THE ECCLESIASTICAL CYCLOPEDIA. POPULAR RELIGIOUS WORKS BT I. A NEW AND COMPLETE CONCORDANCE TO THE HOLY SCRIPTURES, On the basis of Ceuden. T-wentj'-second Edition. Post 8vo, 5s., cloth. II. ANALYTICAL CONCORDANCE TO THE HOLY SCRIPTURES; Or, The Bible presented under Distinct and Classified He^^vds ok Toi'ics. Third Edition. Post 8vo, 8s. 6d., clotli. HI. BIBLICAL CYCLOPEDIA ; Or, DiciiONAKY ov Eastern Antiquities, Geography, Natur.vl Histort, Sacred Annals AND BlOGR^VPHT, THEOLOGY AND BIBLICAL LITERATURE. With Maps and Pictorial Illustrations. Eiglith Edition, revised. Post 8vo, 7s. 6d., cloth. IV. ECCLESIASTICAL CYCLOPEDIA; Or, Dictionary of CHRiSTi.iN Antiquitiks and Sects, comprising Architecture, Controversies, Creeds, Customs, Denominations, Doctrines, Government, Heresies, History, Liturgies, Rites, Monastic Orders, and Modern Judaism. Post 8vo, 8s. Cd., cloth. THE ECCLESIASTICAL CYCLOPJIDIA; DICTIONARY CHRISTIAN ANTIQUITIES AND SECTS, COMPRISING ARCHITECTURE, CO^'TROVERSIES, CREEDS, CUSTOMS, DENOMINATIONS, DOCTRINES, GOVERNMENT, HERESIES, HISTORY, LITURGIES, RITES, MONASTIC ORDERS, AND MODERN JUDAISM. EDITED BY JOHN EADIE, D.D., LL.D., PROFESSOR OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE TO THE UNITED PRESBYTERIAN CH URCII — SCOTLAND. "The public now demand of those professionally devoted to tlio sciences that they shall not confine tho knowledge they liave such favoured opportunities of acquiring to the lectuve-room, but shall render it available to the weU-informjd of all professions, and to the more intelligent, at least, of the other sex. ■'—Edinburgh /li-view. LONDON: GRIFFIN, BOHN, AND COMPANY, STATIONERS' HALL COURT. 18G2. " If what is here said shall administer any light to these parts of Church antiquity, I shall be very glad; if not, 1 am content it should follow the fate of many much better books, to be thrown aside. It was never designed to instruct the learned, but only to form a short scheme of the true state of things, for the benefit of those wlio have not been much conversant in the antiquities of the Church; at least, to give some aid and direction to the younger sort, who first apply themselves to the study of those ancient times. And if it may but attain this end, I shall think my time and pains have been well bestowed."— Cawe. PREFACE. Tuis volume, the fourth I have edited for popular use, completes the series.* The earlier volumes were meant to give help for the understanding of Scripture, either by enabling the reader to compare it with itself in single verses or in groups of passages, or by imparting information on Biblical words. Eastern customs, Geo- graphy and Antiquities. These unpretending volumes have been well received, and the Editor hopes that to some extent his design has been realized. The sphere of this volume is different fi-om that of its three predecessors. It refers not primarily to Biblical, but to Ecclesiastical matters — to Theology as found in the various sections of the Church — to the peculiar customs and canons of primitive times — to Fathers and councils — to schisms and heresies — to media3val ceremonies and institutions — and to the origin and growth of more modern religious parties, and the characteristic elements of their history and progress. A great body of curious and useful information will be found in it, gathered from an immense variety of sources and authorities. Special attention has been given to what are termed Church Antiquities; and many articles on points of present and more ancient Scottish ecclesiastical usage have been inserted for the benefit of English and foreign readers. Impartial statements have been given of the doctrine and government of what are usually called Evangelical bodies. The theology of Ai'minianism and Cal- vinism has been treated historically, and not polemically. Episcopalian, Presby- terian, Independent. Baptist, and Pa;do-Baptist, has each stated his own case, and spoken in his own defence, without hinderance or objection, — a statement of the argument being generally taken from the works of well-known or representative men in these various communions. Thus, if Bishop Hinds and Dr. Barrow speak on behalf of prelates, Coleman and Killen may say a word in defence of ruling elders, and Davidson may plead for Congregational order ; if Cox maintains the immersion of believers, Wardlaw and Halley may vindicate the sprinkling of infants. A considerable number of the articles have appeared already in the Encyclo- ptvdia ]\IetropoUiana^ which had, some years ago, become the property of the pre- sent publishers. It is now impossible to assign all those articles to their respective authors. I must, however, particularize the principal editor of that work and the Rev. Dr. Hartwell Home, — such articles as Bell, Ciirisome, Conclave, Excommunication, Impropriations, Inquisition, Investiture, Mass, Ordina- * The three previous volumes are:— New and Complete Concordance to the Holy Scriptures, on the basis of Crmicii. Twcuty-seconcI edition. Biblical CyclopcciHa; or, Dictionary of Eastern Antiquities, Geography, Natural History, Sacred Annals and Biography, Theology, and Biblical Literature. Eighth edition. An Analytical Concordance to the Holy Scriptures-, or, the Bible presented under distinct and classijied heads or topics. Third edition. VI PREFACE. TION, &c., being by the former ; and by the lattei', such articles as Bible, Bull, Catechism, Concordance, Creed, Liturgy, Penance, Psalmody, Sacra- ment, &c., which have also been revised by their venerable author expressly for this publication. Distinctive terms relating to the Church of England, such as Archdeacon, Canon, Dean, Prebend, Rector, Tithes, Vicar, &c., are also from the same great repository. Not a few of the smaller articles from the Metro- politana have been carefully revised or re- written by the Rev. Edward Cockey, M.A., late Fellow of Wadham College, Oxford, Vicar of Hockley, Essex. But all the articles and a few others thus acknowledged form less than a third of the more than 1,500 articles, short and long, of which this volume is composed. No Cyclopaedia comes into direct competition with this one. Broughton's His- torical Dictionary of All Religions, in two folios (London, 1745), extends to Moham- medanism and classic mythology, but in many places gives an excellent digest of the more elaborate investigations of Bingham ; Buck's Tlieological Dictionary is very miscellaneous, having many articles on ethics and spiritual experience, with numer- ous bioo-raphies ; Hook's Church Dictionary refers of course particularly to the Church of England ; Marsden's Dictionary of Christian CJiurches and Sects fuUy and faithfully verifies its title ; the College Lectures of Bates (London, 1845) are an excellent compend on Christian Antiquities and the Ritual of the English Church; Eden's Churchman^s Theological Dictionary (London, 1859) is, as the name implies, "intended, though not exclusively, yet more specially, for the use of members of the Church of England ; " Landon's New General Ecclesiastical Dictionary is far from being completed (London, 1849-53) ; Gardner's Faiths of the World occupies ground far beyond the ecclesiastical territory, but is full of information on the Eastern or Greek Church ; while Herzog's voluminous Real-Encyclopcedie takes in all branches of theological science. Our Cyclopaedia, confining itself to its proper province, is meant for no party or sect ; but gives information on each of them, so full as to present an intelligible and trustworthy record of the more important of them, and at the same time so brief and compact as to keep the volume within reasonable limits and price. A list is affixed of the more important works which may be con- sulted or used as authorities. In speaking of authorities, it would be unpardonable not to mention the immense storehouse of Bingham, whose industry was equalled by his learning and his usual impartiality. We might refer also to Augusti's Denkwi/r- digJceiten, or to the abridgment of it in his Handhuch der Christlichen Archciologie, arranged in sections ; and to Siegel's Handbuch der Christlich-kirklichen AUerthumer, arranged alphabetically, — two excellent Manuals. Riddle's Christian Antiquities is based upon Augusti, with occasional translations fi'om Siegel; and so is the American work of Coleman. These works, with the Archciologie of Rheinwald and the Lehrhuch of Guericke, with the Histories of Mosheim, Neander, Kurtz, SchafF, and Gieseler, have furnished, in their respective departments, contmuous assistance or verification. Where corroborative extracts are given, they are given from the best authorities ; and documents of importance are usually quoted at length. In a word, the aim has been to combine popularity with exactness, so that readers of every grade may profitably consult the volume. WhUe it will be seen how corruption crept innocently into the Church, how en-or was stealthily introduced, and ambition and infirmity created schisms and shibboleths, it will PREFACE. Vll also be thankfully noted, that many essential and saving truths were still preserved; and that while the cross was often overshadowed, it was not en- tirely concealed. Not to speak of anti-scriptural dogmas and ceremonies, which the spread of sound and free opinion tends ever to counteract, and will ultimately destroy, may it not be hoped that the various parties of Protestant Christendom, looking at the truth no longer each from its own isolated point of view, but in the light of the Divine Word, and looking on one another in the spirit of the " new commandment," may learn to revere one another's integrity of motive, and love one another, in recognition of the Lord's own prayer — " that they also maybe one in us" — so that there may " unto Him be glory in the Church by Christ Jesus throughout all ages, world without end ?" JOHN EADIE. 1") Lansdowne Ckescent, Glasgow, Noveviher, 1861. A BRIEF LIST OF WORKS BEARING ON THE SUBJECTS TREATED IN THIS VOLUME. General Chcrch History. The Magdeburg Cenluriators and the Annales of Baronius in reply ; the Ilistorks of Schroeckh, Moshehn, Mihier, Neander, Gieseler, Guericke, Spanheim, Jortin, Burton, Waddingtou, Kurtz, SchafT, Mihnau, Hardwicke, and Killen — with the Mcmoires of Tillemont, the Eistoire de VEglise of Basnage, and the Eistoire EccUsiastique of Fleury. Special or ErocHAL Church History. The Fathers, — Eusebius, Socrates, Sozomen, Theodoret, Evagrius ; Bede's Ecclesiastical Eis- torg; StUlingfleet's Origines Britannicce ; Cranmer's Works; Strype's Memorials and Annals; Fos.e's Martyrs ; Book of Eomilies and Canons ; Hooker's Politg ; J eweVs Apology; Carwithen's, Baxter's, and Bishop Short's respective Eistories of the Church of England ; Bishop Mant's Eistory of the Church of Ireland; Jeremy Colher's Ecclesiastical Eistory of Great Britain; L'Estrange, Comber, Nichols, Bishop Sparrow, Wheatly, Procter, Brogden, and Keeling, on the Common Prayer ; the Works of Bishop Buruet, of Hall, and Usher; Soame's Anglo-Saxon Church and Eistory of the Reformation ; Bishop Gibson's Codex ; the volumes of Heylin on the one side, and Brooke and Neal on the other ; Thomas Fuller's Church Eistory of Great Britain ;' Price's Nonconformity, Lathbury's Eistory of the Nonjurors; Burn's Ecclesiastical Law, &c. Booke of the Universal Kirke; the Westminster Directory ; Eistories of the Church of Scotland, by Knox, Crookshanks, Calderwood, Eow, Kirkton, Stevenson, Woodrow, Cook, Hetherington, Lee, and Cunningham ; Steuart's Collections ; Buchanan's Ten Years' Conflict ; Bryce's Ten Years; M'Ker- row's Eistory of the Secession Church; Struthers's Eistory of the Relief Church; lleid's Eistory of the Presbyterian Church in Ireland; Hodge's Constitutional Eistory of the Presbyterian Church ill America. Lawson's Episcopal Church in Scotland; and the Works of Sage, Keith, Skinner, and Spotswood. Stanley's Eistory of the Eastern Church ; Neale's Eistory of the Eastern Church ; Pinkerton's Translation of Platan's Present State of the Greek Church; Mouravieff's Eistory of the Church of Russia. Sarpi's History of the Council of Trent; Ranke's Eistory of the Popes; D'Aubigne's Eistory of the Reformation; Massingbcrd's English Reformulion ; Labbeus et Cos- sartius. Concilia Sacrosancta; W'ilkins's Concilia Magnm Britannia'; Spelman's Concilia; Bishop Beveridge's Synodicun; Grier's Epitome of the General Councils; Seckendorrs Com- mentarius llistoricus ; Quick's Synodicon ; Baird's Religion in America, VUl LIST OF WORKS ON SUBJECTS TREATED OF. Antiquities and WoRsmr. Suicer's Thesaurus; Vitringa De Sijnagoga vetere; Lord King's Enquiry; Durandus, Ra- tionale Divinorum Officiorum — translated by Neale and Webb; Durant, De Ritibus Ecclesiai Catkolicce ; Hospinian, Historia Sacramentaria, Tiguri, 1598,1002; Sanches Be Sacramento Matrimonim ; Dodwell De Origine Episcoporum ; Rabanus Maurus De Institutione Clericorum ; Du Cange, Glossarium; T\.QnauAot, Liturgiarum Orientalium Collectio; Goar, Eu;^;«A.o^/ov, szVc Rituale Grcecorvm; Daniel, Thesaurus Ilyinnologicus ; Maskell's Monumenta Ritualia; Clichtoveus, Elucidatorium Ecclesiasticum ; Palmer's Origines Liturgicce; Rock's Hierurgia; Spelman on Tithes; Selden oa Tithes; Bingham's Origines Ecclesiasticce ; or, the Antiquities of the Christiayi Church, London, 1843, in nine volumes ; August!, Denkwiirdigkeiten aus der Christlichen Archa- ologie, 1817-31, twelve vols.; and Ilandbuch der Christlichen Archdologie ; Siegel, Handhuch der Christlich-kirklichen Alterthiimer, 3 vols., Leipzig, 1836; Coleman's Antiquities of the Christian Church; Rheinwakl, Die Kirkliche Archdologie ; Miinter, Sinnhilder und Kunst- vorstellungen der alten Christen, 1825; 'Di&on's Iconographie Chretienne, Paris, 1843; Riddle's Manual of Christian Antiquities; Bates's College Lectures on Christian Antiquities.'^- On the Catholic side, Ritter and Braun's edition of Peluccia's Politia; Mammacliius, Originum et Anti- quitatum Chris tianarum libri xx., Romas, 1749-55; Grancolas, UAncien Sacranientaire, and his Les Anciennes Liturgies; Johnson's Unbloody Sacrifice; Thorndike's Works; Guericke, Lehrbuch des Christlich-kirklichen Archdologie; Moreri's Grand Dictionnaire Ilistorique; and the Dictionaries of Broughton, Hook, Buck, Eden, and Gardner, referred to in the Preface. Polemical. In Systematic Theology — the Loci Communes of Melanchthon and Musculus; the Systems of Turretine, Mastricht, Pictet, Quenstedt, Stapfer and Muntinghe ; of Dick, Hill, Wardlaw, and Woods ; the Dogmatik respectively of Twesten, Ebrard, Martensen, Hofmann ; Hahn, Lehrbuch der Christlichen Glauben; Iley's Lectures on Divinity; Calvin's Institutes ; Arminii Opera, trans- lated by Nichols; Limborcb, Theologia Christiana; Richard Watson's Theological Institutes; Whitby on the Five Points. Canons and Catechism of the Council of Trent, translated by Buckley ; Petavius, Opus de Theologicis Dogmalibus ; 'LingaxS's Anglo-Saxon Church; James's Bellum Papale; Pearson on the Creed; Burnet and Harold Browne on the Thirty-nine Articles; Bower's History of the Popes; Mendham's Literary Policy of the Church of Rome and other works ; Muhler's Sym- bolik, and Nitzsch's Beantioortung, or reply ; Bullarium Romanum ; Bishop Gibson's Preserva- tive against Pojxry ; A. Butler's i««;es q/" the Saints ; C. Butler's Book of the Roman Catholic Church axiA his Vindication; Edgar's Variations of Popery ; Stavely's Horse Leech; M'Crie's Works; Greenwood's Cathedra Petri. Barciay^s Apology ; Claxkson's Portraiture of Quakerism. WalYs History of Infant Baptism; Caxson on Baptism. Oxford Tracts for the Times; Goode's Rule of Faith. Catechismus Racoviensis; Friestley's Institutes; Newman's A riaiis. Hagenbach, History of Doctrines; Hall's Harmony of Confessions ; Dunlop's Collection; Miiller, Die Symbo- lichen BUcher der Evangelisch-Lutherischen Kirche ; Niemeyer, Collectio Confessionum ; Winer, Comparative Darstellung des Lchrbegriffs der verschiedenen KircheJi-parteien ; Vater, Synchron- istische Tafeln der Kirchengeschickte ; Swedenborg's True Chnsiian Religion. Miscellaneous. Galland's Bibliotheca veterum Patrum, &c., fourteen vols., folio; Cave's Historia Literaria; Lives of the Fathers ; Primitive Christianity, &c. ; Du Pin's Nouvelh Bibliotheque, forty-three vols., octavo, translated in sixteen volume.s, folio ; Acta Sanctorum, fifty-five volumes, folio, begun in 1043, and still in progress; D'Achery's Spicilegium; Corpus Juris Canonici; Dugdale's Monus- ticon Anglicanum ; Fosbrooke's British Mo7iachism; Archdall's Monasticon Eihernicum ; Le Quien's Oriens Chrislianus; Godolphin's Rejjertorium Canonicum; Ceillier's Hisioire Gcncrale des auteurs sacr€s et EccUsiastique ; Adam's Religious World; Marsden's Churches. ECCLESIASTICAL CYCLOPAEDIA. A A and n (^Alpha and Omega), the first and the last letters of the Greek alphabet. In Reve- lation i. 8, xxi. 6, xxii. 13, this title is three times applied by Christ to himself, and is ex- plained as meaning " the beginning and the ending," " the first and the last." The idea, under a diflerent form of expression, is found in the Old Testament. There is no doubt that, in the Apocalypse, the title asserts the Lord's su- preme divinity, His eternitj' and immutability. His creative and all-embracing presence and energy. Various ingenious comments — some of them very trifling — have been made upon the letters; and, inwoven -uith the figure of the cross — alpha being placed on the one side, and omega on the other — they formed a frequent symbol in the early Church. Abnia (ajSara), that portion of the interior of ancient churches within which the people were not permitted to worship, hence its name a.fia,rxy or u^arov, or aSurov scilicet, /3~j£t"« "inadmissible." It was separated from the body of the edilice by w^ooden rails, cal'ed cancelli, whence our word chancel; and as it was exclusively de- voted to the priesthood, the altar, oblation table, bishop's tlirone, and seats fur the presbyters were placed inside its precincts. The jealousy of the clergy in the time of St. Ambrose to preserve their prerogative to the exclusive occupation of the abata, was so intense, that when the Emperor Theodosius came to present his offer- ing, he was barely suffered to enter that he might lay it upon the oblation table: the privilege of communicating within the rails being resolutely denied even to his imperial majesty. This stern discipline, however, relaxed a little in subsequent times; for we find that permission to communicate at the altar was granted to the faithful in the sixth century; and the second council of Tours ordained that the " holy of holies " should be open both for men and women to pray and communicate in at the time of the oblation. With this exception, however, the original discipline was maintained during the performance of other religious services Cole- man, p. 83; Bingham, vol. ii., p. 433. — See Chancel. ABB Abba, Abbat, Abbot, aM (FaiJier), titles of honour and authority, first derived from the literal signification of the word. Abba occurs three times in the New Testament, having in each place the explanation TaTi/j attached to it. The Jews are said to have forbidden their slaves to use this title to their masters, while it was commonly adopted among themselves as expressive both of honour and affection. In the Eastern Churches it was given at a very early date to their bishops, and is still retained in the Coptic, Syriac, and Ethiopic Churches. The title is pre-eminently borne by the Bishop of Alexandria. Baba, Papa, Pope, had their origin from the same root. Abbat, or Abbot, in the fourth and fifth centuries, was gradually, and at last distinctively, ajjplied to the heads of those religious orders who then began to exclude themselves from the world. The power they exercised within their own circle was all but absolute, and rarely, if ever, was it disputed by those who had given themselves up to their spiritual guidance. They inflicted corporeal as well as spiritual punish- ments upon offenders — whipping constituting the former, while the latter comprised suspension from the privileges of office, exclusion from the Eucharist, severer devotional exercises, expulsion from the abbey, and excommunication. They were endowed with such opulence, and were so famed for their sanctity, that bishops were fre- quently chosen from tlieir number ; for, in the first instance, they assumed to themselves no active share in the government of the Church, and were considered as the humblest of laymen. At length the abbot, or archimandrite (chief of the sheepfold), became the priest of the house ; and, from the decrees of the councils held in the fifth centur}', abbots wereevidently at that time adopted among the clergy, and subject to the bishops and councils alone. They cultivated learning with considerable success, and gradually engrossed within their different establishments its most im- portant documents. In the seventh century they were made independent of episcopal jurisdiction, assumed the mitre, and bore the pastoral staff. I Through the whole of the dark ages riches and 1 B ABB immunities were heaped upon tliem. Kings, and dukes, and counts, abandoned their thrones and honours to submit to their sway ; or themselves assumed the title of abbot, as among the highest civil distinctions. Hugh Capet, the founder of the third French dynasty, was styled Hugh I'Abbe, or Hugh the Abbot. Many offices in the state were now aspired after by the abbots : we find them performing the functions of ambas- sadors and ministers, and occasionally adorning •with their talents the highest stations. To their watchfulness over the manuscripts and other monuments of antiquity, now almost wholly in their hands, it is but just to record that the whole Christian world became indebted. Their ambi- tion, however, and their vices Isnew no bounds. Gregory VII., who was eagerly bent upon humbling the bishops, and transferring their privileges to the Roman see, granted them exemptions both from the temporal authority of their sovereigns and all other spiritual juris- diction, besides that of Rome, before un- known. They assumed the titles of universal abbots, abbots-sovereign, abbots-general, &c., and twenty-six lords-abbots sat in the English Parliament, Abbe', a kind of secular clergymen, once popular in France, and amongst whom arose several men of great literary merit. They enjoyed certain privileges in the Church, but no fixed station, being considered as professed scholars and academics, and principally occupied in public and private tuition. Some of them have risen to eminence in the state. Abbess, the superior of an abbey or convent of nuns, over whom she exercises nearly the same rights and authority as the abbots-regular over their monks. Their powers were formerly very extensive ; they are said to have assisted at ecclesiastic.nl councils, and even to have been sometimes called to the English Wittenagemote, before tlie conquest. Some abbesses have had the riglit of commissioning a priest to act for them in those spiritual functions which their sex would not permit them to exerci-y ; they have occasionally confessed their own nuns; and are allowed, by St. Basil, alwaj-s to be present when the priest shall confess them. In the Russian Church, the abbess is called Hegumina. A secular priest performs divine service in the chapel of the house, but the nuns read the lessons and sing the hj-mns. "The nunneries in Russia, at pre- sent," says Mr. Pinkerton, " are properly nothing but asylums for aged and unfortunate females, who thus spend the remainder of their daj's in retirement, most of them usefully employed ; and it were altogether inconsistent with truth and justice to consider them as belonging to those retreats of licentiousness and vice, of which we have so many shocking accounts in ecclesi- astical history." — Present State of the Gi-eek Chwr!/. — See MoNACHiSM. Abbey, sometimes written Abbathey or ABC Abbacy, a religious house, governed by a supe- rior, under the title of abbot or abbess. Tlie jurisdiction of abbeys was first confined to the immediate lands and buildings in possession of the house. As these establishments increased in im- portance, and were brought into the neighbour- hood of cities and populous towns, they ex- ercised extensive powers over their respective neigiibourhoods, and in some cases issued coins, and became courts of criminal justice. In other instances they gave birth to towns and cities. Abbeys, priories, and monasteries, difier principally in the extent of their particular powers and jurisdiction. All these establishments, in the Greek Church, follow the rule of St. Basil. The Russian abbeys and nunneries have been an object of peculiar attention in the policy of that government since the time of Peter the Great, who brought the whole discipline of them under such peculiar restrictions as have effectually remedied their grosser inconveniences. I'he rage for entering into these retreats no longer exists ; and as all the higher ranks of the Russian clergy are taken from amongst them, it is a mafter of just anxiety with the government that such men only should be suffered to enter the order as may afterwards prove worthy of their important desig- nation. Both the male and female establishments are divided into three classes : Stauropegia, Cteno- bia, and Laura. The first two are directly under the government of the holy synod, and the last under that of the archbishops and bishops of their respective dioceses. The abbeys in England, before the time of the Reformation, were numer- ous and wealthy, and enjoyed many important privileges. Their lands were valued, at the time of their confiscation by Henry VIII., at the immense sum of £2,850,000, an enormous sum, by our present currency. — See Monastery. Abbot is also a title given to bishops whose sees were formerly abbeys ; and sometimes to the superiors or generals of some congregations of regular canons, as that of St. Genevieve at Paris, and of Montreal in Sicily. It was likewise usual, about the time of Charlemagne, for several lords to assume the title of count-abbots, abba- commites, as superintendents of certain abbeys. In the Evangelical Church of Germany the title is still sometimes given to such clergy as possess the revenues of former abbeys. Abbots in Commcndaiu, seculars who have received tonsure, but are obliged by their bulls to take orders when of proper ;;ge. Abbots-Regular, those who take the vow, and wear the habit of their order. Abbreriators, secretaries connected with the court of Rome, first appointed about the early part fii the fourteenth century, to record bulls and other papal ordinances. The ofiice has been held by some eminent men. Abcedary, Abcedarian, or Abbcceda- rian. A, B, C, D, E, &c., a term applied to those compositions whose parts are disposed in alpha- ABK betical order, as so'ne chapters of the book of Lamentations, and some Psalrns, as xxv ,xxxiv., cxix., &c. Tliis is the most obvious indication of verse in the Hebrew poetical books, and was no doubt intended for the assistance of the memory. St. Augustine, it is said, composed a psalm against the Donatists, for the special use of the laity, whicli he diviiled into as many parts as there are letters in the alphabet, in imitation of the 119th Psalm. The same term is also applied to a teacher of the rudiments of learning. Abelians, Abeolites, or Abeloiiiaiis, here- tics who appeared about the reign of Arcadius, in the diocese of Hippo, in Africa, and disappeared in the reign of Theodosius. This sect pretended that Abel was married, but died without having known his wife. Their peculiarity was derived from this doctrine, which they carried into prac- tice, by enjoining men and women, upon entering into the matrimonial state, to entire continence. They, moreover, adopted a boy and a girl, who were to inherit their possessions, and to marry upon the same obligation and profession. Abeyance, a term denoting that which is in expectancy — thus, if an incumbent die, the fee of houses and lands belonging to the rectory is in abeyance till a successor be formally in- ducted. Abjuration, a form by which in ancient times, in England, a criminal who had taken refuge in a church might save his life by abjuring the realm, or taking an oath to leave or renounce his country for ever. Also a form by which Fopery is renounced, and formal admission to the Protestant Church obtained. Oath of abjuration, in a civil sense, signifies the oath by which a per- son obliges himself to acknowledge no right in the Pretender to the throne See Oath. Ablntion, a religious ceremony of ancient and modern times, which consisted in certain purifications of men or things, accompanied with tcashin(j them either wholly or partially. The Egyptians a[)pear to have practised it from the earliest antiquity; the Greeks adopted it under various forms ; and the Konians are said to have been scrupulous in their use of it before they per- fonned a sacrifice. It was more or less partial according to the occasion; but at the entrance of the Itoman temples convenient vessels were placed for this sacred washing. Several cere- monies of the Mosaic law ma}- be called ablu- tions; and the early Christians appear to have practised it before partaking of tlie communion ; in imitation of whom Roman Catholics still occa- sionally practise it before and after mass. The Syrians, Copts, &c., have their annual solemn washings; t!ie Turks, their greater and lesser ablutions. All the Oriental religions abound w^th this ceremony, which Mahomet very naturally adopted into iiis code of observances. Ablution, in the Romish Church, is also used for a sup of wine and water, anciently taken after the host, to wash it down. Sometimes it signi- ABS fie? the water used to wash the hands of the priest who consecrated it. Abracadabra and Abraxas, words found inscribed on some of the amulets supposed to have been used by the Basilidians. — See Ba- SILIDIANS. Abrabainites, or Abrahaniians. — See Paulicians. — A sect who derived their ap- pellation from Abraham, a native of Antioch, or, as the Arabs called him, Ibrahim. The Em- peror Theophilus, who united in his own character the apparent zeal of a Christian with the fury of a persecutor, exterminated the Abrahamites, on a vague charge of idolatry, in the ninth century. — A more modern sect of this name sprang up in Bohemia under the Act of Toleration, published by the Emperor Joseph II., in 1782. They re- jected all distinctive Christian doctrine, acknow- ledging one God, and receiving nothing of Scrip- ture but the Decalogue and the Lord's Prayer. They derived their name from their professing to hold the faith of Abraham before he was ch'cum- cised. Severe means were emploj-ed against them; they were draughted into the army, and sent to the borders of the empire. Few of them, however, recanted; but the sect soon died out. Absolution, in canon law, a juridical act, by which the priest, or minister, remits the sins of such as are penitent. — This is supposed to be done by the Roman Catholic priests more directly and immediately, by virtue of their holy office ; and by the clergy of the Established Church of England, by " a power and authority given to Christ's ministers to declare and pronounce for- giveness "to the truly penitent. In the Greek Church absolution is deprecatory, as she laj-s no claim to the infallible powers of the Roman hierarchy. Baptism was known among the ancients as the sacrament of absolution, or in- dulgence, a general pardon of sins being conveyed to every true disciple at his entrance with the " mystical body of Christ by the laver of regenera- tion." In like manner the Eucharist was esteemed an absolving ordinance: "When we drink the blood of the Lord," says St. Cyprian, " our sorrowful and heavy heart, which before was pressed with the anguish of our sins, is now ab- solved or set at liberty by the joyfulness of the Divine indulgence or pardon." But tiie most distinguishing feature of the indulgence granted through a participation of the Eucharist was this — that " it resolved the bonds of excom- munication, without any other formality or cere- monj'." It was usually' granted during Passion w^eek Qiebdomas hidulgenticB). Absolution was also pronounced during the ministration of the Word ; it was administered in a jirecatory man- ner, accompanied by the imposition of hands; and, finally, it was judicially exercised when penitents, after their performance of the canonical penance imposed upon them for their sins, were publicly and solemnly received at the altar, where, pardon being pronounced, they were de- 3 ABS dared free to the full communion of the church. The first and second of these absolving pro- cesses were called " Sacramental Absolution ;" the third, " Declaratory Absolution ;" the.fourth, "Precatory Absolution;" and the fifth, "Judicial Absolution." — See Indulgence. The form that Tetzel used in vending the indulgences which first awoke the indignation and resistance of Luther has been often quoted, but is said by Catholics to be unauthentic. They have thus stated their opinions upon this subject : " Every Catholic is obliged to believe that when a sinner repenteth him of his sins from the bottom of his heart, and acknowledgeth bis transgression to God and his ministers — the dispensers of the mysteries of Christ — resolving to turn from his evil ways, and bring forth fruits worthy of penance, there is then, and not other- wise, an authority left by Christ to absolve such a penitent sinner from his sins ; which authority Christ gave to his apostles and their successors, the bishops and priests of the Catholic Church, in these words, ' Receive ye the Holy Ghost ; whose sins ye shall forgive, they are forgiven unto them, and whose sins ye retain, they are retained.'" Penitents in the Church of Rome coming for public absolution, are enjoined to appear at the church door on the day and at the hour ap- pointed, kneeling, each bearing an unlighted ta)}er in his hand. Notice being given to the congre- gation by the officiating clergyman that he is about to receive the penitents to the consolations of the church, he falls prostrate before the altar, and utters some pra3'ers for the occasion, to which the people respond, according to the prescribed form. The priest having risen, advances from the altar to the church door, where he exhorts the penitents, and then taking them by the hand, leads them into the midst of the congregation. Absolution is then pronounced. In the admis- sion of one who had been excommunicated the following ceremonies are observed : — The priest sits down before him at the church door and repeats the Miserere — the penitent being at the time prostrate, the congregation kneeling, and the clergy standing. At the commencement of each veise of the jMiserere, the priest strikes the penitent, who is stripped to his shirt as far as his waist, with a short stick or whip made of cords. At the conclusion of the Miserere the penitent is absolved in the usual wa}'. Penitent women must be veiled during the ceremony which restores them to the bosom of the church. After absolu- tion is pronouuced, the following prayer is read: — "The passion of our Lord Jesus Christ, the merits of the blessed Virgin and all the saints, and all the good that thou hast done, and the evil tliat thou hast suffered, be to thee for the remission of sins, tlie increase of grace, and the reward of eternal life." The form of absolution in the Book of Com- mon Praijer has given rise to great controversy respecting "the power and authority" claimed ABS therein for the ministers of the Anglican Church. By not a few of the clerg}' and laity the meaning of the term is confined to an official declaration of God's forgiveness of sin. There are many, i however, who plead for a stronger sense. Wheat- \ ly, in his observations on the seasonable use I of the form of absolution in the Morning and Evening Prayer, takes the higher ground, by contending " that since the priest has the ministry of reconciliation committed to him ; by God, and hath power and commandment to declare and pronounce to his people, being peni- tent, the absolution and remission of their sins, therefore, ^vhen he does declare and pronounce such absolution, those in the congregation that truly repent and unfeignedly believe, have their pardon conveyed and sealed to them at that very instant through his ministi'ation." In reply to Dr. Bennett, who maintained that the form was only declaratory, and that a mere deacon had as much authority to pronounce the form of absolution as to preach a sermon, Wheatly adds: "This form is expressly called by the Rubric, the Absolution or Remission of Sins. It is not called a Declara- tion of Absolution, as one would think it should have been, if it had been designed for no more." With reference to the form of indicative absolution in the Service for the Sick — "I absolve thee'" — it is held by many that remission of church cen- sures and forgiveness of offences against the clergy and members of the church are all that is intended, for proof of which the collect imme- diately following is quoted, in which the penitent is represented as earnestly desiring God's pardon and forgiveness, an idea utterly inconsistent with the notion that his offences against God had just been remitted. On this view nearly all the standard writers on the Liturgy and Articles of the English Church are agreed, the differences that exist being generally of a verbal character — apparent rather than real. We conclude in the words of Bishop Burnet : — " Upon a repentance sincerely begun and honestly pursued, we do in general, as the heralds of God's mercy and the ministers of his Gospel, pronounce to his people daily the offers that are made us of mercy and pardon in Christ Jesus. AVe do, also, as we are a body that may be offfnded with the sins of others, forgive the scandals committed against the church ; and that such as we think die in a state of repentance, may die in the full peace of the church, we join both absolutions in one : in the last office, likewise praj'ing to our Saviour that he would forgive them ; and then we, as the officers of the church, authorized for that end, do forgive all the offences and scandals committed by them against the whole body. This is our doctrine." Abstinence, a term nearly sj-nonj-mous with fasting, in the sense in which fasting is most commonly used. The Church of Eng- land makes no distinction between thera, but the Church of Rome distinguishes between days ABS of fasting and days of abstinence. — See Fast- ing. If we take tliis temi to express the abstain- ing from particular ki7icls of food or refreshment, we maj' observe that the law of Moses contains several precepts on the subject; and, moreover, that some of the primitive Christians denied themselves the use of particular meats, though others regarded this abstinence with contempt. Asceticism began early in the Church, and was severely reprobated by the apostle of the Gen- tiles, as in Coloss. ii. (see Rom. xiv.) The council at Jerusalem, which was held by the apostles, enjoined the Christian converts from among the Gentiles to abstain from meats strangled, and from blood (see Acts xv.) Some contend for the perpetual obligation of this injunction; whereas the majority of Christians maintain that it was only of temporary duration. The common argument against its perpetuity runs thus : — Though blood and things strangled could have no moral evil in them, they were forbidden to the Gentile converts, because their brethren con- verted from the Jewish faith still felt so strong a repugnance to their use that they could not con- verse with any who used them. This reason having now ceased, the obligation to abstinence ceases with it. It must, however, be observed, that the Christian churches generally, for several centuries, abstained from blood as an article of food; but in the time of St. Augustine much laxity- prevailed, especially in the African Church, on this subject, the opinion then becoming popular that the injunction, bting one of expediency, was only of a temporary nature. AbHtineiil!y the Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria, residing at Cairo. The abuna being a foreigner, and generally ignorant of the language and manners of the country, is not permitted to meddle with the affiiirs of the government : his principal employment is the ordination of priests, deacons, and monks. Next in dignity is the komos, or hegumenos, a kind of arch-presbyter, who has the inferior priests and deacons, with the secular affairs of the parish, under his inspec- tion. The deacons occupy the lowest rank of priesthood. They have canons also, and monks; the former of whom marry ; the latter, at their admission, vow celibacy, but with a reservation, making a promise aloud before their superior to keep chastity, but adding, in a low voice or whisper, " as you keep it." The dcbtarahs, a set of chanters who assist in the musical parts of the service, are in general estimation even more so than the komos, though the latter be superior in rank. The emperor alone takes cognizance of all ecclesiastical causes, except a few smaller ones reserved to the judges; and confers all benefices, except that of abuna. The monks are divided into two classes — those of Debra Libanos, and those of St. Eustathius. They have not, properly speaking, any convents, but inhabit separate houses erected round their church. Their ignorance is extreme. The superior of the monks of Mahebar Selasse, in the north- west part of Abyssinia, is the itchegue, who is of greater consequence in turbulent times tlian the abuna. He is ordained by two chiei priests holding a white cloth or veil over his head, and a third repeating a prayer; after which they all lay their hands on his head, and join together in singing psalms. The churches are very numer- ous, owing to the prevalence of an opinion among the great, that whoever leaves a fund to build a church, or has erected one during his life, makes a sufficient atonement for all his sins. They are usually erected on eminences in the vicinity of running water, for the purpose of afl'ording facilities to the puritications and ablutions which they practise according to the Levitical law. The churches are surroinided with rows of Virginia cedar, and being circular, with conical summits and thatched roofs, and encom- passed on the outside with jjillars of cedar, to which the roof, projecting eight feet beyond the wall, is fixed, furnish an agreeable walk in the hot or rainy season, and diversify the scenery. The internal partition and arrangement of the ACA church is that prescribed by the Mosaic law; and many of the ceremonies and observances in tlieir mode of worship are obviously derived from the ceremonial rites of the Jewish religion. The religion of Abyssinia is, in reality, a strange compound of Judaism, Christianity, and super- stition. Judaism appears to predominate. They practise circumcision, and extend it to both sexes. They observe both Saturday and Sunday as Sabbaths ; they eat no meats prohibited by the law of Moses ; women are obliged to the legal purifications ; and brothers marry their brothers' wives. Their festivals and saints are numberless. As they celebrate the epiphany with peculiar festivity, in commemoration of Christ's baptism, and sport in ponds and rivers, some have supposed they undergo baptism every year. One of their saints' days is consecrated to Balaam's ass ; another to Pilate and his wife, because Pilate washed his hands before he pro- nounced sentence on Christ, and his wife de- sired him to have nothing to do with the blood of that just person. They have four seasons of Lent : the great Lent commences ten days earlier than in England, and is observed with so much severity that many abstain even from fish, be- cause St. Paul says there is one kind of flesh of men, and another of fishes. They at least equal the Church of Rome in miracles and legends of saints, which occasioned no inconsiderable em- barrassment to the Jesuits, whom they presented with such accounts of miracles wrought by their saints, in proof of their religion, and those so well circumstantiated and attested that the mis- sionaries thought themselves obliged to deny miracles to be any evidence of the truth of a reli- gion. Prayers for the dead are common, and in- vocations of saints and angels ; and such is their veneration for the Virgin that they charged the Jesuits with deficiency in this respect. While images in painting decorate then- churches, and excite their reverential regard, they at the same time abhor all images in relievo, except the cross. They maintain that the soul of man is not created, because, say they, God finished all his works on the sixth day. They admit the apocryphal books, and the canons of the apostles, as well as the apostolical constitutions, to be genuine; but Solomon's Song they consider merel\- as a love poem in honour of Pharaoh's daughter. It is uncertain whether they believe in the doctrine of transubstantiation. Ludolph and Bruce diflTsr on this question ; but the latter affirms tiiat tliey are now, with regard to doc- trine, as great heretics, and, with respect to morals, as corrupt as the Jesuits have represented them. Attempts have been recently made to found evangtlical missions in Abyssynia. Acacian^i, the followers of Acacius, Bishop of Cajsarea, who flourished in the fourth century, and was at one time an associate of Aetius, but afterwards deserted him, and subscribed the Kicean doctrine. — See Aetiaks. ACC Academy — The name was originally that of a garden or grove where Plato taught at Athens. The word usually signifies now a society of learned men, associated for the advancement of science and art, and these are numerous in the various countries of Europe. The term is also applied to the literary and theological seminaries of the English dissenters, such as those for the Baptists at Bristol and Bradford, and those for Independents at Rotherham and Cheshunt, and formerly at Homerton and Highbury. Some of the more recent academies, as at St. John's Wood, London ; Springhill, Birmingham ; Regent Park, London ; and the one at Manchester, take the more ambitious name of colleges. The plan of educating students for the ministry, in the majority of these seminaries, is vastly more ex- pensive than in Scotland. Acatliolici {not Catholic), a term em- ployed in Roman Catholic countries to denote Protestant and other professing Christians who are not members of the so-called Catholic Church. Acceptaiits. — The term arose from the famous Jansenist controversy and the Bull Unigeni- tus of Clement XL, 1713, many in France op- posing it, and therefore named appellants, while others receiving it were naturally called acccpt- ants. This division of parties subsisted till the middle of last century. Aoclanialion. — It was a common custom in the fourth century to testify esteem for the preacher, admiration of his eloquence, or appro- bation of his doctrine by public applause and acclamations in the church. We are told that they sometimes applauded Chrysostom's sermons by tossing their thin garments, waving their plumes or their handkerchiefs, and crving out — "Thou art the thirteenth apostle;'" "thou art worthy of the priesthood," &c. Jerome alludes in one of his letters to a sermon of his on the resurrection, which caused Vigilantius to start u}i, clapping his hands and stamping with his feet, and shouting, " Orthodox." Such a custom, derived originally from the theatres, was stnii found productive of evil effects in the preachers as well as their hearers; and Chrysostom fre- quently expressed his dislike to it. Accouiniodation, the analogical applica- tion of one thing to another. In theology, the term is used to signify the application of Scripture to something resembling or analogous to its original purport. A prophecy is said to be fulfilled pro- perly when what is foretold comes to pass ; or by way of accommodation, when anything occurs to a place or people similar to what at some pre- vious period took place with regard to another. There is considerable difficulty in the proper application of this mode of interpreting Scripture ; because it is obvious that if a passage relating indubitably to one event may be arbitrarily applied to another, merely because of some sup- posed or traceable resemblance, ingenious persons who have no general compreheusion of truth, nor ACC anv regard to its interests, may employ as nmny modes of interpretation as the}' have particular and subordinate purposes to serve. But an apostle niity use a passage of the Old Testament for the mere sake of illustration, and witliout adding the formula, " that it might be fulfilled." Thus, in Rom. x. 18, Paul quotes Ps. xix. 4, as illustrating the ditTusion of the Gospel, but without saying that it was a fulfilled prediction. This is very different from the kind of accommo- dation introduced by Semler and the earlier Ger- man rationalists, and applied not only to the in- terpretation of prophecy, but to the teachings of Christ and his apostles with regard to angels or devils, or the atonement itself. On their theory, the statements avowing those doctrines are onlj' convenient falsehoods, suited to the character and prejudices of the age. On such a hypothesis, where shall we lind truth in Scripture, and what shall we say to the veracity of those who wrote it ? For example, Jesus speaks of evil spirits dwelling in some; naj', speaks to the demon, and ciiarges him to " come out." What, then, shall v/e say to his honesty, if he did not believe in the reality of demoniacal possession, but only spoke to humour the errors and ignorance of his con- temporaries ? Accoutplisliiuent, in theology, is a term used in speaking of events predicted by the Jewish prophets in the Old Testament, and ful- lilled under the New. These prophecies in which the Jews tind an accomplishment about the period ■when they were first uttered, are often called Jewish; those which Christians apply to Christ or his dispensation, derive a distinctive epithet from this circumstance. Unaccomplished pro- phecy is ever a difficult subject of study. Acciirsrd. — See Anathicma. Acepbali, or Acepiialilse (from uxi^aXo;, headless), the title of the stricter Monophy sites in the fifth centur}-, who had been deprived of their chief, Mongus, by his submission to the council of Chalcedon. It seems that the name had been before applied to the persons who re- fused to follow either John of Antioch or St. Cyril, in a dispute that happened in the council of Ephesus in 431. This epithet was also given to those bishops who were exempt from the jurisdiction and discipline of their patriarch. In the reign of King Ilenrj' 1. the levellers received this di>tinctive appellation because they were not believed to possess even a tenement to entitle them to have the right of acknowledging a superior lord. In our ancient law books it is used for persons who held nothing in fee. Achaiae Prcsbyteri, or the Presbyters of Achaia, were those who were present at the martyrdom of St. Andrew the apostle, a.d. 5'.>, and are said to have written an epistle in relation to it. Bellarmin and several other eminent writers in the Churth of Home allow it to be genuine ; while Du Pm, with many others, with good reason reject it. ACT Acbiropcetos, the ancient name of certain miraculous pictures of Christ and the Vir.uin» supposed to have been made without hands, 'i'lie most celebrated of lliese is the picture of Christ, in the chmch of St. John de Lateran at Rome, said to have been begun by St. Luke, but finished by angels. The name is a Greek compound. Accemeise {a. -.trji^aa^ watchers), the name of an order of monks in the fifth century, who performed a sort of chanting service night and day, dividing themselves into three classes, so that one might succeed another at a stated hour, and thus their devotions might be sus- tained v.ithout any intromission. In vindication of their practice, they appealed to the apostolic precept, which requires us to "pray without ceasing." There is a kind of accemetce now sub- sisting in the Romish Church. Acolulhi, an order of ecclesiastics in the early Latin Church, whose office was in some respect subordinate to that of the subdcacon. The arch- deacon, at their ordination, put into their hands a candlestick with a taper — hence called accen- sores— to intimate that they were appointed to light the candles of the church, and an empty pitcher, to denote that they were to furnish wine for the sacramental festival. Imposition of hands was not deemed necessary in the public appoint- ment of the acoluthi. Act, in the universities, a thesis publicly maintained hy a candidate for a degree, or to show a student's proficiency. At Oxford, the time when masters or doctors complete their degrees is also called the "act." which is hehl with great solemnity. At Cambridge, they call it the "conmiencement." "Act" is also a collegiate appellation for the person who fjroposes questions that are the subjects of disputation in the exercises of the university schools. Act, a conmion name for certain statutes in connection with the religio\is history of this country. Among the most famous are: — Act ofUniformitii, passed in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, establishing Protestantism as the na- tional reliiiion of England, and binding all her sub- jects to the order and form prescribed in the Book of Common Prayer. Also, a statute of the reign of Charles II., 1062, enjoining all ministers in England to declare their unfeigned assent and consent to the entire Book of Common Prayer. The royal assent was given to this act on the 19th May, and on Bartholomew's Day, August 24, the same year, more than two thousar.d ndnisters were 'ejected from their livings, be- cause they conscientiously refused to subscribe. Act, Conventicle, parsed in 1G64. It enacted that only five persons above sixteen years of age, besides the family, were to meet for worship. Act, Corporation, a statute of 13 Charles II., chap, i., in which it is enacted, " That no person shall be chosen into any ofuce of magistracy, <'r other employment relating to corporations, who ACT sViall not, -within one year next before such elec- tions, have talvcn the sacrament of the Lord's Supper, according to the rites of the Church of England." This act, which so often degraded the most solemn service of Christianity into a step- ping-stone for civil office, has been repealed. Act, Five- Mile, an act passed in 1665, which imposed an oath on all nonconformists, binding them to attempt no alteration in either Church or State ; and provided that all ministers who did not take it should neither live in, nor come within, five miles of any borough, city, &c. Act, Rescessory, — See Rescessory Act. Act, Test, a statute, 25 Charles II. cap. ii., which was enacted that every person who should be admitted into office or trust under his Majesty, should receive the sacrament of the Lord's Sup- per, according to the usage of the Church of England, within three months after his ad- mittance into such office, under very severe penalties. Act of Toleration, William and Marj', sect, i., chap. 18, " Passed for exempting their Majesties' Protestant subjects dissenting from the Church of England from the penalties of certain laws. ' ' The Toleration Act, Lord Macaulay says, " ap- proaches very near to the idea of a great English law. To a jurist, vended in the theory of legis- lation, but not intimately acquainted with the temper of the sects and parties into which the nation was divided at the time of the Revolution, that act would seem to be a mere chaos of ab- surdities and contradictions. It will not bear to be tried by sound general principles. Nay, it will not bear to be tried by any principle, sound or unsound. The sound principle undoubtedly is, that mere theological error ought not to be punished by the civil magistrate. This principle the Toleration Act not only does not recognize, but positively disclaims. Not a single one of the cruel laws enacted against nonconformists by the Tudors or the Stuarts is repealed. Persecu- tion continues to be the general rule — tolera- tion is the exception. Nor is this all. The freedom which is given to conscience is given in the most capricious manner. A Qualier, by making a declaration of faith in general terms, obtains tlie full benefit of the act, without sign- ing one of the Thirty-nine Articles; an Indepen- dent minister, who is perfectly willing to make the declaration required from the Quaker, but who has doubts about six or seven of the arti- cles, remains still subject to the general laws. Howe is liable to punishment if he preaches be- fore he has solemnly declared his assent to the Anglican doctrine touching the Eucharist : Penn, wlio altogetlier rejects the Eucharist, is at per- fect liberty to preach, without making any de- claration whatever on the subject." Act of Faith (^Auto da F^\ a phrase ap- plied to a transaction which took place (usually at some great festival, and on a Sunday) when a number of prisoners in the inquisition, having ACT been convicted of the alleged crime of heresy, were brought forth from their dungeons to undergo a public execution ; and when also such as had been found innocent were absolved. The details which writers on the inquisition have given us of tliis tragical service are most painful , but they describe a custom which has been now for some years only known by descrip- tion, and which we trust maj' never be revived. The unhappy victims of the attto da fe, they tell us, are treated in the following manner : — On the day appointed for their execution, they are brought into the great hall of the inquisition, and being clothed in certain habits peculiar to the occasion, thej' are conducted in procession by Dominican friars. They have black coats without sleeves, and walk barefooted, holding a wax candle : the penitents who foUow wear black cloaks, painted all over with representa- tions of flames with their points downwards, the indication of their escaping the terrible punish- ment which awaits the relapsed, who come next in succession, whose painted flames point up- wards. The direct and avowed opponents of the Catholic faith, besides this latter sign of their doom, are covered with figures of dogs, serpents, and devils, painted with their picture upon their breast. A Jesuit is placed on either side of the individuals destined to be burnt, who are urging them, by reiterated appeals, to recant and abjure their heresies. A troop of familiars follow on horseback, then the inquisitors on mules, with other officci'S ; the inquisitor-general sitting on a white horse, led by two attendants in black hats and green hatbands, closing the procession. Having arrived at the scaffold, a sermon is delivered, replete with invectives against the victims of inquisitorial malignity, and abun- dantly encomiastic with regard to the institution, when a priest recapitulates from a desk the sen- tences of those who are condemned to suflfer death, and delivers them over to the magistrate, with the farcical request that their blood may not be touched, nor their lives endangered. They are inunediately put in chains, and hurried to the gaol, whence they are soon taken before the civil judge, who inquires, "in what religion the}' mean to die?" Such as return for answer that they die in the communion of the Romish Church, are first strangled, and afterwards burnt to ashes. All others are burnt alive ; and each class of delinquents is instantly conducted to the place of execution. AVhen those who persist in their heresy are fastened to the stake, the Jesuits load them with officious admonitions, and at length, in parting, declare that they leave them to the devil, who is at their elbow, to receive their souls and carry them into the flames nf hell. A shout is instantly uttered by the in- fatuated populace, who exclaim, " Let the dogs' beards be made," which consists in putting flam- ing furze to the faces of the victims, who are, from the position in which they sit, slowly roasted ACT to death. This spectacle is beheld by both seK€S ;uul all ape», with the most barbarous demon- strations of deliglit. — See Inquisition. Action Sermon, the Scottish desipn^ation, time out of mind, for the sermon preached before the celebration of the Lord's Supper, and so named, in all probability, from the action or ceremonial for which it is the accustomed pre- paration. Acts of the Apostles (see Biblical Cy- clopcedici), one of the canonical books of the New Testament. It was tlie general usage in the ancient churches to read in this book at all the public services from Easter to Pentecost. The reason, as stated by Chiysostom, was that the miracles recorded therein being evidences of the fact of Christ's resurrection, the church appointed them to be publicly read immediately after the commemoration of that glorious event, in order to give men the proofs of the holj' mystery which was the completion of their redemption. This nile was observed in the African, Egj'ptian, Gal- lican, Spanish, and other churches. Acts of the Apostles — Spwious. Such as the Acts of Peter and Paul; Acts of Paul and Thecla; Acts of Paul and Seneca, or a correspondence be- tween the apostle and the Eoman philosopher ; Acts of Philip, of Andrew, Thomas, Barnabas, &c. A handsome edition m octavo has been pub- lished by Tischendorf, Leipzig, 1851. A cts of the Martyrs or Saints — "J eta Marfyrum autiSanctorwn" — Eecordsof the Lives of Saints and iMartyrs These began to be collected very early, and were read on special occasions, such as com- memorative festivals. I\Iany martyrologies seem to have been in early circulation — sometioies mere catalogues of names and dates (Jcalendaria\ and, by and by, also full biographical sketches. Separate congregations told to one another in detail the heroism and suffering of their mem- bers. Amongst the various attempts made to collect such fragments, or confirm other accounts, tiiat known by the name of Bolland, is the most i'umous. Bolland, aided by the Jesuits of Ant- werp, collected immense materials from all quar- ters. In 1773 the order was suppressed, when the work, in forty-nine large folio volumes, had been brought down to the 7th October. The French Revolution created further interruption; but tlie work was again resumed, and the seventh volume for October, making the fifty- fifth of the entire work, was published at Brussels in 184 5. The huge enterprise is still in progress, and the ninth volume for the same month was published during the currency of the present year. These volumes are an immense rejiertory, often fii'l of legends and absurdity, yet often honest and able in sifting documentary evidence. So many writers havmg been employed in succes- sion for so long a period, the Bollandist tomes are by no means of equal merit. The work will stretch to seventy folio volumes. Actual Sin is opposed iu meaning to Original ADI Sin; the latter being considered as derived front Adam by direct inheritance, the other as perpe - trated by one arrived at sufKcient age. — See Original Sin. Adamites, or Adamians, heretics of the second century, who imitated Adam's nudity, and returned, as they imagined, to his state of pristine innocence. On entering their places of public worship, which w-ere chiefly caves, they threw off their clothes. They professed to live in continence, and condemned marriage, which they affirmed was the consequence of the intro- duction of sin into the world. Whoever broke the laws of the society was expelled from Para- dise, as they termed it — that is, from their assem- blies— as one who had eaten of the forbidden fruit, and was henceforth called Adam. Dr. Lardner questions their existence; and the hesitating account of Epiphanius, from whom it is received, is certainly suspicious. — The same title was given to a body of enthusiasts who, iu the fifteenth century, were massacred by the Bohemians under Zisca; and other sects have, at various times, been charged with the absurdities implied in the name, in most instances, perhaps, without suffi- cient cause. Adclphians, a sect of heretics censured by Maximus, Anastasius, and others, for keeping the Sabbath as a fast. Adessenarians. — The name is from the Latin word " arfesse" — to be present; and they, as a section of the sacramentarians got this name, because they held to the special presence of Christ's body in the Eucharist, though in a different manner from the view held by the Roman CatholicChurch. Adiaphorists (aS/a^sjo,-, indifferent), — a name given to those who sided with Melanchthon in the unhappy controversy which arose upon the promulgation of the Interim, in 1548. Maurice, the new elector of Saxony, assembled some divines at Leipzig to consider the propriety of accepting that edict. In this synod the too gentle temper of Melanchthon betrayed him mto unwary and unbecoming concessions. He placed among things indifferent — and in which, therefore, compliance was due — the number of the sacraments, the jurisdiction of the pope and bishops, extreme unction, and many other rites of the Romish Church. The evangelical doc- trine, also, was not fully stated. On these points he was vehemently opposed by Flacius and other Lutherans ; and the controversy- which thus arose, and which for many years distracted the Reformers, is known in ecclesiastical history under the name of the adinphorisiic controversy. The history of the promulgation of the Interim is detailed by Sleidanus, xx. ; Fra Paolo, Hist. Cone. Trid., iii., ad ami. 1548; Burnet, Hist, lief., part ii., book i., ad arm. 1548; Moslieiin, Cent. xvi., sec. i., ch. o, 4, and sec. iii., part ii., ch. i. 28 ; Robertson, History of Charles V., book ix., ad ann. 1548 ; by D'Aubigne also, and othrr recent historians of the Reformation. 9 ADJ A more modern controversy raged in Germany under the same name. Spener, and other pietists, protested against many worldly customs to which members of the church conformed, such as danc- ing, theatrical exhibitions, games, and certain forms and stales of dress. Their views were opposed b}' many, and cards, operas, and jests, placed among "things indifferent." The latter party was often lax and facile, while the former party, with the best intentions, condemned as wrong in itself what was rendered wrong by cir- cumstances or extreme indulgence. Adjuration, the act of binding with the solemnity of an oath. We read that Saul "adjured" the people not to eat anything, while in pursuit of the Philistines, till the sun should go down, (2 Sam. xiv.) It is worthy of remark that in the Bible of 1539, the original word rendered "adjured" in verse 28, is in verse 24 translated "charged" — "he charged the people with an oath." In King James's version, verse 24 has "adjured." while in the latter verse (28) the passage reads — " charged the people with an oath." Verse 28, in the Geneva Bible (1561), reads — " he made the people to sweare." Adjuiaiits-Creueral, those fathers, among the Jesuits, who dwelt with the general of the order ; and whose business it was to watch over the principal occurrences of distant countries, and from time to time communicate information to the general. Administrators of Baptism, in the early churches, were the bishops, presbyters, some- times the deacons, and occasionally laymen, in cases of extreme urgency and danger. Women, though at first strictly forbidden to administer this rite, are, by the Church of Rome, allowed to perform it in circumstances similar to those which would justify laymen in the irregular discharge of this cleiical duty. A question has risen in the Anglican Church, whether such baptism (that by laymen and midwives) is to be regarded as null or valid, Some have replied that, as the lleformed Church rejects the popish doctrine respecting the danger of children who die unbaptized, there is no necessity for an irregular performance of it; that as the benefit of the ordin- ance is clearly connected with its administration by a lawfully ordained minister, the children so irregularly baptized derive no advantage what- ever ; and that, in the event, therefore, of their growing to maturity, they are bound to apply to a " lawful minister or bishop for that holy sacra- ment, of which they only received a profanation before." A contrary opinion has, however, been held by other clergymen, who contend that the essence of a sacrament is not invalidated by an irregular administration of it ; and on the same principle, that clergymen coming from the Church of Rome to that of England are not required to be reordained, so children baptized irregulailj' in the Catholic communion should not be rejected as unbaptized, when in maturer age they are ADO brought within the pale of the Church of Eng- land.— See Baptism. Admission, an act of the bishop, upon ex- amination, whereby he admits a clerk into office. It is done by the formula admittn te habUem. All persons must have episcopal ordination before they are admitted to a benefice ; and any one presuming to enter upon one not having such ordination, shall, by stat. 14, Car. II., forfeit £100. Admission or Ordination Service, a re- ligious service observed in the Church of Scot- land, and other sections of the Presbyterian body, at the inaugiu'ation of a minister to a new con- gregation. The sermon preached on the occasion is called the admission or ordination sermon. Admittendo Clerico, a writ granted to any one who has established his right of pre- sentation against the bishop in the Court of Common Pleas. Admonition, an essential part of the ancient discipline of the Church. In cases of private oflence it was performed, according to the rule prescribed in Matt, xviii., privately. In public cases, openlj- before the church ; and no delin- quent was excommunicated unless this step were ineffectual. Adnionitionists, a party of puritans in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, who published two "Admonitions to the Parliament," in which they condemned, as contrary to the Word of God, some distinctive peculiarities in the ceremonial and discipline of the Church of England, such as the imposition of vestments, &c. The tirst petition was burnt at St. Paul's Cross ; Field aud Wilcox, who presented it, were flung into prison ; and Cartwright, who had a b.and in it, was degraded from his chair of divinity, and expelled from the university of Cambridge. Adonists, a part)-, among theological critics, who maintained that the vowel points usually annexed to the consonants of the Hebrew word Jehovah, neither originally belonged to it, nor express the tnie pronunciation, but are the points belonging to the words Adonai and Elohim, applied to the consonants of the ineffable name Jkhovah, to warn the readers that instead of this word, which the Jews were forbidden to pro- nounce, they are always to read Adonai. Adoptians, the followers of Felix, Bishoji of Urgel, who, towards the end of the eighth century, in answer to a question proposed to him by Elipand, Archbishop of Toledo, put forth the doctrine that Christ, considered in his divine nature, was truly and essentially the Son of God; but that, considered as a man, he was so only nominally and by adoption. Those who taught or embraced this doctrine were charged with reviving the Nestorian heresy, and great discord was the consequence in Spain, France, and Germany. — See Person of Christ. Adoption (see Biblical Cyclopceclid), in a theological sense, signifies an act of divine 10 ADO goodness, bj' which we are received into the number, and have a right to all the privileges, of the sons of God. Transgressors are said to be adopted into the family of heaven by the propitiation of our Saxnour and the imparta- tion of his merit, so that, for his sake, they are regarded as spiritual children. It also includes God's acknowledgment of his people at the last day; as when the Apostle speaks of " the mani- Je.ttation of the sons of God" at that period (Horn. viii. 19). For the Romans first adopted the child in private and bi/ purchase ; but when that child arrived at the age of puberty, he was carried to the Forum, and the adoption became a public and recognized act, sanctioned by all the legal and binding forms of the age. Thus God's children are now adopted really; but in the da}' of general judgment they shall be openly recognized or manifested — the adoption shall be complete in all its advantages, as well as in all its forms. There is, however, a difference between civil and spiritual adoption, as the latter has been desig- natei The former provided for the relief of those who had no children of their own ; but this reason does not exist in spiritual adoption, to which the Almighty was under no conceivable obligation, since he had created innumerable beings, and all the intelligent ranks of creation may be considered as his children. The occa- sion of one person adopting another, amongst men, is their possession, or supposed possession, of certain qualities or excellences which attract the adopter's regard; but the introduction of mankind into the familj' of heaven must be con- sidered as resulting from no such existing merit. In the case of civil adoption, though there is an alteration of the name and external distinctions of the person chosen, it implies no necessary change of disposition, principle, or character; but the reverse is true of spiritual adoption, in which the adopted person is assimilated to the being whose name he is permitted to assume. Adoration, in a theological sense, is, strictly speaking, an act of worship due to God onlj', but offered also to idols and to mortal men by the servility of their fellow-creatures. The deri- vation of the term plainly indicates the action in which it primarily consisted, namely, in apply- ing the hand to the mouth to kiss it, in token of extraordinary respect to any person or object. In the ancient Book of Job it is said, " If I beheld the sun when it shined, or the moon walking in brightness, and my mouth hath kissed my hand, this also were iniquity" (chap. xxxi. 2G, 27). Minutius Felix states, '■ that as Caecilius passed before the statue of Serapis he kissed his hand, as is the custom of superstitious people" — (/« Oct.') And Jerome mentions that thdse who adore used to kiss their hands and to bow down their heads — {Coat. Rufin. 16, 1). The word "kissing" is the usual idiom of the Hebrew language to signify adoration. This is one of the principal tokens of respect in the East, and ADO was, as appears from Herodotus, probably of Persian origin. Although it cannot be imagined that one attitude or mode of indicating reverence is, in itself considered, more acceptable to the Supreme Being than another, inasmuch as his omniscient inspection primarily regards the afiections of the worshipper, yet there is an evident decorum and respect implied in one posture more than in others, varying in different countries and at different periods according to the general opinion and established usages of society, but with which sentiments of devotion are inseparably connected. Upon the principle of one mode of address to a superior being deemed respectful and another the reverse, the attitudes and mo- tions of the bod}' are believed to be expressive of certain corresponding emotions in the mind. As religion cannot be totally separated from its forms, the genuine worshipper of God will be solicitous about his external appearance in his presence; nor have the votaries of superstition and idolatry been indifferent to t'ais view of tlio subject. These sentiments and forms of address have, by a very natural association, been trans- ferred to the intercourse of ordinary life, and havL- been made to denote either a proper or an extra- vagant and impious degree of veneration. Kissing the feet is also a mode of worship or adoration, adopted particularly in modern times among the Papists, who express in this manner their reverence of the Pope of Rome. It seems to have been derived from the imperial court ; but at what precise period it was introduced, cannot now be determined. The eighth century is the generally assigned period ; but some ha\'e found examples of it, as they believe, in the third. Dioclesian is said to have had gems fastened to his shoes, that divine honours might be more willingly paid him, by kissing his feet. Hence the popes fastened crucifixes to their slippers, that the adoration intended for the pope's person might be supposed to be transferred to Christ. Princes have sometimes practised this singTilar homage; and Gregory XIII. claimed it as a duty. It was rendered in the ancient Church to bishops, the people kissing their feet and exclaiming " -Tr^n^y-vnu ho, in the latter part of the fourth centur}', excited divisions throughout Armenia, Pontus, and Cajipadocia by his opposition to some of the commonly received opinions of the day. He denied that there was a difference of order between bishops and presbyters. He condemned prayers and alms for the dead, stated fasts, the celebration of Easter, and other ceremonial ob- servances. Some attribute his views of the epis- copal office to jealousy at the promotion to that office of his former friend Eustathius. But there AFF must have been many good Christiana to whom the tj'ranny and arrogance of the bishops of that century had rendered such views highly acceptable ; while, on other questions, the teaching of Aerius was an effort to restore Christianity to somewhat of its primitive simplicity, and free it from Jewish adulterations (Neander, vol. iii., p. 104). There were some of his followers remaining in the days of Augustine. Aetians, the followers of Aetius, a native of Antioch, in Ccele Syria, who may be regarded as the founder of the Anomcean form of the Arian heresy — (from avoaoj, unlike). Eunomiuf was his pupil and amanuensis ; and the title of Eunomian, derived from him, maj' be re- garded as nearly equivalent to Aetian. Their distinguishing doctrine was that the Son was of vmlike substance to the Father. Those who were called Eusebians, or Acacians, had been followers of Aetius up to a certain point, hold- ing with him that the Son was a creature; and they are not unreasonably charged by him with inconsistency when thej' would not follow up their heretical views to what he deemed their necessary consequences. Of the Holy Spirit, the Aiitians held that he also was created by the Father through the immediate power and opera- tion of the Son. And after the creation of the Sou and the Spirit, thej^ taught that the Father created all other things in heaven and earth by the power and operation of the Son, The Greek historian, Socrates (book iv., cap. 35), describes Aetius as an Aristotelian — as a man of super- licial attainments, but " fond of cavilling — a thing which any clown may do"^ — and having little acquaintance with the sacred Scriptures (Neander, vol. iv., p. 77; Gieseler, vol. i., p. 339.) — See Arianism. Aliiiiiiy expresses that kind of legal kin which is contracted by means of a marriage ; hence it is distinguished from consanguinity. As it is a creature of the law, so has the law pronounced it in some cases to cease when its cause (the marriage) has been defeated. A widow may be admitted in evidence for her former husband's brother, but cannot be so whilf't she is a wife. The law of Moses forbade nia.riage in certain cases of affinity' (Lev. xviii. &c.), and from those laws our own civilians and others in Europe pretty generally derived their prohibitions. The Jews are permitted to maiTy tlieir nieces, as well as their first cousins ; but a woman cannot be married to her nephew, because the law of natural order would thereby be violated. .A man who had married his niece would still be her head and guide, whereas confusion of re- lative duties would ensue if a woman were to be married to her nephew ; for the husband would, in that case, become her head — thus reversing the natural law of social dependences and obligations. In the earlier ages of the Ciiii-itian Church much attention was given to this question, in order to make the line of de- ll AFF niarcation between the conduct of the heathen and the disciples of Christianity as broad as jjossible. This anxiety, however, was carried bevond its proper limits, inasmuch as several prohibitions not sanctioned by divine authority were introduced at ditFerent times, and in various sections of the Christian Church. The follow- ing degrees of aiBnity were, in general, included in the prohibitory laws: — JIarriage with a step- mother, step-sister, daughter-in-law, step-daugh- ter, brother's widow, uncle's widow, brother's daughter, uncle's daughter, and the sister of a deceased wife. The marriage of cousins-german was not forbidden before the timeof the Emperor Theodosius, who was instigated by St. Ambrose to introduce it among the forbidden degrees. Arcadius subsequently rescinded the prohibition, but it was restored in the time of Justinian. The prohibitions of the law of England may be seen in the table drawn up by Archbishop Parker in 15C3, annexed to tlae Book of Com- mon Prayer, and usually found in the authorized tranfslation. The Westminster Confession iden- tifies affinity and consanguinity ; but the principle has not been consistently carried out. If A and B are brothers, and C and D are sisters, then if A marry C, D becomes his sister, and how could A marry his brother's sister? Yet such mar- riages are not prohibited. Step-brothers and step-sisters may marry also, irrespective of the afllnitj' created between their parents. A may have a son, C, by a previous marriage, and li in the same way may have a daughter, D, but C and D may marry. Affinity is not in such a case treated as consanguinity. On the ques- tion of marrying a deceased wife's sister a large body of literature has been called into existence during the last few years, contributed by divines, lawyers, senators, scholars, and gentlemen of private station. Spiritual affinity is a dogma of the Romish Church, which supposes the existence of a relationship between a godfather and his god -daughter sufficient to forbid their marriage without a dispensation. — See Marriage. Afliision, a mode of baptism, by pouring water on the subject. — See Baptism. African Vhurcli, that division of the Chris- tian Church locally situated within the six Komau provinces of Africa, viz., TripolLs, Byza- cena, Africa Proconsularis, Numidia, and the two Mauiitanias. The entire district was about 2,o50 miles in length, and its average width 350 miles. This church was remarkable for the number of its bishops, their iudependeucy of one an 'thcr, their catholicity of sentiment, and gene- rous forbearance with each other's prejudices and difl'erences of opinion, and church discipline. Another striking peculiarity of this ancient church consisted in this — that, except in Africa Proconsularis, wliere the Bi>hop of Carthage was primate, the primacy was not attached to any particular see, but devolved upon the senior bishop in each province. For this reason the AGA primates were called Senes ; and great care was taken to keep a record of the particulars of every bishop's ordination, so that no dispute as to seniority might arise when the time came for appointing a primate. The title to the office might sometimes be forfeited by misconduct; but in that case the next in order of seniority succeeded to the vacant post. For the ordina- tion of a primate it was not necessary that he should go out of his own diocese to obtain it at tlie hands of a su))eiior bishop; nor was it re- quired that a primate from another district should attend at the ceremonj' of consecration to render it legitimate; for the inferior bishops of each province managed their own affairs, choos- ing and consecrating their own metropolitans, perfectly independent of the control, though not of the fiiendly advice and counsel of neighbour- ing bishops and primates. Agapae (ayaTj), love), certain feasts of the early Christians, to wb.ich allusion is supposed to have been made by Jude, verse 12, and Peter, 2 Epist. ii. 13. Some are of opinion that these feasts are also intended in the complaints of the apostle Paul, 1 Cor. xi. 21, respecting certain irregularities at Corinth. The Jews were not without a custom of this kind, for which they found a Scriptural sanction in Deut. xii. 5, 7, 12; xiv. 23, 27, 29; and the learned Lightfoot has observed, in a note on 1 Cor. x. 16, that on the evening of the Sabbath the Jews had their Koivuiuoc, or communion, when the inhabitants of the same city met together in a common place to eat; and that near the synagogues were their |=voS»;^;/a:, or places where strangers were enter- tained at the public charge, and had the privi- lege of a dormitory. In Pliny's letters to Trajan, he speaks of a " promiscuous harmless meal," which has been understood to refer to this custom, at which Christians of all descriptions met, and which tliey discontinued on the publication of his edict against such assemblies. While this proves the early, and almost apostolic origin of the agapas, it has been thought also to demonstrate that the primitive Ctiristians did not regard them as of divine authority ; for this is the onl3' part of their public conduct which even " torture " and death could compel them to alter (Pliny's Epist. x. 97, 98). Tertullian describes them thus: — " The meaning of our repast is indicated by its name, for it is called by a word which in Greek signifies love. The hungry eat as much as the\' desire, and everv one drinks as much as to sober men can be useful ; we so feast as men who have th^ir minds impressed with the idea of spending the night in the worship of God; we so converse as men who are conscious that the Lord heareth them." It has been much controverted whether the agapaj were partaken before the Eucharist, immediately after, as a kind of appendage or concomitant, or at a totally dbtinct time; the latter, according to 15 AGA some writers, being celebrated in the morning, and the former in the evening. Regarded, how- ever, as a simple testimouj' of Christian kindness and unity, connected with the exigencies of the time, and even extended, according to the testi- mony of Julian, to the relief of the heathen poor occasionally, it will appear nothing remarkable that the period of observing this feast should have been regulated by its design, and by the opportunities afforded in seasons of persecution and distress. The kiss of charity was given at the conclusion of the agapae. At the council of Carthage, held in the fourth century, we find these feasts forbidden to be held in churches, except under particular circumstances; other regulations obtained in succeeding councils re- specting them, to the middle of the thirteenth century, after which we have no authentic traces of their existence. Some modern sects have revived this primitive custom: the Sandemanians, or Glassites, partake of a frugal repast together every Sabbath, either in an apartment adjoining to their place of wor- ship, or at some contiguous private dwelling belonging to their members, every one of whom is expected to attend; and they conclude with the kiss of charity. The Methodists hold their love-feasts once every quarter of a year. The members of the society are admitted by tickets, which are occasionally, but not frequently, granted to strangers. They commence the feast in a similar manner to their public worship ; after- wards some small pieces of bread are handed round; conversation upon their Christian ex- perience then freely takes place; and the meet- ing is terminated by singing and prayer. Agapelse (beloved ones), certain young women and widows who devoted themselves to attend upon the ministers of the primitive churches. Sometimes they were the deacon- esses of the societies, and took up their abode with ecclesiastics. It was a custom which soon fell into abuse and disrepute. Agenda (from affere, to do), is generallj' ap- plied, by church writers, to signif\' things neces- sary to be performed in the church service, such as morning and evening prayer. Sometimes it is opposed to credenda, things to be believed. Agenda is also applied to certain books of the church, and is synonj'mous to the ritual, liturgy, missal, formulary, &c. Agi!»tuieiit, TUhe of, the tithe due from the proiit of feeding cattle on a common pasture. Agnoelae (^ayvotin, not to know), a name some- times given to a sect of the fourth century, which disputed the omniscience of God, and stated that he knew past occurrences only by a superior memory, and things future by a limited prescience. In the sixth century the followers of Themistius, a deacon of the Alexandrian Church, received the same name, from their alleg- ing that Christ was ignorant of certain future events, as, particularly, the period of the day of AGN ,iudgment— an hypothesis which they founded on Mark xiii. 32. Socinus and his associates main- tained similar opinions : that God possesses not an infinite knowledge, and cannot have a deter- minate and certain acquaintance with the future actions of intellectual beings : that he changes his mind, alters his purposes, and adapts his measures to rising circumstances (Socini Opera, tom. i. 54.3-9; Crellius Be Deo et ej. Attr,, cap. xxxii). Agnus Dei (The Lamb of God), a term applied, in the Church of Kome, to certain repre- sentations, made in wax, of a lamb, bearing the triumphal banner of the cross, and similar to those sculptured ornaments so common in most of our old churches and cathedrals. These figures, which bear the year and name of the pope, are consecrated by the pope himself on the Monday following Easter, in the first and seventh year of his reign, and distributed, at certain periods, among the people, to be carried in religious processions. The pope first delivers them to the master of the wardrobe, by whom they are given to the cardinals and attending prelates, who receive them in their respective caps and mitres, with great form and reverence. From these superior officers and ecclesiastical persons they are conveyed to infe- rior priests ; and from them they are received bj' the people at large, who preserve them, generally, in a piece of stuff, or cloth, cut into the shape of a heart. The most intelligent persons of the Catholic persuasion venerate these consecrated memorials simply as they do any other memora- bilia of the Christian faith ; but by the vulgar and superstitious, great mystical virtues are ascribed to them ; and they at one time had become articles of sale in most Catholic countries. Accordingly, by statute Eliz., c. ii., it was en- acted that those who should " bring into Eng- land any Agnus Deis, grains, crucifixes, or other things consecrated bj- tlie Bishop of Home, should undergo the penalty of prasmunire." Indeed, the Agnus Dei was never very common in this countr3-, being principally confined to Spain and the more immediate territories of the Papal states, where the Catholic religion was maintained in its greatest pomp and splendour. The figure has always been deemed an appropriate emblem of the triumph of the cross over the errors and abomi- nations of paganism ; and on that account has been used as ornaments in most ecclesiastical edifices, both at home and abroad, and by the Reformed as well as by the Roman Catholic Church. This name is also given to that part of the sacrifice of the mass, where the officiating priest, striking his breast thrice, rehearses the prayer " Agnus Dei" — Lamb of God, &c., and then divides the sacrament into three parts, a practice, it is said, first introduced by Sergius I ; but of this there is considerable doubt. The divisions of the accidents was certamly lonjj IG AGO prior to his pontificate ; and as to the song Agnus Dei, for anything that appears, it might have been introduced into the service by Sergius II., or even by Sergius III., the predecessor of For- mosus. For an interesting account of the cere- monies connected with the consecration and distribution of the Aynuses at Eome, we refer the curious reader to Burder's Religious Ceremonies, p. 222. Agouistici (Jcycdv, combat), a name given by Donatus to certain members of his sect who were sent to preach at the fairs and markets, to sub- jugate the people, as it were, by the strength of their arguments. Agoiiycliise or Agonyclitea (from a, yovu, knee, and kXivu, to bend), a sect in the seventh century, who held it improper to bend the knee, and whose practice it was to perform their devo- tions in a standing posture. Agi-ippiiiians, the disciples of Agrippinus, a bishop of Carthage, in the third century, who are said to have first introduced the practice of rebaptization. Agyniaiii (from a,, priv., and ywri, woman), a sect of the seventh century who proscribed marriage and the use of animal food. Aisles. — See Church, Nave. Alascani, a sect of A nti- Lutherans who de- rived their name from their leader, John Alasco, a noble Pole. Banished from his own country, and from Germany, he took refuge with his friends in England, under Edward VI., who granted them the use of the church of the Augus- tine friars, in London. In the reign of Mary the}' were again driven abroad, and sunk into obscurity on the death of their founder. They held that baptism was no longer necessary in the Church, and that the words " This is my body," in the institution of the Eucharist, em- braced the entire celebration of the sacred Supper. Alb or Albe, a white garment, worn by deacons in the ancient churches, and still in use among the clergy of the Eoman Catholic com- munion. It is in some respects similar to the surplice worn by the clergy of the English Church. Anciently, the newly baptized wore an alb from Easter-eve to the Sunday after Easter, which was hence called doniiuica in ulbis — the whole week being sepiima in albis. The an- cient alb was made to fit the body tightly, and was bound round the middle with a girdle sash ; the sleeves were either plain, like those of a cas- sock, or else full, and gathered close on the ■wrists, like the sleeve of a shirt. The alb was in special use at the commemoration of the Lord's Supper. Albaiieiisrs, a dualistic sect in Italy, in the twelfth and tliirteenth centuries, so named from Alba in Piedmont, their chief locality'. They were a branch of the Cathaki, which see. Albati (^Fratres Albali, Bianchi, or White Penitent'), so called from the dress which they wore, were an enthusiastic sect in Italy towards ALB the end of the fourteenth century. They are said to have come down from the Alps, and to have gone in a kind of procession through several provinces, praying and singing hynms, and gathering a prodigious number of followers, so as seriously to alarm the reigning pontiff, Boni- face IX. Their leader accordingly was seized, carried to Eome, and committed to the flames in 1399. Albigensea, a sect of the twelfth century, who were eminently distinguished by their oppo- sition to the Church of Rome, and who, from the importance of many of the sentiments for which they contended, as well as from the zeal with which they maintained them under severe persecutions, have been enrolled in the honourable catalogue of reformers. The remoteness of the age in which they lived, and the difEculties attending the detection of facts, amidst imperfect and often contradictory documents, render it almost im- possible to give any very accurate detail either of their origin or progress. They have been fre- quently considered as essentially the same with the Waldenses ; but no evidence of this identity can be deduced from (what writers on this sub- ject have often pleaded) their being confounded with them, and condemned under their name, by the decrees of tlieir enemies, since nothing is more common than to class different, and even opposing parties in religion, under the same ob- noxious and indiscriminating term, for the sake of condemning them all with the least expense of thought. They first made their appearance in the vicinity of Toulouse and the Albigeois in Languedoc, and may, with probability, be con- sidered as a sect of the Paulicians, who, having withdrawn from Bulgaria Thrace, either to escape persecution, or from motives of zeal to extend their doctrines, settled in various parts of Europe. They acquired different names in different coimtries, as in Italy, whither they ori- ginally migrated, they were called Pateriui and Cathari, and in France Albigenses, from the cir- cumstance, as Mosheim affirms, of their ojjinions being condemned in a council held at Alby (Lat. Albigici) in the year 1176. Others, however, maintain that this appellation was derived from the district itself, which was their chief residence, Albigensium being formerly the general name of Narbonne-Gaul. Besides these epithets they were called, in different times and places, and by various authors, Bulgarians, Publicans, Boni Homines, or Good Men, Potro-Brussians, Hen- ricians, Albelardists, Arnoldists, and Passagers. In fact, the term was frequently employed to denote any description of heretic or dissentient from the Romish Church. Hence it becomes extremely difficult to ascertain their peculiar opinions with precision. Upon the authority of several writers, they are charged with holding Manichaeism. The book of the sentences of the Inquisition at Toulouse charges them with be- lieving that there are two Gods and Lords, good 17 ALB and evil; and all things visible and corporeal ■were created by the devil, or the evil god ; that the sacraments of the Romish Church are vain and unprofitable; and that, in short, its whole constitution is to be condemned. They are stated to have maintained the unlawfulness of marriage; to have denied the incarnation of Christ, and the resurrection of bodies; and to have believed that the souls of men were spirits banished from heaven on account of their transgressions. These representations must of course be taken with abatement, since they proceed from adver- saries; and it is, in truth, most probable that their chief sin consisted in rejecting the supersti- tions of the Komish Church, the advocates of which, in consequence, endeavoured to render them odious, by imputing to them doctrines which the}- never believed, and concealing from view excellences both of faith and practice for which thej' were really distinguished. Admit- ting that they did blend many errors with their system, or that they might in some things carry liberty into licentiousness, it is sufficiently obvi- ous that they possessed much truth, and were will- ing to suffer for its sake. A crusade was formed against them at the commencement of the thir- teenth centurj', and Innocent III. admonished all princes to oppress and expel them from their dominions. Their chief protector was Raymond, Earl of Toulouse, whose friendship drew upon his head the thunders of excommunication. The legate who bore the papal decree was accompanied by twelve Cistercian monks, who promised a plen- ary remission of sins to all who engaged in the holy league against the Albigenses. Dominick, the ori- ginator of the inquisition, joined in the service, and during the campaign set up for the first time the holy oifice at Narbonne. Raymond, after much resistance, at length yielded to terror, solicitation, and self-interest. In the year 1209 the dreadful war began ; and Simon, the celebrated Earl of Montfort, became generalissimo of the army. Notwithstanding the intrepidity displayed by the objects of this military persecution, town after town was captured, and the poor ]ieople, who were stigmatized with the name of heretics, but who are characterized by Hume (Jlist., vol. ii.), as " the most innocent and the most inofien- sive of mankind," were hanged, slaughtered, and burnt, without mercy. The Earl of Tou- louse was assisted by the kings of England and Arragon ; but he lost his dominions, and in vain appealed to the council of Lateran. Rais- ing some forces in Spain, while his son Raymond, exerted himself in Provence, he regained the city of Toulouse, and part of his possessions. The earl died in 1221, and his son succeeded to the dominions he had recovered; but Pope Honorius III. stimulated Louis of France to engage in the contest; and though he encountered numerous ditficulties, Raymond was necessitated at length to obtain peace upon very degrading conditions, and finally relinquished his Protestantism. But ALL in hundreds of villages every person had been slain, and more than three-fourths of the landed proprietors were plundered of their estates. The Albigenses were dispersed, and excited no fur- ther attention tiU they united with the Vaudois, and amalgamated with the Genevan Reformed Church. — See "Waldenses. Ales, as festivals, were; according to Warton (Hist, of English Poetry^ vol. iii.), variously dis- criminated, as the bridal-ale, whitsun-ale, lamb- ale, leet-ale, &c. But the church-ales, and clerk- ales, called sometimes the lesser church-ales, were amongst those authorized sports which, at the period of the Reformation, produced great con- tention between Archbishop Laud and the puri- tans. The people, on the conclusion of afternoon prayers on Sundays, according to Bishop Pierce, in reply to Laud's inquiries, were in the habit of going " to their lawful sports and pastimes," in the churchyard, or neighbourhood, or in some public-house, to drink and make merry. By the benevolence of the people at their pastimes, it is added, many poor parishes have cast them bells, beautified their churches, and raised stock for the poor. Sometimes these were held in honour of the tutelar saint of the church, or for the express purpose of raising contributions to its repair. Clerk-ales were festivals for the assistance of the parish-clerk, with monej' or with good cheer, as an encouragement in his office; " and since these have been put down," says the prelate above quoted, " many ministers have complained to me that they are afraid they shall have no parish- clerks." Alexandrine Copy (Codex Alexandrinus), a celebrated MS. of the Bible in Greek, including the Old and New Testament, Apocrypha, the Epistles of Clement of Rome, &c., now deposited in the British Museum, and original!}' sent to England, in 1628, as a present from the Patri- arch of Constantinople to Charles I. This eccle- siastic, Cyrillus Lucaris, a native of Crete, is said to have brought it himself from Alexandria, and states, in an inscription annexed to it, that it was said " by tradition to have been written by Thecla, a noble Egyptian lady, about thirteen hundred years ago, shortly after the council of Nice." Its claims to the attention of the Bibli- cal student have been amply discussed by Wet- stein, Woide, Davidson, and Fregelles. In 1786 the New Testament appeared, as complete in print as a MS. could well be rendered, edited by the learned Dr. Woide. Types were pur- posely formed to imitate the original; it was printed without spaces between the words, and line for line after the copy, with an ample pre- face containing an account of the MS., and an exact list of all its various readings. The Old Testament has since been published in a similar style by Mr. Baber, and a cheap edition of the New Testament is advertised for immediate pub- lication. Allegation, in ecclesiastical law, articles 18 ALL drawn out in a formal manner to establish the complainant's cause against the person injuring him. The defendant answers the allegation upon oath, and this is called a defensive allegation. When issue is thus joined, both parties proceed to their respective proofs. Allegorical Interpretation, a mode of in- terpreting Scripture which originated among the Jews of Alexandria. It was freelj' employed upon the Old Testament by Philo, and was car- ried to great lengths by the author of the Epistle of Barnabas, who was probably an Alexandrian convert to Christianity. It was reduced to some- thing of method by Clement and his school, and still farther advanced by Origen, who may be re- garded as the great master of this dangerous art. Scripture, it was said, has three senses — the literal or historical, the moral, and the mystical ; and, according to Origen, the mystical is of two kinds — the allegorical and the analogical; the former, where the Old Testament prefigures the history of Christ and his Church; the latter, where the things of a higher world are typified (from avoLyu, I lead up). For, as St. Paul speaks of "Jerusalem which is above," Origen held the existence of a spiritual world, in which every- thing of this earth has its antitype. It is evident that, however controlled, in the case of Origen, by a faithful, devout, and dutiful spirit, such prin- ciples of interpretation tended to the subversion of all belief in the historical truth of Scripture. All -Saints ©ay, otherwise All-Hallows Day, a feast of the church, celebrated on the first day of November, in honour of the saints gene- rally, and those in particular to whose memory there is no distinct day assigned. It appears that in the pontificate of Boniface IV., and about the year 612, the Pantheon at Rome — a temple dedicated to all the gods — was taken from the heathen by Phocas, the emperor, and dedicated to the honour of all the saints and martyrs of the church. This was done at the instigation of Boniface, who also appointed the first of May for the celebration of the festival ; but, in the year 834, it was altered to the first of November, by order of Pope Gregory IV. At the time of the Reformation this festival was retained in the ecclesiastical calendar of the Anglican Church. AII-SoiiIh Day, a feast celebrated in the Church of Rome, on the second of November, in commemoration of all the faithful deceased. It was instituted by Odilon, abbot of Cluny, in the eleventh century. The following narrative ex- plains its origin: — A Cluniac monk, passing through Sicily on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, felt a strong inclination to visit Mount .^tna, then supposed b3' many to be the mouth of hell ; accordingly he ascended to the crater, and while gratifying his curiosity, he heard coniplaints from the evil spirits within, tliat by the eli'ectual prayers of the Cluniac monks, very many souls which had been long under their dominion would ALM be taken away. On his return from Jerusalem, the monk related this circumstance to his superior. Abbot Odilon, who immediately appointed the second of November to be annually kept in his monastery, when prayers for " all the souls of the faithful departed" should be ofifered up. In a short time the day was ordained to be kept as a general holiday bj' the pope himself. Of course, it is not to be found in the calendar of any of the Reformed churches. Almanac. — The almanac annexed to the Booh of Common Prayer is part of the law of England, of which the courts must take notice in the returns of writs, &c. This may be considered as a sort of perpetual almanac ; but it begins now to stand in need of some revision, being founded upon the Gregorian calendar, according to which, the length of the year is accounted 365 days 5 h. 49' 12", whereas its actual length is 365 days 5 h. 48' 49"-7 ; it will, therefore, necessarily become erroneous after a great number of years has elapsed. Alniarla or Armaria, a name used in ancient English records for the muniments or archives of a church or library. Almaricians or Amauricians, a sect which arose in France at the beginning of the thirteenth century, the followers of Almaric of Bena, and his disciple, David of Dinanto. Their mj'stical pan- theistic opinions were ably attacked by Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas, while they drew forth from the Parisian divines the condemnation of the works of Aristotle, from which they were supposed to be derived. This sect carried out to a mischievous extent the views which had been propounded in the preceding century by Joachim of Calabria, on the three dispensations of the three persons in the Trinity, teaching that the power of the Father was confined to the Mosaic dispensation while that of the Son reached to the beginning of the thirteenth century, and the reign of the Holy Ghost then commencing, the sacraments, or all the ceremonies of external worship, were henceforth to be discontinued. Almoner or Alniner {eleemosynarius), an officer of great distinction belonging to the king's household, whose duty it is to distribute his ma- jesty's alms daily, to admonish the king to bestow alms on saints' days, &c., and who anciently dis- posed of the king's meat, immediately after it came from table, to twenty-four poor persons of the parish in which the palace stood, whom he selected at the court gate. Deodands, and the goods of a.felo de se, fell to the lord almoner, for the purpose of relieving such as he judged proper objects of cliarity. In France, the grand almoner was formerly the highest church dignitary of the kingdom. He bestowed the sacraments on the king, and said mass before his majesty on state occasions. All hospitals and houses of charity were under his superintendence. Almonry, the place in or near the church where alms were distributed to the poor. 19 ALM Alms, such things as are given for the relief of the poor. In the apostolic times (see 1 Cor. xvi. 1, 2) a collection was made every Lord's day, either at the time of communion, or at the agapce, or feast of love, for the relief of necessitous breth- ren. This excellent practice is still observed in many Christian churches — in some before, and in some after, the celebration of the Lord's Supper. In the days of Chrysostom a custom prevailed of giving alms to the poor before going into church; the objects of their bounty and sym- pathy being arranged around the entrance, "that the sight of them might provoke the most back- ward and inhuman soul to compassion." The duty of relieving the poor is thus enforced by the above named father, in his exposition of these words. Thou shalt not appear before the Lord thy God empty. " These words," said he, " were spoken to the Jews ; but how much more so to us. Therefore the poor stand before the door of the church, that no one should go in emptj', but enter securely with charity for his companion. You go into the church to obtain mere}', first show mercy. Stretch forth your hands not only to heaven but to the hands of the poor. If you stretch out your hand to the poor you touch the very height of heaven ; for He that sits there receives your alms ; but if you lift up barren hands, it profits nothing." The custom of gi\'ing alms to the poor at the gates of churches has come dovvn to our time, as may be seen in all Catholic countries. Alms were also, in ancient times, the principal, and, in some instances, the only subsistence of the clergy. Those of the primitive Christians were divided into four parts; one of which was re- served for the poor and for the repairing of churches, the other three were distributed amongst the bisliops, priests, and deacons. Hence we find that in the Booh of Common Prayer the Scripture sentences selected for read- ing at the time of offering include some injunc- tions to the congregation to contribute to the support of the ministers who labour among them. " The offerings for the clergy, or their share in the collection," says Wheatly, "must certainly be meant by the above-mentioned sentences, which have a direct and immediate regard to them ; for it is well known that in the primitive times the clergy had a liberal maintenance out of what the people offered on these occasions." The same writer goes on to say, that " Now, where the stated income of a parish is not suffi- cient to maintain the clergv belonging to the church, they have still a right to claim their share in these offerings." In process of time that which was originally a fruit of benevolence became enforced by eccle- siastical laws, and all the powerful stimulants •which an artful priesthood could educe from eternal hopes and fears. The convenient doc- trine of the apocryphal book of Tobit, that " It is better to give alms than to lay up gold ; for ALM alms doth deliver from death, and shall purge away all sins," was universally inculcated, until the riches of the world were poured into the lap of the Church. The clause in 1 Peter iv. 8, " Charity shall cover the multitude of sins," seems to have been sometimes adduced as a proof of the saving merit of almsgiving. But the meaning of the apostle is, that love is blind to faults, and that if men " have fervent charity among themselves," they will not be prone to detect and exaggerate one another's failings. "Oh, excellent alms-giving!" says Edgar; " Oh, worthy reward of the soul! Oh, salutary remedy of our sins!" " It was usual," observes Mr. Fosbrooke, in his Monastlcon, " to recom- mend this as a means of liberation from guilt. The sick were taught to expect cures by the same mode. It was a general opinion that per- sons who had no issue should give alms and found charitable institutions. They (the rich), as well as their inferiors, used to put a written schedule of their sins under the cloth which covered the altar of a favourite saint, accom- panied by a donation, and a day or two after re- examined the schedule, which the virtues of the saint converted to a blank!" It is not, however, to be forgotten that many of the monastic estab- lishments which became surreptitiously enriched were afterwards the sources of the most effectual charity to the poor, and are found to this day, in various parts of Catholic Europe, distinguished for the useful exercise of this Christian virtue. In the Romish Church the term is still used as including all gifts to the church and the poor. The Mahometan theology represents alms as needful to make the prayers of the faithful to be heard above: and a saying of one of their caliphs has been often quoted amongst them with appro- bation, " Praj'er carries us half-way to God, fast- ing to the door of his palace, but alms introduces us to his presence chamber." The general dis- position of liberality to the distressed is certainly amongst the best features of the Mahometan Church, which has produced many shining exam- ples of this species of charity. In most of the countries of Europe the relief of the poor is now placed under civil control and assessment. In Scotland, prior to the recent poor-law, the heritors and kirk-session of each parish could impose an assessment, and they were the legal trustees of the money so acquired. But an assessment, ex- cept in the large towns, was rarely resorted to, the Sabbath collection at the church door being deemed sufficient. — See Poor. Aln)8>Box or Chesi (called by the Greeks Kijiuiriov), a box in which the alms of the church were collected, both in public and private assem- blies. By 27 Henry VIII. and the injunction of the canons, a small chest, or coffer, is to be placed in a convenient situation in every parish church of England and Wales, and the produce of it distri- 20 ALM buted to the poor. If, is generally secured by three kej-s, which are kept by the minister and churchwardens. Canon 84 of the P^nglish Church says: — " The churchwardens shall provide and have, within three months after the publishing of these constitutions, a strong chest, with a hole in the upper part thereof, to be provided at the charge of the parish (if there be none such al- ready provided), having three keys: of which one shall remain in the custody of the parson, vicar, or curate, and the other two in the custody of the churchwardens for the time being : which chest they shall set and fasten in the most con- venient place, to the intent the parishioners may put into it their alms for their poor neigh- bours. And the parson, vicar, or curate, shall diligently, from time to time, and especially when men make their testaments, call upon, exhort, and move their neighbours to confer and give, as they may well spare, to the said chest ; declaring unto them that, whereas, heretofore, they have been diligent to bestow much substance other- wise than God commanded, upon superstitious uses, now they ought at this time to be much more read}' to help the poor and need\', knowing that, to relieve the poor, is a sacrifice which pleaseth God ; and that, also, whatsoever is given for their comfort is given to Christ himself, and is so accepted of him that he will mercifully re- ward the same. The which alms and devotion of the people, the keepers of the keys shall yearly, quarterly, or often er (as need requireth), takeout of the chest, and distribute the same in the pre- sence of most of the parish, or six of the chief of them, to be truly and faithfully delivered to their most poor and needy neighbours." Almucia or Almucinui, a cap worn chiefly by the clergy, made of goats' or lambs' skins : the part covering the head was square, and behind it covered the neck and shoulders. It is probable tliis square form of the cap was the origin of the one now worn in our universities. Alogiaiis or Alogi {a. priv., and X'oyou word), an obscure sect at the beginning of the second century, who appear to have arisen in opposition to the Jlontanists. They are said to have denied that Jesus Christ was the Logos, or Eternal "Word of the Father, and to have rejected the Gospel and Revelation of St. John as spurious. Lardner denies the existence of any such sect, as tliey are first mentioned by Epiphanius and Philaster, and there is no contemporary writer who notices them. Almr (see Biblical Cyclopedia), is a term used among many Christians, to signify a square table placed on the eastern side of the church, and sometimes the whole of the platform on which it stands, a little elevated above the floor, and set apart for the celebration of the holy communion, marriage, and other important uses. In the ancient churches, the altar, or holy table, was not placed close to the wall, but in the middle of the sanctuary; thus allowing ALT space to walk round it. Behind it, and close to the wall, seats for the bishops and presbyters ,j were placed. At the time of the Reformation ^ a warm controversy sprang up as to whetTier the altars in use in Popish times ought to be re- tained ; Bishop Hooper, it is said, being the first to propose their removal, and the substitution of tables instead, in a sermon before Henrj' VIII. This resulted in a general order to all the bishops to pull down the old altars, and to provide tables which should stand in the body of the church, or in the chancel. The term altar is still used both by Protestants and Roman Catholics — by the former occasionally, and in a metaphorical man- ner, but by the latter uniformly and with greater consistency, inasmuch as they regard the celebra- tion of the Eucharist as a proper sacrifice. It was the ancient practice, both of the Greek and Latin Churches, to pray with their faces towards the east, and, as we have seen, to place their altars on tables towards that quarter ; hence, also, possibly arose the practice of the members of the Church of England turning and bowing towards the east on the recital of the Apostles' creed, &c. Moresin expressly tells us, that the altars of papal Rome were placed towards the east, in imitation of the practice of antiquity. At first, each church contained but one altar, and we read of cities containing several churches, in none of which, but one in each town, was the privilege of having an altar permitted ; but in process of time they were so multiplied that we read of no less than twelve or thirteen altars in some churches. In St. Paul's Cathedral, when the chantries were granted to Henry VIII., there were fourteen ; and in the cathedral of Magdeburg there were forty-nine. The altars of the Roman Catholic Church bear a strong resemblance to tombs ; and as the primitive Christians were in the haljit of holding their meetings and celebrat- ing the mysteries of their religion over the graves of their martyrs, it was formerly a rule in the Romish Church never to erect an altar without enclosing in it the relics of some saint. Until the time of Constantino they were usually built of wood, but from that period altars of stone became general, and at length the council of Epone, in the year 509, decreed that no altar, ex- cept it was built of stone, should be consecrated. The term altar, though in general use in the early ages of the Church, was not understood to convey a sacrificial idea; for this was one of the many charges preferred against Chris- tianity by heathenism that it has no altars. Origen, Lactantius, and other Christian apolo- gists, replied to this allegation by confessmg that they had none, in the heathen or Jewish sense of the term, but that they had an unbloody altar for their own mj'stical and unbloody sacrifice. It is true that Chrysostom invests the altar with much awe by the terms he employs to designate it : he writes of it as the " mystical," " tremendous," ''spiritual," "Divine," "royal," "immortal," and 21 ALT "heavenly table:" whereas St. Augustine simply denominates it '■'■ Mensa Domini" — the Lord's Table (see 1 Cor.) Some of the altars had a can- opy, called tlie Ciborium, supported by four orna- mented pillars, the top of which was surmounted by a ball adorned with flowers, and bearing the emblem of Christianity, a cross. As innova- tions upon the original simplicity of Christian worship crept in, we find them ornamenting the altars with large crosses made of silver, and sus- pending under the canopy of it, as well as over the baptistry, silver figures of a dove, as repre- sentations of the Holy Ghost. In the year 506 a new ceremony of consecration, distinct from that of the dedication of the church, was intro- duced, where also we find the first mention of the application of holy chrism in the ceremony; and soon after, the practice of bowing to the altar, kiss- ing the rails and doors of the chancel, and anything belonging to the " holy of holies," began to ap- pear. The bishops generally preached from the steps of the altar, and the superior clergy were permitted to kneel around it at the time of ordina- tion. The rubric of the English Church has :— " The table, at the communion time having a fair white linen cloth upon it, shall stand in the body of the church, or in the chancel, where morn- ing and evening prayers are appointed to be said. And the priest, standing at the north side of the table, shall say the Lord's Prayer, with the col- lect following, the people kneeling." Wheatly thus explains : — " Wherever it be placed, the priest is obliged to stand at the north side (or end thereof, as the Scotch Liturgy expresses it; which also orders that it shall stand at the uppermost part of the chancel or church), the design of which is, that the priest maybe the better seenand heard ; which, as our altars are now placed, he cannot be but at the north or south side. And, therefore, the north side being the right hand or upper side of the altar, is certainly the most proper for the officiating priest, that so the assist- ing minister — if there be one — may not be obliged to stand above him. And Biihop Beveridge has shown that wherever, in the ancient liturgies, the minister is directed to stand before the altar, the north side of it is ahvays meant. The covering of the altar with a fair white linen cloth, at the time of the celebration of the Lord's Supper, was a primitive practice, enjoined at first, and retained e\'er since for its decency. In the sacramentary of St. Gregory this covering is called '■'■palla altaris " — the pall of the altar ; to distinguish it, I suppose, from the ^^ corporis palla" or the cloth that was thrown over the consecrated elements. And the Scotch Liturgy orders that the holy table at the communion time should have a carpet, and a fair white linen cloth upon it, with other decent furniture, meet for the high mys- teries there to be celebrated ; and by our own canons, at all other times when divine service is performed, it is to be covered with a carpet of silk, or other decent stuff, thought meet by the AMB ordinary of the place, if any question be made of it ; which was originally designed for the clean keeping of the said (white linen) cloth, though the chief use of it now is for ornament and de- cency." The Christian altars, as well as those be- longing to the heathen, enjoyed the privilege, even before the time of Constantine, of screening from justice those who fled to them for succour; which privilege was subsequently extended to the rails of the chancel, and to other portions of the sacred edifice. The term altar has also been used for the oblations or incidental incomes of the Church. In former times a distinction was made between the church and the altar: the tithes were called " eccksia," the church, and the other continatent revenues the altar. (Siegel; Hospinian, Be origine Altarium.') — See Church. Altarage, in English ecclesiastical law, in- cludes the offerings made upon the altar, and the tithes derived to the priests by reason of his ad- ministering at the altar, obventio altaris. There has been much dispute, since the Reformation, with regard to the extent of vicar's claim upon tithes, as altarage ; by Mich. 21 Eliz. it was de- termined that the words altaragiuni cum maiiso competenti should entitle him to the small tithes of the parish ; but in the case of Franklyn, T. 1721, it was decreed, and it is now generally un- derstood, that the extent of the altarage depends entirely upon the usage and manner of endow- ment. Altare-Portatjie, a moveable altar, to be used in places which have no altar regularly fixed and consecrated. Altar of Prothesis is a name given by the modern Greeks to a small preparatory kind of altar, upon which they bless the bread before it is earned to the larger one. — See Credence. Altar-Thane or Church Thane, in an- cient law books, the parson of the parish is so called. Ama or Aniula, a vessel in which a com- municant used to bring to the church his obla- tion of wine for the Lord's Supper. Auibo or Ambon (from kva^aiuai, go up), an elevated place or platform in ancient churches, having an ascent on either side, and situated in the body of the edifice for the convenience of the hearers. Here the singers stood; here, also, at its top, the Gospel was read, and the Epistles from a step lower ; here new converts of religion con- fessed their faith ; and the acts of martyrs, and epistles of distant churches, were published to the people. It was occasionall3' used as a pulpit; for we are told by Chrysostom, that " he was the first that preached in the ambo, or reading desk of the church, by reason of the multitude of people that crowded up to hear him." Some of these ambos are still left standing, both in Eng- land and on the Continent, although the modern reading desks and pulpits are more generally substituted in their stead. Aiubrosiau Chant, the chant which was 22 AMB introduced into his church hy St. Ambrose, and was generally practised during tiie fifth and sixth centuries. It was the sacred music of the Greek Church, brought by the bishop into the Western Church, and was regulated by the four Grecian scales. Twelve authentic hymns of Ambrose are still preserved, among which are the Te Deum Laudamus, probably a translation from the Greek, and the Veni Redemptor Gen- tium. The Ambrosian Chant is said to be still preserved in the Duomo at Milan ; but Dr. Bur- ney, who attended there during its performance, was not able to discover the difference between it and the chant of the other cathedrals of Italj', and of those in France, which is commonly said to be the Gregorian Chant. Ambrosian Prayer of Consecration. — This composition, though nearly the same as the Tnass, has one important variation from the words of consecration employed in the latter service. The mass service prays that the eucharistic sacri- fice " may become to us the body and blood of Christ," while the former is content with acknow- ledging it as " the fiyure of the body and blood of Christ." Amedien or Amedians (lovers of God), a religious congregation in the Church of Rome, that had twenty-eight convents, wore gray clothes girt with a cord, but without breeches, aiid had wooden shoes. Pius IV. united them with the Cistertians and the Soccolanti. Amen (Greek a^^y), used in Scripture, and still preserved in our different Christian churches at the conclusion of prayer : it signifies assent and desire, as, verily; so be it; so it ought to he. In this sense it exists, with little alteration as to sound, in the languages of most countries where Christianity has been kno'wn. It is recorded that the primitive Christians not only pronounced the amen audibly, but also accompanied it with a physical eflort to signify the ardency of their devotion. Jerome says — "They echo out the amen like a thunder-clap;" and Clemens Alex- andrinus adds — " At the last acclamation of their prayers, they raised themselves upon their tiptoes, as if the}' desired that the word should carry up their bodies as well as their souls to heaven." Great importance was anciently attached to the use of this word by communicants on receiving the bread and wine. It was also the custom for the congi'egation to answer amen at the close of the prayer of consecration — a custom which is noticed by Justin Jlartyr (Apol. i., 65, 67), and to which Bingham thinks there is a plain allusion even in 1 Cor. xiv. 16, but which seems to have fallen into general disuse in the Western churches about the sixth century. — In the English Book of Common Prayer, the amen is, in some instances, printed in Roman characters, and in others in Italic ; the reason of which, according to Wheat- ly, is that the amen in Italic is to be said by the congregation, and not by the minister ; but that the minister, as well as congregation, must unite in uttering the amen printed in Roman. 23 AMP American Cburches. — See Episcopacy, Independency, Pilgrim Fathers, Pdritans. rRESBVTERY. Amice, a vestment of the ancient Church, formed of an oblong square of linen, and covering the neck and shoulders. Ammonians, a name sometimes given, from their great founder, Ammonius Saccas, to the Eclectics, or New Platonists, a philosophical sect which arose at Alexandria towards the close of the second century. They professed to form their system by selecting and reconciling what was reasonable in the tenets of all other philoso- phers, and rejecting what was contrary to reason ; and what they professed with regard to philoso- phy they easily extended to religion, which, in fact, was with them entirely founded on philoso- phical principles. Their efforts were for the most part directed against Christianity ; and the con- test was carried on with great ardour through the third century. But as Origen and his scholars, on the one hand, adopted, with the services of religion, some of the peculiar principles of the eclectic philosophers, their adversaries; so, on the other hand, certain disciples of Plotinus assumed the name and professed the faith of Christians, on condition that they should be allowed to retain some favourite opinion of their master. Ammo- nius Saccas had been educated in Christianity, and he seems never to have abandoned the name of the faith while he was disparaging its doc- trines and its essence. His disciple, the illus- trious Plotinus, made no pretensions to the name. And Porphyry, who came next in age and repu- tation, thought it necessary, for the credit of Ammonius, to maintain that he had deserted Christianity. Amorceans, an order of Gemaric doctors, who commented upon the Jerusalem Talmud ; they succeeded the Mischnic doctors, and after continuing 250 years, were followed by the Seburaeans. Amphiballus, a large surplice worn by the monks in the middle ages, that entirely covered the body. Amphidryon, another name for the follow- ing— Amphithyra (a/i^'i^vpx, folding doors), called also " fhriXa," — i.e., vela, veils, which were curtains or veils in ancient churches, placed before the door of the chancel, to hide the full view of this sacred place from the catechumens and unbe- lievers. Chrysostom, it is supposed, refers to them in these words — " When the sacrilite is brought forth, when Christ, the Lamb of God, is offered ; when you have this signal given, let us all join in common prayer; when vou see the veils with- drawn (ra afA(piSu^a ocviXxifiiva) then think you see heaven opened, and the angels descending from above." Ampulla, a vessel, bellj'ing out like a jug, that contained unctions for the bath. Amongst the ornaments and sacred utensils of churches, I AMS we find the ampulla answering various purposes, Buch as holding the oil for chrism, consecration, &c. ; and a vessel of this kind is still used in the coronations of the kings of England and France. Ainstloi'lians, those who, in the Majoristic controversy (q. v.), took part with " the impe- tuous Amsdorf," who, in his earnest opposition to the opinions of Major, went so far as to assert that good works were au impediment to salvation. Amnlet, anj^thing hung round the neck from a superstitious motive, as a preservative against bodil.v sickness and injury, or spiritual assault and danger. In the early ages of the Church this superstitious practice greatly pre- vailed, having been introduced by the heathen converts, and also by many of the Jews who had embraced Christianity. They were sometimes called Periammata, the Greek word for anything suspended round the neck, and sometimes Phylac- teries, the Greek word for 2^^'eservatives. Con- stantine, in one of his laws, condemns magic, and dooms to capital punishment those who should be convicted of practising it ; but he made an exception in favour of public augurs, charms for the removal of bodily distempers, and the prevention of storms and other evils. This tole- rance of the general custom of wearing amulets was looked upon by the partially instructed disciples of Christianitj' as a tacit acknowledg- ment of their virtue, and of the propriety of wearing them. Hence amulets came into very extensive use. The 36th canon of the council of Laodicea condemns all clergymen who made such " fetters of the soul," and sentences those who wore them to be cast out of the Church. Chrysostom inveighed against them, as did also St. Basil, Epiphanius, and other fathers of the Church. By the superstitious members of the Church of Rome the practice of wearing amulets is still preserved, virtue of the most extraordi- nary nature being ascribed to many of them. The curious reader may satisfy himself on this subject by authorizing some friend in Rome, Paris, or Dublin, to purchase an assortment for him at those shops where the trade in relics, scapulars, crosses, beads, rosaries, &c., is carried on. Aiuyraldism, the system of the celebrated Moses Amreat, Amyraut, or Amyreldas, a French Protestant, which, in the middle of the seventeenth century, originated several warm controversies in France and Holland. His fol- lowers were also sometimes called Universalists, and hypothetical Universalists, because of the condition of J'aith attached to their creed, of which the following is a summary : — That God, desiring the happiness of all men, excludes none from the benefits of Christ's death, bj' any decree or purpose of his. No one, how- ever, can be made a partaker of those benefits without faith in Christ: and though God re- fuses to none the power of believing, he does not grant to all that assistance which is neces- ANA sary for the improving it to their final salvation. — The theory of Amyrald, while it seemed to tone down the so-called rigour of Calvinism, removed none of its difficulties. His universal- ism was only ideal, and therefore without anj' effect ; it was gi-ace — qua actu nemo salvatur. Against such doctrines, propagated from Saumur, Rivet and Moulin of Sedan, strenuously opposed themselves. Against the same theory was drawn up in Switzerland a. formula consensus in 1675. Anabaptists (^Re-baptizers'), a name that has sometimes been given to all Christians who con- sider baptism by any other mode than that of immersion, or administered to any other parties than those who can give a credible profession of their faith, null and void. They consequently administer this rite in their own manner to all persons who have not previously submitted to it in any difierent form. — See Baptist. It would appear that some of the earliest sec- taries denied the validity of the baptism of the Catholic Church, and would suffer no one to join their respective communities but those who should first receive baptism at their own hands. Such was the practice of the Novatians and Donatists. The Catholic Church, at a later date, denied the baptism of heretics to be valid ; and amongst the Eastern and African Churches, many- instances occurred in the third century of their being re-baptized. Some German Baptists in modern times are said to have administered bap- tism more than once to the same mdividuals, who, having been separated from their commu- nion for misconduct, have been again received ; and to converts of other Baptists on joining their sect. The term, however, derives its importance in history from an extravagant body of professed religionists who disturbed the peace of Germany and the Netherlands early in the sixteenth cen- tury, and retarded in no small degree the pro- gress of the Reformation. In no way are they to be identified with modern Baptists. Melanch- thon gives this account of their first appearance at Wittemberg, in a letter to the Elector of Saxony. " Your Highness is aware of the many danger- ous dissensions that have disturbed your city of Zwickau (in Misnia), on the subject of religion. Some persons have been cast into prison there for their religious innovations. Three of the ringleaders have come hither; two of them ignorant mechanics, the third is a man of letters. I have given them a hearing, and it is astonish- ing what they tell of themselves ; namely, that they are positively sent by God to teach ; that they can foretell fixture events ; and, to be brief, that they are on a footing with prophets and apostles. I cannot describe how I am moved by these lofty pretensions." These persons were Nicholas Storck, Mark Stubner, and Martinus Cellarius, who had been previously associated with Thomas Munzer, at Zwickau, infreaks-(f the wildest enthusiasm. Storck was a baker of 24 ANA that place, who had chosen twelve of his own trade as his particular associates, and called them his apostles, and seventy-two disciples, Stubner had some learning, which he exercised in the perversion of Scripture, to support the pretensions of his companions. This visit to Wittemberg, in which they first appear, was in the spring of 1522. Luther, on his return from banishment, had an interview with these fanatics, whom he dismissed, declaring to them, " The God whom I serve and adore will confound your vanities." They appear, from the same testimony, to have rejected the baptism of infants as invalid, appeal- ing to their own revelations as authority upon the point. We next find Munzer at Alsted, on the borders of Thuringia, in the electorate of Saxony, where lie inveighed against the Pope and the Keformation. Here he gradually flattered the populace into the belief of his being divinely commissioned to originate a new political com- munity, principally by the interpretation of their dreams. Numbers of them took a solemn oath to put to death all wicked persons, to appoint new and righteous magistrates, and to unite with him in what they called the establishment of a pure and holy church. Happily, this design was discovered and frustrated before it could be carried into execution at this place. He now retired to Nuremberg, and, being expelled from thence, to Mulhausen, where he managed his attempt with more success. In 1525 a vast body of the peasants of Thuringia, Suabia, and Franconia, had entered into his schemes ; and it was not until several of the princes had united their forces, and had drawn these fanatics, after the slaughter of many thousands of them in skirmishes, into a pitched battle in the neigh- bourhood of Mulhausen, that the insurrection was quelled, and their leader slain. It is admit- ted on all hands that the peasantry were in a very oppressed state at this period : in their early manifestoes they declared that they sought for nothing but a relaxation of the severity of their chiefs, and some share of civil liberty ; but the artifices and persuasions of Munzer, and above all, his confident predictions of success, urged them to desperate measures. This war alone is supposed to have cost the provinces in which it raged more than 50,000 men. But though the early chiefs of this faction were thus cut off, the principles they had disseminated were eagerly cherished by many. Of these the leading one was, that Christ was now about to assume the reins of all civil government, and that over the subjects of his kingdom and church the exercise of any earthly magistracy was not only needless, but an infringement of their rights. The more moderate of the Anabaptists digested their opinions into the following points of doctrine : — That the Church of Christ ought to be exempt fiom all sin; that all things should be in com- mon among the faitliful ; that all usury, tithes, and tribute, ought to be entirely abolished ; that ANA the baptism of infants was an invention of the devil ; that every Christian was invested with a power of preaching the Gospel, and, consequently, that the Church stood in no need of ministers or pastors; that in the kingdom of Christ civil magistrates were absolutely useless; and that God still continued to reveal his will to chosen persons by dreams and visions. Such senti- ments were well adapted to the religious and political circumstances of the empire; appearing, on the one hand, to accord with and complete the views of Luther and his associates, and, on the other, to provide a complete emancipation for the discontented and oppressed. It is evident how easily the fanatical leaders of a multitude could derive a sanction from them for the most des- perate enterprises. Having given birth, by their conduct, to various penal laws against them, in the electorate of Saxonj' and in Switzerland (where they were at first treated with great mildness), as well as in other parts of Germany, from the year 1525 to 1534, we find the Anabaptists at the latter date attracting considerable attention in Westphalia, under two intrepid and able leaders, John Matthias of Haerlem, and John Bockholdt of Leyden. The former was originally a baker, and the latter a journeyman tailor; but both possessed considerable powers of oratory, a plau- sible and confident address, and many preten- sions to external sanctity. Having gained over to their cause a Protestant preacher of the name of Rothman, who had first introduced the doc- trines of the Reformation into Munster, and one Knipperdoling, a principal citizen, they deter- mined to make that city, one of the first rank in the empire, and under the sovereignty of its own bishop, the centre of their future efforts. They were not tardy in the application of their prin- ciples and resolves. Having called in a strong body of their converts from the environs, in a night of the month of February, loS-i, they seized the arsenal and senate-house of the city, with little or no opposition, and ran, with shouts of " Repent, and be baptized," and " Depart, ye ungodly," through the streets, brandishing drawn swords. The consuls and senate, who governed in name of the bishop, with the nobility, church dignitaries, and all the sober part of the citizens, were sufficiently alarmed to obey this latter in- junction with all speed, leaving everything they possessed to the votaries of the former. Matthias now assumed the supreme direction of affairs; issued commands which it was declared to be death to disobey; and, though at first the old forms of government were preserved in the election of a senate and consuls, tlie most arbitrary and unbounded authority was quickly conceded to him. So far sincere to his principles as to be apparently without a wish for personal aggran- dizement, he ordered all the convertible property of the city to be collected together and investod in one fund, to be managed by deacons nomi- nated for the common benefit. All the inha- i 25 ANA bitants were declared equal, and were equally provided for at the common tables which were established in every part of the town ; and Matthias is said even to have prescribed the dishes, of which he partook in common with his followers. He now developed talents of no ordi- nary kind as a military commander, and shared with the lowest of the people the various labours he enjoined. Every one capable of bearing arms was trained to militarj'- duty, and ever}' hand that could assist obliged to work upon the fortification of the city, or in replenishing the magazines. Messengers were despatched, as long as it was safe, into the country, to invite their brethren to come to their aid, and share their triumphs, the city of Munster being now dignified with the title of Mount Sion ; and the most confident assurances held out to the various branches of the sect in Germany and the Low Countries, that from this favoured spot their leaders would shortly go forth to the conquest of all nations. Count Waldeck was at this time the bishop and sovereign of Munster, and pos- sessed both energy and experience as a general. He surrounded the cit}' in about three months with a considerable army. Scarcely, however, had they encamped, before Matthias sallied out with a chosen band, and putting a large party of the besiegers to the sword, returned into the city with great exultation, and a valuable booty. The next day he was determined to venture his whole success on his spiritual pretensions, and declared that, after the example of the chosen servant of heaven of old, Gideon, he would go forth with only thirty' of his men, and overthrow the host of his enemies. The daring part of his pledge he fulfilled ; his associates, who felt them- selves honoured by the election, as willingly followed him, and they were all cut to pieces. This utter failure of their leader made a con- siderable momentary sensation in the cit}'; but his wary and ambitious coadjutor, Bockholdt, quickly raised the drooping cause. His measures at first were entirely defensive; but he was by far too cautious and cunning to sutler any feel- ing of torpidity, or even common calmness to take possession of the minds of his followers. Visions and various predictions had announced some great event to be approaching, when, Bock- holdt stripped himself naked, and ran through the city, proclaiming, " that the kingdom of Sion was at hand; the highest things on earth must be brought low, and the lowest exalted." One of the first interpretations of this injunction wasthe level- ling of the churches to the ground ; another, the degrading the most respectable of his associates, Knipperdoling, to the office of common hangman; a third was to be still more formall}' announced. In the month of June it was declared by a fellow- prophet to be revealed to him from heaven that John Bockholdt was called to the throne of David, and must be forthwith proclaimed king in Sion. Bockholdt solemnly, and on his knees, declared the ANA same important circumstance to have been com- municated to himself, and that he humbly accepted the divine intimation. In the presence of the assembled citizens, he was now hailed as their monarch, and appeared in all the pomp of his new dignity. He clothed himself in purple, and wore a superb crown ; a Bible was publicly carried before him in one hand, and a drawn sword in the other. He coined money, bearing his own likeness ; appointed body guards, officers of state and of his household, and nominated twelve judges of the people, in imitation of the judges of Israel. This fanatic was permitted to acid one more un- happy proof of the extravagance to which the human mind is capable, while professing to act under the most sacred sanctions. Doubts were hinted by the public teachers of the obligations of matrimony, and of the expediency of being restrained from taking more wives than one. At length it was declared to be an invasion of spiritual libertj', and the new monarch himself confirmed the wavering and awed the fearful by marrying at once three wives. Only one of them, however (the widow of his predecessor), was dignified with the title of queen. Freedom of divorce and tlie most unbridled licentiousness followed this vile example among the people ; every good man ia Germany secretly trusted that such a scene could not long be suffered to disgrace the Christian name, and the German princes hastened to afibrd the bishop new succours. In May, 1535, the siege was converted into a close blockade ; but the vigilance of Bockholdt had left no point im- guarded. Famine, however, gradually threatened the besieged ; their supplies were uniforml}' inter- rupted ; the greatest horrors were suffered ; and the courage of some of the sect began to fail. While new visions and revelations still sustained the faith of the multitude, Bockholdt found it necessarj' to make severe examples occasionally of the unbelieving ; and, in the presence of all his family, cut ofl' the head of one of his wives with his own hands, for daring to express some doubts of his divine authority. But a deserter from the besiegers, who had been taken into the service of the Anabaptists, had discovered a part of the for- tifications rather weaker than the rest, and carried the intelligence to the bishop's camp. Intrusted with the direction of a small detachment (June 24), he ascended the wall and seized one of the gates; an advantage which, being observed from their intrenchments, was instantly followed up by the main body of the besieging army, and though the Anabaptists defended themselves with all the frantic courage of enthusiasm and despair, the greater part of them were put to the sword, and the whole town subdued to its rightful sovereign in the course of the daj'. Bockholdt and ELnipperdol- ing were among the few prisoners that were taken. The former was instantly loaded with fetters, and after having been paraded in mock majesty through all the chief towns of the neighbourhood, was brought back to Munster, and exposed to the 26 ANA most excruciating tortures. These he bore -vvitli great firmness ; and though but twenty-six year.'^ of age at his death, retained to the ver}' last an undiminished superiority over his sufferings, and an unshaken profession of the principles of his party. Thus, after a precarious ar.d disgraceful dominion of fifteen months, ended the kingdom of the Anabaptists at Munster. During the whole period of its continuance, the reformers of Wit- temberg earnestly testified against its spirit, and stimulated the princes of Germany to put them down (see Ranke's History of Reformation, vol. ii., p. 202). Mosheim has taken pains to prove the Mennonite Baptists of Holland to be the " descendants of these Anabaptists." They themselves reject the appellation as an odiosum nomen. Menno condemned with much indig- nation the licentious tenets and extraordinary pretensions of the Anabaptist prophets. — See Memnonites. Anacainpieria, in ecclesiastical history, small inns or hospitals, built adjoining to the ancient churches, as receptacles for the poor. Anagnoses or AnaguoHmata (^avayivMa-xeD, I read), a book of the lessons of the Greek Church during the year. Anagiiostes (^avayvuaTns, lector, a reader), an officer in the Church, of whom we have the earliest mention in TertuUian, de Pressor. Hcer., c. 41, where the lector is expressly distinguished from the episcopus, presbyter, and diaconus, and it is implied that the Church observed a fixed rule respecting the office and duties of these several ministers. Cyprian speaks of their ordination, and observes that their office was an introduc- tion to the higlier offices of the Church. In the Western Church the subdeacons early assumed the pri%-ileges of the readers, and the latter office be- came almost extinct. There were readers in the Jewish synagogue, and in the early Christian Church any one able to read niiuht read. Boj's often read in the church, and Julian, afterwards the apostate, was a reader, in his boyhood, of the church of Nicomedia (see Riddle's Christian Antiquities, p. 303). Anagogy (^avxyuyv!, leading up), is sometimes used by ecclesiastical wTiters for an elevation of the mind to things spiritual and eternal, and op- posed to " Idro^iv." — history. It is applied more particularly to Jewish and other expositions of the tA'pes of the law of Moses. Analogy of Faith is a certain consistencj' of revelation with itself, in all its various parts, which, without involving any such sophism as has been objected to it, constitutes an impartial rule of interpreting Scripture, and of reconciling .apparent contradictions. Anaphora (a^aipsja, offering), a name some- times given by ancient writers to the elements in the Eucharist. Anathema {avahfia), a Greek term, signify- ing a thing separated from God, or devoted to some infernal deity. The phrase, atahiio. 'i(rru, 27 ANC which is used by St. Paul in Gal. i. 8, and trans- lated by let Mm he accursed, occurs very frequently in the canons of ancient councils. The council o Gangra, about the middle of the fourth century, closes every one of its canons in this way ; and we find in other instances the same solemn form employed to cut off' from the communion of the church, and, as it was supposed, from the hope of heaven, not only those who might differ from their brethren on mysterious points of doctrine, but even those who might object to some form or ceremony on which Scripture is altogether silent. The council of Trent anathematized all those who should hesitate to accept the large body of canons and decrees in which its decisions were embodied. As a matter of church discipline, in its highest or judicially form, the anathema could only be pro- nounced by a pope, council, or some of the superior clergy. Another form of anathema, called ah- juratory, was principally applied to the confession of heretics, who were made to anathematize the errors they abjured. Robbers, and other disturbers of the public peace, were, in the dark ages, de- livered over by anathemas to the vengeance of heaven ; a form of this kind is quoted by Robert- son in his History of Charles V., from Boquet, which, he observes, " was composed with peculiar eloquence." Anaiheinata (avai'^^ara), the term used by Luke (xxi. 5) for the gifts and ornaments of the temple, and afterwards applied by ecclesiastical writers to all sorts of ornaments in churches, whether in the structure itself, or in the vessels and utensils belonging to it. It sometimes denotes, in a more restricted sense, those peculiar gifts which were hung on pillars, and set in public view as memorials of some great mercy which men had received from God. These last were called by Latin writers, donaria. Anchorets or Anchorites (asajji^fsa*, I re- tire), were a celebrated order of religious persons, whose habitations were, in most instances, entirely secluded from all other abodes of men; some- times in the depths of wildernesses, in pits, or in caverns ; though at other times we find several of them fixmg their habitations in the neighbour- hood of each other, when their cells were called by the collective name of laura. Yet they always lived personally separate ; and thus the laura was distinguished from the cainohium, or convent, where the monks formed themselves into a society, and subsisted on a common stock. A convent would sometimes be surrounded by a laura, to which the more devout, or the more idle of the monks would ultimately retire. To Paul, the hermit, the distinction is assigned of havmg first devoted himself to this kind of solitude. These cells, according to some rules, were to be only twelve feet square, of stone, and with three windows. The door was locked upon the an- choret, and often walled up. One of the win- dows, when they were attached to the build- ing of an abbey or monastery, generally formed AND the choir, and through it the sacrament was received ; another was devoted to the reception of food; and the third was used for lights, being clothed with horn or glass. Thus affixed, they were called anchor-hotels, anchor-houses, and destina, as that which is said to have been occupied by St Dunstan, at Glastonbury, and which, according to Osbern, in his life of that monk, was not more than five feet long, two feet and a-half broad, and barelj' the height of a man. The order of anchorites in Egypt and in Syria comprehended, in the first instance, all those hermits of the desert who abandoned the ordi- nary abodes of mankind, and wandered amongst the rocks and haunts of wild beasts, nourishing themselves with roots and herbs that grew spon- taneously, and reposing wherever they were over- taken by night. Amongst those early anchorites, Simeon Stj-lites, who lived at the close of the fourth century, will ever occupy a wretched im- mortality. Having passed a long and severe noviciate in a monastery, which he entered at the age of thirteen, this devotee contrived, within the space of a mandarin, or circle of stones, to which he was confined by a heavy chain, to ascend a column, gradually raised from nine to sixty feet in height, on the top of which, without descending from it, he passed thirtj' years of his life, and at length died of an ulcer in his thigh. Crowds of pilgrims from Gaul to India are said to have thronged around his pillar, and to have been proud to supply his necessities. In succeed- ing ages the order of anchorites assumed a more entire distinction from that of hermits, and other religious recluses, and was regulated by its own rules. Early in the seventh century the councils began to notice and to modify this kind of life. " Those who aficct to be anchorites," saj' the Trullan canons, " shall first for three years be confined to a cell in a monastery; and if, after this, they profess that thej' persist, let them be examined by the bishop, or abbot ; let them live one year at large ; and if they still approve of their first choice, let them be confined to their cell, and not be permitted to go out of it, but bj' consent and benediction of the bishoD, in case of great necessity." — See Monachism. Andrevr's Day, SI., a festival observed by the Church on the 30th of November, in honour of the apostle, St. Andrew, the tutelar saint of Scotland. "As he was the first that found the Messiah," says Wheatly, " and the first that brought others to him, so the Church for his greater honour commemorates him first in her anniversary course of holy days, and places his festival at the beginning of Advent, as the most proper to bring the news of our Saviour's coming." Tradition records that after labouring in Scythia for several years, and afterwards in Epirus, and in various districts of Asia Minor, he came at length to Patrse, in Achaia; here he incurred the dis- pleasure of the governor by endeavouring to ANG withstand his efforts to bring the disciples again into idolatry. The governor having enraged the proconsul against him, he was seized, scourged, and afterwards crucified. In order that his death should be more lingering, he was not nailed, but tied to the cross, which was made in the form of the letter X. When he died, an honourable Christian lady, named Max- amilla, had his body taken down, embalmed, and decently and reverently interred. His re- mains were afterwards taken up and carried to Constantinople, and there buried in the great church which Constantine had built to the honour of the apostles. Angel, literally a messenger, a name not of nature, but of office (see Biblical Cyclopcedid). The ancient Persians were so learned in the ministry of angels in this lower world that they assigned them distinct charges and provinces, giving their names to the months and days of the months. The Jews, after their return from the captivity in Babylon, infected by the boasted wisdom of the Chaldean sages, who peopled the air with agencies of this descrip- tion, began to find numerous names and dis- tinct orders of angels, of which four principal ones are reckoned — that of Michael, the first in order ; Gabriel, the second ; Uriel, the third ; and Raphael, the fourth. In the apocrj'phal book of Tobit, the last is made to say, " I am Raphael, one of the seven holy angels which present the prayers of the saints, and which go in and out before the glory of the Holy One." Maimonides and other writers speak of ten degrees or orders of angels being anciently acknowledged by the Jews. The Christian fathers, full of the prejudices of their early life, and fond of imitating the learned trifling of their adversaries, retained or adopted many strange and groundless notions of the heathen world on this subject. Several of them believed angels to have bodies ; and others that they were pure spirits who could assume bodies at pleasure. Of the first opinion were Clemens Alexandrinus, Origen, Cffisarius, and Tertullian; while St. Athanasius, Basil, Gregory Nicene, Cyril, and Chr^sostom, advocated various shades of the latter. As the heatlien writers tell us of a race of heroes who " were all of them born from the love either of gods for women, or of mortal man for a goddess," Josephus and Philo speak of the angels of God mixing with women, and beget- ting a most wicked ofispring; a sentiment which the Jewish historian, and the fathers after him, with not a few modern intrepreters, assign to Gen. vi. 2, which in some copies of the Septuagint is said to have read " angels of God." At this period, indeed, it seems to have been the prevailing opinion, not only that angels once had an intercourse of this de- scription with the world, but that it was con- tinued at intervals, and the pages of some of these writers are defiled by attributing to them 28 ANG the grossest vices of mankind. St. Gregor}' Nazianzen, and after him, some of the Socinian writers, held that angels were created long before our world. In the Middle Ages, angels were divided into nine orders, or three hier- archies: the first of which consisted of cherubim, seraphim, and thrones ; the second, of dominions, virtues, and powers; and the third, of prin- cipalities, angels, and archangels. Angelic Hymn, a very ancient hymn of the Christian Church, so called from its com- mencing with the song of the heavenly host, recorded in Luke ii. 14. The following is its form, as given in the Apostolical Constitutions, viL 47. " We praise thee, we magnify thee, we give thanks unto thee, we celebrate thy glory, we worship thee through the great High Priest, thee, the true God, the one unbegotten, im- mortal, for thy great glory. 0 Lord, heavenly King, God the Father Almighty, O Lord, the God and Father of Christ, the spotless Lamb, that taketh away the sins of the world. O thou that sittest upon the cherubim, receive our prayer. For thou only art holy, thou only art the Lord, 0 Jesus, the Christ of God for all created nature, our King ; through whom be unto thee honour, praise, and adoration." It is entitled in the Constitutions " A morning prayer,'' and is supposed by Bingham to have been in- tended for private devotion, because it is placed among many other private prayers. But it was early used in the communion service, though not exactly in the same form. Chrysostom speaks 'of it as used daily at morning prayer ; and other authorities referred to by Bingham show plainly that its use in public worship was not confined to the communion service. It is now employed in the Greek Church, as an ordinary hymn, in their morning service ; and, on the whole, it would appear that Bunsen is not far from the truth, when he entitles it " The Morning Hymn of the early Church." This last writer con- siders that in its primitive form it was nearly as follows: — " Glory to God on high : And on earth peace, good-will among men; or, Ami on earth peace among the men of good-ii- ill. We praise thee, we bless thee, we worship thee, We give thanks to thee for thy great glory. 0 Lord, Heavenly King, God the Father Almighty : Lord God! O Lord, tlic only begotten Son : Jesus Christ! That takest away the sins of the world : Have mercy upon us. Thou that takest away the sins of the world > Have mercy upon us, receive our prayer. Thou that sitte^t at the right hand of God the Father: Have viercy upon tis. For thou only art holy : T/iou only art tlie Lord Jesus Christ: To the glory of God the Fatlier. Auien." The form is translated in Bingham (bookxiii., cap. 10, § 9), — " Glory be to God on high, in earth peace, good-will towards men. AVe jiraise thee, we laud thee, we bless thee, we glorify thee, we worship thee by the Great High Priest, thee the ANN true God, the only unbegotten, whom no one can approach for thy great glory, O Lord, heavenly King, God the Father Almighty : Lord God the Father of Christ, the immaculate Lamb, who taketh away the sin of the world, receive our prayer, thou that sittest upon the cherubims. For thou onl}' art holy, thou onl}' Lord Jesus, the Christ of God, the God of every created being, and our King. By whom unto thee be glory, honour, and adoration." Angelites, otherwise called Severites, Theo- dosiani, Damianisti, &c., a Christian sect so de- nominated from Angeliurn, in Alexandria, the place where their earliest assemblies were usually held. They first appeared during the reign of Anastasius, and Pope Symmachus, in the year of Christ 494. They are said to have affirmed that the Trinity consisted of a Deity in common, and not of persons self-existent, each being divine by a participation of this common nature. Angel of I»eace. — It was an opinion of the ancients that every man had an evil and a good angel in attendance upon him from the day of his birth to the day of his death ; hence arose the practice of praying for the protection of the " Angel of Peace." Chrj'sostom, in his homily upon the Colossians, says — " Everj' man has angels attending him, and also the devil very busy about him. Therefore we pray, and make our supplications for the angel of peace." In another of his homilies, he gives a form of ex- hortation to be used by deacons when praying with catechumens, viz., " Pray ye catechumens for the angel of peace, that all your purposes may be peaceably directed." " The design of all this," says Bingham, " was not to teach their catechumens to pray to their guardian angels; but it was to teach them to pray to the God of angels, that he who makes his angels encamp about his servants would, by then: ministrj', defend them from the incursions of wicked spirits." Ann, Annat, or Annates, an ecclesiastical tax of the value of evei-y spiritual benefice for one year, which the pope formerly levied throughout Christendom, on issuing bulls to the new incumbent. The term in Germany denotes what is called in the canon law servitia com- munia, and not the annat proper. Its origin is very obscure ; some writers have traced it to An- thonine. Bishop of Ephesus, in the fifth centurj-, who imposed a tax of this kind on all the pre- lates he consecrated. According to Hume, it was first levied in England, by Clement V., in the reign of Edward I. ; but Blackstone ascribes the introduction of this impost to the usurpation of Pandulph, the pope's legate, in the reigns of King John and Henry III. In the exchequer is still preserved a valuation of them, by com- mission, from Nicholas III., a.d. 1292. At this period, however, they would appear to have been but partially levied, principally in the See of Norwich. Blackstone agrees with Mr. Hume 29 ANN that it was only in the time of Clement V. that they were first attempted to be made universal in England. Though, strictly, the annat was onlj"- to amount to a year's income of the new incumbent, it frequently was increased, by the efforts of the papal agents and their accessibility to the intrigues of the clergy, to much more than the actual value; while, in other cases, it was comprised by much less. In the reign of Henry VIII. it was transferred by statute to the king, and regularly received by the crown, under the name of first fruits, until the time of Queen Anne, when the entire amount of this tax was appropriated to the augmentation of poor livings, under the name of Queen Anne's Bounty. — See First-Fruit3. In Scotland, the ann, or annat, is a half-year's income of the beuefice enjoyed by the widow, children, or representatives of a de- ceased clergj'man. If he die without children the widow receives one-half of the annat, and the nearest relatives of the deceased the other; if there are children, she receives one-third, and they two- thirds; if children only are left, they obtain the entire amount. The old act of 1672 is as follows : — " The King's Majesty, judging it necessary for the good of the church, that such a stated and equal course be taken for clearing and securing the ann due to the executors of deceast bishops, beneficed persons, and stipendi- ary ministers, as may be suitable to the interest of the executors, and no discouragement or hinderance to the planting of the vacant bene- fices, doth therefore, with advice and consent of his estates of Parliament, statute and ordain, that in all such cases hereafter, the ann shall be an half year's rent of the benefice or stipend, over and above what is due to the defunct for his in- cumbency, which is now settled to be thus — viz., if the incumbent survive Whitsunday, there shall belong to them for their incumbency the half of that year's stipend or benefice, and for the ann the other half; and if the incumbent survive Michaelmas, he shall have right to that whole year's rent for his incumbency, and for his ann shall have the half year's rent of the following year : and that the executors shall have right hereto, without necessity or expenses of confir- mation." Aunale, in some authors of the Middle Ages, has the same meaning with anniversarium ; that is, a day held yearly iu commemoration of the dead. But it is more peculiarlj' applicable to the masses for the dead celebrated for a j-ear. Anuals Ecclesiastical, an important work of Baronius, published at Rome in twelve vo- lumes folio, at the close of the sixteenth and beginning of the seventeenth century. These volumes comprise a vast fund of valuable mat- ter, selected from the papal archives, for the pur- pose of confuting the Centuriators of Magdeburg. The documents contained therein commence with the birth of Christ, and continue to the year 1671 — those selected by Baronius extending ANN down to the year 1198, and the continuation by Raynaldi and Laderchi. The edition of Pagi (Lucca, 1738-56) with notes, and the first con- tinuation of Raynaldi is in thirty-eight folios. Annihilation, iu a theological sense, is as difficult to human comprehension as creation itself, its opposite. Hence, among the pro- foundest philosophers of the heathen world, neither idea seems to have been brought into discussion; for a real first cause was no part of their system. The Brahminical faith teaches that a succession of annihilations has already taken place in the material system of the uni- verse, and wUl continue, at intervals, eternally. The Siamese consider personal annihilation the greatest possible reward of virtue. Among Christian writers the subject of annihilation has been a fruitful source of controversy. Some writers have argued for its being abstractedly impossible even to Deity; while others have contended that it must be the easiest of all opera- tions, or rather that it needs no exertion what- ever on the part of God, all things having a tendency to destruction, and infinite power being required to uphold them. Some have contended for the annihilation of the wicked as their final punishment ; and so understand all the passages of Scripture which speak of their being de- stroyed. This controversy has of late years made some noise in England ; but it is really baseless and unscriptural. Annua Pensione, an ancient writ for pro- viding the king's unpreferred chaplains with a pension. Where an annual pension was due to the king from an abbot or prior, by this writ he could nominate any of his chaplains, who were not provided with livings, to receive the same. Annulus. — See Bino. Annunciada, a society founded at Rome in 1460, for the marrying of poor girls. Four hun- dred maids appear before the pope on Lady Day, get each sixty crowns, with various portions of apparel, if they wish to marry ; while those who prefer the cloister receive a double por- tion, and are, after they have annomiced their choice, further distinguished by being decked with garlands of white flowers. Misson in- forms us that out of 350 young women. pre- sented, when he witnessed the ceremony, only thirty-two chose to surrender themselves to " the Church." Anuunciade, an order of French nuns, founded in 1500 by Jane of Valois, the divorced wife of Louis XII., that they might practise what are called the ten principal virtues delights of Mary. This order had forty-five monasteries, which were dispersed at the Revo- lution. There is also another Italian Annun- ciade, called the celestial, founded at Genoa in 1604. Annunciation Day, a feast of the Church, celebrated annually on the 25th of March, in houour of the salutation of the Blessed Virgin, ' 30 ANN or, as some authors hold, of our Saviour him- self. This festival is of ancient date, as we find it noticed in one of the canons of the council of Trullo, thous:h not in those of the previous council of Laodicea : the latter forbade the ob- servance of any festival during Lent except the Sabbath ; but the former makes a further excep- tion in favour of the annunciation. Hence it would appear that during the interval between these two councils this festival was added to the calendar. And, indeed, Bingham assigns its in- stitution to the seventh century, about which time the council of Toledo ordered it to be cele- brated eight days before Christmas. Several Romish writers bring forward a sermon of St. Athanasius, and another of Gregory Thaumatur- gus, to prove its still greater antiquity; but both sermons have been proved spurious. The Eastern and Western Churches var}- considerably in their seasons of observing this feast. The Syrian calendar notes it down for the first day of Decem- ber, and distinguishes it by the appellation of " Bascarach " inquiry — or investigation. The Greeks, wlio are by no means scrupulous in its solemnization, celebrate it even in Lent ; while the Armenian churches, in order to prevent it from occurring at that period, hold it on the fifth of January. This day has also received the follow- ing names : — 1. The day of salutation^ from the history recorded in Luke i. 29. 2. The daij of the Gospel. 3. Annunciatio Angeli ad B. Mariam ; the anmmciniion of the Angel to Saint Marti. 4. Annunciatio Domini; the annunciation of the Lord. 5. Annunciatio Marioe; the annunciation of Mary. 6. The festival of the incarfiation. Hence it was that in Rome, France, and England, the ecclesiastical year began with this day. 7. Festum conceptionis Christi; the festival of the conception of Christ. The faith of the Roman Catholic Church, and that of other churches, respecting the incarnation of the Saviour, so prominently brought before the mind in the services of this festival, seems to include these points : — " That the Son, who is the Word of the Father, begot- ten from everlasting of the Father, the very and Eternal God, of one substance with the Father, took man's nature in the womb of the Blessed Virgin, of her substance ; so that two whole and perfect natures, the Godhead and manhood, were joined together in one person, never to be divided. And because tlie Son of God, who had an eternal generation, entered tlie womb of the Virgin, and submitted to a second generation : therefore, she that brought forth the man was really the mother of God. And owing to the peculiar excellency and privileges of that mother — the regard the Holy Ghost had towards her — and the goodness of Joseph to whom she was espoused — the Church of God, in all ages, has been persuaded that she continued in the same virginity, and therefore is to be acknowledged as " the ever-Virgin Mary." The Athanasiau Creed has the following: — " Tlie right faith is that we believe and confess, that ANT our Lord Jesus Christ, the son of God, is God and man. God, of the substance of the Father, begotten before the worlds ; and man, of the sub- stance of liis mother, born in the world. Perfect God and perfect man ; of a reasonable soul and human flesh, subsisting. . . . Yet he is not two, but one Christ : one, not by conversion of the Godhead into flesh, but by taking of the man- hood into God — one altogether, not by confusion of the substance, but by unity of person. For as the reasonable soul and flesh is one man, so God and man is one Christ." — The term annunciation is also applied to designate that part of the cere- mony of the Jewish passover, in which the reason and origin of its celebration are explained, called by the Jews Haggada, or the annunciation. Anointing, the application of holy oil, as a symbol of peculiar fitness and special designation to some important office. Under the Mosaic dis- pensation, the priests and all the vessels of the sanctuary were anointed with oil, to denote that they were set apart for the service of God. We find also that kings were anointed, though there is no mention of any command to this efiect in the writings of Moses. The necessary use of agreeable unguents in the East — medically, offi- cially, and for personal beauty — explains the reason why oils are so frequently spoken of in the Scriptures, and accounts for the many figurative allusions to their respective pro- perties (see, among others, Ex. xxx. 26, &c. ; 1 Sam. ix. 16; Fs. xlv. 7; cxxxiii. 2; Eccles. ix. 8; Is. i. 6; x. 27; Ixi. 3; Zech. iv. 14; Mark vi. 13; Luke vii. 37; John xii. 3; 1 John ii. 20, 27). The religious use of oil is of early mention in the primitive Church, as both Theopholus and TertuUian, in the end of the third century, mention it; and though we have no reason to conclude that tliey ascribed any miraculous virtue to its use, but limited its importance to that of natural signifi- cancy, yet superstition soon invested it with healing, sanctifying, and even saving powers — it being used as a representative of the grace and unction of the Holy Ghost. The consecration of the oil was supposed to efiect a mj'stical change in its nature, which, when applied to the bap- tized, made them partakers of a roj'al priesthood, strengthened the sincere candidates for confirma- tion in the truths of Christianity, and imparted to all who were ordained the graces and gifts necessary for their holy vocation. Anointing is much used in the ceremonial observances of the Greek and Romish Churches, especially in bap- tism, confirmation, marriage, ordination, and also as a preparation for death See Chris.m ; also, Burder's Religious Customs. Anouioeana (from a priv., and o/toio;, like), a name applied to the pure Arians of the fourth century, who denied any resemblance between the essence of the Father and the Son. Aniehican Servicfs (before daion'). — During the time that pagan persecution raged against the 31 ANT professors of Christianity, they were accustomecl to assemble for purposes of devotion and religious instruction at night ; hence the above title was given to the services on these occasions. Ter- tuUian, exhorting Christian women not to marry heathen husbands, asks them, " What husband will be willing to suffer his wife to rise from his side and go to the night assemblies?" And Pliny, in his celebrated letter, states that " the Christians were used to meet together on a cer- tain day before it was light, and sing a hymn to Christ as to their God." When the fires of persecution ceased to consume the victims of heathen rage, and Christians were permitted to worship after their own fashion, these nocturnal ser\'ices were continued, partly for the accommo- dation of those whose secular occupations pre- vented them from attending Divine worship during the day, partly to stimulate ascetics to a more devotional life, and partly to withdraw the orthodox from the nocturnal meetings of the Arians, who made their services as attractive as they possibly could by chants and psalm singing, in order to induce others to join them. These services commenced at midnight, and ceased be- fore the dawn. They consisted — 1st, In a mental confession of sins, made by the congregation indi- vidually, called b}' the council of Laodicea " the silent prayer;" 2d, In psalm singing alternately; 3(1, In the singing of psalms b}' one individual at a time; 4th, In public prayers; and 5th, In the repetition, by the -whole congregation, of the fifty-first psalm, called by them the " Psalm of Confession," which psalm was subsequently ap- pointed in the Western Church as the closing exercise of the matin (or morning) service. Anthem, a sacred song, sung or chanted in parts, or by turns. — See Antiphony. In an- cient times all singing from side to side alter- nately, after the manner of the chants in the cathedral service, was called anthems; and ac- cording to Socrates, the ecclesiastical historian, St. Ignatius, a disciple of the apostles, was the inventor of these antiphonal hymns, a,v7i((iia\ioi vfivoi. But in the service of theChurch of England the name is appropriated to certain portions of the Psalms, or other parts of Scripture, set in florid counterpoint, and adapted to one or more voices. They are distmguished by the names of solo, bass, or full anthems. The former, in her service, have frequently symphonies fur particular stops on the organ. In bass anthems there are solo parts for voices of difterent compass, and from different sides of the choir. A full anthem is in constant chorus, except at the leading off a fugue, or new point of imitation. In the Uomish Ciiurch solo anthems are called motets. Anthems were first introduced into the reformed service of the English Church in the reign of Queen Elizabeth — See Motet. .\ntliologion, a sort of breviarj' or mass book. beloni;ing to the Greek Church!^ and con- taining offices addressed to our Saviour, the ANT Virgin, and the principal saints. It is in two volumes, each of which contains services for six months, beginning with September. Anthropology (from livS^uiros, man; and x'oyeu a discourse), signifies any treatise upon human nature. In theology, the term is used to denote a way of speaking of God after the man- ner of men, by attributing to him human paesions and affections. Anthropomorphitea (^ccv^^uvos, man ; and //.i>^(pri, form), were a sect of ancient heretics, who imagined God to be formed in the shape of a man. Locke seems to think that this prejudice is almost inherent in the mind : it was enter- tained by the whole sect of the Stoics, and ex- amples of its influence may easily be traced, not only in the writings of many of the fathers, but also among modern divines. Yet it is plain that we can only know the meaning of love or wis- dom, as ascribed to God, by feeling what these qualities are as inherent in ourselves. Anthropopatby, a word of the same import as anthropology, except that its sense is more restricted (from avS^avo;, man; and va.60;, pas- sion). Antibaptists, a term applied to those who deny the perpetuity of the ordinance or sacra- ment of baptism. They hold that it was adopted in compliance with the usages of society, existing at the time of its appointment; and that it was only intended as a proselytizing ceremonial. Hence the descendants of those baptized, whether children or adults, are under no obligation to be baptized. Autiburghers. — See U>tted Presbyte- rian Church. Antidiconiarianites (from avTiiiKos, an ad- versarj' ; and Ma^i'a), a sect mentioned by Epi- phanius, who believed that the Virgin Mary, after the birth of our Saviour, was the mother of several children See Virgin Mary. Antidoron, the name of the Greek Church for the consecrated bread, a portion in the middle, marked by a cross, being retained by the priest, and the rest distributed after mass to the poor. Antilegomena, a word in Scripture criti- cism, which is found in Eusebius, denoting those books of the New Testament the genuineness of which has been disputed, but which were ulti- mately admitted into the sacred canon. Antilogy, signifies contrary sayings. Tirinus has published a large index of such seeming contradictions in the Bible, which he reconciles and explains in his comments. Antiiuensiuni, a consecrated cloth used in celebrating the Eucharist where there was no altar. It is an article of comparatively modern invention. Aniiaioniians, in religion, are those who deny the obligation of the moral law, and hold that men are saved by the merits of Clirist alone; and that the wicked actions of those who are in a state of grace, are not really sinful, and ANT will not deprive them of the Divine favour. The origin of this sect is stated in the life of Luther. He was on one occasion preaching to the people upon the necessity of believing and trusting in the merits of Christ for salvation, and in- veighing against the papists who represented eternal happiness as the fruit of mere legal obedi- ence, abstracted from faith ; when, as he was pro- ceeding, he was interrupted by John Agricola (a divine of some eminence in that day), who took an opportunity of carrying the great reformer's doctrine to an opposite extreme, by declaiming against the moral law altogether, as a covenant which had been totally abolished by the sacrifice of Christ. The dispute which afterwards arose between him and Luther on this subject, scattered the first seeds of the sect which appeared in Eng- land not very long afterwards, and which was known by the name of Antinomianism. The plain teaching of Scripture is, that while Jesus Christ bore the penalty of the law, he did not relax its claims— nay, has given it a higher obli- gation on all who believe, and are "zealous of good works." For further particulars concerning its history, see Neale's History of Puritans, vol. iv., sec. 7 ; Mosheim's Church History, vol. v., p. 411 (see Fuller's Works, ixissivi). Aniiosinndrians, a sect of Lutherans who denied the doctrine of Osiander relating to justi- fication. They affirmed that man is not made just by justification as God is just, but on\y that he is treated by God as if he were. And so he is — as being absolved from the penalty, and accepted as righteous by God. Anti-I*a!4cba, one of the names for the first Sunday after Easter. — See Eastkk. Antiphouy (^'xoTifavix — avri, against ; (pa/iiy,, voice), is that species of psalmody in which the congregation, being divided into two parts, re- peats the psalm, verse for verse, alternately; and is in this sense distinguished from symphony, in which the congregation sing altogether. Suidas, under the word x'?^'' '^^'^ ^^ ''■''*'' '" ^^e time of Constantius (a.d. 337 -371) the choirs of the churches of Antioch were divided into two parts, who sang alternately the Psalms of David ; and he adds that the practice extended from thence over all the Christian world. The time of its introduction into the Western churches, is sup- posed to be A.D. 371, where it was first used at Milan, by St. Ambrose. The antiphonary is a service book of the Komish Church, containing all the several antiphonaria, or, as they are other- wise called, responsaria, used in that service. The author of the Koman antiphonary was Pojje Gregory the Great. For further particu- lars upon this subject, the reader may consult Barney's History of Music, vol. ii., p. 10 ; and Suicer's Thesaurus, voce avrifuvtm. Antiiacise or Antiiacli, was a sect of the Gnostics, mentioned by Theodoret ; but the only inference that can be drawn from his words is, that they rested more in religion upon the APH existence of an evil principle than was customary with other Gnostics. Antitype (from avri and ti/'to;). — The word tj'pe is used, in theological nomenclature, to express the peculiar character of the Old Tes- tament, which contains, as it were, the imper- fect hints and rough draught of the New, or the antitype. In the writings of the fathers, the word antitype is frequently used ; but never except in the simple sense of type. Thus the bread and wine in the sacraments are called " a.vriTvra." — antitj'pes of " the body and blood of Christ." This is a usual form of ex- pression among the fathers. But an unfounded distinction has been made by some Romish doc- tors, as if it were only before consecration that the word was applied to the sacred elements, but that after consecration the bread and wine were no longer called antitypes, but the true body and blood of Christ. Aiitoniaiis, a fanatical Antinomian sect found principally about Berne, in Switzerland, and named after Antony Unternarer, their founder, who was born about 1761, and died in 1824, after being some time confined as a lunatic. He was somewhat of a Pantheist ; complacently thought himself the Son of God a second time incarnate ; held that all present institutions in Church and State were wrong ; and that sensual love was the true sacrament. The abominable practices of his followers have subjected them several times to trial and punishment. Apelleans, the followers of Apelles, who was a disciple of Marcion, but departed in some points from the teaching of his master. He held that the contents of the Old Testament came partly from the good principle, partly from the bad; and that Christ in his descent from heaven, assumed an aerial body which he gave back to the air as he ascended. He of course denied the resurrection of the body; but he taught " that those who believe in Him who was crucified will be saved, if they evince a true faith by good worlis." Aphoi'is«uios (a^oj/o-^o;, suspension^ the name given to the lesser excommunication by which offenders were excluded from the Eu- charist, being compelled to retire from the church with the catechumens, at the conclusion of the public service. Aphorisnios Pantelcs {a(po^iirf/.o; 'ra.tiTi'ki?, utter separation), was the title of the greater ex- communication, the effect of which will appear by the words of Synecius, when cutting off Androni- cus from all participation in the privileges and services of the Church : "Now that the mania no longer to be admonished, but cut off as an in- curable member, the Church of Ptolemais makes this declaration or injunction to all her sister churches throughout the world. Let no church of God be open to Andronicus and his accom- plices, to Thoas and his accomplices ; but let every temple and sanctuary be shut against 3 D APO them. . . . And whoever does so, whether he be saint, presbyter, or bishop, shall be ranked in the same class with Andronicus: we will neither give them the right hand of fellowship, nor eat at the same table with them ; and much less will we communicate in the sacred mysteries with them who choose to have part with Andro- nicus and Thoas." (Bingham, Book xvi., chap. 2, § 8). Apocalypse signifies, m general, a revela- tion ; but is particularly referred to the Revela- tion of St. John, the last canonical book of the New Testament (see Biblical Cyclopcedia.') Various apocryphal revelations are mentioned by ecclesiastical writers of the second and two fol- lowing centuries, as the Apocalypse of Paul — of Peter — of Ceiinthus — of St. Thomas — of St. John (different from the genuine book) — of Elias — of Moses — of Abraham— and even of Adam! (see an account of them in Moses Stuart's Pro- legomena to his Commenlary on the Apocalypse). Apocrisiarii or Responsales were "resi- dents at the imperial city, in name of foreign churches and bishops, whose office was to nego- tiate as proctors, at the emperor's court, in all ecclesiastical causes in which their principals might be concerned." The office seems to have been instituted in the time of Constantine, or soon after. In imitation of these officers of the Church, monasteries also had their apocrisiarii, to act for the society, or the individual members, when they had to give any appearance at law before their bishop. The Greek word is some- times translated by ambasiator; and it is to be noted that apocrisiarius became, in process of time, the common title for ambassadors of the emperors, and for legates of all kinds. Apocrypha. — The epithet " apocrypha," or "apocr3'phal," is given to those books which are not admitted into the sacred canon of the Old Testament, being either spurious or at least not acknowledged as divine. According to some writers, these books are thus denominated because they were not deposited in, but removed (kto t?? jt^ti.) T/j,-) from the crypt, ark, chest, or other re- ceptacle in which the sacred books were kept; or more probably from the Greek verb above given, because they were concealed from the generality of readers, their authority not being recognized by the Christian Church ; and also because they are books destitute of proper testi- monials, their original being obscure, their origin unknown, and their character either heretical or suspected. The Protestant Churches not only account those books to be apocryphal, and merely human compositions, wliich are esteemed such by the Church of Rome, as the Prayer of Manasseh, the third and fourth Books of Esdras, the addition at the end of the Book of Job, and the hundred and fifty-first Psalm ; but also the Books of Tobit, Judi^h, the additions to the Book of Esther, Wistlom, Ecclesiasticus, Baruch the prophet, with the Epistle of Jeremiah, the Song APO of the Three Children, the Stories of Susanna, and of Bel and the Dragon, and the first and second Books of Maccabees. These books are rejected from the divinely inspired Scriptures, 1st, Because they possess no internal evidence or authority to procure their admission into the sacred canon ; for not only do they contain many things which are fabulous, contradictory, and directly at variance with the canonical Scriptures, as well as with authentic profane his- tory, but they are also totallj' destitute of pro- phecy, or other authentic mark of inspiration. Not one of them is extant in pure ancient Bibli- cal Hebrew -, all of them are in the Greek lan- guage, except the fourth book of Esdras, which is extant only in Latin. They were written, for the most part, by Alexandrian Jews, and subse- quently to the cessation of the prophetic spirit, though before the promulgation of the Gospel. 2d, The apocryphal books possess no external evidence to procure their admission into the sacred canon; for they were not received into that canon by the Jewish Church, and therefore re- ceived no sanction from Jesus Christ. No part of the Apocrypha is quoted, or even alluded to by him, or by any of his apostles. Philo and Josephus, two eminent Jewish writers who flourished in the first century of the Christian era, are totally silent concerning them ; and no subsequent Jewish writers have recognized the apocryphal books as forming part of their canon of the Old Testament. Further, these books were not admitted into the canon of Scrip- ture in anj' catalogue of the sacred books recog- nized by any great council of the ancient Chris- tian Church : neither are they to be found in any catalogues of the canonical books of Scrip- ture published by the fathers, or ecclesiastical writers of the first four centuries. Moreover, we have the concurring testimony of numerous writers in regular succession, from the fifth to the fifteenth century, all of whom witness against the canonicity of the apocryphal books, be- sides the involuntary admissions or confessions of learned advocates of the modern Church of Rome, who lived before and after the council of Trent. 3d, The apocryphal books are re- jected by the Oriental or Greek Church from the canon of the divinely-inspired Scripture. Nor were these books received into the canon of Scripture until the fourth session of the popish council of Trent, held April 8, 1546, when five cardinals, eight archbishops, and forty - one bishops of the Roman obedience (who were almost wholly Italians), admitted the whole of the apocryphal books into the sacred canon, with the exception of the Prayer of Manasseh and the third and fourth Books of Esdras ; and they further denounced an anathema against every one who should not receive them, and every part of them, as sacred and canonical. No reason, therefore, exists for applying the books of the Apocrypha to " establish any point 31 APO of doctrine." They are highly valuable as an- cient writings, which throw consitlerable light on the phraseology of Scripture, and on the history and manners of the East; and the Church of Eng- land " doth read them for example of life and instruction of manners," (Art. vi.) All the books of the Apocrypha, however, are not thus read. The Anglican Church reads no part of either Book of lisdras, or of the !Maccabees, or of the additions to the Book of Esther; nor does it read the Song of the Three Children, or the Prayer of Manasseh Besides the preceding writings, which are com- monly termed the apocrj-phal books of the Old Testament, there are numerous spurious and apo- crj-phal books, composed in the early days of Chris- tianity, which were published under the names of Jesus Christ and his apostles, their companions, &c., and which are mentioned under the names of Gospels, Acts, Epistles, Revelations, &c. The very great number of heresies and scl.isms that arose among Christians soon after the publishing of the Gospel, may be assigned as the principal cause of this multitude of books, of which a small number only has come down to the present day. Like the apocryphal books of the Old Testament, these writings are utterly destitute of evidence to procure their reception into the sacred canon. They were not acknowledged as authentic ; nor were they much used by the primitive Christians, except in refuting the errors of some heretics, who professed to receive them as genuine and inspired productions, and with whom they were willing to dispute upon principles out of their own books. Few, if any, of these pieces (which it is pre- tended were written in the apostolic age) were composed before the second century of the Chris- tian era, several of them were forged so late as the third century, and were rejected as spurious at the time when they were attempted to be im- posed upon the Christian world. Further, these pretended apostolical books are filled with ab- surd, unimportant, or frivolous details; they ascribe to the Virgin Mary, or to Jesus Christ himself, miracles which are both useless and improbable; they mention things which are later than the time when the author lived whose name the book bears ; their style is totally different from that of the genuine books of the New Tes- tament ; they contain direct contradictions to authentic historj-, both sacred and profane ; they are studied imitations of various passages in the genuine Scriptures, both to conceal the fraud and to allure readers ; and they contain gross false- hoods, utterly repugnant to the character, prin- ciples, and conduct of the inspired writers. On all these accounts the apocryphal books of the New Testament have deser\-edly been rejected from the canon of Scripture as spurious produc- tions. Some modem opposers of Divine Revela- tion, indeed, have attempted to invalidate it, by representing them as of equal authority with the genuine books of Scripture ; but so far are these APO productions from affecting the genutnencM, crwli- bility, and inspiration of the several books of the New Testament, which were generally received by the Christian Church as written by tlie n]>os- tles and evangelists, that, on the contrary, they confirm the general accounts given in the canoni- cal Scriptures, and thus indirectly establish the truth and Divine authority of tlie (gospel. On the subject of apocryphal buoks, see, further, Home's Introduction to the Critical StwJy and Knowledge of the Ilohj Scriptxiret, vol i., Ap[)Cn- dix. No. I. (ninth edition); Fabricii Codex Pseudepigi'aphus Vderis Testamer.ti (Hamburg, 1722 41, 2 vols. 8vo); Fabricii Codex Apo- cryi>hits Novi Testamenti (Hamburg, 1719-43, 3 parts in 2 vols. 8vo) ; and Jones's New and Full Method of Sett liny the Canonical Authority/ of the New Testament (Oxford, at the Clarendon Press, in 3 vols. 8vo). A Bibliographical ac- count of the principal collections of the a|)ocry- phal books of the Old and New Testament will be foimd in Home's Introduction, \-ol. v.. Part 1 , chai)ter iii. (ninth edition). A good and cheap edition of the New Testament Apocrypha has been published by Tiscliendorf. — See Biblb. ApoIliiiarianH. — It is erroneous to consiler this sect as a ramification of Arianism, although the Arian heresy gave rise to it. Its author was Apollinaris the Younger, Bishoj) of Laodicea, a man of distinguished merit, and whose early life had been signalized by iiis services to the Cliristian religion (Socrat., lib. xi., c. 46 ; Epiphan. Iltpres., 76). He had combated the infidelity of Por- phyry, and attacked the heresy of Arius ; but by indulging too freely in philosophical distinctions and subtleties, he was led to deny, in some mea- sure, the humanity of Clirist. He maintainwt that the body with which Christ was endowiM. or which Christ assumed, had a sensitive, but not a rational sou), and that the divine nalua- performed the functions of rcjison, supplying the place of the intellectual principle. From this hypothesis it followed that the divine nature in Christ was blended with the human, and sulfered with it the pains of crucifixion aud death. Other errors have been charged on Apollinaris, but from the accusation of Sabeliianism he h.rs been vindi- cated. His doctrines were received in many of the eastern provinces, but as they were cjpuble of difi'erent explanations, his followers were »ul>- divided into various ramifications. The .V|.'Iii- narian heresv, at least in name, did not mliiui.imi its ground long, but sank und.-r the uniti-U lore • of authority and argument. Tlie doctrine w«s condemned in several councils, nt Alcxnndnn. in 3G2, at Rome, in 375, and ogmn \n 3iH. when Apollinaris was deiKwed from his bmhopnc Apology, in cla.ssical authors, Mgrnli.-s, not. as in popular use, an exaisc, but a f.f.; (Du Cange, Gloss. Grcec. in voce; Bishop Marsh's Michaelis, vol. ii., pp. Ill, 639). Apostles' Creed. — See Creed. Apostolate (ripostolatus), the office of an apostle of Christ. By various ancient writers of the fourth century, it is used for the office of a bishop; and in the ninth and following cen- turies, it became appropriated to the papal dignity Apostolical (from apostle'), relating to the apostles, or delivered by them, or in the manner of the apostles. The appellation of apostolical was, in the primitive Church, given to all such churches as were founded by the apostles, and even to the bishops of those churches, as being the reputed successors of the apostles. These were, at first, confined to four — viz., Jerusa- lem, Antioch, Rome, and Alexandria; but, in succeeding ages, other churches assumed the same title, principally on account of the conformity of their doctrine with that of the churches which were apostolical by foundation, and because all bishops held themselves to be successors of the apostles, or acted in their respective dioceses with apostolical authority. In progress of time, how- ever, the Bishop of Rome ha^'ing acquired greater power than all the rest, and the three patri- archates of Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem, having fallen into the hands of the Saracens, the title apostolical was restricted to the pope and to his church alone. Apostolic Canons are eighty-five laws for the government of the Christian Church, and erroneously supposed by some writers to have 36 APO been drawn up by the apostles themselves ; but Bishop Beveridge, to whom we are indebted for the best edition of them, is of opinion that though they were not actually written by the apostles, yet they are of great antiquity, and that they are a collection of the canons of several churches, enacted before those made by the council of Nice. They exhibit the principles of discipline received in the Greek and Oriental Churches in the second and third centuries (Mosheim's Eccl. Ilist, book i., cent, i., part ii., chap, ii., § 19). For the literary history of the pseudo-apostolical canons, the reader is referred to Gibbing's Roman Forgeries and Falsifications, pp. 64-116 (Dublin, 1842, 8vo). Apostolic Chaiuber (Camera Aposinlica), the treasury of the pope, as Bishop of Rome, whence he used to draw the necessary sums for his personal expenses. It was also considered as a fund for the support of Christian hospitality, and for relieving the distresses of the poor. Apostolical Constitutions are certain regulations for the constitution, organization, discipline, and worship of the Christian Church. They till eight books, and profess to be the work of the apostles of Jesus Christ ; but they are utterly destitute of any evidence to support that claim. They are supposed to have been com- piled in the Eastern or Greek Church, in the latter part of the third or in the beginning of the fourth century. They bear marks of an Arian hand, and contain not a few superstitions, pro- fane comparisons, mystical expositions, and as- cetic regulations. As describing the form, dis- cipline, and ceremonies of the churclies in the East about the year .SOO, they are of some value. The best editions in Greek are those of Bishop Beveridge, in his PanJeciae Canonum, and of Cotelerius, in his edition of the Patres Apostolici. The completest English edition is Dr. Chase's (New York, 1848, 8vo). A handsome and cheap edition in Greek has been recently published by Ultzen (one vol., 8vo, Rostock, 1853). Apostolical Fatiicrs, an appellation usu- ally given to the writers of the first century, wlio employed their pen in the cause of Christi- anity, and who had converse with the apostles or their immediate disciples. They are five in number, viz., Clement, Ignatius, Polycarp, Bar- nabas, and Hermas. Tliese fathers were not remarkable either for their learning or their elo- quence ; on the contraiy, they express the most pious and admirable sentiments in the plainest and most illiterate style. 15 ut this is rather a matter of honour than of reproach to tiie Cliris- tian cause; since we see, from the conversion of a great part of mankind to the Gospel, by the ministry of weak and illiterate men, that the progress of Christianity is not to be attributed to human means, but to a divine power. The mental weakness of the apostolic fathers separates them by a wide and striking chasm Irom the apostles themselves. The writings APO of the apostolic fatliers are valuable reposi- tories of tlie faitli and practice of the Chri.s- tian Church during its first and purest a^e. Tlieir testimony to the genuineness and authen- ticity of the books of the New Testament is peculiarly imporUnt ; and, as liie conteiiiporar>- friends of any body of men must know the senti- ments of such men more accurately and per- fectly tlian the most sagacious inquirers who flourished many ages after them, the writings of the apostolic fathers are peculiarly valuable as confirming those views of the doctrine and Ro- vernment of the Church which we read in the New Testament. A good edition of the works of these fathers is that published i)y Le Clerc, after Cotelerius, at Amsterdam, in 17-24, in two folio volumes, accompanied botli wiili tlieir own anno- tations and with the remarks of other learned men. There are also recent and cheap editions by Hefele and Dressel. The genuine epistles of tlie apostolic fathers were translated into English by Arch- bishop Wake, and have often been reprinted. The best edition of what are now believed to be the genuine epistles of Ignatius is Mr. Curetims Corptis fynatlanum, containing the epistles to Polycarp, to the Romans, and to the Ephesiaas, in an ancient Syriac version, with a correspond- ing Greek text, and an English translation (Lon- don, 1849, royal 8vo). Apostolics or ApoMtlea, a name assumed by three different sects, which professed to imi- tate the manners and the practice of the apos- tles. The first who called themselves apostles flourished in the close of the second centurj-. Little is known of their peculiar tenets, except that they renounced every kind of property, and had all things in common (Du Cange, Gloss. ImI., voce Apostolici.') — -Tlie second sect of the apos- tolics lived in the twelfth century, and were men of the lowest birth, wlio gained their subsistence by bodily labour. As soon as they forme*! themselves into a sect, they drew after them a multitude of adiierents, of all ranks and orders. Their religioiLs doctrine (as Bernard, wlio wrote against them, acknowledges) was free from error, and their lives and manners were irre- proachable and exemplary. Yet tiiey were repreliensible on account of tlie following peculi- arities : — They held it to be unlawful to fake an oath; they permitted their hair and beards to grow to an enormous length ; tlioy preferR-d celi- bacy to wedlock, and called themselves the clia.Hto brethren and sisters; notwithstanding which each man bad a spiritual sister willi liini, witJi whom he lived in a domestic relation.— Tlio third sect of the apostolics arose in the thirteenth centurj-. Its members made little or no alteratiim in Iho doctrinal part of the public religion, their efforts being chielly directed to the iiitriKluction of tlio simplicity of the primitive times, an.i nioro especially the manner of life obser\«l by the apostles. Gerhard Sngaielli, the founder of thisi sect, obliged his followers to itinerate from pUc« 37 APO to place, clothed in white, with long beards, dishevelled hair, and bare heads, accompanied by women whom they termed spiritual sisters. They also renounced all kinds of property and possessions, and inveighed against the increas- ing corruptions of the Church of Rome, the overthrow of which they pretended to foretell, to- gether Avith the establishment of a purer Church on its ruins. Sagarelli was burnt at Parma in the year 1300, and was succeeded by a bold and enterprising man named Dulcinus, a native of Novara, who published his predictions with more courage, and maintained them with greater zeal than his predecessor. He appeared at the head of the apostles ; and, acting as a general as well as a prophet, assembled an army to maintain his cause. He was opposed by Ray- nerius. Bishop of Vercelli, who defended the in- terest of the Roman pontiff, and waged a fierce war against this chief of the apostles. At length, after fighting several battles with obsti- nate courage, Dulcinus was taken prisoner, and put to death in the most barbarous manner, in the year 1307. His sect continued to subsist in France, Germany, and other countries, until the beginning of the fifteenth centur}', when it was totally extirpated under the pontificate of Boni- face IX. Apostolical Succession. — It is maintained by the Romish Church, and by those who call themselves Anglo-Catholics in the Church of England, that the title to the episcopal office deiends on the circumstance that the power and privileges of that office have been handed down in succession by bishop to bishop, even from the apostles themselves. To be governed by bishops whose right and title is thus derived, they consider essential to a true church ; while those bodies of Christians who are destitute of the apostolical succession are supposed to be de- barred from the enjoyment of the most important of those means of grace which the Saviour designed for his people. How wTiters in tha Episcopal Church have differed on this point may be seen in the follow- ing paragraphs : — I. On the office of the apostles, and whether they had any successors. — Until Christ's death the apostles were presbyters, and Christ alone was bishop. 1. This is affirmed by Stilling- fleet, Ireniciim, part ii., p. 218; Spanheim, 02). Tlieol, part i., p. 436; in Ayton's Constit. of the Ch., ■p. 18; Hammond's Woi-ks, vol. iv., p. 781, who makes them deacons; Brett, Divine Right Episcop., lect. viii., p. 17. 2. This is contradicted, and the apostles made bishops dur- ing the same time, by Jer. Taylor, Episcop. As- serted; Dr. Scott, in Christian Life., vol. iii., p. 338 ; Dr. Monro's Inq. into the New Opinions, p. 96; Mr. Rhind, ApoL, p. 50, &c.; Willet, Synopsis Papismi, p. 236; Archbishop of Spalato, in Ayton's Constit. of the CL, append, p. 7; Jeremy Taylor, Works, vol. vii., p. 7, &c., who contra- APO diets himself in Works, vol. xiii., p. 19, et seq. Archbishop Laud is very positive in affirming that Christ chose the twelve, and made them bishops over the presbyters (Laud on the Lit. and Episcop. Y>. 195), and Bishop Beveridge is as confident that Christ chose these same twelve as presbyters and not bishops ( Works, vol. ii., p. 112). Again, Laud asserts very positively, that Christ ordained them, since the word used bj' St. Mark is "Ito/jjit-" — He made them (Ibid., p. 196). Beveridge, on the contrary, declares that Christ did not ordain any of them during his life, and adduces in proof, the use of this very term i'proincT.— See Enckatites. Arabici, a sect that sprung up al>out the year 207, whose leading tenet was that tlic n.uI du-d witii the bodv and rose again with iU Emtt'bius lib. vi., c. 37', relates that a council was calle«l to stop the progress of this ri.sing .Hctt, at wlutl. Origon atten.led, and by his eKMpi.'nce and Warn- ing induced its leaders to abjure their error. Arrani »i»ciplliiB isyslem of teatt vi- struction), a phrase used to denote the ee«iter.c practice of the early Church in coucealing certaiu ARC parts of worsbip and ceremonial from the nncon- verted, and from catechumens. Some have sup- posed that it originated in imitation of the mysteries of heatlienism, and as a means of dis- guising the original simplicity of the worsliip ; and others deduce it from the necessity of caution and secresy created by persecution. It may be added that the idea of mysteries early and gradually rose in the Church as the spirit of apostolic order left it. The Lord's Supper had an awful solemnity thrown around it, and so had baptism; the catechumens were placed under long probation ; and the power and prerogative of the clergy were proportionally increased. When the Eucharist, the missa fide- Hum, was to be dispensed, the uninitiated were commanded to leave the church, the doors of which were shut and guarded with superstitious reverence. Tlie germs of the practice may be traced to the end of the second century, and it gradualh' disappeared, and died out at length in the seventh century. Archbishop is the chief bishop of the pro- vince, and the name seems formerly to have been only a title of honour. It appears to have been introduced into the Church about the time of Athanasius (a.d. 320) ; but was not at that time conceived to imply anj' specific jurisdiction or precedency. In Italy several bishops are dis- tinguished with this title, who, nevertheless, have no power or authority over other bishops. The ecclesiastical state of England and Wales is divided into two provinces. The Archbishop of Canterbury has within his province the dio- ceses of Rochester, London, Winchester, Nor- wich, Ely, Lincoln, Chichester, Salisbury, Exeter, Bath and Wells, Worcester, Coventry and Lich- field, Hereford, LlandafF, St. David's, Bangor, and St. Asaph, together with four that were founded by Henry VIII., and erected out of the dissolved monasteries, viz., Gloucester, Bristol, Peterborough, and Oxford. The Archbishop of York has under him the following bishoprics, viz., that of Chester (which was erected by Henry VIII.), Durham, Carlisle, Manchester, Ripon, and Sodor and Man. As the seat of a diocesan, Canterbury conprehends only a part of Kent, together witli some other parishes in various dioceses, where the archbishop happens to have the manors or advowsons, and which, bv an ancient privilege of the see, are, on tliat account, considered as peculiars of tlie diocese of Canter- bury. The Archbishop of Canterbury is styled Primate of all England., partly because in former time he had from the pope a legatine authority over both provinces, and partly because his power of granting dispensations and faculties extends over both. Until the year 1152, his primacy extended to Ireland also, as before that period the Irish bishops received their consecra- tion from him. In like manner the province of York anciently claimed and possessed a metro- politan jurisdiction over all the bishops of Scot- ARC land, whence they had their consecration, and io which they swore canonical obedience, until about the year 1466, when the Scotch bishops withdrew their obedience. Four j'ears afterwards Pope Sixtus IV. constituted the Bishop of St. Andrews archbishop and metropolitan of all Scotland. The Archbishop of Canterbury has precedency over all the nobility (net being of blood roj'al), and great officers of state; the Archbishop of Yoric has like precedency, except with respect to the Lord Chancellor. In Scot- land there were two archbishops, one of Glasgow and one of St. Andrews. — See Bishop. Arch-Chaplain (Apocrisiariiis), the name of the highest ecclesiastical dignitarj' in the old kingdom of the Franks. He was the primate, — formally chief adviser in spiritual things, and virtually in civil things, too, so that he was arch-chancellor of the realm, the summus can- cellanus being originally subordinate to him. Archdeacon Q A^x.'^id.x.ovo;., chief of the deacons), an ecclesiastical officer, next in rank to the bishop, and having intrusted to him the discharge of certain branches of the episcopal functions. In the early ages of the Church, the bishops in their administration of ecclesiastical affairs, were usually accompanied by deacons, whose more especial province it was to inspect and relieve the indigent in their diocese, and to assist the bishops and presbyters in preaching and celebrating the Eucharist. Of these one was either elected by the rest, or appointed by the bishop (for it is not quite clear which was the case), to be more immedintely about the bishop's person, and to act as his minister or deputy in some of the inferior departments of the episcopal office. And this person seems generally to have been the oldest of the deacons. He also had his deputy, or colleague, called "the second deacon." In the Greek Church the archidiaconate was simply an office of dignity and honour, not of government. But in the Roman Church the archdeacon was the vicar of the bishop, and had authority even over the arch-presbyter — a sin- gular anomally in ecclesiastical politj'. At one time, indeed, about the third century, the arch- deacon at Rome usually succeeded, hy a kind of prescription, to the bishopric, which on one occasion grave rise to a singular proceeding. Novatus being archdeacon of the Roman Church, expected to succeed to the episcopal chair, upon the demise of Cornelius, at that time bishop. But Cornelius, in order to put an end at once to his hopes, ordained him priest. From tliis story it appears that no priest could be an archdeacon; which, indeed, must have been the case, as long as the oldest of the dea- cons succeeded by right of seniority to the archi- diaconate— a custom which prevailed in the Greek Church at least. After the office of chorepiscopus (bishop or inspector of the vil- lages) was discontinued, the archdeacon, as being constantly attendant upon the bishop^ 4U ARC cams by degrees to be employed by him in visiting the clergy of his diocese, and in the despatch of other matters, so that, by the be- ginning of the seventh century, he seems to have been the regular inspector of the diocese, in subordination to the bishop. But he was only the inspector, not the corrector; having no jurisdiction, but only a delegated authority to visit, and to report. By degrees, however, eitlier from grants made to them by the bishops, or from gradual usurpations of power, acquiring at length the force of prescription, the archdeacon acquired a jurisdiction which the law terms an ordinary jurisdiction, being exercised by him, as a matter of course, by virtue of his ollice, and independently of any delegation from the bishop of a part of his own power. It appears from this account that originally each bishop had one archdeacon. In the Church of England the divisions of dioceses into several archdeaconries seems to have been introduced soon after the conquest, at which period the bishops, in virtue of their baronies, were obliged to attend fre- quently upon the king in council. By the canon law, the archdeacon, who is styled oculus episcopi, has power to hold visitations, to ex- amine (by the bishop's direction) candidates for holy orders, to institute and induct into bene- lices, to inflict ecclesiastical censures and penal- ties, to reform irregularities amongst the clergy, and to take care of the buildings and property of the church. The archdeacon has a court, the judge of which, in the abseuce of the archdeacon, is the official. The business of tlie arclideacon in the Church of England, at the present day, consists principally in visiting the respective parishes within his jurisdiction at certain inter- vals, for the purpose of inspecting the churches and glebe houses, with a view to their being kept in good repair. He is also to have an equal care of all the goods and ornaments of tiie church. He has authority to order sucli re- pairs as he may think necessary, and, in case of disobedience, to subject the oti'ending parties to ecclesiastical censures and a pecuniary mulct. lie is also annually to hold a synod of the clergy in each of the rural deaneries which com- pose his archdeaconry (these are called rural deaneries to distinguish them from the cathedral and collegiate deaneries), and to confer witii them upon matters touching the welfare and good order of the church. At these visitations the archdeacon holds a court, at which he re- ceives the presentment of tlie cliurcliwardens of tlie preceding year, and administers the oatli of office to their successors. Arches, Court of. — See under Courts. Arcliininiiilritc. — " MavS^os;," means a sheepfold, and is a name sometimes given to a monastery ; whence an abbot is sometimes called archimandrite, or chief of the sheepfold. — See AiiuoT. Archoiitics (_a^Z'^i>, ruler), a sect which ap- ARI pearcd about the year 170, holding, amonp other absurd speculations, that tlie creation wan to be ascribed to a variety of authors — archontes, or archangels— and denying, it is also said, the ro- surrection of the body. They seem to be allied to the Valentinians. Arcliprcabyicr or Archpricat, chief among the presbyters. The persons holding tliia of- tice possessed great iulluence from the fifth to the seventh centuries. They shared in some functions of the episcopal office, and did iu duties when the see was vacant. They were thus brought into rivalry with the bishops, who checked them by means of archdeacons, and the latter were declared their superiors by Innocent 111. The dean corresponds in many respccU with the archpresbyter. In 1598 Clement VII. sent an arclipriest to England instead of a bishop. Arciis {arch), a name sometimes gi\xn, from the manner in which they were constructed, to the porches and gates which led into the interior narthex of an ancient church. If the church had no atrium or porticus, these arcus were the places for the first class of penitents. Argentcu!* itals, are painted in silver, except the initial letters, which are in gold. This MS. was first discovered in 1597, in the library of the Benedictine abbey of Werilen, in Westpha- lia, where it was sent as a present to Christina, (Jueen of Sweden. Arianisin, in ecclesiastical history, is the name by which the opinions of Ariiis is known. Whether we consider the number, learning, and iiitiuence of its adherents, or tlib spaciousness and subtlety of its tenetji. the Arian heresy claims a more distinguislicd rank than anv other in tlie history of lio(ero»ioxy. It began to disturb and divide the Cliurcli »oon after the conversion of Constantino, lis author, Ariiis, was first a deacon and attiTwanis a pres- byter in the Church of Alexandria; and Libya w'as the province of his birth, as it wa« of Sabellius. He was first known as a purlisan of Meletiiis, an Egv(.tinn bishop, who had created a schism in the Cliureh, but without anv corruption of doctrine. 11 is adherence to the iMeletian p.irtv wn.s of short eontinuiiiico; for he was reconciled to Teier, the Hishop of Alex- andria, and was by that pn-hito ordaiiUHl a deacon. But his perlinacity in nllowniK the validity of Jleletiaii baptism dr<-w on him the censure of I'eter, and he was ap«m exi«;ll"l from the communion of the Catholic Cliurch. I'eter, soon af^er iho expulsion of Anus, suffered 41 ARI marhTdom in the Dioclesian persecution, and was succeeded in the See of Alexandria by Achillas. To the new bishop Arius offered such a satisfactory explanation of his conduct that he was advanced to the rank of a presby- ter. The episcopate of Achillas was of short duration, and soon after the conversion of Con- stantino, Alexander was promoted to the impor- tant station, contrar}', it is alleged, to the expec- tation of Arius, who aspired to the dignity. The erudition, the eloquence, and the morals of Arius have commanded the reluctant acknowledgment of his powerful and implacable adversaries. But historians have differed as to his motives, whether his heresy originated in a sincere conviction of the truth of his opinions, or in [personal resentment against his bishop. It is equally undecided whether the beginning of the controversy should be attributed to Arius or to Alexander. Yet all accounts agree that the temper of Alexander was cool and cautious ; and therefore it may be presumed that unless Arius had given some provocation by the bold- ness and activity with which he disseminated his peculiar tenets, the Bishop of Alexandria would not have formallj' and authoritatively condemned them ; neither would he have dog- matically promulgated his own opinions on a subject so abstruse as that of the blessed Trinity. In an assembly of the presbyters, Alexander maintained, among other things, that the Son was not only of the same eminence and dignity, but of the same essence with the Father. This assertion was censured by Arius as being an approximation to Sabellianism. He eagerly espoused the opposite extreme, and said, "If the Father begat the Son, the begotten had a be- ginning of existence ; hence it is evident that there was a time when He was not." Manj- of the assembled clergy sided with the presbyter in opposition to the bishop; and no sooner were the opinions of Arius divulged than they found, in Egypt and the neighbouring provinces, a mul- titude of converts. But Alexander, seated in the chair of authority, instituted a solemn and public investigation of tlie controversy ; and hav- ing already exhibited himself as a disputant, he now assumed the oftice of a judge. He con- vened a synod at Alexandria, in which the doc- trines of Arius were condemned, and the heretic himself, with nine of his adherents, were ex- pelled from the communion of the Church. The sentence of the Alexandrian Synod was received by Arius with an undaunted miud. He retired into Palestine, and from this retreat wrote let- ters to the most eminent men of his times in defence of his conduct. So great was his suc- cess that he could reckon among his immediate followers two bishops of Egypt, seven presby- ters, and twelve deacons. A majority of Asiatic bishops soon declared in his favour, and among these Eusebius of Nicomedia, a man distin- guished for his influence. On the other hand, AEI Alexander, in repeated epistles and public ap- peals, maintained the justice of the proceedings against his refractorj' and contumacious presby- ter. The Emperor Constantine at first regarded this controversy as a matter of no political or religious importance, and contented himself with an attempt to suppress it, by recommending to both parties mutual concession. He wrote to both Alexander and Arius, and after censuring each, advised a reconciliation. He also employed the mediation of Hosius, Bishop of Corduba, who ineffectually laboured to promote peace between the disputants. When the emperor saw that his admonitions and remonstrances were un- availing, and that the commotion was spread- ing throughout the empire, he adopted other methods; and the famous council of Nice met in obedience to his command. The bishops assem- bled from all parts of the Christian world at Nice, in Bithynia, and their number, according to the testimony of Athanasius, who was present, amounted to 318. After several keen debates, the orthodox party expressed its collective opinion on the controversy in the following man- ner:— The different passages of Scripture which attest the divinit}' of the Son of God having been selected, a conclusion was drawn that these passages, taken together, amounted to a proof that the Son was of the same substance with the Father ; and the epithet 'OMOOT2I02, de- rived from the Platonic School, was adopted into the Nicene Confession. Eusebius of Ni- comedia, the great patron of the Arians, wrote a letter to the council, in which he censured the notion that the Son was uncreated; and the Arians drew up a written confession of their faith. Both these documents were pronounced by the council to be heretical. Hosius of Cor- duba was appointed to draw up a creed, which, in substance, is the same as that which, at this day, is called the Nicene Creed. — See Creed. It soon received the sanction of the council, and of Constantine himself, who declared that such as refused to comply with its decrees must prepare themselves for immediate exile. The hostility of the Arians to the Catholic doctrine would have been more dangerous to the Church if the members of their sect had not formed divisions among themselves. Not less than eighteen modifications of the Arian creed are in existence ; but the divisions of Arianism itself are reducible to three classes — 1. The genuine or primitive Arians. 2. The semi- Arians. 3. The Acacians, who are known under other appellations. — 1. The tenets of pure Arianism, according to the representations of Athanasius, Hilary, Basil, and Epiphanius, to- gether with the historians Socrates, Sozomen, and Theodoret, are these: Christ is God, but inferior to the Father in regard to His divin- ity, substance, properties, and dignity. Christ is a creature, whose existence had a begin- ning ; but he was created out of nothing be- U ARI fore the foundation of the world. Christ, of consequence, is God by the will of the Father, not by nature, but by adoption ; yet made after the express likeness of the Creator. Christ is, therefore, of a different essence from the Father : he is not coeternal with the Father, because he is begotten ; he is not coequal nor consubstantial with the Father. The Holy Ghost is not God, but a creature of the Son, inferior to the Son as well as the Father, but co-operating with both in the work of creation. 2. The semi-Arians, it is said, maintained the Son to be ofioiovim;, i. e., similar to the Father in essence, not by nature, but by a peculiar privilege. 3. There were some who took a middle course, and contented them- selves with asserting simply that the Son is like to the Father, without any specification of properties or substance. The head of this sect was Acacius, the successor of Eusebius in the see of Csesarea ; but Acacius is said to have re- tracted this opinion, and to have subscribed the Catholic doctrine at the synod of Antioch. The Eunomians and Exocontians may be compre- hended under the first class. Eunomius was a disciple of Aetius, a deacon of the Church of Antioch, expelled on account of his heresy, and whose followers were called Aetiaus. Exocontian is a sj'nonyme of Arian, because the Arians main- tained that Christ was created 11 oIk ovrdiv, i. e., before the beginning of things. Eusebius, also, Bishop of Nicomedia, has given his name to a branch of the Arian sect. The semi-Arians were also called Duliani, because they affirmed that the Son was " SouXa; " — the servant of the Father ; and Theodoret has noticed them under the denomination of Psathyrians — It is needless to enumerate more of these obscure modifications of the Arian and semi- Arian heresy. — The funda- mental article of the opposite Nicene doctrine is the consubstantialitj' of the Father and the Son. The Son not only proceeds from the Father, he is not only in the similitude of the Father, but also of the same essence. He is not a creature, for he existed before the foundation of the world. The Holy Ghost is not of the Son only, but of the Father and of the Son together. Athanasius has both asserted the Nicene doctrine, and ably defended it against objections. He has al.