-■^^ tihvavy of t:he trheological ^tminavy PRINCETON • NEW JERSEY The Library of Addison Alexander March 30. 1859 B rr 145 .M83 1850 v. 2 ^ sheim, Johann Lorenz, I _694?-1755. Institutes of ecclesiastica 'lis tor y do-. HORNE'S (BISHOP) COMMENTARY OX THE PSALMS, 8vo. cloth, 7s. JORTIN'S REMARKS ON ECCLESIASTICAL HIS- TORY, 2 vols. Svn. r1,i-'.. 14s. W. Tegg & Co>, 85, Queen St,, Cheapside, London, E.G. INSTITUTES OP ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY ANCIENT AND MODERN. VOL. II. London : Spottiswoodes and Shaw, ' New-Street-Square. INSTITUTES OF ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY, ANCIENT AND MODERN, JOHN LAURENCE VON MOSIIEIM, D.D. CHANCELLOE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF GOTTINGEN. A NEW AND LITERAL TRANSLATION FROM THE ORIGINAL LATIN, WITH COPIOUS ADDITIONAL NOTES, ORIGINAL AND SELECTED, BY JAMES MURDOCK, D.D. EDITED WITH ADDITIONS, BY HENRY SOAMES, M.A. RECTOR OF STAPLEFORD TAWNEY, WITH THOYDON MOUNT, KSSEX. SECOTtTD REVISED ESITZOIT. IN FOUR VOLUMES. VOL. XL— MEDIEVAL PERIOD. LONDON: longman, brown, green, anp longmans; iiatciiard and son; f, and j. rivington; Hamilton and co. ; simpkin and co. ; whittaker and co. ; cowik and co. ; t. bumpus ; bagstett and sons; j. bain; t. and w. boone; j. bigo AND SON ; E. HODGSON; H. G. BOHN; HOULSTON and CO.; H. WASIIBOURNE ; SMITH, ELDER, AND CO.; J, NISBET AND CO.: STEVENS AND CO.; W. J. CLEAVER; J. GREEN; w. white; g. Willis; j. cobnish; j. snow; g. routledge; bickers and co. ; AND J. H. PARKER, OXFORD. 1850. ^7 PElitUK'iUxl N^, '»VV*WVV^^ EDITOR'S PREFACE SECOND VOLUME. The Medieval Period, in ecclesiastical history, draws its interest exclusively from the Roman church. The Greek church is, indeed, never out of sight, and other Oriental churches appear at intervals ; but the popes are constantly found upon the alert to acquire power over them all. Thus the present volume of Mosheim's learned work is essentially a papal history. The facts, however, detailed in it are worthy of attentive considera- tion by studious minds of every class. The theologian, espe- cially, should form a deliberate opinion upon them. One section of the learned world maintains, that nothing happened in the middle ages which did not naturally flow from the gradual development of a system ascending uninterruptedly to Jesus Christ and his apostles. Another section traces through these very ages the stealthy growth of religious usages and principles, which the holy founders of Christianity never sanctioned. Nay, more: it sees much in medieval religion that cannot be reconciled with apostolic teaching. It Is idle, or insidious, to treat such questions as mere vents for the ill- humours, and a relief to the monotonous pursuits of recluse theologians. They are questions which bear most importantly upon the interests of mankind, both temporal imd cttrnal. A 3 vi editor's preface. Keligious minds are at no loss to see that spiritual interests of vital movement are involved in the differences between pro- testant and papist. Mere men of the world, who look a little below the surface, know that civil affairs in Europe largely turned, for ages, upon the ascendancy of papal Rome, or upon temporary abatements of her influence. Nor even still are her powers gone for acting importantly upon society. To under- stand the real nature of her position, and of the systems that have risen on her abasement, a competent knowledge of medieval ecclesiastical history is indispensable. If this portion be taken as beginning with the sixth century, (which seems its natural opening,) it exhibits the Gospel tri- umphant throughout the Roman empire; yet, at the same time, paganism by no means extinct. The ancient system was not only still cherished by the vulgar in secluded parts of the country : these were, indeed, its strongholds, and hence hea- thenism has long been denoted by a word which properly means rusticity.* But the old theology was yet powerfully tenacious of superior life. Superficial observers, who merely think of paganism as it appears in the poets of classical antiquity, may be surprised at its influence over any cultivated mind, except as a mere vehicle for fascinating imagery. But it should be recol- lected that the grosser parts of mythology were treated, by ancients of learning and discernment, as meant only for the grosser elements of society, to which they might be conceded from the radical unfitness of inferior life for any thing that re- quires a real insight into truth. Philosophers themselves looked upon the various deities as nothing more than inferior mediators with the Great Supreme, and their current histories as allegories, or ill-preserved traditions. It is most probable, besides, that additional purity and lustre were given to the last years of classical paganism by its contact with Christianity. It is at least certain, that many of the best informed were among its adherents, and that they advocated its cause upon the grounds of antiquity, and adaptation to the great mass of men : much ' Paganism, from pagus, a country district. editor's preface. vii the same grounds that later ages have often seen Romanists taking in their controversies with Protestants. The student of the earlier portions of medieval religious history will not fail to remark, that such arguments ably urged from quarters com- manding public attention, had their natural weight even upon the Church herself. Many Christians, and often of considerable eminence, displayed a disposition for some sort of compromise between philosophy and Christianity. Thus the Platonic doc- trines especially gained a footing in the Church, and an infusion of a spirit, originally placed in direct opposition to it, acted extensively upon professors of the Gospel. These facts de- mand attentive consideration from all who would understand the present aspect of the Christian body. There are none who deny that this compromise with Pagan- ism went at least so far as to introduce permanently into the Greek and Latin Churches some of the external usages of the former system. These usages may be thought unimportant or otherwise, as men's dispositions, or prepossessions, may variously incline. But medieval religious history shows them to have produced a natural, yet most lamentable re-action. Prone as men have always been to a gross and theatrical wor- ship, they have never wanted some among them to represent a more spiritual system as more agi'eeable to God, or rather, as alone agreeable to Him, and as more suitable to Ills ra- tional creation. Upon the representations of this class, Malio- met reared an influence which eventually seemed at one time to threaten even the very existence of Christianity. Externally, the Church began to wear an aspect little difterent from the Paganism which she had supplanted. Her enemies rc])rcscnted her system, under its present corrupt administration, as really identical with the heathenism that she professed to reprobate, and that really must be reprobated by all who duly feel the force of divine truth. Let her compliances be defended as they may, all must see them to have found here a fatal vantage ground for Oriental prejudices against the Gospel. As a mere historical f;\ct, these compliances are also worthy of observation, A 4 viii editor's preface. because they account for the appearance and success of Maho- metanism. Those who would fasten Pagan principles upon the Church of Rome, in addition to Pagan usages, may also consider the remarkable rejection of the deutero-Nicene council by Ger- many, Gaul, and Britain. Italy and the East had been stunned by the clamours of acute, able, and virtuous philosophy, in favour of the ancient pagan system. The north-west of Europe knew it only as the gross and exploded superstition of barba- rians. Hence that portion of the Christian world was startled and indionant at Roman patronage of image-worship, the very thino- which Gospel missionaries had industriously decried. It was a worship, however, so deeply rooted in the human heart, and in the lingering habits of the north-western nations, that they silently, but readily, received the second council of Nice after no very long intervaL This fact, however, is rather im- portant, as showing the proneness of mankind for Paganism. The rejection that Iconolatry, though recommended by pope Adrian and the East, originally experienced among Christians of the West, affords reason for inferring that heathen rites were introduced into the Church quite as much to meet the argu- ments of philosophers as to meet the cravings of a vulgar ap- petite for sensual worship. Hence it may be considered, whether the philosophers, in affecting the face of the Church, did not also affect her principles. The most prominent subject of this volume is, however, the papacy itself. It shows the bishops of Rome gradually becom- ing temporal princes, and eventually exerting a sort of para- mount authority over European affairs. There are those who would at once dismiss this remarkable picture as irrefragable evidence of some divine right. Others will rather seek to trace the steps by Avhich such striking results were accomplished. These steps are all clearly to be seen by the student of medieval religious history. The court's removal to Constantinople left the very opulent and influential bishop of the ancient capital in a situation that he never could have attained if his imperial editor's preface. ix master had still tenanted the palatine hill. As years rolled on, that master wanted to suppress image-worship. The Roman populace was outraged by this attack upon inveterate habits, and its bishop took the popular side. A revolt now annihilated the imperial authority over Rome, thus rendering the pope more powerful than ever. This power gained its next and its most important augmentation from the Carlovingian usurpation of the Frankish throne. To obtain an approval of this from the most influential of Christian prelates was obviously desir- able, and it was a concession which the usurping family repaid by most profuse liberality to the Roman see. Thus Rome became a centre from which such able men as Sylvester II., Gregory VII., Innocent III., and Boniface VIII., could move the western world. It was under the first of these famous pontiffs, that the Roman see took something of that very lofty position which it occupied during four centuries. To the second was it indebted for the distinct enunciation of its encroaching claims, and for very considerable success in their establishment. The third saw papal greatness at its height. The fourth ex- ceeded even his boldest predecessors in the tone of his preten- sions. But a spirit of resistance was now abroad Avhich he could not overcome, and which permanently eclipsed the Roman see. From the time of Boniface the papal power declined. This volume, therefore, unfolds the rise, progress, and commencing decline of that remarkable spiritual mo- narchy, which exercised for ages a commanding influence over the affairs of men, both spiritual and temporal. To trace the steps of that monarchy is not important merely, or even chiefly, as an interesting subject of historical inquiry. The fact is, that for many years the papacy was generally con- sidered as the supreme depositary of European power, even in temporals.2 Papal partisans adduce evidence of that fiict, and ^ For this may be consulted the abbe VII., a \vt)rk tliat docs something more Jager's Introduction to his French than justice to the memory of that ver>' transhition of Voigt's History of Grajory able poutit^". X EDITORS PREFACE. would fain refer it to the heavenly endowment of St, Peter. The student of medieval religious history will watch the cases in which this power was recognised. He will examine whether princes were thus complaisant to the see of Rome, unless they had some selfish end in view. The reason why Rome could serve them is obvious enough. It was the ancient metropolis of Europe ; it had retained a considerable degree of civiliza- tion, when every thing else to the north and west was barba- rous, or little better ; it contained the ablest divines and canon- ists that the west could boast ; it had been the scene of apo- stolic ministries and martyrdoms, which was a strong recom- mendation to superstitious minds. Its bishops had long been dear to inferior life, as the only effectual barrier against noble and princely avarice and oppression. Could princes, therefore, use an instrument so powerful upon occasions for their own pur- poses, they were willing enough to aid these piu-poses, by making, on the spur of the moment, strange and most impolitic conces- sions. It will be seen, too, that the papacy really derived great ad- vantage from the crusades ; and hence it may be worth con- sidering whether an opinion is well founded which has been advanced among protestants, that these ebullitions of military fanaticism were artfully promoted by the popes from sordid motives. The question, however, is of little moment, except for the sake of historical justice ; the crusades really having left fewer traces upon society than almost any other movement of equal magnitude, within such a distance of time. But It may be observed with little hesitation, that the popes in this case appear to have been unjustly blamed. They seem to have been hurried blindly on by the same stream of fanaticism that carried down their contemporaries, and only to have been actuated by that degree of selfishness which promjited a skilful use of such advantages as the folly of others threw in their way. With respect to the monastic system, which this volume editor's preface. xi traces to Its origin, and through the whole of its most brilhant period, the conduct of Rome seems hardly capable of so fixvour- able a construction. To no institution does the papacy stand so deeply indebted, as to monachism. To suppose, indeed, that Rome, from interested foresight, stimulated the first movements of Benedict of Nursia, and undertook the guidance of his order, would be absurd, no less than uncharitable and untrue. But it is difficult to elude a suspicion, that when the monkish con- federacies attained importance, their motions, controllable by a few superiors, their power to check the secular clergy, and their strong hold upon popular fanaticism and superstition, did not tempt the Roman court to seek materials in them for its own ao-ofrandisement. The Church's medieval history is also that of papal theology, as it now appears. Image-worship did not obtain synodical recognition until the eighth century. Transubstantiation came forward in the ninth, but it was not regularly made an article of faith until the year 1215. This was then done by Innocent III. in the fourth council of Lateran. That pope also bound men, through the same assembly, to auricular confession, at least once in every year. Upon this obligation arose in time, the practice of pronouncing a direct absolution^immediately after confession. Anciently, such a gratification was delayed until penance had actually been performed and even then the penitent's par- don was only prayed for, not authoritatively pronounced. By the new system, the Church's former penitential discipline was finally extinguished, and undiscerning minds were made easy under sin. Subtle defences for this innovation, and other grafts upon the Christianity of Scripture, were supplied by the school divines. The history of these theologians likewise belongs wholly to the medieval period. It Is obvious, therefore, that ecclesiastical affairs in the middle ages, are very far from having become mere matters for the exercise of a Hberal curiosity. They really retain great practical importance. Hence the ]ircsent volume exhibits a series of events, which must be studied by all who would understand, not xii editor's preface. only what immediately follows, but also the present state of European society. The middle ages have left a vivid impress upon the present age, and none can understand its religion, literature, and institutions, who either want means or inclination to make inquiries into the remains of medieval times. CONTENTS VOL. 11. CENTUEY VI. Conversions of barbarous nations Jews induced to profess Chi-istianity Paganism yet entertained by men of learning Barbarian hostility to Christianity Monastic senices to literature . Decline of soHd learning Platonic philosophy supplanted by Aristotelian Rival sees of Rome and Constantinople . Rival bishops of Rome , Increasing popularity of Monachism Benedict of Nui'sia The Benedictines Ecclesiastical writers Progress of doctrinal con-uption Biblical expositors The three forms of theology Lives of saints .... Tenacity of Origen's popularity The three chapters The canon of the mass . Increase of festivals Extinction of the Donatists Overthrow of Arian establishments Establishment of the Nestorians Establishment of the Monophysites New disputes about the body of Clirist . Tritheism .... PACE 3 6 8 10 12 13 15 17 19 20 21 25 26 38 39 40 41 42 44 48 49 50 51 ib. 53 54 56 CENTURY VII. Introduction of Christianity into China , Augustine's mission to England 59 CI XIV CONTENTS. Missions to the Netherlands and Germany Conversion of England Mahumed ..... Western literature chiefly monastic Continued rivalry between Eome and Constantinople Ecclesiastical independence of Gaul and Spain Ecclesiastical writers . Increase of superstition Decline of sound theology Concilium quinisextum (the seventh general) Mahumedanism favourable to Oriental heresy Monothelitism .... The sixth general council The Maronites The council in Tridlo, or Quinisext CENTURY VIII. Christianity propagated in Tartary Mission of Boniface to Germany Conversion of the Saxons, by means of Charlemagne Rise of the Turkish power Establishment of the Moors in Spain . Progress of Aristotelian philosophy Intellectual eminence of the British Isles Cathedral and monastic schools Pecuniary commutations of penance . Temporal rank given to the church Excommunication aided by Druidic prejudice Pepin's usurpation aided by the pope . Charlemagne's liberality to the papacy Constantine's pretended grant ... Grecian hostility to papal greatness Canons instituted .... Imperial power over the popes Ecclesiastical writers .... Increasing value for religious externals Systematic theology taught among the Greeks Controversy on the worship of images . Second council of Nice Controversy on the procession of the Holy Ghost Multiplication of religious ceremonies . Sect of the Adoptionists CENTURY IX. Conversion of Scandinavia Mission of Methodius and Cyril Conversion of Dalmatia and Bussia 168 169 171 CONTENTS. XV Power and success of the Saracens Progress of the Normans Learning cultivated by the Arabians . Literary efforts of the West The times unfavourable to sound religion The alleged papess, Joanna Augmented power of the popes The decretal epistles . Popularity of Monachism Canons and canonesses Ecclesiastical writers . Intellectual decline after Charlemagne Eagerness for saintly protection Canonization .... Passion for relics State of Biblical learning Renewal of the iconoclastic controversy Jlstablislmient of image worship Claudius of Turin Renewed controversy on the double procession The eucharistic controversy Godeschalc and the predestinarian controversy Brief controversy upon Tritheism Minor controversies Separation between the Greeks and Latins Rise of Ritualists Ordeals .... The Paulicians PAGE 173 174 177 178 182 184 186 187 189 191 192 205 206 207 209 210 213 215 217 ib. 218 221 226 227 ib. 231 233 235 CENTURY X. Nestoiian conversions . Prester John .... Conversion of the Franco-Normans Conversion of Poland . Re-conversion of Russia Permanent success of Christianity in Hungary Conversion of Denmark Conversion of Norway Progress of Christianity in Germany . First projects of a crusade The Turks converted to Mahumedanism European Pagans hostile to Christianity Extreme pressure of ignorance Sylvester IL . Clerical degeneracy Extreme degeneracy of the popes Increase of the papal power . 241 242 ib. 243 244 245 246 247 248 249 250 ib. 252 257 259 260 265 XVI CONTENTS. Ecclesiastical acquisitions of civil privileges Concubinage and simony The Cluniac order Ecclesiastical writers . Increase of superstition Canonization begun by the popes The Festival of All Souls Worship of the Virgin Maiy . Heretical movements . PAGE 26b 267 268 269 272 275 279 280 281 CENTURY XI. Gradual conversion of the northern nations Sicily re-conquered by the Latins The Sicihan Monarchy The Crusades . Importation of saints and relics Mahumedan j^ersecutions Increasing diffusion of education Eise of an exclusive taste for dialectics The Realists and Nominalists . Increase of the papal power Popes .... Election of the popes . The cai'dinals . Gregory VII. . Concubinage and simony Clerical celibacy Investitures QuaiTel between Henry IV. and Gregory VII Successors of Gregory VII. Closer connexion between Monachism and the The Cluniacs . The Camaldulensians . The Cistercians The Grandimontans . The Carthusians The order of St. Anthony Regular canons of St. Austin . Ecclesiastical wTiters . Rise of an oj^position to popeiy Rise of scholastic theology Earliest systems of theology Controversy between the Greeks and Latins Relative worship decreed to images The Eucharistic controversy , Persecution of Bcrengarius Dispute upon the apostlcship of Maitial papacy 285 287 288 289 293 296 299 302 304 307 308 311 312 315 320 321 323 325 330 332 334 335 ib. 336 337 338 339 340 348 350 351 353 355 356 357 362 CONTENTS, XVll Extension of tlie Roman ritual General attention to ecclesiastical fabrics Migration of the Paulicians into the "West Persecution at Orleans The council of AiTas . Roscelin's speculations on the Tiinity . Religious Condition of the Anglo-Saxons Pi-imacy of Abp. Theodore Wilfrid .... Anglo-Saxon independence of the papacy Rejection of image-worship Subsequent reception of it . The Benedictine sj-stem Invocation of angelic and depai-ted spu'its Purgatory . , , . Penitential doctrines . Transubstantiation Elfric Episcopacy .... PAGE 363 365 367 368 371 372 374 376 378 379 380 381 382 383 ib. ib. 384 385 388 CENTURY XII. Convei'slon of Pom crania Military missions of Waldemar Forced conversion of Finland , Conversion of Livonia . Subjugation and conversion of the Slav Prester John . The second ciiisade The third cnxsade The militaiy orders Christian reverses in Tartary . Increasing cidtivation of literature Rise of Universities Introduction of the civil law Study of the canon law Philosophical studies . The Nominalists and Realists . Opposition between the empire and thi The Concordat of "Worms Series of popes St Bernard Controversy between the Cluniacs and Controversy between tlie monks and c The order of Fontc\Taud The order of Premontre The Cannelite order . Ecclesiastical \\Titers . VOL. IL « . 391 . . 392 . . 393 . ib. TOnians . . 394 . 396 . 398 . 400 . 401 . 405 . 408 . 409 . 410 . 411 . 412 . 414 priesthood . 416 . 419 . 420 . 429 Cistercians . 430 mons . . ib. . 431 . 432 . 433 . 434 XVlll CONTENTS. Increasing tnxst in relics, saints, and privations Rise of the papal traffic in indulgences Low state of biblical information Paris the gi-eat school of theology Different sects of theologians . Rise of scholastic divinity Concurrent prevalence of mysticism Attempts to reconcile the Greeks and Latins Doubts iipon transubstantiation, and the Virgin's impeccability Increase of ritual observances . The Bogomiles 'The Cathari . Peter de Brays, and the Petrobrusians Henry and the Henricians Tanquelin, and his party Arnold of Brescia, and the Anioldists . Tlie Waldenses The Pasagini, or the Circumcised Tlie Caputlati, and the ApostoUci PAGE 449 450 451 453 454 ib. 455 458 460 462 464 466 468 469 470 471 472 477 478 CENTURY XIII. Progi-ess of Christianity in northern Asia Latin occupation of Constantinople The last cnisades Military missions of the Teutonic knights Successes of the Spanish Clu'istians Rise of religious scei^ticism Patronage of learning by European sovereigns Universities instituted . Poets and historians Aristotelian philosophy exclusively cultivated Study of the Decretals Extravagant pretensions of the popes . Iniquity of the papal legates . Innocent III. .... lung John and the English interdict . The papal series New monastic orders . The Mendicants St. Dominic •. . . . St. Francis .... Contests of the Mendicants with the university of Paris Their contemptuous treatment of other ecclesiastics Contests between the Dominicans and Franciscans Relaxation of their rule The Book of Joachim .... Franciscan attack on the papacy 481 484 485 488 489 490 495 496 497 500 503 505 506 507 510 512 518 521 523 524 527 529 530 531 532 535 CONTENTS. XIX The Coelestine Eremites of St. Francis The FratricelU The Beghards and Beguines Ecclesiastical Avriters ... Transubstantiation synodically decreed Auricular confession synodically decreed The Flagellants ... Dialectic theology Contemporaneous cultivation of mysticism Controversy between the Greeks and Latins Doubts as to transubstantiation Progress of a theatrical woi-ship The feast of Corpus Christi instituted . The Jubilee instituted . Papal endeavours to obtain power in the East Papal contests M-ith opponents in the West Origin of the Inquisition Cnisades against the Albigenses Brethren and sisters of the free Spirit Wilhehnina, and her sect The sect of the Apostles EiTor of Joachim, abbot of Flora PAGE 537 538 541 546 .559 ib. 560 563 564 566 567 568 569 ib. 571 572 573 577 582 588 ib. 589 CENTURY XIV. Abortive attempts to renew the crasades Progress of Christianity in China and Tartary Conversion of Lithuania The Moorish empire undermined in Spain ' . Extinction of Christianity in China and Tartiiry Cultivation of literatm-e by the Greeks Advance of learning in the "West Great popularity of Aristotle . Eevived feud between the Nominalists and Realists Passion for astrology .... General call for a reformation of the church . PhUip the Fair, and Boniface VIIL . Transfer of the papal court to Avignon Papal exactions and interference with patronage Decline of the papal authority . Lewis of Bavaria and John XXII. Papal series The papal schism Popularity of the Mendicants, and their opponents /WicklifFe The Wickliffitcs, or LoUards The Stigmata of St. Francis The Alcoran of the Franciscans 591 592 593 ib. 594 596 598 601 602 603 605 606 608 609 610 611 613 615 617 619 621 622 C23 XX CONTENTS. Franciscan schism Persecution of the intractable Franciscans Dispute as to tlie property of Christ and his Apostles Division of the Franciscans into two sects The apostolic clerks, or Jesuates The Cellites, or brethren and sisters of St. Alexius Origin of the term Lollard, or Lollhard Ecclesiastical Avriters .... General prevalence of scholastic theology The Scotists and Thomists Continuance of mysticism Study of casuistry . . . • Attempts to reconcile the Greeks and Latins . Controversy on the immaculate conception The Jubilee limited to fifty years Ave Maria added to the prayers The Hesychasts, or Greek Quietists Continued persecution of the anti-papal party . Great persecution of the Beguins Revival of the Flagellants Sect of the Dancers .... Suppression of the Knights Templars . Councils ..... Popes ...... Archbishops of Canteruury Archbishops of St. Andrew's Archbishops of Armagh PAGE 624 626 628 635 636 ib. 637 639 653 654 ib. 655 656 657 658 659 660 662 664 665 666 ib. 668 671 678 680 681 INSTITUTES ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY UNDER THE NEW TESTAMENT. BOOK II. EJrBRACING EVENTS FROM CONSTANTINE THE GREAT TO CHARLEMAGNE. VOL. II. CENTURY SIXTH. PART I. THE EXTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. CHAPTER I. THE PROSPEROUS EVENTS OF THE CHURCH. § 1. Progress of Christianity in the East — § 2. and in the West. — § 3. Jews con- verted in several places. — § 4. The miracles of this century. § 1. It appears evident from the historical records of the Greek empire that several barbarous tribes, especially among those resident near the Black Sea, were converted to Christianity by the efforts of the Greek emperors and the bishops of Constan- tinople. Among these were the Abasgi, a barbarous nation inhabiting the country between the coasts of tiie Euxine sea and mount Caucasus, who embraced Christianity under the emperor Justinian.^ The Heruli, who dwelt along the other side of the Ister ^, became Christians under the same reign ^ ; ' Procopius, de Bella Gothico, lib. iv. inclined to become Christians, by pro- 0. 3. Le Quien, Oriens Christian us, torn, hibiting their king from earning on a. i. p. 1351, &c. [Then- adoration, like shamctul traffic in cunudis. See the that of the ancient Germans, liad been authors rel'erred to by Dr. Mosheun. previously given to forests and lofty TV.] trees. The emperor Justinian sent ' [Or Damibe. Tr.] priests among them, and erected a ^ Procopius, Je Bella GoOiico, 1. ii. c. chui'ch for them, dedicated to the Virgin 14. Mary : and he rendered the people more u 2 4 BOOK II. — CENTURY VI. [PART I also the Alani, the Lazl, and the Zayii, and some other tribes, whose residences are not definitely known at the present day.* But there is abundant evidence, that nothing was required of these nations except externally to profess Chi'ist, cease from offering victims to their gods, and learn certain forms, like a necessary charm : while there was not even a thought of imbu- ing their minds with true piety and religion. It is certain that after their conversion, they retained their rude and savage man- ners, and were famous for rapines, murders, and every species of iniquity. In most provinces of the Greek empire, and even in the city of Constantinople, many idolaters were still lurking in concealment. A great multitude of these were baptized, during the reign of Justin, by Jolm, bishop of Asia.^ § 2. In the West, Remigius, bishop of Rheims, who has been called the Apostle of the Gauls, laboured Avith great zeal to con- vert idolaters to C/mst ; and not without success, especially after Clovis, the king of the Franks, had embraced Chris- tianity.^ In Britain, Ethelhert, king of Kent, the most distin- guished of the seven Anglo-Saxon kings among whom the island was then divided, married, near the close of this century, a Christian wife named Bertha, the daughter of Cherehert, king of Paris ; and she, partly by her own influence, and partly by that of the ministers of religion whom she brought with her, impressed her husband favourably towards Christianity. The king being thus prepared, Gregory the Great, at the suggestion undoubtedly of the queen, sent forty Benedictine monks, with one Augustine at the head of them, into Britain, in the year 596, to complete the work which the queen had begun. This A7igustine, with the queen's assistance, converted the king and the greatest part of the inhabitants of Kent to Christian wor- ship, and laid the foundation of the modern British church.'^ * [See Evagrius, Hist. Eccles. 1. iv. Ethclbert, king of Kent. [The mar- c. 20. 22, 23. All these conversions riage of Bertha is said to have been took place near the commencement of consummated a. d. 579. It had been the reign of Justinian, aliout a. d. 430. stipulated, that she should enjoy her Tr.] own religion and worship. She tliere- ^ Jos. Sim. Asseman, Blhlioth. Orient, fore had her private chaplain, and a Vatican, torn. ii. p. 85. small church. Gregory the Great, be- ■^ Histoire Litteraire de la France, torn, fore he was made pope, was so cap- iii. p. 155, &c. tivated with tlie beauty of some English ' Bede, Histor. Eccles. Gentis Anghr. youths offered for sale at Rome as lib. i. c. 23, p. 55, &c. ed. Chiflet. Ea- slaves, that he wished to go himself pin Thoyras, Hist. d'Anglcterre, torn. i. as a missionary to England ; but the p. 222, &e. Actles, but to convert them into clnu'ches, piu-ifying them with holy water ; for the Pagans would love to worship in the places long held sacred ; yet the idols must be destroyed. He also advised, that tlie people be allowed on festal days to assemble ai'ound the churches, erect booths, and tliere feast themselves, much as during tlieir Pagan state ; j'ct without sacrificing to their idols. Gre- gory likewise answered sevend ques- tions of Augustine, advishig him and his associates to continue to live in monasteries, to use such a liturgy as should seem best suited to the country ; and mstructing him how thieves should be treated ; how many bishops must concur in the ordination of a bishop, how he must demean himself among the Gallic bishops, and what was to be thought of some ceremonial impurities In 602, Augustine built his cathednJ at Canterliury ; aud he erected a mo- nastery in which to train men for the ministry. In the year 604, he attempt- ed to bring under his jurisdiction, ami to a conformity with his chmches, all the clei-gy aud chmxdics of the ancient Britons, whom the Saxons had conquer- ed and driven chiefly into Wales. A council was held for the puqjose ; but as Augustine was (juite liigoted and somewhat ovci'bearing, nothing was ef- fected. In the mean time, the conver- sion of the Saxons, beyond the kingdom of Kent, proceeded successfully ; and several bishops were ordained, jiarticu- larly a bishop for London, and another for Rochester. St. Paul's church in London was now founded ; and tlie next year the West monastery (Westminster), adjoining London. In the year 607 Au- gustme died, and was succeeded in the see of Canterbury by Laurcntius. See Bedc, Hist. Eccl. Brit. lil). i. c. 23, &c. and hb. ii. c. 2, 3. Mal)ill()n, Annall. Benedict, tom. i. ann. 596 — 607. The legendary history of Augustine, both in a larger and a smaller form, by Gosccliu, a monk of the eleventh ccutuiy, may be found in Mabillon, Acta Sunctor. Ord. Bcned. tom. i. p. 485 — 543. TV.] ** [Some rays of light had penetrated tlie southernniost counties of Scotland at an earlier period. Ninia, or Ninian was bishop of Wliitcrn, on the border of Scotland, in tlie year 400 ; and liis successors sometimes extended their labours as far north as Glasgow. In- deed Kcntigern is said to have actually removed his chair from Whitcrn tu a 3 BOOK II. CENTURY VI. [rART the Bohemians, Thuringians, and Bavarians, are said to have received Christianity ^ ; which to many, however, appears ex- tremely doubtful. Of these holy enterprises among the heathen, no one will form a high opinion, when he shall have learned from the writers of this and the following ages, that these na- tions still retained a great part of their former paganism, and so worshipped Chi'ist as to reject his precepts in their lives, deeds, and institutions.' § 3. A great many Jews, in various places, it is certain, made profession of Christianity. In the East, Justinian persuaded the Jews resident at Borium, a city of Libya, to acknowledge Christ.'^ In the West, many Jews yielded to the zeal and efforts of the kings of Gaul and Spain, and to those of Gregory the Great, and Avitus.^ But it should be added, that far more were induced to make an external profession of Christianity, by the rewards offered by the princes, and by the fear of punish- ment, than by the force of arguments. In Gaul, during the reign of Childeric, the Jews were compelled to receive baptism ; and the same thing was done in Spain.^ But Gregory the Great wished this practice to be discontinued.^ Glasgow before the amval of Columba, and to have invited tliis Lish mission- ary to visit him there. It was in the year 563, that Columba, with twelve other monks, removed from the north of L'eland to lona, Hii, I, or I-colm-kill, an islet on the outer shore of Mull, one of the larger of the Hebrides, or Western isles. The Scottish king of Ai'gyle, Biiide, or Biide, favoiu'ed his enterprise ; and Aidan, a successor of Brade, paid him the highest reverence. Columba had the sole jm-isdiction of his little island, which became covered with cloisters and churches, and was the residence of a numerous and learn- ed body of monks. For several cen- turies lona was the centre of the Scot- tish chmxh, and the place where most of her clergy were educated. There also the Scottish kings, for many gene- rations, were inteiTcd. Columba died in the year 597. His memorable acts were recorded by Cummeneus Albus, (abbot of lona from 657 to 669,) and may be seen in Mabillon, Acta Sanctor. Ord. Benedict, tom. i. p. 342, &c. and his life at large, in three books, was written by Adamnanus, who presided at lona from 679 to 704. See Usshcr, Britannicar. Ecclesiar. Antiq. cap. xv. p. 687 — 709. Tr.] ' Henry Canisius, Lectiones Antiquce, tom. iii. pt. ii. p. 208. Aventinus, Annal. Boionim ; and others. ' As to the Francs, the Benedictine monks express themselves ingenuously ; Histoire Litteraire de la France, tom. iii. introd. p. 8. 11. 13. As to the Anglo- Saxons, see what Grcgoiy the Great himself allowed of, Epistolar. lib. ix. ep. 76. 0pp. tom. ii. p. 1176, cd. Bene- dict. Among other things, he pennitted the people, on festal days, to offer to the saints such victims as they had before offered to their gods. l3av. Wilkius, Concilia Magnce Britan. tom. i. p. 18, &c. " Procopius, de jEdiJiciis Justiniani, lib. vi. cap. 2. =• [Bishop of Clermont. Tn] ■* Gregory of Tours, Historia Fran- corum, lib. vi. c. 18. Jo. Launoi, de Veteri More Baptizandi Jndo'os et Infi- deles, cap. i. in his Opp. tom. ii. pt. ii. p. 700. 704. [All these Jewish conver- sions were a -victory of the Christians, which did them little credit. Avitus, for instance, the bishop of Clermont, baptized 500 Jews. But the circum- CH. I.] rROSPEROUS EVENTS. 7 § 4. If credit could be given unreservedly to the writers of this age, these conversions of barbarous nations to Christianity, must be ascribed principally to prodigies and miracles. But observation of the nations themselves forbids us to believe these statements ; for had they seen so many wonderful deeds Avith their own eyes, they would have had a stronger faith in Cin-is- tianity, and would have more religiously obeyed its precepts. ^With the major part, the example and Influence of their kings presented the chief argument for changing their religion.X Nor were more solid reasons much needed ; for the first preachers of Christianity among them, required of them nothing very diflScult, or repugnant to human nature ; they were only to wor- ship the images of Christ, and of holy men, instead of those of their gods, and for the most part, with the same ceremonies ^ ; and to commit to memory certain Christian formulas. Some preachers, moveover, — as might easily be proved, — deemed it lawful and right to delude the senses of ignorant men, and to make natural events popularly pass for divine interpositions. stances were these : a Jew having vo- Umtai'ily received baptism, was proceed- ing home in the customary white robe, when meeting with some Jews, one of them poured some fetid oil on his white robe. The people soon kindled into a rage, and pulled doNvn the synagogue ; and the bishop sent word to the Jews, that they must all submit to be bap- tized, or must quit the place. In this dilemma, 500 prefen-ed receiving bap- tism, and the rest removed to ]Mar- seilles. See Gregory of Tom-s, Hist. Francor. 1. v. c. 11. Schl.'] ^ See liis Epistles, lib. i. ep. 47, in his 0pp. tom. ii. p. 541, ed. Benedict, [or the extract from it in Baronius, Annul, ad ann. 591, tom. viii. p. 26, 27, ed. Antw. 1600. Gregory commends the in- tentions of the Gallic bishops, but thinks that as such converts seldom persevered, and therefore exposed themselves to a heavier punishment in the other world, than if they had never been baptized, charity to them requu'ed, that they should not be compelled to receive bap- tism. Tr.'] ^ [Mosheim cites no authority for this statement, and it miglit seem to be far from unreservedly admissible. It is kno^\'n tliat the Anglo-Saxons, Franks, and Germans, rejected iinajrc-worship, even under a i-econimcndation from Rome, at a much later period. It is, therefore, unlikely that they had ori- ginally combined it with Cluistianitv. Ed.'\ B 4 BOOK II. CENTURY VI. [part I. CHAPTER 11.^ ADVERSE EVENTS AND OCCURRENCES. 1. Pagans still remaining among the Christians.— § 2. "Writers opposed to Chris- tianity.^— § 3. Persecutions and vexations. § 1. Although the imperial laws ordained that no public of- fice should be held by any one who would not abjure paganism, yet there were many learned and respectable men who followed the old religion in the midst of the Christians. The illustrious compiler of the Civil Law, Tribonianus ', is thought by some to have been averse from the Christian religion. Of Procopius 2, a man of acute perception, and a celebrated historian, the same suspicion is entertained by not a few. It is yet more certain that Agathias ^ of Smyrna, an advocate at the bar, and also dis- ' [Tribonianus was a native of Side, in Pamj)lulia, flourished about a. d. 530, and died about a.d. 546. Richly furnished with Greek and Roman litera- ture, he applied himself especially to the study of law. He was advanced to va- rious civil offices, and was in high favour with Justinian, on account of his emi- nent talents and his obsequiousness. The Codex Justinianus was the joint work of Tribonianus and otliers ; but the com- pilation of the Pandects and Institutes was conunitted to him as chief, with others to assist him. Tribonianus was avaricious and irreligious ; he had been accused of atheism and paganism. The trath probably was, that he had no fixed religious principles. See J. H. Her- mann, Historia Juris Homani et Jus- tiniani, lib. ii. c. i. § 27, &c. and Gibbon, Decline and Fall, ch. xliv. vol. iv. p. 360, &c. ed. New York, 1826. Tr.] ^ [Procopius of Cffisai'ea, (different from Procopius of Gaza,) was a rheto- rician, senator, and historian. He was secretary to the ftimous general Beli- sarius, irom 533 to 542, during his campaigns in Asia, Africa, and Italy ; and afterwaj'ds, being made a Roman senator, resided at Constantinople, and devoted himself to writing the civil liis- tory of his own times ; viz. de Bello Per- sico, 1. ii. de Bella Vandalico, 1. ii. and de Bello Gothico, 1. iv. His nan-ation is elaborate and exact, and the style not unacceptable. He also wrote, de ^difi- ciis Justiniani, 1. vi. in which he dis- plays the munificence and greatness of that emperor : likewise Anecdota, sive Historia Arcana, in which he describes tlie vices and crimes of Justinian, and his empress Tlieodora. Procopius was alive in the year 562. Some accuse him of leaning towards paganism : he was probably a man of no religion ; but, externally, a conformist to Christianity. His works were published, Gr. and Lat. by C. Maltrel, Paris, 1662, 2 vols. fol. See Cave, Historia Litterar. tom. i. p. 510. 7?-.] ^ [Agathias, an advocate at Smyrna, continued the liistory of Procopius, fi'om the year 553 to A.r>. 559, in five books, written in an easy but florid style. He also T\'rote eighty epigrams. His works were published, Gr. and Lat., Paris, C'TI. II.] ADVERSE EVENTS. 9 tiiiguislicd as an historian, was an idolater. Indeed, as is com- monly the case every where, the rigour of the laws fell only on those who had neither birth, nor wealth, nor the ftivour of the great to protect them. § 2. It is still more strange that the Platonists, who were universally known to be hostile to Christianity, should have been allowed publicly to instil their principles, which are totally inconsistent with our religion, into the minds of youth botli in Greece and Egypt. This class of men affected, indeed, a high degree of moderation, and, for the most part, so modified their expressions as to make the pagan idolatry appear not very re- mote from Christianity. This is evident from the examples of Clialcidius '' and Alexander of Lycopolis.'^ Yet there were some among them who did not hesitate openly to attack the Chris- tian religion. Damascius, in his life of his master Isidore, and elsewhere, casts many reproaches on the Christians.*^ Simpli- ciiis, in his Expositions of Aristotle, not obscurely carps at the Christian faith. ^ The Ejncheiremata xviii. contra Christianas, IG60, fol. Ilis histoiy, and that of Pro- copius, are both in the Corpus Historice Bi/zantince Scriptorum. See Lardncr, Works, vol. ix. p. 85. TV.] ■• Concerning the rehgion of Chalci- tlins, I have spoken in my notes on li. Cndworth's Si/stema IiiteUectuale Universi, torn. i. p. 732. [Chalcidius flourished about A. D. 330, and Mrote his Latin translation of Plato's Timcrun, with a Conamentary, at the suggestion (as is reported) of Hosius of Corduba. Some make him to have been archdeacon of Carthage. See above, cent. iv. pt. i. c. i. § 18, with note ', p. 303, vol. i. ; and Cave, Hist. Lit. tom. i. p. 199. TV.] * The. treatise of this philosopher, contra Manichceos, in Greek, was pub- lished by Fran. Combefls, Auctaritun Noviss. BibVwth. Patrum, tom. ii. Con- cerning his religion. Is. de Beausobrc has given a critical dissertation, His- toire de Manichee et Manicheisme, ])t. ii. Discours Prelim. § 13, p. 23fi, &c. [Alexander, of Lycopohs in Thebais, Egypt, flourished probably about a. d. 350. Fabricius supjjoses {Bibliuth. Gr. torn. v. p. 290) that he was first a jiagaii and a Manichee, and afterwards a ca- tholic Christian. Cave is of tiie same opinion {Hist. Lit. tom. ii. de Scriptur. incertcp cctatis). Beausobrc {ubi supra) thinks he was a mere pagan. Lardncr (Works, vol. iii. p. 384 ; vol. viii. p. 349, &c.) thinks he was a Gentile, but well acquainted with the Manichees and other Christians ; that he had some knowledge of the Old and New Testa- ments, to which he occasionally refers. He speaks with respect of Cin-ist, and tlie Christian philosophy ; and ap|)cars to ha^■c been a learned and candid man. rr.] " Photius, Bd)liotheca, Cod. ccxlii. ]). 1027. [Damascius was a native of Da- mascus, but studied and taught ])hiloso- liliy both at Athens and Alexandria. From the latter he fled to I'ersia, du- ring the jiersccution of the pagan philo- sophers by tlie emperor Justinian, about the year 530. Ilis subseiiueut liistory is unknown. He wrote the lives of Isi- doms and others, Commentaries on Plato, and four books on extraordinary events : all of whicli are lost. Photius calls him ei's &Kpov 5vffaf6i}s, superla- tively irreli.] ^ [Dr. Mosheim here confounds dates, names, and transactions. Gregory, (not Peter,) bisliop of Antioch, being ac- cused of incest and other crimes, aj)- pealed from tlie tribunal of the governor of the East, to the emperor Mauricius : and the emperor (not the patriarcli John) called a council, or appointed a court of commissioners at Constantinople, in 587, composed of patriarchs, (or their delegates,) Roman senators, and metro- politans, to hear and decide the case. (See Evagrius, Hist. Ecclcs. 1. vi. c. 7. Evagrius was Gregory's counsellor at the trial, and has given us nearly all the information which has readied us re- specting this council.) On tliis occa- sion, it is said, John, the patriarch of Constantinople, was honoured with the title of universal bishop, — a title which had for some time been used by the bishops of that see. The decisicms of this council being sent to I'elagius II. (not to Gregory the Great,) bishop of Rome, Pelagius confirmed the ac(iuittal of Gregory, but remonstrated strongly against the title given to John. His letters on the occasion arc lost, but they are mentioned by his successor. In the year 590, Pelagius died, and was succeeded by Gregory the Great ; and he, finding that John continued to VOL. II. use this title, took up the business in earnest, about the year 595, aiul for some years laboured liy intreaties and threats, and contimied applications to the emperors and to the other eastern patriarchs, to divest the Constantino- politan patriarclis of a title which he maintained to be proftne, anti-christian, and infernal, by \\lu)msocvcr assumed. See Gregoiy the Great, Epistolar. lib. iv. ep. 36, 38, and lib. vi. ep. 39, &c. Bower's Lives of the Popes, (Pelagius n.) vol. ii. p. 459, and (Gregory) vol. ii. p. 505, 511, 517, ed. Lond.' 1750, Natalis Alexander, Hist. Eccle.i. sa>cul. vi. cap. ii. art. 12, 13, toni. x. p. 18, 25, &c. ed. Paris, 1743. Tr.] ^ Gregory the Great, Epistolar. lib. iv. V. vi. All the passages in these Epistles, relating to this important sub- ject, are collected and illustrated by Jo. Launoy, Assertio in Fririleifium S. Medardi, Opp. toin. iii. Jit. ii. \\ 266, &c. See jNIich. le Quieii, Oricn.f Christi- anas, toin. i. p. 67, &c. Ciir. Mattli. Pfatf, Diss, de Titulo CEcumcniciis ; in the Timpe Helvetica, tom. iv. p. 99. and the authors there mentioned. [As a sort of tacit rejiroof to the Faster, Gre- gory styled himself Servant of the Ser- vants of God ; a designalioii yet used by his successors. Acta SS. Ord. Benedict. Yen. 1733. saec. i. p. 405. Ed.'] C 18 BOOK II. — CENTURY VI. [PART II. § 2. The bishop of Rome persevering in his opposition, ex- cited commotion every where, in order to bring the Christian Avorld under his own controh And he was in some degree suc- cessful, especially in the West ; but in the East, scarcely any would listen to him, unless actuated by hostility to the bishop of Constantinople ; and this last was always in a condition to oppose his ambitious designs in that quarter. How greatly the ideas of many had advanced respecting the powers of the bishop of Rome, cannot better be shoAvn than by the example of Enno- dius, the insane flatterer of Symmachus ; who, among other ex- travagant expressions, said, the pontiff judges in the place of God^ But, on the other hand, there are numerous proofs that the em- perors, as well as some whole nations, Avould not patiently bear this new yoke.^ The Gothic kings in Italy would not allow the bishop of Rome to domineer excessively there ; nor would they allow any one to be considered as pontiff whom they had not approved ; and they wished to have his election controlled by their decisions.'' These kings also enacted laws relative to re- ligious matters, arraigned the clergy before their tribunals, and summoned ecclesiastical councils.^ And the pontiffs themselves paid homage to these sovereigns, and afterwards to the empe- rors, in a submissive manner ; for they had not yet become so lost to all shame, as to think the lords of human things vassals of their own.^ § 3. Not only great privileges, but also great riches, had al- ready been gained by the sacred order, and in this age super- stition daily added something to both. For it was supposed, that sins might be expiated by munificence to churches and monks ; and that the prayers of saints in heaven, which were most efficacious with God, might be purchased, by presents ■• Vice Del jiidicare. See his Apolo- versammhmgen, p. 347.) The council geticum pro Synodo, in the Biblioth. Mug. of Orleans, in 511, was held by order of Fatr. toni. xv. p. 248, cd. Paris. Clovis. (Ibid. p. 351.) Another at Or- * See, particularly respecting Spain, leans, in 533, by order of Childebert. Mich. Geddes, On the Papal Supremaaj, (Ibid. p. 367.) And in the year 549. chiefly with relation to the ancient (Ibid. p. 375.) And at Clermont, by Spanish church ; published among his order of Theudebert. (Ibid. p. 368.) Miscellaneous Tracts, vol. ii. p. 1, &c. Schl.'\ " See Joh. Ja. Mascov. Historia Ger- * See the collections fi'om Gregory wif/no?-Mm, torn. ii. note, p. 113. the Great, by Jo. Launoy, de llegia ' Ja. Basnage. Histoire des Eglises Potestate in Matrimon. 0pp. tom. i. pt. Pcformees, tom. i. p. 381, &c. [Thus ii. p. 691, &c. and Asscrtio in Privile- e. g. Thedoric assembled the Italian gium S. Medardi, 0pp. tom. iii. pt. ii. bishops at Rome, to settle the contested p. 275. Giannone, Histoire de Naples, election of Symmachus to the papal tom. ii. p. 282, &c. chau\ (Walch, Historic der Kirchen- CIT. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND TEACHERS. 19 offered in temples dedicated to themselves.^ This increase of wealth and privileges Avas accompanied with an equal in- crease of the vices usually attendant on affluence, in the clergy of all ranks, from the highest to the lowest ' ; as is manifest even from the laws enacted by councils and by the emperors to regu- late the lives and morals of those who are called Clerks.'^ For what need could there be to fence the morals of these men with- in so many laws, if they had shown any love for virtue and piety ? The efficacy of all this legislation was, however, slight ; for so great was the reverence for clergymen, that even their most atrocious offences were visited with the gentlest chastise- ments ; and thus, they felt a disposition to venture upon any thing. § 4. What sort of men the bishops of Kome were, who wished to be thought the chiefs and fathers of the whole Chris- tian church, and also the body of the clergy under them at Rome, best appears from the long and violent contest between Si/mviachus and Laurentius ; which broke out in the year 498, and was at length settled by the Gothic king Tlwodoric. Each maintained that he himself was the pontiff regularly appointed, and each accused the other of detestable wickednesses ; nor do cither's charges appear untrue. Three councils assembled at Rome, were not able to terminate the dreadful quarrel ; in the " [Thus, e. g. Gregory (in cap. xv. was enacted, tliat a clergjinan who should Jobi, ]. xii. e. 23,) says : " Whenevei", get drunk, should be excluded the church after committing a crime, we give alms, for thirty days, or undergo C(jrporeal pun- we do, as it were, compensate for our ishnient : and (can. 42.) the clergy were wicked actions." So also, in his Epis- forbidden to exercise the art of fortune- ties, (lib. ix. ed. 38,) : " The interces- telhng. Harduin's Gmcilia, tom. ii. p. sions in heaven of him, whose body you 1002. Other laws forbid simony, con- have covered on earth, will protect you cubinagc, perjury, usury, ami gaudy from all sins," &c. ScM.'] dress, in the clergy. In Harduin's ' [Theophanes (on the second year Concilia, tom. iii. p. 529, mention is of Justinian's reign) states, that Esaias, made of many nuns, at the heail of bishop of Rhodes, and Alexander, bishop whom were two princesses, Chrotiklis of Diospolis in Thrace, were, for the and Basinc, who broke ft-om the nun- crune of sodomv, deprived of their offi- nciy at IVitiers, and who were a psirt ces, and castrated by order of the empe- of them found pregmmt, and also coni- ror ; and then carried about as a show, mitted the most shameful acts of vio- with a herald proclaiming: " AU yc lence. And in page 531, he nicntions bishops, beware of disgracing your vene- one yEgidius, bishop of lihemis, who table office." So in the Epistles of Ore- used forged documents before the coun- gory the Great, many proofs occur of cil of Metz ; and, for trcasf.nable prac- impure conduct among the clergy : e. g. tices, was removed from office. See 1. viii. ep. 11, 1. iii. ep. 26 and 9, 1. i. cp. Floury, Eccle.siast. Histonj ; the Ger- 18. 42. Schl'] JUii" translation, vol. v. p. 413, 417. ^ Qui Clerici vocantur. [Thus, e. ;/. in ScliL] the council of Agde in Gaul, (can. 41,) it C 2 20 BOOK II. — CENTURY VI. [pART II. fourth, Theodoric having taken up the business, soon after the commencement of the centurj, Symmachus was at length pro- nounced innocent. But the adverse party continued to deny that justice had been done tlmn by this decision ; and this led Ennodius of Pavla to write his Apology for the council and for Symmachus.^ From this treatise, which abounds in rhetorical colouring, we may clearly learn, that the foundations of that ex- orbitant power which the pontiffs afterwards obtained, were already laid ; but not that Symmachus had been inconsiderately and unjustly accused. § 5. The progress of monkery was very great, both in the East and in the West. In the East, whole armies of monks might have been enrolled, without any sensible diminution of the number any where. In the West, this mode of life found patrons and followers, almost without number, in all the pro- vinces : as may appear from the various rules drawn up by ^ This Apology is extant in the Bib- lioth. Magn. Patr. torn. xv. p. 248, &c. [and in most of the Collections of Coun- cils.— This contest may be worth de- scribing more fully. — On the death of the pontiti" Athanasius, in the year 498, not only the clergy, but the people and the senate of Rome, wei'e divided about a successoi". Symmachus, a deacon, and Laurentius, the arch-presbyter, were both chosen on the same day by their respective paitizans : and so eager were both parties to carry their point, that the whole city was in an uproar, and many battles and much bloodshed took place in the streets and in the public places. To end the dire contest, the leading men on both sides agreed to refer the contested point to the decision of Theodoric, the Arian king resident at Ravenna. He decided, that the one who should be found to have had most votes, and to have been elected at the earliest hour, should be considered the legal pontiff. This secured the election of Symmachus. The king likewise or- dered the bishops to make regulations for the election of future popes, -i^hich should prevent the recurrence of simi- lar difficulties. This was done in the year 499. But the party of Laurentius were not yet quiet. In the year 500, they accused Symmachus of several heinous crimes before the king ; and the tumults and civil wars of Rome were renewed with increased violence. Some senators infonned the king of the state of Rome, and requested him to send a visitor to Rome, ^\ith full power to settle all the difficulties. Peter, bishop of Altino, was appointed. He repaired to Rome, and at once suspended Synmia- chus, and took the goods of the church into his own hands. This enraged the partizans of Symmachus to madness, and prostrated all order and subordina- tion. Being apprised of the state of things, the king now repaired to Rome in person, and spent six months in tran- quillizing that distracted city. He or- dered all the bishops of Italy to meet in council, and decide on the charges against Symmachus. The council held several meetings in that and the following years. Symmachus, when sent for, set out to go to the council, attended by a mob : a battle ensued in the streets ; several were killed ; Symmachus him- self was wounded, turned back, and re- fused to appear before the council. The council, after some delay, proceeded iu his absence ; decreed that the witnesses, being slaves, were incompetent to prove any thing ; and therefore dismissed the complaint. The friends of Laurentius protested against the decision. The council met again, and adopted as their own the apology for them drawn up by Ennodius. See Bower's Lives of the Popes, (Symmachus) vol. ii. p. 248 — 261. ed. Loud. 1750. Harduin, Concilia, torn, ii. p. 961, &c. 975, 983, 989. Tn] CH. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND TEACHERS. 21 different Individuals, for regulating the lives of monks and nuns.* In Great Britain one Conr/al is said to have persuaded an immense number to abandon active life, and spend their days in solitude according to a rule which he prescribed.'^ His dis- ciples filled Ireland, Gaul, Germany, Switzerland, and other countries, with abodes of monks. The most famous of them was Columbanus, who has left us a rule of his own, distinguished for its simplicity and brevity.^ The whole monastic order abounded with fanatics and profligates. In the oriental mon- asteries, however, the fanatics preponderated ; in the western, a majority were knaves. § 6. A new order of monks, which in time absorbed all the others in the West, was established at mount Cassviu, in the year 529, by Benedict of Nursia, a devout and a distinguished man, according to the standard of that age. His Rule is still extant ; and it shows that it was not his aim to bring all monks under his regulations ; but rather to found a new society, mo)e stable, of better morals, and living under milder rules than the other monks ; the members of Avhich should lead a retired and holy life, employed in prayers, reading, manual labour, and the * Most of these Rules are extant, in Lu. Holstein's Codex Regularum, pt. ii. published at Rome, 1661, in 3 vols. 4to. Add Edm. Martene and Ursin. Du- rand. Thesaurus novus Anecdotorum, torn. i. p. 4. ' Ja. Ussher, Antiq. Eccles. Britan. p. 132, 441, 911. [Congixllus, or Con- g-ellus, was an Irish monk, who founded several monasteries ; the most impor- tant of which was that of Banclior, or Bangor, (on the south shore of Carrick- fcrgus bay, in the north-easterly part of Ireland,) erected about a. d. 530. Congal is said to have rided over 3000 m6nks, living in different monasteries and cells. See Ussher, loc. cit. T/-.] * Ja. Ussher, Si/Iloge Antiquar. Epis- tolar. Hibernicarum, p. 5 — 1.5. Lu. Hol- stein. Codex Rexjidar. torn. ii. p. 48, &c. Mabillon, Prcef. ad Acta Sanctnr. Ord. Bened. sajcul. ii. p. iv. [St. Colum- banus (a ditferent person from Colum- bas, the apostle of Scotland, mentioned pp. 5, 6, supra,) was born in Leinster, Ireland, about the year 559. After a good education in the literature of that age, he became a monk in the monas- tery of Bangor, under Congal. La the c year 589, witli twelve companions, he passed througli England into Gaul ; and settled in Burgunily, where he built the monastery of Luxeul, or Luxoviuni ; and tiicre spent about twenty years with great reputation. But in the yi-ar GIG, having offended Thcodoric the king, by reproving his vices, he was banished that teiTitory ; and after wan- dering a few years in different jiarts of Gaul and Germany along the Hhine, and spending three years near Bregentz, in Helvetia, lie went into Italy ; wiis re- ceived kindly by Agihdph the Lombard king, built the monastery of Bobio near Favia, presided over it one year, and then died about a. d. 615. He was a man of superior genius, and possessed vast influence. His works yet remaining are, his monastic rule ; his monastic discipline ; some poems and epistles ; and seventeen discourses ; which were published at Louvain in 1667, by Patric Eleniing, an Irish monk. His life, writ- ten by Jonas, an abbot of Boliiimi, while several contemporaries of Cohmibanns were yet living, is extant in Mabillon, Acta Sanctur. Ord. Bened. torn. ii. p. i — 26. Tr.-] 22 BOOK II. — CENTURY VI. [part II. instruction of youth.''' But his followers departed widely from the principles of their founder ; for, after they had acquired im- ' See Jo. Mabillon, Ada Sanctor. Ord. Bened. torn. i. and Annales Ord. Bene- dict, torn. i. Hclyot, [^Histoire des Or- dres monastiques religieux et militab-es, Sfc. in 8 vols. 4to, Paris, 1714 — 19,] and the otliei' historians of the monastic orders. — [Benedict was born of ratlier superior parentage at Norcia, generally written Nursia, in Italy, [once an episcopal see not far from Spoleto, in Umbria, a pro- vince of the modern papal states. Ed.'] A. D. 480. At the age of fourteen, he was sent to Rome for education ; but, disgusted with the dissipations of the city and the school, he soon ran away, and concealed himself three years in a cave [dedicated anciently, it seems, to Faunus,] at Sublacum [Subiaco] forty- four miles from Rome. At length he was discovered, and his cell became much frequented. He was now chosen abbot of a monasteiy in the vicinity ; but the rigour of liis discipline gave offence, and he relinquished the office, and re- turned to Sublacum, where he continued till about the year 529. Many monks here joined him, and he had twelve cells, each containing twelve monks, under his jurisdiction. Many of the first Roman families placed their sons under his in- struction ; and his reputation for piety and for mu-acles procured Iiim almost unbounded respect. But his fame ex- cited the envy of some clergymen, and led to plots against his life. [Perhaps the clerical opposition that he encoun- tered, really arose from experience of tlie e\als nurtured in a fanatical society, like his. Ed.] After twenty-five yeai's spent at Sublacum, he retired to mount Cassino, about fifty miles south of Sub- laciim, and about as far from Naples. Here he converted a body of pagan mountaineers, and turned their temple into a monastery, in which he spent the remainder of his days in quietude and honour. He died about a. d. 543. His life was written by pope Gregory the Great, and constitutes the second book of his Dialogue : it is also inserted in Mabillon's Acta Sanctor. Ord. Ben. stec. i p. 1 — 25. — ^ According to the Rule of Benedict, the monks were to rise at 2 A.M. in winter, (and in summer at such hours as the abbot might direct,) re- pair to the place of worship for vigils ; and then spend the remainder of the night in committing psalms, private meditation, and reading. At sun rise, they assembled for matins ; then spent four hours in labour ; then two hom's in reading ; then dined, and read in private till half past two p. m., when they met again for worship ; and after- wards laboured till their vespers. In their vigUs and matins, twenty-four Psalms were to be chanted each day ; so as to complete the Psalter every week. Besides their social worship, seven hours each day were devoted to labour, two at least to private study, one to private meditation, and the rest to meals, sleep, and refreshment. The labour was agriculture, gardening, and various mechanical trades ; and each one was put to such labour as his superior saw fit ; for they all renounced wholly every species of personal liberty. They ate twice a day at a common table ; first, about noon, and then at evening. Both the quantity and the quality of their food were limited. To each was allowed one pound of bread per day, and a small quantity of wine. On the public table no meat was al- lowed, but always two kinds of por- ridge. To the sick, flesh was allowed. While at table all conversation was pro- hibited ; and some one read aloud the whole time. They all seiwed as cooks and waiters, by turns of a week each. Their clothing was coarse and simple, and regulated at the discretion of the abbot. Each was provided with two suits, a knife, a needle, and all other necessaries. They slept in common dormitories of ten or twenty, in sepa- rate beds, without undressing, and had a light burning, and an inspector sleep- ing in each dormitory. They were allowed no conversation after they re- tired ; nor at any time were they per- mitted to jest, or to talk for mere amuse- ment. No one could receive a present of any kind, not even from a parent ; nor have any correspondence with i:)er- sons without the monasteiy, except by its passing under the inspection of the abbot. A porter always sat at the gate, which was kept locked day and night ; and no stranger was admitted without leave from the abbot, and no monk could go out unless he luid permission from the same source. The school for CHURCH OFFICERS AND TEACHERS. 23 CH. II.] mense riches, from tlie liberality of princes and pious indivi- duals, they gave themselves up to luxury, idleness, and every vice ; became involved in civil affairs and the cabals of courts ; intent on multiplying vain and superstitious rites, and most eager to advance the authority and power of the Roman pon- tiffs. None of these things were enjoined or permitted by St. Benedict; whose Rule, though still highly extolled, has for many ages ceased to be observed.'^ Yet the institution of Bene- dict changed the state of monastic life in the West, in various respects ; not the least important of which was that, by profes- sion and petition ^ he bound the monks for ever to observe his the children of the neighbourhood was kept without the walls. The whole es- tablishment was under an abbot, whose power was despotic. His under-officcrs were a prior or deputy, a steward, a superintendent of the sick and the hos- pital, an attendant on visitors, a porter, &c. with the necessary assistants, and a number of deans, or inspectors o\er tens, who attended the monks at all times. The abbot was elected by the common suffrage of the brotherhood ; and when inaugurated, he appointed and removed his under-ofRcers at pleasure. On great emergencies, he summoned the whole brotherhood to meet in council ; and on more common occasions, only the seniors ; but in either case, after hearing what each one was pleased to say, the decision rested wholly with himself For admission to the society, a proba- tion of twelve months was required ; dming which the applicant was fed and clothed, and em])loyed in the meaner offices of the monks, and closely watched. At the end of his probation, if approved, he took solemn and irrevo- cable vows of perfect chastity, absolute poverty, and implicit obedience to liis superiors in every thing. If he had property, he must give it all away, either to his friends or the poor, or the monas- tery ; and never after must possess the least pai-ticle of private property, nor claim any personal rights or liberties. Tor lighter offences, a reprimand was to be administered by some under-officcr. For greater offences, after two admoni- tions, a person was debaiTcd his jirivi- Icges, not allowed to read in his turn, or to sit at table, or enjoy his modicum of comforts. If stiU refractory, he was expelled the monastery ; yet miglit be restored on repentance. See the Eide, c ' at large, in Hospinian, 0pp. torn. iv. (de Monuchis, lihri vii.) p. 202—222. ed. Gencv. 1669, fol. and as abridged by Fleury, HLstoire Eccles. lib. xxxii. § 14 — 19. Yet it is (picstionable whether the Rule, as there laid down, was pre- cisely what Benedict prescribed. TV.] * [The modern Benedictines are themsehes obliged to admit, that the Rule of their founder is no longer fully obeyed. But they resort to a conve- nient distinction. The Rule, say they, has its essential, and its accidental parts. That the monks should labour, earn their own bread, and live frugally, belongs to the accidental i)art. The essential pixrts fire the voivs, which we obsene reli- giously, a fcAv faults excepted. We ad- mit freely, that the order is richer than in the days of its founder. Father Benedict would be amazed, should he rise out of his grave, and instead of the miscraltle huts which he erected on mount Cassino, find there a ])alacc, in which kings and princes miglit reside ; and see the abbot transfonned into a prince of the empire, with a nuiltitudc of subjects, and an income of li\e or sLx hundred thousand ducats. Sritl. — On the present state of this mon;i.-;teiy see Stiiudliu's Kirchliche Geographie, vol. i. p. 565. TV.] " [The monastic profession (professio) is othenvise called promise (l)u Cange, in vac. Piomissio.) It is also sometimes confounded with the petition, a term which arose, l)u Cange says," Quia nempe novitius, cxaeto novitiatus tem- pore, pctchdt all abbate ut ad pnjfcs- sioneni aduiittcretur." (/« ror. Petitio.) ilabillon, {ii/)i supra) thus distinguishes the two. Tiic pnmise, he says, was the vow made to God, the petition was an en- gagement, built upon that vow, which the 24 BOOK II. — CENTURY VI. [PART II. rule ; whereas, previously, they changed the laws and regulations of their founders at pleasure.^ § 7. Only a short time elapsed before this new order of monks was in a most flourishing state in all the western countries. In Gaul it was propagated by St. Maurus ; in Sicily and Sardinia, by Placidus and others ; in England, by Augustine and Mellitus ; in Italy and in other parts, by Gregory the Great, who is re- ported to have lived some time in this order.^ In Germany, novice had to sign, and which rendered him amenable to men for the due observance of his vow. This instrument, probably, contained a petition for admission into the order. Mabillon's words ai-e, " Pro- missio monachum Deo ; petitio, veluti contractus et pactum, (sic appellat Fruc- tuosus,) etiam hominibus et religioni ob- noxium rcddebat." -Ef/.] ' See Mabillon. Prcrf. ad scec. iv. p. 1, Act. SS. Ord. Bened. sa;c. i. p. xrai. &c. [Benedict changed the state of monkeiy, especially, by restraining the instability of the monks, and rendering their vows irrevocable. It was not strange that the order spread far and wide. His Bide was better calculated for Euro- peans than any other ; and the first Benedictines were virtuous, upright, and useful people. Wlierever they came, they converted the wilderness into a cultivated country : they pursued the breeding of cattle, and agriculture, laboured with their own hands, drained morasses, and cleared away forests. These monks, — taking the word Bene- dictines in its largest extent, as embrac- ing the ramifications of the order, the Carthusians, Cistercians, Pramonstra- tensians, Camaldulensians, &c. — were of great advantage to all Europe, and particularly to Germany. By them Germany was cultivated, and rendered a fruitful country. They preserved for us all the books of antiquity, all the sciences and learning of the an- cients. For they were obhged to have libraries in their monasteries ; because their rule required them to read a portion of each day. Some individuals were occupied in transcribing the books of the ancients ; and hence came the ma- nuscripts, which still exist here and tliere in the libraries of monasteries. The sciences were cultivated no where but in their cloisters. They kept up schools there, for the monks, and for such as were destined to be monks. And without their cloisters, they also bad schools, in which the people of the world were instructed. From these mo- nasteries proceeded men of learning, who were employed in courts, as chan- cellors, vice-chancellors, secretaries, &c., and these again patronised the monas- teries. Even the children of sovereign princes were brought up among the Be- nedictines, and after they came to their thrones, retained attachment and reve- rence for the order to whom they were indebted for then- education. The Be- nedictines were esteemed saints, and their prayers were supposed to be par- ticularly eflScacious. All this rendered the order powerful and rich. But as soon as they became rich, they became voluptuous and indolent, and their cloisters were haunts of vice and wick- edness. In the seventeenth century, this order began to revert back to its oi-iginal designs, especially in France ; and it performed essential service to the republic of learning, in particular, by publishing beautifid editions of the Fa- thers. Scld. — Among monastic sen'ices, those rendered to the arts should not be forgotten. The Benedictine order, es- pecially, overspread Europe Avith noble and tasteful piles of building. It is, in- deed, an order to which civilization is much indebted. It long furnished a nursery and a citadel for all that is most valuable in man. Undoubtedly, it was, even when most sei'viceable, a stronghold of idleness and imposture ; but it answered ends of great importance, at a time when nothing peacefiil could be secure with- out a protecting mantle of superstition. Ed.'] '^ See Jo. Mabillon, Diss, de Vita Mo- nastica GregoriiMagni; annexed to Hadr, Valesius, Analect. Veter. tom. ii. ; and Mabillon's Prof, ad So'cul. i. ^Acta Sanctor. Ord.] Benedict, p. xxix. &c. Yet some deny this, as Anton. Gallonius ; [(/e Monachatu Gregorii, ^c] on whose book, see Rich. Simon, Lettres Choisies, tom. iii. p. 63. [Yet the monkery of CH. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND TEACHERS. 25 Boniface afterwards caused it to be received.^ This rapid pro- gress of their order the Benedictines ascribe to the miracles of St. Benedict and his disciples, and to the holiness and supe- riority of the rules which he prescribed. But those who more critically examine the causes of events, have very nearly all united in the opinion, that the favour shown it by the Roman pontiffs to whose glory and exaltation this whole order was especially devoted, contributed more than all other causes to its wide extension and grandeur. It was not, however, till the ninth century, that all other rules and societies became extinct, and the Benedictines reigned alone.** § 8. Among the Greek and Oriental Christians, the most distinguished writers of this century were the followino-. Pro- copius of Gaza expounded some books of the Bible, not unhap- pily.^ John Maxentius, a monk of Antioch, besides some books against the sects of his times, wrote Scholia on Dionysius the Areopagite.^ Agapetus procured himself a place among the wise Gregory the Great, after the investiga- tions of Mabillon, seems no longer liable to doubt. He established six monasteries in Sicily, and assigned them, out of his great riches, as much landed estate as was necessary for their support. A seventh monastery he founded at Rome, in his own house, dedicated to St. An- drew ; which still exists, and is in the hands of the Camaldulensians. See Fleury, Histoire Eccles. liv. xxxiv. § 34. Schi] ^ Anton. Dandini Altessera, Oriyines JRei Monasticcr, lib. i. cap. 9, p. .33. On the propagation of the Benedictine Eule in tlic various countries of Europe, Jo. Mabillon has a particular treatise, Prerf. adSeecid. i. \_Acta Sanctor. Ord. Benedict.^ and Prcpf. ad S(ecul. iv. pt. i. [Acta Sanctor. Ord. Benedict, torn, v.] p. Ixii. &c. [St. Maurus, whose name a distin- guished congregation still bears, was one of the most famous disciples of Benedict; though some have questioned his exist- ence. Placidus was an historian of this order. Of Augustine, notice has already been taken. Mellitus prcaclicd to the East Saxons, and was aftoruards ardi- bishop of Canterbur}-, and \m' active in propagating the order. — The great and rapid dissemination of this order was wonderful. Many particular and new orders, distinguished from each other by their dress, their caps, and fcjrms of government, originated from it. The Carthusians, Cistercians, Ca:Iestines, Grandimontensians, Pra?moTistratensians, Chmiacensians, Camaldulensians, &c., were only branches growing out of this principal st(xk. The most respectable and renowned men were trained up in it. Volaterranus enumerates 200 car- dinals, 1600 archbishops, 4000 bishops, and 15,700 abbots and men of learning, who belonged to this order. V. Einan.'] * Ja. rEntant, Hitstoire du Concile de Constance, tom. ii. p. 32, 33. ^ See Rich Simon, Critirji/e de la Bib- liotlicf/ite Ecclesiast. de 31. du Pin, tom. i. p. 197. [Procopius, a teacher of elo- quence at Gaza, in the reign of Justinian, A.I). .'520, &c., has left us several Com- mentaries on the scriptures, which arc chiefly compilations from carh'cr writers : viz. on the Octatcuch (extant only in Latin) ; on the books of Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles, Greek and Latin, Lugd. Bat. 1620, 4to; on Isaiah, Greek and Latin, Paris, 1580 ; on I'roverbs, and the twelve Minor Prophets ; never pul)li.'shcd. Also inanv neat Epistles, published by Aldus. 7V.] " John Maxentius was a Scjthian monk, and a presbyter of Antioch, who tiourislicd about the year 520. Several of his epistles and tracts, defending the doctrine, that one of the Triniti/ was cru- cified, and opposing the Pelagian errors, are extant in Latin, in the Bibliothera Patrum, tom. ix. His Scholia on l)io- nvsius the Areopagitc are publishecl, Greek and Latin, with that author. TV.] 26 BOOK ir. — CENTURY VI. [part II. men of this age, by his Schcda Reg'ta, addressed to the emperor Justinian? Eulofjius, a presbyter of Antioch, was ardent and energetic in opposing the heresies of his times.^ John, bishop of Constantinople, called the Faster, on account of the austerity of his life, distinguished himself by some small treatises, and particularly by his Pcenitential? Leontius of Byzantium has left us a book against the heretics, and some other writings.^ Evagrius Scholasticus has left an Ecclesiastical History, but it is disfigured by fables.- Anastasius, of Sinai, is generally sup- posed to be the author of a well-known yet futile book, entitled Hodegus contra Acephalos.^ ' [Agapctus, a deacon in the great church at Constantinople, floiu'ished a. d. 527 ; in which year he composed his In- structions for a prince, adckessed to the emperor Justinian, then recently invested with the purple. The book contains seventy-two heads of advice, displaying good common sense, but not profound. It has been often published ; as, Venice, 1.509, 8vo. ; and with a commentary, Traneker. 1608, 8 vo. Fraucf. 1659, 4to. Lips. 1669, 8vo. Tn] ^ [Eulogius of Antioch was made bi- shop of Alexandria in the year 581. A homily of his is extant, Greek and Latin, in Combetis, Actuar. Nov. torn. i. ; and large extracts from his six books against Novatus, liis two books against Timo- theus and Severus, his book against Theodosius and Severns, and another against the compromise between the Theodosians and the Gainaites, are in Photius, Biblioth. Codex, No. 182. 208. 225 — 227. T/-.] ^ [John the Faster was a native of Cappadocia, and bishop of Constantinople from 585 to 596. The title of universal bishop given him in the council of 589, involved him in trouble with Pelagius II. and Gregoiy I., bishops of Rome. Two of his homilies are extant, Greek and Latin, among those of Chrysostom ; and his Pwnitential, (or niles for treating penitents,) and a discourse on confessions and penitence, are published, Greek and Latin, by Morin, de Pmiitentia, Appendix, p. 77. 92. Tr. — Oudin maintains that this Penitential is far posterior to the Foster's time, i. 1476. £f/.] ' [Leontius of Byzantium was first an advocate, and then a morik in a mo- nastery in Palestine, and flourished a. d. 590 and onwards. Cyril (hi his life of St. Sabas, cap. 72,) says he was accused of Origenism. Vossius (de Hist. Gr, lib. iv. c. 8,) thinks he was the same as Le- ontius bishop of Cyprus. He ^\Tote de Sectis Liber, Greek and Latin, in Auctuar. Biblioth. Patr. Paris, 1624, tom. i. p. 493 ; likewise, adv. Eutyduanos et Nesto- rianos, lib. ui. adv. Fraudes Apollinaristar. lib. ii. Solutiones Argumentorum Severi : Dubitationes et Definitiones contra eos qui negant in Christo duas naturas ; extant, in Latin, Biblioth. Patr. tom. ix. ; also an Oration on the man blind from his birth. Greek and Latin, in Combefis, Auctuar. Nov. tom. i. ; and some other tracts never published. TV.] ^ [Evagrius Scholasticus was born at Epiphania, in Syria, a. d. 536. At four years of age he was sent to school ; after grammar he studied rhetoi-ic, and became an advocate at the bar in Antioch. He was mvxch esteemed, and especially by Gregory, bishop of Antioch, whom he often assisted in difficult cases. The emperor Tiberius made him a quaestor, and Mamicc, an honoraiy praifect. His only work that has reached us, is his Ecclesiastical History, in six books. It is a continuation of the histories of So- crates and Sozomen, from the council of Ephesus in 431, to the year 594. Its chief fault is, that of the age, credulity, and an over-estimation of monkish le- gends and other trash. It was published, Greek and Latin, by Valesius, among the other Greek ecclesiastical historians, and has been translated into English, Cambridge, 1683, fol. TV.] '^ See Rich. Simon, Critique de la Bib- liothcque Eccles. de M. du Pin, tom. i. p. 232 ; and Barat, Bibliotheque Choisie, tom. ii. p. 21, &c. [There were three persons, called Anastasius Siuaita. The first, after being a monk in the monastery on Moimt Sinai, was made patriarch of Antioch, a.d. 561 ; but was banished in the year 570, for opposing the edict of CH. II.] CnURCH OFFICERS AND TEACHERS. 27 § 9. Among the Latin writers, the most distinguished were the following. Gregory the Great, Roman Pontiff: a man of Justinian I'especting the inconiiptibility of Christ's body. He was restored in 592, and died in 599. He was a learned and orthodox man, and a eonsiderable ^vriter. — The second of this name was the immediate successor of the first in the see of Antioch, from a. d. 599 to a. d. 609, when he was murdered by the Jews. He translated the works of Gregory the Great, on the Pastoral Office, from Latin into Greek ; but the translation is lost. — The third Anastasius flourished about A.D. 685. He was a mere monk of mount Sinai. He wrote a compendious account of heresies, and of the councils that condemned them, from the earliest times to the year 680 ; which still ex- ists in MS. — The 'Oh]y6i or Guide to shun the Acephali, is a rhapsody, without method, and without merit. It has been ascribed to the third Anastasius ; because it contains sevei-al allusions to events posterior to the times of the fii'st two of this name. Yet, as it relates to contro- versies in which the Jirst Anastasius is kno^vn to have been much engaged, some have supposed it was originally composed by him, or from his writings, with subsequent additions or interpo- lations. It was printed, Greek and La- tin, by Gretser, Ingolst. 1604, 4to. — The 154 Questions and Answers, respecting biblical subjects, ascribed to the Jirst Anastasius, and published, Greek and Latin, by Gretsei", 1617, 4to, also bear marks of a later age. Cave supposes they were comjjiled from the works of the Jirst Anastasius. His eleven books of Contewphtions on the Hexaiimeron, were pubhshed in Latin, Paris, 1609. Dr. Alix published the twelfth book, Greek and Latin, Loud. 1682, 4to. — His five doctrinal Discourses, (on the Trinitj', Incarnation, &c.) together with all the works just enumerated, are extant, in Latin, Biblioth, Pair. tom. ix. Six of his Homilies are extant, Greek and Latin, in Combefis, Auctimr. Nov. 1 648, tom. i. Another tract of his, on the three Quad- ragesimte, is extant, Greek and Latin, in Cotelier, Monum. Eccl. Gr. tom. iii. Various other tracts of his exist only in MS., and a considerable number of others are lost. [The Acephali ^\ere a brandi of the Eutycliians, and appear to have been called the Headless, either because they separated from their patriarch, or were altogether without bishops. They were considered as Semi-Eutychians. Suiccr, in voc. 'Aici(pa\oi. Ed.'] [The iiillowiiig is a catalogue of the Greek and oriental writers of tliis cen- tury, omitted by Dr. Jlosheini. 01ymi)iodorus, a deacon at Alexan- dria, who probably flourished at the commencement of this centuiy. He wrote several commentaries on the scrip- tures. His sliort Comment on Ecclesiastes is extant, Greek and Latin, in Pronto Ducaius, Auctuar. torn. ii. His Conunent on Lamentations, Lat. Home, 1598, 4to, and his Commentary on Job, is preserved almost entire, in the Catena on Job, pub- lislied, Greek and Latin, by Patr. Junius, Lond. 1637, fol. Julian, bishop of Ilalicamassus in Caria, a Eutychian, who flourished under Anastasius, a. i>. 510, and was active in the contests of his times. On the acces- sion of Justin, A. I). 518, he fled to Alex- andria ; where he advanced the idea tliat Christ's body was always incapable of corruption, antl produced a division and a party among the IMonophysitcs. He v\'rote a Commentary on Job, which is often quoted in the Catena on Job, pub- lished Lond. 1637, fol. Timotheus, bishop of Constantinople, A.D. 511 — 517, distinguished for his ha- tred of his predecessor IMacedonius. He M'rote a book on the various heresies, which is extant, Gr. and Lat. in Combefis, Auctuar. Noi>. torn. ii. and more perfect, in Coteher, Monum. Ecclcs. Gr. tom. iii. p. 377. Sevems, a leading man among the Acephali or Mono])hysites, was in liis youth a pagan, iuid studied in the law school at lierytus ; afterwards he became a monk at Gaza, and eniljracing an. 564—578. He wrote Collectio Canonum, in 50 titles, and in- cluding the 85 Canons of the Apostles ; also Nomocanon ; which, besides a col- lection of canons, contained an epitome of the civil laws concerning ecclesiastical affairs ; likewise. Capita Ecclesiastica. All these tracts were published, Gr. and Lat., in Justell's Bihlioth. Juris Canon. ton), ii. p. 499. 603. 660, ed. Paris. 1662. Theodorus, bishop of Iconium, about A. D. 564, wrote the martyrdom of Ju- litta and her son Cirycus, only three years old, in the persecution of Dio- cletian, published, Gr. and Lat., by Com- bctis, Acta Martt/r. Antiq. Piiris, 1660, 8vo, p. 231. Eustratius, a presbyter of the great church at Constantinople, imder Euty- chius tile patriarch, about A. v. 578. He wrote a book in confutation of those who say, the soul is iiuxctivc when separated from the body ; published Gr. and Lat. by Leo Allat, in his historical work con- cerning purgatory, Rome, 1655, 8vo. p. 319—581. He also wrote the Life of Euti/chius the patriarch ; published Gr. and Lat. by Surius, and by Papebroch. Theophanes of Byzantium, flourished A. D. 580, and wrote a history of the wars of the Romans with the Persians, A. D. 567 — 573, in ten books ; and some other parts of the history of his own times. Only extracts remain. John Maro, a very jjromiiient man among the Maronites, who flourished about A. D. 580. He wrote Conunentaries on the Liturgy of St. James, which are still extant in Syriac, and ha\e been much quoted by Abr. Echellensis, Morin, Nairon, and others. Leontius, bishop of Neapolis or Ha- giopolis in C\imis, who flourished al)()Ut A.D. 600, and" died about A.n. 620 or 630. He wrote an Apology for the Christians, against the Jews ; ot' which a large part is preserved in the fourth Act of the second Nicene eouTicil ; Concilior. torn, vii. p. 236. He also wrote some Iio- milies, and biographies of Siiiiits. But it is not easy to distinguish Ills writings ii-om those of Leontius of Bvzantium. 7V.] * His works were published by tlie French Beneiarthe in four splendid volumes, fol. Paris, 1705. For an account of him, sec the Acta Sanctor. torn. ii. Martii, p. 121, &c. [Gregoiy the Great, of senatorian rank, was borii at Ri ime, about \. d. 540. After a LTOod education, being a youth of great promise, he was early admitted to the senate, and made governor of the city 30 BOOK II. — CEXTUEY VI. [PART II. moral subjects, and a Ride for holy virgins? Fulgentius, of Ruspe in Africa, contended valiantly in numerous books, against the before he was thirty yeai's old. The death of his father put him in possession of a vast estate ; wliich he devoted wholly to pious and charitable uses. Renounc- ing public life, he became a monk, built and endowed six monasteries in Sicily, and a seventh at Rome, in which lie himself lived under the control of the abbot. In 579, he was drawn from his monastery, ordained a deacon, and sent as papal legate to the court of Constan- tinople ; where he resided five years, and became very popular. Retmiiing m .584, with a rich treasure of relics, he retired to his monasteiy, and his favour- ite mode of life. In 590, he was raised to the papal chair, much against his will ; and for thirteen years and a half, was an indefatigable bishop, a zealous re- former of the clergy and the monasteries, and a strenuous defender of the prero- gatives of his see. He failed in his at- tempt to coerce the Illyrian bishops to condemn the three chapters ; but succeed- ed in disturbing the harmony between the Orthodox and the Donatists in Africa. He discouraged all coercive measures for the conversion of the Jews ; endeavoured to confine the monks to their monasteries, and to a more reli- gious life ; and attempted to eradicate the prevailing vices of the clergy, simony and debauchery. He was instrumental in converting the Arian Lombards to the orthodox faith, and in restraining the ravages of that warlike people. He interfei'ed in the discipline of foreign churches, remonstrated against an impe- rial law forbidding soldiers to become monks ; laboured to effect a peace be- tween the Lombards and the emperors ; and attended to every interest of the church and the people imder him. Yet he claimed no civil authority ; but always treated the emperors as his lords and mas- ters. In 595, he commenced his long con- test witli the patriarchs of Constantinople who had assumed the honorary title of ■universal bishops. This title, Gregoiy maintained to be blasphemous, anti- christian, and diabohcal, by whomsoever assumed. But he could not induce any of the orientals to join with him. In 596, he sent Augustine and other monks to convert the Anglo-Saxons, which they accomplished. In 601, he defended the use of images in churches ; allowed the Saxons to retain some of their pagan customs, and endeavoured to extend the power of Augustine over the ancient British chirrches. In the same year, when Phocas, the usurper, mm'dered all the imperial family, and clothed himself with the purple, Gregory obsequiously flattered him, and submitted to his usurpa- tion. At length, worn out with cares and disease, he died in March a. d. 604, having reigned thirteen years and a half. Gre- gory was exceedingly active, self-denying, submissive to his superiors, and cour- teous, sympathetic, and benevolent to all ; yet he was an enthusiast for monk- ery and for the honour of his see. His writmgs are more voluminous than those of any other Roman pontiff. His letters amount to 840 ; besides which, he wrote 35 books on Job, called Gregory's Morals; a Pastoral, a treatise on the duties of a pastor, in 4 books ; 22 Homilies on Eze- kiel ; 40 Homilies on the Gospels ; 4 books of Dialogues. To him are ascribed also, an Exposition of the first book of Samuel, in six books ; an Exposition of the seven penitential Psalms ; and an Exposition of the Canticles. His best works are his Pastoral and his Morals. His Dia- logue is stuffed with monkish tales ; and the Exposition of the penitential Psalms breathes the spirit of later times, and has been ascribed to Gregory VII. The best edition is said to be that of St. Marthe ; but that of de Sousainville, Paris, 1675, 3 vols. fol. is esteemed; the latest edition is that of Job. Bapt. Gal- liccioUi, Venice, 1768 — 76, in 17 vols. 4to. — His hfe by Paulus Diaconus, of the ninth century ; and another by John, deacon at Rome, about 880, in four books, are in Mabillon's Acta Sanctor. Ord. Bened. torn. i. p. 378 — 484. Among the moderns, besides Du Pin, Bayle, and Oudin, we have Maimbom-g's Histoire du Pontificat. de S. Gregoire le Grand, Paris, 1686, 4to : Denys de St. Marthe, Histoire de S. Greg, le Gr. Rouen, 1698. 4to, and in the 0pp. Greg. M. tom. iv. p. 199 — 305. See also Bower, Lives of the Popes, (Gregory I.) vol. ii. p. 463 — 543, ed. Lond. 1750, and Schi'oeckh, Kirchengesch. vol. x^ii. p. 243 — 371. Tr.-] ^ The Benedictines have recently given a learned account of Cajsarius, in their Histoire Litteraire de la France, tom. iii. p. 190. [His life written by his pupils, Cyprian, Messian, and Stephan, en. ii.j CnURCn OFFICERS AXD TEACHERS. ;i Pelagians and the Arians *" ; but his diction is harsh and un- couth, Hke that of most Africans. Ennodius, of Pavia, was not contemptible among the writers of this age, either for prose or poetry ; but he was an infatuated adulator of the Roman pontiff, who, he taught, as never had been tauglit before, could be called in question by no one of mortals.^ Benedict of Xursia, whose name is immortalized by his Rule for a monastic life, and the numerous families of monks who have followed it.** in two books, is extant in Mabillon, Acta SS. Orel. Benedict, torn. i. p. 636—654. He was born in Gaul, a. d. 469. While a boy, he ran away, and entered the mo- nastery of Lerins ; where he lived many years, and became the butler. His health failing, he retired to Aries ; of which place he was made bishop in the year 502. In the year 506, he was falsely accused of treason, and banished by Alaric, king of the Visigoths, to Bour- deaux ; but soon recalled. In 508, Theo- doric, king of the Goths, summoned him to Ravenna to answer a similar charge. Being acquitted, he ^nsited Italy and re- turned to Aries. He presided at the council of Aries in 524 ; and at that of Valencia in 529, he trivmiphantly main- tained the principle, that a man cannot obtain salvation without preventing grace. He died a. d. 542, aged 73. He was zea- lous for monkery, and a strenuous advo- cate for the doctrines of Augustine, re- specting free grace and predestination. He has left us 46 Homilies, a Kule lor monks, another for nuns, a treatise on the ten \argins, an exhortation to cha- rity, an Epistle, and his WiU. He also wrote two books on grace and free a\ ill, against Faustus, which are lost. His works are printed in the Biblioth. Pair. vol. viii. and vol. xxvii. See Cave, Hint. Litter, torn. i. p. 492. 7>.] ® See, concerning Fulgentius, the Acta Sanctor. torn. i. Januarii, p. 32, &c. [He was born at Carthage, about a. n. 468. His father, who was a senator, died while he was young ; but his mo- ther gave him an excellent education. While a boy, he had all Homer by rote, and could talk Greek fluently. He was eai-ly made procurator of the city, but soon weary of public life, he retired to a monaster}', became a monk and an abbot, changed his monastery, endured perse- cution from the Arians, went to Syracuse, and thence to Rome in the year 500 ; returned to Africa again, was elected bishop of Ruspc in 507, was banished to Sardinia by Thrasimund the Arian king of the Vandals, recalled by Ililderic, the succeeding king, and ruled his church till his death in 533. He was one of the most learned, pious, and influential bi- shoi)s of his age. He \n-otc three books ad Monimum, (on predestination and kindred doctrines;) one book against the Arians ; three books ad Thraaimundum Begem, (on the person and oflrtccs of Christ ;) ten Scnnons on divei-s subjects ; de Fide Orthodoxa, Liber ad Donatum ; de Fide Liber, ad Petr. Diacon. ; eleven Epistles; de Trinitate Liber ; on Predes- tination and Grace, three books ; and various other Tracts and Homilies : all of which were jiublished, Paris, 1684, 4to. Among his lost works, were seven books on grace and free will, addressed to Faustus ; and ten books on predestination and grace, against Fabian. See Cave, Hist. Lit. tom. i. p. 493. TV.] ' See the Histoire Litteraire de la France, tom. iii. p. 96, &c. [Eimodius was born a.d. 473, of a pro-consular fa- mily. He man-ied j'oung ; was after- wards deacon of Pavia, and subsequently at Rome ; was twice papal legate to the emperor at Constantinoiile, was made bisliop of Pavia in 511, and died in 521. He wrote nine books of Epistles, or 297 in number ; unpublished, and of little use to the liistory of his times ; a Pane- gijric on Theodoric, king of the Ostro- goths ; an Apologj/ for the synod of Rome A.D. 503 ; the lii'eof Ei>iphaiiiiis, his i)re- decessorat Pavia ; life of Antony, a monk of Lerins ; two Ijooks of i)ocnis or epi- grams ; and various other little i)ieccs : ail of which were jjublislied by Ja. Sirmond, Paris, 1611, 8vo ; and in the AVorks of Sirmond, vol. i. Paris, 1(396 ; also in the Biblivth. Patr. tom. ix. Tr.-\ ' [See above, p. 22. § G, and note'. He has left us nothing in writing, except his monastic regulations, two 32 BOOK II. — CENTURY VI. [part II. Dionysiiis, surnamed Exiguns on account of his lowliness of mind, has deserved well of his own age and of posterity, by his collection of ancient canons, and his chronological researches.^ Fulgentius Ferrandus, an African, procured himself reputation by some small treatises, especially by his Abridgment of the canons ; but his diction has no charms.' Facundus, of Hermiane, was a strenuous defender of the three chapters, of which an account will be given hereafter.^ Arator versified the Acts of the Apos- tles, in Latin, not badly.^ Frimasius, of Adrumetum, wrote Commentaries on the Epistles of Paul, and a book on heresies ; which are yet extant.'* Liberatus, by his Breviarium, or concise Epistles, and two discourses ; which are in the Biblioth. Patr. torn. ix. p. 640, &c. Tr.-] ^ [A monk of Scytliian extract, who flourished at Rome a. d. 533, and died before A. D. 556. He was intimate with Cassiodorus ; who gives him a high cha- racter for intelhgence and virtue. Being famiUar with Greek, he collected and translated a body of canons, including the first fifty Apostolic Canons, and those of the councils of Nice, Constanti- nople, Chalcedon, Sardica, and some in Africa ; he also made a collection of the decrees of the Roman pontitts from Si- ricius to Anastasius II. ; both are extant in Justell's Biblioth. Juris Canonici, torn. i. He likewise translated a synodic epistle of Cyril of Alexandria ; a paschal epistle of Proterius ; the life of St. Pa- chomius ; an Oration of Proclus ; Gregory Nyssen de Opijkio Hominis ; and a his- tory of the discovery of the head of John the Baptist ; and composed a Paschal Cycle of ninety-seven years, commencing A. D. 527, of which only a fragment re- mains. In the last work lie proposed, that Christians should use the time of Christ's birth as their era ; which proposal was soon followed universally. Hence the Christian era is called the Dioni/sian era. But Dionysius miscalculated the time of Christ's birth, placing it four years (as most writers suppose) too late. Tr.-] ' [Fulgentius FeiTandus was a pupil of Fulgentius Ruspensis, and a deacon at Carthage. He flourished a.d. 533 and onwards. His Abridgment of the canons is a short digest of ecclesiastical law, reduced to 232 heads; it is in Justell's Biblioth. Juris Canon, torn. i. He also wrote the Life of Fulgentius of Ruspe, and seven doctrinal Epistles. All his works were published by Chifflet, Dijon, 1649, 4to, and then in the Biblioth. Patr. tom. ix. Tr.] * [Facundus was bishop of Hermiane in Africa, but spent many years at Con- stantinople, as a representative of the African churches at the imperial court. It was here, and in the years 546 and 547, that he composed his twelve books pro Defensione trium Capitulorum, which he presented to the emperor Justinian. He also ivi-ote a book against Mutianus Scholasticus, who had inveighed against the African churches for reftising com- munion with Vigihus. These, together with an Epistle in defence of the tlu-ee chapters, were pul)lished by Ja. Sirmond, Paris, 1629, 8vo, and annexed to Optatus of Milevi, Paris, 1675, fol. and thence in the Biblioth. Patr. tom. x. p. 1. 109. Tr.] ^ [Arator was first an advocate, then one of the court of king Athalaric, and finally a subdeacon at Rome. He flou- rished from a. D. 527 to 544; in which latter year he presented his poetic version of the Acts, in two books, to Vigilius the Roman pontifi". He was much esteemed and honoured both by Athalaric and Vigilius. The poem was first published, with a commentajy, at Salamanca, 1516; and aftenvards in the Biblioth. Patr. tom. X. p. 125. Tr.] * [Primasius, bishop of Adrumetum or Justinianopolis in Africa, was a dele- gate to the court of Constantinople, a. d. 550 and 553, and defended the three chapters. His Commentary on the Epistles of Paul was compiled from Jerome, Am- brose, Augustine, and others. He like- wise composed a Mystical Exposition of the Apocalypse, in five books. Both are in the Biblioth. Patr. tom. x. He more- over wrote de Haresibus, libri iii. ; which are lost, unless they are those published CH. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND TEACPIERS. 33 history of the Nestorian iind Eiitychian controversies, merits a respectable place among the writers of these tinics.'^ Fortu- natiis possessed a happy vein for poetry, which he employed on various subjects, so that he is read with pleasure at the present day.*^ Gregory of Tours, the father of French history, would have been in higher esteem with the moderns if his Annals of the Francs, and his other Avritings, did not exhibit so many marks of weakness and credulity.^ Gildas, of Britain, is not to be passed over, because he is the most ancient of the British writers, and because his little book on the destruction of Britain in the Bihlloth. Patr. toin. xxvii. tlic author of which has been so much dis- puted. See Cave, Hist. LUterai\ torn. i. p. 525, &c. TV.] * [Liberatus was archdeacon of the church of Carthage. He was sent twice as a legate to Rome, in 534 and 535. His Breviarium is esteemed very authen- tic and correct, though not elegant. It contains the history of that controversy for 125 years, or to about a. u. 553 ; and was the result of great research and labour. It was pubhshed by Garnier, Paris, 1675, 8vo, and is in most of the Collections of Councils. TV.] ^ Histoire Litleraire de la France, tom. iii. p. 464. [Venantius Honorarius Cle- mentianus Fortunatus was born in Italy, and educated at Ravenna. About the middle of the century, havhig been cm-ed of his diseased eyes by St. jMiU'tin of Tours, he determined to visit the tomb of that saint. From Tours he went to Poitiers, where he lived to the end of the century ; wrote much, became a pres- byter, and at last bishop of Poitiers. Ilis poetic works are, two books of short poems, dedicated to Gregory of Tours, four books on the life of St. ilartin ; and several other short poems. They are in the Bibliotli. Pair. tom. x. and were pulj- lished by Brower, Mogunt. 1603, and 1616, 4to. His prose writings are, short Explanations of the Lord's I'rayer, and of the Apostles' Creed ; and the lives of eight or ten Gallic saints ; viz. St. Al- binus, bishop of Angers ; St. Germanus, bishop of Paris ; St. Radegund, a queen ; St. Hikuius, bishop of Poitiers ; St. jMarcellus, bishop of Paris ; St. Anuintius, bishop of Rodez ; St. Remigius, bishop of Rheims ; and St. Paternus, l)isliop of Avranches. The U\o following arc doubtful ; St. IMauritius, Ijishop of Angers; VOL. II. ' and St. Medard, bishop of Noyon. All these are extant either in Surius, or Mabillon's collections. TV.] ' A particular account is given of liini in the Histoire Litleraire de la France, tom. iii. p. 372. For an account of his faults, see Fran. Pagi, Diss, de JJiotii/sio, Paris, § XXV. p. 16, annexed to his Breviar. Pontif. Romunor. torn. iv. But many of his defects arc extenuated Ijy Jo. Launoy, Opp. torn. i. ])t. ii. p. 131, &c. [Georgius Florentinus Grogorius was born of noble parentage, in Auvergnc, A. D. 544. After an education under his bishop, he went to Tours in the year 556, became deacon ui 569, and bishop in 573, and died in 595, aged 52. He was much engaged in councils, and iu theological disputes, and at the same tune a great writer. Orthodox, active, and rather indiscreet, he was frcinicntly involved in difficulties, for he was defi- cient in judgment and acumen. His great work, Aunalcs Francoritiii, (some- times called Chronica, Gesla. Hisloria, and Historia Ecclesiastica Francuriim,) in ten books, gives a summary history of the world, from the creation, to the establishment of the kingdom of the Francs ; and afterwards a detailed liis- tory to the year 59 L He also wrote Al'iruculorum libri vii. ; containing the miracles of St. IMartin, in four books ; on the glory of Martyrs, two books ; and on the glory of Confessors, one Ixxik. Besides these, he wrote de V'itis Putrum, (monks) Liber uniis ; de Vita il Morte ILL Dormientinm ; and an Ei>itonie of the History of the Francs, composed Ih.-- fore he wrote liis Anmdcs. All his works, coUectivelv, were best edile. 470, Avas sent in his childhood to Athens for education, where he spent eighteen years ; and then returned to Rome, the most learned man of the age. He was consul in the years 510 and 522. Soon after his re- turn to Rome, he was made a patrician, and admitted to the senate. When Theo- doric king of the Goths entered Rome, A. D. 500, Boethius was appointed by the senate to address him. The king soon after made him one of his council, and master of his palace. After faith- CHURCH OFFICERS AND TEACHERS. 35 CH. II.] reliiis Cassiodorus Senator, who was, indeed, Inferior in many respects to the former, yet no contemptible author.^ Both have left us various productions of their pens.^ ftilly serving the king and liis conntiy for more than twenty years, he was in 523 falsely accused of a treasonable correspondence, condemned on suborned testimony, and sent to Pa\'ia, where he was kept in close confinement a year or more, and then privately put to death by order of the king. He was a volu- minous writer. Besides more than forty books of translations and commen- taries on Ai'istotle, Porph}Ty, and Cicero, he wrote two books on arith- metic, five books on music, two books on geometry, and several tracts against the Eutychians, Nestorians, and other er- rorists. But his most famous work was de Consolatione Philosophia; libri v. AVTitten while in prison at Pavia. This was translated into Saxon by Alfred the Great, (printed, Oxford, 1698,) and into English by Chaucer, and by queen Eli- zabeth. It was composed partly in verse and partly in prose ; and has the form of a dialogue between Boethius himself and Philosophy personified ; who endeavom's to console him with considerations, de- rived not from Christianity, but from the doctrines of Plato, Zeno, and Aris- totle. The works of Boethius were pub- lished with notes, Basil, 1570, fol. See Cave, Hist. Litterar. torn. i. p. 495, &c. ; and Brucker, Hist. Crit. Philus. tom. iii. Gervaise, Histoire de Bol'cc, Paris, 1715, 2 vols. 8vo ; and Schroeekh, A'/re/iew^esc/i. vol. xvi. p. 99 — 121. Tr. — A new edi- tion of King Alfred's Boethius, by J. S. Cardale, was printed at London, with an English translation, and notes, in 1S29. Ed.'] ' See Rich. Simon, Critique de la Bibliotheque Eccles. de M. du Pin, tom. i. p. 211, &c. ^Senator was part of the name, not the title of Cassiodorus. This eminent statesman and monk was born of honourable parents, at Sijuil- lace in the kingdom of Naples, proba- bly before a. d. 470. Odoacer in 491, made him Comes rerum privatarum et sacrarum largitionuin. Two years after, Theodoric became master of Italy, and made him his private secretary ; and, sub- sequently, governor of Calabria ; but soon recalled him to coiut, and made him successively qu;\;stor of the palace, mas- ter of the officers, consul, and pr.'etorian prefect. The death of Theodoric in 52G did not deprive Cassiodorus of his Iiigh rank ; but in 539, being now about seventy years old, he retired to a monas- teiy, founded by himself, near his native town in Calabria, where he lived more than twenty years in honourable retire- ment, devoted to literature and religion. His W(jrks are voluminous ; viz. Epis- tolarum libri xii. (his official letters) ; Historice Eccles. Tripartita libri xii. (an abridgment from the Latin translations of Socrates, Sozomen, and Thcodoret, by Epiphanius Scholasticus) ; Chronicvn ab Adamo usque ad annum, 519 ; Com- putus Paschalis; de liehus Gestis Got/io- rum libri xii. (which we have, as abridged by Jornandes ; the original is supposed still to exist in IMS.) ; Expositio in Psalmos Davidis ; lustitutioiiis ad di- vinas Icctiones libri ii. ; de Orthographia Liber ; de VII. Disciplinis Liber (on the seven liberal arts ; viz. the trivium, or grammar, rhetoric, and logic ; and the quadrivium, or arithmetic, music, geo- metry, and astronomy) ; dc Anima Liber ; de Oratione, et VIII. partibus Orationis ; short Comments on tlie Acts, the E])istles, and Apocalypse (published separately by bishop Chandler, Lond. 1722, Bvo). Most of the other works are in the Bihlioth. Patr. torn. xi. and all of them were well edited by the Benedictines hi two vols. fol. Rouen, 1679. See Cave, Histor. Litterar. torn, i. p. 501, and Scroeckh, Kirchengcsch. vol. xvi. p. 128—154. 7>.] * [The following are the Latin wTitcrs omitted by Dr. Moslicim. Paschasius, deacon of the cluirch of Rome, who took sides witli Laurentius, in his contest for the pontificate in 498, and died in 512. lie hiis left us an Epistle to Eugyppius; and two books on the Holy Spirit against Maccdoiiius; whieli are in the eighth vol. of the Bib- lioth. Patrum. Laurentius, bishop of Novara in the north of Italy, flourished about a. d. 507. Two of his Homilies on ])enitenee and alms, are in the Bibliuth. Pair. tom. ix. Epiphanius Scholiu^ticus, an Italian, who fiourished al)Out a. d. 510. He translated the Eccles. Histories of So- crates, Sozomen, and 'J'heodorct into Latin ; that Cassiodorus miglit thence 36 BOOK II. — CENTURY VI. make out lus Historia Eccles. Tripartita, in twelve books. The original transla- tions are lost. Eugy]3pius, abbot of a monastery near Naples, about a. d. 511. He wrote the life of St. Severinus, the apostle of No- ricum ; published by Surius. Hormisdas, Roman pontiff a. d. 514 — 523 ; who made peace, after a long contest, between the oriental and west- ern churches. He has left us eighty Epistles, and some Decretals in the Concilior. torn. iv. Orentius, or Orientius, bishop of Eli- beris in Spain, a. d. 516. He wrote Commonitorium fideJibits, metro Heroico, in two books. The first book is in tlie Biblioth. Pair. torn. vii. ; and both, with other short poems, in Edm. Mar- tene, Thesaur. Anecdut. torn. v. Paris, 1717. Peter, a deacon, who vigorously aided the deputation of oriental monks at Rome, A. D. 520, and wi-ote de Incarna- tione et Gratia D. N. Jesu Christ i. Liber ; extant among the works of Fulgentius, and in Biblioth. Patr. tom. ix. Felix IV. Roman pontiff a. t>. 526 — 530. Three Epistles, in the Concilior. tom. iv. are ascribed to him ; but the two first are spurious. Justinian I. emi^eror a. d. 527 — 565. Besides the Corpus Juris Civilis, (viz. Institutionum lib. iv. Pandectar. sive Digestorum lib. 1. Codicis lib, xii. a. d. 528—535 ; and Novella;, after a. d. 535,) he issued six Decrees and Epistles relating to ecclesiastical affairs, which are in the Concilior. tom. v. Nicetius, of Gallic extract, a monk, abbot, and archbishop of Treves, a. d. 527 — 568. He was distinguished for piety, and the confidence reposed in him. Two of his tracts, de Viyiliis Ser- vorum Dei, and de Bona Psalmodia, were published by Dacherius, Spicilegium, torn. iii. (ed. nova, tom. i. p. 221. 223); and two of his letters (to the emperor Justinian, and to queen Chlosuinda) are in the Concilior. torn, v. Justus, bishop of Urgel, in Catalonia, Spain, flourished a. d. 529, and died about A. D. 540. His Commentary on the Canticles is in the Biblioth. Patr. tom. ix. Two Epistles of his are also extant. Boniface II. Roman pontiff a. d. 530 —532 has left us two Epistles; in the Concilior. tom. iv. Cogitosns, an Irish monk, grandson of St. Brigit, and supposed to have lived about A. D. 530. He wrote Vita Sa7icla; [part II. BrigidcE; which is published by Canisius, Surius, and Bolland. Montanus, archbishop of Toledo in Spain, during nine years, about a. d. 531. He has left xis two Epistles; extant in the Concilior. tom. iv. John II. Roman pontiff A. D. 532 — 535. At the request of Justinian, he solemnly sanctioned the orthodoxy of the expres- sion. One of the Trinity suffered crucijiaion. One spurious and five genuine Epistles of his are in the Concilior. tom. iv. Marcellinus, Comes of Elyricum, flou- rished A. D. 534. His Chronicon (from the year 379, M'here Jerome's closes, to the year 534,) has been often published ; and is in the Biblioth. Patr. tom. ix. Agapetus, Roman pontiff a. r>. 535, 536. Seven of his Epistles (one of them spurious) are in the Concilior. tom. iv. and one in tom. v. Vigilius, Roman pontiff a. d. 537 — 555. He obtained his see by intrigue and duplicity ; conspu'ed against his pre- decessoi', whom he brought to the grave ; and when confirmed in his see, showed himself supremely ambitious, and I'eady to sacrifice consistency, conscience, the truth itself, to promote his own selfish designs. He issued the most solemn de- clarations, both for and against the three chaptei-s. In 547 Justinian called him to Constantinople, where he detained him seven years, and compelled him to con- demn the three chapters, and himself also, for having repeatedly defended them. We have eighteen Epistles, and several of his contradictory Decretals, in the Co7icilior. tom. v. Gordianus, a monk of Messina, carried off by the Saracens, in the year 539, when they burned and plundered that monastery. Gordian escaped from the Saracens, and returned to Sicily, where he ■wrote the Life of Placid us, the Bene- dictine abbot of Messina, who with many others was slain in the capture of that monastery. It is extant in Surius, and in Mabillon, Acta Sanctor. tom. i. Victor, bishop of Capua, about a. d. 545. He translated into Latin Ammo- nius' Harmony of the four Gosjtels, falsely ascribed to Tatian ; and extant in the Biblioth. Patr. tom. iii. ji. 265. Cyprianus, a Gaul, and pupil of Cse- sarius of Aries. He flourished a. d. 546, and wrote the first book of the life and achievements of Ccesarius. Both books are in Surius, and in Mabillon, Acta Sanctor. tom. i. Mutianus Scholasticus flourished a. d. CII. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND TEACHERS. 37 550. At the suggestion of Ccossiodonis, he translated thirty-fonr Homilius of Chiysostom on the Epistle to the Hebrews into Latin ; printed at Cologne, 1530. Rusticns, a deacon at Rome, who accompanied pope Vigilius to Constan- tinople in 547, and showed more tinn- ness than his bishop. His Dialugus sive disputatio adversus Acephalos, (in whieh he inveighs against Vigilius,) is extant in the Biblioth. Pair. torn. x. Juuilius, an African bishop, who lived about A. D. 550, has left us de Partibus Divina Legis Ubri ii. in the Bihlioth. Pair. torn. x. p. 339. Jornandes, or Jordanus, of Gothic ex- tract, bisliop of the Goths at Ravenna. His one book de Rebus Geticis, or Htstoria Gotlioi-um, from the earliest times to a. d. 540, is an abridgment of the twelve books of Cassiodorus, on the same sub- ject. His de Pegnorum et Tcmporum successione Liber, is translated from Florus. Both works are extant in Muratori, Rerum Ikdicar. Scriptores, torn. i. 1723. Eugyppius, an African pi-esbj-ter and abbot, who flourished about a. d. 553. He compiled from the works of St. Au- gustine a collection of sentences on va- rious suljjects, in 338 chapters ; printed Basil, 1542. Victor, bishop of Tunis in Africa, a resolute defender of the thi-ee chapters, in prisons and banishments, from a. d. 555 — 565. He wrote a Chronicon, from the creation to a. d. 566 ; but the last 122 years of it are all that remain ; pub- lished by Sealiger, with the Chronicon of Eusebius. Germanns, (St. Gennain,) bom at Autun, France, a. d. 496 ; deacon, 533 ; presbyter, 536 ; and bishop of Pai-is, A. D. 555 — 576. An epistle of his to queen Bruneehild, ^viitten a. d. 573, is in the Cuncilior. torn. v. His life, Avrit- ten by Venantius Fortunatus, in his iSIa- billon. Acta Sanctor. Ord. Bcned. torn. i. p. 222, &c. Pelagius I. Roman pontiff a. d. 555 — 559. He was papal legate at Constan- tinople A. D. 535 — 545 ; and a strenuous opposer of the three chapters. Sixteen of his epistles arc in the Concdior. torn. V. Martin, a monk, bom in Pannonia. He travelled in Palestine, preached and became an abbot in Spain, and finally bishop of Braga in Portugal, a. d. 563 — 583. He has left us CoUcctio Cunonum, (extant, in Concdior. torn. v. ; and in JnstcU's Biblioth. Juris Canon, torn, i.) Sententice Patriim vEgijptiorum, (in Ros- wiyd, de Vitis Patr.) and Formula; HonestcB Vita;, extant in the Biblioth. Patr. torn. x. p. 282. Pelagius II. Roman pontiff a. d. 579 — 590. He had much contention with the Western bisiioi)s, who defended the tln-ee chapters ; and, after a. i>. 589, with John, bishop of Constantinople, who assumed the title of universal bishop. Ten of his Epistles, and six Decrees, are extant, in the Concdior. torn. v. Marius, bishop of Avcnches in Switz- erland for twenty years, lloiu-ished a. d. 581. He has left us a Chronicon, con- tinuing that of Prosper, from 455 to 581. Licinianus, bishop of Carthagena, in Spain, A.D. 584. He has left us tlu-ec Epistles ; in de Aguin-e, Collect. Max. Coned. Hispan. tom. ii. John, a Spanish Goth, educated at Constantinople, returned to Siiain a. n. 584, became an ablxit, was persecuted by Lcttvigild the Arian king, and died early in the seventh century. He has left a Chronicon, from a. i>. 565 to 590. Leander, ArehbislK^p of Seville (His- palensis) in Spain, flourished a. d. 583, and died 595. He was a monk, an am- bassador to Constantinople, and a prin- cipal means of the conversion of the Arian Goths of Spain to the catholic faith. A monastic Rule is all we liave of him ; unless he was autiinr of the Missa Mozarabum. Dynamius, collector of the revenues of the Romish churcii in Gaul. He flourishcil A. I). 593 ; and wrote the life of St. ]\Iaxinnis, bishop of Rei/ ; and the hfe of St. Marius, abbot of Bobi. Eutropius, a monk, and bishop of Valencia in Spain, flourished A. i>. 599. C)ne of his Epistles is ])reserved by Lu. Holsteuius, Codex Regular. Paris, 1663. 7>.] D 3 38 BOOK II. — CENTURY VI. [PART CHAPTER III. HISTORY OF THEOLOGY. § 1. Conthiued sinking of theology. — § 2. This exemplified. — § 3. State of exegcti- Ciil theology. — § 4. Faults of the interpreters. — § 5. Dogmatic theology. — § 6. Practical theology. — § 7. Lives of saints. — § 8. Polemic theology. — § 9. Contests about Origenism — § 10. about the three chapters. — § 11. The fifth general coun- cil.— § 12. Contest about one of the Trinity being crucified. § 1. The barriers of ancient simplicity and truth being once torn up, there was a constant progress for the worse, nor can it easily be said hovv^ much of impurity and superstition religion gradually received. The controversialists of the East were continually darkening the great doctrines of revelation, by the most subtle distinctions, and I know not what determinations of the philosophers. Those who instructed the people, were only intent upon imbuing them more and more with ignorance, superstition, reverence for the clergy, and admiration of empty ceremonies ; so that they lost all sense and knowledge of true piety. Nor is this wonderful, for the blind, — that is, persons for the most part ignorant and unreflecting, — ^oere leaders of the blind. § 2. Whoever wishes to know these things more distinctly, only needs the patience to make himself acquainted with what is read as Avell in the epistles and other writings of Gregory the Great, as elsewhere, respecting the worship of images and saints, the fire to purify soids after death, the efficacy of good woi'ks, that is, of human prescriptions and devices for attaining salvation, the power of relics to remove defects both of soul and body, and other things of the like character. A man of sense cannot help smiling at the good Gregory s generosity in distributing his relics ; but he must feel pity for the simple, stuj)id people, who could be persuaded that oil taken from lamps burning at the CII. III.] HISTORY OF THEOLOGY. 39 sepxilchres of the martyrs, possessed uncommon virtues and utility, and brought great holiness and security to its possessors.^ § 3. To give directions for expounding the Holy Scriptures, was the object of Junilius, in his two books on the parts of the divine law.'-^ The treatise consists of a few questions, neither scientifically arranged, nor judiciously considered; for the au- thor Avas deficient in the learning necessary for his undertaking. Cassiodorus likewise laid down some rules for interpretation, in his two books on the divine latvs. Among the Syrians, Philoxenus translated the books of the New Testament and the Psalms of David into Syriac.^ The number of interpreters was consider- able. Among the Greeks, the best were Procopius of Gaza (rather a pleasing expositor)^, Severus of Antioch, JuUanus, and some others. Among the Latins, the more prominent were Gregory the Great, Cassiodorus, Primasius '^, Isidore of Seville **, Bellator ^, and a few others. § 4. All these, a few only excepted (and particulary the Nes- torians in the East, who, following the example of Theodorus of Mopsuestia, searched for the true sense and meaning of the words), scarcely deserve the name of interpreters. They may be divided into two classes. Some merely collected the opi- nions and interpretations of the earlier doctors, in works which were afterwards called Catence (or Chains) by the Latins.^ Such is the Catena of Olijnipiodorus on Job, that of Victor of Capua on the four Gospels, and the Commentary of Primasius on the Epistle to the Romans, compiled from Augustine, Jerome, Am- brose, and others. Nor is Procopius of Gaza to be wholly ex- cluded from this class, although he sometimes followed his own judgment. The others tread in the footsteps of Origen, and ' ^QfiihcListof sacred oils wlnohGxQ- la Bibliotheque de M. dii Pin, toin. i. \\ gory the Great sent to (luccu Theodc- 226. lindii ; in Tlicod. Ruinart, Acta Martyr. " Rich. Simon, Critique de la Bihlio- Sincera et Selecta, p. 619, [and in Mu- tliajue de M. du Pin, torn. i. \\ 259. ratori, Anecdota Latina, torn. ii. p. 194. ' [UuOator was a i>rc'.>-I)ytcr, ii Irioiul Schl.'] of Cassiodonis, and flourished a.d. .'550. - See Rich. Simon, Critique de la He wrote numerous Commentaries ; viz. Bihliothique de M. da Pin, torn. i. p. four books on Esther, five bot>ks on Tobit, 229. seven l)ook.s on Jnditli, eij^ht books on '=*'jos. Sim. Asseman, Biblioth. Orient, the AVisdom of Solomon, and ten Iwoks Vatican, tom. ii. p. 83. on tlie ]Maeeabees ; all of which are now '' See Rich. Smion, Lettres choisies, lost. TV.] tom. iv. p. 120, of tlie new edition. " See Step. Ic Mopic, Prolegom. ad 5 Rich. Simon, Hisloirc Critique des Varia Sacra, p. 53, &e. and Ji>. AUi. priucipaux Commentateurs du Nouveau Fabricius, Biblioth. Gnrca, lib. v. cap. Test. cap. xxiv. p. 337, and Critique dc 17, or vol. vii. p. 727, &c, u 4 40 BOOK II. — CENTUEY VI. [PART II. neglecting wholly the literal meaning, run after allegories and moral precepts, deducing whatever they Avish or desire from the sacred books, by the aid of a roving imagination. Of this class is Anastasius of Sinai, whose Anagogical CoJitemplations on the Hexa'emeron expose the ignorance and credulity of the author ; likewise Gregory the Great, whose Morals on Joh were formerly extolled undeservedly ; also Isidore of Seville, in his Book of allegories on Scripture ; and Primasius, in his Mystic exposition of the Apocalypse ; Avith many others. § 5. An accurate knowledge of religious doctrines, and a sim- ple and lucid exposition of them, no one will expect from the teachers of these times. Most of them reason like blind men about colours, and show themselves quite satisfied with their performances, if they can supply readers with a crude mass of ill-digested matter, and overwhelm opponents with words. There are, however, among writers of this age, clear traces and seeds of teaching theology in that three-fold form, which still obtains both with Greeks and Latins. For some collected to- gether sentences from the ancient doctors and councils, backed by citations from the Scriptures. Such was Isidore of Seville, among the Latins, whose three Books of sentences are still ex- tant ; and among the Greeks, Leontius of Cyprus, whose Com- mon Places ^, compiled from the works of the ancients, have been commended. From these originated that species of theo- logy which the Latins afterwards called Positive Theology. Others attempted to unfold the nature of religious doctrines by reasoning ; which was the method generally adopted by those who disputed against the Nestorians, Eutychians, and Pela- gians. These may be fitly called Scholastics. Others again, who call themselves Mystics, believed that all divine truth must be learned by internal feeling and contemplation. This three- fold method of treating religious subjects, has continued down to the present day. A regular and well-arranged system of theology in all its branches no one produced ; but light was thrown repeatedly upon various parts of it. § 6. To illustrate and inculcate piety and Christian duty, some gave precepts, while others employed examples. Those Avho gave precepts for a pious life, endeavoured to form the Christian character either of persons engaged in the business of " Loci Communes, CH. III.] HISTORY OF THEOLOGY. 41 active life, or of those more perfect, and removed from the con- tagious influence of the world. A Christian life, in the former case, they represent as consisting in certain external virtues and badges of piety ; as appears from the homilies and exhortations of CcBsarius, the INIonitory Chapters of Afjupetiis, and especially from the Summary of a Virtuous Life, by Martin of Braga.' In the latter case, they would separate the soul, by contemplation, from the intercourse and contagion of the body ; and therefore advised to macerate the body by watching, fasting, constant prayer, and singing of hymns ; as is manifest from Fulgtmtlus on fasting, Nicetius on the Vigils of the servants of God, and on the advantages of Psalmody. The Greeks followed as their leader in these matters, for the most part, Dionysius, denomi- nated the Areopagite ; on whom John of Scythopolis, during this age, published annotations. How exceedingly defective all these views are, is visible to every one who is acquainted with the Holy Scriptures. § 7. To inculcate piety by examples was the aim of all those Avho wrote Lives of the Saints. The number of these, both among the Greeks and the Latins, was very considei-able. En- nodius, Eugyppius, Cyril of Scythopolis, Dionysius Exiynus, Co- yitos7is, and others, are well known. Nearly all tliese entertain their readers with marvellous and silly fables ; and propose for imitation none but delirious persons or those of perverted minds, who did violence to nature, and adopted austere and fantastic rules of life. To endure hunger and thirst without repining, to go naked about the country like madmen, to immure them- selves in a narrow place, to wait with closed eyes for an inde- scribable divine light ; this was accounted holy and glorious. The less any one resembled a sane man with all his wits about him, the more confidently might he hope to obtain a i)ost of high distinction among heroes and demi-gods. § 8. In efforts to settle theological controversies, many were diligent, none successful Scarcely an individual can be nanird who contended against the Eutychians, Nestorians, or Pelagians, with fliirness, sobriety, and decorum. Primasiiis and Philopouus treated of all the heresies: but time has swept away their works. A book of Lcontins, on the sects, is extant ; but it deserves little praise. Against the Jews, Isidore of Seville, and Lcontius of 1 See Ada Sanctor. Martii, iii. p. 86, &c. [and Diblioth. Pair. toiu. x. p. 362. Tr.] 42 BOOK II. — CENTURY VI. [PART II. Neapolls, engaged in controversy ; with what dexterity may easily be conjectured by those Avho reflect on the circumstances of the age. It will be better, therefore, to proceed to a brief account of the controversies themselves, that disturbed the church in this century, than to treat in detail of these miserable disputants. § 9. Although Origen lay under the condemnation of many decrees and decisions, his popularity was found, especially among the monks, to defy all bounds. In the West one Bella- tor translated various books by him into Latin.^ In the East, particularly in Syria and Palestine, which were the principal seats of Origenlsm, the monks contended for the authority and truth of his opinions with a vehemence almost beyond belief; and they had the approbation of certain bishops, especially of Theodore, who filled the see of Ctesarea, in Cappadocia.^ The subject being brought before the emperor Justinian, he issued a long and full edict, addressed to Mennas, the bishop of Constan- tinople, in which he strongly condemned Origen and his opi- nions, and forbade them to be taught."* Soon after, however, began the contest about the three Chapters, and Origenlsm not only revived in Palestine, but also made fresh progress. These commotions were brought to a termination by the fifth [gene- ral] council, at Constantinople, assembled by Justinian in the year 553, when Origen and his adherents were again con- demned.^ - [This is founded on a conjectiu'e of p. 35, &c. [Schroeckh, Kirchencjesch. Huet, (Or;.] en. III.] HISTORY OF THEOLOGY. 45 not only to the council of Chalcedon, l)ut also to men now among the blessed.'^ Justinian summoned Vljllius to Con- stantinople, and compelled him to condemn the three Chap- ters. But the African and Illyrian bishops, on the other hand, compelled Vigilius to revoke that condemnation. For no one of them Avould own him for a bishop and a brother, until he had approved those three chapters. Justinian on the other hand condemned the three chapters by a new edict, in the year 551. § 11. After various contentious, it was thought best to leave this controversy for decision to a council of the whole church. Justinian, therefore, in the year 553, assembled at Constantinople what is called thejifth (jeneral council. In this council, besides Origeri's opinions ", the three Chalcedonian Chapters, as the em- peror wished, were pronounced noxious to the church ; really, however, by the Eastern bishops, for very few from the West were present. Vigilius, then at Constantinople, would not as- sent to the decrees of this council. He was therefore treated indignantly by the emperor, and sent into banishment ; nor did he return till he received the decrees of this fifth council.^ Pelagius, his successor, and the subsequent Koman pontiffs, in like manner, received those decrees. But neither their autho- rity, nor that of the emperors, could prevail with the western l)ishops to follow their example. Many of them, indeed, on this account seceded from communion with the Roman pontiff; nor could this great wound be healed, except by length of time.' ' Hen. Noris, de Si/noJo Qii/nta, cap. council :it C()nstantin()i)lc ; " ami i)nli- X. &c. Opp. torn. i. p. 579. Ja. Bas- lishcd tlicni witli a Latin translation : nage, Histuire de CEgiise, torn. i. 1. x. whence IJaluze first introduced them c. vi. p. 523, &c. [also Dr. Walch, ubi into the Collections of Councils. But supra.] Cave, Walch, Valesius, aiul others, sup- ^ [According to the acts of this conn- pose they were framed in a coimcil at oil, as they have come down to us, Origen Constantinople, about a.d. 541. See was no otiierwisc condemned by this ge- note ^ above, p. 42 ; Cave, Hist. Lit. neral council, than by having his name tom. i. p. 558 ; Walch, Ilis/oric dtr Kit- inserted in the list of heretics, coUec- zerq/en, vol. vii. \>. 644. 70 1; Valesius, tively anathematized in the 11th ana- note on Evagriiis, II. E. lil>. iv. c. 38. thema. The celebrated 15 anathemas 7>.] of as many Origcnian errors, said to " See Beter de :Marca, /)/.«. de Decreto have been decreeil by this council, are Vkjilii pro Confirmitkme Si/notli Qiiinla-; found in no copy of its Acts ; nor arc among the Dissertations subjoined to Ins they mentioned by any ancient writer, work, dc Concordia Saccrdolii it Im/H-ni, Peter Lambecins first discovered them p. 207, &c. [and Bower's Lars oj the in the imperial lilmiry at Vienna, in an Popes, (Vigdms.) vol. iL p. 382— 413. cd. old JNIS. of rhotius' Stpitaqma Cammiim, Loud. 1750. 7r.] bearing the sn])erscrii)ti()n, "Canons of ' See in preference to all others. Hen. the 1G5 holy Fathers of the fifth holy Noris, de Synodo Qmnta (Ecumenica; 46 BOOK II. — CENTURY VI. [PART IT. § 12. Another considerable controversy broke out among the Greeks, in the year 519 ; namely, Wliether it could properly be said, that one of the Trinity teas crucified. Many adopted this language, in order to press harder upon the Nestorians, who separated the natures of Christ too much. Among these were the Scythian monks at Constantinople, Avho were the principal movers of this controversy. But others argued against this lano"uage as allied to the error of the Theopaschites or Eutychians, and therefore rejected it. With these, Hormisdas, bishop of Rome, when consulted by the Scythian monks, having agreed, great and pernicious altercations ensued. Afterwards, the fifth council, and Jolm II., who succeeded Hormisdas, by approving of this language, restored peace to the church.^ Connected Avith this question was another : Whether Christh person could he rightly called compounded ? which the Scythian monks af- firmed, and others denied. yet Noris is not free from partiality. Also Christ. Lupus, Notes on the fifth Council, amoiiji his Adnotat. ad Concilia. ^ See Hen. Noris, Historia Controver- sies de una ex Trinitate passo ; 0pp. torn, iii. p. 771. The ancient writers who mention this controversy, call the monks, with whom it originated, Scythians ; but Matur. Vciss. la Croze, Thesaur. Epi- stolar. torn. iii. p. 189, conjectures that they were Scetic monks from Egypt, and not Scythians. This conjecture has some probability. [But Dr. Walch, Historic der Ketzereyen, vol. vii. p. 296, 297, says of this conjecture : " it is not only im- probable, but is certainly felse." And fhe documents relative to the contro- versy (of which he had there just closed the recital) do appear, as Dr. Walch affirms, " adequate to prove, that these men were really from Scythia." To- gether with the two modes of expression relative to the Trinity, which they ad- vocated, these monks were strenuous opposers of Pclagianism. Having had disagreement with some bishops of their province, particularly with Paternus, bishop of Tomis, a deputation of them went to Constantinople with their com- plaint. Among these deputies, John Maxentius, Leontius, and Achilles, wore the principal. The emperor rather fa- voured them ; but the bishops of the East were not agreed. The emperor obliged the pope's legates at the conrt to hear the cause. But they were not disposed to decide it ; at least, not as the monks wished. A part of them now re- paired to Rome, where they stayed more than a year. Homiisdas disapproved their phraseology, but was not very ready to condenm it outright. While at Rome, these monks wrote to the exiled African bishops in Sardinia, and by taking part in their controversy obtained their friendship. They certainly had many friends ; but the ancient historians have transmitted to us only some slight notices of their history. See Walch, Hist, der Ketzereyen, vol. vii. p. 262 — 313. Bower, Z/fes of the Popes, (Hor- misdas,) vol. ii. p. 306—309. Tr.] en. IV.] RITES AND CEREMONIES. 47 CHAPTER IV. HISTORY OF RITES. § I. Rites multiplied.— § 2. Expliinations of the ceremonies.— § 3. Public worship. The Eucharist. Baptism.— § 4. Temples. Festivals. § 1. In proportion as true religion and piety, from various causes, declined in this century, the external sio-ns of relio-ion and piety, that is, rites and ceremonies, were auo-mented. In the East, the Ncstorlan and Eutychian contests occasioned the invention of various rites and forms, which might serve as marks to distinguish the contending sects. In the West, Grc- fjory the Great was wonderfully dexterous and Ingenious in de- vising and recommending new ceremonies. Nor will this appear strange to those who arc aware that he was of the opinion that the words of the Holy Scriptures were images of recondite things. For whoever can believe this, can easily brino- himself to inculcate all the doctrines and precepts of religion, by means of rites and signs. Yet in one respect, he is to be coinmended ; namely, that he would not obtrude his ceremonies upon others : — perhaps he would not, because he could not. § 2. This multitude of ceremonies required interpreters. Hence a new kind of science arose, both in the East and in the West, the object of which was to investigate and explain the Q-rounds and reasons of the sacred rites. But most of those who deduce these rites from Scripture and reason, talk nonsense, and exhibit rather tb.c fictions of their own brains than the true causes of things. If they had been acquainted with ancient opinions and customs, and had examined the pontifical laws of the Greeks and liomans, they would have taught much more correctly; for from this source were derived many of the rites which were looked upon as sacred. § 3. The public worsliip of God was still cclebrateil in the 48 BOOK II. — CENTURY VI. [PART II. vernacular language of each nation ; but it Avas generally en- larged by various hymns and other minute things. The new mode of administering the Lord's supper, magnificently, and with a splendid apparatus, or the Canon of tlie 3Iass, as it is called, was prescribed by Gregory the Great ; or, if it will be more satisfactory, he enlarged and altered the old Canon. But many ages elapsed before the other Latin churches could be prevailed on to adopt this Komish form.^ Baptism, except in cases of necessity, was conferred only upon festivals, and those also the greater ones, or of the highest class.^ Upon the Lita- nies, as they are called ^, to saints, the various kinds of suppli- cations, the stations of Gregory ^, the forms of consecration, and other rites, invented in this century, to act upon men's eyes and ears by a certain semblance of religion, I shall not speak, for fear of being long. This matter could not be carefully and in- dustriously treated without a separate work. § 4. The temples erected in memory and honour of the saints, were immensely numerous, both in the East and the West.'^ There had long been houses enough every where in which peo- ple met to worship God ; but this age courted the favour of de- parted saints, with these edifices, as with presents, nor did it doubt that the saints took the provinces, cities, towns, and ' Sec Theod. Cbr. Lilieuthal, de Ca- Baptist, at least in Gaul. See Gregory none Missce G»-egionawo, Lugd. Bat. 1740, of Tours, de Gloria Comfessor. c. 69, 76, 8vo, and the writers on Litm'gies. [Dif- and Historia Francor. lib. viii. c. 9. ferent countries had difterent JNIissals. Schl.'\ Not only the East differed from the ^ [The Litanies, of which there were West, but in both there were diversities, the larger and the smaller, the common In Gaul, the old Liturgy continued till and the special, were, in the previous the time of Charlemagne. In Milan, the centuries addressed only to God ; but Ambrosian Liturgy (so named from St. superstition now led men to address Ambrose, bishop of Milan,) is not yet them to Mary, and to the other saints, wholly abandoned. In Spain, the Moz- Von. Ein.'] arable, or ancient Spanish, is still used * [Stations denoted, in early times, occasionally in certain places, though the fasts ; but afterwards the churches, cha- Roman canon was introduced partially pels, cemeteries, or other ])laces where in the eleventh, and more fully in the the people assembled for worship. (See thirteenth and following centuries. In du Cange, Glossar. Med. et. Infim. La- England, the ancient Britons had one tinit. sub hac voce.) Gregoiy discrimi- Liturgy ; and the Anglo-Saxons received nated the different times, occasions, and another from Augustine their apostle places of public worship, and framed a and his companions ; and this not pre- service for each. This is the principal cisely the Roman. See lu'azer, de Litur- cause of the vast multiplication of litur- giis, sec. ii. chap. 2 — 6. Gregory the gical ibrmulas in the Eomisli chm'ch. Great introduced the responsive chant, 7>.] and established a school for chm-ch mu- ^ [See Procopius, de Bella Gothico, sic, which v/as in existence at Rome as lib. iv. and v. ; also de JSdiJiciis Jtts- late as the ninth century. Tr.'] tiniani, where is mention of many ^ [Especially Christmas, Epiphany, churclies erected to tlic Virgin Mary. Easter, Whitsuntide, and St. John the Scld.'] RITES AND CEREMONIES. 49 CH. IV.] lands, In which they saw residences prepared for thera, under their protection against every ill.'^ The number of feast-days almost equalled that of the churches. In particular, the list of festivals for the whole Christian body was swelled by the consecration of the day of the imrificatlon of the hohj virfjin Mary, that the people might not miss their Lupercalia, which they were accustomed to celebrate in the month of February ", by the day of our Saviour's conception^, by the birth-day of St. John ^, and some others. ^ [Thus, the Lombard queen, Theo- delinda, built a chui'ch for John the Baptist, that he might pray for her and her people. (Paul Diacon. Hist. Longo- bard. 1. iv. c. 7.) And the French king, Clothaire, built a splendid temple to St. Vincent, because he believed that saint had helped him to vanquish the Goths. (Siegbert, Chro7iic.) For the same rea- son rich presents were made to the churches. Thus ChUdebcrt, after con- quering Alaric, gave to the church sixty cups, fifteen dishes, and twenty cases for the holy Gospels ; all of the finest gold, and set with costly gems. (Gregory of Tours, Historia Fmncor. I. iii. c. 10.) Sch^ ' [Tliis was instituted in the reign of Justinian, and fixed to the second day of February. The Greeks called it inravT^], or vwaTiavTri, meeting; because then Simeon and Anna met the Saviour in the temple. The Latins call it the feast of St. SiiiiPon, the presentation of the Lord, and Candlemas, because many can- dles were then lighted up ; as had been done on the Lupercalia, the festi\al of the ravishment of Prosei'pinc, whom her mother Ceres searched for with can- dles. See Hospinian, de Festis Chris- tianor. p. 52, &c. Tr.~\ ** [This least is generally celebrated the 25th of March ; and is called by the Greeks rifxepa aa-n-acrixov, sive ei/ay- ye\t(r/xov, the day of the salutation, or of the annunciation ; because on it the angel Gabriel announced to Mary that she shoidd bring forth the Savioui'. The Latins absurdlv en 11 it the annunciation of IMar}'. To avoid interrupting the Lent fast, the Spaniards celebrated it on the 18th of December, and the Arme- nians on the 5th of January ; the other churches kept it tlie 25th of March. It is mentioned in the 52nd canon of the council in Trullo, a.d. 691, as a festival then fidly established and known, but at what time it was first introduced is un- certain. Sec Suicer, Thesaur. Eccles. torn. i. p. 1234. TV.] ' [I know not what induced Dr. Mos- heim to place the introduction of this feast in this centur\\ If the superscrip- tions to the homilies of ^laximus of Turin (who lived a. d. 420) arc coiTcct, this feast must have been common in the fifth century ; for three of these homilies ai"e superscribed, as being com- posed for this feast. Perliaps Dr. Mos- heim had his eye on the twenty-first canon of tlie council lield at Agde, a. d. 506, (II;u-(hiin's Collection, torn. ii. p. 1000,) where the festival of St. John is mentioned among the greater feasts. Yet as it is there mentioned as one al- ready known, it must have been in exist- ence some years. Moreover heathenish rites were nuxed with this fciist. The feast of St. John, and the dancing around a tree set up, were usages, as well of the German and northern nations, as of tlio Komans. The fonner hatl their Nood- fyr, (on which Joh. Keiske ])ulilished ii book, Francf. 1696, 8vo.) and the latter used, about this time, [the 24th < if June,] to keep the feast of VestiV, with kindhng a ne^^• (ire, amid dances ami other sports. &/(/.] VOL. 11. 50 BOOK II. — CENTURY VI. [PART II. CHAPTER V. HISTORY or HERESIES AND SEPARATIONS FROM THE CHURCH. § 1. Remains of the ancient sects. Manichieans. Pelagians. — § 2. Donatists. — § 3. Arians. — § 4. State of the Nestorians. — § 5. Entychian contests. Severus. — § 6. Jac. Baradajus, tlie father of the Monophysites, — § 7. Their state. — § 8. Con- ti-oversies among them. — § 9. The Agnoeta\ — § 10. Trithcists. § 1. The ancient sects, though harassed in numberless ways, did not cease to raise dangerous commotions in various places. Amono; the Persians, the Manicheeans are said to have become so powerful as to seduce even the son of Cabades the king : but he avenged the crime, by making a great slaughter of them. They must also have been troublesome in other countries ; for Heraclianus of Chalcedon wrote a book against them.' In Gaul and Africa, the contests between the Semi-Pelagians and the followers of Augustine continued. § 2. The Donatists were comfortably situated so long as the Vandals reigned in Africa. But they were less favoured when this kingdom was overturned in the year 534. Yet they not only kept up their church, but near the close of the century, or from the year 591, ventured to defend it with more courage, and to extend its influence. These eiforts of theii's were vigorously opposed by Gregory the Great ; who, as appears from his Epistles ^, endeavoured in various ways to depress the sect now raising its head again. And his measures, doid^tless, were successful ; for the Donatist church became extinct in this cen- tury ; at least no mention is made of it at any subsequent time. ' See Photius, BibUoth. Cod. cxiv. p. sued penal laws against them in the 291, year 59.5. It is a pi'obable conjecture '"' See his Epistolar. lib. iv. ep. 34, of Witsius, {Historia Donatist. cap. 35, p. 714, 715, and lib. A'i. ep. 65, p. viii. § 9,) that the conquests of the 841, ep. 37, p. 821, and lib. ix. ep. 53, Sai'acens in Africa, in the 7th centiny, p. 972, and lib. ii. ep. 48, p. 611. Op. put an end to the Donatist contest, torn. ii. [The emperor Mauricius is- Sclil.'] CH. v.] SCHISMS AND HERESIES. 51 § 3. The Arians, at the commencement of this century, were triumphant in sonic parts of Asia, Africa, and Europe. Not a few of the Asiatic bishops favoured them. The Vandals in Africa, the Goths in Italy, many of the Gauls, the Suevi, the Burgundians, and the Spaniards, openly esj)Oused their interest. The Greeks, indeed, who approved of the Nicene council, op- pressed and also punished them, where they could ; but tlie Arians returned the like treatment, especially in Africa and Italy.^ This prosperity of the Arians wholly terminated when, under the auspices of Justinian, the Vandals were driven from Africa, and the Goths from Italy.^ For the other Arian kings, Sigismund king of the Burgundians, Theodimir king of the Suevi in Lusitania, and Reccared king of Spain, without vio- lence and war, suiFered themselves to be led to a renunciation of the Arian doctrine, and to efforts for its extirpation among their subjects by means of legal enactments and councils. Whether reason and arguments, or hope and fear, had the greater influence in the conversion of these kings, it is diflicult to say.^ But this is certain, that the Arian sect Avas from this time dispersed, and could never afterwards recover any strength. § 4. The Nestorians, after they had obtained a fixed residence in Persia, and had located the head of their sect at Seleucia, Avere as successful as they were industrious, in disseminating their doctrines in the countries lying without the Koman em- pire. It appears from unquestionable documents still existing, that there were numerous societies in all parts of Persia, lu India, in Armenia, in Arabia, in Syria, and in other countries, under the jurisdiction of the patriarch of Seleucia, during this ■' Procopius, de BeUo Vamhtl. 1. i. sucli a people, conviction of the luulcr- c. 3, and de Bello Gothico, lib. i. c. 2. standing is little to be expected. Argu- Evagrius, Historia Eccle.s. 1. iv. cap. 15, nients of exitediency would have more &c ett'ect. They were suiTounileil by or- *' Sec Joh. Ja.Mascoyn Historia Ger- thodox Christians, who would depri>o jnanor. torn. ii. the subversion of the them of their territories, on tliegi-.mnd Vandalic kingdom, p. 76, of that of the that they were heretics. II therelorc Goths, p. 91. On the accession of the they would enjoy peace and tiuietude, barbm-ians to the Nicene faith respect- they must make up their imnds to ing God, see Acta Sanctor. torn. ii. embrace the ^icene taith. > any ol Martii, p. 275, and torn. ii. Aprilis, p. these conversions also were brought J34 idjout bv ladies ; for iiistan<-e, the con- s'rThe latter is to me the most pro- version "of Ilermengild. a We,-^t Gothic bable. The kings of these nations prince, by his 1-reiuh wife Ingunda. were very ignorant, and made war ^Wi/.] rather than science their trade. Among 52 BOOK II. — CENTURY TI. [fAUT IT. century.^ The Persian kings were not, indeed, all equally well affected towards this sect ; and they sometimes severely perse- cuted all Christians resident in their dominions ^ : yet generally their disposition was fiir more favourable towards the Nestorians than to those who followed the council of Ephesus : for they suspected the latter to be spies of the Greeks, with whom they agreed as to religion. § 5. The sect of the Monophysites was no less favourably situated ; and it drew over to its side a great part of the East In the first place, the emperor Anastasius ^ was attached to the sect and to the dogmas of the Acephali, or more rigid Monophy- sites'-*; and he did not hesitate, on the removal of Flamanus from the see of Antioch, in 513, to prefer in his })lace Severus a learned monk of Palestine, who was devoted to that sect, and from whom the Monophysites took the name of Severians.^ This man exerted all his powers to destroy the credit of the council of Chalcedon in the East, and to strengthen the party which professsed but one nature in Christ : and his zealous efforts pro- duced most grievous commotions.^ But the emperor Anasta- sius dying in the year 518, Severus was expelled from his see ; and the sect which he had so zealously propagated, was re- strained and depressed by Justin and the succeeding emperors, " Cosmas Indicopleustes, Topographia the Henotlcon, were for holding fast Christiana, lib. ii. p. 125, in Bern, de eA'ery tittle of the decisions of Chalce- '^iont^AUCO\i,CollectioNovaPatrumGr(E- don. See Walch, Historie der Ketze- cor. of which, the Preface, p. xi. &c. is reyen, vol. vi. p. 930. 946, 947, 948. worth reading. TV.] ' Jos. Sim. Asseman, Biblioth. Oriental. ' See Jos. Sim. Assenian, Biblioth. Vatic, torn. iii. pt. i. p. 109. 407. 41 1. 441. Orient. Vatican, tom. ii. p. 47. 321, &c. 449, and tom. iii. pt. ii. cap. v. § 2, p. Ixxiii. Euseb. Renaudot, Historia Patriarchar. Sec. Alexandrinor. p. 127, 128. 130. 135. 138, * [a.d. 491 — 518. 7>.] &c. [See a notice of Severus, above, ^ Evagrius, Histor. Eccles. lib. iii. c. ch. ii. note*, p. 27. 7V.] 30. 44, &c. Theodoras Lector, Hist. '^ Evagrius, Hist. Eccles. lib. iii. c. 33. Eccles. lib. ii. p. 562. A catalogue of Cyrillus, Vita Sabce, in Jo. Bapt. Co- the Works of Severus, collected from teller's Monumenta Eccles. Gracce, tom. MS. copies, is in Bernh. de Montfaucon's iii. p. 312. Nouveau Dictionnaire Histor. Biblioth. Coisliniana, p. 53, &c. [Ac- Critique, tom. i. art. Anastasius. [There cording to Evagrius, lac. cit. Anastasius is some ambiguity in Dr. Mosheim's was not zealous for any party ; but was a statement. Who was this man, that ex- great lover of peace, and determined erted all his powers against the council neither to make, nor to suftei", any change of Chalcedon ? Dr. Maclaine understood in the ecclesiastical constitution ; that is, Mosheim to refer to the emperor Anas- he adhered to the Henoticon of Zeno tasius. But other translators pi'eserve his predecessor. This was takuig the the ambiguity. Historical facts show middle ground; for the more strenuous that it was Severus, rather than Anas- Monophysites rejected the Henoticon, tasius, who persecuted the Chalcedonians. and insisted on an explicit condemnatiori See Evagrius, as referred to above, lib. of the council of Chalcedon ; while the iii. c. 33. 7>.] more rigid catholics, who also disliked CH. v.] SCHISMS AND HERESIES. 53 to such a degree, that it seemed very near ruin : ;t nevertheless elected Sergius for its patriarch, in place of Severus? § 6. When the Monophysites were all but hopeless of pre- servation, and very few of their bishops remained, some of them being dead, and others in captivity, an obscure man. Jacobus, surnamed BaradcBus, or Zanzalus, to distinguish him from others of the name, restored their fallen state.* He was a monk, with no resources but constancy of mind, and extraordinary patience of labour, who, being consecrated bisliop by some prelates confined in prison, travelled over all the East, on foot, constituted a vast number of bishops and presbyters, revivcfl every where the drooping spirits of the Monophysites, and effected so much by his eloquence and astonishing diHo-cncc, that when he died, in the year 578, at Edessa, where he had been bishop, he left his sect most flourishing in Syria, Mesopo- tamia, Armenia, Egypt, Nubia, Abyssinia, and other countries.'^ He extinguished nearly all the dissensions among the jNIo- nophysites : and as their churches were so widely dispersed in the East, that a single bishop at Antioch could not well govern them all, he associated with him a Maphrian or primate of the East, whose residence was at Tagritum, on the borders of Ar- menia.*' His efforts were not a little aided in Egypt and the neighbouring regions, by Theodosiua of Alexandria. From this ^ See Abulpharaji Series Patriarch. The luunljcr of bishops, priests, and Antiochen. in Assenian. Bihliotli. Orient, deacons ordained by him is reported to Vatican, torn. ii. p. 323. [For a full and be 100,000. That 'he put an end to the minute examination of the Monophysite divisions and contests anionjj the Mono- history, see Walch's Historic der Kc-tze- pliy sites, as Dr. Moslu'ini asserts, is not reyen, namely, during tlie reign of Anas- stated in any of the authorities quoted tasius, vol. vi. p. 936 — 1054 ; under Jus- by Walch. As the Monophysites, all tin, vol. vii. p. 52 — 128 ; and under Jus- over the East, arc to this day called Ja- tinian, ibid. p. 128 — 362. 7";-.] cobites, from this Jacobus Baradanis ; so * See Jos. Sim. Assenian, Biblioih. the orthod(jx Greeks are called Mel- Oriental. Vaticana, tom. ii. cap. viii. p. chites, from the Syriac, Melcha, a king, 62. 72. 326. 331. 414, &c. Euseb. Re- as being adherents to the religion of the naudot, Historia Patriarch. Alcvandrinvr. imperial court. TV.] p.ll9.133.425,&c.and/.//M/-5f/ffiOm'n<«/. * For the Nubians and Abyssinian.s, torn. ii. p. 333. 342. Faustus Nairon, see Assenian, loc. eit. tom. ii. p. 330. Euoplia Fidei CatholiccF ex Syrorum Mo- Hieron. Lobo, Voi/age d' Ahij.tsinic, torn. numentis, pt. i. p. 40, 41. [Walch, His- ii. p. 36. Job. Ludolph, Comment, ad torie der Ketzereijen, vol. viii. p. 481—490. Hisluriaiii ^Elhiop. p. 451. 461. 466. For .Jacobus Baradoeus was a Syrian monk, the other coinitries, see the writers of and a pupil of Scverus, archbishop of their history. Antioch. His ordination is placed by " Jos. Sim. A.sseman. Biblioth. Orient. some in the year 545, by others in 551. Vatic, tom. ii. p. 410. 414. 418, likewise His death all place in the year 578. his Dissert, de Moiwphi/sitis, prefixed to Some call him bishop of Edessa ; others tom. ii. of tiiis Dibliotlicca. make him to have been bisliop at lai-ge. E 3 54 BOOK II. — CENTURY VI. [PAET II. man, as the second father of the sect, all the Monophy sites in the East are called Jacobites. § 7. Thus the imprudence of the Greeks, and their incon- siderate zeal for maintaining the truth, caused the Monophy- sites to become consolidated into a permanent body. From this period, the whole community has been under the government of two bishops or patriarchs, one of Alexandria and the other of Antioch, who, notwithstanding a disagreement between the Syrians and Egyptians, in some particulars, are very careful to maintain communion with each other, by letters and kind offices. Under the patriarch of Alexandria, is the primate or Ahhuna of the Abyssinians ; and under the patriach of Antioch, the Maph- rian or primate of the East, whose residence is at Tagritum in Mesopotamia. The Armenians have their own bishop, and are distinguished from the other Monophysites by some peculiar rites and opinions. § 8. Before the sect of the Monophysites could acquire this organisation and strength, various disagreements and contro- versies prevailed among them ; and particularly at Alexandria, a difficult, knotty question was moved concerning the body of Christ. Julian of Halicarnassus ^, in the year 519, maintained that the divine nature had so insinuated itself into the body of Christ, from the very moment of concejition, as to change its nature, and render it incorruptible. With him agreed Cajanus [or Gajanus^ of Alexandria ; from whom believers in this opi- nion were called Cajanists.^ The advocates of this doctrine be- came divided into three parties ; two of which disagreed on the question, whether Christ's body was created or uncreated; and the third maintained, that Chrisfs body Avas indeed corruptible, but on account of the influence of the divine nature, never be- came in fact corrupted. This sect was vigorously resisted by the celebrated Sever us of Antioch, and Damianus, who main- tained that the body of Christ, before his resurrection, was cor- ruptible, that is, was liable to the ordinary changes of human ' [Julian is noticed among the M'ri- party. Great commotions now existed ters of the centmy, above, p. 27, note ^. in Alexandria ; and Gajanns was soon TV.] deposed. He fled first to Carthage, and ^ [Gajanus was archdeacon of Alex- then to Sardinia ; and we hear little andria, under the patriarch Timotheus more about him. It is not kno\\Ti that III. : and on his death, in the year 534, he wrote any thing. See Liberatus, elected patriarch of Alexandria, by the Breviar. cap. 20, and Leontius, de Sectis, monks and the populace, in opposition art. v. TV.] to Theodosius, tlie bishop of the court CH. v.] SCHISMS AND HERESIES. 55 nature. Those Avho agreed with Julian, were called Apltthar- todocetcB, Doceta, Pliantasiastoi, and also ManicUa.aus ; because, from their opinion it might be inferred that Christ did not reallij suffer, feel hungry, fall asleep, and experience the other sen- sations of a man ; but that he only appeared to suffer, sleep, be hungry, thirsty. Those who agreed with Severus, were called PJUhartolatrcB, and Ktistolatrce or Creaticolo'. This con- troversy was agitated with great warmth in the reign of Justinian, Avho favoured the Aphthartodoceta; : but it after- wards gradually subsided.^ A middle path between tlie two parties was taken by Xenaias, or Philoxcnus of Maubug ' ; for he and his associates held, that Christ really suffered what happens to our nature, but from no physical compulsion, only from choice.^ § 9. Some of the Corr7ipticolce, as they were called, particu- larly Themistiiis, a deacon of Alexandria, and Theodosius, bishop of that city, in the ardour of disputation, fell upon another sen- timent towards the close of this century ^ which caused new commotions. They affirmed that while all things were known by the divine nature of Christ, to his human nature which was united with it, many things were unknown. As they admitted but one nature in Christ ^ others interpreted their doctrine as making the divine nature a participator in this ignorance ; and hence they were called AfjnoctcB.^ But this new sect was feeble ; ^ Timotlieus, de Receptionc Harcticor. Gregory the Great, and the sect existed in Jo. Bapt. Coteher's Monumenta Ec- till sonic time in the seventh century. clesicE Gr. torn. iii. p. 409. Liboratiis, 7/-.] Breviarium Cnntrov. cap. 20. Jo. Forbes, * [Or were Monophysites. 7>.] Instructioiics Historico-tkeologiccE, lil). iii. * Jo. Bapt. Cotelier, in the .V(;/iH/H<7i/a c. 18. 108, &c. Asseman, Bihliotli. Ecdesiw Gr. \.om. \\\. \\ M\. Mich. Ia; Oriental, torn. iiL pt. ii. p. 4.57. [The Quien, on DamascenuS(/('//rfrc.v/ZiM.stoin. contests respecting the curruptihility of i. ]>. 107. Jo. Porbc*, ln.strnctiiims I/is- Chi-ist's body, both among the Mono- /oW«<-//iro/. lib. iii. cap. 19, p. 119. I'ho- phvsites and the orthodox, are fully cxa- tins, Bihliotli. Ct)dcx ccxxx. p. 882. mined, in WaJch, Historic der Ketzereyen, [AVakh has given a fidl and siiti.'jfactory vol. viii. p. .550—644. Tr.'] account of the Agiioctiv or Themi.stiani, ' [Or Hierapolis. TV.] in his Historic dcr Ketzcreytii, vol. viiu - Jos. Sim. Asseman, Biblioth. Orient, p. 644—684. It appears, that the Ag- Vatic. tom. ii. p. 22, and p. 168, &c. noctiXi merely dcnictl that the human na- ^ [This controversy began Ijcfore the tm-e of Christ hcramc omniscient, by U-iiig middle of the ccnturv ; for Thcmistius united with the divine nature;— a doc- was a deacon under Tiniotheus III., who trine which few at this day will condemn. died in the year 535. Theodosius sue- Nor did their contcmix.raries in genenil ceeded in that year; but was removed understand them to go fmnhcr. But about A. D. 537. The heat of the contro- the writers of the mi.l.lle ages represent versy seems to have been about a.d. them as denying idtogetlier the omni- 550 or 560 ; yet it was rife in the time of science of Christ ; and many of the mo- 56 BOOK II. — CENTURY VI. [p ART II. and therefore wasted away sooner than might have been antici- pated from the animated eloquence of the disputants. § 10. From the controversies with the Monophysites, arose the sect of the Tritheists. Its author was one John Ascunage, a Syrian philosopher, and a Monophysite.*" This man imagined that there were in God three natures, or substances, numerically distmct, and connected by no common bond of essence : from which dogma, his adversaries deduced Tritheism. Among the patrons of this opinion, no one was more celebrated than Jolm Philoponus, a grammarian and philosopher of great fame at Alexandria : who hence by many was accounted founder of the sect ; and the members of it have been called PldlojJonists? As the sect advanced, it became divided into two parties, the Philo- po7iists and the Cononites ; the latter being so named from its leader, Conon, bishop of Tarsus.'^ These parties agreed respect- ing the doctrine of three Persons in the Godhead, but were at variance respecting the explanation of the doctrine concerning the resurrection of our bodies. For Philoponus maintained that both the matter and the form of all bodies were generated, and corruptible ; and, therefore, that both would be resuscitated at the resurrection : but Conon held, that the matter only, and not derns, till quite recently, had similar tian, and a Monophysite, as most of the views of this sect. See Walch, loc. cit. Alexandrians in his day were. The p. 675 — 679. TV.] time of his birth and death is unknown ; " See Gregory Abulpharajns, in Jos. but it appears, tliat he was a writer Sim. Asseman's i?«6//o. .');3. Aiidr. Miilkr, 60 BOOK II. — CENTURY VII. [PART I. cation of the Jesuits, ni:iy be fully satisfied by other and un- exceptionable proofs, that China, especially the northern part of it, contained, in this century, or perhaps even earlier, numerous Christians, over whom presided, during several subsequent centuries, a metropolitan, sent out by the patriarch of the Chal- deans or Nestorians.'- § 2. Tlie Greeks were hindered by intestine dissensions, from caring much for the propagation of Christianity among the heathen.^ In the West, among the Anglo-Saxons, Augustiyie, in a distinct treatise, Berlin, 1762, 4to. Euseb. Renaudot, Relations Anciennes des Indes et de la Chine, de deux Voyageurs Mahometans, p. 228 — 271, Paris, 1718, Svo. Jos. Sim. Asseman, Biblioth. Ori- ental. Vaticana, torn. iii. pt. ii. c. iv. § 7, p. 538, &e. A more accurate copy, with notes, was expected from tlie very learned Theoph. Siegfi-. Bayer, mncli distinguished for his knowledge of Chi- nese literature ; but his premature death frustrated the expectation. I see no reason why I should not regard this monument as genuine ; nor can I con- ceive what advantage the Jesuits could have promised themselves, from a fa- brication of this sort. See Gabr. Liron, Singular ites Histor. et Litteraires, tom. ii. p. 500, &c. [See also Tho. Yeates, In- dian Church Histoi-y, p. 85 — 96, Lond. 1818, 8vo. Kii'cher's translation of the inscription, with a comment and some notes, is given in the Appendix to Mos- heim's Historia Eccles. Tartarorum, p. 2 — 28. The monmnent is said to be a marble slab, ten feet long, and five broad; dug up in the year 1625, at a town near Sin-gan-fn, capital of the pro- vince Shen-si. The top of the slab is a pyramidal cross. The caption to the in- scription consists of nine Chinese words, formed into a square, and is thus trans- lated : " This stone was erected to the honour and eternal memory of the Law of Light and Truth brought from Ta-cin, [Judea, or SjTia,] and promulgated in China." The principal inscription is in Chinese characters ; and consists of twenty-eight columns, each containing sixty-two words. It first states the fundamental principles of Christianity, and then recounts the anival of the mis- sionaries in 636, their gracious reception by the king, their labours and success, and the principal events of the mission, for 144 years, or till, a. d. 780. There were two persecutions, in the years 699 and 713. Soon after the second perse- cution, some new missionai'ics anived. Then follows the date and erection of the monument, in a. d. 782. On the one side of this principal inscription there is a colvimn of Chinese characters ; on the other side, and at the bottom, is a Syriac inscription, in the Estrangelo character, containing catalogues of priests, deacons, and others, with a bishop, aiTanged in seven difi'erent classes. Tr. — " It shoidd be added, that Bohlen disputes the ge- nuineness of this record ; but the alterna- tive of supposing that the Jesuits forged a docmnent, setting forth Nestoiian doc- trines and enterprise, is too improbable to be readily adopted." — Grant's Bamp- to7i Lectures, 113. Ed.'] - See Renaudot, loc. cit. p. 51. 68, &c. et passim. Asseman, loc. cit. cap. ix. p. 522, &c. Theoph. Siegfr. Bayer tells us, (Prcefat. ad Museum Sinicum, p. 84,) that he possesses some testimo- nies which put the subject beyond con- troversy. [It is the constant tradition of the Syrian Christians, that St. Thomas the Apostle made an excursion to China, and the Christians of Malabar celebrate this event in their ordinary Avorship ; and their primate styled himself metro- politan of Hindoo and China, ^\'heu the Portuguese first knew them. See Tho. Yeates, Indian Clutrch Hist. p. 71- — 84. See also M. de Guignes, Diss, in the 30th vol. (p. 802, &c.) of the Memoires de Littcrature, tirees des Registres de V Aca- demic Roy ale des Insci'iptions et Billes- Lettres : which contains a defence of the genuineness of the Sigan monument, against the objections of la Croze and Beausobi'e. Likewise Schroeckli, Kirch- engesch. vol. xix. p. 291—298. Tr.] ^ [Yet Constantinus Porphyrogenitus states, (de Administrando Imperio, c. 31, in Banduries' Imperium Orientale, p. 97. ed. Paris,) that the Chrobates, (the Croatians,) who then inhabited Dalma- CH. I.] PROSPEROUS EVENTS. 61 till his death in 605, and afterwards, other monks sent from Kome, laboured to extend and enlarge the church. And the re- sult of their labours and efforts was, that the other six Anglo- Saxon kings, who had hitherto continued in ])aganism, gradually came over to Christianity, and all Britain became professedly Christian.^ Yet we need not believe, that this change was wholly owing to the sermons and exhortations of these Roman monks and teachers ; a great part of it is rather to be ascribed to the Christian wives of the kings and chiefs, who employed various arts to convert their husbands; and likewise to the rigorous laws enacted against the worshippers of idols ; not to mention other causes. § 3. Many of the Britons, Scotch, and Irish, in this century, eager to propagate the Christian religion, visited the Batavian, Belgic, and German tribes, and there founded new churches. And this it was, that led the Germans afterwards to erect so many monasteries for Scots and Irishmen ; some of which arc still in being. '^ Columbamis, with a few companions, had al- ready, in the preceding century, happily extirpated in Gaul and the contiguous regions, the ancient idolatry, the roots of which had previously struck deep every where ; and he persevered in these labours till the year 615, in which his death is placed; and with the aid of his disciples, carried the name of the Saviour to the Swabians, Bavarians, Franks, and other nations of Ger- many.^ St. Gall, one of his companions, imparted a knowledge of Christianity to the Helvetians and Swabians." St. Kilian, tia, from which they had expelled the p. 72. 339. .500, and elsewhere. Adam- Avai'es, by order of Heraclius, made anni, lib. iil. de S. Columbano ; in Hen. application to that emperor for religious Canisii Lectiones Antiquir, toni. i. p. G74. instructors ; and that he procured priests — [See a brief account (jf St. Coluniba- for them from Rome, who baptized nus, above, p. 21, note ". TV.] them, and one of whom became their ' Walafrid Strabo, ViUi Sti Galli; archbishop. See Semler's Sclecta Cap. in Jo. Mabillon, Acta Sancta Ord. Ucne- Hist Ecdes. torn. ii. p. 20. Lucius, de dicti, saic. ii. p. 228 [cd. Venice, p. 215, Regno Dalmatia;, \ih. l c. 11. Muratori, &c.] Hen. Canisii Lectiones Antiqita, Historia Italia: ; and Jos. Sim. Asse- torn. i. p. 783. [St. Gall, or St. Galhis, man, in Calendar. Eccles. Universal, torn. w:us born in Ireland, ot rehgious i)areiits, i. p. 499, &c. Schl'] wlio early committed him to Cnlitmba- * Bcda, Higtoria Eccles. gentis Anglor. nus for cducatit)n. He became a monk lib. ii. cap. iu. p. 91, &c. cap. xiv.p. IIG; of Bangor, under Columbanus, and w:is lib. iii. cap. xxi. p. 162, ed. Ciiillet. Ra- one of tiie twelve Irish monks who left pin ThoiTas, Histoire d'Angleterrc, torn. i. Ireland witli Columbanus about the year p 222 &c. -JS^' travelled through Kngland to tlic ' s" sJc Acta Sanctor. tom. ii. Februar. conthient, and erct'ted the monastery of „ 3g., Luxeuil in Bm-gundy. ^\ hen Coluniba- '« Jo Tdabillon, Acta Sanctor. Ord. nus was driven from this ninmister}-, Benedict!, sxc. ii. p. 560, &c. tom. iii. twenty ye;u-s after, St. Gidl accompa- 62 BOOK II. — CENTURY VII. [PART I. a Scotchman, converted a great many to Christ, among the eastern Franks.^ Near the close of the century, in the year 690, WilUhrord, by birth an Anglo-Saxon, accompanied with eleven of his countrymen, namely, Suklbert, Wigherty Acca, Wilibald, Unibald, Lebwin, the two Ewalds, Werenfrid, Marcel- lin, and Adalbert, crossed over to Batavia, lying opposite to Britain, with a view to convert the Frieslanders to Christianity. Then they went, in the year 692, to Fostelandia, which most Avriters suppose to be the island of Heligoland : being driven thence by Radbod, king of the Frieslanders, who put Wigbert, nied him in exile. Ascending the Rhine, they penetrated the heart of Switzer- land, about the year 610, and took resi- dence among pagans, at Tuggen, at the head of the lake of Zm-ich. Attacking idolatry, St. Gall here burned the pagan temple, and cast their offerings into the lake. This enraged the people, and the monks had to flee. TraveUing through the canton of St. Gall, they came to Ai'bon, on the shores of the lake of Con- stance. Here Willimar, the presbyter of the place, treated them kindly, and aided them to form a settlement at Bre- gents, at the eastern extremity of the lake. Here the monks attempted to convert the suiTounding pagans, and were not without some success. But at the end of two years the unconverted procured an order from the duke for the monks to quit the country. Columbanus and the rest now retired to Bobbio, in Italy ; but St. Gall was left behind, sick. When recovered, he retired into the wilderness with a few adherents, and erected the monastery of St. Gall, in the province of the same name. Here he spent the remainder of his days, in great reputation and honour. He refused the bishopric of Constance, wliicli he con- ferred on his pupil John. His monas- tery flourished much, and spread light over the suiTounding country. St. Gall died at Arbon, but was interred in his monastery, at the age of ninety-five, according to Mabillon. His sermon at the ordination of Jolm at Constance, and some epistles, are published by Ca- nisius, loc. cit. His life by Walafrid Strabo, from whicli this notice is ex- tracted, though full of legend aiy tales, is written in a far better style than the ordinary monkish biographies. It ap- pears, according to Strabo, that Swit- zerland was almost wholly pagan when fii'st visited by Columbanus in 610 ; but that Clu'istianity had then made consi- derable progress in Germany, from the lake of Constance all along the right bank of the Rhine. TV.] * [Or Franconians. Tr.'] Vita S. Kiliani, in Henr. Canisii, Lectiones An- tiquce, tom. iii. p. 171, &c. J. Pet. de Ludiwig, Scriptores rerum Wilrtsburyens. p. 966. [See also the life of St. Kilian, in Mabillon, Acta. Sanctor. Ord. Bene- dict. s£ec. ii. p. 951 — 953, ed. Venice, 1733. According to the authorities, St. Kdian, ChiUan, Cylian, Cilian, or Kyl- lena, was an Irishman, of honourable birth and good education. In early life he had a great thirst for knowledge ; and, being very pious, and possessing a perfect knowledge of missionary enter- prises, he planned one of his own. Taking with him Coloman, Gallon, and Arneval, presbyters, Donatus, a deacon, and seven others, he penetrated into Franconia, which was wholly pagan, •and took residence at Herbipolis, or Wiirtzburg. Finding then- prospects good, Kilian, Coloman, and Totnan, went to Italy, to obtain the papal sanc- tion to their enterprise ; which having readily obtained from Conon, (who was pope eleven months, ending Sept. 686) they retm-ned to Wiirtzburg, converted and baptized Gosbert, the duke, and a large number of his subjects. But af- terwards, persuading the duke that it was unlawful for him to ha^'e his bro- ther's wife, Gclian, she seized an occa- sional absence of her husband, and murdered all the missionaries. This cruel act is placed in the year 696. But the massacre did not prevent the progress of Christianity ; for the duchess became deranged, the assassins repent- ed ; and St. Kilian became the tutelar saint of Wiirtzburg. TV.] PROSPEROUS EVENTS. 63 CH. I.] one of the company, to death, tliey wandered over Cimhria and tlie adjacent parts of Denmark. Returning to Frlesland, in the year 693, they attacked the superstition of the country with better success. Willihrord was now created by the Roman pontiff, arclibishop of Wiltehur(j'\ and died, at an advanced age, among the Batavians : while his associates spread a knowledge of Christianity among the Westphalians, and other neighbour- ing nations.^ § 4. Upon these and other expeditions, undertaken for ex- tending Christianity, a man strictly guided by the truth can- not speak in one unvarying tone of commendation. That some of the missionaries were men of honest simplicity and piety, no one can doubt. But most of them show manifest proofs of various sinful passions, as arrogance, avarice, and cruelty; and having received authority from the Roman pontiff to exercise their sacred functions among the barbarians, they did not so much collect holy congregations of devout Christians, as pro- cure for themselves a people, among whom they miglit act the part of sovereigns and lords. I cannot, therefore, strongly cen- sure those who suspect that some of these monks, being desir- 9 [Since called Utrecht. T/-.] ' Alcuin, Vita Willebrordi, in Jo. Mabillon, Acta Sanctor. Ord. Bened. axe. iii. p. 604, &c. [559, &c. ed. Venice.] Jo. MoUeri, Cimbria Litterata, torn. ii. p. 980, &c. [Beda, Hist. Eccles. lib. v. c. 11, 12. This famous niissionaiy was born in Northumberland, about a. d. 659, of pious parents. Educated in the mo- nastery of llipon (Hripum) in North- umberland, (Yorkshire, anciently in the kingdom of Northumbria,) at tlie age of twenty, he went to teland, where he studied twelve years. At the age of thirty-three he commenced his mission, and sailed up the Ehine to Utrecht, in the dominions of Radbod, the pagan king of the Friesians. Soon after lie went to France, and by advice of king Pipin, visited Italy, and olrtained the sanction of pope Sergius to his enter- prise. Returning to Utrecht, he in vain attempted the conversion of Radbod and his subjects. Therefore, proceeding northwards, he landed at an island called Fositeland, which was on the confines of Denmark and Friesland, and so sacred, that its fruit, its animals, and even its waters, were holy, and \\lioever ]>r()- faned them was to be punished with death. Willibrord and his company wholly disregarded the sacredness of the place, violated tlie laws, were ar- raigned before Radbod, who cast lots on their destiny, by Avhiili one was doomed to death, and the others dismissed. They now penetrated into Denmark. On their return to the confines of France, Pipin, who in 693 had vanquished Rad- bod, sent Willibrord again to Italy, to be consecrated archbishop of Utrecht. Pope Sergius now gave him the name of Clemens. Returning clothed with dig- nity, his friend Pipin aided him in liis work ; and for about tifty years, from his leaving England, he laboured, and with much success, as the apostle of tlie Fries- landers. He died about the year 740, at the advanced age of 81. Thus tar Alcuin's narrative goes. Of his followers, it is said, that the two Ewalds (the one called tlie white, and the other the black Ewald.) were put to death by a Saxon king, and their bodies Citst into the Rhine ; that Suidbcrt preached to the Bnicteri near Cologne, and at Inst at Kaiserwertli. on the Rhine, where lie died X.V. 713; that Willibald became bishop of Eichstadt in Bavaria ; mul Mareellinus, bishop of the coiintr)' jilong the Issel. Tr.'] 64 BOOK II. CENTURY VII. [PART I. ous of ruling, concealed for a time their vicious propensities under the veil of religion, and imposed upon themselves various hardships, that they might acquire the rank and honours of bishops and archbishops. § 5. Of the Jews, very few, if any, voluntarily embraced Christianity. But the Christians compelled many of them, in different places, by means of penalties, to make an outward profession of belief in Christ. The emperor Heraclius, being incensed against them, as is reported, by the influence of Chris- tian doctors, made havoc of the miserable nation ; and ordered vast numbers of them to be dragged reluctantly to baptism.- The kings of Spain and Gaul had no hesitation to do the same, although even the Roman pontiffs were indignant.^ Such were the evils that resulted from ignorance of true Christian princi- ples, and from the age's barbarism. CHAPTER 11. THE CONVERSION OF ENGLAND.* § 1. Augustine despatched on a mission into England. — § 2. Its partial failure. — § 3. Christianity established in Kent. — § 4. Conversion of Northumbria, and eventual triumph of the Roman party. — § 5. Conversion of Mercia. — § 6. Con- A-ersion of Essex. — § 7. Conversion of East Anglia. — § 8. Conversion of Wessex. § 9. Conversion of Sussex. § 1. The importance of England, from political power, exten- sion of language, literary eminence, and primitive ecclesiastical polity, demands a particular account of her conversion, by way of supplement to notices of the prosperous events of the seventh century. The known history of her Christian profession begins, indeed, at the close of the preceding age, when Augustine, the Roman monk, obtained a permanent footing in Kent.^ This devoted and indefatigable missionary had been prior of the mon- astery of St. Martin, at Rome. Gregory 1., or the Great, then 2 Eutychius, Annales Eccksice Alex- ann. 614, sub fin. torn. viii. p. 239, &c. andr. tom. ii. p. 212, &c. Tr.'\ '■' [See some authorities on this subject, ' Augustine's commission from the quoted by Baronius, Arinaks Eccles. ad. pope is dated 596, his anival in Kent, CH. II.] CONVERSION OF ENGLAND. 65 pope, had meditated a mission into England, during several years, and being unable to undertake it in i)crson, he selected Augustine for the honourable enterprise. There were several reasons obviously encouraging expectation of success. Britain had been converted early, though the precise period is unascer- tainable, and a flourishing church there had been found by the pagan Saxons. Under the weight of their long hostilities, and heathen zeal, it had necessarily fallen ; but still the Christian Britons were not extinct. They remained unsubdued in Wales, and in tlie furthest portions of Western England. Probal)ly they remained also intermingled witli their Saxon conquerors, through every district of South Britain. But Gregory chiefly calculated upon success, from a favourable opening at the Kent- ish court. Ethelbert, king of Kent, the Breticalda, or admitted chief among the Anglo-Saxon monarchs of his day, had esj)oused Bertha, daughter of Cherebert, king of Paris, on condition of allowing her to continue in the profession of Christianity. She, probably, soon undermined the pagan prejudices of her hus- band.^ Augustine, accordingly, seems to have found little dif- ficulty in converting Ethelbert, and in giving a Christian face to the petty kingdom of Kent. § 2. But his views took a much wider range, though not en- tirely from missionary zeal. His employer, Gregory, was anxious to organise a British church, strictly conformable to that of Eome. He did not, indeed, wish to force the Koman ritual upon the insular Christians. Augustine had his express per- mission to use any other that might seem more eligible.^ The missionary was, however, meant for primate of Britain ', and all the island was to be rendered conformable with llonian usages. Now these objects were obviously of no easy attainment. Tiie Welsh and West of England Britons had bishops of their own, were quarto-decimans, or kept Easter according to the ancient fashion of Asia Minor, and varied in some other particulars from the religious habits of Rome.^ Augustine had sufficient 597. Whanon,de Vera Success. Archiep. posed to the British Christians, lioos Cantuar. Anglia Sacra, i. 89. not appear. They were, however, * Gregory ^mtcs to her that she ouqht aware of Augustine's chum, an.i pcr- to have done so. {Epist. 59, Hb. 9.) eniptorily repelieii it : Nviiuc ilium pro He probably knew tliat she had done arcliiepiscopo habituros esse resptmdebant, so. 11'- 10-'. ^ Bed. Hist. Eccl ed. Stevenson, Lond. ' " The pecuhiirities of tlie later 1838, p. 60. ehureh in Britain are an arpmient * Wliether this was formally pro- against its deriving its origui from Komc; VOL. II. t' 66 BOOK II. — CENTURY VII. [PAKT I. influence to obtain two conferences with their prelacy, and some others, to represent their opinions, upon the borders of Worces- tershire. But disappointment closed both interviews. Excep- tion was taken to his haughty manners; and the Britons had evidently no thought of surrendering their independence or peculiarities. At his death, which appears to have happened shortly after, Augustine had eifected little more than the organi- zation of a church in Kent, in communion with that of Home.^ § 3. Even this contracted establishment soon appeared on the very verge of extinction. Ethelbert, in declining age, lost Bertha, his Christian wife, and then espoused a younger female. When he died himself, his own son, Eadbald, married the widow, and eluded Christian objections to such indecency, by relapsing into paganism. Laurentius, v/ho succeeded Augustine in the see of Canterbury, not only found expostulation hopeless, but also saw very little prospect of retaining any hold upon the Kentish population. He therefore made preparations for a withdrawal to the continent. When all was ready, he tried a last experiment upon the semi-savage prince, by submitting to such a flagellation, as left marks upon his shoulders. These he exhibited to the king of Kent, assuring him that the chastise- ment had come from no meaner hand than that of St. Peter himself, who had, last night, thus added pungency to severe animadversions upon his proposed dereliction of duty. His hearer was no match for this. He relinquished his incestuous connexion, l)ecame a Christian again, and saved the Kentish church.^ ^ § 4. A sister of his, named Ethelburga, or Tate, was married to Edwin, king of Northumbria, and went into the nortli, as her mother. Bertha, did into Kent, under an express stIi)ulatIon of allowance In the profession of Christianity.** By her Influence, for that church departed fi'om the having existed between the Christians Romish in manj^ ritual points ; it agreed in that part of the world " (the south of far more with tlie churches of Asia France) " and those of Asia Minor. It Minor, and it withstood for a long time has been supposed that Polycarp sent the authority of the Romish church, missionaries into Ganl." Burton's Hist. This appears to prove, that the British of the Christ. Ch. Lond. 1838, p. 237. received, either immediately or by means "^ Wharton refers Augustine's death of Gaid, their Christianity from Asia to 604. But the date is uncertain, and IMinor, which may easily have taken various years have been named, down to place tlu-ough their commercial inter- 616. course." (Rose's trans, of Neander's ' Bed. 113. Hist, of the Christ. Rel. and Ch. p. 80.) ^ lb. 120. " There arc many traces of a connexion CH. II.] CONVERSION OF ENGLAND. 67 aided by tlie dexterity of Paulinus, her principal chaplain, the prince and court of Northumbria became Christian ; an example which was imitated extensively by the population.^ A success- ful pagan invasion, however, drove Ethelburga with Paulinus back into Kent, and gave to the country its former heathen ap- pearance.^ Its final adoption of Christianity flowed from the exertions of Oswald, one of the old royal family, who had been educated in Scotland, among members of the ancient British church.'^ He sent into that country for some one to conduct a mission, and Aidan, a distinguished monk of lona, answered tlie summons. For him an episcopal see was founded at Lindis- farne, and his high character was fully maintained in Northum- bria. It was under this bishop and his two admirable succes- sors, Finan and Colman, that the north of England was converted to Christianity. All the three were not only unconnected with Rome, but also at variance with her about Easter and other matters. Her influence in that portion of the island was finally established at the council or conference of Whitby, in 664. This was convened by means of Oswy, king of Northumbria, who had married Eanfleda, daughter of Edwin and Ethelburga, but educated in Kent, and immoveably attached to the Koman usages. Oswy's education had been among the adherents of the ancient British church, in his native Northumbria, and he long withstood his wife's example ; probably, also, her impor- tunities. At length he seems to have been wearied out with opposition, and anxious only for an opening through which he could decently give Avay. On hearing, accordingly, at A^ hitby, that St. Peter, who keeps the keys of heaven, commanded the Roman Easter, Oswy said that he must not disobey him, for fear of having the door shut Avhen he should require admit- tance.^ § 5. Still more free than even Northumbria from obligations to Roman missionary zeal, was the great kingdom of Mcrcia, or all the centre of England. Its king, Peada, sought a wife from the court of his northern neighbour. But the Northumbrian family would only receive such a proposal, on condition of the suitor's conversion to Christianity. These terms being accepted. » Paulinus was said to have once The king and queen were witli him. lb. spent thiity-six days in catechising and 138. baptizing upon one of the royal domains. ' lb. 1.'52. ^ lb. 155. Mb. 227. F 2 68 BOOK II. CENTURY VII. [PART I. Peacla renounced paganism, and admitted a prelate from North- umbria, as the religious head of his people.'* The next three bishops of Mercia were all members of the ancient British church, and the wliole middle of England Avas thus planted with a Christian population, by means of missionaries in actual opposition to Rome. § 6. To the ancient British church also did the kingdom of Essex really owe its conversion. This district had nominally become Christian by means of Ethelbert, the Kentish sovereign, whose name has become so famous from its connexion with Augustine. But the prospect of an escape from paganism then proved no more than a deceitful gleam. Ethelbert's influence having ceased at his death, Essex immediately relapsed into its former heathenism. It was not until Sigebert, a subsequent sovereign of the country, had been converted at the Northum- brian court, that this portion of England, eventually distin- guished as the site of London, was rendered permanently Chris- tian.'^ Thus Northumbria, the religious pupil of anti-Roman Scotland, again stepped forward as the successful enemy of Anglo-Saxon paganism. Rome had tried in vain. The Gospel's triumph was reserved for native zeal. § 7. The counties of Norfolk and Suftblk, then forming the kingdom of East Anglia, found their most zealous and effective missionary in Fursey, an Irish nionk.^ Ireland long remained free from papal influence ; and records illustrative of her ancient religion, prove its general coincidence with the Protestanism of later times,^ Fui-sey's evangelical labours in East Anglia, therefore, connect the conversion of that countr}- rather with a native mission, than with that which Gregory planned. § 8. To the south of the Thames, Anglo-Saxon Christianity chiefly came from Rome. Not only was it entirely so with Kent, but in Wessex, likewise, eventually the dominant kingdom, Birinus, a Roman monk, instigated by Pope Honorius, was the leading instrument in evangelizing the people. But even this ' lb. 205. ' See Abp. Ussher's Discourse of the * lb. 208. Religion ancienlli/ professed hy the Irish ^ Bed. iii. 19, p. 197. Fursey ap- and British. This was republished, with pears to have arrived in England about the archbishop's Answer to a Jesuit, and the year 633, to have gone over into other tracts on popery, by the University France in 648, and to have died at of Cambridge, making altogether an oc- Mazieres, in Poitou, in 650. Note to tavo volume, in 1835. Stevenson's Bede, 198. CH. II.] CONVERSION OF ENGLAND. 69 missionary's success appears to have been greatly facilitated by Northumbrian influence. AVhIlc BIrinus struggled for a looting, Oswald, the zealous Christian king of Northern England, but a member of the ancient national church, was in Wessex for the purpose of marrying Into the royal family there. He did not leave the country until he saw his father-in-law, and his bride, both members of the Christian church. To the former he stood sponsor at baptlsiu ^ and It is hardly doubtful that his favourable interference was highly useful to Blrlnus. Thus, although the mission was Roman, a power at variance with Rome seems to have been its principal dependence. Nor did Northumbrian interest in the evangelisation of Wessex cease with Oswald. Oswy, who succeeded him, persuaded Agilbert, a French monk, to preach the Gospel In that country.^ But this missionary iiad spent no small time In Ireland reading Scripture.' He must have brought across the channel sentiments in oeneral unison with those of ancient Britain. § 9. Sussex may be considered as a Roman conversion.^ The successful missionary was not, indeed, sent from Rome ; but it was no other than Wilfrid, a native Saxon, famed for appeals to the pope, and an ardent papal partisan through life.'* Thus two Anglo-Saxon kingdoms only, and those the least, Kent and Sussex, were converted entirely without aid from the ancient church of Britain. All the rest of England was, more or less. Indebted for Christianity to native zeal. The northern and middle regions had hardly any thing even of assistance from Rome; the evangelists of those extensive districts being in active opposition to her pontiffs and peculiarities. " Bed. iii. 7, p. 169. The conversion He lived, indeed, when Italian dcxterity of Wessex is referred to 635. was only bep,innin:hbourino; countries. course, prefixed to his version of the Koran, sec. ii. [p. 45, &c. ed. Lond. 1825. H. Prideaux, Life of Maliomet, 1697, 8vo. Abidfeda, Annales Musleni. Ar. and Lat. 2 vols. 4to, Hat'niic, 1790. Abulfeda, de Vita et Rebus Gestis Muham- niedis, Ai'ab. and Lat. Oxon. 1723. Schroeckh, Kirchengesch, vol. xix. p. 327 —405. Tr.'] ■• For an account of tlie Koran, see m preference to all others, Geo. Sale, Preliminary Discourse, prefixed to his English version of that book. Add Vertot, Discours sur f Alcoran ; annexed to the third volume of his History if the Knights of Malta, in French. Jo. Char- din, Voyages en Perse, torn. ii. j). 281, new ed. The book which the Mahunie- dans called the Koran, is a collection of papers and discourses discovered and published after the death of ]\Iahumed ; and is not that Laio which he so highly extolled. Pei'haps some parts of the true Koran are still found in the modern Koran : but that the Koran or Law, which Mahumed prescribed to the Ara- bians, differed from the present Koran, is manifest fi-om the feet, that ^lahumcd in our Koran appeals to and extols tiiat other true Koran. A book \\liich is commended and extolled in any writing, must certainly be difiereut from that in which it is commended. Maj- we not conjecture, that the true Koran was an Arabic poem, which jNLalnnncd re- cited to his adherents, an4 wislieil them to commit to memory, but which he did not write out ? Such, it is well known, were the laws of the Gallic Druids ; ami such is said to be that Indian law, which the Brahmins learn and preserve in their memories. [These conjectures of Dr. Mosheim appear wholly Avithout foun- dation. There is no reason to bclie^e there ever was a Koran essentially dilfer- ent from that which we now have; or that Mahumed declined committing his jtre- tended revelations to writing. Tiie only argument adduced by Dr. Mosheim is of no force at all, considering the manner in which the Koran came into e.\istence. The book itself professes to liaAc been composed by God, in the highest hea- vens ; and thence sent down to tlie lower heavens by the angel Gabriel, who com- municated it, by parcels, to JLxhunicd, during the twenty-three }-cars tliat he claimed to be a propliet. MorcoAcr, the parcels revealed last, often revoked or modified wliat had been revealed before; and likewise replied to the objections of infidels against the book. See Sale's Koran, vol. i. ed. Lond. 1825, ch. vi. p. 159, and vol. ii. ch. x. p. 31. ch. xvi. p. 107, ch. XXV. p. 213, ch. xcvii. p. 497. The Mahumedan doctors say, tlie Koran existed, togetlier ■\\ith the decrees of God, from ail eternity, engraven on a table of stone, hard by tiie throne of God, and called the preserved table; that God sent the angel Gabriel, with a transcript of the entire Koran, down to the lowest heavens, wiierc, during twenty-tlnvc years, he revealed it iiy parcels to Ma- liunied ; that Maliunied caused these parcels to be Anuttcn down by his scribe, as tliey were received, and published them at once to his followers, some of whom took copies, wliile tlie greater part got them by lieart ; that the original MSS. of the scribe, when returned, were thrown promiscuou.-ly into a clie.st, whence tliey were taken, after the pro- phet's deatii, and jmbhshed collectively, in tiieir present fonn and order, which is wholly witlioiit regard to dates, or a classification of subjects. See Sale's Prelim. Discourse, sec. iii. p. 77 — 95. Tr.-\ r 4 72 BOOK II. — CENTUKY YII. [PART I. § 3. No one can, at this clay, form a perfect judgment of the entire character, views, and designs of Mahumed. For we can- not safely rely on the Greek writers, who made no hesitation to load their enemy with slanders and falsehoods ; nor can we trust to the Arabians, the very Avorst of historians, who conceal his vices and crimes, and pretend that nothing ever was more divine than he. Besides, a very considerable part of his life, and that too, from Avhich the motives and secret springs of his conduct would best appear, lies concealed from us. It is very probable, however, that abhorrence of the superstition, in which he saw his countrymen involved, so wrought upon him as to throw him into a disordered state of mind ; and that he really believed himself divinely commissioned to reform the religion of the Arabs, and re-instate among them the worship of the one true God. But it is also certain, tliat afterwards, when he saw his attempt answer to his wishes, he deluded the fickle, credulous multitude, Avith impious tricks and impositions, in order to strengthen his cause ; and even feigned divine revelations, Avhenever occasion seemed to require it, or any great difficulty occurred. Nor is this inconsistent with a character of fanati- cism ; for most fanatics think deception, so far as seems neces- sary to their designs, to be holy and approved of God ; and they of course resort to deception, when they can do it safely.'' The religion which he inculcated is not Avhat it would have been, if his designs had not been opposed. The pertinacity with which the Arabians adhered to the opinions and customs of their ancestors, and the hope of gaining over the Jews and Christians to his cause, undoubtedly led him to approve and tolerate many things, which he w^ould have rejected and abrogated, if he had been at liberty to do exactly as he would. § 4. The causes of this new religion's rapid progress among so many nations, are not difficult to be discovered. In the first place, the terror of arms, which Mahumed and his successors carried with great success Into dlffiarent countries, compelled vast multitudes to receive his law. In tlie next place, his law ^ This, in my judgment, is the l»st Si/ria, Persia, and Egypt, hy the Saracens, way of deciding the controversy, which torn. i. p. 68, Lond. 1708, 8vo. Georo-e has been agitated by learned men of our Sale, Preliminary Discourse to his trans- age ; whether Mahumed was a fanatic, lation of the Koran, sec. ii. [p. 53, &c. or an impostor ? See Peter Bayle, Die- ed. Lond. 1825. Schroeckh, Kirchengescli. tionnaire Historique, torn. iii. artic. Ma- vol. xix. p. 380, &c. TV.] Iwmet, note ''. Sim. Ockley, Conquest of CII. III.] ADVERSE EVENTS. 73 itself was admirably adapted to the natural dispositions of men, but especially to the manners, opinions, and vices prevalent among the people of the East : for it was extremely simple, pro- posing very few things to be believed ; nor did it enjoin many and difficult duties to be performed, or such as laid severe re- straints on the propensities of men.<^ Moreover, the consum- mate ignorance, which characterized, for the most part, the Arabians, Syrians, Persians, and other nations of the East, gave a bold and eloquent man ready access to the minds of immense numbers. We may add, that the virulent contests among the Christian Greeks, Nestorlans, Eutychians and Monophysites, which filled a large part of the East with carnage and horrible crimes, rendered their religion odious in the eyes of manv. Be- sides all this, the Monophysites and Nestorians themselves, whom the Greeks oppressed most grievously, rendered assistance to the Arabians, and thus facilitated their conquest of some provinces.^ Other causes will suggest themselves to those who consider attentively the state of the world, and the character of the Mahumedan religion.^ § 5. After the death of 3Iahu?)ied, in tlie year 632, his fol- lowers issued forth from Arabia, with their native fortitude stimulated by a furious fanaticism, and aided, as has been already observed, by those Christians who were j)ersecutcd by the Greeks, extended their conquests over Syria, Persia, Egypt, and some other countries.^ Nor could the Greeks, harassed with intestine commotions and various wars, put forth sufjicieiit energy to check their rapid career. The victors, at first, used their pi-osperity Avith moderation ; and were very indulgent to- wards the Christians, especially to those who opjjosed the de- crees of Ephesus and Chalcedon. But, as is common in cases where every thing succeeds, they insensibly swerved from this moderation into severity, and so loaded the Christians with " See Hadr. Rcland, de Religionc ' [iVmong these causes, must lie reck- Mahumedica, libri ii. Utrecht, 1717, oned the pagau face which Christianity 12ino. Geo. Sale, Prelim. Dissert, tu the conuuouly wore. 0[)poiients C(»uld thus Koran, sec. iv. v. ^-i. [Ilan. ^Moore, easily hraiul Christians as apostates, tur Dictionary of all Religions, art. Maho- wliose j)urixation a new iiii.ssion from metans, ed. 1817. Sehroeckh, Kirchcn- above was absolutely ueces.^ary. Ed.'\ c^escA. vol. xix. p. 356, &c. Tr.'] ' Sec Simon Ockley, CoHr/z/f.sY o/"5yria, ' See Euseb. Renaudot, Historia Pa- Persia, and Ei/i/pL hi/ the Saracens, vul. i. triarch. Alcxandr. p. 163, 169. [and Gib- Lond. 1708, and vol. ii. Lond. 1817. 8vo. bon. Decline and Fall, ^x. chap. Ii. where [also Gibbon, Decline and Full, At. ch. this is shown by the conduct of the Copts, 1. Ii. TV.] or Jacobites in Egypt. TV.] 74 BOOK II. — CENTURY VII. [PART I. taxes and other burdens and injuries, that their condition more resembled that of slaves, than that of citizens. § 6. The civil dissensions among the Mahumedans, which arose soon after the death of their prophet, were not a little injurious to the success of their enterprises. Ahuheker, the father-in-law, and All, the son-in-law, of Malmmed, engaged in a severe struggle about the right to the throne, which each claimed for himself; and this controversy being handed down to posterity, divided the whole race into two great jjarties, sepa- rated not only by a difference in opinions and practices, but also by deadly hatred. The two sects are called, the one Sonnites, and the other Shiites.^ The former contend, that Abuheker was the true Kalif ; the latter, that Ali was the legitimate successor of Mahnmed. Both regard the Koran as of divine origin, and the authoritative rule in religion ; but the Sonnites unite with it the Sonna, a sort of oral law, derived from Malmmed, and serving to explain the Koran ; which the Shiites wholly discard. The Turks, Tartars, Africans, and most of the Indians, are Sonnites; the Persians and Mogores are Shiites; yet the Mogores seem to belong to neither sect.^ Besides these two grand divisions, there are among the Ma- humedans, four principal sects, and a great many subordinate ones; which contend sharply respecting various subjects in religion, yet practise mutual toleration.^ ' See Adr. Rcland, de Beligione Tur- * On the Mahumedan sects, see Jo. cica, lib. i. p. 36, 70, 74, 85. Joh. Char- Henr. Hottinger, Historia Orientalis, din. Voyages en Perse, toni. ii. p. 236, &c. lib. ii. cap. vi. p. 340. Ricaut, Etat de '^ The principles of the Sonnites may I'Empire Ottoman, lib. ii. p. 242. Jo. be learned from the tract published by Chardin, Voyages en Perse, tom. ii. p. Adr. Reland, de Relig. Turcica, Ub. i. 236. Geo. Sale, Preliminary Discourse to The religion and opinions of the Shiites the Koran, sec. viii. p. 207, &c. are clearly stated by John Chai'din, Voyages en Perse, tom. iv. the whole. en. I.] LITERATURE AND miLOSOPHY. 75 PART 11. THE INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. CHAPTER I. HISTORY OF LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY. § 1. State of learning. The monks its patrons. — § 2. Ignorance of the bishops. - § 3. History and other sciences corrupted. — § 4. State of pliilusuiihv. § 1. The profound ignorance and barbarism of this century will hardly appear credible to those who have not themselves inspected the monuments which remain of it. What little of learning and wisdom still remained, with a few exceptions, was confined to the cloisters of the monks, especially among the Latins. The laws forbade any one to be made an abbot, unless he had some learning. The monks tiiemselves were enjoined to employ certain hours in reading ; and that they might de- rive greater profit from this exercise, they were required, in most monasteries, to convei'se and debate together, at stated times, on the subjects which they had read.' It was their business also to educate young men destined for the sacred office. But all the institutions of this sort were of little service to the cause of learning and to the church ; because very few liad any just conception of the ends and nature of the liberal arts and sciences ; and most of them were more intent on the jierusal of worthless writers, and the lives of saints, than on the study of valuable authors. Those who did best, were assiduous ' Jo. Mabiilon, Acta Saiwlor. Old. Baicdicl. toni. ii. j). 479, 513, tl /Hixsini. 76 BOOK II. CENTURY VII. [PART II. in perusing the works of A^igustine and Gregory the Great ; and scra]5s gathered from these fathers, constituted the best productions of the Latin church in this century. § 2. Kings and noblemen were attentive to every thing, rather than to the cause of learning. The rude and unlearned bishops suffered the schools, which had been committed to their care, to languish and become extinct.^ It was very rare to find among them such as could compose their own public discourses. Those who possessed some genius among them, strung together from Augusthie and Gregory a parcel of jejune addresses ; a part of which they kept for their own use, and the rest they imparted to their more dull and stupid colleagues, that they might have somethino; fit for bringino- forward. This is manifest from the examples of Ccesarius of Aries, and of Eligius of Noyon. There is extant also a Summary of Theology, unskilfully compiled by Tajo, bishop of Saragossa, from the writings of Augustine and Gregory : and this insipid performance was so highly esteemed, that the other bishops did not hesitate to pronounce the author of it i?ie true salt of the earth, and a divine himinary in the church.^ Many such proofs of the ignorance of the times may be easily collected by one acquainted with the writers of this centur3\ England, however, was in a happier state, in this respect, than the other countries of Europe ; for Theodore, a Cilician, who held the see of Canterbury, of whom more will be said hereafter, introduced into that country some attachment to letters and learning."