average density of population to 12.9 per square mile. When regarded from a religious viewpoint Africa stands foremost as a heathen continent ; since nowhere else is found so large a number of persons with no sacred books and no formulated system of morality. 2. Configuration and Relief. — The union of the axes of Africa's northern and southern portions would form an in- verted letter ~\ the horizontal limb of which bisects the arid or desert portion of the continent inhabited mainly by Mo- hammedans ; while the perpendicular limb divides the southern fertile half of Africa where population is largely composed of heathen negroes. The general relief of the continent is, roughly speaking, that of two oval platters placed at right angles each to the other, AFRICA 433 the southern one being slightly higher than that representing North Africa and overlapping it. The great southern plateau has for the most part an elevation of little less than 4,000 feet ; but the northern half of Africa has comparatively little land at a greater elevation than 2,000 feet above the sea. In one respect the two sections are alike, viz., that the rims of the two continental platters are bordered by two steps. The first is the low coastline, in some places broad, at others hardly more than an ample beach. This is the dead line of many a traveler and missionary, because of its malignant fevers. Behind lies a low plateau, " the height of the Scottish Grampians." From this second step one ascends the platter-rim, the " higher plateau covering the country for thousands of miles with mountain and valley." Except in the North and the South- east, however, there is a marked absence of mountain ranges, though occasional isolated peaks or irregular groups of moun- tains occur. 3. African Rivers. — A multitude of short streams cut their way through the continental rim in their haste to reach the sea, and many more within the encircling mountains live their brief life out with the short rainy season of the drier regions. There are, however, four majestic rivers, prolonged because of the confining continental border, that constitute the great arteries of interior Africa's life, and are notable also among the rivers of the world. These are the Zambezi, Niger, Congo and Nile, The longest river, probably, in the eastern hemisphere and certainly the most important one in Africa is the Nile. In its head-waters it has been for ages the river of mystery; and in history and archaeology its lower portion has been peerless. Without the Nile, Egypt would have been a desert waste instead of the cradle of a marvelous civilization whose gigan- tic ruins hold the spectator spellbound after the lapse of mil- lenniums ; and to-day that country is as truly the " Gift of the River " as when Herodotus so described it. Receiving its in- itial impulse from the inland sea, Victoria Nyanza, it hastens 434 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS down from its lofty birthplace by extensive rapids and Niagara leaps to take its leisurely way through the level lower course. Despite its many cataracts, innumerable sinuosities, sandbanks, marshes and enormous masses of floating vegetation, it is es- timated that 3,100 miles in a total of 3,670 are available for navigation. It is alike the pathway of modern armies as they advance southward to help in healing " the open sore of the world," or strive to crush out a fanaticism defying a beneficent civilization, and of the Christian missionary as he brings to Africa's heart a diviner healing. 4. The most important lakes of the continent are likewise four in number. Three of these, Nyassa, Tanganyika and Vic- toria Nyansa, form a nearly contiguous chain of waterways, and their occupation by missionary societies is a partial realiza- tion of the veteran Krapf's " Apostle's Street " to extend through the length of Africa. The first of these lakes is about 400 miles long, with an average width of twenty-five miles, and is to be connected with Tanganyika by the famous Steven- son Road. It is the special field of the Free Church of Scot- land. The shores of Tanganyika, which is of the same approx- imate size as the lake just named, are densely peopled by va- rious Bantu tribes. The London Mission became especially re- sponsible for the work here. Victoria Nyanza is Africa's larg- est lake, and has the proportions of an inland sea, standing sec- ond only to Lake Superior, the largest on the globe. Its area is about equal to that of Ireland, or of Maine and Rhode Island combined. The districts around the lake are among the most populous in Africa, and its shores are the scene of the wonder- ful triumphs of the Church Missionary Society. Lake Chad is segregated from this lacustrine chain, and lies almost at the center of Africa's northern half. Though having no perma- nent outlet, its waters are perfectly fresh. Its eastern portion is shallow, and contains archipelagoes of isles and islets. 5. Characteristic Regions. — An account of the several coun- tries of Africa cannot be given in this brief sketch, but must be sought elsewhere. A glance at four typical regions will give AFRICA 435 one a fair idea, however, of the African missionary's environ- ment. (i) The deserts of this continent are very extensive, but they have been Httle apprehended by the average reader. The leading ones are the Sahara — properly an Arabic dissyllable, Sah'ra, signifying an uninhabitable waste — and the Kalahari, meaning " the tormenting desert," of Southwestern Africa. The Sahara is the largest one on the globe, and constitutes the western end of the great desert belt, stretching diagonally across the Old World from the Mongolian Gobi to the West African coast. Its area is almost precisely that of the United States, including Alaska; but this expanse is not wholly a waste, or a vast monotonous level. The Kalahari scarcely de- serves the name of desert, since large portions of it are periodi- cally covered with vegetation, and its thorny thickets harbor quantities of game. The inhabitants are either nomadic hun- ters, or keep cattle and grow corn. (2) The steppes of Africa constitute a broad fringe along the northern and southern borders of the Sahara, occupy the entire eastern horn of the continent, — British and Italian Somali-land, — cover a district of German East Africa midway between Lake Tanganyika and the Indian Ocean, and consti- tute a large part of Central-Southern Africa. What has just been said of the Kalahari is equally applicable to these steppes. Vegetation is more extensive, thorny acacias abound, and the dum or hyphsene, a species of palm, makes its appearance. There is almost no mission work carried on in these regions. (3) Savannas, grass-covered and nearly treeless, occupy a large share of tropical Africa. They extend " from the Sene- gal in the Northwest to Abyssinia in the Northeast, and thence through East Africa round the western forest region until they reach the west coast again south of the Congo. Trees are usually found along the course of the streams, where they form what are known as ' gallery forests,' and are often dotted over the surface in groups, giving it a park-like appearance. The savanna regions are characterized especially by the massive 436 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS baobab tree, and in the dryer parts by the curious candelabra- like euphorbia. In much of the region thin forests prevail, of which Drum- mond gives this typical picture. " Clothe the mountainous plateaux with endless forest — not grand umbrageous forest like the forests of South America, nor matted jungle like the forests of India ; but with thin, rather weak forest — with forest of low trees, whose half-grown trunks and scanty leaves offer no shade from the tropical sun. Nor is there anything in these trees to the casual eye to remind you that you are in the tropics. Here and there one comes upon a borassus or fan-palm, a can- delabra-like euphorbia, a mimosa aflame with color, or a sepul- chral baobab. A close inspection also will discover curious creepers and climbers; and among the branches strange or- chids hide their eccentric flowers. But the outward type of tree is the same as we have at home — trees resembling the ash, the beech and the elm, only seldom so large, except by the streams, and never so beautiful. Day after day you may wan- der through these forests with nothing except the climate to remind you of where you are. The beasts, to be sure, are dif- ferent, but unless you watch for them you will seldom see any ; the birds are different, but you rarely hear them ; and as for the rocks, they are our own familiar gneisses and granites, with honest basalt-dykes boring through them, and leopard-skin lichens staining their weathered sides. Thousands and thou- sands of miles, then, of vast thin forest, shadeless, trackless, voiceless — forest in mountain and forest in plain — this is East-Central Africa." (4) The western region of primeval forests stretches along the northern shore of the Gulf of Guinea, and eastward almost to the Victoria Nyanza ; it also occupies most of the Congo State. These dense woods likewise occur on the east coast and generally on the slopes of mountains exposed to moist winds from the ocean. Livingstone, describing this region, writes; " Into these forests the sun, though vertical, cannot penetrate, except by sending down at midday thin pencils of AFRICA ^ 437 rays into the gloom. The rain-water stands for months in stagnant pools made by the feet of elephants. The climbing plants, from the size of a whipcord to a man-of-war's hawser, are so numerous that the ancient path is the only passage. When one of the giant trees falls across the road, it forms a wall breast-high to be climbed over, and the mass of tangled ropes brought down makes cutting a path round it a work of time which travelers never undertake." 6. Traveling in Africa. — This is much the same for all, save that the missionary proceeds with smaller retinues and with a minimum of severity toward his carriers and those through whose territory he passes. Along the coasts and on the great river-stretches steamers are available, though river travel is made bitter by tedious portages around cataracts. Camel caravans are occasionally made use of in the North, while South African missionaries rely largely upon immense covered wagons, each drawn by a small herd of oxen. Even the bicycle is occasionally used in the South and to some extent by Uganda missionaries, who likewise utilize the railroad when possible. While the fare is exorbitant along the Congo, mis- sionaries there travel by train. The commonest mode of entering one's field is to walk, or else be carried in a hammock suspended to a pole between two bearers. What the Catholic Bishop, Augonarde, of the Upper French Congo, says of that region is approximately true of other sections. The traveler finds " no roads, only narrow footpaths [rarely more than ten inches wide], as the illustrious Livingstone said, paths worn by black feet with a horror of straight lines, and never in a hurry. No bridges over the rivers ; no cabins for shelter in the evening, and protection against the torrential rains of the equator; no inns to furnish the most modest repast; no other means of locomotion than legs. And beside all that, a torrid sun, poor food and often malarial fever." With no convenient currency that the missionary can avail himself of " in this shopless and foodless land," — since " living 438 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS man himself has become the commercial currency of Africa," — he must needs be provided with bales of cloth, useful hard- ware and a fancy store outfit of tawdry trinkets, especially beads, to use in lieu of coin. All this, and the tinned goods and other articles required at his prospective station, make a numerous corps of carriers necessary, and here the missionary's trials culminate. The Arab slave-trader and unscrupulous travelers have often preceded him and implanted everywhere deep hatred of the foreigner. Then, too, Africa " is a nation of the unemployed," most of whose " life is spent in the mere safeguarding of his main asset, i. e., himself." Hence, when one's load is heavy, or a hostile tribe is just ahead, there is likely to be a stampede of carriers, and this, if not checked, may cost the traveler his life. To accomplish this requires much decision and wisdom ; and, possibly, recourse is had, even by the most conscientious, to such an expedient as the saintly Henry Drummond made use of after four of his men had run away and he had called to his tent their three remaining fel- low-tribesmen. " In a few moments," he writes, " they ap- peared; but what to say to them? Their dialect was quite strange to me, and yet I felt I must impress them somehow. Like the judge putting on the black cap, I drew my revolver from under my pillow, and, laying it before me, proceeded to address them. Beginning with a few general remarks on the weather, I first briefly sketched the geology of Africa, and then broke into an impassioned defence of the British Consti- tution. The three miserable sinners — they had done nothing in the world — quaked like aspens. I then followed up my ad- vantage by intoning in a voice full of awful solemnity the enunciation of the forty-seventh proposition of Euclid, and then threw my all into a blood-curdling Quod erat demonstran- dum. Scene two followed when I was alone ; I turned on my pillow and wept for shame. It was a prodigious piece of ras- cality ; but I cannot imagine anything else that would have done, and it succeeded perfectly. These men were to the end the most faithful I had. They felt henceforth they owed me AFRICA 439 their lives ; for, according to African custom, the sins of their fellow-tribesmen should have been visited upon them with the penalty of death." II. Climate and Its Missionary Bearings. — i. Tem- perature. — As the equator almost exactly divides Africa into halves, there results "a succession of climatic zones stretching across the continent, those of the North being reproduced in reversed order in the South. Both the northern and southern extremities are fairly temperate regions, that to the North being defined by the Atlas range, the lands north of which, cli- matically as in other respects, rather resemble Southern Europe than the rest of Africa. Near the equator, and especially in the coastlands and western basin, the climate is generally equable, while elsewhere, especially in the elevated regions to the East, there is a much greater difference between summer and winter, and between day and night. Owing to the altitude of much of the land within the equatorial zone, the climate is actually cool." In the regions of the most torrid heat, as in the Sahara and under the equator, the nights are usually cool, or even chilly and frosty. 2. Rainfall. — Consisting mainly of plateaux bordered by mountains which prevent the moisture-bearing winds from passing into the interior, the rainfall is very scanty. The only regions where it is abundant are narrow strips on the south and southeast coasts and the western part of the equatorial area. " At a distance from the equator all the rain falls at one part of the year, the wet season commencing soon after the sun becomes vertical and lasting for two or three months, while the rest of the year is dry. But as we approach the equator, since the sun is vertical twice in the year, there are two rainy seasons, separated by an interval of dry weather; while near the equator itself the rain falls more or less throughout the year." 3. Health. — Africa's scourge is fever, usually due to ma- laria. It prevails on the low-lying and usually marshy coast between the first terrace and the ocean; though the Red Sea 440 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS coasts and the southern extremity of the continent are practi- cally free from malaria. It also prevails in inland districts, which are either periodically or constantly under water, as those bordering on the Niger, Congo and Upper Nile. Else- where, with due precautions, the missionary finds the con- tinent fairly salubrious. Sections of North Africa are health resorts, and the Sahara is distinctly healthful. Much of the sacrifice of precious life in this continent would have been avoided, if candidates had studied Dr. Cross's " Health in Africa," and Dr. Felkin's " Disease in Africa," or if they had even heeded the simple hygienic rules laid down by Stanley and other lay travelers. III. African Ethnology. — Broadly speaking, the mul- titudinous tribes and nations of Africa may be classed under four main heads — two of them northern and of the white type, the Semitic and Hamitic races, and two Southern, of the black type, the Bantu and Negro races. On the border-lines between these racial regions there is, of course, a large admix- ture of races, especially on the northern edge of the Sudan ; and in the northern part of the continent the Hamites and Semites have no exclusive regions. The Hottentots and dwarf races are also classed by themselves by some writers. I. The only one of these races not indigenous to the con- tinent is the Semitic stock, numbering some 30,000,000 per- haps. These peoples entered Africa from adjacent Asia, some of them coming in remote ages from Southern Arabia, and now known as the Himyarites (Amharites), of Abyssinia and Har- rar — possibly 3,000,000 in number. The vast majority of them, however, came as the result of the spread of Islam. These Arabs are mainly found in Morocco, Algeria, West Sahara, Central and Eastern Sudan ; though they are found in small numbers farther south, Zanzibar being formerly an im- portant Arab center. The Jews form an interesting though small section of this race, and are found mainly in the Mediter- ranean countries. As to leading characteristics, they are such as one would AFRICA 441 expect from an essentially nomadic race of stock raisers, marauders and slave-hunters. When settled, and known as Moors, they acquire " a certain varnish of civilization ; but the great mass of the population are now as they were in the days of Ishmael, and such they are likely to continue for genera- tions." They are especially predatory in the Algerian Sa- hara, where one of the tribes is called " Breath of the Wind," i. e., their victims " may as well seek the wind as hope to re- cover their stolen property." In the southern half of the con- tinent they are the slave-catchers, and, to some extent, traders also. Everywhere they are lovers of freedom, and are more or less fanatical. The Arabic is a conquering tongue, and Arabs usually gain the ascendency, not merely over lower races like the negroes, but over the Hamites as well. This race must be reckoned with by foreigners. 2. The Hamites of mixed or doubtful origin are the Fans of the Ogowe basin and eastward, the Fulahs of West and Central Sudan, the Tibbus of East Sahara, the Agaos of Abyssinia, the Masai between Victoria Nyanza and the ocean, and the Fellahin of Egypt. True Hamites are the Shluhs of Morocco, the Mzabs and Kabyles of Algeria and Tunis — the three preceding are known by the common name of Berbers — the Tuaregs of Western Sahara, and the Gallas, Somalis, Afars and Bejas of the northeast coast. The ances- tors of the Hamites, though probably Caucasian, were appar- ently aboriginal to Africa. Like the Arabs, they are mainly stock-raisers, though Algerian Berbers prefer agriculture to pasturage. " Their physical type is essentially Mediterranean, often characterized by extremely regular features and in places even by blue eyes and fair complexion. But their language has no distinct relation to any other Caucasic form of speech. It has a geographical range in the North analogous to that of the Bantu in the South. But it is now extinct in Egypt, where Arabic is current, and where the old Hamitic speech is rep- resented only by the liturgical language of the few surviving Coptic communities." 442 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS 3. Next in order as one proceeds southward are the typical negroes, mainly resident in the black zone, extending from Sierra Leone eastward to the Abyssinian highlands, and south- ward of this line to a distance. of about 700 miles. Most of this territory is known as Beled-es-Sudan, " Country of the Black." Aside from their darker color, the features differen- tiating them from their negro neighbors in the South are their physical unity combined with languages of endless diversity, as compared with the physical diversity and linguistic unity of the Bantus, and their habitat, which is low, as contrasted with the lofty Bantu plateau. The Sudan negroes are agriculturists as a rule, but also keep cattle, manufacture palm-oil, act as laborers along the Guinea coast or on shipboard — the " kru boys," — or transact the business of the country. The Haussas are especially keen as traders, and this fact has made their language the common medium of commercial communication in Central Sudan. Tribes along the coast are the slaves of de- basing and cruel superstition, whereas those on the northern border of the black zone have imbibed some of the civilizing in- fluences of .their Hamitic and Semitic neighbors. 4. The Bantu negroes occupy most of the southern half of Africa. They are lighter in color than those of the Sudan. Indeed, their full-toned brown skin caused a distinguished traveler to think " how effective a row of books would be, bound in native Morocco." Many of the tribes are of mixed blood. Their languages, though entirely different from those of the Hottentots and negroes proper, are as intimately related as the Indo-Germanic tongues, so that the problem of evangel- ization is much simpler here than elsewhere in Africa. Canni- balism, slavery and polygamy make this great heart of Africa an abode of sorrow and a fit object of Christian compassion. When one recalls how large a portion of Africa's population are Bantus, Drummond's pen-portrait of them is pathetic in the extreme. " Hidden away in these endless forests, like birds' nests in a wood, in terror of one another and of their common foe, the slaver, are small native villages; and here in his vir- AFRICA 443 gin simplicity dwells man, without clothes, without civilization, without learning-, without religion — the genuine child of na- ture, thoughtless, careless and contented. This man is appar- ently quite happy; he has practically no wants. One stick, pointed, makes him a spear; two sticks rubbed together make him a fire ; fifty sticks tied together make him a house. The bark he peels from them makes his clothes ; the fruits which hang on them form his food. It is perfectly astonishing when one thinks of it what nature can do for the animal-man, to see with what small capital after all a human being can get through the world. I once saw an African buried. According to the cus- tom of his tribe, his entire earthly possessions — and he was an average commoner — were buried with him. Into the grave, after the body, was lowered the dead man's pipe, then a rough knife, then a mud bowl, and last his bow and arrows — the bow-string cut through the middle, a touching symbol that its work was done. This was all. Four items, as an auctioneer would say, were the whole belongings for half a century of this human being. No man knows what a man is till he has seen what a man can do without and be withal a man. That is to say, no man knows how great a man is till he sees how small he has been once." And here is his account of the Bantu's daily life. " A fine- looking people, quiet and domestic, their life-history from the cradle to the grave is of the utmost simplicity. Too ill-armed to hunt, they live all but exclusively on a vegetable diet. A small part of the year they depend, like the monkeys, upon wild fruits and herbs ; but the staple food is a small tasteless millet-seed, which they grow in gardens, crush in a mortar, and stir with water into a thick porridge. Twice a day, nearly all the year round, each man stuffs himself with this coarse and tasteless dough, shoveling it into his mouth in handfuls and consuming at a sitting a pile the size of an ant-heap. His one occupation is to grow this millet, and his gardening is a curiosity. Selecting a spot in the forest, he climbs a tree, and with a small home-made ax lops off the branches one by one. 444 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS He then wades through the htter to the next tree and hacks it to pieces also, leaving the trunk standing erect. Upon all the trees within a circle of thirty or forty yards' diameter his ax works similar havoc, till the ground stands breast-high in leaves and branches. Next the whole is set on fire and burnt to ashes. Then, when the first rains moisten the hard ground and wash the fertile chemical constituents of the ash into the soil, he attacks it with his hoe, drops in a few handfuls of millet, and the year's work is over. But a few weeks, off and on, are required for these operations, and he may then go to sleep till the rains are over, assured of a crop which never fails, which is never poor, and which will last him till the rain re- turns again. Between the acts he does nothing but lounge and sleep ; his wife, or wives, are the millers and bakers ; they work hard to prepare his food, and are rewarded by having to take their own meals apart ; for no African could ever demean him- self by eating with a woman. I have tried to think of some- thing else that these people habitually do, but their vacuous life leaves nothing more to tell." It is only fair to present the brighter side of this sad picture ; for if the above quotations truthfully describe the masses of the Bantu race, there are other tribes that live on a higher plane. The Zulus, of Southeastern Africa, who have come into con- tact with Christianity and civilization, are thus described by the veteran missionary, Dr. Tyler : " In mental, as well as in physical ability, we may regard them as in no respect in- ferior to the whites. They are as capable of as high a degree of culture as any people on the face of the globe. They are not only emotional, but logical, and have retentive memories and can split hairs equal to any Yankee lawyer." The well- known African traveler and writer, Poultney Bigelow, simi- larly testifies : " The Zulus are by nature ladies and gentle- men ; that is to say, they are better mannered, speak more gently, are more graceful in their movements and are alto- gether better company than any roomful of my own people that it has ever been my good fortune to meet." AFRICA 445 5. Hottentots and Bushmen, who inhabit the southwestern corner of the continent, are often indiscriminately classed under the former name. This is not correct, unless the case is decided by a linguistic peculiarity, the common possession of clicking sounds, supposed by some philologists to be a survival of an early inarticulate form of speech, and so marked that it sug- gested their low German name, Hiittentiit, " a quack." The old traveler. Dapper, said that they spoke " with clicks like Calicut hens." They are probably distinct races. The Hottentot lan- guage may possibly be Hamitic, though strong authorities deny the statement. Living principally in Cape Colony, they have adopted many of the customs and vices of Europeans, and have become Christians to a considerable extent. They number over 100,000 including half-breeds. The Bushmen, or San, mostly dwell in the Kalahari desert, but also in other sections of South Central Africa. The author of " Zulu-Land " states that " they build no houses, have no tents, nor herds nor flock. They are very diminutive in stature, of a dark yellow color, their hair like wool twisted together in small tufts. In their unsettled, wandering condition, it has been difficult to carry on mission work among them; though some have been induced to join stations among other tribes, and been in this way brought to a knowledge of the gospel." This race is apparently dying out. Mention of their diminutiveness — about four feet seven inches — suggests the fact that Africa is a continent of dwarfs. Besides the Bushmen, and often classed with them as a sepa- rate division of the population, are the Akkas — about four feet ten inches — of Central Africa, whom Emin Pasha describes as having bodies covered with thick hair, like felt, " a venom- ous, cowardly and thievish race, and very expert with their arrows " ; the Obongos, Akoas and Babongos of the Gabun and Ogowe region, which have become the care of the Ameri- can Northern Presbyterians ; the Wambutti, said by Stanley to be the finest of the African dwarfs, notwithstanding the fact that they are the " parasites of the desert, who glue themselves 44^ GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS to the clearings of the larger tribes and steal to their heart's content " ; the Batwas of the Sankuru River, the smallest of all — four feet three inches — unless we except the M'Kab- bas of Lake Agami, who are reported to be four feet one inch in height. All are forest dwellers, shy and difficult to reach. They have rude religious instincts, sometimes rising to pathetic creature longings, as witness this dwarf prayer to the Supreme Zer, reported by Dr. Krapf : " Yea, if thou dost really exist, why dost thou let us be slain? We ask thee not for food or clothing; for we only live on snakes, cats, mice. Thou hast made us ; why dost thou let us be trodden down ? " No wonder that Miss Margaret MacLean, of Glasgow, has been moved to attempt pygmy evangelization through the above-named board. IV. Religion and Morals. — i. Spheres of Influence and Proportions. — Generally speaking, Africa is divided between the votaries of nature religions and the followers of Moham- med. The latter occupy the northern half of the continent and a strip on the east coast running southward from Abyssinia to a point below Zanzibar. Heathen Africa lies to the south of this line, though Cape Colony and the Dutch territory are largely Christian with an admixture of heathen. In the Mo- hammedan section are included the Christians of Abyssinia and the Coptic communities of Egypt. According to Professor E. Schmidt the percentage of ad- herents of each great faith found on the continent is as fol- lows : Hindus and Buddhists, one fiftieth of one per cent. ; Jews, three-tenths of one per cent. ; Roman Catholics, one and four-tenths per cent. ; Protestants, one and nine-tenths per cent. ; Coptic and Abyssinian Christians, two and three-tenths per cent. ; Mohammedans, thirty-six per cent. ; lower forms of religion, fifty-eight per cent. In round numbers, then, six in- habitants of Africa out of every hundred know more or less about Christianity, thirty-six are Mohammedans, and fifty- eight are nature worrshipers such as are described in the first chapter of the Epistle to the Romans. If Africa's population AFRICA 447 be placed at 160,000,000, this means that there are 9,600,000 nominal Christians, 57,600,000^ Mohammedans and 92,800,000 heathen. There would thus be twice as many Mohammedans in Africa as the entire population of the Ottoman Empire, and almost precisely the same number as are reported by the India census of 1891, while of the world's heathen population in the stricter sense of the word, forty out of every hundred are in Africa. No other continent has anything like so large a proportion of heathen inhabitants. 2. Christianity is not only numerically the least important of these faiths, but it must also be confessed that the large mi- nority of this small number are little better than baptized pa- gans. Protestantism is quite vigorous and healthy in the southern part of the continent, albeit scandalized and wounded by the clash of Christian arms ; and Catholicism in Portuguese territory and along the Mediterranean is by no means equal to that of its northern shore. Coptic Christianity is of the Monophysite branch, holding that the human and divine in Jesus constituted but one com- posite nature. The Copts are the Christian descendants of the aboriginal Egyptians probably, and in 1897 numbered 608,446. Traditions make St. Mark the founder of their Church and its first Patriarch. The Coptic ritual, liturgy and vestments probably approximate very closely early Christian originals. This liturgy, written in Greek uncials, is in the now dead Cop- tic tongue which is said to be a form of the Hamite speech of ancient Egypt. Explanations in Arabic usually accompany its reading. Butler rightly says : " The romance of language could go no further than to join the speech of Pharaoh and the writing of Homer in the service-book of an Egyptian Chris- tian." They " hate other Christians even more than they hate the Moslems," though there is an increasing friendliness exhibited toward Protestants. Their marked religiosity is often accom- 1 Professor Keane and Dr. Noble, working independently, practically agree upon a smaller number, 40,000,000. 448 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS '■ panied by a character " in general gloomy, deceitful and ava- ricious; they are ignorant, drunken and sensual." Most of the Copts live in Cairo, though large settlements are found along the Nile in upper Egypt. Essentially indoor workers, on account of their knowledge of arithmetic and skill in the finer handicrafts, they are naturally of paler complexion than their neighbors. Abyssinian Christians, since their conversion in the fourth century, have adhered to the mother church in Egypt, and their abuna, or bishop, is still nominated by the Coptic Pa- triarch of Alexandria. Their religion is a debased Christian- ity plus a few Jewish rites and much superstition. The oldest known form of the Himyaritic language is used in the Church, but is not understood by the common people; hence there is prevailing ignorance outside of the religious orders number- ing 12,000 monks. General ignorance does not prevent fierce religious controversies, however; though it does account for prevalent immorality and excessive intemperance. 3. Mohammedanism's thirty-six per cent, includes a large number of Africans who ought to be classed with heathen ; since they have only the slightest connection, often merely a territorial one, with Islam. By early conquest and later ad- vances along more peaceful lines this faith has spread over about half of Africa — including its large desert portion. With the exception of its reforming element it does not differ much from what we have seen in other countries; though as it has had largely to do with very low classes of society, it has apparently had a slightly helpful influence. This is a greatly mooted question with strong advocates like Canon Taylor, Reclus, Thomson and Blyden, and equally strong and competent antagonists — Livingstone, Stanley, Schweinfurth and Burton. In many cases it has developed a desire for clothing and certain social comforts; occasionally.it has dis- couraged cannibalism and discredited the medicine man; and usually greater cleanliness and the ability of a few to read Arabic follow the Arab. This leaves out of account the AFRICA 449 blighting influence of Islam, in its sensual teachings and in the pursuit of the trade in human flesh, which is Africa's greatest curse. It is a relief to know that except in Nigeria Mohammedanism of the average stamp is not progressing in Africa, but is rather being driven slowly northward. While the Fellata and the Mandingo are still to be reckoned with as Mohammedan missionaries, the Senussi brotherhood of North- ern Africa are men of a very different stamp — so enlightened, indeed, that they resemble the Jesuit more than they do the de- vouring hordes of Islam. The story of the rise and present ac- tivity of these reformers constitutes one of the most instructive and interesting chapters of recent Mohammedan history. 4. Heathen Africa still remains — fully a hundred million really, if not statistically, deserving of the name, — men, women and children shrouded in superstition and dominated by scheming sorcerers and slavish fears of dreaded terrors. Three elements in African heathenism are plainly discernible, all of them more or less connected with an accompanying class in the community variously named but supposedly possessed of superhuman powers. The first of these elements is fetishism. Not only did this term originate in Africa, but it is there that fetishism has ex- hibited its most numerous varieties and greatest power. A fetish is any natural or artificial object, which, being appro- priated by an individual and counted as animate or conscious, is thereafter the protector or slave of its possessor. Although this object may sometimes have the form of a rudely carved idol, it differs from one in that it is not supposed to be the temporary abode of a superhuman being ; and especially in the fact that its possessor has perfect power over his fetish, whereas an idol is regarded as having power over its pos- sessor. The impartation of fetishistic power to a material ob- ject and the fabrication of complicated fetishes is usually in the hands of a fetish doctor or sorcerer. A rude savage phi- losophy which argues cause and effect simply on the post hoc ergo propter hoc principle makes a powerful fetish of to-day 450 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS the kindling wood of to-morrow ; hence such a rehgion has no constant value, much less any moral significance. A far higher form of religion with an accompanying law derivable from the known desires and commands during life, is found in ancestral worship, so common through southern Africa especially. It is by no means the elaborated system found in China; but it has a more realistic form, especially in Zulu-land, where certain snakes, often seen about or in the krall, are regarded as the incarnation of a departed ancestor. It is the supposed service of the dead by survivors that is re- sponsible for the awful hecatombs of slaves and wives reported from West Africa; though it should also be said that were it not for so dread a fate, the life of an African potentate would be in daily jeopardy from jealous or injured dependents. The highest point reached by African heathenism is found in its vague belief in a God, derived, in the case of the Zulus at least, from a projection of ancestral worship into the indefi- nite past. From ancestor to ancestor one finally reaches back to Unkulunkulu, " the Old-old One." The belief in God exists " throughout Negro Africa in less or larger degree, sometimes clearer or fuller, sometimes more dim or puny ; but as a whole substantially that of the Galwa among the Bantu and the Yoruba of Sudan. The Galwa have a distinct idea of an in- visible being to whom they refer creation and providence, who is also the author of life and death, and who was formerly thought to regard character and punish evil conduct. The Yoruba make him the causal, though not always the actual creator; have some idea of his holiness and justice, talk much of his goodness, knowledge, power and providence; and re- fuse to compare him to their greatest idol." Running through the entire scale from the lowest to the highest belief, are all sorts of superstitions and equally base- less and harmful practices. But behind them all is usually some grade of a fetish priest or sorcerer. Magic potions and charms, the bringing of rain, the " smelling out " of those who have bewitched any person or thing, the stilling of a myriad of AFRICA 451 harmful spirits, etc., are the employments of these pes- tilential promoters of witchcraft and a false religion. Well does Dr. Noble write : " Witchcraft is an unutterable evil of negro society, and the belief has done only less than the slave- trade and wholesale sacrifice toward depopulating Africa." V. Political and Prophetic Africa. — What is to be the future of this pagan continent, blessed in great part by abun- dant natural resources and with sufficient salubriousness, ac- cording to Schweinfurth, to make its European colonization a very possible contingency? 