^o carefully discriminated it, not only from Arian- ism, but from Tritheism and Sabellianism. Arianism was, however, far from being extin- guished in the empire ; for Constantius favoured it, while Theodosius made everj- effort to sup- press it. Many of the German nations adopted it. Ostrogoth and Vandal held it, and prosely- tized for it, and it became rampant for a season in Spain and Africa. In England, Whiston preached it in 1771, and lost his chair at Cam- bridge. Samuel Clarke followed, but was not so explicit ; and Hoadley and Sir Isaac Newton seem inclined to the same heresy. It found its way into the Presbyterian churches, and was, in many of them, the precursor of Socinianism. It AHM appears to be extinct as a formal faith, save in the north of Ireland. Armenian Church. — In the most ancient times the Armenians seem to have worshipped the same idols as the I'ersians ; but our kuowkdjie of their spiritual as well as temporal condition iu those ages is very defective. In the third century of our era, S. Savorich, or Gregory, is siiid to have converted Tiridates, King of Armenia, by hid preaching and miracles. In the following cen- tury, Miesrob — whose contemporary and dinciple, Moses of Khoren, has left a valuable history of his native country — caused the Scriptures to be translated from "the Greek. It is much to be lamented that the ignorance and superstition of the Armenian clergy led them subsequently to allow it to be interpolated from the Syriac and Vulgate versions. As literature has lattly been more cultivated than formerly by the Armenians themselves, and their language has been success- i'ulh' studied by some able men in France and Italy, it may be hoped that the original unadul- terated text may yet be recovered. The Arme- nians are generally considered as Monophy- sites, or those who confound the two natures in Christ. They baptize by immersion, de- light in pictures of saints and martyrs, and administer the cup to the laity. They be- lieve iu an intermediate state, but not in purga- tory; and they pay the same superstitious regard to the pictures of the saints as the other Chris- tians of the East. They keep many and rigid fasts, and some festivals. Christmas they cele- brate on the 6th of January. Their church go- vernment is episcopal, and their clergj- are subject to tlie patriarch, who resides at the great monas- tery of Echmiyadzin, about ten miles distant from Erivan. That place is also called Uch Kiliseh, and may be considered as the head- quarters of the religion and literature of Ar- menia. Armenian Monks.— -The smaller number are lav brethren, who follow the severe rule of St. Anthony, the hermit, in all its rigour. They live as hermits even in their monasteries, and are found principally on the confines of Persia. The greater number follow the rule of St. Ita-iil, but not rigidly. Their monasteries are generally in towns or places of pilgrimage. The most cele- brated is that of Eclimiyadzin, or Etchmeazm, i. e., the descent of the Son of Gwl, not far from Erivan, the seat of the CatJiclicus or Patriarch of the Armenian Church, wlicre there is also an ecclesiastical seminary and a pnntuig estab- lishment. There are three churche.i m-.w each other at this place, whence it receives its name of Uch Kiliseli; and most of the vertabett, or d(K;tors in divinity, graduate here. The monas- terv has cells for ei-hty monks; but has seldom more than fiftv occupants. The wlu.le number of convents in' Persian and Turki.th Armenia ia about fortv, and the number of monks about 200. Their revenues arc very small, and their 43 ARM discipline extremely rigid. There are also fifteen nunneries in Persian Armenia. There is a con- vent of Armenian monies of the Order of St. Basil at Jerusalem, which has been richly en- dowed by the liberality of the pilgrims. Most, if not all the monks of the United or Conform- ing Armenian Church (/. e., that part of it which acknowledges the supremacy of Eome), are branches of the Order of St. Dominic. A con- gregation of Armenian monks has long existed at Venice, and are located on the small island of San Lazaro. Aruiinianism, the creed named after its founder, James Arminius, who, in 1603, was made Professor of Divinity at Leyden. He had some time before become an object of suspicion in the Dutch Church, from his calling in question the truth of the Calvinistic theory of predestina- tion, and expressing lax opinions on other points of theology. His colleague, Francis Goniar, lost no time in complaining of his novel views. Ar- minius defended himself with ingenuity and caution ; but it was evident that he rejected the opinions which had hitherto been generallj' received by the Reformed; and he was loudly denounced by his opponents as maintaining a system which revived the errors of the ancient Pelagians. Arminius died in 1609, before any steps could be taken for the settlement of these disputes. But his party was already numerous and active. Uytenbogart and Episcopius were not inferior, as divines, to their master. In 1610 they addressed to the States of Holland a Re- monstrance in reply to the charges made against them by their enemies, in which they declared their belief:—" 1. That God, from all eternity, determined to bestow salvation on those who, as he foresaw, would preserve unto the end their faith in Christ Jesus, and to inflict everlasting punishment on those who should continue in their unbelief, and resist, to the end of life, his divine succours. 2. That Jesus Christ, by his death and sufferings, made an atonement for the sins of mankind in general, and of every individual in particular : that, however, none but those who believe in him can be partakers of that divine benefit. 3. The trm faith cannot proceed from the exercise of our natural faculties and powers, or from the force and operation of free-will, since man, in consequence of his natural corruption, is incapable either of thinking or doing any good thing ; and that therefore it is necessary to his conversion and salvation tliat he be recjenerated and renewed by the operation of the Holy Ghost, which is the gift of God through Jesus Christ. 4. That this divine grace, or energy of the Holy Ghost, which heals the disorders of a corrupt nature, begins, advances, and brings to perfection everytiiing that can bo good in man ; and that, consequently, all good works, without exception, are to be attributed to God alone, and to the operation of his grace : that, nevertheless, this grace does not force the man to act against his ARN inclination, but may be resisted and rendered in- effectual by the perverse will of the impenitent sinner. 5. That they who are united to Christ by faith are thereby furnished with abundant strength, and with succours sufficient to enable them to triumph over the seductions of Satan, and the allurements of sin and temptation ; but that the question. Whether such may fall from their faith, and forfeit finally this state of grace? has not been yet resolved with sufficient perspi- cuity, and must therefore be yet more carefully examined by an attentive study of what the Holy Scriptures have declared in relation to this important point." It is to be observed, that this last article was afterwards changed b}' the Ar- minians, who, in process of time, declared their sentiments with less caution, and positivel}' affirmed, that the saints might fall from a state of grace. This celebrated piece procured them the name of Remonstrants, while the Gomarists, who replied to it, were called anti-Remonstrants. Oldenbameveldt and Grotius, the leaders of the Republican party, undertook the defence of the Arminian divines ; but the steps which they took in their favour only accelerated the ruin of their clients and of themselves. These eminent states- men were obnoxious to the Stadtholder, Prince Maurice, to whose ambitious views they were warmly opposed. Their connection with the Arminians exposed the latter to the hostility of that powerful nobleman, who was thus led to regard them as dangerous persons, and to ex- tend his countenance to the leaders of the opposite party, whom he found more inclined to support his measures. The Sj^nod of Dort was accord- ingly assembled in 1618, by the authority of the general government, under circumstances suffi- ciently indicative of what was to follow. That celebrated assembly, which was attended by de- legates from Great Britain, Geneva, Switzerland, Hesse, Bremen, and the Palatinate, declared the Calvinistic doctrine to be the faith of the Reformed, and severe measures were imme- diately taken against the opposing party. The Remonstrants were banished from the united pro\inces; but, upon the death of Maurice, in 1625, they were allowed to return. The tolerant policy henceforth adopted by the states- general, allowed them the opportunity to de- velop their theology, and it soon realized the worst suspicions of their enemies. Episcopius taught a most dangerous latitudinarianism, and in another generation thev scarcely difiered from the Socinians. — See Calvinism. Ariioldists, one of the man}' sects that arose in the twelfth century, deriving its name from Arnold of Brescia, a disciple of the famous Abelard. He saw and deplored the evils which arose from the opulence and arrogance of pon- tiffs and bishops, and was carried by ex- cess of zeal into violent measures for reforming such abuses. He was crucified and burnt to ashes in 1155 ; but his spirit long continued to 44 ARR animate his disciples, who were ready to come forward with ardour and intrepidity as often as they fancied the time was come for carrying out the designs of their leader. Arrhabon (a pledr/e), a name sometimes given to the elements in the Lord's Supper, whence — Arrhabonarii became the title of those who held that the bread and wine were not really the body and blood of Christ, but only the pledge and earnest thereof. — See Real Puesence. Arteuionitcs, heretics who are said to have been the first to maintain that Christ was a mere man. Theodotus, a tanner of Byzantium, is styled by Eusebiiis the father of this apostacy, and from him the sect obtained the name of Theodotians. But they are more commonly called after Artemon, another of their leaders, who seems to have lived at or near Rome at the beginning of the third century. It was at Rome that Theodotus also first spread his false doctrines, and he was excommunicated for them by Victor, the bishop of that city, about the year 196. Articles {Statute of the Six, or the Bloody Statute), was an Act for abolishing diversity of doctrine in certain articles of opinion concerning the Christian religion, 31 Henry VIII., c. 14. By this law the doctrines of the real presence — the communion in one kind — the perpetual obli- gation of vows of chastity — the utility of private masses — the celibacy of the clergy — and the ne- cessitj' of auricular confession, were confirmed, and the denial of them made punishable with death. Ai'ticles, Fire, those articles to which King James, after much difficult}', succeeded in obtaining the sanction of the General Assembly of Scotland and the Scottish Parliament, in the j'ear 1G21, his object being to assimilate the Church of Scotland to that of England. The articles were — kneeling at the Lord's Supper, private communion, private baptism, confir- mation, and the observance of holy daj's. Articles of Faith are certain points of doctrine which we are obliged to believe, as having been revealed by God, and so declared to have beea by the church of which we are members. Articles of ILanibetli were nine articles on the subject of predestination, and the limitation of saving grace, which were drawn up by Arch- bishop Whitgift, and recommended to the attention of the students of Cambridge, in consequence of some disputes which were raised in the uni- versity, at that time, on the above-mentioned points. They were, however, merely declara- tory of the doctrines of the Church of England, and were not imposed as of public authority. Articles of the Clers;y QtrlicuH cleri), are certain statutes which were passed in the reign of Edward II., 1316, for terminating the dis- putes between the temporal and spu-itual courts ART respecting the limits of their several jurisdic- tions. Articles, Thirlr-IVine, of the Church of England were lirst printed in tlie year 15G3 ; and were at first published in Latin as well as in English. Tiie compilation of articles by the Reformed Churches was suggested by the cele- brated Augsburg Confession, tiieir object being to satisfy the reasonable incjuiries of sober men, who wished to be informed on the grounds of their secession from the Church of Rome, to re- ply to the calumnies of enemies, and to tdify the members of their respective communions. " An- other reason," says Bishop Burnet, "the Re- formers had, was this : They had smarted long under the tyranny of popery, and so they had reason to secure themselves from it, and from all those who were leavened with it. They here in England had seen how many had complied with every alteration, both in King Henry and King Edward's reign, who not only declared themselves to have been all the while papists, but became bloody persecutors in Queen M ary's reign ; therefore, it was necessary to keep all such out of their body, that they might not se- cretly undermine and betray it." In the reign of Henry VIIL, the foundation of the articles were laid in the changes that took place in the form of worsliii) ; and it is generally supposed that Bishops Ridley and Cranmer, assisted by other prelates, were the first to draw up an outline of articles to be believed in the Church of England. They were published by the king's authority. In the reign of Edward VI., a body of articles was compiled and published, which passed the Convocation of 1562, and was pub- lished the year ensuing. They were again rati- fied at the provincial synod held at London in the year 1571— being the thirteenth year of the reign of Elizabeth— by the signatures of eleven bishops. At this convocation a few alterations were made, which subsequently were eriu-H.d, so that the articles of 1563 are substantially the same as those now published in the liook of Common Prayer. Enactments, continuing Dissenting teachers to subscribe to the larger number of the Thirty-nine Articles, and scIi.k.I- masters to subscribe' to all, were pa-se a Christian sect in ancient times who, according to Epiphanius and St. Augustine, partoi-k of choe« as well as bread at the Kuchnnst-their apoloto" being that the first oblations that, «erc otfenJ by men in the infancy of the world were of the fruiU of the earth and of sheep. 45 ASC Ascension Day— commonly called Holy Thursday — a festival of the Church, of very ancient origin, obsen'ed in commemoration of the day on which our Saviour ascended into heaven. It is the fortieth day after Easter Sun- day, and the Sunday but one before Whitsun- dav. It was always included among the great festivals of the Christian Church, because of the important results to mankind arising from the completion of our Saviour's ministry upon earth, and his reception into heaven as the mediator be- tween God and man. We learn from Hospinian (quoted by Bingham) that when superstition marred the simplicity and purity of ancient cus- toms, much ridiculous pageantry was adopted in several churches on this day : such as drawing up an image to the roof of the church, to repre- sent the ascension of Christ, and then casting down another image to represent Satan falling as lightning from heaven, with many other ridiculous ceremonies of the same kind. Special services for this day are appointed in the Church of England, the psalms and lessons being also suitable to the occasion. Asceteriuiu, a name sometimes given in old writings to a monastery. The college of the funcrarii, or undertakers, founded by the Em- peror Anastasius, was so called. This consisted of eight monks and three acolythists, whose oc- cupation was one of most active eniplojnnent, nameh', that of continually burying the dead. Ascetic, a term applied by the Greek fathers to those who separate themselves from all inter- course with the world, and who exercise them- selves in divine things. The term was origin- ally applied to a s.?ct that appeared about the second century, and made profession of uncom- mon sanctity and virtue, which they supposed to consist in self-denial and mortification. They considered it an act of great merit to deny themselves the use of those things which were esteemed lawful for all other Christians to enjoy, and held it as an indispensable duty to undergo continual abstinence, and to subject themselves to the most severe discipline. Their object was, by raismg the soul above all external objects and all sensual pleasures, to enjoy a nearer com- munion with God on earth, and, after the dis- solution of their mortal bodies, to ascend to the supreme centre of happiness and perfection, im- retarded by the impurities and imperfections which debase mankind in general. The appella- tion was also given to those who were more than ordinarily intent on the exercises of prayer and devotion, and hence St. Cyril of Jerusalem, calls the prophetess Anna, "who departed not from the temple, but sen-ed God night and day," * arxKT^ia £uXajS=o9ition that they were erased from the list of royal chajdams. Convocation 61 BAN took up the matter, and a committee had censured the sermon, when, in 1717, the govern- ment arrested their proceedings ; nor to the pre- sent has Convocation any real liberty of action. The orthodox clergy, as a body, it may be added, ^vere opposed to Hoadley, whose views on the sacrament, and other points, were suspected of kSociuianism. Banns, or public proclamation made before the congregation, announcing the intention of certain parties to come up for marriage. Accord- ing to the statute 26 of George II., it is enjoined that ''All banns of matrimonA' shall be pub- lished upon three Sundays preceding the solemni- zation of marriage, immediately after the second lesson." Before the passing of that act, the ) ubric allowed the publishing of banns on holy days as well as on Sundays, immediately before the sentences for the ofTertor}'. The design of " publishing the banns of marriage " in this manner is self-evident: to ascertain whether there is any reasonable ground of objection to the proposed marriage. Wheatly observes — " The curate is not to stop his proceed- ing because any peevish or pragmatical person, without just reason or authority, pretends to forbid him, as is the case sometimes when the churchwardens, or other officers of the parish, presume to forbid the publication of the banns, because the parties are poor, and so like to create a charge to the parish. But poverty is no more an impediment of marriage than icealth ; and the kingdom can as little subsist without the poor as it can without the rich," In Scotland proclamation is to be made in the parish church three several Sabbaths; but the law is often evaded, and one Sabbath onlj' is taken. The Directortj says: — "Before the solemnizing of marriage between any persons, their purpose of marriage shall be published by the minister three several Sabbath days, in the congregation, at the place or places of their most usual and constant abode, respectively. And of this publication the minister who is to join them in marriage shall have sufficient testimony before he proceed to solemnize the marriage. Before that publication of such their purpose (if the parties be under age), the consent of the parents, or others under whose power they are (in case the parents be dead), is to be made known to the chm-ch officers of that congregation, to be recorded." Baptism, the first of the two sacraments of the New Testament. It is thus spoken of in the twenty-seventh article of the Church of England: — " Baptism is not only a sign of profession and mark of difference, whereby Christian men are discerned from others that be not christened, but it is also a sign of regeneration, or new birth, whereby, as bj' an instrument, they that receive baptism rightly are grafted into the church ; the promises of forgiveness of sin, and of our adop- tion to be the sons of God by the Holy Ghost, are visibly signed and sealed ; faith is confirmed, 62 BAP and grace increased by virtue of prayer unto God. The baptism of young children is in any wise to be retained in the church, as most agree- able with the institution of Christ." The West- minster Confession sa,ys: — " 1. Baptism isasacra- ment of the New Testament, ordained by Jesus Christ, not onl}' for the solemn admission of the party baptized into the visible church, but also to be unto him a sign and seal of the covenant of grace, of his ingrafting into Christ, of regenera- tion, of remission of sins, and of his giving up unto God through Jesus Christ, to walk in new- . ness of life : which sacrament is, by Christ's own appointment, to be continued in his Church until the end of the world. 2. The outward element to be used in this sacrament is water, wherewith the party is to be baptized in the name of the Fatiier, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost, by a minister of the Gospel, lawfully called there- unto. 3. Dipping of the person into the water is not necessary; but baptism is rightly adminis- tered by pouring or sprinkling water upon the person. 4. Not only those that do actually' pro- fess faith in, and obedience unto Christ, but also the infants of one or both believing parents are to be baptized. 5. Although it be a gi-eat sin to contemn or neglect this ordinance, yet grace and salvation are not so inseparably annexed unto it, as that no person can be regenerated or saved without it, or that all that are baptized are un- doubtedly regenerated. 6. The efficacy of bap- tism is not tied to that moment of time wherein it is administered ; yet notwithstanding, by the right use of this ordinance, the grace promised is not only offered, but really exhibited and con- ferred by the Holy Ghost, to such (whether of age or infants) as that grace belongeth rmto, according to the counsel of God's own will, in liis appointed time. 7. The sacrament of baptism is but once to be administered to any person." The use of water as an instrument of religious initiation was not unknown to the Greeks before the time of Christ. We have the authority of Clemens Alexandrinus and Ter- tullian for stating that purification by water was the first ceremony performed at initiation into the Eleusinian mysteries ; and Hesychius renders the word " li'S^avos " — or the waterer, by 0 ayviiiTYii Tuv 'EXivinviav"- — the priest, whose office at the Eleusinian mysteries was that of purifying. Whether this rite was derived from some ancient patriarchal tradition prevalent in Egypt, fiom which country the mysteries were introduced into Greece, or rather owed its origin to mere human invention, it is impossible satis- factorily to conjecture. Thus much may be ob- served, that purification by water seems an em- blem so naturally fitted to express that mental purity with which we ought to approach the Deity, that it scarcely requires the supposition of a divine tradition to account for its being adopted as a religious ceremony amongst people unen- BAP lightened by revelation. Baptism is said by some to have been used by the Jews, together with circumcision, in the admission of proselytes. Considering that themselves had been admitted into the Mosaic convenant by circumcision, bv baptism, when they washed their clothes, and sanctified themselves, previous to receiving the law at Mount Sinai, and by sacrifice, they required the same rites to be observed by proselytes. A woman proselyte they admitted by baptism and sacrifice. In cases where the proselyte had chil- dren, they not only circumcised, but also bap- tized them, and they called the baptism of a pro- selyte his new birth or regeneration. Wall, in his work on Infant Baptism, thus draws a parallel between Jewish and Christian baptism : — 1. The Jews required of 1. The Christians re- proselytes a renunciation quired to renounce the of idolatry, and to believe devil and all his works, in Jehovah. and to believe in the Trin- ity. 2. The Jews interrogated 2. The Christians put in- the prosleyte, while stand- terrogatorics as the cate- ing in the water. chumen was about to enter the water, which he h:id before answered in the congregation. 3. The Jews baptized 3. The Cliristians bap- the infant children of pro- tized infants. selytes. 4. The Jews required for 4. The Christians ob- an infant proselyte, that served a similar custom, either his father, or the church of the place, or three grave persons, should answer for the child. 5. A Jewish proselyte 5. Our Saviour and the was said to be born again, apostles call baptism re- when baptized. generation, or being born again. 6. The Jews told the 6. The same term is used proselyte that he was now in the New '1 estament; tlie clean and holy. baptized Christians are called the saints, the linly, the sanctified; "sanclifled with the washing of water." 7. The Jews declared 7. Among Christians the baptized to be under this w;is shown by the the wings of the Divine gifts of the Holy Ghost; to Majesty or Shechinah. this end the laying on of hands was used— a custom probably taken from the Jewish Church. 8. At the paschal season, 8. The Christians at the Jews baptized prose- Easter administered bap- lytes that they might eat tism in a solemn manner, tlie passover. 9. The Jews had their 9. The Christians had proselytes of the Gate. their catechumens or com- petentes. The authority for this parallel is that of the Babylonian Talmud and the writings of Maimo- nides. The Talmudlsts and the Kabblns may be wretched expositors of the law committed to the keeping of the people of God ; but this circumstance will not Invalidate an iiistorical testimony which asserts the existence of a particular custom at the time when their writings were composed. The Talmud was completed at the termination of the fifth century, and the laws there recorded, re- lating to proselyte baptism, must be taken as an evidence of facts then existing. Such is the vague statement on the one side, and argued by BAP Danz, Ziegler, Selden, Lightfoot, and others; while Carpzov, Miner, DeWette, and Schnecken- burger maintain, with more probability, that the proof is defective— that while the tiemara only gives a tradition that tlie rite existed in the first century, it was jjrobably introduced with special formality after tlie destruction of JfnL>a- lem. Philo and Josephus make no allusion to the custom, neitlier is there any reference in the best Targums, in the apocryfihal books, nor in the fathers of the first three centuries. In fact, according to Josephus {Anliq. xiii. 9, xx. 2), passages in which he speaks of the admission of proselytes, baptism is not mentioned. Water when used was used in the form of tlie ordinan* bathing — the lustration was not administered to prosel}-tes ; they simply washed thcin in water. This ceremony grew into importance after sacri- fices had ceased, and about tiie end of the third century was lilted Into peculiar prominence. The frequenc}' of lustrations as enjoined by the jMosaic law and practised by the people — the numerous images taken from tliem in the pro- phets— the obvious fitness of water as a symbol of purification, and the expectations of renova- tion— of the gift of "clean hearts" under the reign of Messiah, — all show why the use of water was, in divine wisdom resorted to by John, and why the people were in no way startled by the introduction of baptism. Baptism was instituted by our Lord himself, as the means of admission into ids Clmrch, when he gave this direction to his disciples after his resurrection (Mark xvi. 15, 16), " And he said unto them, Go ye into all the world, and i)reach the gospel to every creature. He tiiat bclieveth, and is baptized, shall be saved ; but he tliat be- lieveth not shall be damned." By 1'a.xlobap- tists it is thought it corresponds, as the sacra- ment of initiation, to the rite of circumcision in the Jewish Church, being the badge and mark whereby Christians are discerned from those who are not christened. The analogy between bap- tism and circumcision appeared so forcibly to the church, under the government of St. Cy])rian, that it was doubted by some in his tiincT and his opinion was requested, whether baptism ought not to be delayed till the eighth day after the birth of a child, in order tiiat the rcscMublance between the Jewish and Chri.stinn sacrament might be strictly presen-ed. I'hc Chn.stian Church admits equally to tiiis sacrament |wr9ons of either sex, adults or infants. The sen-ice found in the Common Prayer for flie bapti-sm of such as are of riper years, was ad.led at tlio re- view on the restoration of Ciiarles 11.. as described in the preface to tlie C«vwwn I'raytr, m conae- quence of the growth of Anabaptists, whoM principles having gained stn-ngth during the pre- ceding century, it was necessary to have a fi.nn fitted for the administration of baptism to adults. There was an ndminisfratioii of baptism, in use in the first centuries after Christ, c«U«l 63 BAP clinical baptism. By clinical baptism is meant baptism administered to a person on bis death- bed. Mention is made of this custom by C^vprian and Eusebius; by Epiphanius (in Heres. Cerinth.'), and by other writers of the fourth and fifth cen- turies. The necessity of so baptizing occurred when a heathen in his last sickness was converted to Christianity ; but it more frequently happened in consequence of the prevalence of a supersti- tious notion, that baptism itself washed away all the sins of their past life ; and therefore many persons, convinced of the truth of Christianity, delayed to receive it till their last sickness, hoping thereby to die released from the guilt of sin, and to secure their admission into heaven. Against this error we find the fathers of the Church, such as Gregory and Chrysostom — in- veighing in powerful language. Two of the most remarkable instances of this superstition are found in the Emperor Constantine and his son Constan- tius, who were both baptized on their death-bed. The sincerit}' of a submission to the self-denying principles of our religion, thus wrung from the convert under fear of death, must have been doubtful. It was therefore decreed by the council of Neocesarea, a.d. 350, and of Laodicea, 363, that no clinic should ever be admitted to the order of a presbj-ter. The Church has always committed to the clergy the right of baptizing, but though in the Anglican Church the deacons are supposed, after Philip's example, to have divine authority for performing this ofBce, the exercise of it by that order appears to have been limited by the discipline of the church, out of respect to the higher orders of the clergy, to cases of urgent necessity, in which a priest is not present. This submission of the deacon to his superior is inti- mated in the ser\'ice of ordering deacons, used in the Church of England, where the deacon is em- powered to baptize in the absence of the priest. TertuUian admits the validity of lay-baptism, •when administered by laymen in cases of urgent necessity ; so does the council of Eliberis, a.d. 305; and also Jerome. The antiquity of the opinion is confessed by Calvin (Inst., 1. iv., c. xv., § 20). Basil, however, seems to have held the contrary notion ; and the apostolic Const, cap. X., 1. iv., forbid laymen to baptize. Those who are inclined to take up the consideration of the argument should keep this in mind, that it is one thing to dispute the ecclesiastical right of a lay- man to baptize, and another to deny the spiritual validity of a sacrament so administered. Bap- tism by a layman is at this time unknown in the Church of England or in any of the Presby- terian bodies in Scotland or America; yet, it may be interesting to our readers to notice some of the ancient canons made, during the thir- teenth century, in England, by the pope's le- gates, connected with this point. In the con- stitution of Edmund, Archbishop of Canter- bury, A.D. 1236, 26. H. 3. there is this direc- BAP tion : — " Tlem inierroget sacerdos laicum dili- genter, cum in necessitate haptizaverit puerum; quid dixerit, eiiam quidfecerit. Et si diligenti prcecedente inquisitione facta sibi fide plena, in- venerit laicum distincte et in forma ecclesice bap- tizasse, sive in Latino, sive in Gallico, sive in Anglico, approhet factum. Si verb baptizatus fuerit puer a laico, precedentia et subsequentia mersionem expleantur vel suppleantur a sacer- dote" — " When a layman has, upon urgent necessity, baptized a child, the priest shall in- quire diligently with what words and acts it was performed ; and if upon diligent inquiry he find, and is well persuaded, that the layman did dis- tinctly, and according to the forms of the church, whether in Latin, French, or English, baptize the child, he shall confirm the proceeding : but in this case the rites preceding and following the immersion shall be supplied by a priest." By another constitution of the same archbishop, order was given, that, in cases of childbirth, the attendants should have water ready at hand to baptize the child, if necessity required. The legatine constitutions of Otho, in the following year, gave farther order, that laymen should be instructed how to baptize, which was again en- forced in 1260, by the constitution of another legate, Othobon. It would be difficult to say whether this earnest desire to prevent any child dying unbaptized was owing more to supersti- tion than to a profound policy on the part of the clergy, who made a belief in the extreme necessity of baptism one means of preserving the people in the profession of Christianity. It would seem that lay-baptism became very pre- valent in consequence of these constitutions ; for we find, in 1279, a constitution of Archbishop Peccham, in a provincial synod held at Reading, enjoining that baptism by laymen shall not be repeated ; and in cases where it appears doubt- ful whether the child has been baptized or not, that the form should be used which is still pre- served in our Liturgy — " If thou art not already baptized, I baptize thee, &c." These references to the ancient constitutions of the Church of England, subsequent to the Church of Rome, will elucidate the history of the form of private baptism now existing in the Common Prayer Book. In the Liturgy of Edward VI. there is internal evidence that the form of private bap- tism was intended for the use of the laity as well as of the clergy, in cases of necessity, where the life of the child was in danger. In the articles drawn up by the Convocation, A. d. 1575, the twelfth article contained a solution of a doubt described as having arisen, whether the form of private baptism might be used by laymen or no. The Convocation decided in the negative; but this article, though existing in the MS., was never printed, and the doubt remained till the conference at Hampton Court, in the first year of James I., at which time the form was altered so as expressly to exclude lay- baptism. As the 54 BAP form now stands, instead of being called private baptism, it migtit be more correctly termed, " the office for receiving publicly into the church persons baptized at home by the minister." From this it may be concluded tliat laj'-baptism is now excluded from the church, there existing no necessity for it; but the church does not say that lay-baptism is no baptism. The sacrament of baptism can be received only once : such has been the universal consent of the Church : her belief in the single administration of baptism is expressed in the article of the Nicene Creed — " I believe in one baptism for the remission of sins." The cases -which appear to the contrary are derived from the re-baptizing of persons who had been baptized by heretics; but those who administered baptism in these cir- cumstances denied altogether the validity of heretical baptism — that it was no baptism, and that they who had received it were in fact not baptized. In the early Church certain classes of persons were excluded from baptism — the openly immoral — those who lived by the manufacture of images and other instruments of superstition, with astrologers, conjurers, and fortune-tellers, stage- players, gladiators, wrestlers, strolling min- strels, and dancing-masters, with all addicted to theatrical exhibitions. In baptism, water has been used in two dif- ferent ways. Immersion was a common form in the primitive Church, and infants are yet dipped in the Greek Church. The adult persons to be dipped were completely undressed in very early times; but a sense of decency gradually prevailed. Sprinkling has also been employed to a large extent, especially in the Western Church. The question is, whether the water should be applied to the subject, or the subject brought into con- tact with the water. — See Baptist, P^dobap- TISTS. In the rites of baptism according to the Church of England, we find two institutions of purely human origin, namely, that of sponsors, and signing with the cross. Sponsors or f/od- fathers, are called in the ancient writings of the church patrini and avaioxoi, or susceptores. The earliest mention of sponsors is made by Tertul- lian. Perhaps it is doubtful whether, during the three or four first centuries, the office of answer- ing for the children to be baptized pertained to the patrini or susceptores, whom we now term godfathers. The term sponsor, used by Tertul- lian, would certainly imply this duty. Cj'ril of Alexandria, a. u. 412, mentions the susceptor saying amen for the child baptized. From an early period of the second century there were attendants upon the children baptized, whose distinct office it was to receive them from the band of the priest; and since renunciation of sin and profession of faith were made from the earliest periods by adults, it is highly probable that these acts were, in the case of infants, per- formed by the sponsors or patrini. The defenders BAP of the custom say that it seems but a becoming act of reverence to the Ahniglity Giver of all good, that for infants who cannot promise for themselves, nor thank him for the great ble^>airigu contained in this sacrament, some public acknow- ledgment should be made, in their name, of the faith and obedience which God demands. — To give the name at baptism probably arose from the Jewish custom of naming the child at cir- cumcision. According to the fourteenth article of the eleventh chapter of the French Church Discipline, ministers are to reject ancient pagan names, such as Diana, and names belonging to God, such as Immanut-l. — There is evidence for the sign of the cross as early as the third cen- turj'. Much resistance was made, at the limo subsequent to the Reformation, by the Puritans, against the preservation of this rite. We only quote what the thirtieth canon says : — " Wa are sorry that his majesty's most princely care and pains taken in the conference at Hampton Court, amongst many other ijoints, touching this one of the cross in baptism, hath taken no better eftcct with many, but that still the use of it in baptism is so greatly stuck at and impugned. For the further declaration, therefore, of the true use of this ceremony, and for the removing all such scruple as might any- ways trouble the consciences of them who are indeed rightly religious, following the royal steps of our most worthy king, because he therein followeth the rules of the Scriptures, and the practice of the primitive Church, we do com- mend to all the true members of the Church of England these our directions and observations ensuing: — First. It is to be observed, tliat al- thougii the Jews and Ethnicks derided both the apostles and the rest of the Christians, for preaching and believing in Him who was crucified upon the cross ; yet all, both apostles and Christians, were so far from being discour- aged from their profession by the ignominy of the cross, as they rather rejoiced and triumphed in it. Yea, the Holy Ghost, by the mouths of the apostles, did honour the name of the cross (being hateful among the Jews), so fur, that under it he comprehended not only Christ cruci- fied, but the force, ellects, and nurits of his death and passion, witli all the comforts, fruits, and promises which we n-ceive or expect tliereby. Secondly. The honour and dignity of the name of the cross begat a reverend estimation even m the apostles' times (for aught that is known to the contrary) of the si-n of the cro.., which the Christians shortlv after used in all their acUons: thereby making kn outward show and profe^^ion, even to the astonishment of the Jews, that they were not ashamed to acknowledge Hnn for their Lord and Saviour who die- tized, as early as the fourth century, as an emblem of the illumination of the spirit. G. The dirisom, so called in the English Church, was a white garment or surplice, put on inunediately after baptism. In King Edward VI.'s Lilun/y, Uie form was: — "The godfathers and godmothers were to lay their hands upon it, and the minister was to put upon him his white vesture, conunonly called the chrisom, and to s:iy, take this white vesture as a token of the innoceiicy which, by God's grace, in this holy sacrament uf bapusin, is given unto thee, and ior a sign whereby ihou art admonished so long as thou livcst, to give thyself to innocence of living, that after this transitory life thou mayest be partaker ol the lifj everlasting. Amen." 7. ^all was not given to the baptized earlier than the eighth wiitury— nor 8. Were the ears touched with ttUUe liU the ninth. 9. The Xm of l""Ct was ln-.,uunlly given, as late as the lifih wnlury, and wu^hulg of the feet was sometimes |.racii.«cd. 10. J:aster and Penfecost were considered solemn tunes for the administration of baptism, from a |K;noU u earlv as the second and third ceiiluries. Jleresies respecting lUiptUm which sprung up during the first five centuries after Chrisu-^a Century. Morciou allowed baptism to be repeated 57 BAP thrice. He affirmed that none but virgins, widows, or celibates were fit subjects for baptism, and permitted women to baptize. The Montanists baptized the dead. The Valentinians, instead of baptizing in the name of the Father, &c., used a mystical form in the name of the Unknown Father of all things, in the Truth, the Mother of all things, in him that came down on Jesus, in the union and redemption and communion of powers. They used not water but poured a mix- ture of oil and water on the head, and then anointed the persons so baptized. — 3d Century. The Manichees affirmed that baptism by water was not necessary to salvation, and accordingly they did not baptize their converts. — 4th Cen- tury. Arius baptized in the name of the Son only. — 5th Century. Pelagius affirmed that in- fants were baptized for other reasons, and not because of original sin (see also Augusti, Siegel, Coleman). Baptismal Kegeneration. — See Tbacta- KIANISM. Baptism for tbe Dead, a species of vica- rious baptism practised by the Marcionites, and based on a misapprehension of what the apostle says (1 Cor. xv. 29). Tertullian reprobates it, and Chrysostom describes it as a fantastic act. The living man was hid under the bed of the dead one, and the dead man being solemnly asked if he would be baptized, the living man replied for him, and was baptized in his room. The apostle's words in the passage referred to, admit of a totally' different explanation. Baptism of the Dead, a strange custom prevalent in the north of Assyria, alluded to by Gregory Nazianzen, and condemned by the third council of Carthage. The idea seems to have been that men unbaptized during life might still, though late, receive some benefit, if they were baptized after death. Baptist, the name of a large religious de- nomination, whose leading principle is, that bap- tism ought not to be administered to infants, but to persons capable of believing and understanding the religion into which they are baptized. They farther hold that immersion in water is the only form of baptism. The Baptists are sometimes termed Antipaedobaptists, to express the ground of their variance from those Christians who main- tain infant baptism, and who are classed in this controversy under the term Paedobaptist. Since all Christians agree that the true religion is that which prevailed in the times of Christ and his apostles, it naturally follows that each sect endeavours to prove the existence of its doctrines, and the reception of them by the Church during the times of what is termed primitive Chris- tianity. Instead of giving a statement of our own, we prefer giving the words of Dr. Cox a late leading Baptist. As to the mode, he says, the Baptists "maintain that the Greek word, of which baptism is but the English form, properly and exclusively signifies immersion, and that, conse- BAP quently, the command to baptize can only be fulfilled in this manner. Hence the idea enter- tained by many that the application of water in any way, by sprinkling, pouring, or plunging, as equally legitimate, according to the design of the institution, they entirely repudiate. In the critical discussion of the subject some of their body also zealously argue that immersion is not at all a mode of baptism, but is baptism itself; on the same ground that to represent immersion as a mode of immersion would be a palpable absurdity ; and this would seem obvious enough if it be admitted that the Greek term can only be represented by the word immersion. In proof of this, the Baptists allege — 1. That the term is used in the sense of immersion throughout the whole extent of Greek literature, as the dipping of a pitcher in water, dipping an arrow in poison- ous matter, dipping a pen in ink; that persons the most profoundly' skilled in the original lan- guage of Scripture, and in the history of the Christian Church, have admitted this to be the primary signification and the primitive practice; and that the use of the term in the modern Greek corroborates this translation. 2. That the circumstances attending the administration of the ordinance of baptism at the introduction of Christianity, as recorded in the New Testa- ment, are equally significant and conclusive. They remark that persons were ' baptized in Jordan' (Matt. iii. 6 ; Mark i. 9) ; ' in the river Jordan' (Mark i. 5) : that baptize cannot, therefore, mean to pour, because to pour applies to the ekment, not to the person ; and in that case the water would be said to be poured upon the person, not the person poured in or into the water ; nor can it mean to sprinkle, for it is evidently needless to place a person in a river to sprinkle a little water upon him ; nor is it ever done by those who maintain that sprinkling is baptism. The Baptists also remark that Jesus, after having been baptized, ' went up straight- way out of the water' (Matt. iii. 16); that 'both Philip and the eunuch went down into the water;' that the latter was baptized while there, and that they both came ' up out of the water' (Acts viii. 38-39); circumstances which plainly show that to baptize is to dip under water ; they also refer to the expression, ' buried with Christ by baptism,' as implying that in baptism persons were ' buried ' in the water ; and that when the gift of the Spirit on the day of Pentecost (Acts i. 6), is called a baptism, and our Lord says of his last agony, ' I have a baptism to be baptized with ' (Luke. xii. 20), there is an evident allusion to the fulness of that gift, and the depth of those suffer- ings, both of which find an emblem in immersion, but none in the use of a little water, as in pour- ing or sprinkling. But as it regards the mode of baptism, this bodj' of Christian" contend that they are not distinguished from the vast mass of the Christian world. They appeal 68 BAP to the testimonies of eminent divines, not of their own body, and to the practices of the Catholic, the old English Episcopal Church, and to the Greek and Armenian Churches of the present da3'." As to the other distinctive tenets of the Antipaedobaptists. He writes: — "The Baptists plead the various instances recorded in the New Testament as confirmatory of their views of what they distinctively denominate ' believers' baptism,' as exclusively theirs. Those baptized by John confessed their sins (Matt, iii. 6). The Lord Jesus Christ gave the com- mand to teach and baptize (Matt, xxviii. 19 ; Mark xvi. 15-16). At the day of Pentecost they who gladly received the word were baptized, and they afterwards continued steadfastly in the apostles' doctrine and fellowship (Acts ii. 41, 42, 47). At Samaria those who believed -were baptized, both men and women (Acts viii. 12). The eunuch openly avowed his faith (in reply to Philip's statement — If thou helievest with all thine heart thou mayest), and went down into the water and was baptized (Acts viii. 35, 39). Saul of Tarsus, after his sight was restored, and he had received the Holy Ghost, arose and was baptized (Acts ix. 17, 18). Cornelius and his friends heard Peter, received the Holy Ghost, and were baptized (Acts x. 44-48). Lydia heard Paul and Silas ; the Lord opened her heart, and she was baptized, and her household. Paul afterwards went to her house and com- forted the brethren (Acts xvi. 14, 15, 40). The jailor, and all his house, heard the word, and were baptized, believing and rejoicing in God (Acts xvi. 32, 34). Crispus, and all his house, and many Corinthians, heard, believed, and were baptized (Acts xviii. 8). The disciples of Ephesus heard and were baptized (Acts xix. 5). The household of Stephanus, baptized by Paul, were the first fruits of Achaia, and addicted themselves to the ministry of the saints (1 Cor. L 16 ; xvi. 15)." Nor have the Baptists been wanting in their endeavours to support their opinions by the evidence of antiquity. They assert that infant baptism was unknown before the third century ; that it got footing during the fourth and tifth, and prevailed generally till the Reformation. They farther maintain, that during the dark ages, and prior to the Reformation, traces are to be met with of what they consider pure baptism : that the ancient British Church before the arrival of Augustine did not baptize infants: that Bruno and I3erengarius in the eleventh century, the Waldenses, the Lollards, and the Wickliffites were opposed to infant baptism ; and in compli- ance with these opinions, they take to themselves the honour of inscribing amongst the patrons of the Baptist sect, Sir William Sawtre, the first Lol- lard martyr in England, who was burnt (1401) in the reign of Henry the Fourth. It is certain that, at an early period of the Reformation, and before the horrible attempts of the Anabaptists at Mun- BAP ster, disputations were iield at Zurich, Bale and Berne upon infant baptism. Anaba[itism is said to have taken its rise at that period at Zurich. But we must beware of confounding tlie Baptist with the Anabaptist sect. The terra Anabaptist is one of reproach, and the wild and visionary doctrines held by them, on the subject of civil government, are distinctly disclaimed by the Baptists, who even on the subject of baptism differ from the German Anabaptists, who re- peated adult baptism, and used sprinkling instead of immersion. The Anabaptist notions were so contrary to the mild spirit of Christianity, that we cannot wonder that the Baptists were desirous to separte themselves from all connection with that odious sect. It has appeared to some a difHcult task to separate the Baptists from the Anabaptists for some years after the Reformation in England. That many of those who were persecuted for Anabaptism, during the reign of Elizabeth were pure Baptists, is highly pro- bable ; but it must be acknowledged that among the opposers of infant baptism were sometimes found those who held opinions which the tem- poral authorities justly considered as incentives to anarch}"-. Towaids the latter part of the reign of Elizabeth the powers of the Star Chamber and the High Commission had almost destroyed dissent : the Baptists fled the countr_v, and settled principally in Holland: and tiie existence of this sect then became more evident. At Amsterdam a Baptist church of English refugees was founded by Mr. Smyth, who had been a beneficed clerg}'- man of the Church of England, and having become attached to the Brownists, had seceded from the church. Mr. Smyth seems to have held sentiments on the subject of predestination and election which would be termed Arminian. Whether Smyth baptized himself and proceeded to administer baptism to his congregation, or whether he joined with others in restoring, according to a certain form, the pure bajjtism as he considered it, after it was lost, is a point dis- puted, although perhaps of no great moment. In the formation of this congregation by Smyth, we have the earliest evidence of the existence of regular Baptist churches, even tliough the previous prevalence of pure Baptist priiu-iples be acknowledged. Smyth died soon after these proceedings, somewhere about the year 1610, and was succeedeil in his ciiarge by Thomas Helwiase, wlio shortly after retunied to England witii his congregation, and settled in London. Their motive" for leaving Holland U said to have been this— that they did not licllcve themselves justified in living al.roa.l lor the pur- pose of avoiding pcrswution. The sM-veritics exercised bv King James the First, at this time, against the Puritans and Baptists, who were still considered Anabaptists, brouglit forth some writings in defence and explanation of the prin- ciples of tiie Baptists. From the return of the congregation formed at Amsterdam by Smyth 69 BAP and Helwisse, and their subsequent disclaimer of the false notions of the Anabaptists in a petition to the parliament in 1620, we may date the public acknowledgment of the Baptists as dis- tinct from the Anabaptists, though for years after, even to the time when Bishop Taj'lor wrote his Liberty of Prophesying, the deniers of infant baptism were still considered to maintain Anabaptist errors ; a belief not altogether unjust, when we consider that the fifth monarchy men of Cromwell's time were chietly Baptists. In the year 1623 the Baptists are described as carrying an external appearance of holiness, and as denying the doctrines of predestination, repro- bation, final perseverance, &c. It is therefore probable that the Baptists of this time were what is now termed General Baptists. The year 1633 provides us with the earliest records remaining of the formation of a Particular Baptist church in London under Mr. Spilsbury. The persons who formed this congregation had separated themselves from one of the Independent persua- sion. Upon their separation, being desirous to procure baptism, they sent over to Holland one of their members to receive baptism, and return with authority to administer the ordinance to them. Such care, according to the present notions of the Baptists, is unnecessarv ; and to an objec- tion made — Why did not these persons receive their baptism from some members of Helwisse's congregation ? — it is answered, that Spilsbury's followers being Particular or Calviuistic Baptists, would not have any connection with those of the Arminian persuasion. Between these two deno- minations of Baptists there never was much intercourse, nor is there at the present day. During the prevalence of the Presbyterian power, prior to the murder of Charles the First, the Baptists as well as the Independents suffered much from the Presbyterians. This drew from the Particular or Calvinistic Baptists a publication of a Confession of Faith, wherein they wiped away the reproach of Anabaptism, professing that their sentiments were in no- wise hostile to regular government. This con- fession consisted of fifty-two articles. In the doctrinal part it is strictly Calvinistic, and is according to the independent discipline. By this confession they asserted their claim to toleration, as men disposed to live peaceably under a lawful government. At this time we find that the two- fold division of the sect into Anabaptists who were opposed to worldly government, and Ana- baptists who professed obedience to the civil magistrate, began to be acknowledged. In the Short Parliament, called by Cromwell in 1653, and which was termed in derision. Praise God Barebone's Parhament, from Mr. Barebone, a Baptist minister, who was conspicuous in that assemblj^, tlie Baptists appear to have had some influence; but the assembly being found, as Cromwell probablj' intended it should be, unequal to the management of public affairs, resigned its BAP power in less than six months after it was con- voked. We cannot wonder that, during this period, the nation in general regarded with suspicion every person to whom the title of Ana- baptist might with any justice be applied ; for amongst the Baptists were not only found those who most opposed themselves to the Protector's government, and who were decided promoters of republican principles, but others also who pro- fessed to believe the near approach of the reign of Christ with his saints upon earth, and who considered that they should be justified in pro- moting, by the sword, the establishment of what was called in reproach the fifth monarchy. In the year 1650 a conspiracy was formed by these fifth monarchy men, with Harrison, the regicide, at their head; but the vigilance of Cromwell defeated the plans formed for his destruction ; the ringleader was seized and imprisoned, and con- tinued in confinement till his death, (see Carlyle's Speeches and Letters of Cromwell, vol. iii. ) Upon the restoration, the Baptists presented an address to the king, disclaiming Anabaptist principles, and accompanied with a confession of faith. It is probable that these persons were principallj"- General Baptists. A second conspiracy of the fifth monarchy men, in 1661, against the king, brought forth from the Baptists another dis- avowal of Anabaptist principles, in an address presented to the king, and signed chiefly by Par- ticular Baptists. In the period between the restoration and the revolution in 1688, the Bap- tists suffered, in common with their dissenting brethren, from the endeavours made to reduce the people to conformity with the church ; but since that period they appear to have suffered little or no molestation. The Particular Baptists held a general assembly in London in 1689. At this time thcN' seem publicly to have professed their distinguishing character of belief in the Calvinistic doctrines of personal election and final perseverance. They have since held similar meetings ; but the chief place of their concourse is at Bristol. The Particular Baptists have had many disputes upon a point which is also still agitated amongst the General Baptists, that of mixed communion. The question is this, whether persons baptized in infancy, but not baptized when come to full age, may be admitted to partake the sacrament of the Lord in their congregation. The teachers of both denominations are mucli divided in opinion, and frequent pamphlets have been written on both sides. Amongst the General Baptists, for some few years after the revolution, much difference existed, owing to the prevalence of Arian principles, which were first professed by Matthew Caffin, whose followers were termed Caf- finites. Some, however, of the Particular Baptist churches have become Socinian, and so have the greater part of those societies of General Baptists which existed at the end of the seventeenth cen- tury ; a consequence which some of the members attribute to the neglect of inculcating strongly the 60 BAP pure Calvinistic principles. The Baptist churches are congregational in their form of gorernment. The meetings of the members of the dilferent congregations are held for the purpose of mutual advice, and not for the general government of the whole body. The General Baptists are so called from their professing the Arminian doc- trine of universal redemption. The Particular Baptists, on the other hand, follow the Calvinistic doctrine of personal or particular election. In 1812 was formed the Baptist Union of Eng- land, consisting of more than a thousand churches. During the prevalence of Antinomian and H yper- calvinistic feelings — which Andrew Fuller did so much to put down-^classical and theological learning was to some extent neglected ; but it is now duly appreciated. Gale, Gill, Carey, Foster, and Hall, have been ornaments of the denomi- nation. The Baptist Missionary Society origi- nated in 1792, and has many flourishing mis- sions in India, Jamaica, and the west coast of Africa, presided over by 200 missionaries, (see the Works of Carson, Baptist Noel, &c. ) In consequence of the spread of Soeinianism amongst the General Baptists, in 1770, the more evangelical portion, under the guidance of Mr. Daniel Taylor and others, separated themselves, and formed wliat is known as the New Connexion, the rest being distinguished by the appellation of the Old Connexion. Neither of these form numerous communities now. In Wales the Bap- tists still retain the firm and extended footing which they got at an early period in that country. In Scotland originated the Scotch Baptists ; they are Calvinistic in theology, but differ from the Par- ticular Baptists in their government being more thoroughly congregational in form, and exceed them in the peculiar strictness of their church discipline. They regard the command given to the Christians at Antiocli (Acts xv. 29) as still binding. They trace their rise to the Autiburgher minister of Cupar Angus, Mr. Carmichael, who, having changed his opinions as to baptism, went up to London, and was baptized by Dr. Gill, in 17G5. Their numbers have never been large American Baptists. Many of the puritan fathers who settled in America probably held Baptist sentiments; but it was Koger Williams, at one time a Church of England minister, who first openly avowed them. E.xpelled from Massa- chusetts, he fled to Rhode Island, and in 1638 founded the cit}- of Providence ; and in tlie year following, the first American Baptist churcii. The Baptists now form, including all their sects, one of the largest and most influential religious parties m the country. According to Baird (_Reli- tistery'to which all resorted, and which was always dedicated to the Baptist. The church to which the baptistery was attached naturally assumed a pre-eniiiience, considering the other churches as dependent upon it. In the east- ern empire they were termed fiTirrn^ia, or places of illumination, the ceremony of initia- tion into the Christian church being cousidcreU 61 BAR as giving a new light to the catechumens. The church of Santa Sophia, at Constantinople had a most spacious baptistery attached to it, in ■which one of the councils of the church assem- bled. The most ancient of the baptisteries of Eome is that of the Lateran, in which some anti- quaries have been willing to discover the remains of thermiB baths, originalh' within the precincts of tlie impei-ial palace. The baptistery of Pisa, both externally and in the interior, has deservedly excited the admiration of travellers, and is par- ticularly alluded to by Addison in his Travels. That of Florence must ever prove an object of peculiar attraction, on account of the beauty of its gates, with the has reliefs of which Michael Angelo was so enraptured, that he exclaimed they were deserving to be the portals of Paradise. Bardesanists, the followers of Bardesanes of Edessa, a man of acute genius and profound erudition. He wrote in defence of Christianity; but afterwards was misled by the Oriental philo- sophy, and adopted the belief in two eternal principles, with several other gnostic opinions. He wrote (about a.d. 176) a learned treatise against the Marcionites. Barlaamites, followers of Barlaara, origi- nally of Calabria, but afterwards a monk of the order of St. Basil, at Constantinople At first, in many theological controversies, he took the side of the Latins against the Greeks ; but ultimately, reversing his position, he became the chief cham- pion of the Greeks against the Latins. In 1339 Barlaam represented the emperor at Avignon, for the purpose of negotiating with the pope a union of the Greek and Latin Churches. He changed sides again on coming to reside in Italy, and being made Bishop of Geraci, in Naples. His principal work was Ethicw secundum Stoicos — a very questionable code of morals. Barnabas' Day, St., the festival of St. Barnabas, observed on the 11th of June. The history of this illustrious disciple will be found in the Acts of the Apostles, to which we must refer the reader. His death, it is supposed, took place at Salamis, in Cyprus, to which island he departed, in company with Mark, as recorded in Acts XV. While engaged in disputing in the synagogue, certain Jews who had come from Syria excited the congregation against him, who shut him up tiU night, when they returned, and brought him out, and after torturing him, to gratify their hateful malignitj', they stoned him to death. He was buried by his cousin, Mark, in a cave not far from the city. Barnabas, Oospel of, a spurious romance. Epistle of — usually printed among the apostolical fathers — a weak farrago of allegories, fables, and inconsistent ethics. Barnabite, a religious order, now only existing in Spain, though formerly its members were to be found in Italy, France, and Austria. They devoted themselves to public teaching, and the instruction of youth, and were, in short, a BAR sort of missionary college to the Holy See. The origin of this order is thus given : — " Sometime in the sixteenth century three Italian gentlemen were advised by a celebrated preacher to read the epistles of St. Paul with careful attention, which advice they faithfully observed. From this cir- cumstance they were called clerks of St. Paul. As their first service was performed in the church of St. Barnabas, at Milan, they received the title by which they were afterwards known, Barnabites. Barrier Act, the ninth act of the General Assembly, 1697. " The General Assembly, taking into their consideration the overture and act, made in the last assemblj', concerning innova- tions ; and having heard the report of the several commissioners from presbyteries, to whom the consideration of the same was recommended, in order to its being more ripely advised and deter- mined in this assembly: and considering the frequent practice of former assemblies of this church, and that it will mightily conduce to the exact obedience of the acts of assemblies, that general assemblies be very deliberate in making of the same, and that the whole church have a previous knowledge thereof, and their opinion be had therein, and for preventing any sudden alteration or innovation, or other prejudice of the church, in either doctrine, or worship, or disci- pline, or government thereof, now happily estab- lished : Do therefore appoint, enact, and declare. That before any general assembly of this church shall pass any acts which are to be binding rules and constitutions to the church, the same acts be first proposed as overtures to the assembly, and being by them passed as such, be remitted to the consideration of the several presbyteries of this church, and their opinions and consent reported by their commissioners to the next general assembly following, who maj- then pass the same in acts, if the more general opinion of the church thus had agree thereto." This law still exists in all Presbyterian churches, and is a perfect safeguard against hasty change or any sudden innovation — hazards to which bodies popularly constituted are more or less exposed. Bartholomew's Day, St., a festival of the church, in commemoration of the apostle of that name, supposed also to be the same as Nathanael. Tradition states that he travelled into India, where for some time he preached Christianitj', made many converts, and estab- lished churches. From thence he returned into Asia, preaching at Hierapolis and in Lycaonia : he then proceeded to Albanople, in Armenia, and boldly denounced the idolatry of the place, which drew down upon him the wrath of the governor, who had him apprehended, tortured, and then crucified. This day is memorable in the annals of Protestant martyrdom, for the com- mencement in Paris, in the year 1572, of that horrid massacre of Huguenots, which extended for thirty days throughout all France, resulting 62 BAR in the loss of more than 30,000 lives. Medals were struck at Rome in festive commemoration of the tragedy, and solemn mass was chanted in presence of Pope Gregory XIII. and his car- dinals, who thus thanked God for the horrible butchery. Bartholomites, an order of friars origi- nally fiigitive monks of St. Basil, founded in 1307 at Genoa, but on account of its irregularities suppressed in 1650. In the church which be- longed to this monastery at Genoa is preserved the portrait which, according to absurd tradition, Jesus is alleged to have sent to King Augustus. — Also, a community of secular priests in Wur- temberg, founded in 1640 by Bartholomew Holzhauser, which flourished for many years, but has now fallen into decay. Basilian Monks, an order called after St. Basil, who, having retired into a desert, estab- lished a monastery, and drew up a code of discipline for his followers. Numbers flocked to him, and many communities bearing his name, and regulated by his rules, sprung up every- where throughout the Eastern and Western Churches. The annalists of this order saj' that it has furnished to Rome 14 popes; to the churches, 1,805 bishops; to the monasteries, 3,010 abbots; and to the gratitude, encourage- ment, and example of Christians in all places and ages, 11,035 martyrs. The various orders of monks of the Greek Church follow St. Basil's rule. Basilica, originally a hall of justice, in which also merchants used to assemble, as in the Exchange of modern times (Cic. ad Att. xi. 29. ; In Verrem vi. ; Pro Murena). The name is derived from ^airiXixd (sc. ^Toa), be- cause magistrates with the power of kings heard causes in them. They were, moreover, places of public resort for the citizens generally, where the current news of the day was freely discussed, j'oung orators declaimed, and all matters, civil and social, thoroughly canvassed. The first of which we read was built under the direction of Cato the Censor, and thence called Porcia, u.c. 568 (Lib. xxxix. 44). Victor enumerates no less than nineteen in Rome. The name was trans- ferred to Christian churches in the age of Con- stantine, who, with the zeal of a recent convert, gave his own palace on the Co^lian mount for the site of a temple to the faith that he had embraced. Hence Ausonius, addressing the Emperor Gra- tian, says, " The Basilicw, which heretofore were wont to be filled with men of business, were now thronged with votaries praying for the protec- tion of God." The name properly means " the royal palace," and was probably retained when the use of the Basilica was altered, because churches were held to l)e the temple or palace of Jehovah. From this time the name became generally employed to designate places of Chris- tian worship. The palace of Constantme, on the Ccelian mount, is considered as the most ancient B.4S of the Christian Basilicae, although the Vatican itself can date from the same founder, who de- molbhed the circus of Nero and two temples, to make room for the new edifice. This raost ancient church was destined to survive all the incursions of northern barbarism, and all the ravages of civil discord, and was only removed by Pope Julian II., to make room for that edifice which is the proudest monument ever reared by man to the honour of the Deitv. The third Basilica of Constantine, that of "St. Paul, yet exists, and may be regarded as affording a complete specimen of the ancient church, which differed but little from the Basilica of pagan- ism, being a quadrilateral hall, with a flat ceiling, divided by columns into three or five aisles. It was Justinian who projected a diflFerent form when rebuilding the church of Santa Sophia, at Constantinople; and in his adoption of the shape of the great emblem of Christianity, he has been followed by almost every ecclesiastical architect, even to modem times. It was at Venice, in the church of St, Mark, that the earliest Italian copy of Santa Sophia is to be traced ; the shape as well as the dome is there faithfully imitated. Santa Maria del Fiore, at Florence, was constructed after the same model; and Bramante, when called upon for the design of St. Peter's, did not feel himself authorized to deviate from a form which had ob- tained the approbation of so manj- centuries. The seven Basilic® of modern Rome are — St. Sebastian, St. Lorenzo, Sta. Maria Maggiore, St. Giovanni Laterano, Sta. Croce, Sta. Paolo, St. Pietro (Vaticano). From the front of these churches, the pope, on certain solemn festivals, is accustomed to give his benediction to the people, which has rendered it necessary for the architects to introduce galleric'*, detracting from the dignity of the fa9ade. For example, tine as the west front of St. Peter's undoubtedly is, how much would its magnificence have been enhanced, if either Bramante or Michael Angelo had been permitted to copy the [lortico of the Pantheon, with its single row of columns, instead of introducing the windows, &c., necessary- to afford an opportunity for the papal bi-nodiction I Even in St. Paul's, in which no such ceremony occurs, other considerations obliged Sir Christi>- pher Wren to break that part of the chuRh into two storeys, in conformity to the general plan ; so that the portico of the Pantheon at I'aris must, in modern architecture, be regarded as superior to both. — See Chukch. BanilidiaDs, the followers of Basilides, who, about the year 126, became distinguwhod at Alexandria as the author of one of tlie most popular of the gnostic systems. He Uu^ht that from the great original (hit ifhrx) there pro- ceeded seven emanations, which formed a first heaven, or kingdom of spirit* ; from these came seven more; and so on, to 365 kingdoms of spiriU each being an imperfect imiirussiun of the 68 BAS one above it. The abstract idea of these spiritual Aingdoms, i. e., God so Jar as he has revealed himself, in contradistinction to God in himself, he called Ahrasax, or Abraxas; a name which is supposed to be of Coptic origin, but the letters of which, when written in Greek characters, repre- sent the number 365. The seven spirits of the lowest heaven, and especially the chief of them, Archon, who is the God of the Jews, are the creators of the world. They formed man with a soul which is the seat of sense and passion ; but the supreme God added a more exalted rational soul. To effect the return of human spirits into the world of light, vous, who was chief of the first seven teons or emanations, united itself with the man Jesus at his baptism, leaving him, however, before his crucifixion, that the, man might suffer alone. The latter Basilidians in- troduced into this part of the sj'stem some strange docetic ideas, some of them teaching that Simon the Cyrenian was crucified in the stead of Jesus, while Jesus stood by in the form of Simon. They also corrupted their master's doctrine in regard to the Archon. For whereas Basilides had taught that he was not evil, but only cir- cumscribed, and therefore ready to subject him- self to the higher arrangement of the world as soon as it was made known to him, the}', on the contrarj', conceived him to be the open adver- sary of the world of light. And this view opened the way to all kinds of immoralit}' ; for the more enlightened they supposed themselves to be, the more contemptuously they could trample on the restraints of a law which came from an inferior and even adverse authority. They were also much addicted to magic. A great number of gems have been discovered in Egypt, inscribed with the mystical word abraxas, which there is good reason to suppose were used by the Basilidians as charms. The party was still in existence about the year 400. Basil, liitiirgy of, the form of divine service originated, or rather revised, by Basil, Bishop of Cffisarea. After the lapse of fifteen hundred years, this liturgy, without any material difference, prevails all over the East, and also in Kussia and Abyssinia. — See Litukgy. Bath-kol. — See Bibliomancy. Baxteriaiiisin, a middle path between Cal- vinism and Arminianism, proposed by the famous Eichard Baxter. Like so many attempts, or com- promises of a similar kind, it has not succeeded ; for it is contradictory, and wants self- consistence. He held by Calvinism in its leading elements, but added other tenets to it, as if to dilute and modify it. He maintained personal election with regard to some, and advocated a species of con- tingent election with regard to the rest — that is, they have " common grace" offered them, and if they improve it they may be saved. Christ never intended, his theory argues, that all men should be saved; but yet all men have a condi- tional ofler of certain gifts through his death. BEL Still he says, " Christ died for all, but not for all alike or equally — that is, he intended good to all, but not an equal good with an equal intention." Though he advocates common grace for all, he proceeds to say that "it is only by sufficient grace that a man's will can perform a commanded act. — See Amyraldism. All this seems but an awkward way of saying that, while the death of Christ secures the salvation of his people, it has opened the door of mercy to all mankind, or that there is universal applica- bilit}', but a limited application of blessings. Beadle. — See Doorkeepeks. Beads. — See Kosary. Beatilication. — See Canonization. Beghai-ds, Beguines. — Between 1150 and 1200 societies of women were formed in Hol- land, living by industry, and having no special monastic rule. They were called Beghinae, or Beguttae. Various origins have been assigned to the name — some deriving it from a supposed patroness, St. Begghi, daughter of Pepin, and others giving a more homelj' source, and counect- ing it with the verb to beg. The second name is compounded thus, bei-gott — by God. Such unions were soon to be found in many parts of Germany, and they joined at length the third order of St. Francis. Many of them became reallj' mendicant, and not a few of them suffered as heretics. After 1374, the male Beghards were called Lollards, and the original term was scoffingly applied in France to any fanatical devotee. Beguinagia are yet foimd in connec- tion with many Belgian cities. Bell.— Bingham {Orig. Eccl, viii. 7) gives sufficient reasons for supposing that bells were of late introduction as invitatory to Christian worship; inasmuch as, during the times of persecution, any public signal would have be- trayed the hour and place of religious meeting. The Egyptian Church appears to have used the Jewish summons by the trumpet ; for in the rule of Pachomius, every monk is enjoined to leave his cell, cum audierit vocem Tubce ad collectam vocantis {Bib. Pat., xv. 629), and the same custom is mentioned by Climacus, Abbot of Mount Sinai, in the sixth century (Id., v. 244). In other monasteries the call was given by a wooden mallet, which each recluse in turn struck on the cell of his brethren. Palladius, by whom the custom is recorded (Hi.st. Laus., 104), calls this instrument l|u?rv/a(M"/ij/o» ffipu- ^iov ; and Brand, in his Popular Antiqui- ties, ii. 214, remarks, that "a vestige of the custom still remains in some of our colleges, in which the Bible clerk knocks at every student's door with a key, before he rings the chapel bell." The summons in the mo- nastery at Jerusalem founded by the iioman Lady Paula, was given by one chanting halle- lujah (Hieron., Ep. 27). In the Greek Church, an instrument of wood or iron, l, or maken Holy Chirch" lay fee, tliat is hallowwl aud Blessed. And also all thos that for nialyco or wrathe of Parson, Vicare, or Priest, or ot any Go 1^ BEM otb.er, or for wrongrull covetyse of himself with- holden rightful Tyths, and Offerings, Rents, or Mortuaries from her own Parish Church, and by way of covetyse fals lyche taking to God the worse, and to hemself the better, or else torn him into another use, then hem oweth. For all Chrysten Man and Women been hard bound on pain of deadl\' Sin, not onlyche by ordinance of Man, but both in the ould Law, and also in the new Law, for to pay trulyche to God and holy Chirch the Tj^th part of all manner of encrease that they winnen trulyche b}' the Grace of God, both with her trayell, and alsoe with her craftes whatsoe they be truly gotten.' And then con- concludes all with the Curse it self, thus ' And now by Authoritie aforesaid we Denounce all thos accurs}-d that are so founden gu}-ltie, and all thos that maintaine hem in her Sins or gyven hem hereto either help or councell, soe they be departed free God, and all holi Chirch: and that they have noe part of tlie Pass^'on of our Lord Jhesu Cryst, ne of noe Sacraments, ne no part of the Praj'ers among Christen Folk: But that they be accursed of God. and of the Chirch, froe the sole of her Foot to the crown of her hede, sleaping and waking, sitting and standing, and in all her Words, and in all her Werks; but if they have noe Grace of God to amend hem here in this Lyfe, for to dwell in the pain of Hell for ever withouten End : Fiat : Fiat. Doe to the Boke: Quench the Candles: Ring the Bell: Amen, Amen.' And then the Book is clapped together, the Candles blown out, and the Bells rung, with a most dreadful noise made by the Congregation present, bewailing the accursed persons concerned in that Black Doom pronounced against them." Bema ((ir.fia, tribunal), the name given to the bishop's throne which stood in the chancel of all ancient churches ; the seats of the presbyters were known also by the same name ; it was also applied to the ambo, or reading desk, and lastly to the entire sanctuary, including the bema proper, the altar, and all the other furniture of that sacred place. " Bema and ambo," sa3'3 Binghani " have both the same original, from avaiiaiiio), because they were places exalted above all the rest, and like the tribunals of judges, had an ascent by steps into them." Again he says, " though the bema be called the high and lofty throne by those who speak in a rheto- rical strain, yet that is only meant comparatively in respect of the lower seats of presbyters; for otherwise it was a fault in any bishop to build himself a pompous and splendid throne, in imi- tation of the state and grandeur of the secular magistrates. This was one of the crimes which the council of Antioch in their synodical epistle against Paulus Samosatensis, laid to his charge, that he built himself a high and stately tribunal, not as a disciple of Christ, but as one of the rulers of the world. It was then the great care of the Christian Church, to observe fi decorum in the BEN honours which she bestowed upon her bishops, that they might be such as would set them above contempt, but keep them below envy ; make them venerable, but not minister to vanitj' or the out- ward pomp and ostentation of secular greatness." — See Ambo, Church, Cathedkal. Beuedicite, or " the song of the three Hebrew children," is a canticle appointed by the rubric of the Church of England to be said or sung at the morning ser^nce, instead of the hymn Te Beum, whenever the minister may think fit. This hymn though not now to be found in any of the canonical books, was, nevertheless, quoted by Cyprian as part of the inspired Scriptures. It is a paraphrase of the forty-eighth psalm. In the Book of Common Prayer published under the sanction of Edward VI., it was ordered that the Te Deum should be said daily thi-oughout the year, except in Lent, when the Benedicite was to be used. The minister had no choice accordin;; to this appointment; but in the sub- sequent revision of the Prayer Book, the choice was left to the option of the minister to read the Te Deum or the Benedicite. Benedictines, an order of monks called after St. Benedict, who, about the j-ear 530, in the reign of Justinian, made a settlement at Subi- aco in Italy, where in a short time he estab- lished no fewer than twelve monasteries or coenobies. From thence he removed to Monte Cassino, near Naples, and there founded another monastery', whence he propagated his order with unwearied devotion into surrounding coun- tries. It appears from the rule of St. Benedict himself, that he did not contemjilate creating a new order, nor that his followers should assume his name as their distinguishing appellation. He merely wrote seventy- three chapters of re- gulations for the Coenobites and Anchorets, which in his day were the onl}"^ orders the Italian churches allowed. It is, nevertheless, remark- able, that for six hundred years after the publica- tion of his rule, the greatest part of the European monks followed it, including the Carthusians, Cis- tercians, Cluniacks, Grandimontenses, Priemon- stratenses, and several others. In short, Hospinian enumerates twenty-three orders that sprang from this illustrious Saint. In the twelfth century no fewer than 12,000 monasteries, which in the Middle Ages became the repositories of literature and science, were under this rule. The monks of St. Benedict inform us that he was so much given to self-mortification, he would often roll himself in a heap of briars to check any carnal desires that he tbund to arise wuthin; and the following wonderful miracle wrought upon his accoiuit, is recorded by St. Gregory in liis Dial.^ lib. iii. When the Goths invaded Italy they came to his cell, and set fire to it. The fire blazed furiously all round him, but, like the three Hebrew cliildren, he received no injury what- ever. Tliis so enraged his savage persecutors that they threw him into a burning hot oven, and 66 BEN shut it close; but St, Benedict was found the next morning safe and unhurt, his flesh not being scorched nor his clothes singed. He died on the 21st March, 542. The Benedictines of the con- gregation of St. Maur have won to themselves immortal fame by their handsome editions of many of the fathers. Benediction, the act, also the form, of praise or blessing. The benedictions, whether thanksgivings for mercies, or blessings invoked upon special occasions and on special subjects, in the ancient churches were numerous, and formed a very prominent and important part of public worship. Two or three examples may not be un- interesting : After the Lord's Prayer in the cele- bration of the Eucharist, the bishop pronounced this benediction upon the people, — "The peace of God be with you," in order that with calm- ness and pious composure of soul they might commemorate the great act of man's redemption. At the conclusion of morning praj'er, the deacon called on the congregation to bow their heads to receive the imposition of hands, or the bishop's benediction; the bishop then lifting his hands solemnly repeated the following prayer, or one of the same import : " O God, faithful and true, that showest mercy to thousands of them that love thee ; who art the friend of the humble and defender of the poor; whose aid all things stand in need of, because all things serve thee: look down upon this thy people, who how their heads unto thee, and bless them with thy spiritual benediction; keep them as the apple of thine eye; preserve them in pietj' and righteousness, and vouchsafe to bring them to eternal life, in Christ Jesus, thy beloved Son, with whom unto thee be glory, honour, and adoration, in the Holy Ghost, now and for ever, world without end. Amen." The deacon then dismissed the people with these words, " Depart in peace." Some- times, too, their sermons were prefaced b}' short ejaculatory benedictions, as, " Blessed be the name of the Lord," " Blessed be God," " Blessed be God, who hath comforted your sorrowful souls, and established your wavering mini'.s." Though it is true that no one ritual obtained throughout all the churches, but every bishop adopted for himself such a form as he thought most con- venient and edifying for his own congregation, yet in all both the prayers and benedictions were the same in substance down to the rise of Ari- anism. At the ordination of presbyters a solemn benediction, or consecration prayer, was pro- nounced, which need not be quoted here at length ; it concluded thus — " Fill thy servant with healing power and instructive discourse, that with meek- ness he may teach thy peoi)le, and serve thee sincere!}' with a pure mind and willing soul, and unblamably perform the sacred services for thy people, through Christ Jesus our Lord." In the morning service of the Church of England tlic first benediction (see Book of Comviou Prayer') comes after the litany; it is in these words: BEN " The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ, the love of God, and the fellowsliip of the Holy Ghost, be with us all evennore. Amen." " I must not for- get to observe," says Wheatly, " that this fonn is rather a prayer than a blessing, since there is no alteration either of person or posture pre- scribed to the minister, but he is directed to pro- nounce it kneeling, and to include himself as well as the people." The second or linal benediction at the conclusion of the service is taken cliiefly from the words of Scripture; the first part of it from Phil. iv. 7, and the latter part being a paraphrase upon Num. vi. 24, 25., viz. : " The peace of God, which passeth all understanding, keep your heart and minds in the knowledge and love of God, and of his Son Jesus Christ our Lord; and the blessing of God Almighty, the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost, be amongst you and remain with you always. Amen." In Presbyterian churches the words of the apostolic benediction, 2 Cor. xiii. 14, are usually em- ployed at the close of public worship. Benedictns (blessed), a h}'nin taken from Luke i. 63, appointed to be said or sung after the second lesson in the morning service of the Church of England, and so named from the lirst word of the hj-mn in the Latin Vulgate. Benefice, in Iciid, generally signifies any ecclesiastical preferment except a bishopric; and by Stat. 13 Rich. II. benefices are divided into elective and donative, and ao also the canon law considers them. According to more strict aud proper accejjtation, the term benefice is confined to rectories and vicarages. A benefice must be given for life, and not for a term of years. The word, as is stated above, is borrowed from the feudal system, having formerly been applied to the portions of land given hy lords to their followers for service and maintenance, ex mero benejicio. Hence, as in the early Church the revenues of the clergy arose from the common stock distributed by the bishop to the ministers in his jurisdiction, the similarity of his superin- tendence to that of the feudal lord induced a corresponding similarity of language regarding it. Sometimes, indeed, benefices were conferred upon ecclesiastics by the lay lord, on the same tenure as he would have given tliem to his lay vassals ; namely, tliat they should provide men, as occasion required, to serve in the wars. Ke- specting benefices in Scotland it was decreed by the parliament at Edinburgh, 1592, being the second act of the twelfth ])arliameiit of James VI: " Our Soveraine Lord, considering thoprc.it abuses quhilkis ar laitlie croppen in the Kirk, throw the misbehaviour of sik persoues as ar provided to ecclesiastical functions, sik ns par- sonages and vicarages, within onie |)arocliin, and thereafter neglecting tlieir charge, atlier leave tlieir cure, or els committis sik crimes, faultcs or enormities, that they are found worthie of the sentence of deprivation, ather before their awin Prcsb>-terie, orelse before the Synodallor General BEN Assemblies; quhilk sentence is thelesse regarded be them, because albeit they be deprived of their function and cure within the kirk, zit they think they may bruik lawfullie the profites and rentes of their saidis benefices induring their liferentes, notwithstanding the said sentence of deprivation : Therefore our Soveraine Lord, with advise of the Estaites of this present Parliament, declaris, that all and quhatsumever sentences of deprivation, ather pronunced alreadie, or that happens to be pronunced hereafter, be onie Presbyterie, Synodall or General Assemblies, against onie parson or vicar within their jurisdiction, provided sen his Hienesse coronation; all parsones provided to parsonages and vicarages, quha hes voit in Par- liament, Secreitt Councell and Session, or pro- vided thereto of auld, before the Kingis corona- tion, (and Maister George Young, Archdeane of Saint Andrew's being speciallie excepted), is and sail be repute in all judgments ane just cause to seclude the parson before provided, and then deprived, from all profites, commodities, rentes, and dewties of the said parsonage and vicarage, or benefice of cure, and that ather bee way of action, exception, or reply: And that the said sentence of deprivation sail bee ane sufficient cause to make the said benefice to vaik thereby. And the said sentence being extracted, presented to the patrone, tlie said patrone sail be bound to present ane qualified person of new to the kirk within the space of sex months thereafter : And gif he failzie to do the same, the said patrone sail tine the richt of presentation for that time allanerlie; and the richt of presentation to be devolved in the hands of the Presbyterie within the quhilk the benefice lies, to the effect that they may dispone the same, and give collation thereof to sik ane qualified person as they sail think expedient. Providing always, in case the Pres- bytery refusis to admitt onie qualified minister presented to them be the patrone, it sail be lauchful to the patrone to reteine thehaillfruites of the said benefice in his awin hands. And further, his Hienesse and Estaites foresaidis declairis, that the deprivation already pronunced, or to be pronunced, by onie Presbyterie, Syno- dall, or General Assemblies, against onie of the parsones or vicars foresaidis, sail na wayes hurt or be prejudicial to onie tackes lawfully set be that person deprived before his deprivation, to quhatsume^•er persones." Benefices are either simple or sacerdotal : simple, those which involve no higher obliga- tion than the reading of prayers, chanting of anthems, &c. — such are canonries and chaplain- ries; sacerdotal, those which include the care of souls, such as rectories and vicarages. A benefice may become void de jure when its pos- sessor is proved guilty of heresj' or simonj' — crimes which disqualify a clergyman for retaining a benefice. But should the incumbent resign or die, tiie benefice becomes void de facto. It may also become void when, by the sentence of the BIB judge, a holder of a benefice is declared guiltj* of immorality, or some offence against the state. — See Advowson, Patronage. Beneficiaryi one who has the disposal of benefices in the Established Church. He is not the proprietor of the revenues accruing from those benefices, but the administrator of them. Benefit of Clergy. — See Clergy. ISereans, a small and diminishing party of religionists in Scotland, followers of a Sir. Bar- clay, who, in 1773, left the Church of Scotland because he had not been presented to the parish of Fettercairn, though the people were unani- mously in his favour. His views, and those of his followers, are extreme on many points, and they took the name of Bereans, from Acts, xvii. 11., naming themselves after the intelligent and conscientious Jews of an eastern city. They deny natural theology, in spite of the apostle's assertion (Rom. i. 19, 20), and they hold assur- ance to be of the essence of faith, which is simple credence of the truth, though to make salvation depend on assurance is to say, that it depends not on my belief in Christ, but on mj' belief that I do believe in Christ. The entire book of Psalms they regard and interpret as solely re- ferring to Christ, and reckon it a perversion to apply any psalm to individual spiritual experi- ence. In other matters they do not differ to any great extent from other evangelical com- munities. JSerengarians, followers in the eleventh century of Berengarius (Berengar, Archdeacon of Angers), who opposed the doctrine of transub- stantiation, and thereby brought upon himself a variety of troubles. He recanted, in appearance, his views more than once, for fear of the penalty of heresy. He revived the doctrine of Scotus that the bread and wine still remain in themselves symbols after consecration, though they are something more to the believer. Kernarclius, an order of monks, not founded, but reformed by St. Bernard. Their origin dates from the twelfth century, and they do not differ much from the Cistercians. — See Cistercians. Beiblebeiuites, a company of English monks that arose in the thirteenth century, of whom little is known. They wore a red star with five rays, in memory of the star of Beth- lehem, and had a settlement at Cambridge. Another order of the same name was founded in the island of Teneriffe, which has forty houses, principally in the Canary Isles, and they are also to be found in the Spanish West Indies. Bible, BiliXos, is an Egyptian plant, of which a material for writing upon was made. Bible is now specially applied to the Holy Scriptures, but Cliaucer furnishes usages of the word as applied to any book. Bible is applied by Christians, by pre-emi- nence, to the collection of sacred writings, or the Holv Scriptures of the Old and New Teste- G8 BIB ment, as being the "£oo/^," the ^^ Book of Boohs" from its superiority to all other books. By the Jews the Bible (that is the Old Testament, wliich, only, they acknowledge to be divinely inspired) is called m/krah, that is, the lesson or lecture. The list of books contained in the Bible is called the canon of Scripture. Those books which are contained in the list or catalogue to which the name of canon has been appropriated, are termed canonical, by way of distinction from others, •which are called deutero-canonical, or apo- cryjjhal ; and which are either not acknowledged as divine books, or are rejected as spurious, for the reasons already stated in the article Apo- crypha. This sacred volume is that on which the Jewish and the Christian religions are founded, and the present article will contain a sketch of the literary history of the Bible, or an account of its canon and divisions — manuscripts and printed editions — versions, ancient and mo- dern— and of polj-glot Bibles, or editions of the Bible accompanied by several versions. I. History of the Canon of the Hebrew Bible : Its Divisions. — The Hebrew Bible, or Old Tes- tament, comprises those books which were written previously to the birth of Jesus Christ. With the exception of a few Chaldee words (occasion- ally inserted in the historical and prophetical writings after the Israelites became acquainted with the Babylonians), and also of a (ew pas- sages in Chaldee, occurring in Jer. x. 11, Dan. ii. 4, to the end of ch. vii., and Ezra iv. 8, to vi. 19, and vii. 12-17, these books are written in the Hebrew language. The first canon or collection of them was made by the Jews ; but by whom it is now impossible to ascertain. It is, however, certain that the five books of Moses, called the Pentateuch, were collected into one body within a short time after the death of the Hebrew legislator; because the book of Deu- teronomy, which, in effect, is an abridgment and recapitulation of the other four books, was deposited in the tabernacle, near the ark, agree- ably to the command he gave to the Levites (Deut. xxxi. 24, 26). Here it was kept, not only while the Israelites remained in the wilder- ness, but afterwards, when they were settled in the land of Canaan. To the same sanctuary were consigned, as they were successively pro- duced, the other sacred books which were written before the building of the temple at Jerusalem; and, after the completion of that edifice, Solomon directed that these books should be removed into it; and also that the future compositions of inspired men should be secured in the same holy place. We may therefore con- clude that the respective works of Jonah, Amos, Hosea, Joel, Micah, Nahum, Zephaniah, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Habakkuk, and Obadiah (all of whom flourished before the Babylonish captivity), were regularly deposited in the temple. On the cap- ture of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, and the consequent destruction of the temple, the autO' BIB graphs of the sacred books are supposed to have perished; although some learned men have con- jectured that they were preserved, because it docs not appear that the conqueror evinced any particular enmity against the Jewish nli^^ion; and in the account of tiie sacred things carried to Babylon (2 Kings xxv., 2 Cliron. xxxvi., Jer. Hi.) no mention is made of the sacred booka. If, however, they were destroyed with the temple, it is certain that there' were at that time numerous copies of them; and we cannot doubt but that some of these copies were carried by the Jews to Babylon. For— not to insist upon the known reverence of that people for the Hebrew Scriptures, which moreover were too much dispersed to render it credible that all the cofiies were lost — we find the projihet Daniel, when in captivity, referring to the law as then existing (Dan. ix. 11, 13), and also (ix. 2) expressly mentioning the predictions of Jeremiah, which he could not have done if he had never seen them. On the rebuilding, or rather on the finishing of the temple, in the sixth year of the reign of Darius, the Jewish worship and sacrifices were fully re-established by Ezra, according " as it is written in the law of Moses" (Ezra vi. 18), which would have been impracticable if Ezra had not been in actual possession, either of the original manuscript of the law, or of a copy so well authenticated as to leave no doubt of its accuracy in the minds ot the people. But that which still more clearly proves that the Jews must have had transcripts of the sacred writings during, as well as subse- quent to, the Babylonish captivity, is the fact, that when the people requested Ezra to produce the law of Moses (Neh. viii. 1), they did not entreat him to get it dictated anew to tiiem, but to "bring" forth "the book of the law of Moses, which the Lord had commanded to Israel." About fifty years after the rebuilding of the temple and the re-establishment of tlie Jewi.ih religion, it is generally admitted that the canon of the Old Testament was settled ; but by whom this great work was accomplished, is a question on which there is a considerable differ- ence of opinion. On the one hand, it is con- tended that it could not have been done by Ezra himself; because, though he has related his zealous efforts in restoring the law and wor- ship enjoined to tlie Jews, yet respecting the settlement of tlie canon he is totally silent; and the silence of Xehemiah, who has reconlcd the pious labours of Ezra, as well as of Joscphus, who is difiuse in his encomiums on him, has further been urged as a presumptive argument that he could not have collected the Jewisii writings. But to these hvpothetical reasonings we may oppose the constant tradition of tlie Jewish Church— uncontradicted both by their enemies and by Christians- that Ezra, with the assi.st- anee of the members of liie great synngoguo (among whom were the prophets Haggai, Zccha- 69 BIB riah, and Malaclii), collected as many copies of the sacred writings as he could find, and from them set forth a correct edition of the canon of the Old Testament, with the exception of his own writings, the prophecy of Malachi, and the book of Nehemiah, which were subsequently an- nexed to the canon by Simon the Just, the last of the great synagogue. In this Esdrine text, the errors of former copyists were corrected ; and Ezra added in several places, throughout the books of this edition, whatever appeared neces- sary to illustrate, correct, or complete them. Whether Ezra's own cop3' of the Hebrew Scrip- tures perished in the pillage of the temple by Antiochus Epiphanes is a question that cannot now be ascertained: nor is it material, since we know that Judas Maccabaus repaired the temple, and replaced everything requisite for the performance of divine worship (1 Mace. iv. 36-59), which included a correct copy of the Scriptures, if not that of Ezra himself. This copy remained in the temple until the destruc- tion of Jerusalem and the subversion of the Jewish polity by the Romans under Titus, when it was carried in triumph to Rome, among the other spoils which had been taken at Jerusalem (Prideaux's Connection, part i., book v., sub anno 446 ; Josephus, deBell. Jud., lib. vii., ch. v., sec. 5 ; Home's Introduction to the Critical Study of the Scriptures, vol. ii., part i., ch. ii., sect. 1). Thus, while the Jewish polity continued, and for nearly five hundred years after the time of Ezra, a complete and faultless copy of the Hebrew canon was kept in the temple at Jerusalem, with which all others might be compared. And it is worthy of remark, that although Jesus Christ frequently reproved the rulers and teachers of the Jews for their erroneous and false doc- trines, yet he never accused them of any corrup- tion in their written law or other sacred books. And St. Paul reckons it among the privileges of the Jews, that " unto them were committed the oracles of God" (Rom. iii. 2), without intimating or insinuating that they had been mifaithful to their trust. After the final destruction of Jeru- salem by the Romans, there was no established standard of the Hebrew Scriptures; but, from that time, the dispersion of the Jews into all countries, and the numerous converts to Chris- tianity, became a double security for the preserv- ation of a volume held equally sacred by Jews and Christians, and to which both constantly referred as to the written Word of God. Though they difiered in the interpretation of these books, they never disputed the validity of the text in any material point. The various books of the Hebrew Scrip- tures were divided by Ezra into three parts or cksses, viz., the Law, the Prophets, and the Cetubm (or Hatjiographa), that is, the Holy Wntmgs. This division obtained in the time of Jesus Cln-ist (Luke xxiv. 44), and is also noticed by Josephus (contr. Apion., lib. i., sec. 70 BIB 8) in the following terms, though he does not enumerate the several books: — "We have," he says, " only twenty-two books, which compre- hend the history of all former ages, and are justly regarded as divine. Five of them proceed from Moses ; they include as well the laws, as an account of the creation of man, extending to the time of his (Moses) death. This period comprises nearly three thousand years. From the death of Moses to that of Artaxerxes, who was King of Persia after Xerxes, the prophets who succeeded Moses committed to writing, in thirteen books, what was done in their days. The remaining four books contain hymns to God (the Psalms), and instructions of life for man." — I. The Law contained the five books of Moses, viz. — 1. Genesis, 2. Exodus, 3. Leviticus, 4. Numbers, and 5. Deuteronomy. It is not known when the writings of the Jewish legis- lator were divided into five books; but, as the titles of them are evidently of Greek origin, it is not improbable that they were prefixed to the several books by the authors of the Greek ver- sion, now generally known by the appellation of the Septuagint.— II. The writings of the Prophets comprised — 1. Joshua, 2. Judges and Ruth, 3. 1 and 2 Samuel, 4. 1 and 2 Kings, 5. 1 and 2 Chronicles, 6. Isaiah, 7. Jeremiah and Lament- ations, 8. Ezekiel, 9. Daniel, 10. The twelve Minor Prophets, 11. Ezra, 12. Nehemiah, and 18. Esther.— III. The Cetubim, or Holy Writings, contained — 1. The Psalms, 2. The Proverbs, 3. Ecclesiastes, and 4. The Song of Solomon. The sacred books were thus divided, that they might be reduced to the number of letters in the Hebrew alphabet, which amounts to twenty-two: at present the Jews reckon twenty-four books in their canon of Scripture. In this last division, the Law stands as before ; and the Prophets are divided into the former and latter prophets, with regard to the time when they respectively flourished. The former prophets contain the books of Joshua, Judges, and 1 and 2 Samuel, and 1 and 2 Kings; the two last being each considered as one book. The latter prophets comprise the writings of Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the twelve Minor Prophets, whose books are reckoned as one. The reason why Moses is not included among the prophets is, because in eminence and dignity, he so far sur- passed aU those who came after him that they were not accounted worthy to be placed on a level with him; and the boolcs of Joshua and Judges are reckoned among the prophetical books, because they are generally supposed to have been written by the prophet Samuel. The Cetubim, or Hagiographa, consist of the Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Song of Solomon, Ruth, Lamentations of Jeremiah, Ecclesiastes, Esther, Daniel, Ezra and Nehemiah (reckoned as one), and 1 and 2 Chronicles, which also are reckoned as one. In the modern copies of the Hebrew Scriptures, the Song of Solomon, Ruth, Lament- RIB ations, Ecclesiastes, and Esther, are placed immediately after the Pentateuch, under the name of the five Me/jilloth, or volumes. This order, however, is not always observed ; but the variations from it are unimportant (Leusden, Philologus Hthrccus, diss. ii. ; Bp. Cosins' Schol- asfical Ilistor'j of the Canon, ch. ii.) The order of the books of the Old Testament, as tliey are arranged in the editions of the Latin Vulgate version, according to the decree of the council of Trent {Sess. iv.), is as follows : — Genesis, Exo- dus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, and Kuth ; four books of Kings — that is, 1 Samuel or 1 Kings, 2 Samuel or 2 Kings, 1 Kings, otherwise called 3 Kings, 2 Kings, otherwise called 4 Kings ; 1 Esdras (as this book is termed in the Septuagint and Vulgate versions) or Ezra ; 2 Esdras, or as we denomin- ate it, Nehemiah ; *Tobit, *Judith, Esther, Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon, *The Book of Wisdom, *Ecclesiasticus, Isaiah, Jeremiah and *Baruch, Ezekiel, Daniel, Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Nahum (which book in our editions is jilaced immediately after Micah, and before Habakkuk), Jonah (which we place immediately after Obadiah), Micah, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi, *1 Maccabees, and *2 Slaccabees. Those books to which asterisks are prefixed are deservedly re- jected by Protestants as apocryphal. The Pentateuch was anciently divided, by the Jews, into fifty or fifty-four Paraschioih, or larger sections, according as their year is simple or inter- calary, one of which is still read in the synagogue every Sabbath day. Many of the Jews suppose this division to have been appointed by Mosas ; but it is by others attributed, and with greater probability, to Ezra. These paraschioth were further subdivided into smaller sections, termed Siderim, or orders. Until the persecution of Antiochus Epiphanes the Jews read only the law ; but the reading of it being then jirohi- blted, they substituted for it fifty-four Haphtaroth, or sections from the prophets. Subsequently, however, when the reading of the law was restored by the Maccabees, the section which had been read from the law was used for the first, and that from the prophets, for the second lesson. These sections were also divided into Pesukim, or verses, which have likewise been ascribed to Ezra ; but, if not contrived by him, it appears that this subdivision was introduced not long after his death : it was probaltly intended for the use of the Targumists or Chaklee inter- preters. After the return of the Jews from the Babylonish captivity, when tlie Hebrew language had ceased to bespoken, and the Chaldee became the vernacular tongue, it was usual to read the law, first in the original Hebrew, and afterwards to interpret it to the people in the Chaldee dialect. For the purpose of exposition, there- fore, these shorter periods were very convenient. It is worthy of remark, that the same practice BIB exists, at the present time, among the Karaite Jews, at Simpheropol, in Crira-Tartary, where the Tartar translation is read after the Hebrew text. The divisions of the Old Testament which now generally obtain among biblical critics are four in number, viz., 1. The Pentateuch, or five books of Moses ; 2. The Historical liooki, comprising Joshua to F>sther iiiclitsive; 3. The Doctrinal or Poetical Books of .lob, Psalms, tlie Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and the Song of Solomon; and 4. The Prophetical Books of Isaiah, Jeremiah, with his Lamentations, Ezekiel, Daniel, and the twelve ]\Iinor Prophets. Tbese are severally divided into chapters and verses, to facilitate reference, and not i)riniarily with a view to any natural division of the multifarious subjects which they embrace ; but by whom these divisions were originally made, is a question concerning which there exists a considerable dirterence of opinion. That they are comparatively a modem invention, is evident from their being utterly unknowni to the ancient Cliristians, whose Greek Bibles had TlrXoi {titles) imdi KitpiXaia (Jieads); but the intent of these was rather to point out the sum or contents of the text, than to divide the various books. They also differed greatly from the present chapters; many of them con- taining only a few verses, and some of them not more than one. The invention of chapters has, by some, been ascribed to Lanfranc, who was Archbishop of Canterbury in tlie reigns of William the Conqueror anil William II.; while others attribute it to Stephen Langlon, who was Archbishop of the same see in the roigns of John and Henry III. But flic red author of this division was Cardinal Hugo de Sancto Caro, or Ungues de Saint Cher, who flourished about the middle of the tliirteenth century, and wrote a celebratedcommentaryon the Scriptures. Having projected a concordance to the Latin Vulgate version, by which any passage may be found, he divided the entire Bible into chapters, which are the same we now have : these chaiitcrs he sub- divided into smaller portions, which lie distin- guislied by the letters A. B. C. D. E. F. and G., which are placed in the margin at equ.il dis- tances from each other, according to tlie Icuglli of the chapters. The facility of reference thus afforded bv Hugo's divisions having become known to'llabbl Mordecai Nathan (or Isaac Nathan, as he is sometimes called), a cikbrated Jewish teacher in llie fifteenth century, he un- dertook a similar concordance for the Hebrew Scriptures; but, instead of the nuirginal letters of Hugo, he marked every fifth verse with a Hebrew numeral, thus N 1. n 6. &c., retaining, however, the ciirdinal's divisions into chapteru. This concordaiue of i:al)bi Nathan was com- menced A. D. 14 J8, and finished in 1445. The introduction of figures into the printed copies of the Hebrew Bible commenced in the edition of the Pentateuch, Megillotb, and Haphtaroth, n BIB printed at Sabioneta, in Italy, in 1557; in which every fifth verse is marked with a Hebrew numeral. Each verse of the Hebrew text is marked with an Arabic numeral in the Antwerp Polyglot, printed in 1569. Athias, a Jew of Amsterdam, in his celebrated edition of the Hebrew Bible, printed in 1661, and again in 1667, also marked every verse with the figures in common use, except those which had been previously marked in the Sabioneta edition with Hebrew letters, in the manner in which they at present appear in Hebrew Bibles. By rejecting these Hebrew numerals, and substituting for them the corresponding figures, all the copies of the Bible in other languages have since been marked (Home's Introd. to ihe Critical Study of the Scriptures, vol. ii., part i., ch. ii., sect. 2). II. Mamtscript! and Printed Editions of the Hebrew Bible. — Hebrew Bibles are either manu- script or printed. The manuscripts have been divided into two classes, viz., autographs, or those written by the sacred authors themselves, which have long since perished; and apographs, or copies made fi'om the originals, and multi- plied by repeated transcription, which vary in value according to their antiquity. The manu- scripts still extant are either in the form of rolls, which are used in the sj'nagogues, or square, which are used b}' private individuals. The law of Moses being held in the profoundest veneration hj the Jews, various regulations have been made, from time to time, for the guidance of the transcribers, who were obliged to conform to them in copying the rolls destined for the use of the synagogue. The date of these regu- lations is not known ; but they are long posterior to the Talmud; and though many of them are the most ridiculous and useless that can well be conceived, yet the religious observance of them, which has continued for many centuries, has certainly contributed in a great degree to pre- serve the purity of the Pentateuch. The follow- ing are a few of the principal of these regu- lations:— The copies of the law must be transcribed from ancient manuscripts of ap- proved character only, with pure ink, on parch- ment prepared from the hide of a clean animal, for this express purpose, by a Jew, and fastened together by the strings of clean animals. Every skin must contain a certain number of colunms of prescribed length and breadth, each column comprising a given number of lines and words. Ko word must be written by heart or with points, or without being first orally pronounced by the copyist ; the name of God is not to be ■written but with the utmost devotion and at- tention, and previously to writing it, the pen must be washed. The want, or the redundance, of a single letter, the writing of prose as verse, or verse as prose, respectively, vitiates a manu- script; and when a cop}- has been completed, it must be examined and corrected within tliirty days after the writing has been finished, in BIB order to determine whether it is to be approved or rejected. These rules, it is said, are ob- served to the present day by the persons who transcribe the sacred writings for the use of the synagogue. The square manuscripts, which are in private use, are written either on vellum or on paper, of various sizes. Those which are copied on paper are considered as being the most modem ; and, if written in the rabbinical Hebrew character, are invariably of recent date. The best manuscripts are those copied by the Jews of Spain, which are written in beautiful characters, like those in the He- brew Bibles printed by Bomberg, Stephens, and Plantin. The manuscripts transcribed by the Jews of Germany are less exact and beautiful; the characters in which they are written re- semble those of the editions of Munster and Gryphius. The manuscripts of the Italian Jews hold a middle place between these two classes. The pages, in all of them, are usually divided into three columns of various lengths ; and the initial letters are frequently illuminated and ornamented with gold. In many manuscripts the Masora is added ; what is called the larger Masora being placed above and below the columns of the text, and the smaller Masora being inserted in the blank spaces between the columns. The Masora is a system of critical notation, designed to mark how tradition taught the true reading of the Hebrew Scriptures. The text of the sacred books, it may be proper to remark, was originally written without any breaks or divisions into chapters and verses, or even into words; so that a whole book, as written in the ancient maimer, was in fact but one continued word. The Hebrew books having undergone an infinite number of alterations by successive transcriptions, during the lapse of ages (whence various readings had arisen), the Jews had recourse to a canon, which they judged to be infallible, in order to fix and ascertain the reading of the Hebrew text; and this rule they called Masora, or tradition, as if this critique were nothing but a tradition which they had received from their ancestors. Some, indeed, have ascribed this system of notation to Moses ; others, to Ezra and the members of the great sj'nagogue, and their successors, after the restoration of the temple- worship on the death of Antiochus Epiphanes. Other dates and per- sons have been assigned ; but the most probable opinion is that of Bishop Marsh, who observes that the Masora cannot be dated higher than the fourth or fifth centiuy. The Masoretic notes and criticisms are the most stupendous monu- ment of minute and persevering labour, in the whole history of literature ; they relate to the books, verses, words, letters, vowels, points, and accents. The Masorites or Mnssorets (as the Jewish literati who invented this system were called), -wiih a reverential — not to say super- BIB stitious — attention, of which history does not furnish an instance that can be compared with it, counted all the verses, words, and letters of all the twenty-four books of the Old Testament, and of each of those twenty-four books, and of every section of each book, and of all its sub- divisions. The Masorites were the first who distinguished the books and sections of books into verses. They marked the number of the verses, and of the words and letters in each versie, and placed the amount at the end of each, in numeral letters, or in some symbolical word formed out of them; and they also marked the middle verse of each book. Further, they noted the verses where something was supposed to be forgotten ; the words which they believed to be changed; the letters which they deemed to be superfluous ; the repetitions of the same verses ; the different reading of the words which are redundant or defective; how often the same word is found at the beginning, middle, or end of a verse, the different significations of the same word; the agreement or conjunction of one word with another ; what letters are pronounced, and what are inverted, together with such as hang perpendicular ; and they took the number of each ; for the Jews cherish their sacred books with such reverence that they make &crui)le of changing the situation of a letter which is evidently misplaced, supposing that some mys- tery has occasioned the alteration. They have likewise reckoned which is the middle letter of the Pentateuch, which is the middle clause of each book, and how many times each letter of the alphabet occurs in all the Hebrew Scrip- tures, (Waltoni, Prolegomena, c. viii.) Such is the celebrated Masora of the Jews. At first it did not accompany the text ; afterwards the greatest part of it was written in the margin. In order to comprise it within the margin, it became necessary' to abridge the work itself; this abridgment was called the little JNIasora, Masora jmrou; but, being found too short, a more copious abridgment was inserted, which was distinguished by the appellation of the great Masora, Masora magna. The omitted i)arts were added at the end of the text, and called the Jinal Masora, Masora finalls. There is another invention ascribed to the Masorites, which it is proper to notice in this place. In Jewish manuscripts and printed editions of the Old Testament, a word is often found with a small circle annexed to it, or with an asterisk over it, and a word written in the margin of the same line. The former is called the Ketib, that is, written, and the latter, Keri, that is, read or reading, as if to intimate, write in this manner, but read in that manner. For instance, when they meet with certain words, they substitute others; thus, instead of the name Jehoval; (which, expressing the being, the essence, and the eternity of the Deity, the Jews consider a word too sacred for human utterance), they sub- BIB stitute Adonai, which is expressive not of God but of Lord. .\nd, in lieu of terms not strictly consistent with decency, they j)r.)nounce others less indelicate, or more agreeable to their ideas of propriety. (Walton, ut supra ; Whittaker's Jn- quiry into the Inlerprelation of the Hebrew Scrip- tures, p. 114-178). Concerning the value of the Masoretic sys- tem of notation, biblical critics are greatly divided in opinion. While some have com- mended the undertaking, and have considered it as an admirable invention for preser\-ing the purity of the sacred text, and for put- ting a stop to the arbitrary and unbounded licentiousness and rashness of transcribers and critics, others have altogether censured the design, suspecting that the Masorites corrupted the purity of the text, by substituting for tiie ancient and true reading of their forefathers another reading more favourable to their pre- judices, and more opposite to Christianity, whoked, has it not been signalized also in ius literary progr.-s from age to age? It may be answered, llmt luilh in Tliere is no foundation for our faith, unless we of the present day are persuaded that we have Scripture essentially as pure as it was published at first by its various authors. A mutilated Bible, with fragmentary clauses, and disfigured by numerous and dismal spaces, out of which jirecious words had dropped and disappeared, could neither entice us to its study, nor command us to do it homage. Alas! what melody could be struck from a harp with broken and missing chords. Now, there is here a preliminarj' ques- tion. If God has given a perfect revelation to the world, will he not take effectual means to prevent its being injured in the course of trans- mission to distant ages ? Will he not secure to the nineteenth century the ver}- words of Christ's sayings and discourses? Or are we to be placed at sad discount and disadvantage in having to take our Bible from the hands of copyists whose aching fingers and drowsy eyes have produced serious discrepancies in the sacred text? May it not be anticipated that a book miraculously given will be miraculously pre- served from error ? And will not its essence be vitiated, its purpose frustrated, and its heavenly origin discredited, if it be exposed to the certain hazards of ordinary literary productions? Has Heaven deserted its own otilpring, and left it, like an orphan, to be spoiled in helpless exposure ? We need not theorize when the fact is so ap- parent. Tliere are numerous various readings both in the Old and New Testament, and these have been produced in consequence of frequent transcription. The inspired autographs have long ago perished, and the most ancient copies to which we have access exhibit many textual variations. No promise of infallibility was made to transcribers, and no pledge that the copy should be a perfect reflection of the orignal. No special class of pious and honest caligrapbists was set apart to the enterprise of multiplying Bibles, and the Church had no board of super- vision to take cognizance of their inks and parch- ment, discover and correct their various blunders, give authority to their revised and amended manuscripts, and throw such guaranteed copies into general circulation. '1 he work was left, in a great measure, to individual effort. And thus 81 BIB the divine origin of Scripture should have kept men from tampering with its contents. If the consciousness that they were writing out the book of God had overshadowed their spirit as it ought— if they had felt that every word was sacred, and every letter an integral part of a sui)ernafural record — if they could have realized, that in copying the Scriptures for others, they were standing to them in God's stead, speaking to them in God's name, and thus personating, as far as jjossible, the prophets and apostles of an earlier epoch — then surely that vast responsi- bility must have deterred the unqualified, and checked the presumptuous, and thrown such an honour and sacredness over the work as should have excited the minute and skilful diligence, and sharpened the pious and prayerful scrupulo- sity of the early churches. The function of the scribe must have felt itself hallowed and ennobled by its operation on the AVord of God, as was the artistic genius of Bezaleel and Aholiab in the construction of the tabernacle and its sacred ves- sels and furniture. The exposure of Scripture to such danger is therefore no argument against its heavenly nature. God gave his oracles to the world in a perfect state, and left it in charge to men to preserve them immaculate. He works no superfluous miracles, but tests in this manner the faith and sincerity of the Church. Physical life is His gilt too; but he has cast no mjstic shield around it, to protect it from accident, danger, or self-destruction. It is entrusted to man himself to preserve and prolong it, and his abuse or neglect of this commission may be a very unworthy acknowledgment of the gift, but it is certainly no argument against the divinity of its origin. If, then, no superhuman care has been taken of the words and letters of the in- spired pages — if thousands of various readings do exist — is it not a great duty to strive to have a text as nearly as possible in the condition in which its holy authors left it? How can we have faith in any doctrine, if there be doubts as to the very words on whicli it is based ? Textual criticism, in this view, takes precedence of evi- dences as well as interpretation. It must be a Bible materially the same as wiien first published that we defend, and not the errors and deviations of patristic and mediajval scribes. The import- ance of this work has been often overlooked, and the plodding scrutiny of collators and editors has been despised, as fruitless and suspicious toil amidstdusty parchmentsand mouldy manuscripts. ^\'ith wluit pangs of terror and indignation did not Owen attack Walton, and \Miitby assail Mill ! And even where the results of critical labour have not excited panic and dismay, the work, so far from being hailed with gratitude, has too often excited wonder, tinged with satirical compassion for tlie amount of misdirected effort. At the same time, we should be grateful that the text of Sciipture is so perfect. It is in a far better state than that of any common book BIB which has come down to us from ancient times. In many classical authors there are numerous passages so hopelessly corrupt, that conjecture is the only remedy for amending them. Let any one look at the pages of yEschylus, Sophocles, Plato, Terence, or Lucretius, and he will find, not only thousands of different readings — scarcely a line being without one — but manj* places in which erudite skill can only guess at what the text might be. There are sentences which nobody can construe, clauses of which no one can divine the meaning, collocations of words which all the tact of Hermann could not un- ravel, and all the ingenuity of Bentley and Porson could only interpret by recomposing the paragraph. Since the publication of the first edition of the Greek Testament by Erasmus in 1516, what prodigious pains and research have been bestowed upon its text! Beza, Stephens, Usher, and Fell led the way. Then followed the thirty years' toil of Mill — toil only concluded fourteen days before his death. The task of his life was done, and the servant was re- leased. In Kiister's edition of Mill are supplied the readings of twelve additional manuscripts. The pious labours of Bengel preceded those of \\'etstein, who collated upwards of sixty manu- scripts, and has appended to his text more than a million of quoted authorities. The 30,000 various readings of Mill were in this ;vay considerably augmented. Griesbach collated some hundreds of manuscripts, and he has been followed by Scholz, Lachmann, Tischendorf, and Tregelles. The readings may now amount to at least a hundred thousand. For not only have all the differences in all the manuscripts been carefully compared and accurately jotted down, but the old ver- sions, such as the Syriac, Latin, and Gothic, have been ransacked, and their supposed variations added to tlie lists ; nay, the quotations found in the fathers have been subjected to the same ordeal, and all their discrepancies and peculiari- ties seized on and subjoined to the formidable catalogue. Let our readers bear in mind what we have said as to the numerous sources of variation on the part of the copyists ; let them reflect on tlie fact that the authors of the old versions might not always make a skilful and accurate translation, and that it is often matter of mere conjecturcas to what they saw in the Greek manu- scripts; let them further recollect that the fathers quoted generally from memory, sometimes inter- posing a brief paraphrase, inserting an expository parenthesis, adding a plainer synonjnie, and often quoting the same verse in different ways; and he will not be surprised that the various readings should form so huge a list. The collation of tliree or four classic manuscripts gives nearly as many readings for a single author, and the won- der is that so man}' manuscri]its, of all ages and countries ; so many versions, themselves needing revision ; and so many quotations made freely, 82 BID and wiMi no attempt at verbal accuracy — should not have quadrupled the number alreadv dis- covered. To put the matter in a modern lij^ht. Let it be the Bible in our own authorized version which is under critical investigation, and let the iirst edition of it under King James be reckoned the standard. It will be found on examination that the variations of spelling must be reckoned by myriads, every clause affording an example; and that the actual misprints in the various editions would amount to many thousands. And if quotations of Scripture printed in sermons and famous books of theology were also com- pared, and the difTerences noted down, the roll of various readings would swell to a bulk beyond calculation. And then if peculiar idioms in the Gaelic and other tongues were to be regarded as proofs that the translators read accordingly in the original copj' from which they made their versions, who could put into figures the swarms of multiplied readings? Now if, instead of being printed, and the errors of the press cor- rected by the appai-atus of proofs and revises, and compared with one another for these two hundred years, our copies of the English Bible had been all written out, either by some men who had leisure, or by others who made copying their craft and occupation — each scribe, whether ama- teur or professional artist, taking whatever copy he could most readily lay hold of; what must have bicn by this time the register of various readings, if some hundreds of these English manuscripts were to be collated, and versions and quotations were forced to add their prolilic results ? A volume as large as Scripture itself could not contain the muster. In like manner, the number of copies possessed at the middle of the third century by several millions of Christians must have been very great : probably a hundred thousand copies of the whole or of parts of the New Testament were in circulation in families and in churches. Transcription must therefore have been very often repeated; r.iul not only so, but from the nature of things, fewest copies would be taken from the veritable an'.ographs of the evangelists and apostles. More cujiies would be taken from the second transcription than the first, and from the tliird than the second, because the facilities for transcription increased with the dispersion of manuscri[its already made ; so that by the time specified, the copy in the possession of individiuils or communilies might have been written off' from a roll which was itself a lifiieth transcription in succession from the tirst date and publication of the gospel or epistle. That in all this multiplying and copying error should be found, who can wonder? lu a quarto pulpit Bible with which we are familiar, one clause reads, '• who makes' (not his sun, but) " his son to rise on the evil anil on the good." And in a metrical psalm book — from the queen's ])rinters in Edinburgh — runs the line, " 1 said that ye are [/oock" (i;ods). la an edition of the queen's BIB printers in London, 1843 (Eph. i. 9), occur the letters "ylood" for "good." If such mistakes happen, with all the careful readings and correc- tions of modern printing-houses, what mi-ht not be expected among tl.e ancient scribes? We repeat it, the wonder is that the Greek and Hebrew various readings are not greatly more nmnerous than they really are. It seenis aa if Providence had studiously kept theiu down to their present amount. And the faith of no one needs to be stum- bled. The great majority of these discrepan- cies refer to ortiiography and the order of words; whether it siiould be Jesus Christ or Christ Jesus ; whether a particle siiould be Iiere or there in a clause; whether some noun should have its masculine or neuter form ; whether li or *a/'is the genuine term, or whether a personal pronoun, plainly implied in the syn- tax, should be inserted or deleted. We have opened a page of Tischendorf's edition of the ^M Greek New Testament at random, p. 82, contain- ^^ ing a portion of the first chapter of Mark; and here are the variations, which we record in jilaiu English : — V. 7, instead of " mightierthan I, ' one manuscript has "the mighty cue," aplain blunder of the Alexandrian copyist. Instead of " after me," one codex simply reads " afler," " me" being implied, audits omission being apiece of obvious stupiditj'. Another manuscrijit has omitted the Greek word for " stoopin.; down ;" the error of a hurried or slovenly transcriber. It is very plain that such readings are and can be of no authoiity, for they have no support. They are Iho rcsiilt of evident negligence ; but yet tliey are as care- fully noted as if they had been supported by pre- ponderart authority, with a host of manuscripts and versions in their favour. Therefore, if all those various readings which have really no support at all were discarded, nine-tenths of the whole list would be at once expunged, and the vast majority of the remaining tenth — wliatever the evidence for and against them — will be found to be of utter iiisignilicance. The sense is not i materially affected by the critical result, so that, 9 after such inevitable deducti^jns, only a few ^ remain of primary importance, and somclimea these are supported by authority so nicely bal- anced, that it is difficult to come to a satisfactory decision. After all, then, the text of Scri|iture is in a state that warrants us in placing implicit faith in the revelation which it contuiu.s. Tha text of no ancient author has undergone scrutiny and revision so careful and pniiongcd ; and wo feel no hesitation in aflirniiiig t!iat wo have tlio Bible virtually in the state in which it was originallv furnished to us. The .ts in tho sun do not darUi 11 his lustre; and these minor discrepancies— the unavoidable results of huiiinn infirmitv — do not detract from the perfcclion and authority of the oracles of God. Tho received text of the New Tcslnmcnt originated in the self-lauded speculation of a 83 BIB family of tradesmen. The first Elzevir edi- tion "appeared, as we have said, in 1624, at Levden, and the second, which was published in 1033, had in the preface to the reader those words, " icxiuin ergo hahes nunc ab omnibus recep- tum-' — you have here a text now received by all. Tiiis clause, at first only a printer's pufl^, has verified its own prophetic truth ; for the Elzevirian text has become the texlus receptus of Protestant Christendom. This text rested on Beza"s edition, and Stephens's third, which itself was based on the fifth of Erasmus, and that scholar followed to a great extent in his fourth and fifth editions the text of the Compluten- sian Polyglot. Such is the accidental lineage of the common text of the New Testament. Was it not a kind and wise Providence which secured that the few manuscripts used by these printers and editors should contain a text so good — so fair a copj' of the gospels and epistles of the apostolic ages? There was no systematic ar- rangement or learned consultation. The edi- tors of the Complutensian Poh-glot, under the patronage of Cardinal Ximenes, had but a few manuscripts from Rome, and these apparently of modern date, lor the copy which they printed in 1517. Erasmus had but five manuscripts for his first edition of 1 5 1 G, and actually himself translated into Greek the last six verses of the Apocalypse. Robert Stephens for his first edition had sixteen manuscripts ; and he followed their authority in thirtj'-seven instances, though he differed from the Complutensian in 581 places. Eeza had some new manuscripts and other documentary assistance, though he did not use them with critical accuracy or completeness. Thus out of these careless and undesigned sources was the received text extracted by the hardihood and trick of the Elzevirs. Suffice it to remark, that amidst all that has been done for the textual criticism of the New Testament — amidst this great accumu- lation of various readings, only a few important passages have either a doubt thrown over them or are matter of debate, and the faith of the Church is uninjured by the result. Though the famous dispute about the passage in 1 John v. 7, 8, concerning the three heavenly witnesses, be now regarded as settled — the clauses being found in no ancient Greek manuscript or version, not even in the Vulgate before the eighth centurj' — no Greek or Latin father having quoted them even in their formal treatises in defence of the Trinity, and the words as they appear being apparently a slovenly translation from the Latin version — though such is the case, still the existence of the Trinity remains a distinctive and imperishable tenet of New Testament revelation. Though the doxology to the Lord's prayer, as found in Mattliew vi. 13, may not have originally belonged to it, such sentiments of homage are in perfect harmony with Christian supplication. The doctiiue of tlie atonement is not impugned, whether we read in Actsxx. 28, " the Church of BIB God," or, as we ought perhaps to read, " the Church of the Lord" (Christ), "which he has purchased with his own blood." The Godhead of the Saviour remains paramount in 1 Tim. iii. IG, whether we read, "God was manifest in the flesh," or, perhaps, according to the weight of authority, "who was manifest," — God being the nearest antecedent. Though the words in Acts viii. 37, containing the reply of Philip to the eunuch when he asked to be baptized, " If thou believest with all thine heart, thou mayest," are now allowed on all hands to be an interpola- tion, we should refuse nevertheless to admit an adult to baptism save on the personal profession of his faith. But yet, while such are the ultimate facts in regard to the criticism of the New Testa- ment, we must rejoice in every effort to give us the ipsisslma verba of evangelists and apostles. The smallest particles are often the means of exhibiting peculiar beauties and emphasis in the process of inspired thought or narration, as the smallest lines of the face give it a meaning and expression which the larger features by themselves cannot impart. The three great sources of criticism are, manu- scripts, versions, and earli/ quotations. The chief difficulty lies, however, in the applica- tion and practical treatment of these elements of judgment. The theory is plain, but the art is one of peculiar and intricate delicacy. For the correction of the text there exist hundreds of manuscripts, few of them containing the whole of the New Testament, and many of them lectiou- aries, that is, divided so as to be used in the church-service. Some of these codices reach back at least to the fifth century. It is a proof of their great age that some of them had been written over with more modern literary works ; but chemical ingenuity has contrived to remove the last penmanship, and leave the original writing to be deciphered. In estimating the authority of manuscripts, it is ever to be borne in mind that mere number is of little weight. Twenty manuscripts may have no more weight than one, as the whole score may have been copied from one another, or may have come from a com- mon source. Again, the age of a manuscript is always an element of value, because the less sel- dom a manuscript has been transcribed, the less likelihood is there that errors have crept into the text : whereas, during every process of transcrip- tion, defective vision, momentary inattention, or accidental mistake, may introduce variations. At the same time, mere age is not a sufficient criterion ; for a manuscript of the ninth century may have been copied from one of the third, and is therefore really older in its reading than one of the sixth century taken from one of the fourth. There are many means of determining the age of a codex, from the material on which it is written, the fonn and size of the letters, the colour of the ink, the presence or absence of liucs called siic/ioj, 84 BIB BIB and the employment or omission of the signs I t'inguished scholars at liome and abroad of ii)teipiinction, and other apparatus of more niodeni Greek. A manuscript on parchment without separation of words, written in ancient characters, and devoid of accents, points, and ecclesiastical notations, may be safely assigned to a high antiquity. But it is not enough to know tlie age of a manuscript ; its country is an additional element of authority. The scribes of Alexandria, elated with the superiority of their provincial orthography, were in the habit of changing the spelling of the works whicli they copied ; and they did not limit such pedantic and wicked operations to common and classical authors, but tiiey also carried them into the transcription of the sacred books. So that, while we agree generally witli Tischendorf and Tregelles in assigning a high value to the manu- scripts A, B, C, D, &c. — the most ancient uncial manuscript — yet we have occasional hesita- tions to go all the length of their estimate, because the majority of these old codices are traced to Egypt by the forms of spelling employed ; and we sometimes think with Dr. Davidson, that what are called junior and cur- sive manuscripts, are often under estimated. NVhatever be the faults of 5?cholz's edition — and they are many and unpardonable — we think that some of his arguments in favour of the high authority of several eastern manuscrijits, have never been fullv represented or met. Tor, those Byzantine codices were the work of a people who had no pride in scholarship, and were under no temptation to alter the inspired diction. May it not be presumed that their copies would be taken in the simple conscien- tiousness of a good and honest heart ? Again, these oriental codices had their origin in the very countries in which the epistles and two of the gospels at least had their earliest circulation. Their agreement, moreover, with the textus receptus is also remarkable, as showing their accordance witli the codices best known, and of readiest access in Europe. The mere age of these eastern and junior manuscripts should not therefore operate conclusive!}' to their entire and uniform disparagement. It has sometimes been thought that the pecu- liarities of manuscripts might lead to a classifi- cation— that the national characteristics of the copyists are so decided that manuscripts niif^ht be arranged according to the regions wliore they liave been produced. A new rule of value would ill such a case be established, and the authority of a reading would be determined, not by the number or age of manuscripts in its favour, but by tiie family to which such codices belonged. Bentley and Bengel suggested such an arrange- ment, and the tlieory has been adopted and elaborated by Hug, Griesbacli, and Sciiolz. Griesbach's system, which created an immense sensation on its first publication, was assaulted with peculiar virulence and ability by many dis- . , and it soon sank mto disu.se; nav, it was all but abandoned by its autlior himself before his death, lie divided manuscri|)t into three great recen- sions—the A'.e.xandri.m, the Western, and I he Bv- zanline— deriving the classification from alleged peculiarities in tiie manuscripts and in thefimrta- tions of the ciiurch falhiT.s in the respective countries. But considerable pre.s.sure was cm- ployed in adjudging the manuscri|)ts to the various localities ; the boundaries between the ideal king- doms were elastic and variable; some codi^s defied all ethnographical position, and the system became soconfu.sed, arbitrary, and complicated, as to cease to be of any iiractical and permanent value. Ilug"s hypothesis, wiiich claimed its parentage in times so far back as the third cen- tury, in the revision of Lucian in Syria, and of Hesychius in Kgy[)t — both of them "preceded by Origen— has met a similar fate with that of Griesbach. The modified systems of Scholz, Rinck, and others, need not be mentioned nor discussed. Tiie sum of the matter is, that there appear to be two distinct classes of manuscripts — the Eastern and the Western — the former characterized generally by having such varia- tions as flow from common infirmity, and the latter by such as spring from wilful and critical emendation. Yet the balance is often upon the whole very equal. Kinck sliows from an ex- amination of the te.xt of the first Epistle to the Corinthians, in cases where the western diflered from the eastern manuscripts that only thirteen readings not in the eastern could be safely preferred. Let us earnestly hope that proper principles will guide liie future editors of the New Testament — that the value of a reading will be judged by other and safer criteria than those of any theory, tlie ingenuity, intricacy, and moditications of which deprive it of all workable adaptation to enlightened and pro- gressive criticism. A new and a true path lias at length been opened. Tischendorf has made great orogress in it ; and we fondly trust that Tregelles will exhibit a decided advance over ail his contemporaries and predeces-sors. '1 isclicn- dorf's publication of separate valuable codices cannot be too highly reconiniciidi'd; and the amount of minute, wearying, and perplexing labour with chymical tinctures, nLignifying glasses, and reflected lights, can scarcely bo imagined. Lot Jiic-similcs of the most important documents after hi.s example be printed or litho- graphed, and then the etlitor or commentator will be able to derive liis conclusions in the quietness and solitude of his own study. Why should every investigator be obliged, for tiiosnke of collation', to bury himself for months in the British Jluseum, or be forced to travel to I'atmos, Jerusalem, or Mount Alhos, or be compelled to knock humbly and often at the d(X)rs of the Vati- can, till some suspicious cardinal give him « tardv admission, wiiich probably places him 85 LIB under the surveillance of a Jesuit secretary or director ? The ancient veisions are also a source of au- thority in the correction of the text. By a careful examination of the words of a version, we may be able to learn what was found by the translator in the original. But such a process is rather intricate ; for the character of the version itself must be determined, an 1 the state of its own text ascertained. If it be a literal trans- lation, the reasoning as to the words of the original may have some degree of certainty. The Peshito-Syriac version of the New Testa- ment was executed probably about the end of the second century. Its \ery blunders show that it was made immediately from the Greek original ; and its venerable age and general accuracy make it of great value to the critic, notwithstanding the oriental peculiarities of its style. The text of the Fhiloxenian-S\riac version cannot, how- ever, be depended on, with all its bald literalities ; for it has been greatly tampered with. The Vulgate contains Jerome's Latin version of the Old Testament, and his revision of an older text of the New Testament. And here again the learned world is under great obligation to Tisch- endorf, who has published the best codex of this ancient version. We need not allude to other versions, but content ourselves with saying, that for the restoration of the text, the authority of versions nuist, froni the very nature of the case, from the difference of language, and the varying qualifications of translators, be greatly inferior to that of manuscripts. It involves an un- certain process of inference from the words of the version, as to those of the original whence it was taken ; a process the value of which depends on the fidelity and scholarship of the versionist. The critical use of these old translations implies accurate and extensive erudition. He who quotes their authority should most certainly be able to read them with precision and facility. It was one defect in Mill's qualification as acritic, that he did not understand the oriental versions, and so he fell into many blunders from con- sulting awkward Latin translations. The early Christian writers in their epistles, ex- positions, and treatises made a very liberal use of the inspired oracles. It might therefore be de- duced from their quotations how they read in their cofiies of the New Testament. If they had cited Scripture with professed accuracy, we should have come to a direct knowledge of the state of the text in each century, and in the various coun- tries in which those ancient writers tlourished. But the fathers often quoted from memory, and the}' had no concordances in those daj-s to assist them in turning to the proofs or passages which they wanted. In cases of controversy they were obliged to be accurate, but there is "litlle"doubt that their transcribers so altered their Scripture quotations as to assimilate them to its current text. Tiiey also cited Scripture often according BIB to the sense, that is, the sense which the}' put upon the verse or paragraph themselves. It is said, for example, in Mattliew x. 29, " Are not tv.o sparrows sold for a farthing, and one of them shall not fall on the ground," &c. Origen some- times quotes this passage correctly, but no less than five times he thus reads it, " shall not" or " doth not fall into the snare." But is not a similar practice common among ourselves? It is clear from this brief account which we have given, that the weight of manuscripts is superior to that of versions and quotations. But now, if any reading has equi-ponderant authorities for and against it, is there no collateral method left of arriving at a satisfactory judg- ment ? May there not be some few additional evidences, which, though apparently insignificant as the small dust in the balance, may yet exer- cise a slight but appreciable influence? Mav there not be something in the style, form of thought, or mode of expression, which may afford an instinctive discovery of the genuine text? There is no doubt tliat such a species of internal evidence may and ought to have its weight. Were we able to identify ourselves with an author, and throw ourselves completely into the current of his thought, impulses, and diction, then we might be qualified to imagine what is the genuine reading, in any contro- verted clause or vocable. Yet so much of this judgment is subjective — so much of it is de- pendent on personal taste, that no great reli- ance can be placed upon it. First, it is a law — the authority and safety of which every one will recognize — that the more difiicult read- ing is to be preferred to the simpler reading. Critics and copyists were always tempted to make plain what they could not comprehend, to alter an idiom which they deemed har.sh and liable to be mistaken, and to simplify what seemed to them a rare or difficult form of syntax or etymology. Therefore, of two readings, the shorter, more difficult, and idiomatic, is probably the correct one ; the longer and simpler being probably the product of a copyist, who slily insinuated his own opinion into the text, and moulded it according to his grammatical skill. Again, that reading is the best which can be proved to be the parent of all the variations. The genealog}' of the conflicting lections can sometimes be traced, and that form of the words or clause from which the others have sprung is authenticated to be the original text. Mere conjecture is to be sternly discarded. If anj' one look into Bowyer's Conjectures, he will see what a fool erratic erudition can make itself; and how exegetical predilections, theological leanings, and superficial philology on the part of Barrington, Owen, Markland, and Woide, have produced the wildest and most worthless of critical absurdities. Thus have we stated the general theory of Biblical criticism. But the great difficulty, as we have already said, lies in 86 lilB the api>lic;ition of such general laws. There are so mail}' elements of coiitiict wiiich must be har- monized, and of intricacy which must be un- ravelled ; 80 many points of evidence to bo ascertained, and so many estimates to be made of the sim|)le and combined weight of tlie various authorities, that it requires no little patience, tact, and experience to arrive at a true judgment. Haste is to be deprecated, and rashness is to be deplored. Above all, we need an earnest faith in Scripture, as a grand preservative against heedlessness and temerity. Wetstein and Gries- bach have been blamed — we believe unjustly — for theological bias ; but none of them had a great depth of pious reverence for the Word of God, as a volume truly inspired. Matthaei blended a low scurrility with all his critical efforts. The industrj- of Scholz was not equalled by his attention ; and negligence in such a work, disguise it as we maj', is a want of conscientious- ness. If the critic felt that he has to do, not ■with doctrines, but with the very sources of them ; that his concern is not with evidences, but with the prior question, whether an alleged divine document has in it nothing but the unchanged Word of God ; and that his business lies not in interpretation, but in securing for the interpreter that text which the Spirit of God has judged the fittest for the inipartation of saving truth — surely there is no amount of labour which he will spare, no sources of assistance which he will indolently neglect, no form of literary training from which he will timidl}' shrink ; but he will work, collate, judge, and decide in a spirit of manly and prayerful dependence on llim who claims the book as his own, and who will not be unmindful of any effort to keep it as he gave it, and preserve it to the world in its original integrity. It is a remarkable fact, that the only portion of the New Testament which our translators have marked as spurious, is now ascertained to be genuine, by indisputable autho- rity. The passage is the last half of the 23d verse of the second chapter of the first Epistle of John ; and is distinguished in the authorized version by being printed in italics, and the first word placed in brackets (see [ntroJuction to the New Testament by King, De Wette, Davidson, &c.)— J. E. III. Ancient Versions of the Bible. — These are numerous, and of coni-iderable importance for the criticism and interpretation of the Bible. At first the Jews were very reserved in communi- cating their sacred writings to strangers. Despis- ing and shunning the Gentiles, ihey withheld from them the treasures of divine knowledge contained in the Bible : nor were the Knyptiaiis, Arabs, and other nations bordering on tlie Jews, necjuainted with these books until after the several captivities of the Jews, whi-n the singularity of the Hebrew laws and ceremonies indued several to desire a more particular knowledge of them. Bin The earliest version of the Rible is the Greek translation, usually called the Scplua-int. Ac- cording to the account of the pbue(lu-Ari-,teaM, Ptolemy Philadelphus applied to Kleazur, the Jewish high priest at Jerusalem, for proper per- sons to translate the Hebrew Scriptures into the Greek language; and Kleazar sent six elders from each of the twelve tribes, 'i licse seventy- two persons soon completed their work; and from their number it was called the Soptuagint version, seventy being a round number. This account is now generally rejected as fiLtilious. P.y some learned men it has been supposed that this was called the Septuagint, because it was approved by the sanhedrim, or great council of the Jews, who were seventy in numljer. But whatever was the origin of its name, or the num- ber of its authors, their hitruduetion of (/optic words, as well as their rendering of ideas purely Hebrew altogether in the Egyptian manner, clearly prove that they were natives of Kpypt. The I'entateuch was probably executed during the joint reigns of Ptolemy Lagus and his son Philadelphus : it is allowed to have been trans- lated with great fidelity. Next to the Penta- teuch for ability of execution, are tlie Proverbs and book of Job. Internal evidence proves I iiat Joshua was not translated until twenty years after the death of Ptolemj- Lai,'us. During the reign of Ptolemy Philometer the books of Esther, P.-ahns, and the Projihets were translated, with various and inferior degrees of ability. The dates of the Greek version of Judges, Kuth, Samuel, and Kings, are not known. The Seiitiiagint version was in great esteem among the Jews in the liuie of Christ, and very many of the quotations in the New Testament are made from it. There are four principnl editions of the Greek Bible, or Septuagint version, from one or more of which all subsequent editions have been copied, viz., the Complntensian, the Aldine, tiie Vatican, and the Oxford, or Dr. (Jrabe's edition — I. The Comphitensian, edition was undertaken by the divines of Conipliitiini, or Alcala, in Spain, and forms part of the ('omjilutensian Polyglot de- scribed below. It bears the date of lol5. The text was composed after several manuscripts, which the editors have not described ; hence they have been charged with having jJtered it in various places, to make it harinoiii/.o with the Hebrew, or rather with the Vulgate version, and with having filled up the chasm in the Septu- agint from otiier Greek versions, i'his edition ha.s been copied in the Antwerp and Paris Poly- glots, also described below, iii the editions printed by the Connnelip.es in l.'.SG, 15'Jit, and IGIG, and in those executed by Walder in 15t»6, and Ilutter in lo'.i'J. — •-'. The .l/(/i«e edition appeared in loi8, two years after the death of Aldus .Alanutins. The "text of tl.i-< edition was formed from several ancient manuscripts. Bishop Walton has pronounced it to be much purer than that in the Coinplutensian Polyglot, to BIB which it is actually prior in point of time— the latter not being published before 1522, though it bears the date of 1517. Bishop Marsh asserts that it is interpolated in various places from other Greek versions. The Aldine edition was reprinted at Strasburg in 1526, at Basil in 1545, at Frankfort in 1597, and at other places. — 3. The Vatican edition was published at Rome in MDLX.\xvi.,though commonly dated MDLXXXVII., the rigure i having been subsequently added. The te.xt of this edition was taken from the cele- brated Codex Vaticami.% 1209 (a manuscript of the fifth century), with the exception of such words as the editors regarded in the light of errata; and the work was executed under the direction of Cardinal Carafa and other learned persons, at the expense of Pope Sixtus V. Copies with the date of 1587 are of most frequent occur- rence. The Vatican edition has been reprinted in Bisliop Walton's Polyglot (described in a subsequent section), and also in various other forms. Tlie editions most valued are — (1.) That printed at Cambridge in 1665, with a learned preface by Bishop Pearson. (2.) The edition pub- lished by Lambert Bos, at Franeker, in 1709, with additional various readings. (3.) Tliat of Eeineccius, at Halle, in 1730 (again in 1737), also with additional various readings from the Coniplutensian and Aldine editions, and from the Alexandrian manuscript. (4.)That of Oxford, 1817, in six volumes, with various readings from the Alexandrian manuscript, to which is prefixed a valuable introduction, extracted from Carpzov's Critica Sacra. ( 5.) The Oxford edi- tion, in five volumes folio (1798-1827), begun by the liev. Dr. Holmes, was completed after his decease by tlie Bev. .James Parsons, B.D., with various readings, the result of several jears' col- lation, the expense of which was defrayed by a noble subscription, promoted by the delegates of the Clarendon press. The plan and execution of tliis edition are highly commended bj' Bishop Marsh. ( C.) The edition executed at the press of Mr. J. A. Valpy, London, 1819.— 4. The Oxford edition, prejiared by Dr. Grabe, has for its basis the text of the celebrate! Codex Akxandrinus, a manuscript written at the close of the fourth century, or early in the fifth century, and pre- served m tlie Britisii Museum ; but where read- ings, which were believed to be genuine, Avere found in the Vatican edition, or in other manu- scripts, such readings were adopted. Though Dr. Grabe prepared tiie whole for the press, yet he publislied only the lirst and fourtli vohimes in 1707-1709, the second being edited by Dr. Lee in 1719, and the third by Dr. Wigan in 1720. The text of Grabe's edition was accurately and beautifully printed by Breitinger, in four volumes quarto, at Zurich, 1730-1732. The various readings of the Vatican edition are exhi- bited at the loot of the page. A splen(lidy«c-s/mi7e edition ol the Old Testament of the Codex Akxan- drinus was published by the Eev. lieury Hervey 88 BIB Baber, M.A., one of the librarians of the British Museum, at London, 181G-1828, 4 vols, folio. Besides the Septuagint, there are several other Greek versions of the Hebrew Scriptures, which claim to be noticed in tliis article, particularly those of Aquila, Tlieodotion, and Symmathus.— • 1. Aquila was a Jewish proselyte, a native of Sinope, in Pontus, who flourished in the second century. His version is extremely literal. He is said to have published two editions of it, the second of which was preferred by the Jews as being most exact. 2. Theodotion was a native of Ephesus, and nearly contemporarj- with Aquila. His ver- sion is more free than that of Aquila, and, in fact, is a kind of revision of the Septuagint, made after the original Hebrew. It supplies some defi- ciencies in the Septuagint; but where Theo- dotion translates without help, he evidently shows himself to have been but indifferently skilled in Hebrew. His version of the book of Daniel was introduced into the Christian churches, as being deemed more accurate than that of the Septuagint. 3. Symmachus was an Ebionite, or semi-Christian, who lived a few years later than Theodotion, that is, about the year of Christ 200. His version, though concise, is free and paraphrastic, regarding the sense rather than the words of the original. Besides the preced- ing Greek versions, there are three others, usually called the fifth, sixth, and seventh ver- sions ; which derive their names from the order in which Origen disposed them in the columns of his hexaplar edition of the Bible. But their age and authors being unknown, and they being in themselves of little value, it is not necessary to take any further notice of them in this place. Syria being visited at a very early period by the preachers of Cliiistianity, several translations of the Scriptures were made into the language of that country. The most celebrated of these is the Pesckilo, or Literal, as it is usually called, on account of its very close adherence to the Hebrew text, from which it was immediately made, about the end of the first, or early in the second century. To its general fidelity almost every biblical critic of eminence bears unqualified approbation. This version is printed in the Polyglots of Paris and London. Historical evidence concerning the Arabic versions does not extend beyond the tenth century, when Rabbi Saadias Gaon, a celebrated Jewish teacher at Babylon, translated the Hebrew Bible into Arabic. Of this translation, the Pentateuch and Prophecies of Isaiah are ali that have hitherto been discovered and printed. There are several other Arabic versions extant ; hut not being very ancient, nor possessing much critical authority, they are of little value. Tliere are several versions of the Bible in tlie Persian language, but most of them are in manuscript. The Persian translation of the I'entateuch, printed in tin- London Polyglot, was executed by a Jew in the eleventh or "twelfth centurv. The BIB language of ancient Eccypt was divicletl into tliree dialects — tlie Coptic, or dialect of Lower Egypt ; the Sahidic, or dialect of Upper Egpy t ; and the Bashmuric, wliicli was spoken in a province of the Delta. Tiie Coptic ver- sion was made from the Septuagint, perhaps in the second or third century, and certainly before the seventh century. Of this version the Pentateuch, book of Psalms, Minor Prophets, and the New Testament, have been printed. Of the Saliidic version, all that remain were published by the Rev. Dr. Ford in his Appendix to Dr. Woide's edition of the New Testament, from the Alexandrian manuscript (Oxford, 1799, folio). An edition of the fragments of the Bash- muric version was published by W. F. Eyel- breth, at Copenhagen, in 18 10, in quarto. The Ethiopic version was also made from the Septu- agint, and (it is supposed) about the second or third century. Of thisversionthePsalmsand New Testament have been printed. The Septuagint was likewise the parent of the Armenian ver- sion, executed towards the close of the fourth, or early in the fifth century, and of the Sclavonic, or old Russian version, made in the ninth century. The Armenian Bible was first printed at Amster- dam in 1(JG6. The best critical edition is that published by the Rev. Dr. Zohrab, at Venice, in 1805. The Sclavonic Pentateuch was printed at Prague in 1510, and the entire Bible in 1570. The Gothic version was executed from the Septuagint by Ulphilas, a celebrated bishop of the Mccso-Goths, about the middle of the fourth centuf}-. Philostorgius (Hist. EccL, lib. ii., c. V.) asserts that Ulphilas omitted the books of Kings, from an apprehension that the martial spirit of his countrymen might be excited by the relation of Jewish wars. But this assertion is refuted by Cardinal IMa'i's discovery, in the Ambrosian library at Milan, of some fragments of the Gothic translation of these books. It appears that the Latin or Western Church possessed several Latin translations of the New Testament, but onl^- one version of the Old Testa- ment, which was made from the Greek. This translation was generalh' received in tlie time of Jerome, who, towards the close of the fourth century, undertook a revision of it, at the request of Pope Damasus. Of this version, only the Psalms and book of Job have descended to our time. In fact, these two books, with the Chronicles, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Song of Solomon, were the only parts of it which were ever published; his mamiscript version of the other books of the Old Testament being either secreted or destroyed by some person to whom they were intrusted. This loss only stimulated Jerome to fre.~li exertions ; and in the year 405, he completed his translation from the Hebrew, which he had commenced before he had finisiied his revisal. 'J'his new version was gradually introduced into the 'Western Church, for fear of ofl'euding weak persons. At length it BIB received from Pope Gregory the Great, the sanction of papal authority. Since tliat time, with the exception of the Vsalnis (wiiich. being daily chanted to music in the church service, made it dillicult to introduce alterations in them), Jerome's new translation from the He- brew has been exclusively adopted by theChurth of Rome, under the name of the Vidgate ver-ion ; and a decree of the council of Trent, in the six- teenth century, pronounced it to be authentic; and commanded that the Vulgate alone should be used in all sermons, expositions, and dis- putations. Great confusion having arisen from the incorrectness and numerous variations both in the manuscripts and printed editions of this version. Pope Sixtus V. caused a new and cor- rected edition (the proof sheets of which he liim- self revised) to be published at Rome in 15'.M), This he commanded to be received as authentic; but it was found to be so extremely incorrect that Clement VIII., his successor, sujijinssed this edition, and published another authentic edition, whicb differs materially from ti)e Six- tine edition, both in sense and words. The Latin Vulgate versi(m is allowed to be, upon the w^hole, a faithful translation, though some passaL'es are mistranslated, in order to support the pecidiar dogmas of the Church of Rome. The modern printed editions of it are very numerous (Home's Introduction^ vol. ii., part i., chap, iii,, sect, iii., § 2-4; Le Long and Masth, Bibliiitheca Sacra, part ii.) IV. Modern Versions of the Bilk The trans- lations of the Scriptures into tiie different modern languages, which are spoken in the four qunrters of the globe, are so numerous tliat it is dithcult to obtain correct accounts of all of them. The fcillowing tables, however, will exhibit at one view tlie principal translations, togetlicr with the dates when the}' appeared, the authors by whom they were executed, and the names of the places in which they were severally printed. These tables have been drawn up from the accounts of versions in Bisho|) JIarsh's His- tory of Translations; Home's Introduction, vol. v., part i., sect. vii. ; Jfissionarr/ Socieli(.i' Transactions; and Townky's Illustrations «t liiblicul Litaature, three volumes octavo. Of liie numerous versions therein noticed, the following are the most important to the Knglish reader:— 1. Juir/lishlJildes.—AMwMii^t it is inipo«sil,Ie. nt this distance of time, to ascertain when, or by whom, Christianity was fust planted in this island, as well as the earliest time when the Scriptures were translated into the language of the inhabitants ; vet we know ihaf. for scverul hundred vears, tiiey had part, at li'asf, of the sacied volume in their vernacular tongue. The earliest version, of which we have any ac- count, is a translation of the Psalms into the Saxon language, by Al.llielm, or Adhelme, the first Risliop of ShcrLorne, about the year 7u'SLATIONS INTO THE LANGUAGES OF MODERN ASIA. Language, 1. Arabic and its de- rivative languages. Arabic, Persian, Pushtoo, Buloeha, 2. Sanscrit and its de- rivative languages. Sanscrit, Sikh or Punjabee, .. Assamese, Kashmiree, ........ W'utch or JIultanee, Guzavattee, Bikaneer, Kunkuna, Maruwar, Oojuvinee, Bundelkundee, .... Nepaulese, Magudha or Pali, . . Oordoo, Mahratta, Hindee, Hindonstanhee, .... Bengalee, Orissa, Canarese Tamul, Telinga or Teloogoo, Cingalese, Malay, Malay alim, 3. Chinese, Burmese, 4. Otlier Asiatic ViiU- SIONS. Borneo, Fonnosan, Japanese, Tartar, Tartar or Mant-7 chew Tartar, 3 Orenburg-Tartar, Calmuc-Tartar, .. Mongolian-Tartar, isis IS08 1811 1819 1819 1819 18l>0 1819 1818 182i 1822 1822 1822 1815-32 1832 1807 1812 (1808-14' '(1801 1807 1820 1715 11771-80 .1820 4 Gospels, 1804, 4 Gospels, IS16, f Gospel of J Mark, 1812J 1813 1836 1820 1815-20 fMatt l.Iolni, John, and 7 l(;{;ij 1844, Matt., 1822, C Matt. ILuke, and) isioj Bilile. or Old Tcsinment. or Detaghed Boulis theret/f. 1801-5? 1809-14i 1731-33 1844 1815-21 815-20 1805 (Psalms and"! ■j Prov, 1830,3 Isaiali, lS3t;, Gen. Lev., 1822, 1 Pent., 1818, fPent. and"] Hist, books, I !. 1812-15, .. I IPvnt. Hist.&l Poet, books, I 1805-12,.... J Psalms, 1747, Gen.. Exod and Le 1771-«3, xod.,1 evit., > 53, ..) Psalter, 1815. Pentateuch, -i fN. Rabat and Rev. II I ilartyn. U.U. Lieut. -Col. Cnlebrokf, llcv. IL -Martyn, Rev. Mr. Glen, Mirza Ibraham f John L'vden, Ml). C uud others, Ml).-) Baptist Missionaries, f Baptist and Wes- ■; leyan Mission- (. aiies, r Rev. T. T. Tlioma- < sun and M. Da C Costa, Baptist Missioiiailes, . CDanish Missionary7 t Beiijainin Schultzj Uev. 11. Martyn Baptist Jlissionarics,.. tJev. W. Hands, r Danish MIssionar-T } ics, Zid;:enbals> C and Schultz J .M Des Granges, Fybrantz and Pliilipsz, plr. M'. Tolfrey and i othei-s, JAm.i I in id liatuviiLi Cotym. ..^.. ^ „,„ ScTuiiiporei CRcv. Ur. .Mnriso,.,7 , ^ l& Rev. Mr. Milne, J ^""^O" baptist Mlssionai'lcs,.. Scrampore. i;ev. a Bailey Rev. Dr. Marsbmun, I'ritiUug. > Calcutta, ["etersburg. J Astrachun. Colomba Calcutta. Malle. Calcutta. Scrampore. rranqucbar. V'izagapatam. ■ Colomba (Amstprdam Robert Junius, Rev. Mr. GiitzloH- (■Edinburgh Soilcty': l_ Missionaries, .... I Ditto, Jforavliin Ml'sinnnrles f TwiiMiingollancblcl- ll tains 1111(1 otlu•r^.. Pctcnbnrg. [Continuation on nutpagt. N'lgcUnnrnco) Amsterdam. Slnjaporo, t K.iriisLS and > Astradian .Vstraclian. 91 TABLE 11— -Continued. Lan^age. New Testament, or Po- tached Buoks tiiereof. Eible. or Old Testament, or Detached Books thereof. Author. Flacp of rriniing. New Tes- t.iment. Detached Books. Bible, or Old Test. Detached Books. Mordwassian, Tchercmissian, .... Trans-Caucasian 7 Tartar, j 1818-25 1828 1844-49 1844 1842 1832 1835 4 Gospels, 1821, 4 Gospels, 1821, Matt., 1843, 1743 1833 f Rev. Messrs. SwanT I and Stellybrass, j Russian Bible Society, Basle Missionaries. Unknown, r Missionaries of the T i London Mission- >■ L ary Society, J f Missionaries of the ) •j London Mission- > (. ary Society, .... ) American Missionaries r Missionaries of the T } London Mission- > C ary Society J VVesIeyau Missionaries American Missionarief r Missionaries of tlie f ■J Basle lilissionary > L Society J r MisBionaries of tlie t ■J Church Mission- [ L ary Society, .... J Petersburg. Petersburg. Moscow. Eimeo, Tahiti, and London. London. Honololn. Samoa. Tonga. Otaheitean or Ta-I hitari, i Several Books, 1844, Curdish J 4 Gospels, I 182(;-33. Armenian (Modem), Ararat, or Eastern") Armenia, j New Zealand, .Smyrna. TABLE IIL TRAWSLATIOKS INTO THE LANGUAGES Or MODERN AFRICA AND AMERICA. .\FRICA!J— Accra, BuUom, Amharic (a dialect? of Abvssinia), ..j Galla, .'. Malagasse, Mandingo, Nanuique, , Sichuand, , Do. (Bassouto") dialect;, 3 Caffie, .\mf,uican Indian— Virginian, , Delaware, Indian Massachus-" Chipijcway, Mohawk, . . Ditto, , Esquimaux, .. Grcenlandish, 1S:J2 1841 flSiiy-'J iis-uij (Matt. and-J "(John, 1844. j Matt., 1610, Matt., 1837, • Matt , 1837, ; Matt. aiid» .John.lSj'J,) f 3 Epist. of) lJolin,l818,i 5 Gospel of ■{ iJoUn,1709,j Bilile. or Old Testament, or DetacliL'd Books thereol. Pbrtims, 1841, Psalms, 1709, Isaiah, 1839, Rev. G. R. Nylander, JI.Asselin deCherville, Rev. J. L. Krapf C .Missionaries of Lon- (_ don Miss. Society, Missionaries, Uev. Mr. Schmelin, .. Kov. Mr. Moffat, Place of Prill ting. Kev. J. P. Pelissier, .. fE. Casalis and other t trench Missionaries, Wesley anMissiouaries, Rev. John Eliot, . C. F. Deucke,... Experience Mayhew, Messrs. Jones, rRev. Mr. Freeman, i Capt. Brant, Capt. C Norton, i Moravian Jlission- aries, itto > London. Ankobar. > London. I Cape Town. CGrahara's i Town. > Cape Town. (Cambridge < (New Lng- I land). New York. f Boston (New (.England). 1 ork, U. C. > London. New York. { London. Copenhagen. BIB BIB TABLE UL— Continued. Language. New Testament, or Pe- taolied BjoUs thereof. Bible, or Oltl Testament, or Detttche i Books thereof. Auilior. rinoe of rriiiiuiir. New Tes- tament. Detached Books. Bible, or Old res:. Detaclioi books. West Indian— Creolese, Negro-Cieolcse, .... Arawak (Guiana), .. SocTH America— Jlexican, 1781 IS-J!) 1832 .... Unknown Slissioimiics Rev. W. U. Brett,.. r»r. Mora. Ur. I'uzos-Kanki. Copenhagen. Loiiddli. Li)mlon(forthe Society for piomoting Christian Knowledge). fJIiitt. and") tJohn,18oO,j r.iikp. IS-".). isia i A Saxon version of the four gospels was made by Egbert, Bishop of Lindisfern, who died a.d. 721 ; and a few years after, the venerable Bede tran.^lated the entire Bible into that language. Kearly two hundred years after Bede, King Alfred executed another translation of the Psalm.s, either to supply the loss of Aldhelm's (which is supposed to have perished in the Danish wars), or to improve the plainness of Bede's version. A Saxon translation of the Pentateuch, Joshua, part of the books of Kings, Esther, and the apocryphal books of Juilith and the Maccabee.s, is also attributed to Elfiic, who was Archbishop of Canterbury, A.n. 995. A chasm of several centuries ensued, during which the Scriptures appear to have been buried in oblivion, the general reading of them being pro- hibited by the papal see. The first English trans- lation of tlie Bible, known to be extant, was made by an unknown individual, and is placed by Archbishop Usher to tlie year 1290 ; of this there are tiiree nianuscri[>t copies preserved in the Bodleian library, and in the libraries of ("hrist's Cliurch and Queen's Colleges, at Oxford. Towards the close of the following century, John de Trevisa, vicar of Berkeley, in the county of Gloucester, at the desire of his patron, Lord Berkeley, is said to have translated the Old and New Testaments into the English tongue ; Lut, as no part of this work appears ever to have been printed, the translation ascribed to him is supposed to have been confined to a few texts, which were painted on the walls of his patron's chapel, at Berkeley castle, or which are scattered in some parts of his works, several copies of which are known to exist in manuscript. Nearly contemporary with him was the celebrated Jolm Wiclif, or ^\'ickliffe, rector of Lougiiborough in Leicestershire; who, about the year 1380, with the aid of various assistants, translated the entire Bible from the Latin Vulgate into the English language, as it was then spoken. A revision of this version was made about the year 1395, or it may be a little earlier, by Jolm Purvey, Miclif's assistant or curate. A com- plete edition of Wiclil's translation and of Pur- vey's revision was published in IS.")!, at the expense of the delegates of the university press, at Oxford, in parallel columns, in four volumes quarto, under the joint editorship of the Rev. Josiah Porshell, M.A., secretary, and uf ^ir Frederick jSIadden, principal keeper of the manu- scri[)ts of the British ^hiseum, London. The text of this edition is printed from manuscripts in the British Museum and in the Bodleian library at Oxford, collated with other manu- scripts preserved in various college libraries at Oxford and Cambridge, and elsewhere. The editors have prefixed a valuable dissertation, con- taining a history of ^^■iclif's translation, to- gether with a glossary of obsolete words. An edition of the New Testament, according to AViclif's translation, was publi.--hed at London, in 1848, in octavo, from a conteni])orary manu- scrii)t in the possession of Lea \\'il-un, Esq., F.S.A. ; wliich was formerly in the library of the monastery of Sion, iMiddlesex. The edition of the New Testament luiblished by the Bev. John Le\vi.s, JI.A., at London, in 1731, in folio (which has hitlierto been considered as the identical translation of W'iclif) is now ascer- tained to have been taken from a maimscript of Purvev's revision. It was re-cdited in ((uarto, in 1810, 'by the Kev. II. H. Baber, M.A.. one of the librarians of the British Museum, who pre- fixed a memoir of Wiclif. For the earliest printed edition of any port of the Scriptures in English, we are indebted to William Tindal; wlio, having formed the design of translating the New Testament Irom the ori- ginal Greek, removed to Hamburg for this purpose, and thence to Cologne. Here, with (he avsistanco of the learned Jolm Fry or Frith, and of William Bove, both of wlimn aflerward.s were martyrs for the'lielorniation, he fini.^llcd his iniiK)rtant under- taking; and tlio Englisii New Testament wa.-i printed at Cologne in (juarto, in 1520. From Co- logne Tindal proceeded to Worms, where, in Uie same year, he completed what has iiitherlo been usually called his lirst edition of tiic New Testa- ment. The whole of fliis impression, with thr exception, it is said, of a single copy, bcim; { 93 BIB bought lip and burnt by Tonstal, Bishop of London, and Sir Thomas More, Tindal put forth a new edition in 1527, and a third in 1528 ; and in 1531, his translation of the Pen- tateuch appeared at Marburg in Desse, together •with another edition of his Testament. In the same year he published an English version of the prophet Jonah, with a prologue full of invec- tive against the Church of Eome. Strype sup- poses that, before his death, he finislied the whole Bible except the Apocrypha, which was translated by John Eogers; but it seems more probable that he translated only the historical parts. On Tindal's return to Antwerp in 1531, he was seized and imprisoned ; and, after a long conlinement, was put to death in 1536, at Ville- vorde near Brussels, on the charge of heresy, being lirst strangled, and his body afterwards reduced to ashes. In 1535 the whole Bible translated into English was printed in folio, and dedicated to King Henry VIII. by Miles Coverdale, whom Edward VI. afterwards promoted to the see of Exeter. This was the first edition published by royal authority. In 1537 another edition of the English iJible was published by John Rogers, the martyr : it is chiefly Tindal's and Cover- dale's, somewhat altered, and appeared under the assumed name of Thomas Mat;thewe. A I'eviscd edition of this translation, corrected b}' Cranmer and Coverdale, was printed at London in 1539, by Grafton and Whitchurch, in very large folio, which, from its size, is usuallj' denominated the Great Bible. No new version was executed during the reign of Edward VL, though several editions were printed, both of the Old and Kew Testaments. About the year 1550 Sir John Cheke translated the Gospel according to St. Matthew and part of the first chapter of the Gospel according to St. Mark, which was first published in 1843, by the Eev. James Goodwin, B.D. Sir J. Cheke made much use of the older versions, and aimed to banish from his translation every word which was derived from a Latin root. During the reign of Queen Mary, Miles Coverdale, John Knox, Christojiher Goodman, and other exiles who had taken refuge at Geneva, published the book of Psalms there, in 155D, with mar- ginal notes; and in the following year, the whole Bible appeared, with summaries, mar- ginal notes, maps, and brief annotations. From the place of publication, this is usually called the Geneva Bible: it was highly esteemed by the Puritans, and within the .short space of filty-six years (from 15C0 to 1616), numerous editions were printed in various sizes, principally by the king's jjrintcrs. Eight years alter the comple- tion of thii translation, another new version was published at London, with two prefaces by Archbishop Parker : it is now generally termed the Blsltops' Bible, from the circumstance of eight of the translators being bishops. This version was used in the churches for forty years, though 0 BIB the Geneva Bible was more read in private houses. In the year 1582, the Romanists, find- ing it impossible to withhold the Scriptures anv longer from the common people, printed an English New Testament at Rheims : it was translated, not from the Greek, but from the Latin ^'ulgate, and the editors (whose names are not known) retained a multitude of words, of Greek origin, untranslated and unexplained, under the pretext of wanting proper and ade- quate English terms b}' which to render them ; and thus contrived to render it unintelligible to common readers. Two learned confutations of the errors and mistranslations of this version were published, one by Dr. M'illiam Fulke in 1617, and the other by Mr. Thomas Cartwright in the following year. In 1609-10 an English translation of the Old Testament was published at Douay, in two volumes quarto, with annota- tions: this was also made from the Latin Vul- gate. This translation, with the Rhemish ver- sion of the New Testament above noticed, forms the English Bible, which alone is used by the Romanists of this country. The last English version which remains to be noticed, is the authorized translation now in use, which is commonly called Kinrj James's Bible. Shortl}' after his accession to the throne in 1603, several objections being made to the BisJwps' Bible, at the conference held at Hamp- ton Court in the following year, the king com- manded that a new version should be under- taken, and fifty-four learned men were appointed to this important labour; but, before it was commenced, seven of the persons nominated were either dead or had declined the task ; for the list, as given us by Fuller, (Church Bist. book X., pp. 44-47) comprises only forty- seven names. All of them, however, were pre- eminently distinguished for their piety, and for their profound learning in the original languages of the sacred writings ; and such of them as survived till the commencement of the work were divided into six classes. Ten were to meet at Westminster, and to translate from the Pen- tateuch to the end of the second book of Kings. Eight, assembled at Cambridge, were to finish the lest of the historical books, and the Hagio- grapha. At Oxford, seven were to undertake the four greater prophets, with the Lamentations of Jerendah, and the twelve minor prophets. 'Ihe four Gospels, Acts of the Apestles, and the Apocalypse, were assigned to another company of eight, also at Oxford ; and the epistles of St. Paul, together with the remaining canonical epistles, were allotted to another company of seven, at 'Westminster. Lastly, another com- pany, at Cambridge, were to translate the apocryphal books, including the Prayer of Jianasseh. Agreeably to the regulations given to these six companies, each book passed the scrutiny of all the translators successively. In the first instance, each individual translated BIB BIB even- book, -which was allotted to his division. I and entered in the niar;;in ; the s\iminaries of Secondly, the readings to be adopted were agreed cha[ptcrs and running titles at the top of each upon bv the whole of that company assembled , page corrected; some material errors in the together, at which meeting each translator must , chronology rectified; and tlie marginal refer- liave been solely occupied by his own version, j ences were re-examined and corrected, and The book, thus tinished, was sent to each of the thirty thousand four hundred and ninety-five other companies to be again examined; and at ; new references were inserted in i lie margin. From these meetings it probably was, as Selden informs us, that " one read the translation, the rest hold- ing in their hands some Bible, either of tlie learned tongues, or French, Spanish, Italian, &c. If they found any fault, they spoke; if not, he read on" {Table Talk, art. "Bible.") Further, the translators were empowered to call to their assistance any learned men, whose studies enabled them to be serviceable, when an urgent occasion of difficulty presented itself. The trans- lation was commenced in the spring of 1G07, and the completion of it occupied almost three years. At the expiration of that time, three copies of the wliole Bible, thus translated and revised, were sent to London, — one from Oxford, one from Cambridge, and a third from Westminster. Here a committee of six — two being deputed by the companies at Oxford, two by those at Cam- bridge, and two by tliose at Westminster — re- viewed and polished the whole work : which was finally revised by Dr. Smith (afterwards Bisiiop of Gloucester), who wrote the preface, and by Dr. Bilson, Bishop of Winchester. This trans- lation of the Bible was first published in folio in 1611, and is that now universally adopted wherever the English language is spoken. It was printed by the king's printers, by whom succeeding editions have continued to be printed ; and the competition between them and the two universities of Oxford and Cambridge, led to the smuggling of Dutch editions into England, between the years 1(530 and IGGO. Numerous errors, and some of them, of great importance, have been detected in the English and Dutcii ciifiies of this date (D'Israeli's Curiosities of Literature, second series, vol. iii., pp. 313-325.) In 1683 this translation was corrected, and many references to parallel texts were added by Dr. Scattergood; anil in 1701 a very fine edition was published in large folio, under the direction of Dr. Tenison, Archbishop of Canter- bury, with chronological dates, and an inde.x by Eisliop Lloyd, and accurate tahles of Scrip- ture weights and measures by Bisliop Cuniber- the singular pains bestowed, in order to render this edition as accurate as possil>le, it has liitherio been considered the standard edition, from which all subsecjuent impressions have been executed. Notwitlistanding, however, the great labour and attention bestowed by Dr. Dlayney, bis edition must now yield the palm of accuracy to the very beautiful and correct edition published by Messrs. Eyre and Straiian, his majesty's printers; but printed by Mr. Woodfall in 18UG, and again in 1812 in quarto, as not fewer tlian one hundred and si.xteen errors were discovered in collating the edition of 1806 with Dr. Blavney's, and one of these errors was an omission of considerable importance. After tlie publication of the present authorized translation, all the other versions gradually fell into disuse, with the exception of the Psalms and the epistles and gospels in tlie Book of Common Pi oyer, which weie still con- tinued— the former according to the translation in Crannier's Bible, and the latter according to that of the Bishojis' Bible, until the final revisal of the Liturgy of the Church of England, at which time tlie epistles and gos])els were taken from the present version; but the Psalms are still retained according to the translation of Cranmer's Bible. Upwards of two centuries have elapsed since the authorizerl English version of the Scriptures, now in use, was given to the British nation. During that long interval, thougli many passages in particular books have been ably elucidated by learned men, vet its general fidelity, perspicuity, and excellence, have dtservedly given our present translation a high and distinguished place in the judgment of the Ciiristian world, wherever the English language is known or read. It survived the convulsions both of church and state during the great rebellion; and it has continued to be used not only by tiie Anglican Church, but also by all the sects wiiich have with- drawn from her, as well as in Scotland and in the Biitish Colonies. To its general accuracy, sim- plicity, and energy of style, the most accoinplisheil biblical scholars' have" borne willing and most land: but this edition is said to abound with ex|)licit testimonies; and though it was vnulenlly ' assailed about thirty years since, with some sem- blance of learniniT." but with no real foundation, typographical errors. The latest and most com- plete revision is that made by the Kev. Dr. Blayney, under the direction of the vice-chan- cellor and delegates of the Clarendon press, at Oxford. In this ed.tion, \\lncli was printed both In quarto and folio, in ITGi), the puuc- tuation was thoroughly revised ; the words printed in Italics were examined and cor- rected by the Hebrew and (jreek originals; tlie proper names, to the etymology of which allusions are made in the text, were translated by Mr. John Bellamy and Sir James lUand B'urges, their attacks were sulidly and completely relua'd bv the Kev. J. W. Whittaker in hU Historical and Critical Inquiry into the Interpre- tation of the Hebrew Scripturis (8vo, lAiiulon, 1819\ and Supplement (8v«, London, 1820); by the Kev. II. J. Todil, in his Vindication of our Authorized Trandation and Translators nf the '/Me, &<:. (Svo, London, 1819); and in his Me- 95 BIB inoir.1 of the Life and Wriflngs of Bishop Walton (2 vols., 8vo, London, 1821); and by the Rev. Professor Lee, in A Letter to Mr. John Bellamy (8vo. London, 182 1). In fact, when the very few real faults are considered, which the most minute and scrupulous inquirers have been able to find in the present translation, and when we perceive the most distinguished critics of modern times producing very discordant interpretations of the same text or word, we cannot but call to mind, with gratitude and admiration, the integrity, wisdom, fidelity, and learning of the venerable translators, of whose labours we are now reaping the benefit ; who, while their reverence for the sacred Scriptures induced them to be as literal as they could, to avoid obscurity, have been extremely happy in the simplicity and dignity of their expressions ; and who, by their strict adherence to the Hebrew idiom, have at once enriched and adorned the English language. 2. Welsh Version. — Some portions of the Bible are said to have been translated into the ancient British or Welsh language before and during the reign of Edward VI. ; but no efficient steps ■were taken for supplying the inhabitants of the principality of A\'ales with the Scriptures until the reign of Queen Elizabeth. In 1563 an act of parliament was passed, commanding that the Old and New Testaments, together with the £ook of Common Prayer, should be translated into the Welsh tongue, and committed the direc- tion of the work to tlie Bishops of St. Asaph, Bangor, St. David's, Llandafl", and Hereford. In ITiGT the >'ew Testament was printed; but the Old Testament did not appear until the year 1588. It was translated by Dr. William Morgan, successively Bishop of LlandalT and St. Asaph, who also revised the previous version of the New Testament. During the reign of James I. the Welsh version underwent a further examination and correction from Dr. Parry, who succeeded Bishop Morgan in the see of LlandafF. Tiiis corrected version was printed at Lon5). This species of divination received its name from being supposed to succeed the oracular voice delivered from the mercy seat, when God was consulted by the Urim and Thummim (Exod. xxviii. 30). It is a tradition among the Jews that the Holy Spirit spoke to the Israelites, during the tabernacle, by Urim and Thummim ; under the first temple, by the prophets ; and under the second temple, after the cessation of the prophets, by the Bath-kol, (Lewis's Antiq. of the Hebrew Republic, vol. i., p. 112-114; Pri- deaux, Connection, part ii., book v., sub anno 170 B.C.) Be that as it may, an old rabbinical tract describes Bath-kol thus — "Bath-kol is when a sound proceeds from heaven, and another sound proceeds from it." Now, "kol" often signi- fies thunder — the voice; and "bath" is daughter — the daughter of the voice may mean originally the echo produced by a clap of thunder ; an omen which each one might interpret as he was in- clined. Various forms cf bibliomancy have been prac- tised in this country. In former times the Bible was consulted on New Year's Daj' with special formalitj' — each member of the house, before he had partaken of food, walking up to it, opening it, and placing his finger at random on a verse — that verse declaring his fortune for the next twelve months. The Bible, with a sixpence inserted into the book of Ruth, was placed under the pillows of young people, to give them dreams of matrimonial divination. In some parts of Scotland the sick were fanned with the leaves of the Bible, and a Bible was put under the head of ^vomen after child-birth, and into the cradle of new-born children. A Bible and key were some- times employed to detect a thief; nay, more than all, a suspected witch was taken to church, and weighed against the great church Bible. If she outweighed the Bible, she was acquitted ; but if the Bible outweighed her, she was condemned (Brand's Popular Antiquities, iii. 22), IBitUliiis; of the Bcade, a charge an- cientl}- given by the parish priest, requiring his parishioners to come to prayers on some special occasions. The custom is still retained in the Church of England, ia the notice given out on BID Sundays of days appointed to be kept holy in the ensuing week. Bidding Prayer, the fiftj'-fifth canon of the Church of England enjoins that " before all sermons, lectures, and homilies, the preachers and ministers shall move the people to join with them in prayer in this form, or to this effect, as briefly as conveniently they may : Ye shallpray for Christ's holy Catholic Church, &c., especially for the Churches of England, Scotland and Ireland : and herein / require you most especially to pray for the king's most excellent majesty, &c. : Ye shall also pray for our gracious Queen Anne, &c. : Ye shall also pray for the ministers of God's holy Word, &c. : Ye shall also pray for the king's most honourable council, &c. : also, ye shall pray for the whole commons of this realm, &c." This form is known as the " bidding prayer," or the " bidding of prayer ;" but it is now rarely used — the practice of reading a collect or some short prayer before sermon being generally substituted for it. Bishop Burnet in- forms us that before the Reformation, when the priest had announced his text, he bade the people to pray for the church, king, pope, &c., in the same form as above, after which a general silence for a few minutes ensued, during whica time the people repeated their prayers — counting them upon their beads; the priest also knelt down and recited his prayers. The rising of the priest was the signal for all to cease their devo- tions and give attention to the sermon. The origin of " bidding praj-er" may be thus traced : — In the early ages of the Church it was the duty of the deacons to act as monitors and directors to the people in the exercise of their public devotions ; hence they adopted certain forms of words to give the worshippers or hearers notice when one part of the service bad con- cluded and another was about to begin. As soon as (he bishop had ended his sermon the deacon cried aloud, " Let the hearers and unbelievers depart:" he then called upon the catechumens to pra}', giving directions what they should pray for; in like manner, he called upon the energumens and penitents in their respective order, using the solemn words of exhortation both to them and to the people to pray for them. The catechu- mens being dismissed by the words " Ite, missa est," the deacon called upoo the faithful to pray for themselves and the whole state of Christ's Church. The deacon's call to prayer was dis- tinguished from that of the bishop's, the latter being a direct form of address to God, while the deacon's address was to the people. — See Ora- KiUM. In the Apostolical Constitutions there is a form of " bidding praj'er" which is ushered in with these words : " Let no one of those that are not allowed come near. As many as are be- lievers let us fall upon our knees. Let us pray to God through his Christ. I-et us all intensely beseech God through his Christ." Then follows the several calls and directions for prayer, at the 100 BIR end of each of which the people answered, " Lord have mercj' upon them," or " Save thera, 0 God, and raise them up by thy mercy." At the celebration of the communion, the duty of deacon in directing the people's devotions, by telling them for whom and for what the\' should pray, was not to be neglected ; for after the prayer of consecration he commanded the people to '' pray that God would receive the gift that was then offered to him, to his altar in heaven, as a sweet smelling savour, by the mediation of his Christ." At the close of the communion the deacon again addressed the communicants thus : "Now that we have received the precious body and the precious blood of Christ, let us give thanks to him that hath vouchsafed to make them partakers of his holy mysteries, &c., &c." Having concluded he bids them rise up and commend themselves to God by Christ (Bing- ham's Origines, i. 293) See Prayer. Birrns (fi/i^os, tunica, coat), a name given to the ordinary outside habit worn by Christians in Africa in the time of St. Augustine. Bingham has a very interesting section (book iv., sec. 19) on this subject, in which he shows satisfactorily that in those early ages, neitlier bishops, nor presbyters were accustomed to wear any distin- guishing habit, but that which was common to all Christians. When the council of Gaugra condemned the errors of Eustathius, who was so enamoured of the monastic life as to teach that those who lived in a married state were destitute of all hope in God, the pallium, or philosophic cloak, adopted by Eustathius, was not overlooked. " If any man uses the pallium, or cloak, upon the account of an ascetic life, and as if there were some holiness in that, condemns those that with reverence use the biirus, and other garments that are commonly worn, let him be anathema." Long after this we find the French clergy still wearing the ordinary habit of the times, and not one to distinguish tliem as clergymen ; and it is well known that when some of those clergymen who had formerly been monks, introduced the ascetic cloak, Celestine, Bishop of Kome, wrote a letter of reprimand, in which he asks, " Why that habit (the cloak) was used by the French churches when it had been the custom of so many bishops for so many years to use the common habit of the people?" In the course of time, however, it became the practice of choosing the clergy chiefly from among the monks and ascetics, which gradually led to the general adoption of the philosopiiic habit ; but this was not till the fifth or sixth century. — SeeAppAEEL OF Ministers. BiMliop, according to the episcopal form of church government, the name of the third and highest order of clergy. In tliis article we shall speak historically only, and without re- ference to Scripture exegesis or polemical ar- gument (see Biblical Cychpoidia^. — See also Episcopacv, Pkesbyterianism. Bishops are lu BIS found in a very early period of the Church, and under a variety of names, indicative of their rank or their duties. Thus we find them named apos- tles, as by Theodoret; inspectors («?«».), as bv others ; successors of the apostles, as by Cyprian; presidents (a-gosS^oi), as by Tertullian"; aiigels of the churches, as by Socrates; chief priests, as by Jerome; fathers (a/3/5S), as by Cyril; patriarchs, as by Gregory Nazianzen ; vicegerents of Christ, as by Hilary ; and rulers of the church. "Blessed" or "most blessed," and "holy" or " most holy," were epithets commonly applied to them. The power of the bishops was great, ami their prerogative high. Not only originally did they preach, but they confessed baptized persons, ordained the clergy, and dedicated churches. The government and discipline of the churtli were committed to them, ami the presbyters and deacons were subject to them. Schools and cloisters were under their superintendence, and they presided of right in the synods of their dio- ceses. The revenues of the ch\irch were under their full control ; marriage, divorce, and admin- istration of property came under their jurisdic- tion; and they granted letters of credence to persons about to travel. Bishops seem to have worn no distinctive badge or dress till about the fourth century. But after that their official costume consisted of " the mitra, or infula; sometimes called ' rrtfayof,' corona, crown ; ' xiSaj is,' diadema ; or ' Tiata," tiara — Pallium, the pall (u/iUfc^iot, li^a rroXii. or superhumerale, pectorale) or ephod which was often used to denote the person or oll'ice of a bishop, especially in the disputes of the Middle Ages, being a cloth of white linen, without seam (nullis acubus perforata), hanging down over the shoulders ; but afterwards made of wool, and marked with crosses, of a purple colour, be- fore the eighth century— Gfove*, worn when per- forming any sacred office — Sandals, after the seventh and eighth centuries we find them express- ly mentioned as an episcopal badge — CaUtiu- guished blasphemy into three classes — 1 st. That of lapsers or apostates — those driven by the persecu- tion of the heathen to deny and curse Christ ; 2d, That of heretics or profane professors— they who had adopted and taught unscriptural doctrines, or indulged in the use of profane language; 3d, The blasphemy against the Holy Ghost, con- cerning the nature of which they wore not all agreed (see Biblical Cyclopmlia). lu ICngland blasphemy is punishable at common law by line and imprisonment. In Scotland, by 21st cap. part i., car. ii., it was punishable by death ; but tiiis extreme penaltv is not now wiforced. A student, of eighteen years of age, name.l Thomas Aikenhead, was executed at Edinburgh for blas- phemy, in 1C97 (Macaulay's History, vol. iv., p. 781).— See 1 KNAL Laws. Blood, Entiiiff of, in the first three centuries after Christ was generally forbidden, or, at least, it was the custom to abstain from eating it; and clergvmen convicted of having violated the rule which forbade its use, were degraded.— See Au- 1 4 103 BOA BOU Boards, Sacred, small pieces of wood which I ordained their first bishop. — See Moeaviax were struck together, to assemble Christians for worship, prior to the use of bells. In popish countries such boards are employed during the solemnities of Passion week, and bells are rung again when Easter returns. Bogomilcs, a sect which appeared in the Greek empire in the year 1116, said to have sprung from the Massalians, and to have blended with tlieir fanatical opinions more or less of the Paulician or Manichsean tenets. Their name, as interpreted by the Greek historians, meant call- ing for mercy from above — '■^hog" — God, "nillvi" — have mercy; but it is rather equivalent to friends of God. They seem to have been a kind of ascetics and rationalists — denying all mys- teries, rejecting all sacraments, condemning marriage, and scorning a resurrection. Their leader Basilius was burnt as a heretic at Con- stantinople bj' Alexius Comnenus. But the sect maintained their ground for many j-ears after his death, especiallj- in the neighbourhood of Philip- popolis. Xtoliemiaii Brethren, a sect in Bohemia that sprang out of the remains of the Hussites, towards the middle of the fifteenth century. The Calistines had become the ruling party in the coimtry, by making several compromises with Popeiy; and the " Brethren" refused to accept the compact which that party had made with the council of Basle, 1433. Their own name was that of " Brothers," or " Brothers' Union." In the midst of many hardships, inflicted on them both by Calixtines and Catholics, they rapidly grew and multiplied, so that in 1500 they possessed two hundred parishes. They professed to be guided by the Holy Scriptures, and they rejected popish sacramental errors. They divided their members into three grades — the beginners, the proficient, and the perfect — and over all of them there was a minute and constant superintendence made by the office-bearers, who were divided into bishops, presbyters, deacons, sediles, and aco- htes. In their theology they were in general Calvinistic ; and they gained the approbation of Luther and the reformers, wit-h whom they held some correspondence by letter and by deputation. The Brethren, however, would not go into mili- tary service, and suffered for their refusal. Fer- dinand deprived them of their place of worship, because they would not fight against the Pro- testants in the Sinalcaldio war. A tliousand of them retired into Poland, where they obtained and enjoyed tc)leration, and allied themselves with the CaJvinists; while the remnant left behind had their principal residence at Fulneck, in Moravia, and came to be known as Moravian Brethren. Various other changes passed over Bkethren. Bollandisis, an association of Jesuits at Antwerp, who were engaged for many years in publishing the stupendous collection known by the name of Acta Sanctorum. This work was originally projected, and some materials for it were prepared by Heribert Rosweyde ; but he died before any part of it was ready for the press; and it was then taken up by John Bolland, who published the first two volumes in 1643. Many editors in succession have proceeded with the laborious task. — See Acts of the Maktyks. Books of Sports. — See Sports. Borrelists,namedafter their founder, Borrell ; a kind of quaker sect in Holland, rejecting praj'er, the sacraments, and all forms of external worship, professing to be apostolical in their purity, and branding all the churches around them as Ijeing degenerate in constitution and character. Boskoi (fiotrxoi, graziers), an order of fanatic monks, who in the early ages of the Church arose in Syria and Mesopotamia. They lived upon mountains, refused dwelKng in houses, and would not eat bread nor drink wine ; but when fatigued from their religious duties of singing and praj-er, they each went forth with knife in hand to cut down or dig up such herbs as were in their opinion fit for food ; hence their name graziers. They soon fell into disorder, and eventually became extinct. Bouiit)', Queen Anne's, a fund created for the augmentation of small liWngs — under £50 per annum— by the appropriation of the revenue arising from the tenths or first-fruits formerly paid to the pope, but transferred to the sovereign in the reign of Henry VIII. Queen Anne had these profits vested in trustees for the benefit of the Church in the manner stated above See DiSME, FlEST-FRUITS. Bourignonlaus, followers of Antoinette Bourignon de la Porte, a famous Flemish mystic, believed by some to have been partially insane, and by othei-s to have been an inspired prophetess. She was born at Lisle, in 1616, and died at Frankfort in 1680. The lady was exceedingly deformed in person, but hiid an ardent tempera- ment, and wild imagination. JMany extraordi- nary tenets were broached by her. Her tbeolog}* was in every way crude and inconsistent; and reli- gion consisted, according to her, " in an internal motion or sensation, and neither in knowledge nor practice." Peter Poiret reduced her reveries to a kind of system in his Divine Economy. Her reveries gained many disciples in Scotland — more, it is said, than in any other countr}-. Dr. Gordon of Aberdeen propounded her hallucina- tions in Scotland, and witli some results, for he was them, and they were often persecuted and dis- deposed by the General Assembly in 1701. A persed, till Count Zinzendorf re-organized the good account of Bourignonianism is found in the society. The Bohemian Brethren have been Assembly's condemnation of it ; such as, 1. The sometimes confounded with the VYaldenses ; denying "the permission of sin, and the inflicting and, mdeed, it was a Waldensian bishop who of vengeance and damnation for it. 2. The attri- 104 BOW huting to Christ a twofold human nature, one of which was produced of Adam before the woman was formed ; the other, born of the Virgin Mary. 3. The denying the decrees of election and repro- bation, and the loading these acts of grace and sovereignty with a multitude of odious and blasphemous aspersions, particularly wickedness, cruelty, and respect of persons. 4. That there is a good spirit and an evil spirit in the souls of all men before they are born. 5. That the will of man is unlimited ; and that there must be in man some infinite quality whereby he may unite himself to God. 6. The denying of the doctrine of divine prescience. 7. The asserting of the sinful corruption of Christ's human nature, and rebellion in Christ's natural will to the will of God. And, 8. The asserting a state of perfec- tion in this life, and a state of putrefaction in the life to come ; that generation takes place in heaven ; and that there are no true Christians in the world. Bowing towards the East, a practice or ceremony of general use in the early Cliristian churches. Its origin is thus stated : — The sun being a symbol of Christ, the place of its ris- ing was a fitting though imaginary represen- tation of heaven, whence Christ descended, and to which he ascended in glory as the mediator between God and man. The heathens charged the Christians with worshipping the rising sun ; but St. Augustine repudiates such an idea, when he says, " We turn to the east, whence tlie heavens, or the light of heaven arises, not as if God was only there, and had forsaken all otlier parts of the world, but to put ourselves in mind of turning to a more excellent nature, that is, to the Lord." Turning to the east, as a symbol of turning to God, has reference to some of the ceremonies connected with baptism in ancient times. AVhen the persons to be baptized entered the baptistery, where they were to make their renunciation of Satan and their confessions of faith, they were placed with their faces towards the west, and commanded to renounce Satan with some gesture or rite ; this they did by striking their hands together as a token of ab- horrence, by stretching out their hands against him, by exsufflation, and by spitting at him as if he were present. They were tiien turned round to the east, and desired to lift up their hands and eyes to heaven, and enter into cove- na»it with Christ, the Sun of Kighteousness. "The west," says Cyril of Jerusalem, "is the place of darkness, and Satan is darkness, and his strength is in darkness. For this reason ye symbolically look towards the west when ye renounce that prince of darkness and horror.' To this we add from St. Jerome, " First we re- nounce him that is in the west, who dies to us with our sins; and then, turning about to the east, we make a covenant with the Sun of Kigliteousness, and promise to be his servants." Bowing toward the east is practised in those BOY churches of the estahllshmont where the con/^re- gations are instructed to turn their faces in Mmt direction at the recital of the creed. Tliis cus- tom, which had become nearly obsolete, is beini? revived in many quarters, by those clergymen ■who advocate a return to most of the ecclwias- tical usages which obtained in the Anglican Church during the infancy of tiie Uefurniation. A strong repugnance to tiie revival of thi* or any other custom supposed to savour of " poj.inli superstition," is, however, generallv cherished and expressed by the laity of the" Church of England. Boy Bishop, the principal person in an ex- traordinary sacred frolic of the Middle Ages, and down to the period of the Reformation. (Jn St. Nicholas' Day, the Gth of December, the boy.s forming the clioir in cathedral churches elected one of their number to the honour of bisiiop, and robes and episcopal symbols were provided for him, while the other boys, assuming the dress of priests, took possession of the church, and went through all the ecclesia-stical ceremonies but that of mass. This strange reversal of power lasted till Innocents' Day, the 28th of the same month. In Sarum, on the eve of that day, the boy went through a splendid caricature of pro- cessions, chantings, and other festive ceremonies. Dean Colet, in his statutes for St. Paul's Scliool. London, ordains that tlie boys should come to St. Paul's Church and hear the " chylde" bishop's sermon, and each of them present him with a penny. By a proclamation of Henry VIII., 1542, this show was abolished ; but it was revived under Mary, and in 1556, the boy bishops still maintained some popularity. Tiie similar sceiies in France were yet more extravagant, and often indecent. The council of Paris, in 1212, interdicted the pastime, and the theological faculty of the same city, in 1414, make loud complaints of the continuance of the diversion. In Scotland similar saturnalia also prevailed, as Scott has described in his Abbot, connected with " those jocular personages, the pope of fools, the boy-bishop, and the abbot of unreason." This custom is supposed to have given rise to the ceremony of the Montem at Eton. Bishop Hall, in his Triumphs of' Rome, saya, "What merry work it was here in the days of our holy faliiers (and I know not whether, in some phicus, it may not be so still), tliat upon St. Niclmlns, St. Katherine, St. Clement, and Holy Iniiocenw*' Day, children were wont to be arrayed iji chimers, rochets, surplices, to counterfeit bishopii and priests, and to l>e led, with son-s and dances, from house to iiouse, bles.>iing the [.eopic, wlio stood grinning in llie way to exi>ect that ridiculous benediction. Yea, thnt boys in that holy sport were wont to sing masses, and to climb into the pul|iit to preacJi (no doubt learnedly and edifyiiigly) to the simple auditory. jSjhI this was so really done, that in the cathed- ral church of Salisbury (unlejis it be lately de- 105 BOY faced) there is a perfect monument of one of these boy-bishops (who died in the time of his young pontificality), accoutred in his episcopal robes, still to be seen." Boyle's Iiecture, a course of eight sermons preached under the will of the Hon. Robert Boyle in 1691. His purposewas to prove the truth of Christianity against infidels, and to answer new difiiculties, without entering into controver- sies existing among Christians. The clergyman is to be some learned divine within the bills of mortalitj'. Burnet published an abridgment of many of the sermons, in four volumes, 1765. Braiideum, the cloth in which the body of a saint has been wrapped, which is frequently cut up, and the pieces distributed as relics. Bread. — The quality and form of the bread to be employed in the administration of the Lord's Supper, have been the subject of much controversy in the Churcli. The general practice, till at least the beginning of the eighth century, was to use common bread. But there is some reason to suppose that in the ninth century, from the desire naturally felt to make as much dis- tinction as possible between that which was regarded with such awe and the ordinary food of man, the use of unleavened bread was intro- duced into the ^Vestern Church, where it was defended on the assumption that our Saviour must have used such bread at his last supper. In the Greek Church the ancient practice was retained, and this added one more to the points of difference between them. But it was not till the year 1053, that it became the occasion of open warfare. In that year Michael Cerularius, the Patriarch of Constantinople, having caused all the churches of his diocese to be closed, in which service was performed according to the rites of the Romish communion, attacked, in a letter which is still extant in a Latin translation, the whole Western Church. Leo IX. replied to this letter, dwelling much more on this unimpor- tant question of form than on the more serious points of doctrine on which the two churches differ, and the controversy was carried on with much bigotry and intolerance on both sides. Each party upbraided the other as heretical, under the name of Azymite (a ?i;^a, unleavened bread) on the one hand, and Fermentanian (/«•- mentuni, leaven) on the other. The emperor exerted himself to prevent an open rupture, and invited papal legates to Constantinople to treat for peace. But the temper of the contending parties was not for peace. The legates laid on the altar of St. Sophia a formal act of ex- communication (July 16, 1054); the patriarch retaliated with a similar anathema; and other patriarchs taking part with him, the separation between the Eastern and Western Churches was complete. The form of a small thin wafer was perhaps introduced at Rome about this time. Bi-rail, Day of, a title given (1), To the Lord's Day, as the day on which the Lord's BRE Supper was commonly celebrated: (2), To the day before Good Friday, as the day on which that sacrament was instituted. — See Eucharist. Brethren. — See Cellites, Common Lot, Plymouth Brethren, Sack Trinity. Brethren of the Free Spirit, a sect which came into notice in Italy, France, and Germany, in the thirteenth centurj', deriving its name from what appears to have been its distinguishing tenet, viz., that the chil- dren of God enjoy through the Spirit a perfect freedom from the obligations of the law. They were called by the Germans and Flemish Beghards and BegiUtes. In France they had the name of Begums and Turlupins. Mosheim gives extracts from some of their books, which show that they adopted a strange system of mystic theology, maintaining that the rational part of the soul is not created, but a portion of the Deity ; and that we ma}', by the power of contemplation, become perfectly united to the divine nature, and be as truly the sons of God as Christ is. They held that in conse- quence of this union, the believer could not sin — a tenet which some of them interpreted to mean that no acts performed hy a believer were sinful, however contrary to the law of God. Others, boasting of their freedom from the dominion of carnal lusts, are said to have dis- regarded in their habits of life everything like modesty and decency. Others again are said to have carried their notions of freedom no farther than to claim exemption from the outward observances of religion, denying the obliga- tion to observe the outward forms of reli- gion. And some have surmised that this contempt of what the Church held all-important, was their chief crime, as it raised them enemies, who were not usually very scrupulous in heap- ing up all manner of charges against those who had once been denounced as heretics. — See under Beguines. Breviary (Lat., breviarium,') the book con- taining the daih' service of the Church of Rome. It is frequentlj', but erroneouslj-, confounded with Missal and Ritual. The Breviary contains the matins, lauds, &c., with the several variations to be made therein according to the several days, canonical hours, and the like ; and it may be considered as corresponding with the daily service of the United Church of England and Ireland. The Missal, or mass book, answers to the " order of the administration of the Lord's Supper," together with the collects, epistles, and gospels to be used throughout the j'ear; and the Ritual is composed of occasional offices for bap- tism, matrimony, visitation of the sick, &c. Originally the Breviary contained only the Lord's Prayer and the Psalms, which were used in the divine offices, to which were subsequently added lessons out of the Scriptures, according to the institutes of the monks, in order to diversify the service of the church. Various additions 106 BKI were subsequently made by the popes Gelasius and Gregory surnamed the Great : lives of the saints, replete with ill -attested facts, were in- serted, in compliance with the opinions and superstition of the times. This gave occasion to many revisions of the Koman Breviary by the councils, particularh', of Trent and Col- ogne, and also by several popes, as Gregory IX., Nicholas III., Pius V., Clement VIII., and Urban VIII., as likewise by some cardi- nals, especially Cardinal Quignan, by whom various extravagances were removed, and the work was brought nearer to the simplicity of the primitive offices. In its present state the Breviary of the Church of Rome consists of the services of matins, lauds, prime, third, sixth, nones, vespers, complines, or the post-coviimmie^ that is of seven hours, on account of the saying of David, " Septes in die laudem dixi " — Seven times a day do I praise thee. (Psalms cxix. 164). The obligation of reading this service-book every day, which at first was universal, was by degrees reduced to the beneficiary clergy alone, who are bound to do it on pain of being guilty of mortal sin, and of refunding their revenues in proportion to their delinquencies — See Liturgy. Brier. — See Bull. Brigeltins or Bi-idgetins, an order of nuns, named after St. Brigetta, a lady of Sweden, who, in the fourteenth century, persuaded her husband to become a monk, while she retired to a reli- gious establishment in Spain. Here she estab- lished a new order, and published rules for them, dictated, according to her, by Christ himself. Enjoying many visions and ecstasies, she came to Rome, and travelled also to Palestine. She died in 1373, and was canonized in 1391. The rule of the order is almost that of St. Augustine. It spread through various countries ; and Sion House, opposite Richmond, was a monastery belonging to it, built by Henr}' V. Brow nists, a sect of Puritans, named after Robert Brown, their originator, wlio, being vehemently opposed in England, founded a church according to his principles at Middle- burgh, in Holland. Their theology was Calvinis- tic ; but they differed equally from the Episco- palian and Presbyterian modes of government. Their principles were an extreme form of what is now termed Independency. The church in Holland soon quarrelled among themselves ; and Brown, returning to England in 1589, recanted, and obtained a rectory in Northamptonshire. Tlie Brownists in England were severely persecuted ; and being very numerous, a number of them retiring to Holland, elected a Mr. Johnson to be their pastor, and after him the learned Ains- worth. Their church flourished for more than a century. To this body belonged the famous Robinson, who, with a portion of his congrega- tion from Leyden, sailed in the "Mayflower," and landing at Plymouth, in New England, made the first permanent settlement there. BUG Bachanites. — Elspat Simpson was the daughter of a wayside innkeeper betwixt BanfT and Portsoy. Slie wa.s born in 1740, was in early womanhood a domestic sen-ant in GKi^gow, became the wife of a journeyman potter, Robert Buchan, and left the Scotch E|>iscopal for lier husband's church, the Burgiier Secession. Mrs. Robert Buchan sighed for a fame which, as a Broomielaw potter's wife, she could not reach, and conceived the romantic idea of founding a new order of religionists. Her earlier and later pretensions were widely different. She set out with the comparatively modest statement, that from the second year of her age, when her mother died, she had been a special favourite of lieaven ; that she had enjoyed the special tutorsliip of Jesus Christ, and in her seventh year had a heavenly vision, unfolding many mystcrii's, wliich was renewed, and in a still more extended f )rm, about twenty-seven years afterwards. It was this latter vision wliich made her dream of being a public celebrity, as, by her own account, it had subdued the flesh, sustained her for several weeks without bodily sustenance, and strengthened her to speak of the love of God in Christ Jesus. The one grand article in her creed was llie imme- diate advent of the Saviour ; but as lier influence grew, her creed expanded, until it represented Elspat Simpson as the woman in Rev. xii. 1, the veritable mother of the Saviour, who had roamed the earth from the days of her Son's ascension, and was now anxiously awaiting his return. Faith in that creed was to secure the same spiritual and immortal life to her followers, all of whom were assured of seeing tlie Saviour in the flesh, and of being translated without tasting death. The mania under which Mrs. liuciian was labouring led her to make a tour through the Glasgow churches, in search of a preacher equally familiar with the mystic meaning of the Bible.' Mr. Hugh AViiite of Irvine, who ofli- ciated in Dowhill Relief Church, fascinated his critical hearer by hisSinaitic denunciations of car- nality in all its forms. The fanatic found an easy dupe in the silly preacher, and as soon as Mrs. Buchan was sure of her first convert, she left her husband to manufacture hisearthenware and man- age her tendor children, and settled down in tlie Irvine manse, where she also made a convert of her hostess. The congregation traced the new doc- trines which they heard to the presence of iMrs. Buchan, and deiiianded her immediate removal ; but Mr. White would sooner part with his ri^dit arm than with his illustrious guest. The \\A\v( presbyterv lost no time in dealing with the delin- quent, and deposing him from the exercise of the Christian ministry. Mr. White continuclto pro- pagate his views in Irvine, under the leadership of his patroness. Strange stories came into circula- tion about their midnight ineelings, and were w. extensively believed, that the townsiKwplc ua- saulted the house in which they wr.' Ii.l.i. I.