^ § 3. The Greeks who attempted to write, either in poetry or prose, obscured plain and simple subjects by an inflated and tumid phraseology. The style of the Latins, with very few exceptions, was so base and corrupt, that it cannot even be commended for this perversion of taste. History was wretchedly abused, both by Greeks and Latins. Among the former Mos- chus, Sophronius, with others, among the latter, Braulio, Jonas an Hibernian Audoenus, Dado, and Adamanmis, have left us biographies of several saints, but such as are insipid and ridi- culous, and have neither the light of truth, nor any seasoning of language. The Greeks led the way in committing to writing indiscriminately whatever tales were current among the vulgar ^ Histoire Litterairc de la France, par ^ Jo. Mabillon, Analecta Vetcris JEv't, les Moines Benedict. Sept. Siecle, torn. iii. torn. ii. p. 77. p. 428, &c. * Dav. Wilkins, Concilia Magna Bri- CH. II.] CHUECH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 77 about ancient times, and hence came those numerous medleys of fables, which the Latins afterwards drank in with greedy- ears and minds. § 4. Philosophy, among the Latins, was at an end. Those who were unwilling to neglect it altogether, were satisfied with committing to memory a few words and sentences, taken from Boethi?is and Cassiodorus. For they were neither willing to reason for themselves, nor able to consult the Greeks, from ignorance of their language. The Greeks, abandoning Plato to certain of the monks, betook themselves to Aristotle, whose precepts were nearly indispensable, in the theological contests of the age, with the Monophysites, Nestorians, and Monothe- lites : for all these resorted to the Stagirite for aid, whenever they were called to the combat. Hence James of Edessa, a Monophysite of this century, translated Aristotle's Dialectics into Syriac.'^ CHAPTER IL HISTORY OP THE TEACHERS, AND OF THE CONSTITUTION OF THE CHURCH. § 1. Disputes about pre-eminence, between the bishops of Komc and Constantinople — § 2. The former opposed by man}-. — § 3. Vices of the clergy. — § 4. State of the monks. — § 5. Greek wi'iters. — § 6. Latin ^Titers. § L The contest for pre-eminence between the Eoman and Constantinopolitan prelates, had gained such a height in this century, that we may clearly discern the commencement of that unhappy schism which afterwards separated the Latins from the Greeks. It is commonly asserted, by men of the greatest learn- ing, and best acquainted with ancient history, that the Koman pontiff, Boniface IIL, prevailed on that abominable tyrant, Phocas, who mounted the imperial throne, after murdering the emperor Mauricius, to divest the bishop of Constantinople of the title of cecumenical bishop, and to confer it on the Koman pon- tannice, tom. i. p. 4-i. Herm. Courin- ' See Jos. Sim. Asscman, Bihliuth. gius, Antiqnitates Acadeimccr, p. 277. Orient. Vatican, tom. i. p. 498. 78 BOOK II. CENTURY VII. [PART II. tiff. But this is stated solely on the authority of Baronius ' ; for no ancient writer has given such testimony. Yet Phocas did something analagous to this, if we may believe Anastasms, and Paul Diaconus.- For whereas the bishops of Constantinople had maintained, that their church was not only fully equal to that of Rome, but also had precedence of all other churches, Phocas forbade this, and determined that the priority of rank and dignity should be given to the church of Rome. § 2. The Roman pontiffs used indeed every means to maintain and enlarge the power and dignity which they had obtained: yet the history of this period affords many proofs, not only that emperors and kings, but that nations also, resisted those attempts. Many indications of the existence of the regal power in religious matters, and even over the pontiff himself, may be collected from the Byzantine history, and from the For- mulas of Marculfus. The Roman Avriters tell us, that Constan- tine Pogonatus formally relinquished the right of confirming the election of a Roman pontiff: and they cite Anastasius as a wit- ness ; who states, that Pogonatus ordered, that a Roman pontiff elect, should he ordained for thioith and ivithout delay? But this testimony does not reach the point to be proved. It appears, however, to have been the fact, that this emperor, in the time of the pontiff Agatho, remitted the customary payment to the court, of a sum of money for the confirmation of a pontifical election.'' The ancient Britons and Scots could not be moved ' [Baronius, Aymales, ad ann. 606, seem to have understood merely priority No. 2. Sc}il.'\ of rank, and not that supreme authority ^ Anastasius, de Vitis Pontijicum, and dominion, which the Roman pontiffs (Bonifacius III.) Pauhis Diaconus, de afterwards claimed. It was intended as liebtis gestis Longobardor. lib. iv. cap. 37, a. compliment ; but it was construed into in Muratori, Scriptores Rerum Italicar. a grant of unlimited power. See Bower's tom. i. pt. i. p. 465. [Anastasius says, Lives of the Popes, (Boniface III.) vol. ii. that " whereas the church of Constanti- p. 545, &c. ed. Lond. 1750. TV.] nople had claimed to be the first of all ^ Anastasius, de Vitis Pontif (Bene- the chm-ches, Boniface obtained from diet,) in Mm-atori, Scriptor. Berum. Italic. the emperor Phocas, that the Romish tom. iii. p. 146. [The words of Anas- church, the apostolic seat of the blessed tasius are, concessit, ut persona, quce apostle Peter, (caput esset omnium eccle- electa fuerit in sedem Apostolicam, e ves- siarum} should be the head of all the tigio absque tarditate Pontifex oi-dinarehir. churches." Paul Diaconus says : " This That is, it should not be necessary to emperor, Phocas, at the request of pope write to Constantinople, but merely to Bonitace, decreed that the see of the obtain liberty from the emperor's ■\'ice- Roman and apostolic church should be regent, the exarch of Ravenna, pre- the first, (primam esse,) v/}\QMQa.s ihQ Con- \'iously to the ordination. Moreover, stantinopohtan had before assumed to history shows, that succeeding emperors be the first of all." — ^By being the first did not respect this privilege. Schl.'] and the head, both the bishops of Con- '' Anastasius, de Vitis Pontif. (Aga- stantinople, and the usurper Phocas, tho,) p. 144. Compare Jo. Ja. Moscov. CH. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 79 for a long time, either by the threats or the promises of the papal legates, to subject themselves to the Koman decrees and laws ; as is abundantly testified by Bede.^ The Gauls and the Spaniards, as no one can deny, attributed just so much autho- rity to the pontiff, as they tliought likely to make for their own advantage.^ Nor in Italy itself could he make the bishop of Ravenna, and others, bow obsequiously to his will.^ And of private individuals, there Avere many who expressed openly their detestation of his vices and his greediness of power. Xor are those destitute of arguments, who assert that the AValdenses, even in this age, had fixed their residence in the valleys of Pied- mont, and inveighed freely against Roman domination.^ § 3. That the bishops of inferior rank, and all who were intrusted with sacred offices, as well those in the monasteries as those without, lived in the practice of many enormities is expressly admitted by every writer of any note in this century. Every where simony, avarice, pious frauds, intolerable pride, insolence to the peoj^le at large, and even vices worse than these might be seen reigning in the places consecrated to holi- Hisloria Germanor. torn. ii. note, p. 121, &c. [According to Anastasiiis, the em- peror did not wJiolIy remit, but only di- minish the amovmt of the payment ; " relevata est quantitas, qu?e solita est dari ; " and this too witii the express in- junction that the ancient rule should be observed, and no ordination take place till the consent of the emperor should be obtained from court. See Bower's Lives of the Popes, (Agatho) vol. iii. p. 131, &c. ed. Lend. 1754. 7>.] 5 [Beda, Hist. Eccles. 1. ii. c. 2, 1. iii. c. 2 5. Schl. — The case of Wilfrid, bishop of York, who, being deposed and ba- nished by the Saxon king in 678, appealed to Rome, and returned acquitted, but was imprisoned nine months, and then banished the kingdom, is a strong case in point. See Bower's Lives of the Popes, (Agatho) vol. iii. p. 98—105. TV.] 8 [It is well known, that the French kings often deposed bishops, whom the popes, by all their efforts, A\'erc not able to restore ; and that in Spain, Julianus, the bishop of Toledo, freely censured pope Benedict II. for sending into Spain his disapprobation of a synodic letter ; and accused his holiness of ignorance, iicgli- gence, and jealousy. Yet this Jnliamis is a canonized saint. Sec the fifteenth council of Toledo, in Ilarduin, Cuncil. torn. iii. p. 1761, &c. Schl.'] ' Mich. Geddes, MisceUancous Tracts. vol. ii. p. 6, &c. [and Muratori, Hist. of Italy, vol. iv. p. 157 ; where is a di- ploma of the emperor Constantine IV. in which he releases jMam-us, archbishop of Ravenna, fi-om obedience to the pope. At his death, this archbishop warned his clergy not to subject tiicnisclves to the Roman pontiff, but to apjtly to tlic emperor for a pall for the new arch- bishop. And to the present time, the archbishops claim a kind of independence of the Romish sec. Even tlie al)l)ot, St. Columbanus, defends the ancient Irish manner of keeping Easter, against the popes, with great iutrejiidity ; and likewise the sid)ject of the tliree chap- ters; an. 675; wrote Srhulia on flfteeu Orations of Gre- gory Nazianzen. ilacarius, a Monothelite, patriarch of Antioch, about A. d. 680, whose Confession of faith, and extracts from other works, are extant. Concilia, tom. vi. John, archbishop of Thessalonica, a. t>. 680, ha'- '"ft us one oration, part of an- 84 BOOK II. — CENTURY VII. [part II. § 6. The most distinguislied among the Latin writers were tlie following: Ikh^msus of Toledo, to whom the Spaniards gratuitously ascribe certain treatises concerning the holy virgin Mary.'^ Two books of Epistles, by Desiderius of Cahors, were edited by Hen. Canisius.^ Eligius of Limoges has left us some Homilies and other productions,^ The two books of Ecclesiastical Formulas by Marculphus, a Gallic monk, help us much to dis- cover the wretched state of religion and learning in this age.'^ The Englishman Aldhehn composed various poems, with no great success, on subjects relating to a Christian life.^ Jidianus other, a fragment of a Hymn, and parts of a tlialogue between a pagan and a Christian. 7V.] * See the Acta Sanctor. .Tanuarii, toin. ii. p. 535. [Ildefonsiis was nobly born at Toledo, educated at Seville, and after being a monk and abbot at Agli, became archbisho]) of Toledo, a. d. 657 — 667. His ten sjmi'ious homilies and discourses, and one spm'ious ti'act, concerning the virgin Mary, with one genuine tract on the same subject, were published by Feuardentius, Paris, 1576 ; and after- wards in the Biblioth. max. Pair. torn. xii. We have from his pen, a tract on the ecclesiast. writers, in continuation of Jerome, Gennadius, &c. two Epistles, and a tract de Cognitione Bapiismi. Seve- ral other tracts and letters, and a con- tiimation of Isidore's Gothic Histoi-y, axe. lost. 7>.] ^ [Desiderius was treasurer to Clo- thair II. a. d. 614, and bishop of Cahors in France, a. d. 629—652. His first Book of Epistles contains those which Desiderius wrote to his friends, the se- cond contains those addressed to liim. They are extant in Canisius, Lectivii. Antiqua, tom. v. and in Bibliuth. max. Pair. tom. viii. TV.] " [Eligius was born near Limoges, became a goldsmith there, and was es- teemed the best workman in all France. In 6.'55, king Dagobcrt scni him as am- bassador to Britamiy. While a layman, lie erected several monasteries and churches. He was bishop of Noyon, A. D. 640 — -659 ; and continued to found monasteries and churches, and l)esidcs laboured to spread Christianity among the Flemings, the Frieslanders, and the Svvabians. He has left us a tract (le Recti tudlne Cuiholicw Cunversationift, (which has been ascribed to Augustine, and an lOpistle to Desiderius of Cahors. Of the 1 6 Homilies ascribed to him, and extant in the Biblioth. max. Pair. tom. xii. the greatest part, if not the whole, arc supposed to be spui'ious. They are compilations from the fathers, and se- veral of them bear marks of the ninth and tenth centuries. Ti:'] ' Histoirc Littcraire de la Fiance, torn, iii. p. 565. [About the year 660, Mar- culphus, then seventy years old, at the request of the bishop of Paris, compiled this book of formulas of diti'erent instra- ments and writings used in ecclesiastical courts, and elsewhere, in the transaction of ecclesiastical aflairs, and in the ma- nagement of church property. It was pubhshed, Paris, 1665, 4to, and 1667, by Baluze, in Capitull. Begum Francor. torn, ii. p. 369. Tr.] * [" This prelate certainly deseiwed a more honourable mention than is here made of him by Dr. Mosheim. His poetical talents were by no means the most distinguishing part of his character. He was ]in)toun(lly versed in the Greek, Latin, and Saxon languages. He ap- peared also with dignity in the Paschal controversy, that so long divided the Saxon and British churches. See Collier's Ecclesiastical Hist. vol. i. p. 121." Mad. — Aldhelm was grandson to Ina, king of tlio West-Saxons. When young, he travelled over Gaul and Italy ; and pursued study with such ardour, that he became one of the most learned men of the age. Returning to England, he lived first as a monk, and then for 34 years as tlic abl)t)t of jMalmsbury ; after- wards, he was bishoji of Sherborne A. D. 705—709. Bede (lib. v. c. 19,) says, he was undccuiique doctissimiis. While abbot, he \\'rote, by request of an English synod, a book in confutation of the sentiments and practice of the ancient Britons and Scots in regard to Easter ; which is now CII. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 85 Fomerius confuted tlie Jews, and has left us some other speci- mens of his genius, which are neither to be highly praised, nor utterly contemned.^ To these may be added Cresconius\ whose Ahridc/ment of the Canons is well known, Frcdcgarius-, and a few others.^ lost. He also wrote a tract in praise of virginity, both in prose and in verse ; likewise a book on the eight principal virtues ; and a thonsand verses of Enig- mas. These and some other poems were published at Mayence, 1601, 8vo, and in the Biblioth. max. Pair. torn. xiii. 7V.] ® [Julianus Fomerius Avas bishoiJ of Toledo, A. D. 680— 690. He wrote com- mentaries on Joshua ; a demonstration that Christ has come, against tlie Jews, in three books ; on death, the place of departed souls, the resun-ection and final judgment, three books ; on the dis- crepancies in the scriptures, two books ; a history of king Wamba's expedition against Paul, the rebel duke of Narbonne ; and an Appendix to Ildefonsus, de Scrip- tor. Ecclesiast. His works arc in the twelfth volume of the Biblioth. max. Patr. Tr.-\ ' [Cresconius was an African bishop, and flourished a. d. 690. His Brcviarium Canonmn is a methodical Index to tlic canons of councils and decrees of the Roman pontiffs, digested under 300 heads. He afterwards wrote Concordia sen Liber Canoniim, which is the same thing, except that the canons and decrees are here recited at length : both -works are in Voellus, and Justell's Biblioth. Juris Canon. TV.] * Histoire Litteraire de la France, vol. iii. p. 506. [Fredegarius Scholasticus was a Gallic monk, who flourished a. i>. 640. He compiled a Chronicle, from the creation, to the year of Christ, 641, in five books. The first three books, which reach to a. d. 561, are a compi- lation from Julius Africanus, Eusebius, as translated by Jerome, and others : the fourth book, comprising a. i). 561 — 564, is an abridgment of Gregory Turo- nensis' History of the Franks : the fifth book, from 584 to 641, was composed by Fredegarius : the Chronicon was after- wards continued by other bands, to a. d. 768. The fifth book is publislied among the Scriptores Berum Francicar. The other books arc, partly in Canisius, Lcc- tiones Antiq. tom. ii. and partly in Gre- gory Turon. Histor. Francor. 7/-.] ^ [The following catalogue eniliraccs the Latin writers omitted by Dr. Mos- hcini. Paterius, puj)il of Grcgorj-^ the Great, and bishop of Brescia, about a. d. 601. He wrote a Collection of scripture testi- monies, in three books ; two from the Old. Test, and one from the New: — published with the works of Gregory the Great. Faustus, a monk brought up by St. Benedict, and sent into Gaul with St. Maurus. He wrote, a. d. 606, the life of St. Maurus, and the life of St. Severimis. Both are extant in Mabillon, Acta Sanctor. Ord. Bcned. tom. i. Marcus, a disciple and companion of St. Benedict, and versifier of the life of Benedict bv Grcgorv the Great : fl. a. D. 606. Boniface IV., pope a. n. 615, has left us an Ej)istle to king Ethclbert of Kent ; and a Sjniodic Decree : in the ConciL tom. V. Bulgaranus, a Spanish Goth, and count, A. L). 601. Six of his Epistles, still preserved, have been often con- sulted, but never published. Sisebutus, a Gotiiic king in Spain a. d. 612 — 621. Several of his P^pistles ai-c preserved ; and likewise liis life and martyrdom of St. Desiderius. Boniface V. pope a. i>. 620—626. His Epistle to Justus, bishop of Rochester ; another to Edwin, king of Nortlnmiber- land ; and a third to Edilbm-g, Edwin's queen, are extant in Baronius, Annales, ad ann. 618 and 625, also in the ConciL tom. V. Nennius, a British monk, and abbot of Bangor, about a. d. 620. and often confounded with tlic Irish Gihhis. He Avrote de Gcstis Britonum Liber, sive Breviarium, or a Hi.stoni of the Britons ; the MS. of which is still prcscned aX Westminster and at Cambridge. See Cave, IJi.st. Lit. tom. i. p. 620. Honorius, ])o])e A. d. 626—638. He was a Monothclite. Eight of his Epis- tles, whicli fully prove the fact, arc ex- tant, in tlie ConciL tom. v. See Job. Forbes, Instruct. Hist, Thedog. lib. v. 86 BOOK II. — CENTURY VII. [part II. sind Schroeckh, Klrchcngcsch. vol. xx. p. 401, 442, &c. 446, &c. Braiilio, bisliop of Saragossa, a. b, 627 — 646. He wrote the life of St. jEmilian, a monk, wliich is in Mabilloii, Acta Sanctor. Ord. Bvncd. torn. i. also two Epistles to Isiilore Hispal. and a short Eulogy of Isidore, wliich are pub- lished with the works of Isidore. Jonas, an Irish monk, and abbot of Luxeuil, flourished about a. d. 630. He wTotc the Lives of St. Columbanus Bo- biensis, of Eustatius abl)ot of Luxeuil, of Attala abbot of Bobio, of Bertulph abbot of Bobio, of St. John the founder iuid abbot of a monastery, and of St. Fara or Burgundofara first abbess of York. IMost of these lives are in Mabillon, Acta Sanctor. Ord. Benedict. torn. ii. Cummianus or Comminns, sumamed Fata or Eada, i. e. tall, son of Fiacna the king of West Momonia in Ireland ; born A.I). 592, died 661. He was a monk, abbot, and, some add, bishop in Ireland ; and wrote an Epistle to Segie- nus, abbot of Hy, on the paschal contro- versy, (in Usshcr's Sylloge Epistolar. Hibernkar. p. 24) and a book de Pant- tnitianim Mcnsura, which is in the Biblioth. max. Patr. tom. xii. John IV., pope a. d. 640, 641. He ^^Tote an Ejtistle to tlie Scotch bishops, concerning the pasclial controversy ; another to the emperor Constantine III. in apology for ))o])c Honorius ; and a thml to Isaac, l)isiiop of Saracuse. These are extant in tlie Concilia, tom. v. Audoenus, or Dado, archbishop of Rouen, a. d. 640—68.'?. lie lived to the age of 90, and wrote the life of St. Eligius of Noyon, in three books ; jtub- lished. imperfect, by Surius ; and per- fect, by L. D'Achery, Spicileg. tom. v. also an Epistle. Theodoras I., pope a. i>. 642 — 649. He has left us two Epistles ; in the Con- cilia, tom. v., and in the Biblioth. max. Patr. tom. xii. Eugenius, archbishop of Toledo, a. d. 646 — 657. He composed some tracts in verse and jirose, which are extant in the Biblioth. max. Patr. tom. xii. Tajo or Tago, bishop of Saragossa, flourislicd a. d. 646. He was a gi'eat admirer of the works of Gregory the Great ; went to Rome to obtain copies of them ; anil com{)iled five books of Sentences, from them. Martin 1., ])opc a. d. 649—655. For liis ojiposition to a decree of the emperor Constans, called his Typus, JIartin was seized by an armed force in 65.3, car- ried prisoner to Constantinople, kept in jaQ for a long time, tried, and banished. He ended his days at Cherson, an exile. Seventeen of his Epistles are extant ; eleven of them, Gr. and Lat. are in the Concil. tom. vi. Anastasius, deacon and apocrisiarius of the Romish church. He adhered to St. Maximus, and shared in his fortunes. The year before his death, a. d. 665, he wrote a long letter, giving account of the sufterings and exile of himself, Maximus, and Anastasius patriarch of Constantino- ple, and defending their tenets in oppo- sition to the Monothelites. It is in the Biblioth. max. Patr. tom. xii. and also prefixed to the works of St. Maximus. FiTictuosus, of Royal Gothic blood, bishop of Braga, a. d. 656 — 675. He was founder of many monasteries, and particularly that of Alcala ; and drew up two Ihdes for monks, one in tAventy- three chapters, the other in twenty. Both are published by Ln. Holstenius, Codex Regular, pt. ii. Vitalianus, pope a. d. 657 — 671. In the year 668, he and Maunis the arch- bishop of Ravenna mtitnally excommu- nicated each other. Six of his Epistles are in the Concilior. tom. vi. Syricius, bishop of Barcelona, about a. 1). 657. He wrote two Epistles, which are extant in Lu. D'Achery, Spicileg. tom. i. or, ncAv ed. tom. iii. Cummeneus, sumamed Albus ; an Irish monk, and abbot of Hy, a. d. 657 — 669. He wrote the life of St. Columba, the first abbot of Hy ; which may lie seen in ]\Ialiillon, Acta Sanctor. Ord. Bcned. tom. i. Jonas, a disciple of St. Columbanus, aTid an abbot somewhere. He wrote, about A. D. 664, the life and miracles of St. John, a Burgundian abbot, in two l)ooks. The latter book is in Mabillon, Acta, (Sy. torn. i. Theodonis, a native of Tarsus in Cilicia, whoni the pope made archbishop of Canttrlmry a. d. 668. He was a man of learning, and vciy efficient in action. Introducing a fine hbrary of Greek and Latin works into England, lie gave an imjiulse to learning among the Anglo- Saxon clergy. He also did much to bring the British and Scotch clergy to adojit tlie Roman method of keeping Easter. His only work, except an epis- tle, is his Pwnitentiale, or directory for dealing with oftenders in the Church. en. III.] RELIGION AND THEOLOGY. 87 Agatho, pope A. d. 680, 681, has left us three Epistles, which are in the CoJi- cilia, torn. vi. Adamnanus or Adamannus, a Scotch- Irish monk, and abbot of Hy, a. d. 679 — 704. He was very active in bringing the Scotch and Irish to adopt the Koman practice respecting Easter. Ilis life of St. Columbanus, in three books, is given by Canisius and Surius ; and his topo- grapliical description of Jerusalem and other sacred places, as he learned them from Arculphiis, a Gallic bishop and traveller, in three books, was published by Mabillon, Acta Sanctor. Orel. Bened. secul. iii. pt. ii. or torn. iv. p. 456 — 472. Ceolfrid, abbot of Weremuth or Wirc- muth, (Wearmouth,) in England, about A. D. 680, and preceptor to Bede. He visited Rome ; obtained of pope Sergius privileges for his monastery, and brought home books for the use ol' his monks. A long Epistle of his to Naiton, king of the Picts, in defence of th-c Roman method of keeping Easter, is extant in Bcda, 1. v. c. 22, and in the Concilia, torn. \\. Aphonins, very little known, but sup- posed to have lived about a. d. 680, wrote a Commentary on the Canticles, in six books ; which is extant in the Biblioth. max. Patr. torn. xiv. Valerius, a Spanish monk aiid abl)ot in Gallicia, about a. u. 680. His life of St. Fnictuosus, is extant in INIabillon, Acta Sanctor. Ord. Bened. torn. ii. Some other lives and treatises exist in MS. Leo II., pope a. d. 682—684. Eivc Epistles ascrilied to him arc extant in the Concilia, tom. vi. But Baronius and others think tliem spurious, because they represent pope Ilonorius to ha^c been a Monothelite. Benedict II., pope a. n. 684—686. He has two Epistles in the Concilia, tom. vi. Bobolenus, a monk and presbyter, who probably lived about a. d. 690. He wrote the life of St. Germanus, first ab- bot of Granvel, in the bishojjric of Bale, who was slain about a. d. 666 ; extant in Mabillon, Acta Sanctor. Ord. Bened. tom. ii. 2V.] CHAPTER III. HISTORY OF RELIGION AND THEOLOGY. § 1. Miserable state of religion. — § 2. Expositors of the Scriptures. — § 3. Dogmatic theology. — § 4. Practical theology.— § 5. Renewal of penitential discipline.— § 6. State of polemic theology. § 1. During this century, true religion lay buried under a senseless mass of superstitions ; and Avas unable to raise her head. The earlier Christians had worshipped only God, and his Son; but those called Christians in this age, worshipped the wood of a cross, the images of holy men, and bones of dubious origin.^ The early Christians placed heaven and hell ' I will here quote a passage, well cal- culated to illustrate the piety of this age, taken from the life of St. Eligius, bishop of Noyon, in Lu. D'Achei-y's SpicUecjium Veter. Scriptor. tom. ii. p. 92 : " Tlie Lord conferred upon this most lioly man, among other miraculous gifts, tliat, while searching and praying after them, with the most lu-dent faith, the bodies of the holy martyrs, M'hich had lain con- cealed for 80 many ages, were discover- ed." This most successful carca.'JS- hunter of saints, therefore, discovered tlie bodies of Quintin, Piato, Crispin, Crispinian, Lucian, and many others, as his biographer minutely nan-ates. Such ability to tind the concealed bones of saints and martyrs was claimed by most of the bishops, who wished to be esteemed by the people, and to amass riches. G 4 88 BOOK il. — CENTURY VII. fPART II. before the view of men ; these hitter depicted a certain fire j)re- pared to burn off the imperfections of the souh The former taught that Christ had made expiation for the sins of men, by his death and his blood ; the Latter seemed to inculcate, that the gates of heaven would be closed against none, who should enrich the clergy or the church with their donations.^ The former were studious to maintain a holy simplicity, and to follow a pure and chaste piety ; the latter placed the substance, of religion in external rites and bodily exercises. Did any one hesitate to believe ? Two irrefragable arguments were at hand ; the authority of the clturch, and iniracles; for the working of which in these times of ignorance, but a moderate share of dexterity was requisite. § 2. A few, both among Greeks and Latins, applied them- * St. Eligius, a great man of this age, says, (in D'Acheiy's Spicilegium, torn. ii. p. 96) " He is a good Christian, who comes often to church, and brings his otfering to be laid on the aUar of God ; who does not taste of his produce, till he has first offered some of it to God ; who, as often as the holy solemnities return, keeps hhnsclf, for some days be- fore, pure even from his own wife, so that he may come to the altar of God with a safe conscience ; and wlio finally has committed to memory the Creed, or the Lord's I'rayer. — Ecdeem your souls from punishment, while ye have the remedies in your power — jtresent ob- lations and tithes to the churches, bring candles to the holy places, according to your wealth — and come often to the church, and beg huml)ly for the patronage of tlie saints. Which, if yc shall have observed, ye will say, coming with con- fidence before the tribunal of the eternal Judge, in the day of judgment. Give, Lord, for we have given. [" We see here a large and ample description of tlic character of a good Christian, in which there is not tlie least mention of the love of God, resignation to his will, obedience to his laws, or justice, benevo- lence, or charity towards men ; and in which the whole of religion is made to consist in coming often to the church, bring- ing offerings to the altar, lighting candles in consecrated jjlaces, and such like vain senices." MacJ. — Robertson seems to have taken these extracts from Eligius, or Eloi, for a connected discoin-se, which he exhibits as a complete sample of the doctrine taught by him. This has given violent offence to Eomanists and others, IMosheim's statement has been branded with foul calumny, and the charge has been supported by citing other words of Eloi's, which prescribe substantial ex- cellences. But Mosheim does no more than make Eloi inculcate those religious formalities, and that liberality which ])laced better things in the shade. Nor does he fasten this charge upon him by a disputable inference. He extracts pas- sages from him which completely sub- stantiate the charge. It is, in fact, a charge probable in itself. The vast personal sacrifices which religion, or perhaps rather superstition, Avrung from men in the middle ages, demanded such representations as the words quoted from Eloi contain. That he and others also used language of a sounder character is nothing to the purpose. If public teachers put forth at any time, deliberately and publicly, objectionable doctrine, their oww characters, and the age which sufiers it to pass unrel)uked, are justly to be holden responsible for it. An ex- posure of it is not to lie assailed as false and malicious, because matter of a dif- ferent tendency occin-s in these same authors. The clamour, therefore, lately raised against this passage by advocates and cxtenuators of the Romish system, and abetted in some cases from want of due consideration, is entirely unfounded. Mosheim neither misrepresents the doc- trine which Eloi mixcil with sounder teaching, nor the age wliich conld suffer such a mixture from any leading man. Ed.^ CH. III.] RELIGION AKD THEOLOGY. 89 selves to the interpretation of Scripture. There remain some commentaries of Isrjchius of Jerusalem, on certain books of the Old Testament, and on the epistle to the Hebrews. Maximus composed sixty-five Questions on the Holy Scriptures, and gome other works of like character. JuUimus Pomerius showed his Avish, and his inability to reconcile passages of Scripture between which there is apparent contradiction, and also to explain the prophecy of Is'ahum. To these the worst of modern interpreters are undoubtedly superior. The Greeks, especially those who would be thought adejjts in mystic theo- logy, ran after fantastic allegories ; as may be seen by the Questions of Maximus above mentioned. The Latins had too little self-confidence even to venture on such a course, and therefore only culled flowers from the works of Gregory and Augustine ; as is manifest, among other works, from the Expla- nations of the Old and Neio Testament collected by Paterius from the works of Gregory the Great.^ Thomas of Heraclca gave to the Syrians a new translation of the New Testament.'' § 3. As among the Latins, philosophy was nearly extinct, and among the Greeks, only certain points of theology were brought under discussion ; no one thought of reducing the doctrines of religion to a regular system, and of stating them philosophically. Yet one Antiochus, a monk of Palestine, composed a short summary of religious doctrines, which he calls The Pandect of the Holy Scriptures. His claims to rank and influence as an author, may be estimated from a lugubrious poem, subjoined to this work, In which he dolefully deplores the loss of the wood of the cross, whicli the Persians were said to have carried away. A more neat and judicious Latin sum- mary of the theology of this age has not come down to us, than that in Ildefonsus' book de Cognitionc Baptismi, lately brought to light by Baluze ; — a work Indeed wliich ice do not need, but one that contains some valuable testimonies for truths wliich were afterwards discarded.'^ Tajo, or Tago, bishop of Saragossa, ^ This useless performance has been * See Bahtze, Miscellanea, torn. vi. p. usually printed with the works of Gre- 1, &c. From tliis lioolv it clearly ap- gory the Great ; and therefore the Bene- i)ears, among otlier things, that the doc- dictine monks inserted it in their recent trine of traiisuhstdiiliation, as it is called, and splendid edition of Gregory's AVorks, was unknown to the Latins in the sc- vol. iv. pt. ii. but with no advantage to venth century, (cli. 137, p. 99) — that the the public. sacred volume was read by all Chris- * Jos. Sim. Asseman, Biblioth. Orient, tians, (ch. 80, p. 59)— and other facts of Ffl^fcaw. torn. ii. p. 93, 94. the like natnre. Ildefonsus c.irefully 90 BOOK II. — CENTURY VII. [PART II. compiled Jive Books of Sentences, which are a dry and insipid body of theoretical and practical divinity, taken from Gregory the Great, though Augustine is sometimes taxed for contribu- tions : yet that age esteemed it an admirable performance, and deserving immortality.*^ On certain parts of Christianity, a few individuals employed their pens ; as Maximus, Avho wrote on tlieology and on the manifestation of the Son in the flesh, and likewise on the two natures in Christ ; and Theodore of Raithu, who wrote on the incarnation of Christ. But those acquainted with the character of that age, will easily conjecture what sort of doctors these were. § 4. The lamentable state of practical theology is manifest from every writer on the subject in this age. The best of them were Dorotheus, in his Ascetic Dissertations ; Maximus and Aldhelm, in some tracts ; Hesychius and Thalasius, in their Sentences ; and a fev/ others. But in these, how many and how great are the imperfections ! how numerous the marks of superstition ! what constant indications of a mind vacillating and unable to grasp the subject ! The laity, as they were called, had no cause to tax their teachers with excessive severity. For it was customary to confine the obligations of men to a very few virtues ; as is manifest from Aldhehns tract on the eight principal vices. And those who neglected these duties, were to incur no very formidable punishment for their offences. A life of solitude, as practised by the monks, though adorned by no marks of true piety, was esteemed sufficient of itself to atone for all kinds of guilt ; and it was therefore called, by the Latins, a second Baptism.^ This one fact is sufficient to show, how little the precepts of Christ were understood in this age. Among the swarms of Greek and oriental monks, very many laboured to attain perfection, hy means of contemplation ; excludes ])liiloso))hy and reason as an- tion of monhs, the abbot ought to say thoritics in rehgicjn ; and teaches that mass, and utter tln-ce prayers over his there are two sources of theology, name- head ; and the monk should veil his ]y, the holy Serii)tiu-cs, and the -writings head with a cowl seven days ; and on of the ancient doctors, or as he ex- the seventh day the abbot should re- presses himself (p. 14, 22) "c//wi'«. 681, 682. Among means for this end. He, thereture, in the modern writers, the most full and scleral canons, spoke of one sintjlc thean- candid is Dr. Walch Historic dcr Ketze- ilric operation in Cin-ist, {viov iuipyovvra. reyen, vol. ix. p. 3 — 667. See also to deorrpiTrri koX kfepwinva fxia dfos'- Schroeckh, Kirchengesch. vol. xx. p. 3S6 SpiKp tvepyiia,) yet, for tlie sake of peace, — 453, and Bower's Lives of the Popes, he refrained from athrming either one from Honorius on to the end of this ceu- or two wills and opcratiotis. This stej), tury. T/'.] though taken with the best intentions, VOL. II. H 98 BOOK II. — CENTURY VII. [PAKT II. was SO influential with the INIonotlielites in Egypt, Armenia, and other provinces, that a great part of them returned to the church. They seem, however, to liave explained the doctrine of one loill in Christ, which was certainly equivocal, according to their own views, and not according to the general sentiments of their sect. § 6. But this fair prospect of peace and h.armony was blasted, and a formidable contest was excited, by a single monk of Palestine, named Sophronius. He being present at the council of Alexandria, held by Cyrus in the year 633, strenuously resisted the article which related to one will in Christ. And the next year, 634, being made patriarch of Jerusalem, he assembled a council, in which he condemned the Monothelites ; and maintained that, by their doctrine, the Eutijchian error, respecting the amalgamation and confusion of natures in Christ, was revived and brought into the church. He drew over many, particularly among the monks, to his sentiments ; and he made special efforts to gain over Honorius the Roman pontiff to his side.^ But Sergius of Constantinople Avrote a long and discreet letter to Honorius, which induced him to decide, that those held sound doctrine who taught, that there was one will and one operation in Christ.^ Hence arose severe contests, which gcave occasion aftenvards to the most secration, contained an elaborate dis- violent theological contests. Schl.'] cussion of the subject, and a host of ^ [Sophronins was most sincere and quotations from tli'e fathers, in proof decorous in his opposition to the doctrine that the doctrine of two wills and two ope- of Monothelitism. In the council of rations was the only true doctrine. See Alexandria, he fell down before Cynis, the letter in Harduin's Concilia, torn. iii. and entreated him not to sanction such p. 1257. TV.] a doctrine. But he was alone in his ' Tliis the adherents to the Eoman opposition. Cynis treated him tenderly, pontiffs have taken the utmost pains to ad\-ised him to confer with Sergius the dLspro\e, lest one of the pontiffs should patriarch of Constantinople on the sub- seem to have erred in a matter of such ject, and wrote a letter to Sergius for moment. Sec, among many others, Jo. Sophronius to cany. When an-ived at Harduin, de Sacravmito Altaris, in his Constantinople, Sergius endeavoured to Opp. Sclccta, p. 255, &c. And, indeed, soothe hun, represented the point as un- it is not difficult either to accuse or ex- essential, agreed to wi-ite to Cyras not to cuse the man ; for he appears not to allow any controversy on the subject, huve known what he did think on the but to leave every one at full liberty to subject, and to ha\e annexed no veiy speculate as he pleased about it. So- definite ideas to the words wliich he phronius now agreed to keep silence ; used. Yet he did say, that there was but when made patriarch of Jerusalem, but one icill, and one operation of trill in his conscience would not let him rest. Christ ; and for this, he was condemned "Wiether he assembled a provincial in the council of Constantinople. He synod, as Dr. Mosheim asserts, is ques- was therefore a heretic, beyond all con- tionable : but his circular epistle to the troversy, if it be true tliat universal other patriarchs on occasion of his con- councils cannot err. See Ja. Eeni"-n. cii. v.] SCHISMS AND HERESIES. 99 divided the commonwealth, as well as the church, into two l^arties. § 7. To quiet these great commotions, Heraclius published in the year 639 an Ecthcsis drawn up by Sergius, that is, a formula of faith ; in which, while he forbade all discussion of the question, whether there were onh/ one, or a twofold action or operation in Christ, he clearly stated, that there was but 07ie will in Christ.^ This new law was approved by not a few, in the East, and first of all by Pyrrhus of Constantinople, who, on tlie death of Sergius succeeded to that see in the year 639.^ But the Eoman pontiftVo/j?« IV., in a council held this year at Kome, rejected the Ecthesis, and condemned the Monothclites/ As Bossuet, Defensio Declarationis quam Clerus Gallicanus, amio 16S2,(/e Potentate Ecclesiastica sanxit, pt. ii. lib. xii. cap. 21, &c. p. 182, &c. Add Ja Basniige, Hls- toire de I'EgUse, torn. i. p. 391, &c. [Honorius was made acquainted, by Sergius, in the above-mentioned letter, with the origin and Ayhole progress of tlie controversy ; and he was so impressed, that, in his answer to Sergius, (wliich is in Harduin's Concilia, torn. iii. p. 1319, &c.) he so far agreed with Sergius, that lie would not have either one or two ope- rations and divine wills affirmed ; yet he did very clearly maintain but one loill in Christ, expressed his disapprobation of Sophronius, and declared the wJiolc con- troversy to be unimportant and mere logomachy. There is extant also (ibid, p. 1351,) an extract from a second letter of Honorius to Sergius, in which he still further confirms his opinion. The friends of the Romish church have taken great pains to justify this mistake of Honorius. The Acts of the sixth general council, say they, are coiTupted, and the name of Honorius has been wickedly foistetl into them, Honorius was not coiulemned for heresy, but for his forbearance ; he meant to deny only that tliere were two opposite wills in Christ. He -nTote only as a private person, and not as a bishojj, and also wheu ill-informed by Sergius ; and moreover retracted afterwards his opinion. But even catholic writers liave confuted tliese subterfuges : e. c/. llichcr Hist. Concil. General, p. 296, &c. Du Pin, Biblioth. torn. vi. p. 67, &c. Hono- rius was condemned, not only in the sixth general council, but also in the seventh and eighth, and in that in Trullo, and likewise by his own successors (Agatho, Leo H., Hadrian, &c.) and is named in sc\eral Rituals, and particularly in the Breviary, antl in the festival of Leo II., together with Sergius and Cy- rus, as a person damnatcE memoricc : this is manifest proof, tiiat no one then even thought of an infallibility in the Romish popes, notwithstanding in modern times the name of Honorius has been enuscd from the Breviaries. Schl. — See Bower's Lives of the Popes, (Agatho,) vol. iii. Tr.-] * [Tliis Ecthesis is in Harduin's Con- cilia, toin. iii. p. 791, &c. Schl.'] ^ [^re^^ously to this, Sergius as- sembled the clergy at Constantinople, and not only estabhslied tiie new Con- cordat, but ordained that all clergymen who should not adopt it, siiould be liable to deposition, and all monks and laymen be liable to excomnumication. Extracts from the Acts of this council are given in tlie Acts of the Lateran council [a. d. 649,] in Ilarduin, tom. iii. p. 795, &c. PvitIius, the successor of Sergius, like- wise received this formula in an assembly of the clergy, a. d. 640, and commanded all bishops, whether present or absent, to subscribe to it. Sec the extracts from the Acts of this council in Ilarduin, tom. iii. p. 797. Schl] ^ [Heraclius transmitted tlie Ecthesis to pope Scverinus at Rome, by the exarch Isaacius. (Harduin, tom. iii. p. 803.) Whether Severinus submitted to it is uncertain ; but that his envoys, sent to Constantinople to obtain the confirmation of his election, could not succeed, till they had engaged he should receive it, is cer- tain. His successor, John IV., rejected it, soon after his elevation to office, in a Romish council, of which we have only 100 BOOK II. — CENTURY VII. [PAIIT II. the controversy still continued, the emperor Coiistans, in the year 648, published, with the consent of Paul of Constantinople, a new edict, called the Typus ; by which the Ectliesis was annulled, and silence enjoined on both the contending parties, as well with regai'd to one will, as with regard to one operation of loill in Christ.'^ But by the impassioned monks, silence was viewed as a crime : and at their instigation, Martin, the bishop of Rome, in a council of 105 bishops, in the year 649, anathe- matized both the Ecthesis and the Ti/pus, (but without naming the emperors,) and likewise all patrons of the Monotliclites.^ § 8. The audacity of Martin, in anathematizing the imperial edicts, provoked Constans to issue orders for the arrest of the pontiif, by the exarch Calliopas, and for his transportation, in the year 650, to the island of Naxia. Maximus, the ringleader of the seditious monks, Avas banished to Bizyca; and others, not less factious, were punished in different ways.^ The succeeding Roman pontiffs, Eugenius and Vitalian, were more discreet and moderate; especially the latter, who received Con- stans, upon his arrival at Rome, in the year 663, with the very dubious accounts. On the side of this pope stood the ishind of Cyprus, and Numidia, Byzicene, the Provincia Pro- consularis, and Maiu'itania ; from all of which provinces synodal epistles arc still extant, whicli show that the bishops there passed resolutions against the Ec- thesis. They are in Harduin's Concilia, torn. iii. p. 727, &c. Schl'] * [This Typus is in Harduin's Concilia, torn. iii. p. 823, &c. Schl.'] ^ [This council was held in tlie churcli of St. John of the Latcran, and thence called the Lateran council. The Acts of it are in Hardxnn's Collection, torn. iii. p. 626—946. The year before, pope Theodore had held a council at Rome, in wliich he condemned Pyrrhus, who had lost the patriarchate of Con- stantinople, in consequence of his taking part in the civil commotions of that city at the election of a new emperor, toge- ther with his successor Paul ; and had mingled some of the sacramental \\inc with the ink, with wliich he signed their condenmation. See Walch's Historie der Kirchenversamml. p. 419. The em- peror Constans hoped, by means of his Typus, to put an end to all these com- motions ; and he would undoubtedly have succeeded if he had had only candid and reasonable men to deal with. But at Rome a determined spirit of self-jus- tification prevailed ; and unfortunately, pope Martin was a man who sought to gain a reputation for learning, by meta- physical wrangling. He condemned, in this council, the opinions of an Arabian bishop, Theodorns of Pharan, a zea- lous Monophysite ; but touched so lightly on the doctrines of Honorius, as not even to mention his name. Schl.'] ' [Pope Martin, to give the proceed- ing a less exceptionable aspect, was ac- cused of various crimes. He was charg- ed with being a partizan of the rebel exarch Olympius, with sending supplies of money to the Saracens, &c. Prom Naxia he was brought to Constantinople, and there subjected to a judicial trial. He would certainly have lost his head as a traitor, had not the dying patriarch Paul moved the emperor to comnmte his punishment into banishment to Cher- son ; where he soon after died in great distress. Sec his fourteenth and follow- ing Epistles, in Labbe, Concilia, tom. vi. and Concilia lieyia, tom. xv. also Mura- tori. History of Italy, vol. iv. p. 125, &c. Schl. — Also Bower's Liccs of the Popes, vol. iii. Tr.] en. v.] SCHISMS AND HERESIES. 101 highest honours, and adopted measures to prevent the contro- troversy from being rekindled.** It therefore slept in silence for several years. But as it was only a concealed fire that burned in secret, and as new commotions hazardous to the public peace were constantly to be feared, Constantine Pogonatus, the son of Constans, having advised with the Roman pontiff Afjatho, summoned a general council, in the year 680, which is called the sixtJt of the oecumenical councils; and here he permitted the Monothelites, and the Roman pontiff Honorius, to be con- demned in the presence of Agathos legates; and he confirmed the decrees of the council, with the sanction of penal laws.^ § 9. It is very difficult to define the real sentiments of the Monothelites, or what it was that their adversaries condemned : for neither party is uniform in its statements, and both disclaim the errors objected to them. I. The Monothelites disclaimed * [Vitallanus, as soon as he was elected, dispatched his envoys to Con- stantinople, and by them sent the custo- mary confession of his faith to the pa- triarch. The discreet procedure of the pope, and the poHtical circumstances of the times, caused his envoys to be well received, and to be sent back to Rome by Constantine with splendid presents. The patriarch of Constantinople also, in his letter of reply, expressed warm de- sires for union and harmony. When the emperor Constans, in the year 663, came to Rome, in his campaign against the Lombards, the pope showed him more honour than it became his papal cha- racter to show to one who had murdered Ills own brother ; for the emperor, a few years before, had put his own brother, the deacon Theodosius, to death. The pope with all his clergy went out to meet him, two miles from Rome, and escorted him into the city. But all the honours he showed to the emperor did not pre- vent him from carrying off to Constan- tinople all the brass which ornamented the city, and even the plates wMch co- vered the roof of the Pantheon. See Anastasius, de Vita Vitctliani; and Paulus Diaconus, Historia Longobardor, lib. V. e. 6, 7. Scld.] " [This council was called by the em- peror, who presided in it in person. Tlie number of bishops was small at first, but increased to near 200. There were eighteen sessions from the 7th N(.>v. 680, to the 16th Sept. 681. No one of the ancient councils was conducted with more deconmi and fairness. Yet not the Bible, but the decrees of former councils, and the writings of the fatiiers, were tiie autliority relied upon. All tiie great patriarchs were present, either personally or by their representatives. At first, the two parties were nearly balanced ; but in the eighth session, March 7, George, the patriarch of Con- stantinople, went over to the side of the orthodox ; and was followed by all the clergy of his diocese. Macarius. the patriaiTh of Antioch, who stood firm at the head of the Mouothehtcs, was now outvoted, condemned, and deprived of his office. The Monothelites as soon as they were adjudged to be heretics, lost their seats ; and tlicreforc the deci-ces of the council were finally caiTicd by a una- nimous vote. Theoilorous of I'haran, Cyrus of Alexandria, Sergius, ryrrluis and Paul of Constantinople, Honorius of Rome, Macarius of Antioch, and some others, were condemned as heretics ; and the doctrine of two tnllx, a human and divine, and two kinds of ixJiinlan/ acts in Christ, defined and establisheil. The Acts of this council, Gr. and Lat., are in Ilar- duin's Concilia, torn. iii. p. 1043 — 1644 ; and they are not falsified, as some Ca- tholics fonnerly asserted. See ComlH?fis, Diss. Apologet. pro Acds VI. Sijuodi, in his Auctuar. Bihlioth. Patr. nor. torn. ii. p. 65. Jo. ForI>cs, Inst met io Hist. Tlieol. 1. V. c. 10. I)u Pin, Bihlioth. dcs Antairs Eccles. tom. vi. p. 61. Cave, Hist. Lit. tom. i. p. 605. Bower, Lives of the Popes, (Agatho,) vol. iii. Tr.] 3 102 BOOK II. — CENTURY VII. LrAET II all connexion with the Eutycldans and the Monophysites ; and confessed that there were, in Christ the Saviour, two natures, so united, without mixture or confusion, as to constitute but one person. II. They admitted that the human soul of Christ was endowed with a will, or the faculty of willing and choosing ; and that it did not lose this power of Avilllng and choosing, in consequence of its union with the divine nature. For they held and taught, that Christ yf?(S perfect man, as well 2iQ perfect God; and, of course, that his human soul had the power of willing and choosing. III. They denied this power of willing and choosing: in the human soul of Christ, to be inactive, or inoperative : on they contrary, they conceded that it operated together with the divine will IV. They therefore, in reality, admitted two wills in Christ, and that both were active and operative wills. ^ Yet, V., they maintained that, in a certain sense, there Avas but one tvill and one operation of will in Christ. § 10. But these positions were not explained in precisely the same manner by all who were called Monothelites. Some of them, as may be fully proved, intended no more than that the two wills in Christ, the human and the divine, were always har)noiu'o2is, and in this sense one; or that the human will always accorded with the divine will, and was, therefore, always holy, upright, and good. And in this opinion there is nothing censurable.^ But others, approaching nearer to the Monoj)hy- sites, supposed that the two wills in Christ, that is, the two powers of willing, in consequence of the personal union (as it is called) of the two natures, were amalgamated and became one will; yet they still admitted, that the two wills could be, and should be, discriminated in our conceptions. The greatest part of the sect, and those possessing the greatest acumen, supposed that the will of Christ's human soul was the instru- ment of his divine will : yet, when moved and prompted to act, it operated and put forth volitions in connexion with the divine will.^ From this supposition, the position so obstinately ' [They admittcil two faculties or Sec Walcli, Historic dcr Ketzereijen, vol. voluiitaiy powers, a liunian and a divine ; ix. p. 584, &c. 7>.] l)ut maintained, that when brought into " [Sec AValch, Historie der Keizc- action, they operated as if they were but rei/en, vol. ix. p. 592, &c. where he names one. By tlic expression one trill, there- (in Anm. 1, p. 593,) Sergius, Honorius, lore, they seem to have intended 07ie and the Ecthesis, as giving these views. volition, or act of the will, and by one 7>.] operation they intended one mode of acting. ^ [According to Dr. Walch, Historie i ClI. v.] SCHISMS AND HERESIES. 103 maintained by the Monotltelites, was unavoidable, that in Christ there was but one will and one operation of icill. For the opera- tion of an instrument, and of him who uses it, is not twofold, but one. Setting aside, therefore, the suspicion of Eiitychianismy and other things connected with that question, the point in controversy was, whether the human icill of Christ sometimes acted from its own impulse, or whether it was alumys moved by the instigation of the diviiie nature. This controversy is a striking illustration of the fallacious and hazardous nature of every reli- gious peace, which is made to rest on ambiguous phraseology. The friends of the council of Chalcedon endeavoured to ensnare the Monophysites by means of a proposition of dubious inter- pretation; and they thus imprudently involved the church and the state in long protracted controversies. § 11. The doctrine of the Monothelitcs, condemned and ex- ploded by the council of Constantinople, found a place of refuge among the 3Iardaites, a people who inhabited the mountains of Libanus and Antilibanus, and who about the conclusion of this century received the name of Maronites, from Jo. 3Iaro, their first bishop, a name which they still retain. No one of the ancients, indeed, has mentioned this man, as the person who brought the Libaniots to embrace Monothelitism ; but there are strong reasons for believing that it was this John, whose surname of Maro passed over to the people of whom he was bishop.'* This, however, is demonstrable, from the testimony of William of Tyre, and of other unexceptionable witnesses ^, der Ketzereyen^ vol. ix. p. 594, &c. the [Gabriel Sionita, de Urhibxi.t et Moribus subordination of the human will to the Oriental, cap. S, derives tlic name of divine in Christ, was explained by some IMaronites, from an abbot ^laron, 'wlioni to be altogether voluntan/, or a conse- lie extols for his hohness and lii,s virtues; quence of the pious resignation and the but he will acknowledge no hcreticjil faith of the man Clu'ist Jesus ; but others Maro. Schl.l supposed, that it resulted from the na- ' [The passage of William of Tn-e is ture of the union by which the human in his Historia Remm in Partibus Trans- nature became the instrument hy which marinis Ge.star. lib. xxxii. c. 8, and is the divine nature worked ; and they illus- this : " A Syrian nation, in the lM•o^^ncc trated the subject by the subjection of of Phcnicia, inhaliiting the dirt's of Le- man's bodily members to the empire of banon near the city Biblos, while cnjoy- his mind or soul. TV.] ing temporal peace, experienced a great * The sm-name of Maro was given to change in its state ; for, having followed this monk, because he had lived in the the errors of one Maro, a heresiarch, for celebrated monasteiy of St. Maro, on nearly 500 years, and so as to be called the river Orontes, before he took resi- after hini Maronites, ami to be sepm-ated denee among the Mai-daites on mount from the church of the faitliful, and Lel^anon. A particular account is given maintain a separate worship, tln-ough of him by Jo. Sim. Assenian, Biblioth. divine influence, returning now to a Oriental. Clement. Vatic, torn. i. p. 496. sound mind, they put on resolution and II 4 104 BOOK II. — CENTURY VII. [PART II. that the Maronites were, for a long time Monothelites in senti- ment ; and that it was not till the twelfth century, when they became reconciled with the Romish church, in the year 1182, that they abandoned the error of one tvill in Christ. The most learned of the modern Maronites have very studiously endea- voured to wipe off this reproach from their nation, and have advanced many arguments to prove that their ancestors Avere always obedient to the see of Rome, and never embraced the sentiments either of the Monopliy sites, or of the Monothelites. But they cannot persuade the learned to believe so ; for these maintain, that their testimonies are fictitious and of no validity.® § 12. Neither the sixth [general] council, which condemned the Monothelites, nor the fifth which had been held in the pre- ceding century, enacted any canons concerning discipline and rites. Therefore, a new assembly of bishops was held by order of Justinian II. in the year 692, at Constantinople, in a tower of the palace, which was called Trullus. This council, from the place of meeting, was called Concilium Trullanum; and from another circumstance, Quinisextwn, because the Greeks considered its decrees as necessary to the perfection of the Acts of the fifth and sixth councils. We have one hundred and two canons sanctioned by this assembly, on various subjects pertaining to the external part of worship, the government of the church, and the conduct of Christians. But six of these joined themselves to Aimcvicus, tlic pa- P. de la Eoque ; in whose Voyage de triarch of Antioch." — The Alexandrian Syrieet deMontiban, torn. ii. p. 28 — 128, patriarch Entychiiis, whose annals Pocock there is a long Dissertation concerning has translated from the Arabic, likewise the origin of the Maronites. Even mentions a monk Marun, " who asserted Asseman, who, being a Maronite, spared that Christ om* Lord had two natures, no pains to vindicate the character of and one ivill, one operation and person, his nation, {Biblioth. Oriental. Vatican. and corrupted tlie faitli of men ; and tom. i. p. 496.) yet does not deny, that whose followers, h(jldiiig the same senti- much of what has been written by ments with him, were called Maronites, Nairon and others, in behalf of the Ma- deriving their name from his name Maro." ronites, is without weight or authority. ScM.'\ See Jo. Morin, de Ordinut. Sacris, p. * The cause of the IvTuronites has 380, &c. Rich. Simon, Histoire Critique been pleaded by Abrah. Echelensis, (/m C7ir<'<(cns Or/entowx, cap. xiii. p. 146. Gabriel Sionita, and others of the ]\Iaro- Euseb. Renaudot, Historia Patriarchar. nite nation ; but by none of them more Alexandrinor. p. 149 ; and Prafat. ad fully, than by Faustus Nairon, both in Litunjias Orientates. Peter le Bran, Ex- \ns Dissert.de Origine, Nomine et Peligione plication de la Messe, tom. ii. p. 626, &c. Maronitarim, Rome, 1679, 8vo ; and in Paris, 1726, 8vo. The arguments on his Eiioj)li(i fidei Catholica ex Syrorum et botli sides arc stated, and the reader is CJialdaorum Monumeiitis, Rome, 1694, left to form his own judgment, by Mich. Svo. Yet Nairon induced none to be- le Quicn, Christianus Oriens, tom. iii. p. lieve his positions, except Ant. Pagi, (in 10, &c. [See also Walch, Historic der his Critica Baroniana, iid ann. 694,) and Kctzcrcyen, vol. ix. p. 474 — 488. Tr.~\ en. v.] SCHISMS AND HERESIES. 105 canons are opposed to the Romish opinions and customs. Where- fore the Roman pontiffs have not chosen to approve the council as a whole, or to rank it among the r/cncral councils, although they have deemed the greatest part of its decrees to be praise- Avorthy.^ ^ See Franc. Pagi, Breviarium Pontiff. Roman, torn. i. p. 486. Chr. Lupus, Diss, de Concilia Trullano; in his Notes and Dissertations on Councils, 0pp. torn, iii. p. 16S, &c. The Romans reject the fifth canon, which approves of the eighty - five Apostolic Canons, commonly attri- buted to Clement : — the thirteenth canon, which allows priests to live in wedlock : the fifty fifth canon, which condemns fasting on Saturdays, a custom allowed of in the Latin church : — the sixty-seventh canon, which earnestly enjoins abstinence from blood and from things strangled: — the eighty-second canon, which prohibits the painting of Christ in the image of a lamb : — and the eighty-sixth canon, con- cerning the equality of the bishops of Rome and Constantinople. [Tlie eastern patriarchs, of Constantinople, Jerasalem, Alexandria, Antioch, and Justiniana, with more than 200 bishops, attended this council. The Roman pontiff had no proper legate there. Yet his ordi- nary representatives at the imperial court sat in the council, and subscribed its decisions ; and Basil, the archbishop of Crete, says in his subscription, that he reiiresented the patriarch of Home, and all the bishops under him. The emperor attended the council in person, and subscribed its decrees. In the ori- ginal, a sjiace was left for the subscription of tlie Roman pontiff: but when it was sent to Rome by the cm])eror, and pope Sergius was called on to subscribe, he showed sucli a refractory spirit, as nearly cost him his liberty. The reason wa.s, he found the above-mentioned canons to be contrary to the principles and usages of his church. For the same reason, the admirers of the Romish bishop, to this day, are not agreed, whether the whole council, or only the canons which have tlie misfortune to displease them, should be rejected ; notwithstanding, at an early period, pope Adrian approved of it. On the other hand, this council was recognized by the Greeks as a valid one, and classed among the general councils. See Dr. Walch's Historic der Kirchcnvcrsummlungcn, p. 441. Schl.'\ INSTITUTES ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY UNDER TIIK NE\y TESTAMENT. BOOK III. EMBRACING EVENTS FROM THE TIMES OF CHARLEMAGNE, TO THE COMMEXCE3IEXT OF THE REFORMATION BY LUTHER. CENTURY EIGHTH. PART I. HISTORY OF THE OUTWARD STATE OF THE CHURCH. CHAPTER I. THE PROSPEROUS EVENTS OF THIS CENTURY. § 1. Propagation of Christianity in H}Tcania and Tartar}-. — § 2. Conversion of the Germans by Boniface. — § 3. Other expeditions and successes of Boniface. — § 4. Estimate of his apostleship. — ^§ 5. Other apostles of Germany. — § 6. E.xpe- dition of Charlemagne against the Saxons. — § 7. Estimate of his conversions. — § 8. The reputed miracles of this century. § 1. "VYniLE the Mahumeclans were harassing and subjugating the fairest provinces of Asia, and diminishing every where the lustre and reputation of Christianity, the Nestorians of Chaldea were blessing with the knowledge of heavenly truth those barbarous nations, called Scythians by the ancients, and by the moderns, Tartars, living on this side mount luiaus, and not subject to the Saracens. It is now ascertained that Tiinutheus the Nestorian pontiff', who attained that dignity a.d. 778, imbued with a knowledge of Christianity, by the ministry of Subchal Jesii, whom he created a bishop, first the Gehe and Daihimites, nations of Hyrcania ; and afterwards, by other missionaries, the rest of the nations of Hyrcania, Bactria, ]Mar- giana, and Sogdiana.' It is also certain, that Christianity was ' Thomas Margensis, Historice Mo- p. 491. See also tlie Bibliotheca, torn. nastica; hb. iii. in Jos. Sim. Asseman's iii. pt. ii. cap. i.x. § v. p. cccclxxviii. Bibliotheca Orient. Vatic, tom. iii. pt. i. [Ur. Jlosheim, in his Histuria Tarta 110 BOOK III. — CENTURY VIII. [PART I. firmly and permanently established in those countries for seve- ral centuries, although it was sometimes disturbed by the Ma- humedans; and that the bishops of these countries were always subject to the authority of the Nestorian pontiff. § 2. In Europe, most of the German nations were still in- volved in the darkness of superstition ; the only exception being the tribes on the Rhine, the Bavarians, who are known to have received a knowledge of Christianity under Tlieodoric, the son of Clovis the Great, and the Eastern Franks^, with a few others. Attempts had been often made to enlighten the Ger- mans, both by kings and princes, for whose interest it was, that those warlike tribes should become civilized, and also by some pious and holy men ; but the attempts had met with little or no success. But in this century, Winifred, an English Bene- dictine monk, of noble birth, who afterwards boi'c the name of Boniface, attempted this object with better success. In the year 715, he left his native country, with two companions, and first attempted in vain to disseminate Christian doctrines among the Frieslanders, who were subjects of king Radbod. After- Avards, in the year 719, having received a solemn commission from the Roman pontiff, Gregory 11. , he more successfully per- formed the functions of a Christian teacher among the Thurin- gians, the Frieslanders, and the Hessians.^ torum Ecclesiastica, p. 13, &c. relying also were successful missionaries ; and chiefly on the preceding authorities, with the consent of Tiniotheus, the two states that Tiniotheus, who was Patri- bishops ordained seven of their compa- arch of the Nestorians from a. d. 777 to nions to be bishops of the East ; namely, A.D. 820, planned the mission to these Thomas, who went into India; Da\id, nations, inhabiting the shores of the metropolitan of China ; and Zacchseus, Caspian sea ; and selected for its execu- Semus, Ephraim, Simeon, and Ananias. tion one Subchal Jesu, a learned monk Thomas Margensis relates, that Timo- of the Nestorian monastery of Beth- theus directed the two ordaining bishops, Aben in Assyria, well skilled in the first to ordain a third ; and to suppl}'' Syriac, Ai'abic, and Persian languages ; the place of a third bishop at Ids ordina- ordained him bishop, and sent him tion, by placing a copy of the Gospels forth. Subchal made numerous con- on the seat near the right hand. After- verts among the Gela? and Dailamitcs, wards they would have the canonical formed them into churches, and ordain- number of tliree bishops to ordain the ed elders over them. This active mis- others. These new bishops dispersed sionary also travelled farther East, and themselves widely over the countries of spread the Gospel extensively in Tar- the East, and founded many chm-ches tary, Chathai, and China ; but on liis in India, Cliathai, and China. But after return from his mission, to visit Timo- the death of Timothcus, a.d. 820, we theus and the monks of his convent, he learn nothing more respecting these was murdered by the barbarians. Timo- churches till a.d. 1000, when the fii- theus now ordained Kardagus and Ja- mous Christian prince, called Presbyter balaha, two other monks of Beth- Aben, John, came upon the stage. TV.] and sent them with fifteen assistant '^ [Or Franconians. TV.] monks into the same countries. These ^ All that could be said of this ceic- TROSPEROUS EVENTS. Ill ClI. I.] § 3. In the year 723, being ortLaincd a bisliop at Eomc, bv Gregory II., and being supported by the authority and the aid brated man, has been collected by Hcur. Phil. Gudenius, in his Diss, de S. Boni- facio Germanoruni Apostolo, Hehiist. 1722, 4to. Yet we may add Jo. Alb. Fabricii BihJioth. Latina medii avi, torn. i. p. 709. Histoire Lilt, de la France, torn. iv. p. 92. Jo. Mabillon, Annalcs Benedictini, and others. [The church histories of Flenry, Schroeckh, aiid J. E. C. Schmidt, give ample accounts of Boniface. Milner {Church Hist. cent. viii. c. iv.) is an admirer of Boniface. The best among the original biographers of this famous man, are Willibiild, one of his disciples ; and a German monk named Othlou, who lived in the eleventh century, and collected various letters of Boniface, which he has inserted in his narrative. Both these biograjjliies, with valuable notes, are contained in Mabil- lonii Acta Sanctor. Ord. Bened. torn. iv. p. 1 — 84, cd. Venet. 1734. According to these writers, Boniface was bom at I\iiton (Creditou) in Devonshire, about A. D. 680. When but four or five years old, he showed a strong inclination for a monastic life, which his fixtlier first en- deavoured to eradicate, but afterwards favoured. He first entered a monasteiy at Exeter. From that he removed, after seven years, to the monastery of Nuscelle in Hants, as a better place for study. Here he learned grammar, jioe- try, rhetoric, and biblical interpretation according to the threefold sense of Scripture. After a short time, he was a teacher of these things. At the age of 30, he was ordained a presbyter. About A. D. 715, he undertook a voluntary mis- sion to Friesland, with two monks for companions. But Eadbod, the pagan king of the country, being at war with. the Francs, and hostile to the Chris- tians, gave him no encouragement ; and he returned again to his monastery. The abbacy of Nuscelle was now ofi'ered him, but he refused it, because he pre- ferred a more active employment. Soon after, having projected a mission to the pagans in Germany, he set ovit for Kome, to obtain the papal sanction and support to his enterprise. Daniel, the bishop of Winchester, gave him a letter of introduction to the pontiti', who rea- dily gave him a commission to preach the Gospel to the pagans, wherever lie could find them. He now visited Ger- many, preached in Bavaria and Thu- ringia; and learning that Radbod was dead, lie went to Friesland, and for three years assisted Willibrord, the aged bishop of Utrecht, in spreading the Gospel, and erecting clnu'ches among the neighbouring pagans. Willibrord proposed to him to become his penna- nent assistant and successor ; but Boni- face declined, on the ground that the pope had intended he should labour in the more eastern parts of Germany. He now visited Home a second time, in the year 723 ; was closely examined by the pope, as to his faith, and his adherence to the see of Rome; and upon his swear- ing perpetual allegiance to the i)ope, he was created a bishop, and had his name changed from Winifrid to Boniface. With numerous letters of recommenda- tion to princes, bishops, and others, and a good st(jck of holy relics, Boniface returned through France, where Charles IMartel received him cordiiUly, and fur- nished him with a safe conduct through- out the empire. He first went among the Hessians ; wliere he suppressed the remains of idolatry, and intrci)idly cut down the consecrated oak of Jupiter, which broke into four cijual jjarts as it fell. This prodigy silenced jdl objec- tions ; and out of the wood of this tree a chapel was built, dedicated to St. Fe- tcr. From Hesse he went to Thuringia, where he effected a similar reform, and had contention with some who were ac- counted heretical. On the accession of Gregory III. to the pajial chair, a.d, 731, Boniface sent an endiassy to Rome, giving account of liis proceedings, and proposing several questions respecting ecclesiastical law, for solution. The pope answered his inquiries, sent him a fresh su])ply of rcHcs, and also the archiepiscopal pallium, with instructions A\'hen and how to wear it. In the year 738, he visited Rome a third time, at- tended by a large retinue of priest.s and monks, and was graciously received by the pope. On his return through Ba- varia, as pai)al legate, lie divided that country into four bishoprics, and jilaced bisho])s over them ; namely, John, bislK'i) of Saltsburg ; Ehrenbort, bishop of Freisingeu ; Gosbald of Regensberg ; and Vivilo of Passau. In the )'ear 741, he erected four more bishoprics in Germany ; namely, those of 'NA'iirtzburg, Eichstadt, Buiabui-g, and Erfurth, over 112 BOOK III. CENTURY VIII. [part I. of Charles Martel, the mayor of the palace of the Franks, Boni- face returned to his Hessians and Thuringlans, and resumed his labours among them with much success. He was now assisted by several learned and pious persons of both sexes, who re- paired to him out of England and France. In the year 738, havino; o;athered more Christian churches than one man alone could govern, he was advanced to the rank of an archbishop, by Gregory III. ; and by his authority, and with the aid of Carlo- man and Pipin, the sons of Charles Martel, he established vari- ous bishoprics in Germany ; as those of Wilrtzhurg, Burahurg ■•, Erfurt, and Eichstadt ; to which he added, in the year 744, the famous monastery of Fulda. The final reward of his labours, decreed to him in the year 746, by the Roman pontiff Zacha- rias, was, to be constituted archbishop of ISIentz, and primate of Germany and Belgium. In his old age, he travelled once more among the Frieslanders, that his ministry might terminate with the people among whom it commenced : but, in the year 755, he was murdered, with fifty clergymen who attended him, by the people of that nation. which he placed four of liis friends, Biu-chard, Vv'illebald, Albinus, and Ad- ler. Hitlierto Boniface had been arch- bishop of no particular place ; but in the year 745, he procured the deposition of Gevilieb, archbishop of Mentz, charging him, in a provincial council, with having slain in single combat the man who had slain his own father in battle, and with having kept dogs and birds for sport. This council decreed the vacant see of Mentz to Boniface. As archbishop of Mentz, Boniface claimed jurisdiction over the bishop of Utrecht, which claim was contested by the archbishop of Co- logne. Boniface, as archbishop, and as papal legate, presided in several comi- cils in France and Germany, and was veiy active in enforcing uniformity of rites, and rigid adherence to the canons of the church of Rome. In the year 754, being far advanced in life, he left his bishopric at Mentz under the care of Lullus, whom he ordained his colleague and successor, and undertook a mission among the Frieslanders, who were but partially converted to Christianity. With the aid of several infei'ior clergymen and monks, he had brought many per- sons of both sexes to submit to baptism ; and having appointed the 5th of June for a general meeting of the converts, to receive the rite of confirmation, at Dock- um on the Bordne, between East and West Fricsland, on the morning of the day appointed, and while the converts were expected to anive, a party of pagan Frieslanders assaulted his camp. His young men began to prepare for battle ; but Boniface forbade it, and ex- horted all to resign themselves up to die as martyrs. He and his fifty-two companions were all murdered, and their camp was plundered. But the banditti afterwards quarrelled among tlicmselves respecting the plunder ; and being intoxicated with the Mine they had gotten, they fought till several of their number were slain. The Christian converts, enraged at the murderers of their teachers, collected forces, and at- tacking their villages, slew and dis- persed the men, plundered their houses, and enslaved their wives and children. The nnu'ilered Christians were removed to Utrecht, and there interred. After- wards, the remains of Boniface were carried to Mentz, and thence to Fulda. — Boniface left behind him forty-two epistles ; a set of ecclesiastical rules, thirty-six in number ; fifteen discom-scs ; anil a part of a work on penance. TV.] ■* [Near Fritzlar, in Hesse-Cassel. 7>.] PROSPEROUS EVENTS. 113 CH. I.] § 4. On account of so many labours in propagating Clu'is- tianity among the Germans, Boniface has gained the title of the Apostle of Germany ; and a candid estimate of the magnitude of his achievements will show him to be not altofjethcr un- worthy of this title.'' Yet, as an apostle, he was widely dif- ferent from that pattern which the first and genuine apostles have left us. For, not to mention that the honour and majesty of the Roman pontiff, whose minister and legate lie was, were quite as much his care, nay, even more, as the glory of Christ and his religion ^ ; he did not always oppose superstition with the weapons which the ancient apostles used, but often over- awed the minds of the people by violence and fear, often en- trapped them, as it were, by artifices and frauds His epistles * [If the man deserves the title of an apostle, who goes among the heathen, preaches to them the Gospel, according to his best knowledge of it, encounters many hardships, makes some inroad upon idolatry, gathers chm-ches, erects houses of worship, founds monasteries, and spends his life in this business; — then Boniface justly merits this title. But if that man onh' can be called an apostle who is in all respects like to Peter and Paul ; — who, in all his efforts, looks only to the honour of Christ, and the disse- mination of tnith and virtue ; and for attaining these ends employs no means but such as the first apostles of Christ used; — then, manifestly, Boniface was M'holly unworthy of this name. He was rather an apostle of the pope, than of Jesus Christ ; he had but one eye di- rected towards Christ ; the other was fixed on the pope of Rome, and on his own fame, which depended on him. Schl.'] ® The French Benedictine monks in- genuously acknowledge, that Boniface was a sycophant of the Roman pontiff, and showed him more deference than was fit and proper. See Histoire Litt. de la France, tom. iv. p. 106. " II ex- prime son devouement pour le S. Siege, quelquefois en des termes qui ne sont pas asses proportionnes a la dignite du caractere Episcopal." [We need only to read his epistles, to be satisfied on this point. He says, (Ep. xci. p. 126, ed. Serrar.) that all he had done, for six and thirty years, while legate of the holy see, was intended for the advantage of the church at Rome ; to the judgment of which, so far as he had erred in word VOL. II. or deed, he submitted himself with all humility. — Cringing enough for an arch- bishop of the German church ! — In a letter to Pope Zacharias, {Ep. Bonif. cxxxii. p. 181,) he writes, that he wished to maintain the general faith, and union M-ith the church of Rome, and would not cease to urge and ]iersuade all his pupils that were about him, to be obedient to the see of Rome. — In another letter, addressed to Stephen III. {Ep. xc\-ii. p. 132,) upon occasion of liis contest with the bishop of Cologne, respecting the bishopric of Utrecht, he represents tlie bishop of Cologne as wishing exclusively, to make the bishop who should jircach to the Frieslanders, independent of tlie see of Rome ; whereas he (Boniface) was exerting all his powers, to make the bishopric of Utrecht entirely dependent on the see of Rome. Sclil^ ' [It is unquestionable, that tliis apostle of the Germans niarclied into Thuringia, at the head of an army ; and that, at the time he was nun-dered by the Frieslanders, he Iiad soldiers witli him as his body-guard : and so, in all his enterprises, he had the sujiport of the civil arm, aflbrded to him by Cliarlcs Martel, Carloman. and Piijin. — His ar- guments also may have been not the best, if he followed the directions of Da- niel, bisliop of Winclitfster ; for whom, as his epistles show, lie had a higli re- spect. (See Ep. Bonif. iii. p. 5, and the ep. of Daniel to him,' Ep. Ixvii. p. 79, &c.) For here Daniel advises him, to ask the pagans, how they can believe, that the goils reward the righteous, and punish the wicked in this life ; since thev see the Christians, who have de- 114 BOOK III. — CENTURY VITT. [PAPvT I. also l)ctray here and there an ambitious and arrogant spirit, a crafty and insidious disposition, an immoderate eagerness to augment sacerdotal honours and prerogatives^, joined with great ignorance, not only of many things which an apostle ought to know, but in particular of the true character of the Christian religion.^ § 5. Besides Boniface, others also attempted to rescue the unevangelized nations of Germany from the thraldom of super- stition. Such was Corhhiian, a French Benedictine monk, who, after various labours for the instruction of the Bavarians and other nations, became bishop of Freysingen.^ Such also was stroyed their images and prostrated their worship all over the world, remain un- punished?— And, how comes it to pass that the Christians possess the fruitful countries, which jiroduce wine and oil in al)iindance, while the pagans inhabit the cold and baiTen corners of the earth ? — He must also represent to the pagans, that the Christians now ruled the wliolc world ; \\hereas the pagans were few in number and powerless : and this great change in their condition, had taken place since the coming of Christ ; for before that event, the pagans had vast dominion. It is likewise undeniable, tliat Boniface gloried in fictitious mii'a- cles and wundcrs. Schl.'\ * [Consider only his conduct towards those bisliops and presbyters, who had before received ordination, and refused to receive it again from him according to the Romish rites, and would not, in general, suljject themselves to Eomish supremacy and Romisii forms of worship. These must be regarded :is false brethren, heretics, blasphemers, scrraiits iif the devil, and fore-runners of Anti-christ. They must be excommunicated, be cast into prisons, and receive eoi-poreal jjimish- ments. See witli what violence he breaks out agahist Adelliert, Clemens, Sampson, Gottschalk, Ehremwolf, Virgilius, and others, in his epistles ; — how bitterly he accuses them, before the popes, and in presence of councils, &c. SclilJ] ° [A large part of the questions, which Boniface submitted to the consideration of the popes, betray his ignorance. But still moi'c so, does his decision of the case of conscience, when a Bavarian priest, who diil not understand Latin, had baptized with tliese words, Baptizo te in nomine patria et filia et spirilua sancta; whicli baptism lie pronounced to be null and void : and hkewisc his persecution of the priest Virgilius in Bavaria, who maintained that the earth is globular, and consequently inhabitable on the other side of it, and there en- lightened by the sun and moon. Boni- face looked upon this as a gross heresy ; and he accused the man before the pope, who actually excommunicated him for a heretic. See the tenth Ep. of Zacha- rias, in Harduin's Collection of Councils, tom. iii. p. 1912. Schl. — In this, and the preceding notes, Schlegel has labour- ed with the zeal of a prosecutor, to sub- stantiate the heavy charges of Dr. Mos- heim against Boniface. I have care- fully read the original lives of this mis- sionary, and also a considerable part of his coiTCspondence ; and I must say, I think Dr. Mosheim, and his annotator Schlegel, liave not done impartial justice to this eminent man. He appears to me, to ha^'e been one of the most sincere and honest men of his age ; though he ])artook largely in the common faults of his time, an excessive attachment to monkery, and a superstitious regard for tlie canons of the church and the ex- ternals of religion. With all his imper- fections, he deseiTcs to be classed ^^•ith those who followed Christ, according to the best light they had, and who did much to advance true religion among men. 7V.] ' C:\!sar. Baronii Annalcs Ecclesiast. tom. viii. ad ami. 716, § 10, &c. C. IMcicliclbeck, Hist. Frisingensis, tom. i. [The life of saint Corl)inian, in forty -six chapters, was written l>y one of his jnipils and successors, Aribo ; and may be seen in IMaliillon's Acta Sanctor. Orel. Bencd. torn. iii. ]i. 470 — 48.5, and in j\Ieicliell>cck, Hist. Frising. tom. i. ])t. ii. p. 3 — 21. Corbinian was born at Ciiartrcs, near PROSrEROUS EVENTS. 115 cn. I.] Blrmin, a French monk, nearly contemporary with Boniface, who taught Christianity amidst various sufFcrings in Hclveti:i, Alsace, antl Bavaria, and presided over several monastcries.- Such, likewise, was Lchcin, an EngHshman, who laboured with earnestness and zeal, though with little success, to persuade tlic warlike Saxon nation, the Frieslanders, the Belgians, and other nations, to embrace Christianity.-^ Others of less notoriety are omitted.* Neither shall I mention Willihrord and others, who Paris, about a. d. 680. He early devoted himself to a monastic life, and acquu-ed great fame by his miracles. To escape from society, and enjoy solitude, he tra- velled into Italy, about the year 717, and begged the pope to assign him some obscure retreat. But the pope ordained him a bishop, and sent him back to France. His miracles and his marvel- lous sanctity now drew such crowds around him, that after seven years, he determined to go to Home, and beg the pope to divest him of the episcopal dig- nit}'. On his way through Bavaria and the Tyrol, he caught a huge bear, which had killed one of his pack-hoi-ses, whip- ped him soundly, and compelled him to serve in place of the pack-horse. At Trent, and at Pavia, he had horses stolen, for which the thieves paid the forfeiture of their lives l)y the hand of God. The pope would not release him from the episcopacy. He returned, by the way he came, as far as Freisingen, in Bavaria ; where Grimoald, the reign- ing prince, detained him, for the benefit of himself and subjects. After six years' labours at Freisingen, he died, somewhat like ]\Ioses, or at least in a veiy extra- ordinary- manner. He foresaw his death, and having made aiTangements for it, he arose in the morning, in perfect health, bathed, dressed himself in his pontificals, performed public service, re- turned, and placed himself upon his bed, drank a cuj) of wine, and immediately expired. His biographer makes no men- tion of his efforts to enlighten his flock, or to spread the knowledge of the Gos- pel. He was a most bigoted monk, and exceedingly irascible. Prince GrinK)ald once in\1ted him to dine. CorI)inian said grace before dinner, and made the sign of the cross over the food. While they were eating, Grimoald threw some of the food to his dog. Corbinian, in a rage, kicked over the table, and left room, declaring to the prince, that he deserved no blessings, who had gi\en food that \\as lilessed to his dog. 7>.] '' Ilerm. Bnischii Chronologia Mo- naster. German, p. 30. Anton. Pagi, Cr'dica in AimaJes Bcironii, tom. ii. ad ann. 759, § 9, &c. Hixtoire Liftiraire tie la France, torn. iv. p. 124. [The life of St. Pirniin, written by Warniann, bishop of Constance at the beginning of the eleventh century, may be seen in Ma- billon's Acta Sanctor. Ord. Benedict, torn, iv. p. 124—1.39. According to this bio- graphy, Pirmin was first the bishup of either Meanx or ]\retz in France, where he was a devout ami zealous pastor. Sintlax, a Suabian prince, procured his removal to the neighbourhood of Con- stance, where there was great need of an active and exemplary preacher. He established the mon;istery of Reiehenau, in an island near Constance ; and after- wards nine or ten other monasteries in Suabia, Alsace, and Switzerland ; and was very active in promoting mo- nastic piety in those countries. He is supposed to have died about a. n. 758. 7V.J ^ Hucbaldi \ ita S. Lehvint; in L. Surii Vitis Sanctor. die 12. Novem. p. 277. Jo. Molleri Cimhria Liltcrala, torn, ii. p. 464. [Lebwin was an English Benedictine monk and i>resbyter, of Eipon, in Northumlierland, (Vorksliirc, formerly a portion of the Northnm''rian kingdom,) about a. i). G90, with twelve companions, he went over to ^^'cst Fries- land, on the borders of the pagan Saxons; and for several years travelled and jircach- cd in that region, and in Heligoland. lie once travelled to tlie borders of Don- mark. At length, he settled down at Deventer, in Overy.ssel, where he preach- ed with considerable success till his death, about a. n. 740. See ilolleri Ciinh. Litt. ubi supra. TV.] * [Among these were the following. Othmar, a German monk, founder of the monastery of St. Gall, in Switzerland. -"'w-'-O '- ] 116 BOOK III. — CENTURY VIII. [PAIIT I. comiuencecl their missionary labours in the preceding century, and continued them with great zeal in this. § 6. In the year 772, Charlemagne, king of the Franks, under- took to tame and to withdraw from idolatry the extensive nation of the Saxons, who occupied a large portion of Germany, and were almost perpetually at war with the Franks, respecting their boundaries and other things ; for he hoped, if their minds should become imbued with the Christian doctrines, that they Avould gradually lay aside their ferocity, and learn to endure the empire of the Franks. The first attack upon their heathenism produced little effect ; being made, not with force and arms, but by some bishops and monks, whom the victor had left for that purpose among tlie vanquished nation. But much better suc- cess attended the subsequent wars, which Charlemagne under- took in the years 775, 776, and 780, against a people, who were extremely brave, very fond of liberty, and particularly impatient of sacerdotal power.^ For now, men who were attached to the At the close of a long and exemplary life, he was maliciously accused of un- chastity, by some noblemen who had I'obbed his monastery, and was thrown into prison, where he languished four years, and then died. Numerous mira- cles were wrought at his tomb. His life, wi'itten by Walafrid Strabo, is in Ma- billon's Acta Sanctor. Orel. Bened. vol. iv. p. 139, &c. — Willibald, bishop of Eich- stadt, was an Anglo-Saxon monk, of honourable birth, educated in a monas- tery near Winclicster. AVhen arrived at manhcjod, he and his younger brother Wunebald left England, travelled through France and Italy, sailed to Asia Minor, and the Holy Land, where they spent seven years. Returning to Italy, they took residence in the monastery of Mons Cassinus, during ten years, or till a. d. 739. The pope then sent them into Ger- many, to assist St. Boniface. Willibald Avas placed at Eichstadt, ordained priest A. D. 740, and bishop the year following. His death is placed a.d. 786. His life, written by a kinswoman, a contemporary nun of Hcidenheim, is extant in Ma- billon's Acta Sanctor. Ord. Bened. tom. iv. p. 330 — 354. — Saint Alto, a Scotch monk, who travelled into Bavaria, and there established the monastery, called from him, Altomunster. The naonastery was endowed by king Pipin, and dedicated by St. Boniface. The life of Alto is in Mabillon,l.c. p. 196, &c.— St. Sturmius,a natiA'e of Noricum, and follower of St. Boniface. Under the direction of tliat archbishop he erected, and presided over, the monastery of Fulda, from a.d. 744, till his death, a.d. 779, except one year, which lie spent in Italy, to learn more perfectly the iiiles of St. Benedict ; and two other years, in which Pipin king of the Franks held him prisoner, under false accusations of disloyalty. In the last years of his life, he aided Charle- magne in compelling the Saxons to em- brace Christianity. His life, well written by Eigil, his pupil and successor, is ex- tant in Mabillon, 1. c. p. 242—259. — St. Virgilius, whonr Boniface accused of heresy, for believing the world to be globular, was an Irislnnan, of good edu- cation and talents. He went to France in the reign of Pipin, who patronized him, and in the year 766 procured for him the bishopric of Saltzbnrg, which he held till his death, a.d. 780. While at Saltzbnrg, he did much to extend Chris- tianity to the eastward of him, among the Slavonians and Huns. His life is in Mabillon, 1. c. p. 279, &c. Tr.'] ^ I cannot dispense with quoting a passage from a very crcdilile author, Ak'uin, whicli shows, what it was espe- cially that rendered the Saxons averse from Christianity, and how preposterously the missionaries sent among them con- ducted [themselves]. Alcuin, Ep. civ. in his Opp. p. 1 647, says : Si tanta in- CH. I.] PROSPEROUS EVENTS. 117 superstitions of their ancestors, were so effectually assailed, as well with rewards, as with the sword and punishments, that they reluctantly ceased to resist, and suffered themselves to be bap- tized by the teachers whom Charles sent among them/' ff'ide- kind and Albion, indeed, who were two of the most valiant Saxon chiefs, renewed their former insurrections, and attem[)tcd to drive away once more, by violence and war, that Christianity which had been set up by violence. But the martial courage and the liberality of Charles at length brought them, in the year 785, solemnly to declare that they were Christians, and would continue to be so.^ Lest the Saxons should apostatize from the religion which they had unwillingly professed, bishops Averc established, schools founded, and monasteries erected in every part of their country. The Hiais, inhabiting Pannonia, were treated in the same way as the Saxons; for Charles so exhausted and humbled them, by successive wars, that he drove them into thinking of Christianity as better than slavery.^ stantia levc Chrlsti jugiim et onus ejus leve durissimo Saxonuni populo pvaidi- caretui-, quanta decimaeum redditio vel legalis pro parvissimis quil)uslibct cul- pis edictis necessitas exigebatur, forte baptismatis sacramenta non abhoiTcrcnt. SiNT TANDEM ALIQUANDO DOCTORES FIDEI APOSTOLICIS ERUDITl EXEMPLIS. SiNT PR^EDICATOEES, NON PR.EDATORES. [Had the easy yoke of Christ, with his hght burthen, been preached to the stubborn Saxons, witli much as earnestness as the payment of tithes, and legal satisfaction for the very smallest faults, were ex- acted, perhaps they would not have abominated the sacrament of Baptism. Let the Christian teachers learn from the example of the Apostles. Let them be preachers, not plunderers.^ Look at this portrait of the Apostles, that lived in this century ! — Yet they are said to have wrought great miracles. " Alcuin, as cited by William of Malmsbmy, de Gestis Rerum Anglorum, lib. i. c. 4, published in the Rerum Angli- car. Scriptores, Francf. 1601, fol. uses this language, " The ancient Saxons and all the Frieslanders, being urged to it by king Charles, who plied some of them with rewards, and others with threats, (instanti regc Carolo, alios prcrmiis, et alios minis soUicitante,) were converted to the Christian faith." See also the Capitularia Regum Francor. torn. i. p. I 246, and p. 252. From the first of these passages, it apjiears, that the Sax(jns wlin would rcuoinicc idolatry, were restvral to their ancient freedom, forfeited by con- quest, and were freed from all tribute to the king. The last of these pa.<.«ages con- tains this law: If ani/ person, oJ'tJie Saxon race, shall contemptuousli/ refuse to come to baptism, and shall resolve to continue a pagan, let him be put to death. — By such penalties and rewards, tiie Avhnle world might be constrained to profess Clu'is- tiauity witliout miracles. But what sort of Christians the Sa.Kons so converted must have been, we need not be told. See Jo. Launoy, de Veleri More bapli- zandi Juda-os et Infideks, cap. v. \'\. j). 70.3, &c. Opp. toni. ii. yi. ii. wiierc ho tells us, that the Konuin pontitf, Adrian I., approved of this mode of converting the Saxons to Ciu-istinnity. ' Eginliard, de Vita Caroli Magni ; Adami Bremens. lib. i. cap. viii. p. 3, &c.. and all the historians of the achievemeius of Charlemagne, who are enumerated by Jo. Alb. Fabricius, Biblioth. Lut. medii aci, tom. i. ]>. 95'.), &c. " Life of St. Rudbert; in lien. Canisii Lectionibus Anti(juis, tom. iii. pt. ii. p. 340, &c. I'auli Debreceni Histima Ec- clesiie Reformat, in Ilungar. et Tranjti/l- vania ; a Lampiu cdita, pt. i. cap. ii. p. 10, &c. 118 BOOK III. — CENTURY VIII. [PART I. § 7. For serving tliiis the cause of Christ, a grateful posterity decreed to Charles the honours of a saint. In the twelfth cen- tury, accordingly, Frederic I., emperor of the Romans, desired Paschal III., wiiom he had himself created sovereign pontiff, to enrol him among the church's tutelary deities.^ Nor undoubt- edly was he undeserving of this glory, according to the views of the middle ages, as they are called, when he passed for a saint who enriched the priesthood with goods and possessions ', and extended, by whatever means, the boundaries of the church. But to those who estimate sanctity, according to the views of Christ, Charlemagne must appear to be anything rather than a saint, and a devout man. For, not to mention his other vices, Avhich Avere certainly not inferior to his virtues, it is evident, that in compelling the Huns, Saxons, and Frieslanders to profess Christianity, he did it more for the sake of gaining subjects to himself, than to Jesus Christ. And therefore he did not hesitate to cultivate friendship with the Saracens, those enemies of the Christian name, when he could hope to obtain from them some aid to weaken the empire of the Greeks, who were Christians.^ § 8. The numerous miracles which the Christian missionaries to the pagans are reported to have wrought in this age, have now wholly lost the credit that they once had. The corrupt moral principles of the times allowed the use of what are im- properly called j^^ous frauds; hence heralds of Christianity thought it no sin to terrify or beguile, with fictitious miracles, those whom they were unable to convince by reasoning. Yet I do not suppose that all who acquired fame by these miracles, practised imposition. For not only Avere the nations so rude and ignorant as to mistake almost anything for a miracle, but their instructors also were so unlearned and so unacquainted with the laws of natiu'e, as to look upon mere natural events, if they were rather unusual and came upon them by surprise, as special interpositions of divine power. This will be readily seen by any one free from superstition, Avho shall take a fancy to read the Acts of Saints in this and the subsequent centuries.^ fvw IG*^ Kisi'if ii Lectiones Antiquce, in Steph.il Henr. Canisii Lectiones Antiques, in Steph. ( Balnzii CapUuhribus Begum torn. iii. pt. ii. p 207. Dr. Walch, [of Francor. torn. i. p. 487. Gottingcn,] Tract, de Caroli Mag. canoni- * See Jac. Basnage, Histoire des Juifs, zatiune. torn. ix. cap. ii. p. 40, &c. ' See the last Will of Charlemagne, ^ [The mii-aelcs of tliis age arc, many CII. II.] ADVERSE EVENTS. 119 CHAPTER II. THE ADVERSITIES OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. § I. In the East, from the Saracens and Tui-ks. — § 2. In the West, from the Saracens. § 1 . The Byzantine empire experienced so many bloody revo- lutions, and so many intestine calamities, as necessarily pro- duced a great diminution of its energies. No emperor could reign securely. Three were hurled from the throne, treated with various contumelies, and sent into exile. Under Leo III., the Isaurian, and his son, Constantine Copronymus, the perni- cious controversy respecting images and the worship of them brought immense evils upon the community, and weakened incalculably the resources of the empire. Hence the Saracens were able to roam freely through Asia and Africa, to subdue the fairest portions of the country, and every where to depress, and in various places wholly to exterminate, the Christian faith. of thera, altogether ridiculous. Take countenances, squahd beards, bristly the following as specimens. In the life ears, wrinkled foreheads, malicious eyes, of St. Winnock, (in Mabillon's Acta filthy mouths, horses' teeth, tire-emitting Sajictor. Old. Bened. torn. iii. p. 195,) it throats, lantern jaws, broad lijjs, tcn-iHc is stated as a miracle, that his mill, when voices, singed hair, high cheek-bones, he let go of it to say liis prayers, would prominent breasts, scaly thighs, knotty turn itself. And when an inquisitive knees, crooked legs, swollen ancles, in- monk looked throngh a crevice, to see verted feet, and opened mouths, h. 80, &c. Ja. Thomasius, reputation of which spread over civilized Programmata, p. 368. Ohscrvationes Ha- Enrope, and allured numerous foreign- lenses, tom. vi. Observ. xiv. p. 118, &c. ers to it. Next to Fulda, Hirschau, " Alcuini Opera, pt. ii. p. 1245, ed. Corvey, Prlim, Weissenburg, St. Gall, Quercetani. This little work is not only and Roichcnau, became famous for their imperfect, but is almost entirely trau- good schools, which might be called the scribed from Cassiodonis. CII. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 125 most of the schools, the teachers did not venture to go beyond the Trivium.; and an individual who had mastered'' both the Trivium and the Quadrivium, and wished to attempt something still higher, was directed to study Cassiodorus and Boethius. CHAPTEE II. HISTORY OF THE TEACHERS AND GOVERNMENT OF THE CHURCH. § 1. Vices of the religious teachers. — § 2. Veneration for the clergy in the "West. § 3. Increase of their wealth. — § 4. They possessed royal domains. — § .5. Causes of extravagant donations to the clergy, — § G. and es))ecially to the pojje. — § 7. His good offices to Pipin. — § 8. The rewards of his obsc(juiousness to the French kings. Thedonationof P/)j(n.— § 9. Donation of C/iar/tv/irtf^nc. — § 10. The grounds of it. — § 11. Xature of the pope's jurisdiction. — § 12. His prosperity checked by the Greeks ; origin of the contests between the Greeks and Latins. — § 13. Tlic monastic discipline wholly cori'upted. — § 14. Origin of canons. — § 15, 16. Power of the popes circumscribed by the emperors. — § 17. Greek and oriental writers. — § 18. Latin and occidental writers. § 1. That those who in this age had the care of sacred things, both in the East and in the West, were highly corrupt in morals, is abundantly testified. The oriental bishops and doctors wasted their lives in various controversies and quarrels ; and, disregarding the cause of religion and piety, they dis- quieted the state with senseless clamours and seditions. Nor did they hesitate to imbrue their hands in the blood of their dissenting brethren. Those in the AVest, who pretended to be luminaries, gave themselves up Avholly to various kinds of pro- fligacy, to gluttony, the chase, lust, sensuality, and war.' Nor could they in any way be reclaimed, although Carloman, Pipin, and especially Charlemagne, enacted various laws against their vices.^ ' Steph. Baluze, ad lieginon. Pruml- kc. [Ilarduin, Cuncilut, toni. iii. p. msem, p. 563. Wilkins' Concilixi Magna 1919, &c., ^^•hcre the clergy arc forbid- Britannia, torn. i. p. 90, &c. den to bear arms in war, and to practise ^ Steph. Baluze, Capitular. Rcgum hunting; and severe laws arc enacted Francor. torn. i. p. 189, 208, 275, 493, against the whoredom of the clergj", 126 BOOK III. — CENTURY VIII. [P ART II, § 2. Although these vices In persons who ouglit to have been examples for others, were exceedingly offensive to all, and oc- casioned various complaints, yet they did not prevent the parties polluted by them from receiving every where the highest honour, and being reverenced by the vulgar as if they were divinities. The veneration and submission paid to bishops and all the sacred order was, however, far greater in the West than in the East. The cause of this will be obvious to every one who considers the state and the customs of the nations, at this time bearing sway in Europe, anterior to their reception of Chris- tianity. For all these nations, before tliey became Christian, were under the power of their priests, and dared not attempt any thing important, either civil or military, without their con- currence.^ When they became Christian, they transferred these high prerogatives of their priests to the bishops of the new religion ; who, on their parts, asserted and claimed those very rights as their own. Hence that incredible authority of the sacred order in Europe. § 3. To the honours and prerogatives enjoyed by the bishops monks, and nuns. These laws were enacted under Carloman, a.d. 742, Among the Capitularia of Charlemagne, cited by Ilarduin, are laws against clergymen's loaning money for twelve per cent, interest, (Harduin, vol. v. p. 827, c. 5) — against their haunting ta- verns, (p. 830, c. 14) — against their practising magic, (p. 831, c. 18) — against their rcceinng bribes, to ordain im- ])roper persons, (p. 831, c. 31.) — bishops, abbots, and abbesses, are forbidden to keep packs of hounds, or hawks and falcons, (p. 846, c. 15.) — Laws were also enacted against clerical drunkenness, (p. 958, c. 14) — concubinage, (ibid. c. 15) — tavern-haunting, (p. 959, c. 19) — ■ and profane swearing, (iltid. c. 20.) 7>.] ^ Julius Caisar, de Bella Gallico, lib. vi. c. 12, 13, says : "The Druids are in great honom- among them ; for they de- termine almost all controversies, public aiid private ; and if any crime is perpe- trated, if a murder is committed, if there is a contest about an inheritance or ter- ritories, they decide and determine the rewards or punishments. If any one, whether a private or a public character, will not suljmit to their decision, they debar him from the sacrifices. — The Dniids are not accustomed to be present in battle ; nor do they pay tribute with the other citizens ; but are exempt from military service, and from all other bur- dens. Allured by such privileges, and from inclination, many embrace their discipline, and are sent to it by their parents and friends." — Tacitus (de Mo- ribus Germanor. c^ vii. p. 384, ed. Gro- nov.) says : " Moreover, to judge, to imprison, and to scourge, is allowable for none but the priests ; and this, not under the idea of punishment, or by order of the prince, but as if God com- manded it." — Chap. xi. p. 291. "Silence [in the public councils] is enjoined by the priests, who there have coercive ])ower."^ — Ilelmold, Chron. Slavorum, lib. i. c. 36, p. 90, says of the Rugians : " Greater is their respect for a priest, than for the king." — Idem, de Slavis, lib. ii. c. 12, p. 235 : "With them, a king is in moderate estimation, com- pared with a ])i-iest. For the latter asks for responses. — The king and the people depend on his will." — These customs, the people of Germany, Gaul, and of all Europe, retained after their conversion to Christianity ; and it is easy therefore to answer the question, Whence ori- ginated tliat vast 1 lower of the priesthood in Europe, ofwliich the Clu'istian reli- gion has no knowledge ? cir. II.] cnuRcn olticers and government. 127 and priests, with the concurrence of the people in the West, were added, during this period, immense wealth and riches. The churches, monasteries, and bishops, had before been well supplied with goods and revenues ; but in this century there arose a new and most convenient method of acquiring for them greater riches, and of amplifying them for ever. Suddenly, by whose instigation is not known, the idea became universally prevalent, that the punishments for sin, which God threatens to inflict, may be bought off by liberal gifts to God, to the saints, to the temples, and to the ministers of God and of glorified saints. This opinion being every where adn)itted, the rich and prosperous, whose lives were now most flagitious, con- ferred their wealth (which they had received by inheritance, or wrested from others by violence and war, according to the cus- toms of the age,) upon the glorified saints, tlieir ministers, and the guardians of their temples most bountifully, for religious uses^ in order to avoid the very irksome penances whicli were enjoined upon them by the priests S and render themselves secure from the endurance of evils after this life. This was the prin- cipal source of those immense treasures, which from this century- onward, through all the subsequent ages, flowed in upon the clergy, the churches, and the monasteries.^ § 4. The gifts, moreover, by which princes especially, and persons of great authority, endeavoured to appease God and the priests, and to expiate past sins, were not merely prwate pos- sessions, which common citizens might own, and with which churches and monasteries had before been abundantly endowed ; but they were also public property, or such as properly belongs only to princes and nations, and passes under the name of royal domains.'^ For emperors, kings, and princes, presented * Such as long and severe fasts, tor- * Hence the well-known phrascolopy, tiires of the body, frequent and long- used by those who made otlerings to ihe continued prayers, pilixrimages to tlie churches and the jjriests, that they made tombs of the saints, and the like. These the ottering, redeinptionis aiiimanim ..] Cumacchio, Diss. i. c. 100. p. 346, c. 67, •* See Car. Sigonius, de liegno Italia, p. 242, represents the deed of gift as lib. iii, p. 202, &c. 0pp. tom. ii. Henry still in existence, and he quotes some K 2 132 BOOK III. — CENTURY VIII. [part II. § 9. After Pipins death, Desiderius, king of the Lomhards, again boldly invaded the patrimony of St. Peter ; that is, the territories o-iven by the Franks to the Romish church. Hadrian /., who was then pontiff, had recourse to Charles, afterwards called the Great ^ the son of Pipin. Accordingly he crossed the Alps with a powerful army in the year 774, overturned the empire of the Lombards in Italy, which had stood more than two centuries, transported king Desiderius into Gaul, and pro- claimed himself king of the Lombards. In this expedition, when Charles arrived at Rome, he not only confirmed the do- nations of his father to St. Peter, but went further ; for he delivered over to the pontiffs, to be possessed and governed by them, some cities and provinces of Italy, which were not in- cluded in the grant of Pipin. But what portions of Italy Charles thus annexed to the donation of his father, it is veiy difficult, at this day, to ascertain.^ words fi-om it. The fact is scarcely credible ; yet if it be trtie, it is unques- tionably not for the interest of the Ro- mish church to have this important ancient document come to light. Nor could those who defended the interests of the pontiff against the emperor Jo- seph, in the controversy respecting the fortress of Comacchio, in our age, be persuaded to bring it forward, though challenged to do it, by the emperor's advocates. Francis Blauchinus, how- ever, in his Prolegomena ad Anastasium de Vitis Pontificum Pom. p. .55, has given us a specimen of tliis grant, which bears the marks of antiquity. The motive which led Pipin to this great liberality, was, as appears from numerous testi- monies, to make expiation for his sins, and especially the great sin he had com- mitted against his master Childcric. ^ \_Charlemagne. TV.] * See Car. Sigonius, de Prgno Italia', lib. iii. p. 22.3, &c. 0pp. tom. ii. Henry count de Biinau, Historia Imperii Ger- man, torn. ii. p. .368, &c. Peter dc Marca, de Concordia Sacerdotii et Im- perii, lib. i. cap. xii. p. 67, &c. Lud. Ant. Muratori, Droits de VEmpire sur V Etat Ecclesiastiqiie, cap. ii. p. 147, &c. Herm. Conringius, de Imperio Romano- German, cap. vi. [Bower's Lives of the Popes, vol. iii. Life of Hadrian I.] and numerous others. Concerning the ex- tent of Charlemagne's new donation to the popes, there is the same wann con- test between the patrons of the papacy and those of the empire, as there is respecting Pipin's donation. The adA'o- cates for the pontiffs maintain, that Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, the temtory of Sabino, the duchy of Spoleto, besides many other tracts of country, were pre- sented by the very pious Charlemagne to St. Peter. But the advocates for the claims of the emperors diminish as far as they can the munificence of Charles, and confine this new grant within narrow limits. On this subject, the reader may consult tlie writers of the present age, who have published works on the claims of the emperors and the popes, to the cities of Comacchio and Florence, and the duchies of Parma and Placentia, but especially, the ^■er}^ learned treatise of Berret, entitled Diss. Chorographica de Italia Medii JEvi, p. 33, &c. The par- tialities of writers, if I mistake not, have prevented them from discerning in all cases the real facts ; and it is easy to ftxll into mistakes, on subjects so long involved in obscurity. Adrian affirms that the object of Charles in this new donation, was, to atone for his sins. For he thus ^vl■itcs to Charlemagne, in the ninety-second E]3istle of the Caroline Code.r, in ^luratori, Scriptor. Rev. Italicar. tom. iii. pt. ii. p. 265. " Venientes ad nos de Capua, quam Beato Petro, Apos- tolorum I'rincijM, pro mercede anima ves- trcr atqne senqjitcnia memoria, cum c;cteris civitatiluis obtulistis." I have no doubt that Charles, who wished to be accounted pious according to the esti- CII. II.] CHUKCn OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 133 § 10. By this munificence, whether politic or impolitic I leave others to determine, Charles opened his way to the cm])ire of the West, or rather to the title of emperor of the West, and to supreme dominion over the city of Rome and its terri- tory, on which the empire of the West was thought to depend.^ He had, doubtless, long had this object in view ; and perhaps his father Pipin had also contemplated the same thino-. But the circumstances of the times required procrastination in an affair of such moment. When, however, the power of the Greeks was broken, after the unhappy death of Leo IV. and his son Constantine, especially as the impious Irene, whom Charles extremely hated, held the rod of empire, in the year 800, he did not hesitate to execute his purpose. When, accordingly, he came to Rome, this year, the pontiff, Leo III., knowing his wishes, persuaded the Roman people, who were then considered free, and entitled to the power of electing an emperor, to salute him publicly as emperor of the West, and make him so.^ § 11. Charles, being made emperoi-, and sovereign of Rome with its territory, reserved indeed to himself the supreme power, and the prerogatives of sovereignty ; but the beneficial dominion, as it is called, and subordinate authority over the city and adjacent country, he seems to have conferred on the Romish church.^ This plan was undoubtedly suggested to mates of that age, expressed this design of Rome and the adjacent country ; lioth in his transfer, or deed of gift. But a of which he easily obtained bv the aid of person acquainted with Charles and with Leo HI. the history of those times, will not rea- * See the historians of those timcf:, dily believe that this was his only mo- and especially, the best of them all, tive. By tliat donation, Charles aimed Biinau, Historia Imperii lionunw-Ger- to prepare the way for attaining the manici, torn. ii. p. 537, &c. The advo- empire of the West, which he was en- cates of the Roman pontitfs tell us that deavouring to secure (for he was most Leo III., by virtue of the supreme power ambitious of glory and dominion) ; but with which he was divinely clothed, con- he could not honouralily obtain his ob- ferred the empire of the West, after it ject, in the existing state of things, with- was taken from the Greeks, upon the out the concurrence and aid of the Roman French nation, and upon Chiirlcs tlieir pontitf. Besides this, he aimed to se- king ; and hence they infer, that tlie cure and establish his new empire in Roman pontiff, as the vicar of Christ, is Italy, by increasing the possessions of the sovereign lord of the whole earth, as the holy see. On this point I have al- well as of the Roman emi)ire ; and that ready touched, in a preceding note ; and all emperors reign by liis authority. The I think whoever carefidly consider all absurdity of this reasoning is learnedly the circumstances of the case will coin- exposed l)y Fred, ypanlieim. de Firta cide with me in judgment. Translatiime Imperii in Caroliim M. pir ' In reality Charles was already em- Leonem III. in his Opp. torn. ii. p. 5.57. peror of the West ; that is, the most [See also Bower's Lives of the Popes, vol. powerful of the kings in Europe. He iii. Life of Leo III.] Other writers tlierefore only lacked the title of empe- need not be named, ror, and sovereign power over the city ' That Charles retained the supreme K 3 134 BOOK III. — CENTUIIY VIII. [part II. him by the Roman pontiff; who persuaded the emperor, per- haps by showing him some ancient, though forged papers and documents, that Constantine the Great, (to whose place and authority he now succeeded,) on removing the seat of empire to Constantinople, committed Rome, his former capital, with its contiguous district, that is the Roman dukedom, to be possessed and governed by the church, but under a reservation of the im- perial prerogatives : an arrangement and ordinance that could not be set aside without signal indignation from God and St. Peter. ^ power over the city of Kome and its territory, that he administered justice there by his judges, and inflicted punish- ments on malefactors, and that he exer- cised all the prerogatives of sovereignty, learned men have demonstrated by the most unexceptionable testimony. See only Muratori, Droits de VEmpire sur VEtat Eccles. cap. vi. p. 77, &c. Indeed, they only shroud the light in darkness, who maintain, with Justus Foutanini, (^Dominio delta S. Sede sopra Comacchio, Diss. i. c. 95, 96, &c.) and the other advocates of the Roman pontiffs, that Charles sustained at Rome, not the cha- racter of a sovereign, but that of patron of the Romish chmxh, relinquishing the entu'e sovereignty to the pontiffs. And yet, to declare the whole truth, it is clear, that the power of the Roman pon- tiff, in the city and territory of Rome, was great ; and that he decreed and per- formed many things according to his pleasure, and as a sovereign ; but the limits of his powei", and the foundations of it, are little kno^v^^, and much contro- verted. Muratori (Droits de VEmpire, p. 102,) maintains that the pontiff' per- formed the functions of an exarch, or viceroy of the emperOr. But this opinion was very offensive to Clement XI. ; nor do I regard it as coiTect. After consi- dering all the circumstances, I suppose that the Roman pontiff" held the Roman ])rovince and city by the same tenure as he did the exarchate and the other terri- tories given him by Charles, that is, as a fief; yet with less chcumscribed powers tlian ordinarj feudal tenures, on account of the dignity of the city, which was once the capital, or the scat of empire. This opinion receives much confirmation from the statements which will be made in the following note ; and it reconciles the jarring testimonies of the ancient writers and other docu- ments. ' ]\Iost -writers are of opinion that Constantine's pretended grant was pos- terior to this period ; and that it was forged, perhaps in the tenth centiuy; but I believe that it existed in this century, and that Hadrian and his successor Leo III. made use of it to persuade Charles to convey feudal power over the city Rome, and its tenitory, to the Romish church. For this opinion we have the good authority of the Roman pontiff himself, Hadrian I. in his Epistle to Charlemagne ; which is the forty- ninth in the Caroline Codex, puljlished in Muratori's Rerum Italicar. Scripto7-es, torn. iii. pt. ii. p. 194 ; and which well deseiwes a peiiisal. Hadrian there ex- horts Charles, who was not yet emperor, to order the restitution of all the grants which had formerly been made to St. Peter and the church of Rome. And he very clearly distinguishes the grant of Constantine from the donations of the other emperors and princes ; and, what deserves particular notice, he distin- guishes it from the donation of Pipin, which embraced the exarchate, and from the additions made to his father's grants by Charlemagne ; whence it follows, legi- timately, that Hadrian understood Con- stantine's grant to embrace the city of Rome, and the territory dependant on it. He first mentions the grant of Con- stantine the Great, thus : " Deprecamur vcstram excellentiam — pro Dei amore et ipsius clavigeri regni coelorum — ut secundum promissionem, quam polliciti estis eidem Dei Apostolo, pro aninue vestrce mercede et stabilitate regni vestri, omnia nostris temporibus adimplere ju- beatis. — Et sicut temporibus Beati Sil- vestri Romani I'ontificis, a sanctaj recor- dationis piissimo Constantino Magno, CH. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 135 § 12. Amidst so many accessions of power and influence, the Roman pontiffs, however, sustained from the Greek emperors no slight loss of revenue and dignity. For Leo the Isaurian, and his son Constcmtine Copronymus, being exceedingly of- fended with Gregory II. and ///. on account of their zeal for sacred images, not only took from them the estates possessed by the Romish church in Sicily, Calabria, and Apulia ; but also exempted the bishops of those territories, and likewise all the provinces of lUyricum, from the dominion of the Roman pon- tiffs, and placed them under the protection of the bishop of Constantinople. Nor could the pontiffs, afterwai'ds, either by threats or supplications, induce the Greek emperors to restore these valuable portions of St. Peter's patrimony. ^ This was the first origin, and the principal cause, of that great contest between the bishops of Rome and of Constantinople ; which, in the next century, severed the ^Greeks from the Latins, to the great detriment of Christianity. Yet there Avas an additional cause existing in this century ; namely, the dispute concerning t\ie procession of the Holy Spirit; of which we shall treat in its proper place. But this perhaps might have been easily ad- justed, if the bishops of Rome and Constantinople had not be- come involved In a contest respecting the limits of their juris- dictions. Imperatore, per ejus largitatem (see the ncfandam gentcm Longobardorum per grant of Constantine itself) sancta Dei annoram spatia abstracta atque ablata catholica et apostolica Romaua ecclesia sunt, vestris temporibus restituantiu-. elevata atque exaltata est, et potestatem (The pontiff adds, in the close, that all in his Hesperise partibus largiri dignatus those grants were preserved in the ai-- est : ita et in liis vestris felicissimis tern- chives of the Lateran ; and that he had poribus atque nostris, sancta Dei ecclesia sent them, by his ambiissadors, to Charle- gemiinet — et amplius, atque amplius magne.) Unde et plurcs donationcs in exaltata permaneat — Quia ecce no^^is sacro nostro scrinio Lateranensi rccon- Christianissimus Dei Constantinus Im- ditas habemus ; tamcn et pro satisfactione perator (N.B. Here the pontiff denomi- christianissimi rcgni vcstri, per jain nates Charles, who was then only a king, fiitos ^-iros, ad demonstrandum cas vobis, an emperor, and compares him with Con- direximus ; et pro hoc pctunus eximiam stantine) his temporibus suiTexit, per Pra;cellentiam vestram, ut in intcgi-o quem omnia Deus sanctaj sua; ecclesiaj ipsa patrimonia Beato Pctro ct nobis —largiri dignatus est. (Thus far he restitnere jubcatis."— By tliis it appears speaks of Constantine's donation. Next, that Constantiiie's grant was then iii the pontiff" notices the other donations ; tlie Lateran archives of the popes, and which Ikj clearly discriminates from tliis.) was sent witli the othere to Charle- Sed et cuiicta alia, qute per diversos Im- magne. ■ ^ • ni ■ peratores, patricios, etiam et alios Deum * See Mich. Ic Quien's Oriens Lhris- timentesr pro eorum animo' mercede et tianus, tom. i. p. 96, &c. The Greek venia peccatoruiiL, in partibus Tuscia;, writers also, as Thcophaucs ami others, Spoleto sen Benevento, atque Corsica, acknowledge the fact, but diticr a httle simul et Paviensi patrimonio, Beato in respect to the cause. Petro Apostolo, — concessa sunt, et per K 4 136 BOOK III. — CENTURY VIII. [PART II. § 13. Monastic discipline, as all the writers of that age tes- tify, was entirely prostrate, both in the East and the West. The best of the oriental monks were those who lived an austere life, remote from all intercourse Avith men, in the deserts of Eo-ypt, Syria, and Mesopotamia : and yet among them, not only •i-ross i"-norance, but also fanatical stupidity, and shameful super- stition, often reigned. The rest of their body, that lived nearer cities, not unfrequently gave trouble to the state ; which obliged Constantine Copronymus, and other emperors, to restrain them repeatedly, by severe edicts. Most of the western monks now followed the rule of St. Benedict : yet there were monasteries, in various places, in which other rules were preferred.^ As however their wealth increased, they scarcely observed any rule, but gave themselves up to gluttony, voluptuousness, idleness, and other vices."* Charlemagne would fain have cured these disorders by legislation ; but he did little good.^ § 14. This great corruption of the whole sacred order, pro- duced in the West a new species of priests, who were an inter- mediate class between monks, or regulars, as they are commonly ii?i\\&^, ^u(\. secular priests. These adopted, in part, the discipline and mode of life of monks ; that is they dwelt together, ate at a common table, and joined in united prayer at certain hours ; yet they did not take any voxvs upon them, like the monks, and they performed ministerial functions in certain churches. They were at first called the Lord's brethren^; but afterwards took the name of canons."^ The common opinion attributes the insti- tution of this order to Chrodegang, bishop of Metz : nor is this opinion wholly without foundation.* For although there were, ' See Jo. Mabillon, Prtpf. ad Acta Non sint sanctimonialium domicilia tur- Sancta Ord. Benedicti, sa;c. i. p. xxiv. piuin confabulationum, comessationum, and stec. iv. pt. i. p. 26, &c. ebrietatuin, luxuriantiumquc cubilia. — ■* Mabillon treats, ingenuously, of this Monasteriales sive ecclesiastici, ebrietatis corruption of the monks, and of its causes, malum non sectentur aut expetant — sed in the above work, Prcpf. ad Sacid. iv. neque alios cogant intcmperanter bibere; pt. i. p. 64, &c. sed pura et sobria s^int corum convivia, ' See the Capitularia of Charlemagne, non luxuriosa, neque deliciis vel scm-ri- publislied by Baluzc, tom. i. p. 148. 157. litatibus mixta, &c. TV.] 2.37. 2.55. 366, &c. 375. 503, and in ^ Fratres Dominici. various other places. These numerous ' Canonici. See Le Beuf, Memoire laws, so often repeated, prove the ex- sur rHistuire d'Auxerre, tom. i. p. 174, treme pciwerseness of the monks. [See Paris, 1743, 4to. also the 20, 21, and 22 canons of the ** For an account of Chrodegang, see council of Cloveshoo in England, a. d. the Histoire Litteraire de la France, tom. 747. Monasteria — non sint ludicrarum iv. p. 128. Aug. Calniet, Histoire de artium reccptacula, hoc est, poetarum, Lorraine, tom. i. p. 513, &c. Acta Sanc- citharistaram, musiconini, scurrarum. — torian, tom. i. Martii, p. 452. The rule CH. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 137 anterior to this century, in Italy, Africa, and other provinces, colleges of priests who lived in the manner of canons ^ ; yet Chrodegang, about the middle of this century, subjected the j^riests of his church at Metz to this mode of living, requiring them to sing hymns to God at certain hours, and perhaps to observe other rites; and by his example, first the Franks, then the Italians, the English, and the Germans, were led to intro- duce this mode of living, in numerous places, and to found con- vents of canons. § 15. Supreme power over the whole sacred order, and over all the possessions of the churches, was, both in the East and in the West, vested in the emperors and kings. Upon the power of the Greek emperors over the church, with its goods and possessions, no one entertains a doubt.' The prerogatives of the Latin emperors and kings, though flatterers of the Roman pontiffs labour to involve them in obscurity, are so certain and clear that they cannot be obscured ; as the wiser in the Roman community themselves confess. Hadrian I., in a council at Rome, transferred to Charlemagne, and his successors, the right of appointing and creating the Roman pontiffs.''' And, although neither Charles, nor his son Lewis, would use this power, they notwithstanding reserved to themselves the appro- bation and confirmation of the pontiff chosen by the Roman priests and people : nor could his consecration take place, unless ■which he presciibed to his canons, may hopes of these good men were disap- be seen in Le Cointe's Annales Francor. pointed. Ecclesiastici, torn. v. f.d ami. 757, § 35, ' For the authority of the Greek &c. and in Labbe's Concilia, torn. vii. p. emperors in rehgions matters, see Mich. 1444, [in Harduin's Concilia, tom. iv. p. le Quien, OrieTis Cltristianus, torn. i. p. 1181, &c. TV.] The nile, as published 136. by Lucas Dachery, Spicilegium veter. ' Anastasius makes mention of this Scriptor. tom. i. p. 565, &c. imder the decree; which is p^cser^■cd both by Yvo name of Chrodegang, was the work of and Gratian. The siiliject has been dis- another person. A neat summary of the cussed by very many. [The existence rule is given by Jac. Longueval, His- of this council, and of such a grant to toire de I'Eglise Gallicanc, tom. iv. p. Charlemagne, is very uncertain. The 435_ earliest mention of the council is in Sige- »'See Lud. Ant. Muratori, Antiqui- bcrt's Chrunicon, {aA ann. 773,) wTitten tates Italicce medii jEvi, tom. v. p. 185, about a. n. 1111. But the passage is &c. also Lud. Thomassinus, dc Disciplina not in all the copies. From tins qucs- Ecclesia vetere ac nova, pt. i. lib. iii. c. tionable authority, Gratian transcribed &c. The design of this institution his account of it (Distinct. Ixui. c. 22, was truly excellent. For its author, 23), and also Ivo. and the others. See pained with the -v-ices and defects of Tet. de Marca, de Concordia, S,r. lib. ^^ll. the clergy, hoped that this mode of li\ing c. 13. Pagi. Critica in would abstract the consecrated men 774. Mansi, Coned. Suj from worldly cares and business. But 721 ; and Wakh's Histo the event has shown how nuieh the versaminl. p. 473. 7>.] 138 BOOK III. — CENTURY VIII. [PAET II. the emperor's ambassadors were present.^ The Roman pontiffs obeyed the laws of the emperors ; and accounted all their de- cisions definitive.^ The emperors and kings of the Franks, by their extraordinary judges, whom they called Missi, that is Legates, inquired into the lives and conduct of all priests, both superior and inferior, took cognisance of their controversies and causes, enacted laws respecting the mode of worshipping God, })unished priestly delinquencies of every kind just as those of other citizens."' The goods of churches and monasteries, unless ex- empted fx'om the common burthen by special favour of the ruling powers, were taxed like other property for public purposes.^ § 16. That the preservation of religion, and the decision of controversies respecting doctrines, belonged to the Roman pon- tiff, and to ecclesiastical councils, was not denied by the Latin emperors and kings.' But this power of the pontiff was con- fined within narrow limits. For he was not able to decide by his sole authority, but was obliged to assemble a council. Xor did the provinces Avait for his decisions, but held conventions or councils at their pleasure, in which the bishops freely ex- pressed their opinions, and gave decisions which did not accord with the views of the pontiffs ; as is manifest from the French and German councils, in the controversy respecting images. ^Moreover the emperors and kings had the right of calHng the councils, and of presiding in them : nor could the decrees of a council have the force of laws, unless they were confirmed and ratified by the reigning sovereign.^ The Roman pontiffs, how- ever, left no means untried, to free themselves from these many restraints, and to obtain supreme authority, not only over the church, but also over kings and over the whole world : which ' See Jo. ilabillon, Commentar. in Or- from taxation, published in Holland, in dinem Romanum, Muscei Italici torn. iL seven volumes, under the title of Ecrits p. cxiii. &c. Muratori, Droits de CEm- pour et centre les Immunites Pretendues pire sur VEtat Eccles. p. 87, &c. par le Clerge de France, a la Haye, 1751, * This has been amplv demonstrated 8vo, &c. bv Steph. Baluze, Prcef. ad Capitidaria ' See Charlemagne, de Imaginibus, Regum Francor. § xxL &c. lib. L cap. iv. p. 48, ed. Heumann. * See Muratori, Antiquitates Ital. ' All these points are well illustrated Medii uEvi, tom. L diss, ix, p. 470. by Baluze, Prof, ad Capitularia : and Franc, de Roye, de Missis Dominicis, c. bv the Capitidaria themselves ; that is, X. p. 44, c. ^-lii. p. 118. 134. 168. 195, bv the laws of the French kings. And &c. ail those who have discussed the rights * See, especially, Muratori, Antiq. Ital. of kings and princes in matters of reU- Medii ^vi^ tom. i. diss, x^•ii. p. 926. gion, take up and illustrate this subject. Also, the Collection of various pieces, in See also Jac. Basnage, Histoire de CEglisc, the Contest of Lems XV. king of France, tom. L p. 270, &c. respecting the exemption of the clergy . CnURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 139 CH. II.] efforts of theirs were wonderfully favoured by the disturbances and wars of the following century. § 17. In the writers of this age there arc very few who deserve much praise, either for learning or genius. Among the Greeks, Germanus, bishop of Constantinople, obtained some celebrity by his talents, but still more by his immoderate zeal in defence of images.^ Cosmas, of Jerusalem, got renown by his skill in com- posing Hymns. 1 The histories of George Syncellus'^ and Theo- phanes ^ hold some rank among the writers of Byzantine his- ' See Richard Simon, Critique de la Bibliotheque Ecclesiast. de M. du Pin, torn. i. p. 270. [Gennanus was the sou of Justinian, a patrician of Constantinople, and was deprived of his virility by Cou- stantine Pogonatus. He was made bi- shop of Cyzicum, and then patriarch of Constantinople, from a. d. 715 to 730. During the four last years of his pa- triarchate he strenuously opposed the emperor Leo, and defended image wor- ship until he was dejoosed. He now re- tired to a peacefrd private life till his death, about a. d. 740, when he was more than ninety years old. His writings all relate to image worship, and the honoiu- due to the ^^rgin Mary ; and consist of letters, orations, and polemic tracts ; which may be seen in the Acts of the se- cond Nicene council, the Bibliotheca Pa- trum, and other collections. His orations in pi-aise of the holy virgin are ascribed by some to another Gennanus, bishop) of Constantinople, in the thirteenth cen- tury. See Cave's Historia Litterar. \o\. i. Tr.-\ ' [Cosmas was a native of Italy: cap- tured by Saracen pirates, he was caiTied to Damascus, and there sold to the fa- ther of John Damascenus, who made him preceptor to his son. He was after- wards a monk in the monastery of St. Salias, near Jenisalem ; and at last bi- shop of Majuma. He flourished about A. D. 730, and has left us thhtecn Hymns, on the principal festivals, and some other poems ; which are extant only in Latin, and may be seen in the Bihlioth. Pair. tom. xii. See Cave's Historia Litteraria, vol. i. J/-.] ^ [George was a monk of Constan- tinople, and syncellus to Tarasius the patriarch. A synceRus was a high eccle- siastical personage, the constant com- panion and inspector of the bishop, and resident in the same cell with him ; whence his name aiiyKiKKos. See Du Cangc, Glossar. Media: et Infim. Latinitatis, sub voce Si/ncellus. The C/ironicon of George Syncellus extends from tlie creation to the times of M:u\imin ; and is copied al- most verbatim fi-om the Chronicon of Eusebius. Jos. Scaliger made nuich use of it, for recoveriug the lost Greek of Eusebius's work. It was published, Greek and Latin, with notes, by Jae. Goar, Funs, 1652, ful. See Cave's His- tor. Litter, tom. i. Tr.'\ ^ [Theophanes, surnamed Isaacius, and Confessor, was a Constantinopolitaii, of noble birth, born A. d. 758. Leo, the patrician, obliged him in his youth to marr}' his daughter ; but his wife and he agreed to have no matrimoniid inter- course ; and, on the death of her father, they separated, aiul Theopliancs became a monk. He had previously tilled seve- ral important civil offices under the em- peror Leo. He retired to the mona.«tery of Polychronuin, near Singi-iana, a. d. 780 ; and thence to the island Colonynuis, wlicre he converted his paternal estate into a monastery, and spent six years. Then returning to Singriaua, he pur- chased the estate called the Field, con- verted it into a monastery, and ])rcsidcd over it as the abbot. In the year 787 he was called to the second Nicene council, where he strenuously defended image worsliiii. After a. d. 813, Leo, the j\riaenian, re(|uire(l him to condemn image worshij), which he resolutely re- fused to do. In 8 1 5, or a year later, he was imprisoned for his obstinacy, though now in declining hcaltli ; and two years after, was banished to tlie island of Sa- miithrace, where he died at the end of twenty-three days. The jtatrons of image worshi]i accounted him a confessor, and honoured him as a saint. His Chro- nicon, wiiicii embraces lioth the civil and ecclesiastical atlairs of the Greek empire, continues that of George Syncellus, from a. 1). 285, to A. u. 8l:J. It is written in a 140 BOOK III. — CENTURY VIII. [part II. tory ; but tliey must be placed far below the earlier Greek and Latin historians. The most distinguished of the Greek and Oriental writers, was John Damascenus, a man of respectable talents, and of some eloquence. He elucidated the Peripatetic philosophy, as well as the science of theology, by various writ- ings ; but his fine native endowments were vitiated by the faults of his times, superstition, and excessive veneration for the fathers ; to say nothing of his censurable propensity, to explain the Christian doctrines conformably to the views of Aristotle.^ § 18. At the head of the Latin writers stands Charlemagne, the emperor, who was a great lover of learning. To him are ascribed the laws called Capitulars, some Epistles, the Books concerning images, and other things; although there can be little doubt that he generally used another's pen and head.^ dry style, without method, and with nu- merous mistakes. The Chronicon of Anastasius Bibliothecarius is a mere Latin translation of this, so far as this extends. It was published, Greek and Latin, with the notes of Gear and Com- befis, Paris, 1655, fol. See Cave, His- toria Litterar. tom. i. TV.] '' See Peter Bayle, Dictionnaire His- iorique, tom. ii. p. 950, and Leo Allatius's account of his writings ; which Mich, le Quien has published, with the Opera Da- masceni, [ed. Paris, 1712, and Venice, 1748, 2 vols. fol. — also Du Pin, Biblioth. des Aideurs Eccles. tom. y\. p. 101. &c. Fabricius, Biblioth. Gr. vol. viii. p. 772, &c. ; and Sclu-oeckh, Kirchengeschichte, vol. XX. p. 222, &c. — John Damascenus called also Chryson-hoas by the Greeks, on account of his eloquence ; and by the Arabs Mansur, was born at Damascus, near the end of the seventh, or begin- ning of the eighth centuiy. His father, Sergius, a wealthy Christian, and privy- councUlor to the kalif, redeemed many captives; and among them, a learned Italian monk, named Cosmas, wliom he made preceptor to his only son John. On tlie decease of his father, John suc- ceeded him in office at the Saracen court. About the year 728 he wrote numerous letters, in defence of image worship, which the emperor, Leo the Isaurian, was endeavouring to suppress. This, it is said, induced Leo to forge a treasonable letter from John to himself, which he sent to the kalif, in order to compass the destruction of John. The kalif or- dered his right hand to be cut oft". John replaced the seTered hand ; and, by the intercession of the virgin Mary, had it perfectly restored, the same night. This miracle convanced the kalif of John's innocence ; and he offered to restore hira to his office and favour ; but John chose to retire to private life. He sold and gave away all his property, and repaired to the monasteiy of St. Sabas, neai- Jei-u- salem ; where he spent the remainder of his life in composing learned works on theology and science. His treatises are numerous, consisting of Orations, Letters, and Tracts, chiefly polemic, in defence of image worship, and against heresies ; yet several are devotional and nan-ative. But few of his philosophical works have been published. His great work is, de Fide Orthodoxa, libri iv. ("Ek5oo-is djcpi- St]S rrfs ' opdoSS^ov iriWeois,) which is a complete system of tlieology derived from the fathers, and arranged in the manner of the schoohnen. Tr. — Oudin says, that John Damascene seems to him the first of the Greek fathers who spoke of the Eucharist as the true hndy and i)hx)d of Christ, the universal usage of his predecessors being to speak of it as an antitype, or symbol and figure of Christ's both/ and bloud. De Scriptt. Eccl. i. 1717. Ed.'] * See Jo. Alb. Fabricius, Bihliotheca Medii ^vi Latina, tom. i. p. 936. His- toire Litlrraire de la France, tom. iv. p. 368. [Charlemagne was not only a great general and statesman, but likewise a great jn-omoter of learning. He pos- sessed tak'uts of no ordinary character ; and though his very active life left him little time for study, he was a considerable proficient in all the branches of know- CH. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 141 Next to him should be placed account of his virtues^; Alcuin, ledge then generally pursued. He un- derstood both Latin and Greek, was well read in civil history, and was no con- temptible theologian. Eginhard indeed tells us he could never learn to write ; having not undertaken it till too far ad- vanced in life. But if he could not wi'ite a fair hand, he could dictate to his amanuenses ; and by theii- aid, and that of the learned men whom he always had about him, he composed and com- piled very much that does him gi-eat credit. Besides a great nimiber of Di- plomas, Deeds, and Grants, which are to be seen in vaiious collections ; as those of Canisius, Duchesne, D'Achery, Mabillon, &c. ; and numerous Letters, interspersed in the later collections of councils ; he wrote a Preface to the book of Homilies for all the festivals of the year, wliich Paul Diaconus compiled by his order ; also a large part of the Edicts, chiefly in relation to ecclesiastical affairs, which are denominated his Capitularia. Of these, the first four books, entitled, Ca- pitularia, sive Edicta Caroli Magvi et Ludovici Pii, were collected by the abbot Ansegisus, A. D. 827. Afterwards, three books more were collected by Benedict Levita. Tlie whole are best pubhshed by Baluze, Paris, 1677, 2 vols. fol. The Codex Carolinus is a collection of ninety- nine Epistles of successive popes to him and to his father and grandfather, with theirs to the popes ; made by order of Charlemagne, a.d. 791. This was pub- lished by Gretser, Ingolst. 1613, 4to. — The four books against image worship, (rfe Imaginihus,) called also the Capituhre Prolixum, if not dictated entirely In' him, were at least drawn up in his name, by his order, and in accordance witli his views. He caused it to be read in the council of Frankfort, a. d. 794, where it was approved ; and he then sent a copy of it to pope Hadrian, who replied to it, as being the work of Charlemagne. It was first published by John Tillet (Tilius) afterwards bishtip of !Meaux, a.d. 1549 ; and last, by C. A. Heumann, Hanover, 1731, 8vo. For the genuineness of this work, see Schroeckh, Kirchengeschichte, vol. XX. p. 583, &c. ; and Cave, Historia Litterar. tom. i. Tr. — The materials for the celebrated treatise upon images aj^pear to have been really supplied by Alcuin, though the work was published under the name and by the authority of liis Bede, called the Vencrahle, on the preceptor of Charlemagne ^ ; imperial master. The deutero-Nicene decrees in favour of image-worsliip had been received with execration in Eng- land ; but as the countr}' was in deferential amity with Rome, the indignant repulse was treated as if bestowed ujx^n a corniption merely oriental ; and Alcuin was chosen by his countrj'men for tlie delicate task of justifying their conduct at the papal court. He produced, ac- cordingly, an Epistle, which g.iined un- qualifieil applause. This was, probably, the base of that publication which Charlemagne adopted, if not the work itself. The emperor's own subjects had no more respect for image-worship than Alcuin's countrymen. For further in- formation, see the Life of Alcuin, by Lorenz. Engl, transl. p. 119; and the Editor's Bampton Lectures, p. 172 ; and Anglo-Saxon Church, p. 120. £y direction of Charlenmgne ; and was in- tended to aftord to prcacliers, who could not frame discourses, some that they might read to their congregations. The collection is made from Aml)rose, Au- gustine, Jerome, Origcn, Ia-o, Gregory-, Maximus, Beda, &c. Some discourses were added to it after the death of Paul. He also wrote the life of St. Benedict, and biogi'aphies of several other saints. See Cave, Historia Litterar. tom. i. and BeUannin, Scriptores Ecclesia.st. cd. Ve- nice, 1728, fol. J). 258, &c. TV.] * [Ambrose Authpert, or Autjiert, was a native of France, and became abbot of St. Vincent, in Abnizzo, Italy, about A. i>. 760. He must not be con- founded with an abbot of mount Cassino, 144 BOOK III. — CENTURY VIII. [PART II. have nearly all the writers of any merit, who^cultivated either sacred or profane learning.^ of the same name, who lived in the ninth centuiy. To him has been attributed the work entitled, the Conflicts of the Vices and Virtues, published among the works of Augustine, and also of Am- brose of Milan, and likewise some other pieces. But his great work is his Com- mentary on the Apocalypse, in ten books. See Cave, Historia Litter, tom. i. and Mabillon, Acta Sane tor. Ord. Bened. tom. iv. p. 234, &c. Tr.'] * [Theodulphus, an Italian, whom Charlemagne patronized. He first made him abbot of St. Fleury, and then bishop of Orleans about a.d. 794. Lewis the Pious greatly esteemed him, employed him much at his court, and sent him as his envoy to the pope. But in the year 818, being suspected of treasonable acts, he was deposed, and confined to the monastery of Angers. He died about A.D. 821. He wrote tolerable poetry ; namely, Carminum ad diversos libri vi. ; besides Poemata x. His prose is inferior to his poetry : consisting of forty-six Canons for his diocese ; a Tract on Baptism ; and anotlier on the Holy Spirit. Most of the preceding were pub- lished by Jac. Sirmond, Paris, 1646, 8vo. There is still extant an elegant MS. Bible, which he caused to be writ- ten, and to which he prefixed a preface, and some poems, in golden letters. See Cave, Historia Litterar. tom. i. and Bel- larmin, Scriptores Ecclesiast. p. 281, &c. Tr.-] ^ [Among the Greek writers, omitted by Dr. Mosiieim, were the following : ' John, patriarch of Constantinople, un- der Philip Bardanes, the Monothelite, A.D. 812 — 815. Being deposed after the death of Philip, he \vi-ote an Epistle to the bishop of Rome, purging himself of the Monothelite heresy, which is printed in the Collections of Councils. Anastasius, abbot of St. Euthymium, in Palestine ; against whom John I)a- mascenus wrote an epistle ; flourished A.D. 741. He is the author of a Tract against the Jews ; published in a trans- lation by Canisius, Lectt. Antiq. tom. iii. and in the Biblioth. Patr. tom. xiii. Tarasius, patriarch of Constantinople. He was of noble birth, and privy-coun- cillor to the emperor, when the empress Irene, a.d. 785, raised him to the see of Constantinople, and employed him to re- store image-worship iu the East. He presided in the second Nicene council, A.D. 787 ; and wrote several letters, ex- tant in the Collections of Councils. He died A.D. 806. Basil, bishop of Ancyra, a recanter in the second Nicene council, a.d. 787. His recantation, for having opposed image- worship, is published in the Collection of Councils. Elias, metropolitan of Crete, flourished A.D. 787. He wrote Commentaries on Gregoiy Nazianzen's Orations, still ex- tant in a Latin translation ; Answers to questions on cases of conscience, by Dionysius ; extant, Gr. and Lat. His exposition of the Scala of John Climax, is said still to exist in MS. The Latin writers, omitted by Dr. Mos- heim, are nmch more numerous. Acca, a celebrated English monk, of York, who flourished a.d. 705 — 740, and was an intimate of Beda. He accompanied St. Wilfrid to Rome, became bishop of Hexham (Hagulstad) in Northumber- land ; and \VTote lives of the saints of his diocese, several letters, &c. John VII. pope a.d. 705 — 707 ; has left us one Epistle, addressed to Ethel- red, king of Mercia, and Alfrid, king of Deira, respecting Wilfrid, bishop of York ; in the Collections of the Coun- cils. Constantine, pope a. d. 708 — 715 ; was called to Constantinople, a.d. 710, by the emperor, and treated with great respect. His Epistle to Brditwald, arch- bisliop of Canterbury, is extant in the Collections of the Councils. Gregory II. pope a. d. 715 — 731 ; famous for his opposition to Leo. III. the emperor, who endeavoured to sup- press image-worship. He has left us fifteen Epistles, published in the Col- lections of Councils. In his pontificate, the Liber Diurnus, containing the an- cient forms of ])roceeding in the church of Rome, is supposed to have been com- piled. See Cave, Historia Litterar. tom. 1. p. 620, &c. Felix, an English monk, who flourish- ed A. D. 71 5, was a wTiter of some dis- tinction. His life of St. Gnthlac, the anchorite of Croyland, is vbove the ordinary level of the legends of that age. It is in IMabillon, Acta Sanctor. Ord. Belied, tom. iii. p. 256, &c. Heddius, sm-nanied Stephen, an En- glish presbyter and monk, well skilled in CH. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 145 church music. Wilfrid, archbishop of York, invited him from Canterbury, to instruct his clergy in singing, alwutA. d. 720. He composed an elaborate life of archbishop Wilfrid, wliich is in IMabil- lon. Acta Saiictor. Orel. Bened. tom. v. p. 631 — 709. [This author's name seems to be more properly written without the H. Eddy is, in fact, a name yet found in England. His valuable contemporary life of Wilfrid is also printed by Gale in the XV. Scriptores, Oxf. 1691. It oc- cupies forty pages. Ed."] Gregory HI. pope, a. d. 731 — 741. He pursued the contest, begun by his predecessor, against the emperor Leo III. ; and also invited Charles Martcl to aid him against the king of the Lom- bards. He has left us seven Epistles, and a Collection from the ancient ca- nons ; which are extant in Harduin's Concilia. Fredegarins, Scholasticus, a Frank, who flourished A.n. 740, wrote a History, or Chronicon, de Gestis Francorum, from A.D. 596 (where Gegoiy Tm*on. ends) to A.D. 739. It is commonly subjoined to the history of Gregory of Tours. Cutlibert, an English monk of Dur- ham, a disciple and intimate of Bcdc. He wrote the life of Bede ; some letters, &c. Zacharias, a Syrian monk, and pope, A.D. 741 — 752. He has left us eigliteen Epistles ; and a Greek translation of St. Gregoiy's Dialogues. Chrodegand, Chrodcgang, or Rode- gang, a Frank, of noble birth, educated in the court of Charles Martei, and bishop of Metz from a. d. 742 to 76G. He first composed rules for regular ca- nons. See § 14, and note' of this chap- ter, p. 136. Willibald, an English monk, traveller, and bishop of Eichstadt in Germany. He was an assistant of St. Boniface, and wrote his Hfe. See noteS p. 116, above. Stephen H. pope, a.d. 752 — 757, has left us six Epistles, extant in the Collec- tion of Councils. Isidorus, bishop of Badajos (Paccn- sis), in Spain ; flourished a. d. 754. He continued Idacius' supplement to .Je- rome's Chronicon, from a. i>. 609 to a. d. 754. Paul I. pope, A.D. 757 — 767. Twelve Epistles, ascribed to him, arc extant in the Collections of Cotnicils. Aribo, bishoji of Frisingen, a. d. 760 — 783. He was a monk, educated by St. Corbinian ; wliosc successor and biographer he was. See Mabilhjn, Acta Sdnctor. Ord. Brned. torn. iii. p. 470, and iVIeicliclljcek's Iluitoria Frisinycns. tom. i. p. 61, &c. Florus, a monk of St. Trond, in the diocese of Liege, who flourished about A.D. 760, and eidargcd Bede's Marti/ro- logium. Godescalk, a deacon and canon of Liege, who flom-islied about a. d. 780, and wrote the life of St. Laml>ert, bishop of Liege in tliis century. It is extant in Mabillon, Acta Sanctor. ifc. tom. iii. 59. &c. ^ Stephen HI. pope, a.d. 768 — 772, has left us three Epistles, and some Decrees. Hadrian, or Adrian I. pope, a.d. 772 — 795, has left us eighteen Epistles ; an Epitome of Ecclesiastical canons, ad- derssed to Ciiarlemagne ; a collection of canons for tlie use of Ingilram. a l)ishop; and a letter in confutation of Cliarle- magne's books against image-worship. Donatus, a deacon of ^let/., about a.d. 790, who ^^Tote tlie life of St. Trudo, or Trond ; extant in ^Mabillon, Acta Sanc- tor. Ord. Beiicd. tom. ii. p. 1022, &c. Etherius, or Ileterius, bishoj) of Osma in Spain, and Beatus, a Sjjanish presby- ter in tiie Asturias, distinguished them- selves by their opposition to the eiTor of Elipandus, whii'Ii they endeavoured to confute, in a work still extant, in tlic Bi- bVuilli. Pati-mu, tom. xiii. Leo III. poj>e, A.n. 795 — 816; has left us tliirtcen Ei)isties. Leidradns, or Lerdrachus, bishop of Lyons, a.d. 798 — 813; was twice sent into Spain, I)y Ciiarlemagne, to reclaim Felix and Eiipanchis. He has left us three Epistles, and a Tract on Ba])tism. Jesse, or Jessivns, or Tesse, Iiisliop of Amiens, a. d. 799 — 834 ; was nmcli emplojed in embassies, and in civil affiiirs, by Ciiarlemagne and his suc- cessors. He wrote a long Epistle to liis clerg}-, concerning sacred rites, ])artieularly in relation to l)aptism ; still extant in the Bibliotheca I'atrum. Tr.-] VOL. II. 146 liOOK III. — CENTURY VIII. [PART. CHAPTER IIL HISTORY OF RELIGION AND OF THEOLOGY. § I. The Christian doctrine corrupted. — § 2. The piety and morals of this age. — § 3. Exegetical theology. — § 4. Charlemagne's zeal for sacred learning. — § 5. It led to neglect of the Bible. — § 6. Manner of treating didactic theology. — § 7. Practical theology.- — § 8. Polemic theology. — § 9. Origin of the controversy abont images. — § 10. Progress of it under Leo the Isaurian. — § 1 1 . Conflicts of the image- worshippers with the Iconoclasts. — § 12. Progress under Copronymns. — § 1.3. Under Irene. — § 14. Council of Frankfort, — § 15. Controversy respecting the procession of the Holy Spirit. § 1. The fundamental doctrines of the Christian religion were preserved both by the Greek and the Latin writers. This will appear unquestionable to one who shall inspect the Avork of John Damuscenus among the Greeks, on the orthodox faith ; and the prof ession of faith by Charlemagne, among the Latins.' But to this pure seed of the word, more tares were added than can be well imagined. The very nature of religion, and the true worship of God, were corrupted, by those who contended for image-worship, and for similar institutions, with such fierce- ness as excluded all charity. The efficacy of the merits of our Saviour, all acknowledged; and yet all tacitly depreciated them, by maintaining that men can appease God, either by under- going voluntary punishments, or by offering him gifts and presents; and by directing those who were anxious about their salvation, to place confidence in the works of holy men.^ To ' See Charlemagne's Treatise dc Ima- of Leo III. which he sent into the East ; ginibus, lib. iii. p. 259, ed. Henmann. also in Ealuze, tom. vii. p. 18. Add, from among the Greeks, the Pro- ^ [We will quote a few passages as fession of fixith, by Mich. Sjmcellus, pub- jiroof. Bcde says, (lib. i. on Luc. c. i.) lished by Bcrnh. de Montfaucon, in the Decebat, ut, sicut per superbiam primce BibliuthecaCoisli7iiana,\>.90, Sec. — From nostra i)arentis mors in mundum in- among the Latins, an Exposition of the travit, ita dcnuo per ImmiJitatem Maria principal doctrines of rehgion, by Bene- vita; introitus ])andcrctur. — And (lib. iii. diet of Aniane, in Stephen Baluze's Mis- in Job. c. i.) he says : Cum coni'cctus cellanies, tom. v. p. 56, and the Creed homo atque consunii)tus morti ct inferna- CH. III.] RELIGION AND THEOLOGY. 147 explain the other defects and superstitions of the times, would carry us beyond the limits prescribed in this work. § 2. The whole religion or piety of this, and of some subse- quent centuries, consisted in founding, enriching, embellishing, and enlarging churches and chapels ; in hunting after and vene- rating the relics of holy men ; in securing the patronage with God of individuals in heaven, by gifts and superstitious rites and ceremonies; in worshipping the images and statues of saints ; in performing pilgrimages to holy places, especially to Palestine ^ ; and in like practices. In these services, which were supposed to have the greatest efficacy in procuring sal- vation, the virtuous and good were equally zealous with the vicious and profligate ; the latter, that they might cancel their crimes and wickedness ; the former, that they might obtain earthly blessings from God, and secure a more ready admission to heavenly bliss. The true religion of Jesus Christ, if we ex- cept a few dogmas contained in their creeds, was wholly un- known in this age, even to the teachers of the highest rank : and all orders of society from the highest to the lowest, neglect- ing the duties of true piety, and the renovation of the heart, fearlessly gave themselves up to every vice and crime, supposing that God could easily be appeased and become reconciled to them by the intercessions and prayei's of the saints, and by the friendly offices of the priests, the ministers of God. The whole history of these times avouches the truth of these remarks. libus mmistris appropinquaverit, si fiierit sic se ipsiiin Deo fiiciat suave sacrificium. quispiam sanctorum, qui nomcii sancti Schl-I angeli habere iiiereatur ; is pro hujus- ^ [Such pilgrimages were hkewisc modi, qui pro peccatis suis a Deo ita made to Home ; aiul tiiey were called corripitur, poterit impetrare : si de mul- plhjriimuies for Chrixf, aud tlie iicrfonucrs tis opcribus bonis, qiue operari debuerat, of them, Fil<)rims of St. J'cter. Many salteni wnum bonum opus ejus, quod tan- disorders attended these pilgrnnngcs. quam sacrificium pro eo placabile of- Hence Boniface, in a letter to Cuthbert, ferat, valuerit invenirc.— Commenting archbishop of Canterbury, (to be found on Psalm iv. he says of the words. Offer among the Acts of the coujidl of Clovc- the sacrifices cf righteousness, that they shoo, in England, A. u. 747,) desn-ed, mean : Ita dico, ut irascamini ])r;iiteritis that women and nujis might be restram- peccatis, ut sacrificetis sacrificium, id ed from their freipient pilgrnnagcs to est, mortificetis propria vitia vestra, fa- Home : alleging this reason : " Quia ciendo fructus dignos poenitentitii : tan- nuigna ex parte pereunt, paucis rema- tumscilicetprosingalisvosaJfligentes,(\nM\\ nentibus integris. Peri^auca' ennn sunt turn digna expetit pcenitentia : qiwd erit civitates in Lougobartha, vel m Irancui, sacrificium justitia-, id est justum sacri- aut in Gallia, m (luibus non sit adultera ficium. Nam nihil justius est, quam (pii vel meretrLX generis Anglorum ; quod punit aliena peccata, ut puniat propria : scandalum est et tunntudo totius ecclesiaj et ut quisque tantum se atfligat, (pian- vestr*." Sec Ilarduin's Conctlia, torn. ui. tum feedata ejus couscicntia meruit, et ]\ 1950. Sclil.^ I. 2 148 BOOK HI. — CENTURY VIII. [P ART II. § 3. The Greeks thonglit the sacred volume to have been ex- plained sufficiently well by their forefathers. Hence biblical students were considered as effectually served by extracts col- lected from ancient writers who had commented upon Scrip- ture, Avhether well or ill. Hoav judiciously this was done, will appear, among other works, from the Commentary of John Damascenus on St. Paul's epistles compiled from Chrysostom. The Latin interpreters are of two classes. Some, like the Greeks, collect in one body the interpretations of the ancients. One of these was Bede, who took this course in an exposition of St. Paul's epistles, which he drew from Augustine and others.^ The other class made trial of their own skill in expounding the sacred volume ; and among these, Alcuin, Bede, Ambrose Authperi (the interpreter of the Apocalypse), and a few more, stand conspicuous. But these lack the ability requisite for this business; and neglecting altogether the true import of the words, hunt after recondite meanings which they distribute mio i\\Q allegorical, ihQ anagof/ical, and the trojwlogical^ ; that is, they tell us, not what the inspired writers say, but what they vainly suspect those writers would signify to us. As ex- amples, we may name Alcuhi's Commentary on John, Bede's allegorical Explanations of the Books of Samuel, and Charle- magne's Books on Images, in which various passages of Scripture are expounded, according to the customs of the age.*" § 4. Charlemagne's reverence for the sacred volume was so great ^, that it went beyond due bounds ; and led him to be- lieve, the fundamental principles of all arts and sciences to be contained in the Bible; a sentiment which he imbibed, un- doubtedly, from Alcuin, and the other divines whom he was accustomed to hear.^ Hence originated his various efforts to excite the clergy to a more diligent investigation and explana- tion of the sacred books. Laws, enacted by him for this purpose, are still extant ; and there are other proofs that no subject was nearer to his heart.^ That errors in copies of the ■* On the Commentaries of Bede, see i. ]x 138. Rich. Simon, Critique de la Bihliotlmpie " Sec Cliarlemagne, de Imag. lib. i. p. Ecclesiast. de M. da Pin, torn. i. p. 280, 84. 91. 123. 127. 131. 133. 136. 138. 145. &c. Sec also his Exposition of Genesis, 160. 104, 1G5, SiC. passim. derived from the fothers ; in Martenc's ' Idem, dc Imagin. lib. i. p. 44. Thesaurus Anecdotor. tom.v. p. 111. 116. " Idem, de Liutgin. lil). i. p. 231. 236. 140; and the Interpretation of Habak- ® See Jo. Frick, de Canonc Scriptur. kuk ; ibid. p. 295, &c. S. p. 184. * Sec Charlemagne, de Tmaginibus, lib. RELIGION AND THEOLOGY. 149 CH. III.] Latin translation might be no obstacle to his designs, he cm- ployed Alcuin to pick them out and correct them''' ; nay, he himself spent some time, during the last years of his life, upon their correctlon.2 There are those who tell us also, that he procured a translation of the sacred books into German : but others attribute this to his son, Lewis the Pious.^ § 5. These efforts of the emperor, were effective to awaken exertion lu some of the slothful and Indolent. Yet It must be admitted that he inadvertently adopted regulations and plans which defeated, in part, his excellent purposes. In the first place, he sanctioned the practice which had prevailed before his day, of reading and expounding only certain portions of the sacred volume In the assemblies of worship ; and the diverse customs of the diff'crent churches he endeavoured to reduce to one uniform standard.^ In the next place, knowing that few of the clergy were competent to explain the Gospels and Epistles, as the lessons were called ; he directed Paul the Deacon, and Alcuin, to collect Homilies, or discourses on them, out of the ' Cajsar Baronius, Annalcs, ad ami. 778, § 27, &c. Jo. Alb. Fabricius, Bi- hlioth. Lat. Medi'i Moi, torn. i. p. 137. Histoire Litteraire de la France, torn. iv. p. 300. ^ Jo. Alb. Fabricius, Bihlioth. Lat. Medii JEvi, torn. i. p. 950, &c. Jac. Ussher, dc Sacris et Scriptiais Veniaculis, p. 110, &c. [Sec also Schroockli's Kir- chemjesch. vol. xx. p. 196, &c. T/-.] ^ [See Du Chesne, Scriptorcs Hist. Franc, torn. ii. p. 326. 7>.] * It must be acknowledged, that it is a mistake to suppose the emperor Char- lemagne to have first selected tliose portions of the sacred volume, which are still read and expounded, every year, in the assemblies of Christians. For it appears, that in preceding cen- turies, in most of the Latin chui'ches, certain portions of the inspired books were assigned to the several days for public worship. See Jo. Hen. Thainer, Schediasma de Origine et Diynitute Pcri- copanim, qua Evangelia ct Epistohr vulgo vacant} ir ; which has been several times printed. Also, Jo. Fr. Buddeus, Isayoge ad Theologiam, tom. ii. p. 1640, &c. [1426, &c.] Yet Charlemagne had something to do in this matter. For whereas be- fore his time the Latin churches flitVcrcd, or did not all read and cx])ound tlie same portions of the Bible ; he first urdaincd. that all the cinn-ches, throughout his dominions, sliould conform to the custom of the Romish church. For tliose Gos- pels and Epistles, as they arc callcresent, were used at liomc, as early as the sixth century : and it is well known, that Cliarlemagne took pains to render tiie l\omish form of worship the common form of all the Latins. And hence, down to this day, those churches whidi have not adopted the R. 26. '■' [Tlinmas .Viiiiinas and Peter Lom- bard. Ed.] L 4 152 BOOK III. — CENTUKY VIII. [PAIIT II. author systematically framed. Julin CcnyatJiius, among the Greeks, left some hortatory discourses^, containing little that deserves much commendation. In monasteries nothing was approved but opinions of the mystics, and of their father, Dio- nysius the Areopayite, whose work, accordingly, was translated hy Jolin Darensis, a Syriac writer, in order to gratify the monks.^ The Latins proceeded no further, than to advance some precepts concerning vices and virtues, and external actions : and in ex- plaining these, they kept near to the principles of the Peripate- tics, as may be seen in some tracts of Bede, and in Alcuins little work on the virtues and vices.^ To exhibit examples of piety before the public, several considerable men, as Bede, Florus, Alcuin, Marcellimis, and Ambrose Authj)ert, comjjosed biogra- phies of persons who had left high reputations for piety. § 8. Only a moderate number, in this age, entered into con- troversies on important religious subjects ; and, among these, there is hardly an individual who merits commendation. Most of the Greek polemics engaged in the contest about images ; which they managed unskilfully, and without precision. The Latins entered less into this controversy ; and expended more effort in confuting the opinion of jEbpandus, concerning the person of Christ. John Damascenus assailed all the heretics, in a tract, small, indeed, but still not useless. He also con- tended, resolutely, against the Manichreans and Nestorians in particular ; nor did he decline to attack the Saracens. In these writings of his, there is some ingenuity and subtilty, but a want of clearness and simplicity. Anastasius, an abbot of Pales- tine, attempted a confutation of the Jews. § 9. Of the controversies that disquieted this age, the greatest and most pernicious related to the worship of sacred images. Originating in Greece, it thence spread over the East and the West, producing great harm both to the state and to the church. The first sparks of it appeared under Philippicus Bar- danes, who was emperor of the Greeks near the beoinnino* of this century. With the consent of the patriarch John, in the year 712, he removed from the portico of the church of St. Sophia a picture representing the sixth general council, which condemned the Monothelites, whom the emperor was disposed ' Hortatoria capita. ' It is extant in his Works, ccl. of Du - Ji)s. Sim. Asseman, Bibliodt. Oricn- Chcsnc, torn. ii. p 1218 lal. Vatican, luni. ii. p. 120. RELIGION AND THEOLOGY. 153 en. III.] to favour ; and he sent his mandate to Rome, requiring all such pictures to be removed out of the churches. But Constuntine, the Roman pontiff, not only protested against the emperor's edict, but likewise caused pictures of all the six general councils to be placed in the portico of St. Peter's church ; and more- over, having assembled a council at Rome, he caused the em- peror himself to be condemned, as an apostate from the true religion. These first commotions, however, terminated the next year, when the emperor was hurled from the throne.* § 1 0. Under Leo the Isaurian, a very resolute emperor, another conflict ensued, which was far more formidable, grave, and lasting. Unable to bear the incredible superstition of the Greeks, in ho- * See Fred. Spcanlieim, Historia Ima- ginum. restituta ; which was pubhshed, both separately, and in his Works, vol. ii. Maimbourg's history of this contro- versy, in French, is full of fables. Mu- ratori, Annali Wltalia, torn. iv. [For the history of this controversy, see Walch's Historie der Ketzereijen, vol. x. p. 66 — 828, and vol. xi. p. 3—400 ; also Schroeckh, Kircliengesch. vol. xx. p. 513 —602, and vol. xxiii. p. 345—432. The origin of this controversy is not gene- I'ally carried back to the collision of Phi- lippicus with the Roman pontiff, which related, perhaps, wholly to tlie doctrines of the Monothelites ; nor is there good proof, that the pontiff ventured to excom- municate the emperor. See Bower's Lives of the Popes, vol. iii. p. 180, 181. The following remarks of Schlegel are worth inserting in this place. — In order to understand the liistory of this contro- versy, in its whole extent, it is necessary to go back to the earlier histoiy of the church, and to investigate the origin of image-Avorship among Christians. It is certain, and even the impartial Catholics themselves admit it, that in the first three centuries, and also in the beginning of the fourth, pictures were very rarely to be found among Christians. See Du Pin, Bibliotheque, torn. vi. p. 152, and Anton. Pagi, Crit. ad Annul. Baronii, ad ann. 55, p. 43. Indeed there were Chris- tian writers on morals, mIio disapproved of a Chi-istian's pursuing the trade of a painter or statuary. See Tcrtullian, Contra Hermog. c. i. and de Idolulatiia, c. 3. Even in the time of the seventh general council, a.d. 787, the use of statues was not yet introduced into churches; as appears from the seventh Article of that council. Still less did the ancient Chris- tians think of giving worsltip to images. The occasion of introducing images into churches, was in great measure the igno- rance of the peo])lc, which rendered pic- tures a help to them ; wlience they have been called the people's Bihle. On this ground it was, tliat Gregor}- the Great censured Serenas, bi.shop of ]Mai-seilles ; who had removed the pictiu-es out of the chin-ches, on account of the misuse the peojile made of them. Gregory's Epistles lib. ix. cp. 91. Quia eas {imagines) ad- orare vctuisses, omnino laudavimus ;jWgissc vero reprehendimus. To this cause, nniy be added, the superstition of the i)eoi)]e and the monks ; who were influenced very much by sensible objects, and who began, as early as the close of the sixth ccntuiT, to ascribe to the images mira- cles of various kinds. They now began to kiss the images, to burn incense to them, to kneel before them, to ligiit up wax candles for tliem, to expect wmiders to be \\Tought l>y them, to jilace infanl.s in their arms, at baptisms, as if they were godfatlicrs and godmotlicrs ; to cany them with them in their military expeditions, to secure a victor}*, and give confidence to the soldiers ; and in taking an oath, to lay their hand on tlieni, just as u])on the cross, and upon the Gosjtels. Indeed, nearly the whole of religion, in this century, coiisisted in the worship of images. In jtarticular, tlic superstitious worship of images pro- ceeded so far among the Greeks, that the ridi, at Constantinople, used to send their bread to the churches, and have it held up before an image jireviously to eating it. Schlegel's note. TV.] 154 BOOK III, — CENTURY VIII. [PART II, uouring sacred images, which Saracens and Jews laughed at, Leo issued an edict in the year 726, for the complete extirpation of so great an evil. By this he ordered all images of saints, excepting that of Christ on the cross, to be removed out of churches ; and the worship of them to be wholly discontinued and abrogated. In this proceeding, the emperor obeyed the dictates of his own feelings, which were naturally strong and precipitate, rather than the suggestions of prudence, which recommends the ex- tirpation of inveterate superstitions gradually and insensibly. Hence a civil war broke out ; first in the islands of the Archi- pelago, and a part of Asia ; and afterwards in Italy. For the people, either spontaneously, or under instigation of the priests and monks, who found images a source of gain, considered the emperor as an apostate from true religion ; and therefore thought themselves freed from their oath of allegiance, and from the duty of obeying him. § 11. In Italy, the Roman pontiffs, Gregory II. and Gregory III, were the principle authors of a revolt. The former of these pontiffs, when Leo would not at his bidding revoke the edicts against images, did not hesitate to say, that the emperor, in his view, had rendered himself unworthy of the name and the pri- vileges of a true Christian. This opinion being known, the Romans and other people of Italy who were under the Greeks, violated their allegiance, and either massacred or expelled Leo's governors. Exasperated by these things, the emperor began to think of making war upon Italy, and especially upon the pon- tiff: but circumstances prevented him. Hence, in the year 730, fired witli resentment and indignation, he vented his fury against images, and their Avorshij)pers, much more violently than before. For having assembled a council of bishops, he deposed Germanus, bishop of Constantinople, who ftivourcd images, and substituted Anastasias in his place ; commanded that images should be committed to the flames ; and inflicted various punishments upon the advocates of them.'' Tlie eon- ' [Leo was led on to one degree of urged, that the emperor should remain innovation after another, by the oppo- quiet, and not bring the subject under sition made to his measures, by the agitation. Leo's first requisition was, friends of images. At first, he proceeded that the images should be Imng liiyher, in in the ordinary and legal way. He the churches. But, in this, the patriarch wished to have the subject discussed and Gcnnanus opposed him. And as the determined, in a general Council. Bnt opposition of this man was confined to the pope would not agree to it ; and no limits, he \vas deposed ; yet the cm* RELIGION AND THEOLOGY. 155 cn. iil] sequence of this severity Avas, that the Christian chiircli be- came deplorably rent into two parties ; that of Image-slaves, or Image-icorshippers, and that of Image-foes, or Image-breakers^, which furiously contended, with mutual invectives, enormities, and assassinations. The course commenced by Gregory II. was warmly prosecuted by Gregory III ; and although we cannot determine, at this distance of time, tlie precise degree of fault in either of these prelates, thus much is unquestionable, that the loss of their Italian possessions which the Greeks underwent in this contest, is to be attributed chiefly to the zeal of these pon- tiffs in behalf of images.^ § 12. The son of Leo, Con.stantine, who was surnamed Copro- nymus *, by the furious crowd of Image-worshippers, after he came to the throne A. D. 741, trod in his father's steps : for he peror allowed him, as we are infonned by Thcoplianes, to spend his life quietly, in his father's house. Next followed the edict of the emperor, by which he forbade the rvorshipping of images ; and required their removal, if the woi'ship of them could not be prevented by the mere proliibition. And it was not, till after the horrible tumult at Constanti- nople, and the insuiTections of the Italian provinces, that he ordered all images upon the cliurch walls to be effaced, and the walls to be whitewashed ; and the moveable images to be earned away, and burned ; and laid heavy punishments upon the riotous monks and blind zea- lots, who insulted him to his face, with the title of Antichrist, a second Judas, &c. See Spanheira, loc. cit. p. 115, &c. and Basnage, he. cit. tom. ii. p. 1278. Schl.'] ^ Icdiuidulontm sen Iconolatnirum, et Iconoinacltoniiii seu Iconoclasturum. ' The Gieek writers tell us, that both Gregories debanxnl Leo, and his son Const antine, fi-oni the sacred com- munion ; absolved the people of Italy from their oath of allegiance, and for- bade their paying their taxes, or perfomi- ing any act of obedience. And the ad- vocates of the Roman pontiffs, Baronius, Sigonius, {de Jiegno Italia,) and nume- rous others, who follow after these wri- ters, admit, that all these things were facts. Yet some very learned men, par- ticularly among the French, maintain, that the Gregories did not commit so gross offences ; they deny that the pon- tiffs either excommunicated the em- perors, or absolved tlie people from their allegiance and their duties to them. See Jo. Launoi, Ejnstohr. lib. \'\\. op. vii. p. 4.56, in ills Opp. tom. v. ])t. ii. Natal. Alexander, liistor. Eccles. Selecta Capita, sivcul. viii. diss. i. p. 456. Peter I)c Marca, de Concordia Saccrdolii cl Im- perii, Iil). iii. c. xi. Jac. Ik-n. Bossuet, Defensio Declarationi.i Cleri Gallic, de Potest. Eccle.sia.stica, ]M. i. lib. vi. c. xiL p. 197. Giannone, Histoire Civile de Naples, tom. i. j). 400. These rest chiefly upon the authority of the Latin writers, Anastasius, Pauhis Diacomis, and otliers; who not only are silent as t(j this auda- city of the pontiffs in assailing and c(jm- bating the emperors, but also tell us, that they gave some proofs of their loyidty to the emperors. The fiicts cannot be fully ascertained, on account of tiic ob- scurity in the history of those times ; and the (|Ucstion must be left nn(k'ci(led. Yet this is certain, that tiiose jiontitrs, liy tlieir zeal for image-worship, occasioned the revolt of their Italian subjects from the Greek emperors. [The arguments adduced by the apologists for the pojics, above named, seem to be conclusive as to this ])oint, that the popes did not then feel themselves to have jurisdictian over kings and emperors, or to iiave authority to dethrone them, and to transfer their dominions to other sovereigns. In par- ticular, Gregory II. stated very well the bouiidaiy between civil and ecclesiastical jiower, and rejiroaclied I^eo witii over- leaping that boundary. TV.] " ['• Tliis nick-name was given to Con- staiitine, from his iiaving defiled the sacred font at his baittism." Mad.] 156 BOOK III. — CENTUllY VIII. [PART II; liiboured with equal vigour to extirpate the worsliip of images, whatever might be the machinations of the Roman pontiff, and the monks. But he acted with more moderation than his father : for being aware that the Greeks were governed entirely by the authority of councils, in religious matters, he collected a council of eastern bishops, at Constantinople, in the year 754, to examine and decide this controversy. By the Greeks this is called the seventh general council. The bishops pronounced sentence, as was customary, according to the views of the em- peror, and therefore condemned images.^ The pertinacitj^, how- ever, of the superstitious, who were carried away by their zeal for images, was not to be overcome by these decisions. None made greater resistance than the monks ; who did not cease to embarrass the government, and work upon the people. Con- stantine, therefore, moved with just indignation, punished many of them in various ways ; and even made new laws for setting bounds to the fury of this turbulent class. Leo IV., who suc- ceeded to the throne, a.d. 775, on the death of Constantine, was of the same mind with his father and grandfather. When, ac- cordingly, he saw it quite impossible to move the abettors of ^ [This council was composed of 338 been destroyed by the patrons of image bishops; a greater number than had ever worsliip ; except so much of them, as before been assembled in any council, the second Nicene council saw fit to quote, In his circular letter for calling the for the piu'pose of confuting them, in council, the emperor directed the bishops their sixth Act. (Harduin's Concilia, to hold provincial councils, throughout tom. iv. p. 325 — 444.) From these quo- tlie empire, for discussion of the subject ; tations it appears, that the council deli- so that, when met in the general coun- berated soberly, and reasoned discreetly, cil, they might be prepared to declare from scripture and the flithcrs ; that the sense of the whole church. The theymaintaiued, that all ?/wsA/)} of images council held its sessions in the imperial was contrary to scripture, and to the palace of Hiera, o^'cr against the city on sense of the cluu'ch in the purer ages ; the Asiatic shore ; and deliberated, from that it was idolatry, and forbidden by the tenth of Febniary till the seventh of the second commandment. They also August ; when they adjourned to the maintained thatl the use of images in church of St. Mary ad Elachcrnas, in churches and places of worship, was a Constantinople, and there puhlislied their custom borrowed from the pagans ; that decrees. The patriarch of Constanti- it was of dangerous tenilency, and ought iiople, Anastasius, died a few days before to be abolished. They accordingly the council met ; and the emperor would enacted canons, expressive of these vicAvs, not appoint a successor to that see, till and requiring a corresponding practice, the deliberations of the council were See Walch's Hist, der Kirchcnvcrsavmd. closed ; lest it should be thought, he p. 463, &c. Cave, Hist. Liitirariii, vol. ])laced a creature of his own at the head i. p. G46, &c. Bower's Lires of the Popes, uf it. Of course, two other bishops, vol. iii. p. 357 — 368, ed. 1754. On the namely, Thcodosius, exarch of Asia, and side of the Romanists, may be considted I'astillus, metropolitan of Pamphylia, Baronius, Aimales ; and Pagi, Critica, ])resiilcd in the council. Its Acts and ad ann. 751. 7V.] ileliberations have all perished, or rathei", RELIGION AND THEOLOGY. 157 CIL III.] images by mild and gentle measures, he coerced them with penal statutes. § 13. Leo IV. however, being removed by poison, through the wickedness of his perfidious Avife Irene^ in the year 780, images became triumphant. For that guilty woman, who go- verned the empire during the minority of her son Constantine, with a view to establish her authority, after entering into a league with Hadrian, the Koman pontiff, assembled a council at Nice in BIthynia, in the year 786, which is known by the title of the second Nicene council. Here, the laws of the emperors, together with the decrees of the council of Constantinople, were abrogated ; the worship of images, and of the cross, was estab- lished ; and penalties were denounced against those who should maintain that nothing but God was to be worshipped and adored. It is impossible to conceive any thing more puerile and weak, than the arguments and proofs by which these bishops support their decrees.^ Nevertheless, the Romans ' Martin Chemnitz, Examen Concilii Trident, pt. iv. loc. ii. cap. v. p. 52, ed. Francf. 1707. Jac. Lcntant, Preservatif contre la Reunion avec le Siege dc Rome, pt. iii. litter, xvii. p. 446. — [Irene was, imdoubtedlj, an ungodly, hypocri- tical, ambitious woman ; eager after power, and from this passion prone to all, even the most unnatural cruelties ; and she was, at the same time, much devoted to image-worship. Her first step was, to graTit liberty to every one, to make use of images in his private worship. She next removed Paul, the patriarch of Constantinople, because ho was an Ico- noclast ; and made Tarasius her secre- tary, who was devoted to images and to her, to be patriarch. And as the im- perial guards were inclined to iconoclasm, and might give her trouble, she caused them to be marched out of the city, inider pretence of a foreign invasion, and then disbanded them. At last, she called, in the name of her son Constantine, M-ho was a minor, the council of Nice. Tara- sius directed the whole proceedings. Yet there were two papal envoys pre- sent. In the Acts, which mc still have entu-e, (in Karduin's Collection, torn. iv. p. 1 — 820,) there is mention of the re- presentatives (TOTTOTTJpTJToiv) of tllC tWO eastern patriarclis, tliosc of Alexandria and Antioch. But according to credible accounts, under this higli title, two mise- rable and illiterate monks were desig- nated ; Mhom tlicir fellow monks liad arbitrarily appointed, and whom forged letters legitimated. The bisho])s assem- bled, were at least ."550. Besides these two officers of the court were present, as commissioners ; and a whole army of monks. At first, Constantinojile was aji- pointed for the place of meeting. But the Iconoclasts, who had tlie greater part of the army on their side, raised such a tumult, that the cmjn'css postponed the meeting and changed the place to Nice. In the seventli Act of this coun cil, tlie decree was made, that the cross, and tlie images of Clu-ist, ^lary, the angels, and the saints, were entitled to religious worshiji (ti,ut)ti/c7; irpoaKvini- o-is) ; that it was proper to kiss them, to burn incense to them, and to light up candles and lamps before tliem ; yet thcv were not entitled to divine trorship (\aTpfia). The jiroofs adduced by these fatliers, in sujijiort of their decree, and their confutations of the contrary doc- trine, betray tlic gi'osscst ignorance, and a total want of critical sagacity, if not also intentional dishonesty. Their Acts arc full of fabulous talcs of the wonders wrought by images, of ap- peals to the apocnphal Imoks, of per- versions of the declarations of the fathers, and of other faults and i)ucrile argu- ments. Even l)u Tin and Pagi cannot 158 BOOK III. — CENTURY VIII. [part II. would have the authority of these decrees to be sacred and in- vlc)lal)le; and the Greeks were as furious against those who refused to obey them, as if they had been parricides and traitors. The other enormities of the flagitious Irene, and her end, which befitted her crimes -, it belongs not to this history to narrate. § 14. In these contests, most of the Latins, — as the Britons, the Germans, and the French, took the middle ground between the contending parties ; for they decided that images were to be retained, indeed, and to be placed in the churches ; but that no religious worship could be ofi:ered to them, without dishonour- ing the Supreme Being. ^ In particular, Charlemagne, at the suggestion of the French bishops, who were displeased with the Nicene decrees, first caused four books concernimj images to be drawn up by some learned man, which he sent, in the year 790, to the Roman pontiff, Hadrian, in order to draw him off from approving the Nicene decrees. In this work, the argu- ments of tlie Nicene bishops in defence of image-worship, arc acutely and vigorously combated.'' But Hadrian, unable to deny the fact. And it is strange, lioAv it was possiljle, for doctrines siip- ])ortcd l)y such fiilse reasonings, to be- come the prevailing doctrines of the wliole church. See Walch's Historie der Kirchenversamml. p. 477, &c. ScM. — Du Pin really exposes the ignorance, or dis- lionesty, certainly the misrepresentations and absurdities, advanced by this coun- cil, at great length. {New Eccles. Hist. Engl. Transl. vi. 139.) Undoubtedly, ■whatever may be thought of the deci- sion to which this assembly committed itself, no wcU-informeil person can deny that more contemptible jdeadings have rarely been heard with aj)plause by any body of educated men. We cannot won- der that Mahumedans throve and scoffed, when they were surrounded by Christians wearing very nnicli the appearance of Pagans, and able to justify a sijcctacle, so inconsistent with the leiier of Scrip- lure, by no better reasons than those which gave satisfaction at Nice. Ed.'] - This most atrocious woman pro- cured the death of her own son Constan- tine in order that she might reign alone. But in the year 802, she was banished, by the emperor Nicephoi-us, to the island of Lesbos ; where she died the year fol- lowing. ■' For the abhorrence of the Britons of image-worship, see Plenr. Spelman, ad Concilia Magna Britannia, torn. i. p. 73, &c. * These books of Charlemagne, de Imaginibus, are still extant ; republish- ed, when become veiy scarce, with a veiy learned preface, by Christoph. Aug. Heumann, Hanover, 1731, 8vo. The venerated name of the emperor Charlemagne is attached to the work ; but it is easy to discover that it was the production of a learaed man, bred in tlie schools ; or of a theologian, and not of the cmperoi-. Some very learned men have conjectm-ed, that Charlemagne employed Alcuin, his preceptor, to draw up the book. See Heumann's Preface, p. 51, and the illustrious Bimau, His- toria Imperii Gemianici, torn. i. p. 490. Nor would I contemn the conjecture. And yet it appears to me some\\hat doubtful ; for when these books were written, Alcuin was resident in England; as is manifest from his history, he hav- ing gone to England in 789, M-hence he did not return till the year 792. [Al- cuin seems to have returned at the close of that, or at the beginning of the fol- lowing year. In 792, Ilovcden says, Charlemagne sent to Britain that sipiudal hook, directed to liim from Constantinople, in ivhich were found many things incon- CH. III.] RELIGION AND THEOLOGY. 159 bear such a master, illustrious as he was, controverted liis positions in a formal treatise. Wherefore Charlemcujiie assem- bled, in the year 794, a council of 300 bishops at Frankfort-on- the-Maine ; in order to re-examine this controversy. The council approved the sentiments contained in the books of Charlemagne ; and forbade the loorship of images.-^ Thus it did not seem yet to the Latins of that age an impiety to charge error upon the Roman pontiff, and to treat his decision with neglect. § 15. While these contests about images were raoinij, another controversy sprang up, between the Greeks and the Latins, respecting the procession of the Holy Spirit; which the Latins contended, was from both the Father and the Son ; but the Greeks, that it was only from the Father. The orio-in of this controversy is involved in much obscurity : but as it is certain that the subject came up in the council of Gentilly near Paris, A. D. 767, and was there agitated with the ambassadors of the Greek emperor'', it is most probable that the controversy originated in Greece, amidst the collisions respecting- imafres. As the Latins defended their opinion on this subject, by appealing to the Constantinopolitan creed, which the S{)aniard3 first, and afterwards the French, had enlarged (though at what time, or on what occasion, is not known), by adding the words (Jilioque) and from the Son, to the article concerning the Holy Spirit; the Greeks charged upon the Latins the audacity of corrupting the creed of the church universal, by this interpola- tion, which they denominated sacrilege. From a contest about a doctrine, therefore, it became a controversy about the inser- venient and contrary to the true faith, and Italy. Delegates from tlic ]iopc were against which Alcuin wrote his admir- present. Charlemagne presided. Two able epistle. There was ami)Ie time, subjects were discussed : the heresy of therefore, to prepare an enlarged and Felix of Urgcl ; and the sulijeet of improved form of this epistle for the Image- worship. Charlemagne laid his council of Frankfort in 794, and dates, books, de Lmujinilnis, befure the council. instead of invalidating Alcuin's claim to The council approvcil of them ; and the authorship of the Caroline books, passed resolves in conformity witli them; really confirm it. Ed.'\ that is, disapproving of the decisions of * Sec, especially, Jo. Mabillon, who is the Nicene council ; and deciding, that likewise ingenuous on this subject, in while images were to \^c retained in his Pra-f. ad Acta Sanctor. Ord. Bened. churches as ornamental and instructive, torn. V. p. V. &c. also Geo. Dorscheus, yet no kind of worship ^vllatevcr was to Collatio ad Concilium Francfordiense, Ar- be given to them. See ^Valch■s Historie gentor, 1649, 4to. [The council of Frank- der Kirchenversamvduuycn, p. 48;J, and fort was properly a general council ; for llarduin's Concilia, torn. iv. p. 904, can. it was assendjled from all the countries 2. 7>.] subject to Charlemagne ; Germany, " See Car. Ic Cointe, Annaks Ecclc- France, Aquitaiu, Gaul, Spain, and siast. Fratwor. tonu v. p. 698. 160 BOOK III. — CENTURY VIII. [part II. tion of a word.^ In the following century this dispute became more violent, and accelerated the separation of the eastern church from the western.^ CHAPTEK IV. HISTORY OF RITES AND CEREMONIES. § 1. Ceremonies miilliplicd. • — § 2. Zeal of Charlemagne for the Romish rites. § 1. The religion of this century consisted almost wholly in ceremonies and external marks of piety. It is, therefore, not strange, that every where more solicitude was manifested for multiplying and regulating these, than for correcting the vices of men, and removing their ignorance and impiety. The mode of celebrating the Lord's supper, which passed for the most important part of God's worship, was every where lengthened and deformed, rather than embellished, by various formalities.' ' Men of eminence for learning have generally supposed, that tliis controversy commenced respecting the word filiogne, which some of the Latins had added to tlie Constantinopolitan creed, and that, from disputing about the tvord, they proceeded to dispute about the thing. See, above all others, Jo. Mabillon, (whom very many follow,) Acta Sanctor. Ord. Bened. tom. v. Prajf. p. iv. But witli due deference to those great men, I would say, the fact appears to have been otherwise. The contest commenc- ed respecting the doctrine, and after- wards extended to the word Jiliuque, or to the interpolation of tlie creed. From the council of Gentilly it is manifest, tliat the dispute about the doctrine had exist- ed a long time when tlie dispute about the word commenced. Ant. Pagi, Cri- tica in Baronium, tom. iii. p. 323, thinks, that the controversy grew out of the contest respecting images ; that, because the Latins pronounced the Greeks to be heretics for op])osing images, the Greeks retaliated the charge of heresy upon the Latins for holding, that the Holy Spirit proceeded from the Son as well as the Father. But this is said witliout au- thority and without proof; and is there- fore only a probable conjectiu'e. * See Pet. Pithoeus, Historia Contro- vcrsia de Processione Spiritiis Sancti; sub- joined to his Codex Canoiutm Ecclcssia: Eoman. p. 35.5, &c. ]\Iich. le Qnien, Oriens Christinniis, tom. iii. p. 354. Gerh. Jo. Vossius, de Tribus Sijmbolis, diss. iii. ]x 65, but esjiecially Jo. Geo. Walch, Historia Controversice de Processione Spi- ritiis Sanct. Jcuic, 1751, 8vo. ' [We here subjoin a few facts, from wliich it will appear, how much super- stition then dishonoured this holy ordi- nance of Christ. Pope Gregory III. among his decisions (in Harduin's Co7i- cilia, tom. iii. p. 1826, no. 28.) gives the following : " If any one, tlirough negli- gence, shall destroy the eucharist, i. e. the sacrifice, let him do penance one year, or tln-ec Quadrigesimas. If he lets it fall on the ground carelessly, he must sing fifty psalms. Whijcver' neg- lects to take care of the sacrifice, so that worms get into it, or it lose its colour, cir. iv.l RITES AND CEREMONIES. IGl Manifest traces of private and solitary masses, as they are called, are now distinctly visible ; although it is uncertain, whether they were sanctioned by some law, or introduced by the authority of individuals.- As this one practice may suffice; to show the ignorance and degeneracy of the times, it is not necessary to mention others. § 2. Charlemagne, it must be acknowledged, was disposed to impede the progress of superstition to some extent. For, be- sides forbidding the worship of images as we have already seen, he limited the number of the holydays ^ would not allow bells to be consecrated with water "*, and made other commendable regulations. Yet he did not effect much, and chiefly from this cause, among others, that he favoured excessively the lloman pontiffs, whose patronage was enjoyed by the lovers of ceremo- nies. His father, Pijnn, had before required the mode of sing- ing practised at Kome to be every where introduced.^ Tread- ing in his steps, and obeying repeated exhortations from the pontiff Hadrian, Charlemagne used every exertion to make all churches of the Latins not only copy the Romans in this matter, 01- taste, must do penance thirty or twenty days ; and the sacrifice must be burned in the fire. Whoever turns up the cup at the close of the solemnity of the mass, must do penance forty days. If a drop from the cup should fall on the altar, the minister must suck up the drop, and do penance three days ; and the linen cloth, which the drop touched, must be washed three times, over the cup, and the water in which it is washed be cast into the lire." This same p;is- sage occurs in the Capitula of Theodore, archbishop of Canterbury, cap. 51. Schl.-] * See Charlemagne, de Imaginibus, lib. ii. p. 245. Geo. CalLxtus, de Missis Su- litariis, § 12, and others. [The private, or solitary masses, were so called, to dis- tinguish them from the public, or those in which the eucharist was imparted to the congregation ; and they were masses in which the priest alone jjartook of tlic eucharist. The introduction of these private masses led to a more rare distri- bution of the eucharist to the assembly ; at first, only on the three principal festi- vals ; and at length but once a year. ^ [At the Council of Mayencc, a.d. 813, (Harduin, Concil. torn. iv. p. 1015, Can. 24 — 28,) the number of fast and VOL. II. M feast days was defined, according to tlic pleasure of Constantine, as follows. Four great fasts ; namely, the first week in March, the second week in June, the third week in Sei)tcnil)cr, and the last full week in December, ju'cvious to C'ai-istnias day. In all these weeks there were to be public litanies and masses, at nine o'clock on the Wednesdays, Fri- days, and Saturdays. The festiials, in addition to all the Sundays of the year, were to be Easter tlay, with tlie whole week ; Ascension day ; Wliitsunday ; tlie nativity (martyrdom) of St. Peter and St. Paul ; of St. John Baptist ; the As- sumption of St. Mary ; the dedication of St. jMiciiael ; nativities of St. Rcniigius, St. INIartin, St. Andrew ; Christnuis, four days ; the first day of January ; tiie Epi- phany ; and tiie purification of St. Mary ; together with the festivals of the mar- tyrs and confessors interred in each parish ; aiul the dedication of a church, Tr.-] * [Among the Capitida of Charle- magne, as given by Harduin {Concilia, tom. iv. p. 846.) there is one, No. 18, " Lt cloaca non baptizentur." 7>.] ^ [See the CupHnlarc Afpiisgrancnse, No. so, in llarduin's Concilia, tom. iv. p. 843. 7>.] 132 BOOK III. CENTURY VIII. [PAET II. but also seek the whole form of divine Avorship from Rome.^ There were, however, a few churches, as those of Milan, Chur, and others, which could not be induced in any way to change their old mode of worshipping God. CHAPTER Y. HISTORY OF HERESIES. § 1 . Ancient sects recovei' strength. — § 2. Clement and Adalbert. — § 3. Felix and Elipandus. § 1. The ancient sects, the Avians, Manichceans, and Marcion- ites, though so often repressed by penal laws, acquired new streno-th in the East ; and allured many to join them, amidst those calamities with which the Greek empire was perpetually struo-fling.^ The Monothelites, to whose cause the emperor Pliilijjpicus and other persons of distinction were well-wishers, began to revive in many places. The condition also of the Nestorians - and Monophysites ^ was easy and agreeable, under the dominion of the Arabians ; nor were they without ability to annoy the Greeks, their foes, and to find new openings for pro- pagating their faith. * See Cbarlemagne, de Imaginihus, of the divisions cansed by them. But lib. i. p. 52. Eginhard, de Vita Caroli as these had no iniliience on the churches Magni, c. 26, p. 94, ed. Bessel. and of Europe, we may pass them by. See others. Baumgarten's Auszug der Kirchengesch. ' Among the barbarous nations of vol. iii. p. 1315, &c. Schl.'] Europe also, there were some Arians ^ [Of the Monophysite patriarchs and remaining. writers, we also obtain some knowledge - [From Asseman we obtain some from Asseman. Conspicuous as writers knowledge of the Nestorian patriarchs ; among them were, Elias of Sigara, who the most distinguished of whom were commented on the books of Gregory the following. Ananjesu, under Avhom Nazianzcn ; and Theodosius of Edessa, the Sigan monument was erected a. d. who wrote poems. Among the Maron- 781. Timotheus, who succeeded Anan- ites, the patriarch Theophilus obtained jesu, and greatly extended the sect by renown. He ajipcars to have been the the conversion of pagan nations near the same person with that Maronite author Caspian sea, and in Tartary. He left of the same name, who lived about a. d. many sermons, an exposition of John's 785, and who not only translated Homer Gospel, ecclesiastical canons, polemic into S}Tiac, but also composed large writings, a treatise on astronomy, and historical works. See Baumgarten, as two hundred letters. From him we get above, p. 1318. Schl.'] knowledge of several other wTiters, and SCHISMS AND HERESIES. 1G3 C H. v.] § 2. In the new Germanic church, which i?ow/f«ce built up, there were many people, perverse and void of true religion, if w c may believe him and his friends. But it can scarcely be so, because it appears, from many circumstances, that the persons whom he calls patrons of error were Irishmen, Franks, and others, that would not subject themselves to the control of the Roman pon- tiff, which Boniface Avas labouring to extend. Among others, the most troublesome to him were Adalbert, a Frenchman who obtained consecration as a bishop, against the will of Boniface ; and also Clement, a Scot, or Irishman. The former, who made a disturbance in Franconia, appears to have been not altogether free from error and crime '^ ; for, not to mention other instances of his disregard to truth, there is still extant an Epistle, which he falsely asserted was written by Jesus Christ, and brought down from heaven by Michael the archangel.'^ The latter ex- * See Histoire Litteraire de la France, torn. iv. p. 82, &c. ^ The Epistle is published by Steph. Baluze, in the Capitularia liajum Fnin- corum, torn. ii. p. 1396. [Semler, in his Hist. Eccles. selecta Capita, torn. ii. p. 185, &c. conjectures, that this Epistle was fabricated by the enemies of Adal- bert, and palmed upon him for the sake of injuring him. This, however, is doubtful. The caption of the Epistle purports, that it is an Epistle of our Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, which fell down at Jerusalem, and was found hy the archangel Michael near the gate of Ephraim ; that a priest read it, transcribecl it, and sent it to another priest, who sent it into Arabia. After passing through many hands, it came at length to Kome, &c. Accompany- ing this letter, as transmitted l)y Bo- niface to the pope, was a biography of Adalbert ; which stated, that his mo- ther had a marvellous dream, before his birth, which was interpreted to sig- nify, that her child would be a distin- guished man : also a prayer, said to have been composed by him, in which he in- voked four or five angels by name, that are not mentioned in the Bible. Tiie let- ter of Boniface, containing the accusa- tion against both Adalbert and Clement, states, that Bonifiice had now laboiu'cd thkty years among the Franks, in the midst of great trials and opposition fi'om wicked men ; that his chief reliance had been on the protection of the Roman pontiifs, whose plcasm-c he had always followed ; that his greatest trouble liiid been with " tiro most base public heretics and blasphemers of God and the catholic faith," Adalbert a Frenchman, and Cle- ment a Scotchman, who held different er- rors, but loere equal in amount of crimina- liti/. /Vnd he prays the pontitf to defend him against tliese men ; and to restrain them by imprisonment and cxcomnmni- cation from annoying the churdics. F<.)r, said he, " On account of these men, I incur persecution, and the enmity and curses of many people ; aiul tlie church of Chi'ist suficrs obstructions to the ])ro- gress of the faith and holy doctrine." Of Adalbert he says : " The pcojdc say, respecting him, that I have deprived them of a most holy apostle, patron and intercessor, a worker of miracles, and a shower of signs. But your ])iety will judge from his works, after hearing his life, whether he is not one clad in siieep's clotiiing, but within a ravening wolf. For he Wiis a hypocrite in early life, asserting that an angel, in human form, brought to him from distant countries relics, of marvellous sanctity, but of whom it was uncertain ; and that, by means of these relics, he could ol)tain from God whatever lie asked. And then, with tins pretence, as Paul predicted, he entered into many houses, and led captive silly women, laden with sins and canieil away by divers lusts ; and he seduced a nmltitude of the nistics, who said that he was a man of apostolic 164 BOOK III. —CENTURY VIII. [rART II celled, perhaps, Boniface himself, in his knowledge of the true religion of Christ ; and he is, therefore, not improperly placed by many among the witnesses for the truth in this barbarous age.^ Both were condemned by the Roman pontiff Zachurias, at the instigation of Boniface, in a council at Rome, A.D. 748. And both, it appears, died in prison. § 3. INIuch greater commotions were produced in Spain, France, and Germany, towards the close of the centviry, by Felix bishop of Urgel, in Spain, a man distinguished for his piety. Being consulted by ElijKindiis, archbishop of Toledo, respecting his opinion upon the sonship of Christ, the Son of God, he answered, in the year 783, that Christ, as God, was by nature, and truly, the Son of God ; but that as a man, he was the Son of God only in name, and hy adoption. This doctrine. sanctitj', and wrought signs and won- ders. He next hired some ignorant bishops to ordain him, contrary to the canons, without assigning him a specific chai'ge. He now became so insolent, as to assume equahty with the apostles of Christ ; and disdained to dedicate a church to any apostle or martyr ; and repi'oaclied the people for being so eager to visit the thresholds of the holy apos- tles. Afterwards he ridiculously con- secrated oratories to his own name ; or rather delilcd them. He also erected small crosses, and houses for prayer, in the fields, and at fountains, and where- cver he saw fit ; and directed public prayers to be there offered ; so that great multitudes, despising the bishops, and forsaking the ancient churches, held their religious meetings in such places, and would say. The merits of St. Adal- bert wiU aid us. He also gave his nails and locks of his hair to be kept in re- membrance of him, and to be placed with the relics of St. Peter, the prince of apostles. And finally, what appears the summit of his wickedness and blasphemy against God, when people came anil prostrated themselves before him, to confess their sins, he said : I know all your sins, for all secrets are known to me ; return secm-ely, and in peace, to your habitations. And all that the lioly Gospel testifies as done by hy]M)- crites he has imitated, in his dress, his walk, and his deportment." — The Epis- tle tlien describes the wickedness of Cle- ment, thus : " The otlicr heretic, whose name is Clement, opposes the catholic church, and renounces and confutes the canons of the church of Christ. He re- fuses to abide by the treatises and dis- courses of the holy fathers, Jerome, Au- gustine, and Gregory. Despising the decrees of councils, he affirms, that, in his opinion, a man can be a Christian bishop, and bear the title, after being the fiithcr of two sons, begotten in adul- tery [i.e. in clerical wedlock']. Intro- ducing Judaism again, he deems it right for a Christian, if he pleases, to marry the widow of his deceased brother. Also, contrary to the faith of the holy fathers, he maintains, that Christ, the Son of God, descended into hell, and liberated all that were tliere detained in prison, believers and unbelievers, M-orshippers of God and worshippers of idols. And many other horrible things he affirms respecting divine predestina- tion, and contravenuig the cathohc faith." See Ilarduin's Concilia, tom. iii. p. 1936 —1940. 7V.] '* Tlie errors of Clement are enume- rated by Boniface, Epist. cxxxv. p. 189. [Sec tliem stated in the concluding part of the preceding note. 7>.] Among these errors, there is certainly no one that is capital. See Jac. Ussher, Sylloge Epistular. Hibernicar. p. 12, and Nou- veaiu- Dictionnaire Histor. Crit. tom. i. p. 133, &c. [For the history of the con- troversy with both Adalbert and Cle- ment, see Walch's Historie der Ketze- reyeii, torn. x. p. 3 — 66. 7V.] SCHISMS AND HERESIES. Ifio CH. v.] which he had imbibed from his preceptor, Elipandiis disseminated in the provinces of Spain, while Felix himself; its author, spread it in SeptimaniaJ But in the view of the ipontiW Hadrian, and of most of the Latin bishops, this opinion seemed to revive the error attributed to Nestorius, and to divide Christ into two persons. Hence Felix was judged guilty of heresy, and required to change his opinion ; first, in the council of Narbonne, a. d. 788, then at Eatisbon, in Germany, a.d. 792; also at Frankfort-on-the- Maine, a.d. 794 ; and afterwards at Rome, a.d. 799 ; and lastly in the council of Aix-la-Chapelle. lie did change his opinion ostensibly, but not in reality; for he died in it, at Lyons, whither he was banished by Cliurlemafjnc^ Xo rule of faith could be imposed upon £lipandus, by the Christians, because he lived under the Saracens in Spain. JNlany believe, and not without reason, that the disciples of Felix, who were called Adoptionists, differed from other Christians, not in reality, but only in words, or in the mode of stating their views.^ But as Felix was not uniform in his language, those Avho accuse him of the Nestorian error, have some grounds to go upon. ' [Or Languedoc. 7;-.] * The authors ■n^lio have treated of tlie sect of Fehx, ai"e enumerated hy Jo. Alb. Fabricius, in his Bihliotheca Lat. Medii ^vi, torn. ii. p. 582. To these add Peter de Marca, in the Marca His- panica, hb. ill. c. 12, p. 368, &c. Jo. de Ferraras, Histoire generale d'Espapie torn. ii. p. .518. 523. 535, 536. 560. Jo. Mabillon, Acta Sanctor. Ord. Bened. torn. V. Frajf. p. ii. &c. Of Fehx in parti- cuhir, account is given by Domin. Colonia, Histoire Litter, de la Ville de Lyon, torn, ii. p. 79, and by the Benedictine monks, in Histoire Litter, de la France, torn. iv. p. 434, &c. [This sect is fully treated of in C. W. F. Walcli's Historic der Ketzerei/en, vol. ix. p. 667 — 940, and in his Historia Adoptianorum, (iotting. 1755, 8vo. See also Schroeekli, Kirclwn- gesck. vol. xx. p. 459—498. Tr.'] ° [Jo. Geo. Dorscheus, Collat. ad Con- cilium Francof. p. 101. Sam. Werenfels, de Logomachiis Eruditor. in his 0pp. ]». 