1. In point of natural resources it is a competitor in the de- velopment of the twentieth century, second only to South America among the sparsely occupied domains of the earth. Its diamonds and gold, its timber and the varied products of forest and soil are immediate objects of desire, now that the wealth and bane of Africa, ivory, is diminishing in quantity. If Africa unemployed can produce so much for the world's markets, what will not be possible when training, and magnifi- cent object lessons, such as the missionaries of Lovedale and Blythewood, and commercial enterprises, like the African- Lakes' Company, are furnishing, become widely operative? 2. But this raises the question of the possibility of any ex- tensive development of the African as a factor in the world's progress. At present he has been stigmatized as lazy and wholly irresponsible. His laziness is the legitimate result of having nothing worth while to do. His simple wants are easily supplied and as work under indigenous conditions can secure him nothing more than is now in his possession, he yields before his tropical environment. This is not the case where sufficient incentive for labor exists; as witness the na- tives along the coast, on the great transport routes or rail- wavs in construction, and in the far interior where "a work like the Stevenson Road, e.g., suddenly develops surprising trust- worthiness and willingness to labor. The critics of vStanley's enthusiastic vision of thousands of miles of cloth being dis- posed of to Africans are silenced when acquaintance with 452 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS civilization and industry furnish what Europe and America desire in exchange therefor. Drummond sums up a compre- hensive discussion of the subject as follows: "Africa at this moment has an impossible access, a perilous climate, a penni- less people, an undeveloped soil. So once had England; but there is nothing in the soil, the products, the climate or the people of Africa to forbid its joining, even at this late day, in the great march of civilization. In capacity the African is fit to work, in inclination he is willing to work, and in actual ex- periment he has done it ; so that with capital enlisted and wise heads to direct these energies, with considerate employers who will remember that these men are but children, this vast na- tion of the unemployed may yet be added to the slowly grow- ing list of the world's producers." 3. Politics are inextricably mingled in Africa's problematic future. A glance at the map shows what good foundation there is for the trite witticism that having begun by stealing Africans from Africa, the nations are now stealing Africa from the Africans. While there is unclaimed and neutral ter- ritory — Eastern Sahara, etc. — amounting to 650,000 square miles, the only native states outside of European influence are Abyssinia, Morocco and Liberia, or 552,000 square miles of independent native territory out of eleven and a half million; that is. Christian Europe has graciously permitted Africa to re- tain for a season five per cent, of her original belongings ! Yet as the criminal sale of Joseph to an African potentate was over- ruled for the salvation of two great nations, so purloined Africa is being benefited on the whole by the change. And, fortunately for her, twenty-eight per cent., or thirty-eight per cent., if Egypt is included, of her entire territory — and this, too, the most productive and most capable of development — is dominated by Protestant powers. It is too early yet to pre- dict the outcome of the Dutch and British contest in South Africa; though whatever be the loss to Christian ideals be- cause of this fraternal conflict, that most favored section of the continent will extend northward in ever increasing volume AFRICA 453 its civilizing and Christianizing influences. As the negro does not die out before civilization, except where its damning factors enter alone, — such as the devil's trade in death-dealing liquor, — there is reason to believe that with increasing acces- sibility and protection from intertribal wars, the continent will gain rather than lose from its foreign political entanglements. PART II. — MISSIONARY In 1898 W. T. Stead wrote : " British Africa is the product of three forces — British conquest, British trade and British missions. And of the three the first counts for the least and the last for the greatest factor in the expansion of Britain in Africa. British missionaries have been everywhere the pio- neers of empire. The British frontier has advanced on the stepping-stones of missionary graves. Deduct the missionaries from the sum total of the forces which have colored the Afri- can map red from Table Mountain to the Zambezi, and the Empire disappears. It was David Moffat, the missionary, who led the way into Central Africa from the South. It was his dauntless son-in-law, the missionary Livingstone, who pierced the heart of the Dark Continent in which he laid down his life; it was Moffat's successor, the missionary Alackenzie, who secured the open road from the Cape to the Zambezi along which Cecil Rhodes subsequently marched to empire." Simi- lar testimony could be borne concerning the civilizing and edu- cative value of the labors of missionaries from other lands. Their greatest glory, however, is found in the inner transfor- mations wrought by the gospel which they have always made their first concern. Little as has been thus far accomplished, its story is a stimulus to great expectations for the future. I. The Societies and Their Fields. — i. F. Perry Noble, Ph.D., in " The Redemption of Africa," 1898, — by far the best work on the missionary occupation of the Dark Conti- nent,— gives the number of Protestant societies of strictly 454 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS missionary character operating in Africa and its islands as 140. This includes only independent societies ; yet among them are some which have no agents from America or Europe laboring in Africa and not a few are literary. The veteran German authority, R. Grundemann, Ph.D., in his " Kleine Missions- Geographic und -Statistik," 1901, prints a select list of forty- five main societies, though he omits all missions in the Medi- terranean countries with the exception of a station in Upper Egypt. In Volume II of the present work will be found sta- tistics of ninety-five societies which have foreign representa- tives in Africa, or else — in a very few cases — native clergy- men and pastors of equal rank with the foreign missionary. Of these ninety-five societies, twenty-four are American, thirty-six are British, twenty-six are Continental and nine are international or else indigenous. Detailed information as to their operations will be found in Volume II. 2. The field occupied hy these organizations cannot all be specified here, though the following statement will enable the reader to see what societies are doing the most work in the various grand divisions of the continent. As will be noted, many of them are not mentioned. The first three named un- der each division are usually the most important in the force employed, the stations occupied, or else in the number of ad- herents. North Africa: the North Africa Mission, the United Presbyterians of North America and the Church Missionary Society. East Africa: the Church Missionary^ Society, Uni- versities' Mission, the Berlin Missionary Society, the German East Africa Society, the Evangelical National Society of Swe- den, the Moravians and the Leipsic Society. South Africa: in Gaza-land, the American Board ; in Mashona-land, the Wes- leyan Mission, the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel; in the Transvaal, the Wesleyan Mission, Berlin Mission, the Hermannsburg Mission, the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, the Mission Romande of Switzerland, the South Af- rica General Mission; in Zulu-land and Natal, the Hermanns- burg Society, the Norwegian Missionary Society, the Society AFRICA 455 for the Propagation of the Gospel and the American Board; in Kaffraria, the Wesleyan Mission, the Society for the Propa- gation of the Gospel, the United Free Church of Scotland and the London Mission ; in Basuto-land and Zambezia, the Paris Society ; in Bechuana-land, the London Missionary Society ; in Orange Free State, the Wesleyan Mission and the South Africa General Mission ; in Cape Colony, the London Mission- ary Society, the South Africa General Mission, the Wesleyan Mission and the Rhenish Society; in German Southwest Af- rica, the Rhenish Society. IVest Africa: in West Central Af- rica, including also the Congo Free State, the American and English Baptists, the Christian and Missionary Alliance, the Swedish Missionary Society, the Regions Beyond Missionary Union and the Plymouth Brethren ; in the region around the angle of the Gulf of Guinea, the Basle Society, the Northern Presbyterians of the United States, the German Baptists and the Paris Society ; in Kamerun, the Basle Society ; in Old Cal- ibar, the United Free Church of Scotland ; in Nigeria, the Church Missionary Society; in Yoruba-land, work of inde- pendent churches, the Wesleyan Mission, the Church Mission- ary Society and the Southern Presbyterians of America; in Togo-land, the North German Missionary Society ; in the Gold Coast, the Wesleyans and the Basle Society; in Liberia, the Northern Methodists of the United States, the American Episcopalians and independent churches ; in Sierra Leone, the Wesleyans, independent churches, the United Brethren in Christ and the African Methodists of the United States. 3. Some other points of special importance may be noted. A glance at the African maps in* Volume II will reveal the fact that mission stations are almost wholly confined to the coast, the basins of great rivers and the central lakes' region. In the case of South Africa, however, they are widely distrib- uted over the country, and here and on the west coast the work is by far the strongest. It must also be noted that Africa is the great field of the German societies as well as of French and Swiss missionary work, while other Continental societies are 45^ GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS likewise well represented. The vast expanse of the Sudan and of the region south of it is almost untouched as yet, save for the Congo belt. Another fact with regard to the fields is worth noticing. In the northern, or Mohammedan lobe of Africa, there are thirty-seven societies working; in the south- ern, or heathen lobe, forty-five are laboring; while eleven so- cieties have representatives in both great sections. South Af- rica, of course, is largely occupied by whites and in some dis- tricts may be considered a Protestant country, though there is ample field for missionary effort among the native population. II. Types of Africans Labored Among. — i. First among those for whom missionaries are working must be mentioned the Christians of Africa, remnants of the early Church. The work among the Copts is made easy by their docility of char- acter, by the readiness to send their children to school and a desire on their own part to listen to the gospel, by the friend- liness of officials and members of all classes, and by the preva- lent desire to acquire Western manners and customs. Con- servatism is an offset to these aids in the work, as are their prejudices and bigotry, their covetousness, licentiousness and intemperance. Persecution, too, has been the lot of many of those who have left the Coptic communion. The Abyssinian Christians are not greatly different from the Egyptian Copts. The Swedish National Society's missionaries are mainly restricted to work in the neighborhood of the Red Sea, where they have the protection of the Italians. The ex- clusive policy of the Abyssinian King of Kings is a great ob- stacle to Christian labor in this African Switzerland. The fur- ther fact that even the largest towns are — with one exception — but little larger than ordinary villages of the Occident, and that the inhabitants are pastoral and hence nomadic, will make the future of mission work far from easy. Even the capital is periodically changed in order to secure a better supply of firewood. The healthiness of the country and its position will make its future occupation desirable, so soon as it is possible to labor freely in the interior. AFRICA 457 2. Next to the Christians just named stand the Mohamme- dans, the Jews not being considered in this place. Throughout all North Africa are multitudes of Moslems who are interested and active in propagating the tenets of Islam. The traditional educational center of Mohammedans is Al Azhar of Cairo. The importance of this institution is greatly overestimated ; for while it has thousands of students, — so called, — a great majority of them are without any moral earnestness and have no expectation of becoming Moslem missionaries. Far more to be feared is the Senussi brotherhood, about which something has already been said. " This order is, in fact, a great home and foreign missionary society, a band of men dedicated for life to the one object of making the starting point of Islam its goal, of repressing in every possible way any attempt at social or religious reform, and of extending by peaceable methods, when other methods cannot be pursued, the religion of the great Arabian prophet." Its members are opposed to all Occi- dental ideas, in furtherance of the purpose of the founder " to erect an impassable barrier to the progress of Western civiliza- tion and the influence of Christian powers in Moslem lands." Though the head monastery of the Order was established as re- cently as 1855, there are subordinate to this mother house no less than 120 others. In this head monastery at Jaghbub " there are 700 pupils, trained not only to reform what is lax in Islam, but to be a powerful proselyting agency. Year by year they pour forth to all parts of North Africa to proclaim the doctrine of Islam." Other monasteries are found in Egypt, the Sudan, Tunis, Algiers, Tripoli and Senegambia. In its propagandism it seeks to win men of large influence and em- phasizes education of the young. The Protestant attempt to reach Moslems in North Africa, which is made more difficult by the zeal of these propagandists, is rendered somewhat less hopeless, however, by greater se- curity of life in case of conversion. The same desire for edu- cation that operates as a lever in elevating the Copts, is also helpful among Mohammedans, Thus in the last report of the 45^ GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS United Presbyterians, there were in their schools 3,077 Moslem pupils to 7,290 Copts and 2,838 Protestants. In addition to this most fruitful line of approach, personal work and religious and biblical literature are scarcely less useful. 3. The evangelization of the more than 90,000,000 of heathen Africa is the mighty task that confronts the Christian Church. Ignorance, almost entire lack of the elements of culture, ger- minal ideas of religion when even these are prevalent, make it necessary for the missionary to remember the advice of Africa's veteran German pioneer, Krapf : " Resist with all the power of faith, of prayer and of truth, that mood of despondency and faint-heartedness which is disposed to say with the men sent to spy out the land of Canaan, ' We be not able to go up against the people ; for they are stronger than we.' Let your first care be to convert the heathen within your own heart, your self-confidence, your self-love. Be modest, but not faint- hearted." To overcome the inertia of ages, engendered in much of the continent by favoring soil and climate, and to displace the thirst for blood and for gold with a desire for peace and in- dustry, requires rare patience and ability of a high order. How much greater is the demand made upon the spiritual nature, when one must create ideas of holiness and virtue by a stain- less life before there can be any desire for better living. While ability of every sort is desirable, this is preeminently the field for the versatile missionary with special gifts in practical di- rections. The well-known missionary and diplomat, Rev. John Mackenzie, said on this point : " The Hfe of a missionary in the interior of South Africa is usually attended with stirring incident and adventure. Whilst pursuing his great work of evangelist, he meets with game and wild beasts in the open country ; with wild and degraded men in town and village. He uses wagons, guns, horses and oxen ; he handles trowel, plumb- line, adze, saw and spirit-level, as well as the usual implements of a minister's study. His highest work is to deliver the mes- sage of Heaven's mercy, and to explain the Sacred Book in AFRICA 459 which it is contained ; but he seeks also to teach something of natural science. At times he is a schoolmaster ; and again he may be seen, with his disciples, in the garden or cornfield with spade or plow in his hands." 4. One other type which gives the worker no small degree of unrest and solicitude is the native of those sections where Western civilisation is sweeping in with its vanguard of seduc- tive evils, and where the might of the pseudo-Christian is ar- rayed against the right of the helpless African. While mis- sionaries are not especially hampered by the awful deeds of the trafficker in human flesh in most parts of Africa, he is the representative of Christian lands that send destructive firewater to myriads of doomed victims. He is, perhaps, a citizen of one of those two Christian nations that for years have been seek- ing each other's life with little thought of the example set be- fore the wondering and frightened native, and of the havoc wrought on his property or family. And what must be the effect upon Africans of seeing foreign officials of a supposedly model country, the Congo State, in order to secure the desired amount of rubber as a tax in kind, send out native soldiers to kill those who fail to comply with the demand? In order not to waste ammunition the Commissaire requires them to bring back a right hand for every cartridge used, so that at one of the mission stations eighty hands were brought in one day and seventy the next. Happily this particular grievance has almost disappeared, thanks to the bravery of Mr. Shelbron of the American Baptist Missionary Union. The type which causes the most difficulty, however, is found in South Africa below the Zambesi. The problem confronting the missionary here is that of " welding the black and the white together so as to form one strong, self-reliant and helpful brotherhood," when the blacks outnumber the whites by about seven to one, and the brain is in the white man's possession, while the black man possesses the brawn. .What the relations too often are between these two races was thus described by a London Missionary Society representative at the Ecumenical 460 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS Conference of 1900 : " In one section of the Christian Church in the Transvaal only a short time ago a resolution was passed threatening excommunication to any of its officers or mem- bers who should do anything to evangelize the heathen. In the Constitution of the Transvaal Government it says that there shall be no equality, either in Church or State, between white and colored people in the Transvaal. No colored per- son is ever permitted to enter a Dutch church in that country. They are not permitted to walk upon the sidewalks. They are not permitted to trade in any way whatever, not even to the extent of purchasing a basket of oranges and going from house to house to retail them. They are not permitted to own even a foot of land in the country that only two generations ago was entirely their own." Unfortunately this indictment differs in degree rather than in spirit from that which may be brought against English and Dutch alike in very many cases. Under such circumstances is there any occasion to wonder at the Ethiopian Movement in that land? Another South African missionary said at the same Conference : " Ten thousand members of the Wesleyan Church in South Africa went out of that Church as a protest against the prejudice that was ex- hibited within it ; and when they felt their own weakness and their lack of leadership, they sent one of their number over to America and pleaded with the African Methodist Church to come over there and assume the leadership of them ; and Bishop Turner, in response to that appeal, went over there and re- ceived into the African Methodist Episcopal Church those 10,000 members. When I was in South Africa- only a few weeks ago, I received into the Baptist Church some 1,200 mem- bers, representing some seventeen different congregations." This movement affects other churches than the Wesleyans and other sections of Africa, notably the West Coast. The Church Missionary Society has met the difficulty in great measure by appointing Africans to posts of high responsibility in the Church, while the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, at their request, constituted as the Order of Ethiopia a large AFRICA 461 proportion of those whom the American Bishop Turner re- ceived into his communion. While it is questionable whether the Ethiopian Movement will prove able to meet the unrest of many African churches,- it is arousing the sympathy of colored Christians in America and is bringing before them the respon- sibilities that they owe to races of their ancestral home. The question of their ability to endure as well as the stronger Anglo-Saxon the climatic and other health conditions of a land from which they have been expatriated for generations, and their less confirmed ability to meet the temptations incident to a land of nakedness and moral laxity, is a mboted one with much to be said on both sides. Enough has been written to show how serious a problem missionaries have to face in sec- tions where white and black meet in large numbers, and where the evils of Christendom are not powerfully offset by the in- fluences of Jesus. 5. Other problems and difficulties mentioned by missionaries in different parts of the continent are the following: Evils common to lower races where animalism predominates, such as adultery, polygamy, beer-drinking which near the coast has been displaced by the use of imported liquors, smoking in the same coast regions, the Western sin of prostitution learned from white men, and extravagance of all sorts. In the realm of morals and religion, only the grace of God can overcome the tendency to deny Christ's divinity and the dependence on works rather than a life of faith common to all Mohammedan com- munities; the fatalism of the same religion which has affected natives among whom the Moslem lives ; the all-pervasive be- lief in spirits over whom the witch-doctor claims to have power, and the awful loss of life due to his denunciation of persons supposed to have bewitched the sufferer; the evils consequent upon ancestral worship ; blind adherence to customary religious practices ; and an utter lack of thought and care concerning religion on the part of vast multitudes. 6. The case is not so hopeless as the preceding paragraph would lead one to suppose. There exist side by side with these 462 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS obstacles many traits and beliefs that are helpful to the mis- sionaries. In most cases Africans are hospitable and hence readily receive the foreigner, and their docility makes his teaching effective. Always ready to listen and eager to learn new things, they are especially willing to learn from the white man whom they reverence and look upon as their superior. There is much in their religious views and practices that leads up to the higher teachings of Christianity. Thus they are not atheistic, like Southern Buddhists or Confucianists ; they have laws of morality in not a few of their towns, those of the Kaf- irs resembling Levitical rules ; their worship of ancestors and deification of heroes easily lend themselves to the Christian ex- position of immortality ; in many sections they dimly believe in a God who is Creator and Father of men ; and like sinners the world around, they have a vague fear of future retribu- tion and a present desire for peace. In Mohammedan Africa, there is of course a firm belief in God, and in many cases a consciousness of sin, combined with serious attempts to satisfy the obligations of prayer and good works. III. Ways of Working. — Only a few of those that are em- phasized in Africa will be described in detail, it being under- stood that the missionary program is fully as broad as in any other field. I. In Mohammedan Africa medicine is especially valuable as an opener of doors, for reasons stated in the preceding chapter. 'In other sections of the continent it is even more needed, as there is more quackery here than in any other part of the world probably. Since disease is commonly attributed to the agency of some unfriendly person among the living, who must be put to death if it is fatal, the work of healing often saves two lives for the single cure. The varieties of patients cared for are thus described by Dr. Prentice, who labors at Bandawe in the heart of Africa : " Let me take you to one of the medical mission stations and show you how the work goes on. At a certain hour — sometimes early in the morning, sometimes in the afternoon — the dis- AFRICA 463 pensary is open, when the doctor is at home. Before the pa- tients are received they will have attended the worship in the school, and then they gather on the verandah at the dispen- sary door. You will see men, women and children who have come, or been carried, from the surrounding villages. They are there with ugly ulcers, malignant tumors, fractured bones, inflamed eyes, blind, deaf and cripple. Sometimes they are brought in the last stages of disease and may die at the doc- tor's door; and, oftener years ago than now, men and women almost dead from having drunk the terrible poison ordeal are laid down for treatment, and in such cases great promptitude on the doctor's part is required to save their life. Mothers bring their infants suffering from fits and other ailments and thinking that they have been bewitched. The doctor spends hours in making up and giving suitable medicines to each case and in giving instructions as to treatment. Each one relieved goes away happy, thinking well of the doctor and through him knowing something of the deep meaning of Christ, who is the Great Physician." While the less sensitive nerves of Africans do not require anccsthetics as commonly as those of their civilized brothers, when administered, their renown is widely heralded. Mr. Jack says of this " sleep medicine " ; " To the simple natives the cases were apparently miraculous. So far as they could see, the white man first killed the patient, and then when quite dead he cut the trouble out ; then he bound up the wound and made it better; and then finally he brought the patient back to life again. Every cure, too, was like a nail in the coffin of superstition and witchcraft." So confident are the natives that the missionary has the power to heal, even if not a physician, that some of them are forced to give applicants pills made of bread or some similar substance merely to show that they are willing to aid, though with the statement that they are not genuine medicine and that no good will come from them. The African medical missionary is not surrounded by the dense populations of China or India and hence a year's record 464 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS does not show such large numbers as in those lands. Yet the average hospital or dispensary receives 2,500 different patients annually with more than 6,000 treatments. The proportion of men, women and children, is in the ratio of 13 :6 :7 in the cases analyzed. As to diseases, they will vary with the local- ity; but in an inland station, where fever is not quite so prev- alent as along the coast, the four commonest medical cases — beginning with the most numerous — are abdominal com- plaints, fevers, catarrh and bronchitis, rheumatism. Sim- ilarly the commonest surgical cases are ulcers and abscesses, skin diseases, eye cases, wounds. 2. If medicine can enter some doors where no other form of effort is desired, evangelisation is often possible where there is no ability to do any other form of work. Usually, the audience is in the child stage, so far as ability to grasp new ideas is concerned ; hence the truths of Christianity must be presented very simply and as far as possible through object lessons. Take as an illustration the beginning and end of evangelistic effort on the shores of Lake Nyassa. " Object les- sons were given with the view not merely of enlightening the minds of the natives, but leading them up to God and his grace. The first lesson was, ' A watch, and how we divide our time.' The division of the day into hours was explained to them on a large blackboard. The information, of course, had to be given in a very simple form, as it was all new and difficult to them — as difficult as a lecture on polarization of light would be to working people at home. The watch was then compared with the world, and it was shown that the latter must have a maker as well as the former. The second lesson was, ' Cot- ton and its uses,' from which the people were shown the neces- sity of a change in the natural heart before it can be useful. The third was, ' How we communicate with each other,' and from this they were taught how God communicates to us His love and grace." Simple Bible stories illustrated by colored cartoons are useful, especially those from the Old Testament. After years of patient toil this work, with the other agencies AFRICA 465 to be named later, will bring us to the fruitage of evangelistic effort, which is vividly described by the former Student Volun- teer leader of Great Britain, Donald Fraser, writing in 1898: " On Monday, May 2, the strangers began to arrive. The first to come were from Mperembe's, the great warrior chief. Mateyu, the teacher, marched at their head, and behind him in a long line followed nearly seventy people. They brought with them a sheep and a goat which Mperembe had sent as his contribution to the Sabbath's collections. Next day towards evening the Njuyu people arrived. We could see them wind- ing their way down the hillside in a straggling line which stretched back for nearly a mile. Through all the forenoon of Wednesday bands of people continued to arrive, sometimes marching up the road in solid phalanx with a swinging step, and sometimes in long drawn-out Indian file. The paths to the southward were alive with people ; and men sat on the ant- hills as the companies passed and cried out, ' What mean these things? Has an army come in among you? Are you going to a new country ? ' And the people cried back, ' We are g'oing to the baptisms. Come and see.' On Saturday morning we intended to baptize the adults who were to be received into the Church ; but owing to a cold, drizzling rain we deferred it to the afternoon. But what a day that was ! None such has ever been seen in Nyassa-land. We baptized 195 adults and on Sabbath afternoon 89 children — in all 284 souls. On Communion Sabbath our monthly collection was taken at the beginning of the service. We counted £1 8s. in money, 3 lbs. 6 ozs. of small beads, 1 1 knives, i ax, 2 hoes, 5 finger rings, 3 bracelets, i spear, 14 pots, 16 baskets, i mat, 67 fowls, 2 goats, 2 sheep, 233 lbs. of maize, 34 lbs. of potatoes and 62 lbs. of pumpkins. A great congregation numbering nearly 4,000 assembled. On the raised platform we three missiona- ries sat, along with our seven native elders. Arranged in rows before us was the little native church and crowding on all sides the great mass of people. Hundreds of poor, naked, wander- ing women stood around on the right, and on a large ant- 466 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS hill to the left sat some sixty or seventy men, many of them old warriors, looking down at the feast below and wondering what it all meant." More marvelous scenes have subsequently been witnessed in this field as the result of evangelistic effort, while in Uganda the workers in connection with the Church Missionary Society have beheld marvelous Pentecosts. 3. Literary work is somewhat different from that in other mission lands, in that much strength is spent in reducing for the first time the languages to writing. How important this form of effort is is manifest from the fact that Africa has at least 600 languages and dialects, and that so fundamental a book as the Bible has thus far been translated in part or wholly into only 115 of them. Pilkington of the Church Missionary Society's force in Uganda, whose great linguistic talent was cut short by death, furnishes an excellent illustration of how one should prepare for this work. In order to fit himself for his translational labors, he took infinite pains to master the idiom and to clothe Occidental and biblical ideas in the garb of vernacular speech. " It is necessary to know their similes and metaphors, as well as the mere words. What European would talk of having ears as ' sharp as an elephant's,' or being as thin — not as a poker — but ' as a blade of grass ' ; or of being afraid — not of your shadow — but of ' the breaking of a blade of grass,' etc. ? These are the things that make one intelligible and interesting to these people, but to get to use them natu- rally, without effort, is extremely difficult. Then their prov- erbs! Half of our English ideas are only translatable by means of proverbs into Luganda. For example, the words im- partial or partial, interested or disinterested, would have to be turned by using the proverb, ' In matters that concern the for- est, is the monkey judge? ' To translate the expressions, ' he's only got himself to thank,' ' your own fault,' etc., you must use a proverb about sores that come from self-inflicted cuttings in the flesh for ornamentation ; and nothing else would be really intelligible to these people in that context, except that particular proverb." AFRICA 467 4. Education is a manifest necessity in a land of dense ig- norance. Dr. Laws, the famous missionary of the United Free Church of Scotland, writes thus in speaking of the experiences with their 15,000 pupils in the lake region and their enrollment of 30,000 : " You get a class of boys before you, and you begin by showing them O and teaching them how to call it. You take another letter and another and another, but by the time you have got over four or five, your pupils are tired and it is time to stop that day. To-morrow you get your pupils again and the next day and the next day, but by that time they are very tired and they go home to rest a week. After this week's rest perhaps they will come back again. They remember O because it is round like the moon; but depend upon it they have forgotten all the other letters, and you have to begin your work all over again. Perhaps you get to the end of the alphabet this time ; but then your pupils will be very tired in- deed, and you will not see them for a fortnight. But this is not all. Your pupils see that you pay for work, and they soon come to tell you that this counting of letters on a book is hard work and they need pay. So the boys attending school each got a slip of paper and it was marked each day. Then after a month, those who had been present all the time were arranged in rows, — those who learned the most at the top, — and there was a distribution of prizes. The one at the top of the class got, perhaps, three needles ; the next one got two needles ; the next, one. And then perhaps another would get two pins, an- other one pin, and so on ; for pins were turned into fishhooks as soon as they got out of school. Then the teacher went around with a bowl of something white and a teaspoon, and each one got a teaspoonful or two of the contents of the bowl ; and before he got around the class you would see the one at the top busily licking this white stuff. You may think it was sugar. No, it was salt. Salt was a very precious commodity in Central Africa. " Now what is the outcome of all this? It is good. It is a hard thing to raise a population the length of the alphabet. 468 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS Perhaps you don't believe me. Take a picture in black and white and the natives cannot see it. You may tell the natives : * This is a picture of an ox and a dog/ and the people will look at it and look at you, and that look says that they consider you a liar. Perhaps you say again, ' Yes, that is a picture of an ox and a dog.' Well, perhaps they will tell you what they think this time. If there are a few boys about,, you say : ' This is really a picture of an ox and a dog. Look at the horn of the ox, and there is his tail.' And the boy will say : ' Oh ! yes, and there is the dog's nose and eyes and ears.' Then the old people will look again and then they clap their hands and say, ' Oh ! yes, it is a dog.' When a man has seen a picture for the first time, his book education has begun." At the opposite pole of the educational scheme stands the Asyut College of the United Presbyterians of America, labor- ing for races that are inheritors of learning from a distant past. This is probably the most advanced institution for the natives to be found in Africa. Of the -value of this thoroughly Chris- tian and scholarly College, Mr. Penfield, late United States Consul-General in Egypt, writes in " Present Day Egypt " as follows : " Uninfluenced by political motive, the schools of the American Mission have done tenfold more for the cause of education and the spread of the English language in Egypt than has Great Britain. The College of the Mission at Asyut is a model institution whose standard of education has few rivals in the Turkish dominions." That the natives are equally appreciative of its advantages is shown by this testimony of the Egyptian Governor, Heshmat Pasha, writing in 1900: " Through its influence thousands of our young men have been trained into chaste and noble character. Many of these have entered the school from most humble homes, often indeed from homes of poverty, and they are now living in comfortable and honorable stations of life. Some are occupying positions of trust in the Government both in Egypt and the Sudan ; others have entered business life and agriculture ; and others have become educators and ministers of the gospel. And I have AFRICA 469 become thoroughly convinced of the excellent life and fidelity of every one of them with whom I have become personally ac- quainted." What the spirit of its students is may be seen from the reasons given by some of them for deciding to turn away from flattering offers of government service to undertake the self- sacrificing work of evangelizing and teaching their fellow- countrymen. Abadir Ibraheem : " Christ commanded us to preach the gospel. As I love Him, I must keep His command- ment." Kheelaylah Masrood : " The Lord's work is wide and the workers few. Our young men prefer to go to the gov- ernment offices. Therefore I choose to be a Christian teacher, to educate the small boys in their youth so as to be progressive in their old age." Isshak Ibraheem : " I feel that I am under responsibility because of the religious knowledge the Lord hath given me. I must not hide the light I have, lest my brothers die in the valley of darkness." Hanna Gabroos : " He who knows something of God and does not inform others is re- sponsible before God." What has been said of the work of this Board along educational lines is true of most of the edu- cational efforts of all societies. 