-r the preservation of the public i)eaco Mrs. Buchan 107 BUC was escorted, by order of the magistrates, beyond the burgh bounds, in April, 1784. The company next located in New Cample, in Closeburn, Dum- friesshire. Some had gone from Irvine to meet the Saviour, and therefore left their property behind them. In their new settlement they were joined by Lieut. Conyers from England, who had relinquished his naval commission for the spir- itual advantages of such a residence. Whilst in Closeburn, two parts of the Divine Dictionary were published, as edited by Hugh White, and revised by the apocalyptic Elspat. The fanati- cal leader uniformly gave the lie direct to all stories about her earthly parentage and history, and always by some mystical jargon; and al- though two of her own daughters were in the company, the duped people believed her. She led their devotions, addressed them in mystical teruis, and dealt out to them very small rations, that their reduced bodies might the more easily rise from the dull earth, under the belief that the Saviour could not return to earth until a spiritualized people was prepared to welcome him. An infant was one day ushered into their little circle ; but the priestess got out of the difficulty by^ ascribing the paternity to Satan, their great enemy. A fast of forty days, founded upon high Bible prece- dent, nearly annihilated the small coterie. To make sure of personally surviving the trying ordeal, Mrs. Buchan had sipped occasionally at a cordial, and supplied it to all whose lives seemed imperilli'd. It was generally believed that some survived the fast by private supplies from the sympathizing farmers; and the senses of those who tasted of the cordial testified that it was good Scotch whisk}'. The fast opened the eyes of some, and sent them back to Irvine to their old faith and occupations. In the course of the fast Mr. White equipped himself in full canoni- cals, even to gloves, and looked anxiously to heaven for the descending chariot. The light of a farmer's lamp led them sadly astray one morn- ing, after they had watched all night for the illu- mination of the eastern sky. As the passing light flashed across the apartment, Mrs. Buchan announced the advent, and all made read}- for flight, even to the adjusting of their dress; but the darkness which followed furnished the oracle with an opportunity for reproving their unbelief as having interdicted the actual advent. The circulation of the wildest and most absurd stories stirred up the enmity of the Closeburn people, which issued in an assault upon their dwelling. Fancying that they would be safer on their own premises, they rented the Auchenhairn farm, in Galloway, where necessity drove them to various forms of industry. Some of the j'oung people had become exhausted by the intense excitement of hourly expectation, and fancied that they might, without either sin or shame, become wives, and Mrs. Buchan's two daughters so felt and acted. In the midsummer of 1791 Mrs. Buchan became seriously ill, and earnestly taught her BUL followers that she would not die, but sleep for a season, and then reappear, to guide them to heaven. Such was the credulity of the people that it required a sheriff's warrant to make them part with the corpse. Mr. White publicly al- leged that the body had been translated to heaven ; but the fear of the civil power led to its discovery, which so disgraced the hierophant, that he made a precipitate retreat to America, and the handful of followers, which never num- bered fifty, dispersed and disappeared. Seldom, if ever, has there been a cause which had less to recommend it, or more to expose its absurdities. • Bull is a rescript or letter issued by emperors and popes, and sealed with lead ; though, strictly speaking, it is the seal or pendent lead alone which is the bulla or bull, as it is that which gives the instrument its title and authority. During themiddle and barbarous ages, gold, silver, waxen, and leaden bulls were used by emperors and kings. In affairs of the greatest importance golden bulls were employed ; leaden and waxen ones being confined to matters of smaller moment. In the Eecord Office in the Chapter House at Westminster there are two golden bulls, one attached to the treaty between Henry VIII. of England and Francis I. of France; and the other to the instrument by which Pope Clement VII. conferred on Henry VIII. the title of "Defender of the Faith." Silver bulls, though of less frequent occurrence, are some- times to be met with in ancient documents. Leaden bulls were sent by the Emperors of Con- stantinople to patriarchs and sovereign princes ; they were also used by the Kings of France, Sicily, and other monarchs, as well as by bishops, patriarchs, and popes. The Doges of Venice, however, did not presume to seal their diplomata with lead until permission had been given them by Pope Alexander III., towards the close of the twelfth century. Waxen bulls were first brought into England by the Normans: most of the charters executed since the time of William I. are sealed with green, red, or white bulls of wax. Papal bulls are despatched out of the Eoman chancery, bj' order of the pope, and sealed with lead. They are written on parchment, by which they are distinguished from briefs, or simple signatures, which are written on paper. Briefs are issued by the apostolic sec- retarj', and are written in Roman character. They are dated a die nativitatis, bulls a die in- carnationis. In briefs the date is abbreviated, in bulls it is given at length. Briefs begin with the name of the pope, as Pius IX., &c., but bulls have a fuller preface. A bull is, properl}-, a signa- ture enlarged: what the latter comprises in a few words, the former dilates and amplifies. These bulls are issued in matters of justice or of grace. If the former be the intention of the instrument, the lead is affixed by a hempen cord; if the latter, it is attached by a silken thread. The 108 BUL seal presents, on one side, the supposed heads of the apostles Peter and Paul, and on the other, the name of tlie pope by whom it was issued, together with the year of his pontificate. By bulls jubilees are granted ; and without them no bishops in the Romish Church are allowed to be consecrated. In Spain bulls are required for every kind of benefice ; but in France (at least before the revolution), and in other countries, simple signatures are sufficient, excepting for the higher dignities. Previously to registering the papal bulls in France, thej' were limited and moderated by the laws of that country ; nor was anything admitted until it had been examined and found to contain nothing contrary to the liberties of the Galilean Church. The occur- rence of the words '■'■ proprio moiu'^ In a bull was sufficient to cause it to be rejected. Nor are the papal bulls admitted indiscriminately in other countries whose inhabitants are in communion with the Church of Rome. In Spain, for in- stance, they are examined by the royal council ; and if there appear any reason for not executing them, notice to that efl'ect is given to the pope bj' a supplication, and the operation of the bull is suspended. All bulls are written in anti- quated round Gothic letters, and consist of four parts, viz., the narrative of the fact, the concep- tion, the clauses, and the date. In the salutation the pontiff styles himself — " Bishop, servant of the servants of God' — Episcopus, servus ser- vorwn Dei. The publication of papal bulls is termed fulmination: it is done by one of the three commissioners to whom they are directed. If the publication be opposed, as sometimes is the case, the fault is not charged on the pope by whom it was issued, but an appeal is brought to him against the person who is sujiposed to be guilty of it. By this expedient the fault is laid where it is known not to be just, in order to evade affronting the pontiff. After the death of a pope no bulls are despatched during the vacancy of tlie see. As soon, therefore, as the pontiff expires, the vice-chancellor of the Romish Church takes possession of the seal of the bulls ; and in the presence of several persons commands the deceased pope's name to be erased, and covers the other side, on which are the heads of St. Peter and St. Paul, with a linen cloth, sealing it up with his own seal; and delivers it thus covered to the chamberlain, to be preserved, that no bulls may be sealed with it in the meantime. Papal bulls are frequently mentioned in early acts of parliament, and formerly were considered valid in this country ; but, by the statute 28 Hen. VIII. c. 16, all bulls obtained from the Bishop of Rome are declared to be null and void ; and the statute 13 Eliz. c. 2, pronounces the procuring, publishing, or using of them to be high treason. The most copious collection of papal bulls is the Bullaritim Alagnwn a Leone Marjno ad Benedictum XIV. (A.D. 4G1 to 1757), published at Luxembourg BUL between the years 1747 and 1758, in nineteen tomes, forming eleven large volumes folio. Of the instruments contained in this vast collec- tion, there are two which demand to be distinctly noticed ; viz., the bull In Coenu JJumitil, and that called Uni(/enitus:—\. The bull entitled "In Coend Domini" is a particular bull which was read every year, on the day of tlie Lord's Supper, or Maundy Thursday, by a cardinal deacon, in the presence of the pope, attended by other cardinals and bishops, until it was discontinued in the pon- tificate of Clement XIV, It is, in fact, the latest edition of a seriesof bulls, issued ai difl'erent times and by different popes, for the excommunication of heretics, and for the maintenance of the eccle- siastical supremacy of the Roman pontiflTs. it contains various excommunications and execra- tions against all heretics and contumacious persons who disturb, oppose, or disobey the Roman pontiff. After the bull was read the pope threw down a burning torch in the public place, to denote the thunder of this anathema. In the commencement of the bull issued by Pope Paul III., A.D. 1536, the publication of this excommunication on Maundj- Thursday is de- clared to be an ancient custom of the sovereign pontiffs, for preserving the purity of the Chri.s- tian religion, and maintaining union among the faithful ; but the origin of this custom is not indicated. For the history of tliis bull, and evidence of its present validity as part of the Roman law, and of its recognition by the Rorai^h hierarchy in Ireland, see Dr. G. E. Biber's Pupal Bull in Coend Domini, translated into English, tviih an Historical Introduction; and also his Papal Diplomaci/ and the Bull in Coend Do- mini, (London, 1848). — 2. The bull, orcoiistiiution Uniyenilus, derives its name from its beginning with the words " L'nigenilus Dei Filitis .•'' it was issued by Pope Clement XL in 1713, against Pasquier Quesnel's work, entitled " /.« Souveuu Testament traduiten Franqois avec des Reflexions Morales." The enemies of Quesnel had pro- cured a decree from the same pontiff in 1708, condemning his moral reflections generally; but this decree not being conformable to the customs of the kingdom of France, could not be reccivetl or published there, and consequently had little or no effect. Louis XIV., therefore, at the solicitation of sever;il French bishops, wrote to the pope in 1711, dosiiing him formally to con- demn Quesnel's work, in a decree which might distinctly exhibit the propusitions that deser\-td to be condemned. In the following year tlie pontiff appointed a congregation of cardinals prelates, and divines, to examine tliu doctrine contained in the book; and on the tenth of Scf^- tember, 1713, Clement XI. published the bull Unigenitus, in which one hundred and one pro- positions are extracted from Quesnel's work, and specifically condemned. Two or thn-c of these propositions are here annexed and translated by way of specimen of the obnoxious tencta thus 109 BUR denounced: "81. The sacred obscurity of the Word of God is no reason for the laity to excuse themselves from reading it. 83. It is a great mistake to imagine that the knowledge of the mysteries of religion ought not to be imparted to •uomen by the reading of the sacred books. The abuse of the Scriptures, and the rise of heresies, have not proceeded from the simplicity of women, but from the conceited learning of men. 85. To forbid Christians to read the Holy Scripture, especially of the Gospel, is to forbid the use of light to the children of light, and to make them suffer a sort of excommunication. 86. To deprive the unlearned people of the comfort of joining their voice with the voice of the whole church, is a custom contrary to apos- tolical practice, and to the design of God." Although the publication of this bull gave a favourable tnm to the affairs of the Jesuits, by whicli order the Jansenists were detested (against whose doctrines on the subject of divine grace it was levelled) ; yet it ultimately proved to be highly detrimental to the interests of the Eomish Church. For it not only confirmed the Pro- testants in the necessity, propriety, and wisdom of their separation, b}' convincing them that that church was determined to adhere to all its ancient corruptions and superstitions ; but it also offended many Roman Catholics who were not attached to the sentiments of Jansenius, and who ■were only bent on the pursuit of truth, and the advancement of piety. The issuing of this ill- judged decree produced the most violent dissen- sions and tumults in France : at length, however, the contest terminated in favour of the bull, which was rendered valid by the authoritj' of the parliament, and was finally registered among the laws of the state, (Mosheim's Eccl. Hist.., cent, xviii., sec. x., xi. Burgher. — See Scotland, Churches in. Burial. — The usages of the early Christian Church in regard to burial were few and simple, but indicative of a " love stronger than death," ■which sought manifestation by its care for the lifeless remains. The proper celebration of the funeral rites was regarded as a Christian duty. After death the near relatives of the deceased closed the eyes and mouth of the corpse, washed it and dressed it for the tomb — usually in ■white linen ; but in the case of persons of con- siderable wealth more costh' fabrics were often employed. The body was then enclosed in a coffin, which was watched until the funeral took place. In the coffin, and underneath the bodv, it was not unusual to place laurel, ivy, or any other evergreen, except cypress, to signify that "the dead in Christ" "■vivere non desimmt" (Durand) ; but crowning either the corpse or the coffin with garlands was repudiated as too closely related to heathen practices. We find, however, that the custom of strewing the grave with flowers was sanctioned. Tiie climate and manners of the country, with the special circumstances of each BUR case, determined the length of the interval between death and burial; and on this point there was no fixed ecclesiastical rule or usage. The persons at- tending the funeral were, as at the present day, either relatives or others who desired thereby to testify respect for the dead, or sympathy with the bereaved. Their persecutors often strove to pre- vent the last respects being paid to the martyrs, sometimes by burning their bodies, as that of Polycarp, and sometimes by throwing their ashes into the sea, as in the case of the martyrs of Lyons, and Vienne in France. Under the Romans, funerals, more particularly of private persons, took place at night ; and hence arose a necessity for the use of torches in this as well as in the marriage procession, which also took place at night. On this account we have the phrase " i7der uiramque facem^'' (Propert.), to designate the interval from marriage to interment. Though Christians preferred to solemnize their funeral rites by day, yet we find they imitated the heathen usage so far as to make use of lighted tapers in the procession, giving to them a sym- bolical interpretation, on the same principle as the heathen poet just quoted, though modified by a strictly Christian reference. They were un- derstood to denote " victory over death, and union with Christ at the ?7jarrta^e-supper of the Lamb." In this practice we see that spirit of compromise with heathen customs and prejudices showing itself, which soon so greatly corrupted a large portion of the Church. During periods of persecution funerals had often to be conducted at night, to evade ob- servation. But from the time of Constantine onwards, funerals were often more truly op- portunities for display' than manifestations of sincere grief. To regulate the starting and on- ward progress of the procession the tuba was employed, or in some cases rattles made of wood or iron. In the eighth century the tolling of bells, muffled to increase the solemnity of the sound, was first introduced. It was customary, so early as the fourth century, to carry in the procession palm or olive branches, symbolical of joy and victory ; cypress was excluded, being emblematic of grief; rosemary was also made use of, but at a somewhat later date ; and the crucifix was carried in front of the corpse cer- tainly not before the sixth century. During the procession they sung or chanted psalms or other suitable portions of Scripture. The meaning of this usage and instances of the passages so em- ployed are stated in the follo'wing quotation from Chrysostom : — " What mean our hj-mns ? Do we not glorify God, and give him thanks that he hath crowned him that is departed ; that he hath delivered him from trouble; that he hath set him free from all fear ? Consider what thou singest at that time : ' Return unto thy rest, O my soul I for the Lord hath dealt bountifully with thee;' and again, ' I will fear no e'vil ; for thou art with me; ' and again," &c. He then pro- 10 BUR ceeds to rebuke all excessive grief as inconsistent with their professions of joy, confidence in the passages they sung, and with all true Christian faith and hope. Hence the hiring of female mourners {prafica) was reprobated by the church, thougli a custom which had been prevalent among Jews as well as Romans, and which has existed down to the present time among the Irish, with whom the hired mourners, known as Keeners, are also women. In opposing this practice the opinions of the fathers were confirmed by the decrees of comicils. At the funeral prayers were always offered up, and sometimes also the Lord's Supper was administered, in token that the dead and living, as members of the same mystic body, hold communion with one another. Tiiis latter practice gave origin to the unscriptural custom of masses for the dead. When tliere was no communion the soul of the deceased was specialh' commended to God in prayer : such prayers -were called " tTa^aficriis, commendaiiones," i. e., com- mendations. Amongst early abuses which were speedily abolished were those of administering the elements in the communion to the dead body as well as to the mourners, and that of giving it a parting kiss (j)iXnf,:a clyiov, osculum sancturn) prior to interment; for it is to be observed that the Christians practised inhumation and not cremation, which, from the time of Sulla the dic- tator, had been the usual Roman custom. The position in which the body was laid in the grave was much the same as at present ; the principal reason assigned for the supine posture being that it is a natural position in sleep, which death resembles ; and the upward gaze was meant to indicate tlie hope of a resurrection. The usual direction of the body was east and west, as if they looked for a second glorious advent in the east. At a very early period the practice of pra}*- ing for the dead showed itself. Totally at variance with Scripture, its introduction and subsequent tolerance are due either to imperfect acquaintance with Scripture truth on the part of the instructors in the clmrch, or to a desire to promote its spread by an unworthy compromise with existing heathen practices and prejudices. But these prayer.s, such as they were, give no countenance to the doctrine of purgatory; and the wording of such as are extant shows that such a doctrine was not current in the early cen- turies of our era. Tiie distribution of alms at funerals was not uncommon, and the error soon crept in of regarding their distribution as in some sort beneficial to the dead. As regards tlie period of mourning tliere was no definite rule. Augustine reproves those who imitated the heathen in keeping a Novemdiale, all such super- stitious observances of days being opposed to tiie spirit of Christiar.it}'. To tlie Novemdiale some added a repetition of funeral services on the 20th, 30tli and 40th days after interment, which is also rebuked. But the observance of anniversary BUR days in commemoration of the deceased was not so condemned. Burial grounds were called «7 CAT mingled a thrilling emphasis with that strange melody which floated through the niclies and corridors of this city of the dead ! II. The early Church of Home stands opposed, not only to Paganism, but to Popery.— The tablets from the " Catacombs " are in direct contr.ist to the errors and grossly anti-scriptural fablas and dogmas of Popery, found in the more modern self-called Church of Rome. The old Church of Rome, as found in these receptacles of truth sealed in blood, had no notion of purgatory, of clerical celibac}', of prayer to the Virgin, of" paintings of her Son, or of adoration to tiie martyrs. The only, or almost the only, symbol seen on those sepulchral stones, is the cross. 1. They believed in the immediate blessedness of the dead. The following is a specimen : — " Macus (or Marccs), an innocent boy. You have already begun to be among the innocent ones. How enduring is such a life to you!" The phrases, "rest in peace," or " may God refresh you," are sometimes added; but these are merely the natural expression of a blessed hope, that the deceased has rested in peace, and has been refresiied by God. 2. The ministers of Christ had also in that old period wives and families. Thus we read among the tablets: — " The place of Basil, the presbyter, and his Felicitas. They made it for themselves." — " Once the happy daughter of the presbyter Gabi- Nus, here lies Susanna, yo/^erf with her father in peace." — " Petroma, a deacon's wife, the type of modesty." — " In this place I lay my bones ; spare your tears, dear husband and daughters, and believe that it is forbidden to weep for one tvho lives in God. Buried in peace, on the 3d before the Nones of October, in the consulate of FESTus(i.e.,j«472)." — "ClacdiusAtticianus, « lector, and Claudia Fklicissima, his wije." (Lector, a reader.) — "Terextius, thefossor,for Primitiva, his wfe, and himself." {Fossor is gravedigger.) Tliere are symbols found also of several actions and scenes of Christ's life rudely sketched, but no image of Jesus has been dis- covered. No divine titles are given to the mar- tyrs ; they were imitated and honoured, but not adored. Up to tlie year 350, Christians were accused of worshipping onli/ one dead man ; and that was the " man Christ Jesus." Tiie enemy never hinted that the worship of the new sect had a multiplicitj' of object?, either the Virgin or tlie saints. (Rosio in lioma Sotteranea, lCo2; Roldotti in his Osservazioni sopra i ciniilerii, dei Sunti .^fartirL Bottari, Aringhi, Mabillon, Raoiil Rochette, are well known also in this dcjiartnient See The Church in the Catacomb.^: a dencription of the Primitive Church of Rome, illustrated by its Sejiulchral Remains, by Charles Mait- land, M.D., second edition, revised, London, Longman, 18-17.) Cnlaplirysi"""' — See MoNTANlSTS. C'nlrchriic .'"icIiooU were erected adjoining the churches where the catechumens assembled CAT to receive instruction from the catechists. A fdmous catechetic school, or school of divinit}', existed for many years at Alexandria, the origin of which St. Jerome traces to the evangelist Mark, the founder of the church in that city. Several such schools were established at Rome, Csesarea, Antioch, and other places. — See Cate- chism. There was one very singular use to which certain apartments in those catechetic schools were converted, viz., ecclesiastical pri- sons ; in these, offending clergymen were confined, and otherwise punished, by the direction and authority of the bishop ; for which reason they were called " decanica, " or prisons of the church. Catechism. — At first, all who professed to believe in Jesus Christ, and repented of their past sins, were immediately admitted to baptism, as was Simon JMagus, and were subsequently taught the particular doctrines of the Christian religion ; .but, afterwards, none were admitted to baptism until they had been instructed in the principles of the Christian faith. Hence arose the distinction between believers and catechu- mens. The course of catechetical instruction given to adults consisted chiefly of the exposition of the Ten Commandments, of a creed or sum- mary confession of faith, and tlie Lord's Prayer. The important work of catechising appears to have continued with unremitting diligence, until the Church of Rome found it necessary to conceal the errors which she had introduced into the religion of Christ, b}- keeping the minds of men in total ignorance of the truth. For several cen- turies a fatal darkness pervaded the church; and even many of the clei'gy were so ignorant as to be almost unable to perform the public offices of devotion. Early in the fifteenth cen- tury, however, the gloom dispersed, and the light of the Reformation banished the tyranny of papal influence from a great part of Europe. No sooner was the Reformed Religion established than provision was made for the instruction of all persons, especially children, in the fundamental doctrines of religion. But amidst the many prejudices which then prevailed, it was necessary that the first promoters of the Reformation should observe the same caution which had been evinced in all the other religious transactions of those times. Therefore, it was thought sufficient to begin with such common things as were acknowledged equally by Papists and Protestants. The first catechism consisted simply of the Creed, the Ten Commandments, and the Lord's Prayer; and it was no easy matter to bring even these into general use. They were received by the people, in the midst of the profound ignorance which then reigned, as a species of incantation ; and it was long before the grossness of vulgar conception was sufficiently enlightened to appre- hend that the Creed, the Decalogue, and the Lord's Prayer, were designed simply to direct their faith, practice, and devotion. So small was the progress made in catechetical CAT instruction, from the beginning of the Refurma- tion till so late a period as the year 1549. A Shorte Catechisme, or Playine Instruction, con- teynynge the summe of Christian Learninge, sett fourth hy the Kings maiesties authoritie for all Scholemaisters to teache, was the work which closed the labours of the Reformers in the reign of King Edward VI., whose name it commonly bears. In this manual, according to Archbishop Wake, the complete model of the present Cate- chism of the Church of England was first laid ; and it was also in some measure a public work ; for, although Dr. John Poynet, Bishop of Win- chester, is generally understood to have been the " certayne godlye and learned man,'' mentioned as the author in the prefixed injunction, which recommends it " to all scholemaisters and teacheis of youthe," yet "the debatingeand diligent ex- amination thereof was committed to certain by- shoppes and other learned men ;" after which it was published by the king's authority. It was printed both in English and in Latin in the same year, 1543 (Bp Ha.ndolph's Enchirid. Theol., vol. i., pref. p. vi., first edit. These two catechisms are accurately reprinted in The Two Liturgies A.D. 1549 and a.d. 1552, with other Documents set forth hy authority in the reign of King Ed- ward VI. Edited for the Parker Society by tlie Rev. Joseph Ketley, M. A., London, 1844). The Catechism of the United Church of England and Ireland, now in use, is drawn up after the primi- tive manner, by way of question and answer. It consists of five parts, viz., 1. The Doctrine of the Christian Covenant; 2. The Articles of Belief ; 3. The Commandments ; 4. The Duty and Effi- cacy of Prayer ; and 5. The Nature and End of the Holy Sacraments. Among Expositions or Lectures on the Cate- chism those of Archbishops Wake and Seeker, of Bishops Williams, Beveridge, and Nixon, of Gilpin, Walker, Adam, Daubeny, Gordon, and Haverfield, have their respective admirers ; be- sides which there are several smaller manuals recommended by the Societj' for promoting Chris- tian Knowledge. The Reformation, which was so favourable to the diffusion of pure religion in Great Britain, produced similar beneficial effects on the Continent. At an early period Luther wrote two catechisms : and of the duty which he thus prescribed to others, he was himself a bright example ; for he assures us that catechising afforded him more delight than any other minis- terial duty. The same care was taken by Calvin and other eminent Reformers abroad. The Westminster Assembly compiled a Larger and Shorter Catechism — the latter framed apparently on the model of the famous Heidelberg Catechism — known everywhere in Scotland, and taught in all schools save the few which are professedly Romish, or Episcopalian, or Secular. It is an admirable compound of theology, though too pro- found for younger children : it has been often commented on, as by Binning Watson, Ridgley, 128 CAT the lowest order of CAT and others. In 1592 a catechism was prepared I €ntcchiiincn« by Mr. John Craig, one of the ministers of j Christians, wliose instruction in the princfples of Edinburgh,^ and approved by the General As- the Christian religion formed the first part of the ■ "" ■ " service of the church. sembly. The Romanists felt the power of catechising; for, in the introduction to the Catechism for Curates, composed hy the Decree of the Council of Trent, and 2}ublished by com- mand of Pope Pius v., they complain that " there ■were as many catechisms carried about as there are provinces in Europe, yea, and almost as many as there are cities." Sensible, therefore, that catechising was the most efficacious mode of preserving their religion, the Romish divines pre- sent at that assembly composed a catechism, which the priests are enjoined to teach the people. An English translation of the Trent Catechism, as it is commonly termed, was published at London in 1687, "/)er??i/ss?< svpeiiorum," under the patronage of James II. ; another by J. Dono- van, at Dublin, in 1829, in octavo, and another by Buckley, London, 1852. In 1574 there was published at Cracow a Latin Catechism, or Confession of Faith, of the Con- gregation assembled in Poland in the name of Jesus Christ our Lord, who was crucified and raised from the dead. It is ascribed to George Schumann, an eminent Socinian teacher ; and is considered to be the tirst catechism published by the followers of Socinus. It probably was the source of the Racovian Catechism, so called from its being published at Racow. The task of re- forming it was first confided to Faustus Socinus and Peter Statorius, on whose decease the work was entrusted to Valentine Smalcius and Jerome Moscorovius. The catechism, as re-modelled by them, was published in the Polish language in 1605. By Smalcius it was translated into Ger- man, and published in 1608. In 1609 Moscoro- vius published a Latin translation of it at Racow. The literary history of the Socinian Catechism will be found in Rees's Historical Introduction, prefixed to his translation of the Racocian Cate- chism, from the Latin, published at London in 1818, in duodecimo. Catechiat. — The office of catechist in the ancient Church was sometimes discharged by the bishop, sometimes by the presbytery, and sometimes by the deacons. A distinct class was also added from among the best instructed of the laity, whose duty consisted in giving private in- struction to those placed under their cure. They were bound to show the catechumens the contract . they were to make, and the conditions they were to perform, viz., repentance, faith, and new obedience, in order to their admittance into the Christian ship, the church, in which they were to pass through this world to the kingdom of heaven. Hence they were called " /i««4)TiJaytt;K)i,"or illumi- nated, as having received the illumination of catechetical instruction ; and the author of the Ajjostolical Constitutions uses the word na*TiZ.i>- fMvoi, not for those who were already actually baptized, but for those who were desirous of re- ceiving that sacrament. Tiie compeientes hav- ing delivered their names and being accepted, both tliev and their sponsors were registered in the diptychs'or church books.— See Diptychs. Pre- viouslv to their receation of the sacrament laii ; but it would be useless to attempt to reduce these to a general rule, and endless to enuini--rate particular cases." Catholic, a surname, so to speak, adopted by the first Christians to distinguished themselves 131 CAT from those sectaries who at different times broke off from the general body of professors, and formed themselves into parties for the purpose of giving prominence to certain dogmas inculcated by "heretical" teachers, in opposition to the generally received opinions. Eusebiiis and other early writers observe that the only property of sects and heresies W'as to take party names, and denominate themselves from their leaders ; while the great and venerable name of Christian was neglected by them. The Christian Church, therefore, adopted the term " Catholic," as its characteristic designation; hence Pacian says, in answer to Sempronian, who demanded of him why Christians called themselves Catholics, ' ' Christian is my name, and Catholic my sur- name ; the one is my title, the other my character or mark of distinction." The following extract from Clarke's sermon on the subject will be found appropriate : — " The first and largest sense of the term Catholic Church is that which ap- pears to be the most obvious and literal meaning of the words in the text (Heb. xii. 23), ' The general assembl}' and church of the first-born which are written in heaven ;' that is, the whole number of those who shall finally attain unto salvation. Secondly, The Catholic or Universal Church signifies, in the next place, and indeed more frequentlj-, the Christian Church only — the Christian Church, as distinguished from that of the Jews and patriarchs of old ; the Church of Christ spread universally from our Saviour's days over all the world, in contradistinction to the Jewish Church, which was particularly con- fined to one nation or people. Thirdly, The Catholic Church signifies very frequently, in a still more particular and restrained sense, that part of the Universal Church of Christ which in the present age is now living upon earth, as distinguished from those which have been before and shall come after. Fourthly and lastly, The tenn Catholic Church signifies, in the last place, and most frequently of all, that part of the Universal Church of Christ which in the pre- sent generation is visible upon earth, in an out- ward profession of the belief of the gospels, and in a visible external communion of the Word and sacraments. The Church of Eome pretends herself to be this whole Catholic ChurcJi, exclu- sive of all other societies of Christians." The title of most Catholic majesty is borne by the Kings of Spain. Mariana asserts that it was given to the Gothic Prince Recaredus after the extermination of the Arian heresy, and that it was acknowledged by the council of Toledo in 589. Vasee states that it was first assumed by Alfonso on the re-establishment of Christianity in Spain in 738 ; but the first authentic occur- rence of the title cannot be traced higher than the reign of Ferdinand of Arragon, on the expul- sion of the Moors in 1492. The same title was also borne by Philip of Valois, King of France (Froissart, i.), but was superseded by that of CEL most Christian and eldest Son of the church, the recent salutation of the pope to Louis Napoleon. Catholic Apostolic Church. — See Ib- VINGIXES. Careat, in law, a process in the spiritual court, to stop the probate of a will, &c., or the institution of a clerk to a benefice. When a caveat is entered against an institution, if the bishop afterwards institutes a clerk, such institu- tion is void, the caveat being a supersedeas. A caveat entered in the life-time of the incumbent has been adjudged void, though if entered " dead or dying," it will hold good for a month ; and should the incumbent die then, for six months after his death. A caveat entered against a will, is said by the rules of the spiritual court to re- main in force for three months, and that while it is pending a probate cannot be granted ; but whether the law recognizes a caveat, and allows it so to operate, or whether it only regards it as a mere cautionary act by a stranger, to prevent the ordinary from committing a wrong, is a point upon which the judges of the temporal courts have differed. Ceimeliarchse, keepers of the x.nfji.n'Kia, or sacred vessels and utensils, were officers in the ancient Church, usually belonging to the rank of presbyters. They were sometimes named sceuophylaces, from another Greek term ; and as rolls and archives were under their charge, they also got the name of cariophylaces, or custodts archivorum. In the modern Greek Church the sceuophylax often acts as the patriarch's substi- tute. As a matter of course the room or reposi- tory where the sacred things were kept was called sceuo]}hylacmm, or ceimdiarchium, and sometimes secretarium. Celestines, an order founded by Peter de Meuron, in the year 1254, under the title of the Hermits of St. Damien. The first establishment was on a solitary mountain near Isernia, in the kingdom of Naples. In the j'ear 12S6 De Meuron's love of solitude induced him to quit the community he had formed ; but he was not long suffered to enjoy his seclusion ; for, eight years afterwards, he was chosen, on account of his re- puted piety, to fill the pontifical chair, under the name of Celestin V. Hence the change in the name of his order to that of Celestines. Feeling the burden too great for him, he resigned his pontificate just five months after his inaugura- tion, and betook himself again to retirement. He died in the year 1296. After his death his order made rapid progress in Italy, France, and other places. Their habit consists of a white gown, a capuche, a black scapulary, and serge shirt, and when they go out they wear a black cowl. They fast every Wednesday and Friday from Easter to the Feast of the Exaltation of the Cross, and from that period to Easter every day. They are forbidden animal food, except when ill. They rise two hours after midnight to say matins. An order of hermits was founded also 132 CEL in the same pontificate, under the same name They were greatly persecuted by the friars minors, by Pope Boniface, by the Patriarch of Constantinople, and by the inquisitor of the Neapolitan State. Celibacy. — The vow of celibacy is imposed by the Romish Church upon all who enter its ministry in any degree of orders. That such a vow is not required of Christians in holy writ, nor consonant to the practice of the primitive Church may be readily proved ; and the obliga- tion to marry placed on the Jewish priests by the INIosaic institution, shows how the older revela- tion sought not to establish anj' unsuitableness between conjugal and religious duties. The evidences of the practice of the early Christians on this point are collected by Bingham with his usual tidelity (book iv., c. 5, sec. 5). It is gene- rally believed, he saj's, that all the apostles, ex- cept St. Paul and St. John, were married ; and Clemens {Stromafa, 3), Eusebius (iii., GO), and Origen (Comm. in Rom., i.), have contended that trie first of them was so also, from an expression in the text (Phil. iv. 3). This verse, however, forms no argument. But there is another kind of proof on which some stress may be laid. If Paul was a member of the sanhedrim, then he must have been married. Much depends on the precise meaning of the phrase '^ xaTr.tnyxa, ■4'>i(poii" — I gave my vote against them (Acts xxvi. 10). If the words are to be taken in their literal acceptation, and there appears no good reason why the}' should not, then they imply that Saul was at the period a member of the san- hedrim; and one necessary qualification for a seat in that high coart was to be a husband and a father. But his wife and children had not long survived ; for when the apostle wrote to the Church in Corinth he was unmarried. One ob- jection to this view is, that chiefly men of years were admitted to the sanhedrim, and Saul must have been comparative!}' young at the time. But perhaps his zeal and courage may have opened the path to him; and as for the qualification referred to, we know that it was customary for the Jews to marry at a rather early age. In the age immediately succeeding that of the apostles, we read of the wives of Valens, Presby- ter of Philippi (Polycarp, E^}. ad Philip., ii., 11), of Chceremon, Bishop of Nilus (Eus., vi., c. 42), of Novatus, Presbyter of Carthage (Cyprian, Ep., 49), of Cyprian himself, of Csecilius, who con- verted him (Pont, Vit. Cyp.), and of several other bishops and presbyters. Against these facts, which are not contested, it is pretended that married persons promised to separate them- selves from their wives as soon as they should receive ordination. The history of Novatus dis- tinctly proves the contrary. He was accused, long after he was a presbyter, of having caused the miscarriage of his wife by a passionate blow. In the first three centuries we read of no in- junction to celibacy. It was, indeed, once pro- CEL posed by the intemperate zeal of Pinytus, Bishop of Gnossus; but the more prudent authoritv of Dionysius, Bishop of Corinth, restrained him by a wise admonition, not to impose any compulsoiy burden (yip., Eus., iv., 23). The question was re'- newed in the council of Nice, a.d. 325, but was eloquently opposed by Paphnutius, an Egj-ptian bishop, who, though himself unmarried, contended that the marriage bond was chaste and honourable, and pointed forcibly to the moral dangers result- ing from so unnatural a prohibition (Socr., i., 11; Sozomen., i., 23). Succeeding councils lent a more favourable ear to the proposal. That of Aries, in 340, permitted persons who were mar- ried to be ordained, but required that they should ever afterwards live separate from their wives. Pope Syricius, in 385, and Leo, in 442, pro- mulgated decrees yet more rigorous ; but it was not until the pontificate of Gregory the Great, near the close of the sixth century, that the law was universally received. In tiie Greek Church it did not prevail till a century later, and even then it was but partially admitted. At the council of Trullo, held a.d. 692, bishops were enjoined to separate themselves from their wives, who, in order to prevent any possibility of re- newal of intercourse, were instructed to betake themselves to monasteries ; but all orders of the Church beneath episcopacy were permitted to enter into, or to retain the bond of marriage. At the council of Trent it was proposed that the interdict which prevented the marriage of priests should be removed ; and in the system of theology named the Interim, prepared by Charles V. in 1548, one express article stipu- lated that such ecclesiastics as had married, and would not put away their wives, might be allowed nevertheless to perform all the functions of their sacred oifice. The Interim, it is well known, was rejected with indignation by the Vatican. No act, indeed, in the course of the Reformation gave so much offence to the Papists as the marriage of the clergy. Those already in orders who took wives were held to be per- jured, and those who succeeded in the text generation, although they might not have en- gaged in the ministry under the same vow, were considered to be profaned and desecrati'd if they took wives. Botli the person and tlie reputation of Catherine Bora were objects of mean and ribald attack when she gave her hand to Luther. Erasmus himself joined in the cry. He believed for a time that the baptism of Luther's child was solemnized within a few days of his marriage, and he did not liiink it quite improbable that Anticiirist niigiit be the pro- geny of the unfrocked monk and tiie renegade nun (^Epist. xviii., 22). No topic is handl<-d more frequently, or with more asperity, in Sir Thomas More's controversial writings, than the breach of ecclesiastical celibacy. It was not till the reign of Edward VI. that an act was passed repealing all laws and canons which 133 > CEL required the clergy to li\^e single. In the per- secutions of the following reign such as had embraced the married state were visited with peculiar severity. "Are you married?" was the first question of the brutal Gardiner to Hooper, on his examination. "Yea, my Lord," replied the martyr, " and will not be unmarried till death unmarry me." Even the gentler Tunstall treated the same prisoner with indig- nity upon this point, calling him beast, and saj'ing this alone was matter enough to deprive him. Taylor and Cnmmer were interrogated in like manner, and ansivered with equal spirit. Elizabeth reluctantly tolerated, but never could be persuaded to legalize the marriage of her clergy. On the other hand, it would be no difficult task to detail the enormities which this severe and unnatural law produced, and the numerous and flagrant crimes which may be traced to it, in conjunction with the dangerous and convenient practice of auricular confession. The remedy of concubinage on the part of many of the clergy, which was not only permitted but enjoined in several parts of Europe, sufficiently evinces the still greater dissoluteness which it was intended to suppress. Even before the Re- formation these abuses had not escaped occa- sional notice. We need not cite the memorable decree of the council of Paris, held under Car- dinal de Corceone in 1212, the enforcement of which was loudh' called for so late as 1643, by the pious author of Adois Chretien touchant une matiere de grande importance, nor the equally memorable work of the Cardinal Pierre Damien, the title of which proclaims the wickedness which it sought to suppress. The story of the 6,000 heads of murdered children which were found by Gregory the Great in his fish-pond, may be classed, in its fullest extent, among the many opprobrious and improbable falsehoods by which all religious communities have been as- sailed ; but the very existence of a controversy as to this tale among the Papists themselves, proves that either it is not wholl}- groundless, or that they are unable to advance the morals of their clergy as a sufficient and positive contra- diction to it. But Montserrat alone is an in- controvertible evidence of the depraved habits which celibacy occasioned, and which lie details in his Avisos sabre los Abusos de la Iglesia Romana; for he had witnessed before his re- cantation the foul practices which he condemns ; and finally, there must have been some fouada- tion for the terrible disclosures which are con- tained in Le Cabinet du Roi de France and La Polygamie Sacre'e. — See Monachism, Monas- tery. Celliies, a name given, from the cells in which they lived, to a sect or society formed at Antwerp early in the fourteenth century, for the purpose of ministering to tiie dying and taking care of the interment of the dead- offices which were much neglected by the clergy, CER especially where there was supposed to be danger of infection from pestilential disorders. They were sometimes called Alexian brethren and sisters, from the name of their patron saint, Alexius; and sometimes Lollards, from their chanting a dirge at funerals. Societies of the same kind were soon formed in many parts of Germany and Flanders. They were vehemently opposed by the clergy and the mendi- cant friars, and were accused of many vices and many errors, so that the word Lollard became a common term of reproach for one who con- cealed errors of doctrine or a vicious life under the mask of extraordinary piety. But there is no reason to suppose that the Cellites were hypocrites of this kind. On the contrary, their character seems to have been cleared from the imputations of their enemies ; for a bull was issued in 1472, ordering that they should be ranked among the religious orders, and be ex- empted from the jurisdiction of the bishops ; and in 1506 they obtained from Julian VL still greater privileges. Cells.— Anciently the inner parts of the portico of churches were divided into small places of re- tirement, sometimes called cubicula, or small chambers, where worshippers might retire for meditation and prayer. They were regarded as a portion of the catechumenia, or belonging to the catechumens. Cemetery (Koifinr^^iov, sleeping place, dor- mitory), an appropriate name for a Christian burying-place, where the dead rest in hope. The name, as well as that of necropolis, is now commonl}' given to the places of sepulture which have recentl}' been set apart for burial in the vicinity of our larger towns, the older church- yards having been found to be too crowded, and therefore to be insalubrious. A general act was passed in 18.50, giving power to the Board of Health to shut existing burial places whenever it was deemed necessary. Burial in cities or churches was forbidden for many centuries in the Church. — See Burial. But the places where martyrs were buried often became sites of churches, which therefore were sometimes called cemeteries. — See Altar. Cenobites. — See C(E.\obttes. Cenones, the second order in the hierarchy of the Montanists. Tlie origin of the name is un- known. Censures. — See Discipline. (^enteuarii or If ecatoularchsB (ITundre- dors), a species of diviners condemned by the council of Trullo, and probably so naniid because they were leaders of companies in some of the idolatrous processions. Ceuturies.— See Magdeburg Centuries or Centuriators. Cerdon was a Syrian Gnostic, who taught at Rome in the middle of the second century. Hi? fame was so eclipsed by that of his disciple Mar- cion, that we hear very little of the Cerdonians; 134 CER nor is it easy to say how much of the Marcion- ites' doctrine may have owed its origin to Cer- don. His system wa«s INIaiiichajan ; for he lield two divine and antagonistic principles, denied the reality of Christ's humanity, and scorned and rejected the Old Testament. Ceremonial. — See Liturgy, C'ercmoiiy, the power of the Church to de- cree rites and ceremonies has long been matter of dispute, and was debated with special keenness in the early days of Puritanism. Instead of giving the arguments on either side, or quoting the reasonings of Cartwright and Hooker, we shall only give a few judicious sentences from Principal Hill : — " The rites and ceremonies of the Chris- tian Church, agreeably to the general rules of Scripture, ought to be of such a kind as to pro- mote the order, the decency, and the solemnity of public worship. At the same time, they ought not to be numerous, but should preserve that character of simplicity which is inseparable from true dignity, and which accords especially with the spiritual character of the religion of Christ. The apostles often remind Christians that they are delivered from the ceremonies of the law, ■which are styled by Peter ' a j'oke which neither their fathers nor they were able to bear' (Acts XV. 10). The whole tenor of our Lord's dis- courses, and of the writings of his apostles, ele- vates the mind above those superstitious obser- vances in which the Pharisees placed the sub- stance of religion ; and, according to the divine saying of Paul, ' the kingdom of God is not meat and drink, but righteousness and peace, and joy in the Holy Ghost' (Rom. xiv. 17). The nature of this kingdom is forgotten when frivolous ob- servances are multiplied by human authority ; and the complicated, expensive pageantry of Roman Catholic worship, together with the still more childish ceremonies wliich abound in the Eastern or Greek Church, appear to deserve the application of that censure which the apostle pronounced, when he represented the attempts made in his days to revive the Mosaic ritual as a 'turning again to weak and beggarly elements' (Gal. iv. 9). The multiplicity of external obser- vances is not only an uimecessary burden, to which Je.sus did not mean to subject his fol- lowers, but it has a tendency to substitute ' the rudiments of the world,' in place of a worship 'in spirit and in truth.' While it professes to render the services of religion venerable, and to cherish devotion, it in reality fatigues and ab- sorbs the mind; and it requires such an expense of time and of money, that, like the heathen amidst the pomp of their sacrifices. Christians are in danger of thinking they have fulfilled their duty to God by performing that work which the ordinance of man had prescribed, and of losing all solicitude to present to the Father of spirits that homage of the heart, which is the only offering truly valuable in his sight. Fur- ther, all the Scripture rules and examples sug- I 135 CER gest that, in enacting ceremonies, regard should be had to the opinions, the manners, and preju- dices of those to wliom they are prescribed ; that care should be taken never wantonly to give offence; and that those who entertain more enlightened views upon the subject should not desi)ise their weak brethren. Upon the same principle, it is obvious that ceremonies ought not to be lightly clianged. In the eyes of most people, those i-ractices appear veiierablo which have been handed down from remote antiquity. To many, the want of those helps to which they have been accustomed in the exercises of devotion, might prove verv hurtful ; and frequent changes in the external parts of worship might shake tiie steadfastness of their faith. The last rule dedueihle from the Scrip- ture examples is this, that the authoritv which enacts the ceremonies should clearly explain the light in which they are to be considered ; should never employ any exjircssions, or any means of enforcing them, which tend to convey to the people that they are accounted necessary to salvation; and should beware of seeming to teach that the most punctual observance of things in themselves indifferent is of equal im- portance with judgment, meic\', and the love of God. Early after the Reformation, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, the Puritans objected in general to the lawfulness of imposing ceremonies b_v authority, as an abridgment of the liberty of Christians in matters not commanded by the Word of God; and they objected, in particular, to the vestments appointed to be worn b^' the clergy in tlieir public ministrations, because, hav- ing been worn in times of Poperj-, they had then been abused to superstition and idolatry. They objected also to the lawfulness of using the sign of the cross in baptism, of kneeling at the Lord's Supper, and of other observances of the like kind. The objections were answered by assert- ing the power of the church in regulating mat- ters indifl'erent ; by stating the prudential consi- derations which led the Church of England to retain some of the popish ceremonie-!, in the hopes of keeping the Papists within the church; and by declaring, as is done in the preface to the Cmmnon Pra//er Book, 'That no holiness or worthiness was annexed to the garments of the priests; and that while the e.xcessive multitude of ceremonies used in times of Poi)ery was laid aside, some were received for a decent order in the church, for which they were first devised, and becau.se they pertained to edification, where- unto all things done in the churcli ought to be referred.' These answers did not remove iho objections of the Puritans. The controversy was agitated with much violence during a great part of the seventeenth century. It was tlie subject of immberless publications, of debates in parliament, and of juilicial discussion. Tlio Puritans, not content with argument and peti- tion, employed various methods of inllamiug the \ CER minds of the people, and made many attempts to obtain their object b}' faction and commotion. The church, irritated by opposition to her authority', was little disposed to condescend to Aveak consciences in points which might have been jdelded, and often employed severity to bendthose whom she could not convince." — Hill's Lectures, vol. iii., p. 529. Ccrens Paschali>$, a colossal taper which ■used to be lighted on Easter eve. Ceriutbians. — If we give the name of Sa- maritan Gnostics to the followers of Simon Magus and Menander, the Cerinthians must be regarded as the earliest Christian Gnostic sect. Their founder was a Jew, who studied philo- sophy at Alexandria, and thence removed to Ephesus, to mature and publish his system. He is said to have encountered there the apostle St. John, v.'hose gospel and epistles bear evident marks of having been designed to counteract such false teaching as that of Cerinthus. That teaching was more accommodated to Jewish opinions than that of the later Gnostics. The Demiurge, the god of the Jews, was represented as originally good ; so that the Jewish law, which proceeded from him, was in part to be carefully observed. But he gradually fell from his original goodness, and then the ^on Christ came to put an end to his dominion, and to reveal the Supreme God. The persecution of Christ was attributed to the enmity of the Demiurge, who stirred up the rulers against him. The Cerinthians were taught to expect a resuiTection, and a thousand years' reign of Christ upon earth. Ceroferaii (taper-hearers), persons who walked before the deacons in the Popish Church with lighted tapers in their hands. According to Bingham, they are not to be identified with the Acoluthi. — See Acoldthi. Cessation. — See Interdict. Cession, Cessio, in law, a ceasing, yield- ing up, or giving over. In ecclesiastical mat- ters, it is the acceptance of a benefice which cannot be held compatibly with anj- other, with- out dispensation or being otherwise qualified. Thus, if a parson possessed of ecclesiastical bene- fices is promoted to a bishopric, and no dispensa- tion is granted to hold them in commendam with the bishopric, such benefices upon the bishop's consecration become void, and are in law said to be void by cession, and the right of presenta- tion to them for the next turn belongs to the crown instead of the patron. For the causes of voidance of benefices, the persons entitled to dis- pensations and the other qualifications, see stat. 21 Henry VIII., ch. xiii. By law, m Ireland, no person can take anj' dignity or benefice there until he has resigned any preferment he may have in England, by which resignation the king is deprived of the next presentation. In the event of a cession taking place under the sta- tute, the benefice is so far void, upon institution CHA to the second living, that the patron is entitled to present; but it will not lapse against the patron from the time of institution, unless notice be given him : it will, however, from the time of induction. Chalice (Lat. calix ; Gr. xi5/bi\\ of December, and its separation from the Epiphany, which hitherto had been celebiated jointly with it, from a belief that the appearance of the star in the east and the birth of Christ were simul- taneous. This separation took place at the coun- cil of Nice, 325 ; but the Armenians, as late as the thirteenth century, continued to unite the feasts — Antiquarians and divines are much divided as to the real day of the Nativity. It has been fixed at the Passover, at tlie Feast of Tabernacles, or (and Usher has adojitcd the last opinion) at the Feast of Expiation, on the 10th of Tisri, answering to the close of our Septem- ber. Whichever of these it ma}' be, it is evi- dent, from the " shepherds abiding in the field," that it was not in the very heart of winter. Sir Isaac Newton has ingeniously accounted for the choice of the 25th of December, the winter solstice, by showing that the festival of the Nativity and most others were originally fixed at cardinal points of the j'ear; and having been so arranged by mathematicians at pleasure, were afterwards adopted by the Christians as they found tiieni in their calendar (Projthecits of Daniel, c. ii., part 1). After giving a list of the Roman em- perors, till the death of Coinmodus, a.d. 192, and stating in what years of certain emperors the Saviour was either born, or baptized, or crucified, Clemens Alexandriims says — " There are some who over curiously assign not only the year but the day also of our Saviour's nativity, which they say was in the twenty-cightii year of Augustus, on the 25th of I'achon (2oth of Jlay). And the followers of Basilides observe also the day of his baptism as a festival, sjiend- ing the whole previous night in reading; and they say it was in the lif'iceiith year of Tiberius Ctesar, on the 15th of Tibi (loth of Janujiry); but some say it was on the 11th (Oth) of that month. Among those who nicely calculate the time of his passion, some say it was in the .six- teenth year of Tiberias Ca-sar, tiie 25tli of Fhc- menoth (22d of I^Iarch); others say, tlie •J5tli of PJiarmuthi (21st of A|)ril); and others, that it was on the liUh of I'harmiitlii (l.''tli of April) that the Saviour suffered. Some of tliem say that he was born in I'hannuthi, the 2-lth or 25th day (April 20 or 21)."— See Nativity. Polydoie Virgil (De Invent., v., 2), has obsor\-ed that the English were remarkable for the festivities with which thev distinguished Cliri:>linas. Brand CHR lias made large collections on this subject. When the devotions of the eve preceding it were over, and night had come on, it was customary to light candles of large size, and to lay upon the fire a huge log, called a Yule clog or Christmas block, a custom not yet extinct in some parts of England, especially in the north, where coal is frequently substituted for wood. Chandlers at this season used to present Christmas candles to their customers, and bakers, for the same pur- pose, made images of paste, called Yule claugh or Yule cakes, which probably represented the Bamhino. Yule (from huel, a wheel) was a sun- feast, commemorative of the turn of the sun and the lengthening of the day, and seems to have been a period of pagan festival in Europe from ancient times — among Romans, Saxons, and Goths — and the old heathen practices, or satur- nalia, were kept up after it was regarded as the period of the Nativity. — See Carols. At court, among many public bodies, and in distinguished families, an officer, under various titles, was ap- pointed to preside over the revels. Leland, speaking of the court of Henry VII., a.d. 1480, mentions an Abbot of Blisrule, who was created for this purpose, who made much sport, and did right well his office {Collect, iii., App. 256). In Scotland he was termed the Abbot of Unreason; but the office was suppressed by act of parlia- ment, A.D. 1555. Stow (Survey of London, 79) describes the same officer as Lord of Misruh (by which title he is known also to Holinshed, ChroH. iii., p. 1317, and is most frequenth' men- tioned bj' other writers) and Muster of Merry Disports, who belonged not only to the king's house, but to that of every nobleman of honour or good worship, were he spiritual or temporal. The niaj'or and sheriffs of London each had their lord of misrule, and strove, without quarrel or offence, which should make the rarest pastime. His sway began on Allhallow-eve, and con- tinued till the morrow after Candlemas Day. The Puritans regarded these diversions, which appear to have offended more against good taste than against morality, with a holy horror. The dishes most in vogue were formerly, for breakfast and supper on Chrismas-eve, a boar's head stuck with rosemary, with an apple or an orange in the mouth, plum porridge, and minced pies. Eating tiie latter was a test of orthodoxy, as the Puritans conceived it to be an abomination : they were originally made long, in imitation of tiie cratch or manger in which our Lord was laid (Selden's Table Talk). The houses and churches were dressed with evergreens, and the former espe- cially with misletoe — a custom probably as old as the druidical worship. The Christmas Box was money gathered in a box to provide masses at this festive season ; and servants, who else were unable to defray them, were allowed the privilege of collecting from the bounty of others. The custom may probably be traced to the Roman Payanalia. So CHU that English Christmas keeping is a strange medley of customs, derived from various sources — most of them from the ancient superstitions that Jesus came into the world to destroy. Christology {Doctrine of Christ), a name given to treatises, like those of Owen, Dorner, Hengstenberg, and Thomasius, which profess to expound what is taught in Scripture concerning the person of Christ. Christophori (Christ-bearers), a name some- times assumed by the early Christians, be- cause they carried the Divine Master in their hearts. Sometimes they called themselves, for the same reason, Theophori; for it is written, as Ignatius explained it, " I will dwell in them." Christo Sacrum, a society founded at Delft, in Holland, m 1801, by Onder de Win- garrd, a burgomaster, the object of which is to unite all who hold the divinity of Christ and redemption by his death. It does not proselytize; but though it began with four persons it now numbers four thousand. Church. — See Biblical Cyclopcedia. Churches. — For particular Churches, see under the special Geographical or Denomina- tional titles. Church) Form and Architecture of. — The early Christians worshipped God wherever they could find opportunity, — often in secret places, and in dens and caves, because of their persecutors. But churches proper began to be built at an early period ; for Diocletian, in one of his edicts in 303, orders tiiem to be razed to the ground. Afterwards churches were erected with great splendour, especially under Constantine and his imperial successors. Justinian I. spent his long reign in the erection of sacred edifices, and Sancta Sophia in Constantinople, rebuilt by him, was the fruit of his architectural zeal. After the dark days of persecution were over, the favourite site for a church was some eminence, or perhaps the grave of some mart\'r ; yet, in some countries they preferred subterranean ora- tories or crypts, many of which existed in Ger- many ; and the old Baron}- parish church of Glas- gow was similarly placed under the cathedral. Heathen temples were sometimes consecrated as churches, and so were halls, or places of public meeting. — See Basilica. The form of building at first was oblong, not unlike a ship ; and hence the building was often called ^'■navis," a ship, '■'■arca,'^ an ark, or '■'•navi- cula Petri," the boat of Feter. The altar was always placed at the east end, and the chief entrance was on the west. Another form was that of a cross ; and, indeed, various shapes are found, as octagons and quadrangles, but seldom circular figures. According to Bede, the time was when no churches built of stone existed in Britain, but they were constructed of wood. The first church of stone was built by St. Ninian, and such was the rarity that it was called Can- 144 CHU dlda casa — Whitern, now spelled NVhithorn — in Galloway. Churches, especially after the fourth century, consisted of three principal divisions. At the east was the bema, choir, sanctum, or place of the altar, reserved for the bishop and clergy, often in the form of a semicircular recess or apsis, and railed off from the nave by cancelli or rails. The nave, vaog, was the bod}' of the church, or place of usual assembly for the people, having in it the ambo, or reader's desk or pulpit. The sexes were usually kept separate during worship, the men being on the south side and the women on the north side. The catechumens were placed behind the believers, according to their various classes, and behind them again were placed a certain class of penitents. Round the walls were recesses for private meditation and prayer, and aisles (alae) separated the nave from those chambers. Lastly, there was the nar- thex, ante-temple or portico, occupying the front of the edifice, and entered by three doors from the outer porch ; and there were three entrances inward from it, the principal one opening into the nave directly opposite to the altar. Two of the doors, consisting of two folding leaver, were named the priest's door and the men's door. The vest- ibule, properly so called, was the place appropri- ated to certain catechumens and penitents. There also stood the font or cantharus, for washing prior to entrance ; and here, in Abyssinia, the worshippers put otf their sandals. The floors ■were tastefully paved, often composed of marble, and often made of tessellated or mosaic work. The walls and roof were also frequently ornament- ed with mottoes, paintings, and bas-reliefs. Win- dows of glass were early used, but not in Eng- land till after the seventh century. The exedrce, or buildings outside the church, comprehended generally the wings and exterior apartments, •and also separate buildings, such as the baptistery. The court or atrium was the open space between the outside walls and the church, and there stood such outcasts as were not permitted to enter the church. There were other buildings, such as the vestry and repository for sacred utensils (ceim- eliarckeiori), and sometimes there were also pri- sons called decanica. Libraries, schools, and houses for the officiating clergy sprang up round the church ; hospitals for the sick, and diversoria, or places for the entertainment of strangers. Towers and bells are not mentioned till the age of Charlemagne. It was in the thirteenth cen- tury, and after the introduction of the pointed arcli, that church architecture reached its culmi- nation. Then were built those Imge and magni- ficent fabrics, the ruins of many of which still attest their ancient harmony and grandeur. Gothic architecture, somewhat naked and con- fused indeed, is prevailing again in Scotland, and may of late years be seen in the churches of many a small town and country village, though for Presbyterian worship and teacliing, it is certainly 145 CHU neither the most fitting nor convenient. The Greek style, on many accounts, appears to be preferable; but both are improvements on the old barn form universal last century among all denominations. Wliatever is dedicated to God should be the best of its kind ; and a solemn beauty, without florid ostentation, should charac- terize the meeting-places of his people. Clmrches were held in great veneration. The people were asked to attend in decent apparel ; emperors, as they entered, laid down their arms, put off their crowns, and left their guard behind them. Honorius decreed that any one disturbing the service should be put to death. Colcmaa briefly sums up the privileges by which the sacred buildings were guarded from profanation and sacrilege: — "Neither churches nor any of their utensils or implements could be sold, mortgaged, or assessed for taxes: to this rule, ho\vever, there were occasional exceptions. Churches could not be used for courts of either civil or criminal cases, nor for popular elections or legislative assemblies; but they might be opened for the accommodation of ecclesiastical councils, and for the coronation of princes. No marketing, or exchanges in buying or selling of any kind, vi-as allowed in the church, much less were annual fairs permitted in the neighbourhood of a church. No convivial assemblies were in any instance to be held in the churches; and even the love-feasts, the abuses of which in the Corinthian church were so severely censured by the apostle Paul (1 Cor. xi. 18, seq.), were not allowed in the churches. Neither were they to be opened for the entertainment of strangers and travellers. It was also a high offence to speak irreverently of the house of God, or unworthily to engage in any official act of public worship." From the period of Constantine, the altar, doors, pillars, and threshold, were sometimes embraced and kissed, and articles of value were for safety lodged in the ecclesiastical repositories. Churches also became sanctuaries, or places of refuge. At first only the altar, or more sacred portion of the building, was held to be an a-iylum; but the same sacrediiess was soon attach- ed to the whole structure and its precincts ; but refuge was not afforded to every kind of criminals. Certain classes of them were formally denied the privilege — such as public debtors ; Jews pro- fessing Christianity, in order to avoid payment of debt; heretics and apostates, run-away slaves, robbers and murderers ; adulterers, conspirators, and ravishers of virgins. A relic of tlie custom ia found in the asylum yet afforded to debtors in Ilolyrood — the name implying its original sacredness — roorf signifying cross. Churciies received various nanus, such as houi^o of God, domus Dei; house of praver, the I>ord'8 house or temple— xi/f'««", so u?cd, being the ori- gin of kirche, kirk, church. Sometimes they were named martyria, in honour of the martyrs; and other designations, ia allusiou to their origiu CHU and purpose, were conferred upon them, such as tabernacle, conventicle or meeting-house, place of instruction, corpus Christi, or body of Christ, cas£e, tituli, synodi, concilia, &c. Eiddle has taken from Augusti, vol. i., 341, the following list of other titles : — " Churches were dis- tinguished, in the course of centuries, by various epithets, according to their size, their relation to other churches, or some other circumstances con- nected with them. Thus we read of ecclesise matrices (matricales) et filiales ; or simply matres et filise, i. e., mother churches and daughters ; from their mutual connection and dependence. Ecclesise cathedrales, cathedral churches, from being the seat of a spiritual superior and gover- nor. And these again were either episcopales or archiepiscopales, metropolitanae, or patriarchales. Ecclesise Catholicse ; so called sometimes by way of distinction from the churches of reputed here- tics and schismatics; and sometimes as synony- mous with episcopales. Ecclesise dioecesanie; usually tlie same as episcopales. Ecclesise paro- chiales, or parochise, i. e., parish churches. But sometimes this term is equivalent to episcopales or dioecesanse. Ecclesise baptismales, Ba'mo-T'/i^ta., K«Xu^/3>)^g«<, piscina, tinctoria, baptisterii basil- icse, aula3 baptismatis; i.e., baptisteries. Eccle- sice curatse, in which service was performed pro- visionally by a curatus (or curate) ; nearly the same as filise. Oratoria and capellse are usually synonymous; but, when distinguished, the for- mer denoted a private chapel, the latter a chapel of ease. Both are sometimes called sacellse sacrse, and in the neuter sacella, whence sacella- nus, i. e., sacelli praefectus, capellanus. Ecclesise articulares, churches or chapels dependent on a mother church, same as filise, capellse. Ecclesise collegiatse, collegiales, or conventuales, collegiate churches. Ecclesias commendatse or commend- arise, same as curatse. Since the middle ages the following distinctions have become common : — Ecclesise civicse, town or city churches. Ec- clesiaa rurales, or villanse, country churches. Ecclesise castellanse, churches in fortresses or castles. Ecclesise coemeteriales, churches in burial grounds. Ecclesise capitales, or cardinales, principales. Ecclesise majores, or primariiB ; i. e., matres. Ecclesise minores, or secundarise ; i. e., filiffi, capellfe. Ecclesise seniores et juniores ; i. e., matres et filise. Ecclesise per se, independent churches ; i. e., parochiales, matres," &c. — See under the respective terms, as Abata, Altar, Ambo, Apsis, Baptistery, Bells, Bema, Burial, Canthakus, Catechumen, Cells, Chancel, CLRRcr, Exedka, Nakthex, Sanc- tuary, &c., &c. (Walch, Bingham, Augusti, Du Fresne, Basnage, Miinter, &c.) Churching or Thanksgiving of M^oinen after child-birth. — This is a parallel custom to the purification of the Jewish law, enjoined in the twelfth chapter of Leviticus ; and in the first liturgy was styled the order of the purification of women. As the Church of England, however, CHU by no means admits that any spiritual unclean- ness is contracted by child-bearing, at the re- view of the liturgy, the title of the service was changed to that which it now bears. In the Greek Church the time assigned for the celebra- tion of this rite was forty days from the birth. In the West no precise limit has been laid down ; and the Anglican rubric enjoins onlj- the usual time, which is interpreted as soon as her recovery of strength will permit. The service is meant to be performed in church, as a public acknow- ledgment of the restoration of the woman to the congregation ; and the end of the rite is by no means answered if it be administered privately. The third council of Milan expressly prohibited this abuse. Of old a veil used to be worn on this occasion ; and even so late as the reign of James I. this dress was enjoined by a chancellor of Norwich, and a woman was excommunicated for contumacy; which excommunication, on appeal, after con- sulting with the Archbishop of Canterbury and the bishops, relative to custom, the judge con- firmed. In King Edward's first liturgy she is instnicted to kneel " in some convenient place nigh unto the quire door ; " this was afterwards altered into "nigh unto the place where the table standeth ;" and it now runs, " as has been accustomed, or as the ordinary shall direct." The time of performance of this serxnce is not laid down in the rubric ; but in the Bishop of Norwich's Visitation Articles, 1536, it appears then to have been read just before the commun- ion. When the chrisome in baptism was discon- tinued, the rubric directed the woman to offer "accustomed offerings; and if there be a com- munion, it is convenient that she receive the holy communion." Church, ITIeuibership of. — Those in full communion with the early Church had various names, — "believers" (^^nrroi), the Scriptural appellation, and also that of " brethren," "elect," "beloved,'' "sons of God," &c. Occasionally they were called "perfect" (reXj/a/), in allusion probably to the course of secret instruction already undergone, and qualifying them for the Eucharist, which was "perfection of perfections" {riXirh TiXiTiiJi). They were also called the initiated, in allusion, perhaps, to the heathen mj'Steries — See Arcani Disciplina. They were also named the " enlightened " — (^uTtr/io;, or enlight- enment, being in the primitive period a common name for baptism. When fully received into the church, the members could attend all religious assemblies, while others not so far advanced were summoned to retire. They were permitted to repeat the Lord's Prayer aloud, while the cate- chumens could onU-^ do it in silence. They were of course admitted to the Lord's Supper, and took part in public ecclesiastical business, in the election of ministers and the exercise of discipline, — such as excommunication and the re-admis- sion of penitents. They had also the right to be fully instructed in the deeper doctrines of Chris- 146 CHU tianity, which were sometimes termed mysteries. To show the spirit of the times, we note a few of the canons of the old councils concerning the laity, as we shall also do concerning the clergy. Thus : — In the Apostolical Canons — "9. It is fit that all communicants {-rta-Toi) who come into the holj' church of God and hear the Scrip- tures, but do not stay for prayers and the holy communion, be suspended from communion, as occasioning confusion in the church. 71. If any Christian carry oil to the temples of the heathen, or synagogues of the Jews, or light candles at their feasts, let him be suspended from communion. 73. Let no one purloin to his own use any of the sacred utensils, whether of silver, gold, or linen ; and if any one be taken doing so, let him be punished with suspension from com- munion ; for it is a flagitious thing. 80. It is not to be allowed that any proselyte from heathenism, being baptized, should presently be ordained a bishop ; nor any one (lately reclaimed) from a lewd course of life (for it is unreasonable, that he who has given no proof of himself should be a teacher of others) ; unless it be by Divine grace." In the Nicene Canons — "17. Because many enrolled in the canon, pursuing their own cove- tous desires and filthy lucre, have forgotten the Divine Scripture, which saith, "He hath not lent his money upon usury," as to demand everymonth the hundredth part of the principal ; the hoi}' synod thinks it just, that if any take (such) use, by secret transaction, or otherwise man- age the business, so as to exact the principal, and one-half of the principal for interest, or con- trive any other fraud for filthy lucre's sake, let him be deposed from the clergy, and not belong to the canon." In the Ancyran Canons — "7. As for those who have been guests at the heathen feasts, in a place assigned for heathens, but brought and eat their own victuals (onlj^), it is decreed, that they be received after they have been prostrators two years ; but whether with (or without) the oblation, everj' bishop is to deter- mine, after having examined the rest of his life. 8. Let them who have twice or thrice sacrificed upon force, be prostrators four years, and com- municate without the oblation two j-ears, and the seventh year let them be perfectly received. 9. As to those who have not only lapsed, but have assaulted and forced, or been the occasion of forcing their brethren, let them occupy the place of hearers three years, prostrators six 3-ears ; one year let them communicate without the oblation, that after ten years they may attain perfection in this time; the rest of their lifeniustalso be examined. 19. l.et professed virgins that have been false to their profession be treated as if they were digami. We do forbid maids to live with men, under pretence of living in a sister-like manner. 21. A former canon has forbid lewd women that 147 CIIU have murdered their children, or have used medicines to procure abortion, to be admitted to communion before the point of death, and this (canon) is approved; yet we. using more lenitv, do decree, that they be under penance ten years, according to the terms before prescribed." In the Ncocaisarean Canons — " 2. If a woman marry two brothers (successivelv), let her be excommunicated untilher death, "unless she be willing to forego the marriage; but if, at the point of death, she promise to forego the marriage, in ease she recover, she shall, by indulgence, be admitted to penance : but if the woman, or husband, die in such marriage, the surviving party shall not easily be admitted to penance." In the Gangran Canons — "13. If any woman, under pretence of being an ascetic, instead of the habit belonging to her sex, take that which is proper to the men, let her be anathema. 14. If any woman, abominating marriage, desert her husband, and will be- come a recluse, let her be anathema. 15. If any one, under pretence of religion, abandon his own children, and do not educate them, and, so much as in him lies, train them up to an honest piety, but neglect them, under pretence of being an ascetic, let him be anathema. 16. If any children, under pretence of godliness, depart from their parents, and do not give sitting honour to them, the godliness that is in them plainly being principally regarded, let them be anathema. 17. If any woman, under pretence of godliness, shave her hair, which God gave her to remind her of subjection, as if she would annul the de- cree of subjection, let her be anathema." In the Laodicean Canons — " 28. That love-feasts must not be held in churches, nor meals, and beds (for guests to lie down ui)on), be made in the house of God. 29. That Christians must not Judaize and rest on the Sabbath-day, but work on that very day ; and give the preference to the Lord's day, by resting as Christians, if they can : but if thej' are found to Judaize, let them be anathema from Christ. 30. That neither those of the priesthood, nor of the clergy, nor an ascetic, nor Christian layman, shall wash in the bath together with women ; for this is a principal (occasion of) condennialion amongst the heathen." — See Catechlmlns, Penitents. Church Rate. — Sec Rates, Ciiuitni. Churchwardens (eccksiarum )ju,irdianiy, anciently called Churchreves (reve in Saxon signitying guardians), or kcejicrs of the church, and the legal representatives of the body of the parish. They are clioscn ainnially, and gener- allv by the joint consent of the mini.ster and parishioners, unless custom, on which the right depends, prescribes otiier mode.s, such its the minister ciioosing one and the parishioners an- other, or the parishioners both (there being two for each parish), or the appointment being in a CHU select vestry, or in a particular number of the parishioners, and not in the body at large. When appointed they are sworn into office by the archdeacon or ordinary of the diocese. Canons 89 and 90 decree — " AH churchwardens or quest- men in every parish shall be chosen by the joint consent of the minister and the parishioners, if it may be ; but if they cannot agree upon such a choice, then the minister shall choose one, and the parishioners another; and without such a joint or several choice none shall take upon them to be churchwardens ; neither shall they contiuue any longer than one year in that office, except, perhaps, they be chosen again in like manner. And all churchwardens at the end of their year, or within a month after, at the most, shall, before the minister and the parishioners, give up a just account of such money as they have received, and also what particularly they have bestowed in reparations, and otherwise for the use of the church. And, last of all, going out of their office, they shall truly deliver up to the parishioners whatsoever money or other things of right be- longing to the church or parish, which remaineth in their hands, that it may be delivered over by them to the next churchwardens by bill in- dented. The cliurchwardens or questmen of every parish, and two or three or more discreet persons in every parish, to be chosen for side- men or assistants by the minister and parish- ioners, if they can agree (otherwise to be appointed bj' the ordinary of the diocese), shall diligently see that all the parishioners duly re- sort to their church upon all Sunday and holj'- days, and there continue the whole time of divine service ; and none to walk or to stand the Lord's Supper. They must see that the idle or talking in the church, or in the church- \ commandments are set up at the east end of yard, or in the church porch, during that time. ; the church ; must provide register-books for And all such as shall be found slack or negligent baptisms, marriages, and burials ; sign certifi- in resorting to the church (having no great or i cates of persons having taken the communion; urgent cause of absence), they shall earnestly j and prevent any irreverence or indecency being call upon them ; and after due monition (if they committed in the church ; thej' may refuse to amend not), they shall present them to the or- open the church except to the clergyman, or dinary of the place. The choice of which per- : any one acting under him. The churchyard sons, viz., churchwardens or questmen, side- also is under their care ; and it is their duty to men or assistants, shall be yearly made in Easter prevent any profane or idle use of it. They are CIB to be sued for anything belonging to the church or poor of the parish ; they have a special pro- perty in the organ, bells, parish-books, Bible, chalice, surplice, &c., belonging to the church, of which they have the custody on behalf of the parish. With the consent of the minister, they allot seats to the parishioners, reserving those which belong by prescription to particular houses in the parish. They have also the care of the benefice during its vacancy. As soon as there is any avoidance, it is their duty to apply to the chancellor of the diocese for a sequestra- tion, which beiug granted, they are bound to manage the j^rofits and expenses of the benefice for the next incumbent, plough and sow his glebes, collect the tithes, and keep the house in repair. They must see that the church is pro- perly served by a curate appointed by the bishop, whom the}' are to pay out of the profits of the benefice. They have the summoning the parish- ioners to meet in vestry, to make rates. The kej's of the belfry should be kept by them, to prevent the bells being rung without proper cause. The collecting charity money by briefs is, by the statute 4 Anne, c. 14, a further duty im- posed upon them. Their consent must be ob- tained for burying a person in a different parish from that in which he dies. They are not to allow suicides or excommunicated persons to be buried in the church or churchyard, without license from the bishop. The\' must also take care that the churcli is furnished with a large Bible, a Sook of Common Prayer, a book of homilies, a font, a decent communion table, with the necessary articles for the celebration of week." Peers of the realm, members of parlia- ment, clergymen and dissenting ministers, alder- men, barristers, attorneys, physicians, surgeons, apothecaries, and militiamen whilst on service, are exempted from the office. Persons who have sued a felon to conviction, and the first assignee of the certiticate thereof, which is vulgarly called a Tyburn Ticket, are also exempt from serving in the parish in which the ofi^ence was com- mitted. Dissenters may serve by deputy. No party, though he has lands in the parish, unless he lives there also, is liable to be called on to act as churchwarden. When duly appointed, the person must be sworn, before he executes the office; and should he refuse to take the oath, he is liable to excommunication. Churchwardens are a corporation by custom, are enabled to sue and also bound to observe whether the clergyman performs the various duties imposed on him by law, and whether the parishioners attend church. Every churchwarden is an overseer, as regards the poor ; the parish register is also under their care, conjointh' with the clergyman. At the end of the 3-ear it is their duty to render a full account of their proceedings to the minister and parishioners. Justices of the peace have no jur- isdiction over churchwardens, with respect to their accounts as churchwardens. Churchyard. — See Bokial, Cemetery. Ciborlnui, the canopy with which, in some of the more stately churches, the altar used to be covered. In process of time the pyx took this name. Originally, it is an Egvptian term for the husk of a bean, and thence used by the 148 CIR Greeks for a large cup, broad at the bottom and narrow at the top. — See Altar. Circulliis, the Latin name of the cowl worn by the monks. Circiinicellians, a party of extreme Dona- tists, in the north of Africa, who ivent about, as their name implies, from place to place, on pretext of reforming abuses, manumitting slaves, remitting debts, and, in other forms, tak- ing the law into their own hands. Jlany of fhem committed suicide under a mistaken zeal for martyrdom. — See Donatists. Circuuicision. — See Biblical Cijdojxsdia. Cii'cumcisioii, Feast of, a religious festival in memory of the circumcision of the child Jesus, held on the eighth day after Christmas, or upon the first of January. — See Octave. Cii^tertian lUonksi, an order which origin- ated with St. Robert, abbot of Moleme, a Bene- dictine, in the eleventh centurj'. His first estab- lishment was at Citeaux, from which the title of Cistertian monks is derived. After a time, being ordered by the pope to resume his abbacy at Moleme, he was succeeded at Citeaux bj' Al- beric, who drew up rules for the order. At first their habit was black, but the Virgin Mar}' hav- ing appeared to St. Alberic, and presented him with a white habit, the hint so significantly given was immediately acted upon, by the sub- stitution of a white habit. A festival was ap- pointed to be observed on the 5th August, in commemoration of " the miraculous descent of the ever-blessed Virgin at Citeaux." De Vitry thus describes the rigidness of the order : " They neither wore skins nor skirts, nor ever ate flesh, except in sickness, and they abstained from fish, eggs, milk, and cheese. They lay only upon straw beds, in their tunics and cowls ; they rose at midnight, and sang praises to God till break of day ; they spent the day in labour, reading, and prayer, and in all their exercises they ob- .served a strict and continual silence ; they fasted from the feast of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross till Easter; and the}' exercised hospitality to- wards the poor with extraordinary charity." The Cistertian order so rapidly increased that fifty years after its establishment it had 500 abbeys. Many eminent men sprung from it, not a few of whom were employed by the pope to convert the Albigenses. At one time they possessed almost unlimited control in the temporal as well as spiritual affairs of the kingdoms of Europe, — so numerous and powerful had they become. Citation, or summons to appear, usuall}- ap- plied to a process issued from the spiritual court, which proceeds according to the civil and canon laws, by citation, libel, &c. V>y the statute 23 Henry VIII,, cap. 9, spiritual judges were re- strained from citing persons out of the diocese or jurisdiction in which they dwelt, unless in cer- tain excepted cases, upon pain of double damages and costs against the party so citing. Every arch- bishop, ho^\ Lver, has the power of citing parties CLA dwellinginanybishop's diocese within his province for heresy, if tlie bishop or other ordinarv- consents, or if they do not do their duty in punishing the offence. AVhere persons are cited out ot their diocese, and live out of the jurisdiction of the bishop, a prohibition or consultation may be granted ; but where persons live in the diocese, if, when they are cited, they omit to appear, they are to be excommunicated, &c. Clarendon, ConftiiiuiionH of, certain constitutions made in the reign of Henry 11., A.n. 1164, in a parliament or council held at Clarendon, a village three miles distant from Salisbury. These are as follows: — " 1. When any difference relating to the right of patronage arises between the laity, or between the laity and clergy, the controversy is to be tried and endtd in the king's courts. 2. Those churclies which are fees of the crown cannot be granted away in perpetuity,without the king's consent. 3. Wiien the clergy are charged with any misdemeanour, and summoned by the justiciary, they shall be obliged to make their appearance in this court, and plead to such parts of the indictments as shall be put to them ; and likewise, to answer such articles in the ecclesiastical court as they shall be prose- cuted for by that jurisdiction ; always provided that the king's justiciary shall send an officer to inspect the proceedings of the court Christian. And in case any clerk is convicted or pleads guilty, he is to forfeit the privilege of his charac- ter, and be protected bv the church no longer. 4. No archbishops, bishojis, or parsons are al- lowed to depart the kingdom without a license from the crown ; and, provided they have leave to travel, they shall give security not to act or solicit anything during their passage, stay, or re- turn, to the prejudice of the king or kingdom. 5. When any of the laity are prosecuted in the ecclesiastical courts, the charge ought to be proved before the bishop by legal and reputable witnesses ; and the course of the process is to be so managed that the archdeacon may not lose any pai-t of his right, or the profits accruing to his ofiice ; and if any offenders appear screened from prosecution upon the score either of favour or quality, the sheriff, at tiie bishop's instance, shall order twelve sufficient men of the vicinage to make oath before the bishop, that they will discover the truth according to the best of tiieir knowledge. 6. Excommunicated persons shall not be obliged to make oath, or give security to continue upon the place where they live, but only to abide by the judgment of the Church in order to their absolution. 7. No person that holds in chief of the king or any of his barons, siiall be excommunicated, or any of their estates put under an interdict, before application made to the king, provided lie is in the knigdoin ; and in case his highness is out of England, tlien liio justiciary must be acquainted with the dispute, in order to make satisfaction ; and thus that which belongs to the cognizance of the king's court must be 149 CLA tried there, and that which belongs to the courts Christian must be remitted to that jurisdiction. 8. Ill case of appeals in ecclesiastical causes, the first step is to be made from the archdeacon to the bishop, and from the bishop to the arch- bishop ; and if the archbishop fails to do him jus- tice, a farther recourse may be had to the king, by whose order the controversy is to be finally decided in the archbishop's court. Neither shall it be lawful for either of the parties to move for any farther remedj', without leave from the crown. 9. If a difference happen to rise between any clergyman and layman concerning any tene- ment, and that the clerk pretends it held by frank-almoine, and the layman pleads it a lay- fee, in this case the tenure shall be tried by the inquiry and verdict of twelve sufficient men of the neighbourhood, summoned according to the custom of the realm; and if the tenement, or thing in controversy, shall be found frank- almoine, the dispute concerning it shall be tried in the ecclesiastical court ; but if it is brought in a lay-fee, the suit shall be followed in the king's courts, unless both the plaintiff and defendant hold the tenement in question of the same bishop ; in which case the cause shall be tried in the court of such bishop or baron, with this farther proviso, that he who is seized of the thing in controversy shall not be disseized pend- ing the suit, upon the score of the verdict above mentioned. 10. He who holds of the king in any city, castle, or borough, or resides upon any of the demesne lands of the crown, in case he is cited by the archdeacon or bishop to answer to any misbehaviour belonging to their cognizance ; if he refuses to obey their summons, and stand to the sentence of the court, it shall be lawful for the ordinary to put him under an interdict, but not to excommunicate him till the king's princi- pal officer of the town sliall be pre-acquainted with the case, in order to enjoin him to make satisfaction to the church. And if such officer or magistrate shall fail in his dut}', he shall be fined by the king's judges. And then the bishop may exert his discipline on the refractory person as he thinks fit. 11. All archbishops, bishops, and other ecclesiastical persons, who hold of the king in chief, and the tenure of a barony, are, for that reason, obliged to appear before the king's justices and ministers, to answer the duties of their tenure, and to observe all the usages and customs of the realm ; and, like other barons, are bound to be present at trials in the king's court, till sentence is to be pronounced for the losing of life or limbs. 12. When any arch- bishopric, bishopric, abbey, or priory of royal foundation, become vacant, the king is to make seizure ; from which time all the profits and issues are to be paid into the exchequer, as if they were the demesne lands of the crown. And when it is determined the vacancy shall be filled up, the king is to summon the most considerable persons of the chapter to the court, and the CLA election is to be made in the chapel roj'al, with the consent of our sovereign lord the king, and by the advice of such persons of the government as his highness shall think fit to make use of. At which time the person elected, before his con- secration, shall be obliged to do homage and fealty to ttie king, as his liege lord ; which homage shall be performed in the usual form, with a clause for the saving the privilege of his order. 13. If any of the temporal barons, or great men, shall encroach upon the rights of property of any archbishop, bishop, or arch- deacon, and refuse to make satisfaction for the wrong done by themselves or their tenants, the king shall do justice to the party aggrieved. And if any person shall disseize the king of any part of his lands, or trespass upon his preroga- tive, the archbishops, bishops, and archdeacons shall call him to an account, and oblige him to make the crown restitution. 14. The goods and chattels of those who lie under forfeitures of felony or treason are not to be detained in any church or churchyard, to secure them against seizure and justice ; because such goods are the king's property, whether they are lodged within the prechicts of a church or without it. 15. All actions and pleas of debt, though never so solemn in the circumstances of the contract, shall be tried in the king's court. 16. Sons of copy- holders are not to be ordained without the consent of the lord of the manor where they were bom. Clareniues. — See Franciscans. Clarisses, an order of nuns founded by St. Clara in the year 1212, according to the rule of St, Francis. They are forbidden to have any posses- sions, and silence for the greater part of each day is enjoined upon them, and their habit consists of three tunics and a mantle. The pious reput- ation of St. Clara soon led to the establish- ment of several convents, her followers becoming so numerous. After her death they rapidly in- creased in Italy, Spain, and France; and at the present day the Clarisses form one of the most flourishing orders in Europe. St. Clara was of the town Assisi in Italy. Classia (xXSir/?, a meeting called together), the name given in some parts of the Continent, as in Holland and Switzerland, to a presbytery. The Presbyterians also in the north-east of Eng- land were said to belong to the Northumberland class. Hence, too, some writers on church go- vernment speak of a congregational presbytery or a session, and of a classical presbytery, properly so called. The Puritan churches in New Eng- land were originally founded on the plan of con- gregational presbytery — a plan advocated by Dr. Owen, classical presbytery being condemned by him. — See Presbytery, Independency. Class Meetings. — Every one of the Methodist societies (j. e., churches or congregations) con- sists of a number of smaller bodies denominated " classes." These classes meet at convenient places and hours, generally weekly, under the 150 CLA. guidance of a " leader," for the purpose of mutu- ally aiding each other in their religious progress, by narrating their "experience" of God's good- ness to them during the previous week. At these meetings each one speaks aloud the thoughts and feelings of the heart, and receives from the leader such encouragement, advice, exhortation, warning, or reproof, as the nature of his or her particular case requires. It is evident that to answer satisfactorily, and with good effect, the doubts, temptations, perplexities, shortcomings and errors which form the sum of the " experi- ence " of any single class, it is necessary that the leader should be a man of consummate skill — a casuist in his way — and a man thoroughly ac- quainted with the promises, doctrines, and pre- cepts of the New Testament. He should indeed be a man of piety, wisdom, prudence, fidelity, purit}', and possessing true natural goodness of heart. As leaders cannot be dispensed with in the working of the Methodist societies, and as it is not possible always, especially in new locali- ties, to obtain competent men for this office, the task of meeting several classes during the week not unfrequentlj' falls upon the preacher, — thus adding materially to the responsible duties of his " station." The origin of these meetings is thus given by the eminent man whose name the society bears : " In the latter end of the j-ear 1739 eight or ten persons came to me in London, who appeared to be deeply convinced of sin, and earnestly groaning for redemption. They desired that I would spend some time with them in praj-er, and advise them how to flee from the wrath to come, which they saw continually hang- ing over their heads. That we might have more time for this great work, I appointed a day when tliey might all come together ; which from thence- forward they did every week, namelj', on Thurs- day, in the evening. To them, and as manj' more as desired to join with them, I gave those advices from time to time which I judged most needful for them ; and we always concluded our meetings with prayer suited to their several necessities. This was the rise of the united society, first in London, and then in other places. Such a society is no other than a company of men having the form and seeking the power of godliness — united in order to pray together, to receive the word of exhortation, and to watch over one another in love, that they may help each other to work out their salvation." Mr. Wesley adds — "Each society is divided into smaller companies called classes, according to their respective places of abode. There are about twelve persons in ever^' class, one of whom is styled the leader. There is only one condition previously required of those who desire admission into these societies, namely, a desire to flee from the wrath to come, to be saved from their sins." " It was bj' this means," says Dr. Adam Clarke, "that we have been enabled to establish permanent and holy churches over the CLE world. BIr. Wesley saw the necessity of this from the beginning. Mr. Whitefield, when lie separated from Mr. Wesley, did not follow it. What was the consequence ? The fruit of Mr. Whitefield's labour died with himself: Mr. Wesley's fruit remains, crows, increases, and multiplies exceedingly." In support of the above ^ observation the following anecdote is recorded : ^ Mr. Whitefield having met, after a considerable interval, a Wesleyan named Mr. John Pool, with whom he had been acquainted, accosted him thus: "Well, John, art thou still a Wes- leyan?" Pool: "Yes, sir; and I thank God that I have the privilege of being in connection with him, and oneof his preachers." W/iikJidd: '-John, thou art in thy right place. My brother Wesley acted wisely. The souls that were awakened under his ministry he joined in class, and thus preserved the fruits of his labour. This I neglected, and my people are a rope of sand" (see Wesleij's Life, Centenary of Weslti/an Methodism). The Baptist missionaries in Jamaica, Antigua, and other of the West India Islands, have been compelled to adopt this plan, owing to the very large numbers of half-instructed pro- fessors (blacks) which their congregations neces- sarily included; and the utter impossibility of the missionaries being able to meet the reli;,'iou3 requirements of all who wait upon their ministry. — See Leader. Clemeiitines. — 1. A collection of nineteen homilies of a Judaizing tendency, falsely attri- buted to Clement of Rome. They were probably written late in the second century; and, as Neander thinks, by one of the Ebionites; or, as Gieseler has conjectured, by a philosophi- cally educated Christian of Rome, who, in the course of his researches, discovered among the Elcesaites the speculative creed which is em- bodied in these homilies (//ts<., § 58). He sup- poses the RecotjnUions to be the work of an Alex- andrian. 2. The Constitutions of Pope Clement F., published by his successor, John XXII., ia 1317. — See Decretals. Clerestory (clear story), that part of a church which is built on the naves of the arches, and rises clear over the roofs of the aisles. Clergy, a name comprehending the entire body of teachers in the Christian Clmrch. The apostles and their imme3 CLE bishop, presbyter, or deacon, turn away his wife, under pretence of religion; if he do, let him be suspended from the communion {atfo^iZ'ur^iu), and deposed (Ka^ai^tia^cS), if he persist. 6. Let not a bishop, presbyter, or deacon, undertake any secular employ, upon pain of deposition. 17. He who after his being baptized has been involved in t\v'o marriages, or has kept a concubine, cannot be a bishop, or a presbyter, or a deacon, or at all belong to the sacerdotal catalogue. 18. lie that marries a widow, or one that is divorced, or a harlot, or a servant, or an actress, cannot be a bishop, or a presbyter, or a deacon, or at all be- long to the sacerdotal catalogue. 19 He that marries two sisters, or his niece, cannot be a clergyman. 20. Let the clergj-man who gives securit}' for any one be deposed. 2G. Of those who enter bachelors into the clergy, we order that readers and singers only do marry after- wards, if the}' so please. 29. If any bishop, presbyter, or deacon, obtained his dignity by money, let him, and he who ordained him, be deposed, and wholly cut off from communion, as Simon Magus was by Peter. 42. Let the bishop, presbyter, or deacon, who spends his time in dice and drinking, either desist, or be deposed ; 43. The sub-deacon, reader, singer, or layman, be suspended from communion. 44. Let the bishop, presbyter, or deacon, who demands usury of those to whom he lends, desist, or be deposed. 51. If any bishop, presbyter, deacon, or any of the sacerdotal catalogue, do abstain from marriage, and flesh, and wine, not for mortifica- tion, but out of abhorrence, as having forgotten that all things are very good, and that God made man male and female, and blasphemously re- proaching the workmanship of God, let him amend, or else be deposed, and cast out of the church ; and so also shall a layman. 64. If a clergyman betaken eating in a victualling-house, except in a journey, out of necessity, let him be suspended from comnmnion. 70. If any bishop, or other clergyman, fast or feast with the Jews, or accept any doles or presents of unleavened bread, or the like, from their feasts, let him be deposed ; and if a layman, suspended from com- munion." In the Canons of Nice — " 20. Because there are some who kneel on the Lords Day, and even in the days of Pentecost, that all things may be uniformly performed in every parish, it seems good to the holy synod that prayers be offered to God standing." In the Canons of Neocsesarea — " 1. If a pres- byter marry, let him be removed from his order : if he commit fornication or adultery, let him be ejected, and brought under penance. 7 Let not a presbyter be present at a feast made on occasion of a second marriage : for, since he who marries a second time ought to do penance, what a pres- byter is he who consents to such a marriage, by being entertained at the feast !" In the Canons of Laodicea— " 54. That they of CLE the priesthood and clergy ought not to gnze on fine shows at weddings or other feasts ; but bef re the masquerades enter, to rise up and retreat. 55. That they of the priesthood and clergy, or even laity, ought not to club together for great eating and drinking bouts." In the Canons of Chalcedon — " 14. Because in some provinces it is allowed to readers and singers to marry, the holy synod has decreed that it is not lawful for any of them to take heterodox wives ; and that they who have had children by such wives, bring them over to the communion of the church, if they have before this been baptized by heretics ; if they have not been baptized, that they do not permit them to be baptized by heretics hereafter; nor marry them to heretic, Jew, or Gentile, unless the heretic person who is to be married to the orthodox promise to come over to the Catholic Church. If any one transgress this decree of the holy synod, let him be laid under canonical censures." The duties of the various ranks of the clergv were strictly defined, and firm laws laid down for their guidance. They were not allowed to leave their station without permission, but were to re- side in their cure, deserters being condemned by a law of Justinian to forfeit their estates ; but they could resign in certain circumstances, and a retir- ing or canonical pension was sometimes granted. They could not remove from one diocese to another without letters dimissory, nor could they possess pluralities, or hold office in two dioceses. It was forbidden them to engage in secular employments, or attend fairs and markets, nor could they be- come pleaders in courts of law. Thej' were ex- pected to lead a studious life, their principal book being the Scriptures, while heathen and heretical treatises were only allowed them as occa- sion served. Bishops could not be " tutors and governors," but the inferior clergy might, under certain limitations. After the example of Paul, some of the lower clergy might support them- selves, or fill up their leisure by some secular occupation. Severe laws were passed against what are called wandering clergy— vacanHvi, who appear to have been often fugitives from discipline, without character or certificate. If a clergyman died without heirs, his estates fell to the church, so the council of Agde in 500 ruled. By a law of Theodosius and Valentinian III., the goods of any of the clergy dying intestate went in the same way. For the maintenance of the clergy, see Revenues ; see also Election, Ordination. In England, the term clei'us or clergy compre- hends all persons in holy orders, and in ecclesiasti- cal offices ; archbishops, bishops, deans and chap- ters, archdeacons, rural deans, parsons (who are either rectors or vicars), and curates ; to which may be added, parish clerks, who used frequently to be, and even some few now are in holy orders. The clergy were formerly divided into regular and secular. Regular were those that lived under 154 CLE certain rules, belonging to some religious order — such as abbots, priors, monks. The secular were those, who, on the contrary, did not live under such rules — as bishops, deans, and ])arsons. The privileges which the clergy enjoyed under our ancient municipal laws were numerous; but being mueli abused by the popish clergy, they were greatly curtailed at the Reformation. Those which now remain are personal, such as clergy- men not being compelled to serve on juries, or to appear at the sheriff's, or consequently at the court-leet, or view of frankpledge. Clergymen are exempt also from temporal offices, in regard to their continual attendance on their sacred functions. Whilst attending divine service they are privileged from arrest in civil suit, stat. 50 Edward III., ch. v., and 1 Kichard II., ch. xv. It has been adjudged that this extends to the going to, continuing at, and returning from cele- brating divine service. The ecclesiastical goods of a clergj-raan cannot be levied by the sheriff; but on his making his return to the writ oi fieri facias, that the party is a clergyman heneficed, having no lay-fee, then the subsequent process must be directed to the bishop of the diocese, who, by virtue thereof, sequesters the same. So in an action against a person in holy orders, •wherein a capias lies to take his person, on the sheriff's making the same return, further process must issue to the bishop, to compel him to appear: it is otherwise, however, unless the clergyman is beneficed. In cases of felony, benefit of clergy is extended to them without being branded, and they are entitled to it more than once. Clergy- raea labour also under certain disabilities, such as not being capable of sitting as members in the House of Commons. This, however, though a received opinion, was not restricted by law till so late as the 41 George III., chap. Ixiii., which was passed in consequence of John Home Tooke, then in deacon's orders, being returned, and sit- ting in parliament for Old Sarum. It was then enacted, that no priest, nor deacon, nor minister of the Scotch Church, shall be capable of serving in parliament; that their election shall be void, and themselves liable to a penalty of £500 a-daj-, in the event of their either sitting or voting. It would seem, therefore, as in the case of the Bishop of Exeter against Shore, that no one can denude hir.iself of holy orders. Various acts of parlia- ment have also, from the time of Henry VIII., been passed to prevent clergymen from engaging in trade, holding farms, keeping tan or brew houses, all of which are stated, explained, and consolidated by the 57 George III., ch. xcix. Clergy, Benefit of, an ancient privilege of the Church, whereby the persons of clergymen were exempted from criminal process before the secular judges in particular cases; and conse- crated places were exempted from criminal arrests, whence proceeded sanctuaries. This originally sprang from the regard wliich Christian princes paid to the Church in its infant state ; but as the CLE clergy increased in power, that which was granted as a favour was afterwards claimed as an inherent r'l^hi, jure divino; and the clergy endea- voured to extend the exemption not only to al- most all crimes, but also to laymen. In England this privilege, though allowed in some capital cases, was not universally admitted. Tlie method of granting it was settled in the reign of Henry VI., which required that the prisoner should lie first arraigned, and then either claim bis benefit of clergy, by way of declinatory plea, or after conviction in arrest of judgment ; this latter way is most usually practised. This privilege was originally confined to those who had the hahitum et tonsurani clmcalem, but in time every one was accounted a clerk who could read ; so that after the dissemination of learning by the invention of printing, it was found that as many laymen as divines were admitted to this privilege, and there- fore the Stat. 4 Henry VII., ch. xiii., distinguishes between lay scholars and clerks in holy orders, and directs that the former should not claim his privilege more then once ; and in order to their being afterwards known, they should be marked with a letter, according to their offence, on the brawn of the left thumb. This distinction was abolished for a time by 28 Henry VIII., ch. i., and 32 Henry VIII., ch. iii., but was held to have been virtually restored by 1 Edward VI., ch. xii. ; in consequence of which statute, peers of the realm, lords of parliament, having place and voice in parliament, were entitled to the benefit of their peerage, equivalent to that of clergy, for the first offence, though they could not read, and for all offences then clergyable to commoners; and also for the crimes of house- breaking, highway robbery, horse-stealing, and robbing churches. After this burning, the laity, and before it, the real clergy were discharged from the sentence of the law in the king's court, and delivered over to the ordinary fV>r canonical purgation. This purgation having given rise to various abuses and prostitution of oaths, was abolished at the Keformation ; and accordingly by the stat. 18 Elizabeth, ch. vii., it was enacted that every person having benefit of clergy should not be delivered over to the ordinary, but after burning in the hand, should be delivered out of prison, unless the judge thought it expedient to detain him there for a limited period. Further alterations were made in the law respecting this privilege by 21 James I., ch. vi., which enacted that women convicted of larcenies under the value of ten shillings, shiuld not sulier death; but as in a like case a man had his clergy, so tbcy should be burned in the hand, or otherwi.-u punished as the judge should think fit. This was again altered by the 3 and 4 William and Mary, ch. ix., which gave the benefit of clergy to women in all cases where men were entitled to it. By the 10 and 11 William III., ch. xxiii., burning in tlie left check near the nose was substituted for burning in the hand. By I 155 CLE the 5 Anne, ch. vi., this more cruel mode of punishment was repealed, and burning in the band was again introduced; and the test of read- ing as a clerk was also abolished, the benefit of clergy being extended to such cases of felony as were allowed it, without the party being required to read. The 4 George I., ch. si., and 6 George I., xxiii., allowed the court to substitute trans- portation for burning in the hand, which has been the mode of punishment subsequently adopted for clergyable ofiences. It will be collected from the above statement, that the parties entitled to this privilege are clerks in holy orders, without branding, or anj^ of the punishments subsequently introduced in its place ; lords of parliament, peers and peeresses for the first offence; commoners not in orders, whether male or female, for clergyable felonies, upon being burnt in the hand, whipped, fined, imprisoned, or transported. It is a privilege peculiar to the clergy that sentence of death cannot be passed upon them, for any number of clergyable offences committed by them. A lay- man, however, even if he is a peer, may be ousted of clergy, and will be subject to the judgment of death upon a second conviction of a clergyable offence. Although by benefit of clergy a party saves his life justly forfeited, still the consequences are such that they affect his present interest and future credit ; as, having been once a felon, though cleared from that guilt by benefit of clergy, which acts as a species of statute-pardon, still, by his conviction, his goods become forfeited to the king, nor shall they be restored to the offender; that after conviction, and until he receives judgment or pardon by the king, he is a felon, and subject to all the dis- abilities attaching to a felon ; that after punish- ment or pardon, he is discharged of all felonies before committed, which are clergyable, but not those to which the benefit does not extend : this by Stat. 8 Elizabeth, ch. iv., and 18 Elizabeth, ch. vii. ; and that after suffering the punishment adjudged, or being pardoned, he is restored to all capacities, and credits, and possession of his lands, as if he had never been convicted. (Black. Comm., vol. iv., p. 374.) Clergy, with various epithets. Bhclc, a com- mon name of the regular clergy of the Greek Cluirch in Eussia, out of which the higher clerical dignitaries are chosen. Regular, those belonging to the monastic orders. Secular, those who do the work of parish priests, and belong to no special order. White, the secu- lar clergy of the Russian Greek Church, consist- ing of priests, deacons, readers, and sacristans. They are called pritories Qr^uroi^us). — See ACEPIIALI. Clerk {clericus, any person who could read). Kow the term clergy has supplanted it. Parish clerk is one who reads the responses in Episco- palian churches, and assists generally in the service. Prior to the Eeformalion such clerks CLU belonged to the order of clergy. The parish clerk, b)' canon 91, is chosen by the minister, and is formally licensed. By a recent statute, Vict. 788, cap. 59, persons in holy orders may hold the office. Clerics apostolical — see Jes- DATES. Clerks of St. Paul — see Barnabites. Clerks Theatine — see Theatine. Clerks of St. Majoli — a religious order of the sixteenth cen- tuiy in Italy, founded by Jerome iEmilianus, and approved by Paul IV. They gave them- selves to the religious instruction of the young and the ignorant. Clerics regulai a name given to various zealous and reforming bodies or orders which sprung up in the Church of Rome during the panic caused by the Reforma- tion. Clerks minor — see Frakciscans. Clermout Manuscript {Codex Claromon- tanus), usually marked D., is a copy of the epistles of Paul written on quarto vellum, in uncial characters, and having Greek and Latin in parallel columns. It has no marks of inter- punction, but is written stichometncally, with twenty-one lines on each page. Accents and spirits have been added by correctors. It is sup- posed to have been written in the sixth century, but the place cannot well be ascertained. It is now in the Royal Library at Paris, No. 107. Beza says that it belonged to the monaster}' of Cler- mont hence its name. It was used by him first and it has been published by Tischendorf (Leipzig, 1852), with a very useful preface and appendix. Clinics (clinici'), persons baptized in sicknes.s, or under some urgent necessity, and who were therefore held to be disqualified for ordination to the Christian ministry. Cloister. — The cloisters appear in the primi- tive churches to have been porticoes, or s-raa/ running round the aiS^toi (Euseb., x., 1 2), or auXri (Paulus Silent., Par. L, 174), the court which stood between the great outer porch {jr^o'xvXov fiiya, "TT^uTn iia-olo;) and the body of the church. These cloisters were raised on columns, and there- fore the court was sometimes called tit^x^tvX/iv, and qnadrii)orticus. In these stood the first class of penitents, who were not allowed to proceed farther, in order to beg the prayers of the faithful as they entered the church (Bingham, Or. Ecc, viii., 3, 5). They were used also as burial- places (id., 8). Cluuiac JMouks, an order of monks founded in the year 910 in the town of Clugni (or Cluni), on the river Garonne, in France. They follow the rule of St. Benedict in its most rigid characteristics, and at one time were cele- brated throughout Europe for their uncommon sanctity. They sing two masses daily, observe silence, and recite psalms while at work. They sustain the character of being very charitable. So cautious are they in the manufacture of their eucharistic bread, lest " accidents " should defile it, they select the wheat, grain by grain, then wash it well, and also the grmdstones by which it 156 COA is to be ground : the stones are, moreover, covered with curtains during the time they are engaged in the service of the monks. The far-famed piety of these religionists, male and female, origi- nated in most of the countries of Europe a very general desire that the order should be extended to them ; accordingly we find both the fraternity and sisterhood of Cluniacs spreading with great rapidity, not only throughout France, but in Spain, Italy, Germany, and England. The number of Cluniac monasteries in England was thirty-eight. Coadjutor, in the Romish Church, is a bishop joined to another to assist him in his episcopal functions, and in some instances to succeed him. The well-known Cardinal de Retz was coadjutor to his uncle, the Archbishop of Paris. The right of appointment is in the pope. Creth opportunity, is to be extended unto all those who in every place call upon the name of the Lord Jesus. This communion which the saints have with Christ doth not make them in any- wise partakers of the substance of his Godhead, or to be equal with Christ in an}^ respect : either of which to affirm is impious and blasphemous. Communion Service. — See Eucharist. —Fault has been often found with the communion service of the Scotch Episcopal Church, that it too nearly approximates to the doctrine of the mass. Thus the prayer is — " Wherefore, 0 Lord and heavenly Father, ac- cording to the institution of thy dearly-beloved Son our Saviour Jesus Christ, we thy humble servants do celebrate and make liere before thy divine Majesty, with these thy holy gifts, which we now offer unto thee, the memorial thy Son hath commanded us to make : having in remem- 160 COM brance his blessed passion and precious death, his might}' resurrection and glorious ascension ; rendering unto thee most hearty thanks for the innumerable benefits procured unto us by the same. And we most humbly beseech thee, 0 merciful Father, to hear us, and of thy almighty goodness, vouchsafe to bless and sanctify with thy Word and Holy Spirit, these thy gifts and creatures of bread and wine, that they may be- come the body and blood of thy most dearly- beloved Son." Tractarians attach a meaning to the English service which many of their brethren repudiate, and the dispute has been before vari- ous ecclesiastical courts. — See Euchakist. Commuuion of the Sick, a form which made no small noise in Scotland in days gone by, and was allowed by one of the five articles of Perth, which ran as follows: — "If any good Christian, visited with long sickness, and knowne to tlie pastor, by reason of his present infirmity, unable to resort to the kirke, for receiving of the holy communion, or being sick, shall declare to the pastor upon his conscience, that he thinkes his sickness to be deadl}-, and shall earnestly desire to receive the same in his house : The minister sliall not deny to him so great a com- fort, lawful warning being given to him upon the night before, and that there be three or foure of good religion and conversation, free of lawful impediments, present with the sick person to communicate with him, who must also provide a convenient place in his houses and all things necessary for the reverend administration thereof, according to the order prescrived in the kirke." Ic is still practised in Germany, and is authorized by the Church of England. Commuuion Tabic. — See Altar, Takle C'ouimuiatiou of Penance. — See Pe.s- ANCE. Conipatres-conimatres, Latin terms in the Church for godfathers and godmothers. Compassivity, a low Latin term, to denote the mental process by which a devotee, on be- holding in a vision the suflering Saviour, so fuels, and so sympathizes, that he acquires a spiritual conformity. Competences, a class of catechumens can- didates for baptism. According to the Apostolical Constitutions, lit. viii., c. 7, 8, a special form of I>rayer was offered for them. " Those who are about to be dedicated to God through Christ shall here bow themselves, and receive the bless- ing of the bishop in the words which follow : — 0 thou, who by thy holy prophets hath said to those who are about to be dedicated to thee, ' Wash you, make you clean,' and who hast appointed a spiritual regeneration through Christ, look now, we beseech thee, upon these persons soon to be baptized; bless them, and sanctify them, and make them worthy to partake of tin- spiritual gifts, the true adoption, thy spiritual mysteries, and to be received into the boily of thy redeemed, through Christ our Saviour ; through CON whom be unto thee all glory, honour, and wor- ship, in the Holy Spirit, forever. Amen. Then shall the deacon say, — Depart, ye candidates for baptism." — Const. Apost., lib. viii.,c. 7, Si. Compline or C'ompleloriuin, tiie hour of prayer tliat formed the lost service of the day. — See Bricviauv. Compluteusiau Poij-glot. — See Dible, p. 97. ComprebenMion, the name of a scheme pro- posed more than once in England for the admission of dissenters into the church. Bridg- man and Sir Matthew Hale attempted it, and failed. Tillotson and Stillingfleet tried in 1074, but the bishops would not yield. After the revolution Nottingham was friendly to such a sclieme, and the Act of Toleration was the final result. It is also sometimes employed to denote the Act of 1G92, by which many of the Episco- palian clergy were admitted into the Church of Scotland at the Revolution. Conception, Feast of. — A festival is cele- brated in the Romisli Church on the 8th of December, in honour of the immaculate concep- tion of the Virgin JIary, or, as she is styled, Viryo JJe.ipara sine lale concepla. Speculum sine macula See Calendar, Dec. 8. On the precise time of its introduction, it is impos- sible to pronounce with certainty. St. Bernard in the twelfth century condemned the celebration of this festival, in opposition to the canons of Lyons (Bern., Ep., 174); and it afterwards became a siilyect of vehement controversy be- tween the Scotists and the Thoraists. The Virgin is said to have exercised miraculous powers in behalf of Duns Scotus, who defended her claim. But the Dominicans continued to be as obdurate as ever in their denial. Sixtus IV., himself a Franciscan, allowed toleration on tlie point ; and his Constitutions were referred to in the fifth session of the council of Trent, at which also it was resolved that tlie doctrine of the conception of all men in original sin was not intended to include the Virgin. The contro- versy was revived in the university of Paris towards the close of the sixteenth century. The Bishop of Paris supported Maldonat, a Jesuit, who denied the doctrine, and Gregory XIII. confirmed the sanction of the bisliop. Afterwards, during the pajiacies of Paul V. and Gregory XV.. such was the dis^eu.Moii in Spain, that both Piiilip HI. and his successor sent special embassies to Pome, in tiie vain hope that the contest miglit I'C terminated by a bull. The pontiff" held the scales witli no little nicety. He intimated that theoj.inion of tlie Fran.iM.aas had a high degree of probability, and forbade the Dominicans from o|)posiug it ; but at iho same time he prohibited the Franciscans, in turn, from treating the Dominican position as erroneous. The dispute continued to run so high in Spdin that in the militarv orders of St. James, of the Sword, of Calatrava, and of Alcantara, the ICi ^ CON knights on their admission vowed to maintain the doctrine ; and early in the beginning of the seventeenth centurj' meilals were struck with a legend on one side, Alabado sia el Santissimo Sacramento, and on the other a hieroglyphic of the conception, with the words Concepta sine peccato originali, encircled by the cord of the Franciscan order. In 1708 Clement XI. ap- pointed a festival to be celebrated throughout the Romish Church in honour of the immaculate conception. Since that time the immaculate conception has been received as an opinion by most Romish theologians ; but now, in the ponti- ficate of Pius IX., it has been formally announced as an article of faith. The belief is held by the Greek Church also, which celebrates the feast imder the title of the Conception of St. Anne (Si/XX'/j'v/'is). Those who wish to exhaust this subject may consult the more than forty folio volumes which Potrus de Alva et Astorga has published concerning it. Conception of our Uady, Nuns of the Order of, a religious order founded in the year 1484 by Beatrix, sister of James, first Count of Poralegro, in Portugal. The order was confirmed by the pope (Innocent VIII.) in the j-ear 1489 ; and in the following year Beatrix died, being sixty-six years of age. The circumstances which led to the establishment of this order are thus narrated : — The King of Castile married Eliza- beth, daughter of Edward, King of Portugal On removing from Portugal to the court of her husband she took Beatrix with her; but the king fell in love with Beatrix, because of her exquisite beauty. Elizabeth, growing jealous of Beatrix, had her locked in a room, where she was left three days without food. Here Beatrix supplicated the Virgin's aid, and in reply to her prayers the Virgin herself appeared, and promised her a speedj' release. The pro- mise was verified ; but Beatrix concluded that it would be quite unsafe to remain any longer •within the precincts of the court. Accordingly she quitted it privately, and withdrew to Toledo, where was a monastery of Dominican nuns, ■which she joined. For forty years she con- tinued to practise the austerities of this order ; at the end of which period the Virgin again appeared to her, and instructed her to found an order, to be dedicated to her own Immaculate Conception. Beatrix obeyed, by taking with her twelve young ladies, nuns of the monastery with which she was connected, and formed a community in the palace of Galliana, which had been granted her by the queen. After the death of Beatrix, Car- dinal Ximenes gave the nuns of the Conception the rule of St. Clara, and placed them under the direction of the Franciscans, because of their zealous advocacy of the " Immaculate Concep- tion." They wear a white gown and blue mantle, and a scapulary, to which there is attached a figure of the Virgin. Their devo- tiunal otfice is that of the Franciscans, to which CON a lesser office for Sundays and holidays has been added, entitled " the OflSce of the Conception of the Holy Virgin." Concha or Conchnla Bematis, another name for the apsis. — See Abata, Apsis, Bema. Conclave, the private room in which the cardinals assemble for the purpose of electing a pope ; also the assembly itself. The conclave for the election of a pope is opened on the eleventh day after the decease of the last pontiff. On that morning the cardinals assemble in St. Peter's, and after hearing the mass of Spiritus Sancti, and a sermon on the duties to be observed in the election, they proceed by pairs to the Vatican. " Here," saj's Hej'lyn, " are, amongst other buildings, five halls, two chapels, and a gallery seventy foot long: the gallery is appointed for conference, one chapel for the mass and for the election, the other, with the halls, are for the cardinals' lodgings. Everj^ hall hath two rows of chambers, which are, purposely for the time, made of green or violet cloth. To each cardinal is allowed four servants to lie in his chamber. The}', that are once within are compelled, unless they be sick, still to continue there ; and such as are once out, are no more permitted to go in, lest by that means the cardinals should maintain intelligence with any foreign princes. To this conclave (for by this name the place of the elec- tion is called) is but one door, to wiiich belong- eth four locks, and as many keys : one key is in the keeping of the cardinals, one of the city bishops, one of the Roman nobilitj-, and one of the master of the ceremonies. There is in this door a wicket or hatch, Avhich is opened only at dinners and suppers, whereof the master of the ceremonies keepeth the key. At this hole the cardinals' servants receive their meat, every dish being first diligently searched, lest any letters should be conveyed in them. As for the lodg- ings, they have neither holes nor windows to give light, so that there they make day of. wax candles. And lest the pope should be made by force, both the city and conclave are strongly guarded. When the cardinals are going to elec- I tion, the privileges of the cardinals are recited, ! which every one sweareth to observe, in case he be chosen pope. Then the master of the cere- monies, ringing a bell, calleth them to mass : which ended, there is brought to every cardinal a chair, and therein a scroll of all the cardinals' names. Before the altar itself is set a table, covered with a purple cloth, whereupon is set a chalice and a silver bell, and about it six stools, on which sit two cardinal-bishops, two cardinal- priests, and two cardinal-deacons. Every car- dinal writeth his voice in a piece of paper, goeth to the altar, prayeth God to guide him in the election, putteth his voice into the chalice, and departeth to his seat. The first bishop taketh out all the papers, and delivereth them to the first deacon, who unfolJeth each of them, read- eth (without mentioning the name of the elector) 162 CON tlie name of the elected; and every cardinal, in his particular scroll, noteth how many voices every one hath. The account being made, the first priest having the like scroll, pronounceth who has the most voices : which done, the priest ringeth a silver bell, at which call the master of the ceremonies bringeth in a pan of coals, and burneth all the little papers, wherein the names of the elected were written. He that hath the most voices (so that his voices exceed the proportion of two parts of three) is acknowledged pope, and adored by the rest of the cardinals ; but if they exceed not this number, they must begin all anew. If in the space of thirty days the election be not fully ended, then must the cardi- nals be kept from fire, light, and victuals, till they are fully agreed" (Cosmographia, p. 112). It may be added, that if the election does not take place in the manner stated above, by sc?'m- tinium, recourse is had to another called accessus, in wliich each cardinal goes [accedil) to him whom he chooses, and salutes him by a bow. In this also it is required that two-thirds should be agreed, and it must afterwards, for form's sake, be confirmed by scrutiny. The third mode is inspiratio, by virtue of which, if several of the electors are agreed, coming out of their cells, they call out to each other the name of their favourite candidate, and thus sometimes suc- ceed in obtaining the suffrages of the remainder. Although the ecclesiastical constitutions permit the cardinals to choose the place of election, convenience has set apart the Vatican. On the death of Pius VI., in October, 1799, the college of cardinals, then only thirty- four in number, while Rome was in the occupation of the French, assembled under the protection of the Emperor of Germany at Venice, in the little isle occupied by the monastery of St. George: their deliberations continued till March, 1800. A candidate for the popedom must have attained his fifty- fifth year ; and the Emperor of Austria, the Kings of France and Spain are allowed a veto, provided their protest is offered before the decla- ration of votes in favourof any individual. (Gre- gorio Leti Vita di Sesto V., lib. v. ; Condavl des Pontefici Romani, a History of the Papal Elec- tions from that of Clement V. in 1305, to that of Alexander VII. in 1055.) — See Cardinal. Concord. — See Form op Concord. Concordance, the first author of concor- dances to the Scriptures was Cardinal Hugo de Sancto Caro (or, according to his French name, Hugues de Saint Cher), who flourished about the middle of the twelfth century, and to whom we are indebted for the invention of chapters (see Bible, p. 71). In the compilation of his concor- dance, which, as being the earliest work of the kind, must have demanded unwearied patience and indefatigable diligence, he is said to have employed five hundred monks in selecting and arranging in alphabetical order all the declinable words of the Old and New Testaments, accord- COTT ing to the Latin Vulgate version. The work probably was at first much less voluminous than at present, and lias increa.sed in size by fruijucnt revisions and improvements. This concordance appeared under the name iJe Sancto Jacoho, or the Concordance of St. James, probably from the circumstance of Hugo having resided for a considerable time in the convent of St. James at Paris, where he delivered lectures on the Holy Scriptures. John of Darlington and Richard of Stavensby, assisted by other Engli-hmen, made considerable additions to the original work, which was afterwards considerably improved by Conrad of Halberstadt, who fiourished a.i). 1290. It was still further enlarged and im- proved in the fifteenth century, about the time of the council of Basle, by John de Ragusia, who added all the indeclinable words ; and at length it received its present form from John of Segovia, and John Schott. From the Latin concordance of Cardinal Hugo are derived those concordances, in various languages, which have so greatly aided the studies of Biblical scholars. 1. The earliest Hebrew Concordance is that of Rabbi Isaac, or jMordecai Nathan, a learned Jew, who lived in the fifteenth century, and who applied Hugo's chapters of the Latin Vulgate to the Hebrew Bible, but substituted Hebrew numerals for the marginal letters abode F and G, introduced by the cardinal. Ten years were devoted by Nathan to his laborious work, which, though completed in 1448, was not published imtil 1523, when it appeared at Venice, but with considerable defects, many words and phrases being entirely omitted. A second and more correct edition was printed at Basle in 1581, by Ambrose Froben, but without altering the form, or supplying the defects. A splendid edition of Natlian's Concordance was published at Rome in 1G21, in four volumes folio, by Marius de Calasio, a learned Francis- can friar. Calasio's work was afterwards re- printed at London in 1747-49, in four volumes folio, under the editorship of the Rev. ^Villiam Romaine, M.A., assisted by Mr. Rowe Mores, and by liUtzena, a Portuguese icw. John Buxtorf, to whose labours Biblical literature is so deeply indebted, undertook to correct and reform the preceding editions of Nathan's work, and happily succeeded, by casting it into an entirely new form. His Concordanticc lUbraka et ChaldaiccB appeared at Basle in 1G32, and was abridged by Christian Rarius, under the title of Fons Zionis, sive Concordant iarum llebraicarum el Chaldaicarum, J. Buxtorfii Epitome, (Berolini, 1C77, 8vo.) A new cililion of IJuxtorfs Concordance was published at Leipzig, in 1840, by Dr. Julius Fiurst, in one volume folio, entitled Librorum Sucronim Veteru Tu- tamenti Concordantice llrbraica et Chaldaica. So numerous and extensive are the corrections and improvements of this beautifully printed lt>3 co]sr volume that it may almost be considered as a new work. It gives also the meaning of the terms, seeking out the Sanscrito-Semitic root — then detailing the various uses of the words as they occur in Hebrew literature — then the syno- nyms, &c. Dr. John Taylor's Hebrew Concord- ance, adapted to the English Bible after the man- ner of Buxtorf (London, 1754-57), in two folio volumes, is one of the most laborious and most useful works ever published for the advancement of Hebrew learning, and the understanding of the Old Testament in its original language. It is, in fact, a grammar, lexicon, and con- cordance, founded on the Concordance of Bux- torf, all whose errors Dr. Taylor has corrected. He has also inserted the word or words by which any Hebrew word is rendered in the authorized English translation of the Bible; and, where the Hebrew is not literally rendered, a literal trans- lation is added. In general, all change or dif- ference in the two texts is diligently remarked ; and the author has added all the words (about 120 in number) which Buxtorf had omitted, together with tlie Hebrew particles out of Chrislian Noldius's very complete Concordan- tice Particulai'um Ebrceo-Chaldaicarum (4 to, Jenre, 1735, last edition). The Englishman's Hebrew Chaldee Concorda?ice of the Old Testa- ment (London, 1844, in two volumes roj'al octavo), and The Bible Student's Concordance, by Aaron Pick, are both useful works to the student of the Hebrew Scriptures. 2. Concordances to the Greek Testament. — (1.) Erasmus Schmidius's (or Schmidt's) Novi Ttsta- menti Grceci Jesu Christi Tameion, aliis Concor- dantice (Lipsije, 1717, folio). This was, in its day, justly considered as the best Greek concordance to the New Testament. It was beautifully reprinted at Glasgow, and published at London in 1819, in two octavo volumes. (2.) Carl Hermann Bruder's Concordantice omnium vocum Novi Testamenti (Lipsiae, 1842, in quarto), though modestly published as a new edition of Schmidt's Concor- dance, is so great an improvement upon that work, the innumerable errors of which Dr. B. has corrected, that it may now be regarded as almost a new concordance. He has availed him- self of every possible critical aid ; and has added 170 words to the concordance of the New Testament, many of which are not to be found in anv lexicon. This work is beauti- fully printed' (3.) The Rev. G. V. Wig- ram's Englishman' s Greek Concordance to the New TestaTnent (London, 1839, royal octavo), is specially designed for mere English readers, who will find it a useful aid to their study of the Greek Testament. (4.) Dr. John Williams's Concordance to the Greek Testament, with the English Version to each word; the principal IJtbrew Hoots corresponding to the Greek words of the Septuagint ; with short critical notes and an ihilex (London, 1767, quarto), will be found a Useful and not expensive work, by those who CON cannot purchase either of the preceding concor- dances to the Greek Testament. 3. Concordances to Ancient Versions. — (1.) The best and most complete concordance to the Septuagint version of the Old Testament is Abraham Trommius's Concordantice Grcecce Versionis, vulgo LXX Interpretum (Amst. et Traj. ad Rhen., 1718, in two volumes folio) ; which has entirely superseded the earlier work of Conrad Kircher, published at Frankfort in 1607, in two quarto volumes. The Greek word is first given, to which are subjoined its different acceptations in Latin; then follow the different Hebrew words, which are explained by the Greek word in the Septuagint version. These Hebrew words are arranged under the Greek, in their alphabetical order, with the pas- sages of Scripture where they occur. If the word in question is found in the Greek versions of Aquila, Symmachus, Theodosion, or of any other ancient Greek interpreters of the Old Testa- ment, the places in which it occurs are referred to, at the conclusion of the quotations from tho Scriptures ; and immediately after these, all the passages in the apocryphal books are specified, in which the word appears. The work is ter- minated by a useful index, a Hebrew and Chaldee lexicon, a Greek lexicon to Origen's Hexapla, by Montfaucon, and a succinct colla- tion by Lambert Bos of the Frankfort and Ro- man editions of the Septuagint. (2.) Cardinal Hugo's labours for the Vulgate gave rise to several others, by Henricus Regius, (Colonise, 1535, 4to.); Johannes Gastius (Basilse, 1551, folio) ; Robert Stephens (Parisiis, 1555, folio), a rare and beautiful work ; Johannes Bene- dictus (Parisiis, 1562, folio); Caspar de Za- mora (Romae, 1627, folio). But that which for a long time was considered to be the most useful work for this version is the Concor- dantice Bibliorum of Franciscus Lucas, which first appeared at Antwerp in 1606, in folio. The most beautiful edition is said to be that printed at Cologne in 1684, in octavo; and the most complete, that printed at Avignon in 1786, ia two volumes quarto. This, however, is super- seded by the new and copious Concordantice Bibliorum Sacrorum Vulgatce Editionis, published at Paris by the Abbe' F. P. Dutripon, in 1838, in quarto. Besides correcting the errors of all preceding editors or compilers of Latin concor- dances, M. Dutripon has added upwards of 25,000 verses, and very numerous historical and geographical notes. Several concordances to the Scriptures are ex- tant in the English language. The earliest of these was compiled and printed by Thomas Gibson, or Gybson, for the New Testament. It is entitled The Concordance of the New Testament, most necessary to be had in the hands of all soche as desire the Communication of any place contayned in the New Testament, and was printed at Lon- don in 1535, in octavo. This is a work of not 164 CON ven- frequent occurrence. ]\rore common is the concordance of the entire Bible, compiled bv John Marbecke, Organist of Windsor, which was printed in black letter by Richard Grafton, in 1550, in folio, with this title: A Concordance, that is to saye, a Worke, u-herein by the ordre of the letters of the A B C ye may reddy finde any u'orde conteigned in the whole Bible, so often as it is there expressed or mencioned. This concor- dance, which was dedicated to King Edward VI. by the compiler, "Jhon Marbek," was adapted to the edition commonly termed " Mat- thewe's Bible." In Fox's Acts and Monuments, vol. ii., p. 546, there is a very interesting narra- tive of the account which Marbecke gave to the bishops of his labours, and which exhibits him as a remarkable instance of indefatigable dili- gence. The publication of the authorized English version of the Bible, in 1611, gave occasion to the compiling of numerous concordances adapted to it, by Newman, Downame, Powell, Clement, Bernard, and others during the seventeenth century, and by Fisher, Brown, and others during the eighteenth century. Of these, two only are particularly worth}' of attention, viz. : 1. A Complete Concordance to the Holy Scrip- tures of the Old and New Testament, or a Dictionary and Aljjhabetical Index to the Bible, by Alexander Cruden, M.A. (London, 1763, 1810, 1824, quarto). The frst edition of this well-known and useful concordance appeared at London in 1737. The edition of 1763 is the third and last of those superintended by the author, and is usually considered the best, from his known diligence and accuracy in correcting the press. The value of Cruden's Concordance has caused it to be repeatedly printed, but not always with due regard to accuracy. The Lon- don edition of 1810, however, is an honourable exception; every word, with its references, having been most carefully examined with the English Bible for that edition. The impression of 1824 is a reprint of that of 1810. 2. A New Con- cordance and Dictionary of the Holy Scriptures, with ike various significations of the principal words, by which the true meaning of many pas- sages is shoivn, bv the Rev. John liutterworth (London, 1767, 1785, 1816. octavo). This is, for the most part, a judicious abridgment of Cruden's large work. In order to insure cor- rectness, the compiler of it collated every word and reference in the proof sheets, with the several texts of the Bible. The second edition of 17»5, is considerably improved. Tlie third edition of 1816 is a reprint of the second, with some alterations in the definitions, made by the editor (Dr. Adam Clarke),who reprinted, by themselves, the original passages so altered. An abridged and portable edition of Cruden, of which more than twenty editions have been sold, has been published by Griffin and Co. A new and splen- did edition of Cruden, in quarto, was also pub- 166 CON lished in 1859, by the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. In 1^40 the Rev. Mark Wilks (who has been settled for many years in France) published a Concordance des Snintes Ecrilures, adapted to J. F. Ostervald's revision of the French Protestant Translation of the Bible (Home's Introduction to the Critical Study of the Scriptures, vol. v., part ii., ch. vi., sec. i., §. 6 ; Townley's lllustralions of Biblical Literature, vol. i., p. 483, 484; vol. ii., p. 183, 184 ; vol. iii., p. 1 1 8, 120). The concord- ances for the German Bible are : The first by Kon- rad Agricola, Nuremburg, 1609, folio, and often reprinted. The more usful is that of Fr. Lankisch (German, Hebrew, and Greek), Leipzigand Frank- fort; an Abstract by M. F. Lankisch, Leipzig, 1680, 4to.; Smaller Concordancehy G. Michuelis, Jena, 1733, 8vo.; J. M. Otto, Sulzbach, 1823, 8vo. ; also, Real Concordance, by Biichner, Jena, 1750, &c., &c. ; do. Ao. Real u. Verbal Concor- dance, Jena, 1740; new edition by Heubner, Halle, 1840 (9th edition, \^b2) ;' Real Verbal Concordance, by J. C. Beck, Basle, 1770, 2 Th., folio; Wichmann, Bihl. Handc. &c., Dessau in Leipzig, 1782, revised 1796 and 1806; II. Schott, do. do., Leipzig, 1827 ; J. J. Ohm, Spruchc, &c. Leipzig, 1812, 8vo. ; Bibl. Handc. f Rel.-lehrer, &c., Leipzig, 1841, 8vo.; F. J. Bernhard, Bibl. Concordance oder dreif. Register, Leipzig, 1850-1, 8vo. ; HaufF, Real n. Verbal Concordance, &c., 2 vols., 8vo., Stutt!j;art, 1828-34; Haupt, do. do., 3 vols., 8vo., Quedlinburg, 1823-7.— T. H. H. Concordat, the name by which an agi'eement concerning beneficiary matters is distinguished in the canon law. None made without the authority of the pope is binding on successors, and the pope act>, not as a temporal prince, but as the spiritual head of the Church. In 1418 concordats were made with Germany, France, and England. The treaty concluded be- tween Leo X. and Francis I., in 1516, for the abolition of the Pragmatic Sanction is commonly known in France as tiie Concordat. The first article of this concordat treats of elections, and stipulates that chapters .shall not elect them- selves as heretofore ; but that on the occurrence of a vacancy, the King of France, wiiliin six months, shall name a doctor or licentiate of theology, not under twenty-seven years of age, for the pope's approval. Bishoprics vacant in the court of Rome are to be conferred by the pope, without the king's nomination. Abbeys and priories are to follow the same rule. The second article abolishes reversions. Tiic tiiird relates to collations, and the rights of fer.iduates. The fourth gives the pope the option of one benefice from everv patron \\\\o has a right to present to ten ; and " demands a true account of their ordinary value. The fifth regulates causes and appeals. The si.xtli, seventh, eighth, ninth, and tenth, differ little from t!ie Pragmatic Sanction. This treaty, which so largely increased the authority of the pontiff over the Galilean Church, CON was received with the utmost reluctance and in- dignation. The parliament of Paris, after de- liberating for a month, refused to register it, and when at last compelled to publish it, they an- nexed a solemn protest, and an appeal to the next general council. The chief obloquy of the transaction fell upon the Chancellor du Prat, who was cardinal legate, and principally concerned in promoting it. Some modifications were after- wards made in it from time to time, especially in the clauses relating to the declaration of the value of benefices and the papal option. The king also extended his right of nomination to archbishoprics, bishropics, and abbeys. The French revolution annihilated this con- cordat; but on the 15th of July, 1801, a new concordat, which had for some months been under discussion, was concluded between Pius VII. and Bonaparte; and was finally ratifed at Rome on the 9th of August. Bj' this con- vention the Eoman Catholic religion was re- established in France, though under a more sim- ple and moderate form than had existed during the monarchy. Pius was, indeed, happy to make any terms with a people whom he had long given up as for ever alienated from the popish dominion; and hence we may account for those concessions he so readily made. He wisely withheld the publication of this concordat for some time, though its ratification had been previously an- nounced by his bull " ecclesia Dei." Among the principal articles of this concordat were the con- firmation of the existing republic ; a new division of the dioceses; the resignation, on the part of the ancient bishops, of their several sees ; the nomination of the new bishops and archbishops by Bonaparte, within three months after the publication of the pope's bull ; the alienated pro- perty of the church to remain undisturbed by the pope ; the bishops and priests to receive an adequate salary from government. On the re- storation of the Bourbons to the French throne, after various negotiations, the pope finally con- cluded a treaty with the French monarch, in the year 1817, wherebj^ the concordat of 1801 was totally to cease, and the affairs of the church were replaced on the footing of the status quo established by the convention between Leo X. and Francis II. There was also a German con- cordat concluded in 1448, between Pope Nicolas V, and the Emperor Frederick III., and subse- quently confirmed both by Clement VII. and Gregory XIII. By this the pope reserves to himself the presentation to all benefices in the court of Eome, and within two days' journey of that city. All other ecclesiastical elections are to be confirmed by the pope. Benefices conferred alternately by the pope and private patrons belong to the first in the months January, March, May, July, September, and November, which thence are termed menses papales ; and the payment of annates or first fruits is carefully regulated. A concordat was made with Naples CON in 1818, greatly to the advantage of the pope- dom. Another was concluded with Bavaria in 1817; one in the same year with Sardinia; and one with Spain in 1851. Recently a concordat was concluded between the papal court and Spain ; and another between the papal court and Austria, which makes Austria more and more the vassal of Rome. Concubinage, forbidden in Scripture and by the early Church. Persons guilty of it were not to be ordained to the ministry. Several ex- ceptions were made in the case of private mem- bers. A slave, faithful as a concubine to her master, might be admitted to fellowship. Con- cubines which might be regarded as inferior wives, or as persons privately married, were also not excluded. If a man had a concubine, and she were a free woman, he was asked to marry her; if she were a slave, to dismiss her prior to admis- sion to the Church. Harlotry and adultery were diflferently treated. — See Adulteky. Condignity. — See Grace. Confalon, a fraternity of seculars in the Church of Rome, founded bj' some Roman citizens. Henry III. commenced one at Paris in 1583, and assisted himself in one of the pro- cessions, clad like a penitent, the Cardinal of Guise carrying the cross. Conference. — The term has been peculiarly appropriated to meetings for theological debate. Among the most celebrated of these are that of Rafisbon, in 1601, between some Lutheran doctors and three eminent Jesuits, assembled at the desire of Maximilian, Duke of Bavaria, and Philip Louis, Elector Palatine ; that of Neuherg, in 1G15, appointed by the Prince Palatine, him- self a Papist, between Heilbronnet, a Lutheran, and Keller, a Jesuit; that of Thorn, in 1645, summoned bj' Ladislaus IV., King of Poland, generally known as the charitable conference, from its intentions rather than its effects; that at Rheinftldt, about the same time, between Valerianus Magnus, a Capuchin, and Habercorn, a Reformed minister, called by the Landgrave of Hesse; and that of Cassel, in 1661, at the desire of the same Landgrave, between Musjeus and Henichius, Lutherans, and Curtius and Heinsius, of the Reformed Church. A conference of a more private nature was held in 1683, between Claude, the most learned of the Reformed divines, and Bossuet, not less celebrated among the Romanists. Each of them has published an account of this dispute. In England a conference was called at Hampton Court by James I., in 1604. It assembled before the privy council, the king himself presiding. The objections ad- vanced by the Puritans the conference frowned upon as futile. These were, that the rite of con- firmation should be considered, and plurality of benefices and sacerdotal vestments discontinued ; that the Apocrypha should no longer be read in Churches, nor the sign of the cross used in baptism, &c. It originated our present transla- 66 CON tion of the Bible. In 1C60, immediately after the restoration, another conference was agreed upon at the Bishop of London's lodgings at the Savoy. — Conferences are likewise held by the Swedenborgians ; and perhaps by other sects See Hampton Court Conference, Savoy Conference. The term conference in our days is now chiefly confined to the annual meetings of preachers in the Wesleyan Methodist connection, for the regulation of their stations, and other matters of internal government and discipline. " The first conference of the Wesleyan Methodists (says the Rev. Thomas Jackson, in his Centenary of Wes- leyan Methodism) was held in London in the year 1744. It was attended only by six persons, five of whom were clergymen. By them the characters of the preachers were examined, dif- ferences of theological opinions repressed, the stations of the preachers determined, and their hearts warmed and cheered by mutual consulta- tion and prayer. As Mr. Wesley declined into the vale of years the perpetuity of that system of doctrine and discipline, which had been so signally owned of God in the conversion and salvation of men, became a matter of anxious concern both to himself and his people. The appointment of the preachers to the various chapels, and to the consequent pastoral charge of the societies, pre- sented the greatest difficulty. The preacliers felt the importance of the case, and requested Mr. Wesley to consider what could be done in this emergency; so that, in the event of his death, the connection might not be dissolved. Me took legal advice, and drew up the ' deed of declara- tion,' constituting one hundred preachers by name, • the Conference of the people called Methodists ; ' at the same time defining their powers, and making provision for the filling up of all vacan- cies occasioned by death, superannuation, or ex- pulsion. This deed he caused to be enrolled in the High Court of Chancery, in the year 1784. Thus, the power of government which Mr. Wesley possessed during his life, by his appoint- ment devolved upon the conference after his decease, he having nominated its members, pro- vided for its perpetuity, and defined its powers, by the ' dead of declaration.' " To prevent any abuse of this instrument on the part of the "legal liundred," Mr. AVesley left a letter, to be read by tlie conference at its first assembling after his death, of which we subjoin an extract: — "I beseech you, by the mercies of God, that you never avail yourselves of the ' deed of declaration ' to assume any superiority over your brethren ; but let all things go on, among those itinerants ■who choose to remain together, exactly in the same manner as when I was with you, so far as circumstances will permit. Have no respect of persons in stationing the preachers, in choosing children for Kingswood school, in disposing of the yearly contribution, and the preacher's fund, or any other public money. But do all things CON with a single eye, as I have done from the bo- ginning." When this letter was read after Jlr. Wesley's decease, the conference unaniiiiiju>lv resolved, that all the preachers who are in full connection with them shall enjoy every privilege that the members of the conference enjoy, agree- ably to the above-written letter of our venerable deceased father in the Gospel. How far the present successors of those men have acted, and are acting out the spirit of this resolution, our readers must determine for themselves. The conference of the preachers of the Methodist societies is held annually in some one of the prin- cipal cities and towns in the kingdom. Represen- tatives from the Irish conference, whose sittings precede the English conference by a few weeks, regularly attend. Tliis year (1 850), the English conference sat in London, and was remarkable for its stern and haughty refusal to consider the applications of several of the preachers, and very many of the members of the denomination, who, feeling aggrieved by certain of its acts, had peti- tioned for " Reform." On this subject it is not our province to speak ; but those of our readers who may be curious to inquire into this contro- versy, which has raged within the Methodist body, and which threatened a serious disruption among them, will find the causes exposed, and the "case stated," in the celebrated Fit/ Shtels, and similar publications. — See Methodists. Coiiression. — See AunicuLAR Confession. Confessions ot Fuiih. — See Creeds. Confessor originally was the title bestowed on one who, after openly confessing/ Christ, had endured martyrdom ; afterwards one wiio during torture had maintained the integrity of his faith, though not at the expense of life. Afterwards the title Avas given indiscriminately to persons of pious life. The last Anglo-Saxon Edward ob- tained this distinction, by which he is most gene- rally known, by a bull of canonization, from Alexander III., about a century after his de- cease. Confirmation is in its origin a professed imitation of the apostles' imposition of hands on persons newly baptized. It was not a uniform practice ; but it was uniformly accompanied by the impartation of spiritual gifts. Neither the "unction" nor the "seal" seem to have originally belonged to it : both terms in Scripture are spi- ritual. But in tiie age of Tertullian and Cyprian, confirmation followed baptism even in liie ca.'^e of infents, and it was not formally separated from baptism till the tliirteenth century. At length, as superstition grew, it was numbered by the Church of Rome among the .seven sacraments. It also forms, under tlic name of xf'f^"^ '"" aif^xy'if, one of tiie seven saeraincnt.s of the Greek Ciuirch. The subject of tlie adniinisir.n- tion of the chrism wa^s one of the points in di-*- pute in file ninth century between the Latin Church under Pope Nicolas I., and Pholiu-s the Patriarch of Coustantinople (see Dupin, vol. 167 CON . vii., ch. X., edition 1 696). In the Greek Church the chrism, which is supposed to correspond with confirmation, is generally administered by a presbyter (the confection of the oil being the j)rivilege of the bishop), immediately after bap- tism. And upon this ground some of the Latins charged the Greeks with not observing confirma- tion, it being necessarj', in their opinion, to the validity of confirmation, that it should be ad- ministered by a bishop. That it is in the power of bishops in the Greek Churcli to administer the chrism after baptism, is evident from the elder liturgies, and from a practice which existed of persons baptized by a bishop in the church of Sta. Sophia at Constantinople, being afterwards confirmed by him in a neighbouring church. The history of confirmation is then brieflj' this: — In the earliest ages bishops were wont to lay their hands upon persons who had been baptized, and who were then required to make profession of their faith. The ceremony by degrees degen- erated into a superstition, and a sacramental virtue was ascribed to the chrism. In the Greek Church, about the year 870, Photius, the Pa- triarch of Constantinople, established the custom, which must, however, have been previously in- troduced, of presbyters giving the chrism, instead of the bishop. In the darker ages the chrism of confirmation was made a sort of appendage to baptism, and administered to infants, until, at the Reformation, the ancient rite was restored at the remonstrance of the Reformers. The Church of Rome still, however, continued it amongst the number of her sacraments, though in some degree amended in its use; whilst the Church of England contented herself with pre- serving the imposition of hands; and requir- ing that it should be given only to persons who, being properly instructed, were willing in the face of the church, publicly to renew the vows made for them at their baptism. The rubric thus directs : — " Upon the day appointed, all that are to be then confirmed being placed, and standing in order, before the bishop, he (or some other minister appointed by him) shall read this preface following. To the end that confirmation may be ministered to the more edifying of such as shall receive it, the church hath thought good to order, that none hereafter shall be confirmed but such as can say the Creed, the Lord's Praver, and the Ten Commandments; and can alsoanswer to such other questions as in the Short Catechism are contained : which order is very convenient to be observed ; to the end, that children, being now come to the years of discretion, and having learned what their godfathers and godmothers promised for them in baptism, the}' may them- selves, with their own mouth and consent, openly before the church, ratify and confirm the same; and also promise, that by the grace of God they ■will evermore endeavour themselves faithfully to observe such things as they, by their own con- fession, have assented unto. Then shall the CON bishop say. Do j'ou here, in the presence of God, and of this congregation, renew the solemn pro- mise and vow that was made in your name at your baptism ; ratifying and confirming the same in your own persons, and acknowledging j'our- selves bound to believe and to do all those things which your godfathers and godmothers then un- dertook for you ■? And every one shall audibly answer, I do." Confirmation by the archbishop of the province, in the English ecclesiastical polity, immediately succeeds the election of a bishop by the king's conge d'dire. On confirmation the new bishop obtains jurisdiction in his diocese. Coiifiteor (^I confess), the first word of the form prescribed to every penitent at the confessional : " I confess to Almighty God, to the blessed Mary ever Virgin, to blessed Michael the Archangel, to blessed John Baptist, to the Holy Apostles Peter and Paul, to all the saints, and to j'ou, father, that I have sinned exceedingly in thought, word, and deed, through mj' fault, through my fault, through uiy most grievous fault. Therefore I beseech the blessed Marj' ever Virgin, the blessed Michael the Archangel, blessed John Baptist, the Holy Apostles Peter and Paul, and all the saints, and j'Ou, father, to praj' to our Lord God for me." Before uttering this last sentence, the penitent goes over his sins, or at least those for which he means to ask absolution. Conformity, Declaration of, taken by all Anglican clergy in these terms: — " I, A. B., do declare that I will conform to the liturgy of the United Church of England and Ireland, as it is now by law established." — See Nonconformist. Conge d'elire, the writ for the election of a bishop. If the chapter refuse to choose the person nominated by the queen, they are liable to the penalty of a prcemunire. — See Bishop, Pr^monire. Congregation, in its ecclesiastical applica- tion, ordinarily means an assembly of people met together for divine worship ; though it also signifies a company or society of religious, taken out of some particular monastic order, and con- stituting a kind of inferior order. Such are the Congregations of Saint JMaur, of Cluny, of the Orator}', &c. In the constitution of the papal court the term congregation is applied to certain assemblies of cardinals, instituted for the direction and control of Roman affairs, both temporal and spiritual, under the supreme government of the pope. The number of cardinals varies in dif- ferent congregations ; but each of them has its chief, or president, and a secretary, who registers the proceedings of the congregation, and writes letters in pursuance of their decrees. The in- struments which are to be despatched, are signed by the president, and the seal of the con- gregation is affixed by the secretary. Not fewer than sixteen diflJerent congregations have been instituted by different popes, which take their denominations from the peculiar business which 168 CON is submitted to their consideration. The principal of these assemblies are, the congregations of rites and of relics, of bishops and regulars, of the holy office or inquisition, of the index, and the congregation de propaganda fide. 1. The Con- gregntion of Rites was founded by Pope Sixtus v., for regulating the ceremonies of the Romish Church. It has authority to explain the rubrics of the Missal and Breviary, whenever any diffi- cult}' arises concerning the construction of them ; and also to regulate the ceremonies and rites of the new offices of saints, which are added to the calendar of that church when any person is canonized. In cases of dispute respecting the precedency of churches, the sentence of this con- gregation is definitive. 2. The Congregation of Relics superintends the relics of ancient martyrs which are found in the catacombs of Rome ; and distinguishes their bones, shrines, and tombs from those of the heathens, who were buried in the same subterraneous caverns See Catacombs. 3. The Congregation of Bishops and Regulars was instituted hy Pope Sixtus V., for the purpose of regulating disputes between bishops and the mon- astic orders. In cannection with this, we may notice the three congregations whose functions are sufficiently designated by their appellations, viz. : — The Congregation for the Examination of Bishops, instituted bj' Pope Gregory XIV., fur the investigation of the qualifications of such ecclesiastics as are nominated to bishoprics; The Congregation of the Morals of Bishops, instituted by Pope Innocent XI., for inquiring Lito the morals of those who are recommended to ecclesiastical dignities ; and the Congregation for the Residence of Bishops, which lias the power of enjoining, or dispensing with the resi- dence of the Italian bishops, and of obliging all abbots to reside with their respective communi- ties. 4. J'he Congregation of the Holy Office, or Inquisition, was instituted by Pope Paul ill., at the suggestion of Cardinal Carafa ; by whom, on his subsequent elevation to the papal chair under the name of Paul IV., the privileges of this congregation were greatly enlarged. To these, Sixtus V. added statutes. This tribunal takes cognizances of heresies, and all novel opinions ; as well as of apostacy, magic, wilch- craft, the abuse of the sacraments, and tiie cir- culation of pernicious books. With the cardinals, who compose this congregation, are associated many prelates and divines of different orders, both regular and secular, who are called con- suiters and qualificators of the holy office. 5. The Congregation of the Index. The popisli clergy present at the council of Trent, alarmed at the circulation of the Reformed doctrines, and considering the number of pernicious and here- tical books, as they were pleased to term them, deputed certain cardinals and other divines to compile an index of works to be prohibited. This was afterwards aj.proved by Pius IV. in I 1564 ; and certain general rules relative to | CON prohibited books wore ilrawn up and sanctioned by papal authority (see a translation of thorn in Townley's Illustrations of Biblical Literature, vol. ii., p. 478-485). Succeeding pontifTs greatly enlarged the tridentine index ; and the rules of tlie index were also modified or enlarp'd bv explanations and additions. The deputation, or committee, which had originally been appointed by the council of Trent, was" erected into a special court or congregation at Rome, for the examination of tiie index, by Sixtus V., who ob- tained the papal tiara in 1585; and it is known bv the appellation of the Congregation of the Index. 6. The Cuiigregalion de Propaijandu Fide was founded in 1G22, by Pope Gregory XV., for the purpose of taking cognizance of all afTairs rela- tive to the propagation of the Roman Catholic religion throughout the world ; of superintend- ing all missions ; and of appointing and cliang- ing the ministers necessary for that purpose. This congregation consisted of thirteen cardinals, two priests, one monk, and a secretary, who were required to refer the most weighty matters to the decision of the pope, but who were to decide in all other cases according to their judgment. The revenues of this congregation were greatly augmented bj' the liberality of individuals, as well as of the succeeding pontiff, Urban VIII., who, in 1G27, instituted the apos- tolic college or seminary for the propagation of the faith, for the education of young men to be employed under the direction of the congregation de propaganda fide, to who.'^e superintendence this seminary is entrusted. When the students have comi)leted their education, they are em- ployed eitlier as missionane<, bishops, or vicars apostolic, ill foreign parts, according to the exigency of the occasion, and the abilities of the individu.ils. In the palace of the congregation there is a printing office, furnished wiiii types in most languages, and with able printers and correctors, who are continually employed in works for tlie propagation of the tenets of the Church of Rome. Of the other congregations but few parti- culars are necessary. The Pope's Congrega- tion takes cognizance of the erecting of new sees and cathedral churches, the reunion, sup- pression, and resignation of bishoprics, and all matters relative to the revenues of the ciuirch. The Congregation for explaining the Council of Trent originated in the appointment, by Rope Pius IV., of certain cardinals wlio liad as^istc*! at that council, to put an end to all doubts which might arise concerning its decrees. Sixtus V. fixed this congregation, and empowereii it to interpret all points both of discipline and of faith. The Congregation of Immunities takes cognizance of all ecclesiastical imnuinities and exemptions, in suits against ecclesiastics, whether civil or criminal. The Congrega- tion for such Mon.isieries as are to bo i\.\\y pressed was instituted by Innocent X., to 1G9 CON inquire into Ihe state of the Italian monasteries, and to suppress those whose temporalities were so far reduced that the remainder was not suffi- cient for the maintenance of six inmates. This assembly regulates the pretensions of founders and benefactors, and their heirs, and disposes of the remains of the tamporalities of abandoned and ruined houses. It likewise examines the petitions of such communities or cities as are desirous of founding anew or rebuilding any monasterj--, for which it despatches the proper instruments. The Congregation of the Apos- tolical Visitation is composed of a certain number of cardinals and prelates, whose business it is to visit, in the name of the pope, as Archbishop of Rome, the six bishops who are suffragans to the metropolis of Rome. The Congregation of Indulgences investigates the applications of those who sue for indulgences ; and to the Congregi- tion for the building of Churches is confided the charge of superintending the repairing and beautifying of St. Peter's Church, for the build- ing of which it was originally founded by Clement VIII, This congregation is said to have the peculiar privilege of altering the wills of testators who bequeath sums to pious uses, and of applying the money to the support of the fabric of Saint Peter's. " There is also a Congregation of Hydraulic Works and the Pon- tine Marshes, — one of economics, and another of extraordinary affairs. Cougrcgationalists. — See Independency. Congregational liccture, a series of annual lectures instituted in 1834, and delivered in London by noted Congregational ministers. The lecture is after the example of the famous Bampton and Boyle lectures in the national church. Congrnit)'. — See Grace. Consecration, the devoting or setting apart of any persons, things, or places, to the worship and service of God. Churches, churchyards, the sacred vessels, and other utensils belonging to the worship of God, are consecrated things ; but the Church of Rome consecrates almost everything, as bells, candles, water, oil, crosses, pictures, &c., besides churches, chapels, monas- teries, and other religious houses. Among the ancient Christians the consecration of churches was performed with peculiar solemnity. In what manner it was done for the first three centuries we have no ceitaiu evidence. Bingham thinks it highly probable that the Christians, during this period, used the same ceremonies as the Jews did, who dedicated both their private houses and the walls of their cities (Nehemiah xii. 27-43; Psalm xxx., title), as well as their temple, with solenm thanksgivings and with prayer, for a sanctified use of them. In the fourth century of the Christian era, however, under the reign of the Emperor Constantine, churches were no sooner erected than they were fiolemnly consecrated; and the dedications of CON- them were celebrated with great festivity and rejoicing. On such occasions it was usual for a whole synod of the neighbouring or provincial bishops to assemble. Thus, the church at Jerusalem, which was erected by Constantine over the supposed site of the sepulchre of our Saviour, was consecrated in the presence of a full sjmod of all the bishops of the East. The solem- nity ordinarily began with a panegyrical oration or sermon, in commemoration of the founder, which was followed by prayers, among which there seems to have been one in particular for the church which was then to be dedicated. The act of consecrating churches was so pecu- liarly reserved to the office of bishops, that pres- byters were not allowed to perform it. Anciently churches were always dedicated to God, and not to saints, though they were sometimes dis- tinguished by their name'=, as a memorial of them. Consecration was performed, indilFerently, on any day ; but, whatever the day was, it was usually kept and observed among their annual festivals. To this, Pope Gregory, surnamed the Great, added a new custom in England, which was, that on the anniversary of the dedication of churches, and particularly of those wliich had been heathen temples, the people might build themselves booths round the church, and there feast themselves, in lieu of their ancient sacrifices while they were heathens. The wakes, which are still observed in some English counties, are the remains of these feasts of dedication. The consecration of a church is performed with much ceremony in the Church of Rome, by whose members this rite is usually termed a dedication. As a preliminary step, the relics which are to be deposited in the altar of the new church, are put into a clean vessel, together with three grains of incense ; to which a piece of parchment is added, containing the day of the month and year, and the name of the officiating bishop. Three crosses are painted on each of the church walls, and over each cross a candle is placed. On the morning appointed for the ceremonj', the bishop, arrayed in his pontifical vestments, and attended by the clergy, goes to the door of the church, where they recite the seven penitential psalms; after which he makes a tour of the church walls, sprinkling them in the name of the Holy Trinity. This rite being performed, he knocks at the church door with his pastoral staff, repeating, from Psalm xxiii. [xxiv.], '■'■AWillte portas, et in- troiblt Rex Glorice." A deacon, shut up in tlie church, demands "Quis est iste Rex Glorue V To which the bishop answers, '''• Domimis forlis et potens : Dominus polens in prcelio .'" At the same time the bishop crosses the door, repeating the following verse: — " Ecce Crucis signuin, fusiant phantasmata cuncta !" On the admission of the bishop and clergy into 70 CON the church, the Vent Creator is sung. Then one of the sub-deacons takes ashes, and sprinkles them on the pavement in the form of a cross ; next follow the litanies and other parts of divine service. After which, the bishop with his pas- toral staff describes, as with a pen, two alphabets in the ashes sprinkled by the deacon ; and pro- ceeds to consecrate the altar, by sprinkling it with a mixture of water, wine, salt, and ashes, in the name of Jesus Ciirist. The consecration of the altar is followed by a solemn procession of the relics, which are deposited under it with great ceremony. During the whole of this im- posing solemnity the church is finely' adorned, and tapers are lighted upon the altar. Mass is after- wards performed by the bishop, or by some other person. — See Cross Alphabet. The law of England takes no notice of churches or chapels until they are consecrated by the bishop ; although the canon law supposes that, ^v■ith the bishop's consent, divine service may be performed, and the sacraments may be adminis- tered in churches and chapels not consecrated ; but no new churches can be consecrated without a competent endowment. The consecration may, however, be performed, indifferently, on any day, provided it be in the time of divine service ; and every bishop is left to his own discretion as to the form he may adopt for this purpose. Only, by the statute 21 Henry VIII. , ch. xiii., which limits the number of chaplains, it is assigned as one reason why a bishop may retain six chap- lains, because that number is necessarily occu- pied in the consecration of churches. After the restoration a form of consecration was drawn up by the convocation in 1661 ; but this was neither authorized nor published, though it is said to have been occasioned by the offence taken at the introduction of many popish ceremonies by Laud, at the consecration of St. Catherine Cree Church, A.D. 1630. Another formulary was drawn up in the year 1712, for the consecration of churches and chapels, and churchyards, or burial-places, by the bishops, and sent down to the lower house of convocation on the 2d of April. It was altered by a committee of the whole house; and, on being reported to the house on the 9th day of the same month, it was agreed to with some alteration. This form, however, not having received the royal assent, was not enjoined to be observed, though it is now generally used. It is given at length in Bums's Ecclesiustical Law, title "Churches," sec. 2; and in 1790 it was adopted, w ith the omission of two or three unim- portant passages, by the bishops, clergy, and laity of the Protestant Episcopal Clmrch, in the United States of America. — A church once con- secrated may not be consecrated again; and where a churchyard has been enlargeti, there has been a new consecration of the additional part. Consecration of churches is not recognized at all by Presbyterians. The term Consecration Is also used for the benediction of the elements 1 COM in the Eucharist. The Romanists define it lo be the conversion of the bread and wine into the real body and blood of Ciirist; and that this is the sentiment of that church is evident from the priest's elevating the Host immedi- ately after consecration, for the people to adore it.— See Adoration of the Host, Host. Consisienlcs {bi/standcrs), a fourth class of penitents, who might hiok on, but not join in, the ordinances of the church. — See Penitk.nt.s. Consistory. — The consistorium of the latter Roman emperors was first applied to the place in wliich their privy council met, and thence to tiie council itself. So, in the Romish Church, tlie consistory is the place in which tlie college of cardinals meet, with the pope at their head, and also the meeting itself, which assembles for the reception of princes or their ambassadors, for the canonization of saints, for the promotion of cardinals, and other important affairs. Among the Reformed Churches on the Continent, both Lutlierans and Calvinists, the consistory is an assembly of ministers, appointed to regulate their affairs, discipline, &c. In England the consis- tory is a spiritual court, formerly held in the nave of the cathedral church, or in some chapel, aisle, or portico, belonging to it, in which the bishop presided, and liad some of his clergy for assessors and assistants. This court is at pre- sent held by the bishop's chancellor or commis- sar}', and by archdeacons or their officials, either in the cathedral church or otlier con- venient place in the diocese, for the hearing and determination of matters and causes of eccle- siastical cognizance, which ma^' hajjpen within such diocese. Consistory is the name given in some Presb3'terian churches to the meetings of elders, usually called the session, or kirk-ses^ion. Consolamcniuin {comfort), the name given among the Cathari of the twelfth century to a mode of baptism accompanied by imposition of hands, and by means of which a believer entered into fellowship with the Spirit. Tiie term was applied as well to tlie rite of initiation as to a last species of t^elect confirmation on a death-bed. Those who underwent the rite were named from it " consolali," — comlbited. Coiistiiiilions niilied for the duo observation of them, by his majesty's authority, under the great seal of England." 71 CON Consnbslantial, the word employed bj' the fathers at the councils of Antioch and Nice in opposition to the Arians, to denote the co-essen- tiality of the Son with the Father. The Arians contended that the Son was only " ofioidai/is " — of lilie, but not of same nature. — See Ari- ANISJl. C'oiisubstantiatioii or Impanation, a doctrine introduced into the Church by .John, surnamed Pungens Asinus, a doctor of Paris, about the close of the thirteenth century, and now professed bj' the Lutherans. His work was publisiied by Allix in 1686. Determinatio F. Joannis Parisiensis de modo existendi Corpus Christi in Sacramento Allaris. This doctrine teaches that after consecration the body and blood of our Saviour are substantially present together with the substance of the bread and wine. The Lutheran doctrine is not unlilie this. Luther held a real and corporeal presence of Christ in, under, or along with the bread and wine, so that, after consecration, the bread was both bread and the flesh of Christ, and the wine both wine and the blood of Christ. The ubiquity of Christ's glorified body was a necessary conse- quence of this sacramentarian tenet. — See Real Presence. Convent, applied to an assembly of religious persons, monks or nuns. — See Abbey, Monas- tery. €onventical Brethren. — See Francis- cans. Conventicle (^place of meeting). — The word conveniiculum was known to the primitive Church to designate a house of prayer : conventi- cula uhi summus oratur Dtus (Arnob., iv. ; see also Lactant., v., 11 ; Orosius, vii., 12). In after- times it denoted a secret assembly of part of the monks of a convent, to make a party in the election of an abbot or superior. The term con- venticle is said to have been first applied in Eng- land to the schools of Wiclif ; but in the reign of Charles II. it was given contemptuously to the meetings for religious worship of Protestant dissenters from the Church of England, which were not at the time sanctioned by law. Yet conventicle is onl}', after all, a good Latinized synonym of the Greek word church, and points to the promise, " "Where two or three are met TOGETHER in mj' name." Bj'the statutes 16 Car. II. , c. 4, which were in force for three years, where more persons than five were assembled for worship, they should for the first offence jjay £5, for the second, £10 ; £100 for the third, or be banished to America, and if they returned, to suffer death. By 22 Car. II,, c. 1, commonly called the Conventicle Act, various severe penalties were again enacted against persons who were either present at a conventicle, whether as preachers or hearers, or who suffered meetings to be held in their houses. Any person above sixteen years of age, a subject of the kingdom, present at any conventicle where five or more were assembled, CON forfeited 5s. for the first offence, and 10s. for the second. Every preacher in such conventicle forfeited .£20. Any person allowing a conven- ticle in his house forfeited £20. Justices of peace had power to enter and search houses. The severity of this last mentioned statute, how- ever, was much mitigated by the Act of Tolera- tion (1 William and Mary, c. 18); but Protest- ant dissenters dare not meet in a house with the doors lodged ; and officers of government, if pre- sent at a conventicle of ten persons or more, where the royal family is not expressly prayed for, forfeit 40s., and fall under disability. In the year 1812 the Conventicle Act, so harsh and intolerant, was repealed by the statute 52 George III., c. 155, sec. 1. — See Act, Puritans. Conversi, the lay-brethren belonging to a monastery. Convivia baptismalia, banquets held in connection with baptism as early as the fourth century-. Convocation, an assembly of the clergy of the Church of England, by their representatives, for the purpose of consulting on ecclesiastical matters. It is composed of an upper and lower house. In the upper house sit the archbishops and bishops, and in the lower house, the inferior clergy, who are represented by their proctors, — in all 144 members. Each house chooses its prolocutor or speaker, and that of the lower house is presented to the archbishops and bishops of the upper house : his duty is to care that the members attend, to collect their debates and votes, and to carry them to the upper house. Formerh', the lower house of convocation was convened by two distinct writs. The first was the parliamentary or king's writ, directed to the bishops of every diocese, and summoning them to parliament ; which writ contained a clause re- quiring that each chapter should send one of their bodj', and the clergy of each diocese two proctors, to represent them in parliament. Hence some writers have imagined that both the clergy and the laity sat together in parliament until the reign of Henry VIII., when the former fell under Siprcemunire, by submitting to Cardinal Wolsey's legatine power, and forfeited their seats. It is clear that the lower house of convocation appre- hended that they had a right to seats in parlia- ment; and therefore they petitioned the upper house to intercede with King Edward VI. and the Protector for the restoration of that right. A similar application was made toward the close of the reign of Queen Elizabeth, and again in that of James I., but without success. The second writ by which the clergy were assembled together was called the provincial writ. By the first writ they were merely a state convention (the duty of "which was to consult concerning their civil rights, and to grant a portion of their estates towards the support of the government), and not an ecclesiastical synod. The clergy, however, not considering themselves obliged to 172 CON obey this lay summons, Archbishop Winchelsea prevailed with Edward II. to discharge them from it ; and from that time, when the king issued his parliamentary writ to the bishops, he sent another to tlie archbishops, to summon all their provincial bishops to the convocation. This second writ was designed to secure their obedience to the former, and to make the assembly more canonical, as meeting by virtue of a summons from the archbishops. The two houses are composed of a convoca- tion from each province, distinct and iiulepend- ent of each other. All deans and arclideacons are members of the convocation of their pro- vince. The precentor of St. David's, which chapter has no dean, supplies the place of that officer: each chapter sends one proctor or representative, and the parochial clergy in each diocese of Canterbury, two proctors; but, on account of the smaU number of dioceses in the province of York, each archdeaconry elects two proctors. In York the convocation consists of only one house; but in Canterbury there are two houses, of which the bishops form the upper house (Blackstone's Comm, i., p. 279). By the statute 8 Henry VI., c. 1, the clergy, in their attendance on the convocation, have the same pri\ilege in freedom from arrests as is enjoj-ed by the members of the House of Commons, in their attendance on parliament. The clergy, when assembled in convocation, had the power of giving away their own monej', and taxing themselves. This power they continued to exercise from the Reformation until the act 13 Car. II., c. 4, was passed, when they gave their last subsidy, it being then judged more advan- tageous to continue the taxing of them by a land and poll-tax, in the same manner as had been practised in the time of the long parliament, during the civil wars. And in the year 1661, by a private agreement between xVrchbishop Sheldon and the Lord Chancellor Clarendon, and others of the king's ministers, it was con- cluded that the clergy should silently wave the privilege of taxing their own body, and permit themselves to be included in the mouey-bills pre- pared by the House of Commons, in considera- tion of their being in future allowed to vote as freeholders in the election of knights of the shire, or county members, which privilege they had not before enjoyed. The power of convocation is limited both by common and statute law. A convocation may make canons or constitutions, which shall be obligatory on the clergj', because these are jM'esent either by representation or in person ; but such canons do not bind the laity with- out an act of parliament. And by the act of 25 Henry VIII., c. 19, which has been deter- mined to be declaratory of the old common law of England, the convocation cannot make any canons, constitutions, or ordinances, without the king's license: nor, when permitted to make any, 173 CON can they put them into execution, but undc-r the following restrictions, viz.: — 1. Such canuus mu.«,t not be contrary or repugnant to the king's prerogative royal. 2. They must not contradict any statute, or the common law. And 3. Thev must not alter any known custom of the realm. The convocation has the power of examinim; ami censuring all heretical and schismatical books and persons &c. ; but an appeal lies frmn it to the king in chancery, or to his delegates. Al- though the convocation continues to meet on the second day of every session of parliament, yet this assembly, for U|)wards of a century, has not been permitted to transact any business, in con- sequence of the unliappy disputes which were carried on at one time with great acrimony be- tween the High and Low Church parties See Bangorian Contuovkrsy. Towards the close of the reign of Queen Anne, the attention of the convocation was, by a royal license, directed to investigate the excessive growth of infidelity and heresy, as well as of other abuses, in order that necessary mcitsures might be taken for a reformation. The prolocu- tor of the lower house, Dr. Atterburj-, undertook to draw up an account to be delivered to the queen, which he did, with severe reflections on the administration. The house of bishops ordered another representation to be drawn in more general and modest terms. But neither the one nor the other met with the approbation of both parties. In the same year (1711) the revival of Arian tenets was attempted by Mr. Whiston, for which he was expelled from the university of Cam- bridge. His vindication he dedicated to the convocation itself. A censure was passed, but remained unnoticed by the queen. In the same year the lower house of convocation complained of the publication of Dr. Samuel Clarke's ^Scripture JJoctrine of the Triniti/, an extract from which was subsequently laid before tlie bishops by that house. Dr. Clarke addressed to them, first, an exculjia- tory paper, and secondh', an explanation, which being accepted by the bishops, no further pro- ceedings were had in the upper house. But the lower house not being satisfied witli it, passed a resolution that the jiajier subscribed by Dr. Clarke, and conunuuicated to thcni by the bishops, did not contain any recantation of the heretical assertions and ollensive passages com- plained of in their representation, and artorwarcis produced in their extract ; and that it did not give such satisfaction for the great scandal occasioned thereby, as ought to put a stop to any further examination and censure tlicreof. Here the matter terminated. For a full and authentic account of which, see An Ajiohyi/for J)r. CUirkv, containing an account o/' late J'roceedinys in Con- vocation, upiin /lis WriliiKjn cuncerninr/ the Trinity, (London, 1714, 8vo). The contentions between the two factions in the convocation were renewed in the reign of Giorge 1. Shortly after the sup- preiisiou of the rubulliou of 1715 a very viole[iC COP literary controvers}' look place, which has been distinguished by the name of the " Bangorian Controversy," as it originated in two publications by Dr. Hoadley, who had then recently been advanced to the bishopric of Bangor. The first of these pamphlets was entitled A Preservative against the Principles and Practices of the Non- Jurors ; which, shortly after, was followed by a sermon on The Nature of the Kingdom of Christ, whicli he had preached before the king. Dr. Snape, provost of king's college, replied to the sermon, and the convocation appointed a committee to examine the bishop's two performances. The representation of this committee conveyed a severe censure on the opinions of Dr. Hoadley; and, as before, the disputes in convocation became very violent. Government soon stopped the proceed- ings by a prorogation, which, however, did not put an end to the controversy, Drs. Snape and Sherlock were removed from the office of king's chaplains; and since the year 1717 the convoca- tion has not been permitted to transact business. It has continued to be regularly summoned to meet, but it is as regularly adjourned on the day of meeting. (For other particulars relative to this assemblj', see Burn's Ecclesiastical Law, title "Convocation;" Lathbur3''s History of the Convocation of the Church of England, London, 1842, 8vo. ; and Dr. Card well's Synodalia: a collection of articles of Religion, Canons, and Proceedings of Convocation in the Province of Canterbury, jFrom 1547 to 1111, London, 1842, 2 vols. 8vo ; Joyce's Sacred Synods.) Cope, a ministerial habit in use in the Anglican Church: it is copied from the Latin colobium, or the Greek raKxes, which at first was the common habit of civilians, but was retained by ecclesiastics when, in the progress of fashion, it grew into national disuse. The twenty-fourth canon prescribes that in all cathedral and colle- giate churches the holy communion shall be ad- ministered upon principal feast days, on which occasions the bishop and the principal minister shall wear each a decent cope. Copes are for- bidden to be worn at all other services of the church, by an act passed in the 7th year of Queen Elizabeth. — See Cascla, Chasible. Copiaia. — See Fossarii. Coptic Church. — This term is supposed by some to be a corruption of 'Aiyv^rio;, pronounced by the Arabs kupti or gupti, and by others to be derived from a town named Coptos. This is the Egyptian branch of the Monophj'site Church — that is to say, those who hold the doc- trine that in the person of Christ the two natures are in reality but one — the human being absorbed by the divine. This heresy was first promulgated by Eutyches. In this he was abetted by Dios- corus, Patriarch of Ale.Kandria, who, when ex- pelled from the orthodox communion, had suffi- cient influence to carrj-the Egyptian Church along with him, and so to found the community there- after known as the Coptic Church. This opinion COR is likewise held by the Syrian and Abyssinian Churches, while the Armenian Church has fallen into the opposite error of supposing that in the person of the Mediator there are not only two natures, but even two distinct persons. The head of the Coptic Church is the Patriarch of Alexandria, whose residence, however, is at Cairo. It has, besides, a bishop of Jerusalem, who also usually resides in the Egyptian capital. Its churches and convents number together about 125, the latter considerably predominating over the former. It has carried the monastic system to an extreme length, as in the orders of St. Anthon}', St. Paul, and St. Macarius. It has also abbots or archimandrites. The spiritual and intellectual condition of this church is very low, the priests, sprung from the lowest of the people, and the people themselves being about equally ignorant. The church services are still, as a whole, conducted in the old Coptic tongue, which the people do not now understand. The worship of the Virgin, and other innovations upon apostolic simplicity, are here to be met with. Of late j-ears Protestant missions have been commenced among the members of this church. The Coptic Church was originally of pure Egyptian blood, and stood in contrast to the Melkites, who were Greeks in creed and in origin. Priests and the inferior ministers are allowed to marry before ordination ; but a bishop must have practised celibacy. Corban (Gr. xaj/iac, Mark vii. 11 ; Hebrew, a gift). — The Jews frequently consecrated them- selves, or their possessions, or part of them, to God ; and Moses recognizes this dedication in various forms, (Leviticus xxvii). An abuse of this vow is reprehended by our Saviour in tlie above passage in St. Mark, and the parallel to it, Matthew xv. 5. Corbana is used, Matthew xxvii. 6, for the treasurj'of the temple. Among the Copts the Eucharist is called corban. (Junii, Acta S.S., v., 72). Cordelier, a name given to Franciscan monks, in allusion to their girdle tied with three knots. Cordicoles, the name of numerous Catholic devotees who worship the heart of Jesus and Mary. Cor Episcopi (heart of the bishop), a name of the archdeacon, as he was often called "■^ oculus episcopi" — the eye of the bishop. But some think that cor episcopi is a corruption of chorepiscopus. — See Archdeacon, Chore- PISCOPUS. Cornarists, followers of Theodore Cornhert in Holland, who wrote against all sects, asserting that no one who could not work miracles had any warrant to be a religious reformer, and that it was not necessary for salvation to be a member of any church. Coriiua Epistolae, CornnaErangelii, the names of the south and north side of the ambo or reading desk, — the epistles being read from the first and the gospels from the second See Ambo. 74 COR Corona.— See Crown. Coronation. — We find that this ceremony was at a very early date associated witli religious services. The rites are most clearly akin in all countries, and have suffered little alteration in the course of time. The earliest authentic record we have of this ceremonj' is in the case of Leo the Emperor, who was crowned by the Patriarch of Constantinople. The practice of anointing the king on this occasion was soon added; in the sixth or seventh century it was introduced into Spain. Pepin was the first king of France so crown- ed ; and in England this union of civil and sacred services has existed since the Saxon Heptarchy. As regards the Eastern Empire, the salient points of the service were: the emperor first presented a written creed, and promised to reign justly, &c. ; he was then, amidst the acclamations of the people, raised on a shield, and taken to the church of St. Sophia ; during the liturgy, and before com- mencing the hymn " Trisagios," the patriarch and bishops prayed from the ambo on his behalf; the former then anointed him in the form of a cross, uttering the word " oLytoi " — holy ! and the clergy responded thrice the same word, which was then taken up by the people. Next, as the patriarch placed the crown on his head, having brought it from the sanctuary, he said " a|/a5 " — worthyl which was repeated as the former expression. The patriarch next uttered the benediction, when the emperor crowned the empress. This is peculiar to the Eastern service. In the remaining part of the ritual, tlie emperor, in his robes of ofhce, assisted the patriarch. The coronation form of the Western Empire was shorter. The Bishop of Ostia anointed, and the Roman Patriarch crowned the emperor in the basilica of St. Peter. The services of France and England are nearly alilce, and much longer than the above, though derived from the ordo Romanus. The Liber Eet/cdis, a JIS. of the time of Richard I. is the autho- rity as to all the English services. For the older forms under the heptarchy, see Marteni JJe Antiq. Ecclesice Ritibus; for the English service generally, Dr. Silver on " The Corona- tion Service, or Consecration of the Anglo-Saxon Kings. After the presentation to the people of the king by the archbishop, the king offers as a gift an altar cloth of gold, and an ingot of gold ; then follow the liturgy, and the communion service, after which the oath is solemnly ad- ministered. The archbishop next proceeds solemnly to anoint the king, the Dean of West- minster removing the ampulla and spoon from the altar, and pouring therein the oil, wiiich is applied to the crown of the head in tlie form of the cross, and also to the palms of tlie hands. The various insignia of royalty are next presented, with suitable remarks, enforcing tlie discharge of the duties of which each respec- tivelj- is emblematic. They are presented in this order: the super tunica, spurs, sword, armillic, the royal robe, orb and cross, ring, sceptre, gloves, 17 COR and the rod with the dove upon the top of it. Then the archbishop comes to the corcnition proper, the king sitting on St. Edward's chair ; he reverently places on his head the crown, and admonishes him. Tiien a Bible is presented, and the archbishop solemnly blesses him. Variom anthems are sung during the service. After a final exhortation from the archbisliop, the peers present publicly do homage, individually stretch- ing forth their hands and touching the crown on his head. Then the queen with similar cere- monies is crowned by the archbisliop ; but there is this difference — she only receives the ring, sceptre, and rod, before the crown. The commun- ion service, which was interrupted by th&se rites, is now resumed and finished. The" whole cere- mony is performed in Westminster Abbey. The seat of St. Edward's chair contains an old black stone, on which the ancient kings of Scotland were crowned at Scone ; it was carried to Eng- land by Edward I., and by him placed in West- minster Abbey, in the seat since used at all English coronations. About this curious relic there is a very ancient Scotch prophecy, whicli has proved true. (Palmer's Origines Litunjica.) Corporate, the cloth upon which the Euchar- ist is deposited, and which is an object of great reverence in the Romish and Greek Churches ; it is known by the names KnXu/x./iirnt, palla, sindon, antimensia. Some gi\-e as a reason why it should be of pure white liner., that it was in such a substance that Joseph of Arimathea wrapped our Lord's body. For the same reason the Romanists forbid any decoration to it : the Greeks, on the other hand, embroider a Calvary in the centre, bearing three crosses, and the corpse of our Saviour recumbent at the foot ; at the four corners, also, they insert the four mystical beasts of the evangelists. The folding and un- folding of the corporale b}- the priest at the altar was accompanied with great ceremony, and was supposed to involve some very high mysteries. (Durandi, Rationale; Du Cange, Glossarium.) Corpus Chriati, a festival of the Romish Church, instituted by Urban IV. a.d. V2iJi, in honour of the Eucharist, and observed on the first Thursday after Trinity Sunday. Tliom.T3 Aquinas was employed to draw up the service for this commemoration. IJefore the Reforma- tion, on the day of the feast, and those succeed- ing it, mysteries were represented in many parts of England. One, the Liidas Coventria; acted by the minorites or mendicant friars, is still extant; and a copy of it exists in the Cotton Library in the Rri'tish JIuseum. On this day, also, the host was carried about in procession, magnificently enshrined. Correspoinlcnccft, the namoof a peculiar and baseless kind of interpretation which characterizes the followers of Swedenborg, depending upon the harmony supposed to exist between the visible and the invisible world. The uiiiverso is be- lieved to be made after a peculiar pattern, that cou being the human form. A spirit dwelling in that portion of it which corresponds to the heart or liver made his influence felt in the region of Swedenborg's heart and liver before the eye can discern him. Thus tlie inhabitants of Mercury correspond to memory in the " Grand Man," and those of the Moon to the sword-shaped cartilage at the bottom of the breast-bone, while space and time are states of thought and love. In this way Swedenborg easily and cheaply travelled through the universe from planet to planet, by bringing his own mind into a condition similar to that which he supposed to belong to the star which he wished to visit. The same visionary applied a similar principle to the interpretation of Scrip- ture, Thus the first chapter of Genesis, record- ing the creation of the universe and the fitting up of this globe for the abode of man, is declared by the doctrine of correspondence to have no such meaning, but to describe how a man rises out of ruin, and ascends, stage after stage, to spiritual perfect ion. The interpreter of the Book of inspira- tion by such crazy fancies, would require himself a second inspiration. -See Swedenborgians. Council, in ecclesiastical history, is a con- vention of pastors, assembled together for the regulation of ecclesiastical affairs. It may reason abh' be supposed that, as Christianity spread, circumstances would arise which would make consultation necessary among those who had embraced the Gospel, or at least among those who were employed in its propaga- tion. Not long after the ascension of the Saviour, in consequence of a dispute whether the yoke of the law should be imposed on the Gentile converts, an assemblv of the " apostles and elders" (Acts xv. 4, 23) was convened ; ■who, after consultation, having decided the point in question, sent their decree, which they declared to have been made under the direction of the Holy Ghost, to all the churches, and commanded that it should be the rule of their conduct. This is generally considered to be the first council; but it differed from all others in this circumstance, that it was under the especial guidance of the Spirit of God. Al- though the Gospel was soon after propagated in man}- parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa, there does not appear to have been any public meeting (if Christians, held for the purpose of discussing any contested point, until the middle of the second century. From that time councils be- came frequent ; but as they consisted only of those who belonged to particular districts or countries, they are usually termed provincial or vational councils, in contradistinction to (Ecu- menical or general councils, which were com- posed of delegates or commissioners from all the Churches in the Christian world, and which consequently represented the Church universal. The number of councils which, according to chronologers and historians, have been held at various times, is very great. Dr. Playfair COU reckons 1504 in all countries between the years A.D. 33 and 1549; Baxter computes 481 provincial councils; and M. Du Fresnoy a much larger number. Authors are by no means agreed concerning the number of general councils. The Papists usually reckon eighteen ; but Protestant writers will not allow that nearly so many had a right to that name. Bullinger reckons only six ; Dr. Prideaux, seven ; and Bishop Beve- ridge, eight. Tlie following are the principal councils noticed in ecclesiastical history. 1. The Council of Nice derives its name from Nicae or Nice, a city of Bithjmia, at which it was convened, A.D. 325, bj' order of the Emperor Constantine, who was present during its deliberations. The bishops assembled, who were 318 in number, condemned the Arian heresy, and framed the creed, which is hence called the Nicene. 2. The Second General Council was that held at Constantinople a.d. 381, by order of the Em- peror Theodosius the Great. In it were con- demned the Macedonian heretics, who denied the divinity of the Holy Ghost. Though usually termed a general council, this assembly was actually composed of only 150 bishops of the Eastern Empire. 3. The Council held at Ephesus A.D. 431, under the Emperor Theo- dosius the Younger, is the third general council. Two hundred bishops who were convened at this council, condemned the heretical ttiiets charged upon Nestorius, and declared that Christ was one divine person, in whom two natures were most closely and intimately united, without being mixed or confounded. 4. The Fourth General Council, called A.D. 451, by order of the Emperor Marcian, was summoned to assemble at Nice, but was afterwards held at Chalcedon, in Bithynia. This council, which was composed of COO, or (according to some writers) 630 bishops, established the catholic faith concerning the mystery of the incarnation of Jesus Christ, in op- position to the errors of Eutyches, who had affirmed that there was but one nature in Christ. 5. The Fifth General Council, and the second of Con- stantinople, was held a.d. 553, by command of the Emperor Justinian. The principal transac- tion of this council was the condemnation of the " three chapters." — See Chapters, Three. G. The Sixth General Council, and the third of Con- stantinople, was assembled by order of the Emperor Constantius Pogonatus. This council condemned the heresy of the Monothelites, who allowed only one will to Christ. 7. The Seventh General Council was convened to compose the disputes which had arisen on the subject of image-worship. It met at Constantinople in 786 ; but its deliberations being disturbed by the violence of the Iconoclasts or image-breakers, the Empress Irene desired its members to disperse for the present. In the following year it resumed its deliberations, whence it is called the second of Nice. It determined that a relative honour 76 cou was to be given to holy pictures and images, and denounced severe punishments against all who maintained that God was the only object of religious adoration. 8. Tlie Eighth General Council, or fourth of Constantinople, was held at that city in 8G9. In it the worship of images was confirmed ; and the disputes between the Latin and Greek Churches were concluded, or at least suspended. These are all the councils reputed by Protestant writers to be oecumenical or general ; but the Church of Rome has added nine others, whose decrees she pronounces to be obligatory upon the consciences of all men. Of these the most memorable is the Council of Trent, which was convokad and opened under the pontificate of Paul III., in December, 1545, and continued under Julius III.; and which, after sitting, with some interruption, eighteen years, was brought to a close in 1563o This council, though termed by Eomanists a general council, was so far from being general that only 196 popish bishops were present: they unani- mously condemned the Reformation, and con- firmed all the doctrinal corruptions of Popery. The first four councils, it will be seen, were con- voked by the emperors of the East, whose dominions included the whole, or nearly the whole of Christendom ; and they continued to exercise the same power for several centuries afterwards. But at length the popes of Rome, among other usurpations, assumed to themselves the right of summoning general councils ; and the first which met by their authority was the first Laleran Council, in the year 1123. Abstracts of the proceedings of general councils will be found in the ecclesiastical histories of Mosheim, Du Fin, and others. In Dr. Cave's Ilisloria Literuria there are extant several collections of their canons ; and in Dr. Grier's Epitome of the General Councils of the Church, from the Council of Nice to the conclusion of the Roman Council of Trent, (Dublin and London, 1828, 8vo.) The two most celebrated of these are — -1. The Concilia Generalia, edited by Severinus Binius, of which there are three ecUtions; one printed at Cologne in 1606, and again in 1618, in four volumes folio, and another in Paris in 1638, in nine volumes folio; and 2. edited by Philip Labbe and Gabriel Cossart, (Paris, 1671, 1672), in seventeen closely printed volumes, to which Stephen Baluze published a supplement, in 1683, in one volume. These, and some other collections by popish editors, are confessedly works of great labour and learning ; but they must be consulted with suspicion, on account of the fraudulent alterations introduced into them ; which have been ably exposed by our learned Countrymen, Thomas James, in his Treatise of the Corruption of Scripture, Councils, and Fathers, by the Prelates, Pastors, and Pillars of the Churcli of Rome, for maintenance of Po/icrij (London, 1688, 8vo.); and by Dr. Thomas Comber, Dean of Durham, in his Roman For- COU (jeries in the Councils, during the fust four centuries ; toget/ter with an Appendix concern- ing the Forgeries and Errors in the Annals of llaronius, (Loudon, 1689, 4to.) The following is a chronological list of the more famous of the councils: — A.D. 215 Africa, under Agrippinus. 240 Africa, under Donatus. 251-256 Africa, several under Cvprian. 265 Antioch 1. 269 Antioch 2. 313 Rome, against the Donatists. 313 Elvira (al. 305, al. 321.) 314 Ancyra, in Galatia. 314 Aries 1. 315 Neocaesarea. 324 Gangra, in Paphlagonia 325 Nica;a 1 (first general council). 344 Sardica. 348 Carthage 1. 359 Ariminum, or Rimini. 361 Laodicea. 362 Alexandria. 381 Aquileia. 381 Constantinople! (second general council). 381 Saragossa. 390 Carthago 2. 393 Hippo. 397 Carthage 3. 399 Carthage 4. 400 Toledo 1. 401 Carthage 5. 402 Turin. 402 Milevi 1. 416 Mile\-i 2. 419 Carthage 6, 419 Carthage 7. 431 Ephesus (third general council). 441 Orange 1. 442 Yaison 1. 451 Chalcedon (fourth general council). 452 Aries 2. 455 Aries 3. 461 Tours 1. 465 Rome, under Hilary. 494 Rome, under Gelasius. 499 Rome, under Syinmachus. 506 Agde. 511 Orleans 1. 516 Tarracona. 517 Epone. 524 Lerida. 529 Orange 2. 529 Vaison 2. 531 Toledo 2. 533 Orleans 2. 538 Orleans 3. 553 Constantiuople 2 (fifth general council). 561 Braga 1. 567 Tours 2. 572 Braga 2. 678 Au.\crre. ■7 N i cou A.D. 581 Miicon 1. 585 Macon 2. 589 Narbonne. 589 Toledo 3. 590 Seville 1. 619 Seville 2. 633 Toledo 4.. 636 Toledo 5. 638 Toledo 6. 646 Toledo 7. 653 Toledo 8. 655 Toledo 9. 656 Toledo 10. 670 Autua. 675 Toledo 11. 680 Constantinople 3 (sixth general council). 681 Toledo 12 692 Constantinople, Trullan. 786 Nicrea 2 (seventh general council). 788 Aix-la-Chapelle. 815 Mentz. 