459. Jac. Basnage, Prcpf. ad Ethcrium, in Ilcnr. Canisii Lectiimibiis Antiquis, toni. ii. pt. i. p. 284. Geo. Cahxtus, iu his Tract on this subject, and others. — Dr. W'alch, iu his Historia Adoptianor. considers Fehx as not a Nestorian ; and yet he regards tlie controversy as not merely about words. The substance of Felix's views he thus states : Christ as a man, and without regard to the per- sonal union of the two natures, was bt)rii a servant of God, though witliout sin. From the condition of a servant, ho jiassed into tliat of a free person, when God, at his baptism, pronounced him iiis dear Son. This transaction was his adop- tion, and likewise his recientnition. Tlic title of God belongs to liim, indeed, as a mail ; but not proi)erly, for he is God only nuncupativeUj. Thus did Felix utter stimetliing unsuitable and new ; but his innovation was not a grouiul for so great an alarm throughiait thu whole church, as if he had iu-^sailcd the fundamental doctrines of Cin-istianity. 7V.] . AMJiV-Jia ^ <\Xu> C.G\A--^ (wj:;*^ ILcmM'^ « sA.(iX>^ lii^Ah-^ oc>L-eJv-. -VtoL (vv[ tucM la CENTURY NINTH. PART L THE EXTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. CHAPTER I. THE PROSPEROUS EVENTS IN THE HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. § 1, 2. The Swedes, Danes, and Cimbrians converted. — § 3. Tlic Bulgju-ians, Bo- hemians, and Mora\-ians. — § 4. The Slavonian tribes, the Russians. — § 5. Esti- mate of these conversions. § 1. So long as Charlemagne lived, which was till the year 814, he omitted no means which seemed requisite, to propagate and establish Christianity among the Huns, the Saxons, the Fries- landers, and others.' But it is to be regretted, that he did not ' [Among these must be inchided the the present century, a. d, 803, Charle- Carintliians. They had indeed partially niagne came to Saltzburg. and continued received Christianity, in the preceding to Ai'uo his ecclcsi:istical jurisdiction century, from Virgihus, bishop of Salt/.- over Slavonia, or Carintliia in lower burg. For Boruth, the duke of Carin- Pannonia. The presbyters, wliom bishop thia, when he committed his son Coras- Anio sent into Carintliia, to l)uilil up tlic tus to the Bavarians, as a hostage, re- cluuTlies there, adopted a singular arti- quested, that he might be baptized and tico, to render Christianity respectable, educated as a Christian ; and he also and paganism contemittiblc, in the eyes requested the same, in regard to liis of the people. They allowcil Christian nephew Chetimar. Now, as both these slaves to sit at table with them, while afterwards became dukes of Carintliia, their pagan masters had to cut their it may be readily conceived, that the bread and moat without the doors ; and Christian rehgion had made considerable had to drink mW of black cups, wliereas progress there, before this century. In the ser\-ants drank from gilded cups. Ji 4 168 BOOK III. — CENTURY IX. [PART I. omit to employ violence and war. His son Leicis the Meek, thougli greatly below him in other respects, had the same zeal for propagating Christianity. Under this prince, a convenient oj:)portunity was presented for planting Christianity among the northern nations, especially the Danes and Swedes.- Harald Klack, a petty sovereign of Jutland, being expelled his kingdom, by Regner Lodbrock, in the year 826, applied to the emperor for assistance. Lewis promised it, on condition that he would embrace Christianity himself, and admit teachers of that reli- gion into his country. Harald acceding to the terms, not only Avas baptized at Mentz, A. D. 826, together with his brother, but also took home with him two preachers of Christianity, Ansc/arius, a monk and schoolmaster of Corbey in Saxony, and Autbert, a monk of old Corbie ^ ; which monks preached among the inhabitants of Jutland and Cimbria, for two years, with great success. § 2. On the death of his fellow-labourer Autbert, in the year 828, the indefatigable Ansgarius went over to Sweden ; and there was equally happy in j^leading tlie cause of Christ.^ Re- turning into Germany, Lewis the INIeek constituted him, in the year 831, archbishop of the new church of Hamburg'^, and of all Por tlie presbj'ters told the masters, " Yoii unbaptized persons are not ■worthy to eat with those that are baptized." This enkindled such a desire to become Christians, that great numbers of them were baptized. The story does as little credit to these missionaries, as to their converts. See the Life of St. Eupreclit, in Canisii Levtionibus Aiitiq. tom. vi. of the old ed. 4to. Schl.'] ^ [Ebbo, archbishoj) of Ehciras, who had travelled as an imperial envoy in the northern countries, made an at- tempt, as early as a. d . 822, to spread Christianity there ; and, together with Halitgarius of Cambray, he obtained I'rom pope Paschal a full ])ower for this jmrpose. See Acta Sdiuim: Antw. ad 3. Feliruai". and Mabillon,ylc^(/ Sanctor. Orel. Bmed. sa-eul. iv. pt. ii. p. 79. 90. Schl.'] ' [In Picardy. Ed.] ^ [The Christians who were can'ied into captivity by the Normans, in their frequent plundering expeditions, un- doubtedly contributed much to give this people a fiivourable disposition towards Christianity; and csiiccially by recount- ing to them the wealth and the i)ower of the Christian countries, which were ascribed to their religion. This will ac- count for -what historians affirm, that Swedish ambassadors came to king Lewis, and stated among other things, that many of their people had an inclination towards Christianity, and that their king would cheerfully permit Christian priests to reside among them. Anscharius and Vitmarn were sent thither, with rich ])resents. Their ^ oyage was unfortunate ; for they fell into the hands of pirates, %\ho plundered them. Yet they finally reached the port of Biork, which be- longed to the king, Bern or Biorn. There they collected a congregation and built a clnurh, in the course of six months ; the king having given liberty to his subjects to embrace the new reli- gion. On the return of these mission- aries, the congregation in Sweden was without a teacher, till Ebbo sent them his ne]ihhcw Gausbert, who, at his ordi- nation to the e])iscopacy of that see, took the name of Simon ; but he was, soon after, driven out of Sweden. Sc/il.} ' ['J'lie sec of Ilamlmrg was then very small, embracing but four parish churches. CH- I-] PROSPEROUS EVENTS. 169 the North ; and in the year 844, the episcopal see of Bremen was annexed to that of Hamburg. The profits of this high station were small «, while its perils were very great, and its labours immense. For Ansgarius, while he lived, took frequent journeys among the Danes \ the Cimbrians, the Swedes », and other nations ; and laboured, though at the peril of his life, to collect new Christian congregations, and to strengthen those l^reviously formed, till death overtook him, a.d. 865.^ § 3. About the middle of this century, two Greek monks, Methodius and Cyril, being sent as missionaries from Constan- tinople, by the empress Theodora, taught first the Moesians, Bulgarians, and Gazari, and afterwards the Bohemians and Moravians, to renounce their false o;ods, and receive Ciu-ist.' Lewis sent Anscharivis to the pope ; who confeiTed on hira the archiepiscopal pall, and constituted him his legate for Swe- den, Denmark, the Faro islands, Iceland, &c. as also among the Slavonians, and the northern and eastern trilies. See the Acta Sanctor. Feb. tom. i. and Mabillon, 1. c. Schl.'] " [Lewis the Meek assigned him tlie rcvennes of a monastery in Brabant, in order to meet the expenses of his mis- sionary efforts. But the income of the monastery was very small ; and soon after ceased altogether, when the king- dom fell into disorder. Anscharius must therefore have been in want of resources. He at last received a small estate, from a pious widow, in Ramelslob near Bremen ; which however yielded him but a small income. Schl.l ' [The violent persecutions, to which the Danish Christians were exjjosed, was one occasion for his repeatedly Aisit- ing that country. He was himself driven from Hamburg, (by an invasion of the Normans,) and the city being wholly laid waste, he had to reside some time at Bremen. He was at length permitted to enter Denmark, by king Ericii ; and being allowed to preach there, he erected a church at Hadebye or Schlcswick, in the year 850. But tliis kir,;.; being slain in 856, during the minority vi' liis son Erich Baern, there was Jivsh perse- cution, and tlie church of Schlcswick was shut up. When this king began to reign in person, he was more favourable to the Christians, and peiTnitted Anscha- rius to return, ami to erect a new chm'ch at Kipen, a.d. 860. Tr.'] ** [To Sweden he sent the priest Ard- garius ; and likewise went there himself, a second time, in the character of envoy from king Lewis to king Glaus ; who was induced by presents, to support Anscha- rius in two imperial Swedish diets, at which the establishment of Christianity was decided by ciisting lots. He now re-esfabli>hcd Christian worship at Biork, and left Herimbert there as a Christian teacher. Sclil.'] " The writers who treat of the life and labours of this holy and illustrious jiarent of the Cimbrian, Danish, and Swedish churches, are enumerated liy Jo. Alb. Fabricius, Bihlbth. Latin. Mcdii JEvi, tom. i. p. 292, &c. and Lux Evan- tjeliitoto Orbi Terra r. cxaricn.s. p. 425, X;c. To these, add the Benedictine monks' Histoire Litttraire de la France, tom. v, p. 277. Acta Sanctor. mens. Fcbniar. torn. i. p. .391, &c. Eric I'ontoppidan, Annules Ecclen. Danica Diplomatici. tom. i. p. IS, &c. ]\I(')llerus, Cimhria Littirala, torn. iii. p. 8, &c. From these writers, a knowledge may be gained of the others also ; namely, El)l"), Witinnar, Kcmbcrt, &c. who were either tlie companions and assistants of Anscharius, or his suc- cessors in the field of labour. [The life of Anscharius, well written by RemlK-rt, his disciple and successor in the sec of Hamburg, is in Mabillon, Acta Sanctor. Ord. JJcnnl. tom. vi. ]). 78, &c. Among the recent writers, see Schmidt, Kirchcn- (jesch. \ol iv. p. 108—119. Schroeckh, Kircheinjcsch. vol. xxi. p. 3N, &c. and arclibislu)p Minister's Kirchcncifsch. von JMncni. und Nortreq. vol. i. Lijis. 1823. Tr.-] ' Jo. Geo. Stredowsky, Sacra Moravia: Iliatoria, lib. ii. cap. ii. p. 94, &c. Com- 170 BOOK III. — CENTURY IX. [part Some knowledge of Christianity had indeed been previously- imparted to these nations, through the influence of Charlemagne Y^ovrt Tr. -p^it-nr TCr*}!! Tnfmrliirf in J-fix* r.hlirrll n.morto* tlll^ T^pnnln frnnclnforl pare Jo. Peter Kolil, Introduct. in His' toriam et Rem Litterar. Slavorum, p. 124, &c. and others. [A much ampler ac- count of the missions and conversions mentioned in this and following sections, is given by Schi'oeckh, Kirchengesch. vol. xxi. p. 396. &c. and by J. E. C. Schmidt, Kirchengesch. vol. iv. p. 120, &c. also by Jos. Sim. Asseman, Kalendaria Ecclesice Universes, tom. iii. p. 3, &c. Romaj, 1755, 4to. — The following summary, by Schlegel, derived from Semler and Baum- garten, contains the most material results of modern investigation. T/-.] The seeds of Christianity had been previously scat- tered among the Bulgarians, by some Christian captives. In the year 814, Crummus, the Bulgarian king, captured Adrianople, and can-ied the bishop, Manuel, with other of the citizens, into captivity ; and his successor afterwards put this bishop with other Christian cap- tives to death ; because they made pro- selytes among the Bulgarians. After this, it appears, that both the monk Theodorus Eupharas, who was a captive in that country, and a sister of the Bul- garian king Bogoris, who had been taken prisoner and carried to Constantinople, where she was educated and taught the Christian religion, and then exchanged for the monk Theodorus, contributed mucli to recommend Christianity to that people. The way being thus prepared, Bogoris admitted several artists from Constantinople, among whom was the famous painter Methodius, who, instead of drawing worldly scenes for the king, formed religious pictures, and among them, one of the judgment day ; and in- structed him in the principles of Chris- tianity. Not long after, the king, in a time of famine, openly professed Chris- tianity, and invited teachers from abroad. But his subjects made insurrection against him for it ; and he caused fifty-two of the ringleaders to be put to death, and at length brought the rest to embrace the new religion. In the year 848, (for thus Asseman has ascertained the true year, in his Kalendar. Eccles. Universce, tom. iii. p. 13, &c. whereas Kohl and Stredowsky state the year 843,) Constan- tine, the brother of this Methodius, had been sent among the Chazari, [or Ga- zari,] whose king had hkewise desired to have Christian teachers. Constantine laid the foundation of the Christian ig?ie church among this people, translated the Scriptures into the Slavonic lan- guage, and taught that barbarous nation the use of letters. After tliis, he came to the aid of his brother, among the Bulgarians; and in the year 861, bap- tized king Bogoris, who assumed at the font the name of the Greek emperor, Michael. — The two brothers, Constantine and Methodius, were natives of Thessa- lonica. The former, who was the oldest, afterwards took the name of Cyril ; and on account of his learning, was sm-named the Philosopher. The younger brother was distinguished as a painter. It is probable, that both of them, in early life, fled from Constantinople, to avoid the persecution which befel the worship- pers of images, and especially the painters of them ; and that they took refuge among the Slavonic tribes, and there learned their language, which was after- wards of use to them in the propagation of Christianity. — -From the Bulgarians, Constantine, it is stated, travelled among the adjacent Dalmatians and Croatians, and baptized their king Budimir. See Baumgarten's Auszug der Kirchengesch. vol. iii. p. 1379, and S. Semler's Selecta Hist. Eccles. Capita, tom. ii. p. 263. 269. — As to the Bohemians, the Chronicles of Fulda, ad ann. 845, state that under Lewis, king of the Germans, fourteen Bohemian lords, with their subjects, embraced the Christian religion. And it is well known, that toA\ards the close of the century, the Bohemian prince Borivoi or Borsivoi was baptized. Sua- topluc or Zwentibold, king of the I\Io- ravians, appears to have greatly aided this conversion. For having been bap- tized himself, he treated this pagan prince roughly, while residing at his court, and would not allow him to sit at his table ; because, as he told him, it was not suitable for a pagan to eat with Christians. Perhaps also the assurance giveu him by Methodius, may have con- tributed to his conversion ; for he told him, that if he embraced Christianity, he would become a greater man thaii any of his ancestors. In short, he consented to be baptized ; and returning home, he persuaded his wife Ludomilla, with many others, to receive baptism also ; and afterwards, with the aid of his wife, greatly jjromoted the spread of Chris- tianity ; and, among other means, by CH. I.] ruOSPEROUS EVENTS. 171 and of certain bishops ^ ; but that knowledge produced little effect, and gradually became extinct. As the missionaries above named were Greeks, they inculcated on those new disciples the opinions of the Greeks, their forms of worship and their rites ' ; from which the Roman pontiffs, afterwards, by their legates, were able but partially to reclaim them. And from this source great commotions occasionally arose. § 4. Under the Greek emperor, Basil the IVIacedonian, who ascended the throne a. d. 867, the Slavonic nations, the Aren- tani, and others, who inhabited Dalmatia, sent ambassadors to Constantinople, and voluntarily placed themselves in subjection to the Greek empire ; and, at the same time, they professed a readiness to receive Christianity. Greek priests were therefore sent among them, who instructed and baptized them."* The same emperor, after concluding a peace with the warlike nation of the Russians, persuaded them by presents and other means, to promise him, by their ambassadors, that they would embrace Christianity. The nation stood to their promise, and admitted not only Christian teachers among them, but also an archbishop, commissioned by Ignatius, the Greek patriarch.® erecting a famous school at Buclcc. Sec S. Semlcr,!. c. p. 261. 265.— Tlie Mora- vians were converted, under their king Radislav. He sent for the two monks, Constantino and Methodius ; and they erected a school at Vetvar, baptized the king, and his most distinguished subjects, translated many books into the Slavonic language, and set up pulilic worship in this tongue. They erected churches in several places, particularly at Olmutz and Briinn ; but they introduced also image- worship, to which they were ad- dicted. See Baumgarten's Auszug der Kirchengesch. torn. iii. p. 1429, &c. Schl] ^ Stredowsky, loc. cit. lib. i. cap. ix. p. 55, &c. [When Charlemagne, in his wars with the Huns and Avares, was victorious, he compelled the jMoraviun king Samoslav, to embrace Christianity ; and Amo of Saltzburg, in paiticiilar, undertook to convert these tribes ; and in this business, the monk Godwin was emplo3'ed ; and under Lewis the Pious, Orolph the archbishoj) of Lorch also. See Pagi, Critic, ad ami. 824. In the year 822, Mogemir, the successor of Sa- moslav, became a confederate of the emperor Lewis, and gave free toleration to the Christian worship, on which he himself attended. Tliis good beginning in the coiivcrsiou of the Slavonic nations, in MoraAia, was however much inter- rupted, by the contests that arose be- tween the bishops of Saltzburg and those of Passau ; and besides, the ignorance of the Christian missionaries of the Sla- vonic language, and their introducing the Latin fonnulas of worshiji, were serious olistacles to success. And at last, the wars between tlie Gcrnians and the Moravians, the latter having wholly renounced the dominion of the former, put a fidl stop to the jjrogrcss of the gospel among that people. See Baumgarten's Auszug, vol. iii. p. 1430, &e. Sclil.] ^ Jac. Lenfant, Histoire de la Guerre des Hussites, liv. i. cap. i. p. 2, &c. and compare the Bihtiothiquc Germanique, torn. xxi. p. 2 — 4. * Tliis we learn from Constantino Porpli\TOgenitus de Administrando Jm- pcrio, cap. xxix. ; in Anselmi B;indurii Imperiinn Orientalc, torn. i. p. 72, 73. Constantine also relates the same, in his life of Iiis grandfather, Basil the Mace- ilonian, § liv. Corpus Hist. Byzantin. torn, xvi. p. 133, 134. * Constantino Porphyrogenitus, dc ]'ita Basilii Macedonis, § xcvi., in the 172 BOOK III. — CENTURY IX. [PART I. This was the commencement of Christianity among the Russian ])eople. They were inhabitants of the Ukraine ; and a little before had fitted out a fleet at Kiow, in which they appeared before Constantinople, to the great terror of the Greeks/' § 5. The Christian missionaries to barbarous nations, in this age, were men of more piety and virtue than most of those who took that office upon themselves in the preceding century. No- thing now was done by punishments and fear; the Koman pontiff's interest Avas either disregarded altogether, or but moderately promoted ; the preachers themselves were free from arrogance, insolence, and the suspicion of licentiousness. Yet the religion taught by them was very wide of that simple rule of truth and holiness which the apostles of Cln'ist preached, and was debased by many human inventions and superstitions. Among the nations which they converted, also, the preachers allowed too many relics of the old superstitions to remain ; and in truth, they rather inculcated an external form of piety, than piety itself. The good and pious men, it nnist, however, be admitted, really could not help giving up many things to the rudeness of barbarian populations. \1v^ Corpus Hist. Bi/zunt. torn. xvi. p. 157; opinion, he has but one reason, namely, svciA Narratio de Ruthenorum Conversione ; that among the teachers sent to instruct pubhshed Gr. and Lat. by Banduri, Im- the Russians, was that Cyril, who -was perium OrientnJe, in his notes to Porphy- acti\e in the conversion of the Gazari. rogenitus, de Administrando Imperio, torn. The leai-ned author was ignorant of both ii. p. 62. the Russians and the Gazari. He has " j\Iich. Ic Quicn, in his Christianus made also other mistakes. The subject Oricns, torn. i. p. 1257, gives account of is developed much better, and more ac- this conversion of the Russians to Chris- cui-ately, by Theoph. Sigefr. Bayer, Diss. tianity, in the reign of Basil the Mace- de Jiiissoi-um Prima Expeditione Constan- donian ; but he has made a number of tinopolitana; published in the sixth vol- mistakes, as others had done before him. ume of the Commenttir. Acad. Scientiar. He first tells us, that the Russians here I'rfnpolitaiifr, a.t>. 1738, 4to. [See also intended, were those that bordered on Schroeckh, Kirchengesch. vol. xxi. p. 507, the Bulgarians ; but, a little after, he &c. and J. E. C. Schmidt's Kirchengesch. tells us, they were the Gazari. For this vol. iv. p. 16G, &c. TV.] CH. II.] ADVERSE EVENTS. 173 CHAPTER II. THE ADVERSE EVENTS IN THE HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. § 1. Success of the Saracens. — § 2, 3. The Xormaii Pirates. § 1. The Saracens were in possession of all Asia, to the borders of India, a few regions only excepted. They also held the best parts of Africa; and in the West, Spain, and Sardinia. In the year 827, relying on the treason of certain individuals, they subjugated the very fertile island of Sicily.' AV'hen the cen- tury was near its close, the Asiatic Saracens, now masters of many cities in Calabria, spread terror even to the walls of the city of Rome. They also partly ravaged, partly occupied Crete, Corsica, and other islands. How great was the injury to the Christian cause, every where, from these successes of a nation accustomed to wars and rapine, and hostile to the Christians, every one can easily comprehend. In the East especially, num- berless families of Christians embraced the religion of their conquerors, to render their lives more comfortal)le. Those possessed of more resolution and piety, gradually sank into a wretched state, being not only stripped of the chief of their property, but, what was still more lamentable, they fell by degrees into a kind of religious stupor, and an amazing ignor- ance ; so that they retained almost nothing Christian, except the name, and a few religious rites. The Saracens in Europe, and particularly those of Spain, became divested in a great ' [Euphemms, a general in Sicily, be- cntnist him with an army, ami alL.w came enamoured with a nun, and "t'orci- him to assume tlie title of a Roman Im- bly took her to his bed. Her l)rotiiers perator. Tlie governor consented ; and complained to the viceroy, wlio laid the Enphemius fuUilled Ins pnmuse. Hut case before the emperor ;" and he order- he had si^arcely accomplished ins design ed the nose of Enphemius to be cut olf. wlien he lost his lile at Syracuse by as- Euphemius repelled the force sent to sassiiiation. See the account given by an-est him, and tied to Africa. There John Curopalata, as cited by Ikromus. he otlered the Saracen governor to jnit Aiinal. toin. ix. ad aim. S27, § x.xiv. &c. him in possession of all Sicily, if he would 7>.] 174 BOOK III. — CENTURY IX. [PART I. measure of their ferocity ; and suffered their Christian subjects to live quietly, according to their own laws and institutions. Yet instances of cruelty were not wanting among them.- § 2. Another and even a more dreadful j^lague, came upon the European Christians from the regions of the North. The Normans, that is the people inhabiting the shores of the Baltic in Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, who were accustomed to rapine and slaughter, and whose petty kings and chieftains prac- tised piracy, had infested the coasts along the German and Gallic oceans ; while Charlemagne yet reigned : that emperor, accord- ingly, had already stationed camps and officers to oppose them. But in this century, having grown much more bold, they made frequent incursions upon Germany, Britain, Friesland, but especially France, plundering and devastating, with fire and sword, wherever they went. The terrific inroads of these savage hordes extended not only to Spain ^, but even to the centre of Italy : for it appears from the writers of those times, that they destroyed the city of Luna, in the year 857, and Pisa and other cities of Italy, in the year 860.* The early histories of ^ See, for example, the martjTdom of Eiilogius of Corduba, in the Acta Sane- tor, ad d. xi. jNIartii, torn. ii. p. 88, and those of Rodcric and Salomon, Spanish martyrs of this century, in the same vol. ad d. xiii. Martii, p. 328. [The Sara- cens of Spain were tolci-ant to the Chris- tians so long as they demeaned them- selves as quiet and peaceable citizens ; and they allowed them the free exercise of their religion. But they would not allow them to revile Mahumed and his religion. And this was the source of all the difficulties. Abdalrahman consulted Eeccafrid, a Christian bishop, on the subject. The bishop stated, that when Christians traduced the Mahimiedan reli- gion, without urgent cause, and laboured to introduce their own in place of it, if they thereby lost their lives, they could not be accounted mart}TS. A number of Christians agreed with Keccafrid ; but the majority dissented. And Eulogius WTote against Eeccafrid, and compiled histories of the Spanish martyrs. He, and those in his sentiments, exerted all their efforts to run down Mahumedism, and to make converts to Christianity. They also courted martyrdom ; and, in several instances, invited the judges to put them to death. The particular of fence of Eulogius, for which he was put to death, was detaining and secreting a Spanish girl, whom he had converted from the Mussidman to the Christian faith, and not giving her up to her pa- rents and friends. See his three books, de Martyribus Corduhensibus ; liis Apo- logeticus pro Martyribus adv. Calumnia- tores ; and his Exhortatio ad Martyrium ; in the Bibliotli. Pair. torn. xv. p. 666, &c. and Schrocckh, Kircliengesch. vol. xxi. p. 294, &c. Tr.'] ^ Jo. de Fcrreras, Histoire generale d'Espayne, tom. ii. p. 583. Piracy was esteemed among these northern nations a very honourable and laudable profes- sion ; and to it the nobility and the sons and the kindred of kings were trained. Nor will this surprise us if we consider the religion of those nations, and the barbarism of the times. See Jo. Lud. Holberg, Historia Danorum et Norveyo- runi navalis ; in the Scripta Societatis Scientiarum Hafniensis, tom. iii. p. 349, where he relates many interesting ac- counts respecting these maritime rob- beries from the annals of the Danes and Norwegians. ■* See the Scriptores lierum Italicar, by Muratori, in vaiious passages. CH. II.] ADVERSE EVENTS. 175 the Franks detail and deplore, at great length, their horrid enormities. § 3. At first these ferocious people sought only plunder and slaves in the countries which they invaded ^ ; but by degrees becoming captivated with the beauty and fertility of their con- quests, they made a home in them ; nor could the European kings and princes prevent it. In this very century, Charles the Bald was obliged, a. d. 850, to cede a considerable part of his kingdom to these bold invaders.^ And a few years after, in the reign of Charles the Fat, king of the Franks, Godfrcd, one of their most valiant chieftains, went on fighting until he had subdued all Friesland.^ When, however, permanently set- tled among Christians, they gradually became civilized ; and, marrying women who professed Christianity, they them- selves exchanged It for the superstitions of their ancestors. This was done by that Godfred, who conquered Friesland, in this century, after he had received for his wife, from Charles the Fat, Gisela, daughter of the younger king Lotliaire. ^ [This object of the Normans (mak- the bishops and abbots, who were also ing plunder) occasioned the destraction bound to do mihtary scnice for their of a vast number of churches and mou- lands, -were obliged to defend them asteries in England, France, Germany, against the incursions of foreign enc- and Italy. For in these places were de- mies. Schl.'] posited large treasures, partly belonging ^ Annalcs, by an unknown autlior, in to the establishments, and jmrtly placed Pithtt'i Scriptons Fraticici, p. 4G. there for safe keeping. These places ' Keginonis Prumiensis Aimaliti, lib. ii. were, therefore, generally fortified ; and p. 60, in Pistorii Scriptor. German. 176 BOOK III. — CENTUIiY IX. FrART II. PART II. THE INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. CHAPTER I. THE STATE OF LITEKATUIIE AND nilLOSOPHY. § 1. State of Iccarning among the Greeks. — § 2. State of philosophy. — § 3. Learning among the Aj-ahians. — § 4. State of learning under Charlemagne and his sons. — § 5. Impediments to its progress. — § 6. List of learned men. — § 7. John Scotus. § 1. The Greeks experienced many things in this age, which could not but damp their ardour for learning and philosophy. Still, however, the munificence of the emperors, some of whom themselves were devoted to study, and the precautions of tlie patriarchs, among whom Photius shone conspicuous for erudi- tion, prevented an absolute dearth of learned men, particularly at Constantinople. Hence there were among the Greeks, some who excelled both in prose and in poetic composition ; who showed their skill in argumentation, by their writings against the Latins and others ; and who composed histories of their own times not altogether destitute of merit. In particular, when their disputes with the Latins became warm, many who would otherwise have suffered their talents to Ijc eaten up of rust, were roused to set about cultivating elegance and copiousness of diction. § 2. That the study of philosophy, among the Greeks of this century, continued for a long time neglected, is testified ex- pressly by Jolin Zonaras. But under the emperor Theophilus and his son Michael III., the study of it revived, through the CII' !•] LITERATURE AND nilLOSOrilY. 177 influence especially of Bar das, the Cassar ', who, thougli himself not learned, was the friend of Photius, who was a very learned man and a Great Maecenas, and by whose counsels, no doubt, Bardas was guided in this matter. At the head of all the learned men, to whose protection he intrusted the interests of learning, Bardas placed Leo the AYisc, a man of great learning, and afterwards bishop of Thessalonica.- Photius himself ex- pounded what are called the Categories of Aristotle : and Michael Psellus wrote brief explanations of the principal books of that philosopher. Others I pass over. § 3. The Arabians, who hitherto had strained every nerve, not to cultivate the sciences, but to enlarge their borders, being now excited by the fondness for literary pursuits of Al Mamuii, or Abu Gaafar Abdallah, and by his patronage of learned men, made much greater progress. For this excellent kaliph of Babylon and Egypt, who began to reign about the time that Charlemagne died and ended his days A. D. 833, founded cele- brated schools at Bagdad, Cufa, Basora, and other places ; drew learned men around him, by conferring on them great rewards ; established ample libraries ; procured, at great expense, the translation of the best works of the Greeks into Arabic ; and neglected no means which could do honour to a prince greatly attached to literature and science, and himself a distinguished proficient.^ Through his influence, the Arabians began to find pleasure in Grecian learning ; and to propagate it by degrees, not only in Syria and Africa, but also in Spain, and even in Italy. Hence they celebrate a long list of renowned philosophers, physicians, astronomers, and mathematicians of their nation, ex- tending through several centuries.' Yet we must not take all that the modern Saracenic historians tell us, of the merits and endowments of these men, in the most literal sensc.'^ From the ' Annales, torn. ii. lib. x^i. p. 126, in Laws, his Tuctica, and his speeches, the Corpus Byzant. torn. x. Schl.'\ ~ [Among the Greek emperors who =• Aljulpharajus. Ilhtoria Difiiostinr. p. advanced science, Basil the Macedonian 240. Geo. Elmacin, Ilislorhi Saracen. shonld not be forgotten. He was him- lib. ii. p. i;59. Barthul. Hcrbclot, i?»A- self not withont learning; as is evident liuth. Oricntuk. article Miimiiii, j). o-l.'}. from his speeches, letters, and conuscls ' See Leo Africanus, Tnirt. dc Mcdi- to his son Leo, that arc still extant, cih et Philosophic Antbihus ; reimblishcd This son of lus, who was snrnamed the by Jo. Alb. Fabriciiis, in his BiblioOt. Wise, and the Philosopher, on accenuit Grccca, vol. xii. ]). 259, &c. of his learning, composed largely ; the ^ [In the abstruse sciences they are most important of his works are the said to have been mere copyists, or sixty books of his Basilicon, or Lnpcrial rather plagiarists, from the Greeks and VOL. II. N 178 BOOK III. — CENTURY IX. [PART II. Arabians, the Christians afterwards profited in the sciences. For all the knowledge of mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and philosophy, propagated in Europe from the tenth century onward, was derived principally from the schools and the books of the Arabians in Italy and Spain. And hence the Saracens may in some measure, be considered as the restorers of learning in Europe. § 4. In the part of Europe subject to the Franks, Charle- mafjne, while he lived, cherished and honoured learning of all kinds with great earnestness. If his successors had fuUowed him with equal strides, or been capable of doing so, ignorance and barbarism would soon have been expelled. He was not, indeed, altogether without imitators. Lewis the Meek, copying after his father, devised and executed several projects, suited to promote and advance the useful arts and sciences.^ His son, Charles the Bald, went beyond his father in this matter : for this emperor was a great patron of learning and learned men ; he invited men of erudition to his court from all quarters ; took delight in their conversation ; enlarged the schools and made them respectable, and cherished in particular the Palatine or court school.'^ In Italy, his brother Lothaire, emperor from A. D. 823, strove to make learning, now entirely sunk and prostrate, raise its head again by founding schools in eight of the principal cities.^ But his efforts appear to have had little effect ; for Latins ; particularly from Aristotle, the ministers of the church, Mhich yoti Euclid, Galen, &c. Even Avicenna, formerly promised ns, and which we en- whose Canon, or system of physic, was joined upon you, wherever it has not classic in the European medical schools been done, must not be neglected by so late as the sixteenth century, we are you." Schl.'] told, advanced nothing very important ' Herm. Conringius, Antiquitates Aca- but what is to be found in Galen and demicce, p. 320. Ca;s. Egass. de Boulay, othei-s. Their astronomy was more pro- Historia Acad. Paris, tom. i. p. 178. perly astrology, or di^^nation from the Jo. Launoy, de Scholis Caroli M. cap. xi. stany heavens. See Schrocckh, Kir- xii. p. 47, &c. Histoire Littcraire de la chingesch. vol. xxi. p. 279— 292. Tr.'] France, tom. v. p. 483. * See the Histoire Lift, de la France, * See his ordinance, or Capilulare ; tom. iv. p. 583, &c. [The Palatine which is published by Muratori, liermii school continued to flourish under Lewis Italicar. Scriptor. tom. i. pt. ii. p. 151. the Meek. Also many monastei'ies were [In this ordinance, the emperor repre- re-established, or instituted anew, in sents the cultivation of literatui'e as which the sciences were studied. From wholly prostrate in the Itahan states, his Capitulare ii. (in Harduin's Concilia, in consequence of the negligence of the tom. iv. p. 1251, No. 5,) may be seen clergy and the civil officers; that he how desirous this emperor was of pro- had therefore appointed teachers who moting learning and the establishment should give instruction in tlie liberal of schools. He there says to the bishops, arts ; and whom he had directed to use " The institution of schools in suitable all possible diligence to educate the rising- places for the education of children and generation. He also mentions the cities CII. I.] LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY. 179 during this whole century, Italy scarcely produced a man of genius.^ In England king Alfred obtained great renown, by promoting and honouring literary enterprise.' § 5. But the infelicity of the times prevented these plans and efforts from imparting that prosperity to erudition, which the rank and power of its patrons might lead us to expect. In the first place, the wars that the sons of Lewis the Meek waged with their father, and afterwards between themselves, were great impediments to intellectual improvement in the countries subject to the Franks. In the next place, the incursions and victories of the Normans, which afilicted a large portion of Europe during the whole century, were such an obstruction to the progress of learning, that at the close of the century, in most of these countries, and even in France itself, few remained who deserved to be called learned men.^ AYhat little incohe- rent knowledge remained among the clergy was chiefly confined to the episcopal and monastic schools. But the more the priests and monks increased in wealth and riches, the less they attended to the cultivation of their minds. § 6. And yet a large part of this century was adorned with the examples and the labours of men, who derived a literary spirit fi-oni Charlemagne and his institutions and laws. Among these, in Germany and France, Rahanus Mmirus held perhaps the first rank ; and to his lectures, the studious youth resorted in great numbers. As historians, and not wholly without merit, appeared Eginhard, Freculphus, Theganus, Haymo, Anastasius, Ado, and others. In poetry, Florus, Walafrid Straho, Bcrtha- rius, Rabanus, and others, distinguished themselves. In lan- in which he had stationed these teachers; may be looked upon as the founder of namely, Pavia, Ivrea, Turin, Cremona, that noble university. Jolianncs Scotus Florence, Fermo, Verona, Vieenza, and Erigena, who had been in tlie service ot Fonun Julii, or the modern Cividad del Charles tlie Bald, and Grinibald, a monk Friuli. Schl.'] of St. Bertin in France, were the mo.'^t » See Muratori, Antiquitates Ital. fomous of those learned men who came Medii ^vi, tom. in. p. 829, &c. from abroad. Asserius, Wcrefrid, Pleg- ' See Ant. Wood, Historia et Antiqq. mund, Dunwulf, Wulfsig, and the abbot ^carcsliytcr shall jiermit anT/ fe- male to live with him in his house ; so that the occasion of e^•il reports, or of iniquitous deeds, may be wholly re- moved." Ibid. vol. vi. p. 406, No. 10. ^'••]^ ^ See his Works, Ep. xcviii. xcix. p. 126. 148. 142 ; also his Life. To these add, Kodolphi Bituricensis Capitula ad Ckrttm situm ; in Baluze, Miscellanea, toni. vi. p. 139, and p. 148. CH. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 183 incursions and ravages of the barbarous nations, the gross igno- rance of the nobility, and the vast wealth that was possessed by the churches and monasteries. To these leadintr causes, others of less magnitude may be added. If any one among people of illustrious birth, was either indolent or dull, he became a candi- date for some high preferment in the church.'' Patrons and protectors of religious benefices, because they would not have their vices reprehended, purposely sought out dunces and block- heads for the care of churches, and with it for that of men's sal- vation.-^ The bishops and the heads of monasteries held much real estate or landed property by feudal tenure; wherefore, when a war broke out, they were summoned personally to the camp, attended by the quota of soldiers which they were bound to furnish to their sovereigns." Kings and princes, moreover, that they might be able to reward their servants and soldiers for their services, often seized upon consecrated property, and gave it to their dependents; inconsequence, the priests and monks before supported by it, sought relief for their necessities in com- mitting any sort of crimes, and in contriving impositions." § 3. The Roman pontiffs were elected by the suffrages of the whole body of the clergy and people ^, but the emperors must approve of their appointment before they were consecrated.' There is, indeed, extant an edict of Leiois the ISIeek, dated A. D. 817, in which this right of the emperors is relinquished, and power given to the Romans, not only of electing a pontiff, but also of installing and consecrating him, without waiting for the consent of the emperor ' : but eminent men have shown, by arguments entirely satisfactory, that this document is a forgery. ^ Yet I " Hincmar, Opus Posterhis contra Go- cap. ix. Sciratus Lupus, Epist. Lxv. p. deschalcum, cap. xxxvi. in his 0pp. torn. 87. 4.'}7, &c. but cspocialiy, Lud. Ant. i. p. 318. Servatus Lupus, £>w<. IxxLx. Miiratori, Antiqq. Italicce, toin. vi. p. p_ 120. 302, &c. and Lud. Thomassin, Ditcipliua ^ Agobard, de Privilegiis et Jure Sa- Ecclcskc vet. et nova circa Bcnrjicia, pi. ii. cerdotum, cap. xi. in his 0pp. torn. i. p. Hh. iii. c. xi. The custom prevailed 341_ also among the Greeks and the Ix>ni- ^ Stephen Baluze, Appendix Aclorum bards. See Mich. Ic O.iiicn, Oricns Chris- ad Servatum, p. 508. Muvatori, Antiqq. tianus, torn. i. p. 142. Jtal Medii yEvi, torn. ii. p. 446, &c. » [At Rome. Tr.'] Mabillon, Annates Benedict, torn. vi. p. ' See the illustrious de Bunau, //».s7onrt 587. Du Fi-esne, ad Join\-iIlii Historiam Imperii German, torn. ui. p. 28, &c. 32, Ludovici S. p. 75, 76. [Yet military &c. service was not always required for ' Hardum, Concdia torn. iv. p. 1236. church lands, some donations expressly Car. le Cointe, Annates Eccksia- J-ran- eranting exemption from it. See Mabil- cor. torn. vii. ad ann. 817, ^ 6. Uakize, Ion, 1. c. 7>.l Capitular. Bcyum Francor. torn. i. p. '' AsrobavA, de Dispens. Berum Eccle- 591. , „^ . siast. § 14, 0pp. torn. x. p. 270. Flo- « Mnratori, Brcts de I Empire sur doard, Hist. Eccles. Bhemensis, lib. iii. rEiat Ecclcs. p. 54, &c. and AntirpataUs N 4 184 BOOK III. — CENTURY IX. [PART H. readily admit that after the times of Charles the Bald, who ob- tained the imperial dignity by the good offices of the Roman pontiif, the state of things was materially changed, and the con- sent of the emperors was not asked by the Romans. It is at the same time true beyond a question, that from the time of Eugene III. ^ who was placed in St. Peters chair, a. D. 884, the election of a pontiff was nearly destitute of any rule or order, and for the most part tumultuous ; nor did this irregularity cease until the times of Otto the Great. § 4. Few of those who were raised, in this century, to the highest station in the church, can be commended for their wis- dom, learning, virtue, and other endowments proper for a bishop. The greater part of them, by their numerous vices, and all of them, by their arrogance and lust of power, entailed disgrace uj^on their memories. Between Leo IV., who died A. d. 855, and Benedict HI, a woman, who concealed her sex, and assumed the name of John, it is said, opened her way to the pontifical throne by her learning and genius, and governed the church for a time. She is commonly called the papess Joanna. During the five subsequent centuries, the witnesses to this extraordinary event ai'e without number ; nor did any one, prior to the re- formation by Luther, regard the thing as either incredible, or disgraceful to the church.'' But in the seventeenth century, learned men, not only among the Roman catholics, but others also, exerted all the powers of their ingenuity both to invalidate the testimony on which the truth of the story rests, and to con- fute it by an accurate computation of datcs.^ There are still, Ital. Medii JEvi, torn. iii. p. 29, 30 ; mina ; 0pp. torn. ii. p. 577, and Jac. where lie conjectures, that this document Lenfarit has exliibited them in a French was forged in the eleventh century, translation, better aiTanged, and with Biinan, Hist. Imper. German, tom. iii. p. various additions, in a third ed, at the 34. And yet some popish writers, e.^. Hague, 1736, 12mo. Fontanini, and othei's, most earnestly ^ The arguments of those who deny defend this edict of Lewis ; though inef- the existence of a papess, after Da^^d fcctually. [The e\'idence of the spurious- Bloiulers appropriate treatise, and some ness of this edict is well summed up by others, are ingeniously stated by Peter Pagi, Critica in Baron, ad ann. 817, No. Bayle, Dictiomiaire, tom. iii. art. Fapesse, 7, vol. iii. p. 492. 7>.] p. 21(52. 8ce also Geo. Eccard, i/wtorw ^ [Here is a mistake. It was Hadrian Francice Oriental, tom. ii. lib. xxx. § III. who became pope in the year 884 ; 119, &c. p. 436, &c. who, however, so and not Eugene III. who was not raised far as avc know, has followed the reason- to that dignity till a. d. 1145. Vvn ing of Lcilmitz on the subject. Michael Einem.~\ Ic (iuieii, Oriens Christianus, tom. iii. ]i. ■* The arguments of those wlio hold 777, and in the Lutheran church, Chr. the story to be true, are carefully and A\\g.\lQ\m\Mm,\n\\i»SyllogeDiss.Sacrar. learnedly collected and stated by Fred. tom. i. ])t. ii. p. 352, &c. The argu- Spanlieim, in his Exercit. de Papa Fa:- ments on both sides of the question are CII. II.] CIIUECII OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 185 however, very learned men who, while they concede that much falsehood is mixed with the truth, maintain that the controversy is not wholly settled. Something must necessarily have taken place at Rome, to give rise to this most uniform report of so many ages ; but even yet it is not clear what that something was." neatly stated by Christopher "Wagensiel ; in Jo. Geo. Sclielhorn's Amotnitates Lit- terar. pt. i. p. 146, &c. and by Jac. Bas- nage, Histoire de VEglise, torn. i. p. 408. The names of the other writers, who are veiy numerous, may be seen in Casp. Sagittarius, Introductio in Hist. Eccles. torn. i. c. XXV. p. 676, &c. and in the Bibliotheca Bremensis, torn. \'iii. pt. v. p. 935. [See also Schroeckh, Kirchengesch. vol. xxii. p. 75 — 110. J. E. C. Schmidt, Kirchengesch. vol. iv. p. 274 — 279, and A. Bower's Lives of the Popes, vol. iv. p. 246—260. 7>.] " So thought Paul Sai"pi, Lettere Ita- liane, lett. Ixxxii. p. 452. Jac. Lcnfant, Bibliotli. Germanique, tom. x. p. 27. Theod. Ilasaius. Biblioth. Bremens. tom. viii. pt. V. p. 935. Christ. Mattb. Pliiff, Instit. Histor. Eccles. p. 402, ed. 2. To whonr might be added Wernsdorf, Boeder, Ilolberg, and many others. I will not undertake the office of judge in this controversy, yet I am of opiuiun there was something in this affair that deserves further investigation. [Few, if any, in modern times admit the reality oin female pope ; and, among the English, Pope Joan has become a proverbiiil epi- thet, for a fictitious character, which is too ridiculous to be mentioned in serious earnest. None of the contemporary writers mention such a pope ; for the passage in Anastasius Bibliothecarius, who then lived at Rome, and wrote the Lives of the Popes, is undoubtedly spurious, (An cyc-untncss could not have written, " It is said, that a female succeeded to Leo IV." if he had known it as a fact; nor would he have given cun-ency to such a falsehood, had he known it to be such. Nor is this the only jiroof that the passage is an interpolation.) It was nearly two centuries before any writer alErmed the fact. But fi-om that time to the reformation it was generallj' believed. Yet not tiniversalli/, as Dr. Mosheim intimates. I'latina, {Lives of the Popes, John VII.) after relating the story, says. "Ha^e quiv; dixi, vulgo feruutur, inccrtis tamen et obscuris auctoribus : qutc ideo poncrc breviter et nude institui, ne obstinate et pertinaciter oniisissc videar, (juod fere omiies aftinnant." This surely is not the language of one who does not question the truth of the story. Yet Platina wrote before Luther was born. — The histoiy of this papess is briefly this, as stated by writers of the twelfth and following centuries. Slie was tlic daughter of an Englisli missionary, who left England to preach among the" newly converted Saxons. She was born at Ingclheim; and, according to difierent authors, was named Joanna, Agnes, Gerliert, Isaliel, IMargaret, Dorothy, and Jutt. She early distinguished herself for genius and love of learning. A young monk of Fukla conceiving a ])as- sion for her, whidi was nnitual, she eloj)cd fi-om her j)arents, disguised lier sex, and entered the monaster)' of Fulda. Not satisfied with the restraints there, she and her lover eloped again, went to England, and then to France, Italy, and tiiialiy to Alliens in Greece, where they devoted themselves to literary ])iu-suits. On the death of the monk, Joanna was inconsolable. She left Athens, and repaired to Rome. There she opened a school, and ac(juired such reputation for learning and feigned sanc- tity, that on the death of l^eo IV. a. d. 855, she was chosen pope. For some- thing more than two years she filled the papal chair with rejiutation, no one sus- pecting her se.\. But she luid taken one of her household, whom she could trust, to her bed ; and by him she be- came pregnant. At length, being nearer her time tlian she had sup]).] xxxi. p. 606, &c. ' See above, § 3. " [a.d. 875. T;-.] * Biinau, Historia Imperii German. ' Tliis is illustrated, by Carol. Si- tom. iii. p. 482, &c. Jo. Geo. Eccard, gonitis, de Ri-(jno Italia; and by the CII. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 187 that from the time of Lewis the Meek, the ancient system of ecclesiastical law in Europe was gradually changed, and a new one substituted for it, by the policy of the court of Rome. The kings and emperors suffered their rights, in matters of relio-ion, which had been handed down to them from Charlemagne, to be insensibly taken from them. The competence of bishops, to make regulations in matters of religion, declined ; and the au- thority of ecclesiastical councils was diminished. For the Ro- man pontiffs, exulting in their prosperity and the daily acces- sions to their wealth, endeavoured to instil into the minds of all, and they did, notwithstanding the opposition of the reflect- ing, and of those acquainted with the ancient ecclesiastical constitution, actually instil into many, the sentiment that the bishop of Rome was constituted, by Jesus Cimst, a legislator and judge over the whole church ; and, therefore, that other bishops derived all their authority solely from him ; and that councils could decide nothing without his direction and appro- bation.- § 8. That men might lend more readily ears and acquiescence to this new system of ecclesiastical law, so very different from the old one, there was need of ancient documents and records with which it might be enforced and defended against the assaults of opponents. Hence the Roman pontiffs procured the forgery, by trusty friends, of conventions, acts of councils, epistles, and other documents ; which made it seem that from the earliest ages of the church, their predecessors possessed all the majesty and power, now claimed by themselves.^ Among these fraudulent supports of the Romish power, the so called other writers of German and Italian his- donations of Constantine and Lewis the tory. Meek, were fal)ricatcd with the privity ^ See the excellent work of an nn- and approbation i)i the Roman pon- kno^vn writer, who signs himself D. B. tiffs. For, who can believe that the jion- entitled, Histoire du Droit Ecclesiastique, tiffs, who made use of these writings Publique Fran^oisc, first pubhshed, Lon- during many ages to substantiate their don, 1 737, 2 vols. 8vo, and lately rcpub- autliority and their prerogatives, would lished splendidly in a larger fonn. The have ventured to confront kings, princes, author neatly and acutely points out the ecclesiastical councils, and bishops, with steps, by which the Roman pontiffs ad- the fictions and impositions of private vanced their power. Of the ninth cen- individuals ? In that age, frauds for tury, he treats in vol. i. p. 160, &c. the benefit of tlie church, and of God, [Bower's Lives of the Popes, vol. iv. and were ileemed lawful ; so that it is not y.—G. J.Tlimck', Gesch.d. Christl. Kirch!, strange, that the Roman pontifls should Gesellschafts-Verfassung, vol. ii. and iii. suppose, they did no moral wrong, hy J;-.] ' permitting and apjiroving the fabrication •' It is no improbable supposition, that of such papers as would be a rampait these and other documents, such as the and bulwark to the sec of St. Peter. 188 BOOK III. — CENTURY IX. [PART ir. Decretal Epistles of the pontiffs of the first centuries^ hold per- haps the first rank. They were produced by the ingenuity of an obscure man who falsely assumed the name of Isidore, a Spanish bishop.^ Some vestiges of these fabricated epistles appeared in the preceding century ^ ; but they were first pub- lished, and appealed to in support of the claims of the Roman pontiffs in this century.*' Of similar origin and value are the decrees of a Roman council, said to have been held under Syl- vester, (a. 1). 324,) but which was never known of by any one till the ninth century ; and, than which nothing could be better suited to enrich the Roman pontiff, and exalt him above all human authority.^ § 9. There were, indeed, among the western bishops, some discerning men, who perceived that designs were formed against them and the church ; in particular, the French bishops made a vehement resistance to the concession of any place for these epistles, and other spurious wares, among the rules of sacred * That the author of these [Epistles wished to be regarded as Isidore, a dis- tinguished Spanish bishop of the sLxth century ; or, to speak more definitely, that he wished to make the world be- lieve, that these Epistles were collected by Isidore, is perfectly clear. See Jo. Alb. Fabricius, Bibliuth. Lat. Mcdii jEvi, torn. V. p. 561. The bishops were accus- tomed, in token of their humility, to subjoin to their names the word peccator {sinnei') ; hence the author of this for- gery annexed tiie surname Peccator, to the assumed name of Isidore. Some of the transcribers, ignorant of the ancient customs and literature, corrupted this signatm'e, by exchanging Peccator for Mercator. And hence the fraudulent compiler of the Decretal Epistles, is called Isidorus Mercator. ^ Sec Aug. Calmet, Histoire de Lor- raine, toni. i. p. 528. Just. Ilenn. Eohmer, Fraf. ad Novum Editionem Juris Canon, torn. i. p. x. xix. Notes. [Fleury says of them, that " they crept to light near the close of the eighth century." Fleury, in Histor. Eccles. diss. iv. § 1. " The spuriousness of these Epistles has been demonstrated, not only by the Centuriatores Magdeburgenses and some others, but inost learnedly and in an ap- proi)riate treatise, by David Blondel, in his i 'sciido- Isidorus et Turianus vavulantes, Gcnev. 1G28, 4to. And, at the present day, the fi-iends of the Roman pontiffs, who follow reason and truth, confess the cheat. See Jo. Fran. Buddeus, Isagoge in Theologiam, torn. ii. p. 762. Add, Peter Constant, Prolcgom. ad Epistolas Pon- tificum, torn. i. p. cxxx. &c. Fleury, Diss, prefixed to his Histoire Ecclesias- tique, tom. xvi. [and still better, in his Histoire Ecclesiastique, itself, livre xliv. § xxii. These Epistles, bearing the names of various Romish bishops, from Clement I. to Damasus I. a. d. 384, are in the early collection of councils by Sever. Binnius ; but are not inserted in the Bullarium Magnum of Cheriibini, published by authority of the court of Rome, near the close of the seventeenth centmy. It is believed, they are now universally given up, even by the Catho- lics. The oldest papal epistles, now ad- mitted by any to be genuine, are those collected by Dionysius Exiguus ; who says he could find none by the pontifls anterior to Syricius, who succeeded Da- masus I. A. i>. 385. The earliest in tlie Bullarium Maqnum, are those of Leo I., A.D. 447. Tr.'\ 'Sec Jo. Launoy, de Cura Ecclesim erga Paupercs et 3Iiscros, cap. i. observ. i. p. 576, of iiis Op]>. tom. ii. pt. ii. [Like- wise Jo. Cabussut, Notitia Ecclesiast. p. 132, and Pagi, Critica in Baron, ad anil. 324, § xvii. xviii. who do not hesi- tate to pronounce this council a fiction. CH. II.J CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 189 jurisprudence. But these men were overcome by the per- tinacity of the Roman pontiffs, especially by that of Nicolaus I. And as all science and learning, in the following period, retired from the Latin world, there scarcely remained any one capable, or even willing, to move a controversy respecting these pious fi'auds. How great the evils were to which they gave rise, and how audaci- ously the Roman pontiffs abused them, to overthrow the ancient system of church government, to weaken the authority of bishops, to increase their own revenues and emoluments, and to abridge the prerogatives of kings and princes, numberless facts in the history of the subsequent centuries Avill sliow. Nor is this denied, at the present day, by respectable and honest men, even though in other respects favourably disposed towards the Romish church and its head.^ § 10. The estimation in which a monastic life was held, was astonisliingly great, both in the eastern empire and in the western. In the former, this excessive estimation had long existed ; but among the Latins, it takes date only from the preceding century. Hence even kings, and dukes, and counts, abandoning their honours and their wealth, voluntarily retired to monasteries, to devote themselves to the service of God. Of this no small number of examjjles occurred in Italy, France, Spain, and Germany, during this century ; and there were some also in the preceding century. Those who, in their lifetimes, could not bring themselves to the resolution of abandoning society, would yet demand the monastic garb, Avhen dying, and actually put it on, before they left the world ; that they might enjoy the prayers and spiritual succours of the fraternity, among whom they had been received. Another and a striking proof 8 See Jo. Launoy, de Rcgia rutestate ceteras Occidcntis proviiicias, introdiici in Causis Matrimonial, in his Opp. toiii. coeptuni est, invvuli.seam in rem .su/ipasiliis pt. ii. p. 764, and Peter Constant, Pw/'. illis veteinni rontiticuni Roinaiuiriini ad Epist. Homanor. Pontiff, torn. i. p. epi.stolis, in (iiiilms extant (inani phirinia cxxvii. &c. [Pleuiy, Diss. vii. § v. in constituta iirorsus ad^ersa Aetcruni ta- Historiam Eccles. saVs, " Falsa; Isidori uonum statntis." Rut while these, and Decretales, circa octavi finem sajcnh in- otlier Roman Catliohc writers, trace the vectiE, jurisdictionem ecclesiasticam in commencement of a ^.Tcat revohition ni tribns articnhs admodum concesserunt, tlie constitution of the Catholic cliurch, to scilicet quoad concilia, judicia episco- the Decretal Epistles, nud otWr Uiri;K.'Yws porum, et appellationes." See also diss, of the ei-lith and ninth centuries ; tliey iv. § 1, &c.— Peter de INIarca, de Con- say, it was only tlie cuinincncenicnt ; cordia Sacerdotii et Imperii, lib. vii. cap. for the revolution was not completed, XX. § 1, &c. "Sub secunda Re.uum till after the iml.Iication ot the Decre- nostrormn dynastia novum jus canonicitm turn of Gratian, in the twelith century, in ecclesiam Gallicanam, aque ac in Tr.] 190 BOOK III. — CENTURY IX. [PAllT II. of the high estimation in whicli monks were held, is the custom of the emperors and kings of the Francs, in this age, of calling monks and abbots to their courts, and entrusting them with civil affairs, and business of great moment, both at home and in foreio'n countries. For those unsuspicious princes thought, that no persons could more safely be entrusted with the management of jmblic affairs, than men of such sanctity and piety, as to have subdued all their natural desires, and stripped off" every lust. Hence it is, that, in the history of these times, we meet with so many abbots and monks, who performed civil functions as am- bassadors or missi^, that is, extraordinary judges, often with good success, but with bad not seldom. § 11. And yet those who conferred such honours upon monks and the monastic life, did not deny, that most of that class lived vicious lives ; and they laboured to reform their morals, and recal them to obedience to their monastic rules. The efforts of Lewis the Meek especially, in this particular, deserve notice. That emperor employed Benedict, abbot of Aniane, and after- wards of Indre, a man distinguished for piety and the fear of God, to reform the monasteries, first in Aquitaine, and then throughout the kingdom of France, and to purge them of the enormous vices which had crept into them ; and afterwards, in the council' of Aix-la-Chapelle, a. d. 817, in which the same Benedict presided, he caused good laws to be enacted, for re- storing monastic discipline, which had completely sunk. This Benedict, accordingly, who has been called the second father of the western monks, allowed none of them any other rule than that of Benedict of Monte Cassino, suppressing the diversity of rites and customs, and making the entire body live in one uniform way : he also cleared monasteries of the graver vices ; finally, he no longer suffered monastic establishments to be inde- pendent of each other, but made all of them members, as it were, of a single corporation or society.^ This discipline flourished for ^ [" Missi, apud scriptores nostros ctistoditum haheret, qiiitjue gratiarum ac- proprie dicebantur, qui e palatio in 'civi- tione, ct qn'i co7Tectkme et increpatmie digui tates et provincias extra ordinem mittc- haberentur." Du Cange, in voc. Ed.^ bantur a principe cum amplissima po- ' [Of abbots. 7>.] testate, ut de omnibus causis qua ad cor- * Sec Jo. IMabillon, Acta Sanctor. Old. rectionern pertinere viderentur, quanta pas- Benedict, sajcul. iv. pt. i. praif. p. xx^■il. sent studio, per semetipsos rnjia auctoritate and pncf. ad sivcul. v. pt. xxv. also his corrigerent : et si aliijiid diffimltas: in qua- Annalvs Ordinis S. Bened. toni. ii. p. libctre eisobsisterei,ad regis SI u imperatoris 430, &c. and many other pLaces in that notitiam deferre curarent : dcinde ut inqui- volume. Aug. Cahnet, Histoire de Lor- rerent quomodo hi qui populum regere raine, torn. i. p. 596. Concerning Benc- deberent, unusquisque in suo ministerio se diet of Aniane, and liis merits generally, CII. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 191 a while ; but from various causes it gradually declined : and at the end of this century, such devastations had every where been made, both in church and state, that only some slight traces of it remained in a few places. § 12. The order of canons, which was devised by Chrodegang, and had been extensively introduced in the preceding century, Lewis the Meek cherished with great care, and extended through all the provinces of his empire. He also added an order of canonesses, which had been unknown in the Christian world till that time.^ A rule for each of these, he caused to be drawn up in the council of Aix-la-Chapelle, superseding the rule of Clirodegang ; and these new rules continued to be followed in most of the convents of canons and canonesses, till the twelfth century, although they were disagreeable to tlie court of Rome. The compiler of the rule for canons was undoubtedly Amalarius, a presbyter of Metz ; but whether he also drew up that for ca- nonesses, is uncertain.'* From this time onward, numerous see the Acta Sanctor. torn. ii. Febr. p. 606, and Histoire Litterairc de la France, torn. iv. p. 447, &c. [Also, the Lite of Benedict, by Ardo, one of his disciples ; in Mabillon, Acta Sanctor. Orel. Bened. saecul. iv. pt. i. torn. v. p. 183 — 215. — This Benedict appears to have been a very sincere man, and a great reformer of the monasteries ; that is, one who brought them to greater uniformity in dress, living, worship, and usages. He Avas himself most rigorous in voluntary mortifications ; and the rule of St. Bene- dict he revei'enced, as if it had come immediately from God, and was the only true guide to heaven. TV.] ^ See Mabillon, Annales Ord. Bened. tom. ii. p. 428, &c. ■• Lud. Thomassin, Disciplina Eccles. Vetus et Nova, pt. i. lib. iii. cap. 42, 43, &c. Muratori, Antiquitatcs Ital. Medii JEvi, torn. V. p. 185. 540, &c. and all the writers who treat of the order of canons ; though they are not all of equal value. The least worthy of credit arc, those who, belonging themselves to the order of canons, have treated of the ori- gin and progi-ess of that order ; as, e. g. Raymund Chapponel, Histoire des Cha- noines, Paris, 1699, 8vo. For these writers are so attached to the order, that they usually trace its origin back to Christ himself, and his Apostles, or at least to the first ages of the Christian church. [This ordinance of Lewis, ibr regulating the order of canons, is in Harduin's Concilia, tom. iv. p. 1055 — 1180. The following abstract, by Schlegcl, contains its most essential features: — " It contains 145 articles; of which the first 113 are mere extracts from tlie fathers and acts of councils, describing the duties of bishops and priests. These are followed by two sermons of Augus- tine, on Hving in associations. Tlicn commence the rides framed by this council. First, the pre^•ailiIlg error, that the prescriptions of the Gospel were obligatory only upon monks and clergymen, is confuted ; and then the distinction between monks and canons is defined. The latter may wear linen, eat flesh, hold pri\ate iiroi)erty, and enjoy that of the church ; tlie former cannot. Yet, equally with tlic monks, they should avoid all" vices, and practise virtue. They should live in well-secured cloisters, containing dormitories, refec- tories, and other necessary ajiartments. The number of canons in each cloister, should be proportioned to the exigencies of the churcli, to which it belonged. In their dress, they should avoid the extra- vagances of ornament and finery, and likewise undeaidiness and negligence, &c. The second part of the nde relates to canonesses, and contains twenty-eight articles. The first six are extracts from the lathers, and relate to tlie duties of ladies who consecrate themselves to 192 BOOK III. — CENTURY IX. [part II. convents of canons and canonesses Avere founded In every part of Europe, and endowed witli ample revenues, by pious indi- viduals. But this institution, like the others, very soon degene- rated widely from the plan of its originators.^ § 13. Of the Greek writers these are the most distinguished. Pliotius, patriarch of Constantinople, a man of superior talents, and of various and extensive knowledge. His Bibliotheca^, Epis- tles, and other writings, are yet highly valuable. — ■Nicephofus, also patriarch of Constantinople, who wrote against the op- jDOsers of images, and some other works.'' — Theodorus Studites God. They may have private property; yet mixst commit the management of it to some kinsman or friend, by a public act or assignment. They may also have "waiting maids, and eat in the refectory, and sleep in the dormitory. They are to be veiled, and to dress in lilack. Their business must be prayer, reading, and labouring with their hands ; and es- pecially, they must fabricate their own clothing, from the flax and wool given to them." TV.] * Calmet, Hisloire de Lorraine, tom. i. p. 591. Histoire Litteraire de la France, tom. iv. p. 536, &c. ^ See Camusat, Histoire des Journaux, tom. i. p. 87, &c. [Photius was of noble parentage, well educated, and perhaps the greatest genius of his age. He cer- tainly was a great scholar. Wliile in civil life, he cultivated all learning, sa- cred and profane, he was commander of the imperial body guards, first senator of Constantinople, and chief private sccretaiy to the emperor. He was also employed on embassies. During a Syrian em.bassy, he wrote his famous Bibliotheca, or 'M.v()i6SiB\ov, giving a critical account of 280 authors, which he had read, and frequently also summaries of their con- tents, with considerable extracts. As many of these authors are no longer ex- tant, the account of them by Photius is extremely valuable. In the year 858, the emperor Michael III. deposed Igna- tius, the patriarch of Constantinople, and Photius was ordained sub-deacon, deacon, priest, and patriarch, in four successive days. The friends of Ignatius, and the bishops of Rome, refused to acknowledge Photius as a legitimate patriarch. Yet he held the office, till a. d. 867 ; when, having offended the emperor, he was deposed, and Ignatius was restored. But in the year 877 Ignatius died, and Photius again took the chair, till a.i>. 886, when the new emjieror, Leo the Philosopher, deposed and banished him to a convent in Armenia, where he died about A.D. 890. Tha Bibliotheca of Pho- tius, Gr. and Lat. with the notes of Hasschelius, (the veiy faulty Latin by Schott,) was first pubhshed 1601, fol. and has been several tmics reprinted. A better edition was promised in the last centuiy, but not produced. His Ejjistles, to the number of 248, were pulilished, Gr. and Lat., byR. Montague, Lond. 1651, fol. His Nomocanon, or collection of eccl. canons, embracing xiv. Tituli, with the Commentary of Theod. Balsamon, was published, Gr. and Lat. by both the Justells ; the last in his Biblioth. Juris Canon. Paris, 1662, tom. ii. p. 789. Several additional letters and tracts have crept to light in different collections ; but his extensive commen- taries on scripture, his large lexicon, and several smaller works, remain still in MS. — For an account of his ■\\Titings, see Fabricius, Biblioth. Gr. vol. ix. p. 381—519. Of his public life, and the controversies in M'hicli he was involved, notice ■will be taken in the next chapter, § 27, &c. Tr.'] ' See the Acta Sanctor. tom. ii. Mar- tii ad diem xiii. p. 293. Oudin, Scriptores Eccles. tom. ii. p. 2, &c. [Nicephoras, after being secretaiy of state at Con- stantinople, and in high honour, retired fronr the world, and became a monk. He M'as learned, devout, and exceedingly zealous for image worship. He was made patriarch of Constantinople, a.d. 806 ; but was expelled his see, ten years after, by the emperor Leo V., who was opposed to image worship, and died in exile, A. D. 828. His best work is a Com- pendious Histon/, from Maurice, A. d . 600, to A. D. 769 ; extant iu the Corpus CH. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 193 is likewise indebted to the controversy respecting images, for the greater part of his reputation among those who have come after hini.^ Not much better or more learned were Theodorus Graptus, who suffered much in defence of image-worship^; Me- thodius, entitled the Confessor, because no penalties or pressure could induce him to abandon the defence of images ' ; Theodorus Abucara -, Petriis Siculus ^, Nlcetas David ^ and others, whose names would perhaps have not been handed down to this day. Hist. Bi/zantince. He also wrote a Chro- Returning to Constantinople, he became nologia Tripartita, or a Catalogue of pub- lic men, among the Hebrews, Greeks, Latins, &c. and a '^rixo^irpia, or Index of canonical, ecclesiastical, and apocry- ])hal books ; annexing to each the num- ber of lines (cttixoO it contahied. Be- sides these historical works, he wrote a long Epistle to pope Leo IH. containing his creed ; several small collections of canons, and a number of books in defence of image-worship. TV.] ** [Theodoras Studitcs was born at Constantinople a. d. 759, became a monk in 781, and abbot in 794, and four j-ears after, head of the nionasteiy Studium in Constantinople, whence his surname Stu- dites. He was zealous, even to madness, in favour of image-worship ; and for thirty years was the instigator of rebel- lions, and the dauntless leader of them (when out of prison) against the govern- ment, which was ojjposed to image-wor- ship. He died a. r>. 826, aged 67. Be- sides a few tracts on monkery, and monk- ish saints, he has left us 1.34 catechetical Discourses, and a vast number of inflam- matory letters, in defence of image- worship, most of which, or at least jjarts of them, Baronius has inserted in his Annals. He was a man of some learn- ing and talent ; but M'asted all his strength on the controversy respecting images, Tr.'\ * [Theodorus Graptus was a monk of Palestine, went to Constantino]ilc, a. u. 818, to plead the cause of image- worship, was banished four times for his abuse of emperors and others, and his seditious movements in favour of images ; and at last died in exile, about a. d. 840. He has left us a Dispute, an Epistle, and a Creed ; all in defence of uuages. TV.] ' [Methodius Confessor was well bom, at Syracuse in Sicily ; went to Con- stantinople, and there became a monk. About A. D. 820, the patriarch sent him as his envoy to Rome. Here he was guilty of adultery, and did penance. VOL. IL very zealous in defence of image-worship, was banished, and imprisoned, and whipped. But in 842 he was made patriarch of Constantinople. He died A. 1). 847 ; and has left us five orations, in pi-aise of monkery, and a collection of Canones Pdnitentiales. Some of Ids ora- tions have passed for works of Methodius Patarensis, who tiourislied A. d. 290. - Peter Bayle, Dictionnaire, tom. i. p. 35, &c. [The word Abucara signifies bishop of Curia. He followed the paity of Photius, but afterwards renounced it and joined that of Ignatius. According to Cave, he flourished a. i\ 867. He has left us about forty Dissertations, Doc- trinal and Polemic, against heretics, Jews, and ISIahumedans ; which were pubhshed, Gr. and Lat. by Jac. Gretscr with the Hodcgus of Anastasius, In- goldstadt, 1606," 4to. T/-.] ^ [Peter Siculus, (flourished a r>. 870,) was a learned nobleman, whom the em- peror Basil I. sent to negociate an ex- change of prisoners in Armenia. There he became acquainted with the sect of the new ilanichreans, or Paulicians ; the history of whose origin, progress, and decline, he afterwards composed ; ]iuli- lished Gr. and Lat. Ingoldstadt, 1604, 4to, and partially in Latin, by Baronius, Amial. tom. ix. ; and in the Biblioth. Patr. tom. xxii. TV-.] * [Xicetas David, a learned bishop of Paphlagonia, flourished about A. d. 880, and was strongly attached to the party of li^natius, whose life he composed, full of reproaches against I'liotius. He also wrote encomiiinis on the twelve apostles, and several other saints ; a defence of the svnod of Chalcedon, and a conimen - tary on some jjarts of Greg. Na/.. His life" of Ignatius was published. Gr. and Lat., with the Acts of the eighth general Council, Ingoldstadt, 1604, 4to; and in Harduin's Concilia, tom. v. ]\ 944—1009. Tr.-] O 194 BOOK III. — CENTURY IX. [part II. had not the Greeks been involved in contests with the Latins on several subjects, and among themselves respecting image- worship. — Among the Syrians the name o( Closes Bar cepha is famous, and not undeservedly; for he possessed genius, and skill in writinfT, beyond most others, as his works evince^ * Jos. Sim. Asseman, Bihliolh. Orient. Vaticana, turn. ii. p. 127, &c. [Moses Barcei)lia was a Syrian bishop of Betli- llamaii, and inspector of the churches in Babylonia. He probably flourished near the close of the next centuiy ; Cave says, about A. D. 990. — His three books de Fa- radiso, in a Latin translation from the Syriac, by Andr. Masius, were published, Antw. 1569, 8\o,andiheninthe Biblioth. Fatr. torn. xvii. p. 456. The Greek writers omitted by Dr. Mosheim, are the following : Niccphorus, Chartophyhix, who flou- rished, perhaps, a. d. 801, and wrote two Epistles to Theodosius, a monk of Co- rintii, containing solutions of several difficult questions in Ethics ; extant, Gr. and Lat., in the Jus Gr. et lioman. lib. v. p. 341, and Lat. in the Bibliuth. Fatr. torn. xii. Josephus, archbishop of Thessalonica, brother of Thcodorus Studites, and also a zealot for image-worship. He was de- posed, A. D. 809, exiled, and died after A. D. 8 1 G. Gretzer (de Cruce, torn. ii. p. 1200) has published, Gr. and Lat., an Oration of his, on the Exaltation of the Holy Cross ; and Baronius {Annales, ad ann. 808, § 22.) has given us an Epistle of his in Latin. Ignatius, a grammarian and deacon at Constantinople, and then metropolitan of Nice. He flourished a. d. 810, and was alive A. D. 828. His life of the patriarch Tarasius is extant, Lat. in Sarins, and in Bolland on Feb. 25th. His life of the patriarch Niceiihorus was published, Gr. and Lat., by Ilcnschenius, and Pape- broch, on March 12th. Naucratius, a monk of Constantinople, very active in favour of image-worship, for which he was often imprisoned. He flourished from A. d. 813, till after A. i>. 820. Several letters addressed to him are given us by Baronius ; and a very long one of his, containing an account of the sufferings of the image-worshippers, is inserted, Latin, in the Biblioth. Fatr. torn. xiv. p. ,903. Cave {Hist. Lit. toni. ii.) gives a specimen of the Greek, but did not deem it worth publishing en- tire. Theophanes, the brother of Thcodorus Graptus, (see note ^ p. 193,) and of the same character, conduct, and fortune. Yet he became metropolitan of Nice, about A. D. 845. We have a Hymn, con- sisting of nine odes, in memory of his brother ; edited by Combefis, Gr. and Lat., in his Orig. Constantinop. p. 224. Michael Syncellus, leader of the choir at Constantinople, a zealot for image- worship, in which cause he suffered much. He flourished about a. b. 830 ; and wrote an Encomium on St. Dionys, Areop. which is extant, Gr. and Lat., in the 0pp. Uionys. Areop. tom. ii. p. 207 ; also an Encomium on the holy angels and archangels of God ; extant, Gr. and Lat., in Combefis, Auctuar. Nov. tom. i. p. 1525. George Hamartolus, an Archimandrite, who flourished about a. d. 842, and wrote a Chronicon from the creation to a. d. 842, which still exists in ]\IS. Erom it the succeeding chronologists, Cedrenus, Theophanes, Glycas, &c., have copied all that is valuable. Ignatius, son of the emperor Michael Cm-opalata, castrated and banished by Leo the Armenian, lived a monk about thirty years, was made patriarch of Con- stantinople a. d. 847 ; quarrelled with Barda, and was deposed and banished a. b. 858. In the year 867, Photius, his competitor, was deposed, and Ignatius restored. He died in 878, aged 80 years. Two letters and one discourse of his are extant, Latin, in Harduin's Con- cilia, tom. V. p. 791. 872. 937. Metrophanes, metropolitan of Smyrna, a. D. 858, 859, and.A. D. 867 — 880. He was a strenuous opposer of Photius, and rose as he I'ell. He has left us a letter, giving us the history of Photius from A.I). 858 to 870; which is extant, in Latin, in Baronius, Armales, ad ann. 870, § 453 ; and Gr. and Lat. in Har- duin's Concilia, tom. v. p. 1111. Basil the Macedonian, Greek em- peror from A. D. 867—886. He wrote exhortations to his son Leo, some ora- tions, addresses, and epistles, still ex- tant ; besides some things which are lost. CH. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVEItNMENT. 195 § 14. At the head of the Latin writers may justly be placed Rabanus Maurus, whose last office was that of archbishop of Mentz. He was the common preceptor of Germany and France, Avith whom no one in this century can be compared, either for genius or extent of learning, or the nmltitude of books that he composed. Whoever accpuiints himself with the o\n- nions of Kabanus Maurus, learns all that the best of the Latins thought and believed for about fonr centuries, for his writings were in the hands of all the learned.'' Agobard of Lyons ]\Iichael Psellus, a philosopher who flourished a.d. 870, is supposed to have written some of the pieces which go under the name of another IMichael Pselhis tiiat lived in the eleventli cen- tury ; particularly a parajjhrase on most of the books of Aristotle, a Dialogue on the operations of demons, a tract con- cerning demons, &c. Stylianus, surnamed Mapa, metro- politan of Neo-Cesarea in the Provincia Euphratensis, who flourished about a.u. 870. He was a strong partizan of Ig- natius, in opposition to Photiiis ; for which he suffered a temporary dejiri- vation of his see. He has left us two Epistles, Gr. and Lat., in Harduin's Con- cilia, torn. V. p. 1122. 1130. Michael, the monk, Syncellus to the patriarch Ignatius ; flourished a. d. 878 ; and wrote an Encomium on Ignatius ; extant, Gr. and Lat., in Harduin's Con- cilia, torn. V. p. 1009 ; and a life of Theodonis Studites, from which Baro- nius, in his Annals, has made various extracts. George, chartophylax of the great church at Constantinople, and archl)ishop of Nicoinedia, about a.d. 880. He was a warm friend of Photius. Several ora- tions, and some poems of his, in praise of saints, are extant, Gr. and Lat., in Combefis, Auctuar. Nov. Paris, 1G48, tom. i. p. 995. Leo the Philosopher, Greek emperor from A.D. 886, to a.d. 911. He has left ns sixteen sacred orations ; some letters and tracts, -Kpoxeipov voniKhv, sive De- lectus Legum, in Ix. Tititli; a huge digest of the laws of the Greek empire, pub- lished, Paris, 1647, Gr. and Lat., in vii. tomes, fol. NovellcE ConstitiUiones III. ; and Tactica, seu de Be Militari Opus. Nicolaus, surnamed Mysticus, patriarch of Constantinople, from a.d. 892, to a.d. 903, when he was deposed and banished for opposing the divorce of the cmiiress. . a man and the marriage of anotlier. But in 911 he was restoreil, and lived till 924. He has left us eight Epistles ; extant, in the Collections of Councils, or in Baro- nius' Annals. 7V.] " See the Ada Sanctor. tom. i. Feljr. p. 500. Histoire Litteruirc de la France. tom. v. p. 151. [Also Mal)ill()n, Acta Sanctor. Ord. Jicntilict. torn. vi. )\ 1 — 45. — Rabanus, or Hrabanus, surnamed IVIanrus, was of French extract, and born of respectable parentage, at Mentz, A.D. 776. lie studied first at Fuhhi, where he was made deacon in 801. The next year he removed to Tours, to study luidcr tiie famous ^Vlcuin. After one or two years, he returned to Fulda, and was made head of the school there, at the age of twenty-five. As an instructor, he was so celebrated as to draw young men of talents from a great distance. Among his i)upils were, Walafrid Strabo, Servatus Lupus, and others, who were among the first scholars of their age. In the year 822, he was made ab])(>t of Fulda, in wliicli office he was fur a time jjopular ; but at length the monks com- jjlaineil, tliat he was so engaged in writing liooks, as to neglect his active duties. He now resigned his abbacy, antl retired to a literary life. This was in 842. Five years after, he was made archbi.sho]) of "iVIentz ; in which olliec he continueil till his death, a. d. 857. — He wrote commen- taries on all the canonical books, and several of the ajiociyphal ; also sennons, letters, and tracts. Most of his work.s, as jiublished, arc com]>riscd in six vols, folio, Cologne, 1 627. 7V.] — In his Pciil- tmliul jiublishcd at Ingoldstadt, by 1*. Steuart, in KilG, in torn. Jnsiiinium Auc- torum lam Cracorum ijuam Latinorum, is a nuitilated but most decisive testimony against transulistautiation. It mentions an identification of the sacramental ele- ments with our Lord's vcri/ biitli/ and bkntd burn of the Vinjin Man/, as a 19G BOOK III. — CENTURY IX. [PART II. of character and tllscernraent, and not destitute of learning, would have deserved more commendation, if he had not been a defender of the rebellion of the sons of Lewis the Meek against their own father. '^ Hllduin obtained notoriety by his work entitled Areopagitlca.^ Eginhard, abbot of Seligenstadt, the celebrated author of the life of Charlemagne, and of other works, was distinguished for the neatness of his style, and was not des- titute of other excellences.^ Claudius of Turin is in reputation at this day, for his exposition of certain books of Scripture, and for his Chronology} Freculphus of Lisieux, whose Chronicon is recent and erroneous opinion. Something then is lost ; but he goes on to say, to which error, as far as ive could, writing to abbot Egilo, ice opened what is truly to be believed of the body itself. When transub- stantiation was making its way to gene- ral belief, a witness of such importance branding it with novelty and error, na- turally became obnoxious ; and William of Malmsbury, in a liturgical MS. pre- sented by Henry VI. to All Soids' College, Oxford, and yet preserved there, attacks Ilaban for attributing to the eucharist the (jualities of ordinary food. See the Editor's Bampton Lectures. 414. 417. Ed.-] ' Colonia, Histoire Litter, de la Ville de Lyon, torn. ii. p. 93. Nouveaii Dic- tionnaire Histor. Critique, torn. i. p. 178, Histoire Litteraire de la France, tom. iv. p. 567, &c. [and Cave's Historia Lit- teraria, tom. ii. Agobard was a Frank, called from Spain to be coadjutor of Lcidrad, archbishop of Lyons, a. d. 813, Avhom he afterwards succeeded. He was a man of an ardent, independent mind, of great learning and inflexibility. He attacked the superstitions of the age, so far as he discovered them, with bold- ness ; was very zealous against the Jews, to whom the French kings were disposed to grant privileges ; and taking sides with Lothaire and Pipin against their father Lewis the Meek, he went so far, that on a reconciliation between those sovereigns, lie was deprived of his bishop- ric. However, he was restored, and held his office till his death in 840. He attacked Felix of Urgel ; wrote against image-worship, against the trial by or- deal, and against the beUef that evil spirits can produce storms and hail and thunder ; and when some pretended witches were aiTaigned before him, he caused them to be whipped, till they coulesscd that they deceived the people, in order to gain a livelihood. His works were first published by Masson, Paris, 1 605, 8vo ; and then, much better, toge- ther with those of Leidrad his prede- cessor, and Amulo his successor, by Stephen Baluze, Paris, 1666, 2 vols. Svo. * Histoire Litteraire de la France, tom. iv. p. 607, [and Cave, Historia Litteraria, tom. ii. — Hilduin was made abbot of St. Denys, about a. d. 814, and of St. Ger- main, near Paris, in 816, also arch- chaplain of the palace. After being in great favour with Lewis the Meek, he joined the rebeUion of his sons, and was deprived of his offices, and banished to Corbey in Saxony, a. d. 830. But soon after he was restored to his Parisian abbacies. Lewis now directed him to write a full history of St. Dionysius, the founder of his monastery, and the re- puted first bishop of Paris. This Hilduin executed in his famous Areopagitica. He there makes Dionysius the Areopagite, mentioned Acts xvii. 34, after being bishop of Athens, to have travelled to Home, thence to Aries, and at last to Paris, where he founded the monastery of St. Denys (Dionysius), converted vast riumbers, was bishop of that region, and at length suftered martyrdom, in the reign of Domitian. To him, also, he as- cribes all the works that go under the name of Dionysius tlie Areopagite. This is his famous Areopagitica, a mere bundle of idle tales, once indeed generally be- lieved, but now universally rejected. " Histoire Litteraire de la France, tom. iv. p. 550 ; and his Life of Charlemagne, as published by Henn. Schmincke. [See above, p. 143, note '. ' See Rich. Simon, Critique de la Bibliothiquc Fccles. de M. du Pin, tom. i. p. 284. [Claudius was a native of Spain, CM. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 197 still extant, compiled almost entirely in the very words of the ancient writers."- Servatus Lupus, whose Epistles and tracts are still extant, ranks among the most agreeable writers of those times ; nor does he so much want acuteness of mind as elegance and extent of learning.^ Drepanius Florus, called also Florus Magister, has left us Poems, Expositions of some books of Scripture, and a few other writings/ Christian Druthmar ex- aad educated under Felix of Urgel. la 812 or 813, he became a presbyter in the court of Lewis the Meek, and com- menced writing commentaries. In 821, Lewis made him bishop of Turin. He immediately set himself against all image- worship, and even removed and destroyed the pictures, and images, throughout his diocese. This excited strong opposition, and involved him in controversy all his life. Yet he persevered, denounced image-worship as idolatry, denied that the cross was to be honoured, disapproved of pilgrimages, questioned the supremacy of the pope, &c. Hence some have con- sidered him as a great reformer, and as the founder of the sect of the Waldenses. He certainly opposed some of the super- stitions of the age ; and probably contri- buted to preserve more independence of the pope, and greater piu'ity of doctrine and worship in the Alpine countries, than in most other parts of Europe. The catholics have never been partial to him. Indeed, they taxed him with great errors. Yet he was never arraign- ed as a heretic ; nor remo\ed from his bishopric till his death, about a.d. 839. His commentary on the epistle to the Galatians, is in the Biblioth. Fair. tom. xiv. p. 134. His other commentaries, though not inferior perhaps to those of llabanus, still lie in ]\IS. Probably, they are unfavourable to popery : for it appears, that he maintained the ori- ginal parity of bishops and presbyters. He wrote on Genesis three books ; on Exodus four books ; on Leviticus ; on the Gospel of Matthew ; on the other epistles of Paul ; a short scripture Chro- nology ; and tracts on the worship of images and saints, which are lost, exccjit large fragments quoted by liis aiUago- nists. See Cave, Hist. Litterarid ; Fleury, Histoire Ecclcsiastiqtic, liv. xlvii. cap. 20, 21. Schroeckh, Kirclmujesch. vol. xxiii. p. 281. 407, &c. and Milncr's Church Hist. cent. ix. ch. iii. 7>.] '■* [Freculphus was a Benedictine monk of Fulda, and was made bishop be- o fore A.D. 824. Lewis the Meek sent him as an envoy to the pope, a. d. 829. He was present in various councils, a. d. 829, 835, 837, 846, and 849 : and died about A. I). 850. His Chnmicwi is in twelve books ; the seven first extend from the creation to the Christian era ; the other five reach to a. n. 60G. The work was published, Cologne, 1539, fol. Hcidelb. 1597, 8vo, and in the Bibliotlt. Pair. toni. xiv. p. lOGl. 7>.] ^ Hisloirv Littcrain: de la France, tom. V. p. 255. [Lupus surnanied Servatus, was a French Benedictine monk, of Fer- rara. From abimt a. d. 828, he spent eight years at Fulda, under Kahanus ; then some time at Sehgenstadt, with Eginhard. He next went to court, and in 842 was made abbot of FeiTara. He was in several councils, and once envoy to Rome. His death was after a. d. 8G1. He wrote Liber de Triius Qua.stionibus, ss. free-will, predestination, and the su- perabundance of Christ's merits ; also a CoUectanenm, on the same subjects ; the life of 8t. Wigbert ; the life of St. :Maxi- min of Treves ; and 130 Epistles ; all well edited by 8. Baluze, I'aris, 1664, 8vo, and then in the liiblioth. Fatr. torn, xiv. p. 1. — Dr. Mi'sheim's account of his style seems not very consistent. Lu]>us wrote in an eiusy, flt)wing style, tolerably chaste for that age ; but not very vigor- ous, nor very brilliant, yet on tJie wiiolc agreeable. Tr.'\ * Colonia, Histoire Littiraire de Lyon, tom. ii. p. 135. ^Fist. JJtteraire de hi France, tom. v. ]>. 213, &c. [Florus was a deacon in the church at Lyons, and flourished about A. n. 837 ; yet ha was a writer as late ixs a.d. 852. His commentaries on all the epistles of Paul, arc printed as the work of Bedc. They are a compilation from Cyprian, Hilary, Ambrose, and abutit nine other fathers. He also wrote on the canon of tlie ma.«s ; on using compulsion with the Jews ; on the election and duties of a bisiiop ; a commentary on the Psalms ; three books on predestination, against John Scotus ; 198 BOOK III. — CENTURY IX. [PART II. pounded the Gospel of St. Matthew.^ Godesclialcus, a monk of Orbais, is rendered immortal by the controversies respecting divine grace and predestination, to which he gave rise.'' Pas- chasius Radbert, a man of fame in the controversies respecting the Lord's supper, has left us, besides other works, a book on that subject, which afforded matter for a long debate in that age.''' Bertram, or Ratramn, a monk of Corbie, Avas the prin- cipal antagonist of Radbert. His tract on the Lord's supper. nine poetic jjaraplirases of some Psalms, Hymns, and Epistles ; and five other poems. Home of tiiese are published, in the Bihlioth. Patr. torn. viii. and xv. ]Mal)illon, Analect. torn. iv. D'Achery, Spicikg. torn. xii. Maiiguin, Vindicice Gratia, S^c. torn. i. &c. The rest were never printed. TV.] ^ Histoire Litter, de la France, torn. v. p. 84. [Druthmar was a French Bene- dictine monk of Corbie, and flourished about A. D. 840. His commentary on Matthew is so opposed to the doctrine of transubstantiation, that the friends of that doctrine have laboured hard to prove the work corrupted by the Luthe- rans ; but in vain, for it was first pulj- lished, before Luther began to assail popery, namely, in the year 1514, as is shown by Edm. Albertin. It is now in the Biblioth. Patrum, torn. xv. p. 8G. See Cave, Historia Litter, torn. ii. TV.] " [Godesclialcus, or Gotteschalcus, was of Saxon origin, and educated in the monastery of Fulda. When an-ived at manhood, he wished no longer to lead a monastic life ; but was compelled to it, on the ground that his father iiad devoted him to such a life in his childhood, and that no human power could vacate the transaction. He now removed to Orbais, Avas ordained a presbyter, and was so distinguished as a scholar, that he was surnamed Fulgentius. Upon some dis- affection between him and the bishop of the diocese, he travelled to Italy, and thence to Dalmatia and Pannonia. Au- gustine was his favourite author ; and ho now began to advance the opinions of Augustine respecting divine grace, and a two-fold predestination. ]\Iany favoured these views ; but more were opposed to them. The sjTiod of Mayence,A.D.847,con- denmed his sentiments; and the president, Rabanus ]\Iaurus, sent him to Hincmar, archbishop of liheims, to whose diocese he belonged. The next year, he was ar- raigned before the synod of Chiersey, condemned, degi-adcd, and shut up by Hincmar in the monasteiy of Hauteville ; and after twenty-one years' confinement, died in prison. He persevered to the last in his opinions, and was denied Chris- tian bmial. He ■wi'ote two statements of his faith, a longer and a shorter ; both of which arc extant. In one of them he offered to be cast into boiling water or oil, and to stake the truth of his doctrine on the issue. He also ■wrote a letter or two, and a tract, on predestination ; but they are lost. See Cave's Histuria Litter. Mauguin, Vindicice Prcpdestinationis et Gratia, torn. ii. p'. 45, &c. L. Ccllot, Historia Gottcschalci Prcedestinationi; Schroeckh, Kirchcnyesch. vol. xxiv. p. 5, &c. J. Miner, Church Hist. cent. ix. ch. iv. Tr.-] ' [Pascliasius Radbert was a French monk, born about a. d. 786. In the year 844, he became abbot of Corbie in France. He was a member of the synod of Cliiersey ; M'hich condemned Godes- chalcus, A. II. 849 ; and died Apr. 26, A.D. 851. Tiie Protestants regard him as the man who introduced the doctrine of transubstantiation into the Romisli church. Berengarius taxed him with this : and even Bellarmin {de Scriptor. Ecclesiast. p. 288) says. Hie auctov primus fuit, quiserw et copiose scripsit de veritate corporis et sanguinis Domini in Eucha- ristia. But Mabillon, {Acta Sanctor. Ord. Bened. tom. vi. pra;f. p. ix. &c.) endea- vours to confute this charge. He wrote expositions of Matthew, of the book of Lamentations, of the 44th Psalm ; de Sacramento Corporis et Sanguinis D. N. Jesu, ad Pacidum Liber; de Corpore et Sang. Domini, ad Frudegardum Epistohi ; the life of St. Adelhard ; the passion of SS. Rufinus and Valerius ; all which were published by Sirmond, Paris, 1618, fol. He also A\Tote the life of St. Wala; and de Partu Virginis, libri ii. See Cave, Hist. Litter, vol. ii. and IMabillon, Acta Satictoi: Ord. Bened. tom. vi. p. 126 — 142. Tr.-] en. II.] CHURCH officers and government. 199 drawn up by order of Charlas the Bald, has occasioned likewise much debate among the learned.^ Haijmo of lialberstadt wrote books of various sorts, which are specimens rather of industry than of genius and learning. '^ Walafrid Strabo deserved well of the church in that age, by his Poems, his Lives of Saints, and his Exposition of difficult passages of Scripture.^ Ilincmar of Eheims deserves a very honourable place among the Latin writers of this century. For his Avritings on various subjects show, that his mind was not of the ordinary class, but ele- vated, independent, and zealous for truth. But he at the same time was arrogant and of a restless temper. His works throw much light on both the civil and the ecclesiastical history of that age.^ John Erigena Scotus, the friend and companion of ^ Concei-nincf both Radbert and Ra- tramii, see the Histor. Litter, de la France, torn. V. p. 287 and 332. [Bertram, or Ra- tramn, was a Frencli monk of old Corltie, and afterwards abbot of Orbais. He flourished as early as 840, and was still alive in 870. He was a devout, modest, and learned man : and wrote de Partu Viiginis, pvovinfj that the Saviour was born in the ordinaiy manner ; which Eadbert answered, maintaining the per- petual virginity of Mary ; de Prcedcstina- tione, libri ii. in vindication of the senti- ments of Godesclialcus ; contra Gracorum Errores, libri iv. ; de Corpore et Sanq. Domini, in o]3position to Radbcrt ; and de Anima Liber. Tr. — His name seems really to have been Ratramn, and to have been coiTuptcd into Bertram by joining on to it Be, a contraction for Bcatus. His tract de Corpore et Sanguine Domini, was first printed at either Cologne or Bale, in 1532. It gave an iiTctrievable shock to the belief in tran- substantiation, and has been represented as a forgery of CEcolampadius. This view has, however, long been given up as utterly untenable, and some Romanists have endeavoured to exjjlain the piece in such a manner as rather to make it appear unskilfully penned, than sub- versive of their capital tenet. It has been frequently reprinted and translated. Ed.-] ' Of the works commonly ascribed to Haymo, a consideralile part are not his, but the productions of Remigius of Auxerrc. See Casimir Oudin, Comment, de Scriptor. Ecclesiast. torn. ii. p. 330. Histoire Litteraire de la France, torn. v. p. Ill, torn. vi. p. 106. Lc Bcuf, Rccuell o des DIs.^. sur V Histoire de la France, torn, i. p. 278. [Haymo, or Aymo, was a disciple of Alcuin, an intimate friend and fellow student of Ral>anus ^laurus, a monk of Fulda, alibot of llersfield a. d. 839, and bishop of lialberstadt A. i>. 841. He was at the syncxl of ^laycnce in 848, and died 8.").3. vVniong the writings as- cribed to liim, are Commentaries on tlic I'salms, on Isaiah, on the e])istlcs of I'aul, on the Apocalypse ; all of which arc mere comi)ilations ironi the fathers ; Historiip Eccles. Breviariuni,xivede Cliris- tianorum llcrum Mcmuria, liliri x. a mere abridgment of Rufnnis ; some Homilies ; de Aniore Patria Cahsli.s, libri iii. ; and de Corpore et Samj. Domini Tractatiis. See Cave, Hi.st. Litter, toni. ii. and Ma- billon, Acta Sanctor. Ord. Bened. toni. v. p. 585, &c. Tr.] ' See Histoire Litteraire de la France, tom. V. p. 59. [Walafrid Strabo, (or Stralnis, i. c. sqiiint-ei/cd,) was a Suabian ; studied in tiic mnnastery of Richenau, then at Fidda under Rahanus ; became head of the school, and at last abbot of Richenau, a. d. 842. His death is placed in the year 849. He was a learned, and a pleasing WTiter ; yst bathed in monkisli superstiticju. He wrote gi/ before he was a bisho]), and after\\'ar(ls, a brief chrono- logy, from the creation to about a. d. 870 ; also the lives of some saints. Sec ISIabillon, I. c. tom. vi. p. 278—290. TV.] ' [Ainiiiin, a Benedictine monk of St. Germain, near I'aris, near the close of this century. He wrote the history of the miracles and of the removal of the relics of St. Germain and St. George ; which is extant in Mabillon, 1. c. tom. iv. p. 96, &c.; and tom. vi. )>. 45, &c. This Almoin nuist not be contuunded with Almoin the Benedictine monk of Fleurj', in the eleventh century, the author of 202 LOOK III. — CENTURY IX. [PAKT 11. and others, arc here passed over, as a sujfficlent knowledge of them may easily be obtained from common writers.^ the Historia de Hcl/its gestis Francorum. See Labbe, de Scriptor. Ecclesiast. ad BeUarminun, p. 305, &c. TV.] * [Herricus or Erricus, born at Hery, a village near AuxciTe, and a Benedic- tine monk at Anxerre, near the close of this century. He wrote six books of poetry, on the life of St. Germain ; and two books of prose, respecting his mira- cles ; besides numerous Homilies, some of which are now inserted in the Homi- liariiim of Paul Diaconus. See Cave, Hist. Litter, torn. ii. T/-.] " [Eegino was a German, a monk of Prum, in the diocese of Treves, chosen abbot there a. d. 892 ; opjiosed, and in- duced to resign a. d. 899. He died a. d. 908. His Chronicon, from the Christian era to the year 907, and continued by another hand to a.d. 972, relates chiefly to the affairs of the Francs and Teutones. It is printed among the Seriptores licrum German, ed. of Pistorius, tom. i. His two books de Disciplinis Ecclesiasticis ct Jleligione Christiana, (a collection from councils, and the fathei"s, relating to ecclesiastical law, are best edited by Stcph. Baluze, Paris, 1671, 8vo. TV.] ' [The Latin nriters omitted by Dr. IMosheim are the following : Benedictus Anianensis, born in Lower Languedoc, a. d. 751 ; educated at court, and for some years employed in civil life. In the year 774 he retired to a monastery : and six j'cars after, to avoid being made abbot, withdrew to a cell near the river Aniane, ^\hcre monks gathered around him, and he became abbot of that, and a dozen other monas- teries propagated from it. He died, a. d. 814. See his life, written by Ardo, his disciple, in Mabillon, Acta Sanctor. Ord. Bened. tom. v. p. 183—215. He wrote Codex Regularum Monasticar. (a collec- tion of the rules of most orders of monks previous to his time); edited byL. Hol- steinius, 1661, and Paris, 1664, 4to. — Concordia Jiegularvm ; — a collection of exhortations to monks ; Modus diversa- rurn Panitentiarum ; and some epistles. Ludger, a monk of Utrecht, who spent some time in England, and travelled in Italy, became abbot of Wcrden, and bishop of Munstcr, A. d. 802, and died A. i>. 809. See his life, written by Ah- frid, the second bisliop after him, in ]\Iabillon, 1. c. tom. v. p. 14—33. He wrote the life of St. (Gregory, bishop of Utrecht, and some letters, still extant. Smaragdus, abbot of St. Michael, in the diocese of Verdun ; flourished about A. D. 810, and wrote commentaries on the Lessons from the Gospels and Epis- tles ; Diadema Monachonim; a com- mentary on the Enle of St. Benedict ; Via Rcgia ; a letter for C/iarlemagne to the pope ; Acts of a conference at liome, A. D. 810; and a grammatical commen- tary on Donatus, in fourteen books. The htst never published. Amalarius, a deacon, and perhaps ntral bishop of Jletz. He flourished from A. D. 812 to A. d. 836; and wrote de Divinis sive Ecclesiasticis Officiis Lihri iv. (both in the Biblioth. Patrum, tom. xiv.;) also some epistles, Ecloga in Canoneni Missce, and liegula sen Institutio Canoni- cornm. Hatto, abbot of Richenau, and bisliop of Bi'de, A. D. 811 — 836. He wrote some capitula for his diocese, and an account of the visions of Wettin Hildegard, and other monkish saints. Hettius or Hetto, archbishop of Treves, A.ix 814, &c. has left us two Epistles. Frotharius, abbot of St. Aper, and bishop of Toid, a.d. 817 — 837. He wi'ote Epistolarum Liber, addressed to various bishops ; published by Duchesne, among the Seriptores Rerum Francicarum, tom. ii. i>. 719. EI)l)o or Ebo, a German, educated at the imiierial court, employed some time in civil affairs, then abbot of Ecmigius, and A.]>. 816 archbishop of Kheims. In 822, he went to Rome, and obtained a commission to convert the northern na- tions ; in consequence of which he made two journeys to Denmark. In the year 833 he joined the revolt of Lothairc against his father Lewis ; for which he lost his bishopric, and was kept in cus- tody at Fulda and other places. In 840 he was restored to his see ; but lost it the next year. In 844, he was made bishoji of Hildesheim ; and died a.d. 851. Of this restless prelate, we have nothing remaining, but his Apologeiicns, piv- sented to the council of Hildesheim ; and jiublislicd in the collections of councils. Halitgarius, bishop of Cambray and Arras, a.J). 816. He accompanied Ebbo in one of his excursions to Denmark. In 828 the emperor Lewis sent him as envoy to Constantinople. He returned the next year with abundance of relics ; and died in 831. He wrote Opus de Vi- iiis et Virtutihus, Remcdiis Pcccatorum, et CH. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 203 Online et Judiciis Paenitentkr, sex Libris ubsoJutum; published by II. Canisius, and in the Biblioth. Patrum, torn. xiv. p. 90G. Paschal II. pope, a.d. 817 — 824, ha.s left us three Epistles ; which arc in the Collections of the Councils. Sedulius, a Scot, who flourished about A.i>. 818, and compiled from the fatlicrs a Collcctaneum, sen Explanatio in Ejiis- tolas S. Pauli ; which is extant in tlic Biblioth. Patrum, torn. vi. p. 494. He is to be distinguished from Sedulius the poet. See Labbe, de Scriptor. Ecdesiast. apud Bellarminum, de Scriptor. Ecdesiast. p. 149—152. Dungal, a monk of St. Denys, near Paris, A.D. 821. He wrote a confutation of Claudius of Turin, in vindication of image-worship ; whi(-h is in the Biblioth. Patrum, torn. xiv. p. 196, and a letter to Charlemagne, de Eclipsi Solari. Jonas, bishop of Orleans, a.d. 821 — 843. He was much emjjloyed on coun- cils ; and wrote against Claiulius of Tu- rin, an Apologeticum for i-etaining images, but without worshii)j)ing them, in three books ; also de Listitutioiie Laicorum, libri iii. and de Institutione Begia Liber ; extant in the Bibliotheca Patrum, tom. xiv. p. 166. Eugenius II. pope, a.d. 824 — 827. has left us two Epistles, and nine Decreta ; which are extant in the Col- lections of Councils. Gregory IV. pope, a.d. 828 — 844. Three of his Epistles are in the Collec- tions of Councils ; and another, concern- ing tlie monastery of Fleury, in Baluzii Miscel. tom. ii. p. 145. Ansegisus, abbot of various monas- teries in France, from a.d. 807, till his death in 833. He collected the Capi- tularia Caroli Magni de Bebus prcescrtim Ecclesiasticis, in four books ; best edited by Steph. Baluze, Paris, 1677, 2 tom. fol. His life, written by a contem- porary, is in Mabillon, Acta Sanctor. Ord. Bened. tom. v. p. 593, &c. ■ Ardo, called Smaragdus, abl)ot of Aniane, and author of the life of his predecessor Benedictus Aniancnsis ; which is in IVIaljillon, 1. c. tom. v. p. 1 83, &c. Several other works liave been ascribed to him ; but some adjudge them to another of the same name. Theganus, a learned French gentle- man, and suffragan to the archbishop of Treves. He floiu-ished about a.d. 837; and wrote Annalesde gestis Ludovici Imp. ab aim. 813 risque ad ann. 837; extant among the Scriptores Berum Fraiicicar. d. Duchesne, tom. ii. Amido, Amulus, or Amularius, arcii- bishop of Lyons, a.d. 841 — 852, or longer. He wrote Epistola ad Theobal- dum, exploding certain relics and the venders of tiicm : ad Godeschalcurn Epis- tola, disapproving his opinions : and three tracts, on free-will, predestination, and grace : all wliich were pulilished l>y S. Ealu/.e, siibj(jined to the works of Agobard, and in tlic Biblioth. Patrum, torn. xiv. p. 329. Nithardus, grandson of Cliarlemagne ; first a courtier and soldier, and then a monk. He flourislicd a. d. 843, and died in 853. He lias left us four books, de Dissidio filiwum Ludovici Pii, from A.D. 814—843; published by Pithfcns, and by Ducliesne, Berum Francicurum Scriptores, tom. ii. ]). 259. Scrgius II. pope, A.D. 844 — 847, lias left one Epistle ; extant in the Collec- tions of Councils. Pnidens or IVudentius, a Spaniard, but bishop of Troycs in France. Ho flourished a.d. 846, and died in 861. He A\Tote several tracts on ])redcstina- tion. Sec, against John Scotiis, Hincmar, &c., whicli are extant in tlic Bibliotheca Patrum, tom. xv. p. 598 ; and also in !Mauguin Vindiria Gratice, tom. ii. Pardulus, bisiiop of Laon, a.d. 847 — 856. His Epistle to Hincmar of Kheims, is printed inter Opera Hincmari, tom. ii. p. 838. Eidogius of Corduba, flourished from A. D. 847 to 859, when he was Ix'hcaded by the Saracens, for his opposition to tiieir laws. He wrote Mcmorialc Sanc- torum, sice Libri iii. de Marti/ribus Cor- dubensibus ; Apologeticu.ist!es, and a t.^act entitled Scintilla- Patrum ; all of wiiich, cxccjjt the ia.st, are ])ublishcd with the works of Eu- logius. Leo IV. pope, A.D. 847 — 855, has left us two entire epistles, and fragments of several others ; besides a good homily, addressed to presbyters and dcactais on tlic ]iastoral duties ; extant in the Col- lections of Councils. Wendeliicrt, a Eencdictinc monk of Pnim, who flourished a. d. 850. He wrote the life and miracles of St. Goar (in Mabillon, Acta SS. Ord. Bened. tom. ii. p. 269, &c.) ; also a niartyrology, in 204 BOOK III. — CENTURY IX. [part II. heroic verse, published among tlic works of Bede, torn. i. under the title of Ephe- meriflum lictkp. ^Eneas, bishop of Paris, a.d. 854 — 869. He wrote Adversus Objectiones Grcpcorum Liber; published by D'Achery, Spicileg. torn. vii. and a short epistle to Hincniar. Benedict III. pope, a. d. 855—858. Four of his epistles are in the Collec- tions of Councils. Herard, archbishop of Tours, a.d. 855 — 871, has left us 140 Capitiila, address- ed to his clergy, and some other papers, in the Collections of Councils. Hincmar, bishop of Laon, a.d. 856 — 871, when he was deposed. This proud and tyi-annical prelate quarrelled with his uncle, Hincmar, archbishop of Rheims, with the king, with his clergy, and others ; appealed to Rome, and obtained support from the pope ; but was finally put down. He died about a.d. 881. There remain of him several epistles, and do- cuments relating to his contests : extant in the works of Hincmar of Rheims, and in the Collections of Councils. Angelomus, a Benedictine monk of Luxeuil in Burgundy, who flourished A.D. 856. He wrote Stroiimta, or Com- mentaries on the four books of Kings ; and also on the Canticles ; which are ex- tant in the Bibliutlieca Patnim, torn. xv. p. 307. Nicolaus, pope, a.d. 858 — 867. He began the controversy with Photius, pa- triarch of Constantinople, and opposed king Lothaire's divorce of his queen. He has left us about 1 00 epistles ; a re- ply to the intciTogatories of the Bulga- rians in 106 Capitula, besides decrees and rescripts on various subjects. His letters were published at Rome 1542, fol. and with his other works are now in the Collections of Councils. Isaac, bishop of Langrcs, a.d. 859 — 878, or longer. He, or Isaac, abljot of I'oitiers, wrote a long epistle, de Canoric Missce ; published by D'Achery, Spicilec/. torn. xiii. He is the author of a Collcctio Canonum, like the Greek Nomo-canon, compiled from the Capitula of the Prench kings, and the decisions of councils ; which was puljlished by Sirmond, and since in other Collections of Councils. Hulderic, Udalric, or Hulric, bishop of Augsburg, A. D. 860 — 900. He was a distinguished prelate, and wTOte a long letter to pope Nicolaus, reprobating his rigid enforcement of celibacy upon the clergy. This famous letter, which pope Gregory VII. condemned as heretical, A.D. 1079, has been often printed by the Protestants. Hadrian, or Adrian, pope, a.d. 867 — 872. He continued the contest with Photius, and assumed great power in France. Twenty-six of his epistles, be- sides some addresses and papers, are extant in the Collections of Councils. Anastasius Bibliothecarius, an abbot, presbyter, and librarian at Rome, Mho was papal envoy to Constantinople, to Naples, &c. He was one of the most learned men of his time, (a. d. 870 — 886,) and well acquainted with the Greek language. He wrote Acta Concilii Constantinop. IV. in Latin, falsely called the eighth general Council, a.d. 869 ; Acta Concilii Nicani II. a.d. 787, La- tine versa ; Historia Ecclesiastica, sive Chronographia Tripartita, compiled from Niceph. Patr. of Cpl. George Syncell. and Theophancs Confessor ; Historia de vitis liomanorum Pontificum, sen Liber Pontificialis, from St. Peter to pope Ni- colaus I. Collectanea de its, qua. spectant ad Historiam Monothelitarum ; besides various letters and tracts, either original, or translations and abstracts ; published by Sirmond, Paris, 1620, 8vo. His Acts of councils, and his lives of the popes, are inserted in the Collections of Coun- cils. [The Lives of the Popes, more usually called the Pontifical Book, was not written by Anastasius, but is univer- sally admitted to be a spurious produc- tion from two or more unknown pens. Oudin. ii. 267. Ed.'] John VIII. pope, a. d. 872 — 882. He M'as an active pope, but greatly harrassed by the Saracens, who infested all south- ern Italy. There are extant in the Collections of Councils, and elsewhere, 326 of his epistles. Hartnuitus, or Hartmannus, abbot of St. Gall, A. D. 872—883. He wrote some poems and hymns, published by Ca- nisius, Lectiones Aiitiq. tom. v. also the life of St. Wiborada, a virgin martyr ; extant in Mabillon, Acta SS^ Ord. Benvd. tom. vii. p. 42, &c. John, a deacon at Rome, and the friend of Anastasius Biblioth. who flou- rished a.d. 875. He MTotc the life of St. Gregory the Great, in four books ; which is in all the editions of the works of Gregory ; and in JVIabillon, Acta -S6'. Ord. Biiml. tom. i. p. 389, &c. Uusuardus, a French monk of St. Ger- main, near Paris, who flourished a.d. 876. Displeased with the brevity of the martyroh)gies of Jerome and Bcdc, he wrote one more full and particular, un- RELIGION AND THEOLOGY. CH. III.] der the countenance of Charles the Bald. It was published, Louvain, 15(58, 8vo ; and with omissions of what displejised the Papists, at Antwerp, 1587, 8vo. Abbo, a monk of St. Germain, h.aving witnessed the siege of Paris by tiie Nor- mans, in the year 887, composed a his- tory of it, in three books of very uncouth verses ; pubhshed among the Scriptures HistoricB Franc. Stephen V. pope, a.d. 885 — 891, lias left us three Epistles and part of an- other. Wolfhardus, a Benedictine monk and presbyter in the diocese of Eichstadt, who flourished A.i>. 886, has left us a life of St. Walpurga, or St. Walpurgis, in four books ; extant in Mabillon, Acta SS. Ord. Bened. tom. iv. p. 260, &c. Herembertus, or Erchembertus, a monk of Monte Cassino, a.d. 887. He wrote a Chronicon, or a full History of the Lombards, continued to a.d. 888; an abridgment of which, made up (it is supposed) by the author himself, was published at Naples, 1626, 4to, together with three other Chronicons. Adrevaldus, or Adalbertus, a Bene- dictine monk of Fleury, a. d. 890 ; wrote the liistory of the removal of the re- mains of St. Benedict and St. Scholas- tica from Monte Cassino to Fleury ; extant in Mabillon, Acta SS. Ord. Bened. tom. ii. p. 338, &c. He also A\Tote de Corpore et Sanguine Domini, in oppo- sition to the views of John Scotus ; ex- tant in D'Achery, Spicileg. tom. xii. 205 Asserius, a British monk, much em- ployed by Alli'cd the (ireat, and by bun made bishop of Slierbornc. He flourish- ed A.D. 890, and wrote a history of the life and achievements of king Alfred ; which is published among the Scriptores Rertim AmjUcarum, ed. Francf 1C02, ]). 1, &c. [Asser was first j)ublislied to- gether with Walsingham, by Ahp. Park- er, in 1574. In 1722 it w;us iiuhlisiied separately by "VA'ise, at O.xford. Ed.'] Gulielmus, librarian of the church of Rome, A.D. 890. He continued Anasta- sius' hves of the popes, from a.d. 867 to A.D. 891. Solomon, a German monk, abbot, and at last bishop of Constance, a. d. 890 — 920. He left several j)oems ; jjublislied in the Bibliuth. Pair. tom. .xvi. Formosus, pope, a.d. 891^896. He had shai-p contests with the citizens of Rome ; and when dead, his successor, Stephen VU., dug up his remains, de- posed him, nnitilated his body, and ca.st it into the Tii)er. Twi> of liis Epistles are extant in the Collections of Councils. Auxilius, a writer little known, who flourished about a. d. 894, and composed a histor}' of ]M)pe Formosus, and the con- tests respecting him, in two books ; in the Biblioth. I'utrum, tom. xvii. p. 1. The popes, Stephen VII. a.d. 896 — 897, John IX. a.d. 898—900, an.] ' [Ileconciling difficult texts. T/-.] * See Rich. Simon, Histoire Critique. ' [Of Rheims. TV.] CH. III.] RELIGION AND THEOLOGY. 211 Florus Maglster, who chose Augustine for his guide ; Haymo of Halberstadt ; and others. § 9. At the head of the latter class, we again find Rahanus Maurus; whose very diffuse work on the Allegories of the Scriptures, is yet extant. He Is followed by Sinaragdus, Hai/mo, Scotus, Paschasius Radbert, and many others, whose names it would be needless to mention. The expositors of this class all agree, that besides the literal import, there are other meanino-s of the sacred books ; but as to the number of these meaninn-s. they are not agreed. For some of them make tltree senses, others four w Jive ; and one, who is not the worst Latin inter- preter of the age, Angelome, a monk of Llsleux, maintains that there are seven senses of the sacred books. ^ § 10. In explaining and supporting the doctrines of religion, the Greeks and Latins were equally neglectful of their duty. Their manner of treating such subjects was dry, and better suited to the memory than to the understanding. The Greeks, for the most part, followed Damascenus ; the Latins acquiesced in the decisions of Augustine. The authority of tiie ancients was substituted for arguments and proofs; as may be clearly seen by the Collectaneum de trihus qucBstionibus, by Servatus Lupus, and the Tract of Reynigius on holding firmly to the truths of Scripture, and adhering faithfully to the authority of the holy and orthodox fathers. Those who appealed to the testi- mony of the sacred writers, either construed their words in what is called the allegorical sense, or deemed it Avrong to put any other construction upon them than had been put on them by councils and the fathers. The Irish doctors alone, and among them John Scotus, ventured to explain the doctrines of Christianity in a philosophical manner. But they generally in- curred strong disapprobation ; for the Latin theologians of that age would allow no place for reason and philosophy in matters of religion.^ § 11. Practical theology was treated negligently and unskil- fully by all who attended to it. Some gleaned sentences from « See the Prefoce to his Commentary crcd literature, had it remained in eb- on the books of Kings, in the Bibliothvca scurity. Patrum Maxima, torn. xv. p. 308. The '' Kesjiectinj: the dishlce of Seotiis, sec commentary of Angelome on the book Boul;iy, Historia Acadcm. Pans. torn. j. of Genesis, was published by Bernli. p. 1S2. Add the life of John ot Gortz, Pez, Thesaurus Anecdutor. torn. i. pt. i. in Maljillon, Acta Sanctur. Ord. Bened. But it would have been no loss to sa- Sfficiil. v. [torn, vii.] p. 392. 212 BOOK III. — CENTURY IX. [PAIIT II. the writings of the ancients, relating to piety and the duties of men : as may be seen In the Scintilla Patrum of Alvarus. Others composed treatises on the virtues and vices ; as Halit- garius, Rahanus Maurus, and Jonas of Orleans ; but it is not easy to discover in them traces of the pattern left us by Christ. Some endeavoured to unfold the will of God, and make it intel- licrlble to the unlearned by a tissue of allegories ; a method, the faults of which are manifest. The writers of sermons and of treatises on penance, of whom the number was not inconsiderable among the Latins, I pass over in silence. Some of the Gi'eeks began to apply themselves to the solution of what are called cases of conscience.^ § 12. The doctrines of the mystics, Avhich originated from Dio7igsius, falsely called the Areopaglte, and which taught men to abstract their minds from all sensible things, and to join them in an inexplicable union with God, had long been in the highest estimation among the Greeks, and especially the monks. And the praises of this Dionysius were pompously sung, in this century, by Michael Sgncellus and Methodius ; who thus endea- voured to multiply the admirers and followers of the man. The Latins had hitherto been unacquainted Avith this imposing system. But when Michael the Stammerer, emperor of the Greeks, sent a copy of Dionysins as a present to Lewis the Meek, a. d. 824 ^, at once the whole Latin world fell vio- lently in love with it. For Lewis, to put the Latins in posses- sion of so great a treasure, ordered the works of Dionysius to be forthwith translated into the Latin lano'uao'e.'' Afterwards, Hilduin, abbot of St. Denys, by the order of Leiois, published his Areopagitica, or Life of Dionysius ; in which, according to ■* See Nicephoms Chartophylax, Epis- Latin translation of Dionysius M'as not tol. ii. in tiie Bibliotli. Magna Patrum, made till tlie reign of Charles the Bald, torn. iii. p. 413. And those err also who say (with Jo. * Jac. Ussher, Sylloge Epistolar. Hiber- IMabillon, Annal. Benedict, torn. ii. lib. nicarum, p. 54, 55. xxix. § lix. \). 48S, and the authors o. " This we are explicitly taught by tlu; Histoire Lilteraire de la France, torn. Ililduin, in his epistle to the emperor v. p. 425, &e,) that Michael the Stam- Lewis the Meek, prefixed to his Areopa- merer sent to Lewis the Avorks of Dio- gitica, p. 66, ed. Cologne, 1563, 8vo, in nysiiis, translated from Greek into Latin. which he says : " De notitia libroruni. The contrary is most clearly signified quos (Dionysius) patrio sermone con- by Hilduin, in the place cited : "Authen- scripsit et quibus petentibus illos com- ticos namciue cosdeni (Dionysii) libros posuit, lectio nobis per Dei gratiani ct Graca lingua conscriptos, cum echonomus vestram ordinationem, cujus dispcnsa- ecclesiaj Constantinopolitanie et ca;teri tione interpretatos, scrinia nostra eos missi Michaclis legatione— functi sunt — petentibus rcscrat, satisfacit." Those pro munerc magno suscepimus." err, therefore, M'ho tell us tliat the CII. III.] RELIGION AND THEOLOGY. 213 the custom of the age, he not only states many tilings void of truth, but also shamefully confounds Dlonijsius the Areopaf/ite with DionTjsius bishop of Paris ; designing, no doubt, to advance the glory of the French nation.^ And this fable, caught up by credulous ears, became so firmly fixed in the minds of the French, that it is not yet fully eradicated. The first translation of Dioni/sius, made by order of Lewis the INIeek, was perhaps considerably obscure and barbarous. Therefore, his son, Charles the Bald, procured a new and more neat translation to be made by the celebrated John Erigena Scotiis ; which, being circulated, the patrons of mystic theology arose in France, Germany, and Italy more abundantly than ever. Scotus himself was so capti- vated with this new system of theology, that he did not hesi- tate to accommodate his philosophy to its precepts, or rather to explain its principles by the rules of his philosophy.* § 13. In defence of Christianity, against Jews, pagans, and others, only a few took the field ; because the internal contests among Christians engrossed all the attention oftho.se who were inclined to be polemics. Ar/obard inveighed against the arro- gance and other faults of the Jews in two short tracts. Amulo and Rabanus Maurus likewise assailed them. The Saracens were confuted by the emperor Leo, by Theoilonis Abi/rara, and by others whose writings are lost. But these and other oj)po- sers of the Mahumedans, advanced various false and unsubstan- tiated statements respecting Mahumed and his religion ; which (if brought forward designedly, as would seem to be the fact,) prove, that the writers did not aim so much at convincing the Saracens as at deterring Christians from apostasy. § 14. Among themselves the Christians had more strenuous and animated contests, than against the connnon enemy ; and these contests involved them continually in new calamities, and brought reproach upon the cause of true religion. Upon the banishment of L-cne'\ the contest about imago-worship was re- newed among the Greeks ; and it continued, with various suc- cess for nearly half this century. For Airej)honis\ though he ' Jo. Launoy, Diss, de Discrimine primary sources of the mystic thcohxjy, Diottysii Areop. ct Parisiensis, cap. iv. \\uuld easily amaltramate with it, and 0pp. torn. ii. pt. i. p. 38, and the other serve to explain and enlorcc it. /;•.] writings of this great man, and of others. * [a.p. 802. TV.] concerning the tu-o Dionysii. ' [Who now ascended the throne. ' [Scotus was partial to the Platonic Tr.'] philosophy ; which, being one of the f 3 214 BOOK III. — CENTURY IX. fPAIlT II. Avould not revoke the Nicene decrees, nor remove images from the temples, yet laid restraints upon their patrons, and would not allow them to use any violence or do any harm to the oppo- sers of image-worship. His successor, Michael Curopalates, was a timid prince, afraid to provoke the monks and priests who contended for images, and therefore, during his short reign 2, he favoured the cause of images, and persecuted their enemies. Leo the Armenian had more vigour^, and assembling a council at Constantinople, A. D. 814, he rescinded absolutely the Nicene decrees respecting the worship of the images of saints ; yet he did not enact any penal laws against the worshippers of them.^ As this temperate procedure was not satisfactory to JVicephorus the patriarch, and to the other friends of images, and as dangerous tumults seemed ready to break out, the em- peror removed JVicephorus from his office, and repressed the rage of some of his adherents with punishments. His successor, Michael the Stammerer, who was also opposed to image-wor- ' [a.d. 811 — 813. Tr.] ^ [And more ingenuousness too. For, before calling the council, the emperor, in an intcn'iew with Nicephorus, ]-e- questcd him to show the fact by proofs from the writings of the apostles and of the earlier fathers, if, as the patriarch asserted, the worship of images was in early use in the church. The answer he received was, that in this case we must be satisfied with 'iinwritten tradi- tion ; and that what had been decided in a general council was never to be controverted. After this, the emperor brought the contending parties to a con- ference in his presence, which Thcodo- rus Studites and his party frustrated, by telling the emperor, to his face, that doctrinal controversies were not to be discussed in the palace, but in the church ; and that if an angel from hea- ven should advance a doctrine contrary to the decrees of the Nicene council, they would treat him with abhorrence. The emperor punished this insolence by merely sending the monks back to their cloisters, forbidding them to raise dis- turbances about images, and requiring them to be peaceable citizens. Schf.'\ * [According to Man si (Supplem. Concil. tom. i. p. 755,) there were seve- ral conncils held at Constantinople, under Leo the Armenian, in regard to images. One was held under the pa- triarch Nicephorus, a. d. 81 4, and con- demned Anthony, bishop of Silla?um, as an Iconoclast, and established image- worship. The next council was called by Leo himself, in the year 815 ; and this it was which deposed Nicephorus, and declared him a heretic. The third was held under the new patriarch, Theodo- rus, and established the doctrines of the Iconoclasts. Images were now removed ; and the unsubmissive monks were ba- nished, but restored again to their cloistei's, as soon as they promised to remain quiet, and to hold communion with the new patriarch Theodorus. There were, however, among them, blind zealots, who, with Thcodoi-us Studities at their head, belched forth most shameful language against those bishops and monks who yielded obedi- ence to the emperor's commands, and even against the emperor himself. The former they declared to be enemies of Christ, denicrs of him, and apostates ; the emperor tlicy called an Amorite, an- other Og of Bashan, the great Dragon, a vessel of wrath, an Ahab, a second Julian ; and to insult him, they extolled their images, by chanting their praises in the most public places. These indeed were taken up and punished ; and Theo- dorus Studites was sent into exile ; and, as this did not tame him, he was im- prisoned ; yet so as to be allowed free correspondence by letters. Schl.} en. III.] RELIGION AND THEOLOGY. 215 ship, found it necessary to pursue the same course; fur although he at first showed great clemency to image-worshippers, he was obliged to lay aside his lenity, and to chastise the restless fiiction that was enslaved by images, especially the monks. '^ His son, Theophtlus^, hove harder upon the defenders of images, and even put some of the more violent of them to death.^ § 15. But after the death of Thcophilus, in tlie year 842, his surviving consort, Theodora, who administered the government of the empire, wearied out and deluded by the menaces, the en- treaties, and the fictitious miracles of the monks, assembled a council at Constantinople, a.d. 842, and there re-established the decisions of the Nicene council, and restored image-worship among the Greeks.^ Thus, after a contest of one hundred and ten years, image-worship gained the victory ; and all the East, except the Armenian church, embraced it ; nor did any one of the succeeding emperors attempt to cure the Greeks of their folly in this matter. The council of Constantinople, held under Photius, in the year 879, and which is reckoned by the Greeks the eighth general council, fortified image-worship by new and firm guards, approving and renewing all the decrees of the Nicene council. The Greeks, a superstitious people, and con- * [Notwithstanding Michael ascenrlcd receive it as from thcni. Sec the Epis- the throne under a very dubious title, tie of Michael to the emperor Lewis tho the image-worshippers described him as Meek, in Baronius's Annulcs, ad ann. a second David, and a Josiah, so long 824, § 26. Sc.hl.~\ as they accounted him one of their ^ [a. d. 829 — 842.] party ; because he released those im- ' [It is impossible to believe all that prisoned, and recalled the exiles. He tlie Greek monks tell us of tlie cruelties in fact showed great gentleness towards of this emperor, against the iniagc- the image-worshippers. He caused con- worsliippcrs ; as he was, in other re- ferences to be held, for allaying the con- spccts, an upriglit ruler. And it is well troversies ; and these proving inetfcc- known, that he wa.s very indulgent and tual, he allowed them to retain their kind towards Tlieoktista, the inothcr of images, though not to display them in liis emjiress, who worsliipju'd images iu ConstantinopTe ; and only required lier house, and endeavoured to iiistil the silence from both p.arties, so that the love of them into the young prillcc^^c3 bitterness between them might subside, of the emiieror. And if some persons This gentleness was the more remark- did actually suffer severely under liim, able, as tlie superstition of the image- they suHered rather on account of their worshippers knew no bounds, and led on slanderous language, their disobedience the grossest follies. For they set up to the laws, and their seditious conduct ; images, instead of the cross ; lighted to which they were prompted by their candles before them ; burned incense to mad zeal for promoting image-worship, them ; sang to their praise ; made sup- Sclil.'] phcations to them ; used them as spon- ' See Fred. Spanheim, Historia Ima- sors for their baptized children ; scraped ginum, sect. viii. Opp. tom. ii. p. 845, off the colours from the pictures, and &c. Jac. Lcnfant, J'reseriatif contre la mixed them with the wine of the eucha- Reunion avec le Siiye de H^mxe^ torn. ui. rist; and placed the bread of benediction Icttr. xiv. p. 147. &c. lettr. xvm. xui. p. in the hands of the images, in order to 509, &c. 1- 4 216 BOOK III. — CENTURY IX. [PART IT. trolled by ir.onks, regarded this as so great a blessing conferred on them by heaven, that they resolved to consecrate an anni- versary in remembrance of it, Avhich they called the Feast of Orthodoxy.'^ § 16. Among the Latins, image-worship did not obtain so easy a victory ; although it was warmly patronised by the Roman pontiffs. For the people of the West still maintained their ancient liberty of thinking for themselves in matters of religion ; and could not be brought to regard the decisions of the Komish bishops as final and conclusive. Most of the European Christians, as we have seen, took middle ground between the Iconoclasts and the image-worshippers. For they judged, that the images might be tolerated, as helps to the memory ; but denied, that any worship or honour was to be paid to them. Michael the Stammerer, emperor of the Greeks, when he sent an embassy to Lewis the Meek, a. d. 824, for the purpose of renewing the confederation with him, instructed his am.bassadors, if possible, to draw Leiois over to the side of the Iconoclasts. Lewis chose to have the subject thoroughly discussed by the bishops, in the council assembled at Paris, A. D. 824.^ They decided that they ought to abide by the opinions of tlie council of Frankfort ; namely, that the images of Christ and the saints were not indeed to be cast out of the temples, yet that religious worship should by no means be paid to them. Gradually, however, the European Christians swerved from this opinion ; and the opinion of the lioman pontiff, whose influence was daily increasing, got possession of their minds. Near the close of this century, the French first decided that some kind of worship might be paid to the sacred images: and the Germans, and others, followed their example.^ " See Jac. Gretscr, ObsvrvciL in Codi- almost unanimously rejected, as contain- num de Officiis Aulce et Ecclcsice Constun- ing absurd and erronc(jus opinions. The tinop. lib. iii. cap. viii. and the Cere- decrees of the second council of Nice, moniale Bijzantmum, lately published by relating to image-worship, were also llciskc, lib. L cap. 28, p. 92, &c. censured by the Galilean bishops; and ' [" Floury, Lc Sueur, and the other the authority of that council, thougli rc- historians, place unanimously this coun- ceivcd by several pojjes as an acummicul oil in the year 825. — It may be proper one, absolutely rejected. And what is to observe here, that the proceedings of remarkable is, that the pope did not, on this council evidently show, that the de- this account, declare the Galilean bishops cisions of the Roman pontitf were by no heretics, nor exclude them from the means looked upon, at this time, either communion of the apostolic see. See as obligatory or infallible. For when Fleury, liv. xlvii. § 4." Mad.'] the letter of po])e Adrian," in favour of '' Mabillon, Annalcs Benedict, torn. ii. images, was read in the council, it was p. 488. Idem, Picrf. ud Acta Sanctor. CH. III.] RELIGION AND THEOLOGY. 217 § 17. Still there were some among the Latins, who hiclincd to the side of the Iconoclasts. The most noted of tlicsc, was Claudius, bishop of Turin, a Spaniard by birth, and educated under Felix of Urgel. As soon as the favour of Lewis tlie Meek had raised him to the rank of bishop, in the year 823, lie cast all the crosses and sacred images out of the churches, and broke them. The next year, he published a book, not only defending the procedure, but advancing other i)rinciple3 also, which were at variance with the opinions of the ao-e. Among other things, he denied the propriety of worshipping the cross, which the Greeks conceded ; spoke contemptuously of all sorts of relics, and maintained that they had no efficacy ; and disapproved of all pilgrimages to the tombs of the saints and to holy places. He was opposed by the adherents to the inveterate superstition; and first, by the abbot Tlwodcmir, and afterwards by Dungal, a Scot, Jonas of Orleans, IValafrid Strtdw, and others. But this learned and ingenious man defended his cause with energy^ ; and thence it was, that long after his death, there was less superstition in the region about Turin, tlian in the other parts of Europe. § 18. The controversy, which commenced in the i)receding century, respecting the procession of the Holy Spirit from tiie Father and the Son, and respecting the words, and the Son, {Filioque,) inserted by the Latins in the Constantinopolitan creed, broke out with greater vehemence in this century ; and Ord. Bcned. Scecul. iv. pt. i. p. vii. viii. come from pictures, must be classed with Car. Le Cointe, Annales Eccl. Francor. tliose meutitnied lioin. i. who serve the torn. iv. ad aim. 824 : and many others. creature, more than the Creator." — ^ Mabillon, Annales Benedict, tom. ii. Against the cross, and the worship of it, p. 488. Prief. ad Sajcid. iv. Actor. Sanctor. he thus taught, " God has commanded Ord. Bened. p. viii. Histoire Littcraire us to bear tlie cross, not to praij to it. de la France, tom. iv. p. 491, and toni. Those are wilHng to pray to it, who are V. p. 27. 64. Among the llef'onncd, Jac. unwilling to bear it, cither in tlie spi- Ba.snage, Histoire dcs Eylises Jirfornurs, ritual (jr in the literal sense. Thus to tom. i. period, iv. p. 38, &c. ed. iii 4to.— worship God, is in fact to depart from [It is to be regretted, that we have only him." — Of the poi)c, he said, (when ac- those testimonies of Claudius against the cused for not yielding to his authority.) superstitions of his time, which his op- " He is not to lie called the Apostolical," posers, and especially Jonas of Orleans, (a title then commonly given to the p< .pc.) have quoted from his writings. Yet in " who sits in the apustlc's chair; but ho these quotations, there is nmch that is who performs the duties of an ai>ost]e. solid, and expressed in a nervous and For, of those who liold that place, yet manly style. Against images, he thus do not fulfil it.s duties, the I^.rd says, expresses himself: " If a man ought not 77iei/sit in Moses' scat, i\-c." — See bishop to worship the works of God, much less Jonas, lib. iii. de Jmay. in the Bibliol/u should he worship and reverence the J'atr. Max. Lmjd. torn. xiv. p. 166. works of men. — Whoever expects salva- 6V/i/.] tion, which comes only from God, to 218 BOOK III. — CENTURY IX. [PART IT. from being a private dispute, gradually became a public contro- versy of the whole Greek and Latin church. The monks of Jerusalem contended about this matter, and particularly about the words Filioque ; and one of their number, Julm, was despatched into France, to the emperor CJiarlemagne, a. d. SOQ."* This subject was discussed in the council of Aix-la- Chapelle, in this year; and also at Rome, before the pontiff Leo III., whither Charlemagne had sent envoys. Leo IIL approved the doctrine of the procession of the Holy Spirit from the Son ; but disapproved of the alteration of the creed, and wished the words Filioque to be disused by degrees.^ And his successors held the same sentiments ; but the interpola- tion, being once admitted, retained its place, in spite of the pontiffs, and at length was received by all the Latin churches.^ § 19. To these ancient controversies, new ones were added, among the Latins. The first was, respecting the manner in which the body and blood of Christ are present in the sacred supper. Though all Christians believed, that the body and blood of Christ were presented to the communicants in the Lord's supper, yet up to this time their views had been various and fluctuating, respecting the manner in which the body and blood of Christ are present ; nor had any council prescribed a definite faith on the subject. But in this century Paschasius Radhert, a monk of Corbie, afterwards abbot, in his treatise on the sacrament of the body and blood of Christ, written a. D. 831, attempted to give more clearness and stability to the views of ■* See Stcph. Baluze, Miscellan. torn, finnatioii of •which was requested by the vii. p. 14. [The occasion of tins trans- imperial envoys. Pope John VIII., in action M'as as follows : some French a letter to Photius, went still further ; monks, residing at Jerusalem as pil- for he called the expression, that the grims, chanted the creed in their Holy Ghost proceeded from the Son, worship, as was common with their blasphemy ; though the abolition of it countrymen, with the addition of Filiu- was attended with ditficulty and re- que. The Greeks censured this custom ; quired time. Schl.'] and the Franks sought the protection " See Carl. Le Cointe, Annal. Eccles. and the determination of the emperor. Francor. torn. iv. ad ann. 809, &c. Lon- Schl.l gueval, Histoire de VEglise GaUicune, * [The conference of the imperial torn. v. p. 151, and the other writers envoys with pope Leo III. is still ex- above cited. [The pope had not, either tant, in Harduin's Collection of Councils, in the eighth century, or the fore part torn. iv. p. 970, &c. From this it ap- of the ninth, such influence and aiitho- pears, that Leo was displeased, not with rity over the Spanish and French the doctrine itself, but with the unau- chm-ches, as to be able to compel them Ihorizcd interpolation of the creed ; and directly to expunge the interpolation, disapproved the recent decision of the Schl.^ council of Aix-la-Chapelle, the con- CH. III.] RELIGION AND THEOLOGY. 219 the church.' Upon the presentation of this book, enlarged and improved, to Charles the Bald, in the year 845, a great dis- pute arose out of it. Paschasius taught, in general, that in the Lord's supper, after the consecration, there remained only the form and appearance of bread and wine ; and that the real body, or the flesh and blood of Christ, Avere present ; and indeed, the ideiitical body, that teas born of the virgiii, suffered on the cross, and arose from the tomb.^ This doctrine seemed to many to be new and strange; and especially the last part of it. Rahanus Maurus therefore, Heribakl, and others, op})osed it ; but on dif- ferent grounds. And the emperor, Charles the Bald, commanded two men, of distinguished learning and talents, Ratramn and John Scotus, to give a true exposition of that doctrine which Radbert was supposed to have corrupted.^ Both of them did ' See ]\Iabillon, Annales Benedict. torn. ii. p. 539. The treatise of Pas- chasius was published in a more accu- rate manner than before, by Edm. Mar- tene, Amplissima CoUectio Vctcr. Scrip- tor, torn. ix. p. 378, &c. The Hfc and character of Paschasius are formerly treated of by Mabillon, Acta Scuictor. Ord. Bened. Sa^cul. iv. pt. ii. p. 126, &c. and by the Jesuits, in the Acta Saiictor. Antw. ad diem 26 Aprilis ; and by many others. ' [Far too corporeal conceptions of the presence of Christ's body and blood in the eucharist had existed in pre- ceding times, and indeed ever since Cyril's notion of the nature of Christ's becoming flesh, had been received ; and the holy supper had been compared to an offering or sacrifice. But such gross corporeal expressions, as Paschasius employed, no one had before used ; nor had any carried their conceptions so far. In his book, de Corpore et San- guine Domini, he says, "Licet figura panis et vini hie sit, omnino nihil aliud quam caro et sanguis post eonsecrationem cre- denda .sunt — nee alia (caro) quam qiisx nata est de Maria, passa in cruce, resur- rexit de sepulcro ; et htec, inquam, ipsa est, et ideo Christi cai-o est, qua- pro vita mundi ad/itic hodie offertiir." Schl. — " Tria potissimum docet in hoc opcre Paschasius : uempe, Venmi Christi Do- mini corpus, verumque sanguinem existere in sanctissimo eueharistia; Sacra- mento : Panis et vini substantiam, fiicta consecrationc, non superesse ; deniquc. Annul. Bened. torn. ii. p. 538. Of course the great contest is, whether Kadbert was or not a rash speculator, who put forth opinions hitherto unad- mitted, if not altogether unknown. The question being vital to modern Koman- isni, its advocates maintain that he Wiis no othenvise remarkable than as the first distinct enunciator of a doctrine ever holden by the cinireh. Mabillon argues that a man of his learning must have known what the church tliought, and never could have been so impudent as to feign recc])tion for a belief which the chureli did not entertain, lie con- fesses, however, that adversjirie.s of I\adl)crt's book arose after a few years, but he pronounces their exceptii)ns to have been of a peculiar luiturc, unap- proved by the cluirch or prelacy, rather indeed rejected by both, and suggested not .so much by the thing itself, as by- certain modes of speaking. But such representations do not well ruliere witli the sjjcedy appearance of Batrainn and John Scot's tracts, under royal patron- age, nor with Bafian Maur's denuncia- tion of lladbcrt's tlieorv as an error and a novelty. The archbisliop of Mentz was, ))erliaps, the most celebrated jire- late of his day, and following Mabillon's line of inference, it may be said, that he must have known what the church then thought, and never could have been so impudent as to tax that with novehy which had notoriously been establiiihcd time immemorial. Ed.'] 9 Concerning Katranm or Bertram, Ipsum corpus non aliud esse, quam quod and his book, which has caused so much de Maria Virgine natum est." :MalnIlon discussion, see Jo. Alb. Fabriciu.s, Bib- 220 BOOK III. — CENTURY IX. [PAllT II. SO ; but the work of Scotus is lost ; and that of Ratramn, which is still extant, has given occasion to much disputation, both in a former age, and in our own.' § 20. The writers who engaged in this controversy, were not agreed among themselves, nor were they self-consistent through- out their resi)ective treatises. Indeed, the mover of the con- troversy, Radhert himself, was deficient in consistency, and not unfrequently recedes, manifestly, from that which he had as- serted. His principal antagonist, Bertram or Ratramn, seems in general to follow those who think that the body and blood of Christ are not truly present in the eucharist, but are only represented by the bread and wine : and yet he has passages which appear to depart widely from that sentiment ; and there- fore, it is not without some plausibility that he has been under- stood and explained diversely.^ John Scotus only, as being a philosopher, expressed his views perspicuously and properly : teaching, that the bread and wine are signs and representat'ives of the absent body and blood of Christ. All the others fluc- tuate and assert in one place, what they gainsay in another, and reject at one time what they presently after maintain. Among the Latins, therefore, in this age, there was not yet a determinate, common opinion, as to the mode in which the body and blood of Chi'ist are in the eucharist. § 21. The disputants in this controversy, as is common, taxed each other with odious consequences from their opinions. The most considerable of these consequences, was that which, in the eleventh century, was denominated stercoranism. Those who held, with Radbert, that after tlie consecration, only the forms of bread and wine remained, contended, that from the linth. Lat. Med. jEri, torn. i. p. 661, &c. - [Bertram's Treatise, in a ne-iv [Concerning Ratramn's book, there lias English translation, was published at been dispute as to its genuineness, Dublin, a. d. 1753; and with a learned some ascribing it to John Scotus, and historical Dissertation prefixed. Ma- also as to the doctrine it contains, billon {Acta Sanctor. Ord. Bened. torn. The Roman Catholics would make it vi. Prajf, p. xxx. &c.) evinces, trium- tcach transubstantiation ; the Lutherans, phantly, the genuineness of the book ; consubstantiation ; and the Reformed, and then goes into an elaborate argu- only a mystical or sacramental presence nient to prove, in opposition to John of Christ. TV-.] Claude, that the author was a believer ' This controversy is described at in tiie real presence. I5nt the mere read- length, though not without partiality, ing of his argument, with the full and by Jo. IMabillon, Acta Sanctor. Ord. candid quotations it contains, has left on Bened. [torn, vi.] Saicul. iv. pt. ii. p. \'iii. one mind, at least, the conviction, that &c. With him, compare Jac. Bas- Dr. Moslieim has truly stated the clia- nage, Htstoire de I'EuUse, torn. i. p. 909, racter and contents of that work. 7>.] &c. EELIGIOX AXD THEOLOGY. 221 CH. III.] sentiments of tlieir adversaries, who believed tliat in the holy supper there was nothing more than the figure or signs of Christ's body and blood, this consequence would follow, namely, that the body of Christ was ejected from the bowels, with the other fcBces. On the other hand, those who rejected the trans- mutation of the bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ, taxed the advocates of this doctrine with the same consequence. Each party, probably, casts this reproach upon the other, without reason. The crime of stcrcoranism, if we do not mistake, was a fabricated charge ; which could not justly fall on those who denied the conversion of the bread into the body of Christ; but M'hich might be ol)jected to those who believed in such a transmutation, although it was probably never admitted, by any one really in his right mind.^ § 22. At the very time when the sacramental controversy \\a3 at its height, another controversy sprang up, which related to divine grace and predestination. Godeschalcus, a Saxon of noble birth, and, against his own choice, a monk, first at Fulda, and * Respecting the Stercoral! ists, see John Mabillon, Acta SS. Ord. Bened. [torn, vi.] Pnuf. ad SaBcuI. iv. pt. ii. p. xxi. Jac. Basnage, Histoire de I'Eglise, torn. i. p. 926, &c. and the late treatise of the venerable Pfaff, Tubing. 1750, 4to. [It is not easy to determine the precise form of this indecent charge, as advanced by either party. The believers in tran- substantiation supposed the sacramen- tal elements not to pass througli the hu- man body like ordinary aliments, but to become wholly incorporated with the bodies of the communicants ; so that, on their principles, they could not be justly charged with stcrcoranism. On the contrary, the opposcrs of transubstan- tiation supposed the substance of the sacramental elements to undergo the ordinaiy changes in the stomach and bowels of the communicant ; so that by assuming that these elements had become the real body and blood of Christ, they might be charged witii stcrcoranism ; but it was only by assuming wliat they expressly denied, namely, the truth of the doctrine of transubstantiation. Thus neither party could be justly taxed witli this odious consequence ; and yet a dex- terous disputant, by resorting to a little perversion of his antagonist's views, might easily cast upon him this vulgar and imseemly reproach. Tr. — The jus- tice of this re])roa(h is. however, dis- tinctly admitted by Mabillon. Sjjcaking of the three great i>rincij)les enunciated by Radbcrt, he says, " Ad hi€c, tria alia ex his consequentia docct, scilicet, Christum in mijsLrio quotidie veraciter immolari; eucharistiani ct vcrilatcm esse et fignram ; denique scccssui obnoxiani non esse." Annul, liened. torn. ii. p. 5.38. Thus this filthy (juestiun Wits really not left untouched by HadKnt himself. It was not, indeed, likely to be overlooked in the gross discussions of such an age as his. He may be readily considered as little else than the funnal enunciator of propositions which had ob- tained extensive currency ; their autho- rity is a vciy ditlerent (jucstion. For their cuiTcncy it is easy to account. The fathers have intermingled with much unfavourable to tiansubstantiation, many things that its advocates find highly ser- viceable, their object .seemingly being to draw a strong line of distinction between the consecrated elements and common food : two things which scotl'ers and the thoughtless would be very liable to con- found. As criticiil discernment declined, and superstition advanced, such language could hardly fail of )ia:«sing with many for assertions of sensible, though veiled divinitv, in the elements themselves. Ed.-] ' 222 BOOK Iir. — CENTURY IX. [part II. then at Orbais in France ; upon his return from a journey to Rome, in the year 847, lodged with his friend, (and perhaps, also, relative,) count Eberald ; and there in presence o^ Nothingiis, bishop of Verona, entered into discussion respecting predes- tination ; and maintained, that God had predestinated, from eternity, some to everlasting life, and others to the punishments of hell. When his enemy, Rahaniis Maurus, heard of this, he first by letter charged him with heresy ; and afterwards when Godeschalcus came from Italy to Germany, in order to purge himself, and appeared before the council of Mentz, a. d. 848, Maurus procured his condemnation, and transmitted him, as one found guilty, to Hincmar, archbishop of Rheims in France.* Hincmar, who was a friend of Rahaniis, condemned him anew, in a council held at Quiersy, a. d. 849 ; and as he would not renounce his sentiments, which he said, and said truly, were those oi Augustine, ^mc?w«r deprived him of his priestly office, ordered him to be whipped, till he should throw the statement made by him at Mentz into the flames ; and then sent him in ■• Notliingus, by letter, gave Eaba- nus an account of the tenets advanced by Godeschalcus. UiDon this, Eabanus wrote a long letter to Nothingus, and another to count Eberald, loading the sentiments of Godeschalcus with re- proaches. Godeschalcus, therefore, set out unmediately for Germany ; in order to vindicate his assailed jjrinciples. On his arrival at Mentz, he presented to Rabanus liis tract on a twofold predesti- nation. Rabanus laid this before a synod ; which condcnnied the sentiments it contained, but did not venture to punish Godeschalcus, because he did not belong to their jurisdiction, but to that of Rheims. They however exacted from him an oath, not to return again to the territories of king Lewis ; and trans- mitted him, as a prisoner, to Hincmar, the archbishop of Rheims. The synodal epistle of Rabanus accompanying the prisoner contained this statement : " Be it known to youi" goodness, that a certain vagabond monk, named Gothescalc, who says he was ordained priest in your diocese, came from Italy to ]\Ientz, introducing new superstitions, and per- nicious doctrine concerning the pre- destination of God, and leading tlie peo])le into error ; affirming that tlie predestination of God related to evil as ■well as to good; and that there are some in the world, wlio cannot reclaim them- selves from their errors and sins, on account of tlie predestination of God, which compels them on to destruction ; as if God had, from the beginning, made them incoiTigible and obnoxious to per- dition. Hearing this opinion, therefore, in a synod lately held at INIentz, and finding the man iiTcclaimable, with the consent and dii'cction of our most pious king Hludovicus, we determined to transmit him, together with his pernici- ous doctrine, to you, under condemna- tion ; that you may put him in confine- ment in your diocese, from which he has iiTcgularly strolled ; and that you may not suiter him any more to teach error, and seduce Christian people : for we have learned, that he has already seduced many, who are negligent of their salvation, and who say : What Avill it profit me to exert myself in the service of God ? Because, if I am predestinated to death, I can never escape it ; but if predestinated to life, although I do wickedly, I shall undoubtedly obtain eternal rest. In these few words, we liave written to you, descriljing what we Ibund his doctrine to be," &c. See Harduiu's Concilia, tom. v. p. 15, 16. Tr.-\ CII. III.] IlELIGION AND THEOLOGF. 223 custody to the monastery of Hautvilliers.^ In this prison, the unhappy monk, who was a man of learning, but liigh-minded and pertinacious, ended his days in the year 8G8 or 869 ; re- taining firmly, till his last breath, the sentiments that he had embraced. § 23. While Godeschalcus remained in prison, the Latin church was involved in controversy on his account. For dis- tinguished and discerning men, such as Ratramn of Corbie, Prudentius of Troyes, Liipus of Ferrieres, Florus, a deacon of Lyons, and Remigius, bishop of Lyons, together with his whole church, and many others, defended with energy, both orally and in writing, either the person or the sentiments of the monk. On the other hand, Hincmar his judge, Amahrius, Juhn Scot us the celebrated philosopher, and others, by their writino-s, con- tended that both he and his opinions were justly dealt with. As the spirit of controversy waxed hotter continually, Charles the Bald, in the year 853, ordered another convention or coun- cil to be held at Quiersy ; in which, through the influence of Hijicmar, the decision of the former council was confirmed, and Godeschalcus was again condemned as a heretic.*' But in the ^ [The sentence upon Godeschaleus, passed by the S3^nod of Quiersy, was thus worded : " Brother Gotescalc, know thou, that tlic holy office of the sacer- dotal ministry, which thou hast irregu- larly iisurped," (because, in a vacancy of the see of Rheims, he obtained or- dination of the sub-bishop of Rheims,) " and hast not feared hitherto to abuse by wicked manners and acts, and by coiTupt doctrines, is now, by the de- cision of the Holy Spirit, (of whose grace the sacerdotal office is the administra- tion, by virtue of the l)lood of our Lord Jesus Christ,) taken from thee ; if thou ever receivedst it : and thou art utterly prohibited from ever presuming again to exercise it. INIoreover, because thou hast presumed, contrary to the design and the name of a monk, and despising ecclesiastical law, to unite and confound the civil and ecclesiastical vocations ; we, by our episcopal authority, decree, that thou be whipped Avith very severe stripes (durissimis verberibus), and, ac- cording to ecclesiastical rales, be shut up in prison. And tliat thou no more presume to exercise the functions of a teacher, we, by virtue of the eternal Word, impose perijetual silence upon thy lips." See Harduin, nbi supra, p. 20. This sentence was executed witli- out mitigation. J"/-.] " [In this council, the opposers of Godeschalcus set fortli (heir creed, in respect to the contested doctrines, in the four ft)llowing articles : viz. I. Aln^ighty God created man, with- out sin, upright, endued with free will ; and placed him in Paradise ; and pur- posed his continuance in tlie holiness of uprightness. Man, abusing free Avill, sinned, and fell, and tiie whole human race became a mass of corruption. But the good and rigiiteous God elcctctl, out of that mass of perdition, accoriling to his foreknowledge, those whom he predestinated unto life through grace, and foreordained eternal life for tlicni : but the others, whom in his righteous judgment he left in the mass of perdition, he J'urcsaw would perish ; but lie did not foreordain that they should pcrisli ; yet, being just, he foreordained eternal punisiunent to be their portion. And thus we affirm but one predestination of God, which relates cither to the gift of grace, or to the retributions of jus- tice. II. "We lost freedom of will in the 224 BOOK III. — CENTURY IX. [rART II. year 855, the three provhices of Lyons, Vienne, and Aries, as- seml)led in council at Valence, Remighis presiding, and set forth other decisions, in opposition to those at Quiersy, and defended the cause of GodeschnlcusJ With the decisions of the council first man ; which we recover by Christ, our Lord ; and we have free will to good, when prevented and aided by grace ; and have ft-ee will to evil \\hen forsaken of grace. That we have free will, is be- cause we are made free by grace, and are healed of cormption liy it. III. Almighty God wills, that all men, without exception, should become saved; and yet all men will not be saved. And that some are saved, arises from the gratuity of him who sa\'cs ; but that some perish arises from their desert of perdition. IV. As there never was, is, or will be, a man, whose natm'e was not assumed by our Lord Jesus Clirist ; so there never was, is, or will be, a man, for whom Christ has not died ; and this, notwithstanding all are not redeemed by the mystery of his passion. That all are not redeemed by the mystery of his passion, is not owing to the [limited] magnitude and value of the price ; but is the fault of unbelievers, or of them who do not believe with the faith that works by love. For the cup of human salvation, which is provided for our weakness, and has divine efficacy, con- tains what might benefit all ; but if it be not drunken, it will not produce heal- ing.^ These doctrinal articles were agreed on in the council of Quiersy, a. d. 853 ; though sometimes attributed to the council of Quiersy in the year 849, and printed as such in Harduin, Concil. torn. V. p. 18, 19 ; compare p. 57. TV.] ' The council of Valence published twenty-three canons ; five of whicli con- tain the doctrinal views of the friends and defenders of Godeschalcus. See Harduin, Concil. tom.v. p. 87, &c. These five canons are too long to be inserted here, without some abridgment. The substance of them is as follows, viz. : Can. II. " That God foresees, and eternally foresaw, both the good which the rigliteous will perform, and the evil which the wicked will do." Dan. ii. 29. "We hold faithfully and judge it should be held, that he foresaw, that the righteous would certaiidy become riglit- eous through his grace ; and by the same grace would obtain eternal blessed- ness : and he foresaw, that the wicked woidd be wicked through their own perverseness ; and would be such as must be condemned by his justice to eternal punishment." According to Ps. Ixii. 12, and Rom. ii. 7—9, and 2 Tliess. i. 7 — 10. " Nor has the prescience ot God imposed upon any bad man a neces- sity, that he cannot be other than bad ; but, what he would become by his own free volition, God, as one who knows all things before they come to pass, foresaw, by his omnipotent and unchangeable majesty. Nor do we believe that any one is condemned by a divine prejudica- tion ; but according to the deserts of his own wickedness. Nor do the wicked perish, because they could not become good ; but because they woidd not be- come good, and tlu'ough their ovra fault remained in the mass of condemnation, or in their original and their actual sin." Can. III. " As to the ]iredestinatiou of God, we decide, and faithfully decide, according to the authority of the Apos- tle;" Rom. ix. 21 — 23. "We confi- dently profess a predestination of the elect imto life ; and a predestination of the wicked unto death. Eut in the elec- tion of those to be saved, the mercy of God precedes their good deserts ; and in tlie condemnation of those who are to perish, their /// deserts precede the right- eous judgment of God. In liis predes- tination, God only determined what he himself would do, either in his gratui- tous mercy, or in his righteous judg- ment."— '• In the wicked, he foresaw their wickedness, because it is from themseh'cs ; he did not predestine it, be- cause it is not from him. The punish- ment, indeed, consequent upon their ill desert, he foresaw, being a God who foresees all things ; and also predestined, because he is a just God, with whom, as St. Augustine says, there is both a fixed purpose, and a certain foreknowledge, in regard to all things whatever." — But that some are predestinated to icickedncss, hy a divine power, so that they cannot be of another character, we not only do not be- lieve ; but if there are those who will believe so great a wrong, we, as A\ell as the.coimcil of Orange, with all detesta- tion, declare them anathema. RELIGION AND THEOLOGY. 225 CH. III.] of Valence, coincided those of the council of Langres, a. d. 859, composed of the same provinces; and likewise those of tlie council of Toul, a. d. 860, composed of the bishops of fourteen provinces.^ On the death of Godeschalcus, the author of the contest, this vehement controversy subsided.^ § 24. The cause of Godeschalcus is involved in some ob- scurity ; and many and eminent men have appeared, both as his patrons, and as his accusers. He taught, unquestionably, that there is a two-fold predestination, the one to eternal life, and the other to eternal death ; that God does not will the sal- vation of all men, but only of the elect ; and that Christ suffered death, not for the whole human race, but only for that portion of it to which God decreed eternal Salvation. His friends put a favourable construction upon these propositions ; and they deny, that he held those whom God predestinated to eternal punishment, to be also predestinated to sin and guilt. On the contrary, they maintain, that he taught only this, that God from eternity condemned those who, he foresaw, would become sin- ners : and condemned them on account of their sins voluntarily committed ; and decreed, that the fruits of God's love and of Can. IV. In this canon they disap- proved the sentiments of some, who held "that the blood of Christ was shed, even for those ungodly ones who had been punished with eternal damnation, fi-om the l)eginning of the world to the time of Christ's passion." And they held " that this priee was paid (only) for those of whom our Lord has said : ' As Moses lifted up the serpent,' &c. ' that every one that believcth in him,' &c. John iii. 14 — 16. 'And the Apostle says: Christ was once oflered to bear the sins of many.' " — " MoreoA-cr, the four ar- ticles, adopted without due consideration by the synod of our brethren (at Quiersy, A.D. 853), on account of their inutility, and indeed, their injurious tendency, and error, contrary to the trath ; as also those other, (of John Scotus,) unfitly set forth in nineteen syllogisms ; and in which, notwithstanding the boast, that they are not the result of philosophy, there appears to be rather the fabrica- tion of the devil, than an exhibition of the faith ; we wholly explode, as not to be listened to by the faithftd ; and we enjoin, by the authority of the Hoi}- Spirit, that such, and all similar state- ments, be looked upon as dangerous, and VOL. II. Q to be avoided. And the introducers of (such) novelties, we judge ought to be censured." Can. V. This canon maintains the necessity of a saint's persevering in holiness, in order to his salvation. Can. VI. In regard to saving gi"ace, "and free will, which was impaired by sin, in the first man ; but is recovered and made whole again by Jesus Christ, in all behevers in him ;" this council held with various councils and pontifl's ; and reject the trash vented by various persons. 7V.] * [The five doctrinal canons of the council of Valence, were adopted, with- out alteration, by the councils of Lan- gres and of Toul. See Harduin, Cuncil. tom. V. p. 481, &c. 498. TV.] ' Besides the common writers, an im- partial history of this controversy is gi\en by Ca?sar Egasse de Boulay, ///»- ttvria Academice Paris, toni. i. p. 178, &c., by Jo. Mabillon. Acta Si nclor. Ord. Bc- 7ied. torn. vi. ; or Sa'cul. iv. pt. ii. Pra.'f. p. xlvii. in the Histuire Litteraire de la France, tom. v. p. 352. by Jac. Usshcr, Historia Godesrhalci, Ilanov. 1662, Svo. and Dublin, 1731, 4tQ ; and by Gerh. Jo. Vossius, Historia Pilagiana, lib. vii. 226 BOOK III. — CENTURY IX. [PART II. Christ's sufferings should extend only to the elect ; notwith- standino- the love of God and the sufferings of Christ, in them- selves considered, have reference to all men. But his adversa- ries fiercely contend, that he concealed gross errors under ambio-uous phraseology ; and in particular, that he wished to have it believed, that God had predestinated the persons who will be damned, not only to suffer punishment, but likewise to commit the sins by which they incur that punishment.^ This, at least, seems to be incontrovertible, that the true cause of this whole controversy, and of all the sufferings endured by the unhappy Godesclialcus, may be traced to the private enmity, existing between him and Rabanus Maurus, who had been his abbot.^ § 25. With this great controversy, another smaller one was interwoven, relative to the trine God. In the churches over which he presided, Hincmar forbade the singing of the last words of a very ancient hymn : Te trina Deltas, nnaque posci- mus ^ ; on the ground that this phraseology subverted the sim- plicity of the divine nature, and implied the existence of th?'ee Gods. The Benedictine monks would not obey this mandate of Hincmar ; and one of tlieir number, Batramn, wrote a con- siderable volume, made up, according to the custom of the age, of quotations from the ancient doctors, in defence of a trijie Deity. Godesclialcus^ receiving information of this dissension, while in prison, sent forth a paper, in which he defended the cause of cap. iv. Adfl Jo. Alb. Fabricius, Bib- Lewis Cellot, in his Historia Godeschalci lioth. Lat. Medii jEvi, torn. iii. p. 210, Pradestinatiani, splendidly printed, Pa- &c. ris, 1655, fol., labours to sliow, that ' The cause of Godeschalcus is learn- Godeschalcus was most righteously con- edly treated, in an appropriate work, by demned. T\'illiam Mauguin ; wlio published all * Godeschalcus, Mho was committed the writings on both sides of this contro- to the monastery of Fulda by his pa- Tersy that have reached us, Paris, 1 650, rents, while an infant, agreeably to the 2 vols. 4to ; under the title : Veteriim custom of the age, ^hen he became Auctorum, qui nono sccculo de Pradestina- adult, wished to abandon a monastic tione et Gratia scripserunt, Opera et Frag- life. But Eabanus retained him, con- menta, cum Historia et gemina Prcefatione. trary to his wishes. This produced a A more concise account of it is given by great contest between them, which was Henry Noris, Synopsis Historia Godes- terminated only by the interposition of chalcancp, in his Opp. tom. iv. p. 677, &c. Lewis tlie Meek. Hence those conflicts But he more strenuously defends Godes- and suft'erings. See the Centuria; Mag- clialcus, than Mauguin does. All the deb. centur. ix. c. 10, p. 543. 546 ; and Benedictines, Augustinians, and Jansen- Mabillon, Annales Bened. tom. ii. ann. ists maintain, that Godeschalcus was 829, ]). 52.3. most unjustly oppressed and persecuted ^ [Of tliee, trine Deity, yet one, we by Rabanus and Hincmar. Tlie Jesuits ask. Tr.~\ take opposite ground ; and one of them. CH. III.] RELIGION AND THEOLOGY. 227 his fellow monks. For this, he was accused by Ilincmar of Tritheism also, and was confuted in a book written expressly for that purpose. But this controversy soon subsided ; and in spite of Hincmar's efforts, those words retained their place in the hyra'n.'* § 26. About the same time another controversy found its way from Germany into France, relative to the manner in which our blessed Saviour issued from the womb of his mother. Some of the Germans maintained that Jesus Christ did not proceed from the womb of jSlary, according to the laws of nature in the case of other persons, but in a singular and extraordinary manner. When this opinion reached France, Batramn opposed it; and maintained that Christ came into the world in the way which nature has provided. Paschasius Rudbert came forth in defence of the Germans, maintaining, in a distinct treatise, that Christ was born Avith no expansion of his mother's liody ; and charging those who taught otiierwise with denying the virginity of Mary. But this also was a short contest, and gave way to greater ones.^ § 27. Of all the controversies that disturbed this century, the most famous and the most unhappy was, that which severed the Greek and Latin churches. The bishops of Rome and Constantinople had long indulged, and sometimes also mani- fested, great jealousies of each other. Their mutual animosity became violent from the times of Leo the Isaurian *', when the bishops of Constantinople, supported by the authority and pa- tronage of the [Greek] emperors, withdrew many provinces '' See the craters of the history of S]wct'mg the seren-folil grace of the Spirit, Godeschalcus, who also touch upon this CharU'inagne asked the o]iini()n of seve- controversy. ral bishojjs, whether Christ and believers * See Lucas d' Achery, Spicileg. vete- receive tlie same extraordinary- pifts of rum Scriptorum, torn. *i. p. 396. Jo, the Holy Spirit. They answered, that Mabillon, Acta Sanctor. Ord. Beneil. Christ received all the se^■eu gifts [torn, vi.] Sfficul. iv. pt. ii. Pra>f. p. li., eifually ; hut that believers receive each &c. [After giving account of this con- his particular gift. Tiie emperor, dis- troversy, Mabillon proceeds to the liis- satisfied witii tlieir answer, wmte a tract, tory of another, between Ratramn and to prove that Christ received all tlie Paschasius Radbert, respecting the unity gifts of tlie Sjiirit at once, and in per- of human souls. The controversy was petuum, without change, incR>ase, or of short continuance, and seems to have diminution : but that believers did not arisen from a misunderstanding of each so receive them, though they might in other, in consequence of their not clearly some degi-ee enjoy the temporar)' pos- discriminating between numerical unitt/ session of tliem all. See Walch's /Vo- and a specific unity. See Mabillon, ubi gramm. de Gratia septiformis Spiritus, supra, p. liii., &c. — There was another a.d. 1755. T;-.] controversy, under Charlemagne, re- * [a. u. 716 — 741. TV.] Q 2 228 BOOK III. — CEXTUUY IX. [PAllT II. from their subjection to the see of Rome.^ But in the ninth century the smothered fire which had been burning in secret broke out into an open flame upon occasion of the elevation of Fhotius, the most learned Greek of the age, to succeed the de- posed Ignatius in the see of Constantinople, by the emperor Michael, A. D. 852*^; and the confirmation of that elevation, as regular and correct, by the council of Constantinople, in the year 861.^ For the Roman pontiff, Nicolaus I., whose aid had been solicited by Ignatius, in a council at Rome, a. d. 862, pro- nounced Photius (whose election he maintained was uncanon- ical,) together with his adherents, to be unworthy of Christian communion. This thunder was so far from terrifying Photius that it only made him give back that which he had received ; and excommunicate Nicolaus, in the council of Constantinople of the year 866. § 28. The pretence for the war which Nicolaus I. commenced was the justice of the cause of Ignatius ; whom the emperor had deprived of his episcopal office, upon a charge, true or false, of treason. But Nicolaus w^ould have been unconcerned about the injury done to Ignatius, if he could have recovered, from the Greek emperor and from Photius, the provinces taken from the Roman pontiffs by the Greeks, namely Illyricum, Mace- donia, Epirus, Achaia, Thessaly, and Sicily. For he had de- manded them back through his envoys at Constantinople. And when the Greeks paid no regard to his demand, he wanted to avenge his own wrong, rather than that of Ignatius. § 29. While every thing was being hotly contested on both sides, Basil the Macedonian, a parricide, who had usurped the empire of the Greeks, suddenly restored peace ; for he re- called Ignatius from exile, and commanded Photius to retire to private life. This decision of the emperor was confirmed by a council assembled at Constantinople, a. d. 869, in which the legates of the Roman pontiff, Hadrian IL, had controlling in- fluence.' The Latins call this the eighth general council. The ' See Giannone, Histoire de Naples, by tlic two Romish delegates. Its Acts torn. i. p. 535. 646. Peter de Mavca, are lost ; liaving probably been destroyed de Concordia Sacerdot. et. Imperii, lib. i. by tlie adherents to Ignatius. See cap. i. p. 6, &c. Le Quien, Oriens Chris- Watch's Kirchenversamnd. p. 552, &c. tianiis, torn. i. p. 96, &c. Scld.'] ' [Rather a. d. 858. Tr.] ' The writers on both sides of this ' [Some of the Greeks call this a controversy, are named by Jo. Alb. genera/ council. It was attended by 318 Fabricius, Bihliotli. Grcrca. vol. iv. cap. bishops ; and its decrees were subscribed xxxviii. p. 372. CH. III.] RELIGIOX AND THEOLOGY. 229 religious content between the Greeks and Latins now ceased ; but the strife respecting the boundaries of tlic Romish [pontiiical] jurisdiction, especially in regard to Bulgaria, still continued: nor could the pontiff, with all his efforts, prevail on either Ignatius or the emperor to give up Bulgaria, or any other of the provinces. § 30. The first schism was of such a nature that it was pos- sible to heal it ; but Photius, a man of high feelings, and more learned than all the Latins, imprudently prepared materials for interminable war. For, in the first place, in the year 866, he annexed Bulgaria to the see of Constantinople, which Nicolaus was eager to possess ; and this was extremely offensive to tiie Roman pontiff". In the next place, what was nuich more to be lamented, and unworthy of so great a man, he sent an encyclic epistle ^ to the oriental patriarchs on the subject ; thus convert- ing his own private controversy into a pul)lic one ; and more- over accused, in very strong terms, the Roman bishops sent among the Bulgarians, and through them the whole Latin church, of corrupting the true religion, or of heresy. In his great irritation he taxed the Romans wdth five enormities ; than which in their view, the mind could conceive no greater. Fii'st, that they deemed it proper to fast on the seventh day of the week or the Sabbat/i. Secondly, that in the first week of Lent they permitted the use of milk and cheese. Thirdly, that they wholly disapproved of the marriage of priests. Fourthly, that they thought none but the bishops could anoint the bap- tized with the holy oil, or confirm; and that, of course, they anointed a second time those who had been anointed by pres- byters. And .;^/ifA(//, that they had adulterated the Constant i- nopolitan creed, by adding to it the words Filloqm: ; and thus taught, that the Holy Spirit did not proceed from the Father only, but also from the Son.^ Nicolaus I. sent this accusation to Hincmar, and the other Gallic bishops, in the year 867 ; that they might deliberate in councils, respecting the proper answer to it. Hence Odo of Beauvais, Ratramn, Ado of Viennc, yEneas - [Circular letter?. Ti:] inehule tlie criminations wliich were ^ See an Epistle of Phmiti.s himself, made in tlic time of Michael Cenilnrius, which is the second of his Epistles, as [patriarch in the miiMle of the elevcntii published by Montague, p. 47, &c. Some century.] —Certain it is, that in the enumerate ten allegations of charge by Epistle of Photius, from wliich alone Photius. But they undoubtedly blend the first controversy is to be judged of, the first controversy with the second, there arc only the >•<• heads of disagree- between the Greeks and Latins ; and nient which we have stated. t in his naked liand and arm, and seizing the stone, pull it out. His hand and ju-ni were hnmediately wraj)ped up in linen clcjths, and a bag drawn over the whole and sealed. After three days, the hand and arm were examined ; and if fi.und not scalded, the man was accounteil in- nocent. This ordeal was nearly as much used as the other; but was consiikred rather more suitable for persons of qua- lity. 7>.] ^ Jo. Locenius, Antiquitat. Sueo-Gothiru, lib. ii. cap. vii. viii. p. 144. Even clergy- men did not refuse to terminate contro- versies by the dudlum, ur single combat. See Just. Hen. Boeluiier's Jus Ecclfs. Protcstuntium, tom. ^•. j). 88, &c. [The trial by combat originated among the noithern barbarians, was in use l)eforc the Christian era, and was brought by the Lombiu'ds into Italy, and by the Gennans into Siiabia. It wjis not an ordeal for the trial of pul)lic ottences, but was a mode of settling private dis- putes and quaiTcls Iwtweon individuals, when there was not sufficient evidcnee to make the case clear. The parties deposited with the judge their bonds, or 234 BOOK III. — CENTURY IX. [PAET II. and other methods, Avhich were in general use among the Latins, in this age and the following. No sober man, at the present day, entertains a doubt, that these equivocal and uncertain modes of deciding causes, originated from the customs of bar- barians ; and that they are fallacious and abhorrent to the genius of true religion. Yet in that age, the pontiffs and inferior bishops did not blush to honour and dignify them with prayers, with the eucharist, and other rites, in order to give them some- what of a Christian aspect. goods to the requisite amount, for paying the forfeiture in case they were cast, and for the fees of court. The judge also appointed the time for the combat, and presided over it. Knights fought on hoi'seback, and anned as for war, in complete anmour, and with their horses covered with mail. Common men fouglit on foot, with swords and shields ; covered, except their faces and feet, with linen or cotton, to any extent they pleased. Cei'tain persons, as women, priests, and others, might employ champions to iight in their stead. !See the i'ull account in Du Cange, Glossar. Latin, article Duellum : see also Hallam's View of Europe in the Middle Ages, vol. i. p. 292, &c. ed. Phi- ladel. 1821. Tliis mode of trial gra- dually sank into disuse ; but it was not abolished by legislative enactments, either in France or England. Hence, so late as the lOtli century, the right of challenging to single combat, was assert- ed in an English court. TV. — It has been since abolished. Ed.'\ ® Petrus Lambecius, Rerum Hamburg. lib. ii. p. 39. Jac. Ussher, Sylhge Epis- tolar. Hibernic. p. 81. Johnson's Laws of the British Church, and the extracts from them, in Mich, de la lioche, Me- moires Litteraircs de la Grande Bretagne, tom. viii. p. 391. [This was a very common ordeal, and was esteemed more honourable than the ordeals by water. Sometimes the person walked bai'efoot over nine or twelve red-hot ploughshares, treading on each. But more frequently he carried a hot iron in his naked hands, nine times the length of his foot. The religious rites attending this ordeal were very similar to those of the ordeal by hot water. See Du Cange, Gloss. Lat. articles Ferrum candens, and Vo- MBRES igyiiti. Tr.'] ' See Agobard, Contra Judicium Dei Liber, 0])p. tom. i. and Contra Legem Gundohadi, cap. ix. p. 114. Hier. Big- nonius, ad formulas Marculphi, cap. xii. ; Steph. Baluzius, ad Agobardum, p. 104 ; and others. [Du Cange, in Glossar. Latin, article Crucis judicium, is not able definitely to state what was the mode of this ordeal. He finds some instances of persons standing long with their arms extended horizontally, so as to present the form of a cross. If they grew weary, fainted, and fell, they were accounted guilty. He also finds other modes of trial by cross. Sometimes it was merely laying the hand on a sacred cross, and then uttering a solemn oath of purgation. — On all the forms of ordeal, see Rees's Ci/clopadia, art. Ordeal. — This mode of trying difficult and dubious causes was denominated Judicium Dei; and was considered as a solemn appeal to God, to show, by his special inter- position, whether a person were guilty or innocent. It was, therefore, a pre- sumiituons attempt to call forth a mira- cle from the hand of God ; and it argued both the ignorance and the superstition of those times. And thus it was viewed by some of the more discerning ; for instance, by Agobard, bishop of Lyons. (See the references at the beginning of this note.) But others, as Hincmar, archbishop of Rheims, approved and defended both the ordeals, and the trial by combat. Tr. — The word ordeal comes from the old Prankish Urdela, to judge. It is equivalent to the judgment, as if such a mode of terminating contro- versies were either more noble, or more satisfactory, than any other. INIosheim's view of the ecclesiastical encom-agement given to ordeals must be taken with some limitation. Undoubtedly churches were the ordinary scenes of them, and religious rites, among Avhich was the receiving of tlie sacrament, regularly made part of them. But the Roman church never gave them countenance, and it was, probably, papal disappro- bation that drove them into disuse. CII. v.] SCHISMS AND HERESIES. 235 CHAPTER V. HISTORY OF SECTS AND HERESIES. § 1. Ancient sects. — § 2. The Paulicians. — §3. Persecution of them. — § 4. Their condition under Theodora. — § 5. Whether tliey were Manichasans. — § 6. Their religious opinions. § 1. Concerning the ancient Christian sects there is Httle new to be said. Nearly all of them that were considerable for numbers had their abettors and congregations beyond the boun- daries of the Greek and Latin dominions. The A^cston'tnis, in particular, and the Monophysites, who lived securely under tlie protection of the Arabians, were very attentive to their own interests, and did not cease from efforts for the conversion of the nations still in pagan ignorance. Some represent the Abyssinians or Ethiopians as being persuaded by tiie Egyptians to embrace the Monophysite doctrines, in the course of this century. But it was, undoubtedly, from the seventh century, if not earlier, that the Abyssinians, who were accustomed to receive their bishop from the patriarch of Alexandria, embraced the tenets of the Monophysites; for in that century the Arabs conquered Egypt, oppressed the Greeks', and protected the advocates of one nature in Christ ; so that this sect was al)le to subject nearly the whole Egyptian church to its juris- diction.- § 2. The Greeks were engaged with various success, during nearly this whole century, in cruel wars with the Paulicians; a sect allied to the Maniclucans, and residing especially in Armenia. This sect is said to have been formed in Armenia, by two brothers, Paul and John, the sons of CalUnice of Samo- ' [Or Melchitcs. Tr.] torn. iv. p. 283, 284. Ilenr le Grand, ^ Nouveaux Memoires des Missions de Diss. iv. on Jerome Ijoho >> \ oijage His- la Compagnic de Jesus dans le Levant, /(-/vV/mc dc CAhi/ssinie, torn. n. p. 18. 236 BOOK III. — CENTURY IX. [I'ART II. sata, ; and to have received its name from them : some, however, derive it from one Paul, an Armenian who lived in the reign of Justinian II. ^ Under Constans, in the seventh century, it was in an exhausted and depressed state, in consequence of penal laws, and oppressions, when one Cunstantine resuscitated it. The emperors, Constans, Justinian II., and Leo the Isaurian, harassed it in various ways, and laboured for its extirpation ; but they were utterly unable to subdue a party so inflexible, and insen- sible to all sufferings. In the beginning of the ninth century, its condition was more pros])erous. For the emperor, Nicephorus Logotheta^ favoured the Paulicians, and gave them free tole- ration.'^ § 3. But, after a few years of repose, the Paulicians were again assailed, with increased violence, by the emperors Michael Curopalates, and Leo the Armenian ^, who commanded them to be carefully searched after, through all the provinces of the Greek empire, and, if they would not return to the Greek church, to be put to death. Driven to desperation by this cruelty, the Paulicians of Armenia slew the imperial judges, and likewise Thomas, the bishop of Neocgesarea ; and then took refuge in the territories of the Saracens: from which they harassed the neighbouring Greeks with perpetual incursions.'^ Afterwards this war, it seems, gradually subsided ; and the ' Photius, Contra Manichaeos, lib. i. p. who, with Joseph, his assistant, again 74, in Wolf's Anecdota Grceca, torn. i. took residence in Cappadocia ; but when [According to the statement of Peter persecution broke out, he fled to Phrygia ; Siculus, the founder of this sect was an and during some time taught at Autioch Armenian, named Constantine, and sur- in Pisidia. He was succeeded by Ba- named Soloannes. Complaint was made hanes, under whom the sect spread itself against him to the emperor Constantine much in Asia, particidarly in Armenia, Pogonatus in the seventh century. The and also in Tln-ace. After Bahanes, emperor sent his commissioner Simeon tlie principal teacher was Sergius, called to investigate the subject ; and he put also Tychicus, who opposed image-wor- the leader of the sect to death, and dis- ship most zealously, under the empress ])ersed his adherents ; but some years Irene. They were then likewise called after he himself joined the sect and be- Athingias, or Separates, because they c-ame its teacher. Under Justinian II. -would have no part in the abuses of the tliey were again complained of, and times, especially in image-worshi]j, and their principal leader was burnt alive, in veneration of the cross and of tlie But this did not prevent tlieir growth, hierarchy of tlie reigning party. Sclil.^ Por one Paul, with his two sons. Gene- ^ [a. u. 802^ — 811. 7>.] sius (who was also called Timothy) and ^ See Jo. Cedrenus, Compendhwi His' Theodorus, propagated the sect in Cap- toriar. torn. ii. p. 480, ed. Paris, or p. padocia. The lirst of these was sum- 379, ed. Venice, moned to Constantinople by the emperor ^ [a. b. 811 —820. TV.] Leo; but after heai'ing he was ac- ' Photius, Contra Munich, lib. i. )i. (piitted, and retired, with his adherents, 125, &c. Peter Siculus, Historiu Mu- into the territories of the iSIahumcdans. vichicor. p. 71. He was followed by his sou Zacharias, CH. v.] SCHISMS AND HEllEtelKS. 237 Paulicians returned to their former habitations within the Grecian territories. § 4. But far greater calamities were produced by the incon- siderate and rash zeal of the empress Theodora.^ In the mino- rity of her son she governed as regent, and decreed that the Paulicians should be exterminated by fire and sword, or brouiiht back to the Greek church. The public officers, sent into Armenia on this business, executed their commission in the most cruel manner ; for they destroyed, by various punishments, about a hundred thousand of this unhappy sect, and confiscated their property. Such as escaped took refuge, once more, amono- the Saracens. Being there kindly received, they built themselves a city, called Tibrica ; and choosing Carheas, a man of verv oreat valour, for their leader, and forming alliance with the Saracens, they waged fierce war with the Greeks. This war continued with various success nearly through the century ; and in it an immense number of persons perished on both sides, and several provinces of the Greeks were ruined.^ During these troubles, and near the close of the century, some of the Pauli- cians disseminated their doctrines among the Bulgarians ; which easily took root among that people, as being recently converted to Christianity.^ ^ [a. D. 841 — 855. TV.] des Variations des Eglises Protest, [liv. x\. * Geo. Cedrenus, Compendium Histo- § 13, &c.] torn. ii. p. 129, &c. But this riar. p. 541, ed. Paris, or p. 425, ed. writer certainly did not go to the sources ; Venice ; and p. 547 or 429. Jo. Zo- and bein;^- influenced bv party zeal he naras. Annul, lib. x\'i. torn. ii. p. 122. was willing to make mistakes. — [Photiiis ed. Venice. But the principal historians wrote four books against the ^lani- of the Paulicians are, Photius, Contra cha?ans or Paulicians ; of which the ,/;V.vf Manichccos, Liber primus ; and Peter Si- book gives the history of them to aliout cuius, whose Historia Manicho'orum was a. d. 870. The subsequent books arc a published, Gr. and Lat. by Matth. Ra- confutation of their doctrines ; and with dems, Ingoldstadt, 1604, 4to. This Peter the common arguments used against the Siculus, as he himself informs us, was ^lanichieans : the history- of Peter Sieu- the envoy of Basil the Macedonian to lus terminates at the same time ; the the Paulicians at Tibrica, in the year edition of it by the Jesuit Rader is said 870 ; sent to negotiate with them an ex- to need rci-ision. Photins and Peter change of prisoners ; and he remained agree, in the main, in their histories. among them nine months. These facts Which of them wrote first, remains a alone show how great the power of the question : but Photius is deemed tlie Paulicians was at that period. From better authority. For the history of this Peter, it appears, Cedrenus bor- the sect, after a. d. 870, we tnust go to rowed his account. Histor. Compend. p. the Byzantine writers, Constantine Por- 431. The modems, who treat of the phyrogenitus, lib. iv. c. 16. and Cedrenus, Paulicians, as Peter Baylc, Dictionnaire, p. 541, ed. Paris. See Schroeckh, Kir- article Pauliciens. Jo. Christ. Wolf, chengesch. vol. xx. p. 36.3, &c. and vol. Manichceismus atite Manicha:os, -p. 247 , xxiii. p. 318, &c. TV.] and others, seem to have derived their ' Perhaps there still are Paulicians, information chieflv ii-om Bossnet. 7//.«to»r or I'aulians as some call I hem, remain- 238 BOOK III. CENTURY IX. [p ART II. § 5. These Paulicians are by the Greeks called ManichcBans : but, as Photius himself" states, they declared their abhorrence of 3Ianes, and of his doctrine - : and it is certain that they were not genuine Manichoeans : although they might hold some doc- trines bearing a resemblance to those of that sect. There were not among them, as among the Manichjeans, bishops, presbyters, and deacons : they had no order of clergymen, distinguished from laymen by their mode of living, their dress, and other things : nor had they councils, or any similar institutions. Their teachers, Avhom they denominated Synecdemi, (companions of this journey,) and NotariP, were all equals in rank, and sepa- rated from other people by no rights, or regulations, or dis- tinctions.^ They had, however, this peculiarity, that such as were made teachers among them changed their names, and assumed each the name of some holy man mentioned in the New Testament. They received the whole of the New Testa- ment, except the two Epistles of Peter, which they rejected for reasons not known : and they received it unaltered, or in its usual form, as received by other Christians ; in which, again, they differed from the Manicha^ans.^ They moreover Avould have these holy books to be read assiduously, and by all, and were indignant at the Greeks, who required the scriptures to be examined only by the priests.^ But many parts of the scrip- ing in Thrace and Bulgaria. There cer- ^ Quos Synecdemos, itineris hnjus co- tainly were some there in the seventeenth mites, et Notarios appellare solebant. centuiy ; and they resided at Nicopohs, Orig. [2f;'€'/c5r7^oi, fellow-travellers, according to Urb. Cem, Etat present de and Nordptoi, notaries. TV. — SuveK- V Eylise Romaine, p. 72, who tells iis, ^r]nos,avvo^onT6pos. Hesych. — The word (truly or falsely, I know not,) that Peter is also used for a guide-book, and the Deodatus, archbishop of Sophia, con- Paidicians probably ajsplied it to their vinced them of their eiTors, and con- ministers, from considering them not verted them to tlie Romish church. — mere companions through the journey [The liistory of these Paulicians is of tlie of life, but such companions as were more consequence, as they propagated serviceable in showing the right way. their sect in varioiis countries of Europe, tiorapios was a word adapted from Latin in the tenth and eleventh centuries, and by the later Greeks, and is said by Snidas composed a large part of the dissentients to be equivalent with ypafifiaTevs, a from the Romish church during those Scribe. The Paulician ministers, most times. The Romanists (as Bossuet, probably, did any writing that was re- Variations, §-c. liv. xi.) charge the Pro- quired for their body. They seem, in testants with being the progeny of the fact, very nuich to have resembled a Paulicians ; and some Protestant writers similar body among the modern quakers. seem half inclined to regard them as Ed."] witnesses for the truth in their times. * Photius, 1. c. p. .31, 32. Peter Sicul. This subject will, of course, come up p. 44. Codrcnus, 1. c. p. 431. in the following centuries. TV.] * Photius, 1. c. p. 11. Peter Sicul. p. '■" Photius, Contra Manichaos, lib. i. p. 19. 17. .56. 6.5. Peter Siculus, Hist. Manich. ^ Photius, 1. c. p. 101. Peter Sicul. p. 43. p. 57. CH. v.] SCHISMS AMD HERESIES. 239 ture they construed allegorically, abandoning the literal sense, lest it should militate with their doctrines": and this construction they undoubtedly jjut upon the passages relating to tlie Lord's supper, baptism, the Old Testament, and some other subjects. Besides the New Testament, the epistles of one Serrjins, a great doctor of the sect, were in high esteem among them. § 6. The entire creed of this sect, though doubtless consisting of various articles, is no where described by the Greeks ; who select from it only six dogmas, for which they declare the Paulicians unworthy to live, or to partake of salvation. I. They denied that this lower and visible world was created by the supreme God; and distinguished the creator of the world and of human bodies, from the God whose residence is in heaven. It was on account of this dogma, especially, that the Greeks accounted them 3Ianic/iceans : and yet this was the common doctrine of all the sects denominated Gnostics. What opinions they entertained respecting this creator of the world, and whether they supposed him to be a different being from the prince of evil or the Devil, no one has informed us. This onlv appears from Photlus, that they held the author of evils to have been procreated from darkness and fire : of course, therefore, he was not eternal, or without beginning.^ 11. They contemned the virgin Mary, the mother of Jesus Christ : that is, they would ' Photius, 1. c. p. 12, &c. . of no creed, nor of any other writing of * Photius, 1. c. lib. ii. p. 147. It is their doctors, we must iilways remain in manifest that the Paulicians, with the uncertainty wiictlier tluy understood Oriental philosophers, those parents of these Gnostic-sounding doctrines litc- the Gnostic and Manicha;an sects, con- rally, and so were actually a branch sidei'ed eternal matter to be the seat and from the old Gnostic stock. And for source of all evil. And this matter, like the same reason we cainiot jilacc nnich many of the Gnostics, they supposed to confidence in the Greeks who wrote their be endued from eternity with motion history ; and w-e sliould always remcm- and an animating principle, and to have ber, that these writers were liable, from procreated the prince of all evil, who misapprehension, if not also from their was the former of bodies which are party feelings, to mis-state their doc- composed of matter ; while God is the trines. At the same time wc discover, parent of souls. These opinions are as to most of tlieir doctrines, that tliey indeed allied to the INIanicha^an doc- had, in several respects, more coiTcct trines ; yet also differ from them. I ideas of religion, of religious worsiiip, can believe this sect to liave been the and of churcii government, tlian the offspring of one of the ancient Gnostic prevailing chin-ch at that day had ; and parties, which, though sadly oppressed that they drew on tiicmsclvcs j)ersecut ion by imperial laws and punishments, by their dislike of images, and by their could never be entirely supjiressed and ojipcisition to tlie hierarchy, more than exterminated. [As the Paulicians were by their other religious oi>inions.— So great friends to allegories and mystical I)r. Semler judges of tjiem, in his it- interpretations, and held certain hidden lecta Capita Historic Ecdes. tom. ii. \\ doctrines, which they made known only 72, and 365. Schl.'] to the perfect, and as we are in possession 240 BOOK III. CENTURY IX. [PART II. not adore and worship her as the Gi'eeks did. For they did not deny that Christ was born of Mary : because, as their ad- versaries expressly state, they taught tliat Christ brought his body with him from heaven : and that Mary, after the birth of the Saviour, had other children by Joseph. They therefore be- lieved, with the Valentinians, that Christ passed through the womb of his mother, as water through a canal ; and that Mary did not continue a virgin to the end of life ; which must have seemed abominable to Grecian ears. III. They did not cele- brate the Lord's supper. For believing that there were meta- phors in many parts of the New Testament, they deemed it proper to understand by the bread and Avine, which Christ is stated to have presented to his disciples at his last supper, those divine discourses of Christ, by which the soul is nourished and refreshed.^ IV. They loaded the cross with contumely ; that is, as clearly appears from -what the Greeks state, they would not have any religious worship paid to the wood of the cross, as was customary among the Greeks. For, believing that Christ had an etherial and celestial body, they could by no means admit his actual nailing to a cross, and real death upon it : from Avhich naturally came contempt of the cross. V. They rejected, as did nearly all the Gnostics, the entire Old Testament ; and believed its writers to have been prompted by the creator of the world, and not by the supreme God. VI. They excluded pj-es- byters or elders from the administration of the church. The foundation of this charge, beyond all controversy, was, that they would not allow their teachers to be styled jneshyters ; because this title was Jewish, and ap))ropriate to those who persecuted and wished to kill Jesus Christ} " The Greeks do not charge the Pauh- tism, and understood by baptism, i. e. by cians with any en-or in respect to the the water of baptism, the Gospel. doctrine of Ijaptism. Yet there is no ' These six eiTors I have extracted doubt that they construed into allegory from Peter Siculus, Historia Manich. what the New Testament states concern- p. 17, with whom Pliotius and Cedrenus ing this ordinance. And Phctius (Cow. 1 45. But a premature death pre- quired fasts. This led Ebed Jesu to vented the execution of this and other write to his patriarch, stating the ca.sc, contemplated works of this excellent and asking for instructions on the point, man for the illustration of Asiatic Chris- The patriarch directed the bishop to tianity. send two presbyters and two deacons CH. I.] PROSPEROUS EVENTS. 243 an arch-pirate, who was expelled his country^ and who with his military followers took possession of a ])art of Gaul in the preceding century, embraced Christianity, with his whole army, in the year 912. The French king, Charles the Simple, who was too weak to expel this warlike and intrepid stranger from his realm, offered him no inconsiderable j)ortion of liis terri- tories, if he would desist from war, take his own daughter Gisela for a wife, and embrace the Christian religion. Rollo made peace upon these terms without hesitation ; and his soldiers following the example of their general, yielded assent to a reli- gion which they did not understand, and readily submitted to baptism.*" These Norman pirates, as many facts demonstrate, were persons of no religion: and hence they were not restrained, by opinions embraced in early life, from approving a religion which promised them great worldly advantages. From this, Rollo, who assumed the name of Robert at his baptism, the cele- brated dukes of Nomandy in France are descended ; for a part of Neustria, with Bretagne, which Charles the Simple ceded to his son-in-law, was from this time called, after its new lords, Normandy? § 4. Micislaus, duke of Poland, was gradually wrought uj)on by his wife Dambroicha, daughter of Bokslaus, duke of Bohemia, till, in the year 965, he renounced the idolatry of his ancestors, and embraced Christianity. When the news of this reached Rome, John XIII. , the Roman pontiff, sent yEgidlus, bishop of Tusculum, accompanied by many Italian, French, and German priests, into Poland ; that they might aid the duke and his wife, in their design of instructing the Poles in the prece^jts of Christianity. But the efforts of these missionaries, who did not understand the language of the country, would have been altogether fruitless, had not the commands, the laws, the menaces, the rewards, and the punishments of the duke, over- come the reluctant minds of the Poles. The foundations being thus laid, two archbishops and seven bishops were created ; and by their labours and efforts, the whole nation was gradually brought to recede a little from their ancient customs, and to s Holberg's Naval Hktory of the France, toni. \\. p. 587, &c. Danes; inserted in the Scripta Societa- ' [H was ^custna properly, and not tisScientiar. Ha fniensis, vt. ill v- 357, Sec. Brctajrne that received the name of « Bouhiy, H'lstor. Acad. Paris, toni. Normanc y troni the Nunnans, who i. p. 29 G. Gabr. Daniel, Histoirc de chose KuUo ior their chict. Macl.^ K 2 244 BOOK III. — CENTURY X. [PART I. make an outward profession of Christianity.^ As to that in- ternal and real cliange of mind, which Christ requires of his followers, this barbarous age had no idea of it. § 5. In Kussia, a change took place during this century, similar to that in the adjacent country of Poland. For the Russians, who had embraced the religion of the Greeks, diu-ing the preceding century, in the time of Basil the Macedonian, soon afterwards relapsed into the superstition of their ances- tors. In the year 961, Wlodimir, duke of Russia and Mus- covy, married Anna, the sister of the Greek emperor, Basil Junior ; and she did not cease to importune and exhort her husband, till he, in the year 987, submitted to baptism, assuming the name of Basil. The Russians followed spon- taneously the example of their duke: at least, we do not read, that any coercion was used. '■* From this time the Christian religion obtained permanent establishment among the Russians. ® Dlugoss, Hlstoria Polonica, lib. ii. p. 91, &c. ; lib. iii. p. 95. 239. Itegeii- volscius, Hlstoria Eccles. Slavon. lib. i. c. i. p. 8. Hen. Ciinisius, Lectiones An- liqiice, torn. iii. pt. i. p. 41. Solignac, Histoire de Pologne, torn. i. p. 71, &c. [Jlicesliius II., on the death of his mother Dambrowka, a. d. 977, mamed a nun, Oda, the daughter of tlie Ger- man marquis Thcodoric. This unca- nonicai maniage was disliked by the bishops, yet was winked at, from mo- tives of policy ; and the pious Oda be- came so serviceable to the church that she almost atoned for tlie violation of her vows. See Fleury, Histoire Eccles. livre Ivi. § 13. TV. — " There is sufficient his- torical evidence, that the rays of the Gospel, which in the ninth century en- lightened many Slavonian nations, had ]3enetrated into Poland long before the conversion of Mieczyslaw." — Krasinski's Historical Sketch of the Rise, Progress, and Decline of the Reformation in Poland. Lond. 1838, vol. i. p. 3.] ° Sec Anton. I'agi, Critica in Baron, tarn. iv. ad ann. 987. p. 55 ; and ad ann, 1015, p. 110. Car. du Eresne, Familice ByzantincB, p. 143, ed. Paris. [The occasion of Wlodimu-'s baptism is vari- ously stated. Some say that he had cap- tured the Greek fortress Corszyn ; and promised to restore it, if the princess Anna were given him to Avife ; but that her brothers, Basil and Constantine, would not consent, unless he would en- gage to renounce paganism ; and he accord ingl}^ was baptized at Corzsyn, in presence of the coiut. But the Greek writers know nothing of these circum- stances. Others state, that Mahu- medans, Jews, and Christians, severally, endeavoured to persuade him to embrace their religions ; and that he, gradually becoming informed respecting them all, gave preference to that of the Greeks. So much is certain, that his marriage was the proximate cause of his conver- sion. After his conversion, he strictly enjoined his subjects to renounce pa- ganism. And it is saict, the bisliop of Corszyn, and other Greek clergymen, often administered baptism, and destroyed idols, at Kiow. A metropolitan of luow, named Michael, who was sent from Con- stantinople, is reported to have gradually brought all Russia to submit to baptism. Churches were also Iniilt. Ditmar does not conunend the piety of this prince, who is represented as endeavouring to compensate for his transgressions, by the extent of his alms. ISIoshcim says, that we no where find coercion employed in the conversion of the Russians. But Dlugoss states, tliat Wlodimu- compelled his subjects, by penalties, to submit to baptism. And this was certainly the common mode of the spurious conver- sions. See Scmler's continuation of Bainugarten's A itszuq der Kirchenyesch. vol. iv. p. 423, &c. Von Ein.} CH. I.] PKOSPEROUS EVENTS. 245 Wlodimir and his wife were placed among the foremost of those heavenly personages, whom the liussians venerate ; and at Kiow, wlicre they were interred, they are worshipped with extreme devotion to our own times. The Latins, however, hold Wlodimir to be absolutely unworthy of this honour.' § 6. Some knowledge of Christianity reached the Hungarians and Avares, through the instrumentality of Cliarleviofjnc ; but it became wholly extinct after his death. In this century Christianity obtained a more permanent existence among those warlike nations.^ First, near the middle of the century, two dukes of the Turks on the Danube, (for so the Hungarians and Transylvanians Avere called by the Greeks in that age,) Buhsiides and Gijula or Gylas, received baptism at Constantino])le. The former of these soon after returned to his old superstition : the latter persevering in Christianity, by means of Hicrotheus a bishop, and several priests, whom he took along with him, caused his subjects to be insti'ucted in the Christian precej)ts and institutions. His daughter, Sarolta, was afterwards married to Geysa, the chieftain of the Hungarian nation ; and she per- suaded her husband to embrace the religion taught her by her fother. But Geysa again began to waver, and to incline to his former pollutions, when Adalbert, archbishop of Prague, near the close of the century, Avent from l^uhcmia into Hungary, and reclaimed the lapsed chieftain ; and likewise baj)ti/.ed his son Stephen. To this Stephen, the son of Geysa, belongs the chief honour of converting the Hungarians. For he perfected the work, which was only begun by his father and grandfather; he established bishops about the country, and provided them with ample revenues ; erected magnificent churches ; and by his menaces, punishments, and rewards, compelled nearly the whole nation to renounce the idolatry of their ancestors. His persevering zeal in establishing Christian worship among the Hungarians, procured him the title and the honours of a saint in succeeding times.