5. A special branch of teaching is needed more in Africa than on any other continent, namely industrial education. As Lovedale is the typical institution and its head, Dr. Stewart, its leading advocate, it is chosen as representative of many other similar schools in Africa. Dr. Stewart says of the reasons for industrial education: " Missionaries may be asked why they trouble themselves with it and lade themselves with the thick clay of such occupations and distracting responsibili- ties. The answer is threefold. They have done so from a contemplation, first, of the life of the people among whom they labor, if they are a barbarous or uncivilized people. Sec- ond, they see that the tide of advancing civilization is rolling so rapidly over certain portions of the globe, that barbarous peoples must accommodate themselves in some measure to its conditions and requirements, or be swept away. Third, among 470 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS a barbarous people one of the most formidable barriers to the acceptance of the gospel is the indolence, or in plainer words, the absolute laziness, which marks the social and. individual life of such peoples. This indolence is the result of generations of hereditary influence, of social habits and customs, and is also partly due to the influence of climate." At Lovedale the moral effect upon the student of industrial training is made the primary aim, with the secondary yet inseparable one of aiding him to gain a better livelihood than that of a day la- borer. Though the Basle missionaries were apparently the pioneers in African industrial education and while nearly all the lead- ing societies include it to a greater or less extent in their pro- gram, Lovedale differs from nearly all of them in its interde- nominational character, though the Free Church of Scotland has sustained it in the past. " All colors and nearly every tribe in South Africa," writes Dr. Noble, " are found at Love- dale, a few coming even from the Shire and Zambezi Rivers. No influence is exerted toward having students leave their de- nomination or join the Free Church. Students of theology training as workers for other bodies are not weakened in de- nominational loyalty. . . . The educational department comprises three courses, each three years long, consisting respectively of elementary, literary, or theological study." Practical work like carpentry, wagon-making, blacksmithing, book-binding, printing, sewing, laundry work and agriculture is also an important part of the scheme, while instruction in the Bible and applied Christianity is the first work of the day for every class. Statistics, quoted by Dr. Noble, show that at least eighty per cent, of the 2,000 who at the time of writing had left Lovedale had led industrious and useful lives. " The educational bureau of Cape Colony publishes statistics com- paring Lovedale with 700 other institutions and schools. The comparison shows that in the three grades forming the foun- dation of practical and useful knowledge Lovedale stands first. In the secondary and the higher grades Lovedale occupies only AFRICA 471 the second place. When all grades of merit or success are grouped together, Lovedale stands first; but in honors and competency, second ; and in honors alone, merely third." IV. The Tasks of the African Church. — While the missionary is the leader in every good work, some enterprises are so colossal, or else so private and personal, that there is no hope of meeting the needs of this vast continent save through the native Church. I. The first labor must be widespread evangelisation. The white man can never be wholly acclimated ; the native is proof against much that would kill a European, though himself subject to fevers and other ills. Moreover, he knows his countrymen far better than the missionary can hope to know them. Unfortunately Africans do not readily rally in this in- terest, nor prove as strong in the work as natives of some other lands. Perhaps the Uganda field furnishes the best illustra- tions of evangelization, where as long ago as 1895 there were 200 native teachers and evangelists scattered over the country, entirely supported by the Church of Uganda itself. Their pay was about $5.50 per annum, this sufficing for clothing, etc., their food being provided by those who were taught. Pilking- ton says of these men : " The Waganda are born missionaries. They are splendid travelers and in ability a good deal above — so far as is known — the nations around them. Their coun- try is an island in a vast sea of ignorance." Dr. Laws of the Livingstonia Mission describes the method adopted by them to enlist and prepare the natives for evangel- istic work. " Every baptized person who is received into the full membership in Livingstonia, undertakes to seek the exten- sion of Christ's kingdom. The women are expected to assist in this at their homes and in their own villages. The men are expected in addition to go to other villages to preach. That they may do this the more efficiently, at all our stations where there are European missionaries and at the stations of our ad- vanced teachers, the male members of the Church gather on Friday afternoons to what is known as the preachers' class. 472 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS At this class a subject on which they are to preach the follow- ing Sabbath is studied, and arrangements made for the preachers going out two and two to the different villages. Some of these companies walk from ten to twenty miles to hold these services and the same distance back, and for this not one receives a farthing of pay." 2. As the Church grows, its own purity and even its ex- istence forces it to meet powerful foes. Slavery and the traffic that it gives rise to was once the continent's greatest bane. To-day, while greatly abated, it is a danger to many an African village and, in so far as it is internal and not Mohammedan, it must be put down by a better sentiment on the subject. The Church has also something to do in the case of freed slaves. Hitherto the missionaries have borne this burden ; but with the peculiar problems arising in places like Pemba and Zanzi- bar native Christians must aid in the adjustment to the life of freedom. The passing of the elephant and the increasing mile- age of steam navigation and railways remove much of the excuse for the slave traffic ; but in newly entered communi- ties where virtual if not actual slaveholding is prevalent, the Church can do more than any other factor toward putting it down. 3. Perhaps the African Church is troubled more by the question of polygamy than that of any other land, for the reason that a larger proportion of the converts have more than one wife. Admitting that the equitable disposition of women who have been married in heathen days is a most difficult prob- lem, it is nevertheless one that most of the native Christian leaders feel must be solved, if the individual and the Church are to live a pure life. Intimately connected with polygamy as an inducing cause are all the other woes of African womanhood. The greatest sufferer from these is not the negress, for she has far more privileges and greater rights than her Mohammedan sister of the North. The Church of North Africa except in Egypt, is still too weak to effect any changes in sentiment, save among AFRICA 473 its own membership. The Kaiserswerth deaconesses and ladies of the North Africa Mission and Church Missionary Society, are the chief workers for these daughters of Ishmael. Miss Whately's memory — " Bishop " Mary Whately — will be held in lasting remembrance all over Lower Egypt, and her tireless devotion is imitated by no less consecrated and talented succes- sors. In Black Africa this task of raising woman to her rightful place belongs to the native Christians. Education is appre- ciated by negro girls as much as in Egypt, where in the United Presbyterian schools one-third of the pupils are girls. . Edu- cated women are not only a necessity for elevating the home life, but in church work men like Mackay are hampered by the feeling of delicacy in dealing with women, an experience that native preachers share in less degree. To suppose that because of woman's degradation, her influ- ence is slight and hence her uplifting unimportant is to betray ignorance of conditions in this land of woman's rights. Two incidents will indicate her place in society; both are quoted from Mrs. Duncan McLaren. " Look for a moment on this picture. It is a meeting of men gathered together by an hon- ored servant of God who has been pioneering amid the wilds and has called the men together to tell them among other things that they ought to make a proper road as a step toward civiliza- tion. Such a proposal is far from winning the men's ap- proval. One voices the opposition with the characteristic as- sertion that * never since the Zambezi ran into the sea was such a thing dreamt of, that they should make a road for other people to walk on.' But away at the back of the crowd there is a woman who, with quick intuition, has grasped the advan- tages to be derived from this proposed roadway, and rising she announces that she will give three weeks' work to help make it. Her words change entirely the attitude of the men ; the road is made. Take another picture. The scene lies far up the Cross River on the west coast of Africa. The women of Un- wana are displeased with a certain action the men have taken and they make up their minds, at the instigation of the old 474 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS women, to leave the town. They actually carry this threat out, and the missionary who sent the news home added feelingly, ' And the town was quiet for once ! ' Now before these women would return, they had to be coaxed and bribed, and still they threaten to go away again unless they get their own way. Such examples show clearly the immense importance of bring- ing heathen women to the Saviour's feet, that their God-given influence may be used to advance the kingdom of righteous- ness." 4. The part that the Native Church must play in the exter- mination of intemperance is evident in remote stations where the liquors of Christendom have not penetrated. Beer-drink- ing has been successfully fought in many a church, and where it is forbidden without compromise to members, there is steady progress. Southeastern Africa and missions on the lakes have seen the most marked progress along temperance lines. As for coast towns and river valleys where rum pours in on the defenseless inhabitants like a flood, the Native Church has far less responsibility for the evil than the Church of the United States, or of Great Britain, or of Germany. Nevertheless the activity of temperance organizations in many missions shows what can and must be done, if Christianity is to maintain its life and purity. V. Africa's Hopes and Needs. — The long line of pres- ent-day heroes and heroines ; the chronicles of nearly a hun- dred Protestant missionary societies laboring for the Dark Con- tinent, all of which contain pages that well-nigh match the Acts of the Apostles; the political conditions, present and prospective, in their bearing on the future ; the progress of commerce and trade in their paradoxical influence on mission- ary operations ; a hundred other topics which ought to be con- sidered were space available — all must be passed by. So magnificent a field, however, should grant its advocates an opportunity to say a word at least in the way of appeal. I. And first a voice from the dead, the voice of a princely scholar, a spirit-filled evangelist, who fell asleep four years AFRICA 475 ago in his thirty-third year, George Lawrence Pilkington, of Uganda. As they were taking him from the fight of the banana gardens, a native Christian said to him, " He that be- Heveth in Christ, although he die, yet shall he live." The dy- ing man replied, " Yes, my child, it is as you say — shall never die." After they had carried him to the rear of the firing line, he said : " Thank you, my friends, you have done well to take me off the battlefield ; and now give me rest," — after which he entered into the rest that remaineth. This is his message. " We have stood together now in fancy on Namirembe's far- viewing summit ; we have looked across Unyoro's plains into the far Nile Valley and the vast Sudan ; we have gazed in im- agination across the Albert on into the Great Forest and won- dered when that strange pygmy race will learn that they, too, are objects of the Eternal Love. We have looked across many a mile into wild Kavirondo; we have pictured the great Lake the center of a united, active Church, sending its evangelists east and west, north and south, to many nations and many tongues. But now comes the question, is it all to end here? Oh, let us be real ! Emotion is no substitute for action. You love Africa, do you ? * God so loved that He gave ' — God gave — what ? Superfluities ? Leavings ? That which cost Him nothing? ' When ye shall have done all, say. We are un- profitable servants ; we have done that which was our duty to do.' If we are doing less than all, we are robbing God. We salve our consciences by doing a little, and refuse to rec- ognize the fact that the work for which the Lord died is not being done. Let us confess that hitherto we have only been playing at missions. God has given us much more than our miserable efforts have deserved. Let us begin in a new way; new prayer, new giving, new going. The World for Christ, Christ for the World, in this generation ! " 2. The second word comes from one of the splendid tro- phies of missions, the prominent Christian leader of Natal, John L. Dube. Within a year he has written, in " A Native View of South Africa," these stirring sentences : " If Jesus Christ could 47o GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS only come quickly and reign, what a blessing to men ! How He would provide a way to realize the beauty of holiness and peace. The field is great, the missionaries few, and the earnest Chris- tian citizens are but a handful — a remnant. How to influ- ence men aright when the passions are aroused by what the white man calls his rights is beyond the solving of any one in this world, and God only can prepare a way for us natives. Oh, that the Christian Church would flood South Africa with Christian missionaries, and give sufficient money to establish institutions, where natives may be trained as leaders to combat the evil influences which we fear! This land is a great land of sorrow ! Heathen and Christian, Boer and Briton, native and foreigner, capital and labor assimilation, federation, self- government and many other problems will give rise to much bitterness and treachery. Were it not for our faith in God, who is able to cause the wrath of man to praise Him, the out- look would be gloomy indeed ; but our hope is in the Ever- lasting Father and the Prince of Peace." XVIII MADAGASCAR AND OTHER AFRICAN ISLANDS PART I. — GENERAL I. Journey from Tamatave to Antananarivo. — Mada- gascar is not " The Universe," as its native name Izao rehetra izao signifies, though it is the third largest island of the globe, if Australia is reckoned as a continent. Its maximum length is approximately the same as the distance from New York to Chicago, with a breadth equal to the distance from the former city to Richmond, Va. One can get a fair idea of its various physical features by journeying in a palanquin — the ordinary mode of traveling — from the leading port, Tamatave, to its only large city and capital, Antananarivo. 1. The Coast Region. — Carried on the indurated shoul- ders of native bearers, . the traveler first proceeds southward along the coast. The scenery is that of a beautiful park, with turf soft and velvety and groups of tropical trees, to say nothing of the beautiful orchids which delight the beholder with their rich luxuriance of white shell-like blossoms. " Sometimes twelve or fifteen distinct plants, each full of waxen flowers, may be seen growing on a single decayed tree trunk. Ferns and climbing plants surround the larger trees in rich abundance." 2. Upward through the Forest Belt. — As one turns from the Indian Ocean toward the interior, an agreeable change is experienced in the canoe ride of twelve or fifteen miles up a river the banks of which are dotted with small villages and bor- dered with patches of cultivated ground. The surface cultiva- 477 47^ GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS tion noted shows a rich soil and gives promise of marvelous results under better tillage. Disembarking at the town of Maromby, the palanquin is resumed and the hill region is en- tered. This perfect mass of hills increases in height as one advances westward. The vegetation is different, however, from what was seen along the coast; and for a time hardly any trees are met with except " the raofia palm, the traveler's tree, with its fan-like spreading leaves, and the bamboo, which with its bright green feathery leaves and its wondrously grace- ful curves, gives an indescribable charm to the landscape." After two or three days' journeying, the traveler passes into the second characteristic region of Madagascar, namely, the great forest belt, which almost surrounds the island like the platter rim mentioned as being characteristic of the African continent. Nervous persons find here some difficulty, since the track is exceedingly steep and rough ; but the experienced and sure-footed bearers cheerfully pursue their way, now wad- ing knee-deep through the marshy valley, now following the bed of some mountain stream, and anon facing bravely one of those steep ascents, or cautiously descending into the next valley, the descent being often a more serious undertaking than the climb upwards. In this particular section of the forest belt, two days of travel bring one to the third feature of Mada- gascar topography, the inland plateau. 3. The Interior Highlands. — After passing through one of the most luxuriant tropical regions of the world, disap- pointment is felt as one gazes upon a territory containing per- haps 100,000 square miles, or nearly one-half of the entire island. A prominent missionary, Rev. James Sibree, thus de- scribes this region : " The general face of the interior country consists of bare rolling moors from which unstratified rocks protrude, and form the highest parts of the hills. These have mostly a rounded dome or boss-like outline, but in some dis- tricts present a very varied and picturesque appearance, resem- bling Titanic castles, cathedrals, pyramids and spires." Oc- casionally hilltops crowned with ancient fig trees, villages built MADAGASCAR AND OTHER AFRICAN ISLANDS 4/9 of red soil, perched here, there and in all directions, and little valleys carefully cultivated for rice, give variety to what is otherwise a barren scene. As one approaches the capital, how- ever, the valley becomes far spreading, and it is one of the great rice districts of Madagascar. 4. Antananarivo. — Standing upon a ridge elevated some 700 feet above the plain, the capital makes a very strong impression upon all travelers coming from the somewhat desolate region behind. Many years ago Mr. Cameron, the correspondent of the London " Standard," thus described this first view of the capital : " Antananarivo itself was in sight ; and we could plainly see the glass windows of the palace glistening in the morning sun on the top of the long hill on which the city was built. It was Sunday, and the people were clustering along the footpaths on their way to church, or sitting in the grass outside waiting for the service to begin, as they do in villages at home. The women, who appeared to be in the majority, wore their cotton gowns, often neatly embroidered, and white — or black and white — striped lambas thrown gracefully over their shoulders. The men were clad also in cotton — white cotton pantaloons, cotton lambas, and straw hats with large black silk band. In the morning sun the play of colors over the landscape was lovely. The dark green hills, studded with the brilliant red brick houses of the inhabitants, whose white garments dotted the lanes and footpaths, contrasted with the brighter emerald of the rice fields in the hollows. The soil everywhere is deep red, almost magenta, in color, and where the roads or pathways cross the hills, they shine out as if so many paint-brushes had streaked the country in broad red stripes. Above all, the spires of the strange city, set on the top of its mountain, with a deep blue sky for a background, added to the beauty of the scene. It was difficult to imagine that this peaceful country, with its pretty cottages, its innumerable chapels whose bells were then calling its people to worship and its troops of white-robed men and women answering the sum- mons, was the barbarous Madagascar of twenty years ago." 480 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS 5. The Peculiar Country of " Lemuria." — While typical scenery has thus been described, wider experience would be needed to realize the numerous peculiarities of this " Great Af- rican Island." As a matter of fact, the peculiarities mentioned make it seem quite evident that originally it was not so much African as Indo-African. As to its inhabitants, the ruling class as well as their now almost universal language manifestly came from India, or Malaysia. Moreover, its flora and fauna are such as prove that it must have been from the remotest times separated from the adjacent continent. 6. The climate is naturally somewhat unhealthful, espec- ially along the coast and on the western side of the island. As there is also a considerable area of marshy land and many lagoons, malarial fever is prevalent, and often fatal. In the elevated interior districts, however, there is no intense heat and the climate may be considered quite healthy. II. The Malagasy, — This name is hardly justifiable, though commonly used to describe the composite population of the island. 1. The chief races in point of numbers are the dominant Hova race, numbering perhaps a million ; the Sakalava, about equally numerous and dwelling in the West ; the Betsileo, dwelling south of the Hova, and numbering perhaps 600,000; the Betsimisaraka, along the eastern coast, with perhaps 400,- 000 ; and the Bara, of the South, numbering 200,000. Adding other less important tribes, a total population of 3,500,000 is reached. 2. The two leading races, however, are the first ones men- tioned. The Sakalava, who occupy nearly the whole west coast, are very probably African in origin, belonging perhaps to the Bantu stock. They are the rudest though not the dark- est and most negroid of the Malagasy peoples. Like the Hova, they were apparently a small tribe and from their southwestern home they " acquired the ascendency over all western groups, just as the Hova became dominant on the central plateau." They are restless, warlike and quarrelsome, and have been the MADAGASCAR AND OTHER AFRICAN ISLANDS 481 great slave-dealers of the island, supplying " the Arab traders with slaves stolen from the interior in exchange for guns and powder. Their gun is their inseparable companion; and it is said that they will not lay it down even to wash their face, but will wash one side of the face first, letting their gun rest meanwhile on the other shoulder." Bands of robbers which have harassed the borderlands of the central plateau have been recruited from these people. The Hova are very evidently ancient immigrants from the Northeast who were carried in stray canoes, it may be, over the broad ocean to their new home. While constituting less than one-third of the population of the entire island, their rulers were supreme during the last century, until the recent French occupation ; and the language which they brought with them has become the accepted speech of all other Madagascar peo- ples. They have less alien blood in their veins than is found in the leading races mentioned. Though during the time of their ascendency their rule was oppressive, they are nevertheless a progressive people and very willing to assimilate modern civ- ilization. It is the Hova who have accepted Christianity most readily; and they have come so far under its influence that they have taken a very helpful part in the higher development of Madagascar. 3. Some characteristics common to Malagasy life may be mentioned. They have been called living compasses, as to a greater extent even than the Chinese they apply the sense of direction to the commonest acts of life. Thus a missionary was once told that there was a crumb on his northern mus- tache. While accounts are given of many who live in the woods, chiefly on the trees, Malagasy houses are usually well- built and were formerly constructed according to the same plan, one feature being " the prayer corner," which was at the north- east, in which direction any one offering prayer would turn. Their food is so essentially rice that to prepare a meal is " to cook rice," as in China, and " to eat rice " means simply to take a meal. Like the nation just mentioned, the acme of delight 482 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS is here reached when a Malagasy experiences pleasant sensa- tions of satiety. 4. Notwithstanding the variety of races of Madagascar, the language is but one, namely, the Malaysian tongue, which has been little modified since the ancient immigrants came to Madagascar. It is suggested by Professor Keane that since it contains practically no Sanskrit words, as is true of the Malaysian speech of to-day, they must have emigrated from their distant home before the Hindu missionaries, more than two millenniums ago, carried Sanskrit into Malaysia. The va- rious dialects differ as little as the speech of the old-time ne- gro from that of the Bostonian, or as the dialect of Lancashire from that of Somersetshire. When Europeans in the sixteenth century became well acquainted with Madagascar, no written literature was apparently in existence ; so that all that may be learned concerning them is through traditions and other some- what untrustworthy sources. III. Religion at the Coming of the Missionaries. — I. When in 1820 the Welsh pioneers of the London Mission- ary Society reached the island they found a religious people. Mr. Cousins, a recent missionary, describes the religion of the time as being an ancestral worship, combined with the service of sun, moon, stars, mountains and cities. Prayers and sacri- fices were offered to the spirits as well as to the objects just named. As on the continent, the fear of witchcraft had ter- rific power, and the ordeal by poison was quite as deadly as there. Divination and a belief in lucky or unlucky days exer- cised great influence over the people ; while the belief in fate was almost as powerful as among Mohammedans. Sacrifice, however, might turn aside threatening evil. 2. They likewise found certain elements in the beliefs and customs of the people that were stepping-stones to a truer faith. Mr. Cousins mentions some of these. " There was, for in- stance, no ancient religious literature appealing to the ven- eration and conservatism of the people. Again, there was nothing exactly answering to the priestly caste that exists in MADAGASCAR AND OTHER AFRICAN ISLANDS 483 SO many lands, and forms a mighty barrier against the en- trance of a new religion. Finally, the religion of the Malagasy possessed little cohesion and self-consistency. Apparently de- rived from various sources and composed of heterogeneous ele- ments, it was never able to present a firm front to the ag- gressive spirit of Christianity. Hence it had not the power of resistance possessed by many of the more ancient and elabo- rate religions of the East. But better than all this, there existed side by side with all the idolatry and superstition, a tradition that a purer religion had once existed, and that the ancient faith of the people had been a simple theism." Another help which missionaries too seldom avail themselves of was found in "Proverbs of the Ancients," of which the Mala- gasy were exceedingly fond. Thus this one sounds as if taken from "Pilgrim's Progress " : " Like a little chicken drinking water, it looks up to God " ; that is, God is greater than the imagination of man. Another was used by the missionaries to remind the people of God's omnipresence and watchfulness : " Think not of the silent valley [that is as affording an oppor- tunity for committing crime] ; for God is over our head." St. Paul's statement concerning God's winking at the times of ig- norance finds a parallel in their proverb, " There is nothing un- known to God, but He intentionally bows down His head " [that is so as not to see]. IV. Islands of the Western Indian Ocean. — The iso- lated islands or groups east and northeast of Madagascar differ from the African islands of the South Atlantic, which are, so to speak, like " a man-of-war," as Ascension is regarded, or an " island prison," like St. Helena. The principal ones that have been scenes of missionary effort, are two in number. I. Mauritius, or the Isle of France, will be recalled as the burial place of Harriet Newell, one of the earliest of American women missionaries. It is a plateau rising into three principal groups of mountains and fringed by coral reefs. Mauritius is now a Crown Colony of Great Britain and two-thirds of its 484 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS population is made up of immigrants from India. The total number of inhabitants in 1891 was nearly 371,000. 2. The Seychelles Archipelago lies 930 miles north of Mauritius and consists of thirty-four islands, many of them merely uninhabited rocks. One characteristic product is the double cocoanut, which is found nowhere else in the world. Cocoanut oil and vanilla are the staple products. Most of its 16,440 inhabitants are of African descent, with a few natives of French origin. 3. Other islands like Rodrigues and the Chagos Archipel- ago are of less importance and are largely occupied for the production of cocoanut oil. The French island of Reunion, or Bourbon, lies to the southwest of Mauritius. Its population in 1897 was 173,192, mainly French; though there were 15,- 219 Hindus and 14,344 Africans and natives of Madagascar. A volcanic range constitutes its backbone, and among its peaks is one of the most active volcanoes in the world. V. Atlantic Groups. — i. The Madeiras. — These islands lie off the northwest coast of the continent on the ocean high- way between Great Britain and South Africa. They constitute one of the great sanatoria of the world, especially for those suf- fering from pulmonary complaints. This is due to the mild- ness of the climate and the lack of excessive rains. While the southern half of Madeira, the main island, is treeless and arid in the summer, the north side is more luxuriant and fertile. " Travelers praise the golden splendor of the wide expanses of gorse and broom in blossom, and of the marvelous masses of color — pink, mauve and brick-dust red — of the flora of the island." Its inhabitants, who numbered 134,000 in 1890, are " of mixed Portuguese, Moorish and negro descent ; they are of vigorous frame, lively and industrious, economical and simple in their habits." The Government is non-progressive and the state religion is Roman Catholicism, with nominal toleration of other creeds. 2. Cape Verde Islands. — Like the Madeiras, this group, lying 400 miles off the west coast of Africa, is a possession of MADAGASCAR AND OTHER AFRICAN ISLANDS 485 Portugal. The islands are volcanic in character and are all very mountainous. While lacking in moisture, " vegetation is luxuriant, yielding African and Southern European products. The climate is unhealthful during the rainy season — August to October — fever and dysentery being the chief scourges ; and long droughts have sometimes given rise to great famines," that of 1831-33 having cost 30,500 lives. The people are mostly negroes or mulattoes and are — with rare exceptions — Catholics. Harmlessly indolent, they speak a patois of the Portuguese, and in 1896 numbered 114,130. In the dry years the islands suffer from emigration to Brazil and British Guiana. PART II. — MISSIONARY I. The Missionary Forces. — Those concerning which details are given in Volume II number twelve. Five are Amer- ican, five are British and two are Continental. Collectively they have 284 foreign workers, with 68,207 communicants and 103,165 adherents under their care. II. Madagascar. — This land of glorious martyrdom is one of the most interesting of mission fields, though much of that interest centers in its history, with which the present work has nothing to do. I. Political conditions have changed the aspects of religious effort in the island. Though formerly the great field of the London Missionary Society, the French occupation in 1895 resulted in greater loss to that society than to any other. Pro- fessor Warneck says concerning the French aggression and its effect on the various missions : " This occupation gave the Jesuits, who since the end of the fifties had been forcing their way into the country, the opportunity they desired of turning the hatred felt by the fanatical French colonial politicians towards the British to account, in order to procure by skilful intrigue the systematic oppression of the evangelical missions. Under the watchword, * French is equivalent to Catholic,* 486 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS the religious liberty which was proclaimed with so much dis- play of rhetoric has been set at defiance. Evangelical Chris- tians and native pastors have been suspected as rebels, impris- oned and put to death ; many evangelical churches and chapels have been confiscated ; and by the violent introduction of French, first as the language of instruction, and afterwards as only the chief matter of instruction, many evangelical schools have been ruined, not to speak of the numerous conversions wrought by violence and cunning among the terrorized people. In this critical situation the Paris Missionary Society, with brave determination and brotherly self-sacrifice, has come to the aid of its hard-pressed Madagascar co-religionists by send- ing out French pastors and teachers ; and it has succeeded, chiefly through two deputations, first Professor Kriiger and then Director Boegner, not only in checking the persecution of the Protestants, but also in procuring for the non-French evangelical societies the same missionary liberty which it de- sired for itself. Along with 1,200 schools, with about 62,000 scholars, the Paris Society has taken over a large number of the former congregations of the English Independents in the provinces of Imerina and Betsileo, about half of the field they formerly occupied. . . . While the work of the Anglicans and of the Quakers has suffered only a little from the violent counter-mission of the Jesuits in the great colonial-political storm, and that of the Norwegians almost none at all, . . . the congregations of the London Society have been decimated in a manner that is simply startling, and the Court Church seems to have almost wholly disappeared." While Professor Warneck holds that this great loss is largely due to " the ma- lign influence of its independent doctrine," and its " superficial missionary work," he fails to give due weight to the animosity that the French Government felt for this most influential of the missionary societies. Moreover, the mass movement that affected this Society more than all others, was against the pro- tests of its missionaries for the very reason that it was likely to prove superficial. What was done by natives contrary to MADAGASCAR AND OTHER AFRICAN ISLANDS 487 the desires of the missionaries should not be charged against their Society. 2. Relieving Factors. — The " Norsk Missionstidende " stated in an issue of 1900 that a considerable alteration had taken place in the educational work, " the Government having first given up its unreasonable demand for French in all ele- mentary schools, and then having decided to give up compul- sory attendance. The future alone will show how this latter alteration will work. The missionaries are not without fear that it may have injurious consequences. They fear that their teachers will be more and more burdened with military service and forced labor, when they are relieved of the school tasks on which the Government set such store previously. It has now become possible to obtain the freehold of the mission stations which, under the Hova Government, could only be built on rented land, as no foreigner was allowed to buy land." This advantage is a slight compensation for other disabilities aris- ing from French occupation. Rev. W. E. Cousins, writing within a year of English missions there, says : " The strong anti-English feeling shown by many of the French officials seems to be passing away, and from some of them the mission- aries receive friendly recognition and help. It has become clear to them that the English missionaries are not the political agents they were supposed to be, and that their presence and work tend to promote order and quiet among the people. Un- doubtedly the French conquest has brought with it many things that are good for the people, especially as regards the material resources of the country and the general administra- tion of the Government." In another paragraph he quotes the following from a recent Madagascar letter : " The gigantic and unscrupulous efforts of the Jesuits to destroy Protestantism have resulted in a magnificent failure. The country people tell me that their converts are leaving them just now in crowds, and that the numerous huge churches built in the hope of get- ting the whole population stand empty." 3. The societies working in Madagascar and the number 488 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS of stations occupied are as follows : Friends' Foreign Mission Association, 5 stations; Paris Society, 12 stations; London Missionary Society, 14 stations ; Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, 21 stations; Norwegian Missionary Society, 23 stations. Lutherans of the- United States are likewise rep- resented in Madagascar ; the United Norwegian Lutheran Church has 3 stations, and the Lutheran Board of Missions, 5 stations. 