869 Constantinople 4 (eighth general council). Couriers (Jioi^o/A-ei), messengers sent out to give notice of the day and hour of religious meetings, doing the work of modem bells. Courts, Ecclesiastical or Spiritual. — Court of Augmentation, a court, created 27 Henry VIII., for determining suits and contro- versies relating to monasteries and abbey lands. Tliis court was dissolved by parliament, 1 Queen ]\Iarv ; the Augmentation Office, however, still exists, in whicli there are a variety of valuable records, connected with lands formerly belong- ing to monasteries and abbeys. Court of Iligh Commission, originated in the Act of Supremacy passed 1559, which empowered Queen Elizabeth to choose commissioners who might exercise supreme jurisdiction in spiritual or ecclesiastical matters. The court so formed claimed a pre-eminence over the ordinary courts of the bishops. The rack and other means of torture were weapons confided to them. They were bound by no rules or precedents in receiving evidence or in imposing penalties, but acted as they pleased, and soon became odious as a terrific and lawless inquisition. In 1610 a court of this nature was erected by -James VI. in Scotland, and re-erected in 16G4, the last consisting of nine prelates and thirty-five laymen. It was armed with highest authority, and had a militarj' force at its command. It had also an organized espionage, with agents everywhere. Its deeds were high-handed and summary. The fines im- posed ruined many — many were imprisoned till life was despaired of — many were banished to un- healthy districts, and some were even sold for slaves. Oil suspicion of being antiprelatic in opinion and act, hosts of people were arraigned before this op- pressive tribunal ; and of all who appeared no one is said to have escaped a severe punishment. Accusation was usually equivalent to swift conviction. GOV Cowt of Archdeacon is the lowest court in the ecclesiastical polity of the Anglican Church. Its jurisdiction is sometimes in concurrence with, and sometimes in exclusion of the bishop's diocesan court. The Court of Arches (so called because it used to be held in Bow Church, Sancta if aria de Arcu- bus), is the chief consistory court belonging to the Archbishop of Canterbury, for the debating of spiritual causes. The judge of this court is called the dean of the arches; he hath jurisdiction in all ecclesiastical causes, except those which be- long to the prerogative court, and also in all matters of appeal from bishops, or their chancel- lors or commissaries, deans, and chapters. Court, Bishop's, or Consistory Court, is held in the cathedral of each diocese, for the trial of ecclesiastical causes within that diocese The Court of Conscience, or Court of Bequests, Curia Conscientiw, was erected in the 9 Henry VIII. in London, and an act of common council then appointed commissioners to sit in the court twice a-week, to determine all matters between citizens and freemen of London, in which the debt or damage was under 40s. This act of com- mon council was confiraied 1 James I. By this the court issues its summons, the commis- sioners examine on oath, and decide by summary process, making such orders touching debts " as they should find to stand to equity and good conscience." The commissioners may commit to prison for disobedience of their summons. Va- rious subsequent acts have regulated and ex- tended these powers. Court of Faculties belongs to the Archbishop of Canterbury ; its power is to grant dispensa- tions for the marriage of persons without the publications of banns, to ordain a deacon under canonical age, to enable a son to succeed his father in a benefice, or one person to hold two or more benefices incompatible with each other. Cotirt of Peculiars is a spiritual court, an- nexed to the Court of Arches, held in such parishes as are exempt from the jurisdiction of bishops, and are peculiarly belonging to the Arch- bishop of Canterbury. Court of Prerogative, held at Doctors' Com- mons in London, in which all wills and testa- ments are proved, and administrations granted on the estates of persons dying intestate, &c. Court of Teinds, that portion of the judges of the Court of Session that administer the law as to the revenues of the Scottish Established Church. Meetings of session, presbytery, synod, and general assembly are usually termed courts. Cousins, ITIarriage of. — See Marriage. Covenanters of Scotland, known also by the name of Cameronians : their former name is derived from the covenant they subscribed, the latter from one of their leaders. They formed a numerous bod\' of men, who exerted a powerful influence in moulding the religious character of cov their country, and by it their memories are still chenshed and revered. Their history is that of Scotland at a very important period, and to under- stand tlieir position and conduct aright we require to bear in mind some events of an earlier date. On December 3, 1557. we find the first example in Scotland of covenanting. On that day tiie Lords of the Congregation drew up and signed a covenant, which embodied a declaration of their religious belief, .and their determination to secure for it a complete toleration. On the 30th IMay, two years later, another covenant was signed b}' them, in which they more distinctly bound them- selves to give mutual aid in arms against all attacking them for the sake of religion. In spite of persecution and intestinal wars Scotland soon became a Protestant country, and when, in 1581, James VI. was thought to be too much under the influence of popish favourites, the country, jealous of its dearly purchased religious freedom, became very excited. To tranquillize their minds King James caused Mr. John Craig, an Edinburgh minister, to draw up a confession, abjuring Popery, which, on January 28, 1581, he subscribed. It is hence called indiscriminately Craig's Confession, or the King's Confession. But as by the king's orders, it was sent through the countr}' to be universally subscribed, it ultimately came to be known as the First National Covenant, of Scotland. In accordance with the recom- mendation of the king and council, the General Assembly at Edinburgh, soon after formally gave to the Church of Scotland a Presbyterian con- stitution. Attempts on the part of Arran, Len- nox, and others of the nobility, to re-establish bishops, roused the country to a solemn renewal of the covenant in 1590 ; and as the king con- tinued to give indications of a bias towards pre- lacy, this was repeated by the General Assembly in 1596. After his accession to the English throne, this bias became quite apparent, and his feelings gradually deepened into a hatred of Presby terianism and covenanting. He soon began to carry things with a high hand. In 160G, having failed to overawe the assembly, he tried ttie parliament, and induced it to restore the office and honours of the various bishoprics. This was followed in four years by his appointing bishops to the sees of Glasgow, Brechin, and Galloway. They, after their arrival, appointed an Archbishop of St. Andrew's, and various other bishops. To obtain their recognition by the ministers and people, coercive measures were employed, and the prisons were filled with numbers of the Presby- terian clergy and others. The country was highly excited, and still further disturbances arose when the attempt was made by the king to introduce the English service and forms. The liturgy was peculiarly obnoxious, and the churches where the bishops or conforming clergy preached were the scenes of frequent uproar. On Sabbath, 23d July, 1G37, the dean of Edin- burgh attempted to read the liturgy in St. Giles's, COV when Jenny Gcddes threw her stool at his head, as she vociferated, " Villain, dost thou say mass at my lug V " The uproar created an alarm which rapidly increased through the countrj'. The fol- lowing year (1G38) the covenant was nationally renewed, thus organizing opposition more firmly to episcopal innovation. The assembly, too, which the king had allowed to meet, in spite of his pro- liibition of further proceedings, at a certain stage triiid and condemned the bishops. It firmly protested against all prelacy, and any claims of spiritual supremacy advanced by the king, declar- ing, " That it is unlawful itself, and prejudicial to the privileges that Christ has left his Church, for the king to dissolve or break up the assemblies of this kirk, or stay their proceedings ; for it would then follow that religion and church government depended absolutely on the pleasure of the prince," &c. Henceforward the Presbyterians are more particularly known as Covenanters. The opposition to which they had connnitted themselves concerned principles peculiarly dear to the pious Scotch. It was to be one of long continuance, and one in which the}' were to undergo great persecutions. From contempora- ries we learn that thev were most scrupulous in permitting persons to sign tlie covenant. Men of note were refused, if it was supposed they were influenced more by " the fear of men " than by "love for the cause." The supporters of the covenant were not therefore "men of unquiet spirits and broken fortunes," as some say. Everywhere the covenant was ratified with the greatest enthusiasm. A supplication they sent to the king was contemptuously rejected ; and an attempt was made to arrest one of their deputies in London. The privy council report- ed the cause of the disturbances arose from " fear of innovations in religion, and their forcible in- troduction, contrary to tlie laws of the realm." Traquair admitted the same, and advised pre- temled concessions for the time, to aUay the dis- turbances, and these to be afterwards recalled. The lawj'ers, when consulted, informed the king of the legality of the conduct of the Cove- nanters. If Traquair recommended an insincere policy he was better than the Bishops of Koss and Brechin, who advised persecuting, coercive mea- sures. The country was higlily excited, and extensive preparations were made by the cove- nanting party for its defence; nearly all the for- tresses of any strength were seized by tliom, and they had amongst them many able ollicers, as Leslie, Jlonro, Argyle. The king's deceitful at- tempts on the ecclesiastical courts had already failed ; and when Charios found himself unable to cope with tliem by force, under the able general- ship of Leslie, a "treaty of peace was signed be- tween the two armies, the ICoyal and tlie Presby- terian, on the 18th June, lti-2"." ; and a declaration on the part of the king was made, conceding all that the Covenanters required. But in the fol- lowing year war was renewed. Amongst tlio 17i) \ GOV leading divines of the Covenanters were Alexander Henderson, Samuel Rutherford, D. Dickson, and G. Gillespie. These attended to the spiritual wants of their army, which in this respect was as re- markable as Oliver Cromwell's. On the 2 1st of August, by invitation, they entered England ; and as Charles was unable to meet them in the field, a truce was concluded, October 26. As this war becomes now almost entirely political in charac- ter, we pass on to 1643, when we find that the covenant was renewed in the slightly altered form proceeding from the Westminster assembly. Blontrose, from being a friend of the covenant, became one of its most violent enemies. At the head of a small but gallant band, he earned fire and sword through the counties of Perth, Aber- deen, and Argyle. When Charles II. came over to Scotland, 1650, he signed the cove- nant before landing. In 1651, at his corona- tion at Scone, he again signed it ; but, on his restoration, he soon showed his dislike to Pies- byterianism. On various pretexts he began imprisoning their most distinguished ministers. In 1661 the Scottish parliament were induced to pass ua act rescinding the covenant. The same year Argyle was arrested on various charges — one blaming him with the formation of the Solemn League and Covenantwith England — and he was condemned and executed. Prelacy was to be restored. Sharp, a renegade from Presbyter- ianism, became Archbishop of St. Andrew's. The persecution in Scotland began to be general. The more noted covenanting ministers, as Gillespie, Guthrie, &c., and leaders, as Govan and others, besides Argyle, were tried and executed first. In 1664 the court of high commission was revived in Scotland. On Sharp the blame of its restora- tion and most of its atrocities must lie. The commissioners were authorized to call before them "all obstinate contemners of the discipline of the churches — all keepers of conventicles — all who preached in private houses, or elsewhere, kept fasts, or administered the Lord's Supper — all who spoke, preached, wrote, or printed to the scandal or detriment of the government in church or state — all absentees from public worship, — and to punish them by fine or imprisonment, &c., according to lata." This reservation the king craftily contrived to over-ride and nuUify in the commission, by further "authorizing and em- powering them to do and execute lohatever they shall find necessary for his majesty's service." Torture — as by the thumbkins and the boot — was constantlj' made use of, and death was a not less frequent punishment. As a consequence, there were risings at Dumfries and elsewhere : at Pentland they were easily suppressed by the royal troops ; and these risings afforded a pretext for fresh cruelties towards the Presby tei-ian Cove- vanters. Open-air conventicles soon became not uncommon, and military interference was as fre- quent. Attempts were made on Sharp's life ; but ujjc of these succeeded till May 3, 1679, when GOV he was killed travelling near St. Andrews. All government attempts to discover who did it failed, though the persons were well known to their party. The Act of Indulgence in 1669 di^^ded the Covenanters into two bodies, and the party headed by Cargill and Cameron adopted extreme views. Renewed risings followed re- newed cruelties. Drumclog was fought, and then came the melancholy termination at Both- well Bridge, 1679. Claverhouse and others like- minded, now ravaged the country for six j^ears, killing, without form of trial, all who even hesi- tated to abjure the covenant ; for such hesitation was proclaimed a capital offence by parliament, acting under the pressure of the government. Under James II. things continued much the same, and it was not till the glorious Revolution of 1688 that the Covenanters were freed from persecution. The Covenanters have impressed themselves on the heart of Scotland b}' their courage and enthusiasm, their piety and their patriotism, — by the dangers which they encoun- tered and the trials they endured. An air of romance is thrown around their history ; and the Scottish imagination ever pictures them as saints and soldiers. It is impossible rightly to under- stand the characters of the individual men without perusing their memoirs. The Scottish Worthies, by Howie, is the Martyrology of Scotland. Many other interesting collections of lives of individual Covenanters exist. At various periods since 1688 Presbyterian Churches in Scotland have renewed the covenant engagement. — For the Reformed Presbj'terians or Cameronians, who regard themselves as representatives of the old Covenanters, see Scotland, Churches in. Re- formed Presbyterfans. (Taylor's Pictorial Hist, of Scotland; Marsden's Diet, of Christ. Churches and Sects, &c.) Covenants, two verj' extraordinary docu- ments in the ecclesiastical history of Scotland and of the United Kingdom : — The National Covenant was "subscribed at first by the King's Majesty, and his household, in the year 1580 ; thereafter by persons of all ranks in the year 1581, hj ordinance of the Lords of secret council, and acts of the General Assembly ; subscribed again by aU sorts of persons in the year 1590, by a new ordinance of council, at the desire of the General Assembly, with a general bond for the maintaining of the true Christian religion, and the King's person ; and, together w'th a resolution and promise, for the causes after expressed, to maintain the true religion, and the King's Jlajestj', according to the foresaid confession and acts of Parliament, sub- scribed by Barons, Nobles, Gentlemen, Burgesses, Ministers, and Commons, in the year 1638, approven by the General Assembly 1638 and 1639 ; and subscribed again by persons of all ranks and qualities in the year 1639, by an ordinance of council, upon the supplication of the General Assembly, and act of the General 180 cov Assembly, ratified b}' an act of rarliament 1640 ; and subscribed by King Charles II. at Spey, June 23, 1G50, and Scone, January 1, 1651." It was as follows: — "WE all and every one of us under-written, protest. That, after long and due examination of our own con- sciences in matters of true and false religion, we are now throughly resolved in the truth by the Word and Spirit of God : and there- fore we believe with our hearts, confess with our mouths, subscribe with our bauds, and con- stantly affirm, before God and the whole world, that this only is the true Christian faith and religion, pleasing God, and bringing salvation to man, which now is, by tlie mercy of God, re- vealed to the world by the preaching of the blessed evangel ; and is received, believed, and defended by many and sundry notable kirks and realms, but chiefly by the kirk of Scotland, the King's Majesty, and three estates of this realm, ai God's eternal truth, and only ground of our salvation ; as more particularly is expressed in the Confession of our Faith, established and pub- lickly confirmed by sundry acts of Parliaments, and now of a long time hath been openly pro- fessed by the King's Majesty, and whole body of tliis realm both in burgh and land. To the which Confession and Form of Religion we willingly agree in our conscience in all points, as unto God's undoubted truth and verit}', grounded only upon his written Word. And tlierefore we abhor and detest all contrary reli- gion and doctrine ; but chiefly all kind of Papistry in general and particular heads, even as tiiey are now damned and confuted by the Word of God and Kirk of Scotland. But, in special, we detest and refuse the usurped authority of that Roman Antichrist upon the Scriptures of God, upon the kirk, the civil magistrate, and consciences of men ; all his tyrannous laws made upon indifferent things against our Christian liberty ; his erroneous doctrine against the suffi- ciency of the written Word, the perfection of the law, the office of Christ, and his blessed evangel ; his corrupted doctrine concerning original sin, our natural inability and rebellion to God's law, our justification by faith only, our imperfect sanctification and obedience to the law; the nature, number, and use of the holy sacraments ; his five bastard sacraments, with all his rites, ceremonies, and false doctrine, added to the ministration of the true sacraments without the Word of God ; his cruel judgment against infants departing without the sacrament; his absolute necessity of baptism ; his blasphemous opinion of transubstantiation, or real presence of Christ's body in the elements, and receiving of the same by the wicked, or bodies of men ; his dispensa- tions with solemn oaths, perjuries, and degrees of man-iage forbidden in the wonl ; his cruelty against the innocent divorced ; his devilish mass ; his blaspheninus priesthood ; his profane sacrifice for sins of the dead and the quick ; his canoniza- 181 COV tion of men; calling upon angels or saints departed, worshipping of imagery, relicks, and crosses ; dedicating of kirks, altars, days ; vows to creatures; his purgatory, pravers for the dead; praymg or speaking in a strange lan- guage, witli his processions, and blasphemous litany, and multitude of advocates or mediators ; his manifold orders, auricular confession; his desperate and uncertain repentance ; his general and doubtsome faith; his satisfactions of men for their sins; his justification bv works, opus operatum, works of supererogation, merits, par- dons, peregrinations, and stations; his holy water, baptizing of bells, conjuring of spirits, crossing, sayning, anointing, conjuring, hallow- ing of God's good creatures, with the supersti- tious opinion joined therewith ; his worldly monarchy, and wicked hierarchy ; his three solemn vows, with all his shavellings of sundry sorts; his erroneous and bloody decrees made at Trent, with all the subscribers or approvers of that cruel and bloody band, conjured against the kirk of God. And finally, we detest all his vain alle- gories, rites, signs, and traditions brought in the kirk, without or against the Word of" God, and doctrine of this true reformed kirk ; to the whicli we join ourselves willingly, in doctrine, faith, religion, discipline, and use of the holy sacra- ments, as lively members of the same in Christ our head : promising and swearing, by the great name of the LORD our GOD, that we shall continue in the obedience of the doctrine and discipline of this kirk, and shall defend the same, according to our vocation and power, all the days of our lives; under the pains contained in the law, and danger both of body and soul in the day of God's fearful judgment. And seeing that many are stirred up by Satan, and tliat Roman Antichrist, to promise, swear, subscribe, and for a time use the holy sacraments in the kirk deceitfully, against their own conscience ; mind- ing hereby, first, under the external cloak of religion, to corrupt and subvert secretly God's true religion within the kirk ; and afterward, when time may serve, to become open enemies and persecutors of the same, under vain hope of the Pope's dispensation, devised against the 'iVord of God, to his greater confusion, and their double condemnation in the day of tlie Lord Jesus : we therefore, willing to take away all suspicion of hypocrisy, and of such double deal- ing with God, and his kirk, protest, and call the Searcher of all hearts for witness, tiiat our minds and hearts do fully agree with this our Confes- sion, promise, oath, and subscription : so that we are not moved with any worldy respect, but are persuaded only in our conscience, through the knowledge and love of God's true religion imprinted in our hearts by the Holy Spirit, as we siiall answer to him in the day when the secrets of all hearts shall be disclosed. And because we perceive, that the quietness and stability of our religion and kirk doth depend GOV upon tlie safety and good behaviour of the King's Majesty, as upou a comfortable instrument of God's mercy granted to this country, for the maintaining of his kirk, and ministration of justice amongst us ; we protest and promise with our hearts, under the same oath, hand- writ, and pains, that we shall defend his person and authority with our goods, bodies, and lives, in the defence of Christ, his evangel, liberties of our countrj-, ministration of justice, and punish- ment of iniquity, against all enemies within this realm or without, as we desire our God to be a strong and merciful defender to us in the day of our death, and coming of our Lord Jesus Christ ; to whom, with the Father, and the Holy Spirit, be all honour and glory eternallj'. Amen. " LIKEAS many Acts of Parliament, not only in general do abrogate, annul, and rescind all laws, statutes, acts, constitutions, canons civil or municipal, with all other ordinances, and prac- tique penalties whatsoever, made in prejudice of the true religion, and professors thereof; or of the true kirk, discipline, jurisdiction, and freedom thereof; or in favours of idolatry and super- stition, or of the Papistical kirk : As Act 3, Act 31 Pari. 1, Act 23 Pari. 11, Act 114 Pari. 12 of King James VI. That Papistrj' and superstition may be utterlj- suppressed, according to the intention of the Acts of Par- liament, repeated in the fifth Act Pari. 20, King James VI. And to that end they ordain all Papists and Priests to be punished with manifold civil and ecclesiastical pains, as adver- saries to God's true religion, preached, and by law established, within this realm, Act 24 Pari. 11, King James VI.; as common enemies to all Christian government. Act 18 Pari. 16, King James VI. ; as rebellers and gainstanders of our Sovereign Lord's authority, Act 47 Pari. 3, King James VI. ; and as idolaters, Act 104 Pari. 7. King James VI. But also in par- ticular, by and attour the Confession of Faith, do abolish and condemn the Pope's authoritj' and jurisdiction out of this land, and ordains the maintainers thereof to be pu.ushed. Act 2 Pari. 1, Act 61 Pari. 3, Act 106 Pari. 7, Act. 114 Pari. 12, King James VI., do condemn the Pope's erroneous doctrine, or any other erroneous doctrine repugnant to any of the articles of the true and Christian religion, publickly preached and by law established in this realm ; and ordains the spreaders and makers of books or libels, or letters or writs of that nature to be punished. Act 46 Pari. 3, Act 106 Pari. 7, Act 24 Pari. 11, King James VI., do condemn all baptism conform to the Pope's kirk, and the idt)latry of the mass ; and ordains all sayers, wilful hearers, and concealers of the mass, the maintainers and resetters of the priests, Jesuits, trafficking Papists, to be punished without any exception or restriction. Act 5 Pari. 1, Act 120 Pari. 12, Act 164 Pari. 13, Act 193 Pari. 14, Act I Pari. 19, Act 5 Pari. 20, King GOV James VI., do condemn all erroneous books and writs containing erroneous doctrine against the religion presently professed, or containing super- stitious rites and ceremonies Papistical, whereby the people are greatly abused, and ordains the home-bringers of them to be punished. Act 25 Pari. 11, King James VI., do condemn the monuments and dregs of bygone idolatry, as going to crosses, observing the festival days of saints, and such other superstitious and Papis- tical rites, to the dishonour of God, contempt of true religion, and fostering of great eiTor among the people ; and ordains the users of them to be punished for the second fault, as idolaters, Act 104 Pari. 7, King James VI. — Likeas many Acts of Parliament are conceived for mainten- ance of God's true and Christian religion, and the purity thereof, in doctrine and sacraments of the true church of God, the liberty and freedom thereof, in her national, synodal assemblies, presbyteries, sessions, policy, discipline, and jurisdiction thereof; as that puritj' of religion, and liberty of the church was used, professed, exercised, preached, and confessed, according to the reformation of religion in this realm : As for instance, the 99th Act ParL 7, Act 25 ParL 11, Act 114 Pari. 12, Act 160 Pari. 13 of Kuig James VI., ratified by the 4th Act of King Charles. So that the 6th Act Pari. 1, and 68th Act Pari. 6, of King James VI., in the year of God 1579, declare the ministers of the blessed evangel, whom God of his mere}' had raised up, or hereafter should raise, agreeing with them that then lived, in doctrine and administration of the sacraments ; and the people that professed Christ, as he was then offered in the evangel, and doth communicate with the holy sacraments (as in the reformed kirks of this realm they were presently administrate) according to the Confes- sion of Faith, to be the true and holy kirk of Christ Jesus within tliis realm. And decerns and declares all and sundry, who either gainsay the word of the evangel received and approved as the heads of the Confession of Faith, professed in Parliament in the year of God 1560, specified also in the first Parliament of King James VI., and ratified in this present Parliament, more particularly do express ; or that refuse the administration of the holy sacraments, as they were then ministrated ; to be no members of the said kirk within this realm, and true religion presently professed, so long as they keep them- selves so divided from the society of Christ's bod}'. And the subsequent Act 69 Pari. 6 of King James VI. declares, that there is no other face of kirk, nor other face of religion, than was presently at that time, by the lavour of God, established within this realm : ' Which there- fore is ever styled God's true religion, Christ's true religion, the true and Christian religion, and a perfect religion ;' which, by manifold Acts of Parliament, all within this realm are bound to profess, to subscribe the articles thereof, the Coii- 1S2 cov fession of Faith, to recant all doctrine and errors repugnant to any of the said articles, Act 4 and 9 Pari. 1, Acts 45, 46, 47 Pari. 3, Act 71 Pari. 6, Act 106 Pari. 7, Act 24 Pari. 11, Act 123 Pari. 12, Act 194 and 197 Pari. 14, of King James VI. And all magistrates, sheriffs, &c., on the one part, are ordained to search, apprehend, and punish all contraveuers : For instance. Act 6 Pari. 1, Act 104 Pari. 7, Act 25 Pari. 11, King James VI.; and that notwithstanding of the King's Majesty's licences on the contrary, wliich are dischai'ged, and declared to be of no force, in so far as they tend in anywise to the prejudice and hinder of the execution of the Acts of Parliament against Papists and adversaries of true religion. Act 106 Pari. 7, King James VI. On the other part, in the 47th Act Pari. 3, King James VI., it is declared and ordained. Seeing the cause of God's true religion and his Highness's authority are so joined, as the hurt of the one is common to both ; that none shall be reputed as loyal and faithful subjects to our sovereign Lord, or his authority, but be punishable as rebellers and gainstanders of the same, who shall not give their confession, and make their profession of the said true religion : and that they who, after defection, shall give the confession of their faith of new, they shall promise to continue therein in time coming, to maintain our sovereign Lord's authority, and at the uttermost of their power to fortify, assist, and maintain the true preachers and professors of Christ's religion, against whatsoever enemies and gainstanders of the same ; and namely, against all such, of whatsoever nation, estate, or degree they be of, that have joined or bound themselves, or have assisted or assist, to set forward and execute the cruel decrees of the council of Trent, contrary to the true preachers and professors of the Word of God ; which is repeated, word by word, in the articles of pacification at Perth, the 23d of February, 1572, approved by Parliament the last of April, 1573, ratified in Parliament 1587, and related Act 123 Pari. 12 of King James VI. ; with this addition, ' That they are bound to resist all treasonable uproars and hostilities raised against the true religion, the King's Majest}-, and the true professors.' — Likeas, all lieges are bound to maintain the King's M;ijesty's royal person and authority, the authority of Parliaments, without the which neither anj' laws or lawful judicatories can be established, Act 130 and 131 Pari. 8, King James VI., and the subjects' liberties, who ought only to live and be governed by the King's laws, the common laws of this realm allenarly. Act 48 Pari. 3, King James I., Act 79 Pari. 6, King James IV., repeated in the Act 131 Pari. 8, King James VI. ; which if they be innovated and prejudged, ' the commission anent the union of the two kingdoms of Scotland and England, which is the sole act of the 17th Pari, of King James VI., declares,' COV such confusion would ensue as this realm could be no more a free monarchy ; because, by the fundamental law.s, ancient privileges, ofTices, and liberties of this kingdom, not only the princely authority of his Majesty's royal descent haih been these many ages maintained, but also the people's security of their lands, livings, rights, oflices, liberties, and dignities preserved. Anfl therefore, for the preservation of the said true religion, laws, and liberties of this kingdom, it is statute by the 8th Act Pari. 1, repeated in the 99th Act Pari. 7, ratified in the 23d Act Pari. 11, and 114 th Act Pari. 12, of King James VI., and 4th Act Pari. 1, of King Charles I. 'That all Kings and Princes at their coronation, and reception of their princely authority, shall make their faithful promise by their solemn oath, in the presence of the eternal God, that, enduring the whole time of their lives, they shall serve the same eternal God, to the uttermost of their power, according as ho hath required in his most holy Word, contained in the Old and New Testament ; and according to the same Word, shall maintain the true religion of Christ Jesus, the preaching of his holy Word, the due and right ministration of the sacraments now received and preached within this realm, (according to the Confession of Faith imme- diately preceding), and shall abolish and gain- stand all false religion contrary to the same ; and shall rule the people committed to their charge, according to the will and command of God revealed in his foresaid Word, and according to the laudable laws and constitutions received in this realm, nowise repugnant to the said will of the eternal God; and shall procure, to the uttermost of their power, to the kirk of God, and whole Christian people, true and perfect peace in all time coming: and that they shall be careful to root out of their empire all hereticks and enemies to the true worsliip of God, who shall be convicted by the true kirk of God of the foresaid crimes.' Which was also observed by his Majesty, at his coronation in Edinburgh, 1 C33, as may be seen in the order of the coronation. In obedience to the commandment of God, con- form to the practice of the godly in former limes, and according to the laudable example of our worthv and religious progenitors, and of many yet living amongst us, which was warranted also by act of council, connnanding a general band to be made and subscribed by his Majesty's subjects of all ranks ; for two causes : one was, For defending the true religion, as it was then reformed, and is expressed in the Confession of Faith above written, and a former large Con- fession established by sundry acts of lawful General Assemblies and of Parliaments, unto which it hath relation, set down in publick Catechisms ; and wiiich hath been for muny years, with a blessing from Heaven, prciichcd and p'rofessed in this kirk and kingdom, a.s (Jod's undoubted truth, groiuided only upon his written 4 183 GOV Word. The other cause was, For maintaining the King's Majesty, his person and estate ; the true worship of God and the King's authority being so straitly joined, as that they had the same friends and common enemies, and did stand and fall together. And finally, being con- vinced in our minds, and confessing with our mouths, that the present and succeeding genera- tions in this land are bound to keep the foresaid national oath and subscription inviolable, We Noblemen, Barons, Gentlemen, Burgesses, Minis- ters, and Commons under-subscribing, consider- ing divers times before, and especially at this time, the danger of the true reformed religion, of the King's honour, and of the publick peace of the kingdom, by the manifold innovations and evils, generally contained, and particularlj' mentioned in our late supplications, complaints, and protestations; do hereby profess, and before God, his angels, and the world, solemnly declare, That with our whole heart we agree, and resolve all the days of our life constantly to adhere unto and to defend the foresaid true religion, and (for- bearing the practice of all innovations alread}' introduced in the matters of the worship of God, or approbation of the corruptions of the publick government of the kirk, or civil places and power of kirkmen, till they be tried and allowed in free Assemblies and in Parliament) to labour, by all means lawful, to recover the purity and liberty of the Gospel, as it was established and professed before the foresaid novations. And because, after due examination, we plainly per- ceive, and undoubtedly believe, that the inno- vations and evils contained in our supplications, complaints, and protestations, have no warrant of the Word of God, are contrary to the articles of the foresaid Confession, to the intention and meaning of the blessed reformers of religion in this land, to the above-written Acts of Parlia- ment ; and do sensibly tend to the re-establish- ing of the Popish religion and t3'ranny, and to the subversion and ruin of the true reformed religion, and of our liberties, laws, and estates ; we also declare. That the foresaid Confessions are to be interpreted, and ought to be understood of the foresaid novations and evils, no less than if every one of them had been expressed in the foresaid Confessions ; and that we are obliged to detest and abhor them, amongst other particular heads of Papistry abjured therein. And there- fore, from the knowledge and conscience of our duty to God, to our King and country, without any worldh' respect or inducement, so far as human infirmity will suffer, wishing a further measure of the grace of God for this effect ; we promise and swear, by the GREAT NAME OF THE LORD OUR GOD, to continue in the profession and obedience of the foresaid religion ; and that we shall defend the same, and resist all these contrarv errors and corruptions, according to our vocation, and to the uttermost of that power that God hath put in our hands, all the COV days of our life. And in like manner, with the same heart, we declare before God and men, That we have no intention nor desire to attempt any thing that may turn to the dishonour of God, or to the diminution of the King's greatness and authority ; but, on the contrary, we promise and swear. That we shall, to the uttermost of our power, with our means and lives, stand to the defence of our dread Sovereign the King's Majest}', his person and authority, in the defence and preservation of the foresaid true religion, liberties, and laws of the kingdom ; as also to the mutual defence and assistance every one of us of another, in the same cause of maintaining the true religion, and his Majesty's authority, with our best counsel, our bodies, means, and whole power, against all sorts of persons whatsoever ; so that whatsoever shall be done to the least of us for that cause, shall be taken as done to us all in general, and to every one of us in particular. And that we shall neither directly nor indirectly suffer ourselves to be divided or withdrawn, by whatsoever suggestion, combination, allurement, or terror, from this blessed and loyal conjunction ; nor shall cast in any let or impediment that ma}' stay or hinder any such resolution as by common consent shall be found to conduce for so good ends ; but, on the contrary, shall by all lawful means labour to further and promote the same : and if any such dangerous and divisive motion be made to us by word or writ, we, and every one of us, shall either suppress it, or, if need be, shall incontinent make the same known, that it may be timeously obviated. Neither do we fear the foul aspersions of rebellion, combination, or what else our adversaries, from their craft and malice, would put upon us ; seeing what we do is so well warranted, and ariseth from an unfeigned desire to maintain the true worship of God, the majesty of our King, and the peace of the kingdom, fjr the common haj^piness of ourselves and our pos- terity. And because we cannot look for a bless- ing from God upon our proceedings, except with our profession and subscription wejoin such a life and conversation as beseemeth Christians who have renewed their covenant with God; we therefore faithful!}' promise for ourselves, our fol- lowers, and all others under us, both in public, and in our particular families, and personal car- riage, to endeavour to keep ourselves within the bounds of Christian liberty, and to be good ex- amples to others of all godliness, soberness, and righteousness, and of every duty we owe to God and man. And, that this our union and conjunc- tion may be observed without violation, we call the LIVING GOD, THE SEARCHER OF OUR HEARTS, to witness, who knoweth this to be our sincere desire and unfeigned resolution, as we shall answer to JESUS CHRIST in the great day, and under the pain of God's everlast- iDg wrath, and of infamj' and loss of all honour and respect in this world ; most humbly beseech- ing the LORD to strengthen us by his HOLY 184 GOV SPIRIT for this end, and to bless our desires and proceedings with a happy success ; that religion and righteousness may flourish in the land, to the glory of GOD, the honour of our King, and peace and comfort of us all. In witness whereof, we have subscribed with our hands all the pre- mises. " The article of this covenant, which was at the first subscription referred to the determina- tion of the General Assembly, being now deter- mined ; and thereby the five articles of Perth, the government of the kirk by bishops, and the civil j^laces and power of kirkmen, upon the rea- sons and grounds contained in the Acts of the General Assembl)', declared to be vnilawful within this kirk, we subscribe according to the determination aforesaid." Covenant, Solemn League and, "for refor- mation and defence of religion, the honour and happiness of the King, and the peace and safety of the three kingdoms of Scotland, England, and Ireland, was agTeed upon by commissioners from the Parliament and assembly of divines in England, with commissioners of the convention of estates, and general assembly in Scotland, approved by the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland, and by both houses of Parliament and assembly of divines in England, and taken and subscribed by them, Anno 1643; and there- after, by the said authority, taken and sub- scribed by all ranks in Scotland and P^ngland tiie same year ; and ratified by act of the Parlia- ment of Scotland, Anno 1644 : And again re- DeweJ in Scotland, with an acknowledgment of sins, and engagement to duties, by all ranks, Anno 1G48, and by Parliament 1649 ; and taken and subscribed by King Charles II. at Spej', June 23, 1650 ; and at Scone, January 1, 1*351." It ran thus : — " We Noblemen, Barons, Knights, Gentlemen, Citizens, Burgesses, Ministers of the Gospel, and Commons of all sorts, in the kingdoms of Scot- land, England, and Ireland, by the providence of GOD, living under one King, and being of one reformed religion, having before our eyes the glory of GOD, and the advancement of the kingdom of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ, the honour and happiness of the King's Majesty and his posterity, and the true publick libert}', safety, and peace of the kingdoms, wherein every one's private condition is included : And calling to mind the treacherous and bloody plots, con- spiracies, attempts, and practices of the enemies of GOD, against the true religion and professors tliereof in all places, especially in these three kingdoms, ever since the reformation of religion ; and how much their rage, power, and presumption are of late, and at this time, increased and e.xer- cised, whereof the deplorable state of the church and kingdom of Ireland, the distressed estate of the church and kingtlom of England, and the dangerous estate of the church and kingdom of Scotland, are jireseut and public testimonies ; we 1S5 GOV have now at last (after other means of supplica- tion, remonstrance, protestation, and sulleriiigs), for the preservation of ourselves and our religion from utter ruin and destruction, according to the commendable practice of these kingdoms in for- mer times, and the example of GOD'S people in other nations, after mature deliberation, resolved and determined to enter into a mutual and solemn League and Covenant, wherein we all subscribe, and each one of us for himself, with our hands lifted up to the most High GOD, do swear, — "1. That we shall sincerely, really, and con- stantly, through the grace of GOD, endeavour, in our several places and callings, the preserva- tion of the reformed religion in the CImrch of Scotland, in doctrine, worship, discipline, and government, against our common enemies ; the reformation of religion in the kingdoms of Eng- land and Ireland, in doctrine, worship, discipline, and government, according to tlie Word of GOD, and the example of the best reformed Churches ; and shall endeavour to bring the Churches of God in the three kingdoms to the nearest conjunction and uniformity in religion, confession of faith, form of church -government, directory for wor- ship and catechising ; that we, and our posterity after us, may, as brethren, live in faith and love, and the Lord may delight to dwell in the midst of us. " II. That we shall in like manner, without respect of persons, endeavour the extirpation of Popery, Prelacy', (that is, church-government by Archbishops, Bishops, their Chancellors, and Commissaries, Deans, Deans and Chapters, Arch- deacons, and all other ecclesiastical Officers de- pending on that hierarchy), superstition, heresy, schism, profaneness, and whatsoever shall be found to be contrary to sound doctrine and the power of godliness, lest we partake in other men's sins, and thereby be in danger to receive of their plagues ; and that tiie Lord may be one, and his name one, in tiie three kingdoms. " III. We shall, with the same sincerity, reality, and constancy, in our several vocations, endeavour, with our estates and lives, nuitualiy to preserve the rights and privileges of the Par- liaments, and the liberties of the kin},'doms ; and to preserve and defend the King's jMajesty's per- son and authority, in the preservation and defence of the true religion, and liberties of tiie kingdoms ; that the world may bear witness with our con- sciences of our loyalty, and that we have no thoughts or intentions to diminish his Majesty's just power and greatness. " 1\". We shall also, with all faithfulness, en- deavour the discovery of all such as have been or shall be incendiaries, malignants, or evil instruments, by hindering the reformation of religion, dividing the kin^' from his people, or one ofthe kingdoms from aiiollier, or making any faction or parlies amongst the people, contrary to this League and Covenant; that thoy i^iay bo cov brought to publick trial, and receive condign punisliment, as the degree of their offences shall require or deserve, or the supreme judicatories of both kingdoms respectively, or others having power from them for that effect, shall judge con- venient. " V. And whereas the happiness of a blessed peace between these kingdoms, denied in former time to our progenitors, is, by the good provi- dence of GOD, granted unto us, and hath been lately concluded and settled by both Parlia- ments ; we shall each one of us, according to our place and interest, endeavour that they may remain conjoined in a firm peace and union to all posterity ; and that justice ma}' be done upon the wilful opposers thereof, in manner ex- pressed in the precedent article. " VI. We shall also, according to our places and callings, in this common cause of religi()n, liberty, and peace of the kingdoms, assist and defend all those that enter into this League and Covenant, in the maintaining and pursuing thereof ; and shall not suffer themselves, directly or indirectly, bj' whatsoever combination, persua- sion, or terror, to be divided and withdrawn from this blessed union and conjunction, whether to make defection to the contrary' part, or to give ourselves to a detestable indifierency or neutralitj- in this cause which so much concerneth the glory of GOD, the good of the kingdom, and honour of the King ; but shall, all the days of our lives, zealously and constantly continue therein against all opposition, and promote. the same, according to our power, against all lets and impediments whatsoever ; and, what we are not able ourselves to suppress or overcome, we shall reveal and make known, that it may be timely prevented or removed : All which we shall do as in the sight of God. " And, because these kingdoms are guilty of many sins and provocations against GOD, and his Son Jesus Christ, as is too manifest by our present distresses and dangers, the fruits thereof ; we profess and declare, before GOD and the world, our unfeigned desire to be humbled for our own sins, and for the sins of these kingdoms : especially, that we have not as we ought valued the inestimable benefit of the Gospel ; that we have not laboured for the purity and power thereof; and that we have not endeavoured to receive Christ in our hearts, nor to walk worthy of him in our lives ; which are the causes of other sins and transgressions so much abounding amongst us : and our true and unfeigned purpose, desire, and endeavour for ourselves, and all others under our power and charge, both in publick and in private, in all duties we owe to GOD and man, to amend our lives, and each one to go before another in the example of a real reformation ; that the Lord may turn away his wrath and heavy indignation, and establish these churches and kingdoms in truth and peace. And this Covenant we make in the presence of AL- COV MIGHTY GOD, the Searcher of all hearts, with a true intention to perform the same, as we shall answer at that great day, when the secrets of all hearts shall be disclosed ; most humbly beseech- ing the Lord to strengthen us by his Holt SpnuT for this end, and to bless our desires and proceedings with such success as may be deliv- erance and safety to his people, and encourage- ment to other Christian churches, groaning under, or in danger of, the yoke of antichristian tyranny, to join in the same or like association and covenant, to the glory of GOD, the enlarge- ment of the kingdom of Jesus Christ, and the peace and tranquillity of Christian kingdoms and commonwealths." In the Westminster assembly when this instrument was adopted, Mr. Philip Nye made the exhortation, Mr. John White prayed before, and Mr. Dr. Gouge after the exhortation ; besides which Mr. Alexander Henderson made an elaborate and lengthy speech. " Then the cove- nant was read, notice being first given to the assembly, that, after the hearing of it, each person should immediately, by swearing, worship the great name of God, and testine so much outwardl}-, by lifting up of their bands ; which was all done very solemnly, and with so much joy seen in the countenances, and manifested by clapping of the hands, as was suitable to the gravity of such a worke, and the sadnesse of the present times." After the Kestoration, the cove- nant was put down by parliament, 14 Ch. II., 4, and in 1661 was burned by the common hangman. Creatjanism. — See Original Sin. Credence Table, a small table in one of the recesses of the bema, near the great altar, on which oblations were laid or prepared before the consecration, — sometimes on that account called paratorium, and sometimes " Tu.^ar(^a.riZ,ov,^'' or side table. The word is from the Italian "cre- denziera" — a cupboard or sideboard, on which meat was placed before it was served up, as a precaution against poisoning See Secre- TAKIUM. Creed is a form of words comprising the substance of the Christian belief. These sum- maries of Christian belief were distinguished by various appellations. Thus, in the Western Church, they are termed Creed; but in the Eastern Church they were variously called " Ma- ^7^/ua," or the ksson, because catechumens were obliged to learn them ; " T^aip-zi" or the icritiny ; and " Kaviwv," or the rule, because the creed was the standard or rule by which the orthodox faith was to be discriminated from the novel and erroneous inventions of false teachers, liut the most common name in the Eastern Church was " 2y^/3aXi)v," the symbol, from the Greek verb " o-uytt/SaXAs/v," to put together; either because it was a collation or epitome of Christian doctrine, or, which is the more probable opinion, because the word 2uj«/3«Xo», and its Latin equivalent symholum, signify a watchword or sign, like the 186 CRE tessera militaris, or military badge among the Romans, the object of creeds having been to distinguish true Christians from heretics and infidels, (Bingham's Origines Eccks., boolc x., ch. iii.) Numerous ancient formularies of faith are preserved in the writings of the early fathers of the Christian Church, particularly Irenceus, Tertullian, Cyprian, Origen, Gregory Thauma- turgus, the author of the pseudo- apostolical constitutions, and others. These have been collected by Bingham (^Origines Rccles., book x., ch. iv.); and it is worthy of observation, that they all perfectly agree in substance, though there is a diversity of expression in them. There are three creeds which have been adopted b}' the Anglican Church. These are the Apostles' Creed, the Nicene Creed, and the Athanasian Creed. 1. The Apostles' Creed is a formulary or summary of Christian faith, so called, not from the fact of its being composed by the apostles themselves, but because it contains a brief statement of the doctrines which they taught. It is nearly the same with the creed of Jerusalem, which appears to be the most ancient formulary of faith that is extant. At this distance of time it is impossible to deter- mine the true author of this summary, though its great antiquit3' may be inferred from the fact that the whole of it is to be found in the works of Ambrose and of Ruifinus, both of whom lived in the fourth century. Although it was always used before the administration of baptism, when the catechumen made an open profession of his faith, and sometimes also in private devotions; yet, in the earlier ages, it constituted no part of the public liturgy. The constant repetition of it was introduced into the daily service of the church at Antioch towards the close of the fifth century; and from the Eastern Churches this custom has been brought into the West (see Lord King's History of the Creed). 2. The Nicene Creed, which is recited iu the communion service of the Church of Eng- land, is so called because it was adopted by the bishops convened at the council of Nictea or Nice, in Bithynia, which was held a.d. 325, to oppose the Arian heresy. This creed, as far as the words " Holy Ghost," was drawn up and agreed to at this council; and fifty-six years afterwards it was completed in its present form at the council of Constantinople (held a.d. 381, or 382), except the words " and the Son," which were inserted in 447, after the clause " who pro- ceedeth from the Father." The addition made at Constantinople was caused by the denial of the divinitj- of the Holy Spirit by Macedonius and his followers ; and the creed thus enlarged was immediately received by all orthodox Chris- tians. The insertion of the words "/f/w^Me" — and the Son, was made bj' the Spanish bishops ; and they were soon afterwards adopted by the Chris- tian Churches in France. The bishops of Rome for some time refused to admit these words into the creed : at length, however, they were allowed CRE in the year 883, since which time they stood in the Nicene Creed in all the Western Churches ; but they have never been received by the Greek Church. 3. The Creed of Athanasius, was framed in the century after the Nicene Creed. Tliough it bears the name of Athanasius, this composition is now known not to have been written by him, but was probably composed by Hilary, Bishop of Aries, for the use of the Galilean clergy, espe- cially those of his own diocese. About the year 570 it had acquired suilicient celebrity to be commented upon ; and before the year "G70 the name of Athanasius was added, to commend and adorn it, being in itself an excellent system of the doctrines of Athanasius concerning the Trinity and the incarnation of Clirist, principally in opposition to the Arians, Macedonians, and Apollinarians. Before the close of the tenth century the Athanasian confession was generally received in the Western Church, though it is doubtful whether it was ever admitted into the Eastern Church. At the Reformation it w ^^^ '^^ i^ °'i ^^^ ^^^ that our Saviour is uniformly believed to have died. The traditional superstitions about the cross exceed all belief. Thus, before the suf- ferer was exposed upon the cross, it was cus- tomary to scourge him; and the column to which our Saviour was fastened, durmg this cruel infliction, is stated by St. Jerome {Epist. (id Eusiochiwn) to have existed in his time in the portico of the holy sepulchre, and to have CRO retained marks of the blood of our Lord. Bede places this column within the church, where we believe it is still shown ; and Gregory of Tours dilates on the miracles wrought by it. The criminal carried the instrument of his punish- ment, or most probably only the transverse part of it, to the place of execution. Here he was fastened naked upon the cross, which occasion- ally was not raised from the ground till after his affixion, by cords, or more frequently by nails driven through the hands, and sometimes also feet. But the number of nails by which our Saviour was thus fastened has been a subject of very learned dispute. Nonnus affirms that three only were used, both feet having been con- fined by the same one. And in this notion he is followed by Gregory Nazianzen. The more re- ceived belief, however, has always assigned four nails as the smallest number employed ; and this opinion is supported at much length by Cornelius Curtius, an Augustine friar, who wrote a treatise De Clavis Dominicis, in the beginning of the seventeenth century. But it seems that while some admit three nails only, others again greatly multiply this number. Calvin enumerates four- teen ; they are respectively one in Milan and Car- pentras; two at Rome, in the church of Sta. Helena and that of Sta. Croce in Gerusalemme ; one at Sienna and Venice; three in Germany, at Cologne, at the church of the Three Marys, and at Treves; three at Paris, in the Chapel Royal, at the Carmes, and in St. Denis; one at Draguigne, and another at Tenaille ; but in this statement it is plain there are numerous blunders. The churches of Sta. Helena and Sta. Croce are the same. It is positively denied that Sienna, Venice, Cologne, Draguigne, the Carmes, and the Chapel Royal at Paris make any such claim; the nail in St. Denis is said only to have affixed the title to the cross ; and no such place as Tenaille is known to exist. Out of the four original nails the Emperor Helena threw one into the Adriatic, when it was furi- ously raging, and thereby produced an instant calm. The second was inserted by Constantine either in his helmet, his crown, or one of his statues at Constantinople; for on this point authors differ. Ambrosius, in his Oratio ad Theodosium; Gregory of Tours, in his De glor. Mart., 1 ; Eusebius, in his Eist., x. 8 ; Ruffinus, ii. 8 ; and others, espouse the helmet ; Baronius, the crown ; and Lipsius, in his work De Critce (ii. 9), cites Zonaras in behalf of the statue. Be this as it may, the nail, wherever placed at first, was afterwards to be found, although con- siderably mutilated, in the church Sta. Croce in Gerusalemme at Rome. — See Cross, Holy. In the cathedral of Milan is a third nail, which Eutro- pius affirms was fixed through one of our Saviour's hands, and which Constantine used as a bit (Ruf- finus, Ecc. Hist., iv.), thereby intending, as has been said, to verify the prophecy of Zechariah (xiv. 20) — " In that day shall be upon the bells," 104 CRO or bridles, as the margin of our Bible gives it, " of the hoi'ses, Holiness unto (he Lord." Treves possesses the fourth and last nail, which is thought to have been driven through our Sa- viour's right foot. Lipsius supposes that the cross of our Saviour was made from such wood as happened to be nearest at hand, and that this was oak, which grew most plentifully in Judea, and which, it is said, the relics now exhibited closely resemble. But on this point again a subtle controversy has arisen ; and there have been some who maintain that four different woods were used in the composition of the cross, viz., cedar, palm, olive, and cypress. The invention or discover}' of the true cross by the Empress Helena, is assigned by the ecclesiastical historiaus to a.d. 326, the twenty- first year of the reign of her son Constantine, the thirteenth of the pontificate of St. Sylves- ter, and the first after the council of Nice. Eusebius alone is silent as to the event; yet he makes copious mention of the discovery of the holy sepulchre, and of the other transac- tions of Helena while at Jerusalem. By the remaining annalists we are informed that this devout princess, in her seventy-ninth year, in- flamed with holy ardour, resolved to visit the scenes of our Saviour's passion. The hatred which the Pagans bore against the Christian name, had induced them to obliterate, as much as possible., all those marks which might recall a memory of their great Master: Calvary had been heaped up with huge stones and piles of earth, and on the summit of this new formation had been erected a temple of Venus. The em- press, however, heard of a Jew, curious in anti- quities, who had carefully treasured up such memorials of the holy spot as tradition had conve^-ed to him ; and from him the desired secret was extorted, either by bribes or torture. Durand affirms that he bore the name of Judas, that he afterwards was converted to Chris- tianity, and became Bishop of Jerusalem, under the name of Quiriacus. The spot to which the Jew pointed was carefully excavated, and within it were found three crosses, and the title which Pilate had written as the superscription for that of Jesus, apart by itself St. Ambrose maintains, indeed, tliat this title was attached to one of the crosses, which thereby was deter- mined to be that which had borne our Saviour ; but the other historians state that Helena had no guidance to the real cross till, by the sugges- tion of Macarius, at that time Bishop of Jerusa- lem, certain sick and infirm persons were touched by each of the three. One only produced mira- culous cures ; and in some cases it resuscitated even the wholly dead (Sulpicius SeVerus, ii.) ; so that no doubt could be permitted to remain that this was the so much coveted treasure. A church was built by Helena over the hallowed spot, and within it was deposited the real cross. A large portion of it, however, was conveyed by CRO the empress to Constantinople; there a part of it was inserted by Constantine into the head of one of his own statues; and the remainder was transmitted to Rome, where the church of Sta. Croce in Gerusakmme was erected for its re- ception. A festival to commemorate the inven- tion of the cross was ordered to be celebrated annually, on the .3d of May; and on Easter Sunday the Bishop of Jerusalem exhibited to the longing eyes of uncounted pilgrims, the great object of their devotion, which was en- trusted to his charge. Small pieces, richly set in gold and gems, were presented to such as could aflbrd to purchase them ; and that no check might be imposed upon this profitable traffic, it was boldly asserted, and blindly believed, that the holy wood possessed a miraculous power of self reproduction, and therefore could never be diminished, however largely it was distributed. St. Cyril also, who was Patriarch of Jerusalem, and an eye-witness, affirms the same miracle, and likens it to that of the five loaves which supplied 5,000 persons. The capture of Jerusalem by the Persians in a.d. 614, placed the remains of the true cross in the hands of the second Chosroes, who bore them in triumphant mockery to his capital. Fourteen years afterwards, on the murder of the Persian king by his son, Hera- clius, in the treaty whicli he imposed upon the invaders, whom lie had then vanquished, stipu- lated for the restoration of the cross, and it was conve3-ed with all the pomp of Bj'zantine magni- ficence to Constantinople. The Emperor re- solved to transport it once again to its original abode ; and the same stately procession accom- panied him in his progress. Wlien arrived at that gate of the Holy Citj- which opened upon Mount Calvary, he found it, to his astonishment, impenetrably barred. A voice from heaven, or as others more modestly affirm, the voice of the Patriarch Zachariah, or of his deputy Modestus, at the same moment warned him, that it was not thus, arrayed in such temporal splendour, that the King of kings had entereriator. The origin of perpetual curacies was this : by the statute 4 Henry IV., ch. 12, it is enacted, tiiat in every church" appropriated there sliall be a secular person ordained vicar perpetual, canoiii- cully instituted and inducted, and covenably endowed by the discretion of the ordinary. If tiie benefice was given ad mensam inonachorum, and so not appropriated in the common form, but granted by way of union pleno jure, it was served by a temporary curate belonging to the religious house; when, however, such appro- priations, together with the charge of providing for the cure, were transferred, after the dissulu- 201 CUR tion of the religious houses, from spiritual societies to single lay persons, who were not capable of serving them by themselves, and who, consequently, were obliged to nominate some particular person to the ordinary, for his license to serve the cure, the curates by this means became so far perpetual as not to be wholly at the pleasure of the appropriator, nor removable but by due revocation of the license of the ordinary. Ouria Papalis (jpapal covrf), a collective appellation for the various authorities at Rome who exercise their functions in behalf, and under the direction, of the holy see. The first of these authorities is the pope's vicar-general, who is chosen from among the cardinal bishops. His office is for life, and the emoluments arising from it are considerable ; for, besides his salary of 1,200 crowns of gold per annum, he has the power of deciding on all matrimonial differences — a privi- lege which renders his office extremely lucrative. The profits arising from his various courts are also very considerable. He is the proper judge of ecclesiastics; he confers and confirms all sacred orders ; and he inspects all pious houses, monasteries, hospitals, and churches. He is as- sisted b_v a bishop in his episcopal duties, and by a layman as judge of all crimes committed by clerks and regulars. 2. The apostolic chancery : This court includes the chancellor, whose duty it is to write in the pope's name all the receipts, doubts, and scruples respecting matters of faith ; the vice-chancellor, who issues all apostolical let- ters and bulls ; the regent of the apostolic chan- cery, who submits all appeals to the court of re- ferendaries and auditors of the rota ; the twelve referendaries, who are also styled the registrars of the high court, and whose office it is to draw up the minutes of all bulls from the petitions signed by the pope. All the above offices are purchased, and they j-ield considerable profits. 3. The secretaries of state : They are in number eleven — the principal secretar}-, who is the cardi- nal-nephew of his holiness, should he have one, and ten other secretaries, between whom the pro- vinces of the ecclesiastical state is divided. The cardinal secretary signs all letters directed to kings, governors, legates, &c., as well as the state patents of all who are appointed for the government and administration of justice in the Papal States. The office of superintendent of the state belongs to the cardinal secretary by virtue of his higher office. These united offices are sometimes bestowed and sometimes pur- chased : they produce an annual revenue of aljout 20,000 crowns. 4. The prefect of the briefs, \vho revises and despatches all briefs, and signs those that are assessed. This is a most lucrative office, arising chiefly from the large sums received as bribes. The prefect of the briefs assists in the signature of grants made by his holiness. This office is for life, and is purcha.sed at a price not much under 25,000 crowns. 5. The prefects of CU3 the signatures, consisting of the cardinal prefectt twelve cardinals, and twelve prelates referen- daries. This court decides on all appeals made by persons who conceive themselves irjjured bj' the sentences of the ordinary judges. 6. The pope's datary, whose duty it is to receive all petitions respecting benefices. He is authorized also to dispose of all benefices not producing an annual income of twenty-four ducats, without informing the pope ; but for those benefices which amount to more he is obliged to get the provisions thereof signed by his holiness, for which purpose he has an audience with him daily. The datary re- ceives a salary of 2,000 crowns, besides the fees and bribes paid to him by those who apply for benefices. 7. Theniajordomo and other officers of the pope's household. 8. The prefect of the sacristy, who has the charge of all the holy ves- sels, crosses, and other valuables of the pope's sacristy. He assists the pope to robe and un- robe, prepares the host, distributes the holy relics, and signs the petitions of pilgrims who apply for indulgences for themselves and rela- tives. 9. The pope's librarian, who is assisted by two sub-librarians. 10. The masters of the ceremonies, six in number, two of whom are called assistants, and four supernumeraries. 11. The tribunal of the rota, which consists of twelve bishops : they take cognizance of all suits and appeals respecting benefices ; but their sen- tences are not necessarily final, appeal to his holiness being permitted, in case of any dissatisfac- tion being felf with the decisions of this tribunal. 12. The council of the apostolic chamber: this court embraces the cardinal great chamberlain, several other officers, and twelve clerks. The jurisdiction of this council extends to all things relating to the pope's demesnes, especially the revenues arising therefrom, which are styled the revenues of the apostolic chamber. The posts of treasurer general, and auditor of the chamber, as well as those of the twelve clerks, are each pur- chased at a sum varying from 70,000 to 80,000 crowns; and they yield at least to each officer 8,000 crowns annually (D Bouix, Traclatus de curia Eomana, &c. Paris, 1859.) — See Cok- GREGATION. Curiae tradi. — See Secular Power. Cnrsc. — See Anathema, Bell, Book, and Candle. CustosArcfaiForuni — See Ceimeliarch^. Custos Splritualium, the person who exer- cises spiritual or ecclesiastical jurisdiction in any diocese, during the vacancj' of the see. By the canon law the appointment is vested in the dean and chapter ; but by prescription, in the archbishop of the province. If the archiej)is- copal see is vacant, the spiritual jurisdiction is committed to the dean and chapter; the guardian of the spiritualities may be either guardian in law, Jiwe magisiratm, as the arch- bishop is of any diocese in his province, or guardian by delegation, being the person whom 202 cus the archbishop or vicar-general cloth for the time appoint. Gustos spiritualmm, the person who has full ecclesiastical jurisdiction in the courts ; power of granting licenses and dispensa- tions, probate of wills, &c., during the vacancy ; and of admitting and instituting clerics presented ; but cannot consecrate, ordain, or present to any benefice. Gustos Teiuporalium, the person to whose custody a vacant see or abbey was committed by the king as supreme lord, who, as a steward of the goods and profits, was to give accounts to DAY the escheator, and he into the exchequer; Lis trust continued till tlie vacancy was supplied by a successor, who obtained the king's writ, De Restitutione Temporalium, which was commonly after, though sometimes before, consecration. Cntty Stool, a prominent seat placed in Scottish kirks two hundred years ago, as a kind of pillory for offenders against chastity. There they sat during service, and at its conclusion were called up to have a formal rebuke adminis- tered to them before the congregation. Cycle of £a8ter. — See E.vsteh. D Daily Prayers. — The preface to the Book of Common P?-ayer enjoins thus: — "All priests and deacons are to say daily the morning and evening prayer either privately or openly, not being let by sickness, or some other urgent cause. And the curate that ministereth in every parish church or chapel, being at home, and not being otherwise reasonably hindered, shall say the same in the parish church or chapel where he minister- eth, and shall cause a bell to be tolled thereunto a convenient time before he begin, that the people may come to hear God's Word, and to pray with him." Dalmatic, a part of clerical dress first gene- rally used by the Dalmatian priests (Isidore, Orig., xix., 22 ; Durand, Rat., iii., 1). It is de- scribed as a vestment made in the form of a cross, with fringes on the left side, without seam, and with spacious sleeves. It had some- times purple stripes, like the robe of senators. It was worn as early as the time of Cyprian, and Pope Eutychianus, a.d. 275, ordered that no martyrs should be buried without a dalmatic. It was not, however, introduced as a part of priestly attire, in lieu of the colobium, which had not any sleeves, till the papacy of Sj'lvester, A.D. 314. Gregorj' the Great, a.d. 590, found that its adoption at funerals had been so far abused to superstitious purposes, that he forbade its employment even in the burial of popes them- selves, liishops at first were not permitted to wear it, but at last it descended even to deacons on high solemnities. A robe of the same name, although the dalmatic was in after times esteemed a grave habit becoming to priesthood, was worn by some of the Roman emperors, not without great scandal ; because the concealment of the arms was considered to be effeminate. The dalmatic con- tinued in use among the ^mperors of the East, and in the tenth century it was adopted by Charles the Bald of France, as part of the regal dress. Edward the Confessor introduced it among the English regalia. Walsingham, in his account of the coronation of Richard II., says that he was invested primo tunica. Sancti Echardi et pnstea dalmaticd. In a manuscript preserved in the college of arms, Henry VI. is said to have been arrayed at his coronation "as a bishop that should sing mass, in a dalmatic like a tunic." When the tomb of Edward I., in Westminster Abbey, was opened in 1774, next to the fine linen cerecloth, which enwrapped the body, was found a dalmatic of red silk damask. Damianists, followers of Damian, Bishop of Alexandria, in the sixth century. Another name given them was Angelites. — See Angelites. Dancers, a sect that rose in Flanders about 1373. As the name implies, they danced under strong excitement, and falling into convulsions, enjoyed dreams and visions of the spiritual world. In their fanaticism they treated the ministers and ordinances of the Church with great contempt. Datary, an officer in the papal court, usually a bishop, but sometimes a cardinal, who receives the petitions concerning benefices, and presents them to the pope. Of his own power he can grant all benefices which do not produce more than twenty-four ducats a-year. When a person gets a benefice from the pope the datary writes under the petition annuit sanctissimus, the pope having previously written Jiat ut petilur. The document is then registered, and a bull is grounded on it, which is said to pass through fifteen diircrent of- fices, each oflicer having his lee or perquisite. The datary's salary is 2,000 crowns, with not a few fees, and the sub-datary, commonly a bishop, has a salary of 1,000. The name is fron» datum, the Latin word usually i>refixed to the time when the documents are written (" Given this 20th April," forexample); hence also our term date for a fixed period of time. Davidist!*, followers of David George, a wretched fanatic of Delft, who, in 1525, pro- claimed himself the Messiah, denying angels and a judgment, rejecting marriage, lauglimg at sin, scorning all self-denial, and even ordmary decency. Escaping from Delft, he fled to Fries- land, and thence to Basle, wliere he changed his name into John Bruck, and died in 1556. The magistrates of Basle, coming to the knowledge of Ills doctrines, ordered his corpse, three years after his death, to be dug up and burned. Day {dies), with various appellations. I bus. 203 DEA DEA dies Cxnce Dominicce, day of the Lord's Supper ; join therein by certain forms of words appointed dies lucis, day of light; dies mandati, daj'' of the command ; dies natalis Eucharistice, natal day of the Eucharist ; dies panis, day of bread ; dies viridium, an allusion, probably, to spring. All these were titles given to the day before Good Friday See Maundy Thursday. Thus, too, dies absohUionis, Good Friday ; dies cinerum, of ashes — Ash Wednesday ; dies saluiaris. Good Friday ; dies solis, Sundaj- ; dies luminis, Epi- phany ; dies neopliytorum, of new converts — Low Sunday ; dies indulgendm, eve of Good Friday, when penitents were re-admitted. Deacon. — By the writers of the New Testa- ment deacon is sometimes used to denote any one who ministers in the service of God. — See Biblical Cyclopcedia. In the ages iramediatel}' succeeding that of the apostles, the deacons, who were originally only stewards of a poors' fund, ■were regarded as a sacred order, though the appellation of priests was not generally given to them. They were commonly distinguished from presbyters or priests by the names of ministers and Levites. Certain it is that the ordination of a deacon differed from that of a presbyter both in its form and manner, as well as in the gifts and powers conferred thereb}'. The ordination of a deacon might be performed by the bishop alone ; because, as the council of Carthage words it (can. 4), he was ordained, not to the priesthood, but to the inferior services of the Church. These services are not mentioned in the form of ordination remaining in what are called the Apostolic Constitutions ; but the bishop prayed, generally, that God would cause his face to shine upon his servant who was then chosen to the office of a deacon, and fill him with his Hoh' Spirit and power, as he did Stephen the martyr, that he, behaving himself acceptably, uniformh', and unblamably, in his office, might be thought worthy of a higher degree. {Const. Apost., I. viii., c. 18.) The most common office of a deacon was to assist the bishop and presbyters at the holy table, of which he was to take care, together with the ornaments and utensils belonging to it. He was, further, to receive the offerings of the people, and to hand them to the presbyter, by whom they were presented to God upon the table; after which the deacon publicly repeated the names of those who made the oblations. In some churches, though not in all, the deacons read the Gospel, both before and during the com- munion service: and in the administration of the Lord's Supper, they were to distribute the bread and wine to the people present, and also to carry them to such as were absent; but they could not consecrate the elements. In some cases they had the power to administer baptism. Another office of deacons was to direct the people in the exercise of their public devotions in the church, by giving them notice when each part of the service began, and exciting them to for that purpose. They used the forms, " let us pray," "let us attend," "lift your hearts," swrsMm corda, or " withdraw, the service is over," ite, mlssa est, &c. They were also to give notice to the catechumens, penitents, and energumens, when they were to come up and offer their prayers, and when to depart; and in several prayers they repeated the words before them, in order to teach them what thej' were to pray for ; and, if licensed by the bishop, but not otherwise, they were allowed to preach, and were empowered to reconcile penitents to the church, and to re- buke any irregularities which they might observe during the celebration of Divine service. They might be deputed by their bishops to be their representatives and proxies in general councils, in which case they sat and voted, not as deacons, but as proxies, in the room and place of their principals ; and in provincial and consistorial synods they were sometimes allowed, as well as presbyters, to give their voice in their own names. During the first two centuries of the Christian Church the deacons performed various inferior offices, which were afterwards discharged by readers, sub-deacons, catechists, exorcists, &c. To them, as the bishop's sub-almoners, were confided the care of the poor, and the superintendence of the morals of the people ; and such evils as they could, they were to redress, but those which were beyond their power, they were to report to the bishop. In consequence of the multifarious duties which thus devolved upon deacons, it was usual to have several in the same church. In some churches they were precise in the number seven, in Imitation of the first church at Jerusalem, though this rule was not universal. Deacons were ordained by the bishops by imposition of hands, and it was law- ful for them to have wives ; but no one could be ordained until he was twenty-five years of age. (Bingham's Orig. Eccles., book ii., ch. xx. ; Suiceri Thesaurvs Eccles.^ voce Aiaxovos). In the United Church of England and Ireland, as also in the Episcopal communions in Scotland and North America, a deacon receives ordination by the imposition of hands of a bishop ; in conse- quence of which he can preach, assist in the sacrament of the Lord's Supper, and, generally, may perform any sacred office except consecrat- ing the elements and pronouncing absolution. By the statute 44 George III., c. 43, it is enac- ted, that no person shall be admitted until he shall have attained the age of twenty-three years complete ; but this act is declared not to affect the right of granting faculties, exercised by the Archbishops of Canterbury and Armagh, re- spectively, viz., to admit at earlier ages ; and by 59 George III., c. 60, sec. 1, the two arch- bishops of the realm, or the Bishop of London, or any bishop authorized by any or either of them, may ordain deacons any persons whom he or they shall deem duly qualified, especially for 204 DEA the purpose of officiating in his majesty's colonics or foreign possessions. But uo person so or- dained can afterwards hold any living or other benefice in the United Kingdom, without the previous consent in writing, under hand and seal of the bishop in whose diocese such benefice, &c., shall be locally situated ; nor without like consent of the archbishop or bishop by whose consent he was originally ordained, or of the successor of such archbishop or bishop, in case of his demise or translation ; nor without pro- ducing a testimony of his good behaviour during his residence abroad, from the bishop in whose diocese he has officiated, or (if there be not any such bishop), from the governor in council of the colony wherein he may have resided, or from the colonial secretary of state (sec. 2). At the time when the liturgy of the Church of England was composed, it was the deacon's oflice, " where provision is so made, to search for the sick, DEA ing elder. There are eighteen cardinal dea- cons in Rome, who have charge of the revenues and temporal interests of the Church. I>cacoue8s«. — The oflice of deaconess also was known in the ancient Christian Ciiurch. This wab a female minister employed in those duties which could not witli propriety be exer- cised by the deacons themselves. This order existed in the apostolic age ; for St. Paul makes mention of Phoebe, a servant or dea- coness (A/axavoy) of the Church at Cenchrea, which was a haven of Corinth (Rom. xvi. 1). Pliny in his famous letter, quoted on page 142, seems to speak of two of them whom hi put to the torture, quce ministi-ce dicehantur. Ihey were ordained by imposition of hands, and were commonly chosen out of the widows of the Clrareh, who had been married once only ; it was further required, that they should be at least forty j'cars old, which age was subsequently ex- jioor, and impotent people of the parish, and to j tended to fifty or sixty years. Someiimes, how- intimate their estates, names, and places wheie ; ever, this office was discharged by virgins. The they dwell, unto the curate" (that is, to the rector or vicar having the cure or care of souls), " that by his exhortations they may be relieved with the alms of the parishioners or others" (Rulrick in the form of Ordination). This was the more ancient office of a deacon, and this rule was made in England before the establishment of the poor laws, in pursuance of which that care has now devolved upon the cliurchwardens and overseers of the poor, which last office was specially created for that purpose. The Second Book of Discipline, ch. viii., says, "The word .i;a«ova} sometimes is largely taken, comprehending all them that beare office in the raiiiisterie, and spirituall function in the kirk. But now, as we speake, it is taken onely for them unto whom the collection and distribution of the almes of the faithfull and ecclesiasticall goods doth be- long. The office of the deacons so taken is an or- dinarie and perpetuall ecclesiasticall function in the kirk of Christ. Of what properties and duties he ought to be that is called to this function, we remit it to the manifest Scriptures. The deacon ought to be called and elected, as the rest of the spirituall officers, of the which election was spoken before. Their office and power is to receive, and to distribute the whole ecclesiasticall goods unto them to whom they are appointed. This they ought to doe according to tiie judge- ment, and appointment of the presbyteries, or elderships (of the which the deacons arc not) that tlie patrimony of tlie kirk and poore be not converted to private men's uses, nor wrong- full j* distribute." Deacons iu Congregational churches, besides attending to the poor, assist the minister with their advice. In some Presbyterian congrega- tions, and in the Free Church, there are dea- cons regularly ordained to have cliarge of the funds of the church. In other Pre.'^byterian churches the office is merged iuto that of rul- duties of a deaconess consisted in the instruction of female catechumens, and assisting at their baptism ; in visiting sick persons of their own sex ; and in conveying messages from the bishops to women that were in health, whom the deacons could not with propriety visit, for fear of the scandalous imputations which the heathens might cast upon them. In times of persecution they were employed in ministering to the mar- tyrs in prison, because they could obtain a more easy access, and with less suspicion of danger than the ministers of the church could do. In the Greek Church they had the charge of the doors, though, probably, it was only in tiiose churches where a distinction was made between the men's gate and the women's gate. Lastly, it was the business of the deaconesses to assign to all women their places, and regulate their behaviour in church ; to preside over the rest of the widows ; and to introduce anj' woman having a suit to prefer to a presbyter or bishop. This order of ecclesiastical ollicers ceased to exist in the Latin Church in ilie tenth or eleventh century, and in the Greek or Oriental Church about the end of the twelftli century (liingliam's Orig. EccL, book ii., ch. 22). It was revived among the Reformed Churches iu France about the middle of the nineteenth century. Drad. — The superstitious custom of giving the Eucharist to dead persons had crept into France, and was condemned by the councils of Auxerre in 678 ; and it had fountl its way into Alrica, and was condemned by the third council of Cartha-e. The stranger custom of burying tiie Eucharist in the coffin was begun by Benedict, the monk, and continued long in the Popish Cliurch. Dr. M'hitby. in his Idolatry of J/oH-u-i,rslii/>, p. 2G, relates that he liad seeii the chalice dug out of the graves of several biahops buried iu the Church of Saruui. 205 DEA Dead, Baptism of and for. — See Bap- tism. Dead, Bnrial of. — See BtTRlAL. Dead, Prayers for. — See BuKiAL, Pkayeb. Deadly Sin. — See Sin. Dean (French doyen ; Latin decanus). Minshew derived this title from the Greek " osxa," or Latin " decern " — ten, because a dean is an ecclesiastical magistrate, and hath power over ten canons at the least. In the Eng- lish Church the dean is the next ecclesiastical officer to the bishop, and in cathedral establish- ments he is the president of the chajHer, and their acts run in the name of the dean and chapter. The deaneries in England are of two kinds — those existing before the Reformation, and those translated by Henry VIIL from priories and convents. The new deaneries to old bishoprics are Canterbury, Carlisle, Durham, Ely, Norwich, Eochester, Winchester, and Wor- cester ; the new deaneries to new bishoprics are, Bristol, Chester, Gloucester, Oxford, and Peter- borough. To all of these new deaneries the king appoints at once by letters patent, without election or confirmation. In appointing to old deaneries, the form is similar to that by which a bishopric is given. The king issues a conge d'elire, and at the same time recommends a particular candidate. The chapter elects, the king approves, and the bishop confirms him. In the Welsh cathedrals the Bishop of St. David's and LlandafF are quasi decani, that is both bishops and deans, and St. Asaph and Bangor have the patronage of their respective deaneries. In Ire- land the king appoints bj^ letters patent. Deans in jiecidiars. — The title of dean is also used in some collegiate and other institutions with- out implying any diocesan jurisdiction, as in Battel, Docking, Brecon, St. Buriens, Middleham, Southwell, Westminster, Windsor, and Wol- verhampton. There are also deans in some of the colleges of Oxford and Cambridge, having special academic superintendence ; and there are honorary deans, such as the dean of the chapel royal, St. James's Palace. Rural deans formerly exercised jurisdiction over ten parishes as the bishop's deputies. The office still exists ; but the duties, for the most part, are performed by the archdeacon and chancellor of each diocese. In Scotland there are deans of the chapel royal, who enjoy certain emoluments as royal chaplains. The term is also used in Scotland in a civil sense, as dean of guild, dean of faculty, these being the heads of such institutions. Death, Brothers of, a name often given to the order of St. Paul, the first hermit, because of the figure of a death's head which they carried with them, to remind them ever of their mor- tality. Decanicnm, the name given to a prison attached to many of the ancient churches, pro- bably for the correction of the inferior office- bearers. DED Decretals. — The decretals are letters of the pope, or of the pope and cardinals, for ordering or determining some matter of controversy. In the Roman Catholic Church thej* rank as canon- ical epistles, and have the authority of law in themselves. The first collection of the decretals appeared about the year 760, under the name of Isidore, and was brought from Spain into Ger- many by Riculphus, Bishop of Mayence. Both the authenticity and the authority of this col- lection is disputed and in great measure given up, even by tlie Roman Catholics themselves ; and it is generally admitted that no part of it is genuine anterior to a letter of Pope Siricius to Himerus, Bishop of Tarragona, in 385. The proofs of the forgeries contained in this collection are given by Moreri (Decretales'). This was followed in 845 by the Capitularies of Adrian ; in 906 by the collection of Rheginon, Abbot of Prumia; in 1000 by the collection of Burchar- dius. Bishop of Worms, known as the Magnum Decreiorum seu Canonum volumen ; in 1100 by the Decretum Canonum et Pannomia of Ivo. The Western Church in 1150 adopted the cele- brated work of Gratian, a benedictine monk of Bologna, Concordia discordantium Canonum. which is an epitome of canon law, drawn from decrees of councils, letters of pontiffs, and writ- ings of ancient doctors. This work was fre- quently republished with large additions and corrections, and for many centuries was the text book of canonists. Innocent III. and Honorius III. published their own letters. Ray- nal of Pennafort, a Dominican, formed a new col- lection at the desire of Gregory IX., which bears the name of that pontiff, Libri quinque Decretal- ium Gregorii Noni. It appeared in 1230, and is sometimes called the Pentateuch. Boniface VII I. added to it a Liber Sextus Decretalium in 1298, containing the decretals of Gregory IX., and those subsequent, down to his own papacy. To this again was appended Liber Septimus De- cretalium or dementis Papce Constitutiones, by Clement V., in 1313. The Extravagantes Joannis XXIL were compiled in ] 340 ; the Ex- travagantes Communes (containing decrees from Urban VI. to Sixtus IV,), in 1483. Neither of the last bear any authority; for John XXIL never approved or sanctioned the collection pass- ing under his name ; and the author of the other is unknown. Peter Matthaei published a col- lection in 1590, sometimes styled the Liber Septimus Decretalium, and with this the legiti- mate decretals end. (Butler's Horce Juridicce subsecivce.^ — See Canox Law. Dedication of Churches.— In the fourth and fifth centuries of the Christian era festivals were celebrated, under the title of enccenia, (feast of inauguration), iyxaivia io^rn, on the anniversary of the dedication of any parti- cular church. Sozomen (11, 26) mentions the enccenia of the church built by Constantine at Jerusalem, in honour of our Saviour. Hence 206 DEF arose the German Mrhveickes, and our English church 7i'akes ; for Bade (i. 30) states, that Gregory the Great, in his letters to Austin and Mellitus, the first Saxon bishops in England, ordered him to allow the people liberty on these anniversaries to build booths, and feast round their churches, in lieu of the ancient heathen sacrifices These meetings were very different from the old love-feasts (Bingham, Orig. EccL, XX., 7, 1). In many places, on account of the multiplicity of holidays thus occasioned, the church wakes were transferred to the Sunday following the day of dedication ; and by an in- junction of convocation in 1536, 21 Henry VIII., they were ordained to be kept in all places throughout the realm on the first Sunday in October. This injunction was never wholly conformed to, and the Puritans complained of those scenes of reveliy. — See Consecration. Defender of the Faitb — Chamberlayne in his AfrigncB Britt. Not. (1. 2), affirms that the title Defender of the Faith belonged to the kings of England long before the formal grant made by Leo X. to Henry VIII., and appeals to seve- ral charters recorded by the university of Oxford in confirmation of this assertion. Chamber- layne, however, has not cited his authorities. One of the fullest accounts extant of the received origin of the title, is given by Lord Herbert of Oherbury, in his Life and Reign of Henry VIII. (94) ; from which it appears, that at one time the chances were greatly against the title having been such as any of Henry's Protestant succes- sors could have retained. Dr. John Clark, Dean of Winilsor, was sent as ambassador to the pope, to deliver the volume De Septem Sacramentis against Luther, which, we believe, still exists in the Vatican Library, very splendidly bound, and bearing an inscription in the king's own hand- writing, Angloruni Rex Henricus Leoni millit hoc opus ad Fidei festem et amiciiice. On his '• appearing in full consistory, the pope, knowing the glorious present he brought, first gave him his foot and then his cheeks to kiss ; then re- ceiving the book, he promised to do as much for approbation thereof to all Christian princes (which our king much desired) as ever was done for St. Augustine's or Hierome's works ; assur- ing him withal, that at the next consistory he would bestow a ]mblic title on the king, which having been heretofore privately debated among the cardinals, and those of protector or Defensor Romance eccksice, or Sedis apostolica;, or Hex opostolicus, or orthodoxus, produced, they at la.st agreed on Defensor Fidei." The original bull of Leo X , in 15'21, bestowing tliis title, is in theCottonian Librar^v in the British Museum, but in a very damaged condition. It is printed by Lord Herbert (foe. cit.}, and by Sclden, in liis Tiiks of Honour. It contains .some passages which the pope very speedily must have been in- dined to revoke. The pope recalled this title at the time at which he exconmiunicated Ilenrv DEG for suppressing the reli^'ious houses; but the king was by no means willing to relinquish it ; and in the thirty-fifth year of his reign he ob- tained the coniirmation of it by parliament. It appears to have been a very favourite badge of majesty. The Emperor Charles V., by virtue of part of his coronation oath, was invested with the title of Defensor Eccksice ; and in compli- ment to the two monarciis, the following distich was blazoned in golden letters over the council chamber at Guildhall, when Charles visited England : — "Carolus, Henricus, vlvant nKFRSSORuterque; Henricus Fidei, Carolus Ecclesiae." Both titles probably were derived from the primi- tive Church, which appointed numerous defen- sores ; as ecclesim, regni, civitatum, plebis. In later days the defensor ecclesicB was called ad- vocatus. Defensor. — The defensores pauperum looked after the poor, and, as their advocates, brought cases of oppression before the magistrates, and demanded redress. The defensores eccksice had no spiritual jurisdiction, but maintained the rights of the church against aggressors, and at length they heard criminal causes in the bishop's name. They had a sort of external superintendence over the copiatw, or those who managed funerals. They might be clergymen or advocates at law. They thus became law ad\-isers to the Church, and some suppose them to be almost the same as chancellors. Thej' were called in the Greek Church h'Sixei and iKxkfKr/iK'iixoi — names suggested by their office. — See Advowee, Patro.n. Dograflatiou, the ecclesiastical censure bv which a clergyman is di\e^ted of his holy orders. The ceremonies attendant upon which punishment consist chiefly in stripping him, one by one, of his clerical vestments. In the Romish Church the person to be degraded is presented to the officiating priest appointed to perform this ceremony, robed in his sacerdotal vestment*, if he be in priest's orders; or with those of dea- con's, if in deacon's orders; and so of the other orders. Then the officiafor, in the presence of the secular judge, to whom the party to be de- graded is to be consigned, with a piece of glass, or with a pen-knife, publicly scratches, but slightly, so as not to fetch blnod, those parts of his hands which had been anointed in the confer- ring of ordei-s. After which lie divests the criminal, successively, of all the insignia or sacred ornaments which he had received at the time of his taking orders, and finally strips him of his clerical habit, putting on him a 1 ly habit, and publicly telling the secular judge, wlio is present, to take him under his jurisdiction if ho chooses, since he is thus deposed, degraded, and divested of authority. 'J'his is the general form. Tiiere are also forms for degrading the several orders in the Piomi^^h Church, from archbishops 07 DEI and bishops down to the very door-keepers. On the arrival in England of the decree of Pope Paul IV., which, among other things, command- ed Cranmer to be degraded, Strype says, " They apparelled the archbishop in all the garments and ornaments of an archbishop, only in mockery everything was of canvas and old clouts. And the crosier was put into his hand. And then he was, piece by piece, stript of all again. . . When they came to take his crosier, he held it fast, and would not deliver it, but pulled an appeal out of his left sleeve under his wrist, and said, ' I appeal unto the next general Council'" (Strype's Memorials of Archbishop Cranmer'). The church also had the right of in- flicting temporary degradation on a knight, as appears from the following sentence issued by j!)hn Peckham, Archbishop of Canterbury, to- gether with the Bishop of Salisbury, as dele- gates in the year 1285, 13 Edward I., against vSir Osbert Giftbrd, for stealing two nuns out of the Abbey of Wilton. He was never to enter a nunnery, nor to be so much as in the presence of a nun without an especial license from his dio- cesan ; he was to go thrice nudus in camisid et femoi-alibus, into Wilton church, and there ^^fus- ligari'''' — to be beaten with rods. So likewise in Salisbury market and in Shaftesbury church. Deists, those who deny the existence of a written di%'ine revelation. Deism has taken many shapes — sometimes being only coarse profanity-, at other times a refined and poetical pantheism. Sometimes it objects to the historical truth of the record, at other times to the doctrines contained in it. At one period it has denied the possibility of a revelation, or the necessity of it; at another, it has held that the divine origin of it cannot be proved. Thus Hume denies the credibility of a miracle, and Strauss its objective reality. The deism of the last century wore a cold and withered aspect. Its touch was rough and frosty. It had no sympathies. Its sorcery was coarse — unrelieved by the glitter of sophism or the witchery of song; and its dark and malignant scowl chilled the very orgies into which its dis- ciples had been initiated. It tore hope and love from man with a rude and unpit}'ing snatch, and " grinned horribly a ghastly smile," if its victims at any time trembled under the sudden consciousness of the robbery and cruelty which had been practised upon them. It covered the heaven with a pall of darkness, whose frown was reflected in ominous gloom on the earth. So it could not prevail. It gave nothing in ex- change for what it took away. It left man an outcast without shelter, and an orphan without a home. It gave no aim to life but a sensual pleasure, and sought no relief from death but a dreary annihilation. We are not afraid of the grosser forms of unbelief bringing havoc and ruin into the midst of the people. Their very hideousness is repulsive. The fantastic disbelief of Christianity, urged by such men as Fourier, DEI St. Simon, Owen, and even the Abbe Lamen- nais, is rejected and loathed by the moral instincts of our nature. Their communism owes its spread to maddened passions and political desperation, and had its birth in a visionary^ and Quixotic attempt to remedy the disorders of society hy the summarj' act of overturning it, and erecting a new fabric — a second Babel — whose wretched existence, when tried in miniature, has always been so brief as scarce to wan-ant the name of an experiment, and whose promise of good is only as the momentary verdure of the gourd, " which came up in a night, and perished in a night." Seduction from Christianity, to be suc- cessful, must present a fairer and more attractive appearance; and in such alluring guise it has at length come among us. Its insinuations are preg- nant with menace and danger; its pretensions are coincident with the claims of the loftiest ideal philosophy; and it sometimes arrogates the charms of a poetical pantheism. There is nothing rude or vulgar about it. It does not seek to brand the Bible as a forgery, but only to modify or explain away its claims. It allows the inspired books much in literary glory, and {esthetic brightness, but denies them a monopoly of such qualities. It brings Scripture down to the level of common treatises ; for it speaks of " Minos and Moses as equally inspired to make laws ;" Da\'id and Pindar " to write poetry ;" and affirms that Newton and Isaiah, Leibnitz and Paul, &c., have in them " various forms of the one spirit from God most high." Such inspiration is limited to " no sect, age, or nation; for it is wide as the world, and common as God." This new theory so generalizes the doctrine of inspiration, that whatever is precious and solacing in it, is obscured or lost. Old terms are boldly put for- ward with a new sense attached to them ; the hallowed phraseology usually applied to the Book of God is quietly appropriated to ordinary forms of thought and fancy. The new infidelity drinks wine out of the temple vessels, but not in the temple courts. Its brilliant ideas are exalted into "a revelation" — its poets are " prophets'" — its admiration of nature is offered as its " worship'' — the shrine where it presents such homage is its " sanctuary," — and the ardour and excitement of its advocates are dignified by the name of " inspiration." It is not to a figurative or secondary use of such words we object, but to the serious and literal employment of them under the belief that identical pheno- mena are described — that the writers of Scrip- ture, even in the message they convej-ed, had nothing different from " millions of hearts stout as theirs, as full of God." It is surprising that men professing to honour Scripture, insult it at the same time, by scorning its veracit}'. It pro- fesses to be a special revelation, and it authenti- cates its pretensions by numerous and convincing proofs. — See Eationalism. Old Scottish sta- tute took high ground on this subject ; " By 208 DEL the 11th act of Kincf William, pari. 1695, it is oidained, that whoever shall, in their writing or (Jiscourse, deny, impugn, or quarrel, argue, or reason, against the being of God, or any of the persons of the blessed Trinity, or the authority of the Holy Scriptures, or the providence of God in the government of the world, shall, for the first fault, be punished with imprisonment, ay and while they find bail to give public satisfac- tion in sackcloth to the congregation within which the scandal was committed ; and, for the second fault, the delinquent shall be fined in one yeai-'s valued rent, and the twentieth part of his free personal estate, besides his being imprisoned, ay and while he give satisfaction again ut supra; and for the third fault, he shall be punished with death as an obstinate blasphemer. All judges and ministers of tbe law are enjoined to execute tills act for the first fault ; and all inferior magis- trates of shires, regalities, stewarties, and their deputies, and magistrates of burghs are to execute this act as to the second fault ; and. as to the third fault, the execution thereof is remitted to the lords of justiciary." — Steuart of Pardovan's Collections, p. 142. — See Blasphemy. Delegates, Court of, persons who sat on certain ecclesiastical causes of appeal, under com- mission from the great seal. By certain acts passed in the reign of William IV., the couit of delegates is transferred to what is now called the judicial committee of the privy council, con- sisting of the lord president, lord chancellor, and the chief judges of the various courts of law. DemUsioii, the name in Presbyterian Churches for the act by which a minister resigns his charge He can only resign it into the hands of the presbytery ; for they ordained him. The C'lurt judges of the grounds of demission, and may refuse or comply. An old form in tlie Church of Scotland was as follows : — " I, Mr. A. B., minister at C, for such causes, demit my ministry at the said parish of C, purely and simply into the hands of the presbytery of D., declaring, that for my part, the said parish shall be held vacant, and that it shall be free to the parish and presbytery, after due intimation here- of, by warrant of the presbytery, to call and ]ilant another minister therein ; and consents that this be recorded in the presbj-terj^ books, ud fuiiiram rei inemoriam. In witness whereof I have subscribed these presents at &c." The demission being accepted, the church is declared vacant. Demiurge, the maker of the world — See Manicu.kisjl Demoniacs.— See Eneegumens. Denarii de Caritale. pennies ofiered of old at the Eucharist, and which might be given to the poor, or devoted to any sacred purposes. Denmark, Church of.— It is not certainly known from what country Denmark was origi- nally peopled; but the probability is that it was first colonized by Scythian tribes, dwelling to 209 DEN the north of the Euxine Sea. The earliest Danish records do not go back farther than the arrival of (Idin. a.d. 70. There is nearly as much dilliculty in arriving at an accurate know- ledge of its primitive religious belief, as in ascer- taining the origin of the nation itself. Tlie re- ligion of the early inhabitants of Denmark seems to have baeu similar to that of the majority of Gothic races. Their simple system of religion be- came ranch altered after the time of Odin. A much larger number of deities were now recognized ; and the chief divinity, instead of ruling over all, was now viewed as presiding over only one pro- vince— that of war. Thus we have tlic hero as divinit}'; for Odin seems to have been nothing more than a successful adventurer, coming with a large army from the provinces lying between the Euxine and the Caspian, and conquering large portions of the north of Europe, one of which was Denmark, over which he installed his son Skjold as king. Probably soon after his death he would be deified. The accounts of him, being preserved merely by tradition, would grow more and more fabulous by repetition, until at last he was exalted in imagination to the highest pitch of power, and was viewed as the supremo ruler of the world, or at least of the country. Tliere were twelve inferior gods and goddesses, who, though entitled to divine honours, were bound to yield obedience to Odin. The first efforts to introduce Christianity into Denmark were made by Willibrord, an English presbyter, who was consecrated Archbishop of the Fri.^ias in a.d. 696. These eflforts were not suc- cessful. Having ofF;nded the inhabitants by slaving some of the sacred animals, he was ex- pelled from the country. It was not till the be- ginning of the ninth century that Christianity obtained anything like a permanent footing. In 822, feuds having arisen in regard to the succes- sion to the throne, Harald Krag, a prince of Jutland, besought the interposition of Lewis the Pious, Emperor of Germany. The latter sent to Denmark, as his ambassaclor, Kbbo, Archbishop of Eheims, his favourite statesmau, who had the interests of the church as well as of the empire at heart, and who had previously cherished an earnest desire to engage in a mission to tlie Danes. He succeeded in gaining over Ilarald and those around him to Chriatianity, though probably political motives may liave liad somo- thiug to do with the conver.-ion. Harald and his queen accompanied the ambassador back to the court of his imperial master; and there they received the rite of Christian bajjtism— tho emperor standing godfatlier for the king, and the empress as godmother for the queen. When Harald was about to take his departure, the emperor desired to find a pious •.•cdesiastic who might accompany him, in order to reside per- manently in his dominions, aiul to instruct the people in the faith which tiiiir sovereign h.id embraced. Having maile iiiquiries, be selected DEN Ansdiar, a monk of Picardy, belonging to the convent of Corbe}', and who had previously formed one of a company who had established a missionary convent of the same name among the northern heathen. Anschar, frequently called the "Apostle of the North," was the child of many praj'ers, and, like Samuel, had been devoted to the service of God from his mother's womb. Like him, too, he had, in his early years, been favoured with, or at least supposed that he had been favoured with, special revelations from God. He was undoubtedly a sincerely pious man. He readily undertook to accompany the Danish kins^, upon whom, during the voyage, he seems to have produced a most favourable im- pression. When they reached Denmark, Ans- char at once commenced his labours. He com- menced, after a somewhat peculiar fashion, by purchasing a number of native boys, whom he intended to instruct in the principles of Chris- tianit}', and so to qualifj' them for becoming preachers of the gospel to their countrymen. He opened his training institution with twelve pupils. He was, however, soon interrupted in his beneficent labours. The affections of Harald's subjects were alienated from him by his adoption of Christianity and by the German alliances which he had formed. He was accordingl}' driven from Denmark in 828. By thus preferring his faith to his crown, Harald clearly showed that, whatever may have been hismotives for originally adopting the Christian religion, he was now at least sincerely attached to it. Deprived of his powerful patron, Anschar deemed it expedient to leave Denmark. He did not betake him anew to the indolent retirement of the convent, but, in compliance with the invitation of the Emperor Lewis, went into Sweden, where a door of useful- ness had just been opened, and where he met with considerable success. After his departure the Danish mission was conducted bv Gislema, who was much impeded in his efforts by the op- position of Horick, who had succeeded Harald. But Anschar, now become Archbishop of Ham- burg, and still mindful of the Danish mission, and solicitous for its welfare, opens a correspondence with Horick, and succeeds in conciliating him ; so that Gislema and his coadjutors are permitted to proceed with the work of the mission, and to erect churches, — among others, one at Hadeby, now Schleswig. Horick was succeeded b}' Horick II., who checked the progress of Christianity. The check, however, was only a temporary one, and the churches were re-opened ; and the work of the mission proceeded vigorously, still under the fostering supervision of the pious and devoted Anschar, who, from his dying bed, besought the emperor zealously to prosecute the Danish and Swedish missions. Rimbert succeeded Anschar in the archiepiscopate, and endeavoured to copy his example, making several dangerous journeys into Denmark and Sweden. The position of the Scandinavians, who were at this time constantlv DEN engaged in predatory incursions into other coun- tries, was not favourable to the spread of Chris- tianity among them. Still, on the other hand, the Danes were brought to a considerable extent under its influence, by means of the intimate relations which they, at this time, had with Eng- land. For a considerable time Christianity met with a series of rapid alternations of favour and disfavour from the ruling princes. In the first half of the tenth centurjf King Gurm, a bitter opponent of Christianity, commenced a violent persecution of the Christians. But in 934 the German emperor interposed, and not only stop- ped the persecution, but also made Gurm cede the province of Schleswig to the German empire. It was taken possession of by a colony of Chris- tians. Gurm still continued opposed to Chris- tianity. It was favoured and adopted by his son Harald, who in due course ascended the throne, liis son Sueno again banished the Christian religion, and re-established the ancient faith. The son of the latter, Canute the Great, was won to the side of Christianity by the in- fluence of the English Church. He earnestly strove to give to Christianity a firm foundation in Denmark. In the eleventh century the Danish Church received much royal favour, first from Swejm II., and afterwards froni Canute IV. We may see the power which the church had by this time attained, from the fact that a bishop ventured to visit with the censures of the church the first of these kings, whose con- duct was not at all times in perfect accordance with the teachings of the religion which he fos- tered. The king did not resist, but humbly be- sought forgiveness. Having obtained it, he ever after remained a faithful son of the Roman Catholic Church. Canute IV. went so far in his devotion to the interests of the church as to pro- pose to give ecclesiastics a voice in the governing council of the nation. This so enraged the people that they rebelled against him, and took his life. He was succeeded by Eric III., sur- named the Good, who also fostered the church. Denmark had now become, to a great extent, a professedly Christian country. In the thirteenth century the power of the church was so great, that in consequence of an infringement of its privileges, Christopher I. was excommunicated, and his kingdom laid under an interdict, which continued for some time. There were continually recurring contests between the prerogative of the crown and the privileges of the church until the reign of Eric VIIL, when a compromise was effected. After this the church held undisturbed sway, until the time of the Ref rmation. Den- mark was happily one of those European countries in which the Reformation was destined to take deep root, and to acquire for itself a permanent position. From its proximitj' to Ger- many, the doctrines of Luther were early pro- claimed among its inhabitants. Christian, the heir of the thrones of Denmark and Norway, so 210 DEN far favoured the opinions as to call in mission- aries to proclaim and expound them to the people. He, however, afterwards withdrew his coun- tenance. Cut Frederick I., the reigninj; sovereign, encouraged the preaching of Protestant doctrines. The assembled states decreed, that there should be perfect liberty of conscience— that the clergy should be allowed to marry — and that the bishops should no longer be appointed by the pope, but should be elected by the chapters, sub- ject to the confirmation of the crown. Many of the religious establishments were forsaken, and their revenues confiscated. The Lutheran doc- trines spread rapidly in the towns, and also to some extent in the rural districts. Duringthe in- terregnum which followed the death of Frederick, the bishops made eftbrts to recover their supre- macy, and succeeded in obtaining several conces- sions. These were soon revoked by Christian III. He deprived the bishops of their seats in the senate, and of all temporal authority. By taking prompt and energetic measures, he com- pleted the overthrow of Romanism, and definitely established Protestantism as the national re- ligion of Denmark. It was not till 1G83, in the reign of Christian V., that the constitution of the Danish Church was fully settled as it at pre- sent exists. The Danish ritual was first pub- lished in 1685. The government of the Church of Denmark is episcopal. In the whole country, including Iceland and its dependences, there are nine bishops and one superintendent-general. These are all appointed by the king. The Bishop of Zealand, who resides at Copenhagen, is the metropolitan. By him all the other bishops are consecrated ; and he himself is con- secrated by the Bishop of Fyhn, his nearest epis- copal neighbour. The church patronage is chiefly in the hands of the king. The feudal proprietors are allowed to name three candidates for vacant benefices on their own estates ; and from these three, the king selects one. The bishops are bound to send to the king an annual report of the state of matters in their dioceses. The synod of Zealand meets twice a-year : the other diocesan synods only once. The clergy are, to some extent, civil as well as ecclesiastical oflicers, being charged with the collection from their parishes of certain taxes. Their salaries are very limited ; and even the bishops are not over- paid. Since the Reformation, only one-third of the tithes is devoted to ecclesiastical pur|)ose3. The church service is chiefly liturgical ; and the attendance upon public worship is not so general among the Danes as among the Norwegians. In the dispensation of baptism the Danish Church uses exorcism. They make tlic sign of the cross on the head and breasts of the recipient, using also the imposition of the hands. There are at baptism five sponsors or witnesses ; but they do not assume any responsibility as to the up-bringing of the child. Lay baptism is, in some cases, held to be valid. Confirmation 2 DEP must always take place before admission to the Lord's Supper. It is also required that all can- didates for civil and military situations sliall have been confirmed. Indeed, a certificate of confirmation is indispensably requisite in order to obtain any situation whatsoever. Great educa- tional preparations are made for the examina- tions for confirmation. While this is so far well, inasmuch as it secures that almost every inhabi- tant of the country shall have a competent know- ledge of the doctrines of Christianity, it cannot be doubted that it will also have an evil tendency, by engendering tiie opinion that religion is merely intellectual, and does not enter into the province of the heart. The consequence of this making a civil test of a religious ordinance is, that dissenters, of whom there are very few, are obliged to live in communities by themselves. The Lord's Supper is celebrated in towns weekly, in rural parishes monthh', and even more rarely. In receiving the wafer and the cup the com- municants kneel, the males on the right and the females on the left. The minister does not kneel during any part of the service. The festi- vals of Christmas, Easter, and Pentecost are kept, each for two successive days. They also obsen-e the fast of Lent. Denoiuiiiations, Three, the name com- monly given to an association of about 150 ministers in and about London, Presbyterian, Independent, and Baptist, who have the privilege of presenting addresses at court, having voted such addresses at royal births or demises. At the acces- sion of a new sovereign they are introduced wnth their congratulatory address, and kiss hands. At other times they send a deputation, which is received in the royal closet. Their meetings are held in Dr. Williams's libran,', Red Cross Street. Fully a half of them are Congregationa- lists. Deodand (to be given to God), a thing or personal chattel so forfeited as being the cause of death. In England, deodands were forfeited to the king for pious uses by tlie royal almoner. An act to abolish them was passed in 181(5. Deo graiias QhanJcs to God), a form of salutation anciently used by Christians. Vepoiiiilion, a term used in Presbyterian Churches to signify tiie final deprivation of a minister from oflice' and all its functions. On the other hand, suspension from oftice is usually for a limited period, or until satisfactory proofs of penitence are given. — See Discii'line. Deprecation. — See LiTANT. Depriratioii, a term in the Church of Eng- land, denoting the censure by which a clergyman is deprived of his living. It can bo pronounced by the bishop only, and must bo preceded by a monition, a charge', and a proof. Tlic Vlid canon says: " When any minister is couiplained of in any ecclesiastical court belonging to any bishop othis province, for any crime, the cliancellor, commissary, oflicial, or any other having ecclo- 11 DES siastical jurisdiction, to whom it shall appertain, shall expedite the cause by processes and other proceedings against him : and upon contumacy for not appearing, shall first suspend him ; and afterwards, his contumacy continuing, excommu- nicate him. But if he appear, and submit him- self to the course of law, then the matter being I'eady for sentence, and the merits of his offence exacting by law either deprivation from his living, or deposition from the ministry, no such sentence shall be pronounced by any person who- soever, but only by the bishop, with the assist- ance of his chancellor, the dean (if they may conveniently be had), and some of the preben- daries, if the court be kept near the cathedral church, or of the archdeacon, if he may be had conveniently, and two other at the least grave ministers and preachers, to be called by the bishop when the court is kept in other places." Desk, Reading, the name given to the pidpit in which morning and evening prayer is read in the Church of England. Originallv this service was read at the upper end of the choir or chan- cel. Objections were made to this custom, and desks were formally appointed in the reign of James I. Desk in Scotland is the place occupied by the leader of the psalm cd}-. Destruction. — See Annihilation. Dens niisereatur (fiod have mercy), the Latin name of the sixty-seventh psalm, derived from its first words, which, in the Church of Eng- land, may be used in the evening prayer, after the second lesson, instead of the nunc dimitlis, except on the twelfth day of the month, on which it occurs among the psalms for the day. Deutei'o-Canonical (belonging to the se- cond canon), an epithet given to certain books, usualh' called apocryphal by Protestants, but which were read in the church, and sometimes, on that account, termed ecclesiastical. They are so named by writers belonging to the Church of Eome, to distinguish them from some books which even she styles apocryphal — such as the Prayer of Manasseh, the Fourth Book of Ezra, and the Third Book of Maccabees. Development, the name given to that form of proof by which some few Romanists vindicate their system. The theory is, that the revelation contained in the New Testament was intention- ally incomplete; that these doctrines, imperfectly given at first, were to be developed in course of ages, and under infallible guidance ; and that the present belief of the Roman CathoUc Church is the ripened and final result. Mr. Newman has given fame and prominence to this theory, though others, such as Mohler and De Maistre, had hinted it before him. It is certainly true that tlie errors of Popery were introduced gradually, and sprang from small seeds. But Mr. Newman's theory in defence of Popery is opposed to the commonly received doctrine of his church. Thus the council of Trent decreed, session 4 : " The s-icrod and holy, oecumenical and general synod of DEV Trent, lawfully assembled in the Holy Ghost, the same three legates of the apostolical see presiding therein, — keeping this always in view, that, errors being removed, the purity itself of the Gospel be preserved in the Church ; which [Gospel], before promised through the prophets hi the Holy Scrip- tures, our Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, first promulgated with his own mouth, and then commanded to be preached by his apostles to every creature, as the fountain both of every saving truth, and discipline of morals ; and per- ceiving that this truth and discipline are con- tained in the written books, and the unwritten traditions which, received by the apostles from the mouth of Christ himself, or from the apostles themselves, the Holy Ghost dictating, have come down even unto us, transmitted as it were from hand to hand ; [the synod] following the examples of the orthodox fathers, receives and venerates with equal affection of piety, and reverence, all the books both of the Old and of the New Tes- tament,— seeing that one God is the author of both, as also the said traditions, as well those appertaining to faith as to morals, as having been dictated, either by Christ's own word of mouth, or by the Holy Ghost, and preserved by a continuous succession in the Catholic Church." The theory, moreover, would be a plain surrender of the claim of antiquity on the part of the Catholic Church; for she has invariably pointed to the unanimous consent of the fathers, and apostolical tradition. There is development in personal reli- gious life, and in personal conception of the unity and relations of divine truth — the blade, the ear, and then the full corn in the ear ; but New- man's theory, espoused also by Cardinal Wise- man, is vague and inconsistent. Protestants hold by Scripture as a perfect rule of faith. The late Professor Archer Butler's letters are a sweep- ing and powerful reply to Newman. Thus he says : "Or again — to come somewhat nearer the favourite region of false and spurious ' develop- ment'— when we remember the divinity of Christ, combined in one personality with his manhood, at his incarnation through the Holy Virgin, we can readUy deduce (with the angel) that she was indeed eminently ' blessed among women,' or (with herself) that she ought fitly to be 'called blessed' by 'all generations.' We cannot deduce by exactly the same process, that that blessed person has been for eighteen centuries the ' Queen of Heaven,' exalted above every created thing, and to be worshipped with the veneration due to a being possessing all of God- head, except its absolute infinity, as Mr. New- man proclaims (p. 406), that she is (as the pre- sent Bishop of Rome not long since declared, from the inmost sanctuary of infallible truth) ' Our greatest hope, yea, the entire ground of our hope ! ' " And again, "Mr. Newman delivers himself as follows, which is the only distinct reference I can remember to the subject in bis entire volume: — ' The holy apostles would know, without words, 212 DIA all tlie truths concerning the high doctrines of theology, which controversialists after them have piously and charitably reduced to formulre, and developed through argument.' — p. 83. And he then proceeds, as if somewhat afraid of so delicate an Inquirj', to talk about the knowledge St. Justin and St. Irenceus ' might ' have of (it is one of the usual artifices of his rhetoric to class .such things together) purgatory or original sin. Jfeanwhile the above sentence afibrds all the light Mr. Newman is pleased to furnish us as to his views of St. Paul's knowledge of the propriety of invoking, in religious worship, St. James after his martyrdom ; or St. John's conceptions of the duty of depending for his 'entire hope,' with Pope Gregory XVI., upon the boundless influence in heaven of her whom he ' took unto his own home ; ' or St. Peter's notions of the absolute supremacy of himself, and of a line of prelates professing to occupy his place ; or St. Matthew's thoughts about the utility of bowing in ' relative adoration ' before wooden images of deceased men and women. The apostles would know all these things 'without words.' But now, if the apostles not only ^ would know' — a form of expression which I do not pretend precisely to understand — but really did know these things, it may be permitted me, witliout presumption, to ask, on what conceivable ground is their silence regarding them to be explained ? Their love of souls was unquestionable ; the practical impor- tance of the doctrines in question, if true, was equally so. If souls, elect, saved, forgiven, are, after death, to be tortured for thousands of years in purgatorial flames, and depend for their sole chance of alleviation or release upon masses on earth, how incomprehensible was the abstinence of earnest, loving Paul (knowing all this thorough- ly) from any allusion to the necessity of such helps for these wretched spirits ! If the invoca- tion of the blessed Virgin be one of the chief instruments of grace in the Gospel, how inexpli- cable that, in all the many injunctions of prayer and supplication, no syllable should ever be breathed of this great object of prayer; on the contrary, that numerous apparent implications should occur of the sole and exclusive right of the Deit}' to sucli addresses ! If the bishop and church located at the city of Rome were, by Divine appointment, ever to carry with them a gift of infallible guidance to itself and all churches in their communion, — how utterly inconceivable that the apostles, knowing this — above all, that St. Peter himself, the conscious fountain of all this mighty stream of living waters ordained to (low to the end of time, should, while constantlj' ])redicting the growth of heresies, the prevalence of false knowledge, the glory of steadfastness in the faith, never, even by incidental allusion, refer to this obvious, safe, immediate security against error ! " Olacienisnius (S/a ar.d xc/it'os, new), the name anciently given by the Greek Church to the 2 DIL week after Easter, the i)eri(>d of spiritual renewal. Diaconate, the office of a deacon. Diaconicum, the chancel or .sanctuary of the ancient churches, according to some writers ; but more probably the vestry where the sacred ves- sels and vestments were deposited. None but the clergy were permitted to enter it. — See Is- FKRiOR Clergy. Diaconi rcgionarii (district deacons'), the original name of the cardinals at Rome, and in- dicating their original office. Dies. — See Day, Lent. Diet, the name given to an assembly in Ger- many. Some famous ones were held at the period of the Reformation. 1. Diet of Worms, in 1521, at W'hich Lutlier refused to recant. 2. Of Nur- emberg, in 1523, where the nuncio demanded the publication of the bull of Leo X., and of tlie edict of Charles V. against Luther. 3. Of Nurem- berg, in 1524, at wliich it was resolved to call an assembly at Spires, which the emperor prohi- bited. 4. Of Spires, 152G, at which the Duke of Saxony and the Landgrave of Hesse demanded the free exercise of the Lutheran faith, and it was resolved to call a general council. 5. Of Spires, in 1529, in which a decree was issued, abrogating that of the first diet, against which six princes and fourteen deputies from imperial towns protested, hence the party was called Protestants. 6. Of Augsburg, in 1530, convoked by Charles v., and to which the celebrated Lutheran Con- fession of Faith was presented. Litt, in Scottish presbyterian nomenclature, is a public service, as in the phrase, " diet of public worship," " an evening diet or sermon." Digamy. — See Marriages, Second. Diggers, a name given apparently to the Waldenses, because they were obliged to fv)rm caverns for thjir safety, as they met in secret for Divine worship. Dilapidation, in law, a wasteful destroying, or letting those things wliich a beneficed person has the burden and charge of reparation — such as the chancel, parsonage house, enclosures, hedges, and ditches— fall to ruin and decay for want of reparation. Actions for dilapidation may be brought either in the spiritual court by the' canon law, or in the courts of common law; and they lie as well against an incumbent if re- moved to another preferment, as against his ex- ecutors or administrators, in case of his death. It is said to be good cause of deprivation if tlio bishop, par-son, vicar, or other ecclesiastical person, dila|)idutes the buildings, or cuts down timber growing in the patrimony of the church, unless for necessary repairs; the woods being called the dower of tlie ciuirch. By the 13 Elizabeth, c. 10, if any ecclesiastical person makes over, or alienates his goods or chattels, with intent to defeat his successor of liis remedy for dilapidations, such successor shall have the same reincdv in the ecclesiastical court against tlie alienee as if he were tlie executor or ad- 13 DIM ministrator of the person so alienating liis goods and chattels. By the 14 Elizabeth, c. 11, all moneys recovered for dilapidations shall within two years be emploj-ed upon the repairs in re- spect whereof such moneys are paid, on pain of forfeiting double as much as shall be received, and not employed, to the crown. By the 17 George III., c. 53, it is enacted, with a view to prevent dilapidations, that clergj'men may mort- gage the glebe, tithes, and other profits of their livings, for the purpose of building, or improving the buildings belonging to their benefices — the ordinary and patron giving their consent, and other forms in the act specified being complied with. The governors of Queen Anne's bountj' may lend money for the like purpose, not exceeding £100, without interest, in respect of a living under £50 a-year; and where the annual value exceeds £50, they may lend any sum not exceeding two years' income, at £4 per cent, interest. Colleges, also, or other incor- porate bodies, having the patronage of livings, raajf lend money for the same purposes without interest. Diminntos (defective), persons were so called whose confessions before the Inquisition were imperfect, that is, such as accused them- selves before sentence but incompletelj', that the sentence, might be lenient ; or such as did so after sentence, and were tortured to gain further dis- closures ; or such as made no confession till de- livered up to the confessor, and obliged to name all who were in complicity with them. Diiuissory Lieiters, are letters given by a bishop to a candidate for holy orders, having a title in his diocese, directed to some other bishop, and giving leave for the bearer to be ordained by him. In the canons of many councils these letters are called i'mrroXai a'ToXunnKi. At first dimissory letters were given to all Chris- 2. Valentia ; 3. Britannia Prima ; tians on their removal from one place to another, a practice still most scrupulously observed by the various Protestant dissenting communities in this country ; but when jiersecution ceased, and the numbers of the Christian Church were greatly increased, the formality of a bishop's introduction fell into disuse, except in the case of clergymen desiring to remove from one diocese to another. Presbyters, confessors, and all others, were forbidden to write those letters ; but the chorepiscopi had power to grant them to the country clergy. "No clergymen of whatever degree," says the council of Trullo, "shall be entertained in another church without the dimis- sory letters of his own bishop." These he might grant or refuse as he saw proper ; for there was no law to compel him to grant them. Diocese, a district of an inhabited country. Constantiue and his successors divided theirempire into thirteen dioceses, which comprehended 120 provinces, and were governed by twelve vicars or sub-prefects. Rome and its neighbourhood had one prefect to itself, exclusive of the one DIO appointed over Italy at large. About the latter end of the fourth century the church appears to have been divided in a similar manner with the empire, having an exarch or patriarch in each of the thirteen great dioceses, and a metropolitan or primate in everj' province. The lesser diocese, used as the word is now, included the episcopal city itself, and all the region round about it, with its numerous congregations under the bishop's jurisdiction; hence it was called the bishop's 'xa^oiKicc, which ia its original applica- tion meant the bishop's whole diocese, though the word parish, or a single congregation, has flowed from it in later daj-s. The establishment, distribution, and extent of ecclesiastical dioceses, is most learnedly and copiously examined in the ninth book of Bingham's Oriff. Eccl, in which the counter-arguments of Lord King are stated and impugned. The civil diocesan division of the old Eoman empire in the days of Arcadius and Honorius was as follows: — I. Prcefectus Prcetorio per Orlentem : Five dioceses were subject to his jurisdiction, namely, — 1, The Oriental diocese, properly so called ; 2, The diocese of Egypt ; 3. The diocese of Asia ; 4. The diocese of Pontus ; 5. the diocese of Thrace. — II. Prcefectus Prcelorio per niyricum : Only two dioceses were committed to his superintendence, namely, — 1. The diocese of Macedonia ; 2. The diocese of Dacia. — III. Prcefectus Prcetorio Italice: Three dioceses were subject to the jurisdiction of this governor, namely, — 1. The diocese of Italy ; 2. The diocese of Illyria ; 3. The diocese of Africa — IV. Pra- fectus Prcetorio Galliarum : He had the command of three dioceses, namelj', — 1. The diocese of Spain ; 2, The diocese of Gaul ; 3. The diocese of Britain. The diocese of Britain included five provinces, namely, — 1. Maxima Caesareensis ; 4. Britan- Or thus — ExAECH OF York, if ant. Metropoles. nia Secunda; 5. Flavia Caesareensis. Diocese op Britain. Provinces. L Maxima Caesareensis, i. e., at first, all from the Thames to the northern borders 2. Flavia Csesareensis, taken out of the former, and containing all from the Thames to the Humber, . 3. Britannia Prima, i. e., aV.! south of the Thames, . .y 4. Britannia Secunda, i. e., al! beyond the Severn, 5. Valentia, beyond the Picts'7 wall, ■ .j The following statement occurs in Gardner's Faiths of the H^'orW under the word "diocese," — " The average population in March 1851, when the last census was taken, of each diocese in Eng- land and Wales, was 645,383. This appears to be a higher average than is to be found in any other country of Europe, From a report of a recent commission in France, on the subject of episcopal sees, we learn the following facts as to Eboracum (York). Londinum (London). I Carleolum (Caerleon). 214 DIP the average population of each diocese in various Roman Catholic and other countries in Europe. France reckons a bishop or archbishop for about 400,000 souls of Roman Catholic population. Bavaria has eight dioceses for 3,000,000 souls, or in other words, the average amount of a single diocese is 375,000. Austria has seventy-eight bishops or archbishops for 28,000,000 souls, that is, one diocese for 358,000. Ireland has twenty-nine dioceses for 6,500,000 Roman Catholics, which makes about 224,000 in each diocese. Spain has fifty-nine dioceses for 12,000,000 souls, that is, a diocese for 203,000 souls. The dioceses in Spain have recently undergone a slight reduction to fifty-six. Por- tugal has twenty-two ejiiscopal or metropolitan dioceses for 2,500,000 souls, that is, a diocese for 113,000 souls. The two Sicilies have eighty dioceses for 8,500,000 souls, or one diocese for 106,000 souls. Sweden, with about 3,000.000 .souls, has thirteen dioceses. Greece, with a population of less that 1,000,000, has twenty- four episcopal dioceses. The Protestant Episco- pal Church in the United States of America has about 1,800 clergy, and thirty-two episcopal dioceses." Dippers. — See Ddnkees. Dipsaluia (double psalm), tha.t form of sing- ing in which the clergy sung one portion and the people chanted the responses. Thus, in Psalm cxxxvi., the clergy sung the first clause of each verse, and the people added the refrain, " for his mercy endureth for ever." Diptychs Ql'TTv^o; from S/;, and !rTi/;^>j, a fold). — The Roman diptyciia were folding tablets employed as memorandum books. The j diptychs of the ancient Church were registers — some for the dead and some for the living. They were under the care of an officer appointed for the purpose. These ecclesiastical registers were of three kinds : Dipti/cha mortuorum, in which the names of all such as died in the odour of sanctity were enrolled ; Diptycha vivo- 1-um, containing the living ofiicers and benefac- tors of the Church ; Diptycha episcoporum, a catalogue of canonized bishops. Portions of these were read during the celebration of mass. It was the custom in some churches for the deacon to rehearse from these books tlie names of eminent bishops, saints, or martyrs, before they made oblation for the dead. It was also customary when the oblation liad been made, to mention the names of those that had oflered, after which they were enrolled among the living benefactors of the Church, by the proper ofiicer. The original intention of this practice, which soon became corrupted into occasions of vain-glory and ostentation, will be evident from the following extract of a letter from Cyprian to the churches of Numidia concern- | ing a collection that had been made for them at j Carthage, for the redemption of some Chris- tian captives : — " I have sent you the names ol I 21 DIR every brother and sister that had contributed willingly to so necessary a worl;. that vou init;ht remember them in your pravers, aiid requite their good work in your sacrifices and .solemn supplications." The names of those exconmiuni- catwl were erased from the diptychs. and again re.stored upon their re|)entance and admission to church fellow.-hip; and whenever a discovery of crmie deserving of excotnmuiiicatinn was ni.^d?, after the death of an individual wiio retained his connection with the vi.sil.le Cliurch to the Inst, his name was expunged from the diptychs, which, of itself, was tantamount to an excommunica- tion after death. The diptychs were read from the ainbo, or reading desk (Gorio, Thesaurus vetevum Diptychonim Coumlarium et Eccksiusti- corum, Florence, 1759). Dir<;ctory. — When the assembly of divines sat at Westminster, in 1643, the liturgv of the Church of England had been laid aside,' and no m ofiice had been substituted in its room. A com- S mittee, therefore, was appointed to agree on ^ certain general heads for the guidance of minis- ters. These heads ha\ing passed through the asseinbly, were sent to Scotland for approbation, and in the end were autliorizcd by an ordinance of parliament, bearing date 3d January, 1644, under the title of a Directory for the Public Worship ff God throughout the tliree Kinydoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland. The same ordinance repealed the acts of Edward VI. and Elizabeth, by which the liturgy was established, and forbade the use of it witliin any church, chapel, or place of public worship in England or Wales, appointing the use of the directory in its stead. This ordinance, indeed, never received the royal assent, and it was a long time before it succeeded in abolishing the estab- . lished worship. In some parts tlie directorv could not be [jrocured, in others it was rcjet'ted; some ministers would not read any form, others read one of their own. The parliament, there- fore, in the ensuing summer, called in all the Books of Common Prayer, and imposed a fine -S^ upon such ministers as should read any other ™ form than that imposed by the directory. The penalty for reading the liturgy was £5 for the first ofifence, £10 for the second, and a year's imprisonment for the third ; for non-observance of the directory, 40s. Any one who snould preach, write, or print anytliinu' in derogation of the directory, was to forfeit not Icm than £5, nor more than £50, to the poor. All Common Prater Books remaining in parish churches or chapels were ordered to be carried to the coni- mittce of tlie several counties, witliin a month, there to be disposed of oa the parliament should direct (Uushworth, Hist. Coll., p. iv., i., 295). The king, in return, forbade the use of the direc- tory, and enjoined the continuance of the liturgy, by a proclamation Irom O.vford, dated 13th No- vember, 1645, in which he ob.served that, "The Book of Common Prayer being a most excellcut DIR form of worship, grounded on the Holy Scrip- tures, is a great help to devotion, and tends to preserve an uniformity in the Church of England; ^vhereas the directory gives libertj- to ignorant, factious, and evil men, to broach their own fancies and conceits, and utter those things in their long prayers which no conscientious man can assent to; and, be the minister never so pious, it breaks in upon the uniformity of public service." In opposition to the ordinance of the parliament, this proclamation strictly enjoins the liturgy to be used, " Ai;d that the directory be in no sort admitted, or received, or used ; and whensoever it shall please God to restore us to peace, and the laws to their due course, we shall require a strict account and prosecution against the breakers of the said law. And in the mean- time, in such places where we shall come and find the Booh of Common Prayer suppressed and laid aside, and the directory introduced, we shall account all those that are aiders, actors, or con- trivers therein, to be persons disaffected to the religion and laws established" {Id. lb. 207). Warrants also were issued, under the king's own hand, to the same purpose, addressed to the heads of the university; and Charles assured tlie peers at Oxford that he was still determined to live and die for the privileges of his crown, his friends, and church government. When the parliament visitors went down to Oxford in 1647, the vice-chancellor, Dr. Fell, summoned a convocation, in which it was agreed not to submit to them. At the same time Dr. Sander- son drew up a Paper entitled. Reasons of the present Judgment of the University of Oxford concerning the Solemn I^.ague and Covenant, the Negative Oath, and the Ordinance concerning Discipline and Worship, approved hy general consent in a full convocation, \st June, 1647. The utmost concessions which could be ob- tained from Charles, even when his fortunes were almost at their lowest ebb, and he was im- prisoned in the Isle of Wight, were those which he proposed in the conference at Newport, to- wards the close of 1648, that he would confirm the use of the directory in all churches and chapels, and would repeal so much of all statutes as concerned the Book of Common Prayer, only provided the use thereof might be continued in the royal chapel for the king and his household; and that the directory should be confirmed by act of parliament for three years, provided a con- sultation be had in the meantime with the assembly of divines. These propositions were voted unsatisfiictory by the two houses. The various heads of the directory are — of the assem- bling of the congregation ; of public readmg of the Holy Scriptures ; of public praj'er before the sermon ; of the preaching of the Word ; of prayer after sermon ; of the sacrament of baptism ; of the sacrament of the Lord's Supper; of the sanctification of the Lord's Day ; of the solem- nization of marriage ; of the visitation of the sick ; DIS of the burial of the dead; of public solemn fasting; of the observation of days of public thanksgiving; of singing of psalms; an appen- dix touching days and places of public worship. The most characteristic parts of this document will be found under the articles treating of these subjects. The directory has been frequently re- printed since its first appearance in 1645. It maj- be found in the fifth volume of Neale's History of the Puritans, and is usually appended to The Confession of Faith. Disciples of Christ. — See Campbellites. Disciplina Arcani. — Besides what is said under Arcani Disciplina, it may be further observed, that this secret discipline has been a great weapon in the popish controversy. When Catholic apologists were pressed with the fact that their peculiar dogmas are not found in the writings of the early fathers of the Church, it was replied, as by Schelstrate and Scholliner, that such dogmas belonged to the secret disci- pline. But of these there is not the shadow of proof. The things about which there was re- serve were baptism, confirmation, ordination, the Eucharist, the Creed, the Lord's Prayer, and the Trinity. — See Catechumens; Church, Mhji- BERS OF ; Development. Discipline. — The right which every church has to exclude from its fellowship notorious offenders in morality or doctrine is essential to purity and self-preservation. The severity of it was, indeed, soon carried to an undue extent in the early Church, as the power of the clerg}' rose to be supreme, and penance and penitence were confounded. — See Penitents. Before the eleventh century the discipline of the lash (the word is used in the Romish Church both for the instrument and the penance itself) had been confined to only a few severer individuals; but about that time the custom was sanctioned by authority, and a code was framed estimating the precise value of each separate infliction as a commutation for sin. A year of penance amounted to three thousand lashes ; and the cele- brated ascetic, Dominicus Loricatus, the cuirassed, so named because, except while undergoing dis- cipline, he alwaj^s wore a shirt of mail next his skin, frequently performed a penance of 100 j'ears, and would continue flogging himself without cessation while he repeated the psalter twenty times over; "which," says his friend and biographer. Cardinal Peter Damiano, "filled me with trembling and horror when I heard it." The self-tormenting achievements of St. Dominic may be found in Fleurj', Hist. Eccl., xiii., 96. His usual accompaniment to each single psalm was 100 lashes ; so that the whole psalter, with 15,000 stripes, equalled five years' penance. St. Dominic's allowance, therefore, amounted to the 100 years. If he was prevented by any accident from flogging himself as he wished, he used to beat his head and legs uimiercifullyr Sometimes discipline was carried to an excess 216 DIS more extravagant than that of St. Dominic liiin- self. if we may judge from the laws of tlie Visi- goths, one of which (lib. vi., tit. 5, sec. 8) bears the following formidable heading: "&" indlscreta diiciplina percussum mori de fiugdlo contlfjerit " — if death should happen from undue severity- Sometimes it might be received by deputy, as we learn fi'om a wicked stor\' which Michael Scot has recordeii in his Jlensa Pkilosophica, 18: " Quidam vir zelotypiis uxorem suam, ad confes- sion m euntem, sequebatur ; quam cum Sacerdos retro aJture duceret ad DiscipUnandum, hoc videns marihts ait, 0 Domine iota ttnera est, ego pro ipsa recipio Disciplin tm: quo flectente genua, dixit mulier, Percute fortiter, Domine, quia magna peccatrix sum," — that is, a certain man had followed his wife to confession, and when she retired behind the altar to be whipped, he cried to spare her, for she was tender, and he would take the flagellation in her room ; whereupon, as he bowed himself to the rod, she cried, " Strike hard, father, for I am a great sinner." It was thus also, namelj' by proxy, that Henry IV. of France was permitted to be reconciled to the church when he alvjured the errors of Protestantism. D'Ossat and Du Perron, both of whom afterwards ob- tained cardinal's hats, Avere deputed to suffer the discipline from the pope himself, who gave them each one lash at every verse of the Miserere. They were allowed to keep their coats on, and they reported that his holiness struck lighlly. Tlie narrative of this transaction was not inserted in the bull of absolution, perhaps on account of some compromir^e between the pope's pride and the king's honour ; but it is recorded in a written process of the ceremonial. An account of the discipline undergone by our Henry II., after the murder of k Beckett, is given by !Matlhew Paris. (Sigonius, de Regn. Ital, xix. ; Du Pin. BibL, xiii., siecle; Boileau, Hist, Flag.) — See also Ar.rAXi DisciiLiNA. - In Congregational churches the power of discipline is vested in the entire membership ; but in Presbyterian churches it is exercised by the session — an ajjpeal lying to the presbytery, and from that to the synod or general assembly. No civil pains or penalties follow in Scotland from an act of discipline. No power is exercised in Presbyterian clii;rches similar to that of eccle- siastical courts in England. Among Quakers there are monthly and quarterly meetings held for the exercise of discipline. — See Moravians. In the Church of England, though the canons provide for discipline, it has almost ceased to be exercised. The churchwardens are under obliga- tion to return the names of scandalous livers to tl»e ecclesiastical courts oncea-3'ear; and, if they neglect their duty, the minister himself may pro- secute. Tiie ofiender, if convicted, is not ad- mitted to the sacrament, and contumacy may expose him to tlie greater excommunication, which debars him from civil communion with the members of the church. If he continue obsli- 21 DIS nate for forty daj's longer, he may be put into pri- son by the writ de excommunicato capiendo, and kept till he give satisfaction to the church. An appeal lies in the most of such cases to the civil courts. A spiritual sentence is declared in Scot- land to be beyond review by a civil court, and the Court of Session has usually refused to enter- tain a plea for redress. A general view of dis- cipline which, in theory at least, is the same in all Presbyterian churches, may be seen in the fol- lowing excerpts from the I-urms of Procedure of the United Presbyterian Church: — "1. The proper ground of discipline, or church censure, is scandal Nothing can be the subject of church censure which is not condenmed by the law of God ; but everything which is in itself sinful, does not ne- cessarily fall under the denomination of scandal, or form the proper subject of disciijlinc. For those sins which are not publiclj' known, private admo- nition, counsel, and reproof, are in general the pro- per remedies. Church censure is only to be ad- ministered when, by the publicity which attended the commission of sin, or which has been subse- quentlj- given to it, it is calculated to bring a re- proach on religion, or to mar edification; and when it cannot be overlooked without incurring the danger of hardening the individual, embold- ening others to follow his example, and grieving the minds of the godly. 2. In the exercise of discipline there ought to be no officious inter- meddling with matters which are purely civil, or, indeed, with any matters which do not involve scandal, as above defined. And while watchful- ness is exerLised over the flock, no undue sulici- tude should be discovered to pry into tiie private conduct or ftimily concerns of individuals, to in- terfere officially in personal quarrels, or to engage in the investigation of secret wickedness. 3. The proper subjects of discipline are church members. It embraces not only members in lull communion, but also baptized children who are hearers in the church, and have arrived at an age at which they are responsible to society. Inquiry into scandal can be made only by the session, or, in the case of a minister, by the presbytery to which he belongs at the time of its bicoiiiing known ; and if, during the lapse of five years, no judicial notice has bt'eu taken of it, it is improper then to revive it, by making it the subject of public censure. 4. The ends contem- plated by discipline are, in subordination to the glory of God, the maintenance of the church's purity, respect f»r the authority of the institutions of her Divine Head, and the .spiritual benefit of church members, by afl'ecting the consciences of transgressors, and "leading tiieni to repentance, and by causing others to fear. It is not of llie nature of a penance or puni^iimcnt ; but is to be regarded as a precious privilege — one of the or- dinances of the New Testament, ajipointed by our Lord Jesus Christ, and blessed by the Spirit, for the edification of his people, and their giowtli in grace. 5. In order to effect thcic important e:iJs, 7 DIS no case is to be rashly made a matter of sessional inquiry. The conduct of church rulers should be uniformly guided by prudence, kindness towards offenders, and anxiety for their spiritual welfare. Rash and uncharitable judgments, undue sever- ity, and respect of persons, are carefully to be avoided, and the whole proceedings are to be dis- tinguished by gentleness and long-suffering, by impartiality and faithfulness. 6. The censures of the church are admonition, rebuke, suspension, deposition from office, and excommunication. 7. Admonition is the lowest degree of church cen- sure. It consists in solemnly addressing the of- fender, placing his sin before him, warning him of his danger, and exhorting him to greater cir- cumspection. In the case of a private member or elder, this is done in the session ; in the case of a minister, in the presbytery. In both cases it is done by the moderator of the court, — should be administered with all solemnity and serious- ness, as well as fidelity and kindness, — and should be wisely adapted to the peculiar circum- stances of the case. 8. Rebuke is a higher form of censure, resorted to after conviction or confes- sion of scandalous sins. It is administered by the moderator, in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ, as the only King and Head of the Church ; it is to be given with tiie utmost seriousness, and accompanied with a suitable address. Circum- stances may render it necessary, owing to the aggravations or publicity of the offence, that re- buke should be administered publicly before the congregation, but in all other cases rebuke in the session or presbj'tery will he found sutBcient. 9. Suspension from the privilege of full communion, or, as it has been improperly called, the lesser ex- communication, in like manner follows conviction or confession of guilt, and is more or less extend- ed in its continuance according to circumstances. Its object is more deeply to impress the mind of the offender, to afford o])portunity of judging of his professions of repentance, and to give a public testimony against the offence to the church and to the world. The suspension is accompanied •with rebuke, and the restoration with solemn ad- monition. 10. While under suspension, the in- dividual ought to be the object of peculiar solici- tude and care on the part of the rulers of the church. Every seasonable opportunity of deal- ing with his conscience, impressing him with right views of his sin, and leading him to genuine repentance, should be diligentlj' im- proved by them. When satisfactory proofs of penitence are exhibited, he is restored in presence of the court by whom the sentence was inflicted. 11. Sitspensionfrom office is an interdict against the exercise of the office w ith wliich the party falling under censure is invested, and is inflicted either for a limited time, or till cause appears for its being removed. Suspension of an office- bearer from the privilege of full communion is uniformly accompanied with suspension from office ; but there may be cases in which the lat- DIS ter is expedient while no grounds exist for the former; and, in like manner, restoration to the privileges of the church may take place, while good reason exists for contmuing suspension from office. 12. Suspension from both fellowship and office may take place in some cases during the mvestiiiation of a scandal ; but in this view, it is not to be regarded as a censure, but a mere con- sequence of the unhappy situation in which the individual is placed. 13. Deposition can take place only in the case of an office-bearer, and con- sists in depriving him of the office with which he was previously invested, in consequence of con- viction or confession of some gross immoralitj' or dangerous heresy. Contumacious resistance of the authority of the church courts may also war- rant a sentence cutting off the offender from, or declaring him to be no longer an office-bearer in, the church. 14. Excommunication is the highest censure of the church, and is not to be resorted to till all other means of reclaiming the offender have failed, — in cases, namely, of peculiar ag- gravation, where the offence is obstinately denied, although fully proved, or if acknowledged is justified, and where the individual continues impenitent and contumacious. It consists in solemnly casting the offender out of the church. The sentence, in all cases, is to be publicly in- timated to the church, that her members may avoid all familiar intercourse with the person ex- communicated, although it does not dissolve natural or civil bonds, or exempt from the duties of common humanity or Christian kindness. Becauseit involves no civdl pains, the world and the individual himself may ridicule the sentence, and regard it with indifference ; but to a mind pro- perly impressed with its solemnity, it will be viewed in a very different light ; and it is cal- culated, by the blessing of God, and bj^ its opera- tion on the conscience, to lead to the happiest results, being the institution of infallible wisdom ' for the destruction of the flesh, that the spirit may be saved iu the day of the Lord Jesus.'" Discipline, First Book of, was drawn up by the Scottish Reformers in 1560, and con- tained the order and government of the Church of Scotland. It was prepared by Knox, Winram, Spotswood, Rosse, and Douglas. Though ap- proved by the assembly, it was not ratified by the privy council. Discipline, Second Book of, was sanc- tioned by the assembly in 1578. Though not then ratified formally by parliament, it is regarded as the standard book of the Scottish Kirk, and is held in high estimation for its views of adminis- tration and order, by all Presbyterians. The Second Book of Discipline was inserted in the registers of assembly, 1581, sworn to in the na- tional covenant, revived and ratified by the assembly, 1638, and by many other acts of assembly, and according to which the church government is established by law, a.D. 1592 and IGUO. 218 DIS Dismes {decimal or tenths) are the tenth part of the yearly value of all spiritual benefices anciently paid, together with the ihst-fruits {annates, pninitiw, the whole profit of the first vear), throughout all Western Christendom to the pope, who, as. pastor pastoruvi, claimed ^'■deci- mas deciniarum " — a tithe of the tithes. This claim was founded jure divino on the preceerial Konie, may be traced in every con- temporary writer. The rights of the two sexes became equal. Augustus for a time endeavoured to check tlii.s license, and required the presence of seven witnesses, belore whom ihe marriage contract should be torn. If a marriage had been Contracted by conj'arrealio, or the solemn otTer- ing of bread, the ceremony diffnrrentio was necessary for its dissolution. If by coemptio, or a mutual purchase, in which the bride and bridegroom delivered to each other, with certain forms, a small piece of money, remanciraiio was required. The common forms used before the above-named witnesses, after the hearing of the contract, were the surrender of the keys by the wife, and her dismissal, in some such words as these : " Res tuns tibi habeto." " Tuas res tibi ayifo " — take your own. " Vodeforas, I forns, Mulier." '■'■ Cede domo'" — begone. If it were the wife who divorced the husband, she said, "la/ens, tibi habeas tuas res, reddas meas " — good-bye ; take your own and give me mine. In the 7-epu- dium, which wasan annulment of betrothing before consummation, the form was conditione tud non vtar. The Theodosian code (tit. de Ilepudiis) enumerated the following as legitimate causes for divorce:— If the husband could prove the wife to be an adulteress, a witch, or a murderess ; to have bought or sold to slavery any one freeborn ; to have violated sepulchres; committed sacrilege: favoured thieves and robbers ; been desirous of feeding with strangers, the husband not knowing or not willing; if she lodge forth without a just and probable cause ; or frequent theatres and sights, he forbidding ; if she be privy with those that plot against the state ; or if she deal falsely, or oft'er blows. And if the wife can prove her husband guilty of any of those forenamed crimes, and of frequenting the company of lewd women in her sight, or if he beat lier, slie has the liberty to quit him, — with this diflerence, that tlie man after divorce may forthwith marry again, the woman not till a year after, lest she may chance to have conceived. Christianity put an end to this capricious dissolution of the nuptial bond, which had become so common both in the Jewish and pagan world at tlie time of the appearance of our Saviour. When the Pharisees tempted our Lord, by Inquiring from him whether it wa.s lawful for a man to put away his wife for every cause, he showed them from the first institutions of nature that God had forbidden polygamy ; and then, as a consequence, that divorce ought not to be permitted unless on account of adultery; although the Jews, from the hardness of their hearts, were not prepared to receive this doctrine in the time of Moses, (Matt, xix.) Our Saviour's declaration naturally became the foundation of the law of divorce in all Christian countries; but when the Romish Church exalted marriage into a sacrament, cli\orce, considered in its legitimate meaning, was abolislied ; and liie canonists as- serted that it was altogether impious and iuipos- 221 DIY sible. Hence arose the distinction still main- tained in our English law : certain causes subse- quent to marriage, and among these adultery, might give rise to a legal separation, in which, however, neither party was permitted to contract a new alliance in the life-time of the other ; and certain other causes, existing at the time of marriage, might render ii void ah initio ; but in neither of these cases could divorce, strictly speaking, be said to take place. Thus, therefore, divorce in our law is of two kinds, a vinculo matrimonii and a mensd et thoro. The former ab- solutely dissolves the marriage, and makes it void from the beginning, the causes of it being precedent to the marriage, as consanguinity or afRnity within the Levitical degrees, precontract, impotency, &c. By this the parties are separated pro salute animarum, and are allowed to marry again, the wife receiving back all she brought with her, and the issue of such marriage being bastardized (Coke On Lit., 235). The latter separates the parties a mensd et thoro for some cause arising subsequent to marriage, as ill- treatment or adultery in either of the parties ; but does not permit them to contract a second marriage whilst either party is living ; for which, since it refuses that which our Saviour assigned to be the onl}' fit cause for divorce, the best reason that can be given is, that if divorce were allowed to depend upon a matter within the power of either of the parties, the}' would pro- bably become extremely frequent (Blackstone, j., 15, 2). The court allows alimony to the ■wife, unless in case of elopement witli the adul- terer. This divorce does not debar the woman of her dower, nor bastardize the issue. The dis- solution a vinculo matrimonii might, however, be obtained by an act of parliament specially for the purpose, after the sentence of divorce a mensd et thoro has been pronounced in the spiritual court. The bill generally originated in the House of Lords. On the petition for it an official copy of proceedings, and sentence of divorce a mensd et thoro in the ecclesiastical courts, at the suit of the petitioner, must be delivered at the bar ; and upon the second reading the petitioner must at- tend the house, to be examined at its pleasure at the bar relative to collusion, &c. A clause must be contained in the bill, preventing the inter- marriage of the offending parties ; and when it arrives at a committee of the House of Commons, evidence must be given that an action for damages has been brought against the seducer, and judgment obtained thereon, or a sufficient reason assigned for the contrary. Till the forty- fourth of Elizabeth a divorce for adultery was considered to be a vinculo matrimonii ; but then, in the case of Foliambe in the star chamber, that opinion was changed, and Archbishop Bancroft, having advised with the leading divines, held that adultery was only a cause of divorce a mensd et thoro (3 Salh., 138.) A new court has recently been erected for the trial of conjugal DOC disputes, and the old legal machinery just described is superseded. Various alterations on the law of divorce have also been made ; for example, as to the re- marriage of any of the parties. By the law of Scotland divorce may pro- ceed upon the ground either of adultery or of wilful desertion. In both instances an action before the Court of Session is necessary, in which the pursuer must make oath that there is no collusion between the parties, and evidence of the adulterous acts must be given, although the case is not defended. The divorce will be barred, first., by cohabitation after knowledge of the offence ; and second, in an action at the instance of a husband, by his having pandered to his wife's guilt in any way. This is styled lenocin- ium. Mutual guilt or recrimination, although a bar to divorce by the Roman and canon law, is not so by the law of Scotland; but mutual guilt may affect pecuniary consequences. De- sertion, as a ground of divorce, must be wilful and without cause, and for a continuous period of four years. The effect of a decree of divorce is to entitle the innocent party to all the benefits accruing from the marriage : while on the other hand, the guilty party forfeits all such rights. Both parties are at liberty to contract other marriages, excepting that the adulterers are pro- hibited from marrying each other. The expense of such an action, if undefended, may amount to from £30 to £40, but if opposed, it might be several hundreds of pounds. Where the husband sues, he is obliged to furnish his wife with the means of defending. A marriage may be set aside also on the ground of impotency ; but this is not properly- divorce, as the marriage is not declared dissolved, but to have been from the beginning null and void. Docelism Qox'-u, I seem), a term used to denote the opinion, common to several sects, that the body of Christ was merely a phantom, or appearance. — See Gnostics. A distinct sect called Docetse, or Phantasiasts, arose in the middle of the second century, but they were of no great importance. Doctor. — The following are some of the chief doctors among the schoolmen, to whom distinc- tive epithets were assigned, in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries : — Thomas Aquinas, Angeliciis. Johannes Bonaventura, Seraphicus. Johannes Duns Scotus, ... Subtilis. Raimundus Lullius, Illuminatus. Alanus de Insulis (de ITsle), Universalis. Durandus de S. Pour9ain,... Eesolutissimus. Gregorius de Rimini, Authenticus. Johannes Taulerus, Illuminatus. Johannes Gersonus, Christianissiraus, Alexander Hales, Irrefragabilis Roger Bacon, Admirabilis. The order of doctor was thought to be distinct 222 DOG from pastor in Scotland. The Second Booh of Discipline says — " One of the two ordinary and perpetuall functions that travell in the Word, is the office of the doctor, who m ay boe also called pro- phet, bishop, elder, catechiser — that is, teacher of the catechism and rudiments of religion. His office is to open up the minde of the Spirit of God in the Scriptures simply, without such applications as the ministers use, to the end that the faithfull may be instructed, and sound doctrine taught, and that the purity of the Gospell be not corrupted through ignorance, or evill opinions. Hee is different from the pastor, not onely in name, but in diversity of gifts. For to the doctor is given the word of knowledge, to open up by simple teacln'ng the mysteries of faith, to the pastor the gift of wisdome, to apply the same by exhorta- tion to the manners of the flock, as occasion craveth. Under the name and office of a doctor wee comprehend also the order in schooles, col- ledges, and universities, which hath been fi'om time to time carefully maintained, as well among the Jewes and Christians, as also among the pro- phane nations. The doctor being an elder, as said is, should assist the pastor in the govern- ment of the kirk, and concurre with the elders his brethren in all assemblies ; by reason the interpretation of the Word, which is onely judge in ecclesiastical matters, is committed to his charge. But to preach unto the people, to min- ister the sacraments, and to celebrate marriages, perteine not to the doctor, unlesse be be other- wise called ordinarily : howbeit the pastor may teach in the schooles, as he who hatli the gift of knowledge, oftentimes meet for that end, as the examples of Polycarpus and others testifie," &c. Dogma (opinio7i or article of belief), Dorj- matik, Dogmatics, a common name for systematic theologj'. Twesten, Ebrard, Martensen, Nitzsch, and Hofmann, have published such volumes. JJistori/ of Doctrine (Dogmengeschichte), is an- other branch of study pursued on the Continent, and with great advantage, the volumes of Baum- garten-Crusus, Augusti, Hagenbach, and Nean- der being sjiecimens. There is a chair for it in the theological seminary of the United Presby- terian Church. It occupies quite a distinct sphere from that of church history, and is the best preparation for the study of dogmatic tlieo- Doniinalioii!*, as applied by the schoolmen to the first company of the second ternion of angels, is the same as dominions, by which the translators of the English Bible have rendered Kv^i'iTriTii in St. Paul's epistle to the Colossians, i. 16. St. Paul uses the same words (Eph. i. 1); but here our translators liave adopted the con- crete instead of the abstract. Jlilton lias intro- duced them in that fine and favourite line wliich he has so often Homerically repeated — DOM " Thrones, Dominations, PrinceJoms, Virtues, Powers: and Bishop Newton has remarked upon it {Par. Lost, X., 4C0), that by his artful management he has given it new beauty on eacii repetition. It is first used by God tlie Father, when he de- clares [lis Son Messiah, and appoints him head over the angels (v,, GOO); next by Satan on iiis revolt, alluding to this speech, and questioning wlietlier these dignities were more than titular (v,, 772); tlien by the seraph Abdiel, who, on the other side, repeats it after God the Fatlier, and extols his goodness for so having named the angels (v., 839); and lastly, by Satan again, who declares his bad spirits at length endowed witli these titles, not only in right, but by pos- session (x., 460). Dominica in Albis, the first Sunday after Easter. — See Alb, Eastkr. Doniinicale, the veil (usually white) whicii was wont to be worn by women at the time of receiving the Lord's Supper. Dominical Lietter. — To each day of the week one of the letters A, B, C, D, K, F, G, is prefixed, A being alwa3's placed before the first of January, If there were fifty-two weeks ex- actly in the year, then Sunday would always be represented by the same letter. But since a year consists of fifty-two weeks and one day more, thn same letter, A, is used for the 1st of January and the 3 1st of December also; therefore, to meet this, a change is made in the Sunday letter in a backward order, i. e., supposing G to be the Sunday letter one year, F will be so the next, and so on. In leap-year, however, another change takes place, in a similar manner, at the end of February, when the Sunday letter F be- comes E ; so that the cycle of weekly letters does not proceed in its regular course until seven times four years have elapsed. Tlie rules for finding the Dominical or Sunday letter for any given year are inserted in the Booh of Common Prayer. Dominican or Dominical {of or belong- ing to the Lord, that is Chriu). This form of salutation, taken from the Book of Ruth, together with the response of the people — " et cum spiritu tuo" and with thy spirit — seems to have formed part of the earliest ritual of the Christian Church. A canon of the first council of Braga, in 563, directed against a custom which the Friscillianists had adopted, of assign- ing one form of salutation to the bishops and another to the presbyters, enjoins all to use the same form, '■'■ Dominus sit vobiscum" — the Lord be with j'ou ; and the people reply, " Et cum sjnritu tuo, sicut ab ij^sis apostolis traditionem omnis retinet oriens," — and with thy spirit, accord- ing to apostolic and Oriental custom. Doinus (house), a name, with varying epi- thets, applied to the church — as, '■'■domus colum- bcc " — house of the dove ; " domus Dei" — house of God; ^^ domus eccksice" — house of the church, sometimes apparently tlie bishop's house ; where- as " domus divina" — divine house, was the name of the royal palace, the emperors themselves being called divi. From domus, so used, came the word dome, il diiomo in Italian, domkirche in Ger- man, to signify a cathedral. It was in such buildings, too, that the architectural dome, cupola, or inverted cup, first appeared. — See Basilica, Chukch. Donaria. — See Anathemata. Donation of Conslantine, a forgery which was published toward the end of the eighth century, professing to CHiiam a gift from Con- stantine, in the year 324, of Rome and Italy to Sylvester, then pope. The document exists both in a Greek and Latin text, and was first produced in a letter of Pope Adrian I. to Charlemagne. Baronius defended its genuineness ; but its spuriousness is now generally admitted. Its purpose will at once be seen when we quote it, with a few words of Gibbon's comment on it: — ''We give as a free gift to the Holy Pontiff the city of Rome, and all the western cities of Italj-, as well as the western cities of the other countries. To make room for him we abdicate our sove- reignty over all these provinces ; and we with- draw from Rome, transferring the seat of our empire to Byzantium, since it is not just that a terrestrial emperor should retain any power where God has placed the bead of religion." " According to the legend," says Gibbon, "the first of the Christian emperors was healed of the leprosj', and purified in the waters of baptism, by St. Sylvester, the Roman bishop ; and never was phj'sician more gloriously recompensed. His royal proselyte withdrew from his seat and patrimony of St. Feter; declared his resolution of founding a new capital in the East ; and resigned to the jmpes the free and perpetual sovereignty of Rome, Italy, and the provinces of the West. This fiction was productive of the most beneficial effects. The Greek princes were convicted of the guilt of 224 DON usurpation ; and the revolt of Pope Gregory was the claim of his lawful inheritance. The popes were delivered from their debt of gratitude ; and the nominal gifts of the Carlovingians were no more than the just and irrevocable restitution of a scanty portion of the ecclesiastical State. The sovereignty of Eome no longer depended on the choice of a fickle people; and the successors of St Peter and Constantine were invested with the purple and prerogatives of the Caesars. So deep was the ignorance and credulity of the times, that tl;is most absurd of fables was received with equal reverence in Greece and in France, and is still enrolled among the decrees of the canon law. The emperors and the Romans were in- capable of discerning a forgery that subverted their rights and freedom ; and the only opposition proceeded from a Sabine monastery, which, in the beginning of the twelfth century, disputed the truth and validit}- of the donation of Constantine. In the revival of letters and liberty this fictitious deed was transpierced b}' the pen of Laurentius Valla, an eloquent critic, and a Roman patriot. His contemporaries of the fifteenth century were astonished at his sacrilegious boldness ; yet such is the silent and irresistible progress of reason, that before the end of the next age the fable was rejected b}' the contempt of historians ; though, by the same fortune which has attended the decretals and the Sibj'lline oracles, the edifice has subsisted after the foundations have been under- mined."— See Papacy. Donaiists, an important body of schismat- ics, who separated from the Church in tlie fourth century, and took their title from one or both of two African bishops named Donatus. The schism appears to have originated in the jealousj- of the Kumidian bishops at not being consulted in the appointment of Ccecilianus to the bisliop- ric of Carthage, a.d. 311. Thej- immediately assembled, to thenumber of seventj' bishops, and alleging that Ca'cilianus had taken part against some of the persecuted Christians, and that Felix, one of them who ordained him, was a traditor, they declared the see of Carthage vacant, and proceeded to elect a new bishop, whose name was Majorinus. Both parties then appealed to the Emperor Constantine, and in two councils which he summoned to try the question, the first at Rome, and the second a more numerous one at Aries, decisions were given against the Dona- tists, and in favour of Felix and Ca'cilianus. The Donatists were not at all disposed to accept an adverse decision, and immediately renewed their complaints; and having been defeated before various tribunals, they resolved to set their op- ponents at defiance, and acknowledge no autliority that might be hostile to their claims. The con- sequence was that, for many years, every diocese in Africa had a Donatist as well as a Catliolic bishop. There was no pretence of any difference in point of doctrine ; but simply on tlie ground of greater purity in the channel through which 2 DON their bishops received ordination, they claim'>d to be the one tnie Church, andexcomniunicaled not only tlieir direct opponents, but all who consented to hold any connnunion with those who difl'ered from them. They rebaptized all proselytes to their cause, and re-ordained those clergy who joined them. The sect seemed to increase under the persecution of Constans, as well as under the toleration of Julian ; and at the close of the fourth century they numbered no fewer than 40O bishops. But about that time they had to en- comiter a more formidable warfare tlian the sword of persecution, in tlie zeal, talent, and learning of the great Augustine. He became bisliop of Hippo in 395, and was present at a great con- ference of the bishops of both parties held at Carthage in 411, when the questions in dispute were argued for three days before the representa- tives of the Emperor Honorius. The decision was again in favour of the Catholics, and was fol- lowed by vigorous measures on the part of tlie civil authorities to put down the contumacious Donatists. But, though overpowered by spirit- ual as well as temporal weapons, the sect strug- gled on. 'J'hey revived under the Vandals, and when Belisarius recovered Africa in 534, they still existed there as a separate communion, and ])robably continued to do so even down to the first triumph of the Saracens. Connected with their history is that of a lawless body called Cir- cumcelliones, men who profited by the strife and confusion of tlie times, and professing to figlitthe battles of the persecuted Donatists, indulged tlieir own love of rapine and murder. They were in reality men of no sect, and perhaps of no faith ; but their savage atrocities brought great reproach on the cause they espoused, and went far to convert schism into rebellion. — See Ciut-UMfEL- LIANS. Mouative, in ecclesiastical law, is a benefice given by the patron to his incumbent, without presentation to the ordinary, and not requiring his institution or order for induction. As the king may found a church, and exempt it from the jurisdiction of the ordinary, so also lie may grant his license to any person to do the same, and hence the origin of donatives. Incumbents of such benefices cannot be deprived by the bishop, but may be so by the founders or their heirs : they are" in full possession iinnicdiately on nomination ; but they must be pro| crly qualified, like other clerks. Resignation is to tlie patron. If the patron neglect to present, there is no lapse, but the bishop may proceed against him by ecclesiastical censures. If, however, a dona- tive has been augmented by (Juecn Anne's bountv, it lapses like otlier livings (1 George I., ii., lu"). If the patron once paseuts his clerk to tiie ordinary by whom he is instituted and in- ducted, the donative thenceforth ceases. The presentation does not devolve to tlie crown if the incumbent be conserralcd a bishop. A donative, if taken last, may be held with auy other prefer- 5 Q DON merit -without dispensation, because the words of the statute of pluralities, " instituted and in- ducted to any other," cannot here apply ; never- theless, as the first benefice, though not void bj' the statute, is voidable by the canon law, the in- cumbent must have the consent of the patron. All bishoprics, being of royal foundation, were originally donatives. Donatives are said to be the oldest benefices in England, institution not having commenced till the time of Thomas a Beckett. (Selden On Tithes, xii., 2). Donellaii Kiecture, founded by the pro- vost and senior fellows of Trinity college, Dublin, in fulfilment of a legacy of £1,243, left by will, dated 22d February, 1794, to that college, bj' Mrs. Anne Donellan, for the encouragement of religion, learning, and good manners. The lec- turer is to be elected annually on the 20th of No- vember— the subject to be determined at the time of election by the board — and to be treated of in six sermons, which shall be delivered in the col- lege chapel after morning service. Douum. — See Regium Donum. tioov. — See Church. Doorkeepers or Ostiarii, belonged to the lowest order of sacred persons. They were set apart by having the keys delivered to them, with the injunction — "Conduct thyself as one who must give account to God of the things that are kept locked under these kej'S." Their other duties were to separate the catechumens from believers, and to keep out or put out disorderly persons. The ornaments were under their care, with the graveyards, the bells, and the holy oil. They formed one of the five orders in the Romish Church ; but they are never heard of till the third and fourth centuries. What was called the women's gate in the Greek Church was kept by deaconesses. Doron Qu^ci, gift), a name given to baptism by the Greek fathers, as Basil and Gregorj' of Nazianzen, because, probably, of the gift of the Spirit connected with it, as recorded in the Acts of the Apostles. Dorrellites, a strange sect founded during last century by a person named Dorrell, at Leyden, in the State of Massachusetts, and holding a species of extravagant spiritualism, as, that Christ died and never rose ; that there is no re- surrection of the body ; that Christ is a Spirit ; that the substance of revelation is God in the soul, of which revelation the Bible is only a type ; that prayer and worship are unnecessary ; and that there is no future judgment. Dort, Synod of, a famous assembly con- vened at Dort, on the Rhine (Dordrecht), in 1618. It was called by authority of the states- general, and was attended by eminent divines from the united provinces, Switzerland, Hessia, the Palatinate, Bremen, England, and Scotland. The controversy to be determined was that be- tween Arminians and Calvinists. The Armiuian party wished to begin the debate by condemning DOX the Calvinistic tenet of reprobation ; but, as they were themselves accused of departing from the faith, it was decreed that they should, in the first instance, justify themselves. They would not submit to this order of procedure, and were banished from the council. The synod then pro- ceeded to condemn in order the Arminian tenets. — SeeARMiNiANiSM, Calvinism. The Remon- strant or Arminian part}' was civilly proscribed, and otherwise cruelly persecuted. Oldenbarnevelt was executed, and Grotiiis condemned to per- petual imprisonment. The authority of the synod was not fully acknowledged either in England or in Holland ; Friesland, Groningen, Utrecht, Zea- land, and Guildreland would not accept all its decisions. Bishops Hall and Davenant attended from England, and Walter Balcanqual from Scotland. (Letters and Memoirs of Sir Dudley Carlton ; The Golden Remains of John Hales of Eaton. Hales was chaplain to Sir Dudley Carl- ton, who was ambassador at the Hague.) Dositheans, the followers of Dositheus, a Samaritan, who, somewhere about the time of our Saviour's public ministry, gave himself out to be the prophet promised in Deuteronomy xviii. 18. A strict ascetic life and an over- scrupulous observance of the Sabbath are said to have been peculiarities in his system. A con- troversy between the Dositheans and Samaritans on that text in Deuteronomy is recorded to have taken place in Egypt as late as a.d. 588. Dove. — In the symbolism of the early Church this bird is frequently found, signifying the de- scent of the Spirit ; and by and by, they had doves formed of gold and silver, in which the Eucharist was kept. The dove was made so as to appear hovering over the baptistery, and also over the altar, which, on that account, was called peristoriwn, from -TTi^iirTi^a., the Greek name of a dove. The dove also occupies a prominent place among the old ecclesiastical legends. Thus, a dove was said to have come out of the bod v of the martyr Polycarp when he was dying at the stake, and another out of the mouth of the virgin Eulalia when she was put to death. When the Christians at Rome were assembled for the election of a bishop, a dove is said to have descended on Fabian's head, pointing him out for the office. Ephraim Syrus saw a dove sit- ting on Basil's shoulder when he was preaching. Doxology Q'olot., glory, x'oyo;, word), a form of words in which we give glory to God. The form '■'■Gloria Patri," i.e., "Glory be to the Father, and to the Son, and to the Holy Ghost," was anciently called the lesser doxology. Its repetition at the close of each psalm, Remigius thinks, was introduced into the Romish Church by St. Jerome. During the rage of Arianism, those heretics introduced a pseudo-doxology, '■^'2o\ •TO) TldTo] VI Tifiivi xal •/! oo^a, Sf the Scriptures, and especially the New Testament — do not allow one jot or tittle to be added or re- jected iu the administration of the ordinances, but practise them precisely as they are instituted and set forth by Jesus Christ in his Word." This sect seems to have been characterized by extreme simplicity, and by great harmony and brotherly love. It still exists, in scattered rem- nants, ciiiefiy ill Pennsylvania. JUulch Kcformt'd Church.— See Nb- THERLAMDS, CHURCHES IM TUE. 227 EAG E EAS Eagle, in Episcopalian cliurches, a common form of the desk from which the lessons are read, borrowed, perhaps, from the usual appearance of this bird as the accompanying symbol of the apostle John. Early English, the name often given to that plainer order of Gothic architecture which ap- peared in England in succession to the Norman, towards the end of the twelfth century. Its arches are lancet-shaped, and its roofs of high pitch. Its windows (when not circular, as may be seen in York and Lincoln cathedrals) are long and narrow, and the doorways divided by a central shaft. It merged into what is called the decorated Gothic at the end of the thirteenth century. It is sometimes called Gothic-Saxon, and sometimes the " First pointed." Ears, Touching of, an old and obsolete ceremony in the Greek Church. The ears of the catechumen were touched, and the word " epkphatha "—be opened, was at the same time pronounced, in imitation of Christ (Mark vii. 34). East. — Churches were usually built from east to west, the most sacred portion of the building being towards the east. — See Bowing towakds THE East. Easier, the festival kept in memory of our Lord's resurrection. According to Bede it "had its name from a goddess called Eostre, to whom they used to celebrate festivals at that time." But more probablj' the word may be traced, like the corresponding German O/tern, to the old Teutonic form of '■'■Aufe7-stehi" " Auferstehung" i. e., resurrection. The term pascha, varx,"; from the Hebrew word for passover, which has been used as synonymous ^vith Easter, was anciently applied to the whole period of fifteen days from Palm Sunday to Low Sunday inclu- sive, the first seven of these days being dis- tinguished as " 5rair;^;a (TTo.v^iiaifjt.ov'''' — the jsascA of the crucifixion, and the remainder as '■'■ wu.irx.ct a,^a.t!Ta.aiiA,ot " — the pasch of the resurrection. At * a later period, i. e., after the council of Nice, pascha was used for our Easter day ; and then again, subsequently, it denoted the whole period of the Eastern festival. The earliest record we possess of the celebration of such a festival is connected with a difference of opinion between the Eastern and A^'estern Churches as to the time and manner of keeping it. The Cliurches of Asia kept the paschal feast on the 14th day of the first Jewish month, whatever day of the week it might happen to be ; and some writers suppose that they also commemorated the resur- rection on the third day after that paschal feast. Gieseler says, " There is no trace of a yearly festival of the resurrection among them." The Churches of Europe and Africa commemorated the resurrection on the Sunday that followed the Jewish passover, regarding the preceding Friday as the dies paschce. So Gieseler ; but Mosheim says, " They kept the paschal feast on the night that preceded the anniversary of Christ's resur- rection." 'When Polycarp visited Rome, about the year 160, he discussed these points of diflfer- ence with Anicetus, who was then bishop of the imperial city ; and he is said to have defended the Asiatic custom by referring to the authority of the apostle St. John, with whom, in his youth, he had been acquainted. But as the Eoman bishop also considered that he had apostolical authority on his side, they parted without either being persuaded to adopt the other's opinion. They parted, however, without such angry feel- ings as were stirred up a few years later b}' dis- putes on the very same subject. Before the end of the century, Victor, Bishop of Rome, had ex- communicated the Christians of Asia for adhering to their ancient custom, and had endeavoured to persuade other churches to do the same. But he failed altogether in his attempt, which is chiefly memorable for the remonstrance called forth from Irenteus, Bishop of Lyons, and for the evidence afforded that, in those days at least, no particular deference was paid to the judgment of the Bishop of Rome. The churches continued, from that time forward, to retain their several customs, till the council of Nice, in 325, decided in favour of the Western rule. After that time those who persisted in adhering to the Asiatic custom were generally regarded as heretical or schismatical. They were called Quartodecimani, or ^^ Tura-ci^io-xaiiiy.aTirai^'' — fourteeners, and are censured under this latter title by the councils of Constantinople and Laodicea. There still, re- mained the difiiculty of determining the particu- lar Sunday on which the festival should be kept ; and from the various methods of computing the time of the paschal full moon, differences of a week, and even of a month, would sometimes occur between the Easter days of different churches. The Alexandrian canon, which eventually pre- vailed, was not brought into full use in the Ro- man Church before the year 525, and the British Churches resisted its introduction till it was sanctioned by a council at Whitby in 664. But those who differed as to the time of celebrating Easter, all agreed in keeping it as the most solemn and joyful of all the Christian festivals. The day was ushered in with appropriate saluta- tions and other demonstrations of jo}- ; the Lord's Supper was solemnly celebrated ; catechu- mens were baptized ; slaves were set at liberty ; and criminals, with the exception of those who had committed very heinous offences, received their pardon from the Christian emperors. Reli- gious assemblies for prayer, and preaching, and communion, were held daily through the Easter 228 EAS week. All public games and shows, both of the theatre and the circus, were forbidden, not onlv by the decrees of councils, but also bj' the laws of the emperors; and the prohibition extended to Jews and Pagans, that they might not offend the feelings of those who desired to do honour to this holy season. Even the courts of law were closed through the week, except for busi- ness of extreme urgency. As Easter day, or the evening before it, was the most solemn and important of the times appointed for the baptism of catechumens, so the neophytes, or newly baptized, used to wear the white garments then given them throughout the following week, which obtained from this custom the name of Septimana in albis. The octave, or fii-st Sunday after Easter, on which they appeared in these robes for the last time, was called Dominica in albis. It was also called Dies neophi/toi-um (though Augustine gives that name to all the days of Easter week, Ep., cxix., ad Januar., c. 17), and Octava infantium, and by the Greek writers xanh ku^ioi.k-/i, or New Sunday, all with reference to the same custom. Its more modern title among the foreign Protestants of Quasimo- dogeniti is taken from the first words of the Latin version of 1 Peter ii. 2 ; and its English name, Low Sundaj', is supposed by some to be a corrujition from the Latin title, which alludes to its being the close of the paschal feast (pascha clausimi). It has also borne the Greek name of ' Avri'ra.ry^ce.. — See Alb. Eastern Church, as opposed to Western Church, is the general name for the Churches of Monophysite faith, and the Church in Greece and Russia. The genius of the East and West soon came into sharp antagonism, _y?rs<, as to a point of chronology about the keeping of Easter, as we have just said in the preceding article ; then, secondly, as to a jealous adjustment about the respective prerogatives of tlie bishops of Con- stantinople and Rome ; thirdhj, upon the subject of image-worship, the Eastern Church being op- posed to such innovations ; and, fourthhj, as to the procession of the Holy Ghost, — the addition of the vford fih'oqne (and from the Son) to the Nicene Creed leading to a complete severance. — See Crked, Nicenk; Greek Church. Gbioniies), a sect concerning which the an- cient writers have left ratlier confused accounts. Their existence, as a sect, may perhaps be dated from the time when one Thebutis is said to have begun to corrupt the church, i. e., soon after the martyrdom of Symeon, Bishop of Jerusalem, in 107. The Ebionites are supposed to have then separated from the Nazarenes, who adiiered to tlie apostolic doctrines. They taught that the law of Moses was binding in all cases, and that Jesus was the son of Joseph and JLiry. They rejected all tiie New Testament, and especially the epistles of St. Paul, using only what tiiey called the Gospel according to the Hebrews, which was probably a mutilated copy of St. Matthew. Of EOT the Old Testament they acknowledged only the Pentateuch, and of that only so much as fell in with their peculiar views, their name has been derived from Ebion, an imaginary founder of the sect. It more prol)ably came from a Hebrew word signifying yjoor, either given them in deri- sion, as Origen and Eusebius saj', or assumed by themselves to mark their profession of poverty. EcclesiB(C/««-c/«), used with various epithets and additions, and various adji.ctive and com- pound forms. Ecclesia apostolica, apostolic Church, a name given very early to the Churcli in Rome.— See Apostolical, Church. Ecchsim adrocati. — See Advowson. Ecclesice defenso- res. — See Defensores. Ecclesia matrix, the mother church or cathedral.— See Cathk- DRAL, Mothering Sunday. Ecclegioi casi- deci, or ecclesiecdici, church lawyers. — See Chancellor. Ecclesiastic, Ecclesiastical, belonging to the Church. The word comes from the Greek " ixxXturia.'" — an assembh-, — and this again from the verb "Ix-xaXs*" — to call together. The Athenian IxxXniria {ecclesia), was a public as- sembly of the citizens called together, according to law, to consult about the affairs of the com- monwealth. Applied to the Christian Church, the word means an assembly called or sunnnoned by the proclamation of the Gospel to eternal life. Though the term ecclesiastical is now chiefly, if not exclusively, applied to the priesthood, and to all matters pertaining thereto, it was not so limited in ancient times; for we find it used to denote Christians in general, as distinguished from Jews — those who worsliipped in the synagogue; and from heathens — those wlio attended the ser- vices of the temples. Ecclesiastical Books. — See Deutero- CANOXICAL. Ecclesiastical Histtiry, — See History of THE CntlRCH. Eclectics. — See Ajhioxians. Economical, a term employed in theology to denote what happens by voluntary arrangement, and is not necessary or uccon'.ing to nature. Thus, the subordination of the Sou to the Eatlier in tlie sclieiiie of mercy, is said to be economical, since, in essence, the Son is one witli tiie Father; but he of his own will humbled himself, and became the Father's ser\ant. Ecstacy, a species of trance, in which vision- aries held intercourse with saints and angels, and especially t!;e Virgin, and occasionally re- ceived in tlieir flesh lasting marks of their spirit- ual intimacy, such as the print of the nails, and other stigmata of the pnssion. Ecthesis (pi-ocl(imalion'), an edict i.'wued by the Emperor lleraclius in the year G39, for tlie puriwse of composing the troubles occasioned by the Eutychian heresy. This ecthcsi-s, or confes- sion of hiith, prohibited all controversies on tlie question, Whetiier in Christ there were one or two oiJeratious? tliougli iu the same edict the 229 ECT doctrine of one will was plainly inculcated. A considerable number of the Eastern bishops de- clared their assent to this law, which was also submissively received by Pyrrhus, the new Patri- arch of Constantinople. In the West the case was quite different. The Roman pontiff, John IV., assembled a council at Rome, a.d. 629, in which the ecthesis was rejected, and the Monothe- lites were condemned, (Mosheim's Eccies. Hist., voL ii., pp. 33, 34.) Ectypomata (IxTutr^y/taTa, figures or im- ages cut in relief), gifts made to churches in token of a cure, consisting of a figure of the organ which has been healed. — See Anathje- JIATA. Ecumenical (imiversal), — See Councils. Edict, the technical name of a paper read in Presbyterian churches, as a species of guard on the purity of the Christian ministry. It is a public invitation to all who can say anj-thing against the minister elect, to come forward for the purpose. The form of the document author- ized by the United Presbyterian Church is as follows: — "Whereas the presbytery of of the United Presbyterian Church have received a call from this congregation, addressed to A. B., preacher (or minister) of the Gospel, to be their minister, and the said call has been sustained as a regular Gospel call, and been accepted of by the said A. B., and he has undergone trials for ordi- nation ; and whereas the said presbytery having judged the said A. B. qualified for the minis- try of the Gospel and the pastoral charge of this congregation, have resolved to proceed to his ordi- nation on the day of , unless some- thing occur which may reasonably impede if, notice is hereb}' given to all concerned, that if they, or any of them, have anything to object why the said A. B. should not be ordained pastor of this congregation, they may repair to the presbytery, which is to meet at on the said day of ; with certification, that if no valid objection be then made, the presbytery will proceed without farther delay. By order of the presbytery." Edict of Nantes. — See Nantes. EtTi-ontcs, an obscure Transylvanian sect of the sixteenth century, who not only denied the Holy Ghost, but, among other fooleries, cut their foreheads and anointed them with oil, as a mode of initiation. Hence their name "ea;- frons '" — out of the brow. Elccsaites, a party which arose among the Jewish Christians, about the time of Trajan, in the countries l^'ing eastward of the Dead Sea. They united, with the asceticism of the Essenes, the peculiar opinions that the Spirit of God had associated himself from time to time with in- dividual men (Adam, Enoch, Noah, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Moses, Jesus), in order that, as the true prophet, he might constantly proclaim the same truth, and restore it when obscured. This party became known beyond their own country. ELD towards the end of the second century, by means of the Clementines, (g-. r.) They were some- times called Sampsoians, sometimes EUonitesi which latter was the general appellation of here- tical Jewish Christians. Epiphanius ascribes their origin and their name to one Elxai. But it is very doubtful whether he was a more real person than Ebion. Gieseler derives their name from 'P? ^17 Tivvoifii; xixuXv/ji,)jLivn, which, in fact, is their own interpretation of their supposed foun- der's name. (Epiphan. Hcer., i., 19.) Elders, in the Presbyterian Church, are cer- tain ecclesiastical officers, who, in conjunction with the ministers, constitute the kirk-session in Scotland. The " Form of Church Government " annexed to the Confession of Faith asserts, that " as there were in the Jewish Church elders of the people, joined with the priests and Levites in the government of the Church, so Christ, who hath instituted government and governors ec- clesiastical in the Church, hath furnished some in his Church, besides the ministers of the Word, with gifts for government, and with commission to execute the same when called thereunto, who are to join with the minister in the government of the Church, which officers Reformed Churches commonly call elders." The number of elders is proportioned to the extent and population of a parish, or size of a congregation. These elders are chosen from among the members in full com- munion, and are usually persons of prominence in the church — of tried character and Christian excellence. After their acceptance of office, the minister, in the presence of the congregation, sets them apart to their office by prayer, and some- times by imposition of hands, and concludes the ceremony oi ordination with exhorting both elders and people to discharge their respective duties. This office, in many respects, resembles that of churchwardens in the Church of England ; but the elders possess more spiritual jurisdiction than churchwardens have in their respective parishes. They have no right to teach or to dispense the sacraments. "They generally discharge the office, which originally belonged to the deacons, of attending to the interests of the poor. But their peculiar function is expressed by the name ' ruling elders;' for, in every question of jurisdic- tion, they are the spiritual court of which the minister is officially moderator, and in the pres- bytery— of which the pastors withm the bounds are officially members — the elders sit as the re- presentatives of the several sessions or consis- tories" (Hill's Theolog. Instit., part ii., sec. 2, p. 171). The term lay elder, used even by Dr. Hill, is an improper designation, if the theoiy of ordination be admitted to have any weight As ordained persons, the epithet lay does not strictly apply to elders ; for they have been taken out of the people, and solemnly set apart over the people. In the Established Church of Scotland elders are nominated by the session ; but in un- established bodies they are freely chosen by the 230 ELD people. To give those at a distance a sample of procedure in the election of sucli oilice-bearers, we quote the following rules acted ou in the United Presbyterian Church : — " 1. The right of electing elders is vested solely in the members of the congregation who are in full communion. 2. No fixed number of elders is required, but the number is regulated by the circumstances of the congregation. Two, however, along with the minister, are required to constitute a session. Tlie number of elders to be chosen is lixed by the session, if there is one, or if there is none, by the presbytery. 3. When the session judge it expe- dient that an addition should be made to their number, the first step is to intimate their desire to the congregation, and to call a meeting of the members of the congregation, for the purpose of electing the required number. This meeting can only be held after public intimation of the time and purpose is made from the pulpit on the two Sabbath days preceding the day of its being held. It is desirable that the congregation should be apprized of the wish of the session to have an addition to their number some weeks before a meeting for election is held, in order that the members may look out for the best qualified in- dividuals to till the office. 6. At the meeting for election a discourse is generally delivered suita- ble to the occasion. The moderator of the session presides at this, as well as the previ )us meeting for nomination (where one is held), and the session-clerk officiates as clerk. Where there has been no previous meeting for nomination, full opportunity is first of all given to the members to propose candidates, and when all the names pro- posed have been taken down, the leet is declared closed. The names of all on the leet, whether made up at a previous meeting or at this, are then read over, and, after prayer for the Divine direction, the votes are taken, either by show of hands, by calling the roll, bj' ballot, or other- wise ; and the individuals, to the number previ- ously fixed upon, having the greatest number of votes, are declared to be duly elected. 7. After the election the call of the congregation is inti- mated to the elders elect, a declaration of their willingness to accept of the office is asked, and the session deal with them as to the propriety of their accepting it. Their willingness to accept being expressed, the session, at a meeting ap- pointed for the purpose, proceed to satisfy them- selves in regard to their religious knowledge, piety, and prudence, and their knowledge of the government and discipline of the church, and the duties of their office : And on the session being satisfied on these points, an edict is appointed to be publicly read in the congregation. 8. At the time mentioned in the edict, which must be read in the congregation on two Sabbath davs, the session meets, the elders elect being present. After the session is constituted, if no objections are brought forward, the day of ordination b fixed lor as early a day as possible. If objec- ELE tions are made, the session proceeds to inquire into the grounds of them, and decides on them, after leading evidence if necessary. 9. On the day of ordination, which may either be a Sab- bath or week-day, as thought most suitable, the session being constituted and sermon being con- cluded, the moderator gives a sliort narrative of the previous proceedings ; which being done, he calls on the elders elect to stand forward, and puts to them the (juestions of tlie formula. Satisfac- tory answers being given to these questions by them, the minister proceeds to ordain or set thei'n ajiart by prayer to the office of ruling elder, and to take part with their brethren in the inspection of the congregation, and commends them to the grace of God for comfort, aid, and countenance in the exercise of their office. Immediately afterwards the right hand of fellowship is given to the persons thus ordained, by the minister and by the other elders present, and the whole is fol- lowed by suitable exhortations." (See Millar, M'Kerrow, and King on the Eldtvship.') £lccti, the last class of catechumens ready for baptism. — See Competentks. In early times Ciiristians generally received the same name, while the ascetics called themselves more elect than the elect — l«AixT; or avdliof," " dirjnus or indiijnus '' — tliat is, worthy or unworthy Sometimes, if the people op])osed a candidate, they sliouted with violent clamour, and brought accusations against him. Persons called interventors went routid, under the metropolitan's commission, and tried to secure unanimity for a candidate; but this method, which was patronized by Gregory the Great, soon becan)e unpopular. Augustine and Paulinus wore made presbyters against their will. Such scenes .if popular elections occiusionally be- came tumultuous, as Chrysostom on the priest- hood, iii., 15, testifies: — "Go whnes.s a popular assembly convened for the election of ecclesiasti- cal officers. Hear tlie complaints against the I >oi ELE minister, mnnifold and numerous as the indivi- duals of that riotous multitude, who are the sub- jects of church government. All are divided into opposing factions, alike at war with them- selves, ^vith the moderator, and with the presby- tery. Each is striving to carry his own point ; one voting for one, and another for another, and all equally regardless of that which alone they should consider — the qualifications, intellectual and moral, of the candidate. One is in favour of a man of noble birth ; another of a man of fortune, who will need no maintenance from the church ; and a third, one who has come over to us from the opposite party. One is wholly en- listed for some friend or relative, and another casts his vote for some flatterer. But no one re- gards the requisite qualifications of the mind and the heart." But such power on the part of the people was gradually restricted. The council of Laodicea (canon 23) took the suffrage from the multitude, " toT; ox^-ois," and restricted it to the people, " tZ >.ocSi" probably taking it from the congregation and confining it to the church, to use a modern distinction. Justinian carried the re- striction still farther, and gave the suffrage to the " -xguToi ■' — first men, or aristocracy of the city. One of his Xovels provides — "That when a bishop was to be ordained, the clergy and chief men of the city should meet and nominate three persons, drawing up an instrument, and swear- ing, in the customary forms of an oath, upon the Holy Bible, tliat they chose them neither for any gift, nor promise, nor friendship, nor anv other cause, but onU- because they know them to be of the catholic faith, of virtuous life, and men of learning. Of these three, the ordaining per- son was required to choose, at his own discretion, that one whom he judged best qualified." The council of Paris, 567, protested against such en- croachments, decreemg, "No bishop should be consecrated contrary to the will of the citizens^' alleging in vindication of this measure the neglect of ancient usage, and of the ordinances of the Church. "Nor should he attain to that honour who had been appointed by the authority of the rulers, and not by the choice of the people and. of the clergy, and whose election hud not been ratified by the metropolitan and other bishops of the province." Thus the people gratkially lost their ancient right. The rulers had it alone, or in alliance with the civil powers for a season, till iu the end the state absorbed the entire prerogative. It may be added that a bishop oc- casionally nominated his successor, but the con- currence of the people was apparently requisite to its validity. In 503 the Church of Rome conceded that right ; but the council of Antioch, in 441, had protested against it. The exceptions to the exercise of popular right were, when the majority of the Church was infected with heresy, as among the Donatists in Northern Africa, or when a missionary was sent to distant countries, as when Athanasius at Alexandria ordained Fru- ENC mentius Bishop of the Indies, "o/'lvSa/." If abishop took possession of a see in any irregular manner, the unanimous choice of the people was at once to be disallowed. In cases of division or faction the will of the people was not regarded, and a person named by none of the contending parties was sometimes selected and ordained ; or the emperor interposed his authority, and made a selection. Lastly, the bishops sometimes nominated a leet of three, of whom the people were to choose one ; or the clergy and the people appointed three, and the bishops cast lots for the successful candidate. — See Patronage. Elements.— See Chalice, Communion Elements, Eucharist. Elevation of the Host. — See Host. Emanations, a term of constant occurrence in the Gnostic philosophy. Out of the divine ful- ness or pleroma, there are perpetual outflowings, which at length return to their source. Various ranks of zEons and worlds are among such eman- ations, so that the distinctive doctrine of crea- tion is set aside, and a species of pantheism in- troduced.— See Gnosticism. Ember Days, Ember Weeks. — The Em- ber Weeks are those weeks during which the Ember Days fall. They were fixed bv the coun- cil of Placentia, a.d. 1095, to be the Wednes- day, Fiiday, and Saturday after the first Sunday in Lent, Whitsunday, September 14 — Holy Cross, and December 13 — St. Lucy (Labbe, Concil., X., 502, B). The Sundays immediately following these " quaiuor tempora jejunW" — four seasons of fasting, are more especially appointed, by the thirty-first canon of the Church of England, for the ordination of ministers. Embolus. — The side aisles of a church, into which two small doors, from the portico, opened, and which were placed on each side of the larger door in the centre. The embolus opened into the nave by doors on the north and south. Eminence, a title given of old by the popes both to the emperors and the kings of France. Anselm attributes it to the pope himself (iii. Ep. 37). Till the pontificate of Urban VIH. cardi- nals were addressed as ilhislrissimi. A bull of this pope in 1530 ordained that their style should be changed into that of eminentia fua, which was also ascribed to the three ecclesiastical electors and the grand master of Malta, but forbidden to all other persons whatsoever. Eucoenia. — See CoNSiiCRATiON. Encratites (^abstinents)^ this name (from the Greek word iyx^xTr,:) may have been given to various sects, to denote their rigid abstinence; but it especially belongs to the Gnostic sect of which Tatian, and after him Severus, were the leaders. Tliey held marriage to be unlawful, as well as the eating of flesh and drinking of wine. And from this last tenet was probably derived their custom of using water instead of wine at the Lord's Supper, for which they are con- demned by Augustine as Aquarii, and called 232 EXE b}' Theodoret Ili/droparasiata, or offerers of wafer. £iiergici, a religious partj' in the sixteenth century who held that the Eucharist was the ene?-f;>/ or power of Clirist — not his body, nor even a representation of it. Knerguenens, 6r. lv£fy«u^-k«i, the possesseri, sc. in a restricted sense by an evil spirit, called also, in the primitive Church, Sa/^«v/?o^;K)/, *a!T£;t;o^!va/, •^uf/.a^ou.svoi, or xXv^uvtl^eftiyii — names all describing the nature or results of that awful malady with which they were supposed to have been seized. They were committed to the especial care of exorcists, who were instructed to pray for them, to employ them in innocent busi- ness, as sweeping the church, and similar occupa- tions (Cone. Carthag.,iv., 91), "to prevent more violent agitations of Satan, lest idleness should tempt the tempter," and also to provide their food while they were in the church, which was their chief residence. An especial form of prayer for them was assigned in the vmblic ser- vice, and may be found in the Apostolical Canons. It was addressed to Christ, and is as follows : — " 0 thou only -begotten God, the Son of the great Father; thou that bindest the strong one, and spoilest his goods ; that givest power unto us to tread on serpents, scorpions, and over all the pOAver of the enemy; thou hast delivered up the murdering serpent unto us a prisoner, as a spar- row unto children ; thou, before whom all things sliake and tremble at the presence of thy power ; that makest Satan to fall from heaven to tlie earth as lightning, not by a local fall, but bj' a fall from honour to disgrace, because of his voluntary malice; thou whose looks dry up the deep, and threatenings make the mountains melt; whose truth endures for ever; whom in- fants praise, and sucklings bless, and angels celebrate and adore ; that lookest upon the earth, and makest it tremble ; that touchest the moun- tains, and they smoke; that rebukest the sea, and driest it up, and turnest the rivers into a wilderness; that makest the clouds to be the dust of thy feet, and walkest upon the sea as upon a pavement ; rebuke the evil spirits, and deliver the works of th\' hands from the vexation of the adverse spirit: for to thee belongs glory, honour, and adoration, and, by thee, to thy Father, in the Holy Spirit, world without end. Amen." During service they occu[iied the lower part of the church. The council of Eliberis per- mitted them to be baptized in cases of extremity, and under visible appearances of deatli. The fir.st council of Orange extended this permission as necessity required, or opportunity alh)wed. So during intermission they might receive tlie Eucharist. The council of Orange enjoined also that tiiey should not be ordained; and tiiat if any of them had been so admitted into the priesthood, they should be immediately deposed. — See ExoiicisT. England, Church of.— Our sketcli of the 233 ENG early history of the Church in England will be very short, and is only intended to introduce more clearly the period which commences with tlie latter i)art of the reign of Henry VHI., at which time the Church of England as now con- stituted began to exist. As to the ancient British Church, its origin is lost in the mists of a remote aniiijuity. liishops from the southern part of the island shared in the deliberations of such early councils as those of Aries, Sardica, and Ariminum, in the fourth century, and the prevalence of Christianity in Britain is attested by TertulHan and others. Here, too. Pelagian- ism took its rise: the teaching of the British monk initiated a controversy which, under some guise or other, since first it was crushed by the writings of Augustine, has, from time to time, re-appeared to trouble tlie Christian worid. The hostility of pagan Rome caused Christianity to retire to the inaccessible fastnesses of Wales, and tlie remote parts of the island, where it co.itinued to exist while all round lay under the darknets of Roman and then Saxon idolatry. Mis- sionaries from Rome, a.d. 697, in one of these pagan parts of the island, the kingdom of Kent, replanted Cliristianit}'. Their leader, Augustine, then an abbot, was made by the pope, soon after his arrival. Archbishop of Canterbury, the capital of the kingdom in which he had landed, and Pri- mate of England. London and York were both created archiepiscopal sees at the same time, with a number of suffragan bisliops in euc!i see. Augustine's haughty and ovfrbearing conduct prevented the union of the newly-founded Saxon Church with the remnant of the ancient British Church which still existed in Wales, but which, by a cruel massacre, was very soon after exter- minated. To Augustine himself some of the blame of instigating this deed is perhaps to be referred. Christianity now rapidly sjiread through England, till all the greater kingdoms had submitted to it. Northumbria, indeed, being conquered by a heatlien prince, co:npletely re- lapsed into paganism under his sway, but soon after was re-Christiani/ed by the teaching of missionaries from Scotland. The Northumbrian Cliurcli long resisted the claims of su])rcmacy wliich Rome advanced, and from tlic time, a.d. GG4, thatOswy, the king of the country, submit- ted, and compelled his clergy to do the same, dates the commeiicenicnt of the domination of Rome over tlie whok' of England. Prom this time to the Norman coiuiuest, if we except the appearance of a few great men, such as Bede, Alcuin, and King Alfred, wiio, thoiigii not an ecclesiastic, mav not be omitted, tiiere is scarcely anything in thehistorv of the Churcii which calls for atten- tion. The laws of Ina, instituting church shot or rate (see Rates, CiiLUcii), and recognizing tithes as pavable to the ckrgj- (see Titiiks;, date back to'A.D. G93. Alfred held out special inducements to landowners to build churchco on their estates. Religious houses began to mcreuio ENG rapidly in numbers and wealth; but, in spite of these circumstances, Wilham of Malmesbury as- sures us that, at the time of the Conquest, learning, morality, and religion, were at an extremely low ebb. There were then two archbishops, thirteen bishops, and the number of parishes was nearly the saine as now. As regards the constitution of the Church of England, it is of the utmost impor- tance to know that " Elfric, one of the latest writers of the Anglo-Saxon Church, a.d. 1014, is careful to inform us that between the presby- tery and the episcopate there is no other differ- ence but that of office, bishops being especially charged with certain duties which might inter- fere with the regular engagements of ordinary jiriests. These duties are stated to be, ordina- tion, confirmation, the consecrating of churches, and the care of God's rights. The ecclesiastical orders in the Church he pronounces to be seven — ostiary, reader, exorcist, acolyte, subdeacon, deacon, and priest'' — Marsden. William the Conqueror, though it was re- served to a later age for the King of Eng- land to be theoretically recognized as the supreme head on earth of the English Church, yet realized that position more thoroughly than almost any other English sovereign, and in- augurated those struggles for superiority in the government of England between the crown and the pope, which terminated, under Henry VIII., in the complete withdrawal of the English Church from the Roman communion, and the final rejection of papal authority. This rejection of external domination was also prepared for and accompanied by such an internal reforma- tion and remanifestation of the truth, as made the Church of England a true Church of Christ, and notable defender of sound doctrinal theology. William's first act of insubordination to the pope was a refusal to acknowledge him as his feudal superior ; next, the declaration of his purpose to retain in his own hand all those rights of investiture of bishops and abbots which the early Saxon kings had possessed. His succeed- ing step was even more daring : he prohibited the publishing and admitting into the kingdom all papal bulls and letters of advice, till such had been submitted to, and approved of by him ; and further, he denuded the clergy of the right of excommunicating any of his nobles, except with his express permission. To compensate for this, we find that " he confirmed by charter a law of Edward the Confessor, granting to the clergy tithe of cattle and profits, in addition to the an- cient tithe of produce." But his policy of in- dependence was vitiated bj' one error, the eftects of which neutralized, if they did not overbalance that liberty his former acts tended to secure. The error lay, not in the general principle of his con- duct, but in the existing circumstances of the times, and in the character of the Roman Catholic religion. He created distinct, independent, irre- sponsible ecclesiastical courts for the trial of re- 2 ENG ligious cases, and in these the bishops alone were judges. Hitherto all causes had been decided in the county courts by the sheriffs and bishops acting jointly ; but now this was to cease. The power which this gave to the Church is easily conceived when we remember that the English bishops were nearly all foreigners, Italians, and as such more strongly attached to the greatness of Rome than that of England. The reason of this is to be fomid partly in the wiles of Roman policy, securing these offices for her more imme- diate children, partly because the Saxons were despised by William and his Norman barons, and many of them would not take the oath of alle- giance ; whilst, on the other hand, the Normans themselves cared more for the camp than the Church. These bishops decided, not by Saxon laws and precedents, but ruled in accordance with the principles and practices of the papal court : bj' them in after times the canon law was brought into England ; whilst, for a long period, the respective provinces of causes, religious and non-religious, were so far from being sharply de- fined that, by skilful casuistry, stretching a point when necessary, these courts managed to absorb nearly every judicial function. Their usurpation of temporal authority and their boundless tyran- nj- long made the name of spiritual courts hate- ful to Englishmen, and the curse of their existence helped to rouse the people to shake off the burden of Rome. It is remarkable that it was not till the council of Winchester, 1076, that celibacy was made imperative on the English clergy. Rufus kept the primacy vacant for six years, and various wealthy sees for protracted periods, in order to replenish his coffers with their rich en- dowments : with such guardianship the Church could not prosper. Under his successor, Henrv Beauderc, a synod met at Westminster, 1102, which passed various reforming measures, tlie nature of which attest the existing depravity and degradation of the Church. This synod prohibited simony, and the pope ruled that lay investi- ture was simony ; and on this question a rupture between the pope and the king soon occurred. After a struggle to maintain the rights of investi- ture, which he had received with the crown, Henry felt himself compelled to relinquish them to the pope, and onl}' got permission from the pope for bishops to do homage to him, if they chose, without being on that account removed from their sees. None of the proposed measures of reform accomplished any result. The morals of the clergy were thoroughly relaxed ; murder by a person in holy orders was quite a usual occur- rence ; against such offenders there was no resort to common law, and ecclesiastical courts rarely in- terfered wth them. A case of this kind, but mark- ed by circumstances of peculiar atrocity, gave rise to the protracted struggle between Thomas a Beckett, Archbishop of Canterbury, on the side of the pope, and Henry II., for himself and people. But the struggle, properly speaking, 34 EXG commenced when, under the guidance of the king, parliament drew up that stern document, inJanuary, 1164, which is known as "The Con- stitutions of Clarendon." — See Clarendon, Constitutions of. With varying success it was carried on ; but a rash expression of anger by Henry led to the murder of Beckett in his own cathedral by some of the king's knights, and turned thereby the scale completely in favour of priestly domination. The terrors of interdict and excommunication, which were now hanging over his head, at once compelled him to tender a most humble submission. The history of the Church of England, on till the time of Edward III., is marked by a continuation of the same struggles for supe- riority between the temporal and the ecclesi- astical power. At one time we find Stephen boldly rejecting papal authority, and the coun- try for two years experiencing the effect of an interdict ; at another, abjectly submitting to do fealty for his kingdom. Next we find the king, though supported by all the power of the Church, unable to resist the demands of the barons, and granting the Magna Charta. An element of power was soon to begin to work amongst the masses, which ultimately would sup- ply the needed strength to the temporal power, to effect its release from ecclesiastical thraldom. The birth of Wycliffe brings us to the com- mencement of new and enlightened notions of Christian truth and discipline. Wycliffe bears a relation, not only to the internal regeneration, but also to the external freeing of the Church of England. The influence of the pious Bradwar- dine's writings upon his mind was most salutary. His own observation compelled him to perceive existing abuses ; his acquaintance with common law sho\^■ed him the great and unjust aggressions of the Church. He became penetrated with the love of liberty and Gospel truth. Henceforward he was a vehement enemy of the iriars — an exposerof their rapacity, ignorance, and vice ; as a profes- sor in the university of Oxford, a propagator of sound religious truth and liberal views upon such vital questions as the pope's supremacy and authority in England, lie became a most pro- minent man in the country, and as one of the king's chaplains, wrote a tract in defence of the conduct of the king and parliament in refusing to pay tribute to the pope as feudal superior of the realm, or even to acknowledge him as such. At this time also Edward refused the payment of Peter's pence. — See Peter's Pence. Wycliffe began soon after this to write tracts in English. It was by the circulation of these amongst the common people that a tangible form was first given to their indefinite longings after reform. Such a tract as A Short Rule of Life; or another on Why poor Priests have no Benefices, whilst delighting the people, must have cut the priests and monks to the quick, by the contrast between the morality they inculcated and the EXG habits of life which the priests practised. There are three measures, emanating exclusively from the state, which greatly contributed to the free- ing of the Church : they are known as the statutes provisors, pra;inunire, and mortmain (which see). The first was passed in 13.^0, to prevent the pope conferring English benefices on any one without the consent of the king. It was rendered neces- sary by the mode in wliich he liad long been dis- posing of the richest English sees and benefices on foreign and most frequently non-resident clergy. In 1353 thestatute piscmunire was enacted, to pre- vent the carrying of appeals from English civil courts to the pope at Rome— a practice which tended to weaken law and order in the realm. The last of these three acts was designed to pre- vent the mortification of any further property to ecclesiastical uses. This was absolutely essential ; for it seemed as if the wliole country 'would pass into the bands of the clergy. In the reign of Edward I., when this was first enacted, out of 53,000, the number of knights' fees connected with the landed property of the country, 28,000 had already passed into the hands of the clergy. This statute was, from time to time, made more stringent. But, despite all these barriers, the resources of the country were daily being drained by Rome. To return to Wycliffe; in other ways besides his lectures, scientific treatises, and tracts, Wycliffe influenced the public mind: one was by his preaching himself, and sending his followers, " the poor priests," to do the same throughout the country ; another by tlie origination of that noble conception of translating the whole Bible into English, and circulating it amongst the people, both which he was enabled to effect. Through the powerful influence of John of Gauut, Duke of Lancaster at first, then of the queen mother, and latterly by the ojifjortuiie existence of the papal schisms, the malice of his enemies never was able to silence or kill Wyclitle, though about forty years after his death they dug up and burnt his bones, to attest their hatred of him. But the leaven of his doctrine was in- troduced into the public mind, and slowly but surely the fermentation went on, and never after could persecution eradicate it. IIio followers ap- pear under the name of Lollards, gradually growing in numbers and couraj^e ; and many are the instances, from Lord Cobhain and William Sautre onwards, of the martyrdoms which they endured with Christian fortitude. But the pride and power of Rome seemed never greater, nor the magnificence of tlie Church of Rome more impressive than just before its fall in England, under tiie rule of that most remark- able man. Cardinal \\ olsey, one of the ablect and most unprincijiled statisnien that England lias ever given birth to. Henry Vlll. was, by ids father, betrothed to his brother's widow, the Infanta of Spain, to save the repayment of her dowry, and to prevent the possible alliance of •Spain with any other country, so as to weaken 235 ENG England. Such a marriage Archbishop Ware- ham, the primate, protested apainst, as obnoxious to God's law ; and to Henry VIII. himself it was then distasteful. Against it he formally protested ; but after his accession to the throne he did marry licr. Years after Wolsey revived this subject, and suggested the dutifulness of a divorce, to revenge himself on Charles V. for having disap- pointed him of the papacy, but after the king began to look with favour on Anne Boleyn, one of a house from whom Wolsey had everything to fear, he adopted a covert policy of opposition to the divorce he had suggested. When at last he v.'as pressed on every side, with no open way before him, and his own ruin imminent, his course became tortuous, and was marked by a constant endeavour to protract the proceedings, and delay any sentence being pronounced on this question by the pope. The issue was, ill consequence of the advice of Cranmer, an appeal to the universities, and to the learned men of Christendom, for their opinion on this point, which was given in favour, for the most part, of Henry. The disgrace of Wolsey followed thereon. Henry's quarrel with the pope daily became more palpable. Convocation was summoned in 1531, and charged with break- ing the statutes of provisors, prjemunire. They humbly oflcred to pay a fine. The first step to- wards a schism was made by this convoca- tion ; but it was under the pressure of the court. They proclaimed the King of England " only and suiireme lord, and as far as the law of Christ permits, even the supreme head of the Church of England." In 1533, on the elevation of Cranmer to the see of Canterbury, he pronounced sentence of divorce between Henry V 11 1, and Catherine; and the marriage of Anne Boleyn to Henry was publicly notified. The pope declared this illegal, and threatened, unless these doings were undone, that he would pronounce excommunication on Henry. To prevent any such proceedings affect- ing the stability of his throne, and his succession, in the followmg year Henry caused parliament to abolish all papal authoritv in England, and to stop all payments to the Eoman exchequer. From 1634 the Church of England was once more free. After this came, under Thomas Cromwell, acting as vice-regent, a blow upon popish power in England from which it never re- covered— namely, first a visitation and then, as a consequence, the suppression of the monasteries, because "they had long and notoriously been guilt}' of vicious and abominable living." Amongst the bishops there were two parties ; one whose s^'mpathies were with the pope, the other ■with reform ; to the former belonged Bonner and Gardiner, to the latter Cranmer and Latimer. But it was necessary to have some authoritative de- claration of what the Church of England held since it had rejected the pope; and hence, in 1536, the king, as head of the Church, issued a proclam- ation on this subject, and in 1539 parliament ENG passed an act for establishing the creed, under the rather characteristic title, "An act for abolishing diversity of opinions." By this the doctrine of Transubstantiation was taught, and the penalty of death by burning was attached to the denial of it. All who stood out for " the necessity of the communion in both kinds, or for the marriage of priests, or against the observance of vows of chastity, or the propriety of private masses, or the fitness of auricular confession ; all priests who shall marry after having advisedh' made vows of chastity, shall suffer the pains of death as felons ; and all those who maintain the same errors under any other manner may be imprisoned during the king's pleasure" {Macintosh). Such is the first constitution of the Keformed English Church; and it shows that, so far as the Church of England was concerned, its first origin was a political one, and it differed only in substituting a lay for an ecclesiastical head — the king for the pope. But to secure the permanency of the change which political circumstances required, Henry felt compelled to go on, and increase the distance which separated him from Rome. There was in tiie Church a powerful part}', headed by those whom Henry most loved, and to whom he was most in- debted for the accomplishment of the divorce ; such were Cranmer and Latimer, and many others of less note, that were of decidedly pro- gressive tendencies ; and to this party Thomas Cromwell, during his continuance in power, lent all his influence. His favour shown to the Protestant cause was one ground of his fall. About this time, too, several editions of the Eng- lish Bible were printed and circulated with the permission of Henry, and were productive of good results. — See Bible. They were based upon Coverdale's translation. To Cranmer and Crom- well the permission to circulate them is due, and the command to place them in the cathedrals for public use, and for ministers to instruct their people in them. But the tide of political power now turned in favour of the Eomanist party, and these permissions were withdrawn : the Bible became again for a time a prohibited book, and many who had received enlightened views of truth suffered bitter persecution. In 1540 Cran- mer persuaded Henry to appoint a commission, of which he was made a member, to draw up a formal confession. This appeared under the title, T/ie Erudition of a Christian Man. It indicates some progress, since it onlv recommends prayers for the dead as "good and charitable; and because it is not known what condition departed souls are in, we ought only to recommend them to the mercy of God." It affirms justification bj' faith, thougn it modifies this declaration so far as to add, " Yet man, prevented by grace, is by his free consent and obedience a worker toward the attaining of his own justification." It forbids the worship of images, though it allows their use to excite devo- tional feeling. It altered some minor matters also 236 ENG in the service. Such was the character of the Church of England's first confession. The re- formers were gaining strength, and under Ed- ward VI., and the Protector Somerset, their triumph was undoubted. Thirty commissioners were sent through the country to abolish super- stitious practices. Cranmer drew up twelve homilies, which were appointed to be read in the churches where the ministers could not preach. This was one of the provisions made for the dif- fusion of sound religious knowledge. This step, and the sermons themselves, elicited the unquali- fied approbation of the continental reformers. Cranmer wrote also a catechism, which was generally circulated. Such theologians as Bucer and Peter Martyr were invited to come and lecture in the English universities; and the most strenuous exertions were made to provide preach- ing ; " one sermon every quarter of the year at least " in every church, being imperative. But such was the state of the Romish clergy that even this much they could hardly accomplish. In 1547 parliament repealed the various persecut- ing acts of Henry VIII. and earlier reigns, levelled against the new opinions, as they are often called. As convocation was inclined in favour of the Romish party, parliament assumed to itself the task of reforming the Church. It passed that year acts " concerning the sacrament," ordaining " the communion to be received in both kinds," forbidding the priest to communicate alone, and requiring him to prepare the people for worthily communicating, by an exhortation on the day preceding its celebration. In 1548 there was a commission appointed for the revision of the offi- ces of public worship. One of its tirst fruits was a new communion service. Confession was no longer made imperative. At the same time a new liturgy was compiled. At the end of it occurs the petition — " From the tyrannj' of the Bishop of Rome and all his detestable enormities, good Lord, deliver us." — See Prayer, Book of Common. In 1551 a further series of emenda- tions was made in the praj'er book: in it very few alterations have since been introduced. The same year the articles, then forty-two in number, were published. — See Articles, Tuiktv-nine. The commission appointed in 1552, to prepare a canon law, in consequence of the death of Edward was discontinued before its work was done. Under his reign the progress of reformation had been rapid ; but it was to be sorely tried. Mary ascended the throne, and re-established Roman- ism. Her bitter persecutions accomplished this, that Romanism was made more odious in the eyes of Englishmen than it otherwise could have been ; and the reaction to Protestantism under Elizabeth was all the more decided and perman- ent. Lord Burleigh assei'ts tliat under Mary's reign " two hundred and ninety were burned." Under Elizabeth Protestantism was again in tiie ascendant ; and by the various measures which were taken, the Reformation in England was com- 23 EXG pleted as it at present stands. The episcopate was then adorned with many great and good men, such as Jewel, Grindal, &c., whose vigorous writings a.