^ ' Ditmar of Merscbcig, lib. vii. Chro- the Unnjrnrirtns ; nml the siihjei-t is nic. in Leibnitz's coUection of the Bruns- really involve! in niudi obscurity. Tlic wic Historians, torn. i. p. 417. Gennans say, that Gisehi, tlie sister ot ^ Pauli IJubre/.eui, Historia Eccles. the emperor Henry II., wiis niame.l to Rrfarmator. in Ungaria, pt. i. cap. iii. Steplien, kins of Ilmifxary ; and that she p. 19, &e. convineeil her lni>banil ot the truth ot ^ The Greeks, the Gennans, the Bo- Christianity. The Bohemians tell us, hemians, and the Poles, severally claim that Adalbert (.f I'ra-ue in(luce(l this the honour of imparting Christianity to king to embrace the Christian religion. K 3 246 BOOK III. CENTURY X. [PAET I. § 7. In Denmark, the Christian cause had to struggle with great difficulties and adversities, under the king Gortnon ; although tlic queen Avas a professed Christian. But Harald, surnamed Blaatand, the son of Gormon, about the middle of the century, having been vanquished by Otto the Great, made a profession of Christianity in the year 949 ; and was baptized, together Avith his wife, and his son Sueno, by Adaldarj, arch- bishop of Hamburg, or, as some think, by Popipo, a pious priest, who attended the emperor. Perhaps Harald^ Avho had his birth and education from a Christian mother, Tyra, Avas not greatly averse from the Christian religion : and yet it is clear, that in the present transaction, he yielded rather to the demands of his conqueror, than to his own inclinations. For Otto, being satisfied that the Danes Avould never cease to harass their neighbours Avith Avar and rapine, if they retained the martial religion of their fathers, made it a condition of the peace Avith Harald, that he and his people should become Christians.'* After the conversion of the king, Adaldacj especially, and Poppo Avith good success, urged the Cimbrians and Danes to follow his example. The stupendous miracles performed by Poppo are said to have contributed very much to this result : and yet those miracles appear to have been artificial, and not divine; for they did not surpass the powers of nature.'^ Harald, as long as he lived, endeavoured to confirm his subjects in the religion Avhich they had embraced, by the establishment of bishoprics, the enactment of laAvs, reforming bad morals, and the like. But his son Sueno [or Sicehi\ apostatized from Christianity; The Poles maintain, that Geysa married The result seems to have been, that AdeDieid, a Christian lady, the sister Schwartz's account is substantially true ; of Micislaus I. duke of Poland ; and by and, of course, the representation given her was induced to become a Christian, by Dr. Mosheim. See Schroeckh, Kir- We have no hesitation in following the chengesch. vol. xxi. p. 527, &c. TV.] authority and testimony of the Greek * Adamus Bremens. Histor. lib. ii. writers, at the same time calling in the cap. ii. iii. p. 16 ; cap. xv. p. 20 ; in Lin- aid of the Hungarian historians. In denbrog's Scripfores Rerum Septentrional. this we were, in part, preceded by Ga- Alb. Kranz, Wandalia, lib. iv. cap. xx. briel de Juxta Ilornad, Initia Rclifjionis Ludwig, lieliquicc Manuscriptor. torn. ix. Christ, inter Hungaros Eccleslce Orientali p. 10. Pontoppidan, Annates Ecclesice adserta, Francf 1740, 4to,Avho vindicates Danicce Diplomatici, tom. i. p. 59, &c. the credibility of the Greek AVTitcrs. * See Jo. Adolph. Cyprajus, Annales The accounts of the others are im- Episcopor. Slesvic. c. xiii. p. 78. Adamus perfect, and involved in much uucer- Brem. lib. ii. cap. xxn. p. 22 ; cap. xhv. tainty [The book of Gottfr. Schwartz, p. 28. Steph. Jo. Stephanius, arf SaxoncTn under the fictitious name of Gabriel de Grammat. p. 207. Jo. Molleri Introd. Juxta Ilornad, gave occasion to a learn- ad Histor. Chrrsancs. Cimhr. ]it. ii. cap. ed controversy, wliicli continued several iii. § 14 ; and others, years alter the death of Dr. Mosheim. ClI. I.] rilOSPEROUS EVENTS. 247 and for a while persecuted the Christians with violence. But being driven from his kingdom, and an exile among the Scots, he returned to Christianity, and as he was afterwards very suc- cessful ^ he laboured, by all the means in his power, to promote that religion which he had before betrayed.^ § 8. The conversion of the Norwegians commenced in this century, as appears from the most unexceptionable testimony. King Hagen Adelsteeyi, who had been educated among the English, is said to have first commenced this great work, a. d. 933, by the aid of priests from England : but with little success; because the Norwegians were violently opposed to the king's designs. His successor, Harald Granfeldt, pursued the begun work ; but not more happily.^ After these, Ilaco, by the per- suasions of the Danish king Harald, to whom he owed his throne, not only embraced Christianity himself, but also recom- mended it to his people in a public diet, A. D. 945.^ This effort also was, however, attended with little success among that bar- barous and savage people. Somewhat more was effected by Olaus, who is called a saint.^ At length Sucno, king of Den- mark, having vanquished Olaus Tri/r/fjueseji, conquered Norway ; and published an edict, requiring the inhabitants to abandon the gods of their ancestors, and embrace Christianity. Guthc- hald, an English priest, Avas the principal teacher at that time among them.'- From Norway, the Clu-istian religion was trans- mitted to the Orkney islands, then subject to the kings of Nor- way ; to Iceland also, and to old Greenland; the inhabitants of which countries, to a great extent, made profession of Chris- tianity in this century, as we learn from various sources.' * [And recovered his throne. 7>.] disli const of Gcrnianv, wliile his coiintrv- ' Saxo Grammat. Histor. Dan. hb. x. rcvohed from Ihirald Blau/.aini. kin;: of p. 186. Pontoppidan, de Gestis et Ves- Dcnmari^, under liaison their viceroy. tigiis Danorum extra Daniam, torn. ii. Ohius became a succcssfid i)irate, «d- cap. i. § 1, 2. vanced in power and we.dtli ; K-camc * See Eric Pontoppidan, Annales also a zeahnis Christian, and in his Ecclesice Daiiicce Diplomatici, torn, i. p. plundering expeditions in those northern 66. seas, treated the pagans, much a.s the " Torm. Torfrcus, Historia JVorvegica, Mahumedans did the same sort of pcr- tom. ii. p. 183. 214, &c. sons; that is, gave them the altcniativc ' Torfasus, Hist. A'orvegica, torn. ii. of bai)tisni, or slavery- and deatli. Tiie p. 457, &c. Norwegians now cht)se him their king, ' ^ c}iro7i. Danicum, iiublished by Lu- and revolted from Ilakon. Olaus got dewiff, in his Reliquia Mamtscriptor. possession of the wlujle country, and by tom.'ix. p. 11. 16, 17. — [According to compulsoiy mciisures obliged all opjioscrs Schroeckh, Kirchengcsch. vol. xxi. p. to embrace Christianity. This ^vas just 376, &c., this Olaus Tryggwcson, the son at the close of the century. 7>.] of a petty Norwegian' chieftain, spent =* Concerning the inhabitants of the many years in Russia, and yn\ the Wen- Orkneys, see Torm. Torlkus, Histuria K 4 248 BOOK III. — CENTURY X. [PART I. § 9. In Germany, the emperor Otto the Great, illustrious for his valour and his piety, was zealous for suppressing the remains of the old superstition, which existed in various provinces of the empire, and for supporting Christianity, which was but imperfectly established in many places. By his beneficence and liberality it was that bishoprics were erected in various 2:)laces, as Bradcnburg, Havelberg, Meissen, Magdeburg, and Naumburg ; so that there might be no want of spiritual watch- men who should instruct the yet rude and half barbarous people in all the duties of religion.'' In accordance with the religious views of the age, he also built many convents, for such as might prefer a monastic life ; and he also erected schools. If the illustrious emperor had exhibited as much wisdom and moderation as piety and sincerity in all this, he could scarcely be commended sufficiently. But the superstition of his wife Adelaide ^, and the lamentable ignorance of the times, led this excellent prince to believe, that a man secured the friendship of God, by securing that of his ministers and servants with great largesses and presents. He therefore enriched the bishops, the monks, and religious associations of every kind, beyond all bounds : of which liberality this fruit was reaped by posterity, that a sort of people sprang from it, who abused a wealth, which Reruvi Orcadenshim, lib. i. p. 22. — For But the emperor seized the opportunity the Icelanders, in addition to Amgrim of their presence in Italy, whither they Jonas, Crymogaa:, lib. i. ; and Arius Mul- came to receive their investiture at his ticius, Scheda de Islandia, p. 45, &c. ; hands, to obtain fi-om them the transfer see the same Toifajus, Histor. Avrceg. of the suffragan bishoprics of Branden- tom. ii. p. 378. 397. 417, &c. Also burg and Havelberg from the juris- Gabr. Liron, Singularites Historiq. Litter, diction of Mentz to that of Magde- tom. i. p. 138. Concerning Greenland, burg, and also the transfer of large Torfaius also treats, 1. c. torn. ii. p. 374 ; estates, hitherto possessed by the bishop and in Grcenlandia Antiqua, cap. xvii. of Halbcrstadt. Adelbert, fonnerly a p. 127. Ilafn. 1706, 8vo. missionary, and at this time abbot of ■" [It is more probable that Otto the Weissenberg, Avas ordained first arch- Great had long pui-posed, by the erection bishop of Magdeburg, a.d. 968, by the of a new archbishopric, to curtail the pope, and received the pallium ; and, at- odious power of the archbishop of Mentz. tended by two paj)al envoys and the new Therefore, in the year 946, he esta- bishops, repaired to Magdeburg, and blished the bishopric of Havelberg ; and, was regularly installed. At tlic same in 949, that of Brandenburg. For esta- time, he consecrated the new bishops, bhshing the archbishopric of Magde- Boso of Merseburg, Hugo of Zeitz, and burg, (as we are told by Dietmar, p. Burkard of Meissen ; who, together with 335,) the emperor's motives ivere, de- the bishops of Brandenbm-g, Havelberg, fensio communis patricr, and spes remune- and Posen, were to constitute his suffra- rationis aterna: The first was, doubtless, gans. Sec the annalist Siixo, ad ann. the chief motive. The bishop of Halber- 969. Scld.'] stadt, and the archl)ishop of Mentz, ^ See her life, in Ilenr. Canisius, Lec- looked upon this innovation with dislike, tioiies Antiqua; tom. iii. pt. i. p. 69. CH. II.] ADVERSE EVENTS. 249 they had never earned, in pampering their vices, w.aging wars, and leading lives of luxury and gaiety. § 10. To these accounts of additions to the church it may be subjoined, that the European kings and princes began, even in this century, to think of waging a holy war against the INIahu- medans Avho possessed Palestine. For it was thought into- lerable, and a disgrace to the professors of the Christian religion, that the country in which Christ lived and taught, and made expiation for the sins of the human race, should be left under the dominion of his enemies ; and it was deemed most righteous and agreeable to the dignity of the Christian religion, to avenge the numerous calamities and injuries, insults and sufterin<'s, which the possessors of Palestine were accustomed to heap upon the Christians residing in that country, or visiting it for relif Consttiiilino/ile, and the fiftieth, respecting virtue and describing miimtely all the ctiipiettc ^^ce; of which a part was published by there practised. It wiis published by Valesius, Paris, 1634, 4to. The titles Keiske, Lips. 17.51 — 54,2 vols. fol. — of some of the others are known ; e. g. See Schroeckh, Kirchengesch. vol. xxi. on the proclamations of kings ; on heroic p. 129, &c. TV.] deeds ; on festivals ; on public ad- ^ Tiiis is cxjircssly a.sscrtcd by Jo. dresses ; on maimers ; on ecclesiastical Zonanu?, Annul, torn. iii. p. 155, cd. persons and things ; on epistles ; on the Taris. 254 BOOK III. — CENTURY X. [PART II. on whom a wise and judicious man will place a high value ; and in a short time the literary seed sown, which seemed to promise a rich harvest, was found to be dead. The philosophers, if such characters flourished among them, produced no immortal works, and worthy of remembrance by posterity. The body of learned Greeks was almost wholly composed of a few rhetoricians, some crrammarians, here and there a poet who was above contempt, and a number of historians, who, though not of the first order, were not destitute of all merit : for the Greeks seemed to find pleasure almost exclusively in those species of literature in which the imagination, the memory, and industry, have most concern. § 3. Egypt, though groaning under an oppressive yoke, pro- duced some learned men, who might contend with the Greeks for the palm of superiority. The example of Eutychms, to mention no others, is evidence of this ; for that bishop of Alexan- dria did honour to the sciences of medicine and theology by his various productions. Among the other Arabians, that noble ardour for useful knowledge, which was awakened in the preceding age, continued unabated through this whole century ; so that there was among them a large number of eminent phy- sicians, philosophers, and mathematicians, whose names and literary labours are celebrated by Jo. Leo Africanus and by others. § 4. All the Latins were sunk In great barbarism. Most writers are agreed, that this century deserves the name of the iron age, so far as respects literature and science ; and that the Latin nations never saw an age more dark and cheerless. ^ And though some excellent men have questioned this fact, it is too firmly established to be wholly disproved.^ Schools existed, * Proofs of the ignorance of the age eleventh century, Rome first formally have been collected by Cjus. Egasse de committed herself, in the condemnation Boulay, Histor. Acad. Paris, torn. i. p. of Berenger, to the doctrine of transub- 288, &c. Ludov. Ant. Muratori, Antiqq. stantiation, and in the person of Gregory /to/. Medii yEvi, tom. iii. p. 831, &c. ; VII. put forth some of those assertions of and tom. ii. p. 141; and by others, papal supremacj-, which eventually made [Among collectors of such proofs may so much noise. Tiie doctrine of transub- bemcntioncdAbp. Ussher, in his workDe stantiation is, undoubtedly, the main Christ ianarum Ecclesiorum Successicme piUar of Romish peculiiu'ities ; and it et Statu, p. 31. The learned primate's rests uj)on that alleged infallibility of principal object in arraying these tcsti- which tiie papal see is either the de- nionics, is to show this age as a fit pre- pository or the centre. Ed.'] parative for the loosing of Satan, as he * Godfr. Wm. Leibnitz, Praf. ad Co- speaks, meaning the triumi)h of Popery ; dicem Juris Natural et gentium Diplomat., which he i)laces in tlic next century. maintains, that tliis tenth century -was It certainly is remarkable, that, in the not so dark as the following centuries. STATE OF LEARNING. 255 CH. I.] indeed, in most countries of Europe, cither in the monasteries or in the cities which were the sees of bishops ; and there like- wise shone forth, in various places, especially at the close of the century, some distinguished geniuses, who attempted to soar above the vulgar. But these can easily be all counted up ; and the smallness of their number is itself a witness to the infelicity of the times. In the schools nothing was taught but the seven liberal arts, as they were called ; and the teachers were monks, who estimated the value of learning and science solely by their use in matters of religion. § 5. The best among the monks, who were disposed to employ a portion of their leisure to some advantage, applied themselves to writing annals and history of a coarse texture. For instance, Abo'', Luitpi-and'' , IVittekind^, Fulcuiu^, Joint of and, particularly, not so dark as the twelfth and thirteenth. But he certainly is extravagant, and labours in vain. More deserving of a hearing are, Jo. Mabillon, Acta Sanctor. Orel. Bened. Stecul. V. Prtef. p. ii. &c. — the authors of the Literary History of France, vol. vi. p. 18, &c. Jac. le Beuf, Diss, de Statu Litterar. in Francia, a Carolo M. ad. Begem Bobert. ; and some others ; who, while they admit that the ignorance of this age was great, contend that its barbarism was not altogether so great as it is commonly supposed. In the proofs which they allege, there is con- siderable deficiency ; but still we may admit, that all science was not entirely extinct in Europe ; and that there was a number of persons who were wise above the mass of people ; but that the number was a very moderate one, nay, really small, may be gathered from the monuments of the age. — [The opinion of Leibnitz was embraced by Dr. Sender. (Continuation of Baumgarten's Ktr- chengesch. vol. iv. p. 453, &c. ; and His- tar. Eccles. Selecta Capita, tom. ii. p. i52(;, &c.) His arguments seem not easily answei'ed. The tenth centuiy afforded more ^vTiters, in whom sound reasoning was combined with some learning, than the twelfth and thirteenth. It had greater and better princes ; and in the years and the countries in which the Normans and Huns spread no general desolation, there were more inimcrous episcopal and monastic schools, in which the young received some instruction, tliough rude and meagre. The most noted episcopal schools were those of IMentz, Treves, Cologne, Alagdeburg, Wurtzburg, Paris, Tours, Rheims, Mctz, Toul, and Verdun ; and among the mo- nastic schools were those of Fleury, Clugni, Laubes, Gortz, Corbcy, Fulda, St. Emmeran, Ej)ternach, St. Gall, &c. ■ — Every teacher, and nearly every cloister, procured a stock of the dassicjil writers. — The (Jreek language was not wholly miknown ; although the indi- viduals were becoming more ami more rare who could understand the ancients in the originals. Schl.] ^ [Abbo, bom at ( )rleans, educated at Fleury, Paris, Rheims, and Orleans, was called to England by the archbisliop of York, to preside over a niouiistic scIkmiI, before a.d. OGO. After two years, lie returned to Fleury, became abliot, and resided there till his death in Ut04. He wrote an Epitome of the lives of the popes, cnm])iled from Anastasius ; a life of St. Ednmnd, king of the East Angles ; Collection or EpitdUie of canons ; seve- ral Epistles and short Tracts. See Cave, Histor. Litterar. tom. ii. 7V.] ' [Luitprand was born at I'avia, or in Spain ; was envoy ot Bcrengarius, king of Italy, to Constantinople, A.n. 946; created bishop of Cremona, he became odious to Bcrengarius, and was deposed, A.I). 9fi3, or earlier, and retireil to Frankfort in Germany. The emperor Otlio sent him again to Constantinople, A.I). 968. He wiuj alive A.n. 970. He was a man of genius, and of considerable learning. He xnulerstood and wrote in Greek as well a.s Latin. His works are, a History of Europe during his own times, in six books ; and an Account of 256 BOOK III. — CENTURY X. [part II. Capua', Rathcnus-, FlodoarcP, Notkerus^, Etlielhert^, and others ; of whom some are indeed better than others, but they all wander very far from the true method of composing history. Of their poets, one and another shows himself to be not void of genius; but all are rude, on account of the infelicity of the times, which could relish nothing elegant or exquisite. The grammarians and rhetoricians of those times are scarcely worthy to be mentioned ; for they either give out absolute non- sense, or inculcate precepts wliich are jejune and injudicious. Of their geometry, arithmetic. Computus^, astronomy, and music, which had a place in their schools, it is unnecessary to give any description. his embassy to Constantinople in 968. To liim also are falsely attributed, a tract on the lives of the popes, from St. Peter to Formosus, and a Chronicon. All these, together with his Adversaria, or Note-Book, were printed, Antwerp, 1640, fol.— See Cave, 1. c. TV.] * [Witikind, or Winduchind, was a Saxon, and a monk of Corbey in Ger- many, who flourished a.d. 940, and on- wards. He %vrote a History of the Saxons, or the reigns of Henry the Fowler, and Otto I., in tlu'ee books ; published Basil. 1532, Frankf 1577, and among the Scriptores Herum Ger- nmnicarum; likewise some poetic effu- sions. See Cave, 1. c. TV.] " [Fulcuin, or Folguin, abbot of Laubes, (Laubicnsis,) from a.d. 965 to 990. He ^vrote a Chronicon de Rebus gestis Abbatum Laubiensis Coanobii; de Miraculis Sti Ursmari ; and Vita Fol- cuini Ep. Tarvanensis. T/-.] ' [John Capuanus, abbot of Monte Cassino, flourished from a.d. 915 to 934. He wrote de Persecutionibus Canobii Cassi7ieJisis, \_a Saracenorum irntptione,~\ et de Miraculis inibi factis, Chronicon snccinctum : also, Chronicon postrcmorum Comitum Capuce. Sec Cave, 1. c. TV.] ''' [Ratherius, a monk of stern man- ners, and prone to give oft'ence, was bishop of Verona a.d. 928; displaced in 954, and made bishop of Liege ; re- signed, and was again bishop of Verona; was again removed, and retired to his monastery of Laubes, where he died, A.D. 973. His works, as published by L. D'Achery, Spicileg. tom. ii., comprise various epistles, apologies, polemic tracts, a few sermons, and a life of St. Ursmar of Laubes. His Chronoyraphia is said to have existed in M S. in the monastery of Gemblours. See Cave, 1. c. Tr.'] ■' [Flodoard, or Frodoai'd, a canon of Rheims, who died a. d. 966, aged seventy- three yeai's. His Chronicon Rerum in- ter Francos gcstarum, ab anno 919, ad ann. usque 996, was published, Paris, 1588, 8vo, and Fi-ankf. 1594, 8vo. His Historic Ecclesice Remensis libri iv. was edited by vSmnond, Paiis, 1611, 8vo ; Duaci, 1617, 8vo ; and in the Biblioth. Patr. tom. xvii. p. 500. His poetic lives of various ancient saints, in about twenty books, were never pubhshed. See Cave, 1. c. Tr.-\ * [Notker, or Notger, bishop of Liege, A.D. 971 — 1007. He MTOte Historia Episcoporum Trajectensium, {seu Leodi- censium,') but whether it is the same that was published by Jo. Cheapeaville, Liege, 1612, is doubted. He also ^vi-ote the life of St. Landoald, a Romish presbyter ; a life of St. Remaclus, bishop of Utrecht, and on the miracles of St. Remaclus, two books. It was another Notger, of the preceding century, who died a.d. 912, and who was a monk of St. Gaul, Avhose ]\Iartyrology was published by Canisius, tom. iv. p. 761. See Cave, 1. c. :r.-] * [Ethelliert, or rather Ethelwerd, or Elsward, was of royal Enghsh blood, and flourished a. d. 980. He wrote His- toria bi-evis, libris iv. ; Avhich is a concise Chronology, from the creation to the Saxon invasion of England ; and then a more fiill and a boml)astic histoiy of England, down to a.d. 974. It was published l)y Saville, with the Scriptores Anglici, London, 1596, fol. p. 472. TV.] " [Calculation of the feast-days. TV.] CH. I.] STATE OF LEARNING. VjJ § 6. The philosophy of the Lathis was confined wliolly to logic ; which was supposed to contain the marrow of all wis- dom. Moreover, this logic, which was so highly extolled, was usually taught without method and without clearness, accord- ing to the book on the Categories, falsely ascribed to Auf/nstine, and the writings of Porphjnj. It is true, that Plato s Tinucus, Aristotle's tract de Interpretatione, and his as well as Cicero's Topics, and perhaps some other treatises of the Greeks and Latins, were in the hands of some persons; but they who inform us of the fact, add that there were none who could understand these books. ^ And yet, strange as it may appear, it was in the midst of this darkness, that the subtle question was raised, re- specting the nature of universals^, as they are called ; namely, ichether they belong to the class of real existences, or are mere names. This would not seem the time for starting a contro- versy, which in after days distracted so vehemently the minds of Latin scholars, and divided them into the sects of Noviinalists and Realists. But undoubtedly, the first traces of this long and thorny strife are discoverable every where in the books of learned men, as early as this century.^ § 7. Towards its close, the cause of learning in Europe obtained a great and energetic patron, in Gcrhert, a Frenchman ; known among the Roman pontiffs, as bearing the name of Sylvester II, This great and exalted genius pursued success- fully all branches of learning, but especially mathematics, mechanics, geometry, astronomy, arithmetic, and tlie kindred sciences ; and both wrote upon them himself, and roused others to cultivate and advance them, to the utmost of his power. The effects of his efforts, among the Germans, French, and Italians, Avere manifest in this century and the next; for many indi- viduals of those nations were stimulated, by the writings, the example, and the exhortations of Gcrhert, to the zealous pur- suit of philosophy, mathematics, medicine, and other branehes of human science. Gerbert cannot Indeed be compared with our geometricians and mathematicians ; as is manifest from his ' Gunzo, Epht. ad Monarhos Aiigi- creilcnduni jjiitntis? Ma.] is a clear exliiliition of the ai)|.le of dis- ^ Gunzo, a learned monk, 1. c. p. 304, cord anions: the I^itiiis. Gunzo did not says : " Aristoteles genus, speeieui, dif- venture to oiler a solution of the difticult fei-entiani, pro{)rium et aceidens subsis- question ; hut others attempted it aftcr- tere dcnegavit, qua; Plattini subsistentia wards, persuasit. Aristoteli an riatoni magis VOL. IL S 258 BOOK III. — CENTURY X. [PART II. Geometry, which is a plain and perspicuous treatise, but, at the same time, imperfect and superficial. ^ And yet his knowledge was too profound for the comprehension of that barbarous age. For the ignorant monks supposed his geometrical diagrams to be magical figures ; and therefore set down this learned man among magicians and disciples of the evil one.- § 8. For a part of his knowledge, especially of philosophy, medicine, and mathematics, Gerbert was indebted to the books and schools of the Arabians in Spain. Pie went himself into that country as a student, and attended lectures of the Arab doctors at Cordova and Seville. ■' Perhaps his example, in this respect, had an influence upon the Europeans. This at least is most certain, that from this time onward, such of the Europeans as were eager for instruction, especially in medicine, arithmetic, geometry, and philosophy, had a strong desire to read and hear the Arabians, who lived in Spain, and in a part of Italy. Many of their books, accordingly, were translated into Latin, and much of their contents was brought forward in the European schools ; nor was the number small of those who actually went into Spain, to get oral instructions from the Arabian professors themselves. And truth requires us to say, that from the Sara- cens, or iVrabs, particularly of Spain, chiefly came whatever knowledge of medicine, philosophy, astronomy, and mathematics, flourished in Europe, from the tenth century onward. ' It was published by Bernh. Fez, by Otto's influence, created pope, and Tliesaur. Anecdot. toni. iii. pt. ii. p. 7, &c. assumed the title of Sylvester II. He ^ See the Histoire Litter, lie ta France, died a.d. 1003. — While at Rheims he torn. vi. p. 558. Jioulay, Historia Acad, wrote 160 Letters; which were pub- Paris. torn. i. p. 314. 319, &c. Gab. lished by Masson, Paris, 1611, 4to, and Naud, Apologie pour les grands hommes then in Duchesne's Scriptores Francic. faussemeyit accuse: de la Magie, cap. xix. torn. ii. and in Biblioth. Pair. torn. xvii. §4. [Gerbert was a monk of Auvergne, While pope, he A\Tote three Epistles, and early devoted himself to study, one of which, in tlie name of Jenisalem, After much proficiency in France, he calls upon Cluistians to rescue that city attended the schools of the Saracens in from the hands of infidels. He also Spain ; and returned the most scientific wrote de Geometria Liber ; de Sphara man in the Latin church. In the year Liber; de Liformationc Episcoporum 968, the emperor. Otto I. met with him Sermo; and an Epigram ; besides several in Italy, and made him abbot of Bobio ; pieces never published. The hfe of St. but he soon left that station to become Adalbert, arclibisliop of Frague, for- secretary to Adalberon, archbishop of merly ascribed to him, is supposed not Rheims. He now taught the archi- to be his. But tlie Tract de Corpora et episcopal school, which flourished greatly Sanguine Domini, formerly ascribed to under him. In 991 he was made ai'ch- Heriger, abbot of Laubes, is supposed bishop of Rheims ; but was deposed by to have been the production of Gerbert. pope John XV. in 995 ; and soon after ZV.] made archbishop of Ravenna. On the ^ See Bouhiy, Hisloria Acad. Paris. death of Gregory V., a.d. 999, he was, tom. i. p. 314. ' CH. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 259 CHAPTER II. HISTORY OF THE TEACHERS AND OF THE GOVERNMENT OF THE CHURCH. § 1. The clergy corrapt.— § 2. Ilistoiy of the Roman pontiffs. — § 3. John X. pope. — § 4. John XI. and John XII. — § 5. Fate of the hitter. — § G. John Xm. and Benedict VU. — § 7. John XIV. and John XV.— § 8. A^'j^randizc- ment of the popes. — § 9. The bishops and abbots incrciise in power. — § 10. Prin- cipal vices of the clergy. — § 11. Low state of discipline in the monasteries. — § 12. Principal ^Titers in the Greek chuich. — § 13. Writers in the Latin church. § 1. Nothing is more incontrovertible, than that the sacred order, both in the East and in the "West, was composed principally of men who were illiterate, stupid, ignorant of every thing j)er- tainlng to religion, libidinous, superstitious, and flagitious. ' Nor can any one doubt, that those who wished to be regarded as the fathers and guardians of the universal churcii, were the principal causes of these evils. Nothing certainly can be thought of, so filthy, criminal, and wicked, as to be deemed incompatible with their characters by the supreme directors of religion and its rites; nor was any government ever so loaded with vices of every kind, as that which passed for the most holy. - What the Greek pontiffs were, the single example of TJieoplnjlact shows ; who, as credible historians testify, made traffic of every thing ' [Whoever would be convinced of similar levity. See Semlcr's Continuation this, need only look through the pages of IJaumgarten's Kirchcn/iisturic, vol. iv. of Ratherius. In his Volumen Perpen- p. 507. Schl.'] dicvJorum, sive de contemptii camnum, for * [The reader is referred to the tcsti- instance, he speaks of a clergyman, " Qui mony of an upright Italian, Ia-wis Ant. cum omnes muheres dioecesis sua; sint IShivatori, in \us Anti(i.] ' [Or Christopher. Ty.] CII. II.] CIIUKCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 261 his successors, Anastasius HI. and Landn, filled the holy office only for a short time, and performed nothing worthy of notice. § 3. After the death o^ Lando, A. d. 914, Alberic, the very rich and powerful marquess or count of Tusculum, found a suc- cessor for him, by the instigation of his mother-in-law, Theo- dora, a very lewd woman Avho ruled every thing at Rome, in John X., then archbishop of Ravenna. For at this time, nothing was conducted regularly at Rome, but every thing was carried by bribery, or violence.*^ This Johji, though otherwise a very bad man, is commended for one deed : he successfully attacked and vanquished the Saracens, who occupied a fortified mountain [on the banks of the] Gariliano. But Marozia, the daughter of Theodora and wife of Alberic, was inimical to him. Tlierefore when she, on the death of her husband Alberic, had married JVido, [or Guido,'] marquess of Tuscany, she persuaded her new husband to seize her mother's lover, a. d. 928, and to imprison and kill him. Leo VI. now succeeded ; and he dying six months after, was followed by Stephen VII. After two years, or a. d. 931, Stephen died, and Marozia bade her very youthful son, John XI. (whom she had by the Roman pontitl', Serr/ius III) mount Peter's chair, and govern tiic church.^ " [At that time the noted Theodora, deacon named Jolni, to pay his obeisance with her two daughters, ^larozia and to liis hohness. As the deacon was a Theodora, resideil at Rome. They were very comely and personnhle man, Thcu- M'holly devoted to what was called the ddra, falling jiassionately in love with Tuscan party, of which the marquess him, engaged him in a criminal intrigue Adelbert (not Alberic, as in the text of with her. While tliey lived thus togc- IMosheim) was the head. These women ther, the bishop of IWogna died, and not only lived in habits of the most abo- Jolin had interest enough to get himself minable unchastity, with the chief men elected in his room. But the arch- of Rome, but they had bonndless influ- bishop of Ravemia dying before be was ence in the govennnent there. Luitprand consecrated. Thcorhl. to the pontitical chair." —Luitprand, lib. — ^Luitjn-and's narrative of the elevation ii. cap. 13. ^ec also Flcury, Histoire de of John X., as translated by Bower, rEglise. li\Te liv. § 49. 7>.] (^Lives of the Popes, vol. v. p. 90,) is as ' Mart)zia is a woman infamous in tho follows : " In those days, Peter, arch- view of all historians, ancient and mo- bishop of Ravenna, (esteemed the first ilern ; who tell us, that the pontitt" John arehiepiscopal see after that of Rome,) XI. was her son, and the fruit of an used frequently to send to Rome a illicit intercourse with Sergius UL Yet s 3 262 BOOK III. — CENTURY X. [PAET II. § 4. JoJm XI,, who was raised to supreme power ia the church by the aid of his mother, lost it again, in the year 933, through the enmity of Alberic, his uterine brother. For Alheric, being offended with his step-father, Hugo, king of Italy, to whom Mai'ozia was married after the death of Wido, expelled Hugo from Rome, and confined both his mother, and his brother the pontiff, in a prison, where John died A. D. 936. The four pon- tiffs, who succeeded him in the government of the church, till the year 956, namely Leo VII., Stephen VIII., Marinus II., and Agapetus, are represented as better men than John : and it is certain, that they reigned rather more tranquilly. But on the death of Agapetus, A. D. 956, Alberic IL, the consul of Rome, who controlled every thing there by his influence and wealth, raised his own son Octavius, yet a youth, to the pon- tificate. He was quite unworthy of so great an office, which was filled by him under the name oiJohn XII. Thereupon was introduced the custom of assuming a different name, Avhich the Roman prelates, on their election, keep up to our times.* § 5. The end of John XII. Avas as unfortunate, as his pro- motion had been scandalous. Being very uneasy under the haughty government of Bereiigarius 11, king of Italy, he sent ambassadors to Otto the Great, king of Germany, A. d. 960, inviting him to march an army into Italy, and rescue the church and the commonwealth from cruel tyranny ; and pro- mised, if he would do this, to invest him with the insignia, and confer on him the title of emperor of the Romans. Otto came accordingly, with his forces, and was declared emperor of Rome, by John, in the year 962. But the pontiff soon after repented of his act ; and although bound by a solemn oath to the em- one wi-iter, Jo. Geo. Eccard, in his Ori- so that he transmitted to his son only gines Guelphica, torn. i. lib. ii. p. 131, Mdiat he himself possessed, — the civil dares to vindicate her char.actcr, and dominion of the city. On the death of to represent Sergius as being her first Agapetus, in the year 956, Octavius was husband. I say dares, for it is auda- advised by his Iriends to place himself cious to acquit, without proof or reason, in St. Peter's chair ; and this he found a woman whose actions condemn her, not difficult to accomplish, although his and show her to be destitute of all in- age rendered him unfit for the place : tcgrity and virtue. for he was, perhaps, not then nineteen ' [Dr. Mosheim is incorrect in as- yeai's old. He was the first pope, so serting that Alberic himself raised his far as is known, that changed his name, son to the pontificate. This patrician Yet it was only in spiritual affairs that and prince of Home was in fact a tyrant, he assumed the name of John ; in all who had irregularly usurped the supre- worldly matters he still retained his macy at Rome ; but he died in the year former name. See Muratori, ad ann. 954, and while Agapetus was still living; 954 and 956. Schl.'] CII. II.] CHUIlCn OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 263 peror, he formed a coalition against him with Adalbert, the sou of Berengarius. The emperor therefore returned to Home the next yeai', and assembled a council, in which John was accused of numerous crimes, perhaps also proved guilty, and formally deposed ; Leo VIIL being appointed to his i)lace.^ A\'hcn Otto had left the city, John came to Home, A. d. 964, assembled another council, and condemned the emperor's pontiff; but he soon after died a miserable death." After his decease, the Romans elected Benedict V. : but the emperor carried him away into Germany, and he died at Hamburg.^ § 6. The Roman pontiffs after Leo VIIL, who died a. d. 965, down to Gerhert or Sylvester IL, at the end of the century, were in different degrees meritorious and successful ; but no one of them deserved high commendation. John XIII. was placed in the chair of St. Peter, by the influence of Otto the Great, a. d. 965. But when just entered upon his functions, he was driven from Rome. In the next year, however, the emperor came into Italy, and restored him to his chair, whicli he held peaceably till his death, in 972. His successor, Benedict VI. , was miser- ably strangled in a prison, into which he had been thrown, in the year 974, by Crescentius, the son of the very noted Theodora. For upon the death of Otto the Great, a. d. 973, the Romans, who had been awed by his power and severity, relapsed into ^ [The charges against John XII. out of the city to spend the night in cri- were, that he had said mass without minal converse with a xnaiTiod woman, communicating ; that he had ordained There he received a wound, jierhaps a deacon in a stable ; that he had taken fi-om the injured husband, of wliich ho money for ordinations ; and had or- died eight ihiys after. Fleury, Ilistoire dained, as a bishop, a child only ten Eccles. liv. In. § 10, on tlie authority of years old ; that he earned on amours Luitprand. TV.] M-ith various females, one of whom had * In this history of the poiuiffs of been his father's concul)ine ; tliat he this ccntur}', I have consulted tlic turned the holy palace into a brothel ; original authorities, most of which arc that he was given to hunting; that he given by Muratori, in liis Scriplores had put out the eyes of his god-father, Jieritm Italicar. ; and I have also ex- and had castrated one of the cardinals ; amincd the writings of others, who have that he had set several houses on fire, consulted the sources of hiformation, and had frequently been seen clad in namely, Baronius, Peter de ^larca, armour, with a sword bv his side ; that Sigonius, de liiyno Italia; with the he had drunken to the" health of the learned notes of Jos. Anton. 8axius, devil; that in plaving at dice, he had ISruratori's Anmilcs Italia; I'agi, and invoked Jupiter, Venus, and otlicr ])agan others. The general correctness of tliese deities ; that lie never said matins, or statements no one can doubt ; yet many any other canonical hours, and never parts of this histoiy undnul)tc.lly need signed liimself with the sign of the cross, more light ; and that it may liavc Iwcn See Bower's Lives of the Popes, vol. v. coiTupted by tlie partialities ol the writers p. 108, 109. TV.] on whom we have to depend, cannot be ' [On a certain evening he retired denied. 264 BOOK III. — CENTURY X. [PART II. their former licentiousness and disorderly violence. After Bene- dict, Franco a Roman, who assumed the name of Boniface VII., held the pontifical chair, though but a short time only ; for at the end of a month, he was driven from Rome, and Donus II., of whom nothing Is known but his name, succeeded to the chair. Donus died in 975, and Benedict VII. governed the Romish church very quietly during nine years, or till A. D. 984. His prosperous reign was, probably, to be ascribed wholly to the Avealth and influence of the family from which he originated. For he was the grandson of that Alberic, who had been so powerful a prince, or tyrant rather, at Rome. § 7. His successor, John XIV., previously bishop of Pavla, was destitute of the support derived from family, and was aban- doned by Otto III, by whose Influence he had been elected. Hence, his end was tragical ; for Boniface VII., who had thrust himself Into the see of Rome in the year 974, and being soon after exjDelled, had retired to Constantinople, now returned to Rome, cast John into prison, and there despatched him. Yet Boniface s prosperity was of short duration ; for he died but six months after. He was succeeded by John XV., who by many is denominated John XVI., on account of another John, whom they will have to have reigned at Rome four months. This John XV. or XVI. governed the church, during almost eleven years, from a. d. 985 to 996, with as much prosperity as the troubled state of the Roman affairs would permit ; which was owing, not so much to his personal virtues and prudence, as to his Roman birth, and to the family from which he sprang. Of course, his German successor, Gregory V., whom the empe- ror Otto III. commanded the Romans to elect, A. d. 996, was not equally prosperous. For the Roman consul Crescens ex- pelled him the city ; and placed John XVI., who before was called Philagathus, at the head of the church. But Otto III, returning to Italy, A. D. 998, with an army, deprived John of his eyes, his nose, and his ears ; and committing him to prison, restored Gregory to the chair. And Gregory dying soon after, the emperor raised his preceptor and friend, the celebrated Gerbert or Sylvester II., to the chair of St. Peter, with the ap- probation of the Romans.^ ^ The history of the Roman pontiffs considerable uncertainty. I have follow- of this period is very barren and un- ed, for the most part, Liidov. Ant. Mura- interesting ; and besides, is involved in tori's Annalcs Italia, and Daniel Pape- en. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 265 § 8. Still amidst these perpetual commotions, and the reite- rated crimes and contests of those who called themselves Christ's vicegerents on earth, so great Avas the force of ignorance and superstition in those times, the power and influence of the Roman pontiffs were gradually and imperceptibly advanced.'* Otto the Great, indeed, introduced a law, that no Koman pon- tiff should be created, without the knowledge and consent of the emperor : and this regulation continued, as all admit, from his time to the end of the century. And tliis emperor, as well as his son and grandson of the same name, held uniformly thcii' right of supremacy over the city of Home and its territory, as well as over the Roman pontiff; as is demonstrable by many examples. And the more intelligent bishoj)s likewise, of France, Germany, and Italy, throughout the century, were on their guard, to prevent the Romish bishop from arrogating to him- self alone legislative power in the church. But nevertheless, the pontiffs, sometimes openly and directly, and sometimes by strata- gems, invaded the rights both of emperors and kings, and also of the bishops^; nor were there wanting among the bishops, tliosc who flattered them and flivoured their designs. It has been ob- served by learned men, that there were bishops in this century, broch's Conatus Chronologico-Historiciis effectual, the emperor should be called de Romanis Pontificibus, which is pre- upon (rcf^fc potcstati deputarentiir). fixed to his Acta Sanctor. Mail. See Mabilion, Annulen Ord, S. Bated. * [Yet no traces of any dominion of sa^cul. v. p. 43. — So also, in the year the popes over the monasteries are as 973, the i)ope called the monastery of yet discoverable. In the year 968, the Cor\ey, whose privilej^cs had been csta- monasteiy of St. Gall was Aisitcd by Wished by the emperor Otto, a daufrhter imperial commissioners. The abbot of of the apostolic sec, and subject only to Richenau had complained of the monks it. The great lords, in tlie mean time, there, to Hedwig, the widowed duchess exercised sovereign power in ecclesias- ofSuabia ; and through her the coiiijilaiiit tical things, unrestrained, in Spain, in reached the imperial court. The cm- Germany, in Er.gland. in Italy, in Ilun- peror appointed for this visitation eight gary, &c. Tlie German churches j)os- bishops, of whom Hcmy of Treves was scssed also the right of electing their the first commissioner, together with own bishops ; and the ])o))es acknow- eight abbots ; and he connnanded tiic ledgeil the riglit of tlic German kings to commissioner to proceed mildly with give investittn-e to the bisliops. See the abbot of St. Gall, who was his kins- Ilarduin's Cuucilia, tom. vi. pt. i. p. 1 ,")3, man. Here is no shadow of papal juris- &c. where i)()pe John X. says explicitly, diction. (See Ekkebart, de Casibm S. "Cum prisca consuetudo vigeat, «/h«//i« Gain, cap. xi.) Yet the popes laid hold alicid cleriro cpiscniiatum conferre deltral, of various occasions to extend their «/«" rt'r, cui divinitus sccptra cnllata sunt power over monasteries. Thus we read — hoc nullo modo esse jiotest. ut absque of Sylvester II., that he arbitrarily de- reguli piaccplinnc in quidilH-t jiarochia clared the monastery of Lorslieim free Ej)iscopus sit consecratus." Sclil.] from other jurisdiction ; and ordered, ' Examples are adduced in the His- that whenever the monks deviated from toire dii Droit EccUsiastique Francis, their rule, they shoidd be corrected by tom. i. p. 217, cd. m 8vo. the Roman pontiff, and if this was not 266 BOOK III. — CENTUEY X. [PART II. though never before, who called the pontiffs bishops of the loorld instead of bishops of Rome ^ ; and that some even among the French clergy conceded, what had never been heard of, that bishops receive indeed all their power from God, but through St. Peter? § 9. The inferior bishops eagerly took example from the prin- cipal bishop, in labouring to extend their authority. From the times of Charlemagne and his sons, many bishops and abbots had obtained, for their tenants and estates, exemption from the jurisdiction of the counts and other magistrates, and also from all imposts and taxes. But in this century they sought also to obtain civil jurisdiction over the cities and districts sul)jcct to them, and coveted the functions of dukes, marquesses, and counts.^ For whereas violent contests, respecting jurisdiction and other things, frequently sprang up between the dukes, the governors of cities, or the counts and marquesses on the one hand, and the bishops on the other, these latter, taking advan- tage of favourable occasions, left no means unattempted to secure to themselves those high offices, and the kings and emperors not unfrequently granted their petitions ; sometimes in order to put an end to the contentions and broils among the civil and military magistrates, sometimes from their reverence for religion, and sometimes with a view to augment their own power by means of the bishops. And hence it was, that from this time onward so many bishops and abbots were to be seen sustaining also characters entirely foreign from their * Non wrhis, sed orhis cpiscopos. Leibnitz's Scriptores Bninsw. torn. ii. ' The Benedictine monks, in Histoire And likewise Adalgag, ai-chbishop of Liiteraire tie la France, torn. A'i. p. 78, Hamburg, received from the munificence 79. 98. 186, &c. of Otto great power, and dkect civil ^ [Among these, may be reckoned dominion, namely, the judicial power, the regulation of tolls and coinage, which the right to levy tolls and to coin money, some of them obtained. Thus, for ex- and, in short, whatever related to the ample, the archbishopric of Treves ob- royal finance, to the exclusion of all tained these rights from king Lewis, A. D. royal functionaries from these affairs. 902. See Brower's Annal. Trevir. lib. See Lambecius, Orig. Hatnbiirg. p. 10, ix. and Kohler's Reiclishistorie, p. 54. — 1 1 . Pagi, Crit. ad Baron. AnnaL aun. And in the year 946, the emperor Otto 988, §1,2. Schl — Pagi also tells us, bestowed on the monasteiy of Gemblours (IVom Witichind, lib. i. and the Chron. the control of the market and of coinage, Belyk. Magn.) that similar powers were the free election of their own abbots granted by Otto I. to the ai-chbishopric and advocates, and the right of erecting of Cologne and Mentz, and to the bishop- fortifications. See Mabillon, Annal. Ord. ric of Spire and Minden. He adds, hoAV- S. Bencd. iii. p. 485, 486. In like manner ever, that it was not lawful for bishops Otto II. conferred on IVIilo bishop of to preside personally in the temporal Minden, the right of coining money, courts ; but only by their deputies. Chron. Episcop. Mindens. p. 166, 167. in Tr.'] CH. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 267 sacred functions, and enjoying the rank of dukes, marquesses, counts, and viscounts.^ § 10. Besides their ignorance, which was extreme', the body of the Latin clergy were chargeable with two great vices, which are deplored by most of the writers of those times ; namely, concubinage and simony. In the first place, very generally, not only the priests, but the monks also, connected themselves with women, some indeed in a lawful way, but others in an unlaAvful one; and with these wives and concubines, and tlie chiklren born of them, they squandered the property of the cluirch.^ In the next place, there was scarcely any such thing as the regular and canonical election of bishops and abbots ; but the kings, princes, and nobles, either conferred the sacred offices on their friends and ministers, for whom they had partiality, or sold them to the highest bidders.'^ And hence, frequently, men the most unfit and flagitious, sometimes soldiers, civil magistrates, and counts, were invested with spiritual offices, of the highest dignity and influence. In the following century Greyory VII. endeavoured to cure both of these evils. §11. Among the Greek and Oriental monks, there was more appearance of religion and decorum ; but among the Latin monks, at the beginning of this century, discipline was so low, that most of them did not know the very name of St. Benedict's rule, although they were under an obligation to live by it. To this evil a remedy, not altogether unsuccessful, was applied by Odo, a French nobleman, who was a learned and devout man, according to the standard of that age. Being made abbot of 9 Ludov. Thomassin, in his Blsciplina the beginning of tliis ccntun-, appears EcdesicE vetus et nova, torn. iii. lib. i. cap. from Ordcric Vitahs ami otliens and 28, p. 89, has coUectcd much matter in particularly from an epistle ot Mantio, order to evince that the functions of bishop of Chalons, publisiied by Jo. dukes and counts were sustained by Mabillon, Analecta \ cler \x 429, ed. bishops as early as the ninth century, nova. Of tlie Italian monks, wlio siij- And some of the bishops pretend to ported wives and ouncubnies, and thus trace the origin of theh secvdar power misused the church projicny, sec Hugo, back to the eighth century. But I de Momisterii Fnrjcnsis Ih>,>loyct'r,,m ; citatusde fide illor urn, inveniplurimmneque subjoined to the (oilcx lamm. A '"I'l"'. ipsumsapere.s,jmbolum,quifuissccredilur p. 398, and .Mabillon, Annalai Bcncd. Apostolorum. torn. v. and others. ' That this custom commenced in 268 BOOK III. — CENTURY X. [part II. Cluny in Burgundy, a province of France, after the death of Berno, A. D. 927, he not only obliged his monks to live accord- ing to their rule, but likewise bound them to observe additional rites and regulations, which had an air of sanctity, but were in reality trivial, though onerous and inconvenient.* This new form of monastic life procured for its author great fame and honour ; and in a short time it was propagated over all Europe. For very many of the ancient monasteries in France, Germany, Italy, Britain, and Spain, adopted the discipline of Cluny ; and the new monasteries that were erected, were, by their founders, subjected to the same discipline. Thus was formed, in the next century, the venerable order of Cluny, or that body of associated Cluniacs which was very widely extended and renowned for its wealth and power. '^ § 12. The more distinguished writers of this century are easily enumerated. Among the Greeks was Simeon Magister, chancellor of Constantinople. He transcribed the earlier written lives of the Saints, for the sake of giving them a better form, and clothing them in a better style ; for which he obtained the surname of MetaphrastesS' But in digesting, polishing, and * See Jo. Mabillon, Annales Bened. torn. iii. p. 386, &c. and Prcefatio ad Acta Solictor. Ord. Bened. ssecul. v. p. xxvd. &c. Mabillon treats largely of Berno, the lirst abbot of Cluny, and the founder of the order of Cluny, in his Acta Sanctor. Ord. Bened. stec. v. p. 66, and of Odo, ibid. p. 122, &c. The general history of the order of Cluny is neatly written by Hipp. Helyot, His- toire des Ordres Beligieitscs, torn. vi. p. 184, &c. The present state of Cluny is described by ISIartene, Voyage Litter, de deux Benedictins. pt. i. p. 227, &c. * I am mistaken if most of the wri- ters on ecclesiastical history have not misapprehended the import of tlie word order, as applied to the Cluniacensians, Cistercians, and others. Fur they take it to mean a new monastic institute, or a new sect of monks ; in which they mis- take by confounding the modern use of the term with its ancient meaning. The term order, as used by the -wTiters of that age, at first signified merely some particular y'orm ofrnonastic discipline. But from this use of the word, another gra- dually arose, for the word order denoted a society or association of many monas- teries, acknowledging one head, and fol- lowing the same rules of life. The order of Cluny was not a new monastic sect, hke the orders of Carthusians, Dominicans, and Franciscans; but it denoted first, that mode of living which Odo prescribed to the Benedictine monks of Cluny ; and then the \\'hole nimiber of monas- teries in difterent parts of Europe, which embraced the regulations of Cluny, and united in a kind of association, of which the abbot of Cluny in France was the head. ^ See Leo Allatius, de Symconum Scriptis, p. 24, &c. Jo. BoUand, Prce- fatio ad Acta Sanctorum, Antw. § iii. p. vi. &c. [Simeon Metaphrastes was of noble birth, and a man of both genius and learning. The emperor Leo made him his principal secretary, patrician logothctcs or high chancellor, and master of the jialace. He fiourished about a. d. 901 ; and devoted his time, when the business of his offices did not prevent, to the rewTiting of the lives of the saints. How many narratives he revised, or composed anew, it is diflicult to state ; because the religious biographies of sub- sequent writers ha^'c been ascribed to him. Of the 661 naiTatives, long and short, which have been attributed to him, Leo Allatius supposes 122 are ac- tually of his revision ; 444 he attributes CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 269 CH. II.] embellishing these lives of Saints, he is said to have enlarfrcd the original narratives by the addition of many of his own fic- tions and silly tales. Nicon, an Armenian monk, has left us a tract on the religion of the Armenians, which is not contemp- tible.^ The two authors of Catence, Olympiodorus and (Ecii- menius ^, are placed by some in this century ; but it is wholly on conjectural grounds. With better reasons Suidas, the famous lexicographer, is placed among the writers of this century.^ The most distinguished author among the Arabian Christians was Euty chilis, bishop of Alexandria ; Avhose Annales, with other writings, are still extant.' to other authors, whom he names ; and 95, he thinks, are not Simeon's, but he cannot ascertain to whom they should be attributed. — Many of the genuine narratives of Simeon have found their way into the large collections of Surius and Bolland ; but the greater part of the whole were never printed. — Be- sides these revised biogi-aphies, a num- ber of orations, epistles, and short poems, hjTnns, &c. are extant as the productions of . Simeon. See Cave's Historia Litterar. tom. ii. and Flemy, Histoire de VEglise, hv. Iv. § 31. TV.] ' [Nicon was born in Pontus, and educated in a monastery on the con- fines of Pontus and Paphlagonia. About the year 961, his abbot sent hun out as a Christian missionary ; and he travelled in Armenia, and various countries of the East, and in Greece. He was accounted a saint ; and miracles are related of him. His book de pessima Religione Armenorom, in a Latin translation, is extant in the Bibliotheca Patriim. 7>.] * For an account of fficumenius of Tricca, see especially Bernh. dc IVIont- faucon, Biblioth. Coislin. p. 274. [fficu- menius, bishop of Tricca in Tlu'ace, is placed in this century, because he quotes Photius who lived in the ninth century, but mentions no later m-iter. His brief Scholia on the Acts of the Apostles and on the canonical Epistles, are all bor- rowed from the fethers, and especially from Chrysostom. His works were printed at Pai-is, Gr. and Lat. 1631, two tom. fol. — Olympiodorus, a Greek monk, and a deacon of Alexandria, of uncertain age, is author of an exposition of the book of Ecclesiastcs ; printed, Gr. and Lat. in the Auctuarium Pair. Ducea- num, tom. ii. p. 602. The Catena on Job, ascribed to him, is more probably the work of Nicetas, in the middle of the next century. It was published, Gr. and Lat. by Fr. Junius, Lond. 1637, fol. Tr.] " [That Suidas lived in the latter part of this century, is inferred from his computations in the article 'ASoju. M'hich all terminate ^\ith the reign of the emperor John Zimisccs, wlio died of poison, A. I). 975. His Dictionary, which is a kind of liistorical and lite- rary Encychpcedia, was best published by Kuster, Cambridge, 1705, 3 vols. fol. Tr.-] ' See Jo. Alb. IFabricius, Bibliogra- phia Antkjiiaria, p. 179 ; and Euseb. Renaudot, Historia Patriarch. Alexandr. p. 347. [Eutychius was a native of Egypt, and the niolchite or ortiiodox patriarch of Alexandria, from a. d. 933 to 950. His Arabic name was Said Ibn Batrik, that is. Said the son of Batrik. Said signifies Blessed; wiiich iu Greek is El'tiix'')^ or Euti/chius. He lived un- happily with iiis flock, and died at the age of 75. His i)nncipal work is his Annals, from the creation to a. d. 937 ; edited by E. Pocock, Arab, and Lat Oxford, 1658, 4to. He also WTole a history of Sicily, after its conquest by the Saracens ; a disputation K'twcen the heterodox and Christians, in op- position to the Jacobites, and some medi- cal tracts ; all of which still exist in manuscript. The Greek writers of tliis century, omitted by Dr. Mosheim, arc the follow- ing. John Camcniata, a reader in the church of Thessalonica, Wlien that city was taken and plundered by the Sara- cens, A. i>. 904, John was made prisoner, and carried to Tarsus, where he com- posed a full and interesting History of the 270 BOOK III. — CENTURY X. [PART II. § 13. The best among the Lathi writers was Gerbert, or Sylvester IL, the Roman pontiff; of whom we have spoken before.'^ The rest deserve no higher character than that of indifferent writers. Odo, who laid the foundation of the Clu- niac association or order, has left some writings, which have few marks of genius and discernment, but many of superstition.^ Some tracts of Ratherius of Verona are extant ; which indicate a mind of good powers, and imbued with the love of justice and integrity.'* Atto of Vercelli composed a tract on ecclesiastical grievances; which throws light on the state of those times.^ Dunstan, an Englishman, compiled for the benefit of monks, a Harmony of monastic rules.^ j^lfiHc of Canterbury deserved destruction of Thessalonica, and of his own sufferings. It was published, Gr. and Lat., by Leo Allatius, Symmict. pt. ii. p. 180. Hippolytus of Thebes, who has been confounded with Hyppolytus Portuensis, of the thu-d century. He flourished about A. D. 933. A Chronicon, or a part of one, composed by him, was published, Greek and Latin, by H. Canisius, Lec- tion. Antiq. torn. iii. p. 35. He also, it is probable, composed the brief notices of the twelve apostles, which have gone under the name of the earlier Hippoly- tus. Moses Bar-Cepha, bishop of Beth- Raman, and supen'isor of the churches in the regions of Babylonia. He lived in this century, but in what part of it is un- certain. He composed, in Syriac, three books de Paradise; which Andr. Masius translated into Latin, and then published his translation, Antw. 1568, Svo. It is also in the Biblioth. Patr. tom. xvii. p. 456. Sisinnius, patriarch of Constantinople, A. D. 994 — 997, composed a tract de Nuptiis Consobrinorum ; which is in Leuncla\ius, Jus Gr. et Mom. lib. iii. p. 197. TV.] ^ [See the preceding chapter, § 7, 8, and Note^ p. 258.] ^ Histoire Litteraire de la France, tom. vi . p. 229. [His hfe, written by John, one of his intimate friends, in three books, and the same revised by Nalgod, two centuries after, arc in Mabillon, Acta Sanctor. Ord. Bened., tom. vii. or Sa3cul. vi. p. 150 — 199 ; to which Mabillon prefixes a full account, com- posed by himself ; ibid. p. 1 24, &c. He was a Frenchman, brought up in the court of William duke of Aquitaine, and educated at Tours and Pai-is. He early became a monk, and a great admu'cr of St. Martin of Tom-s. From the year 912, till his death in 942, he was engaged in teaching schools, presiding in monas- teries, making journeys to Rome and Paris, &c., on public business. His works are several ^legends, concerning St. Martin, St. Mary Magdalen, &c. ; a life of St. Gerald, count of Orleans ; an abridgment of Gregory's Morals on Job, in twenty -five books ; and devotional pieces. They are all published in the Biblioth. Patr. tom. xvii. Tr.] * Histoire Litteraire de la France, tom. vi. p. 339. [See note^ on the preceding chapter, p. 256. 7>.] * Histoire Litteraire de la France, tom. ■vi. p. 281. [Atto Secundus was a native of Lombardy, a man of learning and virtue, according to the standard of the age. Augustine was his favourite au- thor. He presided over the church of Vercelli, from a. d. 945, till his death in 960. His works were republished, more complete, in 2 vols. fol. Vercelli, 1769. They comprise a collection of canons and ecclesiastical statutes, for the use of his church ; de Pressuris Ecclesiasticis, in three parts ; (on the bishop's courts, their ordinations ; and de Facultatibus Ecclesiariim ; several Homilies ; and a verbal Commentary on the Epistles of Paul. 7>.] * St. Dunstan was bom in Somerset, educated at Glastonbuiy, where he be- came a monk, and after^vards abbot. He sensed several years at court, was bishop of Worcester a. d. 956, bishop of London in 958, and archbishop of Canterbuiy from 961 to 988. He was a most zeal- ous promoter of monkeiy and celibacy, and is reported to have ^vrought many CH. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 271 well of the Anglo-Saxons in Britain by a variety of tracts.^ Burchard, bishop of Worms, aided the study of canon law by a volume of Decreta, in twenty books. But he was not the sole compiler ; for he was aided by Olhcrt.^ Odilo of Lyons has left us some frigid sermons, and other things not much better.^ miracles. His Harmony of monastic rules, in twelve chapters, was published by Reiner, as an Appendix to his work on the antiquity of the Benedictine order in England, Duaci, 1626, fol. See Hume's Histwy of Eiiglcmd, vol. i. ch. ii. p. 94, &c. His life and miracles composed by Osbem, a monk of Canterbmy in the eleventh century, with extracts from others, may be seen in Mabillon, Acta SS. Ord. Bened. torn, vii. or Sajcul. v. p. 654 — 715. TV. — Dunstan's promotion to Worcester is placed in 957, to Canter- bury in 9 1 5, by Richardson, tlie annota- tor upon Bp. Godwin, De Prcesul. pp. 451. 51. Ed.] ' [^Ifric, or Elfric, or Alfric, arch- bishop of Canterburj', from A. D. 996 to 1006, was a monk of Abingdon, and (as Ussher supposes) filled several otiier offices in the chiu'ch, during forty years, before he was made archbishop of Can- terbury. Most of the ^vl•itings generally ascribed to him, are by some ascribed to another monk of the same name, who was made arciibisliop of York, and died A. D. 1051. See Henry AVliarton's Z>/.s-,sf/-^ de Duobiis Eljricis in liis Aniflia Sacra ; and Mabillon, Acta Sanctor. Ord. Bened. tom. viii. p. 61, &c. The works ascribed to Alfric of Canterbury, are a Biblical History ; a Homily on tlie body and blood of Christ ; (in which he disproves transubstantiation ;) an Epistle to Wulf- sine, bishop of Sherbonic, another to Wulfstan, archbishop of York ; a Peni- tentiaiy ; and an Epistle to Wulfin, on the ecclesiastical canons. These have been published ; and most of them in Saxon and Latin. Besides these, tliere exist in MSS. a collection of eighty Ser- mons ; a Saxon Chronicle, a translation of the canons of the Nicene council, a translation of St. Gregory's Dialogue, with several lives of monkish saints, all in the Saxon language ; also a Latin- Saxon dictionary, a grammar of the Saxon language ; Extracts from Prisciaii, &c. See Cave's Historia Litterar. vol. ii. Tr. — There is little probability that any of the works under the name of Elfric were written by the archbishop of Can- erbury of that name. Wharton, there- fore, had great reason to ascribe them to Elfric of York. They are, in fact, a very important mass of writings both on ac- count of the language and the doctrine. Upon the pen to which we owe them there is great room for controversy, as may be seen in the Editor's A?iylu- Saxon Church. All Elfric's remains arc now likely to be published by means of a society, named after him, which has very successfully commenced operations. Ed.-] ' See the Chronicon Womtatiense, in Ludewig's lielic/uuc Manuscriptor. tom. ii. p. 43 ; and the Histoire Litttraire de la France, tom. vii. p. 595, &c. [Bur- chard, a Hessian, was first a monk of Laubes, and then bishop of Wonns, from A. D. 996 to 1026. lie commenced his great work on canon law, while in liis monasteiy, and with tiic aid of his in- structor Olbcrt ; but completed it dur- ing his episcopate. It was first publish- ed at Cologne, 1548, fol. and afterwards in 8vo. Though still in twenty books, it contains not a sixth part of the original work. Its authority is vcrj' small, being compiled without due care, and often from sj)urious works. The full title of the book is, Maynum Decretorum (or Ca- nonmn) Votiimen; but it is often cited by the title i^ecrdi/m ; and also by that of Brocardica, or Brocardicorum Opus, from the French and Italian Brocurd, i. e. Burchard. See Schrocckh's Kir- chenyvsch. vol. xxii. p. 414, &e. 7>.] * [St. Odilo w;us a native of Auvergne, educated at Cluny, where he Ix-camc the abbot A. d. 994. He aftcnvards re- fiLsed the archbishoimc of Lyons; and died abbot of Cluny A. d. 1049, aged eighty-seven years. His works, as i)ui)- lished by l)u Clicsne, in his lidiUoth. Cluniarcnsis, Paris, 1614, and thence in the BUdivth. Patr. tom. xvii. consist of fourteen sermons on the festal days ; a life of St. Maiolus; a life of St. Aileleidis; four hymns ; and some letters. His own life, written by his pupil Jotsald, in two books, is given us by Mabillon, together with a long biograiihical preface, in the Acta Sanctor. Ord. Bened. torn. viii. p. 631—710, Tr.] 272 BOOK III. — CENTURY X. [PART II. Of those who wrote histories and annals., this is not the place to treat.' CHAPTER III. ' HISTORY or RELIGION AND THEOLOGY. § 1. The state of religion. — § 2. Contests respecting predestination and the Lord's supper. — § 3. Belief that the day of judgment was at hand. — § 4. Multitude of the saints. — § 5, 6. The different branches of theology neglected. — § 7. Contro- versy between the Greeks and Latins. § 1. That the most important doctrines of Christianity were misunderstood and perverted, and that such doctrines as re- mained in their integrity and uncorrupted, were obscured by most imfounded opinions, is manifest from every writer of this period. The essence of religion was thought both by Greek and Latin, to consist in the worship of images, in honouring departed saints, in searching for and preserving relics, and in enriching priests and monks. Scarcely an individual ventured to ap- proach God until interest had been duly sought with images and saints. In getting rehcs together, and seeking after them, ' [The Latin writers omitted by Dr. these classes of writers may be subjoined Mosheim, were some of them mere the two following individuals, authors of the hves of certain monks Roswida, or Roswitha, a learned and and saints. Such were Stephen, abbot devout nun, of Gandersheim in Gennany, of Laubes, and a. d. 903, bishop of who flourished about a.d. 980. She under- Liege ; Hubald, or Hucbald, a French stood Greek, as well as the Latin, in monk, who flourished under Charles which she ^\Tote. Her compositions are the Bald, a.d. 916; Gerard, deacon of all in verse; namely, a panegjTic on the cloister of St. Medard, a.d. 932; — Otto the Great; eight Martyrdoms of Fridegodus, a monk of Canterbury, a. d. early Saints ; six sacred Comedies, on 960 ; — and Adso, abbot of Montier en various subjects, but chiefly in praise of Der, in France, a.d. 980. Alost of the the saints; and a poem on the establish- others were popes or bishops, who have ment of her monasteiy. These were left us only some epistles. Such were best edited by H. L. Schurzfleisch, Wit- John X. pope a.d. 915 — 928; — Agapetus tcmb. 1707, 4to. See Schroeckh's ^!>- IL pope, A. D. 946 — 956; — John XIL c/ien^esrA. vol. xxi. p. 177.256. pope, A.D. 956 — 963; — John XIII. pope, Heriger, or Harigcr, abbot of Laubes, A.D. 965 — 972 ; — Pilgrim, or Peregrine, a.d. 990—1007. He ^vrote a history of archbishop of Lorch, A. d. 971 — 992; — the bishops of Liege; a tract on the Benedict VI. pope, a.d. 972 — 974 ; — body and blood of Christ ; and the Hves Benedict VII. pope, a.d. 975 — 984; — of St. Ursniar, St. Berlendis, and St. John XV. pope, a.d. 986 — 996; — and Landoald. TV-.] Gregory V. pope, a.d. 996 — 999. To CH. III.] THEOLOGY AND RELIGION. 273 all the world was busy even to • insanity. Nor, if we may believe the monks, was any thing scarcely more an object of God's care in that age, than showing the places, to snorin'j- old women, and shaven friars, in which the corpses of holy men were deposited. A fire that burns out stains left on souls freed from the body, all desperately feared; in fact, more vehemently than the very punishments of hell. For the latter, it was supposed, might be easily escaped, if people only died rich in the prayers and merits of the sacred order, or had some saint to intercede for them ; but not so the former. This dread was found so very advantageous to the priests, that they took care by their discourses, fables, and fictitious miracles, to raise it continually higher and higher. § 2. The controversies respecting grace and the Lord's sup- per, which disquieted the preceding century, were at rest in this. For each party, as appears from various testimonies, left the other at liberty, either to retain the sentiments which it had embraced, or to change them. Nor was it an object of much inquiry in this illiterate and thoughtless age, what the theolo- gians believed on these and other subjects. Hence, among those who flourished in this age, we find both followers of An- giistine and followers of Pelagius ; and perhaps as many can be discovered who supposed the body and blood of Christ to be truly and naturally presented in the Holy .Supj)cr, as of those who either had no definite and fixed opinion on the subject, or judged the Lord's body to he absent materially, and to be re- ceived in the eucharist only by some holy movement of the soul.' Let no one, however, ascribe this moderation and for- bearance to the wisdom and virtue of the ago : it was ratlu-r the want of intelligence and knowledge which rendered men both indisposed and unable to contend on these subjects. § 3. That an immense superstition had every where gained a vigorous hold over all the Christian world, appears fnnn num- ' That the Latin doctors of this ccn- hy Ka])iii de Thovras, Histoire (TAmjIe- turj- held different opinions resi)ectin}i tern; toin. i. p. 463. Yet that tliis de as per, is very clearly attested; nor do easily demonstrated. [" Fur a judicious the learned men among the Koman Ca- account of the opinions of the Saxon tholics, who follow trutli rather than English church conceniing the euclia- paity feelings, disavow the fact. That rist, sci: CoWkt's Eccliniaatical IJIxturi/ of the doctrine of traitsubstcnitialinn was at Great Britain, vol. i. cent. x. p. 204. this time unknown to the English, has 260." J/«r/.] been shown from their public homilies, VOL. II. T 274 BOOK III. — CENTURY X. [PART II. berless testimonies and examples. To this were added many futile and groundless opinions, fostered by the priests for their own advantage. Among the opinions which dishonoured and disquieted the Latin churches in this century, none produced more excitement than the belief that the day of final consum- mation was at hand. This belief was derived, in the preceding century, from the Apocalypse of Jolin xx. 2 — 4. 2, and being advanced by many in this century, it spread over all Europe, and excited incredible alarm among the people. For they sup- posed, St. John to have explicitly foretold, that after a thousand years from the birth of Christ, Satan would be let loose. Anti- christ would appear, and the end of the world would come. Hence immense numbers, transferring their property to the churches and monasteries, left all, and proceeded to Palestine, where they supposed Christ would descend from heaven to judge the world. Others, by a solemn vow consecrated themselves and all they possessed to the churches, the monasteries, and the priests ; serving them in the character of slaves, and performing the daily tasks assigned them : for tliey hoped, that the supreme Judge would be more favourable to them, if they made them- selves servants to his servants. Hence also, whenever an eclipse of the sun or moon took place, most people betook them- selves to caverns, and rocks, and caves. Very many also gave a large part of their estates to God and the saints ; that is, to the priests and monks. And in many places, edifices, both sacred and secular, were suffered to go to decay, and, in some instances, actually pulled down, from the expectation that they would no longer be needed. This general delusion was opposed, indeed, by a few wiser individuals ; but nothing could overcome it, till the century had closed. But when the century ended without any great calamity, the greater part began to under- stand that John had not really predicted what they so much feared.^ * [" And he laid hold on the dragon, that sion in Europe. For the reason assigned old serpent, which is the devil, and Satan, fur the gift, is generally thus expi-cssed : and bound him a thousand years" &c. Approphtquante viundi terviiiio, Sfc. [i. c. Tliey understood this to refer to the times the end of the world being now at hand.~\ of the Christian dispensation. And as Of the many other proofs of the preva- Satan was to be loosed after the thousand lence of this opinion, (which was so pro- years, and as the vision proceeds imme- fitable to the clergy,) I will adduce only diately to describe the general judg- one striking passage, fi'om Abbo of ment, they concluded the world woidd Flcury, in liis ApoJogetirinn adversus Ar- conic to an end aliout A. D. 1000. Tr.'] nidphum, which Fr. Fitlucus has sub- ■' Almost all tlie donations (jf this ecu- joined to the Codex Canonmn Ecclesice tury adurd evidence of this general dclu- lioinana', \i. 401. " Wlien quite a youth. THEOLOGY AND RELIGION. 275 cn. iil] § 4. A great multitude of saints, i. e. of nobles * of the hea- venly court, and ministers of the heavenly commonwealth, sprouted up every where.* For this extremely inconsiderate and superstitious age required a liost of patrons. Besides, so great was the wickedness and madness of most people, that the reputation of saintship could be gained without much effort. Whoever was rather austere and of uncomi)romising manners, or had any thing remarkable in his iuiaginative powers, he passed among the guilty multitude for God's especial friend. The Roman pontiff, who had before begun to assume to himself the right of making new saints, gave the first specimen of the actual exercise of this power, in this century ; at least, no ex- ample of an earlier date is extant. John XV., in the year 993, by a solemn act, enrolled Udalrich, bishop of Au«Tsburai"t- ed sjjirit might ha\ e its o\m powers of hearing the suppliant, and that tliis latter was piously emjiloyed in making use of them. Ed.'] * Franc. Pagi, Breviar. Puntif. Roman. torn. ii. p. 259, &c. ' This ojjinion wius hcM by the friends of the Komisli court ; and in ]iarticular, by I'hil. Bonamms, Aiimismal. J'uiitiJ'. liomanor. torn. i. p. 41, &c. 276 BOOK III. CENTURY X. [PART I in the list of saints, such as they deemed to be worthy of it.^ But in the twelfth century, Alexander III. annulled this right of councils and bishops ; and made canonization, as it is called, to rank among the greater causes, or such as belong only to the pontifical court. § 5. Upon the labours of theologians in sacred knowledge, and its different branches, little can be said. The Holy Scrip- tures no one explained in a manner that would place him high among even the lowest class of interpreters. For it is uncer- tain, whether Oh/m.piodorus and CEcumenius of Tricca belong to this century. Among the Latins, Remigius of Auxerre con- tinued his exposition of the Scriptures, which he commenced in the preceding century. He is very concise on the literal signi- fication, but very copious and prolix on the mystical sense ; which he prefers greatly to the literal meaning. Besides, he exhibits not so much his own thoughts, as those of others, de- riving his explanations from the early interpreters. Odd's Moralia on Job are transcribed from the work of the same title by Gregory the Great. Who were esteemed the best expositors of Scripture in that age, may be learned from Notke- rus Balhulus^, who wrote professedly an account of them.^ § 6. Systematic tlieology had not a single writer, Greek or Latin. The Greeks were satisfied with Damascenus ; the Latins ' See the remarks of Franc. Pagi, the chapter of Augsbvirg saw fit, to re- Breviarium Pontif. Itomanor. torn. ii. p. quest the pope to pronounce their bishop 260. torn. iii. p. 30, and of Arm. De la Uh'ich, a saint for all the churches. The Chapelle, Bibliotliique Atigloise, torn. x. bishop of Augsbm-g who succeeded Ul- Y). 105, and J o.Wa.hi\\on, PraJ] ad Scecul. rich, might have canonized this worthy V. Acta SS. Ord. Bened. p. liii. [The man, for the church of Augsburg : but word canon, in the middle ages, denoted in that case, he would have been honour- in general, a register or a matriculation ed only in his own diocese, and not roll ; and in a more limited sense, a list throughout the whole chm-ch. The pope of the saints; and to canonize a person, complied with the request, without much was to enroll his name in this book or inquiry. Sc/il.'] register of the saints. In the earlier " [Or the Stammerer. TV.] times, none Avere recognized as saints, ' [^llis hook is entitled, de Interpretibus except martyrs and confessors. But in Divinanim Litterarum ; and may be the times of ignorance, the stupid people found in Fez's Thesaur. Anecdot. Noviss. often selected and made for themselves tom. i. pt. i. p. 1. It was addressed to saints, who did not deserve the name. Solomon, afterwards bishop of Constance, To remedy the evil, it was ordained, that whom it excited to the study, not only no one should be recognized as a saint, of the biblical interpreters, but also of till the bishop of the place, after investi- the ecclesiastical historians, and the gation made, shoidd declare him such, writers of biographies of the saints ; This was the practice in Europe, fi'om so that it may be viewed as a guide to the seventh century, onward. The popes the best method of studying theology, canonized, as well as others ; but only agreeably to the taste of those times, in their own diocese. But at this time, Schl.~\ CH. III.] THEOLOGY AND RELIGION. 277 with Augustine and Grerjory the Great, who were in that age regarded as the greatest of tlieologians. Yet some also read Bede, and Rabanus Maurm. Moral and practical theology received less attention than in almost any age. If we except some discourses, which arc extremely meagre and dry, and the lives of saints, which were composed among the Greeks by Simeon Metaphrastes, and among the Latins by Ilubald, Odo, Stephen of Liege, and otliers, without fidelity, and in very bad taste ; there remains nothing more in this century, that can be placed under the head of practical theology. Nor do we find, that any one sought renown by polemic writings or confutations of the enemies of truth. § 7. The controversies between the Greeks and Latins, in consequence of the troubles and calamities of the times, were carried on Avith much less noise than before ; but they were not wholly at rest.'- And those certainly err very much, who main- tain, that this pernicious discord was healed, and that the Greeks for a time came over to the Latins ^ : althousch it is true, that the state of the times obliged them occasionally, to form a truce, though a deceptive one. The Greeks contended violently, among themselves, respecting repeated marriages. The empe- ror Leo, surnamed the Wise, or the Philosoplier, having had no male issue by three successive wives, married a fourth, born in humble condition, Zoe Carhijiopsina. As such marriages, by the canon hiw of the Greeks, were incestuous, the patriarch Nicolaus excluded the emperor from sacred rites. Leo, indig- nant at this, deprived Nicolaus of his office ; and put Eutliyinius into his place, who admitted the emperor, indeed, to religious privileges, but resisted the law which he wished to enact, allow- ing fourth marriages. Hence a schism and great animosity arose among the clergy ; some siding with Nicolaus, and others with Euthymius. Leo died soon after, and Ahwandrr deposed Euthijmius, and restored Nicolaus to his office ; who now as- sailed the character of the deceased emperor with the severest maledictions and execrations ; and defended his opinion upon the unlawfulness of fourth marriages, in the most contentious manner. To put an end to these commotions, so dangerous to ^ Mich. Le Quicn, Diss. i. Damasce- iv. § vii. Opp. toin. ii. p. 529. nica, de Processione Spiritiis S. § 13, p. ' Leo Allutius, de Perprtua Consen- 12. Fred. Spaiaheim, de Perpetua Dis- sione Ecclesia Orient, et Occident, lib. ii. sensione Ecclesice Orient, et Occident, pt. cap. ^^i. \m. p. 600, &c. T 3 278 BOOK III. — CENTURY X. [pAET II. the Greeks, Constantine Porpliyrogenitus, the son of Leo, as- sembled an ecclesiastical council, at Constantinople, in the year 920. This council prohibited fourth marriages altogether, but allowed third, under certain I'estrictions. The publication of this law restored the public tranquillity.* Some other small contests, of similar importance, arose among the Greeks ; which show their want of discernment, their ignorance of true religion, and how much the authority of those who lived in former times hindered them from exercising their own reason. CHAPTER IV. HISTORY OF CEREMONIES AND RITES. § 1. The multitude of ceremonies. — § 2. Feast clays. — § 3. Office of St. Mary; the Rosary. § 1. How great a load of rites and ceremonies weighed religion down in this century, appears abundantly from the acts of councils holden in England, France, Germany, and Italy. The many new citizens, who were daily received, like super- numeraries, into heaven, required new festal days, new forms of worship, and new religious rites. And in excogitating these, the priests, though dull and slow in every thing besides, were wonderfully ingenious. Some of their arrangements flowed from the erroneous opinions on sacred and secular subjects, which the barbarous nations derived from their an- cestors, and incorporated with Christianity. Nor did such as directed sacred things oppose these customs, but thought all their duty fully done, when they had either honoured with some Christian forms what was in itself base and worthless, or had found for it some allegorical and far-fetched meaning. Several customs, which notwithstanding passed as eminently sacred, came from men's foolish notions of God, and of heavenly spirits. * These facts are faithfully collected Grammaticus, Simon Logothetes, and from Cedrenus, Leunclavius {de Jure other writers of Byzantine history. Graco-Iiom. tom. i. p. 104, &c.) Leo CH. IV.] RITES AND CEREMONIES. 279 For people fancied that God and his friends must feel, just as earthly kings and nobles do ; whose favour may be gained by gifts and presents, and who delight in frequent salutations and external marks of honour. § 2. Near the end of this century, in the year 998, by the influence of Odilo, abbot of Cluny, the number of festal days among the Latins was augmented, by the dedication of one annually to commemorate all departed souls. Before this time, it had been the custom in many places to offer prayers, on cer- tain days, for the souls in purgatory : but these prayers were offered only for the friends and patrons of a particular religious order or society. Odild's piety was not to be thus limited ; he wished to extend this kindness to all the departed souls tiiat were suffering in the invisible world. ^ The author of the suix- gestion was a Sicilian recluse, or hermit, who caused it to be stated to Odilo, that he had learned from a divine revelation, that the souls in purgatory might be released by the prayers of the Cluniac monks? At first, therefore, this was only a private ' See Jo. Mabillon, Acta SS. Ord. Bened. [torn. viii. or] sajciil. vi. pt. i. p. 584 ; where he gives the life of Odilo, and his decree instituting this new fes- tival. [The story of the hermit is dif- ferently related. One says, the heiTuit stated, that wandering near monnt Etna, he overheard the souls burning in that volcano, relate the benefits they received from the prayers of Odilo. Another re Id ab Odilonc factum dicitur hoiiatu cujusdani in iSicilia rcclu.si, (jui dcfunc- toruin aiiiinas a piacularilnis Haniniis Cluniacensiuni eleeniosynis ct precibus cripi contestatus est cuiilain viro religi- oso lerosolyniis rcvertenti, idciuo Odiloiii abbati renuntiari curavit." (^labilhui, Aimall. Old. Beiml.iv. 12;).) Odilo, who was of knightly origin in Auvergnc, w;is pretty nearly at the head of superstition, presents the hermit, as saying, simply, in his age, so deeply smitten witii it. it was divinely revealed to him. One likewise represents the hcnnit as stating, that all the souls in purgatory enjoyed respite, two days each week, namely, Mondays and Tuesdays. Another says, he represented, that several souls had been released entirely from purgatory, by his prayers. And another, that many souls might be released, &c. Sec Ma- billon, 1. c. p. 666. 701, (ed. Paris, 1701,) and Fleury, Histoire de /' Eylise, li\T. lix. § 57. All agi-ee, that the hermit made his representation to a French monk, then on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and bade him acquaint Odilo with it ; whidi was accordingly done. TV. — " Sigebertus auctor est, Odilonem hoc anno (998) commemorationem omnimn defunctorum secunda die Novembris instituisse in suo monasterio, cujus exemplo ad ccte- ras ecclesias ha^c institutio pcrmanavit, tametsi jam in nonnuUis mouiistcriis Or- dinis nostri, sed alia die, recepta erat. i T 4 He was complimeiUed as the hriyhtcst mirror placed bi/ (kni in the world, " ([Ueni Dens clarissimum speculum in mundo posuit," and the standard-bearer of all religion, " ilie totius religitmis nigiiifrr Odilo." When at Home, he wa^ the great mark of admiration, ticemiiig really to be, as he was occasionally called, the archangel of imnks, " re vera putarcs esse archangelum munaclumini." lie died in 1049. (Ibid. ^^2. 109. 2.19. 499.) The tenth and eleventh centuries hanlly wanted such a man for riveting the I'la- tonic belief in j>urgatiiry. Etl.} " The pontirt" Benedict XIV., or Prosper Liunbertini, in his treatise de Festis Jesu Christi, Maria, et Sanc- torum, lib. iii. c. 22. Opp. torn. x. p. 671, verj' wisely obsenes silence re- specting this obscure and disreputable origin of that anniversar)- ; and thus shows us, what he thought of it. And in this work of Benedict XIV. are 280 BOOK III. —CENTURY X. [PAKT II. regulation of the society at Cluny : but a Roman pontiff, — who he was is unknown, — approved the institution, and ordered it to be every where observed. § 3. The worship of the virgin Mary, which previously had been extravagant, was in this century carried much further than before. Not to mention other things less certain, I observe first, that near the close of this century, the custom became prevalent among the Latins, of celebrating masses, and abstain- ing from flesh, on Saturdays, in honour of St. Mary. In the next place, the daily office of St. Mary, which the Latins call the lesser office, was introduced ; and it was afterwards con- firmed by Urban II. in the council of Clermont. Lastly, pretty distinct traces of the Rosary and Croion of St. Mary, as they are called, or of praying according to a numerical arrangement, are to be found in this century. For they who tell us that St. Dominic invented the Rosary in the thirteenth century, do not offer satisfactory proof of their opinion.^ The Rosary consisted of fifteen repetitions of the Lord's prayer, and one hundred and fifty salutations of St. Mary : and what the Latins called the Crown of St. Mary, consisted of six or seven repetitions of the Lord's prayer, and sixty or seventy salutations, according to the age ascribed by different authors to the holy virgin. H Ar nr* CHAPTER V. HISTORY OF HERESIES. § 1. The more ancient heresies. — § 2. The Pauhcians.^ — § 3. Commotions excited by Leuthard. — § 4. The Anthropomorphites. § L The incredible stupidity of this age, which was the source of so many evils, had this one advantage, that it rendered the church tranquil, and undisturbed by new sects and discords. The Nestorians and Monophysites began to experience more many specimens of the author's discern- Jo. Mabillon, Praf. ad Acta Sanctor. ment. Ord. Bmcd. saciil. v. p. Iviii. &c. ^ Tliis is formally demonstrated by CJI. Y.] HERESIES AND SCHISMATICS. 281 hardships under the Arabians, than formerly : and they are said to have repeatedly suffered the greatest violence. But as many of them gained the good will of the great, by their skill in medicine, or by their abilities as stewards and men of business, the persecutions that occasionally broke out, were in some sort suppressed.' § 2. The Manicha;ans or Paulicians, of whom mention has been made before, became considerably numerous in Thrace under the emperor John Tzimisces. As early as the eio-hth century Constantine Copronynms had removed a large portion of this sect to this pi'ovince, that they might no longer disturb the tranquillity of the East : yet they still remained numerous in Syria and the neighbouring countries. Theodonis, therefore, the bishop of Antioch, for the safety of his own flock, did not cease importuning the emperor, until he ordered a new colony of Manichajans to be transplanted to Philippopolis.^ From Thrace, the sect removed into Bulgaria and Slavonia; in which countries they afterwards had a supreme pontiff of their own ; and they made a regular home there down to the times of the council of Bale, or to the fifteenth century. From Bulfjaria, they migrated to Italy ; and thence spread into other countries of Europe, and gave much trouble to the Koman pontiffs.'^ § 3. At the close of this century, a certain man of low con- dition, named Leuthard, in the village of Vertus near Chrdons, attempted some innovations in religion ; and, in a short time, drew a large share of the vulgar after him. He would allow of no images ; for he is said to have broken the image of our Saviour. He maintained, that tithes ought not to be given to the priests ; and said, that in the prophecies of the Old Testa- ment, some things were true, and some things were false. He pretended to be inspired ; but bishop Gebmn drove the man to extremities, and he at last threw himself into a well.'* I suppose, that the disciples of this man, who doubtless taught ' [Some Nestorians were private secre- ' And, as has been already oKl.~] close of the year 1000. a jilcbeian man, ^ Jo. Zonaras, Annal. lib. xvii. p. 209, by the mmie of Leutard, in the village of ed. Paris ; p. 164, cd. Venice. Vcitus and diocese of Chalons, pretended 282 BOOK III. — CENTURY X. [PART II. many other things, besides those which are stated above, joined themselves with such as were afterwards, in France, called Albir/enses, and who are said to have leaned to the views of the Manichseans. § 4. Some remains of the Arians still existed in certain parts of Italy ; and especially in the region about Padua. '^ Ratherius, bishop of Verona, had a controversy with the Antliro- pomorphites, from the year 939, onwards. For in the neigh- bourhood of Vicenza, there were many persons, not only among the laity, but also among the clergy, who supposed that God possesses a human form, and sits upon a golden throne, in the manner of kings ; and that his ministers, or angels, are winged men, clothed in white robes.^ These erroneous conceptions will not surprise us, if we reflect, that the people, who were extremely ignorant on all subjects, and especially on religion, saw God and the angels so painted, every where, in the churches. More irrational still was the superstition of those, whom the to be a prophet, and deceived many. Beino; at a certain time in the fields, and f'atiirued with kxbour, lie laid himself down to sleep ; ^vhen a great swarm of bees seemed to enter the lower part of his body, and to pass out of his mouth, with a gi-eat buzzing. They next began to sting him severely ; and after tor- menting him awhile, they spoke to him, and commanded liim to do some things which were beyond human power. He returned home exhausted ; and, with a view to obey the divine admonition, dis- missed his wife. Then proceeding to the chm-ch, as if for prayer, he entered it, and seized and broke the image of the crucifix. The by-standers were amazed, and supposed the man was de- ranged ; but as they were simple rustics, he easily persuaded them, that he had perfonned the deed under the direction of a supernatm-al and divine revelation. Leutard talked much, and wished to be regarded as a great teacher. But in his discourses, there was nothing sohd, and no truth. He said, that the things taught by the prophets, were to be be- lieved, only in part ; and that the rest was useless. He declaimed, that it was of no use to a man to pay his tithes. Fame now proclauned him to be a man of God ; and no small i)art of the vulgar went after him. But Geboin, the vene- rable and wise bishop of Chalons, smu- moncd the man before him, and inter- rogated him respecting all the things reported of him. He began to dissemble and conceal the poison of his wickedness, and quoted portions of the Scriptures, which he had never studied. The saga- cious bishop now convicted the block- head of falsehood and madness ; and, in part, reclaimed the people whom he had seduced. The \vi'etched Leutard, finding his reputation mined among the people, drowned himself in a well. Tr.~\ * [It appears from Ugclli's Italia Sacra, torn. v. p. 429 of the new edition, that in the diocese of Peter, the bishoi) of Padua, who died a. d. 942, there were many Arians, whom that bishop strenu- ously opposed. And in the same work, p. 433, it is stated, that bishop Goslin or Gauslin, ^yho filled the see from the year 964 till into the following century, completely exterminated this sect. Schl.'] " [We ought not to class these poor creatures among heretics. The language of Ratherius does not imply, that such opinions were taught in public. The eiToneous views entertained by indivi- duals, in private, do not constitute a heresy. And how many such Anthro- pomorphites should we not now find, if we were to examine the conceptions of om' own conmn)n jieople, in regai'd to God and the angels ? Schl.'] CH. v.] HERESIES AND SCHISMATICS. 283 same Ratherius opposes ; who were led, I know not how, to believe that St. Michael says mass, every Monday, before God in heaven; and they therefore resorted, on these days, to the churches that were dedicated to St. Michael.^ It is probable, that the priests, who performed service in the temples con- secrated to St. Michael, instilled, from avarice, this most absurd notion, as they did other errors, into the minds of the vulgar. ' Ratherius, Epistola Synodica, in ii. p. 294, &c. Sigcbert of Gcmblours, Dacherii Spicileg. Scriptor. Veter. torn. Chronol. ad ann. 939. CENTURY ELEVENTH. PART I. THE EXTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. CHAPTER I. THE PROSPEROUS EVENTS OF THE CHURCH. § 1. Propagation of Christianity. — § 2. Frnitless efforts of some, for the conversion of pagan nations. — § 3. The Saracens driven from Sicily. The SiciHan nionarcliy. — §4. Expedition against the Saracens in Palestine. — § 5. Progress of the holy war. — § 6, 7. The history of it. — § 8. Causes of these expeditions. — § 9. Evils of them. — § 10. Injurious to the church. § 1. The Hungarians, Danes, Poles, Russians, and other nations, who had received, in the preceding century, some sort of knowledge of the Christian religion, could not universally be brought in a short time to prefer it to the religions oi' their fathers. Therefore, during the greatest i)art of this century, their kings, with the teachers whom they drew around them, were occupied in gradually enlightening and converting these nations.^ In Tartary- and the adjacent regions, the activity of the Nestorians continued daily to gain over more people to the side of Christianity. And such is the mass of testimony ' For an account of the Poles and its broadest sense ; for I am not insen- Russians, see the life of Romualdus, in the sible, that the Tartars, properly so called. Acta Sanctor. torn. ii. Februar. p. 113, are widely different from the Tan- 114; and for the Hungarians, p. 117. gutians, Calmucs, Mungals, and other ■' The word Tartarv is here used in tribes. 286 BOOK III. — CENTURY XI. [ PART I. at the present day, that we cannot doubt, but that bishops of the highest order, or Metropolitans, with many inferior bishops subject to them, were established, at that period, in the provinces of Cashgar, Nuacheta, Turkestan, Genda, Tangut, and others.^ Whence it will be manifest that there was a vast multitude of Christians, in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, in these countries, which are now either devoted to Mahumedism, or worshippers of imaginary gods. And that all these Christians followed the Nestorian creed, and were subject to the supreme pontiff of the Nestorians residing in Chaldea, is so certain as to be beyond all controversy. § 2. For the conversion of the European nations, who still lived buried in superstition and barbarism, as the Slavonians, the Obotriti, the Wends, tlie Prussians, and others, some pious and good men laboured indeed, but with either very little or no success. Near the close of the preceding century, Adalbert, bishop of Prague, visited the ferocious nation of the Prussians, with a view to instruct them in the knowledge of Christianity ; and the result was, that he was murdered, in the year 996, by Siggon, a pagan priest.* The king of Poland, Boleslaus Chrohry, avenged his death by a severe war ; and laboured to accomplish by arms and penalties, what Adalbert could not effect by argu- ments.^ Yet there were not wanting some, who seconded the king's violent measures, by admonitions, instructions, and per- suasions. In the first place, we are told, one Boniface, of illustrious birth, and a disciple of St. Romuald, and afterwards one Bruno, with eighteen companions, went from Grermany into Prussia, as Christian missionaries.^ But all these were put to ^ Marco Paulo, the Venetian, de Re- was furnished with a large number of gionihus Orientalibus, lib. i. cap. 38. 40. documents for the purpose, both printed 45. 47, 48, 49. 62, 63, 64 ; lib. ii. c. 39. and manuscript. But the premature Euseb. Renaudot, Ancimnes Relations death of this learned man intercepted des Indes et de la Chine, p. 320. .Jos. his labours. Sim. Asscman, Biblioth. Orient. Vaticana, * See the Acta Sanctor. ad diem 23 torn. iii. pt. ii. p. 502, &c. The histoiy of Aprilis, p. 174, &c. [and Jo. Mabillon, this so successful propagation of Chris- Acta SS. Ord. Bened. torn. vii. p. 846, tianity by the Nestorians, in China, Tai-- &c. TV.] tary, and other adjacent countries, richly * Soliguac, Histoire de Pologne, torn. i. deserves to be more thoroughly ex- p. 133. plored, and set forth to the world, by ^ [J?nmo and Bonifece were, in fact, some man well acquainted with oriental one and the same person ; the first being history. But the task would be, on his original and proper name, and the various accounts, very difhcult of exe- other liis assumed name ; for the monks eution. It was attempted by an ex- were then accustomed to take assumed cellent man, Theoph. Sigefr. Bayer, who names. See Ditmar, lib. vi. p. 82. CH. I.] PROSPEROUS EVENTS. 287 death by the Prussians : nor could the valour of Boleslavs or of the subsequent kings of Poland, bring this savage nation to abandon the religion of their ancestors.''' § 3. The Saracens seized upon Sicily, in the ninth century ; nor could the Greeks or the Latins hitherto expel them from the country, though they made frequent attempts to do it. But in this century, a. d. 1059, Robert Guiscard, the Norman duke of Apulia, with his brother Roger, under the authority of the Roman pontiff Nicolims II., attacked them with great valour; nor did Roger relinquish the war, till he had gained possession of the whole island, and cleared it of the Saracens. After this great achievement, in the year 1090, Roger restored the Christian religion, now almost extinguished there by the Saracens, to its former dignity ; and established bishops, founded monasteries, erected magnificent churches, and put the clergy in possession of ample revenues and honours, which they enjoy to the present times.* To this heroic man, is traced the origin of what is called the Sicilian monarchy, or the supreme power in matters of religion, which is claimed by the kings of Sicily : Chronicon Quedlinhurg. and" Sigebert Gemblacens. ad anu. 1009. The anna- list Saxo, on this year, savs expressly, " Sanctus Bruno qui ct Bonifacius, Ar- chiepiscopus gentium, jn-imum Canonicus S. Mauritii in Magdabtu-h. xvi. Kal. Mart, martyr inclytus coelos petiit." He ■was of the highest rank of Saxon nobi- lity, a near relative of the emperor Otto III., and beloved by him. Bruno served for a time at the imperial chapel. But in the year 997, he preferred a monastic life ; and connected himself with St. Romuald, whom he accom- panied first to Monte Cassino, and then to PeiTa, near Ravenna. He (jbtained permission from the pope to preacli to the pagans ; and therefore received or- dination as an archbishop. He preached to pagans tiU the twelfth year, and was then killed, near the confines of the Prussians and Lithuanians, [a.d. 1006.] The bodies of Bruno and his companions were purchased of the pagans, by Bolcs- laus. Schl. — See also ilabillon. Acta Sanclor. Ord. Bened. vol. viii. p. 79 — 81, and Fleiirv, Histoire de PEglise, livr. Iviii. § 26. TV.] ' Anton. Pagi, Critica in Baron turn, torn. iv. ad ann. 1008, p. 97, &c. Christ. Hartknoch, Hisktii/ of the Pnisshtn Church, ^vl■itten in German, book i. ch. i. p. 12, &c. [Some of the principal Poles, also, to wliom Christianity was burdensome, on account of the many titlics they had to pay to the clergy, re- lapsed again into idolatry. See Dugloss. Hist. Poion. ad ann. 1022. On the other hand, the Transylvanians were vaiupiish- ed by the king of Hungary, in the year 1002 ; and were brought to cml»race Christianity, after their prince Gcula, witli liis wife and diiidrcn, were thrown into prison. And the same king under- took some successful campaigns against the Bulgarians and the pagan Slavo- nians. See Theuroezius, in Chrun. Hun- gar, c. 29, 30. Schl.'] ^ See Burigny, Hi.stoire Gntvrah de Sicile, tom. i. p. 386, &c. [The cha- racter of this Roger is highly extolled by the historians of those times. Amf>ng other things, he is extullcd for his tole- rant dis])osition in regard to religion. For when he concpiered Sicily, he al- lowed the Saracens, who chose to remain in the island, to live according to their own laws, and to fulluw their own reli- o-ion, so long as they should continue (il)edient subjects. Sec Muratori, Annul. Ital. ad ann." 1090. 5cA/.] 288 BOOK III. — CENTURY XI. [PART I. for Urban II. is said to have created this Roger and his suc- cessors, hereditary legates of the ajjostolic see, by a special diploma, dated a. d. 1097. The Romish court contends, that this diploma is a forgery : and hence, even in our times, those severe contests, between the Roman pontiffs and the kings of Sicily, respecting the Sicilian monarchy. The posterity of -Soy^"/" o-overned Sicily down to the twelfth century ; at first, under the title of dukes, and then under that of kings.^ " See Cses. Baronius, de Monarchia Slcilice Liber ; in his Annales, torn. xi. and Lud. Ell. du Pin, Tralte de la Mo- narchie Sicilienne. [The famous bull of the monarcJnj of Sicily is supposed to have been granted, at an interview of pope Urban II. with Roger duke of Si- cily and Calabria, held at Salerno, a. d. 1098. The pope had appointed Robert, bishop of Frani, his legate a latere in Sicily. But the duke, no stranger to the authority claimed by such legates and to the disturbances they produced, entreated the pope to revoke the com- mission, plainly insinuating that he woidd suffer no legate in his dominions. As the duke had rendered signal services to the apostolic see, had driven the Sa- racens quite out of Sicily, and subjected all the churches of that island to the see of Rome, though claimed by the pa- triarch of Constantinople, the pope not only recalled the commission he had given to the bishop, but to engage the duke still more in his fiivour, he con- ferred upon him all the power he had granted to his legate, declaring him, his heirs, and his successors, hereditary legates, and vested with the legatine power, in its full extent. The bull is dated at Salerno, July, Indiction vii., Urban's reign xi. i.e. 1098. Here is some mistake, as the eleventh year of Urban coincided with the sixth year of the Indiction. And this error has been urged against the genuineness of the instrument, by Baronius, who inserts it, and endeavours to prove it a forgery, in the eleventh volume of his Annals. He also urges, that the bull, if genuine, re- lated only to Roger and his immediate descendants ; that it was a family privi- lege, given to reward the personal ser- vices of Roger. Thougli many learned men regard the bull as of very question- able origin, and especially as the Sicilian monarchs, when challenged to do it, have not produced the origiTial writings, yet the kings of Aragon, to whom Sicily was long subject, claimed and exercised the legatine power, as being the suc- cessors of duke Roger. And they would not suffer the eleventh volume of Baro- nius' Annals to circulate in their domi- nions, on account of its elaborate con- futation of their claims. The same power has been likewise claimed, and sometimes exercised, by all the princes, who have been masters of that island, down to modern times. In the year 1715, Clement XI., having published two bulls, the one abolishing the mo- narchy, as it is called, and the other estabhshing a new plan of ecclesiastical government, the duke of Savoy, as sove- reign of Sicily, banished all who received either of them, out of the country. Some compromise has since taken place, but the supreme ecclesiastical power is still in the hands of the temporal sovereign of the country : that is, he is supreme head of the church there ; has power to excommunicate and absolve all persons whatever, ecclesiastics as well as laymen, and cardinals themselves, if resident in the island ; he has a right to preside in all the provincial councils of the country, and to exercise all the jurisdiction of a legate a latere, vested with the fullest legatine power. And this power the sovereign may exercise, though a fe- male ; as in the instance of Jane of Ara- gon and Castile ; and not only in his own person, but also liy a commissioner of his appointment. Yor the more con- venient exercise of this power, a com- missioner, who is styled the Judge of the monarchy, is appointed by the king, whose tribunal is the supreme ecclesias- tical court, for Sicily, Apidia, Calabria, Tarento, Malta, and the other islands. Yet from liim lies an appeal to the royal audience. See Bower's Lives of the Popes, vol. v. p. ,340, and Staudlin's Kirchl. Geographic, vol. i. p. 476, Si,e. Tr.l CH. I.] PROSPEROUS EVENTS. 289 § 4. From the times of Sylvester II., tlie Roman pontiftd had been meditating the extension of the limits of the church in Asia, and especially the expulsion of the Mahumedans from Palestine; but the troubles of Europe prevented the execution of their designs. Gregory VIL, the most daring of all the pontiffs that ever sat in St. Peter's chair, excited by perpetual complaints from the Asiatic Christians, respecting the cruelty of the Mahumedans, wished to engage personally, at the very beginning of his popedom, in a holy war: and more than fifty thousand men prepared themselves for an exj)edition under him.' But his controversy with the emperor Henry IF., of which we shall have occasion to speak hereafter, and other unexpected events, obliged him to abandon the design. "When the century, however, was near its close, a certain Frenchman of Amiens, Feter, surnamed the Hermit, gave occasion to the renewal of the design by Urban II. Feter visited Palestine in the year 1093, and there beheld, with great anguish of mind, the extreme oppressions and vexations, which the Christians, travelling to the holy places, suffered from the Mahumedans. Being, accordingly, wrought up to an enthusiasm which he took for divine, he first implored aid from Symeon, patriarch of Constantinople -, and from Urban II., the Roman pontiff, but without success. He then traversed Europe, and made Chris- tian princes burn with a desire to wage war upon the tyrants of Palestine. More than this, he carried about an epistle to the Christian world, written from heaven upon this very thing, with a view to make the simple-minded a more easy prey.^ § 5. Men's minds being thus heated, Urban II., in the year 1 095, assembled a very numerous council at Piacenza, in which he first recommended this holy war.' But the dangerous enterprise was relished only by a few, although ambassadors from the Greek emperor, Alexius Conmemis, were present, and in the name of their master represented the necessity of ' Grcgoiy VII., Epistolarum lib. ii. Notct ad Anncr Coinnai(r Alcriailcm, p. cp. 31, and in Ilarduiu's Concilia, torn. 79, ed. Venet. vi. pt. i. p. 1'285. * [Berthold, a contcniporan- writer, ^ [The Greek patriarch of Jcnisalcm. says, there were present in this ccmncil 7>.] al)Out four thousand cler;iyincn, and more ' This fact is mentioned by the abbot than tliirty thousand laymen, and that Dodeehinus, in his Continuat. C/ironici its sessions were held in the ojien air, be- Muriani Scoti ; in the Scriptur. Germuni- cause no church could contain the multi- cor. Jo. Pistorii, torn. i. p. 462. For an tude. Sec llarduin's Concilia, torn. vi. account of Peter, see Car. Du Fresne, pt. ii. p. 1711, &c. TV.] VOL. II. U 290 BOOK III. — CENTURY Xr. [PART I. opposing the Turks, whose power was dally increasing. The business succeeded better in the council of Clermont, which was assembled soon after ; for the French, being more enter- prising and ready to face dangers than the Italians, were so moved by the tumid eloquence of Urban, that a vast multitude, of all ranks and ages, became eager at once to engage in a mili- tary expedition to Palestine.^ This host seemed to be a very formidable army, and adequate to overcome almost any obsta- cles ; but, in reality, it was extremely weak and pusillanimous : for it was composed chiefly of monks, mechanics, farmers, per- sons averse from their regular occupations, spendthrifts, specu- lators, prostitutes, boys, girls, servants, malefactors, and the lowest dregs of the idle populace, in quest of better fortune. From such troops, what steadiness could be expected ? Those who followed this camp were called Crusaders'^ ; and the enterprise itself was called a Crusade "^ ; not only, because they professedly were going to rescue the cross of our Lord from the hands of its enemies, but also, because they wore upon their right shoulders, a white, red, or green cross made of woollen cloth, and solemnly consecrated.^ § 6. Eight hundred thousand persons, therefore, as credible ^ Theod. Ruinart, Vita Urbani II. by Jac. Bongars, in his Gesta Dei per § ccxxv. &c. p. 224, 229. 240. 272. 274. Francos, Hanov. 1611, 2 vols. fol. Of 282. 296, of the Opp. Posfhum. of Jo. these original writers, tlie most impor- ]\Iabilloii, and Theodore Ruinart, torn, tant are, Robert of Rheims, Baldrich or iii. Jo. Harduiu's Concilia, torn. vi. pt. ii. Baudri of Dol, Raimond of Agiles, Albert p. 1726. Cas&ar Haronins, Amial. Eccles. of Aix, Fulcher or Fulcard of Chartres, torn. xi. ad. ami. 1095. No. xxxii. p. 648. and Guibert of Nogent ; but especially [The number present at the council of William bishop of Tyre, and James do Clermont is not definitely stated by the Vitry. To tliese may be aclded Marino Sa- early writers, though they all agree that nuto of the thirteenth century. The best it was veiy great. There were thirteen moderns are said to be, I. Bapt. Mailly, archbishops, two hundred and fifty hi- Esprit des Croisades, ou Histoire politique shops, besides abbots and inferior clergy, et militaire des Guerres entreprises par les with a multitude of laymen. The Acts Chretiens pour le recouvrement de la Terre of this council, with two speeches of Ur- Sainte, Paris, 1780, 4 vols. 12mo. INIaim- ban, are given by Harduin, Concilia, torn, bourg, Histoire des Croisades, Paris, 1675, vi. pt. ii. p. 1718, &e. Ty.] &c. 4 vols. 12mo. J. C. Mayer, Gcscfi. " Cruciati. der Kreuzziiyc, Berlin, 1780, 2 vols. 8vo. ' Expeditio cruciata. F. Wilkin. Gesch. der Kreuzz. Lips. 1807 ' See Abrah. Bzovius, Continuat. An- — 17, 3 vols. 8vo. I. Ch. Waken, Gemalde nal. Baronii, torn. xv. ad ann. 1410, § ix. der Kreuzz. Francf. 1808 — 10, 3 vols, p. 32, &c. ed. Colon. .Jac. Lenfant, His- 8vo. A. H. Heeren, Versuch e. Ent- toire du Concile de Pise, tom. ii. livr. v. tvickelung d. Folg. d. Kreuzz. (a prize p. 60, &c. The writers who give ac- essay,) Gotting. 1808, 8vo. The English count of the Crusades, are enumerated reader may consult Gibbon's Hist, of the by Jo. Alb. Fabricius, Lux Evangclii toti Decline, Is^c. ch. Iviii. lix. Bower's Lives Orbi exoriens, cap. xxx. p. 518. [Most of the Popes, vol. v. andvi. Mill's i/i'story of the original writers, living in or near of the Crusades, ^c. TV.] the times of the Crusades, were collected CH. I.] PROSPEROUS EVENTS. 291 writers inform us, marclied from Europe, in the year 1096, pur- suing different routes, and conducted by different leaders, all of whom directed their way to Constantinople, that, after receiving; instructions and aid from Alexius Comnenvs, the Greek emperor, they might pass over into Asia. The author of the war, Peter the Hermit, girded with a rope, first led on a band of eighty thousand, through Hungary and Thrace. But this company, after committing endless enormities, was nearly all miserably butchered by the Hungarians and Turks.^ Nor did better for- tune attend some other armies of these Crusaders ; who roamed about, like robbers, under unskilful commanders, plundering and laying waste the countries over which they travelled. Rather more happy was the journey of those who were commanded by men of illustrious birth and military skill. Godfrey of Bouillon, duke of Lower Lorrain, a man who may be compared with the greatest heroes of any age ', and who was commander-in-chief of the war, conducted, with his brother Baldwin, a well- organized body of eighty thousand horse and foot, through Germany and Hungary. Another body, under the command of Raymond, earl of Toulouse, marched through Slavonia. Robert, earl of Flanders, Robert, duke of Normandy '-, and Hugo, the Great, brother to Philip, king of France, embarked with their forces at Brindisi and Tarento, and made for Durazzo. These were followed by Boamund, duke of Apulia and Calabria, at the head of a numerous and select band of Normans. § 7. This army, the greatest within the memory of man, when it arrived at Constantinople, tliough greatly diminished by various calamities, caused much alarm, and not without reason, to the Greek emperor. But his fears were dispelled, when it had passed the straits of Gallijioli, and landed in Bithynia. The crusaders first besieged Nice, the capital of Bithynia ; which was taken in the year 1097. They then proceeded on, through Asia Minor into Syria ; and in the year 1098, took Antioch ; 3 [The army under Peter the Hermit Sax. ad aim. 1096, in Eccard's Corpu>i vented their ra^je especially against the Hkt. Medii jEvi, torn. i. p. 579, &c. Jews ; whom they either compelled to Sclil.'\ receive baptism, or put to death with ' Of this illustrious hero, the Bene- horrid cruelty. The same thing was dictine monks treat professedly, in tlie done by another division, in the coun- Histoirc Litteraire de la France, tom. \n\. tries along the Khine, at Mentz, Co- p. 598, &c. logne, Treves, Worms, and Spier ; where, ^ [He was the eldest son of William however, the Jews were sometimes pro- the Conqueror, king of England. Ti:~\ tected by the bishops. See the Annalist, 292 BOOK III. — CENTURY XI. [PART I. Avliicli was given, with its territory, to Boamimd, duke of Apulia. Tliey also captured Edessa ; of which Baldwin, the brother of Godfrey of Bouillon, was made sovereign. Finally, in the year 1099, these Latins reduced the city of Jerusalem by their victorious arms. And here the seat of a new kingdom was established, and the above-named Godfrey was declared the first king of Jerusalem. He refused, however, the title of king, from motives of modesty ; and, retaining a few soldiers with him, permitted the others to return back to Europe. But this o;reat man died not lone; after, and left his king-dom to his brother Baldwin, prince of Edessa, who did not hesitate to assume the title of king. § 8. With the Roman pontiffs, and particularly with Urban IL, the principal motive for enkindling this holy war was fur- nished, I conceive, by the corrupted religion of that age. For, according to the prevailing views, it was a reproach upon Chris- tians to suffer the land which had been consecrated by the foot- steps and the blood of Christ, to remain under the power of his enemies ; and moreover, a great and essential part of piety to God consisted in pilgrimages to the holy places ; which were most hazardous undertakings, so long as the Mahumedans should occupy Palestine. To these religious motives, there Avas added an apprehension, that the Turks, who had already subdued a large part of the Greek empire, would march into Europe, and would, in particulai', assail Italy. Those among the learned who suppose that the Roman pontiff recommended this terrible war, for the sake of extending his own authority, and of weakening the power of the Latin emperors and king ; and that the kings and princes of Europe encouraged it, in order to get rid of their powerful and warlike vassals, and to obtain possession of their lands and estates ; bring forward indeed plausible conjectures, but they are mere conjectures.' ' The first of these motives ascribed Francois, torn. i. p. 296, 299, and many to tlic pontiffs, is brought fonvard by others. But tliat this supposition has many, botli Protestants and Papists, no solid foundation, i\ill be clear to such as one not at all to be questioned. See as consider all the circumstances. The Bened. Accoltus, de Bello Sacro in Ivfi- Roman pontiffs could not certainly fore- delcs, lib. i. p. 16. Jac. Basnage, Hist, see, that so many princes, and people of dcs Eylises Iteformces, tom. i. period v. every chxss, would march away from p. 235. Ken. de Vertot, Histoire des Europe to Palestine : neither could they Chevaliers de MaJthe, tom. i. lib. iii. p. discover, beforehand, that these expedi- 302. 308. lib. iv. p. 428. Andr. Baillct, tions would be so beneficial to them- Hist. des Ddmelez du Boniface VIII. avcc selves. For all the advantages accruing Philip le Bel, p. 76, Hist, du Droit Eccles. to the pontifis and to the clergy from CH. I.] PROSPEROUS EVENTS. 293 Yet afterward, when the pontlfFd as well as the kings and princes learned, by experience, how very beneficial to their interests these wars were, they felt new and additional motives for encouraging them ; among the first of which, undoubtedly, was an eagerness to increase their own power and resources. § 9. These wars, however, whether just or unjust"*, produced these wars, both the extension of their powerftil, by the death and the misfor- authority and the increase of their wealtli, were not apparent, at once, and at the commencement of the war ; but they gradually developed themselves, being the result rather of accidental circum- stances, than of design. This single fact shows, that the pontiffs who promoted these wars, could have had no thoughts of extending their power by them. It may be added, that the general belief, and the expectation of the pcjntiffs, was, that the whole business would be accom- plished in a single expedition, of no long continuance; and that God himself would, by miraculous interpositions, ovcrthi'ow those enemies of Christianity who were the unjust possessors of Palestine. Be- sides, as soon as Jenisalcm was taken, most of the European princes and sol- diers returned back to Euroi)e ; which the popes surely would not have per- mitted, if from the continuance of this war they anticipated great accessions to their wealth and power. — But no con- jecture on this subject is, in my view, more unfortunate, than that which sup- poses Urban II. to have eagerly pressed forward this holy war, in order to weaken the power of the emperor Henry IV., with whom he was in a violent contest respecting the investiture of bishops. The advocates of this conjecture forget, that the first annies which marched against the IMahumedans of Asia, were raised chiefly among tlie Franks and Xor- mans, and that the Germans, who were opposed to Urban II., were at first the most averse from these wars. Other arguments are omitted, for the sake of brevity. — Nor is the other part of the conjecture, which relates to the kings and princes of Europe, better founded. It has received the approbation of Ver- tot, (Hixtoire de Multlie, liv. iii. p. 309.) Eoulainvilliers, and other gre.it and emi- nent men, who think they see fuither than others into the policy of the courts in those ages. But these excellent men have no other argument to adduce, but this : many kings, especially of the Franks, were rendered more rich and tunes of those who engaged in these wars; and therefore they craftily gave, not only pel-mission, but also a direct en- couragement, to these wars. All can see the inconclusivencss of this reasoning. We are too prone to ascribe more saga- city and cunning both to the Roman pontiffs, and to the kings and princes of those times, than they really possessed ; and we too often judge of tlie causes of transactions by their re.wte ; which is a defective and uncertain mode of reason- ing. I apprehend, that the Roman pon- tiffs (of whom alone I would speak) obtained their immense aggrandisement, not so much by shrewdly forming plans for enlarging their power, as b}- dexter- ously seizing the oi)portuuities that oc- cuiTed. '' The question of the justice of what are called the Crusades, I shall not take upon me to discuss : nor shall I deny, that it is, when viewed imjiartially, an intricate and dubious question. But I wish the reader to be ap]irisel. Bom. p. 728 ; by Geo. Cassander, Srhulla ad Hi/mnos Eccksuv in his ( )pp. I'aris, KHO," ful. p. 278, 279. Yet it is very doubtful whether this Catharine, the patroness of learned men, ever existed. ' The sacred trejL-ures of relies which the French, Gennans, Britons, and otiier nations of Europe formerly preserved with such care, and which are still exhi- bited with reverence, are not more an- cient than the times of tlie criLrice by kings, princes, and otiicr distinguished persons of the Greeks and Syrians. But that these avaricious and fraudulent dealers imposed upon the pious credulity u 4 296 BOOK III. — CENTURY XI. [part I. CHAPTER 11. ADVERSE EVENTS IN THE HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. § 1. Sufferings of Christians from tlie Saracens and Turks in the East. — § 2. Also in the West. § 1. The principal conflicts of the Christians, in this century, were from the Saracens, and from the Turks, who were equally the enemies of both Saracens and Christians. The Saracens, though at war among themselves, and at the same time unable to arrest the daily encroachments of the Turks upon them, per- secuted their Christian subjects in a most cruel manner, putting some to death, mutilating others, and plundering others of all their property. The Turks not only pressed hard upon the Saracens, but also subjugated the fairest provinces of the Greek empire, along the Euxine sea, and exhausted the remainder by perpetual incursions. Kor were the Greeks able to oppose of the Latins, the most candid judges will not doubt. Richard, king of Eng- land, in the year 1191, purchased of Saladin, the noted Mahumedan Sultan, all the relics at Jerusalem. See Matthew Paris, Hibt. Major, p. 138, who also tells us (p. 666) that the Dominicans brought from Palestine a white stone, on which Christ had impressed the prints of his feet. The Genoese possess, as a pre- sent from Baldwin, the second king of Jerusalem, the dish from which Christ ate the paschal lamb with his disciples at his last supper. And this singular monument of ancient devotion is ridi- cided by Ja Baptist. Labat, Voyages en Espagne et Jtatie, tom. ii. p. 63. Respect- ing the great amount of relics brought from Palestine to France by St. Lewis the French king, see .ToinviUe's Life of St. Lewis, edited by Du Fresne. Plessis, Histoire de VEglise de Meaux, tom. i. p. J 20. hancGlot, Memoircs pour la Vie de VAbbede S. Cyran, tom.ii. p. 175. Christ's pocket-handkerchief, which is held sacred at Besangon, was brought from Pales- tine to Besan9on by a Christian Jewess. See Jo. Jac. Chiflet, Vesontium, pt. ii. p. 108. and de linteis Christi sepulcralibus, ca)). ix. p. 50. For other examples, see Anton. Mattheus, Analecta veteris jEvi, torn. ii. p. 677. Jo. Mabillon, Annates Benedict, tom. vi. p. 52, and especially Jo. Jac. Chitlet, Crisis histurice de linteis Christi sepulcralibus, cap. ix. x. p. 50, &c. Among other things, Chiflet says, p. 59, " Sciendum est, vigente immani et bar- bara Turcarum persecutionc, et immi- nente Christians religionis in Oriente naufragio, eductaesacrariis etper Chris- tianos quovis modo recondita Ecclesi- arum pignora. Hisce plane divinis oj)i- bus illecti prai aliis Galli, sacra Aii^^ava qua vi, qua pretio a detinentibus hae iliac extorserunt." And this learned writer brings many examples as proofs. CH. II.] ADVERSE EVENTS. 297 their desolating progress, being miserably distracted with in- testine discords, and so crippled by want of money, that they could neither raise forces, nor find means of paying them. § 2. In Spain, the Saracens seduced a large portion of the Christians by rewards, by marriages, and by compacts, to cm- brace the jNIahumedan faith.' And they would doubtless have gradually induced most of their subjects to apostatize from Christianity, had they not been weakened by the loss of various battles with the Christian kings of Aragon and Castile, espe- cially with Ferdinand I. of Aragon, and been stripped of a large part of the territories which they held.'^ Among the Danes, Hungarians, and other nations, those who still adhered to their ancient superstitions (and there were many of this description among those nations) very cruelly persecuted their fellow-citizens, as well as the neighbouring nations who professed Christianity. To suppress this cruelty, the Christian princes, in various places, enacted capital punishment against such as continued to worship the gods of their ancestors. And this severity was undoubtedly more efficacious for extinguishing the inveterate idolatry than the instructions given by persons who did not understand the nature of Christianity, and who dis- honoured its purity by their corrupt morals and their supersti- tious practices. The still unconverted European nations of this period, the Prussians, the Lithuanians, the Slavonians, the Obotriti, and others inhabiting the lower parts of Germany, continued to harass the neighbouring Christians with pcrjx^tu.il wars and incursions, and cruelly to destroy the lives of many.'' ' Jo. Hen. Hottingcr, Hisloria Ecrks. Histor. lib. ii. cap. xxvii. [Among these Siccul. xi. sect, il p. 452. Mich. Geddcs, nations many persons hail professed History of the Erpuhion of the Moriscoes Clnnstianity ; but, on account of the out of Spain ; published among his il/w- numberless taxes laid Jipun tlicm, par- cellaneom Tracts, vol. i. p. KU, &c. ticularly l)y the clergy, and tiie cruelty 2 These wars between the Christian of the Cin-istian magistrates, tiiey re- kings of Spain and the iMahuniedans or turned to paganism again, and then per- Moors, arc described bv the Spanish scented the Chris^tians witiiout mercy. historians, Jo. Mariana' and Jo. Fer- Thus IlelmoM (lib. i. cap. 16. 24. 2.5) j.gj.as. and Adam Bremens. (Hb. ii. cap. 32) 3 Helmold, Chronicon Slaror. lib. i. inform us, particularly in regard to the cap. XV. p. 52, &c- Adaju Breiuensis, Slavonians. Schl.] 298 BOOK III. — CENTURY XI. [PART II. PART 11. THE INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. CHAPTER I. THE HISTORY OF LEARNING AND PHILOSOPHY. § 1 . State of learning among the Greeks. — § 2. Their most celebrated scholars. — § 3. State of learning in the West.— § 4. Schools opened in various places. — § 5. The sciences taught in these schools. — § 6, 7. Dialectics in high repute. — § 8, 9. Disputes among the logicians. Nominalists and Realists. § 1. The calamitous state of the Greek empire entirely sub- verted the prosperity of literature and science. The Turks as well as the Saracens were daily depriving it more and moi'e of its glory and power; and what they left inviolate, the civil discords, the frequent insurrections, and the violent dethrone- ment of emperors, gradually wasted and destroyed. Yet there Avas here and there an individual that cherished and encouraged the liberal arts, both among the emperors (as Alexius Comnenus) and among the patriarchs and bishops. Nor would the contro- versies of the Greeks with the Latins allow the former to spurn all cultivation of the understanding and all love of learning. Owing to these causes the Greeks of this century were not en- tirely destitute of men who Avere respectable for their learning and intellectual culture. § 2. I omit the names of their poets, rhetoricians, and gram- marians; who, if not the best, were at least tolerable. Among their historians, Leo the Grammarian ', John Scylitzes"^, Cedrenus '^, ' [He was the continuator of Theo- published Gr. and Lat, subjoined to The- phanes' Chronicle, from a. d. 813 to ophanes. ed. Combefis, Paris, 1655, fol. 10 13, the time when he is supposed to 7>.] have lived and written. His work was * [John Scylitzes, a civilian, and Cu- eil. I.] HISTORY OF LEARNING AND PHILOSOPHY. 299 and some others, are not to be passed by in silence ; althougli they adhered to the fabulous stories of their countrymen, and were not free from partiality. Michael Psellus, a man in high reputation, was a pattern of excellence in all the learnino; and science of his age. He also laboured to excite his countrymen to the study of philosophy, and particularly of Aristotelian phi- losophy, which he attempted to explain and recommend by various productions of his pen.^ Among the Arabians the love of science still flourished ; as is manifest from those among them who, in this age, excelled in the knowledge of medicine, astro- nomy, and mathematics.^ § 3. In the West, learning revived, in some measure, anion"- those who followed a solitary life, or the monks and priests. For other people, but especially the nobles and the great, despised learning and science, with the cxccj)tion of such as devoted themselves to the church, or as])ired to sacred ofhccs. In Italy schools flourished here and there after the middle of this century ; and a number of learned men acquired reput:i- tion as authors and as instructors. Some of these afterwards removed to France, and especially to Normandy, and there taught the youth dedicated to the service of the church.'' The French, while they admit that they were indebted in a degree to learned men who came from Italy, produce also a respectable ropalatcs at Constantinople. lie wTOtc not lonjr after. He wrote a metrical a Hisfuri/ of Traiisvrli(i)i.'< III the Ea.sl, {rum ])arai)hrase, and a prose eoininentary on A.D. 811 to 10.57 ; and afterwards eon- the C'antieles, a tract on tlie Trinity and timied it to A. I). 1081. The whole was the person of Christ, traet.s on Viniie published in a Latin translation by J. and Vice, on Tantalus and Circe, on the B. Gabe, Venice, 1570, foL and the Sphinx, on the Clialdaic oracles, on the latter part in Gr. by P. Goar, Paris, faculties of the soul, on diet, on the vir- 1648, foL TV.] tues of stones, on factitious pild. on IimkI '■' [George Ccdrenus, a Greek monk, and rcj^inien ; notes on portions of Gre- eompiled a eliroiiicle, extending from gory Nazianzen. and on tiie eigiit Ixnjks the creation toA. d. 10.57. It is a mere of Aristotle's I'liysics; a parai)hriuve on compilation or transcript, from George Aristotle trepl ipixv'fia! ; a panegyri.- on Syncellus, prior to the reign of Dioclc- [Simeon Metajjlirastes ; some law tracts ; tian ; then from Theophanes to A.t). and on the ecelesiivstical canon.s on the 813 ; and lastly, from John Scylitzes, four branches of ;nathematic.s, (aritli- A. D. 1057. It was first published, Gr. metic. nmsic, geometry, and astronomy.) and Lat., by Hylander, Basil, 1506, fol. several philoso])hical tracts, &c. &c. and afterwards, much better and with ^Many of ins pieces were never printed, notes, by Fabrotus and Jae. Goar, Paris, and most of tliose pulilished were pub- 1647, fol. 7>.] lishcd separately. 7>.] ^ See Leo Allatius, DfVifrfia (/e P.>f ///.«, ' Elmacin, Historia Saracen, p. 28L p. 14, ed. Fabricius. [Michael Psellus, Jo. Ilenr. Hottinger, Historia Ecclc^. junior, was of noble birth, a senator at sivcul. xi. p. 44!», &c. Constantinople, tutor to jVIichacl Ducas, * See Muratori, Antiqq. Ital. Meilii afterwards emperor. He retired to a ^t-/, torn. iii. p. 871. Giannonc, His- monastery about a. d. 1077, and died toire de XapUs, torn. i'l. \\ \iS. 300 BOOK III. — CENTURY XI. [PART II. list of their own citizens, who cultivated and advanced learning in this age ; nor do they name a few schools, which were dis- tinguished by the fame of their teachers and the multitude of their students.^ And it is unquestionable, that the French paid great attention to letters and the arts, and that their country abounded in learned men, while the greatest part of Italy was still sunk in ignorance. For Robert, king of France, the son of Hugh Capet, and a pupil of Gerbert or Sijlvester II., was himself a learned man, and a great patron of learning and learned men. His reign terminated in the year 1031, and his great zeal for the advancement of the arts and learning of every kind was not vnisuccessful.^ The Normans from France, after they obtained possession of the lower provinces of Italy, Apulia, Calabria, and Sicily, diffused the light of science and literature over those countries. To the same people belongs the honour of restoring learning in England. For IVilliam the Conqueror, duke of Normandy, a man of discernment, and the great Maecenas of his time, when he had conquered England, in the year 1066, made commendable efforts, by inviting learned men from Normandy and elsewhere, to banish from that country barbarism and ignorance, the fruitful sources of so many evils.^ For these heroic Normans, who had been so ferocious and hos- tile to all learning, before they embraced Clu'lstianity, imbibed, after their conversion, a very high regard both for i-eliglon and for learning. § 4. The thirst for knowledge, which gradually spread among the more civilized nations of Europe, was attended by this con- sequence, that more schools were opened, and in various places better teachers were placed over them. Until the commence- ment of this century, the only schools in Europe were those attached to the monasteries and the cathedral churches : and ' See the Benedictine monks, His- of Elieims, Liege, Orleans, Tours, Angers, toire Litteraire de la France, torn. vii. and Cliaitres. ScM.'] Introduction, passim. CiiJS. Egasse de ' See Daniel, Histoire de la France, Boulay, Historia Acad. Paris, torn. i. p. toin. iii. p. 58. Boulay, Historia Acad. 355, &c. Le Beiif, Diss, sur tetat des Paris, torn. i. p. 636, et passim. Sciences en France, depuis la mart dii roy ' See the Histoire Litteraire de la 7?o6fr<, §-c. which is published among his France, torn. viii. p. 171. "The Eng- JJissertations sur I'Hist. Eccles. et Civile lish," says Matthew Paris, Historia de Paris, torn. ii. p. 1 , &c. [Among Major, lib. i. j). 4, ed. Watts, " before their monastic schools, that of Bee in the time of AVilliam, were so illiterate, Normandy, taught by Lanfranc and An- that one who understood grammar was selm, was particularly celebrated ; and looked upon with astonishment." among their episcopal schools were those CH. I.] HISTORY OF LEARNING AND PHILOSOPHY. 301 the only teachers of secular as well as sacred learning were the Benedictine monks. But in the beginning of this century, otiicr priests and men of learning undertook the instruction of youth in various cities of France and Italy ; who besides teaching more branches of knowledge than the monks had done, adopted a happier method of inculcating some of the branches before taught. Among these new teachers, those were the most dis- tinguished, who had either studied in the schools of the Saracens in Spain, (which was a very common thing in this age, with such as aspired after a superior education,) or at least read the books of the Arabians, many of which were translated into Latin. For such masters taught philosophy, mathematics, medicine, astronomy, and the kindred sciences in a more learned and solid manner, than they were taught by the monks and by those educated under them. Of medical knowledge, by far the most celebrated school in this century was that of Salerno, in the kingdom of Naples, and to it students of the healing art re- sorted from most of the countries of Europe. P)Ut whatever of this art was known to the teachers at Salerno, it had come to them from the schools of the Saracens in Spain and Africa, and from books written by Arabians.' Ywnw the same scliools and books, and at the same time, nearly all the nations of Europe derived those futile arts of predicting the fortunes of men by the stars, by the countenance, and by the appearance of the hands, which in the progress of time acquired such an extensive currency and influence. § 5. In most of the schools, what were called the sccen liberal arts were taught. The pupil connneneed with grannnar, then proceeded to rhetoric, and afterwards to logic or dialectics. Havino- thus mastered the Trivium, as it was called, those who aspired to greater attainments proceeded with slow steps tlirough the Quadrivium'\ to the honour of a perfectly learned nsan. But this course of study, adopted in all the schools of the West, was not a little changed after the middle of this century. For, lof/ic (which included mctap/ii/s/cs, at least in \r.\rt,) having been improved by the reflection and skill of certain close thinkers, ' jMuratoii, Antiquit. Ital. Medii ^vi, rules for prcseninp health, was \vrirten torn. iii. p. Qs'o, &c. Gianoune, Histoire in this ago, by the jilivsiciaiis of SaK-mo, (le Naples, torn. ii. p. 151. Jo. Friemi, at the re.iuest uf tiie kin-r of Eii;;lan.l ? History of Physic from the time of Galen, ' [The Quadrivium embraced arith- Loud. 1726, Svo! And who "docs not tnetic, music, geometry and astronomy, know, that the Schola Salemitana, or TV.] 302 BOOK III. — CENTURY XI. [part ir. and being taught more fully and acutely, acquired such an ascendency in the minds of the majority, that they neglected grammar, rhetoric, and the other sciences, both the elegant and the abstruse, and devoted their whole lives to dialectics, or to logical and metaphysical discussions. For Avhoever was well acquainted with dialectics, or what we call logic and metaphysics, was supposed to possess learning enough, and to lose nothing by being ignorant of all other branches of erudition.^ And hence arose that contempt for the languages, for eloquence, and the other branches of polite learning, and that gross barbarism, which prevailed for several centuries in the occidental schools, and which had a corrupting influence on theology as well as philosophy. § 6. The philosophy of the Latins, in this age, was confined wholly to what they called dialectics ; and the other branches of philosophy were unknown even by name.'' Moreover, their dialectics were miserably dry and barren, so long as they were ^ See the citations iu Boiilay's Hlstoria Acad. Paris, torn. i. p. 408, 409. 511, 512. To show how true the vulgar maxim is, that thei-e is nothing new under the sun, I here subjoin a passage from the Metalogicnm of John of Sahsbury, a writer of no contemptible abilities, lib. i. cap. iii. p. 741, ed. Lugd. Bat. 1639, 8vo. " The poets and historians were held in contempt ; and if any one studied the works of tlie ancients, he was pointed at and ridiculed by every body, as being more stupid than the ass of Arcadia, and more senseless than lead or stone. For every one devoted himself exclusively to his own discoveries, or those of his master." — " Thus men became, at once, consummate pliilosophers : for the illite- rate novice did not usually continue longer at school, than the time it takes young birds to become fledged." — " But what were the things taught by these new doctors, who spent more sleeping hours than waking ones, in ihe study of philosophy ? Lo, all things became new : grammar was quite another thing ; dia- lectics assumed a new form ; rhetoric Avas held in contempt -, and a new course for the whole Quadrivium was got up, derived from the very sanctuary of phi- losophy, all former rules and principles being discarded. They talked only of suitableness, (convenientia.) and reason : proof! (resounded from every mouth) — - and, very inept ! or crude and iinphilo- sophical! — To say or do any thing s^iit- abhj and rationally, was thought to be impossible, without the express statement of the suitableness and reason of it." The author says more on the same subject, for which see his work. — [The latter part of the extract above, is very obscure in the original Latin, at least when thus deprived of light from the context. The translation here given is not offered with great confidence. TV.] * In the writings of this age, we find mention indeed of many philosophers : e. g. Manegold the philosopher, Adalard the philosopher, and many more. But it would mislead us, to attribute to the term the meaning that it had anciently among the Greeks and Komans, and which it now has. In the style of the middle ages, a philosopher is a man of learning. And this title was given to the interpre- ters of Scripture, though ignorant of every thing which is properly called phi- losophy. The Chronicon Salernitanum (in ^luratori's Scriptores Rerum Italicar. toni. ii. pt. ii. c. cxxiv. p. 265,) states, that tliere icere thirt;/-tu-o philosophers at Benevenfo, in the tenth century ; at which time the light of science was scarcely glimmering in Italy. But what follows this statement, sho\\s, that the writer intended to designate grammarians, and persons having some knowledge of the liberal arts. CH. I.] HISTORY OF LEARNING AND PIIILOSOniY. 303 taught either from the work on the ten Categories^ falsely attri:- buted to Augustine, or from the Introductions to Aristotle by Forphyry and Averroes. Yet the schools had, in tiie former part of this century, no other guides in this science ; and the teachers had neither the courage nor the skill to expand and im- prove the precepts contained in these works. But after tlie middle of the century, dialectics assumed a new aspect, first in France. For some of the works of Aristotle being introduced into France, from the schools of the Saracens in Spain, certain eminent geniuses, as Bcrengarius, Roscelin, Ilildehert, and afterwards Gilbert de la Porree, Ahelard, and others, following the guidance of Aristotle, laboured to extend and perfect the science. § 7. None, however, obtained greater fame by their attempt^^ to improve the science of dialectics and render it practically useful, than Lanfranc, an Italian, who was promoted from the abbacy of St. Stephen's in Caen, to the archbishopric of Canter- Inuy in England ; Anselm, whose last office was likewise arch- bishop of Canterbury ; and Odo, eventually bisiiop of Cambray. The first of these men was so distinguished in this science, that he was commonly called the Dialectician ; and he ai)[)lied the principles of the science, with acuteness, to the decision of the controversy with his rival, Bcrengarins, respecting the Lord's supper. The second, Anselm, in his dialogue de Gramuiatico, among other eiforts to dispel the darkness of the dialectics of the age, investigated particularly the ideas of substance, and of qualities or attributes.^ The third, Odo, both taught dialectics, with great applause, and explained the science in three subtle works, de Sophista, de Couiplrxibus, and de Er et Knte ; which, however, are not now extant." The same Anselm. a man great and renowned in many respects, and wlio labourctl to improve the science of dialectics, was likewise the first among the Latins that rescued metaphysics and natural theology from obscurity and neglect ; and explained, acutely, what reason can teacli us concerning God, in two treatises, which he entitled Monologiun 5 This dialofTue is among his Works, raw. tc.ni. ii. p. 889. &c. of the mnv published by Gabr. Gerberon, torn. i. p. edition. "Od... thuu-1. well skilled in 143 &c "" t''^' li'^^'ral arts, wits paitieularly enii- s'See Hcrimann, iXarratio Ii,;'t. ii. cap. Malaterra, Historia Siciihi, lib. i. cap. xxxi. 0pp. torn. iii. pt. ii. p. 307. From xiv. in Muratori's Scriptures IhiL tom. v. this sununarv, it appears, that even this p. T).").'}. Gregory himself did not claim absolute ' See Kadmer, Ilu^tona Aororum, lib. power over the church. i. P- '^l*. &i'- sidyoine.l to tiie Opp. An- * Fv. D. 1049. TV.] sehui Cantuar. And yet tins very Wil- 5 Before Leo IX., there is no example Ham, who so openly and vigorously re- ef a Roman pontiff's assuming the power sisted the extension of ijontilical and to transfer countries and provinces from episcopal power, is himself a i)roof, that their owners to otlier persons. But this the kings of Europe, when the desire of 308 BOOK III. — CENTURY XI. [PART II reigns. Nor were the bishops wholly sileut, especially those of France and Germany; but others of them succumbed, being influenced either by superstition or by motives of interest. Thus, although the pontiffs did not obtain all that they wished for, yet they secured no small part of it. § 3, Those Avho presided over the Latin church, from the death of Sylvester II. in the year 1003, till A. D. 1012, namely, John XVII., John XVIII., and Sergius IV., neither did nor suffered any thing great or memorable. It is beyond a doubt, however, that they were elevated to the chair, with the approbation and by the authority of the emperors. Benedict VIII., who was created pontiff in 1012, being driven from Rome by one Gregory, his competitor, implored the aid of the emperor, Henry II., called the Saint ^ was restored by him, and reigned peace- fully till the year 1024. Under his reign, the celebrated Nor- mans, who afterwards acquired so much fame, came into Italy, and subdued the southern extremity of it. Benedict was suc- ceeded by his brother, Joltn XIX., who presided over the church till A. D. 1033. The five above-named pontiffs appear to have sustained respectable moral characters.^ But very different extending or confimiing their power de- manded it, did imprudently feed the hist of dominion whicli reigned in the breasts of the pontiffs. For when he was pre- paring to invade Enghand, he sent am- bassadors to the pontiff^, Alexander II., "in order" (as Matthew Paris says. Hist. Major, lib. i. p. 2,) " that the en- terprise might be sanctioned by Apos- tolic authority. And the pope, after considering the claims of both the par- ties, sent a standard to William as the omen of kingly power." — And the Nor- mans, I can suppose, did the same thing ; humbly requesting Leo IX. to confer on them the teiTitories which they now occupied, and those that they might after- wards seize. Wliat wonder, then, that the pontiffs should claim dominion over the whole world, when kings and princes themselves suggested to them this very thing ? ' [This statement, tliat Benedict was driven from Rome by Gregory, and im- plored the succour of king Henry II., is given also by Baronius, ad ann. 1012, § 6, and by Pagi, Brcviar. Pontif. Vita Bened. viii. § 2. But it is founded on a misinterpretation of Ditmar's Clironicon, lib. iv. near the end, p. 399, Ditmar says : " Papa Benedictus Gregorio cui- dam in electione pra^valuit. Ob hoc iste (not Benedict, for he had the supe- riority ; but Gregory) ad nativitatem Domini ad regem in Palithi (Poelde) venit cum omni apparatii apostolico, ex- pulsionem suam omnibus lamentando innotescens." — See Muratori, ad ann. 1012, and the (German) translators notes there. SchJ. — But it is not so certain, that Gregory was the suitor to king Henry. If he lost his election, how could he appear before the king in the pontifical habiliments, never having been pope ? But suppose Benedict, after " prevailing in the election," and being put in jiossession of the papacy, to have been van(|uishcd and "expelled" from Rome by his antagonist, he might well flee to the king in the habiliments, and miglit there plead, that he had prevailed in the election, and complain of his expul- sion. Besides, it is certain, that it was Benedict who crowned king Henry, as emperor, upon his first arrival at Rome, Feb. 1014. It is therefore supposed, that the jeoplc of Rome finding Bene- dict to be supjiorted by tlie king, re- stored hini of their own accord. See Schroeckh's Kirchengesch. vol. xxii. p. 322, &c. Tr.l ^ [Yet Benedict was rescued from en. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 309 from them, or a most flagitious man, and capable of every crime, was their successor, Benedict IX. The Roman citizens, there- fore, in the year 1038, hurled him from St. Peter's chair ; but he was restored soon after by the emperor Conrad. As he continued, however, to be as bad as could be, the Romans again expelled him in the year 1044 ; and gave the government of the church to John, bishop of Sabina, who assumed the name of Sylvester III. After three months, Benedict forcibly recovered his power, by the victorious arms of his relatives and adherents ; and Sylvester was obliged to flee. JJut soon after, finding it impossible to appease the resentments of the Romans, he sold the pontificate to John Gratian, arch-presbytcr of Rome, who took the name of Gregory VI. Thus the church now had two heads, Sylvester and Gregory. The emperor, Henry III., termi- nated the discord; for, in the council of Sutri, a. d. 104G, he caused Benedict, Gregory, and Sylvester, to be all declared un- worthy of the pontificate ; and he placed over the Romish church Siiidger, bishop of Bamberg, who assumed the pontifical name of Clement II. ^ § 4. On the death of Clement II., A. P. 1047, Benedict IX. who had been twice before divested of the [)ontificate, seized the third time upon that dignity. But the year following, he was obliged to yield to Da/nnsits II., or Poppo, bishop of Brixcn, whom the emperor Henry HI iiad created pontiff in Germany, and sent into Italy. Damasus dying after a very short reign of twenty-three days, Henry III, at the diet of "Worms, in the year 1048, elevated Bruno, bishop of Toul, to the throne of St. Peter. This pontiff bears the nameof Zeo 7A'. in the pontifical catalogue, and on account of his private virtues, and his ])ublic acts, has been enrolled among the Saints. Yet, if we except his zeal for augmenting the wealth and power of the church of Rome, and for correcting some more flagrant vices of the clergy, by the councils which he held in France and Germany, we shall find nothing in his character or life to entitle him to such honour. At least, many of tliose who on other occasions arc ready to palliate the ftiults of the Roman pontiffs, censure freely the last acts of his reign. For in the year 10.53, he raslily made purgator}- by the prayers of St. Odilo ; foUoweil ilie k-st historians. Anton, nnd and John obtained the papaey by base Fran. I'agi, rapcbrodi, nnd Muratori in means ; — according to Bai-onius, ad unit, liis Aimales lialicc ; disregarding what 1012, § 1 — 4. Tr.] Baronius and otlicrs allege in defence of " In this account of the pontiffs I have Gregory VI. X 3 310 BOOK III. — CENTURY XI. [PART II. war upon the Normans, whose dominion in Apulia, near his estates, gave him uneasiness. And the consequence was, that he became their prisoner, and was carried to Benevento. Here his misfortunes so preyed upon his spirits, that he fell sick : but after a year's captivity, he was set at liberty, con- ducted to Rome, and there died, on the 19th of April, a. d. 1054.1 § 5. Leo IX. was succeeded in the year 1055, by Gerhard, bishop of Eichstadt, who assumed the name of Victor IL^, and he was followed, a. d. 1058, by Stephen IX., brother to Godfrey, duke of Lorrain. Neither of these, so far as is now known, performed any thing worthy of notice. Greater celebrity was obtained by Nicolmis II., who had previously been bishop of Florence, and was raised to the pontificate in 1058.^ For John, bishop of Veletri, Avho, with the appellation of Benedict X. has been inserted between Stepheyi IX. and Nicolaus II., does not deserve to be reckoned among the popes ; because, after nine months, he was compelled to renounce the office, which a faction at Rome had induced him to usurp. In a council at Rome, which he assembled in the year 1059, iV/co/az/j? sanctioned, among other regulations calculated to remedy the inveterate evils in the church, a new mode of electing the Roman pontiff's ; which Avas intended to put an end to the tumults and civil wars, which so often took place at Rome and in Italy, and divided the people into factions, Avhen a new head of the church was to be appointed. He also, in due form, created Robert Guiscard, a Norman, duke of Apulia, Calabria, and Sicily, on the condition that he would be a faithful vassal of the Romish church, and would pay an annual tribute. By what right Nicolaus could do this, does not appear ; for he was not lord of those territories ' Sec the Acta Sanctor. ad d. 19 supposable, that Hemianus Contractus ApriHs, torn, iii. p. 642, &c. Histoire was better acquainted with the facts, Litter, de la France, torn. viL p. 459. who states, (ad ann. 1054.) that the em- Giannone, Histoire de Naples, torn. ii. peror hekl a council at Mentz, in which p. 52. Victor II. Avas elected. It is also wor- * [Leo of Ostia states, that Hilde- thy of notice, tliat this pope, and liis brand, a subdeacon of the Romish ]3redecessors, continued to hold their church, was sent by the clergy and former bishoprics, when elevated to the people of Rome, to the emperor in Ger- papal throne. Sec Muratori, Annalcs, many, requesting permission to elect, ad ann. 1055. Schl.^ in the name of the Romans, whom he ' Of Nicolaus II., besides the corn- should deem most fit to be pope ; and mon historians of the pontiffs, the Bene- the request being granted, Hildcbrand dictine monks have treated particularly selected this bishop of Eichstadt. But in their Histoire Litter, de la France, tom^ this story is veiy improbable j and it is viii. p. 515. CII. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 311 which he thus gave to the Normans."' Perhaps he relied upon the fictitious donation of Constantine the Great : or perhaps with Hildebrand, archdeacon of Rome, who afterwards became supreme pontiff, under the title of Gregory VIL, he believed that the whole world belonged to the Roman l)i:;hop, as Christ's vicegerent. For it is well known, that this Hildebrand guided him in all his measures. This was the commencement of the Neapolitan kingdom, or that of the two Sicilies, which still exists ; and of that right of sovereignty over this kingdom whicii the Roman pontiffs assert, and the Neapolitan kings recognize from year to year. § 6. Before the reign of Nicolans 11. , the Roman pontiffs were elected, not by the suffrages of those who were called car- dinals, but by those of the whole Roman clergy ; nor by theirs alone, for persons of knightly rank, that is, the nobles, the citi- zens too, and, in fine, all the people, gave their voices. Among such a mixed and heterogeneous multitude, it was unavoidable that there should be parties, cabals, and contests. Nicolaus therefore ordered, that the cardinah, as well bishops as pres- byters, should elect the pontiff; yet witliout infringing the esta- blished rights of the Roman emperors in this important busi- ness. At the same time, he did not exclude the rest of the clergy, nor the citizens and people, from a share in the'elcction ; for he required, that the assent of all these should be asked, and be obtained.^ From this time onwards, the cardinals always acted the principal part in the choice of a new pontiff: and yet, for a long time, they were much impeded in their functions, both by the priests and the Roman citizens, who cither laid claim to their ancient rights, or abused the power given to them of approving the election. These altercations were at lengtli terminated in the following century by Alexander III., wlio was so fortunate as to perfect what Avas begun by Nicolaus, and to « See Muratori, Annal. d' Italia, torn. less. The most extended form of it is ^-i p 186. Biironius, ^nna/cs, ad aun. found in the C7m)H.ron /«r/fH.sf. puljIisU- j QgQ cd in Mnratori's Scriptiyrvs lierum Jtnlirar. ' The decrees of Nicolaus respecting torn. ii. pt. ii. p. 645. VerA- ditlmnt the election of Roman pontiffs, is found from tliis is the form cxlnl.iti-d by Hiij;o in the Collections of the Councils, and in of Floury, in iiis book ,/,; I{,,,i,i jx't, state many other works. But the copies of it, ct Sacerdotah dujmtate : m mhi/.e J//.v- as I have learned by comparinj; them, cdlanea, t-.m. ly. p. 62. let .-ill tno differ excecdinslv ; some bcin- lon-cr, copies, univcrsiaiy, a-rcc in tlic pomta and others shorter ; some favourinii the we have stated, imperial prerogative more and some X 4 312 BOOK in. — CEXTUKY XI. [PAllT II. transfer the whole power of creating a pontiff to the college of cai'dinals.^ § 7. From this period, therefore, the august college of Romish cardinals, and that high authority which they possess, even to this day, both in the election of the pontiffs and in other matters, must be dated. By the title cardinals, Nicolaiis understood the seven bishops in the immediate vicinity of Rome, or t\\Q suffragans of the bishop of Rome, of whom the bishop of Ostia was chief, and who were thence called cardinal bishops ; together with the twenty-eight ministers of the parishes in Rome, or presbyters of the churches, who were called cardinal clerks or presbyters. To these, in process of time, others were added, first by Alexander II., and then by other pontiffs ; partly to satisfy those who com- plained that they were unjustly excluded from a share in the election of pontiffs, and ])artly for other reasons. Therefore, although that exalted order of empurpled members of the Roman court, who figure under the name of cardinals, had its com- mencement in this century, yet it did not acquire the settled character and the form of a real college, before the times of Alexander III, in the next century.^ * See Jo. Mabillon, Comment, in Ord. Roman, torn. ii. of his Musctuni Italicum, p. cxiv. Constat. Cenni, Prcrf. ad Conci- lium Lateran. Stephani III. ]i. xviii. Rom. 1735, 4to. Franc. Pagi, Breviar. Pontif. Romanor. torn. ii. p. 374. '' Concerning the cardinals, their name, their origin, and their rights, very many persons have written treatises ; and these are enumerated by Jo. Alb. Fabricius, in his Bibliographia Antiqnar. p. 455, 456. by Casp. Sagittarius, Introduct. ad Hist. Eccles. cap. xxix. p. 771, and in J. A. Schmidt's Supplement, p. 644, by Clirist. Grj'phius, Isagoge ad Hist. Sceculi XVII. p. 430. To these I add Lud.Tho- massinus, Disciplina Ecclesice vet. et nova, torn. i. Hb. ii. cap. cxv. cxvi. p. 616, and Lud. Ant. Muratori, whose diss, de Ori- gine Cardinalatus is in his Antiquit. Ital. Medii JEvi, torn. v. p. 156. — Among these writers are many who are both copious and learned ; but I am not cer- tain that any one of them is so lucid and precise as he should be, in respect to the grand points of inquiry, the origin and nature of the office. Many expend much time and labour in ascertaining the im- port of the word, and tracing its use in ancient authors ; whicli is not unsuitable indeed for a philologist, but is of little use to give us clear views of the origin of the college and dignity of cardinals. It is certain, that the word cardinal, whether used of things or persons, or as the appellative of a certain clerical order, was of dubious import, being used in various senses by the writers of the middle ages. We also know, that this title, anciently, was not peculiar to the pi-iests and ministers of the church of Rome, but was common to nearly all the churches of the Latins : nor was it ap- plied only to what are called secular clergymen, but likewise to regular ones, as abbots, canons, and monks, though with some difference in signification. But after the times of Alexander III., the common use of the word was gra- dually laid aside, and it became the ex- clusive and honorary title of those who had tlie right of electing the pontitis. When we undertake to investigate the origin of the college of cardinals at Rome, the inquiry is not, who were they that were anciently distinguished from the other clergy by the title of cardinals, both among the Latins generally, and at Rome in particular ; nor is the ob- ject to ascertain the original import and CII. 11.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOV.ERNMENT. 313 § 8. Notwithstfinding that Nicolaus II. had forbidden any infringement of the emperor's right to ratify the election of a the propriety of the term, or in how many different senses it was used ; but the sole inquiry is, whom did Nicohius 11. understand by the appellation car- dinals, when he gave to the cardinals of Rome the sole power of electing tlie pontiffs, excluding the other clergy, the soldiery, the citizens, and the people at large. If this can be ascertained, the origin of the college of cardinals will be Nicolaus would have to first hold a con- sultation by themselves, and discuss the merits of tlie candidates for the high office of pontiff. Inmiediatcly after, they were to call in the cardinal clerks, and with them, as forming one body of electors, they were to choose a pontiff. Clerk here is the same as presbyter. And all admit that the cardinal presbyters tlie ministers who liad charge of were tUe nnnister seen ; and it will likewise appear, how the twenty-eight parishes, or j-riiu-ipal far the modem cardinals differ from churches in Rome. All the remainin<' those who first held the office. Now the clergy of Rome, of whatever rank (!r answer to this inquiry, in my view, is manifest from the edict of Nicolaus it- self " We ordain," says the pontiff, (according to Hugo of Fleury, in Ea- luze. Miscellanea, tom. iv. p. 62,) " that on the demise of a pontifi' of this univer- sal Roman church, the cardinal bishops, in the first place, hokl a solemn con- sultation among themselves ; and then forthwith advise with the cardinal clerks ; and so let the rest of the clergy and the people give their assent to the new elec- tion." The pontiff here, very obviously, divides tlie cardinals who are to elect a pope into two classes, cardinal bishops, and cardinal clerks. The fonner, beyond all controversy, were the se\en bishojis of the city and its dependent temtoiy, the comprovinciales Episcopi, as Nicolaus afterwards calls them, borrowing a phrase from Leo I. [Tliese seven bishops were, those of Ostia (Ostiensis), of i'orto (Por- tuensis), of Albano (Albancnsis), of St. Eufina, or Silva Candida, of Frascati (Tusculanus), of Palestrina (Pra^iesti- nus), and of La Sabina (Sabincnsis). Jr.] These seven bishops, long before this period, bore the title of cardinal bishoj>s. And the pontifi' himself puts this construction beyond all doubt, by indicatnig, ^that he understood the car- dinal bishops to be those to whom be- longed the consecration of a jiontifi' after his election : " Because the apostolic see can have no metropolitan over it," (to whom, in that case, would belong the princijial ]iart in the ordination,) " the cardinal bishops, undoubtedly, supply tlie place of a metropolitan ; for tliey, it is, who raise the pontifi" elect, to the sum- mit of his apostolic elevation." And that it was the custom, for those seven bishops above named, to consecrate the Roman pontifi's, is a fact known to all men. These cardinal bishops, therefore, dignity, Nicolaus excludes expressly from the office of electors of the pontifis. And yet, he would ha\e " the clergy and the people give their assent to the new election ;" that is, he leaves them wliat is called a negative mice, or the right of approving the election. It is therefore clear, that tiie college of electors of the lioman pontifis, who were afterwards denominated cardinals in a new and pecuhar sense of the word, as this col- lege was at first constituted by Nicolaus, embraced only two orders of persons, namely, cardinal bishops and cardinal clerks or presbyters. And of course, we are not to follow Onuphr. Panvinus, (cited by Jo. Mabillon, Comment, in ()r- dinem Roman, in his Museum Italicum, tom. ii. p. cxv.) who undoubtedly errs when he says, that Alexander" III. added the cardinal bishops to the college of cardinals. And they, also, are to be disregarded, who suj)pose there wi-re cardinal deac(in.s in the electoral college from the beginning. There were indeed then, and tiicre had long been, as tiiere are at the ])rescnt day. cardinal deacons at Rome, that is superintendents of the diacimia or churdies, from whose re- venues the j>oor are sup]iorted, and to which hosjiitals are annexed. But Ni- colaus connnitteil the business of elect- ing the pontifis soleh to .vi/rA cardinals as were bishops and clerks ; so that he ex- eluded ileac(ms. And hence in the di" ploma of the election of Gregory- VH., the canlinids are plainly distinguished from deacons. But this decree of Nico- laus could not ac(iuire at all tlie force of a fixed law. " It is evident," says An- sehn of Lucca, {Libra ii. contra Wibcr- titm, AntijKipum, et ejus .f. ad Concil. Lateran. Stephani III. p. xix. Mabillon, Comment, ad Ord. Ro- man, ex Panvino, p. cxv. By this arti- fice, the higher clergy, or those of supe- rior rank, were vanquished, and ceased to distm'b the elections of the cardinals. For the heads of this body of clergy being admitted into the electoral college, the rest could neither effect nor attempt any thing. The inferior cla-gy still re- mained. But they were reduced to si- lence in the same way : for their leaders, the cardinal deacons, or regionarii, were admitted into the electoral college ; and after this, the whole mass of deacons, sub-deacons, acolythists, &c. had to be quiet. But which of the pontiffs it was, whether Alexander III. or some other, that admitted the principal deacons at Rome to the ranks of cardinals, I have not been able to ascertain. This, how- ever, I am sure of, that it was done in order to pacify the inferior clergy, who were dissatisfied at the violation of their rights. AVlien all the clergy, both the higher and the lower, were placated, it was an easy matter to exclude the Ro- man people from the election of pontiffs. Hence, on the death of Alexander III. when his successor, Victor III.*, was to be chosen, the assent and approbation of neither the clergy nor the people were sought, as had always been done before ; but the college of cardinals alone, to the exclusion of the people, created the pontiff". And the same custom has continued down to the present age. Some teU us, that Innocent II. [a. d. 1130,] was chosen by the cardinals only, or Avithout the voice of the clergy and people. See Pagi, Breviar. Pontif. lio- jnatior. tom. ii. 'p. 615. I grant it Mas so ; but it is also true that this elec- tion of Innocent was iiTcgidar and disorderly ; and therefore was no ex- ample of the ordinary practice at that time. * [It should read Lucius III. ; for he was the successor of Alexander UL, whereas Victor III. reigned in the preceding century. TV.] CH. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 315 took the name of Honorius 11. Ilcnce a long and severe con- test arose between the two ])ontifts ; in which Alexander indeed prevailed, but he could never bring Cadolaus to abdicate the papacy.® § 9. This contest was a trifle, compared with those direful conflicts which Gregory VII., the successor of Alexander, and whose former name was Ilildehrand, produced, and kept up to the end of his life. He was a Tuscan by birth, of obscure parentage, once a monk of Cluny, then archdeacon of the church of Rome, and for a long time, even from the reign of I.eo IX., he had governed the pontiffs by his counsels and influence ; when, in the year 1073, and during the very obsequies of Alex- ander, he was hailed pontiff", by the concordant suffrages indeed of the Romans, but contrary to the mode of proceeding en- joined by the decree of Nicolaus. When the election was laid before Henry IV., king of the Romans, by the ambassadors from Rome, he gave it his approbation ; but greatly to his own injury, and to the detriment both of the church and the public.^ For Hildehrand being elevated to the chair of St. Peter, — a man of extraordinary abilities, and competent to the greatest under- takings, intrepid, sagacious, and full of resources, but beyond measure proud, jiertinacious, impetuous, untractable, and desti- tute of true religious principle and piety, — he being elevated, I say, to the highest post in the Christian commonwealth, laboured during his whole life to enlarge the jurisdiction, and augment the opulence of the see of Rome, to subject the whole church to the sole will and power of the pontiff", to exempt all clergymen and all church property wholly from the jurisdiction of kings and princes, and to render all kingdoms tributary to St. Peter. The vastness of his mind, and the obvious extravagance of his plans, are set forth in those most noted propositions, which from his name are called the Dictates of Ilildehrand.^ ' Fred. UghcUi, ludia Sacra, torn. ii. torn. v. Maii, ad d. xxv. p. 568. and .To. p. 166. Jo. Jac. Mascovius, de liehiis Mal)illon, Acta Sanrtvr. Ord. Jinud. sub Henrico IV. et V. lib. i. p. 7, &c. Kvcul. vi. pt. ii. p. 406, &c. Aild Vita Franc. Fagi, Brcviar. Pontif. Bomon. GnY/«nV TV/.. l>y .lust. Christ. IHtliniar, torn. ii. p. 385, &c. Muratori, AnnuU Framf. 1710, 8V(), and all tliuse who d Italia, torn. vi. p. 214, &c. have ^M-ittcn the hi.stor)- of the contest 9 The writers who describe the life between the civil and the ecclesiastical and achievements of Gregory VII. are powers, and of the controversy respect- mentioned by Gasp. Sagittarius, Intro- ing investitures. [ALw Grrpor. VII. und duct, ad Hist. Eccles. torn. i. p. 687, &c. seiner Zeitalter, by I. Voigt, Weimar, and Jo. And. Schmidt, in his Supplem. 1815. 8vo. Tr.'] torn. ii. p. 627, &c. But csixiially ' By the Dictates, or, as some write should be consulted the Acta Sanctor. it, the Dictate of Hildebrand, are to be 316 BOOK III. CENTURY XI. [part II. § 10. Nearly the whole form of the Latin church, therefore, was changed by this pontiff; and the most valuable rights of understood twenty-six short propositions, relating to the supreme power of the Roman pontiffs, over the whole church and over states ; which are found in the second book of the epistles of Gregory VII. inserted between the 55th and 56th epistles. See Jo. Harduin's Concilia, torn. vi. pt. i. p. 1304, and nearly all the Ecclesiastical Historians, large or small, Ca3s. Bai'onius, and Christian Lupus, (whose full Commentary on these Dic- tates, which he considers most sacred, is among his Notes and Dissertations on the Councils ; Opp. tom. v. p. 164,) and nearly all the patrons and friends of the Roman pontiffs, maintain, that these Dictates were drawn up and ratified, perhaps in some council, by Gregory VII. himself : and therefore the Pro- testants have not hesitated to ascribe them to Hildebrand. But the veiy learned French ^Titers, Jo. Launoy (Epistolar. lib. vi. Ep. xiii. in his Opp. tom. V. pt. ii. p. 309), Natalis Alexander {Historia Eccles. sa3cul. xi. xii. tom. vi. diss. iii. p. 719), Anthony and Francis Pagi (the former in his Critica in Baron. the latter in his Breviarium Pontif. Ro- man, tom. ii. p. 743), Lewis Ellies du Pin, and many others, zealously contend that these propositions, called Dictates, were palmed upon Hildebrand by some crafty flatterer of the R(jmish see. And to prove this, they allege that although some of those sentences express very well the views of the pontiff, yet there are others among them which are clearly repugnant to his opinions, as expressed in his epistles. The French have their reasons (which need not be here detail- ed) for not admitting that any pontiff ever spoke so an'ogantly and loftily of his own power and authority. I can readily concede, that so far as respects the form and aiTangement of these Dic- tates, they are not the work of Gregory. For they are void of all order and con- nexion ; and many of them also of clear- ness and perspicuity. But Gregory, who was a man of no ordinary genius, if he had attempted to draw up and describe what he conceived to be the prerogatives of the pontiffs, would have expressed, with neatness and perspicuity, what he had revolved in his own mind. But the matter of these Dictates is undoubt- edly Ilildebrand's : for the greater part of them are found, couched in nearly the same terms, here and there in his epistles. And those which seem to de- viate from some assertions in his epistles, may, witJiout much difficulty, be recon- ciled with them. It is probable, there- fore, that some person collected these sentences out of his epistles, partly the printed ones, and partly such as are lost or unkno^vn, and perhaps likewise from his oral declarations ; and then publish- ed them without judgment and with- out arrangement. — [The following are the principal propositions which com- pose these Dictates. I. " That the Rom- ish church was founded by our Lord alone. II. That the Roman pontiff alone is justly styled universal. III. That he alone can depose bishops and restore them. IV. That his legate has precedence of all bishops in a council, though he be of an inferior order ; and can issue sentence of deposition against them. V. That the pope can depose absent persons. VI. That no person, among other things, may live under the same roof with one excommunicated by the pope. VII. That the pope alone is competent, as occasion shall require, to enact new laws, to gather new congrega- tions,— to divide rich bishoprics, and to unite poor ones. VUI. That he alone can use the imperial insignia. IX. That all princes should kiss his feet only. Xn. That it is lawful for him to depose emperors. — XVI. That no coun- cil, without his order, is to be accounted a general council. — XVIII. That his sentence is not to be reviewed by any one ; while he alone can review the de- cisions of all others. XIX. That he can be judged by no one. XX. That no one may presume to condemn a person who appeals to the apostolic see. XXI. That the greater causes of every church should be; earned up to that see. XXII. That the Romish church never eiTed ; nor will it, according to the Scriptures, ever err. — XXIV. Tliat with his licence, sub- jects may impeach [their sovereigns]. — XXVI. That no one is to be accounted a catholic who docs not hannonize with the Romish churcli. XXVIL That he can absolve subjects from their allegi- ance to unrighteous iiilers." See Har- duin's Concilia, tom. vi. pt. i. p. 1304, &c. 7>.l CII. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVER^'MEXT. 317 councils, of bishops, and of religious societies, were subvcrteil and handed over to the Roman bishop. The evil, however, was not equally grievous throughout the countries of Europe, for in several of them, through the influence of different causes, some shadow of pristine liberty and ancient usage was preserved. Hildebrand, as he introduced a new code of ecclesiastical law, would also have introduced a new code of civil law, if he could have accomplished fully his designs. For he wished to reduce all kingdoms Into fiefs of St. Peter, i. e. of the Roman pontiffs; and to subject all causes of kings and princes, and the interests of the whole world, to the arbitrament of an assembly of bishops, who should meet annually at Rome.- The complete accomplish- ment of this arduous design, either by himself or his successors, * Proofs of this most audacious design, which are above all exception or doubt, have been collected by learned men ; and still more may be collected from the epistles of this pontiff, and fi'om otiier ancient monuments. In his Epist. lib. ix. cp. iii. p. 1481, (I use, all along, the edition of Ilarduin, Concilia, torn. vi. pt. i.) he prescribes this form of an oath, to be taken by future kings of the Romans or emperors : "From this hmir onward, I will be faithful, with ujiright integrity, to the apostle Peter, and to his viciu- pope Gregoiy — and whatever the said pope shall command me, under the fol- lowing form : h)i true obedience (])crveram obedientiam), I will observe with hdc- lity. And on the day when I sliall first see him, I will, with my own hands, make myself a vassal {miles) of !St. Peter and lum." What is this but a feudal oath (liyium), as the jurists call it ; and a perfect vassalage (hominium) ? Tliat the pontiff's of Home derived all their civil jxnver from the kings of France is a fact well kuo\VTi. And yet Gregory contended that tlie kingdom of France was tributary to the church of Rome ; and he directed his ambassadors to de- mand an annual contribution or tribute froju the French. Lib. viii. cp. xxiii. p. 1476. "You must declare to all the Francs, and command tliem, by true obedience, that each fiimily is to pay, annually, at least one dciuirius to St. Peter, if they recoginze him as their father and shepherd according to ancient custom." It should be remembered, that the i)hrase, bi/ true obedience, here used, denotes, as those versed in antiquities well know, that the injunctions and com- mands to which it was annexed, were to be inevitably obeyed. But in vain did Gregoiy lay this command upon the French ; for he never obtained the least tribute from them. In the same ejiistlc he vaiidy asserts, that Sa.xony was a ^fie/ot'thc Romish church ; or, that Char- lemagne had i)resented it to St. Peter, lie insolently addresses Philip I., the king of France, in the following manner : (lib. vii. ep. XX. p. 1468,) "Strive to the utmost to make St. Peter (i. c. the pon- tifl'. St. Peter's vicar) your debtor; tor in his hands are your kingdom and your soul, and he is able to bind and Icx'se you, both in heaven and on earth." He en- deavonrcd to instil tiie same principles into the Sjianiards as into the French, lib. X. cj). vii. "that tlie kingdom of Spain was. from ancient times, the ])ropony of St. Peter — and riglueously belongs solily to the Ajiostolic .sec." Put in hl>. x. ep. xxvii., where he most earnestly inctdeates the same doctrine upon the Spaniards, he has to acknowledge, that the record of this important transaction was wonj out and lost. Yet with the Spaniards he was ratiier more successful than with the French. For Peter de Marca, in his Histuire de Bcarn, lib. iv. )>. ;j.31, XVi, proves from ancient documents, that the king of Aragon, and IkTnhanl count of Pesalva, pronnsed and paid an annual tax to our Gregory. And it might Ik) shown, if there was room for it, that other Sjianish princes did the same. William the Comiucror, a king of en- larged views, and a most watchful guar- dian of his rights, when Gregory required him to pay St. Peter's denarius [Peter- pence], and to render his kingdom njief of St. Peter, replied with spirit, "Hulnrt vour legate has adnu)nished me to do fealty to you and your successoi-s, and to be more careful to send the mouey 318 BOOK III. — CENTUEY XI. [part it. was, however, made impossible by the firmness and vigilance of the emperors chiefly, but also of the kings of France and Britain. (England.) which my predecessors were accustomed to remit to the Romish church. Que of these I accede to, the other I do not. FeaUy I have not done, nor will I do it. The money, when there shall be oppor- tianity, shall be transmitted." The letter of king William is in Steph. Baluze, Miscellanea, torn. vii. p. 127. With this answer Gregoiy had to be contented ; for, though he might fear no other, he stood in fear of WilUam. To Geusa, king of Hungaiy, he writes, lib. ii. ep. Ixx. p. 1316, thus, "It cannot be un- known, we think, to your prudence, that the kingdom of Hungary is the property of the Apostle Peter." [He had before, lib. ii. ep. xiii. p. 1273, WTitten to Solo- mon, king of Hungary, claiming that kingdom by virtue of an absolute sur- rendeiy of it to the see of Rome, made by king Stephen, and in consequence of an acknowledgment by the emperor Henry II. after conquering it, that it belonged to St. Peter. And as Solomon had done homage for it to the king of the Teutones, Gregoiy now tlu-eatcns him with the loss of his kingdom unless he shall acknowledge the pope, and him only, to be his liege lord. TV.] He laboured most zealously to bring the more potent princes, of Germany in par- ticular, under subjection or fealty to St. Peter. Hence, in lib. ix. ep. iii. p. 1480, he strongly exhorts the bishop of Padua to licrsuade Welpho, duke of Bavaria, and the other German chiefs, by all tlie means in his power, to subject their teiTitories to the see of St. Peter, lib. ix. ep. iii. p. 1480, "We should have you admonish Duke Welpho, to do homage to St. Peter. — For we wish to place him wholly in the bosom of St. Peter, and to draw him in a special manner into his vassalage. If you shall find such a dis- position in him, or in other men of power, influenced by love of St. Peter, labour to bring them to do fealty." He ap- proaches Sueno, king of Denmark, lib. ii. ep. Ii. p. 1300, with much flattery, to persuade him, " To connnit, with jiious devotedness, his kingdom to the prince of the Apostles, and to obtain for it the support of his authority." Whether he was more successful in Denmark than in England and France, I know not ; but in other places his efforts certainly were not fruitless. A son of Demetrius, king of the Russians, (to whom he addressed the Ixxiv. ep. book ii. p. 1319,) came to Rome, " and wished to obtain the king- dom " (which he expected to inherit from his father) " by gift from St. Peter through the hands of Gregoiy, paying due fealty to St. Peter, the Prince of Apos- tles :" the import of which language will be quite intelligible from what has been said. Gregory granted his " devout py-ayer," being certainly not backward to perform such offices, and "in behalf of St. Peter committed the government of the kingdom " to the Russian prince. More such examples might be adduced. Demetrius, surnamed Suinimer, duke of Croatia and Dalmatia, was created a king by Gregory in the year 1076, and was solemnly inaugurated at Salona by the pontiff's legate, on the condition that he should annually pay to St. Peter, on Easter day, a tribute of Two hundred golden Byzantines, [a Grecian golden coin, of from twenty-three to twenty-four carats. ScJd.'] See Du Mont's Corps Diplomatique, torn. i. pt. i. no. 88, p. 53. Jo. Lucius, de Regno Dalniatice, lil). ii. p. 85. Up to this time, however, the emperors of Constantinople held the sovereignty over the pro\ance of Croatia. Boleslaus II., king of Poland, having killed Stanislaus, bishop of Cracow, Gre- goiy not only excommunicated him, but likewise deprived him of his crown ; and not contented with this severity, he, by a special mandate, forbade the Polish bishops to crowni any one king of Poland without first obtaining the consent of the Roman pontiff". Dlugoss, Historia Polon. torn. i. p. 295. But I desist. — If Gregory's success had equalled his wishes and his purpose, all Europe would at this day have been one great empire of St. Peter, or tributary to the Roman pontiff's ; and all kings, feudal lords or vassals of St. Peter. But Gre- gory did not utterly fail in his attempts. For from his time onward, the state of the whole of Europe was changed ; and many of the rights and prerogatives of emperors and kings were either abridged or annulled. Among those annulled was the right of the emperor to ratify the election of a pontiff', which became ex- tinct in Gregoiy, and could never after be revived. CII. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 319 § 11. Gregory was more successful, in extending tlie territo- ries of the Roman church in Italy, or enlarging the patrimony of St. Peter. For he persuaded Matilda, daughter of Boni- face, the very opulent duke and marquis of Tuscany, who was a very powerful Italian princess, and with whom he was on terms of peculiar intimacy, after the death of her first husband Godfrey i\\Q Hump-backed, duke of Lorrain, and of her motlier Beatrice, in the year 1076 or 1077, to make the church of Rome heir to all her estates, both in Italy and out of it.^ This very spirited and most fortunate female's more than royal donation appeared in a bad way, on the celebration of her second marriage, in 1089, Urban II.* the Roman pontiff consenting, with AVi-lf, son of Welf, duke of Bavaria. But having been abandoned by her husband, in the year 1095, and again made mistress of herself, Matilda renewed her act with all due solemnity, in tlic year 1102.^ The pontiffs, indeed, had to encounter severe con- tests, first with the emperor Henry V., and then with others, respecting this splendid inlieritance ; nor were they so fortunate at last as to secure the wliole of it to St. Peter; yet, after various struggles and hazards, they succeeded in obtaining no small share of it, which they hold to this day.** ' [Tliis reversionary fji-uiit has been rcfciTcd to the year 1079, but it seems really to have taken place in 1077, being posterior to the emperor's humiliation at Canossa. Ed.'] * [Or Giielph. TV.] ^ The life and achievements of this extraordinary princess (than whom tlie Roman chiu-ch had no stronger bulwark against the emperors, and Gregory VII. no more obedient daughter) are descrilied by Bened. Luehin, Dumin. Mellin, Felix Contelorius, Julius de I'uteo, and es])e- cially by Fran. Maria Florcntini, in his Monummt.s of the Countess Matilda, writ- ten in Italian ; and by IJcned. Baehini, in his HIstoria Monasterii Podulironensis, which was founded by her. The ancient biographies of her, one by Donizo, and another anonymous, are given by Godfr. William von Leibnitz, in his Scriptorcs Brunsvicens. torn. i. p. 629, &c. and by Lud. Anton. ^luratori, in his Scrij>torrs licriim Italicar. tom. v. p. 335, &e. with notes ; and also the fornuda of her se- cond donation, mentioned above. Well worth perusing, also, arc the remarks concerning this woman t)f so masculine an understanding, which are fouml in the Origines Gudphiccr, tom. i. lil>. iii. cap. V. p. 444, &c. and torn. ii. lib. vi. cajj. iii. J). .303, &c., where also is an ac- count of her second husband Wtlf. [Matilda, ordinarily called the gnat countess, and who wa.s, from her ](romi- nence in Gregory's liistory. treatcil by some very nnich as a sjiiiit, and liy others, as a woman of ratiier .sus]>icious character, died in 1115, aged 69. Ma- billon, Annul. Jicned. torn. iv. p. 479. Ed.] " Some distinguished men infer from the terms of the convi'vancc. that Ma- tilda gave to the church of Rome onlv her alltnlial ])osses,sions, and not the tenitories which she lield as fir/k of the empire; and of coursi', that she did not include in the donation the marijuisato of Tuscany, and the tliuhy of Sjxiloto. Fi>r she sjiys, " Ego Mathildis — dedi et obtuli ecclcsi:c S. I'etri — omnia bona mea Jure propricturio, tarn (jua- tunc habueram, tpiam ea. <|ua> in untca aci|ui- situra cram, sive jure siu-cessionis, sive alio quocunque jtire a/'/». tom. vi. Those who defend Ileiir}" IV. are col- Iccteil by Melch. Golda.>itus, in his Ue- plicatio contra Grctscrum, ct Apologia pro 324 BOOK III. — CENTURY XI. [PART II. received indeed the legates of the pontiff in a gracious manner, and he commended the pontiff's design of putting an end to simony. But neither he, nor the German bishops, would grant leave to the legates to assemble a council in Germany, for the purpose of trying those who were guilty of simony. The next year, therefore, a. d. 1075, in a new council at Rome, Gregory proceeded still further ; for, in the first place, he excommuni- cated some of the favourites of king Henry, whose advice and assistance he Avas said to have used in the sale of benefices ; and likewise certain bishops of Germany and Italy ; and in the next place, he decreed, that " whoever should confer a bishopric or abbacy, or should receive an investiture from the hands of any layman, should be excommunicated."* For it had long been customary with the emperors, and kings and princes of Europe, to confer the larger benefices, and the aovernment of monaste- ries, by the delivery of a ring and a staff. And as this formal inauguration of the bishops and abbots was the main su^jport, both of the power claimed by kings and emperors to create whom they chose bishops and abbots, and also of the licentious sale of sacred offices to the highest bidders, or of simony, the pontiff judged that the custom ought to be wholly extirpated and suppressed.^ Henrico IV. Hanov. 1611, 4to. Of the torn. iv. ad ann. 1075. Henr. Noris, Isto- moderns, besides the Centuriatores May- ria delle Investiture, p. 39, &c. Christ. deburgenses, Bai'onius, the writers of Ger- Lupus, Scholia et Diss, ad Concilia, 0pp. manic and Italian history, and the bio- torn. vi. p. 39, &c. 44, &e. graphers of Matilda, the reader may ^ I must be allowed here to go into consult, Jo. Schilterus, de Libertate Ec- an investigation respecting the right of clesice Germanicce, lib. iv. p. 481, &c. inaugurating bishops and abbots with the Christ. Thomasius, Historia Contentionis ring and staff; because it is misunder- iiiter Imperium et Sacerdotium : Henr. stood by many, and not very intelligibly Meibomius, de Jure Investiturce episco- explained by others. Among these last, palis, in the Scriptores Ber. Germanica- I may place the name of Henry Noris, rum, torn. iii. Just. Chr. Dithmar, Histo- the author of a History of Investitures, in ria Belli inter Imperium et Sacerdotium, Italian ; for in chap. iii. p. 50, where he Francf 1714, 8vo, and others. Supe- treats of the motives which induced Gre- rior to all these in learning, is Henry gory to prohibit investitures, though he Noris, in his Istoria delle Investiture delta states many things well, and better than Dignita Ecclesiastiche, which was pub- other writers do, yet he does not see jv _o, ' lished after the death of this gi-eat man, through the whole thing, and he omits '■^Jf.Cli'fiA* Mantua, 1741, fol. It is a very learned some circimistances important to be "^ work, but unfinished, and defective; and, known. The investiture itself of bishops what is not surprising in a friend of the and abbots tmdoubtedly commenced at pontiffs, or a cardinal, not candid to- the time when the emperors, kings, and wards the adversaries of the pontiffs, or princes of Europe conferred on them the the emperors. With advantage, also, possession and use of ten-itories, forests, may be consulted, Jo. Jac. Mascov's fields, and castles. For according to the Commenlarii de Bebus Imperii German, laws of those times, (and they have not sub Henrico IV. et V. Lips. 1749, 4to. yet ceased to operate,) persons holding * See Ant. Pagi, Critica in Baroniiim, territories, &c. by favour of the empe- CH. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 32.5 § 15. Bat Henry was not dismayed at the decree of the •pontiff. lie acknowledged, indeed, tliat he had done wron rors and sovereigns, were not considered to be in legal possession of them, until they had repaired to the court, sworn fealty to the sovereign, and received from his hand the token of the transfer and dominion of the property. But the mode of inaugurating or investing bishops and abbots, with the ring and the staff ov crosier, (which are the insignia of the sacred office,) was of later date, and was introduced at the time when the empe- rors and kings, subverting the free elec- tions which the ecclesiastical laws re- quired, assumed to tlicmsclvcs the power, not only of confcn-ing, but also of selling sacerdotal and abbatical offices at their pleasure. At tirst, the emperors and kings lianded over to men of the sacred orders the same tokens of trans- ferred use and possession, as they did to soldiers, knights, counts, and otliers, who aproached the throne as vassals, namely, written instruments, green twigs, and other things. Humbert, a cardinal of the Romish church, who ■\\Totc before the contest about investitures was moved by Gregory VII., in his lib. iii. Adrersus Simoniacos. cap. xi. (in Martene's The- satir. Anccdotor. tom. v. 787,) says : " The secular authority favoured the ambitious, who coveted ecclesiastical dignities and benefices, first by making request fur them, next l\v threats, and afterwards by fui'mal grants : and in all tills, finding no one to gainsay it, none who moved a pen, or opened his mouth and uttered a murmur, it proceeded to greater tilings ; and now, under the name of investiture gave, first, written in- struments, or delivered small irands of some kind ; afterwards, staffs whicii iiorrid abomination has become so well established, that it is accounted tiie only canonical way, and what the ecclesiastical rule is, is neither known nor thought of." — And this custom of inaugurating or investing clergymen and laymen in the same manner, would doubtless have continued unchanged, had not the clergy, who had the legal power and right of electing their bishops and abbots, artfidly eluded the designs of the emperors and sovereigns. For they, as soon as their bishop or abbot was dead, without delay, and in due form, elected a successor to him, and causclui2^ was about to gQ_tlie way of ajFTlie earth, presently the commandants of his city transmitter! his ring and pastoral staff to the palace ; and thus l)y royal authority. after consulting with his courtiers he placed a suitable ]irelate over the Inreav- ed i)cople. After a few days, again the ring and pastoral staff of the bishoj) of Baml>crg were transmitteil to our lonl the emperor ; which being told abroad, many nobles flocked to the royal court, who endeavoured to obtivin fme of these. either by jirice or by p«tition." Tho emperor or king then delivered the ring and staff to whom he pleased : after T 3 326 BOOK III. — CENTURY XI. [PAET II. selling sacred oflSces ; and he promised amendment : but lie could by no means be induced to give up the power of appoint- which, the person thus inaugurated and appointed bishop, repaired to the metro- pohtan, to whom it belonged to perform the consecration, and delivered over to him the staff and ring received from the emperor, that he might again receive the^e insignia of his power from the hands of the metropolitan. Thus the new bishops and abbots received the ring and staff twice ; first, from the hand of the king or emperor, and then from the metropohtan, by whom thev were consecrated. Humbert, Contra Sinio- niacos, Ub. iii. cap. ^'i. in ilartene's The- saur. Anecdot tom. v. p. 779. "Being thus admitted," (i. e. invested by the emperor,) " the intruder comes upon the clergy, the people, the sacred order, as their master, before he is known by them, sought after, or asked for. And he goes to the metropohtan, not to be judged by him, but to Judge him. — For what does it signify or profit, to give up the staff and ring, which he brings with him ? Is it because they were given to him by a layman ? "Why is that given up, which is already held, unless it be, either that the ecclesiastical benefice may be again sold under this form of enjoin- ing or gi's'ing ; or that the former sale may be confirmed, by being subscribed to by the metropohtan and his suffrages ; or at least, that the appearance of a lay- ordination may be concealed under some cloak and colour of a clerical pro- ceeding !" What king or emperor first introduced this custom of appointing prelates by de- hvery of the stafi" and ring, is very un- certain. According to Adam Bremensis, {Hist. Eccles. hb. L c. 32, p. 10, and c. 39, p. 1 2, in Lindenbrog's Scriptores Sep- tentrioTi.) as early as the ninth century, Lewis the Meek conferred on new bi- shops the right of enjoying the revenues of the churches they ruled, by delivery of a staff or shepherd's crook. But I suspect, that Adam described the events of the former centuries, in accordance with the customs of his o^vn age, which was the eleventh century. For in the ninth century, most emperors and kings allowed bishops to be created, by the suffrages of the clergy and people : so that such an inauguration was then un- necessary. See the remarks of Dan. Papebroch, against Adam Brcm. in the Acta Sanctor. Febr. tom. i. p. 557. Humbert states, (hb. iii. contra Simo- niac. c. vii. p. 780, and c. xL p. 787,) that this custom commenced in the age of Otto the Great : and I am much inclined to that opinion. At least, the learned men who have treated explicitly on the origin of investitures, have ad- duced nothing which dissuades me from receiving this opinion. See Lud. Tho- massin, DiscipUna Ecclesice circa Benef. torn. ii. hb. ii. p. 434, and NataL Alex- ander, Selecta Hist. Eccles. Capita, saecuL xi. xii. diss. iv. p. 725. The same Humbert relates, (1. c. cap. viL p. 780,) that the emperor Henry, the son of Con- rad, (i. e. Henry IH. sumamed Niger,) wished to abrogate these investitures, but was prevented by various circumstances ; but that Henry I., the king of France, threw every thing into confusion, and was excessively addicted to simoni/ ; against whom, therefore, Humbert in- veighs most vehemently. In this method of inaugurating bi- shops and abbots by delivery of the ring and staff, there were two things especially that displeased the Eoman pontiffs. First, that by it, the ancient privilege of electing bishops and abbots was entirely subverted, and the power of creating prelates was placed wholly in the hands of the kings and emperors. This objection appeared a fair one, and perfectly accordant with the rehgious principles of that age. Secondly, it was extremely offensive to them, that the insignia of spiritual power, namely, the staff' and ring, should be conveyed by the hands of laymen, i. e. of profane persons ; which seemed to them very like to sacrilege. Humbert, who wrote, as already stated, anterior to the con- test between Gregory and Henry, has a long complaint on this subject, hb. in. Contra Sirnoniac. c. yL p. 779. 795. I wiU subjoin some of his language : ''What business have laymen to distribute the ecclesiastical sacraments, and episcopal or pastoral grace, that is, the cun-ed stafl's and rings, by which episcopal con- secration is especially performed, and becomes vahd, and on which it wholly depends ? For the cun^ed staff" denotes the pastoral care which is committed to them ; and the ring is emblematical of the celestial mysteries, admonishing preachers, that they should exhibit the wisdom of God in a mystery, with the CH. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 327 ing bishops and abbots, and the investiture so closely connected with that power. Gregory, therefore, well knowing that many of the German princes, especially those of Saxony, were alienated from Hennj, deemed this a favourable opportunity to extend and establish his authority; and sending ambassadors to Goslar, he summoned the king to Rome, there to answer before a council to the charges brought against him. The kin"-, who was a high-minded prince, and of an ardent temperament, being extremely indignant at this mandate, immediately called a convention of German bishops at Worms ; and there, accusing Gregory of various crimes, pronounced him unwortliy of the pon- tificate, and appointed a meeting for the election of a new pontiff.^ Gregory, on the other hand, upon receiving this sentence by the king's messengers and letters, not only interdicted him, simul- taneously, from religious rites and royal functions, but also ab- solved his subjects from their oath of allegiance to him.' War apostle. Whoever therefore presume to initiate any one with these two, undoubt- edly claim for themselves, hy this pre- sumption, the whole pastoral authority." And this reasoning was certainly good, if not according to our ^iews, at least according to the opinions of that age : for the staff and the ring were viewed as the emblems of spiritual things, and whoever conferred these emblems, was supposed to confer along with them spi- rituiil authority and power. From these considerations, it will be easy to perceive what it was that induced Gregorj' VU. to oppose so resolutely the inauguration of bishops by means of the staff and ring. In the first council at Rome, he left the subject of investitures imtouched, and sought merely to abolish simony, and restore the ancient right of election to the societies of priests and monks. Nor had the former pontiff's who opposed simony, aimed at any thing more. But when he afterwards IcAmed that the practice of investitures was so closely connected with the power of kings and emperors to confer the higher sacer- dotal offices, and with its adjunct simon;/, that it could not well be separated from them, he now assailed that practice, that he might pluck up the evil which he op- posed by the root. Thus we sec the true grounds of the contest between the pontiff and the emperor. Gregory did not oppose investitures universally, and as such, but only that species of inves- titures wliich was then practised. He did not object to the bishops and abbots swearing fealty to the kings and empe- rors, and acknowledging themselves their vassals and tenants : nor did he forbid an investiture which should be made by an onJ declaration or a written instru- ment ; for this mode of investiture he conceded to the kings of France and Eng- land : — perhaps also, he allowed a sceptre to be used in the transaction, as Callistus II. aftenvards did. But he would not tolerate an investiture by the insignia of the sacred office; much less an investiture previous to consecration ; and, least of all, an investiture sul)versive of the free election of bishops and abbots. ' [The council of Worms was com- poseil of a "verj' great numtwr of bishops and abbots " from all parts of Germany. Hugo, a displaced cardinal, appcjired there, and painted the lite and chiiracter of Gregory in the blackest colours. The whole a.sscmbly, with the exception of two bishops, subscribed his condemnation. llenrj's letter to the pontiff concludes thus : " Thou tlierc- fore, condemned by this anathema, and by the decision of all our bi.shops, de- scend ; quit the apt)stolic chair you have invaded ; let another ascend it, who will pollute religion by no violences, but will teach the sound doctrines of St. J'etcr. We Henr}-, by the grace of God king, with all our bishops, sj»y to you : Descend." See Harduin's Concilia, torn. vL pt. i. p. 156.}. Tr.] ' [Gregorj "s excommunication of Y 4 328 BOOK III. — CENTURY XI. [PART II. being thus declared on both sides, the church as well as the state was rent into two factions, one party taking sides with the king, and the other with the pontiff; and the evils resulting from this schism were immense. § 16. The first that revolted from Henry were the Suabian nobles, at the head of whom was Rudolph, duke of Suabia. Next followed the Saxons, Avho had long been very hostile to the king. Both were advised by the pontiff, in case Henry would not comply with the will of the church, to elect a new king ; and they assembled at Tribur, in the year 1076, to deliberate on this very important subject. The result of the deliberation was, that the decision of the controversy between the king and the princes should be referred to the Roman pontiff, who should be invited to attend the diet of Augsburg, the ensuing year, for that purpose ; and that the king, during the intervening time, should lead a private life ; yet with this condition annexed, that unless he obtained absolution from the anathema within the year, he was to lose the kingdom. Henry, therefore, with the advice of his friends, determined to go into Italy, and implore the clemency of the pontiff. But he did not gain as much ad- vantage as he had hoped from this journey. He obtained, indeed, though with difficulty, from the pontiff, then re- siding at the castle of Canossa, with Matilda, the great patron- ess of the church, the pardon of his sins ; after standing, for three days together. In the depth of winter, in February, A. d. 1077, bare-footed, bare-headed, and clad in a common weed ^, Henry, is drawn up in the form of .in dants were not allowed to go beyond the address to St. Peter ; stating what lie first ; the emperor himself was conducted had decreed, and why. It contains these within the second ; the pope was within words: "Hac itaque fiducia fretus, pro the third, but although the weather was ecclesiffi tuas honore et defensione, ex frosty and unusually severe, he refused parte omnipotentis Dei, Patris et FiUi admittance to Henry, but kept him in et Sp. Sancti, per tuam potestatem et the yard fasting, and beniunbed with auctoritatern, Henrico regi filio Henrici cold, all the day through. Tlus extra- Imperatoris, qui contra tuam ecclcsiam ordinary spectacle seems to have begun inaudita superbia insurrexit, totius regni Jan. 25, and the emperor submitted to it Teutonieonmi et Italia; gubernaculo three whole days, deeply commiserated contradico : et omnes Christianos a vin- by every body but Grcgoiy, whose con- culo juramenti, quod sibi fecere vel fa- duct, Bernried says, was taxed by some cient, absolvo -, et ut nullus ei sicut regi with tyrannical severity. On the fourth senlat, intei-dico." See Harduin's Con- day, Henry, completely tired of his pe- ciVf'a, torn. vi. pt.i. p. 1566. 7>.] nance, for that is what it was, took * Vili amicufo vestitus. [He put off refuge in a chapel close bj^, where he the ordinary dress of his rank, and habit- had an interview with Matilda, and work- ed himself as a penitent, in the customary ing upon her compassion, obtained ad- white garment. The fortress had three mittance to Gregory. Ed.] walled enclosures. The imperial atten- CH. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 329 within the castle's walled enclosure, professing grief of mind. But the pontiff deferred the discussion and decision of his right to the throne, till the convention of the princes should meet ; and, in the mean time, wholly interdicted him from wearino- the ornaments or exercising the functions of royalty. The Italian princes and bishops^ were most indignant at this convention or compromise, and threatened Henry with deposition, and evils of all kinds ; which made hirn soon after go from his ao-reement, and, contrary to Gregory's command, resume the regal character which he had laid aside. The princes of Suabia and Saxony, hearing of this, met in convention at Pforzheim, in the month of March, a. d. 1077, and by a unanimous vote elected Rudolph, the duke of Suabia, king.' -^rj'- ' KT ' "f ''r: ^ j /*) § 17. A violent war now commenced, both in Germany arid' Italy. In Italy, Gregory, with the forces of the Normans, who were sovereigns of lower Italy, and whom he had drawn over to his party, joined to those of the higldy-famcd and very resolute princess jNIatilda, resisted not unsuccessfully the Lom- bards, who fought for Henry. In Germany, Henry with his confederates encountered Rudolph and his associates, but with no good fortune. Gregory, fearing the dubious issue of the war, wished to be accounted neutral for some years. But takinnr courao-e, after the unfortunate battle of Henry with the Saxons, at Fladenhelm, in tlic year 1080, he cxconununicated Henry a second time; and sending a crown to Rudolph, pro- nounced him the legitimate king of Germany.'