4. The work has varied somewhat owing to the attitude of the Government. Education had previously been almost en- tirely in the hands of Protestants. With the new regime the official regulations already mentioned made it seem wise for the London Missionary Society to place its schools in the hands of the Paris Evangelical Society. That organization, through its Director, M. Boegner, was largely instrumental in secur- ing the present laws which grant to all religions and national- ities the same rights of education and the same grants-in-aid, especially in the case of agricultural and technical schools. Recently the Paris Society has relinquished in favor of the London missionaries much of the educational work entrusted to them. Though the Jesuits had previously paid much at- tention to French in their schools while Protestants made use of Malagasy, already Protestant students are securing more than half of the requisite certificates of proficiency in French. The colleges of the London Society and the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel are in excellent condition, barring the buildings of the former ; while the French and Norwegian missionaries are likewise doing praiseworthy normal and other higher educational work. 5. Evangelistic effort is emphasized in all missions. Recent reports speak of the growing importance and value of Sunday- schools and Christian Endeavor Societies. The young people of the Church are at once being better instructed in Bible truth than during the troublous period following the French occu- pation, and at the same time are being helped in the effort to evangelize their neighbors. Rev. L. Rostvig, Superintend- MADAGASCAR AND OTHER AFRICAN ISLANDS 489 ent of the Norwegian Society, whose " work is the most soHd and the most hopeful in Madagascar," states that the chief dif- ficulties met with in evangeHstic effort are the prevalent ten- dency to lawlessness outside large towns, mendacity, lascivious- ness and cruelty. The popular belief that the Almighty is the cause of evil and that their ancestors are — some of them — demi-gods, and have power to bless their descendants, are other obstacles to be overcome. Yet their practice of sacrificing to God, and the dead, who are considered intercessors between God and the people, and their faith in a Creator and Governor of the Universe are all helpful ideas in evangelistic addresses and private interviews. Many of the slave class, who at a single stroke of the pen were set free by France in 1896, have left the capital and other large towns where it was possible to hear the gospel, and have returned to distant homes, in some cases to forget the little that they formerly knew, and in others to proclaim it to their previously unreached neighbors. Medi- cine is as much needed as before the French entrance, and other efforts of the missionaries are again proceeding almost as satis- factorily as before the interruption of work. 6. Summarizing the gain, Mr. Cousins said at the Ecumeni- cal Conference of 1900: " So far from lessening the number of workers in the various Protestant missions, the troubles of re- cent years have brought new workers into the field. The Nor- wegian Mission is stronger than ever. And the Evangelical Society of Paris has been drawn to the work and is now repre- sented by about thirty workers. The trials of the native Prot- estant churches, and especially the murder of the two French missionaries, Escande and Mivault, deeply stirred the hearts of French Protestants, and seemed to them a very call from God to undertake for Him in their new colony. The London Missionary Society has recently sent out three young men possessing a knowledge of the French language, and has three or four others in the course of preparation. There are eighty or ninety male Protestant missionaries and about thirty lady missionaries — not including the wives of the missionaries; 490 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS that is to say, we have from 120 to 150 European workers, a larger number than we have ever had in the past. BeHeve me, Protestantism is not dead in Madagascar, nor is it dying. It shows many unmistakable signs of life and activity; and we believe that, although it will possibly in future years be the re- ligion of a minority only, it still has an important function to discharge in the development of the life of the people." III. Mauritius and the Seychelles. — The societies laboring here are both British. The first to enter the field was the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, which was later followed by the Church Missionary Society. 1. Both societies are practically confining their efforts to the immigrants from India, who have come hither to work on the sugar plantations. As they constitute about two-thirds of the population, the field is large enough for the force employed, considering the difficulties encountered. Both organizations necessarily make much use of natives of India and of other workers who have learned the languages of that Empire. While some effort has been made to reach the Chinese resident in the island, they are so little affected by Christianity that they do not observe Sunday, and hence have been dropped from the Church Missionary Society's rolls. 2. " Difficult work under exceptionally difficult circum- stances " seems to be a fair characterization of the missionary enterprise in Mauritius. The 1901 Report of the Church Mis- sionary Society makes this statement concerning the obstacles encountered : " The language difficulties are always serious. The way in which the Christians who look to the Society or to the Church Council for pastoral help are scattered over the island in units and families is another difficulty. The continual flux of the members of the congregations is perhaps less a dif- ficulty attaching to the work than a condition that militates against tangible results, but it is none the less apt to be a source of discouragement to the workers. The low standard of social morality which obtains amongst the immigrant popu- lation is undoubtedly an obstacle, and one which, even were MADAGASCAR AND OTHER AFRICAN ISLANDS 49 1 Other conditions more favorable, would be liable to affect seri- ously for evil the little scattered community of Christians." The language difficulty in some cases is the most serious one of all those named. Thus Rev. I. F. Chorley was obliged to instruct his thirty-two candidates for confirmation in five lan- guages— English, French, Creole, Tamil and Hindi. The same problem is of course present in the church service and in Sunday-school work, 3. Thankfulness is felt for the fruitage granted in the midst of such discouragement. Thus the Church Missionary Society has baptized over 5,000 in the course of its work, the majority of whom have returned to India bearing with them the new religion, and thus becoming a nucleus for future communities of Christians in their fatherland. The labors of missionary women have been especially encouraging, and Christian song has been a lever of great value in raising the low spiritual life to a higher plane. 4. The Seychelles are at present occupied only by the So- ciety for the Propagation of the Gospel ; though occasional help is derived from representatives of the Church Missionary Society, which gave up its regular work there in 1894. The people are mainly of African descent and, with the exception of about 2,500 adherents of the Church of England, are nearly all Roman Catholics. That Communion is vigorously prosecuting the work with a force of sixteen priests, ten freres engaged in educational work and fifty Sisters of Charity, all presided over by a bishop. The Church of England has never had more than three clergymen laboring there. Thus in Mauritius and the Seychelles, though dependencies of Great Britain, Cathol- icism is making very rapid strides, while Protestant missions are barely holding their own. In Mauritius the Romanists have such influence with the Government that Protestant schools can hardly be carried on. Archdeacon Buswell in his report for 1900 speaks of the opportunity that he had of frequent interviews with political prisoners from Western Africa, and especially with King 492 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS Prempeh of Ashanti. The result was that this deposed poten- tate was in the ranks of the almost persuaded. IV. The Atlantic Groups. — Both the Madeira and Cape Verde Islands are comparatively new mission fields, and labors there are very much like those of Protestant missionaries in Portugal, the mother country. 1. Societies.- — The Methodist Board, North, the American Seaman's Friend Society, the Gospel Mission to Madeira, and the American Advent Mission Society are the organizations engaged in the work. The first of these makes Madeira the episcopal residence of Bishop Hartzell, in charge of their, work in Africa. Funchal was occupied by this Board in 1896, and the Cape Verde Islands in 1901, though many years of faithful service on the part of Rev. W. G. Smart and his associates had preceded the date above mentioned. The recent inception of the work in the Cape Verde Islands is a good illustration of the influence of Christian fellowship upon men of other nationalities. Three years since some Christian Portuguese went to the islands and began Methodist meetings there, thus preparing the way and creating a demand for Rev. G. P. Nind, who has recently sailed to fill his appointment. The Gospel Mission to Madeira was also established in 1896. The Seamen's Friend Society is engaged in the peculiar work of organizations of that character. 2. Gross ignorance, both intellectual and moral, is as widely prevalent as in many heathen lands. Only about five per cent, of the Madeira islanders are able to read and write, and they are all poor. While Government restrictions are hampering, and though riots have occurred, seriously endangering the mis- sionaries, the people are willing, and often glad, to hear the gospel. The workers plead for medical effort as being likely to greatly aid in the enterprise. XIX FIELDS PRACTICALLY UNOCCUPIED PART I.— GENERAL When one considers the exceedingly small ratio that mis- sionaries and native Christians bear to the entire population of even the most fully occupied fields, all mission lands seem to fall within the above category. In the present chapter those important populations with practically no opportunities to hear the Gospel as it is taught in evangelical churches, will be de- scribed, as also the beginnings of mission work among those peoples. I. Unoccupied Districts in Fields Already Partly Evangelized. — i. Following the order of the population of large districts not yet reached, and placing the largest number first, China is the country that stands foremost. While the vermilion-marked stations on the China map seem compara- tively near each other, two facts should be remembered. One is that China is printed on a small scale, and hence districts seemingly small are really large. The other consideration lies in the fact that density of population is characteristic of that Empire, and hence apparently small regions yet untouched contain larger populations than are found in all South Amer- ica. A more careful study of the China map will show that the largest districts yet unoccupied, though not the most densely peopled, are in general the northwestern, southwestern, southern and southern central sections of the Empire. The littoral provinces, the. Imperial province and that west of it, Shan-si, and portions of the Yang-tsze Valley, are best pro- 493 494 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS vided with missionaries ; yet it is possible that a total popula- tion as great as that of all Africa are not so situated that they can at present hear the gospel, either being entirely ignorant of it, or not caring sufficiently about the matter to travel two or three days' journey in order to reach the missionary. Here, as in most missionary countries, except India and Japan, acces- sibility to religious influence, so far as territory is concerned, should be reckoned on an average of a day for each twenty- five miles distance from a mission station. Previous to the massacre of missionaries, in 1900, the province of Shan-si was the best provided with workers, and yet in 1898 it had but one station to 1,285 square miles. This is the same as if Rhode Island contained but one church, whose pastor, with possibly one or two assistants, were responsible for the evangelization of the entire State, and a considerable fringe of Connecticut besides. In 1898 the province of Kan-su had but one station to 10,454 square miles; Kwei-chau, one to 12,911 square miles; Yun-nan, one to 17,995 square miles; Kwang-si, one to 19,562 square miles. This is an indication of the amount of unoccu- pied territory in the most populous Empire of the world. 2. India is but little behind China in the many millions who are practically beyond the reach of the missionary. Mr. Wilder and a number of other workers made a careful study of the situation there in 1896. It should be remembered in connection with the facts quoted below that in India, which is a smaller country and is partially provided with railways, great un- evangelized populations can more readily reach the missionary if so inclined. As an offset to this, however, may be men- tioned the fact that caste regulations and the peculiar village community life of that Empire would be an obstacle to travel- ing far to reach a mission station. A few illustrations will show how much need for workers there is in many India fields. Though Madras Presidency is the best worked one in the Em- pire, with one Christian to forty non-Christians in 1891, there is in the native State of Mysore but one missionary to a quar- ter of a million, while in the Telugu portion of the Nizam's FIELDS PRACTICALLY UNOCCUPIED 495 dominions there is but one to half a million. In the Belgium district of the Bombay Presidency there is one missionary to 288,000, while in Gujarat the proportion is one to one million. In the Central provinces, Chanda, with an area of 10,749 square miles and 2,700 villages, inhabited by over 690,000, there is no missionary; and Hoshangabad has a population of three mil- lion, wholly untouched by missionary effort. In the densely populated Presidency of Bengal, Faridpur has but one mission- ary to half a million, and Decca one to 2,204,000. Fatehpur, in the Northwest provinces, has but one man and his wife min- istering to 750,000. The Province of Rajputana averages one missionary to half a million, and in the Punjab, Sialkot has one missionary to 186,000. When these figures are compared with the populations in sparsely settled countries that are com- paratively well provided with missionaries, one realizes how proportionately greater the responsibility of the Church is for this vast Empire with its teeming millions. 3. The great continent of Africa comes next in the list. While the vast stretches of desert land in the northern half of the continent need not be regarded, notwithstanding the con- siderable population of its oases, there is one country which ought to make its special appeal to the Christian. The great central and thickly peopled Sudan, described in the chapter on the Dark Continent, is one of the most needy mission fields in the world, and yet only the merest beginnings have been made. Here we have a population numbering two-thirds that of the United States, who cannot, by any possibility, reach a Prot- estant mission station. In other sections of Africa there are vast regions without a single missionary or Christian. 4. In South America, where Catholicism has permeated a good part of the country, there is more knowledge of Chris- tian truth, albeit the truth emphasized is so over-shadowed by corruption that it has little power to change the life. That portion of its inhabitants which is most neglected is found among the more than 6,000,000 Indians, and these constitute sixteen out of every hundred inhabitants. The largely unex- 49^ GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS plored interior one can say little about; but in Peru, where there are at least two and a half million Indians, and in Bolivia, with possibly one million — the large majority of them de- scendants of the continent's most cultivated aboriginal race, the Incas — there is a large field for missionary effort so soon as Peru grants religious freedom to all, and Bolivia makes this nominal freedom so in reality. There are other considerable populations in lands where a few missionaries are working that ought to be considered by all friends of missions. Thus in Persia there are extensive dis- tricts which have never been visited, and the same is true of Mongolia, Mexico and Central America. II. Lands in which Missionary Work has Barely Begun. — i, Siberia, though belonging to Russia, and hence a land where the Greek Church nominally rules, has, notwith- standing, a population mainly pagan. This vast territory with an area of nearly 5,000,000 square miles, slopes wholly toward the north, and is furrowed by immense but useless rivers, and embarrassed by a rigorous climate. Notwithstand- ing the extent of territory, larger by far than that of all Europe and equal to nearly forty United Kingdoms, it has about the same number of inhabitants as dwell in the City of London, as they do not much exceed 5,700,000, thus giving each inhabi- tant more than a square mile of territory. The indigenous population of Siberia with which only we are concerned, consists of Ugrian races, the Ostyaks, Voguls and Samoyedes ; of Turkish stocks, the most numerous of which are the Yakuts, together with some fifteen different stems of Tatars; the Mongol stock, represented by the Bu- ryats ; the Kalmucks, the Tunguses and the Hyperborean stock, and others yet undetermined as to origin. Much of this coun- try is thickly clothed with forests, while in West Siberia, in the northern portion, lies an immense lowland only a few hun- dred feet above the sea. The southwestern section of it is cov- ered with a thick layer of black earth extending over a terri- tory as large as Great Britain, and nourishing a luxuriant grass FIELDS PRACTICALLY UNOCCUPIED 497 vegetation, which is even now the granary of Siberia and the source of exportation. Nearly one-third of Siberia's popula- tions is gathered on those prairies, most of them being Russian immigrants or exiles. That section of the population, that is perhaps the most wretched, inhabits the tundras of the far North, The climate here is terrible, the average temperatures of December and January being respectively 15° and 35° F. below zero, and the soil being frozen to a great depth. Of trees there practically are none, and the low bushes rising only a few inches above the ground have a hard struggle for ex- istence. Some 50,000 human beings wander over these inhos- pitable tracts with their reindeer and dogs. The native inhab- itants along the southern borders are quite largely nomadic and do not greatly differ in life and habits from the Mongols. Aside from the officially prevalent Greek or Orthodox re- ligion, and some non-conforming sects among the European immigrants, there are many Turkish tribes holding the Mo- hammedan faith with sufficient missionary zeal to win new converts. The Buriats profess Buddhism, while most of the Ugrian tribes and the Hyperboreans are Shamanists. Among all these native races Christianity in its Greek form is making little progress. " Even where Christianity has long been in- troduced, as among the Samoyedes and Lamouts, sun and fire worship is the toughest survival of paganism. The Mon- gol Shamans are sacrificing to the sun when they cast milk into the air ; the Chukchis and Tunguses pray to it. The Samoyedes call the sun the watcher and guardian of their herds," Through all the Hyperborean tribes the curious veneration of the bear has great power over the people. " He takes rank directly next to the sky and the queen of the under-world as a divine being, particularly as the lord of all spirits, a god endowed with power and wisdom hidden under the bear's skin." Profes- sor Ratzel thus describes the high priest of Shamanism : " The Shaman's cap and clothes are hung full of fetishes; particu- larly a long strap reaching from the back of his cap to the ground. For incantations he puts on a robe made of skins 49§ Geography of Protestant missions stitched together and adorned with flaps, thongs and ap- pendages, representing all manner of beasts. It is reserved to him to take in his hands without hurting himself objects calculated to excite horror, just as the poets of the Sagas put into the hands of witches remedies for which most people feel disgust — as portions of dead men, spiders and other vermin, all obtained and employed in secret or during the night." In spite of the forms of religion the character of most of these races is calculated to awaken compassion. The faults that are ruining the Hyperboreans are brandy-drinking, gambling and licentiousness. " Of all Christian teaching, that relating to marriage and chastity has had the least influence on the lives of converted Samoyedes, Tunguses and others." Along with these weaknesses there are some traits that commend them- selves, considering the semi-savage character of the people. Thus they are tolerably honest ; some of them rank as French- men in liveliness and politeness ; most of them are very brave ; and in the northern part of Siberia where the struggle with the forces of nature has been keen, they are chivalrous and likewise quick to avenge an insult. Other characteristics are anything but favorable, among which are the burial alive of widows or motherless children, the exposure of helpless old people who have in some instances been eaten by their own children, and the awful cruelty of men who slay in revenge their enemy. 2. Passing southward from Siberia we reach the tablelands of Central Asia. The region of which we here speak is com- monly known as Turkistan, and includes the Chinese section called Hsin-chiang, a province of that Empire. While its name indicates that it is " The Country of the Turks," the Persians call it Turan. It extends from the Caspian Sea eastward to the Chinese province of Kan-su. The western section is hilly and well watered in its higher portions, while in the plains are deserts of loose, shifting sand interspersed with oases. The races inhabiting Western Turkistan are Turkish in the main, though the Persians have penetrated to this region in some numbers. Many of the tribes are nomadic and predatory, and FIELDS PRACTICALLY UNOCCUPIED 499 hence exceedingly hard to reach. Lying between this section and Persia is a long and fertile tract running from the south- east of the Caspian to Herat, " the key of India," which is a strip of great international interest. Eastern Turkistan, or Hsin-chiang, is bounded on the south by the highlands of Tibet. In the east it sinks into the Desert of Gobi. The Lob-nor, a series of lakes and marshes in the center of the region, is very desolate and unattractive. Though large areas are unproductive, there are numerous villages and towns, and some beginnings of missionary work have been par- tially successful. Though the inhabitants of the largest cen- ters speak Turkish, they are of Persian descent. Except some of the Chinese, this population is mainly Mohammedan. 3. Still journeying southward one reaches the highest coun- try of the world, Tibet, which is nominally a dependency of China. Its territory equals that of the New England and Mid- dle States more than four times over, and has a population of about 6,000,000. Its table-lands vary in height from 10,000 to 17,000 feet, and it has been estimated that their average height is that of Mont Blanc — a possible exaggeration. Its five prov- inces are equal in extent to European States. The northeast- ern province of Tsaidam has cold and scanty pastures, fre- quented by the nomadic Tanguts. A second province, Katchi, is likewise a great northern plain very little known. In this province are the gold fields of Thok-Jalung, one of the highest inhabited spots on the globe. East Nari is an elevated Hima- layan section, where lie the sources of the Indus and Sanpo. This is a country of pastures interspersed with a few cultivated tracts, and it contains a lake sacred to Tibetans and Hindus lying 15,000 feet above the sea. West Nari, or Little Tibet, is best known to readers of missionary literature, and consists of Ladakh and Balti, that are at present dependencies of the Indian Empire through Kashmir. A fifth region, known as Yu-tsang, is the most populous and important section of Tibet ; and the chief connection with the outside world is through the Sanpo, down which hide-covered boats carry the produce 500 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS of this upland country. It contains the sacred capital of the Tibetan world, Lhasa. The sixth and last province is that of Kham. Through this district great roads run, one connecting Lhasa with Ta-chien-lu the emporium of Chinese trade with Tibet, and another being the shortest route to China, and an official one. The northern and western table-lands are treeless and abound in innumerable herds of animals. The pastures of the southern plateaux supply food to the flocks and herds of the large nomad population. Agriculture and gardening are difficult arts in Tibet, and the irrigation and terrace cultivation necessary to secure even scanty crops, are supposed to have sharpened the intelligence of peasants and made them strong and laborious. Their chief industrial occupation is the preparation of woolen cloth. They are active traders, and large caravans in which yaks and sheep are the beasts of burden, are constantly travers- ing the country on their way to the great fairs in Tibet and to the entrepots of the surrounding country. The Tibetans are Mongolian in race, but are more nearly allied to the Burmese than to the Mongols proper. Though intelligent, they are without initiative. " Different views have been taken of their moral character, but on the whole they seem to be kindly and truthful. They are fond of music and dancing." Archaic customs, such as polyandry, are common. As to religion, the Tibetans are of two creeds. One is the Bon-Pa creed, a development of Mongol Shamanism, and held by the natives. The other is the well-known form of Buddhism, known as Lamaism. This is imported and is all-pervasive " The Tibetan" clergy are very numerous, there being, it is esti- mated, one monk for every family. Monasteries and convents are everywhere in Tibet. The performance of elaborate cere- mony is held to be more important than good works, and can only be carried out with the aid of the clergy, who are said to be avaricious, idle and dissolute." Thousands of Buddhists go annually on pilgrimages to Lhasa with the same enthusiasm as the Mohammedans journey to Mecca. " From the fruitful FIELDS PRACTICALLY UNOCCUPIED 5OI lowlands of China, from the interminable deserts of Mongolia, from the wild gorges of the Himalaya and Kuenlun, the streams of pilgrims flow. They make offerings in hundreds of thousands ; even the poor bring their mite. The palace of the Dalai-Lama to the north of Lhasa, on a stony hill rising from the swampy valley bottom, shows temple upon temple from the; slope of the hill to the summit, where stands the gilded palace of the great divinity. Portals shaded by lofty trees lead to four hundred stone steps. In front of them assemble the faith- ful in festal attire, on horses with many-colored trappings. When the right hand of the Dalai-Lama has rested in bene- diction on their heads, they return back to their homes and in future will visit only a reborn Buddha of lower rank." This city is the center of Northern Buddhism for Mongolia and Tibet, and has been visited by only three Europeans two of them being Catholic Missionaries. 4. Afghanistan (4,000,000 inhabitants) and Baluchistan (500,000 inhabitants), lying between India and Persia, are practically closed to the missionary except along the eastern border. The latter country is included within the political area of India, being a protectorate under the British Govern- ment. ( I ) Afghanistan is described by Sir G. R. Robertson as " a drab-colored land, one of the waste places of the world. Sand, bare rocks, sterile hills and vast snow-capped mountain ranges are the main features of the stern, inhospitable country ; tender green places, fertile irrigated fields, vineyards and orchards being circumscribed and infrequent. In summer it is hot every- where. The temperature depends upon elevation, not upon latitude. Stony, treeless slopes, parched soil and whirling sand increase the dryness of the harsh, scorching air. Burnt gray- brown, the naked landscape quivers in the fierce beams of the sun. Winter brings frost, snow and blustering storms, and in many places dangerous snow-hurricanes occur; Ghazni is said to have been depopulated twice by blizzards. The winter is full of surprises. One moment a traveler may in the sun's 502 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS glare be miserably overheated, the next, in shadow, he is pierced to the heart by the chill of an icy wind. Roads are mostly rough and hilly or ankle-deep in yielding sand ; they are often incredibly tiring. Food is scarce, for the whole country is poor; it yields grudgingly bread for man and herbage for animals." The people claim descent from King Saul ; but despite faintly Jewish features and some analogous customs, their Pushtu speech betrays an Aryan descent. So unkindly is the soil that weaklings die in infancy, leaving only strong men of great stubbornness and a bravery that is only equaled by their treacherous character. " Luxury, even comfort, to them is often what we call vice. Ingenious in sensuality, they are intriguers by instinct ; while running through their whole char- acter, there is a wonderful arrogance, vindictiveness and cruelty. Born and bred amidst an unceasing struggle with nature for the means of life, they live hard and they die hard." In religion the Afghans are Mohammedans of the Sunnite sect. While they are somewhat strict and bigoted, they are not intolerant of any creed save Christianity. '' Hatred of Chris- tians springs less from questions of dogma and faith than be- cause the blood of ancestors and tribesmen cries for vengeance ; and because of the supposed determination of British Chris- tians to enslave the Afghan people and force them to ' carry loads.' British rule is feared as a wrought-iron system regu- lated by an inexorable screw called law, which squeezes free hillmen into the pulp of which slaves are made. Regular au- thority is based upon the dumb terror inspired by hideous and dramatic punishments. An Amir of Afghanistan must be mer- ciless, and his people must believe him to be the implacable enemy, secret or declared, of the Government of India." (2) Baluchistan is much like its northern neighbor in tne character of its territory. Hundreds of square miles of deserts swept by sandstorms in the summer and bitterly cold in the winter, are varied by bare hills and treeless valleys in the West ; while the region along the coast is a rival of Aden and FIELDS PRACTICALLY UNOCCUPIED 503 upper Sind for the dubious honor of being the hottest place in Asia. Only a small tract along the India border and in the Northeast is sufficiently well-watered to produce much grain or fruit. Its scattered tribes are either Aryan Baluchis or the unre- lated Brahuis. The latter are the aborigines, and are hospi- table and generous. The Baluchis are " a hungry, needy, greedy people," who are mostly nomads and form the bulk of the rural population. Like the Afghans, both of these races are Sunnite Mohammedans, who in addition to the Koranic teach- ings, are believers in a mass of traditions, and are almost uni- versally polygamists. 5. Arabia, or in native phrase, " The Island of the Arab," is so called because, in addition to the water boundaries on three sides, the waste of sand on the north is an equally impassable limit. Its great area is often forgotten; as a matter of fact it is one-third as extensive as Europe, and is larger than that portion of the United States lying east of the Mississippi River. Ptolemy's old threefold division of its surface still holds good, though not recognized by the Arabs; Arabia Pe- traea, " the stony " northwest portion with the Peninsula of Sinai ; Arabia Felix, " Araby the Blest," lying along the west and south coasts; and Arabia Deserta, all the rest of its ex- tent, which is more or less desert. Palgrave thus sums up most of what has been learned since Ptolemy's time : " The general type of Arabia is that of a central table-land surrounded by a desert ring sandy to the south, west and east, stony to the north. This outlying circle is in its turn girt by a line of mountains low and sterile for the most part, but attaining in Yemen and Oman considerable height, breadth and fertility, while beyond these a narrow rim of coast is bordered by the sea. The surface of the midmost table-land equals somewhat less than one-half the peninsula; and its special demarcations are much affected, nay often ab- solutely fixed, by the windings and in-runnings of the Nefud (sandy desert). If to these central highlands, or Nejd, taking 504 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS that word in its widest sense, we add whatever spots of fer- tility belong to the outer circles, we shall find that Arabia contains about two-thirds of cultivated or at least cultivable land, with a remaining third of irreclaimable desert, chiefly on the south." Commenting on this quotation, Mr. Zwemer adds that " Arabia, like the Arab, has a rough, frowning exterior, but a warm, hospitable heart." Amid diversities of climate due to varying conditions, a pre- vailing dryness and heat are everywhere found, except along the coast where humidity is experienced. " The world-zone of maximum heat in July embraces nearly the entire peninsula." So great is it that another characteristic feature of Arabia re- sults, — the wadys which now, as in Job's day, are full to the brim in winter, but are perfectly dry in summer. Arabian populations are divided into two main classes by the Arabs themselves, the " people of the tent " and " people of the wall," or the Beduins and town-dwellers. Foreign writers in- crease the divisions, Clark describing five : The almost de- nationalized agriculturists, living mainly in houses ; wandering tribes in proximity to settled districts, even more demoralized than the former; Arabs of Turkish towns and villages, who are also demoralized ; inhabitants of towns and villages of Arabia proper who are secluded from the rest of the world; and the nomadic tribes of the interior who preserve the primi- tive habits and customs of the race — the genuine Beduin. Though the inhabitants are affected by neighboring nations, so that those living near Persia are marked by some of the na- tional traits of that people, Arabs of the South by India, and those of the West by Egypt, the Arab in general " is of medium stature, muscular make, and brown complexion. Independence looks out of his glowing eyes ; by nature he is quick, sharp- witted, imaginative and passionately fond of poetry. Courage, temperance, hospitality and good faith are his leading virtues ; but these are often marred by a spirit of rapacity and san- guinary revenge. His wife or wives do the work, keep the house and educate the children." The Arab is a bundle of FIELDS PRACTICALLY UNOCCUPIED 505 paradoxes and this combination of opposing characteristics must be borne in mind by the missionary. Arabia being the " cradle of Islam," its religion is that of the prophet. Here are its great shrines, and the ancient seat of Moslem power. In the ultimate analysis Mohammedanism is compounded of heathen, Jewish and Christian elements. As a factor in history, it has been educative, aggressive and cor- rupting. Here in its natal land one finds the seat of its at- tempted renaissance. Born in 1691, Abd-ul-Wahab sat at the feet of Islam's greatest teachers, but was pained to find in his travels that laxity in faith and practice was everywhere preva- lent. " What most offended the rigid monotheism of his phi- losophy was the almost universal visitation of shrines, invoca- tion of saints and honor paid to the tomb of Mohammed. The use of the rosary, of jewels, silk, gold, silver, wine and tobacco, were all abominations to be eschewed. Even the four ortho- dox schools had departed from the pure faith. Therefore it was that Abd-ul-Wahab preached reform not only, but pro- claimed himself the leader of a new sect. His teachings were based on the Koran and the early traditions." Though the Wahabis were Moslem Protestants, they depended upon the sword for the extension of their power, and wielding it, they have in large numbers perished by the sword in their encoun- ters with the Porte and nearer enemies. An important factor in the politics of southeastern Asia during the last century, they are to-day confined to the region of Riad. The sect is now making scarcely any progress, though in India it is strong in the neighborhood of Patna. 6. Turning from the southwestern portion of Asia to its southeastern countries, we find in French Indo-China a terri- tory seventy-five per cent, larger than France itself and more than twice as extensive as Japan. It is composed of Annam, Cambodia, Cochin-China, Tongking and that portion of the Lao territory which is under the protection of France. It con- tains some 22,400,000 inhabitants, equaling nearly two-thirds the population of South America. The two northernmost por- 506 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS tions are essentially mountainous, though the region of the Red River and its affluents has the only thickly settled region in French Indo-China. In this deltaic district live some 5,000,- 000 people, an average of more than 800 per square mile, thus equalling the density of Brabant in Belgium, Europe's most thickly settled portion. Cambodia and Cochin-China are mainly low and alluvial, as the Mekong after its course of 2,500 miles here spreads out into one of the largest deltas of Asia. The climate of these countries except the Lao portion is un- healthful and labors under the disadvantages, and possesses the advantages as well, of the tropics. The people that are most influential both because of their numbers and political influence are the Annamese. They dwell mainly on the eastern lowlands, are tillers of the soil and are industrious and peaceable. Having been for many centuries under the influence of the Chinese, they resemble them in many particulars. " Annamite society is characterized by absolute equality; the family is strongly organized and paternal au- thority has preserved all its strength. The Cambodians or Khmers were a powerful nation in the eighth century; their ancient greatness is attested by the magnificent ruins of Angor- wat, situated in what is at present Siamese territory, not far from the great lake, Tonle Sap." The Shan or Lao people described in the chapter on Siam and Laos are a third great race. The Chinese dominate the native trade of all French Indo-China. Religions follow the lines of prevailing national influence, being Chinese in the emphasis of ancestor worship and of Con- fucian ethics and usages, and also being largely influenced by Brahmanism and Buddhism. While India was a dominating factor so far as temple architecture was concerned, in religion as in other matters Ratzel's observation is correct : " India began earlier and then slackened ; China is always going on with the work, creating for herself a far-reaching effect." Roman Catholics to the number of nearly 900,000 are found in Annam, Cochin-China and Tongking. FIELDS PRACTICALLY UNOCCUPIED ^07 The languages of all these countries are prevailingly mono- syllabic and with the exception of the Cambodian markedly tonal. In the Annam and Tongking section the Chinese written language is used by the better educated, although its spoken form is widely different from Annamese. In much of Indo- China the letters are borrowed from the Indian Pali. Cam- bodia has a sort of literary language made up of Pali vocables, which is used by priests and officials. PART n. — MISSIONARY Manifestly there is little to report concerning the fields de- scribed in Part I, which are at once so interesting and needy and at the same time so devoid of evangelical influences and workers. Nothing further will be said concerning those great countries, like China and India, where more millions are be- yond the reach of the gospel than in lands here discussed ; and only a brief summary of work being attempted in the fields named in Section II of the previous part of the chapter will be given. I. Siberia. — i. The Russian non-conformists are in a sense a missionary element in this extensive land. It is impossible to give their number, though Professor G. Frederic Wright in the January, 1901, " Bibliotheca Sacra " estimates that 500,000 at the very least are found in its various provinces. As is the case in America, whither those non-conforming Russian sects that are opposed to military service have come in sufficient numbers to form a distinct colony, so in Siberia there are hun- dreds of villages made up of other sects that are loyal to the Czar. Their settlements may be readily recognized by the absence of domes, crosses and pictorial adornments in the churches. Though the high grade of morality marking these communities ought to be a blessing to Siberia, their segrega- tion from others who need these influences, their dispersion in a few out-of-the-way localities and the imperfect education of 508 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS their religious leaders, will prevent their exercising for some time to come any extensive moral influence. Because of Rus- sia's present policy of reducing Siberia's penal character to a minimum, and with this practically Protestant leaven in the midst of it. Professor Wright is al5le to say : " The conditions of a new country rapidly filling up with settlers are so favor- able to the adoption of new customs and the reception of new light, that the coming century may easily see Siberia leading the whole Empire into purer and more spiritual religion." 