** well as faithful sermons were productive of great good. The convocation of 15C2, besides drawing up the thirty-nine articles, published two volumes of homilies by Cranmer, Ridley, and Latimer, and caused the learned Nowel, Dean of St. Paul's, to draw up a catechism for general use — a task he admirably fulfilled. It is so clo.sely akin to tliat by Calvin that it is questionable whether it ought not to be regarded only as a translation, altered so as to adapt it to the requirements of the English Church, rather than as an original work. About this time the more extreme re- forming party began to appear (for a full account of them, see Purit.vns), and to exert their in- fluence specially in all the questions which arose about the various ceremonies of the Clmrch. Elizabeth's extreme jealousy of her supreme authority often obstructed the plans for reform which the more zealous clergy contrived— a jealousy which brought her into collision with the primate himself, as on the subject of "The prophesyings." Tlie works of the great con- tinental divines, as Calvin and Bullinger, were studied in England ; ai;d the great standard work of Richard Hooker on Ecclesiastical Polity — which may be styled the apology of tlie Church of England — was published 1594-97. At this period the doctrine of the Church of England was most decidedly Calvinislic. When this form of doctrine was impugned in Cam- bridge, tlie country was in a blaze; and to appease the excitement, the famous Lambeth articles were drawn up by \V'hitgift, tlie pri- mate. These were designed as an autiioritative interpretation of the thirty-nine articles. Here Elizabeth again interfered to prevent the ex- treme views of either party being promulgated in sermons or debates. When James ascended the throne, both the Puritans and the Church party calculated on having his support. The Puritans hastened to present to him the famous Jlillenary Petition, which embodied a statement of those tilings in the Church which they desired to see amended. This elicited from the universities a counter- petition, and James held a conference with Ijoth parties at Hampton Court, January, 1G04. It resulted in no good to the Puritans ; for King James now thouglit Episcopacy was most conformable to monarcliy; and the roply to their arguments he pithily put in the form, " No bishop, no king." One advantage wliich ensued from this conference was the revision of the translation of the Bible, instituted at the suggestion of the leader of the Puritans, .ind the result was the present authorized version. During the reign of James the famous synorcvious classes, which together amount to £1,319,680, tlie?e sums together make £2,560,180, and subtracting this amount from £3.439,767, which is a low estimate of the income of the establishment, tlie remaining sum to he di-tributcd among the rest of the clergy is £879,587. There remain 4,882 iucumbeuts, among whom tlio 239 EXT sum of £879,587 is to be divided, which would 3'ield to each an average income of £180. But this is indeed above the real average ; for 297 have beneath £50 per annum, 1,629 have bmeath £100, and 1,602 have beneath £150, while 1,354 alone have between £150 and £200. The average of even £150 must be beyond the truth. To these poor incumbents must be added 5,230 poorer curates, whose sala- ries average £81, the aggregate being only £423,630. These two classes together amount to 10,112 ; and as the whole number of working clergy is only 12,923, they compose more than three-fourths of the working clergy. These together receive about £732,300 + £423,630 = £1,155,930. But, as we have seen, 1,619 clergymen receive £1,319,680, i. e., 1,691 clergymen receive more from the state than 10,112, who do nearly all the work. 1,619 clergymen, who have got the great prizes of the establishment, have an average of £808; and 10,112 of the working clergv have an average of £114. With regard to convocation, bishops, deans, canons, and the other hierarchical degrees and courts, see under the respective words. For Episcopalianism in Ireland, see Irish Church. (Marsden's Diet, of Sects ; Waddington's, Ne- ander's, Stebbing's Church Hist. ; Macintosh, Froude, Macaulay Hist, of Eng.; D'Aubigne on the Reformation; Vaughan's Wyctiffe ; Noels Essay ; Vowler Short's Hist, of Church of Eng- land ; Burnet's Hist, of the Reformation ; Masing- bred's Hist, of the Reformation; Soames's Eliza- hethan Religious History, and his Anglo-Saxon Church ; Joj'ce's England's Sacred Synods, &c.) Enthronizatiou, the ceremony of placing a bishop on the throne of his cathedral. Anciently the bishop who did this kissed the new bishop, and he delivered a discourse suited to the occa- sion. Allusion is often made by early writers on church historj^ to this serino enthronisticus. Eoiiiaiis, followers of a fool or fanatic named Eon d'Etoile, a rich nobleman in the province of Bretagne, in the twelfth century. Because his name resembled "ewTO" (Him, that is, Christ), in the Latin form of exoicism, he concluded that he was the son of God. He was condemned at Rheims in 1148, by a council presided over by Pope Eugenius III., and died in a prison. His followers, in spite of every form of punishment, maintained their faith in him for some time after his death, (^^fosheim, Neander, Schroecldi). Epact. — The epact is a number of eleven days, by which the common solar j'car of 365 days exceeds the lunar year of 354 ; and there- fore eleven days are added every year to the lunar year, to make them equal. These days are called the epact, from " s^ay^y," " intercalo,'" " addo'^ — I add, &c. Thus, if we suppose the new moon to be on the first of March in any year, in the uext year the corresponding new moon will be on the 18th February, in the next on the 7th February; so EPI I that we mu5t add eleven and twentj'-two daj-s respectively to each. But in the third year, w hen the number of intercalary days is 33, we reckon the year to consist of thirteen months, by adding thirty of these days, so that the epact is only three days See Dominical Lktter. Eparchy, a diocese in the Russian Greek Church, of which there are thirty-six, the eparch Iseing the ecclesiastical president or ruler. — See Russian Church. EpefauotschiDis, a modern Russian dissent- ing sect, originating in 1724, headed by a monk, who, by clever forgeries and other unscrupulous means, procured his consecration as a bishnp. On his detection he was sent to prison, where lie died. His followers, who are not many, vener.ne him as a martyr, and make pilgrimages to his tomb at Kief. — See Starobradsi. £pigonaloii (I'eaching to or over the knees), a small maniple or hand-napkin, worn on the right side, and suspended from the girdle. In the Greek Church it is used by the bishops, and in the Romish Church by the pope onU-. It is supposed to represent the towel with which, at the last supper, Jesus girded himself as he proceeded to wash the disciples' feet. Epuiuanicia, the maniple or bracelet worn , by the Greek priests on both arms, and supposed to represent the bonds of Christ. The Romish priesthood wear it on the left arm only, — See Maniple. Epiphany (I'T/.pHvs.a;, from la"/, and pxiv- uv, apparere, an appearance, a manifestation). Wheatley (on the Common Prayer') argues, that the manifestation of Christ in the flesh on Christ- mas Day, which was fir^t termed Epiphany, and his manifestation to the Gentiles, which is now known by that name, were alwaj's distinct festi- vals (Aug. Serm. 102 ; Greg. Naz. in S. Lum. Orat, 39). Bingham, however, throws into the opposite scale a greatly preponderating weight of authorities ; and we maj' really believe that in the primitive Church the Nativity of our Lord and his P'piphany were bo;h celebrated on the same day — the 6th of Januarj'. The service of the Church of England for the Epiphany has reference to these three events : the collect and the Gospel point to the star that led the wise men ; the second lesson at morning prayer, to the manifestation of the Trinity at our Lord's bap- tism i and the third lesson at evening praj'cr, to the miracle at Cana. The Greek Church, in the celeUration of the Epiphanj', appears to have dwelt more strongly upon the baptism of Jesus. Hence it is termed by Gregory Nyssenus, " jj 'hf^s^a rui'i (^uiTuv " — the day of lights, and by uthers, " TO. (puToi.,^' or '•'■ S,yia j a'rolcoiuv, mendicamentum, medicina corporis ei mentis, pur- gatorium amuletum, and other phrases, expressive of medicinal properties for the soul; Sacramentum pads, the reconciling ordinance, a favourite ex- pression of Chrysostom. The terms applied to bap- tism were often transferred to the Lord's Supper, such as /;j:fjyjfl!, fjLuff-ri^ioy, already mentioned ; iitrofiff:; rns ^cepfn/ria;, lig/it. life, salvation, hope, purification, access to the Father by Christ, the assurance of aduption. The materials or elements, as they are com- monly termed, are bread and wine. The br>;'ad broken represented Christ's bodj', and the wine poured forth prefigured his blood shed for our salvation. The bread, indeed, could not be his natural body while he was alive; for it was his body that performed the action of breaking and giving the bread : nor could the wine in the cup be his blood; for that was still flowing in his veins. By no natural construction can the words of institution sup- port the doctrine of Transubstantiation main- tained by the Komish Church, viz., that " In the sacrament of tiie Eucharist there is really and substantially the body and blood, together with the soul and divinity of our Lord Jesus Christ; and that there is a conversion of the whole substance of the bread into his body, and of the whole substance of the wine into his blood, which conversion the Roman Catholic Church calls Transubstantiation ;" for the words, when uttered by the priest, cannot signify more than the}' intended when they were uttered by Christ himself; and he evidently alluded to the ap- proaching sacrifice of himself upon the cross, on which his body was to be broken and pierced, and his blood to be shed by the nails and by the spear. The term " Transubstantiation" was not invented until the thirteenth century ; the first idea of the real presence of Christ in the Eucha- rist was started in the beginning of the eighth 24 EUC century ; the earliest writer who maintained the novel and extraordinary doctrine was Paschasius Radbertus, in the ninth century; and tlie first public assertion of it was at the third Lateran Council, which was held in the year 1215, after it had been for some time avowed bv the popes, and in obedience to their injunctions generally inculcated by tlie clergy, liut the term "Transubstantiation" itself was invented by Stephen, Bishop of Autun, in the thirteenth centur}-. (Mosheim's F.ccl. Hist., cent, xiii , ch. iii. ; Archbishop Tillotson's Discourse against Transubstantiation; Bishop Taylor's Dissuasive from Popery; Home's Romanism Contradictory to Scripture, pp. 29, 30.)— See Mass, Tuas- SDBSTANTIATION. The command for all to drink of the cup was positive and express, and is directly opposed to the practice in the Romish Church of giving the cup to the clergv only, and not to the laity. The council of Coni^tance, held in the year 1416, was the first that deprived the laity of the cup in the Eucharist, in direct contradiction to the command of Christ, and to the practice of the primitive Church. The testimonies of the fathers and ecclesiastical writers, for thirteen or fourteen hundred j-ears, are collected by Bishop Beveridge, (On the Articles, Art. xxx.) It is material to notice the reason, assigned by Jesus Christ, why all the apostles were to drink of the cup, viz., " For this is my blood of the new covenant, which is shed for many for the remission of sins." All, therefore, who stand in need of re- mission of sins are to drink of the cup — that is, all mankind, laity as well as clergy. B}- a doctrine called Concomitance, employed first by the scholastic divines of the thirteenth century, it was maintained that the whole of Christ was included under each species — that the symbol of his body comprehended also that of his blood — and the refusal of the cup to the laity was in this fallacious way vindicated. The Eucharist being thus instituted by Jesus Christ, was adopted by all the primitive Christians, with few excep- tions; and no modern denomination rejects it, except the Society of Friends or Quakers (whose reasons for rejecting it are considered by Dr. Ben- net, in his Confutation of Quakerism), and some mystics, who make the whole of religion to consist in" contemplative love. At Corinth several abuses of tlie institution had occurred. But it is worthy of attention, that while St. Paul points out these abuses, and calls upon the Church to correct them, he gives not the most distant hint that they were wrong in the whole affair; or tliat it was altogether a corrup- tion and mistake; or that, instead of eating and drinking in any way, they ought to feed spirit- ually on Christ, and cease from this beggarly observance. Instead of tliis he solemnly repeau the account which he had received of the manner of celebrating tlie ordinance, and calls upon the Church thus to keep it. EUC Of the practice of the first Christians, in the ages inimediatelj' succeeding that of the apos- tles, we have certain and ample information. The persons administering were the ordinary pastors and governors of the church — those who were set apart for the administration of holy offices. The institution was begun by Jesus Christ himself; and the administration of it was by him committed to his apostles, and to their ordinar}' successors to the end of the world. Tertullian {De Cor. Mil, c. 3) states that they never received it from anj' but the hand of the president, which must be understood either of the particular custom of that church where he lived, or of consecration only. Otherwise, the custom was, when the bishop or president had, by solemn prayers and blessings, consecrated the sacramental elements, for the deacons to distribute them to the people, as well to those who were absent as to those who were present (Justin Martyr, Apol ii., p. 97). The communicants were at first the whole church or body of Christians within a certain space, who had embraced the doctrine of the Gospel, and who had been baptized into the faith of Christ. As Christians multiplied, and a more exact discipline became necessary', none were admitted to this ordinance until they had arrived at the degree of the faithful, " Uia-roi" or believers, (Bingham's Orig. Eccles., book i., ch. iii.) Catechumens — that is, those who were under instruction previously to baptism — and those who were under the censures or suspension of the church for any crime, and who had not passed through the several stages of penitents, were excluded. The Eucharist being the highest and most solemn act of religion, they thought that they could never take sufficient care in dis- pensing it. Accordinglj", some were debarred from it for different periods, varying in propor- tion to the magnitude of the offence of which they had been guiltj', and some were not admit- ted to the communion of the church until they had continued their repentance to their death- bed. It was customary to send the Eucharist, or little pieces of the consecrated bread, dipped in the sacramental cup, by the deacons or other inferior ecclesiastical officers, to those who were sick, or absent from any other just cause ; in cases of great necessity it might be carried and given by other persons (Eusebius, Eccl. Hist., 1. vi., c. 44) ; but this was prohibited by the canons in ordinarj' cases. A custom also arose of giving the Eucharist to the dead, in order that they might give some kind of evidence that they had died in the peace and communion of the church ; but this usage was afterwards abrogated by many councils, and at length laid aside. Newly bap- tized infants were admitted to the Eucharist in the early ages of the Church ; and this practice was not wholly discontinued in the Latin Church in the twelfth century. In some few places, as among the Helvetians, it even appears to have subsisted to the commencement of the Keforma- EUC tion. In the Greek Church the Eucharist is still given to children ; and in the early part of the eighteenth century some attempts were made to revive this practice in England ; but the argu- ments alleged in its support were ably refuted by Dr. Waterland, in his Inquiry Concerning the Antiquiti/ of the Practice of Infant Communion, (Works, vol. ix.) In some cases the Eucharist was celebrated in private houses, in order to con- firm the faith of Christians in times of persecution, and also to strengthen kindness and amity with one another. Special preparation was made for the reception of the Eucharist, such as self-ex- amination, absolution, if one were under censure, fasting, and abstinence from sensual pleasures. Communicants usually washed their hands ; the men wore often white apparel, and the women white veils. Beautifull}' and searchingly does Chry- sostom say, — " I observe many who are partakers of the Lord's body inconsiderately, and at all adventures, more out of custom, than by any rule or reason and understanding. If the holy season of Lent comes, or the day of Christ's Epiphany, or Nativity, then they partake of the holy mysteries, whatever their condition may be. But Epiphany is not the time of approaching ; neither does Lent make men worthy to come ; but the sincerity and purity of their souls. With this come at all times ; without it, come never. Consider those who were partakers of the sacri- fices under the old law; what abstinence did they not use — what did they not do and per- form— to purify themselves in every respect? And dost thou, when thou comest to the sacri- fice at which even angels are amazed and tremble, measure the business by the revolutions and periods of certain times and seasons ? How wilt thou stand before the tribunal of Christ who darest to touch his body with polluted hands and lips? Thou wouldst not presume to kiss the king with impure breath ; and dost thou kiss the King of Heaven with an impure and noisome soul ? That is the highest affront which can really be offered to him. Tell me, wouldst thou choose to come to the sacrifice with unwashen hands? I suppose not ; — I suppose thou wouldst rather not come at all than with unclean hands. Since, therefore, thou art so scrupulous and religious in a small matter, how darest thou to come and touch the sacrifice with a polluted soul? And yet thy hands only hold it for a time, but it is wholly dissolved into thy soul. At other times ye come not to it, though ye be clean; but at Easter ye come, although ye be defiled with sin. Oh custom ! oh pre- judice! " The time of administering the Eucharist was, in general, at their public assemblies, on the Lord's Day, or first day of the week, as we read in the Acts of the Apostles, but also on other days, especially S.-.turdaj', on which day all the churches in the world, except those of Rome and Alexandria, were accustomed to celebrate 248 EUC this sacrament (Socrates, Eccl. Hist., 1. iv., c. 22). The exact time of the day was uncertain. Je.sus Christ and his apostles celebrated it at uight, at the time of the Jewish Passover, the apostles calling it a supper, Chrysostom thinks, not because it was done in the evening, but more effectually to remind them of the time when Jesus Christ himself instituted these holy mys- teries. During times of persecution, we learn from Pliny (_Epi$t., lib x., ep. 97), they solem- nized it in the morning before daj'. Various forms of nocturnal celebration long prevailed, and to this ancient practice is to be traced the burning of tapers on the altar. By the fifth century, nine o'clock in the morning became the fixed or canonical hour for communicating. Afterwards the hour of nine was restricted to Sundays and festivals, and twelve o'clock ap- pointed for other days. At first it is probable that they communicated every day, or as often as they came together for public worship. Cj'prian, who flourished in the middle of the third ceatury, states that they received the Eucharist every day. In the following cen- tury, according to Basil, they communicated four times a-week, — on the Lord's Daj', Wed- nesday, Friday, and Saturdaj', and also upon festival days. Afterwards, as the power of reli- gion began more sensibly to decline, it came to once or twice a-week ; afterwards to once a- month; and then to three times in the course of a year, viz., at the three great festivals of Christ- mas, Easter, and Whitsuntide. In the Russian Greek Church the bulk of the laity rarely com- municate more than once a-year, which is always in the great fast before Easter ; though manj' of the more serious partake more frequently (Pin- kerton's Present State of the Greek Church in Russia, p. 183). The place where the Eucharist was cele- brated was always that in which their public assemblies for religious worship were held. It was instituted by Jesus Christ in a private house, on account of its analog}' to the Jewish Passover, and also on account of the necessity of the time : by the apostles and first Christians it was solemnized in the houses of believers, gene- rally in an upper room, set apart for the use of the church. During persecutions they fled to the mountains, or to subterraneous crypts or vaults, and celebrated the sacrament at the tombs of martyrs, and over the ashes of the dead. Afterwards, when churches assumed some degree of beauty and regularity, particular places there- in were assigned to several parts of the divine offices ; and the communion service, being re- moved to the upper or east end of the church, was there celebrated upon a table of wood, which was subsequently changed into one of stone, sometimes metaphorically styled an altar ; the Eucharist itself, in later times especially, being termed the sacrament of the altar. This place was fenced in with rails, within which, ni course 2 EUC of time, the clergj' received the sacrament, as the laity did without. The manner of celebrating the Eucharist in the primitive Church was as follows: — After the service of the catechumens, and be- fore the commencement of the Missa Jidelium, or communion service of the faithful, it was the custom to present their offerings, every one ac- cording to his ability, which were by the minister laid upon the altar or communion table. These oblations were designed for the uses of the church, for the maintenance of the ministrj-, and the relief of the poor; out of these oblations also, they probably took provisions to furnish the com- mon feast, which in those days they constantly had at the celebration of the sacrament, where the rich and the poor feasted together at the same table. These were called agapa; or love feasts, and they continued for some ages, until, great incon- veniences being found to result from them, they were by several councils prohibited to be kept in churches. — See Agap.k. The bread and wine being prepared, the deacons brought water to the bishop and presbyters, to denote the purity which ought to be in those who draw nigh to God ; and then he directed them mutually to embrace and kiss one another. After this, the whole congregation united with the minister in prayer, which Justin Martyr terms the com- mon prayer, for the universal peace and welfare of the Church, for the tranquillity and quietness of the world, for the prosperity of the age, for wholesome weather and fruitful seasons, for all sorts of persons, for kings and emperors, and all in authority, for soldiers and armies, for believers and unbelievers, for friends and companions, for the sick and distressed, and, in short, for all who stood in need of help. This was followed by the mutual salutation of minister and people ; the minister saying. The Lord he toilh you ; and the people replying, And luith thy spirit. The minister then said, Lift up ymir hearts ; to which the people answered. He lift them vp unto the Lord. The minister proceeded, Let us yire thanks unto the Lord; to which the people responded, // is meet and just so to do. The minister then proceeded to the prayer of consecration, in wiiich he ex- pressed great thankfulness to God for the death, resurrection, and ascension of his Son, for the shedding of Iiis blood for us, and the celebration of it in this sacrament ; for coniliscending to admit them to such great benelits, and praying for a closer unity to one anotiicr in the same mystical body ; concluding with the Lord's Prayer, and the hearty and universal acclama- tion of Amen by all who were present. Next, the minister said with a loud voice, JJoly things to holy persons ; to wlioni the people answered, Thei-e is one holy, one Lord Jesus Christ. Then he exhorted them to a due participation of the holy mysteries. After this the bishop or presby- ter took tiie sacramental elements; and, having sanctified them by a solemn benediction, he first •19 EUC broke the bread, which he delivered to the deacon bj' whom it was distributed to the communi- cants; and after that, (he cup, which was like- wise delivered to them. Their sacramental wine was generally diluted and mixed with water, for what reason it is now impossible satisfactorily to determine. The posture in which the communicants received the Eucharist was not always the same. At its first institution by Jesus Christ, the apostles received it in a reclining pos- ture, agreeably to the custom of the Jews at that time, lying on their left sides, on couches, around the table. Afterwards the custom was to stand at the Lord's Table ; and other gestures were subsequently introduced, such as the prudence and piety of the governors of the church judged to be most decent and suitable for so solemn an occasion. The bread and wine were put into the hands of communicants, and not thrown inco their mouths, as was superstitiously done in suc- ceeding ages. It was usual for the communicants to bring presents of bread and wine, the former wrapt in a linen cloth,/aJio, and the latter carried in an ama or amula See Ama. The custom ceased about the twelfth century. Kneeling was introduced in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, and soon became general. The kiss of charity was often given on the same occasion as one of the rites of the services, but omitted on Good Friday, in memory of the treacherous salute of Judas Iscariot. The two sexes were not allowed to interchange kisses. Incense began to be used during the celebration in the sixth century, and the signing of the cross was also an early practice. During the time of administration, which in large congregations required a long period, they sang hymns and psalms, particularly Psalms xxxiii. (xxxiv. in our division), xlv., cxxxiii., and cxlv., according to the choice of tiie precen- tor, or the varying rules and usages of different churches. When all the people had communi- cated, the service was concluded with a solemn prayer and thanksgiving, that God had thought them worthy to partake of such sacred mysteries; and the congregation being blessed by the bishop or officiating minister, and having saluted each other with a kiss of peace, the assemblv broke up, and the people returned to their own houses. (Cave's Primitive Christianity, part i., ch. xi. ; Bingham's Origines, book xv., ch. i.-vi.) To sum up what has been said we present the account given bv Justin Martyr : — " After the believer is baptized, and so incorporated or made one with us, we lead him to the con- gregation of the brethren, as we call them, and then with great fervency pour out our souls in common prayers, both for ourselves, for the person baptized, and for all others the whole world over; that, having embraced the truth, our conversation might be as becomes the Gospel, and that we may be found doers of the Word, and EUC so at length be saved with an everlasting salva- tion. Prayers being over, we salute each other with a kiss: after this, bread and a cup of water and wine are brought to the president of the brethren, which he takes, and offers up praise and glor}' to the Father of all things, through the name of his Son and the Holy Spirit ; and this thanksgiving to God, for rendering us worthy of these his creatures, is a prayer of more than ordinary length. When he has finished the prayers and the thanksgiving, all the people present conclude with an audible voice, saying Amen. Now Amen, in the Hebrew tongue, is, so be it. The Eucharistic office being thus per- formed by the president, and concluded with the acclamation of all the people, those whom we call deacons distribute to every one present of this Eucharistic bread, and wine, and water, and then they carry it to the absent. The food we call the Eucharist, of which none are allowed to be par- takers but such only as believe the truths taught by us, and have been baptized in the laver for the remission of sins and to regeneration, and live according to Christ's precepts ; for we do not take this as common bread and common drink. But as Jesus Christ our Saviour was made flesh by the Logos of God, and had real flesh and blood for our salvation, so are we taught that this food, which the ver\' same Logos blessed by prayer and thanksgiving, is turned into the nourishment and substance of our flesh and blood, and is the flesh and blood of the incarnate Jesus. For the apostles, in their Memorabilia called the Gospels, have left this command upon record, ' That Jesus took bread, and when he had given thanks, he said. Do this in remembrance of me, for this is my body : and in like manner he took the cup, and when he had given thanks, he said, this is my blood' (Matt. xxvi. 26 ; Mark xiv. 22 ; Luke xxii. 19, &c.), and delivered it to them onl}'. And this verj' solemnit}', too, the evil spirits have introduced into the 'Mysteries of Mithra;' for you do or may know, that when any one is initiated into this religion, bread and a cup of water, with a certain form of words are made use of in the sacrifice. After this sacrament is over, we remind each other of the obligations to his duty, and the rich relieve the poor, and we have this intercourse with one another alwaj'S. And in every Eucharistic offering we bless the Maker of all things, through his Son Jesus Christ, and through the Holy Spirit; and upon the day called Sunday, all that live either in city or country meet together at the same place, where the memoirs of the apostles and prophets are read, as much as time will allow; when the reader has done, the president makes a sermon to the jjcople, and animates them to the practice of such lovely precepts. At the con- clusion of this discourse, we all rise up toge- ther and pray ; and, praj-ers being over, as I now said, bread, and wine, and water are brought, and the president as before sends up prayers and .250 EUC thanksgivings, according to his best abilitj', and the people conclude all with the joyful acclama- tion of Amen." The first of these two accounts seems to refer to communion after baptism, and the second to the usual communion observed on the Lord's Day. The earliest form of celebration is found in the Apostolical Constitutions, which we present also, abridging some of the prayers. It is given as under the sanction of the apostle James (^Ap. Con., lib. viii., 12, p. 206, ed., Ultzen. 1853):— " The deacon shall say, " Let none of the catechumens, none of the hearers, none of the unbelievers, none of the he- terodox stay. You who have prayed the former prayer, depart. Mothers, take up your children. Let no one have aught against any man. Let us stand upright, to present unto the Lord our offerings with fear and trembling. ^ " When this is done, let the deacons bring the gifts to the bishop at the altar; and let the priests stand on his right hand, and on his left, as disciples by their Master. But let two of the deacons, on each side of the altar, hold a fan made up of thin mem- branes, or peacocic s feathers, or fine cloth; and let (hem silently driue aioay flies and gnats, that they may not fallinto the cups. Then the bishop, after having prayed secretly (and likewise the priests'), and having put on his splendid vestment, and standing at the altar, and signing hbmelf with the sign of the cross upon his fore- head, let him say, " The grace of Almighty God, and the love of our Lord Jesus Christ, and the fellowship of the Holy Ghost, be with you all. "^Tirf lei alltoith one voice say, And with thy Spirit. " Bishop. Lift up your mind. " People. We lift it up unto the Lord. " Bishop. Let us give thanks to the Lord. " People. It is meet and right so to do. " Bishop. It is indeed meet and right to sing praises to thee, the true God from everlasting, of whom the whole family in heaven and earth is named ; who alone art unbegotten, without begin- ning, the supreme Lord, Almighty King, and self- sufficient ; the author and giver of all good things, without cause, without generation, self-existing; the same yesterday, to-day, and for ever. . . . . For all these things, glory be to thee, 0 Lord Almighty; thee the innumerable hosts of angels, archangels, thrones, dominions, princi- palities, authorities, powers, thine everlasting armies adore. The cherubim and sorapliim with six wings, with twain they cover their feet, with twaui their heads, and with twain they fly, and say, together with thousand thousands of arch- angels, and ten thousand times ten thousand of angels, crving incessantly with uninterrupted shouts of praise ; and let all the people say with them, EUC " Holy, holy, holy, is the Lord of Sabaoth, hea- ven and earth are fidl of his glory. Blessed be he for evermore. Amen." " After this, let the bishop say, ' ' Thou art indeed holy, and most holy ; the highest, and most higlily exalted for ever. Holy is also thine only-beg"otten Son Jesus Christ, our Lord and God. Who always ministering to tlioe, his God and Father not "only in the va- rious works of the creation, but in the providen- tial care of it, did not overlook lost mankind. But after the law of nature, the admonitions of the positive law, the prophetical reproofs, and the supeiintendeiicy of angels, when men had perverted both the positive and natural law, and had forgotten the flood, the burning of Sodom, the plagues of the Egyptians, the slaughter of the Philistines, and were now ready to perish universally; He, who was man's Creator, was pleased with thy consent to become man ; the priest to be himself the sacrifice ; the sheplierd a sheep, to appease thee, his God and Father, to reconcile thee to the world, and deliver all men from the impending wrath. He was incarnate of a virgin, God the Word, the beloved Son, the first-born of every creature; and, as he him- self had foretold by the mouth of the prophets, of the seed of David, and of Abraham, and of the tribe of Judah. He who forms all that are bom in the world, was himself formed in the womb of a virgin, and became flesh ; and he who was be- gotten from eternity was born in time. He was holy in his conversation, and taught according to the law ; he cured diseases, and wrought signs and wonders amongst the people. He who is the feeder cf the hungry, and fills every living creature with his goodness, became partaker of his own gifts, and ate, and drank, and slept amongst us ; he manifested thy name to them that knew it not ; he dispelled the cloud of ignorance, restored piety, fulfilled thy will, and finished thy work which thou gavest him to do. And when he had regulated all these things, he ■was seized by the hands of a disobedient people, and wicked men abusing the office of priests and high priests, being betraj-ed to them by one who excelled in wickedness ; and when he had sufiered many things from them, and been treated with all maimer of indignity, he was by tli}' permis- sion delivered to Pilate tiie governor; the Judge of all the world was judged, and the Saviour of mankind condemned; although impas-^ible, he was nailed to the cross ; and although immortal, died. The giver of life was laid in the grave, that he might deliver those from the pains of death, for wliose sake he came; and that he might break the bands of the devil, and rescue mankind from his deceit. He arose from the dead the third day ; and after continuing forty days with his discijjles, he was taken up into heaven, and is set down on the right hand of thee, his God and Father. " Calling, therefore, to remembrance those 251 EUC things which he endured for our sakes, we give thanks unto thee, 0 God Almighty, not as we ought, hut as we are able, to fulfil his institution. For in the same night that he was betraj-ed, taking bread into his holy and immaculate hands, and looking up to thee, his God and Fa- ther, and breaking it, he gave it to his disciples, saying, this is the mj'stery of the New Testa- ment ; take of it — eat ; this is my body, which is broken for many for the remission of sins. Like- wise also having mingled the cup with wine and water, and blessed it, he gave it to them, saying, this is my blood, which is shed for many for the remission of sins ; do this in remembrance of me ; for as often as ye eat of this bread, and drink of this cup, ye do show forth my death till I come. " Wherefore, having in remembrance his pas- sion, death, and resurrection from the dead, his return into heaven, and his future second appear- ance, when he shall come with glory and power to judge the quick and the dead, and to render to every man according to his works, we offer to thee, our King and our God, according to this institution, this bread and this cup; giving thanks to thee through him, that thou hast thought us worthy to stand before thee, and to sacrifice unto thee. And we beseech thee, that thou wilt look graciously on these gifts now lying before thee, O thou self-sufficient God ; and accept them to the honour of thy Christ. And send down thy Holy Spirit, the witness of the sufferings of the Lord Jesus, on this sacrifice, that he may make this bread the body of thy Christ, and this cup the blood of thy Christ. That all who shall partake of it may be confirmed in godliness, may receive remission of their sins, may be delivered from the devil and his wiles, may be filled with the Holy Ghost, may be made worthy of thy Christ, and may obtain everlasting life; thou, 0 Lord Al- mighty, being reconciled to them. " We farther pray unto thee, 0 Lord, for thy hoi}' Church, spread from one end of the world unto the other, which thou hast purchased by the precious blood of thy Christ, that thou wilt keep it steadfast and immovable unto the end of the world ; and for ever_v episcopate rightly dividing the word of truth. Farther, we call upon tliee for my unworthiness, who am now offering ; and for the whole presbytery; for the deacons, and all the clergy ; tliat thou wouldst endue them with wisdom, and fill them with the Holy Ghost. Farther, we call upon thee, O Lord, for the king and all that are in authoritj', for the success of t!ie army, that they may be kindly disposed to- wards us ; that leading our whole life in peace and quietness, we may glorify thee through Jesus Christ our hope. Farther, we offer to thee for all the saints, who have pleased thee from the be- ginning of the world ; the patriarchs, prophets, rii;hteous men, apostles, martyrs, confessors, bishops, priests, deacons, sub-deacons, readers, singers, virgins, widows, laj'men, and all whose names thou knowest. We farther offer to thee EUC for this people ; that for the glory of thy Christ thou wilt render them a royal priesthood, an holy nation ; for the virgins, and all that live chastely ; for the widows of the church ; for those that live in honourable marriage, and child- bear- ing ; for the young ones among thy people; that thou wilt not permit any of us to become cast- aways. Farther, we pray unto thee for this city, and the inhabitants thereof; for the sick; for those that are in slavery ; for those that are in banishment ; for those that are in prison ; for those that travel by land or by water ; that thou wilt be to all of them an helper, strengthener, and supporter. "We farther beseech thee also for those who hate us, and persecute us for thy name's sake ; for those that are without, and wander in error ; that thou wouldst convert them to that which is good, and appease their wrath against us. Far- ther, we pray unto thee for the catechumens of the church ; for those who are under possession, and for those our brethren who are in the state of penance: that thou wouldst perfect the first in thy faith, deliver the second from the power of the wicked One, accept the repentance of the last, and grant unto them and to us the remission of our suis. Farther, we offer unto thee for seasonable wea- ther, and that we may have plenty of the fruits of the earth ; that receiving the abundance of thy good things, we may incessantly praise thee who givest food to all flesh. Farther, we pray unto thee for all those who are absent upon a just cause ; that thou wilt preserve all of us in godli- ness, and gather us together in the kingdom of thy Christ our King, the God of every sensible and intelligent being. And that thou wilt keep us steadfast, unblamable, and unreprovable. For to thee is due all glory, adoration, and thanks- giving, honour, and worship, to the Father, and to the Son, and to the H0I3' Ghost, both now and ever, and world without end. % '■'■And let all the people say, Amen. ^ " And let the bishop sai/, The peace of God be with you all. ^ '^ And let all the people sai/, And with thy Spirit. ^ " And let the deacon again proclaim, " Let us farther pray to God through his Christ, in behalf of the gift that is ofiered to the Lord God; that the good God will receive it through the mediation of his Christ at his heavenlj' altar for a sweet-smelling savour. Let us pray for this church and people. Let us pray for every episcopate, for the whole presbytery, for all the deacons and ministers in Christ, for the whole congregation; that the Lord will preserve and keep them all. Let us pray for kings and all that are in authority, that the}' may be peaceable towards us ; so that enjoying a quiet and peacea- ble life, we may spend our days in all godliness and honesty. Let us commemorate the holy martyrs, that we may be deemed worthy to be partakers of their trial. Let us pray for all those 252 EUC who have died in the faith. Let us pray for the good condition of the air, and the ripening of the fruits. Let us pray for those that are newly bap- tized, that they may be confirmed in the faith, that all may be mutually comforted by one an- other. Raise us up, 0 God, by thy grace ; and being raised up, let us devote ourselves to God through Jesus Christ. ^ " And let the bishop say, " 0 God, who art great, great in name and counsel, powerful in thy works, the God and Father of thy holy Son Jesus Christ our Sa- viour, look upon us and upon this thy flock, which thou hast chosen through him to the glory of thy name ; sanctify us in body and soul ; and grant that we, being purified from all filthine^s of flesh and spirit, may partake of the mj'stic blessings now lying before thee ; and judge none of us unworthy of them, but be thou our supporter, our helper, and defender, through thy Christ, with whom glory, honour, laud, praise, and thanksgiving be to thee and the Holy Ghost for ever. Amen. ^ "And after all have said, Amen, let the deacon say, " Let us attend. ^ '■^ And the bishop shall speah aloud to the people in this manner : " Holy things are for holy persons. " And let the people answer : There is one Holy, one Lord, one Jesus Christ, to the glory of God the Father, blessed for evermore. Amen. Glory be to God in the highest, and on earth peace, good-will towards men. Hosauna to the Son of David. Blessed be he that cometh in the name of the Lord ; he is our God and Lord, and hath appeared to us. Hosanna in the highest. ^ " After this, let the bishop receive, then the presbyters, and deacons, and sub-deacons, and readers, and singers, and asceticks, and of the women the deaconesses, virgins, and widows. Afterwards the children, and then all the people in order, with fear and reverence, without tumidt or noise, And the bishop shall give the oblation, saying, "The body of Christ. ^ '' And let him that receives say, Amen. ^ " And the deacon shall hold the cup, and when he gives it, let him say, " The blood of Christ, tiie cup of life. % " And let him that drinks say, Amen," &c. Some few things demand additional notice. One earl}- and prime dispute related to tlie kind of bread to be used. The Greek Church con- tended for leavened, and the Western or Latin Church for unleavened bread. What kind of bread Je^us used is not certain, it was probably the unleavened bread of the Passover. But as afterwards tiie bread was supplied from the offerings of the communicants, common bread was in all liUfliliood employed. It was not till the middle of the eleventh century that the great EUC controversy on this subject arose. — See Azv- MiTES. But the matter rests among things in- different, as indeed the Western Church seems to have regarded it. In tlie Romisli Church the bread after consecration is called '^kostia" — the host, and consists of thin cakes or wafers, and this form came into use about the middle of the eleventh cen- tury.—See Host. The wineof Palestine is usually red or dark, and probablj' the wine used by our Lord was of this colour. This colour has been generally preferred from its resemblance to that which the wine symbolizes. White wine is, how- ever, used in the Greek Churches, and in some continental Protestant Churches. It was common in the ancient Church to mix water with the wine, and some of the fathers speak of this mixture as an express command of Christ, and the coun- cil of Trent describes it as enacted by ecclesiasti- cal law. The Armenians used wine only as if it s^'mbolized the unity of Christ's nature, and were on that account severely condemned, wliile on the other hand the Encratitcs used only water, and were justly censured. There is neither proof nor likelihood that the paschal wine was mixed with water, and there is no divine warrant for the practice. The proportions of water mingled with the sacramental wine varied at different times; sometimes a fourth of water was added, sometimes a third, and occasionally only a few drops were deemed sufficient. The Latin Church mixes cold water, the Greek Church uses first cold water before consecration, and then warm water before distribution. The bread was carried at first in osier baskets, which were supplanted, in course of time, by platters of gold, silver, and marble, on which every variety of art was lavished. The cup or chalice was also originally plain and simple, but soon came to be costly in material, and rich in oniament. — See Chalice. Two cups were used, one by the clergy, and the other by the laity. Sometimes the cup had a pipe or spout attached to it, out of wliich the wine was sucked, in order to prevent the waste of any drop of the consecrated fluid. Besides the implements for carrying the bread and wine there are other things in the Romish Churcli always associated with the Eucharist, such as the ania or stoup, the corporale or cloth, representing tlie winding sheet of our Lord, the ciborium or pyx ; and in the Greek Church there are the sacred spear, the sponge, the spoon, fans to keep off the flies, and a golden star. As to the s}-nibolic meaning of those practices, some of tlieni unscripturul, and all of them indifferent. Dr. Pusey says, " Formerly the faithful used a somewhat larger loaf in the Eucharist, that all who partook of it might be shown to be ' one bread,' and to be made par- takers of the communion of the broken body of tiie Lord. Then it became the practice to use wafers, but the mystical meaning is nut lost; for they represent the pieces of silver, the price of the body of the Lord. St. Chrysostom, in one of liis epistles, relates that the holy Euchariat was 253 EUC EUC at first celebrated by the Lord at night, nor did offer Christ for the quick and the dead, to was this without a mystery; but he sub joins, ' but we in the morning celebrate the resurrection of the Lord;' whence also that will appear, that ' we wish to wallc in the light of Christ.' Again, by the decree of Eugenius, the Koman pontiff, it is ordained that water be mingled with the cup to be consecrated, in 'small quantity;' and so, by the superabun- dance of the wine al ove the quantity of the water, is signified the superabundance of the merits of Christ our Lord and his dignity above the human nature and the sins of the human race. Yet not less suitably by the use of wine alone is it shown that we are saved by the merits of Christ alone, and by his blood. In like way the Greeks pour warm water into the consecrated cup, to signify (as Balsamon explains in Can. 32, Cone. Trull.) 'that what flowed from the holy side of our Lord Jesus Christ are life- giving.' The Latins use cold water, in witness that Christ really died, and that we are saved only by his death." The doctrine of the Church of England on the Eucharist is contained in Articles 28, 29, 30, and 31: — "The Supper of the Lord is not only a sign of the love that Christians ought to have among themselves one to another, but rather is a sacrament of our redemption by Christ's death: insomuch that to such as righth', worthily, and with faith, receive the same, the bread which we break is a partaking of the body of Christ ; and likewise the cup of blessing is a partaking of the blood of Christ. Transub- stantiation (or the change of the substance of bread and wine), in the Supper of the Lord, can- not be proved by hoij' writ ; but is repugnant to the plain words of Scripture, overthroweth the nature of a sacrament, and hath given occasion to many superstitions. The body of Christ is given, taken, and eaten, in the Supper, onh' after an heavenly and spiritual manner. And the mean ■whereby the body of Christ is received and eaten in the Supper is faith. The sacrament of the Lord's Supper was not by Christ's ordinance re- served, carried about, lifted up, or worshipped. — The wicked, and such as be void of a lively failh, although they do carnally and visibly press with their teeth (as Saint Augustine sailh) the sacra- ment of the body and blood of Christ, yet in no- wise are they partakers of Christ, but rather, to their condemnation, do eat and drink the sign or sacrament of so great a thing — The cup of the Lord is not to be denied to the lay-people : for both tlie parts of the Lord's Sacrament, b\- Christ's ordinance and commandment, ought to be ministered to all Christian men alike. — The offering of Christ once made is that perfect re- demption, propitiation, and satisfaction, for all the sins of the whole world, both oiiginal and actual; and there is none other satisfaction for sin, but that alone. Wherefore the sacrifices of masses, in the which it was commonly said that the priest have remission of pain or guilt, were blasphemous fables, and dangerous deceits." _ At the Eeformation there were many disputes 1 both as to the language and forms of the sacra- 1 mental service. One dispute was as to the use of the term altar or table. Thus we find in Bishop Overall's Collections the following : " In King Edward's first Service Book, the word altar was permitted to stand, as being the name that Christians for many hundred years had been ac- quainted withal. Therefore, when there was such pulling down of altars and setting up of tables, at the beginning of Queen Elizabeth's reign, she was fain to make an injunction to restrain such ungodly fury ; (for which St. Chrj-sostom says, the Christians in his time would have stoned a ^ man to death that should have laid his hands on g an altar to destroy it, Horn, liii., ad Pop. Antioch. ^ Si quis vellet hoc Altare subruere, nonne ilium lapidibus ohrueretis ?) and appointed decent and comely tables, covered, to be set up again, in the same place where the altars stood ; thereby giving an interpretation of this clause in our communion service. For the word table here stands not ex- || clusively, as if it miglit not be called an altar, 1 but to show the indifferency and liberty of the name ; as of old it was called Mensa Domini, the one having reference to the participation, the other to the oblation of the Eucharist. There are who contend now it was the intent and pur- pose of our church at this reformation, to pull down and wholly extinguish the very name of an altar ; but all their reason being only the matter of fact, that altars were then pulled down, and this place of the liturgy, that here it is called a table ; we answer that the matter of fact proves nothing, being rather the zeal of the people, that were newly come out of the tyranny that was used in Queen Mary's time But if this were not by order of the church, or according to the intent and meaning of the church and state at the Eeformation, how came it to pass then, that from thatdaj- to thi.«i, the altars have continued in the king's and queen's house- holds, after the same manner as they did before ? They never dreamt there of setting up any tables instead of them ; and likewise in mo.-^t cathedral churches And it will be worthy the noting that no cathedral church had any pulling down, removing, or changing the altar into a table, no more than in the court ; but in such places ovAy where deans and bishops and prelates were preferred, that suffered themselves more to be led by the fashions which they had seen at Strasburg in Germany, and Geneva in France, and Zurich in Switzerland, than by the orders of the Church of England established, and continued in her majesty's family ; the likeliest to understand the meariing of church and state of anj- other place. Therefore, they that will not either endure we should have, or they who will not believe we have any altar allowed and 254 EUC continued in our church (howsoever as it is here, and as it is in most of the fathers, sometimes called a table) let them go to the king's court, and to most of our cathedral churches, and inquire how long they have stood there, and kejit that name only, as being indeed the most eminent, and the most usual among the Chris- tians." Again, " The sacrament of the Lord's Supper they p. e., the first reformers] called t/ie Sacrament of the Altar, as appears plainly by the statute, 1 Edward VI., entitled 'AnAct against such as speak unreverently against the sacrament of the body and blood ol Christ, commonly called the Sacrament of the Altar.'' For which consult the body of the act itself. Or, secondly, by Bishop Ridley (one of the chief compilers of the Com- mon Prayer Book), who doth not only call it the Sacrament of the Altar, affirming thus, ' that in the Sacrament of the Altar is the natural bod}' and blood of Chr'st,' &c., but in his reply to an argument of the Bishop of Lincoln's, taken out of St. Cyril, he doth resolve it thus, viz., ' The word "Altar'" in the Scripture signifieth as well the altar whereon the Jews were wont to offer their burnt sacrifice, as the table of the Lord's Supper; and that St. Cyril meaneth by this word altar, not the Jewish altar, but the table of the Lord,' &c. (Acts and Mon., part 3, pp. 4S2, 497). Thirdly, by Bishop Latimer, his fellow-martyr, who plainly grants ' that the Lord's table may be called an altar, and that the doctors called it so in many places, though there be no propitiatory sacrifice, but only Christ.' (Part 2, p. 85). Fourthly, by the several affirmations of John Lambert and John Philpot, two learned and religious men, whereof the one suffered death for religion under Henry VIIL, the other in the fiery time of Queen IMary — this sacrament being called by both, ' the Sacrament of the Altar ' in their several times : for which consult the Acts and Monuments commonly called the Book of Martyrs." — Ileylin's Lfe and Death of Abp. Laud, p. 21. With regard to i\\&oblation, Mede says, " If all this be so, how is not our celebra- tion of the Eucharist defective, where no such oblation is used ? I answer, this concerns not us alone, but all the churches of the West of the Roman communion, who, as in other tilings, they have depraved this mystery, and swerved from the primitive pattern thereof, so have tliey for many ages disused this oblation of bread and wine, and brought in, in lieu thereof, a real and hj'postatical oblation of Christ himself. This blasphemous oblation we have taken away, and justly, but not reduced again that express and formal use of the other. Howsoever, though we do it not witii a set ceremony and form of words, yet in deed and elfect we do it, so often as we set the bread and wine upon tiie lioly table, for whatsoever we set upon God's 'I'able is, ipso facto, dedicated and ( fiered unto liini according to tliat of our Saviour (M.itt. x.\iii 19), '■the altar sanctijies they ft,' that is, conse- EUC crates it to God and appropriates it to hi.s use. In which respect it were much to be wished, that this were more solemnly done than is usual; namely, not until the time of administratioti, in the name and sight of the whole congregation standing up, and showing some sign of due and lowly reverence." — Christian Sacrifice, p. 477, folio, 16G4. On the mi.xture of water with the wine, too, we extract the subsequent remarks: — " It must be confessed, that the mixture has, in all ages, been the general practice, and for that reason was enjoined, as has been noted above, to be continued in our own church by the first reformers. And though in the next review the order for it was omitted, yet tjie practice of it was continued in the king's chapel, all the time that Bishoj) Andrews was dean of it. How it came to be neglected in that review I have not yet been able to discover. I am apt to suspect that it was thrown out upon some objection of Calvin or Bucer. . . But whatever may have been the cause of laying it aside ; since there is no reason to believe it essential, and since every church has liberty to determine for herself in things non- essential; it must be an argument sure of a very- indiscreet and over-hasty zeal to urge the omis- sion of it, as a ground for separation." — Wheat- ly, p. 281. "In the Roman missal, as soon as the off'ertory is said, and the priest has put the bread upon the paten and the wine into the cup, he is ordered to pour a little pure water into the cup also And I do not remember to have met with any other, besides the Arme- nians, that excluded water from tlie Eucharistical cup, till Calvin and his followers began the prac- tice at Geneva, by whose interest the water was also excluded from the sacramental cup in the English liturgies." — Brett's Dissertation on the Ancient Liturgies, p. 194. new ed. " It b certain three of the Evangelists do intimate that the cup ofiered by Christ was wine, or tiie fruit of the vine ; and since the Scripture makes no mention of water, I hope all learned, charitable Christians will judge favourably of the Church of England for using none. And on the other side, we of the Church of England ought by no means to censure otiiers, who put water into tlie cup, for they liave the consent of the Cnurcii Catiiolic of all ages with them in this particular."— John- son's Unbloody Sacrifice, part ii., p. 68. " It is probable that tiie cup whidi our Saviour blessed at the last supper, contained water as well as wine, since it appears that it was generally the practice of tlie Jews to mix the paschal cup, which our Saviour used in instituting the sacra- ment of his blood. It has, iiowevcr, been long decided bv tiieologi/ins, that the mixture of water is not essential to the validity of the sacrament. Bona, presbyter-cardinal of Home, refers to Ber- nard as speaking of some persons who thought that water was cs.sontial; 'but,' ho adds, 'the judgment of theolo-ians is certain, lliiii consecra- tion ia valid, evcu if water bo omitted, though be 255 EUC who omits it is guilty of a serious offence.' '' — Palmer's Origines Liturgicce, vol. it., p. 75. In the Roman service prayer was made for the dead, and the form was preserved in the English ser- vice book in the reign of Edward VI. But it was changed under Queen Elizabeth, but not without opposition. For Thorndike, in his Epi- logue, argues, " I will not here allege, that the Church of England teachethto pray for the dead, where the litany prays for deliverance '■in the hour of death and in the day of judgment ;' or, when we pray after the communion, that 'by the merits and death of Christ, and through faith in his blood, we and all the whole church may obtain remission of our sins, and all other benefits of his passion. But it is manifest, that in the service appointed in the time of Edward VI. praj-er is made for the dead both before the com- munion and at the burial, to the same purpose as I maintain. It is manifest; also, that it was changed in Queen Elizabeth's time to content the Puritans, who now, it appears, could not be con- tent with less than breaking of the church in pieces. And, therefore, since unity hath not been obtained by parting with the law of the Catholic Church, in mine opinion, for the love of it I con- tinue the resolution to bound reformation by the rule of the Catholic Church. Allowing that it may be matter of reformation, to restore the prayers luhich are made for the dead, to the origi- nal sense of the whole church, but maintaining that to take away ail prayer for the dead, is not paring otf abuses, but cutting to the quick." And Palmer adds, " These facts being certain, it becomes a matter of some interest and importance to ascertain the reasons which justified the omis- sion of these prayers in the liturgy of the English Church for the first time in the reign of King Edward VI. Some persons will perhaps saj' that this sort of praj'er is unscriptural ; that it infers either the Romish doctrine of purgatory, or something else which is contrary to the re- vealed will of God, or the nature of things. But when we reflect that the great divines of the English Church have not taken this ground, and that the Church of England herself has never formally condemned prayers for the dead, but only omitted them in her liturgy, we may per- haps think that there are some other reasons to justify that omission. The true justification of the Church of England is to be found in her zeal for the purity of the Christian faith, and for the welfare of all her members. It is too well known that the erroneous doctrine of purgatory had crept into the Western Churches, and was held by many of the clergy and people. Prayers for the departed were represented as an absolute proof that the Church had always held the doc- trine of purgatory. The deceitfulness of this argument can only be estimated by the fact, that many persons at this day, who deny the doctrine of purgatory, assert positively that the custom of praying for the departed infers a belief in purga- EUC tory. If persons of education are deceived by this argument, which has been a hundred times refuted, how is it possible that the uneducated classes could ever have got rid of the persuasion that their church held the doctrine of purgatory, if prayers for the departed had been continued in the liturgy? Would not this custom, in fact, have rooted the error of purgatory in their minds ? If, then, the Church of England omitted public prayer for the departed samts, it was to remove the errors and superstitions of the people, and to preserve the purity of the Christian faith." — Palmer Origines Lit., vol. ii., p. 94. There were also other questions of keen dftpute between the puritan and anti-puritan parties, ^vhich need not be recorded. Nor need we refer to the service of the holy communion, as found in the Book of Common Prayer, save to give the order of celebration. ^ " When the priest, standing hefore the table, hath so ordered the bread and wine, that he may with the more readiness and decency break the bread before the peoiAe, and take the cup into his hands, he shall say the prayer of consecration, asfolloweth : — " Almighty God, our Heavenly Father, who of thy tender mercv didst give thine only Son Jesus Christ to suflfer death upon the cross for our re- demption ; who made there (by his one oblation of himself once offered) a full, perfect, and suffi- cient sacrifice, oblation, and satisfaction, for tlie sins of the whole world ; and did institute, and in his holy Gospel command us to continue, a perpetual memor}' of that his precious death, until his coming again ; hear us, 0 merciful Father, we most humbl}' beseech thee ; and gi-ant that we, receiving these thy creatures of bread and wine, according to thy Son our Saviour Jesus Christ's holy institution, in remembrance of his death and passion, maj' be partakers of his most blessed body and blood : who, in the same night that he was betraj'cd, took bread ; and when he had given thanks, he brake it, and gave it to his dis- ciples, sa3'ing. Take, eat, this is my body which is given for you ; Do this in remembrance of me. Likewise after supper, he took the cup ; and when he had given thanks, he gave it to them, saying, Drink ye all of this ; for this is my blood of the New Testament, which is shed for you and for many for the remission of sins: Do this, as oft as ye shall drink it, in remembrance of me. Amen. ^ " Then shall the minister first receive the communion in both kinds himself, and then proceed to deliver the same to the bishops, priests, and deacons, in like manner {if any be present), and after that to the people also, in order, into their hands, all meekly kneeling. And, when he delivereth the bread to any one, he shall say, " The bodj' of our Lord Jesus Christ, which was given for thee, preserve thy body and soul unto everlasting life. Take and eat this in re- 256 EUC membrance that Christ died for thee, and feed on him in thy heart by faith with thanlvsgiving. *[[ " And the minister that deliveretli the cup to any one shall say, " The blood of our Lord Jesus Christ, which was shed for thee, preserve thy body and soul unto everlasting life. Drink this in remembrance that Christ's blood was shed for thee, and be thankful. ^ " If the consecrated bread or vnne he all spent before all have communicated, the priest is to consecrate more, according to the form before prescribed ; beginning at [Our Saviour Christ in the same night, &c.] for the blessing of the bread ; and at [Likewise after supper, &c.]ybr the blessing of the cup. ^f When all have communicated, the minister shall return to the Lord''s Table, and rever- ently place upon it what remaineth of the consecrated elements, covering the same with afoir linen cloth." The theology of the Westminster Confession on the subject of the Eucharist is contained in the eight following propositions which form Chapter xxix : — " Our Lord Jesus, in the night wherein he was betrayed, instituted the sacrament of his body and blood, called the Lord's Supper, to be observed in his Church unto the end of the world, for the perpetual remembrance of the sacrifice of himself in his death, the sealing all benefits thereof unto true believers, their spiritual nourishment and growth in him, their further engagement in and to all duties which they owe unto him, and to b3 a bond and pledge of their communion with him, and with each other, as members of his mystical body. 2. In this sacra- ment Christ is not olTered up to his Father, nor any real sacrifice made at all for remission of sins of the quick or dead ; but only a commemoration of that one offering of himself, by himself, upon the cro?s, once for all, and a spiritual oblation of all possible praise unto God for the same ; so that the popish sacrifice of the mass, as they call it, is most abominably injurious to Christ's one only sacrifice, the alone propitiation for all the sins of the elect. 3. The Lord Jesus hath, in this ordi- nance, appointed his ministers to declare his word of institution to the people, to pray, and bless tlie elements of bread and wine, and thereby to set them apart from a common to an holy use ; and to take and break the bread, to take the cup, and (they communicating also themselves) to give both to tlie conmiunicants; but to none who are not then present in the congregation. 4. Private masses, or receiving this sacrament by a priest, or any other, alone— as likewise the denial of the cup to the people— worshipping the elements, the lifting them up, or carrying them about' for adoration, and tlie reserving them for any pre- tended religious use— are all contrary to the nature of this sacrament, and to the institution of Christ. 5. The outward elements in this sacra- ment, duly set apart to the uses ordained by 25 EUC Christ, have such relation to him crucified, as tliat truly, yet sacramentally only, they are some- times called by the name of the things they re- present, to wit, the body and blood of Clirist ; albeit, in substance and nature, they still remain truly and only bread and wine, as tiiey were before. 6. That doctrine which maintains a change of the substance of bread and wine into the substance of Christ's body and blood (com- monly called transubstantiation) by consecration of a priest, or by any other way, is repugnant not to Scripture alone, but even to common sense and reason ; overthroweth the nature of the sacra- ment ; and hath been and is the cause of mani- fold superstitions, yea, of gross idolatries. 7. Worthy receivers, outwardly partaking of the visible elements in this sacrament, do tlien also inwardly by faith, really and indeed, yet not car- nally and corporalh', but spiritually, receive and feed upon Christ crucified, and all benefits of his death : the body and blood of Christ being then not corporally or carnally in, with, or under the bread and wine ; yet as really, but spiritually, present to the faith of believers in that ordinance as the elements themselves are to their outward senses. 8. Although ignorant and wicked men receive the outward elements in this sacrament, 3'et they receive not the thing signified thereby ; but by their unworthy coming thereunto are guilty of the body and blood of the Lord, to their own damnation. Wherefore all ignorant and ungodly persons, as they are unfit to enjoy communion with him, so are they unworthy of the Lord's Table, and cannot, without great sin against Christ, while they remain such, partake of these holy mysteries, or be admitted thereunto." The form and order of service enjoined by the Directory is brief and simple : " The communion, or Suppcrof the Lord, is frequently to be celebrated ; but how often may be considered and determined by the ministers and other church-governors of each congregation, as tliey shall find most con- venient for the comfort and edilication of the people committed to their charge. And, when it shall be administered, wc judge it convenient to be done after the morning sermon. The ign< r- ant and the scandalous are not fit to receive the sacrament of tlie Lord's Supper. Where this sacrament cannot with convenience be frequently administered, it is requisite that public warning be given the Sabbath day before the administra- tion thereof: and tliat either then, or on some day of that week, something concerning lliat ordi- nance, and the due preparation tliereunto, and participation tiiercof, be taught ; that, by the diligent use of all means sanctified of God to that end, both in public and private, all may come better prepared to that licavenly feast. When tlie day is come for administration, the minister, having ended his sermon and prayer, shall make a short exiiortation, expressing tlie inestimablo benefit we have by tiiis sacrament, together with the ends and use thereof, &c After this ex- 7 S EUC hortation, -warning, and invitation, the table being before decently covered, and so con- veniently placed, that the communicants may orderly sit about it, or at it, the minister is to be- gin the action with sanctifying and blessing the elements of bread and wine set before him (the bread in comely and convenient vessels, so pre- pared that, being broken by him, and given, it may be distributed amongst the communicants ; the wine also in large cups), having first, in a few words, showed that those elements, otherwise common, are now set apart and sanctified to this holy use, by the word of institution and prayer. Let the words of institution be read out of the Evangelists, or out of the First Epistle of the apostle Paul to the Corinthians, chap. xi. 23. / have received of the Lord, &c., to the twenty- seventh verse, which the minister may, when he seeth requisite, explain and apply. Let the prayer, thanksgiving, or blessing of the bread and wine, be to this effect: ' With humble and heart}' acknowledgment of the greatness of our misery, from which neither man nor angel was able to deliver us, and of our great unworthiness of the least of all God's mercies; to give thanks to God for all his benefits, and especially for that great benefit of our redemption, the love of God the Father, the sufi^erings and merits of the Lord Jesus Christ the Son of God, by which we are delivered ; and for all means of grace, the Word and sacraments ; and for this sacrament in parti- cular, bj' which Christ, and all his benefits, are applied and sealed up unto us, which, notwith- standing the denial of them unto others, are in great mercy continued unto us, after so much and long abuse of them all,' &c. All which he is to endeavour to perform with suitable affections, answerable to such an holy action, and to stir up the like in the people. The elements being now sanctified by the Word and prayer, the minister, being at the table, is to take the bread in his hand, and sa}*, in these expressions (or other the like, used by Christ or his apostle upon this oc- casion) : ' According to the holy institution, com- mand, and example of our blessed Saviour Jesus Christ, I take this bread, and, having given thanks, break it, and give it unto you (there the minister, who is also to himself communi- cate, is to break the bread, and give it to the communicants) ; Take ye, eat ye ; this is the body of Christ which is hrohenfor you : do this in re- membrance ofhim.^ In like manner the minister is to take the cup, and say, in these expressions (or other the like, used by Christ or the apostle upon the same occasion) : 'According to the insti- tution, command, and example of our Lord Jesus Christ, I take this cup, and give it luito j-ou (here he giveth it to the communicants) ; This cup is the new testament in the blood of Christ, which is shed for the remission of the sins of many : drinh ye all of it.' After all have com- municated, the minister may, in a few words, put them in mind ' of the grace of God in Jesus EUC Christ, held forth in this sacrament ; and exhort them to walk worthy of it.' The minister is to give solemn thanks to God ' for his rich mercy, and invaluable goodness, vouchsafed to them in that sacrament ; and to entreat for pardon for the defects of the whole ser\'ice, and for the gracious assistance of his good Spirit, whereby they may be enabled to walk in the strength of that grace, as becometh those who have received so great pledges of salvation.' The collection for the poor is so to be ordered, that no part of the public worship be thereby hindered." This form, with few trifling variations, is observed, we believe, by almost all non-episcopal churches. The posture of communicants was debated in the Westminster Assembly, as Lightfoot records in his Journal : — " Then fell we upon the sitting about the table at the receiving of the sacrament ; and the Scots' commissioners professed, they could not take it in any sense but sitting to the table, and that they are so engaged from Scot- land to take it so ; and therefore, they either de- sired a recommitment of this passage, or that their sense might be expressed in the margin, which cost a long and large debate. At last it was concluded thus to have it in the text, ' About the table ; or at it, as in the Church of Scotland : ' and so they retain their custom, and we of England are left at liberty ; and so it was the sense of the assemblj', that we might, at liberty, either cause the communicants to sit at the table, or at some distance about it." It is foreign to our immediate purpose to re- view the questions which have been raised as to the benefits of this sacrament, and the kind of efficacy which belongs to it. What may be called the Lutheran, the Calvinistic, and the Zwinglian theories on the nature of the sacra- ment will be found under Sacrament, and the notorious theory of some Anglican divines may be seen under Tkactarianisim. — See the Works of Durand, Hospinian, Duranti, Bingham, Cole- man, Augusti, Siegel, Eheinwald, Bullej', Taylor, Palmer, Scuddamore, Cudworth, Warburton, Hoadley, Waterland, Henry, &c., &c. Eiichelaion (from ivxh, praj'er, and tXaiav, oil), or the sanctified oil, is one of the seven mj-steries or sacraments of the Greek Church, " in which the servant of the church, anointing the sick with oil, prays to God for his recovery from sickness, and for the forgiveness of his sins. It is founded on the exhortation contained in the General Epistle of St. James v. 14, 15, Pure and unmixed oil alone is used for this pur- pose. It is consecrated on the Wednesday in the Holy or Passion Week, and in a quantity suffi- cient to' last for a whole year. This service is, by the Latins, considered equivalent to, or the same as, the extreme unction of the Church of Rome. But though the Greek Church reckons it in the number of her mysteries, yet it is cer- tain that there is nothing throughout the office appointed for this purpose, which implies that it 258 EUC should not be admmistered to any but persons who are dangerously ill, or in the article of death, as is prescribed in the Romish ritual. On the contrar}', the Greek Church holds that it may be used in any illness as a pious and charitable work, but not as a work of necessity. Accord- ing to the ritual appointed for this purpose, seven priests are required to perform this rite or mys- terj'-, each of whom, in the course of the prayers, with a twig, upon the end of which there is a little cotton, anoints the sick person with oil on different parts of the body. In doing this they make use of seven small twigs, one for each priest. At present this mystery is administered by a smaller number of priests, it being diffi- cult to collect the full number specified in the regulations of the Greek Church. (Pinkerton, Present Slate of the Greek Church, pp. 193, 194.) Euchcloginm (^prayer booJc), name of a liturgical book of the Greek Church. In the time of Pope Urban VIII. an attempt was made, but in vain, to bring it into conformity with the Eomish ritual. Eucbiies (ew;^;^, praj'er), called also Massa- lians, or Messalians, from a Hebrew word of the same signification, were fanatics who first appeared in Mesopotamia about A.d. 360, and who removed thence into Syria and Pamphylia. We find mention of them here and there in each of the six following centuries ; and in the eleventh cen- turj' they openly appeared in Thrace, and at- tracted much notice. The basis of their doctrine •was the opinion that a demon dwells in every man from his birth, who can only be expelled by unceasing prayer. They despised public worship and the sacraments, professed to spend all their time in secret prayer and in mystical contempla- tion, and imagined thus to gain the victory over sin. Fanaticism, in many cases, along with con- ceit and self-delusion, was the result. They forgot that activity is essential to spiritual health, and is the result of Divine grace — that indolent and morbid brooding only produces dreams which may please and startle — and that evil is best subdued, not in solitary retreats, but in doing the will of God with heart and soul. A sect of the same name arose in the twelfth century among the Greek churches, and were also called Enthusiasts. The name was by and bye given in reproach to any earnest religious party. Eudiiiits, a congregation of missionary priests named after Eudes, established at Caen in 1643. They made no vows and had no peculiar habit, but were placed under a superior deriving his power from the bishop in whose diocese they laboured. They were under the patronage of Jesus and Mary. Eudoxiaiis, a name given to the Arians after the death of Arius, from Eudoxius, raised by Constantius, in 360, to the patriarchate of Constantinople. For a period he was the power- EtlT ful head of the Arian party See Arianism, The Eudoxians held that the Son was create and had a will distinct from the Father. Eiilogiuin. — See Antidoron. Eulogy (^'.vXiyia, blessing), a name given anciently to the Lord's Supper; then, after the fifth century, to the consecrated bread set apart for the poor. Eunouiian8,named after Eunomi us, the most famous disciple of Aetius, were an Arian sect of the fourth centurj'. Cave's account, in his Historiu Literaria, is as follows: — " There is one God, uncreated and without beginning; who has nothing existing before him, for nothing can exist before what is uncreated ; nor with him, for what is uncreated must be one ; nor in hiin, for God is a simple and uncompounded being. This one simple and eternal being is God, the creator and ordainer of all things ; first, indeed, and principally, of his only begotten Son ; and then through him of all other things. For God begat, created, and made the Son only by his direct operation and power, before all things, and every other creature ; not producing, how- ever, any being like himself, or imparting any of his own proper substance to the Son ; for God is immortal, uniform, indivisible, and therefore cannot communicate any part of his own proper substance to another. He alone is unbegotten ; and it is impossible that any other being should be formed of an unbegotten substance. He did not use his own substance in begetting the Son, but his will only; nor did he beget him in the likeness of his substance, but acconiing to his own good pleasure; he then created the Holy Spirit, the first and greatest of all spirits, by his own power, in deed and operation mediately ; yet by the immediate power and operation of tlie Son. After the Holy Spirit, lie created all other things, in heaven and in earth, visible and in- visible, corporeal and incorporeal, mediately by himself, by the power and operation of the Son." Eiiscbians, an name given to the Arians from the patronage of Eusebius, Bishop of Cajsarea. — See Akians. Athana.ecial reference to Christ's people ; in short, that Christ died alike for all men. The universality of the Spirit's influence and the resistibility of the Spirit's influence — that he is not ultimately in- vincible. They hold an " essential and inde- structible freedom of the will of man." Election is regarded as depending on, and arising out of man's own faith, and that this faith is in man's own power. Thev deny "such an imputation of Adam's sin as would render men liable to eternal punishment on account of it, and such a view of the corruption of our fallen natures as would warrant the apjilication of the epithet ' sinful ' to infant children," &c. (See " Morisoniaiiism," by Rev. Fergus Ferguson, in Griffin's Cyclop, of Reliff. Denominations; Jlorison's Exposition oj Eomans JX. ; Dr Ileugh's Irenicum; and The Statement of Principles.^ ErangcIisBUus, the feast of commemoration as the day of the Gospel. — See Aknuncia- TION. JEvausdist, one who proclaims the Gospel, and an order of ministers in the early Church. That they were the composers of our historical gospels, is an untenable opinion, which Chn'sos- stom deemed possible, but which O^cumenias stoutly asserts. On the other hand, Theodoret is more correct in his description " :r-j(ar(ioned, and undi-^solvablo after death in this world, and in the other which is to come. Let wood, stones, and iron be dis- solved, but not they : may they iniierit the le- prosie of Gehazi anil the confusiun of Judas ; may the earth be divided, and devour them like Dathan and Abiram; may they sigh and Ueuible EXC on earth like Cain, and the wrath of God be upon their heads and countenances ; may they see nothing of that for which they labour, and beg their bread all the daj'S of their lives ; may their works, possessions, labours, and services be accursed ; always without effect or success, and blown away like dust ; may they have the curses of the holy and righteous patriarchs Abram, Isaac, and Jacob; of the 318 saints who were the divine fathers of the synod of Nice, and of all other holy sjTiods; and being without the Church of Christ, let no man administer unto them the things of the church, or bless them, or offer sacrifice for them, or give them the 'Ajt/'Sw^ov, or the blessed bread, or eat, or drink, or work with them, or converse with them; and after death, let no man bury them, in penalty of being under the same state of excommunication ; for so let them remain until they have performed what is here written." No doubt was entertained by any class that these several maledictions would certain!}' fall on the devoted head ; and especially it was believed that the body of a person who should die under excommunication was incapable of dissolution until the sentence was remitted ; for that it was possessed in the grave by an evil spirit, which animated and pre- served it from corruption ; that it fed and per- formed all animal functions by night ; and that many such corpses, after forty daj's' interment, had been found ruddy in complexion, and yield- ing to the lancet blood as plentiful, fresh, and quick, as that which issues from the veins of the young and sanguine. Hence, doubtless, arose the numerous eastern legends of Goules and Vampires. By eld English law an excommunicated person was disabled from doing any act required to be done by one that is probus et legalis homo. He could not serve on juries, nor be witness in any court, nor bring an action real or personal to recover lands or money due to him. By stat. 5 and 6 Edward VI., c. 4, striking, or drawing a weapon to strike, in a church or churchyard, in- curred ipso facto excommunication ; ipso facto excommunication, or lata senfentice, meaning some act so clear or manifest that no sentence is requisite, in contradistinction from sententim ferendce, i. e., when sentence must be passed be- fore the offender be considered excommunicated. The offences which in the reign of Edward III., 1373, were punished by ipso facto excommunica- tion, are enumerated in some articuU issued when "Wittlesey was Archbishop of Canterbury ; most of them are such as might be injurious to the persons or properties of the clergy. The do- cument may be found in Cone. Magn. Britl., iii., 95. By 3 James I., c. 5, every popish recusant convict stands to all intents and purposes disabled, as a person lawfully excommunicated. The ecclesiastical law denies Christian burial to those excommunicated majori excommunicatione, and an injunction to the ministers to that effect wfll | EXC be found in the sixty-eighth canon, and in the rubric of the burial service. The law acknow- ledged two excommunications : the fo^er excluded the offender from the communion of the church only; the greater from that communion, and also from the company of the faithful, &c. The sixty-fifth canon enjoins ministers solemnly to denounce those who stand lawfully excommuni- cated every six months, as well in the parish church as in the cathedral church of the diocese in which they remain, " openly in time of di\nne service, upon some Sunday," " that others may be thereby both admonished to refrain their company and society, and excited the rather to procure out a writ de excommunicato capiendo, thereby to bring and reduce them into due order and obedience." The thirty-second article also states, that " That person which, by open denunciation of the church, is rightly cut off from the unity of the church, and excommunicated, ought to be taken of the whole multitude of the faithful as an heathen and publican, until he be openly recon- ciled by penance, and received into the church by a judge that hath authority thereto." By statute 52 George III., c. 127, excommunications, and the proceedings following thereupon, are discontinued, except in certain cases specified in the act ; which may receive definitive sentences as spiritual cen- sures for offences of ecclesiastical cognizance ; and instead of sentence of excommunication, which used to be pronounced by the ecclesiastical courts, in cases of contumacy, the offenders are to be declared contumacious, and to be referred to the court of chancery, by which a writ de covin- mace capiendo is issued instead of the old writ de excommunicato capiendo. Formerl}' this writ de excomviunicato capiendo was issued b_v the com't of chancery, upon it being signified by the bishop's certificate that forty days have elapsed since sentence of excommunication has been published in the church, without submission of the offender. The sheriff then received the writ, called also a significavit, and lodged the culprit in the county jail till the bishop certified his re- conciliation. A similar method of proceeding to that now adopted was recommended by a report of a committee of both houses of parliament, as far back as March 7, 1710, and againon April 30, 1714. No person excommunicated for such of- fences as are still liable to the punishment, can now be imprisoned for a longer term than six months, (Burns, Eccl. Law, by Tyrwhit, ad v.) In Scotland, when the lesser excommunication, or exclusion from the sacraments, has failed, the minister pronounces a form by which the impeni- tent offender is declared "excommunicated, shut out from the communion of the faithful, debarred from their privileges, and delivered unto Satan for the destruction of his flesh, that his spirit may be saved in the day of the Lord Jesus." The people are then warned to avoid all unnecessary intercourse with him. Ancientl}-, in Scotland, an excommunicated person was incapable of holding 266 EXE feudal rights, but at present the sentence is un- accompanied by any civil penalty or disqualifica- tion.— See Discipline, Exedra or 'Exhedra (t^sSfa), in ancient architecture, a part of an open portico fitted up with seats. In the early Christian churches there was commonly at the upper end of the chancel a semicircular building, called, from its figure and position, apsis, conchula, bema, or exedra; and it is this to which we think St. Augustine alludes, when he speaks of the steps of the exedra in gradihus exedrte. Bingham would refer this passage to the ambo or reading desk, which he says, upon the strength of it, was sometmies called exedra. But it is not improb- able that the exedra was frequently approached by steps, and therefore was in itself a locus superior — a place reached by steps. Besides this, such buildings as were distinct from the main body, and yet within the bounds of the church, were called by the general name of exedrre. These buildings appear chiefly to have belonged to the baptistery. In his life of Constantine (iii., 50) Eusebius describes the church of An- tioch, built by that emperor, as surrounded with exedraa. (Bingham, vlii., 7, 1.) — See Apsis, Bejia, Church. Exocatacoeli, officers in the early Church of Constantinople, not unlike the college of cardi- nals at Rome. The name is said to be derived from the manner of their sitting on either side of the patriarch's throne. Exoconlians. — See Arians. Exorcist, an expeller of demons. Our Lord cast out devils " bv the finger of God " (Matt. viii. 28-34 ; ix. 32-34; xv. 22, 28 ; xvii. 14-18); and to his disciples he communicated the like power (Luke ix. 1 ; x. 19, 20). Indeed, there is nothing more certain than that in the apos- tolic age, and the age next following, the practice of exorcism greatly prevailed among both Jews and Christians ; nor was it confined in its exercise to the teachers of religion, nor to any special order either in the synagogue or the church. Josephus narrates the successes of several Jewish exorcists ; one of whom, named Eleazar, cured persons demoniacally possessed, by means of a root set in a ring, applied to their nostrils ; as soon as the devils smelled the exor- cist's charms they immediately departed. These practitioners were no doubt a class of conjuring impostors. Though the miraculous gift of casting out devils was not conferred exclusively, nor generally, upon the first pastors of the Christian Church, yet in process of time, as its decidedly miraculous character began to wane, it gradually fell into their hands ; until at length those who practised it were constituted into a special and distinct order. A few extracts from the early fathers relating to this subject may not be un- interesting: Origen informs us that laymen by their prayers and adjurations (see Mark ix. 25) dispossessed devils; of Gregory Thaumaturgus it EXO is recorded, that whilst he was a layman he cast out many devils, by sending letters to the possessed party only ; Tertullian challenged the lieathen, that, if they bring those possessed with devils into open court before a magistrate, any ordinary Christian would make him confess he was a devil and not a god ; Cyprian and Firmilian speak of persons endowed with a divine power to discern and then to expel demons. Tertullian in his Corona MUitis intimates that every man was, or might be, his own exorcist; for among other arguments which he urges to dissuade Christians from adopting the military profession, he says, that as they would be placed to guard the idol temples, they must then defend tliose devils by night whom they had put to flight by day by theLr exorcisms or prayers. Cornelius, who lived in the third century, enumerates exorcists among the inferior oflicers of the Church of Koine ; and we learn from one of the canons of the council of Antioch, held in the year 341, that the order of exor- cists was settled in the Greek as well as in the Latin Church at that time ; for the said canon gives permission to the chorciiiscopi to promote sub-deacons, readers, and exorcists. Cardinal Bona's opinion is doubtless correct, that the order was gradually introduced upon the withdrawal of the miraculous power, which did not cease in all places at the same time ; but at the close of the tliird century it was certainly established, inasmuch as in the writings of this period the exorcists are regularly classed among the established orders. It does not appear that imposition of hands formed part of the cere- mony of ordaining exorcists, either in tho Greek or Latin Churches; nevertheless, no one was permitted to practise exorcism, publicly or privately, without having first obtained the bishop's license or appointment. The candi- date, kneeling before the bishop, received from his hands a book containing the various forms of exorcism, the bishop saying to him at the same time, " Keceive thou these, and commit them to memory, and have thou power to lay hands upon the energumens, wliether they be baptized or only catechumens." The forms of exorcism were certain prayers and adjurations in the name of Christ, commanding the demon to quit the person possessed. Paulinus says the exorcist's office was " to adjure evil spirits, and to drive them out by certain holy worib." Exorcism was accompanied with tlie laying on of hands. Thus reads a canon of the council of Carthage: " Heretics and schismatics are lirst to be exorcised with inqjositlon of liands, and then to be baptized, before they can be admitted as true members of the Catholic Cliurch." In- sufflation and marking with the sign of the cross were next added. Cyril of Jerusalem exhorted his catechumens to" receive exorcism with dill;;ence, in the time of cateciiising; for whether it was insufflation or exorcism it was to be esitceiued 267 EXO salutary to the soul." Gennadius of Marseilles states, that not only in the French Church, but in all other churches, " exorcisms and exsufflations were uniformlj' used, both to infants and adult persons, before they were admitted to the sacra- ment of regeneration, and the fountain of life." Nevertheless, the virtue of exorcism was not supposed to reside in any of the attendant cere- monies, but chiefly, if not exclusively — at least in the first ages — in the prayers and adjurations. Cyril speaks of fire in connection with the exor- cisms of his time ; but it is evident that his language is to be understood metaphysically. He says, " As mixed metals cannot be purged with- out fire, so neither can the soul be purged with- out exorcisms, which are divine, and gathered out of the Scriptures." The prayers were selected from the Scriptures, and they be- sought God to break the dominion and power of Satan in the new converts, and to deliver them from his slavery, by expelling the spirit of error and wickedness from them. The main business, therefore, of an exorcist was the energetic use of certain prayers suited to the condition and circumstances of the subject. Exorcism is still practised in the Greek and Eoman Churches; and was formerly "recognized in the Anglican Church. In the first liturgy of Edward VI., a form of exorcism at baptism is given. The priest, looking upon the children, was to say, " I command thee, unclean spirit, in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost, that thou come out and depart from these infants, whom our Lord Jesus Christ has vouchsafed to call to his holy baptism, to be made members of his body and of his holy congregation. There- fore, thou accursed spirit, remember thy sentence, remember thj' judgment, remember the day to be at hand wherein thou shalt burn in fire everlasting, prepared for thee and thy angels ; and presume not henceforth to exercise any tyranny towards these infants whom Christ hath bought with his precious blood, and, by his holy baptism, calleth to be of his flock." — See Baptism. Bucer's remon- strance against the indiscriminate use of the form of exorcism, on the ground that it would be un- charitable to suppose that all were demoniacs who came to be baptized, was listened to by the Reformers; for in their review of the Prayer Booh, in the 5th and Gth of Edward VI., they decided on omitting it altogether. The seventy-second canon of the Church of England forbids any minister attempting to expel a devil or devils, under pain of the imputation of imposture, and cosenage, and deposition from the ministrj^, except he first obtains the license of the bishop of his diocese, had under his hand and seal. In the Greek Church exorcism is employed previous to baptism : the priest having received the child at the church door, marks him with the sign of the cross on the forehead, then carries him to the font, where, before his immersion (trine im- mersion is practised in the Greek Church) he EXS blows upon him — thus dispossessing him of the devil, and delivering him from his power and malice. The priest also blows upon the water, to expel from it the angels of the evil one. These practices are, however, understood symboli- cally, not as assertions of their actual possession. Exorcism is also practised in the Church of Rome. In baptism, after some preliminary prayers and ceremonies at the church door, the priest breathes three times upon the child's face, saying, " Come out of this child, thou evil spirit, and make room for the Holy Ghost," the priest carefully observing all the time not to let the child breathe upon him ; other ceremonies then follow, after which the priest puts on his cap, and again exorcises the child, commanding the prince of darkness to come forth out of him. Prayers and ceremonies succeed this second exorcism, and at their conclusion the priest takes hold of the swaddling clothes of the child and brings it into the church, — the godfather and godmother follow, repeating the Lord's Prayer and the Creed. Arrived at the font, the devil is again exorcised, and then the child is anointed and baptized. When a house is infested with evil spirits, the priest is sent for, who, on his arrival, sprinkles the place plentifully with holy water, repeats some prayers, and then pronounces the form of exorcism, whereupon, it is supposed, the devils depart. Should they again return, the ceremony of exorcism is repeated, and again, if necessary, until at length the church proves itself victorious over the powers of hell. When an adult possessed with a demon is brought to the priest he is made to kneel down, and a copious shower of holy water is let fall upon him ; he is next marked with the sign of the cross, and litanies, psalms, and prayers follow; after which the priest demands of the devil to confess his name ; but without waiting for an answer he adjures the evil spirit, by the mysteries of Christianity, not to atflict the patient evermore. The priest then lays his hand upon the head of the person possessed, and pro- nounces over him this form of exorcism, — " I exorcise thee, unclean spirit, in the name of Jesus Christ ; tremble, 0 Satan ! thou enemy of the faith, thou foe of mankind, who hast brought death into the world, who hast deprived men of life, and hast rebelled against justice ; thou se- ducer of mankind, thou root of all evil, thou source of avarice, discord, and envj^" The devil is then supposed to depart. — See more on this subject in the volume on the " Occult Sciences," re- issue of Encyclopcedia Metropolitana. £xoihoiinienoi {placed without), the first or lowest class of catechumens, who were instructed outside the church — hence their name. Expectation lYeck, the week between Ascension Day and Whitsunday, the period during which the apostles expected the fulfil- ment of the Master's promise as to the outpour- ing of the Comforter. JBxsulIIatiou, a rite in ancient baptism, ia 268 EXT which the candidate for the ordinance spat de- fiance thrice on Satan. — See Exorcism. Extravasauts. — Sse Decretals. Those decretal epistles of the popes after the Clemen- tines were so named because they were not ranged with the other papal constitutions, but appeared to be detached from them. The FAN- first Extravagants were those of John XXII. The collection of decretals in 148:5, though in- corporated with the canon law, was still called the "common Extravagants." — See Caso>- Law. Extreme Unction.— See Unction, Ex- TEEJIE. F Facnlty, in legal acceptation, is a special privilege or dispensation granted by favour and indulgence, to enable a person to do that which he is not permitted to do without it. Tliere is a court of the faculties, the chief officer of which is master of the faculties, under the Archbishop of Canterburj'. It has power, by 25 Henry VIII., 21, to grant dispensations; and in it are registered the certificates of peers to their chap- lains, to qualify them for pluralities and non- residence. Fago, a white linen cloth in which communi- cants used to bring to the church their oblations of bread and wine for the Lord's Supper. Faith, Articles of. — See Articles. Faith, Coiifrssioiis of. — See Creed. Faithful (full of frith'), the early and com- mon name of Christians, after their distinctive principle, which separated them from Jew and heathen. — See Church, Members of; Cate- chumens, Penitents. Faith Implicit, faith reposed when the grounds of it are not given ; opposed to faith explicit, or when the grounds of it are distinctly set forth and understood. Faith, Kule of. — The only rule of faith is the Word of God ; but the Popish Church adds tradition, oral and written, as of equal authoritj'. Confessions of faith are properly termed subordi- nate rules or standards, explanatory only of the sense in which the Word of God is understood. — See Dk.velopjient, Tradition. Falclistory, a portable scat for a bishop when he officiated in any but his own cathedral church. It was made like a camp-stool, and was placed within the choir. Fald-stool (fvnm falda, a low Latin term), a name often, but erroneously, given to a small desk at whicli the litany is to be said or sung, placed in the middle of the choir or near the steps of the altar. Fania Clninosn (general had report), in the judicial procedure of Presbyterian Churches, is a ground of action before a presbytery or synod against a member of the church, independently of any formal charge by a regular accuser. Any one who is of gooil character may prefer to the court a complaint against another; but the court is not bound to proceed to tlie citation of the accused until the accuser shall lodge the com- plaint, with some evidence of its probability, and undertake to make out the libel, under the pain of being considered as a slanderer. I?ut when such an accusation is brought, the members are necessitated to examine into it. Besides, the court considers itself obliged to proceed against any of its members, if the /«mre clamosa is such that he cannot be vindicated unless they begin a process. This they can do without any special accuser, after they have made inquiry respecting the origin, occasion, and authors of this report. In the case of a minister, after the report raised against him is considered, they then order him to be cited, and draw out a full copy of what has been adduced, with a list of the names of the wit- nesses to be produced for proving the allegation. He is then formally summoned to appear before them ; and he has notice served upon him at least ten days before the time of his appearance, to give in his answers to what is technically called the libel. If at the time appointed the accused appear, the libel is read to him, and his answers are also read. If the libel be found relevant, then the court endeavours to bring liim to a con- fession. If a minister absent himself by leaving the place, and prove contumacious, without making any relevant excuse, a new citation may be given him, and intimation is made at his own church, when the congregation is met, that he is to be holden as confessing, since he refuses to appear, and accordingly he is deposed from office. — See Discipline, Libel. Familiars of the InquiHitioii, titular officers of this celebrated tribunal. Their office consists in apprehending accused or suspectetl persons, and conveying them to prison, under the instructions of the inquisitor. Being assis- tants to the inquisitor, and forming a part of his family, they are hence called familiars. When several persons are to be apprehended at tlie same time, these officers so arrange their move- ments that their victims are taken up and placed in prison individually, without their being aware of one another's incarceration. — See Inquisi- tion. Familista. — See Love, Family of. Fanaticism {Iromfamim, a temple). — Fana- tic was a name given to divines iu the ancient Church, but is now applied to unreasoning and wild visionaries. Many lan>entable in- stances are on record, and we give one, not usually known, from the history of Scotland. 209 FAN We extract it from Chambers's Domestic Annals of Scotland, vol. ii., pp. 414-415:— " Feb. 21, 1681. A company of distracted people was this day brought into Edinburgh, under tlie guardianship of a troop of dragoons. They were commonly known as the Sweet Singers of Borrowstounness, from their noted habit of fre- quent chanting of psalms. The religious exas- perations of the times, the execution of a Bo'ness man named Stewart, with two others, on the preceding 1st of December, and perhaps, in addi- tion to these causes, the terrors diffused by the comet, had now produced in that little town an epidemic mania of a type only too well known. The\' ran up and down the town in a furious manner, sometimes uttering prayers, which con- sisted chiefly of curses invoked against indivi- duals, more frequently singing psalms of lamen- tation (74th, 79th, 80th, 83d, and 137th) for the sins of the land. Such of the females as were married deserted their homes and husbands, and if the husband, in his endeavours to win his wife back to rationalitj', took hold of any part of her dress, she indignantly washed the place, as to remove an impurity. They followed a gigantic fellow, commonly called Muckle John Gibb, but who passed among them under the name of King Solomon, and at length, 'leaving their homes and soft warm beds and covered tables,' six-and- twenty of them went forth from their native town, notwithstanding the entreaties of weeping husbands, fathers, and children, calling on them to staj^ ; ' some women taking the sucking chil- dren in their arms to desert places, to be free of all snares and sins, and communion with all others, and moum for their own sins, the land's tyranny and defections, and there to be safe from the land's utter ruin and desolation by judg- ments; some of them going to the Pentland Hills, with a resolution to sit there to see the smoke and utter ruin of the sinful, bloody city of Edinburgh. . . . Immediately after they came to these desert places, they kept a day of fasting and confessing of their sins one to another; yea, some of them confessed sins which the world had not heard of, and so not called to confess them to men.' — Pat. Walker. Even the Whig clergy- men who had gone to the wilderness rather than o^vn an uncovenanted king, were surprised at the more extreme feelings of the Sweet Singers. Walker tells how he was with the Rev. Mr. Oargill at Darmead Muirs, when the Gibbites were ' lying in the Deer Slunk, in the midst of a great flow-moss betwixt Clydesdale and Lothian about a mile distant' Gibb and another man came armed, and held a conference with Mr. Cargill in a barn, but it led to no good. After resting awhile, the chief of the Sweet Singers rose in haste, and went to the muir all night. ' I well remember,' says Walker, ' it was a cold easterly wet fog.' Cargill was shocked by the state of mind he had found them in. Thej' were afterwards all taken by a troop of dragoons at the 27 FAS Woolhill Craigs, betwixt Lothian and Tweeddale, a very desert place, and carried to Edinburgh, where the men were put into the Canongate tolbooth, and the women into the correction- house, where they were soundly scourged. After a little time, these poor people cooled down somewhat, and were one by one set at liberty. Walker says the most of them ultimately re- turned to their right mind, and he had had some edifying conversations with them since." Fans.— See Flabellgm. Farnovians, a Polish Socinian sect of the sixteenth century, originated by Stanislaus Farnowski, who held a species of Arianism, main- tained the supremacy of the Father, and warned against worship being paid to the Spirit. Far- novius died in 1615, and the sect soon became extinct. Farse. — Before the Eeformation, an addition, in the vernacular, to some part of the Latin ser- vice received this name. Fastern's JEve. — See Shrove Toesdat. Fasting, Fasts. — Occasional abstinence from food has been observed as a religious duty among various nations from very early times. The only fast appointed by the law of Moses was that on the great day of atonement in the seven tli month (Lev. xvi. 29 ; xxiii. 27). But as an act of humiliation in times of danger or of aflliction, we have many instances of fasting being practised both by the nation of the Jews and by individuals, with evident tokens of the Divine approbation. Zechariah (viii. 19) men- tions four fasts in the year, as if they had been generally observed during the captivity. At a later period the Jewish fasts were very numerous, and Lems, in his Antiquities of the Hebrew Re- prtblic (iv., 15), has given from the Rabbi Maimonides many particulars concerning them. The two days in the week on which the Phari- see (Luke xviii. 12) boasted that he fasted were the second and the fifth (Maimonides, Taanith., i.) — Monday, in memory of the ascent of Moses to Sinai ; Thursday, of his descent. Our Sav- iour neglected the observance of those stated fasts which had been superadded to the Mosaic law, and represented such observances as incon- sistent with the genius of his religion (Matt. ix. 14-18, and parallel passages). The practice of voluntary and occasional fasting he neither pro- hibited nor expresslj- enjoined ; but he warned his disciples against ostentatious and hypocritical ob- servances of this kind. The teaching of the apos- tles was to the same effect ; and in their practice they joined fasting with prayer on certain solemn occasions (Acts xiii. 2, 3 ; xiv. 23). It does not appear that much value was attached to fasting in the age immediately following that of the apostles. In the Shepherd of Ihrmas it is spoken of disparagingly: " Nothing is done, nothing is gained for virtue by bodily absti- nence: rather so fast, that ye do no wrong, and harbour no evil passion in your heart." 0 FAS We learn from Justin MartjT, that fasting was joined with prayer at Ephesus, in the adminis- tration of baptism. In the second centurj', before the time of Victor and Irenseus, it had become usual to fast before Easter; and Cle- ment of Alexandria, about the same time, speaks of weeklj' fasts. Tertullian, when a Montanist, in his treatise De Jejuniis, about 200, complains of the little attention paid to the practice of fast- ing by the Catholic Church. Origen, in the third century, in his voluminous writings, adverts to the subject only once, viz., in his tenth homily on Leviticus. And then he speaks in accordance with the apostolical doctrine. It appears, how- ever, from his observations that, at Alexandria, Wednesdays and Fridays were then observed as fast-days, on the ground that our Lord was betrayed on a Wednesday, and crucified on a Friday. The custom of the Church at the end of the fourth century may be collected from the following passage of Epiphanius : — " In the whole Christian Church the following fast-days throughout the year are regularly observed. On Wednesdays and Fridays we fast until the ninth hour (i. e., until three p.m.), except during the interval of fifty days between Easter and Whitsuntide, in which it is usual neither to kneel nor to fast at all. Besides this, there is no fasting on the Epiphany or Nativity, if these days should fall on a Wednesday or Friday. But those persons who especially devote them- selves to religious exercises fast also at other times when they please, except on Sundays and during the fifty days between Easter and Whit- suntide. It is also the practice of the Church to observe the forty days' fast before the sacred week. But on Sundays there is no fasting even during the last mentioned period." At this period, however, there was no universal agreement in the practice of the Church in this matter ; neither had fasts been established bj- law. The custom had been introduced silently into the Church, and its observance was voluntary. But by the second canon of the council of Orleans in 541, it was decreed that any one who should neglect to observe the stated times of abstinence should be treated as an offender against the laws of the Church. The eighth council of Toledo, in 553, condemns anj' one who should eat flesh during the fast before Easter, and says that such offenders desen^e to be forbidden the use of it throughout the year. In the eiglith century fasting began to be re- garded as a meritorious work, and the breach of the observance of it at the stated seasons sub- jected the offender to excommunication. The following are the fasts which most generally prevailed in the Church: — 1. That of Quadru'jesima., or Lent. — See Lent. 2. Tlie Fasts of the four seasons, Jejunia quaiuor Temporuvi, or of the first, fourth, seventh, and tenth months. Of these, the spring fast was kept in Lent ; the summer fust, for the most part, in the week after 271 FAS Whitsuntide; the autumnal fast in September; the winter fast, from the festival of St. Martin (November 11) till Christmas Day, on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays in each week. These fasts, though not at first so intended, afterwards coincided with the Ember Weeks or ordination fasts. 3. In the fifth century three days were set apart in France, immediately before" Ascen- sion Day, under the name of Rogation fasts. But as the whole of Pentecost had formerly been observed as a festival, these dajs were never generally received, and the council' of Toledo in 684 finally declared that such Kogation fasts should be kept once every month. 4. There was also a fast of three days before the Epiphany, appointed for the purpose of restraining the ex- cesses into which the people were used to run in celebrating the return of the year. 5. In some places monthly fasts were observed, excepting in July and August, because of the sickliness of that season, and. because, also, in the latter month almost every day was dedicated as a festival to some martyr. 6. Weekly fasts on Wednesdays and Fridays, called also stationary days (Stan tiones), half fasts (Semijejunia), fasts of the fourth and sixth days, were early decreed. These days were chosen because Wednesday was the day on which the Jews took counsel to put our Lord to death ; Friday, that on which he actually suffered. They were not observed during the fifty days between Easter and Pente- cost, neither were they attended with as severe abstinence as the Quadragesimal fast. It was sufficient if food was not tasted before three in the afternoon. Hence, the three degrees of fast- ing have been distinguished by Tertullian, as they might be kept, per nullas, vel aridas, vel seras escas, that is, real fast, or eating very dry victuals, or eating very late in the day. Fast- ing on the Lord's Day was considered highly criminal, because many early heretics, as the Manichees, Cerdonians, Marcionites, and Priscil- lianists, had impiously adopted tiiis practice in derogation of our Lord's human nature. The Apostolical Canons sentenced the clergy to deposition for this offence, and more than one council anathematized it. — See Ember Days, KoGATioN Days. The Church of Rome distinguishes between days of fasting and of abstinence. On the former but one meal, and that not of flesh, is tasted dur- ing twenty-four hours; on the latter, flesh only is abstained from. — See Abstinknck. Tlie follow- ing is the present distribution given in Bishop Challoner's Garden of the Soul: — Fasting Days. — 1. The forty days of Lent 2. The Ember Days, being the Wednesday, Fri- day, and Saturday of the first week in Lent; of Whitsun Week; of the third week in September; and of the third week in Advent. 8. The Wednesdays and Fridays of the four weeks in Advent. 4. The vigils or eves of Wliitsuntide ; of the feasts of St. Peter and St. Paul; of FAS the assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary; of All Saints; and of Christmas Day. When any fasting day falls upon a Sunday, it is to be observed on the Saturday before. Absti- nence Bays. — 1. The Sundays in Lent. 2. The three Rogation Days, being the Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday before Ascension Daj'. 3. St. Mark, April 25, unless it falls in Easter ■week. 4. The Fridays and Saturdays out of Lent, and the Ember Weeks, or such as happen to be vigils ; but should Christmas Day fall upon a Friday or Saturday, it is not of abstinence. In the Practical CalecJiism upon the Sundays, Feasts, and Fasts, the reason assigned for ob- serving St. Mark's Day as a day of abstinence, is that his disciples, the first Christians of Alexan- dria, under his own conduct were eminent for their mortification ; moreover, that St. Gregory the Great, the apostle of England, first set it apart in meraorj' of the cessation of a mortality in his time at Rome. The Greek Church observes four principal fasts. That of Lent, commencing according to the old style ; one, beginning in the week after Whitsuntide, and ending on the 29th of June, so that it varies in length, and is called the fast of the holy apostles; one, for a fort- night before the Assumption of the Virgin (August 15), which is observed even to the pro- hibition of oil, except on the day of the Trans- figuration (August 6), on which day both oil and fish may be eaten; and one, forty days before Christmas. The fixed days appointed by the Church of England for fasting and abstinence, between which no dift'erence is asserted, are the fol- lowing:— 1. The forty days of Lent. 2. The Ember Days at the four seasons ; being the Wednesday, Friday, and Saturday after the first Sunday in Lent, the feast of Pentecost, 14th September, and 13 th December. 3. The three Rogation Days, being the Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday before Holy Thursday, or the As- cension of our Lord. 4. All the Fridays in the year, except Christmas Day. These days are mentioned in 2 and 3 Edward VL, c. 19, and in 5 Elizabeth, c. 5 ; and by 12 Charles IL, c. 14, the 30th of January is ordained to be a day of fasting and repentance for the " martj-rdom " of Charles I. But an act passed last year (1859), or 22 Victoria, repeals all enactments requiring special church service to be observed on the 30th of Januarj^, 29th of May, 5th No- vember, and 23d Octoljer. Other days of fasting are occasionally appointed by royal proclamation. But no ecclesiastical directions are given by the Church of England respecting fasting, and even the ordinance prohibiting meat on fast days in 2 and 3 luhvard VL, c. 19, is framed politically for the increase of cattle and the encouragement of fisheries and navigation, not on religious grounds. The act itself, however, is recommended in one of the homilies (^0/ Good Works, and first of 2 FAT I Fasting), where it is declared to be " a withhold- ■ ing of meat, drink, and all natural food from the body for the determined time of fasting ;" and its ends are rationallj' and piously noted : " The first is, to chastise the flesh, that it be not too wanton, but tamed and brought in subjection by the spirit ; the second, that the spirit may be more fervent and earnest in prayer ; the third, that our fast be a testimony and witness with us before God of our humble submission to his high majesty, when we confess and acknowledge our sins unto him, and are inwardly touched with sorrowfulness of heart, bewailing the same in the aflliction of our bodies." Fathci-iii, the name given to the early writers in the Church — often divided into Greek and Latin fathers — those who flourished before the council of Nice, in 325, being called Ante-Nicene fathers. Opinions as to their value have been very extravagant on both sides. As to the customs and histories of their own time thej^ are competent witnesses ; and as the language of the New Tes- tament was the mother-tongue of many of them, they are to be judiciously consulted in interpre- tation. In matters of theology they are not to be unreservedly followed. (See on this subject Jortin, Daille, Faber, Isaac Taylor.) The chief fathers of the first six centuries were as fol- lows : — Clement of Rome succeeded Anacletus (or Cletus) as Bishop of Rome, about a.d. 91 or 93 ; wrote some epistles, still ex- tant— one especially to the Church of a.d. Corinth; died about 100 Ignatius, Bishop of Antioeh, has left also some epistles ; but several under his name are spurious; suffered martyr- dom at Rome, some say as late as A.D. 116, but more probably 107 Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna, visited Rome A.D. 158; wrote an epistle to the Philip- pians; suffered martyrdom about 160 or 167 Justin Martyr ; born probablj' about a.d. 100 ; left Palestine 132 : presented his first Apology to Antoninus about (140 or) 148 ; wrote his second Apology in the reign of Marcus Aurelius, prob- ably about 162-4; has left a variety of other works, and a Dialogue with Trypho the Jew; suffered martyrdom at Rome about 165 Hermias wrote his work, Derision of the Heathen Philosophers, probably about 170 Dionj'siusof Corinth wrote some epistles; all lost, except a very few fragments ; fl. 170 Hegesippus, originally a Jew, wrote Jlis- tory of the Church, of which only a few fragments survive, about 175 Tatian wrote an Oration against the Greeks, vfhich has been preserved ; died probably about 176 Athenagoras wrote an Apology for the Christians, and also on the resurrec- 72 FAT tion, both of which have been trans- lated into Enghsh, Tlieophilus, Bishop of Antioch, wrote his work on religion to Autolycus, about 180; died, Irenseus, Bishop of Lyons, a.d. 177, wrote his work Against Heresies in the reign of Commodus, i. e., after the year 180 ; died about Clement of Alexandria succeeded Pautse- nus in the catechetical school of that city, A.D. 188 or 189; quitted Alex- andria, 202 ; has left an address to the Greeks, Pcedcyo/jus, or a treatise on Christianity; Strumala, or a miscel- lany, in eight books; died about Tertullian became a Montanist about the j'ear 200 ; his Apologi/ was composed (198 or) 205 ; his work against Mar- cion, 207 ; has left a great variety of tracts on the vices and customs of his age — as on the theatre, the dre.ss of females, idolatry', second marriages, the soldier's crown, and on flight in persecution, &c. ; died about Minucius Felix wrote his Octavius, or de- fence of Christianity, about Hippolytus, Bishop of Portus Romanus, wrote, besides many other pieces, Phi- losophoumena, or confutation of all heresies, a work long ascribed to Origen, but which Bunsen has shown belongs to Hippolytus; died about Origen, born a.d. 185 ; head of the cate- chetical school at Alexandria, 204; went to Rome, and returned to Alex- andria, 213; went to Ciesarea in Pales- tine, 215; ordained at Cajsarea, and afterwai'ds settled there, about 230 ; retired to Cappadocia, 235; returned to CiEsarea, 239 ; was a most labori- ous scholar and critic ; compiled a Hexcqiki, or polyglot Bible ; wrote com- mentaries on Scripture, some of which survive ; a treatise on prayer ; and a defence against Celsus; thrown into prison, 250; died, Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage, a.d. 248 ; fled from Carthage, 250 ; returned,251 ; banished, 257; author of some beauti- ful epistles, addresses, and tracts; suf- fered martyrdom, Dionysius, surnaraed the Great, Bishop of Alexandria, a scholar of Origen, a.d. 247 or 248; died Gregory (Thaumaturgus), Bishop of Neo- caesarea, flourished a.d. 245; com- posed a creed, an oration in praise of Origen, and a paraphrase on Ecclesias- tes; died about Amobius wrote his treatise of seven boolis Against the Geritiles about a.d. 305 ; died probably about A.d. 176 181 202 218 220 208 230 254 258 265 270 325 FAT Lactantius, finished his Institutes about A.D. 320 ; wrote also on The Death of Persecutors, and on The Wrath ojtJod; composed a symposium or banquet, a.d. and an itinerary, both in verse ; died, 325 Eusebius (Pamphili), born about a.d. 270; Bi-shop of Csesarea in Palestine, 315; was a learned and laborious writer; wrote, besides many other things, the Evangelical Preparation, in fifteen books ; Evangelical Demonstra- tion, in twenty books — the half of which is lost — but both works refer to the evidences ; an Ecclesiastical His- tory, in ten books; died, 340 Julius Firmicus Maternus, who wrote on the error of profane religions; flourished about 340 Hilarj', Bishop of Poitiers, born a.d. 305; banished to Phrygia, 356 ; wrote on the Trinity, on Cou icils, against the Arians, with a Commentary on the Psalms and Matthew; died, 368 Athanasius, born at Alexandria about a.d. 296 ; present, as deacon, at the council of Nicasa, 325 ; Bishop of Alex- andria, 320; fled to Rome, 341; re- turned to Alexandria, 346; fled to the desertsof Egypt, 356 ; wrote a discourse against the Gentiles, on the Incarna- tion ; against the Arians, on the Incar- nation ; against Apollinaris, &c. ; died, 373 Basil, surnamed the Great, born a.d. 329 ; Bishop of Cfesarea, in Cappadocia, 370 ; wrote homilies, expositions, panegyrics, Hexmmeron, and letters; died, 379 Ephraim the Syrian, Deacon of Edessa; published a variety of commentaries, polemical treatise, and smaller works ; died about 379 Cyril of Jerusalem, born a.d. 315 ; Bishop of Jerusalem, 350; wrote catechetical discourses; died, 386 Gregory of Nazianzen, born a.d. 328 ; ordained deacon, 361 ; Bishop of Suzima, 372; Bishop of Constantin- ople, 381; wrote discourses, poems, and letters; died about 390 Gregory of Nyssa, born a.d. 351 ; Bishop of Nyssa, 372 ; wrote a Hexcemeron, life of Moses, on prayer, along with orations, panegyrics, tracts, and letters; died about 395 Ambrose, born a.d. 340 ; Arciibisiiop of Milan, 374 ; published annotations on Scripture, discourse, and miscellaneous treatises; died about 397 Epiphanius, Bishop of Saiainis, born about A.D. 330; wrote a Pannarium, or a treatise on heresies, &c. ; died, 403 Chrysostoni, born at Antioch about a.d, 314 ; ordained presbyter in that church, 386 ; Bishop of Constautinople, 398 ; 273 T FAT deprived and restored, 403 ; banished, 404; was a most eloquent preacher and voluminous writer ; wrote many- commentaries, homilies, orations, with a.d. several controversial pieces ; died, 407 Euffin, Presbyter of Aquileia, engaged in controversy with Jerome, a.d. 394 ; published a great many Latin transla- tions, as well as original works ; died, 410 Jerome, bom a.d. 331 ; in Rome, 363 ; ordained presbyter about 378 ; trans- lated or revised the Latin Vulgate; wrote commentaries on most of the books of Scripture, controversial tracts, an Onomasticon, and lives and works of preceding ecclesiastical writers; died, 420 Theodoras, Bishop of Mopsuestia, in Cilicia, about a.d. 392 ; wrote com- mentaries, in which he expounded the grammatical sense; but only a few brief fragments remain; died about 428 Augustine, bom a.d. 354; baptized, 387; ordained presbj'ter at Hippo, 391 ; coadjutor of Valerius, Bishop of Hippo, 395 ; began his work, De Civitate Dei, 402 ; published confessions ; engaged in controversy with the Pelagians, Donatists, and Manichteans ; composed a great variety of tracts, bearing on systematic theology and prevalent errors ; wrote his Retractutiones, or reviews of his own work, 426 ; died,... 430 Cyril of Alexandria, Bishop of Alex- andria, 415; an ambitious and tur- bulent defender of orthodox}'; wrote on the Pentateuch, on adoration in spirit, some commentaries on portions of the Old and New Testaments, on the Trinity, against the Emperor Julian, and against Nestorius ; died, 444 Vincent of Lerins (Vincentius Lirinensis) wrote his Commoniiorium, or admoni- tion against profane novelties of lieretics, a.d. 434 ; died about 448 Isidore of Pelusium ; wrote tracts on Scrip- ture, on doctrines, on discipline, and on monachism; died, 449 Sedulius, poet, and Scotsman by birth, wrote several hymns, and a Paschal Work, in verse; flourished about 449 Theodoret, born a.d. 386 (or 393); Bisliop of Cyrus, in Syria, 423 ; de- prived, 449 ; restored, 451 ; wrote ques- tions on Scripture, commentaries, and a church history, extending from 325 to 429 ; a religious history, and an epitome of heretical fables ; died 456 Petrus Chrysologus, wrote a letter to Eu- tj'ches and some sermons; died about 456 Leo L, surnamed the Great, to whom are ascribed letters and sermons ; wrote on morals, on the pastorate, and left also homilies, dialog ues, and letters ; died, . . . 461 PEA Vigilius, Bishop of Thapsus, wrote against the heresies of Arius, Nestorius, and A.D. on the Trinity; flourished about 480 Boethius, author of the Consolation of Philosophy ; put to death, 625 Procopius of Gaza, a commentator on Scripture; flourished about 525 Aretas, a commentator on the Apoca- lypse; flourished about 549 Gregory, Bishop of Tours ; died, 596 Gregory I., surnamed the Great, Bishop of Rome, 590 ; died, 604 To these may be added Bernard of Clair- vaux ; the last of the fathers ; the pious and able opponent of Scholasticism ; who wrote an immense variety of homi- lies, letters, and tracts ; and died, 1157 Fathers, with various references. Fathers of the Christian Doctrine, a monkish order in France, enrolled by Clement VIII. in 1597, and much employed in the tuition of the young. Another order in Italy was approved by Pius V. and Gregory XIII. Fathers of the Oratory, an order of monks founded in Italy by St. Philip Neri, and sanctioned by Gregory XIII. in 1557, and deriving their name from the chapel which Neri built in Florence. The three great champions of the Church, and its historians, belonged to this order — Baronius, Raynaldus, and Laderchi. The order has made noise in England of recent years. Fathers of the Oratory of the Holy Jesus, a monkish society in France, instituted in 1613 by Peter de Berulle; intended to oppose the Jesuits, and co-operate with the Jansenists. They had no churches in which sacraments were adminis- tered, but only chapels, in which prayers were made and sermons delivered. Fathers of the Faith, an order founded by Paccanari, a TjTolese, composed of Jesuits, and intended to put Jesuitry into a new form. But the superiors of the ancient Jesuits did not, it is said, recognize them, or allow them to claim kindred. Feast of Asses. — See AsSES, Feast of. Feasts. — See Biblical Cyclopedia. Several of the early Christian feasts had their origin in an imitation of the Jewish festivals. Other cir- cumstances soon rose which gave occasion to ad- ditional feasts. The Lord's Da}-, with Easter and Whitsuntide, was first observed. Good Friday and Christmas were afterwards introduced. — See Sabbath, Easter. A festive daj' among the earl}' Christians was a holy day, no business being done, and all amusements suspended. Public worship was attended, the churches were adorned, the worshippers were attired in their finest apparel, and pra}ers were said by the people standing. Love feasts were held in the morning, and alms were through the day distributed to the poor. Many causes contributed to the multiplication of festivals, such as the commemoration of martyrs, and the superstitious imitation, not only of .Jewish ordinances, but even of lieathen cere- monies. As the simplicity of the Gospel was 274 FEA gradually lost, a complex and gaudy ritual gra- dually crept in. The Popish Church has double feasts, half double, and simple feasts, measured from the amount of the solemnities employed in them. Festivals or holy days are usually divided into movable and immovable. The Movable feasts are — Advent. Septuagesima. Sexagesinia Quinquagesima. Ash Wednesday. Quadragesima, and the four following Sundays. . Palm Sunday. Maunday Thursday. Good Friday. Easter Day. Easter Eve. Sundays after Easter. Ascension Day. Whitsunday. Trinity Sunday. The Immovable feasts and holy days are — January. 1. The Circumcision of our Lord Jesus Christ. 6. The Epiphany. 25. The Conversion of St. Paul. February 2. The Presentation of Christ in the Temple ; or, the Purification of St Mary the Virgin. 24. Saint Matthias's Day. March. 25. The Annunciation of the blessed Yirgin Mary. April. 25. Saint Mark's Day. May. 1. Saint Philip and Saint James's Daj'. June. 11. Saint Barnabas the Apostle. 24. Saint John Baptist's Day. 29. Saint Peter and Saint Paul's Day. July. 25. Saint James the Apostle. August. 24. Saint Bartholomew the Apostle. Septemher. 21. Saint Matthew the Apostle. 29. Saint Michael and all Angels. OcUih&r. 18. Saint Luke the Evangelist. 28. Saint Simon and Saint Jude, Apostles. 'Novevxher. 1. All Saints' Day. 30. Saint Andrew's Day. Dectmher. 21. Saint Thomas the Apostle. 25. Nativity of our Lord, or Christmas Day. 2 FIE 26. Saint Stephen's Day. 27. Saint John the Evangelist's Day. 28. The Innocents' Day. The more important of those feasts are ex- plained under their res])ective names. Frniher'H Tavern AMHoriniion, a society of 300 clergymen and others, who met at this tavern about the end of last century, to agi- tate for the reform.ition of the liturgy, and for relief from subscription to the articles. A keen controversy ensued, and the association did not long survive. Fvllowaliip. — See Communion. Feiiciug the TableN, the name given in Scotland to a special address before the Lord's Supper. The address bears on the nature of the ordinance, and the character of tliose who should engage in it. Of old it was called the debarrings, because the ministers pointed out the qualification of such as were worthy, and solemnly debarred those who had not the requisite character. Fele de Dicii (^ feast of God), a solemn festi- val in the Romish Chur;h, instituted for the pre- sentation of a peculiar worship to the Saviour, in the Eucharist. It is observed on the Thursday after the octave of Whitsuntide. It originated with Pope Urban IV. in 1264, and the office was drawn up by the famous Thomas Aquinas. The Church iaeing, at that time, disturbed by the fac- tion of the Guelfs and Ghibelins, Pope Urban 's bull for this festival was not promptly nor univer- sally obeyed. Afterwards, at the general council of Vienna in 1311, under Pope Clement Y., the Kings of England, France, and Arragon being present, this bull was confirmed, and ordered to be everj-Avbere observed. In 131 C Pope John XXII., to increase the solemnity, added an octave to it, and commanded the hose to be carried in procession. Feuilliaiis, a reformed branch of the Cistertian order of monks, who practised the EBOst incredible austerities : they went barefoot, and lived only on herbs. Pope Urban VI II. divided the French from the Italians in the year 1630, making two distinct congregations of them. The Feuilliantines are nuns of the same order. Fide-jnssorcs (sureties'), a name borrowal from the Roman law, and applied to sponsors at baptism See B.\rTisM, Godfathers. Fidcliuiu iTIissa.— See MissA. Fideliuiu Orntio (prayer of the faithfuT). — See Pkayer. Field- Preach ing, or prtaching in the open air ; a plan adopted by reformers in every ago, m order to propngate more extensively and etlec- tually their ])eculiar sentiments among the great masses of tiie people. Christ and his apostles not only availed themselves of the privileges which the synagogue^ aflordcd of making known the "Gospel of the King.lom" to those who Assembled therein from Sabbath to Sabbath, they also proclaimed the doctrines and precepts 75 FIE FIE of the new dispensation on the highwaj's and visited Kingswood frequently, and every time he hedges, on the sea-shore and on the barren glade, on the mountain's side and in the streets of the teeming city. Wherever men were found, and under whatever circumstances they were placed, if their ears could be reached, there the voice of the first teachers of Christianity was beard, warn- ing sinners of coming danger, and pointing out the oiilj' way of escape — the only medium of access unto God. So was it, too, with other reformers, whose labours our limits forbid our noticing, as we desire to add a few woi'ds on the field- preaching of Whitfield and Wesley. The practice was commenced bj' the former, and that without any misgivings as to the " irre- gularity " of such a strange proceeding ; whereas the latter, though a man of more highly culti- vated intellect, and who, on that account, ought to have risen superior to the prejudices of his order, was, with much reluctance, in- duced to follow in the course so heroically opened up by the eloquent Whitfield. But having once commenced, there was no drawing back ; he had taken to the field, and no man's face or frown should cause him to retire. John Wesley was not a man of a weak and shrinking spirit, as his whole life testifies ; but he was a man who proved himself on all occasions to be a good soldier of Jesus Christ. When Whitfield was refused the pulpits of the London and Bristol churches, and after he had been threatened bj'the chancellor of the diocese of the latter place with suspension and excommunication if he persisted in preaching in his diocese without a license, he resolved in his mind whether it might not be his duty to preach in the open air. Indeed, he had thought of this before he was refused per- mission to preach in the pulpits of the establish- ment, when he savv that thousands who sought to hear him could not gain admittance into the churches. He mentioned his thoughts to some friends, who pronounced the idea to be a mad one; but now, he believed that in Bristol his duty in this respect was no longer doubtful. Moreover, man}' persons said to him, " What need of going abroad ? Have we not Indians enough at home? If you have a mind to convert Indians, there are ■colliers enough at Kingswood." To these, there- fore, he determined to preach the message of reconciliation. The colliers at Kingswood were without any means of religious instruction ; the}' had no church in which to worship, no minister to teach them the duties of religion, or to pray with them ; hence thej- were notorious for their brutality and wickedness, and in times of excite- ment were a terror to all around them. On the 17th February, 1739, Whitfield proceeded to Rose Green, Kingswood (his first field pulpit), where he preached to as many as the novelty of the scene collected, which were about 200. "The ice being now broke " — to use his own observa- tion on this first open-air sermon — he determined to persevere in the same course. Accordingly, he went there the number of his hearers increased ; for, besides the colliers, thousands of aU ranks flocked from Bristol and the neighbourhood, and the congregation was sometimes computed at 20,000. With gladness and eagerness many of these despised outcasts, who had never been in a church in their lives, received the instruction of this eminent follower of Him who "went about doing good." " The first discovery," says he, " of their being affected, was to see the white gutters made by their tears, which plentifully fell down their black cheeks, as they came out of their coal pits Sometimes, when 20,000 people were before me, I had not, in my own apprehension, a word to say, either to God (in prayer) or to them (by preaching), . The open firmament above me, the prospect of the adjacent fields, with the sight of thousands and thousands, some in coaches, some on horseback, and some on the trees, and at times all affected and drenched in tears together, to which some- times was added the solemnity of the approaching evening, was almost too much for, and quite over- came me." Whitfield was then requested to preach in a bowling-green in the citj'; and he complied. Many of the audience sneered to see a stripling with a gown mount a table on uncon- secrated ground ; for field-preaching, since com- mon enough in England, was then unknown, and therefore obloquy was poured upon it. Hisengage- ments so increased that he sought the help of Mr. Wesley. Without delay Mr. Wesley proceeded to Bristol ; and on his arrival was invited to preach in the open air. " I could scarce reconcile mj'self at first," says he, " to this strange way of preach- ing in the fields, of which he (Whitfield) set me the example on the Sunday, having been all my life, till very lately, so tenacious of every point relating to decency and order that I should have thought the saving of souls a sin, if it had not been done in a church." However, on the fol- lowing day, Mr. Wesley preached from a little eminence in an open ground adjoining the city to about 3,000 people. In the days of Whitfield and the Wesle3's field-preaching was not unfre- quently attended with danger. Though they often met with a kind reception from the multitudes, 3'et at other times they experienced the rudest and most determined opposition, and often their lives were in imminent peril from the violence of an ignorant, depraved, and excited populace. In his Earnest Appeal, Mr. Wesley asks, " Who is there among you, brethren, that is willing (examine your own hearts) even to save souls from death at this price? Would not you let a thousand souls perish, rather than you would be the instrument of rescuing them thus? I do not speak now with regard to con- science, but to the inconveniences that must accompany it. Can you sustain them if you would ? Can you bear the summer sun to beat npon your naked head? Can you suffer the 276 FIE ■wintry rain or wind, from whatever quarter it blows ? Are you able to stand in the open air, without any covering or defence, when God casteth abroad his snow like wool, or scattereth his hoar frost like ashes? And yet these are some of the smallest inconveniences which accom- pany field-preaching. Far beyond all these are the contradiction of sinners, the scoffs both of the great vulgar and the small; contempt and re- proach of every kind ; often more than verbal affronts — stupid, brutal violence, sometimes to the hazard of health, or limbs, or life. Brethren, do you envy us this honour ? What, I pray you, would buy you to be a field-preacher?" When Mr. Wesley had been accustomed to field-preach- ing for more than twenty years, he made the following remarks : — " One hour in Moorfields might convince any impartial man of the expe- diency of field-preaching. What building, except St. Paul's church, could contain such a congre- gation? And if it would, what human voice could have reached them there? By repeated observations I find I can command thrice the number in the open air that I can under a roof And who can say the time for field-preaching is over, while — 1. Greater numbers than ever attend ; 2. The converting as well as the con- vincing power of God is eminently present with them ?" One extract more, and this article must close. Mr. Weslc}' thus describes these open-air services : — " I cannot say I have ever seen a more awful sight, than when, on Rose-Green, or the top of Hannan-Mouut, some thousands of people were calmly joined together in solemn waiting upon God, while — 'They stood, and under open air adored The God who made both air, earth, heaven, and sky.' And whether they were listening to his word with attention still as night, or were lifting up their voice in praise as the sound of manj' waters, many a time have I been constrained to say in my heart, ' How dreadful is this place!' This, also, ' is no other than the house of God ! This is the gate of hea\-en !' " (See Memoirs of Wesley, by Coke, Southey, and Watson ; also, Jackson's Centenary of Wesleyan Methodism.') Having now once adopted this mode of imparting instruction to the neglected classes of the com- munity, Jlr. AVesley never abandoned it to the end of his life ; and in a short time his brother Charles followed his example in the same self- denying labour of love, being urged thereto by the indetatigable Whitfield. Mr. Charles Wesley's first field sermon was preached at Moorfields, on the 24th June, 1739, his congregation amounting to about 1,000, and in the evening of the same day he preached to multitudes on Kennington Common. A few weeks afterwards, he preached to about 10,000 people in Moorfields; and for several j-ears he followed with equal steps, both his brother and ISIr. Whitfield in laborious zeal and public usefulness. It is not to be supposed that FIF Mr. Wesley had not preached in the open air till the time he was induced by Mr. Whitfield to do so at Bristol. He had done so in Georgia before Mr. Whitfield was ordained ; but he had no intention of resuming the practice in England, until com- pelled to do so by the necessities of the case. He says, " Wherever I was now desired to preach (in churches), salvation by faith was my only theme. . . . Things were in tiiis posture when I was told I must preach no more in this, and this, and another church; the reason was usually added without reserve, ' Because you preach such doc- trine.' . . . After a time I determined to do the same thing in England which I had often done in a warmer climate— to preach in the open air." " Be pleased to observe," he adds, " 1. That I was forbidden to preach in any church ' for preaching such doctrine.' 2. Tiiat I had no de- sire nor design to preach in the open air till after the prohibition. 3. That when I did, as it was no matter of choice, so neither of premeditation. There was no scheme at all previously formed which was to be supported thereby. 4. Field- preaching was therefore a sudden expedient — a thing submitted to rather than chosen ; and there- fore submitted to because I thought preaching even thus better than not preaciiing at all.'' Field-preaching, or, as it was called, tent-preach- ing, that is, preaching from a tent, was common in Scotland on summer sacramental occasions up till a very recent period. The practice still sur- vives in some parts of the higlilands. Tliousands from neighbouring parishes used to assemble on the brae or in the quiet hollow, and listen to the word of life. But unhallowed scenes sometimes occurred, of which Burns's Holy Fair is an ex- aggerated picture ; and such gathcruigs have been discontinued. Of late, however, field- preaching has been resorted to for a different purpose — that of evangelization, — so that the masses may be reached which have given up attendance at the house of God. Everywhere the result seems to be satisfactory, and the prac- tice is every year more and more extensively followed by all denominations in the three king- doms. Fifth Monarchy Men, a band of millen- narian enthusiasts who, in Cromwell's days, and afterwards, expected the personal appearance of Christ, to found a new or fifth monarchy a fifth, because the Babylonian, Persian, Grecian, and Koman monareiiies had preceded it. The sect rose to arms to bring about the do- sired epoch, urged by the iireaching of Venner in his conventicle in Coleman Street. Carlyla (Life of Cromwell, vol. iii., p. 228) thus, in his own style, "describes the first rising:—" T/uirsday, dth April, 1657. The fiftli monurcliy, headed mainly bv one Venner, a wiue-coopcr, and other civic individuals of tho old Foak-and-Powel species, whom we have transiently seen emitting soot and fire before now, has for a long while been concocting under-ground ; and Thurloe and his 277 FIL highness have had eye on it. The fifth monarch}' has decided that it will rise this Thursday, ex- pel carnal sovereignties, and call on the Christian population to introduce a reign of Christ — which, it is thought, if a beginning were once made, they will be very forward to do. Let us rendezvous on Mile-End Green this day, with sword and musket and assured heart. Perhaps General Harrison, Colonel Okey, one knows not who, will join us, — perhaps a miracle will be wrought, such as Heaven might work in such a case, and the reign of Christ actually take effect. Alas, Heaven wrought no miracle! Heaven and his highness sent a troop of horse into the Mile-End region early in the morning, seized Venner and some twenty ringleaders just coming for the rendezvous, seized chests of arms, man^' copies of a flaming pamphlet or war manifesto, with title A Standard set vp, seized also a war-flag with lion couchant painted on it, Lion of the Tribe of Judah, and this motto, ' Who shall rouse him up ?' 0 reader, these are not fictions, these were once altogether solid facts in this brick London of ours. Ancient, resolute individuals, busy with wine- cooperage and otherwise, had entertained them as very practicable things ! But in two days' time these ancient individuals and they are all lodged in the Tower. Harrison, hardly connected with the thing except as a well- wisher, he and others are likewise made secure ; and tlie fifth monarchy is put under lock and key. Nobody was tried for it. Cooper Venner died on the scaflfold for a similar attempt under Charles Second, some two years hence." Filioque (and from the Son), the addition made by the third council of Toledo to the Nicene Creed, describing the procession of the Holy Spirit, which still separates the Greek and Latin Churches, and produced fierce controversy in earlier times. Pope Leo HL and John VIIL disapproved of the addition, but it was finally adopted under Pope Nicholas I. The divinity of the Holy Ghost is a cardinal truth, but the passages usually quoted by the advocates of the Jilioque refer to official, not personal procession. — See Creed, Greek Church. Filles Dieu (daughters of God), an order of French nuns devoting themselves to the care of the sick. They repeat the penitential psalms once a-week. Fire, Holy, of the Oreek Church, an annual imposture practised in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem. Stanley in his Palestine thus describes it : — " In everj' direction the raging mob bursts in upon the troops, who pour out of the church at the south-east corner — the procession is broken through, the banners stagger and waver. They stagger, and waver, and fall, amidst the flight of priests, bishops, and standard-bearers, hither and thither before the tremendous rush. In one small but compact band the Bishop of Petra (who is on this occasion the bishop of ' the fire," the representative of the 27 FIR patriarch) is hurried to the chapel of the sepul- chre, and the door is closed behind him. The whole church is now one heaving sea of heads, resounding with an uproar which can be com- pared to nothing less than that of the Guildhall of London at a nomination for the city. One vacant space alone is left ; a narrow lane from the aperture on the north side of the chapel to the wall of the church. By the aperture itself stands a priest to catch the fire ; on each side of the lane, so far as the eye can reach, hundreds of bare arms are stretched out like the branches of a leafless forest — like the branches of a forest quivering in some violent tempest. Silent, awfully silent, in the midst of this frantic up- roar, stands the Chapel of the Holy Sepulchre. If any one could at such a moment be convinced of its genuineness, or could expect a display of miraculous power, assuredly it would be that its very stones would cry out against the wild fana- ticism without and wretched fraud within, by which it is at that hour desecrated. At last the moment conies. A bright flame as of burning wood appears inside the hole — the light, as every educated Greek knows and acknowledges, kindled by the bishop within — the light, as every pilgrim believes, of the descent of God him- self upon the holy tomb. Any distinct feature or incident is lost in the universal whirl of ex- citement which envelops the church as slowly, gradually, the fire spreads from hand to hand, from taper to taper, through that vast multitude, till at last the whole edifice from gallery to gallery, and through the area below, is one wide blaze of thousands of burning candles. It is now that, according to some accounts, the bishop or patriarch is carried out of the chapel in triumph, on the shoulders of the people, in a fainting state, ' to give the impression that he is overcome by the glorj' of the Almighty', from whose immediate presence he is believed to come. ' It is now that a mounted horseman, stationed at the gates of the church, gallops off with a lighted taper, to communicate the sacred fire to the lamps of the Greek church in the convent at Bethle- hem." First-Frnits.— See Annates, Dismes. The valor beneficiorum, commonly called the value in tlie King's Books, was made at the same time as the statute 26 Henry VIIL, c. 3, by which these payments were transferred to the crown. A former valuation had been made, 20 Edward I., which still exists in the exchequer. By this statute and one subsequent, 1 Elizabeth IV., every spiritual person admitted to a benefice must pay his first-fruits within three months after induction, in proper proportion : if he does not live half a-year, or be ousted before the expiration of the' first year, only one quarter is required ; if he lives the year, or be ousted before eighteen months, one half; if a year and a-halt; three quarters ; if two years, the whole. Arch- bishops and bishops have four years allowed FIS them, and shall pay one quarter every year, if they live so long on the see. Other dignitaries pay as rectors and vicars. By several statutes of Anne, all livings under £50 per annum are discharged of the payment of first-fruits and tenths. The following notice of the valuation in the King's Books, and the former payments to the pope as primitice, is taken from Godwin's work De Prcesulihus Angl. The florin was 43. 6d., the ducat 8s., English : — King's Books. To the Pope, Canterbury, £2,682 12 2 10,000 florins. Forapall, 5,000 — London, 1,000 0 0 3,000 — Winchester, 2,873 18 1| 12,000 ducats. Ely 2.134 18 6i 7,000 _ Lincoln 828 14 9^ 5,000 — Litchfield and Coventry, 559 17 3i 1,733 — Salisbury 1,385 5 0 4,500 — Bath and Wells, 533 1 3 430 florins. Exeter, 500 0 0 6,000 ducats. Norwich 834 11 IJ 5,000 — Worcester, 929 13 3 2,000 florins. Hereford, 768 U OJ 2,000 — Chichester, 677 1 3 333 ducats. Rochester 358 4 9i 1,300 florins. Oxfcird 381 1! 0| Gloucester, 315 7 l" Peterborough, 414 19 Si Bristol, 294 11 Of St. David's, 426 2 1 1,500 florins. Llandair, 154 14 2 700 — Bangor, 131 16 3 126 — St.Asaph, 187 11 8 126 — York 1,610 0 0 10,000ducats. Forapall, 5,000 — Durham 1,821 1 3 9,0(i0 — Carlisle, 531 4 9i 1,000 — Chester, 420 I 8 It will be observed that the bishoprics of Oxford, Gloucester, Peterborough, Bristol, and Chester, as creations or revivals by Henry VIII., are not included in the above catalogue as pay- ing to the pope. Fisb, a common symbol in the early Church. The Greek lx,^6s represents the first letters of "'l»(r«i/; Xjio-Tos QioZt'io; 'S.airh^ ' — Jesus Christ, Son of God, Saviour. Hence Christians were sometimes called ^'' jxisc/culi " — little fishes, and the vessel holding baptismal water was called '■'■piscina " — fish-pond. Fislieruiaii'a Ring, the pope's signet, the impression being St. Peter holding a line with bait in the water. — See Bull. Five Articles. — See Articles, Five. FiFc Poiuta. — See Akminianism, Cal- vinism. Flabellum, a kind of fan for driving away insects from the sacramental cup, &c. The Apostolical Constitutions mentions the use of such an instrument as part of the deacon's office at the time of the oblation. The Greek term was Flagcllaiites. — About the year 12G0 public associations sprang up in Italy for the purpose of discipline, under the name of Flagellantes. In an edict of the Marquess of Este and the lieople of Ferrara, for their suppression, they are termed Le Compaco\vf/.(iri6^a,, some critics, and among them no less a scholar than Beveridge, have travelled as far as the Fool of Bethesda ; and for the former of the two, Optatus (iii., 62) has discovered a mystical reason in the acrostic framed for our Saviour, "i;t;^y;" — fish, being composed of the first letters of the following words: "'l»ig" — Jesus Christ, Son of God, Saviour. — See Fish. Bingham has treated these refinements as they deserve : " But whether either of these reasons be true, or whether the font was not rather so called because piscina and xokvfiji-^^^a are commonly names of fountains, baths, and pools, in Greek and Latin writers, I leave to the determina- tion of the judicious reader " {Ant., iv., 7, 4). Besides these, the Latins call it, for equally obvi- ous reasons, " lavacrum " — place of washing, and " natatoria " — place of swimming ; and Gregory the Great, with more attention to the letter of Scripture than to delicacy of language, names it cloaca. Other names given by Durand (i., 21) are amula, situla, aquimanile, aquamale, and mallu- vium. It is not certain when the nameybres was introduced ; but this word is found in William of Malmesbury's record of the baptism of Ethelred, son of Edgar, written in the beginning of the twelfth century. In the pontijicale of the pseudo Damasus, under the life of Sylvester, maj' befovmd a description of a gorgeous font, pretended to be a gift of Constantine to the basilica Constantiniuna, or laleranensis, in which font himself was baptized. Mosheim (Cent, iv., p. ii., c. 4, 8, 7) says that fonts were first erected in the porches of churches during the fourth century ; afterwards they ad- vanced into the church itself, but remained, as they still for the most part stand, near the entrance ; a position emblematical of the admis- sion of the newly baptized into the congregation. At first one church alone in each cit}' possessed the privilege of administering baptism ; and hence, as the others were in this sense subordi- nate to it, the church distinguished by the font was known as the mother church. This title became extended, as the bishop extended the privilege of baptizing. A remnant of the early custom is still to be found in our own law; for Lord Coke (2 1)isi., 363) informs us, that whenever there was a dispute among different places of worship in the same district as to the right of motherhood, the issue directed to be tried was the possession of a font. In Italy cinerary vases were fre- quently converted to this use. In the Constitu- tions of Edmund, Archbishop of Canterbur}^ promulgated in 1236, an order is given for the especial provision of a font instead of a basin. The water is not to remain unchanged in them more than seven days ; this time, by 2 Edward VI., was extended to not more than a month. Canon 81 of the Church of England directs that there be a font of stone in every church and 280 chapel. In Scotland it is sometimes of stone, but usually of metal. The place of the font was discussed at the Westminster Assembly. Thus Lightfoot records in his Journal: — "About the place of the font or vessel of baptizing, it was resolved it should be in what place the people may best see and hear. The Scots urged hard to have it at the pulpit. Here fell in a debate about fonts : some called to have them to be de- molished, but this was cried against : only the Scots desired that the place of it might be altered, — viz., removed from the church door. At last a vote passed that the superstitious place of the font should be altered." Fontevraiid, the Order af, a monkish order, connected with the Benedictines, named after its first monastery, and which rose in the beginning of the twelfth century. The founder was Robert of Arbriscelles, who prescribed, both for his monks and nuns, the rule of St. Benedict, and subjected both to female rule, in imitation, as he said, of Christ's commendation of the apostle John to the matronage of the Virgin. The first abbess, Ber- trude, had been Queen of France ; and so popular was the honour, that among the abbesses there have been fourteen royal princesses. This order was brought to England by Henry II., and had a house at Eton, with other two in the shires of Wilts and Worcester. Fools, Feast of. — See Boy Bishop. Formntae Liitcrae. — See Letters. Form of Concord, a treatise or confession of faith published by order of the Elector of Saxony in 1580, in the hope of putting an end to the crypto-Calvinistic controversy. It con- tained the Three Creeds, the Augsburg Confes- sion, the Apology, the Articles of Snialcalde, and Luther's Catechisms ; and in addition to these, the Book of Torgau, which had been drawn up at Torgau in 1576, and reviewed and cor- rected at Berg in 1577. All these writings were recognized in the Form as symbola puhlica, and a sentence of excommunication was added against all who should refuse to subscribe them. The attempt to produce harmonj' by thus nar- rowing the ground of communion was of course utterly unsuccessful. It effectually shut out the Reformed from the possibility of union with the Lutherans, and at the same time displeased and disappointed those moderate men among the Lutherans themselves, who would have been glad to live in concord and communion with Christians with whom the^' did not in all points agree. A full account of the Form, and of the circumstances attending its publication, may be found in a work by the Swiss writer Hospiuian, entitled Concordia discors. ForuiH of Prayer. — See Prayer. Formula CoiiHcnii>a8,a document of twenty- six articles drawn up by John Henrj' Heideggtr of Zurich, with the authority of tiie Swiss Re- formed divines, especially of Turretin of Geneva, and Gernler of Basle. It was an effort to sup- FRA press such controversies as had agitated tho Churches, and to put an end to further discus- sions. 1. It condemned the Amyraldists and their tenets of general grace. — See A.myrai.dism. 2. It condemned the views of Placaeus (Joseph de La Place), who denied the direct imputation of Adam's first sin to his posterity. 3. It con- demned Piscator's denial of the active obedience of Christ. 4. It condemned the literary opinion of Cappell on the age and authority of the He- brew points, &c. The opinions thus reprobated had their birthplace in the Theological Aca- demy of Saumur. Subscription to this fonnula was for awhile rigidly demanded in the Swiss Churches, and great disputes and dissatisfaction were the result. But it gradually fell into dis- use, and by the influence of Prussia and England was abolished in 1723. Foasarii {grave-diggers), were called also copialce, either meaning labourers or mourners, according as it ia thought to be derived, and also lecticarii, from carr\'ing the corpse or bier. They were an inferior order of clergy in the primitive Church. By their office, according to Jerome, they wound up the body, dug the earth, built the vault, and in this way, according to custom, made ready the grave. The order seems to have been first instituted under the Emperor Constantine, and there were 1,100 of the fossarii in the city of Constantinople alone — a number afterwards confirmed by Justinian (Novel., 43). They formed a kind of college, hence tliey wera sometimes called collegiati and decani. They were exempted from certain civil offices, as they acted gratuitously in burying the poor. France, Churches in. — I. Galilean Church, i. e., the branch of the Romish Church e.xisting in France. — This church has long enjoyed peculiar privileges and special immunities, and has always been more independent of the see of Rome than any other section of the Roman Catholic Church. This independence of the Gallican Church seems not to have been originally' granted bg Home, but rather to have been preserved by the Church, in virtue of its ancient constitution, in spile of Rome. It dates at least as far hack as the time of St. Louis. Though long existing unimpaired, the first formal and categorical enunciation of its principles seems to have been given at the cotmcil of Basle in 1438. By this act the council en- raged the pope, Eugenius IV., who rejected the canons it had passed. The council retaliated, by passing an act deposing the pope from his office. The pope, however, triumphed, and the canons were not agreed to. But tho French king, Charles VIK, approving of them, was not to be thus defeated. He sunnnoned an assembly of divines within his own dominions, and recom- mended them to adopt the regulations to which the council had agreed. This they diii; and their decision is usually styled the " Pragmatic Sanction." The regulations proceed upon two great principles: — 1. That the pope has no right 281 FRA to interfere in the temporal affairs of the nation. 2. That, while his authorit}' in spiritual matters is acknowledged, that authority is, in France, limited by the requirements of the ancient con- stitution, received by and acted upon in the Church of that kingdom. The following are the principal provisions of this charter of the Church's liberties: — " 1. The King of France has a right to convene synods, or provincial and national councils, in which, amongst other important matters relating to the preservation of the state, cases of ecclesiastical discipline are likewise de- bated. 2. The pope's legates, a latere, who are empowered to reform abuses, and to exercise the other parts of their legatine office, are never admitted into France, unless at the desire or with the consent of the king ; and whatever the legates do there is with the approbation and allowance of the king. 3. The legate of Avignon cannot exercise his commission in any of the king's dominions till after he hath obtained his majes- ty's leave for that purpose. 4. The prelates of the Galilean Church, being summoned by the pope, cannot depart the realm, upon any pretence whatever, without the king's permission. .5. The pope has no authority to levy any tax or imposition upon the temporalities of the ecclesi- astical preferments, upon anj' pretence, either of loan, vacancy, annates, tithes, procurations, or otherwise, without the king's order, and the consent of the clergy. 6. The pope has no authority to depose the king, or grant away his dominions to any person whatever. His holiness can neither excommunicate the king, nor absolve his subjects from their allegiance. 7. The pope likewise has no authoritj' to excommunicate the king's ofBcers for their executing and discharging their respective offices and functions. 8. The pope lias no right to take cognizance, either by himself or his delegates, of any pre-eminences or privileges belonging to the crown of France, the king being not obliged to argue his prerogatives in any court but his own, 9. Counts palatine, made by the pope, are not acknowledged as such in France, nor allowed to make use of their pri- vileges and powers, any more than those created by the emperor. 10. It is not lawful for the pope to grant licenses to churchmen, the king's subjects, or to any others holding benefices in the realm of France, to bequeath the titles and pro- fits of their respective preferments, contrary to any branch of the king's laws, or the customs of the realm, nor to hinder the relations of the bene- ficed clergy, or monks, to succeed to their estates, when they enter into religious orders, and are professed. 11. The pope cannot grant to any person a dispensation to enjoj' any estate or revenues, in France, without the king's con- sent. 12. The pope cannot grant a license to ecclesiastics to alienate church lands, situate and lying in France, without the king's consent, upon any pretence whatever. 13. The king may piuiish his ecclesiastical officers for misbe- FKA haviour in their respective charges, notwith- standing the privileges of their orders. 14. No person has any right to hold any benefice in France unless he be either a native of the countrj', naturalized hy the king, or has royal dispensation for that purpose. 15. The pope is not superior to an oecumenical or general council. 16. The Gallican Church does not receive, without distinc- tion, all the canons, and all the decretal epistles, but keeps principally to that ancient collection called Corpus Canonicum, the same which Pope Adrian sent to Charlemagne towards the end of the eighth century, and which, in the yenv 860, under the pontificate of Nicholas I., the French bishops declared to be the only canon law they were obliged to acknowledge, maintaining that in this body the liberties of the Gallican Church consisted. 17, The pope has no power, for any cause whatsoever, to dispense v/ith the law of God, the law of nature, or the decrees of the ancient canons. 18. The regulations of the apostolic chamber, or court, are not obligatory to the Gallican Church, unless confirmed b\' the king's edicts. 19. If the primates or metropoli- tans appeal to the pope, his holiness is obliged to try the cause, by commissioners or delegates, in the same diocese from which the appeal was made. 20. When a Frenchman desires the pope to give him a benefice lying in France, his holi- ness is obliged to order him an instrument, sealed under the faculty of his office ; and, in case of refusal, it is lawful for the person pretending to the benefice to apply to the parliament of Paris, which court shall send instructions to the bishop of the diocese to give him institution, which in- stitution shall be of the same validity as if he had received his title under the seals of the court of Rome. 21. No mandates from the pope, en- joining a bishop, or other collator, to present any person to a benefice upon a vacancy, are admitted in France. 22. It is only by sufferance that the pope has what they call a right of prevention, to collate to benefices which the ordinary has not disposed of. 23. It is not lawful for the pope to exempt the ordinary of any monastery, or any other ecclesiastical corporation, from the jurisdic- tion of their respective diocesans, in order to make the person so exempted immediately de- pendent on the holy see." These liberties were esteemed inviolable ; and the French kings, at their coronation, solemnly swore to preserve and maintain them. These canons, known by the name of the " Re- gale," continued in full force until the reign of Francis I., who was persuaded by Leo X. to consent to the abrogation of the Pragmatic Sanc- tion, the pope promising to confer upon the king greater power in ecclesiastical matters than he had hitherto enjoyed. Francis accordingly con- cluded with the pope a concordat, which gave to the king the nomination to all the benefices in France. This paction between Francis and Leo gave great dissatisfaction to both the French 282 FRA people and the French clergy. Thus matters remained until the reign of Louis XIV., who commenced, in 1678, a controversy with Pope Innocent XI. upon the subject of the " Regale." The controversy was conducted with much acer- bity on both sides. But Louis ended it as Charles VII. had ended the one in which he was engaged, by summoning an assembly of his own clergy, and so setting the pope at defiance. This assembly, which consisted of eight arch- bishops, twenty-six bishops, and thirty-eight other clergymen, unanimously affirmed the prin- ciples of the " Regale," announcing them in the form of four propositions, which were registered by the parliament of Paris on the 23d March, 1682. The "Regale" continued in force until the revolution of 1789, when the Church was formally abolished, and religion itself seemed almost to have disappeared from the face of France. Napoleon, however, restored the Catho- lic Church. In 1801 he concluded a concordat with the pope ; and it is said that this was the one act of his life which he most regretted. In virtue of this concordat, an alienation of church lands, to the value of 400 millions of francs, took place. The clergy were to be paid and appointed by the state, while the pope retained the right of canonical institution. No monks and no religious vows were to be permitted. On the restoration of the Bourbons Pius VII. revoked the concordat. In 1815 the Galilean Church was placed in a state of greater dependence on Rome than it had ever been in before. The in- fluence of the Church, which was crippled by the revolution of 1830, continued stationary during the reign of Louis Philippe, and has decreased since the revolution of 1848. Of late years the influence of the Ultramontane or Romish party seems to have prevailed, though it will probably be somewhat lessened by the relations at present existing (March, 1860) between the Emperor Napoleon III. and Pope Pius IX. The Gallican Church has produced some eminent men, among whom may be mentioned Bossuet, Fenelon, and Pascal, who have won for themselves an en- during fame. If true piety existed to any con- siderable extent within her pale, it was prob- ably among the Jansenists, who, in the days when the Port Royal was a literary power in Europe, were numerous and influential. — See Jansenists. But they breathed too liberal a spirit for Rome to endure, and according!}' tliey fell under the smothering incubus of that pet of the Vatican — the Society of Jesus. II. French Protestant Church. — AVhen the Reformation commenced in Germany and Swit- zerland, many who had been imbued with Pro- testant principles came from these countries to reside in France, as Francis I., the reigning sovereign, was a patron of learning. Their principles were not, however, altogether unop- posed. The university of Paris declared against the reforiiied doctrines as early as 1521. In FRA that year the first Protestant congregation was formed in France, at Meaux. Bucer and Me- lanchthon had just visited the neighbourhood. Briconnet, Bishop of Meaux, was one of the converts of Lefevre and Farel, the first preachers of the reformed faith in France ; and he laboured to promulgate among the people of his diocese the opinions which he had himself adopted. The clergy complained to the Sorbonne ; and, in 1533, the parliament of Paris ordered an inves- tigation into the circumstances. The conse- quence was, that the sword of persecution was unsheathed. The bishop recanted, and was fined. But many of his converts in humble life were more constant, and even submitted to martyr- dom ; and Marguerite de Valuis, Queen of Na- varre, who, by his instrumentality, had become acquainted with the doctrines of the Reformation, continued to befriend the rising cause. This noble woman exercised the great influence which she possessed over her somewhat weak-minded brother, Francis, in favour of the new faith. For a time the Reformation spread rapidly, and France bade fair to become a great Protestant country. But priestcraft prevailed. Tournoii, Archbishop of Lyons, succeeded in finally determining Francis against the Protestants ; and the whole after part of that king's reign was one contiimed bloody crusade against those who were variously styled Huguenots, Lutherans, or " those of the religion." Dreadful scenes were enacted through- out the whole of France, among which the mas- sacres of Merindole and Cabrieres stand out pre-eminent for their atrocity. These were, however, utterly powerless to prevent the spread of principles which, founded on truth, were sure ultimately to prevail. During the reign of Francis, Calvin pub- lished his admirable Institutes of the Christian Ite- Ur/ion. with a classic dedication to the king. This work, which, though written during a stormy period, is still an honoured text-book with those who have fallen upon more peaceful times, exercised a very beneficial influence upon the Protestant cause. Francis I. died in 1547, and was succeeded by Henry II., who persisted in persecuting the Protestants. The civil courts were enjoined to proceed against all heretics. In spite of all elForts to extermi- nate them, the reformed doctrines continued to prosper, receiving a new impulse from the trans- lation, about this time, of the Scriptures into French, and the turning the Psalms of David into verse, and setting them to nmsic. The Protestants now came to have very considerable influence in the kingdom. Their leaders were the two princes of the blood, the King of Navarre, and the Prince of Condc, along with the illustrious Coligny. Though Paris and the larger towns remained chiefly Catholic, the countrv districts were largely infected with the new opinions, large numbers of the geniiU- hnmmes de prveince, or country gcullemen, buuig 283 FRA avowed Protestants. It was in this reign that the professors of the reformed faith, who had been for thirty years without any regular organ- ization, first assumed a corporate existence. In 1555 the first avowed French reformed church was established in Paris. All the chief towns followed this example. The first synod of the French Protestant Church assembled privately in Paris on the 25th May, 1559. Owing to the danger of the enterprise only thirteen churches sent deputies. Nevertheless, the foundations of an important superstructure were then and there laid. A complete system of ecclesiastical polity was speedily adopted; for the members of the synod had too vivid a sense of the dangers to which they were exposed to waste time in un- profitable discussions among themselves. The form of government thus established was thor- ouf;hly presbj'terian in its character. It seems to have corresponded verj' closely to that of the Church of Scotland. The consistory may be viewed as representing the kirk-session; the colloquy, the presbytery; while the provincial synods of each are analogous ; and the national synod corresponds to the general assembly. The consistory was elected at first b}' the whole con- gregation over which it was to rule ; but vacan- cies occurring afterwards were filled up by the colloquj% The ministers were elected by the colloquy. A minister, on being thus elected, was required to preach before the congregation on three consecutive Sabbaths ; whereafter, if no objection was made, the congregation was con- sidered as acquiescing in the appointment. If there was anv objection, the matter was referred to the provincial synod, whose decision was final. These provincial synods have been generally six- teen in number. The national synod has met but seldom, owing to the severe persecutions to which the Church has been exposed, and the increasing restrictions which have been imposed upon her. The Confession of Faith, adopted at the first sj-nod, consisted of forty articles. Its doctrines were strictly Calvinistic. Though the Church was much harassed bj' persecution during the reign of Henry II., still it greatly increased: so much so, that we are told that Beza, who died in 1605, "could count 2,150 churches in connection with the Protestant Church of France ; and the churches were not small or insignificant in point of strength. In some there were 10,000 members. The church of Orleans had 7,000 communicants, and the ministers in such churches were piopor- tionally numerous : two ministers to a church was common ; and that of Orleans had five. At this i)eriod there were 305 pastors in the one province of Normandy, and in Provence there were 60. Francis II., at the age of sixteen, succeedod his father, Heny II., in the same year in whicli the first Protestant synod was held. During his fhort reign of seventeen months, the condition of the Protestants was not a favourable FRA one. The kingdom was ruled by his mother, Catherine de Medicis, a woman of much talent for intrigue, and by the Guises. They were at one in harassing the Protestants to the utmost of their power. At this point commenced the " wars of religion," which lasted for forty years, i, e., to the publication of the edict of Nantes, and during which, it is calculated that not less than one million lives were sacrificed. Minutelj' to trace the history of this period would exceed the limits, as it would be foreign to the object of this article. A few salient points can alone be noticed. In 1560 Francis II. died, and was succeeded by his brother, Charles IX., a boy of ten years of age. During the first part of his reign matters seemed to take a more favourable turn for the Protestants. The queen-mother seemed desirous to conciliate them, as they were now a powerful party in the state. At one time it almost seemed as if they were likely to gain the ascendancy at court. It was now that an assembl}- of Catholic and Protestant divines was held at Poissy, in order to endeavour to eflfect a compromise between the opposing opinions. The attempt was futile. The horizon became again overcast, and hostilities were resumed. Treaties of peace were concluded more than once, and then Speedily violated. After the conclusion of one of those treaties, in 1570, the court used every means of lulling the Protestants into a feeling of security and of conciliating their leaders. Truly this was a deceitful calm be- fore a fearful storm ; for it was on the evening of the 22d August, 1572, that the massacre of St. Bartholomew's Eve took place. The blood- thirsty Catherine, who urged on the youthful king to the commission of this horrid crime, had attracted to the capital large numbers of the pro- vincial gentry, and among them many of the Protestant leaders, bj' means of the fetes conse- quent upon the marriage of Henri of Navarre with Marguerite of Valois, sister of the king. At midnight the work of premeditated carnage began. About 6,000 Protestants were slain in Paris alone. Among them was the generous and brave, but, alas ! too confiding Coligny, who was slain in cold blood on his bed ; while the two other Protestant leaders, the King of Navarre and the Prince of Conde, being of the blood royal, were permitted to save their lives by recan- tation. Throughout all France, the numbers slain amounted, according to one account, to 30,000, and according to another, to 70,000. A more detestable crime was, perhaps, never committed under the sanction of the sacred name of religion. — See Bartholomew's Dav. Even this attempt did not succeed in utterly exterminating the Protestants of France. A faithful remnant was still left ; and it has been remarked that a large proportion of the pastors escaped — God, no doubt, preserving them, in order that they might bear aloft the flicker- ing torch of truth in the days of trial yet to 284 FRA come. During the twenty-six years which intervened between the massacre of St. Bartho- lomew's Eve and the publication of the edict of Nantes, only six national synods were held ; and during these years there was a constant alterna- tion of peace and war. One thing that served to cheer the drooping hearts of the Protestants during this period was the publication of a new and improved edition of the Genevan Protestant version of the Scriptures. But brighter days approach. In 1589 Henry IV., a Protestant, ascended the throne. He very speedily found it to be for his interest to belong to the religion of the majorit}'. But, though become a Catholic, he was not inclined to be a persecutor. He caused the persecutions of the Protestants to cease ; and, on the 30th April, 1589, signed the celebrated edict of Nantes. This continued to be for nearly a century the charter of Protestant rights, though it was strictly enforced only during the reign of its author. Though not admitting the Protes- tants to anything like equality with the Catholics, it yet recognized them as a party in the state. They were allowed by it a very considerable amount of religious liberty. The free exercise of their religion was granted to them ; and they ■were declared eligible for admission into the uni- versities, and for appointments in the public ser- vice. They were permitted to establish public ■worship in particular places, within certain limits. They also received an annual grant of 1,00 J crowns. Until the assassination of Henry, in 1610, the Protestants enjoyed a period of repose. He was succeeded by Louis XIII., a bigoted Komaa Catholic, who, during the thirty-three years of his reign, persecuted the Protestant Church, which notwithstanding continued to flourish. He, in turn, was succeeded by his son, Louis XIV., who has left a brilliant name in historj', but which has certainly not been gained by his conduct to the Protestants. He followed in his father's footsteps, utterly setting at nought the edict of Nantes, which, on the 8th February, 1685, he formally repealed. By this act of revocation all the protective edicts were repealed, all sorts of religious assemblies were prohibited, and all the Protestant clergy were banished from the kingdom. Encouraged by this illiberal pro- ceeding, the Romish party proceeded to persecute the Protestants with renewed zeal and increased cruelty. The consequence of the revocation of the edict of Nantes, and of tlie cruelties which followed, was, that vast numbers of the Pro- testant population finally left a country which was not worthy of them. The government of the country, alarmed at the prospect of an ex- tensive depopulation, endeavoured by all means in their power to arrest the fugitives. Notwith- standing all efforts to detain them, large num- bers were successful in effecting their escape, many, in order to do so, having to assume dis- guises, and not a few having to undergo the greatest hardships. They preferred even death I FRA itself to the prospect which awaited them in the country ruled by " the most Cliristian king." It is calculated that between 30,000 and 40,000 Protestants fled from France at this time, leav- ing, perhaps, not more than one milliun co-reli- gionists behind them. The fugitives took refuge in Great Britain, Switzerland, Holland, Prussia, Denmark, Sweden, and even in America and at the Cape of Good Hope. While by this means France lost many of her best citizens, the countries which gave tiie Huguenots a refuge have derived much benefit from their skill and industry. In our own country not a few honcjured names can trace back their ancestry to the persecuted Frencli Protestants. But not content with the whole- sale emigration which they had caused, the king and his ministers proceeded to attempt the sub- jugation of the remaining heretics. The Pro- testants of the provinces of Lower Languedoc, Vivarais, and Cevennes, were exposed to fear- ful persecutions. Butcheries were numerous, the prisons overflowed, and the galleys were crowded. These cruelties, which were protested against by the more liberal Romanists, particu- larl}' the Jansenists, excited the sufferers to a pitch of vmcontrollable fanaticism. The result was, that the bloody war of the Camisards deso- solated the south of France from 1702 to 1704. — See French Prophets, Cajiisards. In the closing years of the reign of Louis XIV., and during the regency of Pliilippe d'Orleans, the Protectants were more leniently dealt with. Though now enjoying external peace, the Church began to exhibit signs of internal declension. The chief causes produc- ing this effect were the want of trained and educated men to fill the office of pastor, and the spirit of delusive fanaticism which had sprung up among the members of the Church. These defects were remedied mainly by the ex- ertions of Antoine Court, who has been styled the " Restorer of the Protestantism of France." He instituted prayer meetings wherever he could, and also held synods or conferences of tiie minis- ters, along with a few intelligent laymen. By thus exciting a spirit of prayer and a love of order, he nuich benefited the Church. But while the Protestant Clmrch was gradually recovering from its depressed condition, it was startled by the proclamation by Louis XV., on tlie 14ih May, 1724, of the last great law against the Protestants. This law reinforced the most se- vere measures of Louis XIV. It sought not so much to intimidate Protestants into a recanta- tion, or to punish them if they refused, but rather souglit to force them, willing or not, to receive the ordinances of tiie Roman Catholic Church. For instance, it made baptism by the parish curate compulsory in every case, and de- clared that no marriage was valid unless per- formed by a Catholic priest. Tliis attempt to force people into the Churcii of Rome inly drove tiieui farther from it. Antoine Court waa sup- 285 FRA ported by multitudes. The provincial synods, which he had reinvigorated, multiplied; and to meet the want of pastors he opened a school of theology at Lausanne, which continued to sup- ply the Protestant Church with pastors until the time of Napoleon. From 1730 to 1744 the Pro- testants enjoyed quiet. In the latter year a national synod was held in Lower Languedoc. When the news of the holding of this synod reached Paris, it caused the king and his min- isters to embarlt in a new crusade of horrors against the defenceless Protestants. This caused a new emigration. Calmer days followed the storm, and after 1760 principles of toleration began to prevail. The school of Voltaire, while doing incalculable injury to the cause of religion and morality generally, did good service in spreading the principles of toleration and of reli- gious liberty. The nation gradually beCan^e leavened with these principles. Louis XVI., though rather inclined to the opposite principles, was ultimately obliged to yield to the spirit of the age, and in November, 1788, he published an edict of tolerance. The privileges granted by this edict to those who were not Catholics were the following: — "The right of living in France, and of exercising a profession or trade in the kingdom, without being disturbed on account of religion ; the permission to marrj' legally before the officers of justice ; the autho- rity to record the births of their children before the local judge." It also included a provision for the interment of those who could not be buried according to the Roman Catholic ritual. The first French revolution, occurring in the follow- ing year, still further extended the privileges enjoyed by the Protestants. They were declared admissible to all civil offices ; and the son of a long-proscribed Protestant pastor was actually nominated to the presidency of the constituent assembly. Animated by renewed hopes, the Protestant Church proceeded to re-establish to some extent its primitive external machinery. Such schemes were speedily frustrated by the extreme lengths to which the republican govern- ing body soon went. All religion was abolished, and the goddess of reason was adored. The churches were shut up, and the ministers were prohibited from discharging their sacred func- tions. But this state of matters did not long continue. In 1795 it was decreed that " no one shall be prevented from exercising the worship he has chosen,' provided he conforms to the laws; no one can be forced to contribute to the expenses of anj' creed ; the republic salaries none." Napo- leon placed the Romish clergy and the Protestant pastors on the same footing, with the exception of the matter of pecuniary support. The former were paid by the state, and the latter at first were not. Still the Roman Catholic Church was not formally acknowledged as the religion of the state, but only as " the religion of the great ma- jority of the French people." FRA Napoleon, however, was not satisfied with this state of matters as regards the Pro- testant Church, as it left it too much beyond his own control. He accordingly conceded to it a modified state endowment, and at the same time imposed upon it conditions which deprived it of all independent action. The gov- ernment of the Church was to be by pastors, consistories, and synods. The synods could not meet without the consent of the government. In point of fact, they were never allowed to meet at all. In 1807 there were not more than 200 pastors. At the restoration of the Bourbons, though liberty of worship was proclaimed, the Catholics began to exhibit signs of their desire to persecute the Protestants. In the reign of Louis XVIII. serious disturbances were ex- cited in the south of France. From 1817 to 1830 the Church, though not receiving state support, was permitted to go on silently, witness- ing for the truth, and endeavouring to propagate the principles of pure Christianity. The revolu- tion of 1830 did not much alter the position of the Protestants, though after it they continued steadily to increase in numbers. They expected great advantages from the revolution of 1848, which ended in placing Louis Napoleon on the imperial throne. In this they have been disap- pointed. The aim of the present emperor has been, in ecclesiastical as well as in other matters, to carry out the Napoleonic ideas as propounded bj' his uncle. Accordingly, he has adopted the principles of the concordat of 1802. The Roman Catholic Church is looked upon as the church of the majority, and as such entitled to all respect from the state. At the same time, the emperor has repeatedly declared it to be his will that there should be universal religious toleration throughout his dominions. Upon the whole, taking into account the general character of the imperial system, a considerable measure of liberty has been enjoyed. It is in the provinces remote from the capital, where overbearing and priest- ridden prefects have almost irresponsible control, that oppression has been chiefly felt. In such localities authorizations to open Protestant places of worship have frequently been refused ; reli- gious meetings have been dispersed, under the pretence that they were political gatherings ; and such occurrences as apprehensions for tract distri- bution have not been unheard of In some cases appeals to the central authority in Paris, which are always, however, troublesome matters, have obtained redress. Notwithstanding these restric- tions, a good work is being done in many parts of France ; and here and there a few are begin- ning to see the errors of the system in which they have been educated. 3. Union of Evangelical Churches in France. — This bod}' dates its separate existence from the year 1848. 'J'he Protestants throughout the kingdom resolved, in that eventful year, to hold an assembly, to take into consideration the new 286 FRA sf ate of matters, and to concert measures for the future. The first assembly was held in May ; but its constitution not being satisfactory, it did not issue in any result, except that of appointing the time for a second convocation. This was opened on the 11th of September of the same year. Its constitution was more correct than that of the former; but it was still only a volun- tary assembly, wanting the sanction of the law. Eighty-nine consistories nominated members to represent them in it, though the number of mem- bers actually present was somewhat less. Their proceedings were not harmonious. The first question which they came to consider was, whether or not they should frame a confession of faith. Upon this point they differed. The ma- jority' held that it would be inexpedient to do so, whilst a minority strenuously contended that a confession of faith was absolutely necessary to their proper existence as a united and harmo- nious corporate body. Refusing to give up their opinion, the minority seceded, and formed them- selves into a separate ecclesiastical communion, designating themselves as the " Union of Evan- gelical Churches in France." Their first synod was held on the 20th August, 1849. They then drew up a confession of faith, and adopted a form of church government. Their synod meets only every alternate year. Since their origin they have been gradually increasing in numbers, and extending the sphere of their operations. Some time ago they had twenty-six churches, twenty- two ministers, and nearly two thousand members. To enable them to carry and extend their opera- tions, they are in the habit of receiving pecuniary aid from those in other countries who sympatliize with their opinions. They are wholly uncon- nected with the state, and, so far as their limited means allow, are zealously engaged in the pro- pagation of evangelical principles, F. Monod being one of their most distinguished ministers and leaders. Francis, St. de Paula, Hermits of. — See Minims. Francis, St., Fraternity of tiie Girdle of. — See Featernities. Francificans, Order of, founded in the year 1208 by Francis, a reformed prodigal, and son of a merchant of Assisi, near Naples. The immediate object St. Francis had in view in the formation of the community' which bears his name, was to subserve the best interests of the church, by calling into active devotedness to the moral improvement of the people, then so much nei^lected by the regular clergy, a class of men who, having renounced the world, should go forth unencumbered by cares of any kind, to preach repentance and amt^ndment of life. Vows of absolute poverty were at first enjoined upon the members of the Franciscan order. They were to renounce all tiie pleasures of life, and the possession of any property whatever. Tiioy were authorized by the pope to beg and preach, and 287 FRA indulgences were granted more frequently to them than to any other order. These, with other privileges, soon excited the envy and op- position of the secular clergy, upon whose rights the mendicant Franciscans often made great en- croachments. For these trespasses, however, there was no immediate remedy, as the friars refused to acknowledge any authority whatever but that of the pope. At length their rules became re- laxed. They were allowed to possess propertv. Literature, which they at first despised, began to be cultivated within their monasteries, and many of their austerities were greatly mitigated. Their celebrity began to spread. Kings and princes numbered them among their confessors, and men of their order rose to some of the highest stations in the church. For about 300 years, from the thirteenth to the sixteenth century, they main- tained their honourable position ; but the rising of the Jesuits into influence soon effected a ma- terial change in the number and importance of both Franciscans and Dominicans. The monks of St. Francis were divided and subdivided into several minor orders at various times, of which the following are a few : — The Ctesarinians, Cel- estines, Spirituals, the Soccolanti, or sandal- wearers, the Observantines, Capuchins, Corde- liers, and Alcantarines: the last-named order go with their feet quite naked. — See Celestines, Cordeliers, Capuchins, &c. They maintained the doctrine of the immaculate conception of the Virgin Mary, in opposition to the Dominicans, who asserted the contrary dogma. A branch or sect of the Franciscans founded by Maurato and Fossombroni in the pontificate of Celestine V., and known by the title of Fratricelli, were con- demned by Pope Boniface VIII., by whose authority, and that of his successor, the terrors of the inquisition were poured upon them. Pope John XXII. also hunted them down with great cruelty, on which account they regarded liim as Antichrist. It has been computed that no fewer than from 2,500 to 3,000 persons were burnwl to death by the inquisition from the time of Boniface VIII. to that of Innocent VI., because of their attachment to the tenets of the Francis- cans. The relics of this sect of the Franciscans fell in with the Reformers in the time of Luther. The Franciscans are not now of very great note in Europe, though many houses still belong to them ; but they are in a flourishing condi- tion in the United States of America. In former time? the order was so famous that out of it Sjirang four popes and forty-live cardi- nals. In the reign of Henry III. they came into England, and first settled at Caimrbury. 'i'hey opposed the divorce of Henry VIIL, and suffered im|)risonment and disjersion, not a few of them being put to death. They had sixty monnstcrics over the country, which was di- vided into seven di-tricis called cusfodies, each governed by a superior called ciislos. In the year 1212, nuns of the order of St. FEA Francis made their appearance. The order was called into existence by Francis himself, and their first settlement was in the church of St. Damien, in the town of Assisi. St. Clare was their first prioress, from whom they weri called Nuns of St. Clare or Clarisses.— See Clarisses. They were also called Damiantines after the name of their first convent. Subsequently, they were divided into several branches, according to the degrees of austerity which the}' practised. At first they were supported by the alms collected by the friars, but afterwards by the revenues arising from their convents. These convents numbered 600 in the eighteenth century, and they contained 28,000 nuns. Fratcrciili Fratricclli (little hrethi'en), the strictest class of Franciscans, who lived solely by begging, and regarded Pope Celestine V. as their founder. In their zeal they often declared against papal abuses, and were therefore dis- owned bj- the elder Franciscans, and condemned by Pope Boniface VIII. — See Franciscans. Their Latin epithet was that with which St. Francis usuall}' saluted his disciples, though the name has been often given to those who assumed a monastic gait, without belonging to anj' monastic order. Fraternities, societies in popish countries for purposes of devotion. The more famous of them are these:—!. Of the Rosary, which owed its rise to Dominic, the founder of the rosary. He appointed it, thej' say, bj' order of the blessed Virgin, as he was labouring for the conversion of the Albigenses. The devotion of the rosarv, which had become neglected, was revived by Alanus de Rupe, about the year 1460. This fraternity is divided into two branches, — that of the Common Rosary, and that of the Perpetual Rosarv. The former, every week, say the fifteen divisions of ten beads each, confess and communi- cate every first Sunday in the month. The brethren of it are likewise obliged to appear at all processions of the fraternity. The latter are under very strict engagements, the principal of which is to repeat the rosary perpetually, some one of tliem always saluting the blessed Virgin in the name of the whole brotherhood. 2. Of the Scapulary, whom, according to the Sabbatine bull of Pope John XXII., the blessed Virgin has promised to deliver out of hell the first Sun- day after their death. 3. Of St. Francis's Girdle. They are clothed with a sack of a gray colour, which they tie with a cord, and in processions walk barefooted, carrying in their hands a wooden cross. 4. Of St. Augustine's Leathern Girdle, which -comprehends a great manj' devotees, and the girdle is supposed to have been worn by the Virgin. Italv, Spain, and Portugal are the countries where are seen the greatest number of these fraternities, some of wliich assume the name of arch-fraternity. Pope Clement VII. instituted the arch-fraternitv of charity, which distributes bread every Sunday among the poor, and gives portions to forty poor girls on the feast FRE ' of St. Jerome, their patron. The fraternity of death buries such dead as are abandoned by their relations, and causes masses to be celebrated for them. In Rome the trades are exercised in fraternities, each having a patron saint, — the shoemakers having St. Crispin, the carpenters St. Joseph, the painters St. Luke, the curriers St. Lawrence, and the tanners St. Bartholomew. (Broughton's Dictionary.') Fratres Abbati (white brethren"). — See Abbati, Free Church of Scotland. — See Scot- land, Churches in. Frecuiasou, probably originally a contrac- tion for freestone mason, was, in early times, one who could work with a chisel, as distinguished from one who could only work with an axe or hammer, in dressing stones. Like other trades of the Middle Ages, the masons early formed themselves into a free guild or corporation. This happened in Lombardy as early as the tenth century, and in Normandy in the twelfth century. Freemasonry is, however, traced by its votaries to a much more ancient period. The result of such societies was great in developing taste and skill on the part of the workmen, who were often designers as well as performers ; for architects, in the proper sense of the term, were scarcely known. Ecclesiastical edifices of great beauty and stateli- ness being in demand, masons were patronized by the dignitaries of the church. Their guilds have been abrogated; but freemasonry, in a mystic form, still survives, and is spread over the world. French Prophets, The, were religious enthusiastics or fanatics, who arose in the south of France at the close of the seventeenth century. Their origin has been traced bj' M. Gregoire to a certain '* school of the Prophets," in Dauphiny, conducted by a Calvinist named Du Serre. This statement, however, wants confirmation. They seem to have been closely connected with the Camisards, by which name, indeed, they are sometimes designated. The wars of the Cami- sards were caused by the intolerant measures taken by Louis XIV., after the revocation of the edict of Nantes. The Camisards, so called from the white frocks which they wore, took up arms in their own defence, and were led by young men, who assumed the joint offices of captain and pastor, without any previous training for either. They fought courageously and successfully, because they fought for life itself. The king was at last obliged to come to terms with them. But during the sore and pro- tracted struggle which they bad had, they had come to acquire undue notions of their own im- portance, looking upon themselves as peculiarly favoured of the Lord, and considering their leaders as the inspired depositaries of his will. Thus they were prepared to acquiesce in the pre- tensions of the French prophets, who first appeared in Dauphiny and Vivarais in 1688. They were 288 FRI of both sexes, and numbered at first between five and sis hundred, though they soon amounted to many thousands. They believed, or at least declared themselves to be under the direct in- fluence of the Holj' Ghost. They went into trances, saw visions, and made the Cevennes mountains ring with their bowlings and cries for mercy. When in this ecstatic state, every word they uttered was received by the deluded popu- lace with superstitious awe and veneration. In 1706 a few of the prophets came over to Eng- land, where the same manifestations occurred as in France. The great subject of their predic- tions was the speedy establishment of Messiah's kingdom. They likewise pretended to possess the gift of tongues and the power of working miracles. They obtained for some time con- siderable success in Great Britain, having tbeir admiring followers not only in London, but also in the chief provincial towns. They were even joined by some parties of influence — such as Sir Richard Bulkely and Jolni Lacey, Esq. The latter, who was originalh' a member of Dr. Calamj''s congregation, entered, we are told, " into all their absurdities, except that of a com- munity of goods, to which he strongly objected, having an income of £2,000 per annum." The enthusiasm was at one time immense. But the prophets were soon put to the test, and did not stand it. They went so far as to assert that Dr. Ernes, one of their own number lately de- ceased, would rise from the dead on a given day. This the doctor failed to do ; and the followers of the prophets speedily found out that they bad been the dupes of their own credulity-. The influence of the prophets speedily declined ; but their proceedings left a stigma for a time upon tlie reputation of the Huguenot refugees settled in Britain. Friar (from the Latin fraier, a brother), a title generally applied to a brother of a religious order or community. As those monks who are in holy orders are denominated ^((YAe/'s, the term friar is applied only to monks not included in the priesthood. There are four generic orders : 1. Franciscans, friars minor, or grey friars ; 2. Augustiiies ; 3. Dominicans, or black friars ; 4. Carmelites, or white friars. Friars, JUiuor. — See Franciscans. Friday, the day of weekly fast, in memory of the crucilixion ; and also a day of public wor- sliip in the early Church ; sometimes also called half-fast, in opposition to the whole or Lent fast. FrieiitlH of Go€l, societies which sprang up in Germany in the thirteenth century, formed originally of men who, satiated with popish rou- tine and frivolity, longed for a spiritual faitii, and had not a full and harmonious comprehension of divine truth. They based their nume on John XV. 15. The famous Tauler was one of them ; but not a few of them fell into a pantheistic quietism — a reaction from the mere extcrnalism of the Popish Church. Finding no peace in FUN ceremonial, they strove after a hidden life in God, but forgot the necessity of a clear percep- tion of objective truth. The convictions spread by them paved the way for the great Reforma- tion ; for thousands were pining for a purer aiKi simpler worship of the heart. — See Common Lot, BinrniKiiN of the. FririidM, t[»ociriy of. — See Quakers. Full Coiiiicctioii, UerciviiiK into, a technical phrase in use among the Wesleyans, implying the honourable termination of the four years' course of trial apipointed to jjrobationers for the ministrj' among them. Mr. Benson gives the following particulars of the method pursued in the choice of itinerant preachers: — " 1. Thej' are received as private members of society on trial. 2. After a quarter of a year, if they are found deser\'ing, they are admitted as proper members. 3. When their grace and abilities are sufficientlj' manifest, they are ajipointed leaders of classes. 4. If they then discover talents for more important services, they are em]>loyed to exhort occasionally in the smaller congregations when the preachers cannot attend. 5. If ap- proved in this line of duty, tiiey are allowed to preach. 6. Out of these men, who are called local preachers, are selected the itinerant preach- ers, who are tirst proposed at a quarterly meet- ing of the stewards and local preachers of the circuit, then at a meeting of the travelling ineachers of the district, and lastly in the con- ference, and if accepted, are nominated for a circuit. Now those of the probationers selected who require a course of training in tiieolngA- are sent to one or other of the academical institu- tions. 7. Their characters and conduct are ex- amined annually in the conference, and if they continue faithful for four years are received into full connection. " Fuiidaiuciitals The question as to what are the fundamental truths of religion has often been debated in connection with theories of schism, heresy, toleration, and excomniunication; but it has not been satisfactorily settled — some latitudinarian men narrowing fundanieiituls to a very few points, and other fanatical men multi- plving them to an undue extreme. Locke thought that the one point was simply a confes- sion tliat Jesus is Messiah ; Samuel Clarke took his view from Hebrews vi. 1, 2; many others, such as Usher, CbilliuLtworth, Uavcnant, Stilling- fleet, and Tillotson, were content with the enu- meration of the Apostles' Creed ; wiiile Komanisis accept the definition of the church as tiie only rule. Waterland defines fundamentals in reli- gion as things necessary to its beuig, or, at the least, its well-being. Some tilings are only neces- sary as matters of ritual and discipline, ancl oUier tluiigs there ccrlaiidy are witliout belief in whichsalvation is inqiossible. — See Evangelical Alliance und th creed. How ilie stricl theory works will be .-een in the following paragraph, in which Mr. Palmer, without sigh or scruple, un- 26i* U GAB churches all presbj-terian parties in Scotland, both endowed and unendowed : — " These questions, however, are not essential in the discussion of the presbyterian ordinations; for it is certain, that such ordinations having been performed with- out any necessity, and in opposition to the author- ity of tlie bishops of Scotland, were in their origin illegitimate and schismatical ; and the catholic Church in all ages has rejected such ordinations, and accounted them wholly null; therefore, the presbyterian establishment being founded in schism, and destitute of an apostolical ministry, constitutes no part of the visible Church of Christ. With regard to all the other sects in GE^r Scotland which have seceded from the presby- terian community, such as Glassites, Sandeman- ians, Seceders, Burghers, Antiburghers, Constitu- tional Associate Presbytery, Belief Kirk, Scottish Baptists, Bereans, Independents, &c., the same observations apply to them all. Their predeces- sors, the Presbyterians, voluntarily separated themselves from the catholic Church of Christ; and they, in departing from the presbyterian communion, have not yet returned to that of the true Church, consequently, they form no part of the Church of Christ." Fniieral or Funeral Rites or Service. — See Burial. G Oabriel, fit.. Congregation of, was founded at Boulogne by Branchetti, in 1646, for religious improvement. Gabriel, St., Feast of, is observed by the Greek Church on the twenty-sixth ot March. A joint festival of St. Michael and St. Gabriel is also celebrated by the same church on the first of November. Oaianitcs, a party of Monophysites which took its name from Gaian, Patriarch of Alexan- dria, in the sixth century. They denied that Jesus was subject to any human infirmity, hold- ing that his body was so permeated by his di- vinity as to be incorruptible, thus taking an erroneous view of that physical perfection which belonged to him. Oalenists. — See Waterlandians. OalilaciiiiM, the name given to the oil for catechumens in the Greek Church. Qalilean, a name often given to the early Christians, as Christ and his apostles had a close connection with Galilee (Acts ii. 7). Julian the Apostate scarcely used any other term to ex- press his malignant scorn. Jesus he called " the Galilean God ;" and when he was on the eve of death he is said to have cried, as he con- temptuously addressed the Saviour, "Galilean, thou hast conquered." Oaliler, a species of inner porch at the west end of many old churches, and still attached to the three cathedrals of Durham, Ely, and Lincoln, which were erected about the end of the twelfth century. It seems to have been connected witb purposes of discipline. Excommunicated persons sat there, and the women also assembled there at certain seasons. The name is supposed to be derived from the words of the angel to the wo- men— " He goeth before you into Galilee, there shall ye see him." The Galilee at Durham has five aisles and three altars, and the consistory court is held in it ; that of Lincoln is at the south-west corner of the south transept, and is cruciform in shape; while that of Ely difiers little from an entrance porch. Ciallicau Church. — SeeFRAXCE,CHURCHES Qate, Holy, the name given in the Greek Church to the folding doors in the centre of the screen which divides the nave of the church from the most holy place. They are opened and shut several times during service. Oates, Holy. — See Jubilee. Crazares, a sect which rose at Gazarre, in Dalmatia, about 1197. They held as a special point that capital punishment was unla^vful, and that no civil power had any right to inflict it. Their other opinions were not different from those of the Albigenses. Gaxophylacium (treasury'). The diaconicum magnum was so called (which see'). It was also called sceuopkylacium, or repository of sacred vessels. — See Ceimeliarch^, Church. Oeuiara, or completeness, the elaborate com- mentary on the Mishna, text and commentary together making the Talmud. One commentary was compiled at Jerusalem, another at Babylon, which is the more highly esteemed, and has been printed in twelve folio volumes. It is full of miserable superstition and fables. — See Mishna, Talmud. Oeniatiia. — See Cabala. Creneral Assembly. — See Assembly, and Scotland, Churches in. Oeuerai Baptists. — See Baptists. Oeneral Councils. — See Councils, Oeneraiion, Eternal, the name often ap- plied in theology to describe the relation of the Son to the Father, — a relation beyond human analogy and comprehension. Crenetblia (yinSXia, yif^'i^m, birthday), a feast of nativity, such as Christmas, or rather the an- niversary of a martyr's death, being, as Tertullian says, his nativity to a glorious crown. — See Christmas. CJcnevieve, St., Feast of, celebrated on the third of January m Paris, in honour of the patroness saint. Congregation of, an order of canons regular, originating in 1615 — the Abbot of St. Genevieve being superior of all their monas- teries. Nuns of two orders of nuns, one founded by Miramion, in Paris, in 1615 ; and another in 290 GEN lG3fi by Blosset, and united under Miramion in 1G65. Their office was to educate tlie young, visit the sick, and do other deeds of charity. A sister underwent two years of probation, and when admitted, was clothed in black woollen, and repeated the office of the Virgin everyday. Ociiuflectcutes (kneelers), the third class of catechumens or penitents, so called because they received the benediction on their knees. They continued in this class for three, and occa- sionally for seven years. Oeorgc, St., Festival of, is observed in the Greek and Roman Churches on the twenty-third of April. St. George is the patron saint of England, and is famed in Romish legend for vanquishing the dragon. He was bom in Cappadocia, and in 290 died a martyr under Diocletian, in whose army he had held a high command. When Robert, son of William the Conqueror, was besieging Antioch, St. George, with a red cross on his banner, appeared, ■with a countless host clad in white, as if descend- ing the hills to reinforce the Christian army against a threatened assault of the Saracens. The enemy fled ui dismay at the strange and supernatural sight, and St. George, to whom Justinian had already dedicated a church, be- came patron saint of England. — See Knights. Ceoi-giaii Church. — Georgia, which is an Asiatic province on the southern slope of the Cau- casus, and was anciently called Iberia, originally belonged to Persia, but is now a part of the Russian empire. The primitive religion of the Georgians was probably a modification of that of the Persians. They were converted to Chris- tianity in the fourth century, chiefly through the instrumentality of a Christian female captive, whose prayers were believed to have effected cures which all other means had failed to pro- duce. A door of entrance being thus opened, preachers were sent from the Roman empire to instruct the people in the principles of the Chris- tian religion, to which they have ever since remained faithful. The Georgian Church, from its proximity to Armenia, was led to join in the secession made bj' the church of that country from the orthodox Eastern Church. In fifty years, however, it returned to the communion of the latter, of which, since that time, it has formed an integral part. Though nominally subject to the Patriarch of Constantinople, to whom a tribute was paid, it possessed for fifteen centuries patriarchs of its own. In 1801 Georgia was conquered by Russia from Persia. The Georgian Church was then easily incorporated with the Russian Greek Church, and became subject to tlie Archbishop of Tiflis. The single peculiarity which distinguishes it from other branches of the Oriental Church is that it delays the baptism of children until their eightii year. There are in Georgia a large number of monas- teries and nunneries. In the latter the women are so efficiently educated that it has been GER remarked that the female population is better instructed in the doctrines of Christianity than the male, or even than the priests themselves. Germany, Churches in. — The first explicit mention of the spread of Christianity into Ger- many is made by Irenreus, who was Bishop of Lyons in the latter half of tlie second centurj-. The earliest period at which regularly organized Christian churches seem to have existed in Ger- many was towards the close of tlie third century. The knowledge of Christianity seems to have been carried simultaneously to the banks of the Rhine and to those of the Danube. Tlie German invaders of the Roman empire, in the fifth cen- tury, were either Christians before their invasion, or became so immediately afterwards. In the end of the sixth centurj" a number of new churches were founded in Germany, chiefly through the zealous efforts of Columbanus, an Irish monk. Still the great mass of the German tribes re- mained under the influence of paganism. In the eighth century the cause of Christianity in Ger- many received a powerful impulse through the labours of Winifred, an English Benedictine monk, afterwards known by the name of Boni- face. Towards the end of the eighth century Charlemagne succeeded in establishing an out- ward form of Christianity throughout Saxon Germany. At the commencement of the thir- teenth century Prussia was still almost entirely pagan. The Knights of the Teutonic Order of St. Mary succeeded, after a fifty-tliree years' war, in subduing it to the Christian faith ; and it has thenceforth been a professedly Christian country. In the coui'se of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries Christianity took deep root in all the German countries. The power of tlie papacy grew, and the Church seemed likely to monopolize all authority. The doctrines that tlie priest is the only true channel of communi- cation with heaven, and that there is no salva- tion beyond the pale of the Catliolic Church, were stoutly maintained. Men of reflection be- gan to see that these principles were absurd and pernicious; but it was reserved for an humble yet earnest German monk to inaugurate the movement which resulted in the glorious Refor- mation. Germany nobly responded to tlie call of Luther, and has since been to a large extent a Protestant nation. Ever since the peace of Westphalia, in 1618, Germany has been almost equally divided between Protestantism and Ro- man Catholicism — the north liaving been predo- minantly Protest.int, and the south predominant!}' Catholic. In Austria and Bavaria the Catholics are in a large majority. In Prussia tlie Protes- tants are in the majority. In Hanover, WUr- temberg, Baden, Ilesse Cassel, and Hesse Darm- stadt, Nassau, Oldenburg, and the four free cities, the Protestants also predominate. The Protestant Church in Germany is split up into a large number of separate sections, each petty state having its own distinct church organization. 