- In revenge, Henry, supported by the suffrages of many of the German and Italian bishops, again dei)osed Gregory, the same year, in a council at Mentz ; and a little after, in a convention at Brixen in the Tyrol, he created the archbishop of Ravenna, Guihert, supreme pontiff; who subsequently took the name of Clement III. when consecrated at Rome, a. d. 1084. § 18. A few months after, Rudolph, the enemy o^ Henry, died at Merseburg, in consequence of a wound received in battle at ' [Who had been Ilcury's supporters, gonius, Papi, Muratori, .Mivcese of Spire. TV.] 236. Jo. Mabillon, Annates Ord. Bened. ' See Mabillon, Acta Sanctor. Ord. torn. V. in manv places, especially p. J?c;W. sjvcul. vi. j.t. ii. p. 716. &c. Ile- 261, &c. Ma-inoald Ziegelbauer's 'Cen- lyot, IlUtoire des Ordrc.i, torn. v. p. 332. " " » [In Champagne, on the frontiers of Burgundy. >loreri. £. Muiir, torn. i. \<. 2C0, ii. p. 160. Helyot, Histolie dcs Oidres, &c. torn. ii. p. 108," &c. Gabr. Pcnottus, " The decree of Nicolaus II., in tlie Historia Canonkorum regular, lib. ii. cap. council of Koine, a.d. 1059, (by which 70. Jo. Erh. Kapp, Vlss. de Fratribus tlie old rule for canons adopted in the S. Antonii, Lips. 1737, 4to. The pre- council of Aix-la-Chapclle wa^i npealcd sent state of the first house or hospital and another sub.-titutcd,) wjis fIr^t pub- of this order, in which its abbot resides, lished by Jo. Mabillun, anion<]; the docu- is described by Marteue and Durand, nicnts subjoined to toni. iv. of his Annall. Voyage Litter'aire de deux Bencdictins Benedict, p. 74S, &c. and it is ahw iii- z 2 340 BOOK III. — CENTURY XI. [PART II. chiefly through the Influence of Ivo, afterwards bishop of Char- tres, renounced all private property, and all their possessions and patrimony ; and these lived very much after the manner of monks. Hence arose the distinction between secular canons and regular ; the former obeying the precept ofNicolaus //., andthe latter Jvo's plan. And since St. Augustine introduced among his clergy nearly the same regulations as those of Ivo, though he did not commit any rules to writing ; hence the regular canons were called by many, regular canons of St. Augustine, or canons under the rule of St. Augustine.^ § 30. Among the Greek writers, the following are the best."* Theoplianes Cerameus, whose homilies, still extant, are not alto- gether contemptible.^ Nilus Doxopatrius.^ Nicetas Pectoratus, serted in the Annals themselves, lib. bd. § XXXV. p. 586, &c. ^ See Jo. Mabillon, Annates Benedict. torn. iv. p, 586, and his Opp. posthuma, torn. ii. p. 102 — 115. Helyot, Histoire des Ordres, torn. ii. p. 11, &c. Lndov. Thomassin, Disciplina EccJesice circa Be- neficia, torn. i. pt. i. lib. iii. cap. xi. p. 657, &c. Muratori, Antiqq. Ital. Medii u^vi, torn. V. p. 357, &c. Many docu- ments occur likewise in various parts of tlie Gallia Christia7ia, by the Benedictine monks, relating to this refoi'mation of the canons, and the distinction among them. This recent origin of their order is very disagreeable to the regular canons; for they wish, on many accounts, to be esteemed a very ancient order ; and hence, as is well known, they refer the origin of their order to the times of Christ, or at least to those of Augustine. But the arguments and testimonies they allege to prove their high antiquity, scarcely deserve a lal:)0ured confutation. The name canons was doubtless used anterior to this century ; but its import was anciently veiy extensive. See Claude de Vert, Explication des Ceremonies de la Messe, torn. i. p. 58. Heiice nothing can be inferred from the name. But of recjular and secular canons, there is no mention in any work extant, older than this centmy : and it is certain that those canons who had nothing in common but their dwelling and table, were called secu- lar canons; while those who had all things in common, without any exception what- ever, were called regular canons. ■[" To Dr. Mosheim's account of the canons, it may not be improper to add a fevf words concerning their introduction into England, and their progress and establishment among us. The order of regular canons of St.Augustinevf ashrought into England by Adelwald, confessor to Henry I. ; who first erected a priory of liis order at Nostel in Yorkshire, and had influence enough to have the church of Carlisle converted into an episcopal see, and given to regular canons, invest- ed with the privilege of clioosing their bishop. This order was singidarly fa- voured and protected by Heniy I., who gave them, in the year 1107, the priory of Dunstable, and by queen Maud, who erected for them the priory of the Holy Trinity in London, the prior of which was always one of the twenty-four alder- men. They increased so prodigiously, that besides the noble priory of Merton, which was founded for them in 1 1 1 7 by Gilbert, an earl of Norman blood, they had, under the reign of Edward I., fifty- three priories, as appears by the catalogue presented to that prince, wlien he obhged all the monasteries to receive his pro- tection and to acknowledge his juris- diction." Macll * Concerning aU of whom, tlie Bib- lioth. Graca of Jo. Alb. Fabricius may be consulted. * [Theophanes, sumamed Cerameus {the jiotter) was abp. of Taonnina in Sicily, and probably flourished about A. D. 1040, though some place him in the 9th century. His sixty-two Homilies on the lessons from the Gospels for all Sundays and festivals, are written in a natural and didactic style. They are exegetical. Fr. Seorsus pubhslicd them, Gr. and Lat., Paris, 1644, fol. Jr.] ^ [Nilus Doxopatrius, an abbot, or CH. II.] CnURCII OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 341 the most strenuous defender of the opinions of the Greeks against the Latins.^ Michael Pscllus, a learned man, and well known by his writings of various kinds.^ Michael Cci'iilarius, patriarch of Constantinople, who revived the contest between the Greeks and the Romans, when it was nearly put to rest.^ Simeon, junior, some of whose Meditations on the duties of a Christian life are extant.' Theophylact of Bulgaria, who ac- quired fame, especially, by his Interpretation of the Holy Scrip- tures.^ archimandrite in the Gr. church. lie resided at Palermo in Sicily, a. d. 1043. He -ivTote an account of the five patriarch- ates ; namely, of Home, Constantinople, Antioch, Jerusalem, and Alexandria, containing their statistics. Large ex- tracts from wiiich were published by Leo iVllat, de Concordia Ecclcs. Orient, et Occident, and the entire work, Gr. and Lat., by Steph. le jMoinc, Varia Sacra, tom. i. p. 211. Paris, 1611. TV.] ' [He was a monk and presbyter in the monastery of Studiimi, near Con- stantinople, and flourished a. d. 1050. He ^\Tote against the Latins, and also against the Annenians. His book de Azymis, de Sabbathurum Jejitnin, ct Nup- tiis Sacerdotum, was published in Lat. by Canisius, tom. ^■\. Some other of his polemic tracts have been partially published. 7>.] * [For a notice of Michael Pscllus, see note * to p. 259 of this volume. Tr.l . , " [This Michael was patriarch, a.d. 1043 — 105S. We have nothing of his but some synodic decrees and a few letters ; all in controversy with the La- tins. TV.] ' [Simeon, junior, was abbot of St. Mamas, at Constantinojilc, about a. n. 1050. His works, in a Latin translation, Avere published by Pontanus at Ingol- stadt, 1603, 4to ; comprising thirty-tlircc orations on Faith and Christian morals ; a book on divine love ; and 228 Capita moralia, practica, et thcologica. TV.] * [Theophylact was a native of Con- stantinople, and abp. of Acris in Bul- "•aria, a. d. 1077. He wrote commen- taries (compiled from Chrysostom) on nearly all the New Test, and on the minor prophets ; also seventy-five epistles, and several tracts : all of which were well published, Gr. and Lat., Venice, 1754, fol. The older editions are less perfect. Besides the writers mentioned by Moshcini, the Greeks of this ccuturj' had tiie following : — Alexius, patriarch of Constantinople, A.D. 1025 — 1043. Some of his decrees are extant. Peter, patriarch of Antioch in the midtUe of this ccntur}', has left us tlu-ee epistles, and a profession of his faith. Leo, abp. of Acris in Bulgaria, a. d. 1053. He engaged in the contest against the Latins. One of his epistles, and extracts from others, are extant. John, metropolitan of Eucliaita iu Paphlagoiiia, a.d. 1054, lias left a poem on the liistory uf the principal festivals, published Eton, 1610, 4to, and a few lives of monkish saints. John Xipliilin, patriarch of Constan- tinople, A.i>. 1066—1078. He was of honourable birth, but abandoned public life, became a monk, and at last a patri- arcii. He luis left us a iKjmily on the cross, and some decrees. His nephew, also called John Xiphilin, and his con- teniporaiy, was the epitomizer of Dion Cassius. Samuel, a converted Jew of Morocco in Africa, wrote, a.d. 1070, a letter or tract, in Arabic, proving that tiie Mes- siah was already come. A Latin trans- lation of it is in the Bibliolh. Patrum, torn, xviii. p. 519. Samonius, abp. of Gaza, a. d. 1072, •WTote a tract, or dispute with Achnicd a Saracen, proving the dix-trinc of transubstantiation ; pubhshed, Gr. and Lat., in Duca-as, Auctarium, torn. ii. p. 277. :Michael Attaliata, a Gr. junst. pro- consul, and judge, a. d. 1072. He wrote a svnopsis or practical treatise on the imperial laws, in ninety-five titles, ad- dressed to Michael Ducas; published Gr. and Lat. by J. Lcunclav. de Jure Gr. Rom. tom. ii. p. 1. Nicetiis Scrron, deacon of the church : 3 342 BOOK III. — CENTURY XI. [part it. § 31. The Latins esteem the following as their best writers. Fulbert of Chartres, a man to whom literature and youth de- voted to it are not without obligations, and who has rendered himself famous by his Epistles, and by an immoderate zeal for the blessed virgin Mary.^ Humbert, a cardinal, who wrote against the Greeks, the most zealously and learnedly of all the Latins in this century.^ Petrus Damianus, whose genius, can- dour, integrity, and writings of various kinds, entitle him to rank among the first men of the age, although he was not free from the faults of the times.^ 3Iarianus Scotus, whose Chronicon, at Constantinople, and then abp. of Heraclea. He flourished A.t>. 1077; and ■wrote commentaries on Gregoiy Nazi- anzen. To him, as well as to Olympio- donis, has been ascribed the Catena on Job, published, Gr. and Lat., by Fr. Junius, Lond. 1637, fol. Nicolaus, Grammaticus, patriarch of Constantinople, a. d. 1084 — ^1111. He has left us a long letter to Alexis Com- nenus, against depriving meti'opoli- tans of their sees ; also several decrees. Tr.'] ' For an account of this famous man, see the Histoire Lilteraire de la France, torn. vii. p. 261. [St. Fulbert came from Rome to Chartres about a. d. 1000, and there taught schools with great repu- tation. In the year 1007 he was made bishop of Chartres, and filled that office till his death in the year 1028. His \vi-itings consist of 134 letters, generally well written, and of some use to the his- tory of those times ; besides several in- different sermons, some worse poetry, and two lives of monkish saints. They were edited, with bad faith, Paris, 1608, 8vo., and thence admitted into the Bi- blioth. Patrum, tom. xviii. p. 1. See Du Pin's Ecclesiastical Authors, vol. ix. p. 1, &c. Tr.^ * See Martene's Thesaurus Anecdotor. tom. v. p. 629. Histoire Litteraire de la France, tom. vii. p. 527, &c. [Hum- beit was a monk of Toul, well skilled in Greek, whom pope Leo IX. took with him to Rome, a. d. 1049, and there made him a cardinal. He was employed in several important commissions ; but espe- cially in a papal embassy to Constanti- nople, a.d. 1054. He died after a.d. 1064. His Mritings arc all controversial ; and chiefly against the Greeks. They are ex- tant partly in Baronius' Annals, and all of them in Canisius, Lectiones Antiq. tom. vi. and in the Biblioth. Pair. tom. xviii. Tr.-] ^ See the Acta Sanctor. Febr. tom. iii. p. 406. Bayle, Dictionnaire, tom. ii. p. 950. Casim. Oudin, Diss, in his Com- ment, de Scriptor. Eccles. tom. ii. p. 686, &c. [Peter Damian was bom of humble parentage at Ravenna, a.d. 1007. Edu- cated by his brother, he early became a monk, a teacher, a reformer of morals, an abbot of Ostia, and cardinal of the Romish church. But weaiy of public life, he resigned his bishopric, and re- tired to his monasteiy. The pontiffs emploj'ed him as their legate on several most diflScult enterprises, in which he acquitted himself with great address and prudence. He was sent to Milan, a. d, 1059, to suppress simony and clerical incontinence ; and, a. d. 1069, was de- spatched to Cluny in France to reform that monastery, and settle its contro- versies ; and in 1063 was legate to Flo- rence for settling a contest between the bishop and the citizens; and 1069 he was sent into Germany to dissuade king Henry fi-ora repudiating his queen Bertha ; and lastly, in 1072 he was papal legate to Ravenna, for reconciling that church to the papal dominions; and died on his return in Febniaiy 1074, aged 66. He was a man of great learning, devout, honest, frank, and Mell acquainted with human nature. He wrote with ease and perspicuity. His numerous MTitings were collected in three vols. fol. by Ca- jetan, Rome, 1606 ; often reprinted since ; but best at Venice, 1754, in four vols. fol. They consist of eight books of letters ; about sixty tracts, on various subjects of discipline, morals, and ca- suistry; sermons for all Sundays and festi- vals of the year; and the lives of several saints, viz. St. Odilo, St. Maurus, St. Romuald, St. Rodidph, St. Flora, and CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 343 en. II.] and some other of his writings, arc extant.^ Anselm, archbishop of Canterbury, a man of subtle wit, well versed in the dialectics of his age, and possessed of an uncommon acquaintance with theological subjects.'' Lanfranc, also archbishop of Canterbury, well known for his exposition of the epistles of St. Paul, and other writings; from which one may see him to have wanted neither acuteness nor learning, according to the standard of his age* The two Brunos, the one of Monte Cassino ^, and the other the St. Lucilla; besides notices of many- others. TV.] ® [Marianus Scotus was born in Ire- land, A. D. 1008, became a monk, tra- velled into Germany in 1058, where he spent the remainder of his life in the monasteries of Cologne, Fulda, and Mentz. He died a. d. 1086, aged .58. His Chronicon extends from the creation to A. D. 1 083 ; and was continued by Dodechin to a. d. 1200. It is published among the Scriptores Reruin Germani- carum, by Struve and others. His other ^vTitings arc of little value. TV.] ' See the Histoire Litteraire de la France, tom. i.\. p. .398. Kapiii dc Thoy- ras, Histoire d' Anf/leterre, tom. ii. p. 65. 166, &c. Colon ia, Histoire Litter, de Lyon, tom. ii. p. 210. [Eadmer (An- selm's secretary) de Vita S. Ansclmi, lib. ii. in the Acta Sanctor. April, tom. ii. p. 893. Wharton's Anglia Sacra, pt. ii. p. 179, and Milncr's Hist, of the Church of Christ, cent. xi. ch. v. — St. Anselm Wivs born at Aosta in Piedmont, a. d. 1033. After acquiring an education, and tra- velling in France, he became a monk at Bee in Normandy, at the age of 27. Here he taught with great reputation, succeeded Lanfranc in the abbacy, and was made archbishop of Canterbun.-, next after Lanfranc, a. d. 1093. In that oflScc he spent an unquiet life, which ended a. P. 1109. He was in continual collision with the kingsjof England,|.re- specting investiture and encroachments upon clerical rights. Twice he left the kingdom, travelled to Italy, and resided at Rome and at Lyons. His works ha^■c been published frequently ; the best edi- tion is by Gabr. Gerberon, Paris, 1675, 3 tom. fell. Tlicy comprise a large nurn- ber of letters, many sermons, and medi- tations on practical and devotional sub- jects, and a considerable number of doctrinal and polemic treatises. TV.] ' Histoire Litteraire de la France, torn. ^^ii. p. 260. [And Vita Bcati Lanfranci. by Milo Crispin, chantor in the monas- tery of Bee in the age next after Lan- franc ; in Jo. Mabillon's Acta Sanctor. Ord. Bened. tom. ix. p. 030 — 660. Lan- franc was a native of I'avia, travelled into France very early in life, became a monk at Bee in Normandy, a. d. 1041, taught tliere with very great ap{)lause, and drew pupils from afar ; was made prior, and then abbf)t of his moniistery, and counsellor to William the Conqueror, and A. I). 1070 archbishop of Canterbur)-, in which office he died a. o. 1088. lie had contention with Thomas, archbishop of York, about priority; went to Rome on that and other subjects ; and bore a cons]Mcuous part in the civil transactions of England. His works, whicli were collected and published by D'Achcry, Lucca, 1648, fol., comprise his commen- tar\' on the epistles of St. Paul ; about si.xty letters ; a tract on transubstan- tiation ; and a few other small pieces. Tr.] ' [This Bnino was a native of Ixjm- bardy, educated in the monaster)' of Asti, became a canon in the cathedral of Siena, Tuscany; disputed against Bc- rengarius in the council at Rome, 1079 ; and was soon after, liy the po|H>, created bishop of Segni, in the ecclesiastical states. Weary of jjublic life, he tied to Monte Cassino, a. d. 1104 ; but thcpon- tirt' ordered him back to his bishopric. In 1107 he again went to Monte Cas- sino, and wa-s there made ablxit with the consent of the jiopc. But in the year 1111, the pontitV required him to resign his abbacy, and resume his episcopal statT, which he held till his dcnth, a. n. 1195. His writings were published at Venice, 1651, 2 vols. fol. The first volume contains his roinmentaries on the Pentateuch, Job, P.«;\lms, Canticles, and the Apocal^-pse. The second volume contains 145 homilies on the Gosjjcl lessons, some letters and tracts, and a life of tlic pontilf Leo IX. Tr.] 344 BOOK III. — CENTURY XI. [part II. founder of the Carthusian order. ^ Ivo of Chartres, a very active restorer of ecclesiastical law and order.^ Hildebert of Le Mans, as a theologian, philosopher, and poet, not one of the best, nor one of the worst.^ Lastly, Gregory VIL, that haughtiest of pontiffs, who undertook to elucidate certain parts of the Holy Scriptures, and wrote some other things.* [For an account of St. Bruno, the lections of councils ; e. g. by Harduin, founder of tlie Carthusians, see p. 337 of this vol. and note 'there. — After spend- ing six years at Chartreuse, Urban II., who had been his pupil, summoned him to Rome, a. d. 1092, that he might be- come his counsellor. But the scenes of pul)lic life were so disagreeable to him, that the pontiff, in 1095, giive him leave to retire. He travelled to the extreme part of Calabria, and there, with a few of his monks, spent the remainder of his life. He died A. D. 1101. To him have been ascribed most, or all, of the works written by Bruno of Segni, mentioned in the preceding note. But he wrote nothing, except two letters, during his residence in Calabria, and a confession of his faith, which is extant in Ma- billon's Analecta, tom. iv. p. 400. Jr.] ^ [Ivo, or Yvo, was a native of Beau- vais in France, educated under Lan franc, at Bee, then abbot of St. Quintin, and at last bishop of Chartres, a. d. 1092 — ■ 1115. He was a very learned man, and a partizan of the Roman pontiffs, which involved him in some difficulties. His Avorks were published by Jo. Bapt. Souchet, Paris 1647, fol. They com- prise Decretorum Liber, in xvii. parts ; Pannormia or a summary of ecclesias- tical law ; 287 epistles ; 22 sei-mons ; and a short Chronicle of the kings of France, extending from Pharamond to Philip I. Tr.~\ ^ All the works of this Hildebert, who was certainly a man of learning and ingenuity, were published by the Bene- dictine monks,'with the explanatory notes of Anton. Beaugendre, Paris, 1708, fol. [They comprise about a hundred well written epistles, and some sermons, tracts, and poems of an ordinary cha- racter.— Hildebert was bom at Lavardin in the diocese of Le Mans, became a monk of Cluny, studied under the famous Berengarius, and was made bishop of Le Mans, about a. d. 1098, and archbishop of Tours, A.D. 1125, where he died a.d. 1132. TV,] ^ [The epistles of Gregory VIL, in number 370, are found in all the col- tom. vi. pt. i. p. 1195, &c. His other WTitings are few, and little worth. To him some attribute an exposition of the seven penitential Psalms, published as the work of Gregory the Great. His exposition of St. Matthewjexists in MS., and some fragments of it have been published. The following list embraces most of the Latin writers omitted by Dr. Mos- heim : for a fuller account of them, see Cave's Historia Litterar., Dix Pin, and others. Almoin, of Aquitaine, a Benedictine monk of Fleury, a.d. 1001. His His- torice Francorum libri iv. to a.d. 752, with an additional book by another hand, is jjublished among the Scriptores Fran- cicos. He also wrote two books recount- ing the miracles of St. Benedict ; a life of St. Abbo of Fleury ; and some other things. Godehard, a monk, and bishop of Hil- desheim, a.d. 1002 ; has left us five epis- tles, published by Mabillon, Analecta, tom. iv. p. 349. Gozbert, abbot of Tegern in Bavaria, A.D. 1002 ; has left us four epistles, pub- lished also by Mabillon, Analecta, tom. iv. p. 347. Adelbold, a nobleman, councillor and general under the emperor Henry ; then a monk, and a-d. 1008 — 1027 bishop of Utretcht. He is supposed to be the author of the Libri ii. de Vita S. Henrici, Imperat. published by Canisius, Surius, and Gretser. Berno, a monk of St. Gall, abbot of Richenau near Constance, died a.d. 1045. He wrote de Officio Missce, seu de Rebus Missce ad Officium pertinentibus. Liber ; (in the Biblioth. Patr. tom. xviii.) and Lives of St. Udalric and St. Me- ginrad. Hugo, archdeacon of Tours, A. d. 1020, wrote Dialogus ad Fulbertimi Carnotcnsem Episcopnm ; published by Mabillon, Ana- lecta, tom. ii. John, surnamed Johannelinus, from Ills diminutive stature, abbot of Fecamp, A. D. 1028 — 1078. He wrote many CH. II.] CIIURCn OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 345 prayers and religious meditations, and some epistles ; published by Mabillon, Analecta, torn. i. Ademar, a monk of Limoges, a. n. 1030. He -vvrote a Cln-onicle of the French monarciiy, from its commence- ment to A. r>. 1029 ; an account of some abbots of Limoges ; and a supplement to the work of Amalarius de Bivmis Off ic lis. Hugo, de Britolio, a monk of Cluny, and bishop of Limoges, a. d. 1030 — 1049, when he was deposed for simony. He retired to tlie monastery f)f Verdun ; and wrote a tract against Berengarius, in favour of transubstantiation, wliich is in the BiUioth, Pair. torn, xviii. p. 417. Bruno, duke of Carintliia, and bishop of Wiirtsburg, a. d. 1033—1045. To nstruct his clergy, he compiled from the fathers Commentaries on tiic Psalms, and on all the devotional hymns of the Scriptures, also on the ApostoUc, Ambrosian, and Athanasian creeds; pubhshed, Cologne, 1494; and in the Biblioth. Pcttr. tom. xviii. p. 65. Hermannus, surnamed Contractus, be- cause idl his limbs were contracted by a paralytic atlection. He was accounted a vast scholar, well skilled in Latin, Greek, and i^jabic, and in theology, liis- tory, philosophy, and all the sciences of the age. Though of noble parentage, he became a monk of St. Gall, and of Richenau, till his death, A. n. 1054. He ^\Tote Chronicon de sex 3 fundi 'jEtatihns from the creation to a. n. 1054, pul)- lisiied among the Scriptores Germanici ; and in the Biblioth. Pair. tom. xviii. p. 348. Glaber Radulphus, a monk of St. Germain de Auxcrre, and then of Cluny, A. D. 1045. He ^^Tote Histori- arum libri v. extending from a. d. 900 to A. D. 1045 ; puHisiicd among the Scriptores Fninciros ; also a life of St. Gulielmus, abbot of St. Bcnignus of Dijon. Deoduin, or Theoduin, bishop of Liege, A.D. 1045 — 1075. He wrote a letter or tract, addressed to Henry king of France, against the doctrine of Berengarius and his followers ; in the Biblioth. Pair. tom. xviii. p. 419. Hugo, abbot of Cluny, a.d. 1 048—1 1 08. He was of noble French parentage, and became a monk at the age of fifteen. Some of his letters are extant in D'Ache- ry, Spicikgium, torn. ii. Leo IX. pope, A. D. 1048— 1054, (see above, p. 309.) He has left us nineteen epistles, extant in the Collections of the Councils, (e. g. Harduin's, tom. vi. j)t. i. p. 927,) besides a number of homihes or scnnons. His life, written by Wibert, a conteniporarA', is in Mabillon, Acta Sanctiir. Ord. Bcncd. tom. Lx. j). 49, &c. Ansehn, a canon of Liege, and dean of Nanitn-, a. d. 1050. He wrote a liistory of the bisho])s of Liege, from a. d. 666 to about a.d. 1048; pubhshed by Jo. Chapeaville, Liege, 1612, 4to. Stejihen IX. Jiope, a.d. 1057 — 1058. He has left us two epistles. Alberic, a monk and deacon of Monte Cassino,and a canliiial, a.d. 1057 — 1079. He MTote many poems and other tracts, devotional and polemic, and some lives of saints, ail of which arc said to exist still in manuscript. His life of St. Do- minic is the only work of his ]iublished ; extant in Mal)illon's Acta Sanctor. Ord, Baud. tom. viii. p. 35, &c. Ali)lianus, ablMjt in the Benedictine monastery at Salerno, and tlieii arch- biiliop there A. D. 1057 — 1086. He wrote numerous poems, devotional, and in praise of the saints ; most of which were published by Uglielli, annexed to his Italia Sacra, tom. ii. Xicolaus H. pope, a.d. 1058 — 1061. He has kft us eight epistles; extant in the Collections of tiie Councils. Gauferius, called also Benedict, a monk of Monte Ca.<#ino, a. d. 1 060. He i\Totc some .sermons on the festivals, and some religious poems, which arc in the library of Monte Ca.>;sino. AiexanikT II. jKipe, a.d. 1061 — 1073. He has forty-five epistles in the Collec- tions of tiie Councils. Berthold, a German ecclesiastic, prcs- In'ter of Constance, and a wann parti^uin of Gregory ^'II. against Henry IV. He flourished from about a.d. 1066 to 1 100. His Ilisloria sui Tnn/wris, ab miiio 1053 us(jur ad aitn. 1100; and his A])]Hiidix to Ikrmaun Contractus' Chronicle, from A.D. 1055 — 1066. .are published among the Scriplnrcs licrum (rcrmani- carum. Some of his tracts also, in sup- port of Gregory's measures, were i)ub- lished by Gretser. Guitmund, a Benedictine monk of Nonnandy, and then arciibishop of Aversa, in Italy, died a.d. 1080. He has \vt\ tlnee bks on the real presence in the Eucharist ; a statement of the doctrine of the Trinity, &c. and an ad- dress to William I., king of England : idl extant in tlic Biblioth. Pair. tom. 346 BOOK III. — CENTURY XI. FPART II. Sigifrid, archbishop of Mentz, from about 1069 to 1084. In the year 1064, he led a band of 7000 German pilgrims to the holy land. In 1074, he attempted to reclaim his clergy from simony and matrimony, without success. In 1076, Gregoiy VII. excommunicated hira for adhering to the cause of Henry ; but the next year he revolted, and he it was who crowned Rudolph the competitor for the German throne. Four of his epis- tles are in the Collections of Councils. Dm'and, a monk of Normandy, a.d. 1070, was one who wrote against Beren- garius. His tract is subjoined to Lan- franci 0pp. ed. D'Achery. Gualdo, a monk of Corbey, a.d. 1070 ; ^vTote a metrical life of St. Ansgar, bishop of Hamburg, and apos- tle of the North ; which is in Mabil- lon's Acta Sanctor. Ord. Bened. torn. vi. p. 116. St. Anselm, bishop of Lucca, a. d. 1071 — 1086. He was a decided sup- porter of Gregory VII. ; and wrote two books in his defence against Guibert the antipope ; also a collection of sentences from the fathers, in support of Gregory's principles respecting the independence of the clergy and the church of all civil power ; both which are extant in Cani- sius, Lectt. Antiq. torn, vi, and in the Bihlioth. Pair. tom. xviii. p. 602, and torn, xxvii. p. 436. His life, ^vl•itten by one of his friends and pupils, is in Mabil- lon's Acta Sanctor. Ord. Bened. tom. ix. p. 469, &c. Willelmus, an abbot of Metz, a.d. 1073, and fi-iendly to Gregory VII. Mabillon has published seven of his epistles and an oration, in his Analecfa, torn. i. p. 247. Ingulphus of Croyland, [or Crowland, Ed.^ born in London, a. d. 1030, educated at Westminster, and Oxford. In 1051, he accompanied William duke of Nor- mandy to France, and became his private secretary. To escape envy, in 1064, he retired to Germany, and was one of the 7000 who went as pilgrims to the holy land under Sigifrid, archbishop of Mentz. On his return he was made abbot of Fon- tanelle; and a.d. 1076, William, now king of England, invited him thither, and made him abbot of Croyland, till his death, a. d. 1 109. He was veiy intimate with Lanfranc, archbishop of Canterbury. His History of the Monastery of Croyland, from A.D. 664 to about 1091, was pub- lished by Saville, among the five Scrip- tores Anylicos, Lond. 1596, fol. and still better among the Rerum Anglicar. Scrip- tores, Oxon. 1684, fol. Lambert of Aschaffenburg. He be- came a monk at Hirsfeld, a. d. 1058 ; soon after travelled as a pilgrim to the holy land, and returning, resumed his monas- tic life at Hirsfeld. There he composed, A.D. 1077, his History, which is a mere chronicle, from the creation to a.d. 1050, and then a veiy diffuse history do^vn to A. D. 1077. His style is commended veiy highly. The work is pubhshed among the Scriptores Gcrmanici. Hugo, bishop of Die in the year 1077, and archbishop of Lyons from a.d. 1080 till after a.d. 1099. He was much en- gaged in the public transactions of the times. Two of his epistles to Gregory VII. are in the Collections of the Coun- cils. IMicrologus, a fictitious name for the author of a tract on the ceremonies of the mass, written in the latter part of this centuiy, or perhaps in the next ; which is extant among the Scriptores de Divinis Officiis, Paris, 1610, fol. and in the Bihlioth. Patr. tom. xviii. p. 469. Adamus, surnamed Magister, a canon of Bremen fi-om a.d. 1077, and who flourished a.d. 1080. He wrote His- toricE Ecclesiastics pro'sertim Bremensis libri iv. ; in which he describes, with much fidelity, the propagation of Chris- tianity in Hamburg, Bremen, Denmark, and throughout the North, from the times of Charlemagne to those of Henry IV. ; to which he subjoined a geogra- phical account of Denmark and other northern countries : published by Lin- denbrog, Leyden, 1595, 4to, and Helm- stadt, 1670, 4to. Benno, a German ecclesiastic, who adhered to Clement III., or Guibert, the antipope ; was made archpresbyter and cardinal of Rome, and took a very active part against Gregory VII. He flourished about a.d. 1085; and wrote de Vita et Rebus Gestis Hildebrandi et PajBfE, libri ii. ; published, Francf. 1581, and among the Opuscula Anti-Grego- riana, by Goldast, Hanover, 1611, 4to, p. 1. A^ictor in. pope, a.d. 1086, 1087. He was bom at Benevento, a.d. 1027 ; bore the name of Daufcrius till he be- came a monk of Monte Cassino, when he assumed the nameof Desiderius ; became abbot there in 1056, was made a car- dinal, and employed on important occa- sions by the pontiffs. But he was ever partial to a retired and monastic life. His Dialogues on the miracles of St. Benedict, and other monks of Monte CH. III.] RELIGION AND THEOLOGY, 347 Cassino, in four books, (a work stuffed ■with idle tales,) has been frequently published ; e. g. by Mabillon, in his Acta Sanctor. Ord. Bcned. skcuI. iv. pt. ii. Urban U. pope, a. d. 1087 — 1099. His former name was Otho, a native of Chatillon, in the diocese of Khcims, a monk of Cluny, cardinal bishop of Ostia, and much employed by Gregory VII. While pope, he pursued the measures of Gregory. He has left us fifty-nine epis- tles, and two harangues in favour of a crusade ; extant in the Collections of the Councils. Mabillon gives some account of his life, Acta Sanctor. Ord. Benedict. torn. Lx. p. 902, &c. Lambert, bishop of AiTas from a.d. 1094 onwards. Three of his epistles are in the Collections of the Councils. Raimund D'Agiles, a canon of Le Puy, France, and chaplain to the earl of Toulouse, (who was also bisliop of Le Puy,) whom he accompanied in his expedition to the holy laud, a. d. 109.5. He saw the holy lance dug out of the earth, and carried it at tlie siege of An- tioch. He wrote the Histonj of Jeru- salem, describing especially the acliicvc- ments of the eai'l of Toulouse, during five years from the time they entered Slavonia on their way to the East. The work is in the collection of Bongars, de Gestis Dei per Francos, tom. i. p. 1 39. Gotselin, or Goscelin, a Benedictine monk of St. Bertin in Artois, and then of St. Augustine at Canterbury', who flourished a. d. 1096. He wrote the life of St. Augustine, the apostle of Eng- land ; which is extant in Mabillon 's Acta Sanctor. Ord. Bcned. tom. i. p. 498. Balderic, secretary to two successive l>isli()ps of An-as and Cambray, and then bishop of Nimcguen and Tournay, A.i). 1097 — 1112. He wrote a history or chronicle of tlie cluirches of Cambray and Arras, in three books ; pubUslicd by Geo. Colvencr, Douay, 1615. rascbal II. pope,'A.i>. 1099—1118. His former name was Kainer or Ragin- ger; a Tuscan by birth, a monk of Cluny, a presbyter and cardinal of Rome, abbot of St. Laurence, and St. Stc])hen, and at last pope. His wars and contests with Henry V. were ven,' violent. One hun- dred and seven of his epistles are in the Collections of Councils ; and some more in Baluze, Miscellanies. 7V.] jji.S^iAVA CHAPTER III. THE HISTORY OF RELIGION AND THEOLOGY. § 1. The state of religion. — § 2, 3. Witnesses for the tnith. — § 4. Expositions of the scriptures. — § 5, 6. Scholastic theology. — § 7. Moral theology. — § 8. Po- lemic theology. — § 9, 10, 11. Controversies between the Greeks and Initios. — § 12. New contest respecting the holiness of images. — § 13. Contentions in the Latin church. Controversy respecting the I^ord's supper. — § 14. l.i, 16. 17. The pontiffs labour in vain to settle it. — § 18. The result as to Bcrcngarius and his friends. — § 19. Dispute in France respecting Martial. § 1. It is not necessary to be nuinitc in describing the stitc of the public religion of this age. For who can doubt tliat it was debased and corrupt, when the guardians of it were just as fiir removed from the knowledge of divine and human things, as they were from virtue ; and even the first men in the church exhibited examples of the grossest vices ? Tlie people at large were wholly 318 BOOK III. — CENTUKY XI. [PAKT II. absorbed in superstition ; and concerned themselves with nothing but statues, and images, and relics, and the futile rites which the caprice of their priests enjoined upon them. The learned had not, indeed, wholly lost all knowledge of the truth ; but they obscured and debased it with opinions and doctrines, which Avere, some of them, ludicrous and silly, others hurtful and per- nicious, and others useless and uncertain. It is most unques- tionable that there were, here and there, pious and good men, who would willingly have aided the suffering cause of piety. But they themselves needed protection, against the satellites of su- perstition and impiety. § 2. From the times of Gregory VIL, however, pretty clear traces appear, in some countries of Europe, especially in Italy and France, of those persons whom the Protestants denominate ivitnesses of the truth ; that is, of pious and good men, who de- plored the imperfection and defects of the public religion, and of the whole clerical order, who opposed the lordly domination both of the Roman pontiffs and of the bishops, and who at- tempted, sometimes covertly, and sometimes openly, to effect a reformation in the church.' For rude as this age was, and ignorant in general of divinely-revealed truth ; yet those few fragments, as it were, of Christianity ^, which were exhibited and explained to the people, sufficed for showing, even to illite- rate and rustic men, that the religion publicly inculcated was not the true religion of Christ ; that Christ required of his fol- lowers things wliolly different from those exhibited in the dis- courses, and in the lives and morals of the clergy ; that the pon- tiffs and the bishops exceedingly misused their power and opulence ; and that the favour of God and salvation were to be obtained, not by a round of ceremonies, nor by donations to the churches and priests, nor by erecting and endowing monas- teries, but by holiness in the soul. § 3. Those, however, who undertook the great work of re- forming the church and religion, were, for the most part, incom- ' [Some have considered Peter Dami- * [In some of the MTiters of this cen- anus, Hildebert, Ivo, Walthram, bishop tur}% we meet with specimens of sound of Naumbm-g, and Lambert of Aschatfen- Christian doctrine, as well as of devout burg, as examples of this class of per- breathings of a pious soul. The English sons. Von Einem. — See F. Si)anheim's reader may see, for an example, the Introductio ad Historiam Eccles. N. T. life of Anseira of Canterbury, in Milncr's saicul. xi. cap. vii. § 5, p. 313, and the History of the Church, century xi. ch. v. Catalogus Testium Veritatis, lib. xii. xiii. Tr.'] Tr.'] en. III.] RELIGION AND THEOLOGY. 349 petent to the task ; and by their solicitude to avoid some fauhs, they ran into others. All, indeed, perceived the defects and blemishes of the prevailing religion ; but none, or at least very few, understood the nature and essential character of true reli- gion. This will not appear strange to one who is well ac- quainted with those unhappy times. Hence, these reformers often mixed much that was false with a little that was true. As all saw that not only most of the infamous and criminal acts of priests and bishops, but also the greatest of them, iiad flowed from abundance and riches, too high an opinion of want and in- digence gained ground ; nor was any virtue thought so charac- teristic of a good religious teacher, as voluntary ])overty. Every body looked upon the church of the primitive times as a model, by which all churches were ever after to be formed ; and the practice of the apostles of Jesus Christ as a perpetual and in- violable law for all priests. Many also, grieved to see the people place all their dependence for salvation on the external woi'ship of God, and ceremonies, contended that the whole of religion consisted in the internal emotions of the mind, and the contemplation of divine things ; and they contcnnicd and wished to abolish all external worship, with its temples, religious meetings, teachers, and sacraments. § 4. A large number both of the Greeks and the Latins ap- I^lied themselves to the interpretation oi' the Holy Scri[)turcs. Among the Latins, the two Brunos expounded the Psalms of David ; Lanfranc, the Epistles of St. Paul ; Bercnf/nrins, the Apocalypse of St. John ; Gref/ory VII. the Gospel of St. ^lat- thew ; and others, other portions of the sacred volume. But all these follow the perverse custom of their age ; that is, they either transcribe the works of former interpreters, or they apply the declarations of the sacred writers so wiumsioally to heavenly things and to the duties of life, that a wise man can scarcely re- strain his indignation. The most eminent of the Greek inter- preters, was Thcoplnjhct o^V>n\g^v\\\\ though //c also drew most of his comments from the ancients, particularly from C/irj/so- stom.^ After him we may place Michael J'stUus, who attempted to explain the Psalms and the book of Canticles; the Catena on Job, by Nicctas ; and some few others. * For an account of Theophylact, see des Auteurs Ecclds. par M. du Pin, torn. i. Rich. Simon's Histuirc Criti(/ue des prin- p. 3U), where he also treats of Nicctas cipaitx Cummentutciirs du N. T. ca]). xxviii. and CEcunieniiis. p. 380; and his Critique de la Bibliothique 350 BOOK III. — CENTURY XI. [PART II. § 5. Hitherto all the Latin theologians, except a few of the Irish, who threw obscurity on religious doctrines by their phi- losophical speculations, had illustrated, explained, and proved the doctrines of Christianity, solely from the Holy Scriptures, or from them in connexion with the opinions and writings of the fathers. But in the middle of this century, some divines, among whom was Berengarius, well known by his controversy respect- ing the Lord's supper, ventured to apply the precepts of logic and metaphysics to the explanation of the Scriptural doctrines, and the confirmation of their own opinions. Hence, the opponent and rival of Berengarius, Lanfranc, who was afterwards arch- bishop of Canterbury, employed the same weapons against Berengarius and his followers ; and, in general, laboured to im- part light and confirmation to certain religious truths, by the aids of reason. His example was followed by St. Anselm, after- wards likewise archbishop of Canterbury, a man of extraordinary subtlety ; and the two found many imitators. From these be- ginnings, gradually arose that species of philosophic theology, which, from the schools in which it most prevailed, obtained afterwards the name of scholastic theology.^ But there was far more sobriety and good sense in these reconcilers of faith and reason, than in their successors; for they used perspicuous language, had no fondness for vain and idle disputations ; and, for the most part, made use of the precepts of logic and philo- sophy, only in combating their antagonists.^ ^ See Christ. Aug. Heumann, Prccfat. of this art as far as I am able, I cover ad Tribechovii Librmii de Doctoribus Scho- over the art by citations of equivalent lasticis, p. xiv. Tiie sentiments of the import ; that I may not seem to place learned, respecting the first author or more reliance upon this art than upon inventor of the scholastic tlieology, are the trath and the authority of the holy collected by Jo. Fran. Buddeus, Isagoge fathers." The concluding words in this ad Theologiam, tom. i. p. 358. quotation indicate tliose sources from * That it may be seen how much which theologians previously to this age wiser the first scholastics were than had derived all then- arguments ; namely, their disciples and followers, I will sub- the holy Scripture, which he denomi- join a passage from Lanfranc, whom nates the truth, and the writings of the many regard as the first autlior of the ancient fathers. To these ttvo sources scholastic theology. In his tract de Cor- of proof, the theologians now suffered a pore et Sanguine Domini, cap. viii. 0pp. third to be added, namely dialectics. Yet p. 236, ed. D'Achery ; he says, " God is they would have none recur to this, my witness, and my oivn conscience, except disputants; whose business it is, that, in treating sacred subjects, I do to withstand opponents that wield dia- not wish to bring forward dialectical lectical weapons, and to solve the diffi- questions, and their solutions ; nor to culties suggested by reason. But un- answer them, when brought forward by happily, in the following ages, the two others. And if, at any time, the subject former sources of proof were used but under discussion is such, that it can be sparingly ; and philosophical proof, alone, most satisfactorily explained by the rules and that not \crj wisely stated, was en. III.] RELIGION AND THEOLOGY. 351 § 6. Following these principles, the Latin theologians began to reduce all the truths of revealed religion into a connected system, and to subject them to the laws of the human sciences : a thing which no one before had attempted ; if we except Tajo of Saragossa, a writer of the seventh century, and Dumasccmis among the Greeks, in the eighth century. For all the Latin writers, previously to this age, had only occasionally, and in a formal manner, elucidated and explained the points of theology; nor had they thus explained them all, but oidy such as the occasions demanded. The first attempt at a system of theulogy was by Anselm ^ ; and the first who completed an entire system, or body of divinity, was Hildebert, bishop of Le Mans, and afterwards archbishop of Tours, just at the close of tlie century. And all the subsequent, almost numberless, writers of systems of theology'', seem to have followed ITddehert as their model. ^ His method is, first to substantiate each doctrine by passages of Scripture, and by authorities from the fathers, which had been the common method hitherto ; and then, to solve the difficulties deemed sufficient to substantiate every thing in a system of theulogy. ^ [Tlie principal treatise by Anselm, here refei'red to, is that entitled. Cur Deus homo ? in two books, (in his 0/>p. p. 74—96, ed. Paris, 1721, fol.) The work corresponds with its title, its ob- ject being to answer the ([ucstion. Why did God become incarnate ? He describes the fallen state of man, and his need of an Almighty Saviour to atone for his sins, and raise him to a state of bliss after death ; and he shows that an incar- nate God, and he only, could perform the office of a mediator. The views and speculations of Anselm on this whole subject have prevailed very gene- rally, quite down to the present times. Nor have Grotius, and Edwards, and the most elaborate modern writers, added much on the subject. Another tract of Anselm, on the same im])ortant subject, is entitled, de Conceptu I'iryi/Kili et Ori- ginali Peccalo Liber; (in his Opp. p. 97 — 106.) Besides these, he has four others on important subjects. The first is a philosophical incpiiry into the nature of truth, de Veritate ; Opp. p. 109—115. The second is on free-will, de libera Ar- bitrio; Opp. p. 117—122. The third is on the fall of the sinninij angels, de Casu Diaboli; Opp. p. 62—73. The fourth is a philosophical explanation of the doc- trine of the divine decrees, and its consis- tency with free and accountable action in creatures, de Concordia Prtescientice et I'ra-destinationis, necnon Gralice, cum libero Arbitrio ; Opp. p. 123 — 134. On all these subjects, Anselm thought in- tensely, and endeavoured to meet every objection and difficulty which C(»uld l>e urged. But he did not wander from his subject, and take up a whole system of divinity in one, or even all, of these his theological tracts.] ' Sumnuinim tlieologicanim. ' This first si/stcm of theology among the Latins, or Trartatits 'I'heotogiru.ard, Kol>ert Pullen. and the other wri- ters of Sununarics, trod in the AK)t.stcps of Hildebert. [This tract occupies alRiut ninety folio jmges, and is divided into forty chajjters. It treats of the naturo of faith, free-will, and sin, the Trinity, the incaniation of the Son of GtHJ, ori- ginal sin, and grace, ])redestiiu»tion and ])rescience, and the sacraments. But it scarcely touches u]>on the dtK'triue of atonement by Jesus Christ, its value and efficacy, of faith in Christ, of regene- ration and sanctitication, and the pro- mises of the gospel TV.] 352 BOOK III. — CENTURY XI. [PART II. and objections which may be raised, by the aid of reason and philosophy ; which was something new and peculiar to this age.^ § 7. Those of this age, who undertook to give rules for a Christian life and conduct, attempted a great object, Avithout possessing in general, adequate resources. This may be seen, by looking over the work o^ Peter Damianus on the virtues ; and the Moral Philosophy, and the tract on the four virtues of a religious life, by Hildehert, bishop of Le Mans. Nor did the moralists usually add any thing to their precepts respecting the virtues, except what they called the xcritten law : by which they intended the ten commandments of Moses. Anselm wrote some tracts calculated to excite pious emotions, and a book of medi- tations and prayers, in which many good thoughts occur. Nor did the mystics, as they are called, wholly abstain from writing. Among the Latins, John Joliannellus composed a book expressly on divine contemplations ' ; and among the Greeks, Simeon, junior, wrote some tracts on the same subject ; not to mention some others. § 8. Many of the polemics of this age came forth, armed with dialectical arguments and demonstrations ; yet few of them could use such arguments dexterously and properly : and they aimed, not so much to confute their adversaries, as to confound them with their subtleties. Those who were destitute of such armour, contend so badly, as to convict themselves of having begun to write before they had considered what was to be written, and how they were to do it. Damianus defended Christianity against the Jews, with good intentions, but with little effect. And there is extant a tract of Samuel, a converted Jew, against his nation. Anselm of Canterbury assailed the despisers of all religion and of God, with acuteness, in his book, against the fooP ; but perhaps the subtlety of the reason- * I will here subjoin an opinion of of reason ; so, it appears to me, to be Anselm of CanterlDuiy, taken from his negligence, if, when we are confirmed in treatise entitled, Cur Deus Homo ? lib. the faith, we do not study to understand i. c. 2. 0pp. p. 75 ; an opinion, which what we believe:" — [which amounts to the first philosophical theologians, or the this, that we must first believe without exa- Schohstics, among the Latins, seem to mination, but must afterioards endeavour have received as a sacred and immutable to understand what we believe. Mad.'] law in theology : " As the right order of ' See the Histoire Litteraire de la proceeding requires, that we believe the France, tom. \n\. p. 48. deep things of the Christian faith, before * Adversus Insipientem. we presume to discuss them by the aid CH. III.] RELIGION AND THEOLOGY. 353 ing exceeded tlie comprehension of those whom he aimed to convince. § 9. The public contests between the Greek and Latin churches, which, though not settled, had now for a long time been suspended, were indiscreetly revived, and rendered more violent, by new accusations, in the year 1053, by Michael Ceru- larius, patriarch of Constantinople, a man of a restless spirit. War was renewed under pretence of zeal for the truth, and for religion ; but it really flowed from pride and lust of rule in the two pontiffs. The Latin one endeavoured, by various arts and projects, to bring the Greek under subjection, and to detach the patriarchs of Alexandria and Antioch from him, and to con- nect them with himself; and the disturbed and unhai)py con- dition of the Greek empire was favourable to such machinations. For the friendship of the Roman pontift' seemed very important to the Greeks, who had to contend with the Normans in Italy, as well as with the Saracens. The Grecian pontiff, on the other hand, was solicitous to extend the limits of his jurisdiction, to concede nothino; to his Latin brother, and to brini; the Oricn- tal patriarchs entirely under his control. Crnilarii/s, therefore, in a letter, written in his own name, and in that of his chief coun- sellor, Leo, bishop of Acrida, and addressed to Jo/m, bishop of Trani in Apulia, publicly accused the I^atlns of various errors.^ Leo IX., who was then Koman pontitf, replied in a letter, drawn up in a very imperious style ; and likewise, in a council at Rome, excommunicated the Greeks.* § 10. In order to stifle this controversy in its birtli, the Greek emperor Constantine, suruamed Monomachus, requested tiie R(j- man pontiff to send legates to Constantinople, to negotiate a settlement. Accordingly, three legates of the Latin pontiff repaired to Constantinople ; namely, cardinal Ilinnhcrt. a fiery man, Peter, arclibishop of Amalti, and Frederic, areluleacou and chancellor of the Church of Rome; carrying with them letters from the pontitf, l)oth to the emperor and to the Greek patriarch. But the issue of the legation was lament- able, although the emperor himself, for political reasons, fa- voured the side of the Latins more than that of the Greeks. s [In faith and practice. Tr.'] turn. iii. p. 281. of the new edition ; and * These epistk-s are extant in Bare- tluit of Leo, ni the L'oncdm, At. [e.y. nius, Annales, ad ann. 1053, toni. xi. p. in llarduin's Collection, ton), vi. pt. u 210, &c. The epistle of Ceridarius is p. 927. TV.] also printed in Canisins' Lectt. Avtiq. VOL. II. A A 354 BOOK III. — CENTURY XI. [PART II. For the letter of Leo IX., which displayed great arrogance, alienated the mind of Cerularius from him ; and the legates showed, in various ways, that they were sent, not so mvich to restore harmony between the contending parties, as to establish Koman domination among the Greeks. All deliberation about a reconciliation being thus rendered fruitless, the Roman legates proceeded, in the most indiscreet and most unsuitable manner possible, in the year 1054; for they excommunicated the Greek patriarch, with Leo of Acrida, and all that adhered to them, publicly, in the church of St. Sophia ; left a copy of the inhu- man anathema upon the great altar, and then shook off the dust from their feet and departed. This most unrighteous procedure rendered the dissension incurable, though till this act it seemed capable of a compromise. The Greek patriarch now returned the anathema, in a council, excommunicating the pontiff's legates, and all their friends and supporters ; and also directed the copy of the Latin decree of excommunication against the Greeks, to be burned by order of the emperor.^ From this time, offensive and insulting writings were issued by both parties, which continually added fresh fuel to the fire. § 11. To the old charges advanced by Photius, new ones were added by Cerularius ; of which the chief one was, that the Latins used unleavened bread in the Holy Supper ; a point on which, from this time, the Greeks and Latins contended more vehe- mently, perhaps, than on any other ; at all events, they were as warm about it as about the primacy of the Roman pontiff. The other things opprobriously objected to the Latins, by the Greek partriarch, betray rather his contentious disposition, and igno- rance of true religion, than zeal for the truth. For he was ex- ceedingly offended that the Latins did not abstain from things strangled and from blood ; that tlielr monks used lard, and allowed the brethren when sick to eat flesh ; that the Latin bishops wore rings on their fingers, as if they were bridegrooms; * Besides Baronius, and the common cen. prima, § xxxi. p. xvi. &c. but espc- writers, none of whom are free from cially Jo. Gottfr. Hermann, Historia eiTors, see John Mabillon, Annates Bened. Concertafionum de Paneazymo et fermen- tom. iv. lib. Ix. ad ann. 1053, and Pra-f. tato, p. 59, &c. Lips. 1739, 8vo, and Jo. ad sa?.cul. vi. of his Acta Sanctor. Ord. Bapt. Cotelier, Monumenta Ecclesice Gr. Bened. pt. ii. p. i. &c. Leo Allatius, de tom. ii. p. 108, &c. [See also a full, yet Libris Gracor. Ecclesiast. diss. ii. p. 160, dense, and well vouched account in J. ed. Fabricius ; and, de Perpetua Ecclesice E. C. Schmidt's Kirchengesch. vol. v. p. Orient, ft Occident.Consensio7ie, lib. ii. cap. 316, &c. The account in Bovver's Lives ix. p. 614. Mich, le Quicn, Oriens Chris- of the Popes, vol. v. is less correct. TV.] tianus, tom. i. p. 260 ; and Diss. Damas- CH. III.] RELIGION AND THEOLOGY. 355 that their jmests wore no beards, but shaved them ; and lastlv, that persons under baptism were among the Latins dipped but once into the water.'' When we see the Greeks and Latins not only standing aloof from each other and contending eagerly, but also fulminating anathemas and execrations against each other, for such things as these, we perceive the very lamentable state of religion in both churches ; and we can be at no h)ss for the causes that gave rise to so many sects dissenting from the church. § 12. When the century was all but closed, under Alexins Comnenus, the Greeks, in addition to their controversy with the Latins, narrowly escaped from anotiier among themselves. Public difficulties being extreme, the emperor not only laid hold of the money in the churches, but also caused the plates and images of gold and silver to be taken from the doors of them, and to be converted into money. Leu, bishop of Chalcedon, a man of austere manners, severely censured this transaction, maintaining that it was a sacrilege. To support his views, lie published a tract, asserting, that in the images and emblems of Jesus Christ and the saints, there was a degree of sanctity which entitled them to worship and adoration ; so that worship was to be paid, not only to the persons rc[)rescntcd by the statues, images, and emblems, but also to the statues themselves. To suppress the popular tumult which arose from this discussion, the emperor assembled a council at Constantinople, which de- creed, that the images of Christ and of the saints were to be worshipped only relatively '' ; that the material of a sacred image was not entitled to worship, but the likeness formed upon the material; that the images of Christ and the saints, wlielhcr painted or carved, had nothing of tlieir nature, although they participated somewhat in the grace of God : and that the saints were to be invoked and honoured as the servants (»f Christ, and on his account. Leo, who had held dillerent opinions, was de- prived of his office, and sent into exile.'* " See the epistle of Cenilarius to ' 2x*T(Ka'y ■KpoaKwovfitv, ou Xarptv- John of Tiani, in Canisius' Lectiones tikws ras *i(c<$m5. Antiq. torn. iii. p. 281 ; where also we * This controversy is state! at Inrpe have Humbert's confutation of it. Ceru- by Anna Conuicna, tiie cniiHTui's daii;;h- larius' epistle to Peter of Antioch is in ter; AUxiailos, lib. v. j.. 104. ill), vii. p. Cotelier's Muiiuminht Ecclcsicc Gnrcer, 158, eil. Venice. The acts of the council torn. ii. p. 1038. Add Martene's The- were drawn from the Coislinian librarj', saur. Anecdotor. torn. v. p. 847, wiiere is by Ikrnh. de Montfaucon. and pub- a polemic tract of an unknown Latin lished iu his Bibliotli. Coisliniana, p. 103, writer against the Greeks. &c. A A 356 BOOK III. — CENTURY XI. [PART II. § 13. In the Latin church, about the middle of the century, the controversy was revived respecting the manner in which Christ's body and blood are present in the eucharist. Various opinions on this subject had hitherto prevailed with impunity; for it had not yet been decided by the councils, what men ought to believe respecting it.^ Hence in the beginning of the century, a.d. 1004, Leutheric, archbishop of Sens, had taught, contrary to the more general opinion, that only holy and worthy communicants receive the body of Christ : but Robert, king of France, and the advice of friends, prevented him from raising commotion among the people by the doctrine.^ Much more indiscreet was Beren- garius, a canon and master of the school at Tours, afterwards archdeacon of Angers, a man of subtle wit, learned, and vene- rable for sanctity of life.^ By him was publicly and resolutely maintained, in the year 1045, the opinion of John Scotus re- specting the Holy Supper ; that of Puscliasius Radbert, which better accorded with the unenlightened piety of the multitude, being rejected. He taught, in fact, that the bread and wine are not converted into the body and blood of Christ, but are merely figures of his body and blood. '^ He was forthwith opposed by some in France and Germany; and Leo IX., the Roman pontiff", in the year 1050, caused his opinion to be condemned in a council, first at Rome, and then at Vercelli; and ordered the work of Scolus, from which it was derived, to be committed to the flames. Berengarius was not present at either of these councils. A council held at Paris, in the same year, by Henry king of France, concurred in the decision of the pontiff"; and issued very severe threats against Berengarius, who was absent, and against his adherents who were numerous. A part of ' The various opinions of the age called arc/iiepiscopus, instead of archidia- respecting the eucharist are stated by conus, in Matthew of Paris, Hist. lib. i. Martene, from an ancient manuscript, p. 10, ed. Watts. But I suppose it is a in his Voyage Litteraire de deux Bme- mistake of the pririter, and not of the dictins de la Congregation de S. Maur, historian. [For the life of Berengarius torn. ii. p. 126. see Mabillon, de Berengario, ej usque Ha- ' See Boulay, Historia Acad. Paris, reseos ortu, progres.su — ac multiplici con- tom. i. p. 354. demnatioyie, in Prcefat. ad Acta Sanctor. ^ For the life of Berengarius, see Ord. Bened. tom. ix. p. vii. &c. Beren- thc works of Hildebert of Le Mans, p. ^ar/ws, or the announcement of an import- 1324. Histoire Litteraire de la France, ant work by him, by G. E. Lcssing, (in tom. viii. p. 197, &c. Boulay, Historia German,) 1770. Schroeckh's Kirchen- Acad. Paris, tom. i. p. 404, and those jeicA. tom. xxxiii. p. 507, &c. 7"/-.] others mentioned by Jo. Alb. Fabricius, ^ [See, for the real opinion of Beren- Biblioth. Lat. Mcdi. ^vi, tom.\. \>. 570. garius, note^ p. 360, in this chapter. I will just observe, that he is erroneously Tr.'\ CH. III.] RELIGION AND THEOLOGY. 357 these threatenings was felt by Berengarius ; lor the king de- prived him of the income of his office. But neither threats, nor decrees, nor fines, could move hini to reject the opinion which he had embraced. § 14. This controversy now rested for some years ; and Beren- garius, who had many enemies, (among whom, his rival, Litn- fianc, was the principal,) and also many patrons and friends, was restored to his former tranquillity. But after the death of Leo IX., his adversaries incited Victor II., the new pontiff", to order the cause to be tried again, before his legates, in two coun- cils, held at Tours in France, a. i). 1054. In one of these coim- cils, in which the celebrated Ilildchrand, afterwards Gregory VJI., was one of the papal legates, Berengarius was present ; and being overcome by threats, undoulitedly, rather than by argu- ments, he not only gave up his opinion, but (if we may l)elievc his adversaries, who are the only witnesses we have,) abjured it and was reconciled to the churcli. This docility, however, was only feigned : for he soon after went on teaching the same doe- trine as before, though perhaps more cautiously. IIow nmcli censnre he deserves for this bchavioui% it is difficult to say, as we are not well informed of what was done in the coimeil. § 15. Nicolaus II. being informed of this bad faith of Bvrni- garius, in the year 1058 sununoned him to Bome : and in a very full council, held there in the year 1059, he so terrified him, as to make Berengarius beg to have a fornuila of faith prescribed to him. One was accordingly drawn up by Unvihert. a cardinal, which he subscribed and confirmed with an oatii. In this formula he declares, that he believes what Nirn/m/s and the council required to be believed, namely, " that tiie liread and wine, after consecration, are not only a sacrament, but also the real body and blood of Christ ; and are sensibly, and not merely sacramentally, but really and truly, handled by the hands of the priests, broken, and masticated by the teeth of the i'aithful.'' An opinion so monstrous could not, however, be really enter- tained by a man like Berengarius, for he was acute and a philosopher. Therefore, when he returned to France, relying undoubtedly upon the protection of his patrons, he exi)ressed his detestation, both orally and in his writings, of what he had professed at Komc, and defended his former sentiments. Alex- ander IL, indeed, admonished him, in a friendly letter, to re- form; but he attempted nothing against him ; probably because A A 3 358 BOOK III. —CENTURY XI. [rART II. he perceived him to be upheld by powerful supporters. Of course the controversy was protracted many years in various pub- lications, and the number of Berengarius' followers increased. § 16. When Gregory VII. was raised to the chair of St. Peter, that pontiff, to whom no difficulty seemed insurmountable, un- dertook to settle this controversy also; and therefore summoned Berengarius to Home, in the year 1078. This new judge of the affiiir manifested an extraordinary, and, considering his charac- ter, a wonderful degree of moderation and gentleness. He seems to have been attached to Berengarius, and to have yielded rather to the clamours of his adversaries, than to have followed his own inclinations. In the first place, in a council held near the close of the year, he allowed the accused to draw up a new formula of faith for himself, and to abandon the old formula drawn up by Humbert, though it had been sanctioned by Nico- laus II., and by a council ; for Gregory, being a man of discern- ment, undoubtedly saw the absurdity of that formula.'* Beren- garius, therefore, now professed to believe, and swore that he would in future believe, only, " that the bread of the altar, after consecration, is the real body of Christ, which was born of the Virgin, suffered on the cross, and is seated at the right hand of the Father ; and that the wine of the altar, after consecration, is the real blood which flowed from Christ's side." But what was satisfactory to the pontiff, did not satisfy the enemies of Berengarius ; lor they maintained that the formula was am- biguous, (and ambiguous it certainly is,) hence they wished that one more definite might be prescribed for him ; and also, that he might prove the sincerity of his belief, by touching red hot iron. The last of these, the pontiff, in his friendship for the accused, would not concede ; the first he could not deny to the importunities by which he was assailed. § 17. The following year therefore, a.d. 1079, in a council held again at Rome, Berengarius was required to repeat, sub- scribe, and swear to a third formula, which was milder than the first but harsher than the second. According to this, he pro- fessed to believe, " that the bread and wine, by the mysterious rite of the holy prayer and the words of our Eedeemer, are * I wish the Icamed and candid to more strenuonsly, here tacitly acknow- observe liere, that Gregory VII., than ledges that a Koman pontiff and a coun- whom none carried the prerogatives of cil are capable of erring, and have in the pontifls furtlier, or defended them fact erred. RELIGION AND THEOLOGY. 359 CH. III.] changed in their substance into the real and proper and vivify- ing flesh and blood of Jesus Christ : " and he also added to what he had professed by the second formula, " that the bread and wine are," after consecration, "the real body and blood of Clu-ist, not only by a sign and in virtue of a sacrament, but in their essential properties, and in the reality of their substance." When he had made this profession, the pontifi" dismissed him to his own country with many tokens of his good will. But he, as soon as he got home, discarded, and confuted by a book, what he had professed at Home in the last council. Hence Lanfranc, Grdtmund, and perhaps others, violently attacked him in written treatises : but Grcfjory VII. neither punished his in- constancy, nor manifested displeasure ; which is evidence that the pontiff was satisfied with the second formula, or that which Bercnfjarina himself drew up, and disapproved of the zeal of his enemies, who obtruded upon him the third fornuda." * These statements are finely illustra- ted and siip])ortcd by a writing of Bcren- gariiis himsflt', wliich Edni. ]\Iartenc has presented to the publie in iiis The- saurus Anecdotor. torn. iv. p. 99 — 109. From this tract it appears, (I.) that Gregoiy VII. had great and sincere friendship for Bcrcngarius. (II.) That, in general, he believed with Bercngariiis respecting the eucharist ; or, at least, thought we ought to abide by the words of liuly writ, and not too curiously en- quire after and define the mode of Christ's presence. For thus Gregory (p. 108) addressed Berengarius just before the last council : " I certainly have no doubt that your views of the sacrifice of Christ are correct and agreeable to the scrip- tures, yet because it is my custom to recur on important subjects, &c.— I have enjoined upon a friend, who is a religious man, to obtain from 8t. Mary, that through him she would voucli- safe not to conceal from me, but ex- pressly instruct me, what course I sliould take in the business before me, relating to the sacrifice of Christ, that I may persevere in it immoveably." Gregory, therefore, was inclined to the opinion of Berengarius, but yet had some doubts ; and, therefore, he consulted St. Mary, through a friend, to know what juilgment he ougiit to form respecting the euciia- risticiil question. Anil what was her response ? His friend (he says) " learned from St. Mar}-, and reported to me, that no inquiries wore to lie made, and no- thing to be held, respecting the sjicrifice of Christ, beyond what the authentic scriptures contain ; against which Be- rengarius held nothing. This I wished to state to you, tiiat your confidence in us might be more secure, and your anti- cipations more plea-^^ing." This there- fore was Gregory's belief, and tliis lie sujiposed or ])ri'tended he had received from tiie holy virgin herself, that wc should dimply hold what the sjicreii vo- lume teaches, that the real Iwdy and blood of Christ are exhibited in the sacred supper, but should not ilisputo about the manner of it. (Ill) It ap- pears from this writing, that Gregory was forced, liy tiie enemies of Ik'RMi- garius, wiio ])ressed the thing l>eyond measure, to allow another fonuula to be prescribed to Berengarius in another council. " lie was constraineil," says Bereng.irius, " by the iniporninity of the lailfoon — not liish(']> — of I'adua, and of tiie antichrist — nut bishop of I'isa, — to ]>ennit the calunmiators of the tnith, in the last (Quadragesimal council, to alter the writing sanctioned by them in the fonner council." (IV.) It is liencc manifest, why Grcgorj- attempted nothing further against lii-rengarius, notwith- standing he violated his faith publicly j)lighted in the latter council, and wrote against the fomiula which he had con- A A 4 360 BOOK HI. CENTURY XI. [part II § 18. 5eren^anM5, influenced undoubtedly by motives of pru- dence, returned no answer to his adversaries, who were violently moved ; but retiring from the world, he repaired to the island of St. Come, near Tours ; and there led a solitary life, in prayer, fasting, and other devotional exercises, till the year 1088, when he died ; leaving a high reputation for sanctity, and numerous followers.^ In this retreat he seems to have aimed to atone for the crime, which he confessed, lamenting deeply the commission of it, before the last council at Rome, wdien he pi'ofessed, con- trary to the dictates of his own conscience, what he regarded as erroneous doctrine.^ As to his real opinions, learned men are not agreed ; but whoever will candidly examine his writings that yet remain, will readily see that he was one of those who con- sider the bread and wine to be signs of the body and blood of Christ ; although he expressed himself variously, and concealed his views under ambiguous phraseology.* Nor have they any finned with an oath. For Gregory himself disagreed with the authors of this formula, and deemed it sufficient if a person would confess with Beren- garius that the real body and blood of Christ were exhibited in the sacred supper. He therefore suffered his ad- versaries to murmur, to write, and to confute the man whom he esteemed and agreed with ; kept silence himself, and would not allow Berengarius to be fur- ther molested. Moreover, in the book from which I have made these extracts, Berengarius most humbly begs God to forgive the sin he committed at Rome ; and acknowledges, that through fear of death, he assented to the proposed for- mula, and accused himself of error, con- trary to his real belief. " God Almighty," says he, " the fountain of all mercy, have compassion on one who confesses so great a sacrilege." * The canons of Tours still celebrate religiously his memory. For they annu- ally, on the third day of Easter, repair to his tomb, on the island of St. Come, and there solemnly repeat certain prayei's. See Moleon, Voyages Litur- giques, p. 1.30. ' None will doubt this, after reading his tract published by Edm. Martene, Thesaur. Anecdotor. torn. vi. p. 109. * Some writers in the Romish church, as Mabillon and others, and some also in our own, suppose that Berengarius merely denied what is called transub- stantiation ; while he admitted the real presence of Christ's body and blood. And whoever inspects only the fonnula, which he approved in the first Roman covmcil under Gregory VII., and which he never after rejected, and does not compare his other \\Titings with it, may be easily led to believe so. But the wri- ters of the reformed chm-ch, Jac. Bas- nage, Ussher, and nearly all others, maintain, that Berengarius' opinion was the same that Calvin afterwards held. With these I have united, after care- fully penising liis epistle to Almannus in Martene's Thesaurus, torn. iv. p. 109. " Constat," says he, " veram Chiisti cor- pus in ipsa mensa proponi, sed spiritualitcr interiori homini venim, in ca Christi coi-jius ab his duntaxat, qui Christi mem- bra sunt, incormptum, intaminatum inattritumque spiritualitcr manducari." This is so clear, that an objection can scarcely be raised against it. Yet Be- rengarius often used ambiguous temis and phrases, in order to elude his ene- mies.— [Since Dr. Mosheim's death, the manuscript of Berengarius' reply to Lanfranc has been discovered in the library of Wolfenbuttle ; and a large part of it has been presented to the public, in extracts, by G. E. Lessing {Gregorius Turoncnsis, oder Ankiindigung eines wichtigen Werkes desselben, ^c. Brunzw. 1770, 4to). From this work it is said to appear, beyond all controversy, that Berengarius only denied Iransub- RELIGION AND THEOLOGY. 3(51 CII. III.] solid proof to urge, who contend, that he receded from this opinion before his death.^ stanliation, or tlie transmutation of the suhstiincc of the brcail and wine into the substance of Christ's body and blood ; while yet he admitted the real presence of Christ's body and blood, as being superadded to the bread ami wine, in and by theii" consecration. See Schroeekh, Kirchengesch. toin. xxiii. p. 534, &c. And Miinscher's Elements of dogmatic Ilistori/, § 243, p. 118, ed. N. Ilaven. 1830. And this accords exactly with the statement of Guitmund, one of Eereiiixarius' anta- gonists, as quoted by ISIabillon, (dc Be- rengario, ejus(pte Hareseos ortu, iS'c in his Praf. ad Acta Sanctor. Ord. Bened. torn. ix. p. xxiii.) Speaking of the Ibllowers of Berengarius, Guitmund says, " All the Berengarians indeed agree in this, that the bread and wine are not changed in their essence ; but I was al)le to draw from some of them, that they differ among themselves iiuuh ; for some of them say, that nothing whatever of the body and blood of tiie Lord arc in the sacraments, but that these arc only shadows and figures [of the body and blood of Christ] ; but others, yield- ing to the solid arguments of the church, yet not receding from their folly, that they may seem to be with us in a sort, say, that the body and blood of the Lord are in realili/, though coeertli/ con- tained there, (re venx, sed latenter conti- neri,) and, in order that they may be received, they arc, somewhow, so to speak, impanated, (impanain). And tJiis more subtile opinion, they sai/, is that of Berengarius himself." — Berengarius, therefore, w;vs a Lutheran, or, like Luther, he held the doctrine of corLsubstantiation. — It may be added, that the newly dis- covered manuscript of Berengarius throws light on viu-ious parts of his historj' and of the proceedings against him. In jKirticular, it shows that Lan- franc attacked him, and wa.s answered bv him, at a much earlier |)erii>d than I)r. Mosheim states in the text, § 17. 3 It is well known, that the historians of the Romish community endeavour to persuade us, that Berengarius, In-fore his death, gave up the doctrine which he had for so many years strenuously de- fended, and adopted that of the Romish church. But the oidy proofs that they have of tlie fact, are these : First, in the council of Bourdcaux, a. n. lOSO, it is said, " he gave an account of his faith." And further, sonic ancient wri- ters speak favourably of his penitence, and say that he died in the catholic faith. But these argiunents amount to nothing. Berengarius adhered to that fornuda which he adojited in the for- mer council at I{oiue under Gregory, and which the pontirt" judged to he sutH- cient : and they who heard it read, but did not examine its import, but li«)ked only at the words, and their natural im- l)ort, might easily believe, that U'tween his opiniim and the common U-lief of the church, there wjls no dirtereiice. And in this conclusion, they wotdd be confirmed by the ct)nduct of the pontirt'; who, though he knew Berengarius to have renounced and oppost.'d the for- nuda, which he had approved in tlie latter Roman council, yet th ehunli itself, respecting the .sacred supper, wils not, in that age, definitely estaldished ; as the three fonnuhu; of Berengarius evince, lieyond all controversy ; for they most manifestly disngrec, not in wmls only, but in import. Nicolaus II. and his council decided, that the first for- mul.i, which cardinal Ihunbert drew up, was sound, and contained the true doi-- trinc of the church. But this was re- jected, and (leenu'd too crude and erro- neous, not oidy by Gregon-, Imt also by his tw(j C(juiu-ils that tried the cause. For if the i)ontiff and his councils had beheved that this fonnula e.xprc.iseil the tnic sense of the church, they wouH never have suftered another to \k sub- stituted for it. The ]>ontifV hinis<-lf, us we have .seen, suppo,-ed that the doetrine of the sacred su]>|K'r wius not to l>e cx- ]ilaineil too minutely, but that, dismiss- ing all (juestions as to the mode of Christ's presence, the words of the sacred vo- lume were simply to Ik- adhered t<» : and as Ik-rengarius had dotie this in his for- muhi, the jiontifl' pri>iiounced him no offender. But the liLst coiuicil tleparted from the opinion of the jxiutirt"; and the j>ontirt', though reluctant, sufii-red himself to be drawn over to the opinion of the council. Hence, the third fomuila dis- agreeing with l>oth the former ones. 362 BOOK III. — CENTURY XI. [part II. § 19. In France, about the year 1023, a great contest ai'ose about a little thing. The priests and monks of Limoges dis- puted, whether Martial, the first bishop of Limoges, ought, in the public prayers, to be classed among the apostles or among the confessors. Jordan, the bishop of Limoges, would have him be denominated a confessor : but Hugo, abbot of the monastery of St. Martial, insisted on his being called an apostle ; and he pronounced the adherents of the bishop to be Ebionites, that is, the worst of heretics. This controversy was first taken up in the council of Poitiers, and then, a. D. 1024, in that of Paris. Their decision was, that Martial was to be honoured with the appellation of an apostle ; and those who judged differently were to be compared with the Ebionites, who denied that there were any more than twelve apostles. The Ebionites, it may be noted, in order to exclude St. Paul from the number of apostles, would not allow of more than twelve apostles. But this decision of the council inflamed, rather than calmed, the feelings of the dis- putants ; and the silly controversy spread over all France. The affair being carried before the pontiff, John XIX., he decided, by we may lierc drop the passing remark, that in this controversy a council was superior to the pontiff: and the resoUite Gregory himself, who would yield to no one else, yielded to the council. Beren- garius, escaping from the hands of his enemies, adhered to his own formula, which had met the approbation of the pontiff, and publicly assjtiled and con- ilemned the tliu'd fomiula, or that of the latter council. And he did this with the pontiff's knowledge and silent con- sent. Now what could be inferred from all this, but that Berengarius, though lie resisted the decree of the latter council, yet held to the opinion of the pontiff and the church ? — In this history of the Bc- rengarian controversy, so memorable for various reasons, I have examined the ancient documents of it that are ex- tant, (for all of them are not extant,) and have called in the aid of those learned men who have treated most co- juously and accurately of this contest. First, the veiy rare work of Francis de lloye, published at Angers, 1656, 4to, under the title. Ad can. Ego Berengarius 41, de consec.rat. distinct. 2, uhi vita, lueresis et pfenitentia Berengarii Andcga- vcnsis Archidiaconi et ad Joseph i locum de Cliristo. Next, I have consulted Jo. IMabillon, Praifat. ad torn. ix. Acta Sanctor. Ord. Bened. or stecul. vi. pt. ii. p. iv. &c. ; and his Diss, de multiplici damnatione, fidei professione et relapsu; which is in his Analecta veteris ^vi, tom. ii. p. 456. Ctes. Egasse de Boulay, His- toria Acad. Paris, tom. i. p. 404, &c. Franc. Pagi, Breviarium. Bomanor. Pon- tif. tom. ii. p. 452. Among the re- formed divines, Jac. Ussher, de Successione Ecclesiar. Christianar. in Occidente, cap. vii. § 24, p. 195, &c. Jac. Basnagc, Histoire des Eglises Beformees, tom. i. p. 105, and Histoire de VEglise, tom. ii. p. 1391. Casim. Oudin, Diss, de doctrina. et scriptis Berengarii, in his Comment, de Scriptor. Ecclesiast. tom. ii. p. 624. Par- tiality prevails, I fear, among them all, but especially among the ■\\Titers of the Romish church. [Mabillon says, that the ancients eveiy where write the name Beringerius. It is obviously the Bercnger of modern times. The famous contro- versialist who once bore it, pronounced John Scot's opinion, doctrine, Paschasius Radbcrt's, a tissue of absurdities. Hence he expostulated with Lanfranc for adoj)t- ing the latter, as doing a thing unworthy of his genius, Annall. Bened. torn. iv. p. 486. Ed.] CH. IV.] RITES AND CEREMONIES. , 363 a letter, addressed to Jordan and the other bi6ho})S of France, in favour of the monks, and pronounced Martial deservuig of the title and the honours of an apostle. Therefore, first in the council at Limoges, a. d. 1029, Jordan yielded to the pleasure of the pontiff; and next, a. d. 1031, in a council of the whole province of Bourges, Martial was solemnly enrolled in the order of apostles ; and lastly, in a very full council at Limoges, the same yeai-, the controversy was terminated, and prayers con- secrated by the pontiff to the honour of Martial the apostle, were publicly recited.^ Those who contended for the apostlcship of Martial, assumed that he was one of the seventy disciples of Christ; and thence they inferred, that he was entitled to the rank of an apostle, upon the same ground as Paul and Barnabas were. CHAPTER IV. HISTORY OF KITES AND CEREMONIES. § 1. Use of the Roman liturfry extended. — § 2. Worsliiii in a foreign tongue— § 3. Rebuilding and adorninj; tlie cinnrlies. § 1. The forms of public worship used at Rome, had not yet been received in all provinces of the Latin world. In this age, therefore, the pontiffs, who regarded any disagreement in rites as adverse to their authority, took great pains to have the Romish forms every where adopted, and all others excluded. In this affair, again, the diligence of Gregory VII., as his letters show, ' Sec Boulay, Historia Acad. Paris, ii. p. 7t'.t), &c. Of the first nntiior of torn. i. p. 372' 40!. Jac. Longiieval, this .-itrifo, Adoinar, v. monk of Chiilni- Histoire de VEglise Gallicanr, torn. vii. nois, Ao. >ral>ill(in n'wx^ an account, in p. 188, 189. 231, &c. The Benedictine his Annalrs Onl. S. Jicnrd. toin. iv. p. monks' in tiieir Gallia Christiana, torn. 348, &c. and in the ajiiH^ndix t.. the vo- ii. Append. Documentor, p. 162, have hnne he subjoins the epistle of Adctnar, publisiied Jonhm's letter to the pope, in sujiix.rt of the nix.stleship of Martial. Benedict VIII., as^ainst the apostleship The Benedictine monks have also given of Martial. The acts of the council of an account of this man, in their His- Bourgcs and Limo>,'CS, respecting this loire Littt'raire de la Frame, toin. vii. controversy, are published by Thil. p. 301. Labbe, Biblioth. nova Manuscriptor. turn. 364 , BOOK III. — CENTURY XI. [PART II. was very conspicuous. No people of Europe had more reso- lutely and perseveringly opposed the wishes of the pontiffs, in this matter, than the Spaniards ; for they could not in any way be induced to exchange their ancient liturgy, which was called Mozarabic, or Gothic^, for that of Rome. Alexander IL, indeed, in the year 1018, had prevailed upon the people of Aragon to show themselves not indisposed for the Roman way of wor- shipping God - ; nor did the Catalans resist. But the glory of perfecting this work was reserved for Gregory VII. He did not cease to press the kings of Aragon and Castile, San- chez and AIpho?iso, till they consented that the Gothic rites should be abolished and the Roman be received. Sanchez first complied; Alpho7iso, followed his example in the year 1080. In Castile, the nobles thought that this contest ought to be decided by the sword. Accordingly two champions were chosen, who were to contend in single combat, the one fighting for the Ro- man liturgy, and the other for the Gothic. The Gothic cham- pion conquered. After this, fire was chosen for bringing the matter to an issue. Both liturgies, tlie Roman and the Gothic, were thrown upon a pyre. The Roman was consumed in the flames : the Gothic remained uninjured. Yet this double vic- tory could not save the Gothic mode ; the pontiff's authority, and the pleasure of Constantia the queen, who controlled Alphimso the king, had greater weight, and turned the scale.^ § 2. This zeal of the Roman pontiffs may admit some kind of apology ; but it is a very hard matter to excuse them for prohibiting each nation to worship God in its own vernacular tongue. While the Latin language was spoken among all the nations of the West, or at least was understood by most people, little could be objected to its use in the jniblic asesmblies for Christian worship. But when the Roman tongue, with the Ro- man dominion, had been gradually subverted, and become ex- tinct, it was most just and reasonable, that each nation should ' See Jo. Mabillon, de Liturgia Galli- xi. c. 6. Schl. — Also Aug. Krazcr, de cana, lib. i. cap. ii. p. 10. Jo. Bona, Liturgiis, p. 70, &c. Augsb. 1786, 8vo. Rerum Liturgicar. lib. i. cap. xi. 0pp. TV.] p. 220. Peter le Brun, Explication des '• Peter de Marca, Histoire de Beran, ceremonies de la Messe, torn. ii. diss. v. lib. ii. cap. ix. p. 272. \s.\\(\. Liturgia antiqua, Hispanica, ^ Bona, 1. c. p. 216. Le Brun, 1. c. Gothica. hidoriana, Mozarahica, Sfc. torn. p. 292, &c. Jo. dc Ferreras, Histoire i. Rome, 1746, fol. as also Job. Pinii de I'Espagne, torn. iii. p. 237. 241. 246. Tractatus historico-chronolog. dc variis [Krazer, 1. c. p. 76. TV,] vicissitudinibus officii Mosarabici scculo CH. IV.] RITES AND CEREMONIES. 365 use Its own speech in sacred offices. Tliis privilege, liowever, could not be_obtained from the pontiffs in this and the following centuries ; for they decided, that the Latin language should be retained, though unknown to the people at hirge.' Different persons assign different reasons for this decision ; and some have imagined such as arc rpiitc far-fetched. IJut the principal reason, doubtless, was an [excessive veneration for the ancient forms. And the Oriental Christians have fallen into the same fault of excessive love of anticpiity ; for public worship is still performed by the Egyptians in the ancient Coi)tic, by the Jacobites and Nestorians in Syriac, and by the Abyssinians in the ancient Ethiopic ; notwithstanding all these lan[;uaLrcs have long since become obselete, and gone out of popular u^v.'' § 3. Of the other things enjoined or voluntarily assumed in this age, under the name of religious acts, the rites added in the worship of the saints, relics, and images, the pilgrimages, and various other things of the kind, it would be tcditjus to "-o into detail. I will, therefore, only state here, that during nearly the whole of this century, all the nations of Europe were very much occupied in rc])nilding, repairing, and adorning their cluu'(;hes.'' Nor will this sur[trlse us if we recollect the ]):uiic dread of an impending final judgment, and of the em! nt' :ill things, which spread throughout Eurojie in the preceding cen- tury. For this panic, among other effects, led to neglect the repair of the churches and sacred edifices, as being soon to be- come useless, and perish in the wreck of all things ; so that they * Jiic. Ussher, Hislaria iliynidlicii dc Tr. — TIiiTPiicvcrwivs a kiiij^of En;:liinil scripturis ct sacri.i vernariilis ; imhlishoil, niiiiR'd ^llltVic. Tin- I'Xtrai't ;;iM-ii i-i>mes with enlargement, by Ilenrv Wliarton, frnni a .suininary tif ilericiil diitios, j)n'- London, 1690, 4to. [Yet we find in tlie pared by the ffrcat Elfric, fur WullVine, canons of jElfrie, king of Enjriand, ai)(>ut bisiiup of Sherltijriie, as a sort of ei)is- A. D. 1050, (in Hardnin's Cuncilia, toni. eopal eharge, and commonly printed, vi. pt. i. p. 982, can. 23.) that the i)riests thoiiudi not completely so, in collection.s were recjuired on Sundays and other of the councils, under the title of Cu- mass-days to explain tiie lessons from thuws Klfrici ud Wuljinum Episcttpum. the gosijcls in the English language : /v/.] and to teach the people to rejieat memo- * See Euscbius Rcnaudot, Diss, de riter, and to understand the I^ord's Litunjiarum oriental, orujinc rt antuiui- prayer and the ai)ostle.s' creed in the taU; cap. \ i. p. xl. &c. same language. " Presbyter ctiam, seu ° Glabcr Kodul|ihus, Ilistor. lib. ill. missalis saeerdos, in diebus Solis, et caji. iv. in Duchesne's Siriptures Fran- Missalibus, cvangelii ejus intellectum cici, toni. iv. p. 217. "As the year populo dieet Amilicc, et ipsoritm etiam 1003 ajiproached, there was. almost Pater noster et Credo toties qu(jties jio- the world over, l)ut esjKrially in Italy terit ad eos instrucndos adhibere, et ut and France, a general repairing of tho symbolum fidei niemoriter discant, chris- churches." tianamtjue suani teucant confessionem." 366 BOOK III. CENTURY XI. [PAET II. either actually fell to the ground, or became greatly decayed. But this panic being past, people every where turned attention to the churches, which were almost ruined, and vast sums were necessarily expended on their restoration. CHAPTER V. HISTORY OF THE SECTS AND HERESIES. § 1. Ancient sects. The Manichoeans. — § 2. The Paulicians in Europe. — § 3. Tlie Manichasans of Orleans seem to have been mystics. — § 4. So likewise others. — § 5. The contest with Roscelin. § 1. The condition of the ancient sects, particularly the Nesto- rians and Monophysites, who were subject [to the Mahumedans in Asia and Egypt, was very nearly the same as in the preced- ing century, not perfectly happy and exempt from all evils, nor absolutely wretched and miserable. But the Manichreans or Paulicians, whom the Greek emperors had transported from the provinces of the East to Bulgaria and Thrace, Avere in almost perpetual conflicts with the Greeks. The Greek writers throw all the blame on the Manichaeans ; Avhom they represent as tur- bulent, perfidious, always ready for war, and inimical to the em- pire.^ But there are many reasons, which nearly compel us to believe, that the Greek bishops and priests, and by their insti- gation, the emperors, gave much trouble and vexation to this people ; alienating their minds from them by punishments, banishments, confiscation of property, and other things. The emperor] Alexins Comnenus, being a man of learning, and per- ceiving that the Manichajans could not easily be subdued by force, determined to try the effect of discussion and arguments ; and therefore spent whole days at Philippopolis in disputing with them. Not a few of them gave up to this august dis- putant and his associates ; nor was this strange, for he employed not only arguments, but also rewards and punishments. Those ' See Anna Comnena Alexiados lib. v. p. 105. lib. vi. p. 124. 126. 145, and in other passages. en. v.] SCHISMS AND HERESIES. 367 who retracted their errors, and consented to embrace the rehgion of the Greeks, were rewarded with rich {)rcscnts, honours, privi- leges, Lands, and houses: but those who resisted, were con- demned to perpetual imprisonment.'^ § 2. From Bulgaria and Tlirace, some of this sect, cither from zeal to extend their religion, or from weariness of Grecian persecution, removed, first into Italy, and tlien into other coun- tries of Europe ; and there they gradually collected numerous congregations, with wliich the Eoman pontiffs afterwards waged very fierce wars.^ At what time the migration of tiie Pauhcians into Europe commenced, it is difficult to ascertain. But this is well attested, that as early as the middle of tliis century, they were numerous in Lombardy and Insubria, and especially iu Milan: nor is it less certain, that persons of this sect strolled about in France, Germany, and other countries, where the great appear- ance of sanctity, which distinguished them, captivated no small number of the people. In Italy they were called Patirini and Cu- thari, or rather Gazari ; the last of which names, altered so as to suit the genius of their language, was adopted by the Germans. ' * Anna Comncna (Alcjlad. lib. xiv. p. 357, &c.) is very full in lier account and eulogy of this lioly war of her father against the Paulicians. a See Lnil. Ant. Muratori, Antiroof of his supposition ; and, on the contrary, it appears from the records of the inqui- sition of Toulou.se, published by Lim- boreh, and from otiier docutucius, that the I'auliciaiis first scttlchcd to iiecoine presbyters, Imd to go into Italy to obtaiu regular consecration. * Of the name Patcrini, given to this sect in Italy, we have already .•ijH)ken, note ", p. 322. That the name C'athari was the siune lus (Ja/ari, I have shown in another wurk. Ili.itnria Ord. A/xtstolnr. ]). 367. The name (ia/aria was given in tiiat age. to the country now called the lesser Tiulary, [or C'rini Tiinarj-, or the Crimea. But tlic derivation of ("a- thari from Ga/jxria, a distant and then little known region, is by many deemed less prol)ablc, tlu»n from the Greek KaBapol, the Pure. So also the derivation of the Gennan Kttzrr (heretic) from Ga- zari or C'ha/.ari, is liy no means univer- sally admitted. Sec A. Xcander's Hedige Jiernhard, p. 314, &c. and Schroeckh's 388 BOOK III. CENTUEY XI. [part II. In France they were called Alhigenses^, from the town Alhi.^ They were also called Bulgarians, particularly in France, because they came formerly from Bulgaria, where the patriarch of the sect resided ; also Puhlicani, a corruption of Pauliciani ; and Boni Homines ^, and by other appellations.^ § 3. The first congregation of this sect in Europe is said to have been discovered at Orleans in France, A. D. 1017, in the reign of king Robert. An Italian woman is stated to have been its founder and teacher. Its head men were ten canons of the church of the Holy Cross at Orleans, all eminent for their learn- ing and piety, but especially two of them, Lisoius and Stephen ; the congregation was composed of numerous citizens, not of the lowest rank and condition. The impious doctrines maintained by those canons being made known by Heribert, a priest, and Arifastus, a Norman nobleman, king Robert assembled a coun- cil at Orleans, and left no means untried to bring them to a better mind. But nothing could induce them to give up the opinions which they had embraced. They were, therefore, burnt alive.^ But the case of these men is involved in ob- Kirchcngesch. vol. xxiii. p. 350, &c. TV.] ^ Albigeols. Tr.~\ fi That the Paulicians in France were called Albigenses, and are not to be con- founded with the Waldenses and other heretics, is most manifest fi'om the Re- cords of the Inquisition at Toulouse. And they were called Albigenses, be- cause they were condemned in a council held, A.D. 1176, at Albi (Albigca), a town of Aquitaine. See Chatel, Memoires de r Histoire de Languedoc, p. 305, &c. They therefore misjudge, who suppose the Albigenses were certain heretics who either originated at Albi, or who resided there, or had their principal church there : they were, rather, the heretics condemned there. Yet there did live in the region of Albi, some Pauli- cians, as well as many other classes of dissenters from the church of Rome ; and the name of Albigenses is often ap- ])Iied to all the heretics in that tract of country. [See, for a fuUcr illustration, and confirmation of what is asserted in this note, Schroeckh's Kirchcngesch. vol. xxix. p. 569. &c. also Histoire de Lan- guedoc, tom. iii. note 13, p. 553, &c. and Fiislin's Kirchen-und Ketzerhistorie der mitderen Zeit, vol. i. Tr. — "I doid)t whether any religious sect was, as such, known by the name of Albigenses, nntil long after the council of Albi. — I believe that I speak mucli Avithin compass, and state only what may be fairly inferred from evidence which will be adduced, when I say that the name of Albigenses Avas not given to those heretics whom we now describe by that title, until more than a centuiy after the Albigensian Crusades." Maitland's Facts and Docu- ments illustrative of the History, Doctrine, and Rites of the ancient Albigenses and Waldenses, Lond. 1832, p. 95, 96. Ed.'] ' {Bos Homos, Good Men. TV.] ^ [That these people were called Bul- garians, or, as it was corruptl}* uttered, Bougres, is fully shown by Car. du Fresne, Glossarium Latin. MedJi AHvi, tom. i. p. 1 338. And the same Du Fresne, in his Obseruationes ad Velleharduini Historian Constantino}), p. 1 69, has shown by abun- dant proofs, that the name Popolicani or Publicani, given likewise to these Mani- cha;ans, is merely the^ name Pauliciani corruptly pronounced. The Paulicians called themselves Good; Men, or Lms Bos Homos, as the French pronounced it. See the Codex Inquisit. Tolosance, p. 22. 84. 95, &c. but especially, p. 131, &c. ° The testimonies of the ancients re- specting these heretics are collected by CH. v.] SCHISMS AND HICRESIES. 369 scurity and perplexity. For they are extolled for their piety by their very enemies ; and at the same time, crimes are attributed Boulay, Historia Acad. Paris, torn. i. p. 364, &c. Car. Plcssis d'^Vi-geiitre, CoUectio Judiciorum de Novis Erroribus, torn. i. p. 5. Jo. Launoi, de Scholis celebrioribus Caroli M. cap. xxiv. ji. 93. The proceedings of tlic council of Orleans, in which they were con- demned, are given by Lu. U'Achery, Spicileg. veterum Scriptvr. torn. i. p. 604, &c. [Two principal accounts of these heretics of Orleans have reached us. The one is, that of Glaher Kodul- phus, {Historia, lib. iii. cap. 8,) the other, which some ascribe to one Agano, a monk, is an anonymous account, but more full, and apparently deserving of at least as much credit, published by D'Achery, 1. c. Both accounts arc in Harduin's Concilia, torn. vi. ])t. i. )i. 821, &c. Glabcr states, that in the year 1017, a very strange heresy was discovered at Orleans, said to have been introduced by an Italian woman, and which had long been spreading itself in secret. The leaders in this heresy were two clergymen of Orleans, respectable for their birth, education, and piety, named Heribert and Lisoi. Both were canons ; and the latter was also master of tlie school in St. Peter's church, and enjoyed the friendship of the king and the court. These circumstances eiuibled them more easily to spread their en-ors at Orleans, and in the neighbouring towns. Tliey attempted to convert a presb}1;er of Rouen, and told him that the whole nation would soon be with them; but he divulged the subject to a nobleman of Rouen, and lie again to king Robert. The nKaiarch, eiituiily distinguished for learning and piety, hastened away, full of solicitude, to Or- leans ; assembled there a number of bishops and abbots, and some pious lay- men, and commenced an examination of the heretics. Tbe two leading men among them acknowledged, that they anticipated a general rece])tion of their doctrines ; that they considered all that was taught in the Old Testament ami the New, by miracles, or otherwise, concern- ing a Trinity in the Godhead, as being absurd ; that the visible heavens and earth had always existed, as they now are, without an original aullior ; that all acts of Christian virtue, instead of being meritorious, were superfluous ; VOL. II. » B and like the Epicureans, they believed the crimes of the volujituous would not meet with the recompense of punish- ment. Great crt'orts were made to con- vince them of their errors ; l)Ut in vain : neither arguments nor thrcatenings coidd move them ; for they expected a mira- culous deliverance from deatii. Accord- ingly, when led out to the fire, which was kiiulled for them, they all, thirteen in number, went exulting and voluntarily leaped into it. But they no ."sooner felt the fire consuming them, than tlun- cried out, that they had l)een tleceived, and Were about tn ]ierish for ever. The by- standers, moved with pity, made efforts to draw tiiem from the flames ; liut with- out effect. They were reduced to ashes. Such others of the .sect as were after- wards detected, were in like manner put to death. And heresy being thus destroyed, the catholic faith shone the more conspicuous. The other, and more full account, ditlers from tiuU of GlalRT, in several respects. It states, that a A'orman nol)leman, named Arefiist, iiad a clergyman in his house, by the mime of Herbert, who went to (Jrleans for the pui-])ose of study. That tW(j leailers anuing the heretics, Stc|)hcn and Lisoi, universally esteemed for their wisdom, their j)iety, and their beneficeiue, met with Herbert, ami ui.-itilled into him the ])oison of their heresy. When Herbert returned to tlie family of Arefast he la- boured to convert him. But Arefiist was not to be seduced. He coninumii'ated the whole to count Richard, to Ik- nuidc known to the king ; with a reromising to come there himself shortly. Arcfa>t was in- stnu^ted by an aged priest of Chartres how to jiroceed. He was to receive the communion ever}' day; and thus fortified, he was to go among the hea-tics, pretend to Ik- captivated with their doctrines, and draw from them a fidl knowledge of their heresv, anil then ai<]K'ar as a wiinc.xj! aiiainst them. He did so; and drew from them the following tenets; that Christ was not lM>rn of the virgin Mar)-, did not suffer for mankind, was not reallv laid in the tomb, and did not rise 370 BOOK III. — CENTUKY XL [PART II. to them, which are manifestly false ; at least, the opinions for which they suffered death, were, in general, quite distant from the tenets of the ManichEeans.' So far as I can judge, these from the dead ; that in baptism, thei'e was no washing away of sins ; nor were the body and blood of Christ in the sacrament conseci'ated by the priest ; and that it was useless to pray to the saints and martyrs. Arefast wished to know, then, on what he could rely for salvation. They promised to purify him from all sin, and to impart to him the Holy Spirit, by laying their hands upon him ; and that he should eat heavenly food, and often see angels, and with them travel where he pleased, with ease and despatch. The account then de- scribes the heavenly food they talked of. At certain times, the heretics met toge- ther by night, each with a lighted candle, and invocated the devil, till he appeared to them. Then putting oixt their lights, they all debauched themselves promis- cuously. The fniits of these homd scenes, when eight days old, were mur- dered and burned to ashes ; and the ashes so obtained constituted their hea- venly food, and was so efficacious, that ■whoever partook of it at all, became an enthusiast of their sect, and could seldom ever after be recovered to a sound mind. While Arefast was thus learning the whole heresy, king Robert and his queen Constantia aiTived at Orleans ; and the next day he called a council of bishops, and apprehending a whole assembly of the heretics, aiTaigned them for trial. Here Arefast stated all that he had learned from them. Stephen and Lisoi admitted that they held such doctrines. A bishop stating that Christ was born of the vir- gin, because he could be so, and that he died and rose again to assure us of a resuiTection ; they replied, that they were not present, and could not believe it was so. Being asked how they could believe that they had a natural father, and were born in the usual way, not having been present as witnesses, they replied, that what was according to na- ture, they could believe, but not what Avas contrary to nature. They Avere then asked, if they did not believe that God created all things from nothing by his Son. They replied, " Such things may be believed by carnal men, Avho mind earthly things, and trust in the fictions of men, Avritten upon parchment ; but we, Avho have a Uiav A\Tittcn upon the iuAvard man, by the Holy Spirit, regard nothing but what we have learned from God the creator of all." They likeAvise asked the bishops to desist from qiies- tioning them, and to do Avith them what they saw fit ; for they said, they already saw their king in the heavens, Avho would receive them to his right hand and to heavenly joys. After a nine hours' trial, the prisonei's were first degraded from the priesthood, and then led away to the stake. As they passed the church-door, queen Constantia Avith a stick strack Stephen, who had been her confessor, and dashed out one of his eyes. Their bodies, together Avith the abominable ashes used by them, Avere consumed in the flames. — Such is the story, as told by their enemies. It is reasonable to give them all the credit Avhich their ene- mies allow to them ; and to make abate- ments only from Avhat is said to their disadvantage. The Avhole description of their infernal night meetings, and eating the ashes of murdered infants, is doubt- less a mere calumny. Their intelligence, and the spotless purity of their lives, are well attested. The account given of their doctrines is lame, and coming from those Avho were their inferiors in knoAvledge of the scriptures, and so hos- tile as to bum them at the stake, it is impossible to ascertain Avhat their real sentiments Avere. TV. — The second ac- count given here, is that of the actuary of the Synod of Orleans. It is an an- cient fragment of the History of Aqui- taine, which says that ten canons of the Holy Cross were burnt alive on this oc- casion ; and John of Fleury additionally tells us, that nearly fourteen suff'ered, being of tlie better clergy, or nobler laity : " de melioribus clericis, sive de nobi- lioribus laicis." Thus the three or four, Avho perished, besides the ten canons, were laymen, and these too, like their clerical fellow-sufferers, of no mean esti- mation. See Faber's Inquiry info the History and Tlteology of the ancient Val- lenses and Albigcnses, Loud. 1838, p. 125. Ed.-] ' Jac. Basnagc, in his Histoire des Eglises Riformees, torn. i. period iv. p. 97, and in his Histor. Eccles. tom. ii. p. 1388, &c. defends the cause of these canons of Orleans. But this otherwise CH- v.] SCHISMS AND IIERKSIES. 371 Manichfeans of Orleans were mystics, who despised the external worship of God, ascribed no efficacy to religious rites, not even to the sacraments, but supposed religion to consist in the inter- nal contemplation of divine things, and the elevation of the soul to God; and, at the same time, phlh)sophizcd respecting God, the three persons in the Godhead, and the soul of man, witli more subtlety than the capacity of the age could comprehend. Persons of this description proceeded from Italy in the following centuries, and spread over nearly all Europe, and were called in Germany, brethren of the free Spirit, and, in some other coun- tries, Beghnrds} § 4. Better characters perhaps than these, certainly honest and candid, though illiterate, were those men whom (icrhtird, bishop of Cambray and Arras, reconciled to the church at the council of Arras, a. d. 1030. These likewise received their doc- trines from Italians, and particularly from one Gundiilf. Ac- cording to their own account, they supposed all religion to con- sist in pious exercises, and in actions conformable to the law of God, while they despised all external worship. In particular, (I.) they rejected ba[)tism as a rite of no use as regards salva- tion ; and especially the baptism of infants. (II.) The Lord's Supper they discarded for the same reason. (III.) They denied that churches are any more holy than private houses. (IV.) Altars they pronounced to be hea[is of stones ; and therefore worthy of no reverence. (V.) They disapproved of the use of incense and of holy oil in religious rites. (VI.) The ringing of bells, or signals, as bishoj) Gerhard calls them, they would not tolerate. (VII.) They denied that ministers of religion, l)ishops, presbyters, and deacons, were of divine appointment; and maintained that the church could exist without an order of teachers. (VIII.) They contended that funeral rites were in- vented by priests, to gratify their avarice; and that it was of no consequence whether a person were buried in the i-liurch-yard or in some other place. (IX.) I'enance, as thci; practised, that is, punishments voluntarily endured for sins, they deemed of no excellent and discerning man seems to and condemned in many c«mncil.s espc- have been canied too far, liy his zeal cially in (Jermany. Yet tliey had long forangnientingthenmnberoftiic«'iV«c.wf.v lielure hocn working their way in secret. for the truth. This si-ct luld some ojtinions in common s or this class of people we shall treat witli tiie Manicha-ans ; whence the un- hcreafter, in the tliirteenth century, at discerning tlieolngians of l\v>fv times which period, tlicy were lirst drawn might eivi^ily l>e led to regard them as a from their concealment into full view, branch of the Manichipans. B B 2 372 BOOK III. — CENTURY XL [PART II. use. (X.) They denied that the sins of the dead, who are in the world of torment, or in ■purgatory, can be expiated by masses, by gifts to the poor, and by vicarious yenance ; and doubtless they rejected the idea of purgatory itself (XI.) They held marriage to be pernicious, and condemned it in all cases.^ (XII.) They allowed indeed some reverence to be paid to the apostles, and to the martyrs ; but to confessors (by whom they intended those denominated saints, and who had not suffered death for Christ's sake,) they would have no reverence paid ; declaring that their corpses were no better than those of other persons. (XIII.) The custom of chanting in churches and religious as- semblies, they represented as superstitious and unlawful. (XIV.) They denied a cross to be more holy than other wood ; and therefore denied it any honour. (XV.) They would have the images of Christ and the saints removed from the churches, and receive no kind of adoration. (XVI.) Finally, they were dis- pleased with the difference of rank, and of powers and preroga- tives existing among the clergy.* Whoever considers the de- fects in the prevailing religion and doctrines of that age, will not think it strange that many persons throughout Europe, pos- sessing good understandings and pious feelings, should have fallen into such sentiments as these. § 5. Toward the close of this century, about the year 1089, a more subtle controversy was raised in France by Roscelin, a canon of Compiegne, who was not the lowest of the dialecticians of the age, and was a principal doctor in the sect of the Nomijialists. He maintained that it could not be conceived at all how the Son of God was to assume human nature, while the Father and the Holy Spirit did not, unless we suppose the three persons in the Godhead to be three things, or separately existing natures, (such as three angels are, or three human souls), though those three divine things might have one will and one power. Being told that this opinion would imply the existence of three Gods, he l)oldly replied, that if such language could be allowed, it might be truly said, there are three Gods.^ He was compelled to ^ I cannot easily believe this was alto- D'Acherj^'s Spicilegium Scriptor. Veter. gether so. I should rather siippose, torn. i. p. 607 — 624. Argentre's Collectio that these people did not wholly con- Judicior. de Novis Erroribus, torn, i, p. demn matrimony, but only judged cell- 7. [See also Schroeckh's Kirchengesch. bacy to be more holy than the man-ied vol. xxiii. p. 324, &c. Tr.~\ state. ^ Thus his sentiments are stated by * See the Synodus Atrebatensis, in Luc. John, who accused him to Anselm, in an CH. v.] SCHISMS AND HERESIES. 373 express a detestation of this error in the council of Soissons, a. d. 1092 ; but as soon as the danger was past, lie resumed it. He was now ordered to quit the country. While an exile in England, he raised new commotions ; contentiously niaintainin"-, anion"- other things, that the sons of priests, and all born out of wed- lock, should never be admitted to the rank of clergymen; which was a very odious doctrine in those times. Bcinw ex- pelled from England for these things, he returned to France, and, residing in Paris, renewed the old contention. But being pressed and harassed on all sides by his adversaries, he at last went to Aquitaine, and spent the remainder of his life devoutly and peacefully.^ Epistle, which is pubhshcfl by Baluzc, Miscell. torn. iv. p. 478. also, by Aiisl-Iiu of Canterbury, in liis book de Fide Trini- tatis, mitten against Roscelin ; Opp. toni. i. p. 41. 43, and in torn. ii. p. 355. Epist. lib. ii. ep. xxxv. and lastly, by Fulco of Beauvais, in Anselm's Opp. p. 357. Epist. lib. ii. ep. xli. But all these were adversaries of Roscelin, who may be supposed, either to ha\e perverted his meaning, or to have not understood it correctly. And Anselni himself leads me to have much hesitation and doubt ; for while he rcgimled the Noinindists, of whom Koscelin was the head, with no little hatred, yet he concedes, in his book, de Fide Trinitatis, that the opinion of his ()p])onont may be admissible in a certain sense ; and he frccjuently states, that he does not know certainly what his ^^ews were ; and even says, that he suspects they were less exceptionable than his adversaries represented them. De Fide Trinitatis, cap. iii. p. 44. He says, " But perhaps he (Roscelin) docs not say, just as three human souls, or t/irce angels are; but he who communicated his sentiments to me, miglit make this comparison without authority for it ; while he (Roscelin) only affirmed, that the three persons are t/irec things, with- out adding any comparison." So in his forty-first Epist. book ii. p. 357, being about to state Rosceliu's ojjinion, he prefaces it thus : " Which, hcjwever, I cannot believe without hesitation." The reader, I think, will clearly see, that Anselm, the determined euemy of the Nominalists, distrusted the candour and fairness of Rosceliu's accusers in describing his opinions, and sui)j)oscd him to be less erroneous than they rej)re- sented. If I do not misjudge, this whole controversy «jriginated from the hot disputes between the Numinalists and the Realists. The ReiUists seem to have drawn this inference from the principles of the Nominalists, of whom Roscehn was the head : If, us you sup- pose, unirer.vil siihJicLs arc mere words and names, and the whole science of dialectics is concerned only with names, then doubtless the three persons in the Godhead will be, in your view, not three tilings, but only three nanus. By no means, nnswercil Roscelin ; the Father, Sou, and Holy Spirit, are not merenotter esti- nujte could be formed of this contro- versy. [Roscelin wius a native of Brit- tany (fA/mo Srittii-AnnoriciLs), tile same country that produced his jiuj)]], Abe- lard, eventually so celebrated. Ed.'] " Boulay's Historic Acad. Pari.s. torn, i. p. 485. 489. Jo. MuhiUon's Annates Benedict, tom. v. p. 2C2. Ilistoirc Lit- teniire de Id France, tom. ix. p. 358, &c. Ant. I'agi, I'ritica in linnmium, ad ann. 1094, tom. iv. p. 317, &c. .lac. I>onguc- val, Histoirc de FEglise Gallicant, torn. iii. p. 59, &c. n II 3 374 BOOK III. — CENTURY XI. [PART II. CHAPTER VI.* RELIGIOUS CONDITION OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. § 1. Peculiar character of Anglo-Saxon literature. — § 2. Theodore, archbishop of Canterbury. — § 3. The English school of theology. — § 4. Wilfrid's appeals to Eome. — ^§ 5. Independence of the Anglo-Saxon church. — § 6. Rejection of image-worship. — § 7. Subsequent adoption of it. — § 8. The secular clergy supplanted by the Benedictines. — § 9. Dunstan's independent spirit. — § 10. Prevailing anxiety for saintly intercession. — § 11. Purgatory. — § 12. Penitential doctrines. — § 13. Transubstantiation. — § 14. Elfric. — § 15. Polity. § 1 . The eleventh century produced a very remarkable national change in England ; its Anglo-Saxon occupants, whose posses- sion, more or less complete, embraced six hundred years, and who had professed Christianity above four, being conquered by a race of foreigners. These fortunate strangers neither spoke the language of their adopted country, nor deigned to learn it. They long existed as a tribe of alien gentry, connected with humbler life around, only by finding dependants in it. Now as the vanquished people possessed a literature of their own, and had made considerable advances in social improvement, this in- sulation from their new masters gave a marked and peculiar character to their former position as an independent community. Their political institutions were, indeed, engrafted upon those of the victorious Normans, but much that prevailed among them during their separate existence, fell into neglect and desuetude. Their vernacular literature especially had this fate. Anglo- Saxon writers, who Vv^rote in Latin, having already an European reputation, naturally retained their former places among the educated inhabitants of their country : but authors who used the native idiom, rapidly became unintelligible to all who en- tered an English library. The very character in which they wrote, varying in some particulars from the Koman, grew into a sort of hieroglyphic, which never met a studious eye without exciting a regret that it had long been all but absolutely unin- en. VI.] RELIGIOUS CONDITION OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 375 telligiblc. Happily, many of the manuscripts were beautifully written, and ages in which books were few, would not strip a library of such orn:unents, merely because altered circumstances had rendered them sealed volumes. Gradually, however, the mystery that shrouded these remains was dispelled. The Ano-lo- Saxon race, which formed the bulk of England's pijpulation, became blended with its Xorman conciuerors, and its lan'maoe forms the ground-work of modern English. As a vernacular literature arose again, liberal curiosity, desirous of information upon the tongue employed, carefully examined libraries for remains of the long-forgotten Anglo-Saxon. These inquiries brought much to light which is of no mean importance, not only to philology, but also for the interpretation of Latin works, already well known. New information was tluis ac(|uired u{)()n several points hitherto but imperfectly understood. § 2. The intellectual treasures of ancient England became sealed at a very interesting period. ^lany of the usages, and some of the principles, which eveutiudly distinguisheil the western church, are confessedly not of the highest antiquity. The papal powxr did not attain an importance likely to act importantly upon general politics, until the ixmtiticate of Gre- gory VII., who was contemporary with AVilliam the Conqueror. Transubstantiatiou, now the corner-stone of Komanism, first attracted notice in the ninth century ; and, as the tenth is the darkest period in modern history, little information can be ex- pected i'rom it respecting the progress of that doctrine, provided it were really new, when controverted in the preceding age. A literature, however, which went regularly forward, could not fail of liliding all but imperceptibly with the current of (ipinii)n. But one suddenly rendered stagnant, would permanently re- tain the features of the period which l)rought its activity to a close. A theologian may, therefore, dwell with great profit, as well as interest, upon the records of Anglo-Saxon anticpiity. § 3. Nor are these unworthy of notice, independently of their value as evidence. It is a remarkable fact, that ante-Norman Enoland was at one time the intellectual mistress of her conti- nental neighbours. Female importunity and Italian artifice had no sooner given to the Roman missionaries a decided advantage over the native British Christians, than the pope solidly con- firmed it by sending over as his agent one who was both able and willing to render services of the most unequivocal descrip- B B 4 376 BOOK III. — CENTURY XI. [PART II. tion. While party-spirit still ran very high, the kings of Kent and Northumbria, then powerful above their fellow-sovereigns, thought of allaying it by sending Wighard, whom they chose for primate, to Rome for consecration. Their object was, not only to get an archbishop, approved by the pontiff, but also one who should combine domestic birth with Roman in- formation.^ The experiment, however, failed; Wighard having died unconsecrated in the ancient capital of Europe.^ Vitalian, the pope, immediately saw an opening for gaining an effective hold upon the Anglo-Saxon church. He determined upon appointing a primate himself. But as this interference with an independent nation was evidently hazardous, he made his choice with unusual caution. He did not venture upon an offer to some native Italian. He would have sent over, as archbishop of Canterbury, an African, named Adrian, dis- tinguished for learning and abilities, abbot of a Campanian monastery. But Adrian would not venture upon the prof- fered appointment ; nor would another to whom he referred the pope. He then recommended Theodore, an Asiatic monk resident at Rome, about sixty-six years old, but able, erudite, and energetic, above most younger men. This eminent person- age, like St. Paul, a native of Tarsus, was, however, no more willing to answer Vitalian's call, than those upon whom it had been made before. His objections, at length, were overcome by the help of Adrian's consent to accompany him into England.^ Such a primate, independently of his high personal qualities, was flir from unlikely to conciliate the nation upon whose good nature a bold experiment was made by the sending of him. He could not be considered as a partizan of Rome. Not only was his origin Asiatic, but he had even refrained from a strict out- ward conformity with Roman usages. He was tonsured in the fashion of his native country, when brought forward as a papal nominee." Having, however, undertaken the see of Canter- bury, his own good sense would neither allow him to rest upon an unimportant scruple, nor to present an appearance unanswer- able to his new position. The tonsure had been one of the points ^ Bed. O/j;?. Mm. ed. Stevenson, p. 141. tcstantc Germano, patriarcha Constan- Ibid. p. 236. tinopolitano, in Theoria sua : quod etiara = ILid. 244. Theodore reached Eng- dc clericis Gra2cis affirmat Ratrannnis, land in May, 669. quibus mos est, inquit, barbani quideni ■* " Monachi Gra^ci tunc teniporis non tondere, caput vero crine totum penitus detonsi erant, rasisque similes, nudarc." Mabillon, Animll. Bened. ad imitationem, ut certe putabant, sancti torn. i. p. 49,3. Jacobi, fratris Domini, et Pauli apostoli, CH.VI.] RELIGIOUS CONDITION OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. .'>77 on which the Roman missionaries in England had successfully struggled for conformity. Theodore was tonsured neither in the British fashion nor the Italian'^: but he now adopted this latter, and remained in Italy until his hair was sufficiently grown to satisfy the papal party in his adopted country. Still the pope was suspicious. It might be best under such an experiment as he was now trying, to appoint an individual who siiuuld nut shock the defeated party in England l)y a j)alpable and complete identification with their op{)onents. An able, elderly, resolute Asiatic might, however, carry his independence further than the exigencies of the case required ; and when Theodore left Italy, the pope was not without misgivings as to the worldly pru- dence of his choice. He accordingly commissioned Adrian to act as a check and a spy upon the movements of his friend, if an oriental education should warp his views away from Rome.*' § 4. Both strangers proved most important i)encfactors to their adopted country. Romisli partizans naturally venerate the memory of Theodore, because he succeeded in realizing the project for which Augustine's endeavours had failed. He first was recognized as the primate of England ^ and gained a firm footing for papal usages, which remained undisturbed until the Reformation. The example eventually told upon Scotland and Wales.^ But whatever mny be thought of such services, there is no question upon those which botli Theodore and Adrian rendered as instructors of youth. Age was consiih'reil by the arch])ishop no exemption from the labours of education. In con- junction with his African friend, he personally founded that English scliool of tlieology and general literature whii-h rapidly outshone the learned activity of neighl)ouring nations, and be- came, at length, an asylum for erudition, when half-d to K..n.o ni tones et Scotti antcriorem capitis partem 715, the n.onk.s of I..na ... the follow- capillis om.ii.io .m.labant ab aurc ad in- year. > ab.llo.i Anm.ll Ih-nal. t..m. aurcu, posteriori iuto...s:i, .luod exemplo ii. 42.4.".. I ho >\eW.. Bede hunenti, bcati Joannis apostoli sc facere gloria- yet held out. bantur." Ibid. 471, 472. 378 BOOK III. CENTURY XI. [PART II. survived two-and-twenty years.^ Adrian lived another twenty. '° Thus the two did not merely make an effort crippled by its brevity. They were so long employed as to leave enduring traces of their generous work. Bede, Aldhehn, Egbert, and Alcuin, are indisputable evidences of the benefits which their school dispensed. By the last, it was transplanted on conti- nental soil, and became the parent of that Frankish school which is invaluable, for throwing light on the theology of the ninth century. '} d--^ j 7 'K /yo^i^, //, ^^4 § 5. But although Theodore brought all England mto Komish habits, he showed no trace of a slavish deference for the papal see. AVilfrid, so famed for trying the efiect of its influence on his countrymen, found him treat it with no attention. That restless prelate had been deprived of his bishopric under Theo- dore's authority ^, and the pope interfered in vain for a reversal of the sentence.^ It is true, that when life was closing upon the venerable Asiatic, he wrote into Northumbria for Wilfrid's restoration,^ But there is no appearance of any late conviction here, that he had formerly neglected an established principle of ecclesiastical jurisprudence which ought to have been observed. He seems merely to have thought of Wilfrid's great services in adversity as a missionary, and to have embraced an opportunity of obliging him as a parting token of his Christian charity. Whether Theodore acted wisely in his opposition to Wilfrid, men will differ in opinion, as they are favourable, or otherwise, to the see of Rome * : but his conduct is a sufficient evidence that no authority, beyond such as rank and information gave, was then admitted in that see, and that Wilfrid's appeals to it were mere experiments. Theodore's successor, Brihtwald, was equally regardless of papal influence. In common with all the Avorld besides, he knew perfectly well that Wilfrid had appealed to Home, and, if thwarted at home, was likely to appeal again. Yet he headed a full meeting of the prelacy, by which that ^ He died in 690. Saxon Chronicle, oculos, quasi Balach Balaam, contra Dr. Ingram's ed. p. .57. Dei voluntatem iuvitavciimt." '" He died in 710. Mabillon, Annall - Ibid. 69. Bened. torn. ii. p. 27. ^ Ibid. 73. ' Eddius XV. Scriptores, 63. It is * " Vir magnus" (Theodorus, se.) rather more than insinuated here that " nisi quod humani quiddam in Wil- Theodore was bribed : but this is not fridum Eboracenscm antistitem passus likely. " Ad auxilium sua3 vesanite est : cujus rei ante mortem magnopere archiepiscopum Theodorum cum mu- ipsum poenituit." Mabillon, Annall. iieribus, qu£e exctecant etiam sapientum Bened. torn. i. p. 591. CH.VI.] IlELIGIOUS CONDITION OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 379 remarkable man was deprived once more.* Undoubtedly Wil- frid, after all his trials, died at last under a partial recognition of his claims. But he was indebted to it for no interference of the Roman see. Elfieda, an abbess of royal blood, asserted that her nephew, the king lately dead, conscious of injustice to him, solemnly determined upon his restoration, if life had l)een allow- ed ; and to this customary stream of female partiality for Itome, not to any tardy acquiescence of native authorities in its favour, did TVilfrid owe a departure from life with oi)i!^C(>i)al honours.*' § 6. In subsequent periods the Anglo-Saxon church retained the same character of independence. Home was viewed habitu- ally with high veneration and respectful deference. The En- glish primates generally travelled thither for tiie insidious com- pliment of a pall ; certainly took care at least to send for one. The people were wild for pilgrimages to the ancient seat ot empire, now hallowed, as it was thought, by the bones of apos- tles and martyrs. The more educated classes naturallv looked up to a city which contained better scholars and abler canonists than any other city of the West besides. It is easy to see how these feelings, skilfully improved by Italian subtlety and supe- rior information, might ripen into that recognition of papal au- thority which was eventually established. But it is observable, that Anglo-Saxon ecclesiastical polity had no such ingredient. Rome was always respected, and her suggestions were often obeyed ; of any right to press them, no suspicion seems ever to have been entertained. As might lie expected in such a case, there was hardly ever any show of j)apal interference in Kngfish affairs. It was verging upon two hundred years after the th-ath of Augustine, before any agent with a papal commission landed in Enirland.^ Two lesrates then came from Rome ; but evi- dently they came by invitation to answer the selfish ends of a native sovereign. Otfa, king of the ]\Icn'ians, then the most powerful of Anglo-Saxon princes, having a grudge against Lambert, archbishop of Canterbury, and probably, l)eing not uninfluenced by policy, was anxious to withdraw his prelacy from all dependence upon a metropolitan in another state, and to establish one at Lichfield, in his own dominions. As it is impossible to calculate exactly beforehand upon the degree of ac- s Eddius 75. Oithx, uiid Thit)phyliKt. Iiisliup i)f Tmli, « Ibid. 86. WiltViil died in 709. to the council uf Calcuith. Spclman, ' Such is the declaration of the Cone. 293. legates themselves, Gregon-, bishop of 380 BOOK III. — CEXTUEY XI. [PART II. quiescence which such innovation may command, he was naturally willing to fortify his design by the pope's concurrence. Hence the unwonted appearance of papal legates in England. The object, however, having been answered by their visit, and Offa's antipathy to Canterbury not descending to his successors, the same authority that had concurred in making Lichfield a metropolitan see, was very reasonably sought again for restoring Canterbury to its ancient rights.^ Yet the very period which thus saw Rome interfering effectually, because by domestic procurement, with English affairs, saw her also signally baffled in a question really of much more importance. The Italian populace was besotted with a rage for image-worship, and the papal see had profited enormously by pandering to its taste. But when that seductive superstition was solemnly confirmed by synodical authority at Nice, western Europe was neither to be won over by the formal affirmation of a council, nor by papal interference in favour of its decrees. Italy and the East had seen paganism professed and defended by philosophers. The West knew it only as the grovelling delusion of barbarians, the inveterate prejudice of vulgar ignorance. Hence England, Gaul, and Germany, could hear of no specious apologies for the religious treatment of stocks and stones. When, accordingly, Charlemagne sent over into Britain the deutero-Nicene decrees, her native divines followed his example in spurning the papal patronage of image-worship. They pronounced the synodical sanctions transmitted from Constantinople, disfigured by many unfitting tliingSy at variance loitli a right belief, especially by assertions of image -worship, ivhich the church of God altogether execrates? Yet these very assertions were sanctioned by the * Epistola Kenulfi Regis Merciorum quod omnino ecclesia Dei execratur." ad Leonem Papain III. Ibid. 321. Hoveden, Rer. Angl. Scrlptores post Lichfield had no more than one arch- Bedam. Francof. 1601, p. 405. "To bishop. It descended to the rank of tliis nan-ative Harpsfield gives the title an ordinaiy episcopal see about the year of Commcntitia et insulsa fabula, and 800. Wharton, Anglia Sacm, torn. i. p. tliinks it not writ by Sim. Dunelmcnsis, 430. or Mat. Westminster, (he might have ^ "Anno 792. Carolus rex Fran- added Hoveden, the MS. histoiy of conim misit synodalem libruni ad Bri- llochester,) but that it was anciently tanniam, sibi a Constantinopoli directum, inserted into them. For answer to which in quo libro (heu proh dolor !) multa he would be desired to produce any one inconvenientia, et vera; fidei contraria, old copy without it, not mangled, so as it reperiebantur; maxime, quod pene om- doth prodere furtum by wanting it. I nium orientalium doctorum, ncjn minus have seen divers of Hoveden MSS., quam trecentonxm, vel eo amplius, epis- some of Mat. West., but never did one coporum, unanimi assertione confirma- wherein it was not found, not in the turn fuerit, imagines adorari debere : margin, but in the text itself." Twisden, CH.VI.] RELIGIOUS CONDITION OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 381 Roman pontiff: a fact which evidently embarrassed their Enjrlisli opponents; who spoke of them, accordingly, as merelv oriental. That the pope was really out of sight, is, however, impossible. His name might be suppressed from a spirit of respectful cour- tesy ; his authority was, notwithstanding, set at nought, and it is difficult to understand how those who duly weigh such treatment of a solemn document approved at Rome, can con- sider the rejecting parties as owning obedience to the papal see. § 7. It is true, that England, like her continental neighbours, gradually, but rapidly, withdrew from the contest against iuiage- worship. The steps of her downward course are iiidden among the mists of remote antiquity. A decalogue, however, truncated of tiie second commandment, evidence of a guilty conscience that yields in pregnancy to none, proves that Anglo-Saxon execration of Pagan combinations with Ciiristianity was easily undermined by constant communication with more subtle and polished Italy.' Still, there is neither evidence nor probability, that this discreditable defection from a purer creed flowed from any interference of the Romish court. The change left England, as to papal authority, exactly in her old position. It manifestly took its rise from nothing more than artful jx-rsuasion and seductive example acting upon the human mind : of which one great besetting weakness has been ever seen a childish fondness for gentile vanities. § 8. Perhaps few things happened, in the Anglo-Saxon j)eriod, more favourable to the eventual establishment of paj)al |)ower over England, than the firm and extensive possession gained by Benedictine monachism. It is to the religious orders that Rome has been chiefly indebted for her authority in every (piarter of the world. The earlier Anglo-Saxon monasteries had, iiowever, but little of the monastic character. It is true, that "Wilfrid boasted of having introduced the Benedictine system -' : but it is also undeniable, that England knew very little of it until the days of Dunstan. It was reserved for that cele'orated man, in conjunction with Ethelwold, bishop of Winchester, and Oswald, Historical Vindication of the Church of l;iti«nicni institiii, et iiKinnolionini vitani England in point of Schixm. Lond. 1675, si-i'iiii. ■ " Ego canonicani in ccclesiis luodu- 382 BOOK III. — CENTURY XI. [PART II. archblsliop of York, to render monachism popular. Hence Dunstan was ever viewed as the real introducer of the Benedic- tine system into England. He is complimented by a contem- poi'ary author, as the first English abbot of that order.^ His exertions in its favour took something of a revolutionary cast. He could not be contented with stimulating Edgar, the royal puppet whom he moved upon the throne, to unsparing liberality in the foundation of monasteries. He and his two coadjutors wei'c indefatigable in their endeavours to convert catbedral foundations into Benedictine abbeys. For thi>5 purpose, not only were the canons in possession assailed by importunity, and inveigled by the prevailing passion for monachism : their cha- racters were also violently aspersed, and their ejection Avas thus advocated as a debt due to sound morality ^ ; an injustice which, in the lapse of ages, recoiled upon the monastic orders, when the spoiler stood before their doors. By these various arts, England became thoroughly pervaded by monastic establish- ments and prejudices ; the best preparative that Eome could wish for a realization of her ambitious hopes, when ripe for full development. § 9. But altliough Dunstan's monastic exertions were, un- doubtedly, most favourable to the growth of papal influence ; his own mind was, probably, quite unconscious of any such tendency in them, and altogether above any subserviency that might seem impatriotic or injurious. He resisted, accordingly, an application from the ])ope to rescind a sentence earned by an incestuous marriage. The offender, though a successful suitor at Rome, found this no recommendation to his own archbishop. Dunstan spiritedly refused absolution, let application for it come whence it might, until the scandal was removed.'^ The whole stream of Anglo-Saxon ecclesiastical history is in unison with this display of independence. The papal see was highly vene- rated and respectfully heard, but deference for it was ever such as that of those who think themselves at perfect liberty to choose. Hence, when its authority was lent for distasteful pur- poses, England made no scruple to disregard it. Her ecclesias- ^ " Saluberrimam S. Benedict! se- ' Vita S. Ethchv. Acta SS. Ord. Bened. qucns iiistitutionem, primus abbas torn. v. p. 614. AnglicK nationis enituit." Vita S. ^ Surius, de Probatis SS. Historiis, Diifist. MS. Brit. Mus. Cleopatra 13, b. torn. iii. p. 323. CH.VI.] RELIGIOUS CONDITION OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. .383 tical polity evidently no more recognized an alien jurisdiction than her civil. § 10. In some other particulars, the Anglo-Saxon church made nearer approaches to the principles of modern Eomanism. An excessive anxiety for saintly intercession produced prayers to God for this supposed benefit, and ultimately led to the in- vocation of angelic and departed spirits.*^ It seems impossible to ascertain exactly how far this trust in uncommanded, if not forbidden mediation, had proceeded at the Norman conquest. But the principle had evidently taken root, and its eventual triumph was secured. It was the same with purgatory. That Platonic doctrine had constantly floated on the surface of Christian society, ever since philosophy and pagan tastes had been admitted to some sort of amicahle fellowship with the gospel. Men were not prepared with any defiuite opinions upon such subjects, and were by no means persuaded of any solid foundation for them, in such texts of Scripture as later ages have cited in their support." Still there was a general expectation of some penal cleansing fire awaitiu"- the disem- bodied soul. It might not, indeed, burn until immediately before the general judgment ; but then it would intercept every child of Adam in his way to the heavenly tribunal, detaining and scorching him more or less, in proportion to his individual Avant of punishment and purgation. Of some such awful pro- cess, in store for all, few seemed to have entertained any doubt. This, however, is not identity with the purgatorial doctrines of modern Rome ; only affinity with them, and preparation for them. § 11. The papal penitential doctrines are similarly circum- stanced. Platonic speculations had made men reckon upon a strict correspondence between sin and punishment. Every offence must have its proportionate infliction, cither in the body ^ The luiturc of Anglo-Saxon de- ^lahillou, Annall. Bencd. toni. i. j). 697. pendcnce upon saints may be seen from " Adjuvcnt nos, quai.-imius, Dominc, et the following prayer, printed hy Dr. h:i;c niysteria sancta (\\\x sumpsimus, George Hiekes, as an appendix to tlie et l)eata? Baltildis interee.ssio vencranda." letters which passed between him and a It may be said, that instances of the Popish priest, Lond. 1705. " iSancta same kind, both in jiriiit and in MS., Dei genetrix, Virgo INIaria, et onmes are almost innumerable, sancti Dei, intercedant pro nobis i)ecca- ' Especially 1 Cor. iii. 13. Bede toribus." This prayer occurs in the says ui)on this text, " Fateor me malle office for the canonical hours in Saxon hinc audirc intelligentiorcs et doctiorcs." and Latin. The same spirit appears in 0pp. tom. v. p. 280. the mass of St. Balthildis, printed by 384 BOOK III. — CENTURY XI. [PART II. or out of It ; and as the latter penalty might prove the more severe, serious minds were willing to bear their guilty earnings while life remained. They were, however, naturally averse from undergoing more than the exigency of their several cases needed : hence the apportionment of penance became a sort of science, and offences were confessed to a priest, not for sacramental absolution, as Romanists now talk, for that was unknown, but upon the same principle that a patient explains bodily ailments to a physician. The penitent exposed his delinquencies. In order that a physician of the soul might determine exactly what kind and measure of nauseous moral medicine was requisite for escape from a more intolerable course hereafter.^ § 12. But although Anglo-Saxon theology thus made way for that of modern Rome In several particulars, In the most important It bore an opposite direction. Transubstantiatlon, or the tangible presence of the Incarnate Deity in the eucharist, is really that pillar of the papal creed on which hangs all the rest. For decisive evidence upon this doctrine, the Anglo-Saxon period was fortunately prepared. Earlier eras often speak am- biguously ; supplying language that some consider rhetoric, others fact. In the ninth century, Paschasius Radbert brought this matter to an issue. He took literally all that had hitherto been said, as many think, rhetorically, and moulded It Into a startling system. This came Immediately under the examina- tion of such men as John Scot, Ratramn, and Rabun Maur, undoubtedly the first theologians of their age. All condemned it, and their judgment Is re-echoed by the Anglo-Saxon church. The last of them, however, Raban, may be considered as the disciple of that church ; his master being Alcuin. The fair inference, therefore. Is, that Bede, the great repository of earlier English theology, must be taken as no authority for transub- stantiatlon in passages that seem to favour it, such as bear against it embodying his real sentiments. In this view of the case, it will be seen, that the ancient cliurch of England, whe- * An unpublished Saxon homily ex- translator of the New Testament, took pressly likens sin to a leprosy, and the of absolution at the Reformation ; pro- priest to a physician, who must know nouncing the Christian priest's office the particulars of the case in order to analogous to tliat of an ancient Jewish decide upon the mode of cure. (.See jiricst, who neither made a leper clean the Editor's Bamptori Lectures, p. 301.) nor unclean, but merely decided which The extract there from a MS. in the was his case. But this view is adverse public library at Cambridge, proceeds to the doctrine of sacramental absolu- upon the view that Tyndale, the martyred tion. CH. VI.] RELIGIOUS CONDITION OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 385 ther on her paternal soil, or transplanted to the continent, bears an uniform and irresistible testimony against the vital distinc- tion of modern Rome. It has been doubted, with great reason, whether the reformed church of England gives a plainer con- tradiction to tlie main doctrine of her papal rival, than the venerable predecessor wdiich taught the country before Xorman William landed, with Lanfranc, IJerenger's opponent, in his train. ^ § 13. It is of itself a strong presumption against that vital doctrine of the Roman church, that great uncertainty hangs over the Anglo-Saxon author, who most unequivocally opposed it. His name is known to have been Elfric, but his history can- not satisfactorily be ascertained. Yet his decisive testimonies against transubstantlation are given in a paschal homih-, meant for serving as an ordinaiy Easter-Sunday sermon, and in two pieces ; one addressed to bishop Wulfsine ' ; the other, seem- ingly, to AVulfstan, archbishop of York, Both pieces have very much the character of modern episcopal charges, — a class of documents unlikely to be prepared by any divine without con- siderable professional reputation.'- Nor, again, is Elfric's pas- chal homily the mere literary experiment of a private scholar. It is one in a series of forty homilies addressed to Sigeric, arch- bishop of Canterbury, with a request for a strict scrutiny into the soundness of their doctrine.'^ By that prelate they were highly commended, and formally approved, as adapted for the genei-al instruction of the people.^ The writer of these pieces, therefore, bore an established character, to Avhich the most com- petent authorities of his day willingly deferred. Tills is further shown by a second series equally extensive, but chiefly turning upon the lives of saints, which followed his first forty homilies. » " I am fnllv pcrsuailcd that tlic the pieces addressed to Wulfsine and homihes of Elfrie arc more positive Wulfstan, wore pubhshed by Abp. Parker against the doftriue of traiistibstaiitiation about 1560. AgMiii, iu Fuxe's Mar- thau the homihes of the Churcli of Enp- tijrology, ed. of KiU), p. 1041. Again, land, compiled iu the reigns of Edward by I/Isle, in 102.-), in A Testimoni/ of the Sixth and Queen Ehzabcth." Gene- Antiquitic : xlinrirKi the Ancient Faith of ral Prefiice to Johnson's Collection of the Church of England, touching the Sacra- all the Eccl. Laws, ^c. of the Church of ment of the Ixxli/ and bloud of the Lord, England, Lond. 1720, p. xx, here publichli/ preached, and also received ' Commonly, but cn-oneously, Avritten in tlte Sa-nms time, about 600 i/earcs without an s. He appears to have agoe. been bishop of Sherborne from 980 to ' Hickes, Tliesaurus Lingg. Septent. 998. tom. ii. p. 15.3. * The paschal homily, together witli ' Ibid. p. 157, extracts against transubstantlation from VOL. II. C C 386 BOOK III. — CENTURY XI. [PART II. These, too, appear to have had Sigeric's allowance ; unquestion- ably they became the national stock of sermons for festivals. No mean author could be thus trusted as the religious in- structor of his country. Nor were these important contribu- tions to the literature of ancient England all that Elfric's indus- try supplied. Under his name came forth also a life of Ethelwold, bishop of Winchester, a glossary, a body of monastic discipline, and other pieces.^ It has been doubted, whether all these are Avorks of a single author, or of two writers named alike. There is, however, very little reason to question the identity of authorship ; hence Elfric, must have been one of the ablest, most eminent, and most industrious of contemporary scholars. § 14. Of such persons, it is rarely difficult to learn the lead- ing particulars of their lives. Of Elfric, most remarkably, nothing is known, but that he was chiefly educated at Winches- ter, in the school of Ethelwold, was sent into Dorsetshire, as the regulator of Cerne abbey, and became, himself, in the course of years, a monk, priest, abbot, and bishop. Upon the abbey and see that owned obedience to him, there is ample room for controversy. It has been thought, however, that he was abbot of Peterborough, and eventually archbishop of York.^ Those who take this view of his case, believe that he also held, at one time, the see of Worcester.* To York Minster was not attached a regular monastery, but a college of secular canons. Hence archbishops, who were Benedictine monks, had been allowed to hold Worcester in commendam, Oswald having organized a monastery of that order around the cathedral there. They could thus attend to their archiepiscopal duties, and yet pre- serve inviolate the character of Benedictine monks. But ano- * Like the former series, they dial- the archbishop of Canterbury's. (Annall. lenge a rigid scrutiny into their ortho- Bened. torn. iv. p. 191.) Dr. Lingard will doxy. not pretend to detenninc the effect of ^ Embarrassed by such literary emi- such language as Elfric's from a Pro- ncncc and industry in an author who testant jiulpit, but lie is permitted to convicts transubstantiation of novelty, affirm (jjucere by the council of Trent ?) and proves modern Romanism not to that no Cathohc theologian Mill declare have been the faith of ancient England, it contrary to the Catholic doctrine. Harduin, in his Chronol Vet. Test., pro- {Antiquities of the Anglo-Saxon Church, nounces the Anglo-Saxon remains mere note "'.) This is tnie enough ; but German works of a remote age, printed what nmst be said of a i?o»jan-Catholic in characters artfully made up for de- theologian ? ception, and Elfric's name a figment, ' ii'icih&^^itov'B Anglo-Saxon Church, excogitated from the Hebrew. The inde- p. 213. fatigablc Mabillon has no industry for » If he is to be identified in this way, Elfric ; he merely has not discovered he might seem to have holden the see of whether certain little works, mentioned Worcester until tlie year 1034, and to by Leland and Pits, arc to be considered have died in 1054. as Elfric, the grammarian's, or Elfric, CH.VI.] RELIGIOUS CONDITION OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 387 ther hypothesis makes Elfrlc to have been successively abbot of Eynsham, in Oxfordshire, bishop of Wilton, and archbishop of Canterbury.^ If this be his true history, he died in 1006. § 15. Now, although it is true that this age had not the nu- merous records of later periods, and that the Norman conquest reduced nearly the whole English population to a state of villen- age, soon after Elfric's death, yet there is no reason certainly known why such obscurity should shroud the memory of a very prolific Anglo-Saxon writer. Soon after the time when this re- markable personage lived, as we learn from his own preface to his homilies, there arose, indeed, two authors, Osbern and William of Malmesbury, who sought employment and reputation in writing upon the ecclesiastical worthies of England. Neither of them, however, throws any light upon his history ; ISIalmesbury rather the reverse. He might even seem to have intentionally involved his memory in confusion. For such omission and seeming management, it is, of course, impossible to assign an incontrovertible cause. But a plausible conjecture is obvious. Osbern's patron was Lanfranc, who rose to the summit of ecclesiastical distinction by polemics in favour of transtibstantia- tion. Malmesbury had evidently taken those views of that doc- trine which the Normans patronised, or he would not have attacked Raban Maur for supporting the opposite opinion. To such men, with their patrons and admirers, nothing could be more embarrassing than a writer, like Elfric, with a large body of homilies, regularly authorised for national use, within a few years before. There Avas no possibility that he should iiave delivered any other doctrine than that of the contemporary Church of England. He says, however, that eucharistic bread and wine are not the same body that Christ suffered in, nor the same blood in hodihj substance that he shed for ns} It is true that he introduces legendary talcs, meant for marking a broad line of distinction between the eucharist and ordinary food, hence capable, if taken unconncctedly, of serving the cause of transubstantiation.2 His main stream of argument is, however, plainly an intentional contradiction of that doctrine. He has, in fact, worked up much that Ratramn wrote in reply to Paschasius Radbert.^ Hence it is clear, that he was well s AYright's Biographia Britanjiica * Il)i(l. 8crmon on Easter-day, p, 7. Literaria, Lond. 1842, p. 482. ' It shows how stronply the ti.lc set ' L'Isle's Testimony of AntiquUy. in against opponents of traiisnbstanti- Epistle to Wulfsinc. ation, that although Katranin was a c c 2 388 BOOK III, — CENTURY XI. [PART II. aware of a belief in transubstantiatlon, and that he purposely took an opposite view in a mass of doctrine, not only intended for popular instruction, but also approved and authorised by the archbishop of Canterbury/ It is no wonder that such as looked up to a succeeding archbishop, who had risen as an advocate for transubstantiatlon, should seek to involve the name of Elfric in inextricable confusion. To discredit openly the national homilies was hopeless ; but a studied silence might gradually wean his depressed countrymen from him, and in a few generations his very name and memory might become irre- trievably obscured. § 16. Like other churches previous to the Reformation, that of the Anglo-Saxons was episcopally organized. A kingdom of the heptarchy Avas no sooner converted, than a bishop was ap- pointed to direct its spiritual affiiirs. This arrangement applied as well to kingdoms Christianized by native missionaries, as to those won over to the Gospel by means of Rome. In Kent, indeed, although the smallest, perhaps, of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, two sees were founded very early, the second being at Rochester.^ But this, probably, arose from the metropoliti- cal character bestowed upon Canterl)ury. Eventually, thirteen episcopal and two archiepiscopal sees were established in ante- Norman England.^ All the prelates, together Avith the abbots, were standing members of the loitena gemot, or national legis- veiy eminent wi-iter in liis day, there is prefers the hypothesis, which identifies little about liim extant. Even the date the homilist with Elfric, archbishop of of his death is uncertain. (Mabillon, ^w- York ; a supposition that seems liable to nail. Bened. tom. iii. p. 139.) There is, no chronological objections, therefore, some degree of analogy be- * Tlie see there was founded in 604, tween his case and Elfric's. and so completely was it reckoned sub- * Sigeric, who has gained celebrity ordinate to Canterbury, that the arch- from his allowance of Elfric's homilies, bishops are said to liave nominated to it filled the see of Canterbiuy from 989 to untU after the conquest. 994. Elfric's homilies, for two years, ^ Under Henry I. two new sees were have been published and translated for erected, viz. Ely, in 1108, and CarUsle the Elfric Society, by Bcnj. Thorpe, in 1132. In addition to the fifteen epis- E. S.A. Loud. 1844, 1846. The editor copal sees thus existing, there were also, admits that eminent person's abbacy of before the Reformation, the four Welsh Eynsham, which seems, indeed, completely sees. Out of the spoils of monasteries, establislied by a citation produced by Hemy VIII. erected the sees of Bristol, Mr. Wriglit from a C. C. C. C. M.S., but Gloucester, Chester, Peterborough, Ox- rejects tlie other portions of IMi-. Wriglit's ford, and Westminster. Of these, the hypothetical history. He is led to this last had only a single prelate, Thomas rejection by Elfric's words in the preface Thirlby, consecrated in 1540, and trans- to his homilies, wiiich speak of king lated to Norwich by Edward VI. in Ethelred's daj's as past. Now they lasted 1550. The see of Westminster was ten years beyond the deatli of Elfric, then dissolved, and its diocese re-united archbishop of Canterbury. Mr, Thorpe to London. The sec of Bristol continued CH.VI.] RELIGIOUS CONDITION OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 389 lature. Thus the parliamentary privilege of a modern English bishop is no creature of that Norman innovation which converted episcopal endowments into baronies. William's object in this, was rather to impose additional burthens upon the prelacy, than to confer any new privilege upon it. His policy required him to place episcopal domains, like ordinary tenures, under a clear liability to supply contingents for military service. As for legislative functions, he left the prelates where he found them. The envious, narrow, illiberal spirit, let loose by the Reformation among certain classes of the laity, is prone to re- present such forbearance as a proof of weakness in temporal rulers, and of artful ambition in ecclesiastics. It is, however, easy to show the wisdom, as well as the justice, of that ancient policy, which placed the church among liberal professions, and opened to its ministers those prospects of affluence, and attendant political privileges, which animate the hopes and rcfjulte the exertions of their fellow-countrymen. until 1836, ■when it was united to that of Gloucester ; Dorsetshire, before in its diocese, being restored to the see of Salisbury, under wliich it had been prc- \'iously to the Reformation. Simul- taneously with the union of Gloucester and Bristol, a new sec was founded at Ripon, and another new see was founded at Manchester, in 1847. This was to have been done when a vacancy should allow the sees of Bangor and St. Asaph to be consolidated. Thus, although the populous districts of northern England were to gain two new bishops, the prelacy was to remain at its old number of twenty-six, including the two arch- bishops, and excluding the bishop of Sodor and Man, who has never had any vote in the House of Lords. But a great oj)position was made to the consolidation of the sees of Bangor and St. Asapii. That project was, in consequence, aban- doned, and a twenty-seventh prelacy was created in England by the foundation of a new see at Manchester. It was, how- ever, provided that no more than the old number of twenty-six prelates should sit in parliament. The indiviiiuiJ bust ap- poiiUed has to wait for a seat until a vacancy is made by the death of some one who was on the bench before him. CENTURY TWELFTH. PART I. THE EXTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. CHAPTER I. THE PROSPEROUS EVENTS OF THE CHURCH. § 1,2. ConversioTi of pagan nations. — § 3. The Finns. — § 4. The Livonians. — § 5. The Slavonians. — § 6. Estimate of these conversions. — § 7. The Tartiirs and Presbyter John. — § 8. Unfortunate issue of the expeditions to Palestine. — § 9. Renewal of the crusades. — § 10. lOxtinction of the kingdom of Jerusalem. — § 11. The third crusade.— § 12. Its result. — § 13. Orders of knights militant. First the order of St. John. — § 14. Second, that of Templai-s. — § 15. Third, that of Teutonic knights. § 1. A CONSIDERABLE part of the people living in Europe, especially in its northern regions, were still ignorant of Chris- tianity, and devoted to the foolish superstitions of their ances- tors. In the conversion of these, therefore, the zealous in reli- gion occupied themselves in this century ; yet not all of them with equal success, or equal discretion. Boleslans, duke of Poland, after vanquishing the Pomeranians, concluded a peace with them on the condition that they should allow the Chris- tian religion to be freely pi'eachcd and expounded to them. Accordingly, Otto, bishop of Bamberg, a man distinguished in this age for his zeal in propagating Christianity, was sent among them for this purpose, in the year 1124. He bai)tized a con- siderable number, but was utterly unable to overcome the obsti- nacy of many. On his return to Germany, a large part of those baptized by him, relapsed into idolatry. He therefore took c c 4 392 BOOK III. — CENTURY XII. [part I. another journey into Pomerania, in the year, 1126 ; and amidst many difficulties succeeded in strengthening and extending the feeble church there. ^ From this time onward, Christianity be- came so established among the Pomeranians, that Adalbert could be ordained as their first bishop. § 2. Waldemar L, king of Denmark, obtained veiy great fame by the many wars that he undertook against the pagan nations, the Slaves, the Wends, the Vandals, and others. He fought not only for the interests of his subjects, but likewise for the extension of Christianity ; and wherever he was successful, he demolished the temples and images of the gods, the altars and groves, and commanded Christian worship to be set up. In particular, he subdued, in the year 1168, the whole island of ivugen, which lies near to Pomerania ; and now he compelled its ferocious, savage, piratical inhabitants, who had been addicted to senseless superstitions, to hear Christian preachers, and to embrace the Christian worship. The king's designs were promoted and executed by Absalom, archbishop of Lund, a man ' See Henry Canisius, Lectiones An- tiquce, torn. iii. pt. ii. p. 34, where is a Life of Otto ; whom Clement III., in the year 1189, enrolled in the catalogue of saints. See the Acta Sanctor. mensis Julii, tom. i. p. 349, &c. Dan. Cramer, Chronicle of the Church of Pomerania, book i. \vi-itten in German : Christ. Schotgen's German tract, on the con- version of the Pomeranians by Otto : Stargard, 1724, 4to. Jo. Maliillon's Annales Benedict, tom. vi. p. 123. 146. 323. [Likewise Jo. Bugenhagen's Po- merania, published by J. H. Balthasar, Greifswald, 1728, 4to", p. 38. 64. 78, &c. The precepts given by this apostle to liis new converts, were designed chiefly to wean them from their superstitious practices. They did not go into the essentials of Christianity. They must observe Simdays and the feast-days ; they must fast; must bring their children to be baptized, with certain fonnalities, at Whitsuntide ; must not murder their daughters, as formerly ; must refrain from polygamy ; must not marry their god-mothers ; and, in general, must re- frain from marrying kindred within the sixth and scventli degrees ; they must not bury the bodies of Christians among those of pagans ; must build no idol- temples ; consult no soothsayer ; eat nothing that is unclean ; do penance often, &c. See the Chron. Ursperg. et Halberstadt. ad ann. 1124. Schl. — From the account of one of Otto's great bap- tismal celebrations, extracted by Mabil- lon, we learn completely the contem- porary mode of administering that sacra- ment. " Frimus ejus apostolicus labor fuit apud Pirissam urbem, ubi septem circiter millia hominum ad baptismum adduxit, duobus illic exstructis baptis- teriis, ut in uno marcs, in altero feminas baptizaret. Ad utriusque ingressum cortinte expansce erant, sub quas singuli tantum baptizandi intrabant cum patrinis suis, qui baptizandi vestem ac cereum, ilia in uquam desccndente, accipiebant, et ob oculos suos tenentes expectabant, donee cam redderent de aqua exeunti. Sacerdos vero qui ad cupam, seu sacrum fontem, stabat, cum audisset potius, quam vidisset, baptizandum in aquam ingressum esse, velo paululum amoto, trina immer- sione capitis illius, mysterii sacramentum perfcicbat, unctumque liquore chrismatis in vertice, et alba imposita, reductoque velo, de aqua baptizatum exire jubebat, patrinis vestc, quam tcmbant, ilium co-operientibus atque dedurentibus. Hie priscus erat ritus confercndi baptismatis, ab Ottone obsen-atus, quern nusquam alibi tarn ac- curate et distincte explicatum inveni." (Annall. Bated, torn. vi. p. 124.) Otto died in 1139. Ibid. p. 323. Ed.} CH. I.] PROSPEROUS EVENTS. 393 of talents, whom the king employed as his chief counsellor on all subjects.^ § 3. The Finns, who infested Sweden with frequent inroads, were attacked by Eric IX., king of Sweden, called St. Eric, after his death ; and by him subdued, after many bloody battles. As to the year when tliis took place, historians disagree.^ The vanquished nation was commanded to follow tlie religion of the conqueror, which most of them did, with reluctance and disgust.* The shepherd and guardian assigned to this new church was Henry, archbishop of Upsal, who had accompanied the king. But as he treated these new Christians too rigorously, and at- tempted to punish severely a man of great influence who had committed murder, he was himself massacred ; and the pontiff, Hadrian IV., enrolled him among the saints.^ § 4. Towards the close of the century, perhaps in the year 1186, some merchants of Bremen or of Lubcc, trading to Livo- nia, took along with them Mainhard, a regular canon of St. Augustine in the monastery of Segeberg in Holstein, to bring that warlike and uncivilized nation to the Christian faith. But, as very few would listen to him, IMainliard cowi^\\\iQ(\ the lloman pontiff, who created him the first bishop of the Livonians, and decreed, that war should be waged against opponents.*^ This war, which was first waged with the Esthonians, was extended further, and more vigorously prosecuted, by IJerfhold, the second bishop of the Livonians, after the death of Maiuluird ; for this Berthold, formerly abbot of Lucca, marched with a strong army from Saxony, and reconunended Christianity, not by arguments. ' Saxo Grammaticus, Historia Danica, Vitce Sanctor. Reyni Siteogot/iici, p. 62. lib. xiv. p. 239. HelmoUl, C/troii. ^la- Erie. Beiizclius, Munumfitta Ecclesiee vorum, lib. ii. c. xii. p. 2.'U, with the Suco(j(it/iict. i. p. .■{3, &c. note there of Henry Baiif^ert. Toiitop- ' [The apostles of those times, accord- pidaii, Annales Eccles. Danicce, toin. i. m^ to the example of the successors p. 404, &c. [Schroeckh's Kirchengesch. of St. Peter in that age, made use of the vol. XXV. p. 245, &c. Tr.] double sword, tirsi the spiritual, and, '^ Most of them, with Baronius, refer where this wijs inefiTectual. tlie material it to the year 1151. Vastovius places it sword. And this last, Mainhard knew in 1150, and Oernheilmius, A.D. 1157. well how to use. In the war a-rainst * Claud. Oeniheilmius, //(Storm £rf/c.s-. the Lettes or Lithuanians, he tauplit his Gentis Suecorum, lib. iv. cap. iv. § 13. Livonians the art of erecting; fortified Jo. Locenius, Historia Suecica, lib. iii. p. castles, and, in general, a Wtter method 76, ed. Francf Isr. Erlaiidus, Vita Erici of earning on war. His lieutenant was Sancti, cap. vii. Vastovius, Vitis Aqui- Dietrich, a Cistercian monk, who was lania, p. 65, &c. afterwards bishop of Esthonia. He also • Jo. Vastovius, Vitis Aqtiihnia, sett was Maiiiliard's envoy to the pope, who 394 BOOK III. — CENTURY XII. [PART I. but by slaughter and battle.^ Following his example, the third bishop Albert, previously a canon of Bremen, entered Livonia in the year 1198, well supported by a fresh army raised in Saxony, and fixing his camp at Riga, he instituted, by authority of Innocent III., the Roman pontiff, the military order of knights sword-bearers, who should compel the Livonians, by force of arms, to receive baptism.^ New forces were marched, from time to time, from Germany, by whose valour and that of the knights sword-bearers, the wretched people were subdued and exhausted, so that they at last substituted the images of Christ and the saints in the place of their gods. The bishops and knights partitioned out among themselves the lands most unjustly wrested from the ancient possessors.^ § 5. The subjugation and conversion of the Slavonians, who inhabited the shores of the Baltic, and were most inveterate enemies of the Christians, gave employment to both civil and ecclesiastical rulers, during nearly the whole century. Among them, prince Henry the Lion was distinguished. Besides de- vising and effecting other measures very useful for improving the Slavonian character, he restored and liberally endowed three bishoprics in Slavonia beyond the Elbe ; namely, Ratzeburg, Oldenburg, which was soon after transferred to Lubec, and Schwerin.' Among the religious teachers who assailed the proffered indulgences to all that would tions and corrects all the other writers assume the cross and march againt the on the subject. [We have also three Livonians. Schl.'] • epistles of pope Innocent III. relating ' [Berthold was a Cistercian, and to the conversion of the Livonians. The was appointed successor to Mainhard, in first is addressed to all the Christians in the year 1196, by the archbishop of Bre- Saxony and Westphalia; the second, to men, who wished to enlarge his province the Christians in the countries of the by the addition of Livonia. His first Slavonians ; and the third, to the be- cxpedition to Livonia was unsuccessful, lievers beyond the Elbe. In these the The Livonians believed that he came pope commands such as were under among them only to enrich himself out vows of pilgrimage to Rome, to substi- of them ; and he found it best to make tute for them a crusade against the Li- liis escape from them. Wiien he re- vonians. Rajniakl, Annales, ad ann. tm-ned with an anned force in 1198, the 1199, No. 38, and Cod. Diploni. Polon. Livonians killed him. But tb.e army of tom. \. p. \. Schl.'] crusadex's so temficd the inhabitants, ' See the Origines Guelphicce, tom. iii. that they admitted clergymen among p. 16. 19. 34. 41. 55. 61. 63. 72. 82, and them ; though these they soon after the valuable Preface of Scheidius, § xiv. chased out of the countiy. Schl.'] p. 41. Ludewig's Beliguice Manuscriptor. ^ Sec Henry Leonh. Schurzfleisch, torn. vi. p. 230, &c. Jo. Em. de West- Hisloria Ordinis Ensiferorum Equitum, phalen's Munuvienta inedita Reriim Cam- Witteb. 1701, Svo. bricar. et Mecjctpolens. tom. ii. p. 1998, " See the Origines LivonicB, sen Chro- Sec. [According to Helmold, in his nicon vetus Livonicum, published with Chronicon Slavar. lib. i. c. 69, it was copious notes, Erancf. 1740, fol. by Jo. Ilartwich the archliishop of Hamburg Dan. Gruber ; who, in his notes, men- who re-established these bishoprics. The CH. I.] PROSPEROUS EVENTS. 395 ignorance and stupidity of this barbarous nation, the most dis- tinguished was Vicelin of Hamein, a man who had but few equals in that age, and who, from presiding over the regular canons of St. Augustine at Faldern, was at length made bishop of Oldenburg. For nearly thirty years, from a. d. 1124, to A. D. 1154, the time of his death, he laboured amidst innumerable difficulties, indefatigably, perseveringly, and successfully, in instructing the Slavonians, and alluring them to Christianity. He also performed many other praiseworthy deeds, which have rendered his name immortal.^ § 6. It is scarcely necessary to repeat here, what has several times been remarked already, that barbarous nations brought into the pale of the Christian church in this manner, became archduke Henry had previously made some campaigns into the territory of tlic Slavonians ; but his object had not been to propagate Christianity. (Xiilla dc Christianitate, says Helmold, fuit mentio, sed tantum de pecunia.) Otto the Great had formerly established the bishopric of Aldenburg, Avhich extended from that of Holstein as far as the Peene and the town of Demmin : and under Ezo, the tenth bishop, this bi>h(ipric was divided by Adalbert, archbishop of Ilambm-g, into three bishoprics, those of Mecklen- burg and Ratzeburg being created ^Wthin it. But these bishoprics, after the ex- tinction of Christianity in the territories of the Slavonians, remained vacant eighty-four years, or till tlic times of Hartwich. This archbishop having in vain laboured to re-annex the Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish bishoprics to his archiepiscopal province to wliich they had formerly belonged ; that he might not be without sutfi-agaus, re- established the old Slavonian bishoprics ; and made WiceUn bishop of Aldcnbiu-g, and Emmahard bishop of jNIecklenburg, without the knowledge of the archduke and count, who seized upon all the first year's tithes in the bishopric of Alden- burg. Yet the archduke listened to the complaints of the bishop, and promised to support him, provided he would re- ceive the investiture from his hands. This however the bishop refused, be- cause it was an innovation upon a gene- ral custom, which was for bishops to receive investiture oidy from emperors and kings ; and the clergy of Bremen urged him to take this course. But a friend advised Wicelin to yiehl to the wishes (if the archduke, for the sake of the good of the church, suggesting to him, that the protection of neither the archbisiiop nor the emperor would be of much service to him, imlcss he had tlie friendship of the archduke, the imme- diate lord of the countrv'. He at length deemed it necessary to folhjw this ad- vice, and received investiture In- tlic staff from the archduke, who gave him tiie village of Buzoe (Butzow). From the same Helmold, from whom iliese statements are drawn, it appears, wliy the Slavonians so long opposed Chris- tianity. Tiiey were drainetl by oppres- sive contributions, and were refused the privileges enjoyed by Saxons. IVitieslav, a Pomeranian chief, said to the bishop that would convert him : " Dentur nobis jura Saxonum in prreiliis et reditibus, et libcnter eriraus Christiani, a?ditica- binuis ccclcsias, dabimus decimas," &c. SM.-] • A particular account of Vicelin 13 given by Jo. Midler, in his Cim/iria Lit- teratd, tom. ii. ]>. 910, &c. anm. iii. p. 57. Ilenr. Le Grand, Diss.de Jolunmi Pre.shijt. in Ijobo's Voyage d' Abyssinie, tom. i. p. 295, &c. [See above, note ', p. 242, and Mosheim's Hixtoria Tartaror. Ecchs. p. 16, &c. Baronius, Anmile.i, ad arm. 1177, § 55, gives us the title of an ejiis- tle written by pojie Alexander III. to Prester John, which shows that he was an Indian prince and a priest : " Alex- ander Episco]ius, servHS servorum Dei, eharissimo in Christio filio illustri et mag- nitico Iixlorum regi, suctrddtiim sanc- tissimo, salutein ct Ajiostolicani bene- dictionem," 7V. — That the Dalai Lama was the Prester John, is denied bv Paulsen, the real author of Mosheim's Jlixt. Tartaror. Ecclcsia.slica. Yet more recently Job. Lherh. Fischer, in his Introduction to the Ilixtory of Sibiriu, p. 81, (in German,) has maintained this opinion ; and endeavoured to sliow, that the Dalai I^)nna (Lama) and Proicr John are the same j»crson ; and that the latter name is a fictitious word, which the Europeans did not coiTcctly uiuler- stand. And whoever is sensible, how low a ])eo])le may sink tnider the influ- ence of supci-stition. will not deem the idolatry of the Thilietians fidl proof, that the (irand Lama anil Prester Jolincoidii not be the same person. At le:Lst, if reliance may be put upon the account of the Augustinian eremite George, (of which Gatterer's Algcm. Jli.st. Bihl. con- tains an extract,) it was in the begin- ning of the twelfth century, that the regal power in Thibet was tirst jdined with that of the (iraiul Lama ; wliicli is a new argument in favour of Fischer's opinion. See the Hist. JJibl. vol. viii. p. 1 9 L Srhl. — But this hypothesis of Fi.schcr seems to Iw fully subverted by the arguments of Mosheim and Paulsen, Hist. Tartaror. Ecrlcs. p. 137. &c. Sec Sclu'oeckh's Kirchciigesc/i. ^ol. x.xv. p. 192. Tr.] 398 BOOK III. — CENTURY XII. [PART I. boasting of the vain-glorious man, the Nestorians laboured with all their power to confirm. He was succeeded by his son or brother, whose proper name Avas David, but was also gene- rally called Prester John. This prince was vanquished and slain, near the close of the century, by that mighty Tartar emperor, Genghiskan. § 8. The new kingdom of Jerusalem in Syria, established in the preceding century by the French, seemed at the beginning of this century to flourisli and to stand firm. But this prosperity was soon succeeded by adversity. For most of the crusaders, having returned home, and the Christian generals and princes that remained in Palestine being more attentive to their private advantages than to the public good, the Mahumedans recovered from their sudden terror and consternation, and collecting troops and resources on every side, attacked and harassed the Christians with perpetual wars. During many years they opposed the enemy with valour ; but when Atahec Zenghi ^, after a long siege, had taken the city of Edessa, and seemed disposed to attack Antioch, the courage of the Christians began to fail. They therefore implored the succour of the Christian kings of Europe, and with tears supplicated for new armies of crusaders. The Roman pontiffs favoured these petitions, and left no means untried to persuade the emperor and other sove- reigns to undertake another expedition to Palestine. § 9. This new crusade was long a subject of debate in some of the popular assemblies, and in the councils. At length, under pope Eugene III., the celebrated abbot of Clairvaux in France, «S'^. Bernard, a man of immense influence, brought the question to an issue. For as he, in the year 1146, preached the cross (as the phrase then was) in both France and Germany, but especially in a public assembly of the French at Vezelay, and promised, in the name of God, great victories, and a most ]irosperous issue of the enterprise, Leivis VII., king of the French, his queen, and a vast number of nobles who were pre- sent, devoted themselves to the sacred war. Conrad III, em- peror of the Germans, at first resisted the admonitions of St .Ber- nard: but after some delay he followed the example of the ■• Atabcc was an official title given by a catalogue is collected by Jac. Bon- tbc Seljukian emperors or Sultans to garsius, call this Atabec Zenghi, Sav- thc lieutenants or viceroys whom they c/uinus. See Barth. Herbelot, BibliotJi. placed over certain provinces. The Orientale, article Atabeck, p. 142. Latin historians of the crusades, of whom CH. I.] PROSPEROUS EVENTS. 399 French king. Both, therefore, proceeded towards Palestine, with very numerous armies, by different routes. But the greater part of both armies perished miserably on the road, either by famine or by shipwreck, or by the swurd of tlie jNIahumedans ; to whom they were betrayed by the perfidious Greeks, who feared the Latins more than they did the ^Nlahumedans. Lewis VII. left his country in the year 1 147, and arrived at Antioch in the month of March in the following year, with a small army, and that exhausted by its sufferings. Conrad commenced his march in the month of May, 1147, and in November of the same year joined Lewis at Nice, having lost the greater part of his troops by the way. Both proceeded to Jerusalem in the year 1 148 ; and they led back to Europe the few soldiers that sur- vived, in the year 1149. For these princes were unable to effect any thing, among other causes, on account of the dis- agreement between them. The only effect of this second cru- sade was, to drain Europe, in a most unhappy manner, of a great portion of its Avealth, and of a vast number of its inhabitants.^ * Besides the historians of the cru- sades mentioned by Bongarsius, sec Jo. Mabillon's Annales Benedict, torn. vi. p. 399. 404. 407. 417. 4;)1, &c. Jac. Gcr- vais, HiMoire de VAbhc Sitger, torn. iii. p. 104. 128. 173. 190. 239, &c. This Suger, a famous al)I)ot of yt. Denys, was left by Lewis VII. to govern liis king- dom during his absence. Vcrtot, His- toire des Clievcdiers de Make, toni. i. p. 86, &c. Jo. Jac. Mascov. de Iieb)is Im- perii stib Conrado III. [The Fi-encli army of cnisaders consisted of nearly 100,000 armed men, of whom 70,000 were mounted cuinissiers, and the rest infantry. The German army was of about the same munbcr. The emiiemr moved first, pursuing a dh-ect course through Hungary, Bulgaria, and Thrace, to Constantinople, where he was to wait for the arrival of the king. But tlic Greek emperor received him coldly ; and by artifices induced him to cross the Dardanelles, and proceed towards Pales- tine. The Grecian gnidts assigned liim, led him into defiles and (Uvngeroiis posi- tions in Lycaonia, where the ISIahumc- dans attacked and nearly destroyed his army. After the loss of all his baggage, he was obliged to turn back with but a handful of men. The French army pro- ceeded from Mctz, crossed the Rhine at Worms, and the Danube at Katisbon, passed through Ilungaiy, and arrived safely at Constantinople. There they were told the German army had pro- ceeded on, and were verj' successful against the infidels. Ix;wis now passed the straits, and was at Nice when Con- rad returned witli tlic renmant of liis ruincia Minor, Itcnding his course into tlie interior, to avoid i)assing the large rivers near their mouths. ^Thc Maliumedans hovered aromid him. cut off his sui>plies, and at length attacked him in the mountains of Laodicea to great advantage, destroyed a large part of his army, and came near to capturing the king himself At length he arrived with tlie wreck of his anny at Attalia, tlie capital of Pamjihylia, where the Greeks drained them of tiicir resources, and so cmliarrasscil their proceeding by land, tliat the king, witli part of hi.s troops, was oliligeil tn embark on board tiie tcw vessels ho could obtain, leaving the remainder of his army to light their way by land, if they could. Those he 400 BOOK III. — CENTUKY XII. [PART I. § 10. The unfortunate issue of the second crusade did not, however, make the Christian cause in the East absolutely des- perate. If the Christian princes had attacked the enemy with their combined strength, and acted in harmony, they would have had little to fear. But all the Latins, and especially their chiefs, abandoning themselves without restraint to ambition, avarice, injustice, and other vices, weakened each other by their mutual contentions, jealousies, and broils. Hence a valiant general of the Mahumedans, Salaheddin, whom the Latins call Saladin, viceroy, or rather king, of Egypt and Syria, assailed the Chris- tians in the most successful manner, captured Guy of Lusignan, the king of Jerusalem, in the fatal battle of Tiberias, A. D. 1187 ; and in the same year reduced Jerusalem under his power.^ After this ruinous campaign, the hopes of the Christians in the East rested wholly on the aid to be derived from the kings of Europe. This aid the Roman pontiff obtained after many and varied solicitations ; but the event was not answerable to his counsels, Avishes, and efforts. § 11. The third crusade was commenced by the emperor Frederic L, surnamed Barharossa ; who traversed the provinces of Greece with a large army of Germans, in the year 1189, and after surmounting numerous difficulties in Asia Minor, and vanquishing the forces of a Mahumedan king resident at Ico- nium, penetrated into Syria. But the next year, he perished unhappily in the river Saleph, which passes by Seleucia, it is uncertain how ; and a great part of his soldiers returned to Europe. The others continued the war, under Frederic, son of the deceased emperor : but the plague swept oflf very many of them, and, at length, their general, the emperor's son, in the year 1191 ; when the rest dispersed, and very few of them re- turned to their own countrv.'' thus loft, all perished. He and those " See the Arab Bohadin's Life of with him airived safe at Palestine. The Sdladin ; which Alb. Schultens published emperor also rejoined him with a few in Arabic, with a Latin translation, troops. Their united forces fonned but Lugd. Bat. 1732, fol. c. xxxiv. &c. p. 60, a small army ; yet they would have been &e. Add Ilcrbclot, Biblioth. Orientate, able to reduce Damascus if the Christian artic. Salaheddin, p. 742, &c. and Ma- princes of the East had not disagreed, rigny, Histoire des Arabes, tom. iv. p. and thus embaiTasscd their operations. 289, &c. The siege was abandoned ; the sove- ' These events are best illustrated by reigns visited Jerusalem as pilgrims, the celebrated count Henry de Blinau. and at length returned to Europe, with in his life of Frederic I. written in less than a tenth part of the men that German, p. 278. 293. 309. 333, &c. had enlisted in the crusade. TV.] CII. I.] rUOSPEROUS EVENTS. 401 § 12. The emperor Frederic was followed, in the year 1190, by Philip Augustus, king of France and Richard, surnamed the Lion-hearted, king of England. Both these went by sea, and reached Palestine, with a chosen army, in the year 1191. Their first battle with the enemy was not unsuccessful : but in July of that year, after the reduction of the city of Acre, the king of France returned to Europe; leaving, however, a part of- his troops in Palestine. After his departure, the king of England prosecuted the war with vigour, and not only vanquished Sala- din in several battles, but also took Jaffa and Ciesarea, cities of Palestine. But being deserted by the French and Italians, and moved also by other reasons of great weight, he concluded a truce with Saladin, in the year 1192, for three years, three months, and three days ; and soon after left Palestine with his troops.* Such was the issue of the third crusade ; which drained Germany, England, and France, both of men and money, but afforded very little advantage to the Christian cause in Asia. § 13. During tliese wars of the Christians with the Mahume- dans for the possession of the holy land, arose the three cele- brated equestrian or military orders ; whose business it was to clear the roads of robbers, to harass the Mahumedans with perpetual skirmishes, to afford assistance to the poor and the sick among pilgrims to the holy places, and to perform any other services which the public exigencies seemed to require." The first of these orders, the knifjhts of St. John of Jerusahnn, derived their name from an hos[)ital in the city of Jerusalem consecrated to aS'^. John the Baptist, in which certain pious and charitable brethren were accustomed to receive and afford re- lief to the needy and the sick visitants of Jerusalem. After the establishment of the kingdom of Jerusalem, this hospital gra- dually acquired, from the liberality of pious persons, larger revenues than were requisite for the object of relieving the jioor and the sick ; and its president or master, liai/niiiiid dii ruij, about the year 1120, with his brethren, offered to the king of Jerusalem to make war upon the ^Mahumedans, at his own expense. The king approved the plan : and the Koman pontiffs » Gabr. Daniel, Histoire de France, p.403,&c.] UaiignyJJistoiredcsArabcs, torn. iii. p. 4-26, &c. Rapiu Tliovnus tuni. iv. p. 285, &c. Histoire d'Anqleterre, toiii. ii. p. 251," &c. " Tlic writei-s who treat of these three [Hume's Hist, of England, cli. x. vol. i. orders, though not all, iirc fimiiierated VOL. II. 1^ 1> 402 J500K III. — CENTURY XII, [PART confirmed it by their authority. Thus at once, and to the sur- prise of all, from being administerers to the poor and the sick, who were removed from all bustle and noise, they became mili- tary characters ; and the whole order was divided into three classes, knights, or soldiers who were of noble birth, and whose business it was to fight for religion ; jyriests, who conducted the religious exercises of the order ; and serving brethren, that is, soldiers of ignoble birth. This order exhibited the greatest feats of valour ; and thus procured immense wealth. After the loss of Palestine, the knights passed into the island of Cyprus : subse- quently they occupied the island of Rhodes, and held it a long time : when expelled from Rhodes by the Turks, they obtained from Charles V. the possession of the island of Malta, where their grand master still resides.' § 14. The second order was wholly military ; that is, it did not embrace both soldiers and priests. It was called the order of Templars, from a house situated near the temple of Solomon in Jerusalem, which Baldwin II., king of Jerusalem, gave to the knights, temporarily, for their first residence. The order com- menced A. D. 1118, at Jerusalem ; and had for Its founders Hugo de Paganis'-, Godfrey de S. Amore^, and seven others, whose names are not known. Its full establishment and Its rule It obtained A. D. 1128, from the council of Troyes in France.'* by Jo. Alb. Fabricins, BiUlograph. An- says, " Their I'lde was taken almost ver- tiquar. p. 465, &c. batim from that of St. Benedict, and ' The most recent and best history of consisted of the same nnmbcr of chapters, tliis order, is that composed by Eenat. viz. 72. Many persons suppose that it Aubert de Vertot, by orderofthekni.2:hts, was drawn up by St. Bernard." Their and published first at Paris, and after- rule received modifications from time to wards at Amsterdam, 1732, 5 vols. 8vo. time : but their earliest regulations were Add Hipp. Helyot, Histoire des Ordres, the following. — The knights shall attend torn. iii. p. 72, &c. [In the year 1798, tlie entire religious services, by day and the knights of Malta betrayed the island by night : and if any one is prevented to the French fleet, then carrying Buona- from attending, by liis military duties, parte to Egypt. The English imme- he shall re])eat thirteen Pater nosters, diately after commenced a blockade of in jilacc of matins, nine in place of the island, which lasted two years ; when vespers, and seven in place of each of the island fell into the hands of the the minor canonical hours. For each English, who have held it ever since, deceased brother, 100 Pater nosters shall The order lost the greater part of its be said daily for seven days ; and his revenues during the French revolution ; allotment of food and drink (his rations) and from the time JNIalta was surrendered ihu-ing forty days shall be given to some to the French, has been sinking into iti- ])oor person. The knights may eat flesh significance ; and is now, a. d. 18.30, thrice a week, on the Lord's day, Tues- nearly, if not altogether extinct. T/-.] days, and Thursdays; the other four '^ [Hugues des Payens. TV.] days they must abstain from flesh ; and •' [Or St. Omer. Tr.'] on Fridays must be content with qua- '' See Jo. Mabillon, AnnaJes Benedict, dragesimal fare. Each knight may have torn. vi. p. 159, &c. [Mabillon there three horses, and one squire. No one en. I.] PROSPEROUS EVENTS. 403 These knights were required to defend the Christian religion Ijy force of arms, to guard the highways, and to protect the pil- grims to Palestine from the cruelties and robberies of the Mahu- medans. By its valour this order likewise acquired great fame and vast wealth ; but at the same time, by its pride, luxury, cruelty, and other vices, incurred peculiar odium ; which ro.-^e so high at last, that the order was wholly sup})ressed by a de- cree of the pontiff and of the council of Viennc.^ § 15. The third order, that of the Teutonic kniglits of St. Marij of Jerusalem, was similar to the first, by requiring care of the poor and the sick, as well as warfare. It originated a. d. 1190, at the siege of Acre or Ptolemais : yet some place its obscure beginnings a little earlier, and at Jerusalem. During this siege some pious and benevolent Germans undertook to provide accommodations for sick and wounded soldiers ; and the under- taking so pleased the German princes who were present, that they concluded to establish an association for tiiat ol)jcct, to be composed of German knights. The lioman pontiff, Calestine III., afterwards approved of the society, and confirmed it by formal enactments. None were to be admitted into this order except Germans of noble birth ; and those admitted were to devote themselves to the defence of the Christian religion and the holy land, and to the care of the poor and the sick. At first, the austerity of the order was very great, clothing and bread and water being the only recompense of the knights for the labours which they endured. But this rigour soon ceased, as the wealth of the society increased. When the order retired from Palestine, it occupied Prussia, Livonia, Courland, and Semigallia ; and though it lost those provinces at the lleforma- tion, vet it retained a part of its estates in Germany.^ mav cither hawk or hunt. Soc Ploury's ^ In addition to Raynujild Dudl s Histoire de VEglise, liv. Ixvii. cap. 55. Hi'iUnm OrdinisTeutoniri,\'mM<-^'P'', jy -| fol. .^ee Peter von Dusburjr's Cltronicon ^ See Matth. Paris, Historia Major, Pntsskc, e• Vo!/a,jcs uu authority I choose to follow. Demetrius Nord, torn. vn. p. 350. CantimiV, prince of Moldavia, deviates * Asseman, liddwlh. Orient iattcana, from both ; and in his preface to the torn. iii. pt. ii. p. 500, &c. [Moshcim, Hilton/ of the Ottoman empire, p. xlv. HiMoria Tartaror. Ecclcs. cap. i\. p. 29, torn, i.' French ed., states, on the autho- &c. Tr.] rity of the Ai-abians, that Genghiskau D D 3 PART 11. THE INTERNAL niSTORY OF THE CHURCH. CHAPTER I. THE STATE OF LEARNING AND PHILOSOPHY. §1,2. State of learning and science among the Greeks. — § 3, 4. Among the Latins. — § 5. Study of the civil law. — § 6. Canon law.— § 7. Philosophy among the Latins. — § 8. Disagreements among the Philosophers. § 9. Contests of the dialecticians. The realists and nominalists. § 1 . Among the Greeks, though the times were calamitous, and revolutions and intestine wars were very frequent, the study of literature and the liberal arts was highly honoured. This was attributable to the patronage and the literary zeal of the empe- rors, especially the Comncni; and likewii^e to the vigilance of the Constantinopolitan patriarchs, who feared, lest the Greek church should want defenders against the Latins, if her priests were given up to ignorance. The learned and luminous com- mentaries of Eustatldus, bishop of Thessalonica, upon Homer nx\(\. Dionysius ^ show that men of the best talents applied them- selves diligently to the study of classic literature and antiqui- ties.^ And the many respectable historians of the events of their own times, John Cinnamus ^, Michael Glycas *, John Zona- ' [^Periegetes. T/-.] on the geographical poem of Dionysius ^ [Eustathins was archbisliop of Pcriegctes, Gr. Pai'is, L*!??, fol. He Thessalonica in the year 1185, when his wrote nothing on theology, so far as is eloquence saved that city irom demo- known. T;-.] lition by its Sicilian conquerors. He '' [John Cinnamus was secretary to was alive in 1194. His excellent com- Manuel Comnenus, a grammarian and mentary on Homer was published, Rome, a soldier, who flourished a. d. 11 60, and 1550, 4 vols. fol. and Rasil, 1560, 3 vols, was alive a.i>. 1183. He wrote the his- fol. He tdso wrote a good connncntary tory ol' the two Comncni, John and CH, !•] STATE OV LKAUMNG. 407 ras^, Nicephoriis Bryennius'^, and others ^ arc proof that neither the disposition to benefit succeeding ages, nor the ability to write with skill, was wanting to many among the Greeks.^ Manuel, comprising events from a. d. 1 1 1 8 to A. D. 1 1 7 G. Tlie first jjiirt is vcry concise ; tiie latter a full liistory ; and both are written with fidelity, and in a good style. Tlie best edition is that of Car. du Fresnc, in six books, Paris, lf>70, fol. Tr.'] * [Michael Glyeas was a native of Sicily, and llourished a. d. 1120. His Annaks Quadn'jtartili is a work not only historical, but also philosophical, and theological. Part I. describes the crea- tion of the world in six days; Part II. extends from tiie creation to the birtli of Christ ; Part III. to Coiistantine the Great ; and Part IV. to the death of Alexius Conmenus, A. D. 1118. It was jjuhlished Cr. and Lat. M'ith notes by J.abbc, Paris, 1660, fol. Glyeas also wrote iJisputuiiuncuhe II. ; anil likewise many ejjistles, of which fragments are preserved. 7V.] ^ [John Zonaras, who flourished about A.]). 1118, was a native of Con- stantiiioj)le, and fur many years in pub- lic civil life ; i)iit being bereft of his wife and children, lie retired to a mo- nasteiy, and solaced himself by writing for posterity. His Annals or Compen- dious History, is in tlu'ee parts : the first treats of the Jews, from the crea- tion to the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus ; the second gives tlie Koman his- tory from the founding of Home to Con- stantinc the Great, abridged ciiielly from Dion Cassius ; tiic third part brings the liistory of the Greek empire down to the death of Alexius Conmenus, a. i>. 1118. The best edition is that of Car. du Fresne, (ir. and Lat. Paris, 1086, 2 vols. fol. Zonaras also wrote connnentarics on the ajjostolic caTions, on some canonical epistles of the Greek fatliers, and cm the canons of tiie councils ; all of which were publisheil Gr. and Lat. Paris, 1618, and witii Beveridge's notes, in his Pan- dectCE Canonum, O.xon. 1672, fol. Some tracts and epistles of Zonaras have like- wise been published. TV.] ® [N'icc])h<)riis Prycnnius was the husband of the celebrated female his- torian, Anna Comneiui, and of course son-hi-law to tlie emperor Alexius Com- nenus, who raised him to the rank of Ctesar. He was much concerned in the public transactions from a. p. 1096 till a. d. 1137, the probable year of his death. He wrote the Py/.antine history, in four books, from a.i>. I057 to a.d. 1081, published Gr. and Lat. with notes by Peter Poussin, Paris, 1661, fol. and by Car. du Fresne, subjoined to tlie history of Jolm Cinnanms, J'aris, 1670, fol. 7V.] ' [Amia Comnena, tiie daugliter of tlie cmpuror Alexius Conmenus, a woman of su])erior talents and learning, was born, A. D. 108."5, lost her mother in 1118, and her husband in 1137. After ihi.s, she commenced writing her liistory of her father's reign, from a.d. 1069 to 1118, which is properly a contimiatiou of her husliand's history. She com- pleted it A.I). 1148, and called it Alexias, or de Rvhus uh Alcxio pulrc (jcxti.i, liliri XV. It is a well-written history ; and im- portant, as giving a miimte account of the first crus;i(lers, of whom slie had personal knowledge. The best edition is that of Poussin, (Jr. and Lat. with a Glossary, I'aris, 1651, fol. or rather it*i reprint liy Du Fresne, subjoined to Ciu- nainus, Paris, 1670, fol. Con.stantinus Mana.sscs, about a.d. 11.50, wrote a compendious histoiy, or Chronicon, in verse, from the creation to A.D. 1081, which he nildrcssed to Irene, the sister of the emjieror Manuel Comneims : i)ui)lished (ir. and Lat. Leyden, 1616, 4to, and Paris, 16.5.), fol. Neopbytus, a (Jrcek jiresbyter and monk, who flourished a. i>. 1 1'.to, com- posed a narrative of tlie calamities of Cypnis, when taken by tlie Knglisli cni- .saders, a.d. ll'.ll; published Gr. and Lat. by Cotelier, Mimumintu Ecclcs. (irtrca; tom. ii. p. 457. The preceding list contains the most noteil Greek historians of this centurj. ^'■•^ " [If the term be taken in its greatest latitude, including not merely the liis- torians of the Greek emiiire, and in tlie Greek language, but al.-o historians of the Cireek church ; then it must include the monk Nestor, the father of Kus,siaii histor}' ; who flourished at Kiow, in the latter part of tiie cleventli century, and first part of the twelftli, and wiio.utatiou to j>ro- fessor SchUizer. See liis I'nibc Jiusjsischir Aiiimlcn, Bremen and Gotting. 1768, 8vo. Schl.} 4 408 BOOK III. — CENTURY XII. [PART II. § 2. No one took more pains to excite and cherish the love of philosophy than Michael Anchialus, patriarch of Constanti- nople.^ The philosophy to which he was attached appears to have been that of Aristotle: for the cultivators of philosophy among the Greeks were chiefly employed in expounding and improving this ; as appears, among other specimens, from Eu- stratius' exposition of Aristotle's Ethics and Analytics.* Yet the Platonic philosophy was not wholly neglected. On the contrary, it appears that many, and especially those who em- braced the principles of the mystics, much preferred this philo- sophy to the peripatetic ; and they considered Plato as suited to men of piety and candour, Aristotle to wranglers and the vain-glorious. And their disagreement soon after gave rise to the noted controversy among the Greeks, respecting the comparative merits of the Platonic and the Aristotelian phi- losophies. § 3. In a great part of the western world extraordinary zeal was awakened in this age for the prosecution of literature, and the cultivation of every branch of learning : to which some of the pontiffs, and kings and princes, who could see the utility of learning in improving and establishing society, contributed by their authority and their munificence. Hence associations of learned men were formed, in many places, for teaching the va- rious branches of human knowledge ; and as the youth resorted to them in great numbers, eager for instruction, by degrees those higher schools were organised, which the next age called Uni- versities. Paris exceeded all tlie other cities of Europe in the number of its learned men, and of its schools of various kinds, as well as in the concourse of its students. Hence, in this city, about the middle of the century, sprang up the pattern of our * Theodorus Balsamon, Prcpfat. ad man pontiff ; some extracts from which Photii Nomocanonem ; in Henry JusteU's are pnblislied by Leo Allatius, de Con- Bibliotheca Juris Canon, veteris, torn. ii. sensu, §"r. lib. ii. c. 3, § 2, c. 5, § 2, and p. 814. — [Michael Anchiahis was pa- c. 9, § .3. TV.] triarchof Constantinople from A. i>. 1167 ' [Eustratins was metropolitan of to A. D. 1185. According to Balsamon, Nice, about a. d. 1 110 ; and was reputed he was a consiunmate philosopher : and a learned man, as well as a distinguished it is certain that he was a fierce anta- theologian. His comments on Aristotle's gonist of the Latins. He has left ns Ethics, and on the latter part of his five synodal decrees ; published Gr. and Analytics, have been published. His Lat. in the Jus Gr. Horn. lib. iii. p. 227. tract against Chrysolanus, de Proccssume He also composed a Dialogue, wliich he Sp. Sanctl, still exists in MS. besides (as had with the emperor Manuel Com- is said) some other tracts on the same nenus, upon occasion of the arrival at subject. Tr.'] Constantinople of legates from the Ko- CH. I.] STATE OF LEARNING. 409 own literary institutions, though as yet rude and imperfect ; but which time gradually moulded into form and made complete.'^ Nearly contemporaneous was the foundation of a distinguished school at Angers, for various branches of learning, by tiie care and efforts of Ulgcr, the bishop ; though here jurisprudence appears to have held the firf^t rank/' There was already at Montpelier a very celebrated school for the civil law, and for medical science.'' In Italy the school of Bologna, which seems to have had its commencement anterior to this century, was now gaining high renown. It was chiefly resorted to by the stu- dents of tlie lloman law, both civil and ecclesiastical ; and especially after the emperor, Lotkarius II., re -instated it, and conferred on it new privileges.-^ In the same country the medical school of Salerno, wliich had before been very celebrated, now allured an immense number of students. While so many schools were rising up in Europe, the sovereign pontiff, Alex- ander III., enacted a special law in the council of Kome, A.i). 1179, requiring schools to be every where set up, or to be re- instated, if they had before existed, in the monastarics, and in the cathedral churches : for such of them as had formerly flourished, were either wholly gone, or much decayed, through the negligence of the monks and bishops.'' But the daily increasing fame and glory of the higher schools, or universities, rendered this law of little effect : for the majority flocking to those new seats of learning, the monastic and cathedral schools gradually came to nothing. § 4. Among the benefits derived from these many literary ' CiTCS. Egassc (Ic Bmilay, Histurin contuml that this ilipli)ina is a fabrii-ation ; Acad. Paris, torn. ii. p. 403, &f. Stei)li. and tlioy adiluce strong ])ro()ts, tliat tlic Pasquicr, i?cfAcre/ie.s de la Franrr, livr. scliool of B()ii).u;na was not mure ancient iii. c. xxix. Peter Lanibecins, Historia than tlie rliirnth century, and tliat its Biblhth. Vindoh. lib. ii. c. v. p. iM). i)riiu'ipal eniarj.'enient was in the twelfth Histoire Littcrairc de la Fiance, torn. ix. century, particuhn-ly in tin- time of Ia)- p_ 60 — 88. thaire II. Sec Car. Si;;onius, Historia ^ Bouhiy, Historia Acad. Paris, toni. Botwniensis ; as puhhshed with notes ii. p. 215' PocqueE Dc la Livonierc among his works: Lnd. Ant. Muratori, Diss, sur VAnticjuitc de VUniversite Antiquitatcs Italica- Midii Aui, torn. iii. d'Aiiqers, p. 21, SiC. Angers, 173G, 4to. p. 23. 884. 8'.I8, and es]>ecially the very * Histoire Generale de Langncduc, par learned God. Ge. Ivenfel's elegant //(,v- les Bcncdictiiis, torn. ii. p. 517, &c. tori/ of the I'liinrsiti/ of HoIikiiui, written 5 The inhabitants of Bologna tell us, in tiernian, Ilelmst. IT.'jK, 8vo. Com- their university was founded as early as pare Just, llenr. Bohmer's J'raf. ad the fifth centurv, by Theodosins IL, and Corpus Juris C'ammici, p. 9. &c. they show the diploma of that emperor, "See Bohmer's Jus Eccle..] such an ornament. But most writers 410 BOOK 111. — CENTUKY XII. [rAKT 11. associations, at their very commencement, was this, that not only were the boundaries of human knowledge extended, but likewise a new division of the branches of it took place. Hitherto all learning had been confined to what were called the seven liberal arts ; three of which, grammar, rhetoric, and dialectics, comprised what was called the Trivium ; and the other four, arithmetic, music, geometry, and astronomy, were called the Qiiadrivium. INIost persons were contented with the Trivium ; but those who wished to be thought learned men of the first rank, ascended to the Quadrivium. To these " arts were now added, besides the study of languages, (for which few had much taste,) tlteology, — not, however, the old and simple theology, which was destitute of system and connexion, and rested solely on texts of Scripture, and sentences from the ancient fathers, but pliilosojyhical, or scholastic theology ; also. Jurisprudence, or civil and canon law ; and lastly, medicine, or phi/sic, as it was then called.^ For, as peculiar schools were now devoted to these sciences, they were of course placed in the list of studies which merited the attention of men of eru- dition. And when this was done, the common distribution of the sciences was to be changed. Hence the seven liberal arts were gradually included under the term pkilosophy ; to whicli were added, theology, jurisprudence, and medicine. And thus these four Faculties, as they are called, were, in the next cen- tury, formed in the universities. § 5. In Italy the reputation and authority of the old Roman jurisprudence revived, and caused all other systems of law then in use to go into desuetude, after the capture of Amalphi, a. d. 1137, by the emperor, Lothaire II., when the celebrated copy of the Pandects, or Digest, of which there had been very little knowledge for many centuries, was discovered and came into the hands of the Pisans.^ From this time the learned be2;an to study lioman jurisprudence with more eagerness ; schools were soon opened for learning it in the university of Bologna ; an example Avhich was followed by degrees in other cities both ' [Seven liberal. Tr.'] ® [The original manuscripts of the " [•' The word physica, though, ac- famous Pamkct of Justinian was found cording to its etymology, it denotes the in the ruins of Amalphi or Melfi, A\hen study of natural philosophy in general, tliat city was taken by Lotharius II. in was in the twelfth century applied par- the year 1137, and presented to the in- ticulai'ly to medicinal studies, and it lias habitants of Pisa, whose fleet had con- also preserved that limited sense in the tributed, in a particular manner, to the English language." Mac1,'\ success of the siege. MacL'] ClI. I.] STATE OF LEARNING. 411 within Italy, and without. The consequence was, that whereas men had previously lived under various laws, and every gentle- man had been at liberty to choose which he would obey, whether the Salic laws, the Lombardic, the Burgundian, or some other, the Roman laws gradually obtained the ascendencv, through the greater part of Europe, and excluded all the rest. It is an old opinion, that Lothaire II., at the Instigation of Irne- riiis, or Guarnerus, the first teacher of the Roman law in the university of Bologna, published a decree, that all sliould thenceforth obey the Roman law only, the others being abro- gated. But learned men have shown, that this opinion is sup- ported by no solid evidence.' § 6. The civil law being placed among the sciences to be taught in the schools, the Roman pontiffs and their friends deemed it not only useful but also necessary that the canon law, or that Avhich regulates the affairs of the church, should have the same privilege. There existed, indeed, some collections of canons, or ecclesiastical laws ; but there was not one among them that was complete and fit to be expounded in the schools; in consequence both of their want of arrangement and their deficiency in copiousness of matter. Hence Gratian, a Bene- dictine monk, born at Chiusi, and now residing at Bologna, in the monastery of St. Felix and Xabor, about the year 1130, compiled from the writings of the ancient doctors, the epistles of the pontiffs, and the decrees of councils, an epitome of canon laic, suitable for the instruction of youth in the schools.^ The ' Sec Ilcrm. Ci>nriiigias, de Origine part is SHh(li\-i(leil into one hundred and Juris Gcrinanici,ck\i).xx\\. Guido Gran- one Distinct imics ; in wliicli lie treats of dus, Epist. dc I'tindictis, p. '21. 