2. The British and Foreign Bible Society is here the great Protestant force working for the higher life of the colonists. It is also laboring for the pagan element in Siberia. Bookstalls are found at a number of stations along the new railway where copies of the Scriptures are sold. Russian scholars, like Pro- fessor Pozdnejeff of Vladivostok, and Inspector Katerinski, are cooperating with the Society in bringing out translations for the indigenous tribes of Siberia, so that portions, at least, of the Bible may be had in seven of its languages. The main reliance in the Bible Society's work is the colpor- teur, rather than the bookstall or depot. He is now becoming a recognized institution in the land. " Peasants and workmen and State officials all understand that the man carrying the knapsack with ' Holy Books ' is no common peddler." Free passes are granted Bible Society agents on the steamboats, and freight on paper, etc., is gratuitous. The ubiquitous man of the Book penetrates all parts of the country ; he talks with the convict, the exile, the miner, the peasant and the high official. More than once the priest has stood beside him and urged his parishioners to buy, even advancing the money, if necessary. How much the country owes to the Bible Society and its corps of nine faithful colporteurs and its experienced agent, is evi- denced by a two-column article in the leading Siberian daily, " Ural," in which is this concluding paragraph. " It would be superfluous for me to write of how much good and benefit is done by the activity of this Bible Society in circulating the Holy Scriptures among the unenlightened masses of the Rus- FIELDS PRACTICALLY UNOCCUPIED 509 sian people, or among the many peoples of this Empire. It only remains for me to wish that the efforts of the Society may be blessed with success in the future." II. Central Asia. — i. This extensive territory, consisting of Western and Chinese Turkistan — Hsin-chiang, has only one society laboring within its borders, the Svenska Missions- forbimdet. Its stations, Kashgar and Yarkand, are both in Chinese Turkistan. Though the first representative of the Swedish Society came in 1891, work was not regularly organ- ized until 1894. 2. Thus far it is of a preparatory character, according to one of its missionaries, L. Hogberg. " Four gospels have now been translated and printed in the Kashgarian language, an important step for the Mission. The whole New Testament is translated, but has not yet been printed. At both stations we have also medical work with a store of drugs and some sur- gical instruments. Several thousand patients have been treated and relieved of suffering. By means of conversations, daily meetings and tours to other villages and towns we seek to sow the Word of Life. The visible fruits of the mission work are, thus far, two young men who have confessed their faith in Christ. They have learned to read and have shown much per- severance and zeal and are living upright, moral lives." As Kashgar appears to the traveler like an oasis in the wilderness, the sterile mountains and grayish yellow loess giving way here to rich vegetation, so this beginning of fruitage in a wide wil- derness is the seal of better things reserved for the consecrated Swedish missionaries, III. Tibet. — Thus far this veritable Hermit Kingdom has prevented long residence of Protestant missionaries within its borders. While it is besieged on its eastern, southern and southwestern frontiers, and though brief journeys within its bounds have been effected, it is at present practically closed to missionaries. I. The besieging bands in China are members of the Tibetan Band of the China Inland Mission and the Christian and Mis- 510 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS sionary Alliance. The latter are located in Kan-su on the northeastern border, while the China Inland missionaries are working on the eastern frontier in the province of Sze-chwan. In India the Scandinavian Alliance Mission of North America and the Moravians are especially devoted to this form of effort, while the Established Church of Scotland's Kampilong workers, the London Missionary Society's in Almora and the Church Missionary Society's in Kashmir are also doing something for the Forbidden Land as opportunity offers. The Assam Fron- tier Mission is likewise doing much in this line. The main attempts have been preparatory in character. A splendid record belongs to the Moravians who, perched on the roof of the world in Kashmir, have prepared linguistic and mission- ary literature in Tibetan. So far as direct work has been at- tempted, it has affected only the Tibetans dwelling on the border and especially the traders who come into India and China to return to the heart of Tibet with Scriptures and some personal knowledge of the truth. While Darjiling and Sikkim are the places where missionaries have often learned the lan- guage and through which traders gain easiest access to the capital, Lhasa, this district is likewise the place where the closest watch is kept against the introduction of Christianity. Kashmir, or Little Tibet, is too remote from the heart of the Forbidden Land, and the region where the Christian and Mis- sionary Alliance is laying siege is too sparsely settled to be very helpful to Tibet's occupation. The Sze-chwan approach, through Chinese traders and Tibetans living on the border, seems by common consent to promise the largest results in the future. 2. The two entrances that have occasioned the most hope, perhaps, have been the journeys of Miss Annie R. Taylor and of Dr. and Mrs. Rijnhart. In 1898 the two latter penetrated to Nagch'ukha, a town only 150 miles from the capital. Thence they were forced to return, the husband disappearing or dying shortly thereafter, thus leaving Mrs. Rijnhart to continue the journey in the utmost danger. Both of the tours named seem FIELDS PRACTICALLY UNOCCUPIED 5 II to show that the best poHcy to pursue is that of waiting on the borders and by medicine, industrial work, etc., accompanying the printed and spoken word, gradually winning the love of Tibetans. Recently the attitude of the Tibetan hierarchy seems to have undergone a change, due possibly to the hostility felt by their country for the suzerain in Peking. Hitherto China has closely guarded Tibet from the outside world, and now in this hour of her weakness Tibet has an opportunity to injure her hereditary foe. At any rate the Catholic Bishop Biet re- ports that the death penalty, formerly threatening all mission- aries and actually visited upon Romanist workers within the border, has been repealed and religious liberty is henceforth possible. IV. Afghanistan and Baluchistan. — i. In Afghanis- tan work cannot be done except through natives. Yet the Church Missionary Society from its stations west of the Indus, and especially from Peshawar as a center, is conducting the Afghan Mission. Owing to the character of the people, it re- quires the utmost tact and bravery. The British officials have been on the whole helpful to the work, evidently following the precedent of the heroic Christian, Commissioner Edwardes, who nearly half a century ago made this brave declaration, which the authorities in Khartum might read with profit: " Our mission in India is to do for other nations what we have done for our own. To the Hindus we have to preach one God, and to the Mohammedans to preach one Mediator, I say plainly that we have no fear that the establishment of a Chris- tian mission at Peshawar will tend to disturb the peace. We may be quite sure that we are much safer if we do our duty than if we neglect it ; and that He who has brought us here with His own right arm will shield us and bless us if, in simple re- liance upon Him, we try to do His will." While converts have been few, some of them have been of great strength, as Fazl Haqq, the evangelist to Kafiristan, and Dilawar Khan, sent by the Government on a secret mission to Central Asia, where he was treacherously slain. The mission guest-house has been a 512 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS potent agency in winning Afghans, and some of the chiefs have sent their sons to the missionaries to be educated. Edwardes College will be a large influence in the future of the Afghan, and medical work is always a winning feature. 2.. Baluchistan has a station in its very heart, though it is at Quetta which is administered by British officials in behalf of the Khan of Khelat. The bookshop and the medical work of the Church Missionary Society are the agencies most appre- ciated by the people. In their last report Dr. Summerhayes says of the value of the bookshop : " The thing that struck me is this, that the Word of God is slowly leavening the mass. It wds reported to me that an Arab who came and heard the preaching said, when he was tackled about his faith, that he had the Old and New Testament and knew that they showed the right way even better than the Koran, but feared to let this be known, or he would be called a Wahabi." V. Arabia. — If Bagdad and Mosul are treated as cities of Turkey and the regions about Damascus and the southeast- ern corner of the Dead Sea be reckoned as part of Syria, Arabia has but two missionary societies at present laboring for the descendants of Ishmael. I. Dr. Wolff in 1836 and Dr. Stern, twenty years later, vis- ited Arabian Jews, but what was then the Free Church of Scot- land laid the foundations of modern Arabian missionary effort upon the grave of its talented young Arabic professor. Ion Keith-Falconer. Dying when he was only upon the threshold of a great work in 1887, the Church continued the mission, strongly moved thereto by his last appeal : " While vast continents are shrouded in almost utter darkness and hun- dreds of millions suffer the horrors of heathenism or Islam, the burden of proof lies upon you to show that the circum- stances in which God has placed you were meant by Him to keep you out of the mission field." The enterprise has since that time been carried on upon the basis which he himself sug- gested. Being strongly impressed by the act of a Moham- medan who asked for a sheet of paper and then scrawled upon FIELDS PRACTICALLY UNOCCUPIED 513 it in mysterious fashion these words, " If you want the people to walk in your way, then set up schools," he made education a fundamental work. Medicine for the bodies of needy men and the Bible as a panacea for spiritual ills were other points in his program which the last report of the Keith-Falconer Mission, as his Church still calls it, shows are the main issues of the campaign. A new industrial school and touring by the phy- sician are recent causes of growth. Dr. Young reports that during the past year the nationalities represented in the dis- pensary at Sheikh Othman, near Aden, were Arab, Somali, Jew, Abyssinian, Indian Mohammedan and Hindu. 2. The work of the Church Missionary Society, which was initiated single-handed and alone by Bishop Valpy French on the completion of his fortieth year of missionary service, was at Maskat, on the southeastern corner of Arabia. Here since 1891 the Bishop's grave has been a silent appeal to the English Church, just as is Keith-Falconer's on the southwestern horn. It has been reserved for the Reformed Church in America to do the widest work in Arabia. At Busra near the head of the Persian Gulf, on the island of Bahrein off its western shore and at Maskat are the three outposts of this Church. Medi- cine, itinerating with the special object of selling the Scriptures and talking with men upon religious themes, and personal in- terviews with inquirers are the constant means used by mis- sionaries, schools not yet having been made a specialty. Mr. Zwemer, the leading worker in Arabia, quotes an Arab as say- ing that a missionary " would be worshiped, rather than wel- comed, everywhere." In many places, especially in Oman, there is a scarcity of books and a marked love for them, — so much so that women even will leave their huts and run after the missionary to bargain for a coveted booklet. Of the need for missionaries Mr. Zwemer said in 1900: " The present missionary force in Arabia is utterly inadequate to supply the needs of even that portion of the field which they have occupied. There are only four points on a coast of 4,000 miles where there are missionaries. There is not a single 514 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS missionary over ten miles inland from this coast. No mission- ary has ever crossed the peninsula in either direction. The total number of foreign missionaries in Arabia is less than a dozen — twelve workers, men and women, let us say, for a population of 8,000,000 souls. Of the total area of the penin- sula only about one-twelfth is in any way reached by missionary effort. Ten men out of every eleven have no opportunity in this neglected country to hear the gospel, even if they would." Concerning the missionary's qualifications he writes : " He should know how to rough it when necessary; the more of the Bohemian there is in his nature the better. He should have both ability and dogged determination enough to acquire the Arabic language. Other scholarship is useful but not neces- sary. To get along well with the Arabs he should have pa- tience, and to avoid wearing himself out, a good temper. Re- garding spiritual qualifications I cannot do better than quote the solemn words at the close of General Haig's paper on ' Arabia as a Mission Field.' They deserve to be repeated, not only for the sake of those who send missionaries to Arabia, but for the sake of those who are missionaries to Arabia. ' Given the right men, and Arabia may be won for Christ ; start with the wrong men, and little will be accomplished. But what qualifications are needed ! What enthusiasm, what fire of love, what dogged resolution, what uttermost self-sacrificing zeal for the salvation of men and the glory of Christ ! ' " VI. French Indo-China. — i. But one form of work is being extensively carried on in this populous region by Protest- ants, that of the Bible Society. The agents of the British and Foreign are working in the southern portion of Indo-China with much success. Thus the report of 1900 states that dur- ing the year 42,558 Scripture portions were disposed of in that needy land. Most of these by far were Chinese Scriptures, and they were sold to Chinese and Annamites in about equal numbers. The Bible boat, " Robert Warton," is of the utmost value in their itinerations. FIELDS PRACTICALLY UNOCCUPIED 515 2. The Presbyterian missionaries among the Laos are mak- ing some excursions into the region east of their field. French officials strongly oppose this action, but natives of Laos are permitted to remain. Only evangelistic efforts have thus far been emphasized in this portion of Indo-China. It may prove an incentive to the native Church of Laos to have thus thrust upon them a foreign work which only they can enter. XX MISSIONS TO THE JEWS PART I. — GENERAL As THE Jews are a cosmopolitan people and are confined to no single country, they have not been alluded to except casually in previous chapters. Since Protestant societies labor- ing among them number almost thirty, and in view of their re- lation to Christianity, special mention of this exceedingly im- portant work must be made. 1. Number and Distribution. — i. An accurate census of the race is not possible. Perhaps the best authority on the sub- ject is " The Jewish Year-Book," and according to the issue of 1 90 1 -2 they are said to number 11,242,665. This authority gives their distribution as follows: European countries, 9,351,- 730; Asiatic countries, 368,000; African countries, 403,800; America, 1,103.135; Australia, 16,000. An accurate enumer- ation of Jews in the United States reports 1,058,135. 2. A word should be said about the chief centers of distribu- tion. The Palestine of the twentieth century Jew is in the heart of Europe. Within the confines of what used to be Poland, but which is now partitioned among Prussia, Austria and Russia, live nearly eight out of every ten Jews in the world, and from this center they have scattered throughout the earth. London is a second important center. The Jews here are not only mainly Polish, but also speak Yiddish, the colloquial He- brew of Poland. East End is an English Jewry in which most S16 MISSIONS TO THE JEWS 517 of London's 80,000 Hebrews live with Jewish signs over their doors, and amid surroundings and activities essentially for- eign. Precisely what modern Jewish life is in a Gentile envi- ronment is depicted, with a faithfulness and charm nowhere else to be found, in Mr. I. Zangwill's " The Children of the Ghetto." Secretary Gidney of the London Society for Pro- moting Christianity Amongst the Jews — to whom the author is mainly indebted for the facts of this chapter — asserts that there is no book like it, both in its delineation of daily life and worship and in its picture of the evolution of poverty- stricken Polish old-clothes men into Anglicised Jews of qual- ity found in Kensington and styled the " Grandchildren of the Ghetto." Palestine, though not containing so large a Hebrew popu- lation as many other countries, is naturally a land of peculiar interest to all Jews. Within the last sixty years they have greatly increased and are found in extensive colonies all over the country, the one in and near Jerusalem being the most numerous — some 20,000 it is estimated. A third Jewish center is North Africa, concerning which Gidney writes : " Jews have been settled in considerable num- bers in the Barbary States from the earliest times, and to-day form a fair proportion of the population of Tripoli, Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco, numbering about 250,000. They are known as Moghrebi, or Mugrabi, i.e., Western Jews, from the Arab designation of the district as Moghreb, i.e., the West." America has been a land of promise to multitudes of He- brews, where they have not only been granted unusual free- dom from persecution, but have also occupied an honorable position in the financial and literary world. New York State has the most of them, and Illinois stands next. But it is persecuting Russia which to-day contains the larg- est number of these people, about one-half of the entire race calling this their land of pilgrimage. Though previously hos- tile to them, with the acquisition of the largest slice of Poland came the damnosa hereditas of a horde of Jews. Theoretically 5l8 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS they are confined to the " Pale of Jewish Settlement," the fifteen Russian-Poland provinces. The estimate in which they are held is indicated by a sign-board placed at the entrance to a public park. " No Jews or Dogs Admitted Here." II. The Modern Jewish Renaissance. — i. The condi- tion of the Jews at the latter part of the eighteenth century when this awakening began, is well summarized by Israel Davis. " The persecutions of the Middle Ages had produced their natural effect. Cut off from their fellow-citizens, ex- cluded by oppressive laws from all trades except that of ped- dling in old clothes and even from buying certain classes of these, especially taxed, confined to Ghettos and Judengassen, strictly prohibited from entering some towns, limited in num- bers in others, forbidden to marry except under restrictions de- signed to check the growth of the Jewish population, disabled from employing Christian servants or being members of trade guilds, the Jews seemed by their abject condition to deserve the evils which were its cause." 2. It was Moses Mendel, better known as Mendelssohn, who proved an eighteenth century Jewish saviour. Poverty and deformity were not able to eclipse the genius which was be- gotten of Maimonides and of German culture. His friendship for Lessing led that poet to write his " Nathan der Weise," the first modern literary production which presented the Jew in a benevolent light. Mendelssohn's literary labors speedily brought him to the forefront of Berlin's higher life, and every visitor to the capital sought his acquaintance at an afternoon salon which he held. This liberal philosopher " broke through the barriers and let in the light of learning and of social coun- tenance on mediaeval, benighted Judaism." From the latter half of the eighteenth century to the present a series of govern- mental proclamations and the greater charity of men on the one hand, and on the other, a gradual improvement in Jewish life and the brilliancy and worth of their great leaders, have made a new being of the Hebrew. Some of the foremost men of recent times are proud of the Jewish name — statesmen like MISSIONS TO THE JEWS 519 Jules Simon and Disraeli; the Rothschilds and Hirsches in the realm of finance ; world travelers such as Wolff and Emin Pasha; a host of inspired musicians, Mendelssohn, Rubinstein and the Strauss family being representatives; historians, among whom are Neander and Graetz ; the poets Heine and Morris ; and novelists like Auerbach and Zangwill. In every department of activity the Jew of our day is more than pro- portionately represented, and this very largely because of Men- delssohn's renaissance. III. Jewish Sects of To-day. — Disregarding minor divi- sions, there are four leading parties among modern Jews. 1. Though they do not themselves use the term, the largest section of the race may be called Orthodox Jews. This is " a convenient term wherewith to describe those who adhere to the Talmud and rabbinical precepts, and who answer to the Phari- sees of old. Under this head must come all the millions of Polish Jews, nearly all Eastern and African Jews, and the majority of English Jews." Two subdivisions may be men- tioned, the Spanish-speaking Sephardim, or Jewish aristocracy, and the Ashkenazim, or German-speaking Hebrews who num- ber nineteen-twentieths of the Orthodox party. 2. Reformed Jews are found in Europe — outside of Poland, — in England and in America, — nearly all those residing in the latter country belong to this party. " They answer to the Sadducees of old. They reject not merely the Talmud, but also the inspired teaching of the Old Testament. They have given up all belief in the advent of a personal Messiah, and are willing to hail any benefactor of their race as such. The question of a Jewish return to Palestine is regarded with open disdain." 3. The Chassidim are the " pious " or puritan Jews. This sect was founded in 1730 as a protest against the laxity of the Orthodox party. They " number half a million at the present day and its members may be distinguished by their long coats and curls. The Chassidim lay great stress upon prayer, and attach much significance to the study of the Cabbala," a 520 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS mythical interpretation of the Scriptures said to have been given by God to Adam, and now found in the Zokar, or Cabba- list's Bible. They are met with in Russia, Roumania, Galicia and Hungary and are decreasing in number. 4. The Protestants of Judaism are the Karaites, or " Scrip- turists." The name is assumed because they adhere principally to the Pentateuch and reject the Talmud. They number only about 3,000, found principally in the Crimea, with a few in Russia and Syria. 5. While not sects in any sense, two other classes of He- brews should be mentioned. One of these has been denomi- nated Crypto-Jews, " who have been obliged to conceal their religion, owing to persecution." While these belong mainly to the periods of persecution, " in ordinary London and European society there are probably not a few who conceal their race and religion." The second class are the Pseudo-Jews who are such by faith and not because of racial origin. Here belong the Crimean Karaites just mentioned, who are of Tatar origin, the Black Jews of Cochin and Malabar, and the Loango Jews who are African negroes. IV. Recent Jewish Movements. — i. Of the two noted, the first looks toward the secular bettering of social and tem- poral conditions, through the founding of Jewish colonies. In- spired and aided by the Jewish Colonization Association and mainly financed by the munificence of the late Baron Hirsch, they are found in Argentina, the United States, Canada, Pales- tine, Cyprus, Russia and Roumania. The most important of these is that of Argentina. " At first the idea of settling in South America was hailed with enthusiasm, as if a new El- Dorado had been discovered. Distance lent enchantment to the scheme. Enthusiasm has cooled down with experience; and there can be little doubt that the eyes of wandering Jews are directed not so much to the West as to the East, to the home of their forefathers." 2. The second important movement of recent date is that known as Zionism. In its present form it originated in the MISSIONS TO THE JEWS $21 interest evoked by the " Jewish State," published in 1896 by an Austrian Jew, Dr. Herzl, who set forth plans for the re-crea- tion of a Jewish Kingdom in the home of their fathers. The following year a Zionist conference was held at Basle, where representatives of the race gathered from all parts of the world to confer as to the best methods of promoting the two leading ideas of Zionism, a return to Judaism and then to Judea. Later conferences and agitation have stimulated still more this ob- ject, though with little sympathy and cooperation from Re- formed Jews. Christian students of Jewish problems are deeply interested in this scheme, as many of them believe that the Jews will one day, " in God's good time, inhabit the land of their forefathers ; otherwise we can offer no valid explanation of a people without a land and a land without a people." PART II. — MISSIONARY L Force and Its Distribution. — i. In Volume II the in- complete list of societies laboring for the Jews contains twenty- six. Of these, three are American, thirteen are British and ten are Continental. The small number reported for America is partly due to a comparative lack of interest in Jewish missions prevalent in the United States and Canada, and partly to the fact that Jews in America are more liberal and hence nearer Christianity in its Unitarian form. Many American rabbis preach sermons that would edify any Christian, and they not infrequently speak in most reverent terms of Jesus. 2. The list in Volume II also shows in what countries the various societies are laboring, while the several maps indicate by a carmine J following the names of towns where mission- aries to Jews reside. This, however, gives no indication as to where the need for such workers is greatest. A prominent Jewish missionary, Rev. F. L. Denman, stated at the Student Volunteer Conference of 1900 in London that Russia was the 522 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS most needy field and the one in which Gentile missionaries, rather than Jewish converts, must be used. Next come the Mediterranean countries of Africa, the commercial centers of Great Britain and the Spanish-speaking Jews of the Levant. II. Methods Employed. — i. Social and industrial efforts are very effectual in every land, except Russia, where ostra- cism might more easily reach those who openly consorted with the missionaries, even if such efforts were permitted by the Government. Industrial schools are much appreciated, and free reading-rooms are frequented. At these places the workers, especially the unpaid force, find a good opportunity to gain Jewish friendships. The Wanderers Home and the Operative Jewish Converts' Institution of London are examples of what may be done through such agencies. 2. Educational ivork, including besides the industrial schools just named, kindergartens and free schools, are a still stronger leverage, albeit intended almost wholly for the young. As was seen in the chapters on Persia and the Turkish Empire, these schools are the surest way of gaining a hold on Jewish youth of non-Christian lands. 3. As the Hebrews are an intellectual people and usually lit- erate, the printed page has always been an exceedingly pow- erful agency in Jewish missions. Fortunately some of the strongest minds of Europe have been interested in this form of effort and hence the apologetic and periodical literature of Jewish missions stands in the front rank. Foi those who do not easily read the Hebrew New Testament, books, Scripture portions and papers in Yiddish are largely produced and sent into otherwise inaccessible homes. In Russia the New Tes- tament and Yiddish tracts and books are especially useful, as the Government allows their distribution and also an explana- tion of the Scriptures. Great wisdom is exhibited in securing the reading of such material. Much of it is sent by mail to prominent Jews, special testimonies of distinguished converts being thus brought to the attention of their countrymen. The Bible Shop-window Misr MISSIONS TO THE JEWS 523 sion, started in Philadelphia in 1898, has been very useful. " Open Bibles in Hebrew, Yiddish, German and Russian, as well as tracts in different languages, are laid in the show- window of a store in the Jewish quarter to attract the passing Jew. The pages are turned every day in order to cause in- quirers to return; and Bibles, New Testaments and religious papers are distributed freely by the person in charge of the store." 4. Evangelistic work — usually in halls, as street preach- ing is too public for modern inquirers, — is most emphasized in Great Britain and America. The Hebrew is well read in his own Scriptures as a rule, and hence the missionary must be ready to answer any number of objections. So manifest is the need of well trained missionaries that the various Instituta Ju- daica of Germany, with the one at Berlin University under Professor Strack as the most successful, perhaps, have been established to meet the demand. A number, however, have ceased to exist. 5. Medical work is especially used in lands where access to Jews is difficult. No matter how loudly the rabbi may curse his people for so doing, when in need of a physician and unable to obtain one either through poverty, or because as in Persia no good one is obtainable except in the mission service, the missionary is called upon and his words have great influence. In Russia this form of ministry ought to be more largely em- ployed, where permission can be secured. Even in London thousands of Jews gladly come to the Mildmay dispensary each year. 6. The kind of men needed to carry on the activities thus summarized has been depicted by the veteran Secretary of the Mildmay Mission to the Jews, Rev. John Wilkinson. " First, we want men who know by experience the doctrine taught by Jesus Christ to Nicodemus in the third chapter of St. John; converted men, not merely scholars. Secondly, men filled with Christ-like compassion for His brethren according to the flesh. Thirdly, men who have some knowledge of Hebrew and of 524 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS Jewish history and literature; for a man who has this knowl- edge inspires the Jews with respect. Fourthly, men having some acquaintance with the revealed purpose of God in the Jew. Further, they should have skill in showing from the Hebrew Scriptures — the Old Testament alone, without touch- ing the New — that Jesus is the Messiah. Men are needed with ability to meet the special difficulties of the Jew — for example — the Trinity, Christ's twofold nature, the deity of- the Messiah, and the harmony of the genealogies." III. The Outlook. — i. From the viewpoint of the Jew, as reflected in utterances of their leaders, there is an evident feeling of despair as signs of religious disintegration are noted. The political disabilities under which they suffer in many lands, the inroads of materialism and secularization, the various hos- tile sects. Sabbath desecration, the Zionist movement which is a sign of promise and a note of doom, make the advocates of Judaism regard its future with foreboding. 2. This fact by itself might lead one to think that the con- version of Israel was growing increasingly hopeless. This is hardly the case, however. Rev. Louis Meyer, in a recent issue of the " Jewish Era," writes hopefully of the outlook as vietved by the worker: " We can truly assert that the attitude of the Jews toward Christianity is far more favorable at the present day than it has been at any period since Apostolic times ; and the hostile opposition of the orthodox, as well as of the re- formed or rationalistic Jew, is greatly diminished and miti- gated." In general the attitude of the Jews toward the mis- sionaries has become an attitude of polite inquiry ; and though the audiences in Jewish chapels are still small, vehement in- terruptions and open outbreaks of violent hostility become less and less frequent." The eminent Jewish authority. Pastor de le Roi, in two articles that appeared in the " Nathanael " of Berlin, states that during the last century a quarter of a mil- lion Jews were won to Christianity. Of these the Greek Church received the greatest number, — about thirty-six per cent., — Protestantism about 1,700 less and Roman Catholi- MISSIONS TO THE JEWS 525 cism about twenty-eight per cent. What is loss to Judaism seems to be gain for Christianity. 3. Another most encouraging feature of the situation is found in the comparatively large number of Jewish converts who become ministers or missionaries. Rev. R. W. Harden writes : " It is asserted, and I believe with truth, that as each Lord's Day comes round, the gospel is proclaimed in more than 600 pulpits of Europe by Jewish lips. Over 350 of the recog- nized ministers of Christ in Great Britain are stated to be He- brew Christians." When one recalls such converts from Juda- ism as Drs. Edersheim and Saphir and Bishops Alexander and Schereshewsky, the value of the enterprise and the hope of still greater blessing in the future become surely manifest. IV. Christian Obligation. — i. The duty resting upon the Church in connection with the race from which Christ and the great Apostle to the Gentiles were sprung is often for- gotten. The Lambeth Encyclical Letter, issued in 1897 in con- nection with the Pan-Anglican Conference on Missions to the Jews, contains this statement of obligation : " The Jews seem to deserve from us more attention than they have hitherto re- ceived. The difficulties of the work of converting the Jews are very great, but the greatest of all difficulties springs from the indifference of Christians to the duty of bringing them to Christ. They are the Lord's own kin, and He commanded that the gospel should first be preached to them. But Christians generally are much more interested in the conversion of the Gentiles. The conversion of the Jews is also much hindered by the severe persecutions to which Jewish converts are often ex- posed from their own people, and it is sometimes necessary to see to their protection, if they are persuaded to join us. It seems probable that the English-speaking people can do more than any others in winning them ; and, although Jewish con- verts have one advantage in their knowledge of their own peo- ple, yet they are put at a great disadvantage by the extremely strong prejudice which the Jews entertain against those who 526 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS have left them for Christ. It seems best that both Jews and Gentiles should be employed in the work." 2. The personal obligation must be felt even more strongly than this official utterance in behalf of a great Church. Bish- op Sumner more than fifty years since voiced the sentiment of all who are touched by Jewish need. " Behold this nation to whom I owe so much, without the hope which, through their means, I am blessed with ! Let me hold up to them the Word of Life, if God peradventure may have mercy upon them and disperse the blindness which has happened unto Israel." XXI JAPANESE AND CHINESE IN CHRISTIAN LANDS PART I. — GENERAL We have already met the Chinese in many mission coun- tries. Southeastern Asia and the adjacent islands teem with them. The West Indies and the South American coasts, the islands lying northeast and north of Madagascar and the Hawaiian group contain a goodly number of these enterprising men of Han. As for the Japanese, they have thus far largely emigrated only to America and Hawaii. In this chapter those natives of these Empires found in Christian countries are under consideration. 1. Number and Distribution. — i. As just stated, the Japanese are almost wholly confined to the Hawaiian Islands and America, though students and diplomats are found the world around. According to the United States census of 1900, 85,986 Japanese resided within its domains, of whom 61,111 were in Hawaii. Those states and territories which contained more than 100 Japanese are as follows : Alaska, 265 ; Arizona, 281 ; California, 10,151 ; Idaho, 1,291 ; Montana, 2,z^4i ; Nevada, 228; New York, 354; North Dakota, 148; Oregon, 2,501; Texas, 417; Washington, 5,617; Wyoming, 393. British Columbia was estimated to have from 8,000 to 10,000. 