291 GER Thus, territorially considered, there are no less than thirty-eight distinct Protestant Churches in Germany. Theologically considered, how- ever, there are but three, viz., the Lutheran Church, the Reformed Church, and the Evan- gelical United Church. These three we now proceed to notice. I. Tlie Lutheran Church dates its origin from the year 1520, when Luther was expelled by Leo X. from the Romish Church. It assumed a more definite shape on the publication, in 1530, of the Augshurg Confession. This confession, the composition of Melanchthon, assisted by Luther, consists of twenty-eight articles, twenty- one of which contain an explanation of the chief Protestant doctrines, the remaining seven being occupied with an enumeration of the va- rious abuses which had caused Luther and his followers to forsalje the Church of Rome. The Lutheran Church was finally established iu 1552, when INIaurice, the Elector of Saxony, formed a religious pacification with Charles V. at Passau. The standards of the Lutheran Church are — the Augsburg Confession; the AjJoIogg for it, pub- lished in 1531; the Larger and Shorter Cate- chisms of Luther ; the Articles ofSmalcald; and the Formula of Concord. The Lutheran and the Reformed Churches both recognize the Word of God as the only binding rule of faith and practice, but the Reformed Church considers that in ecclesiastical aflfairs nothing ought to be per- mitted to have place for which there is not a direct warrant iu the Scriptures; while the Lutheran Church, on the other hand, holds that certain forms of worship, of which the Scriptures say nothing, and which are in themselves suit- able, may be legitimately admitted. Accordingly', "the Lutheran Church, while it has removed the grosser elements of the Romish ritual, such as the mass, the adoration of saints and relics, and the use of the vernacular in conducting divine service, adheres much more closely to the stated liturgical and sacramental system of Ro- manism than the Reformed Church, which has adopted the utmost simplicity of worship." The great leading principle which Luther strenuously proclaimed was the doctrine of j ustification by faith ; and in so doing, he maintained what has ever since been considered the fundamental principle of Protestantism. There are, how- ever, points with regard to which he, and the Lutheran Church following in his footsteps, occupy a position midway between Popery and genuine Protestantism. The chief of these regards the nature of the Lord's Supper. Luther, though denying that there is any sacrifice in the mass, or anj' atonement made thereby, yet held the real presence of Christ's humanity in, and with, and under the material elements in the Lord's Supper. This opinion the Lutherans have always persistently maintained. Luther was so much occupied in reforming theological opinions, that he had but little time to bestow upon the secular 29 GER affairs of the Church. He paid little attentioii to the theory of church government. Thus the Lutheran Church, emancipated from the thraldom of the pope, submitted uncomplainingly to the sway of temporal princes; and spiritual inde- pendence is unknown in Germany. Xotwith- standing this state of matters, there always existed in the Lutheran Church, down to the union with the Reformed Church, in 1817, a considerable amount of genuine religious life. A party of strict Lutherans refused to join the union, and they constitute the Luther- ans proper of the present day. They are char- acterized by a spirit of exclusive bigotry, and an inordinate love of the formalities of religion. They correspond very much to the English Pusey- ites. As the Pusejdtes seem to imagine that there can be no salvation to any who have not received the ordinances of the Church from the hands of a successor of the apostles, so the Lutherans act as if none could rank as a Chris- tian brother unless he pledged himself to the Augsburg Confession and the Formula of Concord. Tliej' will hold no communion with those who deny a real and objective presence of Christ's humanity in the eucharistic elements. They are consequently strenuous opponents of the prin- ciples of the Evangelical Alliance. It is gene- rally found that where a strict Lutheranism prevails, there the light of genuine Christianitj' burns but feebly, and the standard of morality is unusually low. The countries in which, at the present time, Lutheranism is most powerful are, — Brunswick, Hanover, Oldenburg, Thuringia, Saxony, Brandenburg, the Hanseatic towns, Pomerania, Silesia, and Prussia. The form of government of the Lutheran Church in Germany is presbyterian; but in Denmark and Sweden, where Lutheranism is more powerful than in Germany, it is episcopal. An extensive branch of the German Lutheran Church exists in the United States of America. It arose from emigrations from Europe at various periods, commencing with 1680. For a long time its condition was weakly, and its prospects were the reverse of encouraging. But it grew and flourished by degrees, until it now stretches over all the Middle and Western States and some of the Southern, numbering, according to late accounts, nearly 900 ministers, and perhaps thrice as many congregations, with eight theolo- gical seminaries and five colleges. Though form- ing but one church, it includes within its pale three parties, the Old Lutheran, the New Lutheran, and the Moderate or Melauehthonian party. Though great diversities e.Kist among the members of this church, both in doctrine and in ceremonial observances, the church is making rapid progress, and its influence for good or evil must be very great, owing to the large numbers of German emigrants yearly arriving in the United States. II. The Reformed Church owes its origin to 2 GER Ulrich Zwingli, the reformer of German Switzer- land. Zwingli had, by the studj' of the works of Huss, WyclifFe, and others, obtained a know- ledge of the reformed opinions. Though con- temporary with Luther, he worked out his sys- tem altogether independently of the German re- former, declaring that he did not care though men called him a heretic like Luther, but refus- ing to be called a Lutheran. The fundamental principle upon which Zwingli proceeded, and •which has ever been maintained by the Ke- formed Churches was, that the Bible is the sole standard by which the doctrines and ceremonies of the church are to be regulated. Accordingly, •while Luther and the Lutheran Church retained such of the Romish ceremonies as they looked upon as matters of indifference, Zwingli and the Reformed Church sternly rejected them as being devoid of Scriptural authority. But the ques- tion which kept Luther and Zwingli farthest apart was that relating to the nature of the Lord's Supper. Luther's doctrine of consubstan- tiation virtually involved the dogma of a real material presence. Zwingli contended that the sacramental elements were merely symbols. It was this point alone which prevented Zwingli from adhering to the Augsburg Confession. A controversy was carried on upon this subject be- tween Luther and Zwingli from 1527 to 1529; and a public discussion took place between Luther and Melanchthon on the one side, and Zwingli and CEcolampadius on the other. It ended, however, without anj' satisfactory result. Though the Reformed Church was founded by Zwingli, its character and constitution have been much modified by the influence of Calvin. After the death of Zwingli, Calvin's influence in the Helvetic Church became paramount. The points upon which Calvin and Zwingli differed were the nature of the Lord's Supper and the form of church government. In contradistinction to the opinion of Zwingli upon the first of these sub- jects given above, Calvin held that in the sacra- ment there is a real presence, not material, but spiritual. With regard to church government, Zwingli assigned considerable ecclesiastical in- fluence to the civil magistrate, while Calvin held that the Church ought to possess a government totally distinct from that of the civil power, and would admit of no interference of the latter with the affairs of the former. Accordingly, on the death of Zwingli, the Church laid aside his view of the Eucharist in deference to that of Calvin, and remodelled the constitution of the Church according to the strict views of presbyterian equality held by the latter. " The doctrine and discipline of the Reformed Church, as modelled by Calvin, were soon afterwards established over a great part of Europe. In 1560 Frederic III. removed the Lutheran teachers in Germany, and filled their places with Calvinists, and at the same time obliged his subjects to accept tlie rites and discipline of the Church of Geneva. This GER order was annulled by his son Louis in 1576, but again enforced in 1583 ; and Calvinism regained a sway which in Prussia it has lost only in the present generation." The spirit wliich emanated from Geneva speedily effected a lodgment in Germany, and showed itself in the formation of numerous churches which took the name of Re- formed in contradistinction to the Lutheran. These were pervaded, as to doctrine at least, more by the spirit of Calvin than of Zwingli. Though these two men were the chief founders of the Reformed Church, it owed much of its consolidation and establishment to such men as CEcolampadius, Bullinger, Farel, Beza, Ursinus, and Olevianus. It took its rise in German Switzerland, and found a home afterwards in the Palatinate, on the Lower Rhine, in Friesland, Hesse, Brandenburg, and Prussia. The Re- formed Church in Germany, as well as elsewhere, was characterized by a simplicity of worship and an earnest practical godliness, which the Lutheran Church did not exhibit. The former, too, draws a marked distinction between sacramental signs and sacramental grace; while the latter is but too ready to view them as always co-existing. The Reformed Church lays no stress upon tradition, but discards all for which Scripture warrant can- not be shown. The doctrine of the universal priesthood of believers is one to which this Church gives special prominence. The Reformed divines of Germany of more recent times are not strict Calvinists, especially with regard to the doctrine of predestination, but rather tend to agree with the more moderate or Melanchthonian Lutherans. Hence they readily acquiesced in the scheme of union which resulted in the forma- tion of the United Evangelical Church, with which they are now for the most part incorpor- ated. The recent attacks of the high Lutherans upon the principles of the Reformed Church have called the friends of these principles to the defen- sive. For some years an annual Reformed con- ference has been held in connection with the sessions of the diet of the United Evangelical Church. Should the extreme Lutherans succeed in destroying the union, the Reformed Church will doubtless again form the rallying point of the defenders of evangelical Protestantism. The German Reformed Church has also a re- presentative in the United States. The German Reformed Church in America was founded by emigrants, chiefly from the Palatinate, who, in the days of Penn.took up their abode in Pennsyl- vania. They have since frequently received ac- cessions from the Riienish provinces and the other parts of Germany in which the Reformed are numerous. Their congregations are most numerous in Pennsylvania, and next in Ohio. Thev have also a considerable number of churches in Maryland and Virginia. The constitution of the Church is presbyterian ; and they have two synods, an eastern and a western. Accord- ing to recent accounts they have about 300 293 GER ministers and nearly 100,000 communicants, with three theological seminaries. The only standard of the Church is the Heidelberg Cate- chism. During recent years the Church has been agitnted by keen theological discussions, and some of the other denominations have charged them with laxity of doctrine. Nevertheless this Church is labouring to fulfil the great ends of a Christian Church among the German population of the United States, and is likewise in mission- ary work. — See Creed, Form of Concord, Heidelberg Catechism. III. The United Evangelical Church. — The first attempt to unite the Lutheran and Re- formed Churches was made, shortly after they assumed a distinct existence, by the Landgrave of Hesse. In 1529 he summoned to Marburg the chief German and Swiss reformers. They there agreed upon fourteen fundamental articles, as expressing their common faith. The only point upon which they could not agree was that concerning the nature of the Eucharist. Many other attempts to unite the two churches were subsequently made by various individuals. None of them was at all successful until the year 1817. During this year it was proposed to cele- brate the third centenary of the German Refor- mation, and Frederick William III., King of Prussia, selected this occasion as a fitting one for giving a practical illustration of the oneness of Protestant principles, by effecting a union be- tween the Reformed and Lutheran Churches. On the 27th September, 1817, he issued a decree, stating that it was the royal wish that the two Churches should henceforth form one United Evangelical Church. In making this suggestion, there is no reason to doubt that the king was actuated by truly Christian motives. The royal wish was immediately and heartily acceded to by the clergj- of Berlin, and generally by the whole clergy and people of Prussia. Of about 8,950 Protestant congregations, 7,750 are said to have joined the union. The example of Prussia was speedily followed throughout a large part of Germany. It was first followed by Nassau, and the union was effected in the Palatmate of Rhenish- Bavaria in 1818 ; in Baden in 1821 • in Rhenish-Hessia in 1822 ; and in Wiirtemberg in 1827. Saxony, Hanover, Bavaria Proper, and Mecklenburg remained exclusively Lutheran. In Austria the Lutheran and Reformed branches of the Protestant Church still continue to exist separately, under the names of the Augsburg and Helvetic Confessions. The king's intention in consummating this union was not to secure uniformity of doctrine, but uniformity in the form of worship and the mode of church government. The great fault of the scheme was the undervaluing of the importance of creeds and confessions. The king proposed to borrow the form of church government of the new church from the presbyterian system pre- viously iu use among the Reformed Churches, and GER her ritual from the liturgy of the Lutheran Churches. A clerical commission had been ap- pointed to frame a new liturgy, but, having failed in the attempt, the king took the task into his own hands, and, with the assistance of the court chaplains and a pious layman, succeeded in framing one, which he published in 1821. Its reception was commanded ; but several clergy- men refused compliance. Some alterations and additions were made, which seemed to give pretty general satisfaction. The king com- manded that, on the twentj'-fifth of June, 1830, the third centenary of the presenting of the Augsburg Confession, the new liturgy should be read in all the churches. Some of the Lutheran clergy refused to read it, and many of them were, in that and the following year, suspended from their ofiices. Driven from their churches, they were not allowed to conduct worship else- where, for, in 1834, all Lutheran worship was declared illegal. The outrages upon religious liberty were most violent in Silesia and Posen, where the Lutherans were most numerous. Meetings for prayer were broken up by the police, the property of the recusants was confis- cated, and all petitions and remonstrances ad- dressed to the government were treated with con- tempt. To such an extent were these rigorous mea- sures carried, that a considerable number of the Lutheran inhabitants were glad to emigrate to South Australia. In 1837, in consequence of a new cabinet order, the Lutherans looked for freedom from their unchristian persecution. Their ex- pectations were not realized until, in 1840, the present king ascended the throne. He at once put a stop to the disgraceful measures which his predecessor had taken to insure Christian union ; and in 1845 the Old Lutherans were permitted, in the capacity of dissenters, to form themselves into a separate ecclesiastical organization. In recent years a strong Lutheran part}-, headed by Hengstenberg, has arisen within the United Evangelical Church. This party advocates the necessity of a separate organization of the Lutheran and Reformed Churches, within the framework of the national church. The king, though having no sympathy with the views of this party, has been obliged to make them some concessions, which have had the effect of render- ing apparent the different parties of which the united church is composed. These parties are described by Dr. Schaff as :— (1) " The Anti- confessional or Latitudinarian Unionists, who base themselves on the Bible simplj', without the church symbols, and embrace a number of liberal divines of different shades of opinion." (2.) "The Evangelical Unionists, or the consensus party, which takes for its doctrinal basis the Bible, and the common dogmasof theLutheran and Reformed confessions." (3.) " The strict Confessionalists, who regard the union as a mere confederation of the two confessions under a common state-church government." The United Evangelical Church, 294 GIL like the two communions out of wliich it was formed, has an American representative, calling itself the German Evangelical Association of the West. This Church was founded at St. Louis, Mobile, in 1841, by seven ministers of the Ger- man United Church. In 1857 it had about thirty ministers. It was originally intended merely for the "Western States, but a branch has since been formed in Ohio. This Church adopts as its standards those of both the Lutheran and Reformed Churches ; "and where they differ" they " hold alone to the relevant passages of Scripture, and avail " themselves " of that free- dom of conscience which prevails on such points in the Evangelical Church." Oilbcriiiics a monastic sect founded in the year 1148, by St. Gilbert, of Sempringham, in the county of Lincoln. There were nuns also of the same name. The monks followed the rule of St. Augustine, and the nuns that of St. Benedict. Thirteen monasteries were established by Gilbert himself; four for men alone, and nine for men and women : the houses of the women were sepa- rated by a high wall from those of the men. Cii- — In the first place, they all acknowledged the existence of one eternal and Supreme God. But then, finding it impossible to attribute to him the introduction of evil into the world, they were led to connect the origin of evil in some way or other with matter, which also they supposed to have existed from eternity. They differed as to whether the evil principle in matter was active, or only inert and passive. The Syrian Gnostics inclined to the former opinion — the Alex- andrian to the latter. The Alexandrian sects, therefore, were driven to make more use than the others of that which maybe regarded as the great Grecian element in their systems, viz., the theory of successive emanations of intelligent beings proceeding from the great First Cause, ^ons ( aiav^s) they were afterwards called. These were supposed to lose their resemblance to their original more and more as they were farther and farther removed from him; and in this way there came into existence a mighty being called the Demiurge (S»/t;oujy«;), Supposed to be identical with the God of the Jews, who either ignorantly or ma- liciously— either without the sanction, or in op- position to the will, of the Supreme God — set to work upon the inert matter already existing, and formed out of it the world and all things that are therein. But the inventors of these fables knew that there was, in some at least of our race, something of good and holy origin, and to account for this, they next taught that the Supreme God inserted into the man whom the Demiurge had formed a particle of higher and spiritual life. This divine element was in some way or other to be rescued in due time from the material body with which it was thus combined, and to be brought back into the pleroma, or fulness of light, in which the Supreme God had his habitation. And when the preaching of the Gospel had pre- sented a new feature of which these philosophers could avail themselves, they generally did so in this way. They taught that to assist in the deliverance of the spiritual soul from the defile- ments of matter and the tyranny of the Demi- urge, one of the first and purest of the ^ons - — viz., Christ — came down upon Jesus at his baptism, and remained united to him till a short time before his crucifixion, enabling him to impart to mankind a clearer knowledge than the}' ever enjoyed before of the true nature of God, and of the dignity and destiny of the souls of men. Such were the general principles in which the Gunstics for the most part agreed. But the}' admitted of being combined with an endless variety of details, and some of them may be found G GOD iintier the articles Basilid'ians, Carpocra- TiANS, Cerinthians, Valbntinians, &c. We have only to add here, in the words of Gieseler, that " tiie principle of the Gnostic morality, freedom from the fetters of the Demiurge and of matter, led to rigid abstinence and a contem- plative life. But when the pride of dogmatism among the later Gnostics had stifled the moral sense," they partly fell upon the expedient of giving out the moral law to be only a work of the Demiurge, for the sake of indulgence in several excesses." Ooilfatfaers and Godmothers, sponsors for children at baptism in popish and episcopalian churches. — See Baptism, p. 55. They seem originally to have answered for sick persons, and for such as could not answer for themselves, as well as for children. They pledged themselves to look after the child's education, and to ad- monish grown-up persons of the duties which their baptism devolved upon them. Parents were not debarred from being sponsors till the council of Mentz, 813. In the Church of Eng- land, the rubric saj'S, " And note, that there shall be for every male child to be baptized two god- fathers and one godmother; and for every female, one godfather and two godmothers. When there are children to be baptized, the parents shall give knowledge thereof over night, or in the morning before the beginning of morning prayer, to the curate. And then the godfathers and godmothers, and the people with the child- ren, must be ready at the font, either immediately after the last lesson at morning prayer, or else immediately after the last lesson at evening prayer, as the curate by his discretion shall ap- point. And the priest coming to the font (which is then to be filled with pure water), and stand- ing there shall say." In the Church of Kome marriage is forbidden between those who stand in the spiritual relations of godparents and god- children, without a special dispensation. Croldcii liegend, tlie collection of the lives of the saints, compiled, in the thirteenth century, by John de Voragine, vicar-general of tlie Dominicans It long had credit in the Church of Rome. Ooldcn IVuinber. — The golden number (so called from its being written in gold, or from the great value formerly set upon it) is a periodical revolution of the moon for nineteen years, during which the ancient astronomers thought that the sun and the moon returned to the same aspects they were at nineteen years before. When thej- had observed on what day of each calendar month the new moon fell in each year of the C3'clc, they prefixed the number of the year to it, and thus obviated the use of astronomical tables. But as the cycle of the moon is less than nineteen Julian years, by nearly one hour and a-lialf, it was found that though the new moons during each period of nineteen years might fall on tlie same day of the year, they would not fall on the GOO same hour of the day. Thus the new moons ha\nng been found to fall four days and a-half sooner than the golden numbers indicated, the act of George 11., in 1752, ordered that they should only be placed against the twenty-first of March and the eighteenth of April, the earliest and latest days on which Easter can fall, and some of the intermediate days. (Bates's Chris- tian Anliqzdties.) Ooldeii Rose, such a rose was first sent to Joan, Queen of Sicily, in 1366, by Pope Urban v., and one is consecrated annually by the pope on the fourth Sunday in Lent, and being set in precious stones, is sent as a special mark of honour to those thought worthy of it, and often to crowned heads. Oood Friday, the day of our blessed Lord's crucifixion, which was originally ob- served as part of the sacred season of Easter; the name of Tair;^a being applied to the whole period of the festival; and the Passion Week, and sometimes Good Friday itself, being dis- tinguished as Ttaff^tt. trav^iaffifiot. In the course of the second and following centuries a separate observance of this day was established, and the following are some of the ordinances peculiar to it : — It was kept as a strict ftist, continued by some persons even through the following day. The Lord's Supper was celebrated, but the ele- ments were consecrated the daj' before. Com- munion tables and reading-desks were stripped of their ornaments; doxologies, introits, and the like, were omitted ; music and bells were silent ; the customary genuflexions were avoided, as well as the sacred kiss and embrace, — the former because the Jews bowed the knee in mockery (Matt, xxvii. 29), and the latter because Judas betrayed his master with a kiss. In very early times St. John's account of the passion was read instead of that from the harmonies. The day has been called, '■'■Dies absolutlonis " — the day of absolution, because it was usual at this time to absolve peni- tents from ecclesiastical penalties; ^'■Dies salutans" —the day of salvation ; " Ciena pura " — to ex- press the completeness of the fast ; "Ta^xmivii" — the preparation, in reference to the Jewish ritual ; Lon/j Friday, among the Saxons, from the lengtli of the fasts. — See Cross. Oood Sons, Ord«'r of, was founded by a few pious artisans in Flanders in 1G15, and it adopted, in 1626, the thinl rule of tlio Francis- cans. They practised great austerity, and were flagellated thrice a-week. They wore a black costume, had at least three congregations or houses, and obtained the direction of several hos- pitals from Louis XIV. Oood Works, those works which spring from faith and love, and are the fruiu of the grace and Spirit of God. Tiiey are thus spoken of in Articles xii. and xiil. of the Church of England, — " Albeit that good works, which are the fruits of faitii, and follow after justification, cannot put away our sins, and endure the severity 207 GOO of God's judgment; yet are they pleasing and acceptable to God in Christ, and do spring out necessarily of a true and lively faith ; inso- )iiuch that by them a lively faith may be as evi- dentlj' known as a tree discerned by the fruit. Works done before the grace of Christ and the inspiration of his Spirit, are not pleasant to God, forasmuch as they spring not of faith in Jesus Christ, neither do they make men meet to receive grace, or (as the school authors say) deserve grace of cougruity : yea rather, for that they are not done as God hath willed and commanded them to be done, we doubt not but they have the nature of sin." Chapter xvi. of the West- minster Confession is not less explicit, — " Good works are only such as God hath commanded in bis Holy Word, and not such as, Avithout the •warrant thereof, are devised by men, out of blind zeal, or upon any pretence of good inten- tion. 2. These good works, done in obedience to God's commandments, are the fruits and evi- dences of a true and lively faith : and by them believers manifest their thankfulness, strengthen their assurance, edify their brethren, adorn the profession of the Gospel, stop the mouths of the adversaries, and glorify God, whose workman- ship they are, created in Christ Jesus thereunto ; that, having their fruit unto holiness, they may have the end eternal life. 5. We cannot, by our best works, merit pardon of sin, or eternal life, at the hand of God, bj' reason of the great disproportion that is bet^veen them and the glory to come, and the infinite distance that is between us and God, whom by them we can neither profit nor satisfy for the debt of our former sins ; but when we have done all we can, we have done but our duty, and are unprofitable servants ; and because, as they are good, they proceed from his Spirit ; and as they are wrought by us, they are defiled and mixed with so much weakness and imperfection, that they cannot endure the severity of God's judgment. 6. Yet notwithstanding, the persons of believers being accepted through Christ, their good works also are accepted in him ; not as though they were in this life wholly unblamable and unre- provable in God's sight; but that he, looking upon them in his Son, is pleased to accept and reward that which is sincere, although accom- panied with many weaknesses and imperfections. 7. Works done by unregenerate men, although, for the matter of them, they may be things which God commands, and of good use both to themselves and others ; j'et, because tliey proceed not from an heart purified by faith ; nor are done in a right manner, according to the Word ; nor to a right end, the glory of God ; they are therefore sinful, and cannot please God, or make a man meet to receive grace from God. And yet their neglect of them is more sinful, and displeasing unto God." Such doctrinal teaching is plain. Salvation is of faith, and not of works. For 1. The statement that salvation is GOS of works involves an anachronism. Works, in order to procure salvation, must iirecede it, but the good works described by the apostle come after it, for they only appear after a man lives, believes, and is in Christ. 2. The statement that salvation is of works involves the fallacy of mistaking the effect for the cause. Good works are not the cause of salvation ; they are only the result of it. Salvation causes them ; they do not cause it. It is this workmanship of God — this creation in Christ Jesus, which is their true source, and these preparatory means imply a previous salvation. Thus runs the well-known confessional formula, — bona opera non prcecedunt justificandum, sed sequuntur justificalum. The law says: "Do this and live;" but the Gospel says : " Live, and do this." 3. And even such good works can have in them no saving merit. The power and the desire to perforin good works are alike from God ; for they are only fruits and manifestations of Divine grace in man. They are not self-produced, and therefore cannot en- title us to reward. Such, we apprehend, is the apostle's argument. Still, though salvation is not of good works, it is in order to good works. The works termed good are the in- tended fruits of salvation and acceptance with God, proofs of holy obedience, tokens of the en- joyment of Christ's image, elements of the imita- tion of Christ's example, and the indices of that holiness which adorns the new creation, and " without which no man can see the Lord." But there can be no productive love of God where there is no faith in his Son, and where that faith does exist, salvation is already pos- sessed The disputes on this point at the period of the Reformation were truly lamentable : Soli- fidians and Synergists battled with mischievous fury, — Major arguing that salvation was depen- dent on good works, and Amsdorf reprobating them as prejudicial to it; while Agricola main- tained the Antinomian absurdity, that the law itself was abolished, and no longer claimed obedience from believers. Crospel {(jood news), applied sometimes to the four inspired biographies, at other times denoting the scheme of divine mercy. In the Church of England it means technically tlie portion of the gospel read after the epistle, and during the reading of which the congregation stands, the preface being " Glory be to thee, O Lord." Gospeller is the minister who stands at the north side of the altar, and reads the gospel ; and in some cathedrals one of the clergj^men is thus specially designated. — See Epistolee. Oospcis, Spurious, shoals of these were in early circulation. The Evangelist Luke speaks of "many who had taken in hand" to compose biographies of Christ, Somewhere about sixty spurious gospels have been enumerated, eight of which survive, nearly, if not wholh^, entire; and fragments and notices of at least fifty more are well known to scholars. They had their origin 298 GOS in curiosity, credulity, and pious fraud, and tlioy usually dwell upon those points on which the canonical gospels are silent. Thus the Prolo- evangelium and Nativity of Mary give us events which extend to the eighth year of ouf Lord's life ; the History of Joseph ends with his nine- teenth year; and the events of his condemnation and death are found in the Acts of Pilate. In Tischendorf's edition we have, — Protevangelium lacobi, Graece ; Pseudo-Matthaei Evangelium, Latine (altera parte ineditum) ; Evangelium de nativitate Mariae, Latine ; Historia losephi fabri lignarii, ex Arabico Latine ; Evangelium Thomae, Graece A ; Evangelium Thornae, Graece B (ineditum) ; Evangelium Thomae Latinum (ineditum) ; Evangelium infantiae, ex Arabico Latine; Gesta Pilati, Graece A ; Gesta Pilati, Graece B (ineditum); Descensus Christi ad inferos, Graece; Gesta Pilati, Latine; Descensus Christi, ad inferos, Latine A (xiv. Epistola Pilati prior); Descensus Christi ad inferos, Latine B (in- editum) ; Epistola Pilati (altera), Latine ; Ana- phora Pilati, A, Graece ; Anaphora Pilati, B, Graece ; Paradosis Pilati, Graece; Mors Pilati qui lesum condemnavit, Latine (ineditum) ; Narratio losephi Arimathiensis, Graece ; Vindicta Salva- toris, Latine (ineditum). The Protevangellum of James, in Greek, was published first in 1552, and is probably the work of a Jew, dwelling on the events of Mary's life and the wondrous birth of her son. It gives us the name of the Virgin's parents as Joachim and Anna, and says she was only fourteen years of age when married to Joseph. The Gospel of Thomas, in two forms, dwells on the wonders of our Lord's early youth, as if the miracle at Cana had not been the first which he wrought. The so-called miracles of his youth are silly legends. The Book of the nativity of Mary and in fancy of the Saviour, in Latin, or the Pseudo-Matthaei Evangelium is not by any means so old as the other gospel of the nativity of Mary, for it contains a plea for celibacy, and virtually for the worship of Mary. The Arabic Gospel of the Infancy was first published in 1697 from a manuscript purchased at Leyden, and is taken mostly from the Protoevangel, with many Egyptian legends. The History of Joseph was first published in 1722, from a manuscript in the Royal Library at Paris, and describes itself as a history told by Jesus himself to his disciples as they sat on the Mount of Olives. The Acts of Pilate or Gospel of Nlcodemus, the second part of which is called the Descensus, is an account by two men, sons of Simeon, of what happened in Hades when Christ died, the two narrators being among those who came out of their graves at the crucifixion, and " went into the holy city." As a specimen we subjoin a brief summar}- of a portion of the Gospel of Thomas: — All fear him. One day, as he is playing witli other boys on the roof of a house, one of the boys falls, and is killed ; the rest flee. Jesus, when charged with the deed, calls the dead body to life to con- GOT tradict the accusers. Another time he sees a crowd round a young man, who has dropped a hatchet on his foot, and is bleeding to death: he heals him. Ills mother sends him, when six years old, to fetch water; he breaks the pitcher, but brmgs the water in the folds of his dress, lie goes with his father to sow, and from a single grain gathers in an hundred homers, which he gives to the poor. Again, when Joseph was making a bed for a rich man, one piece proves too short; Jesus lays hold of it and stretches it to the right size. Joseph sends him to a school- master, who essays to teach him his letters. Jesus says, as before, " Explain to me the force of A, and I will explain the force of B." The master smites him, but is struck dead. (Tischen- dorf's Evamjelia Apoci-ypha, Leipsiae, 1853. — See Acts. Cambridge Essays, 1856; Fabricius and Thilo's Collections ; Hone's Apocryphal Xew Testament). Crossip, spelled more correctly by Chaucer, gossib, is literally god-sib, sib being a Saxon adjective still common in Scotland, signifying " of kin." The term is applied to godparents or sponsors in baptism, as having contracted a divine relationship to the child and one an- other— being akin in God, and so near akin that the Romish Church debarred them from inter- marriage.— See Godfather. And because those who became god-sibma.y have been given to mucli idle and familiar tattle on such occasions, retail- ing the news and scandal of the district at bap- tismal feasts, gossip gradually acquired its pre- sent signification. Ciolhic Architecture has for its leading characteristic the pointed arch. The hyjiothesis that this order originated in the imitation of an avenue of overarching trees is not well sustained. The pointed arch rather arose from the intersec- tion of semicircular arclies in that Norman style which preceded the Gothic in this country. In Gothic architecture, not onl}- is the pointed arch prominent, but the pillars are extended far beyond classical proportions, and shafts are placed side by side, variously clustered and combined, the pier being a bundle of such vertical shafts surround- ing a pillar. On the outside, buttresses of great projection often shoot up into pinnacles symbolic of the soul's aspirations toward licaven, and in the interior the shafts are continued on the arch-mouldings. The pillars and walls are covered witli leaves, blossoms, and curious devices, and the large rose or circular window above the entrance sj-mbolizes the silence which should reign in the sanctuary. Dragons and strange forms of demons are carved so as to ap- pear crushed and writhing under pillars and door posts. The most beautiful specimens of the decorated style of Gothic in this country are the nave and west front of York Minster, the choir of Lincoln, and St. Stephen's Chajjel, West- minster. Gothic architecture spread itself over Western Europe about the close of the twelfth 299 GOT century, and the cathedral of Cologne and the minster of Strasburg, are renowned speci- mens. Of the Gothic there are various styles, such as the early English (which see), with acute arch and narrow windows, extending from 1190 to 1245. By and bye the tops of such windows were surmounted by a circular window, while in the later decorated English, the arch was included within an equilateral triangle. The windows were enlarged and filled with flowing tracery, and pinnacles sprang up of ela- borate beauty. This style prevailed from about 1307 to 1377. During the succeeding epoch the arch became blunter and more depressed, as in the doorway of King's College Chapel, Cam- bridge, and Italian details were intermixed as the classical orders began to be restored. For popish worship or cathedral service the Gothic, with its lofty roof and "dim religious light " is well fitted, but it is not so well adapted, by any means, to a place of Christian instruc- tion as well as devotion, and many recent and miserable imitations of it are useless and offen- sive. Oothic Version is the Mseso- Gothic version of the Bible made by Ulphilas, Bishop of the Visigoths, in the fourth century. The four gos- pels are found in the Codex Argenteus, and frag- ments of the epistles have been collected from various places. A useful and handsome edition in quarto of the New Testament, with a gram- mar and dictionarj', has been published by Gabelenz and Loebe, Leipzig, 1836-1846. — See Akgenteus Codex. Gotbs, Christianity among the. — The Goths were a barbarous race, who appear promi- nently on the page of history during the early centuries of the Christian era. They originally dwelt upon the coasts of the Baltic, but after- wards migrated to those of the Black Sea. Their religion was a pagan one. They were divided into two sections, — the eastern, or Ostrogoths, and the western, or Visigoths. During the third century, they, along with other barbarous tribes, made frequent incursions into the Eoman do- minions. Among the prisoners whom they made in these incursions were not only some who had embraced Christianity, but also, we are informed, some Christian priests. These authorized teachers of the Christian faith succeeded, by the excellence of their conduct and the beauty of their characters, in gaining the respect and esteem of their heathen captors, and in convincing them of the truth and worth of the Christian doctrines. More teachers were applied for and obtained, and by their exer- tions several Christian churches were founded among the Goths. Considerable success attended the labours of the missionaries among the Goths. This is evidenced by the fact, that among those subscribing the decrees of the council of Nice, in A.D. 325, occurs the name of Theophilus, Bishop of the Goths. Among the descendants of the captives who had been the means of introducing GEA Christianity among the Goths, was TJlphilasi who has been styled the Apostle of the Goths- He is reported to have furnished the Goths with an alphabet, and, about the middle of the fourth Century, he translated the Bible from the Greek into the language which he had been instrumental in reducing to wTiting. The re- mains of this translation now extant are the Codex Argenteus, the Codex Carolinus, and the Ambrosian Manuscripts. These, especially the first, are of much value to the student of biblical criticism. Ulphilas attained to the dignity of Bishop of the Maeso- Goths, and held that office for a lengthened period. During his episcopate, his services as mediator between the Goths and the Eomans were extremely valuable. The cele- brated Chrysostom, when, towards the close of the fourth century, he held the office of Patriarch of Constantinople, made strenuous efforts for the conversion of the Goths. In the fifth century, Christianity had made very considerable progress among the Goths ; and their clergy began to study theology as a science. To the influence which Christianity had obtained over these hitherto barbarians is to be attributed the respect which they paid to the Christian churches, and the clemency which they showed to those who had taken refuge therein See Argenteus Codex, {Bessell uber das Lebendes Ulphilas, 1860.) Orace (the divine favour'), is, in theology, used with various appellations. Thus, ^^ gratia prceveniens" — preventing or prevenient grace for a person to be converted ; "gratia operans " — opera- tive grace on a person who is being converted ; ^ gratia co-operans" — co-operative grace given to a person who has been converted, to secure his sanctification ; '■'■gratia condigna" — grace with merit, the doctrine of the Thomists that a man maj' act so as to be worthy of eternal life ; '■^gra- tia congrua " — grace with fitness, the doctrine of the Scotists that man has such a fitness for grace that God cannot refuse it. Grace common, is what, in the Arminian theory, all men have, or may have, ^^ gratia communis;" grace special, what belongs to the people of God, or the elect believers, " gratia specialis." Crraces, the name of certain concessions, amounting to fifty-one, which Charles I. made to his Irish subjects. Besides taking some re- striction from off the Catholics, and declaring that Scottish settlers in Ulster should be " free denizens" of Ireland, it was provided in relation to the church, by the thirty-fifth grace, that pluralities of benefices should not be conferred on incompetent ministers, " and that such as are invested therein are to be compelled to keep preaching, and sufficient qualified curates, whereby both God's glory may be advanced, poor scholars provided for, and encouragement given to stu- dents to enable themselves for that high func- tion." Bj' the forty-first, it was ordered, among other matters, that " such persons as have great rectories, whereunto there are chapels-of-ease be- 500 GRA longing, somewhere six or seven miles distant from the mother-church, are to be enjoined to keep preaching ministers in those parts, having competent allowance to defray the same." And, by the forty-ninth, it was agreed, that " all un- lawful exactions taken by the clergy are to be reformed and regulated," by a commission to be appointed for this special purpose. Like the indulgences, these graces were simply put forth by royal prerogative, and the Irish parliament was prevented b}' various means from ratifying them. (Reid's Hislory, vol. i.) Oradiial or Oraile, a name given to the Antiphony before the Reformation, because por- tions of it were chanted on the gradus, or steps of the ambo.^See A.iiBO, Antiphony. Oraiii — save, I beseech thee. A form of acclamation which the Jews were wont to use in their feasts of tabernacles, in which also they used to carry boughs in their hands, and also on public procession. In the ancient Church the hosanna formed part of the great doxology in the public service: it was also frequently used In the service of the Euchar- ist, during which the great doxology was also sung. — See Angelic Hymn, Doxology. Hospitallers. — See Knights. Hospitals. — Such receptacles for the poor and rich were built and kept up in connection with the early churches, and placed under the charge of certain of the clergy. — See Xeno- DOCUIA. Host (from the Latin Iiosiia, a sacrifice), a name given by the Roman Catholics to the con- secrated wafer of the Eucharist, in the belief that in the celebration of the mass the elements of flour and water are changed into the body and blood of Christ, which the priest oilers as a sacrifice for the sins of the living and the dead. — See Adoration of the Host, Eucharist, Mass, Tkansubstantiation. 314 HOU Bonrs of Prayer. — The book of the Greek Church, containing its praj-ers or hours, is called horologium. — See Canonical Hours, Com- pline, Evening Hymn, Lauds, Matin, Moun- ING Hymn, Nocturns, Prime, Vespers. Bonsel, the old Saxon name for the Euchar- ist, supposed by some to be from the Gothic " hunsa " — a victim. Bngiieiiot, a name given to the Protestants of the French Reformed Church, and variously derived. From Mezeray we learn that the French, till the year 1560, were called Luthe- riens, though in many points they differed from Luther. Others called them Saa-amentaires, from their denial of the real presence. At the time just named they received the name of Huguenots, because, as is said below, and as D'Aubigne takes it, they met by night at the gate Hugon, in Tours ; or because they ventured out onlj' in the dark, like a certain Lutin, or mid- night spirit, le Roy Hugon, which is commonly believed to haunt the streets of that city; or from the first words of their protest, " Buc nos venimns " — hither are we come. Others prefer a Swiss word, '■^Eidgenossen" — confederates, which was first corrupted at Geneva, and then intro- duced into France by the Reformed themselves, not as a term of reproach but as a dis- tinctive title. Eidgenossen was the title used by those Genevese who allied themselves with the Swiss Cantons against the tyranny of Charles IH. of Savoy. Maclaine, in a note on Mosheim, speaks much to the same purpose ; and adds, that the Count Villars, in a letter written to the King of France from the province of Languedoc, where he was lieutenant-general, and dated the eleventh of November, 1560, calls the riotous Calvinists of the Cevennes Hugue- nots ; and this is the first time that this term is found in the registers of that province applied to the Protestants, (Note a., Cent, xvi., sec. 3, p. 2, ch. ii.) Gamier (^Hist. de France, xiv., 434) states, that the Reformed assembled by night at the gate of the evil-minded Hugon, who rode on horseback in that quarter, and beat every one whom he met, so that he had become a bugbear used by mothers for naughty children. The Re- formed adroitly adopted the soubriquet, and de- prived it of its injurious application bj' founding it on their attachment to the descendants of Hugh Capet. Thuanus also has recognized King Hugo. Pasquier has an entire chapter on the origin of the name (Recherches de la France, vm., 53), in which he adduces most of the above statement, and adds, on mere conjecture, that Huguenot is a cornxption of the Swiss Ilenes quenaux, which tallies with the French Gens seditieux. Pbre Daniel, in his Ilistoire de France (v., 666), has recounted the customary derivations without offering any new one. Moreri, to the derivations given above, adds the following, that the Calvinists having embraced the errors of John Huss, were named " les Guenons HUN de TIuss " — Huss's IMonkeys, or as Skinner gives it, " les Guenots de litis " — John Huss's Imps ; or, that they espoused the pretensions of the line of Hugh Capet to the crown, in opposition to the house of Guise ; or, that they followed the teaching of one Ihigues, herelique sucramentaire, in the reign of Charles VL ; or, that in re- ference to a small piece of money, a huguenote, struck in the time of Hugh Capet, and current for a maille (half a denier), the Protestants were so called in contempt, as " ne vcdlantpas une maille " — not worth a penny ; or, by another ver- sion of an origin before mentioned, that a Ger- man, who was arrested and questioned concern- ing the conspiracy of Amboise before the Cardi- nal of Lorraine, stopped short in his defence after he had uttered the words Hue nos venimns ; whence the bystanders, not understanding Latin, said the prisoners were people who came from Hue nos. It is unfortunate for the author of this story that he forgot that, in order to verify it, it was necessary his bj'standers should at least understand the meaning of venimus. (Brown- ing's Huguenots.')— Sea France, Churches is. Hulsean licctnre, a course of eight lectures delivered at Cambridge, under the will of the Rev. John Hulse, which will is dated 12 th July, 1777. The lectures did not commence, however, till 1820 ; and they are upon the evidences of Christianity or the difficulties of Holy Scripture. The Christian Advocate is remunerated from the same source. Humanism, Oumanity. — At the revival of learning, literary culture was eagerly sought, and from its benign influence it was called litercB kumaniores. The stud}' of Latin is still called in our colleges the study of Humanitj-. Many humanists in their pride, however, swerved from the Gos- pel. Italy was the first scene of revived literary cultivation by such men as I'^manuel Chryso- loras, Bessario, Laurentius Valla, and Pious Mirandola. Hiimanilarian, a name sometimes given to Socinians, who believe in the mere humanity of Jesus — that is, that he was a mere man, son of Joseph and Mary, by ordinary generation. — See Socinians. Hungary, Protcslanlitim in. — Though Popery be the dominant faith. Protestantism has long existed in Hungary. The Hussites had prepared the way for the Reformation, and by 1521 Lutheranism had many adlierenta in Hun- gary. Violent edicts were fulminated against theLutherans under King Louis, but Uevay and others, at a subsequent period, laboured and suffered with signal success. The Popish Church felt the benefit of King Ferdinand's firmness and liberality, and a bull was procured authorizing communion in both kinds, — a practice which was inaugurated under his son, Maximilian. At Silehi in 1610 and Kirchdorf in 1614, the dif- ferent seniorates holding the Augsburg Confes- sion were united, and the Calviuistic cougrega- 315 HUN tions were similarly incorporated at the synod of Gotthmar in 1641. At the peace of Vienna, in 1606, the churches in Hungary enjoyed a brief respite from the persecution which they had endured under Kudolph, the bigotted son of Maximilian. But harassing years followed, and Rome, becoming more and more exasper- ated, used everj' effort to extirpate Hungarian Protestantism. The Jesuits reigned supreme for a season; and seceders from the Church of Rome had to hide their heads in rocks and caves. In 1711 some freedom was granted them by treaty, but much of it was only in name. Conventions at Pesth and Presburg led to no good result, and the Popish tyranny waxed so strong that manj' chui'ches were confiscated, and Protes- tant children were forced to attend Popish schools. Under Maria Theresa there was little improve- ment; but in 1773, under her enlightened son Joseph, the Jesuits were banished from the empire. Then Protestantism breathed more freely; and in 1781 an edict of toleration was proclaimed. Leopold n. reigned for a brief period, but fol- lowed in the steps of his predecessor ; but after his death the old desire to put down Protestantism revived in full force. Metterriich, in his day, promised some relief to the harassed remnant, but did not secure it for them. An edict of Baron Haynau, in 1851, stript them of liberty and self-government; but on an earnest protest, an imperial decree was issued in 1859, which restored somewhat of their privileges. Probably revived and cheered by the late revolution, both the Lutheran and Reformed Churches, with more than two millions of adherents, have lifted their heads, and demanded liberty for an ecclesiastical constitution, in which they shall enjoy self- government both in churches and schools, with- out a hierarchy, but with elders and superin- tendents, and provincial and general synods. Cut off bj' position so long from Continental and British Protestantism, those Hungarian churches, " faint, }-et pursuing," have a special claim on their co-operation and sj-mpath}'. Much has been done of late years to raise the standard of education in the lower and higher schools as well as the theological colleges. National jealousies, which formerly often divided the Helvetic and Augsburg communions, have van- ished to a great extent, and on all important questions delightful harmony prevails between the two denominations, the idea of a formal and outward union having been abandoned only on account of difficulties of a practical and local nature. The extensive circulation of Hungarian, Slavonic, and German Bibles, and of excellent Christian publications — among which those issued at GUns, under the superintendence of the inde- fatigable Pastor Wimmer, occupy a prominent place— has been accompanied with important and blessed results; and the influence exerted by the ministers of the Free Church of Scotland, who, in the providence of God, Uved and laboured HUS in Pesth for several years, has been also con- siderable and beneficial. Not a few of the Hun- garian Protestant pastors preach the Gospel fully and clearly. In the capital itself, men like pas- tors Zorok, Banhofer, Szekacz, Professor Balogy, &c., ably and zealously teach the pure doctrines of the Word. According to statistics published in Pesth a few months ago, the Lutheran Church in Hungary has 552 congregations, numbering 818,894 souls ; the Reformed or Calvinistic Church, 1427 congregations, or 1,511,842 souls; the total number of Protestants, being 2,331,736. A large proportion of these numbers belong to the educated classes. The Reformed Protestants are almost exclusively Magyars, while the Lutheran community consists of Slavonic, Ger- man, and Magyar elements. Huntingdon's Conuless of, Connex- ion, a party of Christians which originated in the zeal and liberality of Selina, Countess of Huntingdon. She was deeply interested in the missionary labours of Whitfield and Wesley; and Whitfield was so much prized by her as to be made her chaplain. The six ministers and four preachers who attended the first Methodist conference in London, June, 174:4, were invited to her house and hospitality. When Wesley and Whitfield separated, she clung to the latter, and founded a college at Trevecca, in South Wales, which was afterwards removed to Ches- hunt. Several chapels were also built and en- dowed by her liberality ; and such proceedings as an action at law against some of her ministers, and the refusal of the bishop to ordain her students, at length severed the tie which bound her and her friends to the establishment. Lady Huntingdon's Connexion has 109 chapels, with accommodation for 38,727 persons. They are sometimes called English Calvinistic Methodists. The liturgj' is generally used in their churches, and sometimes also the episcopalian vestments. Their confession of faith is in substance the Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of England. Hussites, the party in Bohemia who followed the teaching of John Huss, and who, after his martyrdom in 1415, were driven to take up arms against their persecutors. They encamped on a hill, to which the\- gave the name of Ta- bor, assuming for themselves the appellation of Taborites; while they stigmatized the nations around as Idumeans or Moabites, Amalekites or Philistines. Animated with deep rehgious enthusiasm, and led to battle by Ziska, a man of great military genius, they gained manj' sig- nal triumphs over Sigismund and the armies of the Church. But Ziska died in 1424, and dis- sensions immediately arose among his followers. Two parties, called Orebites and Orphans, divided them, though they united on occasions of common danger; and especially in 1431 they completely routed their enemies, who were led by the cele- brated Cardinal of St. Angelo. In 1433 they sent deputies to treat with the council of Basle ; S16 HUT but the attempt at an accommodation failed. In 1434 a civil war broke out between the more violent portion of the reformers, who still re- tained the title of Taborites, and those who, from confining their demands to the concession of the cup to the laity, were called Calixtines. The Calixtines were supported by the Catholic party, and the war was carried on with much atrocity on both sides, till it was terminated by the com- pact made at Iglau in 1436. It was kindled again in 1466, through the arbitrary measures of Paul XL; but during the discords of almost thirty years that followed, the names of Ta- borites, Orphans, and even Hussites, gradually' disappeared, and the open resistance to the Catholic authorities became fainter and fainter. And yet the principles of the Hussites were not expiring. They came out purer from the con- flict ; and under the name of the United Brethren of Bohemia, those who may be regarded as their representatives formed in the next century a regularly organized body, inheriting from their ancestors many of those views of divine truth which Luther then began to teach, and ready to unite with the great reformers in throwing off the fetters of Rome. — See Bouesuan Breth- EEN, Calixtines, Moravians. Hutchiiisouiaus, a name given to a few pious and worthy philosophers and interpre- ters, followers of John Hutchinson. He was born at Spennythorpe, Yorkshire, 1674; received a good education ; became an enthusiastic natu- ralist and collector of fossils ; was steward to the Duke of Somerset, and ultimately master of the horse to George I. In 1724 he published his Mosis Principia, designed to overthrow the Princijna of Newton. The second part was pub- lished in 1727. His subsequent publications were numerous; and after his death in 1737, his works were published in twelve volumes 8vo, 1748. Beside other philological peculiarities in regard to the typical and radical meaning of certain Hebrew words, he found a scheme of natural philosophy taught in Scripture. This general theory was, — That the Hebrew Scrip- tures nowhere ascribe motion to the body of the sun nor fixedness to the earth ; that they re- present the created system to be a lAenum with- out any vacuum at all, and that gravitation, at- traction, or any such occult qualities is not neces- sary to the stated operations of nature, for they are carried on by the mechanism of the heavens, ia their three-fold condition of fire, light, and spirit, or air, the material agents set to work at the beginning; — that the heavens, thus framed by Almighty wisdom, are an instituted emblem and visible substitute of Jehovah Aleiin, the Eternal Three, the co-equal and co-adorable Trinity in Unity ; — that the unity of sub- stance in the heavens points out the unity of essence, and the distinction of conditions, the personality in Deity, without confounding the persons or dividing the substance; — and that HYP from their being made emblems, the heavens are called in Hebrew shemim, the names, represent- atives, or substitutes; thus expressing by their names that they are emblems, and by their con- ditions or oftices what it is they are emblems of. Hutchinson also imagined that the Hebrew Scriptures have some capital words, which he endeavours to prove contain in their radical meaning the greatest and most comfortable truths. Thus, the word Elohim he reads Aleim, and refers it to the oath by which the eternal covenant of grace among the persons in Jehovah was and is confirmed. The word ienV/i, which our translation renders covenant, he construes to signify, 'he or that which purifie.s,' — the Purifier, or the purification/or, not with, man. The cher- ubim he explains to liave been an hieroglyphic of divine construction, or a sacred image to describe, as far as figures could go, the Aleim and man, or Humanity united to Deity. Hut- chinson's philological theories taint the pajres of Bates's and Parkhurst's Lexicons. His views were espoused by Bishop Home, by Ro- maine, Jones, Spearman, Cattcott, and Lord President Forbes of Culloden, in Scotland. But they have long ceased to maintain any credit with scholars or divines. Ilydroparastaiae (offerers of water). — See Aqcarii, Encratites. Ilyeiuantes (winterers or tossed by a winter blast), a name given by the Latin fathers to de- moniacs.—See Energumens, Exorcist. Ilyuiu. — The hymns of the early Church were simple and expressive ; and the psalms of the Old Testament were usually' sung. Few of the hymns have been preserved to us. The whole subject will be treated under Praise, Psal- MODV. The oldest hymn on record is found in Clement of Alexandria, in the third book of his Pmdagogue, and is a direct act of homage to Christ. Literally, it is at the commencement : — " Bit for unbroken colts ; Wins of unwaiuleriiit; birds; True liflin of infants; Slieplieril of royal lambs, Thine own simfile ones; Gather the youths. To praise holily, To hymn sincerely, With innocent mouths, Christ, the leader of youths. 0 King of saints. World all-subduinp Of the most lliKli Father." — See Angelic Hymn, Cherubic Htmn, DOXOLOGY, rSALMODT, TrISAGION, &C. Ilypapanlc (meeting), an old name of Can- dlemas or tlie Purification of the Virgin, taken from the circumstance that Simeon met the child Jesus in the temple wlien Mary presented her offering. The festival is not earlier than the reigns of Justinian or Justin. llypfi-tliilin (over-service), worship offered to the Virgin.— See UuLiA, Idolatry, Image. IlypopMnlnia (responsive psalm), much the same as Du'SALMA (w/iich see). "Yhe gloria patri 317 HYP repeated at the end of a psalm seems sometimes to have borne that name. Hypostatical Union (from hypostasis, substance or person), the personal union of the divine and human natures in Christ — one person •with two natures — not two persons with two natures or one nature. The word hypostasis was employed to denote a personal subsistence or per- son in the Godhead, and the word essence to signify the being which is common to Father, Son, and Spirit. — See Person of Christ. Bypothetical Baptism is thus described and warranted in the Booh of Common Prayer, — " But if they which bring the infant to the church do make such uncertain answers to the priest's ques- tions, as that it cannot appear that the child was baptized with water, in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost (which ICO are essential parts of baptism), then let the priest baptize it in the form before appointed for public baptism of infants ; saving that at the dipping of the child in the font, he shall use this form of words, — ' If thou are not already baptized, N., I baptize thee in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost. Amen.' " Bypothetical UniFersalism. — See Amt- EALDiSM, Formula Consensus. Hypsistarians (Supremisis, that is, worship- pers of the Supreme'), a small sect of the fourth century, which worshipped God the Supreme alone. Their worship appears a combination of Jewish and Pagan or Parsee elements. Gregory Nazianzen says that they worshipped fire (pro- bably as allied to the Supreme), and held sacred the seventh day. Iberian Church. — See Georgian Church. Ichihus C'X^"ii fish).— See Fish. Iconastasis, the screen covered with images, which, in the Greek Church, separates the holy table from the body of the church, and within which none enter but the clergy. Iconoclast (from I'lxuy, an image, and x.Xccir- rris, a breaker), a breaker of images : a name given by the Church of Rome to all who con- demn the worship of images. The title was first given to a party of the eighth centurj', which, in conformity with an edict of Leo the Isaurian, undertook to demolish all images and pictures in churches as idolatrous. Their opponents, who were supported by the popes Gregory I. and II., received the name of Iconoduli or Iconola- trcB. In 726 Leo published a severe edict against this species of idolatry, in which he prohibited an}' kind of worship and adoration to be oflfered to images, and commanded them to be removed from the churches. However, the successful struggle of Leo for the demolition of idolatry in the im- perial city did not influence the conduct of his subjects in the other parts of the empire, nor render his measures acceptable to the Roman see. The horrors of civil war raged in the islands of the Archipelago, in Asia, and in Italy. Gregory II., the Roman pontiff, opposed with great vehemence the attempts of the em- peror respecting image-worship, and absolved the people of Rome from their allegiance to Leo. This measure was the signal of revolt : the Ro- mans and other Italian provinces, subject to the Grecian empire, rose in arms, massacred or banished the imperial officers, and, refusing to acknowledge the authority of the emperor, chose new magistrates. Leo, however, opposed the worship of images with reiterated fury, and en- forced his prohibition by threatening the op- posers of his laws with severe and exemplary punishment. The death of Leo and that of Gre- gory III., who died the same year, and whose attachment to image-worship had not been less decisive than that of his predecessor, did not restore tranquillity to the church and the empire. Leo was succeeded by his son Constantine Copro- nymus, who renewed his father's edict, and, in 754, convened at Constantinople a council, in which not only the worship but the use of images was unanimously condemned. The decrees of this assembly, which the Greeks regarded as the seventh general council, were received by great numbers, though not universally, even in the Eastern Churches, but were utterly rejected at Rome. Leo III., who succeeded Constantine in 775, was not more favourable to idolatry than his progenitors. He openly declared his abhor- rence of image-worship, and punished with seve- rity those who had presumed to pay any kind of adoration to the saints, to the Virgin Mary, or to their images. The infant son of Leo, who was only ten years of age, was the nominal suc- cessor of his father; but the reins of govern- ment were assumed by the ambitious empress, Irene, who transacted all the affairs of the empire. Under her administration the Iconolatrje enjoyed not only a respite from their sufferings, but the utmost protection and favour. New images decorated the walls which had lately been de- prived of their ornaments ; and she adopted the popular measure of annulling the edicts of former emperors against the worship of idols. In 786, in concert with Adrian, Bishop of Rome, a council was convened at Nice, in Bithynia, where the impiety of the image-breakers was severely con- demned, the adoration of images and of the cross re-established, and severe punishments were threatened against the daring transgressors of the established rites. Charlemagne ordered a judi- cious divine to compose Four Boohs concerning 318 ICO Images, which refuted the absurd decrees of the Nicene assembly with judgment and spirit. These books were sent, in 790, to the Roman pontiff, Adrian, who attempted to answer and refute the objections of Charlemagne. The prince, however, in 794, assembled a council at Frank- fort, in which the opinion supported in the Four Books, of the lawfulness and expediency of placing pictures in churches, either as ornaments to the building, or as useful in refreshing the niemorj', was allowed ; but the worship of them was absolutely forbidden. According to the tes- timony of Roger Hoveden and other English writers, the British Churches assented to this decision. After the banishment of Irene the con- troversy concerning images was renewed among the Greeks, and was carried on by the contend- ing parties, during the half of the ninth century, with various and uncertain success. The emperor Nicephorus seems, upon the whole, to have been an enemy to that idolatrous service. His suc- cessor, Michael Curopalates, surnamed Rhangabe, pursued very different measures, and persecuted the adversaries of image- worship with the greatest rancour and cruelty. The scene again changed on the accession of Leo, the Armenian, to the empire; for he abolished the decrees of the Nicene council relating to the use and worship of images, in a council assembled at Constantinople in 814. His successor, Michael, surnamed Balbus, or the Stammerer, disapproved of the worship of images ; and Theophilus, the son of Michael, opposed the worshippers of images with much violence, and treated them with great severity. On the death of Theophilus, the regency was entrusted to the empress Theodora, during her son's minority. This superstitious princess assembled, in 842, a council at Constantinople, in which the decrees of the second Nicene council were reinstated in their lost authority, and the Greeks were Indulged in their corrupt propensity to image-worship b}' a decisive law. The council held at the same place under Photius, in 879, and reckoned by the Greeks the eighth general council, added force and vigour to idolatry, by maintaining the sanctitj' of images, and approving, confirming, and renewing the Nicene decrees. The Latins were generally of opinion that images might be tolerated as the means of aiding the memory of the faithful, and of calling to their remembrance the pious and virtuous actions of the persons they represented ; but they detested all thoughts of paying them the least degree of religious homage or adoration. The council of Paris, assembled by Lewis the Meek, in 824, allowed the use of images in churches, but sternly for- bade to treat them with the smallest marks of religious worship. In time, however, the Euro- pean Christians gradually departed from the observance of this injunction, and fell impercep- tibly into a blind submission to the decisions of the Roman pontiff, whose influence and autiiority grew daily more formidable. Towards the con- 31 IDO elusion, therefore, of the ninth century, the Gal- lican clergy began to pay a certain degree of religious homage to the sacred images ; and their example was followed by the Germans and other nations. Yet the Iconoclasts were not destitute of adherents among the Latins. The most emi- nent of these w.is Claudius, Bishop of Turin, who, in 823, ordered all images, and even the cross itself, to be cast out of the churches and committed to the flames. He also composed a treatise, in which he declared against the use as well as the worship of images. He denied that the cross was to be honoured with any kind of worship ; treated relics with the utmost contempt, as absolutely destitute of the virtues attributed to them ; and censured with much freedom and severitj' the frequent pilgrimages to the Holy Land, and the offerings at the tombs of saints. In the eleventh century the controversy concern- ing the sanctity of images was revived among the Greeks by Leo, Bishop of Chalcedon. The Emperor Alexius had ordered the figures of silver that adorned the portals of the churches to be converted into money, in order to supply the exigencies of the state. Leo obstinately main- tained that Alexius had been guilty of sacrilege; and he published a treatise in which he affirmed that in the images of Jesus Christ and of the saints there resided an inherent sanctity, and that the adoration of Cliristians ought not to be con- fined to the persons represented bj' these images, but should extend to the images themselves. The emperor assembled a council at Constanti- nople, which determined that the images of Christ and of the saints were to be honoured only with a relative worship, and that invocation and worship were to be addressed to the saints only as the servants of Christ, and on account of their relation to him as their master. These absurd and superstitious decisions did not satisfy the idolatrous Leo, who obstinatel}' maintained his opinions, and was therefore sent into banishment. In the S\^estern Church the worship of images was disapproved and opposed by several con- siderable parties — as the Petrobrussians, the Albigenses, Waldcnses, &c. ; and at length this idolatrous practice was abolished in many parts of the Christian world bv the Reformation. (Moshehn's Eccks. Hist, vol. ii., pp. 89, 90, 91, 148, &c.)— See Image. Iconodiilia or Jjntria (tixuf, image), the worship of images : a name often used in the con- troversies of tlie eighth century. — See Icono- clast. Idiotic O'Biurai, private persons), an early name of the private members of the Church, in contrast with those who held public office in the Church. Idolnirr- — Tlie Church of Rome is plainly gnilty of this sin. For in tiiat church, us Palnier, an English Iligii Churchman, remarks: — " 1. It is maintained without censure that latria, or the worship paid to the Divine nature, IGN is also due to images of Christ; images of the Trinity; images of God the Father; relics of the blood, flesh, hair, and nails of Christ ; relics of the true cross ; relics of the nails, spear, sponge, scourge, reed, pillar, linen cloth, napkin of Vero- nica, seamless coat, purple robe, inscription on the cross, and other instruments of the passion ; images of the cross ; the Bible ; the blessed Vir- gin. All these creatures ought, according to the doctrines taught commonlj' and without censure in the Roman communion, to receive the very worship paid to God. — 2. Divine honours are practically offered to the Virgin, and to all the saints and angels. It has been repeatedly and clearly shown that they are addressed in exactly the same terms in which we ought to address God ; that the same sort of confidence is expressed in their power ; that they are acknowledged to be the authors of grace and salvation. These idolatries are generally practised without opposi- tion or censure. — 3. The Virgin is blasphem- ously asserted to be superior to God the Son, and to command him. She is represented as the source of all grace, while believers are taught to look on Jesus with dread. The work of redemp- tion is said to be divided between her and our Lord." Ignorance. — The ignorance of manj' of the clergy prior to the Reformation is almost incred- ible. Chaucer affirms of many — " Nother canne thei the Gospel rede;" and Wycliffe saj's that there were " manj'- unable curates that kunnen not the ten commandments, ne read their sauter (psalter), ne understond a verse of it." There was scarcely a Latin Testament in any cathedral in England till the time of Dean Colet, though Latin was the language of the church, of its Scriptures, and services. Matters were as bad on the Continent. One monk affirmed that a new language had lately been discovered, called Greek, and that it was the parent of all heresy. " Many priests and pastors," according to Muscu- lus, " had never seen a Bible." Archbishops and bishops could not write, but put their mark to deeds and acts of councils. The Catholic clergy in Scotland were wont to say, that Luther had lately composed a wicked book called the New Testament. If such was the case with so many of the clergy, what could be expected from the people? When the blind lead the blind, there is but one result. Ikonoborisi, a small Russian dissenting sect, which not only will not allow paintings in places of worship, but forbids them also in pri- vate dwellings. Illuminated (enlightened), a name given to those newly baptized in the early Church, either on account of the knowledge which they had pro- fessed, or because a lighted taper was put into their hands, as a symbol of their enlightenment. Illuminated, a sect which, under the name of Alumbrados (enlightened), rose in Spain in 1575. They were a kind of Antinomiau Quiet- IMA ists, believing that they had, by prayer, reached such perfection as to be able to dispense with the ordinances of the church; for the}' believed them- selves to be beyond the possibility of sinning. Many of them were put to death by the inquisi- tion. A sect of the same name and pretensions also arose in France under Louis XIII., but was soon extirpated. Image, in a religious sense, is generally used to denote an object of idolatrous worship, or the medium of stimulating to grateful, devo- tional, and reverential remembrance of the person or being represented by it. Though the second commandment forbids most explicit!}' the use of images in religious worship, and though the history of the Israelites presents some solemn warnings against a violation of the letter or spirit of that commandment, yet, to the Chris- tian Church of the latter end of the fourth century is to be ascribed the follj' and crime of introducing the germ of image- worship. Like every other innovation upon the sim- plicity and purity of Christian worship this practice was introduced without any idea of the ulterior consequences which have attended it; besides which, a plea of utility was not wanting to repress the murmurs of those who argued that Christian men were bound to reject the doctrine of expediency under the most plausible modifications, adhering simply and closely " to the law and to the testimonj'." Thus Paulinus, Bishop of Nola, ornamented the walls of his church with paintings of Scripture subjects, in order to engage the attention of the less instructed of his liearers, during the an- niversar}' festival of the dedication of the Church of St. Felix. About the same time other intima- tions of a like practice appeared elsewhere, which St. Augustine unhesitatinglv condemned, saying of those who introduced this artistic innovation, " The Church condemns them as ignorant, and superstitious, and self-willed persons ; and daily it endeavours to correct them as untoward chil- dren." So early as the year 305 the council of Eliberis published the following decree : — " We decree that pictures ought not to be in churches, lest that which is worshipped and adored be painted upon the walls ;" whence it appears that pictorial embellishments, with the most innocent intention no doubt, had about that time been introduced into some churches. Probably the pictures were but emblematic representations of the spirit and power of Christianity, or of the religious experience of those who were led to embrace it as the true and genuine revelation of God to man ; for we have mention, in Tertul- lian's writings, of a communion cup embellished with a picture of a shepherd bringing home his lost sheep — a lively representation of Christ, " the good shepherd." It is evident, however, that the design of these pictures was for orna- ment or historic instruction, and not for pur- poses of worship ; but the boundary having 320 IMA IMA been once passed— the landmark having been I pun^eying in any form for heathen worship, or once removed — further innovations stealthily and connivance with it in any way, with its proccs- slowly succeeded, such as the hanging up in i sions, feasts, or ceremonies, was similarly con- churches the pictures of kings, bishops, and other | demned. There is one image in the Church of distinguished personages ; till at length, by a 1 Rome that merits a moment's attention. It is decree of the second council of Nice, a.d. 787, [ that of the infant Jesus, usuallv called il Bnm- the degrading superstition of reverencing the images of saints and martyrs was declared law- ful. The Komanists, with much self-confihibited from baptism, seeing, as Ter- tuUian sa}s, "they made the devils their pup- pets, and make their house a shop to maintain them." The}- were also forbidden to come to the communion ; for the trade was scandalous, and wholly inconsistent with the profession of Chris bino — that being the Italian name for a child. It belongs to the Convent and Church of Ara Coeli, at the Capitol in Rome. It is a wooden doll, about two feet in length, — on its head a crown of gold, studded with rubies and diamonds, its body wrapt in swaddling clothes, so gemmed with precious stones as to blaze with a dazzling splendour. The worth of the clothing is several thousands of pounds sterling. It is said to have been carved out of olive wood hj- a Franciscan monk in Jerusalem, and is declared to have wrought man}' miracles. Seymour, in his Pil- grimage to Pome, describes the intense and uni- versal homage paid to it : — " Such a scene ! There, at the height of an hundred and twenty- four steps above the people, there stood the priests in all their splendid robes. On one side were arranged about forty monks ; on the other hand about as many more ; and clothed in their sombre dresses, and waving their blazing torches in their hands, they presented a scene of the most strik- ing appearance. In the midst were the more immediate oflicials, holding aloft their gigantic torches; and in the centre of these again were the priests, surrounding the high priest, who held the little image— the Bambino — in his hand. At least one hundred torches, each in the hand of an ecclesiastic, glittered and flamed around. The monks stood in their places ; the ecclesiastics gathered together; the incense was waved, and enwrapped all for a moment in its clouds and its perfume ; the military band.filled the whole place with a crash of music ; and the soldiers of the guard presented arms, as the chief jiricst lifted the little image— slowly lifted the Bambino, rais- ing it above his head. In an instant, as if the eternal Jehovah were visibly present in the image, among the vast multitude gazing from far beneath, every head was uncovered before it, and every knee was bent to it, and almost every living soul was prostrate before it. He raised it slowly a second time; he raised it in the same manner, only more slowly, the third time ; and the muttered words of prayer ascended from the vast multitude, and told how deeply and univer- sally rooted among the people is this worship of the Bambino. I felt as if my blood was frozen within me at so awful a spectacle. . . . There is no apo- logy, and tiiere can be no defence for this, which presents a plain instance of idolatry, as palpable and as gross as the very worst that ever ciiarac- terizcd the ancient heathens of Rome. There was bowing, kneeling, and prostration, to a little tianity — believing in one God, and yet making j wooden image. And there wjis in all this the many gods— lifting up those hands to'him which I belief that there was divine power in this innige, had been emjiloved in the mainifacture of false ] to give the divine blessing."— Besides the Barn- divinities. The 'making or vending of incense, ' bino, there are also at Rome, as prime objects of 321 Y IMM adoration, such as kneeling, kissing, and prayer, the statue of St. Feter, said to be really a Ju- piter Tonans, worshipped of old by the pagan Komans ; the Madonna of the Augustinians, not unlike " the figure of a collier, or coasting vessel," as large as life, and with a child in its arms, worshipped as the queen of heaven ; and the image of Christ, close to the high altar of the Church of St. Maria Sopra Minerva, the product of Michael Angelo ; but it has ceased to be the favourite idol of the populace, the Virgin having supplanted it — the mother whollv overshadow- ing her son. — See Iconoclast, Pici'ures. Iiumaculale Coiicrption of the Virgin Mary, a dogma of the Romish Church, which was solemnly published in St. Peter's on the 8th December, 1854, in words of which the following is a translation : — " We declare, pro- nounce, and define, that the doctrine which holds that the Blessed Virgin Mary, at the first in- stant of her conception, by a singular privilege and grace of the omnipotent God, in virtue of the merits of Jesus Christ, the Saviour of man- kind, was preserved immaculate from all stain of original sin, has been revealed by God, and therefore should befirmh'and constantly believed by all the faithful." A bull dated that same day, and containing an elaborate defence of the doctrine, pronounces that "whoever shall pre- sume to tliink otherwise, has suffered shipwreck of the faith, has revolted from the unitj' of the churcli ; and if he gives utterance to his thought, incurs the penalties justly established against heresy." The first time this doctrine attracted anj' notice in the Church was when St. B(;rnard, about the j'ear 1 1 40, wrote to the canons of Lyons to reprove them for introducing into their church the Feast of the* Conception (174th letter). The introduction of such a festival was sup- posed to be a consequence of their believing the conception to be miraculous. And such, no doubt, was their belief, and the belief of the many other churches in which the festival was from time to time introduced, although the authorities at Rome, when they came to sanction the festival, took pains to guard against the in- ference that they sanctioned the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception, pointing out how the festival of the Assumption also was celebrated without the Assumption being an article of faith. The first divine of any note who put forth the doctrine in question was Duns Scotus in 1306. His views were cordially taken up by the Fran- ciscans, while the Dominicans no less warmly followed Thomas Aquinas in maintaining the contrarj- opinion. From that time to this the question has been disputed. Popes and coun- cils have attempted to all.iy the strife and to avoid a formal decision. They have generally allowed that the Immaculate Conception may be held as a pious opinion. The council of Trent decreed that the doctrine of all men being con- ceived in original sin was not intended to in- IMP elude the Virgin ; but the zeal of the worstip^ pers of Marj- would not be satisfied with such a compromise, and has completely triumphed at last. In 1843 the general of the Dominicans applied, in the name of his order, for permission to adopt the service for the Feast of the Con- ception, in which the epithet Immaculate occurs. This seemed to remove the last barrier to the attainment of the long-desired object; and ac- cordingly Pius IX. has ventured solemnly to stamp, as an article of faith, that doctrine of which his infallible predecessor, Gregory XV., had declared " that it had not been revealed by God." — See Mart, Virgin Mary. Immersion. — See Baptism, P^edobap- TISTS. Immorable Feasts. — See Feasts. Impanaiion {in and panis, bread). — The impaiiatores were originally those who denied that the bread and wine were transubstantiated into the body and blood of Christ. Sub- sequently, Du Cange adds, the Lutherans were so called, who dreamed that the bread remains with the body of Christ in the Euchar- ist. " This conceit," says Waterland, " that our Lord's divinity becomes personally united with the elements, has sometimes gone under the name of assumption, as it imports the Deity's assuming the elements into a personal union; and sometimes it has been called impanaiion, — a name following the analogy of the word incar- nation." Inipeccabiles (notable to sin), the Priscil- lianists and some ancient sects held that they were incapable of sin, and got this extravagant name. Implicit Faith. — In a special sense such faith is enjoined by the Church of Rome. " When a man," says Newman, " has become a Catholic, were he to set about following a doubt wliich has occurred to him, he has al- ready disbelieved." " Irrational obedience," says Cardinal Toletin, " is the most consummate and perfect obedience." — See Faith, Implicit. Implnrium, the atrium or open court in front of the early churches. It had no covering, but was surrounded bv cloisters. In it assembled the first class of penitents called Weepers. — See Flentes. Imposition of Sands. — This symbolical rite was often employed in the early Church, as in the ordination of the superior clergj-, and in tiiat of deaconesses, in confirmation, in absolu- tion, in making catechumens and penitents, in exorcising the possessed or energumens, and at the bishops' benediction. — See Hands. Impropriations. — Skinner observes that appropriation (of an ecclesiastical benefice) and impropriaiion are to be distinguished; the latter term bfing used of those in the possession of hivmen by the gift of the king, the former of those annexed to some ecclesiastical corpo- ration. Spelman, also, who has inveighed with 322 IMP great vehemence against the tenure of impro- priations, very carefully distinguishes them from appropriations, with which they are usually identified. After showing in what manner religious bodies obtained a perpetual incum- bency on benefices, he adds, " In old times, whilst these churches were in the clprgy-hand, they were called appropriations, because they were appropriate to a particular succession of churchmen ; now they are called impropriations, for they are improperly in the hands of laymen" (^Larger Work of Tythes, c. 20.) Minshew in like manner observes, that impropriations are '' when spiritual livings come to temporall men, as improper to them." " Benefices," Blackstone sa^'s, " are sometimes appropriated ; that is to say, the benefice is perpetual!}' annexed to some spiritual corporation, either sole or aggregate, being the patron of the living, which the law esteems equally capable of providing for the service of the church as any single private cler- gyman. This contrivance seems to have sprung from the policy of the monastic orders, who have never been deficient in subtle inventions for the increase of their own power and emoluments. At the first establishment of parochial clergy the tithes of the parish were distributed in a fourfold division, — one for the use of the bishop, another for maintaining the fabric of the church, a third for the poor, and the fourth to provide for the incumbent. When the sees of the bishops became otherwise amply endowed, they were prohibited from demanding their usual share of these tithes, and the division was into three parts onlj'. And hence it was inferred by the monasteries, that a small part was sufficient for the officiating priest, and that the remainder might well be applied to the use of their own fraternities (the endowment of which was construed to be a work of the most exalted piety), subject to the burden of repairing the church, and providing for its constant sup- pi}' ; and therefore they begged and bought, for masses and obits, and sometimes even for money, all the advowsons within their reach, and then appropriated the benefices to the use of their own corporation. I?ut, in order to complete such appropriation effectually, the king's license and consent of the bishop must first be obtained ; because both the king and the bishop may some time or other have an interest, by lapse, in the presentation to the benefice, which can never happen if it be appropriated to the use of a cor- poration, which never dies; and also because the law reposes a confidence in them, that they will not consent to anything that shall be to the pre- judice of the church. The consent of the patron also is necessarily implied, because, as was before observed, the appropriation can be originally made to none but to such spiritual corporation as is also the patron of the church, — the whole being indeed nothing else but an allowance for the patrons to retain the tithes and glebe in their own hands, without presenting any clerk, they IMP themselves undertaking to provide for the ser^'ice of the church. "When the appropriation is thus made, the appropriators and their successors are perpetual parsons of the church, and must sue and be sued, in all matters concerning the rights of the church by the name of parsons. This appropriation may be severed, and the church become disappropriate two ways; a3, first, if the patron or appro))riator presents a clerk, who is instituted and inducted to the par- sonage; for the incumbent so instituted and inducted is to all intents and purposes complete parson ; and the appropriation being once severed, can never be re-united again, unless b}' a repeti- tion of the same solemnities. And when the clerk so presented is distinct from the vicar, the rectory thus vested in him becomes what is called a sinecure; because he hath no cure of souls, having a vicar under him to whom that cure is committed. Also, if the corporation which has the appropriation is dissolved, the parsonage be- comes disapprojiriate at common law; because the perpetuity of person is gone, which is ne- cessary to support the appropriation. In this manner, and subject to these conditions, may appropriations be made at this day ; and thus were most, if not all, of the appropriations at present existing originally made — being annexed to bishoprics, prebends, religious houses, nay, even to nunneries and certain military orders, all of which were spiritual corporations. At the dissolution of monasteries bv statutes 27 Henry VIII., c. 28, and 31 HenrV VIII., c. 13, the appropriations of the several parsonages, which belonged to those respective religious hous^ (amounting to more than one-third of all the parishes in England), would have been by the rules of the connnon law disappropriated, had not a clause in those statutes intervened, to give them to the king in as ample a manner as the abbots, &c., formerly held the same, at the time of their dissolution. This, though perhaps scarcely defensible, was not without example; for the same was done in former reigns, when the alien priories (that is, such as were filled by foreigners only) were dissolved and given to the crown. And from these two roots have sprung all the la}- appropriations of secular par- sonages which we now see in the kingdom, they having been afterwards granted out (rom time to time by the crown. These appro!)rialing corpo- rations or religious houses were wont to depute one of their own body to perform divine service and administer the sacraments in those parishes of which the society was thus the parson. Tiiis officiating minister was in reality no more than a curate, deputy, or vicegerent of the appropria- tor, and therefore called vicar'ms or vtcar. His stipend was at the discretion of the appropriator, who was, however, bound of common right to find somebod}', qui illi de temporalibus, episcopo de spiritualibus, debeat respoiidere. But this was done ia so scandalous a manner, and the 323 IMP parishes suflPered so much by the neglect of the appropriators, that the legislature was forced to interpose ; and accordingly it is enacted by sta- tute 15 Richard II., c. 6, that in all appropria- tions of churches the diocesan bishop shall ordain (in proportion to the value of the church) a competent sum to be distributed among the poor parishioners annually, and that the vicarage shall be sufficiently endowed. It seems the parishes •were frequently sufferers, not only by the want of divine service, but also by withholding those alms for which, among other purposes, the pay- ment of tithes was originally imposed; and therefore in this act a pension is directed to be distributed among the poor parochians, as well as a sufficient stipend to the vicar. But he, being liable to be removed at the pleasure of the appropriator, was not likely to insist too rigidly on the legal sufficiency of the stipend ; and there- fore, by statute 4 Henry IV., c. 12, it is ordained that the vicar shall be a secular person, not a member of any religious house ; that he shall be vicar perpetual, not removable at the caprice of the monastery ; and that he shall be canonically instituted and inducted, and be sufficiently en- dowed, at the discretion of the ordinary, for these three express purposes, — to do divine service, to inform the people, and to keep hospitality. The endowments, in consequence of these statutes, have usually been by a portion of the glebe or land belonging to the parsonage, and a particular share of the tithes which the appropriators found it most troublesome to collect, and which are therefore generally called privy or small tithes ; the greater or predial tithes being still reserved to their own use. But one and the same rule was not observed in the endowment of all vicar- ages. Hence some are more liberally and some more scantily endowed ; and hence the tithes of many things, as wood in particular, are in some parishes rectorial, and in some vicarial tithes. The distinction, therefore, of a parson and vicar is this : The parson has, for the most part, the whole right to all the ecclesiastical dues in his parish ; but a vicar has generally an appropriator over him, entitled to the best part of the profits, to whom he is in effect perpetual curate, with a standing salary, though in some places the vicarage has been considerably augmented by a large siiare of the great tithes, which augmen- tations were greatly assisted by the statute 29 Charles II., c. 8, enacted in favour of poor vicars and curates, which rendered such temporary aug- mentations (when made by the appropriators) perpetual." Selden considers the subject very differently : in his Histurtj of Ttjthes ( Works, vol. iiL, 1227) he gives an account of the nature of appropriations, and afterwards, in the Review of that work (1322), he makes their existence an argument against the origin of tithes, ywre divbio vioralL Iiupiitaiion, a theological term, signifying the transference, not of character, but of guilt IXC or liability to punishment, or of merit freeing from punishment. Character is one and indivi- sible, and can never be transferred. Adam's first sin is said to be imputed to us, so that oa account of it we are under sentence of death. Christ's righteousness is imputed to us, and on account of it we are justified, or exempted from condemnation. Our sins are said to be imputed to Christ, not that he was made a sinner, but that he bore, in our name, and as our represent- ative and substitute, the penalty due to us. Nor are we made holy b\' the imputation of his right- eousness : we are only absolved from the sen- tence of a broken law — See Justikicatiox. Inability. — Distinction is usually made be- tween natural and moral inability — the first being beyond our control, and the second Ij'ing, not in the mind, but in the will, — that is, when a man cannot, just because he will not, do a cer- tain thing. Thus Joseph's brethren " could not speak peaceabl}' to him," — that is, they were so filled with envy and hatred that they would not. Sin has brought moral inability upon man ; but, so far from its being a palliation, it is only an aggravation of his crime. (Edwards On the Will.') Incai-nation. — See Persox of Christ. Incense. — The use of incense in the Chris- tian Church, and in connection with the Euchar- ist, was not known till the period of Gregory the Great, towards the close of the sixth century, incense is used still in the Romish Church on a variety of occasions. Incest, a violation of the prohibited degrees. — See Marriage. Incest spiritual was supposed to happen between two persons spiritually allied by baptism or confirmation, and such a union rendered necessary a papal dispensation. — See Godfathers, Gossip. The same epithet is also sometimes given to a beneficiary who holds two benefices, one of which depends on the collation of the other— mother and daughter. Incineratio, the consecration of the ashes which, on Ash Wednesday or Lent, are by the popish ritual sprinkled on the heads of the clergy and people. The custom was begun by Gregory towards the end of the sixth century, but not fully established till toward the end of the twelfth by Pope Celestine III. — See Lent. Incipientes (beginners'), a name given to catechumens in the early Church. — See Cate- chumens. In Ccena Domini, a famous papal bull launched against all heretics, and issued in its latest form by Urban VIII. in 1G27. — See under Bull, p. 110. Incorruptible^, an extreme sect of Euty- chians which held that the body of Christ suf- fered no physical change of any kind, not even of appetite, thus denying the reality of his human nature. They were called in Greek Aph- thartodocetm. Incumbent (Lat., Incumbens, bending down under), used metaphorically of one who bends .324 IND under or sustains a duty. Tlie title incumbent is given to a clergyman residing on his benefice; " because," as Sir Edward Coke says {Lit., 119), " he does or ought diligently to bend all his study to the discharge of the cure of the church to which he belongs." Iiitlelible Character, a sign or change so impressed upon the soul bj' baptism, confirma- tion, and holy orders, that none of those sacra- ments can be repeated. Indeniniir (a compensation). — An in- demnity was a pension paid to the bishop in consideration of discharging or indemnifying churches, united or appropriated, from the pay- ment of procurations ; or by way of recompense for the profits which the bishop would otherwise have received during the time of the vacation of such churches. Independency, called also Congregation- alism, that form of church government which is equally opposed to presbytery and episcopacy. It holds that each church has all the power of discipline and government within itself, indepen- dently of other churches, and without any court of review. It denies the office of ruling elders or congregational representatives, and lodges the government in the entire body of the member- ship. The cortfjregation directly governs itself, and that indejxndently of all foreign control or supervision. Congregationalism admits only pastors and deacons as office-bearers authorized by the New Testament. On this last point, how- ever, they have differences both of opinion and practice. Dr. Davidson, in his Lectures on the Ecclesiastical Polity, arguing that there was a plurality of elders in each primitive church, any one of whom might teach. In reference to the con- gregational form of government the same writer says, — "Our investigations regarding the primi- tive churches have led to the full conviction, that they were voluntary societies; that they were of a spiritual character, existing for purposes of edifica- tion, worship, and discipline ; that they were not in connection with civil governments, or under their control ; that in the time of the apostles there ■were no provincial or national churches ; that there was no external visible unity among them, farther than a sisterly relation ; that they were not subordinate the one to the other ; and that they were complete in themselves. That they were voluntary societies is admitted even by those who think they ought not to be such in the pre- sent daj'. 'The churches of Christ in those days were of necessity voluntary societies : but it does not thence follow that they were ahvays so to continue.' The language in which they are uniformly- described attests the truth of the pro- position, that they were of a spiritual character. 'Know ye not,' says the apostle of the Gentiles, to the members cif tiie Corinthian Church, ' that ye are the temple of God, and that the Spirit of God dwolleth in you ?' That they were un- connected icith civil f/overnments is universall}' IXD conceded. All the governments of the world were opposed to them. So far from being as- sisted bj' civil power, thej* were persecuted by it. We never read of provincial churches. On the contrary, the churches of Asia are mentioned ; the churches of Judea ; the churches of Mace- donia. Hence there is no record of the church of Achaia, although several churches existed in that province, as those of Corinth and Cenchrea. The advocates of national churches do not plead for their existence in the time of the apostles. There is nothing to show an external visible unity among the churches of the apostolic period. All indeed were under the superintendence of the apostles generally ; but whatever unity they had, consisted in holding the same faith, and in serving the same Master with one spirit. Their unity was in having one Lord, one faith, one baptism. Neither were they subordinate to one another. No example of this subordination has yet been adduced from the New Testament. Even those called mother churches, such as were at Jerusalem and Antioch, did not claim or exer- cise power over others. All were distinct, indepen- dent societies. The preceding propositions imply that the churches were complete in themselves." The first Independents in this country were the Brownists. — See Brownist.s. At the Westmin- ster Assembly the Independents occupied a pro- minent place, their leaders being Nye, Simpson, Goodwin, Bridge, and Burroughs. Though they formally rejected " the proud and insolent title of Independency," they pleaded hard against pres- bytery, and for toleration ; for the Presbyterians were ready to enforce uniformity. Through various causes the Independents grew and mul- tiplied, and under Cromwell they acquired great influence in the country. A synod of them was convened at the Savoy on the 29th of September, 1658, and issued a declaration of faith and order — not different in its theology from the West- minster Confession. But the men of that day had more faith in the civil magistrate than their more modern representatives, and ascribed reli- gious functions to him which modern Congrega- tionalists would certainly disown. After the abdication of Richard Cromwell the ministers and delegates of the Congregational churches in and around London passed a series of resolutions, desiring a parliament that might preserve the interests of Christ, professing an utter dislike and abhorrence of universal toleration, and pro- testing " against the taking away of tithes, till as full a maintenance be equally secured and legally settled upon the ministry." The Independents suffered from the despotic "Acts" of the reigns of Charles II. and .James, when Protestant non- conformists of all sects were cruelly persecuted. They continued, however, to live and prosper, though shaken by various strifes and heresies, and oppressed to some extent bv the spiritual indifierentism of the first half of the eighteenth century. Of them Mackintosh says, — " They 325 IND (the Independents) disclaimed the qualifications of 'national' as repugnant to the nature of a 'churcli.' The religion of tbe Independents could not, without destroying its nature, be ' established.' They never could aspire to more than religious liberty, and they accordingly have the honour to be the first, and long the only Christian community who collectively adopted that sacred principle. It is true that in the be- ginning they adopted the pernicious and incon- sistent doctrine of limited toleration, excluding Catholics as idolaters; and in New England, where the great majority' were Congregational- ists, punishing, even capitally, dissenters from opinions which they accounted fundamental. But as intolerance could promote no interest of theirs, real or imaginarj-, their true principles finally •worked out the stain of these dishonourable ex- ceptions. The government of Cromwell, more influenced by them than by any other persua- sion, made as near approaches to general tolera- tion as public prejudice would endure; and Sir Henry Vane, an Independent, was probably the first who laid down with perfect precision the inviolable rights of conscience, and the exemp- tion of religion from all civil authority." To come down to the present time, the following is a portion of the declaration of the faith, church order, and discipline of the Congregational Inde- pendent Dissenters, as revised. May, 1852, in connection with the Congregational Union of England and Wales. We quote only what refers to government: — " 1. The Congregational churches hold it to be the will of Christ that true believers should voluntarily assemble to- gether to observe religious ordinances, to promote mutual eJification and holiness, to perpetuate and propagate the Gospel in the world, and to advance the glory and worship of God, through Jesus Christ , and that each society of believers, having these objects in view in its formation, is properly a Christian church. 2. They believe that the New Testament contains, either in the form of express statute, or in the example and practice of apostles and apostolic churches, all the articles of faith necessary to be believed, and all the principles of order and discipline requisite for constituting and governing Christian societies ; and that human traditions, fathers and councils, canons and creeds, possess no authority over the faith and practice of Christians. 3. They ac- knowledge Christ as the only head of the Church, and the officers of each church under him as ordained to administer his laws impartially to all; and their only appeal, in all questions touching their religious faith and j)ractice, is to the sacred Scriptures. 4. They believe that the New Testament authorizes every Christian church to elect its own officers, to manage all its own affairs, and to stand independent of, and irresponsible to, all authority, saving that only of the supreme and divine head of the Church, the Lord Jesus Christ. 5. They believe that IND the onlj' officers placed by the apostles over indi- vidual churches are the bishops or pastors, and the deacons ; the number of these being depen- dent upon the numbers of the church ; and that to these, as the officers of the church, is com- mitted respectively the administration of its spiritual and temporal concerns — subject, how- ever, to the approbation of the church. 6, They believe that no persons should be received as members of Christian churches but such as make a credible profession of Christianity, are living according to its precepts, and attest a willingness to be subject to its discipline ; and that none should be excluded from the fellow- ship of the church but such as deny the faith of Christ, violate his laws, or refuse to submit themselves to the discipline which the Word of God enforces. 7. The power of admission into anj' Christian church, and rejection from it, they believe to be vested in the church itself, and to be exercised only through the medium of its own officers. 8. They believe that Christian churches should statedly meet for the celebration of public worship, for the observance of the Lord's Supper, and for the sanctification of the first day of the week. 9. Thej' believe that the power of a Christian church is purely spiritual, and should in no way be corrupted by union with temporal or civil power. 10. They believe that it is the duty of Christian churches to hold communion with each other, to entertain an enlarged affec- tion for each other, as members of the same body, and to co-operate for the promotion of the Chris- tian cause ; but that no church, nor union of churches, has any right or power to interfere with the faith or discipline of any other church, further than to separate from such as, in faith or practice, depart from the Gospel of Christ 11. They believe that it is the privilege and duty of ever\' church to call forth such of its members as may appear to be qualified, by the Holy Spirit, to sustain the office of the ministry ; and that Christian churches unitedlj' ought to con- sider the maintenance of the Christian ministry in an adequate degree of learning as one of its especial cares ; that the cause of the Gospel may be both honourably sustained and constantly promoted. 12. They believe that church offi- cers, whether bishops or deacons, should be chosen by the free voice of the church ; but that their dedication to the duties of their office should take place with special prayer, and by solemn designation, to which most of the churches add the imposition of hands by those alreadj' in office. 13. They believe that the fellowship of every Christian church should be so liberal as to admit to communion in the Lord's Supper all whose faith and godline-s are, on the whole, undoubted, though conscientiously differing in points of minor importance; and that this out- ward sign of fraternity in Christ should be co-ex- tensive with the fraternity itself, though without involving any compliances which conscience 826 IND would deem to be sinful." Congregationalists have a large denominational literature, and man\' religious, benevolent, and educational institu- tions ; and their history is adorned by many illustrious names, — Owen, Howe, Gale, Good- win, Charnock, Watts, Doddridge, Pye Smith, &c. The number of churches is, — England, 1,600; Wales, 636; Scotland and Cliannel Islands, 147; Colonies, 208. Congregation- alists, both in England and Scotland, are alive to the necessity of having an educ ited ministry. There are ten colleges or academies, with a staff of twenty-six tutors, or, as they are now commonly called, professors. The students con- nected with these institutions maintain a high character. Since the establishment of the Lon- don university, the total number of degrees in arts and laws conferred is 546 ; and of these 150 have been granted to the alumni of Congrega- tional colleges. The committees and directors, entertaining strongly the belief that an uncon- verted ministry is fatal to the well-being of any church, are particularly carel'ul in procuring evidence of the personal piety of all who are admitted. Adhering to the congregational prin- ciple, the churches are under no obligation to restrict themselves to any class of students in the choice of a pastor. They may and do select men who are self-taught, but who, in their estimation, possess the essentia] qualifications. Generally speaking, however, students from the colleges are chosen, and the exceptive cases are comparatively rare. In addition to the volun- tary support of Gospel ordinances, Congrega- tionalists take a fair share in missionary work, both at home and abroad. The following seminaries belong to the body: — \\'estern Col- lege, Ph-mouth ; Rotherham Independent Col- lege; Brecon Independent College; Cheshunt College; Airedale College, Bradfoid; Hackney Theological Seminary; Theological Hall of Con- gregational Churches of Scotland; LancHshire Independent College ; Springhill College, iVIose- ley, Birmingham ; New College, London. There are also private seminaries at Bala, Bedford, Bethesda, Cotton End, and Huntington, and various schools of a high eminence and usefulness. (Conyref^ai tonal Year Book., 1800.) Conyregatiomdism in iScollaiid. — "Tlie rise of Congregationalism in Scotland may be traced principally to John Glas, minister of liie Church of Scotland, in the parish of Tealing, near Dundee, who formed a church there in 1725. The Congregationalists, forming tiie Congrega- tional Union of Scotland, trace tlieir immediate origin to tlie missionary enterprises of Kobert and James Haldane, in 1798 and subsequent j'ears. Surrounded by a band of faitliful and devoted men, these gentlemen were intent only on preaching the Gospel. Originally they had no idea of forming churches; but when God blessed their labours, their converts, by a sort ot epiriiual instinct, drew towards each other. On IND everj' side they were assailed by torrents of in- vective. Tlie church was in arms against them, and they sigiied for a polity, not cramped by rigid law, in which all the talent amongst them might at once be engaged in the cause of Christ. Places of worship, called ' meeting houses, or tabernacles,' were accordingly built in several of tiie large towns, in which churches were formed. The good work of the Lord went on ; and had it not been for separations which occurred in consequence of the baptismal contro- versy, the number of churches would have been greater than it is. In connection with tlie union there are at present 114 churches." — Russell's Sketch of Coii(jre(/atlon(dism ; Walker, Ihinbury, Fletcher, Borjue, and Bennet. CongregatioTKdism in America " In the year 1602 a dissenting church was formed in the north of England, which had for one of its pas- tors the Rev. John Robinson. This church was driven by persecution to Holland, in 1608, where Mr. Robinson soon followed them. He is re- garded as the father of Congregationalism, and the principles which he established in his church at Leyden are the same in substance as still prevail in New England. Some of these prin- ciples were held by the early Puritans, and were acted upon by the Independents in England as early as 1580. But as there were other and distinctive principles at which they did not ar- rive, they are not considered as Congregation- alists. The younger members of Mr. Robinson's church were the first settlers of New England, wliere they landed in 1G20. The pilgrims had been harassed by prelacy on one side, and independency on the other, and strove to avoid the evils of both. Hence the Cambiidge plat- form takes the ground that the Church, before the law, was in families; that under the law, it was national ; and since the coming of Christ, only congregational ; and adds, ' The term Independent we approve not.' Increase Mather, who knew well the usages of the churches, says, ' That the churches of New England have been originally congregational is known to every one. Their platform does expressly disclaim the name of Independent.' Samuel Mather says, ' The churches of New England are congregational. They do not a])prove the name of Independent, and are abhorrent from such principles of inde- pendency as would keep them from giving an account of their matters to members of neigh- bouring churches, regularly demai.ding it of them.' In speaking of those who woukl not act on the principle of the conununion of ciiurches, he says that ' tliey' (the Congregationalists) ' think it will not be safe or prudent for any Christian to commit his soul to the direction and conduct of sucii an independent church.' It were easy to multiply (juotaiions on this point, were it necessary, but enough iiave been adduced. The doctrinal articles of the Congregational churches, if we except the Unitarians, have been 327 IND in general those of Calvin, modified to some ex- tent by the views of Hopkins, Emmons, and other writers. Still they admit to their com- munion and fellowship all those churches which require evidence of Christian character as essen- tial to church membership. The Westminster and Savoy Confessions of Faith, and the Thirty- nine Articles of the Church of England, have been repeatedly approved by synods and councils in New England, as in general agreeable to the Word of God ; but the Bible is the only standard by which to test heresy. The churches are not bound by any one creed; but each church makes its own, and alters it at pleasure. Other churches can admonish, and if they see fit, withdraw fel- lowship where any of the essential doctrines of the Gospel have been renounced. All that synods and councils have done has been to set forth the prevailing belief of the churches at the time when they were held. Synods in New Eng- land are those larger bodies of delegates of the churches which assemble for making platforms or other matters of general interest. The synod of Newtown, in 1637, condemned eighty-two erroneous opinions which had been disseminated in New England. Councils are smaller bodies, and act on objects of less interest. Consocia- tions, such as exist in Connecticut, are standing councils. There is in each county one or more of these bodies, composed of the ministers and lay delegates of such churches as see fit to unite for the objects proposed. In cases of great im- portance two or three adjoining consociations may unite and act together, or a temporary council, without regard to local limits, may be called for the occasion. A majority of the min- isters, and enough of the lay delegates to make a majority of the whole council, is necessarj' in order to a valid decision. Most of the Congre- gational churches in Connecticut are consociated. So also are those in Rhode Island, and some in Vermont and in the state of New York. Asso- ciations are composed of ministers only, who meet for their own benefit, and to consult for the good of the churches. They examine and license candidates for the ministry, but have no power of making laws for the churches. Associations have been held from the first settlement of New England, and as early as 1690 had spread throughout the countrj'. New Hampshire, Massachusetts, and Connecticut, have state or general associations, and Vermont a general convention, composed of delegates from the dis- trict associations. In Massachusetts, some of the minor associations are not connected with the general association. In the state of Maine, and in the eastern part of Massachusetts, con- ferences of churches exist. This organization W'as commenced in Maine soon after the separa- tion of that state from Massachusetts, in 1820. Conferences are composed of the pastors and one or more delegates from the churches within a convenient district, meeting at stated times, to IND promote a mutual acquaintance with the state of the churches represented, and consult and adopt measures for the promotion of their pros- perity, having no legislative or judicial power. In Maine the district conferences are united, by a clerical and lay representation, in a general con- ference, meeting annually, and corresponding in its design and methods of proceeding to the general associations of New Hampshire, Massa- chusetts, and Connecticut, and the general con- vention of Vermont. In the year 1791 a plan was adopted by the general assembly of the Presbyterian Church and the general association of Connecticut, by which Presbyterians and Congregationalists, in the new settlements of the western states, were efiectually amalgamated. This plan places the two classes on equal terms in union churches, securing to each a mode of discipline corresponding to their principles, and gives to the members of the standing committee of Congregational churches the same standing and powers in presbyteries and synods as belong to the ruling elders of the Presbyterians. Four hundred of these union churches have been planted in the western states by the Congrega- tionalists in Connecticut alone. A work entitled The Keys of the Kingdom of Heaven and Power thereof bj' the Rev. John Cotton, of Boston, had been the principal directory in ecclesiastical affairs next to the Bible, prior to the adoption of the Cambridge platform, in 1648. This plat- form was in force throughout New England, until it was superseded in Connecticut by the Saybrook platform, in 1708. They both contain the confessions of faith, and the rules of order and discipline, of the churches of New England, and also sanction and approve of the Westmin- ster and Savoy Confessions of Faith. If we except Connecticut, there is throughout New England much practical neglect of some of the fundamental principles laid down in these for- mulas. In Massachusetts about 150 churches have become Unitarian, while in Connecticut there is but one minister of that faith, and but few in the other New England states. This change in Massachusetts has been mainly attributed to the operation of what is called " the half-way covenant," and to the neglect of congregational usage, as to watching over and disciplining churches. Owing to the fact that in early times church membership was necessary' in order to become a voter, or eligible to office, there was a strong desire on the part of men not pious to enter the church. Hence an act was passed by the synod of Boston, in 1663, which recognized all baptized persons as mem- bers of the church, and their children were entitled to baptism. Still thev made no profes- sion of their faith in Christ, and did not partake of the Lord's Supper. This is what is called the " half-way covenant." — See Half-way Cove- nant. Efforts were made at an early period, by Eliot and others, to Christianize the Indians, 328 IND and in 1700 there were in New England thirty Indian churches under the pastoral care of the same number of Indian preachers. Licentiates are those who have received a commission to preach, but have not been ordained or set apart by the imposition of hands and other ceremonies. Evan- gelists are those who have been ordained, and hence have power to administer the sacraments, but are not put over any particular church. Missionaries to the heathen, and those who go as pastors to remote and isolated churches, are ordained before they are sent forth. Ministers who have been previously ordained are installed when they are placed over a church. In this ceremony there is no imposition of hands. Churches are hy law corporate bodies ; and in the call of a minister to become their pastor, they act separately from and generally prior to the society, or parish, which embraces both the church and those who worship with them. The call of the church, however, is not valid unless the parish assents to it. The contract of settle- ment is made wholly between the parish and minister, and is obligatory on them only. In the dismission of a minister the church is ex- pected to call a council for that purpose ; and by the dissolution of his connection with the church Lis connection with the parish ceases also. If the church refuse to call a council, and the parish are dissatisfied, they can vote not to pay the minister, when he can bring his claims before a court of justice, who may decide whether he has been guilty of such immorality, or neglect of pas- toral duties, as to amount to a violation of the contract. The Congregationalists have foupded in New England eight colleges, two theological seminaries, and a large number of high schools and academies. Besides this they have contri- buted liberally to establish similar institutions in other parts of the United States. In com- mencing and carrying forward the various benevolent operations of the present day, the Congregationalists of New England have had a leading and prominent agency. The most dis- tinguished writers among the Congi-egational divines of New England are — John Cotton, Increase and Cotton Mather, Thomas Hooker, the two Edwardses, father and son ; the former, president of Princeton, and the latter, of Union College ; Hopkins, Trumbull, Bellamj', Smalley, and 1) wight. To these might be added a list of living authors, who are exerting a great and important iiillucnce on the theology and morals of this and other nations. There are now 943 Trinitarian Congregational ministers in New England. A number also of those who are born and educated there go abroad every year, and are settled in other parts of the United States, or sent as missionaries to foreign coun- tries. In twenty-seven years from the first settlement of New England, forty-three churches were formed ; and in an equal number of suc- ceeding years eighty churches more rose into IND existence. The present number is 1,059, ex- clusive of from one to two hundred Unitarian churches. The number of communicants is about 120,000. Congregational churches also exist iu other parts of the United States, and in con- nection with missionary stations in various parts of the heathen world. — From an article by Charles Rockwell, of Andover Theological Semi- nary. Indexes. — By the Romish Church index is used absolutely to designate the catalogues or lists of books prohibited by ecclesiastical autho- rity, on account of the heretical opinions sup- posed to be contained in them, or maintained by the authors or editors of them. The catalogue, or list of books absolutely prohibited, is simply called the Index, or Index Librorum Prohlbiio- rum; but, when the list or catalogue is of books allowed to be read after correction or alter- ation, agreeably to the orders of the papal authorities, it is termed Index Expurgatorius ; and in the later indexes the words donee cor- rigantur are subjoined to certain works, in order to render a separate expurgatory index unnecessary. The invention of printing about the middle of the fifteenth century caused a rapid multiplication of books, and induced the papal hierarchy to prevent, if possible, the circula- tion of any which might prove injuricjus to the interests of the Romish Church. Hence origi- nated imprimaturs, or official permissions to printworks; and the promulgation and diflTusion of the doctrines of the Reformation in the follow- ing century, increased the determination of the powerful adherents of Popery to suppress and to destroy all books tinctured with Lutlieranism, or maintaining any of the peculiar opi.dons held by the Reformed Churches. In 154G, in pursu- ance of an edict of the Emperor Charles V., the university of Louvain published an index or catalogue of books regarded as dangerous, of which a revised edition was published in 1550. Similar lists of interdicted books appeared nearly at the same time at Venice, Paris, Rome, Cologne, and other places. These in(ie.\e3 as- sumed their most systematic form at the council of Trent, which, at its eighteenth session referred the consideration of works to be prohibited to a select committee ; and in the twenty-fifth session what had been done by that committee was re- ferred to the pope, that it might be com- pleted and publisiied with his authority. The work was accordingly published in 15G4. Be- sides the catalogue of prohibited bociks, it contains general rules relative to such bucks, drawn up by certain persons, deputed for that purpose by the Tridentine council, and sanctioned by Pope Pius IV. These rules, which are ten in number, are prefixed to the diflerent indexes which have been published since that period. They are as follows: — "1. All books condemned by the su- preme pontiffs or general councils before the year 1515, and not comprised in the present index, 329 IND are nevertheless to be considered as condemned. 2. The books of heresiarchs, whether of those who broached or disseminated tlieir heresies prior to the 3'ear above mentioned, or of those who have been, or are, the heads or leaders of here- tic?, as Luther, Zwingli, Calvin, Balthazar Paci- montanus, Swenchfeld, and other similar ones, are altogether forbidden, whatever may be their names, titles, or subjects. And the books of other heretics, which treat professedly upon re- ligion, are totally condemned ; but those which do not treat upon religion are allowed to be read, after having been examined and approved by Catholic divines, by order of the bishops and in- quisitors. Those Catholic books also are per- mitted to be read which have been composed by authors who have afterward fallen into heresy, or who, after their fall, have returned into the bosom of the church, provided they have been approved by the theological faculty of some Catholic university, or bj' the general inquisition. 3. Translations of ecclesiastical writers, which have been hitherto published by condemned authors, are permitted to be read, if they contain nothing contrary to sound doctrine. Transla- tions of the Old Testament may also be allowed, but only to learned and pious men, at the discretion of the bishop ; provided they use thon merely as elucidations of the Vulgate version, in order to understand the Holy Scriptures, and not as the sacred text itself. But translations of the New Testament, made by authors of the first class of this index, are allowed to no one, since little advantage, but much danger, gene- rally arises from reading them. If notes accom- pany the versions which are allowed to be read, or are joined to the Vulgate edition, they may be permitted to be read by the same persons as the versions, after the suspected places have been expunged by the theological faculty of some Catholic university, or by the general inquisitor. On the same conditions, also, pious and leirned men may be permitted to have what is called * Vatablus's Bible,' or any part of it. But the pre- face and Prologomena of the Bibles published by Isidore Clarius are, however, excepted; and the text of his editions is not to be con.sidered as the text of the Vulgate edition. 4. Inasmuch as it is manife.st from experience that if the Holy Bible, translated into the vulgar tongue, be in- discriminately allowed to every one, the temerity of men will cause more evil than good to arise from it, it is, on this point, referred to the judg- ment of the bishops, or inquisitors, who may, by the advice of the priest, or confessor, permit the reading of the Bible translated into the vulgar tongue by Catholic authors, to those persons whose faith and piety, they apprehend, will be augmented, and not injured by it; and this per- mission they must have in writing. But if any one shall have the presumption to read or pos.sess it without such written permission, he shall not receive absolution untU he have first delivered IND up such Bible to the ordinary. Booksellers who shall sell, or otherwise dispose of Bibles in the vulgar tongue, to any person not having such permission, shall forfeit the value of the books, to be applied by the bishop to some pious use ; and be subjected to such other penalties as the bishop shall judge i)roper, according to the quality of the offence. But regulars shall neither read nor purchase such Bibles without a special license from their superiors. 5. Books of which heretics are the editors, but which contain little or nothing of their own, being mere compilations from others, as lexicons, concordances, (collec- tions of) apothegms, or similes, indexes, and others of a similar kind, may be allowed by the bishops and inqui.sitors, after having made, with the advice of divines, such corrections and emendations as may be deemed requisite. 6. Books of controversy between the Catholics and heretics of tlie present time, written in the vulgar tongue are not to be indiscriminately allowed, but are to be subject to the same regulations as Bibles in the vulgar tongue. As to those works in the vulgar tongue which treat of moralitj', contemplation, confession, and similar subjects, and which contain nothing contrary to sound doctrine, there is no reason why they should be prohibited; the same mav be said also of ser- mons in the vulgar tongue, designed for the people. And if in any kingdom or province any books have been hitherto proliibited, as contain- ing things not proper to be indiscriminately read bv all sorts of persons, they may be allowed by the bishop and inquisitor, after having corrected them, if written by Catholic authors. 7. Books professedly treating of lascivious or obscene subjects, or narrating or teaching them, are utterly prohibited, as readilv corrupting both the faith and manners of those who peruse them ; and those who possess them shall be severely punished by the bishop. But the works of an- tiquity, written by the heathens, are permitted to be read, because of the elegance and propriety of the language ; though on no account shall they be suffered to be read by young persons. 8. Books, the principal subject of which is good, but in which some things are occasional!}' introduced tending to heresy and impiety, divination, or superstition, may be allowed, after they have been corrected by Catholic divines, by the authority of the general inquisition. The same judgment is also formed of prefaces, summaries, or notes, taken fiom condemned authors, and inserted in the works of authors not condemned ; but such works must not be printed in future, until they have been amended. 9. All books and writings of geomancy, hydromancy, aero- mancy, pyromancy, onomancy, chjTomancy, and necromancy; or which treat of sorceries, poisons, auguries, auspices, or magical incantations, are utterly- rejected. The bishops shall also dili- gently guard against anj' persons reading or k eping any books, treatises, or indexes, which 30 IND treat of jiulieial astrology, or contain presump- tuous predictions of the events of future contin- gencies and fortuitous occurrences, or of those actions which depend upon the will of man. But they shall permit such opinions and obser- vations of natural things as are written in aid of navigation, agriculture, and medicine. 10. In the printing of books and other writings, the rules shall be observed which were ordained in the tenth session of the council of Lateran, under Leo X. Therefore, if any book is to be printed in the city of Home, it shall tirst be examined by the pope's vicar and the master of the sacred palace, or other persons chosen by our most holy father for that purpose. In other places, the examination of any book or manuscript intended to be printed shall be referred to the bishop, or some skiltul person whom he shall nominate, and the inquisitor of the city or diocese in which the imjiression is executed, who shall gratuitously, and without delaj^ affix their approbation to the work, in their own handwriting, subject, never- theless, to the pains and censures contained in the said decree ; this law and condition being added, that an authentic copy of the book to be printed, signed by the author himself, shall re- main in the hands of the examiner ; and it is the judgment of the fathers of the present deputation. that those persons who publish works in manu- script, before they have been examined and ap- proved, should be subject to the same penalties as those who print them ; and that those who read or possess them should be considered as the authors, if the real authors of such writings do not avow themselves. The approbation given in writing shall be placed at the head of the books, whether printed or in manuscript, that they may appear to be duly authorized ; and this examination and approbation, &c., shall be granted gratuitously. Moreover, in every city and diocese, the house or place where the art of printing is exercised, and also the shops of book- sellers, shall be frequently visited by persons deputed by the bishop or his vicar, conjointly •with the inquisitor, so that nothing that is pro- hibited may be printed, kept, or sold. Book- sellers of every description shall keep a catalogue of the books which they have on sale, signed by the said deputies ; nor shall they keep, or sell, nor in any way dispose of any other books with- out jierniission from the deputies, under pain of torfeiting the books, and being liable to such other penalties as siuill he judged proper by the bishop or inquisitor, who shall also punish the buyers, readers, or printers of such works. If any person import foreign books into any city, they shall be oMigcd to announce them to the deputies; or if this kind of merchandise be ex- posed to sale in any public place, tiie public offi- cers of the place sliall signify to the saiil depu- ties that such books have been brougiit ; and no one shall presume to give, to read, or lend, or sell any book which he or any other person has IND brought into the city, until he has shown it to the deputies, and obtained their permission, unless it be a work well known to be universally allowed. Heirs and testamentary executors shall make no use of the books of the deceased, nor in any way transfer them to others, until they have presented a catalogue of them to the deputies, and obtained their license, under pain of confisca- tion of the books, or the infliction of such other punishment as the bishop or inquisitor shall deem proper, according to the contumacy or quality of the delinquent. With regard to those books which the fathers of the present deputation shall examine, or correct, or deliver to be corrected, or permit to be reprinted on certain conditions, booksellers and others shall be bound to observe whatever is ordained respecting them. The bishops and general inquisitors shall, nevertheless, be at liberty, according to the power they possess, to prohibit such books as may seem to be per- mitted by these rules, if they deem it necessary, for the good of the kingdom, or province, or diocese. And let the secretary of these fathers, according to the command of our holy father, transmit to the notary of the general inquisitor the names of the books that have been corrected, as well as of the persons to whoin the fathers have granted the power of examination. Finally, it is enjoined on all the faithful, that no one pre- sume to keep or read any books contrary to these rules, or prohibited by this index. But if any one read, or keep any books composed by heretics, or the writings of any author suspected of heresy, or false doctrine, he shall instantly incur the sentence of excommunication ; and those who read, or keep works interdicted on an- other account, besides the mortal sin committed, shall be severely punished at the will of the bishops." — Lahbei S. S. Concilia, torn, xiv., pp. 952-956 ; Townley's Biblical Literature, vol. ii. The Congregation of the Index holds its sittings at Rome, and has the right of examining gene- rally all books which concern faith, morals, ecclesiastical discipline, or civil society; on which it passes judgment, for suppressiiig them absolutely, or directing them to be corrected, or allowing them to be read with precaution, and by certain persons. Pius V. conlirmed the estab- lishment of this congregation. Persons specially deputed by it may give permission to Romanists throughout the world to read prohibited books; and the penalty denounced against those who read or keep any books suspected of heresy or of false doctrine is the greater e.xcommunication; and those who read or keep works interdicted on any other account, besides the mortal sin committed, are to be severely punished at the will of the bishops. The latest Index Librorum Prohibitoriim appeared at Rome in 1841, to which supplementary i)ages have subsequently been published. 8onie notices of the earlier indexes of prohibited books may be seen ia Peiguot's Lictlonnaire des Livres condamne's au 331 IND /ew, supprimes, ou censures, torn, i., pp. 256-266. But the best and most accurate account of them will be found in Mendham's Literary Policy of the Church of Rome exhibited in an account of her damnatory Catalogues or Indexes, both Prohibi- tory and Expurgatory, second edition (London, 1830, 8vo). ludiflerent Things. — See Adiaphorists. Induction, used technically for placing one in possession of a benefice. After institution to a benefice, the ordinary issues a mandate for induc- tion, directed to the person who has power to induct. This by common right is the archdeacon, but others may also perform it, by composition or prescription. Thus the dean and chapter of St. Paul's, and the same body at Litchfield, induct by prescription; so also does the chan- cellor or commissary, if a church be exempt from archidiaconal jurisdiction ; or if it be a peculiar, the dean or judge within such a peculiar; and when an archbishop collates by lapse, the man- date goes not to the officer of the archbishop, but of the bishop. If a bishop dies or is removed, after institution given, and while a mandate of induction is either not issued or not executed, the clerk may repair to the archbishop for such mandate. The person to whom the mandate is directed may direct a precept to some other clerk. The induction consists in vesting the incumbent with full possession of all the profits belonging to the church, and is usually per- formed in the following manner : — The inductor takes the clerk by the hand, and laj's it upon the key or the ring of the church door; or if neither of these are to be had, or the church is in ruins, then on anj' part of the wall of the church or churchyard; or even presents him with a clod or turf of the glebe, and says to this effect, — " By virtue of this mandate I do induct you into the real, actual, and corporal possessions of the church of C, with all the rights, profits, and appurtenances thereto belonging." After which the inductor opens the door, and puts the person inducted into the church, who usually tolls a bell to make his induction public and known to the parishioners. Which being done, the inductor endorses a certificate of induction on the arch- deacon's mandate, and they who are present testify the same under their hands. Donatives are given and fully possessed by the single donation of the patron in writing, without pre- sentation, institution, or induction. So also, if the king grants one of his free chapels, the grantee shall be put in possession by the sheriff of the county, not by the ordinary of the place. A prebendary of Westminster enters also without induction, upon the king making collation by his letters patent. The fees are now generally reiculatcd according to the custom of the place. Tlie clerk is not complete incumbent till after induction, whereby he becomes seized of the temporalities of the church, so that he hath power to grant them or sue for them, he is entitled to IND plead that he is parson imparson^e, and the church is full, not only against a common per- son (for so it is by institution), but also against the king, on which account it is compared in the books of common law to livery and seisin. And what induction works in parochial cures is effected by instalment into dignities, prebends, and the like, in cathedral and collegiate churches. Being an act of a temporal nature, it is cogniz- able in the temporal courts, and the inductor, if he refuse or delay, is liable to an action at law, as well as to spiritual censures. Every incum- bent of a benefice with cure, within two months after induction (computing twenty-eight days to each month), must read the Common Prayer, morning and evening, openly and publicly, upon some Lord's Day, within the church to which he is inducted, and declare his assent thereto in a prescribed form of words. If he neglects this, without some lawful impediment allowed by his ordinary (and in case of such impediment within one month after it be removed), he shall be im- mediately deprived of the benefice (13, 14 Charles II., c. 4). He is also to read and declare his assent to the Thirty-nine Articles, within like time and under like penalties (13 Elizabeth, c. 12). The ordinary must give six months' notice of such deprivation to the patron before any title can accrue through lapse. The incum- bent must also publicly read the ordinary's certi- ficate, that he has subscribed the declaration of conformity to the liturgy. This must be done under penalty of deprivation within three months after subscription, upon a Lord's Day, in his parish church, in the presence of the congrega- tion, during the time of divine service. It is con- sidered a necessary precaution that a clergyman should keep a written memorandum that he has complied with these forms, signed by some trusty persons present at their fulfilment. A convenient form for such memorandum may be found in Burn's £'ccZ. Laio, ad v. Benefice, ad fin. Lastly, within six months from induction he must take the oaths of supremacy, allegiance, and abjura- tion, in one of the courts at Westminster, or at the general quarter sessions of the peace, on pain of being incapacitated to hold the benefice, of being disabled to sue in any action, to be guardian, executor, or administrator, to be capable of any legacy or deed of gift, to bear any office or vote at any election of member of parliament, and of forfeiting £500 (1 George II., c. 13; 9 George II., c. 2G). In Presbyterian churches induction is the name usually' given to the formal installa- tion over a new charge of one who has been previously ordained. Indulgence, according to the doctrine of the Romish Church, is "a releasing, by the power of the keys committed to the church, the debt of temporal punishment which may remain due upon account of our sins, after the sins themselves, as to the guilt and eternal punish- ment, have been already remitted by repentance 32 IND and confession." — Grounds of Catholic Doctrine, ch. X., question 1. Indulgences are divided into plenary and non-plenary, or partial, temporary, indefinite, local, perpetual, real, and personal. 1. A plenary indulgence is that b}' which is obtained a remission of all the temporal punishment due to sin, either in this life or in the next. 2. A non-plenary or partial indulgence is that which remits only a part of the temporal punishment due to sin : such are indulgences for a given number of days, weelis, or years. This sort of indulgences remits so many days, weeks, or years of penance, which ought to be observed agreeably to the ancient canons of the church, for the sins which we have committed. 3. Temporary indulgences are those which are granted for a certain specified time, as for seven or. more years. 4. Indefinite indulgences are those which are granted without any limitation of time. 5. Perpetual indulgences are those granted yb?' ever, and which do not require to be renewed after a given number of years. 6. A local indulgence is attached to certain churches, chapels, or other places ; it is gained by actually visiting such church or other building or place, and by observing scrupulously all the conditions required b\' the bull granting such indulgence. 7. A real indulgence is attached to certain movable things, as rosaries, medals, &c., and is granted to those who actually wear these articles with devotion ; should the fashion of them cease, so that they cease to be deemed the same arti- cles, the indulgence ceases. So long, however, as such articles continue, and are reputed to be the same, the indulgence continues in force, not- withstanding any accidental alteration which may be made in them, as the afHxing of a new string or ribbon to a rosary. 8. A personal in- dulgence is one which is granted to certain parti- cular persons, or to several ])ersons in common, as to a confraternity or brotherhood. These privileged persons may gain such indulgences wherever they may happen to be, whether they are in health, in sickness, or at the point of death. 9. Other indulgences are termed en- joined penances, poinitentice injunclce. By them is conferred the remission of so nmch of the punishment which is due to sins at the judg- ment of God, as the sinner would have to pay by canonical penances, or by penances en- joined in all their rigour by the priest. An indulgence produces its effect at the very mo- ment when all the works prescribed in order to obtain it are performed. (Richard et Giraud, Libliotliique Sacree, torn, xiii., p. 366, et seq.) The scales of payment are peculiar, being made to meet a variety of cases, and they are so lenient that the payment of them can form no bar against the subsequent commission of tlie crime for wliich an indulgence has been already received. According to the " Tax of the sacred lloman Chancery," in which are con- s. d. 7 6 7 G 7 6 9 0 9 0 10 G 10 0 10 a 10 6 12 0 12 0 IND tained the sums to be levied, we find the fees to be— For murdering a layman, For lying with a mother, sister, &c., For procuring abortion, For taking a false oath in a criminal case, ..... For defiling a virgin, For keeping a concubine, For laying violent hands on a clergy- man, ..... For simony, .... For sacrilege, .... For robbing, .... For burning a neighbour's house, . And so on. In the primitive Church very severe penal- ties were inflicted upon those who had been guilty of any sins, whether public or private ; and in particular they were forbidden to par- take, for a certain time, of the sacrament of the Lord's Supper, or to hold communion with the church. General rules were made upon these subjects ; but as it was often found expedient to make a discrimination in the degrees of punish- ment, according to the difierent circumstances of ofTenders, and especially when they showed marks of contrition and repentance, power was given to bishops by the council of Nice, to relax or remit those punishments as they should see reason. Every favour of this kind was called a pardon or indulgence. After the bishops had enjoyed this privilege for some centuries, and had begun to abuse it, the popes discovered that in their own hands it might be made a powerful instrument both to promote their ambition and to gratify their avarice. They could not but see that, if they could persuade men that they had the power of granting pardons for sin, it would give them a complete influence over their con- sciences ; and if the}' could at the same time prevail upon them to purchase these pardons for money, it must greatly augment the wealth of the Koman see ; and, therefore, in the eleventh century, when the dominion of the popes was rising to its zenith, and their power was almost irresistible, thc}"^ assumed to themselves the ex- clusive prerogative of dispensing pardons, and carried it to a most unwarrantable length. In- stead of confining them, according to their origi- nal institution, to tlie ordinary purposes of ecclesiastical discipline, they extended them to the punishment of the wicked in tlie world to come ; instead of shortening the duration of earthly- penance, they pretended tliat they could deliver men from the jiains of purgatory ; instead of allowing them, gratuitously and upon just grounds, to the penitent otlender, they sold them in tlie most open and corrujit manner to the pro- fligate and abandoned, who still continued in sinful practices. To vindicate in an authorita- tive manner these scandalous measures of the 333 IND pontiffs, an absurd doctrine was invented, which was modified and embellished by Thomas Aqui- nas in the thirteenth century, and which, among other monstrous declarations, affirmed, that there actually existed an immense treasure of merit, composed of the pious deeds and virtuous actions which ihe saints had performed beyond what was necessary for their own salvation, and which, therefore, were applicable to the benefit of others ; and that the Roman pontiff, being the guardian and dispenser of this treasure, was empowered to assign to such as he deemed proper objects a por- tion of this inexhaustible source of merit, suitable to their respective guilt, and sufficient to deliver them from the punishment due to their crimes. The sale of these indulgences afforded an ample harvest to the pontiffs of Rome ; in the fifteenth century, in particular, the disposal of them was become almost a common traffic ; and a public sale of them was generally preceded by some specious pretext; for instance, ths reduction of the Greeks under the j-oke of the Eomish Church, a war with heretics, or a crusade against the Neapolitans, &c. Too often tlie pretences for selling indulgences were in reality bloody, idolatrous, or superstitious. It was one of the charges brought against John XXIII., at the council of Constance, in 1415, that he empowered his legates to absolve penitents from all sorts of crimes, upon payment of sums proportioned to their guilt. Leo X., in order to carry on the magnificent structure of St. Peter's Church at Rome, published indulgences, with a plenary remission to all such as should contri- bute towards erecting that magnificent fabric. The right of promulgating these indulgences in Germany, together with a share in the profits arising from the sale of them, was granted to Albert, Elector of Mentz and Archbishop of Mag- deburg, who selected as his chief agent for retail- ing them in Saxony John Tetzel, a Dominican friar, of licentious morals, but of an active and enterprising spirit, and remarkable for his noisy and popular eloquence. Assisted by the monks of his order, he executed the commission with great zeal and success, but with no less indecency, boasting that he had saved more souls from hell by his indulgences than St. Peter had converted by his preaching. He assured the purchasers of them that their crimes, however enormous, would be forgiven; that the efficacy of indul- gences was so great that the most heinous sins, even if one should violate (which was impossible) the mother of God, would be remitted and ex- piated by them, and the person freed both from punishment and guilt; and that this was the unspeakable gift of God, in order to reconcile inen to himself. In the usual form of absolu- tion, written by his own hand, he said : " Jlay our Lord Jesus Christ have mercy upon thee, and absolve thee by the merits of his most holv passion. And I, by his authoritv, that of hi's apostles Peter and Paul, and of the most holv IND pope, granted and committed to me in these parts, do absolve thee, first, from all ecclesiastical censures, in whatever manner they have been incurred ; and then, from all thy sins, transgres- sions, and excesses, how enormous soever they may be, even from such as are reserved for the cog- nizance of the holy see: and, as far as the keys of the holy church extend, I remit to thee all punishment which thou deservest in purgatory on their account ; and I restore thee to the holy sacra- ments of the church, to the unity of the faithful, and to that innocence and purity which thou didst possess at baptism ; so that, when thou diest, the gates of punishment shall be shut, and the gates of the paradise of delights shall be opened ; and if thou shalt not die at present, this grace shall remain in full force when thou art at the point of death. In the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost. Amen." These and similar extravagant assertions respecting the efficacy of indulgences, together with the gross abuses practised in granting them, were among the immediate causes of the Reformation (Mosheim's Eccl. Hist., cent, xvi., ch. ii., sect. 1 ; D'Aubigne, book iii.) So lately as the year 1800, a Spanish vessel was captured near the coast of South America, freighted (among other things) with numerous bales of indulgences for various sins, the price of which, varying from half a dollar to seven dollars, was marked upon each. They had been bought in Spain, and were intended for sale in South America. Sey- mour tells us as follows: — "This inscription is placed in that part of the churcli which is of all the most public. It is placed over the holy water, to which all persons must resort, on entering the church, before partaking of any of the services. It is as follows : — " Indulgemia. — ' L'imagine di Maria Santis- sima, cha esi-;te all' altare maggiore, parlo a santo Gregorio Papa, dicendagli — Perche piu non mi saluti mentre passando eri solito saluta- rim. II santo domando pardono, e concesse a quelli che celebrano in quell' altare la liberazione deir anima dal Purgatorio, cioe per quell' anima per la quale si celebra la messa.' " Indulgence. — ' The image of the most holy Mary, which stands on the high altar., spoke to the holy Pope Gregory, sa\ing to liim — Why do you no longer salute me in passing, with the accustomed salutation ? The saint asked pardon, and granted to those who celebrate mass at that altar the deliverance of a soul from purgatory,— that is, the special soul for which they celebrate the mass.' " There is nothing more frequently remarked by Protestants, on entering the cliurclies of Rome, than the constant recurrence of the words ' in- dulgentia plenuria' — a pleuarj* indulgence, in- scribed over the altar, intimating that there was a plenary indulgence attached to the masses offered there; and this is tantamount to the emancipation of any soul from purgatory through 3i IND a mass offereLl at that altar. Instead of these words, however, the same thing is more plainly expressed in some churches. In the church S. Maria della Pace, so celebrated for the magnifi- cent fresco of the sybils by Raphael, there is over one of the altars the following inscription : — * Ogni inessa celebrata in quest' altare libera un atiimnd aV purgatorio^ — Every mass celebrated at this altar frees a soul from purgatory. In some churches this privilege extends throughout the year, but in others it is limited to those masses which are offered on particular days. In the church of S. Croce di Gerusalemme this privilege is connected in an especial manner with the fourth Sunday in Lent. And this is notified by a public notice posted in the church close to the altar, setting forth that a mass celebrated there on that day releases a soul from purgator}'." The testimonies of Romanist writers to the sale of indulgences may be seen in Bishop Philpot's Letters to Mr. Butler, pages 151-153, or Dr. Hales's Analysis of Chronology, vol. ii., part ii., pages 1019-1022; and especially in Mr. Mendham's Spiritual Venality of Rome, second edition (London, 1836, 12nio); and his Venal Indulgences and Pardons of the Church of Rome £xemplified (London, 1839, l"2mo). The Congre- gation of Indidgences, at Rome, is an assembly or committee, consisting of cardinals and pre- lates, the number of whom is not fixed. Their duty is to examine the reasons of all persons applying for indulgences, and to grant them in the name of the pope. — See Congrkgation. Indulgence, in English history, is the un- constitutional and cunning proclamation of King James II., 4th April, 1687, announcing re- ligious toleration to all classes of his subjects, suspending all penal laws against nonconfor- mists, and abolishing religious tests as qualifica- tions for civil office. The king's object was simply to favour Roman Catholics, and tliere- fore neither the English Church nor the great body of the dissenters received the illegal stretch of pre- rogative with favour, and refused to believe that a "dispensing power" exercised by the kmginde- pendeTitlv of parliament, could be of any lasting advantage. Howe and Baxter maintained this opinion. Tiie same instrument was extended to Scotland, and divided the Covenanters into two parties. At first the king asked toleration for Papists only, but tlie .'Scottish parliament, usually very obsequious, would not listen. lie finally de- clared, as if Piijier}' were already in the ascendant, that he would never use " force or invincible necessity against any man on account of his Pro- testant faith," and all tiiis he did " by his sovereign authority, prerogative royal, and abso- lute power." Charles II. had done a similar, though not so sweeping an act in 1602, and re- peated it in 1672; but on both occasions his parliament obliged him to retract. ■ i«]Ml;2enf in (forgiveness'), a name given in the early Latin Church to baptism, limiting INF the effect, however, to the worthy receivers of tho ordinance. — See Baptism. IndultM, a power given by the pope to cer- tain persons of presenting to benefices. The cardinals, for example, have such an indult from each pope conferred to them at his election. Indwelling Srhciuc, that theory which holds that the soul of Christ pre-existed the incarnation, and was, in Old Testament times, the Angel in whom God dwelt, and who after- wards assumed humanity. — See Person op Christ, Pre-existkxck of Christ. Infallibility. — Infallibility is claimed by the Church of Rome, though it is not formally expressed in any bull, or the edict of any coun- cil. In the exercise of this infallibility, that church claims power to settle the canon, to give authority to Scripture, as well as to interpret it, and to decide all controversies on matters of faith. But the question has been agitated, — Where is this infallibility lodged ? Some say in the pope, others in a general council, others in pope and council combined, and others in the universal church. Yet popes have been heretics, for Liberius was an Arian, and Honorius a Monothelite, and the councils of Constance and Basil claimed and exercised the right of electing and deposing popes. James, in his Bellum Pa- pole, shows how the two popes, Sextus V. and Clement VIII. differ hundreds of times from each other about the text of the Latin Scriptures. Bull often diflfers from bull, and the one sometimes repeals the other ; nay, bulls reckoned infallible on one side of the Alps are declared fallible on the oti;er. The Jesuit doctrina is to place in- fallibility in the pope when he speaks as Christ's vicar ex cathedra. The professor of Canon Law in the Collegio Romano thus guards the doctrine by limitations which virtually neutral- ize it. In conversing with Mr. Seymour, he said, — " 1. It was necessary, in the first place, that before composing and issuing the bull, the pope should have opened a communication with the bishops of the universal church — that in such communication he should ask their prayers to the Almighty, that the Holy Spirit might fully and infallibly guide him, so as to make his deci- sion the decision of inspiration. 2. It was ne- cessary, in the second place, that before issuing the bull containing his decision, the pope should carefully seek all pos.sible and desirable informa- tion touching the special matter which was under consideration, and which was to be the suliject of his decision. 3. He said that a further requisite or essential was, tiiat the bull should not only be formal, but should be autho- ritative, and should claim to be authoritative: that it should be issued not merely as tiie oi)inion or judgment of the pope, in iiis mere personal capacity, but as the decisive and autiioritative judgment of one who was the head of that church which was the mother and mistress of all churches, to whom all Christians owed 335 INF subjection and allepance, and who was the living voice of infalHbility, and who, as such, had the power and the authority to pronounce infallibly the decision required. 4. It was again necessary that the bull should be promulgated universally; that is, that the bull should be addressed to all the bishops of the universal church, in order that through them its decisions might be delivered and made known to all the members or subjects of the whole church. 5. He stated that another essential was, that the bull should be universall)' received ; that is, should be accepted by all the bishops of the whole church, and accepted by them as an authoritative and infallible decision — that, after promulgation by the pope, it should be accepted and promulgated by all the bishops as authorita- tive and infallible, or at least should be simplj' accepted by them without formal promulgation, or even tacitlv permitted by them without oppo- sition, which is held to be a sufficient acceptance in a legal sense. 6. Another characteristic was of immense importance, — indeed, more absolutelj- essential than anj' he had as yet named, viz. — The matter or question upon which the decision was to be made, and which was therefore to be the subject-matter of the bull, must be one touching faith or morals, that is, it must concern the purity of faith or the morality of actions. And this necessity arose from the fact, that faith and morality are the matters upon which infal- libilit)' was designed to be exercised, and for the preservation of which this infallibilitj' was given to the head of the church. 7. It was essential, in the last place, that the pope should be free — perfectly free from all exterior influence, so as to be under no exterior compulsion or constraint. He stated that the bull or decision of Pope Li- berius possessed the other essentials, but that this one was wanting. That pope had acted under compulsion — under a fear of his life, and, therefore, as he was not free, his decision could not be regarded as ex cathedra. That bull thus issued was full of error. The pope, therefore, must be free from external influence or con- straint, in order to his decision being received as infaUible." It is plain that this doctrine must go for nothing; for satisfaction on all those subjects cannot be universalh- obtained even about any present decision, much less about bulls which are hundreds of years old. (Seymour's Mornings with the Jesuits.') Infant ISapiism. — See P^dobaptists. Infant Communion. — It has been com- monly supposed that the custom of administering the communion to infants was begun as early as Cyprian's time, about the middle of the third century, and that it was practised in the fifth centurj', on an opinion of its being necessary to salvation, as taught by Augustine and b_v Inno- cent I. But Waterland, in a tract on the sub- ject, has examined into the evidence on which this supposition rests, and has shown that the ING early ages never gave the communion to mere infants, but to children of ten j'ears old, or perhaps seven, scarcely to any younger, if we except the single instance reported by Cj'prian in his book JDe Lapsis ; and, moreover, that they founded their practice, not upon the opinion of its being necessary to salvation, but upon prudential reasons, or general reasons of edification, pursu- ant to Christian principles. In later times the practice of giving it to mere infants crept in, and that under a persuasion of its necessit}', founded upon John vi., taken with some passages of the ancients misunderstood. It is expressly named in the Gregorian Sacramentary, and enjoined in the Ordo Romanus, w hich, in their present state, may be dated about the end of the eighth cen- tury. In the Greek Church the practice is still retained. In the Romish Church it prevailed till about A.D. 1000, when the doctrine of Transub- stantiation, which caused the cup to be withheld from the laity, caused the wliole sacrament to be denied to infants, from the superstitious fear of throwing some of the body or blood of Christ on the ground. The council of Trent decrees that it is unnecessary, sess. 21, cap. 4. (See Water- land's Inquiry concerning Infant Communion; Wall on Infant BajHiim, part ii., ch. ix.) Infant Salvation. — See Baptism, Infant Communion, Salvation. Inferior Clergy, the several classes of lay assistants to the priesthood which existed in the ancient churches. They were distinguished by the title a.;^'.i^oTovriros v'TTfif/'.iria., because they were appointed to their respective offices without the imposition of hands. Not being ordained at the altar, nor in ecclesiastical form, they were, of course, ineligible for the exercise of any of the sacerdotal functions ; indeed, so distinctly drawn was the line between them and the superior orders, called '■^k^uf/.itoi " — holy, that they were strictly forbidden to touch the sacred vessels, or so much as to enter the '■'■diaconicum"- — sanctuary. The " inferior clergy " of the Church of England include all those in holy orders not distinguished by their position and title as dignitaries of the church. The offices of churchwarden, verger, sexton, and pew-opener, in the Church of Eng- land, correspond in general to the offices of the " inferior clerg}' " of ancient times. Infidelity. — See Deists, Rationalism. Infraiapsarians. — See Sublapsarians. Ingfaamite.s, follouers of Joseph Ingham, born in Yorkshire 1712. Ingham was a good and zealous man, and son-in-law of the Countess of Huntingdon. He was first attached to the Wesleys, but received episcopal ordination in 1735. He next went to America with John Wesley, and laboured for about two jears in va- rious parts of the country, came back with re- newed zeal, but finding many pulpits in the establishment closed to him, he preached in the fields and gathered large audiences. He stood aloof from the conflicts of Wesley and Whitfield, 336 INH and fraternized with the Moravians for a season. The Glassite form of government was afterwards admired and adopted by Int^ham and his fol- lowers. Latterly the Inghamites united with the Scots Independents. Nine Inghaniite con- gregations were reported at the census of 1851. luhibition, is a writ by which an inferior is commanded bj' a superior ecclesiastical authority to stay the proceedings in which it is engaged. Thus, if a member of a college appeals to the visitor, the visitor inliibits all proceedings against the appellant until tlie appeal is determined. When the archbishop visits, he inhibits the bishop of the diocese; when the bishop visits, he inliibits the archdeacon; which inhibitions continue in force until the last parish is visited. If a lapse happens while the inhibition is in force against the bishop, the archbishop must institute; insti- tution by the bishop would be void, as his power is suspended. Initiated. — Various titles were employed in early times to distinguish baptized Christians, not only from the heathen, but also from cate- chumens. Some of these originated in the sup- posed analogy between baptism and the rites of initiation to the sacred mysteries of the heathen. Such were '•^sityjj^'i'o/," "^oo-raJ," or ^^ /ivrrayuynToi" — the initiated; in opposition to which the catechumens were called " afjivi/iToi.,^' ^^ a/zuffTm," or '''• o.fA.viTTa.yuynroi'^ — uninitiated. Again, " tiXhoi" or " nXiieufi.xvoi''' — the perfect, which distinguished those who had been ad- mitted to the Lord's Supper, an ordinance which they mystically denomi.iated " tsXstJj TtXiruv." These terms came into general use about the fourth century-. " *4;r;^o^:v(j< " — the enlightened, was a more ancient term, being mentioned by Justin Martyr. They were also called " fr/ff-j-o/," — faithful; " aSsX^o/" — brethren; " ay'"' " — holy, &c., &c. — See Church, Membership of^ Inner Itlission, the name of a special home mission in Lutheran Germany, originated by the devoted and enthusiastic Wichern, in a small and unpretending form, in 1833, and more fully de- veloped by him in 1848. The Kirchentag of that year took up the scheme, and it has since that period made lapid progress in Germany and Switzerland. Kahnis, in a late work, thus de- scribes its modes of operation : — " The Inner Mission," says he, " opens to children, to whom the parents cannot devote the necessary care and attention, its infant schools and nurseries; to destitute and demoralized children its asj-lums and reformatory schools ; and takes care of the spiritual and temporal improvement of the adults in Sunday schools and young men's associations. It takes care of the poor in relief associations, which not only support, but also watch over the bodily and spiritual welfare of tlieir cliarge. It nurses tlie sick; gets up healthy and cheap lodg- ings; increases in savings' banks the mite of the poor ; seeks, by the power of communion, to edu- cate the intemperate to renunciation ; penetrates INQ into the jails of the criminals, and takes care of those who have been dismissed ; circulates Bibles and Christian books, for awakening Christian faith and love ; and seeks to make the Sunday again a Sabbath — a day of rest and of elevation to the Lord. It takes care of prostitute girls; descends, reproving and helping, into the abodes of filth ; offers to the travelling journeymen jilaces of spiritual recreation ; brings the Word of God to the crowds of labourers who do not find time to take care of their souls; endeavours to strengthen destitute and sunken congregations by itinerant preachers; educates nurses, who not only attend to the bodies but also to the souls of the sick." Innocents' Day is celebrated on the 28th of December. The children of Bethlehem have been regarded in all ages as unconscious martyrs for Christ. The Greek and .\byssinian Churches siieak of fourteen thousand children as having perished under Herod — an extravagant absur- dity, as, in such a village as Bethlehem, only a very few children could be found " from two years old and under."' — See Childermass Day. Inquisition (from the Latin inquirere, to seek or search after), an institution for inquiring into the opinions of others, and searching after their persons. The precise year of the foundation of the holy office, or the inquisition, is variously as- signed between 1208 and 1215. But all author- ities attribute its origin to the papacy of Innocent III. The immediate cause of its institution was the firm and persevering resistance off'ered by tlie Albigenses to the tyranii}' of the Romish Church. Innocent perceived that however much the Albigenses might apparently be subdued by open force, there never would be wanting num- bers to make a secret profession of doctrine which no existing authority' could reach. He projected, therefore, as a remedy against this and all other secessions from his spiritual dominion, a jurisdiction which should apply itself particu- larly to the detection, the punishment, and the extermination of heresy. The qualities required in the members by whom such a court should be composed, appeared to be an entire dependence upon Rome, and an absolute devotion to her in- terests ; a leisure undistracted by other cares ; a condition in society' so little elevated that their chief honour might be derived from their new employment ; a freedom from the ordi- nary bonds of life, which might otherwise, through the various channels of consanguiuity or friendship, be supposed to interfere with pub- lic dutj' ; hardness of purpose, inflexibility, sternness, rejection of pity ; a burning zeal, which might esteem persecution for the faitii's sake the chief of religious duties; a sufticient dash of learning; and, above all, a strong bias, it mattered not from wiiat motive it might arise, against all heresy. Tiie bishops, to whom hitherto all ecclesiastical causes had been referred, did not satisfy the views of Innocent on these 837 INQ points; and he looked with an eye of anxious hope to the extraordinary body of men which had recently been organized by Dominic of Ca- baroga. He found in this society an unbounded attachment to the papacy. The solitude and retirement professed by its members, but which were ill adapted to the ardour which for the most part animated them, gave promise of time adequate to the extent and labour of the task proposed, and of a most willing activity, as soon as they should be permitted to exercise their now slumbering powers. The poverty which they had vowed, and the public mendicity to which they were expressly bound, rendered the charge which awaited them a splendid object of ambition. They had already renounced their families, their names, connections, and alliances ; and one of their chief boasts was a more than stoical indifference to natural and civil ties. The austerity of their rule, and the privations and severe discipline exercised upon themselves, encouraged a reasonable belief that the claims of others would not be regarded with greater tender- ness than they were used to exhibit to their own. As a new created body they abounded in zeal ; for their age they were learned ; that is, they were profoundly versed in scholastic subtilties and in the canon law. Moreover, they had an interest greater than common in the destruction of the reigning heretics, by whom they were especially noted as marks for public obloquy, and who spared no pains to hold them up to popular reprehension. With such materials at hand, their employ- ment was easily arranged. Missionaries, as they were at first gently termed, were de- spatched into Provence and Languedoc ; and Lombardy, Romagna, and the March of An- cona were visited by Dominican emissaries. Rainier, or Raoul, and Pierre de Castelnau, both Cistertians, are joined with Dominic as the first who received the charge. The professed object of these inquisitors — for they soon obtained that title — was, as the name implied, to inquire into the faith of those among whom they were sent. By preaching and instruction they were to labour for the conversion of heretics. They were to exhort princes and civil magistrates to exercise the laws upon stubborn recusants ; to register carefully their number and qualities; to observe and stimulate the bishops in their epis- copal duties ; and, above all, to forward informa- tion on each of these points to Rome, for the in- spection and final judgment of the pope, who was to be considered the prime mover of this great machinery. Toulouse was the first place in which a formal tribunal was erected by Gregory IX. in 1229. It was in these territories that the Albigenses were most formidable, and Raymond VII., the reigning count, was compelled, after a long and ineffectual struggle, to assist in their suppression. But the inquisitors were un- favourably received by the populace ; they were TXQ soon expelled from the citj', and, on their return, in the end, were massacred. Among the slain was numbered Pierre de Castelnau, the proto- inquisitor. Raymond severely punished the insurrectionists: and during the reign of his successor, Alfonso, from 1249 to 1271, the holy office existed in Toulouse with full powers. The decrease of the Albigenses gradually diminished the occupation of the inquisitors, and their credit appears to have decayed together with their activity. Zeal was not wanting to display it- self by occasional bursts of persecution ; but in most instances it was exhibited unseasonably, and contributed little to revive the obsolete authority of the tribunal ; so that, on the an- nexation of this province to the crown of France the inquisition retained little more than a nominal existence. Even the annual inspec- tion of the names of those persons selected for the magistracy (les capitouls), in order to prevent the appointment of any one suspected of heresy (a privilege which had been accorded to the inquisitors on their first establishment, and which they had continued to preserve after the extinc- tion of their real power), was taken away in 1646, and transferred to the Archbishop of Tou- louse. The only remnant of the holy office in that city is a Dominican convent, which still bears the name of the inquisition, because it was of old the residence of the grand inquisitor Sea Albigenses. Under Innocent IV. all Italy, except Naples and Venice, had received the yoke of the new judges. The opposition which arose from Naples, and which, even to the pre- sent day, has prevented the establishment of an inquisition within that kingdom, might naturally be anticipated from the never-ceasing dissensions between the popes and the Neapolitan princes. Even when the Spanish influence had secured Naples to itself, a singular reason continued to form a bar against the introduction of the holy ofiice, by that power which elsewhere had evinced itself the most ardent of its supporters. The court of Madrid contended that the inquisi- tors of Naples, if appointed, should depend, not upon the congregation at Rome, which swayed all the other inquisitions of Italy, but upon their own grand inquisitor; and to such an arrange- ment, with so near and so restless a neighbour, it was the obvious policy of the Vatican to re- fuse assent. Hence, although the pope has oc- casionally sent commissaries to decide on charges of heresy' in Naples, even in these rare cases his ministers have not been allowed to act without permission of the viceroy ; and the cognizance of crimes against religion has remained in posses- sion of the Neapolitan bishops, undisturbed by inquisitors. An attempt which was made in the reign of Charles V. by his viceroy, Don Pedro of Toledo, to establish the holy office in form, led to an insurrection in 1544, which cost the lives of many Spaniards ; and had it not been for the timely abandonment of the project, would 838 have transferred the crown itself to a French dynasty. The experiment has not since been renewed. For their other possessions, Milan, while under the Spanish j'oke, was subordinate to the inquisition of Rome, upon which it de- pended before its subjection; and Sicily and Sardinia, which had been free from the tribunal till their union with Spain, felt no reluctance to receive an inquisition from Madrid. In the Low Countries the resistance maintained against the establishment of the inquisition forms the most distinguished period of their history. The edict published b}- Charles V, for its introduction was rendered abortive by the sagacity of his sister Mary, Queen of Hungary, who, in her adminis- tration of these provinces, well knew that the curtailment of their religious privileges would be the prelude to commercial extinction, by the ex- patriation of their merchants. Charles, there- fore, first qualified his edict by restricting its application to strangers, and modifj'ing it as it affected the natives; and in the end he aban- doned it altogether. The contrary policy, which was suggested by the unhappy bigotry of his son and successor, who endeavoured to form in the Netherlands as rigorous an inquisition as he found existing in Spain, led to a war which raged more than sixty years, and which, after costing the best blood and treasure of the mother country, and desolating the most pro- fitable of her dominions, ended, after various fortune, in the entire overthrow of her power in the Netherlands, and the establishment of independence by the seven United Provinces. In the State of Venice the inquisition was introduced about a century after its first estab- lishment ; but the wary government of that re- public took especial pains to prevent this foreign jurisdiction from attaining any power which might endanger its own ; and the immunities of temporal dominion were carefully preserved from the inroads of ecclesiastical ambition. From the middle of the thirteenth century till 1289, ten popes, b_v repeated bulls, pressed the full accep- tance of this tribunal upon the Venetians ; but they could obtain no further admission than that secular judges should be appointed to receive denunciations against heresy; that these judges should refer the examination of such doctrines as were suspected of error to theologians, who miglit report upon them ; but that, in the end, the civil magistrates should both find the verdict and pronounce the sentence. In the year which we have last mentioned, a final concordat was arranged between the doge, Giovanni Dandolo, and Pope Nicholas IV., and the provisions wliich it contained formed the future basis of the Vene- tian inquisition. This tribunal, in the capital, was to consist of the papal nuncio, the Bishop of Venice, and another ecclesiastic ; but the two latter could not act without the sanction of the doge. In the provinces, the pope, in like manner, had the barren privilege of nomination ; but his INQ nominees were powerless if the doge enforced his veto. Three senators in Venice, three magis- trates in the pro\-inces, completed the inquisitorial band; and without their presence all proceedings were absolutely null. They might suspend the deliberations, and prohibit the execution of the sentences of their court, if they judged them con- trary to the interests of the republic. Secrecy, the boasted master-engine of the institution, was here deprived of its chief eflScacy as strengthening the pontifical arm ; for the assistants were sworn to reveal all proceedings to the senate, and no appeal or evocation to Rome was permitted. Heresy was the sole offence cognizable by the inquisitors. The Jews established in the Vene- tian territories were freed from their grasp ; for it was plausibly argued that church authority could not extend bej'ond the members of the church. So, too, with the Greeks, for it was unjust that Rome should be judge in her own cause. Biga- mists could not have offended against a sacra- ment, for the second marriage being void was no more than an infraction of the civil code. Blas- phemers, usurers, and sorcerers, provided these last had not abused holy ordinances, were pre- served equally harmless. Even with condemned offenders, property reverted to their heirs, so that the great stimulus of confiscation was wanting to avarice. Books, before the invention of printing, could not alarm ecclesiastical jealousy ; but even after that discovery, the tyranny of the press was committed entirely to the vigilance of the civil magistrates. All offences of priests were submitted to the secular judge, and even the funds of the inquisition were managed by a Venetian treasurer, and inspected and controlled by the senate. Such were the chief barriers which Rome, notwithstanding her repeated attempts, was never able to pass (Ilis/oria delV Inquisitioni, e particolarmenfe della Veneta, by Fra Paolo). The inquisition was not established in Britain. In France and Germany it never obtained more than partial and temporary estab- lishment. The long struggle between the popes and the emperors, and the dawn of the Reforma- tion in the*German States, were sufficient obstacles against the submission of their princes to a per- manent spiritual yoke from a foreign power ; and the Galilean Church, notwithstanding the early example of Toulouse, has, on all occasions, maintained an independence of external control, which, even when it has been the false policy of the sovereign to encourage religious persecution, has declined placing the weapons of offence in an\' hands but its own. In 1558 an inquisition, in accordance with that of Rome, was erected in France under a bull of Paul IV. But even here the parliament interfered with a salutary check, by carefully distinguishing between laics and ecclesiastics. The latter were unreservedly left to the cognizance of tlie inquisitorial court ; but against the former the inquisition had no further power than that of instituting a process, and 39 INQ declaring the accused to be heretics ; for all the rest they were left to the civil judges. The times, however, were too turbulent, and the re- formed doctrine was too powerfully advocated in France, to allow of the quiet imposition of this detestable yoke. Accordingly, not two years after the papal bull of establishment, the Cardinal of Lorraine complained of the inefficiency of the court, and earnestly pressed the entire adoption of the Spanish model. He was dexterously met t)y the Chancellor I'Hopital, who, knowing that there would be a majority against him in the cabinet, if he openly opposed tlie measure, ad- mitted its advantages if seasonably applied, but argued that at such a moment the very name would create a revolt. He succeeded in stopping the progress of the inquisition, and substituted in its stead the provisions of an ordinance well known in French history imder the name of L'Edit de Romorentin. It was in the Western Peninsula of Europe, in Spain and Portugal, that the inquisition fixed and has ever maintained its strongest hold. The Arragonese, from the first, ad- mitted this tribunal in all their dependencies; but it was not till the union of the two crowns under Ferdinand and Isabella, that the rest of Spain surrendered its freedom. Each of these royal personages sought a refuge from unhappi- ne'ss in bigotry, Ferdinand endeavoured to make compensation for crime, Isabella to assuage afflic- tion, and tlie priests were at hand to profit both by the stricken conscience and the wounded heart. The year 1-181 maj', therefore, be con- sidered as the epoch of the establishment of the Spanish inquisition, and its first edict was issued from the Dominican convent of St. Paul at Seville. Its activity was chiefly directed against Jews, Mohammedans, and those unhappy offsets from them who, having been baptized, were, nevertheress, suspected of attachment to their ancient faith; and under the stigma of being neio Christians (^Maranos, the cursed race), as they were termed, were perpetual objects of jealous observation. It is stated that, within ten months of this first year of the Spanish inquisi- tion, in Seville alone, 298 new Christians were burned. The scene of execution was the Quema- dero, in the suburbs,— a stone area, crowned at its angles with statues of the four greater prophets, which served to support the transverse beams on which a platform was raised. Here as late as 1782 a woman was committed to the flames. It was destroyed in 1810, in order to erect a battery against the approaching French army. These exercises of power were not deemed sufficient. The pope, Sextus IV., had been appealed to by the numerous bands who emigrated from Spain under the dread of persecution ; and their appeal, instead of checking the tyranny against which it was directed, tended to its firmer consolidation After a short correspondence with Isabella, ii was agreed that the sentences of the Spanish INQ inquisition should, for the future, be definitive. The holy see relinquished its powers of revisal, and in 1483 Father Thomas de Torquemada (de Twrecrematd, as he is appropriately Latinized), a Dominican, and prior of the monastery of the holy cross at Segovia, received his appointment as first grand inquisitor of Spain. Torquemada arranged a royal council, of which himself was president, with certain subaltern tribunals under its control. He issued also twenty-eight articles of instructions. Bv these, voluntary self-denun- ciations were especially recommended. The general spirit of these articles— for we have not room for details — may be apprehended from a slight specimen. By the eleventh it was decreed that if an heretic, detained in the prisons of the holy office, demanded absolution, and appeared to feel true repentance, it might be granted to him, imposing at the same time perpetual im- prisonment. By the twelfth, if the inquisitors thought the repentance pretended, thej' might refuse absolution, declare the penitence false, and condemn the prisoner to be burned. Bj' the fifteenth, if a semi- proof existed against a person who denied his crime, he was to be put to the torture. If he confessed during his agony, and afterwards confirmed his confession, he was to be punished as convicted. If he retracted, he was to be again tortured or condemned to an extra- ordinary punishment. And this appears ever afterwards to have been the regulation concerning torture. The supreme council of the inquisition was composed of the inquisitor-general, nominated b}' the pope, but subject to a veto by the King of Spain ; five counsellors, of whom one must be a Dominican ; a procurator-fiscal ; a secretary of the king's chamber ; two secretaries of the council ; an alguazil, or sergeant-major; a receiver ; two relators ; and two qualificators. The number of familiars (see Familiars) and minor oflScers in very great, for their privileges are extensive, and thej' are amenable only to their own tribunaL Hence persons of the highest rank and of the noblest families in Spain are enrolled in the service of the inquisition. All the provincial inquisitions depend upon this supreme council, which is equally paramount with the Congre- gation of the Holy Office at Rome; and this supreme council itself depends upon the grand inquisitor, who has the absolute nomination to every post in the tribunal. No appeal lies from it. It makes and unmakes statutes; it confirms or annuls the sentences and decrees of the lower inquisitions; and it has the uncontrolled rule of every matter connected with its functions. Every officer, before his appointment, must give satisfactory proof that he is descended from old Christians, and that not one of his ancestors has fallen under the cognizance of I he holy oflSce for infidelity or heresy. Above all, he is bound to the most inviolable secrecy, and solemnly pledges himself that he will not be 340 induced, either by promises or menaces, to reveal any transaction of the inquisition, with which he may become acquainted. There are six chief ofTences to which the inquisition principally directs itself, — 1. Heresy. 2. Suspicion of heresy. 3. Protection of heretics. 4. Magic. 5. Blas- phem3\ 6. Injury to the inquisition or any of its officers, and resistance of its orders ; and these six offences, as they are interpreted, leave small room for escape, if the tribunal is determined to fix an accusation. Thus heresy is considered to be committed by any one who says, write-;, teaches, or preaches anything against Scripture, the creeds, the articles of faith, or the traditions of the church ; by a renunciation of the Roman Catholic religion, or an exchange of it for any other ; by practising or even praising the rites and ceremonies of any other religion ; or by believing that a man may be saved, whatever may be his faith, provided he embraces it con- scientiously. Those also are heretics who dis- approve any rite, ceremony, or usage, not only of the universal church, but of the particular church to which the inquisition belongs ; who hesitate as to the infallibility of the pope, his sovereignty over general councils, and his power of dethroning princes. There is but little trouble requisite to render a man suspected of heresy : it is enough that he advances any proposition which scandalizes the hearer, or that he omits to denounce a person who has chanced to advance such a proposition in his hearing. Abuse of the sacraments, or other holy things; contempt, outrage, or injury of images ; reading, possessing, or lending to others books condemned by the in- quisition; abstaining from the usages of the church, as passing a whole year without confession or communion ; eating flesh on forbidden days; neglecting mass; saying mass or confessing others without ordination ; or, if in orders, saying mass without consecration ; repeating sacraments which ought not to be repeated ; or entering into mar- riage ; if laics, contracting a second or more mar- riages while a first wife is alive ; assisting, even once, at any public religious service of heretics; neglecting a citation of the inquisition ; or not seeking absolution after being excommunicated for a year's space; — this, it must be admitted, is a fearfully comprehensive catalogue. But it ex- tends yet further; an intimacy with any heretic is of itself enough to create suspicion of heresy ; any correspondence with such an one, even for mercantile purposes, is to be avoided by those who are careful of their own safety. For under the next head of protection of heretics are in- cluded such as permit themselves to be engaged in friendship with those not professing the faith of Rome ; who warn them against the inquisi- tion ; who point out to them methods of avoid- ing its vigilance ; or even who forbear from denouncing them. Tiiis duty of denunciation is to supersede every bond of blood or affection, however clusely it may be kuit. Brother, sister, INQ father, mother, husband, or wife, against each of these must information be presented, if the per- son privy to their heresj' would himself avoid like imi)utation. and free himself from the terrors of the holy office. A fortiori^ the offence is in- creased if assistance or even advice be given to any one against whom the inquisition has com- menced a process ; if a fugitive or a recusant of a citation is housed, concealed, or succoured ; if a prisoner is furnished with means of escape ; or if an officer is intimidated or otherwise impeded in the execution of his duty ; if, without permission, a prisoner is spoken to, written to, advised, or even consoled ; if witnesses are tampered with ; or if any evidence which may be brought to bear against an offender is destroyed or concealed. INIagic, as we need scarcel}' say, was a most fruit- ful source of accusation ; but on this head the in- quisition was by no means singular; and the trials for witchcraft, for which even Scottish and Eng- lish judicature must blush, to a comparatively late period, are not less disgraceful to human credulitv than those which are recorded in the holy office. Blasphemy speaks for itself. The last crime, that of resistance to the holy office, was visited with the heaviest rigour. It was the policy of the inquisition to maintain itself by terror; dis- obedience to it, therefore, was in all ca.ses a capital crime; and no birth, rank, character, or employment could shield the offender from assured extremity of punishment. Although neither Jews nor Mohammedans were in strict- ness subject to the inquisition, it is plain that they might easily be included under three of the heads of offence. Moreover, if they spoke or wrote anything contrary to the articles of belief common to themselves and Christians, as an im- pugnment of the unity of God, &c., they might be accused as heretics. So, too, they were exposed to denunciation if they liindered the conversion to Christianity of any of their own brethren, or yet more, if they sought to obtain a proselyte to themselves. They were forbidden to have in their keeping any prohibited book, even if, as the Talmud, it related to their own creed ; lastl}', they might not engage Christian nurses for their children. In all tliese cases the vengeance of the holy office most unsparingly followed upon offence; for the inquisition had sagacity enough to perceive that the dread of like punishment frequently operated as a power- ful motive for conversion. On the receipt of a denunciation, which was the most usual mode of proceeding (although common report, the sus- picion of the inquisitors themselves, or even self- accusation in the hope of lighter punishment, not unfrequently formed the basis of trials), the in- former swore to the truth of his depositions, and pointed out witnesses. The witnesses were then examined, not as to the fact itself — for of this they were never informed — but in general terms, if they had ever seen or heard anytliing which was or appeared to be contrary to the Catholic 841 INQ faith or the rights of the inquisition. This vague question frequently elicited matter quite foreign to the subject under investigation, and, as may be supposed, gave rise to fresh processes. The de- positions were written down in such form and words as the secretary approved. Inquiries were then made in all the tribunals of the province if any charges existed against the accused, and this review of the registers was incorporated, if it afforded any cause, in the preliminarj' instruc- tion ; even the same offence, if represented in different terms, was always considered to be a distinct charge. The instruction thus prepared was submitted to the qualifiers, who, by their censure, were to determine whether the propo- sitions contained in it amounted to heresy or suspicion of heresy. The accused meantime was cited thrice to appear; if he disobeyed the third summons, he was immediately excommunicated and subjected to most severe punishment, with- out prejudice to that which he might afterwa-ds receive, if proved guilty of the original charge. But few, however, were hardy enough to brave the dangers of an attempt at escape ; for security was next to impossible, and the lowest punish- ment on detection was perpetual imprisonment. In Spain flight was more difficult than else- where ; for bodies of men, not belonging to the inquisition, but who devoted themselves to its service, ceaselessly tracked the object of pursuit through the remotest districts. The members of the holy brotherhood (la Santa Heriiianaad) were dispersed everywhere, and under countless dis- guises ; their great duty and chief merit was the arrest of the denounced. The crusade (la Cniciata) in like manner took to itself the office of denun- ciation ; and to these must be added the swarm of familiars more immediately attached to the tribunal. By these last, if "the evidence was deemed sufficient, or if the crime was of an enormous nature, the accused was summarily ar- rested, without the previous form of citation." No asylum, no privilege, no sanctuary could protect the victim ; resistance or remonstrance were both equally vain ; and he who was once wanted by a familiar of the inquisition, had no other course than to obev in silence. The prisons to which the accused were trans- ferred were secret, and the captive had no com- munication except with his jailers and judges. He was rigorously searched, and all property, having been registered, was taken from him. Imagination, as it is natural to suppose, has been busy in painting the horrors of these cells; and they probably varied, as all prisons do, in their degree of severity. But take them at the best, even according to the description of Llorente, and they were abodes little fitting for a culprit before trial, who might be altogether innocent, and whose offence, even if he were proved guilt v by the tribunal to which he was amenable, most probably was arbitrary and factitious. " These prisons," says the writer just mentioned, "are INQ not, as they have been represented, damp, dirty, and unhealthy; thej' are vaulted chambers, well lighted, not damp, and large enough for a person to take some exercise in. The real horrors of the prison are that no one can enter them without becoming infamous in public opinion; and the solitude and darkness to which the prisoner is condemned for fifteen hours in the day during the winter, as he is not allowed light before the hour of seven in the morning, or after four in the evening. Some authors have stated that the prisoners were chained. These means are only employed on extraordinary occasions, and to pre- vent them from destroying themselves," (c. ix.) Three audiences followed, one on each of the first three days of imprisonment. On the fourth audience, the prisoner for the first time learned the charge against him ; for hitherto he had been only vaguely questioned, and urged to confess any offence of which he might be conscious. The procurator-fiscal now exhibited his requisition, in which, as in the preliminary instruction, one single charge might be made to assume numerous diflTerent shapes, to the great perplexity of the accused, who was required, between each article, to reply upon the instant whether it were true or false. The judge, according to an inherent prin- ciple of our English law, is always considered the advocate of the prisoner. On what widely different notions the code of the inquisition was framed may be learned from its own mouth. Even the gesture, and the degree of terror which the examiner was to assume in his countenance, were scrupulously defined. Moreover, instead of warning the prisoner that he be most careful not to let any word escape his lips which may contain self-accusation, self-accusation is the chief object which the judge sought to obtain; and to accomplish this purpose he was tutored in his legal education to adopt the most subtle strata- gems, in order to entrap his victim. The prisoner was then asked if he wished to make a defence, and for that purpose he was desired to select some advocate on the list of the holy office. This advocate was not allowed to see the original process nor to communicate with his client. He was to frame his argument upon the result of the preliminary instruction reported to him by a notary, in which were inserted the depositions of the witnesses, unaccompanied by their names or by anv statement of time or place, and without the introduction of such circum- stances as appeared to weigh for the prisoner. The advocate might inquire if the prisoner in- tended to challenge the witnesses, that is, such persons as he imagined to be witnesses. If he chanced to be right, the deposition of the person whom he challenged must receive a ratification; or, in other words, the judge must ascertain to his own satisfaction, that the witness is deserving of credit. If, however, confession was not ob- tained, and the proofs were not sufficient, yet if semi-proofs, such as it is called, was established, 342 INQ the prisoner might be subjected to the torture. Upon the fearful inflictions of tlie pulley, the rack, and the fire, we sliall not dwell. A full confession was deemed so important (because, without it, confiscation was not permitted), that if torture failed to procure it, the unhappy suf- ferer, wliose limbs were just released from the grip of the executioner, and whose spirit was j-et broken and distracted by the remembrance of the agonies which he had undergone, was exposed, in all his weakness, to fresh artifices. A seeming friend was instructed to gain his confidence, and by a show of affectionate anxiety, to win from his unsuspecting reliance that secret which no bodily suflferings could extort. After all, if semi-proof existed, it does not appear that the prisoner obtained his liberty by successfully braving the torture. Few, if any, so circumstanced were permitted to return to upper day, and their lot was perpetual secret confinement in the prisons, by a refinement of contradiction called those of vieroj. On the other Land, if the proofs entirely' failed (a rare occurrence), or if the}' were com- pletely established by witnesses and by confes- sion, the tribunal proceeded to the publication of the testimony, in which the declaration and facts were read to the accused, who after each article was required to admit its truth ; and here, if he had not previously alleged anything against the witnesses, by an unusual clemency he was per- mitted to object to them. This indulgence, con- sidering the general principles of the court, so unfavourable to the prisoner, must be viewed with surprise, since the depositions, now first read to him, might perhaps throw some light on the parties whose evidence had been received by the inquisitors, and in this place his advocate delivered his defence. The whole proceedings were then examined by the qualificators, who were to pronounce a definitive censure, which was the precursor of the sentence. If this was acquit- tal, the prisoner still remained unacquainted with his denouncers and the witnesses against him, and he was considered happy in permission to return to his family with a certificate of abso- lution, after a heavy demand for expenses ; for the inquisition had no funds but such as pro- ceeded from confiscation. For the condemned there were numerous punishments, apportioned to their degree of crime, and the public inflic- tion of them was reserved for an auto da J'e; when tlie galleys, imprisonment for various terms, whipping, and the stake, were largely dispensed. Accounts of tiiese celebrations are everywhere to be found : we have already given a few particulars (See Act of Faith), and we are little inclined to dilate upon them. Those who have abjured, i. e., admitted and renounced their crime, whether it be de levi, or de vehementi, from a light or a violent suspicion of heresy, perform their respective penances in a garb of infamy, whicli they are compelled to wear either for a longer or shorter period. The INQ zamarra, or san-henilo (sacco-benilo, the blessed vest of penitence), was kindly given by the ori- ginal inquisitors to reconciled heretics, as a protecting badge, at a time when all suspected persons were indiscriminately massacred. It is a close tunic, like a priest's cassock, of coarse yellow woollen stuff. Those who abjured de levi wore it plain ; those de vehernenti, with one arm of a red St. Andrew's Cross. The formally con- victed heretics who were reconciled, carried this cross entire ; a burning taper in their hands, and a rope round their necks, completed tiieir cos- tume. The capitally sentenced (relaxados, aban- doned), who repented before their doom was pronounced, were clothed in the third sort of san- henito, with the addition of a conical cap made of the same stuff, or of pasteboard, and called caroza. The san-henito of those who repented after sentence, and thus were privileged to be strangled before burning, was decorated with a bust surrounded with reversed flames {fuego rivolto); and those who were to encounter the fullest severity of punishment, as being impenitent and negative, carried the flames ascending, and interspersed with hideous figures of devils. These vests, at one period, were preserved and suspended in churches as perpetual marks of dis- honour to their wearers. The relaxados bore in their hands a wooden cross painted green instead of a lighted taper. Llorente has calculated, but assuredly not on sufficiently accurate data, the number of victims whom that tribunal has sacri- ficed since its first institution. One statement cannot be disputed, for it is authorized b}' the inquisitors themselves, and was recorded, no doubt, as they believed, to tlieir glory. In the Castle of Triana at Seville, in which the tribunal held its sittings, an inscription, placed there in 1524 imports, that from 1492 to that year, about 1,000 persons had been burned, and 20,000 con- demned to various penances. Horrible as this destruction of life may be, let it not be forgotten that the rage of the English Papists exceeded it by a ratio of more than two to one. In the four years of the Jlarian persecution no less than 288 martyrs perished in the flames. Of the pre- sent state of the different inquisitions, it is by no means easy to offer a correct account. The Congregation of the Holy Office, with its twelve cardinals, inquisitors-general, nominated by the pope, the bishops and priests who form its con- suitors, its Dominican commissary, and its branch, the Congregation of the Index, still watches over heresy in Kome itself, and regulates such other similar Italian tribunals as clioose to acknow- ledge its dominion. Tlie use of torture in this court was abolislied by Pius VII. in 1816, a sufficient admission that up to that time it was employed. In Spain, during Napoleon's occupa- tion, the inquisition was suj.pressed in 1808, not as an unjust and cruel tribunal, but as one "encroaching on the royal autiiority ;" and it was during the short-lived reign of Joseph Bona- 843 ms pnrte that Llorente, as Le assures us, obtained ])ossession of the archives of the supreme court. 'I'he Co7'tes, in 1813, confirmed this suppressiou by a decree of their own ; but the restoration of Ferdinand VII. within a year re-established " the happy influence " of the inquisition, as it is termed in the royal ordinance, " at the desire of nianj' learned and virtuous prelates and different bodies and corporations," " to preserve the tranquillity of the kingdom." In the Madrid Gazette of May 14, 1816, an account is given of an auto da fe celebrated by the inquisition of Mexico in the preceding December. In Goa a court of inquisition was erected under John III. of Portugal, in 1561. It was suppressed by ro3'al edict in 1775, and re-established four years afterwards, with two restrictions, one of a humane tendencj-, which increased the number of witnesses necessary for a conviction ; the other opening a door to fearful abuses, by abolishing public mitos da fe, and ordering sentences to be executed privately within the walls of the in- quisition. Insacrati (unconsecrated'). — See Inferior Clergy. Inspiration. — See Deists and Biblical Cy- clopmdia, sub voce. Insfailalion, the placing of a prebend or canon in his stnl/, and so giving him visible pos- session of his office. Institution, as is shown by Blackstone (^Com., vol. i., book i., ch. ii., p. 390), is the act by which a clerk is invested by the bishop, or one commissioned by him, with the spiritualities of a benefice. His words are, — "If the bishop hath no objections, but admits the patron's presenta- tion, the clerk so admitted is next to be instituted by him ; which is a kind of investiture of the spiritual part of the benefice ; for by institution the care of the souls of the parish is committed to the charge of the clerk." Before institution, the clerk must take before the ordinary, or his substi- tute, the oath against simony, the oaths of alle- giance and supremacy, and the following oath of canonical obedience : — " I, A. B., do swear that I will perform true and canonical obedience to the Bishop of C. and his successor in all things lawful and honest ; so help me God;" and also, if it be a vicarage, he shall swear, " I, A. B., do swear that I will be resident in my vicarage of , in the diocese of , unless I shall be other- wise dispensed withal by my diocesan; so help me God." He must also, in the same presence, subscribe the Thirty-nine Articles, and the three Articles recited in the thirty-sixth canon concern- ing the king's supremacy, the lawfulness of the Common Praj'er, and the validity of the Thirtj-- nine Articles; which last subscription, after the signature of the articles themselves, may be con- sidered a very unnecessary repetition. He must likewise subscribe a declaration of conformity to the liturgy, and obtain a certificate from the ordinary that such subscription has been made, INT which, after induction, he must publicly fead in his church. At the time of institution the clerk kneels down before the ordinarj', who reads the words of institution out of a written instru- ment, with the seal episcopal appendant, which the clerk, during the ceremony, is to hold in his hand. An entry thereof is then made in the ordinary's register. It is advisable that the clerk have trusty witnesses of all these oaths and subscriptions, who should indorse the instruments, and sign a memorandum to be kept by the clerk. The church by institution is full against all per- sons except the king, and the clerk may enter upon the parsonage house, and take the tithes ; but he cannot let, grant, or sue for them till after induction, for which he receives a written mandate from the ordinary. The first beginning of institutions to benefices in England was in a national synod held at Westminster, a.d. 1124 ; for patrons originally filled all benefices by colla- tion and livery, till this power was taken from them by the canons. (Selden, Hist of Tythes, c. 6, 9). — See Ordination. Insufflation (^spitting). — See Exorcist. Insulani (islanders'), a name of old given to those monks who belonged to the famous monas- tery in the island of Lewis. Intention, Doctrine of, in the Church of Rome, the doctrine which makes the validity of a sacrament depend on the intention of the priest who administers it. An ignorant, careless, or malicious priest may frustrate the benefit of a sacrament, and the partaker must be always in ignorance whether the priest had genuine inten- tion or not. Accordingly, no little casuistry has been expended on the doctrine of intention, as to whether it should be actual, virtual, external, or internal ; and it is held that it is enough to secure s|)iritual benefit if the priest simph' intend to do what the church proscribes. lutercessores, a title given in the African and other Churches to those bishops who were appointed to the temporary superintendence of neighbouring churches rendered vacant by the death or other removal of their episcopal guardians. Lest this office should be corrupted to self-interested purposes, so jealous were those churches, that the temporary authority was limited to one year. Interdict (from inter and dicere, to inter- pose a dictum), a prohibitory command. An interdict is a general excommunication, directed not against an individual, but against a king- dom, province, or town ; and, during the period of its application, suspending in the places visited all religious exercises, with a very few exceptions. The origin of this ecclesiastical censure is obscure, and assigned to various dates. Some carry it as far back as 579, without any good evidence. It was used, however, in the tenth and ekventh centuries. Frequent use was made of these spiritual weapons, and various modifications of, or additions to their severity, 344 tNf were adopfefl by different popes. The first inter- dict pronounced against England did not issue from a pope, but from a turbulent Archbishop of Canterbury. Theobald having incurred the in- dignation of King Stephen, took refuge in France, and Lord Lyttelton, on the authority of Gervas of Durham {Chron., ann. 1157), states, that " the obstinate prelate, exasperated at being detained so long from his see, sent over letters of interdict, wherein a day was lixed, before which, if he had not permission to return, they were to take place against all that part of the realm which was in obedience to Stephen. Tliese were the first of this nature to which England had been ever subjected, and they were therefore much more terrible to the minds of the English." The arch- bishop came over, and solemnly published the interdict in person, at Framlinghani, under the protection of Hugh Bigot, who was in arms against Stephen ; nor was it removed till the prelate was restored in triumph to the metropo- litan see, (^nist. of Ilenry II., i., 358, 4to.) Alexander III., during an early stage of the dispute between Henry II. and Thomas a Beckett, in conjunction with the archbishop, directed an interdict to Clarembald, who never- theless officiated as abbot elect at St. Augus- tine's. The same pope appears to have threatened England with an interdict after the murder of k Beckett. It was averted with difficult}-, by what seems to have been a little hard swear- ing on the part of Henry II. 