69, eil. law in general, and canon law in par- Florence, 1737, 4to. Ilenr. Brcncniann, ticnlar, in the lirst twenty Distinctions ; Historia Pandectar. p. 41. &e. Lud. and then ])roceeds to treat of the dillc- Ant. Muratiiri, Priif. ad Leges Longo- rent orders o{ the clerj^y, their (jtiali- hardas; m liis Scriptores lieriim Italicar. tieations, ordination, dnties, and powers, torn. i. i)t. ii. p. 4, eorc<«m about A.n. 11 5 1 . eraments, fasts and festivals, inniges. It is divided into ////ee parts. The first &c. — This work (which, with tlie JUc- 412 BOOK III. — CENTURY XII. [PAET II. Roman pontiff, Eugene III., was highly pleased with the work : and the doctors of Bologna received it with applause, and im- mediately adopted it as their guide in teaching ; and their example was followed, first by the university of Paris, and then by the other universities. The most learned men of the Romish church acknowledge that Gratiaiis Decretum, as it is commonly called, or his Coiicordia discordantium Canomini, as the author himself called it, is full of numberless faults and mistakes.^ Yet, as it admirably strengthens and supports the power of the Roman pontiffs, it has become in a measure sacred, and still retains the high authority wliich it unreasonably ac- quired in that illiterate and barbarous age.^ § 7. All the Latins who wished to rank among learned men eagerly studied philosophy. Most people, b}' the middle of the century, divided philosopliy, taking the word in its broadest sense, into theoretical, practical, mechanical, and logical. Under theoretical philosophy was comprehended theology, so far as it is attainable under the guidance of reason, that is, natural theo- logy ; also mathematics and physics. To j)ractical philosophy belonged ethics, economics, and politics. Mechanical philosophy cretals of Gregoiy IX. in five books, the on which Ang'ustinus wrote a treatise, it Liher sextus Decretalium of Boniface was sulijected to a careftil revision, by Vin., the Constitutions of Clement V. order of the court of Rome, and then and the Extravagantes of John XXII. pubhshed with all the coiTcctions that and others, constitutes the Corpus Juris could be ascertained, by authority of Canonici, and forms more than one half Gregory XIII. a. d. 1580. 7?-.] of the whole,) is a compilation from '' See Gerh. van Mastricht, Historia genuine and spurious canons, decrees. Juris Ecclesiastici, § 293, p. 325, and and decisions, without much discri- Just. Henr. Bohmer, Jus Eccles. Fro- niiiiation ; and is so carelessly made, tcstaiit. torn. i. p. 100, &c. and espe- tliat the authors are frequently con- cially, his Preface to his new edition of founded, and one cited for another. It the Corpus Juris Canonici, Halle, 1747. is therefore no great authority; nor is 4to. Alexand. Machiavel, Observationes it regarded as such by modern canonists, ad Sigonii Histor. Bononiensem, tom. iii. Though favourable to the pretensions of Opp. Sigonii, p. 1 28, &c. He here ad- tlie Roman pontilfs in the main, yet it is duces many new things, respecting Gra- against their claims in several parti- tian and his labours, from a very ancient culars ; and this may have tended to Kalendarium Archigymnasii Bononiensis : sink its credit with both Roman Catholics but these statements are much qucs- and Protestants. After all, it was noble tiuned. Nor has that famous Kalcnda- work for the age in which it was com- rium yet been published, of which the piled, and justly entitles its author to Bolognians tell us so much, and of which the appellation of the father of canon law. they have repeatedly promised to give TV.] the world a copy, and thus end contro- ^ See, among others, Anton. Angus- versy respecting it. This fact increases tinus, de Emendatione Gratiani, cwn Oh- suspicion ; and, if I do not misjudge, the servationibus Steph. Baluze et Gerh. van fragments of the Kalendarium, which Mastricht, An\\\ii\m,iQ,~S,^\o. [Name- have been published, bear manifest rous errors and mistakes having been marks of pinus fraud. discovered in tlie Decretum of Gratian CH. I.] STATE OF LEARNING. 413 einbi-aced the seven arts of common life, including navigation, agriculture, and bunting. Logic they divided into grammar, and the art of reasoning : and the latter they sub-divided into rhetoric, dialectics, and sophistics. Under the head of dia- lectics they included that branch of metaphysics which treats of general ideas. This distribution of the sciences was gene- rally approved ; yet some wished to separate mccluinics and grammar from philosophy : but others opposed this, because they would have all science to be included under the name of philosophy.-^ § 8. But the teachers of these several branches of philosophy were split into various parties and sects, which had fierce con- tests with each other.^ In the first place, there was a three- fold method of teaching philosophy. (I. ) The old and simple method, which did not go beyond Porphgry, and the Dialectics ascribed to St. Augustine ; and which advised, that few persons should study philoso[)hy, lest divine Avisdom should beci>mc adulterated with human subtleties. (II-) The Aristotelian, which explained and elucidated the works of Aristotle. For Latin translations of some of the books of Aristotle were now in the hands of the learned ' ; though these ti'anslations were rude, obscure, and ambiguous, so that those who used them in teaching, often fell into strange incongruities and absurdities. (III.) The^/re method, by which men attempted to investigate latent truth, by their own ingenuity, aided, however, by the precepts of Aristotle and Plato. But those who pursued this nicthotl, commendable as it may be in itself, for the most part, misemployed their ingenuity, and wearied themselves and their * These statements \vc have derived Guiberti de Noviijcnto, sul. imn. 1128, p. from several sources; but especially 753. "Jacobus Clcricus de Venecia from Hugo of St. Victor, i>/V/(/.sra/. lib. transtulit de (Jran-o in Latinum s- ii. cap. ii. ]). 7, &c. Opp. torn. i. and dam lihnis Aristotelis, et cunimciitatus from the Mi'taltigicum of John of Salis- est, scilicet Topica. Anidyt. priores et bury, iu various passages. postcriore.s, et eleiiclios. Qiiannis an- " See Godofr. ])c S. Victor's, poem titpiior. translatio super eosdem li]>ro3 on the sects of jiliilosophers in this age ; haberctur." Thonui;? Bcckct, Epistolar. publislicd by William Lc Boeuf, Diss. lib. ii. ep. xeiii. p. 4.54, eii. HnixelL 1()82, siir rHistoire Ecclcs. ct Civile lie Paris, 4to. " Itero prcces, (luatenus libms torn. ii. p. 254, &c. Boulay, Historia Aristotelis, (|uos halietis, mihi faciatis AcaJ. Paris, torn. ii. p. 5G2,"&c. Ant. exscribi.— I'rccor ctiani iterata sni)pli- Wood, Antiipiltati's (honienscs, tom. i. catioiio, (luatemis in Operibus Aristotelis, p. 51. John of Salisbury, Metalogicum, ubi ditliciliora fucrint, nntnlas faciatis, and /'()/vtm<(C(w, passim. " eo quod interpretuni lUitiuatcnus sus- ' Kobert Uu ilont. Appendix ad jjeetum habeo, quia licet elo(iuens fuerit Sigebert. Gcmblacensem ; published by alias, ul s;vpe audivi, minus tamen fait Liic. D'Achery, subjoined to the Opp. in Grammatica institutus." 414 BOOK III. — CENTURY XII. [PART II. disciples witli idle questions and distinctions.* These vai-ious opinions, contests, and defects of the philosophizers, induced many to hold all jihilosophy in contempt, and to wish to banish it from the schools. § 9. But none disputed more subtly, or contended more fiercely, than the dialecticians ; who, being occupied exclu- sively with universals, as they were called, or general ideas, confined their whole science to this one subject, and explained it in difierent ways.^ There were, at this time, two principal sects among them. Realists and Nominalists ; each of which was subdivided into several minor parties. The Nominalists of this age were, indeed, inferior in numbers, and in authority, to tlie Realists ; yet they were not witliout followers. To these was added a third sect, that of the Formalists ; which took, in a sense, middle ground between the disputants. But they really did no good; for they cast no liglit on the subject, and therefore only furnished new matter for controversy.' Those devoted to the study of the medical art, astronomy, mathematics, and the kindred sciences, continued to frequent the schools of the Sara- cens in Spain : and many books of the Arabians were translated into Latin.2 For the high reputation of the xirabic learning, * See John of Salisbury, Poli/craticon, species ; but their opinion is now ex- p. 434, &c. and Metalo(/iciim, p. 814, &c. ploded, and, with the authors of it, has and passim. disappeared. Yet there are still some ^ John of Salisbury, an elegant treading in their steps, (though they writer of this centuiy, pleasantly says, blush to own their master and his opi- in his Polycraticon, seu de JVugis Curia- nions,) and adhering only to names, what Hum, lib. vii. p. 451. " He (the philo- they take away from things and fi'om sopher) is prepared to solve the old sensations, they attribute to words." — ■ question about genera and species ; and The sect of Formalists, therefore, is while he is labouring upon it, the uni- more ancient than John Duns Scotus, verse grows old : more time is consumed whom the learned have aceoiuited the upon it, than the Ca;sars spent in con- father of the F(irmalists. See also John quering and subduing the world : more of Salisbury's Metalogicum, lib. ii. c. xvii. money is expended, than all the wealth p. 814, &c., where he recounts the con- which Ci'oesus ever possessed. For tests of these sects. "Alius (says he, this single subject has occupied many, among other things,) consistit in vocibus, so long, that after consuming their whole licet hrec opinio cum Eoscelino suo fere lives upon it, they have not understood jam evanncrit ; alius sermones intuetur ; either that or any thing else." alius versatur inteUectibus," ifc. ' John of Salisbury, Pohjcrat. lib. vii. '^ Gerhard of Cremona, a celebrated p. 451, 452. "Some, (the Formalists,) Italian astronomer and physician, re- with tlie mathematicians, abstract the moved to Toledo in Spain, and there forms of things ; and to them refer what- translated many Arabic books into Latin, ever is said about universixls. Others See IVIuratori. Antlq. Italica Medii jEvi, (the Realists) examine men's sensations torn. iii. p. 936, 937. Peter Mirmet, a of objects ; and maintain, that these go French monk, went among the Saracens by the name of universals. There were in S]iain and Africa to learn geography, also some, (the Nominalists,) who held See Lu. D'Acliery, Sj)icile(). Vet. Scriptur. that u-ords constitute the genera and toni. ix. p. 443, old cd. Dan Merley or CII. II.] CllUnCII OFFICEUS AXI) <;()Vi:ilXMEX T. 415 joined with zeal for the conversion of the Spanisli Saracens to Christianity, induced many to apply themselves to the study of the Arabic language and literature. CHAPTER IT. HISTORY OF THE TEACMEKS AND OF THE GOVERNMENT OF THE CHURCH. § 1. Lives of the clergy.— § 2. Efforts of the pontiffs to aggrandize themselves. The contest respecting investitures. — § 3, 4, 5. Its progress. — § 6. Compromise between the pontiff and the emi)eror. — § 7. Two popes : Anacletiisaad Innocent. — § 8. The other pontiff's of this century. — § 9. Renewal of tlie contest under Hadrian IV. and Fredei'ic Barbarossa — 5j 10, II. Contests in the election of l)oiitirt's. — § 12. Contest of Alexander III. with Henry II. — § 13. Alexander advances tlic Roman see by various aits. — § 14. His successors. — § 15, 16. The rest of the clergy and their vices. — § 1 7. Contentions between the Cistercians and Cluniacensians. — § 18. Lives of the canons. — § 19. New monastic orders. — § 20. Pra;monstratensians. — § 21. Carmelites. — § 22. The Greek writers. — § 23. The Latin writers. § 1. Wherever we turn our eyes, traces meet us of dis- honesty, ignorance, luxury, and other vices; with which both the church and the state were contaminated, by those who wished to be regarded as px'csiding over and taking the lead in all religious matters. If we except a few individuals, who were of a better character, and who lamented the profligacy and vices of their order ; all of tliem, disregarding the salvation of the people, were intent on gratifying their lusts, increasing their wealth and honours, encroaching ami trampling u[)on the rights of sovereigns and magistrates, in short, -.] CII. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 417 therefore, in a council at Kome, A. D. 1102, renewed the decrees of his predecessors against investitures, excommunicated Henry IV. anew, and stirred up enemies against him wherever he could. Henry resolutely withstood these menaces and machi- nations : but two years after, a. d. 1104, his own son, Henry V., took up arms against his father, under pretence of religion ; and now all was over with him. For after an unsuccessful cam- paign, he was compelled by his son to abdicate the throne, and died friendless and forsaken at Liege, a. d. 1106. "Whetlier the son was induced to engage in this war with his father, by his ambition of reigning, or by the instigation of the pontiff, does not appear. But it is certain, that Pascal absolved the son from his oath of obedience to his father, and very zealously supported and defended his cause. ^ § 3. But this political revolution was far from answering the expectations of Pascal. For Henry V. could by no means be induced to give up the right of investing bishops and abbots, although he conceded to the colleges of canons and monks the power of electing them. Hence the pontiff, in the councils of Guastalla in Italy and Troycs in France, a. d. 1107, renewed the deci"ees which had been enacted against investitures. The controversy was now suspended for a few years ; because Henry •was so occupied with his wars that he had no leisure to pursue it. But when his wars were closed, a. D. 1110, he marched with a large army into Italy, to settle this protracted and per- nicious controversy at Home. As he advanced slowly towards Rome, the pontiff, finding himself destitute of all succour, offered to compromise with him on these conditions; that the king should relinquish the investiture with the staff and the ring, and the bishops and abbots should restore to the omperor the beneficiary royalties ', which they had obtained since the times of Charlemagne, such as, the i)ower of levying tribute, holding lordships, coining money, and the like. Henry V. acceded to these terms, in the year 1111 : but the bishops, both of Italy and Germany, vigorously opposed them. A violent conflict having taken place, in the very church of St. Tetcr, at Rome, Henry caused the pontiff to be seized, and conducted as 3 Wc have here consulted, in addi- p. 914,) states, that tlie pontiff wrote a tion to the original sources, those ex- letter to young Henry, t-rnninatnig his cellent historians, whom we mentioned fatiier, and cxliorting linn to aid the in the preceding century. [Sec note ^ church against him. Tr.\ p. 309.— Hermann I)e 'Tournay {Nar- * Bcneticia regalia. ratio, ^c. in D'Acheiy's Spicilcg. tom. ii. VOL. II. K E 418 BOOK III. — CENTUKY XII. [PARt II. a prisoner to the castle of Viterbo. AVhen he had lain there some time, a new convention \Yas entered Into, as necessity bade, in which the pontiff conceded to the king the right of giving investltnre to bishops and abbots, with the staff and ring. Thus, peace being concluded, the pontiff placed the imperial diadem upon the head of Henry J' § 4. This peace, Avhich force and arms extorted, Avas fol- lowed by greater commotions, and more painful conflicts. In the first place, at Rome, violent tumults were raised against the pontiff, who was accused of betraying the interests of the church, and of basely shrinking from his duty. To quiet these tumults, Pascal assembled a council in the Lateran palace, A. D. 1112, before which he humbly confessed his fault in the agreement that had been made with the emperor, and sub- mitted the matter to the pleasure of the council. The council rescinded the compact formed with the emperor.^ After this, in various synods and councils, both of France and Germany, Henry was excluded from communion, and was even classed among the heretics, than which nothing at that day was more to be dreaded.^ The princes of Germany llkcAvIse made war upon him In several places in behalf of the church. To bring these many and great evils to a termination, Henry again marched an army into Italy, in the year 1116, and held a con- vention at Rome A. D. 1117, the pontiff having escaped by flight to Benevento. But the Normans came to the aid of the pontiff, and Pascal boldly prepared for war against the em- peror, and made preparations for an assault upon the city of Rome. Important events Avere now anticipated, Avhen the pontiff closed his life in the year 1118. § 5. A fcAV days after the death of Pascal, John Cajetan, another Benedictine monk from the monastery of Monte Cas- sino, and chancellor of the Roman church, Avas created pontiff, and assumed the name of Gelasius II. In opposition to him Henry set up another pontiff, Maurice Burdin, archbishop of ■'* Besides the ^vritel•s already men- nation to the decisions of a council, and tioned, Jo. Mabillon, Annales Benedict, acknowledged a council to be his supe- tom. T. p. 681, and torn. vi. p. 1, de- rior. The council also disapproved of serves to be consulted, and on each of the acts of the pontiff', the years of these and the subsequent ' Sec Jac. Gervaise, Diss, sur PHerdsie transactions. des Investitures ; which is the fourth of " Here again, this pontit^', like Gre- those he had prefixed to the Histoiy of gory VII., in the Eerengarian contro- the abbot Suger, p. lix, versy, placed his authority in subordi- en. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND G0VERN3IENT. 419 Braga in Spain, who cliose the name of Gregory VIIU Gela- sius, therefore, finding himself not safe at Home, or in Italy, retired into France; and soon after died there, at Cluny. The cardinals who had accompanied him, as soon as he was dead, elected Guido, archbishop of Vienne, count of Burgundy, and a relative of the emperor, for sovereign pontiff, and he took the name of Calixtus II. It was fortunate, both for the church and the state, that this man was made head of the church. A man of noble birth, and of elevated views, he prosecuted the contest with the emperor with no less vigour than success, both by decrees of councils and by other means ; reduced Rome under his power; took the emperor's pontiff prisoner, and cast him into prison ; and fomented civil wars in Germany. At the same time possessing more liberal views than his predecessors in the papal chair, and having no obsti- nacy of character, he did not reject moderate councils, and could relax something of the demands of his predecessors for the sake of restoring peace now so ardently desired.^ § 6. Thus, after multiplied efforts, contests, excommunica- tions, and threats, peace was ratified between the pontifTs legates and the emperor in the diet of AVorms, a. d. 1122, on the following conditions : that, hereafter, bishops and abbots should be freely chosen by those whose right it was to elect ; but in the presence of the emperor or of his representative ' : that if the electors disagreed among themselves, the emperor should interpose, and using bishops as his counsellors should end the contest: that the person elected should take the oath of loyalty to the emperor, receive what were called the regalia from his hand, and perform the duties due to him on account of them ; and that the emperor should use a different mode of « See Steph. Baluze, Vita Mauritii pable of yielding at all, that is. posscss- Burdlni; iu his Miscellanea, toin. iii. p. iiig tlie ciiaractei-istie fault of nioiiks, 471 ^(.^ ail influxiljle olistiiiacy ami ])ertinafity. 9 'if I do not greatly misjudge, this But as soon as a man of a hotter cha- unhappy contest between the emperors ractcr and of a liberal mind jiseonded and the pontiti^s, respecting the investi- the chair of St. Tetcr, things assumed a ture of bishops and abbots, would not ditlereut aspect, and there was a pros- liave been carried on with so much pcct of peace. asperity, nor have been protracted so ' From this time, therefore, the lono:, if men of liberal views and educa- people in Germany have been excluded tion had been at the head of the church, from the election of bishops. See Peter But dm-ino- half a century, five monks Y)c 'Shivca, dc Cuncordia Sacerdutii ct Im- had governed the church — men born in pcrii, lib. vi. e. ii. § 9, p. 783 cd. obscurity, of coarse manners, and inca- Bohmcri. E E 2 420 BOOK III. — CENTUEY XII. [PART II. conferring the regalia from that before practised, and should no longer confer human prerogatives by the staff and the ring, which were the emblems of sacred or divine power, but by a sceptre.^ This Concordat, as it is commonly called, was solemnly confirmed the next year in the Lateran council ; and it continues in force to our times, although there has been some dispute between the pontiffs and the emperors respecting its true import.^ § 7. Calixtus did not long survive this pacification ; for he died A. D. 1124. His place was filled by Lambert, bishop of Ostla, known among the pontiffs by the name of Honorius II. Nothing memorable was done by him. At his death, a. d. 1130, there was a schism in the church of Rome; for a part of the cardinals chose Gregory, the cardinal of St. Angelo, whose pontifical name was Innocent II. ; but another part of them created Peter de Leon pontiff", who was called Anacletus II. The party of Innocent was the Aveaker one at Rome and in Italy ; wherefore he fled into France and remained there two years. But he had the stronger party out of Italy ; for, besides the emperor Lothaire, the kings of France, England, and Spain, and some others, induced chiefly by the highly-fiimed St. Bernard^, the particular friend of Innocent, joined them- selves to his party ; while Anacletus had for supporters only the kings of Sicily and Scotland. The schism Avas terminated by the death of Anacletus a. d. 1138; after which Innocent reigned alone, till the year 1143, and celebrated several coun- cils, among which was the second Lateran, a. d. 1139.^ § 8. After the death of /?««oce?if, Guido, cardinal of St. Mark, under the name of Cozlestine 11, reigned durlno; five months in peace. His successor, Lucius II., who formerly was Gerhard, a regular canon, governed the church during eleven months, but not prosperously. For he was disturbed in various ways by the tumultuous Romans ; and in attempting to quell one of their insuiTections, lie was killed by the stroke of a stone. His successor, Eugenius III. formerly Bernhard, a Cistercian ■^ See Muratori, Antiq. Itah Mcdii See Jo. Hil. Hoffmann, ad Concordatum JEvi, torn. \i. p. 76. Jo. Schiltems, de He7i. V.et CallixtiIIAYittcmb.\7S9,4to. Lihertate Eccles. German, lib. iv. c. iv. ■• [Mosheim writes this name Bei-iihai-d. p. 545, &c. Cies. Rasponus, de Basilica Ed.'] Lateranensi, lib. iv. p. 295, &c. ^ In addition to the common his- ^ It was contested among other things, torians of the popes, see Jo. De Lannes, ■whether the consecration should pre- Histoire du Pontificat du Pape Linocent cede, or follow, the collation of the rc^«//a. //. Paris, 1741, 8vo. CIT. II.] CIIUKCII OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 421 monk, and a very distinguished disciple of the celebrated Si. Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux, came to the government of the church A. D. 1 145, and during nine years encountered similar troubles and dangers, until his death 1152. For he was re- peatedly driven from Eome, and at one time passed a long exile in France." Anastasius IV., previously Conrad, bisliop of Sabino, had a more tranquil reign; but it was of short duration; for he died a. d. 1154, after filling the chair one year and four months. § 9. Under his successor, Hadrian IK, who was an English- man, and a regular canon, and wliose true name was Nicolas Breakspcar, the contentions between the emperors and the Ro- man pontiffs, which were apparently settled in the times of Callxtus II., broke out anew. Frederic /., surnamcd Barba- rossa'^, as soon as he was chosen emperor, a. d. 1152, explicitly declared his intention to maintain the dignity and rights of the Roman empire, not only every where, but especially in Italy ; and to bring within a narrower compass the immense power and wealth of the pontiffs and of the clergy at large. Perceiving this inten- tion, Hadrian felt sure that it was his duty to defend the authority and majesty of tlic church. Hence, when the en)])crorwas to be crowned, a.d. 1155, first, a contest arose from the pontiffs desire that Frederic should act as master of the horse.^ Then followed other disputes and controversies between them in relation to public matters, which were fiercely agitated by letters. These contests being in a measure settled, others followed of equal mag- nitude and difficulty, in the year 1158, when the emperor, in order to set bounds to the daily increasing wealth of the pontiff, the bishops, and the monks, made a law that no^y^r/*- should be trans- ferred to another person without the knowledge and consent of the lord of whom they were held ^ ; and also exerted all his " [These tumults at Home originated Sucli being their object, all their move- from a strong party of citizens, who nicnts were of course sedition against adopted the principles of Arnold of the pnntitls as temporal sovereigns. See, Brescia, (sec cap. v. § 10, below,) and (.i. J. Vhvwk'ri Gcschic/ilc d.C/irisll.Klrclil. wished to shake oti' the yoke of priestly (tcsvllxc/tii/tsrrrfuiiii, vol. iv. j). .324, govennnent, and restore the ancient form &c. and the autliors refciTcd to in note ", of the Roman empire. After an un- chap. v. § 10, of tliis eentur}-. 7/-.] successful application to the emperor of ' [Red-Beard. 7>.] Germany, to make Rome his residence, ' Lis de stratoris nunierc, quod obirc and to there exercise the same powers volebat Pontifcx I'ridericuni. [Hold as the old Roman emperors had done, the pojK-'s stirruits when he mounted or they determined to restore the ancient dismounted his horse. 7>.] Roman republic, and to reinstate the '■' iv'c Muratori, Antiquitatcs Ital. Roman senate in all its ancient grandeur. Mcdii .Evi, tom. vi. p. 239, &c. where E E 3 422 BOOK III. CENTUEY XII. [PAET II. powers to reduce the minor states of Italy under his authority. An open rupture seemed about to take place, when the pon- titF Avas removed by death, on the first of September, a. d. 1159.'« § 10. When a new pontiff was to be elected, the cardinals were divided into two factions. The one, which was the more numerous, created Roland of Siena pontiff; the other, the less numerous, elected Octavian, cardinal of St. Ca3cilia. Roland assumed the name of Alexander III. : his competitor, that of Victor IV. The emperor, who, for various reasons, disliked Alexander, gave his support to Victor. The council of Pavia, summoned by the emperor, A. D. 1160, decided according to the emperor's pleasure. Victor, therefore, prevailed in Germany and Italy ; and Alexander had to quit Rome and Italy, and to retire to France. In the midst of the commotions and strife, Victor died at Lucca, A. D. 1164. But another pontiff was im- mediately elected by order of the emperor ; namely, Guido car- dinal of St. Calixtus, who assumed the name of Pascal III., and who was acknowledged by the princes of Germany, in the diet of Wiirtzburg, a. d. 11(^5. Alexander, however, returned from France to Italy, prosecuted his cause with some success, and in the Lateran council at Rome, a. d. 1167, deposed the emperor, whom he had before repeatedly excommunicated, and absolved his subjects from their oath of allegiance to him. But not long after, Rome was taken by the emperor, and Alexander was obliged to flee to Benevento, and leave the chair of St. Peter in Xha hands of Pascal. § 11. The prospects of Alexajider seemed to brighten up, when the emperor, after losing the greater part of his army by a pestilential disease, was obliged, against his inclinations, to retire from Italy, and when Pascal was removed by death, A. D. 1168. But his expectations were soon disappointed. For the opposite faction elected John, abbot of Struma, pontiff, with the title of Calixtus III. ; and the emperor, though absent in Germany and occupied with various wars and contests, sup- ported the new pontiff as far as he was able. And after settling a degree of peace in Germany, tlie emperor, A. D. 1174, marched lie shows, that by this and other hiws, gated l)y the ilhistrious count Biinau, Prederic first opposed a barrier to the History of Frederic I. v;Y\tiQX\h\G^rravca, power of the clergy. p. 45, 49. 73, &c. 99. 105, .&c. '" These events are carefully invcsti- CH. II.] CHURCH OFFICEKS AND GOVERNMENT. 423 again into Italy with a fine army ; intending to chastise the cities and republics which had revolted from him. If success had attended this expedition of the emperor, he \vould doubtless have compelled Alexander to give place to Calixtus. But he met Avith disappointments and reverses ; and after several years spent in alternate defeats and partial victories, being discouraged by adversities and diflSculties, he concluded a peace with Alex- ander III., and a truce with his other enemies, at Venice, in the year 1177.' Some tell us, that the pontiff, placing his foot upon the neck of the suppliant emj)eror, repeated the words of David, Ps. xci. 13.'- But most of the moderns consider this account as entirely unsupported.^ § 12. Alexander III., whose conflict vi'iiXx Frederic I. procured him fame, had also another contest, and not a light one, with Henry II., king of England, in the case of Thomas Bcckcf, arch- bishop of Canterbury. In the council of Clarendon, a. d. 11G4, several regulations were enacted, by which the regal power, over the clergy, was more accurately defined, and the rights of bishops and priests were circumscribed within narrower limits.* ' Those transactions are well illns- ti'ated by count Biinau, in his Historia Fredericl I. p. 115—242. To which add, Fortunatus Olini, Istoria della vemita a Veiicfia orcultamrntc nd an. 1177, di Papa Alessandro III. Venice, 1629, 4to, and Lud. Ant. ^luratori, Antiq. Ital. Medii A^vi, torn. iv. p. 249, &c. Origines GuclphkcF, toni. ii. p. 379, &c. Acta Sanctor. torn. i. A])ril, p. 46, in the life of Hns^, abbot of IJonneval ; and toni. ii. April, p. .596, in the Life of Galdinus of Milan ; which two eccle- siastics acted as arbitei"s and legntes in negotiatinj;; tliis peace. '■' [" Thou shalt tread upon the lion and the adder : the youn^ Hon and the dragon shalt thou trample under feet." Ed.} ^ Sec Biinau's Life of Frederic I. p. 242. Char. Ans. lleumann, PocHe.^ torn. iii. lib. i. p. 145. BilAioth. Italiqiie, torn. vi. p. 5. 16, and the WTitci-s men- tioned by Casj). Sa. 1164. Bccket now ap- pealed to the poj)e, coritrary to the laws of tlie realm ; and soon after fled to France. Protected by the pontiff and the king of Fr.inee, he treated Henry with insolence ; aiul at length, t!n-ough the mediation of the poiititf and the king of France, lleniy and Becket were so 426 BOOK III. —CENTUEY XII. [PART IP. various altercations, had to make such expiations for this crime as the pontiff dictated ; and the assassinated Thomas was in the year 1173 enrolled among the martyrs, or glorified saints of the highest order.'^ § 13. Alexander III. employed not only arms but also art, and the influence of councils and laws, to establish the inde- pendence of the church, and especially to confirm the power of the Roman pontiffs. For (I.) in a council at Eome, a.d, 1179, called the third Lateran council, in order to avoid the commo- tion so often produced by the election of a new pontiff, he or- dained that the right of voting should belong exclusively to the cardinals ; and that the person who had the votes of two-thirds of the college of cardinals should be considered the legitimate pontiff. This constitution has continued to the present time. Thus, from that period, the election of pontiffs assumed the forms Avhich it still retains ; and not only the people, but also the clergy of Rome, were wholly excluded from any participa- tion in it. (II.) He was the first of all the pontiffs, who, in the same council, sanctioned a crusade against heretics, who were then troubling the church at large, and especially certain pro- far reconciled, that the latter was per- mitted to return to his see. But he now can-ied matters with a high hand, dealt out his anathemas and censures, and resisted all attempts of the king to restrain the exorbitant power of the clergy. The king was now in Normandy. The archbishop of York, and iseveral noblemen, whom Beckct had excom- municated, repaired to the king, com- plaining of the treatment they received from Beckct. The archbishop remark- ed to him, that, so long as Beckct lived, the king could never expect to enjoy peace and tranquillity. The king, being violently agitated, burst forth into an exclamation against his servants, whose want of zeal, he said, had so long left him exposed to the machinations of that ungrateful and imperious prelate. Four gentlemen of his household, overhearing the exclamation, immediately formed the resolution to assassinate Bccket. They asked leave to go to England, and set out forthwith, without apprising the king of their designs. Soon after they were gone, the king conjectured, from some circumstances and remarks of tlie men, what they intended to do ; and he sent messengers after them, command- ing them not to lay hands upon the primate. But the messengers arrived too late ; the deed was done. The king was now greatly distressed, and took every possible means to clear himself of suspicion, and to pacify the pope. The assassins fled to Kome, did penance, and obtained absolution from the pope, on condition of perpetual exile. The king also made his submission to the pope ; and with much difficulty obtained absolution some years after. See Hume's Histonj of Enqland, cli. viii. vol. i. p. 322—361, ed. Bhilad. 1810. Kapin de Thoyras, Hist, of Eng. and Collier's Eccles. Hist, of Eng. vol. i. p. 370. — The works of Becket consist of his corre- spondence, or Letters in six Books, col- lected by John of Salisbtiry, and edited by Christian Lupus, Brussels, 1682, 4to, with a Quadrilogus; or the fourfold life of Becket, by Ileribert his chaplain. William of Canterbuiy, Alan, abbot of Dcochc, and John of Salisbmy. TV.] " Boulay, Historia Acad. Paris, torn, ii. p. 328, &c. and for his festival, p. 397. Doni. Colonia, Histoire Litter, de la Ville de Lyon, torn. ii. p. 249, &c. en. II.] CHURCH OFFICEIIS AND GOVERNMENT. 427 vlnces of France.''' (III.) He took from bishops and councils the right of designating the persons who might be Avorshipped as saints ; and placed canonization, as it is called, among the greater causes ; that is, such as are to be decided solely by the pontiff.* (TV.) Omitting some things of minor importance, we add this only, that he actually put in operation the power, claimed by the pontiffs since the time of Gregonj VII., namely, that of creating kings. For in tlie year 1179, he conferred tlie title of king on Alphonsus I. duke of Portugal, who had pre- viously, under Lucius II., made his territory tributary to the church of Rome.^ § 14. Lucius III, Avho was previously Uhald, bishop of Ostia, was the first pontiff" elected solely by the cardinals, according to the regulations of Alexander III. His reign, which commenced A. D. 1181, was a turbulent one; for he was twice driven fi'om Rome by the citizens ; who, doubtless, would not bear with a pontiff', elected contraiy to the ancient custom, or without the concurrence of the clergi/ and people. He therefore died an exile, at Verona, A. d. 1185. His successor, Hubert Crivelli, bishop of Milan, known among the pontiffs by the name of Urban III., died of grief, on account of the conquest of Jeru- salem by Saladin, A. D. 1187, after performing nothing of much importance.' The next pontiff", Gregory ]LIL, pvGviously Albert of Benevento, and chancellor of the church of Rome, died in the second month of his pontificate. After him, Clement III., pre- viously Paul, bishop of Ralestrina ^, reigned longer ; for he con- tinued to the fourth year, and died a.d. 1191 : yet few of his ' See Natalis Alexander, Selecta Hist. torn. i. ]i. 54, cd. Baluzc. [It sliDiiId Eccles. Capita, skcuI. xii. diss. ix. p. be rcmcnilicred, that Alexander III. 819, where he treats at larjje of this only confirmed tiie title of kins to Al- conncil ; also Harduin's Concilia, tom. plionsus ; it having: long before been vi. pt. ii. p. 1671, &c. [Dr. Maclainc applied to liim by his army, and by is stumbled that Moshcim and others some neighbouring princes. See Pagi, should call ftliis the rf Lateran coun- Critica in Baron, ad aim. 1139, § 23. cil ; when it ajtpcars there had been 7V.] six or eight councils previously hold ' [He was the personal enemy of the there. But there was no mistake made emperor Frederic I., anil quarrelled by Moshcim. Tiiis was the third general with iiim till tlie day of bis death. But council of the Lateran ; all the preceding, he could not coerce him, because the except two, having been provincial coun- German bishops adhered to the cni- cils. TV.] peror. He once resolved to excommu- ' The subjects of pontifical elections nicate Frederic , but the people of Ve- and canonization were discussed under rona, wlicre he resiiled, would not allow the eleventh century, p. 339, and notes of sueii a transactit)n in their city. See •■^ ■'. Schmidt's Kirchaigeschichtc, voL \i. p. " Baronius, Annates, ad ann. 1179. 249, &c. T/-.] Innocent HI. Epistolce, lib. i. cp. 49. * [Prancste, near Rome. Tr.'] 428 BOOK III. — CENTURY XII. [rART II. deeds are Avorth the notice of posterity.^ More famous was Ccelestine III., who was, before his election, Hyacinth, a Roman and cardinal deacon: for in the year 1194, he laid under an interdict the emperor Henry VI. and Leopold, duke of Austria, for having imprisoned king Richard of England, on his return from the holy land ; and also, Alphonso X., king of Gallicia and Leon, on account of an incestuous marriage : and he com- manded, though without effect, Philip Auyustus, the king of France, to receive back his repudiated wife Inyelburga.^ But this pontiff, and nearly all the others of the present century, were outdone and eclipsed by the pontiff elected near the end of the century, a.d. 1198, namely, Lothaire, count of Signi, a cardinal deacon, who assumed the pontifical name of Innocent III. But his reign Avill properly be described under the follow- ing century. § 15. To the flagitious conduct, the frauds, the ignorance, and the corruption of the inferior bishops, the priests, and the deacons, the whole history of these times, and the laws of the ecclesiastical councils, afford ample testimony.^ It is not ^ [The most important of his acts, was his compromise with the citizens of Rome, hy which he gave the city a new form of government, yet retained the supreme power in his own hands. He therefore made Rome the phice of his residence ; whereas his three immediate predecessors had been unable to reside there. See Baronius, Annates, ad ann. 1183, no. 23. 7>.] * [Tliougli the king did not retreat when the interdict was hiid on him, yet as the pope, and the king of Den- mark, who was hrotlier to Ingelburga, continued to prosecute the matter, Philip concluded to end the contest by restoring his queen. See Daniel's Hist. of France, in Eng. vol. i. p. 426, &c. Tr.-] ^ [" The ecclesiastics of that age had renounced all immediate subordination to the magistrate ; they openly pre- tended to an exemption in crlminat ac- cusations from a trial before courts of justice ; and were gradually introducing a like exemption in civil causes. Spi- ritual penalties atone could be inflicted on tieir offences : and as the clergy had ex- tremely multiplied in England, and many of them were consequently of very low characters, crimes of tfte deepest dye, mur- ders, robberies, adulteries, rapes, ivere dnily committed witli impunity by ttie ecclesiastics. It had been found, for instance, on in- quiry, that no less than a hundred mur- ders had, since the king's accession," [a. D. 1 1 54 — 1 1 63.] " been perpetrated by men of that profession who had never been called to account for those offences ; {Neubr. p. 394.) and holy orders were become a full protection for all enormi- ties. A clerk in Worcestershii-e having debauched a gentleman's daughter, had at this time proceeded to murder the father ; and the general indignation against this crime moved the king to attempt the remedy of an abuse which was become so palpable, and to require that the clerk should be delivered up, and receive condign punishment from the magistrate. {Fitz-Stepti. p. 33, Hist. Quad. p. 32.) Becket insisted on the privileges of the church ; and confined the criminal in the bishop's prison, lest he should be seized by the king's offi- cers ; maintivincd that no greater punish- ment could be inflicted on him than degradation. And when the king de- manded that immediately after he was degraded he should be tried by the civil power, tlie primate asserted that it was iniquitous to try a man twice upon the same accusation, and for the same of- fence." Hume's Hist, of Enykind, vol. i. CH. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AXD GOVERNMENT. 429 strange, therefore, that the monks were in lilgher repute than the secular clergy ; for, being bound by their vows and by their respective rules of life, they had fewer opportunities of commit- ting crimes. And yet these monks, who claimed pre-eminence in the church, and despised and inveighed against both the secular clergy and the regular canons *', had in most places de- parted entirely from their institutions and rules, and exliibited to the public patterns of vice and wickedness, rather than of virtue.^ The Cluniacensians wei"e for a long time the best and most devout among the Benedictines : but under their abbot Pontius, being loaded with wealth and riches by the liberality of the pious, they entirely laid aside their former strictness, and lived scandalously like other Benedictines. And although some of the succeeding abbots endeavoured to cure the evil, their efforts fell far below their wishes and their expectations ; nor could the primitive sanctity of Cluny ever be restored.^ § 16. Among the Cistercians, who were neither so old nor so ricli an order as the Cluniacensians, there was far more ap- pearance of innocence and sanctity. Hence a large share of the respectability which the Cluniacensians had enjoyed, was transferred to the Cistercians ; and they increased daily in numbers, wealth, and jjower. No man in this age contributed more to the advancement of this order, than St. Bernard, the celebrated abbot of Clairvaux, in France, a man of immense influence throughout Christian Europe, one who could effect whatever he pleased, often merely by his word or nod, and could dictate even to kings what they must do. He is there- fore justly called the second parent and founder of the Cis- tercian order : and this order, both in France and in Germany, was called from him the Bernardine order.^ A hundred and chap. viii. reign of Hcniy II. p. 333, 334. was published at Frankf. 1G02, aii'l at Ta] ' 'Wolfbubattlc, 1662, 8vo. In it an ass is ^ See the epistle of Rupert Tuitiensis, represented as wishing to exchange his in Edm. Martene's Thesaurus Anecdo- short tail for a long one ; indicative of a torum, toni. i. p. 285, &c. who places monk aspiring after an abbey. 5c/i/.] the monks before the apostles them- Also Bernhanrs Considcrationcs ad Eu- selvcs. genium, lib. iii. c. 4. ' See Nigel Wireker, an English poet ' See, besides many others, Edm. :Mar- of much wit, who lived about the miildlo tene's Amplissima CtJlectio Monumcntor. of this century, in his Speculum Stul- Velerum, torn. ix. j). 1119. torum, or BnmeUus ; a poem often pub- ' See Jo. ^Mabillon, Annales Ordinis lished, and in which he severely lashes Benedict, toni. vi. psissim ; and in his life the several orders of monks of his age, of St. Bernard, prefixed to his edition of sparing almost none except the Cartlm- Bernard's works. Angelus ^lanriquez, sians. [This poem, among other editions, Annales Cistercicnscs ; nearly tlirough- 430 BOOK III. — CENTURY Xir. [PART II. sixty monasteries owed their origin or their regulations to him ; and when he died he left seven hundred monks in his monas- tery of Clairvaux. Among his disciples, besides many arch- bishops and bishops, there was even one sovereign pontiff, Ewjene III. § 17. But this prosperity of the Cistercians excited the envy of the Cluniacensians, and produced, first strong dislike, and afterwards open quarrels, between these two opulent and power- ful orders. Each of them followed the rule of St. Benedict ; but they differed in dress, and in the regulations superadded to the rule. The Cluniacensians accused the Cistercians of too great austerity ; and, on the other hand, the Cistercians taxed the Cluniacensians with having abandoned their former sanctity and regular discipline ; which was strictly true. St. Bernard, the oracle and guardian of the Cistercians, in the year 1127, first attacked the Cluniacensians in writing. St. Peter Maurice, abbot of Cluny, re})lied to him with much modesty. The controversy was now propagated further, and extended over other countries of Europe.' To this contest, another of greater warmth was added, respecting tithes. In the year 11'62, Lmocent II., among other new privileges conferred on the Cistercians, exempted them from the payment of tithes on their lands : and as many of these lands had paid tithes to the Cluniacensians, they were gi'catly offended at this indulgence of the pontiff, and entered into warm controversy, both with the Cistercians, and with the pontiff himself. In the year 1155, this controversy was in some Avay adjusted; but how, does not clearly appear.^ § 18. Of the regular canons, whose origin Avas in the pre- ceding century, many spent their time much better than the crowd of monks did ; and they were not unserviceable to the church by keeping schools, in various places, and by performing out tlie second vol. and in a ]>Art of the miles Bened. torn. vi. p. 80, &c. and Man- third. riqucz, Annalcs Cisterciens. torn. i. p. 28. ' S. BeiTihardi Apologia, (for so his &c. [Pleury, Hisloire Ecdesiast. liv, book is entitled,) among liis Opera, torn. i. Ixvii. § 49, 50. 7>.] p_ 523—533. Tlic reply of Peter Clu- ^ See Angel. IManriquez, Annales Cis- niacensis, snrnamcd Vencrabilis, is ex- terciens. torn. i. p. 232, &c. Mabillon, tant among his epistles, lib. i. ep. 28, in Annales 'Benedict, tom. vi. p. 212, 479, the Biblioth. Cluniacens. tom. i. p. 657 — and his preface to the 0pp. S. Bcrnliardi. 695. Add tha Dialogus inter Clnnincc7i- Jo. de Lannes, Histoire du Pontificat sem et Cisterciensem ; published by Edm. d'Innocent II. p. 68, &c. 79, &c. Jo. Martene, Thesaur. Anecdotor. tom. v. p. Nic. Hertius, de Exemptione Cisterc. a 573 — 1613. Compare Mabillon, An- decimis. ; CH. TI.] CHURCH OFFICERS AXD GOVERNMENT. 431 Other offices.^ For these reasons the pious and the good treated them witli much kindness, and as they were often put in possession of the goods of the vicious monks, the latter loaded them with abuse. The canons, on the contrary, assailed the monks both orally and in writings ; and maintained, that they ought to bo excluded from sacred offices and honours, and to live in their cloisters, withdrawn from the intercourse of men. Hence a long and bitter controversy arose between the monks and the canons respecting their comparative merits and rank; in which both parties went to extremes,^ On the side of the monks, among others, the following eminent men, in particular, engaged ardently in the contest, namely, Peter Ahelard, Hugo of Amiens, and Rupert of Duytz : the cause of the canons was defended, among others, by PkUip Harvcng, abbot of Good Hope.''' The relics of this old controversy are visible at the present day. § 19. To the Benedictine order, a new sect was added, near the commencement of this century ; namely, the order of Fon- tevraud^, so named from the place where its first monastery was erected, on the confines of Anjou and Touraine, then a wild spot beset with thorns. Its founder was Robert of Arbrlscelles, first an eremite, and then a monk ; who prescribed for his followers, of both sexes, the rule of *S'^. Benedict ; but with the addition of some singular and very austere regulations. Among these regulations, one very noticeable, and altogether peculiar, was, that he united the monasteries for the two sexes, and subjected both the men and women to the government of a female; professedly in accordance with the exami)lc of Christ, who commended St. John to the care of his mother, and would have him to obey her as a mother.^ Robert was equally suc- ' See the Histolrc Litlcraire de la yoiul all doiil)t ; notwitlistanding Jo. Ma- France, toni. ix. p. 112, &c. billon, from his /x-nl for the Benedietiiio * See Laiubcrti Epislola ; in Martcnc's fraternity, labours after a sort to iiivali- Thesaurus Auecdutur. torn. i. p. 329, date it ; in his Annalcs Bvnedict. toni. y. ^c. p. -t-^. Coiieemin;; this Robert, ami his * Abailardi 0pp. p. 228, cd. Taris, order, see the Acta Sanclor. toni. iii. 1616, 4to. Martenes Tliesnurus Ancc- Februar. p. 593, &c. Dion. Siunmar- dotor. torn. v. p. 970. 975. 1014, &e. and thanus, Gallia Christiana, torn. ii. p. 1311, his AmpUssima Cullectio, toni. ix. p. 971, &e. Peter Baylc, Dictionmire, toni. ii. 972. Phil. Harvengii Opera, p. 385, art. Fvniccraud, p. 1187, &e. IIipp. Duaci, 1621, fol. llelyot, Histoirc dcs Ordrcs, toni. vi. \>. «" Ordo Fontis Ebraldi. 83. " On the present state of Fontevraud, ' Peter Abelard, Opera, j). 38, whose seeMoleon. \ oi/agc.s Litunjuiues, p. 108, testimony is eontirmed bv the form still &e. and .Martene's Voj/a.jv Littcnnrede retained "by the order, and is placed be- deiu: Benddictms, pt. ii. p. I, &c. [A\ hat 432 BOOK III. — CENTURY XH. [PART IT. cessful with tlie other founders of new [monastic] sects in those times : for the novelty of the institution^ and the singu- larity of its form, allured great numbers to embrace it. But he fell under strong suspicion of an excessive and illicit familiarity with the females ; from which his modern disciples use all the means in their power to vindicate his character.^ § 20. Norhert, a German, and subsequently archbishop of Magdeburg, attempted to restore the discipline of the regular canons, which was now sinking in many places, and wholly prosti'ate in others. For this purpose, in the year 1121, he established a new sect, at Premontre in Champagne^; which recommending itself by sobriety of life and manners, and culti- vating literature and the useful arts, at once extended itself throughout Europe, and in a little time acquii*ed immense riches.^ But this prosperity of the order soon extinguished remains of the once famous abbey of Fontevraud, where Henry U. and Kichard I. of England were buried, is now used as a prison. Care has been taken of the royal monumental effigies. Ed.-] ^ Tlie Epistles of Godfrey of Ven- dome, and of Marbod, in which Robert is severely censured, are well known. In what manner these accusations are answered by the monks of Fontevraud, may be learned fi-om Jo. De la Main- ferme, Chjpeus nascentis Ordinis Fonte- braldcnsis, Paris, 1684, 8vo, and his Dissertatmies in Epistulam contra Rober- tum de Arbrissello, Salmurii, 1682, 8vo. There was a dispute on this subject with Peter Bayle. See the Dissertation Apo- logetique pour le Bienheureux Bob. d'Ar- brissellcs snr ce qiCen a dit M. Bayle ; An vers. 1701, 8vo, not to mention Ma- billon, Annales Bened. torn. v. and vi. p. 9, 10, and many others. — ["In the year 1177, some nuns of this order were brought into England, at the desire of Henry II., who gave them the monastery of Ambresbury in Wiltshire. They had two other houses here ; the one at Eaton, and the other at Westwood in Wor- cestershire." Mad. — The founder of this order, Robert, or Rodbert, was born about A. D. 1047, at Arbrissel, seven leagues from Renncs ; became doctor of divinity at Paris in 1074 ; assisted the bishop of Rennes ; was made arch -pres- byter in 1085 ; formed a college of regu- lar canons in 1094, became famous as a .preacher; resigned an abbacy in 1098, to travel and preach ; set up the monas- tery of Eontevraiul in 1100; and em- ployed several succeeding years in tra- velling about France, and establishing monasteries, till his death in the year 1117. His order was confiniicd by the pontiff" in 1113 ; and Bertrade (formerly queen of France) was the first lady abbess. She died in 111 5. About a. d. 1700, the order was divided into four provinces, those of France, Aquitaine, Auvergne, and Bretagne ; wliich collec- tively contained fifty-seven priories. See Bayle, Dictionnaire, art. Fontevraud. Tr.-] ' [Premontre, the original seat of this order, is placed by Dr. Mosheim and by Helyot, in Champagne ; by Dr. Maclaine, in Picardy ; and by some maps, in the Isle of France. It is situated, indeed, near the borders of all three ; but ac- cording to Busching's Geography, (vol. ii. p. 373, ed. 5, Hamb. 1764,) the last mentioned is the true location ; for Pre- montre belongs to the Laonnois, a de- pendence of the government of the Isle of France. Von Einem.'] ' [" The religious of this order were at first so ]X)or, that they had nothing they could call their own, but a single ass, which served to cany the wood they cut down everj' morning and sent to Laon in order to purchase bread. But in a short time they received so many donations, and built so many monasteries, that thirty years after the foundation of this order, they had above a hundred abbeys in France and Germany. In process of CHURCH OFFICE US AND GOVEUNMENT. 433 CIT. II.] their primitive zeal, and plunged the Prcemomtratensians into all kinds of vice. They follow the rule, which is called St. Augustine's, but with some slight alterations, and the addition of certain severe laws, the authority and influence of which, however, did not long survive their author.- § 21. About the middle of the century, one Berthold, a Calabrian, with a few companions, migrated to mount Cai-meP^ and in the place where the prophet Elias of old is said to have hidden himself, built a humble cottage, with a chapel, in which he and his associates led a laborious and solitary life. As others continued to unite themselves with these residents on mount Carmel, Albert, the patriarch of Jerusalem, near the commencement of the next century, prescribed for them a rule of life ; which the pontiffs afterwards sanctioned by their autho- rity, and also changed in various respects, and when it was found too rigorous and burdensome, mitigated considerably.' Such was the origin of the celebrated order of Carmelites, or. time, the order increased so prodigiously, that it had nionasterios in all parts of Christendom, amounting to 1000 abbeys, 300 provostships, a vast number of priories, and 500 nunneries. But this number is now greatly diminished. Be- sides what they lost in Protestant coun- tries, of 65 abbeys that they had in Italy, there is not one now remaining." Mad.-] • See Hipp. Helyot, Histoire des Ordres, tom. ii. p. 156, and the writers cited by him. Chrysostom van dcr Sterre, Vita S. Norberti Pramonstra- f£iisium Patriarchce, Antw. 1658, 8vo, Ludov. Hugo, Vie de S. Norbert; Luxemb. 1704, 4to. Add Jo. Launoy, (though sometimes uncaudid,) Inqnisitio in Privileyia Ordinis Pramunstrat. caj). 1, 2, in his 0pp. tom. iii. pt. i. p. 448, &e. On the present state of the place and the monastery of Prcmontro, see IMar- tene's Voyage Litteraire de deux Bind- dictins, tom. ii. p. 49, &c. [" The Pra;- monstratenses, or monks of Premontre, vulgarly called White Canons, came first into England, a. n. 1146. Their first monastery, called Xew-IIouse, was built in Lineolnsliirc, by Peter de Saulia, and dedicated to St. j\Iartial. In the reign of Edward I. the order in question had twenty-seven monasteries in Eng- land." Mucl.'] ^ [In Palestine. TV.] VOL. II. F * I have here fijllowed, principally, Dan. Papebroeh, an accurate writer on tliis subject, and well sujijiorted by au- thorities in the Acta tiaiictur. Antwerp, mense Aprih, tom. iii. p. 774 — 802. It is well known that the Carmelites moved a great contest with this learned Jesuit, at the court of Rome, for disparaging the dignity and antitjuity of their order. The histoiy of this long contest is given by Hipp. Helyot, Histoire des Ordres, tom. i. p. 282, &c. It was tcmiiiuUed in the year 1698 by Innocent XII., who unposed silence on both parties. [Tlio Carmelites accused Papebroch before the pontiff, Innocent XII., alleging that the volumes of the Acta Saiictor. which bore his name, were full of ciTors. The pontiff referred the case to the Congre- gation of the Index. The Carmeliies, being in high repute in Spain, brought these books before the Intiui>ition of tiiat country, in the year 1681 : and l)y tlmt tribunal, the 14 volumes for March, April, and Jlay, were condemned, a.d. 1695. Papebroch and his friends, how- ever, obtained liberty to offer to the In- ([uisitiDn a vindication of the volumes; but all tiicir controversial writings with the Carmelites were in the year 1697 proscribed by the Inquisition. The next vcar, the pope interposed, commanding both parties to be silent, and to drop tho whole controversy. 7r.] F 434 BOOK III. — CENTURY XII. [fART II. as it is commonly called, the order of St. Mary of mount Carmel, which subsequently passed from Syria into Europe, and be- came one of the principal mendicant orders. The Carmelites themselves reject with disdain this account of their origin, and most strenuously contend, that the holy prophet EUas, of the Old Testament, was the parent and founder of their society.^ But they are able to persuade very few, (or rather none, out of their society,) that their origin was so ancient and illustrious; and many, even in the Romish communion, hear of such pre- tensions with very little patience.*" § 22. I will now mention the principal writers, both Greek and Latin. Among the former, the most noted in after times were, Philip Solitarius, whose Dioptra, or dispute between the soul and the body, is sufficiently known. '^ Eustratius, who defended the cause of the Greeks against the Latins, and explained some books of Aristotle.^ Eutliymius Zigabenus, who, on account of his Panoply against all heretics, and his expositions of the scriptures, may be ranked among the prin- cipal writers of the age.^ Jolin Zonaras, whose Annals, with * Of the many Carmelite writers who have treated upon this subject, the most concise and neat is Thomas Aqui- nas, a French Carmelite ; in liis Disser- tatio Histor. Theol. in qua Patriarchatus Ordinis Carmelitarum ProphetcB Elice vindicatur ; Paris, 1632, Svo. The mo- dern writers on this controversy with Papebroch, are far more tedious. " See J. Harduin's 0pp. Posthuma, p. 642, &c. Jo. Baptist Labat, Voyage en Espagne et Italie, tom. iii. p. 87. Courayer, Examcn des Defauts Theolo- giques, tom. i. p. 4.55, &c. [The pre- tensions of the Carmelites to an anti- quity reacliing back to the times of Elijah, are ridiculous in the extreme ; and it is astonishing that they should dare hazard their reputation, by ad- vancing such pretensions. The rule prescribed to them by Albert, a.d. 1205, consisted of sixteen articles: and it required them to confine themselves to their cells, except when at work, and to spend their time in prayer ; to possess no individual projjcrty ; to fast from the feast of the holy cross till Easter, except on Sundays ; to abstain from eating flesh altogether; to labour with their hands ; and to observe total si- lence from vespers till the tierce of the next day. This rule was mitigated considerably by Innocent TV. On the conclusion of peace with the Saracens, A.D. 1229, the Carmelites left Syria. Some of them went to Cyprus ; others to Sicily ; and others to France. They came to England in 1240 ; and had about forty liouses in that countiy. In the 16th century, St. Theresa, a Spanish lady, undertook to reform the order. This divided them into two classes. The Carmelites of the ancient observance were called the migrated or moderate; the refoi-med, or those of the strict observ- ance, Avere called bare-footed Carmelites, because they went bare-footed. The former were distributed into forty pro- vinces, subject to one general. The latter quarrelled among themselves, and became divided into the congregation of Spain, containing six provinces, and the congregation of Italy, embracing all the rest. Tr.'] ' [Little is known of this Grecian monk, who flourished about a.d. 1105. His Dioptra, or Dialogue between the soul and the body, on the principles which should regulate man's life, is extant only in the Latin translation of Pontanus, Ingoldstadt, 1604, 4to, and in the Biblioth. Patrum, tom. xxi. 7V.] ' [See note ', p. 408. TV.] * See Richard Simon's Critique de la CH. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 435 some other works, are still preserved.^ jMiclmd Ghjcas, who also devoted himself to history and to some other species of writing.* Constantine Harmenojmlus, a respectable writer on both civil and canon law.'^ Androniciis Camnterus, a strenuous polemic against the Latins and the Armenians, his nation's enemies.'' JEustathius of Thessalonica, the most learned Greek of his times, and the well-known conmientator on Homer.'' Theodore Balsamon, who expended much labour in expounding and digesting the civil and ecclesiastical laws of the Greeks.^ Bibliothique des Auteurs Ecclcs. par M. Dii Pin, torn. i. p. 318. 324. [Eiithy- raius was a monk, highly esteemed by Ale.xius Comnenus for his cniditioii, and flourished about a. d. 1116. The Panoplia day mat tea orthodoxce fidei ad- versus omncs Hareses, is a compilation from the Fathers, made by order of the emperor, and with the aid of seve- ral assistants, in defence of the doc- trine of the Greek church against all its opposers. It is divided into two pai'ts, and twenty-four titidi, or chap- ters ; published (but not ' entire) by Gregoras, at Tergovist in Wallachia, 1710, fol. His commentaries on the Psalms, and on the four Gospels, were published together in Gr., Verona, 1530, and the latter, by Matthivi, Leips. 1792, 8vo. All his works, ever pul)lished, are extant in the Latin, in the Bibliolh. Patr. torn. xix. TV.] » [See Note^p. 407. Tr.'] * Some have placed Glycas as late as the fifteenth century. See Jo. Lami, Diss, de Glijca ; prefixed to his DcUcia: Virorum cruditor. torn. i. [See a notice of him in note \ p. 407. 7>.] ^ [Constantine Hannenopulns was a learned civilian and judge at Thessalo- nica. Cave and others supppsed he flourished a. «. 1150; but some place him two centuries later, or about a. d. 1380. His best work is his Upuxapoi' vSt-Laiv, or ma'.mal of civil law, edited, Gr. and Lat. with notes, Geneva, 1587, 4to. His Epitome Divinorum Sacrorumi/ue Canonum, Gr. and Lat., is in Lcunclav's Jiis Gr. tom. i.' So also his Liber de Sectis Hcereticis, and some other tracts. TV.] "' [Andronicus Camatenis was pre- fect at Constantinuple, and filled other high offices under ilamiel Comnenus, a.^ij. 1156, and was distinguished for his erudition and eloquence. He wrote Adversus Latinos Liber, or a Dialogue between ilaimel and the Roman car- dinals then at Constantinople, respect- ing the procession of the Holy Spirit ; also a dispute of the emperor with I'eter, an Armenian doct(jr ; and a tract on the two natures of Christ, and other subjects. TV.] ' [See note', p. 406. T"/-.] * For a fuller account of all these writers, see Jo. Alb. Fabricius, Biblio- theca Gro'ca. [Theodorus Ralsamou was deacon, nomo]iliylax, chartophylax, ami librarian of the great church at Constantinople ; and afterwards patri- arcii of Antioch, though he never took possession of his sec, it being in the hands of the Latins. He flourished A. D. 1180, and lived till a.d. 1203, or longer. He was the most learned Greek of his times, and a powerful ad- versary against the Latin church. His works are commentaries on the apos- tolic canons, the councils and canonical epistles of the fathers : (edited, Gr. and Lat., by Justell, and still better by Beveriiige, Oxon. 1672, fol.)— Commen- taries on the Nomocanon of I'liotins, (edited, Gr. and Lat., by Justell, 1615, 4to, and in tlie 'Pibliutli. Juris Canon. tom. ii.) A collection of ccdoiastical constitutions (in the Jiiblioth. Juris Canon, tom. ii,), ami several other trea- tises on particular points and questions in ecclesiastical law ; which were pub- lished by Ivcunclav, and Cotelier. The other Greek writers of tiiis ccn- tur\- were the following. Nicctas Seidus, an antagonist of the Latins, a.d. 1110; from whom Ixo AUatius has made some extracts ; dc Consensu, ifc. lib. i. c. 14. &c. Nicctas Byzai'.tinus, a philosopher, i. e. a monk, .\. i). 1120; who wrote a De- 436 BOOK III. — CENTURY XII. [part II. § 23. The following may be considered as the principal Latin writers. — Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux, from whom the Cistercian monks took the name of Bernardins. He was a man of genius and taste, and of correct views in many respects, yet of a superstitious and ill-controuled mind ; one who was able to conceal a great thirst for dominion under the garb of extra- ordinary piety, and who did not scruple to load with false accusations such as happened to incur his displeasure.'^ Inno- fence of the synod of Chalcedon against the prince of Armenia ; which is quoted by Leo Allat. uhi supra, and pubhshed entii-e, Gr. and Lat., in the Gr. Orthod. torn. i. Georgius, metropolitan of CorcjTa, A.D. 1136, distinguished himself as a writer, and negotiator in the contro- versy with the Latins. Antonius IMelissa, a Greek monk, A. D. 1140; author of Libri ii. Locorum Communium, de virtutibus et vitiis ; com- piled from the fatlicrs ; edited, Gr. and Lat., by Gesner, Tiguri, 1546, fol. and Geneva, 1 609, fol. Isaac, patriarch of the greater Arme- nia, flourished, perhaps, a. d. 1150; author of two Invectives against the Armenians ; Gr. and Lat. m Auctar. Nov. tom. ii. Lucas Chrysoberges, a monk and pa- triarch of Constantinople, a. d. 1155, (alii, 1148) to 1167; author of some Synodal decrees at Constantinople, a. d. 1166; published by Leunclav, ./us Gr. Horn. lib. iii. Basil Achridenus, metropolitan of Thessalonica, a. d. 1155; author of an epistle to pope Hadrian IV. ; who soli- cited him to renounce the Greek church, and connect himself with the Latin ; extant, Gr. and Lat., in the Jus Gr. Rom. lib. V. ]\Iichael, a rhetorician and protec- dicus of the great church at Thessa- lonica, A. r>. 1160; who fell into the heresy of the Bogomils, and afterwards renounced it. A short confession of his faith is published by Leo Allat. de Con- sensu, ^c. lib. ii. c. 12. Alexius Aristenus, Nomophylax and (Economus of the great church of Con- stantinople, A. D. 1166. A Stjnopsis Ca- nonum, with the scliolia of this ecclesias- tic, is in Beveridge's Pandectce Canonum, Oxon. 1672, fol. Theorianus, a Greek theologian, sent by the emperor ]\Ianuel Comnenus, a. d. 1117, to bring the Ai'menians to the Greek faith. His successful discussion with Nauses, the Armenian patriarch, put into tlie form of a dialogue, was published Gr. and Lat., by Leunclav, 1578, 8vo, and then in Ducceus, Auc- tarium, Paris, 1624, tom. i. Simeon, Magister and Logotheta, about A. i>. 1170. To hun some ascribe the Synopsis Canonum, on which Alexius Aristenus ■wTOte Scholia; but the work, probably, was written before their day. John Phocas, a native of Crete, first a soldier, and then a monk, and a mar- ried presbyter. In the year 1185 he made a pilgrimage to Jenisalem and the holy jjlaces ; and on his return, wi-ote a concise and accurate account of what he saw, entitled Compendiaria descriptio locorum ah urbe Antiocliia usque Hierosolymam, nee non Syria et PhoenicicE ; edited, Gr. and Lat., by Leo Allat. Symmict. pt. i. p. 1. Colon. 1653, Svo. George Xiphilinus, patriarch of Con- stantinople, A. D. 1193 — 1199; was au- tlior of Decretum de Juribus Terr iter i- orum; extant, Gr. and Lat., in the Jus Gr. et Rom. lib. i. p. 283. John Camaterus, patriarch of Con- stantinople, A. D. 1199 — 1206. His Decretum de Nuptiis Consobrinorum was published, Gr. and Lat., by Leunclav, in the Jus Gr. Rom. liv. iv, p. 285, Tr.] " The works of St. Bernard have been splendidly edited by Jo. Mabillon, with learned prefaces to his treatises, containing mucli valuable information ; and an appendix containing the ancient biographies of liim : [jn-inted at Paris, 1666, 2 vols. fol. and 8 vols. 8vo, and A. D. 1690, 6 vols. — St. Bernard was born of honom-able parentage, at Fon- taine, near Dijon, a. d. 1091, and edu- cated at Cliatillon, where he distin- guislied himself much as a scholar. At the age of twenty-two he renounced the world and became a Cistercian monk. In the year 1115, he was ere- CH. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 437 cent III., the Roman pontiff, whose epistles and other produc- tions contribute to illustrate the religion and discipline of the age.' Anselm of Laon^ a man of acuteness and a skilful dia- lectician. By him was educated Ahelai-d, famous, in that ao-e for the acuteness and elegance of his genius, the extent of his erudition, his dexterity as a disputant, and the misfortunes which befel him.^ Godfrey, or Geoff nj, of Vendome, who has which he lived. Milner's Life of Ber- nard, which makes up nearly the wliolc of his cliurch liistory of the twelfth century, is worth reailin;,% though written with partiality. His works are nearly all on practical religion, and consist chiefly of letters and discourses. Tr.-] ' The Epistles of Innocent III. were republished by ISteph. Baluzc, in 2 vols. fol. Paris, 1C82. [He was iiontifl" from A.D. 1198 to 121G; and will be noticed more particularly in the follow- ing centur}'. Besides his Letters, ho wrote a number of Tracts and Dis- courses, chiefly of a practical and de- votional character ; also a commentarj- on the seven penitential Psalms ; three Books on the contempt of the worlil -, and six Books on the mysteries of the mass. But none of these arc now of much value. 7V.] ' [Anselm of Laon was school- master, and dean of the cathedral of Laon, about a. d. 1103, and died a. ». 1117. Abclard, his pupil, represents him as neither learned nor discrimi- nating, but a man full of words, without much meaning. (Sec Abelard's Hist. (f his own sufferings, c. .3.) He was author of the Glossa inlirlineulis, or in- terlinear and marginal notes to the ( >ld and New Testaments, derived from the writings of the fathere ; often jmb- hshed ; e. p. Lugduui, 1528, Antw. 1C34. &c. The eonunentarics on Mat- thew and John, on the epistles of Paul, the Apocalypse, and the Canticles, pub- lished among the works of Anselm of Canterbury, arc by some ascribed to Anselm of Laon. 7>.] ^ See Peter Bayle, Dictionnaire, art. Abclard, torn. i. p. 18, and tom. iii. art. Puracht, p. 2174. Jac. Gcrvais, Vic dc Pierre Abclard, Abbe dc liiii/s, et dc Hcloisc, Paris, 1728, 2 vols. 8vo. The works of Abcliird, comprised in one volume 4to, were published by Francis Amboise, I'aris, If. 16. But a collec- tion twice, or c\eu thrice as largo 3 ated abbot of the newly-erected monas- tery of Clau"val or Clairvaux, in the territory of Langres, where he spent the remainder of his life, aiul acquired an influence almost unbounded through- out Europe. He \\as remarkably aus- tere in his mode of living, and wholly absorbed in practical religion. Ilis eloquence was bold, tlu^illing, and iiTe- sistible ; for his cijuceptions were vivid, his language clear and strong, and his zeal determined and unyielding. In the year 1127, he attended the council of Troyes, and did much to procure the establishment of the order of Knights Templars. From the year 1130, he espoused the cause of Innocent II. against his competitors ; and for ten years supported that pontifl", and at last procured hinr a comjilcte triumph. In the year 1140, he assailed Abclard, and contributed much to destroy his repu- tation and influence, and to reduce him to a state of wretchedness. In 1146, he set himself to rouse Europe to a new crusade, and actually persuaded the king of France, and the emperor of Germany, to march large armies to the holy laiul. The complete failure of the crusade, contrary to liis predictions, much lowered his reputation. But he defended himself, by ascribing the fail- iu"e to the sins of the crusaders. In 1147, he procured the condemnation of the heresy of Gilbert, bishop of Poi- tiers. The same year, he assailed the Petrobrusians, an(l tlrew ofl' many per- sons from that heresy. He also at- tacked and routed the Apostolici. In 1151, he exposed the arrogance and pride of the Roman pontifls. He died A.D. 11.53, in the sixty-third year of his age ; was sainted ; and reported to have ^\Tought innumerable miracles, both before and after his decease. — A prolix life of him was written by several of his contemporaries. The best mo- dern history of his life is that of Aug. Neander, Berlin, 1813, Svo, in German, entitled St. Bernard and the aye in 438 BOOK III.— CENTUIIY XII. [p ART II. left us epistles and some dissertations.^ Rupert of Duytz, the might be made : for, cui non clicfus Hijlas? — [Abelard was bom of noble parentage, at Palais, near Nantes, a. d. 1092. He first studied under Kosce- lin, fovmder of the sect of Nominalists. Distinguished as a scholar, he removed to Paris, at the age of twenty, to study dialectics under William de Cham- peaux. After a while he began to dispute with his teacher ; and, as many of his fellow-students awarded to him the victory in several cases, his master became jealous of him, and they parted. In A.D. 1099, he opened a school of his own at Melun, ten leagues from Paris ; and his school being thronged, he re- moved it to Corbeil, to be nearer Paris. The school of his former master, and present rival, declined ftist. But soon after, the health of Abelard failed ; and he had to retire for two years. Ou re- suming his school at Corbeil, he com- pletely ran down his rival Champeaux. Abelard next removed to Laon to study tlieology under Ansclm. Here again the pupil outshone the master, and be- came liis rival. He now came to Paris, and lectured with vast applause on theo- logy and philosophy, to a great con- course of students from different coun- tries. But now, at the age of forty, he seduced the celebrated Heloise, a fatherless girl of eighteen, who was placed under his instruction. She bore him a son ; and to pacify her enraged relatives, he privately married her. She, however, denied the marriage, lest it should destroy his prospects in the church, and retired to a monas- tery. Her imcle now hired ruffians, who entered his chamber by night, and inflicted on his person a disgraceful and cruel mutilation. Heloise then took the veil, and Abelard became a monk at St. Denys. He now resumed lecturing, and also pubhshed his "Theology." This work brought on him the .-^harge of heresy, and was burned by order of the council of Soissons, a. d. 1 1 2 1 . — Still Abe- lard Mas popular as a lecturer. But having asserted that St. Den3's, the foun- der of the church at Paris, was not the Dionysius of Athens, mentioned in the book of Acts, a new persecution com- menced ; and he retired from St. Denys, A. D. 1122, to a forest near Nogent in Champagne, where he li\ed in retire- ment. But students gathering around him there, a new monastery grew uj>. called that of the Paraclete. He had now six hundred pupils. Next, he was chosen abbot of St. Gildas de Ruys, near Vannes, where he spent many years. The convent of Argenteiul, where He- loise was, being dispersed, Abelard gave her the convent of the Paraclete, where slie spent the rest of her life, a devout Abbess. Now the famous correspondence between Abelard and Heloise took place ; a con-espondence which Mr. Pope has transformed and altered greatly in his poetic version. Abelard was again ac- cused of heresy by St. Bernard and others, appealed to the pope, was con- demned unheard, set out for Rome, a. d. 1140, reached Cluny, where Peter, the Venerable received him kindly, procured from the pope his acquittal, and also effected a reconciliation between liim and St. Bernard. Abelard passed two years at Cluny, with reputation for piety and learning, and delivered acceptable lec- tures, tliough in declining health. He died there, in 1142, aged sixty-three years. The learned and candid Du Pin, in his Lives of Eccles. Authors, cent. xii. eh. vii., after examining tlie fourteen charges of erroneous doctrine imputed to him, pronounces them all false, or frivolous, except the two following, namely, the eleventh, that the Jews who crucified Christ, did no sin by that act ; and the twelfth, that the power of bind- ing and loosing belonged only to the in- spired apostles, and extended only to the church militant. The Roman Catholics, generally, according to Bayle, have been less severe upon Abelard's character than the Protestants. His seduction of his pupil aU must condemn. It appears, also, that he was both vain and selfish. Neither do his writings display those masterly talents which his reputation as a lecturer would lead us to expect. — His printed Works contain foiu* Epistles to Heloise ; seven Epistles to others ; a his- tory of his life, till a. d. 1134 ; his apo- logy, or confession of faith ; expositions of the Lord's prayer, the Apostles' creed and the Athanasian creed ; a reply to queries of Heloise ; a tract against lierc- sies ; Commentaaies on Romans, in five books ; thirty-two sermons ; directions for the nuns of the Paraclete ; and his Introduction to Theology, in three books. TV.] * [Godfrey was abbot of Vendome from A. D. i093, till after a.k. 1129, ClI. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 439 most famous expositor of the scriptures among the Latins of this century; a man generally of a sound judgment, and not destitute of imagination and taste.^ Ilur/o of St. Victor, a man of prolific mind, who has written on nearly all the branches of knowledge then cultivated, both sacred and profane, and ^\•ho has said many things well.*' Richard of St. Victor, tiie cori/- j)h(Bus of the mystics of that age ; whose Area mystica, in par- ticular, containing the marrow of this sort of wisdom, was received with avidity.^ Honorius of Autun, a theologian and philosopher not without reputation." Gratian, a monk, to lie was a zealous supporter of Urban II., wlio created him a cardinal ; and held an extensive correspondence with pontid's, cardinals, and bishops. His works, comprising epistles in 5 books, 18 tracts, and 15 sermons, were publish- ed bj Jac. Sirmond, Paris, 1610, 8vo, and then in the Biblioth. Patium, torn. xxi. 7V.] * Concerning Eupcrt of Duytz (Tui- tiensis), l)esides tiic common historians, Jo. Mabillon treats particularly in liis Annates Benedict, torn. vi. j). 19, 20. 42. 144. 168. 261. 282. 296 ; and also states the controversies into which he was brought. [Rupert was a German monk of St. Lawrence, near Liege, and then abbot of Duytz, near Cologne. He com- menced author, A. d. 1 1 1 1, and died 1 1.35. He was known as a polemic in his day ; and was accused of not holding the doc- trine of transubstantiation ; Init pcrliaps falselj'. He is chiefly known to us as a commentator on nearly the whole Bible; but he also wrote twelve books on the rites of worship through the year ; on tlie conflagration of Duytz ; contempla- tions on death, 2 books ; tracts on the will and onuiipotenec of God ; the lives of some saints, &c. His works have been repeatedly printed ; e. g. Paris, 1638, 2 tom. fol. Tr.'] " See tlic Gallia Christiana, tom. vii. p. 661. His works were printed toge- ther, in 3 volumes fol., Rouen, 1648. Derlangius has MTitten expressly of liim in his Diss, de Hue/one a S. Victore, llclmst. 1746, 4to. Add IMartene's Voi/- ape Litteraire, tom. ii. p. 91, 92. [Hugo of St. Victor was born a.d. 1096; but whether at Ypres in the Netlierlands, or in Lower Saxony, has been contested. He was an Augustinian canon in tiic monastery of St. "\'ictor, at I^aris, where he died a.d. 1140, aged 44. So fully F F did he enter into the theological views of St. Augustine, anil so exactly did he express them in his writings, that he was called Auc/ustine the i^ccond, and also the Mouth of Awjustinc. He com- mented largely on all paits of tho Bible, \vi'ote on Dionysius Arcop., and composed many tracts and works on philosoi)hical, theological, and practical subjects. But a considerable jtait of the works ascribed to him, and published as his, have been adjudged to other authors. Tr."] ' Gallia Christiana, tom. vii. p. 669. [Richard of St. Victor was a Scotch- man, but spent his life at Paris, being first a regular canon, and then for nine years prior of St. Victor, near the walls at Paris, till his death, a.d. 1173. He was the intimate friend of St. Bernard, and of Hugo of St. Victor. His wTitings are numerous tracts and treatises on practical and experimental religion and on biblical and theological subjects ; in all of which he sjiiritualizi's .almost con- tinually. The best edition of his works is said to be that of Rouen, 1650, in 2 vi)ls. folio. Tr.] ' This celebrated writer is usually c.allcd Honorius of Autun; but Jac. lo Bceuf hits shown that he was a German, in his IJi.'is. sur rilistoire Fran^nse, tom. i. p. 254. [He was a jiresbyter and school- master in the church of Autun in Bur- gundy, and flourished about a.i>. 1130. His works are an account of the ecclesi- astical writers, compiled from Jerome, Gennadius, Isidore, and Bede ; com- mentaries on the books of Solomon ; a dialogue on predestination and free will; Gemma; Animtc, or on the mass and its ceremonies; on the visible creation, three books ; Eluridarium ; on I Icrcsies ; on the philosophy of the world, four books ; on the properties of the sun ; a catalogue 4 440 BOOK III. — CENTURY XII. [^PAUT II. whom canon law was indebted for a new form and higher respectability.^ William of Rheims, who composed various tracts to subserve the cause of piety.' Peter Lombard, often called Master of the sentences, because he collected and arranged scientifically the theological opinions and decisions of the Latin fathers.^ Gilbert de la Porree, a theologian and philosopher, who is said to have explained some points in theology errone- ously.^ William of Auxerre, much celebrated for his Summa TJieologica, or system of theology.'* Peter of Blois, whose or of signs ; and that things are divisiljle into such as are to be enjoj/ed, and such as are to be used. Accordingly, in the first book he treats of things which are to be enjoyed; viz. God, the supreme good of man, his nature, attributes, and subsistence in three persons. In the second book he treats of things, to be used ; viz. the creation, its production by the power of God ; the formation of angels and men, the apostacy of angels, and the fall of man ; of grace and free will, original and actual sin ; &c. In the third book he treats of the incarna- tion and sacrifice of Christ, redemption, faith, charity, and good works, as condi- tions of salvation. The fomth book treats of the signs or sacraments of the chinxh ; except that in the seven last sections he treats of the day of judgment and the future state. See Du Pin's Autenrs Ecclesiastiques, century xii. cap. xv. Tr.'] ■' [Gilbert de la Porree (Porretanus) Avas a Frenchman of Aquitaine, rector of the school at Paris, canon, and, a. d. 1 141, bishop of Poitiers, till his death, a. d. 1154. This distinguished scholar and philosopher advanced some views in theology, and particularly respecting the Trinity, which were new and strange to his contemporaries, and which caused him to be charged with heresv. See of the popes ; all published in the Bib- lioth. Patrum, torn. xx. besides many pieces never published. Tr.'\ " [See note', p. 411.] ' [William of Eheims was, perhaps, first a monk of Clairvaux under Ber- nard, and certainly was abbot of St. Thiery, near Rheims, and then, during nine years, abbot of St. Nicosius at Rheims. In the year 1153, he resigned his abbacy, and became a Cistercian, in the monastery of Signi. His works are, de Vita solltaria Liber; Speculum Fidei; ^Enigma Fidei; Meditationum Liber; de contemplando Deo Liber ; de Natura Cor- poris et Animi Libri ii.; Disputatio con- tra Petrum Abalardum ; de Error ibus Gulielmide Conchis Liber ; de Sacramento Altaris Tractatus ; Expositio in Cantica Canticorum ; Commentarius in Epist. ad Pomanos ; and de vita Sti Bernardi, Liber. All, except the last, are in the Biblioth. Cistercicnsis, tom. iv. TV.] ^ Gallia Christiana, tom. vii. p. 68. [Peter Lombard was born at a village near Novara in Lombardy ; whence his furname of Lombard. He first studied at Bologna, and then Avent to France to study theology, being recommended to the notice and kind offices of St. Bernard. At Pai'is he acquired high reputation as early as a. d. 1141 ; was made professor of divinity there ; and, 1150, bishop of Paris, till his death, a. d. 1164. Besides his notes or commentary on the Psalms, and his collections from the fathers on the epistles of Paul, he composed a veiy celebrated system of divinity, extracted from the fathers, especially from Hilary, Ambrose, Jerome, and Augustine, en- titled the Sentences, and divided into four books. This work was the text-book in theology for some ages ; and in its gene- ral an-angements, has served for a model nearly to the present day. The basis of his distribution is the maxim of Augus- tine, that all knowledge is either of things the next chapter, § 11. His notes on the Psalms, commentaries on the epis- tles of Paul, and treatise on the Trinity, are said to exist in manuscript. All that has been published, is his epistle to the abbot of St. Florentius, appended to the Avorks of Guibcrt by D'Achery. Tr.-] * Le Boeuf, Diss, snr la Somme Theo- logique de Guillaumc d'Au.rerre ; in P. Ma let's Continuation dcs Mc'moires d'His- toire et de Litterature, tom. iii. pt. ii. p. .317. [He Avas archdeacon of Beau- vais, and died at Rome, a.T). 1230. Schl. CH. II.] CIIURCU OFFICERS AND GOVERX:\IENT. 411 epistles and numerous tracts arc still read with sonic advan- tage.'^ Jolin of Salisbury, a man of genius and learning, who united eloquence with the study of philosophy and theology ; as is manifest from his Metalofjicus, and his books de Nufjis Curialuim.'^ Peter Co7nestor, author of the Ilistoria Scholas- tica, or that epitome of the history contained in the Old and New Testaments, which v/as formerly studied by the youth in the schools.^ The names and merits of the other Latin writers may be learned from the works devoted to this sub- ject.* — But Schrocckli, {Kirchengesc/i. vol. xxviii. p. 157.) places him near the end of the thirteenth century. TV".] •'' [Peter of Blois (Blcscnsis) was born at Blois, studied the liberal arts at Paris, civil and canon law at Bologna, and theo- logy at Chartres imder John of Salis- bury. Perhaps he was made a canon at Chartres. In 1167 he went to Sicily, and became tutor, and afterwards secre- tary to AVilliam II., king of Sicily. Soon after, on the banishment of his friend the archbishop of Palermo, he returned to France, and was invited over to Eng- land, where he was made archdeacon of Bath, archdeacon of London, and chan- cellor to the archbishop of Canterbury. After a life of industry and virtue, he died in England, a.d. 1200. His works, consisting of 183 epistles, 65 sermons, and 17 tracts on various subjects then exciting interest, were published, Paris, 1667, fol. He also continued the history of Ingulphus of Croyland, to the year 1118. Several other works of his arc lost. SeeDu Pin, Auteurs Ecclesiastiques, cent. xii. eh. xi. TV.] ® [John of Salisbury, in Wiltsliire, England, one of the brightest geniuses of the age. He was a pupil of Abclard in 1136, and afterwards an intimate friend of Thomas Becket, whom he ac- com])anied in his exile for seven years ; but he disapproved of Becket's resistance to the king of England. He returned to England ; but on the death of Beckct, A.D. 1 172, he again went to France ; and in 1179, was made bishop of Chartres, whore he died three years after. His works are, Poli/craticus, or on the fop- peries of courtiers, in eight books ; in which he displays much knowledge of the world, great wit, and very just views of men and tilings ; Mctologicum, in four books, an acute and learned treatise on logic, philology, and philosophy ; the life of St. Thoma.s of Cantcrbur}- ; several hundreds of epistles ; and a comnient.ary on Paul's epistles. These works iiave been published separately ; but never all together. TV.] ' [Peter Comcstor was a native of Troyes, and a priest and dean in that city ; then chancellor of the university of Paris. Toward the close of life he retired to the monastery of St. Victor, where he died, a.d. 1188. Numerous manuscript sermons of his still exist. Historia Scholastica is a biblical history of the world, from the creation to the end of the book of Acts, in sixteen books. Tr.-] " [The Latin writei-s of this century omitted by Dr. Mosheim, arc the fol- lowing. Gilbert, or Gislebert, surnamcd Cris- pin, a monk of Bee, at the commence- ment of this century. He travelled to Rome, and had a dispute wiih a Jew, Avhieh he afterwards committed to writ- ing, and entitled de Fide Kcclesia contra Judaos. He also wrote contra Judaos Liber; and a gieat nundier of Homilies, which are still preserved in manuscript. He died a. n. 1117. Leo Marsicanus. lil)rarian of Monte Cassino, and cardinal deacon, a.d. 1101. He died after a.d. 1115, having Ken ven,- active and devoted to the holy sec. He left a chronicle of the monastery of Cassino, in three books, from the time of St. Benedict, to a. d. 1055 ; also some sermons and lives of saints which were never publisheil. Guibert, or Gilbert, abbot of St. Mary at Xogent, in Laonnois ; flourislicd a.d. 1 101, and died a. d. 1 124. He wrote atr.ict on the comiKisition of sennons ; morals on Job ; de Pignoribiis sanctorum, lit)ri iii., several other tracts ; and Gestu Dei per Francos, or history of the crusades, from their conunenccmcnt to a.d. 1100, in 442 BOOK III. CENTURY XII. [PAIIT II. nine books ; jjublislied in Bongai'sius' Collection, torn. i. Robert, fi Benedictine monk of St. Kemigius, at Rheims. He was in the lirst crusade ; and wrote a historj' of it from A. D. 1095 to 1099, in nine books ; extant in Bongarsius' Collection, torn. i. Hugo, abbot of St. Flavinius, in Bur- gundy ; flourished a. d. 1101. He wrote Chi-onicon Virdunense, in two parts ; the first, froni the birth of Christ to A. d. 1002, and the second, to a. d. 1102, published by Labbe, Biblioth. Nov. MS. torn. i. Rodulphus Ardens, chaplain to Wil- liam IV., duke of Aquitaine, a. d. 1101. He left sermons on the lessons for the year ; published, Cologne, 1 604. 2 vols. 8vo. Theodoric, abbot of St. Tnido, in the diocese of Liege, who died in exUe, at Ghent, a. d. 1107. He -nTote the life of St. Tmdo ; and of four or five other saints. Sigebert Gemblacensis, a monk and writer at Gemblours, a. d. 1101, a par- tizan of the emperor Henry IV. in his contests with the pope. He wrote a Chronicle from a. d. 381, where Jerome ends, to A. n. 1112; printed among the Scriptores Germanici, Francf 1585, fol. and by Aub. Miraus, Antw. 1608, also de Scriptoribus Ecclesiasticis ; Epistola pro Ecclesiis Leodiensi et Cameracensi, adv. Ep. PaschaUs Papa'; a life of Sigebert king of France ; and some lives of saints. He died a. d. 1113. ^Inoth, an Englishman, or Dane, a monk of St. Augustine's at Canterbury ; who spent most of his life in Deimiark, and about a. d. 1105 wrote the life and passion of St. Canute, king of Denmark. Odo of Cambray, a schoolmaster at Orleans, abbot of St. Martin of Tours, chosen bishop of Cambray, a. d. 1 1 05, but refused investiture from the emperor Henry IV. He wrote an exposition of the canon of the mass ; and several other tracts, extant in the Biblioth. Patrum, tom. xxi. Pctrus Alfonsus, once Moses, a distin- guished Spanisli Jew. After his conver- sion, A. I). 1 1 06, he wrote a dialogue against the Jews ; in the Biblioth. Pa- tram, tom. xxi. Stephen Harding, an English monk of Sherborne. He travelled in Scotland, France, and Italy ; became first a Bene- dictine, then a Cistercian in France, where he was made abbot, A. d. 1109, and died a. d. 1134. He composed re- gulations for the Cistercians, and some other monastic pieces. Peter, Grossolanus or Chrysolanus, archbishop of Milan, a. d. 1110 — 1116, winch oflSce he was obliged to abdicate. He was sent as a papal legate to Con- stantinople ; and has left us an ora- tion, addressed to the Greek emperor, Alexius Comnenus, on the procession of the Holy Spirit : extant, Latin, in Baronius, Annal. ann. 1115, and Greek and Latin, in Leo ./VUat. Orthod. Graca, tom. i. Gillc, or Gillebert, an Irish bishop, who died a. d. 1139. He has left us Libellus de statu ecclcsice ; et Epistola II. in Usshcr's Epistolar. Hibcrnicar. Sylloge, p. 77. Berengosus, abbot of St. Maximin, Avithout the walls, Treves ; flourished abovtt A. D. 1110. He wrote de Laude et Inventione Crucis DominiccB ; and several monastic discoiu'ses ; extant in the Bib- lioth. Patr. tom. xii. Franco, a schoolmaster, Benedictine monk, and abbot, at Laon ; about a.d. 1111. He wrote de Gratia Dei Libri XII. (in the Biblioth. Patrum, tom. xxi.) and some other pieces, among which was a tract on the quadrature of the circle, and another on the principles of arithmetic. John, archbishop of Lyons, who, a. d. 1112, had a contest with his suffragans respecting lay-investitures, which he wished to suppress. His epistle to them on the subject is in Harduin's Concilia, tom. vi. pt. ii. p. 1919. Stephen I. bishop of Augsburg, a. d. 1113—1129 ; and then a monk of Cluny. He wrote a tract de Sacramento Altaris, &j-c. in the Biblioth. Patr. tom. xx. p. 1872. Baldric, a native of Orleans, and a monk and abbot of Angers, a.d. 1095; and archbisliop of Dol, A. D. 1114—1131. He wrote, Historia Hierosolymitatia, in four books. It is a history of the first crusade, fi-om a. d. 1095 to 1 100 ; and is extant among the Gesta Dei per Francos, and among the Historici Francici of Du- chesne, tom. iv. He ■\\Tote also the life of Hugo, archbishop of Rouen ; and the life of Robert d'Arbrissell, founder of the order of Fontevraud. Earnulph, a monk of Bcauvais, whom Lanfranc incited over to England, where he was successively prior of Canterbury, abbot of Peterborough, and bishop of Rochester; and died a.d. 1124, aged eighty-four. He Avi'ote de incestis Con- jiigiis, and de corpore et sanguine Doniiiu ; in D'Achery's Spicileg. torn. ii. en. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AXD GOVERNMENT. 443 Hermann, a converteil German Jew, of Cologne, who was persecuted by liis unbelieving friends, became a canon, was contcmporaiy witli St. Bernard, and an intimate of Rupert of Duytz. He has left a tract resi)eeting his own conversion ; published by Beiicd. Cai'p- zov. Lips. 1687. Gelasius II. pope, a. d. 1118, 1119. He was nobly born at Gaeta, in Najjles, educated at Jtbjntc Cassino, made chan- cellor and cardinal deacon at Rome. He had to fight for St. Peter's chair, and to abandon Rome ; and dietl in France. He has left us six epistles, and a life of St. Erasmus. riorentius, called Bravonius, an En- glish monk of Worcester, who died a. d. 1118. That year he completed his chronicle, from the creation to a. d. 1118 ; chiefly boiTowed from jMarianus Scotus ; lie also wrote a genealogy of the English kings; both publislied, Lond. 1592, 4to. Callistus II. pope, a. d. 1119 — 1124, has left us thirty-five epistles, published in the CoUectitms of Councils, besides five more in Baluze, Miscell. tom. ii. and five sermons in the Biblivth. l\ttr. tom. XX. Guigo, or Guide, of Dauphiny, a Car- thusian monk, and prior, who flourished A. D. 1120. lie wvifte Scalii C/aiLstraliiim, seu (Ic modo orandi ; several epistles; a life of St. Hugo of Gratianopolis, &c. Rodulph, abbot of St. Trudo, near liege ; about a. d. 1 1 20. He \\Tote Chronicon MonuHterii Sli Triidonis, in thirteen books ; published by D'Acliery, SpicAleg. tom. vii. ; also a life of St. Liet- bert, bishop of Cambray ; ibid. Albert, or Alberic, a canon of the church of Aix, a. d. 1 1 20. He wrote, from the account of others, HUturIa Ilierosoli/mitana; expeditkmis sub Gode- frido BulUona-o et aliis, in twelve books, a very good history of the first crusade, fronrA^D. 1095 to 1120; published by Bongarsius, Gcsta Dei per Fraiicos, tom. i. p. 184. Guaterius, or G;ilterius, styled the Chancellor, a Frenchman, a. d. 1 120. He ■wi'ote a history of the capture of Antioch by the Christians, a. d. 1115; and their loss of it, in 1119, when Guaterius was taken prisoner ; extant in the Gesta Dei per Francos, tom. i. p. 441. Hugo a Benedictine monk of Fleuiy, A.D. 1120. He wrote a Chronicon, in six books, from Ninus, king of Assyria, to Lewis the iMeek, a. t>. 840 : and an Epilogue, embracing the transactions of Lewis the Meek : also two Books de Regia Poiestate, el Sacerdotali Digni- tale. Robert, surnamed Retensis, an Eng- lish student and traveller, wlio flourished A. I). 1 1 20. He travelled through France, Italy, IJalmatia, and Greece, into Syria, where he stayed long, and acipiircd tlic, Arabic language. Returning, he settled in Spain, studied astrology, and was made archdeacon of ramjteluna. He abridged the Koran, and translated it into Latin. Huet pronounces the translation a wretched one. Eadiner, Edmcr, Ediner, or Edmund, an English Benedictine monk, of Can- terbury ; the pui)il, and friend, and bio- grapher of Aiiselm, arclibishoj) of Canter- bury. He flourished A. u. 1121; and was for a time bishop of St. Andrew's, in Scotland ; l)ut resigned the sec about A.I). 1124, and spent his old age at Can- terljury. He wrote Ilistoria Nov(rrum, sive sui sceculi, in six books, from a. d. 1066 to 1122; which has been highly extolled ; the life of St. Anselm, in two Iwoks ; aiul a few tracts on moral sul)- jects. All the above are printed with the works of Anselm. He also wrote the life of St. Wilfred, archbishop of Yorl-c, extant in IMaliillon, Ada Sander. Ord. Bencd. sjvcul. iii. pt. i. Numerous other tracts, historical and religious, are said to exist in manuscript, in tlie Li- brary of Corpus Cliristi College, Cam- bridge. Peter Maurice, the "\''encrable, born of a noble French family ; first a soldier, and then a monk of Cluny, where lie was abbot from a. d. 11 23 to 11 56. Pon- tius, tiie former abbot of Cluny, gave him trouble, during the first years of liis abbacy. In 1126, he commenced preach- ing and writing against I'eter l)e Bruis. In 1140, he received Abehird, and recon- ciled both Bernard and the ]io]>e to him. He visited Italy on im])ortant business, in 1145 and 1150, and was liigidy honoured by pope Eugene, and th^ citi- zens of Rome. He wrote Epistdarum Libri vi. Tracts against tlic Jews ; against heresies, ami Islamism ; against the Petrobrusians ; on the tr.msfiguration of Christ ; on a translation of the Koran. procured by him ; and a few other pieces ; all ])ul)lislied in the Bibliotfi. (^lu- niacensis, Paris. 1614, and the Bibliul/i. J'alriim, torn. .xxii. Fulclicrius Camotensis, a monk, or ]ircsl)yter, who accompanied Rolwrt, duke of Nonnandy, in the first cnisade ; of which he ^^Totc a history, entitled Gcslei Francoruni Hiausalcm perrgrinan - 444 BOOK III. — CENTURY XII. [part II. tium, ab anno 1035 ad annum usque 1124, composed in a coarse style. It was published, imperfect, in tlie Gesta Dei per Francos ; and complete in Duchesne's Scriptores Francici, Paris, 1640, tom. iv. p. 816. Honorius II. pope, a. d. 1124 — 11.30, has left lis eleven epistles. Hervcus, a Benedictine monk, of Dol, A.D. 1130, wrote a commentary on the epistles of Paul ; attributed to St. An- selm, and printed among his works. Innocent II. pope, A. d. 1130 — 1143, has left us fifty epistles. Simeon, an Englishman, educated at Oxford, where he taught philosophy and theology. Afterwards, he became a Benedictine moid<;, and prajcentor in the cathedral of Durham. Plerc he examined carefully tlie remains of the library, which the Danes had niucli injured ; and collecting materials from every quarter, became an author. He flourished a. d. 1 130 ; and wrote a history of tiie church of Durham, from a.d. 635 to 1096; which another hand continued to a.d. 1154 ; a tract concei'ning the archbishops of York ; another on the siege of Durham ; and a history of the English and Danish kings, from a.d. 730 to 1130, which John De Hexham continued to 1155, and from which Roger Hovedcn took nearly the whole of liis history. These works of Simeon were published by Twisden, in his Scriptores X. Anglici, Lond. 1652. Alger, a deacon and schoolmaster at Licgc, during many years, and then a monk of Cluny, under Peter Maurice. He flourished a.d. 1130; and wrote de Sacramento corporis et sanguinis Domini, adversus Berengarium, Libri iii. extant in the Biblioth. Patrum. tom. xxi. besides some other things, not published. William of Malmesbury, was a native of Somersetshire, a Benedictine monk, and librarian and preceptor of the mo- nastery of Malmesbury, where he flou- rislied, from 1130 to 'l 143. He wrote a history of the kings of England, in five books, from the fii'st arrival of tlie Saxons, a. d. 449, to the twentieth year of Henry I. a.d. 1127 : a continuation of it in two books, to a.d. 1143 ; a his- tory of tlie English bishops, from the arrival of Augustine to his own times, in four books. These works were collected and published by Savile, Lond. 1596, fol. and Francf 1601. His life of St. Aldhelm, bishop of Sherburn, is in I\Ia- billon's Acta Sanctor. Ord. Bcned. sa;cul. i. p. 1. Some other works of this cele- brated English historian, are said to exist still in manuscript. [His life of Aldhelm, is also printed in Wharton's Anglia Sacra, ii. 1. There is an Abbre- viation of Amahrius by him, in MS. in a splendid volmne of liturgical tracts, pre- sented by Henry VI. to All Souls college, Oxford. (W. W. IV. 2.) This contains the attack upon Raban Maur, extracted in the Editor's Bampton Lectures (p. 414) ; an important passage, because it is evidence of Malmesbury's adherence to the divinity imported under Lanfranc, and, therefore, a clue to his treatment of Elfric. Ed.'\ Philip, ))ishop of Tarentum from a. d. 1136 to 1138, when he was deposed for not adhering to Peter Leonis, the anti- pope, went to France, and became a monk at Clairvaux, under St. Bernard. In 1150, he was made prior, and 1156, abbot of a convent in the diocese of Chartres ; which, however, he resigned before his death, and returned to Clair- vaux. He has left us 25 epistles, pub- lished by Charles Du Visch, subjoined to his Scriptores Ordinis Cistercicnsis, p. 336. Peter, born at Rome, a.d. 1110, a student and monk at Monte Cassino, a. d. 1115 — 1137, then legate to the emperor Lotharius, who employed him at his ciiurt till his death. He wrote de viris illustribus monaster ii Casinensis Libri ii. ; Liber quartus Chronici Casinensis (a. d. 1086 — 1138.) de noiis literaruni Romd- nurum ; besides numerous tracts never published. Guerric, a disciple of St. Bernard, a canon and schoolmaster at Tours, and then a Cistercian abbot in the diocese ofRheims; died a.d. 1157. He ■\vi-ote semions on the lessons for the year ; printed in an appendix to the works of Bernard, and in the Biblioth. Patrum, tom. xxiii. Philip Hcrveng, called Eleemosynarius, abbot of Good Hope, in Hainault, a. d. 1140; died 1180. He wrote twenty-one epistles ; a mystic commentary on the Canticles ; Morals on the Canticles ; on Nebuchadnezzar's dream ; on the fall of man ; on the condemnation of Solomon ; six tracts on the dignity and virtues of clergymen ; a life of Augustine ; and lives of eight other saints ; all published, Douay, 1620, fol. Orderic Vitalis, an Englishman, boni at Attingham (in Sliropshire), a.d. 1075, sent to Normandy at the age of cle^'en, where he became a monk, deacon, and presbyter, and flourished alwut a. d. 1 140. CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. CH. II.] He wrote an Ecclesiastical History, in twelve books, from the birth of Christ to A. D. 1142; published by Du Ches)ic, among his Scriptores Nurmanici, Paris, 1619, fol. p. 321. Arnulph, bishop of Lisicux, in Nor- mandy, A. D. 1141. He accompanied Lewis, king of France, in his crusade to Palestine, a. d. 1147; was made papal legate to England, in 1160, and mucli emploj'ed in public business, till near his death, a. d. 1182. Many of his ser- mons, epistles, and epigrams, Avcre pub- lislied at Paris, 1585, Svo, and then in the Biblioth. Putrum, tom. xxii. Some otlicrs have since been pulilished. Coalestinc II. pope, a. d. 1143, 1144, has left us three epistles. Lucius II. A. D. 1144, 1145, has left us twelve epistles. Amedeus, bishop of Lausaime, a. n. 1144 — 1158. He wrote eight homilies in praise of the Virgin ISIary ; in the Biblioth. Pdtruni, tom. xx. Otlio, or Otto, of Frisingen ; of royal Gei"man extract ; and uncle to the em- peror Frederic Barbarossa. He studied at Paris, became a Cistercian monk and abbot, was made bishop of Frisingcn a. j>. 1 138, engaged in the second cnisade a. d. 1147, resigned his bishopric in 1156, and died two jears after. He Avrote a chro- nological history cjf the world, IVom tlie creation to a. d. 1146, in eigiit books; with an eiglith book on tlic general con- summation ; also the life and reign of Frederic Barbarossa, in two books. Both have been often published, and parti- cularly among the German historians, A. D. 1585 and 1670, tom. i. Robert Pullen, or Pulhis, a distin- guished English theologian and scholar. He was made archdeacon of Rochester ; but, to avoid the confusion of a civil war, retired to Paris, and studied there some time. He i-eturncd in 1 130, and read lectures at Oxford for five years, and preached every Sunday. He afterwards returned to Paris ; and being deprived of the revenues of his arehilcaconry, lie appealed to the pope, a. d. 1 144, who in- vited him to Rome, and made him a car- dinal. He died a. n. 1150. His only work, that lias reached us, is Scntentiariim de Trinitatc IJbri viii. It is a system of theology ; but, unlike Peter Ijombard's Sentences, it is not a mere compilatit)n from the fothcrs, but a biblical and argu- mentative treatise, in which he shows himself a profound and orthodox divine. It was published by ]\Iathoud, Paris, 1655, fol. 44. Eugene III. pope, a. n. 1145—1153, has left us eighty-nine epistles. John Burgundio, a native of Pisa, flourished a. d. 1148, died 1194. He translated many homilies of Chrysostom, John Damasccnus de fide Orthoito.ra, and Nemesius' eight books on ])hilosoi)hv. Ansclm, bishop of Ilavelburg iii the duchy ot' Brandenburg, a. d. 1 149, author of three diidogues against the Greeks ; published by U'Achery, Spicileg. torn, xiii. Gilbert Folioth, an Englishman, abbot of Leicester, and a. d. 1149, bishop of Hereford, and, a. d. 1161—1187, bishop of London. He was competitor with Thomas Becket for the see of Canter- bury ; and ever after, sided with the king against Becket. The king employed him much. He was twice excommunicated by the pope, which he did not regard. His Commentary on the Canticles was published by Junius, Loud. 1638, 4to, and eight of his ejiistles are among the epistles of Becket, ed. Brussels, 1 682. Henry of Huntingdon, the son of a married English priest, canon of Lin- coln, and archdeacon of Huntingdon ; flourished a. d. 1150. He wrote His- toria Ariglorum, ab ipsis gentis primordiis usque ad Stepliuni regis mortem, (a. i>. 1154,) Libris viii. published by Savile, Lond. 1596, fol. and Francf. 1601. Ailrcd, Ealred, or ^Elred, either a Scot, or an Englishman ; a Cistercian monk and abbot of Revesby, in Lincoln- shire ; flourished a. d. 1150, and died in 1166. He wrote the life and miracles of St. Edward, king and confessor ; genea- logy of the kings of England ; de Bella Slundardii Tempore Stepliuni regis ; His- toria de Sanclimoniali de Wattun ; pub- lished by Twisden, Lond. 1652. Also sermons on the lessons for the year ; thirty-one sermons on Isaiah ; specidiim charitatis, libri iii. ; Tractntiis de pucro Jesu diiodecenni ; de spiritiudi umiritia, libri iii. : published in the Bibliothicu Cis- terciana, tom. v. and in tlie Biblioth. I'atrum, tom. x.xiii. Alanus I)c Insulis, a Fleming, and monk of Clairvaux ; an abbot, and, a. i>. 1151 — 1167, bishop of Auxenc ; but he resigned his bishujHic, and retired to Clairvaux, where he died a. p. 1 182. He ■wTote a life of St. Bernard, published by Mabillon, in the Opera Bernardi. Galfrid, called also Arthur, bishop of St. Asaph, A.I). 1151—1175 (Geoffrey of ilonmouth) : author of a histor}- of Britain, from the earliest times to his own age, in twelve books, a work not 446 BOOK III. — CENTURY XII. TPART ir. in iiiucli repute; published, Paris, 1517, 4to, and among tlie Scr'tptores Britannice minores, Heidelb. 1587, fol. Potho, a Benedictine monk, of Prum in the diocese of Treves, a. d. 1 152. He wrote de statu domus Dei libri v. and de domo sapientice liber ; in the Bibliotheca Patrum, torn. xxi. Nicolaus, a Cistercian monk of Clair- vaux, and secretaiy to St. Bernard ; but being accused of forging letters in Ber- nard's name, he fled into Italy, and long aspersed the character of Bernard. A book of his epistles is in the Biblioth. Patrum, torn. xxi. ; also a book of his sermons in the Biblioth. Cisterciensis,tOTn. iil. Anastasius IV. pope, a. d. 1 153, 1 154, has left us thirteen epistles. Hadrian IV. (Nicolaus Breakspear), the only Englishman that ever filled the papal throne. Disappointed of an English monastery, he went to France, studied at Paris, became an Augustinian monk, prior and abbot, at St. Rufus, near Valence. Going to Rome on business, Eugene III. created him a cardinal, and bishop of Alba. In 1148.]he was papal legate to Norway and Denmark. In 1154, he succeeded to the papal chair, till his death in 1159. He has left us forty-four epistles. Elizabeth, a German Benedictine nun, and abbess of Schonaugen, in the dio- cese of Treves, where she died a. r>. 1 165, aged thirty-six years. She wrote her Visions or Revelations, in three books ; and a book of epistles : published, Cologne, 1628. Ecbert, a German Benedictine monk, and abbot of St. Florin, in Schoonhovcn ; flourished a.d. 1154 ; and wrote thirteen Discourses against the Cathari ; and the life of Elizabeth, his sister, the abbess of Schonaugen. His discourses are in the Biblioth. Patrum, torn, xxiii. Radulphus Niger, a Benedictine monk, in the diocese of Beauvais, who flourish- ed A. D. 1157 (and not in the preceding century, as some suppose). His com- mentary on Leviticus, in twenty books, published in the Biblioth. Patr. torn. xvii. has been much commended. The com- mentary on the Canticles, ascribed to St. Gregory, and printed with his works, was the production of Radulph. Zacharias, bishop of Chrysopolis, or a Prajmonstratensian monk of St. ]\Iartin of Tours; A.D. 1157. He wrote four books of commentaries on the Movoreo-- aapov, or Harmony of the four Gospels, by Ammonius of Alexandria ; published, Cologne, 1535, fol. and in the Biblioth. Patrum, tom. xix. Alexander III. pope, a. d. 1 1 59 — 1 181, has left us 337 epistles. John De Hexham, a native of Hex- ham, in Northumberland, and an Augus- tinian monk, A. D. 1160. He continued the history of Simeon Dunelmensis, from 1130 to 1155. See above, p. 444. Folmar, head of the monastery of Trieflenstein, in Franconia ; about a. d. 1 1 60. He opposed the received doctrine of transubstantiation for a time ; but recanted. Some of his epistles were published by J. Gretser, subjoined to his Scriptores 'coetanei adv. Waldenses, Ingolst. 1613, 4to. Adam, a Scot, and regular canon of the order of Prtemonstrants ; flourished A. D. 1160, and died about a.d. 1180. He wrote a commentary on the rule of St. Augustine ; a tract on the triple ta- bernacle of Moses ; on the tln-ee kinds of meditation ; and forty-seven sermons ; published, Antw. 1659^, fol. John Belcthus, rector of the theo- logical school at Paris, a. d. 11 62, (alii, A.D. 1328,) author of Pationale divino- rum officiorum; published, Antw. 1570, Bvo, Lyons, 1583, and 1592, 8vo. Arnold Carnotensis, abbot of the Bene- dictine monastery of Bonneval, in the diocese of Chartres ; an intimate friend of St. Bernard, and still living a. d. 1 162. He wrote a number of treatises on prac- tical religion ; published at the close of Cyprian's works, ed. Oxon. 1682. Bonacarsus of IVIilan, teacher among the Cathari, a. d. 11 63. His Vita Ca- tharorum Hareticorum is in D'Achery's Spicilcg. tom. xiii. Helmold, a pi-esbjter of Lubec, and a canon; died a.d. 1170. He ^M'ote Chronicon Sclavoriim, from the times of Charlemagne, to a.d. 1168; published by Hen. IBangert, Lubec, 1659, 4to. Godfrey Viterbiensis, an Italian of Viterbo ; a presbyter, and secretary to the successive emperors, Conrad III., Frederic I., and Henry VI. He tra- velled much during forty years ; and became acquainted with Greek, Hebrew, and Chaldaic. His death was in 1186. He wrote a universal history, entitled Pantheon, or Chronicon universale, dedi- cated to pope Urban III. ; extending from the creation to a. d. 1186 : a work of vast compass ; published by J. Pis- torius, Scriptores rerum Germanicar. Francf. 1584. Saxo Grammaticus, a Dane, born of an honourable family in Zeeland, dean CH. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 447 of the cathedral of Roschild, and mucli esteemed by Absalom, archbishop of Lund, who sent hhn to Paris on busi- ness, and prompted liim to write liis history of Denmark. He flourished A. D. 1173; and died a. d. 1204. Ilis Historice. DaniccE libri xvi. from the earliest times to a. d. 1186, is written in a florid .style, and is highly esteemed ; best edited by b. J. Stephauius, Sora*, 1644, fol. Hildegardis, a German abbess of St, Kupert on the Rhine j born at Span- heim a. d. 1098, and died \.v>. 1180. Her visions or revelations were solemnly approved and sanctioned by St. Ber- nard, by many leading bishops of France and Germany, by three ditterent popes, and by a council at Troyes. She wrote Scivias, seu Visionum sive lievelationum libri iii. ; life of St. Robert, a confessor ; thirty-eight epistles ; Miscellanies ; and an exposition of the mle of St. Bene- dict; pid)lished, Cologne, 1566; and most of them also, Biblioth. I'atrum, torn, xxiii. AVilliam of T}tc. "Wliether born in France, Gennany, or Palestine, he is supposed to have been related to the kings of Jerusalem. He was made archdeacon of Tyi'C, a. d. 1167; soon after was sent on business to Constan- tinople; in 1169, undertook a journey to Europe ; on his return was tutor to Balduin, the prince; and, a. d. 1174, arclibishop of Tyre. In the year 1178, he was at the council of the Lateran ; and he sjicnt some months at Constan- tinople. In 1188. Jerusalem being taken by the Saavicens, he went to Europe to solicit aid of the kings of England and France. He opposed the election of Heraclius to the bishopric of Jerusa- lem ; who compassed his death by poi- son, but in what year is unknown. He wrote a history of the crusades to Pales- tine, from a. D. 1095 to the year 1180, in twenty-three books (very higldy es- teemed) ; and published, Basil, 1549, and 1660, and by Bongarsius, Gcsta Dei per Francos, tom. i. p. 625. Hugo Etherianus, a Tuscan, who went to Constantinople, and Mas pa- tronized by the emperor Manuel. He flom-ished A. D. 1177, and wTote and disputed strenuoush' against the Greeks. His tract on the intermediate state of the soul, and his three books on the procession of the Holy Spirit, against the Greeks, were published, Basil, 1543, and in the Biblioth. Patrtim, tom. xxii. Richard Ilagulstadiensis, a monk and prior of Ilauston (Ilexliam) in North- und)erland, England; flourished a. D. IISO, and died in 1190. He MTOte Jlixtoria de statu et episcopis Ha(/ulsta- dciisis {Huuston) ccclcsicc ; His tor ia de gestis regis Stej/hani ; and de hello Stan- dardii, a. d. 1 135 ; jjublished by Twisden, Scri]>tores X. Aiujlici, Loud. 1652. Lucius HI. pope, A. D. 1181 — 1185, hiis left us two epistles. Peter Cellensis, abbot of the monas- tery of Celles, near Troyes ; and then of St. Remigius, at Itheims ; and, a. i>. 1182—1187, bishop of Chaitres. He wrote de panibus liber; Mosaici Taber- naculi mystica eu-positio, libri ii. ; de con- scientia liber ; Kpistolarum libri i.K. : de disciplina claustrali liber ; ami sermons on the lessons for the year ; all pub- lished by the Benedictine monks, Paris, 1671. Gaufrid, a French monk, prior and presbyter of Limoges, a. d. 1183; and autlior of a Chronicon, relating especially to the liistorj- of France from a. d. 996 to 1184; published by hahhc, BibliotJi. i\xir. MS. tom. ii. Balduin, an English schoolmaster, a Cistercian monk and abbot ; bishop of AVorcester, a. d. 1181; and archbishop of Canterbury, A. I). 1185 — 1191. He accompanied king Richard I. in his crusade, and died in the siege of Ptole- mais. He wrote sixteen tracts on jjrac- tical religion ; de Commcndatione Fidei, et de .Sacramento altaris ; all extant in the Biblioth. Cistcrciens. tom. v. Urban III. pope, a-d. 1185 — 1187; has left us Jice epistles. Gregory VIH. pope, a. v. 1187 — 1187 ; has left us three epistles. Clement lU. pope, a. d. 1187 — 1191 ; has left us seccn epistles. Ca'lestine HI. pope, a. d. 1191 — 1198 ; has left us screntecn ejiistles. Stephen, a monk and abbot of Or- leans, and of Paris ; one of the council of regents, during the crusade of Philip Augustus, A. D. 1190: and bishop of Tournay, a. d. 1 1 92 — 1 202. He wrote, between a. d. 1 1 63 and the time of his death, two hundred and seventy-eight epistles; published, Paris, 1682, Svo; also thirty-one sermons, chiefly on tho festivals ; and a connnentarj' on the Decretum of Gratian ; which arc still in nninuscript. William Xeuhergensis, or Neubri- gensis, surnamed Parvus ; bom at Brid- lington, in Yorkshire, A. n. 1136; a re- gular Augustinian canon in the monas- terv of Bridlington ; where he died a. u. 448 BOOK III. — CENTURY XII. [part II. 1208, aged 72. He wrote, in a good Latin style, de rebiis Anglicis sui ternporis Ubri V. from a. d. 1066 to the year 1197 ; best edited by J. Picard, Paris, 1610, 8vo. Eadulplms de Diceto, dean of St. Paul's, London. He was a traveller ; flourished a. d. 1197 ; and wrote a brief Chronology from the creation to a. d. 1198 ; and Tmayines Historiarum ab anno 1148 ad annum 1200; both published by Twisden, Scriptores X. Anglici, Lond. 1652. John Brompton, an English Cister- cian monk and abbot, near York, a. r>. 1198 ; the reputed author of the Chroni- con ab anno 588 ad annum 1198 ; pub- lished by Twisden, Scriptores X. Anglici, Lond. 1652. Roger de Hoveden, a native of York, of illustrious English descent, one of the household of king Henry H., and then chief professor of theology at Ox- ford ; flourished a. d. 1198; author of Annalium Anglicanorum Ubri ii. from A. D. 731 (where Beda ends) to a. d. 1202 ; published by Savile, Historici Anglici, Lond. 1595, fol. and Erancf. 1001. Galfrid, or Gualter Vinesauf, (de Vino Salvo,) a Norman English poet and historian, who flourished a. d. 1199 ; author of Historia, sive Itinerarium liichardi Anghrum regis in terram sanc- tum ; and Pocmata de glorioso rege Rich- ardo ; published among the Historia Anglicana: Scriptores, Oxford, 1687, torn, ii. also of some other works never pub-' lished. TV.] ^Vvi "^ CHAPTER III. HISTORY OF RELIGION AND THEOLOGY. § 1. Corrupt state of religion. — § 2. Corruption of the mass of people, and extreme superstition, shown by examples. — §3. Scandalous '.trafiic in indulgences. — § 4. The pontiffs soon claim a monopoly of it. — § 5. Biblical theology. — § 6. Doc- trinal theology. — § 7. The proper scholastics. — § 8. The biblical and dogmatic theologians. — § 9. Opposers of scholastic theology. — § 10. Its principal antagonist, St. Bernard. — § 11. And others. — § 12. State of moral or practical theology. — § 13. Polemic theology. — § 14. Controversies between the Greeks and the Latins. — § 1 5. Slighter contests among the former. — § 1 6. Their controversy respecting John xiv. 28. — § 17. Concerning the God of Mahumed. — § 18. Controversy among the Latins, respecting the Lord's supper. — § 19. Concerning the immacu- late conception of the Blessed Virgin. § 1. So many causes conspired to debase religion, and to tar- nish and obscure its lustre, by the numberless inventions of human ingenuity, that the preservation of its seeds from total extinction may seem a wonder. In the first place, the Roman pontiffs would have nothing taught, which militated against their proud supremacy. They, therefore, insisted upon having religion explained and modified in subserviency to that form of government which they found marked out by their predecessors. Those who would not obey their laws, or showed that they CH. III.] RELIGION AND THEOLOGY. 449 regarded holy Scripture more than Roman authority, were most cruelly destroyed with fire and sword. In the second place, the priests and monks, findinj^ it for their interest that the people should be entirely without light and knowledge, amused them with a sort of theatric show, and placed all religion in empty ceremonies, corporeal austerities, and reverence for the clergy. The scholastic doctors united the precepts of tiie dia- lecticians with the declarations of the fathers, as constituting a standard of truth ; and did not so much explain the j)rin- ciples of revealed religion, as cut them up piecemeal. Their opposites, the mystics, maintained that the soul of one truly pious does not move spontaneously, but by a divine impulse ; and thus they did not set bounds to human ability, but destroyed it altogether. § 2. Hence, instead of religion, astonishing superstition and ignorance reigned everywhere among the people. Most per- sons placed more reliance uj)on relics — generally false, or at least dubious and uncertain — than upon Christ, or his merits, and upon prayers founded on his mediation.' The rich, who were able themselves to build churches, or to contribute money to their erection and repair, esteemed themselves very happy, and the favourites of heaven : and the poor, who were unable to do so, cheerfully submitted to the offices of beasts, in trans- porting stones and drawing carts, whenever a church was to be built ; and they expected eternal salvation for these volun- tary hardships.- Departed saints had more supplicants than God himself, and the Saviour of mankind : nor was there much inquiry (as there was in after times) how glorified spirits ob- tain a knowledge of the prayers addressed to them. For the old notion, derived by the Christians from the pagans, that the celestials often descend to this lower world, and linger about the places to which in their lifetime they were attached, pre- vailed universally, until the scholastic doctors gave this subject a particular discussion.^ If any man or woman, cither fn)m a j ' See Guibcrt of Nogcnt's three nales Bvnedlctini; ami also tliosc An- \ books, de piqnoribus (thus they styled nah, ]>. .392, &c. , , , rdicx-) sanctorum ; in his works, puhlishe.l ' That I may not be tlioufxht to give by D'Aclicrv, p. 327, &c., where tliis (lis- a false representation, I will (juute a cernino- man assaUs the superstition of very explicit passage In.ni the hie of jjjg j,o.g St. Altniaiin, bishoj) of I'assau ; ni he- ^'Sec the tract of the abbot Havmo bast. Tcgnagel's CJUrtlo irUr. monu- on tliis verv custom ; annexed by Ma- immtor. p. 41. " Vos licet, Suiicti Donnin, billon to tlie sLxth volume of his An- souiuo vestro requicscatis— baud tanieu VOL. II. G G 450 BOOK III. — CENTURY XII. [PART II. disordered state of mind, or from a design to deceive, laid claims to divine revelations, the people at large unhesitatingly believed, that God himself conversed with him, in order to instruct the world. This is manifest from the examples of the celebrated German prophetesses, Hildegardis, abbess of Bingen, and Elizabeth, abbess of Schonaugen.'* § 3. This ignorance and superstition of the people, the rulers of the church basely abused for their own emolument, or to extort money : and each order of the clergy had its own peculiar artifices for spoiling the people of their property. The bishops, when they had occasion to raise money, either for good and laudable objects, or for bad and illicit ones, allowed trans- gressors to buy off the penalties, imposed canonically upon sinners, by advancing money for certain religious purposes : that is, they published in(bilgcnces : and, what mighty enter- prises, and what expensive works, were accomplished in this age, by means of indulgences, is known to all.'^ The abbots and the monks, who had not this power, resorted to other means for raising money. They travelled about the villages, and through provinces, carrying in solemn procession the carcasses and relics of holy men, which they allowed the people to see, to handle, and to kiss, by paying for the privilege. In this way, they often amassed as great gains as the bishops by their indul- gences.^ § 4. The Roman pontiffs, perceiving what advantages the inferior bishops derived from their indulgences, concluded that the power of the bishops to remit ecclesiastical penalties, ought to be circumscribed, and the prerogative be almost wholly transferred to the Roman see. Accordingly, they began, as the necessities or convenience of the church, or their own inte- rests required, to publish, not merely the common and ordi- crediderim, spiritus vestros deesse locis, Miscellanea, torn. iv. p. 130. Mabillon, qure A'iventes tanta devotione constnix- Annales Benedictini, torn, vi, p. 535, istis ct dilexistis. Credo vos adesse &c. cunctis illic degentibus, astarc videlicet * Innumerable examples of this mode orantibus, succiuTcre laborantibns, ct of extorting money may be collected vota singulorum in conspectu divinro from the records of this age. See the majestatis promovere." Chnmicon Centidense, mYi'AohQvy's Spi- * See Mabillon's Annales Benedict, cilegium reefer. Scriptor. torn. ii. p. 354 ; tom. vi. p. 431. 529. 554. [See the the life of St. Romana; ibid. p. 137. notice of these prophetesses in tlie pre- I\Iul)illon, Annales Benedict, tom. vi. p. ceding chapter, note ', p. 446 and 447. 342. 644. Acta Sanctor. mensis Maii, Tr.'\ tom. vii. p. 533, in tlie acts of St. Mar- * Stephanus Obazinensis ; in Baluze, cuius; where a long journey of such CPI. III.] RELIGION AND THEOLOGY. 451 narj, but likewise the entire and absolute, or the plennnj, remission of all finite or temporary penalties : and they can- celled not only the punishments which the canons and human tribunals inflict, but also those to be endured after death ; a stretch of power on which the bishops had never ventured.^ They first made use of this authority for the sake of promoting the crusades, and were sparing in the use of it; but afterwards, they exerted it for objects of far less importance and of various kinds, and very often merely for their private emolument.'* Upon the introduction of this new system, the ancient system of canonical and ecclesiastical penances was wholly subverted ; and penitential hooks and canons being laid aside, the reins of moral discipline were everywhere relaxed. To support this proceeding of the pontiffs, an unheard-of doctrine was excogi- tated in this century, which .S"^. Thomas in the next century improved and perfected : namely, that there is an inuncnse treasury of good works, performed by holy men over and above what duty required ; and that the Roman pontiff is the keeper and the distributor of this treasure ; so that he is able, out of this inexhaustible fund, to give and transfer to every one such an amount of good works as his necessities require, or as will suffice to avert the punishment of his sins. This miserable and pernicious fiction, it is to be lamented, is still retained and defended. § 5. This century abounded in expositors of the holy Scrip- tures, if one may judge from the multitude of works profess- edly of this character ; but if we estimate them by tlioir skill and ability, they were almost none at all. For very few in- quired after the literal sense of the Scriptures ; and even those were destitute of the requisite means of ascertaining it.^ lioth relics is described. Mabillon, Acta Sarw- p. GO. Theod. 'Ruinart, Vitu Urlmni II. tor. Ord. Benedict, toin. iv. p. 519, 520, in his Opp. imstliiim. toni. iii. j). .•J;5:J. and torn. ii. p. 732. " [<>»« cDiisidcraliK" cause of this in- ' Jo. IMorin, de Administrationc sacra- comi)etence wa-s that tlic monks, amoiiR vienti, panitentice, lib. x. cap. 10. 21. 22, whuiii nearly all tlie leaniiii-,' of tlio apo p. 768, &c. Rich. Simon, BihUolli. was to l)c I'onnd, iield it to t>e nnlawliil Critique, torn. iii. cap. 33, p. 371. Jo. to learn Hebrew from Jewisli teaeiiers, INIabillon, Preface to the 5tii century of A certain monk (as wc learn fi-om the his Acta Sanctor. Ord. Bened. p. lxxi."&c. statutes of the Cistercians, a. U 1 196 no. I desio-ncdly refer to none of the IVotes- 24 in Edm. Martene's Tlwsaur. A<.c. Anec- tant writers. '/'"■ ton., iv. ji. 1292.) h.ad learned He 8 Lud. Ant. Muratori, Antitj. Itul. brew from a Jew ; and tlic abl.ot ot Medii /Evi, torn. v. p. 761, &c. Franc. Clairvaux wa.s .lirected to mvestipite the Pagi, Brcviar. Rvmauor. Pontif. tom. ii. matter, and to bring the monk to pumsh- G . ; 2 452 BOOK III. — CENTUKY XII. [PART II. the Greeks and the Latins were governed entirely by the authority of the fathers ; and compiled from their writings, without discrimination or care, whatever seemed to throw light on the inspired volumes. The reader may inspect, among the Greeks, Euthymius Zigahejius' exposition of the Psalms, the Gospels, and the Epistles ; though he offers many remarks of his own which are not contemptible ; and among the Latins, the labours of Peter Lombard, Gilbert de la Porree, and Abelard, on the Psalms of David, and on the Epistles of Paul. Nor is higher commendation due to the best Latin expositors of nearly the whole Bible in this century ; such as Gislebert, [or Gilbert,^ bishop of London, called the Universal, on account of the extent of his erudition ^ ; and Hervevs, a very laborious Benedictine monk.^ Somewhat superior to the rest of the Latins was Rupert of Duytz, who expounded various books of the Scrip- tures ; and with him may be coupled Anselm of Laon, who composed, or rather compiled, a Glossa, as it was called, on the sacred books. Those who chose not to tread in the steps of the ancients, and ventured to try the powers of their own genius, disregarding simplicity, searched after mysteries of every sort in the sacred pages. And in this species of interpretation, none excelled more than the mystic doctors, as they are called ; for they explained the whole Bible in conformity with the visions of their own minds, and the ideal systems of their own formation. Moreover, those interpreters who made dialectics and i)hilosophy their study, pursued the same course in their expositions of the Scriptures. This mode of interpretation may be seen, distinctly, in Hugo of St. Victor's Allegorical expla- nations of both Testaments, in Bichard qI St. Victor's Mystical Ark, in William of Nogent's Mystical commentaries on Obadiah, Hosea, and Amos ^ ; and in some others. ment. The French Benedictines, in their all the Old and New Testaments, and Histoire Litteraire de la Fiance, torn. ix. likewise commentaries on certain books, can find among the vast multitude of none of which were ever pubhshed. clergymen who made pilgiimages to Pa- Scld.'] lestine, only three persons who, in that ^ An ample account of him is given way, acquired a knowledge of the Arabic by Gabr. Liron, Sinyularites Historiques and Greek ; namely, William of Tyre, ct Littiruires, toni. iii. p. 29, &c. Add one Philip, and tlie Englishman Adelard. Mabillon, Annales Bmedict. torn. vi. p. See Semler's Hist. Eccles. Selecta Cap. All. 719. tom. iii. p. 161. Schl.~\ ^ His prologue on Obadiah was pub- ' Concerning him, see Guil. le Boeuf, lished by Mabillon, Annales Benedict. Memoires concernantVHistoire d' Auxerre, tom. vi. p 637, &c. tom, ii. p. 486. [He wrote notes on en. III.] RELIGION AND THEOLOGY. 453 § 6. The most distinguished teachers of theology resided at Paris : and, of course, students in theology from all parts of Europe resorted to Paris, in order to attend the lectures of theologians who taught there. The professors of theology in France were divided into several sects. One sect was that of the ancient theologians, who supported their religious tenets simply by the declarations of holy Scripture, and by the opinions of the fathers and the decisions of councils; and very rarely introduced any thing of human reasoning. Such, in this cen- tury, were, »SY. Bernard, Peter i\\Q, Chanter, Giialter of St. Victor, and others ; who strenuously contended against the philosophic theologians. Not totally distinct from this sect, was that which was afterwards called by the name of the Positivi and the Sen^ tentiarii: for these, following the example of Ansehn of Canter- bury, Lanfranc, Hildebert, and others of the pi'cceding century, supported religious doctrines principally by citations from Scripture and the writings of the fathers ; but also resorted to reason and philosopiiy, especially for solving difficulties and refuting objections ; and in the use of this resort, some of them were more moderate and cautious, and others less so. The first in this century, who thus explained the principles of reli- gion systematically, is said to have been Hugo of St. Victor ; who was succeeded by many others. But the first rank in this species of labour belongs to Peter Lombard, that is, the Italian from Lombardy, archbishop of Paris; whose four books of Sentences, having appeared after the year 1162 ', at once acquired such authority, that all the doctors began to expound them. And some tell us, that all the doctors of much note, except Henrij of Ghent, and a few others, commented upon this Master of the Sentences, as Lombard was called, on account of this work.^ § 7. These Sententiarii, as they were called, tliough not without fiiults, nor entirely free from vain and futile specula- tions, yet resort to dialectical subtleties with moderation, and do not force the doctrines of revelation to yield sul)missit)n to human sagacity. But, contemporary witii them, arose another and more daring sect of theologians, who had no iiesitation to * Emold Lindenbrog's Scriptures Be- torn. i. lib. iii. cap. xiv. p. 242.— [For rum Septentrlon. p. 25. a notice of Peter Lonikm . and lus ^ A host of these interpreters arc ex- h.x.ks of the Sentences, sco note , p. 440. hibited by Ant. Posscvin, Bibliotli. Sdccta, Tr. ] G G 3 454 BOOK III. — CENTURY XII. [PART II. apply the terms and the distinctions of the dialecticians to the truths taught by revelation, and to investigate the nature and relations of those truths by the principles of logic. The author of this mode of treating theology, which was afterwards called the scholastic, because it prevailed in nearly all the schools, was Peter Ahelard, a man of great acuteness, Avho was first a canon, and a celebrated teacher as well of philosophy as of theology, and afterwards a monk, and abbot of Ruys.^ Eager for the applause which he had obtained, others without number, in France, in England, and in Italy, pursued the same course. In this way, the peaceful religion of Jesus was soon converted into the science of wrangling. For these men did not explain any thing, but by multiplying divisions and distinctions obscured and perplexed the plainest truths ; wearied both themselves and others with useless and abstruse speculations ; so argued on both sides of the most important questions, as to leave them undecided ; and, as there were many things in religion wdiich were inadequately expressed in the phraseology of dialectics, they gave occasion for idle and vain-glorious disputants to invent new terms, and to perplex themselves and others with enig- matical trifles.'' § 8. From this time, therefore, the teachers of theology began to be divided into two classes, the biblical, who were called vetcres [the ancicnt~\, and also, Dorjmatici oc Positivi ; and the scholastic, who were called the Sententiarii, and also, 7iovi [the ncto\. The former interpreted the sacred volume in their schools, though for the most part miserably ; and ex- plained religious doctrines nakedly and artlessly, without call- ing reason and philosophy to their aid, and confirmed them by the testimonies of Scripture and traditioji. The latter did nothing but explain the Master of the Sentences, or Lombard; and they brought all the doctrines of faith, as well as the prin- ciples and pi'eccpts of practical religion, under the dominion of philosophy, and involved them in endless perplexities.^ And as these philosophical or scholastic theologians were deemed * This is acknowledged by Abelard torn. i. p. 58. Jo. Launoy, de varia liimsclf ; Epist. i. c. 9, Opp. p. 20. Sec Arlstotcli.s Fvrtima in Acad. Paris, cap. also Jo. Launoy, de Scliulis Carvli Magni, iii. p. 187, &c. ed. Elswich, Vitemb. 1720, cap. lix. Opp. torn. iv. p. 67. 8vo. ' See Cffis. Egasse de Boiilay, Historia " See Boulay, Historia Acad. Paris. Acad. Paris, torn. ii. p. 201, &c. p. 58.3, torn. iii. p. 657, &c. &c. Ant. AVood, Antiquit. O.vonie?ises, en. III.] RELIGION AND THEOLOGY. 455 superior to the others in acumen and ingenuity, young men admired them, and listened to them with the greatest attention ; whereas the hihUcal doctors, or those of the sacred page, as they were called, had very few, and sometimes no pujiils.^ This state of things prevailed generally, in the schools of Europe, down to the times of Luther. § 9. But before these dialectical and metapliysical doctors could obtain such an ascendency in the schools, they had to pass through many perils, contests, and disasters. For they were opposed on the one hand by the ancient divines ; and on the other by the mi/stics, who supposed true wisdom is to be acquired, not by reasoning, but by silence and contemplation, and to be drawn fi'ora the inmost recesses of the soul. Tiie old contest, therefore, between faith and reason, which had Ion"" been dormant among the Latins, was now revived, and pro- duced great commotions every where. Among the patrons of the old tlieolofjij, those who most violently assailed the scholastics, were Guihert of Nogent ', Peter Cellensis'-, Peter Cantor, or the precentor of Paris ^ and others ; but especially Gualter of St. Victor, in his four books against the four labyrinths of France and the new heretics.^ Of the mystics, Joachim, abbot of Flora'', Eichard of St. Victor, and others, inveighed against ^ Roger Bacon, in his larger work what authority philosopliical theolog)' addressed to the Roman pontiff, Clement enjoyed. More rennirks lijlluw in Bacon IV. (jmblished from the mamiscript by well worth reading. He lived in the Sam. Jebb, Lond. 17.'3.'}, fol.) pt. ii. eh. thirteenth century. iv. p. 28, says : " The Bachelor who lee- ' Tiojiiiliykc in Oseam ; 0pp. p. 20.3. tares on the text (of Scripture), gives * Opuncula ; p. 277. 399, ed. Benc- placc to the lecturer on the Sentences, diet. who is everywhere prefencd and ho- ' In liis Verbum Ahbrciiatum, siiv nom-ed by all. For he who lectures on Summa ; published at Mens, 1 6.39, 4to, the sentences, luis the best hour for by Geo. Gallupin : cap. iii. p. 6, 7. reading, according to his choice : he has * By the four L(ih;/rinths of Franco, also an associate, and a chamber among he intends Al>elaril, Gilbert de la I'orrcc the religious; but he who lectures on I/^mliard, and I'eter of I'oitiers, wlio the Bible wants these, and begs for an were the principal dialectic theologians hour to read, such as shall please the of tliis century. Sec, respecting this lecturer on the sentences. Also the work, which was never pul>hshed, Bk the text, cannot disimte, as was exempli- against I^nnbard, tic L'nitnte sen Essentia ficd this year at Bologna, and in many 6'6'. Trinitulis ; which w:(5 condenincd other places; which is absurd. It is, in the fourth I>ateran council, a. ». 1215. therefore, manifest that the text is sub- See the Histoirc dc rAldie JtKirhim, sur- ordinate, in this faeidty (theology), to iwmme Ic Pro/dute; Paris, 17-4."), 2 vols, the one dominant Summa." — These 12mo, and Fabrieius, Jlistoriu media: ct words clearly show what estimation was injim. LaL lib. ix. p. 107. Schl.'^ then put upon the sacred volume, and G G 4 456 BOOK III. — CENTURY XII. [PART II. them ; and especially against Lombard, notwithstanding that he was much more moderate than the true and proper scholastics. The contention and discord were so great, that the sovereign pontiff Alexander III., in a very numerous and solenni con- vention, A. D. 11 64, condemned this immoderate licentiousness of dispvxting on sacred subjects'^; and in the year 1179, he censured and disapproved of some things in the writings even of Lombard.^ § 10. But there was no more potent adversary of the dia- lectic theologians in this century than St. Bernard; whose zeal was immense, and his influence equal to his zeal. He therefore contended against them, not only with words, but also with deeds, with ecclesiastical councils, and positive enact- ments. Bitter experience of this Avas felt by Peter Ahelard, the chief of the dialectic party at that time, and certainly a man of far more learning and acuteness than St. Bernard, though much inferior to him in influence. Bernard prosecuted him before the council of Soissons in 1121, and before that of Sens, in 1140, accused him of many and very great errors, and at last pro- cured his condemnation.^ Abelard was said to have greatly corrupted the doctrine of three persons in the Godhead, to have attacked the majesty of the Holy Spirit, to have spoken dis- honourably of the offices of Christ and of the union of the two natures in him, to have denied the doctrine of divine grace ; in short, to have nearly subverted all religion. On some points, undoubtedly, Abelard expressed himself unsuitably and impro- perly ; and his subtlety was not always without fault : but it is also manifest, that St. Bernard, wholly ignorant of philosophy, and distinguished rather for genius than for intellect, did not understand some of Abelard's propositions, and others of them he designedly perverted. For this good man used no mode- ration, either in praising or in censuring.^ ^ Ant. Pagi, Critica in Baronium, torn. torn. ii. p. ] 62. Jo. le Clerc, Biblioth. iv. ad ann. 1164, no. xxi. p. 615. Ancienneet Moderne, torn. Lx. p. 352, &c. ' Miitth. Piiris, Histuria major, p. 115. Dion. Petavius, Dogmata Theol. torn. i. Boulay, Historia Acad. Paris, torn. ii. lib. v. c. 6, p. 217, &c. and St. Bernard p. 402. himself in many pai'ts of his works, which •* See Peter Bayle, Dictionnaire, artic. tiic index will point out. At last, after Abelard, p. 18. Jac. Gervais, Vie numerous vexations and sufferings, of d" Abelard et de Heloi.se. Jo. Mabillon, which he himself has left a history, Annales Benedict, torn. -vi. p. 63. 84. Abelard died a monk of Cluny, a. d. 1142. 324. 395. Edm. Martene, Thesaurus He was a great man, and worthy of a Anecdotor. torn, v, p. 1139 ; and nume- better age, and of better fortune. [See rous others. note ■', p. 437. Jr.] " See Jac. Gervais, Vic d' Abelard, en. III.] RELIGION AND THEOLOGY. 457 § 11. Nearly the same fate attended Gilbert de la Purree \ who, after teaching philosophy and theology with much reputa- tion, at Paris and elsewhere, was made bishop of Poitiers. For his two archdeacons, Arnald and Calu, who had been trained in the schools of the ancient theologians, having heard liim speak too metaphysically respecting the divine nature, accused him of blasphemy, before Eugene III., the pontiii^ then in France ; and to be more sure of success, they engaged St. Bernard on their side. Bernard, as was usual with him, ])rosecuted this business with the greatest vehemence, l^efore tlie pontifl", first in the council of Paris, A. T>. 1 147, and then in that of llheims, the following year. In the latter council, Gilbert, in order to end the contest, submitted his opinions to the judgment of tlie council and the pope. All the errors charged upon Gilbert, indicate too great fondness for nice distinctions, and a dis- position to bring the doctrines and truths of revelation under the empire of dialectics. For he drew subtle distinctions be- tween the divine essence and God himself, the properties of tlie divine persons and the persons themselves, not indeed really, but only in concej)ti(m (^statu rationis), as metaj)hysicians say ; and, relying on these distinctions, he denied that the divine nature became incarnate. To these he added other opinions, derived from the same source, which Avere rather fiinciful and useless, than pernicious and false ; but which the good Bernard, who was unaccustomed to such subtle speculations, could not comprehend.^ § 12. The state of moral or practical theology must be ap- parent from what has been stated. Among the Greeks, J'liilip the Solitary has left us a tolerably neat tract, entitled Dioptra : in which he makes the soul to hold a dialogue with the body, and advances various thoughts calculated to promote i>icty. The other Greeks are not worth naming. The Latin divines wdio treated of the duties of the Christian life, were of two classes ; the one scholastics, the other nii/stics. The former treated of the virtues, as they did of the articles of faith ; that ' [PoiTCtanus.] torn. i. lil>. i. cap. viii. Tvonfrueval. Hi.i- " See Boulav, Histaria Acad. Paris, tolrc lir FKiilisc (iallicam.Unn.ix. \k147, torn. ii. }). 223. 232, &c. Mal)illon, &c. [The acts of the ftmncils whic-li Annah's Benedict, torn. vi. 343, &c. 415. comlcnim-il the opinions of CiilUrt, and 433. Gallia Christiamt Bcimlictiiwr.Umu -ivhieh evince liis preut ingenuousness, ii. p. 1175. Mattli. Paris, Ili.storia major, are in Ilarduin's Collection, torn. vi. pt. p. 56. I'etavius, Doymala Thcokyica, ii. p. 1207. 6V/i/.] 458 BOOK III. — CENTURY XII. [PART II. is, in a dry metaphysical manner ; and generally combined moral theology with dogmatic. The latter very often express themselves beautifully, and in a manner suited to move the soul ; yet without method or discrimination, and not unfre- quently they tarnish Christian gold with the dross of Platonism. Most of those, also, who expounded the holy Scriptures, may be classed among the moral writers. For, neglecting the literal sense, they forcibly accommodated the language of the sacred writers to the inculcation of internal holiness and the re2;ulation of the life. This is manifest from Gidherfs Morals on Job, Amos, and the Lamentations of Jeremiah ; as Avell as from others. § 13. The passion for wrangling, philosophy, or dialectics, which had equally seized Greeks and Latins, rendered them both pugnacious. At the same time, it led men far away from the true method of discussing religious subjects. For they did not argue for the sake of elucidating the truth, but to confound and silence an adversary with subtle distinctions, with words without meaning, with the authority of names, and even with sarcasms and fallacies. Among the Greeks, Eutliyndus Zigabenus composed a prolix work against all heresies ; which he entitled Panoplia. But, to say nothing of his vanity and extreme cre- dulity, nearly all his proofs are derived (as was the common fault of that age) from the declarations of the earlier writers. Constantine Harmenopulus wrote a shorter book on the heretical sects. Zonaras inveighed against them in verse. Among the Latins, Honorius of Autun composed a book on the heresies ; and Ahelard attacked them all. The miserable and persecuted Jews were assailed by many of the Latins ; by Gilbert of Cha- tillon'', Odo [of Cambray], Peter Alfonsus, Rupert o^ Duytz, Peter Maurice^ Richard of St. Victor, and Peter of Blois ; the merits of whose works can be easily estimated by such as con- sider the character of that age. Against the Saracens, Euthj- mius, and some others, appeared as polemics. § 14. The contests between the Greeks and the Latins, the subjects of which have already been mentioned, were carried on with great spirit on both sides. On the part of the Greeks, Eutliymius, Nicetas, and others ; and on the part of the Latins, ' [Or, Gilbert, snrnamed Crispin, a abbot of Westminster, in the cloisters monk of Bee. See notc^p. 441. Tr. of which church lie was buried. Ed.'] — He WHS the pupil of Anselni, and died CII. III.] RELIGION AND THEOLOGY. 459 among others, Anselm of Havelburg, Hugo Ethcriamis, find others contended with zeal.'* Negotiations for a compromise Avere repeatedly entered upon, both at Kome and at Constanti- nople ; at the instance especially of the Greek emperors of the Comnenian family, who thought the friendship of the Latins capable of rendering great services to the Greeks, in the almost desperate state of their public affairs. But as the Latins aimed at nothing short of absolute dominion over the Greeks, and the Greek patriarchs could by no means be persuaded to subject themselves entirely to the Koman pontiffs, and to anathematize their ancestors, these negotiations for peace had the effect rather to irritate the feelings and increase the hostility of the parties, than to produce a reconciliation. § 15. The minor contests need not detain us Ion"-. The Greeks, by nature prone to contend and dispute, were scarcely ever free from religious controversies. In this century, espe- cially under Manuel Comnemis, who was a learned and over- inquisitive emperor, some contests on religious subjects were excited by the emperor himself; and they produced more ex- citement among the oppressed people, than was consistent with the welfare of the state. In the first place, a long dispute arose, under this emperor, in what sense it might be said, the incarnate God teas at the same time the offerer and the sacrljice. After a protracted discussion, during which the emperor hud maintained an o|)inion at variance with the prevalent belief, he yielded at length, and came over to the opinion that was generally received. The consequence was, that many persons of high respectability who had disagreed with the church were deprived of their offices.'^ What opinion was maintained by the emperor, and what was held by the church, on this subject, we are nowhere distinctly informed. But it is probable, that the emperor and some other learned men, disagreed with the mass of the Greeks, in respect to the Lord's supper, and the ohlation or sacrifice of Christ in that ordinance. § 16. Some years afterwards, a more violent dispute, respect- ing the import of Christ's words, John, xiv. 28. Mi/ Father is greater than I, rent Greece into factions. As various expla- nations of this passage had long existed, and some new ones < See Leo Alliitius, dc perpctua Con- * Nicetas Choniatos, Annalcs, lih. vii. setuwme Eccksi(r Oricnlalis et Occident. § 5. ji. 112. c»l. Venice, lib. ii. cap. xi. &c. p. 644, &c. 460 BOOK III. — CENTURY XII. [PART II. were advanced about this time, the emperor, who from an indif- ferent prince made but a poor theologian, added his explanation to the number ; and summoning a covmcil, he wished to obtrude it upon all, as being the only true interpretation. He decided, that these words of Christ refer to the created and passible Jiesh of Christ (kuto. rrjv sv avTw KTLcrTrjv Kal TraOrjrrjv aupKo), And this decision, engraven on tables of stone, he set up in the great church ; and made it a capital offence for any one to teach otherwise.*^ But the authority of this decree expired with the emperor; and Andronicus, afterwards, strictly prohibited all curious discussions on religion, and on this subject in parti- cular.^ § 17. Near the close of his life, the same emperor excited another controversy, respecting the God of Mahumed. The catechetical books of the Greeks anathematized the oXoacfivpov {spherical or globidar- shaped,) and solid God of Mahumed. For thus the Greeks had translated the Arabic word elsemed ; which is used in the Koran, applied to God ; and which has indeed this signification, though it also signifies eternal.^ This exe- cration the emperor ordered to be stricken out of those books, as being very offensive to the Mahumedans converted to Chris- tianity. The theologians resisted this order ; alleging, that it was not God in general, but the error of Mahumed respecting God, that was anathematized ; and that Mahumed affirmed, God is not begotten, nor doth he beget. After very tedious altercations and vai'ious attempts to settle the dispute, the bishops in a council consented, that in the instruction of youth, the anathema should no longer be levelled at the God of Mahumed, but at Ma- humed himself, his religion, and all his followers.^ § 18. Among the Latins, different opinions were maintained, and not merely in the schools, but also in books respecting the Lord's supper. For, though all seemed disposed to shun con- nexion with Berengarius, yet many were not very far from him " Nicetas Choniatcs, Annates, lib. vii. as translated by Sale, is tliis : " Say, § 6. p. 113. God is one Gou ; the eternal God : he ' Nicetas, in Andronico, lib. ii. § 5. p. begetteth not, neitlier is he begotten : 175. and there is not any one like unto him." ^ Hadr. Reland, de Religione Moham- It is prolmble that the Greek translator w(efZ(ca, lib. ii. § 3. p. 142. — [Tliis word perverted tiie meaning of Mahumed, elsemed occurs in the Koran, Sur. cxii. in order to render him ridiculous, ■where all modern translators, as well Tr.'] as the Mahumedan expositors, under- ° Nicetas Choniates, Annales, lib. vii. stand it to mean eteraa/. The passage, p. 113 — 116. CH. III.] RELIGION AND THEOLOGY. 461 in sentiment ; among whom may be named Bi/perto^Dujtz, and others ^ : because the great Berengarian controversy liad not yet plainly determined the 7node of Christ's presence. This same Rupert was involved likewise in other controversies, and espe- cially with Anselm of Laon and IVilliam of Champeaux, and with their disciples after their deaths, resi)ccting the ivill mid omnipotence of God. The question was, whether God ivilh, and himself effects, whatever takes place ; or whether he only perynits certain things to take place, which he would not have to be. Rupei't maintained the latter ; his opponent the former, lie was also censured for teaching, among other erroneous thino-s, that the angels were created from darkness ; and that Christ, at the last supper, did not present his bodij to Judas.'- § 19. Besides these and other private contests, there was a public controversy, about the year 1140, respecting what is called the immaculate concejdion of the virgin 3Iari/.^ At this time, some French congregations began to observe the festal day consecrated to this conception; the English had already observed it for some time, their authority being, as is reported, Anselm of Canterbury. Of the more distinguished churches, that of Lyons was the first, or among the first, to adopt this festival. St. Bernard being informed of the matter, addressed a letter to the canons of Lyons on the subject, in which he severely censured their conduct, and ojiposed the idea of such a conception. This brought on the controversy: some standing forth in defence of the Lyonese and the festival, and others, supporting the opinion of *S'^. Bernard.^ In this century, how- ever, though the feelings of the parties grew warm, there was some moderation in the discussion. But after the Dominicans had fixed themselves in the university of Paris, the controversy was carried on Avith far more violence ; the Dominicans de- fending the opinion of St. Bernard, and the university approv- ing the practice of the church of Lyons. ' Boulay, Historia Acad. Paris, toin. iiiotliir witli the sjinie jmrili/ tliat is ;U- ii. p. 30, &c. tributeil to Christ's cuncciitiou in fur - Sec Moiigoz, Epistda ; published by womb." Macl.'} Miirtene, Thesanr. Anccdutor. toni. i. j). * Sec St. Iknianl's Episdc, Ixxiv. 290. Jo. Mabilloii, Annales Benedict, toni. i. p. 170, &f. B [" Tlic defenders of the immaculate Coloiiio, Histoire Littiraire de la ville de conception maintaiiu-d, that tlie virgin Lj/on, toui. ii. p. 233, &c. Jlaiy was conceived in the womb of her 462 BOOK III. — CENTURY XII. [PART II. CHAPTER IV. HISTORY OF RITES AND CEREMONIES. § 1. Rites of the Greeks. — § 2. Rites of the Latins. § 1. That both the public and the private worship of God among the Greeks, through the influence of superstition, was enriched with various additional minute rites, is well attested. And the same passion infected all the Christian communities of the East. Every distinguished individual among the patriarchs of the Greeks, the Nestorians, or the Jacobites, would immor- talize himself by some change or amplification of the forms of worship. For the spirit of true religion and piety being, from various causes, nearly extinct, the whole attention of such people was directed to its external signs. One, therefore, ordered the prayers to be recited in a new manner; another changed the mode of singing ; another ordained some new honours to be paid to the relics and the images of the saints; and another endea- voured to impi'ove the dress and the manners of the priests. § 2. What rites prevailed among the Latins in this century, and how they were interpreted, may be learned from Riqicrt of Duytz, de Divinis Officiis. The plan of this work does not admit of a detailed account of the additions to the public ceremonials.^ We, therefore, only remark, that the veneration ' [We may add a few things to render stones, and costly pictures. Before the the account more full. The adorning of saints and images in the churches, ex- churches with jiictures and ])recious ob- pensive lam]is and candles were kept jects, was carried further and further, burning, which were to be put out only Even the floors were painted and adorned during three days preceding Easter, with saints and angels. — New churches Baptism was no longer administered as were consecrated with sprinkling, in- formerl}^ only at certain seasons of the scriptions, anointing, lighting up candles, year, but as often as there were subjects and with a blessing ; perhajjs also with presented. The holy supper was still singing. The decayed altars that were gi^'en in both tlic elements. Clement repaired, must be consecrated anew. III. ordained that none but unleavened More than one altar was now to be bread should be used ; and that the wine found in the same church ; for mention should be mixed with water. The bad is made of the high altar. Altars were custom of immersing the bread in the ornamented with gold, silver, precious cup, and then distributing it, still con- en. v.] SCHISMS AND HERESIES. 463 for the virgin Mary, which had before been excessive, was not a little increased, after it began to be extensively inculcated, that she was conceived Immaculately. For, notwithstanding- Bernard and others opposed this doctrine, as we have stated, yet the judgment of the ignorant and superstitious multitude was much more effective than the decisions of the better-in- formed : and about the year 1138, a solemn festival was Insti- tuted in honour of this conception ; though neither the author nor the place of this new solemnity is sufficiently known.^ CHAPTER V. HISTORY OF HERESIES. § 1. Fanatics among the Greeks. — §2. The Bogomilcs. — §3. Sectarians among the Latins, and the cause of them. — § 4. Tiie Cathari. — § 5. Two sects of tlicm. § 0. Their organization. — § 7. The Petrobrusians. — § 8. The Ilcnricians. § 9. The impiety of TancjueUn. — § 10. Disturbance of Aniold of Brescia. — § 11. The Waklenscs, and their history. — § 12. Tlicir doctrine and ojii- nions. — § 13. Constitution of their churches. — § 14. Minor sects. The Pasagini. — § 15. The Caputiati. — § 16. Eon, and his folly. § 1. The Greeks and the other Oriental Christians of this cen- tury had sharp contests with various sorts of fanatics, who are represented as believing in a two-fold Trinity ; as rejecting matrimony, and the eating of flesh ; as despising all external worship of God, even baptism and tlie Lord's supper ; and as placing the soul of religion exclusively In prayer, and holding that an evil demon dwells in the natui'c of all men, which they tinued. The doctrine of transubstantia- posture until the benediction on the tion was very generally received in the cup ; and that these bolls attemlcd the Latin clnirches ; and tlie adoration of clergy in the achninistration of the sacm- the liost was a natural consei|uence. ment to the sick, to give the signal for Von Einem. — We are inf(. ll'JS. tratc themselves, and reniaiu in tliat 464 BOOK HI. — CENTURY XII. [p ART II. must expel by incessant prayer. The author of this sect, we are told, was one Lucopetrus ; whose principal disciple, Tychi- cus, is said to have put false interpretations upon many parts of the sacred volume, and especially upon the history of Christ, as given us by St. Matthew.^ It is certain that there had been, for a very long time, among the Greeks and Syrians, particularly among the monks, men of this description, who were beside themselves rather than bad; and such still existed in this century. But credit cannot be given to all that is reported of them. Nor are the reasons few for believing, that among these people there were many really pious and devoted Christians, who became offensive to the Greeks, because they resisted the outrageous domination and the vices of the priesthood, and derided the monstrous mass of superstition which was sanctioned by the public authority. The Greeks, and the other nations of the East, were accustomed to designate all persons of this ilescription by the odious names of Messalians or Eucliites ; just as the Latins denominated all adversaries of the Roman pontiffs, Waldenses or Albigenses. But it should be noted, that this name Avas very ambiguous among the Greeks and the Orientals ; being applied promiscuously to all, honest or dis- honest, wise or delirious, — who disliked the public ceremonies, censured the vices of the clergy, and maintained that piety alone was necessary to man. § 2, From this class of persons, it is said, the Bogomiles originated ; whose founder, one Basil, a monk, when he could not be reclaimed, was burnt alive at Constantinople, under the emperor Alexius Comnenus.'^ What has been handed down to ' See Euthymius, Triumplms de Secta ^ [The emperor devised a singular Messalianorum ; in Jac. Follii Insignia method for detecting the opinions of Itineris Italici, p. 106 — 125. [Euthy- this man, which would do honour to the mius relates much that is fahulous in Inquisition. Basil had sent out, after this book ; that the original head of tlie the example of Christ, twelve of his fol- Messalians was named Peter, hut that lowers as his apostles, in order to pro- he called himself Christ ; that he pro- pagate his doctrines. One of these, mised to appear again after his death, named Diblatius, was arrested ; and he and thence obtained the nickname of acknowledged that Basil was at the head Wolfpetcr KvK6iTerf)os. For as his fol- of the sect. Basil vaxs accordingly lowers, three days aiter his death, were searched out, and brought to the em- looking for his resiuTection, the devil peror, who received him very flatter- appeared to them in the form of a wolf, ingly, admitted him to his tabic, and Tychicus also applied all the texts that called him his very dear father. Thus speak of God the Father and the Holy deceived, Basil disclosed to the emperor Ghost, to his spiritual father, Peter. As all the mysteries of his sect ; ancl the for the old Messalians, see this work, emperor caused his whole disclosure to vol. i. p. 413, &c. Schl.'\ be written down by a stenographer, who CH. v.] SCHISMS AND ITERESIES. 4f)5 US respecting this man and his opinions, notwithstanding the Greeks have, undonbtedly, mixed some falsehoods with their statements, will satisfactorily show that this system was nearly allied to the religion of the ancient Gnostics and Maniclucans. For he maintained that the world and human bodies were not created by God, but by an evil demon whom God cast out of heaven : and of course, that our bodies are the i)risons of god- ..... ' , . like spirits ; and must therefore be subdued by fasting, con- templation, and other exhausting exercises, in order that the soul may regain its lost liberty ; that marriage also should be avoided; and the kindred tenets, which are well known, and have been repeatedly stated. Hence also, with the Gnostics and Manichreans, he denied that Christ the Son of God had a real body. He also rejected the law of iNIoses ; and maintained that the human body, at death, reverts back to the mass of depraved matter ; and has no prospect of a I'csuscitation. So many instances of men of this descri[)tion occur, both in the history of ancient times and of this age, that nobody can wonder at finding one of them raise a sect among the Greeks. The name of this sect w^as derived from the divine mercy, which they are said to have incessantly implored. For in the language of the INIysians •*, Bogomilus is one who implores divine mercy. ^ § 3. Among the Latins, far more numerous sects existed. For, as the defects of the public religion and the faults of the clergy Avere continually increasing ; as the pontiffs in general neglected the most important duties of their ofHce, and by various measures, particularly by their Indulgences, encouraged was concealed in the chamber for the 1712, 4to. Sam. An.lrcas, DUs. de purpose. The emperor now laid aside Bi>gomili}i; in Jo. Voigt's DtUiotluxa the character of a learner, and atfemi)ted Hixturue Hirrcsiologictp, torn. i. j.t. li, to confute the opinions of the enthusiast ; p. 125, &c. Chr. Aup. Iloiimann. Diss. but he defended himself vigorously, and de Bogomilis. [Thev were also cidlcd was not to be terrilied bv menaces of rimndaites. from the phunda ..r ^\u\\c death Upon this, the emperor com- which tiiey were accu6tonie. 1233. leiisians. may also Ik; well ieanied trom Schfl the Coilcx Iiupiit^itvriiis, published by II II 2 468 BOOK III. — CENTURY XII. [PART II. § 6. The internal arrangements of this church had many singularities, which cannot be explained in a narrow compass. The government was administered by bishops : but each of these had two vicai's attached to him, one of whom was called the elder son, and the other the younger son. The other teachers or priests were called Deacons.^ All these, but especially the bishops and their sons, were held in immense veneration. And as their moral principles were peculiarly rigid and austere, and not suitable nor tolerable to all, it was necessary to divide their people, as the Manichtcan congregations were anciently divided, into two classes, the comforted iconsolati), and the associated, or confederated (^foederati). The former exhibited a great show of piety, and led in celibacy a life of peculiar rigour, and des- titute of all common gratifications and conveniences. The latter, except observing a few rules, lived in the manner of other people ; but they made a covenant, which, in Italian, was called convenenza, with the cliurch, that, before they died, at least in their last sickness, they would enter the stricter church, and receive the consolation, which was their term for initia- tion.' § 7. Of far better character than these, was the presbyter Peter de Bruys ; who, about the year 1110, attempted a restora- tion of true religion in Languedoc and Provence, provinces of Phil. Limborch, with his Hisfaria Inqui- in all ; those of Concorrezzo, spread over sitionis. But what Limborch has him- all Lombardy, and more than 1500 in self wi-itten concerning the opinions of number ; those of Basolo, at Mantua, the Alblgensians (Historia Inquis. lib. i. Brescia, Bergamo, and in Milan ; others cap. viii. p. 30, &c.) is inaccurate, and at Vicenza, or in the margravate ; in not free from erroi's. I have spent much the territory of Florence ; in the valley time in examining these sects, and dis- of Spoleto ; the French at Verona and criminating among them ; a subject in Lombaixly ; at Toulouse ; at Crnras- which the partialities of authors, and sone ; in the region of Albi ; the Sla- other causes, have greatly obscured, vonians ; the Latins at Constantinople ; But there is not room here to enlarge, the Greeks there ; those at Philadelphia [According to a note of Job. Conr. in Romania ; the Bulgaric and the Du- Fuesslin, in his Kirchen-und Ketzerhis- guntic. In the whole world, there were torie der mittiern Zeit, vol. i. p. 128, at that time not quite 4000 Cathari. See (whose correctness, however, I cannot Schrocckh's Kirchengesch. vol. xxix. p. judge of,) the Albigcnsians here men- 484. 7>.] tioned, must not be counfounded with the ^ [IMinisters. 7>.] See Rayneri Sa- Albigensians that appeared in Langue- choni, Summa de Catharis, p. 1766, &c. doc ; for they li^ cd at Alby, in Mont- ' Tiiese statements may be substan- feiTat. Schl. — According to Rayner, tiatcd ironi the writers that have been there were sixteen connnunities, or as- mentioned, especially from the Ccdex sedations of Cathari ; namely, the Al- Inquisit. Tolosance, and others. [For a banensians, or those of Donnezacho, the more full account of the Cathai'i, see members of which were at Verona and Schroeckh,^(rc/ien^esc^.vol.xxix. p.477, in other parts of Lombardy, about 500 Sec. 7V.] CH. v.] SCHISMS AND HERESIES. 469 France ; and having drawn many to follow him, after journey- ing and labouring for twenty years, was })urnt by the enraged populace at St. Gilles, A. d. 1130. The whole system of doc- trines inculcated by this Peter upon his followers, who, from him, were called Petrobrusians, is not known ; yet there arc five of his opinions that have reached us: I. That persons ought not to be baptized until they come to the use of reason. II. That it is not proper to build churches ; and that such as are built should be pulled down. III. That tlie holy crosses ought to be destroyed. IV. That the body and blood of Christ are not distributed in the sacred supper, but only the signs of them. V. That the oblations, prayers, and good works of the living, do not profit the dead.'^ § 8. He was followed by one Henri/, an Italian perhaps ^ an eremite monk, the parent of the sect of the Jlenricians.* From Lausanne, a city of Switzerland, he came to jNIaine ; and being driven thence, he travelled through Poitou, Bordeaux, and the adjacent regions, and at last, in the year 1 147, reached Toulouse; and every where boldly declaimed against the vices of the clergy, and the defects of the prevailing religion, with the applause of the multitude. Being ejected from Toulouse by St. Bernard, he took to flight ; but was apprehended by some bishop, brouglit before Eugene ITT., the Koman pontiff, then holding a council at Kheims, and by him committed to pnson, A. D. 1148, where he soon after died.* An accurate account - See Peter the Venerable, contra Pe- ^ [This is the eonjecturc of Maliillon, trobrusianos Liber; in the Bibliotheca in his Preface to the works of St. Bcr- Chmiacens. p. 1117. Jo. Mabillon, An- nard, § 6, but Henry may have Iwcn a 7iales Benedict, toni. vi. p. 346, &c. Jac. Swiss ; as Fucsslin sni)poscs, 1. c. p. 214. Basnage, Histoire dcs Eglises Rvfunnces, Sclil.^ pcriodiv. p. 140.&C. [See also Seiiroeckh, * [Tliis name occurs often in a dif- Kirchengesch. torn. xxix. p. 513, &c. fcrent application, dcnotinir the adherents Almost the only source of all that is to the emperor Henry IV. in his contest known of Peter de Brnys and his doc- with tlie poiK's respecting investitures, trine, is the epis-tle or tract of Peter the For, as is well known, the jiope declared Venerable, abbot of Cluni, written ex- the principles of llenn,- in ix>iK"ct to in- prcssly to confute the eiTors of Peter de vestitures to 1)C hcrcsi/ ; and his son Bruys", about a. d. 1141. This tract is Heiny V. had to abjure expressly the printed in the ^/Ww//(. C/f/nfflcms-. Paris, Ilenrician liere.^y. Thus, c. ;/., are his 1614, fol. p. 1117 — 1-2.30; and hi the adliercnts denominated in the Acts of BiUiotli. max. Patrum LiK/diinens. torn, the council of Ciuedliid)urg ((iiiintiinio- xxii. p. 103.3, &e. Tiie author states and burgcnse), a. d. 10S.5 ; in llar7.hemrs confutes, in as many chai)ters, tiie five Concil. Germ. torn. iii. p. 200. Srhl.] errors mentioned by Dr. Moslieim ; and * Gcita Episco/Ktr. Cenomancn.'.] ' [Arnold is not named in the canons of this council. The twenty-third reads thus : " Eos — qui religiositatis speciem simulantes, Domini corporis et sanguinis sacramentum, baptisma puerorum, sacer- dotium, et ccteros ecclesiasticos ordines, et legitimaruni damnant fcedera mij)- tiannn, tancpuxm hrercticos ab ecclesia Dei pellinuis et damnamus, et per jjotes- tates exteras coercere prajcipinuis." Thus it refers rather to Peter de Bruys. (For it recounts his eiTors. Besides, it excommunicates the persons referred to, and delivers them over to the secular sword ; but Arnold was not excomnumi- cated nor committed to the executioner at this time. TV.) Yet Otto of Frey- singen (ad ann. 1139) expressly states, that Arnold, as well as the Petrol )rusians was condenmed by this council. He was also banished from Italy, and for- bidden to return without permission from the ]>ope. Gunther, in his Ligu- rinu.% lib. iii. v. 275, where he states his doctrines, makes this just remark : " He gave us many just rebukes, mixed with false ones ; but our times would not bear faithful admonitions." After his banish- ment, Arnold went first into France to Alulard ; and from him to Guido, the ]iapal legate, who not long after was himself pope, under the name of Coeles- tine II. But St. Ik-rnard persecuted him wherever he could find him, and compelled him to escape incarceration bv fleeing to Zurich ; where he became 4 472 BOOK III. — CENTURY XII. [PART II. on the death of Innocent, and gave great trouble to the new pontiff Eugene. After various fortunes, he was seized, and in the year 1 ] 55, hanged, and his body burnt to ashes. The un- happy man does not appear to have attempted any violence or injury to religion ; but perceiving the immense evils and dis- cords that arose from the vast riches of the pontiffs, bishops, and priests, he thought it required, by the interests of the church and of the world, that the clergy should be stripped of their possessions, prerogatives, and revenues. He therefore maintained, that all the wealth of the Roman pontiff, and also of the bishops and the monks, ought to be transferred to the civil authorities ; and nothing be left for any of the ministers of God, but their spiritual powers, and the tithes and voluntary gifts of Christians.' Venerable on several accounts, he had numerous followers, who, from him, were called Arnoldists ; and who, in subsequent times, often showed themselves, as occasions would permit. § 11. But of all the sects that arose in this century, no one was more famous, or obtained higher reputation for probity and innocence, even with its enemies, and no one could count more disciples, than that of those called from their founder, the Wal- densians ; from the place Avhence they sprang, the poor men oj Lyons, or the Leonists ; from the wooden shoes worn by their teachers, and a certain mark upon them, Insahbatati, or Sab- batatir Peter, a rich merchant of Lyons of France, born at a teacher, and was much listened to. year 1155, the emperor, Frederic I., was Presently a letter was despatched from advancing towards Rome, and entered 8t. Bernard to the bishop of Constance, into a negotiation with the pope respect- M-arning him to banish Arnold out of his ing his approaching coronation. Here diocese. After residing about five years the pope conditioned that Frederic should at Zurich, he returned to Rome, a. d. deliver Arnold of Brescia into his hands. 1145, at a time when the citizens of Frederic fulfilled the stipulation, and Rome had been long struggling to re- Arnold M'as strangled to death ; and to store the ancient consular government, prevent the people from paying venera- and to free themselves from the civil tion to his corpse, it was burnt, and the authority of the pope. Those disturb- ashes thrown into the Tiber. 5c/i/.— Sec ances Arnold promoted under the reigns Schroeckh, Kircheiiqcsch. vol. xxvi. p. of Eugene HI. and Anastasius IV. But 110, &c. 1.31. 153, &c. Tr.'] Hadrian IV. excommunicated him, and ' See Otto of Frisingen, rfe Ge.9. 482. revered him as a man of God. In the - They were called Leonists, because CH. v.] SCHISMS AND HERESIES. 473 Vaux, or Valdum, or, Validium, a town in the marqulsatc of Lyons, and therefore called Valdensis and VaUdisius, being a very pious man, procured the translation of certain books of the Scripture, especially the four Gospels, and of various pas- sages from the fathers, from Latin into French, after a. d. 1160, by the hand of Stephen de Evisa, a priest of Lyons. ^ By reading these books attentively, he learned that the religion then commonly taught to the people in the Romish church, differed altogether from that which Jesus Christ himself and his apostles had taught ; and earnestly desiring salvation, he distri- buted his property among the poor, and in the year 1180, with some other pious men, whom he had associated with him, he took upon himself the office of a preacher. The archbishop of Lyons, and the other prelates, opposed this proceeding. lint the simple and holy religion which these good men professed, the spotless innocence of their lives, and their contempt for all riches and honours, took such hold upon great numbers, who had some sense of religion, that they readily yielded to them.^ Hence they originated at Leona : so Lyons was called in that age. The more perfect among the Waldensians wore mean or wooden shoes, whicli, in French, are called Sabots; and likcM'ise the sign of the cross upon their sabots, to distinguish them from others. And hence the names of Sabbatati [shod with sabots'], and Iii- sabbatati [marked on their sabots']. See Du Fresne, Glossarinm Latin, media:, tom. vi. p. 4, art. Sabbatati. Nicol. By- mericus, Directorium Inquisitorum, pt. iii. no. 112, &c. ' See Stephen de Borbonc, de septem Doiiis Spiritus Sancti ; in Jac. Echard andQuetif's Bibliotlieca Scriptor. Domini- canor. tom. i. p. 192. An anon}Tnous tract, de Ha-resi paupenim dc Luijduno ; in Martene's Thesaur. Anecdofor. tom. v. p. 1777. [Stephen de Borbone calls the translator, employed by Waldus, Stephen of Ansa ; and others, of Emsa. And I suspect that Mosheim wTote Emsa, though, by an error of the press, E\-isa occurs in both the old and the new edi- tion of his Institutes. In placing the commencement of Waldus' attempt to reform religion after the year 1 1 60, Dr. Mosheim has followed Moneta. But Stephen of Borbone says, " This sect began about the year of Christ 1170, under John, called Bolesmanis, arch- bishop of Lyons." Schl.] * Tliose who assign a different origin to the Waldensians, and particularly those who say they were so called from the valleys in which they had livetl many ages before the times of Peter Waldus, have no authorities fur their opinion, and are refuted by all the liistorians. [This opinion was first advanced by Beza ; and John Leger (in his Histoire ycnerale des Eglises Vaiidoises) has taken all pains to make it appeal' plausible. But they are well confuted by Fuessli, in his Kirchen-und Ketzergeschichte dcr viittlem Zeit, vol. i. p. 295, &c. Schl.] I will readily grant, that long before these times there had been, resident in the valleys of Pieilmont, persons who rejected the j)re vailing opinions of the Romish church, and who agreed in many things with the Waldensians. But those inhabitants of the valleys must be distinguished from the [proper] Waldensians, or followers of Peter Waldus, whom all the writers represent to have originated at Lyons, and to have derived their name from this Peter Waldus. [Dr. Maclaine here boldly attacks the opinions of Mosheim ; and citing some of the arguments of Leger, asserts the higher antiquity of the Wal- densians, from whom, he says, Peter of Lyons derived tlic name of W;Udus. It is of little consc(|Mence whether Peter 474 BOOK III. — CENTURY XII. [part II. they set up societies, first in France, and then in Lombardy ; and these multiplied and spread, with amazing rapidity, through Waldus gave name to the sect of the Waldcnsians, or derived his o-\vn name from them ; but the origin and anti- quity of the sect are of more importance. On this subject, Schroeckh, (in his Kir- chengesch. vol. xxLx. p. 527, &c.) makes the following remarks. As to their age and origin, the ground of their separa- tion from the Romish chm-ch, and espe- cially whether they were heretics or re- formers, there has been the more contro- versy between the Roman Catholics and the Protestants, because the interests of their respective churches were involved in the discussions. But these party and polemical narratives, which have done so much harm to history, are becoming more and more rare : and we purpose to state only what the lovers of truth, of both parties, may approve. — It was usual formerly to trace the origin of the Wal denses to a very high antiquity ; and it must be acknowledged, that a wi-iter of the thirteenth centmy, who has been al- ready mentioned as first a partizan and then an opposer of the Cathari, Rainerius Saccho, has given occasion for this opi- nion. In his Liber adv. Waldenses, c. 4, (in the Biblioth. Patrum, tom. xxv. p. 262, &c.) he writes concerning them, under one of their appellations, {Fauperes de Liigduno,) " Their sect has been the most injm'ious of all to the church of God, on account of then- antiquity ; for they, according to some, originated in the times of the Romish bishop Silvester, in the fourth century ; and, according to others, existed as early as the days of the Apostles." But neither Rainer nor the records of history give the least ground for this asseition ; which he seems to have boiTowed solely from some Waldensians. In more modern times various arguments have been adduced to support the same position. Especially has one of the principal historians of the Waldensians, himself once a preacher among them in the 17th century, John Leger, in his French work, (^Histoire Ge- nerate des Eglises Evaiujeliques des Vallues de Piemoiit, oil Vaiidoi.ses ; Leydcn, 1G69, 2 torn, fol.) given himself mucli trouble to prove that they existed long bei'ore the twelfth century. lie first cites some an- cient and modern historians who are thought to have found traces of them ; but who were either too recent to be good wit- nesses in the case, or have confounded the Manichffians of the eleventh century, and other opposers of the church of Rome, Avith the Waldensians. The opi- nion he adopted from Beza, that these people of his own religion derived their name from the valleys {Vallecs, or, in their own language, Vaux,') in which most of them resided, is a mere conjec- ture, founded on the resemblance of the words ; though it has long been admitted, that for centuries thei"e had existed in the valleys of Piedmont various sorts of people, who were not in communion with the Romish church. Equally unsupport- able is the assertion of Leger, that the Waldensians were descended from Clau- dius, the famous bishop of Turin, in the ninth century. With more ])lausibility he argues then* high antiquity, from a poem \vi-itten in the Proven9al dialect, and entitled, T7ie Noble Lesson {La noble Ley^ori) ; which was supposed to be the production of a Waldensian about a. d. 1100. The very name Waldensians {Vaudes') occurs in it. But Fuesslin, who has most fully investigated this subject, (1. c. p. 299, &c.) has sho-\vn, that this poem may have been written long after the year 1 1 00, and can hardly have been composed by an inhabitant of the valleys of Piedmont. Basnage also has made Claudius (whom he misrepresents as separating from the communion of the Romish church,) to be the father of the Waldensians, and has used other in- valid proofs of their high antiquity. {Histoire de VEglise, tom. ii. p. 1434.) In an essay (subjoined to the German trans- lation of Fleuiy's Eccles. History, vol. xi. p. 486, &c.) on the community which was persecuted, under the name of the Manichaeans, the same opinion is main- tained ; and for proof of it, a Walden- sian confession of faith is relied on, which, without any proof, is assigned to the year 1120. And in the latest his- tories of the Waldensians by Protestants in Gennany, we find this high antiquity of the sect assumed, but not proved. The writers, on the contrary, who lived about the middle of the 13th century, several of ;\hom were personally ac- quainted with the men who had been active in producing the sect of the Wal- densians, miitcdlv tell us, that it was Peter Waldus, (called also Valdo, Val- densis, and in his native language, pro- bably, Vaud.) a rich citizen of Lyons, en. v.] SCHISMS AND HERESIES. 475 all the countries of Europe : nor could they be exterminated entirely, by any punishments, whether by death, or other forms of persecution.'^ § 12. Peter Waldus and his associates did not aim so nuich to change the system of religion, or to inculcate new articles of faith, as to restore the form of the church, the morals of the clergy, and the lives of Christians, to that primitive and apos- tolic simplicity, which they thought themselves to have learned from the words of Christ especially. They taught, accordingly, that the Romish church had degenerated from its original purity and sanctity, in the times of Constantine th^ Great '. they de- nied the supremacy of the Roman pontiff: they would have the rulers and ministers of the church imitate the poverty of the apostles, and procure their own frugal and slender sustenance by manual labour : they asserted, that autiiority to teach, to confirm, and to admonish their brethren, was, to a certain extent, given to all Christians : the ancient penitential dis- cipline, which was nearly subverted by the grants of indul- gences, that is, the making satisfaction for sins, by prayer. who gave, between the years 1160 and 1180, both existence and an appellation to this sect. Tr. — Mr. Maitland main- tains this view, and accounts for the surname borne by Peter, by showing that whatever be its origin, it was far from imconnnon, nor in the fomi of Wood, unknown to England. {Facts and Documents Illustrative of the History, Doc- trine, and Rites of the ancient Albigenses and Waldenses.JjQwCl. 1832, p. 109.) Upon this etymological question it may be ob- served, that not Wood, but Waud, Wadd, and Waddi/, appear to be the Englisii forms of the name Walilo. Mr. Falier, however, from rilichdorf, a writer of the thirteenth century, derives the name Valdenses from one Peter, who sprang from the region Valdis, three hundred years after Constantine. Valdis he con- siders to be the vallies of the Cottian Alps, immcmorially inhabited by the Waldenses. The name Leonists, he con- siders to have come not from Lyons, the residence of Peter Waldo, but from a place far less considerable, once simi- larly named, Lugdunum Convcnarum, in Aquitaine, now St. Bertrand, the birth- place of Vigilantius, whom Jerome so scuiTilously attacked fur opposing the paganism that was daily mingling with Cln-istianity. {An Inquiry into the His- tory and Theology of the ancient Vallenses and Albigenscs. Lond. 1838, pp. 279. 302.) The second of those etymologies may, perhaps, be thought an ingenious but bold conjecture. 'J'lic first is less easy to dispose of. Ed.'] * See, in addition to the ancient ANTiters concerning the Waldcnsians, e. g. Sachoni, Summa contra Valdenses; Mo- netaj Summa contra Catharoset Valdenses, published a few years since at Rome by Kichini ; the tract de Haresi panperum de Lugduno, published by Martenc, 77/c- .sY/«7-. Anecdotor. tom. v. p. 1777, &c. Piiichdorf, contra Valdenses, in the Bib- lioth. majr. Patrum, tom. xxv. and many others ; Jo. Paul Perrin, Histoire dcs Vaudois, Geneva, 1619, 8vo, [also in English, Lond. 1624, 4to. TV.] Jo. lA'gcr, Histoire generale dcs Eglises Vau- doises, liv. i. cap. 14, p. 156. Jac. Ussher, de Successione Ecclcsia Occidmtis, c. viii. p. 209, &c. Jac. Basnage, Hi.-j- ii. c. vi. and in many other places nastiar. p. 281, &c. Haytho, tlie Amieiiian, Hixtvria Oriental • See Marco Polo, the Venetian, de cap. xix. p. .35. cap. xxiii. p. 39. cap. Regionibus Oriental, lib. i. c. iv. and lib. xxiv. p. 41, &c. Jos. Sim. Asseman, VOL. IT. II 482 BOOK III. — CENTURY XIII. [PART I. fcctcd with the Maluimedan religion, which at length banished Christianity entirely from their camps and courts. § 2. As these Tartars, from the year 1241, invaded Europe also, and cruelly harassed and devastated Hungary, Poland, Silesia, and the neighbouring countries, the Roman pontiffs thought proper to attempt a pacification with these new and very ferocious enemies. Therefore, in the year 1245, Innocent IV. sent several Dominicans and Franciscans as his legates to the Tartars.^ Afterwards, Abaka, emperor of the Tartars, in the year 1274, sent envoys into Europe, to the council of Lyons, under Gregory X.^ Nicolaus III. also, in the year 1278, sent some Franciscans as legates to Cohlai, the emperor of the whole nation. And in the year 1289, Nicolaus IV. sent to the same emperor Jolin de Monte Corvi7io, with some others, who also carried letters to the Nestorians. Nor were these legates wholly unsuccessful ; for they instructed many, both of the Tartars and of the Nestorians, in the principles of the Roman religion, and gathered Christian churches not only in Tartary but also in China. To facilitate this business, John de 3Ionte Corvine translated the books of the New Testament and the Psalms of David into the language of the Tartars.^ Bibliotheca Orient. Vatic, torn. iii. pt. ii. Khan, tlic fourth and last of the Chris- p. 526, and others; especially the His- tian kings in central Asia who bore the toria Tartarorum Ecclesiastica, composed name of Prester John, in the year 1202. under my superintendence, and pub- He now commenced his career of cou- lislied at Ilelmstadt, 1742, 4to, which I quest, and during 25 years carried his may perhaps enlarge considerably in a victorious arms from the Chinese sea to future edition. [This purpose was never the Euplu-ates and the Euxine. His accomplislied. Schl.'] foiu- sons harmoniously preserved the •■' See Luc. Wadding, Annales Mino- unity of the new empire, and extended rum, torn. iii. p. 116. 149. 175. 256. and consolidated it. In the East, all ^ Wadding, 1. c. tom. iv. p. 35. tom. northern China, as well as Tibet and the V. p. 128, &c. See this whole subject countries bordering on Hindostan, were cojiiously and critically discussed, in the subdued. In the West, the countries ab(j\e-citcd Historia Tartarorum Eccle- from the Indus onward, including Persia, siusticu ; which however might be nmcli Mesopotamia, Anncnia, Georg'ia, and enlarged, and in some particulars cor- the whole region about the Caspian, with reeled. [The subjects briefly and sum- the soutliern part of Russia in Europe, marily stated in this sectior., fill about were ])ei-manently occupied ; and Poland, seventy pages 4to, of text, and the docu- Hungary, and part of Silesia, as well as meiits till as many pages more of tlic Siberia, and all northern Asia, were over- Appendix of INIosheim's Hint. Tartaror. run and devastated, and then abandoned. Ecclcsiast. 7V.] This ^■ast empire of the JMoguls, \^hile ' i.)Ain\\{-Ay\\;M, Auvules Eccksiastici, united, was subject to the great Khan or tom. xiv. ad anil. 1278, § 17, &c. p. 282, emperor, wlio resided first in Chinese and ad ann. 1289, § 59, &c. p. 419, ed. Tartary, and then atPekin. The central Cologne : Peter Bergeron, Traits des and western provinces were governed by 7«/-<((m', cap. xi. p. Cl,and mauyotliers, dependent sovereigns or viceroys, who cited ill the Historia tartaror. Eccl. were ibr the most part the sons and [Genghis-Khan contiuercd in Ijattle Un- descendants of Genghis, and of course PROSPEROUS EVENTS. 483 CII. I.] § 3, The same pontiffs made every effort in their power to sustain the interests of the Latins in Syria and Palestine, which were now nearly ruined ; for as they had learned by experience the great amount of gain, dignity, and authority, which came to occupants of the Roman see from these Asiatic wars waged under the pretence of religion, they were very solicitous to have them kept up.'' The first expedition was proclaimed by Inno- cent III. Few, however, of the Europeans obeyed his summons. After various efforts, which were fruitless in most countries, some French nobles, haying formed a league with the Venetian republic, put to sea with quite a moderate force. The issue of the brothers and relatives of tlie jjrcat IvJian. After a A'cry few generations, however, the principal of the ])r()vineial govemoi's became nearly or altogether independent sovereigns ; and three of them, the Khans of Kipzack and Russia, the iKhans of Zagatai or Transoxiana, and tlie Khans of Iran or Persia, were lords of extensive empires. Genghis and the succeeding emperors, as well as most of their viceroy's in the West, were tolerant towards all religions ; and they encouraged men of talents of every religion, warriors, statesmen, physicians, artists of various kinds, and men of letters. Hence in tlieir courts and camps, and in places of high trust in every part of the empire, were to be found C'in'istians, Ma- humedans, Jews, and Pagans, all enjoy- ing the free use of their religion. IMany Europeans, as ]\Iarco VoV), the Vene- tian, and others, travelled freely from the Bosphorus to China ; and in no age, probably, have the Eurojjcans had so free access to the central parts of Asia, as in this century. Genghis himself married a daughter of Prester John ; and scAcral of his descendants had Christian wives. Till near the close of the century, most of the Mogul princes, though tolerant to all religions, were rather partial to that of the Christians. And this afforded to the Nestorians (the prevailing sei't in those countries) a fine opportunity to propagate their religion all over the East, and particularly in China. The Roman pontiffs also sent not only ambassadors, but missionaries, chiefly Franciscan and Dominican monks, quite to Pekin and China ; and in that country the}' gathered some churches, and at length establislicd an archbishop, (John l)e MoiUe Corvino,) with several suffragans. jNIuch greater success would doubtless have now at- tended the ellbrts of Christians in China, aiul throughout the em])ire, had tiiey been united. But the Roman Catholics aiul the IS'estorians strove to undermine each other ; ami the Tartar Khans ^vere the protectors of each in tum, against the other. Moreover, the wars of these Tartars witii the Saracens of Syria and Arabia, and with tlie sultans of Egyjit, who oppressed the Christians of Palestine and the East, led them frequeiuly to march armies into Syria, aiul to solicit alliances with the Christians of Europe against those Mahnmedans their com- mon enemies ; and this was the cause of fre(|uent end)assies between the Moguls and the European sovereigns. But near the close of the century, the ^lahumcdan religion gained the ascendency, espe- cially in tiie western parts of the !MoguI empire ; and the Khans themselves now leaned towards it, and in some instances allowed tlie Christians to be persecuted. In geiun-al, liowevcr, this empire was favourable to the Christian cause in Asia, during this century ; and had the Chris- tians who attempted tlie proitagation of their religion possessed more of its inic spirit, and made united and vigorous efforts, they might jn-obably have now converted njore than half of Asia to the Christian faith, and perhaps have esta- blished a broad zone of ])crnuuient Chris- tian light and influence, from Asia Minor quite to the Chinese seas. Sec Musheim's Hislarid TdiUirur. Krclrs. ca]). ii. ]). 29, (!cc. and Schroeckh's Kirchcniicsch. vol. XXV. p. 191, &c. witii the civil histories of the Tartars. Tr.] " This is stated by some writers of that age : sec jMatth. I'aris, Historia Major, p. 174. 3C.j. and elsewhere. 1 I 2 484 BOOK III. — CENTURY XIII. [PART I. this expodltion was, by no means, such as the pontiff liad anticipated. For these French and Venetians did not direct their course to Palestine, but to Constantinople, which they stormed in the year 1203, for the sake of restoring tlie emperor Isaac Angelus, who had implored their aid against the violence and usurpations of his brother Alexius. The next year a bloody sedition took place at Constantinople, in which the emperor Isaac died, and his son, Alexius junior, was strangled by Alexius Ducas, the author of the insurrection. On hearing of tliis parricide, the generals of the crusaders again took possession of Constantinople on the 13th of April, a. d. 1204 ; and putting the tyrant Ducas to flight, they elected Baldwin, count of Flanders, emperor of the Greeks. In opposition to this Latin emperor, the Greeks created, two years after, another of their own nation, Theodore Lascaris, who fixed his residence at Nice in Bitliynia. From this period till the year 1261, there were two emperors of the Greeks, the one a Frank or Latin, and the other a Greek ; of whom the latter resided at Nice, and the former made Constantinople his capital. But in the year 1261, the Greek emperor, Michael PalcBologus, by means of his general Ccssar Alexius, recovered Constantinople, and obliged the Latin emperor, Bakhcin II., to flee into Italy. Thus terminated the empire of the Francs at Constantinople, after it had stood fifty-seven years. '^ § 4. The next crusade was undertaken by the united forces of the Italians and Germans, under the pontiff Honorius III, A. D. 1217. The commander-in-chief was Andreic, king of Hungary ; with whom were Leopold of Austria, Letois of Bavaria, and other princes. Andreiu, after a few months, returned to Europe. The other generals captured the strongly fortified city of Damictta in Egypt, A. D. 1220. But their successes did not continue long ; for the next year the Saracen fleet completely destroyed that of the Christians, after having ' These events are best stated by Claude Fontenay, Histoire de TEglise Cliarlc'S ])u Fresne, Histoire de rEmpire Gallirum; torn. x. p. 216, &c. tlie monk dcCtmstaittiiiupk sous lesEmpcreurs Fran- Guntlier's Historia capta a Latinis Coti- gois ; tlic first part of wliich contains stantinopohos ; in Henry Canisius' Zee- Godfrey de Ville-Uardnin's, one of the tiones Antiquce, toni. iv. p. 1, &c. Sec Frcncli Generals, Histoii-e de la Covquete moreover the Epistles of Innocent III., dc la ville de Constanlinople par Ics Frari- published by Ealuze : [and Gibbon's fo/.s. This work forms also a^ i)art of the History of the Decline and Fall of the great Corpus Byzantinum, Paris, 1657, lionian Empire, eh. Ix. Ixi. TV.] fol. ijee also, among others, Peter PROSPEROUS EVENTS. 485 CII. I.] cut off its supplies ; and this loss, which was utterly irre[)ai'able, was followed by tlie loss of Damietta, and the frustration of the high hopes which the Christians had indulged.® § 5. The legates and missionaries of the pontiff now enrolled a new army of crusaders from almost every country of Europe, and which was both more numerous and more respectable, because it was anticipated that the emperor Frederic II. would take the command of it in his own person. Frederic had made such a promise to the lioman pontiff: and he seemed unlikely to go from his engagement, because he had married Jolandu, the daughter of the count of Brienne and king of Jerusalem, in the year 1223, and had received Avith her the kingdom of Jeru- salem as a dower. But under various pretences the emperor long delayed his voyage, and at length, in the year 1228, after being excomnuuilcated by Gregonj IX., he set out with a small retinue to join the forces Avhich were anxiously waiting in Palestine for his arrival. When he arrived in Palestine, instead of carrying on the war, he terminated it. For, without the knowledge, and contrary to tlie wishes of those engaged with him in the enterprise, he concluded a peace in the year 1229, See Jac. de Vitriaco, Historia Orien- tal, and ilariuus Saiiutus, Secretd Fidc- lium Crucis ; in Bon<;;arsius' Historutiis of the Crusades, or Gesta Dei per Francos. [While the Christians were encamped before Damietta, we are told that St. Francis, the honest enthusiast who found- ed the Franciscan ortler, hurnini^ with zeal for the conversion of infidels, and eager for a martyr's crown, went to Egypt, and with a single attendant pro- ceeded from the Christian cam];) towards that of the Saracens. When arrested at the outposts, he exclaimed, " I am a Christian : cany me to your Sultan." The mussulmans did so : and when tlic Sultan demanded of him wlio he was, how he came there, and who had sent liim, he replied that he was Francis, the servant of Jesus Christ, and that he was sent to him by the most high God, to teach him and his people the way of salvation. Pleased ^^'it]^ this address, the Sultan entered into free conversation with him, a!ul found so much amusement in his wild though gentlemanly flights of fancy, that he in- vited him to remain with him. Francis replied, that he would do so, on condition that the Sultan would renounce IMalm- medanism and embrace Christianity, and would persuade his people to do tlic same ; and added, that if the Sidtan doubted, lie might order a gi-eat fire to be kindled, into which Francis would plunge himself along witii some of the mussulman priests, and if he perislied, it miglit be imputed to his sinfulness, but if not, then the Sultan must l)e con- vinced. The Sultan said, there were none of his priests that were Avilling to try the experiment. Then, said Francis, I "will plunge in alone, provided you will embrace Christ, if I come out unhurt. The Sultan objoeteil, tliat his subjects would revolt, and would kill him, if he sliould renounce their faith. He now offered Francis a large sum of money, to distribute in charity among the Chris- tians ; but Francis spurned his money, unless he would become a Cln-istian. At length the Sultan dismissed him, with a guard to conduct him safely to tlie Cln-istian camp ; and, at parting, rcquesteil iiis ]irayers, that God would vouchsafe to sliow him which wai the true faitli, and tiie religion most ])lea,.] and in Europe, tlie po])e exposed him to '' The history of these transactions is vai-ious dangers and difficidties ; he in- tlie most accurately and fiiithfully detail- vaded the emperor's territories in Apulia, cd by Geo. Christ. Gebauer, in his His- during his absence, contrary to all the tury of JRichard the General, written in rules then in force in regard to persons German, lib. i. p. 34, &c. It appears ciigaged in a cnisade ; he spread a report from the epistles of Peter De Vineis, that of his death, and sent legates into Ger- Frederic II. created Richard his viceroy many and Denmark, to persuade some i'or the kingdom of Jerusalem ; and this other person to suffer himself to be set accounts for the attempts of Grcoiy IX. up as emperor in opposition to Frederic, to retard his vo^■age. These surely were cogent reasons for CII. I.] PROSPEKOUS EVENTS. 4fi7 rolled among the saints after his death, and who is still regarded Avith peculiar veneration, in fulfilment of a vow made in his very- severe sickness A. D. 1248, collected a jiowerfiil army and a great fleet, and proceeded to Egypt, anticipating that the con- quest of that country would facilitate the operations of war in Palestine and Syria. At first he was successful ; for he cap- tured Damictta, a celebrated city of Egypt : but the progress of the war was most disastrous. The Mahumedans intercepting his supplies in the year 1250, famine and pestilence raged in his camp: Robert, the king's brother, indiscreetly pursuing the enemy, was slain in an unsuccessful engagement; the king himself, two of his brothers, and the greatest part of his army, were made prisoners. This magnanimous and heroic monarch, who was also very pious according to the standard of that age, Avas ransomed at a great price ^, and, after four years spent in Palestine, returned to France, with a few followers, in the year 1254.' § 8. The king, whose invincible spirit was by no means dis- couraged by these disasters, renewed the war in the year 1270; because he thought himself still pledged by his vow to God. Having again, accordingly, fitted out an immense fleet, and being accompanied by numerous princes and nobles, he set sail for Africa, intending to establish there an advanced post for the future wars in Asia. Immediately on his arrival he attacked and carried the fortress of Carthage ; but, soon after, a pesti- lential disease swept off the greatest part of his forces in the harbour of Tunis, and on the 25th of August, a. d. 1270, the king himself became its victim.' After him, no sovereign of ^ [" The ransom, which, together ■with Roy de France, ccrite par Jean Sire de the restoration of Damictta, the king was Joinvdle,enric]ue de nouvcUeit Dissertations obliged to pay for his liberty, was et Observations historiques jxir Charles Du 800,000 gold bezants, and not 80,000, as Frcsne, Paris, 1668, fol. and next, the Collier (Eccles. History, cent. xiii. vol. i. biographers of St. J^ewis, especially Fil- p. 456,) cn-oneously reckons. This sum, lean De la Chaizc, Histoirc de S. Louis, whieii was equal then to 500,000 livres of Paris, 1 688, 2 vols. 8vo, and, tinally, all Prench money, would in our days amount the writers of histories of France : [<>. g. to the value "of 4,000.000 of livres, that J. Git^'ord, Hist, of France, vol. i. p. 452, is, to about 190,000 pounds sterling." &c. and ]>. 473, &c. ed. Lund. 17<»l, 4to. Macl.^, Tr.'] Add IMeiico's Chnmicon, in Ant. * Of the 2800 knights, of noble birth, ZMatthai's Analecta Veteris ^Evi, torn. iii. who accompanied the king from France, p. 172.179. Luc. Wadding's Annates not more than 100 were alive, wlicn he Miiwnnn, torn. iv. p. 294, &e. ct passim, embarked from Palestine on his return. Boulay's Hisloria Acad. Paris, toin. iii. .Toinville's Histoire de S. Louis, j). 81, &c. p. 212. 392, &c. Picn-e Claude Fontenay, ■^ Here should be consulted, before all Histoire de FEglise GaUicane, torn. xi. others, Histoire de S. Louis IX. du 7iom p. 337, &c. 405. 575. I I 4 488 BOOK III. — CENTURY XIII. [PART I. Europe dared again venture on an enterprise of so much peril, toil, and expense. Hence the kingdom of the Latins in the East gradually wasted away, in spite of the efforts of the Eoman pontiffs to preserve it ; and on the capture of Ptolemais by the Mahumcdans, A. d. 1291, it became wholly extinct.*^ Among the causes of so great a loss, the valour of the enemy was one of the least; the principal causes were, the disunion of the Christians among themselves, the extreme profligacy of those who called themselves Christ's soldiers, and the unskilfulness and obstinacy of the papal legates.^ § 9. In the West, the fierce people of Prussia, at the com- mencement of the century, were still adhering firmly to the superstition of their ancestors ; nor could the priests, occa- sionally sent among them, by their arguments and exhortations induce them to embrace Christianity. Hence Conrad, duke of Masovia^, thought proper to apply coercion; and in the year 1230, proffering liberal rewards, he invited the knights of the Teutonic order of St. Mary, who on their exclusion from Pales- tine had fixed themselves at Venice, to undertake the subjuga- tion of the Prussians and their conversion to the Christian faith. They came into the country under Hermann of Balcke as their leader, and after an uninterrupted and cruel war of fifty-three years with the Prussians, they brought them with difficulty to submit to the government of the knights, and to allow the Christian religion to be substituted for that of their fathers.^ From Prussia these knights made inroads upon the neighbour- ing nations, particularly upon the Lithuanians; nor did they cease from slaughtering, devastating, and plundering all before ^ Anth. Matthai, Analecta Veteris Mvi, with an annual tribute, than live under torn. V. p. 748. Jac.'Echard's Scriptores a spiritual monarch, whuse avarice, as Bominicani, torn. i. p. 422, &c. Imola, well as that of his legates, was insatiable, on Dante ; in Muratori's Antiq. Ital. Schl.'] ^/cfK^jj/, torn. i. p. 1111, 1112. " [In Poland. TV.] ' [For these legates pursued exclu- " '^ec^la.tx\\ai, Analecta Vet. ^vi, torn. sively the interests of the popes, and of iii. p. 18. torn. v. 684 — 689. Peter of the Iloniisii clergy ; and they laboured, Duisbcrg's Chronicon Prmsia- ; published often by harsh means, by imprisonment, by Ilartknoch. Jena, 1679, 4to. Ciirist. and by closing up their churches, to bring Hartknoch's History of the Prussian the patriarchs of Jerusalem and the en- Church, writi^n in German, lib. i. c. 1, tire Greek clei-gy, in the countries held p. 33, &c. and Antiquitates Prussia;, diss, by the Latins, under subjection to the xix. p. 201, &c. Steph. Bahize, Mi sccl- Jioniish see ; and they so irritated the lanca, tom. vii. p. 427. 478, &c. Wad- Greeks, tliat they were often more friendly (ling's Anmiivs Minorum, tom. iv. p. 40, to the iMaliumedans than to tlie occiden- 63, &c. Soiignac's Histoirc de Pulogne, tal C!n-istians, and would rather be sub- tom. ii. p. 238, &c. jcct to a people who could be satislied CH. II.] ADVERSE EVENTS. 489 them, till this people also were beaten into a simulated sub- mission, not really to Christ, but to these furious and must pug- nacious assertors of his cause.' § 10. In Spain, the Christian kings of Castile. Leon, Navarre, and Aragon, waged perpetual wars with the Saracen princes, who possessed Valencia, Andalusia, Granada, and Murcia ; and such was their success, that the territories of the Saracens were daily reduced to narrower limits, and the boundaries of the Christian church extended. The most distinguished in these contests were, Ferdinand^ king of Castile and Leon, who ob- tained a place among the Saints, his father Alphonso IX., king of Leon, James /., king of Aragon, and some others.'