2. Chinese immigrants are found in small numbers in Great Britain, more numerously in Australasia and Canada, and in greatest numbers in the United States and its new insular pos- sessions, where in 1900 there were 119,050. Those states and territories where there were more than 1,000 Chinese are as 527 528 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS follows: Alaska, 3,116; Arizona, 1,419; California, 45,753; Hawaii, 25,767; Idaho, 1,467; Illinois, 1,503; Massachusetts, 2,968; Montana, 1,739; Nevada, 1,352; New Jersey, i.,393 ; New York, 7,170; Oregon, 10,397; Pennsylvania, 1,927; Washington, 3,629. According to the 1891 census, the Chi- nese in the Dominion numbered 9,129, though they have in- creased considerably since then. II. Social and Industrial Conditions. — i. The Japa- nese outside of America and Hawaii are from the middle and higher classes of society. They have left their home for the purpose of study, and in order to master the arts and prac- tical sciences of the West. Comparatively few of them are artisans, and even in such cases a trade is learned only in order that it may be taught fellow-countrymen on returning to Japan. The students in European universities and colleges are hoping to be educators on their return, and therefore are anxious to secure a specialist's training, in addition to the general culture of those institutions. In the United States and Canada " merchants, artisans, tradesmen, farmers, laborers and students make up the popu- lations on the coast. Among the whole number there are few idlers, all being actively employed on farms, railroads, or in shops and families. All who come seek improvement. They are hospitable toward new ideas that may be practically util- ized in Japan, and are therefore eager learners. The relatively large number of students is surprising; these are young men from the age of fifteen to thirty, mostly poor in purse, but proud of learning and willing to endure great privations for the pearl of knowledge. In California there are at least 500 of these, earnestly studying in our schools, public and private." In Hawaii a vast majority of the immigrants are engaged on the sugar estates and in other forms of manual labor. 2. Unlike the Japanese, the Chinese are overwhelmingly from the lower or lowest classes, and hence are mainly laborers or artisans. In Great Britain the Chinaman is still what he is depicted as being in Dickens' " Mystery of Edwin Drood," JAPANESE AND CHINESE IN CHRISTIAN LANDS 529 a devotee of the opium pipe and a patient toiler beneath " the golden cross that gleams from above the fog-smothered dome of St. Paul's Cathedral." Edwin Hodder has this to say of those in the South Pacific : " The Chinese in the great world of Australia form of themselves almost a separate community, which flows into the country in a continuous stream in spite of most stringent government measures to prevent it, and chiefly impinges on its northern and southeastern shores. Their gambling, opium-smoking and other evils, contributing to the lowering of the standard of morals, call loudly for some counteracting influence, John Chinaman being regarded as among the inferior immigrant races, though he may become merchant or storekeeper, cabinetmaker, cook or general laborer. In such places as Cooktown, where they are plentiful, their quarters are marked by fan-tan shops, joss-houses and their own very particular eating and drinking." While the Dominion has its thousands, the largest number of Chinese found in Christian lands are on United States soil. Though New York harbor had seen a few early in the last century, the Occidental stream began to flow with the coming of two Chinese men and one woman in February, 1848. Wild stories of Chin Shan — Gold Mountain — across the Great Eastern Ocean, where the precious metal could be picked up freely by any one, were the alluring voices that then, and — in a more factual form — ever since, have induced the Chinese to leave their ancestral graves for a sufficient length of time to secure a competency, when, with scarcely an exception, they hope to return to their father-village — for this takes the place of fatherland in Chinese thought. What they are in America is well known. A vast majority of them are day-laborers, or artisans, with a few in institutions of higher learning. Chinese laundries are found in almost every town of any importance, but it is on the Pacific Slope that most of the gardeners, arti- sans and merchants are seen. While he has his vices, notably gambling, opium-smoking and impurity, the Chinese is indus- trious almost universally, law-abiding save in the directions 530 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS just named, and thrifty with very few exceptions. A beggar is practically unknown among them. As in China, they are sat- urated with the guild spirit, so that combinations are omni- present. Unlike their countrymen at home, the Chinese in America are free to indulge in their penchant for secret societies. Some of these are political, and aim at the overthrow of the Manchu Dynasty. The reformers of their native land find in such societies their chief supporters and sympathizers. When sec- tional or trade animosities are aroused, they become a serious menace to Chinese society, and many a Celestial has fallen victim to the dread " hatchet men." One form of organization is especially to be deplored, though it is confined to San Fran- cisco apparently. Dr. Condit calls it the Procurers' Protective Association. " It is organized for the sole purpose of import- ing Chinese slave girls. Its special work is the raising of money to meet the expenses of fighting our courts, eluding the vigilance of honest customs officers and doing all that is neces- sary for carrying on this nefarious traffic. In Canton, Hong- kong and Macao are houses used for the sole purpose of train- ing up young, innocent girls for a life of shame. None are too young to be secured, as they can be kept in these nurseries of hell until they are old enough to be sent out to their vile life." 3. Opposition to these two races is confined almost entirely to the industrial element, though even students and diplomats among the Chinese share the ill-will attributable to their illiter- ate brothers. At present the wages of Asiatics are nearly the same as are paid for similar services to whites ; but the Japa- nese and Chinese are so much more temperate and dependable that they are a menace to white laborers with less industrious and frugal habits. It is mainly for this reason that labor organ- izations in British Columbia and the Pacific States are bit- terly opposed to both races. Other residents of those States are likewise opposed to them, partly because of their lower grade of morality and social life, and partly because of the in- exhaustible supply of Orientals who may in the future devour JAPANESE AND CHINESE IN CHRISTIAN LANDS 53 1 the land, as the Chinese have already done in Southeastern Asia. At present legal restrictions against both races are lim- iting immigration. In Hawaii the Chinese are the ones to suffer from this discrimination. What most galls the better element in China and Japan is the fact that other immigrants who are on the whole more inimical to the best interests of America, are not thus discriminated against. What will be the outcome of the present agitation concerning the renewal of these treaties in 1902 remains to be seen. The danger is that the less prejudiced authorities at Washington may yield before the sectional interests of the Pacific Slope. III. Religious Conditions. — i. The Japanese are as a class less devoted to their religion than the masses of their countrymen at home. This may be accounted for by the fact that the leaders among them are students, who are openly sceptical concerning their old religions, or else are friendly to the new light of Christian lands. These facts, together with the small number in a given locality, may account for the very few temples found in America. 2. The Chinese, on the contrary, are apparently more re- ligious in those lands where wages are good than at home. The sumptuous joss-houses of Australian and American cities would give visitors an idea that in China idolatry still was active and lavish in gifts. As a matter of fact, such large ex- penditure for temples and idols is rare there, and is possible here because money is plentiful and every opportunity of es- tablishing places of concourse, reminding them of home, is embraced. In San Francisco alone there are eighteen tem- ples, " the Six Companies each having one. The newest, largest and finest is that of the Neng Yeung Company, being Company house and temple combined. The principal idol is a great, red-faced, hideously grotesque Joss, dressed in gaudy robes, called Kwan Tai, God of War. Kwan Tai in this tem- ple is very popular, as he is supposed to have much power in bestowing upon his devotees bravery, courage and success in their undertakings." 532 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS PART II. — MISSIONARY I. Missionary Effort for the Japanese. — This work is of recent origin ; though individuals, especially the early students like Joseph Neesima, have been labored for from the time of their first advent on Christian shores. The conversion of Kamichi Miyama, who reached San Francisco in 1877, and his baptism and that of two fellow-countrymen were the begin- ning of Japanese missions on an organized plan. 1. The leading societies engaged in this work in the United States and Canada are those of the Presbyterians, Methodists, Baptists and Episcopalians, and the cities of San Francisco, Tacoma, Seattle and Salinas, in the United States, and Vic- toria, Vancouver, Union and Eraser River, in British Colum- bia, are the principal centers of mission activity. When it is remembered that probably the first Japanese church in Amer- ica was not erected until 1894, the present condition of activity is encouraging. In the Hawaiian Islands the Hawaiian Evan- gelical Association and the American Board are cooperating in the work for the 60,000 Japanese within their bounds. The Methodists are likewise doing something for these people. 2. The methods employed on the Islands are suited to the roving character of Japanese laborers, who do not remain long enough in one place to make church methods as helpful as they otherwise would be. Evangelists and a monthly news- paper, " The Light," are most used. The American Board has just appointed a former member of its Japan force to proceed to the districts in Japan whence the emigrants chiefly go, and cultivate the friendship of their families, thus bringing with him to the Hawaiian Japanese home news and a living bond of interest. A similar advantage is derived from the temporary visits of missionaries in Japan who stop at the Islands en route. For the children education is found useful. In the morning they attend the public schools, where they learn English, In JAPANESE AND CHINESE IN CHRISTIAN LANDS 533 the afternoon these who are in the two boarding-schools receive instruction in the Japanese language, and enjoy all the bene- fits of a Christian home. Another somewhat unusual form of missionary effort " indicates the self-helpful and beneficent spirit which is the outcome of Christian influence, namely, the cooking-school, taught by Mr. Ishimura, from which have graduated in the past few years hundreds of the young men who may be met in very many of the best families of our city (Honolulu). Many of these young men, now in the humble positions of cook, table-boy or garden-boy, are youths of noble promise and high ambition. Some of them may yet graduate from the highest colleges and universities of Christendom and come to fill positions of great responsibility and trust ; there- fore let us take heed that we despise not one of these little ones. If these now receptive and keenly observant youths find in the families of their employers a true Christian spirit, they are sure to be influenced by it." 3. In America the work was first conducted in connection with that for the Chinese. Later it has been found more profitable to regard racial differences, and hence missions are carried on for each race separately. As would be expected by those who know the Japanese, most of the work is done by themselves, and comparatively little by the missionary. Evangelistic effort is fundamental, and in some cases the revival spirit is quite marked. Dr. Harris describes an experi- ence that has been practically repeated in other places. " One young man, deeply convicted of unbelief, was led by the Spirit apart, and for many days he prayed, fasted and searched the Scriptures. Finally he emerged, filled with new life and sur- charged with the message of salvation, and began to witness and exhort with startling earnestness. Conviction of sin, the need of forgiveness and the anointing of the Spirit came upon many. For days and weeks this went on, culminating in a re- generated. Spirit-filled church, ready for the service of the Lord. It pleased God to call many to be His witnesses and evangelists. Without purse, they went forth with tracts and 534 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS Bibles, and told their countrymen what God had done for them. Sin and salvation were the themes illustrated by their own experience, and the Lord confirmed their words and deeds with many signs. Scores were converted and new mis- sions were formed." Where numbers of Japanese are present in the same town, it has been found most profitable to make each mission a Young Men's Christian Association with some home features superadded. " A building is used for dormitory, restaurant, school-room, religious services, social hall, reading-room, trunk-rooms, etc." An Anglo-Japanese school, open both day and evening, is sometimes an adjunct of a mission to the Japanese. 4. Results of this form of effort, both in America and Hawaii, are very much like those reported by Dr. Harris con- cerning the Methodist work for the Japanese. " The regener- ating influences of these missions upon the dwellers on the Coast are direct and very salutary ; and upon Japan, though in- direct, they are nevertheless very helpful. Many Japanese who have come to the Coast as students and traders have, upon their return to Japan, admirably succeeded in many callings. Among these are a number of Christian men. I can count thirty men, pastors, teachers and evangelists, who have been converted here, and are now potent factors in the churches in Japan. It is an inspiring truth that not only every steamer carries native Japanese Christians from Victoria, San Fran- cisco and Seattle, but that on these same vessels are hundreds of letters from Christians, laden with love-messages and fra- grant with prayer for the loved ones at home. Whole families have thus been changed into Christian households by these loving epistles." n. Missions Among the Chinese. — i. The principal societies engaged are the following: In Australasia: Aus- tralasian Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society, 4 sta- tions ; New South Wales Church Missionary Associa- tion, I station; Presbyterian Church of New South Wales, JAPANESE AND CHINESE IN CHRISTIAN LANDS 535 I Station; Presbyterian Women's Missionary Union of Vic- toria, I station ; Victoria Church Missionary Association, 3 stations; the Presbyterian Church of Otago and Southland, I station. Hawaiian Islands: Hawaiian Evangelical Associa- tion, 2 stations. Canada: Foreign Mission Committee of the Presbyterian Church in Canada, 4 stations ; Missionary Society of the Methodist Church in Canada, 7 stations ; Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, i station ; Woman's Missionary Society of the Methodist Church, Canada, i station. United States: American Baptist Home Mission Society, 8 stations; American Missionary Association, 21 stations; Board of For- eign Missions of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America, 2 stations ; Christian Woman's Board of Missions, I station ; Missionary Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church, 2 stations; Peniel Missionary Society, i station; Synod of Reformed Presbyterian Church in North America, i sta- tion ; Women's Baptist Home Mission Society, 2 stations ; Ply- mouth Brethren, i station. 2. In Australia the Chinese seem to be' more migratory than in the large American centers of Chinese life. As a conse- quence the work for them is more discouraging than there. Apparently more volunteers for night-school and other service have offered themselves than in America. One very profitable feature of the Presbyterian Women's work is the care for the children and women of the Chinese colony. The Victoria Church Missionary Association is likewise emphasizing this feature. Like other fields in which the Chinese are compara- tively few and much scattered, Australian efforts for their evangelization are not sufficiently well supported. 3. In the Haivaiian Islands the labors of the missionaries are well supplemented by services freely rendered by pastors in Hawaiian churches and by Chinese assistants. Some of the workers, both foreigners and natives, have gained experience in China, and one helper can preach very fluently in three dia- lects. All varieties of church activity are here found, with the educational work of the mission field besides. This ranges 536 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS from very successful kindergarten work to the advanced studies of Mills Institute. In the latter seventy students were gaining an education last year, and secured an excellent prep- aration for the new duties that may await them on returning to their native land. The generation that is coming up under these better influences is far stronger than were the men reached years ago, largely because of the labors of the mis- sionaries. 4. The United States and Canada are the principal fields of labor for the Chinese immigrants. Mitch of it is voluntary and connected with no society. Laundrymen are ubiquitous, and in towns and villages where a very few only are found, the local churches usually care for their religious needs. In many large cities, especially in the East, the churches are doing all that is attempted for them. Methods here are almost wholly confined to those of the Sunday-school and night-school. Learning English is, of course, the main desire of the Chinese, and in order to secure this knowledge, they will listen to the Christian instruction that accompanies it. Very rarely are these schools adapted to the most speedy acquisition of Eng- lish and the intelligent understanding of Christianity. This is the result of having no workers who know either the Chinese language or Chinese customs. Secret society feuds often break up a school laboriously established, to the utter mystification of teachers and superintendants. Many teachers who earnestly desire to aid the Chinese, order from China books in the classi- cal tongue, or else in the Mandarin, which very few laundry- men could understand even if they could freely read it. Scan- dal is caused to the more respectable Chinese by the great free- dom noted between the teachers, most of whom are young women, and the pupils, which though not very objectionable in America, is abhorrent to all Chinese ideas of etiquette. Yet even this unintelligent work is so consecrated and faithful that it has resulted in much good both to the Chinese and their friends at home. The work of the missionary societies is wholly different, and JAPANESE AND CHINESE IN CHRISTIAN LANDS 537 is carried on usually with the wisdom begotten of experience in China, some of it by missionaries from that land. Begin- ning in 1852, under Dr. Speer, of the Presbyterian Board, North, and with the first church of four members established the following year, organized efforts for the Chinese are being successfully conducted in many large cities, mostly on the Pacific Slope. The Sunday-school, followed by the day secular school, held at night usually, were the initial steps. Converts increasing, the usual agencies of the church were set in mo- tion, and they continue to be the main reliance. Higher educa- tion is not demanded of the societies, as secondary schools and colleges abound on every hand. Even more than among the Japanese is the Young Men's Christian Association appreciated by the Chinese. The Asso- ciation of the Presbyterian Mission in San Francisco, the mother of them all, has enrolled more than a thousand mem- bers, and from it have gone out branch societies into twelve different States, a total of thirty. " The Association com- bines social and religious elements, and is composed of both active and associate members. Any person of good moral character, willing to renounce idolatry, to acknowledge the fundamental truths of Christianity and desiring to associate with Christians may become an associate member. The Asso- ciation by this broad policy has ever been helpful in leading the way out of heathenism towards the religion of Jesus and into the Church of Christ. Those who enter it become learners in the truth, and most of them soon become ready to confess Christ as their Saviour by being baptized into His name." A paragraph from the Preamble of the largest Association reads : " We gather ourselves together and organize this Association that we might inform each other about the true doctrine, es- tablish ourselves to act according to the truth and not fall into crooked ways ; but be loyal to our superiors, dutiful to our parents and walk in the right path. Though it is not easy to do this, yet as young men, we ought to learn. For mutual aid we ought to be joined together as loving friends, so as to ex- 538 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS hort each other more earnestly and pohsh each other continu- ally by contact. This is what we deeply expect by this Associa- tion." The liability to merge the organization into another form of Chinese guild has to be remembered, but if guarded against, the Association is always very helpful. On the Pacific Slope the societies find an avenue of great usefulness in caring for the children of these immigrants, of whom last year there were 2,000 of school age, and especially in the establishment of homes for the unfortunate slave girls allured to this country for vicious ends. Such women as Miss Culbertson are worthy of highest praise. " At the close of her eighteen years of service, five hundred had found refuge with- in the walls of the Occidental Woman's Board Home, of whom the larger part were rescued by her personal efforts. A goodly number of these have been converted, the names of eighty being found on the church roll. Of these many have married Christian men and have gone out to set up Christian homes for themselves." The press is useful in furthering the enterprise. While very few understand much English, in every group of Chinese are one or more persons who can read, and these become the teachers of their countrymen, in a sense. Bilingual periodicals are useful, and publications in Cantonese of the American Tract Society, or of Chinese Societies, are most valuable aids in Chinese mission work. Reports of the societies during the past two years indicate a difficulty in connection zvith reform agitation. Thus the Canadian Presbyterians said in 1900 : " Bright hopes were blighted by the organization of a new society amongst the Chinese called ' The Emperor Protective Society.' It spread like wildfire all over the continent, reaching every coterie of Chinese and inflaming their enthusiasm for the restoration of the Chinese Emperor and the introduction of sweeping reforms in China, as well as restoring Confucianism and ancestral wor- ship to their supremacy as the religion of the Empire. The society has made a radical departure in holding meetings every JAPANESE AND CHINESE IN CHFtSTIAN LANDS 539 Sabbath day in halls with pulpit and platform, with patriotic songs and addresses." In San Francisco, according to Dr. Condit, the society has 5,000 members, while practically all the Chinese in the Hawaiian Islands belong to it. Yet the Christian Chinese of San Francisco said in a series of resolu- tions sent to the late President McKinley : " We deplore the Boxer insurrection in North China. The Chinese now resi- dent in the United States' have no sympathy whatever with this wild, murderous horde of misguided Chinese. It should be borne in mind that the Chinese residing in this country come from the Kwang-tung province, of which Canton is the capital. Not only is there but little anti-foreign feeling in this part of China, but a growing spirit of friendliness." There is little doubt but that such Christians, while desirous of seeing the reforms for which their head, K'ang Yii-wei stands realized, are yet anxious to " carry with them the spirit of truth " when they return, and with that as a weapon, fight for their country's disenthrallment. 5. The results of the work for Chinese are much like those named in connection with the Japanese. Missionaries of all societies laboring among them testify to consistent lives lived in the midst of great temptation, and of heroic endurance of persecution, especially on the part of those Christians who have aided the missionaries in their campaign against gambling and the ruin of Chinese girls. In benevolence they are examples to other Christians, and they do not forget their country when exiled from it. Such churches as that at Sun Neng, near Can- ton, are monuments to their liberality. They also prove very helpful to missionaries working in South China when they return. Thus Rev. Mr. Fulton reports " that of the twenty^ five native helpers who have worked with him in China, twenty have been connected with Chinese Sunday-schools in America ; and he further says that through their united labor he has, during the last mission year, baptized nearly 400 converts in these districts." Some statistics concerning the Chinese of the United States, 540 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS given by Dr. Condit in 1900, understate the facts, rather than exaggerate them. A few of these items are as follows : Whole number of Chinese Christians in the United States from the beginning, 4,000; present number of Christian Chinese of all denominations, 1,600; number of evening schools, 50, with an annual attendance of 3,700 ; number of Chinese Sunday-schools, 75, with an attendance of 2,500; whole number of Chinese born in the United States, 3,000; number of Chinese children in public and mission schools, 500; number of lay preachers converted in the United States who have labored both here and in China, 60, of whom 12 were ordained ; amount given by the Chinese in the United States for building chapels and for other Christan work in their native land, $60,000, silver. III. Our Duty. — The duty of doing more for the salva- tion of representatives of these races who are living in the midst of Christian communites is manifest. While it is far more difficult to know intimately the real life of the convert, than in China or Japan, where native helpers are free to visit their homes, it is easier for them to live a Christian life with all the helps of friendly Christians, than in idolatrous China or Japan, when surrounded with a host of obstructive rela- tives. Persons who criticise the foreign missionary societies for sending missionaries to China and Japan while there are " heathen enough at our doors," should remember what the societies are already doing for these Orientals ; and they ought to rally to the support of the enterprise, both by liberal contri- butions and by personal participation in some of the work, which is possible in most large cities and in many small towns. In China especially, greater pains should be taken to provide for the Christian nurture of immigrants returning from Aus- tralia and America. Mr. Selby in " Chinamen at Home," gives some very vivid pictures illustrating this need, and also shows from his own experience how difficult a task it is. Yet the results attained by the American Board's Hongkong Mission, which devotes much attention to that sort of efforts, prove the value of this conserving measure. The Final Outcome As THE reader has passed in imagination from land to land and glanced hastily at some present conditions and achieve- ments of the missonary enterprise, he must have been im- pressed with the extent of the work, and at the same time with its utter inadequacy to meet the colossal needs of a thousand millions of fellow mortals, children of the same Father, though they know Him not. Their rescue and upbuilding in all that makes life worth living and death not a dying, should be a foremost concern of every one who has given allegiance to the great Captain, whose marching orders are as plain as they are imperative, " Go ye into all the world and preach the gospel to the whole creation." Even if the residual impression is a combination of dismay and hope because of the enormity of the enterprise and the manifest presence of God in the work, the urgency of the need of all nations should prompt to immediate response. The Chinese character for world and for generation is made up of three tens. While Occidentals speak of a generation as being thirty-three years in duration, this linguistic fossil of past millenniums asserts that in three brief decades the Chinese race comes to birth, lives its cheerless life and crumbles into dust. Is not this a picture of the non-Christian world also? Christians may not dally when such momentous interests are at stake — when a thousand million souls, each of them valued at more than a world by our Lord, are hanging in the balance. The Church of God may sleep on for thirty years more ; but when it awakes the thousand million will have passed beyond her power to bless them. If the non-Christian nations are not evangelized in our generation, then the Church can never per- form her duty to the two-thirds of the human race to which she has been commanded to minister. That believers the world around will be shown their duty is becoming more and more evident, and it has been the object 541 542 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS of this volume to aid in that direction. Present accompHsh- ment is a glorious pledge of larger achievements in the future. St. Sophia, in Constantinople, furnishes, perhaps, the best illustration of what the Christian may surely expect. " When Constantine, 1,500 years ago, was marking out lines of forti- fication for his new capital," writes Dr. Dwight, " some of his courtiers, surprised at the greatness of the space, asked, ' How far are you going to carry your lines ? ' ' Until He stops who goes before me,' was the answer of the Emperor. He deemed the city to belong to Jesus Christ, a token of the tri- umph of Jesus Christ over the heathen world." And to ob- jectify this thought, Justinian, in reconstructing the Cathedral of St. Sophia, brought to its precincts the finest marbles and most majestic columns from the temples of Jupiter and Venus, of Diana and Baal and Astarte, of Isis and Osiris, from all the neighboring lands. The traveler who visits this majestic fane, now a Mohammedan mosque, may see in the center of the half- dome of the apse what to the careless eye is only a modern arabesque painted on a ground of gold. " A careful scrutiny," says Dr. Dwight, " will discover underneath the arabesque of the Moslems and forming a richer and more brilliant portion of the shining groundwork, the outlines of a figure of heroic size, with flowing robes, with arms outstretched and with a halo crowning the head. The figure is a mosaic worked into the substance of the wall as a leading feature in the ancient deco- ration of the church. The Mohammedan conquerors, instead of destroying the figure, merely hid it from the eyes of their own people by overlaying it with gold. That figure, which could not be hid by the gold-leaf which veils it, is the figure of Jesus Christ." This prophecy in marble and mosaic and gold is to-day being fulfilled. Though heathen altars still remain, many redeemed shrines of the Holy Ghost in every clime are far more precious trophies of our Lord's world-wide campaign than despoiled temples of the old Roman world. The veiled Christ, whom the clearest and most spiritual intellects of heathen, Mohammedan THE FINAL OUTCOME 543 and pagan lands have seen as in a glass darkly, has revealed Himself in all His heroic dimensions and heavenly loveliness to elect souls in every nation. The day of His enthronement as Lord of All awaits the will of His blood-bought Church. That the day will eventually come is as sure as His unfailing Word. " He shall have dominion also from sea to sea, And from the River unto the ends of the earth. They that dwell in the wilderness shall bow before Him ; And His enemies shall lick the dust. "The kings of Tarshish and of the isles shall bring presents: The kings of Sheba and Seba shall offer gifts. Yea, all kings shall fall down before Him: All nations shall serve Him." APPENDIX A MISSIONARY CONTRIBUTORS TO THIS WORK Part II of the various chapters of this vohime is largely based upon information very kindly furnished the author by representatives of the leading missionary societies in the great mission fields of the world. Without this first-hand information so cheer- fully furnished by experienced men and women on the field, the volume would lack much of the trustworthiness which it now possesses. The preference of contributors is fol- lowed in the order of initials of degrees and in orthography of place names. Persons before whose names is an asterisk (*) have recently died. Alexander, Rev. J. R., D.D., Assiut, Egypt. Amerman, Rev. Jas. L., D.D., (formerly) Tokyo, Japan. Andrew, Rev. Adam, Chingleput, South India. Arms, Rev. Goodsil F., A.M., Concepcion, Chile. Avison, Oliver R., M.D., Seoul, Korea. Bagby, Rev. William Buck, A.M., D.D., Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Baldwin, Mrs. S. L., (formerly) Foochow, China. Balle, Frederik, Greenland. Baudert, Samuel, Baziya, South Africa. Beatty, Rev. William, D.D., Ahmedabad, India. Beck, Rev. Will M., Monrovia, Africa. Bender, Robert Hermann, San Salvador, Salvador. Bernard, Miss L. C, M.D., Poona, India. Binford, Rev. Gurney, Tokyo, Japan. Bishop, A. E., Guatemala City, Central America. Blackett, Rev. Arthur Russell, B.A., Kerman, Persia. Bleazard, Rev. Colin, Satupaitea, Savaii, Samoa. Booth-Tucker, Commander Frederick de L., India. Brander, Thomas Lawrie, M.D., Chinchou, Manchuria, N. China. Brewster, Rev. William N., B.A., B.D., Hinghua, China. Bromilow, Rev. W. E., Dobu, British New Guinea. Brown, Rev. Hubert W., B.A., M.A., Mexico City, Mexico. Brown, Rev. John Gilbert, B.A., Vuyyuru, India. Bryan, Rev. Robert Thomas, D.D., Shanghai, China. Bunker, Rev. A., D.D., Toungoo, Burma. Butchart, Jas., M.D., Lu Cheo Fu, China. Butler, Rev. Jno. W., D.D., Mexico City, Mexico. Caldwell, J. E., B.Ph., M.D., Rarotonga, Cook Islands. 545 54^ GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS Cameron, Miss Margaret Anne, Kotakota, British Central Africa. Campbell, Rev. David Newton E., B.S., M.D., Santiago de Cuba, Cuba. Camphor, Alexander P., Monrovia, Africa. Carter, Rev. David Wendel, M.A., Mexico City, Mexico. Chastain, Rev. James Garvin, D.D., Morelia, Mexico. Clark, Miss Esther D., Santiago, Dominican Republic, W. I. Collins, Rev. Chas. M., Aguascalientes, Mexico. Cook-Jalabert, J. P., II Mathen par El 'Kseur, Algeria. Cooper, Rev. A. Willard, Rajaburee, Siam. Craver, Rev. Samuel P., D.D., Asuncion, Paraguay. Dauble, G., Keta, West Africa. Dearing, Rev. John L., Yokohama, Japan. Drees, Rev. Charles W., D.D., Buenos Aires, Argentine Republic. Eve, Rev. Joseph Ernest, Mpotula, South Africa. Ewing, Rev. Arthur H., M.A., Lodiana, India. Fagg, Rev. John G., Amoy, China. Fairbank, Rev. Henry, Vadala, India. Folke, Rev. Eric, Uin-ch'eng, China. Forney, Elder D. L., Novsari, India. Fowle, Rev. James Luther, A.M., Cesarea, Turkey in Asia. Frederickson, Rev. J. F., Ghoom, India. Freeman, Rev. J. H., Laos. Gammon, Rev. Sam. R., Lavras, Brazil. Geddes, Rev. Alexander W., Panama, Colombia. *Gifford, Rev. Daniel L., Seoul, Korea. Goldsack, Rev. William, Laridpur, India. Grandjean, A., Delagoa Bay, East Africa. Graves, Rev. Rosewell Hobart, M.D., D.D., Canton, China. Graybill, Rev. A. T., Linares, Mexico. Griffin, Archdeacon James Edward, Mbweni, Zanzibar. Griffiths, Miss Mary Bell, Yokohama, Japan. Grinnan, Rev. R. B., D.D., Japan. Hail, Rev. Alexander Durham, D.D., Osaka, Japan. Hamilton, Alexander, Beautyre Province, British Central Africa. Haviland, Mrs. Emma Hillmon, Inhambane, S. E. Africa. Haymaker, Rev. Edward McElwain, Guatemala, C. A. Heaney, Edward, Qua Ibo, W. C. Africa. Hearne, Edward W., Manila, P. I. Heinrichs, J., Ramapatam, India. Henderson, Rev. James, M.A., Lake Nyassa, British Central Africa. Hey, Rev. N., Mapoon Station, Australia. Howard, Rev. Alfred Taylor, B.A., Tokyo, Japan. Huffman, Rev. Nathan H., A.M., Ponce, Porto Rico. APPENDIX A 547 Jalla, Rev. Louis, Barotseland, South Africa. Jessup, Rev. Henry H., D.D., Beirut, Syria. Jones, Miss Anna, Yeotmal, India. Joseph, Oscar L., Ceylon. Keirn, Rev. G. I., Tokyo, Japan. Kelsey, Rev. Wm. Irving, Ph.B., C. Victoria Tamaulipas, Mexico. Kidd, Dudley, Johannesburg and Capetown, South Africa. King, Rev. John R., B.A., Freetown, West Africa. Kogel, Rev. Hinrich August, Greenland. Kranz, Rev. Paul, Shanghai, China. Lee, Rev. Lucius O., D.D., Marash, Turkey. Lester, Rev. William H., Jr., Santiago, Chile. Little, Thomas, Brumana, Syria. Lowry, Rev. Hiram H., D.D., Peking, China. Loyd, Miss Mary De Forest, Mexico City, Mexico. McCollum, Rev. John William, Fukuoka, Japan. McConnell, Wm. W., Cartago, Costa Rica, Central America. McCormick, Rev. H. P., San Juan, Porto Rico, and Mexico City. MacNair, Rev. Theodore M., Tokyo, Japan. Martin, Rev. Aug., Bluefields, Central America. Martin, Rev. John Howard, Punjab, British India. Martin, Z. L., Jamaica, W. I. Marx, Rev. B., Cape Colony, South Africa. Matson, Rev. P., Fancheng, China. Mead, Cecil Silas, M.B., Ch.B., B.A., Faridpur, India. Michelsen, Rev. Oscar, Tongoa, New Hebrides. Michener, Charles L., Jamaica, West Indies. Milsaps, Major John, Manila, P. I. Mood, Rev. John Richardson, A.M., B.D., Monterey, Mexico. Moore, Rev. Pitt Holland, M.A., Nowgong, Assam, India. Morgan, Rev. Fred H., Singapore, S. S. Moscrop, Thomas, Colombo, Ceylon. Miiller, Rev. A., Ellichpur, India. Nail, Rev. Percy Charles, Mymensing, India. Neville, Rev. Abia, Tangail, India. Paton, Hugh, Mazagan, Morocco. Pearce, Rev. Charles William, Bankies, South Africa. Pease, Rev. Edmund M., M.D., Marshall Is. and Kusaie, Micronesia. Peery, Rev. Rufus B., Ph.D., Saga, Japan. Pettee, Rev. James H., D.D., Okayama, Japan. Pilz, Miss Charlotte, Jerusalem, Palestine. Potter, Staff Captain W. Scott, Tokyo, Japan. Preston, Rev. Thomas James, Hankow, China. 