's messengers. The framers of the Reformatio Leyum, which was intended to form the code of our English ec- clesiastical law, and to supersede the canon law, saw the necessity of retaining the power of the keys, if they designed to preserve wholesome discipline. Accordingly, excommunication in cases of extremity was still preserved ; but the penalty of interdict appears to have been abolished, since in collective bodies all indi- viduals do not equally offend, and the innocent should not suffer together with the guilty. lutcrcst oflTIoucy. — See Usury. Inlerim (in the meantime) was the name borne by an edict put forth bj' the Emperor Charles V., in 1548, in the hope of adjusting the religious dissensions of Germany. The diet of Augsburg had in vain petitioned the pope, Paul III., to bring back to Trent the prelates attending tlie council, who, under the pretext of tlie plague, had retired to Bologna. Upon tiie refusal of this prayer, Charles employed Julius Pflug, Bishop of Naumburg, Michal Ilekling, titular Bisiiop of Sidon and suffragan of Mentz, and John Agricola, a protestant divine, preaclier to the Elector of Brandenburg, whose fidelity to his own church was more than suspected, to frame an instrument upon the model of one pre- sented to the diet of liatisbon in 1541. The theology of this system, contained in twenty-five articles, was in all points tiiat of the Koniisli Church, the peculiar doctrines and eveu rites of INT which were strictly retained. The only two de- viations from its rule which were permitted were, that the cup was allowed to be administered in the Eucharist to such provinces as beforehand had been accustomed to receive it, and that mar- ried priests, who still refused to put away their wives, were not prohibited from the performance of their ecclesiastical duties. These concessionSj however, were broadly stated to be but for tem- porary indulgence, and allowed only in considera- tion of the weakness of those who were not yet prepared for a more wholesome discipline. By collusion witli the Archbisliop of Mentz, who assumed to himself the riglit of conveying the general voice of the assembly, the emperor ob- tained the seeming approbation of the diet, on the 15th of May, to the articles of this formula; and he then prepared to enforce it as a decree of the empire. But at the dissolution of the diet it was equally disapproved both by Papists and Protestants : the former proudly and peremptorily rejecting any approach to conciliation, the latter justly alarmed at the total abandonment of their faith. At Rome it was condemned as impious and profane; but the pope himself, with great political sagacity, discovered the error which Charles had committed in thus irritating all parties, and rejoiced in the certain ultimate fate of a measure which it was unnecessary that he should openly combat, since it contained in itself the seeds of its own destruction. The emperor persisted in executing its provisions. But the interim was rejected by several of the German princes, especially by John, Marquess of Bran- denburg, and by the heroic John Frederick, Elector of Saxony, who, regardless of his cap- tivity and of the increased rigour with which he w-as visited, in consequence of his opposition, refused to betray the cause to which his whole life had been devoted. Bucer, when consulted by the Elector of Brandenburg, pronounced it to be downright Popery a little disguised. The imperial cities also opposed themselves, and Strasburg, Constance, Bremen, Magdeburg, and many other lesser towns, remonstrated with Charles against this violence to their consciences. The little town of Lindau (near Constance) pro- fessed general obedience, but protested that it could not agree to the interim without incurring eternal damnation. The emperor's reply was conveyed by the military occupation of Augs- burg and Ulm, tlie abolition of the form of government existing in those towns, and the appointment of an admini^traticm devoted to his own views, the members of which, as their first act, swore to observe the interim. liitcriurdiate Siatr. — See LiMno. InU-rprcicrM. — See llKKMKNKrx.K. Iiiicrveiiiores or ViMiiors (another name of the Intercessores), persons in tlie North Afri- can churches sent to manage elections in a vacant see, and to superintend it. When an interven- tor managed to get himself elected as bishop — 345 INT no matter how strong his party among the people — the election was set aside. So it was ruled by the fifth council of Carthage. He could hold his office oul}' for a year; and if he did not secure the election of a bishop in that time, another visitor or procurator was sent in his room. — See Intekcessores. Inti-wibo (J toil/ go in), the word taken from the fifth verse of the forty-second psalm (Latin version or Vulgate), with which the priest, stand- ing at the foot of the altar, begins mass. Introit (entrance), in church service, what was sung as the ministering priest entered. Pope Celestinus ordained that the psalms should be chanted as introits, the mass before his time having immediately succeeded the epistle and gospel. All introits not taiven from the Psalms are termed irregular. The introits, as set forth in the first Common Prayer Book of Edward VI., were well selected, as bearing upon the particular Sunday or holida}' to which thev were applied; but they were afterwards struck out, and the choice of the psalm was left to the caprice of the parish clerk. Carwithen, in his History of Ike Church of England, says, " The second Service Booh of Edward suffered a mate- rial injury from the vitiation of devotional feel- ing. . . . The use of introits to begin the communion service was known in the Cliristian Church before the time of Jerome, and their propriety is as unquestionable as their antiquity is imdisputed. Their absence is now sensibly felt, and is inadequatel}- supplied by an unvaried anthem, or an unmeaning overture in cathedrals, and by the frequently improper selection of a psalm in parish churches. According to the first liturgy, while the whole psalter was read through every month, in the morning and evening service, the most edifying parts were repeated on Sun- days and the other solemn days observed hy the church" (i., 340). The sanctus, usually chanted as an introit in cathedrals, is among the most solenm and impressive portions of their sublime service. In the Common Prayer set forth in 1549 the gloria patri closes each psalm in accordance with a rubric, " and so must every introite be ended." By a canon of the fourth council of Toledo the gloria patri was omitted after the introits during Passion Week. luiiiitioii. — See Spiritualissi. Invention {finding) of the Cross, a festi- val held in the Komish Church on the third of May in honour of the supposed discovery of the Cross by Helena. — See Cross. Investiture (investire, to put on a vest or covering), the act of confirming one in the possession of an office, bj' formall}' presenting him with its robe or insignia. In the primitive Church, after the election of a bishop, and his consecration, the early Christian em- perors claimed a right of confirmation. The Gothic and Lombard kings exercised the same privilege. In the French monarchy the Mero- INV vingians afiTected the still greater power of direct nomination, and their control was supported by means against which the church was wholly in- adequate to contend. The estates and honours which composed the ecclesiastical temporalities were considered to partake of the nature of fiefs, and therefore to require similar investiture from the lord. Charlemagne is said to have intro- duced this practice, and to have invested the newly consecrated bishop by placing a ring and crosier in his hands. Gratian, indeed, affirms that Pope Adrian positively conceded to this emperor the power of electing even to the papacy, in 774; but neither Eginhard, nor any other con- temporary writer, mentions this fact. The cus- tom, however, existed, nor does it appear to have been objected to or opposed during the lapse of two centuries from his reign. The disorderly' state of Italy which succeeded the death of Charlemagne, frequently interrupted the exercise of this right by the Carlovingians ; but even so late as 1047, when the empire had passed to another line, Henry III. received an explicit ad- mission of his prerogative, and repeatedly used it. The investiture in the lesser sees followed as a matter of course. Alexander II. issued a decree against lay investitures in general, which was eagerly revived by Gregory VII. (Ililde- brand), as one of the chief means through which his spiritual despotism might be confirmed. Not content with having shaken off the imperial j-oke, as it weighed upon the see of Rome itself, and thereby annulling the power by which the emperors nominated or confirmed popes at each vacancy, he sought entirely to disjoin the ecclesi- astical from the civil rule. He complained loudly of the humiliation to which the church was subjected by dependence upon the patronage of laymen; and he condemned, with far more reason and greater justice, the mercenary and simoniacal exactions which temporal princes ex- torted from ecclesiastics as the price of the bene- fices which they conferred. In the council of Lateran, in 1080, he declared that no bishop or abbot submitting to lay investiture should be considered a prelate. The convulsions which followed engendered the Guelf and Ghibbelin factions, and deluged Italy with blood during a long series of years; for the struggle commenced by Gregory with the Emperor Henry IV. was vigorously pursued by his successors ; among whom Urban II. and Paschal II. especialh' dis- tinguished themselves by their powerful efforts in the contest for independence. It was not, however, until the papacy of Calixtus II., in 1122, that the question was terminated, as it appears, materially to the advantage of the holy see. By a concordat, then arranged at Worms, Henry V. resigned for ever all pretence to invest bishops by the ring and crosier, and recognized the freedom of elections. By way of compro- mise, however, these elections were to be made either before the emperor in person, or his repre- 346 INV sentative ; and tlie new bishop was to receive bis temporalities by the sceptre. In France, even under the papacy of Hildebrand, the right of in- vestiture does not appear to have been made a subject of open quarrel. Protests were occasion- ally offered by the holy see, but in spite of these the power was exercised till the kings, of their own accord, relinquished the presentation of the ring and crosier, a form which gave particular offence ; and contenting themselves by investiture through a written instrument, or sometimes by word of mouth, they remained in peaceable enjoy- ment of their privilege. In England the dispute between our Henry I. and his primate, Anselm, concerning investiture, has been transmitted to us in a very full detail by Eadmer, a monk of Canterbury, a pupil, and afterwards a chosen friend of the archbishop, and his companion in banishment. Anselm, on his return from the exile to which the violence of William Eufus had compelled him, to the surprise of Henry, who had now succeeded to the throne, refused to do homage for his see. The pope was appealed to ; and the king seems to have asserted an unquali- fied right of investiture, which was met by Paschal with as equally unqualified a denial. After a protracted struggle and continued threats of excommunication, the controversy ended in England, the king promising that, for the future, no regal staff should be given as an in- vestiture to a bishop or abbot, either by himself or any other layman in England; and the archbishop in return declaring that he would no longer refuse consecration to such prelates as paid homage for their sees. Invisibles, a name given to Osiander, Fla- cius, and others of their school, who maintained that the Church of Christ was not alwa\'s visible, being driven, as they thought, to this position by the common query of the Romanists, Where was your church before Luther? Invitatory. — The thirty-fourth psalm when sung, as it often was for this purpose, by the ancient Church, before the dispensation of the Lord's Supper, was called the invitatory psalm. Also some text of Scripture used before the Venite {which see.) Invocation of Saints, a form of idolatry practised b}' the Church of Rome, but unknown to the early Church, and expressly condenmed by the council of Laodicea, and by the early fathers. The council of Trent decreed as fol- lows : — " Touching the Invocation, Veneration, and on Relics of Saints, and Sacred Images. — The holy synod enjoins on all bishops, and others sustaining the ofhce and charge of teaching, that, according to the usage of the Catholic and Apos- tolic Church, received from the primitive times of the Christian religion, and according to the consent of the holy fathers, and to the decrees of sacred councils, they especially instruct the faithful diligently toucliing the intercession and invocation of saints ; the honour paid to relics ; INV and the lawful use of images: teaching them that the saints, who reign together with Christ, offer up their own prayers to God for men ; that it is good and useful suppliantly to invoke them, and to resort to their prayers, aid, and help, for obtaining benefits from God, through his Son, Jesus Christ our Lord, who alone is our Re- deemer and Saviour ; but that they think im- piously who deny that the saints, who enjoy eternal happiness in heaven, are to be invoked; or who assert either that they do not pray for men ; or, that the invocation of them to pray for each of us even in particular, is idolatry ; or, that it is repugnant to the Word of God. and is opposed to the honour of the one mediator be- tween God and men, Jesus Christ ; or, that it is foolish to supplicate, orally or inwardly, those who reign in heaven. Also, that the holy bodies of \\o\y martyrs, and of others now living with Christ, whicli were the living members of Christ, and the temple of the Holy Ghost, and which are by him to be raised unto eternal life, and to be glorified, are to be venerated by the faithful; through which [bodies] many benefits are be- stowed by God on men ; so that they who affirm that veneration and honour are not due to the relics of saints; or, that these, and other sacred monuments, are uselessly honoured by the faith- ful ; and that the places dedicated to the memo- ries of the saints are vainly visited for the pur- pose of obtaining their aid; are whollv to be condemned, as the church has already long since condemned, and doih now also condemn them. Moreover, that the images of Christ, of tiie Vir- gin Mother of God, and of the other saints, are to be had and retained particularly in temples, and that due honour and veneration are to be awarded them ; not that any divinity or virtue is believed to be in them, on account of which they are to be worshipped ; or that anything is to be asked of them; or that confidence is to be reposed in images, as was of old done by the Gentiles, who placed their hope in idols; but because the honour which is siiown unto them is referred to the prototypes which they represent ; in such wise that by tlie images whicli we kiss, and before which we uncover the head, and pro- strate ourselves, we adore Christ, and venerate the saints, whose similitude they bear. And this, by the decrees of councils, and especially of the second synod of Nicsea, has been ordained against the opponents of images. And the bishops shall carefully teach this ; that, by means of the histories of the mysteries of our Redemption, depicted by paintings or other re- presentations, the people are instructed, and strengthened in remembering, and continually reflecting on the articles of faith ; as also that great profit is derived from all sacred images, not only because the people are tiiereby admonished of the benefits and gifts which have been be- stowed upon tiiem by Christ, but also because the miracles of God through the means of the 847 INV saints, and their salutary examples, are set be- fore the eyes of the faithful ; that so for those things they may give God thanks; may order their own life and manners in imitation of the saints; and may be excited to adore and love God, and to cultivate pietj'. But if any one shall teach or think contrary to these decrees ; let him be anathema." As a specimen of some modern forms of invocation, take the following: — " It is ' The Litany to the hoh' warrior and Martyr Florian,' and begins as usual, — " Lord ! have mercy upon us. " Christ! have mercy upon us. " Holy Mary, pray for us {Ora pro nobis). " St. Florian, courageous soldier of Christ, pray for us. " St. Florian, unconquered martyr of Christ, pray for vs. " St. Florian, despiser of the world, pray for us. "St. Florian, mirror and pattern of soldiers, pray for us. " St. Florian, ornament of Austria, pray for tiS. " St. Florian, valiant captain, pray for us. " St. Florian, who, on account of the successes of thy forty soldiers, wert full of cares, pray for us. " St. Florian, who broughtest thy comrades to martyrdom by thine exhortations, 2)''cy for us. " St. Florian, who didst offer thyself to the governor of Aqualino, pray for us. " St Florian, who offered thyself to death for Christ, and willingly bore it, pray for us. " St. Florian, who confessed the faith of Christ with loud voice, pray for us. " St. Florian, who, for this confession, wert slain, pray for us. " St, Florian, whose shoulders were branded and lacerated with hot irons, pray for us. '■ St. Florian, who remained steadfast in the faith under most dreadful suffering, pray for us. " St. Florian, who, bound hands and feet, and with millstones about the neck, wert thrown into the Enns, pray for us. " St. Florian, who, passing through water and fire, didst enter the land of eternal life, pray for us. "St. Florian, who art crowned in heaven, pray for us. " St. Florian, who, in the presence of God, will bloom to all eternity, pray for us. '' St. Florian, whose body was by an unseen power saved from the river, and deposited on a rock, pray for us. " St. Florian, whose body an eagle protected and showed to the Christians, pray for vs. " St. Florian, who wast taken and buried by Valeria and other pious women, pray for ns. " St. Florian, who, by a miraculous spring of water refreshed the oxen who were half dead from IRE wailt of water, while conveying thy holy body to the grave, pray for us. " St. Florian, who obtained from God for this well such powers that the sick were healed by it^ pray for us. " St. Florian, who, after thy burial, didst im- mediatel}' raise the dead body of another to life, pray for us. " St. Florian, who, when invoked by a man who had fallen on burning coals, restored him uninjured, pray for us. " St. Florian, powerful protector against fire, pray for us. "Thou Lamb of God! that takest away the sin of the world, spare us, O Lord ! " (Sej'mour's Pilgrimage to Rome, 1851.) — See Saints. Ireland, Christianity in. — The general conversion of the Irish to Christianity is sup- posed to have taken place in the course of the fifth century. This change is generally traced to the indefatigable labours of St. Patrick, who is said to have undertaken a mission to that coun- try in 432. When he entered on the work of evangelization, Ireland was, and had been for ages, the seat of pagan idolatry. The pagan priests, jealous of their authority over the minds of the people, raised the most formidable opposi- tion to the advance of Christianity in the land. Yet, in the midst of all opposing influences, Patrick laboured with manifest success. Many of the people renounced their idolatrous worship, and publicly embraced the doctrines of the Chris- tian religion ; and several of the Irish chieftains, who were converted to the Gospel, voluntarily gave up their lands for the use of the Christian Church. On these lands schools were erected, and means provided for the training of Irish priests, who might in their turn teach their fel- low-countrymen in their native language the Gospel of Christ. Such was the remarkable success which attended Patrick's labours among the Irish, that at the time of his decease in 492 the church had obtained a sure footing in the country, and a complete change had taken plaCe in the conduct and character of the people. IMany devoted men, educated by means of the agencies provided, were fully qualified for, and already engaged in, diffusing the knowledge of the Gospel. Their teaching was free from many of the corruptions which were associated with the religious services of the Church of Rome. The}' taught the Holy Scriptures in their truth and simplicity, and faithfully adhered to their infallible doctrines. Nor did they confine their evangelistic labours to their native island. Other lands were visited, and the same heavenly mes- sage was carried to other nations still sitting in darkness. From Ireland Cohimba sailed to lona, whilst other missionaries went forth to Burgundy, Germany, and various parts of the continent of Europe. For several centuries the Irish Church was independent of the papal see. Even until the middle of the twelfth century it continued to 348 IKE maintain its independence. At length, in 1155, by a papal bull, Ireland was claimed by the pope, and given over to Henry II., King of Eng- land. Subjected to papal jurisdiction, the Irish Church gradually exhibited an approximation in doctrine and discipline to the Church of Kome. Various eonlentions ensued among the clergy re- garding the vacant sees. The two powers, that of the pope and that of the king, were frequently at variance, and much excitement and unseemly disputation was thereby caused. The papal power gradually increased, and soon the civil and spiritual rights of the Irish clergy were at the entire disposal of the Roman pontiffs. Italian ecclesiastics were thrust into vacant sees who proved themselves utterly unworthy of the sacred otilce. The native clergy were also degenerating, and were no longer characterized by that purity and zeal which had distinguished their predeces- sors. The church revenues were often insufficient to suppl}- their rapacious demands, and in order to attain their purposes they charged at exorbitant rates the sacred duties Avhich they performed. Indulgences were sold to the highest bidders, censures were counnuted for money, and every base method was adopted to gratify their inordi- nate desires. Such were the corruptions and abuses which had crept into the church, and which had wellnigh stripped it of all resem- blance to its former character. The following occurs in Soames' Latin Church in Anglo-Saxon Times: — "Patrick 'did not apply to the papal see to have the election of the bishops appointed by him confirmed, nor is there extant any re- script from the apostolic see to him, or any epistle of his to Rome. St. Austin of Canterbury cor- responded with his master, St. Gregory, about a century and a-half later ; and it is only natural to suppose that St. Patrick might have done the same with the Roman bishops of his day. But the fact is, that we have no record or hint of his having kept up any communication with Rome from the time of his arrival in Ireland until his death' (Todd's Church of St. Patrick, 30.) ' I have not been able to discover any fair instance of a bishop being elected to an Iri-^^h .see by the interference of the pope, from the mission of St. Patrick until after the English invasion ; and it is a fact admitted by a learned Roman Catholic antiquarian, that our episcopal clergy never ap- plied to that see for hulls of ratification, provi- sions, or exemption.'' {lb. 35.) The real origin of Irish Popery is the English invasion under Henry II. The Irish prelates before that time had been kept in a state of subserviency by the native chieflains, which was the more distasteful, because tlieir brethren elsewhere, under the pa- tronage of Rome, had risen into a very different position. The inferior clergy, too, found them- selves unable to enforce the payment of tithes, which in other countiies was regularly made under legal sanction, and wliicii they re[)iesente(i aa divinely conferred uijon themselves. These IRI selfish considerations made nearly the whole clerical body of Ireland anxious to welcome the English invaders, who pretended to come over under a grant from the pope. How that Italian prelate became possessed of any right to make such a grant few people, or probably none, then took anv trouble to think. In after times the difficulty has been solved in four different ways. Either Constantine gave all islands to the pope, or the pope was destined by ancient prophecy for the dominion of all islands, or some king of Munster and other chieftains had, some time or other, given up their dominions to the pope, on some pilgrimage to Rome, or the whole Irish nation, in St. Patrick's time, from gratitude for that missionary's labours, had made over the sove- reignt}^ of their island to the pope. But what- ever might be the pontiff's title to interfere, his countenance of the English invasion answered the purposes of tlie native clergy, until England, soon after the Reformation, set to work in earnest upon the conquest and civilization of the countrj-. Then the chieftainry became zealous Papists, and popular hatred of the English was inflamed by representing, that however bad they might al- ways have been by being oppressors, they were now become incalculably worse from having turned heretics." {Phelnn's Policy of the Church of Home in Ireland, 12.) Irish Episcopal Church, The. — For three centuries prior to the Reformation on the coiUinent of Europe, the Church in Ireland was held in complete subjection to the papal see. During that time the Irish Church rapidly degenerated, and in the beginning of the six- teenth century was sunk in the lowest depths of degradation. The grossest superstition prevailed among the people, and every vestige of a pure Christianity was wellnigh banished from their religious services. The clergy were characterized by ignorance and profligacy, and, with unblush- ing effrontery, made traffic of their sacred office. Such was the condition of the Church in Ire- land when the light of the glorious Reformation dawned upon the world. It is said that certain followers of Wycliffe, who settled in Ireland, were the first to disseminate the reformed prin- ciples among the people, and that severe mea- sures were adopted by Henry VII. to arrest the spread of heresy in the country. It is certain, however, that these principles had not taken deep root in the hearts of the nation ; for in the reign of Henry VIII. Ireland was an entirely popish country. The efforts of that monarch to induce the Irish to withdraw their allegiance from the Roman pontiff were for a considerable time with- out success. The commissioners whom he de- spatched from England to treat with the Irish clergy were tr .ated with contempt, ami all their endeavours to further the ambitious designs of tlieir royal master completely failed. The Arch- liishop "of Armagh offered the most strenuous lesistauce to the iunjvatious proposed, and most 349 IRI zealousl}' advocated the supremacy of the pope. Incensed at the treatment he received from the Irish clergy, the king appointed George Brown, an Augustine friar, who had espoused the cause of the Reformation, to be ordained Archbishop of Dublin. In 1536 Henry, at the suggestion of the archbishop convened an Irish parliament, in order to take into consideration the question anent the papal supremacy. The parliament assembled, and, without opposition, the reformed principles were adopted, and the national religion formally abolished. By the statutes then enacted it was declared that the sovereign was the supreme head of the Irish Church, and all allegiance to the papal see was pronounced to be from that time forth illegal. By the great bodj'' of the people the conduct of the king was viewed with indignation, and the utmost discontent prevailed throughout the country. Many of the clergy abandoned their sees, rather than renounce the supremacy of the pope. A deputation was corn- missioned to repair to Rome, and to invoke the assistance of the holy father, whilst continuous efforts were made to stir up the people to a rebel- lion against the government. Unfortunately their purpose was attained, and several disas- trous engagements were fought, in which the popish party was repeatedly defeated. In con- sequence of these successes the influence of Henry increased, and those who rebelled against him submissively bowed to his authority. Even the Irish chieftains, who had long resisted his power, openly avowed their submission to the govern- ment. But the clergy, obstinate as ever, refused to comply with innovations introduced into the Church. Through fear they were restrained from open violence during Henry's reign ; but on the accession of Edward to the throne they threw off restraint, and opposed with all their influence the newly established religion. The liturgy, which ■was at that time compiled for the use of the Irish Church, they treated with the utmost contempt. Whilst the established clergy were continually exposed to the most shameful abuse, the situa- tion of Protestants in the country was rendered still more perplexing under the government of Queen Mary. During her reign the work of reformation was brought to a stand, and the ancient religion, which was held in veneration by the great majority of the people, seemed to be re-established in all its former strength. By a papal bull it was formally declared to be the established religion of Ireland ; and at a meeting of parliament, by which the laws unfavourable to Popery were repealed, the deliverance of the nation from Protestantism was made the subject of thanksgiving to God. But a change of go- vernment produced an entire change in the eccle- siastical system organized during the reign of Queen Mary. On the accession of her successor to the throne, an Irish parliament was convened, and the reformed religion, though not with- out considerable opposition, was established by IRI law. All the laws adverse to the reformed worship were repealed, and the Church was placed on the same footing as in the reign of Henry VIII. Many of the popish clergy refused to take the oath acknowledging the su- premacy of the sovereign, and in consequence resigned, or were ejected from their livings. For many j'ears the country was a scene of dis- cord and commotion occasioned by the disaffec- tion of the people towards their rulers. The Irish chieftains conspired against the govern- ment, and invoked the aid of the Roman pontiff, for the furtherance of their plans. The pope, who entertained the most bitter hatred towards the English sovereign, promised his assistance, and forthwith issued a bull calling upon all Catholic princes to engage in the cause of the Irish, and recover the independence of the ancient church. It was probably in obedience to this mandate that Philip II., King of Spain, sent forth a formidable armada against Elizabeth. The Irish, encouraged by the prospect of assis- tance from the Spanish king, broke out into open rebellion, but were soon compelled to submit, and to promise obedience to the laws of the country. The Irish Church, encompassed with so much opposition, made little progress among the people, whilst its presence in their midst continued to promote disaffection towards their English rulers. In the reign of James I. renewed attempts were made to restore the Roman Catholic wor- ship, but were immediately suppressed. More severe measures were adopted against the Ro- manists, and the priests were compelled to leave the country if they refused to acknowledge the supremacy of the king. These severities still more exasperated the people, and were uni- versally considered as gross acts of injustice on the part of the government. A petition was drawn up, in which their grievances were stated, and in which thej' craved the royal per- mission to engage with freedom in their reli- gious services. It so happened that their peti- tion was presented on the same day that the intelligence reached Dublin of the gunpowder plot. In the excitement produced, their request was not even entertained, whilst the chiefs of their party were thrown into prison. Defeated in their purposes, the northern chieftains formed the plan of a new rebellion, but were again un- successful, and 500,000 acres of land were for- feited to the crown. With a view to settle the disturbed state of affairs in Ireland, a parliament was summoned to inquire into the existing dis- sensions which threatened to embroil the country in a civil war. In the parliament assembled the Romanists were in the minority, and were disappointed to find that no measures were taken to remove their grievances. During the sitting of parliament a convocation of the Episcopal clergv was held in Dublin for the jiurpose of drawing up a public confession of faith for the 350 IRI Chnrch of Ireland. That document, which consisted of 124 articles, including the nine articles of Lambeth, was drawn up by Arch- bishop Usher ; it was afterwards submitted to the assembly, received their approval, and was sanctioned by the lord deputy. On the acces- sion of Charles to the throne, the Romanists re- newed their oft repeated efforts to secure a full toleration for their religion. Rumours were afloat that the new sovereign was favourable to their religion, and that he would in due time give them relief. In consequence of these re- ports, the Protestant clergy were seized with alarm, and immediately laid before the govern- ment their protest against all toleration of the Roman Catholic religion. They were also more frequent and zealous in their denunciations of popish doctrines, and assiduously endeavoured to arouse the members to a deeper hatred of Popery. Meanwhile the Romanists, encouraged by the hope of the royal interference on their behalf, publiclj' professed their religion, and openly en- gaged in their distinctive services ; their priests continued to harangue them on their grievances, and endeavoured to incite them to open rebellion. The lord deputy issued a proclamation command- ing the popish clergy to forbear the exercise of their religious services ; but his commands were treated with contempt, and in direct opposition to his mandate they publicly celebrated their religious worship. In consequence of these bold proceedings, the government carried out to their utmost limit the severe measures adopted by parliament for the suppression of Popery. It was at this time that the popish college in Dublin was seized and converted into a Protestant semi- nary. During the reign of Charles I. various measures were adopted for the purpose of renew- ing church buildings, and planting new churches in districts which were still unsupplied : for these charges suitable ministers were appointed, and sent forth to preach the Gospel. Means were taken to secure the better education of candi- dates for the ministry, and various reformations were made in the university of Dublin, with this object in view. About the same time an effort was made to effect a union between the Irish Church and the Church of England, but for some time this was found impracticable, owing to the strenuous opposition of Archbishop Uslier and the Irish clergy. With a view to conciliate those opposed to the union, several concessions were made to the satisfaction of both parties, and the union was accordingly consummated. While the Irish clergy were with praiseworthy zeal seeking the advancement of religion in the land, the Romanists, urged on by their priests, and headed by the Irish chieftains, arose in re- bellion against tiie government, tiieir chief object being the overtlirow and extermination of the Protestant Clmrch. Proposals were made by the popish clergy to invoke the assistance of tbreign princes of the Catholic religion, to aid IRI them in throwing off their allegiance to the English sovereign : many sanguinary conflicts ensued, and for several years the country was in- volved in all the horrors of a civil war. Under the government of Cromwell it was speedily brought to a termination, and for a time peace was restored to the country. But the long cher- ished animosity of the Romanists was only kept in restraint until a more favourable opportunity would lead them to action. During tlie short but bloody reign of James II., they displayed their indomitable hatred to the Protestant reli- gion. Under that Roman Catholic sovereign they were not only tolerated, but sanctioned by law, in the exercise of their religious rites, and the ministers of the Irish Church were forbidden to discourse from their pulpits on the errors of Popery. Fortunately, James's purpose to over- throw the Irish Church was unsuccessful, and the revolution which compelled him to abdicate the throne, placed on a firmer footing than ever the established Church of Ireland. On the restoration of peace to that distracted country the Church entered with great spirit on the work of evangelization, and endeavoured to spread the Gospel in those districts hitherto neglected. The success attending their labours was small in comparison with the efforts put forth ; for at the close of the eighteenth century we find that of a population of 6,000,000, only 600,000 were mem- bers of the Irish Church. In addition to the ministrations of the clergy, several agencies are now employed in the work of evangelization. A societ}- established in 1826 employs 59 readers and 710 teachers, whose labours are chiefly designed for the Roman Catholic population. There is also the Irish Island Society, which is more especially in- tended for the spiritual instruction of the Irish on the coasts and islands. The education of the young forms one of the schemes of the Church, by means of which education is im- parted to an average number of 64,000 chil- dren. In 18.33, in consequence of an agitation among the Roman Catholics, headed by O'Cori- nel, a petition was laid before parliament craving the legislature to withdraw from the Church of Ireland various pecuniary advantages enjoyed by that Church; their petition was entertained, and considerable changes were made. The tithes payable througiiout Ireland were reduced 25 per cent. The incomes of the sees of Armagh and Derry underwent a reduction. Ten bishoprics and two archbishoprics were suppressed, and the deanery of St. Patrick's was united to the deanery of Christ Church, Dublin. — See Bishop. Tiie surplus funds caused by these changes were appointed to be devoted to the use of the Church. Moreover, in consequence of the severe famine of 1817, and the constant tide of emigration to America and other lands, the population of Ireland, during the last ten years, has consider- ably decreased. By these untoward iuflueuces, 351 IRV the Irish Church has no doubt been in some measure enfeebled ; notwithstanding, their cause is gradually progressing, and their arduous efforts to diffuse the knowledge of Christianity throughout that benighted land have been abundantly blessed. At the census of 1851 the Protestants of the various denominations num- bered 2,000,000 of the population, whilst the remaining 4,500,000 were Roman Catholics. By means of national schools and church schools, the Irish Evangelical Society, and the Associa- tion of Methodists, the means of religious instruc- tion are wideh- spread in the sister isle. ( Mant, Fuller, &c.) For Presbyterianism in Ireland, see Pkesbyterianism. Ii'viiigBies, or, as they call themselves, the Catholic Apostolical Church, Edward Irving, after a very j)opular and eccentric career in Lon- don as a minister of the Scottish Church, was, for the error of holding and preaching the pecca- bility of Christ's human nature, deposed, in 1833, by the presbytery of Annan, the bodj' who had licensed him. Prior to this period persons in his church had claimed the possession of the gift of tongues, and put it into exercise, — the utterances being sometimes in English, and sometimes in unintelligible sounds. Irving himself thus de- scribes them: — "The words uttered in English are as much by power sujiernatural, and bv the same power supernatural, as the words uttered in the language unknown. But no one hearing and observing the utterance could for a moment doubt it; inasmuch as the whole utterance, from the beginning to the ending of it, is with a power, and strength, and fullness, and sometimes rapidity of voice altogether different from the person's ordinary utterance in any mood ; and I would s'Ay, both in its form and in its effects upon a simple mind, quite supernatural. There is a power in the voice to thrill the heart and over- awe the spirit after a manner which I have never felt. There is a march and a majesty, and a sustained grandeur in the voice, especially of those who prophecy, which I have never heard even a resemblance to, except now and then in the subliniest and most impassioned moods of Mrs. Siddons and Miss O'Neill. It is a mere abandonment of all truth to call it screaming or crying. It is the most majestic and divine utterance which I have ever heard ; some parts of which I never heard equalled, and no part of it surpassed by the finest execution of genius and of art exhibited at the oratorios in the concerts of ancient music. And when the speech utters itself in the way of a psalm or spiritual snng, it is the likest to some of the most simple and ancient chants in the cathedral service ; insomuch that I have been often led to think that those chants, of which some can be traced up as high as the days of Ambrose, are recollections and transmissions of the in- spired utterances in the primitive Church. Most frequently the silence is broken by utterance in IRV a tongue, and this continues for a longer or shorter period ; sometimes only occupying a few words, as it were filluig the first gust of sound; sometimes extending to five minutes, or even more, of earnest and deep-felt discourse, with which the heart and soul of the speaker are mani- festly much moved to tears, and sighs, and un- utterable groanings, — to joy, and mirth, and ex- altation, and even laughter of the heart. So far from being unmeaning gibberish, as the thought- less and heedless sons of Belial have said, it is re- gularly formed, well-proportioned, dieply-felt dis- course, which evidently wantetli only the ear of him whose native tongue it is, to make it a very masterpiece of powerful speech." An Irvingite congregation was soon formed in Newman Street, with an angel or bishop, apostles, prophets, evangelists, and elders. Mr. Irving died in 1834, but the church maintained its existence, and the worship is now conducted in a magni- ficent fabric in (iordon Square, which was opened in 1853. There are above thirty congregations in different parts of the countrj', and about six thousand members, numbering in the metropolis many persons of station and wealth. There are also some congregations in other lands. They hold the three creeds of the Catholic Church, the Apostles', the Nicene, and the Athanasian Creeds. They are also millenarian, in constant expecta- tion of the Lord's coming. It is said by one of themselves, " The forms of ■worship are those which have been used in all ages in the Catholic Church, The first and last hours of every day are devoted to divine service, — the matins and vespers of our fathers. Prayers are made also at nine and at three o'clock. The holy Eucha- rist is offered and the communion administered every Lord's Day. The form of the buildings, the furniture of the same, the vestments of the clergy, are, in like manner, those that were de- voted to the worship of God in Catholic times. I iturgies appropriate to each service as they were of old, cleansed from the mixture of idolatrous invocations of dead men and women, are era- ployed. All these practices are still used in the greater part of Christendom, but they are be- come mere mummeries, because the true signi- ficance of them is forgotten and unknown." Another has thus described them: "Ecclesiasti- cal matters are managed by a council, consisting of ministers of all classes, so arranged as to afford an idea of the relations and adjustment of the different parts of the machinery of the 'Apos- tolic Church.' This council was shown, at the time of its formation, by ' the word of prophec}', ' to have been shadowed in the construction of the Mosaic tabernacle. The forty-eight boards of that structure, it was said, typified the six elders from each of the seven churches in London, to- gether with six of the apostles ; the five bars which upheld all the boards represented a minis- try committed to other five of the apostles, whose duty it is to instruct the council la the principles 862 IRV upon which counsel is to be given ; the two tenons with their sockets of silver for each board had reference to the diaconal ministry, through which the eldership is rooted in the love of the people. Two elders appointed to act as scribes of the council have their shadow in the two cor- ner boards of the tabernacle. The heads of the fourfold ministr}' — apostle, prophet, evangelist, and pastor — correspond to the four pillars be- tween the most Holy and the holy place; five evangelists to the five pillars at the entrance ; the seven angels of the churches, to the lights of the candlestick; and sixty evangelists are the antitypes of the sixty pillars of the court, four of whom form the outer door of entrance. This council is declared to be the model according to which God's purpose is to be effected in everj' land. It is, moreover, asserted that a council adequately representing the whole Churcli, and presided o%'er by a complete apostolate of twelve, and in perfect unit}', would be infallible. This unit}', however, does not at present exist, one of the apostles having withdrawn himself. The mmisters of ' the Apostolic Church ' have of late j-ears adopted priestly vestments, in which to perform their respective functions. Tiie'^e con- sist of alb and girdle, stole and chasuble for ser- vices connected with the altar, a cope for the presiding angel, and a surplice, rochet, and mosette, for preaching and other offices. The different colours of those vestments are not mere decorations, but emblems of spiritual realities; — the purple, of apostolic dignity and rule ; the azure blue, of prophecy ; the crimson, of that bloodsliedding which it is the special office of the evangelist to announce; and the white, of the pure relation between the pastor and flock. Re- garding the sacrament of the Lord's Supper, ' the Apostolic Church ' hold that a real change takes place in the bread and wine through the act of consecration, whereby they become the body and blood of Christ ; that this ordination is not only a communion feast, but also a sacrifice and an oblation ; that the elements should be used not only for communion, but also for purposes of worship, prayer, and intercession ; and that they ought always to be present upon the altar when the church is engaged in these acts. They also hold that, where the sacrament of the body and blood of Christ is, ' his whole human nature — his soul as well as his body — and himself in his Divine personalit}', are not absent.' Consecrated bread and wine are therefore reserved and kept continuall}' in a receptacle upon the altar, as a symbol of the Lord's presence, and a means ot exciting awe in those who draw near to wor- ship." Such is a professed attempt to revive primitive worship with mediicval pomp and sensuous display, and not a little of the forms which characterize Popery. The Irvingite apos- tles have not " seen the Lord," and have there- fore no claim to the title, and their prophets have uttered no words of divine impulse sustaiu- ITI ing their divine commission. The ideal angel of the seven apocalyptic churches, their symbolic guardian, they change into a man, and the tongues seem now to be silenced. Their ideas of the Eucharist stretch fiir beyond the nine Eng- lish monosyllables of Paul's announcement, " Ye do show the Lord's death till he come.'' Isliancki (elect hand), a Russian sect which arose in 16G6, under the fear that the printed church books were tainted with error, since they diff'ered from the old manuscript copies which had been so long in use. They sto\itly adhere to the letter of Scripture, deny different orders among the clergv, and any gradation of rank among the people, but under Alexander L ob- tained toleration, though they had previously been exposed to constant persecution. Italic Version (Velus Ftahi), the usual name of the old Latin version of the Scriptures, used prior to the days of Augustine and Jerome, and probably made in Northern Africa in the second century. The Italic, however, is properly a re- vision of this old Latin version, which was in use in Northern Italj', or around Milan. Fragments of it have been preserved by Blanchini and Sa- batier. Itinerant Preachers, preachers who move from one place to another. Such were the apostles. South says (^Sermons, vol. iv., p. 5), " He (Christ) now closes up all with the charac- ter of a preacher or evangelist ; still addressing himself to his disciples, as to a designed semi- nary of preachers ; or rather, indeed, as a kind of little itinerant academy (if I may so call it) of such as were to take his heavenly doctrines for the sole rule of their practice." Such were John Wesley and his co-workers, and such are now the ministers of the religious denomination called by Weslej's name. The origin of the itinerant ministry in connection with Methodism is thus given in Jackson's Centenary of Wesleijan Methodism: — "When the Wesleys began to preach the doctrine of salvation by faith, they did not confine their ministrations to any particular town, much less to any one congregation. . . . . . Preaching two or three times a-day, and travelling witii greit rapidity, their voices were soon heard in the length and breadth of the land. The ministry assigned to their fel- low-labourers was of a somewhat similar kind. Every one of them was required to be a ' travel- ling preacher.' The country was divided into circuits, to each of which two or three regular itinerants were generally appointed. Some of the circuits were at first very extensive, embrac- ing a whole county, and in some cases a con- siderably larger space; but they became more contracted as the work spread, and the preaching places and societies were multiplied. Still, how- ever, the preachers were required to visit in rotation the several towns, villages, and hamlets, which were cdinmitted to their care From these stations the preachers were liable to 363 2A JAC be removed every year, and they seldom remained in any of them more than two years in succes- sion. The same order is observed by Wesley's followers to this day. In the ' Deed of Declara- tion' drawn up by Mr. Wesley in 1784, provi- sion is made for the perpetuity of his plan of an itinerating ministry, by limiting the power of the conference to appoint preachers to the same chapels to three years in succession, it being ' his JAIT conviction, that it is next to impossible for any man permanently to preserve his ministry in all its spiritual efficiency when he is confined to one congregation' " (pp. 105-107). The agents of a society called " The Home Missionary Society '' are itinerants; also the ministers of the Welsh, or Calvinistic Methodists. — See Field-Pkeacii- ING. I Jacobin. — The Dominicans were so called, because their first establishment in Paris was in an hospital of St. James. Jacobites, in ecclesiastical history, were a branch of the sect of Monophysites, deriving their name from Jacobus Baradasus, or Zanzalus, a Syrian monk of the sixth century, who so greatly contributed to their increase and pow"ers that the various Eutychian sects were com- prehended under this designation. Some of them admit, and others disown the communion of Eome. They have, in consequence, two rival patriarchs. They practise circumcision before baptism. — See Eutychians. The votaries who have performed a pilgrim- age to the shrine of St. James of Compostella are also termed Jacobites. The Dominicans appear also to have borne this name, as well as that of Jacobin. James, St., of Compostella, Church of, a famous church in Gallicia in Spain, dedicated to St. James Major, the patron saint of the kingdom. A wooden bust of the saint, with tapers ever burning before it, has stood on the high altar for nine hundred years, and the church is the resort of numerous pilgrims, who kiss the image. Miracles are ascribed to St. James, such as appearing on a white horse defeating the Moors. James's, St., Day, July 2,"), the festival of St. James the Elder — the first of the apostles who died a martyr's death. The festival, which may have commenced in Spain, was not gene- rally observed before the eleventh century. James, Sl«, liitnrgy of, a form of service early used in the patriarchate of Antioch, the Monophysites using it in Syriac and the orthodox in Greek, this last having in it many interpola- tions from the liturgies of other places. Palmer in his Ori(/ines Liturgicm, saj's, " There are satis- factory means of ascertaining the order, sub- stance, and generally the expressions, of the solemn liturgy used all through the patriarchate of Antioch and Jerusalem, before the year 451; that the liturgy thus ascertained coincides with the notices which the fathers of that country give concerning their liturgy, during the fifth and fourth centuries ; that this liturgy was used in the whole patriarchate of Antioch in the fourth century with little variety; that it prevailed there in the third century, and even in the second.'' The liturgy of St. James in Greek and Syriac may therefore be considered to be derived from the most primitive times. — See Litukgy. Janitores. — See Doorkeepers. Jansenists, followers of Jansen. Comeille Janssen (Cornelius Jansenius), was bom in a hamlet called Accoy, close upon Leerdam, in Flanders, in a.d. 1585. In 1602 lie went to study at Louvain, but his severe industry brought on a malady which required change of air, and the young student repaired to Paris, where he formed a friendship with Jean du Verger de Hauranne, better known as the Abbe St. Cyran in the subsequent history of Jansenism. The two friends retired to Bayonne, where tliey spent several years in earnest study and meditation. On returning to Louvain, Jansen was elevated to the principality of the college of St. Pulcheria, became doctor of theology in 1617, and was added to the number of professors in ordinary. Twice was he sent by his college to Spain on business of moment. He was raised to the bishopric of Ypres in 1635 ; a work written by him against France for forming alliances with Protestant states having contributed to secure him such patronage from the court of Spain. He died of the plague in 1638, in the fifty-third year of his age. A large part of his life — at least twenty years of it — had been spent in study- ing and collecting the works of Augustine. The result of his labours — his Augustinus, scarcely finished at his decease — he submitted to the judgment of Pope Urban VIII. His friends published the posthumous volumes at Louvain in 1640. The Jesuits, who were favourers of Pela- gianism, were its bitter and truculent opponents. Five propositions were selected io be condemned, and after manj' scenes of strife and papal ana- thema, the bull Unigenitus was issued by Pope Clement XL, which put under ban the evan- gelical doctrines of the whole party. Port-royal, the happj' abode of so many of them, had before this time been razed to the ground by Jesuit malice and intrigue. The Jansenist party was the evargelical party in the Church of Eome. Quesnel, Pierre Nicole, De Sacj', Pascal, and Arnauld belonged to their number. Pascal published his famous Provincial Letters in 1656 in connection with this controversy — 854 JAN letters immortal for their keen logic and keener •wit. The propositions extracted from Jan- sen's Aiiffustinus, condemned by successive popes, and against which the famous bull Unigenitus ■was finally launched by Clement XI. in 1713, •were, — " I. Some of God's commandments are impossible to be observed by the righteous, even though they endeavour with all their power to accomplish them. 2. In the state of corrupted nature we are incapable of resisting inward grace. 3. Merit and demerit, in a state of cor- rupted nature, do not depend on a liberty which excludes necessity, but on a liberty which ex- cludes constraint. 4. The semi-Pelagians ad- mitted the necessity of an inward preventing grace for the performance of each particular act, even for the beginning of faith ; but they were heretics in maintaining that this grace was of such a nature that the will of man was able either to resist or obey it. 6. It is semi- Pelagianism to say that Jesus Christ died or shed his blood for all mankind in general." Jan- senism was for a season quite popular. Eleven French bishops wrote to Innocent X. in 1635 not to condemn the work, while sixty-eight de- manded a condemnation. When a formula was issued by Pope Alexander VII. in 1665, •which was to be signed as a renunciation of Jansenism, not a few signed with the mental reservation that Jansen had not taught the doc- trines condemned. When the bull Unigenitus was issued, six French bishops did not publish it, and fourteen opposed it. These dignitaries, with Cardinal deNoailles, Archbishop of Paris, at their head, -were supported by the universities of Paris, Rheiras, and Nantes, and countenanced by the parliaments of Paris, Rouen, Nix, and Toulouse. Nay, as late as 1764 the power of Jansenism in France influenced the parliaments to suppress the order of the Jesuits. In Austria and in Italy itself Jansenism exerted no little power, and was openly taught and vindicated. Berrington, Charles Butler, and O'Connor are supposed to have been infected with its spirit in England. But, indeed, whatever opinion went to curtail the prerogative of the pope, to set up the prime authority of Scripture, to reduce the merits of the mass and penance, to magnify the saving in- fluence of a simple and honest faith in Jesus, and to give the church of each country more self- government and control, seems for many years to have been branded by the name of Jansenism. It is to be confessed, however, that all the Jansen- ists were not like their founders. Many of them became fanatical and superstitious, and some claimed the power of working miracles. Jansen- ism is still to be found in some parts of Holland. The bishops of Utrecht are not in submission to the Roman see, but each in succession is excom- municated by the pope, as was Van Santon on his election in 1825. Portions of the church service are read in the Dutch language, and there is a theological seminary at Amersfoort. 355 JES The last public attempt to buy the Jansenists over to tiie Church of Rome was made in 1823, but it signally failed, and private dealings since, as by the papal nuncio Capucini, have been at- tended with no better success. Januariu!!), St. — Januarius is the patron saint of Naples, his day being the 18th of September. After solemn procession and service, his blood, preserved hard and dry in a phial, is seen to liquify and boil up. The trick has been often exposed, for it is a miserable one; — "one of the most bungling tricks I ever saw," says Addi- son in his Travels. Jasideans. — See Yezides. Jejiiniiiiu (fast). — See Fasts. Jerusalem, New. — See Swedenborgians. Jessaeans, a name of the early Christians, derived probably from the name of Jesus. Euse- bius and Epiphanius both refer to this name, and the latter, along with Jerome, erroneously thinks that it was used of Christians by Philo. Jesse or Tree of Jesse, in ecclesiastical architecture, is an exhibition of Christ's gene- alogy on scrolls of foliage, so arranged as to re- present a tree, sometimes in the stone-work of the chancel windows, sometimes on the reredos, and it is often seen on painted windows. The candlestick in ancient churches often took this form and purpose, and was therefore called a Jesse. Jesuates (clerks apostolic), a religious order founded by John Colombinus, a nobleman of Siena, in 1367, The order was confirmed by Pope Urban in 1368, but suppressed by Pope Clement XI. in 1668. Its members followed tlie rule of Augustine; and though they might not be in holy orders, they gave themselves to prayer, to relief of the poor, and medical attendance on the sick. They received the name of Jesuates from tlieir frequent use of the name of Jesus. Jesuit, a priest of the Society of Jesus, a reli- gious order established by Ignatius Loyola, a Spanish soldier. Ignatius Loyola, or Don Inigo Lopez De Recalde, the founder of the order of Jesuits, was the youngest son of Don Bertram, and was bom in 1491, at the castle of Loyola, in the district of Guipuzcoa in Biscay. He was attached in his j'outh as a page to the court of Ferdinand and Isabella, and trained up in all the vices and frivolities peculiar to his position. When still a young man he entered the army, and during his defence of Pampeluna, in 1521, against the French, he was severely wounded, and a long and tedious confinement was the result. Tlie invalid, however, amused himself with the Spanish legends of the saints, and other works of a kindred character. His fancy was seized, and in a fit of mystical devotion he renounced the worid, made a "formal visit to the shrine of the Virgin at Montserrat, and on the 24th day of March, 1522, laid his arms on her altar, and vowed himself her luiight. Arrayed in the garb of a pilgrim he then went to Man- resa, and devoted himself to deeds of benevolence, JES which won him great renown. His next resolu- tion was to proceed to the Holy Land, and after ten months' residence at Manresa, he travelled to Barcelona, a poor, begging, sincere, and reso- lute ascetic, sailed thence for Rome, received the blessing of Pope Adrian VI., and at length reached Jerusalem in September, 1523. After staying but a brief period he returned by Venice and Genoa to Barcelona, where he began in earnest to study Latin at the age of three-and- thirty. At the end of two years, that is in 1526, he removed to Alcala, in order to make himself master of philosophy. His retreat from Barce- lona was hastened by the danger he had incurred in exposing and attempting to remedy some flagrant disorders in a convent of nuns. His peculiarities of thought and address made him suspected at Alcala, and the inquisition charged him with witchcraft, warned, threatened, im- prisoned, and finally dismissed him. The in- domitable student was not to be crushed, but repaired at once to Salamanca, where he met with a similar treatment. Little did those in- quisitors dream of the power that slumbered in the strange and self-denied recluse. Leaving Spain, which could not appreciate his motives, or divine his character, he came to Paris in February, 1528, where he studied in the lowest classes of the university with unfeigned humility, begged for his daily sustenance, and occasionally startled his friends by religious exhortations. Several young men admired his unwearied zeal and drew around him, and of the two who were domiciled with him, one was the famous Francis Xavier, afterwards known as the apostle of India. Their hearts were on fire for the conversion of the world, and they took solemn vows of chastity, poverty, and entire consecration to the church, in the subterranean chapel of the Abbey of Montmartre. At length these companions, ten in number, agreed to leave Paris and meet in Venice in January, 1537. As they resolved to go to Jerusalem, they went to Rome to receive the papal blessing, and came back to Venice in order to embark. But a war with the Turks frustrated their intentions, and their enthusiasm was in the meantiine exi)ended in various forms of effort. Rome naturally became their head- quarters, and Loyola conceived the idea of found- ing an order to be devoted to the very work in which he and his fellows were so ardently engaged. When Loyola had framed his plans ot a new society, he gave out that it had been suggested to him by a communication from heaven ; notwithstanding which pretension it experienced but little favour at first. Loyola, however, was not to be deterred from the prose- cution of his project ; accordingly, he applied to Pope Paul for his sanction. Paul referred his application to the cardinals, who gave an unfa- vourable report, declaring that the proposed order was both unnecessary and dangerous ; whtireupon the pope refused to confirm the iu- JES stitution. Loyola, though repulsed, was not dismayed. Again he applied to his holiness, proposing to add to the three usual vows of the monastic orders — poverty, chastitj', and obedience to their superiors — one of obedience to the pope, by which the members of the new society would be bound to go whithersoever he should command for the service of the church, and that free of all expense to the holy see. The pope's scruples were overcome ; a bull was issued confirming the institution of the Jesuits, granting them impor- tant privileges, and appointing Ignatius Loyola the first general of the order. The peculiarities of the order of Jesuits are briefly these : — Instead of shutting themselves up in solitude, for the pur- pose of working out their salvation by self- mor- tification and the repetition of " long prayers," theirs is a life of thorough activity ; they mix freely in the world, attending to the various transactions of life, with the view of bringing whatever influence may arise therefrom into the service of the church. They devote themselves to the education of the j'oung, to the conversion of heretics and infidels, and to the instruction of the ignorant among the faithful. Their time is not occupied by rounds of devotion ; they take no part in processions ; nor do they practise any system of rigorous discipline. All the members are under the rule — the despotic rule — of the governor, who is elected for life, and to whose commands they are bound to yield the most im- plicit obedience. Previous to the admission of members to this order, candidates have to con- fess to a superior their sins and natural infirmi- ties ; they must also disclose to him the bent of their inclination, their desires, prejudices, &c., &c. These " manifestations," as they are called, must be repeated frequentl}' during a long probation. At the same time the members of the order keep a sharp watch over the words and actions of the novices, of whom they are bound to report to the superior whatever of importance they dis- cover in their conduct. Registers are kept by all the superiors, of the dispositions and abilities of their respective members, founded on these confessions, and " manifestations," and reports. These registers the general consults whenever he requires men for any important undertaking, whether of intrigue, or persecution, or any other purpose ; and so absolute is his power, and so submissive are the members of the order to his swaj', that whatever he commands is unhesitat- ingly performed, and that by the very men whom he has selected for the purpose. They preach much for the instruction of adults; they seek to promote the education of children by every means they can command ; they go out as missionaries to foreign lands ; and they have set themselves as the prominent opponents of any reform that tends to diminish the influence, authority, or revenues of the papal see. Rest- less and ambitious, they engaged in trade and commerce with the inhabitants of the Ea3t and 56 JES West Indies, for which they obtained a special license from the pope, " for the support of their missions." They opened warehouses in the chief cities of Europe for the sale of goods imported by them from foreign countries ; in every revo- lution, whether in Europe or elsewhere, they have played a prominent part; and they have acquired large possessions of land in South Ame- rica and other places. They have kept alive the spirit of persecution in the Church of Rome, and have shown themselves, under all circumstances, the inveterate enemies of Protestantism. They insinuate themselves into every societ}', obtain a friendly footing with persons of rank, influence, and authority, that they may study their dispo- sitions, sway their judgments, and secure their co-operation in the various intrigues in which they are incessantly engaged. They maintain the complete independence of the priesthood over the secular power ; assert for the Church of Rome the most unlimited claims to temporal and spirit- ual authority, and they justify the most atro- cious crimes, if perpetrated for the good of the church. The order was suppressed in England in 1604; in Venice, in 1606; in Portugal, in 1759 ; in France, 1764; in Spain, 1767; and by Pope Clement XIV. the order was totally suppressed and banished in 1773, at which time their num- ber amounted to 22,000. They were banished from Russia in 1820, Still, the order exists both in Europe and America, and the general resides at Rome. Archbishop Brown, in a ser- mon preached in Dublin in the j'ear 1551, thus describes the then new order with prophetic forecast: — "But there are a new fraternity of late sprung up, who call themselves Jesuits, which will deceive many, much after the Scribes and Pharisees' manner. Amongst the Jews they shall strive to abolish the truth, and shall come very near to do it. For these sorts will turn themselves into several forms : with the heathen, a heathenist ; with the atheists, an atheist ; with the Jews, a Jew ; with the re- formers, a reformade, — puqjosely to know your intentions, j'our minds, your hearts, your inclin- ations, and thereby bring you at last to be like the fool that said in liis heart, ' there is no God.' These shall be spread over the whole world, shall be admitted into the councils of princes, and tliey never the wiser ; charming of them — yea, making your princes reveal their hearts, and the secrets therein, and yet they not perceive it ; which will happen from falling from the law of God, by neglect of fullilling the law of God, and by winking at their sins; j'et in the end, God, to justify his law, shall suddenly cut off this society, even by the hands of those who have most succoured them and made use of them ; so that at the end they shall become odious to all nations. They shall be worse tlian Jews, hav- ing no resting-place upon eartii; and tiiea shall a Jew have more favour than a Jesuit." Jesuitcsses, an order of nuns in Italy and 85 ion Flanders, following the rule of the Jesuits. They had several monasteries ; but the order was never approved at Rome, and was suppressed by Pope Urban VIII. in 16-30. Jc-»vs. — See Biblical Cyclopcedia, under " He- brews " and " Jews." Sometimes, as by the Romans, the earl3' Cliristians were called Jews, as many of them belonged to that race, and heathen writers could not make the just distinc- tion. Jews stood in a peculiar relation to the early Church. By the councils of Eliberis and Agde clergymen were prohibited from eating with Jews. By the apostolic canons they were debarred from receiving presents from them, and were neither to fast nor feast with them. Jews in certain cases had not the benefit of sanctuary in churches, — that is, when it was supposed that they professed Christianity, and sought asylum either to avoid punishment or payment of debt — such was the law of Arcadius and Honorius. Jews were not allowed to hear sermon in the church, though they might assemble in the por- tico ; but by the fourth council of Carthage this prohibition was relaxed. Christians were for- bidden to marry with Jews. The council of Eliberis enacted that parents who gave their daughters to Jews should be cast out of com- munion for five years. By the Justinian and Theodosian code, such a marriage is branded as adultery, and therefore made a capital crime, without reserve or exception. Constantius ha(i made it a capital crime for a Jew to marry a Christian woman, but afiixed no penalty for the Christian marrying a Jew. — See Judaizlng Christians. Jezirafa. — See Cabala. Joachimitci^, followers of Joachim, a Cister- tian monk, Abbot of Flora, in Calabria, and a remarkable visionary. His followers were fond of dividing all things by threes, after the Trinity. Thus, as Buck describes it "They divided everything relating to men, doctrine, and man^ ner of living into three classes, according to the three persons of the Trinitj'. The first ternary was that of men ; of whom tlie first class was that of married men, which had lasted during the whole period of the Father ; the second was that of clerks, which lasted during the time of the Son ; and the last was that of monks, wherein was to be an uncommon eflusion of grace by the Holy Spirit. The second ternary was that of doctrine, viz., the Old Testament, the New, and the everlasting Gospel : the first they ascribed to the Father, the second to the Son, and the third to the Holy Spirit. A third ternary consisted in the manner of living, viz., under the Father, men lived according to the flesh ; under the Son, they lived according to the flesh and the spirit; and under the Holy Ghost, they were to live according to the spirit only." Joliaiinilcs. — See Sabians. John, St., BaptiMt'fii Day, a festival which is held on the 24th of June. JOH John, St., Christians of. — See Sabians. Jobii, St., £TaiigeIist's Say, a festival held on the 27 th of December. Jougs or Jiiggs (probably from jugum, a yoke), a collar of iron, attached by a chain to a post by the porch or door of old Scottish churches, and which was clasped round the necks of certain transgressors, who were obliged to stand in this ecclesiastical pillory, exposed to public gaze. An instrument of a similar kind was sometimes fixed in the market-place, and then called the Tron, for goods were weighed at it or by it. In Act Sederunt, 6th February, 1C50, as to a false informer named John Rob, it is ordained that " his lugg be nailed to the Tron by the spaice of ane hour." A figure of the jougs will be found at the conclusion of the second volume of Chambers's Domestic Annals of Scotland. Joviiiians, followers of Jovinian, a monk, who, about 388, taught at Rome, and then at Milan. He " was of a truly genuine and enlight- ened reformatory spirit, though in some respects of one-sided tendency, who opposed the notion of the meritoriousness of monastic life, fasting, and celibacy of the clergy, and who attacked not merely single ascetic principles, but the entire ascetic tendency in the Church, the root of which he would find in a misapprehension of the true nature of Christian virtue, and a for- getfulness of the necessary inward connection between faith and works. At the same time, by his obscure and paradoxical manner of express- ing himself, he furnished some ground for the misapprehension of his real opinions, and for suspicions in regard to them, which led to his being charged with holding heretical views, and to his excommunication by Siricius, Bishop of Rome, and afterwards by Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, to whom he had betaken himself. He was also most violently attacked by Jerome, in his work Adversus Jovmianum (in 392), and in his Apologia." — Guericke's Church History, §75. Jubilate, the name of the third Sunday after Easter — the name being taken from the first word of the Introit, Psalm Ixvi. 2. Jubilate Deo (he joyful in God'), the name given to the hundredth psalm, as the second lesson in the morning service. Jubilee, one of the extraordinary festivals of the Jews, which was held every seventh sab- batical year, that is, at the end of every forty- nine years, or the fiftieth current j'ear (Levit. XXV. 8-10). — See Biblical Cyclopaedia. In imi- tation of the Jewish jubilee, or, as some learned writers have endeavoured to prove, of the secular games of the Romans, the Romish Church has instituted a year of jubilee, during which the popes grant the most plenary and complete in- dulgences to all those persons who, having con- fessed and partaken of the holy communion, shall visit certain churches. Some writers of JUB the Romish Church have pretended to trace the institution of jubilees to the apostolic ages ; but Pope Leo XII., in " the universal indiction or proclamation of the jubilee of the sacred year 1825," simply asserted it to be according to the usages and institutions of the ancients — ex more institutoque majorum. Its boasted antiquity, how- ever, does not extend much beyond five centuries. The first proclamation for a jubilee was issued in 1299 by Boniface VIII. The jubilee as first instituted was to be solemnized every hundredth year ; but the successors of Boniface, finding by experience that it added to the lustre and aug- mented the revenues of the Romish see, rendered its return more frequent, Clement VI. command- ing that it should be celebrated every fiftieth year, which period was reduced by Urban VI. to every thirty-third year. Shortly after, Paul II. commanded the jubilee to be celebrated every twenty-fifth year ; and his bull being confirmed by Sixtus IV., was acted upon in 1475. The practice thus introduced continued to be followed by subsequent pontiffs, though it did not prevent them from granting jubUees in the year of their consecration. The bull proclaiming the ap- proaching jubilee is read in St. Peter's after mass on the preceding Ascension Day, and copies of it are affixed in the northern, southern, eastern, and western extremities of Rome. Briefs and letters are then despatched to the ecclesiastical dignitaries in the various kingdoms and provinces professing the Romish faith, exhorting them to instruct their flocks in aU necessary preparation. The jubilee itself com- mences immediately before Vespers upon Christ- mas Eve by a ceremony known as The Opening of the Holy Gate. On the morning of the 24th of December, the four churches containing holy gates are closed, and after Vespers the pope pro- ceeds in solemn procession, accompanied by such foreign ambassadors as are resident in the city, the senate, magistrates, penitentiaries, prelates, chapters, fraternities, clergy, and college of car- dinals, to the chapel of the apostolical palace. There the cardinals are presented with lighted flambeaux, the pope censes the altar, and Veni Creator is sung. The procession then advances to the holy gate, as it is termed, in St. Peter's, which has been walled up since the last jubilee, and holding alighted wax-taper in his hand, seats himself close to it, and after a short repose, rises and strikes it thrice with a silver hammer, which is afterwards presented to some favourite as a mark of especial honour. The pope at the same time sings the following versicles, which are answered by the choir : — " V. Aperite mihi portas Justiiice. " R. Ingressus in eas conjilehor Domino. " V. Introiho in domum tuam, Domine. " R. Adorabo ad Templum Sanctum tuum in timore tuo. " V. Aperite portas, quoniam nobiscum Deus. " R. Quia fecit Virtutem in Israel." 3o8 JUB Then the pope seating himself says, — " V. D'jmine exaudi oraiionem meam ; "E. Et clamor mens ad te venint" (These verses and responses, as well as those which follow, are clauses of the psalms, the 118th psalm being most frequently quoted.) Meantime the masons are employed in demolishing and carrying away the brickwork, while responses, a prayer, and the jubilate are sung. The head-piece, posts, and threshold are then washed with holy water by the penitentiaries, and as the pope advances to the gate, the choir sings, " V. Hcec dies quam fecit Dominus. " R. Exultemus et Icetemur in ea. " V. Beaius populus tuus, Domine. " R. Quijacit Jubilaiionem, " V. Iloec est porta Domini. " R. Justi intrahunt per earn. " V. Domine, exaudi oratioiiem meam. " R. Et clamor mens ad te venial. " V. Dominus vohiscum ; " R. Et cum spiritu tuo." A prayer is then made for a plenary and abso- lute remission of all sins to those who pass through the holy gate, in order to keep the jubilee; and a cross having been placed in the pope's hand, he sings Te Deum kneeling down before the gate. He then passes through, and is carried to the great altar, where, after a prayer, lie mounts a throne erected for the pui-pose, and begins the Vespers. On the same day, and at the same hour, a holy gate is opened with like ceremonies, by a cardinal legate, in each of the three churches of St. Paul, St. John Lateran, and Santa Maria Maggiore. A few days before Christmas Eve, at the close of the year of jubilee, proclamation is made, that on that day the holy gate will be closed. The ceremonies are very similar to those with which it has been opened ; the psalms chosen are Cum jucunditate and Nisi Dominus edifacaverit domum. The pope blesses the ma- terials by the following form : — " V. Adjutorium nostrum in nomine Domini ; " R. Qui fecit ccdum et terram. " V. Sit nomen Domini benedictum. " R. Ex hoc nuno et usque in seculum, " V. Lapidem qw.m reprobaverunt artifices ; " R. Hie factum est in caput anguli. " V. Domine exaudi oraiionem meam; " R. Et clamor meus ad ie veniat. " V. Dominus i^ibiscum; " R. Et cum spii itu tuo." A prayer for blessing upon the stones, mortar, and sand is repeated, and the pope having sprinkled the gate with holy water, and censed it, passes through it, and then putting a linen cloth round his middle, professes himself to be eervus servorum Dei; and receiving a silver gilt trowel from the grand penitentiary, he takes some mortar from a basket carried by the mas- ter of the ceremonies, and spreads it upon the tlireshold, " according to the vision of the pro- JUB phet Amos, which saw the Lord with a mason's trowel in his hands." The pope then scatters upon the mortar gold and silver medals, repre- senting the heavenly Jerusalem, and covers the whole with three squared stones, repeating at the same time, In fide et virtute .Icsu Christi Dei vivi qui Apostolorum Principi dixit ' Tu es Petrus, et per hanc Petram edificabo Ecclesiam meam,' col- locamus lapidem primariam, ad claudendam hanc Portam Sanctam, ipso tanlummodi Jubikei anno reserendam, in nomine Pair is, &c., — that is, the pope, as representing Peter, orders the gate to be shut till the next jubilee. The pope next fastens the three stones with mortar, the master mason draws his line, and the grand penitentiary, and each other peniten- tiary present, lays a stone, " to convince the world that they are the pope's coadjutors in the administration of the sacrament of penance." The choir chants C(elestis urbs Jerusalem, which being ended, the pope washes his hands, resumes the ordinary responses, and then prays as follows : — Deus qui in omni loco dominationis tuae clemens et benignus existis, exaudi nos qucBsumus, et prcesta ut inviolahilis permatieat hujus loci sanctificatio, et benejicia tui muneris in hoc Jubikei anno uni- versitas fidelium impetrasse litetur, per Dominum nostrum, &c. The pontiff then seats himself, and twelve bricklayers, six on his right and six on his left hand, build up the holy gate to the summit, while the choir sings appropriate psalms. The ceremony concludes with a benediction from the pope, and Te Deum. The tract from which the above account has been abridged was printed by order of Benedict XIV. on account of the approaching jubilee of 1750. It concludes with the following explana- tion of the mystery. The pope opens the holy gate "to signify, j?rs<, that Jesus Christ opens the limbus to those fathers who, dying before his resurrection, were shut up in it ; second, to show that the treasure of the church is open ; third, to cause it to be known with what passion all the people of the East, West, North, and South, ac- cording to the number of the four gates, are ex- pected at Rome ;" also " the hammer with which the pope knocks at the gate denotes the sovereign authority given by God to iiis vicar upon earth. The great penitentiary and the others accom- panying him, represent to us the power with which confessors are invested to absolve in all cases." Those must be fastidious, indeed, who require more satisfactory reasons for tlie cere- mony : they are in strict accordance with the mummery which we have described as attendant on it. The Porta Santa is one of the five doors leading out of the covered portico of St Peter's into the church ; above it is a block of red and white marble, of a kind which takes its name in Rome from its position here, and is called Porta Santa. The dates of the last two jubilees are always registered over this gate, and whenever a new one is put up, the oldest of the other two is 859 JUD removed. The centre of the brickwork is marked •ivith a gilt bronze cross. By the bull for the jubilee of 1825, Pope Leo XII. granted and "imparted the most plenary and complete indul- gence, remission, and pardon of all their sins to all the faithful in Christ, of both sexes, who are truly penitent, and have confessed, and who have likewise refreshed themselves with the holy communion; provided (if Ro- mans, or inhabitants of the city) they shall have devoutly visited these churches of the city, that of St. Peter, St. Paul, St. John Lateran, and Santa Maria Maggiore, at least once a day for thirty days, whether successive or inter- rupted, natural, or even ecclesiastical, to be com- puted from the first vespers of one day, to the complete evening twilight of the succeeding day ; but if they be foreigners, or in any respect stran- gers, they must have visited these churches at least three days, as already described ; provided also that they shall have poured forth pious prayers to God for the exaltation of the holy church, the extirpation of heresies, the concord of Catholic princes, and the salvation and tran- quillity of Christendom {Lettre Encyclique, <^-c. ut siqva). In the Directions and Instructions addressed to all the Faithful in the LondonDistrict, published by the vicars apostolic, the latter part of this condition for gaining the jubilee is dif- ferently translated, and the language of the papal bull appears to be designedl}' softened into prayers " for the exaltation of the holy Catholic Church throughout the world ; for bringing back all strayed souls to the ways of unity and truth ; for the peace and concord of Christian princes, and for the general welfare of all Christian people both in time and eternity " (p. 22). According to the Romish divines, a jubilee adds nothing to a plenary indulgence with regard to the remis- sion of the temporal punishment due to sin. It only grants different privileges. Every penitent is permitted to choose his own confessor, who is empowered to absolve him or her in the tribunal of conscience, for once only, from the cases and cen- sures reserved to the bishops or to the pope. Confessors are further authorized to commute simple vows for just and reasonable causes, with the exception of vows of perpetual chastity, of entering a religious order, and vows made in favour of a third person. JTudaizing Christians. — This party rose early in the Church, and laboured to bring the Gentile converts to conform so far to the Mosaic ritual. The Epistle to the Galatians, so full of indignation and sorrow, was directed against them. They wished the heathen converts to come to the cross by the Hebrew altar, to learn of Moses before they learned of Christ, and insisted that circumcision was as necessary as baptism for their admission to the Church. At various times in the churches a somewhat similar spirit showed itself. The ancient councils were frequent and solemn in their warnings against JUD keeping the Jewish Sabbath, against feastings and intermarriages with Jews, or using Jewish amulets for the cure of diseases. Thus, in Bingham's concise arrangement: — "The council of Laodicea forbids Christians to Judaize by resting on the Sabbath, under pain of ana- thema : likewise it prohibits keeping Jewish feasts, and accepting festival presents sent from them ; as also receiving unleavened bread from them, which is accounted a partaking with them in their impietj'. To the same purpose, among the apostolical canons we find one forbidding to fast or feast with the Jews, or to receive any of their festival presents or unleavened bread, under the penalty of deposition to a clergyman, and excommunication to a layman. And by another of the same canons, to carry oil to a Jewish synagogue, or set up lights on their fes- tivals, is paralleled with the crime of doing the like for any heathen temple or festival; and both of them equally punished with excommunication. So a bishop, priest, or deacon, who celebrates the Easter festival before the vernal equinox with the Jews, is to be deposed; though this is a little more severe than the constitution that was made about it in the time of Irenaeus, and afterwards was confirmed by Constantine and the council of Nice: for they forbid the celebration of Easter with the Jews, but lay not the penalty of deposi- tion or excommunication upon those that fol- lowed that custom, because they had some pretence of apostolical tradition for their practice. The coimcil of Eliberis forbids Christians to have recourse to the Jews for blessing the fruits of the earth, and that under the penalty of excommuni- cation, because it was a reproach to the manner of blessing them in the church as if that was weak and ineffectual. The same council forbids both clergy and laity to eat with the Jews, upon pain of being cast out of the communion of the Church. And the reason of this is assigned by the council of Agde ; because they use not the meats that are commonly used among Chris- tians ; therefore it is an unworthy and sacrile- gious thing to eat with them ; forasmuch as tbej' reputed those things unclean which the apostle allows us to receive ; and so Christians are ren- dered inferior to the Jews, if we eat of such things as they set before us, and they contemn what we offer them. Which canon is repeated in the same words in the council of Vannes, and there is a rule in the council of Epone to the same purpose. It appears also from the fourth council of Toledo that the Spanish churches were much infested with this sort of complying and Juuaizing Christians ; some patronizing the Jews in their perfidiousness, others turning downright apostates, and submitting to circumcision, and others indifferently conversing with them, to the manifest danger of their own subversion. Against which last sort of compilers the sixty- first canon of that council is particular! 3- directed ; and there are six or seven canons more in the 1 3G0 JUD sarae places, one after another, relating to ca?es of like nature, which need not here be related. The council of Clermont makes it excommunica- tion for a Christian to marry a Jew. And the third council of Orleans prohibits it under the same penalty, together with sequestration of the persons from each other. St. Chrysostom in- veighs against those who went out of curiosity to the Jewish s^'nagogues, saj-ing it was the same thing as going to an idol temple." Judc's Day, St., usually called the feast of St. Simon and St. Jude, is held on the 28th day of October. Judgment of Ood. — See Ordeal. Jiidica. (^j'ldge thoit), the name of the fifth Sunday in Lent — taken from the first word of the Introit, Psalm xliii. 1. JTudices Electi (elected judges), the bench appointed by a metropolitan for deciding pro- vincial causes. If a bishop's cause was to be tried the number of such judges must be twelve. JTiiIiani^its. — Julian of Halicarnassus, in the year 519, maintained that the Divine nature bad so insinuated itself into the body of Christ, from the very moment of his conception, that this body changed its nature and became incorrup- tible. With him agreed Cajanus [or Gaianus] of Alexandria, from whom the believers in this sentiment were called Caianists. The advocates of this doctrine became divided into three par- ties; two of which disagreed on the question whether Christ's body was created or uncreated ; and the third maintained that Christ's body was indeed corruptible, but on account of the influ- ence of the Divine nature never became, in fact, corrupted. This sect was vigorously resisted by the celebrated Sevenis of Antioch and Damianes, who maintained that the body of Christ, before his resurrection, was corruptible, — tliat is, was liable to all the changes to which human bodies in general are. Those who agreed with Julian were called Aphthartodocetas, Docetje, Phanta- siastaj, and also Manichreans ; because from their opinion it might be inferred that Christ did not really suft'er, feel hungry, fall asleep, and expe- rience the other sensations of a man ; but that he only appeared to suffer, to sleep, to be hungry, thirsty, &c. Those who agreed with Severus were called Phthartolatra;, and Kti.stolatraj or Creaticolfle. This controversy was agitated with great warmth in the reign of Justinian, who favoured the Aphthartodocetaj; but it afterwards gradually subsided. A middle path between the two parties was taken by Xenaias, or Philoxe- rus of Maubug [or Ilierapolis] ; for he and his associates held that Christ really suffered the ordinary sensations of a man, but that in him this was not the effect of nature, but of choice. (See Mosheim's Jliston;, part ii., chap. v. ; Walsh's IJisi. der Kctzeveien, vol. viii., p. 556.) Jumpers, a class of Methodists in Wales, who, under strong religious excitement, gave way to frantic bodily gestures. The custom be- JUIT gan about 17G0, and some of the earlier preache'.g appear to have encouraged it. The simple excitable people first groaned, then rocked themselves to and fro, and then leaped about in I joyous fury. Persons who cannot control them- selves under nervous excitement (and the Celtic temperament is liable to it), are found falling into similar extravagances under every revival. June tJO, the day on which " Her Majesty began her happy reign." The prayers belonging; to the special service in all churches and chapels of the Church of Eni;land are as follows: — " ^ Instead of the first collect atmoi nine/ prayer shall he used this Jullowing collect of' thanksgiving for Her Majesty's accession to the throne. " Almighty God, who rulest over all the king- doms of the world, and disposest of them accord- ing to thy good pleasure: We 3'ield thee un- feigned thanks, for that thou wast pleased, as on this day, to place thy Servant our Sovereign Lady Queen Victoria upon the throne of this realm. Let thy wisdom be her guide, and let thine arm strengthen her; let justice, truth, and holiness, let peace and love, and all those virtues that adorn the Christian profession, flourish in her days, direct all her counsels and endeavours to thy glory, and the welfare of her people ; and give us grace to obey her cheerfully and willingly for conscience' sake : that neither our sinful pas- sions, nor our private interests, may disappoint her cares for the publick good ; let her alwaj's possess the hearts of her people, that they may never be wanting in honour to her person, and dutiful submission to her authority ; let her reign be long and prosperous, and crown her with im- mortality in the life to come; through Jesus Christ our Lord. Amen. " ^ In the end of the litany (lahich shall alwngs he used upon this day) after the collect [We humbly beseech thee, 0 Father, (j-c] shall the folloiriny prayer, for the Queen and Royal Famili/, be used. " 0 Lord our God, who upholdest and gov- emest all things in heaven and earth; rec^'ive our humble prayers, with our hearty thanksgiv- ings, for our Sovereign Lady Victoria, as on this day, set over us by thy grace and providence to be our queen ; and sn together with her bless the Prince Albert, Albert Prince of Wales, and all the Royal Family; that they all, ever trusting in thy goodness, protected by thy power, and crowned with thy gracious and endless favour, may continue before thee in health, peace, joy, and honour, and may live long and happy lives upon earth, and after death obtain everlasting life and glory in the kingdom of heaven, by tiie merits and mediation of Christ Jesus our Sa- viour, who with the Father and the Holy Spirit, liveth and reigneth ever one God, world without end. Amen. " ^ Then shall follow this collect,for God's pro- tection of the Queen against all her enetnies. 861 JUR " Most gracious God, who hast set thy servant Victoria our Queen upon the throne of lier ances- tors, we most humbl}' beseech thee to protect her on the same from all the dangers to which she may be exposed ; Hide her from the gathering together of the froward, and from the insurrection of wicked doers; Do thou weaken the hands, blast the designs, and defeat the enterprises of all her enemies, that no secret conspiracies, nor open violences, may disquiet her reign ; but that, being safely kept under the shadow of thy wing, and supported by thy power, she may triumph over all opposition ; that so the world ma\' ac- knowledge thee to be her defender and mighty deliverer in all difficulties and adversities ; through Jesus Christ our Lord. Amen. " % Then ike prayer for the high court of par- liament (if sitting). " ^ In the communion service, immediately be- fore the reading of the epistle, instead of the collect for the Queen, and that of the day, shall be tcsed this prayer for the Queen, as supreme governor of this church. "Blessed Lord, who hast called Christian princes to the defence of thy faith, and bast made it their duty to promote the spiritual welfare, to- gether with the temporal interest of their people ; We acknowledge with humble and thankful hearts thy great goodness to us, in setting thj' servant our most gracious Queen over this church and nation; Give her, we beseech thee, all those heavenly graces that are requisite for so high a trust ; Let the work of thee her God prosper in her hands ; Let her eyes behold the success of her designs for the service of thj' true religion estab- lished amongst us ; And make her a blessed in- strument of protecting and advancing thy truth, •wherever it is persecuted and oppressed ; Let hy- pocrisy and profaneness, superstition and idolatry, fly before her face ; Let not heresies and false doctrines disturb the peace of the church, nor schisms and causeless divisions weaken it ; But grant us to be of one heart and one mind in serving thee our God, and obeying her according to thy will : And that these blessings may be continued to after-ages, let there never be one wanting in her house to succeed her in the gov- ernment of this united kingdom, that our posterity may see her children's children, and peace upon Israel. So we that are thy people, and sheep of thj' pasture, shall give thee thanks for ever, and will always be showing forth thy praise from generation to generation. Amen.'' Jure Divino (of or by Divine right), a phrase often found in polemical writings as applied to various articles of dispute. Juriiidiction. — To define the bounds of tem- poral and civil jurisdiction has led to no little discussion. Of old the earl and bishop sat in the same court. Afterwards the bishop held his courts by himself, though temporal lords sat in synod with bishops — "the one to search the ~ iws of the land, and the other the laws of God." JUS The question of jurisdiction, after the period of the conqueror, was often agitated between the pope and the kings of England. The things that are Csesar's belong to Caesar, and it is trea- son to take them from him ; the things that are God's belong to God, and it is impiety to take them from him. The Church is a free society, and should have perfect power of self-government within its own domain, and a purely spiritual sentence should be beyond review by a civil court. — See Investiture ; Keys, Power of. Jus Asyli. — See Church, Sanctuary. Jus DeFolntuni (devolved right). — When, in the Established Church of Scotland, a patron does not present to a parish within sis months after the commencement of the vacancy, the right of presentation falls to the presbytery, tanquam jure devoluto. Still further to guard against abuse it has been enacted (act 1719, c. 29), " That if any patron shall present any per- son to a vacant church who shall not be quali- fied, by taking and subscribing the said oath in manner aforesaid, or shall present a person to any vacancy, who is then or shall be pastor or minister of any other church or parish, or any person who shall not accept or declare his will- ingness to accept of the presentation and charge to which he is presented, within the said time, such presentation shall not be accounted any in- terruption of the course of time allowed to the patron for presenting; but the jus devolutum shall take place as if no such presentation had been oflfered ; anj' law or custom to the contrary not- withstanding." — See Patkonagb. Justiflcalion. — The popish doctrine of jus- tification by inherent righteousness is delivered, at wearisome length, and in sixteen chapters, in the sixth session of the council of Trent. Thus : — " For, whereas Jesus Christ himself, as the head into the members, and the vine into the branches, continually causes his virtue to flow into the said justified, which \'irtue always pre- cedes and accompanies and follows after their good works, and without which it could not in anywise be pleasing and meritorious before God, we must needs believe that to the justified nothing further is wanting, but that they be accounted to have, by those very works which have been done in God, fully satisfied the divine law according to the state of this life, and truly to have merited eternal life, to be obtained also in its due time ; if so be, however, that they shall have departed in grace: forasmuch as Christ, our Saviour, saith, ' If any one shall drink of the water that I shall give him, he shall not thirst for ever ; but it shall become in him a well of water springing up into everlasting life.' Thus, neither is our own righteousness established as our own as from ourselves ; nor is the right- eousness of God denied or repudiated: for that righteousness which is called ours, because we are justified from its being inherent in us, that same is [the righteousness] of God, because it is 562 KAB infused into us of God, through the merit of Christ. Nor is this to be omitted, that, although, in the sacred writings, so much is attributed to good works, that Christ promises that even ' he tliat shall give a drink of cold water to one of his least ones shall not lose his reward ; ' and the apostle bears witness that, 'That which is at present but for a moment and light of our tribu- lation, worketh for us a far more exceeding eternal weight of glory.' " Again, Canon ix. : — " If any one shall say that by faith alone the impious is justified ; so as to mean that nothing else is required to co-operate in order unto the obtaining the grace of justification, and that it is not in any respect necessary that he be prepared and disposed by the movement of his own will ; let him be anathema." Also, Canon xi. : — "If any one shall say that men are justified either hy the sole imputation of the righteousness of Christ, or by tlie sole remission of sins, to the exclusion of the grace and ' the charit}' which is shed abroad in their hearts by the Holy Ghost,' and is inherent in them ; or even that the grace, by which we are justified, is only the favour of God; let him be anathema." Also, Canon xxxii. : — "If anyone shall say that the good works of a man that is justified are in such wise the gifts of God as that they are not also the good merits of him that is justified ; or, that the said justified, by the good works which are per- formed by him through the grace of God and the merit of Jesus Christ, whose living member he is, does not truly merit increase of grace, eternal lif#, and the attainment of that eternal life, if so be, however, that he depart in grace, and, more- over, an increase of glory ; let him be anathema." On the other hand, the plain Scriptural doc- trine that we are justified by the righteousness of Christ is clearly given in the eleventh article of the Church of England: — "We are accounted righteous before God, only for the merit of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ by faith, and not for our own works or deservings : wherefore, that we are justified by faith only is a most whole - KEY some doctrine, and very full of comfort, as more largeh' is expressed in the homily of justification." More fully is the same doctrine announced in the Westminster Confession : — "1. Those whom God effectually calleth he also freely justifieth; not by infusing righteousness into them, but by pardoning their sins, and by accounting and accepting their persons as righteous : not for anything wrought in them or done by them, but for Christ's sake alone: not by imputing faith itself, the act of believing, or any other evangelical obedience, to them as their rigliteous- ness ; but by imputing the obedience and satis- faction of Christ unto them, they receiving and resting on him and his righteousness by faith : which faith they have not of themselves ; it is the gift of God. 2. Faith, thus receiving and resting on Christ and his righteousness, is the alone instrument of justification ; yet is it not alone in the person justified, but is ever accom- panied with all other saving graces, and is no dead faith, but worketh by love. 3. Christ, by his obedience and death, did fully discharge the debt of all those that are thus justified, and did make a proper, real, and full satisfaction to his Father's justice in their behalf. Yet, inasmuch as he was given by the Father for them, and his obedience and satisfaction accepted in their stead, and both freely, not for anything in them, their justification is only of free grace; that both the exact justice and rich grace of God might be glorified in the justification of sinners." The doctrine of justification was restored to its place by Luther, who declared it the article of a stand- ing or falling church. Justification is opposed to condemnation. In condemnation a man is not made guilty, but only declared to be guilty, so in justification a man is not made righteous but only pronounced to be righteous — absolved from the penalty of a broken law, and brouglit into favour with God. It is therefore only a change of state, though it is followed by a change of character. — See Hooker, Bull, Edwards, Fuller, Dick, &c. K Kabbnia.— See Cabala. Kalendar. — See Calendar. Karaites (Scripturisls), a Jewish sect of more than 8,000 persons, found principally in Poland and the Crimea, differing from the Tal- mudists in that they reject the oral law, and allow the Talmud no binding authority. They hold by the written law, and seek to find its meaning, not from traditional sources, but from honest grammatical interpretation. Integrity characterizes all their worldly dealings, and tbeir religion is devoid of that superstitious mumteness of ceremonial which oppresses so many of their blood and creed. They are supposed by some to have the same origin with the Sadducees, but to have left that sect when it sunk into ra- tionalism. They were re-formed by Rabbi Anan about the middle of the eighth century. KcithiauH. — See Quakers. Kclcusnia {x.iX'.unf/.a, call). — See Call. Kclls, Synod of, a famous Irish synod held in llo'J, at which the Irish Church renounced its independence, and the Irish arclibishops consented for tlie first time to receive palls from Rome. Prior to that period, Ireland had, since the days of St. Patrick, ordained its own metropolitans, but it now submitted unreservedly to the papal see. — SeelKELAND, luisii EpiscopalCiiukch. Kox, I»ower of, a phrase borrowed from Scripture to denote the power of inflicting spirit- 3G3 KHL ual censure, and absolving from it. Papists ascribe it in highest prerogative to the pope, as if what was said to Peter, and then virtually to all the apostles as a body, was centred in him. The church, as a spiritual societj' instituted by Christ, holds authoritj- under him, and must in his name exercise it, after the example of, and in conformity to, the teaching of the apostles. The Church has no power to bind to what is contrary to the Word of God, or to absolve from what is enjoined by it. In such an attempt she might break the keys, but would not open the door. Neither is the key to be given to the custody of Caesar, nor is he to interfere with its use, unless civil rights be invaded. Spiritual privilege involves no civil franchise, and s])iritual censure no civil penalty. — See Inves- TiTDRE, Jurisdiction. KJilcstoFshchicki. — See Skoptzi. Kilhamites. — See Methodists. Kings, Coronation of. — See Coronation. King's £Fil. — It was believed that the touch of an anointed king could heal this form of cutaneous complaint; and as if a religious virtue resided in the sovereign, a form of service was prescribed at the time of touching the patient. It was as follows : — " The first gospel was exactly the same with that on Ascension Day. At the touching of every infirm person, these words were repeated, ' they shall lay their hands on the sick, and thej- shall recover.' The second gospel began at the first of St. John, and ended at these words, ' full of grace and truth.' At putting the angel (or gold) about their necks, ' that light was the true light which lights every man that cometh into the world,' Was repeated, — " Lord have mercy upon us. " Christ have mercy upon ns. " Lord have mercy upon us. " Our Father which art in heaven, hallowed be thy name, &c. " Minister. O Lord, save thy servants. ■" Answer. Which put their trust in thee. " Minister. Send unto them help from above. " Answer. And evermore mightily defend them. " Minister. Help us, O God our Saviour. " Answei: And for the glory of thy name's sake deliver us ; be merciful unto us sinners, for tliy name's sake. " Minister. 0 Lord, hear our prayer. " Aiiswer. And let our cry come unto thee. " THK COLLECT. " Almighty God, the eternal health of all such as put their trust in thee, hear us, we beseech thee, on the behalf of these thy servants, for whom we call for thy merciful help ; that they, receiving health, may give thanks unto thee in thy holy Church, through Jesds Christ our Lord. Amen. " The peace of God, &c." — See Hook's Church JJictmnary. Kirchen-tag (church diet) a religious Pro- testant Association founded in Germany in 1848. It consists of lay and clerical delegates from the more important religious communions. Its doc- trinal basis rests upon the confessions of the six- teenth century. It has no legislative power, for it is not strictly an ecclesiastical assembly ; but it takes a wider range than the Evangelical Alliance, and strives to promote puritj', harmony, and social reform. The Inner INIission is specially patronized bj' it. — See Inner Mission. In 1850 it unanimously adopted the Augsburg Confession as the S3'mbol of the German Evan- gelical Church. Von Bethmann Holliveg has been its president since the commencement. But difiicult questions have risen up — questions of a politico-ecclesiastical nature, fierce animosities have been produced, and contending parties have bitterly assailed each other, so that the influence of the Kirchen-tag is greatly weakened, and its power for good nearly paralyzed. Kirk of Scotland. — See Scotland, Church of. Kirk Session. — See Session. Kiss. — In times prior to Constantine, and by one of his laws confirmed by Justinian, a kiss was an essential part of the nuptial ceremonial. Persons newly baptized received what was called the kiss of peace, as they were brought into the new spiritual relations of brotherhood. The same salutation was given mutually at the Eucharist, and Chrysostom founds upon the prac- tice an eloquent appeal for brotherlj' love. The bishops who enthroned a new bishop all greeted him with a kiss, and the bishop and ofiiciating clergy gave the new ordained presbyter the same token of affection. Kings, princes, and people, sometimes kissed the bishop's hand, and the altar was often kissed by the rapturous worshippers. But it was forbidden to give the kiss of peace to the dead. Kiss of Charity (1 Peter v. 14). — It was a custom in the assemblies of the early Christians to salute one another, according to the apostolic injunction, with "an holy kiss" (Rom. xvi. 16; 1 Cor. xvi. 20; 2 Cor. xiii. 12; 1 Thes. v. 26). This castora, however, soon became a cause of reproach, but with what injustice may be inferred from the fact that in the first Christian churches, as well as in the Jewish sjmagogues, the men and women sat apart, — a practice which we be- lieve is still observed by the Society of Friends, by the Primitive Methodists of Ireland, and by other minor denominations. The words of the nineteenth canon of the council of Laodicea are quite satisfactory on this point: — "After the three prayers for the faithful (which came on as soon as the penitents and highest class of catechumens wei'e dismissed), the first of which is to be performed in silence, the second and third by the bidding and direction of the deacon, then the kiss of peace (or charity) is to be given, presbyters saluting the bishop, and laymen one 364 KNE another. The holy communion shall then be celebrated." The author of the Apostolic Con- stitutions is still more specific: — "Immediately after the priest has given the salutation of peace, and the people have returned their answer, a deacon goes on to proclaim solemnly that thej' should salute one another with a holy kiss ; the clergy to salute the bishop, and laymen their fellow laymen, and women one another." This kiss of charity or of peace was a symbol of reconciliation and forgiving of all injuries what- soever. The custom was not, however, confined to the Eastern Churches, among whom it was observed in the most decorous manner, though false reports of promiscuous embraces were circu- lated by the heathen ; it was adopted also in the Latin Church, but with this remarkable differ- ence, that the kiss was promiscuously given. Tertullian adduces this argument, among others, why a Christian woman should not marry a heathen, " that he would be unwilling to suffer her to go into the prisons to embrace the martyr in his chains, or at any other times to give the kiss of peace to a brother." " The kiss of peace " at the celebration of the Eucharist is an estab- lished rite of the Catholic Church : immediately before commiraion the officiating priest kisses the altar, and then turns and embraces the deacon, saying to him, " Pax tibl, J'rater, et ecclesice sanctce del; " the deacon next salutes the sub- deacon, sa3'ing, " Pax tecum," and proceeds to perform the same ceremony towards the other clergy. Kissing the great toe or foot of the pope has been required by every pontiff since Constantine the first. — See Adoration, and Adoration of the Cross. After the per- formance of the marriage ceremony among Catholics, the priest generally kisses the woman. And among Protestants the minister some- times kisses the babe after he has baptized it. There are, moreover, some few and insignificant sects of Protestant Christians who observe the custom of kissing after the communion ; but like the Eastern Churches the men and women sit apart, so that the indecorousness of promis- cuous embraces, and the scandals which marred the purity of the early Latin Church are thereby avoided. Kiicclcrs. — See GENnFLECXENTBS, Cate- CHCMENS. Kneeling, a devotional posture of great antiquity. In the days of Irenreus, and for some time after, four postures were in use among Christians, namely, — standing, prostration, bow- ing, and kneeling; the slovenly and irreverent posture of sitting during the time of public praj'er, which has in modern days been adopted by some, was not then known. Kneeling at public devotions was the common practice during the six working days, " as a symbol of our fall by sin;" but worsliip was performed in a stand- ing posture on Sundays, and during the fifty days between Easter and AVliitsuntide, "as a KNE sj-mbol of the resurrection, wherebj-, through the grace of Christ, we rise again from our fall." Cassian says of the Egyptian churches, that from Saturday night to Sunday night, and all the days of Pentecost, they neither knelt nor fasted. The Apostolical Constitutions order that Christians should pray three times on the Lord's Day, standing, in honour of him wlio rose the third day from the dead ; and in the writings of Chrysostom we meet with frequent allusions to tlie same practice, especially in tlie oft-repeated form by which the deacon called upon the people to pray,— " Let us stand upright with reverence and decencj'," Tertullian says "we count it unlawful to fast, or to worship kneeling, on the Lord's Day ; and we enjoy the same immunity from Easter to Pentecost." Deacons, presby- ters, and bishops, were ordained in a kneeling posture. Dionj-sius says, — "The person to be ordained kneeled before the bishop at tlie altar, and he, laying his hand upon his head, did consecrate him with a holy prayer, and then signed him with the sign of the cross, after which the bishop and the clergy present gave him the kiss of peace." It would appear, how- ever, that bishops elect did not relish much the humiliating posture of kneeling at their ordina- tion, for Theodoret informs us that " it was a customary rite to bring the person about to be ordained bishop to the holy table, and make him kneel upon his knees by forced But this, no doubt, was a significant mode of showing with what reluctance men should undertake so impor- tant, so weighty, a charge, as that of bishop in the Church of Jesus Christ. And, indeed, so solemn and onerous were its responsibilities esteemed, that we read of several who absconded as soon as they understood that the popular voice had chosen them to fill this honourable post; and many of them, when captured, were brought by force unto the holy altar, and there, against their will and inclination, were ordained by the imposition of hands, being held down on their knees by the officers of the church. — See Elec- tion OF Pastors. Not only at the ordinary Sabbath prayers, but also at the celebration of the Eucharist, it was the practice to stand ; but, on this occasion, as Cyril says, "it was with silence and downcast eyes, bowing themselves in the posture of worshij) and adoration." The exact period when kneeling at the Lord's Supper became general cannot be ascertained, but it has prevailed for many centuries, and is now the acknowledged posture for communicants in many churches. Kneeling in the Church of Konie is carried to great excess, especially in the per- formance of monastic devotions, and in acts of penance. Instances are innumerable, and ever recurring, of delicate women being compelled to walk on rougii pavetnents, for hours in suc- cession, on their bare knees, until at length, nature, worn out by the injurious and demoral- izing exercise, compels them to desist. To en- G5 KNI courage the penitent and devout in acts of this nature, the most wonderful tales are narrated of the good resulting from self-mortification and entire submission to the stern discipline of the church. Upon women and children these "ly- ing wonders " exercised a mighty influence, — an advantage which a cunning priesthood has ever turned to their own account. Indeed, it is a well-known fact that in most countries, and among all sects, the baneful influence of priestcraft would speedily vanish but for the firm hold which superstition in its various modifi- cations exercises over the female and juvenile mind. Kuights Knighthood was originally a reli- gious and monastic institute. The principal religious orders were : — 1. The order of the Templars, founded by Hugh de Payens (1118), for the protection of pilgrims in the Holy Land. They wore a white cloak, with a red cross on the breast. St. Bernard warmly interested himself in favour of this order, and accordingly procured a large accession to its membership. When St. Jean d'Acre fell (in 1291), the Templars retired to Cyprus ; but soon afterwards returned to the West, when Paris became the head-quarters of the order. The name of the order was derived from the circumstance, that the palace which King Baldwin of Jerusalem assigned for their use was built on the site of the temple of Solo- mon. 2. Originally the Knights of St. John, or Hospitallers, were ordinary inmates of a monas- tery, -whose special duty it was to take charge of sick pilgrims, to relieve their wants, and to ex- tend hospitality to them (founded in 1099). With these duties Eaymond du Puy, the second general of the order, combined in 1118 the obli- gation of fighting against the infidel. They wore a black dress, with a white cross on the breast, and had a red cross on their banners. When expelled by the Saracens, they settled first in Rhodes (1310). and lastly in Malta in 1530. 3. The order of the Teutonic Knights consisted also, at first, of the inmates of an hos- pital, or inn, founded during the siege of St. Jean d'Acre, in 1190, by some citizens of Bremen and LAB Lubeck. The knights wore a white cloak, with a black cross on the breast. At a later period the order settled in Prussia, where in 1237 it amalgamated with that of the Brethren of the Sword. Modern knighthood retains somewhat of its religious and symbolical character. Thus in the Order of the Garter or St. George, while the investiture with the mantle is performing, the following admonition is given : — " Take this mantle of heavenly colour, in sign and token of the most honourable order you have received, and to the increase of your honour, signed and marked as you see with a red scutcheon of our Lord's cross, to the intent that you being always defended by the virtue and strength thereof, may pass through your enemies, and them also over- come and vanquish, so that at the last, for your worthy and approved acts, you mav, after this temporal chivalry, come to eternal triumphs and joys in heaven." Courts of law have also some connection with the ancient knights. The " tem- ple " was the residence of one order, and their usual abode was called an " inn," while seijeants were ihefratres servientes, yreres serjans of the temple. (^Ashmole, Heliot, Fleury, Mills, Kurtz). Koruthal, Society of, was founded in 1818 by Hoff'mann, burgomaster of Leonberg, inas- much as he obtained relief from Lutheran juris- diction for about forty families of dissenters, and a royal edict of 1819 gave them toleration. They bought land, and settled themselves as a distinct community, somewhat after the Mora- vian model. They claim, indeed, to be an apos- tolic church. Their numbers for a period rapidly increased. Virtually they have a community of goods, and at least a common chest. Ktistolatrae {worshippers of a created thivg\ a party of the Monophysites, who, holding that Christ's body was created, was thus opposed to the Actistetse, who held that it was not created. Kyrie Eleeisou (Kv^a ixiriffov, Lord have mercy), the well-known form of earnest petition borrowed from Scripture, occurring in the services of the early Church, and often repeated in the vernacular in the English Prayer Book. liabadists, a sect named after a Frenchman, John Labadie, who was originally a Jesuit, but was dismissed from the order in 1639. He then joined the Reformed Church, and laboured in France, Switzerland, and Holland. Soon after he propounded a species of mysticism, laying great stress on the internal light, which alone can make the outer revelation intelligible ; holding high notions on the purity of the Church, and advocating a communitj^ of goods. His party assembled first at Middleburg, in Zealand; then at Amsterdam, and then at Hervorden, in Westphalia; lastly, it removed to Altona, in North Holland ; and finally to Wiewert, where it sunk out of view. Labadie died at Altona in 1674. liabaruin, the name given to the imperial banner upon which Constantine, after his conver- sion, blazoned the monogram of Christ. Euse- bius has described it with much particularity. It was a long gilt spear, with a cross beam towards the top, and a golden crown on the summit, inclosing the two first letters of the Greek name of Christ, intersecting each other P P — thus v< or + From the cross beam was suspended a silken veil, with the images of the 66 LAB emperor and his children inwrought uito it. The story of the vision of Constantine, as related by Eusebius, may be denied or variously ex- plained from subjective causes. The monogram is said to have been emplo3'ed before the period of Constantine. This standard, wherever it was borne, was believed to be the precursor of vic- tory, insomuch that fifty of the most able-bodied men were appointed for its special defence. Miracles, as it is natural to expect, were largely attributed to it. The Greeks wrote the term Xafsu^Dv, and derived it a lahore ; but the second syllable in labarum is short. Lipsius believes it to be a word of foreign origin (Not. in lib. iii., c. 15, De Cruce). Numerous derivations have been suggested. Scrieckius says it is drawn from lab -hair or hair- lab, which in Celtic signifies panniculus exercitus, and he is confident that it was adopted from the BelgEe, (Origines Celticm et Belgicce. Index ii., Miscell. ) Suicer (Thes. Ecc. ad v.) assigns its beginning to the time of Hadrian. Fuller (Miscell. Sacra, ii. 1, iv. 12) says it is derived from Xxtpuoa. (spoils). 'EuX'i(iila (piety) and Xafiuv (to cap- ture) have been advanced with equal improba- bility, and its real source may still be considered totally unknown, " in spite," as Gibbon says, " of the efforts of the critics, who have ineflfec- tually tortured the Latin, Greek, Spanish, Celtic, Teutonic, lllyric, and Armenian, in search of an etymology." Liabis (X«/3/j), the name in the modern church for the spoon by which the eucharistic elements are dispensed. liaborantes. — See Fossarii. I^ady Day, the 25th of March. — See An- nunciation Day. Xiaity, the people, as in contrast to the clergy. — See Clergy, Layman. liamb of Ood. — See Agnus Dei. liaiubeth Articles. — See Articles op Lambeth. — These articles were drawn up by the Archbishop of Canterbury and the Bishop of London, at Lambeth, in 1595. They affirm Calvinism in a sharp and decisive form ; but they were never imposed by authority. They are as follow: — " 1. God hath from eternitj' predestinated certain persons to life, and hath reprobated certain persons unto death. 2. The moving or efiicient cause of predestination unto life is not the foresight of faith, or of persever- ance, or of good works, or of anything that is in the persons predestinated ; but the alone will of God's good pleasure. 3. The predestinate are a predetermined and certain number, which can neither be lessened nor increased. 4. Such as are not predestinated to salvation shall ine^a- tably be condemned on account of their sins. 5. The true, lively, and justifying faith, and the Spirit of God justifying, is not extinguished, doth not utterly fail, doth not vanish awaj' in the elect, either finally or totally. 6. A true be- liever, that is, one who is endued with justifying LAP faith, is certified by the full assurance of faith that his sins are forgiven, and that he shall bo everlastingly saved by Christ. 7. Saving grace is not allowed, is not imparted, is not granted to all men, by which they may be saved if they will. 8. No man is able to come to Christ un- less it be given him, and unless the Father draw him ; and all men are not drawn by the Father, that they may come to his Son. 9. It is not in the will or power of every man to be saved." liainnias Day, (A. S. Maf-masse), the Cal- ends, or first day of August; q. d., loaf-mass. called also the feast of St. Peter ad vinculo. — See GuLE OF August. Some derive the term from Loaf-mas, the day when the Saxons made offer- ings of bread from new wheat ; others from lamb, in bald allusion to Peter's qommission, " Feed my lambs ;" while others allege that on this day the medifeval priests gathered their tithe lambs — such as from the tenants who held lands belonging to the church at York, which is dedicated to St. Peter ad vincida. Like many other church festi- vals, it seems to have existed in pagan times, and, like the first of May, was one of the festi- vals of the Druids — mass being a term for feast, as Candlemas, Martinmas, &c. liamp, a strange ceremony of the Maronite Church. A wafer of some size, having seven pieces of cotton stuck into it, is put into a flask or basin of oil; a religious service is then read, the cotton is set fire to, and the sick person for whose recovery the rite is intended is anointed with the oil, and prayer is repeated over him. liamps. — Lamps were kept burning in the heathen temples, and Christians were solemnly prohibited from carrying oil to them. Chrvsostom condemns the custom of setting up lamps on days of festival — the relic of some pagan rite. Nor were the faithful, according to the council of Eliberis, to light wax candles during day in cemeteries or burial-places of the martjTS, under pain of excommunication. Lights in the time of Jerome burned by day in the churches, and the custom was much discussed. — See Lights on THE Altar. liampadary, an officer in the Greek Church, whose care it was to light the lamps, and supply them with oil, and also to carry a taper on days of great processions. liampciians, followers of Lampetius, a Sy- rian monk of the seventh century, who held Arian tenets, denied the lawfulness of vows, and kept the Sabbath as a fast. They are con- demned by several early writers. I^autern, in church architecture, is a tower open to view from the ground, and lighted witli windows. Lanterns are usually found over the centres of cross-churches, as at York Minster and Ely Cathedral. The term is also applied to a small structure on the top of a dome, for the pur- pose of giving light, as on St. Paul's, London. Ijapse, in law, occurs when the person en- titled to present or collate to a vacant ecclesias- 867 LAP tical benefice neglects to exercise his right within the period allowed to him by law. On such occasions, if the bishop be the patron, the right devolves or lapses to the archbishop, and if the archbishop omits to take advantage thereof, to the king. So also if anj' person, other than th» bishop, be patron, on his neglecting to present, the right lapses in the first place to the bishop, on the bishop's neglect to the archbishop, and from him to the king. The patron, the bishop, and the archbishop, are severally and succes- sively allowed the full period of six calendar months, exclusive of the day on which the bene- fice becomes void ; and if the bishop be himself the patron, he must collate to the benefice within the period of the first six months after the vacancy, as he is not»entitled to six months in his character of patron, and six months more in his character of bishop. When the patron's six months have expired his right of presentation is not absolutely destroyed by the lapse which then takes place ; but the bishop acquires merely a kind of concun-ent right with him. For although the bishop may collate immediately after the lapse, yet so long as he suffers the benefice to continue vacant, he cannot refuse to institute a person presented by the patron; and, in like manner, when the bishop's six mouths have expired, the patron may present at any time before the archbishop has filled up the vacancy. By these means provision is made against the improper duration of vacancies in the church. For when the benefice has continued vacant for six months, the patronage for that turn becomes an object of competition between the original patron and the bishop or archbishop, as the case may be, the nominee of that part}' which pre- sents first being entitled to the benefice. But when the right to present has passed the bishop and the archbishop, and through their neglect has actually lapsed to the crown, a different rule prevails, arising from an old maxim of our law, that the king's rights shall never be barred or destroyed by delay on his part. Nullum tempus occurrit Regi. When, therefore, the lapse to the king has actually occurred, the right of presen- tation for that turn is absolutely vested in him ; and if the patron presents while the benefice con- tinues vacant, the king may present at any time afterwards before another vacancy occurs, and may turn out the patron's nominee. But if the patron's nominee is instituted and inducted, and dies incumbent, or if after his induction he is deprived by sentence of the ecclesiastical courts, or resigns bona fide, and not with intent to defeat the king's right to present, before the king has exercised that right, it is then held that his right is destroyed ; for he was only entitled to the presentation for one turn, and his having per- mitted the patron to present for that turn will not entitle him to any other. When the vacancy is occasioned by the death of the incumbent, or by his cession, which is his own voluntary act, LAP being the acceptance of a second benefice income patible with the one which he already holds, the patron is bound to take notice of the vacancy, without its being notified to him by the bishop, and his six months are calculated from the time at which the vacancj' actually occurs. But when the incumbent is deprived b}' sentence of the ecclesiastical courts, and when he resigns, such resignation being necessarily made into the hands of the bishop, it is held that, as neither his deprivation nor resignation can be complete without the concurrence of the bishop, the bishop ought to notify the vacancj- to the patron ; and that the patron's six months are to be calculated from the time at which such notice is given. And in like manner, if the patron presents in due time, and the bishop refuses to institute the person so presented, on the ground of his insuffi- ciency, the bishop ought, if the patron be a lay- man, to give notice of his refusal, and until he does so no lapse can take place ; but if the patron be a spiritual person, it appears from the old law books that no notice is necessary, because the spiritual person is presumed to be a compe- tent judge of the morals and abilities of the person whom he has selected for the appointment. If on account of some such neglect or omission on the part of the bishop, the benefice does not lapse to him, it cannot lapse to the archbishop or to the king; for it is a rule that a lapse can- not take place per saltum, that is, by leaping over or leaving out the intermediate steps. This rule protects the patron's right from being ever injured by the improper refusal of the bishop to institute his nominee; for the bishop can take no advan- tage of that which is occasioned by his own wrongful act ; neither can the archbishop or the king, for the reason alleged above. This right of lapse appears to have been first established about the time of the reign of Henry II., and to be coeval with the practice of institution. Pre- viously to that period the incumbent's title was complete, upon his appointment by the patron, without his being instituted by the bishop. But the Church of Rome, alwaj'S anxious to render the clergy independent of the laity, strongly opposed this custom (pravam consuetudinem, as Pope Alexander III., in a letter to Thomas a. Beckett, designates it), and insisted that the right of appointing to ecclesiastical benefices belonged exclusively to the bishops. This intro- duced the ceremony of institution. It is, how- ever, contended by some that institution is as ancient as the establishment of Christianity in England ; but Blackstone (ii., 33) maintains that it was introduced at the time stated above. After that period the bishop alone had the power of conferring the legal title to the vacant church, which he did by institution; but he was still bound to institute the person presented to him for that purpose by the patron, provided the patron presented some one. But how long was the bishop to wait to see whether it was the 368 LAP patron's intention to exercise his right of pre- sentation? The law declared that he should wait a reasonable time; and with a due regard to the interest of the patron and the convenience of the public, it has settled that time to be six months. — See Jus Devolutum. liapiscil, the term commonly applied to those who fell away from the faith under the terrors of persecution. The question how such persons were to be treated on their repenting caused great trouble to the Church in the third century, and led to the schism of the Novatians. — See Nova- TIANS. liatri-an Councils. — There are usualh' reckoned five Lateran councils, which were held as follows: — 1. In the year 1123, convened by Pope Calixtus II., who presided in person, and consisted of 300 bishops. It decreed that in- vestiture to ecclesiastical dignities was the ex- clusive right of the church ; and it also com- manded the celibacy of the clergy. 2. In 1139, composed of nearly 1,000 bishops, under the presidency of Pope Innocent II. It affirmed the due election of this pope, and condemned the errors of Peter de Bruys and Arnold of Brescia. 3. In 1179. At this council, with Pope Alexander III. at tlieir head, 302 bishops condemned the " errors and impieties" of the Waldenses and Albigenses. 4. In 1215, com- posed of 412 bishops, under Innocent III. It discussed the recovery of the Holy Land, reformation of abuses, and the extirpation of heresy. 5. In 1512, assembled by Pope Julius II., to oppose another held by nine cardinals the year belbre at Pisa with a view to check his turbulence. It declared that council schismatic, and abolished the Pragmatic Sanction. — See Council. la>vn Sleeves.— See Kochet. I^a^vrciice, Si., Fcslival of, held on the 10th day of August. He was a deacon in Rome and treasurer of the church, and was cruelly put to death, in 2u9, over a slow fire. The gridiron 369 2B LAW in which he wa3 broiled was said to have wrought many miracles. liawrence, St., Regular Canons of, a religious order, said to have been founded by St. Benedict in the sixth century. Its seat was in Dauphine. It was re-formed in the eleventh century under the patronage of Odo, Count of Savoy. The Bishop of Turin, in 1005, conferred many gifts upon it, and several popes enriched it with benefactions. Ijawyers. — In the Roman and Spanish Churches pleaders before the courts were not eligible to the clerical office. The rule, however, was not universal, for the council of Sardica enacted that a lawyer might be ordained a bishop if he passed through the inferior grades of reader, deacon, and presbyter. On the other hand, clergymen were not allowed to act as lawyers, or to plead either their own cause or even an eccle- siastical one. Bribery and extortion were for- bidden to lawyers under severe penalties. Iiay (from Xv.ci, people), an epithet with vari- ous reference, such as, — Iiay- Abbots or Abbacomites. — Prior to the period of Charlemagne the court appointed its favourites to the office of abbot : rich abbacies were given to the higher secular clergy in com- mendam, i. e., simply to enjoy its revenues, or else to counts and military chiefs in reward for their services. These lay-abbots occupied tlie monas- teries with their families, or with their friends and retainers, sometimes for months, converting them into banqueting halls, or using them for hunting expeditions or for military exercises. The wealthiest abbacies the kings either retained for themselves or bestowed on their sons and daugh- ters, their wives and mistresses. Charlemagne corrected this abuse: he insisted on strict dis- cipline, and made it a rule that schools should be planted in connection with the various monas- teries, and that literary labours were to be prose- cuted within their walls. — See Abbot. Kiay-Bnptisni. — See AdminUtrntion of Bap- tism, Baptism, p. 54. — The question is of some importance in modern law, since some clergy- nien of the Church of England have refused to bury children baptized by Methodist or dissenting ministers. They allege that, as such ministers are simply laymen, the child has not been jiro- perly baptized, and cannot therefore receive Christian burial. The following is a case de- cided by Sir H. Jenner, in the Arches Court of Canterbury, IMay 8, 1841. The plea was instituted by Mastin v. Escott, vicar of Gedney in Lincolnshire, for refusing to bury a child who had been baptized with the proper matter and form by a Wesleyan minister, the said T. S. Escott being aware of such fact of bap- tism, and assigning it as the ground for re- fusing to comply. The learned judge stated, that the question which the court is called upon to decide is, whether a child that received the outward and visible form of baptism, i. e., which S LAY had been sprinkled with water in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost, by a dissenting minister, that minister not being an ordained minister of the Church of England, not episcopally ordained, was to be considered within the terms of the rubric " un- baptized." Here it was shown, 1. That in the very early, if not in the earliest ages, baptism by lay hands, with the proper matter and form, i. e., with water, and in the name of the Holy Trinitj-, was held to be valid, and on no account to be repeated. 2. That the practice of the ancient Church had been adopted in this country up to the time of Henry VIII. 3. That by the rubrics of the books of Edward VI. baptism by lay hands was declared to be lawful and sufficient, and not to be repeated ; and that these rubrics were confinned by act of parliament. 4. That they also underwent no material alterations in the reign of Queen Elizabeth. 5. That the canon agreed on by convocation in 1575 was involved in great obscurity, and was never considered to have any binding authority. 6. That the com- missioners at Hampton Court, 1603, strongly as they were opposed to baptism by laymen and women, yet could not prevail on themselves absolutely and expressly to prohibit it, still less to declare such baptism null and void. 7. That such a notion would be inconsistent with the king's language against rebaptization, and with the wording of the proclamation, "that some small things might rather be explained than changed," — a passage incompatible with alterations such as those contended for. 8. That the rubric re- specting persons "dying unbaptized " was inserted at the Restoration. But what was the meaning of the word "unbaptized ?" In its usual sense it would apply to persons to whom this sacrament had not been administered, without reference to the administrator. 9. But it had been objected, that the term applied to persons not baptized by a "lawful minister," i. e., by a minister episcopally ordained. 10. Now, although by the expression " lawful minister," the law since 1661 certainly intended an episcopally ordained minister, it does not follow that acts performed by persons not so ordained are null ; for then they should have been so declared b}' authority, which was not the case at the Restoration. The bishops at that time neither refused to confirm persons not episcopally baptized, nor did they instruct their clergy to rebaptize in such cases. It was therefore not intended to include within the term "rebaptized" those who had already been baptized with the proper form and matter, though not by a lawful minister. In fact, the practice continued as it was, irregular undoubtedly, but not null and void. 11. That this view of the question is borne out by the minutes of the conference at Lambeth in 1712, up to which time lay-baptism in the opi- nion of the Church of England was valid so as not to be repeated, and that a person so baptized was not a person unbaptized, and not entitled to 0 LAY Chriatian burial. 12. That the foregoing argu- ment may be proved from Hooker, Bingham, Fleetwood, &c., against Waterland and Wheatly. 13. That the church does not esteem the minister an essential part of the sacrament appears to follow from the last rubric in the office of private baptism [James, 1603, and Charles II., 1662] compared with the catechism on the sacraments, and that this statement is not inconsistent either with the twenty-third article or the sixty-ninth canon, as alleged bj' Mr. Escott. Then it seems upon the whole of the case that the law of the church is beyond all doubt that a child baptized by a layman is validly baptized. Therefore, the law calls upon the judge to pronounce, that the articles admitted in this case have been proved ; that the party promoting the office of the judge has established, that Mr. Escott being duly in- formed, and having due notice of the death of the child, and being also dulj' informed that the child had been baptized by a dissenting minister, refused to perform the office for the interment of the dead over the body of that child ; and that Mr. Escott has failed in establishing, to the satisfaction of the judge, that the church does consider a child baptized by an unordained minister, is not validly baptized ; and conse- quently has failed to establish that the child in this case was unbaptized according to the doc- trine of the Church of England, and according to the meaning of the rubric prefixed to the order for the burial of the dead. The sentence there- fore which the court must pronounce must be, that Mr. Mastiu has sufficiently proved the articles by him exhibited, and that Mr. Escott has failed in proving the allegation by him given in." {Bulley; Bingham's Scholastical Historij of Lay-Baptism, Works, vol. viii.) liay-Brolhers, illiterate persons who, in Romish countries, devote themselves to serve a religious order in any of its convents. They wear a different habit, and take no vow but that of constancy and obedience; but they are not allowed to enter the choir, or be present at any meeting of the chapters. The institution began in the eleventh century. There are also lay- sisters holding a similar relation to houses of nuns. Hiar-C'hauccllor. — See Chancellor. l^ay-Coiuiniinion. — See Clergy. — Acler- gj'man was sometimes punished by being de- barred from communion with his clerical peers, and only allowed to communicate with the laity. Iiay-£lcicrs. — Sec Elders. liaying on of Slaiids. — See Imposition OF Hands. liayiuan. — The distinction of clergy and laity, whether found in germ in Scripture or not, existed in the Church at a very early period. Origen, Cyprian, antl Tertullian, often refer to it in various ways. A layman, properly speaking, must be one in full communion with the Church. Laymen, by the fourth council of Carthage, were not allowed to preach iu the presence of the LEG clergy, except at their request. Some bishops occasionally employed them to address the people. Whatever the distinction which must exist be- tween office-bearers and those placed under them, it is wholly different from the arrogant opinions of in(le[)endent prerogative and authority which churchmen have so often assumed. liazariies, an order of French monks, founded by St. Vincent in the seventeenth century, and taking their name from a suburb in Paris, where they had a seminary — des bons en/ans. I^azarus, St., Festival of, kept in the Church of Rome on the 21st day of February, in memorj' of Lazarus, a painter of images in the fourteenth century, who [lersisted at his task in defiance of persecution from Theodosius Icono- clastes. Lieader, an officer in the Wesleyan Methodist bod}' whose duty it is, according to Mr. Wesley, 1. " To see each person in his class once a-week at least, in order to inquire how their souls pros- per; to advise, reprove, comfort, or exhort, as occasion may require; to receive what they are willing to give towards the support of the Gos- pel. 2. To meet the ministers and stewards of the society once a-week, in order to inform the minister of anj' that are sick, or of anj' that walk disorderly, and will not be reproved ; to pay to the stewards what they have received of their several classes in the week preceding; and to show their account of what each one has con- tributed." The "leadership" of classes is not confined to men; for women of experience in connection with the Methodists are also chosen as "leaders" of female classes, who thus fulfil some of the duties which devolved upon the dea- conesses in the early ages of the Church. — See Class Meetings. licaguc and Corenant. — See Covenants. r.eague of Snialcaltl. — See Smalcald. Liectern, the reading desk in old churches. — See Eagle. In Scotland, during the last generation, the precentor's desk was commonly called by that name, and pronounced lellern. Liecticarii. — See FosSARii. licciionarniu, a collection of lessons to be read during divine service. — See Lessons. liccturer, one who reads or speaks a dis- course ; an oral instructor ; a reprover. It is not easy to decide at what particular time the office of lecturer was admitted into the English Church ; but such persons were not generally recognized till the statute of 13 and 1-1 Car. II., c. 4, § 19, commonly known as the Act of Uniformity. Nevertheless, an evening lecture on Fridays was endowed in the London Parish of St. Michael Royal as early as 1589 ; and at not a later date three lecture-sermons were established in St. Michael's, Cornhill, — two on Sundays after even- ing prayers, and a third at tlie same time on Christmas Da}-. During the great rebellion the pulpits of the lecturers were used as powerful instruments by those who sought to overtluow 871 LEG the cluirch and monarchy ; and Lord Clarendon especiall}- points to St. AnthoHn, in Watling Street, as made infamous by a seditious lecturer (i., 189). Lecturing, as thus appointed, has gradually tended to the exclusion of a far more useful and important office, that of catechizing; which used to be performed by the minister at the conclusion or in the course of the evening service. Selden, in his Table Talk, has this caustic remark : — " Lecturers do in a parish church what the fryers did heretofore— get awa}' not only the affections but the bounty that should be bestowed upon the minister. Lecturers get a great deal of money, because they preach the people tame ; as a man watches a hawk, and then they do what they list with them. The lectures in Blackfryers, performed by officers of the army, tradesmen, and ministers, is as if a great lord should make a feast, and he would have bis cook dress one dish, and his coachman another, his porter a third," &c. Lecturers are usually chosen by the vestr^', or by popular election of the parishioners. They must have the consent of those by whom they are employed, and the approbation and admission of the ordi- nary, Ijefore which admission they must subscribe the Thirty-Nine Articles, and conform to the other provisions of the Act of Uniformity. They must be licensed by the bishop ; but this license regards the fitness of the person, not the right of the office. If they preach on week-da3's, they must read the Common Prayer on the first day on which they preach, and declare their assent to it ; likewise they must read the Common Prayer on the first lecture-daj' in every month, on pain of being disabled till the}' conform to the same ; and if tb.ey preach before such conformity, they may be committed to prison for three months, by warrant of two justices of the peace, granted on the certificate of the ordinarj'. Where lec- tures are founded by donation without the consent of the incumbent, the incumbent, in ■whom resides the freehold, may refuse his pulpit. The Court of King's Bench will not grant a mandamus to the bishop to license a lecturer without the consent of the incum- bent, where the lecturer is supported by volun- tary contributions, unless an immemorial custom to elect without such consent be shown. Nor will that court grant a mandumus to the incumbent to certify to the bishop the election of a lecturer chosen by the inhabitants, where no such custom is shown, though the lecturer has been paid out of the poor-rates. The incumbent may, however, free himself from an obnoxious intruder, by occupying the pulpit in his own person. Lecture in Scotland signifies an ex- position of a passage, analyzuig it clause by clause, and carefully and patiently bringing out the mind of the sacred writer. Every Scot- tish clergyman usually lectures on Sabbath fore- noon, and goes through, in this instructive way, a gospel or an epistle. LEG Xjectnres. — Various lectures have been found- ed in England at different periods. — See Bamp- TON, Boyle, Congregational, Donellan, HuLSEAN, Merchant, Morning, Moters, Warburtonian Lectures. Legate (Jegatus, one sent), a person deputed to act for another. " The legates a latere, as they were called," says Hume, " were a kind of delegates, who possessed the full power of the pope in all the provinces committed to their charge, and were very busy in extending as well as exercising it." The papal legates, whose great powers are thus briefly noticed by Hume, and who in all points represented the person of the holy father himself, were selected from the college of cardinals. Hoveden gives an instance in which our own kings might, if they had so chosen, have performed the duties of this high office. In 1164 Alexander III. nominated Henry II. Legatus totius Anglice — an appointment which that prince had sufficient reasons, in the tarbulent state of his ecclesiastics, for declining. Legati nati were such as held legatine jurisdiction by virtue of office, and as such were not subject to the authorit}' of occasional legates. Before the latter part of the tenth centurj', the legatine commission was for the most part entrusted to the legati nati. The special legates (Jeyali dati), who were much employed afterwards, displayed unbounded arrogance. They held councils, pro- mulgated canons, deposed bishops, and issued in- terdicts, at their discretion. And they were as little acceptable to transalpine ecclesiastics as they were to the laity ; for simple deacons were fre- quently invested with this office, which at once placed them above bishops ; and the splendour in which they lived was supported at the expense of the clerg}' of that province to which they were despatched. A legate (as may be seen in Wolsey's bulls) may create a certain number of apostolical notaries, knights, and doctors, in all faculties ; and hence the right of conferring de- grees is still retained by the Archbishop of Can- terbury, who, before the Reformation, was the ordinary legatus natus of England. Legates also may legitimate bastards, and have several other powers, which not being deemed consistent with the liberties of the Galilean Church, caused their exclusion from the French dominions, till their bulls should be examined and registered. A legate cannot exercise his functions till he is forty miles distant from Rome. LiCgcnd (something to he read). — Originallj', and in the Romish Church, it contained the lessons to be read in divine service. Lives of saints and martyrs, to be read at matins in reli- gious houses, received also the same name. — See Acts of the Saints, Bollandi^ts, Golden Legend. The Roman Breviary is full of le- gendary stories, absurd, incredible, and super- stitious. rXvTix.ai), the name given in the old canons to letters concessory. — See Dimissory Letters. Kjctters Ecclesiastical (E/nsiolce eccle- siasticcB), a name which, from their nature and contents, was given to communicatory letters. JLetters £ntkronistic (^Epistolce enthron- isticcB) It was customary for a bishop, after being installed or enthroned, to send letters to foreign bishops, giving an account of his ortho- doxy, that he might get in return letters of peace and congratulation from them. Such letters were called enthronistic, and sometimes com- municatory, KcivMvixai. If a bishop refused to give such intimation to those of his own order, it was regarded either as a slight or as a token that he suspected their orthodoxy, and wished to hold no fellowship with them. lietters. Formed {Epistolw or literce for- matce). — This epithet applies to various epis- tolary' documents, Including commendatory, com- municatory, and demissory letters, because they bore certain characters or signatures which showed them not to be spurious or forged. This term, therefore, does not apply to the substance of the letters, but only to their form or marks of authentication. liCtters of Orders. — In the Church of Eng- land the name is given to the bishop's certificate that he has ordained one either deacon or priest Churchwardens can demand a sight of the docu- 378 LET ment from an^' person offering to serve in the church in which they hold office. Eiettcrs of Peace (^Epistolm pacijicie), same as letters demissory, in which a man was sent away in peace — the Christian form of blessing and farewell. liOltcrs Syiiodical (Epislolee S!/nodic(e), were the circular letters, or the summons sent by the primate to all his bishops, when he convoked a synod. If a bishop refused the metropolitan without valid reason, suspension or other penalty followed disobedience. liCtlcrs S}'»ttalic or of Introduction (^iruffraTixai), same as letters commendatory. Lietters Tractory or of Journey (Epis- tolae tractoince), same as letters synodical. The term in civil law signified an imperial letter commanding all necessaries to be provided for a person ou his journej'. Kievites, Military, a name sometimes given to the chaplains in Cromwell's army. liibei, the technical name of the document which contains the accusation framed against a minister before ecclesiastical courts. — See Fama CLA3I0SA. In England, libel, in the ecclesi- astical courts, is the name given to the formal, Mrritten statement of the complainant's ground of complaint against the defendant. It is the first stage in the pleadings after the defendant has been cited to appear. The defendant is entitled to a copy of it, and must answer the allegations Contained in it upon oath. In Scotland, the libel is a document drawn up, as usual, in the form of a syllogism, the major proposition stating the name and nature of the crime, as condemned by the Word of God and the laws of the church; the minor proposition averring that the party accused is guiltj', specifying facts, dates, and places ; and then follows the conclusion deducing thejustice of the sentence, if the accusation should be proven. By the term relevancy is meant whether the charge is one really deserving cen- sure, or whether the facts alleged, if proved, would afford sufficient evidence of the charge. A list of witnesses is appended to the copy of the libel served in due time and form on the person accused. One of the forms is as follows : — " Unto the Rev. the Moderator and Remanent Members of the Presbytery of the United Presbyterian Church, The Complaint of A and B, a committee appointed to prosecute the matter after-mentioned (or of Mr. A. B., merchant in , a member of said Church) ; Slieweth, That the Rev. C. D., minister of the -, has been guilty of the Congregation of - sin of (Jiere state the denomination of the offence, such as "drunkenness," "Jbrtiication," or such like). In so far as, upon the day of — , 1848, or about that time, and within the house of , situated in street, , he, the said C. D. (hei-e describe the circumstances atlendiny the offence charged, as, for example, " did drink whisky or some other LIB spiiituous liquor to excess, whereby he became intoxicated"), to the great scandal of religion, and disgrace of his sacred profession. May it therefore please your reverend court to appoint service of this libel to be made on the said Rev. C. D., and him to appear before j'ou to answer to the same ; and, on his admitting the charge, or on the same being proved against him, to visit him with such censure as the Word of God and the rules and discipline of the church in such cases prescribe, in order that he and all others may be deterred from committing the like offences in all time coming ; or to do otherwise in the premises as to you may appear expedient and proper. According to justice, &c. — List of untnesses." liibcilatici, those who in times of persecution, when the emperor's edict called upon the Chris- tians to appear and offer sacrifice, obtained from the magistrates, by a payment of money, certi- ficates— libelli of having obeyed the edict. liibelli Pacis (Certificates of peace), docu- ments given by confessors to penitents pleading for their re-admission to the church. The prac- tice was abused at one time to a great extent, and discipline was relaxed. The giving of these papers to the lapsed led in the north of Africa to verj' keen controversy. Such documents, sometimes called libelli posnitentiales, were often used about the eighth century by the popish priesthood, granting absolution, upon confession and professed readiness to do penance, to persons imperfectly prepared for the holy comnmnion. Efforts were afterwards made to abolish the evasive practice. Ijiberiines. — See Biblical Cyclopcedia. liibertines, a party that arose in Flanders about the year 1525. The heads of this party were Copin and Quintin of Picardy. The doc- trines they taught are comprised in the following propositions: — That the Deity is the sole operating cause in the mind of man, and the immediate author of all human actions ; that consequently the distinctions of good and evil, which have been established with respect to tiiese actions, are false and groundless, and that men, properly speaking, cannot commit sin ; that religion con- sists in the union of the spirit, or rational soul, with the Supreme Being ; that all those who have attained to this happy union by sublime contemplation and elevation of mind, are allowed to indulge, without exception or restraint, their appetites and passions, as all their actions are then perfectly innocent ; and tiiat after the death of the body they are to be united to the Deity. This denomination permitted their followers to call themselves either Catholics or Lutherans. Calvin wrote a special treatise against them, and their spread in France was prevented. (Broughion's Ilistor. Dictionary, vol. ii., p. 543; Mosheim's Eccles. History, vol. iv., pp. 122, 123.) A party at Geneva got the same name. They were the resolute and unscrupulous opponents of Calvin's church rule, and cried out for a liberty 9 LIB or license which was little else than practical infidelity. liCbra (j)ound'), the name sometimes given to the seventy suffragans of the Bishop of Eome, from the circumstance that there were seventy eolidi or parts in the Roman libra. liibraries. — Many churches had libraries attached to them. Thus Bingham says : "Alexander, Bishop of Jerusalem, in the third century, built a library for the service of that church, where, Eusebius tells us, he found the best part of his materials to compose his Ecclesiastical History. lulius Africanus founded such another library at Caesarea, in Palestine, which Famphilus and Eusebius much augmented. St. Jerome says, Pamphilus wrote out almost all Origen's works for the use of this library, which were reserved there in his time. And he often mentions his own consulting it upon necessary occasions, in his emendations of the text of the Holy Scriptures; telling us further, that there was a copy of St. Matthew's Gospel in the original Hebrew, as it was first written by him, extant in his time. Another of these libraries we find mentioned in the Acts of Purgation of Caecilian and Felix, belonging to the church of Cirta Julia, or Constantina, in Numidia, where Paulus, the bishop, is accused as a traditor for delivering up the goods of the church in the time of the Diocletian persecution. These were all founded before the Church had any settled times of peace. In the following ages we find Augustine making mention of the library of the church of Hippo, and St. Jerome commending Euzoius, the Arian Bishop of Caesarea, for his care in repairing the library of Pamphilus, which was fallen to decay. St. Basil speaks of the Roman libraries, or archives at least ; and the author of the Pontificale, if any credit may be given to him, ascribes the building of two to Pope Hilary, near the baptistery of the Lateran church. But that which exceeded all the rest was the famous library of the church of St. Sophia, which Hos- piniau thinks was first begun by Constantine, but was afterwards vastly augmented by Theo- dosius Junior, who was another Ptolemy, in whose time there were no less than 100,000 books in it, and 120,000 in the reign of Basil- iscns and Zeno, when both the building and its furniture were all unhappily consumed togetlier, by the firing of the city in a popular tumult." In the Middle Ages the religious houses usually had a library. Some of the monastic libraries still in existence have an antiquity of a thousand years— that of St. Gall being an emi- nent example. The Annals of Fleury mention a tax imposed on all the priories and dependencies of the abbey of that name, for the furnishing of its library. Much earlier than this (/. e., "the fourteenth century) there are instances of a library-tax levied on all the members of an individual monastery. In many houses each novice regularly contributed writing materials at LIB the outset, and books at the close of his novitiate. The library of the Benedictine Monastery of Christ Church, Canterbury, was probably one of the largest of the English monastic collections. The ancient classics formed a considerable pro- portion of most of the monastic collections. In the eleventh century the monks of Monte Cassino became famous for the industry with which they transcribed, not only the theological and ecclesi- astical MSS. they had amassed, but also Homer, Virgil, Horace, Terence, the Idyls of Theocritus, the Fasti of Ovid, and not a few of the historians of Greece and Rome. The copies thus made were widely disseminated. In many of the monastic communities, both the library {armar- ium') and its great feeder, the writing-room (Scriptorium), were under the immediate charge of the "precentor and armarius." The very usual conjunction in one person of these officers of leader of the choir and keeper of the MSS., grew naturally enough out of the fact, that at first the only books which had to be taken care of were breviaries and service-books. Each volume being a MS. representing a vast amount of labour, the rules for the loan of books seem to have been strict. The rule of St. Benedict contains express laws to regulate the annual delivery of books, and these laws were observed in almost all Benedictine monasteries. The precise day on which this annual partition was to be made depended at first on the will of the abbot, or other superior; but after the Cluniac and Cistertian reforms, it was usually fixed by statute. Howsoever fixed, it then be- came the duty of the armarius to spread out on a carpet in the chapter-house the books assigned for circulation during the coming year. After mass the monks were assembled ; the appropriate sections of the rule and constitution were read ; and the armarius then proceeded to call over the names of the monks, each of whom had to answer his name, and to return the book he had borrowed a year before. In certain communities it was the practice for the abbot to put some question on the contents of the book so returned, with a view to ascertaining that it had been read care- fully. If the answer was satisfactory, the borrower was then asked what other book he desired to have ; if unsatisfactory, the book was redelivered with an intimation that on the next occasion a better result would be expected. The armarius (or his assistant) kept a brevis Ubrorum, or register, an example of which niaj' be seen in Herrgott's Vetus discipUna monastica. In the Carthusian houses the issue of two books at a time seems to have been permitted. The literary reputation of Henry VIII. de- serves to suffer more than it has done for the little care that was taken by him, on the disso- lution of the monasteries, to preserve their in- valuable MSS. from dispersion and destruction. John Bale, afterwards Bishop of Ossory, writing to King Edward VI., in 1549, says, — "But 380 LIB this is highly to be lamented of all them that have a natural love to their country', either yet to learned antiquity, -which is a most singular beauty to the same, that in turning over of the superstitious monasteries so little respect was had to their libraries, for the safeguard of those noble and precious monuments A great number of them which purcliased those super- stitious mansions, reserved of those library-books, some to scour their candlesticks, and some to rub their boots ; some they sold to the grocers and soap-sellers, and some they sent over the sea to the book-binders, not in small numbers, but at times whole ships full, to the wondering of the foreign nations. ... I know a merchant-man that bought the contents of two noble libraries for fort}' shillings price. This stuff hath he occupied in the stead of graj' paper by the space of more than these ten years, and yet hath he store for as many j-ears to come." Fuller joins in this lamentation with bitter and indignant sarcasm : " As brokers in Long Lane, when they buy an old suit, buy the linings together with the outside, so it was conceived meet that such as purchased the buildings of monasteries should, in the same grant, have the libraries, the stuffing thereof, conveyed unto them. And now these ignorant owners, so long as they might keep a ledger-book or terrier by direction thereof to find such straggling acres as belonged unto them, they cared not to preserve any other monuments. The covers of books, with curious brass bosses and clasps, intended to protect, proved to betray them. . . . ^Vhat heart can be so frozen as not to melt into anger thereat ? . . . What monuments of mathematics all massacred together ; seeing every book with a cross was condemned for Popish ; with circles for conjuring! Yea, I may say that then holy divinity was profaned, physic hurt, and a trespass, yea, a riot, committed on law itself. And, more particularly, the history of former times then and there re- ceived a dangerous w^ound, whereof it halts at this day, and without hope of a perfect cure, must go a cripple to the grave." (Edward's Memoirs of Libraries.^ liibri Cai-oliiii. — The four books compiled under Charlemagne against image-worship, after the second council of Nice. — See Iconoctast. liicensc. — The name given in Presbyterian Churches to the liberty and warrant to preach, conferred by the i)resbytcry on tiiose who have passed satisfactorily through the prescribed LTG and lastly, he is examined on Church History, Hebrew and Greek, and on divinity generally. It is the duty of the presbytery to criticise eacli of these by itself, and sustain or reject it separately, as a part of tlie series of trials, and then, when the trials are completed, to pass a judgment on the whole by a regular vote. If the trials are sustained, the candidate is required to answer the questions in the formula, and after praj'er, is licensed and authorized to preach the Gospel of Christ, and exercise his gifts as a pro- bationer for the holy ministry, of which license a regular certificate is given, if required. He ia simply a layman or lay candidate for the clerical office, preaching, but not dispensing the sacra- ments. liifters. — It is common, we believe, in Pres- byterian churches, for the minister to lift the bread and the cup, ere he offers praj-er, in imita- tion of the Lord at the last Supper, wlio " took the bread and gave thanks," and "in the same manner also took the cup." In 1782 Mr. Smy- ton, a seceding minister at Kilmaurs, in Ayrshire, insisted on perfect uniformity, or that the formal lifting of the elements was essential to the due celebration of the ordinance ; but the General Associate or Antiburgher Synod declared, when appealed to, that the matter should be one of mutual forbearance. After several discussions Mr. Smyton left the fellowship of the synod two years afterwards. Several people in Paisley, Kilwinning, Beith, and Greenock, sympathized with him, and they were popularly called " Lift- ers." A minister of Falkirk also joined liim, but the whole controversy sunk into speedy oblivion. liight. Friends of, a party of Rationalists that, about 1841-42, arose in Prussia, and made some noise and disturbance, especially at Magde- burg, where Uhlich, their leader, preached. But they soon disappeared. r.ighl, IiiM-ard. — See QUAKERS. I^iight, Old atid New, cant names of seceding sects in Scotland. — See United PrKSBYTERIAN ClIURClI. Liighia, Fcaat of, a name given in the Greek Church to E[iiphany. — See Epiphant, Illuminated. liighis on ihc Altnr. — Lights were early employed in the Christian Churcli, but for no other purpose than to obviate the inconveni- ence of assembling for worship in the dark. Their use as a matter of religion, or rather of superstition, is of far less ancient date, although curriculum of study. When a student has fully it has been defended as a primitive custom, and completed his course of study at the theological hall, he is taken on trials for license b}' the presbytery to which he oelongs. These trials consist of an examination on the different subjects taught in tiie theological hall, liis personal re- ligion, and his motives for sec'le Laps., p. 122). In the first ages everj' bishop was at liberty to order the form of divine service in his own church : and accordinglj' each particular church or diocese had its proper liturgy. But when the Roman empire was divided into different kingdoms, National Liturrjies were introduced, the use of which was co-extensive with the bounds and limits of the several nations and kingdoms. None of the ancient liturgies are now remaining as they were at first composed for the use of particular churches ; for the authors of them having designed them only for the use of such churches, there was no reason or inducement for them to be very solicitous either to communicate the knowledge of them to other churches or to pre- serve them to posterity. Besides, it is not im- probable that the ancient liturgies were, for some ages, only certain forms of worship committed to memory, and known by practice rather than by writing (Bingham's Orig. Eccles., book xiii., ch. v., sect. 3). This conjecture is confirmed by the fact, that during the persecution of Dioclesian, when the strictest search was made for every- thing belonging to the Christian Church, no mention is made of the discovery of any ritual books, or books of divine service, among the Christians. Dupin, also, has demonstrated by numerous examples that the liturgies bearing the names of Peter, Matthew, Mark, and James, cannot possibly be the genuine productions of those apostles, from the anachronisms found in them, and also from their containing doctrines, and mentioning ecclesiastical persons, offices, and usages, all of which were utterlj' unknown to the apostles, or to the Christians living in the apos- tolic age. A collection of Oriental liturgies (some of which pretend to be the productions of the evangelists John and Mark, of the apostle LIT James, and of the martyred Bishop of Antioch, Ignatius, and others) was published at Paris, by Eusebe Renaudot, in Greek and Latin, in 1716, in two quarto volumes, which have been recently reprinted at London. In 1848 an edition of the restored Greek Liturgy of St. James was pub- lished in octavo by the Rev. William Trollope, M.A., with an introduction and notcS, and a Latin version of the Syriac copy. The liturgy, or collection of public prayers, contained in the pseudo-Apostolical Constitutions, is the oldest composition of the kind now extant; and it most probably exhibits the form and order of public worship as it existed at the close of the third or early in the fourth century. The fol- lowing is the order of daily service, as given ia these constitutions :— After the morning psalm (the sixty-third of our enumeration), prayers were offered for the several classes of catechumens, of persons possessed by evil spirits, and candidates for baptism, for penitents, and for the faithful or communicants, for the peace of the world, and for the whole state of Christ's Church. This was followed b}' a short bidding prayer for preserva- tion in the ensuing day, and by the bishop's coiTimendation or thanksgiving, and by his im- position of hands or benediction. The morning service was much frequented by people of all sorts. The evening service was much the same with that of the morning, except that Psalm cxL (the one hundred and forty-first of our enumera- tion) introduced the service, and that a special seems to have been used sometimes at the setting up of the lights. — See Eucharist, Evening Service, Morning Skrvice. The liturgies formed on the model of that contained in the pseudo- Apostolical Constitutions, which were used in different churches, have been divided by the Rev. W. Palmer into four great families or classes, viz.: — 1. The great Oriental Liturgy includes, as its variations, — (1.) The Liturgy of Antioch. It bears the name of the apostle James, and was used in churches within the patriarchate of Antioch. This liturgy seems to have prevailed in all the churches from the Euphrates to the Hellespont, and thence to the southern extremity of Greece. (2.) The Liturgy of Basil, Bishop of Cffisarea, a.d. 370, was in use through the greater part of Asia Minor. It is ascribed to Basil, but has since undergone various alterations: it is, however, justly valued as one of the most venerable remains of Christian antiquity. (3.) The Liturgy of Chrysostom, Patriarch of Con- stantinople, was used throughout Thrace, Mace- donia, and Greece. From the repeated mention of liturgical forms in the genuine writings of Chrysostom, it is evident that an ancient liturgy was in use in the church of Constantinople in his time ; but no contemporary writer has men- tioned that this fatlier composed a liturgy, and it was not until the council of Trullo, held at Constantinople a.d. 692, that his name was 384 LIT placed at the head of that of Constantinople. This liturgy has been greatly altered and in- terpolated, and contains expressions not to be found in the writings of Chrysostom : for in- stance, the appellation of Mother of God, given to the Virgin IMar}', was not used until after the third general council held at Ephesus, a.d. 431 (twenty-four j'ears after the death of Chry- sostom, who, consequently', could not have been the author of this liturgy), in which council the tenets of Nestorius were condemned. 2. The Alexandrian Liturgy was used through- out the pitriarchate of Alexandria,which included Egypt, Abyssinia, and the countrj' extending along the Mediterranean sea towards the west. This liturgy was first ascribed to the evangelist Mark towards the end of the fourth, or early in the fifth century. It received additions from Cyril, Patriarch of Alexandria, in the fifth cen- tury. 3. The Roman Liturgy includes, — (1.) The Roman Liturgy, properly so called. It was used throughout Italy and Sicil}'; and it has been ascribed to Gregory the Great, Bishop of Rome, towards the close of the sixth century. Some ■writers, however, are of opinion that Gregory' only revised or improved a liturgy which he found already in use. (2.) The Liturgy oj' Milan, also called the Ambrosian Liturgy, is substantially the same as the Roman Liturgy until the time of Gregory the Great. It is ascribed to Ambrose, Bishop of iMilan, who made various additions to it. (3.) The African Liturgy was used through- out the civil diocese of Africa : it was nearly the same as the Roman Liturgy. 4. The Gallican Liturgy includes, as its variations, — (1.) The Gallican, Liturgy, properly 80 called. It was in use in Gaul before the time of Charlemagne, by whose decree it was exchanged for the Roman Liturgy. This liturgy is confessedly of very high antiquity, and in all probability proceeded from the Oriental liturgies, with which it very closely agrees. The earliest bishops in Gaul were mostly Orientals. Mr. Palmer is of opinion that the ancient Gallican Liturgy and rites were derived from the churches in Asia and in Phrygia. (2.) The Spanish Liturgy, also called the Mozarabic Liturgy, ap- pears to have agreed very nearly with the ancient Gallican Liturgy ; but the kingdom of Spain being overrun in the fifth century by the Alani, Suevi, Vandals, and Goths, two liturgies were introduced in the celebration of divine service: that of the ancient Catliolics, which was derived from the Roman Liturgy, and that of the Arian Goths, which was of Oriental origin. In the year 563 tlie council held at Braga (at that time the metropolitan city of Portugal) com- nianded all priests to celebiate mass conformably to the order sent by Virj;ilius, Bisliop of Rome, to the Spanish bijilmp Eutherius or Frofuturus. 'J lie council lield at Toledo in Go3 also enjoined uniformity, and adopted the missal and bieviary LIT of Isidore, Bishop of Seville. Julian, Bishop of Toledo, who died in 090, revised the liturgy of Isidore, which has been denominated the Gothic, because it was used by the Gotlis, and most connnonly the Mozarabic since the eighth cen- tury, because the Christians who lived under the Moorish dominion were termed Mozarabes, that is, mixed with the Arabians, who had subjugated Spain. Cardinal Ximenes, apprehensive lest the Mozarabic Liturgy should be entirely forgotten, caused the missal to be printed at Toledo in 1500 and the breviary in 1502, and founded and endowed a chapel and canons to celebrate divine service daily according to this office. (3.) Mr. Palmer is of opinion that the ancient Gallican Liturgy may have been used in Britain at first ; and that, from the time of Patrick (the middle of the fifth century), the Irish probably used the Roman Liturgj'. The ancient British Liturgy may have been introduced into Ireland about a century later, and both forms may have been used at the same time in dilferent parts of the island. (Palmer's Dissertation on Primitive Liturgies, in the first volume of his Origines Liturgica; Riddle's Manual of Christian Anti- quities, book iv., ch. i., sect. 6.) II. Liturgies of the Modern Greek AND OltlENTAL ChUKCHES. Three liturgies are in use in the modern Greek or Constantinopolitan Church, viz., those of Basil and of Chrysostom, and the liturgy of the Pre- sanctified. The liturgy bearing the name of Basil is used by the Constantinopolitan Church ten times in the year; viz., on the eve of Christmas- Day ; on the festival of St. Basil ; on the eve of the Feast of Lights, or the Epiphany ; on the several Sundays in Lent, except the Sundaj' be- fore Easter : on the festival of the Virgin Mary ; Good Friday, and the following day, wiiich is sometimes termed the great Sabbath. The liturgy ascribed to Chrysostom is read on all those days in the year on which the liturgies of Basil and of tiie Presanctified are not used. The liturgy of the Presanctified is an office for the celebration of the Lord's Supper on Wednesdajs and Fridays during Lent, with the elements which had been consecrated on the preceding Sunday. The date of this liturgy is not known, some authors as- cribing it to Gregory Thaumaturgus in the third centur\', while otiiers ascribe it to Germanus, Patriarch of Constantinople, in the eighth cen- tury. These liturgies are used in all those Greek churclies which are subject to the Patriarch of Constantinople, and in those countries which were originally converted by Greeks, as in Russia, Georgia, Mingrelia, and by tiie Melchite patri- archs of Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem (King's Rites of Ike Greek Church, p. 131-134; Richard et Giraud' s Bibliut/iique Sacrce, torn. s.v., p. 222-224). The Coptic Jacobites, or Chris- tians in Egypt, make use of the Liturgy of Alexandria, \s liich formerly was called indif- ferently the Liturgy of St. Mark, the reputed 385 2C LIT founder of the Christian Church at Alexandria, or the Liturgy of St. Cyril, who caused it to be committed to writing.' The Egyptians had twelve liturgies, which are still preserved among the Abyssinians; but the patriarchs commanded that the Egyptian churches should use only three, viz., those of Basil, of Gregory the Theologian, and of Cyril. The earliest liturgies of the Church of Alexandria were written in Greek, which was tlie vernacular language, until the fourth and fifth centuries : since that time they have been translated into the Coptic and Arabic lan- guages. The Abyssinians or Ethiopians receive the twelve liturgies which were formerly in use among the Coptic Jacobites : they are commonly found in the following order, viz., — 1. The liturgy of St. John the evangelist. 2. That of the three hundred and eighteen fathers present at the council of Nice. 3. That of Epiphanius. 4. That of St. James, of Sarug or Syrug. 5. That of St. John Chrysostom. 6. That of Jesus Christ. 7. That of the Apostles. 8. That of St. Cyriac. 9. That of St. Gregory. 10. That of their patriarch, Dioscurus. ll.Thatof StBasil. 12. ThatofSt. Cyril. The Armenians who were converted to Christianity by Gregory, surnamed the Illumi- nator, have only one liturgy, which is supposed to be that of the Church of Ccesarea in Cappa- docia, in which city Gregor}' received his instruc- tion. This liturgy is used on every occasion, even at funerals. The Sj'rian Catholics and Jacobites have numerous liturgies, bearing the names of St. James, St. Peter, St. John the evangelist, St. Mark, St. Dionysius, Bishop of Athens, St. Xystus, Bishop of Rome, of the Twelve Apostles, of St. Ignatius, of St. Julius, Bishop of Rome, of St. Eustathius, of St. Chrysostom, of St. Maruthas, &c. Of these, the liturgy of St. James is most highly esteemed, and is tlie standard to which are referred all the others, which are chiefly used on the festivals of the saints whose names they bear. The Maronites, who inhabit Mount Lebanon, make use of a missal printed at Rome in 1594 in the Chaldeo- Syriac language; it contains thirteen liturgies under the names of St. Xystus, St. John Chiy- sostom, St. John the evangelist, St. Peter, St. Dionysius, St. Cyril, St. Matthew, St. John the patriarch, St. Eustathius, St. Maruthas, St. James the apostle, St. Mark the evangelist, and a second liturgy of St. Peter. The Nestorians have three liturgies, — thatof the Twelve Apostles, that of Theodorus, surnamed the Interpreter, and a third under the name of Nestorius. The Indian Christians of St. Thomas are said to make use of the Nestorian liturgies (Richard et Giraud, Bihliolhique Sacree, torn, xv., pp. 221-227). III. Liturgies of the Church of Rome. There are various liturgical books in use in the modern Church of Rome, the greater part of which are common and general to all the members in communion with that church, while others are LIT 1 permitted to be used only in particular places or by particular monastic orders. 1. The Breviary (Lat., breviariuni) is the book containing the daily service of the Church of Rome. It is frequently, but erroneously, con- founded with Missal and Ritual. The breviary contains the matins, lauds, &c., with the several variations to be made therein, according to the several days, canonical hours, and the like. It is general, and may be used in every place ; but on the model of this have been formed variou<^ others, specially appropriated to different religious orders, such as those of the Benedictines, Car- thusians, Dominicans, Franciscans, Jesuits, and other monastic orders. The difference between these books and that which is by wa}' of emi- nence designated the Roman Breviary, consists chiefly in the number and order of the psalms, hymns, ave-marias, pater-nosters, misereres, &c., &c. Originally, the breviary contained only the Lord's Pra3'er and the Psalms, which were used in the divine offices. To these were subse- quently added lessons out of the Scriptuies, according to the institutes of the monks, in order to diversify the service of the church. In the progress of time the legendary lives of the saints, replete with ill-attested facts, were inserted, in compliance with the opinions and superstition of the times. This gave occasion to many revisions and reformations of the Ro- man Breviary by the councils, particularly of Trent and Cologne, and also by several popes, as Gregory IX., Nicholas III., Pius V., Cle- ment VIII., and Urban VIII. ; as likewise by some cardinals, especially Cardinal Quignon, by whom various extravagances were removed, and the work was brought nearer to the sim- plicity of the primitive offices. In its present state the breviary of the Church of Rome con- sists of the services of matins, lauds, prime, third, sixth, nones, vespers, complines, or the j}ost-communion, that is of seven hours, on ac- count of the saying of David, Septies in die laudem dixi — " Seven times a day do I praise thee" (Psal. cxix. 164). The obligation of read- ing this service-book every day, which at first was universal, was \)y degrees reduced to the beneficiary clergy alone, who are bound to do it on pain of being guilty of mortal sin, and of refunding their revenues in proportion to their delinquencies in discharging this duty. The Roman Breviary is recited in the Latin language, throughout the Romish Church, except among the Maronites in Syria, the Armenians, and some other Oriental Christians in communion with that church, who rehearse it in their vernacular dialects. 2. The Missal, or volume employed in cele- brating mass. It contains, besides the calendar, the general rubrics or rites of the mass, and such parts of it as are invariably the same, viz., — (1.) The De tempore — that is, the variable parts of the mass on Sundays and &uch. ferice, or week days, S86 LIT as have proper masses. (2.) The Proprium Sanc- torum — that is, the same variable parts in the masses for the festivals of such saints as have proper masses, viz., gospels, epistles, &c., ap- propriated to their festivals. (3.) The Commune Sanctorum — that is, the variable parts of the liturg}' upon the feasts of such saints as have not fixed gospels, epistles, &c., appropriated to their festivals. To this part are added the forms of prayers used when masses are offered for the dead, &c. According to a tradition generally believed by members of the Romish Church, this liturgy owes its origin to St. Peter. The canon of the mass was committed to writing about the middle of the fifth century. Various editions were subsequently made, especially by Gregory the Great, who reduced the whole into better order. This missal is in general use throughout the Romish Church. 3. The Ceremoniale contains the various offices peculiar to the pope. It is divided into three books, the first of which treats on the election, consecration, benediction, and coronation of the pope, the canonization of saints, creation of car- dinals, the form and manner of holding a coun- cil, and the funeral ceremonies on the death of a pope or of a cardinal, besides various public ceremonies to be performed by the pope as a sovereign prince. The second book prescribes what divine offices are to be celebrated by the pope, and on what days ; and the third discusses the reverence which is to be shown to popes, cardinals, bishops, and other persons performing sacred duties ; the vestments and ornaments of the popes and cardinals when celebrating divine service ; the order in which they are severally to be seated in the papal chapel ; incensing the altar, &c. The compiler of this liturgical work is not known. 4. The Pontificale describes the various func- tions which are peculiar to bishops in the Romish Church, such as the conferring of ecclesiasti- cal orders; the pronouncing of benedictions on abbots, abbesses, and nuns ; the coronation of sovereigns ; the form and manner of consecrating churches, burial grounds, and the various vessels used in divine service ; the public expulsion of penitents from the church, and reconciling them ; the mode of holding a synod ; suspending, re- conciling, dispensing, deposing, and degrading priests, and of restoring them again to orders ; the manner of excommunicating and absolving, &c., &c. 5. The Riltuile treats on all those functions which are to be performed by simple priests or the inferior clergy, both in the public service of the church and also in the exercise of their pri- vate pastoral duties. The Pastorale corresponds with the Eituale, and seems to be only another name for the same book. IV. Liturgies of the Reforjied on Pro- testant Churches on the Continent. Origen, who lived in the third century, says, LIT " The Grecians use Greek words in their pray- ers, the Romans, Latin; and everv one prays to God in his own language; and he that is Lord of every language, hears them who pray in every language, understanding those of dif- ferent tongues as if they spake with one voice." Contra Celsum, p. 402. In the times imme- diately succeeding that of the apostles, liturgies were composed in the language of tlie people for whose use they were intended. The Eastern Churchfis employed the Greek language, and the Western Church the Latin, because those were the predominant languages of the Roman empire. The Latin language continued to be generally understood in the countries imme- diately under the influence of the popes, until it became the policy of the Romish Church to keep the common people in a state of ignor- ance and blind dependence. They were aware that this purpose would be greatly promoted by the continued use of the Latin liturgies, even after these ceased to be understood. On this account the Romish divines convened at Trent, declared, first, that it did not appear expedient to the fathers that mass should be celebrated in the vulgar tongue {Canones Cone. Trid., sess. 23, cap. 8), and afterwards that, "if any person say that the mass ought to be celebrated in the vul- gar tongue ... let him be accursed" (Jbid., cap. 9, can. 9). And as the same principle continues to actuate the governing part of that church, no alteration has been made in this anti- scriptural practice. At the Reformation all the Protestant Churches on the Continent unanimously rejected prayers in an unknown tongue, and, without a single exception, introduced liturgies for the more uniform celebration of divine service. 1. The Liturgy of the Episcopal Church of the Unitas Fratrum, United Brethren, Mora- vians, or, as they were more ancientl}' termed, Bohemian Brethren, was first published in 1632. That which has been adopted by the renewed Moravian Church is mainly the work of Count Zinzendorf, who compiled it chiefly from the services of the Greek and Latin Ciiurches, but who also availed himself of the valuable labours of Luther and of the English reformers. The United Brethren at present make use of a Church litany, introduced into the morning ser- vice of every Sunday ; a litany for the morning of Easter Day, containing a short but compre- hensive confession of faith ; two offices for the baptism of adults, and two for the baptism of children ; two litanies at burials ; and offices for confirmation, the holy communion, and for ordi- nation ; the Te Deuni, and doxologies adapted to various occasions. All these liturgical forms in use in England are comprised in the new and revised edition of the Liturgy and Hymns for the Use of the Protestant Church of the United Brethren (London, 1840). Other ser- vices peculiar to this church, which are called "liturgies," consist chiefly of hymns and passages 887 LIT of Scripture, to be sung or chanted alternately bj' the choir and by the whole congregation. These are intended for church festivals and other solemn occasions. 2. Lutheran Liturgies. — Liturgies of the Ger- man Lutheran Church. — In 1523 Luther drew up a liturgy, or form of prayer and ad- ministration of the sacraments, which, in man}' things, differed but little from the mass of the Church of Rome (Lutheri, Opera, tom. ii., p. 38i). He did not, however, confine his followers to this form ; and hence every country in which Lutheranism prevails has its own liturgy, each perfectly agreeing with the others in all essential matters, but differing widely in many things which are of an indif- ferent nature, and concerning which the Scrip- tures are silent. The prayers are read or chanted by the mmister at the altar, and the subject of the sermon or discourse is in most cases limited to the epistle or gospel for the day (Adam's Relig. World Displayed, vol. i., pp. 365, 3G6). Anew Liturgy was published at Berlin in 1822, of which subsequent editions have appeared with various alterations. Though designed primarily for the use of the " Royal and Cathedral Church in BerLn," it was pretty generally adopted in Prussia. This liturgy was subsequently sub- mitted to the ecclesiastical synods of the several provinces in the kingdom of Prussia, by which it was accepted, with some additions or varia- tions adapted to each province. In 1843 a German Liturgy, fur the public worship of the Evangelical Cliristians in the Duchy of Nassau, was published at Wiesbaden. It comprises prayers for Sundays and festivals, besides vari- ous occasional offices. Swedish JAturgy. — A re- vised edition of the old Kyrko-Handhuh (church manual) or liturgy, established in Sweden at the Reformation, was published in 1811: it is di- vided into fifteen chapters, containing the psalms, the morning prayer and communion service, the evening prayer and holyday service, the litany, forms for baptism, confirmation, marriage, and the churching of women, the funeral service, and forms for the consecration of churches and of bishops, and for the ordination of presbyters, &c. The Danish Liturgy comprises morning and evening services for all the Sundays in the year, and three services daily for the three great festivals of Christmas, Easter, and Pentecost (each of which is kept for tvvo days), besides forms for baptism, confirmation, &c. 3. Calvinisiic Liturgies. — Calvin was by no means averse to liturgies ; and forms of prayer were drawn up for the u.^e of the Reformed Churches in Holland, at Neufchatel, at Geneva, in France, and in other countries. Of these, the Genevese and French Liturgies are the most im- portant. (1.) The Liturgy or manner of celebrating Divine Service in the Church at Geneva contains the ordinary prajer with which divine service commences on Sundays, a confession of sins, LIT and public prayers for every day in the week, prayers for Christmas and for New Year's Day, articles or paragraphs which may be in- serted in the prayers for festival days and other solemnities, prayers for fast days, liturgies for baptism, the Lord's Supper, and marriage, a formulary for the reception of catechumens to the Lord's Supper, the Lord's Prayer, Decalogue, and Creed, together with the benediction given to the congregation by the officiating minister at the close of every service. The whole is con- cluded with a table of lessons which are read and of portions of psalms which are sung, in the church at Geneva throughout the year. (2.) The old Liturgy of the Reformed Churches in. France, which was published in 1562, contains forms of ecclesiastical prayers, together with the mode of administering the sacraments, and a formulary for the visitation of the sick; but the want of various additional formularies having been felt after the restoration of the Bourbons, the Rev. J. M. F. Roux, presiding pastor of the consistorj' of the church at Uzes, in 1826, published a new edition of this liturgj^, revised, and enlarged with various services adapted to every extraordinary occasion. This liturgy ter- minates with a table of lessons read and of psalms sung on every Sunday and Thursday throughout the 3'ear. (3.) All preceding French Liturgies having been found and indeed acknowledged to be defective, a Specimen of an Evangelical Liturgy, extracted from the Liturgies of the Protestant Churches of France, England, and Switzer- land {Essai dune Liturgie Evangelique extrait des Recueils Liturgiques des Eglises Protesiantes de France, d' Angleterre, et de Suisse), was pub- lished at Paris in 1846, in octavo. It comprises forms of prayer for morning and evening service ; hymns for the great Christian fes- tivals in the words of Scripture; praj'ers for the festivals, and some other solemnities ; the form (equivalent to the office for confirmation in the United Church of England and Ireland) for the admission of catechumens; offices for the celebration of the Lord's Supper, of baptism, and of marriage, and for the burial of the dead. V. LiTUKGY OF THE ChURCH OF ENGLAND. Before the Reformation the public service of the Anglican Church was performed only in Latin, and different liturgies were used in various parts of the kingdom. Thus gradually was formed the " Uses" or liturgies used in the dioceses of Bangor, Hereford, Lincoln, Sarum, York, and other churches. Of these liturgies the most celebrated were the Breviary and Missal, &c., secundum nsum Sarum, compiled by Osmund, Bishop of Salisburj', about the year 1080, and reputed to be executed with such exactness ac- cording to the rules of the Romish Church, that the}' were also employed in divine service in many churches on the Continent. They con- sisted of prayers and offices, some of which had been transmitted from very ancient times, and 388 LIT others were of later origin, accommodated to the Romish religion. In 1844 the Rev. W. Maskell published The Ancient Liturgy of the Church of England, according to the Uses ofSarum, Bangor, York, Hereford, and the Modern Roman Liturgy, in one volume octavo. And in 1846 he also pub- lished, in three octavo volumes, Monumenta Eit- ualia Ecclesim Anglicana ; or, Occasional Offices of the Church of England, according to the Ancient Use of Salisbury; the Prymer in English, and other Prayers and Forms. A List of Printed Service Books, according to the Ancient Uses of the Anglican Church, was printed b}' Joseph Masters in octavo (London, 1850). In the year 1536, in pursuance of Henry VIII. 's injunctions, the Bible, Pater-noster, Creed, and Decalogue, were set forth and placed in churches, to be read in English. In 1545 the King's Primer was pub- lished, containing a form of morning and evening prayer in English, besides the Lord's Prayer, Creed, and Ten Commandments, the Seven Penitential Psalms, Litany, and other devotions. Not long after, in 1547, on the accession of Edward VI., the king and his council commissioned Archbishop Cranmer, Bishop Ridley, and eleven other eminent divines, martyrs, and confessors, for the purpose of drawing up a liturgy in the English language, free from those unfounded doctrines and superstitious ceremonies which had disgraced the Latin liturgies. When the com- mis.sioners had completed it, Cranmer presented it to the king, and towards the close of the year 1548 it was ratified by act of parliament. In 1549 it was published. This liturgy is com- monly known and cited as the First Prayer Book of Edward VL In the great body of their work Cranmer and his associates derived their materials from the earlier services which had been in use in England; "but in the occasional offices they were indebted to the labours of Melanchthon and Bucer, and through them, to the older liturgy of Nuremberg, which those reformers were in- structed to follow (Dr. Cardwell's Two Books of Common Prayer, set forth . . . in the reign of King Edvmrd the Sixth, compared, p. siv., Oxford, 1838). In consequence, however, of exceptions being taken at some things in this book, which were thouglit to savour too much of superstition, it underwent another revision, and was farther altered in 1551, when it was again confirmed by parliament. This edition is usually cited as the Second Prayer Book of Edward VL: it is very nearly the same with that which we have now in use. The two Lit- urgies, A.D. 1549 and a.d. 1552, with other Documents, set forth by Authority in the Reign of King Edward VL, were very carefully edited for the Parker Society by the Rev. Joseph Ketley, M.A., at the Cambridge University Press, in 1844, in octavo. Tiie two acts of parliament (2 and 3 Edward VI., c. 1; and 5 and 6 Edward VI. , c. 1) which had been passed for establishing uniformity of divine service, were LfT repealed in the first year of Queen Mary, who restored the Latin liturgies according to the popish forms of worship. On the accession of Elizabeth, however, this repeal was reversed, and the second book of Edward VI. , with several alterations, was re-established. This liturgy con- tinued in use during the long reign of Elizabeth, and received further additions and improvements. An accurate edition of it, and of the Latin trans- lation of it made by Alexander Aless, was pub- lished for the Parker Society by the Rev. W. K. Clay, B.D. It is entitled. Liturgies and Occa- sional Forms of Prayer set forth in the Reign of Queen Elizabeth (Cambridge University Press, 1847, 8vo). Early in the reign of James I. it was again revised. At this revision a collect in the daily morning and evening service, and a particular intercession in the litany, were appoint- ed for the royal family; the forms of thanks- giving upon several occasions were then added ; the questions and answers concerning the sacra- ments were subjoined to the catechism ; and the administration of baptism was, by the rubric expressly confined to the lawful minister. These and some other additions and improvements were made by the authority of James I., though they were not ratified by parliament. In 1661, the year after the restoration of Charles II., the commissioners, both episcopal and presbvterian, who had met at the Savoy to re%-ise the liturgy, having come to no agreement, the convocation agreed to the following alterations and additions, viz., several lessons in the calendar were changed for others more proper for the days ; the prayers upon particular occasions were disjoined from the litany ; several of the collects were altered ; the epistles and gospels were taken out of the last translation of the Bible, published in 1611, instead of being read from the old version. Further, the prayer for the parliament, that for all conditions of men, the general thanksgiving, the office of baptism for those of riper years, the forms of prayer to be used at sea, for the anni- versary of the martyrdom of Charles I., and for the restoration of the royal family were added ; and throughout the whole liturgy, ambiguities were removed, and various improvements made. The whole book being finished, passed both houses of convocation ; it was subscribed by the bishops and clergy, and was ratified by act of parliament, and received the royal assent. May 19, 1662. This was the last revisal of the Book of Common Prayer, in which any altera- tion was made by public authority. (Wheatly's Illustration of the Common Prayer, appendix to introduction ; Nicholl's Preface to his Commen- tary on the Book of Common Prayer ; Tomline's Christ. Theol, vol. ii., pp. 20-29 ; Dr. Cardwell's History of Conferences and other Proceedinr/s connected ivith the Revision of the Book of Com- mon Prayer, from the year 1558 to theyear 1690, Oxford, 1840, 8vo). Damon L'Estrange's Alliance of Divine Offices (London, 1659, folio, 389 LIT reprinted at Oxford ia 1844, in 8vo), exhibits all the liturgies of the Church of England since the Kefbrmation, as also the service-book intro- duced into the Church of Scotland in 1637: it is illustrated with ample annotations. The LUurqiccB BrUannicce, published by the Rev. ■William Keeling, B.D., at London, in 1842, exhibits the several editions of the Book of Com- rion Praiier of the Church of England, from its first compilation to its last revision in 1662 ; together ^vith the liturgj' set forth for the use of the Episcopal Church in Scotland. These are all arranged so as to show their respective variations, and the Rev. W. K. Clay's Book of Common Prayer Illustrated (London, 1841, 8vo), most commodiously shows its various modifications, the date of its several parts, and the authority on which they rest. An ap- pendix, containing various important ecclesi- astical documents, terminates this cheap and very useful volume. To those who can procure more expensive publications, the complete col- lection of the authentic editions of the Book of Common Prayer, published at London in 1848, and in six large folio volumes, will doubtless be preferred. This collection, which is uniformly printed in black letter, like the original editions, comprises the liturgies of King Edward VI., 1549 and 1552 ; the first Prayer Book of Queen Elizabeth, 1550; King James the First's Prayer Book, as settled at the Hampton Court conference in 1604 ; the Scotch Book of King Charles I. ; and King Charles the Second's Book, as settled at the Savoy conference in 1662. B\' the Act of Uniformity, 13 and 14, Car. II., c. 4., sec. 28, it was enacted that true and perfect copies of that act, and of the Book of Common Prayer, 1662, should be delivered into the respective courts, and into the Tower of London, to be preserved among the records thereof, in all time to come. These copies are usually termed "The Sealed Books," from their being ex- emplified under the Great Seal of England. From the copy in the Tower of London the folio fac-simile edition of 1848 was chiefly printed ; and in 1849-50 Mr. A.J. Stephens published an edition of the Book of Common Prayer in three octavo volumes, with notes legal and histori- cal. The text of this edition is taken from the " Sealed Book " of the Court of Chancery, col- lated with the copies preserved in the courts of Queen's Bench, and Exchequer, and also with the copies in the Tower of London ; in the library' of St. Paul's Cathedral, London; of Christ Church, Oxford ; at Ely ; and with the manu- script Book of Common Prayer, originally annexed to the Irish statute, 17 and 18 Car. II., c. 6, now preserved in the Rolls Office at Dublin. And in 1849-55 Mr. Stephens also published, in three octavo volumes, the text of the Book of Common Prayer for the use of the Church of Ireland, from the same manuscript, with an introduction and notes. Numerous learned divines and others LIT have applied themselves to the 'llustration of the liturgy of the Church of England. Of these, the works of Comber, Hole, Wheatly, Bennett, Nicholls, Rogers, and Shepherd, may be noticed a^ particularly worthy of study ; but the most useful and comprehensive elucidation of the Book of Common Prayer is Bishop Mant's edition of it, with notes compiled from upwards of fifty different autliors. VI. Liturgies of Separatists from the Church of England. 1. Liturgies of the Nonjurors. — The Nonjurors were those who refused to take the oaths of alle- giance and supremacy to King William III. and Queen Mary II., on the settlement of the govern- ment in 1688, after the abdication of James II. The result was that eight bishops and about four hundred other clergymen were deprived of their ecclesiastical benefices. This schism continued until the year 1779, in which year the last non- juring bishop died (Bishop Short's History of the Church of England, sec. 801-803). With few exceptions the earlier Nonjurors adhered to the Book of Common Prayer, even at the celebra- tion of the Lord's Supper, unless in the prayer for the king. But there were some exceptions. Dr. Hicks, whose example was probably fol- lowed by Jeremy Collier, used the communion office in the first book of King Edward VL, which he regarded as more conformable to the ancient practice; but most others continued to use the English Prayer Book until the year 1718 (Lathbury's History of the Nonjurors'). The following are the principal liturgies of the Nonjurors : — (1.) A Communion Office, taken partly from the Primitive Liturgies and partly from the first English Reformed Common Prayer Book: together with Offices fjr Confirmation and the Visitation of the Sick (London, 1718, 8vo. Reprinted in the fifth volume of Hall's Fragmenta Liiurgica, in 1848, 12mo). From the publication of these ofiSces the Nonjurors were divided into two parties, — those who adopted the new, and those who retained the old offices. The obsolete, not to say superstitious, ceremonies revived in this new cominuuion office were four, viz., mixing water with the wine, prayer for the dead, prayer for the descent of the Holy Spirit on the elements, and the prayer of oblation. These were called the usages, and those who prac- tised them were called usagers. Three other ceremonies, apart from these usages, are fre- quently reckoned among them, viz., trine im- mersion at baptism ; chrism, or consecrated oil m confirmation ; and unction at the visitation of the sick, (^Ibid., vol. i., p. xxxviii.) (2.) A Compleat Collection of Devotions, taken from the Apostolical Constitutions, the Ancient Litur- gies, and the Common Prayer Book of the Church of England. Part I. comprehending the Puhlick Offices of the Church Part II. a Method of Private Prayer (London, 1734, 8vo). Part I. is reprmted iu Hall's 390 LIT Fragmenta Liturgica. Among these " publick I offices " are forms of consecrating oil for baptism, and milk and honey for the bap- tized, chrism for conlirtnatiou, oil for the sick, and a form for the ordaining of deaconesses. Tlie anonymous compiler of this liturgy was Mr. (afterwards Dr.) Deacon, who, in 1746, published three additional offices; one of which, A Litany for the use of those who Mourn for the Iniquities of the Present Time, is reprinted in the second volume of Fragmenta Liturgica. 2. Liturgies of Dissenters from, the Church of England. — (1.) The earliest of these is A Booke of the Forme of Common Prayers, Ad- ministration of the Sacraments, Sfc, agreeable to God's Worde and the use of tJie Reformed Churches. This liturgy was printed by Walde- grave at London, without date, and at Middle- burg, in Holland, in 1586. 1587, and 1602. The text of Waldegrave's edition is reprinted in the 'first volume of the Rev. Peter Hall's Frag- menta Liturgica ; and that of the Middleburg edition, 1586, in the first volume of his Reli- quice LiturgiccB. The differences between the two editions are specified in the introductions to those publications. Whether this liturgy was composed by " Cartwright, his friend Tra- vers, or Snape, . . . certain it is that nothing more was attempted than a brief and desultory compilation from the Genevan form of Calvin " (Hail's Rel. Liturg., vol. L, p. xii.) (2.) At the conference held in the Savoy, in 1661, between the royal commissioners for reviewing the liturgy and the nonconformists, the office of drawing up certain additional forms was as- signed to the Rev. Richard Baxter, who in little more than a fortnight presented a new form of prayer of his own composition, entitled, the Re- formation of the Liturgy as it was presented to the Right Reverend the Bishops, by the Divines appointed by his Majesties Commission to treat with them about the alteration of it. This form of prayers was published in 1661, and is now more generally known as the Savoy Liturgy. It has been repeatedly reprinted, and will be found in the fourth volume of Hall's Reliquiae Liturgicce. The Savoy Liturgy comprises forms of prayer for " the ordinary' public worship of tlie Lord's Day; the order of celebrating the sacrament of the body and blood of Christ, and the celebration of the sacrament of baptism ; a short discourse of cate- chizing, and the approbation of those who are to be admitted to the Lord's Supper; the celebra- tion of matrimony; directions for tlie visita- tion of the sick, and their communion," with prayers ; " the order for the burial of the dead, l)rayer and tlianksgiving for particular members of the church ;" a discourse " of pastoral disci- pline," witli forms of " public confession, absolu- tion, and exclusion from the holy communion of the church." An appendix contains a " larger litany or general prayer," and " the Church's praise for our redemption," both of which are LIT " to be used at discretion.' ' When it ia con- sidered in how short a space of time this liturgv was composed, and that Baxter, as he himself stated, Reliquice Buxteriance, part ii., p. 306, could not have time to make use of any book save the Bible, comparing all with the Assem- bly's Directory, and tlie Book of Common Prayer, and Hamon L'Estrange's Alliance of Divine Offices, candour must allow that it Ls a very extraordinary performance, in wliich the deepest devotion is combined with the most profound acquaintance with the language of the Holy Scriptures. The method which Mr. Baxter pursued in its composition was, to follow the general plan of the Lord's Prayer and the Ten Commandments." In 1855 the Kev. David Thomas, of Stockwell, London, published, for the use of his congregation and for " evangeli- cal churches and homes," a Biblical Liturgy. (3.) William Whiston, sometime fellow of Clare Hall and Lucarian professor of mathematics in the university of Cambridge, attracted public attention by his zeal in propagating Arianism, for which he was deprived of his professorship. Being for a time suspended from communion with the church by an act of convocation, he formed a religious society at his house in Lon- don for public worship. There he employed The Liturgy of the Church of Fngland reduced nearer to the primitive standard, liumhly pro- pos'd to publick consideration. This liturgy was first published at London in 1713. Whiston believed the pseudo-Apostolical Constitutions to be the genuine work of the apostles, and has made use of them in the composition of some of his prayers. (1.) John Henley, M.A., sometime rector of Chelmondiston, in Suffolk, removed to London, where he became a popular preacher. " Convinced of his own abilities and powers," he established what lie called an oratory in Newport Market, whence ho subsequently removed to Clare Market. There, " under cover of the Tol- eration Act, he lectured on Sundays in theology, and on Wednesdays in every faculty and science under heaven." The first part of The Primitive Liturgy for the Use of the 0/-atory was published in 1726, in 12mo. In 1727 appeared an en- larged edition, entitled the Primitive Eucharist, according to the Institution of Christ and his Apostles, for the Use of the Oratory, in 8vo ; and shortly after, in the same year. The Appeal of the Oratory to the First Ages of Christianity, in four parts. All these publications are reprinted in the fourth volume of Hall's Fragmenta Litur- gica. Henley professes to have taken his liturgy "entirelj'from Scripture and the primitive writers, but especially the most antient and authentick liturgy of the Apostolical Constitutions." (5). Tlie Book of Common Prayer, Reformed ac- cording to tlie Plan of the late Dr. Samuel Clarke ; or as it is designated in the prefatory advertisement, 7'Ae Liturgy of the Church of England, with the Amendments of Dr. Clarke, sai LIT and such further Alterations as v)ere judged neces- sary to render it Unexceptionable with respect to the Object of Religious Worship," was first pub- lished in 1774 by the Rev. Theophilus Lindsay, M.A., who Socinianized the Arian alterations proposed by Dr. Samuel Clarke, rector of St. James's, Westminster. This liturgy has subse- quently passed through numerous editions. It contains almost all the offices in the Booh of Common Prayer, except the order of baptism for persons of riper years, and the commination ; and in some of them, as the thanksgiving of women after childbirth, and the burial of the dead, but few alterations are made. The great object of the whole is, to address the entire worship to God the Father, to the utter exclusion of God the Son and God the Holy Spirit. Various alterations and omissions are also made, which are too numerous to admit of being specified here. This liturgy is the basis of A Liturgy collected prin- cipally from the Booh of Common Prayer, for the Use of the First Episcopal Chapel in Boston [Massachusetts], together with the Psalter or Psalms oj' David (Boston, 1785, 8vo). This was reprinted in 1811, and again in 1838, with further alterations. (6.) The Booh of Common Prayer compiled for the Use of the English Church at Dunhirh, together with a collection of Psalms, was printed at Dunkirk in 1791. The anonj'- mous compiler states that he followed through- out the plan proposed b}' Dr. Clarke. Its devia- tions from the liturgy of the Church of England are less offensive than those which occur in the Socinian liturgy above noticed. The aflfairs of the congregation at Dunkirk were managed by a committee : the English Church at Dunkirk had but a short existence. (7.) Tlte Sunday Service of the Methodists was originally pre- pared by the late Rev. John Wesley. What alterations (if any) this liturgy may have re- ceived since his death we have no means of ascertaining. On comparing a copy of the edition of The Sunday Service of the Methodists, with other Occasional Services (printed in 1826), with the Booh of Common Prayer, we find that the first lessons for Sundays are retained ; but far the second lessons in the morning, a chapter out of the four gospels, or the Acts of the Apos- tles, is to be read ; and in the evening a chapter out of the epistles in regular rotation. Many verbal expressions, which have been excepted against, are here corrected. Select psalms are appointed to be read, while others are abridged. The only creed read is that of the apostles. The offices for the baptism of infants, or of per- sons of riper years, the celebration of matrimony, the communion of the sick, and the burial of the dead, are materially shortened. The offices for the ordination of priests and deacons, and for the consecration of bishops, are here altered into forms for the ordination of deacons, elders, and superintendents ; and the thirty-nine articles are, by omissions, reduced to twenty-five. The Nicene LIT and Athanasian Creeds, and tbo apocrj-phal books of the Old Testament, are severally rejected. Some obsolete words are replaced by others which are more easily understood. (8.) On the passing of the Act 6 and 7 Will. IV., c. 85, by which dissenters from the Church of England were permitted to solemnize marriages in their respective chapels, some forms of praj-er for this purpose were published. (9.) The Liturgy of the New Church, signified hy the New Jeru- salem in the Revelation, prepared hy Order of the General Conference, was published in 1828, and superseded all the liturgies which had pre- viously been used by the Swedenborgians, or followers of Emanuel Swedenborg. Some ideas and sentences of the national liturgy may be traced in this form of prayer for divine worship; but the whole of the several offices is made con- formable to the peculiar tenets of this denomina- tion. This liturgy comprises several tables of psalms and proper lessons ; but onlj' those books of the Old and New Testament are read which " have the internal sense, and thus are truly the Word of God." The result is, that the New Church omits to read nine books of the Old Tes- tament, viz., Ruth, 1 and 2 Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther, Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes ; and twenty-two books of the New Testament, viz., the Acts of the Apostles, and the whole of the Apostolical Epistles; " though" it is admit- ted, " most of the other books contained in the collection called the Bible, particularly those commonly included in the New Testament, were written by men who enjoyed divine illumination." — Liturgy, p. 153. "In thus distinguishing these books from others, the New Church does not deny their truth, nor place them below the rank commonly assigned them by the profes- sing Christian world." — Ihid., pref. p. xxviii. — The General Services contain forms of prayer for morning and afternoon or evening service, together with prayers, thanksgivings, and glori- fications, to be used on particular occasions. In the celebration of divine service " the ministers of most of the principal societies of the New Church have adopted the use of white robes, resembling in form those worn by the ministers of the Church of England." — Ibid., p. xxiv. And the congregations are directed to kneel during prayers, stand when giving thanks or singing, and sit when receiving instruction. The Particular Services comprise the order of the administration of baptism to infants, to adults, and also to infants and adults together; for the administration of the Holy Supper ; order of nup- tials, or consecration of marriage ; and orders for visiting the sick and burial of the dead. These are followed by Forms of Doctrine and Instruc- tion, including articles of faith, a creed, and a catechism ; and by Extraordinary Services for the ordination of ministers, for the consecration of ministers having authority to ordain others, for the consecration of a church or place of worship, 392 LIT and some chants. The explanatory addresses in the offices for baptism, the Holy Supper, nup- tials, and the ordination of ministers, are almost entirely taken, even to the very words, from the works of Swedenborg. The " order of nuptials" is observed " in regard to tho=!e whose feelings prevent them from being satisfied with the Church of England ceremony. The forms of the Church of England," it is stated, "may be gone through as a civil act, necessary to obtain a legal sanction to the properly indissoluble en- gagement of marriage ; and afterwards, before the parties begin to live together as husband and wife, their nuptials may be religiously so- lemnized, and their marriage consecrated by a minister of the New .Jerusalem," who receives a certificate that the parties have previously com- plied with the formalities required by law (^Liturgy, p. 91). VII. Liturgies in Use in Scotland. 1. Ancient Liturgy of the Kirk of Scotland. — At the commencement of the Reformation in Scotland the Protestant nobles and barons, assembled at Edinburgh in December, 1577, agreed that they would rest satisfied for the pre- sent with the reading of the prayers and lessons in English, according to the order of the Book of Common Prarjer, that is, the liturgy of King Edward VI., in every parish on Sundays and other festival davs. If the curates of the several parishes were qualified, they were to read the same ; but if they were disqualified, or refused to read them, " the most qualified person in the parish was to read the same." — Keith, p. 66. This regulation, however, continued in force only a short time; for in 1562 the Book of Common Order, commonh- tenned " Knox's Liturgy," was partially introduced ; and by an act of the general assembly, passed December 26, 1564, its use was authoritatively ordained in all the churches in Scotland. This liturgy was taken from the order or liturgy used by the English church at Geneva. It contains forms for morn- ing and evening prayer, the celebration of bap- tism, the Lord's Supper, and maniage; and for the election of superintendents or presbyters who were invested with episcopal functions; the order of ecclesiastical discipline, of excommuni- cation, and of public repentance ; a treatise on fasting; and forms of prayer for domestic and private use. A new edition of The Liturgi/ of the Church of Scotland; or, John Knox's Book of Common Order, was published by the Rev. Or. Cumming, at London, in 1840, in 18mo. The New Booke of Common Prayer, according to the Forme of the Kirke of Scotland, our Brethren in Faith and Covenant, printed in 1644, is a very brief abstract of Calvin's Genevan Prayer Book, or rather of Knox's Booh of Common Order. It is reprinted in the first volume of the Rev. P. Hall's Fragmenta Liturgica. — See Directory. 2. Liturgy of the Episcopal Church in Scotland. — The liturgy of the Episcopal Church in Scot- LIT land is at present nearly the same as that of the Church of England. Charles I., in 1637, made an unsuccessful attempt to introduce into Scot- land a Book of Common Prayer, copied, with some alterations, from that of England, which produced the Solemn League and Covenant. That liturg}' was prepared by Archbishop Spot- tiswoode, of St. Andrews, and Lindsay, of Glasgow ; assisted by Wedderbum, Dean of the Chapel Royal at Edinburgh, and by Bishops Guthrie, Maxwell, and Whitford. On its being sent to London, Charles I. referred it to the ex- amination of Archbishop Laud, and of Wren, Bishop of Ely — Juxon, Bishop of London, being too much engaged to attend to the revision. It was published at Edinburgh in folio, and entitled — The Booke of Common Prayer and Adminis- tration of the Sacraments and other parts of Divine Service, for the Use of the Church of Scotland." This liturgy is reprinted in the second volume of Hall's lieliquice IJturgicce; a copious bibliographical and historical account of it will be found in vol. i., pp. xiii.-xxxv. From 1645 until after the Restoration in 1660, the Westminster Directory was adopted, but by no means strictly adhered to, in various instances (as in that of praj-ing for the civil government); and when episcopacy was restored together with monarchy, it was not thought advisable to renew the attempt to introduce a public liturgy ; so that, except at ordinations, when the English forms were used, as far as local circumstances would admit, no regular form of prayer was in general use, while episcopacy continued to be the form of ministry in the established church. Many, indeed, of the episcopal clergy compiled forms, to be used by themselves in their parti- cular congregations, with some petitions and collects taken out of the English book ; and all of them uniformly concluded their prayers with the Lord's Prayer, and their singing with the doxology. Prayers for the Morning and Even- ing Service of the Cathedral Church of Aberdeen^ composed by the Rev. Henry Scougal, professor of theology in the King's College, continued in use until the Revolution, when the Presbyterians would no longer tolerate such superstition as a written prayer. At length, in 1712, the Eng- lish Book of Common Prayer was universallv adopted by the Scottish Episcopal Church with little variation, except in the celebration of the Eucharist. In that service the order for the ad- ministration of the Lord's Supper is substantially that in the liturgy authorized by Charles 1., but with alterations made, to make it more conform- able to the first and comparativeh' imperfectly reformed liturgy of King Edward VI. By the twenty-first canon of The Code of Canons of the Episcopal Church in Scotland, as revised, amended, and enacted, by an ecclesiastical synod, holden for that purpose at Edinburgh, from August 20 till September 6, 1838 (Edinburgh, 1838, 8vo), after ratifying and confirming the per- 393 LIT mission, formerly granted by the bishops "to all those who profess to be of the episcopal persuasion in Scotland, . . . to retain the use of the English office in all congregations where the said oifice had previously been in use," it is enacted, "That in the use of either the Scotch or English office no amalgamation, alteration, or interpolation whatever shall take place, nor shall any substi- tution of the one for the other be admitted, unless it shall be approved by the bishop. From re- spect, however, for the authority which originally sanctioned the Scotch Liturgy, and for other suffi- cient reasons, it is hereby enacted, that the Scotch communion office continue to be held of primary authority in this church ; and that it shall be used in all consecrations of bishops, but also at the opening of all general synods." — Pp. 29, 30. Although the Scotch communion office is thus established, it is worthy of notice that this canon does not prescribe what specific edition is to be used ; almost every single bishop, in the lapse of j'ears, having made additions, and even some changes, according to their own judgment or preference. But the edition of The Book of Common Prayer, and Administration of the Sa- craments and other Bites and Ceremonies of the Church, according to the Use of the Church of Scotland, which was published at Edinburgh in 1849, under the sanction of Patrick Torry, D.D., Bishop of St. Andrews, Dunkeld, and Dunblane, was disowned and rejected by the synod of bishops of the episcopal communion in Scotland, for the following reasons, viz., — " That the said book is not the Book of Common Prayer, accord- ing to the use of the Church in or of Scotland ; tliat it possesses no canonical authority ; and that neither the college of bishops, nor the church at large, is answerable for a book compiled and jiublislied without their appi'obation, consent, or knowledge." The edition thus disclaimed does not contain the office for the administration of the holy communion, which is actually used by a large proportion of the congregations of this church. Whatever may be the comparative excellencies ascribed by different persons to the order for the administration of the Lord's Supper which is followed in the United Church of England and Ireland, and in that (or those) in use in the episcopal communion in Scotland for the same purpose, truth and candour require it to be stated that the difference between the two offices is most clear and unequivocal — the English office being esclusiveh' commemorative, and the Scottish most distinctly sacrificial. Besides which, the following usages are practised, not one of which is adopted in the EngUsh office, viz. — 1. The mixing of water with the wine in tlie Eucharist; 2. Commemorating the faithful departed at the altar; 3. Consecrating the ele- ments by an express invocation ; 4. Using the oblatory prayer before distribution. — See Com- munion Service. 8. The Book of Common Prayer, according to Lit the Use of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America, varies as little as cir- cumstances will allow from the liturgy of the Anglican Cimrch, except in regard to the com- munion service. In 1785 the English Liturgy was revised and proposed for the use of the Episcopal Church in the American Union, at a convention held in Philadelphia, where the " Pro- posed Book," as it is commonly termed, was printed in 1786. It is reprinted in the fifth volume of the Eev. P. Hall's Reliquim Liturr/icm (London, 1847). This first edition of the Ameri- can Liturgy adopted most of the alterations in our Book of Common Prayer which had been pro- posed, in 1689, by several distinguished divines acting under a royal commission, but which were rejected by the convocation then assembled. These alterations are chiefly confined to such circumstances of language or arrangement as time and local situation appeared to render necessary. The prayers for the king and royal family are, of course, omitted, and prayers adapted to the government of the United States inserted in their room. Various other altera- tions and omissions were made, which it is not necessary to specify, as the second edition, which was ratified by the American Episcopal Church, October 16, 1789, is now the autho- rized liturgy of that church. The Athanasian Creed is omitted ; and in the Apostles' Creed the officiating minister has a discretional power of omitting the clause " he descended into hell," and substituting for it the words " he went into the place of departed spirits." Not to dwell on ver- bal alterations and corrections, it may suffice to state that the American Episcopal Church has adopted the oblation and invocation in the com- munion service, in which it approximates nearly to the Scottish communion office ; and that there are added six forms of prayer, viz., for the visita- tion of prisoners ; for thanksgiving to Almighty God for the fruits of the earth, and all the other blessings of his merciful providence ; for morning and evening, to be used in families ; for the con- secration of a church or chapel ; and lastly, a beautiful and impressive " office of institution of ministers into parishes or churches." A beautiful " standard edition" of this liturgy was published at New York in 1844, in one volume octavo, which, by order of the general convention of tlie American Protestant Episcopal Church, is to be the basis of all future editions. VIII. Liturgy of the Primitive Episco- pal Chdkch, revived in England in 1831. The Book of Common Prayer and Adminis- tration of the Sacraments and other Biles and Ceremonies of the Church, according to the use of the Primitive Episcopal Church, revived in Eng- land in the Year of our Redemption, One thou- sand eight hundred and thirty-one, together with the Psalter or Psalms of David, though bearing the imprint of London, 1832, was printed at Liverpool, but was never published. It was 394 LIT edited by the Rev. George Montgomery West, M.A., a presbyter of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the state and diocese of Ohio, in North America. This volume is of great rarity, not more than five or six copies being found in the libraries of the curious in ecclesiastical matters. The liturgy of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America is the basis of this edition, excepting two or three alterations in the office for the ministration of baptism, and a few verbal alterations to fit it for use in Eng- land and in Ireland. " The Primitive Episcopal Church, revived in England in 1831," had a short existence of little more than twelve months. For a bibliographical account of the principal collections of liturgies and liturgical treatises, the reader is referred to Koecher's Bibliotheca Liturgica, &c., 699-866. IX. Deistical Liturgy. In 1752 a liturgy was published in Liverpool by some of the Presbyterians, as Antitrinitarians are often called in England, but Christ's name is hardly mentioned in it, and the Spirit has no place in it. In 1776 was published A lAturgy on the Universal Principles of Relic/ion and Morality: it was compiled by David WOliams, •with the chimerical design of uniting all par- ties and persuasions in one comprehensive form. This liturgy is composed in imitation of the Book of Common Prayer, with responses cele- brating the Divine perfections and works, with thanksgivings, confessions, and supplications. The principal part of three of the hymns for morning and evening service is selected from the Works of Milton and Thomson, though con- siderable use is made of the language of the Scriptures.— T. H. H. The Rev. Dr. Robert Lee of Edinburgh had prepared a book of prayers, and used them for a time in public worship. Complaints were made against him, and the following is the formal de- liverance of the general assembly : — " The general assembly had transmitted to them, from their committee on bills, an appeal by the Rev. Dr. Lee, minister of Old Greyfriars Church, Edinburgh, against a judgment of the synod of Lothian and Tvveeddale, of date 3d May, 1859, affirming a sentence of the presbytery of Edin- burgh, of date 26th April, 1859, of the follow- ing tenor, viz. : — ' The presbyterj' of Edinburgh having received and considered the re[)ort of the committee, given in at last meeting, in pursuance of the remit made to them, of date 23d February, 1859, find, — ls<, That the practice has been introduced into Old Greyfriars Church, Edin- burgh, of standing at the singing of psalms, and of kneeling at prayer, of which the presbytery disapprove, as inconsistent with the immemorial usage of the church. 2d, That tlie prayers are read by Dr. Lee. 'id. That Dr. Lee uses, and others officiating for him in Old Greyfriars Church use, a book, either in manuscript or printed, entitled, Prayers for Public Worship, 395 LIT a copy of which was laid on the table of the presbytery, and has now been reported on. itk. That the order of service contained in said book, and in as far as it is admitted by Dr. Lee to be an exponent of the mode in which he conducts the devotions of the congi-egation, is at variance with the law and usage of the church, in re- spect,— That he commences the service with the reading of verses of Scripture, as an introduction to the devotional exercises. That after the con- fession of sins certain passages of Scripture are read, styled Comfortahle Words, and which may be regarded as occupying the place of what is termed " the absolution" in other hturgies. That the prayers are broken into fragments; and although Dr. Lee explains that in using them he gives them a continuous form, yet from their structure, each short prayer being complete in itself, it is impossible to give them that real unity which is agreeable to the law and practice of the church. That in the use of this form the people are directed to say " Amen" audibly at the close of each prayer, — all which being innovations unknown to this church, and un- authorized by it, the presbytery enjoin, as they do hereby enjoin. Dr. Lee to discontinue the same, and to conform in future to the order and form of public worship as established in the JJii-ectory of Public Worship, confirmed by acts of as'sem- bly, and presently practised in this church.' It was moved and seconded, — That the general assembly sustain the appeal, and recall the judg- ment of the synod, in so far as the same atfirms simpliciter the judgment of the presbytery of Edinburgh, pronounced op the 26th April, 1859, but find it established by the report of the com- mittee of the presbytery of Edinburgh, referred to in this judgment, and by the admissions of Dr. Lee and certain members of his kirk-session, that the praj-ers in the services of Greyfriars Church are read by Dr. Lee from a book, either in manuscript or printed, entitled Prayers for Public Worship, a copy of whicli was laid on the table of the committee, and is now laid before this house : Find that this practice is an innova- tion upon, and contrary to the laws and usage of the church in the celebration of public worship; and the assembly enjoin Dr. Lee to discontinue the use of the book in question in the services of his church, and to conform, in ottering up prayer, to tlie present ordinary practice of the church. It was also moved and seconded, — Tiiat the general assembly, having heard parties, and after reasoning, dismiss the appeal, and so far aftirm the judgment of the synod as to find, — 1.9^, That the reading of forms of prayer is not in accordance with the Directory for the public worship of God, and is contrary to the practice of this church, 'idly. That whilst the order of public worship, as stated in the Direc- tory, begins with prayer, it has become the general usage in tliis church to begin with sing- odly. That whUst the Directory prescribes LIV nothing as to the position of the worshippers dur- i';g the devotional exercises of praise and praj-er, the practice of sitting during the former and of standing during the latter exercise has become the general practice. The general assembly do therefore enjoin the Rev. Dr. Lee to discontinue the practice lately introduced by him of reading forms of prayer in the public worship of God, and do further earnestly recommend to him to conform to the common usage of the church in reffard to the manner of conducting public wor- ship. The vote being called for, it was agreed that the state of the vote should be first or second motion; and the roll being called, and votes marked, it carried first motion by 140 to 110." liiTing See Benefice. lioci Communes (commonplaces), the name of Melanchthon's well-known Theological Treatise, published in 1521, and the first Protes- tant S3'stem of divinitj'. Sixty editions of it were published during its author's lifetime, the earlier editions being marked by successive im- provements and clearer statements of doctrine, it consists of fifty- three heads. Luther calls it " the best book next to the Holy Scriptures ;" and Calvin, who published, in 1551, an edition in French, says in his preface, "it is a summary of those truths which are essential to the guidance of the Christian in the way of salvation." liocker, a small cupboard, often hewn out of the wall, on the north side of the altar, fastened with a door, and containing wine, water, towels, and other materials for mass. It was smaller then the aumbry, though the terms are generally used synonymously. — See Aumbry. liOgos. — See " Word," Biblical Cyclopcedia. — See also Person of Christ. Ijogotheten, an officer in the household of the Greek patriarch, and a general overseer in the church. I^ollards, Continental. — The word is prob- ably from " lulkn" — to chant in a low key, though some popish writers take it from lolium, or tare, as if the Lollards were tares in the field of the Church. They were called by the people Cellites. — See Cellites. Walter Lollard, from whom some derive their name, was burned at Cologne in the fourteenth century. Lollards, English. — The adherents of WyclifFe were so called. They were most numerous in the dioceses of Lincoln and London. Some, indeed, suppose that the English Lollards came from Germany. At aU events so ineffi- cacious had the measures hitherto adopted against them proved, that on many occasions they ventur- ed to bring their tenets prominently before the public. Thus they affixed to the doors of churches placards denouncing the priests ; and in 1395 they even addressed "twelve conclu- sions " to parliament, in which they attacked, in no measured language, the doctrines of Rome. This and other disturbances induced King Rich- LOL ard to return from Ireland, in order to check the daring sectaries. So far as the hierarchy was concerned, zeal was not awanting. At a synod held in February, 1396, Thomas of Arundel, the new primate of England, procured a formal con- demnation of eighteen propositions extracted from the writings of Wjxliffe. Still Richard was not very hearty in lending secular aid to the hier- archy. At length the clergy found a monarch ready to obey their behests. Richard was de- throned by Henry IV., with whom the house of Lancaster came to the throne of England. The new king was all the more willing to aid the clergy that, as usurper of the throne, he needed their support. It seems strange that under the son of that Duke of Lancaster who so long had proved WyclifFe' s steady friend the act de Hceretico comburendo — the first of the kind which disgraced the English statute book — shoidd have been passed (1400). The statute gave power to bishops to hand over obstinate or relapsed heretics to sheriffs or magis- trates, who were enjoined to have them publicly burnt. The ordinance was not allowed to re- main a dead letter. In 1401 William Sawtre, a parish priest, was burnt at Smithfield as a re- lapsed heretic. Among many other victims we select such names as William Thorpe, a most devoted priest (1407); J. Badby, who was burnt in a barrel ; and especially that generous friend of the Reformation, Lord Cobham (Sir John Oldcastle). Frequently had his castle af- forded shelter to Lollard preachers, and devotedly did he adhere to these doctrines, since, as him- self attested, his whole life had through them undergone a change. Henry V., the conqueror of Agincourt, had made vain efi'orts to induce him to change his opinions. However httle that monarch cared for theological subjects, he deemed the submission of the layman to his priest as necessary as that of the soldier to hia general. He now handed the heretic to the tribunal of his bitter enemy, Archbishop ArundeL Lord Cobham refused to recant, and was con- demned as a " pernicious and detestable heretic " (1413). But during the respite granted him he managed to escape into Wales, where he con- cealed himself till 1417, when he was captured and executed at St. Giles's Fields amidst bar- barous tortures. The same suflFerings — the victim being hung, and then roasted over a slow fire — were endured by many others of all classes in society. The escape of Lord Cobham, and rumours of a Lollard insurrection the follow- ing year, were made the occasion for fiesh measures of persecution. In 1414 it was order- ed that all public officials should bind them- selves by oath to aid in the extirpation of heresy, and that the lands and possessions of those convicted of heresy should be confiscated. In 1416 a regular inquisition was instituted in every parish of the diocese of Canterbury. Still stringent measures gradually led the nobility 396 LOL and clergy to withdraw from so dangerous a movement. Among the common people, how- ever, these opinions continued to spread ; secret conventicles were held ; and though the perse- cution, which lasted till 1431, may have crushed the party, so late as 150 years after Wycliffe's death Leland testifies that the English tractates of the reformer were still preserved, and eagorl}' read by the people. They were opposed to all priestly celibacy, even to that of the monastic orders ; they denounced the doctrine of pur- gatory, (.rdained priests of their own, and allowed laj'men to preach ; regarded the Lord's Prayer as the only form which should be used ; objected to the lawfulness of oaths, to wars, and to the punishment of death ; and denounced art as an antichristian invention, and a means of sinful indulgence. If such was the state of matters among the people, the position which the university of Oxford occupied in reference to the condemned opinions was for some time far from satisfactory to the hierarchy. Despite former ordinances it published in 1406 a Pub- like Testimonie, given out by the Urdversitie of Oxford — supposing that document to be genuine — in which the character and attain- ments of A\''3-cliffe were vindicated. Whatever may be thought of this remarkable document, the hierarchy at least deeuied it requisite to keep a watchful eye on the university. Ac- cordingly, in 1408, the primate passed, in con- vocation at Oxford, the so-called Constitutions of Arundel, directed against the tenets of the reformer. Indications, however, are not awant- ing that the university still continued " to beget degenerate children " till 1412, when an entire change seems to have taken place. In that year the university appointed a commission to examine the writings of WyclifFe ; and 260, or, according to another computation, 298, pro- positions extracted fr^m them were branded as heretical. A still heavier blow awaited the cause of the Reformation in England. In 1415 — two months before the death of IIus— the council of Constance solemnly denounced forty- five articles taken from the works of Wycliffe, to which afterwards a catalogue of other sixty heresies was added. That assembly went even iurther. It ordered the bones of Wycliffe to be exhumed and burnt. The infamous sentence was only carried out in 1428— sad to tell, by Fleming, Bisliop of Lincoln, once a devoted adherent of the reformer. Attempts were not awanting to confute the tenets denounced by the Romish hierarchy. Thus William of Vv'ood- ford endeavoured to refute those eighteen articles from tiie " trialogus," which .Archbishop Arundel had solemnly condemned on his accession. Again, between 1417 and 1422, Thomas Netter of Ual- don composed a work in which he endeavoured to prove the falseness of Wycliffe's theoloi;ical views. But neither of these woiks was written iu a manner likely to carry conviction. It was LOL otherwise with the writings of Reginald Peacock, Bishop of Chichester, in 1449. Unfortunately, the evangelical and candid spirit in which they were composed proved fatal to their author, lie was obliged to recant and do penance for his moderation, and was besides condemned to spend the remainder of his life in prison, de- prived even of the consolation of books and writing materials. (See Kurtz, sec. 150.) Kiol lards, Scottish, or, as they were some- times called, the Lollards of Kyle. From Eng- land Lollard tenets spread into Scotland. John Resby, an English priest who had fled north- wards from persecution, soon attracted by his teacliing the attention of Wardlaw, Bishop of St. Andrews. He was tried before Dr. Lau- rence de Lindoris, afterwards Professor of Com- mon Law at St. Andrews ; and, on his refusal to retract his views about the supremacy of the pope, auricular confession, transubstantiation, &c., was burnt at Perth (1405 or 1407). According to Pinkerton, such a scene was unknown before in Scotland. The burning of Resby is given in the twentieth chapter of the fifteenth book of the Scotichronicon. Still these opinions continued to extend, especially in the south and west of Scotland. The regent, Robert Duke of Albany, was known to be opposed to the Lollards ; and though King James I. was by no means blind to prevailing abuses in the church, an act of parliament was passed during his reign, in 1425, by which bishops were re- quired to make inquisition in their dioceses for heretics, in order that they might undergo con- dign punishment. This act was soon to be put in force. In 1433 Paul Craw or Crawar, a physician of Prague, had arrived — probablj' to escajje persecution — in Scotland. As he made no secret of his Lollard or Hussite opinions, he was soon arraigned before Lindoris, and con- demned to the flames. From this time we hear little of the Lollards in Scotland, though their continuance is attested by the fact that, in 1494, Blackadder, first Archbishop of Glasgow, sig- nalized his zeal for the church by persecuting the numerous heretics in his diocese. Accord- ingly, thirty suspected persons were summoned before the king and council. Among them were Reid of Barskimming, Campbell of Cessnock, Campbell of Newmills, Shaw of Polkemmet, Helen Chalmers, Lady Polkillie, and Isabel Chalmers, Lady Stairs. According to Knox, their indictment contained thirty-four dift'erent articles, which he informs us are preserved in the Register of Glasgow. Among the chief of these were — that images, relics, and the Virgin, were not proper objects of worship; that the bread and wine in the sacrament were not transub- stantiated into the body and blood of Christ ; that no priest or pope could grant absolutions or indulgences ; that masses could not profit the dead ; that miracles had ceased; and that priests might lawfully marry. But James IV., who 397 LON was not inclined to be a persecutor, dismissed the prisoners, after an examination which contri- buted little to the credit of the new Archbishop. (See Kurtz, sect. 150 ; Lee., vol. i., p. 13, 17.) liOiig Friday. — See Good Friday. liOiiginns, St., Day of, observed in the Romish Churcli on the 15th of March. This saint is said to have been the soldier who pierced the Saviour's side with a spear. He was nearly blind, but as the blood fell in some drops upon his e3^es, he had his vision re- stored, was converted by the miracle, became a zealous preacher and missionary, and after- wards died a martyr. liord's Day. — See Sabbath. liord's Prayer. — See Pkayek. L,ord's Supper.