^ In par- ticular, this James of Aragon having conquered Valencia in the year 1236, spared no pains to convert his new subjects to the Christian faith, as he could not expel them from the country without serious injury to the state. Hence he ordered the Do- minicans, whom he chiefly used for this purpose, to learn the lan- guao-e of the Arabians : and he established schools in the island of Majoi'ca and at Barcelona for the education of preachers of the Christian religion. When these efforts were found to produce little effect upon a people of so much obstinacy, pope Clement IV. exhorted the king to expel the Mahumedans from Spain : nor was the latter disinclined ; but his nobles frustrated the designs of the pontiff and king.^ CHAPTER IL ADVERSE EVENTS IN THE HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. § 1. Adversities of Christians in the East.— § 2. Pretended atheists among tho Lutiiis.— § 3. Frederic II., and the book respecting tlic three impostors. § 1. How much the Christian cause lost ground in Asia, will be manifest from that which has been said of the Tartars and of the unhappy issue of the Crusades. If the Saracens had im- ' Besides those just mentioned, sec Spain ; the whole of vol. iv. Ludewi^'s lidiquke. Manuscripior. omnis ■' ^ee Mich, (icddcs. Hi.stori/ of the JEvi, tom. i. p. 330, &c. Espnlsiim ic books of was educated by his older brother which, in a Latin translation by Morel, Michael Choniates, at Coiistantiiioi)le, were published, Paris, 1580, and in the where he became distinguished as a civi- Bililioth. Fair. torn. xxv. — A funeral lian and public officer, under Alexius oration on his death, by his elder bro- Comnenus, and Isaac Angclus. On the ther Michael Choniates, archbishop of capture of Constantinople by the Latins, Athens, in a Latin translation, is j)rintcd A. i>. 1204, he retired with iiis family to with his histon,-, and also in the liibliuth. Nice, in Bithynia, where he was living Futr. tom. xxv. 7>.] in the year 1206. He \sTote a history of ^ [George Acropolita was born at the Greek empire, from the death" of Constantinople, and received a learned Alexius Comncnus, a. d. 1180, to the de- education. He was sent to the court of cease of the Latin emperor Henry, a. n. Nice, when young, a. d. 1228 ; and con- 1206, in twcntv-one books ; published, tinned there most of his life. He rose Gr. and Lat. Basil, 1557, Paris, 1647, to the highest civil offices in the gift of M. &n(\. m th(t Scriptores Byzantiui. He the emperors, and was nuich emjiloycd also wrote Thesaurus Orthodoxa Fiikl,m on embassies, and as a speeiid juiige or 494 BOOK III. — CENTURY XIII. [PAET II. cjory Pachymeres'^ , and Joel, whose Chronology is still extant.* From some tracts of Nicephorus Blemmida^ and Gregory Pachy- meres, it appears, that the Peripatetic philosophy still had its friends among them. Yet others preferred Plato ; while the majority assiduously studied the younger Platonists, and thought their system capable of being reconciled advantageously Avith that of Aristotle. The writers of sermons and lives of the saints, the combatants against the Latins, and the expounders of their canon law, need not be enumerated. Among the Syrian Chris- tians, the most distinguished writer was Gregory Ahulpharajiis, INIaphrian ^ of the Jacobites ; a man of superior genius and ex- tensive learning, and truly respectable as a theologian, an his- torian, and a philosopher.^ With him may be joined George Elmacin, the author of a History of the Saracens.^ commissioner. He died a. d. 1282. His histoiy of the Greek empii'e, fi-om the invasion of the Latins in 1203, to the end of their reign at Constantinople, a. d. 1201, was published imperfect, Gr. and Lat. Lcyden, 1014, 8vo, and entire, with notes, by Leo Allatius, Paris, 1651, fol. subjoined to his prolix essay, De Georgiis et eorum scriptis. JV-.] ^ [Gregory Pachymeres was born at Nice, A. D. 1242. After a good educa- tion, he became an ecclesiastic at Con- stantinople, where he was in high repu- tation, and rose to the highest offices under the patriarch. He was certainly alive in the year 1308. He wrote the history of tiie Greek empire, from a. d. 1258 to 1308 ; published, Gr. and Lat. Eome, 1666, and 1669, 2 vols. fol. Also a jiaraphrase on Dionysius Areopagita, published with the works of Dionysius ; likewise a tract on the procession of the Holy Spirit, and an epitome of Aristotle's Logic, both of wliich are extant. Tr.'] ■* [Of this Joel, little is known, except that he must have been witness of tlie desolations of Constantinople in the year 1204. He wrote a brief chionology of tlic world, from the creation to a. d. 1204 ; jjulflislied by Leo Allatius, Gr. and Lat., ■with tlie works of George Acropolita, Paris, 1651. TV.] ^ [Nicephorus Bleminida was a pres- byter and a very austere monk of mount Athos, who rei'uscd the patriarchate of Constantinople in the year 1255. He is said to have leaned to the side of tlie I^atin church in their disputes with tlie Greeks. His two tracts . 223. Charles du Fresne Avork, see C^sar Egas.se De Boulay's notes to JoinxiWc's Life of St. Lewis, i>. Hisluria Academice Parisiensis, a coj)ious 36, &c. and excellent work, in six volumes ; and * [Academic. 7V.1 Claud. lienucrajus, de Academia Pari- CH. I.] STATE OF LITERATURE AND PHILOSOl'nY. 497 were hailed as Masters. This custom, first introduced in the preceding century by the Jurists of Bologna, was in the present century, at Paris, first extended to the Theologians, and after- wards to the professors of physic and of the liberal arts. And this was the origin of what arc called academical clef/rces ; which, like all human institutions, have deviated far from their original design, and are continually varying more and more.'' § 5. The belles lettres did not derive from these institutions and efforts so much advantao;e as the other l)ranchcs of learnino; did. For most of the young men devoted themselves either to canon or civil law, Avhich opened the way to preferment and wealth ; or they attended only to philosophy, which promised them fame as men of acuteness and genius. The pontiffs, there- fore, and the other bishops, complained bitterly of the neglect of literature and polite learning, and endeavoured, though in vain, to divert the youth from the study of law and philosophy, to that of sacred literature and the liberal arts.^ Still there are some among the writers of this age, whom no man of candour can regard with contempt. Among the poets, JrHliam Brito ^, Walter Mapes^, Mattheic of Vendome', Alain de ITsle, Gunther Ligurinus^, James of Vitrc'', and some others, merit the praise of ^ Besides the writers already referred English ecclesiastic, cliaplain to king to, see Jo. Christ. Itterus, ih Gradihus Henry 11., and afterwards archdeacon of Academic is ; and Just. Ilenn. Bohnier, Oxford. He flourished about a. n. 1210 ; Praf. ad Jus Canonicum, p. 13. Ant. and having spent some time at Rome, he Wood, Antiquit. Oxonienses, torn. i. p. 24. was well accjuainted with the cornqjtions Boulay, Historia Acad. Paris, torn. ii. of that court, as well as of the clergy at p. 256. 682. 684, &c. large. His short and satirical poems ' See Boulay's Historia Acad. Paris, lasli the vices of the times, and particu- tom. iii. p. 265, where is an energetic larly of the clergy. John Wolf, 1. c. has epistle of Innocent IH. Also, Ant. imhlished six of his ])ieccs : viz. Apo- Wood's Antiquitates Oxon. toni. i. p. 124. cali/psis Golice Pontijicis : ad Impios Pre- Imola on Dante, in Muratori's Antiquit. latos : ad 3lalos Pastores : ad ( liristi Sa- Ital. Medii vEvi, torn. i. p. 1262. cerdotes : Svnno ad cosdem Pralaios Impios : ' See Histoire de I'Acad. des Inscrip- and, de Malis liomanm Curia: 7>.] ticms et des Belles Lettres, tom. xvi. p. ' [i\[atthew of Vendome (Vindoci- 255, &c. [William Brito, or the Briton, ncnsis) is placed by some at the bcgiii- becaiise born in Bretagne ; and hence ning of the century, by others in the also called Armoricus. He com])oscd middle, and by others near its end. He two histories of the French king, Philip wrote in elegiac verse, the Histunj of Augustus, in whose court he lived, the Tubias, father and son, which he entitled one in prose, the other in verse. The Tubiale; ]niblislied, Lyons, 1505, and fu-st temiinates a.d. 1219 ; the latter ex- Bremen, 1642. Tr.'] tends further, and is entitled Philippis. " [Gunther was a schoolmaster at In both he copies from Rigord. Both Baris, and then a Cistercian monk in arc extant in I)u Chesne's Scriptnres the diocese of Bale, and flounshcd Hist. Francicce, tom. v. p. 68 and 93, about a. u. 1210. His poetic history of &c. Schl.l the capture of Constantinople by the » Jo. Wolfius, Lectiones Memorabil. Latins was published by H. Canisius, tom. i. p. 430. [Walter IMapes was an Lectiones Antiqua;, torn. v. -, and his cele- VOL. II. K K 498 BOOK III. — CENTURY XIII. [part II. being sprightly and agreeable writers. Among the historians, Mattheiu Paris, distinguished for intelligence and good sense ^, Roderic Ximenius ^, Rigordus ^, Vincent of Beauvais '^j Robert of St. Marino ^, Martin Polanus '-^ Gervais of Tilbury ^ Conrad of brated poetic Life of Frederic Barharossa, in ten books, has been often published separate, and also in Justin Ileuber's Scriptores Germanici, p. 407 — 734. Tr. This poem, wliich is not certainly known to be from the same pen as the fonncr poem, dwells much upon Barbarossa's exploits in the Genoese temtorj^, or Liguria. J?f/.] ^ De Vitriaco. ■* [Matthew Paris was an English Benedictine monk, initiated at St. Alban's, A. D. 1217. He was a very exemplary man, in liigh favour with Henry 11., and employed by the pope to reform some foreign monasteries. He is accounted the best historian of the middle ages, learned, independent, honest, and judi- cious. His great work is his Histuria Major, or History of England, from the arrival of William the Conqueror in 10G6, to the 4.3rd year of Henry III. or a. d. 1259 ; which Avas the year of his death. His Historia Minor is an epitome of the preceding. He also composed the lives of the two Oftas, kings of Mercia ; the lives of the twenty-three abbots of St. Albans, up to his times ; hkcwse Additions, to his Historia Major ; and a chronicle, I'rom the creation to William the Con- (jueror. His works were best publislied by Wm. Wats, D.D. London, 1640, fol. Tr.-] ^ [Roderic Ximeues, or Simonis, was a SpaniiU'd of Navarre, educated at Paris, and archbishop of Toledo from a. u. 1208, till his death a. d. 1247. He wrote the history of Spain, from the aiTi\'al of Hercules tliere, to the year a. d. 1243, in nine books, which lie called the Historia Gothica. As amplifications of this, he wrote a history of the Ostrogoths, from a.d. 453 to 555 ; a history of the Huns and Vandals, from their origin to a. d. 555 ; a history of the Arabians, from a.d, 570 to A. I). 1150: and a Roman history, from king Jamis to the em- peror Augustus. The wliole was \m\i- lislicd by Andreas Schott. Hispania Illiis- trata, tom. ii. p. 2G, &.c. Eraucf. 1G03. Tr.-] ^ Histotrc dc VAcad. des Inscript. et des Belles Lettres, tom. xvi. )i. 243, &c. where also AVilliam of Nangis is treated of. [Rigord was probably born in the south of France, of Gotliic extract, a jihysician, historian, and a clerk of St. Henys. He wrote the life of Phihp Augustus, king of France, in prose ; which William Brito follows in his poetic historj-. It is in Du Chesne's Scriptores Hist. Francicce, tom. v. p. 1, &c. Tr.] "• [Vincent of Beauvais was sub-prior of a Dominican cloister at Beauvais, and tutor to the sons of St. Lewis. He pro- bably died aljout a. d. 1264. By dnec- tion of the king, he wi-ote a huge work, of vast reading and little judgment, a kind of encyclopaedia, entitled Speculum naturale, doctrinale, et historiale. The first part treats of natural history, geo- grapliy, and chronology ; the second, of theology, philosophy, and all the other sciences ; the third is a general history of the world. A fourth part, probably l)y a later author, entitled Speculum Mo- rale, treats of jjractical religion. The whole Avas printed at Douay, 1 624, in 4. A'ols. fol. See Schroeckh's Kirc/iengesch, vol. xxiv. p. 445, &e. Tr.] " See Jae. Le Boeuf, Menwires pour rHistoired'Auxerre, tom. ii. p. 490, Avherc he also treats learnedly of Vincent of Beauvais, p. 494. ^ [Martin Polanus, or of Poland, Avas a natiAe of Troppau, in Silesia, then a part of Poland, and a Dominican monk there, till he Avent to Rome, and was there made chief penitentiary under the pope for many years. At last, he was appointed archbishop of Gnesen, in I'olant!, and of course primate of that kingdom ; but died on his Avay thither, A.D. 1278. He Avrote a chronicle of the ])ontirts and emperors, fi-om the Christian era to a.d. 1287, Avhieh Avas contmued by another hand to a.d. 1285: often ])ublished ; but of little value. He also Avrote an index to the Becretum of Gratian and the Decretals, and several sermons. See Sein-oeckh, 1. c. p. 521. Tr.] ' [Gervais of Tilbury Avas neiihcAV to Henry 11., king of England, and bora at Tilbury, in Essex. He flourished a. d. 1210. Henry H. made him marshal of Aries, in France, and Otto IV., emperor of Germany, made much of him. He CII. I.] STATE OF LITERATUEE AND PHILOSOPHY. 499 Lichtenau-, JVilUam of Nangis-'', and some others, deserve to be mentioned. Those who composed lives of the saints, detail rather the superstitions and infelicities of the times, than the achievements of the eminently pious. Among these writers, James of Vitro stands prominent ; who was likewise author of a History of the Lombards, which is full of insipid stories.'* § 6. To Greek literature some attention was paid, by Ror/er Bacon, a man of extraordinary genius, by John Balhus ^, Robert Capito, and a limited number of others. The Hebrew lano-uao-e and theology had still fewer cultivators. Yet we learn, that Raymund Martini, the intelligent author of the Pugio Fidei, Bacon, Capito, and a few others, were no inconsiderable profi- cients in such learning. The Arabic language and learning were studied by many of the Spaniards, and likewise by the Dominican friars, to whom the Christian kings of Spain com- mitted the instruction of the Jews and Arabians resident in Spain.^ The Latin grammarians, even the best of them, are all wi'ote, to amuse the emperor, his Otla imperialia, in tliree books, pulilished by Leibnitz, in his Scriptores reruni Brunsuic. torn. i. Several other of his liistorical works still exist in manuscript. TV.] - [Conrad of Lichtenau, or Conrad Urspergensis, sensed first in the court of the emperor Heniy VI., but became a priest a. d. 1202, a Prajmonstratensian monk in 1205, and abbot of a monastery at Urspcrg, or Aversberg, in Suabia, a. d. 1215. He resided some time at Rome, in early life, and died a. d. 1240. His Chronicle, from Belus, king of Assyria, to a. D. 1229, is useless for ancient his- tory ; but valuable for tlie times within his personal knowledge. He was no flatterer of the popes. The work was published at Strasburg, 1548 and 1609, fol. with those of Regino and Lambert of Ascliaffenbm-g. 7>._] ^ [William of Nangis, a Benedictine monk of St. Dcnys, Paris, flourished a. d. 1301 ; and M'rote a Chronicle, from the creation to a. d. 1301 ; also the life of Lewis LX. and that of Philip IIL, kings of France. The Chronicle was published by D'Achcry, Spicilegium, tom. xi. p. 405, and the two biographies by Du Chesne, Scriptores Hist. Franc, tom. v. Tr.-] ^ Sec Joh. Geo. Schelhom, Amcenitates Litter, tom. xi. p. 324, &e. [It was not James de Vilriaco,bnt James de Voragine, who coniposed the Historiu Lombardica ; as is coiTcctly stated in chap. ii. § 45. K K James de Voi-agine was born in Liguria, in Italy, became a Dominican monk, pro^ancial of his order for Lomljardy, general of the order, archbishop of Genoa. He flourished a. d. 1290 ; is said to have fixvom-ed the emperor against the pon- tifls; and died about a.d. 1298. He was a pious and charitable man, but cre- dulous, and a great collector of fables. His Histoi-y of the Lombards is a mere collection of legends of the saints ; often published in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, but always disliked by intel- ligent Roman Catholics. He also wrote a Chronicle of Genoa, published by IMuratori, Scriptores lierum ItaL tom. ix. and many sermons, which liave been jirintcd. See Cave's Historia Litteraria, ad an. 1290. 7>.] ^ [This John, who is sometuucs called John de Balbis, or Ue Janua, that is, Genoa, caimot well be placed in tliis list. For he sa}-s of himself, near the beginning of the famous Cal/ioliron, [a general Latin dictionary, TV.] which he com])osed, "Hoc diflicilc est scire, et maximc mihi, non bene scienti linguam Gnv'cam." And that this is not to be attributed to his excessive modesty, appears from the contents of the book. Sc/d.^ '' Sec Rich. Simon's Lettrcs Choisies, tom. iii. p. 112. Nic. Antonius, Biblioth. Vet. Hispanica, passim ; and the His- torians of Spain. 500 BOOK III. — CENTURY XIII. [PART II. jejune and barbarous. This is manifest from the one who had the highest reputation, and whose Avork was taught in all the schools, from this century on to the sixteenth, Alexander de Villa Dei, of the Franciscan order. His Doctrinale, composed in the year 1240, in what are called Leonine verses, involves the rules of grammar in such nonsense and obscurity, as can scarcely be believed by one who has not looked over the book. § 7. The Latins, who had before philosophized variously, gradually submitted themselves, in this century, exclusively to the authority and the principles of Aristotle. Certain books of Aristotle, especially his Metaphysics, were read in Latin, and publicly explained to the students at Paris, near the commence- ment of this century.'' But as it appeared, that from these books, Almeric had derived his errors respecting God and some other subjects, they were prohibited, as pestilent, by the council of Sens, in the year 1209.^ Yet a few years afterwards, A. D. 1215, the Logic oi Aristotle was again introduced into the uni- versity of Paris ; while his physical and metaphysical books were still excluded.^ Subsequently, the emperor Frederic IL, who was a great friend to learning, ordered the books of Aris- totle, and of other ancient philosophers, to be translated, partly from Arabic, and partly from Greek, into Latin, by selected persons, (as he expressed it'°,) well skilled in each language. And as this translation was recommended by the emperor him- self to the university of Bologna, and doubtless to others also, the influence of Aristotle was increased immensely in all the schools of Europe. And this influence was extended by the many Latin translators of some of the works of Aristotle, who arose afterwards ; as Michael Scot, Philip of Tripoli, William ' Franc, ratricius Discussiones Peri- » Natalis Alexander, Selecta Hist. patetica, toni. i. lib. xi. p. 14.5. John Eccles. Capita, torn. viii. c. iii. § 7, p. Launoi, de Varia Aristotelis Fort una in 76. Acadcmia Paris, cap. i. p. 127, ed. Els- "> Peter de Vineis, Epistolar. lib. iii. wich. It is commonly said, that tliose Ep. Lx\ii. p. 50.1, &c. This epistle is books of Aristotle were translated into dii-ected ad Magistros et Scholares Bono- Latin from the Arabic. But Kijrordus nimses. Bnt it is prolxible, that the cm- {de Gcstis Philippi regis Francor. ad. an. pcror sent similar epistkjs to the other 1209, in Andr. Du Chcsnc's Scriptores schools in Europe. It is commonly said. Hist. Franc, p. 119,) expressly says, that Frederic caused Latin translations to they were Ijroupht from Constanti- be made of all the works of Aristotle that nople, and translated out of Greek into are extant, and that this was in the year Lathi. 1220. But neither position can be proved 8 Launoi, 1. c. cap. iv. p. 195, and his from this epistle; nor, as I suppose, Syllabus rationum, quibus Durandi canssa from any other testimonies. defenditur ; 0pp. torn. i. pt. i. p. 8, &c. CH.I.] STATE OF LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY. 501 Fleming, and others; thougli all of them were deficient In know- ledge, and In acquaintance with the languages.^ § 8. Aristotle reached the summit of esteem and reputation, when the mendicant orders, the Dominicans and Franciscans, embraced his philosophy, taught it universally in the schools, and illustrated it by their writings. For these friars, from this time onward, stood foremost in learning, both sacred and pro- fane, in Europe, and were followed by nearly all who would rise above the vulgar in knowledge. The first who published ex- positions of Aristotle, were Alexander Hales, an Englishman, and a Franciscan and doctor at Paris, who acquired the title of the Irrefragable Doctor"^; and Albert the Great, a German Dominican, and bishop of Ratisbon, a man, undoubtedly, of no common genius, and the general guide of his age.^ After these, a pupil of Albert ^, Thomas Aquinas, who was the great luminary of the schools, and was called the Angelic Doctor, a Dominican, exalted the glory of Aristotle more than all others. For he expounded his books, both orally and in writing, and also caused a new Latin translation of his works to be made by one of his associates, more correct and clear than any used be- fore.'^ Through the influence of these men, therefore, and a few others, notwithstanding the opposition of many divines, and the disapprobation of the pontiffs, Aristotle became the dictator in i)hilosopliy, among the Latins. § 9. There were, however, in Europe several persons of supe- ' Concerning tlicsc translators of Aris- proliable. See Anton. Touron, Vie dc totle, see Anth. Wood's Aiitiquit. Oxon. S. Thomas, p. 90. But tlie Franciscans torn. i. p. 119, and Sam. Jebh's iVa;/'. af/ eagerly maintained, that Tliomas was Opus Majus Rogeri Baconi, Lond. 1733, a pupU of Alexander Hales. See Wad- fol. I will subjoin the opinion of Bacon, ding's Annaks Minorum, torn. ill. p. 133, a very competent judge, concerning &c. these translations of Aristotle, as taken * IMost persons suppose that the au- by Jebb from a manuscript : If I had thor of this new Latin version of the contnnd over these books of Aristotle, (the works of Aristotle, which Tliomas Aqiii- Latin traiislations,) / would cause than nas caused to be made, ^^•as William de all to be burnt : for it is a loss of time to IMocrbeka, a Dominican of Flanders, well study ill them, and a cause of error, and a acquainted witli both Latin and Greek, furtherance of ignorance, beyond what can and archbisiiop of Corinth. Sec Jac. well be expressed. Echartl's Scriptorcs JJominicani, torn. i. * Sec Lucas Wadding's Annales Mi- p. 3S8, &c. Casini. Oudin, Comment, de norum, tom. iii. p. 233, &e. Eoulay's Scriptor. Ecclcs. tom. iii. p. 468. Jo. Historia Acad. Paris, tom. iii. p. 200. Franc. Fciipens, Biblioth. Btlgica, tom. i. 673 &c. P- "^16. But others, though supported ^ Jo. Alb. Fabricius, Bibliotli. Lat. by fewer authorities, attribute the work Medii JEvi, tom. i. p. 113, &c. to Henry Kosbein, who was also a Domi- * This is according to the opinion of nican. See Echard's Scriptores Dominic the Dominicans, which appears most tom. i. p. 469, &c. K K 3 502 BOOK III. — CENTURY XIII. [PART II. rior genius and penetration, who, while they valued Aristotle highly, wished to extend the boundaries of human knowledge ; and were disgusted with the meagre and jejune method of philo- sophizing, derived from the books of AristotleS' Among them, the following obtained, very deservedly, the highest reputation ; namely Roger Bacon, an Englishman of the Franciscan order, called the Admirable Doctor ; an extraordinary man, skilled far beyond the standard of his age, in philosophy, mathematics, chemistry, the mechanic arts, and in various languages, and also much renowned for his important discoveries'^: Arnold of Villa Nova, a Frenchman, as many believe, though some make him a Spaniard ; greatly distinguished for his knowledge of the medi- cal art, philosophy, chemistry, poetry, languages, and of many other things ^ : and Peter de Abano, or de Apono, an Italian, and a physician of Padua, suruamed the Reconciler, on account of the book he wrote, entitled. The reconciler of the differences among pliilosophers and plajsicians ; a man of acuteness, and pro- ^ Roger Bacon, quoted by Stepli. Jebb, iti the preface to Bacon's largfcr work, says : " Never was there so great an ap- pearance of wisdom, and so great ardour in study, in so many facuhies, and so many countries, as during the last forty years ; for doctors are scattered every where — -in every city, in every castle, in every borough, students, jn-inci])ally un- der the two orders, (/. c. the Dominicans and tlie Franciscans, who were almost the only people that pursued literature,) which was never the case till within about forty years : and yet never was there .w great ignorance and so great mis- apprehension.— The mass of students dose and yawn like asses, over the bad trans- lations, (he intends the Ijooks of Aristotle, the translations of M'hich he would cen- sure as being ridiculous and exceedingly foulty,) and waste altogether the time, and labour, and expense, they lay out upon them. Appearances are all that engross their attention ; and they care not what it is they know, but only to api)ear veiy learned before the senseless nudtitude." ' Tliat such was his character, strik- ingly appears from his Great Work,{Opus Majus,) as it is called, addressed to the Roman pontiff", Clement IV., and pub- hsliL'd by Stei>heu Jebb, M. U. from a Dublin manuscrijit, ^\^th a learned jire- face and notes, London, 1 733. fol. ; a work well ^voith perusing. The other works of Bacon, which were nimierous, still remain for the most part in manu- script. See, concerning him, Anth. Wood's Antiq. Oxonienses, tom. i. p. 136, &c. Wadding's Annates Minorum, tom. iv. p. 264, &c. tom. v. p. 51. Thorn. Gale, ad Jamhliclmm de Mysteriis ^gi/p- tiur. p. 235. Nouveau Dictionnaire His- tor. et Crit. tom. i. art. Baco, p. 3, &c. [Rees' Cyclopadia, art. Roger Bacon. ^ See Nic. Antonius, Bihlioth. vetus Hispanica, torn. ii. lib. ix. c. i. p. 74. Peter Joseph, Vie d'Arnaud de Ville- neuve, A\x, 1719, 12mo. Niceron, ilfe- moires des Homines Illustres, tom. xxxiv. p. 82. Nicol. E}aneric, Direciorium Inqiiisitonim, p. 282 ; where there is au account of his ciTors. [Arnold, or Ai-- naud de Villeneuve, was born about the middle of this century, studied at Paris and Montpeher, visited the schools in Italy and in Spain, where he studied physic under Arabian masters, and learn- ed their language. His reputation was vciy high as a physician and a scholar. At Paris he uttered so freely his opi- nions of the monks and the mass, as to bring himself uito danger : and he re- tired to the court of Frederic of Aragon. lie died about a. d. 1312. His works, which were numerous, were collected and published at Lyons, 1520, fol. and at Bale, 1585. See Rees' Cyclopadia, art, Arnaud. Tr.} CH. I.] STATE OF LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY. 503 foundly read in pliilosophy, astronomy, the medical art, and mathematics.^ But all these received this as the reward of their talents and industry, that they were ranked by the ignorant multitude among magicians and heretics, and hardly escaped being burned at the stake. Bacon was confined many years in a prison ; and both the others, after their deaths, were, by the Inquisition, judged worthy of the flames. § 10. In what manner theology was taught, will be stated in a subsequent chapter. Law, now divided into sacred, or canon law, and civil, was prosecuted by vast numbers : but each division was disfigured and obscured, rather than elucidated, by numerous silly expositions. Several persons undertook to collect what are called the decretal epistles of the pontiffs ; which constitute no small part of the canon law.^ The most distinguished in this labour was Raijmund of Pennafort, a Catalonian, and general of the Dominican order. He compiled his work under the direc- tions of Gregory IX., and divided it into five books. Gregory directed this to be annexed to the Decretum of Gratian, and to be expounded in all the schools.^ Near the end of the century, Boniface VIII. caused a new collection to be made ; which, being subjoined to the five previous books, is called the sixth Book of the Decretals.^ " Of him, no one has written with more industiy, tlian John ^faria INIaz- zuchelli, Notizie Storlche e Criticlie intonio alia vita di Pietro iFAbano; in Angeli Calogcra's OpimcuU scicntijici etfilohgici, torn, xxiii. p. 1 — 54. [lie was born at Apono or Abano, a village netu" Padua, about the 'year 1250, studied Greek at Constantinople, and medicine and mathe- matics at Paris, and taught medicine at Padua. He was prosecuted by the In- quisition, as being a magician, at the time of his death, a. d. 1315. His book, entitled Conciliator, S\'r., discusses more than 200 questions and ])roblcms, chiefly medical, but others philosniihical, as- trological, &c. It was first published, Venice, 1471, fol. and frequently after- Avai'ds. Bayle's Dictionnaire, art. Apoue, and Schroeckh's Kirchengesch. vol. xxiv. p. 539, &c. 7>.] ' Concerning them, see C. E. de Bou- lay's Historia Acad. Paris, tom. iii. p. 98, &e. * Gerh. a JIastricht, Historia .Juris Ecclesiastici, § 353, p. 384. Jo. Chiflet, le Juris iitriusquc Architectis, cap. vi. p. fiO, &c. Jao. Echard and Quetif's Scriptures Dominicani, tom. i. p. 106, &c. Acta Sunctor. Antwerp, tom. i. Januarii, ad diem vii. p. 404, &c. ^ [Tlie five books of the Decretals are digested under a scries of Tituli, and divided into books according to the onlcr of subjects. The liber sextus JJecrctaliitm pursues the same aiTangenient, and there- fore is divided into fi"\c books. Subse- quently another collection was made by order of Clement V., called Clementina, whicli is divided also into five books. Several smaller collections, afterwards made, first by John XXII. and then by various pontifis, arc not so digested, but are thrown together promiscuously ; and are therefore called Kxtravacjantes. The Decretitm of Gratian, the five books of Decretals by Gregory, and the others mentioned in this note, con.stitute the Corpus Juris Canonici. The voluminous expositors of the Canon Law do not comment upon all the books now enume- rated, in their order ; but they follow the five books of liie Decretals regidarly tlu'ough, and introduce what occurs in K 4 504 BOOK III. — CENTURY XIII. [PART II. CHAPTER IL HISTORY OF THE TEACHERS AND GOVERNMENT OF THE CHURCH. § 1. Coniiption of the clergy. — § 2. The Ronian pontiffs. — § 3. Then- power of creating bishops, &c. — § 4. The authority of their legates. — § 5. The pontitis in- crease in wealth. — § 6, 7, 8. The aiTOgant tjTanny of Innocent III. shown by several examples. — § 9. Honorius III. — § 10. Wrong conduct of Gregory IX. — § 11. Innocent IV. — § 12. Alexander IV. and Urban IV. — § 13. Gregory X. — § 14. Innocent V., Hadrian VI., John XXI., and Nicolaus III. — § 15. Martin IV. and Nicolaus IV. — § 16. Coelestine V. — § 17. Boniface VIIL — § 18. New orders of Monks. — § 19. Orders of Monks that have become extinct. — § 20. The orders that still flourish. — § 21. The Mendicants. — § 22. Their history. — § 23. They acquired great veneration in Europe. — § 24. The Dominicans.^§ 25. The Tranciscans. — § 26. Both did good service to the pontiffs. — § 27. Then- contests with the university of Paris. — § 28. Their adversary. — § 29. Insolence of the Mendicants. — § 30. Conflicts between the Dominicans and the Franciscans. — § 31, 32. Discord among the Franciscans respecting the true meaning of their rule. § 33. Other jars among them, respecting the Everlasting Gospel of Joachim. — § 34. The book of Gerhai-d is condemned. — § 35. The constitution of Nicolaus III. respecting the rule of St. Francis. — § 36. It produces neAV commotions, and rouses up the Spiritual. — §37,38. Continuation of these commotions. — §39. The Fratricelli, and the Beguards. — § 40, 41. The Tertiarii, Bocasoti, and Beguins. — § 42. The Lollards. — § 43. The Greek writers. — § 44. The Latin writers. § 1. Both Greeks and Latins are equally free in exposing and lashing the wickedness and scandalous excesses of their prelates and religious teachers. Nor Avill any one, acquainted with the events of this period, pronounce their complaints excessive.^ Some men of high rank attempted to heal this malady, which from the head diffused itself throughout the body: but their power was inadequate to a task so arduous. The Greek emperors were impeded by the calamities of the times ; Gratian, the liber sextus, Sfc. at the proper vices of all orders of the clergy ; publish- places : thus their conmientaries are al- cd by Dion. Sanunarthanus, Gallia Chris- ways divided into five parts, and gene- tiana, tom. ii. Appendix, p. 21,&c. See rally in five vols. fol. TV.] also Charles du Fresne's notes to the ' See the expressive letter of the pon- life of St. I^cwis, p. 99 ; where he treats tiff, Gregory IX., to the archbishop of especially of the disorders of the com't of Bourgcs, A. K. 1227, for correcting the Rome. CH. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND G0VERN3IENT. 505 and the Latins, on account of the power of the Roman pontiff;?, and the superstition of the age, could effect nothing of Im- portance. § 2. A vivid picture of this may he seen, by reading over the history of the Latin pontiffs. For all who had any share in the government of the Church, were like sovereign lords ; at least, in their feelings and disposition. They perseverlngly urged, and with violence, with menaces, and frauds, and force of arms, that fundamental principle of the papal canon law, that the Roman pontiff Is the sovereign lord of the whole world ; and that all other rulers in church and state have so much power and authority as he sees fit to let them have. Resting on this eternal principle, as they conceived It to be, the pontiffs arrogated to themselves the absolute power not only of conferring sacred offices, or benefices, as they are called, but also of giving away empires, together with a corresponding right of taking their au- thority from kings and princes. The more Intelligent indeed, for the most part, considered [general] councils as superior to the pontiffs ; the kings and princes too who were not blinded by su- perstition, restrained the pontiffs from intermeddling with worldly or civil affairs, and bade them to be contented with the regulation of things sacred ; they maintained their jiower to the utmost of their ability, and even claimed for themselves supremacy over the church in their respective territories.- But they had to do these things cautiously, if they would not learn by experience, that the pontiffs had long arms. § 3. In order to reign more absolutely and more securely, both In church and state, the pontiffs claimed, in particular, the right of appointing all presiding officers, In the church, of every rank and description, bishops, abbots, canons, S^-c. at their discretion. Thus they who had formerly contended with so mucli zeal for the free election of presiding officers in the church, against the encroachments of emperors and kings, now themselves overthrew the whole right of free elections; and either reserved to themselves the richer benefices, or provided for the vacant churches, by assigning to them their depen- * As specimens, the reader may pe- 614. And the French and English kings, ruse the letters of Innocent III., and as well as some otiiers, were equally the emperor. Otto IV., pubhshed hy active with Otto, in defending their Geo. Chr. Gebauer, in his German His- rights against the pontiffs. tory of the emperor Bichard, p. 611 — 506 BOOK III. — CENTURY XIII. [PART II. dants and friends : nay, they even set aside prelates who were duly elected, in order to substitute others in their places.^ The pretence was, care for the safety of the church, and fear lest heretics should creep into the fold of Christ.* Innocent III. first assumed this power ; and after him, Honorius III, Gregory IX., and others. But the progress of this usurpation Avas resisted in some measure by the bishops, who had before been accustomed to confer the smaller benefices, but most of all by the kings of France and England, who met it by their com- plaints, their edicts, and their laws.^ In particular, Leivis IX., or St. Leivis, king of France in the year 1268, before he em- barked in his crusade, published the famous ordinance, called by the French the Pragmatic Sanction, by which he carefully secured the rights of the Gallican church again the machinations of the pontiffs.'' This vigilance rendered the pontiffs more cautious and slow in their proceeding; but it did not divert them from their purpose. And Boniface VIII. declared boldly and distinctly, that the Avhole cliurch is under the control of the pontiffs ; and that kings, and patrons, and religious bodies, have only so much power as the vicars of Christ may choose to £rive them. § 4. The legates, sent into the different provinces by the pontiffs, eagerly imitated their masters : for they unhesitatingly invaded the rights of religious bodies, and conferred the lesser benefices, and sometimes the larger also, at their pleasure, on such as they favoured, on pecuniary accounts, or for other reasons ^ : they extorted money, in various ways, and often in such as were most iniquitous : they deceived the unguarded, by forged [pfipfvl] briefs, and by other artifices: they not un- frequently disturbed the public tranquillity, and put themselves ^ A p^-cat many examples of such ' Sec Ca;s. Eg. de Boulay, Historia Pi'ovisioiis and Kescrvations can bo col- Acad. Paris, torn. iii. p. G59, &c. and es- Iccted in this centmy. See Stephen Ba- pccially torn. iv. p. 911, &c. liizc, Miscellanea, torn. vii. p 443. 4GC. " In addition to the other writers on 470. 488. 491. 493, &c. Gallia Chris- the ecclesiastical law of France, see Bou- tiana, tom. i. p. 69, Appendix. liUcas lay's Historia Acad. Paris, torn. iii. p. Wadding's Annales Minornm; in the 389. [TIic ordinance called the I'rag- Diplomata pertaining to this centmy, matic Sanction, may be seen in Kaynald's passim, Anth. Wood's Anti(juitates Oxori- Annales Eccles. tom. ii. App. ad ann. ieruies, tom. i. p. 148. 201. 202. [and 1268, no. 37, p. 618. See also Gilford's Hallam's View of the Middle Ages, ch. History of France, vol. i. p. 477. TV.] vii. vol. iii. p. 103, &c. I'liiladcl. 1821. ' Examples may be seen in Baluze's TV.] Miscellanea, tom. vii. p. 437. 475. 480, ■* See an c])istle of Innocent IV. in &c. Baliize, Miscellanea, tom. vii. p. 468. CH. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 507 at the head of factions : they carried on a most scandalous and wicked traffic in relics and indulgences ; and did other things even worse than these. And hence all the writers of those times are full of complaints of the crimes and villanies of the papal legates.^ And this led Alexander IV., in the year 1256, to issue a severe edict against the fraudulence and avarice of legates ^ : but men who had influence in the court of Rome, and were supported by powerful friends, could easily evade its force. § 5. From the ninth century onwards, no additions of any consequence had been made to the wealth and the patrimony of the church of Home : Init in this century, under Innocent III., and afterwards under Nicoluus III., very large accessions of property were obtained, partly by force of arms, and partly by the munificence of emperors and kings. As soon as he was consecrated, Innocent brought under subjection to himself the prefect and senator ' of the city of Rome, who hitherto had sworn fealty to the emperor. He next recovered the marquisate of Ancona, the duchy of Spoleto, the county of Assissi, Monte- bello, and many other cities and fortresses ; which, as he as- serted, had been rent from the patrimony of St. Peter.^ Frede- " In jilacc of all, the single and excel- tiff, tlic Romans were casilj' iicrsnadcd lent historian, Matthew Paris, may be to supersede tlie venal sixty-six, by a consulted, Historia Major, p. 31.3. 316. single senator, Benedict Carasomi, whom 549, and p. 637, where he says : "Tiie they elected in 1197. It was a judicious legates, whoever they may be, and all choice, but the object of it became un- papal nuncios, are wont to impoverish popular, was besieged in the Capitol, and all the countries they enter, or in some being taken prisoner, was long kept in way to throw them into disorder." See custody. Innocent contimied the pnic- also Boulay's Ilistoria Acad. I'aris. torn, ticc of confiding the domestic rights of iii. p. 059, &c. . Rome to a single senator, and made him '■' It was published by Jo. Lami, Deli- act no longer in the people's name, but cicc Eruditor. tom. iii. p. 300. in the pope's. The prefect was reprc- ' [At that period one man possessed scntative of the emperor, from whom he all the powers of the Roman senate, and received the sword of office, and to whom actuig in their place, bore the title of the he swore fealty. Innocent did not pre- Senator. Tr. — This officer was chief and tend to commission him by means of the representative of the Roman Commonalty, accustomed sword, he publicly invested Tiie citizens, divided into thirteen (juar- him with a mantle, iiresented him with ters, had chosen ten electors in each, a silver cup, anti matle him swear olic- and these had nominated a senate com- dicnce to the pope. The Romans readily posed of sixty-six members, in which, or aciiuiesced in these innovations, because rather in a committee of eleven selected Innocent distributed a largess among from it, resided the domestic control them, and because they hated the Ger- over the government of Rome. Clement man power, both as foreign and as ac- III. obtained the power of nominating cejitable among their own noliility. Ilur- the ten electors in all the tlm-teen qiuu-- ter's Innocent III. Fr. trausl. Paris, 1838, ters, and gave the senators annual i)en- tom. i. p. 112, ct scq. Ed.'] sions out of the papal treasuiy. Having * Sec Franc. Pagi, Brcvkirium Bo- thus become mere creatures of the pou- manor. Pontiff, tom. iii. p. 161, &c. Mu- 508 BOOK Iir. — CENTURY XIII. [PAllT II. ric 11. , also, to secure the favour of the pontiff, in his contest with Otto IV., was very liberal to the Romish church, not only giving very valuable lands to Richard, the pontiff's brother ^, but also permitting Richard, count of Fondi, in the year 1212, to bequeath liis whole property to the church of Rome.'' He like- wise confirmed the donation of Matilda. Afterwards, Nicolaus III. would not crown Rudolph L, until he had, in the year 1278, confirmed and acknowledged all the claims of the church, in- cluding many that were quite dubious : and the princes of the German Roman empire were required to do the same. Having obtained this [general] acknowledgment, Nicolaus reduced to subjection many cities, villages, and towns of Italy, which had hitherto been subject to the emperors, and particularly the whole of the Romagna and Bologna. Thus, under these two pontiffs, on a full view of the subject, it appears, that the Romish church attained, by force, cunning, and management, to that extensive temporal dominion, which it possesses at the present day.^ § 6. Innocent III., who governed the Latin church ^ till the year 1216, was learned, according to the conceptions of that age, and also laborious ; but rough, cruel, avaricious, and arro- gant.^ He adopted the principles of Gregory VII., and claimed ratori, Antiq. Italicce, torn. i. p. 328, &c. tliis visit, his own object through life [Innocent laid his chief stress upon the being that ecclesiastical independence for Countess Matilda's legacy. The Geimans which Becket shed his blood. This were in possession of countries which was, however, a popular object, clerical that obsequious disciple of Gregoiy VII. immunities really being of general im- had left to the papacy, and they were so portance in an age when royal and ba- odious in Italy, that an able young pope, ronial power pressed heavily upon society, at a fa\oiu-al)le time, easily persuaded liis In his own country. Innocent's exertions countrymen to dispossess them. £(/.] were also popular, from their aun to =* Muratori, Antiq. Italica, torn. v. p. di-ive the German power beyond the 652. Alps. His eminence was not, therefore, < Odor. Raynald's Continuation ofBa- the mere crcatm-e of an insolent, selfish, ronius' Annals, ad ann. 1212, § 2. and fortunate ambition. The multitude * See Raynald, 1. c. ad ann. 1278, § was with liim, because he curbed power 47, &c. without the Aljjs, and sought patriotic « [From A. D. 1198. J/-] ends Mitlun them. At the same time, ' See Matth. Paris, Historia Major, his whole policy served enomiously to p. 206. 230. [Innocent III. is the offi- aggrandise the papacy, and hence he was cial designation of Lothairc Conti, born not only execrated by a laro-e party either in 11 GO or in 1161, being elected among his contemporaries, but he has pope at 37. His earlier education being also usually been branded as Httle else completed in Home, he studied after- than an artfid and unprincipled adept in wards in the universities of I'aris and tiie science of papal politics. Of late, Bologna. Dm-ing his residence in the M. Ilurter, a protestant minister at former he went on a pilgrimage to Can- Schatl'hauscn, hixs done Innocent more terbury, where Becket's remains tenant- than justice. He has elaborately ^indi- cd a sln-ine, ah-cady one of the most cated his character, and revealed "the trae popular in Europe. Conti's mind pro- reasons of liis popularity, and consequent Ijably received a lasting impulse from power. But he writes "in a tone of florid CH. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 509 absolute dominion, not only over the church, but also over religion, and over the whole world. He therefore created kings, both in Europe and Asia, according to his pleasure. In Asia he gave a king to the Armenians. In Europe he conferred royal honours, a. t>. 1 204, on Prlmislaus, duke of Bohemia : and in the same year by his legate placed a regal crown on Johanicius, duke of the Bulgarians and Walachians. But he himself at Rome, saluted as king and crowned Peter II., of Aragon, who had rendered his dominiojis tributary to the church.® Many other proofs like these of the supreme power that he claimed over all the world, while Europe stood amazed and silent, may easily be gathered out of his Epistles. § 7. Not content with these acts of sovereignty, he compelled emperors, and the greatest monarchs of Europe, to fear and respect the power of the Roman church. Near the commence- ment of the century, when Philip, duke of Suabia, and Otto IV. the third son of Henry the Lion, contended for the empire of Germany, lie at first favoured the side of Otto, and tci-rified Philip with his denunciations ; and on the death of Philip, \. d. 1209, he placed the imperial diadem upon Otto at Rome. But as Otto w^ould not comply in all things with his wishes, he changed his mind, and pronounced him unworthy of the throne ; and in the year 1212, substituted in his place Frederic II., his own pupil, son of Henry VI, and king of the two Sicilies.^ Philip Augustus, king of France, he excommunicated, for liavino- dismissed his wife Isemburgis, daughter of the king of Den- mark, and marrying another woman; nor did he cease to harass the king with anathemas, till he received back his former wife.^ and indiscriminate panegyric, making princess, othcnvise called Ingeburga, incidental concessions that candour does Pliilip appears to liave taken a violent not rciiuire, and which are hardly con- aversion at first siglit. His nian'iagc sistent with the information or reason- was, theret'ore, inimediateiy tullowcd by able prepossessions of a Protestant divine, a separation, and this by a iiretoiice that EdS] he had inadvertently man-ied within the ' IMuratori, Antiq. Itcd. Medii JEvi, prohibited dcgi'ecs. An assembly of his torn. vi. p. 116. Jo.de FeiTcras, His- own prelacy ]>roiiounced a divorce upon toire d'Espagne, torn. iv. p. 8. this ground, and riiilip married again ^ This history is drawn out at large in according to his taste. The injured the Orkjines Guclphica; tom. iii. lib. vii. Danish princess and her family apjiealcd p. 247, &c. to Rome, and Iimocent very ])ropc'rly ' Boulay's Historia Acad. Paris, tom. took tiieir part : but he ])ushed his iii. p. 8, &c. Gabr. Daniel's Histoire de favoural)le interference so far as to lay la France, tom. iii. p. 475, &c. Gerh. France under an interdict, or suspension du Bois, Historia Eccles. Paris, tom. ii. of religious rites. Tlie age being favour- p. 204, &c. p. 257, &c. [To this Danish able to this e.xercisc of pajial power, 510 BOOK III. — CENTURY XIII. [PART II. § 8. But no one suffered more disgracefully and severely from the arroo'ance o^ Innocent, than John, surnamed Lackland, {Sine Terra, Sa7is Terre,) the king of England and Ireland.^ He re- solutely withstood the pontiif, who had designated Stephen Laiifjton to be archbishop of Canterbury. The pontiff, there- fore, first excommunicated him in the year 1208 ; and after- wards, in the year 1211, absolved the English and Irish from their oath of allegiance to the king ; and finally, in the year 1212, divested him of his authority, and gave the kingdoms of England and Ireland to Philip Augustus the king of France. Terrified by these decrees, and dreading a war, John made his kingdom tributary to the pontiff in the year 1212.^ This im- Philip was driven to dismiss liis "new wife, who shortly after died, and to recognise Ingebui'ga as lawful queen. He did not, Iiowever, cohabit with her, but still pleaded such a degree of rela- tionship as rendered this impossible. In- nocent remained equally inflexible, and tliis honourable perseverance brought the royal pair together, after a separa- tion of twenty years. It is impossible to deny that the pope's conduct in this case was, upon the whole, creditable to him- self, and beneficial to society. Nor, probably, M^as his interference in Ger- man affairs "grounded on any objection- able 'principle. M. Hurter says, that Innocent's object was to prevent the princes from being despoiled of their right of election (torn. i. p. 135). But although the character of this great pope has suffered from misrepresentation, he took, nndoubtedly, that exaggerated and pernicious view of his position, which betrayed him into several veiy blanieable excesses. Ed.'\ ^ [This is not exact. John undoubt- edly exercised supreme power over L'c- land. But he never styled himself king of that country ; nor ilid any one of his successors before Henry VIII. Former kings had merely called themselves Lords of Ireland. Ed.] ^ These events are stated at large by Matthew Paris, Historia Major, p. 189, &c. 192. 195, &c. Sec also Bou- lay's Historia Acad. Paris, torn. iii. p. 67. Kapin Tho}Tas, Hlstoire d'Aiigk- terre. tom. ii. p. 304, &c. [This prince opposed vigorously the measures of In- nocent, who had ordered the monks of Canterbury to choose Steplicn Langton, a Roman cardinal of Englisli descent, archbishop of that see, notwithstanding the election of John de Gray to that high dignity, which had been regulai-ly made by the convent, and had been confii'med by royal authority. The pope, after having consecrated Langton at Viterbo, wrote a soothing letter in his favour to the king, accompanied with four rings, and a mystical comment upon the pre- cious stones with which they were en- riched. But this present was not suffi- cient to avert the just indignation of the offended monarch, who sent a body of troops to drive out of the kingdom the monks of Canterbuiy, who had been engaged by the pope's menaces to re- ceive Langton as their archbishop. The king also declared to the pontiff', that if he persisted in imposing a prelate upon the see of Canterbmy, in opposition to an election already made, the conse- quences of such presumptuous obstinacy would, in the issue, prove fatal to the papal authority in England. Innocent was so for from being ten-ified by this menacing remonstrance, that, in the year 1200, he sent orders to the bishops of London, Worcester, and Ely, to lay the kingdom under an interdict, in case the monarch refused to yield and re- ceive Langton. John, alarmed at this terrible menace, and unwilling to break entirely with the pope, declared his readiness to confirm the election made at Rome : but in the act drawn up for that pm-posc, he wisely threw in a clause to jirevent any interpretation of tliis ct)mi)liancc, that might be prejudicial to his riglits, dignity, and prerogative. This exception was rejected, and the interdict was proclaimed. A stop was innnediately put to divine senice ; the CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 511 CH. II.] prudence brought extreme disgrace and immense evils upon the king. Of the Lateran council, under Innocent, in the year 1215, we shall have occasion to speak hereafter. churches were shut ; the cadmiiiistration of all the sacraments was suspended, except that of baptism ; [and the cu- charist, with confession, unilcr the last necessity,] the dead were buried in the highways without the usual rites, or any funeral solemnity. But notwithstanding this interdict, the Cistertiau order con- tinued to perform divine service, and several learned and respectable divines, among whom were tlie bishops of Win- chester and Norwicli, protested against the injustice of the pope's proceedings. The interdict not producing the effects that were expected from it, the pontiff proceeded to a still fmther degree of severity and presumption, and denounced a sentence of excomnumication against the person of the English monarch. This sentence, which was issued out in the year 1208, was followed about three years after by a bull, absolving all his subjects from their oath of allegiance, and ordering all persons to avoid him on pain of excommunication. But it was in the year 1212, that Innocent carried liis impious tyranny to the most enonnous lengtli, when, assembling a council of cardinals and prelates, he de- posed John, declared the tlirone of P^ng- land vacant, and vn'ote to Philip Augus- tus, king of France, to execute this sentence, to undertake the conquest of England, and to unite that kingdom to his dominions for ever. He, at tlic same time, published another bull, exhorting all Christian pi'inces to contribute what- ever was in tlicir power to the success of this expedition, ])romising to such as seconded I'liilip in tliis griuid entci-prisc, the same indulgences that were gi-anted to those who earned arms against the infidels in Palestine. The French mo- narch entered into the views of tiic Roman pontiff, and made immense pre- ])arations for the invasion of England. The king of England, on the other iiand, assembled his forces, and was putting himself in a posture of defence, when Pandulf, the pope's legate, aiTived at Dover, and proposed a conference in order to prevent the approaching nip- tm-c, and to conjure the stomi. This artful legate terrified the king, wiio met him at that place, with an exaggerated account of the armament of Pliilip on tlic one hand, and of the disaffection of the English on the other ; and per- suaded him tliat there was no possible way left of saving his dominions from the formidable amis of tiie French king, but of putting them under tlie pnjtectiun of the Roman see. Jolni, finding him- self in such a perplexing situation, and full of diffidence botli hi the nobles of his court and in the officers of his anny, complied with this dishonourable pro- posal, did homage to Innocent, resigned his crown to the legate, and received it again as a present from tiie sec of Rome, to wliich he rendered his kingdoms tri- butaiy, and swore fealty as a \:i.>;sal and feudatory. In the act, by ^^■llich he re- signed thus scandalously his kingdoms to the papal jurisdiction, he declared that he had been compelled to this mea- sure, neither l)y fear nor by force ; but that it was all his own voluntary deed, performed l)y tiie advice and with the consent of the barons of his kingdom. He obhged himself and iiis heirs to pay the siun of seven hundred marks for England, and three hundred for Ireland, in acknowledgment of tlic pope's su- premacy and jurisdiction ; and consented that he, or such of his successors as shoiUd refuse to pay the submission, now stipulated, to the sec of Rome, should forfeit all their riglit to the Bri- tish (English) crown. Mueluine. — Upon John's siu-render of his kingdom, it is needless to say any tiling. Innocent's conduct must cliiefly be estimated by exi.sting riglits of election to the see of Canterbury. Now these had nsuiUly been exercised under certain hniitations, by the convent attached to tiie cathedral there, a body fiir from fit, Dr. Lingard says, for that pui7>ose, lieing composed of " men who. In- ti^eir utter seclusion from tlie world, were the least calculated to apiircciatc the merits of the can- didates, or to judge of tiie (lualifieations re;infranc archbishoj). The papacy, therefore, had to thank 512 BOOK III. — CENTURY XIII. [part II. § 9. Honorius III., previously called Centius Savelli, who suc- ceeded Innocent, A.D. 1216, and governed the Roman church more than ten years, did not perform so many deeds worthy of being recorded ; yet he was very careful that the Romish power should receive no diminution. Pursuing this course, he had a grievous falling out with the emperor Frederic II., a magna- nimous prince, whom he himself had crowned at Rome, in the year 1220. Frederic, imitating his grandfather, laboured to establish and enlarge the authority of the emperors in Italy, to depress the minor states and republics of Lombardy, and to diminish the immense wealth and power of the pontiffs and the bishops ; and to accomplish these objects, he continually de- ferred the crusade, which he had promised with an oath. Honorius, on the other hand, continually urged Frederic to enter on his expedition to Palestine; yet he secretly encouraged. itself for the unfit electors who came into the chapter-house when a new pri- mate was to be chosen. But in addition to the capitular body of Canterbury, Avhether regular or secular, the suf- fragan bish()])S of the province claimed from ancient prescription, at least, a concurrent right of election ; and this claim, though fiercely resisted by the monks, really controlled every election. It was abetted by the crown, and no nominee could obtain possession, unless the king gave licence to elect, indicating his man, and the prelacy concun-ed. On Abp. Hubert's death, after four days' illness, in 1205, the junior monks of Can- terbury elected in the night, Keginald, their sub-prior, and enthroned hmi arch- bishop before da\vn. This was clearly illegal : neither royal licence nor epis- copal concurrence being gained. Being a bold stroke, however, against preroga- tive, it was thought likely to succeed at Home. Thither Reginald, with some attendant monks, immediately proceeded, having first sworn to say nothing of his election until he came into the pajial pre- sence. But he had no sooner landed in Inlanders than vanity proved an over- match lor his oath, and he paraded him- self as jn-imatc elect of all England. His lolly being known at Canterbury, the wiser monks brought the convent to look upon the election as invalid, and to re- quest the usual permission from the crown to choose an archbishoi). This was granted as a matter of course, with a rcconmiendutiou for John de Gray, bishop of Norwich ; who was duly chosen. On liis part, first came to Rome an envoy fi'om the suffragans of Canter- bmy ; afterwards, six monks of the con- Acnt there, with the archdeacon of Rich- mond. Innocent now pronounced Regi- nald's election void, because imcanonical, Ue Gray's, because pi'eraature, the former not having been regularly annulled. In anticipation of some such decision, the Canterbury monks despatched to Rome had royal licence for electing there a new archbishop, having sworn to elect no other than L)c Gray. Of him, how- ever. Innocent would not hear, design- ing the see for Stephen Langton, an Englishman of merit, long resident abroad, whom he had known at Pai-is, and whom he had lately made a cardinal. De Gray he seems to have represented as unfit for Canterburj', because his life had been spent in secular business. Still the monks, mindful of their oaths, dis- ])layed an unwilhngness to choose any other, and one of them proved incapable of violating his engagements. The others chose Langton. It seems no easy matter to acquit Innocent of blame in this case, and the bad consequences of it were very extensive. He ought clearly to have respected the oaths of the Canter- bury monks, and to have recognised De Gray as archbishop. Nothing was re- quired for that prelate at all inconfomi- able with established usage. IMatth. Paris, ed. AVats, Lond. 1640, p. 212. 223. Hurter's Innocent III. torn, ii, p. 246. 249. Ed.'] Cfl. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 513 animated, and supported the cities and republics, that resisted the emperor; and raised various impediments to his increasing power. Still, this hostility did not, at present, break out in open war. § 10. But under Gregory IX., whose former name was Hugolinus, and who was elevated from the bishopric of Ostia to the pontificate, A. D. 1227, an old man, but still bold and resolute, the fire, which had been long burning in secret, burst into a flame. In the year 1227, the pontiff exconniiunicatcd the emperor, who still deferred his expedition to Palestine : but without proceeding in due form of ecclesiastical law, and without regarding the emperor's excuse of ill health. In the year 1228, the emperor sailed with his fleet to Palestine : but instead of waging war, as he was bound to do, he made a truce with Saladin, on recovering Jerusalem. While he was absent the pontiff raised war against him in Apulia, and endeavoured to excite all Europe to oppose him. Therefore Frederic hastened back, in the year 1229, and after vanquishing his enemies, made his peace with the pontiff, in the year 1230. But this peace could not be durable, as Frederic would not submit to the con- trol of the pontiff. Therefore, as the emperor continued to press heavily on the republics of Lombardy, which were friendly to the pontiff, and transferred Sardinia, which the pontiff claimed as part of the patrimony of the church, to his son Entius ; and wished to withdraw Kome itself from the power of the pontiff; and did other things very offensive to Gregory; the pontifl', in the year 1239, again laid him under anathemas; and accused him to all the sovereigns of Europe, of many crimes and enormities, and particularly of speaking contemptuously of the Christian religion. The emperor, on the other hand, avenged the injuries that he received, both by written ])ul)lications, and by his military operations in Italy, in which he was for the most part successful; and thus he defended his reputation, and also brought the pontiff into j)erplexity and difficulty. To rescue himself, in some measure, in the year 1240, Gregory snmmonQCi a general council to meet at Rome ; intending to hurl the emperor from his throne, by the united suffrages of the as- sembled fathers. But Frederic, in the year 1241, captured the Genoese fleet, which was carrying a great part of the fathers to the council at Rome, and seizing as well their treasures as them- selves, he cast them into prison. Broken down by these cala- VOL. II. L L 514 BOOK III. — CENTURY XIII. [PART II. mlties, and by others of no less magnitude, Gregory sank into the grave shortly after.'* § 11. The successor of Gregory, Geoff ry of Milan, who assumed the name of Coelestine IV., died before his consecra- tion : and after a long interregnum, in the year 1 243, Sinibald, a Genoese, descended from the counts Fieschi, succeeded under the pontifical name of Innocent IV., a man inferior to none of his predecessors in arrogance and insolence of temper.^ Be- tween him and Frederic there M-ere at first negotiations for peace ; but the terms insisted on by the pontiff were deemed too hard by the emperor. Hence Innocent, feeling himself imsafe in any part of Italy, A. D. 1244, removed from Genoa to Lyons in France ; and the next year assembled a council there, in the presence of which, but without its approbation, (whatever the Eoman writers may affirm to the contrary^,) he declared Frederic unworthy of the Imperial throne. This most imrlghteous decision of the pontiff had such influence upon the German pi'inces, who were infected with the superstition of the times, that they elected first, Henry, landgrave of Thuringia, and on his deatli William, count of Holland, to the imperial throne. Frederic continued the war vigorously and courage- ously in Italy, and with various success, until a dysentery ter- minated his life In Apulia, on the 13th of December, A. d. 1250. On the death of his foe, Innocent returned to Italy in the year 1251.'^ From this time especially, (though their origin was much earlier,) the two noted fiictlons of Gueljjlis and Gibellines, of which the former sided with the pontiffs, and the latter with * Besides the original writers, who Natalis Alexander, Hist. Eccles. Selecta are all collected by Muratori, Scriptures Cap, stecul. xiii., diss. v. art. iii. § 8. Du lieruni Italicar., and the authors of Ger- Pin's Auteurs Ecclesiastiqiies, century man and Italian history, of whom, how- xiii. cap. i. and Walch's Historic der ever, few or noTie are impartial, the Kirchenversamml. p. 739, &c. There reader should consult, especially, Peter were about 140 prelates in the council de Vincis, Epistolar. liber i. and Mat- Frederic's advocate appealed to a more thew Paris, ///stona Major. Add also general council. The pontiff maintained Haynaldi's Annals ; Muratori's Annales it to be general enough. Walch allows, JtaliiF, torn. vii. and Antiq. Italicce, torn, that the council assented to the excommu- iv. p. 325. .517, &c. and others. But nication o( tlie emperor, but not to his this whole histoiy needs a fuller inves- deposition, which was the mere sovereign ligation. act of the pontiff, and at which all present ' See Matthew Paris, Historia Major, Avere astonished. 7>.] especially on a. d. 1254, p. 771. ' See, in addition to the ^\Titers al- * This council is classed among the ready mentioned, Nicol. de Curbio, Vita general councils : yet the Frencli do not Innocentii IV. in Baluze's Miscellanea, 60 regard it. [Sec Bossuct's Defensio torn. vii. p. 353, &c. Declarationis Cleri Gallici, tom. i. p. 3 II . en. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 515 the emperors, most unhappily rent asunder and devastated all Italy.8 § 12. Alexander IV., Avhose name, as count of Segni and bishop of Ostia, was Raynald, became pontiff on the death of Innocent, A. D. 1254, and reigned six years and six months. Excepting some efforts to put down a grandson of Frederic II., called Conradin, and to quiet the perpetual commotions of Italy, he busied himself more in regulating the internal affairs of the church, than in national concerns. The Mendicant friars, Do- minicans and Franciscans, are under especial obligations to him. Urban IV., before his election to the pontificate in 1261, was James, patriarch of Jerusalem, a man born of obscure parentage at Troyes. He distinguished himself more by instituting the festival of the body of Christ, than by any other achievement.^ He indeed formed many projects : but he executed few of them, being prevented by death, in the year 1264, after a short reign of three years. ^ Not much longer was the reign of Clement IV., a Frenchman, and bishop of Sabina, under the name of Guido Fulcodi, who was created pontiff in the year 1265. Yet he is better known on several accounts, but especially for conferring the kingdom of Naples on Charles of Anjou, brother to Lewis IX., the king of France ; who is well known to have beheaded Conradiji, the only surviving grandson of Frederic II., after con- quering him in battle, and this, if not by the counsel, at least with the consent of the pontiff.- § 13. On the death of Clement IV., there were vehement contests among the cardinals, respecting the election of a new pontiff; which continued till the third year, when, at last, a. d. 1271, Thihald of Piaccnza, archdeacon of Liege, was chosen, and assumed the name of Gregory X.^ He had been called from Palestine, where he had resided ; and having witnessed the depressed state of the Christians in the Holy Land, nothing more engaged his thoughts than sending them succour. Ac- cordingly, as soon as he was consecrated, he appointed a council 8 Miiratori's Dins, de Guelfis et Gibel- torn. iii. pt. i. p. 593, and pt. ii. p. 405. Unis; in liis Antiq. Ital. Med'd jEvi, Sclil.] torn. iv. p. 606. * [Two lives of him likewise, arc in " [Two biographies of him arc found ^luratori's Scriptures lierum Italic, torn. in iMiuatori's Scriptures Rerum Italicar. iii. pt. i. p. 594. Scld.'] toni. iii. pt. i. p. 592, &c. SchlJ] ' The records of this election were ' [His biography also may be seen publisiied by Lucius Wadding, Annales in Muratori's Scriptores lierum Italicar. Minorum, torn. iv. p. 330, &c. 1. I, 2 516 BOOK III. — CENTUKY XIII. [PAET II. to be held at Lyons in France, and attended it in person in the month of May, A. D. 1274. The prhicipal subjects discussed were the re-establishment of the Christian dominion in the East, and tlie re-union of the Greek and Latin churches. This has commonly been reckoned the fourteenth general council, and is particularly noticeable for the new regulations it esta- blished for the election of lloman pontiffs, and the celebrated provision which is still in force, requiring the cardinal electors to be shut up in conclave." Neither did this pontiff, though of a milder disposition than many others, hesitate to repeat and inculcate that odious maxim of Gregorij VII., that the pontiff is supreme lord of the Avorld, and especially of the Roman empire. For in the year 1271 he sent a menacing letter to the princes of Germany, admonishing them to elect an emperor, and without regarding the wishes or the claims of AlpJwnso, king of Castile ; otherwise he would appoint a head of the empire himself. Ac- cordingly, the princes assembled, and elected Rudolph /., of the house of Hapsburgh. § 14. Gregory X. died in the year 1276, and his three imme- diate successors were all chosen, and died in the same year. Innocent V., previously Peter of Tarantaise, was a Dominican monk, and bishop of Ostia. Hadrian V. was a Genoese, named Ottohomis, and cardinal of St. Hadrian. Jolin XXI, previously Peter, bishop of Tusculum, was a native of Portugal. The next pontiff, who came to the chair in 1277, reigned longer. He was John Cajetan, of the family of Ursini, a Koman, and cardinal of St. Nicolas, who assumed the title of Nicolaus III. He, as has been already observed, greatly enlarged what is called the pa- trimony of St. Peter ; and, as his actions show, had formed other great projects, which he would undoubtedly have accomplished, as he was a man of energy and enterprise, had he not pre- maturely died in the year 1280. § 15. His successor, Martin IV., elected by the cardinals in 1281, Avas a French nobleman, Simon de Brie, a man of equal boldness and energy of character with Nicolaus. For he excom- municated Michael Paloeologus, the Greek emperor ; because he had violated the comjiact of union with the Latins, which was settled at the council of Lyons : and Peter of Arao-on he de- prived of his kingdoms, and of all his property, because he had * [The acts of this council arc in Ilardiiin'.s Collection, toni. vii. p.GGG, &c. TV.] Clf. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 517 seized upon Sicily; and he bestowed them gratuitously on Charles, son to the king of France ; and was projecting many other things, consonant to the views of the pontiffs, wiien lie was suddenly overtaken by death, a. d. 1285. His plans were prosecuted by his successor, James Savelli, who was elected in 1285, and took the name of Honorius IV. But a distressing disease in his joints ^ of which he died in 1287, prevented him from attempting any thing further. Nlcnlaus IV., previously Jerome cCAscoli, bishop of Palestrina, who attained to the pon- tifical chair in 1288, and died in 1292, was able to attend to the affairs both of the church and of the nations with more diligence and care. Hence he is I'eprescntcd in history, sometimes as the arbiter in the disputes of sovereign princes ; sometimes as the strenuous asserter of the rights and prerogatives of the church ; and sometimes as the assiduous promoter of missionary labours among the Tartars and other nations of the East. But nothing lay nearer his heart, than the restoration of the dominion of Christians in Palestine, where their cause was nearly ruined. In this he laboured strenuously indeed, but in vain ; and death intercepted all his projects.'' § 16. After his death, the church was without a head till the third year, the cardinals disagreeing exceedingly among them- selves. At length, on the 5th of July, 1295, they unanimously chose an aged man, greatly venerated for his sanctity, Peter, surnamed de JMurronr, from a mountain in which he led a soli- tary and very austere mode of life, who assumed the pontifical name of Ccelcstine V. But as the austerity of his life tacitly censured the corrupt morals of the Romish court, and especially of the cardinals, and as he showed very plainly, that he was more solicitous to advance the holiness of the church than its worldly grandeur, he was soon considered as unworthy of the office, which he had reluctantly assumed. Hence some of tiie cardinals, and especially Benedict Cajctan, persuaded him very easily to abdicate the chair, in the fourth month of his pon- tificate. He died A. d. 1296, in the castle of Fumone, where his successor detained him a captive, lest he should make some disturbance. But afterwards, Clement V. enrolled him in the calendar of the saints. To him, that sect of Benedictine monks, * [Both in his haiuls ami liis feet, seen in Muratori's Scriptirres licrum Ita- TV,] Hear. torn. iii. pt. i. p. G12. Schl.] " [A biography of tliis pope may be L L 3 518 BOOK III. — CENTURY XIII. [PART II. who were called, after him, Ccelestines, owed its origin ; a sect still existing in Italy and France, though now nearly extinct, and differing from the other Benedictines by their more rigid rules of llfe.'^ § 17. He was succeeded, a. d. 1294, by Benedict cardinal Cajetan, whose persuasions had chiefly led him to resign the pontificate, and who now assumed the name of Boniface VIII. This was a man formed to produce disturbance both in church and state, and eager for confirming and enlarging the power of the pontiffs, to the highest degree of rashness. From his first entrance on the office, he arrogated to himself sovereign power over all things sacred and secular ; overawed kings and states by his fulminations ; decided important controversies at his will; enlarged the code of canon law by new accessions, namely, by the sixth book of Decretals; made war among others, particu- larly on the noble family of Colonna, which had opposed his election ; in a word, he seemed to be another Gregory VII. at the head of the church.^ At the close of the century^, he esta- blished the year of jubilee, which is still solemnized at Kome. The rest of his acts, and his miserable end, belong to the next century.^ § 18. Although Innocent III., in the Lateran council of 1215, had forbidden the introduction of any neio religions, that is, new orders of monks ^ ; yet by Innocent himself, and by the subse- quent pontiffs, many religious orders, before unknown, were not ' See Hipp, Helyot, Histoire des Ordres, Demelez du Pape Boniface VIII. avec torn. vi. p. 180. [Tliis pope wrote a Philippe le Bel, Faris, 1718, 12mo. SchL history of his own life, which, with lus For a siinimary account of this quaiTel, other works, i.s in the Bibliuth. Max. see Gifford's History of France, vol. i. Patritm Liigd. torn. xxv. p. 765. Other p, 507, &c. TV.] biographies of him are to be found in " [a. d. 1300. Tr.l Muratori's Scriptores Rcriim Italicar. ' In tliis account of the pontiffs, I torn. iii. pt. i. p. 653, &c. His life is have followed, chiefly, Dan. Papebro'ch, also wi-itten by Papcbroch, ylcta Sanctor. Prancis Pagi, and Muratori, in his An- tom. iv. mens. Mali, p. 483. SchL'] nalcs Italia ; yet always consulting the •* A formal biograpiiy of him, ^vi-itten original writers, whom Muratori has by Jo. Rubeus, a lienedictiric monk, was collected in his Scriptores Berum Italicar. published at Rome, 1651, 4to, inidcr the " \^Acta Concilii Lateran IV. canon title of Bonifacius VIII. efamilia Caje- 13. " Ne nimia religionum divcrsitas tanorum Principum liomanus Pontifex. gravem in ecclesia Dei confusionem in- [Anotlicr biography of him, by Bernh. ducat, firmitcr prohibemus ne quis de Guido, is extant in Muratori's Scriptores ca^tcro novam relio-ionem inveniat : sed Berum Ital. tom. iii. pt. i. j). 641. The quicun(|uc voluerit ad relio-ionem con- history of his contests with the king of verti,nnamdcapprobatis assumat. Simi- France was written by Peter du Puy, liter qui voluerit religiosam domum i'un- ent\t\cd Histoire du Differcndde Philippe dare de novo, regulam et institutionem le Bel et de Boniface VIII. Paris, 1655, accipiat de religionibus approbatis " See fbl. also by Adr. Baillet, Histoire des Ilarduin's Concilia, tom. y\\. p. 31. TV.] CII. II.] CIIUECH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 519 only tolerated, but also approved, and distinguished Avith various privileges and honours. Nor considering the state of the church in this age, is it strange, that this law of Innocent was tacitly ab- rogated. For, passing by other reasons, tiie church's enemies, particularly the heretics, were every Avhere multiplying ; the secular clergy, as they were called, were more attenti\e to their private interests than to those of the church, and lived luxu- riously upon the revenues provided by their predecessors ; the old orders of monks had nearly all abandoned their original strictness, and disgusted the people by tlieir shameful vices, their sloth, and their licentiousness; and all advanced rather than retarded the progress of the heretics. The church, there- fore, had occasion for new orders of sei'vants, who should pos- sess both the power and the disposition to conciliate tlie good- will of the people, as well to diminish the odium resting on the Romish church, by the sanctity of their deportment, as to search out and harass the heretics, by their sermons, their reasoning, and their arms. § 19. Some of the monastic ordei's that originated in this century, are now extinct, while others remain still in a very flourishing state. Among those now extinct, were, the Ilumiliali; who sprang up, indeed, long before the 13th century, but were first approved, and subjected to the rule of St. Benedict, by Innocent III. These were suppressed by Pius V., on account of their extremely corrupt morals, a. D. 1571.^ The Jacobites, mendicants ; who were established by Innocent III, but ceased to exist in this very century, subsequently, I think, to the council of Lyons.'' The Vallischolares ; who were collected not long after the commencement of the century, by the ScholareSy that is, the four professors of theology at Paris, and hence were first called Scholars ; but afterwards, from a certain valley in Champagne, to which they retired in the year 1234, their name was changed to Vallischolares.'' This society was first governed by the rule of St. Augustine ; but it is now united with the canons regular of St. Genevieve. The fraternity of the blessed Virgin, mother of Christ ; which began to exist a. d. 1266, and was cx- ^ Helyot's Histoire des Ordres, toiru vi. * [Scholars of the valley. TV.] Boulay's p. 161. Historia Acad. Paris, torn. iii. p. 15. * Matth. Taris, Historia Major, p. Acta Sanctor. mens. Fcbruar. torn, ii. p^ 161. 482. L L 4 520 BOOK III. — CENTUEY XIII. [PART II. in the year 1274.'' The knights of faith and charity, established in France, to suppress public robberies, and approved by Gre- gory IX J The Eremite brethren of St. William, duke of Aqui- taine.® I pass over the Brethren in sackcloth, the Bethlehemites, and several others. For scarcely any age was more fruitful than this in sects of the religious, living under various rules and re- gulations.^ § 20. Among the new monastic sects, that still exist, were the Servants of the ever-blessed Virgin, a fraternity founded, in the year 1233, in Tuscany, by seven pious Florentines, at the head of whom was Philip Benizi. This sect adopted indeed the rule of St. Augustine, but it was consecrated to the memory of the holy widowhood of the blessed Virgin, and therefore wore a black habit', and had other peculiarities. The holy wars of the Christians in Palestine, in which many Christians became cap- tives among the Mahumedans, produced, near the close of the preceding century, the order of Brethren of the holy Trinity, which first acquii'ed stability and permanence in this century. Its originators were John de Matha and Felix de Valois, two pious men who led a solitary life at Cerfroy, in the diocese of Meaux, where the principal house of the sect still exists. The members of this body were called Brethren of the holy Trinity, because all their churches arc dedicated to the holy Ti'inity ; also Mathurini, because their church in Paris has for its tutelar saint St. Mathurinus ; and likewise Brethren of the redemption of cap- tives, because they are required to make the redemption of Christian captives from the Mahumedans a primary object, and to devote one-third part of their revenues to this purpose. Their rule of life formerly was austere ; but by the indulgence of the pontiffs, it is now rendered easy to be kept.'- « Dionys. Sammarthanus, Gallia Chris- • Besides the common Iiistorians of tiana, tom. i. p. 653, &c. the monastic orders, who are not always 7 Gallia Cliristiana, torn. i. Append, accurate, sec Paul the Florentine's Dia- p. 165. Martene's Voyage Limruire de logu.s de Origine Ordinis Servorwn ; in deux Bmedictins, tom. ii. p. 2;J, &c. Jo. Lamy's Delicice Eruditorum, tom. i. ' Jo. Bolland, de Ordine Eremitar. S. p. 1 — 48. Gulielmi Comment, in the Acta Sanctor. -' Besides Helyot and the others, sec Febr. tom. ii. p. 472, &c. Toussaiut du Plcssis, Histoire de I'Eglise '■' Matth. Paris, Historia Major, p. de Meaux, tom. i. p. 172 and 566, &c. 815, ed. Wats. "Tot jam appai-uenuit Boulay's Historia Acad, Paris, torn. ii. ordmes in Aiigjia, ut ordinnm confusio p. 523, &c. Ant. Wood's Atitiq. Oxo- inordiiiata." The same tiling occniTcd nienses, tom. i. p. 133, &c. In ancient in other countries of Europe in this writers, this sect is called the Order of ^g<^- asses, because tlieir nilc requires the CII.II.] CnURCII OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 521 § 21. But the sects now mentioned, and indeed all others, Avere far inferior in reputation, in privileges, in the number of members, and in other respects, to the Mendicant Orders, (or those without any permanent revenues or possessions,) which were first established in Europe during this century. Societies of this kind were urgently re([uired by the church. For the wealtliy orders, seduced by their opulence, from taking any care of I'cli- gion, and from obsequiousness to the pontitFs, into idleness, voluptuousness, and vice of every kind, could be employed in no arduous enterprise ; while tiie heretics were allowed to roam about securely, and to gather congregations of followers. Be- sides, all the parties opposed to the church, looked upon volun- tary poverty as the primary virtue of a servant of Jesus Christ: they required their own teachers to live in poverty, like the apostles; they reproached the church for its riches, and for the vices and profligacy of the clergy growing out of those inches ; and by their commendation of poverty and contcnqit of riches, especially, they gained the attention and the good-will of the multitude. A class of people, therefore, was very much wanted, who, by the austerity of their manners, their contempt of riches, and the external sanctity of their rules of life, might resemble such teachers as the heretics both commended and exhibited ; and whom neither their worldly interests and j^leasures, nor the fear of princes and nobles, could induce to neglect their duties to the church and to the pontiff. The first to discern this, was Innocent III., whose partialities for the orders professing j)overty, were most remarkable^: and the subsequent pontiffs, learning by experience the great utility of these orders, continued to cherish and encourage them. When this partiality of the pon- tiffs became notorious, so great a number of these bodies every where sprang uj), that they became a heavy burden not only to the people, but likewise to the church herself. § 22. This serious evil, Gregory X. endeavoured to obviate, bretliren to ride on asses, and forbids thereto 5(/Hctor. Januai-ii, toni.ii. p. 980, their using liorses. See Charles du &c. Fresne's Notes on Joinville's Life of St. ^ [Innoeent sent these Mendicant Lewis, p. 81, &c. But by the allowance monks into all parts of the world, as of the pontiffs, they may" at the present heralds of the papal power; ami to in- dav use horses, if they have occasion ; crease their respectability and inHuenee, and they do use them. A similar Order he exempted them from the jurisdiction was instituted in Spain, a.d. 1-228, by of the bishops, and declared them to be Paul Nolasco. and called the Order of St. responsible innnediately and solely to the Mary for the ransomimj of captives. See sec of Rome. ScM.~\ ,522 BOOK III. — CENTURY XIII. [PART II. in the general council of Lyons, A. d. 1272. For be prohibited all the orders that had originated since the council of Innocent III., held at Rome, in 1215 : and in particular, be reduced the unbridled throng (as he denominates them) of the Mendicants, to four orders ; namely, Dominicans, Franciscans, Carmelites, and Aiigustinian Eremites.^ The Carmelites, who were first estab- lished in Palestine, in tlie preceding century, were in this re- moved to Europe; and by Honorius III, a. d. 1226, placed among the approved orders in the western church. The order of Augustinians or Eremites, was formed by Alexander IV., in the year 1256 ; for he required various societies of Eremites, of which some followed the regulations of IVilliam the Eremite, and others wished to be considered as {oWowing Augustine, and others called themselves by other names, to all unite in one fraternity, and live under the same rules, namely, those said to be prescribed by Augustine/' § 23. As these orders had liberty from the pontiffs to spread themselves every where, and to instruct the people and to teach the youth ; and as they exhibited a far greater show of piety and sanctity than the older orders of monks ; all Europe suddenly burst forth in admiration and reverence for them. Very many cities, as appears from the most credible documents, were divided for their sakes into four sections; of which, the first was as- signed to the Dominicans, the second to the Franciscans, the third to the Carmelites, and the fourth to the Augustinians. The people frequented, almost exclusively, the churches of the Mendicants, asked but seldom for the sacraments, as they are called, or for burial, except among them : which naturally called forth grievous complaints from the ordinary priests who had the charge of the parishes. Indeed, the history of this and the fol- lowing centuries shows, that so great was the reputation and the influence of these mendicant Friars, that they were employed in transactions of the highest magnitude, in negotiations for < Concilinm Lugdun. II. A.n. 1274. (Latcranense a.d. 1215.) adinvcntos — Can. xxiiL (in Harduin's Concilia, torn, pcqictua; proliibitioni subjicimus." vii. p. 715.) " Importuna pctentium in- ^ This ordinance is found in the Bm^ hiatio religionnm (tlius the monastic larium Romanum, torn. i. p. 110, of the orders ai-e described) multiphcationem new edition. Besides the writers on all extorsit, venim etiani alicjuonim pnr- the monastic orders, and tlie historians sumptuosa temeritas diversorum ordi- of the Augustinian order in particular, num, prajcipue Mendicantinm — efl're- see tiie ^cta -Sanctorum mcnsis Febmarii, natam qua.si multitudincm adinvcnit. — torn. ii. p. 472. Hinc ordines post dictum concilium CH.II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 523 peace, In the ratification of treaties, in shaping the policy of courts, in arranging financial concerns, and in various other functions totally at variance with the monastic profession. § 24. But the Dominicans and Franciscans acquired much greater glory and power, than the other two orders of mendi- cants. During three centuries they had the direction of nearly every thing in church and state, held the highest offices, both ecclesiastical and civil, taught with almost absolute authority in all the schools and churches, and defended the authority and majesty of the Roman pontiffs, against kings, bishops, and here- tics, with amazing zeal and success. What the Jesuits were, after the reformation by Luther commenced, the same were the Dominicans and Franciscans, from the thirteenth century to the times of Luther, the soul of the whole church and state, and the projectors and executors of all the enterprises of any moment. — Dominic, a Spaniard of Calahorra, and of the illustrious family of Guzman, a regular canon of Osma, a man of very ardent tem- perament, burning with hatred against the heretics, who then greatly disquieted the church, went with a few^ companions into France to engage in combat with them ; where, with sermons, writings, arms, and the tremendous tribunal of the Inquisition, which owed its origin to him, he attacked most vigorously, and not without success, the Albigcnscs and other enemies of the church. Then going into Italy, he readily obtained, after such achievements, great favour with the pontiffs. Innocent III. and Honorius III., and obtained leave to establish a new fraternity, to be especially opposed to heretics. At first, he and his asso- ciates adopted the rule of the canons, commonly called St. Augustine's with the addition of a few precepts that were more severe : but he afterwards went over to the class of monks, and in a convention of the fraternity at Bologna, in the year 1220, he enjoined upon them poverty and contempt for all permanent revenues and possessions. Soon after the transaction at Bologna, he died, in the year 1221.^ The members of the orders were " See Jac. Echard and Jac. Quetifs especially Anton. Brcmond's B'Jlarium Scriptores Ordinis Domin. Paris. 1719, Ordinis DominicI, pul)lished at Rome; fol. torn. i. p. 84, &c. Acta Sanctor. but which h;is not fallen in my way. April, tom. iii. p. 872, &c. Nicol Jan- [Also tlie Anmilrs Ord. Pradicittorum, scnius. Vita. S. Dominici, Antw. 1672, Rom. 1756, fol. tom. i. which volume is 8vo, and the long list of writers men- wholly devoted to the life of St. Dominic, tioned by Jo. Alb. Fabricius, Bihlioth. ScW.— That St. Dominic wa.s of the noble ImL Medii. Mvi, tom. ii. p. 137, &c. to family of Guzman, has been disputed ; which may be added several others, and but it is agreed, that he was bom at Ca- 524 BOOK III. CENTURY XIII. [PART II. at first called Preaching friars'^, becavxse their attention was principally devoted to instructing mankind by preachinir: but afterwards they were named, from their founder, Dominicans.^ § 25. Francis, the son of a merchant of Assisi in Umbria, a dissolute and reckless youth, upon recovering from a very threatening sickness, which he had brought upon himself by his licentious, vicious conduct, exhibited in his life and behaviour a kind of religious idiocy ; and subsequently, in the year 1208, having accidently heard in a church the words of the Saviour, Matt. X. lO'*, he conceived that the essence of the Gospel, as lahorra, a.d. 1170; and that he was early sent to the high school at Valencia, Avhere he studied theology four years, and led an austere and studious life. In the year 1199, the bishop of Qsma made liim a presbyter, and a canon of his ca- tliedral. ,He soon after became sub-prior of that body. He was now very devo- tional, studious, zealous for theftiith, and a great preacher. In 1206, the bishop took Dominic with him into the south of France, where they met the papal legate and others, then labouring with little effect to convei"t the Albigenses. The bishop of Osma told them, they did not take the right course ; that they ought to go forth unadorned, and without pm-se or scrip, like the apostles. He and Do- minic set them a pattern, which they followed, with better success. After visiting Home, the bishop had leave from the pope to preach in France during two years. He did so, with Dominic to as- sist him. Many others also laboured with him. After the return of the bishop to Spain, Dominic continued to preach to the heretics, sometimes with assistants, and sometimes almost alone. In 1208, a papal legate was murdered and a crusade commenced. Dominic persevered, with great zeal and fortitude, preaching, and begging his bread from door to door. He gradually drew around him several persons of like spirit. In the year 1215, he attended the general council of the Lateran, and obtained leave to establish a new order of monks ; yet adopting some one of the already approved rules. He adopted that of St. Augustine ; founded monasteries of Prcddimg Friars in divers places ; and M-as constituted General of the whole. He was very active and efficient, till his death in 1221. His sixty monasteries, di\-ided into eight provinces, now fell under the care of his successor and bio- grapher, Jordan, a noted preacher of the Order, educated at Paris. He pre- sided over the Dominicans, till a. d. 1237 ; and was succeeded by Raymund de Pen- nafort, till 1275 ; when John of "Wildes- hauscn became the general. In the year 1277, the Order had thirty-five cloisters for men in Spain, fifty-two in France, thirty-two in Tuscany, fifty-three in Germany, forty-six in Lombardy, thirty in Hungary, thirty-six in Poland, twenty- eight in Denmark, forty in England, be- sides some in other counti'ies, and a large number of nunneries. The next year, it counted fom- hundred and seventeen cloisters. See Schroeckh's Kirchengesch. vol. xxvii. p. 382, &c. 7>.] ' Fratres praedicatores. [Friar preach- ers. Ed.'\ * In ancient AA-riters, they are some- times called also Major Friars {Fratres Majorcs). See Ant. Matthreus, Analecfa Veteris jEvi, torn. ii. p. 172. But this was rather a nick-name, by which they were distinguished from the Franciscans, Mho called themselves Minor Friars (Fratres Minores). In France, and the neighbouring countries, they were called Jacobins or Jacobites; because the first domicile granted to them at Paris, was and is still sacred to St. James, [Rue de St. Ja(jues]. — In England, they were called niack Friars, from the colour of their habit ; and the part of London where they first dwelt is still called by this name. TV.] " " Provide neither gold nor silver, nor />rass in your purses, nor scrip for your journey, neither tu-o coats, neither shoes, nor yet staves." CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 525 CH.II.] taught by Jesus Christ, consisted in absokite penury of all things ; and this, therefore, he prescribed for himself, and some others who followed him. He was unquestionably an honest and pious man ; but grossly ignorant, and weakened in his in- tellect by the force of his disease. His new fraternity was viewed by Innocent III., as well suited to the exigencies of the church at that time, and was formally approved by Honorius III., A. D. 1223, and had become very numerous, Avhen its founder died, in the year 1226. To manifest his humility, Francis would not allow the members of his order to be called BrctJircn (Frafres), but only Little Brethren {FratercuU); in Italian, Fratricclli ; in Latin, Fratres Minores [Minorites] ; which name they still retain. ^"^ '" The life of St. Francis was written by Bonaventura, and has been often published. But of all the writers who give account of liini, the most full is Lucas Waddinir, [an Irish Franciscan monk, who died at Rome, a. d. 1657,] in the first volume of his Atmales Minorum, a work containing a veiy ample history of the Franciscan order, confirmed by innumerable documents, and published with considerable enlargement, by Joseph ]\Iaria Fonseca ab Ehora, Rome, 1731, and onwards, in eighteen volumes, folio. The same Wadding published the Opus- ciila Sti Fnincisci, Antw. 1 623, 4to, and the Bibliotheca Ordinis Minurum, Rome, 1650, 4to. The other writers on this celebrated sect are mentioned by Jo. Alb. Fabricius, Bibliotli. Latina Medii JEci, tom. ii. p. 573, &c. [St. Francis was born at Assisi, a. i>. 1182, and at his bajitism was named John. But his father, being a merchant, who did nuich business in the south of France, brought him into such familiar intercourse with Frenchmen, that he learned to speak their language fluently, and M'as thence called Frauciscus. His father educated him for his own busmcss, and early em- ployed him in traffic. But he was negli- gent in business, profligate, and debauch- ed ; yet generous to the poor, and brave. He always acted on the impulse of feel- ing, and his imagiinition overpowered his judgment. After his sickness he resolved to be religious, and became as extra- vagant in this course, as be was before in his Morldly pleasures. Meeting one day a leper, he dismounted from his horse, kissed the sores of the sick man, and gave him alms ; and this, to over- come the revolting feelings of his nature. He fancied that Christ a])peared to him, and tliat he had visions and jjrojihetic dreams. In a pilgrimage to Rome he saw a nniltitude of beggars about the church of St. Peter, and exchanged clothes with one of the most shabby, and herded some days with tlie rest. Pray- ing one day near the walls of a decayed church at Assisi, he heard a voice say- ing, Go, Francis, and repair my house, which you see is decayed. He inmie- diately went, and sold a large amount of cloth belonging to his father, and brought the avails to the priest of that church, who hesitated to receive it. His father was offended, and attempted to arrest liim as a deranged jjcrson ; in which light he was now generally viewed by his fellow-townsmen. In the year 1206, his fiUher took all his property out of his hands, lest he should squander it ; and he now clothed himself in skins, and lived like a beggar, travelling up and down the country, and exhorting all to be religious. Some regarded liim as insane, and others as a saint. By l)eg- ging, he raised money to rejiair not only the old church before mentioned, but likewise two others ; one of which, near Assisi, was called the church Portiun- cula, Mherc he fixed his head-quarters, and at length established his new order of monks, about the year 1208. Abso- lute poverty, entire obedience, much fasting and jn-ayer, with constant cflbrts to convert sinners, were the rc(iuisites for admission to this order. In the year 1210, he had but eleven followers, when he obtained leave of the pope to continue his monasteiy. In 1211, he sent his 526 BOOK III. — CENTURY XIII. [PART II. § 26. These two orders wonderfully supported the tottering fabric of the Romish church in various ways ; as by searching out and extirpating heretics, by performing embassies for the advantage of the church, and by confirming the people in tlieir loyalty to the pontiffs. Sensible of their good services and fidelity, the pontiffs employed them in all the more important offices and transactions, and likewise conferred on them the highest and most invidious privileges and advantages.^ Among these prerogatives, it was not the least, that in all places, and without license from the bishops, they might preach publicly, be confessors to all who wished to employ them, and grant absolutions. They were also furnished with ample power to grant indulgences, by which the pontiffs aimed to furnish the Franciscans especially with the means of support.^ But these monks all over Italy, to preach, and beg their bread. The order now increased rapidly, and was in high repute. Francis himself travelled, and preached, and had revelations, and wrought miracles. Once, "while preaching, he coidd not be heard, for the chattering of numerous swallows : he turned to them, and said, " I\Iy sisters, you have talked long enough, it is time now for mc to speak : do you keep silence, while the word of God is preached." They in- stantly obeyed. In 1212, he attempted to sail to the East, in order to preach to the Mahumedans ; but the winds drove him back. In the year 1214, he went to Mo- rocco, and preached awhile without eftect, among the believers in Maluaiied. In 1215, he attended the Lateran council, ■when Innocent III. publicly declared his appro! >atiun of the Franciscan society. In 1216, he held at Assisi the first general chapter of his order ; the next year cardinal Ugolino, afterwards pope Gregory IX. became patron of the order : the year following, 1219, no less than five thou- sand are said to have attended the gene- ral chapter. He now sent his preacliers abroad all over Europe. JIc himself, this year, went to Egypt, and preached to the sultan of that country. On his return, he found that his deputy-general, Elias, had relaxed somewhat the strict- ness of his rules ; but he restored things to their former state. He would not allow splendour in his churches, nor the formation of libraries ; and individuals must not own even a psalter or hynm book. In 1220, five Franciscan mis- sionaries were put to death in Morocco ; which contributed much to raise the fame of the order, and to enlarge it. In 1222, the pope gave the Franciscans a right to preach every where, and to hear confessions, and grant absolutions in all places. In 1224, St. Francis, after praying for greater conformity with Christ, had scars, or fixngus-flesh, it is said, formed on his hands and feet and side, to represent the five wounds of Christ. During the two following years, he lived an invahd at Assisi, and at last died, the 14th of October, 1226. See Bonaventura, 1. c. and Schroeckh's Kir- chengcsch. vol. xxvii. p. 405, &c. TV.] ' Matth. Paris, Historia Major, p. 634. says : Om* lord the pope now made the Franciscans and Dominicans, contrary to their wishes, I suppose, and to the injury and scandal of their order, his publicans and his bedels. — Idem, p. 639. Our lord the pope has not ceased to amass treasm-es, making the Dominican and Franciscan monks, even against their inclinations, not fishers of men, but of money. See also p. 662. 664, and many other places. At the year 1236, p. 354, he says : The Franciscans and Domini- cans were counsellors and envoys of princes, and even secretaries to our lord the pope ; thus securing to themselves too much secidar favour. At the year 1239, p. 465, he says : At that time the Dominicans and Franciscans were the counsellors and special envoys of kings ; and, as formerly those clothed in soft raiments were in king's houses, so at this time, those clothed in vile raiment were in the houses, the halls, and the palaces of princes. ' See Baluze, Miscellanea, torn. iv. p. CH. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 527 favours, conferred in such profusion upon the Dominicans and Franciscans, Avhile they weakened the ancient discipline, and infringed upon the rights of the first and second orders of the clergy, produced deadly hatred between the mendicant orders on the one hand, and the bishops and priests on the other, and caused violent struggles and commotions in every country of Europe, and even in the city of Kome itself.^ And although the pontiffs of this and the following centuries used various means to compose and terminate these commotions, yet they were never able to extinguish them, because the interests of the church required, that its most faithful servants and satellites, the mendicant friars, should continue to be honoured and un- harmed.'' § 27. Among these contests of the mendicants with the bishops, the priests, the schools, and the other monastic orders, the most noted is that of the Dominicans with the university of Paris, which commenced in the year 1228, and was pro- tracted with various success till A. d. 1259. The Dominicans claimed the privilege of having two theological chairs in that university. One of these the university took from them ; and also passed a statute, that no religious order should be allowed two theological chairs in the university. The Dominicans per- 490, torn. vii. p. 392. It is notorious, support, (as in after times the Jesuits that no sect of monks had more or ■were,) endeavoured to secure the good- ampler iminlgcnces for distributi(-)n, than will of the people, hy the indulgent the Franciscans. AVithout them, these manner of treating them in their confes- good friars, who were required to have sions ; and thus the parish churches no possessions and revenues, could not hecamc almost empty, while those of the have lived and multiplied. As a substi- Mendicants were full of worshippers, tute for fixed revenues, therefore, this They also received pay for saying masses, extensive sale of indulgences was granted and allowed to the rich a burial in their them. inclosures ; for which they were very * See Baluze, Miscellanea, torn. vii. generously rewarded. This however p. 441. was only the beginning of the disquietude. * See Jo. Launoi, Explicata Ecclesice As the ])roceedings of the mendicants Traditio circa canonem : Omnis utriusf/iie were sui)i)ortcd by the ambitious pontiff, sexus; Opp. tom. i. pt. i. p. 247, &c. Gregory IX., they kept no terms with Kicli. Simon. Critique de la Bibliothe(pie the bish()i)s, nor with t!ie civil authorities. dcs Autcurs Ecclesiast. par. M. du Pin, They depreciated, in tiieir writings, and tom. i. p. :V2G. Jac. Lenfant, Hixtoirc du m the schools, the power of the bishops, Cohct/c r/e iV.s7', torn. i. p. 310, toni. ii. ]). and exalted that of the pope. They 8. Jac. Echard's Scriptures Vumiiiicani, spoke of the fonner as mere clergymen, tom. i. p. 404, &c. The writers of this who were bouiul to obey implicitly the and the following centuries arc full of connnands of Christ's vicegerent; while these contests. [Ecclesiastical discipline the latter they rciiresentcd as a visible was injured by the privileges granted to deity. Such gooil services must be ap- the mendicant monks, especially because predated and rewarded, and such use- these monks, being depcnden"t on the ful meu must be esteemed and valued. kindness of the people for then- daily Scld.'] 528 BOOK III. — CENTURY XIII. [PART II. tinacioiisly insisted on having a second chair: and, as they would not be quiet, the university severed them from its con- nexion. Violent commotion ensued on both sides. The con- troversy was carried before the court of Rome, and Alexander IV., in the year 1255, ordered the university, not only to restore the Dominicans to their former standing in that literary body, but also to allow them as many [ja'ofessionalj chairs as they chose to occupy. The university boldly resisted ; and a dubious contest ensued. But Alexander IV. terrified and op- pressed the Parisian doctors, with so many severe edicts, man- dates, and epistles, (to the number, it is said, of forty,) that, in the year 1259, they yielded, and according to the will of the pontiif, conceded not only to the Dominicans, but also to the Franciscans, all that they desired.^ Hence arose that inveterate dislike and alienation, not yet entirely done away, between the university of Paris and the mendicant orders, especially that of the Dominicans. § 28. In this famous dispute, no one pleaded the cause of the university more strenuously and spiritedly, than William of St. Amour, a doctor of the Sorbonne, a man of genius and worthy of a better age. For in his other writings and sermons, but more especially in his book on the Perils of the latter times, he attacked with great severity all the mendicants collectively ; maintaining that their mode of life was contrary to the precepts of Christ, and that it had been inconsiderately, and through mis- take {per errorem,) as he expresses it, confirmed by the pontiffs and the church. This very celebrated book derived its title from the position of its author, that the predictions of Paul, 2 Tim. iii. 1, &c. concerning the perils of the latter times, was fulfilled in the mendicant friars ; which he endeavours to de- monstrate chiefly from their Everlasting Gospel, of which more will be said hereafter. Against this formidable adversary the ire of the Dominicans especially was kindled; and they did not cease to persecute him, till Alexander IV., in the year 1256, ordered his book to be publicly burnt, and the author to quit * See Crcs. Egasse dc Boulay's His- Mmoriim, torn. iii. p. 247. 366, &c. torn. toria Acad. Paris, torn. iii. p. 138, &c. iv. p. 14. 52. 106. 263. Amoiif^ the 240. 244. 248. 266, &c. Jo. Cordesius, ancients, Matth. Paris, Historia Major, (whose assumed name is Alitopliiius,) a. d. 1228, and Nangis, Chronicon; in I'rafatio Histor. et Apulogetica ad Opera I)' Archery's Spicilegium, tom. iii. p. 38, Gitil. de S. Amore. Anton. Touron, Vie &c. dt S. T/iomas, p. 134. Wadding's ^47ina/cs CH. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 529 France ; that he might no more excite the Sorbonne to hostility against the mendicants. William obeyed the mandate of the pontiff, and retired to his native place in Tranche Comte. But, under Clement IV., he returned to Paris, explained his book in a larger work, and at last died there in the highest estimation.^ § 29. This general odium against the mendicant orders, arising from the high privileges conferred on them by the pontiffs, was not a little increased by the immense pride and arrogance which they displayed on all occasions. For they pretended to be divinely excited and commissioned to explain and defend the religion of Christ ; the priests of all other classes and orders they treated with contempt, declaring that it was only themselves who understood the true way of salvation ; they extolled the efficacy of their indulgences ; and they boasted immoderately of their familiar intercourse with God, with the Virgin Mary, and with all the glorified saints : and by such means they so deluded and captivated the uninformed and simple multitude, that they employed them only as their spiritual guides.^ A prominent place among the instances of their crafty arrogance is due to the fable circulated by the Carmelites, respecting Simon Stock, a general of their order, who died near the beginning of the centuiy. They pretended that the Virgin Mary appeared to him, and promised that no person should be eternally lost, who should expire clothed in the short mantle, worn on their shoulders by the Carmelites, and called the scapula.^ And this fiction, equally ridiculous and impious, has found advocates even among the pontiffs. ^ « The Parisian theologians to this Vie de S. Thomas, p. 164. Respecting time hold William and his book in high WiUiam, his life and fortnnes, see also estimation, and waimly contend that he AVadding's Annales Minorum, torn. iii. was not enrolled among the heretics; p. 366. Boulay's //M'tor/n Acad. Paris. whUe the Dominicans regard him as a tom. iii. p. 266, &c. Natalis Alexander, heretic of the first rank. His works, so Ilistoria Eccles. sa;c. xiii. cap. iii. art. \\\. far as they conld be found, were pub- p. 95. Rich. Simon, Critiijiie de la Bib- lished by John Cordesius, at Constance, liotheque Eccles. de M. du Pin, tom. i. p. (as the title-page expresses, but, in fact, 345, &c. and others, at Paris,) 163:2. 4to, with a long and ' See, among others, Matthew Paris, learned preface, in \vhieh the reputation Historia Major, in various places, and and the orthodoxy of the author are particulm-ly, on a. d. 1246, p. 607. 630, •vindicated and maintained. To elude &c. the resentment and enmity of the men- " See the tract of Jo. Lannoi,f/e T7«o dicant orders, the editor assumed the Simoiils Slockii ; in his Opp. tom. ii. p. fictitious name of JolniAlitophilus. But ii. p. 379, &c. Aria Sanctor. tom. iii. the fraternity obtained a decree from ad diem xvi. meiisis Maii. Theoph. Le«is XIII.," in the year 1633, suppress- Raynaud, Scapulare Muriannm : in Iiis ing the book. The "edict is given us, by Opp. tom. vii. p. 614, and others, the Dominican, Anton. Tourou, in his » Even the modern pontiff Benedict VOL. II. M M 530 BOOK III. CENTURY XIII. [PART II. § 30. But these very orders, which seemed to be the prin- cipal sin)ports of the Romish power, gave the pontiffs immense trouble, not long after the decease of Dominic and Francis ; and the difficulties, though often dispelled for a tune, continually- recurred, and brought the church into great jeopardy. In the first place, these two most powerful orders contended Avith each other for precedence, and attacked and warred upon each other in their publications, and with invectives and criminations. Attempts were frequently made to stop these contentions ; but the firebrand that kindled them could never be extinguished.^ In the next place, the Franciscan fraternity was early split into factions, which time did but strengthen and render inveterate ; and these factions not only disturbed the peace of the church, but shook even the sovereign powers and majesty of the pon- tiffs themselves. Nor will it appear doubtful, to one who atten- tively considers the course of events in the Latin church from this period onward, that these mendicant orders, in part un- designedly, and in part knowingly and intentionally, gave mortal wounds to the authority of the Romish cliurch, and caused the people to wish for a reformation in the church. § 31. St. Francis prescribed absolute poverty to his friars. While all the previous monastic orders adopted the policy of denying to their members severally the right of private pro- perty, but allowed the collective bodies or fraternities to possess estates and revenues, from which all the Individuals received sui)port, Francis would not allow his followers, either indi- vidually or collectively, to be owners of any property .^ But immediately after the death of their founder many of the friars- minors departed from this rigorous law ; and their inchnations were gratified by Grer/ori/ IX., who in the year 1231 published a more mild interpretation of this severe rule.^ But others among them were greatly dissatisfied with this relaxation of Xiy. [who died a. n. 1758] did not nee donmm, nee locum, nee aliquam hesitate to give countenance t'.- this fable, rem : sed sicut ])cregrini et advent in yet in his usual pmdent and cautious hoc sojculo, in paupertate et humilitate manner ; de Fcstis B. Maria Virginis, famidantes Domino, vadant pro eleenio- lib. ii. cap. vi. Opp. torn. x. p. 472, ed. syna (i. e. must beg) confidenter. — Ha!C 1^"™^- est ilia celsitudo altissima; paupertatis, See the Alcoran des Cordeliers, tom. qua; vos carissimos meos fratres ha;redes i. p. 256. 266. 278, &.c. Lucas Wadding's ct reges regni coelorum instituit." Annales Minorum, tom. iii. p. 380, and ■' His Bull is extant in Emman. Ro- the whole history of these times. deric's Co/lectio Privilegiorum regularium _ 'The Ride of St. Francis, cap. vi. Mendicantium ct non Mendicaidium, torn.. IS this : " Fratres sibi nihil approprient, i. p. 8. CH. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 531 their primitive austerity. These, being persons of a morose disposition, and prone to go to extremes, were by some called the Zealous (zelatores), or the Spiritual; and by others the Ccesarians, from one of their number named Casarius, who was their chief leader.* . A perplexing controversy having thus arisen. Innocent IV., in the year 1245, decided according to the views of those who wished their rule to be relaxed, declaring that they might hold lands, houses, furniture, books, and other things, and might use them freely ; but that the 7-i(/ht of properti/, the legal i^ossession or ownership of the wdiole, should belong to St. Peter, and to the church of Rome, without whose consent nothing should be sold, exchanged, or in any way transferred to others. This exposition of their rule, the Spirituals declared to be an unrighteous perversion of it ; some of them, accordingly, retired into desert places, others were sent into exile by Cres- centius, general of the order. '^ § 32. John of Parma, who was elected general of the whole order, a. D. 1247, changed the face of things among them. Being himself in sentiment with the Spirituals, he recalled the exiles, and required the brethren to conform to the letter of the law, as prescribed by St. Francis.''' But the recompense that he received for restoring the Franciscan community to its pristine state was, that in the year 1249 he was accused before the pon- tiff, Alexander IV., and was compelled to resign his office. His companions, who refused to abandon their opinions, were thrown into prison ; and he himself with difficulty escaped the same ftite.^ His successor, the celebrated Bonaventura, who ranked hio-h amono: the scholastic theologians, wished to take neutral ground, and made it his grand object to prevent an open rup- ture and separation between the two parties. Yet he could not prevent the laxer party from obtaining, in the year 1257, a solemn ratification from Alexander IV, of the interpretation put upon their rule by Innocent IV."" On the other hand, those who held to the views of the Spirituals were so successful, that, in an assembly of the order, A. D. 1260, they procured the • Lucas Wadding's Annaks Mitiomm, ' AVadding's Annales, torn. iv. p. 4, torn. iii. p. 99, &c. &c. ,.,.,,_ -.tt , v 5 Wadding, torn. iv. p. 128. and toni. * The decree is exhibited by Wadding, iii. p. 171, &c. among other dociinicnts, Annales, torn. "^ Wadding's Annales, torn. iii. p. 171. iv. p. 446. M M 2 532 BOOK III. — CENTURY XIII. [PART II, abroo-tition of tlie iuterprettation of Innocent, and particularly so far as it diifered from the previous interpretation of Gre- gory IX.^ § 33. To this first contest respecting the real construction of their rule, another was added of no less magnitude. From the beginning of the century, there were circulated, in Italy and in other countries, various prophecies of the famous Joachim, abbot of Flora in Calabria, who was considered by the vulgar as a man divinely inspired, and equal to the ancient prophets. Most of these prophecies were included in a book which bore the title of The Everlasting Gospel, and also that of The Book of Joachim.^ This true, or fictitious, Joachim, among many other things foretold, in particular, the destruction of the Koman church, the defects and corruptions of which he severely lashes ; and also the promulgation of a new and more perfect Gospel, by poor persons divinely commissioned, in the age of the Holy Spirit. For he taught, that two imperfect ages, [or dispensa- tions,] that is, modes of worshipping God, had already passed ; namely, those of the Father and of the Son ; and that a third, more perfect, was at hand; namely, that of the Holy Spirit. These predictions, and whatever announcements were attributed to Joachim, were most eagerly embraced by the Spirituals, who Avere, for the most part, well-meaning, but delirious and fanatical persons, and who applied them to themselves, and to the rules of life prescribed by St. Francis 2 ; for they maintained, that lie had taught men the true Gospel ; and that he was that ayigel " Wadding's Annales, torn. iv. p. 128. authors. And among these, I place the The miserable and distracted state of the Everlasting Gospel, which was the pro- order is lucidly depicted in an epistle of duction of an obscure and insipid writer, Bonaventura, which may be seen in wlio published his dreams under the Wadding, 1. c. p. 58. splendid name of Joachim, in order to ' What Merlin is to the English, give them cun-ency. The title of this Malachy to the Irish, and Nostrodamus foolish book was borrowed from the Apo- to the French, the same is the abbot calypse, ch. xiv. 6. It consisted of three Joachim to the Italians : a man who fore- parts [or lihri'] ; of which the first was tells what is to come, who is divinely entitled Liber Cuncordiarum,velCo?icordi(JB aided, and foresees the fixte of empires Veritatis ; the second, Apocalypsis Nova ; and the revolutions in the church. Great and the third, Psalterium decern Chor- numbcrs of his predictions were formerly durum. This is remarked by Jac. Echard, in circulation, and are so still ; nay, ha\e Scriptores Dominicani, tom. i. p. 202, had not a few who attempted to explain from a MS. copy in the Sorbonnc. them. That Joachim predicted some ^ This, Wadding himself does not things, and also spoke of a future reform- deny, though he is a staunch friend to ation in the church, which he saw to be the Spirituals; Annales Minorum, tom. very necessary, I have no doubt. But iv. p. 3—6. He also speaks favourably most of the predictions, once believed to of the abbot Joachim, be his, undoubtedly originated from other CH. II.] cnuRcn officers and government. 533 whom John, in the Apocalypse, xiv. 6, saw flying through the heavens.^ § 34. At the time when these contentions were at their height, about the year 1250, Gerhard, one of the Spirituals, wrote a particular work in explanation of this Everlasting Gospel, as- cribed to Joachim, which he entitled an Introduction to the Ever- lasting GospeU This treatise, among many other absurd and ^ See Baluzc, Miscellanea, torn. i. p. 221. 228. 235. 246. Echard, Scriptures Dominicani, toni.'i. p. 202. Codex Inquis. Tholosancc, published bv Liiuboreh, p. 301, 302. 305, &c. * As botli the ancients and the mo- derns have given inaccurate accounts of this infamous book, I will here subjoin some remarks, which may serve to cor- rect their mistakes. I. They nearly all confounded the Ever- lasting Gospel (or the Gospel of the Holy Spirit, which was another title of the book according to William of St. Anioiu", de Periculis novissimorum temporum, p. 38,) with the Introduction to the Ecerhist- ing Gospel, or, to the boohs of the abbot Joachim. Yet these two books were totally diflPerent. The Everlasting Gospel was attributed to the abbot Joachim, and consisted (as before obsorvctl) t)f three books. But the Introduction to this Gospel was the work of some Fran- ciscan monk ; and it explained the obscure predictions of this Gospel, and api)lied them to the Franciscans. Neither the university of Paris, nor Alexander IV., complained of the Ererlasting Gospel itself: but the Introduction to it w«s complained of, and condemned, and burnt ; as is manifest from the epistles of Alexander on the subject, published by Boulay, Historia Acad. Paris, torn, iii. p. 292. The book of the abbot Joachim, or the Everlasting Gospel, was, undoubtedly, as such worthless books generally ai'e, made up of enigmas and ambiguous assertions ; and it was there- fore treated with contempt. But the interpretation of it, or the Introduction to it, was a very dangerous book. II. As to the author of the Introduction, the ancient writers are not agrcetl. .iVll make it the production of some one who belonged to an order of mendicants. But those who favour the Franciscans say, he must have been a Dominican ; while those who defend the Dominican cause, throw back the accusation on the Franciscans. The majority, however, M M assert that John of Parma, general of the Franciscans, who belonged to the ])arty of the Spirituals, and is known to have too much favoured the opinions of the abbot Joachim, was the author of the disgraceful production. See Lucas Wadding, AnnaUs Minorum, toni. iv. p. 9, who endeavours, though very unsatis- factorily, to exonerate him from the charge. Sec also the Acta Sam-tor. torn, iii. Martii,p. 157, &c.; for Jolm of Parma obtained a i)lace among the glorified saints that reign with Christ, notwith- standing that he is represented as prefer- ringthe Gospel of St.Francis tothe Gospel of Jesus Christ. James Echaril, however, in his Scriptorcs Dominicani, tom. i. p. 202, 203, has shown, from the MS. records of the legal process against the Everlasting Gospel, which are still jjre- served in the Sorbonne, that the author of the infamous liook was a Franciscan friar, named Gerhard. This Gerhard was the intimate friend of John of Pamni ; and he not only maintained fiercely the cause of the Spirituals, but likewise he so heartily imbibed all Mie oiiinions ascribed to the abbot Joachiui, tliat he chose to lie in prison 18 years, rather than toaliantlon them. See Wadding's Annates Minorum, tom. iv. p. 4. 7. And yet those Fran- ciscans, who are called Observants, tliat is, such as pretend to follow the niles of their founder more strictly than the others, place this Gerhard among the saints of the highest order ; and iliey tell us that he possessed both the gift of prophecy and the power of working miracles. Sec Wadding's Annales, tom. iii. p. 213, 214. III. Nearly all tax with the crime of producing tills detestalile book the whole body of mendicant friars, or at lea.. 279, &c., who is most copious in wiping this disgrace from his order. But the indefatigable man has accomplished nothing by all his efforts. For he him- self concedes, and also proves, by uncpics- tionable authorities, tiiat the Fratricelli did profess, and did in practice follow, the ride of St. Francis. And yet he denies that they were Franciscans ; meaning, however, oidy this, that they were not such Franciscans as those were who lived in subordination to the general prefect of the order, and who admitted the exposition of the rule of St. Francis given by the jiontitl's. He tlK-refure proves only that the Fratricelli were Franciscans, who had withdrawn from the gi"eat family of the order, an.] in the Corpus Juris Canon, tom. ii p. 1112, ed. Bohmer. The pontifl' says, " NonnuUi profance multitudinis viri, qui vulgariter Fratri- celli, sen Fratres de paupere vita, Bizochi CH. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 541 Francis, and who were usually called Tcrtiarii"^ ; so also the sect of the Fratricelli, which wished to be thought the genuine fraternity of -S"^. Fraticis, had numerous Tertiarii of its own. These were called, in Italy, Bizochi and Bocasoti ; in France, Beguini ; and in Germany, Beghardi, by which name all the Tertiarii were commonly designated.^ These differed from the sive Beguini. niinonpantiir, in partibus Italia; in insula Sifilia> — putilicc niendi- care solcnt." These Fratricelli he then divides into monks and Tertiarii ; or, what is the same, as I shall presently show, into the Fratricelli and the Beguini. Of the proper Fratricelli, he thus speaks, "Plurimi eoruin rejiulam, seu ordineni Fratrum l\Iinorum — se profitori ad literam conscn'are confingunt — pniitendentcs se a sancta; menioriaj Coelestino Papa quinto, prredecessorc nostro, hujus status seu vita; privilcgium habuisse. Quod tanien, etsi ostenderent, non valeret ; cum Boni- facius Papa octavus ex certis caussis rationabilibus omnia ab ipso Coelestino concessa — viribus penitus cvaeuaverit." Wliat could be more explicit and clear ? The pontiff then proceeds to the other portion of these people, who were called Bizochi, or Beguini : " Nonnulli ctiam ex ipsis assercntes sc esse de tertio ordine bcati Francisci Pcenitentium vocato, \\yx- dictum statum et ritum eorum sub vela- mine talis nominis satac^mt palliarc." ^ Besides his two rules, both vciy strict and austere, the one for the Friars Minors [or Minorites], and the other for the Poor Sisters, called Clarissians, from St. Clara, [the first abbess among the Franciscans,] St. Francis also prescribed a third ride, more easj^ to be observed, for such as wished to connect themselves in some sort with his order, and to enjoy the benefits of it, and yet were not dis- posed to forsake all worldly business, aud to relinquish all their property. This nde rei(uire(l oidy certain pious ob- servances, such as fasts, prayers, conti- nence, a coarse and cheap dress, gravity of manners, &c., but did not prohibit private property, maiTiage, public offices, and worldly occupations. This third rule of St. Francis, is treated of by all the writers on the Franciscan ortlcr : and especially by Lucas Wadding, Annalcs Minorum, torn. ii. p. 7,&c., and by Ilelyot, Histoire des Ordres, torn. vii. p. 214. Those who professed this third ride, were called Fratres de pwnitentia [Peni- tentiary brethren] ; sometimes also, Fru- trcs de sacco, on account of the meanness of their dress ; but more commonly Ter- tiarii [Tertiarcs]. This institution of St. Francis Mas copied by (jther orders of monks in the Romish church, as soon as they perceived its advantages. And hence, most of the orders, at the present day, have their Tertiarii. •' The Tertiarii connected with those rigid Franciscans who were distinguished by the title of Fratricelli, sprung iqi in the marquisate of Ancona, anil in the neighbouring regions, in the year 1296 or 1297, and were called Bizochi ; as we learn from the bull of Boniface VIII. against them, dra^m up in 1297, and which is published by Boiday, in his Historia Acad. Paris, tom. iii. p. 441. John XXII. mentions the same appel- lation, in his bull quoted in a preceding note. See also C. du Fresne, Glossar. Latinit. Medice, tom. i. p. 1188, who observes that the name is derived from Bizocho, in French Besare, on account of the wallet or bag which these mendicants used to cany. [No : he says, Some have supposed it so derived ; but he thinks they were called Bizochi and Bicchini, from the grai/ colour of their garments ; for from the Italian higio, he says, is derived the French his, gray, or ash-coloured. 7/-.] The name Bocasotus or (as it is \\ritten in Boulay's Historia Acad. Paris, tom. iii. p. 510,) Vwasotus, is undoubtedly of the same origin and import. It occurs in Jordanus ; from whom a single jiassagc Avill Jiereafter be quoted. The names Beghardi and Be- guini, by which this sort of people were called in France and Italy, are very notorious in the church history of the middle ages. But what both the ancients and the modem state, concerning the pei'sons who bore these appellations, is so vague and contradictory, that it is not strange we should find no part of the religious history of this period in- volved in more obscurity and uncer- tainty, than that of the Beghardi and Beguini. I will therefore dispel this obscurity, as far as I am able, and ex- pose the origin of these sects. The words Beghardus or Bcggehardus 542 BOOK III. — CENTURY XIII. [P ART II. Fratricelli, not in their opinions, but only in their mode of life. The Fratricelli were real monks, living under the rule of St. Christianity being introduced into Ger- many, the word beggen or beggeren was applied to religion, and denoted that duty which is enjoined upon Christians, namely to offer devout and fervent prayer to God. This word beggen there- fore, as we may learn from the Gothic or Francic version of the IV. Gospels by Ulphilas, [in which, bkljan is to pray : and bidagwa is a beggar. Tr.'] signifies, to pray earnestly and devoutly to God. This application of the word coming into use, a man distinguished from others by praying much and fervently, was called a Beghard, or one that prays; and a woman constant in this duty, was called Begutta, a female that prays. And as those who pray more than others, make a display of unusual piety, therefore all who wished to be accounted more reli- gious than others, were usually deno- minated Beghardi and Beguttce ; that is, in modern phraseology. Praying Brothers, and Praying Sisters. Whoever duly considers these state- ments, will successfully find his way amidst the many difficulties attending the histoiy of the Beghardi and Beghina ; and he M'ill see whence arose svich a multitude of Beghardi and Beghincp, in Em-ope, fi-om the thkteenth century on- ward ; and Avhy so many sects (more than tliirty might be named) dift'ering greatly in their sentiments, institutions, and practice, were all called by these names. In the first place, Beghardus (or Bcggert, as it was commonly uttered,) was the term among the GeiTnans for an impoi-tunate beggar. Thei'efore, when they saw persons, under the pretence of piety and devotion, addicting themselves to a life of poverty, and neglecting all manual labour, begging their daily bread, they called them all by the common name of Beghardi, or if females, BeyhuUa;; witiiout any regard to the sentiments or opinions by which they were distinguished from each other. Those called Apostoli, were beggars ; the more rigid Francis- cans were beggars ; the Brethren of the free spirit, (of whom we shall treat here- after,) were beggars : and others were beggars. Among these there was a vast difierencc ; yet the Gennans called them all Beghardi, on account of that mendi- city into which they had thrown them- selves : nor was this strange ; for this and Begutta, and also Beghinus and Beg- hiyia, difler only in orthography, and are all of the same import. The Germans and the Dutch say Beghard and Begutte : which are the forms most used in the ancient German language. But the French substituted the Latin instead of the Gennan orthography, and pronounc- ed Beghinus and Beghiiia, after the Roman manner. Thus, those who in Germany and Holland were called Beghardi and Begutta', Avcre in Finance and Italy called Beghini and Beguince : yet the Latin form was gradually preferred before the Ger- man, even by the Gennans and the Dutch ; for which, very probable reasons might be assigned, if this were the proper place. [It probably arose ii'om the fact, that such as wrote on the subject were priests and i-etaincd the orthograpliy that was adopted in the papal bulls. Schl.l Concerning the derivation and the import of these names, there are many opinions, which it would be tedious to enumerate and to refute. I have done this in another place : for I have com- menced and nearly completed an exten- sive and copious work, concerning the Beghardi and Beghince ; in which I have carefully investigated the history of all the sects, to which these names were applied, examining numerous monu- ments, a great part of "which were never published ; and I have detected very many mistakes of learned men, in this part of church history. In this place, therefore, disregarding the various con- jectures and opinions of others, I will briefly state the true origin and signifi- cation of these tenns. Beyond all con- troversy, they are derived from the old German word, bcggcji or beggeren, [in English, to beg. TV.] which we now pro- nounce in a softer manner, begehren. It signifies to beg for anything earnestly and heartily. The syllable liard, which is a frequent termination of Gcrptan words, being subjoined to this, produces the name Bcggehard, which denotes a person Avho begs oi'ten and importunately. And as none ask and imijortune more fre- quently and earnestly tlian the mendi- cants do, hence, in the language of the old Germans, a Beghard, is a mendicant [or beggar'], which word still exists in the language of the Englisli. Beghutta is a female who gets her living by begging. CH. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 543 Francis; but the Bizochi or Beguini lived in the manner of other people, except in regard to dress, and a few observances prescribed for this class of persons by St. Francis ; so tliat they were mere laics, or secular brethren, as the ecclesiastical phrase is."* These Bizochi, moreover, were divided into two theii- common characteristic was visible to all eyes ; while their otiicr traits of character were not so easily discerned. But secondly, the tenn Beyhard, m this century, also denoted a man ir/io prayed vei-y much, and affected micomman jnety. Thus it was equivalent to the modern term Pietist [among the Germans]. Therefore all those who forsook the ordinary mode of linng, and were dis- tinguished by the gravity and austerity of their manners, were designated by the common appellation of Beghardi or Be- guttcc, or, among the French, Beguini and BeguincE. This use of these terms was at first so extensive, (as might be shown by many examples,) that even the monks and nuns were called Beghardi and Bcgutke. But afterwards, their ap- plication was more restricted ; and they were appropriated to those who formed an intermediate class between the monks and conmion citizens, yet resembled the former in their habits and manners. The Tertiarii, therefore, of all the ditierent orders, Dominicans, Franciscans, See. were called Brg/iardi, as is abundantly attested : for, although they were only citizens, yet they were more strict in their devotional exercises than connnon citizens. Tlie Brother Weavers, the Brethren of St. Alexins, the followers of Gerhard the Great, and many others, in short, all who exhibited an exterior of higiier sanctity and piety, were Beghardi and Begliidke, notwithstanding they ob- tained their suppcnt by labour, and truul)led no one by their begging. The terms Beghardi and Bcgutkr, Bc- guini, and Beguincr, if wc regard them in their origin, were therefore honourable appellations ; and they were used as such, in works of the highest respectability, in that age ; as for instance, in the Testa- ment of St. Lewis, the king of France. But gradually these words, as often hap- pens, changed their original import, and became tenns of reproach and derision. For among those mendicant monks, and among those professing more than ordi- nary piety, there were found many whose piety was childish and superstitious, or who were crafty impostors, concealing crimes and villanics under a mask of piety, or who united with their piety corrupt doctrines which were contrary to tiic jn-evailing religion of the age. These characters caused the ai)pellation Begliard or Beguin to become dishonour- able, and to be used for one who is stu- pidly or anilely religious, or who imposes upon mankintl by a show of piety and poverty, or who debases his piety by grievous errors in doctrine. The term Lollard underwent a similar change in its import, as will be shown hereafter. '' See the Ada Inquisit. Thulosano', published by Limboreh, p. 298. 302. 310, 313, but especially p. 307. 329. 382. 389. &c. Of the other passages illustrative of the history of the Fratricelli and Be- guiiii, I will subjoin one from Jordan's Chronicon, ad ann. 12'.)4, in Muratori's Antiquitates Itul. Mcdii yEvi, Unn. Ia-. p. 1020, which will briefly confinn nearly all I have said. " Tetrus de iMacerata et l*etrus dc Foroscmpronio, apostatas fuerunt ordinis Mintmnn et han-ctici. His petentibus eremitice vivere, nt re- gnlam B. Francisci ad litteram servarc possent. Quibus plures apostataj ad- hajserunt, qui statum communitatis damnabant et declarationcs regula\ et vocabant se Fratres S. Fi'ancisci,"' (lie ought to have said FratriceUos or parvos fratres dc paupere vita,) " et Sax'ulares" (these were the Tertiarii, the friends and associates of the Fratricelli, but who contiinied to be seculars, and were ex- cluded from the rank of Friiu-s). " Sa- cularcs autcm vocanmt Bi:iK'ins, vcl FratriceUos, vcl Bocasotos." (Here Jor- dan errs, in saying that the scrculares were called FratriceUos ; for this name wa.s ai>proi)riatcil to the real mon/is of St. Francis, and did not belong to the Tertiarii. His other statements are cor- rect ; and they show that these more rigid adherents to the nilc of St. Francis, were divided into lu-o classes; namely. Friars and Seculars ; and tliat the latter were called Bizix-hi.) " li dogmatizabant, quod nullus sumnms Pontifex regulam B. Francisci deelarare potuit. Item, quo ; by Anton. Sanderus, in his Bra Thomas Cantipratensis, in Bono Uni- 'dantiae't FUindria illustrata ; ami hy other versali, de Apibiis, lib. ii. cap. 51, p. 478, historians of tlie Belgian aHairs. ed. Colvencr. Peter dc Ilerenthal, in " iSIatth. Paris, Historia Major, ad his unpublished Annals; an important ann. 1253, p. 539, 540. VOL. II. N N 5i6 BOOK III. — CENTURY Xllf. [I'AUT II tlons of Ber/liards were not so numerous as those of the Beg- hhice.^ The Roman pontiffs never formally approved, and con- firmed with their sanction, these associations of male and female Beg hards : yet they tolerated them ; and often, at the request of principal men and women, protected them by their edicts and bulls against the violence and the plots of their enemies, of whom they had not a few. At the present day, most of the houses belonging to both the sexes of Beghards, are either destroyed, or converted to other uses : yet in the Belgic pro- vinces, the houses of female Beghards are sufficiently numerous, while those for males are very few.- § 43. It remains, that we briefly notice the names and merits of those among the Greeks and Latins, Avhose writings gained a lasting fame that others missed. Of the Greeks, who thus out- stripped contemporaries, must be mentioned'^, Nicetas Aco- minatus, to whom we are indebted for a history, and a Thesaurus of the orthodox faith ^ : Germanus, patriarch of Constantinople, of whose productions there are extant, among others, a tract against the Latins, and an Exposition of the Greek Liturgy '' : Tlieodorus Lascaris, Avho has left us several tracts on different topics in theology ; and wdio also wrote against the Latins, as nearly all the Greek authors did, this being a subject to Avhich they were prompted both by their genius and by their national at- tachments ^ : Nicepliorus Blemmida, one of those who endeavoured 1 [Or female Beghards. TV.] See see Jo. Alb. rabricius's Bihliuthcca Eyckel's Vita S. Begga, p. 635. Anton. Graca. Sander's Flandria itiustrata, lib. iii. cap. •> [See above, p. 493, note '. TV.] xvi. p. 136. Jo. Bapt. Gramaye, in his = [He was called Germanus II., in Antiq. Flandria, and especially, in Gan- distinction from a patriarch of the eighth davo, p. 22. Aubcrt INIirjcus, Opera di- century. He was a monk of the Pro- plomatico-histor. tom. iii. c. 168, p. 145, pontis, created patriarch about A. d. 1222, and in several other places. Hipp. Hel- deposed in 1240, restored again, and yot, Histoiredes Ordres, tom. Vi\.'[x2\^, died in 1254. His exposition of the wlio, however, makes many mistakes, liturgy, sadlv interpolated, was published, Gerhard Antonius, the Pater Minister Greek and Latin, in the Auctarium IJu- (as the head of the sect is called) of the ceanum, tom. ii. ; and about twelve of his Bcgliards of Antwerp, in his Epistula ad semions and homilies, with seven of his Byckium de Beghctrdorum origine et fatis ; epistles and decrees, have been pub- in Eyckel's Vita S. Begga; p. 489 ; who lished in different collections of ancient studiously casts obscurity on not a few works, by Combefis, Gretser, Leo AUat. things, in order to exalt his sect. C<)telicr,'Leunchuius, &c. TV.] ^ [Some of these Beguinages are still « [Theodoras Lascaris was born at found in Belgium ; being clusters of Nice, was much devoted to literature, houses within a connnon enclosure, became emperor, a. d. 125.5, waoed suc- built round a churcli. Each house has ccssful wars against the Bulganans and the name of some saint, real or reputed, others, during three years ; then resio-ned on the door, instead of its occupant's the emigre, and retired to a monastery, name. £■(/.] where he died a. d. 1259, aged thirty-six. Concerning them all, in addition to Very Yaw of his tracts have been pnb- the M-riters de Scriptoribus Eccksiasticis, lished. TV.] ciT. ir.] cnuRCii officers and government. 547 to prod Lice harmony between the Greeks and Latins '' : Arsenius, whose Synopsis of the Greek ecclesiastical law is pi'ctty well known ^: George AcropoUta, known as the author of a history, and for many things done with various fortune'': Jului Beccus, or Veccus, who brought himself into much trouble, by advocating the ca,use of the Latins with more warmth than the zeal of most Greeks for tlieir church would tolerate ' ; George Metoddta '-, and Constantine Meliteniota '\ who expended much effort, with- out effect, to unite the Greeks and Latins : George Pacligmercs, famed for his Exposition of Dlongslus the father of the mystics, and for a History of his own times ' , and George of Cgprns, Avho acquired more fame by his invectives against the Latins, and his attack upon John Veccus, than by his other writings."' ' [Sec above, p. 494, note '. TV.] * [Arsenius, surnamccl Autorianus, was born at Constantinople, became a monk and an abbot at Nice ; retired from office, and lived at mount Atlios ; was made patriarch of Constantinople by Tlieodore Lascaris, a. d. 1255, and tutor to Lascaris' son, at his father's death, A. D. 1259 ; resigned the patriarchate soon after; resumed the office in 1261 ; op- posed and excommunicated the emperor Michael, who had put out the eyes of Arsenius' royal pupil ; was deposed and banislied to the Proconnesus, wlierc he lived ill exile many years. The time of his death is not ascertained. His Synopsis diviiwrum Canunitm, written while he was a monk, and arranged under one hun- dred and forty-one Tituli, is in Justell's Biblkith. Juris Canon. Greek and Latin, tom. ii. ]>. 749. Ills Testament, or will, was j)ublislieil Gr. and Lat. by Cotelicr, Monumenta Ecdesice Gr. tom. ii. p. 1G8. Tr.-] " [See above, p. 493, note ^ Tr.'\ ' [Veccus was cltartoj)hi/hu- of tlic gi'eat church of Constantinople, and a man of genius and learning. He at first strenuously opposed the Latins. For this the emperor ^lichael imprisoued him, with others. By reading the writings of Nicei)liorus Blemmithi, Veccus w;is converted into a friend and most zealous advocate of the Latins. Michael now made him patriarch of Constantinople, A. D. 1274. On the death of Michael, A. 1). 1283, fearing the rage of the jjcople, he resigned his office ; was tlie next year banished, and passed the remainder N of his days in exile. His writings in defence of the Latins, and in apology for his conduct, are mimerous, and were ])ublished, Gr. and Lat. by Leo Allatius, in Gracia Orthodoxa, tom. i. and ii. and elsewliere. TV.] '•^ [George Metoehita was a deacon of the great church of Constantinople, and a friend and associate of John Veccus. With him he contended in behalf of the Latins, and with him suffered exile, for this offence. He flourislied a. d. 1270; the time of his death is not known. His writings, all in defence of tiic Latins, were publislied by Let). Allatius, Gracia Ort/toilo.at, tom. ii. TV.] ^ [t?OTrstantine ^Meliteniota was arch deacon of Constantiuoi)le, luider John Veccus ; joined with Veccus and Meto- ehita in defending the cause of tiie Latins ; and passed through nnuli the same suf- ferings. He died in exile, in 15itliynia. His tract on a union of the Greek and Latin churclies, and another on the pro- cession of the Holy Spirit, arc extant, Gr. and Lat. in Leo Allatius, Gracia Or' thodoxa, tom. ii. Tr.'] * [Sec above, p. 494, note '. TV.] ' [George of Cyprus, wlio assumed the name of Gregory, wsus born and eilu- cated in tlie Latin clmrch in Cypnis. At the age of twenty, he went to Con- stantinople ; changed liis sentiments ; became a monk, and one of the coiut clergy ; was created patriarch A. i>. 12S4 ; opposed and persecuted Veccus ; was ob- liged to resign his office in 1229 ; retired to a monastery, and died not long after. He wrote largely against the Latins, and N 2 548 BOOK III. — CENTURY XIII. fPAUT 11. § 44. The Latin writers form a long list ; from wliicli we shall produce those only who are most frequently quoted. Joachim, abbot of Flora in Calabria, was perhaps a pious man, and not wholly ignorant of the truth, but he was a man of small parts, of weak judgment, and given np to fanatical con- ceits ; Avhom, both in his lifetime and after his death, the igno- rant multitude regarded as inspired of God. His predictions became far-famed, and have been often published.^ Stepheji I.aiKjton, archbishop of Canterbury, expounded many of tlie books of Holy Scripture.^ Francis, founder of the famous stiiiitinopolitan family, is supposed by Cave to have flourished about a. d. 1276. A long epistle of his, addressed to John Nomophy lax,(/e ConciUis gittr processioncm Spiritus Saticti a Filio definiverunt, was published, Gr. and Lat. by Leo Allatius, adv. Hottiriger. p. 324. He wrote two other tracts on the same subject, never published. Tr.'] " Gregory di Lauro, composed in Italian, a copious life of Joachim, Avhich was published at Naples, 1660, 4to. His pro]ihecies were first printed at Venice, 1517, 4to, and often subsequently. [He was a Cistercian monk and altbot of dif- ferent monasteries in Italy ; the last of which, that at Flora, he founded himself. He flourished a. d. 1201, and died pre- viously to A. D. 1215. He wrote de Con- cordia veteris et novi Testamenti Libri \., Commentaries on Jeremiah, Psalms, Isaiah, some portions of Nahum, Ha- bakkuk, Zechariah, and IMalachi, on the Apocalypse ; also fifteen prophecies con- cerning the Eoman pontifls ; besides some other prophecies. All the above were printed at Venice, in different years, previously to a. d. 1600. Tr.'\ ' [Stephen Langton was an English- man, but educated at Paris, where he became chancellor of the university, and a canon of Paris. Innocent HI. invited him to Rome and made him a cardinal. In the year 1206, the same pontiff' made him archbishop of Canterbury, against the will of the king, who refused him access to his sec, tilf he was comjielled to it by the pope in 1212. In 1215, Langton encouraged rebellion in Eng- land, .ind aided the invasion by the French ; for which he was accused, and had to pay a heavy fine in 1218. He died in 1228. He wrote Connnentaries on a large part of the Bible, besides letters and sermons ; nearly all of wliielv in confutation of Veccus. His chief \vorks are his Tomus Orthodoxus, or Co- himna Orthodoxice, and discourses against the blasphemies of Veccus, still remain- ing in manuscript. Besides the Greek wi-iters enumerated by Dr. Mosheim, the following are no- ticed by Cave, in Ms Historia Litteraria, torn. ii. Nicolaus Ilydrentinus, who flourished a. i>. 1201, and was the Greek inter- ])reter in all the negotiations of cardinal Benedict, both at Constantinople and in Greece, for a reconciliation of the Greek and Latin churches. He wrote in Greek various tracts against the Latins, fi-om Avhich only some extracts have been published. Nicetas Maronita, chartophyhx of the great church of Constantinople, and then archbishop of Thessalonica, who flou- rished A. D. 1201. He wished to eflfeet a union of the Greek and Latin churches ; and wrote six books on the procession of the Holy Spirit, with a view to reconcile the two parties. Leo Allatius has pub- lished some extracts from the work ; adv. Hottinger. cap. 19. His Answers to the questions of Basil are extant, Greek of AuxeiTC, but resigned the mitre, and became a Cister- cian monk. Cave sujiposes he flourished about A. D. 1215. His wcrks, as collected X N and published by Charlesdu Visch, Antw. 1G55, fol. consist of a connneiUary on llie Canticles, on the art of preacliing, a pccnitential, on the parables, a collection of memorable sayings, a poem in eleven books on a perfectly good n^an, two books against the Waldenscs, eleven sermons, and a few other tracts. l)u AMsch, in his Jiibliuth. Scriptor. Cistcrciciis. Colon. 165G, 4to, added Alain's commentary on the proi)hecies of Merlin, and his tract on the philosoiiher's stone. 7'/-.] ' [Jacobus de Vitriaco, or James of Vitri, was born (at a place of that name) near Paris, e. 1244. ilis oriental and occidental history is in tlnxe books ; the first de- scribes the country and nations .of the cast, and traces their history from the time of Mahumed to a. d. 1210: the second book gives the history of Eunijie during the author's own times : tlie third returns to tlic oriental nations, and brings down their Iiistory to a. i>. 1218. Tlie first and third books were jirintetl at Douay, 1597, 8vo, and in liongai-sius, Gesta Dei per Francos, U>m. ii. He also wrote a letter, descril)ing the capture of Damietta, which is in Bongarsius, 1. c, and an epistle to pojie Ilonorius HI., and sermons on the gospels and epistles for tlie year. Tr.} ' Sec Jac. Echard's Scriptorcs Donii- nici, tom. i. p. 454, and Jo. Bolland's Pr.] " Sec especially the Gallia Christiana of the Benedictines, tom. vii. p. 95. [William of Paris, D.IX was born at AuriUac, in Auvergne (and thence called William Alvernus), became an eminent scholar and divine, and was bishoi) of Paris from a.d. 1228, till his death, March 29th, 1249. His works were printed by Bart. Fen-oneus, Orleans, 1674, in two volumes, fol. They consist chiefly of tracts on moral and practical subjects ; yet there are se\eral on d( ig- matie theology. He is not to be con- founded with iNIatthew Paris, the his- torian ; as he too often is in the references througliout the original of this work of Mosheini, through the mistake, no doubt, of the printer. 7>.] ' [Alexander Hales, or do Hales, was an Englislnuan, of Gloucestershire ; but was early sent to I'aris, where he spent most of his life in the study of scholastic theology and canon law, and in teaching them to others. He was called the Irrc- fragahle Doctor. He was a Franciscan, flourished about a.d. 12.30, and died at Paris, August 27th, 1245. His works. as published separately, consist of com- mentaries upon the Scrijitures ; com- mentaries on certain books of Aristotle ; commentaries on the Sentences of Lom- bard ; a system of Theology ; and a iaw tracts. 7V.] * Concerning liini. Ant. AVood has ^VTitten largely, Aiilitj. Oxonirnscs, tom. i. p. 81, 105. [Robert Grosthead, or Capito, was born at Stradbrook, in Suflolk, and educated at Oxford and I'aris. Return- ing to England, he became arcluleacon of Leicester, and then bishop of Lincoln, from A.D. 1235, till his death, October 9th, 1253. He was a man of great learn- ing, and of an independent mind. The physical sciences, law, divinity, and the original langmiges of the Biljle, all en- gaged his attention. He resisted the domination of the pope, and laboured to reform the clergy. His writings consist of translations, cojnments on Aristotle, and Dionysius Areop., sermons, lcttei"s, and other tracts; most of which still re- main in manuscript. Fur a full account of him, sec Mihicr's Church History, cent, xiii. c. 7. 2>.] " [Thomas Cantipratensis was bom of noble parents, at I>c^^•c, near Biiissds, studied under Albert the Great at Ct- logne, became a regular canon at Can- timprc, or Ciiampre, near Candiray, and afterwards a Dominican monk, subprior at Louvaiu, and a bishop, suffragan, and assistant to the bishop of Camhray. Ho flourished a. n. 1255. His jmiicipal work is entitled Bontim Univtrsalv, de Apibtts ; in which lie gives invcepts for the con- duct of all orders of men, deriving his illustrations from bees. He also wrote several lives of reputed saints. 7V.] ' [John l\'ckliam was born of low jiarentago, at Chichester in Sussex, Eng- land ; studied at Oxford ami I'aris ; bc- cauu^ a Franciscan ; taught with a])]>lause at Oxford, Paris, Lyons, and R( nic. ■\Vhile at Rome, a.d. 1278, the pipe N 4 552 BOOK III. — CENTURY XIIL fPART ir. j^gidius dc Columna ^ ; Armand de Bella Visu '' ; and others. But none of these attained to equal renown with the triumvirate above mentioned, Hu(/o de S. Caro w^as thought to have done much to advance sacred knowledge, by his Concordance to the cieated him archbishop of Canterbury. On liis arrival in England, the pope demanded of him 4000 marks of silver for the use of the holy see. Peckham had to pay it. He next had contention M'ith the arch- bishop of York. He became vastly rich, founded a college, raised his relatives to affluence, and died about a. d. 1291. He ■wrote Collectanea Bihlioruin, and 47 syno- dical decrees, which have been pub- lished ; and a number of theological tracts, which remain in manuscript. Tr.-] ~ [William Durand, LL.D. was born in Provence, France, of noble parents. He studied the civil and canon laws at Bologna, and took his doctorate there. He also taught law at Bologna and ]\Iodena ; and became so famous as a pleader, that he was called the father of practice. He was auditor general in the court of Rome, canon of Beauvais, and dean of Chartres. In 1274, he was the pope's proctor at the general council of Lyons. Nicolaus HI. made him go- vernor of the papal dominions, Avith the title of rector and count of the patri- mony. In this capacity, he commanded successfully in several battles. In 12SG, he was made bishop of Mende in France. In 1296, the pope sent him as ambassador to the Saracens in the East ; but he died at Nicotia, in Cyprus. He was a learned man, a profound jurist, and a respectable theologian. He wrote Spe- culum Juris, a large work divided into three ])arts ; Bepertorium Juris, extracted from the preceding ; Rationale divinorum Ofjiciurum, in eight books ; also some law tracts. 7>.] ■' [Sec above, p. 502, note^ Roger Bacon was nobly born at Echcster Somersetshire, England, about a. u. 1206. He studied at Oxford, and then at Paris, where he took his degree. Languages, history, law, the ])hysical sciences, and theology, were his pursuit. Returiiing to England, he taught at Oxford, became a Franciscan monk, devoted himself to the ])hysical sciences, expended much time and money on experiments in optics, mechanics, and chemistry, was esteemed a magician, and confined many years as such to a monastery. He died about the year 1284, aged 78, and was buried at Oxford. His Opus Majus, addressed to pope Clement IV. contains an abstract, lay his own hand, of all the works he had then ]jublished, and nearly supersedes the necessity of reading any of his other printed works. TV.] ^ [Richard Middleton, or de Media- viUa, the Doctor solidus et copiosus, was an English Franciscan monk and theo- logian, who first studied philosophy, law, and theology at Oxford, and afterwards at Paris, where he obtained a high repu- tation. In the year 1282, he was one of the commissioners appointed by the pro- vincial of his order, to try the cause of Peter John Oliva ; which trial has been censured. He returned to England, and taught with great applause at Oxford, and died about a. d. 1300. He wrote four books of riuestions on Lombard's Sentences ; and Quodlibeta theohyica, con- taining eighty questions in theology ; both of wluch works have been pub- lished ; also commentaries on the Gos- pels, and the epistles of Paid, and some tracts, which are not published. 7;-.] * [^Egidius de Columna, or Giles Co- lonna, the Doctor fundatissimus, was born at Rome, of the illustrious family of Co- lonna ; studied at Rome and in other places ; became an Augustinian ercnntc monk ; was invited to Paris, to be tutor to prince Philip, son of Philip the Bold ; and taught many years in the university of Paris. In 1292, he was made prior general of his order. In 1296, Boniface VIII. made him archbishop of Bourgcs. Whether he became a cardinal or not, has been disputed. He died a. d. 1316, aged 69. His Mritings are ycry nume- rous, though but partially publislied, and never collecti\ cly. They are on scho- lastic theology, dialectics, on the Sen- tences of Lombard, vindications of Tho- mas Aquinas and Bonaventura, and numerous other tracts. 7V.] " [Armand of Bcllevue, or de Bcllo Visu, was a IJominican monk, born at Bologna, and master of the sacred palace at Rome. He is supposed to have hvcd near the end of this century. His works are a commentary on the Psalms, medi- tations, prayers, sermons, and an cxpla- CH. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVEUXJIENT. 553 Holy Scriptures.^ JVilliam of St. Amour waged war upon the fraternities that sought renown for piety in mendicity, with boldness and resolution, but not successfully.* Humbert dc llomanis endeavoured by his writings to guide the conduct and regulate the lives of the monks.'' WilUuni Perald acquired very high reputation in that age, by his Summa virtutum et vitiorum.^ Raymond Martini still lives in his Piujio Fidei, or his work against the Jews and Saracens.^ John of Paris deserves an honourable place among the defenders of the truth and the right, because he contended for the power of temporal sovereigns against the machinations of the pontiffs, and because he openly professed his dissatisfaction with the prevailing doctrine respect- ing the Lord's Supper.^ nation of difficult terms iu theology and philosophy. TV-.] ' [Hugo of St. Cher, D.D. or de Sancto Caro, a Dominican monk, was horn in Daujjhiny, and studied at Paris ; was papal ambassador to Constantinople under Gregoiy IX., became provincial of his order for Finance ; was created a cardinal in 1245, after which he was repeatedly papal legate especially to Germany. He died A. i>. 1260. His works are, Postilkr, or a brief commentary on the whole Bible, Venice, 1 600, in 8 volumes ; ser- mons for the year ; Speculum sacerdotum et eccleske ; and a Concordance to all the declinable words in the Latin Uilile, to which Conrad of Halberstadt addetl the particles, about a. d. 1290, and wliich has been oltcu printed. 7V.] * [AA'illiam of St. Amour, or de S. Amore. He was a native of Burgundy, and one of the leading doctors at Paris, in tlie middle of this century. In the conti'oversy between the university and the Dominicans, he stood in the front of the battle. The pope ordered him to be degraded and bani^hcd, iu 12.'JG. But suppoi-ted by the university, he held his ground, and fought more eagerly. Sec above, p. 528. His works were pub- lished at Constance (Paris), 1632, 4to. 2V.] " [Humbert de Eomanis, or of Eo- mans, in Burgundy, became a Dominican friar while studying at Paris, a.d. 1225, was made general of the order in 1254, resigned the ofiice 1263, and died in 1274. He wrote Instnictions for monks, in six books ; a conmientary on the rule of St. Augustine ; two hundred sermons on various subjects ; lives of monks ; on the three monastic vows ; and on the erudition of ])reachers. Most of these are in the Bibliolh. Putrum, torn. xxv. Tr.-] ' See Colonia, Histoire Littcraire de la ville de Lyon, tom. ii. p. 322, &c. [William Perald, or Peralt, i. e. de Petra Alta, Avas born in the diocese of Vienne, be- came a Dominican friar in 1219, and some say archbishop of Lyons in 1272. He died in 1275. His Summa (elemen- tary treatise) de vlrtutihus et vitiis, has passed through nmnerous editions. This is his only work known ; unless he is the author of the sermons for the year, as- cribed to 'William of I'aris. 7>.] * [Paymund ]\Iartini, or des Martins, a Catalonian, and a very celebrated Do- minican friar, who flourislicd in S])ain, A.D. 1278. At the suggotion of Kay- mond de Pennafort, general of his order, he composed his celebrated Pugio Fidei (Dagger of the Faitii), in tlnce ])arts, in which he confutes tlic Jews and Saracens I ut of their own writers. It is a learned \\-ork, was hmg tlie chief arsenal for other writers against the Jews and Ma- humedans, and was juintcd witli notes, by Voisin, I'aris, 1651, fol., and Lij)s. 1687, fol. 7V.] ^ His Determinatio de S. Cana, was published by Peter Alix, London, 1686, 8vo. See Ecliard's Siriptons Uvmiiiicani, torn. i. p. 501, &c. Steiilien Baluzc, I'itfC Pviiliff. Avcniui. tom. i. j). 4. 576, .■<77, &c. — [John of I'aris was a Domi- nican friar, and a distinguished theo- logian of Paris, about a. d. 1 290. When Boniface VHI. attacked I'hilip the Fair, king of France, John stoid forth in de- fence of the king, in a tract de Pcgia 554 Potestate et Papali. While he was preach- ing in the assemblies of his order, and giving theological lectures in the schools, with much applause, he advanced the idea, that possibly Christ's presence in the eucharist was by impanation, or unit- ing himself to the elements, and not by a transmutation of their substance : the masters of Paris cried out against him. He was condemned of error, and for- bidden to preach or to lecture : but he appealed to the pope, went to Rome, and died soon after his arrival, a. d. 1304. His tract de Regia Potestate et Papali is in Goldast's Monarch. Imp. tom. ii. p. 107. Besides those named by Dr. Mosheim, Cave notices the following Latin writers of this century. Sylvester Gyi'aldus, called Cambren- sis ft'om his country, and Barrius from his family. He was the son of William de BaiTi, and born at INIainarpu, near Pembroke in South Wales, England. His uncle David, bishop of St. David's, made him archdeacon of Brecon. He went to Paris for study, and there taught theo- logy in the English college three years. On his return, he made some figure at the court of Henry H. In 1185, he attended the Prince John, commanding an expedition to Ireland, was otlered the bishopric of Wexford, which he refused. He continued some time in Ireland, to examine its geography and antiquities ; then returned to Wales, where he com- posed his histoiy. Afterwards, he ac- companied Baldwin, archbishop of Can- terbur}'', in his pilgrimage to Palestine. In 1 198, he was made bishop of St.David's ; and a controversy arising respecting that see, he went to Eome in the year 1300, and finally lost his prelacy. He lived to be more than seventy years old, but the time of his death is unknown. His printed works are, a Topography of Ire- land ; the Concjuest of Ireland by the English ; Travels in Cambria (Wales), in two books ; and a Description of Cam- bria : all extant in the Scriptorcs X. Anglici Normanici, Franef. 1602, fol. Several of his theological productions remain in manuscript. Gcrvasius, an English Benedictine monk of Canterbury, well acquainted with the Anglo-Saxon history. He flou- rished A. 7). 1201, and wrote an account of the conflagration and repair of the cathedral of Canterbury ; Sketches of the dissensions between the monks of Can- tcrliury, and the archbishop Baldwin ; a Chronicle of English history, irom a.d. 1II2 to \.v. 1199; and Lives of the BOOK III. — CENTUIIY XIII. [r.VPtT II. archbishops of Canterbury, from Augus- tine to Hubert, inclusive : all of which are in the Scriptores X. Anglici, Lond. 1652, fol. William de Seligniaco, made bishop of Auxerre, a.d. 1206, and afterwards bishop of Paris, till his death, 1223. He wrote aSumma Theologica, (system of theology,) printed at Paris, 1500. Arnold of Hildesheim, and abbot of Lubec, flourished a.d. 1209, and con- tinued Helmold's Chronicon, from 1171 to 1209. He is considered as good authority in Slavonic affairs, but not in others. His continuation is ptdjlished, in some editions impei'fect, with Hel- mold. Absalom, a canon of St. Victor, Paris, and an abbot in the diocese of Treves, A.D. 1210, has left us fifty-one sermons on the festivals. Robert de Monte, or Robert de Torin- neio, abbot of St. Michael dvx Mont, in the diocese of Avranches, in Normandy. Some think he flourished a.d. 1210; but others make him to have died a.d. 1186. The continuation of the Chronicon of Sigebcrt Gemblacensis, from 1112 to A.D. 1210, or at least to a.d. 1182, is ascribed to him. He also wrote some historical and other tracts. All are pub- lished by Lu. d'Achery, in Append, ad Opp. Guiberti, Paris, 1651, and in his Spicikgiiim. Willibrand of Oldenburg, canon of Hildesheim a.d. 1211. After visiting Palestine, he A\Tote an account of his travels in that countrj^ ; published by Leo Allatius, Si/mmict part i. p. 104. Helinandus, a Frenchman, who after a dissolute life became a Cistercian monk, at Mons Frigidus, in the diocese of Beauvais. He floimshed a.d. 1212, and died a.d. 1227. His great work, or Chronicle, from the Ci"eation, to a.d. 1204, in forty-eight books, with some sermons, maityrdoms of saints, &c. was published by Betr. Tissier, in his Bib- liotheca Cisterciensis, and by Surius. Alexander Neckam, born at St. Allian's, studied in England, visited the luuvcrsities of France and Italy, returned to St. Alban's, removed to Exeter, be- came a canon regular of St. Augustine, and was abbot there from 1215 till his death, A.D. 1227. His works, which are chiefly conmientaries on the Scriptures, ^\•cre never ])ulilished ; but are preserved in manuscript. Ilouorius III. pope a.d. 1216 — 1227, famous for his zeal for crusades against the Saracens and the Albigenses, and en. II.] CHUECH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 55o for excommtmicatiiiR- tlie emperor Fre- deric II., liii,s left us nineteen epistles ; extant in the Collections of councils, Baluze's Miscellanies, and Wadding's Annals. Antonius de Padua, a Portuguese of Lisbon, who removed to Italy, lived at Padua, became a Franciscan theologian and preacher, was called to Konie and honoured by the pope and cardinals, and died A.D. 1231. He was a weak man, though a popular preacher. Many of Jiis sermons, and mystic expositions of the Scripture, have been published. Jordan, of Siixon origin, born in the diocese of !Mentz, became a Dominican monk in 1220, provincial of his order for Lombardy, in 1222, and general of the order in 122:3. lie died about 123C), leaving a tract on the origin of his order, and one or two devotional works. Ca?sarius, a Gcmian, who became a Cistercian monk at Heisterback, in the diocese of Cologne, a. d. 1119, was made master of the novices there, and tlien prior of a monastery near Bonn, lie flourished a.b. 122.5; and wrote ace, and have written to the pope : Wadding's Annales Minor, tom. iii. and let God purge your hearts of all high iv. \\ 37, &c. thoughts, that exalt themselves against a en. III.] RELIGION AND THEOLOGY. 567 negotiations were brought to a conclusion.'* Under Grerjory X., after various discussions in the second council of Lyons, a. d. 1274, John Veccus, the patriarch of Constantinople, and some other Greek bishops agreeing to it, the Greeks publicly con- sented to the terms of compromise prescribed by the i)ontiff.-'' But on a change in the state of public affairs, the fear of a Avar from the Latins being at an end, Andronicus, the son of Michael, in the council of Constantinople, held in the palace of Bla- chernai, a. d. 1284, annulled this disgraceful conipi'oniise, and sent its author Veccus into exile.*' After this, the rancour and the disputes became more violent than ever. § 14. We pass over the private and minor controversies that arose here and there. The only one that remains, and that deserves notice, is the discussions in France, and in other countries during this century, respecting the Lord's Sup})er. Notwithstanding that Innocent III., in the Lateral council of 1215, had placed transiihstantiation among the public doctrines of the Latin church, yet many had doubts of the validity of this decree ; and they maintained, that other opinions Avere not im- probable. Those who approved the Berengarian sentiment that the bread and wine were only symbols of the body and blood of Christ, dared not publicly avow and defend their opinions.'' Yet there were many who deemed it sufficient to maintain what is called the real presence ; though they might explain the mode of that presence differently from Innocent.^ Pre-eminent among these was John surnamed Pungens-Asinum ^, a subtle doctor of Paris, Avho near the close of the century avowed at Paris his preference of consnhstantidtion before transtdjstantlotion ; and yet was not condemned by the doctors there, for advancing such an opinion.^ * Wadding's Annaks Minor, torn. iv. Dctcrminat. de Sacramento Altaris, Lond. p. 181. 201. 223. 2G9. 303. 168G, Svo. ^ See "Wadding's Annul. Minor, torn. " [The Ass-goadcr. TV.] iv. p. 343. 371. torn. v. p. 9. 29. 62. ' His book was published by Peter Coloma, HistoireLitter.de la vilkdeLi/on, Allix, [Lond. 1686, 8vo.] See Baliize, torn. ii. p. 284. T'ittr Pontif. Arcnion. tom. i. p. 576. ^ luco 2\\\atms, de Perpetiia Coiisensione D'Acheiy, Spiciliy. Vctcr. Scriptor. tom. Eccles. Orient, et Occident, lib. ii. c. 1."), iii. \y. o8. Jac. Eehard's Scriptores Do- 16, p. 727, &c. Fred. Spanheim, de 7iiinicani, torn. i. p. .561. [According to Perpetua Dissensione Graconim ct La- Du Pin, Aiileiirs Eccle'siast. sacul. xiv. titior. in his 0pp. torn. ii. p. 488, &c. and ch. v. John of I'aris, sumanicd Pumjens elsewhere. Asinum. lived in the lure part of tiio ' Bonlay's Historia Acad. Paris, torn, thirteenth century, and was a ditl'erent iii. p. 373. person from tliat John of I'aris, who op- * Peter Allix, Pra-fatio ad F. Juhannis posed the pajnil doctrine of tiansubstan- o o 4 568 CHAPTER IV. HISTOEY OF RITES AND CEREMONIES. § 1. Increase of rites. — § 2, Eucharistial rites. — § 3. Year of Jubilee. § 1. It would be endless to enumerate all tlie additions which the pontiffs made publicly, and the priests and monks privately, to the exterior of religion, in order to render it more splendid and imposing. We shall, therefore, despatch the extensive subject, in a few words. Those who directed public worship conceived that the religion generally embraced in those times, was not so much to be presented to the understanding as to the eyes and the senses of mankind, in order to render it more striking and impressive. Hence at stated times, and parti- cularly on the festivals, they were accustomed to exhibit the divine works and beneficent acts, and all the more striking facts in sacred history, by signs and emblems, or rather by mimic representations.^ These spectacles, partly comic and partly ti'agic, though they might gratify the senses, and produce some slight emotions in the soul, were still rather prejudicial than advantageous to the cause of religion ; and they afforded matter for ridicule to the more discerning. § 2. No one will think it strange, that after the establish- ment of the doctrine of transuhstantiation, the consecrated bread of the eucharist should have received divine honours. This having become an established custom, the various ceremonies by which that bread was honoured, followed of course. Hence tiation. Neither did this latter John died, on the 15th Jan. 1306. Similar to escape censure from the divines of Paris, this are the statements of Dr. Cave, for in the year 1305 they silenced liim, (Historia Littvraria,) and Jo. Alb. Fa- and forbade his either preaching or lee- bricius, Biblivth. Med. et InfimcB Latini- turing, on pain of excommunication. He tatis, lib. ix. jj. 322. 7>.] ap]5ealed to the pope, then at Bordeaux, ' This extravagance in getting up who appointed commissioners to try the religious shows, originated, I suspect, case; but before the day of trial, John with the mendicant orders. oil. IV.] RITES AND CEREMONIES. 569 those splendid caskets, in which God, in the form of bread, might reside as in his house, and be carried from place to })lace : hence, lamps and other decorations were added to these reputed domiciles of a present deity : hence, this bread was carried in splendid processions along the streets to the sick ; and other rites of the like character were introduced. Tliis superstition reached its zenith, when the festival of Corjnis Christi, as it is called, was instituted. One Juliana, a nun who lived at Liege, in the Netherlands, gave out that she had been divinely in- structed, that it Avas the pleasure of God, that an annual festival should be kept in honour of the holy supper, or, rather, of the body of Clirist present in the holy supjjer. Few persons gave credit to her vision.^ But Robert, the bishop of Liege, in the year 1246, ordered this new festal day, though very many were opposed to it, to be celebrated throughout his district. After the death of Juliana, her friend Eve, another woman of Liege, ceased not from prosecuting the business ; till at length Urban IV., in the year 1264, imposed that festival upon the whole church. Yet this pontiff died shortly after signing this decree ; so that this festival was not universallly observed by the Latin churches, until Clement V., in the council of Vienne, A. D. 1311, confirmed the edict of Urban.^ And this festival contributed to establish the people in the doctrine of transubstantiation, more than the decree of the Latei'an council under Innocent IIL § 3. At the close of the century, Boniface VIII. added to the public ceremonies of the church, the year of jubilee ; which is still celebrated at Rome, with great pomp and splendid prepara- tions. In the year 1299, there arose among the people at llomc a rumour that all such as should the next year visit the temple of St. Peter, would obtain the pardon of all their sins ; and that this privilege was annexed to every hundredth year. Boniface - [" This fanatical woman declared, " Pec Barthol. Fiscn's Origo prima that as often as she addressed herself Fcsti Corporis Christi i:v visa SancUc vir- to God, or to the saints in prayer, she gi/ii Julianfc (litiiiilits odlato,JAL'^c,lG'[9, saw the fiill moon witli a small defect or 8vo. Jo. Dallanis, de Cnlliis licligiosi breach in it ; and that,havineen named first,) by the Spirit, that the moon signified the Ik-nedict XIV., the Roman ixintifi", de church, and that tlie defect or breach Fc.stis Christi ct ^f^tri(r,W\). \. i:i\\\ •sii.'xa was tlie want of an annual festival in his O/'/a toui. .x. p. 3G0. honour of the holy sacrament." Mad.] 570 BOOK III. — CEiSTURY XIII. [PART II. ordered inquiry to be made into the truth of this opinion ; and he learned, from many witnesses of good credit, that, according to very ancient ecclesiastical law and usage, all those who de- voutly visited St. Peter's church, in the course of the years that terminate centuries, merited thereby indulgences for a hundred years. The pontiff, therefore, in an epistle sent throughout Christendom, decided, that in every centennial year, all that should confess and lament for their sins, and devoutly visit the temples of St. Peter and St. Paul at liomc, would receive plenary abolition of their sins.* The successors of Boniface adorned this institution with many new rites ; and after finding by ex- perience, that it brought both honour and gain to the church of Kome, they limited it to shorter periods, so that, at the present time, every twenty-fifth year is a jubilee.^ '' Such is the statement of Jac. Ca- jetan, nephew of Boniface VITI., and cardinal of St. George, in his Relatio de Centesimo sen Jubilao Anno ; whicli is in all the Bihliothecas of the Fathers, and particularly in the BibJioth. max. Patrum, torn. XXV. p. 267. Nor is there any reason why we should suppose that he misrepresents facts, or that Boniface acted craftily and avariciously, in this matter. [When wc consider the ambi- tious and avaricious character which Boniface manifested in innumerable ways, it is difficult to believe that he was so passive a being in this whole transaction, and that he had no other object in view, than the furtherance of piety, and the continuation of an ancient usage, which he foimd to be confirmed by the testunony of four aged persons, of whom one was a hundred and seven years old. The belief had long prevailed, that Romish indulgences were more effi- cient than any others ; and the pilgrims, who travelled to Rome, in order to ob- tain remission of sins there, stood under the immediate protection of the popes. (See the Dccret. Gratiani pt. ii. cans, xiv. quest, iii. c. 23. Siquis Romipetas, and c. 25. Illi qui, 8fc. and others also, pt. i. distinct. 78.) These pilgrims made many voluntary oflerings to the Romish church, which went into the pope's trea- sury, and also increased the business of the citizens, notwithstanding they could obtain nothing at Rome, which they could not obtain at a cheaper rate of their own l)ishoi)s at home. In these circumstances, Mhat was more natural than for the thought to occur to Boniface, of deriving some advantages from the rumour that was spreading at Rome, and which per- haps was set on foot, or at least helped forward, by his own creatures, and there- fore to rather fabricate, than search after, proofs that a jubilee of indulgences was sanctioned by the ancient eccle- siastical laAv ? Plenary indulgence had hitherto been confined to the crusaders. But those enterprises had now ceased, and a journey to Rome was less hazard- ous to life than a journey to Palestine. The public roads in Italy exliibited an almost continuous procession, or a line of march ft-om one end to the other ; and nearly every day, 200,000 foreigners might be counted at Rome. Indeed, it has been estimated that 2,000,000 of people ■\asitcd Rome during the year 1300 ; and the concourse there was so great, that many were trodden to death by the throng. So happy a result of this experiment made both the pope and the citizens of Rome wish, that a century was not so long an interval. Therefore, Clement VI. repeated the Jubilee A. D. 1350, and Nicholas V. es- tablished the festival to be held once iu twenty-iive years. Schl.'] * The A\Titei's on the jubilee are enu- merated by Jo. Alb. Fabricius, Biblio- graph. Antiquar. jx 316, &c. ; to liis list others may be added, and among them, especially, Charles Cliais, a recent author, whose Lettres Histariqucs ct JJoyniatiqiics sur leu Jubilcs ct les Indulgences, were CII. v.] SCHISMS AND IIEUESIES. 571 CHAPTER V. HISTORY OF HERESIES. § 1. The Nestorians and Jacobites. — § 2. Conflicts of the pontiflfs with heretics little known. — § 3. Commencement of the Inqnisition in Lanjruedoc, in France. — § 4, 5. Its form. — § G. Its prerogatives. General odium against it. — § 7. Severer measm-es against the heretics, especially tiie Albigenses. — § 8. The count of Toulouse in vahi opposes the pontiff". — § 9. The bretln-en and sisters of the free spirit. — § 10. Their mystic theology. — § 11. Some of them held better sen- timents, and others worse. — § 12. Amalrie. — § 13. Joachim. Wilhelmina. — § 14. The sect civlled Apostles. — § 15. The grievous fault of Joachim. § 1 . The Greeks mention the rise of no new sects in this cen- tnry. The orienttxl communities of Jacobites and Nestorians, who spurn the Latin laws no less firmly than the Greeks, were solicited repeatedly by pontifical legates from the orders of *S'^. Francis and St. Dominic, to put themselves under the dominion of the Konian pontiffs. Innocent IV. endeavoured to unite both bodies under himself in the year 1246. And Nicolous IV. offered terms of reconciliation to the Nestorians, and particularly to those inhabiting northern Asia, in the year 1278.^ And some of the bishops of both those sects seemed not averse from the proposed terms. But after a short time, from various causes, all hopes of such a reconciliation vanished. § 2, During the whole of this century, the Roman pontiffs were engaged in fierce and bloody conflicts with heretics ; that is, with such as taught differently from the teaching proscribed by the church of Rome, and brought under discussion the power published at the Ilague, 1751, 3 vols. 8vo. origin in the year 1300 to the year 1750. [He was a minister of tlie French church The second and third volumes arc de- al the Ilague. Tlie first volume of the voted to the subject of IndiUgences. Letters is devoted to the histoiy of the TV.] Koman jubilees, traces their origin to ' Odor. Ravniald, .^nno/es JETcc/c*. toni. the avarice of Boniface VIII. a. d. 1300, xiii. ad aim. 1247. § 32, &c. and tom. xv. ])oints out their reseml>lancc to the ad ami. 1303, § 22, and 1304, § 23. Roman secular games, and gives a parti- ^lattli. I'aris, IlLsluria Majur, p. 372. cular account of each jubilee, irom their 572 BOOK III. CENTURY XIII. [PART II. and prerogatives of the pontiffs. For the sects of the Cathari, the Waldenses, the Petrohrusians, and many others, spread over all Europe, and especially over Italy, France, Germany ^, and Spain, collected congregations, and threatened great danger to the Romish domination. New sects were added to the old ones, differing indeed widely in their opinions, but all agreeing in this, that the prevailing religion was false, and that the Roman pon- tiffs most unjustly arrogated to themselves dominion over Chris- tians and their religious worship. And not a few of the noble- men listened, with favourable and even eager attention, to the doctrines maintained by these classes of persons out of the * [In Gemiany they were called Steel- ingers, from a district in ancient Fries- land, -where they were most numerous, and Hallean heretics, fi-om a town in Swabia where they resided. The Sted- iugers were accused of magic and of Mauichceism, but seem rather to have been Waldensiaus than Manichieans. Their chief difference was, that they re- fused to pay tithes to the bishops, par- ticularly to the bishops of Bremen aiid Minden, and, in general, resolved to be free from the oppressive slavery of the clcrg}'. These poor people, in the year 1234, were nearly exterminated by an army of 40,000 crusaders. See Ritter's Diss, de pago Steding et Stedingis Hareti- cis; and Harzheim's Concilia German. torn. iii. p. 551, &c. The Hallean here- tics may be best understood from the account of Albrecht of Stade, in his C/ironicon, ad ann. 1248. He thus de- scribes them : " Strange and miserable heretics began to multiply in the church of God ; who striking the bells, and calling the barons and freeholders to- gether, at Halla; in Swabia, thus preach- ed in public : that the pope was a heretic ; and all the bishops and prelates, simon- iacs and heretics ; and also the inferior prelates, and the priests ; because, being defiled with vices and mortal sins, they had no authority to bind and loose ; and that they all seduced the people : that priests guilty of mortal sins, could not administer the sacrament : that tio man living, neither the pope, nor the bishops, could interdict the iroiship of God; and that those who prohibited it, were heretics and seducers ; that the Dominicans and Franciscans corrupted the church, by preaching falsehood ; and liiat all those monks, and likewise the Cistercians, led sinl'ul and umighteous lives : that there was no one who declared the truth, and who obsei-ved good faith in action, except themselves and their associates; — that hitherto your preachers have buried the truth, and have preached falsehood ; wliile we do the contrary. The in- dulgence (pardon) which we offer to you, is not fictitious and fabricated by the apostolic (the pope) nor by the bishops, but comes solely from God and from our order. We dare not make mention of the pope, because he leads so wicked a life, and is a man of so bad ex- ample.— Pray ye for the emperor Frede- I'ic and for Conrad — the pope has not the power of binding, nor of loosing, because he does not lead an apostolical life." — See also John Gottfr. Bernhold's Diss, dc Conrado IV., imperatore, Hallensium hccreticorum aliquando defensore ; Altdorf. 1758. — Among the Inquisitors in Ger- many, Conrad of Marpurg rendered him- self particularly fmnous. He was a Do- minican, and 'confessor of St. Elizabeth of Thuj-ingia, whose biography he com- posed ; and with much simphcity he united all the cjualities requisite for so bloody and inhuman an office, as that of an inquisitor. This abominable man, burning with hatred for heretics, raved against high and low, allowed no one a legal trial, l;)ut imi^risoned the innocent, till they would themselves confess guilt, of which they were unconscious. See Albrecht's Chronicon, ad ann. 1233. The German archbishops counseUetl him to use greater moderation ; but the deliri- ous man continued his mad career, pi'each- ing a crusade against the heretics, till at last he was put to death by some noble- men, near jNlarpurg. See Harzheim's Concilia German, torn. iii. p. 543, &c. Schl.-] CII. v.] SCHISMS AND HERESIES. 573 Scriptures, against the power, the wealth, and the vices of the pontiffs and of the whole clerical order. Hence new and extra- ordinary arms were requisite, to overcome and subdue an op- position so numerous and so powerful. § 3. Nowhere was there a greater number of heretics of every description, than in Languedoc and the adjacent regions. For several persons, and especially Haymand K/. count of Toulouse^, afforded them protection ; and the bishops in those provinces were so negligent and remiss in their proceedings agaiust here- tics, that they could found and augment their congregations without fear. On being apprised of these facts, Innocent III. sent cxtraordinaiy legates into these pi'ovinces, near the be- ginning of the century, to correct the ftiults committed by the bishops, and to extirpate the heretics by all posssible means. These legates were Ranier, a Cistercian monk, and Peter de Castronovo, or Castelnau^, archdeacon of Maguelonne, and afterwards, likewise, a Cistercian monk. To these were subse- quently added others ; the most noted of whom was Dominic, a Spaniard, the well-known founder of the order of preaching friars, who, returning from Home in the year 1206, connected himself with these papal legates, and, as well by sermons as in other ways, very strenuously assailed the heretics. Those men acting by authority from the pontiff, and without consulting the bishops, or asking tiieir aid, hunted after heretics; and sucii of them as they could not convert by arguments, they caused to be subjected to capital punishments. In the language of common parlance, they were called Inq^iisitors ; and from them, that terrible tribunal for heretics, called the Inquisition, took its rise. § 4. As this new class of functionaries, the Inquisitors, per- forn)cd effectually the duties assigned them, and purged the provinces in which they laboured, of numerous heretics, similar ^ [Son of Raymund V., by Constance, one abbey, and by imprisoninp: tlie abl)ut sister to Lewis" VII.. kuv/ of France, of another. Fur these acts he was ex- He was born Oct. 27, li56. and sue- conimunicatcd by Celestiiie III. But ceedcd his father, Jan. Gtli, 1194. Ho Iiniocent HI. absolved him. Hurler's seems to have imbibed very early that Jniioccnt III. iii. 5.5. Ed.~\ antipathy to the Roman ehnrcli wliich ^ Very many of the Romish writers was general in his extensive territories, denominate this Peter the first Inquisi- but he did not i)ul)licly embrace any tor; but in what sense he was so, will doctrine, branded as heretical, at the ajipear from what we are about to say. outset of his reign. He very soon, how- See, concerning him, the Ada Sanctvr. ever, showed himself without any mon- toui. i. Murtii, p. 411, &c. astic prepossessions, by an attack upon 574 BOOK III. — CENTURY XIII. [PART II. papal legates were stationed in nearly all the cities whose in- habitants were suspected, notwithstanding opposition from the people, who often either expelled or massacred the Liquisitors. The council of Toulouse, in which Romaniis, cardinal of St. An- gelo, presided as pontifical legate, a. d. 1229, proceeded still further ; for it ordered the establishment of a board of Inquisitors in each city, composed of one priest and three laymen.^ But Gregory IX. altered the institution in the year 1233, and con- ferred on the preaching friars or Dominicans, the Inquisition for heresy in France ; and by a formal bull freed the bishops from that duty.^ And upon this, the bishop of Tournay, as 2)apal legate, stationed Peter Cellmii and WilUam Arnald, as the first Inquisitors of heretical pravity, at Toulouse; and soon after, he created similar inquisitors in all the cities where the Domini- cans had convents.^ From this period we are to date the com- mencement of the dreadful tribunal of the Inquisition ; which, in this and the following centuries, subdued such hosts of heretics, either by forcing them back into the church, or by committing them to the temporal authorities to be burned. For the Do- minicans erected, first at Toulouse, and then at Carcassonne and other places, permanent courts, before which were arraigned not only heretics, and those suspected of heresy, but likewise all that were accused of magic, soothsaying , Judaism, sorcery, and simi- lar offences. And these courts were afterwards extended to other countries of Europe, though not every where with equal facility and success.^ * See Jo. Harduin's Concilia, torn. vii. appointed ; that the year is uncertain ; p. 175. yet that it is beyond dispute that Inno- " Bernh. Guide's MS. Chronicle of the cent III., in the Latcran council a. d. Roman pontiff's, in Jac. Echard's Scrip- 1215, approved and confirnied this tri- tores Prcedicator, torn. i. p. 88. P. Per- bunal. Sec Jo. Alb. Fabricius, Lux cin's Historia Inquisitionis Tohsonce, sub- Evangelii toti oi-bi e.voriens, p. 5G9. Phil, joined to his Hi.storia Conventus Fratr. Limborch, Historia Inquisit. lib. i. cap. Pradicator. TolosK, 1693, Svo, and His- x. p. 39, &c., and other A\Titers, who arc toire Generate de Languedoc, torn. iii. p. mentioned by Fabricius. I believe, that 394, 395. those who make such statements, have ' Echard and Perein, locis cit. their authorities for them ; but those * The account here given of the ori- authorities are unquestionably not of the gin and early history of the Inquisition first order. Most of the modern waiters differs very much from Mdiat is stated in follow Limborch, whose History of the imraberless books ; yet it is supported by Inquisition is an excellent work on the tlic most unexceptionable testimonies, subject, and, indeed, may be considered wliich cannot here be adduced. Learned the principal work. Limborch is to be men tell us that St. Dominic invented commended for his diligence and his the court of the Inqiusition, and first in- fidelity. But he was very indifferently stituted it at Toulouse ; that he was him- acquainted witli the ecclesiastical history self the first inc^uisitor that was ever of the middle ages ; nor did he derive CH. v.] SCHISMS AND HERESIES. 575 § 5. The method of proceedhig in the courts of the Inquisition Avas at first simple, and not materially dilfcrcnt from that in the oixlinary courts.^ But gradually, the Dominicans, guided by experience, rendered it far more complex ; and so shaped their l)roceedings, that the mode of trying heretical causes (if the phrase be allowable) became altogether different from that usually practised injudicial proceedings. For these good friars, being wholly unskilled in forensic affairs, and acquainted with no other tribunal than that in which tlie liomish church is called the penitcHtiar?/ tribunal, regulated these new courts of the In- quisition, as far as possible, according to the plan of those reli- gious proceedings. And hence arose that strange system of jurisprudence, bearing in many respects the most striking- features of injustice and wrong. Whoever duly considers this history of their origin, will be able to account for many things that seem unsuitable, absurd, and contrary to justice, in the mode of proceeding against offenders in the courts of the Inquisition.' liis materials from the original sources, Imt from second-hand Amtcrs ; and he therefore fell uito not a few mistakes. At least, what he tells us respecting the origin of the Inquisition, is not true. Nor arc the accounts of others much better. In particular, not one of the positions stated above is true. ]\Iany of the Dominicans, who to this day preside in the coiu'ts of the Inquisition, and highly extol its sanctity, yet deny that St. Dominic invented the Inquisition, or that he was the first inquisitor ; nay, that he was an inquisitor at all : and they also deny that the tribunal of the In(iui- sition was instituted during the litetime of St. Dominic. Nor are they rash in making these assertions. Yet the dis- pute, whether St. Dominic was an in- (juisitor, or not, is a contest about a term, rallicr than about a fact ; for it tm-ns wholly on the diftcrent acceptations of the term Inquisitor. At first, an Inqnisi- tiir was a person sent forth, under the authority of the Koman pontiff, to sub- due anil extirpate heretics, but without any judicial powers. But the term after- wanls changed its meaning, and was used to denote a judye, appointed by the Koman pontitf to try the causes of here- tics and of those suspected of heresy, to pronounce sentence upon them, and to deliver over the pertinacious to the civil magistrates. In this latter sense, Domi- nic, most certainly, was not an in(iuisi- tor ; nor were there any such judges appointed by the pontiffs before the tune of Gregoiy IX. But, that Dominic was an incpiisitor, in the former sense of the tenn, admits of no doubt. " The doctunents published by the Benedictines, in their Histoire Gcnvrale de Laiiguedoc, torn. iii. p. 371, \&q. show what was the first and simple method of proceeding in the Inquisition. ' [A more definite account of the peculiar characteristics of the tribunal of the Inquisition [as it existed in the subsecjuent centuries, TV.] will not here be out of place. The persons an-aigncd before this tribunal, besides those men- tioned in the text, were the abettors, encouragcrs, and protectors of heretics, the blasphemers, and such as resisted the oflicers of the Inquisition, or inter- rupted them in the discharge of their duties. A person became suspected of heresy, if he said any thing that might oft'end olhere ; if he misused the sacra- ments or other sacred things ; if he treated the images with disresi)cct ; if he possessed, read, or gave to others to read, books prohibited by the Inquisition ; if he said mass, or heard confessions, with- out being in orders ; if he attended, even for ouee, the preaching of heretics ; if lie 576 BOOK III. CENTURY XIII. [rART II. § 6. That this tribunal, devised for subduing heretics, might awaken more terror, the pontiffs prevailed on the emperoi's and did not appear before the Inquisition, as soon as he was cited ; if he showed any kindness to a heretic, or aided him in making his escape. Abettors of heresy were those who harboured heretics, or did not give them up ; those who spoke to arrested heretics, without permission, or even trafficked with heretics. When the Inquisition discovered a transgressor of their laws, either by common report, or by then- spies, or by an informei', he was cited three times to appear before them ; and if he did not appear, he was forth- with condemned. It was safest to ap- pear on the first citation; because the longer a man delayed, the more guilty he would be ; and the Inquisition had then- spies, and a thousand concealed ways for getting an absconding heretic into their power. When a supposed heretic was once in the hands of the Li- quisition, no one dared to inquire after him, or write to him, or intercede for him. When every thing belonging to the person seized was in their hands, then the process began ; and it was protract- ed in the most tedious manner. After many days, or perhaps months, which the accused dragged out in a loathsome dungeon, the keeper of the prison asked hun, as it were accidentally, if he wished to have a hearing. Wlien he appeared before his judges, they inquired, just as if they knew nothing about him, who he was, and what he wanted. If he wished to be infonned what offence he had com- mitted, he was admonished to confess liis faults himself If he confessed no- thing, time was given him for reflection, and he was remanded to prison. If after a long time allowed hun, he still confessed nothing, he must swear to answer truly to all tlie questions pat to him. If he would not swear, he was condemned Avithout fmther process. If he swore to give answer, he was questioned in re- gard to his whole Ufe, without making known to him his offence. He was, how- ever, promised a pardon if he woidd truly confess his offences ; an artifice this, by which his judges often learned more than they knew before against him. At last the charges agamst him were presented to him in wi'itiug, and coimsel also was assigned him, who however only advised him to confess fully his faidts. The ac- cuser and informer against him were not made known to him, but the real charges against him ^vere put into his hands. He was allowed time for his de- fence ; but his accuser, and the witnesses against him, he could know only by con- jecture. Sometimes he was so fortunate as to discover who they were ; but rarely were they presented before him, and confronted with him. If his answers did not satisfy the judges, or if the allega- tions against him were not adequately proved, resort was had to torture ; a transaction wliieh well-nigh exceeded the sufferings endured liy the first Christians when i^ersecuted by the jiagans. The torture was, by the rope, by water, and by fire. The rope was passed under the arms, which were tied behind the back of the accused. By this rope he was drawn up into the an* by a pully, and there left to swing for a time, and then suddenly let fall to within half a foot of the ground ; by the shock of which fall, all his joints were dislocated. If he still confessed nothing, the torture by water was tried. After making Imu drink a great quantity of water, he was laid upon a hollow bench: across the middle of this bench a stick of timber passed, which kept the body of the offender suspended, and caused liim most intense pain in the back-bone. The most cniel torture -was that by fire : in which his feet, being smeared with grease, &c. were directed towards a hot fire, and the soles of them left to burn, till he would confess. Each of these tortures was continued as long as, in the judgement of the physician of the Inquisition, the man was able to en- dure them. He might now confess what he woidd, but stUl the torture woidd be repeated, first to discover the object and motives of the acknowledged offence, and then to make him expose his accomplices. If when tortured, he confessed nothing, many snares were laid to elicit from him unconsciously his offence. The conclu- sion was, that the accused, when he seemed to have satisfied the judges, was condemned, according to the measure of his offence, to death, or to perpetual im- prisonment, or to the galleys, or to be scourged ; and he was delivered over to the civil authorities, who were intreated to sjiarc his life, as the church never thirsted for blood ; but yet they woidd experience persecution if they did not Cir. v.] SCHISMS AND HERESIES. 577 sovereigns of Eui'ope, especially on Frederic II. and Lewis IX., or Saint Lewis, king of France, to enact severe laws against heretics ; requiring the magistrates both to punish with deatli, and particularly with burning at the stake, all such as siiould be adjudged obstinate heretics by the Inquisitors ; and also to afford their special protection and support to the courts of the Inquisition. The laws which Frederic II., in particular, enacted from time to time on this subject are well known ; and nothing could be more efficient, both to support the Inquisition against all its enemies, and to exterminate such as might be odious to the Inquisitors, however high and honourable their characters.- And yet these atrocious laws could not prevent the inquisitorial judges, who were generally inhuman, insolent, superstitious, jealous, and indiscreet, from being driven ignominiously out of many places by the populace, and from being murdered in others. Such was the fate of several, and among them of Conrad of Marpurg, wdio was appointed by Gregory IX. the first in- quisitor of Germany.^ § 7. As the labours of the inquisitors did not at once produce all the results which Innocent III. anticipated, in the year 1207, cariT the decisions of the coiu't into cxc- Limborch's Historia Liquisit. p. 48, and cutiun. What an infernal device is the by Bzovius, Raynahl, ami many others. Inquisition ! What innocent person could The law of St. Lewis was by the French escape destruction, if an in(|uisitor was jurists called Cupientes, because it began disposed to destroy him ? A heretic, with this word : and that it was enacted even if he had been acquitted by the in the year 1229, is shown by the Bene- pope himself, might still be condemned dictine monks, in their Histoire Genomic to die by the Inquisition. — An equivocal de Languedoc, torn, [ii- 1>- 378,575. It promise of pardon might be given to in- may be found in William Catcl's His- duce him to make confession, but the toire des Comtcs de T/iolusc, p. 340, &c., promise must not be fulfilled when the and in many other works. It is not a olyect of it was olitained. Even death whit milder than the Laws of Frederic did not free a person from the jurisdic- II. For a great part of the saiictiti/ ot tion of the Inquisition ; for a deceased this sincere Lewis consisted in Ins flaming heretic must be burnt in effigy. — Would zeal against heretics, who, in Ins oi)inion, not every fseling of human'ity be out- were not to be vanquished by reasomiig raged by following such horrid i)riii- and sound arguments, but to be torfh- ciples ? The inquisitorial judges do not with exterminated. Sec du Frcsue s deny that by such proceedings many in- notes on Joinville's Life of St. Lewis, p. nocent persons unavoidably perish, along 11.39. , ,, . with the guilty : but this does not trouble » The life of this noted and fer«;ioiis them. Better, say they, that a hundred man luvs been cominled by .To. Hcnn. innocent persons, who are good catho- Schmink. from documents iK.tli manu- lics should be cut off and go to Paradise, script and printed, and is most worthy than to let one heretic escape, who might of being printed. In the mean time, poison man V souls, and plunge them in for an account of him, see Luc. ^\ adding s endless perdition. Sec Cramer's BossueCs Annaks Minor, toin. ii. p. lol. 3oo, &c. Histon/ xol V. p. 468— 477.— FoH Eh,.] and Jac. Eeliard s Scnptore.^ Dominican,, ■^ The laws of Frederic arc exhibited tom. i. p. 487, &c. [bee also some in the epistles of Peter dc Vineis, in notice of him, p. 572, note , above. Ir.] VOL. II. P P 578 BOOK III. — CENTURY XIII. [part II. he exhorted PldlijJ Augustus, king of France, and his nobles, to make war upon the heretics, promising them ample indul- gences as their reward.* And this exhortation, he repeated, in a much stronger and more urgent manner, the following year, A. D. 1208, when his legate and inquisitor, Peter de Castronovo, Avas murdered by the patrons of the heretics.^ Soon after, the Cistercian monks, in his name, -preached a crusade (or the cross according to the language of that age,) against the heretics throughout France ; and Raymund VI., the earl of Toulouse, in whose territories Peter had been murdered, being now excom- municated, took the cross himself, in order to obtain release from that punishment. In the year 1209, a very large army of cru- saders commenced then- holy war against the heretics, that bore the general name of Albigenses ^ : and continued the war in the * See the Epistles of Innocent III. lib. X. ep. 49. [" On conn.ait le jngemcnt generalement portc sur cette demarche du pape ; mais ce qui est naoins connu, c'est que le tolerant Beze ocrivit a Ge- neve un ecrit : De hcereticis a magistratu civili puniendis, et que Calvin, son maitre, etabht dans son ouvrage centre Servet, cette these : Jure gladii coercendos esse hcBreticos." Naehon, Leitre sur la tole- rance de Geneve, p. 123, apud Ilurter, Innocent III. iii. 76. This is fair enough, and it is also no more than justice to Innocent's memory to state, that he was tolerant towards the Jews, even claiming a sort of respect for them, as living vni- nesses of the truth of Christianity. (Ibid. i. 274.) Still, he must be holden largely responsible for the enormous guilt of the Albigensian crusade. Ed.'] ^ Epistles of Innocent III. lili. ix. cp. 26, 27, 28, 29. Acta Sanctorum, Martii, tom. i. p. 411, &c. [" Covmt Raymond, when he signed the peace witli his ene- mies, had engaged to exterminate the heretics from his states ; but Peter de Castelnau very soon judged that he did not jiroceed in the work with adequate zeal. He went to seek him, reproached him to his face with his indulgence, which he termed baseness, treated him as perjured, as a favourer of heretics, and a tyrant, and again excommunicated him. This ^^olent scene appears to have taken place at St. Gilles, where count RajTnond had given a meeting to the two legates. " 1208. This lord, exceedingly pro- voked, threatened to make Castelnau pay for his insolence with his life. The two legates, disregarding this tin-eat, quitted the coui't of Raymond without a recon- ciliation, and came to sleep on the night of the 14th of January, 1208, in a little inn by the side of the Rhone, which river they intended to pass on the next day. One of the count's gentlemen hap- pened to meet them there, or perhaps had followed them. On the morning of the 15tli, after mass, this gentleman en- tered mto a dispute with Peter de Cas- telnau, respecting heresy and its punish- ment. The legate had never spared the most insidting epithets to the advocates of tolerance ; the gentleman, already ins- tated by the quarrel with his lord, and now feeling himself personally otlended, drew his poignard, struck the legate in the side, and killed liun." Sismondi's History of the Crusades against the Albi- genses, EngHsh transl. London, 1826, p. 20. £rie der mitderii Zeit, vol. i. p. 320. Srhl.l — 111 the more limited sense, the Albigcnses were those who, in Italy, were sometimes called Cathari, Publicani, or PauUciani, and Buhjari, and who approximated to the INIaniehajans in their sentiments. [That many such jiersons were mingled with the Albigcnses, in tlie broader sense, is proved by Fuessli, 1. c. p. 413. 