548 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS Price, Rev. Francis M., B.A., B.D., Guam, Caroline Is., Micronesia. Price, Rev. Philip Francis, Kashing, China. Renius, Rev. Victor, Hankow, China. Renkewitz, Rev. Ernst Adolf, Parimaribo, Dutch Guiana. Rice, Rev. Clarence E., Tokyo, Japan. Richards, Rev. Erwin Hart, D.D., Inhambane. East Africa. Rodgers, Rev. James B., Manila, P. I. Rostvig, Rev. L., Tullear, Madagascar. Rowe, Rev. Richard Henry, Cape Hayti, Hayti, W. I. Rudd, Rev. Augustus Bartow, Ponce, Porto Rico, W. I. Salmans, Rev. Levi B., M.D., Guanajuato, Mexico. Scherer, Rev. James A. B., Ph.D., Saga, Japan. Scott, Rev. J. H., Osaka, Japan. Scott, Rev. T. J., D.D., Bareilly, India. Sheffield, Rev. Devello Z., D.D., Peking, China. Shumaker, H. K., M.D., Canton, China. Sjoblam, Rev. Wilhelm Edward, Ikoko, S. W. Africa. Sleeper, Mrs. Hannah E., Douglas Island, Alaska. Smaill, Rev. Thomas, B.A., Nikaura, Epi, New Hebrides. Small, Rev. Arthur J., Bau, Fiji Is. Smith, Charles Edward, Ogbomoshaw, West Africa. Smith, Rev. Julius, Toungoo, Burma. *Smith, Rev. Thomas Snell, M.A., Jaffna, Ceylon. Soper, Rev. Julius, A.M., D.D., Tokyo, Japan. Sprague, Rev. W. P., Kalgan, China. Stavem, Ola, Durban, South Africa. Stokke, Rev. K. S., Runingfu, China. Swinney, Miss Ella Frances, M.D., Shanghai, China. Takle, Rev. John, Brahmanbaria, India. Taylor, Joseph, Hoshangabad, India. *Thoburn, Miss Isabella, Lucknow, India. Thoburn, Bishop James Mills, D.D., Bombay, India. Thompson, Miss Caroline M., Beyrout, Syria. Towson, Rev. Willard Elmore, Kobe, Japan. Tremberth, Rev. Wm., Chung-king, China. Tucker, Rev. Hugh Clarence, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Unangst, Rev. E., D.D., Guntur, India. Valentine, Rev. Colin S., F.R.C.S.E., LL.D., Agra, India. Vartan, P. Kaloosd, M.D., L.R.C.S. & P.E., Nazareth, Palestine. Waddell, Rev. W. A., Sao Paulo, Brazil. Waidtlow, Rev. C. B., Port Arthur, China. Walker, Rev. Joseph E., A.M., Shao-wu, Foochow, China. Walsh, Rev. H. Pakenham, M.A., Chhota Nagpur, India. APPENDIX A 549 Ward, E. F., Raj. Nandgaon, British India. Ward, Miss Theodora S., Beyrout, Syria. Weber, Rev. J., Leh, Ladak, Kashmir. West, Mrs. Lida M., Rotifunk, W. Africa. Whytock, Rev. Peter, Balololand, Central Africa. Williams, Rev. Mark, Kalgan, China. Winton, Rev. George B., San Luis Potosi, Mexico. Withey, Rev. Herbert Cookman, Pungo Andongo, Africa. Witte, George R., Carolina, Brazil. Woodward, Archdeacon H. W., Majila, Tanga, German East Africa. Woodworth, Rev. A. D., Tokyo, Japan. Woodside, Rev. Thos. W., Benguella, S. W. Africa. Young, Rev. John C, M.B., CM., Shejkh Othman, Arabia. Young, Miss Susie A., Zafarwal, India. Zachary, Rev. Francis E., B.A., Masasi, East Africa. Zucher, Rev. E. P., Greenland. Zwemer, Rev. S. M., F.R.G.S., Bahrein, Persian Gulf. APPENDIX B BIBLIOGRAPHY GENERAL WORKS Allgemeine Missions-Zeitschrift Barrows J. H. editor World's Parliament of Religions 2v 1893 Bartholomew J. Citizens' Atlas Bliss E. M. editor Encyclopaedia of missions 2 v 1891 Burkhardt G. E. & R. Grundeman Kleine Missions-Bibliothek 4 v 1876-81 Chisholm C. G. Times (Long- mans) gazetteer 1899 Church Missionary Atlas 1896 Church Missionary Intelligencer Davidson A. Geographical pathol- ogy 2 V 1892 Deniker J. Ethnographic Deniker J. Races of man 1901 Dennis J. S. Christian missions and social progress (volume of Centennial statistics) 1902 Ecumenical missionary conference 1900 Geographical Journal (Royal Geo- graphical Society's periodical) Graham J. A. Missionary expan- sion since the Reformation 1899 Grant W. D. editor. Christendom at the beginning of the twen- tieth century 1901 Grundemann, R. Kleine Missions- Geographie und -Statistik 1901 Grundemann R. Neuer Missions- Atlas 1896 Gundert H. &■ 6 others. Die Evangelische Mission 1894 Hodder E. Conquests of the Cross 3 V 1890 ( ?) Hutchinson H. N. and others. Living races of mankind 1901 Keltie J. S. and I. P. A. Ren- ivick Statesman's year-book (sta- tistical, po'itical, commercial) ' Leonard D. L. A hundred years of missions 1895 Mill H. R. & 69 others Inter- ternational geography 1900 Mission World Missionary issues of the twentieth century (Conference of the Methodist Church, South) 1901 Missionary Reviezv of the World Petermanns Mittcilungen (stan- dard German geographical jour- nal) Ratsel F. Anthropogeographie 2 v 1891 Ratsel F. History of mankind 3 v 1896-99 Rectus E. Nouvelle Geographie Universelle 19 v 1876-94 Earth and its inhabitants (trans- lation of the above) 19 v 1895 Report of the missionary confer- ence, London, 1888 2v Saint-Martin V. de Nouveau Dic- tionnaire de Geographie Uni- verselle 1879 — (series still in progress) Scobel A. editor Andrees allge- meiner Handatlas. Vierte Auf- lage 1899 Scobel A. & IS others. Geo- graphisches Handbuch 1899 Speer R. E. Missions and poli- tics in Asia 1898 Stanford's compendium of geog- raphy and travel New issues Sticler A. Hand-Atlas StrUmpfel E. Was Jedermann heute von der Mission wissen muss 1901 Student missionary appeal (re- port of Student Volunteer Con- vention, Cleveland, 1898) Students and the missionary prob- lem (report Student Volunteer Convention, London, 1900) Times Atlas (translation of the Andrees with additions and omis- sions) 1899 Warneck G. Abriss einer Ge- schichte der protestantischen Missionen 1901 Outline of a history of Protestant missions from the Reformation to the present time (translation of the above) 1901 ^ Bears especially on * Indicates material which it precedes. Part I of chapter. ' Bears especially on Part II of chapter, of special value on the Part indicated by the superior numeral S50 APPENDIX B 551 AMERICAN ABORIGINES '1 2 Annual reports of the Board of Indian Commissioners, Wash- ington *' Annual reports of the Bureau of Ethnology, Washington *2 Baicrlein G. R. Im Urwalde. Bei den roten Indianern 1894 *i Bancroft H. H. Native races of the Pacific States of North America 5 v 1874-76 2 Batty B. Twenty-two years amongst the Indians and the Eskimo 1 Brinton D. G. Aboriginal Ameri- can authors 1883 *^ Burroughs J. S" & others Alaska (Harriman Alaska Expedition) 2 V 1901 ^* Classified digest of the records of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel 1893 ^ Douglas M. Across Greenland's ice fields 1896 ' Eels M. History of the Indian missions on the Pacific coast 1882 1 2 Grenfcll W. T. Vikings of to-day 1896 = Hamilton J. T. Missions of the Moravian Church 1901 ^ Jackson H. H. Century of dis- honor 1881 ^ * Jackson S. Alaska and missions on the North Pacific Coast 1880 ^ 2 Page J. Amid Greenland snows 1892 1 Park-in G. R. Great Dominion 1895 2 Riggs S. E. Mary and I, forty years with the Sioux 1880 *i Schoolcraft H. R. History, condi- tion and prospects of the Indian tribes. U. S. A. 6 v 1851-56 1 Sievers W. Amerika 1894 * Stock E. History of the Church Missionary Society 3 v 1899 ^ ' Thompson A. C. Moravian mis- sions 1882 ' Wilson E. F. Missionary work among the Ojibway Indians » Young E. R. Apostle of the North (James Evans) 1899 1* Voting E. R. On the Indian trail 1893 II MEXICO 1 Bancroft H. H. Popular history of the Mexican people 1888 *» Bancroft H. H. Resources and development of Mexico 1894 ^ Bears especially on Part I of chapter. *^ Brown H. W. Latin America 1901 » Butler W. Mexico in transition 1892 ^ Gooch F. C. Face to face with the Mexicans 1890 ' Hale S. Mercedes 1895 * Haven G. Our next-door neigh- bor 1875 * Historical sketches of foreign mis- sions of the Presbyterian Church of the U. S. A. 1897 » John I. G. Handbook of Metho- dist missions ' ' Johnson H. M. About Mexico, past and present 1887 ^ Lummis C. F. Awakening of a nation 1898 ' Rankin M. Twenty years among the Mexicans 1875 *' Ratsel F. Aus Mexico: Reise- skizzen aus den Jahren 1874-75 1878 » Reid J. M. and J. T. Gracey Missions and missionary society of tne Methodist Episcopal Church 3v 1895 ^ Romero M. Geographical and sta- tistical notes on Mexico 1898 * Speer R. E. Presbyterian foreign missions 1901 III CENTRAL AMERICA *i Bancroft H. H. Central America 3 v 1882-87 1 Belt T. Naturalist in Nicaragua 1889 1 Brigham W. T. Guatemala, the land of the quetzal 1887 ' Central American Bulletin ' Crozve F. Gospel in Central America 1850 * Historical sketches of Presbyterian missions (Presbyterian Church U. S. A.) 1897 ' Missionary Review of the World, March, 1901 ^ Squier E. G. Notes on the States of Central America 1858 ^ Vincent F. In and out of Cen- tral America 1890 IV WEST INDIES ** Acosta J. de Natural and moral history of the West Indies 2 v 1880 1 Bates H. W. Central America West Indies and South America (Stanford compendium series) 1885 * Bears especially on Part II of chapter. Indicates material of special value on the Part indicated by the superior numeral which it precedes. 552 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS ^ ^ Bowles G. Jamaica and Friends' Mission 1900. ^ Dewits A. von In Danisch West- indien 1899. 1 Fronde J. A. English in the West Indies 1888 2 Vrant W. D. editor Christendom at the beginning of the twentieth century 1901 1 Hill R. T. Cuba and Porto Rico with the other islands of the West Indies 1898 *^ Kingsley C. At last: Christmas in the West Indies 1889 - Missionary Review of the World (files for 1900, 1901) 1 Rodway J. West Indies and the Spanish main 1896 1 St. John S. Hayti, or the Black Republic 1889 SOUTH AMERICA Agassis L. & Mrs. Agassis A Journey in Brazil 1868 Beach H. P. & 7 others Protest- ant missions in South America 1900 Bliss E. M. editor Encyclopaedia of missions (articles on the re- publics, especially Brazil) 2 v 1891 Brett W. H. Mission work among the Indian tribes in the forests of Guiana Brown H. W. Latin America 1901 Bureau of American Republics (their handbooks on the various republics) Child T. Spanish-American repub- lics 1891 Fletcher J. C. & D. P. Kidder Brazil and the Brazilians 1866 Keane A. H. Central and South America vol I 1901 Marsh J. W. & W. H. Stirling Story of Commander Allen Gar- diner, R. N. 1874 Millard E. C. & L. E. Guinness South America, the neglected continent 1894 Olsson E. Dark continent at our doors 1899 Pfotcnhauer J. Die Missionen der Jesuiten in Paraguay 3 V 1891- Reclus E. The earth and its in- habitants— South America 2 v 1894-95 Taylor W. Our South American cousins 1878 ' Young R. From Cape Horn to Panama 1900 OCEANIA PROPER Alexander J. M. Islands of the Pacific 189s Anderson R. History of the Sand- wich Islands mission 1870 Arbousset T. Tahiti et les iles ad- jacentes 1864 Brain B. M. Transformation of Hawaii 1899 Calvert J. Fiji and the Fijians 1877 Codrington^ R. H. Melanesians: studies in their anthropology and folklore 189 1 Cousins G. Story of the South Seas 1894 Crosby E. T. With South Sea folk 1899 Cumming C. F, G. At home in Fiji 1884 Gill W. IV. From darkness to light in Polynesia 1894 Grove-Rasmussen A. C. L. Viti for og nu 1884 Guillemard_ F. H. H. Malaysia and Pacific archipelagoes (Stan- ford's Compendium Series) 1894 Paton J. G. Missionary to the New Hebrides 1898 Stevenson R. L. Letters from the Pacific 1897 Waits-Gerland Anthropologic der Naturvolker vol VI 1872 Whitmee S. J. Polynesia, islands, races, missions Yonge C. M. John Coleridge Pat- teson 2 v 1875 VII NEW ZEALAND, AUSTRALIA, NEW GUINEA 2 Hasselt J. L. Gedenkboek van arig Zendingsleven op iw-Gi 2 Kunse Im Dienste des Kreuzes auf ungebahnten Pfaden 1897 ^ Lumholts C. Among cannibals (Queensland aborigines) ^ McDougall D. Conversion of the Maoris 1899 ^ McFarlane S. Among the canni- bals of New Guinea 1888 ' Reeves W. P. The long white cloud 1899 - Robson W. James Chalmers 1901 *i Shortland E. Maori religion and mythology 1882 • Sievers W. Australasien 1894 *' Wallace A. R. Australia and New Zealand (Stanford Compendium Series) 1894 1 Bears especially on Part I of chapter. ^ Bears especially on Part II of chapter * Indicates material of special value on the Part indicated by the superior numeral which it precedes. APPENDIX B 553 MALAY ARCHIPELAGO Bible Society Record (files for Philippines) Dijkstra H. Het Evangelic in onze Oost 1893 Foreman J. Philippine Islands 1899 Guillcmard F. H. H. Malaysia and Pacific archipelagoes (Stan- ford's Compendium Series) 1894 Hodder E. Conquests of the cross 3v 1890 (?) Mededeclingen van Wege het N ederlandsche Zendelinggenoot- schap Roth H. L. Nations of Sarawak and British North Borneo 1896 Speer R. E. Presbyterian foreign missions 1901 Wallace A. R. Malay Archipelago Veth P. J. Java 3 v 1875-84 1890 Worcester D. C. Philippine Is- lands 1898 IX JAPAN AND FORMOSA Batchelor J. Ainus of Japan 1892 Campbell W. Missionary success in Formosa 1889 Cary O. Japan and its regenera- tion 1899 Chamberlain B. H. Things Japa- nese 1892 Chamberlain B. H. & W. B. Ma- son Murray's handbook to Japan 1901 Dalton Auf Missionspfaden in Japan 1895 American mission- 1892 Mikado's empire Verbeck of Japan Life of Joseph Gordon M. L. ary in Japan Griffis W. E. 1896 Griffis W. E. 1900 Hardy A. S. Hardy Neesima i»9i Japan Evangelist Japan Weekly Mail Johnston J. China and Formosa Mackay G. L. From far For- mosa 1898 Peery R. B. Gist of Japan 1897 Rein J. J. Japan 1884 Ritter H. Dreissig Jahre protest. Mission in Japan 1890 Transla- tion of above by G. E. Albrecht, with additions by D. C. Greene under title, History of Protestant missions in Japan 1898 Tristram H. B. Rambles in Japan 1895 KOREA ^ Allen H. N. Korean tales 1889 * Bishop I. B. Korea and her neigh- bors 1898 ' Carles W. R. Life in Korea 1894 * Cavendish A. E. J. Korea and the sacred white mountain 1894 2 Dallct C. Histoire de I'Eglise de Coree 2 v 1874 *' ^ Gale J. S. Korean sketches 1898 ^*- Gifford D. L. Everyday life in Korea 1898 * 2 Gilmore G. W. Korea from its capital 1892 ^ ^ Griffis IV. E. Corea, the hermit nation 1897 2 Hall R. S. Life of William James Hall 1897 *'*^ Korea Rcviciv *^*- Korean Repository (has ceased publication) ^ Landor A. H. S. Corea, or Cho-sen 1895 2 Speer R. E. Presbyterian foreign missions 1901 XI CHINA, MANCHURIA, MONGOLIA 2 Barber W. T. A. David Hill, mis- sionary and saint 1898 ^ 2 Beach H. P. Dawn on the hills of T'ang 1898 1 Bishop Mrs. J. F. Yangtze val- ley and beyond 2 v 1900 2 Broomhall M. Martyred mission- aries 1901 ^ Chang Chih-tung China's only hope 1900 *- China mission handbook 1896 *^ Chinese Recorder 1 Colqiihoun A. R. Overland to China 1900 *' Douglas R. K. Confucianism and Taouism 1879 1 Douglas R. K. Society in China 1894 ^*^ Gibson J. C. Mission problems and mission methods in South China 1901 '*2 Gilmour J. Among the Mongols 1884 ^ 2 Holcombe C. Real Chinese ques- tion 1900 *i Lechler R. Acht Vortrage iiber China 1861 *^ Legge J. Religions of China 1881 2 Lovett R. Gilmour of Mongolia 1892 1 Martin W. A. P. Cycle of Cathay 1896 *i Martin W. A. P. Lore of Cathay 1901 1 Bears especially on Part I of chapter. ^ Bears especially on Part II of chapter. * Indicates material of special value on the Part indicated by the superior numeral which it precedes. 554 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS ^ Nevius H. S. C. John Livingston Nevius 189s ** Records of the general conferences held at Shanghai in 1877 and 1890 *i Richtofen F. von China 3 v 1877 ^ ' Selby T. G. Chinamen at home 1900 *i *2 S'^iith A. H. China in convulsion 2 V 1901 *^ ' Smith A. H. Chinese character- istics 1894 » Taylor Mrs. F. H. In the Far East 1 90 1 ^ 2 Voskamp C. J. Unter dem Ban- ner des Drachen und im Zei- chen des Kreuzes 1898 *' ^ Williams S. IV. Middle Kingdom 2V 1883 XII SIAM, LAOS, STRAITS SETTLE- MENTS * Bock C. Temples and elephants 1884 1* Cort M. L. Siam 1886 * Feudge E. R. Eastern side 1871 ^ Flccson K. N. Laos folk-lore 1.899 ^ Grinrod Mrs. Siam, a geograph- ical summary 1895 * Hallett H. S. One thousand miles on an elephant 1890 * Mouhot M. H. Travels in the central parts of Indo-China, Cambodia and Laos 2 v 1862 ^*^ Siam and Laos 1884 ^ Smyth H. W. Five years in Siam 2 V 1898 ' Speer R. E. Presbyterian foreign missions 1901 ' Thoburn J. M. India and Malay- sia 1893 XIII BURMA AND CEYLON * Anderson R. History of the American Board in India 1874 (Ceylon) 1 Bishop Mrs. I. L. Golden Cher- sonese 1883 (Burma) ^ Carpenter C. H. Self-support in Bassein 1883 ^ Colquhoun A. R. & H. S. Hallett Amongst the Shans 1885 (Bur- ma) ^ Ferguson J. Ceylon in 1893 1893 *^ Judson E. Life of Adoniram Jud- son 1883 (Burma) * Lambert C. W. Missionary mar- tyr of Thibaw 1896 (Upper Burma) ' Langdon S. Appeal to the ser- pent (Ceylon) ■ 2 Leitch M. & M. W. Seven years in Ceylon 1890 * Mason E. B. Civilizing mountain men (Karens) 1862 » Merriam E. F. History of Amer- ican Baptist missions 1900 * Selkirk J. Recollections of Cey- lon 1844 »i Shzvay Yoe (7. G. Scott) The Burman, his life and notions 1896 * Tcnncnt J. E. Progress of Chris- tianity in Ceylon 1850 INDIA Baierlein G. R. Unter den Pal- men 1890 Bombay Guardian Chamberlain J. In the tiger jungle 1896 Dubois J. A. Hindu manners, customs and ceremonies 1899 Fuller Mrs. M. B. Wrongs of Indian womanhood 1900 Guinness L. E. Across India at the dawn of the twentieth cen- tury 1898 Hunter W. W. Indian Empire 1892 Hunter W. W. Brief history of the Indian people 1897 (abridg- ment of above) Indian Evangelical Review Modak S. Directory of Protest- ant Indian Christians 2 v 1900 Murdoch J. Indian missionary manual 1889 Padfield J. E. Hindu at home 1896 Reichelt Die Himalayamission der Briidergemeinde 1896 Report of the third decennial con- ference, Bombay, 1892-93 2 v 1893 Sherring M. A. History of Prot- estant missions in India, 1706- 1881 1884 Smith G. Conversion of India 1894 Stewart R. Life and work in India 1896 Stosch G. Im fernen Indien 1896 Thoburn J. M. India and Ma- laysia 1892 Tisdall W. St. Clair- India, its history, darkness and dawn 1901 Vaughan J. Trident, the crescent and the cross 1876 Wilder R. P. Among India's stu- dents 1899 ^ Bears especially on Part I of chapter. ^ Bears especially on Part II of chapter. * Indicates material of special value on the Part indicated by the superior numeral hich it precedes. APPENDIX B 555 » Wilkins W. J. Daily life and work in India 1888 1 Wilkins W. J. Hindu mythology 1882 1 Williams M._ Monier- Brahman- ism and Hinduism 1891 » Wilson Mrs. A. Carus- Irene Petrie 1900 XV PERSIA * Anderson R. Missions of the American Board to the Oriental Churches 2 v 1872 1 = Bassctt J. Persia, the land of the Imams 1886 » Benjamin S. G. W. Story of Per- sia 1891 * Bishop I. L. B. Journeys in Per- sia and Kurdistan 2 v 1891 ^ Browne E. G. A year amongst the Persians 1893 *i Curzon G. N. Persia and the Persian question 2 v 1892 ' 2 Laurie T. Dr. Grant and the mountain Nestorians 1853 ' Laurie T. Woman and the gos- pel in Persia (Fidelia Fiske) 1887 ' Perkins J. Missionary life _ in Persia among the Nestorian Christians 1861 * Speer R. E. Presbyterian for- eign missions 1901 1 Wills C. J. In the land of the lion and the sun 1891 i*» Wilson S. G. Persian life and customs 1895 XVI TURKISH EMPIRE ' Anderson R. A. Missions of the American Board — Oriental Churches 2 v 1872 ' Bliss. I. G. Twenty-five years of Bible work in the Levant. 1883 " Cuinct V. La Turquie d'Asie 4 v 1890-95 ^ * Dzvight H. O. Constantinople and its problems 1901 *2 Hamlin C. My life and times 1893 » » Harris J. R. & H. B. Letters from Armenia 1897 *8 Muir W. Translator Sweet first fruits 1893 _ 1 Poole S. Lane- Story of Turkey 1893 * Prime E. D. G. Forty years m the Turkish Empire (memoir of Dr. Goodell) 1875 * ' Ramsay IV. M. Impressions of Turkey 1897 1 Bears especially on Part I of chapter. * Indicates material of special value on which it precedes. *^ Smith G. A. Historical geography of the Holy Land 1897 ' Tracy C. C. Talks on the veranda 1893 » West M. A. Romance of mis- sions 187s » Wheeler C. H. Ten years on the Euphrates 1868 * Wheeler Mrs. C. H. Missions in Eden 1899 XVII AFRICA ** Arnot F. S. Garenganze 1889 » Battersby C. F. Harford- Pilk- ington of Uganda 1899 ^ * Bentley W. H. Pioneering on the Congo 2 V 1900 •1 2 Blaikie W. G. Personal life of David Livingstone i88o 1 2 Bohner H. Im Lande des Fe- tisches 1890 2 Brincker P. H. Aus dem Herero- lande 1896 * Broivn R. Africa and its ex- plorers 3v 1893 *i 2 Bryce J, Impressions of South Africa 1897 » Buchner C. Acht Monate in Siid- afrika 1894 ^ ^ Carnegie D. Among the Matabele 1 2 Casalis E. My life in Basuto Land 1889 12 Coillard F. On the threshold of Central Africa 1897 1 Cross D. K. Health in Africa 1900 * * Doring P. Morgendammerung in Deutsch-Ostafrika 1899 *i Drummond H. Tropical Africa 1888 i« Elmslie W. A. Among the wild Ngoni 1899 ^ Heazvood E. Elementary geog- raphy of Africa 1897 *' Jack J. W. Daybreak in Living- stonia 1900 1 2 Johnston J. Reality versus ro- mance in South Central Africa 1893 *' Keane A. H. Africa 2 v 1895 (Stanford's Compendium Series) *i Keltic J. S. Partition of Africa 1895 1 Kingsley M. H. Travels in West Africa 1897 ' Mcrensky A. Deutsche Arbeit am Nohh e F. P. Redemption of Africa 2 V 1899 2 Parsons E. C. A life for Africa (Dr. Good) 1897 2 Richter J. Evang. Mission im Njassalande 1897 ' Bears especially on Part II of chapter, the Part indicated by the superior numeral 556 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS Robinson C. H. Hausaland 1896 ' Rbmer Kamerun, Land, Leute und Mission 1899 ' Rutherford J. and E. H. Glenny Gospel in North Africa 1900 ' Schreiher A. Fiinf Monate in Siidafrika 1894 Sievers W. Afrika 1894 Stanley H. M. In darkest Africa 2 V 1890 ' Stock S. G. Story of Uganda Tyler J. Forty years among the Zulus 1891 ' Watson A. American mission in Egypt 1898 White A. S. Development of Africi 1890 AFRICAN ISLANDS Borchgrevink C. D. Kortfattet Oversigt over Madagaskar dets Folk eg Mission 1885 Cousins W. E. Madaj;ascar of to- day 1895 ' Eppler Thranensaat und Freuden- ernte auf Madagaskar 1874 ■ Escande B. Neuf Mois a Mada- gascar 1898 ' Fletcher J. J. K. Sign of the cross in Madagascar 1900 ' Madagascar et le Protestantisme Frangais 1897 ■ Mullens J. Twelve months in Mad- agascar 187s Rostvig L. Sakalaverne og deres Land 1886 Sibree J. Madagascar before the conquest 1896 Smith H. Among the Menabe 1896 Townsend W. J. Madagascar, its missionaries and martyrs 1892 UNOCCUPIED FIELDS * Bishop Mrs. J. F. Among the Tibetans 1894 ^ Bouinais A. & H. Paulus La France en Indo-Chine 1890 ^ Colquhoun A. R. Overland to China 1900 (Siberia) » Colquhoun A. R. & H. S. Hallett Amongst the Shans 1885 1 Deasy H. H. P. In Tibet and Chinese Turkistan 1901 • Gundry R. S. China and her neighbors 1893 (Tibet, Siberia and Indo-China) * Hue E. R. Recollections of a journey through Tartary, Tibet and China in 1844-46 1852 ' J ess up H. H. Kami! 1898 (Arabia) Kcane A. H. Asia 2v 1896 (all these fields, Stanford's Compen- dium Series) Kcane T. F. Six months in Mec- cah 1 88 1 Kennan G. W. Siberia and the exile system 2V 1891 Landsdell H. Russian Central Asia, Kuldja, Bokhara, etc. 2V 188s Landsdell H. Through Siberia 2 v 1882 Marston A. W. Great closed land 1895 (Tibet) ' Mission Field (Reformed Church of America's periodical Arabia) ■ Palgrave W. G. Narrative of a year's journey through Central and Eastern Arabia Rijnhart S. C. With the Tibetans in tent and temple igoi Rock hill W. IV. Land of the La- mas 1891 (Tibet) ' Schneider H. G. Working and waiting for Tibet 1891 Shaiv R. Visits to High Tartary, Yarkand and Kashgar 1871 ■ Sinker R. Memorials of the Hon. Ion Keith-Falconer 1890 (Ara- bia) Wolff J. Narrative of a mission to Bokhara 1845 Zwemer S. M. Arabia, the cradle of Islam 1900 XX THE JEWS * ^ Flad J. M. Falashas of Abyssinia 1869 ^ Frederic H. New Exodus, a study of Israel 1892 ^ Gaussen S. R. L. Jews: their past, present and future 1881 2 Gidney W. T. Jews and their evangelization 1899 ■ = Gidney W. T. Sites and scenes 2 Parts 1897-99 *'^ - Graetc H. History of the Jews 5 V 1892 ' Harris I. Jewish Year Book 1901 - Jewish Era - Jezvish Missionary Intelligence 2 Kellogg S. H. The Jews, or pre- diction and fulfilment 1883 2 Leroy B. A. Israel among the na- tions 189s ^ Nathanael *== Saat auf Hoffnung ^ Trusting and Toiling 2 Wilkinson S. Evangelization of the Jews in Russia 1899 = Wolff J. Travels and Adventures of Wolff 2 v i860 1 Bears especially on Part I of chapter. ^ Bears especially on Part II of chapter. * Indicates material of special value on the Part indicated by the superior numeral which it precedes. APPENDIX B 557 Zangwill I. 1893 Children of the Ghetto XXI CHINESE AND JAPANESE IN CHRISTIAN LANDS * Assembly Herald 2 Byington E. H. Some phases of the Chinese problem ^ Census Bulletin Oct. 10, 1901 *^ Condit I. M. Chinaman as we see him 1900 ' Gospel in all Lands ' Jce Gam History and incidents of Chinese work ' Jee Gam Present crisis in China from the standpoint of a Chris- tian Chinese 2 Missionary Review of the World, pp. 684-87 1901 1 Speer W. China and the United States 1870 ^ Strong J. Chinese in America and the regeneration of China ^ Bears especially on Part I of chapter. ' Bears especially on Part II of chapter. * Indicates material of special value on the Part indicated by the superior numeral which it precedes. INDEX Aborigines of America, 3-44. Their countries: Greenland's scenery, 3, 4; its resources, 4; climate, 4; govern- ment, 4, 5; Labrador's Atlantic coast, S; its wealth, 5, 6; government con- trol, 6; Alaska, a continent, 6; its northern section, 6, 7; the Aleutian district, 7; southern part of Alaska, 7, 8; Secretary Seward's estimate of its value, 8; relation of Alaska to the United States, 8; Dominion of Canada's name, 8, 9; variety of physi- cal conformation, 9. Races, see Eski- mos and Indians. Aborigines of Australia, 167, 170; mis- sion work for, 178, 179. Aborigines of India, 371, 372. Abyssinian Christians, 448; work among them, 456. Africa, 431-476. Geographical : area, 431; accessibility, 432; mean elevation, 432; population, 432; its density, 432; religious view point, 432; configura- tion and relief, 432, 433; African streams, 433; its great rivers, 433; the Nile, 433, 434; four most important lakes, 434; deserts, 435; steppes, 435; savannas, 435; Drummond's descrip- tion, 436; primeval forests, 436, 437; methods of travel, 437; Bishop Augo- narde's statement, 437; travel a trial, 438. Climate and missions: tempera- ture, 439; rainfall, 439; health, 439, 440. African ethnology: the Semitic stock, 440; its leading characteristics, 440, 441; Hamites, 441; negroes of the black zone, 442; Bantu negroes, 442; Drummond's pen-portrait of them, 442, 443; his account of their daily life, 443, 444; alleviating fea- tures, 444; Hottentots and Bushmen, 445; African dwarfs, 445, 446. Re- ligion and morals: general location of great religions, 446; percentage of adherents, 446, 447; Protestantism, 447; Catholicism, 447; Coptic Chris- tianity, 447, 448; Abyssinian Chris- tians, 448; Mohammedans, 448, 449; African heathen, their number, 449; fetishism. 449; ancestral worship, 450; vague belief in a God, 450; priests and sorcerers, 451. Africas future: its natural resources, 451; its peoples, 451, 452; political status, 452, 453. Stead's estimate of African missions, 453- So- cieties and their fields: their number, 453. 454; leading societies in different sections, 454, 455; general facts con- cerning societies and their location, 455, 456. Types labored among: work for Copts, 456; for Abyssinian Christians, 456; African Moslems, 457; Protestant attempts to reach them, 457, 458; work for the heathen, 458; requires versa- tility, 458, 459; Western civilization an obstacle to missions, 459; race an- tipathies in South Africa, 459, 460; the Ethiopian Movement, 460, 461; other problems and difficulties, 461; helpful traits and beliefs, 462. Ways of working: medicine helpful in Mohammedan work, 462; Dr. Pren- tice's pen-picture, 462, 463; an- aesthetics, 463; a year's medical work in Africa, 463, 464; evangelistic ef- forts, importance of object lessons, 464; fruitage, 465, 466; literary work, 466; education, 467-469; Dr. Laws' ac- count of primary work, 467; its out- come, 467, 468; higher educational ef- fort, 468; spirit of college students, 469; reasons for industrial education, 469, 470; Lovedale a type, 470. Tasks of the African Church: wide-spread evangelization essential, 471; its methods, 471, 472; the Church and slavery, 472; its attitude towards polygamy, 472; should minister to womanhood, 472, 473; woman's im- portant places in African society, 473, 474; duty of Church toward intem- perance, 474; Pilkington's appeal, 475; Dube's statement, 475, 476; portions not occupied, 495. Agnew, Miss, in Ceylon, 338, 339. Ainu, 208, 209. Allen, Young J., a leading missionary in China, 277. Amazon, a missionary highway, 105. American Baptist Missionary Union pioneers in Siamese work, 313; work in Burma, 330-333- American Bible Society in Central America, 78, 79. American Board in Pacific Islands, 158, 159; in Ceylon, 338, 339; lead- ing society in Turkey, 417. American Episcopalians in Hawaii, 162. Anaesthetics in Africa, 463. Anatolia, 409. Ancestral worship in Korea, 244; in China, 267, 268; in Africa, 450. 559 56o GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS Angakoks of Eskimos, 13. Anglicans of Australia in New Guinea, 181. Anglo-Indians, 362. Antananarivo, 479- Antilles, Greater, 84. Antilles, Lesser, 87. Arabs in Malay Archipelago, 187. Archbishop's Mission to Assyrian Chris- tians, 400, 401. . . Argentine Republic, 119, 120; missions in, 134, 135- Armenian Church, 415, 410, 420. Arthington of Leeds, provides for Cen- tral American exploration, 80. Assyrian Mission Committee, 401. Atolls, 144. Australia, see Australian aborigines. Australian Aborigines, 167-171, 178- 180. Their land, 167, 168; animal life of Australia, 168, 169; climate and diseases, 169; racial characteris- tics, 169, 170; religion, 170, 171; forms of missionary effort, 178, 179; work for the Kanakas in, 179, 180. _ Australian Wesleyans, 181, 182; in Fijis, 160. Aztecs of Mexico, 50, 51. 59. Babism in Persia, 398. Bahamas, 83, 84. Baptists in Central America, 79. Barber, W. T. A., testimony concern- ing Chinese. 297, 298. Bishop, Mrs., on Korean Church, 255, 256- ... Bolivia, 120; missions in, 138. Bonin Islands, conditions and missions, 232, 233. Borneo, 192. Boxer Uprising, see China. Brahmans, see Hinduism. Brazil, 120, 121; missions in, 129-132. Bredon's testimony concerning Peking missionaries, 298, 299. British and Foreign Bible Society in Central America, 78; in Borneo, 197; in Siberia, 508, 509. British Borneo, see Malay Archipelago. British Honduras, 68. British New Guinea, missionary work in, 180-182. Brown, H. W., on Latin-American prob- lems, 54, 55; on Mexican characteris- tics helpful in missions, 55, 56; on methods of work, 59, 60. Buddhism, in Japan, 215, 226, 227; in China, 266; in Siam, 307; a prepara- tive for Christianity in Laos, 315; in Burma, 324, 325; in Ceylon, 328, 329; aroused in Ceylon, 341, 342; m India, 358; in Tibet, 500, 501. Burma, 3>9-325, 330-336. The land: ex- tent and divisions, 319; scenery and products, 319, 320; a city described, 320; hills anei mountains, 320, 321; roads, 321; fauna, 321; intercommuni- cation, 321; climate and health, 321, 322. People: number and races, 322; the Burmese, 322, 323; the Shans, 323; the Karens, 323; the Chinese, 323, 324. Religion: statistics, 324; monastic life of all males, 324; initiated monks, 324, 325. Work of American Baptist Mis- sionary Union : among Burmans, 330, 331 ; among Karens, 331 ; their zeal and aggressiveness, 331, 332; minor mis- sions of the Union, 332, 333. Society for Propagation of the Gospel: its be- ginnings, 333; labors among Karens, 333> 334; work on Nicobar and An- daman Islands, 334, 335. _ Methodist Board, North, 335. English Wesley- ans, 335, 336. Bushmen, 445. Caleb, J. J., on needs and position of Hindu Christians, 384-387. Canadian Church Missionary Associa- tion's work among Arctic Eskimos, 31. Candidates, versatility requisite in Africa, 458, 459; qualifications for Arabian service, 514; for Jewish work, 523. 524- Cape Verde Islands, 484, 485; mission- ary work, 492. Caste in Korea, 242; in India, 354, 356- 358, 366. Castells, Seiior, quoted, 76, 82. Catholicism : in Central America, 75- 77; in West Indies, 90, 97-99; in Oceania, 157; in South America, 124- 126; in Inca countries, 139; work in the Philippines, 189, 190; low form of, in Philippines, 190; preparation for Protestantism, 199; its future in Phil- ippines, 202, 203; hostile to Protestants in China, 285, 286; in India, 362, 363; in Turkey, 426, 427. Catholic missionaries: in Canada, 41; in Mexico, 53-55, 57, 58. Celebes, 192, 193. Central America, 67-82. Physical fea- tures: area and general character, 67; climate, 68; British Honduras, 68; Guatemala, 68, 69; descent from the highlands of, 69; Honduras, 69, 70; Salvador, 70; Nicaragua, 70, 71; Mos- quitia, 71; Costa Rica, 71, 72. Central American peoples: composition of their population, 72; distribution, 72; racial characteristics of Indians, 72, 73; of mestizos, 73; of zambos, 73; of Creoles, 73, 74; immigration to these countries, 74; future of population, 74; historic importance of Central American races, 74. Culture and re- ligion: Central American culture, 75; religion and superstition, 75. Phases of religion : features of Catholicism de- scribed, 76, 77; effect of modern thought on Catholicism. 77. Mission- ary force: societies engaged, 77; Mora- vians, 77, 78; British and Foreign Bible Society, 78; American Bible So- ciety, 78, 79; Society for the Propaga- S6i tion of the Gospel, 79; Baptist mis- sionary effort, 79; Wesleyan Metho- dist missions, 79; American Presby- terians, North, 79, 80; Central American Mission, 80. Characteristic difficulties and encouragements: dif- ficulties besetting Indian work, 80, 81; Spanish work in interior, 81; fruitage of Central American Mission, 81, 82. The future: opinion of Senor Castells, 82; of President of Hon- duras, 82. Central American Mission, 80. Ceylon, 325-330, 336-342. The land: a Crown Colony, 325; physical fea- tures, 325, 326; its plantation system, 326, 327; climate, 327. Inhabitants: two classes, 327, 328; peculiarities of their speech, 328. Religion: prevalent faiths, 328; Ceylon's importance to Buddhism, 328, 329; its sacred moun- tain, Adam's peak, 329. Education 329. 330. Missions: societies repre sented, 336, Z37\ Baptist pioneers 337; English Wesleyans, 337, 338; American Board's pioneer mission aries, 338; Jaffna College, 338: Oodooville Girls' Boarding School, 338, 339; self-support in American Board work, 339; Church Missionary Society's Trinity College, 339, 340; some discouragements, 340; Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, 340, 341; St. Thomas College, 341. Buddhism aroused, 342; notwithstand- ing this the outlook is hopeful, 342. Chagos Archipelago, 484. Chaldean Christians, 416. Chalmers, James, 181. Chang Chih-tung's views in " China's Only Hope," 292-297. Chapel preaching in China, 282, 283. Chassidim, 519, 520. Children, work for, in West Indies, 99, 100; in India, a strategic work, 369, 370; care for Chinese children in the United States, 538. Chile, 121; missions in, 136-138. China, 257-273, 275-301. Tlie land: ex- tent of Empire, 257; China Proper, 257; configuration, 258; coast line, 258; scenery on Great Plain, 258, 259; in southeastern section, 259; of western two-thirds, 259; soil, 260; mineral resources, 260; roads, 260, 261; waterways, 261; climate, 261. The Chinese: number and distribution, 262; economic value, 262, 263; homo- geneity, 263; love for antiquity, 263, 264; Chinese language, 264; the writ- ten wen-li, 264, 265; Chinese litera- ture, 265. Religions: Confucianism, 265, 266; Buddhism, 266; Taoism, 266, • 267; ancestra] worship, 267, 268; geomancy or feng-shui, 268; its power, 268. Boxer Uprising of IQOO: in- ducing events previous to that date, 268, 269; the industrial factor, 269; encroachment of foreign powers, 269, 270; greed of western syndicates, 270; the reformers and the outbreak, 270, 271; foreign religion as an irritant, 271; religions of the Empire as a watchcry, 272; the outbreak, 272, 273. Missionary force and distribution: January i, 1900, the date, 273, 276; statistics, 276; provincial distribution of converts, 276, 277; leading men and boards, 277, 278. Commonest methods of work: efforts for physical alleviation, 279; day-schools, 279, 280; boarding-schools, 280; colleges, 280; education for Christian service, 281; preparation of Christian literature, 281, 282; manufacture of books, 282; distribution of literature, 282; chapel preaching, 283; itineration, 283, 284; systematic itineration, 284. The Boxers and missions: why Protestant mission- aries were objects of disfavor, 284, 285; why Protestant Christians were hated, 285; hostility between Protes- tants and Catliolics, 285, 286; mis- sionary, martyrdoms, 286; native martyrs and their heroic deaths, 286, 287; harmful effect of persecutions upon native Church, 287, 288; compen- sations, 288; God's providence and care, 288, 289. The nczv regime: con- ditions at mission stations, 289, 290; Timothy Richard's services as medi- ator, 290; adjustment of indemnities, 290; readjustment of stations, 290; building and helper problems, 291; questions connected with lapsed church members, 291; changes of method required by new conditions, 292; daily press, 292; the new educa- tion, 292, 293; value of the experienced worker, 293. The outlook: govern- mental utterances, 293, 294; Emperor's recent reform edict, 294; his reported trust in God, 295; reform element in the Empire, 295, 296; Chinese con- verts a source of hope, 296, 297; Viceroy Chang's confession of need, 297; the Chinese people a hopeful -ele- ment in the future, 297, 298; large amount of interest in this field, 298; character of missionaries vindicated, 298, 299; women missionaries should return, 299, 300; Griffith John's ap- peal, 300, 301; districts unoccupied, 493,494; Chinese in Australia, 529; agitation for reform outside Empire, 538, 539- See also Japanese and Chinese in Christian lands. Chinese efforts for Borneo, 198, 199. Chinese in Central America, 74; in West Indies, 88; in British Guiana, 127, 128; in Hawaii, 162; in Malay Archi- pelago, 186, 187; in Straits Settle- ments, 306, 311, 312; in Burma, 323, 324. Christianity in Malaysia, 188, 189. Christians, importance of to Turkey, 412, 413. Church attendance in Oceania, 152. Church Missionary Society in Labrador, 29, 30; in Canada, 30, 31; work for Maoris, 176; in Ceylon, 339, 340. " Church of Jesus " in Mexico, 61. 562 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS Civilization in contact with African heathenism, 459, 460. Colombia, 121; missions in, 139. Comity in Mexico, 62. Commerce and missions, 156. Conferences in Oceania, 153, 154; in Tokyo, 1900, 230; Bombay Conference appeal, 389; at Brummana in Syria, 417, 429. Confucianism in Japan, 216; in China, 265, 266. Controversial literature essential in Moslem work, 418. Coptic Christians in Africa, 447, 448; work among them, 456. Coral islands, 143. Costa Rica, 71, 72. Creoles of Central America, 73; of West Indies, 94. Cuba, 84, 85; inhabitants, 88, 89; mis- sions in, loi, 102. Culture, degree of in Central America, 75- Curzon, Lord, on Persia's need, 407. Dawes, ex-Senator, on westward move- ment of Indians, 21, 22. Da yaks, 186. Decay of lower races, 24-26; conflicting testimony, 24; reasons for decay, 24; can be checked, 25; not chargeable to missions, 25, 26; in South Seas, vary- ing testimony, 163, 164; Christianity's duty, 164, 165; in New Zealand, 178. Denmark's wise rule in Greenland, 4, 5. Diaz, Dr. A. J., in Cuba, 97. Difficulties in Oceania, 155-157; in Japan, 222, 223; in Siam, 313, 314; in India, 361-367. Dominic, the Abbe, on Mexican Cath- olicism, 53. Dominion, see Canada. Drummond, Henry, on main divisions of Africa, 431; description of African scenery, 436; of difficulties of cara- van management, 438; of Bantu ne- groes, 442, 444. Druses of Syria, 412, 416. Dube's appeal for Africa, 475, 476. Dutch East Indies, mission work in. See Malay Archipelago. Dutch New Guinea, missionary work in, Dwarfs of Africa, 445, 446. Easter Island sculptures, 151. Ecuador, 121, 122; missions in, 138, 139. Education in Alaska, 32, 35, 36; in Dominion, 39; in the U. S., 42, 43; in Mexico, 49, 50; in West Indies, 89; in Brazil, 131, 132; forms useful in Venezuela, 140; opposed by Japanese Government, 224-226; in China, 279- 281; needed in New China. 292, 293; government schools in Ceylon, 329. 330; educated classes of India, 370, 379, work for these, 380; in Persia, 403-405; in Turkey, 421; in Africa, 467-471; in Madagascar, 488; among jews, 522; of Japanese in Hawaii, 532, 533. See Schools. Edwardes, Commissioner, his attitude toward Mohammedan missions, 511, 512. Egyptian students' reasons for entering religious work, 469. Emigration, a Syrian problem, 423, 424. Encouragements in mission work: in Japan, 223, 224, 226-230; in Siam, 314; in Africa, 461, 462. Eskimos, 9-13, 26-35. (For their lands see Aborigines of America). Names and distribution, 9, 10; appearance, 10; salient characteristics, 10, 11; homes, 11; social life, 11, 12; religion, 12, 13. Work in Greenland: historical statement, 26; work at Angmagssalik, 26-28. In Labrador: unusual condi- tions, 28; spiritual growth of con- verts, 29; their sins, 29; medical ef- forts of I3r. Grenfell, 29; Mr. Peck's labors, 29, 30. In the Dominion: Mr. Peck's work, 30, 31; Hudson's Bay missionaries, 31; missions in the Northwest, 31. In Alaska: reindeer stations, 31, 32; schools, 32; medical missions, 32; prayer meetings, 32, 33; obstacles encountered by missionaries, 33; sore need of Eskimo missions, 33, 34; results of work, 34, 35. Ethiopian Movement in South Africa, 460, 461. Eurasians, labors for, in India, 374, 375. Evangelistic Work: in Dominion, 40; especially needed in U. S. Indian work, 43; in China,; 282-284; in Africa, 464-466, 471, 472; in Madagascar, 488, 489; among Jews, 523; among Japanese in Hawaii, 532. Evans, James, invents Indian syllabary, 40. Exposition, Central American, gives medal to Bible Society, 78. Faber, E., a leading China worker, 277. Falklands, 122. Farmer pastors of Laos, 317, 318. Feng-shui in China, 268. F'etishism in Africa, 449, 450. Fields Practically Unoccupied, 49 515. Countries partly evangelisec China, 493, 494; India, 494, 495; Af rica, 495; South America, 495, 496. Fields zi'here work has barely begun. Siberia: the land, 496; its races, 496- 498. Russian non-conformists in, 507, 508; work of British and Foreign Bible Society, 508, S09. Central Asia: Turkistan, 498; Hsin-chiang, 499; work of Svenska Missions Forbundet, 509. Tibet: the land, 499. 