— See Eucharist. liord's Table. — See Eucharist, Table. liords of the Congregation, an association of noblemen banded together to promote the Re- formation, when they discovered the hostile inten- tions of the queen regent. — The Lord High Commissioneris the nobleman annually appointed by the crown to preside at the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland. — See Assembly. lioretto. Holy House at. — According to popish legend, this Santa Casa is the identical house in which Jesus was born, and in which Mary was born, betrothed, and married. It was discovered by Helena, the mother of Constantine, about three centuries after the incarnation, on its original spot. In 1291 angels carried it through the air and set it down in Dalmatia. In December, 1294, some shepherds saw it flying over the Adriatic into Italy. Afterwards it was shifted b}' the same supernatural power to its present site. It is built of stone, and is thirty- two feet long, thirteen feet wide, and eighteen feet high. On the right of the altar is the image of the Virgin, with a face, according to Dr. Middleton, " black as a negress, and liker a Proserpine than a Queen of Heaven." "Infinite miracles," according to a bull of Pope Paul II., have been wrought at this shrine, and it is hung round with votive offerings of vast value from all parts of the world, for the foolish legend is believed by myriads. There was a chapel of our Lady of Loretto at Musselburgh, near Edin- burgh, which had a famous image of the Virgin. To this shrine James V. made a pilgrimage from Stirling in 1536. The shrine was pqpular. The satirist Lyndsay thus sings of its pilgrims, — "I have sene pass ane marvillous multitude— Youiiff men and women, flingand on thair feit, Under the forme of fenzeit sanctitude, For till adore ane image in Lauveit; Mony came with thair mairowis lor to meit." Ijots. — See BiBLioJviANCY. — While such ap- peals to Scripture, by reading the first verse that occurred, or by some other profane and fortuitous method, were condemned, divining lots were allowed, such as in dividing property, or as in the case put by Augustine, in determining during a ass LOW plague what ministers shall staj- in the infected city. The disposal of ecclesiastical oflSces and of the lives of men was forbidden to be determined bj' lot, being left simply in the hands of God. Iiove, Family of, a sect which was founded in the Netherlands during the sixteenth century by Henry Nicolai. His theory was that religion consists wholly in love, independently of any form of truth held and believed. He came to England in the reign of Edward VI., and under Elizabeth the sect made some noise. In 1680 the queen burned their books and dispersed them, but they survived in a declining state for another century. Some immoralities charged against them do not appear to be substantiated. Of recent j'ears an Agapemone, or abode of love, has been founded in England by a man named Prince, once an English clergyman, but the strange doings of his household have of late been dragged to light by a court of law. £iOve Feasts. — See Agap.e. liovr Churchman. — See High Churchman. — In Queen Anne's reign low churchmen were lati- tudinarian, with a leaning towards Socinianism. Conybeare thus speaks of the low church party of the present day : — " It originated in the revival of religious life which marked the close of the last and the beginning of the present cen- turj', — the reaction against a long period of frozen lifelessness. The thermometer of the Church of England sank to its lowest point in the first thirty years of the reign of George III. Butler and Berkeley were dead, and had left no successors. The last of that generation of clergy- men which had founded the societies for ' the Diffusion of Christian Knowledge,' and the ' Propagation of the Gospel,' were now in their graves. Unbelieving bishops and a slothful clergy had succeeded in driving from the Church the faith and zeal of Methodism, which Wesley had organized within her pale. The spirit was expelled, and the dregs remained. That was the age when jobljery and corruption, long supreme in the state, had triumphed over the virtue of the church ; when the money-changers not only entered the temple, but drove out the worshippers ; when ecclesiastical revenues were monopolized by wealthy pluralists; when the name of curate lost its legal meaning, and, instead of denoting the incumbent of a benefice, came to signify the deputj' of an absentee; when church services were discontinued ; when univer- sity exercises were turned into a farce; when the holders of ancient endowments vied with one another in evading the intentions of their foun- ders; when everj'where the lowest ends were most openly avowed, and the lowest means adopted for effecting them. In their preaching, nineteen clerg3'men out of twenty carefully ab- stained from dwelling upon Christian doctrines. Such topics exposed the preacher to the ciiarge of fanaticism. From the period of the French revo- lution the Evangelical party began to assume the LOW form which it still retains. At first it had com- prehended many different shades of theological opinion. All religious men had been classed together by their opponents as enthusiasts, fana- tics, and Methodists, and had agreed to forget their minor differences in their essential agree- ment. But when the great truths of Christianity were no longer denied within the church, the maintenance of them ceased to be a distinctive badge of fellowship ; and other secondary doctrines assumed greater importance, as forming the speci- fic creed of the majority of those who had hitherto been contented with a more catholic bond of union. Of the tenets which then became, and have since continued, the watchwords of the Evangelical camp, the most conspicuous were the two following ; first, ' the universal necessity of conversion' and secondly, ^justification by faith,' A third was added, to which subsequent controversy gave more than its original promi- nence, nanielv. "hop, bishop, superintendent, or commissioner of each diocese or province, upon wliose testimonial being pre- sented by the minister, the Lords of Council and Session are instructed to direct letters, charging the former occupiers to remove, and entering the minister to possession; as the act Charles II., pari. 1, sess. 3, c. 21, ordains, that the heritors of the parish, at the sight of the bishop of the diocese, or such ministers as he shall appoint, with two or three of the most knowing and dis- creet men of the parish, build competent manses to the ministers; and as, by the settlement of presbyterian government in Scotland, the pres- bytery has come in place of the bishop, all applications concerning manses and glebes are made, in the first instance, to the presbytery of the bounds. After taking the regular steps suit- able to the nature of the business, which, as a civil court specially constituted for that purpose, they are called to discuss, the presbytery pro- nounce a decreet; and their sentence, unless brought by a bill of suspension before the Court of Session, is binding upon all concerned." Prior to the Reformation canon xiii. ordained that every parish should have a dwelling for the minister, built at the expense of the parsons and their vicars, the support of it afterwards falling as a burden on the vicars. By tlie general assembly of 1563 ministers having manses were required to live in them. ITIaiisioiiarii {yru^afiovu^ici), a class of func- tionaries who were not only keepers of churches, but especially bailiffs or stewards of the glebes or lands belonging to the church or the bishop. niarcvliiaiis, followers, in the fourth cen- turj', of Marcellus, Bishop of Ancyra, in Galatia. If confidence may be placed in Eusebius of Csesarea and in his other adversaries, Marcellus so explained the mystery of the holy Trinity as to fall into tlie Sabellian and Samosatenian errors. Yet there are many who think tliat both Euse- bius of Nicomedia and Eusebius of Ciesarea un- fairly represent his sentiments, because he gave offence by the severitj' of his attacks upon the Arians and upon the bishops who favoured them. But admitting that his accusers were influenced ia some respects by their hatred of the man, it is certain that their accusations were not altogether groundless; for it appears, from a careful exami- nation of the whole subject, tliat Marcellus con- sidered the Son and tlie Holy Spirit as two emanations from the divine nature, which, after performing their respective offices, were to return back into the substance of the Father, and wlio- ever believed so could not, without self-contra- MAR diction, hold the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, to differ from each other in the manner of dis- tinct persons. Marcellus increased the odium and suspicions against him b}' refusing, in the last years of his life, to condemn Photinus, his disciple. Marcellus and his friends always de- nied that they were Sabellians, though the lan- guage they emploj'cd would almost lead one to believe the accusation against them, — that they believed in a phenomenal and not in an immanent Trinity. lUai-cionitcs, an important sect of Gnostics, whose founder, Marcion, was son of a bishop of Sinope. lie came to Rome between a.d. 140 and 150, and attached himself to the Syrian teacher, Cerdoii. The system wliich he developed was widely distinguished from those of all the other heresiarchs. He assumed three moral prin- ciples : — the good God, all love ; the Demiurge, all justice, and of whom it is doubtful whether Marcion meant to teach that he was an emana- tion from God or an independent existence; and the god of matter, all evil. Mankind were created by the Demiurge; and, having fallen from the state in which he made them, they received from him a promise of his son to restore them. But as this gave a prospect, at best, of very limited happiness, the good God determined to send his own Son into the world ; and accord- ingly Christ came down, clothed in a phantastic body, and suddenly appeared at Capernaum, revealing to men the God of whom before they had known nothing. Those who believe in him and lead holy lives, out of love to the good God, are to be exalted to his heavenly kingdom. The rest are to be left to the strict justice of the Demi- urge. The disciples of Marcion were required to be extremely strict in their manner of living, abstaining from marriage and from all earthly pleasures, and confining themselves to the simplest diet. Marcion's Gospel, so called, was a mutila- tion of the canonical Luke, and he received only ten epistles of Paul. Though Marcion ad- mitted that Jesus was Christ, the Son of the good God, he would not allow that he was the Christ, or Messiah, foretold by the prophets, and son of the Demiurge. This last was, according to his account, a Saviour promised to the Jewish nation and yet to come, in order to free them from their enemies. The latter was designed to restore the state of the dispersed Jews, the former to deliver the whole human race. He denied that the descriptions given of Christ in the Old Testament corresponded with the accounts of him in the New. Marcion appears to have ad- mitted, in the main, the Gospel account of the death and resurrection of Christ. He ascribed his crucifixion to the powers subject to the Demi- urge, who had jealously observed that the Good Being was destroying the law. The Creator was not aware that the death, or the apparent death, of Christ (for a pure spirit could not suffer death) would procure the salvation of mankind — 403 MAR J. e., their deliverance from the ancient law, and their adoption as children of the perfect Father, and heirs of eternal life. Thus, then, Marcion endeavoured to trace the difference between the Deitj', all-powerful and perfectly good, and the Demiurge, just in his intentions, but weak and imperfect, and also between the Christ of the former and the Christ of the latter. iriarcosians. — See Valentinians. Blorgarefs, St., I>ay, two festivals, one held on 21st of Febraary, and another on 20th of July. JTlarioIatry (worship of Mary'), a prevalent and characteristic form of Komish worship. — See Maky. Mark's, St., Day, a festival observed on the 25th of April by the Greek and Romish Churches. Maronites, the name of the Syrian Chris- tians which inhabit the districts on and around Mount Lebanon, and who seem to have been driven to this asylum at the great Mohamme- dan invasion of the seventh century. At an early period they adopted Monothelite opinions, •which they have long abjured; indeed, the pre- sent patriarch denied that ever they held them. For five centuries they maintained ecclesias- tical independence. But the Church of Rome at length got the supremacy. Gregory XIII. founded a Maronite college at Rome; Pope Clement XII. summoned the great council of Lebanon in 1736 ; and its enactments guide the Maronites to the present day. The subjection to Rome, however, is far from being complete. The patriarch styles himself Peter, as if claim- ing to be the apostle's representative and suc- cessor. Dr. Wilson says, — " They have been allowed to maintain most of their own cus- toms and observances, however much at vari- ance with those which Rome is usually content to sanction. They are allowed to preserve their own ecclesiastical language, the Syriac; while Rome has shown her partiality for the Latin rite, by bringing it into use wherever practicable. They dispense the communion in both kinds, dipping the bread in wine before its distribution among the people. Though they now observe the Roman calendar, as far as the time of feasts and fasts is concerned, they recognize local saints, which have no place in its commemorations. They have retained the custom of the marriage of their clergy previous to their ordination. Though they profess to be zealous partizans of Rome, it dare not so count upon their attachment as to force upon them all that in ordinary circum- stances it thinks desirable. In order to secure its present influence over them it is subjected to an expense of no small magnitude." The patri- arch, who is elected by J.he bishops, but receives investiture from Rome, has jurisdiction over nine sees. There are 356 churches, with about 1,000 priests. The priests are of two orders, — episcopal priests and common priests, the latter being again divided into monastic and parochial priests. MAR A United Presbyterian missionary in the East, and a native, says, " The Maronites have three orders of monks. The convents and cenobia are about seventy in number, are well endowed, and contain above one thousand monks and five hundred nuns. Some of the convents are under the supervision of the patriarch, and others under the bishops, though each convent has its supe- rior, and each order its superior-general. The monks, by the rules of their order, are not allowed to smoke or eat meat. The latter, how- ever, is permitted in case of sickness, by the order of the physician and the consent of the superior. In making long journeys the bishop may give the same permission, provided they shall not indulge in it on the days in which its use is forbidden by the canons of the Church. Much stress is laid on the nunneries being built at a distance from the convents ; and no nun or woman is allowed to enter a convent, nor a monk to enter a nunnery, except on occasions of great necessity, and with strict limitation. The monks are employed in their prayers, and in various occupations of industry; the lay-brothers tilling the lands of the convents, making shoes, weaving, begging, &c. ; and the priests applying themselves to study, copying books, and other matters befitting the dignitj' of their ofiace. The nuns are taught to read and sew. Both the monks and nuns vow the three conditions of a monastic life, — namely, chastity, poverty, and obedience ; and taken as a whole, both are ex- tremely ignorant and bigoted." The converts are numerous, but depraved. In fact, through ig- norance, superstition, and fanaticism, Druse and Maronite are often onl^' distingviishable in name. At the present moment (1860) the public jour- nals are filled with deplorable accounts of revolt- ing havoc and massacre done by the wild Druses on the Maronites, the Turkish government being either too feeble or too indifferent to protect its Christian subjects from violence and murder. {yi oriahei's Religion in the East, London, 1860.) IMarriage. — See Biblical Cyclopoedia. — In the earliest periods of the Church, marriage was honoured, according to apostolic mandate and after the example of Him who wrought his first miracle at the nuptial feast of Cana. But ascetic notions soon began to prevail, and in the course of time celibacy was reckoned among the higliest virtues. Celibates formed a select and higher circle, the masses round about them being scorned or pitied, since they married and were given in marriage, multiplied and replenished the earth. It was never apparently asked by those who looked on marriage as worldly and unholy, how, without it, the Redeemer was to see his seed, and how the house of many mansions was to be filled. The heretics Marcion and Ta- tian were among the first who railed against marriage — as Simon Magus is said, on the other hand, to have taught in his day a plurality of wives. The Gnostics and Manichieans also re- 404 MAR jected marriage ; indeed, " forbidding to man-)'" has characterized fanatics in every age. Reli- gious error has, according to temperament and circumstances oscillated between polygamy and celibacy. The canons of the Gangran council, held about 340, reveal the state of the age: " 1. If any one reproach marriage, or have in abomination the religious woman, that is a com- municant and sleeps with her husband, as one that cannot enter into the kingdom of heaven, let him be anathema. 4. If any one condemn a mar- ried presbyter, as if he ought not to partal^e of the oblation when he performs the liturgy, let him be anathema. 9. If any one live a virgin, or contain, as abominating marriage (while he lives in a retired state), and not for the beauty and sanctity of a virgin life, let him be anathema. 10. If one of those who live a virgin life for the Lord's sake insult those who are married, let him be anathema. 14. If any woman, abomi- nating marriage, desert her husband, and will become a recluse, let her be anathema." (See also Isaac Taylor's Ancient Christianity.') While the state ordained civil marriage laws, the Church claimed the power of ethical or spirit- ual regulation. Christians were not to marry with infidels, heretics, or Jews : they were to marry only in the Lord. Cyprian, Tertullian, Jerome, and Ambrose, insist on this at length. Various councils urged the same doctrine. Thus the council of Laodicea, — " 10. That they of the Church are not to marry their children promis- cuously to heretics. 31. That we ought not to make matches, or give our sons and daughters to every heretic ; but rather to accept of them if they will promise to become Christians." King- ham adds, — " The prohibition, in the third council of Carthage, extends only to the sons and daugh- ters of bishops and the clergy, that they should not marry with Gentiles, heretics, or schismatics ; but particularly mention no others. The coun- cil of Agde runs in the same words with the council of Laodicea, — ' That none shall marry with heretics, unless they promise to become Catholic Christians.' And so the council of Chalcedon forbids the readers and singers among the inferior clergy to marrj' either Jew, Gentile, or heretic, unless the}' v/ould promise to embrace the orthodox faith ; and this is enjoined the clergy under pain of canonical censure. But the first council of Aries goes a little further with re- spect to the whole body of Christians, and orders, ' That if any virgins who are believers be married to Gentiles, they shall for some time be separated from communion.' The council of Eliberis not only forbids such marriages in one canon, for fear of spiritual adultery (that is, apostacy from the faith), though there was a pretence that young women were so numerous, they could not find Christian husbands enough for them, but also, in another canon, orders such parents as gave their daughters in marriage to Jews or heretics to be five years cast out of the communion of the 405 MAR Church. And a third canon orders, 'That if any parents married their daughters to idol priests, they should not be received into com- munion even at their last hour.' The second council of Orleans forbids all Christians to marry Jews, because all such marriages were deemed unlawful ; and if any, upon admonition, refused to dissolve such marriages, they were to be de- nied all benefit of communion. Nor was the civil law wanting to confirm ecclesiastical with its sanc- tion."— See Jews. Again, children were not to marry without consent of their parents, nor slaves without that of their masters. Guar- dians were prohibited from marrying orphans during their minority; and a judge was not to marry a woman of his province during the period of his administration. Penitents were not to marry during the period of their penance ; nor a widow till a year after her husband's death, under pain of forfeiting her goods. A wife was not to contract a marriage in her hus- band's absence, till fully certified of his death; for, by the council of Trullo, if the first husband re-appeared, he might claim her, and the second marriage was set aside; but a soldier's wife might marry after four years' absence on the part other husband, if she had no proof of his survival. Certain degrees of consanguinity always proved a bar to marriage, and a union of parties too nearlv related was branded as incest. The council of Agde says, — " Concerning incestuous conjunc- tions, we allow them no pardon, unless the offend- ing parties cure the adultery by separation from each other. We reckon incestuous persons un- worthy of any name of marriage, and dreadful to be mentioned. For they are such as these, — If any one pollutes his brother's relict, who was almost his own sister, by carnal knowledge ; if any one takes to wife his own sister; if any one mar- ries his stepmother, or father's wife ; if any one joins himself to his cousin-german ; if a man marries any one nearly allied to him by con- sanguinity, or one whom his near kinsman had married before; if any one marries the relict or daughter of his uncle by the mother's side, or the daughter of his uncle by his father's side, or his daughter-in-law — that is, his wife's daughter by a former husband; — all which, both hereto- fore and now, under this constitution, we doubt not to be incestuous; and we enjoin them to abide and pray with the catechumens till they make lawful satisfaction. But we prohibit these things in such manner, for the present time, as not to dissolve or cancel anything that has been done before ; and they who are forbidden such unlawful conjunctions shall have libert}' to marrv more agreeably to the law." The canon law- differs on these points somewhat from the Mosaic law; and the prohibited degrees in the early Church are given in the following Latin lines : — "Nnta, soror, neptis, niatertcra fratris ct uxor Et patrui conjux, mater, privi<;na, iKiveroii Uxorisque Sdror, ])rivit;ni nata, nurusque Atque soror patris; coujungi lege votantur." MAR Incest was severely punished, incest with a sister being reckoned as vile as murder, and vfeited with the same penance. In the case of marry- ing a deceased wife's sister, the nineteenth canon of the Apostolic Constitutions says, — " He that marries two sisters or his niece cannot be a clergyman," implying that among the laity such a connection was sometimes formed. The sixty- first canon of the council of Eliberis says, " If any one, after the death of his wife, shall have married her sister and she be a believer, let her abstain for five years from communion, unless illness render necessary an earlier reconciliation." The marriage is neither formally forbidden nor dissolved bj' this canon. Basil condemned such marriages, affirming that he who marries two sisters must do the penance of one who divorces his wife and marries another," for the last is " by our Lord's judgment an adulterer." A woman who had married two brothers is, bj' the Council of NeoCc"esarea, placed under the ban of excom- munication till her death. Prior to the Refor- mation marriage with a deceased wife's sister was in the same category as marriage with a sixth cousin. — See Affinity. According to the canons of the Greek Church a man may not marry — His second cousin's daughter. His deceased wife's first cousin. His deceased wife's first cousin's daughter. His deceased wife's second cousin. Two brothei's may not marry — Two sisters. An aunt and a niece. Two first cousins. A man may not marry — His wife's brother's wife's sister — i. e., his brother-in-law's sister-in-law. His brother-in-law's wife: nor can his own brother marry her. Godparentage and Adoption constitute impedi- ments to marriage, up to the seventh degree. Till the time of Ambrose there was no law against the marriage of cousins; but an act of Theodosius distinctly forbade it, under penalty of confiscation and burning, by advice of Am- brose, as is thought ; and though the law be not extant, there is a statute of Honorius re- ferring to it and confirming it. Another law of Arcadius alleviates the penalty, but still holds the connection as incestuous, and declares the children illegitimate and incapable of suc- ceeding to any inheritance. Augustine, though he does not deem such marriages v.nlawful, by any divine prohibition, yet advises against them, as being ^jcEwe cum sorore. Arcadius afterwards revoked the law against the mar- riage of cousins ; and Justinian inserted the revocation in his Institutes. The Church, how- ever, continued to condemn them, as was done by the councils of Epone and Tours ; nav, the prohibition was extended by and bye as far as the sixth and seventh degree of collateral con- MAR sanguinity. In the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland in 1565, it was declared that the marriage of cousins was not forbidden in Scripture; but it was desired that the matter should be settled by the civil magistrate, as such marriages had been attended with " diverse in- convenients." Persons in spiritual relationship were, by a law of Justinian, debarred from mar- rying— not only the godfather and his godchild, but, by certain popish regulations, the baptizer was not to marry the baptized, nor the catechist the catechumen. As for digamy, or a second marriage, the Novatians and Montanists condemned it. The seventh canon of the council of Neocsesarea says, — " 7. Let not a presbyter be present at . a feast made on occasion of a second marriage ; for, since he who marries a second time ought to do penance, what a presbyter is he who consents to such a marriage by being enter- tained at the feast!" Many harder expres- sions are found in the fathers. Augustine says, " That he dares not condemn any marriages for the number of them, whether they be second or third, or any other. I dare not be wise above what is written. Who am I that I should define what the apostle has not defined? ' The woman is bound,' saj-s the apostle, ' as long as her husband liveth.' He said not the first husband, or the second, or the third, or the fourth, but ' the woman is bound as long as her husband liveth ; but if her husband be dead, she is at liberty to be married to whom she will ; only in the Lord. But she is happier if she so abide.' I see not what can be added to or taken from this sentence. Our Lord himself did not condemn the woman that had seven husbands ; and therefore I dare not, out of my own heart, without the authority of Scripture, condemn any number of marriages whatsoever. But what I say to the widow that has been the wife of one man, the same I say to every widow — Thou art happier if thou so abidest." Though granted to the laity, it was forbidden to the clergy. Bingham saj'S (book xvi., cap. 11), — "It is certain the great council of Nice thus determined the matter against the Novatians, requiring them, upon their return to the Church, to make profession in writing that thej' would submit to the decrees of the Catholic Church, particularly in this, that they would ' 'Siydf^oi; K/miuvih,' — communicate with digamists, or those that were twice married. So that whatever private opin- ions some might entertain in this matter, or whatever private rules of discipline there might be in some particular churches in relation to digamists, it is evident the general rule and prac- tice of the Church was not to bring such under discipline, as guilty of any crime, which at most was only an imperfection in the opinion of many of those who passed a heavier censure on it. As for such as plainly condemned second, third, or fourth marriages, as fornication or adultery, I 406 MAR Fce not liow they can be justified or reconciled to the practices of the Catholic Church." The question as to the remarriage of persons rlivorcing or divorced is more difficult. An un- lawful divorce is no divorce, and therefore a second marriage, in such circumstances, is only adulter}' or b'ganiy, having two wives at once. Constantine allowed a man to divorce his wife only for adultery, poisoning, or lascivious prac- tices (_vel conciUafriceni) ; and a wife could repu- diate her husband only if he were a murderer, a poisoner, or a robber of graves. If a man put away his wife for other reasons than these, he could not marry, and she might claim her dowry. Other causes of divorce were allowed by suc- ceeding emperors. But the ecclesiastical canons were stricter. Augustine thought that none of the parties even lawfully divorced should marry again, though he does not absolutely forbid it, Tlie first council of Aries also forbids such a marriage, or ratlier advises against it. The fathers had a similar view. But the councils of Eliberis and Mileris strongly condemn them, and declare that, according to evangelical and apostolical discipline, neither of the parties can marry. The law of England allows the |)arties to contract a second marriage. la the Church of Rome, where marriage is a sacrament, divorce, properly so called, is impossible. Modern canon law does not allow a man to marry a woman with whom he has committed adultery prior to her husband's death. Augustine, however, ruled it in tlie affirmative, since, as he argues, those who had survived might afterwards make a just and honest marriage; and some of the councils deter- mined accordingly. Marriages were to be notified to the bishop or church, and in the early ages were solem- nized by tiie clergy, but with very many ex- ception.'). Mucli was borrowed from the cus- toms of the Roman law. Banns were required about the twelfth century. — See Banns. No prescribed form for the solenmization of mar- riage seems to have existed in early times. Witnesses were required, and the dowry was settled in writing. The sponsalia or betrothal preceded, and tokens or pledges were given or exchanged. The ceremonies were as follows: — " The use of tlie ring, in the rites both of espousal and of marriage, is very ancient. It is mentioned both by Tertullian and Clement of Alexandria ; the latter of whom says, ' It was given her, not as an ornament, but as a seal, to signify the woman's duty in preserving the goods of her husband, because the care of the house belongs to her.' The crowning of the married pair with garlands was a marriage rite peculiar to many nations professing difiierent forms of religion. Tertullian inveighs against it with all the zeal of a Montanist ; but it is spoken of with approbation by the fathers of the fouith and tifth centuries, from whom it appears that the Irieuds and attemluuts of the bridal pair were MAR adorned in the same manner. These chap- lets were usually made of myrtle, olive, ama- ranth, rosemary, and evergreens, intermingled with cypress and vervain. The croirn, appro- priately so called, was made of olive, myrtle, and rosemary, variegated with flowers, and some- times with gold and silver, pearls, precious stones, &c. These crowns were constructed in the form of a pyramid or tower. Both the bride and the bridegroom were crowned in this manner, together with the groomsman and the bridesmaid. The bride frequently appeared in church thus attired on the day when proclama- tion of the banns was made. Chaplets were not worn by the parties in case of second marriage, nor by those who had been guilty of impro- priety before marriage. In the Greek Church the chaplets were imposed by the officiating minister at the altar. In the Western Church it was customary for the parties to present them- selves thus attired. The wearing of a veil by the bride was borrowed from the Romans. It was also conformable to the example of Rebecca (Gen. xxiv.) From this marriage rite arose the custom of taking the veil in the Catholic Church. By this act the nun devotes herself to perpetual virginity us the spouse of Christ, the bridegroom of the Church. It appears to have been custom- arj' also to spread a robe over the bridegroom and bride, called vitla nuptialis, paUiumjugale, &c., and made of a mixture of white and red colours Torches and lamps were in use on such occasions, both among the Jews and pagan nations. These festivities were celebrated by nuptial processions, going out to meet the bride- groom and conducting him home, by nuptial songs and music, and marriage feasts. These festi- vals are frequentl}- the subject of bitter animad- version by the fathers, especially by Chrysostom; and often called for the interposition of the autho- rity of the Church. In connection with these festivities it was customary- to distribute alms to the poor. The groomsman had various duties to perform, — to accompanv the parties to the church at their marriage ; to act as sponsor for them in their vows; to assist in the marriage ceremonies; to accompany them to the house of the bride- groom ; to preside over and direct the festivities of the occasion." In England "marriage by the common law is considered merely as a civil contract. The holiness of its obligations is left entireh' to the ecclesiastical courts, the temporal courts not having jurisdiction to consider unlawful marriage as a sin, but merely as a civil incon- venience. In legal language the husband is called the baron; the wife is called coverie baron, or feme coverte ; and the period while both hus- band and wife are living, and the marriage is subsisting, is called the coverture. It is neces- sarj- to the validity of a marriage that the par- ties should consent to enter into the contract; that they should be subject to no disability pre- 407 MAR I venting them from so doing; and that the}' should conform to the ceremonies and solemni- ties required by law. There are two kinds of disabilities, canonical and municipal. The ca- nonical are, consanguinity, or relation by blood, affinity, or relation by marriage, and corporal infirmity. They afford grounds for avoiding the marriage in the spiritual court; but, until sen- tence of avoidance be pronounced, the marriage is considered valid. The object of the sentence in the spiritual court is pro salute animarum, to reform the parties b\' a separation ; as this object cannot be gained after the death of either of them, all hope of reformation being then lost, it follows that the spiritual court must pronounce its sentence during the lifetime of both, or not at all. While Popery was the established reli- gion of the land a great variety of degrees of kindred were impediments to marriage, a dispen- sation from which, however, could always be procured for money. But now, by statute 32 Henry VIII., c. 33, confirmed by 1 Elizabeth, e. 1, it is declared that nothing (God's law ex- cepted) shall impeach any marriage but within the Levitical degrees, the furthest of which is that between uncle and niece. The municipal disabilities differ from the canonical disabilities in this, that the former render the marriage void ab initio, without sentence of avoidance in any court, while the latter mereh' render it liable to be declared void. This distinction is of great impor- tance ; for the issue of a marriage void ab initio is necessarily base-bom, but the issue of a marriage voidable only by sentence in the spiritual court is legitimate, unless the marriage be actually avoided, which, as we have seen, can only be done in the lifetime of both the parents. The municipal disabilities are, a prior marriage, want of age, and want of consent of parents or guard- ians. If any person shall solemnize matrimony at any other time than between eight and twelve o'clock in the forenoon, or in any improper place, without special license ; or shall solemnize ma- trimony without license or due publication of banns; or if any person falsely pretending to be in holy orders shall solemnize matrimony accord- ing to the rites of the Church of England, every such person, knowingly and wilfully so offend- ing, is declared by the same statute to be guiltv of felony, and liable to be transported for four- teen years; provided he be prosecuted within three years after the offence committed. The royal family, Jews, and Quakers are exempted from the operation of the above statute of 4 George IV., c. 76. " The 6 and 7 William IV., c. 85, was passed chiefly in favour of those who scrupled at joining in the services of the estab- lished church ; and it contains numerous provi- sions tor this purpose. Persons who object to marry in a resjistered place of worship may, after due notice and certificate issued, according to the provisions of this act, contract and solemnize marriage at the office of the superintendent regis- MAR trar, and in his presence and in that of some registrar of the district, and of two witnesses. These statutes do not extend to marriages con- tracted out of England, or to marriages of the royal family, whicti are regulated by a particular statute, 12 'Geo. III., c. 11. In August, 1844, an act was passed (7 and 8 Vict., c 81) relat- ing to marriages in Ireland, and for registering such marriages, which came into operation April 1st, 1845. It establishes a system very nearly similar to that which exists in England and Wales under 6 and 7 William IV., c. 85." The form of the solemnization of matrimony is to be found in the Book of Common Prayer. With various prayers, address, and reading of appro- priate portions of Scripture, the contract is made in the following terms : — \ " If no impediment he alleged, then shall the curate say unto the man, " AL, Wilt thou have this woman to th v wedded wife, to live together after God's ordinance in the holy estate of matrimony? Wilt thou love her, comfort her, honour, and keep her in sickness and in health ; and forsaking all other, keep thee only unto her, so long as ye both shall live ? % " The man shall answer. I will. ^ " Then shall the priest say unto the woman, " A^, Wilt thou have this man to thy wedded husband, to live together after God's ordinance in the holy estate of matrimony? Wilt thou obey him, and serve him, love, honour, and keep him in sickness and in health ; and forsaking all other, keep thee only unto him, so long as ye both shall live? ^ " The woman shall answer, I will. ^ " Then shall the minister say, " Who giveth this woman to be married to this man? ^ " Then shall they give their troth to each other in this manner, " The minister, receiving the woman at her fa- ther s or friend's hands, shall cause the man with his right hand to take the woman by her right hand, and to say after him asfol- loweth : " I Af. take thee N. to my wedded wife, to have and to hold from this day forward, for better for worse, for richer for poorer, in sickness and in health, to love and to cherish, till death us do part, according to God's holy ordinance; and thereto I plight thee my troth. ^ " Then shall they loose their hands ; and the woman, with her right hand taking tli^e man by his right hand, shall likewise say after the minister, " I N. take thee M. to my wedded husband, to have and to hold from this day forward, for better for worse, for richer for poorer, in sickness and in health, to love, cherish, and to obey, till death ns do part, according to God's holy ordi- nance; and thereto I give thee my troth. ^ " Then shall they again loose their hands; and the man shall give unto the woman a 408 MAR ring, laying the same upon the honJ:, with the accitstomed duty to the jyriest and chrk. And the priest, taking the ring, shall didiver it unto the man, to put it upon the f\mrth finger of the woman s left hand. And the man ho/ding the ring there, and taught by the priest, shall say, " With this ring I thee wed, with my body I thee worship, and with all my worldly goods I thee endow: In the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost. Amen. ^ " Then the man, leaving the ring upon the fourth finger of the woman's left hand, they shall both kneel down," &c. The marriage ceremony is usually simpler and briefer in Scotland, and is rarely performed in church. Marriage is at the same time a civil con- tract,— even parties declaring themselves before witnesses, or before a justice of peace, to be man and wife, are held bound by such a contract. But clandestine marriages are not common, even though a proved promise of marriage, followed by cohabitation, constitutes marriage by the law of Scotland. Ministers not of the established church have been always in the habit of solem- nizing marriages ; and they were never called in question, though legally the established clergy and licensed episcopalian ministers alone had the privilege. But by 4 and 5 William IV., c. 28, marriages may be legally solemnized by the clergy of any denomination. According to the Direc- tory, after some admonitions, it is said, " The prayer being ended, it is convenient that the minister do briefly declare unto them, out of the Scripture, the institution, use, and ends of marriage, with the conjugal duties which, in all faithfulness, the}' are to perform each to other; exhorting them to study the holy Word of God, tliat the}' may learn to live by faith, and to be content in the midst of all mar- riage cares and troubles, sanctifying God's name, in a thankful, sober, and holj- use of all conjugal comforts; praying much with and for one another; watching over and provok- ing each other to love and good works ; and to live together as the heirs of the grace of life. After solemn ciiarging of the persons to be mar- ried, before the great God, who searcheth all hearts, and to whom they must give a strict account at the last day, that if either of them know any cause, by pre-contract or otherwise, why they may not lawfully proceed to marriage, that they now discover it ; tlie minister (if no impediment be acknowledged) shall cause first the man to take the woman by the right hand, saying these words : " ' / N. do take thee N. to be my married wife, and do, in the presence of God, and before this congregation, promise and covenant to be a loving and faithful husband unto thee, until God shall separate us by death.'' "Then the woman shall take the man by the right hand, and say these words : , MAR " ' /N. do take thee X. to be my married hnn- band, and T do, in thepresence of God, and before this congregation, promise and covenant to be a loving, faith fid, and obedient tofe unto thee, until God shall separate us by death.' " Then, without any further ceremony, the minister shall, in the face of the congregation, pronounce them to be husl)and and wife, according to God's ordinance, and so conclude the action with prayer." In the Church of Rome marriage is a sacra- ment, and the contract is indissoluble. In session xxiv. of the council of Trent it is said, " The grace which might perfect that natural love, and confirm that indissoluble union, and sanctify the wedded, Christ liiinself, the institutor and per- fecter of the venerable sacraments, merited for us by his passion. Whereas, therefore, matrimony, in the evangelical law, excels the ancient mar- riages in grace, through Christ, with reason have our hoh' fathers, the councils, and the tra- dition of tiie universal Church, always taught, that it is to be numbered amongst the sacraments of the new law. Also canon i. If any one shall say that matrimony is not truly and properly one of the seven sacraments of the evangelic law, instituted by Christ the Lord, but that it has been invented by men in the Church, and that it does not confer grace, let him be anathema." A peculiar social celebration of marriage called penny weddings, wliich was common in Scot- land, came under the notice of the general assembly and the parliament. " The assem- bly, considering that many persons do invite to these penny weddings excessive numbers, among whom there frequently falls out drunkenness and uncleanness. for preventing whereof, by their act February 13, 1645, they ordain presbyteries to take special care for restraining the abuses ordi- narily committed at these occasions, as they shall think fit, and to take a strict account of the obedi- ence of every session to their orders thereanent, and that at tlieir visitation of parishes within their bounds; which act is ratified March 8, 1701. And by the 12th sess. assembly, 1706, presbyteries are to apply to magistrates for exe- cuting the laws relating to penny bridals, and the commission, upon application from them, are to apply to the government for obliging the judges, who refuse to execute their otlice in that matter. By the 14th act, pari. 3. Car., II., it is ordained, tliat at marriages, besides the married persons, their parents, brothers and sisters, and the family wherein they live, there shall not be present above four friends on eitiier side. And if there shall be any greater number of per- sons at penny weddings within a town, or two miles thereof, that the master of the house shall be fined in the sum of 500 merks." {Augusti, Siegel, Riddle, Bingliam, &c.) ITIarrow Coulroversy. — The Marrow of Modern Divinity was a work published, in 16-16, by Edward Fisher, of the university of Oxford. 409 MAR It was in the form of a dialogue, to explain the freeness of the law, — to expose, on the one hand, Antinomian error, and also, on the other, to refute Neonomian heresy, or the idea that Christ has, by his atonement, so lowered the require- ments "of the law that mere endeavour is accepted in room of perfect obedience. A copy of the book, which had been brought into Scotland by an English puritan soldier, was accidentally found by Boston, then minister of Simprin, and was republished in 1718, under the editorial care of Mr. Hogg, minister of Carnock. It had been recommended long before by several divines of the Westminster Assembly. The treatise, consisting of quaint and stirring dialogues, throws into bold relief the peculiar doctrines of grace, occasionally puts them into the form of a startling proposition, and is gemmed with quot- ations from eminent Prote-tant divines. The publication of the Marroiv threw the clergy into commotion ; and by many of them it was vio- lently censured. But not a few of the evangeli- cal pastors gave it a cordial welcome, and among multitudes of the people it became a favourite book, next in veneration to the Bible and the Shorter Catechism. In 1719 its editor, Mr. Hogg, wrote an explanation of some of its pas- sages ; but in the same year Principal Haddow, of St. Andrew's, opened the synod of Fife with a sermon directed against it. The synod requested the publication of the discourse, and this step was the signal for a warfare of four j^ears' dura- tion. The assembly of that year, acting in the same spirit with the s^vnod of Fife, instructed its commission to look after books and pamphlets promoting such opinions as are found in the Marrow, though they do not name the book, and to summon before them the authors and recommendors of such publications. The com- mission, so instructed and armed, appointed a committee, of which Principal Haddow was the soul; and before this committee, named the "com- mittee for purity of doctrine," four ministers were immediately summoned. The same com- mittee gave in a report at next assembly of 1720, in the shape of au overture, classifying the doc- trines of the Marroio, and solemnly condemning them. It selected several passages which were paradoxically expressed, while it severed others from the context, and held them up as contrary to Scripture and to the Confession of Faith. The passages marked for reprobation were arranged under distinct heads, — such as the nature of faith, the atonement, holiness, obedience and its motive, and the position of a believer ni refer- ence to the law. The committee named them as errors, thus, — universal atonement and par- don ; assurance of the very essence of faith ; holi- ness not necessary' to salvation ; and the believer not under the law as a rule of life. Had the Marroio inculcated such tenets it would have been objectionable indeed. The report was dis- cussed, and the result was a stern coudemna- MAR tion of the Marroio ; and " the general assembly do hereby strictly prohibit and discharge all the ministers of this church, either by preaching, writing, or printing, to recommend the said book, or in discourse to say anything in favour of it; but, on the contrary, they are hereby enjoined and required to warn and exhort those people in whose hands the said book is or may come, not to read or use the same." That book which had been so highly lauded by many of the southern divines — such as Caryl and Burroughes — by the men who had framed the very creed of the Scot- tish Church, and who were universally acknow- ledged to be as able as most men to know truth and detect error — was thus put into a presbyte- rian Index expurgatorius. Nobody can j ustifv the extreme statements of the Afarrow, but their bearing and connection plainly free them from an Antinomian tendencj*. In fact, some of the so-called Antinomian statements condemned by the assembly are in the very words of inspira- tion. But the rigid decision of the assembly only added fuel to the controversy which it was intended to allay, and the forbidden book became more and more au object of intense anxiety and prevalent study. The popular party in the church at once concerted measures to have that act repealed. Consultations were repeatedly held b}' a section of the evangelical clergy, and at length it was agreed to hand in a representa- tion to the court, complaining of the obnoxious decision, and of the injury which had been done by it to precious truth. This representation was signed by twelve ministers, and it briefly called the assembly's attention to the fact that it had condemned propositions which are in accordance at once with the Bible and the symbolical books. The names of the twelve were — Messrs. James Hogg, Carnock ; Thomas Boston, Etterick : John Bonar, Torphichen ; John Williamson, Inver- esk ; James Kidd, Queensferry ; Gabriel Wilson, Maxton ; Ebenezer Erskine, Portmoak; Ralph Erskine and James Wardlaw, Dunfermline; Henry Davidson, Galashiels; James Bathgate, Orwell; and William Hunter, Lilliesleaf. Other discussions followed ; the Representors were sum- moned, in 1722, to tlie bar of the assembly, and admonished — against which they solemnly pro- tested. This doctrinal controversy was one principal origin of the first secession in 173-1. ITIai-tinists, a Russian sect of mystics which rose and disappeared during the last sixty years. Chevalier St. Martin of France was its founder, and it was a recoil against prevalent infidelity. It took advantage especially of masonic lodges, and spread itself from Moscow as its centre. The works of the German pietists, Arndt and Spener, were special favourites; and many other trans- lations of excellent treatises were published. Catherine II., however, resolved to crush the society ; but it revived under Alexander I., as it had the patronage of Prince Galitzin. Nicho- las at length put it down with a strong arm ; 410 MAR and manj' kindred institutions shared a similar fate under that despot's repressive policy. IHnrtiniuas, a feast kept on the 11th of No- vember in honour of St. !Martin of Tours. The feast was often a merry one. At that period, too, in England and Scotland, the winter's pro- vision was cured and stored up, and was called a mart. Luther derived his first name from being born on the eve of this festival. Martyr. — The word sometimes, in later times, signified a sponsor in baptism ; but specially it means one who has died rather than renounce his Christian faith. As was most natural, martyrs were held in high esteem by the early Church ; but the esteem soon grew into veneration, and deep- ened at length into superstitious homage. — See Relics. Their festivals or birthdays were observed often at their graves ; and on such occa- sions their acts were read in the churches — See Lege:;d. Churches which were often built over their graves were called mariyria, and their keepers marlijraru. Every church soon wished to possess a saint's tomb for an altar. JMcre cenotaphs did not suffice. Thus, according to Augustine, Ambrose was delayed in the conse- cration of a new church at Milan, till a season- able dream helped him to the bones of two mar- tyrs, Gervasius and Protasius. The second council of Nice subjected bishops to deprivation if they consecrated churches without relics. The consequence was that a supply was produced by such a demand, and frauds of every kind were per- petrated and overlooked. Each church also had its own Fasti^ or calendar of martyrs. — See Church, Calendar. Public notaries took down the accounts of their martyrdom ; these accounts were carefully preserved, and out of them were com- piled the Martyroloyies of subsequent periods. The martjTs, when in prison, sometimes inter- ceded for offenders, and the penance was, on their request, mitigated — a practice which, as Cyprian complains, soon grew into an abuse. — See LiiJELH Pacis. The estates of martyrs who died without heirs were, by a law of Con- stantine, to be given to the Church. — See Dip- TYcns. Gieseler has well said, — " The respect paid to martyrs still maintains the same charac- ter as in the second century, differing only in degree, not in kind, from the honour shown to other esteemed dead. As the churches held the yearly festivals of their martyrs at the graves of the latter, so they willingly assembled fre- quently in the burial places of tlieir deceased friends, for which they used in many places even caves (cri/ptce catacumliiB). At the celebration of the Lord's Sup[ier, both the living who brougiit oblations, as well as the dead, and the martyrs for whom offerings were presented, especially on the anniversar}- of their death, were included by name in the prayer of the church. Inasmuch as the re-admission of a sinner into the church was thought to stand in close connection with the forgiveness of sin, an opinion was associated MAR with the older custom of restoring to church communion the lapsed who had been again re- ceived by the martyrs, that the martyrs could also be serviceable in obtaining the forgiveness of sins. In doing so they set out in part with the idea, which is very natural, that the dead prayed for the living, as the living prayed for the dead ; but that the intercession of martyrs abiding in the captivity of the Lord would be of peculiar efficacy on behalf of their brethren; while they partly thought that the martyrs, as assessors in the last decisive judgment, were par- ticularly active (1 Cor. vi. 2, 3). Origen attri- buted very great value to that intercession, in expecting from it great help towards sanctifica- tion; but he went beyond the ideas hitherto entertained in attributing to martyrdom an importance and efficacy similar to the death of Christ. Hence he feared the cessation of per- secution as a misfortune. The more the opinion that value belonged to the intercession of martyrs was established, the oftener it may have hap- pened that persons recommended themselves to the martyrs yet living for intercession." Mary, Mother of our ILiortl. — See Bibli- cal Cydopcedia. — That she was " Blessed among women" is the testimony of Scripture. But undue honours began in the fourth century to be given to her. She was called Mother of God, — Deipara, hor'oKo; — an appellation which really can have no meaning ; for in no possible sense can any creature bear a maternal relation to God. The acknowledgment of Christ's supreme divinity is an objection to such a title, and not an argument for it. In the vindications of the phrase by some of the fathers the inconsistency of the epithet is apparent; and they strove in many ways to neutralize it. It would be no difficult matter to show that none but a Mono- physite could use the title with any propriety. Divine honours were at an early period paid to the Virgin.— See Antidicomarianites, Col- LYRiDiAN.s. In the fifth century images of the Virgin, with the infant Jesus in her arms, began to prevail. — See Image, In course of time Mariolatry was fully established ; and it is now the characteristic worship or idolatry of the Church of Home. The Oriental Church salutes her as " Panagia" — all holv. There is in the Latin Church the daily ofiice of Mary ; and the rosary contains one hundred salutations to her. The Ave Maria and S^ilve Refjina are of perpetual occurrence. In Bonaventura's psalter is the following: — " O thou, our governor, and most benignant lady, in right of being his mother, command your most beloved Son, our Lord Jesus Christ, that he deign to raise our minds from longing after earthly things to the contemplation of heavenly things. — We praise thee, Mother of God ; we acknowledge thee to be a virgin. All the earth doth worship tliee, the spouse of the eternal Father. All the angels and archangels, all thrones and powers, do faithfully serve thee. 411 MAS To thee all angels cry aloud, with a never-ceas- ing voice, Holy, holy, holy, Mary, mother of God The whole court of heaven doth honour thee as queen. The holy church through- out all the world doth invoke and praise thee, the mother of divine majestj'. . . . Thou sittest with thy Son on the right hand of the Father. ... In thee, sweet Mary, is our hope ; defend us for evermore. Praise becometh thee ; empire becometh thee; virtue and glory be unto thee for ever and ever." St. Alphonsus Liguori, canonized but a very few years ago, wrote a book called the Glories of Mary, in which, among other extravagant blasphemies, it is said that even God himself is subject to Mary. He saj'S again, — "The King of heaven has resigned into the hands of our Mother his omnipotence in the sphere of grace." St. Peter Damian declares, " When St. Mary appears before Jesus she seems to dictate, rather than supplicate, and has more the air of a queen than of a subject," So pre- valent has Mariolatry become, so full of it are the encyclicals of popes and bishops, that the religion of Papists may be said to be rather that of Mary than that of Christ. — See Immaculate Conception. Seymour says, in reference to one absurdity, — " I then called his attention to a large number of pictures, to be seen in almost every church. They are designed to represent the Virgin Marj' in heaven, enthroned above the clouds, and encircled by angels and cherubs, and even there she is represented with the infant Jesus in her arms! It could not possibly be that either the artists who paint, or the priests who suspend those pictures over the altar, sup- pose that Jesus Christ is now an infant still, in the arms of Mary in heaven — that he is still an infant in heaven ; and therefore it is apparent that he is introduced, thus absurdly and impro- perl}', as a mere accessory, to distinguish the figure of Mary from the figure of any other saint ! I added that there were few things in the Church of Rome that so offended us, as dishon- ouring to Christ, as this system of making Mary the principal person, and Christ only the secon- dary person in their pictures. It seemed an index of the state of Italian religion, in which Mary seemed first, and Christ second in promi- nence, as if it was the religion of Mary rather than the religion of Christ. I added yet further, that it was singular that in the Church of Gesu e Maria in the Corso, where the sermons are preached in English, for the conversion of the English, there are no less than three large altar- pieces, — pictures larger than life, representing the Virgin Mary with the infant Jesus in heaven ! " ITIasora (fraditiori), the critical digest of the Rabbins of the school of Tiberias on the text of Scripture — called by its authors Pii'ke Avoth, or fence of the law. Letters, vowel-points, accents, and words, are annotated by them with extraordinary minuteness. The common Hebrew Dible has many of tlieir notes. Their object MAS was, by their scrupulous exactness, to preserve the integrity of the Hebrew text. (See Buxtorf's Tiberias and the " Introductions " of Home, Jahn, De Wette, &c.) Mass may be satisfactorily derived either from missa catechumenorum — the dismission of the catechumen penitents and energumens, which in the primitive Church took place before the celebration of the communion, by the words ite, 7nissa est ; or from missa jidelium — the similar dismission of the communicants themselves after that service. But the Romanists, perhaps, be- lieved that their doctrine of the mass being a sacrifice would be strengthened by tracing the name to the Hebrew ncp ablatio, tributum. Be this as it may, the word itself is of great antiquity, and it means the office at the cele- bration of the Eucharist. The order almost universally adopted among Roman Catholics is that of the Roman missal; to this, however, there are a few exceptions : the Church of Milan prefers that of St. Ambrose; the Spanish dio- ceses of Toledo and Salamanca, the Mozarabic or Gothic ; and most national churches introduce certain variations peculiarly adapted to their own spiritual condition. — See Litctegt. There are masses of various kinds, " Missa alfa" — high mass, is offered up with the greatest solemnities by a bishop or priest, attended by a deacon, sub-deacon, and other ministers, each officiating in his respective part, and it is always sung. Masses bear also names from the holy personages through whose intercession they are oflfered, as a Mass of the Beata or our Lady, a Mass of the Holy Ghost, a mass of any parti- cular saint, &c. Each day also has some pecu- liar praj-ers introduced into its own mass. The missa sicca, or dry mass, is without consecra- tion or any administration of the holy elements. This is said to have been authorized by St. Louis while voyaging to Palestine, and hence is called also missa nautica ; the reason assigned for the omission of the Eucharist is, that on ac- count of the motion of the sea it could scarcely be offered without hazard of effusion. In the l\Iass of the Presanctified — " Missa Prmsanctifi- catorum" — elements before consecrated are ad- ministered. A solitary mass, low mass — " 7nissa soKtaria, bassa, privata" — is that said by the priest alone, without a congregation, for the benefit of a departed soul; and when those masses became a source of great lucre, an abuse crept in which some of the Romish divines have bitterly condemned. In order to save time, and because they were forbidden for the most part to say more than one mass in a day, the priests contrived to throw a great many masses into one, first saying the mass of the day so far as the oflfertory, and then repeating to the same resting place as many special masses as they pleased, for all of which one consecration (or canon, as it is termed) sufficed. These masses were opprobriously called bifaciatce or trifaciatae, because they were double 412 MAS and triple- faced. In a " Missa Animanini''' — Mass for the Dead, — the introit generally com- mences with a requiem. — SeelNTuorr, Requiem. In the controversy concerning the doctrine of the mass, the chief disputed points between the Romish and Reformed Churches are, whether it is a positive sacrifice renewed at every celebration, or only a solemn feast on a sacrifice once offered by our Lord ; whether Christ in body and blood is absolutely and cor- porally, or only spiritually and really present in the elements. — See Real Pkesenck, Tkan- sunsTANTiATiON. The Romanists attach sym- bolical and allegorical interpretations to each action of the priest during the service. All of them are declared to bear relation to incidents in our Saviour's passion ; and their mysteries are elucidated (or perhaps it may be thought ren- dered more obscure) at great length by Durand (^Rationale, lib. iv.), and briefly explained by Picart, (_Cer. Jiel., vol. i.) The following office of the mass is extracted from the Garden of' the Soul by the late Bishop Challoner, and may be accepted, therefore, as the authorized rite of the English Roman Catholics : — " At the beginning of the mass, the priest at the foot of the altar makes the sign of the cross, ' In the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Hulv Ghost. Amen,' and then recites with the clerk, the forty- second psalm, Judica me, I)eus, &c. Then the priest bowing down sa3's the Conjiteor, by way of a general confession to God, to the whole court of heaven, and to all the faithful there present, of his sins and unworthiness ; and to beg their prayers to God for him. And the clerk, in the name of the people, prays for the priest, that God would have mercy on him, and forgive him his sins, and bring hira to everlasting life. Then, in the name of all there present, the clerk makes the like general confession to God, to the whole court of heaven, and to the priest, and begs his prayers. And the priest prays to God to show mercy to all his people, and to grant them par- don, absolution, and remission of all their sins. Which is done to the end that both priest and people may put themselves in a penitential spirit, in order to assist worthily at this divine sacrifice. After the Coiifileor, the priest goes up to the altar, saj-ing, ' Take away from us we beseech thee, 0 Lord, our iniquities, that we may be worthy to enter with pure minds into the holy of holies, through Christ our Lord. Amen.' And kisses the altar as a figure of Christ, and tlie seat of the sacred mysteries. "When the priest is come up to the altar, he goes to the book, and there reads what is called the introit or entrance of the mass, which is dif- ferent every day, and is generally an anlhem taken out of the Scripture, with the first verse of one of tlie psalms, and the glory be to the Fa- ther, &c., to glorify the blessed Triuitj-. The priest returns to the middle of the altar, and says alternately with the clerk, the A'^n'e elehon, MAS or Lord have mercy on us, which is said three times to God the Father ; three times Christe elehon, or Christ have mercy on us, to God the Son ; and three times again Kyrie eleisnn, to God the Holy Ghost. After the Kyrie eleison, the priest recites the ' Gloria in Excelsis,' or Glory be to God on high, &c., being an excellent hymn and prayer to God, the beginning of which was sung by the angels at the birth of Christ. 13ut this being a hymn of joj', is omitted in the masses of requiem for the dead, and in the masses of the Sundays and ferias of the penitential times of Advent and Lent, &c. At the end of the Gloria in Excelsis, tlie priest kisses the altar, and turning about to the people says, ' Domiims vobiscum'- — The Lord be with you. Ans\ver, ' L't cum spiritu tuo ' — And with thy spirit. The priest returns to the book, and says, ' Oremus' — Let us pray, and then reads the collect or col- lects of the day, concluding them with the usual termination, ^Per Doiid/mm nustrurn.' &c. — ■ Through our Lord Jesus Christ, &c., with which the church commonly concludes all her prayers. The collects being ended, the priest lays his hands upon the book, and reads the epistle or lesson of the day. At the end of which the clerk answers, ' Deo gratlas ' — Thanks be to God, — \tz., for the heavenly doctrine there delivered. Then follow some verses or sentences of Scripture, called the gradual, which are every day different. After this the book is removed to the other side of the altar, in order to the reading of the gospel for the day ; which removal of the book represents the passing from the preaching of the old law, figured by the lesson or epistle, to the Gospel of Jesus Christ published by the preachers of the new law. The priest, before he reads the gospel, stands awhile bowing down before the middle of the altar, begging of God in secret to cleanse his heart and his lips, that he may be worthy to declare those heavenly words. At the beginning of the gospel the priest greets the people with the usual salutation, '■ Dominus vobiscum' — The Lord be with you, and then tells out of which of the evangelists the gospel is taken, saying, ' Sequentia S. Ecamjelii secundum,' &c i.e.. What follows is of the holy gospel, &c. At which words both priest and people make the sign of the cross. 1st, Upon their foreheads, to signify that they are not ashamed of the cross of Christ and his doctrine. 2d, Upon their mouths, to signify they will ever profess it in words, ocl, Upon their breasts, to signify that they will always keep it in their hearts. The clerk answers, ' Gloria tibi Domine' — Glory be to thee, 0 Lord. At the gospel the people stand up, to declare by that posture their readiness to go and do whatsoever thej' shall be commanded by the Saviour in his gospel. At the end of the gospel the clerk answers, ' Laus tibi Christe ' — Praise be to thee, O Christ ; and the priest kisses the book in reverence to those sacred words he has been reading out of it. Then upon 418 MAS all Sundays, and many other festival da^rs, standing in the middle of the altar, he recites tlie Nicene Creed, kneeling down at these words, ' He was made man.' in reverence to the great mystery of our Lord's incarnation. Then the priest "turns about to the people, and says, '■Dominus vobiscum'' — The Lord be with you. And having read in the booli a verse or sentence of the Scripture, whicli is called the offertory, and is every day different, he uncovers the ciialice, and taking in his hand the paten, or little plate, offers up the bread to God; then going to the corner of the altar, he takes the wine and pours it into the chalice, and mingles with it a small quantity of water, in remem- brance of the blood and water that issued out of our Saviour's side; after wliicli he returns to the middle of the altar, and offers up the chalice. Then bowing down he begs that this sacrifice, which he desires to offer with a contrite and humble heart, may find acceptance with God ; and blessing the bread and wine with the sign of the cross, he invokes the author of all sanctity to sanctify this offering. At the end of the offertory, the priest goes to the corner of the altar, and washes the tips of his fingers, to denote the cleanness and purit}' of soul with which we ought to approach to these divine mj-steries, saying, ' Lavabo,' &c. — I will wash my hands among the innocent, and I will encompass thy altar, 0 Lord, &c., as in the latter part of the twenty-sixth psalm. Then returning to the middle of the altar, and there bowing down, he begs of the blessed Trinity to receive this obla- tion in memorj' of the passion, resurrection, and ascension of our Lord Jesus Christ, and for an honourable commemoration of the blessed Virgin, and of all the saints, that they may intercede for us in heaven, whose memory we celebrate upon earth. Then the priest, kissing the altar, turns to the people, and says, ' Orate Fratres,' &c. — that is, ' Brethren, pray that my sacrifice and yours may be made acceptable to God the Father Al- mighty. Then the priest says, in a low voice, the prayers called secreta, whicli correspond to the collects of the day, and are different every daj'. The priest concludes the secreta by saying aloud, ' Per omnia scecula sceculorum ' — that is, World without end. Answer, Amen. Priest, ' Dominus vobiscum ' — The Lord be with you. Answer, ' Et cum sjnritu tuo ' — And with thy spirit. Priest, ' Sursum corda ' — Lift up your hearts. Answer, ' Habemus ad Dominum ' — We have them lifted up to the Lord. Priest, ' Gra- tias affcanus Domino Deo nostro ' — Let us give thanks to the Lord our God. Answer, "■ Dignum etjuslum est ' — It is meet and just. Then the priest recites the preface (so called, because it serves as an introduction to the canon of the mass). After the preface, follows the canon of the mass, or the most sacred and solemn part of this divine service, -wliich is read witli a low voice, as well to express the silence of Christ in MAS 1 his passion, and his hiding at that time hig glory and his divinity, as to signify the vast importance of that common cause of all mankind, which the priest is then representing as it were in secret to the ear of God ; and the reverence and awe with which both priest and people ought to assist at these tremendous mysteries. The canon begins by the invoking the Father of mercies, through Jesus Christ his Son, to accept this sacrifice for the hoi}' Catholic Church, for the pope, for the bishop, for the king, and for all the professors of the orthodox and apostolic faith throughout the whole world. Then follows the memento, or commemoration of the living, for whom in particular the priest intends to offer up that mass, or who have been particularly re- commended to his prayers, &c. To which is sub- joined a remembrance of all there present, fol- lowed by a solemn commemoration of the blessed Virgin, of the apostles, martyrs, and all the saints ; to honour their memory by naming them in the sacred mysteries, to communicate witli them, and to beg of God the help of their inter- cession, through Jesus Christ our Lord. Then the priest spreads his hands, according to the ancient ceremony of sacrifices, over the bread and wine, which are to be consecrated into the body and blood of Christ, and begs that God would accept of this oblation which he makes in the name of the whole church ; and that he would grant us peace in this life, and eternal salvation in the ne.xt. After which he solemnly blesses the bread and wine with the sign of the cross, and invokes the Almighty, that tliey may be made to us the body and blood of his most be- loved Son, our Lord Jesus Christ. And so he proceeds to the consecration, first of the bread into the body of our Lord, and then of the wine into his blood ; which consecration is made by Christ's own words, pronounced in his name and person by the priest, and is the most essential part of this sacrifice, because thereby the body and blood of Christ are really exhibited and presented to God, and Christ is mystically im- molated. Immediately after the consecration follows the elevation, first of the host, then of the chalice, in remembrance of Christ's elevation upon the cross. At the elevation of the chalice the priest recites those words of Christ, ' As often as you do these things you shall do them for a commemoration of me.' Tlien he goes on, making a solemn commemoration of the passion, resurrection, and ascension of Christ, and begging of God to accept this sacrifice, as he was pleased to accept the oblation of Abel, Abraham, and Melchisedek ; and to command that it mav, by his holy angel, be presented upon the altar above, in presence of liis divine majesty, for the benefit of all those tliat shall partake of these mysteries here below. Then the priest proceeds to the memento, or commemoration of the dead, saying, ' Remember also, O Lord, thy servants N. and N., who are gone before us with the sign of faith, 414 MAS and repose in the sleep of peace ; ' praying for all the faithful departed in general, and in particular for those for whom he desires to offer this sacri- fice. After this memento or commemoration of the dead, the priest, raising his voice a little, and striking his breast, saj'S, ' Nobis quoque peccato- ribus,' &c And to us sinners, &c., humbly craving mercy and pardon for his sins, and to be admitted to some part and society with the apostles and martyrs through Jesus Christ. Then kneeling down, and taking the sacred host in his hands, he makes the sign of the cross with it over the chalice, saying, 'Through him, and with him, and in him, is to thee 0 God, the Father, in the unity of the H0I3' Ghost, all honour and glory;' which last words he pronounces, elevating a little the host and chalice from the altar, and then kneels down, saying, with a loud voice, ' Per omnia scccula sceculorum ' -^For ever and ever. Answer, Amen. After which he recites aloud the Pater Noster, or Lord's Prayer, the clerk answering at the end, ^Sed libera nos a malo' — But deliver us from evil. After this the priest breaks the host over the chalice, in reinembrance of Christ's bodj' being broken for us upon the cross ; and he puts a small particle of the host into the chalice, praying that the peace of the Lord may be always with us. Then kneeling down, and rising up again, he says, ^ Agnus Dei,' &c. — Lamb of God, who takest away the sins of the world, have mercy on us. He repeats this thrice; but at the third time, instead of have mercy on us, he saj's, grant us peace. After the Agnus Dei, the priest says three short prayers, by way of preparation for receiving the blessed sacrament ; then kneeling down, and rising again, he takes up the host, and striking his breast, he says thrice, ' Domine, non sum dig- nus,' &c. — Lord, I am not worthy that thou shouldest enter under my roof; speak only the word, and my soul shall be healed. After which he makes the sign of the cross upon him- self with the host, saying, 'The body of our Lord Jesus Christ preserve my soul to life ever- lasting. Amen.' And so receives it. Then, after a short pause in mental prayer, he proceeds to the receiving of the chalice, using the like words. ' The blood of our Lord Jesus Christ preserve my soul to life everlasting. Amen.' Then follows the communion of the people, if any are to receive. After the communion, the priest takes the lotions, or ablutions, of wine and water in the chalice, in order to consummate whatever maj' remain of the con- secrated species. Then covering the chalice, he goes to the book and reads a versicle of Holy Scripture, called the communion; after which he turns about to the people with the usual salu- tation, Dominus vobiscum, and returning to the book, reads the collects or prayers called the post-commuuion. After which he again greets the people with Domiims vobiscum, and gives MAS fliem leave to depart with iie, minsa est ; the clerk answering ' Deo gratins ' — Thanks be to God. Then the priest, bowing down before the altar, makes a short prayer to the blessed Trinitv; and then turning about to the people, gives his blessing to them all, in the name of the blessed Trinity ; and so concludes the mass, by readin;; the beginning of the Gospel according to St. John, which the people hear standing, till these words, ^ Et verhtm caro factum est' — And the Word was made flesh; when both priest and people kneel down, in reverence to the mvstei-v of Christ's incarnation. At the end the clerk answers, '■Deo gratias' — Thanks be to God. And so the priest returns from the altar to the sacristy, and unvests himself, reciting in the meantime the Benedicite, or the canticle of the three children, inviting all creatures in heaven and earth to praise and bless the Lord. " As the mass represents the passion of Christ, and the priest there officiates in his person, so the vestments in which he officiates represent those with which Christ was ignominiously clothed at the time of his passion. Thus the amice represents the rag or clout with which the Jews muffled our Saviour's face, when at every blow they bid him prophesy who it was that struck him (Luke xxii. 64). The alb re- presents the while garment with which he was vested by Herod : the girdle, maniple, and stole, represent the cords and bands with which he was bound in the different stages of his passion. The chasuble, or outward vestment, represents the purple garment with which he was clothed as a mock king ; upon the back of which there is a cross, to represent that which Christ bore on his sacred shoulders : lastly, the priest's tonsure or crown, is to represent the crown of thorns which our Saviour wore. Moreover, as in the old law, the priests, that were wont to officiate in sacred functions, had, by the appointment of God, vestments assigned for that purpose, as well for the greater decency and solemnity of the divine worship, as to signify and represent the virtues which God required of his ministers : so it was proper that in the Church of the New Testament Christ's ministers should in their sacred functions be distinguished in like manner from the laity by their sacred vestments ; which might also represent the virtues which God re- quires in them : thus the amice, which is first put upon the head, represents divine hope, which the apostle calls the helmet of salvation ; the alb, innocence of life; the girdle with which the loins are begirt, purity and chastity; the maniple which is put on the left arm, patient suffering of the labours of this mortal life; the stole, the sweet yoke of Christ, to be borne in this life, in order to a happy immorta- lity ; in fine, the chasuble, which is uppermost, and covers all the rest, represents the virtue of charity. In these vestments the church makes use of five colours, viz., the white on the feasts 415 MAS of our Lord, of the blessed Virg'n, of the angels, 1 and of the saints that were not martyrs ; the red on t!ie feasts of Pentecost, of the invention and exaltation of the cross, and of tlie apostles and martyrs; the violet, which is the penitential colour, iu the penitential times of Advent and Lent, and upon viyils and ember days ; the green on most of the other Sundays and ferias through- out the year ; and the blach on Good Friday, and in the masses for the dead. '• We make a reverence to the altar upon which mass is said, because it is the seat of these divine mysteries, and a figure of Christ, who is not onlj' our priest and sacrifice, but our altar too, inasmuch as we offer our prayers and sacrifices through him. Upon the altar we always have a crucifix, that, as the mass is said iu remem- brance of Christ's passion and death, both priest and people may have before their eyes, during this sacrifice, the image that puts them in mind of his passion and death. And there are always lighted candles upon the altar during mass, as well to honour the victory and triumph of our Great King (which is there celebrated) by these lights, which are tokens of our joy and of his glorv, as to denote the light of faith, with which we are to approach to him." The priest who is to celebrate mass must pre- viously confess all his mortal sins, in order that he may feel morally sure that he is in a state of grace, since for the recovery of that state by such as have once fallen from it, confession, or contrition, if confession cannot be obtained, is absolutely necessary. Confession is unattain- able when there is no confessor, or when there is none but an excommunicated person, or one whose powers have expired, or whose powers do not extend to absolution from the particular sins of which the penitent is guilty, or one who is justly suspected of having betrayed the secrets of confession, or who requires an interpreter, or when it is impossible to go to confession without manifest inconvenience from distance, badness of the roads, inclemency of the season, or the mur- murs of the congregation impatient for mass. Even if any of these reasons can be pleaded, no unconfessed priest ought to celebrate mass unless he be compelled by menaces of death, or through fear that a sick person may die without receiv- ing the viaticum, or to avoid scandal when a congregation is waiting, or to finish a mass in which another priest has been accidentally inter- rupted. If a priest, during the celebration of mass, should recollect that he is in a state of mortal sin, excommunicated or suspended, or that the place in which he is celebrating it is interdicted, he must quit the altar, unless he has already consecrated the host ; and even if he has done so, or any fear of scandal induces him to proceed (as it is morally impossible but that some such fear must arise), he must perform an act of contrition, and make a firm resolution to coufess, if in his power, on the very same day. MAS No priest, without committing venial or perhaps mortal sin, can celebrate mass before he has recited matins and lauds, unless from the neces- sity of administering the viaticum to the dying, or of exhorting such a one during the night, from pressure of confessions on a holiday, or to quiet murmurs among the congregation. It is a mortal sin for a priest intending to say mass to taste food, drink, or medicine, after the pre- ceding midnight. Even an involuntary trans- gression of such rules is a mortal sin ; so that a priest offends in that degree if he celebrates mass after having been forced to eat or drink the smallest morsel or drop while the hour of midnight is striking, or a single moment after- wards. The exceptions are, — \st, To save the profanation of the host ; thus, if a heretic is about to profane the host, and there be no one else by, who can otherwise prevent it, a priest, although not fasting, may swallow it without sin. 2d, When a priest has so far proceeded in mass that he cannot stop, as when water has been acci- dentally put into the chalice instead of wine, and he does not perceive it till he has swallowed ic, or when he recollects after consecration that he is not fasting. Zd, When, after having per- formed the lavaho, he perceives any scattered fragments of hosts, provided he be still at the altar, these he ma,\ eat. Alh, To prevent scan- dal, such as a suspicion that he had committed a crime the night before, bth, To administer the viaticum. 6th, To finish a mass commenced by another priest, and accidentally interrupted. "th, When he is dispensed. It is very probably a mortal sin, by authorities, to celebrate mass before dawn. So also mass must not be cele- brated after noon, and never, unless for the dying, on Good Friday. It is a mortal sin to celebrate mass without the necessary vestments and ornaments, or with unconsecrated vestments, &c., unless in cases of the uttermost necessity. These vestments lose their consecration if any portion has been torn off and sewed on again, not if they are repaired before absolute disjunc- tion, even if it be by a downright patch. No worn out consecrated vestment should be applied to any other purpose ; but it should be burned, and the ashes thrown in some place in which they will not be trampled on. But on the other hand, with a very wise distinction, the precious metals which have served profane uses may be applied to sacred purposes, after having been passed through the fire, which changes their very nature by fusion. No dispensation has ever yet been granted by any pope to qualify the rigid precept enjoining the necessity of an altar for mass ; and this must have been consecrated by a bishop, not by a simple priest, unless through dispensation from the holy father himself. Three napkins are strictly necessary ; two may suffice if such be the common usage of the country — one in very urgent cases ; and even that, provided it be whole and clean, may be unconsecrated ; but 416 MAS a lii^'hted taper must not on any account be dis- pensed with, even to secure the receipt of the viaticum by a dying man. Mass must stop if the taper be extinguished, and another cannot be obtained. On tliat account a lamp should be kept burning day and night before every altar on which the host is deposited ; and those to ■whom the care of this lamp appertains commit a mortal sin if they neglect it for one whole da}'. In no case must a woman be allowed to assist a priest at the altar. Certain prevalent supersti- tions during the celebration of mass are forbidden — such as picking up from the ground, during the sanctus of the mass on Palm Sunday, the boxwood consecrated on that day, infusing it for three-quarters of an hour, neither more nor less, in spring water, and drinking the water, as a cure for the colic ; keeping the mouth open dur- ing the sanctus in (he mass for tlie dead, as a charm against mad dogs ; writing the sanctus on a piece of virgin parchment, and wearing it as an amulet; saying mass for twenty Fridays running as a security against dying without confession, contrition, full satisfaction, and communion, and in order to obtain admission into heaven thirty days after decease ; ordering a mass of the Holy Ghost to be said in certain churches by way of divination. If a fly or a spider fall into the cup before consecration, a fresh cup should be provided ; if after consecration, it should be swallowed, if that can be done without repug- nance or danger, otherwise it should be remo\'ed, washed with wine, burned after mass, and its ashes thrown into the sacristy. There are some nice precautions to be observed in case of the accidental fall of a host among the clothes of a female communicant ; if the wafer fall on a nap- kin, it suffices that the napkin be washed by a sub- deacon ; but if it be stained by no more than a single drop of wine, the office must be per- formed by a priest. The Augsburg Confession (si/ntagma 3U) protests against any notion that it abolishes mass ; and the word, indeed, accord- ing to its original meaning, convej'S no meaning Irom which a Protestant need recoil. It con- tinued in England to be tiie name for the Lord's Supper during part of Edward VI. 's reign. — See Eucharist. {Hospinian, KorlhoU, JJurand, JJurant, August i, Miihler, &c.) iflassalians (Ileb., ashers). — See Euciiites. ITIaihcnia (learning'), an ancient name given to the creed. — See Ckeed. Mathuriiis or Brethren of the Holy Trinity, an order of monks which arose at the end of the twelfth century, and got this name from having a church at Paris which has St. Mathurin for its patron saint. All their churches were dedicated to the Holy Trinity. Sometimes tiiej' are called Brethren of the Redemption of Captives, because, originating at the period of the crusades, they gave their labour and a third of tlieir revenue to liberate Christian captives from Mohammedan masters. Their founders were two MEE French recluses in the diocese of Meaux — John de Mattia and Felix de Valois. By some they seem to have been called the Order of Asses, as they were permitted to use those animals only, and were d' barred from riding on horses. A similar order was founded in Spain in 1228, and there called the Order of St. Mary. Matin. — In the Roman Catholic Church Matins, officium horca matutinm, form the third watch of the monastic day, namely, from three to six o'clock A.si. — See Morning Service. ITIatricula, a name given to the catalogue of the clergy. — See Canonici, Diptycus. lUatricularii. — See Sacristan. Matrimony. — See Marriage. Matthew's, St., Oay, a festival kept by the Latin Church on the 21st of September, and by the Greek Church on IGth of November. Matthias's, St., Day, a festival kept on the 24th of February. (^Matutina.) — See Morning Service. Maundy Thursday. — See Day, and under Lent, p. 375. See also Bull, p. 110; and Washing of Feet. Maiir, St., Congregation of, a part of the Benedictine order, which was re-formed by Gre- gory XV., in 1621, and spread through France. It is named after St. Maur, who transplanted the Benedictine order into France in 543. They have been famed for their editions of many of the fathers. The eminent critics MontfauQon and Mabillon belonged to their order. Maximianists, a considerable party among the Donatists who separated from the main bodj' of that sect, and arrogated to themselves the exclusive possession of those qualities of perfec- tion and infallibility to which the whole sect had made pretensions, when they separated from the Catholic Church. Means of Orace, the name usually given to the divine institutions of Christianit}' — such as prayer, preaciiing, reading of the Word, and the sacraments. They are only means — not in- fallible convej-ancers, but when filled by the Spirit of grace, channels of grace to the right- minded. The divine blessing alone can make them effectual, as they have no virtue or power in themselves, or from him who administers them. — See Opds Operatum. Meeting : — ifeeting for Sufferings, a meeting among the Society of Friends. Its origin and purpose are thus given : — " The yearly meeting of Lou- don, in the year 1675, appointed a meeting to be held in that city, for the purpose of advising and assisting in cases of sufi'ering for conscience' sake, which hath continued with great use to the society to this day. It is composed of Friends, under the name of correspondents, chosen by the several quarterly meetings, and who reside in or near the citj'. The same meetings also appoint members of their own in the country as cor- respondents, who are to join their brethreu ia 417 2E MEE London on emergency. The names of all these correspondents, previously to their being recorded, are submitted to the approbation of the yearly meeting. Such men as are approved ministers and appointed elders are also members of this meeting, which is called the ' Meeting for Suffer- ings ; ' a name arising from its original purpose, and which is not yet become entirely obsolete. Tlie yearly meeting has entrusted the Meeting for Sufferings with the care of printing and dis- tributing books, and with the management of its stock ; and, considered as a standing committee of the yearly meeting, it hath a general care of whatever may arise, during the intervals of that meeting, affecting the society, and requiring immediate attention, particularly of those cir- cumstances which may occasion an application to government." — See Yearly Meeting. Monthly Meeting, among the Quakers, is a meeting usually composed of several particular congregations, situated within a convenient dis- tance of one another. Its business is to provide for the subsistence of the poor, and for the educa- tion of their offspring; to judge of the sincerity and fitness of persons appearing to be convinced of the religious principles of the society, and desiring to be admitted into membership; to excite due attention to the discharge of religious and moral duty; and to deal with disorderly members. Monthly meetings also grant to such of their members as remove into other monthly meetings, certificates of their membership and conduct, without which they cannot gain mem- bership in such meetings. Each monthly meeting is required to appoint certain persons, xmder the name of overseers, who are to take care that the rules of discipline be put in prac- tice ; and when any case of complaint, or dis- orderly conduct, comes to their knowledge, to see that private admonition, agreeabh' to the Gos- pel rule (Matt, xviii. 15-17) be given, previously to its being laid before the monthly meeting. When a case is introduced to the monthly meeting, it is usual for a small committee to be appointed to visit the offender, in order to endea- vour to convince him of his error, and induce him to forsake and condemn it. Time is allowed to judge of the effect of this labour of love, and if needful the visit is repeated. If the endea- vours prove successful, the person is by minute declared to have made satisfaction for the offence; if not, lie is disowned as a member of the society. In disputes between individuals it has long been the decided judgment of the society that its members should not sue each other at law. It therefore enjoins all to end their differences by speedy and impartial arbitration, agreeably to rules laid down. If any refuse to adopt this mode, or having adopted it, to submit to the award, it is the direction of the yearly meeting that such be disowned. To monthly meetings also belongs the allowing of marriages; for the society hath always scrupled to acknowledge MEE the exclusive authority of the priests in the solemnization of marriage. A record of mar- riages is kept by the monthly meeting, as also of the births and burials of its members. A certificate of the date, of the name of the infant, and of its parents, is the subject of one of these last-mentioned records ; and an order for the interment, counter-signed by the grave-maker, of the other. Quarterly Meeting, among the Society of Friends, is an assembly composed of several monthly meetings. At the quarterly meeting are produced written answers from the monthly meetings to certain queries respecting the con- duct of their members, and the meetings' care over them. The accounts thus received are digested into one, which is sent, also in the form of answers to queries, by representatives to the yearly meeting. Appeals from the judgment of monthly meetings are brought to the quarterly meetings, whose business also is to assist in any difficult case, or where remissness appears in the care of the monthly meetings over the indi- viduals who compose them See Monthly Meeting and Yearly Meeting. A Quarterly Meeting, among the IMethodists, is a general meeting of the stewards, leaders, and other officers, for the purpose of transacting the general business of the " circuit." There is also held a quarterly meeting for the issue of " love feast tickets " in all the " classes," on which occa- sions the poorest members generally pay one shil- ling, and those in better circumstances a larger amount. — A quarterly meeting, or, as it is called, " association," among the Welsh Cal- vinistic Methodists consists of preachers and leaders. As every such association is supposed to represent the whole Connexion, the decisions arrived at on those occasions is esteemed author- itative by all the members of the community. Yearly Meeting, an annual meeting of the Society of Friends. " The yearly meeting has the general superintendence of the society in the country in which it is established ; and therefore, as the accounts which it receives discover the state of inferior meetings, as particular exigencies require, or as the meeting is impressed with a sense of duty, it gives forth its advice, makes such regulations as appear to be requisite, or ex- cites to the observance of those already made, and sometimes appoints committees to visit those quarterly meetings which appear to be in need of immediate advice." At the yearly meeting another meeting (a sort of sub-committee) is appointed, bearing the name of the morning meet- ing, for the purpose of revising the denomina- tional manuscripts, previously to publication; and also the granting, in the intervals of the yearh' meeting, of certificates of approbation to such ministers as are concerned to travel in the work of the ministry in foreign parts, in addition to those granted by their monthlv and quarterly meetings. When a visit of this kind doth not 418 MEE extend beyond Great Britain, a certificate from the monthly meeting of which the minister is a member, is sufficient. If to Ireland, the concur- rence of the quarterly meeting is also required. Regulations of similar tendency obtain in other yearly meetings. The " stock " of the yearly meeting consists of occasional voluntary contri- butions, which is expended in printing books, salary of a clerk for keeping records, the passage of ministers who visit their brethren beyond sea, and some small incidental charges ; but not, as has been falsely supposed, the reimbursement of those who suffer distraint for tithes and other demands with which they scruple to complj'. Appeals from the quarterly meetings are heard at the yearly meetings. There are ten yearly meetings, — namely, one in London, to which re- presentatives from Ireland are received ; one in Dublin; one in New England; one in New York; one in Pennsylvania; one in Maryland; one in Virginia ; one in the Carolinas ; one in Ohio; and one in Indiana. 9Ieetiiig-IIou8e, a name often given to dissenting places of worship See Conven- ticle. nielchites (Heb., royalists), the name given to the Greek-Catholic Church, or to such mem- bers of the Greek communitj* as are Romanists. The number is about 40,000. The Melchites originated in the labours of the Jesuits in and around Aleppo in the seventeenth century. They conform to the Greek ritual, and they have a magnificent cathedral at Damascus. They con- duct divine service in Arabic, use unleavened bread in the Eucharist, and their priests (not their bishops) are allowed to marry. They have also some monastic establishments. A branch of the same church exists in Cairo, and another in Constantinople. — See Jacobites. The name Melchite was also given by the Jacobites to the orthodox in the sixth century, as if they had re- tained their orthodox}' in sycophancy to imperial patronage. mdchizcdccians, a sect of the second cen- tury who believed Melchizedec to be a divine power, superior to Christ, and an intercessor in heaven for the angels — Christ's priesthood being only a copy of his. Similar views were revived among the Hieracites. — See Hieracites. nielctians, Asiatic. — The Arians in 331 had deposed Eustathius, Bishop of Antioch, a learned and zealous Nicene ; but a party who adhered to the Nicene symbol, and who called themselves Eustathians, continued to exist at Antioch. After appointing several successors to Eustathius, the Arians, in 360, transferred Mele- tius from the bishopric of Sebaste to that of Antioch. Although the Arians found they had made a mistake, and soon deposed him as an enemy of Arianisin, yet only a part of the Ni- cenes at Antioch would acknowledge him as bishop, since the Eustathians regarded an Arian ordination as invalid. In this way two par- MEN ties were formed among the Nicenes at Antioch — a strict party, the Eustathians ; and a mode- rate party, the Meletians. This schism, after Athanasius had tried in vain to remove it, Lu- cifer made worse, by ordaining as bishop over the Eustathians the presbyter Paulinus, in oppo- sition to the wishes of Eusebius of Vercelli, who had been sent with him to Antioch, by the Alex- andrine sj'nod, as his co-deputy. The entire Nicene portion of Christendom now became divided, in reference to this matter, into two parties ; the Occidentals and Egyptians recogniz- ing Paulinus as the true Bishop of Antioch, and the majority of the Orientals, whose Nicene proclivities had been somewhat weakened by semi- Arian influences, recognizing Meletius. — See Eustathians. meletians, Egn>ti& "M o o oi I o o o O C> © o o o o o o o o o o o -* o la lO o >o to i-H t^ CO ■2 J3 "Ifs^ .s >^ - ,^ JH 5 .2 "S .o , , . 2 1? 3 o <; o H « „- bfl 3 a ,2 C J* ej 2 §-.2,- 1 T3 a - S g s 1^1 • :<^.2 g a> g m oj =; i (M c3 _ .. : _j- c « a ; 2 o 2 i-5 •-^ a Jh -~>f^ b-2 '^ IS <1> 0 cfl £ <2 S a S a 0 2 3 a a 0 fciS a S §§ .2 -i o- S"' m t^.«^ .2 .^.2 1— i [d »-' (U !2i « 0) OJ ■a ja HH r^ CD Cl tH t^ 00 .s >", 1 "= -2 0 J5 fa < ^ 0 >. ^ 0 b 8 *: d ^ oi 8 !>.a2 r. fe ^ 2 t^ H .2 to .2 S -2 elical Unio (Gossner's), elical Luth Society, German Mi gian Missior Missionary 11 2s 0 •F.a T3 rt 0 M W w .3 w .2 ^ ;z; w w a> j3 ja ^ J2 ^ J3 J3 HH H H HHH H 00 CO eo to «£> 5^ 0 0 (M CO CO CO CO ■ Eg "=f2 .5 a O a < 8 E<5 «« * 6-E •« (S 3 ,S <5 d el ^1 E « ro £►5 .-g =« .S > 00 a '^S ' o ,2 "3 1 5 o o ; W=^-g 6 bp; fe <" 2 a ^ ctf •a -5 S a ° 'r 2 ?r" > CC.2 T OS - -T! O . a ,s i-( a s I. C^ ea m TO a g a <» E ft oT 5 S "o o o ''* U3 » o E js 5.2 5 ■■3 B a, a . o) -S s 00 £" ea , _ £ OS _u -a I -^. S - m TO o) 3 J g ^ 3 TO S ,a -3-3 o •* » ti O no Xi C4 S b o -5 TO rt d O -^ 'r; S ja a o a- " g " o "3 a S S ■s -^ 1'^ a ■SS a Tts a ■^ -E g S 5 a (jj o ■a-d 3 1 ■*" ^ a j3 , i-H a '^ " • I O J3 TS «D i ■-I « ^ 00 -'>^ .a - ! ^ «o S g'- ; c3 r-i -a .2 . .2 o to " 5 M O TO » a 2 TO* • ® ^ • 3 es of S S "S s TO O s >; a J" ■*-* a « fe ^ S s "g - "S-a § a a) 3 a -a eS ja ^ (U s •^ ?> S? ^ a t -5 '^ § -i ^ a o ^ a I ;: TO- TO- S a fe^ S •is-a^ lO rH ^ to TOS^-*-'tn ^*^Se3»-^ ■r; .2 TO .2 .2 a (U 2 « »-i « o ■* 0 {» •n ^ CO o ^ § O 1 3 m ^ SB a S O o 1 CD < c o 5 2 a S :: s pq 2 cS "i p c ^ S CO k4 j: J HH CC CO ^ •(»-5 -S> -s^J r^ S 'S-s ^ o rt Cu SS a a a .a iga Missio h, nth- Day B rican India § ■s £ c g 2 o 3 g a rt ^Q^< m J3 -3 J .a H H H H I^ C-l «N eo CIS 'J' -+i -* 00 00 00 CO M p^ TO -^^ 5 -a rt -^ e .2 5 g " .a S a « H H .&§ o a fa. 5 »" _TO IS S fa - a « (S 00 C5 00 00 437 MIT ITIitrc (/^Ir^a), a bandage or diadem to en- circle the liead ; applied to the crown or diadem worn by bishops, which is a cap pointed and cleft at the top. JTIodalists, those who look on Father, Son, and Spirit, as mere names of modes of being, and not of persons, and who deny immanent or personal distinction in the Trinity. — See Sabel- LIANS. Moderates, the name given to the party in the Church of Scotland who were adverse to popular claims, and who were also opposed to the Evangelical party— as many of themselves did not give prominence in their preaching to the dis- tinctive doctrines of the Gospel. Moderator, the elected chairman of a pres- byterian church court. To moderate in a call, is to preside over the election of a minister. When the attempt was made to introduce epis- copacy into Scotland, one plan was to have per- petual moderators for presbyteries— a bishcp or his vicar to be chosen to the office. Modern Question — See Question, Mo- dern. Modns, in law, signifies an exemption from the payment of tithes, and is of two kinds, — first, a partial exemption, when it is called a modus decimandl ; secondly, a total exemption, when it is called a modus de nan decimando. There is a third species of exemption, called a "eal composition, where an agreement is made between the owner of lands and the parson or vicar, with the consent of the patron and ordi- nary, that the lands specified shall be exempt from tithes on such considerations as are con- tained in the stipulation, such as land or other real recompense given in lieu and satisfaction of the tithes to be relinquished. The modus decimandi is that which is generally meant when the term modus is used. It is defined to be a custom of tithing in a particular manner, different from that which the general law pre- scribes, which custom must have existed from time whereof the memorj' of man goeth not to the contrary^that is, from the commencement of the reign of Richard I., a.d. 1189, a period ■which for these purposes is fixed as the limit of legal memory. The modes of tithing esta- lished by these customs are exceedingly vari- ous : sometimes it is a compensation in work and labour, as that the incumbent shall have only the twelfth cock of ha)-, and not the tenth, in consideration of the landowner's making it for him : sometimes it is a less quantity of tithe in a more perfect, in lieu of a larger quantitj' in a crude and imperfect state, as a couple of fowls in lieu of tithe eggs; sometimes, and more fre- quently, it consists in a pecuniary compensation, as twopence an acre for the tithe of land. The modus de non decimando is an absolute exemption from tithes. It exists in four cases : — 1. The king may prescribe that he and his progenitors have never paid tithes for ancient MOL crown lands, and this prescription will be good. 2. The vicar does not pay tithes to the rector, nor the rector to the vicar, according to the rule that ecclesia ecclesice decimas solvere non debet. 3. An ecclesiastical person, as a bishop, may prescribe to be exempt from paying tithes on the ground that the lands belong to the bishopric, and that neither he nor his predecessors have ever paid them. 4. The abbeys and monasteries at the time of their dissolution were possessed of large estates of land, a great part of which was held tithe-free, either by prescription or by unity of possession, which was, in fact, no more than prescription, or by the pope's bull of exemption, or by a real composition. The statute 31 Henry VIII., c. 13, which dissolved the larger abbeys, enacted that all persons who should come to the possession of the lands of any abbey then dis- solved should hold them tithe-free, in as ample a manner as the abbeys themselves had formerly held them. The lands which behmged to the order of the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem and to the order of the Cistertians are within the protection of the statute 31 Henry VIII., c. 13; and those of them, consequently, which were tithe-free before they came into the hands of the king, still continue tithe-free, in who- soever hands they may now be. Some lands have been made tithe-free by act of parliament ; but the great bulk of tithe-free lands throughout the country are so by virtue of the above-named statute. (Blackstone's Commentaries, vol. ii., p. 28 ; Selden's History of Tithes, ch. xiii. ; Bur- ton's Compendium of the Law of Real Property, p. 367, et seq.) Molinists, followers of the Spanish Jesuit, Molina, who belonged to the university of Evora, in Portugal. Scholastic divines were in the habit of ascribing to God scientia simplicis intel- liyentice, or the knowledge of all things possible ; and scientia visionis, or the knowledge of all which he was about to create. Molina, in 1588, proposed a third kind of knowledge — scientia media, the knowledge of events which are to happen on certain conditions — that is, the volun- tary action of his creatures. These He knew not immediatelj', but mediately — that is, by knowing all the circumstances in which free agents shall be placed, and the amount and kind of influence which shall be brought upon them. Upon this scientia media, according to Molina, and the Arminians who espouse his theory', is based God's elective decree. The Dominicans complained of Molina's book, and condemned it ; and the congregation at Kome decided in their favour. The pleadings had lasted over three years, and the Pope, Clement VIII., presided on seventy-three sessions. But his holiness died before he published his decision ; and Paul V., his successor, dismissed the matter without any formal decision. Molokans, a Russian sect, so called because they use bread and roilk on the ordinary fast- I 438 MOM days, which the}' hold in contempt, while they keep even' Saturday as a fast. Moiiiicr.« (^Mummers), a name given in con- tempt to Protestant evangelical sects in Swit- zerland— to those who, whether in the established church or out of it, hold evangelical truth, and labour to promulgate it. The Evangelical So- ciety of Geneva, which has done so much good, is the result of their co-operation and zeal. ITIonacliisiu or ITIoiikcry has its origin in man's nature— in the morbid desire of many minds for solitude and reflection — in their loath- ing of the world, and in their mystical aspirations after perfection and oneness with Deity. — See AccEMEivE, Anchorets, Ascetics, Boskoi, CcENOBiTES, Hesychasts, Laura, and the names of the various orders. In the fourth century, and especially in Egypt and Palestine, monachism possessed powerful attractions. Cli- mate, temperament, and persecution, aided the delusive impulse of many to secrete themselves in the wilderness of Jordan, the rocky environs of Sinai, and the dreary sands of the Nile. The pride of sanctity was speedily nursed, ar.d the monks soon acquired a prodigious ascendancy. The passion for an ascetic life seized on all classes, even though monks were not formally placed on the same level with the clergy, but were called reliyiosi. A monk, if he wished ordi- nation as a priest, had to pass through all the inferior grades of office. The clerici regulares, or monks, were, after the tenth century, distinguish- ed from the clergy, clerici sceculares. Establish- ments for females appear also in the fourth cen- tury. Pachomius was one of the founders of mcnac^iisni in the upper Thebais, in Egypt, where Antony also liad his cells in the lower Thebais. Hilarion brought it into Palestine ; Eusebius of Se- bastia carried it into Asia Minor ; Martin of Tour gave it celebrit\' in France ; Athanasius of Alex- andria brought it into fame in Italy; and with Augustine it came into England in 59G. \Mthin two hundred years thirty kings and queens retired from the world, and built and endowed monas- teries. It was finally .organized by Basil in the East, and Benedict in the West. The pope in course of time became protector of religious houses, and arbiter of their disputes, so that the jurisdiction of bishops was superseded. Prior to Ciiristianity, a similar tendency to monachism had developed itself among the Jews, as in the case of the Essenes and Therapeutas. Hermits and ascetics also abounded in Persia, Assyria, and Judea ; and tlie Pythagorean institutes are not unlike monastic rules and forms. Dur- ing the rage for monachism, certain restraints were laid upon it. Children and servants were forbidden to take the vows, the latter by a law of Valentinian III.; but the law was afterwards relaxed. Monks could at first return, if they chose, to society; but more stringent regulations were afterwards enacted. Thus, when a monk deserted and married, he was declared Incapable MON ever after of holy orders ; and by a law of Jus- tinian, if monastic deserters possessed any pro- perty, it was forfeited to the monastery which the}' had abandoned. At first, married persons could not enter a monastery without mutual con- sent, and curiales, or civil oflicers, were on no account to turn monks. No direct promise of celibacy was at first made; nay, there appear to have been married monks. Nor yet was there any vow of poverty, though, when men renounced the world, they generally sold their estates for charitable uses, or keeping them in their own hands, made a distribution regularly of all the proceeds. Monks also laboured with their own hands at a great variety of occupations, and their industry is often commended. "A labour- ing monk," said they, "was tempted by one devil, but an idle monk by a legion." Their exercises were penitence, fasting, and prayer. — all supposed to be more extraordinary in inten- sity and frequency than could be practised in the world. As they ate their meals, one often read to the rest, and they, in some houses, served one another by turns. But great corruption crept, in course of time, into monastic establishments, and so vile were many of them that their demolition became a national duty. There were the follow- ing orders of monks : — 1. Those of Basil — Greek monks and Carmelites ; 2. Those of Augustine, in three classes, canons regular, monks, and hermits; 3. Those of Benedict ; and 4. Those of St. Francis — all of which names may be consulted in their respective places. Originally, monks were divided into Solitaries, CcEsoiiiTEs, and Sarabites, (ickich see.) In more modern times the orders were distinguished by the colour of their dresses, as wliite, black, and gre}' friars. At admission the hair was polled, though some wore long hair, and were censured b}' Augustine and Jerome for their effeminacy; as, according to the latter, longhair, goats' beards, black cloaks, and bare feet, were tokens of the devil. Neither was the ancient tonsure identical with the shaven crown of more modern times ; for tonsure was censured by the fathers as a pagan custom, and characteristic of the priests of Isis. As superstition grew, cowls, sackcloth, and wooden crosses suspended from the neck, came into fashion. ITIonarchiaus, a title assumed towards the end of the second century, not unlike that of Unitarian in more modern times, by those who fancied themselves the sole defenders of the unity of God against the generally pre- vailing faith of the Christian Church. Various opinions respecting the nature of Christ might prevail among those who were included under this name. For instance, while Praxeas and his followers exalted as much as possible the dignity of the Saviour, by representing that it was the Father himself manifested in the form of man; others, like Artemon and Tlieodutus, seem to have denied his divinity altogether, or at any rate, to have held that Jesus was a mere man, even if 439 MON" they imagined a divine Clirist to have been for a time united with him. Monarchy.— See Fifth Monakchy Men. Monastery (jSUyonrrz^iov), an abode of the solitaries or monlis (//.ov«)- I' ^^^ ^'^^^^^ ^^ ^ variety of names. Thus,—" Claustruia, or clans- tra, X. f , cloister, or place of confinement— the prevailing name in the West— and indicating a stricter seclusion than in the East ; Coenobium— i. e., a common dwelling-place ; Laura, Xawja, or Xa/Sf a, an old name for the residence of an- chorets ; "S'./i'Svov, a name applied by Philo to the abodes of the Therapeutse ; and hence sometimes given to monasteries, the Latins retaining the word semniurn; 'Atrxtirti^iov — i- e., airx»)T«Jv KaTayuyn, a place of religious exercise and contemplation, tlie Latins retaining the word ascelerium ; *^flv- Titrrniiov, the same as a«'xjir»)j/ov, but with especial reference to meditation and spiritual exercises ; 'H(ri/;^ao-T>''j<»», place of silence and repose ; Con- ventus, or convent, applied to monasteries, with reference to the social connection of their inmates ; 'Hyaufiiniiiv, properly the residence of the riyov- fiivos, or hyovfiUn, the president, but was some- times used to denote the whole establishment ; MavSja (rnandra), a term frequently employed in this signification by both Greek and Latin writers ; and lastly, the Syrians and Arabians use the word dairo, dairon, to denote a monastery." (See also under these respective words.) As Bingham remarks, — " The monasteries were under strict government. They were commonly divided into several parts, and proper ofiicers appointed over them. Every ten monks were subject to one, who was called the decanus, or dean, from his presiding over ten; and every hundred had another officer called cmtenarius, from presid- ing over a hundred. Above these were the patres, or fathers of the monasteries, as St. Jerome and St. Augustine commonly term them; which in other writers are called abhates, abbot, from the Greek word ' afilias' — a father; and ' hegumeni ' — presidents, and archimandrites, from '■rnandra'' — a sheepfold, they being, as it were, the keepers or rulers of these sacred folds in the Church. The business of the deans was to exact every man's daily task, and bring it to the ceconomus, or steward of the house, who himself gave a monthly account to the father of them all." To give our readers some impression of the routine of a conventual house, we print the rule of St. Benedict as in operation : — " The abbot re- presented Christ ; called all his monks to council in important affairs, and adopted the advice he thought best: he required obedience without delay, silence, humility, patience, manifestation of secret faults, contentment with the meanest things and employments. Abbot selected by the ■whole society ; his life and prudence to be the qualifications ; and to be addressed dominus or pater. Prior elected by the abbot, deposable for disobedience. A dean set over every ten monks in MON larger houses. The monks to observe general sil- ence ; no scurrility, idle words, or exciting to laugh- ter ; to keep head and eyes inclined downwards; to rise to church two hours after midnight ; to leave the church together at a sign from the superior. No property ; distribution according to every one's necessities. To serve weekly, and by turns, at the kitchen and table. On leaving their weeks, both he that left it and he that began it to wash the feet of the others ; and on Saturday to clean all the plates and the linen which wiped the others* feet. To render the dishes clean and whole to the cellarer, who was to give them to the new heb- domary. These officers to have drink and food above the common allowance, that they might serve cheerfully. Daily Routine — Work from prime till near 10 o'clock, from Easter to Octo- ber; from 10 till near 12, reading. After re- fection at 12, the meridian or sleep, unless any one preferred reading. After nones, labour again till the evening. From October to Lent, reading till 8 a.m., then tierce, and afterwards labour till nones; after refection, reading or psalmody. In Lent, reading till tierce; doing what was ordered till 10 : delivery of books at this season made. Senior to go round the house, and see that the monks were not idle. On Sun- day, all reading except the officers. Workmen in the house to labour for the common profit. If possible, to prevent evagation, water, a mill, gar- den, oven, and all other mechanical shops, to be within or attached to the house. Rejection ia silence, and reading Scripture during meals: what was wanted to be asked for by a sign. Keader to be appointed for the week. Two difierent dishes at dinner, with fruit. One pound of bread a-day for both dinner and supper. No meat but to the sick. Three- quarters of a pint of wine per day. From Holyrood-day to Lent, dining at nones ; in Lent, till Easter, at six o'clock; from Easter to Pentecost at six ; and all summer, except on Wednesdays and Fridays, then at nones. Collation or spiritual lecture every night before compline (after supper); and compline finished, silence. — See Compline, Brp:viaky, Particu- lar abstinence in Lent from meat, drink, and sleep, and especial gravity. Rule mitigated to children and the aged, who had leave to anticipate the hour of eating. Dormitory, light to be burning in. To sleep clothed, with their girdles on, the young and old intermixed. Monks travelling to say the canonical hours wherever they happened to be. When staying out beyond a day, not to eat abroad without the abbot's leave. Before setting out on a journey to have the previous prayers of the house, and upon return to pray for pardon of excesses on the way. No letters or presents to be received without the abbot's permission. Precedence, ac- cording to the time of profession. Elders to call the juniors brothers ; the seniors to call the elders nonnos. When two monks met, the junior was 440 MON to ask benediction from the senior ; and when he jiassed by, the junior was to rise and give him his seat, and not to sit down till he bade him. Impossible things ordered by the superior to be humbly represented to him ; but if he persisted, the assistance of God to be relied on for the exe- cution of them. Not to defend or excuse one another's faults. No blows or excommunication without the abbot's permission. Mutual obedi- ence, but no preference of a private person's com- mands to those of the superiors. Prostration at the feet of the superiors as long as they were angry. Strangers to be received with prayer, the kiss of peace, prostration, and washing their feet, as of Christ, whom they represented ; then to be led to prayer; the Scripture read to them; after which the prior might break his fast (except on a high fast). Abbot's kitchen and the visitors' separate, that guests coming in at unseasonable hours might not disturb the monks. Porter to be a wise old man, able to give and receive an an- swer; who was to have a cell near the gate, and a junior for his companion. Church to be used only for prayer. Admission — Novices to be tried by denials and hard usage before admission. A year of probation. Rule to be read to them in the interim every fourth month. Admitted by a petition laid upon the altar, and prostration at the feet of all the monks. Parents to offer their children by wrapping their hands in the pall of the altar; promising to leave nothing to them (that they might have no temptation to quit the house) ; and if they gave anything with them, to reserve the use of it during their lives. Priests requesting admission to be tried by de- lays ; to sit near the abbot ; not to exercise sacer- dotal functions without leave, and conform to the rule. Discipline — Upon successless admonition and public reprehension, excommunication ; and, in failure of this, corporal chastisement. For light faults, the smaller excommunication, or eating alone after the others had done. For great faults, separation from the table, prayers, and society, and neither himself nor his food to receive the benediction : those who joined him or spoke to iiim to be themselves excommunicated. The ab- bot to send seniors to persuade him to humility and making satisfaction. The whole congrega- tion to pray for the incorrigible, and if unsuccess- ful, to proceed to expulsion. No person expelled to be received after the third expulsion. Children to be corrected with discretion, by fasting or whipping." — Sanctorum Patrum Regulce Monas- iicce, in Fosbrooke's British Monachism, p. 109. These Benedictines had the following houses in England: — St. Albans, Bardney, Battel!, St. Bennet's, Hulnie, Bury St. Edmunds, Colchester, Crowland, Evesham, Glastonbury, Hyde, Malms- burj', Peterborough, Ramsey, Reading, Selby, Shrewsbury, Tavistock, Tewkesbury, Thornev, Westminster, Winchelcombe, and York, which enjoyed the distinction of mitres, and to which may be added the large abbeys of Canterbury, MOJI Chester, Coventry, Bath, Ely, Gloucester, Mal- vern, Whitby, Winchester, and others, whrse ruins, even in their decay, attest the magnifi- cence of their ancient owners. The chief orders in Scotland, according to Dr. Lee, were: — "The principal Benedictine monasteries were Colding- ham and Dunfermline, — Kelso, Kilwinning, Ar- broath, and Lindoris, — Paisley, Crossraguel, and Icolmkill, — Melrose, Newbattle, Dundrennan, Kinloss, and Culross. The canons regular of the Augustinian order had twenty -eight monas- teries in Scotland, among which were Scone, Inchcolm, St. Andrews, Holyrood House, Aber- nethy, Cambuskenneth, and St. Mary's Isle. About twenty other monasteries professed to he canons regular, — but they were either Canons of St. Anthony, or Red Friars, or Psemonstra- tenses. The Carthusians were the most austere of all the orders. They had only one establish- ment in this country, namely, at Perth, where they were settled by James I. The Mendicant orders were four in number, — Dominicans, or Black Friars ; Franciscans, or Grey Friars; Carmelites, or White Friars; and Hermits of St. Augustine. Of these, the Black Friars were the most considerable, and the Grey Friars were not far behind them." The following calculation has been made as to the number and wealth of the religious houses in England dismantled and scattered at the period of the Reformation: — "The number of houses and places suppressed from first to last, in Eng- land, so far as any calculations appear to have been made, seems to be as follows : — Of lesser monasteries, of which we hafe tbe valuation, . .... .374 Of greater monasteries, .... 1S6 Belonging to the Hospitallers, . . . 48 Colleges, 90 Hospitals, no Chantries and free chapels, . . . 2,374 Total 3,182 Besides the friars' houses, and those suppressed b}- Wolsey, and many small houses of which we have no particular account. The sum total of the clear yearly revenue of the several houses at the time of their dissolution, of which we have any account, seems to be as follows : — Of the greater monasteries, . £104,919 13 3 Of all tliose of the lesser mon- asteries of which we have the valuation, . . . 29,702 1 10 Knights Hospitallers, head house in Loiidon, . . 2,3S5 12 S We have the valuation of only twenty-eiglit of their liouses in the country, . 3,026 9 5 Friars' houses, of which we have the valuation, . . 751 2 0 Total, .£140,784 19 2 If proper allowances are made for the lesser mon- asteries and houses not included in this estimate, and for the plate, &c., which came into the hands of the king by the dissolution, and for the valu- ation of money at that time, which was at least 441 MON six times as much as at present, and also con- sider that the estimate of the lauds was generalh- supposed to be much under the real worth, we must conclude their whole revenues to have been immense. It does not appear that any computa- tion hath been made of the number of persons contained in the religious houses. Tliose of the lesser monasteries dis- solved by 27 Hen. VIII. were reck- oned at about 10,000 If we suppose the colleges and hos- pitals to have contained a propor- tionable number, these will make about 5,347 If we reckon the number in the greater monasteries according to the pro- portion of their revenues, they will be about 35,000; but as, probably, they had larger allowances in pro- portion to their number than those of the lesser monasteries, if we abate upon that account 5,000, they will then be 30,000 One for each chantry and free chapel, 2,374 Total 47,721 But as there was probably more than one person to officiate in several of the free chapels, and there were other houses which are not included within this calculation, perhaps they niav be computed in one general estimate at about 50,000. As there were pensions paid to almost all those of the greater monasteries, the king did not immediately come into the full enjoyment of their whole revenues ; however, by means of what he did receive, he founded six new bishoprics — viz., those of Westminster (which was changed by Queen Elizabeth into a deaner}', with twelve prebends and a school), Peterborough, Chester, Gloucester, Bristol, and Oxford. And in eight other sees he founded deaneries and chapters, bv converting the priors and monks into deans and prebendaries — viz., Canterbury, Winchester, Dur- ham, M'orcester, Rochester, Norwich, Ely, and Carlisle. He founded also the colleges of Christ Church in Oxford, and Trinity in Cambridge, and finished King's College tliere. He likewise founded professorships of divinity, law, physic, and of the Hebrew and Greek tongues in both the said universities. He gave the house of Grey Friars and St. Bartholomew's Hospital to the cit}- of London, and a perpetual pension to the poor knights of Windsor, and laid out great sums in building and fortifying many ports in the cliannel." — Buck. (Baxter's Z/wtor^ of the Church cf England.') Money. — See Usury. Moniales. — See NuKS. raonitoriuin (^Monitory), an injunction in the Church of Rome laid on those who are sup- posed to be able to discover any secret story uith which their ecclesiastical superiors desire to be acquainted. The threatened penalty to such as disobey, or in any way frustrate the end, is ex- communication. Monk (jjiovtt.x,'os, from /jcovoi, alone), one who lives a soUtary life— a life secluded from the MON general intercourse with society — See Monacu- isM, Monastery. ITIonopbysites, those who held that there was but one nature in Christ. — See Eutychians. They were greatly divided among themselves, especially after the deposition of their bishops in the reign of Justin I. Some taught that the Saviour's body was corruptible, called therefore Phthartolatrse (servants of the corruptible), or Severiaus, (j- ^'O Others insisted that it was incorruptible, and were styled Aphthartodocetae, or Julianists, from Julian of Halicarnassus, who first broached the doctrine. From tho Phthar- tolatrse came the Agnoetoe, who maintained that many things were unknown to Christ in his human nature ; called also Themistians, from Themistius, a deacon of Alexandria. — See Ag- NOET^. The Aphthartodocetae were divided into Aktistetse, who held that the body was uncreated, and the Ktistolatrae, who affirmed the contrary. Under Justin II. otlier minor sects branched ofT, such as the Philoponists, led bj' a grammarian of Alexandria, who propounded a Tritheistic system founded upon an erroneous application of the Aristotelian Realism to the doctrine of the Trinity; the Conists, named from Conon, a bishop of Tarsus, who slightly differed from the Philoponists respecting the resurrection of the body ; the Damianists, followers of Damian, the Monophysite Patriarch of Alexan- dria, who, in opposing the errors of Philoponus, verged himself towards Sabellianism ; and the Niobites, followers of Stephen Niobes, who denied that there was any difference between the two natures of Ciirist after their union. — See also under some of the various names. Moiioshelites {One WilF). — This heresy was derived from the Eutychian doctrine, and it arose under the reign of the Emperor Ileraclius. He was assured that the Monophysites might be induced to receive the decrees of Ihe council of Chalcedon, and thereby to terminate their controversy with the Greeks, on condition that the latter would give their assent to the following proposition: — viz., That in Jesus Christ there was, after the union of the two natures, but one will and one operation. Heracliiis communicated the pro- posal to Sergius, Patriarch of Constantinople, a Syrian by birth, and a Monophysite by profes- sion, and that prelate delivered his opinion that the doctrine of one wiU and one operation, after the union of the two natures, might be adopted without departing from the decrees of the Chal- cedonian council. Flattering as was the first appearance of this project, it was soon changed. The emperor published an edict in favour of the Monothelite doctrine, and it was received, if not with general approbation, yet without serious opposition. Cyrus, who had been raised by Ileraclius from the bishopric of Phasis to the patriarchate of Alexandria, assembled a coun- cil, by the seventh canon of which the doctrine of Mouothelitism, or one wiU, was solemnly 412 MOX confirmed. Hence Cyrus has been generally esteemed the founder of the sect. The decree of the Alexandrian synod, bringing the doctrine of the council of Chalcedon nearer to the Eutychian system, had the desired effect; and numbers of the Eutychians, who were dispersed throughout Egypt, Armenia, and other remote provinces, returned to the bosom of the Church. But in the council of Alexandria there was one dissen- tient, who carried his opposition to the Monothe- lite doctrine further than the limits of mere argument and hostility in debate. Sophronius, a monk of Palestine, had opposed the decree of the Alexandrian synod with violence; but his opposition was treated with contempt. In the succeeding j-ear, however, he was elevated to the vacant patriarchate of Jerusalem ; and he soon exercised his authority by summoning a council, and condemning the Monothelite as a branch of the Eutychian sj'stem. In order to terminate, if possible, the commotions to which this division of opinion had given rise, Heraclius issued an edict composed by Pope Sergius, and entitled the Ecthesis, or exposition of the faith, in which all controversies upon the question whether in Christ there was a double operation, were prohibited, though the doctrine of a unity of will was incul- cated. A considerable number of the eastern bishops declared their assent to the Ecthesis, and above all Pyrrhus, who succeeded Sergius in the see of Constantinople. A similar accepta- tion was obtained from the metropolis of the Eastern Church ; but at Rome the Ecthesis •was differently received. John IV. assembled a council, in which that exposition was condemned. — See Ecthesis. Neither was the Monothelite system maintained in the Eastern Church anj' longer than during the life of Heraclius. The Emperor Constans published a new edict under the name of the Type, or Formulary, suppressing the Ecthesis, and enjoining a silence on both the controverted points of one will and one operation. This silence was not sufficient for either of the contending parties. Very soon the Ecthesis and Type were both condemned. At length, in the TruUan, or sixth general council, the Nicene Creed was solemnly declared to be that of the Church. Monothelitism was a com- promise, and shared the fate of many similar projects. — See Eutychian Tenets. ITIontniiisl^t, a sect which arose in Asia Minor in the second century. The name was derived from Montanus, a native of Mysia, on the confines of Plirygia ; but his personal charac- ter and influence had but little to do with the growth of the lieresy. He was rather, as Nean- der observes, "the unconscious organ tlirough which a peculiar mental tendency, wliich had developed itself in various parts of the church, expressed itself with clearer intelligence and greater strength." — Antignost. He had been a heathen, and soon after his conversion to Christianity he began to be subject to trances or M05T ecstasies, in which he uttered what were supposed to be prophecies ; as did also Priscilla and Maxi- milla, two ladies of rank who joined him. This pretence to inspiration was one main characteris- tic of the sect ; and as a consequence of it they assumed to themselves exclusively the title of spiritual, regarding all who denied their preten- sions as devoid of the spirit, and living in a carnal unregenerate state. A belief in their ex- travagant claim spread rapidly in Asia Minor. And, indeed, there was much in the system which their pretended revelations were employed to establish, not only well adapted to take root and flourish among such a people as the Phrygians, but also sure to find in every country persons prepared to receive it by previous habits of mind. " It was attractive to the more rigid feelings, by holding out the idea of a life stricter than that of ordinary Christians ; to weakness, b}' offering the guidance of precise rules where the Gospel had only laid down general principles ; to enthusiasm and the love of excitement, by its pretensions to prophetical gifts ; to pride, by professing to realize the pure and spotless mystical Church in an exactly defined visible communion ; and by encouraging the members of this body to regard themselves as spiritual, and all other Christians as carnal." — Robertson, p. 71. It is said to have been chiefly among the lower orders that Montanism spread ; but even in the powerful mind of TertuUian it found congenial soil ; and his embracing their opinions is one of the most interesting events in the history of the sect, as it is also in the biography of fertullian himself. It occurred about a.d. 200, and the treatises which he wrote after that important period in his life give us the clearest insight into the essential character of Montanism ; for he carried the opinions of the sect to their utmost length of rigid and uncompromising severity, though at the same time on the great fundamental points in wiiich the Jlontanists did not differ from the Church he continued as he had before been, one of the ablest champions of Scriptural truth, and one of the mightiest opponents of ever}' for.-n of heresy. It has been remarked with much truth, that although the actual number of the Mon- tanists was at one period very considerable, the importance of the sect is rather to be estimated by the extent to which their character became infused into the Church. Neander attributes much of this to the great influence which Ter- tuUian exerted through the relation in which he stood to Cyprian, who called him his teacher. At the same time it is to be noticed that there was some tendency in the opposite direction in the introduction of a proplietical order superior in rank and importance to the order of bishops. The first order among the Montanists was that of patriarch, the second that of cenones, and the third that of bishop. The patriarch resided at Pepusi in Phrygia, which they believed would be the seat of the millennial kingdom. Hence 413 MON (he sect obtained the name of Pepusians and Cataplirygians. iUonteiicsrine Church, that portion of the Greek Church located in the mountainous tracts of southern Albania, and consisting of about 60,000. It, however, rejects pictures, images, and crucifixes. Such is its abhorrence of Popery that Papists admitted to its fellowship must be re-baptized. It is under the jurisdiction of the synod of Russia. The people are ignorant and fanatical. They have their own patriarch. JHonth's ITIind, an office performed for a month in the Romish Church for the dead. Mind in that case is used in its old sense of memory — as in the phrases, " to call to mind," " time out of mind." Monthly Meeting.— See Meeting. IMEoiitolivetenses, monks of Mount Olivet — that is, living in a residence so named. This body, wearing white serge, and professing the rule of St. Benedict, sprang up in 1407, was approved by Pope John XXII., and confirmed by Gregory XII. They trace their origin to St. Bernard Tolomaei of Sienna, and their first monastery was at Acona ; but the order soon spread through Italy and Sicily. irkoravian!;, Unilas Fratrnm, or United Brethren. — The Church of the United Breth- ren is originally descended from the Sclavonian branch of the Greek or Eastern Church, which is supposed to have received the Gospel through the immediate agency of the apostles and their cotemporaries. By the seventh century the Sclavonian Church had increased considerably, and rendered herself remarkable, in the j'ear 680, by refusing to appear at the sixth synod of Con- stantinople, because her members abjured image- worship. Soon after this period nearly the whole of the Sclavonian provinces received the Gospel. The Bulgarians were the next who embraced the faith, which, through the laborious efforts of Cyril and Methodius, two Greek bishops, spread likewise among the neighbouring nations. They entered Moravia, where, in 861, Swatopluk, the reigning monarch, was converted; and a short time afterwards, Borziwogius, Duke of Bohemia. From these countries the beams of sacred truth shone upon Poland, and even upon Muscovy. The bishops of Rome, jealous of the spreading influence of the Eastern Church, used every means to bring these nations under their yoke. In 940 the Emperor Otho, having subdued the Bohemians, commanded their princes to intro- duce the Roman liturgy in the Latin tongue. The Bohemian Church refused; and, though their princes, from the year 967, adhered to the Roman communion, they resolutely retained the Bible, and performed their church service in the vulgar tongue. Not long afterwards Pope Celestine endeavoured to impose celibacy upon the Bohemian clergy; but the cardinal legate who made the attempt, narrowly escaped being stoned to death. The doctrine of Transubstan- MOR \ tiation was next obtruded upon them ; and^ being at length wearied out by the repeated efforts of the popish emissaries, they began to relax in their zeal for purity of doctrine and worship, when, in the year 1146, at a most seasonable period, the Waldenses came into Bohemia, by whom the faithful worshippers were anew encouraged to adhere firmly to the truth which they had received. It was not until the year 1361 that, by the command of the Emperor Charles IV., at the instigation of the Roman pontiff, the cup of the Eucharist was taken out of the hands of the laity, and all the corruptions and abuses of the Western Church commanded to be adopted. This measure was brought about by the erection of Prague into an archbishopric, and the establishment of an university there, into which numerous German, French, and Italian doctors were introduced. To these in- novations, however, a large body of the Bo- hemian Christians opposed a resolute resistance, and many upright ministers dispensed the ordi- nances of the Word of God in private dwel- lings. For these heresies, as they were deemed, they were persecuted without mercy, and almost without intermission, many being punished with death, more with the spoiling of their goods, and multitudes with imprisonment and exile. At the end of the fourteenth century, John Huss, professor, and afterwards rector of the university of Prague, began to inveigh boldly against the errors of the Church of Rome. His spirit was greatly revived by receiving the books of Wy- cliffe from England, in the year 1400, part of which he translated into the Bohemian tongue ; and he exhorted his cotemporary, Jerome of Prague, to persevere in opposing, in the schools, the errors which he was resisting in the church. The rejection of the popish indulgences in 1411, by the Bohemians, who publicly burnt the bulls of the pontiff and the letters of his prelates, led to the citation before the council of Constance in 1414, and the subsequent martyrdom of that man of God, as well as of his fellow-reformer, in pursuance of the sentence of the council, and in violation of the safe conduct granted by the Emperor Sigismund. During the long war that followed, and about the year 1450, the Church of the Unitas Fratrum, or United Brethren, under its present name, was formed by those who chose rather to suffer as witnesses of the truth than to take up worldly weapons for its defence. Thej' were granted a retreat in the barony of Lititz, in the mountainous parts of Bohemia, and afterwards at a spot named Fulnek, in Moravia ; and being solicitous to retain and perpetuate episcopal ordination, they solemnl}' selected three of their ministers, and sent them into Austria, where they were consecrated bishops by Stephen, Bishop of the Waldenses. In the same year, 1467, Stephen was burtied by the papists at Vienna, and many of the Waldenses retired to 444 MOR the Brethren, and joined their communion ; but, in the following year, a dreadful persecution broke out; and a bloodj' decree, requiring all the states to seize and punish them at pleasure, was commanded to be read from all the pulpits of Bohemia. The prisons were crowded with the members of their church — many perished in dungeons from hunger, and others were inhu- manly tortured. The remainder fled to the thickest forests, where they hid themselves by day "in dens and caves of the earth." When obliged to go out, they were compelled carefully to obliterate their footsteps in the snow, and, lest the smoke should betraj' them, only dared to kindle their fires by night, round which they spent their time in reading the Scriptures, and in prayer. When, afterwards, the rage of perse- cution had somewhat abated, they were the first people who applied the newly invented art of printing to the publication of the Bible in a vernacular tongue, of which they had issued three editions before the Reformation dawned upon Europe. The first was printed at Venice about the year 1480. This ancient church ap- pears to have been known in England at an early period. During the progress of the Refor- mation, the Brethren received the strongest tes- timonies of approbation and regard from the learned and pious Archbishop Cranmer and Bishop Latimer, as well as from Luther, Calvin, Bucer, and Melanchthon, and afterwards from the whole body of Lutherans and Calvinists, who united with them in the synod of Sendomir, in Poland, in 1570. The Reformation had not then reached the recesses of Bohemia and Mora- via, where renewed and more violent persecu- tions broke out against the United Brethren, who were again visited with imprisonment, confisca- tion, exile, and death. In the year 1621 no less than twenty-seven Protestant noblemen, many of whom were members of the Brethren's church, were executed in one day, sealing with their blood the most affecting testimonies to the truth. Many hundred families, noble and ple- beian, were driven into distant countries, and their Bibles and religious books burnt under the gallows. In the short space of ten years, of two hundred ministers of the Brethren's church, only ninety-six were left alive. At length, to- wards the close of the seventeenth century, the Brethren were so hunted down and scattered as to be no longer publicly known to exist as a church. In the year 1660, John Amos Com- enius, one of tiie greatest scholars of the age, con- sidering himself their last bishop, transmitted to Charles II. of England a history of the church, with an affecting account of its suti'erings, and a dedication (which he called his last will and testament), bequeathing these memorials of his people to the Church of England. The Church and the government of England have not been backward in acknowledging tliis bequest. In the extremity of her distress the Church of the MOR Brethren made an appeal to the generosity of the English Church, supported by a formal testi- monial of their orthodoxy, signed and sealed by the synod of Lissa, in Great Poland, and dated on the 10th of February, 1683, which was pre- sented to Charles II. in that year, certifying that she had preserved unimpaired, in Great Poland and Polish Prussia, the purity of the Christian doctrine, her apostolical rites, and epis- copal constitution. A most pathetic account of tlie history' and severe persecutions of this churcli was published by order of Archbishop Sancroft and Bishop Compton, and letters patent, autho- rizing collections for the relief of the Brethren were issued by the king. In 1715 they again addressed the Church of England, being reduced to a very low ebb in Poland, when his majesty George I., by the recommendation of Archbishop Wake, gave orders in council for their relief as a Reformed Episcopal Church, and letters patent for that object were again issued. It was in the year 1722 that, fleeing from a renewed persecu- tion in Moravia, the Moravian remnant of the Church of the Brethren found refuge in the estates of Count Zinzendorf in Lusatia, where tiiey built a humble village, called Herrnhut, which ia now their principal settlement. By the acces- sion of further numbers from their own country, and from various parts of the Continent, they gradually increased, though not to a large extent, and settlements were afterwards formed in Eng- land, Denmark, Sweden, Russia, Holland, and North America. Count Zinzendorf, finding that his efforts to induce the Moravian emigrants to unite themselves to the Lutheran Church, and forsake their ancient rule and discipline, were unavailing, devoted himself wholh' to their service, after due examination of their claims and tenets ; procured for them the continuation of their episcopal constitution from the only sur- viving bishops of their church, Jablonsky and Sitkovius ; and, resigning all his worldly hon- ours, was himself consecrated a bishop of the Unitas Fratrum in 1737. The desire of the Brethren to promote the salvation of the most benighted nations of the heathen world soon began to displaj' its effects to a most extraordi- nary degree. When the Moravian refugees at Herrnhut scarcely amounted to 600 persons — when the}' had but just found rest from suflfering themselves, and were beguming to build a church and habitations where there had previously been a desert— so powerful was this anxiety to com- municate the blessings of the Gospel to the heathen, that in seven years they had sent mis- sionaries to Greenland, to the Indians in North and South America, to the Island of St. Thomas, to Lapland, to Algiers, to Guinea, to the Cape of Good Hope, and to Ceylon ; and not long after they commenced missions in other West India Islands, in Tartary, in the Nicobar Islands, in the Bay of Bengal, in Persia, in Egypt, and in Labrador. Such was their devotedaess to this 445 MOR work, that in the first mission they undertook among the negroes in the West India islands, upon hearing that no opportunity would be afforded them of intercourse with the slaves unless they became such themselves, the first missionaries determined even to sell themselves as slaves, that they might be able to teach the poor Africans the way of deliverance from the darkness and the vice in which they were buried. This sacrifice, however, was not eventually re- quired. The success of their labours has been remarkable. In those islands and in Surinam they have above 56,000 negroes under constant instructioD, and in other countries about 10,000 of the natives of heathen lands, receiving through their means the inestimable blessings of the Gospel of Christ. The settlement of many families of the Brethren in the British colonies of North America, soon after their emigration from Moravia, led to an application to parlia- ment for protection, and for relief from laws and services contrary to their religious scruples. In 1747 an act was passed in their favour (20 George II., cap. 44), for extending the pri- vileges of natural-born subjects to the Moravian Brethren, and other foreign Protestants, who should make affirmation of allegiance, &c., and should scruple to take the oaths ; but their case was more particularly brought to the notice of parliament in 1749, when, upon application to be relieved from taking oaths generally, and bearing arms, their doctrine, discipline, charac- ter, and history, were scrupulously examined before committees of both houses; and an act was passed, with the unanimous consent of the episcopal bench, in that year (22 George II., cap. 30), conceding to the Brethren in Eng- land, as well as America, the privileges they sought, and fully acknowledging tliem as " an ancient Protestant Episcopal Church, which had been countenanced and relieved by the Kings of England, His Majesty's predecessors." In the colony of the Cape of Good Hope the Brethren have been called upon repeatedly by the colonial government to increase the number of their stations among the Hottentot and other tribes. In 1823 they were requested to take charge of the Leper Hospital, a most trying station, in the midst of appalling and incurable disease and death, which no other Europeans could be found willing to superintend, but where a married couple have ever since resided. In 1828 they were desired by the government to commence a mission among the Tambookies, on the eastern boundary of the colony, towards the first expense of which a sum of money was advanced from the colonial treasury; and in 1838 they were requested, with similar offers of aid, to commence another mission among the Fingoes, a tribe who, having escaped from slavery among the CafTres, had flocked into the colony, and were as sheep without a shepherd. This mission, established at Clarkson, on the banks of the Zitzikamma, MOR ^ is succeeding well. Two other stations are now in course of formation in or near British CafFraria. On the inclement coast of Lab- rador, the Brethren, who are the only represen- tatives of the British government there, occupy four settlements, under three orders of the king in council, the first dated in 1769, the last in 1818; and, in acknowledgment of that service, Her Majesty's treasury exempt the stores sent annually to the missionaries from duty. It is a remarkable fact that the vessel conveying these indispensable supplies, though called to navigate an icy ocean and a rocky coast, presenting no ordinary perils, has never failed during seventy successive years to fulfil the object of her voyage. Many hundreds of the Esquimaux nation have, through the blessing of God upon the indefati- gable and self-denying zeal of the Brethren, been raised from the depths of heathen degradation and superstition to a state of genuine Christian faith and obedience. The missions are sup- ported upon the most frugal scale, at an ex- pense of about £13,000 per annum ; of this amount scarcely a fourth part can be furnished by the Brethren themselves. — Abridged from A Brief Narrative of the United Brethren, Mars- den, La Trobe. mormonism. — The sect of the "Mormon- ites," or, as its members choose to designate themselves," Latter day Saints," is of compara- tively recent origin. Its founder, Joseph Smith, was born of obscure parentage, at Sharon, in Vermont, United States, in 1805. So early as his fifteenth j'ear he commenced that system of religious imposture which characterized his after life, by professing himself to be the direct re- cipient of heavenly instruction, by means of miraculous visions. But it was not till several years had elapsed that he formally announced himself as a prophet, divinely commissioned to reform existing abuses in the church, and to rally round his own person those who were the true children of God. For this purpose, about the year 1823, he pretended to be favoured with a second revelation, through which he discovered certain golden plates which for ages had lain hid at Palmyra in Ontario County. On these, according to his own statement, were engraved in "Egyptian characters," sufficient directions for his future procedure in the work to which he had been appointed. But being unlearned, it was necessary to resort to another expedient, in order that their contents might be rendered intelligible to those on whom he meant to practise his de- ceptions. This was easily found in ascribing to a huge pair of spectacles, otherwise described as " two crystal stones, set in silver," representing the Urim and Thummin of the Jewish priesthood, and which were said to have been discovered along with the plates, the supernatural power of enabling him to read and understand the charac- ters, so as to translate them into English. Con- sequently, in seven years after their first discovery, 446 MOR and three years from the time when he received the angel's permission to remove them, a pre- tended translation of the " plates " was published under the title of the Book of Mormon. The year 1830 may therefore properly be saiii>Xairav the same thing— both names being symbolic. For Balaam is compounded of two Hebrew words, which are equivalent to the Greek words " ymZv •rov Xa'ov " — to destroy of the people. IVicolaN, St., Day, is the Gth of December, and is observed by the Greek and Komish Churches in honour of the patron saint of sailors. Nihiliata, a Gferman sect of mystics who reduced God and the universe to nothing, and NOM denied, therefore, all moral obligation. — See An.nihilatiox. Ninth Hour — See Nones. IViobitcs, followers of Niobes, who denied any distinction of natures in Christ after their union in the incarnation. — See Mo>jophysites. NJpter (wash-basin'). — See Pedilavil'si. Noctnriis {services for the nifjhC). — The psalter in the Breviary is divided into portions consisting of nine psalms, each portion being called a nocturn. — See Antelucan Services. Noctians, the followers of Noetus, a native of Asia Minor, in the early part of the third centur}', a heretic ^vhose opinions were nearlv similar to those of Praxeas and Sabellius. They were confuted b_v Hippolytus, Bishop of Portus, in a treatise which is still extant. — See Pkaxeas, Sabellians. Nola, a name given to a church bell ; said to be derived from the circumstance that Paulinus, Bishop of Nola, in Campania, first made use of bells. But Paulinus, neither in his epistles nrr poems, makes any mention of bells ; nor do his eulogists refer to them. — See Bell. IVoniiiiaSism. — The controversy involved in this term has a connection with theology ; for its origin may be traced to well-known disputes with Berengarius on the Lord's Supper. The Nominalists held that what are universals are only names — the opposite sect, or Realists, main- taining that universals are real existences. Sir Wni. Hamilton says, — "The former of these opin- ions— the doctrine, as it is called, of Nominalism — maintains that everj- notion, considered in itself, is singular, but becomes, as it were, general, through the intention of the mind to make it represent every other resembling notion, or notion of the same class. Take, for example, the term man. Here we can call up no notion, no idea, corresponding to the universality of the class or term. This is manifestly impossible. For as man, involves contradictory attributes, and as contradictions cannot coexist in one representa- tion, an idea or notion adequate to man cannot be realized in thought. The class man includes individuals, male and female, white and black, and copper-coloured, tall and short, fat and thin, straight and crooked, whole and mutilated, &c., &c. ; and the notion of the class must, therefore, at once represent all and none of these. It is therefore evident, thongli the absurdity was maintained by Locke, that we cannot accomplish this ; and this being impossible, we cannot repre- sent to ourselves the class man by any equiva- lent notion or idea. All that we can do is to call up some individual image, and consider it as representing, though inadequately representing, the generality. This we easily do; for as we can call into imagination any individual, so we can make that individual image stand for any or for every other which it resembles, in those essen- tial points which constitute the identitj' of the class. This opinion, which, after liobbes, has 1 458 been in this country maintained, among others, by Berkeley, Hume, Adam Smith, Campbell, and Stewart, appears to me not only true but self- evident." Tlie Nominalists had for their founder, Koscellinus in the eleventh, who was followed by Abelard and Occam in tlie fourteenth centurj-. The Church of Eome took Realism under its patronage, and the theism of Koscellinus was branded as Lutheranism. NomiuaiEoai. — See Clergy, Jus Devo- LUTUM. — Hook saj-s, in reference to the Church of England, nomination is " the offering of a clerk to him who has the riglit of presentation, that he may present him to the ordinary. The nominator must appoint his clerk within six months after the avoidance; for if he does not, and the patron presents his clerk before the bishop hath taken any benefit of the lapse, he is bound to admit that clerk.'' Noiuo-€n Dioii. — See Canon Law. IVoniopliylax (keeper of the km:'), an officer of the Greek Church, whose function is indi- cated by his name. IVoncoiiforuiast, one who refuses or rejects nniforniity ; applied generally to dissenters from the esta'blished church, but chiefly with refer- ence to those ministers who, in the year 1GC2, renounced their livings rather than subscribe according to the Act of Uniformity. This act enjoined on all ministers of religion in England to declare their unfeigned assent and consent to all and everything contained in the Book of Common rvayer ; with which no fewer than two thousand of the clergy refused to comply. Had the government of the day been content with requiring subscription from those who desired to remain as ministers of the Establish- ment, without proceeding to the passing of ob- noxious, persecuting, and iniquitous acts against those whose consciences forbade their compliance with the requirements of the Act of Uniformitv, dissent would not, in all jirobabilit}', have taken such deep root in the minds of the people, nor would it have attained the eminence to which it subsequently reached in this country. But only two years elapsed after the enactment above named, when the Conventic'e Act was intro- duced into parliament, passed, and received the roj-al sanction. By this act only five persons above sixteen years of age, besides the family, were authorized to assemble for any worshi]), domestic or social. Tlie power of enforcing the penalties of a violation of this act, which were very severe, was lodged in tlie hands of a single justice of the peace, who had authority to proceed on the oath of an informer, without tlie inter- vention of a jury. The penalties on him who officiated were, for the first fifTence, five pounds fine, or three months' imprisonment ; for the second, ten pounds fine, or six months' imprison- ment ; and for the third, a fine of one hundred pounds, or transportation for life. The following year (1GG5) the Five Mile Act came into opera- NON fion. It imposed an oath on all nonconformists not to attempt any alteration in Church or State, and in case of refusal, the parties were to be expelled all the towns, boroughs, and cities in the kin,L;dom, and not be permitted to come within five miles of any one of them. The Cor- poration Act and the Test Act were also passed in the same reign — that of Charles II; thus increasing the civil disabilities of those whose opinions were heterodox to the established faith, and thereby creating among nonconformists a spirit of dislike and opposition to the clergy and constitution of the Anglican Church. The course pursued towards the first nonconformists has led to most of the strifes which, sinca the reign of the second Charles, have thickened and multiplied. — See Acts, Dissenters, Independents, Puri- tans. Nones, a service of the ninth hour, or three in the afternoon, the usual time of the Jewish sacriSce. Chrysostom exhorts to this service by telling that at that hour paradise was opened for the thief and the great sacrifice was offered. Some derive the term noon from Nones, because the service was often antedated, and held at mid- day. IVon-Intrnsiionists. — See Scotl,?xd, Free Church of. — Non-Intrusion had its formal ori- gin in the following motion, proposed to the gene- ral assembly in 1833 — moved by Dr. Chalmers, and seconded by Lord Moncrieff:— " That the general assembly, having maturely weighed and considered the various overtures now before them, do find and declare, that it is, and has been ever since the Reformation, a fixed principle in the law of this church, that no minister shall be intruded into any pastoral charge contrary to the will of the congregation : and considering that doubts and misapprehensions have existed on this im- portant subject, whereby the just and salutary operation of the said principle has been impeded, and in many cases defeated, the general assembly further declare it to be their opinion, that the dissent of a majority of the male heads of fami- lies, resident within the parish, being members of the congregation and in communion with the church, at least two years previous to the day of moderation (of the call), whether such dissent shall be expressed with or without the assign- ment of reasons, ought to be of conclusive effect in setting aside the presentee (under tlie patron's nomination), save and except where it is clearly established by the patron, jirescntee, or any of the minority, that the said dissent is founded in corrupt and malicious combination, or not truly founded on any objection personal to the presen- tee in regard to his ministerial gifts and qualifi- cations, either in general or with reference to that particular parish : and in order that this declaration may be carried into full efTect, that a committee shall be appointed to prepare the best measure for carrying it into effect, and to report to the next general assembly." The rau- 450 NON is^OT fion was lost, there being a mnjnrity of twelve I such preachers could not make a livelihood by against it. But it was carried in effect next assembly. — See Veto. Noiijurants, a party in the Church of Scotland, who, in 1712, refused to take the oath of abjuration, an oath which, abjuring the Pretender, promised to support the succession to the crown as settled by act of parliament, one condition being, that the sovereign should belong to the Church of England. — See Abjuration. Many stumbled at the oath as being wholly inconsistent with the Covenant. — See Covenant. Principal Carstairs and others took it, but along with a declaration and a protest The jurants were branded as traitors by the nonjurants, and all the features of a schism were rapidly mul- tiplying. Woodrow, Boston, and many well- known evangelical preachers belonged to the nonjurants. The assembly had twice to interfere to preserve peace, and after five years the oath was altered. — See Oath. Nonjurors, the name given to the episcopal clergy in England and Scotland, who would not take the oath of allegiance to the Prince of Orange. Macaulay says, — " Those clergymen and members of the universities who incurred the penalties of the law were about four hundred in number. Foremost in rank stood the primate and six of his suffragans — Turner of Ely ; Lloyd of Norwich ; Frampton of Gloucester ; Lake of Chichester; White of Peterborough; and Ken of Bath and Wells. Thomas of Worcester would have made a seventh, but he died three weeks before the daj' of suspension. On his deathbed he adjured his clergy to be true to the cause of hereditary right, and declared that those divines who tried to make out that the oaths might be taken without any departure from the loyal doc- trines of the Church of England, seemed to him to reason more Jesuitically than the Jesuits them- selves." Ilickes, and Jeremy Collier, and Dod- well, also belonged to the number. Macaulay adds, — "Most of them passed their lives in run- ning about from one Tory coffee-house to another, abusing the Dutch, hearing and spreading reports that within a month his majesty would certainly be on English ground, and wondering who would have Salisbury when Burnet was hanged. Dur- ing the session of parliament the lobbies and the court of requests were crowded with deprived parsons, asking who was up, and what the num- bers were on the last division. Many of the ejected divines became domesticated as chaplains, tutors, and spiritual directors in the houses of opulent Jacobites. Not one in fifty, therefore, of those laymen who disapproved of the revolu- tion thought himself bound to quit his pew in the old church, where the old liturgv was still read, and where the old vestments Avere still worn, and to follow the ejected priest to a con- venticle—a conventicle, too, which was not pro- tected by tlie Toleration Act. Thus the new sect was a sect of preachers without hearers; and preaching, other large In London, indeed, and in some towns, those vehement Jacobites whom nothing would satisfy but to hear King James and the Prince of Wales prayed for by name, were sufficientlj' numerous to make up a few small congregations, which met secretly and under constant fear of the constables, in rooms so mean that the meeting-houses of the Puri- tan dissenters might, by comparison, be called palaces." The episcopalian nonjurors in Scot- land ceased to be so after the death of Prince Charles in 1788, and in 1792 were relieved from various penalties and restrictions. Presbyterian nonjurors, too, there were and are in Scotland. — See Scotland, Churches in; Reformed PnESByTEKIAN. Nonna, or yevi;, a niin. — See Nun. Non-residence. — The early Church passed special laws against non-residence. Justinian ordained that no bishop shall be absent for more than a year, without the formal sanction of the emperor ; and no bishop shall leave his diocese on pretence of coming to court. The council of Sardica prohibited episcopal absence for more than three weeks, unless for very weighty reason ; and if the bishop have an estate in another dio- cese, he may, during three weeks, go there and collect his rents, provided on Sunday he perform worship in the church near which his lands lie. — See Residence. The council of Agde, yet more stringent with the inferior clergy, sentenced to suspension from communion for three years a presbyter or deacon who should be absent for three weeks. Noon-day Service, the service in the early Church at mid-day, and in which, St. Basil says, the ninety-first psalm was read. Norman Architecture is the Style intro- duced at the Norman conquest into England. It succeeded the Saxon, though manj' buildings erected before 1066 are Norman in all essential particulars. At first it was plain, massive, and devoid of ornament, though afterwards orna- mentation was profusely employed. Spires were not used nor pinnacles, though turrets are occa- sionally found. The arch was round, and this was a main characteristic, the pointed arch not being introduced till about the middle of the twelfth century. The windows look like small doors, and have no mullions, and the doors are often deeply recessed. — See Early English, Gothic. Norway, Cfaurch of. — See Sweden. Notaricon. — See Cabala. Notary (clerk or recorder), one who recorded the act and decision of ecclesiastical bodies, and occasionally had a charge or supervision in dis- tant parts of the Church. Notes of the Ciiurch, those marks by which a true church maj' be recognized. Palmer, who has written a high-church treatise on the subject, says, — " The necessity of devising some general 4G0 NOT notes of the church, 4nd of not entering at once on controversial debates concerning all points of doctrine and discipline, was early perceived by Christian theologians. TertuUian appeals, in re- futation of the heresies of his age, to the antiquity of the Church derived from the apostles, and its priority to all heretical communities. Irenoeus refers to the unity of the Church's doctrines, and the succession of her bishops from the apostles. The universality of the Church was more espe- cially urged in the controversy with the Dona- tists, St. Augustine reckons amongst those things which attached him to the Church — The consent of nations, authority founded on miracles, sanctity of morals, antiquitj- of origin, succession of bishops from St. Peter to the present episco- pate, and the very name of the Catholic Church. St. Jerome mentions the continual duration of the Church from the apostles, and the very appel- lation of the Christian name. In modern times Bellarmine, one of the Roman school, added several other notes, such as — Agreement with the primitive Church in doctrine, union of members among themselves and with their head, sanctity of doctrine and of founders, efficacy of doctrine, con- tinuance of miracles and prophecy, confessions of adversaries, the unhappy end of those who opposed the Church, and the temporal felicity conferred on it. Luther assigned as notes of the true church the true and uncorrupted preaching of the Gospel, administration of baptism, of the Eucharist, and of the keys; a legitimate ministry, public service in a known language, and tribulations internally and externally. Calvin reckons only truth of doctrine, and right administration of the sacra- ments; and seems to reject succession. Our learned theologians adopt a different view in some respects. Dr. Field admits the following notes of the church: Truth of doctrine; use of sacra- ments and means instituted by Christ; union under lawful ministers; antiquity without change of doctrine ; lawful succession, i. e., with true doc- trine ; and universality in the successive sense, i. e., the prevalence of the church successively in all nations. Bishop Taylor admits as notes of the church, antiquity, duration, succession of bishops, union of members among themselves and with Christ, sanctity of doctrine, &c. The Con- staatinopolitan creed gives to the Church the attri- butes of ' One, Holy, Catholic, and Apostolical.'"' A high-cliurchman unchurches without hesita- tion other communities that want some of his extra-scriptural criteria; but theorists on this subject are not agreed among themselves. — See Fundamentals. IVotiiia, the name given to the record or chart of the great divisions or provinces, &c., of the empire and of the Church. IVovniiniis, a sect wiiich separated from the Church in the third century, on the question about re-arlinitting the lapsed to communion. The persecution of Decius, a.d. 240, produced an unprecedcated number of cases in whicii Chris- 4G NUN tians were induced either to sacrifice to idols, or to procure from the magistrates, by payment of money, a certificate of having obeyed the em- pei'or's command. This latter proceeding seems to have been easily excused to their consciences, and when the persecution had ceased, the libella- lici, as they were called, expected to be re- admitted to communion on very easy terms. Great abuses had also grown up in regard to Letteus of Peace (which see) which were given in tiie shape of tickets available for a number of persons, and not only issued with- out discrimination, but even made a matter of traffic, like tiie indulgences of later days. Cyprian at Carthage, and Dionysius at Alex- andria, exerted themselves to remedy these dis- orders. But they were disposed to deal leni- ently with the lapsed, and a council which Cyprian assembled in 251 decided that those who had actually sacrificed should be ad- mitted to communion after a prescribed course of penance, and the libellatici, if truly penitent, immediately. Cornelius was elected Bishop of Rome just at this crisis, and adopted the decision of the council of Carthage. But Novatian, a presbyter, who had opposed the election of Cornelius, and who, in the interval of nearly eighteen months since the death of the former bishop, had exerted great influence at Rome, was anxious for the adoption of the most stringent measures towards all who in any way had yielded to the storm of persecution. The party which agreed with him elected him bishop, and so commenced an open schism, which soon spread through almost ever}' province in which the Church had been planted. The Novatians called themselves " xa^ajo/'" — puritans. At first they only declared against the re-admission of the lapsed. But afterwards they fully returned to the old African notion, that all who had deliled themselves by gross sins after baptism should for ever be excluded from the Church. In accordance with this view, they declared all other churches to have forfeited the rights of a Christian body, and re-baptized all who joined them. — See Catiiari, Libellatici. Norena, a nine days' devotion on some peculiar occasion in the Church of Rome. IVovice, one who, having entered a religious house, has not yet taken the vows, the initial term being called his novitiate. In the same way catechumens were sometimes novitioli, tirones Dti. Nullateiiciises (iiowhere), titular bishops without a see. — See Ordination. IVun (nonna, vovli), said by Ilospinian to be an Egyptian term denoting a virgin. At aii early period women devoted themselves to the service of the Church, though thev did not dwell in monasteries. Tliese ecclesiastical virgins were enriiUed in the canon or matricula of the Church (see Can'on, Matricula), and from this were sometimes called canonical virgins. It does not seem that they were absolutely forbidden to 1 NUN marry. The council of Ancj-ra, however, de- creed them to the penance of digamists, should any of them marry (see Marriage), and the council of Chalcedon doomed them to excommu- nication. The marriage itself, however, does not appear to have been cancelled, even though the lady married after the age effort}', at which time ber" consecration was supposed to be valid. (Mon- astic virgins, on the other hand, lived in seclu- sion.) The consecration of virgins was performed bv the bishop or by a presbyter specially deputed. After consecration they wore a certain habit, of wliich the veil (velamen sacrum) was a charac- teristic portion. Hence the modern phrase, " to take the veil." The virgins seem also to have worn a kind of mitre or coronet, and in some places their head was shaved— a practice con- demned by the council of Gangra. Their per- sons were sacred, and special honours were paid to them both in society and in the place occupied by them in the church. The mother of Con- stantine used to wait upon them at her own table and do them service. But religious com- munities soon sprung up in the Church, and nuns proper dwelt under rule in special residences. Pachomius erected such residences in tlie fourth century in Egypt — the first one being built on the Island of tabenna in the Nile. They soon sjiread through Europe. The following orders of nuns, among others of less note, were in England prior to the Keformation: — 1. The nuns of the order of Fontevrault, of which the Abbess of Fontevrault was superior : they had their first establisliment at Nuneaton in Warwick- shire, and possessed only two other houses. 2. The nuns of the order of Saint Clare, or, as they were denominated from their scanty endowments, the poor Clares. Saint Clare was born in the same town, and was contemporary with Saint Francis; and the nuns of Saint Clare, observing the Fran- ciscan rule, were sometimes called Minoresses, and their house, without Aldgate in London, was called the Minories. Blanche, Queen of Navarre, first introduced them into England. 3. Brigittines, or nuns of our holy Saviour, in- stituted by Bridget, Duchess of Nercia in Sweden, about the middle of the fourteenth century. They followed the rule of Saint Augustine, with some additions. There was but one house in England belonging to the Brigittine nuns, the celebrated establishment at Sion House in Middlesex See under the respective names of the Orders. The religious houses in England were merci- lessly treated at the Reformation. In reference to Scotland, Cunningham says, in his Church His- tory, " It was not to be expected that the female mind, ever susceptible of religious impressions, should withstand the tendency to monasticism at that time so prevalent. At Edinburgh, Berwick, St. Bathans, Coldstream, Eccles, Hadding- ton, Aberdeen, Dunbar, and several other places, there were nunneries; and within these, ladies connected with many of the noblest families NUN in the land. The nuns of Scotland revered, as the first of their order in our country, a le- gendary St. Brigida, who is fabled to have be- longed to Caithness, to have renounced an ample inheritance, lived in seclusion, and finally to have died at Abernethy in the sixth century. Church chroniclers relate, that before Coldingham was erected into a priory for monks, it had been a sanctuary for nuns, who acquired immortal renowa by cutting off their noses and lips to render them- selves repulsive to some piratical Danes who had landed on the coast. The sisterhood of Lin- cluden were of a different mind, for they were expelled by Archibald, Earl of Douglas, for violating their vows as the brides of heaven, and the house was converted into a collegiate church. Historj' contains no record of the influence which these devoted virgins exercised upon the Church or the world; and we may well believe that, shat up in their cloisters, and confined to a dull rou- tine of daily duty, they could exercise but little. They would chant their matins and vespers, count their beads, employ themselves with needlework, and in many cases vainly pine for that world which their parents or their own childish caprice had forced them to abandon; but the world could not witness their piety nor pene- trate their thoughts." There are nunneries again erected of recent years both in Edinburgh and Glasgow. The consecration of a nun is a great cere- mony in the Popish Church. Sej-mour, in his Pilgrimage, thus describes it, — "In a short time the masses were finished, and before long the seats were occupied with persons coming to witness the scene. The Cardinal-Vicar, to whose province the receptions of nuns belongs, ar- rived. He robed, assumed his mitre, held his crosier, and seated himself in the front of the high altar. He was robed in silver tissue bro- caded with gold. In a few moments the des- tined bride of Jesus Christ entered. She was led into the chapel and along the aisle by the Princess Borghese. They knelt for a few moments at the side-altar, and then the princess conducted her to the Cardinal-Vicar. They both knelt to him, and as the candidate bent her head, her long rich tresses of chestnut-coloured hair fell like a veil around her, and gave her a peculiar interest. He then blessed a crucifix and pre- sented it to the kneeling novice. The carrying of this crucifix is invariable in the order of St. Theresa. I could not catch the words that passed, though I was not four yards distant from the parties. They rose and retired to seats pre- pared for them at the right of the Cardinal- Vicar. This destined recluse, or bride of Jesus Christ, was dressed speciallj' for the occasion. Her dress was white satin richly damasked in gold. Her head was adorned witli a diadem of diamonds, beneath which fell a profusion of long and luxuriant curls of rich chestnut-coloured hair. Her neck was covered with precious stones, that 4G2 flnshed tlirou,c;h the many ringlets tliat fell among them. Her breast was gemmed with brilliants. Bet off by black velvet, so that she sparkled and blazed in all the magnificence of the jewels of the Horghese family, said to be among the most costly and splendid in Italy. There was a profusion of the most valuable lace, and a long and light train of gauze elegantly trimmed. This was borne by one of those beings of whom it is said that their visits are ' kw and far be- tween.' It was an angel, or rarer still, a seraph. It had the appearance of a little girl of eight years of age, a pretty, gentle thing, that seemed frightened at such close contact with sinful mor- tals. It had a wreath of no earth-born, but finger-made, flowers upon its head. It had a short, a very short dress of pale blue silk, to fehow it was some creature of the skies. Its arms and its neck and its legs were covered, not as in mortals with skin, but with a silken tex- ture that was coloured like flesh, and to place its heavenly nature beyond doubt, it had two wings, regular feather-wings, projecting from the shoulders, and very airily trimmed with swan's down. There could be no doubt that, if not an infant angel, it was a real sylph or seraph, de- scended from the skies to wait on the destined bride of Jesus Christ. After some moments the reverend confessor, attired in his monkish dress, approached, kissed the hand of the Cardinal- Vicar, and seated himself within the chancel. He then proceeded to deliver an address or ser- mon to the destined novice. A curtain was raised at the side of the altar, and revealed an interior chapel. It was separated from that in which we were assembled by a strong grating of iron. Soon were heard tlie voices of the whole sisterhood. They were chanting some litany, and their voices were first heard coming from some distant gallery. It was faint and feeble, but sweetened by distance. It slowly swelled louder and clearer, as the sisterhood approached in slow and solemn procession, and recalled to my mind what had so often, in the days of ro- mantic youth, filled my imagination in reading of the chants and the processions of nuns in the romances of other days. The effect at the moment was very pleasing. The chant, feeble and distant at lirst. and then becoming louder and clearer, and all who so chanted approaching slowly, and all the associations that gathered and crowded on my mind gave a charm to the moment that I shall long remember. The chant ceased, and from my position I could see tiie nuns, about sixteen in number, with three or four novices, enter the interior chapel and move slowly and solemnly around it, all taUing their station in two lines, at rii;lit arglos with the iron grating. The two lines faced each otiier. Each nun bore a large lighted candle in one hand, and a book in the otlii-r. 'I by were dressed in bine over white serge. The luins iiad a black shawl or napliin of black serge thrown over the head. NUN" The novices had a similar thing of white .serge, but of the colour of white flannel. Their faces were not visible, as those cloths, which are most nnromantic things, though most romantically called veils, while they might more suitably be called shawls, hung down so as to hide the side- face, while the front-face, which was open and unveiled, was bent down on their books. In this position they stood and read some office or service in which the lines of nuns took alternate parts. Thc-y were motionless as statues, and might have passed for such, if their voices had not proved them living. The destined nun was on her knees inside the grating. The Princess Borghese was beside her, directing her maid to take off the tiara and other jewels; no other hands— not even the hands of the nuns — were allowed to touch a diamond; they were the jewels of the Borghese family, and the princess and her maid watched every stone till they were all care- fully removed by their own hands, and deposited safely from any light fingers that might possibly be present, even in the sacred interior of a monastery of nuns. At last every diamond was gone, and then the hair — the beautiful hair, with its luxuriant tresses, its long wreatiiy ringlets of rich and shining chestnut, was to be now cut off. It was the Ifpveliest charm she possessed, and in parting with the world, its pleasures and its sor- rows together, she was to part with that which of all else had attracted the admiration of men; she meekly bowed her head to her sad destinj-. Lo! they touched it, and it was gone! as if by a miracle it was gone! alas, that my pen must write the truth — it was a wig ! On the present occasion the charm of the scene was dispelled by the fact, that the young, the gentle, the loving, the interesting object of our romance, who had just parted from the pleasures of the bright and sunny world of splendid courts and fashionable revels was — a skkv.ant m.aid of above forty YEARS OF agkI She was the maid of the Princess LSorghese, and the daughter of another domestic, and had now changed the service of the princess, where she was a menial, for a life in a monastery, where she was an equal of the sisterhood. The princess, in a fooli.. 530, when Justinian en- acted some laws against them. Their system was in many respecis nearly allied to that of the Valentinians. Their name (from Ups, a serpent) had reference to their belief that it was either the jEon Wisdom, or Christ himself, who tempted Eve under the form of a serpent. Tiiis absurd opinion was connected with their ideas of the opposition between the Demiurge (Jaldabaoth, as they called him) and the Supreme God, or 465 2 H OPT rather the Mon Wisdom, who would fain set free the pneumatic natures from the ignorance and bondage in which their maker wished to hold them. The same view of the opposition existing between the creator of man and the holier beings above him led some sects, which may be regarded as branches of the Ophites, into still more extra- vagant perversions of Scripture historj'. The Cainites, for example, taught that all the books of the Old and New Testaments, being written by inspiration of the Demiurge, were purposely falsified ; so that the really good men were Cain, Esau, &c., and the only spiritual apostle, Judas Iscariot, who betrayed his master from the best of motives — viz., to deliver man from the Demiurge. The Peratics (emigrants) taught that it was necessary to leave Egypt, that is, the body, and pass into the wilderness where the tier}' serpents are, as gods of destruction, but where Christ also is, being represented by the brazen serpent, the symbol of salvation. The Sethifes, another branch of the same sect, took a different view of the character of Cain, re- garding him as the representative of a hylic race, against which the psychic, represented by Abel, was too weak to contend, till Wisdom substituted Seth, in whom she had implanted a portion of the pneumatic principle. The contest, carried on now upon more equal terms, would have been put an end to by the deluge, had not Ham, of the hylic race, clandestinely entered the ark. This made the vigilance of Wisdom still needful, and at length, at the most critical moment, she sent forth Seth once more in the person of Christ. This Christ de- scended upon Jesus at his baptism, and left him before his crucifixion, according to the com- mon Gnostic theorv. — See Gnostic. Optimafes or Best Men. — See Election or Pastors. Option (optare, to elect), choice, preference. The archbishop of a province has a customary prerogative, when one of his suffragan bishops ia consecrated by him, to name a clerk or chaplain of his own to be provided for by such bishop; in lieu of which it is now usual for the bishop to make over by deed to the arch- bishop, his executors, administrators, and assigns, the next presentation of such dignity or benefice in the bishop's disposal within that see, as the archbishop himself shall choose, and this is called the archbishop's option. If the bishop die or be translated before the archbishop exercises his right, the option is lost, because the new bishop is not bound by the grant of the predecessor; and the archbishop cannot present to any benefice which is vacant at the time of the bishop's death, because the patron- age of all such vacant benefices belongs by prerogative to the crown. An option is con- sidered the private patronage of the arch- bishop; and if the archbishop die, it belongs to his personal representatives, who may present ORA whomsoever they please, unless the archbishop has by his will directed them to present a par- ticular individual, in v;hich case they can be compelled to obey the will. Opns Operatuni (worh wrought') is a term which denotes the essential and inherent power which resides in the sacraments, irrespective of the moral qualities of the recipients. Thomas Aquinas boldly defended the doctrine that the sacraments now had virtue ex opere operato, and not, as in Old Testament times, ex opere operanlis. The council of Trent, sess. 7, canons vii., viii., says, — " If any one shall say that grace, as far as concerneth God's part, is not given through the said sacraments, always, and to all men, even though they rightly receive them, but [only] sometimes, and to some persons, let him be ana- thema. If any one shall say that by the said sacraments of the new law grace is not con- ferred through the act performed, but that faith alone in the divine promise suffices for obtaining grace, let him be anathema." — See Teacta- RIANISM. Orarium, in some of the ancient churches, a scarf or tippet worn by deacons on their left shoulder, and by bishops and presbyters on both shoulders, the use of which was for giving signals for praj'er by the bishops and presbyters to the deacons, and by the deacons to the con- gregation; hence its name. Ambrose, Augus- tine, and other writers, speak of the orarium only as a handkerchief to wipe the face with ; but the ecclesiastical councils of Braga and Toledo prove that it was a distinguishing badge of the clergy, the former ordaining that priests should wear the orarium on both shoulders when they ministered at the altar, and the latter that the deacons were to wear but one orarium, and that on the left shoulder, wherewith the}' were to give the signal of prayers to the people. Sub-deacons and all other unordained officials were not privi- leged to wear this clerical appendage. Oratorio, a piece of sacred music, some- times narrative and often dramatic in form, and said to derive its name from the Congregation of the Oratory, among whom, and in a simple form, such musical pieces were first performed. The oratorio was introduced into England by Handel's "Esther," in 1720. His "Samson," "Messiah," "Israel in Egypt," and "Judas Mac- cabseus " are well known — as also Hadyn's " Creation," and the compositions of other authors. The passages from Scripture in the " Messiah " have a perfect commentary in the music adapted to them. Oratory (place of prayer), a name given to small domestic chapels, and also to some churches, as in Geneva. Among Romanists it denotes a private room for devotion, fitted up with altar and crucifix. Oratory, Fathers of the, a religious order founded by St. Philip Neri, an active and re- markable devotee, and approved by Gregory 406 ORD ORD XIII. in 1577. The name is taken from the be given to God; but if it appears festered on oratory which Neri built for himself at Florence. He was canonized by Pope Gregory XV. in 1622. The French branch of the order was originated by Cardinal Berulle, and sanctioned by Pope Paul v., under the title of the Oratory of Jesus. The vows of the French order are simply eccle- siastical, not sacerdotal. They belong to the secular clergy, and are not distinguished either in learning or theology. The Oratorians are found also in other countries, and recently' have made some noise in England. Ordeal is a Saxon word which signifies pur- gation. The earliest trace of any custom re- sembling the ordeals, afterwards so largely used among the northern tribes of Europe, may be found in the waters of jealousy, which the Hebrew women suspected of adultery were com- pelled to drink as a test of innocence. The four cliief ordeals of the Middle Ages, to which our Saxon ancestors resorted in common with the rest of Europe, were, — 1. That of hot iron; 2. Of boiling water ; 3. Of cold water ; 4. The corsned. Ecclesiastics usually chose the first ; they were prohibited from claiming the judicial combat in person, and they avoided the water ordeals, which for the most part were considered ignoble, and reserved for peasants. That species of the hot iron ordeal which consisted in treading, blindfold and barefooted, over a certain number of red-hot ploughshares laid lengthwise, at unequal distances, was no uncommon test of female chas- tity. The forms of service for the different species of ordeal have been given by Spelman in his Glossary from the Textus EofFensis. In the cold water ordeal, a three days' fast is to be ob- served by the accused, who are then to be brought into the church to the celebration of mass. Abjuration is made thus, — "By the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost, and by the Christianity whose name thou bearest, and by the baptism in which thou wert born again, and by all the blessed relics of the saints of God that are preserved in this church, I con- jure thee. Come not unto this altar, nor eat of this body of Christ, if thou beest guilty in the thmgs that are laid to thy charge ; but if thou beest innocent therein, come, brother, and come freely." After the exorcism the accused are to be undressed, they are to kiss the Gospels and the cross, and to be sprinkled with holy water, and then, all persons present fasting, they are to be tlirown into the water; if they sink they are absolved, if they swim they are con- victed. A similar service mutatis mutandis belonged to the hot water and iron ordeals. At the conclusion of the adjuration, holy water is to be tasted by all present, and the chamber is to be sprinkled with it. Tlien the iron is to be produced, and carried by the accused over a space of nine feet. After which his hand is to be sealed up, and not inspected till the third night is past; then, if it be clean, let thanks the mark of the iron, he must be esteemed guilty. So also in the ordeal of boiling water. In the corsned Qmnis ordeaceus) all in like manner must be fasting. The corsned was a piece of bread or cheese eaten with imprecations, and supposed to choke the person taking it if he was guilty, as in the vulgar appeal. May this morsel be my last. Order, the technical name of the law or dis- cipline of a monastic body, or of a church, as in the phrase Book of Common Order, or the Order of Geneva. Orders, Holf . — The three recognized orders in the early post-apostolic Church were bishops, priests, and deacons. The inferior grades admitted into the Roman Catholic politj^ namely, sub-dea- cons, acoly ths, exorcists, readers, and doorkeepers (pstiarii'), must be considered of later and of entirely ecclesiastical institution. Their origin is obscure, and they are not mentioned before the days of Cyprian and of Tertullian; and, indeed, although the modern Romanists count precisely five, and sometimes have assigned mys- tical reasons for so doing, the number appears to have varied in different periods of church history. The reputed Ignatius (£/>. ad Antioch, 12) ex- cludes acolyths, and )'et, b}' adding singers and copiatse, swells the list to six ; the Constitutions which bear the name of Clemens Ronianus (iii., 11) count but four — sub-deacons, readers, singers, and doorkeepers ; the Apostolical Canons, as they are called (Ixix.), name only the first three; and in a word, the number five is perhaps less selected than any other by the majority of ancient church writers, whether authentic or pseudo- nymous. Their use in early times was to form a nursery for the regular clergy, and to assist in the performance of certain lower and ordinarj' offices, to which laymen, if authorized by the bishop, were equally competent. More than one council, indeed, prohibited those who had once embarked even in tliis inferior ministry from returning to secular employments; never- theless, they were esteemed insacrati by the ancient canons. They did not receive any ordi- nation at the altar, nor, for the most part, any imposition of hands. By the fifth canon of the fourth council of Carthage, sub-deacons, on their appointment, were to receive an empty patin and an emptj' cup from the hands of the bishop, and a ewer and towel from the arch- deacon ; a ceremony implying their duties, namely, the preparation of the sacred utensils for the service of the altar. But they were not allowed in any way to minister at the altar, to step within its rails, nor even to place the holy vessels upon it. So the duties of tiie acolyths were sj'mbolized when the archdeacon presented them with a taper in a candlestick, and an empty pitcher: they were to light the candles in the church, and to supply wine for the Eucharist. Concerning the duty of the exorcists, from the 467 ORD obscurity attaching to the history of the ener- "uraens'entrusted to their care, it is difficult to speak with certainty; and it may be thought that peculiar sanctity and especial reservation would be required in persons who were to exer- cise so important a gift as the adjuration of evil Fpirits. Nevertheless, some of the occupations of the exorcists, as noticed by the ninetieth canon of the fifth council of Carthage, belong rather to inferior keepers than to spiritual guardians of the demoniacs. Thus, although at times in •which the church was not assembled they were enjoined to pray over their unhappy charges, they were also to take heed that they were busied in wholesome exercises, such as sweeping the church pavement, &c., by which idleness might be bani-hed, and the tempter thereby be de- prived of favourable opportunities for assault. They were also to look after the daily meals of their patients. The bishop, on their appoint- ment, presented them with a book containing the forms of exorcising. The readers, as their name implies, read the Scriptures publicly, not, however, at the bema of the altar, but at the pulpitum in the body of the church; and the bisliop's words, upon placing in their hands the Bible, hy which he conferred the privilege, suffi- ciently denote their separation from the regular clergy, — " Accipe, et esto lector verbi Dei, hahi- turus, sifideliter et utiliier impleveris officium, partem cum eis qui Verbum Dei ministraverunt" (IV. Cone. Carlh.^ c. viii.) To the osliarii the bishops delivered the keys of the church ; and they appear to have had about as much claim to the spiritual gifts conferred by ordination on the regular ministry as is possessed by the beadle or pew-openers of a modern chapel. We par- ticularly specify the above five inferior orders, as they are still retained by the Romanists. Besides them, at different periods of ecclesiasti- cal history, we read of psalmistce or singers, sometimes called iicrofiiXi'is, because as precentors they prompted and suggested the musical parts of the service to the remainder of the congrega- tion ; of copiatce (^xoTiair^ai, to labour), or fossarii, who looked after funerals, and seem to have united in one the functions both of a sexton and an undertaker ; and of parabolani, •who undertook the dangerous work (a-a^ajSoXov i^yov) of attending the sick. The Ciiurch of England declines admitting orders as a sacrament, for the reasons stated in her Twenty-fifth Article — " For that they have not like nature of sacraments with baptism and the Lord's Supper, for that they have not any visible sign or ceremony ordained of God." The doctrine of the Church of Rome on the sub- ject of orders is thus given: — " Canon i. If any one shall say, that there is not in the New Testament a visible and external priesthood, or that there is not any power of consecrating and offering (he true body and blood of the Lord, and of remitting and retaining sins, but ORD only an office and bare ministry of preaching the Gospel ; or that those who do not preach are not priests at all : let him be anathema. Canon ii. If any one shall say that, besides the priesthood, there are not in the Catholic Church other orders, both greater and lesser, by which, as by certain steps, advance is made unto the priesthood : let him be anathema. Canon iii. If anj' one shall say that orders or sacred ordination is not truly and properly a sacrament instituted by Christ the Lord ; or that it is a certain human figment devised by men unskilled in ecclesiastical matters ; or that it is only a certain kind for choosing ministers of the Word of God and of the sacra- ments : let him be anathema. Canon iv. If any one shall say that by sacred ordination the Holy Ghost is not given; and that the bishops do therefore vainly say, Receive ye the Boly Ghost; or that a character is not thereby imprinted ; or that he who has once been a priest can again become a layman: let him be anathema." — See under the separate names of these various offices. Orders, Religious, the various monastic bodies. — See under separate names; see also Fkiar, Monachism, Monastery, Nun. Ordibarii, a sect of the Catharists, who held that a Trinity only began to be when Jesus Christ was born — that is, Jesus became Son of God by his reception of the Word; and when this preaching attracted others the Holy Ghost began to exist. In their patois, that of the south of France, their adherents were called " hos homes " — good men, and " credentes" — believers ; these last at some future period joined the boa ordo, whence probably the name. (^Neander, vol. viii., p. 366, Translation, Edin., 1852; Kurtz, sect. 138). — See Albigenses, Bogo- MILES, CaTHARI, GaZARES. Ordinal, the name of the book which contains the forms of ordination for the various orders in the Church of England. It was prepared under Edward VI., and confirmed by parliament. Ordinances. — See Cekemont, Means op Grace. Ordinary (prdlnarius), a term used in the civil law, meaning in its most extensive signi- fication any one who hath regular and proper jurisdiction, in opposition to those who are extra- ordinarily appointed ; but in English law it has a much more confined meaning. Coke, in his Second Institute, p. 398, says, that "This word signifieth a bishop, or he or they that have ordi- nary jurisdiction, and is derived ab ordine" for which he gives a quaint reason, as if the name were selected for the purpose of keeping the indi- vidual who bears it in perpetual remembrance of "the high order and office that he is called unto." When the word is used in the present day, it is generally to denote either the individual who has the right to grant letters of administra- tion of the effects of deceased persons, or him who has the right of ecclesiastical visitation. The bishop of the diocese is, generally speaking, the 46S ORD ordinary in the first of these two senses; but there are many peculiar jurisdictions which inter- fere with his. In the second sense, the pope was formerly, as the queen is now, supreme ordinary, and as such, the visitor of the archbishops or metropolitans; the metropolitan is the ordinary' of the suffragan bishops in his province ; each bishop in his own diocese is ordinary and visitor of all deans and chapters, parsons, vicars, and other ecclesiastical corporations. The archdeacon, too, visits the clergy in his district, and therefore is called the ordinar}'. In some cases the arch- deacon has a peculiar or exclusive jurisdiction, but generally his authority is only concurrent with that of the bishop. — See Inhibition. Ordiiiatioii. — In the early Church many laws were enacted as to the persons who might receive ordination. By the Apostolical Canons no blind or deaf person, no demoniac or volun- tary eunuch was to be ordained, nor a slave with- out his master's consent. The same prohibition by the same authority was extended to such as had kept a concubine, or had married two sisters, or a widow, or a person divorced, or a harlot, or a slave, or an actress, and to any one who retained an adulterous wife. Those who married irregu- larly could not be ordained, nor those who lapsed, nor those who had done public penance, nor per- sons newly turned from heathenism. Actors, sol- diers, murderers, usurers, seditious persons, per- sons baptized by heretics, or clinically baptized (see Clinics), were placed iu the same categorj', as well as those whose families had not all become Christian. — See Clergy. -Ordination belonged to the bishop, and for his ordination, see Bishop. Forced ordinations, though occurring, were gene- rally condemned, and every bishop was to be ordained in his own church. When he was or- dained, two bishops held the Gospels over his head, and solemn prayer was offered, which, ac- cording to the Apostolic Constitutions, contains a supplication that he might receive the Holy Spirit, and have power to remit sin, confer orders, and offer the " pure unbloody sacrifice," the sacrament of the New Covenant. Then he was enthroned, and wrote certain official letters. — See Enthronization, Letters Enturonistic, Deacon. The forms for the consecration of bishops and the ordaining of priests and deacons, according to the usage of tiie Ctiurch of Eng- land, were set forth, in a manner very little differing from that now employed, in the Liturgy promulgated in 2 Edward VI. By 3 and 4 Edward VI., c. 10, all other forms were abol- ished, and afterwards by 5 and 6 Edward VI., c. 1, the existing form was annexed to the Book of Common Pruijer. It was then legally estab- lished by the Tliirty-nine Articles, by the eighth canon, and by the Act of Uniformity, 13 and 14 Charles II., c. 4. The time for ordination is restricted by the thirty-first canon to the Sundays following the four Ember Weeks; but on urgent ORD occasions, the bishop, at his discretion, may admit priests and deacons on some other Sunday or holiday. The place is the bishop's own cathedral, the church of the parish in which he resides, or the chapel of his palace. The quali- fications for the person to be ordained are, that to be admitted deacon he be twenty-three years of age (canon xxxiv.), unless he have a faculty (Preface to Form of Ordination), which faculty or dispensation for persons of extraordinary abi- lities must be obtained, as it seems, from the Arch- bishop of Canterbury. To be admitted priest, a candidate must be four-and-twenty years com- plete, and in this case there is no dispensation. (Canon xxxiv., 13 El. c. 12.) By the thirty-third canon some certain place is required at which the priest or deacon may exercise his function, and that title, as it is called, must be exhibited to the bishop. The titles enumerated are a pre- sentation to some ecclesiastical preferment then void in the diocese; an appointment to some cure of souls in the same; a fellowship, conduct- ship, or chaplainship in some college in Cambridge or Oxford ; or a certificate that he is a Master of Arts of five years' standing, living at his own charge in either of the universities. And if any bishop shall admit any person into the ministry that hath none of these titles as aforesaid, then ho shall keep and maintain him with all things necessary till he do prefer him to some ecclesias- tical living. And if the said bishop shall refuse so to do, he .shall be suspended by the archbishop, being assisted with another bishop, from giving of orders by the space of a year. A testimonial of good life and conversation must be exhibited to the bishop, under the seal of some college of Oxford or Cambridge, where the candidate before remained, or of three or four grave ministers, who have known his life and behaviour for the space of three j'ears next before. The signatures now required are those of three beneficed clergy- men, countersigned by the bishops of their dio- ceses, provided their benefices are not situated in the diocese of the ordaining bishop. If the candidate shall have quitted college, a notice, termed a Si quis, calling upon any person who is aware of just cause or imjiediment to his ordina- tion to signify it to the bishop, must be read during divine service in the church of the parish in which the candidate usually resides, and a testimonial that no impediment has been alleged, signed by the officiating minister and the churchwardens, must be transmitted to the bishop. A certificate, also, of having attended university divinity lectures must be procured, and liicewise a certificate of baptism to avouch the legal age. The previous examination by right appertains to the archdeacon, who in the form of ordination presents the candidates to the bishop. It is usually performed by a chaplain appointed for that purpose by the bishop, and with res|)cct to juiest's orders in particular, the candidates must be able to render to the ordinary 469 ORD an account of his faith, in Latin, according to the Thirtv-nine Articles, or have special gift or ability to be a preacher. No bishop may admit any person into sacred orders who is not of his own diocese, except he is of one of the univer- sities, i. e.,have a title as Fellow of a College; or except he shall bring letters dimissory from the bishop to whose diocese he belongs. The candidates must take the oaths of allegiance and supremacy before the ordinary or commissary, must subscribe the Thirty-nine Articles, and three other articles specified by the thirt3--sixth canon ; one respecting the exclusion of all foreign autho- rities from spiritual or ecclesiastical power within the king's dominions; another respecting the legality of the Book of Common Prayer ; and a third respecting the Articles of Religion. — See Oath. This subscription must be made before the bishop, willingly and ex animo. The form of ordination is given in the Service-Book. After the preliminaries referred to, and an address given by the bishop, the following questions are put: — " Do j'ou think in your heart that you be truly called, according to the will of our Lord Jesus Christ, and the order of this United Church of England and Ireland, to the order and minis- trj' of priesthood ? • " Answer. I think it. " The BisJiop. Are you persuaded that the holy Scriptures contain sufficiently all doctrine required of necessity for eternal salvation through faith in Jesus Christ? and are you determined, out of the said Scriptures, to instruct the people committed to your charge, and to teach nothing, as required of necessity to eternal salvation, but that which you shall be persuaded may be con- cluded and proved by the Scripture? ^^ Answer. I am so persuaded, and have so determined by God's grace. " The Bishop. Will you, then, give j'our faith- ful diligence always so to minister the doctrine and sacraments, and the discipline of Christ, as the Lord hath commanded, and as this church and realm hath received the same, according to the commandments of God : so that you may teach the people committed to your cure and charge with all diligence to keep and observe the same ? " Answer. I will so do by the help of the Lord. " The Bishop. Will you be ready, with all faithful diligence, to banish and drive away all erroneous and strange doctrines contrary to God's AVord, and to use both public and private moni- tions and exhortations, as well to the sick as to the whole, within your cures, as need shall require, and occasion shall be given ? " Ansioer. I will, the Lord being my helper. " The Bishop. Will you be diligent in prayers and in reading of the holy Scriptures, and in such studies as help to the knowledge of the same, laying aside the study of the world and the flesh? ORD " Answer. I will endeavour myself so to do, the Lord being my helper. " The Bishop. Will you be diligent to frame and fashion your own selves, and your families, according to the doctrine of Christ, and to make both yourselves and them, as much as in you lieth, wholesome examples and patterns to the flock of Christ? " Ansiver. I will apply myself thereto, the Lord being my helper. " The Bishop. Will you maintain and set for- wards, as much as lieth in you, quietness, peace, and love, among all Christian people, and espe- cially among them that are or shall be committed to your charge? " Answer. I will so do, the Lord being my helper. " The Bishop. Will you reverently obey your ordinary, and other chief ministers, unto whom is committed the charge and government over J'OU, following with a glad mind and will their godly admonitions, and submitting yourselves to their godly judgments? " Answer. I will so do, the Lord being my helper. " The bishop toith the priests present shall lay their hands severally upon the head of every one that receiveth the order of priesthood, the receivers humbly kneeling upon their knees, and the bishop saying, " Receive the Holy Ghost for the office and work of a priest in the Church of God, now committed unto thee by the imposition of our hands. Whose sins thou dost forgive they are forgiven ; and whose sins thou dost retain, they are retained. And be thou a faithful dispenser of the Word of God, and of his holy Sacraments ; in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost. Amen. " Then the bishop shall deliver to every one of them kneeling, the Bible into his hand, saying, "Take thou authority to preach the Word of God, and to minister the hoh' Sacraments in the congregation, where thou shalt be lawfully ap- pointed thereunto." In Presbvterian Churches a student, after the usual curriculum at college and divinity hall, is licensed (see License), and, after re- ceiving a call, preaches certain trial discourses before the presbytery. His edict is read (see Edict), and then he is ordained " by the laying on of the hands of the presbytery." The doctrine of ordination is thus laid down in the Westminster books, — " Touching the Doctrine of Ordination. — No man ought to take upon him the off.ce of a minister of the Word without a lawful calling. Ordination is always to be continued in the church. Ordina- tion is the solemn setting apart of a person to some public church office. Every minister of the Word is to be ordained by imposition of hands, and prayer, with fasting, by those preaching presbyters to whom it doth belong. It is agree- 0 ORD able to the Word of God, and very expedient, that such as are to be ordained ministers be de- signed to some particular church, or other minis- terial charge. lie that is to be ordained minister must be duly qualiGed, both for life and ministerial abilities, according to the rules of the apostle. He is to be examined and approved by those by •whom he is to be ordained. No man is to be ordained a minister for a particular congrega- tion if they of that congregation can show just cause of exception against him." Ordination is usually conducted as follows ; — After sermon by one of the ministers present, the following questions in the Church of Scotland are put to the candidate ; and the same form of questions, with a few unimportant deviations, are used in the other Presbyterian bodies : — " 1. Do j'ou believe the Scriptures of the Old and New Testament to be the Word of God, and the only rule of faith and manners? 2. Do you sincerely own and believe the whole doctrine contained in the Confession of Faith, approven by the general assemblies of this church, and ratified by law in the year 1690, to be founded upon the Word of God ? And do you acknowledge the same as the confession of j'our faith ; and will you firmly and constantly adhere thereto, and, to the utmost of your power, assert, maintain, and de- fend the same, and the purity of worship as presently practised in this national church, and asserted in the 15th act of assembly, 1707? 3. Do you disown all Popish, Arian, Socinian, Ar- miuian, Bourignian, and other doctrines, tenets, and opinions whatsoe%'er, contrary to and incon- sistent with the foresaid Confession of Faith? 4. Are you persuaded that the presbyterian govern- ment and discipline of this church are founded upon the Word of God, and agreeable thereto? And do you promise to submit to the said go- vernment and discipline, and to concur -with the same, and never endeavour, directly nor indirectly, the prejudice or subversion thereof, but, to the utmost of your power, in yoxir station, to main- tain, support, and defend the said discipline and presbyterian government, by kirk-sessions, pres- byteries, provincial synods, and general assem- blies, during all the days of your life ? 5. Do ORG functions of the holy ministry, and not worldly designs and interest ? 7. Have you used any undue methods, either by yourself or others, in procuring this call ? 8. Do you engage, in the strength of Jesus Christ our Lord and Master, to rule well your own family, to live a holy and circumspect life, and faithfully, diligently, and cheerfully, to discharge all the parts of tlie min- isterial work, to the edification of the body of Christ? 9. Do you accept of and close with the call to be pastor of this parish, and promise, through grace, to perform all the duties of a faithful minister of the Gospel among this people." The candidate is then set apart by solemn prayer and the imposition of hands. Suitable counsels are then tendered to him, and to the people, who at the conclusion of the service come forward and give him the right hand of fellowship See Charge. Organ (instrument'), as if of all musical instruments the most noble and powerful (see Biblical Cyclopcedia). The period when organs were brought into Europe is uncertain ; but they had been long in use in the East, and also in some parts of Africa. Pope Vitalian is supposed to have introduced it about 670 ; but certainlj', in 755, Copronymus, the Greek em- peror, sent one to Pepin, King of France. By the tenth century organs were common in England. Tlie use of instrumental music in the service of the Church was strongly opposed at an early time, and no mention is made of it in the old liturgies. Clement of Alexandria allows it for private Christians, such as the lute and the harp; and Chrysostom says it was permitted to the Jews, as sacrifices were. Several of the ancient fathers dwell on the spirituality of Christian worship, and place it in contrast with Levitical service. They condemn the tendency to enjoy the music for its own sake, as if men were at a theatre. Thus Augustine reprobates " nice sing- ing of psalms,'' such intricate singing as pre- vented the people from joining in praise. Music of this kind, whether vocal or instrumental, must ever be condemned. Thomas Aquinas (1250) says, — "Our church does not use musical instru- ments, as harps and psalteries, to praise God you promise to submit yourself willingly and i withal, that she maj' not appear to Judaize. humbl}-, in the spirit of meekness, unto the admonitions of the brethren of this presbytery, and to be subject to them, and all other presby- teries and superior judicatories of this church, where God in his providence shall cast j'Our lot ; and that according to your power you shall maintain tlie unity and peace of this churcli against error and schism, notwithstanding of whatsoever trouble or persecution may arise; and that you shall follow no divisive courses from the present established doctrine, worship, discipline, and government of this churcli ? 6. Are not zeal for the honour of God, love to Jesus Christ, and desire of saving souls, your great motives and chief inducements to enter into the Nor ought a pipe, nor any other artificial instru- ments, such as organ or harp, or the like, be brought into use in the Christian Church, but only those things which shall make the hearers better men. For by musical instruments the mind is more directed to amusement than to the forming of a good internal disjjosition. But under the Old Testament such instruments were used, partly because the people were harder and more carnal, — upon which account they were to be stirred up by these instruments, as likewise by earthly promises, — and partly because these bodily instruments were typical of something." This statement may not refer to the entire Latin Church, but probably to some poniou of it. in 471 ORG tbe Latin Church organs were, at length, exten- sively used, and after the Reformation the Luth- eran and the Anglican Church retained them. The question of their use in churches has been often debated, from the days of Hospinian down to our own. Presbyterians, Indepen- dents, and Methodists now, liowever, use them, so that they have ceased to be a denomina- tional ciiaracteristic. The question is one of taste rather than conscience or Scripture. The passage in Ephesians v. 19, so often appealed to by both parties, says nothing for either (see our Commentary on the place, and those of Alford, EUicott, Meyer, Hodge). Instrumental music was no Jewish thing in any typical sense, the choristers and performers of David's orchestra ■were no original or essential element of the Levitical economy. The music of the temple stood upon a different basis from sacrifice, which has long been formally superseded. But the ser- vice of song is not once alluded to in the Epistle to the Hebrews as among the things which "de- caj'ed and waxed old." Its employment in the Christian Church is therefore no introduc- tion of any point or portion of Jewish ritual, nor any digression into popish ceremonial. In- deed, the emploj-ment of an organ to guide the music is properly not ritualistic at all. The leader has his pitch-pipe, and the hundred pipes of the organ onh' serve to guide and sustain the voice of the people. Nobody wishes to praise God by the mere sound of the organ : its music only helps and supports the melody and wor- ship of the church. It has been abused cer- tainly, but the sensuous luxury of some con- gregations should be no bar to the right and legitimate use of it by others. In fact, the proper employment of it might be pleaded for on the same grounds as scientific education in music. Both are simply helps to the public worship of God. The Presbyterian Churches in this country have made stout and continued resistance against the use of organs. In the Church of Scotland the matter was discussed in connection with the use of an organ by the congregation of St. Andrews, Glasgow. The case was brought before the Pres- bytery of Glasgow, and no appeal was made. On the 7th October, 1807, the following motion was carried: — "That the presbytery are of opinion that the use of the organ in the public worsliip of God is contrary to the laiu of the land, and to the law and constitution of our Established Church, and therefore prohibit it in all the churches and chapels within their bounds ; and with respect to Dr. Ritchie's conduct in this matter, they are satisfied with his declaration." In 1829 the question was brought up in the Relief Synod — as an organ had been introduced into Roxburgh Place Chapel, Edinburgh. The deliverance, given by a very large majority, was as follows: — " It being admitted and incon- troveriibly true that the Rev. John Johnston ORG had introduced instrumental music into the public worship of God, in the Relief Congrega- tion, Roxburgh Place, Edinburgh, which inno- vation the synod are of opinion is unauthorized by the laws of the New Testament, contrary to the universal practice of the Ciiurch in the first and purest periods of her history, contrary to the universal practice of the Church of Scotland, and contrary to the consuetudinary laws of the synod of Relief, and highly inexpedient. The synod agree to express their regret that any indi- vidual member of their body should have had the temerity to introduce such a dangerous innova- tion into the public worship of God in this country, which has a manifest tendency to oflPend many serious Christians and congrega- tions, and create a schism in the body, without having first submitted it to the consideration of his brethren according to usual form. On all which accounts the synod agree to enjoin the Rev. John Johnston to give up this practice instanter, with certification if he do not, the Edinburgh Presbytery shall hold a meeting on the second Tuesday of September next, and strike his name off the roll of presbytery, and declare him incapable of holding office as a minister in the Relief denomination. And further, to pre- vent the recurrence of this or any similar prac- tice, the synod enjoin a copy of this sentence to be serlt to every minister in the synod, to be laid before his session, and read after public worship in his congregation, for their satisfac- tion, and to deter others from following divisive courses in all time coming." An organ having been erected in the new Claremont Church, Glasgow, the same question came up in 1856 before the United Presbyterian Synod, with which the Relief Synod had been for some years incorporated. Again more formally in 1858, when the following motion was carried alike against one for toleration, which had many supporters, and against another, which certainly had few supporters, and contained the assertion, "Instrumental music was one of the carnal ordinances of the Levitical economy." The motion which passed into law was, — "That the synod re-afliirm their deliverance of 1856 respect- ing the use of instrumental music in public worship — viz., ' The sj-nod refused the petition of the memorialists, inasmuch as the use of in- strumental music in public worship is contrary to the uniform practice of this church, and of the other Presbyterian Churches in this country, and would seriously disturb the peace of the churches under the inspection of this synod; and at the same time enjoined sessions to employ all judicious measures for the improvement of vocal psalmody ;' and the synod now declare said deliverance to be applicable to diets of con- gregational worship on week days as well as on the Lord's Day." It is to be observed that in each of these three instances, a constitutional i principle of presbyterianism was violated, tbe I 472 ORI organ was introduced, and the innovation made •without consulting the brethren, — without asij- ing the advice or sanction of the presbytery. These decisions were anticipated by Aelred, a monli of the twelfth century, who says, — " Since all types and figures are now ceased, why so many organs and cymbals in our churclies '? Why, I say, that terrible blowing of bellows, that rather imitates the frightsomeness of thunder than the sweet harmony of the voice ? For what end is this contraction and dilatation of the voice ? One restrains his breath, and another breaks his breath, and a third unaccountably dilates his voice, and sometimes, which I am ashamed to say, they fall a-quivering, like the neighing of horses ; then they lay down their manly vigour, and with their voices endeavour to imitate the softness of women." Oriental Churches. — See Eastern Churches. Oriflnmme is the banner of the abbey of St. Dennis, which was taken by the kings of France, on occasions of great emergency, from the altar of that abbey, and on such occasions it was always consecrated and blessed. Louis VI. received the oriflamme A.D. 1119 and 1125, and a writer of that period speaks of this as an ancient custom of the French kings. The consecration of a knight's pennon or gonfanon was indeed an essential feature in the solemn religious ceremo- nial by which he was elevated to the rank of knighthood in those ages. The consecration of standards for an army or a regiment is merely a different form of the same general idea. — See Knights. Origciiists. — The speculations of Origen were upon all subjects; and, in the spirit of the new Platonic school of Alexandria, he spiritual- ized large portions of Scripture. The following tenets among others have been ascribed to him : — 1. That the soul of Christ was united to the Word before the incarnation. 2. That there is a pre-existent state of human souls. 3. That souls were condemned to animate mortal bodies in order to expiate faults they had committed in a pre-existent state. 4. Tliat, after long periods of time, the damned shall be released from their torments, and restored to a new state of probation. 5. Tliat the earth, after its conflagration, shall again be inhabited. (Mosiieim's Eccles. Hist., vol. i,, pp. 219-225 ; Adams's View of Relifjlons, p. 245, &c.) Origiiinl JBiirghcrs, Aniiburghers, Se- rcihvris iTriffxo'roi, Tov 'prp'.o'SuTipou ojjXavoT/ t«v Tci^ti/ frXijgouiTis, The famous Irenaeus, Bishop of Lyons, in his ofiicial letter to the Roman Bishop Victor, enu- merates all the bishops who preceded Victor at Rome, and styles them presbyters, who formerly presided over that apostolic church at Rome. ' Jerome, one of the most learned of the Latin fathers, who had before him all the testimonies and arguments of earlier writers, has placed this matter la its true light with peculiar distinct- ness. In his annotation on the first chapter of the Epistle to Titus, he gives the following account PRE of the nature and origin of the episcopal office: — "A presbyter is the same as a bishop. And until, by the instigation of the devil, there arose divisions in religion, and it was said among the people, ' I am of Paul, and I of Apollos, and I of Cephas,' churches were governed by a com- mon council of the presbj'ters. But afterwards, when every one regarded those whom he bap- tized as belonging to himself rather than to Christ, it was everywhere decreed that one per- son, elected from the presbyters, should be placed o\-er the others, to whom the care of the whole church might belong, and thus the seeds of divi- sion might be taken away. Should any one suppose that this opinion — that a bishop and presbyter is the same, and that one is the deno- mination of age, and the other of office — is not sanctioned by the Scriptures, but is only a private fancy of my own, let him read over again the apostle's words to the Philippians : ' Paul and Timotheus, the servants of Jesus Christ, to all the saints in Christ Jesus which are at Philippi, with the bishops and deacons: grace be unto you, and peace from God our Father, and from the Lord Jesus Christ,' &c. Philippi is a single city of Macedonia ; and certainly, of those who are now styled bishops there could not have been several at one time in the same city. But because at that time they called the same per- sons bishops whom they styled also presbvters, therefore the apostle spoke indifferently of bishops as of presbyters." The writer then refers to the fact that St. Paul having sent for the presbyters (in the plural) of the single city of Ephesus only, afterwards called the same persons bishops, (Acta XX.) To this fact he calls particular attention ; and then observes, that in the Epistle to the Hebrews also, we find the care of the church divided equally amongst manj-: "Obey them that have the rule over you, and submit your- selves; for they watch for your souls, as they that must give account ; that they may do it with joy, and not with grief; for that is [unj- profltable for you." "And Peter," continues Jerome, " who received his name from the firm- ness of his faith, says in his epistle, ' The presby- ters who are among you I exhort, who am also a presbyter, and a witness of the sufferings of Christ, and also a partaker of the glory that shall be revealed ; feed the flock of God which is among you [he omits the words, taking the oversight thereof, iTurxo-rouvrts — i. e., superin- tending it], not by constraint, bat willingly.' These things we have brought forward to show that with the ancients presbyters were the same as bishops. But in order that the roots of disr sension might be plucked up, a usage gradually took place that the whole care should devolve upon one. Therefore, as the presbyters know that it is by the custom of the church that they are subject to him who is placed over them, so. let the bishops know that they are above presby-f ters rather by custom than by the truth of onr 512 PRE PEE Lord's appointment, and that they ought to rule | office or order, the following facts ; — " 1. The the church in common, herein imitating Mo?e5," &c. The same views are maintained by this father in his Epistle to Evagrius, with the adJ.itional mention of the fact, that from the first founda- tion of the Church of Alexandria down to the days of Heraclas and Dionysius, the presbyters of that church made (or, as we should say, con- secrated) their bishops. The passage, which is quoted at some length in the note, is very im- portant. Having referred to several passages of the Acts and Epistles in proof of an assertion which he had made, to the effect that bishop and presbyter were at first the same, he proceeds to say, that " afterwards, when one was elected, and set over the others, this was designed as a remedy against schism. . . . For at Alex- andria, from the evangelist Mark down to the Bishops Heraclas and Dionysius, the presbyters always gave the name of bishop to one whom they elected from themselves, and placed in a higher degree; in the same way as an army may create its general, or as deacons may elect one of their own body whom they know to be assiduous in the discharge of duty, and call him ai'chdeacoTi. For what does a bishop perform, exct^pt ordination, which a presbyter may not do?" &c. The fact which Jerome here states respecting the appointment and ordination of bishops in the Church of Alexandria by presby- ters alone, for the space of more than two cen- turies, is attested also by Eutychius, Patriarch of Alexandria. And the opinion of Jerome respect- ing the original equality, or rather identity of presbyter and bishop, is in perfect accordance with the language of a still earlier writer, Ter- tullian' — De Bap., c. 17. The identity of bishops and presbyters is further evident from the cir- cumstance that they both received the same honorary titles, T^aiaruri;, •Jt^in'rira.i, ^(oio^o prepositi, antisies, equivalent to presidents, moderators, chairmen, or presiding ofiicers. Presbyters were also denominated a-ut^^otoi and •/ rod B^ovov — partners of the throne. A distinction is sometimes made between those of the first and of the second throne ; in which case the latter evidently designates presbyters. But it is still plain that, in such instances, the pre-eminence ascribed to the bishop is only that of ^primus inter pares'' — chief among equals. Even the most zealous advocates of the epis- copal system in the Greek, Roman, and English Church, are constrained to recognize and admit the identity of the terms s!r/