432, &c. Schl.'] — This appears from various documents ; but most clearly from tlie Codex Inquisitionis TulosancE, published by Limborch ; in which the Albigcnses are carefully distinguished from the other sects. [Among the sects in the south of France, there appear to have been some remains of the Arians, who took root there under the Visigotlis. There certainly was a considerable diversity of belief in that countiy : at the same time existing accounts of its different varieties arc to be received with caution, because they all come fi"om bitter enemies. Mr. Faber well obseiwes, that these odious and senseless imputations are in strict harmony with those that Paganism threw upon the prunitive Clu-istians. He has even gone very fai* towards a complete ■\dndication of the Paulicians, whom he considers the origin of southern French opposition to Romanism, from the charge of Manicluvism. There arc obvious reasons for this chai'ge both in ancient and modern times, which render it very suspicious. The ancients, besotted by image-worship, were naturally anxious to blacken the character of its opponents, and hence excuse their own cruelty to them. iModern llomanists are eager to make it appear that really nothing of Protestantism is anterior to Luther. Tiic south of France, however, in the thir- teenth centuiy, presents a picture highly unfavourable to this view. An immense proportion of the population, Ixjth high and low, was in active opposition to the church of Rome, and as the ditferent religious parties were gradually fused into one mass, was found to entertain very much the same principles that are professed by modern Protestants. An ultimate junction with the Waldenses may have done something towards this : but unless the way had been prepared by a jircvious soundness of belief in many quarters, if not in all, it could hardly have occurred. Sec Fabcr's Inquiry into the Histortj and Theology of the an- cient Vallenses and Albic/eiLses. Iliuter's Innocent III., iii. 52. £i'i)eiisiumJltctl>iurnifii>,Tou\ou!M.\ But, among them, I liave not found one lf.!);5. f<>l.) these all are very unjust to that was free from partialitv. The i^ro- the Eaynumds and the Alhigcuses ; and testant writers, among whom Jac. Bas- they cover over aud conceal the horrid nage (in his Histoire dc riujline, and in deeds of Simon de M.jutfort, and tho his Hist, des Eijlises Uefonmes) stands and)itious designs of the kings of France pre-eminent, all favour too much the to extend their iK.wer. The most (nil Kavnnmds and the Albigenscs. On the and nmst accurate history of these wars cniitrarv, the Roman Catholic writers, of against the heretics, is tiiat of the Bcne- whom "the most recent are Benoist, a dictine monks, Claude le Vic and .Joseph Dominican monk, (Hi.stoiredes Albigcois, Vaissette, two very learned men, in that des Vaudois, et des Barbets, Paris, 1691, excellent work, ///ifo/re Gen(5ra/f(/fZ^n- 2 vols. 12mo.) Jo. Bapt. Langlois, a Jc- guedoc, Paris, 1730, &c. fol. nearly the suit, (Histoire des Croisades conlre les \vhole of torn. iii. Their only fault is r p 3 582 BOOK III. — CENTURY XIII. [rAIlT II. § 9. All tills severity of the pontiffs against the heretics, and the numerous safeguards erected against the enemies of the church, could not prevent new and most pernicious sects from starting up. Passing by the more obscure and short-lived amono- them, one not the least considerable was, that of the Brethren and Sisters of the free Spirit ; which at this time secretly spread itself over Italy, France, and Germany ; and by a gi-eat show of piety, drew after it many persons of both sexes. Few decisions of councils against these i)eople, in this century, can be found ; but in the next century, the councils in every part of Germany, and in other countries, published decrees against them ; and numbers of them, being seized by the Inquisitors, were cruelly committed to the flames. These people found a name for themselves from the words of Paul, Bojn. viii. 2. 14., and they maintained, that the true sons of God were brought into the most perfect freedom from the law.^ The Germans and Belgians called them Ber/hardi and Becjharda or BeguttcE, which were the common designations of all such as l^retended to uncommon piety. Some call them, by way of contempt, Bicorni, that is. Idiots. In France, they were called that they sometimes omit what they ought not. [A detailed account of the Albigensian wars, extracted and trans- lated from the French histoiy of Sis- mondi, was pubUshed at London, in 1826, under the title of History of the Crusades aminst the Albigenses in the thirteenth Century. It is no less fairly than ably Avi-itten, especially exposing the selfish ambition which engaged the court of France in these expeditions. The French monarchs at the beginning of the tliir- tcenth century, were little different from the emperors of Gennany, in recent times. " The north of France miglit be considered as Walloon, a name after- wards confined to the French Flemings, and which was then given to the lan- guage spoken by Philip Augustus ; to- wards tlie west, was an English Finance ; to the cast, a German France ; and in the south, an Aragonese France. Till the reign of Philip Augustus, the first division possessed the least extent of riches or of power." The odious and contemptible character of John, king of England, enabled Philip to gain the northern part of English France, leading only Aquitaine to the insular crown. The cry of heresy, eagerly set up by Eome, enabled lum to seize pretty comx)lclcly Aragonese France. Tims the French king, instead of really governing a very moderate territoiy, and nominally exer- cising superiority over several ijowerful vassals, obtained a vast increase of solid power, and opened a way to his suc- cessors for the gradual absorption of all those mighty fief's which practically split the French people into different nations. Ed.'\ ^ These statements are derived fi-om documents of the most credible charac- ter, many of them not yet published ; from the decrees and councils in France and Germany, the bulls of the popes, the decisions of the Inquisition, and others, of all which a gi-eat many have fallen into my hands. I have also extracts fi-om certain books of these people ; and par- ticularly, from a book on the nine spiritual rocks, whicli they higlily recommended, as being full of divine sentences. As these documents cannot here be exhibit- ed, I will merely refer the reader to a long edict against them, by Henry I., archbishop of Cologne, in the Statuta Coloniensia, p. 58, ed. Colon. 1554, 4to. In perfect harmony with this, are the decrees of Mentz, Aschaff'enburg, Treves, Paderborn, Beziers, and others. CH. v.] SCHISMS AND HERESIES. 583 JBef/hiiii and Begldnce ; and by the populace (I know not why), they were called Turlupins.^ Clothed in a singular manner, they ran about the cities and the country, begging their bread Avith loud vociferations : for they maintained, that labour pre- vented the elevation of the soul to God, or religious contem- plation. They were accompanied by women, with whom they lived in the greatest familiarity: and for this reason, the Ger- mans called them Sclncestriones ' ; as appears from the enact- ments of councils. They distributed books containing the principles inculcated by them, held nocturnal assemblies in retired places, and dissuaded the people fi'om attending the public Avorship in the churches. § 10. T^ha^Q brethren, who boasted of being free from the law, and of having attained to tho. freedom of the sjnrit, professed a rigid and austere species of mystic theohfjij, based upon philo- sophical principles, that were not far removed from the impiety of those called pantheists. For they held, that all things emanated from God, and would revert back into him ; that rational souls were parts of the supreme Being ; and that the whole universe was God ; that a man, by turning his thoughts inward, and withdrawing his attention from all sensible objects, may become united in an inexplicable manner with the Pai*ent and first cause of all things, and be one with him ; that persons thus immersed in the vortex of the Deity, by long contempla- tion, attained to perfect fi'eedom, and became divested not only of all their lusts, but likewise of the instincts of nature. From these and similar principles, they inferred, that a person thus raised up to God, and absorbed as it were in the Divine nature, was himself God ; and such a son of God, as Christ was : and, therefore, was raised above all laws, human and divine. And they maintained, of course, that all external worship of God, prayer, fasting, baptism, the sacred supper, &c. were mere elements for children, which a man no longer needed, when converted into God himself, and detached from tiiis visible universe.^ 3 Concerning the Turlupins, many have the Turhipins, wlio were hiimed at Paris written much ; but none accurately. Sec and in other parts of France, were no Isaac (le Pjcaiisobre, (Dins, siir les'Aclam- other than tiie Bnthnn of Uic free Spirit, itcs, pt. ii. p. 384, &c.) wlio lias com- whom the i)unti(ls and councils con- mitted numerous cn-ors, as he usually denmcd. docs on such subjects. The origin of the * [Sistercrs. TV.] name, I know not : but I am able to ' I will here subjoin some jiositions prove, from substantial docimicnts, that extracted from their more private books, 1- r 4 584 BOOK III. — CENTURY XIII. [part II. § 11. Among these people, there were some upright and con- scientious persons, who did not extend that liberty of the spirit, which they said was possessed by persons united to God, be- yond an exemption from external worship and from ecclesiastical law. They made religion to consist exclusively in internal wor- ship, despising that which is external ; and they maintained, that a perfect man ought to look with contempt on the rules of monastic discipline, and the other institutions which were re garded as sacred. Of this character were those who, in the middle of this century, persuaded many monks and nuns in Suabia, to live without any rule ; saying, that in this tcay, they could serve God better, in the liberty of the spirit.^ Not a few persons of this description, being apprehended by the Inquisitors, expired cheerfully and calmly in the flames. — But there were others of a worse character among them ; and whose piety was I. Every good man is the only -begotten son of God, whom the Father hath begotten from eternity. For all that the sacred Scrip- tures teach respecting a distinction of thi-ee persons in the Divine nature, they maintained, was not to be understood literally, but to be explained in confor- mity with their recondite system of doc- trines. II. All created objects are nothing : I do not say that they are s-rnall and trivial; but that they arc nothing. III. There is something in the human mind, that is not created, nor creatable; and that is, ration- ality. IV. God is neither good, nor better, nor the best ; whoever calls God good, talks as foolishly, as the man who calls a thing black, while he knows it to be white. V. God still begets his only-begotten son, and begets the same so7i that he begat from eter- nity. For every operation of God is uni- form and one ; and he therefore engenders his son ivithout any division. VI. What the Scripture says of Christ, is true of every godly man. And what is predicableofthe Divine nature, is also predicable of every godly man. To these we shall add the following, taken not from their own books, Init from the long rescript of John, bisliop of Strasburg, against the Brethren of the free Spirit, or the Bechardi, a. d. 1317, on the sabbatli before the assump- tion of the Virgin Mary. VII. God is, formally, whatever exists. VIII. Every perfect ma?i is Christ by nature. IX. A perfect man is free totally ; nor is he re- quired to obci/ the precepts which God gave to the church. X. Many things in the Gospel are poetic, and not [^literally'] true ; and men ought to believe the conceptions ivhich proceed from their souls when united to God, rather than the Gospel. The six first of tliese propositions, in the language of the old Germans, and the others in Latin, are as follows. " I. Der gute Minscli ist dcr ingerdurne Sune Gates, den der Vatter eweclycken gebu- ren hat. II. Ich spreeke nxit, dass alle Kreaturen syn etwas kleines, oder das sie etwas sind, sondern dass sie sind om {jiihil]. Es ist etwas in der Seelen, das nut geschatfen ist imd ungesclieffelick -. Und das ist die Verniinftigkeit. IV. Gat ist noch gut, noch besser, noch allerbest, und ich thue also unrecht, wenne ick Gat gut heisse, reclit ase ob ick oder er etwas wiz weiss und ich es schwarz heisse. V. Der Vatter gebu-et nock sinen Sim und denselben Sun. Want was Gat wircket, das ist ein, durch das so gebut er auch sinen Sun an allem Untcrscheid. VI. Was die heiligc Sclu'ift gesprichet von Christo, das wird alles vor war geseit von einem jiglichem gottlicken Menschen. Was eigcn ist der gottlicken Natm-en, das ist alles eigen einem jiglichen gottlicken Menschen, VII. Deus est formaliter omne quod est. VIII. Quilibct homo perfectus, est Chris- tus per naturam. IX. Homo perfectus est liber in totum, nee tenetur ad scr^■an- dum praicepta ecclesite data a Deo. X. Multa sunt poetica in Evangelic, qu£e non sunt vera ; ct homines credere magis debent concci^tibus ex anima sua Deo juncta profectis, qiuim Evangelic." '' Sec Martin Crusius, Annales Suevi- CII. v.] SCHISMS AND HERESIES. 585 as foolish as it was dangerous. These maintained, that by- persevering contemplation, all the instincts of nature might be eradicated, and excluded from the godlike soul, and a kind of holy or divine stupor be brought over the mind. Persons of these sentiments, throwing off all clothing, held their secret assemblies in a state of nudity ; and in the same state, slept upon the same bed with the spiritual sisters and other women. For modesty and shame, they said, indicated a mind not yet sufficiently detached from the sentient and libidinous soul, nor brought back to the source from which it originated, that is, the Divine nature ; and those who still experience the carnal emo- tions of nature, or arc excited and inflamed by the aspect or touch of bodies of a different sex, or who are unable to repress and subdue the occasional emotions of concupiscence, are still far, very far, from God.^ — There were also among these people some who abused their doctrines to justify all iniquity ; and Avho did not fear to teach, that a godlike man, or one who is closely united to God, cannot sin, do what he may. This senseless, impious dogma, all did not explain in the same way. Some held, that the motions and actions of the body had no connexion with a soul, which was translated into the Divine nature itself, and blended with it. But others blasphemously argued, that emotions and desires arising in the soul, after its union with God, were the acts and operations of God himself ; and there- fore, though apparently criminal and contrary to the law, they really were holy and good, because God is above all law.^ coram, pt. iii. lib. ii. cap. 14, act ann. 121G, v. p. 346,) that the devil can render men p. 99, old ed. He extracts from Felix cold, or extincui.sli the natural emotions ; Faber, a writer of that age. and that he so t)perated upon his friends, ' Those who study to vindicate and as to render tliem utterly insensible, so defend the character of the heretics, and that they miglit appear to common peo- Avho think that all such as seceded from pie more exalted and lioly. " Credo," the Romish eluirch in tlic middle ages (says Nieder, who was a Dominican, and Avere holy persons, conjecture that the an Impiisitor,) " (juosdam ex cis (hemonis things here stated are falsehoods, in- opero afl'cctos fuisse, ne movercntur ad vented by the Inquisitors, for the ])ur- naturalcs actus incontinentiiv. Faeilli- pose of defaming pious men ; but they nunn cnim est dicmonibus infrigidare." are strictly true. This we may infer " That I may not seem chargeable from the fact, that the Inquisitors them- with mi.srepresentation, I will cite the selves admit, that the Bcgluuxls, though very words of a i)rivate book of the divested of all sense of sliame, yet in Brethren of the free Spirit, entitled de general did not oft'end against chastity Novem linpihus. " Ucber this so \vurkct and modesty. This firmness of mind, und gebcret der gottlicke ^lensch ebcu and unsusceptibility of emotion, the In- das, das Gat wiirket und geberet. Dcnn quisitors attribute to the power of the in Gate wiirket er und liat gesehallcn devil. For they beUeved, with tlie simple llinimcl und Erden. Und ist cin Geberer Jo. Nieder, {Furmicarium, hb. iii. cap. des ewigcn Wortes. Unil Gott euckuiidc 586 BOOK III. — CENTURY XIII. [part II. Lastly, these Begliards, as they were called, were sometimes iomcd by unprincipled and flagitious persons, intent upon lullino- the suspicions of simple and honest minds by a simulated piety, and thus removing obstacles to the gratification of their own lusts.^ § 12. Of the sect now described, undoubtedly, was Amauri^^ mitz iiiclit ohne diesen Menschen gethun. Dor gottlicke Mensch soil also sinen iviUeu cinformig machen mit Gates willin, dass cr alles das soil wellen, was Gat will. Will Gat in etlicker Wise das ick gcsundet liabe, also soil ick nit wellen, dass ick nit gesundet habe. Und das is gcwarig rewe. Und wenu das der Mensch tiisend Todsunde getliau hette, und iiber das der Mensch wel besctzet oder geord- nct were, ei' en soke nit wellen, dass er dcrselben Sundc nit gcthan hette : aber cr solte e wellen tusend Tode liden c er yme nic de keine Todsunde woltc tun." Tliis passage, rendered verbatim, is thus : " Moreover, the godUkc man operates and begets, the same that God operates and begets. For in God he worked, and created heaven and earth. He is also the generator of tlic eternal Word. Nor can God do any thing, without this man. The godlike man should, therefore, make his will conformable to God's will : so that he should will, all that God wills. If, therefore, God wills, that I should sin, I ought by no means to will, that I may not have sinned. This is true con- trition. And if a man have connnitted a thousand mortal sins, and the man is Avcll regulated and united to God, he ought not to wish that he had not done those sins ; and he ought to prefer suf- fering a thousand deaths, rather than to liave omitted one of those mortal sins." Here is that sentiment, with which the Inquisitors often tax this sect : that the sin of a man, who is united to God, is not sin ; because God works all in him. In the next century, Henry Suso, a celebrated writer among the mystics, and a Domi- nican monk, composed likewise a book de Novem JRupibus ; which is extant among his works, published by Laurence Surius. But this book of Suso is alto- gether different from that which was in so much estimation among the Beghards. The latter was much more ancient, and was in cij-culation among the Brethren of the free Spirit in Germany, before Suso ■was bom. There has fallen into my hands an old manuscript book of tlie fifteenth century, composed in Alsace, containing various revelations and visions of that age. I find there a piece entitled Declaratio Religiosi ctijusdam, super'rcve- latione Cartusiano cuidam de Ecclesice per (jladium Iteformatione, Leodia, anno 1453, facta : near the beginning of which, there is the following passage relating to the book of the Beghards, on the Nine Bocks : " Homo quidam devotissimus licet laicus, libram de novem rnpibus con- scripsit a Deo compulsus, ubi multa ad pra3sens jDcrtinentia contiuentur de ec- clesiaj renovatione et i^rajvia gravi per- secutione." According to the doctrine of this sect, the nine rocks were so many steps, by which the man that deshes to rise to God must be elevated to a union with him. " By whom, where, and when, this celebrated sect was first instituted, is uncertain. I have before me Octoginta novem Sententice Bechardorum, quos vidgiis Schwestrones, ipsi vero se de sccta liberi spiritus et voluntarice paupertatis vocant, cumconfutatione; written by an Inquisitor at Worms, at the close of this centuiy. The 79th of these sayings {sententice) is this : To say that the truth is in Rlietia, is to fall into the heresy of Donatus, who said that God ivas in Africa, and not else- where. From these words, it appears that Rlictia was the chief seat of the clnu'ch of the Brethren of the free Spirit: and tliat from this province they passed into Germany. Yet probably Rlietia was not the place wliere this sect ori- ginated : I apjireliend, rather, that being expelled from Italj', it took refuge in Rhetia ; so that it was Italy which gave bhth to this, as well as to many other parties which seceded from the general church. And there is extant, in Odor. Raynald's Annales Eccles. torn. xv. ad ann. 1311, § 66, p. 90, a long Epistle of the sovereign pontiff', Clement V., ad- dressed to Ranerius de Casulis, bishop of Cremona, exhorting him to suppress and eradicate the sect of theyree spirit, resident in certain parts of Italy, and particularly in the province of Spoleto, und the regions adjacent. '" Amahicus. CU. V.J SCIIIS.MS AND HERESIES. 587 of Bene, the Parisian dialectician and theologian ; whose hones were dug up and publicly burnt, in the year 1209, notwithstand- ing that he had abjured his errors Avhile alive, by command of Innocent III., and many of whose followers endured at the stake the penalties of their unsound faith. ^^ For though the bar- barous winters of that age give different and confused statements of his opinions, and attribute some sentiments to him, which he never held ; yet thus much it is certain that he taught ; namely, that all things are one, that is, God ; that not only the forms of things, but also their matter, proceeded from God ; and all would revert back into God : and hence he derived that mistaken piety or religious system of these mystics ; maintained, that a man may become changed into the Divine nature, if he will ; and j)roved that all external worship was vain and useless. His disciples were men of very distinguished piety and austerity ; and many of them endured the flames with the greatest fortitude. One of his most distinguished followers was David Dinant, a Parisian doctor, who was accustomed to state the fundamental doctrine of his master in this manner : God is the original matter of all things. He composed a work called Quaternarii, and some other books, in a popular style, and well calculated to captivate the common jieople ; and saved his life by a timely flight.' The bishops, assembled in council at Paris, a. d. 1209, supposed that the philosophy of Aristotle gave rise to this im- piety ; and they, therefore, prohibited the reading and expound- ing of his metaphysical and other works.^ § 13. If what some tell us be true, (which, however, I ques- tion,) this Amauri, and his followers, gave credit to those pre- dictions, which were circulated as coming from Joach/in, abbot of Flora, in Calabria, respecting an approaching reformation and purification of the church by the sword ; an impending age of " This (lid not escape tlic notice of been duly punisiicd, it" lie had been those enemies of t\\c Brethren of titc free caught. iS'/>(V'/^or7?tr//«r(/A-, thelnqtusitors. Hence ' Sec the Flarcscs pro quiijiis /lacerdoles the sixty-eighth of the ei(ihii/-nine MS. Parisii.s (a.v. l'20'J) iic (■(m.sumj)ti sunt; sayiitgs of the Scchards, icilh their confu- in Edni. ^lartene's Theaaiirus Ancciln- tat ion, is this: To say that all creatures toriim, toni. iv. p. 163, &c. Natalis are God, is the heresy of Alexander ; Alexander, Ilistoria Eccles. Scrcul. xiii. (that Epicurean, -whom Plutarch incTi- cap. iii. Art. ii. ]>. 7G, &c. Gerh. du tions in his 5///H/;os(«;« ;) ■who saiil, "ina- I3ois, Ilistoria Eccles. Paris, toni. ii. p. teriani jirimam et Deuni et honiinem, 24-1, &c. Boulay's Historia Acad. Paris. hoc est, nientes esse in substantia :" which toni. iii. p. 2-1, 48. 53. .Jac. Thomasius, aften\ards one David dc Dinant followed De E.rustionc Minidi Stoica, p. 199, &c. who, in our times, fled from France on * .To. Launoi, Dc T nr/« Aristoldis account of this heresy, aud ^^•ould have Fortuna in Acad. Paris, p. 127, &e. 588 BOOK III. — CENTURY XIII. [PART II. the Holy Spirit, to succeed the ages of the Father and the Son ; and similar things, with which the Franciscan Sjnrituals were carried away. This, however, is certain, that some others did suffer themselves to be led, by these predictions, to found new sects, and to declare war against the reigning church. JVilhelmiiia, an infatuated and delirious Bohemian woman, who resided in the territory of Milan, took occasion from these pre- dictions concerning an age of the Holy Spirit, for foolishly per- suading first herself, and then many others, that the Holy Spirit had assumed human nature, in her person, for the sake of saving a large part of mankind : for Christ, she said, had procured sal- vation, by his bloodj for all real Christians : and the Holy Spirit, by her, would save the Jews, the Saracens, and false Christians : and for this end, all the things that befel Christ, when incarnate, the same things must also befal her, or, rather, the Holy Spirit, incarnate in her. This foolish woman died at Milan, in the year 1281, with the highest reputation for sanctity; and after her death she was honoured, as well by her followers, who were considerably numerous, as by the ignorant populace, both pulj- licly and privately, with the highest veneration. But in the year 1300, the Inquisitors detected her sect, destroyed her splen- did tomb, and committed her bones, and with them the leaders of the party, of both sexes, to the flames.^ § 14. On similar predictions, the sect of the Apostles was grounded ; a sect which made little change in the received reli- gion, but aimed to revive the apostolical mode of life. Its founder, Gerhard Sagai^ellus, of Parma, ordered his follower's to travel up and down the world, in the manner of the Apostles, clad in white, with heads bare, beards and hair long, and at- tended by women, whom they call sisters ; to possess no pro- perty at all, but to live upon the voluntary gifts of the pious ; 3 The Milanese historians, Bernhard nounced to lier mother by the angel Corio, and others, give an aecount of Rai)hael, just as the birth of Christ was this woman. But their statements differ announced to Mary by the angel Gabriel, widely from those of Lud. Ant. Mm-atori, Her most noted followers were one (AiUiq. Jial. Medii JEvi, tom. v. p. 95, Andrew, and a nun named Mayfreda. &c.) derived from the record of tlie judi- As Christ appointed Peter his vicegerent, cial i^roceedings. He also informs us, and the liead of his church, on earth : that a learned man, named Puricelli, so she appointed Mayfreda her vicege- composed a history of Wilhelmina and rent, and placed her on a footing of her sect, wliich stiU exists in manuscript, equality with the Romish popes. She [She pretended to lie the daughter of promised her followers to appear to Constantia, cjuecn of Primislaus, king of them before the day of judgment. See Bohemia ; and that her biitli was an- Muratori, 1. c. T/-.] CH. v.] SCHISMS AND HERESIES. 589 and publicly, to exhort the people to repent, but In their private meetings, to announce the impending downfall of the utterly deformed Romish church, and the rise of a new, purer, and holier church, according to the prophecies of the abbot Joaclibn. This Gerhard being burned at the stake, at Parma, a. d. 1 300, his successor, Dulcinus, of Novara, a bold and energetic charac- ter, and familiar with the Scriptures, preached much more spiritedly, that the Koman pontiiF, Boniface. VIII., and all the flagitious priests and monks, would shortly be slain by the em- peror Frederic III, son to Peter, the king of Aragon ; and that a new and most holy pontiff would be placed over the church. For in many of the predictions ascribed to the abbot Joachim, it was announced, tliat an emperor, called Frederic III., would complete what the emperor Frederic II. had left unfinished. With this Dulcinus, who was both the general and the prophet of the Apostoli, and who had collected an armed force, Ray- nerius, bishop of Vercelli, waged fierce war In behalf of the pontiff, for more than two years ; and at length, after several battles, Dulcinus was taken alive, and was executed with exqui- site tortures, at Vercelli, a. d. 1307, together with Margaretha, the sister whom he had chosen according to the practice of his sect. After the horrid death of Dulciuzts, the sect long existed in France, Germany, and other countries ; nor could it be wholly extirpated, till the times o^ Boniface IX., in the begin- ning of the fifteenth century.* § 15. This Joachim, abbot of Flora, whose prophecies induced so many respectable people to menace the Romish church with a reformation hy the sword, as the phrase was, and the pontiffs with great disasters, and to proclaim open war against them, was himself brought under suspicion of heresy, not Indeed on account of these predictions, but on account of a new explication of the doctrine of three persons in the Godhead. He had, in a special treatise, opposed Peter Lombard, the master of the * I have composed, in the German published in Geo. Echard's Corpus His- language, a particixlar history of this toricim Medii JEvi, torn. ii. p. 900. And ftimous sect, so imperfectly knowi in the fact may be corroborated by many our age, in three books, which was pub- proofs. In the year 1402, an apostle, lishcd at Helmstadt, 1746, 4t(). I could named William, was burned at Lubec. now add some things to that history. See Cocrner, 1. c. p. 1185. The Gemians, Tliat the sect continued to exist, in Gcr- who called all tliat atl'ected uncommon many and other countries, down to the piety, and sought a reputation for sane- times of Boniface IX., we are informed tity by begging, Bcgliards, gave this ap- by Herm. Coerner, in his Chrouicle ,• pellation also to the ApustuU. 590 BOOK III. — CENTURY XIIT. [PART IT. Sentences, because tlic latter distinguished the Divine essence from the three persons in the Godhead ; for Joachim supposed that this distinction introduced a fourth subject into the divine Trinity, namely, this essence. But his ignorance of dialectics, led him, in this discussion, to use less caution than the subject demanded. For he denied that there was in the sacred Trinity, a something, or an essence, which was common to the three persons : from which position it seemed to follow, that the union of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, is not a simple or natural union, but merely a moral union, like that of several persons all having the same views and opinions. As this sentiment ap- peared to many to approach very near to the doctrine of Arms, Innocent, in the Lateran council of 1215, condemned, not indeed the man, but his opinion. Joachim, however, even to the present day, has many patrons and advocates, especially among those Franciscans who are called Ohservants ; of whom, some main- tain that his book was altered by his enemies ; and others, that his views were misunderstood.^ * See Dan. Papebroch's Disquis. His- a, Greek ; and some other documents. tor. de Florensi Ordine, Prophetiis Doc- Natalis Alexander, Historid Eccles. Sere, trina B. Joachimi; in the Acta Sanctor. xiii. Diss. ii. p. 3.31, &c. Lu. Wadding's Mail, torn. Vi. p. 456, &c, where is a life Annalcs Minorum, torn. \\. p. 6, &c. of Joacliim, writtcu by Jac. Syllanajus, CENTURY FOURTEENTH. TART T. THE EXTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. CHAPTER I. THE PROSPEROUS EVENTS IN THE HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. § 1. Crusades attempted in vain. — § 2. State of the Christians in Cliina and Tartary. — § 3. The Lithuanians converted. The Jews compelled by persc- cntion to become Christians. — § 4. Troject for the expidsion of the Saracens from Spain. § 1. Some of the Latin kings, being admonished by the Roman pontiffs, thought repeatedly of renewing the war against the Turks and Saracens, and of rescuing Syria from their hands. In particular, the pontiffs who resided at Avignon, in France, omitted no motive which they thought would induce the kings of France and England to engage in such a military entcrjirise. But from various causes, their expectations were always disap- pointed. Clement V. urged this holy war, with great energy, in the year 1307 and 1308, and appropriated to it a vast sum of money.^ John XXII., in the year 1319, fitted out a fleet often ships, for transporting an array to Palestine ' ; and in order to raise the money necessary for so great an enterprise, he com- missioned, in the years 1322 and 1323, certain nuncios to offer ' Baluze, Vita Pontif. Avenion. tom. torn. ii. p. 577. i. p. 14. 594, tom. ii. p. 55. 57. 374. 391, ' Baluze, Vikc Pontif. Avenion. tom. &c. Ant. Matthsei, Analecta Vet. ^vi, i. j). 125, tom. ii, p. 515. 592 BOOK III. — CENTURY XIV. [PAliT II. great indulgences to the liberal every where, who should con- tribute to it. But the emperor Lewis, of Bavaria, and others, complained, that he merely brought forward a sacred war to cloak his owu avarice and ambition.^ Nor does his character shield him from such a charge. Under Benedict XII., in the year 1330, Philip de Valois, king of France, collected a large army for this holy expedition, as it was called "* ; but when he was about to embark, impending dangers from his neigh- bour, the king of England, induced him to abandon the enter- prise. In the year 1345, Clement VI., at the request of the Venetians, persuaded a vast multitude, by his indulgences, to embark for Smyrna, over whom Guido, Dauphin of Vienne, was appointed commander-in-chief. But in a short time, their want of provisions obliged them all, and their commander also, to return to Europe.^ Again, in the year 1363, at the solicitation of Urban V., a great army was collected, to sail for Palestine, of which John, king of France, was appointed commander. But he dying soon after, the army dispersed.*' § 2. The missionaries sent by the Koman pontiffs, in the preceding century, to the Chinese, the Tartars, and the adjacent countries, continued to gather numerous and larjye consrefra- tions among those nations. In the year 1307, Clement V. con- stituted Jolin de monte Corvino, archbishop of Camhalu, that is, Peking ; for it is now beyond a doubt, that the celebrated city of Cathai, then called Camhalu, is the same with Peking, the modern capital of China. The same pontiff sent seven new bishops, all of them Franciscans, into those regions.^ John XXI. appointed Nicolaus de Bentra, to succeed John de monte Corvino, in the year 1333 ; and also sent letters to the emperor of the Tartars, who was then the sovereign of China. Benedict XII., in the year 1338, sent new nuncios into China and Tartary, after being honoured with a solemn embassy from the Tartars which he received at Avignon.® So long as the Tartar empire ^ Baluze, 1. c. torn. i. p. 175. 786. find ad ami. 1307, p. 91, and p. 368, torn. Matthtei, Analect. Vet. ^vi, torn. ii. p. vii. p. 53. 221, torn. \'iii. p. 235. Jos. 595. 598. Sim. Asseman, Biblioth. Orient. Vaticana, * Baluze, ]. c. torn. i. p. 200. torn. iii. § ii. p. 521, &c. Add Jac. ^ Fragmenta Historice liomana, in Echard's Scriptores Prcedica tores, torn. i. Muratori, Antiqq. Ital. Medii jEvi, iii. p. 537. Acta Sanctor. torn. i. Januarii, p. 368. p. 984, &c. and Mosheim's Historia Tar- ^ Baluze, Vitce Pontif. Avcnion. torn, turuin Ecclesiastica. i. p. 366. 386. 371. 401, &c. 8 gjepi^ Baluze, Vitce Pontijiciim Ave- ' Lu. Waddini4's Annales Ordinis Mi- niuniensium, torn. i. p. 242, norum, torn. vi. ad ami. 1305, § 12, p. GO, CH. I.] PROSPEROUS EVENTS. 593 in China, continued, not only the Latins, but the Ncstorians also had liberty to profess their religion freely all over northern Asia, and to propagate it far and wide. § 3. Among the European princes, JacjcUo, duke of Lithuania and the adjacent territories, was nearly the only one that still adhered to the idolatry of his ancestors. And he, in the year 1386, embraced the Christian rites, Avas baptized under the assumed name of Uladislaus, and persuaded his subjects to do the same thing. For Li'wis, king of Poland, dying in the year 1382, among the candidates for the crown, JmjcUo offered his name ; nor were the Poles averse from having so potent a prince for their king. But neither Hedwig, the youngest daughter of the deceased king, and by a decree of the senate heiress of the kingdom, would consent to marry, nor would the Poles consent to obey, a man who rejected Christianity. He must therefore change his religion.^ "What remains there were of the old religions in Prussia and Livonia, were extirpated by the Teutonic knights and crusaders, with war and massacres. We arc likewise informed, that many Jews, in one place and another, made profession of Christianity. They were rendered docile by the exquisite punishments every where inflicted upon Jews, especially in France and Germany. For a rumour being spread, either truly or calumniously, that they had poisoned the pul)lic fountains, had murdered the Infants of Christians, and drunken their blood, had treated with extreme contumely what were called the liosts ', and had committed other crimes equally heinous ; whatever hardship and cruelty could be devised, was decreed against that miserable race. § 4. In Spain, the Saracens still held the sovereignty of Granada, Andalusia, and Murcia ; and against them, the Chris- tian kings of Castile, Aragon, and Xavarre, waged perpetual war ; though not always successfully. The kings of ^lorocco, in Africa, sent aid to the Saracens against the Christians. The Koman pontiflfs roused and encouraged the Christians, by sub- sidies, and by their counsels and promises, to luiite and drive the Saracens from Spain. The difficult enterprise proceeded but slowly ; yet it became evident, in this century, that the " Odor. Raynald, Annales Eccles. ad de Polotine, torn. iii. p. 241, &c. ami. 1386, §4! Wadding's J««a/es 3/i- ' [The consecrated walers of the eucha- 7iorMm, torn. i.K. p. 71. ^^A\g\\a.c, Histoire rist. Tr.] VOL. II. Q Q 594 BOOK III. CENTURY XIV. [PART I. time was approaching, when the Christians would triumph, and would become sole masters of Spain.^ CHAPTER II. ADVERSE EVENTS IN THE HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. § 1. Christianity prostrate in various parts of Asia. — § 2. Its overtlirow in China and Tartary. § 1. The Turks and the Tartars, who were dominant in Asia, and who assailed on the one hand the Greeks, and on the other the Saracens and Mamelukes, wholly extirpated the Christian religion in many cities and provinces, and caused the religion of Mahumed to be inculcated on the people in its stead. The nation of the Tartars, in which such numbers once professed Christianity, or at least tolerated it, from the beginning of this century, universally submitted to the Koran. And this religion, though in a corrupted form of it, was embraced by that most potent emperor of the Tartars, Timur Beg, or as he is commonly called Tamerlane? Having subjugated the greatest part of Asia by his arms, and even conquered the Turkish sultan Bajazet, and moreover caused the terrors of his name to pervade Europe, his mere nod was almost sufficient to cause vast mul- titudes to abandon Christianity. But he also employed violence and the sword. For being persuaded, as the most credible his- torians of his life inform us, that it was the duty of every true disciple of Malmmed to make war upon Christians, and that ^ Jo. dc Ferreras, Historia Hispanice, -ivished to be regarded as belonging to torn, iv., v., vi., in various passages, the sect of the Sonnites, and to be an Fragmenta Historia BomajKP, in Mirnx- enemy of the Schiites. See Petit Croix, tori's Antiqq. Ital. Mcdii ^vi, torn. iii. Histoire de Timur-Bec, torn. ii. p. 151. p. 319, where, however, true and false torn. iii. p. 228. But what his religion are blended. Baluze, Miscellanea, torn, was, is very doubtful, although he pro- ii. p. 267. fessed that of Mahumed. See^Mosheim's ' The great Tamerlane, whose name Historia Tartarorum Ecclesiastica, p. struck terror, even long after his death, 124. CH. II.] ADVERSE EVENTS. 595 those who should compel many Christians to embrace the religion of the Koran, might expect high rewards from God ^ he inflicted numberless evils on persevering Christians, cruelly butchering some, and dooming others to pcr[)etual slavery/* § 2. The Christian religion was likewise overthrown, in the parts of Asia inhabited by the Chinese, the Tartars, the Moguls, and other nations, whose history is yet imperfectly known. At least, no mention has been found of any Latin Christians re- sident in those countries, subsequent to the year 1370. Nor has it yet been ascertained, what became of the Franciscan missionaries sent thither from Ivome. But of the Arstoria7is living in China, some traces can be found, though not veiy clear, as late as the sixteenth century.^ There can be little doubt, that this ftill of Christianity was a consequence of the Avars of the Tartars with the Chinese and with other nations. For in the year 1369, the last Tartar emperor of the family of Genghis Kan was driven out of China, and the Mim family was placed on the throne, and they have excluded all foreigners from enter- ins China. * Petit Croix, Histoire de Timur-Bec, torn. ii. p. 329. torn. iii. p. 9. 137. 243. 265, &c. ^ Examples are given in the Histoire de Timur-Bcc, (taken fi-om the Persian ■writer Schcrifcddin,) torn. ii. p. 376. 384. 386. torn. iii. p. 243. torn. iv. p. 111. 115. 117, ed. Delft, 1723, in 4 vols. 8vo. Ilcr- bclot, Bihliothique Oricntah ; article Tiiniir, p. 877. * Nicol. Trigaut, de Christiana Expe- ditione apud Sinus, lib. i. eaj). xi. p. 1 1 6. &c. Jos. Sim. Asseman, Biblioth. Orient. Vaticatia, torn. iii. pt. i. p. 592, &c. and pt. ii. p. 445. 536, &e. Dn Ilaldc, Description de la Chine, torn. i. p. 175. QQ 2 PART 11. THE INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. CHAPTER I. THE STATE OF LITERATUEE AND PHILOSOPHY. § 1. The state of learning among the Greeks. — §2. Philosophy. — §3. The state of learning among the Latins. — § 4. The languages. — • § 5. The arts and sciences. — § 6. Philosophy. — § 7. The Realists and Nominalists. — - § 8. Astrology : cre- dulity as to magic. — § 9. The art of Lully. § 1. Although the Greeks were greatly oppressed by both external and internal troubles, yet they did not suffer literature wholly to lose its lustre and dignity ; as is manifest from the number of learned men among them in this century. The liberal arts, antiquities, criticism, and grammar, were reputably prosecuted by Nicephorus Gregoras ', Manuel Chrysoloras -, ' [Nicephonis Gregoras, or son of Gregory, was born at Heraclea in Pon- tus, about A. D. 1295 ; studied under the best masters at Constantinople ; became a teacher there, and acquired the title of the philosopher. He was one of the ambassadors to the pi'ince of the Ser- vians. In the year 1328, when the younger Andronicus dethroned his grand- father Andronicus Palieologus, Nice- jihorus not only lost his patron, but suf- fered otherwise. Yet he continued a teacher, and had eminent men for pupils. Theodoras Metochita made him over- seer of a moniistery. He engaged in the piililic controversies between Bai'laam and Palamas ; became a monk, and re- tired from court. He died soon after A. D. 1359. Besides some orations and smaller tracts, he wrote a valuable his- tory of the Byzantine empire, from A. d. 1204, where Nicetas Acominatus ends, to the year 1359, in 38 books. The 24 first books, reaching toA. d. 1351, were published, Gr. and Lat., by Boivin, Paris, 1702, and Venice, 1729, 2 vols, fol. Tr.'] '^ [Manuel Chrysoloras, one of the first and most active of the Greeks who promoted learning in the West, was bom of noble parentage, at Constantinople, about the middle of the fourteenth cen- tiuy ; and for some time taught litera- ture and science in his native city. About A. D. 1393, the Greek emperor, Manuel Paheologus, sent him twice as an ambassador to various European courts, to solicit aid against the Turks. After visiting the English and various other courts, he took up residence in Italy ; and taught Greek to several of the first scholars of that age in the West. He gave instniction at Florence, IMilan, Venice, Pavia, and Rome. In the year 1409, the ]3ope sent him to Constantinople, to negotiate a union be- STATE OF LITERATURE AXD PniLOSOPHY. 597 Maxhnus Planudes ^, and many others. History was prosecuted, though with difFei'ent degrees of success, by Theodore MetocJdta *, John Cantacuzenus ^, Nicephorus Gregoras, and by several others of less note. An ecclesiastical history was composed by Nice- phoi-Ks Callistus, Avhich, notwithstanding it contains many fabu- lous and superstitious accounts, yet throws light on a number of subjects.^ tween the Greek and Latin chvirclics. In the year 1413, he was sent to the emperor Sigismund, to settle aiTange- ments for the general council of Con- stance, in the following year. He at- tended that council ; and died shortly after, in the year 1415. iEneas Sylvius and Poggius give him very high com- mendations, in their notices of his death. Among his pupils in the West, >verc Leonard Aretinus, Francis Barbarns, Guarinus of Verona, Poggius, and Phi- lelphus. His only work that has been published, was his Erotemata Gramma- tica ; which; was the first good Greek grannnar among the Europeans, and was that studied by Erasnms and lleuch- lin. TV.] ^ [Maximus Planudes was a learned Greek monk of Constantinople, well ac- (puiinted with the Latin language. In the year 1327, the Greek emperor sent him with others on an embassy to Venice. He sutlcrcd considerably for his attachment to the cause of the popes ; but afterwards he changed sides, and espoused that of the Greeks. He appears to have died soon after a. d 1353. He translated, from Latin into Greek, the writings of Cicero, Caesar, Ovid, Cato, and Boethius ; also Augustine's fifteen books on the Trinity ; composed a life of ^Esop ; and compiled a Greek An- thology, in seven books. He likewise wrote against the Latins, composed some orations, and many letters, and smaller pieces. TV.] ^ [Theodoras ^letochita was a learned Greek, of the kindred of the emperor, and the favourite and prime minister of Andronicus Pidajologus. In the latter part of the preceding century, the em- peror sent him, with John Glycas, to conduct Maria, sister of the German emperor, who was esjjoused to the oldest son of the Greek emperor, to Constan- tinople. It was about the year 1314, he was made jn-ime Logotheta, and tole. and vo- luntarily retired to mount Atlios ; where he became a monk, and sjteut the re- maiuder of his days in literary ])m-suit.s and monastic devotions. Here lie wrote the history of the empire, during the reigns of the two Andronici and himself, or from a. d. 1320 to 1357, in four books, pulilished Gr. and Lat. with n(jtes. Pari.*, 1()45, 3 vols. fol. He also wrote three orations, and some tracts against the ^Maluimedans ; whicli are extant. TV.] " [Niccjihorus Callisti, or the son of 3 598 BOOK III. — CENTURY XIV. [part II. § 2. Such of the Greeks as devoted themselves to philosophy for the most part followed Aristotle as their guide. No one among them, so far as I know, ventured upon philosophical speculations, relying on his own ingenuity. In what manner they explained the precepts of the Stagirite, we may learn from the tracts of Theodore Metochita. Yet Plato had likewise some followers ; especially among the cultivators of mystic theology, which had long been in high estimation among the Greeks. In the mathematics and astronomy, Nicolaus Cahasilas was their most distinguished scholar.'^ The Stoic principles, in regard to morals, were recommended by Barlaam, and exhibited in his Ethics according to the Stoics.^ § 3. There was no country of the Latins, in which efforts were not made, and successful eiforts, for the advancement of learning and the improvement of the human mind. Hence Callistus, lived at Constantinople, and was probably a priest or monk there, about 1333. His personal history is little known. From Eusebius, Socrates, So- zomen, Theodorct, Evagrius, and others, he compiled an Ecclesiastical History, in twenty-three books, from the Christian era to a. d. 911. The style and arrange- ment are deemed good for that age ; but it abounds in useless trash and fables. The eighteen fii-st books, extending to A. D. 610, were pubhshed, Greek and Latin, Paris, 1 630, 2 vols. fol. He also wi'ote catalogues of the Greek emperors, and of the ConstantinopoUtan partriarchs. Tr.-] ' [Nicolaus Cabasikis, nephew and successor to Nilus Cabasilas, archbishop of Thessalonica ; was employed as a negotiator between the parties in the civil wars, a. d, 1346 and 1347. The time of his death is unknown. He was a learned man, and a -violent opposer of the Latins. His works are, an Exposi- tion of the Greek Liturgy ; on a life in Christ, or the efficacy of the sacraments, in six books ; an oration against usurers ; an encomium on St. Theodora ; a Com- mentary on Ptolemy's third book of con- structions ; some astrological diagrams ; remarks on Ezekiel's vision of four beasts ; and some tracts against the Latins. The three last were never pub- lished, Tr.l * Henry Canisius, Lectiones Antiquce, tom. iv. J). 405. [Barlaam Avas a native of Calabria iu Italy ; became a monk of the order of St. Basil ; lived at Constan- tinople ; and was a very learned, am- bitious, and factious man. Being born and educated among the Latins, he at first agreed with them against the Greeks. But changing sides, he became a most powerful champion among the Greeks, against the Latins. Wliile an abbot at Constantinople, he investigated the state of the monks of mount Athos ; and brought a complaint against the He- suchists there, before the patriarch of Constantinople. George Palamas ap- peared as their advocate. The cause was tried before a council, a. d. 1337, and the monks were acquitted. (See below, ch. V. § 1, 2, of this ccntuiy.) In the year 1339, Barlaam wtis the em- I^eror's ambassador to the pope, at Avig- non, for negotiating a union of the two churches. In the j'ear 1341, he with- drew from Constantinople, on a change in the government ; came to Italy, again espoused the cause of the Latins against the Greeks, and was made bishop of Geraci in Naples. He died about the year 1348. His works, besides his ElhlccE secundum Stoicos libri ii. are vari- ous letters, orations, and tracts, both for tlie Greeks against the Latins, and for the latter against the former ; and six books on arithmetic. The last was printed, Gr. and Lat., Paris, 1600, 4to. All the others, in Latin, are in Henry Canisius, I. c. and in the Bibliotheca Max. Patrum, tom. xxvi. Ti-.] CH. I.] STATE OF LITERATURE AND PIIILOISOPHY. 599 academies and universities were erected in various places, as Cologne, Orleans, Caliors, Perugia, Florence, and Pisa ; in whicli all the liberal arts and sciences were taught, and were distributed into the same classes that remain to this day. In the univer- sities, colleges were founded by the opulent, and endowed with ample revenues ; in which, not only jyiofiks, but also young men of narrow circumstances, Avere educated in the useful arts and sciences. Libraries were also collected ; and men of learning were excited by honours and rewards to aspire after fame and distinction. But the advantages to the church and the state from the numerous teachers and learned men, were not corre- spondent with the vast expense and care bestowed ])y the great on these institutions. Yet all who assumed the office of teachers in this age, were not, as many have rashly supposed, mere dolts and clods ; but an advance had gradually been made from humbler things to jjreater and hio-hei-. § 4. The sovereign pontiff', Clement V., himself required the Hebrew and other Oriental languages to be taught in the public schools ; that there might be men competent to enter into discussions with the Jews and the Saracens, and to preach divine truth in the countries of the East.'-^ Of course, there were some persons in that age who were acquainted particularly with those languages. The Greek language, which previously very few had regarded at all, was now first taught by Leontius Pilatus, a Calabrian, the translator of Homer, and by a few others ' ; and afterwards, with far greater applause and success, by Manuel Chri/ solar as, a Constantinopolitan-, who awakened ex- ^ AntonAYooi'sAntiquitatesOxoniens. torn. xxv. p. 258. [Leontius Tilatus torn. i. ]). 156. L59. [This bull of Cle- came to Venice in tlic year 1. '560, on his nient is in the Corpus Juris Canon. Clc- way to the papal court at AvijL'uon. Boc- mentina, hb. v. tit. i. cap. i. and bears caccio met him, and persuaded him to date A. D. 1311. It required Hebrew, go with him to Florence. Here he tau.] CH.I.] STATE OF LITERATURE AND rniLOSOI'lIY. 601 was pursued by an immense number; because this was the avenue to preferment in church and state ; and who has not heard of Bartolus, Baldiis, Andreas '", and other jurists of this age, who gave reputation to the Italian universities? Yet the jurisprudence of this age offered nuthing that could be alluring to an ingenuous mind. It was rather a barren, thorny field, on which the light of history and polite learning never shone. Mathematics engaged the attention of many ; but excepting Thomas Bradioardine, an acute man who was archbishop of Canterbury*"', few obtained nuich applause from these studies. § 6. Of the immense crowd of philosophers, who rather de- formed than adorned this age, Aristotle was the guide and ^ [Bartolus was born at Sassofcn-atto in the duchy of Urbino, a.d. 1313. At tlic age of 13, he commenced the study of the civil law, first at Perugia and then at Bologna. He was made doctor at the age of twenty, and commenced teacher of law three years after at Pisa. He also taught at Padua and Bologna ; and died A. i>. 1356. His lectures and his legal opinions were highly esteemed ; and his Glosses on the civil law, for two cen- turies, were of the highest authority. They were printed at Venice, a. d. 161.5, in eleven vols. fol. He was more distinguished for acumen and nice discrimination, than for extensive read- ing.— Baldus Ubaldus was nobly born at. Perugia, a. u. 1324, and was first the pupil and then the rival of Bartolus. He taught both civil and canon law, and • lectured at Perugia, Padua, and Pisa. He died at the last-mentioned phice, of the hydrophobia, a. d. 1400, aged 76. In readiness and metaphysical acumen he was thought supcnm" to BaHohis, l)Ut not his equal in sohdity of judgment. He WTOte commentaries ou the Decretals ; five volumes of legal opinions ; Glosses on nearly the whole Corpus Juris Civllis ; besides various law tracts ; all of wliich have been printed. These two were the ^greatest jurists of the age, so far as the civil law is concerned. Yet Andrew Home, an Enghshman of Gloucester- shire, distinguished himseh' by his at- tempt to reform the Englisli laws, by expunging from them every thing tliat was not in accordance witii the Scrip- tures and natural jiustice. His work was ■written in French, and entitled a Mirror for the Judges ; and was jiriiUeil in French, Lond. 1642, 8vo, and in Eng- lish, Lond. 1 646, 8vo. Uf his age we only know, that liis book was written uiuler Edward HI., and before a. d. 1324, and that he defended the abbot of Waltiiani in a court, a.d. 1343. Sec H. Wiiar- ton's Append, to Cave's Hist. Littciar. — John Andreas, the celebrated doctor of ccnion law, taught that science at Bo- logna for forty-five years, and died there A. iJ. 1348. His works arc commentaries on the five books of 13ecretals ; Glosses on the Liber sextits Decret. ami the Cle- mentina ; and tracts concerning feuds, maiTiage, affinities, &c. aU of which have been published. 7V.] •^ [Thomas Bradwardine was an Eng- lishman, educated at Oxford, where he was proctor in 132."), and aftenvards doctor of di\"inity, and lecturer on theo- logy. He became confessor to Edward 111., whom he attended in his French wars. In the year 1348, lie was elected archbishop of Cantcrbuiy ; but the king jnx'ferring another, Uti'ord wa.s chosen. 15ut Uti'ord dying before his consecration, Bradwardine was re-choscn, and with the king's consent, was ordained by the pope at Avignon. He, however, died very soon after his arrival at Ijiunbeth, a. i>. 1348. He was a profoinid reasoner, eminently pious, a strong Augustinian in the(jlogy, of plain unpoHshed maimers, and particularly fond of inatlieinatics. His great work is. The Cause of God aiul Uie Truth of Causes, a (fa i list I'elaijius, in three books ; pubiislied by H. Savile, Lond. 1618, fol. He also wrote Geomc- trica Spiculatira, and Arilhiiiclica Spe- culatira, published togctlier, Paris. 1.512 ; also Tractatus Pro/mrtioiiuiii, pu)>lished, Venice, 150.5. See Wharton's Appen- dix to Cave's Hist. Litter, and ililner's EccUs. History, cent. .xiv. ch. ii. TV.] 602 BOOK III. — CENTURY XIV. [PART II. master, though imperfectly understood, and divested of all his beauties. In so high estimation was the Peripatetic philosophy, that kings and princes ordered the works of Aristotle to be translated into the languages of their people, that greater num- bers might acquire wisdom. In particular, Charles V., king of France, has been commended for directing Nicholas Oreme to translate into French, among other works of the ancients, the j^rincipal works of Aristotle J Those, however, who professed to be philosophers, were less solicitous to discover and support truth than to have the pleasure of wrangling ; and they perplexed and obscured the pvire and chaste precepts both of reason and reli- gion, by their insane subtleties, useless questions, and over-nice distinctions. I need not mention the barbarous diction, in Avhlch they thought lay a great safeguard of their art ; or that contempt for all elegant literature, which they almost looked upon as an especial credit. This wrangling tribe's whole system and modes of working it may be learned by reading the works of only Jolin Scotus, or Walter Burley ; for they all followed in one common track, though they dilFered among themselves as to some opinions. § 7. The old disputes between the Realists and the Nominal- ists, which had been long dormant, were again brought up in the schools by William Occam, an English Franciscan monk of the more rigid cast, a pupil of the great Scotus, and a doctor in the university of Paris: nor was it possible afterwards to bring these contentions to an end. Never was there fiercer war between the Greeks and Persians, than between these two sects of phlloso- ])hers, down to the time when Luther obliged the scholastic doctors to terminate their intestine conflicts. The Realists despised their antagonists as philosophers of a recent date, and branded them with the name of Moderyis ; while to their own doctrine they ascribed the highest antiquity. But in this they were undoubtedly under a mistake. The Nominalists, on the con- trary, regarded them, as being visionaries, Avho mistook the cre- ations of their own Imaginations for real existences and solid sub-' stances. The Nominalists had, partlculai'ly at Paris, a number of acute, subtle, and eloquent doctors ; among whom, besides Occam, the celebrated John Buridan, a Parisian doctor, stood ' ^o.J^annoi, Hist. Gi/mnas.Navarreni; 379. Le Bceufs Dissert, sur VHist. in his Opp. torn. iv. ptJ i. p. 504. Boii- Eccles. et Civile de Paris, torn. iii. p. 456 lay's Historia Acad. l\aris, torn. iv. p. 463, &c. CH. I.] STATE OF LITERATURE AND rHILOSOPHY. 603 pre-eminent ** : but the Realists were the more numerous, and were also strong in the countenance given them by the Koman pontiffs. For Occam having joined the order of Franciscans, who were openly opposed to Jolin XXIL, this pontiff first, and afterwards his successors, left no means untried to put down the philosophy of the Nominalists, which seemed to be opposed to the church.^ Hence, in the year 1339, the university of Paris, by a public edict, condemned and prohibited the philosophy of Occam, which was that of the Nominalists.' But, as men are apt to press after what is forbidden, the effect of this decree was, that a still greater number than before followed the system of the Nominalists. § 8. Many of these philosophers joined astrology, or the art of prognosticating the fortunes of men from the stars, with their philosophy. For this fallacious science was prosecuted even to madness by all orders, from the highest to the lowest, in those times.'' But these astrological philosophers had to be very cautious and circumspect, if they would escape the hands of the Inquisitors, and a charge of magic. Such caution was neglected, to his ruin, by Ceccus Asculaniis ; a very noted peripatetic phi- losopher, astrologer, mathematician, and physician first to the -pontiW John XXIL, and then to Charles Lackland, duke of Cala- bria. For having, by mechanical arts, performed some things which appeared miraculous to the vulgar, and by his predic- tions, which were reported to have proved true, given offence both to his patron and to others, he was looked n])on as having intercourse with the devil ; and was committed to the flames by » A biography of this noted man was is ascribed the noted metaphysical maxim written by Kubert Guaiiuin ; as we arc that a hungry ass placeil between two told by Jo. l.aunoi, Historia Gt/mmmi equal bundles ol" hay, would not be able Navarreni, in his Opp. toni. iv. pt. i. p. to eat of either. Sec Bayle's Diction- 722. Launoi also speaks of him in other 7i(tire Hist, ct Critique, art. Buridan. places; as p. 296, 297.330. See Bonlav's T/-.] Historia Acad. Paris, torn. iv. j). 282. " Stcph. Baliizc, Miscellanea, tom. iv. 307. 341, &c. [John Buridan was a p. 532. native of Bethune, in Artois, studied at ' Boulay's Historia Acad, Paris, tom. Paris under Occam, and taught pliilo- iv. p. 257. tom. v. p. 70S. Card. Pless. Sophy there with g:reat ai>plausc. He d'Ar-xentre, Cullectio Judicior. dc novis wrote connnentaries on Aristotle's loirie, errorihus, tom. i. ]>. 337. On the con- morals, and metapliysics ; which arc still tests of these sects in England, sec Ant. extant. Some say, that he was rector of Wood's Antiq. Ojvniciui. tom. i. p. 169, the miiversity of Paris ; and that he &c. afterwards went to Vienna, and there ' Sec Imola ; in Muratori's Antlquit. connnenccd that imiversity : but these IlaUcie Midii ,Evi, Um.'x. y. Ur.VJ. Lo circumstances, iis well as the exact time Rcuf's Dissertations sur CHist. de Paris, wlicn he lived, arc uncertain. To him tom. iii. p. 445, &c. 604 BOOK III. — CENTURY XIV. [p ART II. the Inquisitors at Florence, A. D. 1327.^ His Commentary on the Sphere of John de Sacrohosco is still extant, which is represented as affording proof of the extreme superstition of the author."* § 9. A new and singular species of art was invented and eluci- dated in numerous treatises by Raymund Lully, of Majorca ; a man of surprising and very prolific genius, a compound of folly and reason, who, after many journeys and various efforts for the advancement of the Christian cause, was put to death in the year 1315, at Bugia in Africa, by the Mahumedans, whom he attempted to convert to the Christian faith. The Franciscans, to whose third order he is said to have belonged, extol him to the skies, and have long endeavoured most earnestly to persuade the pontiffs to enrol him among tlie saints : but the Dominicans and others, on the contrary, endeavour to make him a heretic, a mao-ician, a delirious alchymist, a plagiary from books written by Mahumedans ; and som.e represent him as deranged and fanatical : of the pontiffs, there are those who have pronounced him an innocent and pious man ; and others, a heretic and irre- ligious. He who shall read his works without prejudice, will coincide with neither party. Lully would have been a truly great man, if the warmth and fertility of his imagination had been tempered and restrained by a sound judgment.^ ^ An apology for him was written by from these, were to be respectively in- Paul Ant. Appian, the Jesuit ; which scribed in angular spaces upon circular may be seen iu Domin. Bernini's Storia papers. The essences, qualities, atfec- di iutte I'lteresie, torn. iii. srecul. xiv. c. iii. tions, and relations of things being tlnis p. 210, &c. An account is also given of mechanically brought together, the cir- this unhappy philosopher and poet (for cular papers of subjects Avere fixed in a he was also a poet) by Jo. Maria Ci'cs- frame, and those of predicates were so cimbeni, Commentarj della volgar Poesia, placed upon them as to move freely, and vol. ii. pt. ii. lib. iii. c. 14. in their revolutions to produce various ■* Gabr. Naude, Apologie pour les combinations of subjects and predicates, (ira7ids quiotit soupson7iezdemagie, p. 270, whence would arise definitions, axioms, &c. and propositions, varying endlessly." See * See Jo. Salzinger's Preface to the Rees's Ci/i-lapadid, art. Lidli/ Raymond; works of Raymund Lully, which the Briicker's Historia Crit. Philos. tom. iv. elector Palatine, John William, caused p. 9, &c. The life of Lully, written by to be collected and published at a great a contemporary, is in the Acta Sanctor. expense, in five vols, folio, a. d. 1720, Antwerp, tom. v. p. 633, &c. He is said Luc. Wadding's Annales Minor wm, tom. to have been born a.b. 1236, to have iv. p. 421, &c. tom. -V. p. 157. 316, &c. been dissipated in his youth, and after- tom vi. p. 229, &c. On the famous wards to have applied himself nnich to Lullian art, sec Dan. Geo. Morhof's chemistrj^ as well as to metaphysics Polyhist. lib. ii. cap. v. p. 352, &c. [" It and theology. He died aged 79, a. d. consisted in collecting a number of gene- 1315. As a chemist, Boerhaave thought ral tcnns, common to all the sciences, of him much in advance of his age ; if the which an alpliabetical table was to be works ascribed to him ai'c all genuine, provided. Subjects and predicates taken Tr.'] CII. II.J CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. G05 CHAPTER II. HISTORY OF THE TEACHERS AND GOVERNMENT OF THE CHURCH. § 1. CoiTuption of the clergy. — § 2. Philip, king of France, opposed the domination of the pontiffs. — § 3. Issue of the conflict. — § 4. Tiie pontitical court is removed to Avignon. — § 5. Decrease of the poiitificid authority. — § 6. New arts devised by the pontiffs for acquiring wealth. — § 7. Obsequiousness of Clement V. to Philip. — § 8. John XXII. and Nicolaus V. — § 9. The fonner charged with heresy.— § 10. Benedict XII.— § 11. Clement VI.— § 12. Innocent VI.— § 1.3. Gregory XI. — § 14. The great schism of the West commences. — § 15. The evils of it. — § 16. Projects for terminating it. — § 17. Vices of the monks, especially the Mendicants. — § 18. Hence, general hatred against them. — § 19. John Wick- liffe. — •§ 20. His opposers. — § 21. Impiety of the Franciscans. — Book of the con- formities of St. Francis. — § 22. Vices of the Fratricclli, &c. — § 2.3, 24. Projects for terminating the discords of the Fi'anciscans. — § 25. Their ridiculous contests. — § 26. They produce more serious disturbances.— § 27. A new contest arose respecting the poverty of Clu-ist, — § 28. Its continuation. — § 29. Their conflict with John XXII. — § 30. Their attempts against the pontiff. — § 31. Their patron Lewis the Bavarian. — § 32. Peace with the pontiff. — § 33. Surt'crings of the Spiri- tuals, the Bvcjhardi, &c. in Germany. — § 34. Yet they were not exterminated. Two great sects of Franciscans are produced. — § 35. New religious orders. — § 36. The sect of the Cellite brethren and sisters. — The Lolliu'ds.— § 37. The Greek iviiters. — § 38. The Latin writers. § 1. That the governors of the chiu'ch, as well of highest rank as of inferior, were addicted to all those vices which are the most unbecoming men in their stations, is testified most abundantly. As for the Greek and oriental clergy, many of whom lived under oppressive governments, I shall say nothing; although their faults are sufficiently manifest. But of the faults of the Latins, silence woidd be the less proper, in proi)ortion to the certainty, that from this source the whole connnunity was involved in the greatest calamities. All the honest and wood men of that afjc ardently wished for a reformation of the c/mrch, both in its head and in its members ; as they themselves expressed it.' But to ' Math. Flacius, Catalogus Testium de varia Forluna Aristotelis,i>. 2\7. Jo. Veritatis, lib. xiii. p. 1697. Jo. Launoi, Ilcnr. Hottinger, Historic Eccks. sa'cul. 606 BOOK III. — CENTURY XIV. [PART II. SO desirable au event, there Avere still many obstacles. First, the power of the pontiffs was so confirmed by its long continuance, that it seemed to be immoveably established. In the next place, extravagant superstition held the minds of most persons in ab- ject slavery. And lastly, the ignorance and barbarism of the times quickly extinguished the spai'ks of truth that appeared from time to time. Yet the dominion of the Roman pontiffs, impregnable and durable as it seemed to be, was gradually undermined and weakened in this century, partly by the rash insolence of the pontiffs themselves, and partly by the occurrence of certain unexpected events. § 2. The commencement of this important change must be referred to the contest between Boniface VIIL, who governed the Latin church at the beginning of this century, and Philip the Fair, king of France. This high-minded sovereign fii'st taught the Europeans, what the emperors had in vain attempted, that the Roman bishops could be vanquished, and be laid under re- straint. In a very haughty letter addressed to Philip, Boniface maintained, that all kings and persons whatever, and the king of France as well as others, by divine command, owed perfect obe- dience to the Roman pontiff, and this not merely in religious matters, but likewise in secular and human affairs. The kingr replied with extreme bitterness. The pontiff" repeated his former assertions with greater arrogance ; and published the celebrated hull, called Unam sanctam - ; in which he asserted, that Jesus Christ had granted a two-fold power or sivord to his church, a spiritual and a temporal; that the whole human race was sub- jected to the pontiff'; and that all who dissented from this doctrine, were heretics, and could not expect to be saved.'^ The xiv. p. 754. [See Odor. Eaynald's * [From the first words of it. Tr.'] Annales Ecdes. ad ann. 1311, § 56 — 65, ^ This bull is extant in the Corpus torn. XV. p. 87 — 90. From a manuscript Juris Canon. JExtravayant. Commiin. lib. account of the transactions of the council i. tit. [viii. cap. i.] de Mujoritate et Obe- of Vienne, found in the Vatican library, dicntia. [In this bull the pontiff' asserts, Raynald here extracts largely from the that tliere is but one church of Christ, statements of a prelate whom the pon- under one head, as there was but one tiff, Clement V., consulted, respecting the ark under the command of Noah ; all abuses which called for reformation in out of which necessarily perish : that the church. And the picture of the the sole head of the church on earth is conniption of the clergy, the dissolute- Chiist's T-icegcrent St. Peter, and his ness of the monks, and the ignorance and successors, who are amenable to none but wickedness of the people, sketched by God : that both swords, the spiritual and this anonymous prelate, shows the church the material, are in the power of the to have been in a most deplorable state ; church ; tlie latter to be wielded for the and that some at least saw it, and ear- church, or by kings and soldiers, at the nestly desired a reformation. 7>.] nod and pleasure of the priesthood, and CH. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 607 kiug, on the contraiy, in an assembly of his nobles, A. D. 1303, through the famous lawyer, JVilllum de Nogaret *, publicly ac- cused the pontiff of heresy, sbnony, dlslionesti/, and other enor- mities ; and urged the calling of a general council to depose a pontiff so very wicked from his office. The pontiff, in return, excommunicated the king and all his adherents the same year. § 3. Soon after receiving this sentence, Philip again, in an assembly of the states of his kingdom, entered a formal com- plaint against the pontiff, by men of the highest reputation and influence; and appealed to the decision of a future general council of the church. He then despatched William de Nogaret^ with some others, into Italy, to rouse the people to insurrection, and to bring the pontiff prisoner to Lyons, where he Avished the council to be held. Nogaret, who was a resolute and energetic man, having drawn over to his interest the Colonna family, which was at variance Avith the pontiff, raised a small force, suddenly attacked Boniface, who was living securely at Anagni, made him prisoner, wounded him, and, among other severe indisfnities, struck him on the head with his iron fjauntlct. The people of Anagni, indeed, rescued the pontiff from the hands of his furious enemy ; but he died shortly after, at liome, in the month of October, from rage and anguish of mind.^ § 4. Benedict XL, previously Nicolaus of Trevigio, the suc- cessor of Boniface, profiting by his example, restored the king the former to be wielded by the churcli * Sec thereto inter Bonifacium VIII. or the priesthood : and the temporal Bencdictnm XL, Ctementem V., et Phi- power is subjected to the spiritual ; lippum Pulchrum, cnlarfted and coiTccted otherwise the church would be a double- by I'eter Puteanus [du I'uy], as the headed monster; that whoever resists title-page asserts ; published, 1618, 8vo, this order of things, resists the ordinance but without notice of the i)lace i>f juibli- of God : and he concludes thus : We cation. [Tiie compiler of the wurk Wiis declare, determine, and decree, that it is a Parisian divine, named J>im()n Vigor, absolutely necessary to salvation, that Tlie first edition was imblislied at Paris, eveiy human being should be subject to 1613, 4to, and the third was in French, the Roman pontitf. Porro subesse Ro- Paris, 16.55, fol. entitled ///.s/w'rc //- viano Pontijici omnem hiimanam creaturam, fereiui dc Philippe le Bel ct de Bmii/ace dechrainus, dicimus, dijinimus, et proiiun- VIII. prodtiitc par les Artes et Mciiwircs ciamus omnino esse de necessitate salutis. oriijinitux. Sclil.] Andr. Raillut. His- 7V.] tuire de.'i Dniielez du Bonifarc VIII. avec * Of this celebrated lawyer, who was Phdip Ic Bel, Paris, 1718, 12mo. Jo. the most bold and detcnnined enemy the Rubens, in iiis Boni/aciits, cap. wi. p. pontids ever had, before Luther, none 137, &c. The other writers arc men- luivc given a fuller account than the tioned by Baillet, in his I'rcfacc, p. 9, Benedictine monks, in their Histoire &c. Adil Boiday's Historia Acad. Paris. Generale de Lanijuedoc, torn. iii. p. 114. torn. iv. p. 4, &c. [and Jo. Giftord's 117, &c. Phihp made him chancellor of Historij of France, voL i. p. 518, &c. France, for liis heroic opposition to the 7r.] pontifl". 608 BOOK III. — CENTUKY XIV. [PART II. of France and his kingdom to their former honours and privi- leges, without even being solicited : but he was unwilling to absolve from his crime Nogaret, who had so grievously offended against the pontifical dignity. This daring man, therefore, prosecuted strenuously the suit commenced against Boniface in the Romish court ; and in the name of the king, demanded that a mark of infamy should be set upon the deceased pontiff. Bene- dict XL died in the year 1304 ; and Philij), by his secret machi- nations, caused Bertrand de Got, a Frenchman, and archbishop of Bordeaux, to be created pontiff at Rome, on the 5 th of June, A. D. 1305. For the contest of the king against the pontiffs was not yet wholly settled, Nogaret not being absolved, and it might easily break out again. Besides, the king thirsted for revenge, and designed to extort from the court of Rome a condemnation of Boniface : he also meditated the destruction of the Templars, and other things of great importance ; which he could hardly expect from an Italian pontiff. He therefore wished to have a French pontiff, whom he could control according to his pleasure, and who would be in a degree dependent on him. The new pontiff, who took the name of Clement V., remained in France, as the king wished, and transferred the pontifical court to Avignon, whei'e it continued for seventy years. This period the Italians call the Babylonian Ca'ptivity^ § 5. It is certain that this residence of the pontiffs at Avignon was injurious, in no slight degree, to the authority of the Ro- man see. For the pontiffs being at a distance, the Gihelline faction in Italy, which was hostile to the pontiffs, assumed greater boldness than formerly, and not only invaded and laid waste the territories of St. Peter, but also assailed the pontifical authority by their publications. Hence a number of cities re- volted from the popes ; Rome itself became the parent and fomentor of tumidts, cabals, and civil wars ; and the laws and decrees sent thither from France, were publicly treated with contempt, and not merely by the nobles, but also by the com- mon citizens.'^ A great part of Europe followed the example of " Concerning the Erench pontiffs, the cane, torn. xii. &c. This Jesuit, and his ■\vi-itcr to be especially consulted is, Steph. successoi-s in the work, are eloquent and Baluze, Vita Pontijicum Avenionensium, laborious ; but they often conceal, art- in two volumes, Paris, 1693, 4to. The fully, the abominable deeds of the pon- reader may also peruse, though it should tiffs. be with caution, Jac. Longueval and his ' See Baluze, Vita Pontif. Avenion. continuators, Histoire de CEylise Galli- torn. ii. p. 290, 291. 301. 309. 333 ; and CH. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 609 Italy : and numberless examples show, that the people of Europe attributed far less power to the fulminations and decrees issued from France, than to those issued from Home. Various sedi- tions, therefore, were raised, in one place and anotlier, against tiic pontiffs ; wliich they were unable to subdue and put down, notwithstanding that the Inquisitors Avere most active in the dis- charge of their functions. § 0. As the Frencli pontiffs could derive but little revenue from Italy, which was rent into factions, seditious, and devas- tated, they were obliged to devise new modes of raising money. They, therefore, not only sold indulgences to the people, more frequently than foruierly, to the great indignation of kings and princes ; but they likewise required enormous prices to be paid for their letters or bulls of every kind. In this thing John XXII. showed himself peculiai'ly adroit and shrewd ; for though he did not first invent the recjulations and fees of (lie apostolic clKnicrrij, yet the Homish writers admit, that he enlarged tiiem, and re- duced tlicm to a more convenient form.^ He also is said to have imposed that tribute, which under the title of annates is custom- arily paid to the pontiffs ; yet the first commenoement of it was anterior to that age.^ Moreover, these French pontiffs, sub- various other places, iluratori, Antiq. countiy. TV. — Inferior preferments, as Itcd. torn. iii. p. 397. 401. 409, &c. well as bishoprics, were maile liable to Giannone, Hintoire de Naples, torn. iii. First-Fruits, by the 26th H. 8. (.)n the p. 280, &c. orijiin of this impost, F. Taul says that ' Jo. Ciampini, de Vicecancellario Ec- imperial and royal patrons had conmionly clesicc Roman, p. 39, &c. Charles Chais, made bargains for their own jjcctiniary Lettres sur les Juhilcs, iom. ii. p. 673, and advantage, on the preferment of an indi- others. vidual to some dignity; a ]>racticebranileil ^ Bemh. van Espen, Jus Eccles. Uni- as simoniacal at Rome, l)nt really the rersrt/e, timi. ii. p. 876. Boulay's ///.s-toria origin of the ])ope's claim for annates, Acad. Paris, torn. iv. 911. Ant. Wood's " John XXII. in the yciir 1316, made a Antiq. O-Toniinses, torn. i. p. 2\3. Wilh. decree, that for three years, whoever Fran. Bertliier, Di.'isirt. sur Ics Annates, obtained a benefice of more than tweiity- iu Ills Jlisloire de VEijlise Gallicane, four ducats yearly rent, .sh(ndd ]iay one tom. xii. J). 1, &c. [The Annates were year's value for the ex|>f(liti()n of his the first year's revenues of a benefice, l)nlls : which, at the cxpiratinn of the which every new incumlient was required tliree years, came to be renewcil again, to remit to the pontiff's treasury. By as weU as continued by his succes.sors, constantly advancing clergymen from though in divers jdace.s it met witii ojipo- poorer to richer benefices, and prohibit- sition ; some places coming to an agi-ce- ing pluralities, these annates, it will be ment to pay only one half of the annate, seen, might be made the source of im- others to jtay only for some ])articular mensc income, when levied throughout sort of benefices, and that the rest should Christendom, upon all tl>e numberless be excm])ted." (F. I'atd's Trattisc of officers in the cliuix'hcs and monasteries. Ecclesiastical Benefices and Herenue.i, — First-Fruits, exacted by Henry VIIL, Lond. 173(), p. 172.) It is plain that the of England, were the annates of the bi- princi])le here developed, is the same as shoprics, which the king took from the that which lapncn fouml branded with pope, after the reformation in that simony. In one case, prcsentatior w:is VOL. II. R li 610 BOOK III. CENTURY XIV. [PAET II. verting the rights of election, assumed the power of conferring all sacred offices, whether high or low, according to their own pleasure : by which means they raised immense sums of money Hence, under these pontiffs, those most odious terms reserva- tion, provision, and expectative, rarely used before, were now every where heard; and they called forth the bitterest complaints from all the nations of Europe '" : and these complaints increased immeasurably, when some of the pontiffs, John XXII., Clement VI., Gregory XI., publicly announced, that they had reserved all churches to themselves ; and that they would provide for all Avitliout exception, by virtue of the sovereign right which Christ had conferred on his vicars, or in the plenitude of their power. ^ By these and other artifices for filling their treasury and amass- ing pi'opert}^, these indiscreet pontiffs heaped additional odium on the apostolic see ; and thus weakened very considerably the papal empire, which began to decline from the times of Honiface. § 7, Clement V. was governed all his life by the will and pleasure of Philip the Fair, king of France. William de Noga- ret, the implacable foe of Boniface VIII., though excommuni- cated, resolutely prosecuted his own cause and that of king Philip against Boniface, in the papal court ; a transaction, which, I believe, is without a parallel. Philip wished to have the body of Boniface disinterred, and publicly burnt. With great difficulty Clement averted this infamy by his intreaties and advice ; but in every thing else, he had to obey the king. Accordingly, he ab- rogated the laws enacted by Boniface ; granted the king five years' tithes ; absolved Nogaret from all crime, after imposing on him a slight penance, Avhich he never performed; restored the inhabitants of Anagni to their former reputable and good standing ; and held a general council at Vienne, A. D. 1311, that to be paid for; in the other, possession, nion. torn. ii. p. 60. 63. 65. 74. 154. 156. Platina, however, {De Vitis Pontificum, Gallia Chrisllana Benedictinor. torn. i. cd. 1529, p. 218) says thut Boniface IX., Append, p. 13. Ant. Wood's Antiq. pope from 1389 to 1404, was the real Oxunienses, torn. i. p. 148. 201, 202. inventor of annates, but he adds, that Boulay's Historia Acad, Paris, torn. iv. some refer the impost to John XXII. p. 911, &c. This latter was conspicuously fond of ' Bahize, Vita Puntif. Avenion. torn, money, and died immensely rich : hence ii. p. 873. tom. i. p. 285. 311. (iSl, &c. any gainful practice cf uncertain origin Ant. jMatthauis, AnaJccta Vet. yEvi, torn, was very likely to be lathered upon liim. v. p. 349, &c. Gallia Christiana, tom. Ed.'] i. ]\ 69. 1208. Histoire du Droit Ec- '" Stephen Baluze, iV/wce/Zawm, tom. ii. clcsiast. Franrois, tom. ii. p. 129, &c. p. 479. 518 ; and his Vitce Pontif. Ave- CII. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. ' 611 r/u'hys pleasure might be gratified in the suppression of the Templars. In this council, likewise, various things were de- cided according to the pleasure of the king, whom Clevtcnt dared not offend, being terrified by the melancholy fate of Boni- facc:- § 8. On the death of Clement, A. D. 1314, there were violent contests among the cardinals respecting the election of a suc- cessor, the French demanding a French pontiff and the Italians an Italian. After two years the French gained the victory ; and in 1316, James de Ease, of Cahors, cardinal of Porto, was made head of the church, and assumed the pontifical name of John XXII. He was not destitute of learning, but was craftv, insolent, weak, imprudent, and avaricious, as even those who honour his memory do not positively deny. He rendered him- self notorious by many imprudent and unsuccessful enterprises, but especially by his unfortunate contest with the emperor, Letcis of Bavaria. There was a contest for the empire of Germany, between Lewis of Bavaria and Frederic of Austria, each being chosen emperor by a ])art of the electors in the year 1314. John declared, that the decision of this controversy belonged to him. But Leicis having conquered his rival in battle, and taken him prisoner, in the year 1322, assumed the government of the em- pire, without consulting the pontiff, and refused to submit a cause, which had been decided by the sword, to another trial before the pontiff. John was greatly offended at this ; and in the year 1324, divested the emperor of all title to the imperial crown. Lewis, in return, accused tiie pontiff of corrupting the faith, or of heresy ; and appealed to the decision of a council. Exasperated by this and some other things, the pontiff^ in the year 1327, again divested the emperor of all his authority and power, and laid him under excommunication. In revenge of this injury, the emperor in the year 1328, at liomc, publicly declared John unworthy of the pontificate ; and substituted in his place Peter de Corhieri, a Franciscan monk, and one of those who disagreed with the pontiff: and he, assuming the name of Nicolaus v., crowned Leicis as emperor. But in the year 1330, this Imperial pontiff voluntarily abdicated his office, and sur- * Besides the common writers already Colonia's Histoire Litter, de Lyon, torn, cited, sec Willi. Fran. Berthier's Discours i. p. 340. Gallia Christiana Bamliclinor. mr le Pontificat de Clement V., in his torn. i. p. 1189, and torn. ii. p. 829. Histoire de VEcjUse Gallicane, toni. xii. i: R 2 612 BOOK III. CENTURY XIY. [PART II. rendered himself into the hands of John, who kept him a prisoner at Avignon till his death. Thus John continued to reio-n, in spite of the emperor ; and the emperor, in spite of the pontiff.^ § 9. On the side of Leicis stood the whole mass of the Fratri- celli, the Beghards of every description, and the Spirituals, or more rigid among the Franciscans : and tliese being scattered over a large part of Europe, and supported by tlie protection of Lewis, every where assailed John with reproaches and crimina- tions, both orally and in books, and charged him witli religious apostasy. The pontiff, however, was not greatly injured by these private attacks : but towards the close of his life, he fell under the disapprobation and censure of nearly the whole church. For in the years 1331 and 1332, he taught in some public discourses, that departed souls would indeed behold Qirist, but would not see the face of God, or the divine nature, until their reunion with the body at the last day. With this doctrine, Philip VI., the king of France, was highly displeased; the theologians of Paris condemned it in 1333; and both the friends and the foes of the pontiff were opposed to it. For it appeared to them, that the pontiff detracted much from the blessedness of departed spirits. To so great opposition, Johrt, though naturally pertinacious, had to give way. Pie therefore first apologized for the doctrine ; and afterwards, when near the point of death, a. d. 1334, he did not indeed abandon it, but he qualified it by saying, that he believed souls in the intermediate state saw the Dicinc essence, as far as the state and condition of the unemhodied sjririt would permit.^ But this declaration did not '^ This great contest is to be learned Philip the Fair, king of France. As the ■principally from the Records of it, which latter brought the charge of heresy ai-e published by Ste])h. Baluze. Vitce against Boniface, so did LewLs against Pontif. Avenion. torn. ii. p. 512, &c. by John XXII. The French king employed YjAm. M-xrtc\\c, Thenaiirus Anecdotor. torn. Nogaret and others as accusers: Lewis ii. p. 641, &c. by Jo. Geo. Herwart, in employed [William] Occam, and the his Ludovicus Imperator defensus contra Franciscans [Marsilius of Padua, John Bzovium, Mvmschen, 1618, 4to, and by of Ghent, and Ulrich Hangoer. 7V.] Christ. Gewold, in his Apologia, pro Lu- Each wished to have a general council dovico Bavaro,lw^ohi. 1618, 4to, against called, by which the pontiff should be the same Bzovius, who in his Annales hurled from the chair of St. Peter. I had basely defamed the character of omit to mention other parallels, this emjjeror. Add Lu. AVadding, An- « See Stephen Baluze, Vita: Pontif. nales Minorum, tom. vii. p. 77. 106, &c. Avenionens. tom. i. p. 175. 177. 182. 197. Whoever considers attentively the his- 221. 786, &c. Lu. D'Aclicrry, Spicileg. tory of this contest will perceive that Scriptor. Vetcr. tom. i. p. 760, cd. vet. Lewis of Bavaria took for lus pattern Jo. Launoi, Historia Gymnasii Navarr. CH, II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 613 satisfy his adversaries. Hence, after various disputes, his suc- cessor, Benedict XIL, terminated the controversv, according to the decision of the Parisian doctors, by decLiring the true faith to be, tliat tlie souls of tlie blessed, when separate from the body, fully and perfectly behold the Divine nature, or God himself^ Benedict could do this without impeachino- his predecessor; for John, Avhen dying', submitted his o[)inion to the judgment of the church; lest, perhaps, he should, after death, be classed amonsr heretics.'' § 10. On the death of Johri, A. d. 1334, new contests between the French and the Italians, respecting the choice of a pontiff, divided tlie college of cardinals. But near the close of the year, James Foamier, a Frenchman, cardinal of St. Prisca, was chosen, and assumed the name oi Benedict XIL Historians allow him the praise of being an ui)right and honest man, no less free from avarice, than from the lust of rule." During his reign, the con- troversy with the emperor Leiois was at rest. For although he did not restore him to church communion, being prevented, as is reported, by the king of France, yet he did not attempt any thing against him. He saw the existing evils in the church ; and some of them, as far as he could, he removed : in particular, he laboured to reform, by decrees and ordinances, the orders of monks, both mendicant and opulent. But death removed him, when he was contemplating more and greater changes, a. d. 1342. Overlook superstition, which was the common fault of his age, and we shall find nothing to prevent us from declaring this pontiff to have been a man of a right spirit. § 11. Of a different spirit was his successor, Clement VI., who was likewise a Frenchman, named Peter Bor/er, and cardinal of St. Nereus and St. Achilles. To say nothing of his other deeds, thatare little to be comraended,he trod in the steps oiJohn XXIL, p. i. c. \ ii. ill his 0pp. torn. iv. p. i. p. were eighteen in specie, and the rest in 319. Eouhiy, Historia Acad. Paris, pliitc, jewels, crowns, mitres and other torn. iv. p. 255. 250. Lii. W:uUlinf,% precious liauhles, all wliicli ho had Annales Minor, toni. vL p. 371, torn. vii. squeezed out of the people aii. 40:i, &c. in Lu. Wad- GaUicam; torn. xiv. p. l.")!). 192. ding's Ainidlr.i Minor, tnni. ix. p. 12, &i-. * [Me was the son of William, carl of in t>tcph. Iiainze"s I'lfir Pontlf. Avatlon. Beaufort, and brother's sou to jiope torn. i. p. 442, 998, &c. and in the Aria Clement VI. His last will, which is in Saiwtor. torn. i. Ajnil, p. 728, &c. There D'Acherj's Spicllcg. torn. iii. p. 378, is are also some uni)ubhshed dtK-uments in worthy of notice, as he there very frankly my possession, which throw much light acknowledges his faidts. His biogiaphy on this coutrovcri^y, yet do not decide it. R R 4 616 BOOK III. — CENTUliY XIV. [PART II. Urban continued at Kome : Clement removed to Avignon in France. The cause of Clement was espoused by France, Spain, Scotland, Sicily, and Cyprus : the other countries of Europe acknowledged Urban for the true vicegerent of Christ. § 15. Thus the unity of the Latin church, as existing under one head, came to an end at the death of Gregory XL ; and that most unhappy disunion ensued, which is usually denominated the great Schism of the West.^ For during fifty years the church had two or three heads ; and the contemporary pontiffs assailed each other with excommunications, maledictions, and insidious measures. The calamities and distress of those times are indescribable. For besides the perpetual contentions and wars between the pontifical factions, which were ruinous to great numbers, involving them in the loss of life or of property, nearly all sense of religion Avas in many places extinguished, and wickedness daily acquired greater impunity and boldness ; the clergy, previously corrupt, now laid aside even the appearance of piety and godliness, while those who called themselves Christ's vicegerents were at open war with each other ; and the con- scientious people, who believed that no one could be saved with- out living in subjection to Christ's vicegerents, were thrown into the greatest perplexity and anxiety of mind.'' Yet both the church and the state received very considerable advantages from these great calamities. For the very sinews of pontifical power were cut by these dissensions, and no art could heal them any more ; kings too, and princes, who had before been in a sense the servants of the pontiffs, now became their judges and masters. Moreover, great numbers, possessing some measure of discern- ment, despising and disregarding pontiffs, fighting for dominion, committed themselves and their salvation to God alone, in full assurance that the church and religion might be safe and con- tinue so, although without any visible head. [The wliole question must bo tried ac- ]\Iaiml)oiu*g's Histoire du grand Schisnie cording to ecclesiastical law ; and, accord- d'Ovcident to be despised, though the ing to that, both elections were undoubt- writer is here and there manifestly jiartial. ediy liable to exceptions. Schl.'] INIany documents are contained in Bou- " For an account of this schism, sec lay's Histuria Acad. Paris, tom. iv. and Peter Puteanus (du Puy) Histoire du v. and Edm. ]\Iartene's Thesaurus Anec- Schisme qui a ete en V Eylise dcpuis Van r/oto?-. tom. ii. p. 1074, &c. The common 1378, jus(]u'en Can 1428. Paris, 1654, writers, as, Alexander, Kaj'nald, Bzovius, 4to, which, as the Preface informs, us Spondanus, Du Pm, I omit to name as was compiled from documents in the usual. archives of the king of France, and is ' On the great evils of tliis schism worthy of credit. Neither is Lewis there are direct remarks in the Histoire CH. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS ANI> GOVERNMENT. 617 § 16. On the death of Urban V., a. d. 1389, the Italian car- dinals, his partizans, elected for his successor at Kome jPetcr Thomacelli, a Neapolitan, known among the pontiffs by the name of Boniface IX. And Clement VII. dying in the year 1394, the French cardinals appointed, as his successor, Peter de Luna, a Spaniard, who assumed the name oi' Benedict XIII. In the mean time, kings, princes, bishops, and theologians, pro- posed and attempted various methods for extinguishing this schism. The safest and best method, it was generally thoiiglit, was that of voluntary rcsif) nation^, as they expressed it.-' lint neither of the pontiffs could be induced to resign, either by en- treaties, or threats, or promises. The French church, greatly displeased by this obstinacy, in the year 1397, withdrew itself from the dominion and authority of both pontiffs, in a council held at Paris. This decree being published in the year 1398, Benedict XIII. was detained as a prisoner, by order of Charles VI., king of France, in his own palace at Avignon."^ § 17. The vices and faults of the great body of the monks were seen even by some of the Roman pontiffs, and especially by Clement XII, who looked upon them with abhorrence, and laboured to cure and remove them ; but it was a vast and most arduous undertaking that failed of success. The lead was taken, not only among monks, but likewise in the whole church, by the mendicants, particularly {\\q, Dominicans -Ani]. Franciscans ; whose counsels and pleasure acted upon everything of importance, as well in the courts of the pontiffs, as in those of princes. So (hi Droit public Eccles. Francois, torn. ii. fcrent miiul. They went into conclave, p. 160. 193. 202, &c. and elected Benedict XIII., yet pre- •* Via cessionis. viously binding themselves by a solemn » [In reality, the university of Paris oath, that the ])erson elected, on the re- ])roposed three ways of terminathig the tuni of tramiuillity, should himself labour schism : the voluntary resignation of to bring about a resignation <>\' both, if both (via cessionis) ; an agreement be- the majority of the cardinals should see twccii them (via compromissi) ; and it to be best. But neither Benedict nor reference to the decision of a general his oiijjoscr Boniface would have any council (via deliberationis per concilium thing to do with a resignation. The universale). Among all these, that by pleasure aiul the honour of being ])ope resignation was thought to be the easiest ; outweighed all considerations of jmtriot- but this supposed the pontiffs to be in- ism : and it wa< not till the next ceii- genuous, and to make the good of the tury that the church was so happy as to church their primaiy object, which was see this schism removed. Sc/il.] not the fact. In order to facilitate this '" Besides the common writers, sec j)ro)cct, the king and the nobles of France, Longucval, Histvire de rEylisc Gallicane, with the university of Paris, used all ton>. xiv. and the Kecords themselves, their exertions, after the death of Cle- in Boulay's Hintoria Acad. I'aris. torn. nient, to prevent a new election at Avig- iv. j). S2'J, &c. non. But the cardinals were of a dif- 618 BOOK III. — CENTURY XIV. [p ART II. hlo;li was the reputation of these friars for sanctity and for in- fluence with God, that the most distinguished persons of both sexes, some while in health, and others when sick and in the near prospect of death, wished to be received into their orders, for the purpose of securing the favour of God. Many carefully inserted in their last wills, that they would have their corpses wrapped in a sordid Dominican or Franciscan garment, and be buried among friars mendicant. For the amazing superstition and ignorance of the age led people to believe, that those would find Christ a gracious judge at the last day who should appear before his tribunal mingled with mendicant monks. § 18. But this high reputation and vast influence of the men- dicants inflamed still more the hatred which had long burned against them almost universally, in priests both of the first and second order, in monks, and in universities. Hence there was scarcely a country of Europe, or a university, in which one miglit not see bishops, priests, and theologians, eagerly contend- iny Ivlm. Murtenc, Annachani Archiepiscopi, propiKsiliunidus Tliemur. Amcdotor. torn. 1. p. 1368. Add contra Meiidicanti's in curia liomctiui coram Stcph. Baluzc, Vit(C Puntif. Avcnion. pontifice et cunlinalibius facti.s, a.d. 1:5G0. tom. i. p. 1:12. 182, &e. * Sec Jo. Launoi, d'e Camme, Omnia ' [In Leiccstei-slui-e. TV.] vtriiisquc sc.vus ; in his 0pp. torn. i. pt. i. 620 BOOK III. — CENTURY XIV. [PART II. and some other things, both In his writings and in his discourses. From this he proceeded still further, and in various treatises re- futed a large part of the prevailing opinions on religious subjects ; exhorted the people to read the sacred volume ; translated the Scriptures into the English language^ with his own hands ; and expressed abhorrence of the grosser superstitions then in vogue. It would be easy to show that neither the doctrines of Wickliffe were free from errors, nor his life void of faults ; and yet it is most certain that he advocated many things that were wise, and true, and profitable.^ § 20. The monks, whom Wickliffe had especially offended, commenced a great religious process against him in the ponti- fical court of Gregory XL, who in the year 1378 commanded Simon Sudbunj, archbishop of Canterbury, to try the cause in a council at London. From this imminent peril, JVickliffe escaped unharmed, through the protection of the duke of Lancaster and other noblemen, who were his friends. And as Gregory XI. died soon after, and the fatal schism in the Latin church ensued, one pontiff reigning at Rome, and another at Avignon, this contro- versy remained long suspended. Upon a change in the state of affiiirs, JVilliam de Courtenay, archbishop of Canterbury, revived the controversy in 1385, and urged it on with great vehemence, in two councils, the one held at London, and the other at Ox- ford. The result was, that of the eighteen ^ opinions, for which the monks accused him, nine were condemned as heresies, and fifteen as errors ; but JVickliffe himself returned in safety to Lutterworth, where he died in tranquillity, A. D. 1 387. By what means he escaped this latter peril, which was greater than the former, whetlier by the favour of the court, or by denying and abjuring the opinions in controversy, does not appear."^ Pie * [From the Vulgate. TV.] from tlic Latin version called the J^ul- ^ His Dialogues, in four books, bave gate: London, 1731, fol. with a leai'ned lately been reprinted, Frankfort and Preface, in which he treats of the life Leipsic, 17.53, 4to, from which maybe and sufferings of Wickliffe. [His life is learned, not indeed all his opinions, but also given in Gilpin's Zives of the Re- the general objects at which he aimed, /orwers, Lond. 1809, 2 vols. 8vo, in Mid- and the spirit of thg man. dleton's Biograpliia Eraiigelica, vol. i. ' [Twenty-foiu-. TV.] p. 1, &c. and in INIilner's Histori/ of the '^ A formal biography of this very Church, cent. xiv. ch. iii.] The docu- notcd man was comjiosed by John Lewis, ments in relation to his trials are in Dav. " The History of the life and sufferings Wilkins's Concilia Magnce Britannicc et of John TV7cW//fe ; London, 1720, 8vo." Hibern. tom. iii. p. 116, &c. 156, &c. He also published the New Testammt, in Add Boulay's Historia Acad. Paris. an English translation by John WickliH'e, torn. iv. p. 450, &c. Ant. Wood's ^n%. CH. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 621 left a great number of followers, both in England and out of England, Avho were denominated IVickUjjites, and by a vulgar Oxoniens. torn. i. p. 183, &o. 186, &c. and in othei- places. [John Wicklirt'e, or de AVicklifte, was born at tlic \illa,u;c of Wicklirt'e, near Richmond, in Yorkshire, abont A. i>. 1324, was sent early to Ox- ford, where he was a commoner of Queen's College, and aftenvards of Mer- ton, in which he became a fellow. Mcr- ton College about this time contained the following eminent men, Walter Biirley, William Occam, Thomas 15radwardine, Simon ]Mepham, Simon Islip, and (leofVry Chaucer. Wicklitfe wivs a hard student, a jirofonnd scholar, a sarcastic writer, and a subtle disputant. Philosophy, metaphysics, and theology, were his fa- vourite studies. In the year 1360 he disthiguished himself by becoming the advocate of the nnivcrsity against the mendicant monks, who infringed the laws of the university, and enticed the students away to theii" monasteries. Wicklirt'e, -whose English style was ex- cellent for that age, wrote various tracts against them, and disputed against them, ■with great success. In 1361 he was made master of Balliol College, and, four years after, warden of Canterbury Hall. In 1367, Langhani, arclibishop of Can- terbury, ejected him from the warden- ship ; and he appealed to the pope, wlio delayed his decision three years, during which Wicklirt'e was severely lashing the monks and clergy, and did not spare the pimtirt". In 1370, cardinal Andruynus, the papal commissioner, decided the cause against AVicklifl'e. Soon after, he obtained the rectory of liUtterworth, in the diocese of Lincoln, through the fa- vour of the duke of Lancaster, which he held till his death, and in which he was a most active and faithful pastor. In 1372, he took his degree of JJ.l)., and now read lectures on theology at Oxford with great applause. He here attacked not only the monks, but also the pope and the clergy ; and confuted the pre- vailing errors of the day, both as to the doctrines of Christianity ami the con- stitution of the Christian church. In 1374, the king appointed him one of his aml)assadors to the pope, to remonstrate against the papal rrscrnition of cIumtIu's. After this he inveighed still more boldly against the pope in liis lectures, calling him, " Antichrist, the proud, worldly priest of Rome, and the most cui-scd of clippers and purse-cutters." lie also inveighed against the prelates. In 1376 the monks drew up nineteen articles, extracted from liis ])ublic lectures and sermons, which they sent to the ])o]ie. The principal of these were : " That there is one only universal church, con- sisting of the whole body of the pre- destinate. That tile eucharist, after con- secration, was not the real body of Christ, but only an emblem ur siyn of it — that the cimnh of Rome was no more the head of the universal church, than any other church : and that St. Peter had no greater authority given him, than the rest of the apostles.— That the pope had no more jurisdiction in the exercise of the keys, than any other priest. — That if the churcli misbehaved, it Wiis not only law- fid, but meritorious, to dispossess her of her temporalities. — That when a ]irincc or temjioral lord was c(jnviiiced that the church made an ill use of her endow- ments, he was bound, under pain of damnation, to take them away. — That the Gospel was sufficient to direct a Christian in the conduct of his life. — That neither the pope, nor any other i>re- late, ought to have prisons for the punish- ing ort'enders against the discipline of the church." — On the second of May, 1377, the pope issued live bulls, ad- dressed to the archbishop of Canteiimry, tiic bishopof London, (who were ilirccted to try the charges,) to the king, (who was desired to assist the bishops,) and to the university of Oxford (ordering them to deliver up the accused). The king died before the bulls arrived : the university treated theirs with contempt ; the prelates determined to proceed against him, and therefore summoned him to api)ear before them at London, within thirty days. During that interval, ])ar- liameiit met, and deliberated, whether they might lawfully refuse to send trea- sure out of the kingdom, when the pope reiiuircd it to lie sent. The resolution of this doubt, was referred, by the king and i)arliamcnt, to doctor Wicklirt'e ; who answered that it was lawful, and undertook to prove it so, by the jirin- ciplcs of the law of Christ. He now a])peared lafore his jndge-s attended by the duke of Lancaster, and the lord marshal, earl Percy. A vast concourse was assembled. Some altercations en- 622 BOOK III. — CENTURY XIV. [PART II. term of reproach, brought from Belgium into England, Lollards ; and these were every where grievously persecuted by the Inqui- sitors and other instruments of the pontiffs. Hence the council of Constance, a. d. 1415, condemned the memory and the opi- nions of Wickliffe in a solemn decree ; in consequence of which, in the year 1428, his bones were dug up, and publicly burnt. § 21. These numerous adversaries, with all their ability and authority, wholly failed of bringing the mendicant orders to give up their excessive pride and superstition, and to cease from deceiving the multitude with opinions injurious often to the Divine character and to religion. The Franciscans especially, in extolling the excellence of their institution, which they con- tended was the very gospel of Jesus Christ, and in eulogizing the founder of their order, whom they impudently represented as another Christ, or as in every respect like to Christ, exceeded all bounds of sobriety and reverence for the Saviour. Yet the Roman pontiffs patronized this madness by their letters and decrees, in which they declared the absurd fable of the stigmata, or five wounds, impressed upon St. Francis by the Saviour himself on mount Alverno, to be highly credible, nay, unques- tionably true.^ They also suffered to go abroad without cen- suecl between the bishops and the two friends from appearing ; but the univer- noblemen, the assembly was in commo- sity sent a letter in his favom-, testifying tion, and Wicklitfe was conducted oft' in fully to his learning, piety, and sound- safety by his patrons, without having ness in the faith. Notwithstanding tliis any trial. He was then summoned to testimony, and the ai'guments of his able appear at Lambeth. He did so, and counsellors, fourteen of his conclusions presented a paper explanatory of the were pronounced heretical or eiToneous. charges, which tlie bishops thought best Soon after he left Oxford, in 1382, Wick- to admit as satisfactory. The next year, liife had a slight shock of the palsy ; yet 1378, the pope died f and the commis- he continued to preach till 1384, when sion to the two English prelates to tiy he Avas seized again, in his pulpit, at the case of Wickhfte of coiu'se was at Lutterworth, more violently ; fell down, an end. Wicklifte in his lectures, ser- Avas canried home, and shortly after ex- mons, and writings, now embraced every pired, aged sixty years. — His works were opportunity of exposing the Romish a vast number of tracts on doctrinal and court, and detecting the vices of the practical subjects in theology, against the clergy and the monks. In 1381 he pub- prevailing errors and vices of tlie times, lished sixteen Theses against transub- &c. Sec Middleton's Biographia Evan- stantiation ; and in his lectures at Oxford, gelica, \o\. \. -[>. 1, &c. TV. — There are expressly denied the doctrine of the real recent biographies of Wicklifte, by Mr. presence. The vice-chancellor and eleven Vaughau, and Mr. Le Bas. From the doctoi's now condemned his doctrine, latter may be gained, in a small compass. In 1378, William Courteney was trans- nearly all that is known of this great re- lated from the see of London to the former. His mmicrous works are chiefly archiepiscopal see of Canterbury ; and in MS. Hence the woi'ld is very insuf- now began another process against Wick- ficientfy (puxlifted for judging of his opi- lifte, whom he simmioned to appear at nions. Ed.'] Loudon l)elbre commissioners appointed ^ The fable of the Stigmata, impressed to try luua. He Avas dissuaded by his upon Francis by Jesus Christ, is veiy CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 623 CH. II.] sure, and even approved and commended, an impious piece stuffed with monstrous and a])surd tales, entitled The hook of the conformities of St. Francis icith Jesus Christ; which was published in 1385, by Bartliolometo Alhizi, a Franciscan of Pisa, Avith the applause of his order. This infamous book, in Avhioh the Sou of God himself is put upon a level with a vile and miserable man, is an eternal monument of the impious arro- gance and religious stupidity of the Franciscan order, and of the consummate indiscretion of the pontiffs in extolling and re- commendina" those friars.' well kno^\^l ; nor arc the pontifical let- ters iiukno\ra, by wliicii belief in tliis fable is commanded, and wbich are pub- lislied with great care, in particular, by Wadding, in his Annales Mhwriim, torn, viii. and ix. [The story of these -S^'^- 7nata, as related by Bonaventura, the biogi'aplier of Francis, (. Fabrieius, Bib- lioth. Latina Meilii .'Eri, tom. i. )>. 1;}1. .lo. Geo. Scheliion), Anumitates Littcrnr. tom. iii. p. 160. IVter Bayle, Diction- naire, tom. ii. art. Fram^tis ; and JVou- vcau Dictiunnairc J list. Crit. tom. i. art. 624 BOOK III. — CENTURY XIV. [PART II. § 22. Not a whit wiser than these Franciscans who remained obedient to the pontitFs, Avere those other Franciscans who insisted on observing their rule perfectly, and who resisted the pontiffs that mitigated it ; I refer to the Fratricelli, their Ter- tiarii, or Begliards, and to the Spirituals, who resided princi- pally in France, and embraced the opinions of Petei' John Oliva. These Franciscans, for a long time, caused great disturbance both in church and state, and gave the pontiffs incredible trouble. Near the beginning of the century, in the years 1306 and 1307, the less austere Franciscans in Italy raged violently against the more strict, or the Fratricelli, who had withdrawn from the community.'^ Such of these as were able to escape the fury of their enemies, in the year 1307 fled into France, and connected themselves with tlie Spirituals, or the followers of Peter John Oliva in Provence, who had likewise receded from the body. Soon after this, the whole Franciscan order in France, Italy and other countries, was divided into two parties: one of Avhich being attached to the rigid poverty of St. Francis, was called that of the Spirituals ; the other, that Avas disposed to have the rules of their founder mitigated, Avas called the Brethren of the community. The latter Avas the larger and more powerful, and laboured to the utmost to suppress the former, which Avas yet in its infancy and making Avay by degrees. But the seceders Avould rather endure every thing than abandon the injunctions of their founder, and return to the community. In the year 1310, the pontiff, Clement V., called the leaders of both parties to his court, and made great efforts to terminate the schism. But the business advanced very slowly, in consequence of the inflexibility of the parties, and the great number of their mutual accusations. In the mean Avhile, the Spirituals of Tuscany, Avithout waiting for the decision of the pontiff, chose for them- Albizi, p. 217. Extracts from this book, the order of Observants, in a book piib- which is called the Alcoran of the Fran- lished at Madrid, in the year 1651, nnder ciscans, were made by Erasmus Albcrtiis, the following title, Prodigiosum Natune and have been often ])rinted in Latin, et Gratia Portentuin. The conformities French, and German ; the second Ger- mentioned by Pedro de Alva Astorga, the man edition was printed, Amsterd. 1734, austei-c author of this most ridiculous 2 vols. 8vo. The French and Latin edi- book, are whimsical beyond expression, lions are ornamented with elegant en- See the Bibliotheque des Sciences et des gravings. ["^ The cotformities between Beaua- Arts, torn. iv. y). S\8." Macl.'] Christ and St. Francis are carried to ' AYadding's Annates Minorum, torn, forty in the book of Albizi, but they are vi. ad ann. 1307, p. 91. multipled to 4000 by a Spanish monk of en. II.] cnuKcn officers and government. 625 selves general and inferior officers ; but the French, being nearer the pontiff, waited patiently for his determination.*' § 23. After various deliberations, Clement V., in the general council of Vienne, A. d. 1312, published the celebrated law or bull, called, from its first words, Exivi de paradiso ' ; in which he endeavoured to end the discord by taking a middle course. For he made a number of concessions to the Spirituals; and, in particular, commanded the Franciscans to profess, as their rule prescribed, the greatest and most perfect poverty, renouncing all property either common or personal ; and allowing only the simple use, and that narrow, meagre, and poor, of the necessaries of life. On the other hand, he allowed the Franciscans, if they lived in places where it was very difficult to obtain subsistence by begging, to provide themselves with granaries and store- cellars, and to collect and lay up in them what they procured by beiro-ino- : and the officers and overseers of the order were to judge when and where such granaries and cellars were neces- sary. Moreover, in order to satisfy the Brethren of the com- munity, he condemned some of the opinions of Peter John Oliva.* This decision quieted the commotions in France, though with difficulty, and only for a short time ; but it had no effect to allay the heated passions of the Tuscan and Italian Spirituals, many of whom, not feeling themselves safe in Italy, in the year 1313, emigrated to Sicily, where they were kindly received by Frederic the king, and by the nobles, and the bishops.'' § 24. After the death of Clement V., the tumult in France, which had been stilled by his authority, broke out anew. For in the year 1314, one hundred and twenty of the Spirituals drove the Brethren of the community out of the monasteries ot Narbonne and Beziers by force and arms; elected new pre- siding officers; and (what greatly enhanced the difficulty of this already inveterate contest) cast off their former garments, and assumed such as were short, narrow, and ill-shaped. ]\Iany more from other provinces joined with them ; and the citizens of Narbonne, among whom Oliva was buried, undertook to 8 Wadding's Annates Minor, torn. vi. Canon, among the Clcmcntincp, [lib. v.] ad ann. 1310, p. 172. Eccard's Corpus tit. xi. de verbor. signijicat. torn. ii. p. 1098. Histor. Medii^vi, torn. i. p. 1480. Bou- cd. Bohnitr. lay's Hixtoria Acad. Pari.i. torn. iv. p. ** Wadding's Annates Minor, toui. vi, 129. Echard's Scriptores Pradicator. p. 194. 197. 199. torn. i. p. 508, 509. ' Wadding's Annahs Minor, torn. vi. ' This law is extant in the CcttjimJhms p. 213, 214. Boulay's Ilistorta Acad. VOL. II. S S 626 BOOK III. —CENTURY XIV. [PART II. defend this company. John XXII. being placed at the head of the church, attempted, in the year 1317, to apply a remedy to the inveterate evil. In the first place, by a special law, he ordered the extirpation of the Fratricelli, and their Tertiarii, or the Beguins or Beghards, Avho were distinct from the Spirituals?^ Soon after, he admonished the king of Sicily to expel all the Spirituals residing in his dominions.^ And lastly, he called the French Spirituals before him at Avignon, and exhorted them to return to their duty, and in particular to lay aside their short, strait habits, and their small hoods. INIost of them complied ; but the head of the company, brother Bernard Delitiosi, with twenty-four others, boldly refused to submit to the requisition. For these men affirmed, that the rule of St. Francis was the same as the Gospel of Jesus Clirist ; and, therefore, that the power of the pontiffs was not adequate to change it. Conse- quently, the pontiffs did wrong by allowing the Franciscans to have granaries and cellars ; and they did wrong by prohibiting such garments as St. Francis had prescribed. Against these pertinacious friars, John directed proceedings ^ as against heretics. And truly they w^ere the worst of heretics, for they opposed the majesty and power of the Roman pontiff. The head of the party, brother Delitiosi, who was sometimes called Delli Cojisi, was confined in a prison, Avhere he ended his days. Four others were burned at the stake, by order of the Inquisitors, at Marseilles, in the year 1318.^ § 25. These unhappy monks, and afterwards many more, who were cut off in this lamentable contest, were punished merely for disregarding the majesty of the pontiffs ; for they considered the rule of their founder, St. Francis, as being dictated by God himself, and really the Gospel of Christ, to be placed above the pontiff's power. The controversy, considered in itself, was rather ridiculous than serious, and had no connexion with true Paris, torn. iv. p. 151. 165. Argentre, ' Baluze, Vitcc Pontif. Avenion. torn, Collcctio Judicior. de novis error, torn. i. i. p. 116. torn. ii. p. M\,&r\6. Miscellanea, p. 392, &c. toil), i. p. 195. 272. Wadding, Armules '" This law is called Sancta Bomana, Minor, torn. vi. p. 267, &c. 316, &c. ^c. and is extant among the Extrava- Martcne, Thesaur. Anecdotor. torn. v. p. gantes Johannis XXII. tit. vii. dereUgio- 175. Martin of Fnlda, in Eccard's Cor- sis domibus ; in the Corpus Juris Canon, pus Histor. Medii jEvi, torn. i. p. 1725, torn. ii. p. 1112. and lierm. Coenier, ibid. torn. ii. p. 98 1. ' Waddnig's Annales Minorum, torn. Histoire generale de Languedoc, torn. iv. vi. p. 265, &c. p. 179, &c. Argciitre, Collectio Judicior. ' [By the Inquisitors. TV.] de Jiovis error, torn. i. p. 294. en. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 627 religion. It related merely to two points :j?/-.sY, tiie form of the garments to be worn by Franciscans ; and, secondly, ihoiv grana- ries and cellars. The Brethren of the communitij, that is, the laxer Franciscans, wore long, loose, and good habits, with ample hoods or coverings for their head : but the Spirituals wore strait, short, sordid, and vile garments, with small hoods, because such a dress, they said, was prescribed for the fraternity in the rule of St. Francis, M-hich it was not lawful for any mortal to alter. In the next place, the Brethren of the communiti/, in the seasons of harvest and vintage, laid up corn in their granaries, and wine in their cellars : but the Spirituals contended that this was inconsistent with genuine mendicity, and the i)rofession made by poor Minorites. And hence John published, in this very year, a long epistle, in which he directs that botii questions be left to the judgment and discretion of the superiors of the order.^ § 26. Tiie eiFects of this epistle and of other decrees were prevented by the unseasonable and impious severity of Joint XXIL, which even his friends detested. For the Spirituals and their supporters, exasperated at the cruel death of their brethren, maintained that John XXIL had rendered himself unwortiiy of the pontifical office, and an Antichrist, by the slaughter of those holy men : the four brethren burnt at Marseilles thoy honoured as martyrs, paying religious veneration to their bones and ashes : and they contended, far more earnestly than before, a""ainst the long garments, the large hoods, and the fjranaries and cellars. On the other hand, the Lujuisitors, by direction of the pontiff, seized all the persons of this description on whom they could lay their hands, and committed them to the flames without mercv, immolating them to the pontitical indignation. From this time onward, therefore, not only in France, but also in Italy, Spain, and Germany, an immense number of tiie defenders of the rule of St. Francis, Fratricelli, Bcghards, and Spirituals, were cruelly put to death. '^ * It is extant in tlic Corpus Juris Canon, tlic Martyrdogy of the Spirituals and Fra- Extravacjant. Johannis XXIL [tit. xiv. tricelli, which wiis exliibitcd to the In. 145-1. which Annates Minor, torn. vi. p. 273, and cuntains the names of one hundred and others. tiiirteen i)ei'sons, of both sc.xes. who, ^ I have in niv liands, in a(hlition to fnmi the ye;ir 1:318, to tlie time of Inno- tlie other documents serving to ehicidate cent VI., [a. d. 1352 — I3f)'2,] expiated the ditficult historj' of this persecution, in the flames their zeal for the poverty 8 s 2 ' 628 BOOK III. — CENTURY XI v. [PAllT II. § 27. This conflagration was taking in a wider field, and in- volving the Avhole Franciscan order, in the year 1321, when to the former points of controversy a new one was added respecting the poverty of Christ and his apostles. A Begum, or one pro- fessed in the third order of St. Francis, being apprehended this year at Narbonne, taught, among other things, that Christ and his ajjostles' possessed nothing by waij of j^foperty or dominion, either in common or individually. This opinion, John de Belna, an Inquisitor belonging to the order of Dominicans, pronounced to be an error: but Berengarius Taloni, a Franciscan, main- tained it to 1)0 sound and consonant to the epistle of Nicolaus III., Exiit qui seminat. The judgment of the former was approved by the Dominicans ; the decision of the latter was maintained by the Franciscans. The subject being brought before the pontiff, he endeavoured to quiet the new contro- versy by careful management; and, therefore, called to his counsel Ubertinus de Casalis, a Franciscan of great reputation, and a patron of the Spirituals. He answered equivocally, and by making distinctions. Yet the pope and the cardinals thought his decision calculated to end the controversy. The pontiff therefore ordered both the parties to acquiesce under it, and to be silent and observe moderation.^ § 28. But the impassioned minds of the Dominicans and Franciscans could not be brought to submit to this mandate. John therefore, in the year 1322, allowed the controversy to be brought up again ; and he laid the following question before the most celebrated divines, and especially those of Paris, for their decision : Wliether those were heretics ivho affirmed that Jesus Christ and Ids apostles held no property, either in common or as individuals ? The Franciscans, who this year held their conven- tion at Perugia, having had previous notice of the business, un- animously decided, that persons making such an assertion were no heretics, but held a doctrine that was true and holy, and accordant with the decisions of the pontiffs : and they appointed a man of distinguished learning, belonging to their order, brother of St. Francis, in France and Italy. To Tolosanoi ; published by Limborch, p. these, so many others might be added 298. 302. 319. 327, &c. from the historians and documents, "^ Wadding's Annales Minor, tom. vi. printed aTid manuscript, that I suppose p. 361. Steph. Baluze, il/«cf//a«m, tom. a catalogue of two thousand such martyrs i. p. 307. Gerh. Du Bois, Hist. Eccles. might be made out. ^HQiXiQ Codex Inquis. Paris, p. 611, &c. cri. II.] cnuRCii officers and government. 029 Bonafjratia of Bergamo, who was also called Boncorti'sc '', to repair to Avignon, and there defend this decision of the whole order against all opponents. John XXII. was exceedingly offended at this, and published an ordinance, in the month of November, in which he espoused the opposite doctrine to that of the Franciscans, and pronounced those to be heretics who should pertinaciously maintain that Christ arid his apostles possessed no j7roperti/, cither in commov, or individually, and had not the rifjht of selling and giving aicay what they possessed. A little after, he proceeded still further ; and in an ordinance drawn up in the month of December, he exposed the vanity and futility of the arguments, commonly di'awn from a bull of Niadaus III., prov- ing a transfer of the dominion of the Franciscan possessions to the church of Rome, leaving only the simple use, without any ownership to the brethren : for it was utterly impossible, in re- gard to things which are consumed by the use of them, to sepa- rate the right of use from the right of property or dominion. He also solemnly renounced all property in the Franciscan effects reserved by the former pontiffs to the Komish church, with the exception of their chiu'chcs and some other things ; and dis- missed the officers or purveyors, who had hitherto received the revenues and administered the affairs of the order in the name of the Romish church, and repeated all the laws and constitutions of his predecessors on this subject.* § 29. These pontifical ordinances destroyed the very citadel of the Franciscan order, that boasted expropriation, in which Francis placed the highest glory of his fraternity, llenco the Franciscans most resolutely opposed the pontiff": and in par- ticular, brother Bonagratia, the legate of the order, publicly maintained in the court of the pontiff^ a. d. 132.3, that the last ordinance oi' Jtdin was repugnant both to human and divine law, and announced an appeal.'-' The pontiff", on the other hand, ' I notice this circumstance, bcc.iusc next to liini, Lu. Wnddinjr, Ainuihs Mi- some valuable writers have made them m/ruw, torn. vi. p. 394, &c. lJ<.iii censure tiro persons. John. Boulay's Ilistoria Acad. Paris. •• These constitutions are inserted in torn. iv. j). HU, &c. i\k Corims, Juris Canon.Mwm^xhii Extra- ' Waddinj^'s Annates Minor, toni. vii. vaquntcs [Joliannis XXII.] tit. xiv. dc p. 2. 22, &c. Alviu". I'ela^MU.s ortant nates Hirsaug. toni. ii. p. 137. 'J'laod. writer to be consulted is the contemporary de Niem. in Eccard's Corpus Huilvr. author, Alvai-us Telafiius, of Bavaria, several of the leading Franciscans, among whom J/ar5/7/w5 of Padua, and John of Jandunum, or Genoa, were pre-eminent, fled to the em- peror, and under his protection opposed most violently in their writings, not only John himself, but generally the power and authority of the Roman j)ontiffs.' Their example was followed by Michael Ccesenas, IVilliam Occam, a man of extraordinary subtlety and acuteness, and by brother Bnnagratia, of Bergamo, who in the year 1328 proceeded by sea from Avignon, first into Italy, to the emperor, and thence to Munich. These were suc- ceeded by others, in great numbers ; among whom were Beren- garius, Francis de Esculo, and Henrif de Halem, men eminent for erudition and talents." All these composed eloquent and severe * See Wadding's Annales Minor, tonu vii. p. 69. 74. ' Lu. D'Achen', Spicilegium, torn, iiu p. 85, &c. BuUarium Roman, torn. vL p. 167. Edm. ilanene, Thesaur. Anec- dotor. torn. ii. p. 695. 704. Bouby's Historia Acad. Paris, torn. iv. p. 216. Panicularly noted is the pert'orraance of Marsilius of Padua, a professor at Vienna, entitled. Defensor pads pro Ludovico Ba- varo adversus usurpatum Romani pontificis jurisdictionem ; published with other works, and also separately, by Fran. Gomarus, Francf. 1592, 8vo! * Wadinsr's Annales Minor, torn. vii. p. 81. Martene's Thesaur. Anecdotor. torn. iL p. 749. 757, &c. Trithemius, Annales Hirsaug. torn. ii. p. 167. Bou- lays Historia Acad. Paris, torn. iv. p. 217. Eccard's Corpus Historicor. Medii .Hci, torn. ii. p. 1034. Baluze, Miscel- lonea.tom. i. p. 293. 315, &c. Concern- ing these men, the reader may consult the compilers of Catalogues and Biblio- thecas of the Ecclesiastical writers. — [Michael Qesenas, IX D., was a native of Italy, a Franciscan, of the proWnce of Bologna, and created general of the order a, d. 1316. He strenuously en- forced the discipline of the order ; pre- sided in the chapter held at Perugia, A.D. 1322 ; was summoned to Avignon in 1327. imprisoned, and the ne.xt year ordered to trial for the decision in the chapter at Perugia. He appealed trom the sentence, and, fearing the conse- quences, privately escaped from A^ngnon, The pope now excommunicated him, and deposed him fixim the generalship of his order, appointing cardinal Bertrand to succeed him. ilichael appealed to a council, joined the emperor Lewis, and strenuously resisted the pontiff. In the year 1329, Bertrand called a chapter of the Franciscans at P;ms, which dep<-.»ed Michael, and elected Gerard to succeed him. He now openly accused the pt>pe of heresy ; and the latter anathematized him in 1330 ; and the year following, the convention of his order at Perpignan de- clared him a hea-tic. He died .v. i». 1.343, retaining his rancour against the pes, even in the external affairs of the church ; de- 632 BOOK III. CENTURY XIV. [PART II. treatises, in wliicli they vindicated the rule of their founder, and depreciated the power and majesty of the pontiffs. Occam ex- celled the rest, whose Dialogues and other writings Avere eagerly read, and handed down to posterity, and have inflicted a mortal wound on the pontifical supremacy. § 31. The emperor, Leivis of Bavaria, feeling grateful to these his defenders, made the case of the Franciscans against John XXII. his own ; and he not only espoused their cause, but like- wise their opinion respecting the mendicity of Christ and the apostles. For among the pernicious errors, for which he pub- licly accused John of heresy, and removed him from the ponti- ficate, the chief was his opinion respecting Christ's poverty, or that he was not destitute of all property ; than which the em- picts the pride, ambition, and luxury of the court of Rome, in vivid colours ; and shows that the bisliops of Rome have no more authority, by divine right, over the whole church, than any other bishops. In 1327, John XXII. excommunicated him ; and he died the year following. Besides his Defensor pacts, he left tracts on the power of the emperors in matri- monial causes, and on the transfer of the empire. — John de Janduno, or of Genoa, ■was a doctor at Penxgia, and a distin- guished theologian and philosopher, who was excommunicated at the same time with Marsilius. In the year 1338, he published his tract. Pro Superior itate Imperatoris in temporalihus. He also wrote commentaries on various works of Aristotle. — Wilham Occam was an Eng- lishman, born [at Ockliam] in SuiTcy, a disciple of Duns Scotus ; was called Doctor Singularis, and Venerabilis Jncep- tor, and belonged to the order of Fran- ciscans. In the beginning of this cen- tuiy, he occupied a theological chair in the university of Paris ; dissented from his master Scotus, and became the head of the sect of Nominalists. He espoused the cause of Philip the Fair against the pontiff, in a ti-act on the point in contro- versy. In 1322, he was made jirovincial of his order for England ; attended the general chapter at Perugia the same year, and embraced strongly the decision of that convention respecting the po- verty of Christ and his apostles. This doctrine he now openly preached every where, and particularly at Bologna. Tlie next year the pope connnanded him to be silent on pain of excommunication. He retired to France, and remained se- cure in silence till 1328 ; when he drew his pen, in favour of Lewis, against the pope ; espoused the cause of Peter Cor- barius, the antipope ; wrote keenly against the ambition and tyi'anny of John XXII., and maintained that the emperor was subject to none but God, in temporal things. He was therefore excommuni- cated by John in 1330 ; and fled to the emperor, Lewis of Bavaria, who received him kindly, made him his privy coun- sellor ; and he remained all the rest of his life at that court, strenuously and learnedly defending the emperor's cause against the pope. He said to the em- peror, Tu me defendas gladio ; et ego te defcndam calamo. He died a. d. 1347 ; some say, later. His numerous works are. Questions and Commentaries on the four books of Sentences ; several works on logic, metaphysics, and philosophy ; a Dialogue between a clergyman and a soldier on ecclesiastical and secular power ; a tract on the jurisdiction of tlie emperors in matrimonial causes ; eight questions on the power and majesty of tlie pontiffs ; Centiloquium Theologicum, or 100 propositions, on nearly all points in speculative theology ; a Dialogue be- tween a master and his scholar, in three parts (a large work relating chiefly to the constitution and discipline of the church, in opposition to the pontifical claims) ; a compendium of the eiTors of John XXII. ; Opus nonaginta dierum (against John's positions in regard to the Franciscans) ; Quodlibeta VH. ; a tract on the cucharist ; another on the body of Christ ; a tract against Benedict XH., and a letter to the Franciscans. CH. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 633 pcror supposed, there could be no worse heresy.^ Tlie emperor, moreover, afforded to all the Fratr'icelli, the Ber/hards, the De- (juins, and the Spirituals, who were contending against the pon- tiff, a secure asylum in Germany against the Inquisitors. Hence, during his reign, Germany abounded in herds of" mendi- cants ; and in nearly all the provinces and cities, houses were erected for Bcrjliards and Bcguins, that is, for persons professing what was called the third rule of St. Francis, and placing the highest virtue of a Christian man in a voluntary destitution of all things, or in mendicity.** On the contrary, the Dominicans, who were the enemies of the Franciscans and the friends of the pontiff, the emperor treated with great severity, banishing them from many cities with disgrace.^ § 32. This great, and, to the pontiffs, formidable controversy began to subside in the year 1329. For in this year the pontiff directed the convention of the Franciscan order to be held at Paris ; and by means of cardinal Bertrand, who presided in the assembly, and was assisted by the doctors of Pax-is, the pontiff so far soothed the majority of the brethren, that they ceased from supporting Michael Cccsenus and his followers ; allowed another general to be chosen in his place, Gerard Oddonis ; ac- knowledged John to be the true and legitimate pontiff; and ter- minated the contest respecting the poverty of Christ, in such a way as not to impeach the constitutions and decrees of Nicola us III. and John XXIU But great numbers in Germany, Spain, and Italy, could not be persuaded to admit this pacification. After the death of John, Benedict XII. and Clement VI. endea- voured to heal the schism by mildness and clemency towards those Franciscans who had greater veneration for the rule of their founder than for the decrees of the pontiffs: nor were they unsuccessful. For many returned to the fraternity from which they had receded; and among these were some of the most invete- rate opposers of John ; such as Francis de Esculo, and othcrs.'- Those who would not return, did not insult tiie pontiffs, but ' See the Processus Luduvici contra .'Bi-/, torn. i. p. 2103. Boulay's Historia Johaimetn, a. d. 1328, die 12 Dec. datits; Acad. Paris, toni. iv. p. 220, &c-. ill Biiluze, Miscellanea, torn. ii. p. 522, ' Wail(liii':"s Antiales Minor, torn. vii. &c. ami his Appellatio ; ibid. p. 494, &c. p. 94. D'AchciT Spiciieijium, torn. iii. " I have in my possession many proofs ji. 91. of this fact, which were never puhlislictl. * Argentre, CoUectio Judicior. de novis » Mart. Diefcnhach, de Mortis Gcnere, erroribus, torn. i. p. 343. Bouhiy's Ilis- quo Henricus VII. obiit, p. 14.5; nml /..nVi ^ra(/. /V/n.v. toni. iv. p. 281. Wad- others. Eccard's Corpus Histor. Mcdii ding^ Annalcs Minor, torn. vii. p. 313. 634 BOOK III. — CENTURY XIV. [PART II. lived quietly in obedience to the laws of their founder ; nor would they hold intercourse with the Fratricelli, and their Ter- tiarii, in Italy, Spain, and Germany, who openly contemned the authority of the pontiffs."^ § 33. The Germans, whom the emperor Leiois protected, re- sisted longer than the others. But at his death, a. d. 1348, the golden age of the Franciscan Spirituals, and of the Beghards or Tertiarii connected with them, expired in Germany. For Charles IV., who had been created emperor by the influence of the pon- tiff, in 1345, and now succeeded to the empire, seconded the de- sires and wishes of the church, supported by edicts and by arms the Inquisitors, who were sent by the pontiff against his enemies, and allowed them to seize and put to death all whom they could. They accordingly proceeded, first in the provinces of Magde- burg, Bremen, Thuringia, Saxony, and Hesse, to extirpate all the Begliards and Beguins ; that is, the associates or Tertiarii of those Franciscans who maintained that Christ and his apostles had no property. On learning this, Charles IV., then residing at Lucca, in Italy, issued very severe mandates to all the princes in Germany, in the year 1369, to expel, and to aid the Inquisi- tors in extirpating, as enemies to the church and to the Roman empire, the Beghards and Beguins, or, as the emperor himself interprets the name, the voluntary inejidicants.* By another edict, a little after, he gave the houses of the Begliards to the tribunal of the Inquisition, ordering them to be converted into prisons for heretics : but the houses of the Beguins he ordered to be sold, and the proceeds to be distributed equally among tlie Inquisitors, the poor, and the magistrates of the towns. ^ The Beghards being reduced to extremities by these mandates of the emperor, and by the edicts of the pontiffs, fled into Switzer- land, into the provinces along the Rhine, into Holland and ^ Wadding's Annates, torn. vii. p. 116. can Tertiai'ies of the class that disagreed 126. Argentre, 1. c. torn. i. p. 343, &c. with the pontiffs. They are (says the * In the German, Die imlyen Armen. emperor, in his edict dated at Lucca, on * I have in my possession this edict, the 15th of the Kalends of June, a. d. with other laws of Charles IV., relating 1366,) a pernicious sect, who pretend to a to this subject, and also many of the sacrilegious and heretical poverty, and make pontifical constitutions, and other docu- vows or professions, that they imll possess ments which illustrate this affair, and 7H)thi7ig, and ought not to, either individually which, in my judgment, are not unworthy or in common ; (this is the poverty of of publication. Charles IV., in his edicts the Franciscan institute, which John and laws, accurately describes the per- XXII. so strenuously opposed :) which sons whom he calls Beghards and Be- they also exhibit externally by their vile gar- guins ; so that there can be no doubt we ments. (Sucli was the practice of the arc to understand them to be Francis- Spirituals and of their associates.) CII. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 635 Brabant, and also into Ponieranla.'' But tliere also the laws and mandates of" the emperor, the decrees of the pontiffs, and the Inquisitors, followed them. And thus, under Charles IV., the greatest part of Germany, with the exception of Switzerland, and the provinces adjacent to Switzerland, was purged of the rcljellious Franciscans, as well the perfect sort, as the imperfect, or Bcfjliards. § 34. But neither edicts nor Inquisitors could entirely pluck up the roots of this inveterate evil and discord. For the wish to observe perfectly the rule of llowinp centurj- Anmles Eccks. ad aim. 1372, § 34, p. against the Beghards in Switzerland. 513, and from the wTitings of Felix Mai- ' See Wadding's Annaks Minorum, 636 BOOK III. — CENTURY XIY. [rART II. not cease to disturb the church in the marquisate of Ancona, and In other places. § 35. In this century also there were new religious associa- tions formed ; of which some were of short continuance, and others acquired no great notoriety or fame. In the year 1367, John Colombini, a nobleman of Siena, instituted the order of the Apostolic Clerks ; who were afterwards called Jcsuates, be- cause they pronounced so very frequently the name of Jesus. This order was confirmed by Urban V. in the year 1368 ; but it was abolished by Clement IX. in the seventeenth century, or A. D. 1668. Its members followed the rule of St. Augustine ; but they were not in holy orders, and only gave themselves to prayer, to pious offices, administering to the poor, and were themselves without property. They also prepared medicines, and administered them gratis among the needy .^ But these regulations were nearly abandoned when Clement dissolved the order. § 36. Not long after the commencement of the century, there arose at Antwerp the sect of the Cellite Brethren and Sisters; who were also called the Bretliren and Sisters of Alexius, because they had St. Alexius for their patron saint. The name Cellites ( Cellitce) was derived from the cells in which they resided. As the priests in that age paid almost no attention to the sick and the dying, and wholly forsook and abandoned those Infected by pestilential diseases, which then were very prevalent, certain pious persons at Antwerp formed themselves into an associa- tion for performing these pious offices. While the clergy, therefore, fled from the danger and hid themselves, these per- sons visited and comforted the sick, conversed and prayed with them when dying, attended to the burial of such as died with the plague, and accompanied their remains to the grave with mournful singing. From the last of these offices they acquired among the people the common appellation of Lollhards.^ The torn. viii. p. 209. 298. 326. 336. torn. ix. sitions and naiTations ; but no one has p. 59. 65. 78, &c. so written on the subject as to deserve •* Hip. Helyot, Histoire des Ordres, torn, commendation, either for good faith, or iii. p. 411, &c. Francis Pagi, i?/-ew(rtr('M?« for dihgence and accm-acy. On this Pontif. torn. iv. p. 189, &c. Bonanni, subject, I make assertions with the more and the other writers on the monastic confidence, because I have made special orders. investigations respecting the Lollliards, " Concerning the name and the sect and have collected copious materials of the LoUhards, there arc many disqui- from printed and unprinted documents, CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. G37 CH. ir.] example of these good people was followed by many others ; and in a short time, over the greater part of Germany and the from wliich a history of them might be compiled. Vciy many writers, both of the Lutheran and otlier communities, tell us that the Lollhards were a peculiar sect, dissentinj; on many points of reli- gion from the Romish church ; and that Walter LoUliard, who was burnt at Co- logne in this century, was the father of it. Friini what source so many learned men could derive these facts, I confess myself unable to comprehend. They n^fer, indeed, to the authority of John Trithemius ; but he certainly has left us nothing of the kind in his writings. I will endeavour, with all the brevity I can, to put the student of ecclesiastical liistory u|ion a right course of tliiuking on this subject. The term LoUhardus or LuUhardus, or, as the ancient Germans wrote it, LoUert, or Lullert, is conqiounded of the old German word lulleii, lalUn, or lallcn, and the well-known termination hard, which is subjoined to so many German, wonls. Lollen or lullen signifies to sing with a low voice. It is still used in this sense by the English, who say, to lull a-skrp ; that is, to sing any one into a slumber, with a sweet and slender voice. See Francis Junius Eti/nwlixilcum Angli- canum, published by Edward Lye, Oxon, 1743, fol. on the word Lollard. The word is also used in the same sense by tlie Flemings, the Swedes, and other nations ; as their dictionaries will show. Among the Germans, both the signifi- cation and the sound have undergone some change. For they pronounce it lallen; and denote by it, to utter indis- tinctbj, to stammer. A Lollhard, there- fore, is a singer, or one who sings nuich and often. But as the woril heggen, which signified in general to beg earnestli/ fur any tiling, was transferred to reli- gious supplications or prayers addressed to God, and thus came to denote, in its more liniiteil sense, to prai/ earnestly to God; so als(j the verb lollen or /»//<7i was transferred to saercd singing, and in its limited sense, denoted, to siny saered songs. In the vTilgar language of the old Gcnnaus, therefore, a LollhiU-d was a man who was contimiallij praising God u-itJi sacred songs, or was singing tii/mns. The import of the word w;vs most accu- rately apprehended and expressed by a writer of that age, named Ilocsemius, a canon of Liege, in his Gesta Pontificum Leodiensium, lib. i. cap. 31, (in Jo. Cha- jjcavilli, Gesta Puntijicum Tungetisiuni et Leodiensium, tom. ii. p. 350. &c.) who says : Li Uie same year (1309) certain strolling hypocrites, who teere called I^oll- hards, or praisers of God, (ipii LoUiiardi sive Deum laudantes vocabantur,) [aleolus alone, against the Beghards. There were, then, as many species of Ltdlhards as there were of Beghards. Those whom the monks now call Lay Brothers, were formerly called Ij. i. p. 24. (in Goldast, Scriptores Jierum Alemannicarum, torn, iii.) The Urethral of t/ie free spirit, of whom we have already spoken, were by some called Beghards, and by others Li)llhards. The disciples of Geriiard Groote, or the priests of' common life, were very often called LuUard Brethren. The honest Walter, who was burnt at Cologne, and whom so numy of the learned im- properly regard as tiie founder of the sect of LolUiards, was by s(jme called a Beghard, by t)thers a I^ollhard, and by othci's a Fratricellus. The Franciscan Tertiarii, who distinguished themselves G38 BOOK III. — CENTURY XIY. [PAET IT. Netherlands, societies were formed of such Lollliards, of both sexes, who were supported partly by their own labour, and partly by the munificence of those whom they served, and of other pious persons. By the magistrates and citizens of the places where they lived, these brethren and sisters were highly esteemed, on account of the kind offices which they performed for the sick and distressed. But the priests, whose reputation they injured not a little, and the mendicant monks, whose re- sources they diminislied, persecuted them violently, and accused them before the pontiffs of many faults and of the most griev- above the common people by theu* prayers and other rehgious observances, are often designated by the term Lollhards. But especially were the Celite Brethren, or the Alexians, whose piety was so con- spicuous, as soon as they appeared in Belgium, near the beginning of this cen- tury, designated by the common people with the familiar appellation of Lollhards. In this case, however, there was a special reason for the people to bestow on them this name. For they attended to their graves those who died of the pestilence, singing in a low voice, solemn, funeral dirges, and were therefore public singers. Out of many testimonies, I will adduce only some from Jo. Bapt. Gramaye, a man well versed in the history of his country. In his Antwerpia, lib. ii. cap. vi. p. 16, he says: The Alexians who em- ployed themselves about funerals, had their rise at Antwerp : where, soon after the year 1300, some honest and pious laymen asso- ciated together ; and were called, from their frugality and their unassuming and plain manner of life, Matemanni ; and from their devotedness to funerals, Lollhards (a funerum obscquiis, LolUiardi) ; from their cells, Cellite Brethren. In his Lovanium, p. 18, b. wliich is in his Antiquit. Belgica, pubUshed splendidly in fol. Louvain, 1708, he says : The Alexians, who took the charge of funerals as a business, began to appear. They were laymen, that de- voted themselves to works of mercy, and were then called Lollhards and Matemitns. Their attention to the care of the sick, the delirious, and the dead, both in public and in private, was pleasing to all. This learned author tells us, that he transcribed a part of these facts from an ancient Flemish diary, written in rhyme. Hence, in the Annals of Holland andUtrecht, (in Ant. ]\Iatth:iius, Analecta Vetcr. jEvi, tom. i. p. 431,) we read : Die Lollardtjes die brochten de dooden by een, [i. e. the Lollards who col- lected the dead bodies. Mad.'] which Matthceus thus explains : The managers of funerals, and carriers of the dead, of whom there teas a regular body, were vile, ivorthless fellows, who usually spoke in mournful tones, as if bewailing the dead. And hence the name of a street at Utrecht, in which most of them lived, was called {de Lollestraet) the Lollard street. Compare also the same Analecta, §-c. tom. ii. p. 345. 643. The same cause that changed the reputable appellation of Beghard into a tenn of reproach, effected a simi- lar change in the name of Lollhard : namely, the fact, that among those per- sons who would be thought superior to others in piety, and who spent their time in prayer and praise, and religious exer- cises, base hypocrites were found, who pretended to piety, in order to conceal their vicious conduct and their absurd religious tenets. Especially after the rise of the Alexiani or Cellites, the term Lollhard became reproachful and base. For the priests and monks being very inimical to this honest sort of people, studiously propagated injurious suspi- cions respecting them, and i-epresented these Lollhards, who appeared so spot- less and so benevolent, as in reaUty vile characters, infected with abominable principles, and addicted to vices and crimes. Thus gradually the term Loll- hard, in its common apphcation, came to designate one who conceals either he- retical principals or vicious conduct under the mask of piety. It is therefore cer- tain, that this appellation was not an- ciently appropriated to any one sect, but was common to all sects and persons, in whom impiety towards God and the church ^\■as supposed to be conceided under an external appearance of the contrary. CH. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. G39 Oils errors : and in consequence of their exertions, tlie term Lollhard, which before implied no reproach, became a reproach- ful epithet, denoting one who conceals great vices and perni- cious sentiments, under the mask of piety. But the magistrates, by their commendations and their testimony, sup[)orted the Lollhards against their rivals, and procured for them various decrees of the pontiffs, ai)proving of their institution, exempting them from the jurisdiction of the Inquisition, and subjecting them only to the bishops. Yet even this did not enable them to live in safety. Hence Charles, duke of Burgundy, obtained a decree from Sixtus IV., in the year, 1472, by which the CellitcB or Lollharcls were admitted among the religious orders, and were withdrawn even from the jurisdiction of the bishops: and Julius II., in the year 1506, conferred on them still greater privileges. Many societies of their kind still exist at Cologne and in the cities of the Netherlands, though they have essentially departed fx*om their ancient manner of life.' § 37. Among the Greek writers the following were the most distinguished. Nicephorus Callistus, whose Ecclesiastical His- tory has already been mentioned.- Mattlww Blastares, who expounded and illustrated the ecclesiastical law of the Greek church.^ Burlaam, a strenuous defender of the cause of the Greeks against the Latins.* Grcrjoru Acindynus, who warmly opposed the sect of the Palamites, of which notice will be taken hereafter. •'' John Cantacuzenus, distinguished for the history ' Besides many others who cannot 1)C jit. ii. p. 1. His tract on matrimonial here cited, sec iEgid. Gclciiius de admi- causes and questions, is extant, Gr. and rauda sacra et cicHi Maynitudine urbis Lat.. in Leuiielav. .Jus dr. Ram. lib. viii. Culimice, lib. iii. syiitaj,qn. li. p. 534, Sec. p. 478. He also translated tlic ticti- 598. 603, &c. Jo. Bapt. Gramage, An- tious donation of Constantino into Greek. tiq. BeUjiciT; Anton. Sanderus, Braf/antia 7V.] et Fh'nidria dlmtrata ; Aub. I^lira-us, * [See above, p. 598, note'. TV.] Opera Diphmmtica ; in many piissages, ^ [Gregory Acindynus was a follower and many other writers of those times, of Barlaam, and assisted him in the I will ailcl, tliat those who were called council of Constantinoi.lc again.st Pala- Lollhards, were also called by many, in mas and the Hesychists ; and, together German, die Nollbriider, from the obso- w ith Barlaam, was laid under censure lete word AW/wi. by that coimcil. Not ceasing to harass " [See above, p. 597, note*. Tr.'\ the Hesychists, he was arraigned by the ' [Matthew Blastares was a Greek patriarch, a. d. 1341, and ordered to the monk and jurist, who flourished about .'itill, or he would Ik; cxcomnninicated. A. D. 1335. His Alphahcticum Canonum In 1347, he wa.s actually e.xcomnuini- Si/ntayma, or Ali)iiabetieal synop.-is of catcd ; and aftenvards lived in obscurity, tlie matter contained in the sacred canons. His Iambic poem on the heresy of (ire- was publisiied, Gr. and Lat., in Bevcrege's gorj- Palanuus is extant. Gr. and Lat., Pandecta Canonum, Oxon. 1672, torn. ii. iuLco AUat. CrV. OrthoiL turn. i. p. 756— 640 BOOK III. — CENTURY XIV. [P ART II. lie composed, and for his confutation of tlie Mahumedan faith.^ Nicephorus Gregoras, who has left us a history of the Greek empire, and some other products of his genius.'^ Tlicoplunies, bishop of Nice, who maintained the truth of Christianity against tlie Jews and other enemies of it.^ Nilus Cahasilas, Nilus Rhodius, and Nilus Damyla, all of whom zealously supported the cause of the Greeks against the Latins.^ Pldlotlieus, who has left various tracts calculated to excite pious emotions."^ Gregory Palamas, of whom more will be said hereafter.^ 770, and his two books, de Essentia et Operatione Dei, against Palamas and others, were published, Gr. and Lat., by Gretser, Ingolst. 1616, 4to. TV.] ^ [See above, p. 597, note^ Tr.'] ' [See above, p. 596, note". TV.] * [Theophanes, aixhbishop of Nice, flourished a. d. 1347, and wrote Adversus Judaos, libri ii. also Concordia Vet. et Novi Testam. proving Jesus to be the Messiah ; besides some Epistles. A full analysis of the two iirst works is given bv Possevin, Apparat. torn. ii. p. 470. TV.] '■* [Nilus Cahasilas was archbishop of Thessalonica, under John Cantacuzenus, about A. D. 1340. His tract, de Causis Divisionum in Ecclcsia ; and another, de Primatu Papa, have been repeatedly published, particulai-ly by Salmasius, Gr. and Lat., with notes, subjoined to his work on the Primacy of tlie Pope, Leydcn, 1645, 4to. He is reported to have written 49 books, de Processione Sp. S. adversus Latinos. — Nilus Rhodius was metropolitan of Rhodes, perhaps about A. 1). 1360. He took sides with the Pa- lamites against Barlaam ; and wrote Enarratio Synoptica de Sanctis et CEcu- menicis Synodis IX., which is extant in Justell's Biblioth. Juris Canon, torn. ii. p. 1155, — Nylus Uamyla was a native of Italy, a monk in Crete, a violent opposer of the Latins, and flourished a. d. 1 400. His works, from which only extracts have been published, are, de Ordine in Divina Triade, et de Processione Spir. S. Collectanea adversus eos qui cvntradicunt Spiritum S. non ex Patre, sed ex Patre et Filio procedere ; de Damaso Papa etfide antiqucB Pomce ; and, de Synodis duabus Photianis : all of which exist in MS. Tr.'] '" [Philotheus was a Greek monk, prior of the Laura of Mount Athos, metropolitan of Heraclea a. d. 1354 ; pa- triarch of Constantinople a. D. 1355 ; and died in 1371, greatly distinguished for reputed piety and for eloquence. His Liturgia et Ordo instituendi Diaconum, and his Eulogy on the hierarchs, Basil, Gregory Theologus, and John Chryso- stoni, are given in a Latin translation in the Biblioth. Patrum, torn. xxvi. and the last, Greek and Latin, in Fronto Ducaeus, Auctuar. Patrum, tom. ii. His Oratio de Cruce, and Oratio in Tertian Jejunior. Dominicam. Greek and Latin, are in Gretser, de Cruce, tom. ii. He wrote seventeen books, on Christ's transfigu- ration, in Defence of Palamas against Bai'laam ; also discourses against Bar- laam ; a confession of faith ; homilies on the Gospels for the year, and on all the saints ; and some other things, which are preserved in manuscript. TV.] ' [Gregoiy Palamas, an Asiatic, edu- cated at court, who renounced the world, gave up all his pi'operty, and became a monk. He spent 10 years at mount Athos, and 10 more at BeiThcea ; and then went to Thessalonica, to recover his hcidth, injm-ed by his austerities. He now became the successful leader of the monks against Barlaam for a series of years, and was much at coiut and in councils. In 1347 he was unprisoned by a faction ; but soon after was libe- rated by another faction, and nominated, but not ordained, patriarch. About the year 1354, by order of the emperor Can- tacuzenus, he was consecrated archbishop of Thessalonica, but the magistrates there would not admit him to his see, and he retired to Lemnos, where he was sup- ported by the emperor's bounty. His works are, two orations on the Proces- sion of tlie Holy Spirit, against the La- tins ; a refutation of the statements of John Vcccus ; Prosopopaia, or two judi- cir. il] church officers and government, G41 § 38. Of the vast host of Latin writers, we shall select only the most eminent. Anions^ tiie scholastic doctors, who united cial pleas of the body and the soul, each ajjaiiist the other ; two orations on the traiislii;iiratioii of Christ ; besides some pieees never published. Besides those hitherto mentioned, there were the following Greek writers in this eentnry. llaiton, or Alton, an Armenian })rinee, who served loni;- in tiie wars of Pales- tine against tlie Saraeens, and then, about A. 1). 1290, beeanie a I'rannonstra- tensian monk in the island of Cyprus, and spent his life in retirement and de- votion. About A. D. 1307, while resident at Poitiers, in Franee, he dictated a history of the Tartars, their customs, and their wars, which Nicolaus Falconius translated from tlie French, in which it ^^■as dictated, into barbarous Latin, en- titled Jtiiuniriitm ct Flos Ilisturicirum Orientis ; with an Ai)pendix, entitled Paxsinjium Terra Sdrtcke. It was printed repeatedly ; e. g. by Reineccius, llehnst. 15S5, and in Italian, Venice, 1553. Geurgius Leca])enns, amoiik, who lived in Thessaly, was intimate with Gregory Palamas, and llourisiied about A. o. 1.'554. lie wrote (/(• Coimtructionc Vvrborum, pub- lished in Gr., Venice and Florence, 1526, 8vo ; also many epistles, and a number of grannnatical works, which exist in nianu- scrijit. Callistus, a monk of mount Athos. sent to court by his monastery, and nu\de patriarch of Constantinople, by Cantacu- /ATiUS, A. o. 1354, retired after two years ; again resumed the chair, and died on an cnd)assy to the Senian princess Eli/a- betii. To him is ascribed a homily on the exaltation of the cross, in Gretser de Vrun\ tom. ii. p. 1347, and some others, which exist in manuscript. Demetrius Cydonius, a native of Con- stantinojde, and one of the principal counsellors and courtiers of the emperor Cantacuzenus. He retired with that em- ])eror to a monastery ; and al'terwards, leaving Greece, studied theology and the Latin writers at Milan ; and then, selling his jiroperty, spent his life in a monastery in Crete. He has left a tract on the execrable doctrines of Gregory Palamas ; another on the Procession of the Holy Spirit ; two delibL.'rative orations on ])ub- lic political atlairs ; an oration on con- tempt of death ; and an epistle to Bar- laam, against the procession of the Spirit VOL. IL T from the Son ; all of which have been printed; as also his Greek translation uf Richard's confutation of the Alcoran. He also translated into Greek St. Tho- mas's Sinnma T/irdlixjicr, and some other of St. Thomas";; works, as well a.s some of St. Anselm of Canterbury ; which exist in manuscript. John the AVise, surnamcd Cyparissiota, of an uncertain age, but supposed to have nourished about a. d. L'JOO. His Ej-positio matcriaria coriim f/«fc de Deo a theolmjis dicunlitr, in x. decades, is ex- tant in a Latin translation, Dddinth. Pa- trum, tom. xxi. and two of his discourses, Greek and Latin, in Cond)etis, Auctuar. Noviss. Manuel Caleca, a Greek, who is re- ported to have become a Dominican monk, and who lived about a. d. 1300. His four l)t)oks against the Greeks, in regard to the procession of the Holy Spirit, in a Latin translation, are in the Bihlioth. Pittritm, tom. xxvi. and his two tracts, one against the Palamites, and the otlier, (/(■ Prliirij)iis Fidii ( '/irlstlaiia; Greek and Latin, are in Comlielis, Auc- tuar. JVovisn. Isaac Argyrus, a Greek monk wiio flourished about a. d. 1373, whose Coin- pulus was published, Greek and Latin, by J. Christmann, Ileidelb. 1611, 4to, and by Dionys. Petavius, dc Doctriua Tcmjmnim, tom. iii. p. 350. Emanuel II., Palaologus, cre;itcd Ciesar a. i>. 1384, and emperor a. d. 1391 — 1425. His works were iiublishcd, Greek and Latin, by Leundavius, Basil, 1578, 8vo, comprising one hundred pre- cepts for the education of a prince ; seven addresses to his son, on virtues and vices, and learning ; two prolix morn- ing prayers, and several other tracts. Joseph, called Alshahcr Biltabib, a native of Alexandria in Egvpt, and mi- nister of the catholic chinch of the Holy Virgin, a. d. 1390, ami ordained a pres- byter A. I). 1398. He translated para- phrastically nearly all the canons re- ceived by the Greek church into Arabic. TIic whole work, in manuscript, is in the Bodleian library. The canons of the first four general councils, Arabic and Latin, were printed in Beveridge's Pan- decla Oinonum, Oxon. 1671, tom. ii. p. 681. Tr.] T 642 BOOK III. —CENTURY XIV. [PART II. theology with philosophy, Jolui Duns Scotus, the great antago- nist of Thomas, and a Franciscan monk, holds the first rank ; and, if deficient in candour and ingenuousness of mind, he cer- tainly was second to none of his age in subtilty.'- After him the more distinguished in this class were, Durand of St. Por- cain, who attacked the received doctrine respecting the co- operation of God in human actions^; Antony Andreas '^ ; HervcBus Nutalis ^ ; Francis Mayron '^ ; Thomas Bradumrdine, an acute and ingenious man ^ ; Peter Aureolus ^ ; John Bacon ^ ; William * The works of Scotus were first pub- lished, accurately, in the ITtli century, by Lu. Wadding, a very laborious man, Lyons, 1G39, 12 vol. foi. See Wood's Anticj. Oxon. torn. i. p. 86, &c. but espe- cially AVadding's Annates Min. Fratr. torn. vi. p. 40. 107. Boulay's Historki Acad. Paris, torn. iv. j). 10, &c. [John Duns Scotus was probably born about A. D. 1265 ; but whether in England, Scotland, or Ireland, is uncertain. He studied first in a Franciscan monastery, in Newcastle, and then at Merton college, Oxford, where he became a fellow, and, A. D. 1301, professor of theology. He greatly distinguished himself as a dis- putant, and was learned in philosophy, mathematics, civil and canon law, and theology. His lectures on the Sentences of Lombard were greatly admired, and ver)- fully attended, by 'tlie 30,000 stu- dents then said to be at Oxford. They are since printed, with notes, and fill six folio volumes. In the year 1304 the general of his order commanded him to remove to Paris, and there defend his doctrine of tlie immaculate concejition of Mary, whicli he did with great success and applause. In 1308, his general sent him from Paris to Cologne, to found a university there, and to defend his doc- trine of Mary's sirdess birth. He died soon after his arrival, Nov. 8, 1308, aged 43 years, llis works embrace, besides his commentaries on Lombard's Sen- tences, commentaries on some works of Aristotle, and numerous tracts, theo- logical, metaphysical, and pliilosophical. TV.] ■" Sec Jo. Launoi's tract, entitled Sylla- bus Rdthmum, qiti/ws Duranch causa de- fetulUur : Opp. torn. i. Gallia Christiana, torn. ii. p. 723. [Durand of St. Pon/aiu was born in the village of St. Por(,'ain', in Auvergne, France; was a Dominican monk, and a distinguished theologian at Paris, called Doctor resolutissimus. In 1323 he went to Itiily, became master of the pontifical palace, bishop of Meaux, in 1326, and bishop of Le Puy in 1327, and died A. D. 1333. He wi-ote commentaries on the four books of Sentences, often printed ; de Origine Jurisdictionuvi, seu de JScclesiastica Jurisdictione; and a tract, de Legibus. TV.] ■* [Antonius Andreas was a Spaniard of Aragon, a discii)le of John Duns Scotus, a Franciscan monk ; flourished A. D. 1308, and died, it is said, a. d. 1320. His works are commentaries on the Sen- tences, and on the works of Gilbert Por- retanus, Aristotle, and Boethius, with some law tracts. TV.] * [Hervaius Natalis, a native of Bri- tany, a student and doctor at Paris, a Dominican monk, and, a. d. 1318, gene- ral of the order. He flourished a. d. 1312, and died a. d. 1323. He wrote commentaries on the Sentences, printed Paris, 1647, fol. Quodlibeta Majora vt Minora; Tracts on the power of the popes against the Franciscans ; and on various theological, philosopliical, and practical subjects ; a commentary on St. Paul's Epistles ; and a treatise on Logic. Tr.-] ^ [Francis Mayron was born in Pro- vence, studied under Duns Scotus at Paris, where he became a noted doctor. He was a Franciscan monk, and died at Placentia A. D. 1325. His commentaries on the Sentences, Quodlibeta varia, de furmalitalibus liber, de primo principio, de expositiime divinorum nominum, et de uni- vocatione entis, Avere published at Venice, 1520, fol. and his sermons, and various theological tracts, Basil, 1498. He also wrote connnentaries on the Ten Com- mandments, on Genesis, on Augustine's Civitas Dei, and on some books of Aris- totle. Tr.-] ' See Rich. Simon, Lettres Choisies, CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. r>43 CH. II.] Occam ^ ; Walter Burley - ; Peter dc Alliaco ^ ; Thomas of Stras- burg*; and Gregory de Rimini.^ Among the mystics, Joliu torn. iv. p. 232, and his Critique dc la Bibliothl'quc des Auteurs Ecclesiast. par M. du Pin, torn. i. p. 360, and Steph. Souciet's notes on this passage, p. 703. Nouveau Dictionnaire Hisi. Critique, torn, ii. p. 500, &c. — [also p. 601, above, and note® there. 7V.] * [Peter Aureokis was a Frenchman, born at Verberie on the Oise, a Domini- can monk and theologian, became a pub- lic teacher in the university of Paris, A. D. 1318, and lectured on the Sentences, became archbishop of Aix in Provence A. D. 1321, and died after a. d. 1345. He wrote commentaries on the four books of Sentences; Quodlibeta varia; Breviarium Bibliorum, or Epitome of the Scriptures ; a tract on the immaculate conception of Mary ; besides other tracts and sermons. " [John Bacon, or Baconthorp, an Englishman, born at the obscure village of Baconthorp, in Norfolk. He early became a Carmelite monk ; was sent to Oxford, and then to Paris, to study ; be- came celebrated as a jurist and theolo- gian, returned to England, and was soon after made provincial of his order for England, A. D. 1329. Foui' years after, he was called to Rome, to give his opi- nion on some difficult matrimonial ques- tions ; and died at London a. u. 1346. He wrote commentaries on the Senten- ces ; a Compendium of tlie law of Christ ; Quodlibeta ; on tlie rule of the Carme- lites ; and a historical defence of it, which liave been publislicd : also conniientarics on tlie whole Bible, and on Augustine's Cicitas Dei; a tract against the Jews; sermons, &c. never published. TV.] ' [See above, p. 631, 632, note". 7>.] - [Walter Burley, an English secular priest, or, as some say, a Franciscan monk, called Doctor planus et perspicuus. He was of Merton college, Oxtbrd, and afterwards studied at Paris. In both, he heard Duns Scotus ; but on his return to Oxford, he dissented from Scotus. He was preceptor to king Edward HI., and floiu'ished a. d. 1337, being then 02 years old. He wTote commentaries on the Sentences, and a great number of pliilo- so])hical works, comments on Aristotle and others, lives of the pliilosophers, tracts on pliilosophical questions, &c. Only a part of his works have been printed. T;-.] ^ [Peter d'Ailly, or de Alliaco, born of slender parentage, at Compiegne, on the Oise, 48 miles n. e. Paris, a. d. 1340 ; after a good previous education, he was admitted a bursar in the college of Na- varre, Paris, 1372 ; began to lecture on the Sentences and to preach in public in 1375 ; was created D.D. 1380, and head of the college of Navarre in 1384 ; pleaded the cause of the immaculate conception of Mary, before the pope, at Avignon, in 1387 ; became chancellor of the luiiversity, and confessor to the king, in 1389 ; treasurer of the royal chapel, and royal envoy to the pope in 1394 ; was appointed bishop of Le Puy in 1395, and of Cambray in 1396 ; attended the council of Pisa in 1409 ; was made car- dinal in 1411, and papal legate to Ger- many in 1414 ; at the close of which year he repaired to the council of Con- stance, presided in the third session, and was ver}^ active during the three years of the sitting of that council, and often preached in it to the fathers. He died at Cambray, a. d. 1425 ; and was called the eagle of France, arid the maul of error- ist.s. He was strenuous for condemning John Huss, and also for restraining the ambition of the popes, and reforming the church and preserving its liberties. His writings are very numerous and various ; comprising conmientaries on the Sen- tences of Lombard, on the study of the Scriptures, on the power of the popes, pious meditations, sermons, expositions of Scripture, the mode of electing popes, the authority of cardinals, tlie reforma- tion of the church, the connexion of as- trology with theology, on the kalendar, comments on Aristotle, &c. many of which have been published. TV.] * [Thomas of Strasburg was a Ger- man, born at Strasburg, an Augustinian Eremite, a theologian of Paris ; was made prior general of his order in 1345, and died at Vienne a. i). 1357. He wrote commentaries on the four Books of Sentences ; and has left us the consti- tution of liis order, and some other tracts. Tr.] ^ Of all these [scholastic doctors] there is an account given in the Histoire de PEijlise Gallicane, toni. xiv. p. II, 12, &c. [Gregory de Rimini, was an Italian, born at Rimini, an Augustinian Eremite, a Parisitut doctor of theolog}', general of 2 CAi BOOK III. CEXTURY XIV. [rART II. Tuuler and Jo/m Rwjshrock excelled the others in wisdom and integrity, though they Avere not free from all errors.*^ Of Rmj- mund I.nlhj, we have already spoken.'^ Nicolaus Lyranus ob- tained great reputation by his concise exposition of the whole Bible. ^ Raynerius Pisanus is known for his Summa Tlieologice'^, and Astesanus for his Summa Casuum Conscientice.^^ liis order a. d. 1357, and died the year after at Vicnnc. He \vTote on the first two Books of the Sentences, commen- taries on the epistles of Paul and on the epistle of James, a tract on usmy, and some others. TV.] * [John Tauler was a Gennan Domi- nican monk, and a ])opular preacher at Col(><,'iie and Stra.'^ljurj;-. He died at tlic latter place a.d. l.'JGO. Luther and Me- lanchthon frc'(]uently (juoted his writings, j)articularly his sermons. He left in German, Postills, or sermons for all the Sundays and festivals of the year (highly commended hy Luther) ; Imita- tion of Christ in his jjoverty ; ^larrow of the Soul, or perfection in all tlie vir- tues ; Spiritual Contemplation on the life and sutVerings of Christ ; the Noble Little Book, or the way to become in earnest, hearty, spiritual, and devout ; (the proceedings were published, Francf. 1G()4 and 170.-5, 4to,) also, The Soul-en- lightening MiiTor; with plates, 1713, 8vo. Tlie other works ascribed to him, are letters, liymns, praters, dialogues, and other tracts ; several of which are not his.— John Ruysbrock was born at Ruysln-ock in Brabant, a.d. 1293 ; Avas presbyter of the great church at Brus- sels ; became a regular canon of St. Augustine; and established and pre- sided over the convent of Griinthal, two miles from Bnissels, a. u. 13G0, and died A.I). 1.381, aged 88. He was at the head of the mystics, and was called a second \ )iony sins Areopagita. 1 lis A\ritiiigs were all in Dutch : but Laur. Suriiis translated most of them into Latin ; in whicli (nrm tlicy were published, Cologne, l.'J52, \\A. ICGO, 4to, and 1G92, fol. These arc, a Summary of the spiritual life ; the MuTor of salvation ; Remarks on the tabernacle of Moses, and its furniture ; on tile Principal Virtues ; on Faith and the Judgment ; on the four Temptations ; on the Seven Guards of the Spiritual School ; on tlie Seven De-rees of Love ; on Spiritual Nuptials, three books; the I eriectioiis ol' the sons of God ; the Kingdom of the friends of God ; on True Contemplation ; Twelve Useful Epistles ; two Spiritual Cautions ; Samuel, or deep contemplation ; a short prayer. Severjil of the protestants have commended his writings for thek pious spirit. John Gerson accused him of heresy after his death ; but Sarins defends him. He was severe upon the vicious monks and clergy. See the Unpartlmiische Kirchen- historie, Jena, 1735, vol. i.' p. 1329. 1331. Tr.-] ' [See p. 604, above. Tr.'] * [Nicolaus Lyranus, or de Lyra, was born at Lire, in Normandy, and, as some say, of Jewish parentage. He became a Franciscan monk about a.d. 1292 ; was master in theology at Paris, a.d. 1320 ; expounded the Scriptures there, in the Franciscan convent, and died a.d. 1340. His great work is, Postillce perpetuce, sive brevia Commentaria in universa Bibita, lib? is Ixxxv. which he commenced a.d. 1293, and completed A. D. 1330. After several incorrect editions, in six vols, fol. it was published at Lyons, 1590, Douay, 1G17, and Antwerp, 1634, in the Biblia Glossafa, and Paris, 1660, in the Biblia Maxima. His other works arc, Postillce Minores, seu Enarrationes in Epistolas, et Evang. Dominicalia Totius Anni; Venice, 1588, 8vo ; Tractatus de Idoneo Ministrante et Suscipiente S. Al- taris Sacramentum; Di.spiitatio contra Per- fidium Judaoram ; Tnicttitns contra Ju- daum (juendam ; and Conteinplatio de Vita et Ge.stis S. Francisci. His expositions of the Scriptures far exceeded all others of that age, and contributed so much to advance the knowledge of the Bible, that some have attributed the reforma- tion, in no small degree, to it : it M'as said. Si Lyra non li/rasset, Lutherxis non saltasset; i. e. Lyra's lyi-e enabled Luther to dance. Tr.-] " [Rayner was a native of Pisa, a Dominican monk, and an eminent theo- logian and jurist. He lived in the fomier part of this century, but the precise time is not ascertained. His Panihcolo- CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. CH. II.] gia, or Summa UniverscE Theologia, alpha- betically aiTanged, has been repeatedly printed, though greatly interpolated and altered. Jr.] '" [Astesanus, or Astensis, a Francis- can monk, born at Asti, in the north of Italy, who died about a. d. 1330. His eight books, entitled Sumnia de Casibus Conscientice, were printed at Venice, 1519, fol. Besides those akeady mentioned, the follovving Latin -wTiters lived in this centuiy ; according to Henry Wharton's continuation of Cave's Historia Litte- raria. Andrew, an Enghsh Dominican monk, of Newcastle, and doctor of theology, A. D. 1301. He ^^Tote a commentary on the Jirst Book of the Sentences, Paris, 1514, fol. and a commentary on Boethius, de Consolatione Philosophice. WiUiam of Nangis, a French Benedic- tine monk of St. Denys, Paris, who flou- rished a. d. 1301. He wrote a cln'ono- logy, from the creation to a. d. 1 30 1 , which others continued to a. d. 1368. (D'A- chery's Spicihg. tom. xi. p. 405.), Chroni- cle of the kings of France, to a. d. 1301, (in Pithoeus' Scriptores Fra>icici), and history of St. Lewis, king of France, and of his sons, Philip and Robert, (also in Pithoeus, 1. c.) WilUam Mandagot, a French cardi- nal, whom Boniface VIII. employed to compile the Liber Sedtus Dccretalium. He also \\Tote a tract on the election of new prelates ; printed, Cologne, 1573, 8vo. Henry Stero, a German Benedictine monk, who wrote, about a. d. 1301, Annals of Germany, from a. d. 1152 to 1273 (Jnter Scriptor. Germanicos, and in II. Canisius' Lectivnes Antiq. tom. i.), also, Histoiy of Rudolph of Hapsburg, Adol- phus of Nassau, and Albert of Austria, from A.D. 1266 to 1300 (extant in Fre- hcr's Scriptores German.). Dinus Mugellaiuis, an Italian jurist, and professor at Bologna, a. d. 1301. He wrote several comments and tracts on different portions and subjects of the canon law. Jacobus de Benedictis, an Italian Franciscan, a. d. 1301, renowned for courting contempt and abuse, as the means of sanctitication. He composed many uncouth religious poems in Ita- lian ; published, Venice, 1617, 4to. John of Fribourg, in the Brisgaw, a Dominican, and bishop of Ossuna, in Hungary, distinguished, a. d. 1 302, for his eloquence in preaching. He wrote T T 645 Summa Prcedicatorum, (Reutling, 1487), and Summa Major, seu Confessororium, in four books (Lyons, 1518), and some other things. Ptolemy of Lucca, disciple of Thomas Aquinas, a Dominican, confessor to the pope, and, a. d. 1318, bishop of Torcello, in the Venetian tcnitory. He wrote Annals, civil and cedes., from a. d. 1060 to 1363, and a Chronicle of the popes and emperors, (both printed, Lyons, 1619, and the Annals in the Bibliotlt. Pa- trum, tom. xxv.) His Historia Eccles. in 24 books, was never published. Eberardus, a German Benedictine monk, and Ai-chdeacon of Ratisbon. He wrote, about a. d. 1305, Annals of the Dukes of Austria, Bavaria, and Swabia, from A. D. 1273 to 1305 ; extant in Ca- nisius, Led. Antiq. tom. i. Clement V., pope a. d. 1305 — 1314, author of the Clementina; or Liber Septi- mus Dccretalium, and of numerous epistles and bulls. Thomas Joyce, or Jorsius, D. D., a Do- minican monk of London, who taught theology at Paris and London, was pro- vincial of his order, confessor to the king, became a cardinal in 1305, was sent legate to the emperor of Germany in 1311, and died on the way to Lyons. He MTotc commentaries on Genesis, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Daniel, the books of Maccabees, Lamentations, the canonical epistles, the Apocalypse ; and on Boe- thius, and on Aristotle's Logic ; all of which are printed as the works of Thomas Aquinas. His work on 27 I'salms, and explanations of Ovid's IMctauKjrphoses, have been pubhshed. Many others are in manuscript. AVilliam of Paris, a Dominican monk, created general censor of the i'aith in France, by the pope, x.d. 1305, and connnissioner to try the cause of the Templars, a. d. 1308. He was probably the author of the Dialogues on the eight Sacraments, published as the work of William of Auvergnc, Paris, 15S7. Philip of Eichstadt, D. D., a native of Alsace, abbot of a Cistercian monastery at Paris, sent to Rome by tlie enijteror of Austria, a. u. 1305, and then made bishop of Eichstadt, where he died a. d. 1322. At the reipiest of Anna, queen of Hungary, he wrote the life of St. Wal- pergis ; in Canisius Led. Antiquce. torn, iv. Sillrid, a presbyter of Meissen in Saxony, a. d. 1307. He wrote a Chroni. 3 646 BOOK III. — CENTUEY XIV. [part II. clc, from the creation to a. v. 1307 ; a large part of which is in Pistorius, Scrip- tores Germanici. Nicoluus Trivet, an English Dominican monk, born in Norfolk, studied at Lou- don, Oxford, and Paris, and was a prior of his order in London, wliere he died A.D. 1326, nearly 70 years old. He wrote Annals of England, from a. d. 1 1 35 to 1307, (inD'Achery's Spicilegium, toni. viii.), and eonmientaries on Augustine's Civitas Dei; published, Toulouse, 1488, and Venice, 1489. Malaehias, an Irish Franciscan monk, and theologian of Oxford, a. d. 1310, and chai)lain to the king. He wrote de Venviio Pcccatorum Mortalium deijue Rcmediis ipsorum; published, Paris, 1518. William Durant, nephew to Durandus Speculator, bishop of Mende in France, by whom he was educated. He was dis- tinguished as a theologian and jurist ; and •was made canon, arclideacon, and a. d. 1296, bishop of ]Mende. In the year 131 1, he «Totc his famous tract, de Mode cehhrandi Generalis Concilii ; ed. Paris, 1635, 4to, and 1671, 8 vo. He expelled the Jews fi'om his diocese in 1312, and died in 1328. Mai-inus Sanutus, or Sanudo, sur- naineil Torsellus, a Venetian patrician. He first constructed a church organ, called in Italian Tor.siilo, whence his surname. He was a gi'cat traveller ; and visited Cyprus, Armenia, Alexandria, Rhodes, Palestine, and was at various European courts. He WTOte, between a.d. 1306 and 1322, Secreta Fidelium Cruets super Terrcc Sunctce liecuperatione et Conserra- tione, in tlu'ee parts: in the first he pro- poses means for sul)duing the Saracens ; in the second, the maimer in which the Christian crusaders should conduct a sacred war ; and in the third, the way to preser\e Palestine when con- quered, and also gives the history and geogi-apliy of that country. This work, witii twiiity-two ejiistles of Marinus, nearly tills the second volume of Jac. Bongarsius, Gest(t Dei per Francos, Hanov. 1611, fol. Alexander de St. Elpidio, D.D., an Italian, and Augustinian monk, general of liis order, from 1312 to 1325, when he wius nuide archl)ishop of Ravenna. He wrote, by order of the ])o])Q, ;i tract, de Jurtsdictiime Imperii et Aurtorilate summi Puntificis; published, Arimini, 1624. Vitalise Ferno, a Frenchman, a Fran- ciscan, cardinal a. p. 1312 ; died at Avig- non, A.I.. 1.327. He opposed the Spirit- uals, and wi'ote mystical expositions of the Proverbs, the Gospels, the Apo- calypse, and various portions of all the Bible. Hugo Pratensis, or de Prato Florido, bom near Florence, a Dominican and a celebrated preacher. He died a. d. 1322 ; and left sermons for the Sundays, and others for the holy days, tlirough the year ; also a Lent sermon. Porchetus Salvaticus, a Carthusian monk, of noble Italian birth, supposed to have lived about a.d. 1315. He WTOte a confutation of the Jews, bon-o\\- ing much from Raymund Martini's Pugio Fidei; Paris, 1520, fol. tjbertinus de Cassalis, an Italian Franciscan, leader of the Spirituals from A.D. 1312 to 1317; then became a Bene- dictine in Brabant; and at last, it is said, a Carthusian. In the year 1321, he gave to the pope his famous Responsio circa Quastionem de Paiipertate Cliristi et Apos- tolorum; namely, that to say : Christ possessed any property in the common and worldly manner, was heretical ; but not so to say : he held possessions in the usual spiritual manner. It is extant in Wadding's Annales Minor, tom. iii. ad ann. 1321, and better in Baluze, Miscel- lanea, tom i. p. 292. 307. John of Naples, a Dominican divine, doctor of theology at Paris, and a zealous follower of Thomas Aquinas, a.d. 1315. His Qucestiones varia; Philosophicce et Theologicce were printed at Naples, 1618, fol. John XXII. pope a.d. 1316 to 1334, has left us more than 400 epistles and bulls, besides his Extravagantes, which are in the Corpus Juris Canonici. Albert of Padua, an Augustinian ere- mite, teacher of theology, and preacher at Paris, where he died a.d. 1328. He has left many sermons, printed ; and ex- tensive MS. commentaries on the Scrip- tures. James of Lausanne, a French Domi- nican monk, theologian of Paris, a. d. 1317. provincial of his order for France, and bishop of Lausanne : a voluminous and diffuse writer. His twelve books of Morals, and various sermons, have been printed. His commentaries on the Scrip- tures remain in MS. Bertrand de Turre, a French Francis- can monk, arcldjishop of Salerno 1319 ; a cardinal 1320, general of his order by papal appointment in 1328, died 1334. Several of his sermons were printed ; but others, as well as his commentaries CH.II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT. 647 on the Sentences of Lombai-d, slumber in MS. Thomas Morus, or de la Mooi", an Eng- lish knight, of the household of king Ed- ward II., under whom he served in his Scotch wars. He flourished about a. d. 1320, and wrote a history of the reign of Edward II., from a.i>. 1307 to 1326. He composed in French, and had it trans- lated into Latin by Walter Baker. It is printed among the Scriptores Anglici, Lond. 1574, fol. Albertinus Mussatus, an Italian his- torian and poet of Padua, who died a, d. 1320. He ^vrote de Gestis Henrici VII. Germanor. Imperuturi.% libri xvi. ; and several poems; printed, Venice, 1635, fol. John Bassolis, a Scotch Franciscan and disciple of Duns Scotus. He lec- tured on the Sentences, at Rheims, a. d. 1313, and at Mechlin a. i). 1322. His commentaries or lectures on the foiu' books of Sentences, and some miscella- neous pieces, were printed, Paris, 1517, fol. Bernard Guide, a French Dominican monk, born near Limoges, 1261 ; became a monk 1280, was successively prior of Albi 1294, of Carcassone 1297, of Cas- tres 1299, and of Limoges 1303 : was appointed Inquisitor against the Albi- genses 1305 ; represented his order at the papal court 1312 ; was papal legate to Italy 1316 ; bishop of Tuy 1323 ; and of Lodeve 1324 ; and died 1331. He wrote a concise history of the establish- ment of the Grandimontcnsians and some others, (in Labbe's Bibliotli. Nov. MS. toni. ii.) Gesta Comitum Tholusanonim (Toulouse, 1623, fol.) Lives of various saints, lives of popes, &c. never printed. Peter Bertrand, a distinguished French jurist, counsellor, bishoj), and cardinal, wlu) died a. d 1349. He composed a tract, (le Jurisdictiunc Ecclesiasticd (de- fending the rights of tlic Gallic churcli against Peter dc Cuneriis : ed. Paris, 1495, 4to), and another, de Origiiie et Usu Jurisdiclionum. Both are in the Bibliotli Fiitr. torn. xxvi. Peter de Duisburg, a priest and a Teu- tonic knight. He composed, a. d. 1320, his Chronicon Prussia ; or History of the Teutonic order, Irom its foundation a. d. 1190 to 1326; continued by another hand to a. d. 1435; edited with notes and dissertations, by Christoph. Hart- noch, Jena. 1679, 4to. Gerhard Odonis, a French Franciscan, general of his order in 1329 ; died in 1349. He wrote commentaries on Aris- totle's Ethics ; and the Officium de Sticj- T matibus S. Francisci ; still used by that fraternity. John Canon, or Canonicus, an English Franciscan theologian, who studied at Oxford and Paris imder Scotus, and lec- tured at Oxford till his death. He flou- rished A. D. 1239; and wrote commen- taries on the Sentences ; Leclurce Magis- trates ; QucEstiones Disputatce ; and on Aristotle's eight books of Physics ; all printed, Venice, 1492 and 1516. Petrus Paludanus, a French Domini- can theologian and preacher ; became a licentiate at Paris, 1314, was made titular patriarch of Jerasalem about a. d. 1330, and died in 1342. He wrote commen- taries on the four books of Sentences ; of which, those on the tliird and fourth books were printed at Pains, 1530, 2 vols, fol. ; also sermons ; a treatise on eccle- siastical po\\er ; and another, on the right of the Franciscans to hold pro- perty ; besides several works never pub- lished. Guido de Perpiniano, D.D., a Spanish Carmelite, studied at Paris, became general of his order 1318, bishop of Majorca 1321, and afterwards of Per- pignan. He wrote, Summa de Hare- sibus omnibus et earum Covfutatiunihus (ed. Paris, 1528, fol. and Cologne, 1031) ; a Harmony and Conmientary on the flain, and supreme Judge at Avignon, in 1371 ; died hi 1399. His Dircctoriuiii Imjuisitoriim, in three jjarts, with the notes of Francis Pegna, was publislied, Venice, 1595, ful. Rome, 1578 and 1587. Ranulph Higden, or Hikeden, or of Chester, an English Benedictine monk of Chester, who died a. u. 1363, having been a monk 64 years. He compiled a universal history, from the creation to A. D. 1357, entitled Poli/clirunico7i, in eight pai'ts or books. His histoiy John de Trevisa translated into English, a. d. 1387 ; and that translation, with some amendment of the style, was printed by William Caxton, Loud. 1482, fol. Alphonsus Vargas, a Spanish Augus- tinian eremite, a doctor of Paris, bishop of Badajos, and archbishop of Seville, where he died a. d. 1359. His commen- tary on the ^first book of the Sentences, was printed, Venice, 1490; and his Qtias- tiones in Aristotclis Libras tres de Aniniii; Venice. 1566. Thomas Stubbs, or Stobajus, D.D., an English Domhiican monk of York, who flourished a. d. 1360, and died after 1373. He wrote the lives, or a chronicle, of the iychbishops of York, from St. Paulinns, the first archbishop, to the year 1373 ; published among the Scrip- tores X. AngJice, Lond. 1 652, fol. John Caldcrinus, a famous canonist of Bologna, a. d. 1360, who wrote several works on canon law, published in the 16th century. Peter Berchorius, a Benedictine monk, born at Poitiers, and abbot at Paris, where he died a.d. 1362. He wrote Dictionarium, seu Repertorium morale BibUeum (containing numerous biblical words and phrases, alphabetically ar- ranged and explained, for the use of ju'actical religion) ; Rectoriion Morale iitriusque Testamenti, libris xiv. (contain- ing tropological and allegorical exposi- tions of nearly the whole Iiible) ; and Inductorium Morale. The three works have been frequently printed, e. g. Co- logne, 1620, 3 vols. fol. Bartholomew de Glanvilla, an English Franciscan, who studied at Oxford, Paris, and Rome, flourished a. d. 1360, and Avrote Opus de Proprietatibus Rerum, seu Allegoriarum ac Tropologiarum in utrum- que Testamentum (on the figurative lan- guage of the bible) ; published with some other pieces frequently ; e. g. Paris, 1574, 4to. Nicolaus Oresmius, or Orem, the cori/- phcEus of the Parisian doctors in his times ; tutor to the dauphin ; rector of the Gi/mnasium of Na\ arre ; dean of Rouen in 1361 , and bishop of Lisieux, in 1377. He died ahimt A.D. 1384. In the year 1363, he preached a sennon before the pope and cardinals, in which he boldly attacked their vices, (ed. by Elyricus, Catalogus Testium Vcritatis, p. 512). He wrote de Mulatione Monetce liber; de Sphcera; and translated the Scriptures into French, and also Aris- totle's Ethics, some works of Cicero, and some of Petrarch. Hainricus, a German monk of Reb- dorf, about a. n. 1362, wrote Annals of Germany, from a. d. 1295 to 1363 ; pub- lished by IMarti. Froher, Historici Ger- mania>, Francf. 1600, tom. i. Saint Brigitta, a Swedish lady, who had visions from her childhood. She persuaded her husband to become a monk, while she became a nun in Spain ; establislicd the new order of St. Saviour. She had many visions and revelations. These led her to Rome, to Palestine, Sicily, &c. She died a. d. 1373, and was canonized Ia. 1). 1391. She wrote Reve- lationum Libri viii. a Rule for her order, dictated by Christ himself; several dis- courses and orations ; besides additional revelations ; all jirinted frciiuentlv, c. g. Cologne, 1628, 2 vols. fol. St. Catharina, an Italian lady, who early became a Dominican nun, was famed for her visions and revelations, by which 650 BOOK III. CENTURY XI 7. [part II. she guided even popes and cardinals, wlioni she addressed Avitii freedom. She died A.D. 1380, aged 33, and was cano- nized A. a 1461. She wrote Dialogues on Providence (ed. Venice, 1611, 8vo) ; 364 epistles (printed in Italian, Venice, l.'joe, f'ol. and in French, Paris, 1644, 4to) ; several orations, translated into Latin, published, Ingolst. 1583 ; and X*?- vina Doctrina data per Personavi ^terni Fatris Jntellcctiti Loquriitis, translated into Latin, hv Rayniund de Viueis, and pul.lished, Cologne, 1553, fol. Pliilip Kibotus, a Spanish Carmelite monk, wlio flourished A.n. 1368, was jjrovincial of his order for Catalonia, and died A. 1). 1391. He wrote Speculum Carmclituruni, in ten books ; in which he describes the establishment, progress, privileges, and history of his order ; printed Antw. 1680, fol. He also wrote sermons and epistles. Philip de Leidis, a Dutch jurist, coun- sellor to tlie count of Holland, vicar to the bishop of Utrecht, died 1386 ; wrote Tractatus de lieipublicfc Cura et Sorte Pr'mcijmntium; printed, Lcydcn, 1516, fol. Gerhard Magnus, or Groot, in his na- tive language, born at Deventer, studied theology at Paris, was a canon of Utrecht and Aix-la-Chapelle ; became a regular canon, and established several houses of that onler. He died a. i>. 1370, aged. 44 His three tracts, Protestatio de Veridica Pradicatione ; Condusa et Proposita; and de Studio Sacror. Libronim; are usually published with the works of Thomas a Kempis. Philotheus Aehillanus, a fictitious name, assumed by some jmrns counsellor of Charles V., king of Prance, a. n. 1370 ; wlio^ wrote against the ambition and tyranny of the pope, a work entitled Somnium Viridarii, or Libri II.de Potes- tale Ueijia et Sacerdotali ; in form of a dialogue between a clergyman and a sol- dier ; printed in Goldastns, Mvnarchia, torn. i. p. 58. Gallus, a German Cistercian, abbot of a mona.stcry near Prague, a. d. 1370. He wrote a jirolix work ior the edifica- tion of his monks, entitled Mahnjranatum, in three books; printed 1481, 4to, and 1487, fol. Hartholomew Albicius, a native of Pisa, and a Franciscan monk, who flou- rished A.i>. 1372, and died very aged, A.1). 1401. His book, entitled The Con- JonnHiis of St. Francis ivith the life of our Lord Jesus ( 'lirLsl, wa.s ]irescnted to the general convention of the Franciscans at Assisi, A.n, 1399, and approved by a unanimous vote ; and the author was re- warded with the entire wardrobe of St. Francis. The work was piinted at Bologna, 1590, fol. He also wrote The Conformities of the Blessed Virgin with our Lord Jesus Christ, or her life and praises, hi six books ; printed, Venice, 1596, fol. likewise Sermones Quadrigessimales ; Mi- lan, 1488, 4to. Bona^entura Baduarius, an Italian of Padua, who studied at Paris, became an Augustinian Eremite, general of his order in 1377, a cardinal in 1378, was often a papal legate, and was murdered at Rome a.d. 1386, or somewhat later. He wrote Specidum Bvatce Maria; print- ed, Augsburg, 1476, 4 vols. ; also, com- mentaries on the four Books of Sen- tences ; Meditations on the life of Christ, &c. Matthew, called Fhrilegus, a Bene- dictine monk of Westminster, a. d. 1377, who ^vi'ote Historiarum Flares; or annals from the creation to a.d. 1307, in two books, taken much from Matthew Paris ; printed, Lond. 1567, fol. Albertus de Argentina, or of Stras- burg, where he Avas a doctor of divinity, and perhaps a presbyter, and the bishop's legate to the pope. He wrote a Chroni- cle from A.D. 1270, to 1378, pubhshed (imperfect at B;ile) entire, by Urstisius, among the Sc7-iptores Germanici, Francf. 1585 and 1670, torn. ii. p. 97 ; also the life of Berthold, bishop of Strasburg. from A.D. 1318 to 1353; printed with his Chronicle. William Thorn, an English Bene- dictine monk of Canterbury, a. d. 1380. He wrote a chronicle of the abbots of Canterbury from St. Augustine to a.d. 1397 ; printed with the Scriptores X. Historice Anglicance, Lond. 1652, fol. Michael Ancrianus, a carnielite of Bologna, who studied at Paris, was general of his order from a.d. 1381 to 1386, and died at Bologna a.d. 1416. He wrote a tolerable eonimentaiy on the Psalms, in five books, often printed ; e. g. Lyons, 1673 ; also commentaries on the Sentences, and some other works. Rayinund Jordan, a regular Augus- tinian canon, in the diocese of Bonrges, who concealed himself under the name of Lliotes. He flourished a. d. 1381, and wrote seven books of contemplations, (devotional) and several ascetic tracts ; published, Paris, 1654, 4to. John Tambacus, a German Domini- can monk, and abbot of Strasburg, and then rector of tlie school at R-agaie, master of the palace to the pojie a.d. CH. II.] CHURCH OFFICERS AND G0VERN3IENT. 651 1386, died at the age of 80, the year un- known. He wrote Spfculum Patientia:, or de Consolatione Theologice, lib. xv. printed, Paris, 1493, &c. often. Marsilius ab Ingen, doctor at Paris, a canon at Cologne, and founder and first rector of the gymnasium of Heidelberg ; flourished a. u.' 1384, and died in 1394. He wrote commentaries on the Sentences, printed at Strasburg, a. d. 1501. John de Bui'go, D. D., chancellor of the university of Cambridge, flourished a. d. 1385. He ^vl•ote Pupilla Oculi, a book of instructions for clergymen in their functions ; printed, Paris, 1510, and elsewhere, repeatedly. Peter Herentahus, or de Herentalis, a canon, and prior of a Prasmonstraten- sian convent in Brabant ; flourished a. d. 1390. He compiled a Catma on the Psalms ; printed Rouen, 1504, 4to, and elsewhere, repeatedly ; also a prolix commentary on the four Gospels, never printed. Radulphus de Rivo, of Breda in Bra- bant, dean of Tongres, flourished a. d. 1390, and died at Rome a. d. 1401. He wrote de, Canimum O/jwrnnitia Proposi- tioitcs xxiii. (in the Bildiotli. Patr. tom. xxvi.) and Historia de liebus Gestis Triiim Pontijicum Leodivnsium, (from a. d. 1347 to 1386,) in J. Chapeaville's Renini Leodicns. Historia, Liege, 1616, 4to. tom. iii. Gerhard of Zutphen, a regular clerk of St. Jerome, and distinguished for his piety; died a. d. 1398, aged 31, leaving two ascetic tracts, de Rvforma- tione Interiori, and de Spiritualibus As- censiunibus ; in tlie BiMioth. Patr. tom. xxvi. William Wodford, orWilford, an Eng- lish Franciscan, apj)ointed by the couiu'il of London, a. n. 139G, to answer Wick- lifl'e's Tri(dogiis; whicli he did in iiis Liber ad ThomamArehivp. Cantuarien.scm adversus Articnlos xviii. ex Wickleji Tria- lo(p Excerptos ; extant in the Faj^cicuhis Jierum Expetendarum, Cologne, 1535, fol. p. 96. Several other tracts of his exist in MS. John Bromyard, of Ilercfdrdsliire, an Engliiii Dominican, tlieologiaTi, and jurist, a doctor at Oxford, and professor of theo- logy at Cambridge. He strenuously op- posed Wicklitfe in the council of London A. u. 1382 ; flourished a. d. 1390, and died after a. u. 1419. His Siimma Pra- dicatonim, in two j)arts, treats of nearly every subject in ecclesiastical discipline, in alphabetic order ; printed, Venice, 1586. 4to. Several other works of his exist in MS. Henry Knighton, an English canon regular of Leicester, who flourished a. d. ] 395. His Chronicon de Eventibus AngVuc Libris V. from a. u. 950 to 1395, (the second, third, and fourth books, from A. D. 1066 to 1377, are copied from Ra- nulph Higden's PoJychroidcon,) and his Histoiy of the deposition of king Henry n., A. D. 1399, are extant among the Scriptures X. Historia; Anylicante, Lond. 1652. Antonius de Butrio, a famous Italian jurist of Bologna and Ferrara, who flou- rished a. d, 1398, and died at Bologna A. D. 1408. He ^vi-ote commentaries on the five books of the Decretals, (ed. Venice, 1578, 7 vols, fol.) and several other works on canon and civil law. Nicolaus de Gorham, of Hertfordshire, studied at Merton college, Oxford, be- came a Dominican, went to Paris, was eminent both for learning and piety, and was provincial of his order for France. He probably lived about a. d. 1400. He ^^•rote commentaries on the books of the New Testament ; and sermons for the whole year : all printed by John Kecrberg. Antw. 1617, 1620, in two vols, fol. Jacobus jNIagni, a Spanish Augusti- nian eremite of Toledo, distinguished for his knowledge of the Scriptures and of the ancient theologians, confessor to Charles VII., king of France, and re- fused the archbishopric of Bordeaux. He flourished about a. d. 1400. His Sopholagium, seu opus de Sermone et In- quisitione Dicinre Sapientia; in ten books, was printed, Lyons, 1495, 8vo. Franciscus Ximencs, of Catalonia, bishop of I'crpignan, and titular patri- arch of Jerusalem, a. d. 1400. lie wrote several works of mystic divinity, which were published. Franciscus Zabarella, an Italian of Padua, LL.D, a man of great respect- ability. He rejected two bishoprics and one rich abbacy, but was made car- dinal A. n. 1411, and presided through the council of Constance, and died at its close, A. i>. 1417. He wrote cduimcnts on the Decretals, and several other \\()rks on canon law ; and a tract, de Sr/iixmatihus Aiithoritatc Imperatoris Tol- leiidis, v.hicli the Index Expunjuturiiis ]irohibits being read till it is expurgated. 7>.] 6j2 BOOK III. — CENTURY XIV. [PART II. CHAPTER III. HISTORY OF RELIGION AND THEOLOGY- § L Corruption of religion. — § 2. Excgetical theology. — § 3. Dogmatic theology. — § 4. Opposers of the scholastics. Biblical theologians. — § 5. Contest among the scholastics. Scotists and Thomists. — § 6. The Mystics. — § 7. Moral or practical ^Titers. — § 8. Polemic writers. — § 9. Controversies between the Greeks and Latins. — § 10. Contest of the university of Paris with the Dominicans. Monte- sonus. § 1. All those who are well acquainted with the history of these times must acknowledge the corrupt state of religion, both as taught in the scliools, and as presented to the people to regulate their lives and actions. Scarcely any part of the Christian doctrine retained its native form and comeliness. And hence the Waldemes, and all those who desired a reform- ation in religion, and who separated from the Roman pontiff, though no Avhere safe from the fury of the Inquisitors and the monks, yet could not be sup})ressed by any means whatever. ]\Iany of these people, after witnessing the destruction of an immense number of their brethren at the stake and by other forms of execution, fled from Italy, France, and Germany, into Ijoliemia and the neighbouring countries ; and afterwards be- came amalgamated witli the Hussites and other dissentients from the Komish community. § 2. At the head of the expositors of the Bible, stands Nicoluus lie Lyra; Avho exi)lained the books of both the Old Testament and the New far better than was usual in that age ; yet he succeeded better on the Old Testament than on the New, because he was familiar Avith Hebrew, but not with Greek.' The others who undertook this office, were servile nnitators of their predecessors: for they either collected flowers ' '^\f^\\.^\mm\, Ilistoircikx Principaiix par 31. du Pin, toni i. p 352 Wad- Comm,Murs. ' [Or personal identity. Ti 1 1347, M. Jo. (le Mercuria and Nic. do ^ See Waddin-'s Annalcs Minor, torn. Lltn.una had to abjure their opinions, vi. p. 52. &c. [The doctrine of the im- p. :..I8. 308. A. i>. 1348, one Smion was maculate conception of Mary was, that conv>ctc< of very great eiTors, p. 322. she herself was miraculously conceived, A. i>. 13.,4 Gu.do, an Augustiniaii, shared and born out of the course of nature, so trie same late, p. 329 ; and likewise, a. d. as not to be a partaker of original sin. 1362, one Lewis, p. 374, and Jo. dc Ca- 7> ] CH. III.J RELIGION AND THEOLOGY. 655 Suso, and Gerhard of Zutphen ^ ; who must be acknowledged to have left us a considerable number of wrlthigs, suited to awake pious emotions, and to di'aw forth tlie soul towards God ; though they all laboured under some infirmity of judg- ment, and were inclined to indulge their imaginations too f;ir. But others of this kind were moving about every where, people bereft of reason, and fanatical, who dreamed of an unintelligible extinction of all the powers and faculties of the soul, and a transition of the mind into the Divine nature ; and who led away their adherents into a senseless kind of piety that bordered on licentiousness. So great was the extravagance of tliese people, that the more sober mystics themselves detested their doctrine, and warned their followers against it.^ § 7. Concerning those who gave particular attention to moral theology, it is not necessaiy to say much ; since their merits and those of the parties already mentioned are very closely on a par. Two things, however, may be noticed as illustrative of the state of this branch of theology. First, in this age, a greater number than before, collected and discussed what are called cases of co?iscience. The most noted of this class, were Astesanus, an Italian, Monaldus, and Bartliolomeio of St. Concordia. This species of writing accorded well with the education given in the schools ; which taught men, not so much what to believe, and how to live, as to query, to dispute, and to wrangle. Secondly, those who treated of the duties men owe to themselves and others, and exhorted to the practice of them, were accustomed to derive arguments and illustrations from the brutes. For they first explained the prominent characteristics of some animal ; and then applied them to the life and conduct of men. Of this description are John Nieder's Formicarius, Thomas of Brabant's treatise de Apibus, Hugo a S. Victor s Bestiai-ium, Thomas Waleys de Natura Bestiarum cum moralizatione, and some others.^ * Conccniing these, the reader may ' John Ruysbrock inveighs strongly consuh Peter Poiret's Bibliotheca Mys- against them ; in his works, pubUshed ticorum, [p. 108. HI. 146. Schl.'\ and by Lau. Siuins, p. 50. 378 ; aadide Vera Godfrey Arnold's Histor\' and Descrip- Contemplat. c. xviii. p. 608. tion of Mystic Theology, [written in ' [John Niedcr belonged to the fol- German, p. 395. 404. 414. 421.] Of lowing century. He wa,s a German of Tauler and Suso, Jac. Echard treats Suabia, a Dominican, a prior of Basle, paiticularly, Scriptor. Pradicatur. torn. i. an Inquisitor, and rector of the gym- p. 653. 677. See also thereto Sanctor. nasium of Vienne. He flourished a. d. Januar. torn. ii. p. 654. 1431 ; and died a. v. 1438. His works 056 BOOK in. — CENTURY XIV. [PART II. § 8. In most of the defenders of Christianity we find nothing perspicuous, elegant, and praiseworthy. Thomas Bradioardine, in his Books de Providentia, advances many ingenious and per- tinent armaments in confirmation of the truth of religion in o-cneral. The Eye-salve of faith against the heretics^, by Alvarus Pi'lafjius. does not come up to the magnitude of the subject ; though it shows him to be an honest and well-disposed man. Aiiainst the Jews, came forth Porchetus Salvaticiis, in his V^ic- torij of the Faith, transcribed In great measure from Raymund Martini ; and also Nicolaus Lyra. They were both excelled by Theophanes, a Greek ; in wdiose Books against the Jews, and his Agreement between the Old Testament and the NeW;, are many things that are not contemptible. § 9. The contests between the Greeks and the Latins seemed at times to come near to an adjustment. For the Greeks, find- ing themselves to need the aid of the Latins, In repelling the continually increasing power of the Turks, manifested occa- sionally a pretended willingness to subject themselves to the demands of the Latins. In the year 1339, Andronicus Junior sent Barlaam into the West, to negotiate a peace in his name. In the year 1349, other Greek envoys came to Clement VI. to negotiate a treaty. In 1356, a similar embassy was sent to Innocent VI., at Avignon. In the year 1367, the Grecian patriarch came in person to Rome to press the business ; and in the year 1369, the emperor, John PalcBologus, came himself Into Italy, published a confession of faith accordant with the views of the pontiff; and laboured to conciliate the friendship of the Latins. But the majority of the Greeks could never be per- suaded to be silent and to submit themselves to the Romans ; though some, from Interested motives, manifested a disposition to yield to the terms imposed on them. Hence this century was spent amidst contests and vain negotiations for peace.' arc, Cimsnlatorium Tinwrata Coiiscientice Cantipratoiisip, sec above, p. 55], note". (cd. H.mie 1604, 8vo). /on/jfcarws, SPH He flourished about the' middle 'of the ^J^mUhjus ad Vttam Chrtsttanam Exemplo preceding century. — Hugo de S. Victor Umditionum Formica: incitativtis, (ed. lived in the 12th centuiy. See p 439 Duaci. 1604, 8vo. Praceptorium, (on note". His work, De Bestiis. is in his the ten connnandn.ents ; ed. Duaci. 1614, Opp. ton,, ii. p. 418. (ed. Eoucn, 1648, 8^o.) AlphalHlum Dirini Avioris ; De fol.) M