5oo; Tib- etans, 500; their religion, 501; so- cieties besieging Tibet, 510; journeys within it, 510, 511. Afghanistan: the 563 land, SOI, 50.2; people, 502; religion, 502; missions to, 511, 512. Baluchis- tan: the land, 503; people, 503; mis- sions, 512. Arabia: the land, 503, 504; climate, 504; people, 504, 505; religion, 505; Free Church of Scot- land's Mission, 512, 513; work of Re- formed Church in America, 513; need for missionaries, 513, 514; mis- sionary qualifications, 514. French Indo-China: the country, 505, 506; people, 506; religion, 506; languages, 507; British and Foreign Bible So- ciety, 514; Presbyterian Board, North, ^Sis- Fiji statistics, 160. Final outcome, 541-543. St. Sophia, a missionary type, 542. Formosa, 218, 219; 233-235. Island described, 218; its people, 218, 219; cession to Japan, 219; Canadian Pres- byterian missions, 233, 234; work of English Presbyterians, 234; Japanese Mission to Formosa, 234; attitude of Japanese officials to missions, 234, 23s. Geomancy in China, 268. German Ng^y Guinea, work in, 182, 183. Gilbert Island superstitions, 151. Government, attitude toward Abori- gines, in Greenland, 5; in Alaska, 8; in Canada, 20, 21; in United States, 21-24; efforts for Indians, 20-24; ef- fect of paternal form on Greenlanders, 28; relation of U. S. to Alaskans, 31- 33; character of in Mexico, 49; Hol- land's relation to missions in Malaysia, 195, 196; apologists for Holland, 196; relation of U. S. to Catholicism in Philippines, 200; relation of Japanese Government to Christian education, 224-226; its favorable legislation, 227; Japanese officials friendly to, in Formosa, 234,235; favorable in Korea, 254; China opposed to Christianity, 271, 272; favorable to missions in Siam, 312, 313; position in Turkey, 424, 425; French opposition in Mada- gascar, 486, 487; helpful action, 487, Greek Church, 415, 419, 420. Guatemala, 68, 69. Guianas, the three, 122, 123. H Haiti^ 86, 87; political problems, 91. Hamilton, Prof. J. T., on trade mis- sions in Labrador, etc., 28. Hamites of Africa, 441. Hau-hau superstition, 167, 176, 177. Hawaiian Evangelical Association in South Sea work, 159. Hawaii, Japanese and Chinese in 528; missions to them, 535, 536. Health in Africa, 439, 440. Hinduism in Malaysia, 189; the popu- lar religion of India, 359, 360; work for Branmans, 377, 378. Hindus in West Indies, 88; work for in West Indies, 95-97; in British Guiana, 128. Honduras, 6g, 70; its President friendly to missions, 82. Hottentots, 445. Hova race of Madagascar, 481, 482. Hsin-chiang, 275. See Central Asia. I Immigration to Central American re- publics, 74; in South America, 117- 119; in Argentina, 136. Inca countries, 138, 139. Indenture system in West Indies, 95. India, 343-389. The land: position and area, 343, 344; main divisions and scenery, 344; the Himalaya region, 344, 345; river plains, 345, 346; the Deccan, 346; economical value of In- dian rivers, 346, 347; rivers as divini- ties, 347; forest wealth of India, 347. 348; agricultural possibilities, 348; famines, 348, 349; climate, 349, 350; effect of land upon inhabitants, 350, 351. Peoples of India: general state- ment, 351; statistics, 351; race groups and distribution, 352; sectional differ- ences, 352, 353; languages and distri- bution, 353; common physical char- acteristics, 353, 354; social character- istics, 354; intellectual power, 355; Hindu morals, 355; feminine charac- teristics, 355, 356. The village: de- scribed, 356; its system, 356. Caste: a religious institution, 356, 357; sub- divisions, 357; advantages of, 357; its disadvantages, 357, 358. Religions life: general statement, 358; Buddh- ism, 358; Animism, 358; Alohamme- danism, 358, 359; popular Hinduism defined, 359; its basis, 359; its nature worship, 359, 360; effects of Hindu religion, 360. Obstacles: im- mense population, 361; differing peoples, 361, 362; Anglo-Indiar Romanists, 362, 363; reasons for their ms, 362; success, 363; Hindu opposition to mis- sionaries, 363, 364; to natives, 364; attitude of Government, 364; personal character of people an obstacle, 364, 365; power of superstition and reli- gion, 365, 366; Mohammedan ob- stacles, 366; caste, the problem of problems, 366; agitation of reforms a burden, 367. Protestant forces: com- parative statistics and map, 367; so- cieties represented, 367; Sir William Hunter's characterization of the force, 368; Sir Charles Elliott's opinion, 368; spiritual forces. 368, 369; visiting forces from Western lands, 368. Classes tninistered to: children's work, 369, 370; work among women, 370, 371; among aboriginal tribes, 371, 372; case of approach in their case, 372; low caste work, 372; accessibility, 372, 564 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS 373; methods employed, 373; im- portance of aboriginal low caste work, 373. 374; its great success, 374; efforts for Eurasians, 374; means used, 374; 375; missions to Mohammedans, 375; Arabic College at Deoband, 375, 376; progress in winning Moslems, 376; books and methods found useful, 377; labors for Brahmans, 377, 388; strategic value of education, 378; sta- tistics, 378, 379; Indian students, 379; their religious status, 379, 380; what can be done, 380. Results of missions: Indian Church strong numerically, 381; intellectual ability, 381, 382; social condition of converts, 382; their moral condition, 382, 383; their spirituality, 383, 384. Position and needs: six items in their present posi- tion, 384, 385; nine specifications of Indian converts' wants, 385-387. Out- look: attitude of press, 387, 388; at- titude of non-Christian masses, 388; native Christians a source of hope, 388, 389; the missionaries, 389; two Macedonian calls, 389; largely unoc- cupied, 494, 495. Indian Commissioners report on Indian wrongs, 22-24. Indians, increasing in Central America, 74; work for in Dutch Guiana, 129; in Brazil, 131; in Gran Chaco, 132, 133; in Colombia and Venezuela, 141. Indians of America, 13-24, 35-44- (For their lands see Aborigines of Amer- ica). People: leading tribes and dis- tribution, 13, 14; traits, 14; Indian homes, 14, 15; communal houses, 15; South American homes, 16; languages, 16; Indian literature, 16, 17; social conditions, 17-19. Religions: the to- tem, 19; physitheism, 19; other fea- tures, 19; Messiah Craze of 1890, 19, 20; Indian medicine men, 20. Gov- ernment efforts for: in the Dominion of Canada, 20, 21; reservation life in the United States, 22; wrongs, 22-23. Mission work in Alaska :_ schools, 35, 36; itineration, 36; medicine, 36; Wil- liam Duncan's mission, 37; secret of his success, 38. /» the Dominion: government statistics, 38, 39; its school system, 39; isolation of Indian workers, 40; evangelistic labors, 40; problems, 41. In the United States: government effort for Indians, 41; so- cieties and their location, 41, 42; mis- sion schools, 42, 43; evangelistic ef- fort, 43; value of object lessons, 43; Association work for young Indians, 43, 44; government testimony to value of Indian missions, 44; of South America, 116. Indios barbaros, 73. Indios mansos, 72. Industrial schools: in Sitka, 35,- 36; in Canada, 39; in South Seas, 162; essen- tial in Africa, 469, 470; in Jewish missions, 522. Insane asylum in Syria, 423. Intemperance in Africa, 474. Itineration: in Alaska, 36; in Mexico, 60; from central islands as head- quarters, 153; in China, 283, 284. Jackson, Sheldon, secures establish- ment of reindeer stations in Alaska, 31; iMaskan Eskimos' need of gospel, 3i, 34- Jacobites, 416. Jamaica, 85, 86. Japan, 204-217, 219-231. The land: location and leading islands, 204, 205; main physical features, 205; agricul- ture, 205, 206; a land of flowers, 206; highways, 206; Inland Sea, 206; earthquakes, 206, 207; typhoons, 207; climate, 207. The Japanese: their origin, 208; the Ainu, 208, 209; physical development, 209; social con- ditions, 209, 210; mental capacity, 210; aesthetic development, 210; patriotism, 210, 211; idealism, 211; their weaknesses, 211, 212. Language and literature: language affiliations, 212; varieties of speech and writing, 212; language difficulties confronting missionaries, 213; Japanese literature, 213, 214. Religions and morals: Shintoism, 214; its temples, 215; Buddhism, 215; Shin sect of Buddh- ists, 215; Reformed Buddhism's methods, 216; Confucianism, 216; Kurozumi, a Shinto sect, 216; the Tenrikyo sect, 216. Moral defects of Japanese character : impurity, 217; un- truthfulness, 217; dishonesty, 217; in- temperance, 217. Epitome of Prot- estant progress: the first church of 1872, 219, 220; period of Protestant popularity, 220; the reaction, 220, 221. Missions to-day: forces engaged, 221, 222; missionary statistics, 222; discouragements, 222, 2.^3; aids and encouragements, 223, 224; government attitude toward religious education, 224; seriousness of educational prob- lem, 224; alleviating considerations, 225, 226. The outlook: attitude of Shintoism to missions, 226; of Buddh- ism, 226, 227; of the Government, 227; condition of the churches, 227; spirit of unity among denominations, 227- 229; permeating influence on society of missions, 229; inadequacy _ of the missionary force, 229, 230; reenforce- ments needed, 230; Mr. Mott's work among students,, 231. See Japanese and Chinese in Christian lands. Japanese and Chinese in Christian Lands, 527-540. The Japanese: their distribution, 527; their rank outside of America, 528; in the United States and Canada, 528; opposition to them, 530; religious condition, 531; leading societies laboring for them, 532; methods in Hawaii, 532, 533; in America, 533, 534; results of mission work, 534; duty concerning, 540. The Chinese: where found, 527, 528; industrial and social condition outside INDEX 565 of America, 528, 529; in United States, 529, 530; their secret societies, 530; opposition to them, 530, 531; religious condition, 531; societies labor- ing among them, 534, 535; work in Australia, 535; in Hawaiian Islands, 535. 536; in United States and Can- ada, 536-539; voluntary work, 536; rnissionary society effort, 537; Chris- tian Associations, 537, 538; caring for the children, 538; the press, 538; re- form societies, 538, 539; results, 539; statistics, 539, 540; our duty, 540. Java, 194. Jesuits in Turkey, 426, 427. Jews, Missions to the, 516-526. Num- ber and distribution: statistics, 516; chief Jewish centers, 516-518. Mod- ern renaissance : conditions preceding it, 518; Mendelssohn's life and ser- vices, 518, 519. Sects to-day: Ortho- dox, 519; Reformed, 519; Chassidim, 519, 520; Karaites, 520; Crypto-Jews, 520; Pseudo-Jews, 520. Recent Jew- ish movements : colonization, 520; Zionism, 520, 521. Missionary force and distribution : societies, 521; places of greatest need, 521, 522. Methods: social and industrial efforts, 522; edu- cation, 522; literature and its use, 522, 523; evangelistic work, 523; medicine, 523; kind of men needed, 523, 524. Outlook: from Jewish standpoint, 524; from that of missionaries, 524; large number of converts who are mission- aries, 525. Christian obligation: duty of Church, 525; of the individual, 526; in Argentine Republic, 134. John, Griffith, on China's future, 300, 301. Judson, Mrs., a pioneer worker for Siamese, 313. Kaiser Wilhelm's Land, see German New Guinea. Kanakas of Oceania, 179, 180. Karaites, 520. Karens in Burma, 323; mission work for, 331, 332, 333. 334- Keith-Falconers work in Arabia, 513. Korea. 236-256. The land: character of interior, 236, 237; the coasts, 237; climate and health, 237. Resources: agricultural wealth, 237, 238; min- erals, 238; ocean products, 238. Peo- ple: number and general appearance, 238-240; homes, 240; women, 240, 241; Koreans at work, 241; pleasures, 241; caste, 242; education, 242; language, 243; literature, 243. Religions: gen- eral statement, 243, 244; ancestral worship, 244; spirit worship, 244, 245; the Shaman, 245. New Korea : fea- tures of the new regime, 245, 246; political problems, 246; industrial dif- ficulties, 246, 247. Missionary be- ginnings: entrance from Manchuria, 247, 248; Presbyterian Board, North, and Dr. Allen, 248; the preparatory work, 248. Present missionary force: societies, 2^9; distribution of forces, 249; prominence of natives in the work, 249, 250. Prevailing policy of work: Dr. Nevius's influence, 250; difficulties which the plan aims to meet, 250, 251; leading principles of scheme adopted, 252, 253; difficulties encountered, 253; success of plan, 253, 254. Hopeful outlook: govern- ment favor, 254; strength of leading Christians, 254, 255; Mrs. Bishop's account of the missionary situation, 255; her appeal, 255, 256. Kurile Chain, beginning of mission work on, 231. Kurozumi, a Shinto sect, 216. Labor traffic in South Seas, 156. Labrador; name, 5; area, 5; topography, 5; geology, 5; resources, 5, 6; govern- mental control, 6; missions in, 28-30. Lambeth Encyclical letter of 1897 con- cerning the Tews, 525. Languages: of Indians, 16; of Oceania, 149; of Korea, 240-243; of China, 264, 265; of Siam and Laos, 305, 306; of India, 353; of Persia, 394; of Mada- gascar, 482. Lantern, magic, used in mission work, 30. Laos. Meaning of name, 302; country described, 302; inhabitants, 305; lan- guage, 305. Laos missions: differ- ences between Laos and Siam, 314, 315; presumption in favor of Christi- anity, 315; practical workings of this belief, 315, 316; methods employed, 316; self-support and independence, 316, 317; the churches, 317; training classes, 317; farmer pastors, 317, 318; large influence of missionaries in the country, 318; native Christians evan- gelize French Indo-China, 515. Lawes on conditions in Savage Island, 158. ' Lemuria, a name of Madagascar, 480. Leper work in Colombia, 140. Liberal minority in South America, 125. Literacy of Central Americans, 75. Literary Work in China, 281, 282; value in Turkey, 418, 422; in Africa, 466; value of literature in Baluchistan, 512; use in Jewish work, 522, 523. London a great Jewish center, 516, 517. London Missionary Society in Oceania, 157, 158; in New Guinea, 180, i8i. Loochoo, see Riukiu. Lovedale a typical industrial institution, 470. Low caste missionary effort in India, 372, 373- M MacGregor, Sir William, on work in New Guinea, 181, 182. Madagascar, 477-484, 486-490. From 566 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS coast to capital: littoral region, 477; forest belt, 477. 478; interior high- lands, 478, 479; Antananarivo, 479, 480; peculiar features of Madagascar, 480. The people: chief races, 480; the Sakalaves, 480, 481; the Hovas, 481; characteristics of Malagasy life, 481; the language, 482. Religion: ancient forms, 482; truthful elements, 482, 483; " Proverbs of the Ancients," 483. Missionary labors: political con- dition, 485, 486; relieving factors, 487; societies, 487, 488; education, 488; evangelistic effort, 488, 489; the resultant gain, 489. Madeira Islands, 484; mission work, 492. Malay Archipelago, 184-203. Groups described: area and ownership, 184; physical features, 184, 185; vegetation, 185; climate, 185. Inhabitants : the Melanesians, 186; Malays, 186; Chi- nese, 187; Europeans and those as- similated to them, 187; descendants of Arabs, 187; Spaniards in Philippines, 187, 188; influence of United States, 188; Netherland's colonial administra- tion, 188. Religion: partial failure of Christianity in Dutch possessions, 188, 189; Mohammedanism there, 189; heathen religions in Dutch posses- sions, 189; ancient power of India's religion, 189; religious condition of Philippines, 189, 190; Christianized Indians of Philippines, 190. Missions in Dutch possessions : extent of field, 191; government Church of East Indies, 191; missionary societies and their fields, 191; work in Dutch Borneo, 192; in smaller islands, 192, 193; in Sumatra, 193; in Java, 194; Dutch missionary methods, 194, 195; Dr. Callenbach's defense, 195; Gov- ernment and missions, 195, 196; apologists for the Government, 196. Missions in British Borneo: labors of Plymouth Brethren, 197; of Society for Propagation of the Gospel, 197, 198; need of medical effort, 198; missions of Chinese Christians, 198, 199. Missions in the Philippines: workers mainly American, 199; Spain's preparation of the soil, 199; efforts of the United States Government, 200; its relation to the Roman Church, 200, 201 ; beginnings of Protestant missions, 201; union of Protestant forces, 201, 202; future of missions in Philippines, 202, 203. McLean, A., quoted on Cuban situation, 99- Malagasy, 480-482. Manchuria, the country, 273; its peo- ple, 274. Maoris of New Zealand, 166, 167; work for, 1^5-178. Mapuches, 137. Mariolatry: in Mexico, 58; in Central America, 76, 81. Maronites, 416. Marquesas Islands, immorality in, 159, 165. Massacres of 1900 in China, 286-289. Mauritius, 484; societies there, 490; dif- ficult work, 490; its fruitage, 491. Medical missions: in Alaska, 32, 36; in West Indies, 100, loi; in Borneo, 198; in China, 279; in Persia, 405-407; in Turkey, 422, 423; in Africa, 462-464; among Jews, 523. Melanesian Mission, 161, 162. Melanesians, 147, 148, 186. Mendelssohn, Moses Mendel, and the Jewish renaissance, 518, 519. Mestizos: in Mexico, 49; in Central America, 72, 73. Methodist Board, North, in Uraguay, ,133. 134; in Burma, 335. Methods of missionary work: in Green- land, 27; trade in Labrador, 28; H. W. Brown on Mexican methods, 59, 60. Metlakahlta, a model Indian town, 37, 38; fifteen regulations of, 38. Mexico, 45-66. Scenery and climate: tierras calientes, 45; tierras tem- pladas, 45, 46; tierras frias, 46; rains, 46; attractiveness of Mexico, 46, 47. Mineral wealth, 47. Inhabitants: Spaniards, 47; English, Germans and Barcelonnettes, 48; Americans, 48; the aboriginal Indian races, 48, 49; mixed races or mestizos, 49; hopeful features, stable Government, 49; edu- cation, 49, 50; diseases of inhabitants, 50. _ Historical races: Aztecs, 50, 51; their material advancement, 51; pres- ent descendants, 51; Mayas, 51, 52. Religion: its early forms, 52; religion of Conquistadores, 52, 53; present re- ligious conditions, 53. Missions: gen- eral statement, 53, 54; force, 54. Gen- eral situation: semi-pagan Indians, 54, 55; Romanists, 55; liberal party, 55; Protestantism, 55. Character of_ people and evils: helpful characteristics, 55, 56; opposing factors, 56; how to over- come them, 57. Religion and ethics and missions: Romanism, 57; helpful ele- ments of, 57; views difficult to com- bat, 57, 58; power of priesthood, 58; Christian strategics: point of least re- sistance, 59; most useful methods, 59, 60; itineration, 60. Denominations and missions: helpful features of de- nominational polity, 60, 61; of doc- trine, 61; peculiar features of differ- ent Churches, 61, 62; hopeful elements, 62. Influence of Protestant lands: material advantages, 62, 63; disadvan- tages of this contact, 63; results of missionary work, 63, 64. Outlook: Romanism and national problem, 64; educational problem, 64; native Church, 65; solution of problems, 65; elements inspiring hope, 65, 66. Micronesians, 148, 149. Mill, H. R., on Oceania, 145. Missionary Force: in Greenland, 26, 27; in Labrador, 28-30; in Dominion, 30, 31, 38> 39; in Alaska, 32, 35; among U. S. Indians, 41, 42; in Mexico, 54; in Central America, 77; in West Indies, 92, 93; in Paraguay, 132; in Japan, 221, 222; in Korea, 249; in China, 275-278; in Straits Settlements, INDEX 567 308; in Siam, 312; in Ceylon, 336, 337; in India, 367, 368; in Turkish Empire, 416, 417; in Africa, 453-456; in Madagascar, 487, 488; in Japanese work outside Japan, 532; in Chinese work outside China, 534, 535. Missionary Methods in general: in Australia, 178, 179; of Dutch socie- ties, 194, 195; Dr. Nevius' plan modi- fied in Korea, 250254; in Laos, 316. Mission ships: "Harmony" of Mora- vians, 28; in South Seas, 153, 161. Modern thought, effect of on Central American Catholicism, tt. Mohammedanism: in Malaysia, 189; in India, 358, 359, 366; missions in India, 375-377; sects in Persia, 397-399; in Turkey, 413-415; work for Moslems in Turkey, 417, 418; in Africa, 448, 449; work for African Moslems, 457, 458; in Afghanistan, 502; in Baluchistan, 503; in Arabia, 505. Mongolia, the land, 274; character of Mongols, 275. Moravians: withdrawal from Green- land, 26; work in Labrador, 28, 29; in Mosquitia, 77, 78; in Dutch Guiana, 128, 129. Mosquitia, 71. Mott, J. R., in Japan, 231. Muir, Sir William, on Indian Chris- tians, 383. Nansen on cause of Greenlander's decay, 25; charges against missionaries, re- futed, 25. Native agency of Oceania, 154. Native Church of Oceania, 154, 155; its members active in Korea, 249, 250. Nature Religions: of Oceania, 150, 151; of Australia, 170, 171; of New Guinea, 174, 175; in Malaysia, 189. Spirit worship in Korea, 244; in China, 268; modified Buddhism in Siam, 307, 308; Animism in India; 358, nature wor- ship in India, 359, 360; in Africa, 449, 450; in Madagascar, 482, 483; in Siberia, 497, 498; of Eskimos, 12, 13; of N. American Indians, 19, 20; in Mexico, 52, 53. Negroes, work for, in West Indies, 93- 95; in Dutch Guiana, 129; of Africa, 442; the Bantu stock, 442-444. Nestorians, work for, 401. Netherland's colonial administration in Malay Archipelago, 188. Neuendettelsau Mission in German New Guinea, 182, 183. Nevius, Dr., his method in Korea, 250- 254; in China, 284; in Laos, 316. New Guinea. 171-175, 180-183. Area and political divisions, 171, 172; phys- ical features and climate, 172; scenery, 172; unhealthfulness, 172, 173; people of, four main elements, 173; physical characteristics, 173; homes. 173, 174; religion, 174, 175; missions in Dutch New Guinea, 180; L. M. S. in Brit- ish New Guinea, 180, j8i; Australian Wesleyans, i8r, 182; Sir W. McGre- gor's testimony as to work of societies, 182; Neuendettelsau Mission in Ger- man Guinea, 182, 183; Rhenish Mis- sionary Society's labors there, 183. New Hebrides, 160, 161. New Zealand, 166, 167, 175-178. The land, 166, 167; its climate, 167; in- habitants, 167; beginnings of missions, 175, 176; varied experiences of the C. M. S., 176; war and missions, 176; Hau-hau superstition and missions, 176, 177; future of the Maoris, 178. Nicaragua, 70, 71. Nile, 433, 434. Obeahism, 94. Oceania, 142-165. Physically consid- ered: great subdivisions, 142. 143; volcanic islands, 143; elevatea coral islands, 14^, 144; atolls, 144; scenery of South Seas, 144, 145; climate, 145, 146; diseases affecting natives, 146; physical calamities of islands, 146, 147. Oceanic peoples: their number, 147, the Melanesians or Papuans, 147, 148; Polynesians or Sawaiori, 148; Micro- nesians or Tarapons, 148, 149. Oceanic languages, 149. Religions: of the Melanesians, 150; of the Polynesians, 150, 151; of the Micronesians, 151. Political and economic conditions: their ownership, 152; jurisdiction, 152. Points common to most missions: cen- tral headquarters, 153; missionary ships, 153; conferences with helpers, 153, 154; native agency, 154; favor- able characteristics of native Church, IS4> 155; self-support, 155. Obstacles to missionary effort : those due to commerce, 155, 156; those arising from labor traffic, 156; from Romanism, 157. Societies and typical work: London Missionary Society's labors, 157. 158; on Savage Island, 158; American Board's missions, 158, 159; on Guam and in Micronesia, _ 159; Hawaiian Evangelical Association, 159; Australasian Methodist labors, 160; work of various Presbyterian bodies, 160, 161; the Melanesian Mis- sions, 161, 162; Society for the Propa- gation of the Gospel, 162; Paris Mis- sionary Society, 162. Oceania's fu- ture: opposite views, 163, 164; Chris- tianity's duty, 164, 165. Oodoov'ille Girls' Boarding School, 338, 339- Oriental Churches, 412, 415, 427. Osmanli Turks, 411. Outlook in Central America, 82. Papua, Papuan, see Micronesia, Micro- nesians. Paraguay, 123; missions in, 132, 133. 568 GEOGRAPHY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS Pans Missionary Society, in South Seas, 162. Parsees of Persia, 399, 400. Patagonia, 120; missions in, 135, 136. Patteson, Bishop, 161. Persecution, see massacres. Persia, 390-407. The land: general features, 390, 391; cities described 391; villages, 391, 392; climate, 393: physical calamities, 393. People: racial divisions, 393, 394; language, 394 homes of masses, 394-396; condition o women, 396; political condition, 396 397- Religions: Shiites, 397, 398; Babism, 398; Sufism, 399; Parsees. 399, 400. Missionary societies: Pres byterian Board, North, 400; Arch bishop's Mission, 400, 401; activities of its missionaries, 401; their hope, 401; Assyrian Mission Committee, 401; London Society for Promoting Chris- tianity Amongst the Jews, 401, 402 methods of work, 402; Church Mis sionary Society, 402; the Bible socie- ties, 403; minor missions, 403. Char- acteristic methods: necessity of educa- tional work, 403, 404; two missionary institutions, 404; educational work cosmopolitan and influential, 404, 405; medical labors, 405; Dr. Cochran's in- fluence, 406; medical work for women, 407. The outlook, 407. Peru, 123; missions in, 138. Philippines, see Malay Archipelago. Physitheism of Red Indians, 19. Pictures not comprehensible to Africans. 468. Pilkington's Appeal for Africa, 475. Plymouth Brethren in Borneo, 197. Politics in Africa, 452, 453. Polygamy: among Indians, 17; in Af- rica, 472. Polynesians, 148. Pope Leo's encyclical letter, 126. Porto Rico, 85. Poverty an obstacle in Chile, 136, 137. Presbyterian Board, North, in Guate- rnala, 79, 80; in Korea, 248; in Per- sia, 400, 404-406. Presbyterian work in New Hebrides, 160, 161. Press, an influential factor in China, 292; at Beirut, 422; of India friendly to missions, 387. Printing in China, 282. Problems of missions: in Canada, 41; in Mexico, 64, 65; in Patagonia, 135, 136; in China, 290, 291; in Turkish Em- , Pire, 423-427; in Africa, 461. Proverbs of the Ancients " of Mada- gascar, 483. R Reformers in China, 270, 271, 295. Reindeer stations in Alaska, 31, 32. Religions. See Abyssinian Christians, Ancestral worship, Armenian Church, Buddhism, Catholicism, Confucianism, Coptic Christianity, Druses, Greek Church, Hinduism, Jews, Mohammed- anism, Nature religions. Shamanism, Shintoism, Taoism. Renaissance, the Jewish, 518, 519. Results of missionary work: in Green- land, zy, 28; in Labrador, 29; in Mexico, 63, 64; Eskimo missions, 34, 35 ; in Central America, 81, 82. Revivals among Japanese in America, 533: Rhenish Missionary Society in New Guinea, 183. Richard, Timothy, a leading missionary in China, zyy, 290. Rijnhart, Dr. and Mrs., entrance into Tibet, 511. Rink, Dr., on number and distribution of the Eskimos, 10; on their religion, 12, 13; on Greenlander's change of food, 24, 25; testimony concerning missionaries, 25, 26. Riukiu, or Loochoo Islands, 218; mis- sionary work, 231, 232. Rodrigues Islands, 484. Romanists, work for, in West Indies, 97-102; opposition of Church, 97, 98. Russia in Persia, 401; in Turkey, 425, 426. Russian non-conformists in Siberia, 507, 508. Russia, the great Jewish center, si7» 518. Sakalavas of Madagascar, 481. Salvador, 70. Samoa, 150, 157, 158. Santo Domingo, 86, iy. Sattianadhan on Indian Christians, 382. Savage Island, 158. Sawaiori, see Polynesians. Schools: in Alaska, z^'t among Alaskan Indians, 35, 36; in the Dominion, 39; among Indians of U. S., 42, 43. Secret societies of Chinese in America, 530. Self-support: in Oceania, 155; in Korea, 253. 254; in Straits Settlements, 319, 320; in Laos, 316-318; in Turkey, 428. Selwyn, Bishop, 161. Semitic races of Africa, 440, 441. Senussi Brotherhood, 414, 415,449,457. Seychelles Archipelago, 484; missionary efforts there, 491. Shamanism: among Eskimos, 12, 13; in Korea, 245; in Burma, 323. Shiites of Persia, 397, 398. Shin sect of Buddhism, 215. Shintoism, 214, 215, 226. SiAM. Local name, 302; area, 302; con- figuration, 302; scenery, 303; climate and health, 303, 304; people, 304, 305; language, 305, 306; social conditions, 306, 307; Buddhism, the state religion, 307; spirit worship, 307, 308. Siamese missions: societies engaged, 312; gov- ernment favor, 312, 313; pioneer work of American Baptist Missionary Union, 313; small results of Siamese mis- sions, 313, 314. Sisters ot Bethan ethany, 403. INDEX 5^9 Sitka training and Industrial School, 35, 36. Slavery: among Indians, 18; in Africa, 472. Society for the Propagation of the Gos- pel: in Central America, 79; in South Seas, 162; in Borneo, 197, 198; in Burma, 333, 334; in Nicobar and An- daman Islands, 334, 335; in Ceylon, ^340, 341- South America, 103-141. Panoramic view of, 103, 104. River systems, 104- 106; highlands and mountains, 106- 109; habitable plains, 1 09-1 13; wastes and deserts, 113, 114. Productions: minerals and metals, 114, 115; forest products, 115; field products, 115; Prof. Reinsch's view of South Ameri- can wealth, 115. Races: Dr. Her- bertson's summary, 116; their social condition, 116, 117; immigration, 117- 119. Characteristtc features of differ- ent countries: Argentine Republic and Patagonia, 119, 120; Bolivia, 120; Brazil, 120, 121; Chile, 121; Colom- bia, 121; Ecuador, 121, 122; the Falk- lands and South Georgia, 122; the three Guianas, 122, 123; Paraguay, 123; Peru, 123; Uruguay, 123; Vene- zuela, 124. Features common _ to mis- sion work in all the republics: evi- dences of religiosity, 124, 125; aliena- tion of a minority from Catholicism, 125; helpful factors, 125; fruits of a former religion, 125, 126; missionary methods, 126, 127. Work in different sections: societies engaged, 127; work in British Guiana, 127, 128; success among the Chinese, 127, 128; Hindu work, 128; efforts for negroes and aboriginal Indians, 128; Dutch Guiana missions, 128, 129; among negroes in the bush and in towns, 129; work for Indians, 129; missions in Brazil, 129- 132; societies engaged and their loca- tion, 129, 130; large work among Pro- testant foreigners, 130; education, 130, 131; Young Men's Christian Associa- tion, 131; need of Indian missions, 131, 132; work in Paraguay, 132, 133; ^mong Indians of the Grand Chaco, 132.. 133;. prospects for future, 133; missions in Uruguay, 133, 134; in the Argentine Republic, 134-136; South American Missionary Society's labors, 134. 135; Patagonian missions, 135, 136; marked characteristic of the Ar- gentine situation, 136; Chilian mis- sions, 136-138; condition of the people, 136, 137; work of Methodists, Presbv- terians and South American Mission- ary Society, 137, 138; missions in the Inca countries, 138, 139; societies rep- resented, 138; the need of missions to the Incan races, 139; Colombian mis- sions, 139, 140; work in Venezuela. 140; claims of Colombia's lepers and Venezuelan Indians, 140, 141; dis- tricts unoccupied. 495, 496. South American Missionary Society in Argentina and Patagonia, 134, 135. Southern Cross, mission ship, 161. South Georgia, 122. Spaniards: of Mexico, 47, 48; in Philip- pines, 187, 188. Spanish evangelization in Central Amer- ica, 81. Stead's statement of Africa's civilizing forces, 453. Stevenson, R. L., on South Sea scenery, 144, 145- "Straits-born" Chinese, 311, 312. Straits Settlement. Malay Peninsula, 303; Chinese immigrants, 306; socie- ties engaged, 308; distinguishing feat- ures of work, 308, 309; self-support, 309; does not lead to loss of inde- pendence, 309, 310; promising outlook, 310, 311; Malays described, 311; "Straits-born" Chinese, 311, 312. Sufism in Persia, 399. Sumatra, 193. Sumner, Bishop, concerning duty to Jews, 526. Sunnites, 413, 414. Surinam, see Dutch Guiana. Svenska Missionsforbundet in Hsin- chiang, 509. Tabu in Polynesia, 151. Taoism in China, 266, 267. Tarapon, see Micronesians. Tenrikyo sect of Japan, 216. Tibet, 275. Tokyo, a missionary center, 229, 230. Totems of Red Indians, 19. Trade as a feature of Moravian missions, 28. Training of evangelists in Africa, 471, 472. Traveling in Africa, 437, 438. Tripoli, 410. Turkish Empire, 408-430. Divisions and area; Turkey's immediate posses- sions, 408; its tributary countries, 408. The land;_ European strip described, 409; Asiatic Turkey, 409; Arabian pos- sessions, 409, 410; Tripoli and Ben- gazi, 410; climate, 410. Races; the name Turk objected to, 410; the Os- manlis, 411; other Moslem races, 411, 412; the Christians, 412; their im- portance to the Empire, 412, 413. Re- ligions; enumerated, 413; the Sun- nites, 413, 414; Senussi fraternity, 414.. 415; Greek Church, 415; Ar- menian Church, 415, 416; the Druses, 416; smaller churches, 416. The mis- sionary societies: nationality and number, 417; outstanding character- istics, 417. Classes ministered to: work for Moslems private, 417, 418; value of controversial and other litera- ture. 418; work among Oriental Churches, 419; two main bodies dif- ferentiated, 419; obstacles found in Greek Church, 419, 420; Bulgarian branch of Greek Church, 420; Arme- nian Church, 420. Most successful methods: education, 421; Beirut press, 422; literary work, 422; medical mis- ;:;c' GEOGRAPHY OF PROTfiSTANT MISSIONS sions, 422, 423; insane asylum, 423. Problems: emigration, 423, 424; Turkish Government, 424; its unjust taxation, 424; persecutes Armenians, 425; opposed to missionaries 425; Russia a menace, 425, 426; Roman Catholics, 426; Jesuit labors, 426, 427; relation to Oriental Churches, 427; self-support, 428. Outlook: hope de- rived from past success, 428, 429; probable effect of Brummanna Confer- ence, 429, 430. Turkistan, see Central Asia. Union Movement among missionaries in Philippines, 201, 202; in Japan, 227, 228. United Presbyterian educational work in Egypt, 468. United States in Philippines, 188; ef- forts for Islands, 200, 201. Uruguay, 123; missions in, 133, 134. Venezuela, 123, 124; missions in, 140. Village system of India, 356. Visiting workers, a help in Japan, 231; in India, 369. Volcanic islands, 143. Voluntary work for Chinese in America, 536. Voodooism in West Indies, 94. W Walker, American filibuster, in Nicara- Wjua, 71. arneck, Prof., estimate of Red In- dians, 40; China's statistics, 276, 277. Wesleyan Methodists, in Central Amer- ica, 79; in Burma, 335, 336; in Cey- lon, 337, 338. West Indies. 83-102. Historical setting, 83. The island groups: Bahamas, 83, 84; four large islands, 84; Cuba, 84, 85; its beauty, 85; Porto Rico, 85; Jamaica, 85, 86; Haiti or Santo Do- mingo, 86, 87; Caribbean Chain, 87_; Leeward Islands, 87. Climatic condi- tions: temperature, 87; rains, wind and health, 88. Inhabitants: races, 88; Cubans, 88, 89; languages, 89; education, 89; religious character of islanders, 88, 90; voodooism, 90. " The West Indian Enigma " : economic problem, 90; action of British Royal Commission, 90, 91 ; political elements, 91. Missionary forces: societies, 92, 93. Labor for different classes: gen- eral statement, 93; missions among negroes, 93-95; obstacles presented by voodooism, 94; other difficulties, 94; special forms of labor, 94, 95; work for Hindus, 95-97; indenture sys- tem, 95; work among coolies, 06; need for enlargement, 96, 97; missions to Spanish-speaking Romanists, 97-102; Doctor Diaz, 97; Catholic circular against missions, 97, 98; conditions confronting missionaries, 98, 99; Brau's characterization of existing religions, 99; efforts for children, 99, 100; work for women, 100; medical missions, 100, loi; lessons learned in recent years by missionaries, loi, 102. Witte's plan for educating Brazil In- dians, 131, 132. Women of Mission Lands. In Green- land, 10; homes in, 11. Indian homes, 14-16; polygamy, 17; not allowed in Canada, 21. Eskimo cruelties prac- ticed in Alaska, 33, 34; improvement there, 35. Indian girls taught in Alas- ka and result, 35, 36; Miss Carter's work for, 43. Effect of confessional on Mexican women, 57; Mariolatry, 58. In Central America, 73; religion there, 76; voluntary woman missionary, 80. Porto Rican women, 100. Women's names in South America, 124; Miss Tarbox in Venezuela, 140; kind of women needed in South American woman's work, 140. In Melanesia, 147; in Polynesia, 148; devotion to dead children in Micronesia, 151; im morality on Savage Island, 158. Wom en of aboriginal Australian tribes, 170 Nezv Guinea homes, 173, 174. Hau hau immorality in New Zealand, 177, Women eaten in New Guinea, 182, Woman's work not appreciated by Dutch societies, 195. Wife's action at Borneo funeral, 198. Woman ruined in Philippines, 199. Woman the orig- inator of the lapanese sect, Tenrikyo, 216; Japanese daughters sell themselves to life of shame, 217; education of girls, 220; immorality the great ob- stacle to a pure gospel, 222; women aiding in revival work, 230. Woman missionary a novelty in Luchu Is- lands, 232. Garments of Korean women, 239; their homes and status in, 240, 241; their spirit-worship, 244, 245; act as mutangs or Shamans, 245. Girls educated in Chinese day schools, 279; in boarding schools, 280; women trained in station-classes, 281; reached by village itineration, 284; Ernpress Dowager convinced of Boxer invul- nerability, 2y2; women missionaries should go to China, 299, 300. Dress and homes in Siam, 304; Laos cos- tumes, 305; Mrs. Judson's pioneer ef- forts for Siam, 313; School for Girls in Bangkok, 314. Burman women, 323. Singhalese women on Adam's Peak, 329. Burman young women as school-teachers, 336. Women inferior to horses in Ceylon, 337; Miss Agnew and Oodooville Boarding School, 338, 339; gifts of Ceylonese Christians, 339. Characteristics of India's women, 355, 356; effect of Hinduism on, 360; work for, 370, 371; female education in Christian and non-Christian communi- ties of India, 378, 379; Christianity a boon to, 382. Persian homes, 394-396; ItJDEX m woman s condition, 396; Babism's fa- mous woman missionary, 399; Jewesses reached, 402; Fiske Seminary, 404; medical work for women, 407; women missionaries' influence, 407. Women's higher education in Turkish Empire, 421; medicine a door to Moslem wom- en, 423 ; Russian school for young women in Nazareth, 426; work for women and girls, 428. African Bantu women, 444; Zulus, 444; prostitution, 461; Lovedale women, 470; African ■women evangelizing, 471; polygamy and other woes of womanhood, 472, 473; her influence in society, 473, 474. Dress in Madagascar, 479. Widows buried alive in Siberia, 498. Polyan- dry in Tibet, 500. Arabian wives, 505. The family in Annam, 506. Mrs. Rijnhart and Miss Taylor in Tibet, 510, 511. Jewess marriage restricted in 1 8th century, 518. Procurers' Pro- tective Association in San Francisco, 530. Women's work for Australian Chinese, 535; their labors for Chi- nese in U. S., 536; Miss Culbertson's rescue work, 538; rescue of Chinese girls, 539. Young Men's Christian Associations: among Indians, 43, 44; in Brazil, 131; in work for Japanese in America, 534; in work for Chinese in America, 537, 538. Young People's Society of Christian En- deavor; in Mexico, 62. Yucatan, 51, 52. Zambos, 73. Zangwill, I., a superlative writer on Jews, 517. Zionism, 520, 521. 11012 01127 8548 DATE DUE - v«.*!^aSSS^ a^ ..H^^^^lMa.^ ^ "*'"*^!H _—-—■, Demco. Inc. 38-293